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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ROYAL 
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY: 


CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS, 


AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Zoo LoGeyYy AND BOTAN DW 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 


MICROSCOPY, &zc. 


Lidited by 


FRANK CRISP, LLB., BA, 
One of the Secretaries of the Society 
and a Vice-President and Treasurer of the Linnean Society of London ; 


WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND 


A. W. BENNETT, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., F, JEFFREY BELL, M.A., F.Z.8. 
Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital, Professor of Comparative Anatomy tn King’s College. 
JOHN MAYALL, Jun., F.Z.S., R. G. HEBB, M.A., M.D. (Canzad.) 
AND 


J, ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A., 
Lecturer on Zoology in the School of Medicine, Edinburgh, 


FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


EL OUR) Wi Eis, Yo EAR 
1889. 


attest 


PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY BY 


WIE EVANS s NOR GATE, 
LONDON AND EDINBURGH. 


“PEAIN ON Le Ves 


| THE cee aire 
HRopal Microscopical Soviety. 


(Established in 1839, Incorporated by Royal Charter in 1866.) 


_ The Society was established for the promotion of Microscopical and 
Biological Science by the communication, discussion and publication of observa- 
tions and discoveries relating to (1) improvements in the construction and 
mode of application of the Microscope, or (2) Biological or other subjects of 
Microscopical Research. 

; It consists of Ordinary, Honorary, and Ex-officio Fellows, without distinction 
of sex. 


Ordinary Fellows are elected on a Certificate of Recommendation, 
signed by three Ordinary Fellows, setting forth the names, residence, and 
description of the Candidate, of whom the first proposer must have personal 
knowledge. The Certificate is read at two General Meetings, and the Candidate 
balloted for at the second Meeting. 

The Admission Fee is £2 2s., and the Annual Subscription £2 2s., payable 
on election, and subsequently in advance on Ist January annually, but 
future payments may be compounded for at any time for £31 10s. Fellows 
elected at a meeting subsequent to that in February are only called upon for a 
proportionate part of the first year’s subscription, and Fellows permanently 
residing abroad, are exempt from one-fourth of the annual subscription. 


_ Honorary Fellows (limited to 50), consisting of persons eminent in 
Microscopical or Biological Science, are elected on the recommendation of five 
Ordinary Fellows and the approval of the Council. 


Ex-Officio Fellows (limited to 100) consisting of the Presidents for the 
time being of any Societies having objects in whole or in part similar to those of 
the Society, are elected on the recommendation of ten Ordinary Fellows, and the 
approval of the Council. 


The Council, in whom the management of the property and affairs of 
the Society is vested, is elected annually, and is composed of the President, 
four Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, two Secretaries, and twelve other Ordinary 
Fellows. 


The Meetings are held on the second Wednesday in each month from 
October to June, in the Society’s Library at King’s College, Strand, W.C. (com- 
mencing at 8p.m.). Visitors are admitted by the introduction of Fellows. 

In each Session two additional evenings are clevoted to the exhibition of 
Instruments, Apparatus, and Objects of novelty or interest relating to the 
Microscope or the subjects of Microscopical Research. 


The Journal, containing the Transactions and Proceedings of the 
Society, and a Summary of Current Researches relating to Zoology and Botany 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), Microscopy, &c., is published 
bi-monthly, and is forwarded post-free to all Ordinary and Ex-officio Feliows 
residing in countries within the Postal Union. 


The Library, with the Instruments, Apparatus, and Cabinet of Objects, 
is open for the use of Fellows daily (except Saturdays) from 10 a.m. to5 P.M., 
and on Wednesdays from 6 to 9 p.m. also. It is closed for four weeks during 


August and September. 


Forms of proposal for Fellowship, and any further information, may be obtained by 
application to the Secretaries, or Assistant-Secretary, at the Library of the Society, King’s 


College, Strand, W.C. 
a 2 


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1) atrow, 


HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS 
ALBERT EDWARD, PRINCE OF WALES, 
K.G., G.C.B., F.BS., é&e. 


DN NII IS 


Es) ast-a)residents, 


Elected. 
tm Ricwarp Owen, K.C.B., D.C.L., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 1840-1 
JOHN MINDEN oe De aby sbts Ses pkcvet aye ielettekel lente aietsttensitets ts 1842-8 
PMA OMAG BULL, SERS. caret evels Sete aid © hes eats aie ereerrontatehe 1844-5 
* James Scott BowrrBank, LL.D., F.R.S.............-- 1846-7 
AGRORGE MUSK ae by buss mirsretetere ls, eisvasaunews, sieners amelie euateceebeiece 1848-9 
ARTHUR «MAREE, WIV ODDS UAE Soto. slate. ot ci ceeler oie cnaus velar clewels 1850-1 
i GBORGH NAGKSON,» WIR C8525 <9 <uala-e-ec sxerete yt ecinmaretere als 1852-8 
*Wittiam Bengamin Carpenter, C.B.,M.D., LL.D.,F.R.S.. 1854-5 
GRORGE SHADBOLT. 2 oy. ert aces yes ae zee eyes oie eee ede 1856-7 
“Dao, JnNereninin., WED JI IDL. Walishoooaccdasup00nc 1858-9 
JOHN iOMAS  QURKHDT. wala ses eiecte nis saci ie ieke eine 1860 
“Homme JA Ines, IOIOdSs sacobaccooo0nsG00000 1861-2 
SOHARTES -bROOKE. IVIPAW gH: S2 cians iarevemiane sel ciic eset 1863-4 
JUANES HG WATSHER 6 Habeas a arsenate as ein erent 1865-6—7-8 
*Rury. Jos—epH Bancrort Reape, M.A., F.R.S........... 1869-70 
\iviannnne 1Gaworsgay Jeturranig, Wis. cooccasocdncnaccoo4 1871-2 
2 CHARTERS 5B 0 OK mV ISAv NIRS > snaucieteieie ce Seiiche a eee ce aetens 1873-4 
MENRY Chirron Sorby. WUD) SRS os cine sal. tanieiars 1875-6-7 
EDEN, PANES) OUNOK. (Hei. Ouco ss cle cia wnat. «-enaleren cuore ners 1878 
issn Sh Bone, WISE Ik Oh es Isha gs acagnoonncc 1879-80 
1PS AU Nerv IDOI WWE IMSS Spo doono ooo sos boon 1881-2-3 
REVEE Wien DAT GINGER. Aa) SOBRE Sas one ee 1884—-5-6-7 


* Deceased. 


COUNCIL. 


Exectep 137TH Frsruary, 1889. 


resent, 
Cartes T. Hupsoyn, Esq., M.A., LL.D. (Cantab.). 


Vice-alresidents. 
Rev. W. H. Dawtiinerr, LL.D., F.R.S. 
James GuaisHer, Hsq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 


Pror. Ursan Pritcuarp, M.D. 
*Pror. Cuartes Stewart, M.R.C.S., F.L.S. 


G@reasurer. 
Lionet §. Beare, Esq., M.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.S. 


Secretaries, 
*Frank Crisp, Esq., LL.B., B.A., V.P. & Treas. LS. 
Pror, F. Jerrrey Bewp, M.A., F.Z.S. 


Ordinary Members of Council. 
Aurrep W. Bennurt, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., F.LS. 
*Ropert Brairuwairs, Esq., M.D., M.R.CS., F.L.S. 
Rey. Epmunp Carr, M.A. 
Pror. Epgar M. CrooxsHann, M.B. 
*Pror. J. Wit~iAmM Groves, F.L.S. 
*Gurorce C. Karop, Esq., M.R.C.S. 
JoHN Mayatt, Hsq., Jun., F.Z.S. 
Apert D. Mionazt, Esq., F.L.S. 
Tuomas H. Powe, Esq. 
Wituiam Tuomas Surrouk, Esq. 
Cuagtes TytEr, Hsq., F.LS. 
Freprric H. Warp, Ese., M.R.C.S. 


Hrbrarian and Assistant Seeretary, 
Mr. James WEstT. 


* Members of the Publication Committce, 


Ir is with the greatest regret that I find myself obliged to re- 
linquish the Editorship of this Journal, after having been associated 


with it for more than eleven years. 


My interest in the Journal and the subjects which it was 
founded to promote, remains as great as it was in 1878, but other 
duties have now absorbed the hours of the night which were formerly 
reserved for the Journal, and have left me no time for even a limited 


amount of supervision. 


Whilst I shall no longer have any official connection with the 
Journal, I shall still, I hope, be able to watch over its interests, and 
I have every confidence that under the care of my former colleagues 
in the Editorship it will maintain the reputation it has obtained, 
and will continue to be recognized as an indispensable guide to the 
ever-increasing mass of periodical literature relating to Biology and 


Microscopy. 
FRANK Crisp. 


December 1889. 


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CONTENTS. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SoCIETY— 
I.—Observations on the Special Internal Anatomy of Uropoda 
Krameri. By Albert D. Michael, F.L.S., F.Z.8., F.R.MLS., 
(lated yy sy Gass “ss Bt Wen.) dope decane ky =. 3) 
II.—List of Desmids from Renee U. S./ A. ‘By Wm. West, 
F.L.S., Lecturer on Botany and Materia Medica at the 


PAGE 


eediord Technical College. (PlatesII.and III) .. ..  ,, 16 
III.—Reproduction and Multiplication of Diatoms. ae the Abbé 
Count F. Castracane, Hon. F.R.M.S. .... 5 22 
IV.—The President’s Address. By C. T. Hudson, M. Re Lh D. 
(Cantab.), F.R.S. SG ead BO. wate Dio aca Woo Wan mance weeiaprs: Alay. 
V.—Description of a New Dipterous Insect, Bea oinaten 
pectinata. By Julien Deby, F.R.M.S. (PlateIV.) .. .. ,, 180 
VI.—A Revision of the Trichiaces. By George Massee., F.R.M.S. 
(Plates V., VI, VII, and VIII.) .. .. oo 00 on LEI B) BY) 


VII.—Notices of New Peritrichous Infusoria from the Fresh Waters 
of the United States. By Dr. Alfred C. Stokes. (Plate X.) Part 4 477 

VIII.—Additional Note on the Foraminifera of the London Clay 

exposed in the Drainage Works, Piccadilly, London, in 1885. 

By C. Davies Sherborn, F.G.S., and Frederick Chapman. 


(CHIEN) 241)) bo’ 09 6000 00 00 08 483 
IX.—Description of a ae Species of OMe sien By Surgeon 

V. Gunson Thorpe, R.N., F.R.M.S. (Plate XII.) PC aT trOm Gills 
X.—Note on Polarizing Apparatus for the Microscope. By 

Professor Silvanus P. Thompson, D.Sc. (Figs. 71-73) .. .. 4, 617 


XI.—-On the Effect of Illumination by means of Wide-angled Cones 
of Light. By Prof. E. Abbe, Hon. F.R.M.S. (Fig. 96) .. Part 6 721 


SumMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY (PRINCI- 
PALLY INVERTEBRATA AND CRYPTOGAMIA), MIcROSOOPY, &c., INCLUDING ORIGINAL 
CoMMUNICATIONS FROM FELLOWS AND OTHERS.* 13, 186, 386, 546, 705, 923. 


ZOOLOGY. 
A.-—VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 
a. Embryology. 


PAGE 
QuincKkE, G.—WMovements of Protoplasm .. .. « « «» =: « Partl 28 
Masius, J.—Placenta of Rabbit .. .. nel ap cin nem any sfahi), Paola 28 
Giacomini, C.—WNeurenteric Canal in the Rabbit capt keene yet) “ae ase gs 29 
Himer, G. H. T.—WMarkings of Mammals .. .. « .. «2 «2 2 9, 30 
Lucas, A. H. 8.—Colour of Birds’ Eggs .. .. A 30 
ScuuttTze, O.—Development of Germinal ae one Nata m Pane 
fusca... op 30 
REINHARD, W. — Pesci’ if 6a nina Teen Yyers, “Weneeend: ina Mid-gut 
in Cyprinoids .. ..  « Jo, HMapineeoD A our ne toe grtig sional aCceam ach 31 


* In order to make the classification complete, (1) the papers printed in the 
‘ Transactions,’ (2) the abstracts of the ‘ Bibliography,’ and (8) the notes printed in 
the ‘ Proceedings’ are included here. 


x CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
Emer, G. H. T.—Origin of Species .. . so oo. on Jet Ik Bil 
Gouiox, J. T.—Divergent Evolution through Cie ees egation ate 33 
Nusspaum, M.—Heredity .. .. . HREAG Sten aes anit ech 34 
Amans, P. C.—Organs of Aquatic ipcomaren nel. els : ro) 35 
Surron, J. Bhanp—Lvolution of the Central Nervous Sistem of Woot: 
GrOtG) als 6 G0. op Jetmag 24 1137/ 
Orr, H. ese nerent of Contr ral Mensou Sistem of amphibians ee emete wP kts 188 
Nansgen, F.—Protandric Hermaphroditism of Myxine.. .. 30°) 188 
Boum, A. A.—Waturation and Fertilization of Ovum in the earwareny dieth oaes 189 
Netson, E. M.— Observations on Human Spermatozoa Aone = He sao OR ES Lop 190 
Scuuuzz, F. E.—Zpithelial Glands in Batrachian Larv® ..  .. 1 +» 55 190 
PacxarD, A. 8.—Factors in the Evolution of Cave Animals...  « «. 55 191 
GaskELL, W. H.—Origin of Nervous System of Vertebrates  .. . Part 3 360 


Epner, V. v.—Protovertebrx and the Segmentation of the Vertebral Oui % 362 
Pursanrx, ©:—Study of a Human Embryo 2.9 3. oe ss oe gs 362 


Hennicuy, F.—Development of Bony Fishes Sania 0 inl Bice Oa eae ess 363 
Lankestrer, E. Ray—Structure of Amphioxus encenlaniae Sie. Valatya: Goes aos 363 
\RSON, I SS aareOGANEHIS05 890 00 00 90 00 90 af 00 oo 364 


Bionpi, D.—Spermatogenesisin Man .. .. 11 2» o 29 oo» oe 499 365 
Puatner, G.—Lmport of Polar Globules Pere ee Msn uti wa AGI te a5 365 
Born, G.—Segmentation in Double Organisms .. «1 se ewe ee gg 366 
Minor, CO. §.— Uterus and Embryo Apia Bor oo) oo detnay Ge Alt) 
Tarant, A.—Fecundation and Segmentation of One of als: Fo apieneeai le ch 490 
Cunnincuam, J. T.—Reproduction and Development of Teleostean Fishes 491 
Watuuace, A. R.—Darwinism Pe eh ier sacle Gaul Asae det yan) Ile) 


Tuomson, J. A.—Heredity .. .. ae aya la eee te startles Maelatos 619 
Curtis, F.—Development of Nail in EB uman eas Si | ANSts arate Say UI teva tase 620 
Mastus, J.—Formation of Placenta of Rabbit .. .. ats Sea e ciBiote taatay 621 


Bepparp, F. E.—Structure of Graafian Follicle in Didelphys Sandh Coc oe sth Nas 622 


Brarp, J.—Larly Development of Lepidosteus osseus Tau igen ss 622 
Nixssine, G.—Spermatogenesis in Mammals.. .. 1. 2 « «8 «8 455 623 
Scuwarz, E.—Embryonic Cell-division .. . Sn ear 624 
M‘Cuurg, C. F. W.—Primitive ChermentiatBor Ue Wo ‘bate Breen ae ee art 6 a2o 
ZinctuR, H. H.—Origin of Blood of Vertebrates . BE Watton oor 2dRs — Og 725 
WALDEYER, W.—Placenta of Inuus nemestrinus .. 1. 1. s0 01 oe 5 726 
Turner, Sir WiLLIAM—Placentation of the Dugong .. .. .. «. «+ 45 726 
Hernricius, G.—Development of Placenta in Dog AO Od OBS ido! |\o 726 
SHorg, T. W., & J. W. Pickrr1Inc—Pro-amnion and nnn in the 

CHO 30 oc 726 
Morean, T. H., & H. C. eee na Ta of Poison Binataneres s 727 


Massart, J. ein of Spermatozoa into Ova of Frog «1 .» «. 45 727 
GRaANDIS, V.—Spermatogenesis during Inanition .. 


8. Histology. 
Lowi AN SSAA? OF WMS 55° Go 60 8p oo Saco WR LB 
BauuLowi1z, H.—Structure of Spermatozoa .. .. . «se of «o « 
LiuKsanow, S. M.—Club-shaped Nucleoli .. 1. 4. .s «» «2 «of gy 36 
Roupe, E.—Nervous System of Amphionus ..  .. PESMAMN ts Wace teh er cnt 36 
TOROK, L.—Division of Red Blood-corpuscles in Arapnasia wal ise een een barty2 oat Ol 
PLATNER, G.—Structure of the Cell and Phenomena of its Division .. .. Part 3 366 
Drocout—Process of Ossification a6) abe: Uesdge 367 
Frommann, C.— Vital Processes in Living Cells Pen MMe Hap. ba) 2) dee letan Gaye ey 
Morrurco, B.—New Formation of Cells RE Asp iad.) ° tg 
Tancu, F.—Relation between Cell-body and Nucleus .. .. 1. ws 1 95 493 


CONTENTS. Xl 


PAGE 
Fauzacappa, H.—WNerve-cells in Birds .. .. . « Part 4 494 
Gacu, 8S. H.—form and size of Red Blood-con saelles of Adult cee Larval 
Lampreys BS Seto isle ia s(n RRM cea arsiehl yoie 494 
Lrypie, F.—Structure of Nene Ase of bean oo to co oo LER Go) (OEE 
Fusari, R.—Peripheral Nervous System of iepnenagans ein hos, ated a aby 625 
Puatner, G.—Role of the Accessory Nuclear Body in Coarciiien Mee avon css 625 
Barzsacct, O.—Phenomena of Indirect Nuclear Fission a Investing 
Eipithelia Sees ue 6 Benet . Part 6 728 
DEMARBAIX, H. _ Dep eap, “ip Mageanetiion of Gambia of Medulla of 
Bone... Wed unin yi 3 ADS 729 


HASWELL, W. A. Ee neranee Study of Semated Muscle ima ukar haiti) Uy 729 
Friix, W.—Growth of Transversely Striated Muscle .. 1. 12 «. « 49 730 


VAN DER StRicuT, O.—/undamental Structure of Osseous Tissue 3 731 
Burtscuut, O.—Structure of Protoplasm SRM mM eer ey see een yee hss 731 
y. General. 

Hartoe, M. M.—Adelphotaxy .. . Part 2 192 

35 »  Lunctions and Rorolonies ae Guinea Vi seule am Plants 
and Animals .. . 55 192 
Bearp, J.—Annelidan Affinities im ‘Orttoscom of Went ue Ner vous Gye 69 192 
M‘Kenpricn, J. G.—The Modern Cell-Theory .. . Sun eae Ss 193 
GuERNE, J. DE, & J. RicHarD—Fresh-water Fauna of Gratin bantam aod 
STUHLMANN, F.—Fresh-water Fauna of East Africa ..  .. . » Part 4 494 


Arronison, J. E. T.—Zoology of Afghan Delimitation Gunmsnsbossan .. . Part 5 626 
CuaRKE, J.—Protoplasmic Movements and their Relation to Oxygen 


Pressure . bo. oo oo oo oo oo Jer G 7ay) 
Logs, J —Oitenteiion of Aeofine ‘osena PAG 6dr iehes Wao Wo. ton, Aen 732 
» 9» Orientation of Animals towards Gravity , eee mcrae on 732 


B.—INVERTEBRATA. 


McCoy, F. M., & P. H. M‘GiLLivray—Zoology of Victoria .. .. .. Part1l 35 
KO.iiKer, A.—Transversely Striated Muscular Fibre.. .. « « . Part2 193 


Weismann, A.—Number of Polar Bodies .. 1. ss .+ «se « 0 4 193 
Happon, A. C.—IJrish Marine Fauna ,. .. . veut, cea eee ss 194. 
Heruprin, A.—WVarine Invertebrates of Bermuda ieee not eon bp DEMO: sen 194 
WECors (8) Aoologa oF Weare co 30 co 00 60 66 00 on oo op 194 
Kowatrvsky, A.—uacretory Organs .. .. «> Part 3 368 
Cournot, L.—Lymphatic Glands of Cephalopods ond noes ane Cr Wsthteon Part 4 495 
M‘Coy—Zoology of Victoria .. .. .. 00 00 00 06 oo oo Jem G Ew 
Stunumann, A. F.—Sresh-water Rone of East risa FSi Pao PrOrn se. hey 733 
Mollusca. 
PELSENEER, P.—Anatomy of Deep-sea Mollusca .. .. . Part 3 369 
TeEnison-Woops, J. E.—Anatomy and Life- ee oe ens “Bie, Mollusca Part 5 626 
CaRRIERE, J.—LHyes of Mollusca .. .. hoe anti incrheeky 626 
Locarp, A.—french Malacology .. .. .«. . 00 60 00) go deta @ 7a 
PELSENEER, P.—Jnnervation of Osphradium of elincan % 733 


a, Cephalopoda. 
Dewitz, H.—Structure of Silurian Cephalopods .. .. . . « .. Part3 369 
VisALLETON, L.—Development of Sepia .. Boh aren ales 
Brooxs, H.—Structure of Siphon and Funnel of menses Bompiius . « Part4 495 
Brocr, J.—So-called Organ of Verrill in Cephalopoda... .. BOS aC sae 496 
Wartase, 8.—New Phenomenon of Cleavage in Ovum of Ooehaads 0 no dea 7B¥E 


XI CONTENTS. 


B. Pteropoda. 


GRrosBEen, C.—WVorphology of Pteropods Be Vad mane 8 oo 50 a0 Jet 7 
PELSENEER, P.—Worphology of Spinous Sacs of Gainncuomros, Pter jae Part 4 
Prox, J. 1.—Anatomy and Histology of Cymbuliopsis calceola .. .. .. Part 6 
PELSENEER, P.—Systematic Position of Desmopterus papilio a0 iam ade ap 


y. Gastropoda. 


Kauipr, G.—LZyes of Gastropods and of Pecten .. .. « « « «. Partl 
Kuotz, J.—Generative Apparatus of Lymneus .. .. « « « « Part 2 
Sain@-Loup, R.—Anatomy of Aplysia .. .. «1 «- «» «2 «2 os 9, 
GRENACHER, H.—TZhe Heteropod Hye .. .. aoe Be ie ) 
Voret, W.—Lntocolax Ludwigii, Parasitic in a Holothuri can a Be ot Wes 
Uuiony, J.—Wouth-parts of Ancylus fluviatilis and Velletia ots. 

Korner, R.—Double Forms of Spermatozoa Ne Seo. we Ge aria 
GARNAULT, P.—Fertilization in Helix aspersa and Apap empiricoruin  .. 4g 
Brock, J.—WNeurology of Prosobranchiata .. .. . .. «.. «+ «+ 49 
Ropert, E.—Hermaphroditism of Aplysia .. 1. «2 «+» «2 «6 «8 499 
Brereu, R.—Genera of Molidiide .. .. SY ARG ORI MEG Meee han 
Suiru, EH. A.—New Genus of Parasitic Mollusca Sole) dasteroge faa") “Acp 
Bourton, L.— Ventral Nervous Wass of Fissurella nin, Wh da eon oa Dantes: 
Pn, J /Dasevas oF One dp QM! 00 ca 00 of 05 00 00 00 
SCHALFEJEFF, P.—Anatomy of Clione limacina .. .. .. 12 2 «+ 35 


GARNAULT, P.—Reproductive Organs of Valvata piscinalis .. SE Cinch oe 
Srmon, R.—Secretion of Sulphuric Acid by Marine Gastropods .. .. .. Part 5 
Lerrewiier, A.—Purple of Purpura lapillus Samy: 5 
Herpman, W. A., & J. A. CLusB—Nudibranchiata of Bragiael District 5 
Beamer, T.—Anatomy and Development of Renal Apparatus A Pulmonate 
Gastropods .. . Sp 60 00 00S 
Mazzargvul, G. F. —Regspatbnatiine Onsen oF Linn eee te ecaines; 
Daut, W. H.—Gastropoda and Scaphopoda of the West Indian Son9. .. Part 6 


Batrson, W.— Variations of Cardium edule SoeOOME tae co) dan” od | 
Dusors, R.—Luminous Phenomena in Pholas dactylus.. .. .. .. « 955 
Garstanc, W.—Nudibranchiate Mollusca of Plymouth Sound .. .. «» 45 
Fou, H.—Microscopic Anatomy of Dentalium  ..  .. 41 sn ne wg 


6. Lamellibranchiata. 
Dvusots, R.—Jnfluence of Light .. .. mo as) pe Sk, eeebortel 
Macatrine, D.—WMovements of Detached Gills 
M‘Inrosu, W. C.—Development of Mytilus edulis 


Rawirz, B.—Ldge of Mantle of Acephala .. . do Part 2 
GaLEazz1, R.—WNervous Elements of Adductor Muscles oF lhamelAbrenete - Beem Te 
Mosius, K.—Swelling of Foot of Solen pellucidus.. .. .. 1. . oe 4 
TuieLE, J.—Abdominal Sensory Organs in Hernnairernaitoria Ser een reo artrs: 


Mrnregaux, A.— Turgescence in Lamellibranchs ARN ee Tas 
JAcKSON, R. 'T.—Development of Oyster and Allied Gener aise 40d 
Ryper, J. A.—Byssus of young of common Clam 

Fiscuer, K.—Distribution of Unio margaritifer .. He ere Pris wb 
Menncaux, A.—Morphology of Teredo CUMCOMT oo! on) aan decinyey 
Neumayr. M.—Origin of Unionide 

M‘Aurins, D.—WMovements of Bivalve Molisca 

Dati, W. H. & P. PeLsenner.—Abranchiate Lamellibr Paine 


aes ” 
peeeartio 


PAGE 
194 
496 
734 
734 


38 
195 
195 
196 
197 
197 
371 
372 
372 
373, 
374 
374 
496 
497 
497 
498 
627 
627 
627 


628 
628 
735 
7395 
736 
737 
737 


39 

40 

40 
198 
201 
201 
374 
375 
375 
375 
376 
498 
498 
739 
740 


CONTENTS, 


Molluscoida. 
a. Tunicata. 


Mauvrion, C.—Monograp" of Fragarotdes aurantiacum 
Jouiet, L.—Structure of Pyrosoma .. 

bb} 99 
Herpman, W. A.—Tunicata of the Voyage of the ‘ ee 
Toparo, F.—Branchial Homologies of Salpa 
Laninue, F.— Relation of Tunicata to Vertebrata 


Alternation of Generations in salpe capt Pposerve 00 


Daviporr, M. v.—Developmental History of Distaplia raeneroeR rb 


SEELIGHR, O.—Aliernation of Generations in Salpe 
Morean, T. H.—Origin of Test-cells of Ascidians 


B. Bryozoa., 


FREESE, W.—Anatomy and Histology of pe a ee 
Sia, J. WALTER—Stalked Bryozoon be aa 
M‘Intosu, W. C.—Phoronis Buskii 
Waters, A. W.—Ovicells of Cyclostomatous Brjoeon 

3 ” Ovicells of Lichenopore 
Brarm, F'.—Formation of Statoblasts in Penal 
Joyrux-Larruig, J., & EH. EaLers—Delagia Chetopteri 
Denpsy, A. SF ihatonny of an Arenaceous Polyzoon .. 


Provuno, H.—Structure and Metamorphosis of Larva of Flustr ale Ravn as _ 
.. Part 5 


Waters, A. W.—Polyzoa of the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger’ 

is r0 Bryozoa of New South Wales a 
Provno, H.— Reproduction of Ctenostomatous Bryozoaw.. .. 
Benuan, W. B.—Anatomy of Phoronos australis. .. 


y. Brachiopoda. 


Hratu, A.—Wodified Ectoderm in Crania and Lingula.. 
Davipson, T.—ecent Brachiopodas. .. .. «. 


Arthropoda. 


Puarnav, F.— Vision of Arthropods 

Patten, W.—Segmental Sense-Organs of Ar Arrepsoss 

Grassi, B.—Ancestors of Myriopods and Insects : 
Bepparp, F. E.—Origin of Malpighian Tubules in Arthr ana 
CaRRiiRE, J.—Lye of Decapod Crustaceans and Arachnids .. 


a. Insecta. 


Luspock, Sir Joun—Odservations on Ants, Bees, and Wasps 
Grassi, B.— Termites 50 

69 »,  Leplacement of kara cad Brean of Tepmites 
Mactosniz, G.—Poison-apparatus of Mosquito 


Part 1 


99 


. Part 3 


oo Leta B 
. Part 4 


” 


. Part 6 


.» Part 1 
. Part 2 


oo Letty B 
. Part 4 


.. Part 5 
- Part 6 


Desy, J.—Description of a New Dipterous Insect, Pecemetienorrae ya jaeaiBnnte 


(@lnivs)) a4 Bayete 
JORDAN, K. weet and Phat of Pha eaneda be os sd 


Mincutn, HE. A.—New Organ and Structure of Hy oe ms in Pap planet 


orientalis . 0 
CaRLeET, G. ion Mode af Closing Thacher of Faas - a 
5 » New Organ of Hymenoptera c 
Raposzkowsk1—Wale Copulatory Apparatus of Boga 50 
Frirze, A.— Enteric Canal of Ephemeride .. .. 1. os 
Pouuton, EK. B.—Lepidopterous Larve .. .. 1. se es 
WatsincHam, Lorp—WNew Genus of Pyralidz 0 06 
Massa, C.—Parthenogenesis of Death’s-head Moth 00 00 


Xl 


PaGE 
40 
46 
47 

376 

376 

376 

498 

629 

740 


180 
203 


204: 
208 
205 
205 
206 
206 
207 
208 


XIV CONTENTS. 


6 


PAGE 
Lewis, G.—Mouth-organs of two species of Rhysodid® .. +1 +s se Part 2 208 
Ovuprmans, J. T.—TZhysanura and Collembola eee COM CONC dca: op 208 
CuoLtopKovsxky, N. & L. Dreyrus—Lmbryology of ides Bee) ecemelyatiinemre ids 
Merririevp, F.—Jncidental Observations in Pedigree Moth-breeding .. os 379 
Emerton, J. H.—Changes of Internal Organs in eae v Milkweed 
Butterfly... «. Ao c econ. 379 
Dreyrus, L.—Chermes rin jean onena die; COR EON -otan OA pace gd) saa) cn 379 
CHoLopKovsKy, N.—Chermes.. .. He Lees 380 
Hennine, H.—ormation and Fate of Poi Globules in # Dyas a lingects .. Part 4 502 
Daun, F., & D. SHanp—Vision of Insects .. .. « A Hope ome aoe.) 502 
EnPARAW, P.—Hermaphroditism in Gastropacha .. .» «s+ «+ oF «+ 495 503 
WasmaNn, E.—WMyrmecophilous Insects .. «1 01 ae ee ne tg 503 
Sxrrrcuuy, 8. B. J.—Butterflies’ Enemies .. .. sir lnmainh plasty yd ee Wess 504 
DinGazzint, P.—Alimentary Canal of Larval Bima ess 1 Joins edo. 555 004 
KRonreLp, M.—Bees and Flowers .. 1. «1 2» +s «8 «6 08 42 15 505 
Carer, G.—Stigmata of Hymenoptera .. 1. «. «| aM Mon tone com 905 
Vor.irzKow, A.—Development in Egg of Musca sorter Uelistttinn Bee mA POe © Ley 505 
Mix, J.—A Spinning Dipteron rr oe) es 906 
Low, F. & L. Dreyrus—Biology of Geli apsiteaing Species a Cher WS oo 506 
Voritzkow, A.—Lgg of Melolontha vulgaris... .. .. EN Sre Ito oa 906 
Hassr, H.—Anatomy of Blattide .. .. bee, Usa ol moe es Weeubes 506 
BurueEr, A. G.—Insects supposed to be itstf Bir dsm (ies eee aalomose 
ScuArrer, C.—Histology of Insects.. .. 99 633 
Biocumann, F.—Number of Polar Globules im Fer filized and Creed 
Eggs of Bees .. hell Later eee 65 634 
Lucrant, L., & A. Sama of the Oca) of Bomb pal ase Micioan Boles 635 
Grassi, B.—TZermites .. s Ha Bo 6s oD 635 
Ovupemans, J. T.— Abdominal Wppenaaies ai a apse a0 636 
Giarp, A.—Galls produced on Typhlocyba rosz by a enraanatarons aa * 636 
Wasmann, E.—Function of Palpsin Insects ..  .. so oo oo ebm @ ey 
Hacen, H. A.—Double Plexus of Nervures in Insects’ Wings sf 0 742 
GRABER, V.—Structure and CNS nee of Embryonic Ashi 
nal Appendages in Insects .. Be tee Hcy, 743 
Fickert, C.—Warkings of Lepidoptera in be Gents Or nitinptors Loc). Ge oMineees 743 
Puatner, G.—Spermatogenesis in Lepidoptera .. Bee Orig cy 743 
SKERTCHLY, 8S. B. J.—Habits of Certain Borneo Butte: “PAD ae ace Vo 744 
Gison, G.—Odoriferous Glands of Blaps mortisaga .. . o 744 
WHEELER, W. M.—Glandular Structure on Abdomen y iil i168 yi 
Hemiptera... i ake OGRE Ree eee 0 745 
CHOLODKOVSEY, N. Be euision Yy of Gen mes ic), Kasey Bee ERC eS 745 
MINGAzzINI, P.—Hypodermis of Periplaneta ..  .. Rede agt Pont cy 749 
Grirritus, A. B.—WMalpighian Tubules of Libellula can essa 5 749 
B. Myriopoda. 
Kinesiey, C. 8.—Classification of Myriopoda Buseedonl Go co.) on, ‘oo, Jeti 24) DOG) 
CHALANDE, J.—Spinnerets of Myriopoda Pe Te Dian ab Ee 
Pocock, R. l—WMyriopoda of Mergui Archipelago... .. 1. 1s 2 we 5 507 
Hearuoote, Ff. G.— Anatomy of Polyxenus lagurus Ma) dee) elas eattsomoony 
y. Prototracheata. 
SHELDON, L.—Develupment of Peripatus Nove-Zealandie .. .. .. .. Part2 210 
” » Maturation of Ovum in Cape and New Zealand Species of 
Peripatus.. .. OGM ceem mca) lade!) od. deta 4h" Gx7/ 


Sarmt-Remy, G.— Brain of eeninatie ce MAC mend are ane) do ons JERE! 7/4 


CONTENTS. XV 
5. Arachnida. 

PAGE 

MicuaeL, A. D.— Observations on the ie Internal Anatomy ¥ Uropoda 
Krameri(pl.i.) .. .. nih phism Seal eee co on Leta Il iil 
Scuaus, R. v.—Anatomy of Hedrodrontas ati eth Dose 5 PE ee eas Pa 51 
Loman, J. C. C.—Coaal Glands of Arachnida Doe 95) Med foci) oo. oo WeEHRE 7) DAK) 
Saint-Remy, G.—Brain of Araneida EP (ail caes et Ge) ote carcass 211 
CroneBERG, A.—Anatomy of Pseudoscorpions BONED: MUNED Ye do! 450 211 
TroveEssart, EH. L.—WVarine Acarina of Wimereux 5 211 
CLARKE, J. M.—Structure and Development of the Visual ne im . Trilobites 9% 212 
Bases, V.—WMigrations of Pentastomum denticulatum in Cattle c 212 
Waaner, W.—Zcdysis of Spiders .. .. Ber rat 3 380 
Micuart, A. D.—Life-histories of yeh scapes Banco iste G. spinipes.. Part 4 508 
Mxenin, P.—Lncystation of Glyciphagus 30 ob0 ne 5 509 
KoernrKe, F'.— New Genus of Hydrachnids Fe 509 
Montez, R.—Accidental Parasitism on Man of anos forte 5 909 
TrovEssart, EH. L.—Warine Acarina of the Coasts of France 5 509 
Scuaus, R. v.—Warine Hydrachnida . 509 
ADLERZ, G.—Worphology and Larve of oraiieaade oo oH 909 
APpsTEIN, C.—Structure and Function of Spinning Glands of Ar ngs, ..» Part 5 637 
BertrKavu, P.—Parasites of Spiders... Bie Ht Tee sears RNs 3s 638 
Grassi, B., & G. RovetLi—New Acarid Fe 638 

Grirritus, A. B., & A. Joanstonse—WMalpighian T ee ane’ ce Henatie Cells 2 
of Aredia 20 -» Part 6 746 
Girop, P.— Anatomy of Vine Ue sdenioris and A, Bore 5 746 
Louman, H.—Halacaridz Fr 3 747 
WATASE, S.— Structure and Dewelavsmnané of Bye of Tate, 00 36 747 

e, Crustacea, 

BEYENDAL, D.—WMale Copulatory Organs on first Abdominal ye of 
some female Crayfishes .. .. .. .. . so oo teary lB 
Gitzs, G. M.—/ndian Amphipoda .. sien Nagai! ae 5 53 
Canv, E.— New Family of Commensal Cornyn Bor one ae 5p 03 
Rosouti, A.—Zwo New Copepods parasitic on Echinoderms .. 29 ot 
Kewkes, J. WALTER—WNew Parasite of Am; hiura A 54 
CatTTANEO, G.—Amebocytes of Crustacea eae tics SAR arn prepa ee unegs 54 
STAMATI, G.—WMonstrosity in a Crayfish. 2. >. .. «=» « «. Part 2 213 
Criaus, C.—WNebaliide and Leptostraca . 913 
se ones Osi nacod cle amar mnnee » 214 
Derss, E. D. DE—Cladocera of Hungary... : in 215 
Norpauist, O.—Calanida of Finland SOV SU SC FOC MR oNPeRI en TU. Rep 215 
Hartoe, M. M.—WMorphology of Cyclops 6 20 215 

Bucwanan, F.—Ancestral Development of Rosyatietiarn y Ongttes af iD 
_ podous Crustacea .. a oo. 60 oo Jeb iS Sei 
Herricx, F. H.—Development of Curneaomns he ai Aliens 3 382 
HENDERSON, J. R.—Anomura of the‘ Challenger ’.. fitithe Sonu ee eu Ane a 382 
Stepesine, T. R. R.—Amphipoda of the ‘ Challenger’ 3 383 
Lerypic, F.—Argulus foliaceus FS 383 
Nusspaum, M.—Vormation and Number of Palar Globules m , Cir Fenaes 5 389 
Rosstskaya, M., & 8. PEREYASLAWZEWA— Development of Amphipoda .. Part 4 510 
Norman, A. M.— British Amphipoda .. Hokel Gah wo. wawan kes oll 
Cuun, C.—Amphipod Family of Scinide ae 5 512 

Bravy, G. S., & A. M. Norman—Ostracoda of atta th Aitente ane North 
western Hur Oper e*. seherste Sor anipieogece cn es 512 
Gann, A., & J. Bonnin Parasitic Or sabia on 512 


Xvl CONTENTS. 


Granrp, A., & J. Bonnter—Worphology and Systematic Position of the 

Dajiae hae Ws - 5 ba oo LEGNY 4 
Koerner, R. Sepa Canarias of Ait anid Reciinncs 65. 
Cartranno, G.—Jntestine of Decapoda and its Gland .. .. 50 09 JERIAD 
Rovu.L, L.—arly Development of Blastodermic se in TD bo “ot, | ap 
Norman—British Amphipoda.. .. .. Soa aa ARO Scum oom mda fs 
Mitier, G. W.—Spermatogenesis in Ostracoda siheeccw ace beocehace ciel ee 
GIESBRECHT, W.—WNew Pelagic Copepods Sule BORM co | ober. Wo. eLca) ae) 
Ibn, daw Jepemine Cypqeed 55 of oo oo 45 «9 02 co 50 of 
Fowuer, G. H.— Remarkable Crustacean Parasite .. Se mets Mts, ah os 
Barsson, S.—Senses and Habits of Crustacea .. . te so oo teint © 
We pon, W. F. R.—Function of Spines of Grataccan Vane Bedlam Ss. Meigs 

“> Calom and Nephridia of Palemon serratus.. ..  .. 6 

Graup, A.—Phosphorescent Infection of Talitrus and other Crustacea... 
Bouvier, L.— Nervous System of Decapod Crustacea 
Grirritus, A. B.—‘ Liver” of Carcinus menas . 
Farnani, J.—Genital Organs of Thelyphonus 
Broor, G.—Lucifer-like Decapod Larva.. : 
Broogs, W. K., & F. H. Herrick—Life-history of BEROpis ; 
Brook, G., & W. E. HoytE—Wetamorphosis of British Biphnsi. 
Cun, C.—Wale of Phronima sedentaria.. .. .. 1. «2 os 
Bourne, G. C.—Pelagic Copepoda of Plymouth 


List, J. H— Female Generative Organs and Oogenesis in Par Gene Onvaoott 3 


Vermes. 
Mavpas, L.—Agamic Multiplication of Lower Metazoa au oo oo og JERE © 


a. Annelida: 


SaInT-JOsEPH, BARON DE—Polycheta of Dinard .. .. .. .. «.  .. Partl 
FRIEDLANDER, B.—Central Nervous System of Lumbricus 
GoEsLicu, G.—Genital and Segmental Organs of Earthworm 
Bepparp, F. E.—Three new Species of Earthworms 
9 75 Reproductive Organs of Eudrilus : 4S oer eee 
GROBBEN, C.—Pericardial Glands of Annelids til) Woe. ads | sel Gee pears 
SrENcER, W. B.— Anatomy of Megascolides australis 
BEDDARD, F. E.—Structure of Urochxta and Dichogaster, and Nepineiin of 
Earthworms : 55 : 2c 
Garman, H.—New Ear Become 
Rosa, D.—New Genus of Eudrilide 
»  » Indian Perichetide oo deh cok) soot , Bo Bra vere Ee ie 
Meyer, E.—WMorphology of Annelids .. .. .. . « .  « «. Part 3 
Broom, R.—Abnormal Earthworm .. . 
Rovey, L.—Development of Celom in Bnehytr sents Marion 
BrpparD, F. E.—Struclure of Clitellio .. 
Rove, L.—Jnfluence . Nervous System of Dynan 6 on Symmetry of the 
Body .. COME Mes coi dG, eo leptin Zh 
Sounter, A. rien mis of Senpulide 
Bepparb, F. E.—Warine Oligochexta of Plymwo a 
FLetTcHer, J. J.— Australian Earthworms : ; 
Bepparp, F. E.—Green Cells in Integument of Wesiocone fenabni ine 
Wana, C. O.—Anatomy of Hirudinea - 
Anprews, E. A.—Reproductive Organ of Phascolosone Gouldii Ba eer 
Prouvor, G. —Formations of Stolons in Syllidians .. 5000 on LEME 
VAILLANT, L.—Natural History of Annelids .. 


PAGE 


513 
513 
639 
639 
639 
640 
640 
641 
641 
748 
748 
749 


CONTENTS, 


Suiptey, A. E.—Phymosoma varians 
Saint-Loup, R.—Polyodontes maxillosus 
Bepparp, F. E.—WNotes on Oligocheta .. 
5 p Oligochztous Fauna of New aith 
Taney, Anatomy and Histology of Phreoryctes 
Exam, G.—Polar Body Formation in Aulastomum .. 


On 


oo oe eo oo 


B. Nemathelminthes. 
Sonsino, P.—Nematode in Blood of Dog.. 
Boveri, Tu.— Fertilization and Segmentation in Aeon inelecaaiiee, 
Kuttscnitzky, N.—WMaturation and Fertilization of Ova in Asai 
margimata .. 
Cogs, N. A.— Anatomy had Ontogeny oF Waetates 
Micuet, A.—Cellular Epidermis of Nematodes : 
Apucco, V.—Red Colouring Matter of Eustrongylus gigas 
CaMERANO, L.—Wew Species of Gordius .. 
Vititot, A.—Hypodermis and Peripheral Nervous system OF Gordian 
<i »  Circum-intestinal Cavity of Gordii 
Goxp1, E. A.—Coffee- Nematode of Brazil . 
Srossicu, M.—Physaloptera 36 
Kytrrrer, P.—lemale Genital Ducts af Agein iiwoa tate 
VinitotT, A.— Ovary and Oogenesis of Gordius 
Montez, R.—Life-history of a Free Nematode 
Raiwet, A.—Filaria medinensis in Animals .. 
Linsrow, O. v.—Pseudalius alatus .. 


ZSCHOKKE, F.—Spiroptera alata, a new Nematode fennel in jie & americana 
Giprer, P.— Vitality of soins 


On eo 


y. Platyhelminthes. 
Buanc, H.—TZapeworms with Perforated Joints 

Grassi, B.—Jntermediate Host of Tenia cucumerina 
Loman, J. C. C.—Structure of Bipalium 

Waener, F. von—Asceaxual Reproduction of Dicrostorin 
Grassi, B., & G. RovELLI—Lmbryology of Cestodes 
BENEDEN, P. J. Van—WNew Cestodes from Lamna cornubica 


7» Part d 
. Part 6 


Part 2 


93 


. Part 3 


99 


Wenpt, A.—Gunda ulve.. : i Part 4 
Bircrr, O.—Nervous System of None Hie Ae we a 
Linstow, von, G. Branpges, & M. SrosstoH— Helminthological inores a0 3 
Srossicu, M.— The Species of Distomum in Amphibians : . 
Liystow, von—Anatomy of Phylline Hendorfii : oe By 
Monticexut, F. S.—WNervous System of Amphiptyches.. .. 2. os is 

_ 3 Cercaria setiferad .. a. 6 as 
Crety, C.—Structure of Solenophorus .. ; if 
Pressis, G. pUu—Otoplana intermedia Part 5 
SrKkera, E.—Fresh-water Turbellaria ae i Part 6 
Boumie, L.—WMicrostoma papillosum 5 &. a 
Monricevui, F. 8.—WNotes on Entozoa a 
Sonstno—AHelminthological Notices .. Ys 
Braun, M.—Tristomum elongatum .. ss . i 

6. Incertze Sedis. 

Weser, EH. F.—“ Notes on some Rotifera from the Neighbourhood of Geneva” Part 1 
ZELINKA, C.—Parasitic Rotifer—Discopus Synapte Lak Bhi 
Hupson, C. T.—The President’s Address Ac . Part 2 


1889. 


b 


XVli 


PAGE 
642 
754 
754 
754 
759 
759 


58 
220 


223 
224 
225 
225 
225 
388 
388 
518 
518 
919 
759 
756 
756 
756 
756 
757 


225 
226 
226 
388 
389 
390 
519 
519 
520 
521 
521 
022 
522 
923 
643 
797 
757 
757 
758 
758 


59 
60 
162 


XVIil CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

RovusseLet, C.—New Rotifer ..  .. 5 5 oo on lena 2) BUI 
Storrs, A. C.—Notices of New Remtnncns iene fr om the ee Waters 

yp ine (honaces Siettas (CATO AD) 65° on op 00 00 0c co 3a Jeune as 27/7) 


Mitng, W.—Rotifers Parasitic in Seer x Bein lense partic ecto) Meal ese 923 
Kauniicort, D. Si—American Rotifera .. 1. « »2 «1 «ss «2 oF 9 523 


Bourne, G. C.—Tornaria in British Seas...» 53 523 
Tuorrer, Surc. V. Gunson—Deseription of a New Sasates of Me Galber bene. 

(Mette STM)) 5000 ee Make Seek oath Oe ee One. mario sols 
Route, L.—WNew Species of Phone eee te ain WONT tie ele are mice aj 644 
HEWEKES, Jl. W.—New Marine Gorva 5. as we em ee wes Ps 644 


Harmer, 8. F.—Anatomy of Dinophilus.. .. «- «- «+ « «+ «+ Part6 798 
latommsOin, CW —IBONAR06 . 65 0000S sisi 759 


Echinodermata. 

Frwxes, J. W.—Development of Calcareous Plates of Asterias .. .. .. Part1l 61 
Semon, R.—Development of Synapta digitata 50 00 90 00 00 0 9 62 
Lupwic, H.—Ophiopteron elegans .. .. 50 00 00 08 06 9 66 
Brock, J.—Ophiurid Fauna of Indian Arafat oy Beg Uy ies | Peeve Rion MRSS Un TAS 66 
Lupwie, H.—AHolothurians of Indian Archipelago., .. +» 22 oF «8 4) 67 
Lovin, S.—New Echinoconid . Pod eo NRA ne Mn Oon bot. “on o..95 67 
Lupwie, H.—Ludwig’s Bialaadler ees oon Oo. ote enc Goen ce oe) eo JE Bh. D27/ 
CaRrPENTER, P. H.—Comatulids of Kara Sea.. ..  . . 227 

Wacusmutu, C., & F. Sprincer—Ventral Giomatore ae Tr axocrinus ane 
SEHOP WUE 50 06 bo <> cuere; | Wee) Niceto yvoles BAe mam 228 
- 5 “Op SEaoGe nus tai aes. age eee gee 7 228 
Bury, H.—L£mirr aioe Ol Off JIANMOCFMS 55 of 09 06 00 06 oF oo ems Bo) 
Lupwic, H.—Rhopalodina lageniformis .. .. 0 02 00 06 oo 392 
Poucuer, G., & CoHanry—WMonstrous Larve of Tetons ai) lo 5 Scale anes 892 
Lupwie’s (H.) Echinodermata.. .. Oo laomicn oa oo Leta ab. GK 


Hamann, O.—Anatomy of Ophiuroids area Cnere TOM oon) ob 
JICKELI, C. F'.— Nervous System of Ophiurids omc EAOGR AGG oo. ars “op 527 
Hamann, O.—WMorphology of Crinoids Ae, (ety AS eee 
BE.1, F. Jerrrey—Large Starfish Bore oo ORME SOG) Od. mu en 929 


Ivzs, J. E.— Variation in Ophiura panamensis eral 0. ee st eel ase Wee 929 
Lupwie’s (H.) Echinodermata.. .. . 65 06 oo Go leis GAs 
Korscue.t, E.— Formation of Meson m in Benenden WTUS' J esicuaiee Pn OOe ee 645 
SLADEN, Percy, W.—Asteroidea of the Voyage of the * Guano og 66 3 645 
Semon, R.—Homologies within the Echinoderm-phylum.. .. .. .. «. Part 6 759 
Hpwarps, ©. L.—Embryology of Muelleria Agassizii .. .. «1 « «. 4 760 
Joun, G.—Boring Sea- Urchins ss bo 56 760 
Grirritus, A. B., & A. J oUNSTONE— Sacoular Deven ‘fonile of Asie nattie 00 | gp 761 


IGE, dh Tam Ooms Cree eee; Sores san. 0a com sek as 761 


Coelenterata. 


LENDENFELD, R. voN—Celenterata of the Southern Seas .. .. .. « Partl 67 
Howmn; G. H—Twomew Types of Actinuria \s. 3. ve) vee ee een ie 70 
M‘Intosu, W. C.—Lesueria vitrea ..  .. sii iba) Neleh Up Paraeemarde 71 


Barz, W. M.—Wew or rare Australian Ennoite we 5 5 71 
JounceRsEN, H. F. E.—Structure and Development of Golo of Pevactide 

phosphorea ae Bo GON SO og ldo 06 oo od: oo ag JeeIRhD} DO) 
Grinc, J. AA—WNew Cor ‘lens ie as PURER aon cos oul. cal gs 230 
Danienssen, D. C.—North-Allantic Wetiida. mahi Asti amtetole i Werea Manresa s mm fers 230 
Lister, J. i —Natural History of Pungia 3 93] 


Wixson, H. V.—Development of Manicina ar allt 


CONTENTS. 


IsHikawa, C.—Oriyin of Female Generative Cells in Podocoryne, Sars 
Korotnerr, A.—Cunoctantha and Gastrodes ae Deine Gace Nil wee 
Vicuier, C.—New Anthozoon .. Ho Re ine Bae cee 
Fiscuer, ©.—Ffrench Pennatulids .. 1. .. .. «. 

Brpot, M.—Agalma Clausi .. . 69 “00 oo 00 00 
Harcke., E.— Challenger eySinionontond i evel merce ee 


WAGNER, J.—WMonobrachium parasiticum 

GREENWOOD, M.—Digestion in Hydra 

Marsuaut, A. Mitnes, & G. H. Howaune= Ponreatuida uf “Mer, “ath Ail 

pelago a pon souks Ge Ba ce eptaescts 

M‘Morreicu, J. P. one roglcate 00 00 00 00 

ae C. aaa ial PAOSHOUID 6 6s ov Ob 

Kocu, G. v.—Caryophyllia rugosa .. ns 

VANHOFFEN, H.—Semeostomatous and Rhiz Sei ommatiiis Medias 00 

Cuun, C.—Siphonophora of Canary Islands 

Frwkes, J. WALTER—WNew Athorybia .. 

ScHEWIAKOFF, W.—Lyes of Acalephz 

Hapvon, A. C.—Revision of British Actiniz.. 

McMourricu, J. P.—Actinology of the Bermudas . 

Frwsxes, J. W.—Angelopsis Eye wii 

Cuun’s (C.) Celenterata .. .. 

Witson, H. V.—Occasional Presence 2 ofc a "Mouth “in hems m 9 Aatnora 

Fiscurr, P.—Arrangement of Tentacles in Cerianthus .. 

Ortmann, A.—Wadrepore Corals in Ceylon .. 

Dixon, G. Y., & A. F.—Bunodes and Tealia.. 

MoMurercn, J. P.—Edwardsia-Stage in Free-sninming Enirgos a a 

Hexactinian 06 08 a 
Broox, G.—New Type of Depa GD Renal in niet ta 
Ciavs, C.— Organization and Phylogeny of Siphonophora 


Porifera. 
Denvy, A.—Stelospongus flabelliformis .... Son aE 
MacMotnn, C. A.—Chromatology of British Spat ant. 42d ssc 
TorsenT, E.—WNotes on Sponges... MAGES To Bk Oa COO MNO 
Denpy, A.—Sponges from the Gulf of Monsen %e ve 


Carter, J. H., & R. Hope—WNew British Species of Dasracrne 50. Soo <0 
Denpy, A.—List of Mr. Curter’s Genera and Species of Sponges.. 

Lewy, J.—Cliona .. . oa Be 

LENDENFELD, R. v.—Str richer & Flagellated ‘Cheaters m Saonaes 
PoLésAEFF, N.—Korotnewia desiderata and the Phylogeny a Horny Sponges 
Hanirscu, R.—New British Sponge oD 00 00 


LENDENFELD, R. v.—WMonograph of Horny Shonaes BY 
Maas, O.—Wetamorphosis of Larva of Spongilla .. .. «1 os 
Protozoa. 


Mager, L.—Protozoa on Mosses of Plants .. °.. 1 «1 oe 
Mavras, E.—WMultiplication of Ciliated Infusoria .. 
Fapre-Domerque—Reserve Substances in the Protoplasm of Tapco ia 
Prats, L.—Aegyria oliva sar Mase eet uctaneye (6 

» 9 New Vorticelline s 
Entz, G.—WNyctotherus in Blood of Lisa canenforn mis .. 
Hennecuy, F.—Jnfluence of Light on Noctiluca .. 
VALLENTIN, R.—Psorospermium Lucernariz.. 
Bepparp, F. E.—Coccidiwm infesting Pericheta . 


Ls) 


XX CONTENTS. 


Henwecuy, L. F.—Sarcosporidia in Muscles of Palemon 
PrrRonciro, H.—Cercomonas intestinalis Pau ete ibe aiteis) Beeets 
Birscuir’s (O.) ‘ Protozoa’ .. oa 00 
Mosivus, K.—nfusorian Fauna of the Ben of Kiel Boe Loar |oae 
Kunstirr, J.—WNew or Little-known Infusoria .. «+ 2% 
GiarpD, A.—WNew Infusorian “ik 

Puiare, L.— Luminosity of Noctiluca hiabars 20 aa 

Mosius, K.—&ed Organisms of the Red Sea ., .. « « 
GruBer, A.—Rhizopods of Gulf of Genoa ., «1 se 
ZacuHarias, O.—Pseudopodia and Cilia .. 

Dreyer, F'.—Structure of Pylomata of Protista 

Bitscuurs (O.) Protozoa 20 50 

Bawprani, E. G.—WMerotomy of Ciliated Tnpiswe 


. Part l 


GourkeT, P., & M. P. Ronser— Two Infusorians from the Port of BBP 


KELLICOTT, D. S.—Fresh-water Infusoria a6 
Fapsre-DomEercue—New Ciliate Infusoria from Ovooacen 
Smmuons, W. J.—AHolotrichous Infusoria parasitic in White Ants 
Zorr, W.—Parasitic Monad a0 So) to 

Prnarp, E.—Dino-Flagellata .. : 
SrepMAN, J. M.—Development of Acincsphare OTD Gohan 
Brapy, H. B.—New Type of Astrorhizide 

Leiwy, J.—New Gregarines 

Merri, G. P.—LHozoon Onnwdane. 


Suergorn, C. D., & F. Oruverue —AEPane Note on ihe onirera of 
the London Clay exposed in the Drainage Works, Piccadilly, London, in 
.. Part 4 


1885. (Plate XL) . 


Hanan Doumacue—Wunctional DiParantiodes m Onacelatar Beings .. 


Gruser, A.—WVaupas’ Researches on Ciliata .. 

Fasre DomErGuE—TZwo New Infusorians .. 

Anprrson, H. H.—Anoplophrya aeolosomatis 5 
Hennecoy, F.—Fformation of Spores of Gregarine of Cleon 


Lutz, A.—Cystodiscus immersus—a Myxosporidium found in the gall- “iatblgp 


of Brazilian Batrachia 
Dancearp, P. A.—Chlorophyll in Ansa 
Bitscu11’s (O.) Protozoa 
CaRRImRE, J.—Parasitic Ti pontine | 
DerrcuiEr, C.—Parasitic Protozoa in esrotng Go 30 
Crrtes, A.—Micro-Organisms in Paunch of Ruminants 


99 


Part 2 


9 


. Part 5 


Criui & GuaRNiIERI—Jntimate Structure ie the Plasmodium Malariz .. 


Burscurs (O.) Protozoa 
Romanes, G. J.—Psychology of Pr sees. 


Grirritus, A. B.—Wethod of Demonstrating Ppesnce of Te tc Acid m Ou 


tractile Vucuoles of lower Organisms > 90 
Faminrzin, A.—Symbiosis of Alge and Animals .. 
ScHEWwIAKorr, W.—Aolotrichous Infusoria 
Garo, A. G.—Pigment of Euglena sanguinea 
Kounstier J.—New Proteromonas .. 

Simmons, W. J.—Podophrya from Calcutta 
Dreyer, F.—Structure of Rhizopod Shells 
Mostius, K.—LRhizopod-Fauna of Bay of Kiel 
Asari, A.—WNuclearia delicatula 3 
Scunumsr RGER. C.—Leproduction of For ee a 
SCHUBERG, A.—Grassiu ranarum 


PAGE 
76 
76 

234 
234 
235 
235 
236 
236 
237 
237 
238 
397 
397 
398 
398 
398 
399 
399 
399 
400 
400 
400 
401 


483 
oot 
O34 
935 
030 
936 


037 
649 
649 
650 
651 
651 
651 
766 
766 


767 
767 
767 
768 
768 
768 
768 
769 
770 
771 
771 


CONTENTS. i Xxi 


BOTANY. 
A.—GeEnERSL, including the Anatomy and Physiology of the Phanerogamia. 
a, Anatomy- 


(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm. 


PAGE 
ScHNETZLER, J. B.—Movement of Rotation of Vegetable Protoplasm .. .. Part1 78 
Cuark, J.—Protoplasmic Movements .. . 5am eh 78 
AmBronn, H.— Optical Properties of the Cuticle vA of eaiec irene aNCS gy 78 
Drcaeny, C.—WNuclear Origin of Protoplasm.. .. .. .. «. « « Part2 239 
8 saAVeT, OC awsegalitar JEROME Go be oS 239 
ScHNETZLER, J. B.—Rotation of Protoplasm.. .. co on ©=—og HAE GN 
Kout, F. G.—Growth of Albuminous Composition of Cell-wails cs 402 
Wakker, J. H—Contents of the Cell ..  .. 5 402 
STEINBRINCK, C.—Connection of the Direction of Te Tiectonie Tensions “afte 

the Structure of the Cell-wall Bay AS eabik y mone dN Mame meroieere eS er 403 
STRASBURGER, E.—Growth of the Cell-wall .. .. .. .. « « « LPart4 538 
Manein, L.—Structure of the Cell-wall . Gp) RAGE Cos: RCM dat ORM ley 558 
Vries, H. pe—Permeability of Protoplasm jer WE co oc ra 539 
Krouricky & BirnKkowsky—Diosmose throuyh the Cole pelite of 

Phragmites communis... hon ero” woe com aces Abr! 939 


Prerrer, W.—Reduction of Silver in the ete: a Soiy cate Asal emia Do Ren, Bers 539 
ZACHARIAS, H.— Formation and Growth of the Cell-wall ao 00 ©6000 oo He) COR 


Nou, F.—Structure of the Cell .. .. 00 00 00. 00 00 60a JET BAB 
Korrren, O. W.—Nucleus in Dormant Sea Boonen cone moby Aen Man, ey lay 772 
CronenAuo, Ibi —/ollkiie Off Wee CHGKED «5 bo oo oo co Go 00 ce op 772 
(2) Other Cell-contents (including Secretions). 
Meyer, A.—Structure of Chlorophyll-grains .. .. 4... se «2 «« Partl 78 
Moors, 8. Le M.—Photolysis in Lemna trisulca .. eee Koay nos enc; 79 
Scnunce, H—Chemistry of Chlorophyll... 2. 2 .6 a0 os «s 995 79 
Courcuet, L.—Chromoleucites Ce ee hea Wty mes ie 15 79 
SEWELL, P.—Colouring-matter of Leaves om Sac Si igo) Maa) on. cae eo © g@ 80 
IGEIRGEBS EL = SONeritesiusce cbt ts Sey) Sate yee ciel eee rape ee Bp 81 
WERMINSEI, F.—Aleurone-qrains .. . ste) Soa tic) Ah reali 81 
Lriters, H.—Asparugin and Tyrosin in hers af the Dahlia S50 oo 00 gh $1 
TimcuEem, P. VAN—/Hydroleucites and Grains of Aleurone .. .. .. .. Part2 239 


Maccuratt, L.—Xanthophyllidrine . ba Mbp Mae 
Tauret, C.—New Principle from Eiaot of ae, By gostent Uioo| 66 on 060 240 


Rennig, E. H.—Colouring Matter of Drosera Whittakeri re ROM Gon oes 240 
Briost, G.—Mineral Substances in Leaves... AONEEDD | eBoc. batt 240 
Mier, N. J. C.—Spectium-analysis of the Otte af eters 50 00 oo Jenni @) 40m 
Mouiscu, H.—Change in Colour of Leaves containing Anthocyan.. .. 1 4 404 
Kuercker, J. E. F. Ar—Tannin-vacuoles  .. .. 1 .. «6 se «2 45 404 
Hecke, E.—Cystoliths in Exostemma - 405 


IBATING TIN, (Ee A OM OF ISM 55 0d 405 
Scuunck, E.—Chemistry of Chlorophyll... ae 
Mo.iscu, H.—Formation of Chlorophyll by Conifere in Wie ee emia 541 


Boum, J.—Formation of Starch in the Leaves of Sedum spectabile Pe 541 
Mortuer, H.—WMode of occurrence of Tannin in Planis Ben lee? gece a 541 
Hansen, A.—Pure Chlorophyll ayete ers 50 90 oo oo leet &) G58: 
Kraus, G., & M. WestermArmr—Ph rsislogy of Tenia Boat Boone tate Whey 654 
Konat, F. G.—VYormation of Culcium oxalate in Plants .. se 655 
Monteverde, N. A.—IJnfluence of Light on the formation of Oot ante 655 


AumgQuist, S.—Production of Honey in Convallaria  .. .. «1 «. «. 45 655 


XXxll CONTENTS. 


& PAGE 
ARCANGELI, G.— Composition of Chlorophyll .. «6 +6 ae we . Part 6 773 
Retrrzer, F.—Composition of Tannin .. e0 3 7173 
Roprer, H.—Sphero-crystals ..  . 90 : 5 773 
Napetmann, H.—Wucilage in the ciatoeperm a Leg pnt none2 $ TTB 
Prrorra, R.—Starch in the Epiderm c %p 773 
JoHANNSEN, W.—Gluten in the Grain of Corn. 33 773 
Acqua, ©. & A. Pout.— Formation of Calcvum one 8 in Pilea 99 774 
Wenmer, 0. & F. G. Kont—Calcium oxalate in Plants 5 774. 
BuLonDEL, R.—Perfume of the Rose A 7174 
Creepin, F.—Odour of the Glands in Rosa 5 775 

(83) Structure of Tissues. 

Bricu, C.—Litoral Plants 46 Part 1 82 
Maury, P.—Comparative Anatomy a Desert eran 00 0 on 82 
Exserpt, O.—Palisade-parenchyme .. «1 «+ «+ +s op 82 
Evans, W. H.—Stem of Ephedra .. «1 06 +e 82 
Kwnosiaucn, E.—Anatomy of the Wood of owrinces 7. 83 
Gyenrzscu, F.—Radial Connection of the Vessels and Wood- par omni We 5 83 
Trucut, A.—Order of Appearance of the first Vessels in the Leaves of 

Humulus Lupulus and H. japonicus : op 84. 
Tinenem, P. Van—Primary Liber-fibres in the Root of Meteor %p 84 
Gregory, E. L.—Development of Cork-wings on cer tain Trees ; s 84 
Danouarp, P, A.—Mode of Union of the Stem and the Root in Angiosperms 4, 84 
Javin, F.—Secretion-reservoirs 0 00 . Part 2 241 
Guienarp, L., & Cotin—Reservoirs of Guan in Rianne %, 941 
Eserpt, O.— Palisade Parenchyme..  .. 20 o 241 
Potonié, H.—Sclerenchymatous Cells in ‘the Flesh @ the Bocip 50 00 00 6g 242 
Grecory, BE. L.—Development of Cork-wings.. ; wer as 242 
Witte—Bordered Pits of Conifers .. .. + a Ms 242, 
Hartic, R.— Accumulation of ee mee im Tre ees : ms 942, 
Lamounettr—Fibrovascular Bundles in the Petiole of Nierenbergia Plage Bop 242, 
Laux, W.— Vascular Bundles in the Rhizome of Monocotyledons .. me = 943 
Vuritemin, P.—Bacillar Tumour on Pinus halepensis .. 5 243 
Dincuer, H.—Wechanical Structure of Floating-Organs RRS, 243 
Faruur, J. B.—Development of the Endocarp in the Elder .. Sees 944 
Lecomrn, H.—Development of Sieve-plates in the Phloem of Wraiccper ms .. Part3 405 
Grucory, E. L.—Development of Cork-wings iz 405 
Douttot, H.— Researches on the Periderm ; nS 406 
Ross, H.—Assimilating Tissue and Periderm in leaflens plants . Part 4 541 
PappenuEim, K.— Closing of the Bordered Pits in Coniferx.. 3 549, 
Lignizer, M. O.—Structure of Lecythidacee .. Laie, oe 542 
Prounet, A.—Foliar Vascular Bundles .. 11 «6 05 Part 5 655 
Laparte—Anatomy of Moral Axes .. nih he a3 656 
ANDERSSON, S.— Development of the Taweatler Tepalies of Manocotyledons ae 656 
Laurersacu, C.—Secretion-receptacles in the Cactaccee bs 656 
Karusson, G. A.—TZransfusion-tissue of Conifers a 657 
Roseter, P.—Jncrease in thickness of the arborescent Tiare a 657 
Trpin—Primary Cortex in Dicotyledons : 658 
Weves, A. DE—Pericycle.. i 659 
SauvaGEau, L.—WMechanical Sy waters, m the Boat ay) Agito Plane : 659 
SoLEREDER, H.—Comparative Anatomy of the Aristolochiaces a 660 
Garcin—Structure of Apocynacee .. 4 660 
JUNGNER, J. R —Anatomy of Dioscoreacee ie 660 


Winpie, W. 8.—fibres and Raphides in Monstera 


661 


CONTENTS. XX1l1 


PAGE 
Groom, P.—Laticiferous Tubes Bo) ab ea) eno ado! 60 . Part 6 775 
Renpie, A. B.—Vesicular Vessels of the Oni ba awibs » 7795 
Marrrro.o, O., & L. Buscationi —/ntercellular Spaces in ae Tegument of 
the Seed of Papilionacee 60) 00 Bo ip, Aa ae 779 
THOUVENIN— Strengthening Apparatus in the Stop of Giastiraena co 00 776 
GwnentscuH, F.—Radial Union of Vessels and Wood-parenchyme .. 1. «» 45 776 
Kny, L.—Formation of Healing Periderm .. . psec cols aim erniies 776 


Wier, A.—ormation and Development of oem ‘Fibres Go Jon! ..wo 2M tag 776 

Scena, E.—Secondary Medullary Rays .. . EC ME MUeCUametod Panne Ses 717 

Macartiui, L.—foliar Medullary Bundles of ees Beet rey melee a arak eiemen yy Mas 7717 
(4) Structure of Organs. 

Marrenit, U.—Dimorphism of the Flowers of the Horse-chestiut oo 00 AeA IL 


Hirronymus, G.—Cleistogamous Flowers of Tephrosia heterantha .. . A 85 
Maenin, A.—Hermaphroditism of Lychnis dioica when attacked by Ustilas fo ‘ 85 
Rogerson, C.—Zygomorphy and its Causes .. .. ss «2 «2 0s «2 4 85 


Scuropt, J.—Opening of the Anthers of Cycadee .. 1. 1. «2 «2 « 4 86 


Trevus, M.—Protection of Buds in the Tropics Pie Coe. RDO re Uke at #3 86 
WerrstEn, R. v.—Latrafloral Nectaries in Composite Rhine 00 87 
Voter, A.—Structure and Development of Seeds with ruminated Beaoaver Hoo sp 87 
Tont, G. B. ppe—Jntegument of the Seed of Geraniacee o0 00D 88 
INAS, A. N.—Aygroscopic Movements in the Cone-scales of AekeGive . os 88 
Tritz, P.—Relationship of the Twisting Action of the Vascular Bundles fo 

Phyllotaxis .. AOU tee WAG Inmates mae caice, aer 88 
KARSTEN, Gi Dowcloniesc of Floating g tenes SO no Baw bol soo! od! \legn 88 
ScCHERTFEL, A.—Glands on the Rhizome of Lathrea .. .. Seals, 89 
Gitvay, E.— Adaptation of Anatomical Structure to Climatal Coates 00 89 
Hanavsex, T. F.—LEpiderm of the Seeds of Capsicum... .. 12 we ws Part 2 244 
Merz, C.—LEmbryo of Umbellifere ..  .. Bienes moc arb Ube cob A Gen 244 
REIcHE, K.— Winged Stems and Decurrent Tien 00-00 500 0000: 244 
Emery, H.—Bud of the Tulip-tree.. .. Peo Danita Le Gu ey 245 


Ripiey, H. N.—Foliar Organs of a new syne of Deuter: Wh oo 00 of 245 
Dacuitton, A.—Polymorphism of the Leaves of Abictine® .. .» +. «+» 43 245 


HaperLanpt, G.—Leaves of Begonia .. .. Raph Me-aeti a aes Leaiswme trys 245 
SHATTOCE, 8. G.— Scars on the Stem of Buona ott on a0 «0 Da 246 
Prazmowski, A.—Root-tubercles of Leguminose .. .. «6 0 oF «8 49 246 
VUILLEMIN, P— Tubercles of Leguminose .. . Shah Sein ames 247 


Dancearp, P. A.—Formation of Subterranean Sicetianaale mm nants hyemalis — ,, 247 
ScHONLAND, S.—WMorphology of the Mistletoe., .. .. 06 «ss « «8 499 248 
Moisi, 18, O—SSiernoiewne Of LMCIROG RAEI? - 00.. 00 60,00 00 00 00 9 248 
Stoxus, A. C.—Pollen of the Convoluulacee .. .. .. «. «2 «- « Part 3 406 


VELENOVSEY, J _—Fruit-scales OfeADICtiNeZe any, Seaman Sea Bach rial best an 407 
ARCANGELI, G.—Seeds of Nymphzacez® .. «2 1. 20 06 «1 «0 we % 407 
Mernan, T.—Bract in Tita .. .. Mier aia Aye n 407 
DanteL, L.—Comparative Anatomy of ‘he SBraets of the Tneahiene m 
Girtonneee ae ; RUS corer Noni nto Galiab, Iennion: BAB ta RO Maro CME Rr 408 
Hecxe., E.—Pitchers of Seaeenente go 60. 06.60” 00° 6d. oq) 00. angy 408 
Putrr, L.—Petivle of Dicotyledons .. .. Raven ater Wes ccontn Wrovehs War sfofsel cree ea kta 408 
Priniievux, H.—Ligneous Tumours in the Vane feb etal wreieve galsiom le slen aie eae ere 410 
Hooker, H. E.—Cuscuta Gronovit i 410 
Hovexiacqur, M.—Vegetative Organs of Big enmeaee, ‘iaaiiao, 6 0- 
ACNE, Ce) OPUCLUCTUNCED 50 00 00 00 90 OD 06 00 00 410 
411 


Wever, A. pE—Anatomy of Bree at cake Bisel 
Dennert, E.— Anatomy and Chemistry of Petals .. -.. > cs. 20 01 0 et 4 542 


XX1V CONTENTS. 


Ratuay, B.—Lxatrafloral Nectaries Bye Aa) DO 000 
Correns, EH. C.—Latrafloral Necturies of Doone 50 90 60 
Meernan, T.—Llastic Stamens of Compositw .. .. Joie 00 
a », Glands on the Stamens of Curyopacen 
Hemer., A.—fruit of Nyctaginex a6 on 


LorBEL, O.—Anatomy of Leaves 
Krasse, G.— Fixed daylight position of Hedoes 


oo 


Bisgen, M.—Structure and Function of the Bladders of Te senan 00 


SCHWENDENER, S.—Stomates of Graminex and Cyperaceer . 
Srripine, O.—Stomates of Conifere .. .. .. «. 
TURNBULL, R.— Water-pores in Cotyleduns .. .. « 
Fior, L.—Tigellum of Trees .. 


Priniizvux, E.—Bacillar Tumours of the Olive ap of Ens Ralesoosts 


DeEwpino, F.—Tubercles on the Roots of Galega officinalis 
Histncer, E.—TZubercles of Rappia and Zannichellia 00 
Borzt, A.—Lateral Roots of Monocotyledons .. .. ss «2 
ScuuMANN, K.—Obdiplostemonous Flowers 

Haustep, B. D.—Pollen-grains .. .. « 

TscHERNicH, F'.—Form of Pollen-grains 

AumaguistT, 8.—WNectarial Scales of Ranunculus 


Daniet, L.—Siructure of the Bracts and Bracteoles in Re Tneoiitre of 


Corymbifere .. 
BorpziLoswki, J —-Marelinaene op Borie ana Fleshy pons. 
Meyer, A.—Septated Vittz of Umbellifere .. 
JUMELLE, H.—Frwit of Grasses - 
Francuet, A.—Primula with Aeinesans Seeds 
ARCANGELI, G.—Seed of Victoria ie 
Scuumann, K.—Borragoid Inflorescence.. .. 
Couttsr, 8.—Leaf of Taxodium 
TrzeHem, P. Van, & H. DovLtiot—Ori gh of Roctistel : 
Puanta, A.—Composition of the Tubercles of Stachys tuberifera .. 
GRANEL— Origin of the Haustoria in Parasitic cee 
Kocu, L.—AHaustoria of Rhinanthacee § E A 
Drvaux—WModifications in the Roots of Grasses gr amie in Water 
Detrino, F.—Ovuliferous Scales of Conifere.. 
HA.stED, B. D.—Sensitive Stamens in Composite... ; 
Daniel, L.—Bracteoles of the Involucre in the Cynar qeapuale 
Mrenan, T.— Secund Inflorescence .. 
Creepin, F.—Ovaries and Achenes of the iaeeg 
Ross, J. N.—Achenes of Coreopsis .. 
Dineer, H.—Floating-organs 
Bower, F. O.—Pitcher of Nepenthes : 
MACFARLANE, J. M.—Pitchered Insectivorous Plans 
Meenan, T.—Homology of Stipules nn 
GorBeEL, K.—Stem and Leaf of Utricularia .. 
Vines, 8. H.—Opening and Closing of Stomates 
Merxer, P.—Colleters and Glands of Gunnera 
Vocutine, H.—Abnormal Formation of Rhizome . 
Wison, W. P.—Aerating Roots 


B. Physiology. 
(1) Reproduction and Germination. 
KronreLp, M.—VFertilization of Huphrasia ‘ ; 
£CHNETZLER, J. B.—Cuse of Germination of Bawrnonities CRT 


eo 


PAGE 


Part 4 543 


. Part 6 


543 
544 
544 
544 
544 
545 
B45 
545 
546 
546 
546 
546 
546 
547 
547 
661 
661 
661 
662 


662 
662 
662 
663 
663 
663 
663 
664 
664 
665 
665 
665 
666 
7717 
778 
778 
778 
778 
778 
779 
779 
779 
779 
780 
780 
780 
780 
780 


Part1 89 


” 


89 


CONTENTS. XXKV 


PAGE 
Ratuay, E.—Distribution of the Sexual Organs in the Vine ogo pp. detain PA) 
KRONFELD, W/.—Constancy of Insects in visiting Flowers... «1 ee wey 249 
Meruan, T.—Fertilization of Lonicera japonica .. .. «1 «2 «2 « 4 249 
Hemmer., A.—Fertilization in the Nyctaginee  .. «. «2 «6 26 «8 49 249 
Murrnan, T.—Cross-fertilization in Hydrangea .. «1 an we te we gs 250 
3; » Life-history of Yucca Se ike Bro Mn gEea al BSG. unde NGO As 250 
ARCANGELI, G.—Flowering of Huryale ferow ..  .. Steere ode arcs! ch 250 
% » Germination of the Seeds of Euryale fer Oe SE Oy CT Nich 250 
Winger, A.—Germination of the Hazel .. «2 «ene ve ve we 251 
Prrotra, R.—Fertilization of Amorphophallus Rivieri @ G0" 100) »a0 oo . oo detaee} Gull 
Scuuiz, A.—Cleistogamic Flowers ..  .. Cae ail cicae san phen ee unis 412 


GiarpD, A.—Parasitic Castration of Lychnis Fin ated /sispte rete: mesic lm stad gh es 412 
Tomss, A.—Fly-catching Habit of Wrightia coccinea .. «2 « « «+ 495 412 


Vairs, H. pe—Jntracellular Pangenesis.. .. .. «6 « « .« «» Part 4 547 
Meraan, T.—Vichogamy.. .. BS tes corel Ho Vode ernee GONT.udo0n. Mer 548 
Lupwic, F.—Fertilization by Spells Saree ae ee Sava cata cies amet ae reras 548 
Dammer, U.—Diclinism and Hermaphroditism .. a0. po co oo Jeune) Gay 


Enior, W. G., & W. TRELEASE— Trimorphism of Onalis AOunaol? Linon nCs! Ea, 667 
WN, Ch DVS penIoD OW) JLT ayIORD o5° 55 50 6h 09 60 of 667 
Pamme., L. H.—Perforation of Flowers by Insects .. 1. «1 «6 a A 667 
ROBERTSON, C.—Flowers and Insects .. .. .. .. « «» « « Part6 781 
Merrnan, T.—Dimorphism of Polygonum  .. «1 oe nn vs we gg 781 
HILDEBRAND, F'.—Properties of Hybrids do 3a 8 co.) 66 50) 00. 180% ip 781 


(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Movements of Fluids). 
ScHNETZLER, J. B.—Resistance of plants to causes which alter the normal 
GOO OF WHE 20 00. o co oo oo demas il 
JENTYS, S.—Action of Oxygen ander high pressure on Greate Seah ale acest ieee 90 
Dietz, S.—Jnfluence of the Substratum on the Growth of Plants .. .. .. 45 90 


Harrie, R.—Conduction of Plants through the Alburnum ..  .. +e = 90 
Vines, 8S. H.—Relation between the formation of Tubercles and the presence ; 

of nitrogen in the sol... 06 00, aon dee A DSI 
Wirer, A.—Conduction of Water Agere ie ead - aah chi) eahiee ore 3 251 
DEtTLEFSEN, E.— Absorption of Light in assimilating ledous oo bo 600, de GEIB 
ERANK, B—Absorption of Nitrogen by Plants  .. .. s. «. «6 «6 45 412 
WortTMANN, J.—Physiology of Growth .. .. .. of « oF « « Part4 548 


Wiesner, J.—Descending Current of Water .. be ima tae ase 548 
Dovutot, H.—Jnfluence of Light on the Development of ene Sat, PODS Pio sey 049 
_ Guuze, L. A.—Periodical Activity of the Cambium in the Roots of Trees .. 4 549 
meee L.— Penetration and Escape of Gasesin Plants .. 1. . + 455 549 
Frank, B.-—Assimilation of Free Nitrogen by the Lower Organisms .. .. 3, 950 
JUMELLE, H.—Development of Annual Plants Bon a .  « « Part5 668 
ROsENVINGE, KoLpERUP—/nfluence of External Auge on fe Polarity and 
DOPREIRGUTR (THOM Of IUUHS oo co 60 20 00 00 00 vo op 668 
Kononezuk, P.—One-sided Hardness of Wood .. .. . 00 669 
Mer, E.—Jnjluence of Exposure on the Growth of the Bark of Conran Bae SED 669 
JUMELLE, H.—Chlorophyllous Assimilation and Transpiration .. 6 +» 355 669 
3 »  Infiuence of Mineral Substances on the Growth of Plants .. 4, 669 
ARCANGELI, G.—Trophilegic Function of Leaves .. .. «1 « «2 «8 4 670 
Hartic, R.—WMovement of Sap in the Wood .. .. .. «ss «6 0 0 455 670 
Drvavx, H.—Zchange of Gases in Submerged Plants.. .. «© .s «0 45 670 
CHMIELEWSKIJ, W.—Absorption of Water by Leaves .. .. « . 5 671 
RopEWALD, H.—Changes of Substance and Force connected with Respiration 671 
Mituer, T.—Jnfluence of “ Ringing” on Growth .. 4. 1. 6s ae ve Part 6 781 


XXV1 CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
Hewieiecen, H., & H. Wittrarta—Cbtaining of Nitrogen by Graminee 


and Weenies eet: wean a6. oo on Lee @ Well 
Frank, B.—Power of Plants to absorb Heese fear the dir - 782 
Krurick:, P.—Wovements of Gases in Plants a5. Ode om ob. om oc eA 782 
Wermuae J.—Curvature of Growing Organs .. .. 22 «ss « «= 39 782 


(8) Irritability. 
ApERHOLD, R.—Vorces which determine the Movements in the Lower 


Organisms .. Sess | ee ioe Teen meee tee MOT Mao) 
Vocutine, H. _Pniinostion of Tawnon. Se [etcORN LD ty Merion amines ea cupeie | eh 91 
WortMann, J.—Phenomena of Curvature .. . GMnts Vodice a ecp 92 
Bryer, H.—Spontaneous Movements of Stamens ana Sle o- Siu aeen (eon artaon coll 
CunnineHAM, D. D.—Jrritability of Mimosa FO ROME OORNEGES. oon aicioe ape 252 
Kiepaun, H.—Cause of violent Torsion... .. > 953 


Nout, F., & J. Wortmann —Physical Bison of ian Vetoes -cur eines Part 3 413 


(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 


Boxorny, T.—Chemical process in Assimilation .. .. o « « « Partl 92 
PALLADIN, W.—Decomposition of Albumen in the absence of free oxygen .. 4, 92 
is »  Lroducts of the Decomposition of Albuminoids in the absence 

of free oxygen oo a0 BG Go) oo Or 0o © oe. oo ER) AWS) 
ARCANGELI, G.—Panic Fer sptation a0, gewoo AR Toe oth. ath) aon 253 
Laurent, E.—Vormation of Starch from Organic Gulbis Bde an) oo) Jeevan) Guid 
Tackn, B.—Development of Nitrogen in Putrefaction .. .. ss se «6 45 414 
Lunia, C.—Respiration of the Fig... .. be oa do. de ao) lena 4b tai) 
Prerrer, W.—Process of Oxidation in Taeing ‘Cells bik, Cddus boos Yao". Seca) op 550 
Zor‘, W.—Owalic Fermentation .. . sl HS 550 


PALLADIN, W.—Influence of Oxygen in the Decora: af Abismnoiratis .. Part 6 783 


SAPoscHNIKOFF, W.—Yormation of Starch out of Sugar S 783 
Marrinaup—Alcoholic Fermentation of Milk... .. 1. «1 «2 «ss « 99 783 
y. General. 

[oBEUE, ©. v.—-Larasites on Irees..' 25 sr ee) ae oe ee ee at 1) 93 
Sraut, E.—Protection of Plants against Snails .. 2. 11 +e we we gg 93 
Maz, C.—New Myrmecophilous Plant .. .. «1 . «» « « « Part2 253 
KeErRNER v. Marinaun, A.—Scent of Flowers 60 Sonate wee ») 253 
Scurmprr, A. F. W.—LZpiphytic Vegetation of the Tropes Aa col sor oa Jeune a). Zelle! 
Bonniger, G.—Influence of Alpine Climate on Vegetation .. .. .. «. 455 415 
Kerasan, H.—Parallel Forms .. 2. sos we wee wg 415 
Goupnn, K.— Young Stateof Plants ~ .. .- -. 3. =. =. -- -- Eari4 550 
Soraver, P.—‘t Zan-disease” of Cherries Meee Neu cods sue A, dale oe « oy ool 
Hartic, R.—Diseases of Trees SOMONE OM Ot. Gs tao. » doh, Aol = op ool 
Perit, E.—Chlorosis as fa ae ce, SRC ne Meee merns HEOriOMOngL 
VuiuLemtin’s (P.) Vegetable Beoleco RE CeOCRE BAA Soe Sale ORL” ae = Ley 671 
JuMELLE, H.—Development of Annual Boni: we deat? oe, Meet eee re artionise 
Cris, UD —VEyoeRGOAGRIBS co 05 00 560 «90s 784 
B.—CRYPTOGAMIA. 

Bennert & Murray’s Cryptogamic Botany .. .. .. .. . «.. «. Part3 415 
PROF. DE BARY/S| Microscopical Shdes) -. 3. 5. we eee es ee a G) 784 


Cryptogamia Vascularia. 


HABERLANDT, G.—Chlorophyll-bodies of lates oe ee ee Barteleengs 
Trevus, M.—Prothallium of Lycopodium ‘ 
Hetneicuer, E.—Jnfluence a Light on the Orig gin “of ‘r. (ane mn “ais ren 

GUFYO oo 00 00 00 0@ 08 00 ob 06 of 66 oc co 6 ot 


CONTENTS. XXVil 
PAGE 
TircHem, P. Van—Doubling of the Endosperm in Vascular Cryptogams .. Part 2 254 
CampBELL, D. H.—Systematic Position of the Rhizocarpexr .. ly 954 
55 5 Germination of Marsilia egyptiaca., .. .. 1 254 
53 Development of Pilularia.. COMM O IN On, tion. “boom Sc 254 
Sim, H. E.—“< Bulblets” of Lycopodiam lucidulum .. .. 16 «2 «2 45 255 
Fartow, W. G.—Apospory in Pteris aquilina foie gASON he eesmerrets 8 256 
Borzi, A.—YXerotropism in Ferns 3 Pa 256 
Miier, C.—Structure of the Commissure of Whe Tea OHTA of Tape & 256 
Rozm—Azola filiculoidzs co 00 of 00 oo JP B 4G 
Cuurcu, A. H.—Aluminium in Wasco en ptogarns os 65” 80 Part 4 551 
Farmer, J. B.—Germination of the Megaspores of Isoetes .. .. .«. op ool 
GUIGNARD, L.—Antherozoids of Ferns .. .. 10 se ee 00 we 6D 902 
Sasion, LecLerc Du—Stem of Ferns .. au 552 
Lows, E. J.— Varieties in Ferns... sa kes 00 552 
RABENHORST’ s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (essen Cri sto ano 5 553 
SrTEnzEL, G.—Tubicaulis.. .. . eI Rey ctommcels NER pays See 55 553 
Hasweti, W. A.—Psilotum and Tinesptris. D Part 5 672 
Stur, D.—Calamariex .. secs Iisa Vany bsisen, ein me raehe) es 673 
BELAJEFF, W.—Antherozoids of Vascular, Cr “ptoqanist Part 6 785 
Mervunipr—Sporocarp of Pilularia .. As 785 
Sasion, LecLeRc pU—Lndoderm of the Sets of Selag qinelint oie oc 5 785 
AURA, NMOS Ojf WEG JIUMCONED 25 G0. 00 06 00 05 oD % 785 
Muscinee. 
Warnstorr, C.—Acutifolium-Section of Sphagnum  ..  .. Part 1 94 
RABENHORST’S Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Musci) aban moe Wap is 95 
PuHILIBeRT—Peristome of Mosses .. .. SAWS Part 2 257 
Nou, F.—<Shining of Schistostega onrumndoace 60 of BS 257 
SUMNER INA JEROHICED 65 = 00 50 20S 3 297 
IAMANN, J)-—Weptotnichic Acid... 3. ee ae no) Part 4 553 
GrHEEB, A.—Wosses from New Guinea .. 00 Fe 553 
GUIGNARD, L.—Antherozoids of Hepatice and Mosies 60 < 554. 
HaABerLANDT, H.—Geotropism of the Rhizoids of Marchantia ap aor A 6 5d4. 
PurLipert— Peristome aaron: Part 5 673 
GRONWALL, A. L. Lpimrencence of Orthotr eee ie Ac : ” 673 
GrRavet, F.—Colouring-matter of Sphagnacezx Ae oy 674. 
Characeze. 
GuienaRD, L.—Antherozoids of Characez Part 3 417 
Algee. 
West, W.—List of Desmids from Massachusetts. (Plates II. and III.) .. Part1 16 
REINKE, J.—Chromatophores of Phxosporee .. 00. (00 00 % 95 
Micuna, W.—WMode of Distribution of Alge .. eee ae 55 95 
ANDERSON, O. F.—Genetic Connection of Drersernvelltte alone ue “apd 
Palmella uveformis 60. 60° 60 00 60.00 5 95 
DANGEARD, P. A.—IJnferior Alge .. .. 56 5 - 95 
Mosius, M.—WNew Algex from Porto Rico ; ; 97 
Norpsrept, O.—Algz of New Zealand and Austr De, a0 joaa 97 
Scatrr, F.—Phycoerythrn .. .. Je OR Gane Part 2 258 
Jounson, T.—Reproduction of Sphxrococcus.. .. ». go Ego. he FP 258 
HianseirG, A.—Entocladia  .. we ws Sc : Bae 959 
Wirrtrock, V. B.—Binuclearia BON bos. acne ORNS 959 
Mosius, M.—Chetopeltis .. 259 


Murray, G., & L. A. Boom Gumnn 


XXVill CONTENTS. 


r 


PAGE 
DancEarD, P. A.—Sexuality among the Lower Alg@ .. oe « « «- Part2 260 
Micuna, W.—E fects of dilute Acids on Algze . Part 3 418 
Bige.Low, R. P.—Structure of the Frond of Champia par saci 7p 418 
Mostius, M.—Askenasya polymorpha Aho denate 0 418 
Nou, F.—Colouring-matter of Bangia Oe Marine le a 418 
Hanscire, A.—Classification of Confervoidex oot sow cis 0 419 
Tont, G. B. Dr, I. pe WitpEman, & A. Elanaserne— le auniten, inaneviraias 
and Phyllactidium .. 5 419 
RewkKeE, J.—Tilopteridex . 419 
StockmayeEr, S.—New Genus of peaanicese| . 420 
Hanserre, A.—Crenacantha, Periplegmatium, and stpeneeen ‘5 420 
Vinnie, 18, a Wgagoohis co 50 of 6d 90 00 od 0 3 420 
Tont, G. B. DE—Pilinia and Acroblaste . : 421 
Noun, F.—Jnfluence of Position on the ieaaelogpen) Deadlopinand of some 
Siphonocladacex 5p 421 
Picconez, A.—Connection of he ger sgatood) Retention Pp Aye th the 
chenucal nature of the substratum .. Part 4 555 
ASKENASY, H., AND OTHERS—Algz of the ° Gazelle’ brace. Ps 555 
Wie, N.—Development of Tissues in Floridex 6 555 
RosENvINGE, L. K.—Frond of Polysiphonia .. 3 556 
Witte, N., & J. G. AGarpH—Apical Cell of onentons ia cad Chapin 5 556 
BARBER, C. A.—Bulb of Laminarwa bulbosa .. .. ies Wena ees 556 
Vaigs, H. DE—Contraction of the Chlorophyll-bands of Spirey GRO ne Wve satan ease 907 
WILDEMAN, BH. DE— Variation in Desmids ete Whelan See 30 557 
Murray, G., & L. A. ek went Sih on Aa. is ey A mea 907 
Wo.utKE, G.—Urospora .. .. Se SATA On ROO 3 557 
Tont, G. B. DE—Thionyphe ANE Asa atowe Ne aie piatorg! Wicclee a elen Medhias 208 
Murray, G., & L. A. BoopL—E—Avr minvlens fre Set Sogn ot woe cr 958 
Nou, F.—Cellulose-fibres of Caulerpa cite dastinre Walia 2 eines olewe esiom aaa 558 
Kuein, L.—Volvox .. .. au ais bce Rit seis ered anes 558 
Dawson, Sir W., & D. P. Daman Olean yton ateg as 560 
Went, F. A. F. C= Vacuoles in Alyx .. . Part 5 674 
GuIGNARD, L.—Antherids and Pollinoids of Flor floes 5 674 
3 » Antherozoids of Fucacee 1. «se oF «ss « . » 675 
Bornet, E.—Lctocarpus.. .. 06 00 00 00 00 of 00 9 675 
SOpERSTROM, H.—Desmarestia eae aa 675 
Hanior, P.—Delamarea, a new genus oh Piospore 0 676 
Hanseire, A.—Phexodermatium .. se. (ee etelueicton tates on 676 
Ksetman, F. R.—Frond of Chordariacex 0 676 
Bouipr, R.— Distribution of Desmidiaceze a0 7 676 
Mattory, M. L., G. W. Rarrer, & J. H. Taal Vole aiotetion adie dy 677 
Toni, G. B.—Phyllactidium, Phycopeltis, and Hansgirgia .. Part 6 786 
ATWELL, C. B.—Conjugation of Spirogyra aa 5s 786 
Rypemr, J. A.—Volvox iminor .. Ne 95 786 


Fungi. 
JOHNSON, W.—Sporids of Lichens .. ee Gates ners 0 
AmTHor, C.—Saccharomyces apiculatus .. .. 1. « «2 Sey 
ARCANGELI, G.—Kefir .. ..  .. PPM EY og SOS) - Or 0 


ZuKaL, H.—New Type of Hi, enontcetes 00 Bb 50) 0 
Soums-LavuBacH, Grar zu— Ustilago Treubii Breen GO. | iaoy od. on 
Bary, A. DE—Saprolegniex .. Rr Gace AG.. “Obs. vo 
Forex, G., & L. Ravaz—Structure of White Rot ereeringy lacy. da, oo.) 00 
WarpurG, O0.—Cancer of the Cinchona .. .. .. «2 oF 


- Partl 97 


ees $98 
5 6 
tia 
ue) igo 
” 99 
5 100 


CONTENTS. 


CavarA, F.—New Fungi of the Vine 5 
Vraua, P., & L. Ravaz.—Discases of the Vine 
FRuosoraremaTasm” s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany Gan 
Frank, B.—Physiological Significance of Mycorhiza 
Maenus, P.—ZHibernation of Peronosporee 


BROGNIART, C. ae and their use in the eration) opi noxious 


Insects bs 
LaAGERHEIM, G. — saat. a new ae of Giutmaces 


Linpav, G.— Origin and Development of the Apotheces of Diner 


Miu.urr, J.—Graphidex .. 

MassaLoneo, C.—Germination of the Share es of Seltcaroita 
Nawascuin, 8.—Helotium parasitic on Sphagnum .. 
VUILLEMIN, P.—Pezizxe causing Cankers in Conifere .. 
Woronin, M.—Sclerotinize of Vaccinium 66 
Jameus, J. F.— Development of Corynites Curtissii .. 
Cavara, F.—New Parasitic Fungi .. 

Warp, H, M.—Lily Disease ; 

Soroxin, N.—Saccharomyces Allit, sp. n. 

<5 »  Lolydesmus peraneoien sp. n. 

Pr »  Sorosporella Agrotidis, g. et sp.n. .. 
GASPERINI, G.—Fermentation of Palm-wine .. 
Dieter, P.—New Melampsora 
Lacrrueim, G.—New Urocystis 
Harz, C. O.— Fungi of Mines... .. 

Massrx, G.—Revision of the TE Sel once. ble v. _VIIL ) 
Durertit, G—Towxic Principles of Fungi.. 
Scurcut, A.—New Cases of Mycorhiza 
CosTaNTIN, J.—Simple Mucedince .. eae 
Dancearp, P. A.— Biology of Chytridiacee .. 


CunnineHAM, D. D.—Ramphospora, a new genus of Uatilag ices 


Zopr, W.—Fungi parasitic on the lower Animals and Plants 
Priowricut’s (C. B.) British Uredinex and Ustilaginee 
SO ee ta a new genus of Ascomycetes 
Fiscurer, E.—Cyttaria ‘ ; 
Borzi, A.—Eremothecium, a new were Of ewarnestes 
BaccaRini, P.—Coniothyrium diplodella .. See 
Marriroio, O.— Polymorphism of Pleospora her RAID 


JOnsson, B.—Presence of a Sulphurous Oil in Penicillium lest, 
KLEBAHN, H.—Dissemination of the Spores in Rhytisma acerinum 


ADAMETZ, L.—Saccharomyces lactis .. be 
ARCANGELI, G.—Phosphorescence of eerie eerie 
ZvuKAL, H., & V, Favop—AHymenoconidium .. 
Zork, W.—Fungus-pigments .. .. « 
Krrasato, 8.—WMusk-fungus 

GrarD, A.—New Entomophthoracee ] 
Maenus, P.—Urophlyctis Kriegeana, sp.n. .. 1. 0 
KIRCHNER, O.—Llzomyces, a new type of Fungi .. 
Bonnier, G.—Synthesis of Physcia parietina.. . 
Cooxz, M. C., & G. Masse—New development of Ephelis 
Rounous RE, C.—Disease of Chestnut-trees F 
Miyasr, Kinco—Life-history of Macrosporium Porasticun 
Cavara, F.—American “ Bitter-rot” 
CosTANTIN, J.—Cladosporium herbarum.., 
Lupwie, R.— Microscopic twining Fungus 


[ XX1X 


PAGE 
Part 1 100 
5 100 
a A 101 
Part 2 261 
“3 261 
a 261 
1 Oe 
a ORD 
268 
is 263 
sy Aedes 
“ 263 
eG 
nas 
9 264 
3 265 
265 
4 SB 
<p 266 
» . 266 
utalo6G 
- 266 
Nee 266 
Part 3 325 
5 421 
5 EO 
5 422, 
422 
8 
es 423 
3 424 
» 424 
PB 424 
5 425 
a 425 
RS 
ERE 
af 426 
2 426 
op 426 
” 427 
Part 4 560 
» 560 
sp 561 
op 561 
Sp 561 
os 561 
» 562 
oD 562 
0 562 
o 563 
pp 563 


” 063 


XXX CONTENTS. 


Diete., R.—Heterospory of Gymnosporangiwmm  .. 45 se ne tes 
SoravugR, P.—Mildew of the Apple.. Sunset” ws 
Kurspaun, H.—Uredinex of Pinus Strobus .. ++ .. «1 « «6 


PATOUILLARD, N.—Coleopuccinia 
CosTantTiIn, J.—Tulasnella, Prototremella, aH Pale ie ine 
Marre.ui, U.—Phosphorescence of Agaricus olearius 
ATKINSON, G. F.—Phosphorescent Mushroom 
Bros, G. Rivrer v.—Poroptyche, a new genus of Poly or CH 
Amann, J.—WMycose on the Sporange of Mosses 6 20 
CuMIELEWSKIJ, W.—Conjugation of Nuclei in the Impr “arRar of jar lof oo 
Bovurqurtot, H.—Saccharine matters of Fungi 
Noacs, F.—WMycorhiza-forming Fungi 
Hartoe, M. M.—Structure of Saprolegniacexr 
Dieret, P. Se PR. ore Mtcen etclan a foams 
Hesse, R.—Tuberaceer and Hlaphomycetes .. 11 «0» «6 «2 oF as 
Bonnier, G.—Synthesis of Lichens.. Bae Nes 

a » Development of Lichens on ie Py boraaine of Mosses 00 
Friss, T. M.—Pilophorus 
SADEBECK, R.—Fungus-parasites of Re ‘Alleop 
Eraw, H., & HE. Rosrrurp—Lhizoctonia 


arn P., & EH. Priti1ecx—Parusitic ings on ‘the Vonban dy jeaalar 


Bapianti, EH. Clan ytes in Myriopods .. 

Massart, J.—Heliotropism of Renae 

Dinter, P.—Puccinia vexans .. . 

Meyer, B.—Saprophytic eenrent arp parasitic une 
Errxsson, J.—Haplobasidion, a new genus of Dematiee.. .. .. 
Cuopat, R., & P. Caurr—Lactarius piperatus 

CostTantIn, J., & RoLLAND—Blastomyces 

Tuomas, F.—Synchytrium alpinum 

BreEFeLp, O.— Ustilaginex : 50 

Linpt— Pathogenic Fungus from ihe Human Har oe 

Bonnet, H,—Parasitism of the Truffle ..  .. 

TuseEur, C. v.—Fungi parasitic on Trees ? 

Tutmen, F. v.—Fungi parasitic on Rice .. .. aa 1.00 
Costantin, J.. & A. N. BerLese,—Zchinobotryum ate) Sty: Near. 
BERLESE, Ke N.—Prolification in the Hyphomycetes .. .. 


a 9 Laboulbeniacex. 
VUYLSTEKE, J.—Contemporaneous action of ater ant iad a Seseiesaonre yces 
Barctay, A.—Himalayan Uredinew .. 6000 


Lacerueim, G. v.—Rostrupia, a new genus of eaihnace 
Bouuey, H. L.—Subepidermal Rusts 

THAXTER, R.—Cultures of Gymnosporangium 50 
CunnincHam, D. D.—Ravenelia .. .. «2 1s oe 
Barcuay, A.—Cxoma smilacinis .. 1. 

Sarpiey, A. H.—WMacrosporium parasiticum .. 

Surrn, EH. F.—Peach Yellow . 
Fayop, V.—Boletopsis, a new Genus of iemenonn cere 00 
Fuuton, T. W.—Dispersion of the Spores of Fungi by Insects 


My cetozoa. 
MrntaKkaris, 8S.—Tylogonus Agave .. Secunce a 
Ravngiar, C.—Myxomycetes of Denmark .. .. «as 
RacrporsK1, M.—New Myxomycetes 
Zorr, W.—Colouring-matters of Mycetozoa 


j 


PAGE 

Part 4 563 
5 563 
x 564 

is 564 

a 564 

- 564 
a 565 

5 565 

- 565 
Part 5 677 
a 677 

- 678 

- 678 

on 678 

FA 679 

3 679 

a 680 

ss 680 

3 680 

e 681 

a 681 

PF 681 

33 681 

5 681 

5 682 

& 682 

Le ees 682 
. Part 6 786 
39 787 

es 787 

3 787 

3 788 

7 788 

5p 788 
PA 788 
Fr 789 

s 789 

a 790 

es 790 

3 790 

3 791 

“5 791 

5 791 
nS 791 
- 791 
- 792, 
A: 792 
5 792 
Part 3 427 
Part 5 682 
683 

Part 6 792 


CONTENTS. XXX1 
Protophyta. 
a. Schizophyceee. 

PAGE 
CASTRACANE, F'.— Reproduction and Multiplication of Diatoms .. .. co Jean IL BB 
Hieronymus, G.—Dicranochete, a new Genus of Protococcacee .. 6 101 
Depy, J.—Structure of Diatom-valves 6 101 
Kirton, F.—WNew Species of Navicula : % 101 
CASTRACANE, Count F.—Diatoms of Hot Springs.. o 102 

P, A Composition of the Marine Trip of the Walley 
of Metaurus : : 3 : 55 Meese 102 
Hanserre. A.— Classinenton ai te Guanophiicee ae 3 102 
Bornet, E., & C. Fuanauitt—Heterocystous Nostocacex 5 108 
TOMASCHEK, H.—Relationship of Bacillus muralis and Glaucothria gr <i 3; 103 
CaAsTRACANE, F.—Antiquity of Diatoms . Bo. 68. Ga oo. a6 oD woe JeeMnn Ol AAG{s) 
Witpeman, Ei. pe—Scenedesmus Part 3 427 
PERAGALLO— Mediterranean Diatoms 5 427 
Scumipt’s Atlas der Diatomaceenhunde aes: 3 428 
Hansaire, A.— Bacillus muralis and Grotto- Seiieainoas 65) 428 
Gost, C.—Peroniella, a New Genus of Schizophycee : Part 4 565 

CunnincHam, D. D.—Stomatochytrium, a new Genus of doen wie Br oes 
coccace® .. .. MMS eMC mn Ate A cited Bey Farad 5 565 
Hanseire, A.—Tetraedron a0 (06) BO % 566 
Terry, W. A.—Movements of Diatoms a Osean o6. 90 00 66 5 566 
Smitu, T. F.— Valve of Pleurosigna .. dae ote Aen 5 566 
Kain, C. H., & EK. A. Scouttze—Fossil Marine Detar i 566 
Maccurati, L.—Synedra pulchella, Ktz., var. abnormis 5 566 
Hanscire, A.—Classification of Cyanophycee 5s 567 
Pranti, K.—Parasitism of Nostoc.. 56g 567 
Ciemmacesm: F'.—Cyclophora .. ae . Part 5 683 
3 »  Diatoms of African Tripoli. oC . 3p 683 
Correns, C.—Growth of the Cell-wall by Intussusception in some eo Saliva yoee Part 6 793 
Imuduser, L.—Prasiola. oC ; WSs 793 
Borner, E.—Heter en eros Nesrormere ap 60 00 793 
MU Lier, O.—WVovements of Diatoms .. .. .. a3 793 
95 », Auaospore of Terpsinoé 5 794 
Weep, W. H.—Diatom-beds of the Cellos - 0 794. 

B. Schizomycetes. 

Birwet, A.—Bacterium Balbianii, a chromogenous marine Bacterium .. Part 1 104 
SALKOWSKI. H.—Ferment from putrefactive Bacteria ., e 104 
Waker, J. H.—Contributions to Vegetable Pathology .. 5 105 
ENGELMANN, I. W.—Purple Bacteria and their relation to hse % 105 
BELFANTI & PescaroLo—Pathogenic Bacterium found in Tetanus - 105 
Soroxin, N.—Algophaga pyriformis .. .. .. 53 106 
Linpyer, P.—Sarcine of Fermentation .. 3 106 
FRAENKEL, C., & R. Prerrrer—Photomicr gue Atlas of Beaten ‘ole WY oa gp 107 
Wicanp, A., & E. wot considered as a Ferment Organism  , 107 
Scuuiz, H.— Yeast-poisons S50 Be Be 108 
Birtrer, H.— Doctrine of Phag eee 60 oC Part 2 267 
Hittner—Bacteria of Fodder and Seeds .. SS * 268 
ZASLEIN, 'T.— Varieties of Koch’s Comma Bacillus... = 969 
Pruni—Spore-formation in the Bacillus of Typhoid Fever 269 
Hericovrt, J., & Cu. Richet—Staphylococcus pyosepticus stud WGS 269 
Krrasata, 8.—Resistance of the Cholera Bacteria to Heat and Dr eg 59 270 


XXxil CONTENTS. 


HeyprnreicH—Structure of Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus 
Semmer, E.—fcro-organisms of Pneumonia of Lambs and Calves 
Scuorretius—Nucleus or nucleoid bodies of Schizomycetes 


PAGE 
Part 2 270 
270 


° 39 
. Part 3 429 


Lustic, A.—WMicro-orgamsms of Mytilus edulis 3 429 
Litwin, A. M.—Spore-formation in Bacillus anthracis .. 00 . 429 
Bryerinck, M. W.—Bacteria of the Tubercles of Papilionacee 53 430 
GamaLzria, N.—WNatural mode of infection of Vibrio Metschnikovi 5 430 
Winoeransky, T., & A. Hanseirc—Worphology and Physiology 9 the 

Sulphur Bacteria : .. Part 4 567 
HoLscHEWNIKOFF— Bacteria which Srediice Suiphareted aaaneren . 567 
JACKSON, C. Q.—Bacillus of Leprosy . ue the 3 568 
CuHavveau, A.— Vaccinal Properties of Weerosee) 5 508 
Hurprrn’s (F.) Bacteriology ; 35 569 
Marvucct A.— Tuberculous Infection of fie Tonoleenop yo as 569 
KARLINSEI, J.—Bacillus murisepticus pleomorphus, a new peroserrés Sena 

mycete : p 970 
Firtscu, G.— Variations of the Vibrio Pr ota 35 570 
Neuwauss, R.—Flagella of the Cholera Bacilli - 571 
Maersa, P., & G. SANNA-SALARIS—Glischrobacterium i 571 
Heinz, A.—Wucous Disease of Hyacinths “ 572 
Tanovsky, F. G.—Bacteriology of Snow.. 5 572 
Giaxa, DE—Number of Bacteria in the Contents x the Bestize: see Tube 

of some Animals . Part 5 683 
Rietscu & Du Bourcuret—WNew Pup aon Bevis ss 684 


DowvDEsweE LL, G. F.—WNew Species of Chromogenous Microbe 

GrirFitus, A. B.—Wicro-oryanisms and their Destruction 

Hansen, E. C. & F. Lupwie. he eee found in the mucous ee of 
Trees on 00 oe 

MeErtsv airiore Beene of Bheten le) 

At-CouEn, C. H.—Movements of Micrococci 

CuHavveau, A.—Variability of Bacillus anthracis .. 

Courmont, J.—New Bovine Tubercle Bacillus 

VUILLEMIN, P.—Relation of the Bacilli of the ee as to the issn somes 

Cunnincuam, D. D.—Cholera Bacillus .. Cry: 60 

Rovx, Mecp er entie Inoculations .. 

FREUDENREICH, H. DE—Antagonism of the Bails of Blue Pus ane Aunfiines 


MICROSCOPY. 
a Instruments, Accessories, &c. 


(1) Stands. 
Fasoupt’s (C.) “ Patent” Microscope (Figs. 1 and 2) .. 
Czapsk’s (8.) Zar- (Tympanum) Microscope (Fig. 3) .. 
Moreavu’s Monkey Microscope (Fig. 4) is 
Croucn’s Petrological Microscope .. 
RertcHERt’s (C.) Petrological Microscope (Ca 6) . : 
Hueuegs’ (W. C.) Patent Oxyhydrogen Microscope (Fig. 6) . 


af 5 Improved Microscopic Attachment—Cheap Ri orm (Fi a. 7) 
% », Special Combination Scientist ass Lantern ue 2 
Duc DE CHAULNES’ Microscope (Fig. 9) .. 2 ‘ d 


Baxkur’s (C.) Portable Medical Microscope 
Prerrer’s (W.) Botanical Microscope (Fig. 38) 
Aurens’ (C. D.) Giant Microscope (Fig. 39) .. 
Swirt’s (& Son) Mineral Microscope (Fig. 40) 


2 ” 
. Part 2 272 


684 


< 29 
Part 6 794 


a 795 
os 795 
op 795 
o 796 
0 796 
a 797 
45 797 
» 797 
0 798 
. Part1 109 
5 112 
‘ 113 
3 113 
45 113 
35 115 
5 116 
= 117 
5 118 


161 


278 
Aone 


CONTENTS. XXxXill 


PAGE 
Dyck, F. C. Van—Binocular Dissecting Microscope .. .. .. » « Part2 275 
Lerrz’s large Dissecting Microscope (Fig. 41).. ..  . See MS OWY Go poet) 275 


Dick AND Swirt’s Patent Petrological Microscope (Fig. 57) oo 6nd) GIB 
Konxouty'’s (N. v.) Microscope for observing the Lines in Photographed 


Spectra (Fig. 58) ..  .. op 436 
op 5 Microscope for “Ronis ‘the edonesTia06 Draliooaies 
(WILISED cS Boe aids 0 Rade aol Moose Cano? pach dates meionn Macey By coal hopans ict) 437 
Leirz’s No. 1 Stand (Fig. 60)..  .. Hob ascpnisten Hoe NSO 
Apams’s large Projection and Compound iorsscone (Plate IX. iscembbom aon ars 438 
Cuarues I. Wicroscope (Figs. 61-64) .. .. -. «6 «- oF «2 of 45 440 
“Duc pE CHAULNES ” Microscope (Fig. 65) .. 2. «+ «+ of «2 «» 45 442 
TuHompson, 8S. P.—WNete on Polarizing Apparatus for the Microscope 
(igs. 71-73)...  .. .. . Part 5 617 
BrnocuLar Microscopes (Ahrens, Guieeus and anes) (Figs. 74-77) ee hog 685 
Butx’s (M.) Microscopes for measuring the radii of the curved surfaces of the 
eye (Figs. 78-81) .. .. . . 1 688 
Ross’s (ANDREW) Screw “and ater Oise: cn ivelgnaeement (Fi gs. 82 
and 83) . AB aes ksauh ee ersiou als acc Goll 
M‘Intosu’s (L. D. ) Mscrossones Ata nent (Figs. 84 -87) Hou" Epon ew Waa Gen 692 
Op Italian Microscope (Fig. 88) .. .. . 695 


ANDERSON’S (R. J.) ‘‘ Panoramic Hipeanenent ep the Mier atagn9" iz (Fig. ") Part 6 799 
NeEtson-CurTEIs Jlicroscope (Large Model) (Fig.98) .. .. .. «» .» 0 800 
EpinspureGu Students’ Microscope (Figs. 99 and 100) .. «2 «2 25 oe 45 802 
Leracu’s (W.) Improved Lantern Microscope (Figs. 101-103) .. .. «. sy 803 


(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives. 
Jackson, H.—WMonobromide of Naphthaline as an Immersion Medium.. .. Part 1 119 
1/10 in. Apochromatic Objective of N.A.1°63 .. .. « « « « Part 6 805 


(3) Illuminating and other Apparatus. 
Tuoma’s (R.) Camera Lucida wee 1) ee) I) 50, oo o0si'(i( ss, EE TT TL) 
IPANINOGSIN, Jo—iMaelar Cig I) so 00 60 ob 00 00 66 06 00. of 121 
ADJUSTABLE Safety- stage (Fig. 13) 50 sce Tateee wacom (Sa vance Barco tae ane 121 
ENGELMANN’Ss (T. W.) Microspectrometer (Figs. Me IUGR RCS oe LAC NOa. wey 122 
Powe. & LEALAND’s Apochromatic Condenser (Fig. 17) .. .. «» «© 4 125 


Kocu & Max Wouz’s Lamp (Fig. 18) . Ban oo So 50 00 9p 126 
Bausch & Lomp Oprticat Co.’s Waviiaite orien ieneal Siiieainetie 
(ht. WD) 00 05 00 SATE DCIe SOS PC CONnOD 6 126 
AuReEns’ (C. D.) Modification of Danse Ss iBllentece wae eel) ie ee oe ant 2276 
Faurer’s (G., & Son) Rotating Object-holder (Fig. 42) do Moo. 00 S 276 
LATTERMANN, G.—Apparatus for measuring very minute Crystals (Fig. 43) es 277 
Warp, R. H.—Rogers’ Hye-piece Micrometer (Fig. 66) bo) 00° bo 9 eo etna) 4's} 
Ewe, M. D.—Glass versus Metal Micrometers .. oo .6 «© eo «» 455 445 
5 Micrometer Measurements .- 2. oa 26 « «» «8 45 447 
KuAanson! S (H.) Radial Micrometer (Fig. 67) 1. 2. 2 on we 3 447 
KRYSINSE?’s (S.) Hye-piece Micrometer and its uses in Microscopical Grate 
lography.. «- 6 ‘66 Be abo omar: pare 448 


Taytor’s VJ.) picanaraanecons (Figs. 89 andl 90).. 66 60 Go oo do, Jet) GOS 
Hevrex, H. vAan—fecent Improvements in Electric Lighting applied to 
Micrography and Photomicrography (Fig.91) .. .. 2. «2 0» 45 696 
(4) Photomicrography. 
KIBBLER’s (A.) Photomicrographic Camera (Fig.20) .. .- «. « « Partl 127 


Mawson & Swan’s Photomicrographic Apparatus (Fig.21)..  .. a a 128 
Rosinson’s (J. & Sons) Photomicrographic Cameras ( Figs. 22 and 23) bo) ep 128 


1889. C 


XXX1V CONTENTS. 


Roux, E.—Photomicrography with Magnesium Light .. «+ os Part 1 
Marxranner’s (G.) Instantaneous Photomicrographic Apparatus (Figs. 


24-26) 30 aren Reh | erie ss 
TramBusti, A.— Hasy Method for ef Proroqrapii Sao Bian tes ico Sha as 


Zertnow, E.—Chromo-copper Light-filter EA lio KMS Lo wetyo ae 
Zuiss’s large Photomicrographic Apparatus (Figs. 44 49) jeu ee ae fel rath 
Moertuer’s (H.) Photomicrographic Apparatus (Fig.68) .. .. .. « Part3 


Berzvu, Havsser & Co.’s Photomicrographic Apparatus (Fig. 69) «6 «+ «+ 
Scumipr AND Harnson’s Apparatus for Photographing the Tarnish Colours 

of ison Surfaces od 00 am ae 
SupputTH, W. X.—“ Artistic enoronier BPE Baiod BS We ae een a artve 
ZELTNOW, ih hhoncaraa aphy and the Chromo-copper Light-filter.. .. 5 


(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. 


Maskenn, W.. M.— Optical gly # Focusing up or down too much in the 
Microscope. «1 > 06 FP Cpaece con wore Gd obs Jeaurlh dl 

MicROScOPICAL OPTICS .. . oo on Jeayah 2 

McManon, C. A.—Wode of using te ‘Quere “Wedge ip asinetting the 
Strength of the Double- ane v Minerals in thin Slices of Rock 


(CHig=t 0) meee sf 
Mercer, A. C.—‘‘ Method ape using nth. ease “Objectives of ena none 

distance in the clinical study of Bacteria’ 30 0 | 
Netson, E. M.—“ Back of the eeu and Condenser” Figs. pile 00 | 
APERTURE TABLE .. ..  «. ; . : 
APERTURE TABLE .. . p02 8 no eat 3 
OsERBECK, A.—Simple Aerversetins for mapa ng the Ma fopertiiora of Optical 

Instruments (Figs. 92-94) dil 700 so 0. IEE 
Axper, E.—On the Eiffect of Illumination by means 1a} eeeeanngiiad Cones of 

Light (Fig. 96) . ie oo oo Jette @ 
Lowne, B. T., EH. M. Nexsoy, & Th, Winte n= Dy fraction Theor y (Fic 

194— -107) lon ages = 
Surru, T. F.— Ultimate Sir rene a He eurostar: Veilie (Fi oe 108 cond 

OD) ree ask sie: Aue tern e's Sele ae 
Leroy, C.J. A. & J. J. Lannea, —_ Deo fesnee of Vision consent on 

Microscopic Observations ..  . Beall Quaes 
Dipenot, L.—Amplifying Power of the Drcnoscone (Figs. 110- TH) Bee tan 

(6) Miscellaneous. 
Oat OF IDs AGS 56 co), co on om 00 dog Soo TE TT 
a Mr. Zentmayer.. Mo MEO tae oS cat | Gg don. os 

Cox, C. F.—Letter of Darwin to Brace Gh his ibe Aten ants 
Govi, G.—“ The Compound Microscope invented by 9) Galileo” so 00 oa JERBNRG 4b 
Tur Presipent, Dr. Hupson, F.R.S. as ee Say oth Breed aterm) 
CELEBRATION of the Third Centenary # the Invention of the Dhecrescers % 
Rogers, W. A.—The late Chas. Fasoldt COME FON ac) Ske oo, fae Jerre @ 
Seoouiasia Whoraxcquicel! SOMA 55 50 60 do 60 oa oo oo a9 


8. Technique. 
(1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes. 


Tamas, CG, lel. Cailieasing JDiatonmsSs co 060 40 %0 06 co 09 oo oo [Pai il 
Jopin, V.—Culture of Unicellular Alge.. .. 

Lyon, H. N.—Jmproved Form of the “ Wright ” Cuiacting Bottle (Fig. 55) Part 9 
Muonnicu, A. J.—Oulture of Fungus of Favus (Achorion Schonleinit).. .. 5, 


PAGE 


129 


129 
133 
133 
278 
450 
452 


453 
698 
700 


134 
283 


286 


287 
288 
292 
454 


700 


721 


806 


812 


817 
818 


135 
135 
454 
O74 
098 
702 
829 
830 


137 
137 
295 
296 


CONTENTS. 


CrLii, A.— Ordinary eer as Media for pr ee Se Micro- 
organisms ae ac ae 

PUTEREN, VAN.—Solid Media prepar ek fre om, Milk... 

Harpy, W. B.— Collecting Salt-water Sponges 

BENOIs?, L.—WNutritive Media for the Cultivation of Beaker 

Moors, N. A.—WMethod of Preparing Nutritive Gelatin .. 

Perri, R. J.—Presence of Nitric Acid in Nutrient Gelatin 

Sma eserving Plate and Tube Cultivations : 

ster Two Modifications of Esmarch’s Roll Cultivation an ae 
3 Flask Cultivations .. beh FOREN Y DEN oOo. MOG Ape MOD 
ce Wafers for Cultivation jen pases 

SorvKa & BANDLER—Development of Pathogenic ue ee on ‘Media prev BUTE y 
exhausted by other Micro-organisms 

Priavut, H.—Prevention of Cultivations from Dry shes Bp 

Barnsby, D.— Cultivation of Bacillus tuberculosis on Potato 

Mavpas, H.—Culture of Infusoria «. 


(2) Preparing Objects. 


Marrinotti, C.—Reaction of Elastic Fibres with Silver Nitrate .. 
Wurman, C. O.—Solvent for the Gelatinous Envelope of as ae 
Mavricr, C.—Wethod of Examining Fragaroides .. rs 
VORTORS, M.—Preparing Fresh-water Bryozoa 

Ler, A. Bottes—Preparing Tetrastemma melanocephalu 
ScHEWIAKOFF—Karyokinesis in Huglypha alveolata oe 

Kuen, L.—Permanent Preparations of Fresh-water Algew .. ..  .. a 


5 3; Mounting Fresh-water Algz.. 
IstVANFFI, G.—Preparation of Fungi .. ..  «. 


Morean, T. H.—Zaperiments with Chitin Solace 00 

Benpa’s (C.) Hardening Method 

JaxkimovitcH, J.—Demonstrating Transverse Sepanonste im Ae -¢ er S “an 
Nerve-cells 

FREEBORN, G. C.—Wacer Tia “Fluid fur Ner sete 

HEIDENHAIN, R.—Preparing small Intestine .. 

GALEAzZzI, R.—Jnvestigation of Nervous Elements of Aearehee Wareaibs i 
Lamellibranchs 

Ress, J. van—Preparing Musca RemwrE ia : 

Camas J. T.—Lazamination of Thysanura and Gailontene 

Harroc, M. M.—Wethod of investigating Cyclops .. 

Coss, N. A.—Lxamination of Nematodes Ae 

Cuccati, J.—Prep ring the Brain of Somomya erythr deepal 

Grassi, B., & W. ScHewianorr— Preparing me entericum 

AMANN, J —Presen ation of Muscines c 

Weir, F. W.—Clearing recent Diatomaceous Mater Ha. 

Morean, T. H.—Chitin Solvents : 

Puatner, G. P.—lnvestigation of Cell-str ities ; 

Betionct, J.—Lxamining the Central Termination of One ies ve in Ware 
brata oC 2c 

Sanpers, A,—Pr sooniiea Nene VOUS Chetan 

VIALLETON, L.—J/nvestigation of Ova of Sepia ies 

Simmons, J. W.—Zaamining Ants for Intestinal Parasitic faa Hee oc 

Vize, J. E.— Mounting Fungi .. SGamb AT AAG notin Sos 

Harz, C. O.—Fiaxing of the Spores of ih -incroonpre eS Botte. mon roo mee 

THANHOFFER, VON L.—WNew Methods for Preparing Nerve-cells 

BiLocHMANN, F.—Simple Method of Freeing Frogs’ Ova 


XXXV 


ating 


O 39 
Part 5 


3. 


5 JeRyD I 


4 


eeatine 


” 


99 


o LEMHHE & 


PAGE 


Part 2 296 


297 
456 
456 
457 
457 
458 
458 
458 
458 


458 
459 
598 
703 


137 
138 
138 
138 
139 
139 | 
139 
140 
141 
141 
142 


297 
298 
298 


299 
299 
299 
300 
300 
30L 
301 
301 
302 
303 
£59 


460 
460 
460 
461 
461 
461 


2 3998 


099 


XXXVI CONTENTS. 


PEREYASLAWZEWA, S.—Jnvestigation of Ova of Caprella feron .. .. .. Part d 
Lecknnsy—Preparing and Mounting Insects in Balsam c 
Campseti, D. H.—Demonstration of Embryo-sac 


Hatstep, B. D.—Demonstration of Pollen-mother-cells and allen ibis 35 
Courter, J. M.— Continuity of Protoplasm in Plants ..  .. «1 45 oe 45 
Boum, A. A.—Preparing Eggs of Petromyzon .. Part 5 


Srarr, T. W.—Preparing and Mounting with Pressure rasan. afte eC, Us 
Transparent Objects 0 SO 
FRIEDLANDER, B.—Preparing Central ior vous aSisian aff Tboarti icus .. 
Hyart, J. D.—Preparing Sections of Spines of Echinus 
Suimer, H.—Eaamining a Shell-bark Hickory Bud 
Suiney, C. W.— White’s Botanical Preparations .. 
GtnrHer, C.—Bacteriological Technique PME see owner us anu tabi) bon 
Sotcrr, B.—Demonstrating Mitosis in Mammalia... .. .. .. «. «. Part 6 
Dosgots, F —Mounting Fish-scales .. 
Brpot, M.—Preserving Marine Animals 
Fpre-DomErGcuE—Lzamination of Protozoa 
ScHEWIAKOFF, W.—ZJnvestigation of Infusoria 
Harerrt, C. W.—Mounting Infusoria Ho 
Brown, A. P.—Wedium for mounting Starches in Ballers x 
Gini, C. Havcuton—Preparing Diatoms 
Fayop, F.—WNew Application of Photography to Baroy 
AstLEy, WricH?.—Production and Preservation of Saccharine Cr cits 


eo ee oe 9 


eo On ee yy 


(3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes. 


Kinesuey. J. S.—MWinot’s Automatic Microtome (Figs. 27 and 28) .. .. Part l 
Born. G.—Plate Modelling Method or Plastic Reconstruction v the Object 
(figs. 29-32) .. : 
Kastscumnno, N.—Cutting Mier snaqetael Objects pa the renee of Plastic 
Reconstruction (Figs. 33 and 34) .. 
Lerrz’s “ Support” Microtome (Fig. 56) .« 
Tayuor’s (I'.) Combination Microtome .. 
FREEBORN, G. C.—Substitute for Corks in Tamediiing Bod Lae whi bt aan 
Pirrsou, G. A.—Jmbedding in Paraffin .. .. Se Gey (beprtie ema thee 
FREEBORN, G. C.—Substitute for Corks in obese oc 35, SMALE cpanel 
Kine’s (J. D.) Microtome (Fig. 95).. Goel wore ow co. ao) | oo LehA Ee 
Paouerti’s (V.) Jmproved Microtome .. Ps 
DarxkscHEwitscn, L.—WMethod for keeping om; a) Ghebane ¢ m or weep oe fag 
Manipulation .. doy Go co ‘cb. co <00 on” a0 > 
Pout, A.—Imbedding in Glenn Soot RT ee, Go) eso ade cone Sta neLS) 
Wess. T. L.—Deatrin Mucilage for Imbedding 
WiLks’ (G.) Zmproved Microtome .. .. 
Hoveu, R. B.— Thin Cections of Timber... 


Be MeO aie cote hes 
etecataek. tab antso 


39 


(4) Staining and Injecting. 


ZscHOKKE, H.—WNew Stains for Microscopical Purposes & Deu oe Lee ee areal 
Upson, H. S.—Carmine Staining of Nervous Tissue 
Nevnauss, R.—Staining Microbes black for Photomicrogr pal y 
Lion, N.—Nucina as a Staining Agent . 

Lewin, A.— Baumgarten’s Triple Suenning Method 
Baransx1, A.—Staining Actinomyces 

Buswip, O.—WMethod for Distinguishing and ieee Ginallone Penbarte 
BeLLaRMInow—Shellac Injection for the Vessels of the Eye.. 
LetEeLiier, A.—Black Injection-mass 


os 


PAGE 
999 
600 
600 
600 
601 
704. 


705 
706 
707 
707 
707 
708 
831 
832 
832 
832 
833 
834 
834 
834 
835 
835 


CONTENTS. XXXVI 


PAGE 

BELLARMINOW— Technique of the “ Corrosion” of Celloidin Preparations .. Part 1 151 

FREEBORN, G. C.—Carminic Acid Stain.. .. . se ee ee Part 2) 305 
5 33 Staining Connective Ti issue with Miahosae (nd Win 

IHOGAUTAD) 69 oo 6 a 00! gp 305 


CampsBELL, D. H.—Clearing iia Seetoine of Varersre Pr grains aby eae atay 806 
SavuvaGEAu, C.—Staining of Vegetable Tissues .. 1. 2 22 0s oe 4g 306 
MELE, G.—Staining Bacilli of Rhinoscleroma 50 4 95 807 
Mayer, P.—Injecting and Preparing the Circulatory Sysiom ae Fishiees ob! 6g 307 
Petri, R. J— Simple Apparatus for ee Fluids for i ceean 


Purposes... GO. | ROOT Rab. noe ucoee Am seas 308 
GispeEs, H.—LZogqwood Staining uintien ee, aeoR aed eae) Miva PAIL) Wh WR Tes ext 3 462 
(Exons, (OO, i Soymiule JEWISH IBM oo on SS op 463 
Joseru, Max— Vital Reaction of Methyl-blue 5000 3 463 
KtKentHaL—Process of Staining Sections simplified by nine the Siang 

Fluids with Turpentine... .. Ape Goons comm one: lary 463 
GRigsBacu, H.—Double, Triple, and Quadrunie Staining Sel Rullaes ace eri aes 464 
Lrven—Staining Muscle with Saffron .. ..  «. id we edom ue cba topues ics 467 
Manein, L.—/odine Reactions of Cellulose .. .. .. «2 s os oo op 467 
Kuane, H.—Staining the Bacillus of Glanders .. .. ay) BS 468 
Pirtion & Roux—WNew Rapid Process for Staining Besiies Sita ne ss 468 
NIcKEL, E.—Staining reagents for Wood vanes co co) co JED GDL 
Kuune, H.—Staining of sections to show Micro-o1 scopes m hits a ¥ 601 
Gaspi, U.—New and rapid Method of staining the capsule of Bocillus 

pneumonia .. . 00 Be Mato “ToG’ doy HOGh Coc, 601 
Scui~tL~—Staining Tubercle Bacilli on 2 Slides [060 os 602 
LorrFier, F.—New Method of ice the Flagella a Cite, of Bae. 0- 

organisms By do oo deems G) Zl 
Kosstnsx1, A.—Staining Tijiaranses | m postin one note Nuclei m » Cte cinoma, 

Adenoma, and Sarcoma... . a 712 
Martin, H.— Rapid method of Sietniag the Tubercle Beans m Pipes “ind 

in tissues . seeks Ry | tA APY Be 9 712 
Scutitz, J., & F. Th Wass ieniaee and Deeeon of Cee a6 rs TaD 
Dineur, E.—Simple and rapid Method of staining Bacillus piberenloes in 

sputum .. . 6.> 00 6000 %p 713 


NorDERLING, K. A. See Method fo Seat the “Theres nits ee $3 713 
Gace, Simon H., & Mrs. 8. P.—Staining and mounting Elements which have 

been treated with Caustic Potash or Nitric Acid .. .. .. 1. 1. 4g 713 
Vines, S. H.—Staining the Walls of Yeast-plant Cells... .. .. . 714 
FLemMine, W.—Solubility of Fat and HAE m pee Oil aie file 

action of Usmic Acid .. .. . , ae Dae Oy Enea an a 714 


SANFELICE, F.—Jodized Hematoxylin ..  . 00 co) ooo LER EBT 
TRENKMANN—Staininy the Flagella of Spirilla Ge Bacilli Male veel cisiecey mess 837 
DocteL, A. S.—Jmpregnating Tissues by means of Me cas Sad Aone ie 838 
Friot—ZIJmpregnation in Black of Tissues ae Mrctemo tas) hase cham Voues Wan ness 838 


(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c. 
Cunnincuam, K. M.—Preparation of Ty ee and arran ee Groups of 


Diatoms en +s a0) a 00 00 ao oo ao «Lee IL Ia 
Martinorri, G.—Xylol- “demas oa Pgh A : s 153 
Pout, A.—Aaiser’s Gelatin for arranging A ichoscopinalp ata pabions m series _,, 153 
James, F. L.—Limpid Copal Solution ..  . Bowe aoe Ler 154 
SADEBECK, R.—Preserving Fluids for Fleshy Bred Shentart Pl wits nent aiee Sas 154 


CZAPSsI, a cae the Thickness of Cover-glasses e Mounted Pre- 
parations..  .. pon Won 9 dos eicGty © 2a0me edokiesda bo) 65. 5 5 a4 


XXXVI CONTENTS. 


SEHLEN, VoN—Fiwing Objects to Cover-glasses .. + +e ee we we Part 2 
G. H. C.—Glycerin Mounts teers RaLi lie Moun. 
PERAGALLO, M.—Preparing and Mounting Diets at us. ee ae arb 
LANGIBAUDIERE, BIALLE DE—WVounting Diatoms.. .. «+1 1 sy 
Suan, 8. G.—Cement Varnishes and Cells .. 1. 10 +4 ee nee ee gs 
Daviau WER ASCo ath CGmgiins sn op 90 oa da a 
Bootu, M. A.—Finishing Slides j sau ook « F 
Brown, A. P.—New Medium for Meo aa Pafllons ‘and Ghenco.. so | oo LERNER 
Matassez, L.—Rest for Slides and for Cultivation Plates .. .. «1 «+ » 


Perri, R. J.—WNitric Acid in Gelatin so ee ese 55 
Vorcr, C. M.—Hints on Mounting Objects in rane Medium go poop LER @ 


Water, C.H.H.—WNew Cell... .. .. ea Ae. Ra oct | tins 
Quinn, E. P.—Mounting in Fluosilicate of Boda fh ighbe' welt setae eae eres 
Brpwet., W. D.—The Bidwell Cabinet . : Bie pao aL Gay ot) 
GALLEMAERTS—Wethod for fixing Serial Shottane a the ‘Slide no co 00 JeeaRh@ 
Dronts10, I.—Apparatus for fixing down Series of Sections (Fig. 113)...» 
Bonpurant, HE. D.—Section Fixing  . Or tges 
Dewitz, J.—Slide-rest for the Manipulation of Ser a Sains si J 1) im es 
Moriann, H.—Mounting “ selected” Diatoms .. hs aie 


Cuapman, EF. 'T.—Carbolic Acid in Mounting .. 


(6) Miscellaneous.., 


Garpinrs (A.) small Steam-generator for Microscopical Technique (Fig. 35) Part 1 
SEHRWALD, E.—Paraffin Oven with simple arrangement for maintaining a 
constant temperature (Hig. 36) .. 

Srern’s (L. v.) Steam Funnel (Fig. 37) . 

DISTINGUISHING Stains of Human Ble en a 

MiqurL, P.—Wethods for ascertaining the number of Apasae we ico ms 

Brreer, H.—WVethod for determining the true Shape of Microscopical Objects  ,, 

PracricaL Utility of the Microscope to Textile Workers .. .. .. « Part2 

Renarp, A.— Value of the Microscopic Analysis of Rocks 

Srenten, VoN—WMicroscopical Lxamination of Urine for Bacteria.. 

Wueeiey, H. M.—Action of Bleaching Agents on Glass 

CO. W. S.—WMicro-organisms of the Bible . dom Theale ace ye ae ea ele 

TAavEL—Oounting the Colonies in an Esmarch Plate .. .. .. .. « Part3 

Hupson, C. T.—WModels of Rotifers 

Harpy, J. D.—Syrup for keeping Rotifers nthe : 

Harcu, F. H.—Rosenbusch’s Petrographical Tables, an aid to the eroseohaneel 
Determination of Rock-forming Minerals .. . co oo Jey D 

Carney, T., & T. Witson—New Method of Deter rotate the iene of 
Micro-organisms in Air (Fig. 70) .. ; eae ube 

OrpMaNN— Value of Bacteriological Examination for Histimating ‘the Purity 
of Drinking-water Hee eee ls 

ARLOING—Apparatus for the Bereroiogea cnet of vane 

Tiemann, F., & A. GARTNER—Chemical and Bacteriological Examination of 
ation . 

Kier, L. —_INapehts of Mer eseanteel Objects fae Cine aeeen 

Heouer, R.—Thallin, a new Reagent for Lignin 

Bragemer, L.—New Micro-chemical cae for Tannin 

Moruier, H.— Tests for Tannin 

CosTANTIN, J.—New Method of reco eee snnill apenas of Tavern D0 

FRAENEEL, C., & A. PFEIFFER—WMicroscopical Atlas of Bacteriology... .. Part 5 

Rockwoop, G. G.—Detecting Alterations in Manuscript hey eee 

Brurens, W.—Apparatus for Isolating Objects (Mig. 115) .. «2 1. Part 6 


eo oo ee ee > 


ee 99 


PAGE 


308 
309 
469 
469 
470 
473, 
474 
602 
602 
603 
714 
716 
716 
716 
839 
839 
840 
840 
840 
84i 


155 


156 
157 
158 
158 
158 
309 
310 
313 
314 
314 
471 
473, 
475 


603 


603 


604 
605 


605 
605 
606 
606 
606 
607 
716 
717 
842 


CONTENTS. XXX1X 


PAGE 

Forstettrer, H.—New Method for the fa case Examination of Air 
(Migs. 116 and 117) —“w—(“w bo. be. O80) na do JER). toh) 
Hovenpen, F'.—Lxamining Thin Films of Wate Ro ee iano, oom ey 843 
Kurz’s (W.) Transparent Microscopical Plates .. .. .. .- « «2 844. 

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SooiseTyY— 

IDyegeinl oer Id, Teiets) G5) eo Sor Go leo ood | Wino) eel “Be oc oo, Jeera AL ay) 
January 9, 1889 Ae as ee Site not tothe Uae ee 3 165 
February 13, 1889 (Gemmell Wigan). ESP UCCA Sn ae asd a Ethis.04 - cls) 
Report of the Council for 1888 TL asc HERING cit Llp ce AL aE 315 
Treasurer’s Account for 1888 we 316 
March 13, 1889 A eres Sy istiSisersteh Heeler aly stots forces aisenh wench ue ete Pr 319 
AS rtllO ISS OMe Cram iin aes ee. Wp ee eco) ete aan, ee cl ia, anton aie 
May 8, 1889 ae. Meche vice stacy tate Ih arcs ice sa ee cian ve L eyateen \| “55 478 
June 't2, 1889 .. .. Te resbenican, cas.) ele parka 608 
November 28, 1888 (Cammenemions) Sa are ects rapbel hey anlaseyul ee 5 718 
May 1, 1889 (Conversazione) PRGA ATE, ie SIME A Oo et | rhymes 719 


October 9, 1889 Tit Aa, Wea ccd eee Nao Mani Uclinenesce SD eenal yn MeaRinOs S40) 
November USS esas che = vlan teehee int dsetalrus: eal eee Veena) lies 848 


INDEX Fei SRN WOO” Roc eo ea Nemes hak OREN isan MERAY em Meme rr kA ane 853 


1 a 


pes Sh 
‘ree 
= 


Royal Microscopical Society. 


enn 


LIST OF FELLOWS. 


De 
i 


Pui 


ORDINARY FELLOWS. 


* Fellows who have compounded for their Annual Subscriptions. 


Elected. 
1888 | Abel, William Jenkinson, B.A. 
| Burford Road, Nottingham. 
1866 *Abercrombie, John, M.D. (Cantab.), F.R.C.P. 
| 23, Upper Wimpole-street, W. 
1885 | Aberdein, Robert, M.D. 
Syracuse, N.Y., U.S.A. 
1872 | Abraham, Phineas, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.C.S.1. 
University Club, Dublin. 
1871 | Ackland, William, L.S.A. 
416, Strand, W.C. 
1886 | Alabone, Edwin William. 
11, Highbury-quadrant, N. 
1884 | Alling, Charles Hdgar. 
5, Rundel Park, Rochester, N.Y., U.S.A. 
1869 |*Ames, George Acland. 
Union Club, Trafalgar-square, W.C. 
1870 | Anthony, John, M.D. (Cantab.), F.R.C.P.L. 
6, Greenfield-crescent, Hdgbaston, Birmingham. 
1871 | Armstrong, Thomas. 
Brookfield, Urmston, Manchester. 
1883 | Atwood, H. F. 
German Insurance Company, Rochester, N.Y., U.S.A. 
1883 | Aylward, Henry Prior. 
15, Cotham-street, Strangeways, Manchester. 


1874 | Badcock, John. 

270, Victoria Park-road, E. 

1888 | Bage, Edward. 

Cranford, Fulton-street, St. Kilda, Melbourne. 
1887 | Bailey, Rev. George. 

The Manse, Finchingfield, Essex. 

1863 | Baker, Charles. 

244, High Holborn, W.C. 

1885 | Baker, Frederick Henry. 

100, Bridge-road, Richmond, Victoria. 
1882 | Bale, William Mountier. 

H.M. Customs, Melbourne, Victoria. 
1882 | Balem, Abraham D. 

Plainfield, New Jersey, U.S.A. 


xliv 


Hlected, 


1882 
1887 
1888 
1885 
1867 
1867 
1881 
1883 
1874 
1889 


1884 
1852 


1883 
1885 
1859 
1875 
1888 
1879 


1879 


1884 
1876 
1884 
1866 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY : 


Ball, Joseph. 
South Hill, Guildford, Surrey. 
Ball, William. 
61, Bourke-street East, Melbourne, Victoria. 
Ballard, Rev. Frank, M.A., F.C.S. 
Crosby, Liverpool. 
Ballard, John Farrow. 
Somerby Villa, Norfolk Park, Maidenhead. 
Bannister, Richard. 
Laboratory, Inland Revenue, Somerset House, W.C. 
*Barker, Samuel, M.D., L.R.C.P. Edin. M.R.C.S., F.R. Met.S., &. 
24, Haton-place, Brighton. 
Barrow, John. 
Beechfield, Folly-lane, Swinton, near Manchester. 
Bastin, EH. 8S. 
3330, South-park Avenue, Chicago, Iil., U.S.A. 
Bate, George Paddock, M.D., F.R.C.8.E. 
2, Northumberland Houses, King Edward’s-rd., Hackney, E. 


Bateman, Rev. B. Jones. 
Sheldon Rectory, near Birmingham, and Pentre Mawr, 
Abergele, Denbighshire. 
Bates, William Henry, M.D. 
116, Schermerhorn-street, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.A. 
Beale, Lionel Smith, M.B. (Lond.), F.R.C.P., F.R.S., Professor 
of the Principles and Practice of Medicine in King’s College, 
London, and Physician to the Hospital, TREAsuRER. 
61, Grosvenor-street, W. 
Beaumont, Walter Ibbetson. 
10, Burlington-street, Bath. 
*Beck, Conrad. 
68, Cornhill, E.C. 
*Beck, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 
68, Cornhill, E.C. 
Beeby, William Hadden, A.L.S. 
14, Ridinghouse-street, W. 
Bell, Alfred Dillon. ni 
Shag Valley Station, Waihemo, Otago, New Zealand. 
*Bell, F. Jeffrey, M.A., F.Z.S., Professor of Comparative 
Anatomy and Zoology in King’s College, London, SECRETARY. 
5, Radnor-place, Gloucester-square, W. 
*Bennett, Alfred William, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., Lecturer on 
Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital. 
6, Park Village Hast, Regent’s-park, N.W. 
Bennett, John. 
58, Tudor-street, Manchester-road, Bradford. 
Bentley, Charles Simpson. 
Hazelville-villa, Sunnyside-road, Hornsey-rise, N. 
Bernays, Augustus Charles, M.A., M.D. 
1102, Chambers-street, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.A. 
*Berney, John. 
61, North-end, Croydon. 


Elected. 


1884 
1871 


1862 
1881 
1879 
1887 
1848 


1889 
1878 
1862 
1882 
1858 
1880 
1884 
1865 


1886 
1862 
1866 
1866 
1879 
1887 
1884 
1879 
1886 


ORDINARY FELLOWS. xlv 


*Bettany, George Thomas, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 
33, Oakhurst-grove, East Dulwich-road, S.E. 
Bevington, William, Alfred. 
Avondale, Coleraine-road, Westcombe Park, Blackheath, 
S.E. 
*Bidlake, John Purdue, B.A., F.C.P., F.C.S. 
339, Hssew-road, Islington, N. 
Blackburn, William. 
The Woodlands, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, near Manchester. 
Blackham. George E., M.D. 
Buffalo-street, Dunkirk, N.Y., U.S.A. 
Blagg, John Ward. 
14, Portsea-place, Connaught-square, W. 
Blenkins, George Hliezer, F.R.C.S., F.R.H.S.; Dep. Insp.- 
Gen., late Surgeon-Major, Grenadier Guards. 
9, Warwick-square, South Belgravia, S.W. 
Booth, Mary Ann (Miss). 
Longmeadow, Mass., U.S.A. 
Borland, John, F.L.S. 
Etruria, Kilmarnock, N.B. 
Borradaile, Charles. 
3, Norfolk-terrace, Brighton. 
Borrer, William, jun., F'.G.S. 
Pakyns Manor, Hurstpierpoint, Sussex. 
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. 
Oxford-road, Redhill. 
Bostock, Edwin, F.L.S. 
The Radfords, Stone, Staffordshire. 
Botterill, Charles. 
52, Fern Grove, Liverpool. 
Pe Right Hon. Edward Pleydell, M.A. (Cantab.), 
Res 
Manor House, Market Lavington, Wilts. 
Bowdler, Arthur Clegg. 
20, Bank-terrace, Blackburn. 
Bowman, Frederick Hungerford, D.Sc., F.LS., F.R.S.A,, Ke. 
Halifax, Yorkshire. 
Braidwood, Peter Murray, M.D., L.R.C.S.H. 
Minto House, Shirehampton, Bristol. 
Braithwaite, Robert, M.D., M.R.C.S., F.L.S. 
The Ferns, 303, Clapham-road, S.W. 
*Bramwell, The Right Hon. Lord. 
Edenbridge, Kent. 
Brayley, Edward B. Lyttleton. 
Rockdeane, Hughenden-road, Clifton, Bristol. 
Breeds, Thomas. 
11, Albany-road, St. Leonards-on-Sea. 
Bremner, Alexander Martin. 
3, North King’s Bench Walk, Temple, H.C. 
Brevoort, Henry Leffert. 
206, Broadway, New York, U.S.A. 


xlvi 


Elected. 


1876 
1878 
1887 
1887 
1864 
1863 
1866 
1885 
1882 
1868 
1883 
1884 
| 1876 
1885 
1881 
1860 


1879 
1870 
1874 
1879 
1881 
1887 
1880 
1883 
1867 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY : 


Brindley, William. 
Pergola House, Denmark-hill, S.E. 
*Brook, George, jun., F.L.S. 
University, Hdinburgh. 
Brooke, Lieut.-Col. Charles Kennedy, F.R.G.S., F'.R.Met.Soc. 
66, Kimbolton-road, Bedford. 
Browne, Edward Thomas. 
141, Uxbridge-road, W. 
*Browne, Rev. Robert Henry Nisbet, M.A. (Oxon), F.R.B.S. 
120, Inverness-terrace, Bayswater, W. 
Browning, John, F.R.A.S., F. R.Met.S. 
63, Strand, W.C. 
Brushfield, Thomas Nadauld, M.D., &ce. 
The Cliffe, Budleigh Salterton, Devonshire. 
Budgett, James L. 
Stoke Park, Guildford, Surrey. 
Bulloch, Walter Hutchison. 
99, West Monroe-street, Chicago, Ill., U.S.A. 
*Burn, William Barnett, M.D. (Lond.) M.R.C.S. 
Beechwood, Balham-road, Upper Tooting, S.W. 
Burrill, Thomas Jonathan, A.M., Ph.D. 
Champaign, Ill., U.S.A. 
Bussell, Joseph William. 
Glenelg, Adelaide, South Australia. 
*Butler, Philip John, F.Z.S. 
Lansdowne Villa, Barnstaple. 
Butterworth, John. 
21, Blakelock-street, Shaw, near Oldham. 
Bygott, Robert. 
Sandbach, Cheshire. 
*Bywater, Witham Matthew. 
5, Hanover-square, W. 


Campbell, Francis Maule, F.L.8. 
Rose-hill, Hoddesdon. 
*Capel, Charles Cecil. 
Windham Club, 13, St. James’s-square, S.W. 
*Carpenter, Alfred, M.D., J.P. 
High-street, Croydon. 
Carpenter, Henry Sanders. 
Beckington House, Weighton-road, Anerley, S.E. 
Carr, Rey. Edmund, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.Met.S. 
Holbrooke Hall, near Derby. 
Carr, Herbert Wildon. 
34, Craven-sireet, W.C. 
*Carruthers, William, F.R.S., F.L.8. 
British Museum (Nat. Hist.), South Kensington, S. W. 
Carter, George W., M.A., F.LS. 
Lime Grove, Enottingley, Y orkshire. 
Cartwright, Samuel, F.R.C.S. 


32, Old Baring street, W. 


Elected. 


1888 
1885 
1888 
1861 


1888 
1889 
1879 
1889 
1888 
1881 
1886 
1885 
1868 
1885 
1883 


1880 
1880 | 


1883 
1867 
1881 


1879 
1886 


ORDINARY FELLOWS. xlvi: 


Case, Henry Williams. 
Oxford-street, Cotham, Bristol. 
Cash, John Theodore, M.D. 
25, Dee-street, Aberdeen, N.B. 
Cash, William, F.L.S., F.G.S. 
38, Elinfield Terrace, Halifax, Yorkshire. 
*Cattley, Edward Abbs. 
Care of Messrs. Ropes & Co., 5, Jeffrey’s-square, St. Mary 
Axe, H.C. 
Cave, Thomas William, M.R.C.V.S. 
Broad-street, Nottingham. 
Chamberlin, Humphrey B. 
Denver, Colorado, U.S.A. 
*Chandler, George. 
24, Moorgate-street, H.C. 
Chapman, Walter Ingram. 
5, Hollywood-villas, Melrose-road, Wandsworth, S.W. 
Cheshire, Frank Richard, F.L.S. 
Rosemont, Tweedy-road, Bromley, Kent. 
Christian, Walter Thomas. — 
Clarence House, Loughton, Essex. 
Christie, John. 
Clevedon Lodge, St. Margaret's, Twickenham. 
Churchill, Lord Edward Spencer. 
Castle Mead, Windsor. - 
Ciaccio, Guiseppe. 
Bologna, Italy. 
Clark, Joseph. 
Hind Hayes, Street, Somerset. 
Cleland, William Lennox, M.B. 
Parkside Lunatic Asylum, Adelaide, S.A. 
Close, James Alexander, M.B., L.R.C.P.E. 
P.O. Box 37, Summerfield, St. Clair Co., Il., U.S.A. 
Clowes, William. 
13, Charing Cross, S.W. 
Codling, Rev. William E. 
9, Blenheim-square, Leeds. 
*Codrington, Oliver, M.D., M.R.C.S. (Army Medical Depart.). 
85, Upper Richmond-road, Putney, S.W. 
Coffin, Walter Harris, F.L.S., F.C.S., &e. 
94, Cornwall Gardens, South Kensington, S.W., and 
Junior Athenzeewm Club, Piccadilly, W. 
Cole, Arthur Charles. 
29, Thurleigh-road, Wandsworth-common, S.W. 
Collie, Alexander, M.D. 
The Grove, Homerton, E. 
Collins, Charles. 
157, Great Portland-street, W. 
Collins, Walter Hepworth, F.C.S. 
14, Bradford-buildings, Mawdsley-street, Bolton-le-Moors. 
Collins, William P. 
| 157, Great Portland-street, W. 


xlvili 


Elected. 


1889 
1880 
1887 


1884 
1867 


1888 
1875 
1881 
1881 


1874 
1875 
1860 
1885 


1871 
1878 
1886 
1856 
1888 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY: 


Conway, Frank. 
Home View, Arterberry-road, Wimbledon. 
Cooke, John Henry. 
Winsford, Cheshire. 
Copeman, Sydney Arthur Monckton, M.A., M.B. (Cantab.). 
Demonstrator of Physiology, St. Thomas's Hospital, London. 
134, York-road, Lambeth, S.W. 
Coppin, George. 
14, Selwyn Villas, Munster-road, Fulham, S.W. 

*Coppock, Charles, F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.S. 

36, Davies-street, Berkeley-square, W., and 109, Grosvenor- 

road, Highbury New-park, N. 

Corke, Henry Charles. 

178, High-street, Southampton. 
Cowan, Thomas William. 

Compton's Lea, Horsham, Sussex. 
Cox, Charles F. 

100, Hast Seventeenth-street, New York, U.S.A. 
Cox, Jacob D., M.A., LL.D. 

College Building, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A. 
Craig, Thomas. 

259, Water-street, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.A. 
Creese, Edward James Edgell. 

Innellan, Cirencester. 

*Crisp, Catherine (Mrs.). 

5, Lansdowne-road, Notting-hill, W. 

*Crisp, Frank, LL.B., B.A., V.P. & Treas. L.S., Hon. Member 
of the American Society of Microscopists, of the Manchester 
Microscopical Society, of the New York Microscopical So- 
ciety, of the Troy Scientific Association, Corresponding Member 
of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, &c., SECRETARY. 

5, Lansdowne-road, Notting-hill, W. 
Crisp, John Shalders. 

Ashville, Lewin-road, Streatham, S.W. 
Croft, Lieut. Richard Benyon, R.N., F.L.S. 

Farnham Hall, Ware, Herts. 

*Crofton, Edward, M.A. (Oxon.). 

45, West Cromwell-road, Earl’s Court-road, S.W. 
Crookshank, Edgar March, M.B. (Lond.), M.R.C.8., Professor 

of Bacteriology, King’s College, London. 

24, Manchester-square, W. 
Croydon, Charles. 

Pato Point, Wilcove, Torpoint, Cornwall. 
Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. 

Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester. 
Curnock, Rev. Nehemiah. 

Dalkeith, Glengall-road, Woodford Green, Essex. 
Curties, Thomas. 

244, High Holborn, W.C. 
Curtis, Lester, M.D. 

35, University place, Chicago, Iil., U.S.A. 


Elected. 


1887 
1887 
1871 


1889 
1884 
1884 
1866 
1862 
1880 
1878 
1865 
1887 


1881 
1887 


1854. 


1878 
1886 
1883 
1880 


1885 
1888 


1886 
1879 


ORDINARY FELLOWS. xlix 


Dadswell, Edward. 

21, Montrell-road, Streatham-hill, S.W. 

Dale, Henry Frank. 

2, Savile-row, W. 

Dallinger, Rev. W. H., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.8., Hon. Member of 
the American Society of Microscopists, of the Manchester 
Microscopical Society, of the Liverpool Lit. Phil. Soc., &e. 

Ingleside, Newstead-road, Lee, S.E. 
Dalzell, Anthony. é 
St. Thomas's Hospital, S.W. 

Damon, William HE. 

Care of Tiffany & Co., Union-square, New York, U.S.A. 

Davies, Arthur Ellson, Ph.D., F.LS., F.C.S. 

* 10, Brunstone-road, Portobello, N.B. 

Davis, Charles. 

29, Gloucester-place, Portman-square, W. 
*Davis, George. — 
45, Stanley-gardens, Belsize-park, N.W. 

Davis, George Edward, F.1.C., F.C.S. 

South Cliff House, Higher Broughton, Manchester. 

Davis, John. 

41, Stirling-road, Birmingham. 

Davison, Thomas. 

248, Bath-street, Glasgow. 

Dawson, George Mercer, D.Sc, F.G.S. Assistant Director, 
Geological Survey of Canada. 

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. 

Dawson, William. 
24, Abbeygate-street, Bury St. Hdmunds. 

Day, George. 
137, Whitechapel-road, H. 

*Dayman, Charles Orchard, M.A. (Cantab.), F.R.A.S. 

Merrie Meade, Millbrook, Southampton. 

Deby, Julian, C.E. 
31, Belsize-avenue, Hampstead, N.W. 

Dennis, Samuel William, M.D. 

809, Market-street, San Francisco, California, U.S.A. 

Detmers, Henry Johnson, M.D. 

1350, Dennison-avenue, Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A. 

Devron, Gustavus, M.D. 

P.O., Box 1230, and 631, Royal-street, New Orleans, La., 
U.S.A. 
De Witt, William G. 
88, Nassau-street, New York, U.S.A. 
Dimsdale, John, F.Z.S. 
50, Cornhill, E.C.; and 4, Palace Gardens Terrace, 
Kensington, W.. 
Disney, Alfred Norman, M.A., B.Se. 
Islington High Schools, Barnsbury-street, N. 
Douglas, John Andrew. 
23, Bentley-street, Bradford. 


1889. d 


] 


Elected. 
1881 


1879 
1874 
1879 


1883 
1868 
1884 
1886 


1858 


1886 
1868 
1878 
18538 
1862 
1860 
1888 
1887 
1859 
1886 


1885 
1883 
1882 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY : 


Dowdeswell, George Francis, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 
Windham Club, 13, St. James’s-square, S. W. 

Dreyfus, Ludwig. 

44, Frankfurter-strasse, Wiesbaden. 

Drysdale, John James, M.D. 

36a, Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

Duncan, Peter Martin, M.B. (Lond.), F.RS., F.G.8., Pro- 
fessor of Geology in King’s College, London, Acad. Nat. Sct. 
Philad. Corr. Mem. 

6, Grosvenor-road, Gunnersbury, W. 

Dunkerley, John Whiteley, L.D.S. 

262, Oxford-road, Manchester. 
Durham, Arthur Edward, F.R.C.S., F.L.S., &e. 
82, Brook-street, Grosvenor-square, W. 

Durkee, Richard P. Hart. 

10, Ashland Block, Chicago, Ill., U.S.A. 

Durrand, Alexander. 

Care of Messrs. Whitelow & Co., Flinders-street Hast, 
Melbourne, Victoria. 
Dyster, Frederick Daniel, M.D., F.L.S. 
Tenby. 


Eastman, Lewis M., A.M., M.D. 
349, Lexington-street, Baltimore, Md., U.S.A. 
Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. 
The Grange, Carleton, near Skipton. 
Edmunds, James, M.D. 
8, Grafton-street, Piccadilly, W. 
Elliott, William Timbrell. 
113, Adelaide-road, N.W. 
Ellis, Septimus. 
Homewood, Ulundi-road, Westcombe Park, S.E. 
*Elphinstone, Howard Warburton, M.A. (Cantab.), F.L.S. 
2, Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C. 
Epps, Hahnemann. 
95, Upper Tulse-hill, Brixton, S.W. 
Evans, Grifith, M.D. 
208, Burrage-road, Plumstead, Kent. 
Eve, Richard Watford, M.B., F.R.A.S. 
101, Lewisham High-road, SE. 
Ewell, Marshall D., LL.D., M.D. 
South Evanston, Cook Co., Ill., U.S.A 


Farquharson, Marian 8. (Mrs.). 
Haughton, Alford, N.B. 
*Faweett, John Edward. 
Low Royd, Apperley-bridge, near Leeds. 
Fell, George E., M.D. 


72, Niagara-street, Buffalo, New York, U.S.A. 


Elected. 


1883 
1862 
1860 
1879 


1866 
1866 
1886 
1880 
1884 
1872 
1879 
1886 
1885 
1883 
1884 


1889 
1887 
1863 
1889 
1866 
1862 


1879 


1858 


ORDINARY FELLOWS. hi 


Fellows, Charles Sumner. 

330, Temple-court, Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S.A. 
*Finzel, Conrad William. 

The Downs, near Bideford, Devon. 
*Firmin, Philip Smith. 

Ladbroke, Mortlake-road, Kew. 

Fischer, Carl F., M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., Soc. Zool.-Bot. Vindob. 
Socius. Sydney, N.S. Wales. Care of Gerich & Co., 7, 
Mincing-lane, E.C. 

Fitch, Frederick, F.R.G.S. 

Hadleigh-house, Highbury New-park, N. 

Fitch, Frederick George. 

“¢ Pines,” Windmill-hill, Enfield. 

Fletcher, Charles. 

11, Canfield-gardens, West Hampstead, N.W. 

Forrest, Herbert Edward. 

Abbeyville, Cherry Orchards, Shrewsbury. 

Fournet, Aristide. 

18, Bentinck-street, Manchester-square, W. 

Fowke, Francis. 

8, College-terrace, South Hampstead, N.W. 
*Frampton, Lieut.-Col. Cyril, R.M. 
Porchester, Hants. 

Fraser, Francis John, M.A. 

Inverness Lodge, Roehampton. 

Freeman-Underwood, Charles Henry, M.D. 

5, Meadow-street, Bombay. 

Fuller, Charles Gordon, M.D. 

38, Central Music Hall, Chicago, Ill., U.S.A. 

Fuller, Henry Weld. 

P.O., Box 2955, New York, U.S.A. 


Gadd, William, C.E. 
50, Richmond-grove West, Manchester. 
Gadd, William Lawrence, F.C.S. 
Wath-on-Dearne, via Rotherham. 
Garnham, John. 
Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, S.E. 
Gasking, Rev. Samuel, B.A., F.G.S. 
8, Hawthorne-terrace, Liscard, Cheshire. 
*Gay, Frederick William. 
113, High Holborn, W.C. 
*George, Edward. 
70, Old Broad-street, City, H.C., and Vernon House, 
Westwood Park, Forest-hill, S.E. 
Gibbes, Heneage, M.D., Professor of Pathology, University of 
Michigan. 
Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A. 
*Gibbons, William Sydney. 
Messrs. G. Lewis & Son, Melbourne, Australia, care of 
Messrs. Hearon, Squire ¢ Co., 5, Coleman-street, H.C. 


Gi), 9 


hi 


Elected. 


1885 
1872 
1885 
1889 
1856 


1885 
1877 
1889 
1874 
1880 
1885 
1884 
1867 
1883 
1866 
1861 
1880 
1870 
1887 
1883 
1855 
1879 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY : 


Gibbs, John George, M.R.C.8. 
5, Riggindale-road, Streatham, S.W. 
Gibson, Joseph F. 
22, Norfolk-road, St. John’s Wood, N.W. 
Giles, George M., M.B. (Lond.), F.R.C.S. 
Marine Survey of India, Poona. 
Gill, Charles Haughton, F.C.S. 
Berkeley-lodge, Staines. 
*Glaisher, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Pres. Phot. Soc., Ord. 
Bras. Rosae Eq. 
1, Dartmouth-place, Blackheath, S.E. 
Godden, Wilfred, F.L.S. 
Ridgfield, Wimbledon. 
*Godman, Frederick Du Cane, F.L.S. 
10, Chandos-street, Cavendish-square, W. 
Goodfellow, John. 
9, Laxton-terrace, Sedqwick-road, Leyton, H. 
Goodinge, James Wallinger. 
119, High Holborn, W.C. 
Goodwin, Thomas. 
12, Southwark-street, Borough, S.H. 
Gordon, Rev. John More, M.A. 
St. John’s, Redhill, Surrey. 
Gorman, Rev. Thomas Murray, M.A. 
Invermore, Woodstock-road, Oxford. 
Gowland, Peter Yeames, F'.R.C.8., Surgeon to St. Mark’s Hospital. 
34, Finsbury-square, H.C. 
Gravill, Edward Day. 
Marquis-villa, Marquis-road, Stroud-green, N. 
*Gray, William John, M.D. 
32, Devonshire-street, Portland-place, W. 
Green, Edward Baker, F.2.H.S8. 
Burdett Works, Limehouse, E. 
Greenfield, William 8., M.D., F.R.C.P. 
7, Heriot-row, Edinburgh. 
Greenish, Thomas. 
20, New-street, Dorset-square, W. 
Grenfell, John Granville, B.A., F.G.S. 
55, West Cromwell-road, W. 
Griffith, Ezra H. 
Post-office, Fairport, N.Y., U.S.A. 
Grove, Edmund. 
Norlington, Preston, Brighton. 
Groves, J. William, F.L.S., Profess.r of Botany, and Curator 
of Anatomical Museum at King’s College. 
90, Holland-road, Kensington, W. 
Guardia, Julio. 
Helston-house, Rozel-road, Clapham, S.W. 
Guimaraens, A. de Souza. 
52, Lowden-road, Herne-hill, S.H. 
Gunn, W. D. 
Fern Cottage, Maple-road, Anerley, S.E. 


Elected. 


1877 
1877 
1888 
1888 
1885 
1875 
1882 
1845 
1874 
1882 
1865 
1868 
1867 
1884 
1883 
1880 
1881 
1885 
1867 
1874 
1879 
1853 
1880 
1889 
1881 


ORDINARY FELLOWS. hii 


Habirshaw, Frederick. 

260, West Fifty-seventh-street, New York, U.S.A. 
Habirshaw, John, M.D. 

260, West Fifty-seventh-street, New York, U.S.A. 
Halkyard, Edward. 

The Firs, Knutsford, Cheshire. 
Hall, Rev. Henry Armstrong. 

Spring-grove Vicarage, near Isleworth. 
Hallam, Samuel Robinson. 

22, High-street, Burton-on-Trent. 
Hamilton, John James. 

7, Barkston-gardens, Harl’s Court, S.W. 


/*Hanaman, Charles Edward. 


108, First-street, Troy, N.Y., U.S.A. 
Handford, George Charlton. 
24, West End-lane, Kilburn, N.W. 
Hanks, Henry. 
619, Montgomery-street, San Francisco, California, U.S.A. 
Hardy, James Daniel. 
73, Clarence-road, Clapton, EL. 
Harkness, William. 
Laboratory, Inland Revenue, Somerset House, W.C. 
Harrop, Edward Davy. 
Launceston, Tasmania. 
*Hartree, William, Associate Inst. C.H., F.Z.S. 
Havering House, Dartmouth Point, Lewisham, S.E. 
Harwood, Robert. 
Vale Bank, Bolton. 
Haselwood, James Edmund. 
3, Lennox-place, Brighton. 
Havers, John Cory, F.L.S. 
Joyce-grove, Nettlebed, Henley-on-Thames. 
Healey, George H. 
Brantfield, Bowness, Windermere. 
*Hebb, Richard Grainger, M.A., M.D., M.R.CS., . 
9, Suffolk-street, Pall Mall, S.W. 
Helm, Henry James. 
Laboratory, Inland Revenue, Somerset House, W.C. 
Hembry, Frederick William. 
Sussex Lodge, Station-road, Sidcup, Kent. 
Hepburn, John Frankland. 
Rannock View, Seven Sisters’-road, Stamford-hill, N. 
*Hepburn, John Gotch, LL.B. (Lond.), F.C.S. 
Dartford, Kent. 
Hicks, J. Sibley, L.R.C.P., F.L.8. 
2, Hrskin-street, Liverpool. 
Higley, Walter Keir, Ph.D. 
40, Dearborn-street, Chicago, Lil., U.S.A. 
*Hill, Joseph Alfred. 
Greystone Lodge, Leamington. 


+ Corresponding Fellow. 


liv ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY: 


Elected. 
1852 | Hilton, James. 
60, Montague-square, W. 
1889 | Hoagland, Cornelius Nevins, M.D. 
410, Clinton-avenue, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.A. 
1878 | Hobson, Amos Herbert. 
5, Westminster Chambers, Victoria-street, S.W. 
1885 | Hodges, Edward F., M.D. 
2, West New York-street, Indianapolis, Ind., U.S.A. 
1851 | Hogg, Jabez, M.R.C.S. 
1, Bedford-square, W.C. 
1887 | Holland, Charles Barclay. 
St. Stephen's Club, S.W. 
1881 | Hood, John. 
; 50, Dallfield-walk, Dundee. 
1856 | Hopgood, James. 
Clapham-common, S.W. 
1867 |*Hopkinson, John, F.L.8., F.G.S. 
95, New Bond-street, W.,and The Grange, St. Albans, Herts. 
1889 | Horn, Rev. James. 
16, Louis-street, Chapeltown-road, Leeds. 
1874 | Horne, Robert. 
Union-terrace, Cheetham-hill, Manchester. 
1880 | Horsley, Charles, C.E. 
174, Highbury New-park, N. 
1882 | Houston, David, F.L.S. 
3, Clarence-villas, Clarence-road, Wood Green, N. 
1876 |*Hovenden, Charles William. 
93, City-road, E.C. 
1873 |*Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S. 
Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road, Dulwich, S.E. 
1887 | Howe, Lucien, M.A., M.D. 
183, Delaware-avenue, Buffalo, N.Y., U.S.A. 
1889 | Huber, Gotthelf Carl, M.D. 
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., U.S.A. 
1872 | Hudson, Charles Thomas, M.A., LL.D. (Cantab.), F.R.S., 
PRESIDENT. 
6, Royal York-crescent, Clifton, Bristol. 
1864 | Hudson, William. 
15, Stockwell-street, Greenwich, S_E. 
1853 | Huggins, William, D.C.L. (Oxon.), LL.D. (Cantab. and Edin.), 
FE.RS., F.R.A.S., Math. D. Ludg. Bat. Ord. Imp. Bras. 
Rosae, Com. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.) Acad. Lyne. Romae Soc. 
Reg. Sci. Gott. Mem. Corr. et Socc. Reg. Sci. Hafn., Physiogr. 
Lund., Reg. Bove. Marob., Reg. Dubl. et Lit. Phil. Mane. 
Soc. Honor. 
Upper Tulse-Hill, S.W. 
1867 | Humphrys, John James Hamilton. 
5, New-Square, Lincoln’s-Inn, W.C. 
1887 | Hunt, Daniel De Vere, L.R.C.P. Ed., L.R.C.S8.1. 
Westbourne Crescent, Canton, near Cardiff. 
1883 | Hunt, George, F.R.A.S. 
Hopefield, Alleyn-park, West Dulwich, S.E. 


Elected. 


1885 
1881 


1867 
1867 
1867 
1888 


1875 
1888 
1868 


1887 
1887 
1886 
1859 
1881 
1881 
1872 
1884 
1881 
1888 


1886 


1888 
1877 
1875 
1875 


ORDINARY FELLOWS. ly 


Hutton, Rev. Edward Ardron. 
Mottram, Manchester. 

Huzzey, Reginald Lee. 
136, Spa-road, Bermondsey, S.E. 


Ibbetson, George Augustus, F.R.C.S., F.G.S. 
21, Thicket-road, Norwood, S.E. 
*Ince, Joseph, F.L.S., G.S., C.S., &e. 
11, St. Stephen’s-avenue, Shepherd’s Bush, W. 
Ingpen, John Edmund. 
7, The Hill, Putney, S.W. 
Inskipp, Frank. 
6, Lawn-terrace, Blackheath, S.E. 


Jackson, Charles Loxton, F.L.S. 
Mil Fold, Sharples, Bolton. 
James, Professor George Wharton, F.R.A.S. 
Oleander, Fresno County, California, U.S.A. 
Jayaker, Atmaram Sadashwa, L.R.C.P. (Lond.). 
Muscat, Arabia, care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co. 
55, Parliament-street, S.W. 
Jeaffreson, Christopher Samuel, F.R.C.S.Ed., M.R.C.S. Eng. 
8, Savile Row, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
Jelly, Eliza Catherine (Miss). 
Hatchlands, Redhill, Surrey. 
Jerman, James. 
33, Paul-street, Exeter. 
*Jeula, Henry, F.R.G.S., F.AS.L., We. 
16, Manor Park, Lee, S.E. 
*Jobling, Thomas Edgar. 
Croft Villa, Waterloo, Blyth. 
Jocelyn, Hon. William Nassau. 
The British Legation, Darmstadt. 
*Johnson, David. 
52, Fitzjohn’s-avenue, South Hampstead, N.W. 
Johnson, Hosmar A., M.D. 
4, Sixteenth-street, Chicago, Ill., U.S.A. 
Johnson, Michael, L.D.S. 
9, York-villas, Lorne-street, N., Chester. 
Johnson, Thomas W., M.D. 
Danville, Indiana, U.S.A. 
Johnson, William. 
188, Tottenham Court Road, W.' 
Jolliffe, Charles Henry. 
The Brewery, St. Helens, Lancashire. 
Jones, George Horatio. 
57, Great Russell-street, Bloomsbury, W.C. 
Jones, Henry William, F.C.S8. 
17, White-street, Coventry. 
Jones, Joseph Birdsall. 
St. George's Chambers, 10, St. George’s-cresceut, Liverpool. 


lvi 


Elected. 


1863 
1889 


1885 
1885 
1883 
1860 
1873 
1867 
1851 
1867 
1887 
1879 
1888 
1885 
1878 


1851 
1885 
1874 
1861 
1865 


1887 


1887 
1864 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY: 


Jordan, John. 
6, Notting Hill-square, W. 
Julien, Alexis Anastay, Ph.D. 
School of Mines, Columbia College, N.Y., U.S.A. 


Karop, George C., M.R.C.S. 

198, Holland Road, Kensington, W. 
Kay, James Alexander, M.D. 

Pretoria, South African Republic. 
Kellicott, David Simons, B.Sc. 

State University, Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A. 
Kelly, George. 

9, Sutherland-gardens, Kilburn-road, N.W. 
Kemp, Robert. 

60, Windsor-road, Upper Holloway, N. 
Kerr, Walter. 

31, Fulham Park-gardens, S.W. 
Kershaw, William Wayland, M.D. 

10, Claremont-crescent, Surbiton, Surrey. 
King, Edwin Holborow Green, M.R.C.S., L.D.8. 

Netley Court, Southampton. 
King, Rev. Thomas 8. 

9, Grange-road, Sheffield. 
Kirby, Arthur Raymond. 

lla, New-square, Lincoln’s-Inn, W.C. 
Kirk, Thomas William. 

Museum, Wellington, New Zealand. 
Kirkby, William, F.L:8. 

51, Ackers-street, Chorlion-on-Medlock, Manchester. 
Kyngdon, Francis Boughton. 

Sydney, N.S. Wales. 

Care of A. B. Cobb, Esq., Margate-bank, Murgaie. 


Ladds, John. 
4, Craven-terrace, Uxbridge-road, Ealing, W. 
Lambert, Thomas J. 
Inglewood, Oakhill, Sevenoaks. 
Laneaster, William James, F.R.A.S., &e. 
The Hollies, Handsworth Wood, near Birmingham. 
Lang, Major Freder ick Henry. 
St. Katherine's, Parkstone, Dorset. 
Lankester, Edwin Ray, M.A. (Oxon. ), E.R.S.; Prof. of Zenllean Y, 
and Comparative Anatomy, in University College, London. 
42, Half Moon-street, W. 
Latham, Vida Annette (Miss). 
Dental Department, Michigan University, Ann Arbor, 
Michigan, U.S.A. 
Law, Frederick Thomas. 
954, Kentish Town-road, N.W. 
Lawson, Marmaduke Alexander, M.A., F.L.8.; Director of 
Government Cinchona Plantations, Ootécamund, Bombay. 


Elected. 


1855 
1886 


1889 
1889 
1880 
1866 
1888 
1885 
1880 
1882 
1888 
1866 
1854 


1881 


1887 
1879 


1888 
1867 
1861 
1888 
1884 
1884 
1848 


ORDINARY FELLOWS. lvu 


*Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 
6, Sussex-place, Regent’s-park, N.W. 
Lee, George James, F.R.Met.Soc. 
Central Jones-street, Kimberley, Griuqaland West, Cape 
Colony, Cape of Good Hope. 
Lee, William Arthur. 
38, Strand, Calcutta. 
Leigh, Abraham, M.D. 
Hiawatha, Kansas, U.S.A. 
Letchford, Robert. 
Prospect House, Woodford. 
*Lewis, Richard Thomas. 
28, Mount Park-crescent, Ealing, W. 
*Lewis, William Jerauld, M.A., M.D. 
30, Gillett-street, Hartford, Conn., U.S.A. 
Line, J. Edward, D.D.S. 
26, EH. Main-street, Rochester, N.Y., U.S.A. 
Lingard, Alfred. 
St. Ermin’s Mansions, Westminster, S.W. 
Livingston, Clermont. 
22, Great St. Helen’s, H.C. 
Loveland, Bradford Churchill, M.D. 
Clifton Springs, Ontario Co., N.Y., U.S.A. 
Lovibond, Joseph William. 
St. Anne-street, Salisbury. 
*Lubbock, Sir John, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Trust. 
Brit. Mus., ée. 
High Elms, Bromley, Kent. 
Luck, Harry Courtnay, F.R.G.S. 
Brisbane, Queensland, care of Mr. H. Luck, 70, Stamford- 
street, S.E. 
Lynd, William. 
21, Bloomsbury-street, W.C. 
Lyon, Thomas Glover, M.D. 
39, King-street, E.C. 


Macer, Robert. 

23, Wingmore-road, Loughborough Junction, S.W. 
Mclntire, Samuel John. 

14, Hettley-road, Uxbridge-road, Shepherd’s Bush, W. 
Mackrell, John. 

High Trees, Clapham-common, S.W. 
MacMunn, Charles Alexander, M.A., M.D. 

Oakleigh, Wolverhampton. 
McecMurrich, J. Playfair, M.A. 

Clark University, Worcester, Mass., U.S.A. 
Mainland, George Edward. 

Glenthorpe, Woodside-lane, North Finchley, N. 
Makins, George Hogarth, M.R.C.S., F.C.S. 

Danesfield, Upper Lattimore-road, St. Albans. 


lyi 


Elected. 


1884 
1886 
1886 
1859 


1889 
1867 
1887 
1885 
1883 
1888 
1873 
1889 
1879 
1886 
1878 
1884 
1889 
1857 
1867 
1888 


1886 
1882 
1856 
1884 
1885 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY 


Malley, Abraham Cowley, B.A., M.B. 
Munslow, Craven Arms, Salop. 
Mallory, Maitland L., M.D. 
69, N. Fitzhugh-street, Rochester, New York, U.S A. 
Manbré, Alexandre. 
15, Alexandra-drive, Liverpool. 
*Manchester, William Drogo, Duke of, F.Z.S. 
1, Great Stanhope-street, Mayfair, W., and Kimbolton 
Castle, St. Neots, Hunts. 
Mann, Rev. Albert, jun., M.A. 
Newark, N.J., U.S.A. 
*Manning, William. 
21, Redcliffe-gardens, South Kensington, S.W. 
Mantle, Alfred, M.D. 
Cromarty House, Stanley, Durham. 
Manton, Walter Porter, M.D. 
83, Lafayette-ovenue, Detroit, Mich., U.S.A. 
Marriott, Edward Dean. 
90, St. Ann’s Well-road, Nottingham. 
Martin, Charles James, B.Se. 
Demonstrator of Physiology, King’s College, W.C. 
Martin, Nicholas Henry, F.1L.S. 
29, Mosley-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
Martin, William Edward Reseigh 
8, Lincoln’s Inn, Birmingham. 
Maskell, William Miles, J.P. 
Museum, Wellington, New Zealand. 
Mason, Alfred H., I'.C.S. 
46, Jewin-street, H.C. 
*Mason, Philip Brookes, F.L.8 
Burton-on-Trent. 
Massee, George. 
41, Gloucester-road, Kew. 
Mather, Enock, M.A., M.D. 
57, Station-road, Masborough, Rotherham, Yorkshire — 
May, John William, Consul-General of the Netherlands. 
Arundel House, Percy-cross, Fulham-road, S.W. 
Mayall, John, jun., F'.Z.8. 
224, Regent-street, W. 
Mayhew, Edward William Alfred Augustus, F.L.S., F.C.S. 
Ivy Lodge, Fremantle, West Australia ; care of T. Farries, 
Hsq., 12, Coleman-street, H.C. 
Mayne, James. 
203, Oauford-street, Sydney, New South Wales. 
Mead, Walter Haughton 
65, Wall-sireet, New York, U.S.A. 
Meade, Hon. Robert Henry, F.R.G.S. 
Foreign Office, and 24, Upper Brook-street, W. 
Meek, Benju. Owen, M.R.C.V.S. Lond., F.L.8., F.R.Met.Soe. 
Post-office, Sydney. 


Meek, Rev. George, B.A. (Cantab.). 


12, Hornby-street, Heywood, Lancashire. 


Elected. 


1885 
1879 
1883 
1884 


1877 
1886 
1884 
1880 
1883 
1851 


1883 
1880 


1878 
1876 


1880 
1884 
1888 


1879 
1880 
1887 
1880 
1881 
1884 


ORDINARY FELLOWS. lix 


Melhuish, Jobn, L.R.C.P. (Lond.), M.R.C.S., L.S.A. 
5, Crossfield Road, Belsize Park, N.W. 
*Mercer, A. Clifford, M.D. 
40, Montgomery-street, Syracuse, N.Y., U.S.A. 
Mercer, Frederick Wentworth, M.D. 
2600, Caluwmet-avenue, Chicago, Ill., U.S.A. 
Mestayer, Richard Liron, A.S.C.E. 
Symington Villa, Parramatta-road, Ashfield, near Sydney, 
‘N.S. Wales. 
Michael, Albert Davidson. F.L.S. 
Cadogan Mansions, Sloane-square, Chelsea, S.W. 
Miles, Manly, M.D. 
Lansing, Michigan, U.S.A. 
Miller, Rev. Alexander Vincent, B.D. 
St. Charles College, St. Charles-square, Notting-hill, W. 
Millett, Fortescue William. 
The Parsonage, Marazion, Cornwall. 
Moffat, William Tweeddale. 
Romsey, Victoria. 
Moreland, Richard, jun., M.I.C.E. 
3, Old-street, St. Luke's, E.C., and 4, The Quadrant, 
Highbury, N. 
Morgan, Joseph B. 
Stand House, Childwall, Liverpool. 
Morris, Galloway C. 
Hast Tulpohocken-street, Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa., 
U.S.A. 
Morris, John, F.Z.S. 
13, Park-street, W. 
Morris, William, M.D. 
Care of The Commercial Banking Company of Sydney, 


Sydney, New South Wales. 
Morris, William, jun. 
5, Vicarage-gardens, Kensington, W. 
Mullins, George Lane, M.A., M.D. 
209, Macquarie-street, Sydney, New South Wales. 
Mummery, John Howard. 
10, Cavendish-place, W. 


Nachet, Alfred. 
17, Rue St. Séverin, Paris. 
*Nesbitt, Henry, F.R.G.S. 
12, Victoria-villas, Kilburn, N.W. 
Nevins, Reginald Theophilus Graham. 
Pembroke Lodge, Hildenborough, Tonbridge. 
Newman, Thomas Prichard. 
54, Hatton-garden, H.C. 
Newton, Charles Read. 
Kempside, Kursiong, Darjeeling, India. 
Nixon, Philip Charles. 
Oportom Portugal. 


Ix 


Elected. 


1849 


1855 
1882 
1885 
1886 
1889 


1867 
1887 
1883 
1878 
1889 
1879 
1876 
1840 


1865 


1879 


1882 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY : 


Noble, John, F.R.H.S. 


50, Westbourne-terrace, Hyde-park, W., and Park-place, 
Henley-on-Thames. 


*Noble, Captain William, F.R.A.S. 


Forest Lodge, Maresfield, Susse«. 


Noble, Wilson. 


43, Warrior-square, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea. 


Norman, George, M.R.C.S.E. 


12, Brock ate reet, Bath. 


Norris, inert 


Fern Acre, Urmston, Manchester. 


Nuttall, George Henry Falkiner, M.D. 


University, Gottingen, Germany, and San Francisco, 


California, U.S.A. 


*Oakley, John Jeffryes. 


24, Sussex-gardens, Hyde-park, W. 


Ochsner, A. J., Ph.D., M.D. 


300, S. Wood-street, Chicago, Ill., U.S.A. 


Offord, John Milton. 


15, Loudoun-road, St. John’s-wood, N.W. 


O’Hara, Lieut.-Col. Richard. 


West Lodge, Galway. 


Ollard, John Alexander. 


Barnesfield, Stone, Greenhithe, Kent. 


Ord, William Miller, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.L.S. 


37, Upper Brook-street, Grosvenor-square, W. 


Osler, William, M.D. 


University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.. U.S.A. 


Owen, Sir Richard, K.C.B., D.C.L., M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., 


F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S., Coll. Reg. Chir. Hib. et Soc. Reg. Edin. 
Soc. Honor., Ord. Boruss. “ Pour le Merite” Eq., Inst. Fr. 
(Acad. Sci.) Par. Adsoc. Hutr. Acadd. Imp. Sci. Vindob 
Petrop., et Soc. Imp. Sc. Nat. Hist. Mosq., Acadd. Req. 
Sci. Berol., Taurin., Matrit., Holm., Monach, Neapol., 
Bruczell, Donon, Inst. Reg. Se. Agasialudl. Sawa, Reg. Se. 
Hafn., Upsal., Acad. Amer. Sc. Bost. Socius, Soc. Philomath, 
Paris, Corresp., Geor., Florent., Soc. Sc. Harlem., Trajectin, 
Phys. et Hist. Nat. Genev. Acadd. Lync. Rome, Patav., 
Panorm., Gioen. Nat. Scrutat. Berol., Instit. Wetter, Philad., 
Nov.-Ebor., Bost. Acad. Reg. Med. Paris., Soc. Imp. et Reg. 
Med. Vindob. Adsoc. Extr. 
Sheen Lodge, Richmond Park, Mortlake, S.W. 


*Owen, Major Samuel Richard John, F.LS8., Assoc. of King’s 


Coll. Lond. 
Ventnor, Isle of Wight. 


Oxley, Frederick. 


8, Crosby-square, E.C. 


Palmer, Henry. 


East Howle, Ferry-hill, Durham. 


ORDINARY FELLOWS. lx 
Elected. 


1881 | Parker, Robert John. 

Launceston, Tasmania. 

1879 |*Parker, Thomas Jeffrey, B.Sc. 

University of Otago, New Zealand. 

1861 | Parkinson, William Coulson. 

18, Carleton-road, Tufnell-park, Holloway, N. 
1884 | Parsons, Frederick Anthony. 

90, Leadenhall-street, H.C. 

1862 | Paton, George Lauchland. 

40, Wilkinson-street, Clapham-road, S.W. 
1883 | Peach, Robert. 

North Park-road, Harrogate. 

1882 | Peal, Charles Nathaniel, F.L.S. 

Fernhurst, Mattock-lane, Ealing, W. 

1888 | Pearce, George. 

Brabourne Haigh, Highwood-hill, N.W. 

1866 |*Peek, Sir Henry William, Bart. 

Wimbledon House, S.W. 

1884 |*Peek, Honourable Mrs. 

Rousdon, Lyme Regis. 

1888 | Penman, William A., M.I.C.E. 

5, St. Andrew-square, Edinburgh. 

1852 |*Perigal, Henry, F.R.A.S. 

9, North-crescent, Bedford-square, W.O. 

1858 |*Peters, William, F.R.A.S., F.R.B.S., F.Z.S. 

The Bungalow, Horsham, Sussex. 

1886 | Phillips, Reginald W., B.A. (Cantab.), B.Sc. (Lond.). 
University College of North Wales, Bangor. 
1882 | Pickels, William Edward. 

Box 128, G.P.O., Adelaide, S.A. 

1866 |*Pickerseill, William Cunliffe, F.R.H.S. 

77, Marina, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea. 

1861 | Pidgeon, Daniel. 

Walsingham House, Piccadilly, W. 

1881 | Pilley, John James. 

Old College, Dulwich, S.E. 

1855 | Pillischer, Moritz. 

88, New Bond-street, W. 

1887 | Pinkney, Robert. 

Green Park Chambers, 90, Piccadilly, W. 
1864 | Pittock, George Mayris, M.B. (Lond.). 

23, Cecil-square, Margate. 

1883 | Plimmer, Henry George, M.R.C.S. (Eng.), L.S.A. (Lond.). 
Wunderbau, 1, West-hill, Upper Norwood, S.E. 
1879 | Plomer, George Daniel. 

48, Springfield-road, St. John’s-wood, N.W. 
1889 | Plyer, Charles Whiting 

22, West 60th-street, New York, U.S.A. 

1879 | Pochin, Percival Gerard. 

Care of Messrs. J. Brown and Oo., Atlas Works, Sheffield. 
1882 | Pocklington, Christopher. : 
22, Cunliffe-villas, Manningham, Bradford. 


lx 
Elected. | 
1875 | 
1867 
1884 
1880 
1881 
1888 
1885 
1867 
1885 
1887 


1840 


1879 


1879 
1868 


1874 
1886 
1868 
1889 
1888 


1884 
1864 
1886 
1861 
1881 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY : 


Pocklington, Henry. 
41, Virginia-road, Mount Preston, Leeds. 
Potter, George. 
66, Grove-road, Upper Holloway, N. 
Potts, John. 
Thorn Tree House, Macclesfield. 
Powell, Thomas Hugh. 
18, Doughty-street, Mecklenburg-square, W.C. 
Power, E. Strickland, R.N. 
99, Finborough-road, West Brompton, S.W. 
Pratt, William Henry. 
27, Regent-street, Nottingham. 
Pray, Thomas, jun. 
P.O. Bow, 2728, Boston, Mass., U.S.A. 
*Prescott, Sir George Rendlesham, Bart., F.Z.S. 
TIsenhurst, Hawkhurst. 
Preston, Henry Berthon. 
54, Leaham-gardens, Kensington, W. 
Pringle, Andrew. 
Cromwell House, Bexley Heath, Kent. 
Pritchard, Rev. Charles, M.A. (Cantab.), F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 
F.G.S., F.C.P.S., Savilian Professor of Astronomy, Oxford. 
9, Keble-terrace, Oxford. 
Pritchard, Urban, M.D., F.R.C.8., Professor of Aural Surgery 
im King’s College, London. 
3, George-street, Hanover-square, W. 
*Puleston, Sir John Henry, M.P. 
7a, Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S.W. 
Puttick, Alfred James. 
26, King-street, Covent-garden, W.C. 


Radford, William, M.D. 
Sidmouth. 
Rae, James, M.D. 
Drummond-place, Stirling, N.B. 
*Ramsden, Hildebrand, M.A. (Cantab.), F.L.S. 
26, Upper Bedford-place, Russell-square, W.C 
Ratcliffe, Joseph Riley, M.B. 
Highfield, Manchester-road, Burnley. 
Raymond, F’. 
Army Veterinary Department, Woolwich, S.L. 
Redding, Thomas B., M.A., Ph.D. 
Newcastle, Henry Co., Indiana, U.S.A. 
Reeves, Walter Waters. 
32, Geneva-road, Brixton, S.W. 
Remington, Joseph Price, Ph.G. 
1832, Pine-street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A 
*Richards, Edward. 
1, Bessborough-gardens, Southsea. 
Rideout, William. 
Seymour-road, Astley Bridge, near Bolton. 


Elected. 


1881 
1888 
1871 
1857 
1882 


ORDINARY FELLOWS. lxili 


Robinson, Joseph B. 
Devonshire House, Mossley, Lancashire. 
Robinson, Tom, M.D. ~ 
9, Prince’s-street, Cavendish-square, W. 
Rogers, John. 
4, Tennyson-street, Nottingham. 
*Rogerson, John. 
Post Office Box, 214, Barrie, Ontario, Canada. 
Rookledge, John. 
Union Bank, Easingwold, Yorkshire. 
*Roper, Freeman Clark Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. 
Palgrave House, Eastbourne. 
Rosling, Edward. 
Melbourne, near Chelmsford. 
Ross, James Alexander, M.D. 
Stangrove, Park-road, Bromley, Kent. 
'*Rosseter, Thomas B. 
Fleur-de-lis, Canterbury. 
Rousselet, Charles F. 
308, Regent-street, W. 
Rowe, Thomas Smith, M.D. 
1, Cecil-street, Margate. 
Rowley, Rev. Charles Henry, Ph.D. 
Westford, Mass., U.S.A. 
Ruffle, George William. 
29, Nelson-square, S.E. 
Rutherford, John, J.P. 
6, Wellington-street, St. John’s, Blackburn, Lancashire. 
*Rylands, Thomas Glazebrook, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. 
Highfields, Thelwall, near Warrington. 


‘*Sanders, Alfred, M.R.C.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. 
Care of S. F. Langham, Esq., 10, Bartlett's Buildings, 
Holborn Circus, E.C. 
Saunders, William, F.L.S. 
188, Dundas-street, London, Ontario, Canada. 
Sawyer, George David. 
55, Buckingham-place, Brighton. 
Schultze, Edwin A. 
P.O. Box 56, New York, U.S.A. 
Schulze, Adolf, F.R.S.E. 
2, Doune-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow. 


| Scott, Dukinfield Henry, F.L.S. 


The Laurels, Bickley, Kent. 
Shadbolt, George. 

Beecheroft, Camden-park, Chislehurst, Kent. 
Sharpe, George Young. 

16, Lansdowne-road, Notting-hill, W. 

*Shelley, Lieut., A.D.G., R.E. 

Rockcliffe Hotel, Simla, N.W.P., India. 
Shenstone, James Chapman. 

13, High-street, Colchester. 


xiv 
Elected. 


1867 
1889 


1871 
1881 
1859 
1866 
1885 
1862 
1864 
1881 
1866 
1889 
1874 
1888 
1889 
1866 


1887 
1864 
1877 
1886 
1854 
1882 
1882 
1861 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY: 


Shepheard, Thomas. 
Kingsley Lodge, Chester. 
Shore, Thomas William, M.D., B.Sc. (Lond.), L.R.C.P., 
M.R.C.S., F.L.S. 
13, Hill-side, Crouch-hill, W. 
Sigsworth, John Cretney. 
20, Tedworth-square, Chelsea, S.W. 
Sillem, Louis Augustus. 
Laurie-park, Sydenham, SE. 
*Silver, Lieut.-Colonel Hugh Adams, Assoc.Inst.C.H. 
Abbey Lodge, Chislehurst, Kent. 
Simpson, Rey. David, M.A. (Cantab.). 
Tour de Bellevue, Antibes, Alps Maritimes, France. 
Skelton, John L. 
376, West Monroe-street, Chicago, Ill., U.S.A. 
Slack, Henry James, F.G.S. 
Ashdown-cotiage, Forest-row, Sussex. 
*Smith, Basil Wood, F.R.A.S 
Branch-hill Lodge, Hampstead-heath, N.W. 
Smith, George John. 
73, Farringdon-street, H.C. 


*Smith, Joseph Travers, F.R.B.S. 


40, Hertford-street, Mayfair, W. 
Smith, Percy William Bassett, L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., R.N. 
20, Sisters-avenue, Lavender-hill, S.W. 
Smith, Rowland Dunn, M.R.C.8. (Hdin.). 
1, Clapton-square, E. 
Smith, Thomas Field. 
12, Campdale-road, Tufnell-park, N. 
Smith, Rev. Thomas Northmore Hart, M.A. 
Epsom College, Surrey. 

*Sorby, Henry Clifton, LL.D., F.RS., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.8. 
Soc. Min. Petrop., Soc. Holland, Harl. Socius. Acad. Sci. Nat. 
Philad. et Lyc. Hist. Nat. Nov. Ebor. Corr. Mem. 

Broomfield, Sheffield. 
Southall, Rev. George. 
Osborne House, Dovercourt, Hssex. 

*Spawforth, Joseph. 

Sandall-cottage, Hornsey-rise, N. 
Spencer, James. 
121, Lewisham-road, Lewisham, S.H. 
Spiers, Rev. William, M.A., F.G.S. 
16, Harley-street, Hull. 
Spurrell, Flaxman, L.R.C.P. (Hdin.), F.R.CS., &e. 
Belvedere, S.EH. 
Squance, Thomas Coke, M.B. 
4, Beauclerc-terrace, Sunderland, Durham. 
Stearn, Charles H. 
Selwood House, Mayow-road, Forest-hill, S.E. 
Stephenson, John Ware, F.R.A.S. 
186, Clapham-road, S.W. 


Elected. 


1882 
1860 
1867 


1884 
1867 
1887 
1871 
1879 
1884 
1868 
1888 
1880 
1889 
1880 


1881 
1884 
1888 
1880 
1870 
1887 
1884 
1880 
1883 
1884 


ORDINARY FELLOWS. Ixy 


Sternberg, George Miller, M.D. 

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., U.S.A. 
Steward, James Henry. 

406, Strand, W.C. 
Stewart, Prof. Charles, M.R.C.S., F.L.S. 

Conservator of the Hunterian Museum, Royal College of 

Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.O. 

Stodder, James Chesterman. 

5, West-broadway, Bangor, Maine, U.S.A. 
Stoker, George Naylor. 

Laboratory, Inland Revenue Office, Somerset House, W.C. 
Stratford, William, M.D. 

245, W. fifty-second-street, New York, U.S.A. 
Stuart, John. 

112, New Bond-street, W. 
Stubbins, John, F.G.S. 

Inglebank, Headingley, Leeds. 
Sudduth, W. Xavier, M.D. ; 

1725, Arch-street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A. 

*Suffolk, William Thomas. 

148, Beulah-hill, Upper Norwood, S.E. 
Sutcliffe, Frederick William. 

226, Rochdale-road, Oldham, Lancashire. 
Swift, James. 

81, Tottenham Court-road, W.C. 
Sykes, Mark Langdale. 

98, New Lane, Winton, Manchester. 
Symons, William Henry, F.C.S. 

130, Fellowes-road, South Hampstead, N.W. 


Tacey, William G., L.R.C.P. 

18, North-parade, Bradford. 
Tarn, William. 

94, Lancaster-gate, Hyde Park, W. 
Tate, Alexander Norman. 

9, Hackin’s Hey, Liverpool, 
Teasdale, Washington, F.R.A.S. 

Rosehurst, Headingley, Leeds. 

*Tebbitt, Walter. 

Marlborough-house, Mount Sion, Tunbridge Wells. 
Tebbs, Henry Virtue. 

1, St. John’s-gardens, Notting Hill, W. 
Terry, John. 

8, Hopton-road, Streatham, S.W. 
Thacker, John A., M.D. 

121, Seventh-street, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A. 
Thomas, Benjamin Walden. 

27, Portland Block, Chicago, Iil., U.S.A. 
Thomas, Henry, M.D. 

12, Nevill-crescent, Llandudno. 


1889. e 


Ixvi ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY: 
Elected. 
1886 | Thomas, John Davies, M.D., F.R.C.S. 
North-terrace, Adelaide, South Australia ; care of H. K. 
Lewis, 186, Gower-street, W.C. 
1858 |*Thompson, Frederick, F.A.8.L. 
South-parade, Wakefield. 
1889 | Thompson, Henry George, M.D., J.P., F.R.C.S.1. 
86, Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon. 
1880 | Thompson, Isaac Cooke, F.L.S. 
Woodstock, Waverley-road, Liverpool. 
1888 | Thompson, John. 
48, Woodside-terrace, Rishton-lane, Bolton, Lancashire. 
1883 | Thompson, John Tatham, M.B. 
23, Charles-street, Cardiff. 
1888 | Thomson, Frederick Whilley. 
11, Park-road, Halifax, Yorkshire. 
1885 | *Thomson, J. Arthur, M.A. 
30, Royal Circus, Edinburgh. 
1881 | Thomson, William. 
Royal Institution, Manchester. 
1889 | Thorpe, Vidal Gunson, M.R.C.S., R.N. 
H.MLS. “ Belleisle,’ Kingstown, Dublin. 
1888 | Thurston, Edgar. 
Superintendent, Government Central Museum, Madras, 
India. 
1883 | Townend, Walter. 
Lightcliffe, near Halifax, Yorkshire. 
1871 |*Townsend, John Sumsion. 
Stamford Lodge, St. John’s, Sevenoaks. 
1883 | Trinks, C. Henrich. 
40, Ainger-road, N.W. 
1852 | Truman, Edwin, M.R.C.S.; Dentist to Her Majesty's Household. 
23, Old Burlington-street, W. 
1877 | Tulk, John Augustus, M.A. (Cantab.), M.R.C.P. (Lond.). 
Cowley House, Chertsey. 
1889 | Turner, Clifford Winslow, M.R.C.S., F.L.S. 
4, Cowper-street, New Leeds, Leeds, Yorkshire. 
1879 | Turner, William Barwell, F.C.S. 
55, Reginald-terrace, Chapeltown-road, Leeds. 
1884 | Turton, George F. 
Claremont-road, Sherwood-rise, Nottingham. 
1882 | Tuttle, Albert Henry, M.Sc. 
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va., U.S.A. 
1888 | Tyas, Walter Henry. 
Oakbank, Blackley, Manchester. 
1863 | Tyer, Edward, C.H., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Assoc.Inst.C.E. 
Ashwin-street, Dalston, E. 
1858 |*Tyler, Charles, F.L.S., F.G.8. 
Elberton, New West Hud, Hampstead, N.W. 
1862 |*Tyler, George, F.R.G.S. 
317, Holloway-road, Holloway, N. 
1863 |*Tyler, Sir James, F.LS., F.Z.S., F.R.B., and R.H.S. 
Pine House, Holloway, N. 


Elected. 


1862 
1886 


1885 
1887 


1882 
1860 
1840 
1888 
1880 
1879 
1863 
1879 


1881 


1884 
1863 
1885 
1882 
1884 
1867 
1885 
1881 
1869 


ORDINARY FELLOWS ' | xvii 


*Tyler, Rev. William, D.D. 
247, Hackney-road, E. 
Tyson, Thomas Balinforth. 
21, Montague-street, Worthing. 


Underwood, Arthur Swayne, L.D.S., M.R.C.S. 
11, Bedford-square, W.C. 

Underwood, Edward F., M.D. 
Fort, Bombay, India. 


Van Brunt, Cornelius. 

319, Hast 57th-street, New York, U.S.A. 
*Vanner, William: 

Camden-wood, Chislehurst, Kent. 
*Van Voorst, John, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 

1, Paternoster-row, E.C. 

Veitch, James Herbert. 

Royal Exotic Nurseries, King’s-road, Chelsea, S:W. 

Vernon, John. 

16, Park-road, Forest Hill, S.E. 

Vezey, John Jewell. 

55, Lewisham High-road, S.E. 
*Vicary, William, F.G.S., F.R.Met.S. 
The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter. 

Vize, Rev. John Edward, M.A.; Hon. Mem. Woolhope Naitu- 
ralists’ Field Club, Hon. Corr. Mem. Cryptogamic Society of 
Scotland. 

Forden Vicarage, Welshpool. 

Vorce, Charles Marvin. - 

5, Rouse Block, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A. 


Wales, William. 

53, Nassau-street, New York, U.S.A. 
Walker, Frederick. 

Heywood, Tenby. 
Walker, William C. 

Utica, New York, U.S.A. 
Wall, John L. 

338, Siath-avenue, New York, U.S.A. 
Walmsley, William H. 

1016, Chestnut-street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A. 
Walters, James Hopkins, M.R.C.S. 

43, Castle-street, Reading. 
Walton, Frederic Robert Brooke. 

1, Claremont Bank, Shrewsbury. 
Ward, Edward. 

249, Oxford-street, Manchester. 
Ward, Frederic Henry, M.R.C.S. 

Springfield, near Tooting, S.W. 


Ixviti ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY : 


Elected. 
1862 | Ward, John Whitely. 


South Royde, Halifax. 
1881 | Ward, R. H., M.D. 
53, Fourth-street, Troy, N.Y., U.S.A. 
1883 |*Warner, Rev. Arthur George. 
1, Sumner-place, South Kensington, S.W. 
1885 | Warner, Edmond. 
Southend, Eltham, S.E. 
1882 | Warnock, James. 
93, Reade-street, New York, U.S.A. 
1883 | Waters, Arthur William, F.L.S. 
Royal Microscopical Society, 20, Hanover-square, W. 
1879 | Watson, Thomas E. 
St. Mary's Lodge, Goldtops, Newport, Mon. 
1881 | Watson, Thomas P. 
3138, High Holborn, W.C. 
1878 | Watts, Rev. G. H., M.A. 
Kensworth Vicarage, Dunstable. 
1872 | Webb, Henry Richard, J.P. 
Merivale, St. Albans, Christchurch, New Zealand. 
1889 | Weed, Clarence Moore, M.Sc. 
Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A. 
1887 | Weightman, Alfred Ernest, Surg. R.N. 
H.MLS. “ Garnet,” care of Postmaster, Aden. 
1886 | Weir, Walter, M.B., F.R.C.P. (Hd.). 
Gatestone, Upper Norwood, S.H. 
1887 | Weld-Blundell, Herbert. 
Wellington Club, 1, Grosvenor-place, S.W. 
1887 | Wellington, Richard Henslowe. 
38, Fellowes-road, South Hampstead, N.W. 
1861 | Wells, John Robinson, M.D., F.R.CS. 
4 Pierrepoint Road, Springfield Park, Acton. 
1886 | West, Charles. 
7, Park-row, Blackheath, S.H. 
1884 | West, Charles E., M.D., LL.D. 
138, Montague-street, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.A. 
1884 | West, James. 
4, Henrietia-villas, Winkfield-road, N. 
1852 | West, Tuffen, F.L.S. 
Frensham, near Farnham, Surrey. 
1885 |*Western, Edward Young. 
27, Craven-hill-gardens, W. 
1885 | Western, George. 
2, Lime-villas, West Hill-road, Wandsworth, S.W. 
1861 | Westwood, William Henry. 
Oatlands-park, Weybridge. 
1885 | Wethered, Edward, F.G.S. 
5, Berkeley-place, Cheltenham. 
1882 | Whaite, Frederick A. 
Fine Art Galleries, Bridge-street, Manchester. 
1868 | Wheldon, John. 
58, Great Queen-street, W.C. 


Elected, 


1889 
1850 
1867 
1886 
1886 
1889 
1867 
1866 
1885 
1883 
1879 
1880 
1866 
1886 
1879 
1884 
1879 
1881 
1884 
1857 
1857 
1889 
1861 
1888 
1881 
1842 


ORDINARY FELLOWS. lxix 


Whelpley, Henry Milton. 
2647, Olive-street, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.A. 
White, Charles Frederick, F.L.S. 
3, Amherst-road, Ealing, W. 
White, Thomas Charters, M.R.C.S., L.D.S. 
26, Belgrave-road, S. W. 
White, Wallace S. 
128, W. Main-street, Kalamazoo, Michigan, U.S.A. 
*Whitehead, Ralph Radclitte. 
Borden-wood, Milland, Liphook, Hants. 
Whitelegge, Thomas. 
Australian Museum, Sydney, New South Wales. 
Whitelock, Rev. Benjamin, M.A. (Cantab.). 
Lealands, Groombridge, Sussex (near Tunbridge Wells). 
*Whitling, Henry Townsend, M.R.C.S. 
53, High-street, Croydon. 
Whitney, James EH. 
Rochester, N.Y., U.S.A. 
Whitson, James, M.D. 
18, Somerset-place, Glasgow. 
Whittell, Horatio Thomas, M.D., M.R.C.S. 
Board of Health, Adelaide, South Australia. 
*Whitworth, Benjamin. 
11, Holland-park, W. 
Wight, James Ford. 
Grazeley, Gipsy-hill, Upper Norwood, S.E. 
Wilkins, Thomas Smith. 
Uttoxeter. 


| Williams, George. 


135, Coningham-road, Shephesd’s-bush, W. 
Williams, John Michael. 

156, Chatham-street, Liverpool. 
Willmott, Collis. 

Triangle, Hackney, E. 


| Wills, George Sampson Valentine, F.L.8. 


Arundel Lodge, 112, Tulse-hill, S.W. 


| Wilson, Anne (Mrs.). 


8, Portland-terrace, Regent’s-park, N.W. 
Wilson, Richard, M.R.1. 
69, Cornhill, E.C. 


** Wiltshire, Rev. Thomas, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 


25, Granville-park, Lewisham, S.E. 
Winder, Bartlett Wrangham, F.CS. 

5, Wharncliffe-road, Sheffield. 
Winstone, Benjamin. 

53, Russell-square, W.C. 
Wolff, Arthur J., M.D. 

71, Capitol-avenne, Hartford, Conn., U.S.A. 
Wood, Benjamin William. 

53, Gloucester-street, Sheffield. 
Wood, Frederick, F.R.C.S. 

12, Lewis-crescent, Kemp Town, Brighton. 


lxx 


Elected. 


1879 
1850 
1878 
1880 
1880 
1889 
1882 
1888 


1882 
1881 
1885 


1859 
1887 


1889 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY : 


Woodall, Robert. 
6, Copthall-court, H.C. 
*Woodhouse, Alfred James, L.D.S. 
1, Hanover-square, W. 
Woods, George Arthur, L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., &e. 
57, Houghton-street, Southport. 
*Woodward, Bernard B., F.G.S. 
23, Batowm-gardens, West Kensington-park, W. 
*Woodward, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S. 
129, Beaufort-street, Chelsea, S.W. 
Wright, Charles Henry. 
Royal Herbarium, Kew. 
Wright, John. 
The Lodge, Whitton, Suffolk. 


Wright, George Henry. 
Care of Messrs. Lyre & Spottiswoode, Great New-street, 
E.C. 


Wright, R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. 
The University, Toronto, Canada. 
Wright, Theodore R. 
17, Clifford’s-inn, EC. 
Wythe, Joseph H., M.D. 
965, West-street, Oakland, California, U.S.A. 


Yool, Henry, F.Z.8. 
Oakfield, Weybridge. 
Young, Walter Plomer. 
Hertford-house, Albert-road, Battersea-park, S.W. 


Zeiss, Roderich, M.D. 
Jena, Germany. 


Elected. 


1878 
1879 
1888 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1876 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1882 
1879 
1879 
1885 
1879 
1888 
1879 
1870 
1883 
1876 
1879 
1885 


HONORARY FELLOWS. 


HONORARY FELLOWS. 


Abbe, E. 
Jena. 
Agassiz, A. 
Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. 
Allman, G. J. 
Parkstone. 
Archer, W. 
Dublin. 
Balbiani, H. G. 
Paris. 
Beneden, P. J. van. 
Louvain. 
Biitschli, O. 
Heidelberg. 
Castracane, Conte Ab. F. 
Rome. 
Cienkowski, L. 
Kharkoff. 
Cleve, P. T. 
Upsala. 
Cohn, F. 
Breslau. 
Cornu, M. 
Paris. 
Dippel, L. 
Darmstadt. 
Dodel-Port, A. 
Zurich. 
Engelmann, T. W. 
Utrecht. 
Flogel, J. H. L. 
Bramstedt, Holsten. 
Frey, H. 
Zitrich. 
Govi, G. 
Naples. 
Grunow, A. 
Berndorff, near Vienna. 
Hankey, J. 
New York, U.S.A. 
Heurck, H. van. 
Antwerp. 
Kitton, F. 
London. 
Kolliker, A. v. 
Wirzburg. 
Lacaze-Duthiers, H. de. 
Paris. 


lxx1 


Ixxti 
Elected. 
1879 
1888 
1871 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1884 
1879 
1889 
1879 
1877 
1886 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1888 
1872 
1879 
1879 
1879 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL 


Leidy, J. 
Philadelphia, U.S.A. 
Lovén, S. : 
Stockholm. 
Maddox, R. L. 
Southampton. 
Metschnikoff, E. 
Odessa. 
Nageli, C. 
Munich. 
Nylander, W. 

Paris. 
Oudemans, C. A. J. A. 
Amsterdam. 
Parker, W. K. 

London. 
Pasteur, L. 
Paris. 
Ralfs, J. 
Penzance. 
Ranvier, L. 
ee ants: 
Renard, A. 
Louvain. 


Rogers, W. A. 


Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. 


Sars, G. O. 
Christiania. 
Schultze, F. E. 
Graz. 
Schwendener, 8S. 
Berlin. 
Smith, H. L. 
Geneva, N.Y., U.S.A. 
Steenstrup, J. J. 8. 
Copenhagen. 
Strasburger, HE. 
Jena. 
Thiimen, F. von. 
Vienna. 
Tieghem, Ph. van. 
Paris. 
Virchow, R. 
Berlin. 
Wallich, G. C. 
London. 
Warming, EH. 
Copenhagen. 
Weismann, A. 
Freiburg 1. B. 
Zittel, K. A. 
Munich. 


SOCIETY : 


EX-OFFICIO FELLOWS. lxxili 


SOCIETIES WHOSE PRESIDENTS FOR THE TIME BEING ARE 


EX-OFFICIO FELLOWS. 


UNITED KINGDOM. 


London— 


Linnean Society. 

Quekett Microscopical Club. 

Royal Society. 

South London Microscopical and Natural History Club. 


Provinces— 


Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society. 

Bolton Microscopical Society. 

Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society. 

Bristol Microscopical Society. 

Bristol Naturalists’ Society. 

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society. 

Carlisle Microscopical Society. 

Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club. 

Eastbourne Natural History Society. 

Kast Kent Natural History Society. 

Essex Field Club. 

Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club. 

Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society. 

Liverpool, Literary and Philosophical Society of 

Liverpool, Microscopical Society of 

Manchester Microscopical Society. 

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society. 

North of England Microscopical Society. 

Nottingham Naturalists’ Society. 

Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall Natural History 
Society. 


Scotland— 


Edinburgh, Royal Society of 
Glasgow, Natural History Society of 


Ireland. 


Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society. 
Dublin Microscopical Club. 
Royal Irish Academy. 


Ixxiy ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY : 


COLONIES. 


India— 
(Caleutta.) Asiatic Society of Bengal. 


Australasia— 
New South Wales, Linnean Society of 
New South Wales, Royal Society of 
South Australia, Royal Society of 
Tasmania, Royal Society of 
Victoria, Royal Society of 


Canada— 


(Halifax.) Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science. 
(Toronto.) Canadian Institute. 


UNITED STATES. 


American Society of Microscopists. 

(Boston.) American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
(_,, -) Boston Society of Natural History. 
(Chicago.) State Microscopical Society of Hlinois. 
New York Academy of Sciences. 

New York Microscopical Society. 

Philadelphia, Academy of Natural Sciences of 

St. Louis, Academy of Science of 

San Francisco Microscopical Society. 

Troy Scientific Association. 


GERMANY. 

Berlin, K. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu 

Berlin, Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde zu 

(Frankfurt a. M.) Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesell- 
schaft. 

Gottingen, K. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu 

(Halle a.8.) K.Leopoldinisch-Carolinische Deutsche Akademie 
der Naturforscher. 

Jenaische Gesellschaft fiir Medicin und Naturwissenschaft. 

(Leipzig.) K. Sachsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. 

(Miinchen.) K. Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 
(Budapest.) Société Royale Hongroise des Sciences Naturelles. 
(Prag.) K. Béhmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. 
(Vienna.) K. Akademie der Wissenschaften. 
( ,  ) K.K. Zoologisch-botanische Gesellschaft. 


HOLLAND. 
(Amsterdam.) K. Akademie van Wetenschappen. 
Haarlem, Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wetenschappen (Société 
Hollandaise des Sciences & Harlem). 


EX-OFFICIO FELLOWS. lxxy 


DENMARK. 
(Kjébenhavn.) K. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. 


SWEDEN. 
(Stockholm.) K. Svenska Vetenskaps Akademie. 


RUSSIA. 


Moscou, Société Impériale des Naturalistes de 
(Odessa.) Société des Naturalistes de la Nouvelle Russie. 
St. Petersburg, Académie Impériale des Sciences de 


SWITZERLAND. 


Allgemeine Schweizerische Gesellschaft fiir die Gesammten 
Naturwissenschaften (Société Helvétique des Sciences 
Naturelles). 

Basel, Naturforschende Gesellchaft in 

Genéve, Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle de 

(Lausanne.) Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles. 


FRANCE. 


Bordeaux, Société des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles de 
Marseille, Académie des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts de 
Montpellier, Académie des Sciences et Lettres de 

(Paris.) Académie des Sciences. 

( , ) Société Botanique de France. 


BELGIUM. 


(Brussels.) Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des 
Beaux-Arts de Belgique. 


( , +) Société Belge de Microscopie. 
( , ) Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique. 
ITALY. 


Milano, R. Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere di 
(Milano.) Societa Crittogamologica Italiana. 
(Pisa.) Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali. 
(Roma.) R. Accademia dei Lincei. 

Torino, R. Accademia delle Scienze di 


SPAIN. 
(Madrid.) Sociedad Espanola de Historia Natural. 


PORTUGAL. 
Lisboa, Academia Real das Sciencias de 


( Ixxyi- ) 


LIST Or ORD Enos 
CLASSIFIED GEOGRAPHICALLY, . 


exclusive of those residing within the limits of the London Postal 
District. 


I. UNITED KINGDOM. 


ENGLAND. 
BEDFORDSHIRE, 
Bedford—Brooke, Lieut.-Col. C. K. | Dunstable—Watts, Rev. G. HE. 
BERKSHIRE. 
Maidenhead—Ballard, J. F. Windsor—Churchill, Lord E. 8. 
Reading—Walters, J. H. 
CHESHIRE. 
Chester—Johnson, M. Liscard—Gasking, Rev. 8. 
Shepheard, T’. Macclesfield—Potts, J. 
Handforth—Cunliffe, P. G. Sandbach—Bygott, R. 
Knutsford—Halkyard, E. Winsford—Cooke, J. H. 
CoRNWALL. 
Marazion—Millett, F. W. | TYorpoint—Croydon, C. 
DERBYSHIRE. 
Derby—Carr, Rev. E. | Uttoxeter—Wilkins, T. 8. 
DEVONSHIRE. 
Barnstaple.—Butler, P. J. Exeter—Jerman, J. 


Vicary, W. 


Bideford—Finzel, C. W. 
Sidmouth—Radford, Dr. W. 


Budleigh Salterton — Brushfield, Dr. 
T. N. 


DORSETSHIRE. 
Parkstone—Lang, Major F. H. | Lyme Regis—Peek, Hon. Mrs. 
DvrHam. 
Ferry Hill—Palmer, H. Sunderland—Squanee, 'T. C. 


Stanley—Mantle, A. 


CLASSIFIED LIST OF FELLOWS. lxxvii 


Essex. 

Loughton—Christian, W. T. 
Woodford—Curnock, Rey. N. 
Letchford, R. 


Chelmsford—Rosling, HE, 
Colchester—Shenstone, J. C. 
Dovercourt—Southall, Rev. G. 
Finchingfield—Bailey, Rev. G. 


GLOUCESTERSHIRE. 
Cheltenham—Wethered, E. Shirehampton——-Braidwood, Dr. P. M. 
Cirencester—Creese, HE. J. £. : 

HAMPSHIRE. 

Isle of Wight—Owen, Major S. R. J. Southampton—Dayman, C. O. 
Milland—Whitehead, R. R. King, E. H. G. 
Porchester—Frampton, Col. C. Southsea—Richards, HB. 
Southampton—Corke, H. C. 

HERTFORDSHIRE. 
Hoddesdon—Campbell, F. M. St. Albans—Makins, G. H. 
St. Albans—Hopkinson, J. Ware—Croft, Lieut. R. B. 

HUNTINGDONSHIRE. 


St. Neots—Manchester, Duke of. 


Kent. 
Belvedere—Spurrell, F. Dartford—Hepburn, J. G. 
Bexley Heath —Pringle, A. Edenbridge—Bramwell, Rt. Hon. Lord. 
Bickley—Scott, D. H. Margate—Pittock, G. M. 
Bromley—Cheshire, F. R. | Rowe, Dr. T. 8. 
Lubbock, Sir J. Sevenoaks—Lambert, T. J. 
Ross, Dr. J. A. Townsend, J. S. 
Canterbury——Rosseter, T. B. Sideup—Hembry, F. W. 
Chislehurst—Hamilton, J. J. Stone—Ollard, J. A. 
Shadbolt, G. Tonbridge—Nevins, R. T. G. 
—— Silver, H. A. Tunbridge Wells-—Tebbitt, W. 
—  Vanner, W. 
LANCASHIRE. 
Acecrington—Rhodes, J. Manchester—Aylward, H. P. 
Blackburn—Bowdler, A. C. — Davies, G. E. 
Rutherford, J. — Dunkerley, J. W. 
Bolton—Harwood, R. — Gadd, W. 
Jackson, ©. L. — Horne, R. 
—— Rideout, W. — Hutton, Rev. E. A. 
Thompson, J. — Kirkby, W. 
Bolton-le-Moors—Collins, W. H. — Norris, A. 
Burnley—Ratcliff, J. K. — Thomson, W. 
Chorlton-cum-Hardy—Blackburn, W. — Tyas, W. H. 
Heywood—Meek, Rev. G. —— Ward, E. 
Liverpool—Ballard, Rev. F. Whaite, F. A. 
Botterill, C. Mossley—Robinson, J. B. 
—— Drysdale, Dr. J. J. Oldham—Butterworth, J. 
—— Hicks, J.S8. — Sutcliffe, F. W. 
— Jones, J. B. St. Helens—Jolliffe, C. H. 
—— Manbré, A. Southport—Woods, G. A. 
-—— Morgan, J. B. Swinton—Barrow, J. 
— Tate, A. N. Urmston—Armstrong, T. 
— Thompson, I. C. Warrington—Rylands, T. G. 
— Williams, J. M. Winton—Sykes, M. L. 


MIDDLESEX. 
Enfield—Fitch, F. G. | Statnes—Gill, C. H. 


lxxviii ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY: 


MoNnMOUTHSHIRE. 
Newport—Watson, T. E. 


NorTHUMBERLAND. 
Neweastle-on-Tyne—Jeattreson, C. S. Waterloo—Jobling, T. E. 
Martin, N. H. 
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE. 


Nottingham—Ahbel, W. J. 


Nottingham—Pratt, W. H. 
Cave, T. W. 


— Rogers, J. 


— Marriott, E. D. — Turton, G. F. 
OXFORDSHIRE. 
Henley-on-Thames—Havers, J. C. Oxuford—Gorman, Rey. T. M. 
— Noble, J. Pritchard, Rev. C. 
SHROPSHIRE. 
Munslow—Malley, Dr. A. C. Shrewsbury—Walton, F.R.B 
Shrewsbury—Forrest, H. E. 
SOMERSETSHIRE. 

Bath—Beaumont, W. J. Clifton—Brayley, E. B. L. 
— Norman, G. Hudson, Dr. C. T. 
Bristol—Braidwood, Dr. P. M. Street—Clark, J. 

Case, H. W. 

STAFFORDSHIRE. 

Burton-on- Trent—Hallam, S. R. Stone—Bostock, EH. 

Mason, P. B. Wolverhampton—McMunn, Dr. C. A. 

SUFFOLK. 
Bury St. Edmunds—Dawson, W. | Whitton—Wright, J. 
SURREY. 

Chertsey—Tulk, J. A. Kew—Firmin, P. 8. 
Croydon—Berney, J. -— Massee, G. 

Carpenter, Dr. A. Redhill—Bossey, Dr. F. 


Whitling, H. T. 


Gordon, Rey. J. M. 
Hpsom—Swith, Rey. T. N. H. Jelly, Miss E. C. 
Farnham—West, T. Surbiton—Kershaw, Dr. W. W. 
Guildford—Ball, J. Weybridge—Westwood, W. H. 


Budgett, J. L. Yool, H. 
| SUSSEX. 
Brighton—Barker, Dr. S. Groombridge—Whitelock, Rev. B. 
Borradaile, C. | Hawkhurst—Prescott, Sir G. R. 
— Grove, E. Horsham—Cowan, T. W. 
— Haselwood, J. H. Peters, W. 
— Sawyer, G. D. Hurstpierpoint—Borrer, W., jun. 
—— Tyson, T. B. Maresfield—Noble, Captain W. 
Wood, F. St. Leonards-on-Sea—Breeds, T. 
EHastbourne— Roper, F. C. 8. — Noble, W. 
Forest Row—Slack, H. J. — Pickersgill, W. C. 
‘WARWICKSHIRE. 
Birmingham—Bateman, Rey. B. J. Coventry—Jones, H. W. 
Davis, J. Edgbaston—Anthony, Dr. J. 
— Lancaster, W. J Leamington—Hill, J. A. 
— Martin, W. E. R. | 
WESTMORELAND. 


“indermere—Healey, G. H. 


CLASSIFIED LIST OF FELLOWS. lxxix 


WILTSHIRE. 


Market Lavington — Bouverie, Right | Salisbury—Lovibond, J. W. 
Hon. E. P. 


YORKSHIRE. 
Bradford—Bennett, J. Leeds—Pocklington, H. 
— Douglas, J. A. Turner, C. W. 

Tacy, W. G. —— Turner, W. B. 
Carleton—Kddy, J. RB. — (Headingley)—Stubbins, J. 
Easingwold—Rookledge, J. Teasdale, W. 
Halifax—Bowman, Dy. F. H. Lightcliffe—Townend, W. 

Cash, W. Manningham—Pocklington, C. 
— Thomson, F. W. Masborough—Mather, Dr. EH. 

Ward, J. W. Shefjield—King, Rev. T. 8. 
Harrogate—Peach, RB. Pochin, P. G. 
Hull—Spiers, Rev. W. — Sorby, Dr. H. C. 
Knottingley—Carter, G. W. — Winder, B. W. 
Leeds—Codling, Rev. W. E. Wood, B. W. 

Faweett, J. H. Wakefield—Thompson, F. 
— Horn, Rev. J. Wath-on-Dearne—Gadd, W. L. 

WALES. 
CARNARVON. 
Bangor—Phillips, R. W. | Llandudno—Thomas, Dr. H. 
DENBIGHSHIRE. 
Abergele—Bateman, Rey. B. J. 
GLAMORGANSHIRE, 
Cardif—Hunt, De Vere. | Cardif—Thompson, J. T. 
MOonTGOMERYSHIRE. 
Welshpool—Vize, Rev. J. H. 
PEMBROKESHIRE. 
Tenby—Dyster, F. D. | Tenby—Walker, F’. 
SCOTLAND. 
ABERDEENSHIRE. 
Aberdeen—Cash, J. T. | Alford—Farquharson, Mrs. M. 8. 
AYRSHIRE. 
Kilmarnock—Borland, J. 
FORFARSHIRE. 
Dundee—Hood, J. 
LANARKSHIRE. 
Glasgow—Davison, T. Glasgow—Whitson, Dr. J. 
Schulze, A. 
MIDLOTHIAN. 


Edinburgh—Brook, G., jun. 
—— Greenfield, Dr. W. S. 
—— Penman, W. 


Edinburgh—Thomson, J. A. 
Portobello—Davies, A. H. 


STIRLINGSHIRE. 
Stirling—Rae, J. 


lxxx ROYAL 


IREL 
Kingstown—Thorpe, V. G. 


MICROSCOPICAL 


SOCIETY : 


AND. 
| Galway—O’Hara, Lieut.-Colonel It. 


II. COLONIES. 


AUSTRALIA. 
New SoutH WALES. 


Sydney —Fischer, Dr. C. F. 
—— Kyngdon, F. B. 
— Mayne, J. 

— Meek, B. O. 


Sydney—Mestayer, R. L. 
Morris, Dr. W. 
— Mullins, Dr. G. L. 
— Whitelegge, T. 


QUEENSLAND. 
Brisbane—Luck, H. C. 


SoutH AUSTRALIA. 


Adelaide—Bussell, J. W. 
Cleland, W. L. 
— Pickels, W. E. 


Adelaide—Thomas, J. D. 
Whittell, H. T. 


TASMANIA. 


Launceston—Harrop, E. D. 


| 


Launceston—Parker, R. J. 


VICTORIA. 


Melbourne—Bage, EH. 
—— Bale, W. M. 
ee lave 


Melbourne—Gibbons, W. 8. 
Richmond—Baker, F. H. 
Romsey—Mottat, W. T. 


West AUSTRALIA. 
Fremantle—Mayhew, E. W. A. 


NEW ZEALAND. 
Christchurch—W ebb, H. R. Wellington—Maskell, W. M. 
Otago—Bell, A. D. Kirk, J. W 
Parker, T. J. 
CANADA. 


Barrie—Rogerson, J. 
London—Saunders, W. 
Montreal—Osler, Dr. W. 


CAPE OF G 


Ottawa—Dawson, G. M. 
Toronto—Wright, Professor R. 


OOD HOPE. 


Kimberley—Lee, G. J. 


INDIA. 


Bombay—Freeman-Underwood, Dr. | 
C. H. 

— Underwood, H. F. 

Calcutta—Lee, W. A. | 

Kursiong—Newton, C. R. | 


Madras—Thurston, E. 
Ootadcamund—Lawson, M. A. 
Poona—Giles, G. M. 
Simla—Shelley, Lieut. A. D. G. 


CLASSIFIED LIST OF FELLOWS. Ixxxi 


III, FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 


ARABIA. 
Aden—Weightman, A. E. | Muscat—Jayaker, A. 8. 

FRANCE. 
Antibes—Simpson, Rey. D. | Paris—Nachet. A. 

GERMANY. 
Darmstadt—Jocelyn, Hon. W. N. Wiesbaden—Dreyfus, L. 
Jena—Zeiss, R. 
ITALY. 


Bologna—Ciaccio, G. 


PORTUGAL. 
Oporto—Nixon, P. C. 


SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC. 
Pretoria—Kay, Dr, J. A. 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


CALIFORNIA. 
Oakland—Wythe, Dr. J. H. San Franciseo—Hanks, H. 
Oleander—James, G. W. — Nuttall, Dr. G. H. F. 
San Francisco—Dennis, 8. W. 

CoLORADO. 


Denwver—Chamberlin, H. B. 


CoNNECTICUT. 
Hartford—Lewis, W. J. | Hartford--Woolff, Dr. A. J. 
ILLINOIS. 
Champaign—Burrill, T. J. Chicago—Johnson, Dr. H. A. 
Chicago—Bastin, HK. 8S. | Mercer, Dr. F. W. 
— Bulloch, W. H. — Ochsner, Dr. A. J. 
— Curtis, Lester. — Skelton, J. L. 
— Durkee, R. P. H. Thomas, B. W. 
— Fuller, C. G. South Evanston—Ewell, M. D. 
—— Higley, W. R. Summer field—Close, J. A. 
INDIANA. 
Danville—Johnson, Dr. T. W. Newcastle—Redding, D, B. 


Indianopolis—Hodges, Dr, H. F. 


KANSAS. 
Hiawatha—Leigh, Dr. A. 


LOUISIANA. 
New Orleans—Devron, Dr. G. 


MAINE. 


Bangor—Stodder, J. C. 
1889. f 


lxxxil ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. 


MARYLAND. 
Baltimore—Eastman, L. M. | Baltimore—Sternberg, Dr. G. M. 
MASSACHUSETTS. 
Boston—Pray, T. . Westford—Rowley, Rev. C. H. 
Longmeadow—Booth, Miss M. A. Worcester—-McMurrich, J. P. 
MIcHIGAN. 
Ann Arbor—Gibbes, H. | Detrott—Manton, Dr. W. P. 
Huber, Dr. G. C. | Lansing—Miles, M. 


—— Latham, Miss V. A. Kalamazoo—White, W. 8. 


MINNESOTA. 
Minneapolis—F ellows, C. 8. 


MIssoUrt. - 
St. Lowis—Bernays, Dr. A. C. | St. Lowis—Whelpley, H. M. 


New JERSEY. 


Newark—Mann, Rev. A. | Plainfield—Balem, A. D. 
New YORK. 

Brooklyn—Bates, Dr. W.H. © New York—Plyer, C. W. 
— Craig, T. - Schultze, H. A. 
— Hoagland, Dr. C.N — Stratford, W. 
—— West, Dr. C. E. —— Van Brunt, C. 
Bufalo—Fell, Dr. G. E. — Wales, W. 
—— Howe, Dr. L. — Wall, J. L. 
Clifton Springs—Loveland, Dr. B. C. Warnock, J. 
Dunkirk—Blackham, Dr. G. H. Rochester—Alling, C. E. 
Fairpoint—Griftith, E. H. Atwood, H. T. 
New York—Brevoort, H. L. — Line, J. E. 

Cox, C. F. — Mallory, M. L. 
— Damon, W. E. —— Whitney, J.C. 
— De Witt, W. G. Syracuse—A berdein, Dr. R. 
— Fuller, H. W. Mercer, Dr. A. C. 
—— Habirshaw, F. Troy—Hanaman, C. H. 
—— Habirshaw, Dr. J. Ward, R. H. 
— Julien A. A. Utica—Walker, W. C. 
—— Mead, W. H. ; 


OHIO. 


Columbus—Detmers, H. J. 
— Kellicott, D.S. 


Otneinnati—Cox, Dr. J. D. 
Thacker, Dr. J. A. 


Cleveland—Vorce, C. M. —— Weed, C. M. 
PENNSYLVANIA. 
Philadelphia—Morris, G. C. Philadelphia—Sudduth, W. X. 
Remington, J. P. — Walmsley, W. H. 
VIRGINIA. 


Charlottesville—Tuttle, A. H. 


(Oo ibssautl 4) 


LIST OF SOCIETIES, INSTITUTIONS, éc., 


WHO ARE ENTITLED TO RECEIVE THE SOCIETY’S JOURNAL, IN 
ADDITION TO THOSE WHOSE PRESIDENTS ARE 
EX-OFFICIO FELLOWS. 


Lonpon— 


British Museum. 

Chemical Society. 
Entomological Society. 
Geological Society. 

Hackney Microscopical Society. 
King’s College. 

Royal Institution. 

University College. 


MANCHESTER— 


Cryptogamic Society. 


EDINBURGH— 


Royal Physical Society. 


DusLin— 


Royal Dublin Society. 


UNITED STATES— 


American Monthly Microscopical Journal. 
American Naturalist. 

Journal of Morphology. 

The Microscope and its relation to Medicine and Pharmacy. 
Baltimore. Johns Hopkins University. 
Cambridge. Museum of Comparative Zoology. 
Cincinnati. Society of Natural History. 
Connecticut. Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
New York. Torrey Botanical Club. 
Washington. Smithsonian Institution. 
Surgeon-General’s Office. 


GERMANY— 


Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Mikroskopie. 

Zoologischer Anzeiger. 

Bonn. Naturhistorischer Verein der Preussischen - Rheinlande und 
Westfalens. 

Breslau. Schlesische Gesellschaft fiir Vaterlandische Cultur. 

Freiburg-i-B. Naturforschende Gesellschaft. 

Wiirzburg. Physikalisch-Medicinische Gesellschaft, 


lxxxiv ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY— 


Briinn, Naturforschende Verein. 
Trieste, Societa Adriatica di Scienze Naturali. 


SwEDEN— 


Lund. Universitet. 
Stockholm. Carolinisches Medico-Chirurgisches Institut. 
Upsal. R. Societas Scientiarum Upsaliensis. 


SwiTzERLAND— 


Recueil de Zoologie Suisse. 
Bern. Naturforschende Gesellschaft. 
FH Schweizerische Entomologische Gesellschaft. 


HRANCE— 


Cherbourg. Société Nationale des Sciences Naturelles. 
Paris. Société Zoologique de France. 
Toulouse. Académie des Sciences. 


IvaLy— 


Acireale. Societa Italiana dei Microscopisti. 
Florence. Societs Hntomologica Italiana. 

Genoa. Museo Civico de Storia Naturale. 

Naples. Zoological Station. 

Padua. Societ& Veneto-Trentina de Scienze Naturali. 
Rome. Accademia Pontificia de’ Nuovi Lincei. 


| The Journal is issued on the second Wednesday of 
February, April, June, August, October, and December. 


ek 


1889. Parti]. | FEBRUARY. | es be 


JOURNAL 


ROYAL 
- MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY: 


CONTAINING ITS. TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS, 


AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


~ {principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 
MICROSCOPY, Séc- 


Edited by 
FRANK CRISP, LL.B. B.A, 
One of the Secretaries of the Society 
oe a Vice-President and Treasurer of the Linnean Soctety oF London ; 
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PuBL ICATION COMMITTEE AND 
‘A. W. BENNETT, M.A., B.Sc., F.08., FP. JEFFREY BELL, M.A., F.Z.S., 
_ Lecturer on Botanyat St. Thomas's Hospital, Professor of Comparative A natomy ine Ke ing’s College, 
JOHN MAYALL, Joun., F.ZS., ‘ R. G. HEBB, M. A, M.D. (Cantab.), 
AND : 
J. ARTHUR: THOMSON, M.A., 
Lecturer on Zoology in the School of Medicine, Bainburgh, 
FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY, 


. | WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 
op | LONDON AND EDINBURGH. : oe 


PRINTED BY WM. CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, ] [STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. 


CONTENTS. 


Transactions or tan Soorry— ‘ | 
I.—OBsERVATIONS ON THE SPECIAL IntTERNAL ANATOMY or URoPpoDA 
Kramert. By Albert D. Michael, F.L.S., F. Z. S., F.R.MLS., 
&c. (Plate I.) - : as aba 
IT.—Laist or Drsmips rrom Cie & U.S.A. ay Wm. West, 
F.LS., Lecturer on Botany and Materia Medica at. the 
Bradford Technical College. (Plates II: and IIL.) .. 
III.—Rerropvotion anp Muttipiioation or Dratoms. Pa ne Abbé 
Count F, Castracane, Hon. F.R.MS. .. pep 
SUM AY: OF CURRENT RESEARCHES. 
~ ZOOLOGY. 
A. VERTEBRATA: —Embryology, AUstoloe ys and General, 
. : a. Embryology. : 
- Quinckn, G.—Movements of Protoplasm 22 se ee te ke ee ae 
_ Mastus, J.—Placenta of Rabbit a fol seh 
Gracomint, C.—Neurenterie Canal in the Rubee. 
Eimer, G. H. T.—Markings of Mammals .. 


Lucas, A. H. §,—Colour of Birds’ Eggs...’ 
Scuuttze, O.—Development of Germinal Layers and Notochord ‘ in Rana. fusca 


Remuarp, W.—Development - of Germinal ere Notochord, and Ae im 


Cyprinoids .. 
Emer, G, H. T.—Origin. of Species ie a 
GuLick, J. T.—Divergent Evolution through Cumulative Segregation eae 


Nousspaum, M.—Heredity... . On 
Amans, P. C.—Organs of Aquatic Locomotion eels) Oy ae kit fag Sine 
M‘Cov, ¥. pee of Victorig., 6 ee nw ae te nae 
B. Histology. i! : 
Rower, A.—Structure Of MUSCLE: Gs Ne Niey Leg ioe ein dee ge tee eRee ie © 
BatLowrrz, E.—Structure of Spermatozoa... ne whe ne ee te ine 
LUEJANOW, S. M.—Club-shaped Nucleoli 1. 26 ww te As 
Roupe, E.—Nervous System of: Amphionus ese ea pena 
_B, INVERTEBRATA. 
Mollusca. — | 
+: Gastropoda. 
Kaumws, G.—Eyes of Gastropods and of Pecten .. sats aes Oren a ae ee 
5. Lamellibranchiata, oe 
Doss Be inion of Light Ree Nou tre ona a eR Tee 
- Macatrine, D.—Movements of Detached Gills. lah ats pict els Wy eater ieee apres 
M‘Intoss, W. Seis alee Of MGtLNS COMES cc wp ini neee Rae a= oO laa ee 
~ Molluscoida. aes tox 


~@, Tunicata.- 


“Mauricz, C. =Moneqrash of Pease aes: auwrantiacum © sew Sine eens oe 
Jourer, L.—Structure of Pyrosoma .. aera Jiapetteata e's 
+) } 99 


‘Alternation of Germ ONe in Salpa and Pyrosoma... Sy Sane oats i ; 


PAGE 


16: 


99 


(3) 
Bp Bryozoa.- 
FrEEsE, W. cosa and Ueitin of Membranipora pilosa 
y. Brachiopodai ’ : 
Hath, A.—Modified Betoderm ¢ in Orania and Lingula .. 
‘Arthropoda. 
a, Insecta. 


; Huo Sir Jonn—Observations on Ants, Bees, and Wasps 

Grassi, B.—Termites . Se aa eiks 
“59 5 Replacement of King ‘amd Queen of Terinites Hee eae See 

-; Mactosginz, G. oor Cen rarains of Mosquito... 6s ae ae we 


; 6. Arachnida. 
Scuaus, R. a aaony of Hydrodroma \ ss +2 4s ss 08 08 oe 
e. Crustacea. 


BEYENDAL, D.—Male Copulatory Pats on first Abdominal Aeneas he some 


female Crayfishes .... BR aa bel ats ale 
Giuzs, G. M.—Indian Amphipoda .. Si ae ane! aa 
©anu, E.—New Family of Commensal Copepods . EUR aii occ mE GOA 
Resort, A.—Two new Copepods parasitic on Hchinoderms ..  »« + 


- Fewses, J. Waurer —New Parasite of Amphiura .. «5 as 

; CATTANEO, G.—Amebocytes of Crustacea 6. ae ae wn a ae 
Vermes. 

a. Annelida. 


on ous. BARON pE—Polychata Of DINO rn nak. (as en) ve 

'FRIEDLANDER, B.— Central Nervous System of Lumbricus. 

Gosuiicu, G.—Genital and Segmental Organs of Har thworm 

Bepparp, F. H.—Three new Spertes of Hurthworms Peas ee eae 

; Reproductive Organs of Hudrilus .. se «. ++ 4 
B. Nemathelminthes. 

- Sonsino, P.—Nematode in Blood OP DOG oi keve cop aar henei wie eee aa oes 

3. Incerts Sedis, ; 


3 19 


- Weser, BE. F.—* Notes on some Rotifera from the erates of Geneva” 


ZELINKA, O.—Parasitic Rotifer—Discopus Synapte .1 +. 


Echinodermata. 
Frwxus, J. W.—Development of Calcareous Plates of Asterias .. .. 
Semon, R.— Development of Synapta digitata pape REL oak iamaine at 
‘Lupwic, H.—Ophiopteron elegans .. Dalene Ly tales else ace 
Brock, J.—Ophiurid Fauna of Indian Archipelago RG aL a ee pe 
- Lopwic, H.—Holothurians of Indian BOe pane ee eRe ta el Seve 
. Lovey, 8.—New Eetmnocotad ESE Ae ana e aa er 


Gileatieaia: 


' Lenpenreip, R. von—Celenterata of the Southern Seas 1. 1. +s os 


Fow.er, G. Hersert—Two new Types of Actiniaria .. ..  ., 


~. M‘Inrosu, W. C.—Lesueria vitrea .. 


‘Barz, W. M.—New or rare Australian Hydroida ; ; i 


Protozoa. 


- Magar, L L.— Protozoa, on Mosses of Plants’ s. 
~Mavras, E.— Multiplication of Ciliated Infusoria Ss 
ee Ones ae Substances in the pe cepieen of Infusoria 
- Puate, L.—Aegyria oliva ., 1s +s ws ee a 
% » New Vorticelline .. 
Enrz, G. so ee in Blood of Apus cancrifor mas . a 
Hennecuy, F.—Injluence of Light on Noctiluca.. .. 9 we oe sop 
VALLENTIN, R.—Psorospermium Lucernari®., se sn ns ak ee 
Bepparv, F. H.—Coccidium infesting Pericheta ..  .. .. 0» oe os 
_ Hennecuy, L. F.—Sarcosporidia in Muscles‘of Palemon .. .. .. 
Prrgoncito, E.—Cercomonas intestinalis © 9s, we vs ne wens 


PAGE 


ple a 


BOTANY. ; 
A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology 
_ of the ee AE 
ae Anatomy. . 
@ Cell-structure and Protoplasm. i 


Scunerzimr, J. B. — Movement of Rotation of Vegetable Protoplasm .. payee 
CLark, J.—Protoplasmic Movements 


Ampronn, H. —Optical Properties Of, the ‘Cuticle and of Suberized Wembranes. os a 


(2) Other. Cell-contents Gneluding Secretions). 


‘Muyer, A.—Structure of Chlorophyll-grains .. vs i65 se ne ne ne ee oe 
‘Moors, S. Le M.—Photolysis in Lemna trisuled .. 1. ee be ee ee te 
ScHuncx, E- — Chemistry of: Chicrophyll .. NES ay PSU ES Take Oem eae e aT NESTE 
Courcurt,; Li——Chromvleucites .. SORA EERE EAU Re ey A AE Stas 
SEWELL, - ae Colouring-matier of Leaves ‘dnd Blowers . Bar Sata peas Mina es ede ais 
Lerrens, H.—Spherites 1.0 6. ae te ee pe ok ee ae we 
SESS F.—Aleurone-grains a ea ey Tish eae 
Leirers, H.—Asparagin and Tyrosin in Tubers of the Dahita Hb) Meee ter per 


8) Structure of Tissues. 
Brick, 6.—Litoral Plants... 2. Ee 


Eperpt, O. a te Pern car ae ey ey aecae ey eo 
Evans, W. H.—Stem of Ephedra... . Mage ra 
_ Knosiaucu, H.—Anatomy of the Wood of Taurine : : ets 
-Gnenrzscu, F.—Radial Connection of the Vessels and Woo t-parenchyme... i 


~ Maury, P.— Comparative Anatomy of : Desert ‘Plants ees i Np Ss ie 


TrecuL, A.—Order of Appearance of the. first Vessels in the Leaves of Hams : 


Lapulus and H. japonicus .. ean oo 
| Trecuem, P: Van—Primary Liber fibres 7 im the Sibat of Malences Pe eae eee 


GREGORY,, Et — Development of Cork-wings on certain Trees .. - .. pe Se 


ee ee Peas —Mode of Union of. the Stem and the Root m n Angiosporms agate 


(4) Structure of Organs. 
Marvrecu, U <q pimorphiem of the Flowers of the Horse-chestnut-.. a 


- Hirronyuus, G.—Cleistogamous Flowers of Tephrosia heterantha See 
Macnin, A.— Hermaphroditism of Lychnis diotea when yee by Ustilago ean 
Roserrson, C.—Zygomorphy and its Catises..  .. 1s ae Bee areata 

_ ScnRropr, J.—Opening of the Anthers of Cycade@ .. .. + Sie e aren oe 

_ Treus, M.—Protection of Buds in the Tropics ee eee ORAS 
Warrrstrin, BR. v.—Lxtrafloral Nectartes in Come: picts ia Rn gre Ay 
Voier, A.—Structure and Development of Seeds with ruminated Endospern Meet oice 
"PONT, G. B. pe—Integument of the Seed of Geraniacer aan ene 


Pears A. N.—Hygroscopic Movements in the Cone-scales of Abietineze 
Trirz, F P.—Relationship of the Twisting Action or the Vascular Bundles ‘to Phyllo- 


taxis. tl ain ge ereae eee s Pera eno CREE 
Karsten, G. = Development of Floating Deaeg OA ie. Bun cheer aloes 
ScHeRTFEL, A.—Gilands on the Rhizome of Lathrza —.. Racoon 


~ Gittay, E. “sa danianon of Anatomical Structure to Climatul Conditions - Sere 


B. Physiology. oy 
(1) Reproduction and Germination. 


“Kronrenp, M.—Fertilization of Euphrasia ce Ee ct ae : a 
Scunerzuer, J. B. —Case of Germination of Ranunculus aquatilis eecaue 


° ee 


~ (2) Nutrition and Growth Gneluding Movements of Fluids). 


ScHNETZLER, J. B. — Resistance of plants to causes which alter the normal state of life 
JEntYs, S.—Action of Oxygen under high pressure on growth .. +s 
Dierz, S.—Injluence of the Substratum on the Growth of Plants Leeann 
artic, R— Conduction of Fluids through the Alene ee te hen as 


eB). 
ee eet, 8) Irritability. ss 
ADERHOLD, R: Lagaces which determine the Movements in the Lower Organisms». 


_ | Vocutine, H —Photo-position of Leaves: 2. 2. anne we 


Worrmann, J.—Phenomena of Ourvature 26 es ae ae a ewe 


(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 


‘Boxorny, T.—Chemical process in Assimilation... ..” Seen ees 
HELE ADIN: W. Decomposition of Albumen in the “absence of free oxygen Be es 


is "Y: General. 


Tusnur, C. eR ipiee on treet oe SOE race Cece nea veer nec SU Lacie 


STAHL, E.— Protection of Plants against Snails Has a eet eit Loar Or Gate CCR ane er csr 


B. CRYPTOGAMIA. 
- Cryptogamia Vascularia. 
eee Ge_Chloropholl bodies of Selaginella a sy RiGee asb og ki ateg aie aaah s8) py 


'TREUB, M.— Prothallium of Lycopodium... + 
‘Heiyricuer, E.— In, ne of es on the Origin of Gg an i the Fer Pha Se 
“Muscinese. se 
© ‘Warnsonr, C.—Acutifolium-Scction of Sphagnam 1. 25 8 va we 
Rasennorst’ S a a, Flora of Ger many (Musct) 1+ ve ae ae ae 
S Alge. 


Reixe, J.— SNC amaispbores of Phosporex .. Sag eee eae ae oe 


Minuta, W.—Mode of Distribution of Algze: 


ANDERSSON, O.F, —Genetic Connection of Draparnaldéa. glomerata and Palin os 


es uveeformis. ee EO ese Me ay er eee A Nei eal ces cata 
DaneEarp, P. A Inferior Aligee eee ds hbeiaNopeeis cas aoe Gp nope Ugh a et 
Mosivs, M.—New Algzx from Porto Rico ete Ns ae nae Neues 


NORDSTEDT, 0.—Alge of New Zealand and duane re 


Fungi (Gncluding Lichenes). 


- JOHNSON, | W.—Spovids Of Ditchens cme ee AS cl leas ane tied ke 
-: AmTHOR, © ca eens apiculatus Be oa Snag ds PUAN ieee eR eee eae eta 
- ARCANGELI, G—Kefir —., Fe pees he pede RN cn 
ZUKAL, H.—New Type of Hymenomycetes Ne Goyer Saracen decease tie, aunty SaRtapen ae 
Soums-LauBach, Grar zo—Ustilago Preubie iy eee ay are 
Bary, A. pE—Saprolegniez: iy FE Dey Cha ag ee mh ea 
Forx, G.; & L. Ravaz—Struclwre of White Rot TGS in Doe geese eee Onicha 
WaARzurc, O.—Caneer of the Oinchona.. —.. are PaaS Ve NC 
or CAVARA,-F.-New Pungi-of-the Vine 0.3 <s ee ita a neg an Sa we oe 
 Vraua, P., & L. Ravaz—Diseases of the Vie ee Be Ges Sais ah Oe nef ca 
‘Rasexnonsr s Cry nai Flora of Ger many (Fungi) Fe rei es ORS er Oe 
- Protophyta. 
j : : Ge Schizophycez. 

\. Himroyymeus. GC  Dicdnechete a new Genus of Protococcaceze Pi Rare RS ORE 
Depy, J.—Strueture of Diatom-values 5 gv oad ne aes ewe ws a 
Kirton, F.—New Species of Navicula .... Her eee heme tan teen ee es 

 Castracanz, Count F.—Diatoms of Hot Springs : 

Poe » Composition of the Marine y Tripoli af the "vale af 
Metaurus age Borys AS 
“> Hanseire, A. Classification of the O1 yamophycer AGI hg ean tai meena en eae 


- BORNET, E,, & C. Franarit— Heterocystous Nostocaces: . te ae 
Nias TOMASCHEK, H.— Relationship of Bacillus muralis and Glaueothri ix  gracillima me 


B. Schizomycetes. ° 


ee A Bacterium Balbianti, a chromogenous mar’ ine Bacterium vss. a 
_ Satxowsxt, H.— Ferment from putrefactive SBMCher ee okey Gee See 
— Waxxer, J, H.—Contr tbutions to Vegetable eee Ye ae Joni te wp ae ah 


PAGE 


90 
92 


Ca 


115" 


PAGE: 
Encreutmann, Tu. W.—Purple Bacteria and their relation to ee he «- 105 
Benranti & Prscarono— Pathogenic Bacterium found in Tetanus...» « «» 105 
SonoKin, Ni—Alnophaga:pyrtformie ive ee na ene as 8 oh, es 106 
Linpyer, P.—Sareimz of Fermentation BA per ees SLOG 
FRAENKEL, C., & RB. Pruwrer—Photomicrographic Atlas of Bacteriology -. 107 
oe E., ‘& A, Suseume: tient considered us a Ferment Organism .. 107 
Scuutz, H — Yeast-poisons Aa pCee sus wre aay ome heat ny Rigenonaoney tas ae 108 
MICROSCOPY. | 
a. Instruments, Accessories, &c. 
(1) Stands. . . See 
Fasoupt’s (C.) “ Patent” Microscope (Figs: land 2)... se ee eevee 109 
Czapsxi's (8.) Har- (Tympanum) ne ope ABN: Bhs Beara: peas Seem 112 
Morxav’s Monkey Microscope (Fig. 4) . AM ihaees S eeiac se ty PtP bie AO 
Croucu’s Petrological Microscope .. TPR SC leehh eeale Ss yie Re a eal ses Led 
REIcHERT’s (C.) Petrological Microscope. (Rig: or BGA ice eI ae 
Hueuus’ (W. C.) Patent Oxyhydrogen Microscope (Fis, 6) Prevard 1 
ue ‘s Improved Microscopie Attachment—Cheap Rone (Fi ig’. Do. ve 116 
Special Combination Scientist GPued Lantern ae S)iiae see LT 
Dvo pz CHAULNES’ Msenecese (Fig. 9) cei eeee a takers Silos Pee ies Gwads abies 
: . | (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives. 
JACKSON, H. _—Monobromide of Naphthatine as an Immersion Medium a Genego 
8) Mluminating and other Apparatus. eR 
Txoma’s ®) Camera Lucida ee 10-and aa Meee ee \setetent eae eek Ee 
PantocsEn, J.—inder (Fig. 12)... neem le Ur seagu TE ay eee rite Asa Al | 
ADJUSTABLE Safety-stage (Fig. 13)... — . ilk aes ao 121 
_EINGELMANN’S (T. W.) Microspectrometer (Figs. Te -16) 122 
Powerit & LEALAND’s Apochromatic Condenser (Fig. 17) . 125 
Kocnw & Max Wo.z's Lamp (Fig. VB) 126 
Bauscu ee Lomp Opzicat. Co.'s Adjustable Hemispherical Tuminator Cig 19). “126 
(4) Photomicrography. ; 
Kreerer’ 8 Photomicrographic Camera (Fig. 20)... hg Se dareoae cet el Oke 
Mawson & Swan’s Photomicrographic Apparatus. (Fie. 21) sateen ae 128 - 
Roxsinson’s Photomicrographic Cameras (Figs. 22-and 23)... 1.  -. ve ee 128 
Roux, E: —Lhotomicrography with Magnesium Light..  .. ~-129 
Ane one 8 (G.) Instantaneous Photomicrographic Apparatus (Figs. 226) 129° 
oe —Hasy Method for “ Photogr: aphing” Sections .. .. + + «. 133 
ZerrNow, E.—Chromo-copper Light ‘filter deuce ae ete Neon weer eater eatery wed 979.04 
(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. 
MAsKELL, W. M.— Optical Effect of Focusing wp ov down wt much inthe Microsenye “134, 
(6) Miscellaneous. Sree 
Deatu of Dr. Zeiss Le Ot Wee isan ws akira tes S Digs Sanne aye Coenen ee ae aa 
33 Mr: Zentmayer. oe eo eo ee. ee ee ao eo. ee eo aie eo oe. 135 
8. Technique. 
a Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes. ye 
— Karn, C. H. —Callechiniy Dilitois {10% ci voces ae Re Aah Ge eek tet oes 1ST 
Jopin, V.—Culture of Unicellular Alge Spe eerie tenia t alagiys ees Oi 
(2) Preparing Objects. 4 
Martivorri, C.—Reaction of Elastic Fibres with Silver Nitrate — 2. -.. ee es «137 
Wurman, C. O.—Solvent for the Gelatinous Envelope of Amphibian Eggs .»  .. 138 
Maurice, C.— Method of Examining Fragaroides’  .. os ue ae we we ew 18 
Vorworn, M.— Preparing Fresh-water Bryozoa ..  .. se se tet 138 


e719 


oe oo 


PAGE 
ine A. Bee Peering Tetrastemma melanocephalit v6 +e we gs ee 189 
ScuEwraKorr—Karyokinesis in Euglypha alveolata «2.5 ee ee ne ee | 189 
Kirin, L.—Permanent Preparations of Fresh-water Alg#.e +. 66 ee ve ee | 189 
», Mounting Fresh-water Alge A aA ick SSG Rh bits eaten eaw Bee acwenseag  L a Oe 
IstviNert, G.—Preparation of Fungi... Sesser Morne e ey a CU Nigra ed Ue 
Morgan, VT. H.—Hxperiments with Chitin Solvents PEGs eps iee uO ES wot ie ED 
Reena) Beene Meteo oak es Shae ed a ree ond oe, ae tre AAD 
= (8) Cutting, including Imbeddine and Microtomes. 
Kinesnry, J. S.—Minot’s Automatic Microtome (Figs. 27 and 28) °. 143 
- Born, G.—Plate Modelling Method or Plastic Fieconstruction of the Objort 
(Figs. 29-32) . -. 144 
KasrscHenxo, N. — Cutting Microscopical Oljects for the purpose of Plastic Recon- 
struction (Bigs: 33 and ae ees Hpetiga cal fre eS eee SLO 
(4) Staining and Inj Scene 
Panceen H.—New Stains for Microscopical Purposepe) eet eee 147 
—Urson, H. S—Carmine Staining of Nervous Tissue .. _.. SEAS 148 
Nevnauss, R.—Staining Microbes black for Photomicrograph Setiiiene Wiis AS 
- Leon, N.—Nueina as a Staining Agent : Rare Pa NE ag ERE cae TAOS 
Lewis, A. eS Triple Staining Method BAG a ate on oe mAe ie ere ek 149: 
’ Baransel, A.—Staining Actinomyces —.. fab Oe whe er aNd STE 
_ Buswip, O:—Method for Distinguishing and Isolating Cholera Bacteria Meee ee oe LOO. 
~ . Betparminow—Shellac Injection for. the Vessels of the Eye wee iar te canes wel DO 
“Lerenimr, Ai—Black Injection-mass .. ; wena Oaks ine aera i 
Buniansnow—Technique of the “ Corrosion” of Celloidin Preparations Ree tna ED 
(5). Mounting, eledine Slides, Preservative Fluids, &ce. 
Cunnincuam, K. M.—Preparation of Lape wale and arranged Groups of Es 152 
Marrinorri, M.—Xylol-dammar- .. 153 
Port, A.—Kaiser’s Gelatin for arr anging microscopical preparations Mm series. 153 
Jamus, F. L.-Limpid Copal Solution... ean es . 154 
_ SapEBECK, R.—Preserving-fluids for Fleshy and Succulent Plants a 154 
Czapski, 8.—Determining the Thickness of Cover-glasses of Teed Preparations 154 
--(6) Miscellaneous. f 
GARBINI'S oS ) small Steam-generator for Microscopical Technique (Fig. Be) . preted! 0537) 
' SEHRWALD, E.—Parafin Oven with se ar rangement for maintaining a constant S 
temperature (Fig. 36)... Dwi Tee ema cr ise ee aime ry ge lees ae lO es 
Srern’s (Li. v.) Steam Funnel (Fig. 37)" icon gl op detheag de Was iano Se LOT: 
DISTINGUISHING Stains of Human Blood a : Pacsinmse ees bso) 
Mique, P.—Methods for ascertaining the Number of Cerca Come Bee eds 
Bereer, E Method jor determining ae true piape of Microscopic Bec Meer we AOS: 
2 PROOBEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY 700) oo oie a ee 160 


APERTURE TABLE, 


Corresponding Angle (2 %) for Limitof Resolving Power, in Lines to an Inch,j Pitas : 
Numerical ile : Modcvhicaiation Sos te Tiluminating tear ' ee 
Aperture. Air . Water ii ees: White Light. | (Blue) Light..| Photography. | hee 
(nsinu=a)|| (w= 1-00). | (v= 1°33). | Gu 1-52). [AZO ORI) AT OO a (A= 04000, () 
‘ Line ki.) Line F.) near Line hs) f a 
1-52 EEA Arise 180° _0’ 146,543 158, 845 193 ,037 *658 - 
Bist 9 2 alia | os ae 166° 51’ 145,579 157,800 91 , 767 *662 > 
1:50 ae ee 1619: 23" 144,615 156,759 190,497 667 
1:49 aie os 157° 12! 143,651} 155,710 189, 227 “671 
1°48 us oe 153° 397 142,687 154,665' 187, 957 ‘676 
1:47 were eee 150° 32’ 141,723 153 ; 620 186,687 *680 ie 
1:46 Se Ae ETS AOE 1405759 I FO B75 1854 F “685 
1:45 ele ee | 145° 67 189,795 151,530 184, 147 -690 
1-44 apis Satins 142° 39’ 138,830. 150,485 182,877 “694 - 
1:43 ri : ie 140° 22’ 137,866 149,440 | 181,607 *699 
1:42 REE yeR es 138° 12’ 136,902 148 ,395 180,337 -704- 
1°41. ve ie 1862. 8! 135,948 147,350 179,067 “709- 
1:40 - pe : me | 1842-10’ | 134,974 146,305 177,797 f° “714 
1°89 Gans se 132° 16! 134,010 145,260 | 176,527-_4 “719° 
1°38 ee oe 130° 26’ 133,046 144,215. | 175,297 *723 
1:37 — oe. : a5 “128° 40! 132,082 143,170 173,987 *739 
~ 1:36. SOs: nie 126° 58! 131,118 142,125 172,717- "785 
1°35 sae ; ay 125° 18’ 130,154 141,080 171,,447-- “746— 
1°34 eeaar : ae 128° 40’. | 129,189 140,035 | 170,177 “741 
1°33 = } - 180° 0" 122° --6". 128,225 138,989 168,907 S7O2= 
-1:382 Dee 165° 56’ | 120° 337 127; 261 187,944 167,637 “798. 
1:31 ee os LOOS 6 A190. 8! 126,297 136,899 |. 166,367 :763 
1°30 Ye 155° 38’ | 117°°35" 125,333 135,854 | 165,097 - | ‘769 
1:29 Sy ein Tot? 25057 116228" 124,369 134,809 | 163,827 “74D. 5 
1:28 Ppa “ 148°-42’} 114° 44° 123,405 133,764 -| 162,557 1 FSA iene 
-1:27 Mee 145° 27' |) 413° 21" ¥ 122441 132,719 |; 161,287 oF BM ee 
-. 1°26 ices 142° 39") 111° 59’ ~ 121,477__ 131,674 “160,017 - [Oke 
1°25 See 1409. 33! 110° 39" fF 120,513 130,629 158,747 J *800° 
1:24 SEN 137° 86’ | 109°-20’ |. . 119,548 129,584. | 157,477. | “806° 
ities WOKS Vase 5 i 135° 17" | 108°. 2’ -f -J18,584 - 128,539 156,207 4 1: “813. 
1°22 Se ; 133° 4’ | 106°-45' | 117,620- 127,494 154,937: * 820) 
1°21 ABS 130° 57’ | 105° 30’ | 116,656 |. 126,449 153,668 “8265 
1:20 aS ~ 128° 55’ | 104° 15! {115,692 125,404 152,397 *833-— 
1:19: - poset) esl B6OL 582 108° 59s 1148728 124,359 151,128 - “840 
1-18 — Seti a ne 125° 3’) 101°. 504.) 113, 764 123,314 149,857 "S47 
1:17 Sein 123° 13’ | 100° 387— 112,799 122,269 148,588] “850° 
1:16 Syohe Ss 121° 26’ | 99°29’ 9 111,885 121,224 147,317 -}. +862 
1°15 e ve 119° 41’ 98° 20’ }- 110,872 120,179 146,048 “B10 Soe 
L114 } ee ta 118° 0! 97°11’ | - 109,907 AL9, 134 144,777. SS Las 
1:13 Berea cl GOS OO: |= Oe. sae 108,943 118,089- |. 143,508 4 *889- 
1-12 : aes ~ 114°. 447] 94° 55" 107,979 | 117,044 ~142,237 | “893 
1:11 es - 118° 9" |= 93° 47" | 107,015— 115,999. |. 140,968 “901. 
1-10 pease 111° 86! |) 92° 43% 4 106,051. 114,954 139,698" “909° 
1:09 wae 110°. 5’ |} 91° 88’ 105,087 - 113,909 | 188,428. “917 
1:08 ey j 108° 36! | .90° 24" 104,123. |  112,864— 137,158 £926 272 
1:07 ie 107°. 8! | - $9230’ 103,159 |. 111,819 135,888 +9385 
1-06 ne 105° 42" 88°-27'. | 102,195 110,774 134,618 *943 
POD Se caas 104° 16’ 87° 24’ 101,231 109,729 133,348 +952 
1:04 os 102° 53° 86° 21° 100,266 °-| ~ 108,684 132,078 7962. 
1-03 we 101° 30’ 85°. 19’ - 99,302 107,639 130, 808 “O71 
1:02 Tai 100°°10' | 84° 18’ | 98,338 106,593 “| 129,538 980 ~ 
1‘O1 4. Se 98° 50’ | 83°17! f- 97,374 105,548 128,268 =990 
1-00 || 180° 0°. 97° 31’ 82°17’ |. 96,410 104,503 126,998 1° 000" 
0:99 163° 48" | 96° OAS tvakel betes Breas 95,446 103,458 | 125,728 1°010 
0:98 A aici 94° 56’ | 80° 17’ 94,482 102,413-.| 124,458 1:020 
= 0-97 a iay Ey 93° 40’) 79° 18". | 93518 101,368 |. 123,188 y031 
0:96 147° 29! 92° 24"| 78° 20’ *92,554. | 100,323 “121,918. 1°042 
0:95 143° 36! 91°10" | 772-22" fF 91,590: - 99,278 | 120,648 ~ 1:053.. 
0:94 140° -6' 89° 56’) 76° 24’ 90,625 98,233 |: 119,378 1° 064 
0:93 ~.j|. 186°. 52’ 88°44" 1) 75° 27! 89,661 97,188 118,108 ‘| 1°075 
0:92 133° 51! 87° 82’ 74° 30 - 88,697 $6,143 116,838 1 087 
0:91 4|-181° 0’ 86° 20’ | 78°83" | 87,733 95,098. | -115,568 — 1:099. 
0:90 $28°..19" 85° 10’ |. 72° 36’ 86,769 94, 053 114,298 ° 1°111 
0-89 ~ || 125° 45’ 84° 0’ | 71° 40°. “85,805 93,008 113,028 | ee = 
See 8) 1: 1367 — 


"88 | 123° 17’ 82° ol’ 70° 44’ 84,541 - 915963" 111,758 | 


APERTURE TABLE—continued. 


Corresponding Angle (2 w) for — Limit of Resolvmg Power, in Lines to an Inch.) Pores 
- Numerical ee EN a an SI ena a att ee ae anata ee oa tc, PENNE Lingy trating 
Aperture Air Water Homogeneous) write Light. | (Blue) Light. | Photography. | POW CE yc LOW Ts 
te : Immersion | (x 9°5269 p, GQ lpsel joi asordo0ou | 8) | (2 
— (WsiN w= G.)|| (2 = 1°00). | Gv = 1733). (m= 1°52), Line K.) : Line F.) near Line he). j G) 
0°87 120° 55’ 81° 49" | 69° 49! 83,877 90,918 110,488 | Soha 1°149 
0:86 118° 388’ 80° 34’ 68° 54’ 82,913 89,873 109,218 “740. | 1°163 
-0°85- 116°.25’ fi aed 68° 0! 81,949 | 88,828 107,948 °725 4 1-176 
0:84 114° 17’ 78° 20’ 67°» 6! 80,984 87,783 106,678. - “706. 41-190 
0:83 112° 12! 77° 14" | ~ 66° 12’ | 80,020 | 86,738 105,408 | “689 © 4 1-205 
0:82 110° 10’ 76°° 8! 65° 18’ |} ~ 79,056 85,693 104,138 | *672. } 1:220 
0-81 108° 10’ TDS Ne 649? OA 78,092 84,648 102,868 | "656 4 1-235 
.- 0°80 106° 16’ Tare. 63° 31’ 77,128 - 83, 603 101,598 | +640 | 1+250 
0°79 104°. 22! 72°. 53! 62° 38’ 76,164 $2,558 100,828 ¥ ~624 1°266 
0°78 102°: 31’ 71° 49" 61° 45’ fF 75,200 |: 81,513 99,058 ~ *608 | 1-282 
O77 100° 42’ 70° 45% 60° 52’ 74,236 80,468 97,788 “593 | 1:299 
0:76 98° 56’ 69° 42? 60° 0’ 13,272 79,423 96,518 | +578. | 1-316 
-- 0°75 |} 97° 11’ 68°. 40’ 59°. 8! f 72,308 78,378 95,248 | “563 1°333 
0:74- 95° 28" 67° 37'. | 58°. 16’ 71,343 717,339 93,979 “548 f 1-351 
, 0°73 93° 46’ 66° 34’ 57° 24! 70,379 76,288 92,709 | "533 | 1:370 
0-72 92° 6’ 65° 32’ 96° 82) f.- 695415 | 75,242 91,439 | ‘018 § 1-389 
0:71 1; 90° 28’ 64° 32? 5d5° 41’ 68,451. 74,197 90,169 | *504 1°408 
0:70 88° 51’ 63° BY 5+£° 50! , 67,487 73,152 88,899 | “490 | 1*429 
. 0:69 PS aL On| 72 622-308 53° 59! 66,523 72,107 87,629 | °476 | -1:449 
0°68. . 85° 41’ 61° 30’ DBO ONS b 265. O09 = 71,062 - 86,359 “462 | 1-471 
0-67 84° 8’ | - 60° 30! 92°18" 64,595 70,017 85,089 +449 1°493 - 
- 0°66 82° 36’ BOS BOL cb19 28! 63,631 68,972 83,819 | °436 1°515 
» 0:65 81° 6! 58° 30" | 50° 38’ 62,667 67,927 82,549 | *423 1-538 
-0:64 Osa 57O 3 49° 48! 61,702 66,882 81,279 | °410° | 1-562 
0°63 — 78° 6’ | 56° 32’ “48° 58? 60,738 65,837 80,009 -397 | 1-587 
0°62 76° 38’ 50° Bt’ 48° . 9’ 59,774 64,792 78,739 “B84 1-613 
<OQ°6L» |) 75° 0’ 54° 36'- | 47°19’ 58,810 63,747 717,469 +372 1-639 
~~ 0°60 To° 44! 532 38! 46° 30’ 57,846 | 62,702 76,199 7360 1-667 
'- 0°59 722 18 52° 40’ | 45° 40° 56,881 - 61,657 74,929 | "348 1-695 
— 0°58 70° 54’ 5LS° 49! 44° 5]! D0, 918 60,612 73,659 > +336 1-724 
» 0:57 69° 30! 50° 45! 44° 9! 54, 954 BO. D7. |s>-72, 389 +320 | 1-754 
~ 0°56 -|) 68° 6! 49°48" 43° 14’ | 53,990 -- 58,522 71,119 f “314 | 1:786 
0°55 ‘|| 66° 44’ 49° 51’ 42° 25! 53,026 57,477 69,849 | -303° | 1-818 
- O54 65° 22’ 47° 54 41°37’ 52,061 56,432 68,579 fe. * 292 1*852 
+ O-53--|| 64° - 0’ 46° 58’. |- 40°. 48’ 51, 097 ~ 90,387 67,309, *281 1°887 
0:52 62° 40’ 46°. 2’ | 40° 0’ |. 50,133 04,342 66,039 4 “270 -#-1°923 
» 0°51. 61° 20’ 45° 6 39° 12’ 49,169 53, 297. 64,769 -- +260 -i 1-961 
~ 0°50 60° 0’ 44°. 10’ 38° 24’ 48,205 — 52,252 63,499 *250 42-000 
: 0:48 - |) 57° -22' 42° 18” 86° 49’ - 46,277. | 50,162- 60,959 | +230 (1 2-088 
0:46. | 54° 47’ 40°. 28’ 35° 15’ 44,349 48,072 98,419 -| *212. | 2-174 
— 0°45. 53° 30’ Dulas 34° 27’ | 43,385 47,026. 97,149 | 7203 | 2-222 
© 0°44 52°. 13! 38° 38’ 33°-40' | 42,420 45,981 53,879 -194 1 2-973 
: Q:42 49° 40’ 36° 49° Sosa 40,492 43,891 93,339 “176 | 2-381 
- 0°40 47°..-9! 35° 0’ 30° 31’ 38, 564 41,801 00,799 | “160 2:°500 
~ 20°38 = 44° 40! Soo LOE Sh 28O- BT? 36,636 39,711 48,259 “144 | 2-632 
0°36. || 42°12! 31° 24” 27° 24’ 34,708 37,621 45,719. | *130 | 2°778 
0:35 |} 40° 58’ | 30° 30’ 26° 38! 33,744 36,576 445449 -] +123 «| 2-857- 
0:34 39° 44’ 299.37! 25° 1’ 32,779 ~ 855531 43.179 “116 §:2°9i1 
-: 0-32 37° 20’ 27° 51’ 24° 18 30; 851 33,441 40,639 - | * 102 3125 
0°30. 34° 56’ 26° 4! 22° 46' 28,923 31,351 38, 099 “090 | 3°333 
0°28 32° 32! 24° 18" 21°: 14’ 26,995 29,261 35,509 °078 # 3-571 
0°26 30° 10’ 22° 33! 19° 42’ 25,067 27,171 338,019 “068 3°846 
0:25 28° .58" 21° 40? 18° 56’ 24,103 26,126 31,749 | -063 | 4-000 
0°24. 27° 46! 20° 487 18° 10’ 23,138 25,081 30,479 -058 4:167 
0722 - 25° 26! 19° 2’ 16° 38! 21,210 22,991 27,940 | *048. | 4°545 
0-20 23° 4’ 17° 18!" ove sd 19,282 20,901 25,400 -040 3°000 
- 0:18 — 20° 44’ 15° 34! 13° 36’ 17,354 18,811 - 22,860 °032. | 5-555 
0:16 18° 24! EBS Ole ADO: a5! 15,426 16,721 20,320 *026 6°250 
0:15 17° 14 12°: 58’ 11° 19’ 14,462 15,676 19,050 | +023 6-667 
0:14 16° 5’ 12°°6! 10° 34’ 13,498 14,630 17,78) *020 7148 
0:12 13° 47’ 10° 22’ g° 4! “11,570 12,540 15,240 “O14 8-333 
0:10 11° 29’ 8°.38' 7° BL 9,641 10,450 12,700 ‘010 4190-000 
% 0°08 2b -92 7 6° 54! 6°. 3’ 7,713 8,360 10,160 “006. 912-500 
A aoe 6° 53’ 5° 10’ 4°. 32" | 5,783 6,270 |- 7,620 ‘004 [16°667 


*05 6° 44’ ~ 4° 18’ | 8° 46’ } ~ 4,821 5,225 6,350 -003 {20-000 


( 10 


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JOURN: -R.MICR,.SOC 1889.P1 1. 


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) 


AD Michael ad nat. del. _ West,Newman & Co lth. 
Anatomy of Uropoda Kramert. 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. 


FEBRUARY 1889. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. 


I.— Observations on the Special Internal Anatomy of 
Uropoda Kramert. 


By Aupert D. Micwast, F.LS., F.Z.S., F.B.MLS., &c. 
(Read 9th January, 1889.) 


Prate I. 


Tue anatomy of the exo-skeleton, and of the trophi, of Uropoda has 
already been studied and figured by M. Megnin,* who selected 
U. vegetans for his purpose ; and in many particulars by Dr. Kramer ; { 
and lately in the undermentioned paper by Herr W. Winkler. 
I therefore confine these observations to the internal anatomy, and 
I shall only mention such parts of the external structure as it may be 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. 


e, (sophagus. @!, Enlargement of same before entering the ventriculus. v, Ventri- 
eulus. c, Colon. 7, Rectum. a, Anus (seen through the rectum from the 
transparency of the latter). cw, Larger ceca of the ventriculus. cz!, Smaller 
ditto. mv, Malpighian vessels. mv!, Ditto, narrow neck where the vessel arises. 
mo*, Ditto, enlarged chamber. mv*, Ditto, narrow part between the chamber 
and the lateral enlargement. mv‘, Ditto, lateral enlargement. mv, Ditto, 
anterior narrow portion. mv°, Ditto, reflexed portion. mv’, Ditto, blind end. 
m, Muscles with tendinous attachments. m1, Attachment to the side of the body. 
, , Testes. vs, Sack-like organ (vesicula seminalis ?). g, g, Oil-glands. de, Ductus 
ejaculatorius. p, Penis. ar, Protecting armature of same. ov, Central ovary. 
od, Oviducts. e, e, The fully, or nearly fully, developed eggs contained therein. 
va, Vagina. ves, Vestibule. gp, Genital plate. 6r, Brain (so called). 


All the figures represent Uropoda Krameri. 
Fig. 1.—Under-side of adult female x 55. The genital plate would fill up the 
genital aperture exactly. The small space necessarily left between the 
two in the figure is to keep the lines distinct. 

», 2.—Epistome and oral tube of adult, seen from above, x 175. The basal joints 

of the palpus are indicated on the left side only. 

3.—The same, seen from the side; same amplification. 
»  4.—Chelate portion of the right mandible of adult male, seen from the right 

(outer) side, x 350. 


* “Mémoire sur l’organisation et la distribution zoologique des Acariens de la 
Famille des Gamasidés,” Journ. de l’Anat. et de la Physiol. (Robin), 1876, pp. 288 - 
336. 

+ “Zur Naturgeschichte einiger Gattungen aus der Familie der Gamasiden,’ 
Archiv fiir Naturgesch., 1876, pp. 28-105. 


1889. B 


2 Transactions of the Society. 


necessary shortly to refer to, in order to explain the organs connected 
with them. 

The Uropodine are a subfamily of the Gamasidz, but are in 
many important respects exceptional: the position of the first pair of 
legs, the coxee whereof are inserted within the oral tube, the position 
of the male genital organ, and the slender mandibles form well- 
marked distinctions. The general appearance also is different from 
that of most of the Gamasidzx, so much so indeed that Hermann * 
included the species discovered by him (U. cassideus) in his genus 
Notaspis; a genus intended to be entirely composed of what we now 
call Orcbatide (Latreille’s earlier name of Oribata having excluded 
Hermann’s Notaspzs). 

During the summer of 1888, when staying at a farmhouse in 
Derbyshire, I found Uropoda Kramer (Canestrini)f in great abundance 
on the floors and walls of an oid barn used for storing hay. This 


Fig. 5.—Claw and caruncle, highly magnified. 

» 6.—Larva. 

»  7.—General view to show the arrangement of the principal internal organs of 
the adult female, x 65. The whole of the dorsal chitinous plate has 
been removed, except the striated band round the periphery, and a small 
portion within this, which is shown by its broken outline. The masses 
of fatty matter and almost all the muscles have also been removed. For 
the sake of clearness, the respiratory system is shown on the left side 
only, and the tendons and commencement of the muscles whereby the 
Malpighian vessels were attached to the dorsum and side, are shown on 
the right side only. 

»»  8.—Alimentary canal and Malpighian vessels seen from above, x 70. The 
drawing is made from a large and apparently well-nourished specimen 
immediately after dissection. The Malpighian vessel is shown on the 
right side only, its commencement being indicated on the left. 

»  9.—The alimentary canal seen from below, x 70. This drawing was made from 
a smaller and possibly less well-nourished specimen, after the dissection 
had been partially prepared for permanent preservation. 

» 10.—Internal sexual organs of adult male seen from above, x 70. 

», 11.—The same from below; same amplification, 

5, 12.—Penis in its ordinary position resting in its armature, x 175. 

» 13.—Penis withdrawn from its armature, x 175. 

» 14.—Internal genital organs of adult female seen from below, x 70. 

,, 15.—Vestibule looking straight upwards into the mouth from below, x 160. 

» 16.—Genital plate seen from within, x 75. 

», 17.—Point of the same, showing the thin lanceolate termination, x 300. 

» 18.—Genital plate and vestibule, x 70. General view to show the relative size, 
and the mode in which they would fit against each other. The vestibule 
is turned to the right and backward; the oviduct being thereby twisted. 

», 19.—Respiratory system of the left side, highly magnified, seen from within the 
body. ac, acetabulum for reception of 2nd coxa. ac*, ditto for 3rd 
coxa. d?, depression for reception of 2nd leg. 4%, depression for recep- 
tion of 3rd leg. st, stigma. pt, peritreme. itr, main tracheal stem. 
bt, bt, b¢, bundles of fine trachez. 

», 20.—Brain (so called), and cesophageal ganglionic collar. The hole near the 
centre is where the cesophagus passed through; it has been removed. 


* «Mémoire aptérologique,’ Strasbourg, 1804. 

t+ I believe the species to be U. Krameri; I have not, of course, Professor 
Canestrini’s type specimen to compare the anatomy, but the creature appears to agree 
with his description and with Professor Berlese’s drawing, which is stated to be 
taken from that specimen. ‘Acari Miriapodi e Scorpioni Italiani,’ fase. xi. 


Internal Anatomy of Uropoda Krameri. By A. D. Michael. 3 


seemed to me a favourable opportunity for ascertaining something 
about the internal anatomy. As I investigated the matter I found it 
very interesting ; especially from the numerous resemblances to the 
corresponding organs in the Oribatidz, which I had previously 
studied. The main features of the internal structure turned out, as 
might be expected, to be essentially of the Gamasid type, still there 
were found to be many points in which there was an approach to the 
organization of the Orebatide ; thus showing that the external resem- 
blance which deceived Hermann was accompanied by certain modifica- 
tions of the internal parts, producing a condition somewhat inter- 
mediate between the types of the two families. 

The investigations were carried on entirely by dissection, in the 
same manner as I had previously conducted those relative to the 
Oribatidz.* Preparations of the actual organs therefore remain in 
my possession for reference, and as proofs of the correctness of these 
notes. All dissections have been frequently repeated. 

Upon my return to London, I found that during my absence an 
important and excellent paper upon the anatomy of the Gamasidz 
had been published by Herr Willibald Winkler.f This paper, although 
it principally treats of the anatomy of the genus Gamasus, deals also 
toa lesser extent with that of Uropoda obsewra (Koch). Herr Winkler’s 
investigations were clearly prior in date to mine, but of course mine 
were conducted, and this paper written, and the drawings made in 
entire ignorance of them. Under these circumstances our observations 
necessarily cover a portion of the same ground; but on the other 
hand, large parts of the two works do not overlap. Herr Winkler’s 
treatise is greatly devoted to the histology of the subject and to the 
mouth-parts, the nerves, &c., which I have not touched upon; while 
I think a good deal will be found in the following pages that has not 
been included in Herr Winkler’s investigations, and, indeed, many of 
the organs may differ, or may not exist, in the species which he has 
selected. I thought at first that it would be better to eliminate from 
this paper snch portions as were covered by the German memoir, but 
I found that doing so would render the remainder obscure, the con- 
nection of subjects being broken. I have therefore thought it best to 
retain them, making this acknowledgment of Herr Winkler’s 
priority, but I have usually mentioned where he has described the 
same thing, and of course I have pointed out any differences which 
have struck me, although these are not numerous nor specially 
important. 


General Arrangement of the Organs. Fig. 7. 


When the dorsal shield, and the fatty matter which underlies it 
are removed from Uropoda Krameri, and the muscles of the mandibles, 
&c., so far cut away as to enable the operator to see the other parts 
clearly, the arrangement of the principal organs is found to be that 


* ¢ British Oribatide,’ Ray Soc., 1884, p. 142. 
+ “Anatomie der Gamasiden,” Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien, vii. (1888) pp. 317-45. 


3-4 


4 Transactions of the Society. 


shown in fig. 7, which is a female; but it must be remembered that 
no two specimens agree exactly in the relative size, shape, and 
arrangement of the various organs; indeed the two sides rarely 
absolutely correspond. Moreover, in consequence of the highly elastic 
and extensile nature of some of the parts, considerable differences 
occur in the appearance of the same side of the identical specimen 
from time to time; the general arrangement is, however, naturally 
always similar. The mouth-opening in Uropoda is in the ventral 
plate, some little distance from the point of the rostrum, and conse- 
quently the alimentary canal does not commence at the anterior end 
of the body-cavity, the space in front of it being occupied partly by 
muscles and trachez, and being partly unoceupied. The ventriculus 
may be seen lying nearly centrally and occupying a large portion of 
the entire space; the cesophagus proceeding from it forward and 
slightly downward. The great supra-cesophageal ganglion is seen in 
the central line near the ventriculus, while the hinder portion of the 
canal is entirely concealed by the central ovary. A very large 
Malpighian vessel on each side may be seen, usually filled with white 
opaque matter. The posterior ends of these tubes are concealed 
beneath the central ovary, while the vessels run at the side of, or 
slightly under, the ventriculus, but extend as far forward as the 
mouth-opening, or even a little beyond its commencement; and then 
turn sharply backward so as to fall over the anterior edge of the 
ventriculus and lie upon it. The larger eggs in the oviducts may 
commonly be just seen, below all the above-named organs, projecting 
at about the middle of the ventriculus. The trachez will also be seen, 
arranged at first in three principal bundles, and then separating out, 
as explained below. 


The Alimentary Canal. Figs. 8-9. 


The canal has a great general resemblance to that of the Oribatide, 
but is composed of finer and more delicate tissues, which renders it 
very difficult to get the whole canal out perfect without breaking it, 
although there is comparatively little difficulty in dissecting it out in 

1eces. 
t There can scarcely be said to be any pharynx in the sense of an 
enlarged chamber, such, for instance, as the pharyngeal sac of Huxley 
in Scorpio ; a hardly perceptible widening of the cesophagus before it 
enters the mouth-cavity being all that exists; but if the anterior 
portion of the cesophageal tube, i.e. the portion to which the dilator 
muscles for suctorial purposes are attached, although scarcely if at 
all enlarged, is to be regarded as a pharynx; which appears to be the 
mode in which Herr Winkler uses the term in this instance, then of 
course it would exist, but not be distinctly divided off from the 
cesophagus. ‘This is practically a question of nomenclature: I have 
used the word ‘‘ oesophagus” for the whole, which appears to agree 
with its use by MacLeod, Henkin, Nalepa, and others, in other families. 
The cesophagus (c) is long, about half the length of the ven- 


Internal Anatomy of Uropoda Kramer. By A. D. Michael. 5 


triculus, and is quite straight and very thin and small in diameter ; it 
has exceedingly delicate, semitransparent walls, without the conspicu- 
ous circular bands of muscle so commonly found embracing the corre- 
sponding part in the Oribatide. The cesophagus proceeds upward 
and backward from the mouth to the anterior edge of the ventriculus, 
which it enters on the ventral aspect of that viscus, and a trifle behind 
its anterior margin. ‘There is a slight enlargement of the cesophagus 
before entering the ventriculus, but not anything of the nature of a 
proveniriculus, or sucking stomach. During life, slow, regular, peri- 
staltic movements may sometimes be seen passing along the cesophagus 
in a backward direction. 

The ventriculus varies considerably in form; it is a large organ 
in comparison to the size of the creature, occupying nearly half the 
length, and nearly two-thirds of the width of the body. It is com- 
pressed dorso-ventrally. The principal mass is more or less trapeze- 
shaped, the anterior margin is, however, always somewhat the wider, 
and appears more so than it really is in consequence of the arrange- 
ment of the caca. The hind-margin is rounded (fig. 8), or pro- 
longed in the central part (fig. 9), so as to extend somewhat 
backward. ‘The whole organ is much stronger and more muscular 
than any other part of the canal. The ceca of the ventriculus, 
particularly during life, are comparatively shallow, and widely open ; 
often almost losing the character of ceca and becoming mere 
lobes or pockets. They are arranged as follows, viz. there are 
four principal lobes (cz), these proceed from the dorsal level, and are 
rounded projections of the corners of the ventriculus, irregular in 
form, and often having the outlines more or less divided into 
secondary very shallow lobes, or wrinkles. Of these four lobes the 
anterior pair project outward, while the posterior pair are directed 
rather backward, and often have a tendency to curl inward. The 
anterior margin of the ventriculus, between the front pair of larger 
lobes, is almost wholly occupied by five smaller lobes; the three 
central of these are rounded and very shallow, and are indeed little 
more than undulations; they proceed from the dorsal part of the 
anterior edge. ‘The remaining pair are a little longer, although still 
short, and are curious horn-like structures curving toward the median 
line and pointed (c#,); they arise from the ventral part of the 
anterior edge. In addition to the eight above named there are 
usually a pair of small, rounded, mamillary projections from the 
ventral surface (fig. 9). 

In the large size of the ventriculus, and the shortness of the caca 
which proceed from it, the ordinary Gamasid type seems to me to be 
departed from. In the genus Gamasus, &c., the ventriculus is often 
a comparatively small and narrow organ, which appears as if its chief 
office were to form a point of communication between its own 
enormous czca and the hind-gut. ‘These caca often extend quite 
from the anterior to the posterior extremity of the body, and are 
irregularly placed, intertwining with the Malpizhian vessels to some 


6 Transactions of the Society. 


extent, and forming the largest and most conspicuous organs of the 
body. The large ventriculus of Uropoda Krameri much more 
resembles that of some of the Oribatede. It is true that in the latter 
family also the czeca, although only two, are usually large, and form 
much more important organs than in Uropoda Kramer ; but in the 
typical forms of the genus Damzus (Oribatide) the ceca are in 
a similar condition, having become mere lobes of the ventriculus, even 
less developed than in the Uropoda here spoken of. ‘The ventriculus 
is the “ Mitteldarm ” of Winkler. Kramer in 1876 * indicated 
somewhat of this difference between Uropoda and Gamasus. Winkler 
is inclined to deny it, but Winkler’s Uropoda, which he speaks of as 
having long ceca to the ventriculus, must be very different from 
U. Kramert, of which species I have dissected large numbers, and 
always found the ventriculus in the condition above described. 

There is not any small intestine in Uropoda Krameri; the 
colon proceeds direct from the ventriculus, arising from the ventral 
surface of that organ, very near to, but not quite at, the posterior 
margin. The colon is almost globular, but not quite, being slightly 
elongated; it is directed almost perpendicularly downward; it is 
sharply constricted, both anteriorly where it arises from the ventri- 
culus, and posteriorly where it communicates with the rectum. 
These constrictions are like gatherings-in of the walls of the canal, 
appearing folded or wrinkled at these points as if a loose sack were 
drawn in by a circular tie. A very short and narrow neck connects 
the colon with the rectum; it is this neck which receives the 
Malpighian vessels, as mentioned hereafter. The rectum is very 
similar to the colon, usually a trifle smaller and less globular in form ; 
it ig also less sharply constricted at the posterior end where it 
surrounds the anus (fig. 8), which is a very small lenticular opening 
in the chitin of the ventral plate. It can be closed by somewhat 
chitinized folds of the inner cuticle, and is protected exteriorly by an 
elliptical chitinous ring in the ventral plate; this ring touches the 
anal opening at the ends, but not at the sides. 

I have purposely left the above description of the hind-gut as 
T wrote it before seeing Winkler’s paper. I have adopted the same 
nomenclature as I formerly employed relatively to the Oribatide. 
I find, however, that what I call the colon Winkler calls the hind- 
eut (“ Enddarm”), and what I call the rectum he also states to be 
the rectum, but he usually calls it the excretionary collecting bladder 
(“Sammelblase der Excretionorgane”), and he considers it to be a 
portion of the excretionary system (Malpighian vessels), not of the 
alimentary canal. 

It would probably be more convenient if words such as “rectum,” 
“colon,” “ cesophagus,” &c., which are used in describing the higher 
animals, were excluded from works on the lower creatures, such as the 
Arthropoda, altogether; but if this be not done the question of 


* “Zur Naturgeschichte einiger Gattungen aus der Familie der Gamasiden,” 
Archiv fiir Naturgesch., 1876, p. 63. 


Internal Anatomy of Uropoda Kramert. By A. D. Michael. 7 


nomenclature becomes somewhat arbitrary, and is probably of little 
importance so long as it is clearly indicated exactly what the organs 
are like; but the question of whether the sack-like organ adjoining 
the anus is a portion of the alimentary canal or of the Malpighian 
vessels is possibly more substantial. ‘There cannot be any doubt that 
the organ in question is, so to speak, a cloaca, into which both the 
systems discharge, and which conveys the excremental matter from 
both to the anus. In the Gamasidz the amount of matter discharged 
by the Malpighian vessels is large, and that furnished by the canal 
is small compared to what it is in the Ordbatide and many other 
families ; thus the former is sometimes in excess in the contents of 
the organ in question. Herr Winkler also gives histological reasons 
for considering this viscus to be part of the former system; but on 
the other hand, the hind-gut of Uropoda Krameri, as I have so 
frequently seen it, if this organ, which I call the rectum, be included 
as part of it, agrees almost exactly with that of the Oribatide ; in 
which family the Malpighian vessels do not exist in this situation, and 
do not communicate with this organ nor with the hind-cut at all. 
Moreover, this rectum, as I call it, follows what I call the colon in the 
ordinary manner in the species I am treating of, and constantly, 
indeed usually, contains balls of the rejected portions of the digested 
food, similar to those in the colon, and similar to those found in the 
rectum of the Orzbatide; also it seems to me more consonant with 
one’s ordinary ideas to consider the viseus by which the alimentary 
canal discharges to the anus as being the rectum in the usual sense 
of the word. I think, therefore, that this organ should be regarded 
as primarily a portion of the alimentary canal, although functioning 
as a cloaca. I do not gather from Herr Winkler’s description at what 
exact point the canal and Malpighian vessels discharge into this organ, 
which | call the “rectum,” nor how the discharged matter passes 
through it to reach the anus; but if I understand his drawings 
correctly, there must be some difference in these respects between his 
species and Uropoda Kramer. 


The Excretory System. Fig. 8. 


This is entirely of the Gamasus type, and does not in any way 
resemble that of the Orabatide , it consists of two very long sack-like 
organs, which may probably be correctly called Malpighian vessels 
(fig. 7, mv); they are arranged bilaterally, one on each side of the 
body, and are usually more or less filled with opaque white excre- 
mental matter from end to end. These vessels arise, one on each 
side, from the narrow neck of the alimentary canal which connects 
the colon with the rectum. Hach vessel commences with a short 
tubular portion of small diameter (fig. 8, mv"), which, indeed, is a 
necessity to enable it to spring from the very constricted part of the 
alimentary canal where it is placed. ‘This narrow part leads into an 
elliptical chamber (m v?), which is far the largest portion of the 


8 Transactions of the Society. 


vessel in diameter and capacity ; it is often as large as, or larger than, 
either the colon or rectum. From this chamber a second narrow 
portion (i v*), which is considerably longer than the first, but not so 
sharply defined, leads to a lateral enlargement slightly constricted in 
the middle (m v*); this portion is in shape like two elongated pyri- 
form organs with their larger ends together and fusing ; but, of course, 
the lumen is continuous. From this enlarged lateral portion another 
narrow part (mv*) of the vessel, much longer than the previous 
narrow parts, and more undulated, runs forward nearly to the articu- 
lation of the second leg. Up to this point the Malpighian vessel has 
been placed at the side of, or slightly under, the ventriculus: the 
extent to which it passes under varies in different specimens, and 
probably in the same specimen at different times, depending on the 
relative distension of the canal and the Malpighian vessels respec- 
tively, and on the precise form and position of the latter, which are 
not by any means constant. After attaining the point to which it 
has been described, viz. about the articulation of the second leg, the 
course of the vessel entirely changes; it turns sharply upward and 
then backward, so that it folds over the anterior edge of the ven- 
triculus, and the remainder of the vessel is a reflexed portion (mv‘°), 
which lies upon the ventriculus and runs straight backward. It 
gradually enlarges towards its distal end, which is blind and rounded 
(mv"). A powerful fasciculus cf muscles (m) which arise from the 
sides and dorsal cuticle, are inserted by tendinous attachments into 
the wall of the vessel just behind the lateral enlargement, and probably 
assist in the peristaltic movements. ‘The vessel is also attached to 
the side of the body at m’, but in this case apparently merely as a tie, 
not by muscles of any importance. The peristaltic movements and 
the transfer of excretory matter, of course, proceed from the blind end 
of the vessel toward the rectum, and are stronger than those of the 
canal; this is usual in the Gamaside, but the movement is not so 
strone as in Dermanyssus, and many other members of the family. 
The Malpighian vessels are generally more or less distinctly seen 
through the dorsal shield in living specimens, and are the most con- 
spicuous organs in the body; they are equally conspicuous in the 
nymphs and larvee, and may even be clearly seen in the advanced 
embryo while still within the egg, and at that early period they are 
already filled with the white matter. 


The Reproductive Organs. 


This system is another of those which bears a strong resem- 
blance to that of the Oribatidx, but naturally there are differences of 
considerable importance, as will be seen in the following description. 

As in most other families of the Acarzna, these organs, during the 
period of activity and maturity, are extremely large in proportion to 
the whole size of the creature ; so much so that they often appear to 
push all the other organs out of place; this, as might be anticipated, 
is more especially the case with the female when the eggs are ripe. 


Internal Anatomy of Uropoda Kramert. By A.D. Michael. 9 


The annular form of the system, taken as a whole, which is so well 
known in the Arachnida, and which is so conspicuous in that of the 
Oribatide, is equally clearly shown in the female of Uropoda 
Krameri ; but in the male this form is more lost, in consequence 
of the absence of the long vasa deferentia which form an element of 
the ring in the Oribatidx. Probably it is only those who know how 
the ring is formed in the males of the last-named family who 
would recognize some vestige of it in those of the Uropoda. 


The Male. Figs. 10-13. 


The male organs lie almost immediately below the ventriculus; 
they consist of a central chamber, six more or less sack-like organs, 
and a large single duct leading to the penis. The most conspicuous 
of these is the central chamber (vs), a large heart-shaped organ 
compressed dorso-yentrally, and having the broader end turned 
forward; this organ is the nearest to the ventral level, the other 
parts of the system lying slightly above it. I take it to be partly 
elandular in its office, and also to some extent to function as a vesicula 
seminalis ; in which case it would agree with the corresponding organ 
in the Oribatide ; and this appears to be Winkler’s view with 
regard to the organ in his species, U. obsewra ; in which case, how- 
ever, the organ appears from his description to be more globular. 

Four long, sack-lke, glandular organs (¢’, ¢) take their origin 
immediately above the central chamber, and near its anterior margin. 
They do not appear to communicate directly with the central chamber, 
but all seem to open into a small median antechamber. The sacks 
are pyriform, smallest where they enter the antechamber, and largest 
at the blind, free ends. One pair, which are usually somewhat the 
larger, are nearly straight, and are directed almost backward. The 
corresponding organs in U. obscwra are regarded by Winkler as being 
the true testes. The second pair, the mouths of which are placed 
above those of the first pair, are more curved, or comma-shaped ; 
they are directed almost transversely across, and partly under the 
central chamber; their distal ends curve backward. If these cor- 
respond to the second pair of sacks figured by Herr Winkler in his 
diagram he regards them as accessory glands, not testes; but as he 
only mentions four sacks in his species, and I find six in mine, it is 
probable that his accessory glands correspond to the smaller sacks 
- (oil-glands) mentioned immediately below, and that the pair of organs 
now treated of are rather to be regarded as a second pair of testes ; at 
all events they greatly resemble the first pair. In addition to these 
four there are the two other sacks above referred to (g), they are 
much smaller and almost globular. These organs have thin walls, 
and contain only a highly refractive oily liquid. They are placed one 
on each side of the ductus ejaculatorius, and apparently communicate 
with the small median antechamber. Somewhat similar organs exist 
in a few of the Oribatide, but not in all. 


10 Transactions of the Society. 


The ductus ejaculatorius, as it may probably be called, is a large, 
straight tube, running forward and downward in the median line ; it 
enlarges a little, gradually, before reaching the external genital 
armature, which it surrounds. The penis (p) is a short, chitinous, 
pyriform or gourd-shaped organ, situated exteriorly on the ventral 
surface in the median line, between the coxz of the third pair of legs. 
It is protected by a chitinous armature (ar) formed of a circular 
ridge, sufficient of the circle being cut away to admit the broad end of 
the penis, and of a thinner, but still stout, lamina within the circle. 
This lamina is also cut away to fit the penis, the distal end and edge 
of which, however, when the organ is not in use, slip under the edge 
of the lamina, the whole organ then presents the appearance of a 
chitinous ring surrounding a thin circular plate with a gourd-shaped 
opening in it; the chitin of the penis, when seen through from the 
side, being much thinner than that of the lamina. This is represented 
by figs. 10, 12, while fig. 13 shows the intromittent organ withdrawn 
previous to erection. 


The Female Organs. Figs. 14-18. 


The female reproductive organs consist of a central ovary ; two 
long, paired oviducts; an unpaired vagina; and the vestibule. The 
organs, as before stated, practically form a ring; and they greatly 
resemble the corresponding parts in the Oribatide ; but there is one 
very marked difference, viz. the entire absence of the long, protrusible, 
and collapsible ovipositor, which forms so conspicuous a feature of 
the system in that family; and its replacement to some extent by 
the vestibule, which, however, is strictly an internal structure. The 
central ovary (figs. 7-14, ov) is placed in the median line, almost at 
the posterior end of the body; it naturally varies in size and form, 
but it most commonly has the general appearance of a bunch of 
grapes with the small end the nearer to the posterior margin of the 
body. ‘This ovary looks as though entirely composed of eggs in an 
early stage of development; the eggs are not by any means all the 
same size, but it seems strange that, in all specimens which I have 
dissected, the smaller eggs have been clustered round the entrance to 
the oviducts, while the larger eggs were chiefly at the hinder end 
and periphery of the ovary; this would be comprehensible enough if 
the eggs were placed dehisced into a body-cavity, but this does not 
appear to be the case; one is therefore led to suggest that the eggs 
may possibly work backward along the periphery of the mass, and 
then forward to the mouth of the oviduct through the centre of the 
mass. Even the largest eggs in the ovary show the nucleus clear 
and undivided, not the least sign of yolk-division. ‘The oviducts are 
thin, transparent tubes of moderate length, and considerably curved 
or undulated, but they cannot be called convoluted. They are evi- 
dently very capable of distension and contraction, and when not dis- 
tended by eggs are generally strongly corrugated. They almost 


Internal Anatomy of Uropoda Krameri. By A. D. Michael. 11 


always contain two eggs (e, e), one on each side. I have not ever seen 
more than one egg in each oviduct at once, sometimes I have found 
the oviduct on one side without any egg in it. These eggs are 
extremely large in proportion to the size of the creature ; the chorion 
is thin and almost transparent, and the embryo within may generally 
be seen, often apparently fully-formed and ready to emerge; but I 
have not ever noticed any motion of the embryo as a whole, the posi- 
tion with the legs folded closely to the body being always the same. 
Winkler appears only to have found a single, short, unpaired oviduct 
in Gamasus; he does not say what there was in his species of 
Uropoda. The two oviducts of Uropoda Krameri terminate in the 
median line, where they enter the short, and rather wide, azygous 
vagina (va). This organ is also much corrugated, and is evidently 
capable of considerable distension, it terminates in the vestibule (ves). 
I have again used the nomenclature which I employed when I 
described the corresponding parts in the Oribatide. What I call the 
“vagina” Winkler calls the “uterus.” I avoided that term because 
it conveyed to my mind the idea of an organ wherein the ovum was 
matured or developed; now this is not the case with the part in 
question ; the development of the egg within the body, after leaving 
the ovary, takes place entirely in the oviduct; the passage through 
what I call the “vagina” must be very rapid, for 1 have not ever 
found an egg in it either in Uropoda Krameri or in the Oribatide, 
although I have dissected very large numbers. As the oviduct of 
Winkler’s Gamasus is unpaired it is not easy to say for certain where 
the corresponding part ends, and where the part corresponding to his 
“uterus” begins in Uropoda Krameri, possibly his “ uterus” may 
include the homologue of a portion of the oviducts of my species, 
particularly as he says that the egg is to some extent matured in it. 
What Winkler calls the “ vagina,” apparently corresponds to what 
I call the “vestibule,” but the organ in Uropoda Krameri differs 
greatly from anything which Winkler describes in his species; it is 
singular and somewhat complicated, it may, perhaps, be said to be 
broadly lenticular in the general form of the chitinous bar which 
surrounds its mouth, and which would be called a “ring” if it were 
round; but it is not truly lenticular, because, although the curved 
sides meet sharply so as to form a point anteriorly, yet they meet 
more vaguely so as to form a curve posteriorly. A little behind the 
centre is a slight chitimous projection from the exterior of the bar on 
each side, and from the inside of the bar, just opposite the projection, 
a much slighter bar runs across the ring. ‘The transverse bar, 
although its direction is straight, as regards its course across the body, 
yet curves upward a ‘little in a direction perpendicular to the ring. 
This transverse bar practically forms the thickened edge of the plate 
hereafter mentioned as forming the roof of the vestibule. An exten- 
sion or continuation of the thin membranous walls of the vagina 
is attached round the outside of the chitinous ring, and a stouter 
convex portion stretches across, and entirely covers the hinder half of 


12 Transactions of the Society. 


space inclosed within the ring; thus the whole organ looks like an 
old-fashioned watch-pocket. ‘his will be understood most easily from 
figs. 14, 15. It must be remembered that those figures are drawn as 
though the spectator were looking straight upward from below. In 
consequence of this formation only the anterior half of the ring is 
really open for the passage of the egg, but it is, of course, possible 
that at the moment of the egg passing the transverse bar may bend a 
little and the membrane stretch a little; but even then the opening 
would be very much smaller than the egg that has to pass through it. 
The inside of the parietes of the pocket is provided with several 
transverse rows of long, closely-set teeth or villous processes, not 
probably hard enough to be properly called teeth or spines, but yet 
stronger and firmer than ordinary hairs. The roof of the vestibule 
above the open (anterior) half of the ring ig covered by a thin 
chitinous plate, of which the transverse bar before mentioned forms 
the posterior edge. The median portion of this plate is plain, without 
processes, the plain part forms about one-third of the width. The 
outer portion, all along the lateral and anterior regions of the plate, is 
occupied by a series of radiating lines of processes similar in nature 
to those above described, but larger. Sometimes these processes 
spring from slight ridges, and the part of the plate which carries 
them is slightly convex, although the form of the plate taken as 
a whole is concave. The large, but more or less soft, ege must be 
forced through the comparatively small opening of the vestibule and 
between all these processes. I am not able to say with certainty 
what the office of these processes is, as I have not ever succeeded in 
seeing one of the creatures in the act of oviposition. Winkler 
suggests that the oftice of certain scattered chitinous spines, which he 
found in what he calls the “vagina,” is to hold, and prevent the 
escape of, the spermatophores or balls of spermatozoa which he found 
in that organ. I am fully aware that some species of the genus 
Gamasus are fecundated by the introduction of spermatophores into 
the genital opening of the female ; indeed, in the year 1886 I pointed 
out that this was the case in at least one species of the genus, and I 
also described the process by which it was effected, which I had been 
fortunate enough to observe.* I can scarcely think, however, that 
the retention of spermatophores is the sole office of so elaborate an 
organ as the vestibule of Uropoda Krvameri ; an organ very different 
apparently from the female genital opening in Winkler’s species; 
particularly as I have not noticed spermatophores or balls of sper- 
matozoa in the vestibule of Uropoda Krameri. ‘Three possible further 
uses suggest themselves, viz. firstly, that the processes are simply to 
exclude dust, &c.; this, however, is not altogether probable, as the 
vestibule is covered exteriorly by the closely fitting genital plate; 
and, moreover, neither this idea nor that of retention of spermato- 
phores, would explain the presence of similar processes on the inside 


* “QObservations upon a Species of Gamasus supposed to be unrecorded,” 
Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, 11. (1886) pp. 263-4. 


Internal Anatomy of Uropoda Kramerit. By A. D. Michael. 138 


of the genital plate (as mentioned below). Secondly, the processes 
may hold the egg in position so as to assist in its being forced out by 
spasmodic contractions of the vagina. Thirdly, it is not impossible 
that Uropoda Kramerit may be ovo-viviparous, the young larva 
escaping from the egg at the moment of deposition. If this be so, 
the forcing of the egg through the narrow opening of the vestibule, 
between these numerous processes, would probably serve to break and 
strip off the thin chorion of the egg, allowing the larva to escape. 
This last explanation is rendered more probable by the very advanced 
state of development in which the eggs are found in the oviducts, and 
also by the fact that where I found this Uropoda so plentifully there 
were numerous larvae and nymphs, but I was not able to find any 
eggs. I tried keeping a number of the Uropoda in confinement in 
a cell, but I did not get any eggs. The creatures, however, are 
difficult to keep in good condition in confinement, which may possibly 
explain the absence of eggs from my cell. 

The genital plate (fig. 16 ; and figs 1, 18, gp) is the external door 
in the ventral surface by which the egg, or larva, if the creature be 
ovo-viviparous, emerges from the body of the mother. It is a 
triangular plate with curved sides, and is slightly convex externally 
and concave internally. Its lateral margin is thickened and slightly 
turned in. ‘The posterior edge is almost straight, with very slightly 
rounded corners. At this hinder edge the plate is attached on the 
interior to the ventral plate by the quasi-membranous lining common 
to both; thus a ginglymus hinge is formed. The genital plate 
exactly fits into the opening in the ventral plate, but the anterior end 
of the genital plate is prolonged so as to form a long chitinous 
point ; this has not any opening or depression in the ventral plate to 
receive it, but lies wholly outside the latter. The lateral edge of this 
genital plate has a thin, chitmous, curved, more or less triangular 
lamina standing on edge slightly within the lateral margin of the 
inner side of the plate (fig. 16); the broad part of this lamina is the 
hinder part, and to its upper angle the occlusor muscles of the plate 
are attached by tendons which unite to form one long and very 
substantial tendon, which is inserted at the above-named point of 
attachment, in the manner so frequently found in the Acarina, 
especially the Orzbatidx. The size of the genital plate is really 
surprising ; it occupies almost the whole space between the legs; its 
posterior edge is considerably behind the cox of the fourth pair of 
legs, while its anterior point reaches those of the first pair of legs, 
and almost touches the singular tactile organ found in most Gamasids, 
and which Kramer has called the ventral palpus (“ Bauch-Taster ”), 
and Winkler considers to be the labium. Of course this plate greatly 
more than covers the opening of the vestibule, indeed that opening 
only corresponds to about the anterior half of the genital plate. This 
anterior portion of the genital plate is strengthened by a thin interior 
plate about the size and shape of the opening of the vestibule; and 
all this plate, except a small part at the hind margin, is thickly set 


14 Transactions of the Society. 


with processes similar to those described as arising from the interior 
of the vestibule. In fig. 18 the genital plate and vestibule are 
shown. ‘hey have been artificially turned rather away from each 
other on their left sides, the vestibule being somewhat twisted on the 
vagina. The drawing is intended to give an idea of how they would 
fit against one another if the vestibule were allowed to return to its 
natural position facing the genital plate. 


The Respiratory System. Fig. 19. 


So far as is known, in all Gamasede the breathing-organs are 
trachese; those from each side communicate with the exterior by a 
single stigma, which is usually placed between the second and third 
pairs of legs. This stigma does not open directly to the exterior, but 
into a long tubular peritreme in the thickness of the chitinous 
cuticle. This peritreme varies in form according to the species, and 
is often much undulated or tortuous; it most frequently opens to the 
exterior in front of the second pair of legs. 

In the typical species of the genus Uropoda, and indeed in all 
species if Kramer's definition of the genus be adopted, the ventral 
plate has large shallow depressions in it within which the respective 
legs, when folded up, can be laid so as not to project below the body. 
These depressions are wide, and there is one for each leg of the 
second, third, and fourth pairs; they occupy almost the whole of the 
ventral surface of the body between the coxe of the legs and the 
lateral margin. Being wide, the depressions come close together, and 
are only divided from each other by a ridge formed by the narrow 
strip of the ventral plate which is not depressed. These depressions 
—if that word can be allowed—are bendings-in of the ventral plate ; so 
that although each depression is concave when seen from without, yet 
it is convex when the ventral plate is seen from the dorsal side, 1. e. 
from within the body (of course in order to see it thus it must be 
dissected off, or else the dorsal plate and all the principal interior 
organs must be removed). When seen thus, what from the exterior 
appear ridges between the depressions assume the form cf narrow 
trenches between convexities. 

The stigma on each side of Uropoda Kramerv is situated in a small 
plate-like thickening near the middle of the interior of the depression 
for the third leg. ‘The peritreme (fig. 19) runs diagonally forward 
and outward until it reaches the trench (the ridge externally) which 
divides the depressions for the third and second legs; the peritreme 
runs along the side wall of this trench and turns round the end of it 
in a hook-like manner, terminating by a very fine ending in the 
depression for the second leg. 

From the stigma a short, single tracheal trunk curves backward 
and upward (into the body); from the hinder end of the trunk the 
whole of the trachese which supply the body proceed. ‘The trachez 
are long and excessively fine; they are entirely unbranched, being 
only simple tubes of extreme tenuity. This unbranched condition of 


Internal Anatomy of Uropoda Kramert. By A. D. Michael. 15 


the trachez is similar to that of the same organs in the Oribatidz, 
although the number of trachez is far larger, and each trachea much 
finer, in the Uropoda than in the Oribatidz, but it is not always nor, 
I think, usually, found in the Gamaside. I have not examined any 
large number of species belonging to this family, for the purpose of 
ascertaining this point, but certainly in Dermanyssus, the trachee, 
although not branching so frequently as they usually do in insects, 
do branch in a very clear and decided manner, sometimes dichoto- 
mously, sometimes into three branches, and almost always enlarge so as 
to form a slight swelling immediately before branching. Herr 
Winkler expressly notices the branching of the trachez in the genus 
Gamasus, which agrees with the cases where I have noticed the 
tracheal system in the same species. Herr Winkler does not mention 
the unbranched condition in Uropoda, probably he did not examine it 
for that purpose, or else his species differs from mine. 

The traches of Uropoda Kramert, when they start from the end of 
the tracheal trunk, are in three bundles (bz), one of which is directed 
forward, one backward, and one across the body. Hach bundle might 
easily be mistaken for a single trachea, but if a bundle be lifted up 
with a hair and allowed to fall on a minute drop of water then all 
the tracheze will float and spread out, and the whole will present the 
appearance of a skein of floss-silk which has been separated by a puff 
of wind. Of course the bundles finally separate and supply the 
various parts of the body. 

The walls of the trachese are extremely delicate. I have not 
been able to trace any spiral filament or thickening merely by looking 
at the trachex, but probably some kind of spiral structure might be 
demonstrated by other methods. 


The Brain, or Gisophageal Ganglia. Fig. 20. 


As is usual in the Acarina, the great ganglia in Uropoda are 
round the cesophagus. A very large supra-cesophageal ganglion (the 
so-called brain in the Acarina) lies immediately above the cesophagus 
near where it enters the ventriculus; this “brain” ig compressed 
dorso-ventrally, and has a somewhat convex anterior margin which is 
considerably wider than the hind margin. From under the edge of the 
supra-cesophageal ganglion a very wide commissure runs perpen- 
dicularly downward on each side of the cesophagus, and joins a sub- 
cesophageal ganglion which is large, but considerably smaller than the 
supra-cesophageal ganglion. These ganglia and commissures are so 
substantial, and so closely joined together, that they form a solid 
collar round the cesophagus, the commissures, if commissures they be, 
not being distinctly differentiated, and with care the cesophagus may 
be pulled out from the centre of the nervous collar, which then shows 
a distinct and well-defined hole, or tunnel, through which the 
cesophagus passed. 


16 Transactions of the Society. — 


Il.— List of Desmids from Massachusetts, U.S.A. 


By Wm. WEST, F.L.S., Lecturer on Botany and Materia Medica 
at the Bradford Technical College. 


(Read 14th November, 1888.) 


Pures II. anp III. 


Mr. Joun M. Tyzer, of Amherst College, Massachusetts, has kindly 
sent me a few tubes of Alege from the neighbourhood of Amherst, in 
which I have noted the Desmids detailed in the following list. Other 
interesting Algae were also present, with which I may deal at some 
future time. I also tender my thanks to my son, Mr. G. 8. West, 
for much help during the preparation of this paper. Some of the 
Desmids I believe to be quite new, and there are several interesting 
varieties and forms. 
The figures have been drawn from nature to a uniform scale of 

400 diameters except where otherwise stated. 

Hyalotheca dissiliens (Sm.) Bréb. Frequent. 

Ps 83 var. hians Wolle. 

Desmidium Swarte#i Ag. Sparingly. 

Penium digitus (Khrenb.) Bréb. 

P. oblongum de By. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES II. anp III. 


Puate II. 
Fig. 1—Xanthidium Tylerianum nov. sp. Front view x 400. 
~~ a= % - 55 Side view x 400. 
4 eS hy re - End and other. views x 400. 


= se e Dividing fronds x 400. 

» 9.—Zygospores of some desmid to which no semi-cells were attached x 400. 
6.— Cosmarium pygmxum Arch. ? x 400. 

» ra Meneghinii Bréb. forma octangularis Wille, var. 8 simplicissimum 
Wille xX 400, the right-hand fig. x 1000. 

8.—Closterium Leibleinii Kiitz., var. curtum nov. var. x 400. 

a 5 rostratum Ehrenb. var. brevirostratum nov. var. x 400. 

» 10.— Hp subdirectum nov. sp. x 400. 

11.—Docidium Trabecula (Ehrenb.) Naeg. x 400. 

12.—WMicrasterias radiosa Ralfs, var. punctata nov. var. x 400. 


Puate III. 


13.—Zygospore of some desmid unattached to semi-cells x 400. 

14,.—Xanthidium Tylerianum nov. sp. Dividing frond, the young semi-cells of 
which have not yet begun to develope spines, x 400. 

15.—Calocylindrus Cucurbita Kirch. x 400. 

16.—Closterium subdirectum nov. sp. X 400. 

17.-- Staurastrum Sebaldi Reinsch, three views x 400. 

45 18.— as eustephanum Ralfs, two views x 400. 

19.—Cosmarium leve Raben., var. septentrionale Wille x 400. 

20.—Staurastrum angulatum nov. sp. x 400. 

ee x spongiosum Bréb. x 400. 

5) 22. >; Meriani Reinsch x 400. 

23.—Cosmarium Cordanum Bréb. x 400. 

24.—Huistrum binale Ralfs, forma minor x 400. 


JOURN.R.MICR.SOC 1883. Pl. 1. 


a) 


GS West&W West del.ad nat. ; West, Newman &Co hth 
Desmids of Massachusetts 


JOURN.R.MICR.SOC.1883.P1.111. 


iy 


| 


i 


West Newman & Co. ith. 


Desmids from Massachusetts, U.S.A. By Wm. West. 17 


P. margaritaceum Bréb. Frequent. 

P. polymorphum Perty. 

P. Brebissonii (Meneg.) Ralfs. 

P. crassa de Bary. 

P. rupestre Kitz. 

Closterium lanceolatum Kitz. 

C. subdirectum nov. sp. Frond about fifteen times longer than 
broad, gently tapering, the middle portion nearly straight, 
slightly curved towards the ends, which are truncate with 
rounded corners, cytoderm finely striate, with three 
distinct transverse sutures. 

Breadth 26-27 pw, length 390-400 pu. 

This is very like C. directwm Arch., but larger and not so 
finely striate. It is also larger than C. intermedium 
Ralfs, and less curved, and differs from any form of C. 
didymotocum Corda in being more slender. Figs. 10 and 
16. Very sparingly. 

C. lunula Ebrenb. 

C. Cucumis Ebrenb. ; 

C. acerosum (Schrank) Ehrenb., var. elongatum nov. var. 
Much narrower than the small examples of usual form, 
and not at all striate. Sparingly. Breadth 15-16 yp, 
length 290-300 wp. 

C. strigosum Khrenb. 

C. striolatum Ehrenb. Abundant. 

C. costatum Corda. 

C. acutum Bréb. 

C. Diane Ehrenb. Abundant. 

C. Jenner Ralfs. Frequent. 

C. Venus Kitz. Frequent. 

C. parvulum Naeg. 

C. Ehrenbergit Meneg. 

C. Leibleinit Kitz. Frequent; breadth mostly 40-50 pu. 

C. Leableinit Kiitz., var. cwrtum noy. var. This was compared 
with undoubted specimens of C. Leibleinii, and exactly 
agreed with them in the central part of the frond, but 
differed as shown in the figure by its shortened ends, It 
looks like a miniature C. Hhrenbergii, many of which were 
present of the usual size. Fig. 8. Breadth 46-48 p. 

C. rostratum Ehrenb. 

C. rostratum Ehrenb., var. brevirostratum nov. var. This is 
a variety I have often noticed in other gatherings; it 
differs from the usual form in its short and less attenuated 
beak. Fig. 9. 

Docidiwm nodulosum Ralfts. 

D. Archerit Delp. Only one specimen of this was seen. 

D. Trabecula (Ehrenb.) Naeg. This seems to be so variable 
a species that I have figured a semi-cell of one of the 

1889. Cc 


18 _ Transactions of the Society. 


forms noticed which differs from any of Wolle’s figures in 
not tapering so much towards the ends. Fig. 11. 


Is this species correctly synonymized with D. Hhrenbergii Ralfs ? 
After examining thousands of the latter in my own British gatherings, 
T have never yet seen an example without the minute tubercles at the 
ends, and these are always absent in the American examples, which 
are also generally stouter. 


Calocylindrus Cucurbita (Bréb.) Kirch. I have given a 
figure of this, as Wolle’s figure is so different from the 
examples I saw, which are hike our British ones both as to 
form and size. Fig. 15. 

C. curtus (Bréb.) Kirch. 

C. pseudo-connatus Nord. 

Cosmarium Cordanum Bréb. Occasionally seen. As the 
figures published successively by Joshua, Turner, and 
Wolle are not from the U.S., I have appended a drawing, 
fig. 23; I believe this is new to the U.S. Flora. 

Cosmarium Cucumis Corda. 

C. granatum Bréb. 

C. tinctum Ralfs. 

C. nitidulum De Not. 

C. pseudonitidulum Nord. 

C. leve Raben. 

CO. leve Raben., var. septentrionale Wille. This will be a new 
variety to the U.S. Breadth 15 yw, length 20 yp. 
Fig. 19. 

C. Meneghinii Bréb., forma octangularis Wille, 8 simplicisse- 
mum Wille. A form like the figure of the shaded semi- 
cell in ‘Bidrag til Kundskaben om Norges Ferskvandsalger,’ 
pl. i, fig. 11. Four different examples are shown in 
Fig. 7. 

C. undulatum Corda, var. crenulatum Wolle. Breadth 22 p. 

C. Naegelianum Bréb. 

C. pyramidatum Bréb. 

C. galeritum Nord. 

C. triplicatum Wolle. Frequent. 

C. punctulatum Bréb. Plentiful. 

C. Botrytis Meneg. 

C. octhodes Nord. 

C. orbiculatum Rallfs. 

C. ameenum Bréb. 

C. Phaseolus Bréb. 

C. pygmxum Arch.? This is certainly a different Cosmariwm 
from any other in the list, and to me it seems nearest the 

-species to which I have doubtfully referred it, though it 
differs in some respects from the figures which I have seen. 


Desmids from Massachusetts, U.S.A. By Win. West. 19 


If it be this species it will be new to the United States. 
Fig. 6. 

C. Broomet Thwaites. Abundant. 

C. speciosum Lund. 

Xanthidium Tylerianum nov. sp. Semi-cells oblong-trapezoid, 
sometimes oblong-subquadrate, with two pairs of slightly 
curved short spines on each side of the semi-cell, projecting 
from widened bases at right angles to the longest axis of the 
frond, ends elliptic or subelliptic with the spines projecting 
at the sides. Side view of semi-cells subrotund, no spines 
showing in the periphery, central protuberances obscure. 
Empty cells show that the protuberances are very faintly 
beaded with about eleven granules. Cytoderm faintly 
punctulate or sometimes smooth. Length—-70 u. Breadth 
of broadest part without spines, 50-60 y. Breadth of 
narrowest part without spines, 42-52 yw. Breadth of 
broadest part with spines, 70-80 u. Breadth of isthmus, 
20-25 uw. Fig. 1 front view. Fig. 2 side view. Fig. 3 
end and other views. Figs. 4 and 14 dividing fronds. 


Associated with this were some zygospores; but none of them 
were attached to the semi-cells of any species. I append figures of 
four examples of the one mostly seen, fig. 5. Another solitary 
example was noticed, different from the others, but still not attached 
to empty semi-cells. Fig. 13. 

The Xanthidiwm was certainly the most abundant species present, 
and there were plenty of empty semi-cells. The next species in point 
of quantity present was Micrasterias truncata Ralfs, Staurastrum 
spongiosum Bréb. being next; a few empty semi-cells of the last two 
Species were seen. Other species sparingly present in the same 
gathering were Euastrum verrucosum Lund, Cosmarium Cordanum 
Bréb., Cosmarium triplicatum Wolle, Cosmarium leve Raben., and 
Staurastrum Sebaldi Reinsch. 


Arthrodesmus convergens (Khren.) Ralfs. 

Euastrum oblongum (Grev.) Ralfs. All specimens seen were 
of different form from British examples. 

E. verrucosum Lund. Abundant. 

FE. verrucosum Lund., var. alatum Wolle. Intermediates 
between this variety and the type were also noticed. 

E. binale Ralfs, forma minor.* I have noticed this form before 
in gatherings from Maine, most examples being about 9 u 
in breadth, and 11 » in length; in this gathering additional 
examples up to 12 yw in breadth were noticed. Three 
examples are shown in fig. 24. 

E. crassicolle Lund. 

E. elegans Kiitz. 

* Vide Journ. Bot, Nov. 1888, “ The Desmids of Maine.” 9 
C iy 


Transactions of the Society. 


Miecrasterias radiosa Ralfs, var. punctata nov. var. This 
differs from the usual forms of M. radiosa in having a dis- 
tinctly punctate cytoderm with the division of the lobes 
more like those of M. papillifera Breb., especially the 
ultimate ones. The general outline is also more angular. 
The deeper incisions of the frond are more in accordance 
with the figures in Cooke’s‘ British Desmids’ than Wolle’s 
figures. ‘This species was compared with typical WM. 
papilifera Bréb. from the same district, but the latter was 
quite different in showing the rows of dots bordering the 
chief incisions, as well as in its different size, margin, and 
shape. ‘The specimen figured had an eighth part of 
the teeth of the denticulate periphery doubly notched. 
Fig. 12. 

M. eee Bréb. Frequent. 

M. rotata Ralfs. 

M. fimbriata Ralts. 

M. Americana Kitz. 

M. crenata Ralfs. 

M. truncata Ralfs. 

Staurastrum muticum Bréb. 

S. angulatum nov. sp. Semi-cells smooth rhomboid, with a 
faint indication of an obscure mucro, end view triangular 
with concave sides. Length 76-78 p. Breadth 60 wp. 
Breadth of sinus 17-18 yz. Seen very sparingly. Fig. 20. 

S. polymorphum Bréb. Both trigonal and tetragonal end 
views were seen ; the processes were narrower than usual. 

S. muricatum Bréb. 

S. rugulosum Bréb. 

S. punctulatum Bréb. 

S. pygmeum Bréb. Abundant. 

S. alternans Bréb. oF 

S. Meriani Reinsch. This was the typical form agreeing with 
both Reinsch’s figure and that of Wolle, not like that of 
Cooke in ‘ British Desmids.’ The end view was pentagonal. 
One is shown in Fig. 22. 

S. Sebaldi Reinsch. This seems to be a variable species, as 
Wolle remarks, so I deemed it worth while to give figures 
representing the only form I saw. This is nearer to 
Wolle’s figures than the original ones of Reinsch, the end 
view has the processes longer than they are shown in the 
figures given by Wolle. I have British examples of this 
species collected by Wills, J. H. Lewis, and my son G. S. 
West, in all of which the arms are very much longer in 
end view, as figured in Cooke's ‘ British Desmids’ as var. 
ornatum Nord. Fig. 17. 

S. teliferum Ralfs. This was fine and like the form I find in 
Britain as figured in Cooke’s ‘ British Desmids,’ not like the 


Desmids from Massachusetts, U.S.A. By Wm. West. 2 


form figured by Wolle; the front view showed the spines 
almost evenly distributed. 

S. Brebissonit Arch. 

S. echinatum Bréb. 

S. hirsutum Bréb. 

S. furcigerum Bréb. 

S. eustephanum Ralfs. I have given an end view and a front 
view of this from different specimens as it is such a variable 
species. Fig. 18. 

S. spongiosum Bréb. This was frequent and variable, so I 
have given figures from eight different examples that were 
seen. Fig. 21. The measurements are in microns. 


This list includes 84 species and 5 varieties and forms. 


( 22) 


Il].—Reproduction and Multiplication of Diatoms. 
By the Abbé Count F. Casrracanz, Hon. F.R.MS. 
(Read 9th January, 1889.) 


Ir is now about thirty years since I first entered upon the study of 
Diatoms; and from that time down to the most recent discoveries I 
have followed the progress of photography, desirous of making a 
serious use of this marvellous art; from the conviction of the value of 
its employment for the purpose of faithfully reproducing diatoms 
enlarged under the Microscope. This I at first did only for my 
enjoyment, contenting myself with communicating to my friends the 
results obtained. ‘The encouragement received from my friends and 
from experts, and the desire expressed by such as De Notaris, Cesati, 
Brébisson, and Meneghini, overcame my reluctance to make known 
the modest results of my studies; so that since 1867 I have 
imposed upon myself the duty of publishing my observations. From 
that time not a year has passed without my contributing notes which 
may be found in the English quarterly and monthly microscopical 
journals, the Proceedings of the Italian Society of Cryptogamists, and 
in various other Italian and foreign publications; but chiefly in the 
Proceedings of the Accadémia Pontificia dei nuovi Lincei, in which 
I have taken part as an ordinary fellow since 1867. 

During these first years I was fortunate in making some remarkable 
observations on the act of reproduction of a Podosphenia, which induced 
me to devote special study to the biological laws of the diatoms. As 
the result of this, on being invited to take part, in 1874, in the Inter- 
national Botanical Congress at Florence, I presented on that occasion 
a memoir on the process of reproduction in diatoms, which was pub- 
lished in the Proceedings of that Congress. In the publication of 
this memoir I ought, in the opinion of Dr. Pfitzer, to have made the 
remark that, while my conclusions were founded on positive observa- 
tions in certain cases, I was not in a position to generalize from them. 
After this, enlarging my connections with the most famous micro- 
scopists, I had often the satisfaction of seeing myself spoken of 
in the journals as a specialist in diatomology; and finally, I was 
most unexpectedly invited to report on the diatoms collected in the 
‘Challenger’ expedition. 

Nevertheless, I frequently met with works on diatoms more or 
less complete, in which I found a restatement of views on the mode of 
reproduction and multiplication, incorrect on points of some import- 
ance, which I had persuaded myself that I had confuted. Far from 
wishing to impose my ideas merely because I am myself profoundly 
convinced of their truth, that which I have always desired, and have 
expressly proclaimed (though hitherto ineffectually), is that my opinions 
should be discussed in the interests of Science and of Truth, which ought 
to be the sole, or at least the first, aim of our studies. There is nothing 


Reproduction & Multiplication of Diatoms. By Count Castracane. 23 


I desire more than to be convinced when I am in error; and if it is 
shown to me that I have not offered sufficient proof of any of my 
opinions, I will endeavour to give more forcible and convincing argu- 
ments for them. Having had the high honour of being elected an 
Honorary Fellow of your Society, I venture to hope that the Society 
will examine and discuss my views on a subject so important and so 
strictly germane to its scope; and with this object I will endeavour 
to give as clear and concise a résumé of them as possible. 

Diatoms, like all vegetable organisms, are reproduced by con- 
jugation or bisexual fecundation, and are multiplied by deduplication 
or autofission. Reproduction is common to all living organisms, but 
multiplication by fission belongs only to some organic types; thus all 
diatoms are reproduced as a consequence of fecundation, while only 
certain generic types exhibit multiplication by fission. 

Speaking in the first place of multiplication by deduplication ; 
this process, actually observed in many cases, has been claimed to 
be a general one, as if it were common to all diatoms. It is well 
known that this process commences with the subdivision of the 
nucleus and of the cytoblast, followed by the bipartition of the proto- 
plasmic sac by the formation of a double wall which extends to the 
centre from the inner periphery of the connecting ring, constituting 
two new valves, each of which is in front of one of the primitive 
valves. The fact that this ring is double, or rather is composed 
of two zones, each of which proceeds from one of the valves, and 
one of them inclosing the other, constitutes the embortement of 
diatoms which, if not absolutely common to all types, is evident in 
many genera. It is therefore strange that so acute and careful an 
observer as W. Smith, notwithstanding that, especially in the figures 
of the Naviculacez, he indicates by a double line on the zonal side 
the extreme edge of the two rings, yet has no clear idea of them ; 
since, instead of recognizing, as the consequence of the deduplication, 
the progressive diminution of the frustules, he speaks of the increase 
in size of the young frustule resulting from the fission.* 

The most exact description of the constitution of the diatom-cell, 
that of Dr. E. Pfitzer, in his work, ‘ Untersuchungen tiber Bau und 
Entwicklung der Bacillarien, also demonstrates, with the help of 
diagrammatic figures, how the process of autofission leads necessarily 
to a decreasing scale of magnitude in the offspring, until so minute a 
size is reached as to be incompatible with the biological conditions of 
the species. In this I agree altogether with Pfitzer, if, in truth, the 
diatom within its siliceous walls is incapable of increase in size and 
of the widening of its walls so long as they are under the influence of 
life. Although this property has been attacked by some, I am unable 
to understand the disinclination to admit a fact about which there does 
not seem to me the least doubt. 

In 1874 there was held in Florence an International Botanical 


* ‘Synopsis of British Diatomaces,’ i. Introduction, p. Xxvi. 


24 Transactions of the Society. 


Congress, to which I presented a note with the title, ‘The Theory of 
the Reproduction of Diatoms,” and which appeared in the Proceedings 
of that Congress. In this memoir I adduced many arguments and 
proofs to demonstrate the power of increase and extension of the 
siliceous walls of living diatoms; but I do not think it will be 
necessary to reproduce more than one of the many proofs adduced. 
In vol. ii. of Smith’s ‘Synopsis,’ plate li. fig. 335, are represented 
several sporangial frustules of Orthosira Dickiet Thw., of which 
the equatorial diameter is increased by one-third, while the polar 
diameter has, in elongating, occupied the cavity of several adjacent 
cells, expanding its base, forcing its surface of contact to become 
folded on itself, and dilating in proportion. No one will accuse 
these figures of inexactness or exaggeration, since they were drawn 
by Tuffen West to illustrate the classical work of W. Smith. 
Having, moreover, the first century of the ‘ Diatomacearum species 
typice’ of Dr. Th. Hulenstein, I have been able to compare the 
above-named figure with the preparation of the same species, and 
found them to agree perfectly. This observation confirms what was 
long ago established by von Mohl, that the cytoderm of diatoms is 
not a solid wall, but rather an organic membrane impregnated with 
silica, and therefore that, as long as it remains under the influence of 
life, it will be in a condition capable of increase and expansion. Dr. 
Pfitzer, in denying this power to the walls of diatoms, when the 
progeny has reached the minimum size, invokes the intervention of 
the process of conjugation, which is not multiplication, but rather true 
reproduction, and of which we shall speak directly. 

The process of autofission is cherished especially by botanists, 
for it is what usually takes place among unicellular alge, to which 
class diatoms belong, and has been actually observed in a great 
number of cases among them. When fission takes place in a diatom, 
it is the general opinion that, of the two valves formed in the centre of 
the mother-cell, each is the exact counterpart of the valve which faces 
it, on which it is stereotyped, reproducing it in its form and in its 
minutest details. From this, as it seems to me, follows the impos- 
sibility of autofission in (1) those genera in which the valves are not 
exactly alike, as Cocconeis and Achnanthes ; (2) those in which the 
two valves, although alike, yet in uniting, cross the axes of the figure, 
such as Campylodiscus ; (3) those with similar valves, but arranged 
in such a way that the homologous parts alternate, as Asterolampra 
and Asteromphalus. It may be noted that, as far as has at the present 
time been brought under my notice, none of the numerous cases of 
fission that have been observed among diatoms controvert my view. 
Hence I feel myself authorized to say that if the multiplication of 
diatoms takes place actually by autofission, this fission can take place 
only in certain genera, and that therefore it must be regarded rather 
as the exception than as the rule. This is worth making known; 
since not unfrequently naturalists of good repute, when treating of 
organisms imperfectly known or but recently discovered, allow them- 


Reproduction & Multiplication of Diatoms. By Count Castracane. 25 


selves too easily to be drawn on to generalizations without carefully 
examining whether these generalizations will stand criticism, although 
founded on well-ascertained particular facts. 

The same tendency has contributed to retard the progress of our 
knowledge of the reproduction of diatoms, which is the principal 
function of all living beings, but which, in respect to diatoms, has 
been relegated to a secondary position subordinate to autofission, which 
I can never regard as reproduction, but simply as an extension of the 
life of the individual. As Dr. Pfitzer does not admit that the siliceous 
cell of diatoms can increase in size; and, recognizing at the same time, 
as the consequence of autofission, the successive diminution of the 
young frustules, when they have thus arrived at their minimum 
dimensions, he ingeniously brings in at this point the intervention of 
sexual conjugation, resulting in the production of an auxospore, the 
purpose of which would be the formation of one or two sporanges. 
According to Pfitzer these have the sole purpose of giving birth to 
two sporangial frustules which repeat the typical form, but in larger 
dimensions, with the object of again commencing another descending 
series, until the offspring are reduced to the minimum size. 

I feel compelled to say that this theory is ingenious, but not true. 
I say that the theory is not true because, supported by the authority 
of Prof. H. L. Smith and of Dr. Wallich, I regard the sporangial 
frustule not as a normal, but rather as a monstrous form, which is 
incapable of multiplying by deduplication, and is only destined for a 
transitory purpose, that of the incubation of the sporules received 
by it. ‘This explains the fact that in the gatherings of Cymbella 
(Cocconema) lanceolata Ehrb. there are a few large specimens of 
uniform size, amongst a very large number of small ones of various 
dimensions, but which cannot constitute a continuous series with 
the former. In the same way, among Stawroneis gracilis Ehrb., 
S. Phoencenteron is to be met with, which being, according to 
Prof. H. L. Smith, nothing but the sporangial frustule of S. gracilis, 
has always, in the same gathering, a uniform size, larger than that of 
this species, which, on the contrary, varies greatly in size. Similarly, 
another argument against Dr. Pfitzer’s theory, at least in the general 
sense in which some apply it, is the fact that the sporanges, as often 
happens with the lower forms of vegetable life, frequently reproduce 
the species by means of gonidial sporules, without having recourse to 
the formation of sporangial frustules or of anything equivalent to 
them. Demonstration of this seems to me to be afforded by the 
memorable observation of Thwaites reported in vol. ii. of Smith’s 
‘Synopsis,’ on Plate A, drawn ad natwram by Tuffen West, where are 
to be seen sporanges of Hpithemia turgida Ktz. containing a number 
of round corpuscles, perfectly definite and of uniform size, which it 
seems to me impossible to interpret otherwise than as sporules. In 
such a way it becomes easy to understand the formation of cysts 
inclosing broods of diatoms which would be produced from these 
sporules, while the sporange would increase in size and become the 


26 Transactions of the Society. 


cyst, as may be seen on Plate B in Synedra radians W. Sm., and on 
Plate C in Cymbella (Cocconema) cistula Hemp. 

It has been proved by Rabenhorst’s observations on Melosira 
varians Ag. and O’Meara’s on Pleurosigma Spencerit W. Sm., as 
well as by similar observations of my own on a Podosphenia, that 
these round and well-defined corpuscles must be considered as sporules 
or gonidia, whether they are inclosed in the sporange as in the case 
above mentioned, or whether they occupy the whole or a part of the 
cavity of the normal sporangial frustule, as may be seen in some of 
the figures in the plates to which reference has been made. In all 
these cases these corpuscles were seen to escape from the mother-cell, 
as represented by Rabenhorst in fig. 18, pl. x. of his ‘ Die stisswasser 
Diatomaceen.’ I, being unable to draw, have described the whole 
minutely, pointing out that these corpuscles are marked by very 
fine lines, a proof of the presence of an inclosing membrane; and 
that, turning round at the moment of their escape, they present a 
profile alternately round and linear, which prevents the possibility 
of their being mcnads or similar Infusoria. While preparmg a 
monographical work on a very interesting Italian deposit from the 
middle Miocene, I have already met with four specimens of Cos- 
cinodiscus punctulatus Khrb., which show how death overtook 
them at the moment when they were giving birth to a numerous 
progeny. In fact my frustules with radiating dots are seen to be 
surrounded by numerous round impressions, which cannot be re- 
garded in any other light than as sporules or embryonal forms, 
destined to develope and to grow while reproducing the typical form. 
This has demonstrated to me, in opposition to my previous view, that 
diatoms contain silica even in the embryonal condition—at least that 
this is the case with Coscinodiscus punctulatus, as otherwise these 
impressions could not have been preserved. 

If I am asked what is my view of the process of reproduction in 
diatoms, I reply, without the least hesitation, that the processes may 
be—and in fact are—very different according to the genus, even if not 
also according to the species. I have myself seen several of these 
processes, and I therefore wish to guard myself altogether from being 
drawn on to generalize by starting from any special case, however 
well established, even when such generalization should agree with 
my preconceived ideas. It is necessary that such a rule be constantly. 
observed in undertaking any new researches, for, in the adoption of 
a provisional hypothesis for the purpose of grouping together isolated 
facts, the progress of our knowledge would be at least retarded if the 
provisional hypothesis were regarded as an established fact. 

The extraordinary advance of geology durimg recent years, in 
consequence of the gigantic works in opening canals, in making 
entrenchments, and in piercing mountains for the establishing of new 
roads of communication, and the frequent marine expeditions for 
scientific purposes, have induced microscopists to occupy themselves 
almost exclusively with the discovery of new types of diatoms. But 
how much more important is the daily observation of the diatoms 


Reproduction & Multiplication of Diatoms, By Count Castracane. 27 


which occur in quantities in every spring and in every ditch, noting 
diligently every phenomenon which they present? This is the 
recommendation which I make to those young observers who, when 
commencing the study of diatoms, have come to me for advice. Those 
who accept this advice will very frequently have the opportunity of 
observing that the endochrome presents different aspects in the same 
species, being sometimes scanty, and sometimes so abundant as to 
occupy the whole of the cell-cavity, where it is arranged in imperfect 
plates or in irregular granules, while sometimes the same species has 
its endochrome organized in numerous small masses of uniform shape 
and size. Similar differences are familiar to every one; but I do not 
know that any one has at present attempted an explanation of them. 
Mr. W. Smith himself has indicated it in one of the coloured figures 
of the frontispiece of the two volumes of the ‘Synopsis, more espe- 
cially in that to vol. 11.; but I do not know that he refers to it in the 
text. As long ago as 1873 I ventured an explanation of the 
phenomenon in the memoir “On the Diatoms of the Coasts of Istria 
and Dalmatia,” published in the Proceedings of the Accadémia 
Pontificia dei nuovi Lincei, xxvi., sittings 5 and 6, where I argued, 
from the appearance presented by Striatella wnipunctata Ag., the 
central mass of which had a stellate form consisting of a group of 
numerous distinct fusiform corpuscles, and reaffirmed the view that 
this condition of the endochrome, as well as the more frequent state 
_which occurs in very many diatoms, of a differentiation into round 
masses of uniform size, is the prelude to the formation of sporules or 
gonidia. This view of mine passed unnoticed at the time; but I am, 
on my part, continually confirmed in the correctness of this opinion. 

In this state of things it is my most ardent desire and my warmest 
wish that the Royal Microscopical Society of London, which has done 
so much service to microscopy, both by the impulse it has given 
to the perfecting of the Microscope, and by having pointed out the 
best use to make of it, and the great number of its applications, should 
institute a searching examination of the views I have formulated on 
the more important biological phenomena of diatoms, these views being 
entirely the result of my studies and of my observations. A Society 
so illustrious, and which has among its members naturalists and 
microscopists of the highest eminence, in taking into consideration 
this request of mine, will exercise the most weighty influence on the 
progress of diatomology, which is connected with so many other 
studies, and in which there are still so many points of controversy. 
For my own part, far as I am from believing that, after examination 
and discussion, any of my views will not be proved to be correct, it 
will nevertheless be to me useful, and therefore pleasant, to assist in 
the discovery of truth, and to admit the weak side of my explanations, 
whether in themselves or in the arguments which I have brought 
forward. 


28 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


SUMMARY 


OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 


MICROSCOPY, &c., 


INCLUDING ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS FROM FELLOWS AND OTHERS.* 


ZOOLOGY. 
A. VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 


a. Embryology.t+ 


Movements of Protoplasm.t—Herr G. Quincke attempts to explain 
the movements of protoplasm in the cells of plants and in lower 
animals, by comparing them to the movements observed at the contact 
surfaces of various fluids. These are the results of surface tensions 
between the fluids directly or between substances formed in their 
chemical interaction. A drop of oil placed in a weak alkaline solution 
is said to present close resemblance to a living Ameeba in the move- 
ments caused by the formation, solution, diffusion, &c., of soap on its 
surface. A solution of albumen is observed to act like alkaline solution. 
What Quincke calls “albumen soap” is formed—the result amceboid 
movements. The author ingeniously applies these observations to 
the explanation of the protoplasmic movements in Hlodea, Nitella, 
Tradescantia, Trianea, &c. He similarly discusses the form and move- 
ment of certain Protozoa, of food-vacuoles, contractile vacuoles, &c. 
A viscid particle covered with oil and placed in water will exhibit 
amceboid movements, and smaller particles will be drawn into it as to a 
Protozoon. The streaming of pseudopodia demands only that there be 
a thin coating of oil outside and that the granules be albuminous. A 
mass of albumen covered with oil draws in through the oily covering 
bubbles of water, which collapse in forming some new substance, and 
resemble, in a curiously exact way, the contractile vacuoles of Stentor and 
such like forms. 


Placenta of Rabbit.s—M. J. Masius communicates a preliminary 
account of conclusions reached regarding the modifications of the 


* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they do 
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted, 
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of 
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published, and to 
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have 
not been previously described in this country. 

+ This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called, 
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, and Reproduction, and allied 
subjects. _ 4 Biol. Centralbl., viii. (1888) pp. 499-506. 

§ Bull. Acad, R. Sci. Belg., xvi. (1888) pp. 317-25. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 29 


uterine mucous membrane during gestation and the constitution of the 
placenta. The conclusions are briefly as follows:—(1) The uterine 
mucous membrane thickens, forms papille covered with epithelium and 
separated by crypts and glands. (2) Neither glands nor uterine 
epithelium share in formation of the placenta. The ends of the glands 
persist throughout gestation, papille and epithelium degenerate. 
(8) The vessels of the mucous membrane become surrounded by 
increasing sheaths of cellular elements. (4) The endothelium of such 
vessels degenerates, the nuclei break up, and chromatic granules fill the 
cavity of the vessels. (5) Leucocytes at first present in the mucous 
membrane, pass through certain changes in the middle stages, and are 
lost. (6) Before the attachment of the embryo, two layers in the 
embryonic ectoderm are distinguishable—a deeper of cylindrical cells, 
a superficial of irregular elements and clusters of nuclei. To the basis 
afforded by the uterine mucous membrane this superficial layer becomes 
united. It then developes enormously and forms a multinuclear mass 
into which the deeper layer sends processes including ectoderm and 
somatopleure. 

The maternal capillaries enter this multinuclear layer of foetal 
origin, lose their endothelium, and are continued into a system of 
numerous lacuns without definite walls. ‘The allantois forms a richly 
vascular connecting axis, round which allantoic villi are formed. The 
maternal blood in the lacune is separated from the vascular villi only by 
the multinucleated protoplasmic layer. 

The rabbit’s placenta is thus of foetal origin formed by allantoic 
villi ramifying in a tissue derived as above described. In the same 
tissue the vessels of the uterine mucous membrane, formed into a 
system of lacunz, are also included. A complete memoir, with figures 
and details, is forthcoming. 


Neurenteric Canal in the Rabbit.*—Prof. C. Giacomini has investi- 
gated the neurenteric and the anal canals in the embryo of the rabbit. 
(1) At two different epochs, there are two connections between the ecto- 
dermic and endodermic surfaces—viz. the neurenteric and the anal canals. 
(2) These communications are ephemeral, and speedily disappear in 
consequence of the modifications at the two extremities of the primitive 
line. (3) They are intimately associated with the development of the 
primitive line, or rather of the primitive groove. Hardly has the 
primitive line become apparent and begun to extend backwards, than 
the anterior connection or neurenteric canal becomes patent. When the 
primitive line has attained its maximum development in length, the 
posterior connection or anal canal developes. These connections are 
both produced by a bending inwards of the ectoderm to meet the 
endoderm. The anterior invagination precedes and evokes the meso- 
derm; the posterior invagination is formed when the mesoderm has 
already been developed between the primary layers. The former is 
therefore primary and essential, the latter secondary or dependent upon 
the special conditions of development. Prof. Giacomini inclines to the 
hypothesis that the two communications at the ends of the primitive line 
and groove are together homologous to the single blastopore, and that in 
the ideal ancestral vertebrate medullary canal and gut had a common 
external aperture, the blasto-neuro-pore. 


* Arch. Ital. Biol., x. (1888) pp. 273-94 (1 pl.). 


30 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Markings of Mammals.*—Prof. G. H. T. Eimer continues his 
interesting studies on the markings of mammals. In previous papers 
he has dealt with cats, dogs, civets, hyenas, &c.; the present (6th) 
paper, which is well illustrated, discusses bears, martens and allied 
forms. It is well known that Prof. Himer regards these markings as 
important indices of the history and relations of the animals. They 
seem in reality like the most external finger-posts of the constitutional 
progress. The individual in this, as in other particulars, recapitulates 
the history of the race. The males usually gain the new qualities first. 
New features appear on definite parts of the body, and spread in a fixed 
and definite path. They may disappear as in an orderly phantasmagoria 
and a new procession begins. The new features generally appear in the 
hind quarters; on the fore-parts the old features linger longest. This 
Eimer calls the postero-anterior order of succession. Along with this 
an undulatory series from below upwards is also sometimes demonstrable. 
The above observations apply in part to birds, reptiles, butterflies, &c., 
as well as to mammals. In the latter, a longitudinal striping is the 
original state, from a modification of this spots arise, then cross stripes, 
and often uniformity of colouring. 


Colour of Birds’ Eggs.;—Mr. A. H. 8. Lucas discusses how the 
colouring of birds’ eggs has been acquired, and how it comes to be 
protective or otherwise beneficial. He considers that the effect of the 
surroundings, during the time of the formation of the shell, upon the 
mental or nervous constitution of the bird, is a very important factor in 
determining the colouring of the eggs. Numerous illustrations of this 
are noted. Any variations of value in rendering the eggs less con- 
Spicuous are seized on by natural selection and transmitted by heredity. 
Individuals at the present day are influenced in part by the surroundings, 
but mainly restricted by the tribal habits of generations. Hence there 
is sufficient adherence to type to make an experienced collector tolerably 
sure of the species of a bird to which a particular egg belongs, while, at 
the same time, there are considerable differences even between eggs of 
the same clutch. 


Development of Germinal Layers and Notochord in Rana fusca.t 
—Dr. O. Schultze has made an examination of the early developmental 
stages of Rana fusca. He finds that there is no bilaminate gastrula- 
stage, the rudiments of the middle and inner germinal layers arising 
cotemporaneously by invagination. 'The middle layer, as well as the 
dorsal wall of the archenteron, arises from the ectoblast, and at the 
dorsal lip of the blastopore all the three layers pass into one another; in 
the lateral and ventral parts of the blastopore the covering layer of the 
outer germinal layer is distinctly continuous with the endoblast, while 
the basement layer of the ectoblast passes uninterruptedly into the meso- 
blast. About the end of the invagination-period the fused portions of 
the outer and median layer which are seen at the dorsal lip grow in the 
direction of the dorsal median line, and so form the primitive stripes of 
the embryo of the frog. Anteriorly to this the earliest rudiment of the 
notochord is formed as a thickening of the mesoblast. The whole length 


* Humboldt, vii. (1888) pp. 1-9 (11 figs. and 1 pl.). 
¢ Trans. Roy. Soc. Victoria, xxiv. (1888) pp. 52-60. 
t Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvii. (1888) pp. 325-52 (2 pls_). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 31 


of the notochord is derived from the mesoblast; the spinal ganglia are 
formed from the peripheral parts of the medullary plate. — 

In Rana there are no paired rudiments of the mesoblast, and no 
chorda-endoblast as described by O. Hertwig; the coelom theory does 
not, therefore, apply to the Anura. 


Development of Germinal Layers, Notochord, and Mid-gut in 
Cyprinoids.*—Prof. W. Reinhard, in face of the numerous contradictory 
statements as to the early embryological history of Bony Fishes, has 
made an investigation into the development of Leuciscus erythrophthalmus. 
Sections of non-fertilized eggs showed that the yolk was covered by a 
layer of protoplasm which was collected in large quantities on one side. 
In the early phases of segmentation the nuclei are of the character 
described by Kowalevsky in Carassius auratus, The author believes 
that the periblast is formed from the ingrowing cells of the blastodisc ; 
these ingrowing cells are amoeboid, and possess a power of movement; 
they appear to become arranged in such a way as to give the whole 
periblast the form of an uninterrupted protoplasmic layer with nuclei 
scattered therein ; these may increase by direct division. 

In no well-preserved specimen was anything like a segmentation 
cavity observed, and so far the observations of Kowaleysky are con- 
firmed ; the cavity figured by Wenckebach seems to be an artificial 
product. The outer layer of the blastodise which forms the covering 
layer does not seem to be invaginated, as List asserts. It and the peri- 
blast completely cover the yolk, and this layer persists for a long time. 

In later stages of development the periblast makes its way between 
the higher-lying cells, and reaches the covering layer; this can only be 
explained by supposing that the covering layer forms the true ectoblast, 
by the thickening of which the nerve-tube is formed, and that the cells 
which lie above the periblast must be regarded as mesoblast, This last, 
which forms at first a continuous layer, divides later into two lateral 
masses. An aggregation of some of its cells gives rise at one point to 
the notochord, which developes from behind forwards, 

The mid-gut appears to be formed thus; the boundary between the 
mesoblastic cells and the periblast is, at first, horizontal; some of the cells 
of the mesoblast from either side make their way into the yolk, and also 
press upon the periblast ; in this manner they give rise to a cavity filled 
by periblast. The cells more to the periphery of this space elongate, 
and take on the form of the epithelium of the developed mid-gut. This 
tract does not arise in the form of a solid cord. It closes from behind 
forwards. ‘The hind-gut is developed earlier. The last signs of the 
periblast disappear when they are taken up by the development of 
blood-vessels. 


Origin of Species.j—Prof. G. H. T. Eimer’s recent work on the 
Origin of Species is in part an elaboration and application of results 
previously reached by the author in his observations on the variation of 
the wall lizard.{ The full title of the present work, of which only the 
first instalment is yet published, is suggestive as to its contents—* The 


* Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 648-55. 

t ‘Die Entstehung der Arten auf Grund von Vererben erworbener Kigenschaften, 
nach den Gesetzen organischen Wachsens, Hin Beitrag zur einheitlichen Auffassung 
der Lebewelt,’ i. Th., 8vo, Jena, 1888, 461 pp. (6 figs.). 

} ‘Ueber das Varieren der Mauereidechse,’ Berlin, 1881, 281 pp. (3 pls.). 


32 . SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


origin of species through the inheritance of acquired characters, according 
to the laws of organic growth.” 

It is not possible to summarize the concrete details of Prof. Himer’s 
work ; the chief conclusions may be resumed as follows :—(1) Variations 
are shown to occur along definite, determinate lines of development ; 
not towards all points of the compass in arbitrary fashion, but in a few 
directions, ‘‘ as if on a determined plan.” (2) The conditions of varia- 
tion are found on the one hand in internal or constitutional changes, on 
the other in environmental influences. The interaction of the external 
forces and the physico-chemical changes of the growing organism is the 
basis of variation. (8) As organisms progressively develope in accord- 
ance with “the laws of organic growth,” literally growing into their 
places, species are but the stations in the progressive march. The same 
laws hold good for the variations of the individual as for the establish- 
ment of varieties and species. (4) “Constitutional impregnation” or 
“ conservative adaptation ” is the organic result of persistence in a given 
direction under similar conditions. (5) Variations due to environmental 
influence are certainly transmissible, and may modify the organism so as 
to originate new species without the help of Natural Selection. (6) Use 
and disuse may similarly condition new characters, which persist without 
Natural Selection. The latter has only asubordinate réle; growth and 
the environment explain almost all. 

In his introduction, Prof. Eimer criticizes the Darwinian postulate 
of indefinite variations; emphasizes the deficiencies of an etiology 
which does not discuss the primal conditions of variation, and maintains 
that the utilitarian principle, which does not explain the origin of new 
qualities, only partially at most accounts for their increase and domin- 
ance. His observations, detailed in the body of the book, lead him to 
conclude that “ variations occur throughout in perfectly definite, and 
only in a few directions, and are due to physico-chemical conditions in 
the interaction between the material composition of the body and external 
influences.” . 

The first chapter is chiefly occupied with criticisms of Weismann and 
Nageli. In the second chapter the author enters into the heart of the 
subject. The directions of variation are few and definite; the new 
characters, so to speak, crystallize out from the internal conditions of 
growth, and may be useful, indifferent, or even hurtful. By “internal ” 
or better “ constitutional” conditions, the author does not mean that 
the causes of modification are to be found in a fundamental “ vital force,” 
but simply in the physical and chemical processes involved in the very 
composition of the organism. 

In opposition to Weismann and others, it is important to notice such 
conclusions as the following, of which the concrete evidence must again 
be left out:—‘ In my opinion the physical and chemical changes which 
the organism experiences during its life through the influence of the 
environment, and which it transmits, are the first conditions of modifica- 
tion, and of the origin of species. From the material thus supplied, 
the struggle for existence may select.” 

All variations express themselves simply as growth. ‘“‘ Just because 
the organic modification depends upon physico-chemical processes, the 
result, as in the inorganic crystal, is definite,’ and can only express itself 
in definite directions. “ The origin of species follows exactly the same 
laws as ordinary growth; it is the consequence of unceasing variable 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 33 


growth of the world of orgartisms under variable conditions. The 
heterogeneous links of this growing ¢hain of organisms persist as species. 
Varieties and species are essentially nothing but groups of forms which 
have remained at various stages of a progressive development.” The 
stoppage of forms at various levels, the author terms Genepistasis—the 
still-standing of the form. 

As to the special means which determine the difference in the direc- 
tions of evolution, and cause division into species, Prof. Eimer takes the 
following six into account and discusses each in detail:—(1) direct ex- 
ternal influence ; (2) strengthening through function or the reverse ; 
(8) struggle for existence—an indirect influence ; (4) saltatory develop- 
ment or sudden variations arising as the result of correlation in kaleido- 
scopic fashion; (5) “constitutional impregnation” or ‘“ conservative 
adaptation ” due to continued persistence under the same conditions ; 
(6) sexual intermingling. 

Space does not permit a reviéw of the succeeding chapters which 
give part of the evidence. They discuss adaptation; acquired charac- 
ters; disuse of organs, degeneration and panmixia; the acquisition and 
inheritance of intellectual characteristics ; the development of organs 
and systems; the laws of growth. Enough has been said to indicate 
the standpoint of the author and the importance of his endeavour to 
demonstrate more perfectly “the unity of organic nature.” A second 
volume of evidence and historical matter is promised. 


Divergent Evolution through Cumulative Segregation.*—In an 
elaborate paper the Rev. J. T. Gulick follows up some previous commu- 
nications, in which he has maintained that “separation without a 
difference of external circumstances is a condition sufficient to insure 
divergence in type.’ The abundance of technical and unique termino- 
logy, combined with the intrinsic complexity of the inquiry, renders it 
very difficult to present a brief summary without injustice to the patient 
author. 

The importance of separation was suggested by a study of Sandwich 
Island terrestrial molluscs. Under one set of external conditions diver- 
vergence of type was observed to occur in a way which did not appear 
to be explicable by Natural Selection. The explanation seemed to the 
author to lie in “a law rising out of the very nature of organic activities, 
a law of segregation, bringing together forms similarly endowed, and 
separating them from their neighbours.” It is this drawing of like to 
like, in its manifold forms and influences, which Mr. Gulick has set 
himself to analyse. He does not raise the question of the conditions of 
variation, but simply postulates a “frequency of deviation from an 
average.” Nor are the problems of direct environmental action, or of 
hereditary transmission, at all discussed. The whole inquiry is con- 
cerned with the forms and influences of segregation, Mr. Gulick’s 
position differs considerably from Wagner’s insistence on isolation, for 
the latter depended solely on migration and geographical barriers, while 
the separation and segregation dealt with by the author are much wider. 
His principle of segregate breeding is allied rather to Spencer’s law of 
segregation. The author differs also from Romanes, who has in his 
“Physiological Selection” theory laid emphasis on the separating 


* Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xx. (1888) pp: 189=274. Cf. criticism by A. BR. 
Wallace in ‘ Nature,’ xxxvili. (1888) pp. 490=1. 


1889; D 


34 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


influence of mutual sterility. Gulick’s segregation is again a much wider 
conception, including many other separating factors ; nor does he restrict 
its operation “ within the limits of specific distinctions.” 

In preliminary chapters, after historical matter and much-needed 
definitions of terminology, Mr. Gulick endeavours to show that divergent 
evolution is not explained by natural selection, nor by the “advantage 
of divergence of characters,’ nor by natural selection plus great dif- 
ference in external conditions, nor in fact by selection of any kind 
whatever. 

The fundamental law to which he calls attention is expressed in the 
following formula :—‘ Cumulative segregation produces accumulated 
divergence; and accumulated divergence produces permanent segrega- 
tion; and the segregate subdivision of those permanently segregated 
produces the divisions and subdivisions of organic phyla.” Segregation 
may be produced by man (rational), or by nature outside of man 
(responsive), and both these may be intensified by other principles of 
independent transformation (intensional). Or again, he classifies segre- 
gation as “environal” (relation to environment), “reflexive” (inter- 
specific relations), and “intensive” (“ enhanced by one or more forms of 
intension ”). 

The author seeks to show (1) that there is “in nature a law of 
cumulative segregation,” and granting this, (2) that “cumulative segre- 
gation will produce accumulated divergence, without any selection in 
the sense that natural selection is selection,” in fact “that without 
segregation no divergence of type will arise.” (38) He proceeds to 
analyse the conditions of cumulative segregation as A, Hnvironal— 
industrial, chronal, spatial, fertilizational, artificial (with subdivisions) ; 
as B, Reflewive—conjunctional, impregnational, and institutional; and 
as O, Intensive, with eight subdivisions. 

As an analysis of the conditions of association and isolation the 
memoir possesses great interest, not a little spoilt by the elaborate and 
ugly terminology. The author certainly cannot be charged with de- 
preciating the complexity of the inquiry. The reader will naturally 
seek for more information as to the existence of cumulative segregation 
as “a law in nature,’ and for more evidence and explanation of the con- 
tinued divergence of forms after they have been so separated or segre- 
gated. Still the paper mainly professes to emphasize the importance of 
inquiring into the conditions and effects of segregation, and in so doing 
is valuable. 


Heredity.*—Prof. M. Nussbaum sums up his views on the problems 
of heredity. The homology of the germinal cells, their early differen- 
tiation and relative isolation, the phenomena of regeneration, the trans- 
mission of acquired characteristics, and the like, are discussed in a 
manner with which the previous work of this author has made us 
familiar. ‘The constancy of the species depends upon the uninterrupted 
descent (Jaeger’s continuity of the germinal plasma); the variability 
depends upon the interaction of intrinsic and extrinsic forces. Selection 
is a consequence of this interaction, since it always rests with the 
numerical strength of the forces, whether the individuals and their 
germinal material persist, change, or perish.” 


* ‘Ueber Vererbung,’ 8vo, Bonn, 1888, 23 pp. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 30 


Organs of Aquatic Locomotion.*—Dr. P. C. Amans examines the 
characters of the organs of aquatic locomotion. He finds that there are 
two great groups of them, erectile machines, in which the vascular and 
connective systems play the principal part, and articulated machines 
formed chiefly of solid levers and muscles. The external form is that 
of a more or less elongated ovoid having a bilateral symmetry ; the 
profile, which is the intersection of the surface by the plane of bilateral 
symmetry, is always itself asymmetrical; there may be an inflexion in 
the upper half as in some fishes, or in the lower half, as in Pterotrachea, 
Dytiscus, &e. The mechanical laws of swimming are discussed at great 
length, and a further essay is promised in which other factors of rapidly 
moving bodies will be considered. 


Zoology of Victoria —The sixteenth decade of Prof. F. M. M‘Coy’s 
Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria contains accounts of Polyzoa by 
Mr. P. H. M‘Gillivray, and of Crustaceans by himself. The Polyzoa 
are Lagenipora tuberculata and L. nitens, which, in the author’s opinion, 
- ought not to be placed in the same genus. Lekythopora hystria has its 
peristome produced into a long, nearly cylindrical tube. In Pecilopora 
anomala the mouth is so reversed that the ocecium appears to be below 
it. Four species of Fasciculipora—F. gracilis, F. bellis, F. fruticosa, 
and IF. ramosa, are described and figured, as are also Farciminaria 
aculeata, F. uncinata, F. simpiex, and the apparently common Brace- 
bridgia pyriformis. Palinurus Hiigeli, the Sydney crawfish or spiny 
lobster, is, for the first time, figured in its natural colours. The Yarra 
spiny crayfish is a variety of Shaw’s Astacopsis serratus of the Murray ; 
it is usually less than half the size of the Murray individuals, while the 
whole thorax and abdomen also are of an intense prussian-blue 
colour, 


B. Histology.} 


Structure of Muscle.s—Dr. A. Rollett reports the results of his 
investigation of the fin-muscles of the sea-horse, and discusses striped 
muscle in general. The muscle of the fin of Hippocampus antiquorum 
is first described; Ranvier’s description is rejected as incorrect, 
Rollett’s previously published views are confirmed. The sarcolemma is 
widely separated from the fibrils by a granular mass—the “sarco- 
plasma,” which is coloured red in gold-staining, and left pale when the 
fibrils are stained with hematoxylin. The transverse sections, of 
which large figures are given, show numerous arrangements of Cohnheim’s 
areas into bands and circles, clearly marked and separated by wide 
spaces of sarcoplasma. In insects and crustaceans the areas were 
variously disposed, and much less sarcoplasma was present. The 
optical longitudinal sections of Hippocampus muscle have the usual 
appearance, except that wide bands of sarcoplasma intervene between 
the fibres and even fibrils. The dots and the transverse strie are 
sections of the walls of sarcoplasma separating both fibres and fibrils. 
The sarcoplasma is to the muscle-elements as the wax honeycomb to the 
honey. Rollett gives full particulars of his various methods, materials, 
and results, and also describes the appearances seen by using the 


* Ann. Sci. Nat., vi. (1888) pp. 1-164 (6 pls.). 

+ ‘Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,’ xvi. (1888). 

{ This section is limited to papers relating to Cells and Fibres. 
§ Arch. f. Mikr, Anat., xxxii. (1888) pp. 232-66 (2 pls.). 


D 


36 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


polariscope. The main conclusion is that in all striped muscle the 
striz represent sarcoplagma, a layer of which surrounds every fibril. 

The second part of the paper gives a glance over what Rollett calls 
the “« Muskelromantik,” whose pages, he says, vie with fiction in their 
strangeness. He deprecates the withholding of criticism, and proceeds 
to a vigorous criticism of the network theory of muscle structure. 
Melland, Marshall, and van Gehuchten occupy a prominent place, and 
Ramon y Cajal, Carnoy, and Macallum have also their share. The 
existence of a network is denied in toto, except in so far as it represents 
the edges of Rollett’s walls of sarcoplasma. 


Structure of Spermatozoa.*—Herr E. Ballowitz communicates the 
results of his investigation of the minute structure of spermatozoa. He 
deals first with the general characters of bird spermatozoa. No less 
than forty-two species were examined. The spermatozoa of Passeres are 
made the subject of special discussion ;—the structure of the lash, the 
development of the spiral fringe from the protoplasm of the spermatide, 
and the structure of the head are described in minute detail. In a 
second chapter the author similarly describes the spermatozoa of Na- 
tatores, Grallatores, Gallinacei, Columbine, Scansores, Raptatores, and 
Caprimulgus europeus. The fibrillar structure of the axial filament is 
especially emphasized. The movements of the sperms are also de- 
scribed. It may be concluded with certainty that the axial filament is 
the essential part of the lash and the definite seat of the contractility. 
The fibrillar structure, demonstrated by the author, is in the closest 
association with this contractility. It will be afterwards shown that 
other portions of the lash acquire a fine fibrillar structure when they 
become contractile. 


Club-shaped Nucleolit—Herr 8. M. Lukjanow describes peculiar 
club-shaped nucleoli from the mucous membrane of the stomach of the 
salamander. 'They appear, however, to be of wide occurrence. The 
author’s study of these structures led him to regard them as stages pre- 
paratory to an emptying of the contents of the nucleolus. He also 
connects what he observed with phenomena of nucleolar movement. 


Nervous System of Amphioxus.{—Dr. E. Rohde reports the result 
of his histological observations on the nervous system of Amphioaus. The 
present memoir is in part a continuation of the author’s investigation of the 
connection between the ganglion-cells and nerve-fibres in Cheetopods. A 
brief summary of the general morphological facts is first given. The central 
nerve-strand has its largest diameter in the middle of the body ; there 
are no swellings of any kind; the central canal is usually narrew in its 
larger dorsal portion; the anterior expansion is histologically distin- 
guishable as a cerebral region. ‘The central canal is surrounded by a 
usually simple layer of epithelial cells; the nervous elements consist of 
an internal ganglionic layer and a much larger external fibrous layer. 
From the dorsal portion 64 pairs of sensory nerves are given off, en- 
sheathed at their origin by the connective tissue swathing the nerve- 
strand. ‘They pass to the muscle-ligaments and to the skin. Hntering 
the ligament the nerve divides into a ventral and a usually weaker 
dorsal branch. From the ventral side of the central system, alternating 

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxxii. (1888) pp. 401-78 (5 pls.). 


+ T. c., pp. 474-8 (1 pl.). 
{ Zool. Beitr. (Schneider), ii. (1888) pp. 169-211 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. on 


with the sensory nerves, arise the motor nerves. The bulk of the 
memoir is devoted to the histological results. 

The central canal and the supporting elements.—The supporting ele- 
ments of the central nervous system consist (a) of the conical epithelial 
cells which line the central canal and (6) of fibres. The apices of the 
conical cells are directed outwards and continued into threads, which 
either penetrate the central nervous system undivided and are inserted 
in the connective tissue sheath, or else ramify. In varying degrees the 
epithelial cells lose themselves in the fibres. Sometimes only the 
nucleus is left—the “supporting-fibre-nuclei.” Along with the strong 
undivided processes of the conical cells, other nuclei, probably nervous, 
occur. Few conical epithelial cells occur in the dorsal portion of the 
central canal-wall; the fibrous upbreaking is less marked from above 
downwards. With these results the observations of other investigators 
are then contrasted. 

The nervous elements of the nerve-cord.—The nerve-fibres, composing 
the greater part of the nerve-cord, and forming a ring round the 
ganglion-cells, are without medulla and of very varied strength. Very 
thin fibres predominate in the dorsal portion; those in the ventral half 
are thicker and more distant. Giant nerve-fibres among the latter are 
found in the same position all along the cord. The strongest, lying 
ventrally to the central canal, is unpaired ; the others lie in three lateral 
paired groups. The intimate structure seems to consist of fibrils of 
extreme fineness, but of this only a trace was to be seen in the giant 
fibres. The fibres lie imbedded in the fine meshwork formed by the 
supporting elements; few lateral branches are given off, but a deceptive 
appearance of this is produced by the supporting elements. Bifurcation, 
however, frequently occurs. 

The ganglion-cells vary greatly in size; small, medium, and giant 
forms occur here also. Among the small cells, unipolar and bipolar 
forms predominate. They le for the most part beside the epithelial 
cells, and are very like them. The medium cells include all forms. 
The giant ganglion-cells are exclusively multipolar. They always lie at 
the boundary between the dorsal and median third of the central canal. 
Their processes stretch right and left into either half of the cord. 
They are relatively few in number. The processes of the giant cells 
are of two kinds, one set passing into fine nerve-fibres, the others—one 
from each cell—retain a large size as the giant nerve-fibres already 
noted. The most anterior ganglion cell gives origin to the median 
giant fibre—the largest of all—and to seven diminishing fibres only 
traceable for a short distance. The processes of the other ganglion-cells 
are described at length, and again the results of other investigators are 
brought into contrast with the author’s. 

The brain.—The central canal expands in front of the origin of the 
second pair of sensory nerves. A many-layered sheath of very closely 
packed cells and nuclei surrounds it. Some look like the typical conical 
epithelial cells, in their original position, or displaced outwards. 
Numerous cell-less' nuclei (nerve-nuclei) occur; at the end of the nerve- 
cord they occur not only on the epithelial layer, but among the nerve- 
fibres, especially on the dorsal surface, and extend in part to the sensory 
nerves. In the epithelium of the ventricle, the supporting and the 
nervous fibres are hardly distinguishable from one another. Round the 
pigment-spot is a thick layer of small dark nuclei, passing posteriorly 


38 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


into the ordinary “nerye-nuclei.” At the origin of the second pair of 
sensory nerves, there begins, above the central canal, a group of medium- 
sized multipolar ganglion-cells, which extends to the region of the fifth 
sensory nerve. In front of the posterior end of this dorsal group there 
begins on the ventral side a similar layer of medium-sized, but on an 
average rather smaller, ganglion-cells, which appear to be unipolar or 
bipolar. The two groups are connected by lateral ganglion-cells. 
These groups must be included in the brain. The beginning of the cord 
is marked with tolerable exactness by the position of the most anterior giant 
ganglion-cell, and the first five pairs of sensory nerves are to be regarded as 
cerebral. Previous investigations are then noted. 

The sensory nerves, which alternate with one another, consist, like the 
dorsal portion of the central system, of delicate fibres. Especially near 
their origin “‘nerve-nuclei” are imbedded in the nerves. The spinal 
ganglia of higher Vertebrates are here represented by aggregations of 
these nerve-nuclei. They are more abundant on the posterior nerves. 
The 64th or most posterior pair of sensory nerves, behind the last 
muscle-segment, appears to have been overlooked by previous investi- 
gators. 

Lhe motor nerves, alternating with the sensory, and arising from the 
ventral side, consist of fibres somewhat less thick than the medium-sized 
elements which accompany the giant fibres of the ventral region. Two 
or more fibres are often apposed. Forking and lateral branching 
occur. ‘The internal connection with the nerve-elements of the central 
system is still uncertain. Peripherally the motor fibres enter individu- 
ally into connection wlth the muscle-plates. Details for the different 
regions are noticed. The motor-fibres often exhibit marked transverse 
striation like that of the longitudinal musculature. Most, however, are 
homogeneous. Itappears most probable that the motor nerves are really 
the apparatus for the motor stimulus of the longitudinal musculature. 
It is possible that the transverse musculature may be innervated by 
“sensory ” nerves. 


B, INVERTEBRATA. 
Mollusca. 
y. Gastropoda. 


Eyes of Gastropods and of Pecten.*—Dr. G. Kalide has a preliminary 
report on his investigations into the minute structure of the eyes of 
Gastropods and of Pecten. In the Prosobranchiata, of which Nassa may 
be taken as the type, the optic vesicle is separated from the surrounding 
connective tissue by a transparent basal membrane, into which the 
neurilemma of the optic nerve passes. The fibres of the optic nerve 
spread out in all directions ; internally to them is the cellular layer of 
the retina, the components of which are arranged radially to the centre 
of the eye. The pigment layer is external to the zone of rods. The 
central cavity of the vesicle is filled by a transparent mass, which forms 
a lens anteriorly and a gelatinous vitreous body posteriorly. 

The innervation of the retina was first made out distinctly in Péero- 
trachea coronata, where the retinal cells gradually diminish at their outer 
ends and pass gradually into nerve-fibres, which are lost in the expansion 
of the optic nerve; this arrangement has already been detected by 


* Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 679-83, 698-703. 


") 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 39 


Grenacher in the eyes of Heteropods and Cephalopods. In the Proso- 
branchiata it is the unpigmented flask-shaped cells which present this 
arrangement; they closely resemble the retinal cells of the Heteropoda, 
and have at their base a large nucleus which colours intensely with 
carmine and hematoxylin. The homology is not affected by the fact 
that the retinal cells of Heteropods contain pigment, for the cells in 
Prosobranchs, which have been hitherto described as being devoid of 
pigment, are not altogether so. The pigmented club-shaped cells rest on 
the basal membrane by a filamentar stalk ; this is not of a nervous nature, 
and these cells are not innervated and have no direct relation to the 
perception of light. The rods are very difficult to see, as they are 
destroyed by most of the reagents used for fixation; they are best pre- 
served by placing fresh eyes for from five to ten minutes in strong formic 
acid, isolating pieces and teasing them carefully in a drop of water. 

In Nassa the zone of rods consists of closely packed delicate columns, 
which are rounded off at their inner ends; they are longest at the 
fundus of the eye, and become shorter and shorter near the distal pole. 
The rods project into spaces of the vitreous body, which are separated 
from one another by thin partitions. 

The connective framework discovered by Simroth in the vitreous 
body and lens does not consist merely of filaments, but of numerous 
stellate cells; these have a nucleus which does not always colour in the 
same way with carmine and hematoxylin; Patten-seems to think that 
his retinophore (the rod-cells) have two nuclei, but if so he has mis- 
taken the nucleus of a stellate connective-tissue cell for the second 
nucleus. The fibres from the rod-cells are not, as Hilger thinks, of a 
nervous nature; they do not end in the expansion of the optic nerve, 
but in the basal membrane. 

The vitreous body is not, as has been generally supposed, com- 
pletely structureless. If the pigment be removed by the action o 
chlorate of potash and hydrochloric acid, sections will show that the 
gelatinous mass has completely disappeared, and a plexus will be left of 
fine fibrils, in which cell-nuclei are scattered; the fibrils are processes 
of the cells to which the scattered nuclei belong. The vitreous body 
consists, therefore, of connective tissue formed of cells with numerous 
processes, and of a gelatinous intermediate substance. The lens has the 
same structure. 

In his account of the eyes of Heteropods, the author confirms in 
many points the description given by Grenacher, to which he makes 
some additions. All the parts of the Gastropod eye are present in that 
of Pecten; but the retina is developed on the anterior side of the optic 
vesicle in correlation with the position of a lens peculiar to the eye of 
Pecten, which lies in front of the optic vesicle. 


6. Lamellibranchiata, 


Influence of Light.*—M. R. Dubois describes the retraction of the 
siphon of Pholas dactylus under the influence of a beam of light. Even 
detached from the animal the siphon keeps this power for several days. 
The siphon as a whole is impressionable by light; the sensory struc- 
tures must be diffusely scattered. The author has made numerous 
experiments on the relation between the muscular contraction of the 


* Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol., v. (1888) pp. 714-6. 


40 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


siphon and the nature of the light. The amplitude and the duration of 
the contractions have a definite relation, which is constant with a light 
of the same intensity at different distances. Lights of different colours 
give different results. Further details are promised after the use of 
a new recording apparatus. 


Movements of Detached Gills.*—Mr. D. Macalpine gives an account 
of his observations on the movements of detached gills, mantle-lobes, 
labial palps, and foot in bivalve Molluscs. He asserts that all of these 
organs, when detached from the body, are capable of moving visibly and 
at a measurable rate of speed. The movement may be either rotatory 
or progressive. One labial palp was observed to make twenty-six revo- 
lutions at an average rate of 81 minutes per round. A palp of the fresh- 
water mussel (Unio) continued to rotate for eight days. The gills 
travelled forward at the rate of two minutes to the inch. The move- 
ment of the mantle-lobes is rotatory, but a certain amount of forward 
movement occurs in the course of rotation. The foot, laid in sufficient 
water to cover it, exhibited motion of both kinds. The rate of rotation 
was a complete round in 6 hours 47 minutes, the average rate of pro- 
gress 1 in. per hour. It retained its power of movement for at least 
73 hours. “The gliding gill and the rotating palp, the moving 
mantle-lobe and the creeping foot, show what a stock of vital energy 
must be stored up in the soft-bodied mollusc imprisoned within the 
walls of the shell.” 


Development of Mytilus edulis.;—Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh remarks 
that in one part of the estuary of the Eden the older mussels are covered 
with dense feathery masses of Gonothyrea, upon which the young 
mussels settle as soon as they quit pelagic life. The young are then 
from 1/71 to 1/21 in.; some show three gill-papille and others thirteen. 
An almost inexhaustible stock of young mussels could thus be obtained 
at an early stage for transporting to any fresh site. Young mussels 
may often be observed fixing themselves on various sites well adapted 
for aeration and food. It is not right to suppose that all the mussels 
found on a ship’s bottom have, since the last “cleaning,” grown to a 
given considerable size. Mr. Wilson (whose important report to the 
Scotch Fishery Board has been overlooked by some recent writers on 
the subject) has shown that mussels can leave their sites and fix them- 
selves to new ones by a fresh secretion of byssus. In France, indeed, 
they are often artificially torn off, 


Molluscoida. 
q@ Tunicata. 


Monograph of Fragaroides aurantiacum.{—M. C. Maurice has 
attempted to fill a lacuna in our knowledge of the Tunicata by preparing 
a monographic account of a species, a method universally recognized by 
zoologists as of the greatest value in advancing research. The form 
which he has selected lives in abundance at Villefranche-sur-mer, and 
is allied to Giard’s genus Fragarium, of which Fragaroides may be 
regarded as a sub-genus. In discussing the orientation of the form the 
author points out that his terminology corresponds, so far as the right 

* Trans. Roy. Soc. Victoria, xxiy. (1888) pp. 189-49. 


+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ii. (1888) pp. 467-9. 
¢ Arch. de Biol., viii. (1888) pp. 205-495 (7 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 41 


and left sides are concerned, with that of Milne-Edwards, and is exactly 
the reverse of that of Savigny, Hancock, and Lacaze-Duthiers. The 
dorsal surface looks upwards, the ventral downwards. The body is 
divisible into a thorax, which comprises the branchiee, nervous system, 
and buccal and cloacal orifices; an abdomen, which contains the 
digestive tube; and a post-abdomen, in which are the gonads and the 
heart. 

The first chapter deals with the colony. There is only slight 
adhesion between the common or external tunic and the subjacent 
epithelium ; but this adhesion is more marked in some regions than 
elsewhere, as, for example, along the longitudinal lines, of which there 
are generally ten on either side of the body, and in the region of the 
buccal and cloacal orifices, where there is to be found the homologue of 
the reflected tunic of the simple Ascidians, in the form of a fold. The 
cloacal orifices of the various ascidiozooids do not open directly to the 
exterior, but into ramified ducts, which may be called a common cloaca. 
The anal “ languettes” are not free, but are so placed as to keep the 
canal widely open. The constitution of the external tunic of Fra- 
garoides is quite similar to that of various simple Ascidians, but there 
are no vacuoles. This tissue of cellulose is not, as most authors have 
hitherto supposed, a product secreted externally by the epidermic layer, 
but a transformed portion of the epidermic epithelium produces the 
cellulose internally. The epidermis is made up of several layers of 
cells, which give rise to cellulose. 

When a member of a colony is about to die its body commences to 
break up in its anterior region; the boundaries of the cells becomo 
effaced, and the nuclei disappear; these remains of dead animals 
gradually disappear, because, as the author believes, the amceboid cells 
of the external tunic act as phagocytes. Another phenomenon of the 
same kind is to be seen in the mode of disappearance of the yolk in the 
urodele larva of this species. There is no trace of a colonial vascular 
system. 

: The yellow colour of the common tunic is solely due to the presence 
of numerous microscopic alge, belonging, apparently, to the genus 
Protococcus ; the orange-red colour of the Ascidians is the result of the 
combination of the colour of the algz with that of the pigmented cells 
of the animals. ; 

The second chapter deals with the body-wall; this is composed of 
epidermis, a connective-muscular framework, and a_peribranchial 
epithelium ; the first of these consists of the external tunic and the sub- 
jacent epidermal epithelium; the framework is a mass of connective 
tissue in which we may say that all the organs of the body are immersed ; 
it is hollowed out by vast lacune in which the blood of the Ascidian 
circulates. The peribranchial epithelium has the same structure and 
properties as the epidermal, save that it does not secrete cellulose. 

The buccal siphon is treated of in the third chapter; the buccal 
orifice is divided externally into lobes of a peculiar form, of which two 
are median and six are lateral in position. The layer of connective 
and muscular tissues is very rich in blood-lacune, and is traversed in 
all directions by muscular bundles; of these there are, for the greater 
part of the siphon, three layers, two longitudinal being separated by one 
transverse. The tentacular crown consists of a fold of the internal wall 
of the buccal siphon, which carries fourteen unequal tentacles. Ten of 


42, SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


these are so arranged that a long and a small one alternate. A large 
lacuna extends along the anterior or dorsal surface of each tentacle. 
The hypoganglionic tubercle is only the orifice of the vibratile organ ; 
it is situated in the prebranchial region on the mediodorsal line; the 
flat epithelium of the buccal siphon becomes ciliated on the vibratile 
organ. A ridge runs round the siphon and separates it from the 
branchia; it has an uninterrupted groove, which, on the ventral side, is 
in direct relation with the hypobranchial groove, and on the dorsal 
raphe forms a projection into the branchial cavity. The anterior lip of 
this groove has a flat epithelium, while the posterior has a characteristic 
ciliated epithelium similar to that which invests the two external lips of 
the hypobranchial grooves. There are no traces of mucous cells in this 
circumcoronal ridge. 

The fourth chapter is devoted to the branchial cavity, which is first 
considered as an organ of respiration. It isin the form of an ovoid sac 
suspended in the peribranchial cavity, and its wall is pierced by 
thirteen to sixteen rows of stigmata, with about thirty stigmata in each 
row. The wall of the gill is of a very simple structure, and the blood 
passes through it in all directions; there are no traces of vessels, or even 
of regular lacunez. True plates, which are really folds of the branchial 
wall, hang down into the branchial cavity; the author calls them 
interserial plates, and describes them as hanging down freely into the 
branchial cavity, which they seem to divide into a series of secondary 
chambers. Attached to them are medio-dorsal “languettes,” the free 
ends of which form a small platform which carries vibratile cilia on the 
medio-dorsal line. The transverse bands of fundamental tissue which 
separate the rows of stigmata are not merely connected with the internal 
tunic by vascular trabecule, as in all other Ascidians, but they are 
directly fused with this tunic on either side of the hypobranchial 
groove for about a third of their extent. The peribranchial cavity 
becomes divided into a series of secondary cavities, all of which are 
open on the cloacal side and end by digitiform culs-de-sac on the side of 
the endostyle, where they penetrate into the tunic. In the interior of 
each of the interserial bands there is a pair of muscles which extend side 
by side through its whole extent. They are connected by numerous 
anastomoses with the longitudinal muscles of the internal tunic, with the 
fibres of which their fibres are continuous. The margin of the branchial 
clefts is invested in a very peculiar epithelium, which is called stigmatic ; 
the cells are greatly elongated in the direction of the long axis of the 
stigmata, and each of them has a projecting crest on its long axis; this 
crest carries from fifteen to seventeen long vibratile cilia. These 
stigmatic cells are arranged in rows of six, and the cells of the same 
row are of exactly the same length. 

The branchial cavity may also be considered as an organ of degluti- 
tion. The hypobranchial groove or endostyle extends all along the 
ventral surface of the branchia, forming a cul-de-sac at its anterior end ; 
the vibratile epithelium of its lips is continuous with that of the 
posterior lip of the pericoronal groove. Posteriorly it also ends 
blindly, and here the epithelium is continued as far as the cesophagus. 
The epithelium is succeeded by two glandular regions, the first of 
which contains only one glandular mass, while the second has two; 
the cells at the base of the groove carry very long vibratile flagella. 
The mucus secreted by the groove is not voided all along the ventral 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 43 


raphe into the branchial cavity, but ascends towards the mantle to the 
pericoronal groove, where it forms a curtain which collects the nutrient 
particles and directs them towards the esophagus. This arrangement 
is a proof of the homology of the endostyle with the thyroid gland of 
Cyclostomata and Selachians. The mediodorsal or interserial “lan- 
guettes ” are simple expansions of the interserial plates, and their function 
is to direct towards the entrance of the oesophagus the cord of mucus 
which is formed at the level of the pericoronal circle. They are not 
mobile, and act only by their vibratile cilia. The posterior raphe or 
retropharyngeal band is formed by a projecting crest which lies in the 
prolongation of the right lip of the endostyle, and extends from the 
posterior cul-de-sac of the hypobranchial groove as far as the cesophagus. 
Its left surface only is invested by a vibratile epithelium, which is 
directly continuous with that of the two lips of the endostyle. 

The peribranchial cavity, which is the subject of the fifth chapter, is 
made up of a large undivided region situated in the mediodorsal line of 
the Ascidian, the cloacal cavity, and from thirteen to sixteen cecal 
prolongations, which surround the branchia except in the medioventral 
line, for they do not extend underneath the hypobranchial groove. The 
investing epithelium is flat, and identical with that of the epidermis and 
of the gill. The cloaca receives the blood which comes from the gill as 
well as the excreta and genital products of the organism; the anus opens 
by a wide space in its lower part, and the genital ducts open just 
opposite the anus. The cloacal siphon, which has the same structure 
as the buccal, is placed in the upper part of the cloaca; it has, like it, 
transverse and longitudinal muscles, but the latter are not found in a 
dorsal appendage of the siphon, where they are represented by fibres 
given off from the transverse muscles. This fact is of some morpho- 
logical importance, for it tends to prove that the muscles which encircle 
the entire body of Doliolum, and which also give off prolongations to 
the anal appendage of these animals, are, in Ascidians, homologous not 
with the circular muscles of the body, but with the transverse muscles 
of the siphon. When ova are produced, the hinder part of the cloaca 
dilates considerably, so as to form an incubating pouch in which the 
eggs are developed. The observations of the author tend to confirm 
the statement of MM. Van Beneden and Julin as to the origin of the 
layers of the peribranchial cavity. In SFragaroides, as in simple 
Ascidians, the parietal layer of the peribranchial cavity has an ecto- 
dermic, and the visceral layer an endodermic origin. 

The digestive tube is described in the next chapter. It is placed 
altogether behind the branchial cavity, and is composed of cesophagus, 
stomach, and intestine; the last may be subdivided into duodenum, 
chylific ventricle, and rectum. The orifice of the cesophagus is elongated 
in such a way as to advance towards the posterior cul-de-sac of the 
endostyle; the vibratile cilia of its epithelium are prolonged into the 
interior of the cell as far as the deep granular mass, and the protoplasm 
becomes thickened around the base of each cilium. The cilia and their 
prolongations are broken up into small dots, which are set in regular 
lines transversely as well as longitudinally. The stomach is cylindrical 
in form, and is marked by eighteen to twenty grooves, the centre of 
which alone communicates with the cavity of the stomach; this is 
owing to the fact that both the cesophagus and the intestine project into 
the interior or the gastric cavity and form a kind of valve. These 


44 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESHARCHES RELATING TO 


grooves must be looked upon as the homologues of the liver of more 
perfect Ascidians. The chylific ventricle is an ampulleform dilatation 
of the digestive tube, which communicates with the terminal intestine 
by a cleft. The epithelium of the rectum is ciliated. The intestinal 
gland is composed of a series of ramified tubes, which form a kind of 
reticulum on the surface of the rectum; they pass into a canal which 
opens into the stomach between the gastric lobes, and the product of their 
secretion aids in digestion. 

The seventh chapter is divided into two parts, the first of which deals 
with the nervous system properly so called, and the second with the 
hypoganglionic gland and the vibratile organ. The true nervous system 
consists of an interoscular ganglion, a ganglionated end which goes to the 
viscera, and of nerves. The first of these, or brain, is situated on the 
mediodorsal line, is ovoid in form, and gives rise, anteriorly, to a pair 
of nerves which go to the buccal siphon, then to two or three pairs of 
lateral nerves, and lastly, to a large posterior nerve which runs for some 
distance above the ganglionated cord, and which innervates the cloacal 
siphon. Histologically speaking, the brain is made up of a peripheral 
zone, which is formed solely by uni- or bipolar ganglionic cells arranged 
in two or three irregular concentric layers, and of a central fibrillar 
mass in which a few nuclei are scattered. The visceral or dorsal 
ganglionic cord arises from the posterior and inferior part of the 
cerebral ganglion, and is continued along the mediodorsal line between 
the epithelium of the gill and that of the cloaca, and between the rectum 
and the cesophagus as far as the region of the stomach. It is formed of 
ganglionic cells and some nervous fibrils; there are never more than three 
or four ganglionic cells visible in one transverse section. ‘This cord is 
surrounded by vast vascular spaces, and is accompanied along its whole 
length by two longitudinal muscles. The nerves are altogether fibrillar, 
and their fibres are continuous with the fibrillar substance of the brain. 
The posterior median is single owing to the fusion along part of their 
length of the two nerves which, in most other Ascidians, arise from the 
posterior region of the brain. 

The hypoganglionic gland is almost as large as the brain and lies 
beneath it; it is provided with an excretory canal, which is connected 
with that of the enigmatic structure which is known as the vibratile 
organ. It is ovoid in form, and is composed of a number of cells with 
irregular contours; these are most regular near the periphery of the 
gland. In its upper part there is an elongated cavity, the roof of which 
is formed by an epithelium of cubical cells ; this epithelium is that of the 
excretory canal of the gland. There are intermediate conditions between 
this gland reduced to a single cavity, and the compound tubular gland 
which ig found in simple Ascidians. The excretory canal may be 
divided into three distinct regions; in the anterior part it is complete, 
but this is very short; in the median part it is reduced to a simple 
groove, while in the posterior region it is at first circular, but its cells 
are soon arranged without order, and we have at last nothing more than 
a mass of cells lying beneath the brain, and altogether similar to the 
ganglionic cells of the visceral cord. 

The vibratile organ forms a funnel which acts as the continuation of 
the excretory canal, and it opens by an oval orifice on the mediodorsal 
line of the animal, in the centre of a projecting tubercle, which extends 
as far as the base of the large mediodorsal tentacle. Its cells carry long 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY; MICROSCOPY, ETc. 45 


fiagella. The hypoganglionic gland is neither mucous nor renal in func- 
tion, and its true significance still remains to be discovered. As to the 
morphological character of the gland and of the vibratile organ, the 
author is inclined to think, with Roule, that Julin is right in regarding 
them as homologous with the hypophysis of Vertebrates. Before com- 
mitting himself to this he would, however, like to see the organ in 
Amphioxus which is homologous with the hypophysis. 

The eighth chapter deals with the muscular system, which is exceed- 
ingly well developed in Fragaroides. The longitudinal muscles are all 
lateral, and are inserted into an epidermal projection, the cells of which 
are specially modified. There are twenty longitudinal muscles on either 
side of the body. The transverse muscles of the gill have a number of 
anastomoses with the longitudinal. Around the buccal and cloacal 
orifices there are circular muscles, and the anus is provided with a 
sphincter. Hach muscular bundle is made up of homogeneous fibres, 
which bear no traces of transverse striation. The fibrils are separated 
from one another by a protoplasmic mass in which are nuclei, and the 
whole is invested by a sarcolemma. They are of a mesenchymatous 
nature, although the Ascidians are enteroccelic. 

The circulatory system or epicardiac organs form the subject of the 
ninth chapter. The epicardium is in the form of a wide median tube, 
and dorsally or ventrally to it there is a tubular prolongation of the 
pericardiac cavity. The heart, which is placed at the extremity of the 
post-abdomen, is curved and one of its horns is prolonged into the dorsal 
and the other into the ventral half of the post-abdomen. The membranes 
of the heart and of the investing pericardium are continuous with one 
another along a longitudinal cleft which lies on the convex surface of 
the heart. This cleft remains open and the cavity of the heart is in 
relation to the blood-lacune, not only at either extremity of the organ, 
but along the whole length of the cardiac raphe. The epicardium bi- 
furcates posteriorly, and then ends blindly. Anteriorly it divides, at the 
plane of the stomach, into two tubes, the anterior ends of which are 
applied to the base of the branchial cavity. In the adult no orifices can 
be detected, but in young larve there are distinct communications 
between these tubes and the branchial cavity. ‘The wall of the heart is 
formed by a simple layer of epithelio-muscular cells, and there is no 
trace of an endocardium. The circulation of the blood is not effected by 
the aid of vessels, but through simple lacune hollowed out in the con- 
nective tissue ; the blood is transparent and carries a large number of 
free mesodermic cells which retain their primitive characters. ‘The epi- 
cardiac plate plays a very important part in the circulation ; the sac is 
connected with the wall of the body, and forms a partition which divides 
the post-abdomen into a dorsal and a ventral half. The two blood« 
currents are thus completely separated from one another, and the 
alternation of the beatings of the heart is of real use in distributing the 
oxygenated blood to the organs of the body: 

The final chapter contains an account of the reproductive organs. 
Fragaroides is hermaphrodite, and the organs, ducts included, are closely 
connected with one another. The testis is made up of a very large 
number of lobes, each of which has an excretory ductnle which opens 
into the vas deferens. In each lobe there is an epithelial layer of 
flattened cells, and an interior mass of rounded cells which become 
converted into spermatozoa. The ovary appears to begin to function 


46 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


at its hinder end, for there the largest ovules are found. The egg-cells 
are developed along two bands, so that there really seem to be two 
ovaries; this,is a somewhat, though not altogether, similar arrange- 
ment to that described in Clavelina rissoana by MM. Van Beneden and 
Julin. The ova are provided with follicular cells; the author was not 
able to follow out the development of the cells of the testa, but he in- 
clines to Kowalevsky’s opinion that they owe their origin to the folli- 
cular cells. 


Structure of Pyrosoma.*—M. L. Joliet, in a posthumous memoir on 
the structure and development of Pyrosoma gigantewm, begins with a 
partial bibliographical account of previous researches, from that of Péron 
onwards. Then follows a diagnosis of the species:—I. Pyrosomata 
verticillata—P. elegans; II. Pyrosomata paniculata—P. gigantewm and 
P. atlanticum. 

The anatomical portion is unfortunately incomplete; the general 
features are described, and then the external structure and disposition of 
the component individuals, but after a brief note on the branchial sac 
this section comes to an end. 

The blastogenesis is then discussed. As to the origin of the bud, the 
author concludes as follows:—Between the extremity of the endostyle 
and the epidermis there is a mesodermic layer which is continuous 
beneath with the reproductive tissue; the endostyle being prolonged 
approximates this layer to the epidermis ; at this point the layer acquires 
fresh cellular activity, and forms a continuous stratum of cells. In the 
area of activity thickenings are produced which become the neural canal 
and the peribranchial canals. As the bud grows, however, and rises 
from its base, it loses thickness and cellular structure, and gradually 
acquires the form of a delicate sac, including the scattered nuclei 
which are seen almost throughout the adult. The organs which it 
has produced—genital glands, neural and peribranchial canals, appear 
isolated from one another. 

The next section is devoted to a description of the stolon. The fact 
which rules the development of the bud is that its axis is not that of the 
stolon, but is perpendicular to it. The transformations are described, 
but must be followed on the plates. From the branchio-intestinal tube 
there are developed—the digestive canal, the branchial sac, and the 
inhalent orifice. Some details are added to the results of Huxley and 
Kowalewsky on this point. The “hyaline organ”, the branchial sac, 
the “canal diapharyngien” which divides the latter into two chambers, 
the peribranchial pouches, the formation of the cloaca, are then described. 
An account of the heart and the respiratory apparatus completes the 
whole of the paper which the editor could regard as finally approved by 
the author. 

A final chapter, less finished but still valuable, describes the nervous 
system. The ciliated sac is described, and its homology with the 
“hypophysis” of Ascidians accepted and corroborated. It is main- 
tained that in Pyrosoma “ gland and canal develope at the expense of the 
primitive vesicle, and the structure has thus quite a different origin from 
the hypophysis of Vertebrates which is produced by an invagination of 


* (Htudes anatomiques ef embryogéniques sur le Pyrosoma giganteum, suivies 
de recherches sur la faune de Bryozoaires de Roscoff et de Menton,’ Paris, 1888, 
112 pp. (5 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 47 


the primitive buccal cavity.” The author would extend this conclusion 
to other Tunicates, and criticizes the arguments of H. van Beneden and 
Julin. The ciliated sac is most probably an olfactory organ, as many 
authorities believe. Finally, the author has described the ganglion and 
the distribution of the nerves. Transverse sections of the ganglion 
exhibit two distinct layers: the outer composed of small rounded cells 
pressed together, the inner consisting of finely granular and amorphous 
substance. ‘The nerves which spring from the ganglion are described in 
three groups—superior or anterior, lateral, and inferior or posterior. 


Alternation of Generations in Salpa and Pyrosoma.*—Dr. L. Joliet 
left among his unpublished papers another contribution of interest. It 
discusses the alternation of generations in species of Salpa and Pyrosoma. 
The lamented author corroborated the observations of Kowalewsky and 
defended the old theory of Chamisso—of a true alternation of generations 
—against the objections of Brooks and Todaro. 

(1) The budding of Salpa is true budding, though complicated by 
the fact that the already differentiated organs take part in it, each on its 
own account. (2) The solitary form hitherto considered as asexual is 
rightly so called. It does not contain an ovary nor a hermaphrodite 
gland, but only the incipient rudiments of such a gland. (8) In the 
alternation of generations, procceding by blastogenesis, the asexual form 
is produced sexually, and possesses a reproductive tissue, which may be 
only potential and undifferentiated, or quite recognizable and already 
differentiated. It is, however, unable to carry this on to complete 
development, and entrusts it for this purpose to another form, or to 
several successive forms produced by blastogenesis. Of these, the last 
at least is sexual. This formula may be applied to Salpa, Pyrosoma, 
other compound Ascidians, and to several hydroids. 


B. Bryozoa. 


Anatomy and Histology of Membranipora pilosa.t—Herr W. Freese 
commences his account of this Polyzoon with a description of its 
ectocyst, external appearances, and varieties, three of which are to be 
distinguished. The endocyst of adult animals merely forms a thin 
meshwork of protoplasmic filaments in which no cell-boundaries can be 
distinguished; in stained pieces the small masses of protoplasm are 
seen to be almost completely formed by large, round, or smaller oval 
nuclei with distinct nucleoli; the surrounded protoplasm is very small 
in quantity. The endocyst only exhibits a truly epithelial structure 
at the point where it extends over the rosette-plates ; as in Mlustra 
membranacea, there is an epithelium formed of cylindrical cells; this 
is unilaminate, and forms a lens-like stopper. 

The so-called perigastric cavity or space between the ecto- and 
endocyst corresponds to the body-cavity of other animals; the parietal 
muscles, which are found in it, consist of from three to ten fibres in each 
bundle; the fibres are somewhat more delicate than those of the other 
free muscles, and stain less deeply. The author agrees with most of 
the recent histologists in refusing to ascribe, with F. Miller, a nervous 
nature to the funiculi laterales and funicular plate ; and he agrees rather 
with Nitsche in thinking that the plate is an organ which serves to keep 


* Op. cit., pp. 97-102. + Arch. f. Naturgesch., xlyv. (1888) pp. 1-72 (2 pls.). 


4 


48 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the enteric canal in a definite position relative to the zoccium, and 
that the cords serve to convey stimuli from one animal to another, as 
the walls of the zocecium are particularly thin at their points of 
insertion into the rosette-plates. In Membranipora, as in Flusird 
membranacea, the funicular plate consists of a plexus of spindle-shaped 
cells, of the same size as those of the cords. 

The tentacular sheath is, histologically, a lamella, in which no cell- 
boundaries can be made out, although distinct cell-nuclei are deposited 
in it. Although the fibrous cords on the sheath do not appear to 
contain any nuclei, there can be no doubt that they are muscular. The 
vaginal sphincter has a more complicated structure in Membranipora than 
in the forms described by Nitsche or Vigelius. It is half as long 
as the invaginated part of the ectocyst ; internally to the chitinous tube 
there is a layer of large cylindrical cells provided with distinct nuclei ; 
in the lower and inner side of the diaphragm formed by the cylindrical 
epithelium there is a layer of circular muscular fibres, and the author 
thinks that there are also a few longitudinal fibres. Nitsche was 
incorrect in supposing that the tentacular sheath passes directly into 
the substance of the sphincter. The tentacles and the circular canal 
consist of three layers of tissue—the outer epithelium, the homogeneous 
cylinder which corresponds to the muscular tunic of phylactolematous 
Polyzoa, and the internal very loose investment of cells. The cylinder 
is the support of the whole tentacle ; on the side turned away from the 
mouth it is drawn into two ridge-like processes, which pass at their base 
into the homogeneous lamella of the circular canal; from this canal a 
homogeneous membrane is continued to the enteric canal, of which it 
forms the outer, firm support. No distinct cells can be made out in the 
inner loose tissue, but scattered nuclei, surrounded by protoplasm, may 
be observed. Here Freese agrees with Salensky in thinking that the 
cavities of the tentacles and their circular canal represent a vascular 
system, although he has not been able to prove a connection between 
the circular canal and the body-cavity. 

In a number of points the structure of the enteric canal agrees with 
that of the Flustreide. 

Membranipora, like F. membranacea, has an organ which appears to 
be the homologue of what is undoubtedly the nerve-centre in the 
Phylactolemata ; it lies on the anal side of the circular canal, and has 
the form of a triaxial ellipsoid; the outer membrane does not appear to 
consist of cells, as described by Vigelius in F. membranaceo-truncata, 
but is a cuticular secretion of the internal substance. Onthe whole the 
author’s account agrees very closely with the anatomical descriptions of 
the chief writers on the structure of the Polyzoa. The paper concludes 
with an account of the species found in the Baltic: 


y. Brachiopoda. 
Modified Ectoderm in Crania and Lingula.*—Miss A. Heath has 


some observations on a tract of modified ectoderm in Crania anomala and 
Lingula anatina. This tract is found on the arms of Crania, over the 
whole of the sides of the tentacles and the fold which lie next each 
other, and at the outer base of the fold. When specially modified the 
portion lies in a groove in the subepithelial tissue, and the epithelial 


* Proc, Biol, Soc. Liverpool, ii. (1888) pp: 95-104 ( pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. . 49 


cells may be seen frequently to end below in long colourless tails or 
threads which are in connection with a mass of tissue lying below them, 
and on the outside of the epithelial tissue. This mass consists of stellate 
cells, the points of the stars being produced into long colourless threads, 
which are in some cases connected with the threads from the outer 
columnar cells. Owing to the greater size of Lingula the modified 
epithelium is there larger and easier of detection; there are three regions 
of especially modified tissue on the arms. All these tracts probably 
correspond to the tracts of specialized tissue described as occurring in 
some articulate Brachiopods, and regarded as sense-organs. Their 
intimate connection with nerve-fibres and cells supports this view of 
their sensory nature. 


Arthropoda. 


a. Insecta, 


Observations on Ants, Bees, and Wasps.*—Sir John Lubbock has 
published the eleventh part of his observations. He is of opinion that, 
though there may be nests of Formica sanguinea without slaves, an 
experiment which he has made seems to indicate that the slaves perform 
some important functions in the economy of the nest, though it is not 
yet determined what that function exactly is. 

With regard to Ant-guests, he points out that Dr. Wasman has 
confirmed his observations, in opposition to Lespés, that, while ants are 
deadly enemies to those of other nests, even of the same species, the 
domestic animals may be transferred from one nest to another, and are 
not attacked. Attention is next drawn to Prof. Emery’s observations on 
mimicry among ants. 

With regard to the colour-sense, Prof. Graber has confirmed Sir 
John’s observations on Ants and Daphnias, by which he showed that they 
are sensitive to the ultra-violet rays, by similar observations on earth- 
worms, newts, &c. Light was found to act on decapitated earthworms, 
though the differences were not so marked ; the same held good for newts, 
when their eyes were covered over, and Graber hence concludes that the 
general surface of the skin is sensitive to light. Forel has made some 
observations on ants, the eyes of which were carefully covered by 
opaque varnish, so that they were rendered temporarily blind, 

From experiments made with Platyarthrus, which have no eyes, the 
author found that they made their way into the shaded portion of a 
partly covered nest, and he remarks that it is “easy to imagine that in 
unpigmented animals, whose skins are more or less semitransparent, 
the light might act directly on the nervous system, even though it 
could not produce anything which could be called vision.” 

Sir John’s experiments lead him to differ from M. Forel, who believes 
that bves have a certain sense of direction. The power of recognizing 
friends is discussed at some length, but the explanation of the fact still 
remains obscure. ‘The most aged insect on record is a queen of Formica 
fusca which lived for fifteen years; what is much more extraordinary is 
that she continued to lay fertile eggs; fertilization took place in 1874 at 
the latest, and there has been no male in the nest since then, so that the 
spermatozoa of 1874 must have retained their life and energy for thirteen 
years. 


* Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., xx. (1888) pp. 118-36. 
1889, E 


50 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The seeds of Melampyrum pratense are, as Liindstrom has recently 
pointed out, closely similar to the pupz of ants, and he has suggested 
that this may be an advantage to the plant by deceiving the ants, and 
thus inducing them to carry off and so disseminate the seeds. The 
author’s own observations show that Formica fusca appears to take no 
notice of these seeds, but that, under certain circumstances, they are 
carried off by Lasius niger. 

The observations of Mr. and Mrs. Peckham on the special senses of 
wasps is referred to as containing conclusions which concur closely with 
those of Sir J. Lubbock. 

A connected account of the author’s observations is given in a recent 
work, ‘On the Senses, Instincts, and Intelligence of Animals, with special 
reference to Insects,’* which will be found useful as a handbook of the 
subject with which it deals. 


Termites.t—Prof. B. Grassi resumes the principal results of his 
observations on termites. (1) The nests of Calotermes contain indi- 
viduals perfectly winged from the middle of July to the middle of 
November. ‘The winged members are scarce in July, more so in 
November, but abundant in August and September. It seems evident 
that they do not leave the nest all at once. (2) About the middle of 
March, he found a nest of two individuals, male and female, without 
wings, and along with a number of eggs. (3) King, queen, and eggs of 
Calotermites, are usually found, with nymphs and soldiers, in the middle 
of June, in a dilatation of a gallery. (4) In care for the eggs and in 
other ways, Termes lucifugus appears to occupy a higher level than 
Calotermes. Both are inferior to bees in recognition of strangers. 
(5) The galleries of the Calotermites afford indication of the length of 
life of the colony inhabiting them. (6) Grassi has not been able to 
distinguish among Calotermites, either the nymphs of the second kind, 
or Fritz Miiller’s substitution queens. ‘The characters of the in- 
dividuals observed are discussed in detail. (7) From November to the 
end of June, the nests of Termes lucifugus appear to be without king or 
queen, and without eggs. (8) Various cases of termite habitations are 
discussed. (9) Facts are given to show that the termites swarm after 
the manner of bees, and that they make great preparations for swarming. 
Other interesting notes are communicated, proving the patient zeal of 
the observer. 


Replacement of King and Queen of Termites.{—Prof. B. Grassi 
has made some further observations on Termes lucifugus. He finds that 
a colony which has been deserted provides itself with a fresh royal pair 
by accelerating the maturation of the generative organs of a certain 
number of individuals which are capable of becoming winged imagines; 
this is probably effected by means of special food; the generative organs 
mature while the other important characteristics of the imago (espe- 
cially the wings) develope much more slowly or do not appear at all. In 
this way individuals with ripe generative organs, but wanting the other 
marks of the adult, are raised to the royal throne. The individuals 
selected are probably those which, at the time of desertion, have their 
generative organs best developed. While the honey-bees have the 


* 8vo, London, 1888, 292 pp. (118 figs.). 
+ Bull. Soc. Entom. Ital., xix. (1887) pp. 75-80. 
{ Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 615-8. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 51 


power of stopping the development of these organs, the Termites are 
able to hasten their maturation. 


Poison-apparatus of Mosquito.*—Prof. G. Macloskie gives an 
account of the poison-apparatus of the Mosquito. There are two sets of 
glands, one on each side in the antero-inferior region of the prothorax ; 
each consists of three glands, two of which are of the usual aspect of 
salivary glands, and resemble in structure, though they are not propor- 
tionately as long as the single salivary glands of the house-fly. The 
third or central gland of each set is evenly granular and stains more 
deeply than the others; it is this which, no doubt, has the function of 
secreting the poison. Hach gland is traversed throughout by a fine 
ductule, and the three unite at the base to form a common duct, which 
is one of the branches of the veneno-salivary duct. The secretion of 
the lateral glands dilutes the poison. The single main duct passes to 
the reservoir at the base of the hypopharynx. The pressure on the sur- 
rounding parts is sufficient, when the mosquito inserts its piercing 
apparatus, to propel the poison through the tubular axis of the hypo- 
pharynx into the wound. The distal orifice of the hypopharynx is sub- 
apical and not exactly terminal ; the tip is flattened and sharp so as to 
enter easily and enlarge the wound made by the adjoining organs. 


§, Arachnida. 


Anatomy of Hydrodroma.j;—Dr. R. v. Schaub gives a detailed 
account of the anatomy of this Hydrachnid, one of the characters of 
which is the possession of a small highly chitinized dorsal shield under 
the skin between the eyes. 

The matrix of the chitin of the integument is a thin layer of homo- 
geneous tissue, which is broken by irregular lacune; this matrix igs 
also the seat of the pigment which is collected at nodal points, and 
contains distinct nuclei. The dorsal shield not only serves as the point 
of origin for a number of muscles, and especially those of the oral cone, 
but also as a protection for the subjacent sensory organs. The dermal 
glands, peculiar to the Hydrachnida, are, in Hydrodroma dispar, arranged 
in four longitudinal rows over the back; their tunica propria is extremely 
thin, and is supported by a network of thin chitinized ridges; the secre- 
tory cells are divided into two hemispherical groups; they open by a 
eleft, which is surrounded by a strong chitinous wall. On the legs 
there are a number of very variously formed chitinous sete, all of which 
have an internal canalicular cavity, which, with the exception of the 
swimming hairs, is indicated by a thin layer of red pigment. The 
author does not agree with Haller in his division of the hairg into 
tactile and olfactory organs, though he has no doubt of their general 
tactile sensibility. 

Like all other Hydrachnids, Hydrodroma has the basal joints of the 
pedipalpi fused to form a suctorial proboscis, which corresponds to the 
maxillz, and incloses the mandibles; this apparatus is briefly described. 
Above it are a pair of oval orifices, which were first recognized by 
Kramer as the stigmata of the tracheal system; they lead directly into 
a tube which is 0-008 mm. thick, formed of colourless and homogeneous, 
but hard, chitin. The two tubes pass into air-reservoirs formed by the 


* Amer. Natural., xxii. (1888) pp. 884-8. 
+ SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xevii. (1888) pp. 98-154 (6 pls.). 


10) 


52 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


basal joints of the mandibles; these’are strong f-shaped capsules, 
0:2 mm. long and 0°04 mm. broad, and widened out in saccular form in 
their middle. Some of the trachez which pass into the body from the 
air-chamber pass out directly, while others are derived from a chief 
tracheal trunk which breaks up. No trace of spiral marking could be 
detected on the trachez ; they are thin tubes (0:°0015 mm.), and traverse 
the body without further division; as they often form a close plexus 
around the organs, they may be considered to aid in keeping them in 
their place. It is probable that the sete at the ends of the appendages 
have some share in respiration. There is no heart, and there are no 
blood-vessels. In transparent species of Ataw it is very easy to observe 
how the muscular activity in the movements of the legs has an influence 
on the circulation of the blood in them. 

The pharynx is a spindle-shaped tube, the wall of which is 
strengthened by chitin; this forms discs which are set at right angles 
to the long axis, and continued into the interior, so that the whole 
internal cavity is broken up into nine divisions, each of which is filled 
by a bundle of strong circular muscles. A very thin canal traverses the 
axis of the whole tube; and it is clear that it is by the alternate con- 
traction of the circular muscles in each division that the tube is narrowed 
and widened; by these means the food is pumped into the cesophagus. 
The stomach appears to be very much like that of other Hydrachnids ; 
with regard to the rectum, however, the author is in opposition to 
Croneberg. 

The excretory organ is placed dorsally to the central cavity of the 
stomach, and, as it is partly covered by blind sacs, it lies in a complete 
groove. It is formed by a simple sac, the extent of which varies in 
different individuals. It passes into a cylindrical tube, which, like the 
rectum, is formed of longitudinal muscles, which are attached to the 
anal ring. The secreting cells are surrounded by a transparent homo- 
geneous tunica propria, and have the form of spherical vesicles of 
different sizes; the secretion, which is always present in large quan- 
tities, appears to consist of a number of elongated or rounded corpuscles 
with concentric, highly refractive, bluish rings. 

The nerve-centre of Hydrodroma is like that of other Hydrachnida ; 
the few differences that obtain are carefully noted. The eyes appeared 
to deserve special study, and with them there were compared those of 
Ataxz, Diplodonius, and Hylais. In addition to the known two pairs of 
eyes, the author has found in Hydrodroma a fifth, unpaired, eye, which 
is very small, and is placed in the median depression of the dorsal 
shield. The minute structure of the eye is always on the same funda- 
mental type, and the differences are confined to the chitinized tegu- 
mentary part which is converted into the lens, and to the relative 
positions of the eyes. Those of either side are always unequal in size 
and the larger is always more anterior and nearer the middle line. A 
single optic nerve is given off from the brain, and this divides into two 
at a varying distance from its point of origin. The end of each optic 
nerve passes into a number of club-like structures, which are united 
into a more or less conical cup, and correspond to the rod-cells. The 
chitinous lens is greatly thickened internally, and projects into the 
lumen of this cup. Hach of the rods is invested in an extremely deli- 
cate envelope of connective tissue, below which are dark-violet pigment- 
corpuscles closely packed. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 5d 


In connection with the eyes there is a specific dense organ in the 
form of a vesicle filled with rounded cells, containing a highly refractive 
nucleus of irregular form; the nerve which supplies this organ does not 
arise directly from the brain, but from the optic nerve about midway 
between the eye and the nerve-centre. Hydrodroma dispar has four of 
these organs, which lie in the depressions at the four angles of the dorsal 
shield. The direct connection of this organ with the optic nerve leads 
to the supposition that we have here to do with the vestiges of eyes. 

After a short notice of the musculature, the author passes to the 
generative organs, as to which he has nothing essentially new to add 
to the descriptions given by Croneberg ; a somewhat detailed description 
is, however, given. 


e. Crustacea. a 


Male Copulatory Organs on first Abdominal Appendage of some 
female Crayfishes.*—Herr D. Beyendal directs attention to some abnor- 
malities in the appendages of the first abdominal segment of female 
crayfishes. He has observed that these appendages vary much in form; 
sometimes they were quite absent, some were spoon-shaped, and in a few 
they presented the characters of the male; the last were otherwise quite 
normally constituted females. The male appearance does not, therefore, 
seem to be any indication of hermaphroditism, nor is it a sign of a return 
to an earlier hermaphrodite stage. We have, in fine, to do rather with 
a well-marked case of the variations which are exhibited by useless 
vestigial organs. ‘The cause of the possession of male organs is to be 
sought for in the influence of inheritance from its male parent by the 
female. 


Indian Amphipoda.t—Mr. G. M. Giles, continuing his notes on the 
voyage of H.M.S. ‘Investigator,’ calls attention to the fact that he has 
as yet found only two species of Amphipods previously known. Since 
his last publication Mr. Giles has found eleven new species. A blind 
Anonyx which appears to feed on drift, an Ampelisca, a Microdeutopus, 
and a Monoculodes are described. An interesting form, which the dis- 
coverer calls Concholestes dentalit g. et sp. n., was found forming a distinct 
tube within Dentalium shells. Next comes a careful description, with 
seven figures, of Amphithoe indica Milne-Edwards. New species of 
Atylus, Urothoe, Caprella are recorded, diagnosed, and beautifully illus- 
trated. Another form, which belongs to the family Platyscelide, will fit 
into no existing genus, and is named Hlsia indica g. et sp. n. 


New Family of Commensal Copepods.{—M. E. Canu gives a note 
on the Hersiliide, a new family of commensal Copepods, which must be 
regarded as distinct from the Siphonostomata and the Peltidiide, The 
body is completely segmented, and the first thoracic somite is united 
with the cephalic ring; the anterior antennz have seven joints, and are 
similar in the two sexes; the posterior antenne are simple and have four 
joints. The mandibles have no palps nor any masticatory teeth; at their 
distal extremity they are provided with mobile accessory seizing pieces, 
and flattened plates, the edge of which may be denticulated or carry 


* Bihang Handl. K. Svensk. Vet. Akad., xiv. (1888) iv. No. 3, 35 pp. (1 pl.), 
and Oefvers. af Forhandl. K. Svensk. Vet. Akad., 1888, No. 5, pp. 343-6. 

+ Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng., lvii. (1888) pp. 220-55 (7 pls.). 

{t Comptes Rendus, cvii. (1888) pp. 792-3. 


54 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


sete. The rudimentary maxille are divided into an internal masticatory 
lobe, and an external palpiform lobe. The paragnaths are well developed 
and cover the mandibles. The maxillipeds are well developed, and the 
internal furnish important sexual differences. The thoracic appendages 
are biramose. 

The new genera are Giardella (G. callianasse), which is very 
abundant in the galleries of Callianassa subterranea, and Hersiliodes 
with three species; H. Pelseneeri was found in the tube of a Clymenid, 
H. Thomsoni, on the abdominal appendages of Callianassa, and the 
Cyclops Puffint of J. C. Thomson, found at Puffin Island. 


Two new Copepods parasitic on Echinoderms.*—Dr. A. Rosoll 
gives descriptions of two new Copepods living parasitically on Antedon 
(or, as he calls it, Comatula mediterranea), and on Asterias glacialis ; 
both appear to be rare, as each has only been seen once. The parasite 
of the former is called Ascomyzon Comatule; the female was 1 mm. 
long and 1/2'mm. broad. For the second a new genus Astericola is 
established, and the species is called A. Clausii ; the inner branch of the 
fourth pair of feet is three-jointed and not two-jointed, as in Doridicola 
and Stellicola, and the head and thorax are fused, whereas in the allied 
Lichomolgus they are separate. The anterior antenna has, moreover, 
eight instead of six or seven joints. 


New Parasite of Amphiura.t— Under this title Mr. J. Walter Fewkes 
gives a brief account of a Copepod, which he does not name; it makes 
its way into the brood-sacs of Amphiura, which it spays, the ovary being 
rendered amorphous; the Copepod leaves packets of ova, the develop- 
ment of which is assured when the possibility of offspring in Amphiura 
has been destroyed ; well-formed Nauplii were observed in the sac. 


Ameebocytes of Crustacea.t{—Dr. G. Cattaneo describes the amceboid 
cells in the blood of Astacus fluviatilis. (1) There are two principal 
forms—granular and hyaline. These are two stages of the same 
elements. (2) The granular cells are the more perfect and are 
functional; the hyaline cells are retrogressive. (3) The protoplasmic 
spherules within the heart and pericardium are simply the débris of the 
vascular elements. They do not pass again into the general circulation, 
but are found in the hepatic arteries, and in the tissue of the yellow 
glands undergoing adipose degeneration. (4) The function of the 
amoeboid cells has no relation to hematosis, which is effected by the 
hemocyanin and tetronerythrin dissolved in the blood-plasma. ‘They 
serve rather, by means of the ferment represented by the refractive 
granules, to convert into albumin capable of assimilation, the peptones 
and a portion of the detritus. Their action as phagocytes was also 
observed. (5) The variations of the amceboid cells in diverse media and 
under reagents are described. An excess of water in the blood favours 
deformation and expansion of pseudopodia. Lowered temperature to 0° 
brings about plasmodia. Heightened temperature to 70° makes the cells 
diffluent. 


* SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xevii. (1888) pp. 181-202 (2 pls.), 
+ Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xxiv. (1888) pp. 31-3. 
+ Arch. Ital. Biol., x. (1888) pp. 266-72. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 949. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSOOPY, ETO. 5d 


Vermes. 
a. Annelida. 


Polycheta of Dinard.*—The Baron de Saint-Joseph continues his 
account of the polychetous Annelids found off Dinard. The Aphro- 
ditinee often carry ectoparasites, thus Pedicellina belgica may be found 
under the elytra and on the back of Hermadion pellucidum, and Trichodina 
Auerbachit has been found on the elytron of Halosydna gelatinosa ; 
numerous other cases are cited. These same worms may also live an 
epizoic life, thus Malmgrenia castanea lives near the mouth of Spatangus 
purpureus, Hermadion assimile lives round that of Hchinus esculentus, and 
Acholoe astericola lives in the ambulacra of various species of Astropecten. 
The Polynoids appear to be specially commensal on other annelids. 

The author’s account of the various species differs considerably in 
length; among those most fully treated are Halosydna gelatinosa, 
Harmothoe ceeliaca sp. n.; H. maxillospinosa sp. n., H. picta sp. n., and 
H. arenicole sp. n., the last of these was found on an Arenicola marina. 

The Huniceide are next dealt with; the members of this family are 
interesting from the differences between the young and old forms, due to 
successive modifications in the sete, jaws, number of eyes and cephalic 
appendages ; in consequence of this, great care must be taken in the 
definition and delimitation of species. Lumbriconereis labrofimbriata and 
L. paradoxa are new. The name of Labrorostrutus is given to a new 
genus in which the head has no appendages and the upper jaw is rudi- 
mentary, and which is allied to Arabella. From its habit the species is 
called L. parasiticus ; it was found living in the body-cavity of Syllidians ; 
it is not known how it reaches this situation. It is remarkable for its 
comparatively large size, being as much as 8 mm. long. A somewhat 
similar case of endoparasitism is the Lumbriconereis found in Marphysa. 
The characters of Claparéde’s genus Drilonereis are modified, and a 
new species, D. macrocephala, is described. The characters of Arabella 
are also emended, and Maclovia is regarded as a sub-genus. The 
same happens to Paraciius. A remarkable new form, P. mutabilis, is 
described. 

Among the Lycoridinee Leptonereis Vaillanti sp. n. and its heteronereid 
forms are first described. The author does not agree with Claparéde’s 
view that only some of the species of Nereids have heteronereid forms ; 
of the thirty-eight of the latter, twenty are known to have nereid forms, 
and he does not think it unlikely that others will be discovered. 

The Phyllodocine are next discussed; the genus Phyllodoce is 
divided into the four sub-genera, Genztyllis, Phyllodoce (s. str.), Anaitis, 
and Carobia. 

Phyllodoce (Carobia) splendens sp. n. is perhaps the most beautiful 
annelid found at Dinard, It hasa yellowish brown head, the appendages 
of the head are yellow, and the cirri of a beautiful green, edged with 
yellow; the dorsal surface of the segments has a yellow background 
covered with a metallic azure with beautiful iridescence; the lower 
surface is deep brown with thin longitudinal rays of blue. Another new 
species is P. (Carobia) rubiginosa. Hulalia Claparedii, E. splendens, E. 
ornata, E. trilineata, E. rubiginosa, EH. fuscescens, EH. venusta, and E. parva 
are new. Other new species are Htione incisa, and Mystides (Meso- 
mystides) limbata. ‘The last group treated of is that of the Hesionina. 


* Ann. Sci. Nat., vy. (1888) pp. 141-338 (8 pls.). 


56 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Central Nervous System of Lumbricus.*—Herr B. Friedlander has 
investigated the minute structure of the central nervous system of the 
earthworm. As Faivre correctly stated, though he has been contradicted 
by Vignal, the short connectives between the closely applied ganglia of 
the ventral cord lie in front of the points of origin of the single nerves. 
Tn each ganglion there are a limited number of large, multipolar ganglion 
cells which are constant in position and have a peculiar chemical con- 
stitution; they are probably comparable to the median cells described 
by Hermann in Hirudo and by Kiikenthal in Travisia. In each ganglion 
there are fibrous transverse bridges at the level of the point of origin of 
the nerves. With the exception of the first root of the double nerves, 
the lateral nerves have their fibres partly related to these transverse 
bridges; the first root of the double nerves has a more ventral, the 
second a more dorsal origin. There is in Lumbricus a median nerve 
running between the two chief cords of fibres. In each of these latter 
there are three groups of closely approximated, well-developed nerves ; 
in the ventral group there is a specially thick nerve-tube. Near this 
last there is a differentiated tissue similar to the fibrils of the brain. 

The sub-cesophageal ganglion is probably the product of the fusion 
of two ventral medullary ganglia. The investments of the neural canals 
are purely of the nature of connective tissue and are not to be compared 
to the myelin of the nerves of Vertebrates. They probably have, as a 
subsidiary function, the duty of preventing lesions of the ventral cord, 
on the contraction of the worm. The contents of the neural canals 
consist of processes of ganglionic cells which are probably fused with 
one another into a homogeneous mass. The two lateral neural canals 
begin at the hinder end of the ventral cord in the form of processes of 
two ventrally placed ganglionic cells of special character, but not of 
unusual size; in their further course they take up the processes of other 
ganglionic cells of similar character. Before their entrance into the 
neural canals the processes form complicated anastomoses with one 
another, as well as with the median canal. The nervous central sub- 
stance of the brain differs essentially from that of the ventral cord. The 
proximal ends of the anteriorly directed. nerves have a deposit of 
numerous small ganglionic cells which form the lobes of the brain. In 
more posterior transverse sections a fine fibrillar dotted substance placed 
centrally and ventrally and ganglionic cells may be seen. In sections 
stained with carmine, scattered nuclei of connective tissue which indicate 
the presence of a neuroglia-like supporting substance, may also be made 
out. 

The ganglionic cells may be divided into several sets; the whole 
dorsal part of the brain consists of a cortical]. layer chiefly made up of 
ganglion-cells; these are remarkable for the difficulty with which they 
can be preserved, and it was quite impossible to make out the number of 
their processes. Most of them are very small, but some are larger, pyri- 
form, and unipolar. There are, further, groups of large pyriform cells, 
and cells with extremely sharp contours, and very broad processes; the 
latter form a dorsal and a ventral fibrous cord, which only unite into 
one a short distance in front of their entrance into the cesophageal com- 
missures. There appears to be here a complete crossing of the fibres. 

The nervous central substance or dotted substances of Leydig 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvii. (1888) pp. 47-84 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. Tl 


consists of coiled fibrils which appear to take their origin from the 
small ganglionic cells of the cortex of the brain; the constituents of 
this differ in their chemical characters, for while the chief mass becomes 
a bright brown with osmic acid, there is a part which stains more 
deeply. 


Genital and Segmental Organs of Earthworm.*—Dr. G. Goehlich 
has reinvestigated the much studied genital and segmental organs of 
Lumbricus terrestris, The ovary is first described, and Claparéde’s 
account of oogenesis confirmed. The condition of the organ, and the 
absence of ege-laying in winter are noticed. The tube and the egg- 
receptacle are then discussed in detail; when eggs are to pass into the 
oviduct the author believes that the muscles of the receptacle contract, 
the ciliary activity of the funnel stops, that in the oviduct begins, and 
the eggs are laid. The oviduct and the cocoon are then described without 
new result of importance. In regard to the spermatheca, the author 
notes that in the cold season, blood-corpuscles enter the reservoirs, as in 
Aulastomum, and devour the spermatozoa. In discussing the copulation, 
it is noted that the spermatophores never contain sperms belonging to 
either of the copulators, but belonging to a third worm which has 
formerly united with one of them. 

The testes, seminal vesicles, seminal funnels, and vasa deferentia 
are next described, but again the results are almost wholly corroboratory. 
The author believes that the expulsion of the spermatozoa is in part due 
to the ciliary action of the vas deferens. A careful account, with 
beautiful figures, is given of the various parts of the segmental organs. 
Some new histological details are communicated in regard to the ciliated 
funnels. 


Three new Species of Earthworms.}|—Mr. F. E. Beddard describes 
three new species of earthworms, and takes the opportunity of discussing 
certain points in the morphology of the Oligocheeta. 

Acanthodrilus annectens is a new species from New Zealand, which 
combines to a certain degree the characters of A. multiporus and A. 
novee-zealandie ; its vasa deferentia are remarkable for running deep 
within the longitudinal muscular layer, and unite just before their 
external orifice; the atria open separately upon the seventeenth and 
nineteenth segments. 

Deinodrilus Benhami g. et sp. n., also from New Zealand, is remark- 
able for having, in each segment, six pairs of sete; this arrangement is 
intermediate between that seen in Lumbricus, where there are four pairs, 
and the continuous row of numerous sete found in Pericheta. It is 
interesting that there are other characters in which Deinodrilus is inter- 
mediate between Acanthodrilus and Pericheta. The atria have two 
pairs of apertures as in the former, and the clitellum is, as in Pericheta, 
found on segments 14-16. 

The dorsal vessel is a completely double tube; there are six pairs 
of lateral hearts. The nephridial system is like that of Acanthodrilus 
multiporus. A special coelomic sac incloses the dorsal blood-vessel. 

The third new species, T'ypheus Gammii, is from Darjeeling ; as in 
T. orientalis there is no prostomium, and the mouth is, therefore, 


* Zool. Beitr. (Schneider), ii. (1888) pp. 133-67 (2 pls.). 
t Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxix. (1888) pp. 101-81 (2 pls.). 


58 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


terminal; the penial sete differ from those of T. orientalis by having 
wavy ridges round the distal portion, and there are only two genital 
papille. 

The author discusses the structure and homologies of the so-called 
prostate glands in the Oligocheta, and comes to the conclusion that the 
so-called prostates of Pericheta are equivalent to the atria of Acantho- 
drilus, Pontodrilus, and others; in Monoligaster Barwelli the atrium 
consists of a thick glandular covering of peritoneum, of a layer of 
muscular fibres, and of a single layer of columnar epithelium. 


Reproductive Organs of Eudrilus.*—Mr. F. EH. Beddard has a 
further communication on this subject. He finds that a pair of 
problematic bodies in the thirteenth segment have their duct com- 
municating with the duct of the spermatheca. These bodies were 
regarded as being probably ovaries, and this view is supported by 
Rosa’s description of a pair of similar structures which are placed 
in an identical situation in Teleudrilus, and contain nearly mature 
ova, and by the author’s discovery of numerous mature ova in these 
bodies in Hudrilus. But, while the tube by which the ovary in the 
thirteenth segment in Hudrilus communicates with the exterior is a 
real duct, lined by a single layer of columnar cells, the tube which 
leads from the ovary to the receptaculum in Teleudrilus is simply a 
coelomic sac. Eudrilus appears to have another pair of ovaries in the 
fourteenth segment, and its oviduct, on either side, opens opposite to 
that of the thirteenth into the spermathecal duct. Each ovary is 
enveloped in a muscular sheath which is continuous with the oviduct, 
and this investing sheath is probably equivalent to the receptaculum 
overum of other earthworms. 


g. Nemathelminthes, 


Nematode in Blood of Dog.t—Dr. P. Sonsino has made a study of 
the life-history of Filaria hematica (Gruby and Delafond) or F. immitis 
(Leidy), which is found in the blood of the dog. It occurs in the heart, 
pulmonary artery, subcutaneous tissue, intermuscular connective, &e. 
The young stages are passed in one of the epizoic parasites, whence the 
adolescent form returns to the dog. In this the history of Tenia 
cucumerina is paralleled. It is hardly just to regard Spiroptera or 
Filaria sanguinolenta as a true hematozoic parasite. Besides F. immitis 
there may be in the dog other hematozoic nematodes, which like it 
propagate their embryos in the blood and have similar external inter- 
mediate hosts. The parasites may be acquired, according to Galeb and 
Pourquier, during foetal life from the mother. From the young dog 
thus infected from the first, the nematode embryos may pass secondarily 
to the epizoic parasites. 

The author then describes the rare nematode Rictularia plagiostoma, 
obtained from a new host, the fox. Like its previously known hosts, the 
bat and hedgehog, the fox was probably infected by eating insects. 
Both sexes are described. Embryos were seen within the eggs contained 
in the oviduct—the worm is “ ovoviviparous.” The peculiar chitinous 
appendages are carefully described, those of the male are more uniform 
than those of the female. Other species of Rictularia are discussed. 


* Zool. Anzeig., xi. 1888) pp. 643-6. + Arch. Ital. Biol., x. (1888) pp. 199-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 59 


6. Incertz Sedis. 


“Notes on some Rotifera from the neighbourhood of Geneva.” *— 
M. HE. FE. Weber describes four new species of Rotifers, viz. Limnias 
granulosus, Cicistes socialis, Rotifer trisecatus, and Rotifer elongatus ; 
and discusses, also, several points in the structure of such well-known 
animals as Floscularia campanulata, Hydatina senta, &c., &c., which he 
thinks have been incorrectly described. There is also a full account, 
accompanied by several drawings, of Microcodon clavus. Both the de- 
scription and the figures of this rare Rotiferon will well repay study, 
though the latter (pl. xxxix. figs. 5 and 6) greatly exaggerate the slight 
curvature which the trochal disc has in the living animal, and the 
former is disfigured by faults that pervade the whole memoir; for 
these “‘ Notes” are written throughout with an assumption of authority 
which is by no means warranted by M. Weber’s observations, figures, or 
descriptions. 

Let us take, for example, M. Weber’s new species (cistes socialis. 
The head of this Rotiferon is said to consist of a large open funnel, 
bearing on its upper rim one circular ring of cilia, and having the 
animal’s buccal orifice deep down at the bottom of the funnel. We have 
here, then, a Rotiferon whose corona is not only utterly unlike that of 
any known Cicistes, but is such as is not to be found in any genus of 
the Melicertide. For every Melicertan has its ciliary wreath fringing 
a solid, imperforate, and nearly flat fleshy dise—not a perforate funnel. 
It has, too, a double ciliary wreath—not a single one; and its buccal 
orifice is asymmetrically situated, on the ventral surface, at the back of 
a flat trochal disc—not symmetrically situated at the bottom of a funnel- 
shaped one. _ 

But this is not all; the trophi are said to consist of two rami with 
three teeth crossing each—that is to say, that CH. socialis has the mastax 
of a Philodine; and, moreover, there is said to be only one ventral 
antenna, instead of the usual pair. From all this it is clear either that 
this new animal is not a Melicertan at all, or that it has been very 
imperfectly observed and described by M. Weber. 

Another new species, Limnias granulosus, presents us with almost 
as many perplexing characters. First, the side view of the head 
(pl. xxvii. fig. 1) is ludicrously incomprehensible, and must be seen to 
be appreciated. Next, fig. 2 in the same plate professes to be a dorsal 
view, but shows the two ventral antenne on the same side as the solitary 
dorsal one; and the text distinctly states that the three antenne are all 
on the dorsal surface. But such an arrangement is not to be found in 
any other Melicertan: throughout the family the paired antenne lie on 
the ventral surface, one on either side of the buccal orifice; and the 
solitary antenna lies on the dorsal surface. Still, such is the endless 
variety of Nature, that we should have hesitated to have challenged a 
positive statement, like the above, were it not that in fig. 4 in the same 
plate the same three antenne are all placed side by side on a surface, 
which the drawing of the trochal dise shows to be the ventral one. A 
glance at figs. 2 and 4 will satisfy any one, familiar with Limnias, of 
the correctness of our statement. 

Again, in the figures (pl. xxx. figs. 1, 2) of the new species Rotifer 
irisecatus, we meet with a similar anomaly. In fig. 1 the spurs are 


* Arch. de Biol., viii. (1888) pp. 647-722 (11 pls.). 


60 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


rightly placed on the dorsal surface of the foot, but in fig. 2 they are 
palpably attached to the ventral surface. 

A similar confusion is to be seen in the drawing of the last new 
species, Rotifer elongatus ; for in pl. xxxi. fig. 2 the dorsal antenna and 
the proboscis (“trompe”) are actually drawn on opposing surfaces; the 
proboscis being placed on the ventral surface, beneath the buccal orifice. 

Space would fail us to point out the numerous errors contained in 
M. Weber’s off-hand corrections of the observations of others; but two 
of these deserve notice. First, M. Weber states that the male Rotifera 
have no contractile vesicle (“cette vessie n’existe pas chez le male”;) and 
that the lateral canals open directly outwards on each side of the penis. 
Now, nothing can excuse so gross an error. If M. Weber had ever 
examined a male Asplanchna (a common animal enough), he would have 
seen in it a contractile vesicle that no beginner could miss. He would 
have seen it contract, and he might have counted, even, the muscular 
threads to which the contraction is due. The very memoirs he quotes 
from, and of which he gives a list, ought to have preserved him from 
such a blunder; were it not that M. Weber appears to have no doubt 
that, when an observer differs from him, the person in error cannot be - 
himself. 

The following is an amusing instance of this curious belief in his 
own infallibility. M. Weber fails to find the contractile vesicle in the 
male of Hydatina senta, so he dismisses all the observers who have seen 
it by saying, “Cohn, Leydig, Daday, and Hudson have seen it with the 
eye of faith!” 

Again, when describing the trophi of Brachionus urceolaris, he chal- 
lenges the accuracy of Gosse’s beautiful figure in his famous memoir 
“On the manducatory organs,” and offers one of his own as more correct. 
It is well worth while to place these figures side by side; and at the 
same time to look at M. Weber’s figure of the trophi of Hydatina senta. 
The comparison will give a very fair measure both of M. Weber's 
capacity and of his own opinion of it. 

We have only space to notice one more extraordinary statement. 
M. Weber, when describing the rotatory organ of the Rotifera, says that 
it consists generally of two ciliary wreaths: one (for locomotion) which 
is always in movement; and the other (for bringing nourishment to the 
mouth), which moves or not, according to the animal’s pleasure. He 
further says that in the Rhizota this latter wreath “is usually very 
reduced, and forms a semicircle round the mouth.” Can M. Weber ever 
have seen Melicerta ringens? and if he has, can he have failed to see 
that the secondary wreath, which brings food to the buccal orifice, is 
not a mere semicircle round the mouth; but that it runs almost entirely 
round the trochal disc, parallel to the greater wreath, and of length 
quite equal to it? Of course, these remarks apply equally well to a 
Limnias, Cicistes, Conochilus, Lacinularia or Megalotrocha ; yet M. Weber 
studies a new species both of Gicistes and Limnias, and misses altogether 
the real structure of their Rhizotic corone. 


Parasitic Rotifer—Discopus Synapte.*—Dr. C. Zelinka gives a 
detailed account of this parasitic rotifer, to the preliminary notice on 
which we have already called attention.| The following notes may be 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvii. (1888) pp. 333-458 (5 pls.). 
+ This Journal, 1888, p. 52. Re zie) 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 61 


added :—It lives on Synapte in the English Channel and in the Adriatic. 
The animal, when extended, is from 0°25 to 0°15 mm. long. The 


ciliated oral funnel has a circular fold ; the formula for the jaws is = and 


the teeth diverge. 'The wall of the mid-gut is thick and of an intense 
yellow colour, and the lumen of the gut makes therein a complicated 
loop; the mid-gut is attached to the dorsal wall by two bands. At the 
anterior end there are two dorsal and one ventral gland (pancreas). 
The hind-gut is formed of a pyriform vesicular portion, and a rectum. 
Ciliated infundibula have been noticed in the neighbourhood of the 
pharynx and brain. The gonads are germ-yolk-glands, which lie close 
to the enteron; a straight process passes backwards and downwards from 
their investing membrane. The foot is three-jointed, and the penulti- 
mate joint forms a sucker. A firm capsule is developed around the 
isolated glandular ducts. The author believes that Hchinoderes stands 
_ nearer to the Rotatoria than to the Archiannelides. 


Echinodermata. 


Development of Calcareous Plates of Asterias.*—Mr. J. W. 
Fewkes has investigated the development of the skeleton of some 
American species of Asterias. He finds that the first plates to appear 
are the terminals; these are simple, and form a protecting cap which 
shields the ambulacrals, interambulacrals and, possibly, marginals. The 
genital plates arise after the terminals; the one which lies nearest to the 
madreporic opening does not always antedate in time or exceed in size 
the other genitals; the madreporite is not formed till after the rudiments 
of the stone-canal. After the terminals and genitals there appears the 
dorso-ventral, which arises before any plates are developed on the 
actinal hemisome. The first set of body-plates are arranged in a circle, 
and radially, inside the genitals; the second is also radial and lies inside 
the first or somatic radials. A third and inner circle appears before the 
interradial somatic plate. The first plate in the circle outside that of 
the genitals is the first dorsal of the arms; this plate is the radial of 
Sladen; when the arm of the young star-fish is broken from the body it 
always remains on the arm. The dorsals, or median row of plates on 
the dorsal surface of the arm, originate peripherally to the first dorsal, 
and are at first relatively very large. As the oldest dorso-laterals may 
not be the nearest to the body, it is clear that they do not appear in the 
same sequence as the dorsals. Marginal plates appear after the ambu- 
lacrals (adambulacrals). 

The first plates to be developed on the actinal hemisome are the oral 
imbulacrals; at their first appearance there are already on the abactinal 
hemisome five terminals, five genitals, one dorso-central, and thirty 
spines on the terminals. The oral ambulacrals are at first set parallel 
to the radial culs-de-sac of the water-system, but subsequently become 
placed at right angles; they are at first ten in number. The inter- 
brachial ends of the oral ambulacrals of adjacent radii (arms) grow 
towards each other, forming two parallel ends in each interradius, each 
of which bears two spines. The median end of each oral ambulacral 
bifurcates into a dorsal and a ventral part. All the other ambulacrals 
arise with their axes at right angles to the line of the radii; they are 


* Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, U.S.A., xvii, (1888) pp. 1-56 (5 pls.). 


62 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


formed near the middle line of the under side of the ray, and grow 
towards the peripheral end; the first formed are the adoral, and these 
bifureate in the neighbourhood of the median line. 

The first interbrachials, which are regarded by Mr. Fewkes as the 
odontophores, originate as heart-shaped, interradially placed calcifica- 
tions, five in number ; each is placed abactinally to the interbrachial 
ends of the oral ambulacrals. 

No ventral embryonic row of spines was observed in any species of 
Asterias which was studied. 

The author regards the genitals of Asterias as homologous with the 
“basals” of Amphiura; the first interbrachial is homologous with the 
orals of Amphiura ; the madreporic opening is placed on homologically 
different plates in Asterias and Amphiura. The interambulacrals of 
Asterias are the homologues of the laterals of Amphiura. The oral 
ambulacrals of the former are represented by the “spoon-shaped ”’ plates 
of the latter. The first and second adambulacrals have no homologues 
in the mouth-parts of Asterias. The dorsolaterals and the connectives 
of the arms of Asterias were not recognized in Amphiura. There is some 
doubt as to the homologies of the marginals. 


Development of Synapta digitata.*—Dr. R. Semon has made a 
careful examination of the development of this Holothurian. Segmen- 
tation is remarkably equal. While in Hehinids and Ophiurids the forma- 
tion of mesenchym precedes the invagination of the archenteron, in the 
Holothurians it succeeds it ; it is not possible to decide which of these 
two is the more archaic arrangement. The ciliated bands of the 
Auricularia-larva are local thickenings of the ectoderm; the other 
ectodermal cells simultaneously lose their flagella,’ and become flattened. 
The somewhat remarkable fact that the larve of Asterids have two, and 
not, like other classes of Echinoderms, only one ciliated band, is ex- 
plained by the discovery of an adoral band, from which the second 
circlet is developed. It may be concluded that all bilateral echinoderm- 
larve have two separate ciliated bands, one adoral and one postoral; and 
there is no essential difference between the larve of Asterids and those 
of other classes; the characters of the larve are discussed at some 
length. 

seletioned mesenchym-cells form a simple and not completely con- 
tinuous layer beneath the epidermal investment, and form a half-groove- 
like sheath to the ciliated bands and the stripes of the lateral surfaces, 
as well as an investment for the stomach and rectum. These cells are 
very much flattened, and are thereby distinguished from the other mesen- 
chym-cells. The larva has, at an early stage, an extremely thin 
epidermis, which is formed by the ectodermal cells which were at first 
ciliated, and a unilaminate cutis which is formed of mesenchym-cells. 
There is no doubt that the two bands discovered by Metschnikoff are the 
nervous system of the larva ; this is shown, not only by the whole struc- 
ture of the organ, but by the fact that, later on, the bands pass into the 
permanent nervous system of Synapta. 

When the larva enters the Auricularia-stage the rudiment of the 
hydroenteroccel is a simple elongated vesicle, which opens to the exterior 
by the dorsal pore. Af first it lies in about the median plane of the 
larva, and later on it passes to the left side. It next divides into two 


* Jenaisch. Zeitschr., f. Naturwiss., xxii. (1888) pp. 175-209 (7 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 63 


vesicles; the superior of these is the hydrocel, the inferior the entero- 
cel. The latter becomes a band-like body, which gives rise to the two 
sacs of the colom. The fine canal which puts the interior of the 
hydroccel-vesicle into connection with the outer world by means of the 
dorsal pore is the primary stone-canal of Holothurians; this canal lies 
interradially to the five primary tentacles; while these primary tentacles 
are, in all Echinoderms, radial in position, the secondary outgrowths of 
Holothurians are interradial. 

The elements of the mesenchym do not only form a subcuticular 
layer, but they give rise to unilaminate investments for the enteron, 
ciliated bands, and nerve-bands, to stellate cells in the gelatinous sub- 
stance, to the muscular elements, and, lastly, are the seat of origin of 
‘ the calcareous deposits. Physiologically the calcareous concretions 
appear to be of importance for the larva, as they make the lower part of 
the body heavier than the upper, so that the animal always moves in 
water with the lower end more or less directed downwards. ‘The 
rudiments of the calcareous ring appear while the rosette-ike rudiment 
of the water-vascular system lies freely in the gelatinous substance to 
the left of the fore-gut. These are, at first, merely fine delicate rods, 
which occupy an interradial position. 

In the passage of the Auricularia to the tun-shaped form the most 
remarkable phenomenon is the hitherto unnoticed diminution in the 
length of the various axes; while a fully developed Auricularia has a 
long diameter of 1:4-to 1:7 mm., the larva in the pupal stage and the 
quite young Synapta (Pentactula) is only from 0°4 to 0°5 mm. long. 

With this diminution in size there is a loss of transparency, owing 
to the closer approximation of the mesenchym-cells. 

The tun-shaped larva with ciliated bands, its conversion into the 
young Synapta, the young and adult Synapta, are described at a length 
greater than that which we can follow. 

In the second half of his memoir Dr. Semon deals with the phylogeny 
of the Hchinodermata. He commences by raising the question of the 
position of the Synaptide among the Holothurioidea; as to this, he 
concludes that there are no facts of structure and development which 
justify us in supposing that the simple organization of the Synaptide is 
due to reduction from the more complicated organization of the pedate 
Holothurians. Secondly, as to the relation of the Holothurians to 
other classes of the Echinodermata. The former are all distinguished 
by the fundamental peculiarity that their body water-vessels lie ad- 
radially and not radially, for these vessels arise from the secondary 
interradial evaginations of the water-tube. In all other Echinoderms 
the madreporic plate lies interradially to the rays of the primary 
tentacles; it is perradial in Holothurians, on the supposition that the 
secondary evaginations are the homologues of the primary tentacles of 
other Hchinoderms. But this is a viev we can hardly accept, and we 
must rather suppose that the primary tentacles of Holothurians are 
comparable to the primary tentacles of other Echinoderms, and that the 
secondary evaginations are special formations. Goette alone has per- 
ceived that the body ambulacra of Holothurians correspond to the 
interradii of the star-fish. If this view of homologous parts be true, it 
follows that it is quite impossible to suppose that the Holothurians were 
developed from echinoid-like forms, and we must rather suppose that 
the two groups separated before a water-vascular system was developed, 


64 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


or, in other words, at a time when the hydroccel consisted only of a 
circular canal and five primary tentacles. All difficulties are evaded if 
we suppose that divergence arose from an earlier and simpler stage of 
development, and one which is retained in the young Hchinus and, with 
slight modifications, in the young Synapta ; this will be again found in 
the ontogeny of other classes of Echinoderms. The primitive form 
may be called the Pentactula. 

This phase of development is characterized by the fact that the 
dipleural larva has begun to confuse bilateral with radial symmetry by 
the development of the five primary tentacles. At first the radial 
symmetry affects only one system of organs—the water-vascular 
—but the nervous system is soon likewise affected; the bilaterally 
symmetrical larva may be called the Dipleurula. It may be said that 
all Echinoderms, save where their development has been cenogenetically 
shortened, pass through two larval stages, one bilaterally symmetrical 
and one bilateral and radial. It is especially during the latter that the 
internal and external resemblance between the larvee of different classes 
is considerable. 

The Pentactula may be regarded as a creature whose anterior pole is 
marked by the mouth-opening. Around the mouth are five tentacles, 
formed as outgrowths of the water-vascular ring which surrounds the 
pharynx. Over these outgrowths the outer skin forms a thickened 
sensory epithelium. From the ring a canal leads to the surface of the 
body, and this canal, the primary stone-canal, opens by the dorsal pore 
freely to the exterior; as this pore is always found on the dorsal side in 
the bilateral early stages of Hchinoderm-larvee, it is called the dorsal 
pore. In front of the water-vascular ring there is a nervous ring which 
surrounds the pharynx; it gives off five nerves to the primary tentacles, 
on the inner side of which the nerves lie. The nerves as well as the 
nerve-ring, whose derivates they are, lie superficially in the ectoderm, 
from which they are derived. The enteric canal consists of cesophagus, 
mid-gut, and hind-gut; the anus lies on the ventral side, and may 
approximate to or remove itself away from the mouth, so that, in 
extreme cases, it comes to lie within the circlet of primary tentacles or 
at the hinder end of the body. Between the gut and the body-wall 
there is a wide body-cavity, formed from symmetrical enteric sacs; there 
is a dorsal mesentery which gives a distinct sign of the bilaterally 
symmetrical origin of the celom. The primary stone-canal arises from 
the circular canal between the points of insertion of two primary 
tentacles; this character gives a plane of symmetry for the Pentactula, 
and passes through the dorsal mesentery, dividing the gut in the median 
line and that tentacle which may be called the ventral tentacle. 

This larval form exhibits no characters which can be regarded as 
cenogenetic, and if we suppose that the stem-form of the Echinodermata 
was a creature which, in external form and internal organization, had 
great resemblance to it, we may derive all the classes of the Echino- 
dermata from a form which may be called Pentactza. Dr. Semon 
thinks that a derivation of this kind agrees with the facts of comparative 
Anatomy, and offers the key to some unsolved problems. 

When we come to consider the divergencies which obtain among the 
various classes, we see that one group—the Holothurians—have retained 
essentially the relation of the body to the primary tentacles which we 
saw in the stem-form ; as this tentacular system has remained as essentially 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 65 


an outgrowth of the water-vascular ring with a tegumentary investment, 
the group may be called that of the Angiochirota. In the second group— 
that of the Hchinoids—the region distinguished by the possession of 
the primary tentacles has disappeared altogether, and it may, therefore, 
be called that of the Achirota. In the third type, which is represented 
by Asteroids, Ophiuroids, and Crinoids, we see important systems of 
organs drawn into the tentacular region, which thereby gradually 
acquires greater significance and independence; this group it is proposed 
to call that of the Coelomachirota. 

The relations of these forms may be indicated by the following 
diagram :— 


Ophiuroidea 
Aster oidea 
Crinoidea Kchinoidea 
Holothurioidea 
\ 
\ Uy 
K | ; / 
NS ; 
VA 


Pent acteca 
(Stem-form) 


The true homologies of the organs of different classes can only be 
established by reference to the organization of the stem-form. Many of 
what have been hitherto regarded as homologies are clearly analogies, 
due to the fact that most of the structures compared are arranged in 
fives, and to the inheritance from the stem-form of certain peculiarities, 
such as the structure of the skeletal elements, and the tendency of the 
mesenchym to form clefts. 

It cannot be doubted that the Echinoderms are derived from bilateral 
creatures with an enterocel; it cannot be yet decided whether the 
hydroccel is a derivate of a primitive excretory system of the bilateral 
ancestors. There are good reasons for supposing that the conversion of 
the bilateral into the radial structure was due to a fixed habit of 
life. With regard to the corm-theory of the organization of certain 
Asterids, it is urged that such colonies could not have arisen by budding, 
but by certain organs (tentacles) acquiring greater independence. This 
independence, which is to be regarded as a consequence of continued 

1889. F 


66 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


decentralization, leads in the most extreme cases to an obliteration of the 
sharp limits between organ and person. 

As to the relations of the Echinodermata to other divisions of the 
Animal Kingdom, it is certain that in some points they have distinct 
relations to other Enteroccelia, and especially to Balanoglossus and the 
Chordata, but as to these so little is yet certainly known that it is better 
to refrain from any further speculation. 


Ophiopteron elegans.* — Prof. H. Ludwig gives an account of a 
remarkable new genus of Ophiurids, the type of which appears to be 
natatory. A single example was found at Amboina by Dr. Brock. It 
is most remarkable for having on each arm-joint a pair of large fins. 

The disc has a transverse diameter of 6 mm., and each arm is about 
36 mm. long; the latter with the fins are at their base 5:5 mm. broad, 
and without the fins hardly 1:5 mm. The lateral shields form a high 
ridge or plate on either side of the arm. The arm-spines are transparent, 
and form hooks, thorned spines, or supports for the fins; in the com- 
position of these last two spines enter. They are articulated by a 
thickened base, and suddenly taper to a thin rod, which gradually 
becomes thinner ; they do not, as a rule, end in a simple tip, but fork 
in such a way that the two branches of the fork lie close to one another. 
The fins are formed by a thin transparent membrane, in which we may 
distinguish an inner margin attached to the ridge of the lateral shield, 
a free anterior edge directed towards the tip of the arm, a free outer 
edge, and a free hinder edge directed towards the base of the arm. 
The direction taken by the line of insertion of the fin is such that the 
anterior edge arises on the ventral and the hinder edge on the dorsal 
side of the arm. ‘The successive fins lie over one another like the tiles 
of a roof; the anterior and posterior margins are not directly supported 
by the rod, but by a delicate fringe of the fin-membrane which extends 
along the spines. 

No less remarkable than the fins are the peculiar structures formed 
by the dorsal spines of the disc. These give rise to a number of fine 
and ordinarily six-sided funnels; each of these consists of a short, thick 
spine, which, at its outer edge, is continuous with six fine spines, so con- 
nected with one another as to form a funnel, the delicate membranous 
wall of which is supported by the six fine spines. The funnels are 
wanting on the soft, thin, transparent ventral membrane of the disc. 
The peristome has the general characteristics of Ophiothria and Ophio- 
gymna, and with the former of these the new genus seems to be most 
closely allied. The structure of the fins may remind us of the mem- 
brane which connects the adambulacral spines in the Pterasteride. 


Ophiurid Fauna of Indian Archipelago.t—Herr J. Brock collected 
sixty species of Ophiurids during a year’s voyage in the Indian Archi- 
pelago, a number of which, in addition to the Ophiopteron described by 
Prof. Ludwig, are new. The new genera are Ophiozxthiops and Ophio- 
sphera, and a new genus Liitkenia is instituted for a species from 
Cape York, and Ophiothela Holdsworthi E. A. Smith forms the type of 
Gymnolophus: all these are regarded as allied to Ophiothrix, and the 
distinguishing characters are pointed out. A table is given showing the 
points of all the Ophiothrix-like genera. 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvii. (1888) pp. 459-64 (1 pl.). 
+ T.c., pp. 465-539. ‘ 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 67 


It is pointed out that the Indo-Pacific littoral fauna is essentially a 
fauna of coral reefs, and that the southern extremity of Africa does not 
belong to it. A list is given of the species of Ophiurids known to 
inhabit this region, which contains 132 names, or about 40 per cent. of 
the known littoral fauna of Ophiurids. 


Holothurians of Indian Archipelago.*—Prof. H. Ludwig has a 
report on the forty-one species of Holothurians collected by Dr. Brock 
in the Indian Archipelago; of these five, Holothuria sluiteri, H. pyxoides, 
H, olivacea, Phyllophorus brocki, Chirodota amboinensis, are new. 


New Echinoconid.{—Prof. S. Lovén gives a full account of the form 
which, some years ago, he called Pygaster relictus. The single dried 
specimen is very small, being only 3:5 mm. long and 3-41 mm. broad ; 
the calycinal system is, unfortunately, lost. It agrees with Pygaster, 
Pileus, and Holectypus in having the auricles of each ambulacrum 
directed longitudinally in relation to the ambulacrum, and separate. 
There is, as the author shows, a somewhat different arrangement in 
Discoidea and Galerites. Prof. Lovén does not think that the specimen, 
though small, is young, for the test is rather thick, and the tubercles, 
the epistromal protuberances, and the depressed ambulacra are adult 
rather than young characters. It may be called Pygastrides relictus, 
and be defined thus: the periproct is dorsal and posterior, the ambu- 
lacral plates are all simple, the first wide with single pores, the auricles 
longitudinal and separate ; the zones of pores are simple and straight. 
Spheridia single. Interradial plates of peristome single, wide. The 
tubercles perforated, crenulate, the primary rather large. Epistrome 
luxuriant. It was taken near the Virgin Islands, at a depth of from 
200 to 300 fathoms. 


Ceelenterata. 


Celenterata of the Southern Seas.t—In his seventh communication 
under this title, Dr. R. von Lendenfeld deals with the Rhizostomata. 
He regards these jelly-fish as representing a suborder of the Scypho- 
meduse, distinguished by the absence of tentacles, and the peculiar 
development of the mouth-arms; he attaches less importance than do 
most authors to the absence of an oral orifice, for not only have young 
Rhizostomata a mouth, but in his genus Pseudorhiza the mouth is 
retained throughout life. ‘To the eight families recognized by Claus he 
adds a ninth, that of the Chaunostomide, and he somewhat modifies the 
characters of the Lychnorhizide with which he places Phyllorhiza. 
The distribution of the twelve species found in Australian wat rs is, 
curiously enough, very restricted. The cause of the separation of the 
species is to be found in the currents, of which an account is given. Of 
the seventy-one known species of the suborder, forty-two are found in 
the southern hemisphere. 

Pseudorhiza aurosa, which is found in Port Phillip, is 500 mm. in 
height, and the disc is 850 mm. in transverse diameter. The arms are 
S-shaped, and have attached to their sides pinnate cylindrical branches 
about 50 mm. long. The whole arm has the appearance of a much 
branched groove open below, with a serriform contour to its edges. Oa 


* Zool. Jahrb., iii. (1888) pp. 805-20 (1 pl.). 
+ Bihang. Kongl. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Hand. xiii. (1888) No. 10, 16 pp. (2 pls.). 
{ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlii. (1888) pp. 200-324 (10 pls.). 

F 2 


68 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the thin margin of the disc there are eight marginal bodies; the surface 
of the disc has a network of rather deep grooves. The arm grooves unite 
by pairs into four short perradial grooves which lead to the four-sided 
mouth, which is 12 mm. broad. Thence a short cesophagus extends 
through the arm disc, and divides into four branches which enter the 
four divisions of the arm, where they are very small and oval in trans- 
verse section. They open into a large central gastric cavity, which is 
only from 38-5 mm. high. Sixteen vessels arise from the central stomach, 
and all open into the circular canal which is distant 135 mm. from the 
central point of the Medusa. From this canal blind canals pass towards 
the centre. The zone outside the circular canal is occupied by a close 
vascular plexus, which is traversed by continuations of the perradial and 
interradial canals. : 

The subumbrella is provided with circular folds which act as brood- 
spaces and are generally filled with embryos. 

The mesogloea is colourless; on the outer surface of the disc there 
are numerous round papille, separated from one another by deep grooves 
which are invested by violet epithelium. 'These grooves form a network 
which extends over the surface of the disc, and gives it its violet colour. 

The author is inclined to think that Haacke’s Monorhiza is synony- 
mous with his genus; he forms for it the new family Chaunostomide 
which he places between the Cassiopeidz and the Cepheide. 

A full account is given of Phyllorhiza punctata from Port Jackson ; 
it appears to be most nearly allied to Toxoclytus and Lychnorhiza, but it 
differs in the possession of a continuous subgenital space, a character to 
which Dr. von Lendenfeld attaches less systematic importance then does 
Haeckel. Some additions are made to our knowledge of Crambessa mosaica, 
corrections of several of Haeckel’s characters being made. ‘This species 
is remarkable for having two varieties, one blue, one brown; the former 
is found in Port Phillip, and the latter in Port Jackson. Numerous as 
individuals are in both these localities, the author never found a brown 
example at Port Phillip, or a blue one in Port Jackson. 

In an account of the structure of the three just mentioned species, 
and of the Rhizostomata in general, the disc and locomotor apparatus was 
first considered. The disc differs in structure from that of other Medusze 
only by always wanting tentacles, and generally having no mouth on the 
under surface. All the species have large discs, and these are often 
brightly coloured. In the epithelium of the exumbrella we find several 
layers of high cells; in the region of the marginal bodies, and especially 
in the dorsal sensory pits, there is a specially differentiated sensory 
epithelium. The epithelium consists of an outer layer, composed of 
supporting cells, goblet, sensory, and stinging cells, and of a subepithe- 
lium, which is best developed in the projecting parts, and consists of 
young cnidoblasts, ganglion-cells, indifferent (?) cells, and, in Cassiopea 
polypoides, of muscle-cells. These are all separately described; the 
sensory cells are delicate spindle-shaped elements from the upper free 
end of which a rather long conical tactile seta projects; at the base is a 
multiramified stalk. Osmic acid gives rise to the appearance of granules 
similar to those seen by Jickeli in the sensory cells of Hydroids. The 
subepithelium of the exumbrella contains fibrils which have a tangential 
course, and which may possibly be nerves. 

The mesoglea is solid, and consists of a structureless ground-mass in 
which fibres and cells of various kinds are found. There can be no 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 69 


doubt that the gelatinous material of the medusa-dise consists of a net- 
work of organized substance, in the meshes of which sea-water is retained 
by adhesion ; the fibres which traverse it are either smooth or granular. 
Of the cells, the most common are rounded bodies which, with Hamann, 
the author calls colloblasts, as they appear to form the mesogloea which 
they excrete in concentric layers on their surface. As Claus and 
Hertwig have shown, these cells arise from the endoderm of the upper 
surface of the stomach, whence they wander into the mesogloea; they 
increase by division, and appear to take in nourishment which is diffused 
through the substance of the jelly. Of other cells there are bi-, tri-, or 
multipolar bodies which are distributed more irregularly than the collo- 
blasts, and they all appear to be in connection with one another. There 
are also amceboid wandering cells, and quite irregular cells, which the 
author is inclined to regard as being poison-glands ; the latter have only 
been observed in Phyllorhiza punctata. 

In the marginal sensory organs we may distinguish the marginal 
body itself; the ephyral lobe on either side of this body; the covering 
plate; the pads on the surface of the lobes which is turned towards the 
marginal body ; the projecting end of the radial canal below the marginal 
body; the sensory pit behind and above the body, and the gelatinous 
wall which separates the sensory pit from the pouch of the marginal 
body. All these are dealt with by the author in considerable detail. 

The subumbrella carries the reproductive organs; the female, and 
generally also the male organs are found in the mouth-arms; the 
greater part of the subumbrella is occupied by the muscle of the disc, 
which, by its rhythmical contractions, effects the locomotion of the 
Medusa. Smooth and transversely striped muscle-cells may be dis- 
tinguished, the latter being best and most numerously developed. The 
marginal bodies and their surroundings form a complex of sensory 
organs, which perceive the waves of sound and light, and such changes 
as take place in the chemical quality of the water. The stimuli are 
conveyed to the ganglion-cells, which lie behind the marginal body and 
in front of the sensory pit. From this central organ locomotor stimuli 
start, which pass to the nerves which lie in the subepithelium. These 
extend centripetally along the radial canals, and from the radial nerve 
numerous circular nerves are given off which follow the margins of the 
primary folds of the muscle-plate, and innervate the ganglionic cells 
which lie above the true muscle-plate. Thence other fine nerves pass 
off which spread out in the muscle-plate and are directly connected with 
the muscle-corpuscles. The nerves anastomose frequently, and so form 
a plexus which invests the whole of the lower side of the disc. The 
muscle has a flexor function, while the hard and very elastic supports of 
the muscles have an antagonizing action, and serve as extensors. 

The gastro-vascular system and the mouth-arms are next described. 
There can be no doubt that, in the Rhizostomata, digestion 1s principally 
effected in the distal parts of the whole gastro-vascuiar apparatus ; 
thence the prepared food passes by the arm-canals into the central 
stomach, whence it makes its way by the vessels of the disc into the 
important organs on the edge of the disc and in the subumbrella. ‘The 
author considers that the vascular system of the dise is chiefly an 
apparatus for transport and assimilation, which is, perhaps, comparable 
to the blood-vascular system of the Coclomata, from a physiological 
point of view. There are, apparently, no special renal cells, and the 


70 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


excretion of nitrogenous excreta seems to be effected by certain cells of 
the vascular plexus. 

In conclusion, the genital organs are described; in all the three 
forms examined by the author, their structure was the same. In each 
interradius there is a very large broad zone, concave outwards, in which 
the subumbrellar gastric wall is particularly thin. These thin parts 
grow so rapidly that they give rise to a large number of folds. On this 
folded membrane there is a broad band in which the egg-cells are 
formed and matured ; this band consists of three layers—a rather high 
endodermal cylinder-epithelium, mesoglea, and a low endodermal 
pavement-epithelium. The young cells have neither membrane nor 
follicle, though both appear later on. The male organs of Crambessa 
mosaica and Phyllorhiza punctata only differ from the female in that 
sperm-sacs are developed in the place of eggs. 


Two new Types of Actiniaria.*—Dr. G. Herbert Fowler describes 
two new Actiniarians found by the ‘Challenger’ at Papeete. One, 
which is called Thaumactis medusoides, is flattened and almost medusi- 
form in shape, and is, perhaps, a free-swimming form ; as it is biconvex 
it has no true body-wall, but the animal is divisible into oral and aboral 
surfaces; the former is beset by what the author calls pseudotentacles, 
since they cannot be regarded as homologous with true tentacles in 
number, position, or structure. In an expanded specimen fourteen true 
tentacles surround the stomodeum. The pseudotentacles each arise as 
a simple hollow outgrowth from the ccelenteron; the bud extends 
laterally over the surface into three or four “roots,” and is continued 
upwards as a free, finger-like process; the ectoderm on the apices of the 
roots is generally well supplied with nematocysts, but no nematocysts 
are found on the finger-like process; these false tentacles have no rela- 
tion to the mesenterial chambers, either in number or position. No 
siphonoglyph could be recognized in the stomodeum. The musculature 
of the general wall of the body is slightly developed, and consists of an 
endodermal circular and an ectodermal longitudinal layer. Of the 
twenty-one pairs of mesenteries found in the largest polyp, only one 
pair are directive; six are primary, and six secondary ; for the most 
part the free edge bears the normal form of filament. 

The non-fixation and persistent biconvex shape of the polyp appears 
to indicate a condition more or less ancestral, while, in the opinion of 
Prof. R. Hertwig, the longitudinal muscle leads to a belief in a close 
relation with the Hydrozoa. Its peculiarities may justify us in regard- 
ing it as the type of a new tribe, the Thaumactine. 

The other new form, which is called Phialactis neglecta, is chiefly 
interesting from the fact that it affords another example of the retro- 
gression of the tentacles; from the four genera already described by 
Hertwig it differs in that the tentacles are not replaced by stomidia— 
slight elevations of the oral dise, surrounding a large opening which is 
homologous with the pore at the tip of some normal Actiniarian ten- 
tacles—but by what Dr. Fowler terms spheridia,} i.e. ampullate diver- 
ticula of the inter- or intramesenterial chambers, devoid of an opening 
to the exterior, and homologous, therefore, with the imperforate tentacles 
of many genera. 

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxix. (1888) pp. 143-52 (1 pl.). 


+ It may be noted that Prof. Loven has used the term ‘“spheridia” in a very 
different sense. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. Gi 


The animal is goblet-shaped, and the spheridia are borne on the 
inside of the cup only, where they are especially numerous round the 
oral cone. The general structure agrees with that of an ordinary 
Actinian, the abnormal shape being produced merely by a considerable 
upward growth at the point where the body-wall passes into the oral 
disc. The mesogloa is thick. No arrangement into cycles could be 
detected in the spheridia. The stomodeum is marked internally by a 
series of tongue-like ridges produced by the inward growth of the 
mesogloea and ectoderm; the most perfect specimen had twenty-three 
pairs of mesenteries, of which twelve were complete. As in some other 
genera, new mesenteries take their origin just under the oral disc, and 
not in the angle between the body-wall and pedal disc. The muscle of 
the body-wall is endodermal and circular, and is not differentiated into 
a sphincter at any point. 

The systematic position of this genus is very doubtful; Dr. Fowler 
is inclined to regard it as the type of a new family, the Phialactide, to 
be placed beside the Liponemide; Prof. R. Hertwig thinks it should be 
associated with the Corallimorphide. 


Lesueria vitrea.*—Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh puts on record the appear- 
ance of this Ctenophore in British seas. It was found in May 1888 in 
St. Andrews Bay, where it was present in large numbers till the suc- 
ceeding September. There is but little to add to the definition given 
by Milne-Edwards of specimens found at Nice. ‘The contractile filaments 
are, however, much more distinct than he figures them, while the con- 
cretions in the ctenocyst are perfectly colourless, and not reddish as in 
the Mediterranean specimens. In July and August some examples 
showed a much larger development of the principal lobes at the sides of 
the mouth than had been observed earlier in the season. As they pro- 
jected like two large flaps at the sides of the aperture they resembled 
the Euramphza of Gegenbaur. Like the American species described by 
A. Agassiz, the St. Andrews form was beautifully phosphorescent, the 
light being intense and almost white. It is readily produced by merely 
blowing on the water, and glances brightly along the ctenophores. 


New or rare Australian Hydroida.j—Mr. W. M. Bale has notes 
on the new or rare species of Hydroida in the Australian Museum. 

He finds it necessary to form a new family for Ceratella fusca Gray ; 
the Ceratellidee may be defined as having the hydranths naked, sessile 
on processes of a chitinous reticulated polypary, tentacles all capitate, 
scattered irregularly over the body; gonosome unknown; it is allied to 
the Corynide by the structure of the hydranth, and to the Hydractinide, 
with which Ceratella was placed by Carter, by the sessile condition of 
the hydranth and the character of the polypary. 

Among the new forms are Obelia angulosa, Campanularia (?) spinulosa, 
Lafoea scandens, which overruns Sertularella divaricata, Haleciwm gracile, 
which is slender and monosiphonic, H. parvulum ; Sertularella longitheca 
is remarkable for the proportionate length of the hydrothece ; S. varia- 
bilis comprises a series of forms allied to and partly intermediate between 
S. indivisa and S. solidula. Azygoplon is a new genus for Plumularia 
producta, which is mainly characterized by the absence of supracalycine 


* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ii. (1888) pp. 464-6. 
+ Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, ii. (1888) pp. 745-99 (10 pls.). 


72 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


sarcothece ; Plumularia turgida, P. caliculata, P. alata and P. aurita 
are also new. 

Aglaophenia sinuosa has remarkable hydrothece, in that they have 
both the anterior and posterior intrathecal ridges fully developed and 
forming two partitions which project in opposite directions; A. macro- 
carpa, A. phyllocarpa, and A. (?) whiteleggei are new. 

Additional notes and corrections are made to the descriptions of 
Australian Hydroids which have been published by Dr. v. Lendenfeld. 


Protozoa. 


Protozoa on Mosses of Plants.*—Prof. L. Maggi has studied the 
Protozoa which occur on the mosses growing on plants. He found no 
less than twenty-one forms:—Ameba brachiata, A. diffluens, A. radiosa, 
A. polypodia, A. anthyllion n. sp., A. velifera, A. sp. (?), Corycia dujardinii, 
Amphizonella violacea, Hyalodiscus hyalinus n. sp., Arcella vulgaris, 
A. aureola n. sp., Difflugia sp. (?), Euglypha tuberculata, H. alveolata, 
E. zonata n. sp., Cryptomonas (lagenella) inflata, Cychidium glaucoma, 
Amphileptus sp. (?), Chilodon cucullulus, Oxytricha sp. (?). 

The same forms are very widely distributed. Protective encystation 
was very frequently observed. The author speaks of some cases of 
apparent “mimetism,” e.g. the “mimetisme homochrome” of the green 
endoplasm of Ameba velifera. It is probable that some forms, as Buck 
reports of Lecythium hyalinum, are parasitic on infusorians, or rotifers, 
or other organisms sheltering in the moss. Diatoms, bacteria, monads, 
pollen, spores, &c., may form part of the food-supply. What looked 
like internal gemmation in Arcella aureola is described. The author 
claims no priority in thus calling attention to the moss fauna, but only 
aims at extending the observations of Dujardin and others. 


Multiplication of Ciliated Infusoria.|—M. E. Maupas has published 
a detailed account of his observations on the multiplication of Ciliated 
Infusoria, a brief description of which appeared some time since. 

They present great differences in the faculty of reproduction ; if we 
look at the matter in a comparative way and represent Glaucoma 
scintillans, which is the most fertile of the forms examined, as 1 to 1, 
Paramecium aurelia has the formula 1 to 5, P. bursaria 1 to 8, and 
Spirostomum teres 1 to 10. The three causes previously assigned— 
quality and quantity of food, temperature, and alimentary adaptation— 
do not appear to be sufficient. We must recognize further the special 
temperament of each species; their differences depend on minute dif- 
ferences of molecular constitution which are at present beyond our 
means of investigation. Light appears to have no influence on the 
growth and multiplication of these infusorians. 

The belief that the fissiparous faculty of these organisms is modified 
by conjugation, and that this act strengthens and accelerates it, does not 
seem to M. Maupas to be justified by the facts observed, He has made 
daily observations on five species, and has not been able to discover the 
least differences in the successive generations of divided forms; indi- 
viduals behave in just the same way, whether or no there has recently 
been a conjugation. 


* Arch. Ital. Biol., x. (1888) pp. 184-9. 
+ Arch. Zool. Exper. et Gén., v'. (1888) pp. 165-277 (4 pls.). 
t See this Journal, 1887, p. 414. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 73 


The phenomena of senile degeneration are very interesting ; the first 
external sign is a reduction in size; Stylonychia pustulata, for example, 
being in the normal state 160 pu, gradually descends to 45 and 
even 40 ». In addition to this diminution in size there is, later on, a 
loss of various organs, until, at last, we get formless abortions incapable 
of living and reproducing themselves. 

The degradation of the nuclear apparatus has a somewhat different 
history, according to the species; in Stylonychia pustulata and Onycho- 
dromus grandis it is manifested early by the partial and then complete 
atrophy of the micronucleus; later on, the nucleus itself becomes 
affected, the chromatin gradually disappearing altogether. While these 
are the morphological phenomena, the physiological are no less im- 
portant, for the organism gradually becomes weaker, and there is a 
“ surexcitation sexuelle.” Owing to the loss of the micronuclei conju- 
gation is fatally sterile, and the conjugated forms die. From these 
observations it may be concluded that the micronucleus is the essential 
organ of sexuality in the Microzoa, and that it plays no active part in 
phenomena which are purely vegetative. 

The forms undergoing senile degeneration may be said to have an 
inevitable death before them ; they still live an individual life, but they 
are dead to the life of the species. Notwithstanding this the sexual 
element is not yet completely destroyed, but, in place of contributing to 
the regeneration and preservation of the species, it accelerates the de- 
struction and disappearance of these atrophied generations. With this 
sexual atrophy there is also degeneration of other parts. The nucleus, 
the regulator of the vegetative functions, becomes little by little dis- 
organized, nutrient changes get gradually feebler, the general energy of 
the organism diminishes, and the size becomes reduced. This senile 
decay ends in death. 

It is clear that these considerations are by no means in accord with 
the views of Weismann, which the author next proceeds to consider, 
remarking by the way that the theory of the potential immortality of 
Protozoa was first broached by Ehrenberg. M. Maupas regards Weis- 
mann’s theory as resting on the two axioms, that the Monoplastids know 
nothing of physiological waste, and that their development by fissiparous 
division is, consequently, the absolute equivalent of all the generations 
which have arisen from a single progenitor. The first is regarded as 
being completely false, the second as partly false and partly true. 
Weismann does not appear to have sufficiently distinguished between 
the superficial lesions from which all living beings may suffer, and the 
more deeply seated retrogressive changes which are caused by senescence. 
Like multicellular animals, the unicellular do suffer loss, and that 
loss becomes intensified with successive generations. The whole theory 
of Weismann is an a priori one, and has no base in fact, while M. Maupas 
thinks that the facts which he has observed contradict it. 

M. Minot appears to be right in discriminating between the various 
kinds of individuality, and if the German naturalist had reflected on 
them he would have immediately comprehended “toute l’inanité de sa 
théorie de ’immortalité des Protozoaires,” or, at least, he would have 
seen its difficulties and would have hesitated tv publish it. 

Believing that all organisms are fated to suffer senile decay, M. 
Maupas refuses to accept Weismann’s further hypothesis that death is 
peculiar to the Metazvoa, and has been brought about by some selective 
action. 


74 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Reserve Substances in the Protoplasm of Infusoria.*—Dr. Fabre- 
Domergue in discussing the nature of the reserve spherules found in 
Infusoria remarks that one of the most prominent facts is the way in 
which they become diffluent after the action of ammonia, or from com- 
pression. He seems disposed to regard these bodies as composed of 
paraplasm charged with a coloured liquid material which is capable of 
being absorbed by the paraplasm itself. This view he says is supported 
by the manner in which the spherules behave at the moment of their 
disappearance by absorption. The granules do not disappear little by 
little as they decrease in size, but they gradually grow pale, their out- 
lines become less clear, while their volume remains the same, and little 
by little the infusorian recovers its normal homogeneity. 

If when the infusorian has lost its spherules it be killed with 
osmic acid, examination shows that its constitution is quite different. 
The paraplasm does not consist of isolated spherules surrounded by thin 
layers of paraplasm, but seems as if it were contained in the hyaloplasmic 
reticulum ; from which the author is inclined to believe that when the 
paraplasm charged with colouring matter is separating from the hyalo- 
plasm, it forms within its substance spherules, after the manner of the 
food-boluses, which are always present in the Ciliata. 


Aegyria oliva.t—Dr. L. Plate calls attention to the unusual structure 
of the nucleus of this Infusorian. It is composed of two halves which 
behave differently with staining materials, in the same way as is known 
to be the case with Spirochona gemmipara, Leptodiscus medusoides, and 
some Rhizopoda. After the animal has been killed with osmic acid one 
half of the nucleus has a darkly granular appearance, while the other 
looks nearly homogeneous and clear, having a very slight granulation at 
its foremost pole. The two divisions lie close together, but are sepa- 
rated by a distinct line. On the application of carmine solution the clear 
half of the nucleus becomes intensely, and the dark one very faintly 
coloured. The nucleus of Aegyria oliva behaves, therefore, with staining 
materials, in a way just opposite to that of S. gemmipara, in which the 
darkly granular part is the chromatic and the clear part the achromatic 
portion. Dr. Plate considers that it would be interesting to ascertain 
whether in the one form the nuclear division is of as complicated a 
nature as in the other; if it be so we should be justified in regarding 
the separate arrangement of the chromatic and achromatic nuclear 
elements as the cause of such a mitosis. 


New Vorticelline.t—Dr. L. Plate describes, under the name of 
Heliochona sessilis, a new Vorticelline which he found on the branchial 
plates of a Gammarus from the North Sea. As in Stylochona the anterior 
end of the body is widened into the form of a funnel, and beset internally 
with numerous cilia which whirl in the food. The head-funnel is 
characterized by a sun-like border of thin rigid bacilli, which issue 
from its margin. 

Two narrow and two broad sides can be distinguished in the flask- 
shaped body ; the animal attaches itself to the branchial plate of its host 


* Ann. de Micrograpliie, i. (1888) pp. 24-30. 
+ Zool. Jahrb., iii. (1888) p. 173, translated in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ii. 
(1888) p. 431. 


{ Zool. Jahrb., iii. (1888) p. 172. translated in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ii. 
1888) pp. 431-2. 


~ 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. t® 


by the lower, transversely truncated, pole of the body. One of the 
broad sides of the funnel is produced into two symmetrically placed 
lobes which are bent over inwards and partially cover up the cavity of 
the funnel. The bacilli form a lattice-work, through which only the 
smaller food-particles can pass to reach the short cesophagus which is 
situated at the bottom of the funnel. The nucleus is rounded and finely 
granular, but no paranucleus could be detected. As in Spirochona 
gemmipara, reproduction is effected by buds which are constricted off at 
a spot on the ventral surface at the base of the neck. 


Nyctotherus in Blood of Apus cancriformis.*— Prof. G. Entz has 
found a large number of examples of a parasitic ciliated infusorian in 
the blood of the gills of Apus cancriformis ; they gave the appearance of 
the gills having been injected by a hardened mass. The species may be 
called Nyctotherus hematobius; the body is of a compressed oviform 
shape, sometimes sharper at the anterior or both ends; the left lateral 
margin is strongly, and the right slightly convex; the body-bands on the 
dorsal surface run parallel to the left lateral margin; the peristome 
appears to correspond exactly to that of other species of the same genus; 
the anus is placed a little to the left of the hinder pole of the body, and 
the characteristic anal tube is directed forwards and to the right. The 
resemblance to N. cordiformis, from the intestine of the frog, is so close 
that were it not for the differences in the form and position of the 
nucleus it would be impossible to separate them; that of the new species 
is somewhat compressed and circular, with a laterally placed paranucleus 
in the middle or, as more often happens, in the hinder half of the 
body. 

The bodies of different specimens vary considerably in size, from 
0:03 mm. to 0°12 mm. in length. Though various stages of division 
were observed, cysts were never seen. 


Influence of Light on Noctiluca.j—M. F. Henneguy gives an 
account of experiments on the influence of light on the phosphorescence 
of Noctiluca. He finds that it is not luminous during the day, and that 
it only becomes so after being half an hour in a darkened room. After 
an hour’s darkness the phosphorescence acquires the intensity observable 
during night. In the evening phosphorescence is not complete till two 
hours after sunset. 


Psorospermium Lucernarie.{—Mr. R. Vallentin describes a sporo- 
zoon which he first observed in the tissues of Lucernaria auricula; in 
the rare L. cyathiformis as many as thirty distinct psorosperm masses 
were observed in a single individual, and they appear to affect the well- 
being of the host, for when a stimulus—in the shape of a needle-point— 
was applied to the margin of the umbrella the “latent period” was 
decidedly longer than in a specimen of L. auricula. No definite 
membrane separates the spores from the “structureless layer” of its 
host; in their youngest stage they consist of a spherical mass of proto- 
plasm which forms the wall; larger cells, irregularly scattered, are 
found interiorly; they are inclosed by a hyaline envelope of varying 
size and possess one or two nuclei. The centre is occupied by several, 
and at times by numerous chitin-like capsules—the débris of those which 


* Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 618-20. 
+ Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol., v. (1888) pp. 707-8. 
t Zool. Anzeig., xi, (1888) pp. 622-3. 


76 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


have lost their protoplasmic contents. A fully matured psorosperm has 
a fine hyaline envelope, with one or two nuclei, inclosing a thick 
chitinous capsule, within which is a spherical mass of protoplasm. The 
best preparations obtained were those which were treated with osmic 
acid or stained with picrocarmine. 


Coccidium infesting Pericheta.*—Mr. F. E. Beddard gives the first 
account of a Coccidium living in an earthworm. The forms in which 
they have been found are Perichzta nove-zealandiz and P. armata; the 
perivisceral cavity was the part infested; some individuals were, in form, 
hardly distinguishable from C. oviforme, but the “micropyle” is very 
different. This so-called micropyle does not seem to be a perforation of 
the cyst at all, but merely a bulging-in of the cuticle, due possibly to a 
separation of part of the internal cuticular lamella caused by reagents. 
Sometimes two of these structures are present. The outer cyst-membrane 
does not, as in C. oviforme, disappear, but increases greatly in import- 
ance, until it finally comes to project beyond the two poles of the cyst 
for a very considerable distance; it still, however, remains very 
transparent. 

The contained protoplasm breaks up into a large number of sporo- 
blasts, just as happens in the Gregarinidz, and this fact, added to others, 
shows that there is a closer affinity than is generally supposed between 
the Coccidiide and the Monocystide. C. perichetze also resembles 
certain of the latter, e.g. Gamocystis, in the great developmeut of the 
outer cyst-membrane. 


Sarcosporidia in Muscles of Palemon.j—M. L. F. Henneguy de- 
scribes from the muscles of Palzmon rectirostris a parasite which seems 
unquestionably allied to the Sarcosporidia hitherto only known in 
mammals. The muscles were white and opaque instead of being trans- 
parent; the fibres were full of clusters of granule-like bodies. Hach 
granule usually contained eight small corpuscles, presumably spores. 
The parasite was only distinguishable from the Sarcosporidia of mammals 
in the envelope which surrounded the several clusters of granules. All 
the specimens of Palzmon examined had the parasite in the same stage ; 
infection was tried but failed. The life-history remains, therefore, in 
Palzmon, as elsewhere, obscure. The disease appeared to limit the — 
muscular power. The diseased forms were usually in sheltered and 
warm water. Other species were observed to be similarly affected 
—P. squilla, P. serratus, and Palzmonetes varians. M. Henneguy dis- 
tinguishes the Sarcosporidia from Psorospermium haeckeli, from parasites 
of some Daphnids, and from some strikingly similar granules found in 
Gobius. The present form seems to come in between Microsporidia and 
My«osporidia, but the author refrains from a verdict till the life-history 
of this and similar forms has been made out. 


Cercomonas intestinalis.t—Prof. E. Perroncito finds that guinea- 
pigs are infested by numerous varieties of Cercomonas of which there 
are three principal species, (1) C. ovalis, (2) C. pisiformis, (3) C. globosus. 
The last two kinds are so numerous in a certain disease of these rodents 
as to become the cause of a great mortality among these animals. 


* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ii. (1888) pp. 433-9. 
+ Mém. Centenaire Soc. Philom., 1888, pp. 163-71 (1 fig.). 
{ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., iv. (1888) pp. 220-1. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. Me 


The Indian variety being very liable to this disorder is specially 
suitable for studying the evolution forms of Cercomonas. Numerous 
observations showed that the flagellated Cercomonas changes to a body 
which repeats the form of the parasitic protozoon. The protoplasm is 
transparent, but shows a peripheral darkening indicating the presence of 
a protecting membrane. In this stage, which may be called the 
encysted or resting stage, no flagella are observable, and it would 
appear that these are lost during encapsulation. Although all involu- 
tion forms do not present well marked investing membranes, their 
protoplasm is always transparent, and the transformation of the 
protozoon is easily observable. 


78 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


BOTANY. 


A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology 
of the Phanerogaimia. 


a Anatomy.* 
(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm. 


Movement of Rotation of Vegetable Protoplasm.j—M. J. B. 
Schnetzler has recently studied the rotation of the protoplasm in an 
elongated protonemal cell of Chara fragilis. ‘The grains of chlorophyll 
develope first in the upper part of the cell, while the lower part is 
filled with colourless protoplasm. On the interior of the cell-wall a thin 
motionless layer of protoplasm is differentiated ; the chlorophyll-grains 
being fixed on the inner face of this layer. In the interior of this inert 
protoplasm will be found a comparatively thick layer of protoplasm 
which executes the movement of rotation. 


Protoplasmic Movements.{—Dr. J. Clark has investigated the 
influence of the lowered oxygen pressure on protoplasmic movements. 
A great number of vegetable organisms with streaming protoplasmic 
movements were experimented with. The removal of oxygen brings the 
movement to a standstill; the return of the natural conditions immedi- 
ately brings back the circulating phenomena. A pressure of 1-2 mm. of 
oxygen restored the movement in Triania bogotensis; a pressure of 
2:8 mm. was required for the hairs of Urtica americana; the other 
cases lie between these two extremes. The experiments with ciliary 
action have been already referred to.§ 


Optical Properties of the Cuticle and of Suberized Membranes.||— 
Herr H. Ambronn shows that while suberized membranes, as observed 
by Dippel, exhibited a change in their optical axes on treatment with 
potash, they can be made optically neutral by simply warming in water 
or in dilute glycerin. From this fact he infers the presence in the 
cell-walls of a substance which melts at the temperature of boiling water 
and again crystallizes on cooling. This must obviously be either a 
waxy or a fatty substance. 


(2) Other Cell-contents (including Secretions). 


Structure of Chlorophyll-grains.4/—Herr A. Meyer replies to 
Schwarz’s criticisms ** on his views as to the structure and development 
of chlorophyll-grains. After repeating his observations with the 
greatest care, he asserts that Schwarz’s account of the structure of 
chloroplasts, that they consist of green “ fibrille” lying side by side, 
united together by an intermediate substance “ metaxin,” is founded 
on error. By continuous and careful observation of the action of water 


on a single chloroplast, he was never able to detect anything approaching 
to fibrillar structure. 


* This subdivision contains (1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm; (2) Other Cell- 
contents (including Secretions); (8) Structure of Tissues; and (4) Structure of 


Organs. + Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., xxiv. (1888) pp. 83-8. 
+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 273-80. 
§ See this Journal, 1888, p. 971. 


\| Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 226-30. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 602. 
§ Bot. Ztg., xlvi. (1888) pp. 636-40. ** See this Journal, 1887, p. 979. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 79 


Photolysis in Lemna trisulca.*— Mr. 8. Le M. Moore refers to the 
figures published by Stahl to illustrate the variations in position under- 
gone by the chlorophyll of Lemna trisulca in consequence of the alterna- 
tion of day and night (photolysis), but is unable to acquiesce in them as 
representing the facts according to his impression of them. Stahl’s 
figure shows the chlorophyll of the thin part of the frond ranged upon 
the side walls during the night, while in the cells of the thick part the 
inner wall is also studded with chlorophyll, the superficial wall being 
bare. According to Schimper, however, while all the grains upon the 
wall abutting upon the epiderm are apostrophized during the night, a 
few of those ranged during the day upon the inner wall still remain in 
epistrophe. After giving the details of a number of experiments, the 
author’s conclusions are that, in marginal cells, the effect of night 
is to transfer to the side walls only 22 out of the 34 grains in a cell, 
leaving 12 of them still in epistrophe; and that in cells from the thick 
part rather more than 50 per cent. move during the night on to the side- 
walls, the remainder being fairly equally distributed upon both upper 
and lower walls. 


Chemistry of Chlorophyll.;—Mr. E. Schunck has continued his 
contributions to the chemistry of chlorophyll. As one of the products 
obtained by the action of alkalies on phyllocyanin, the author obtained a 
substance which he proposes to call phyllotaonin. On spontaneous 
evaporation of an ethereal solution of phyllotaonin it is obtained in 
regular flattened crystals or crystalline scales, which by reflected light 
appear of a fine peacock or steel-blue colour; the crystals are mostly 
opaque, but when very thin they are transparent, and then appear brown 
by transmitted light. The author concludes by describing the various 
properties of phyllotaonin, and also the compounds it is capable of 
forming. 


Chromoleucites.{—M. L. Courchet gives details of a great number 
of observations on the structure and origin of chromoleucites, chiefly in 
a variety of coloured fruits. 

Among the more important of the general results arrived at, he 
states that chromoleucites are always formed at the expense of chloro- 
leucites or leucoleucites. The leucites may also give birth to erystals 
of colouring matters or to crystalloid substances which originate at the 
periphery of the stroma or generating layer. The primitive leucites are 
mostly formed out of starch, but this is usually resorbed before the 
leucite is mature. The development of the pigment in the leucite may 
take place in various ways. Blue, vioiet, red, and rose tints are usually 
due to coloured fluids, though the blue pigment is sometimes in the form 
of crystals or granules. Orange and brick-red tints may be caused 
either by coloured fluids, or by chromoleucites with either amorphous 
or crystalline pigment, or by true crystalline or crystalloid formations. 
The same is true also of yellow tints. 

Chromoleucites are always formed in a proteinaceous substratum or 
stroma with which are united one or more pigments. Both may be 
either in an amorphous or in a crystalline condition. The crystals and 
crystalline formations always consist of pure pigment. Although 


* Journ. of Bot., xxvi. (1888) pp. 353-7. 
+ Proc. Roy. Soc., xliv. (1888) pp. 448-54. Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 606. 
t Ann. Sci. Nat. (Kot.), vii. (1888) pp. 262-374 (6 pls.). 


80 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


hitherto recognized only in the fruit of the tomato and the root of the 
carrot, they occur in a large number of fruits, seeds, and even flowers. 
All the coloured substances arise in the peripheral zone of chloroleucites 
or of uncoloured leucites. 

Yellow pigments are always amorphous, and incapable of artificial 
crystallization; they are but slightly soluble in chloroform, ether, or 
benzin, much more so in alcohol, insoluble in water. The residue left 
on evaporating an alcoholic solution, when treated with concentrated 
sulphuric acid, is coloured, like the solution itself, at first green, after- 
wards blue. It may be called xanthin. Orange-red and orange-yellow 
pigments are insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, but more so in ether, 
chloroform, and benzin. They are either amorphous or crystalline, or 
intermediate between the two conditions. Treated with concentrated 
sulphuric acid, they are all coloured violet or violet-red, afterwards 
indigo-blue. The gooseberry-red pigment is peculiar to the flowers of 
the aloe. All these pigments are distinguished essentially from those 
of chromoleucites by the fact that they do not turn blue with concen- 
trated sulphuric acid. 

M. Courchet’s observations confirm as a whole those of Schimper * 
as to the structure and development of chromoleucites, though differing 
in some minor points. The crystals, whether natural or artificial, 
furnished by orange pigments are all derived from the oblique rhom- 
boidal prismatic form. Their orange-yellow, orange-red, or carmine- 
red colour, and the corresponding tints which they communicate to the 
organs, depend on the greater or less thickness of these formations or 
on the molecular state of the pigment. This is shown by the facts that 
solutions of these colouring substances in absolutely neutral solvents 
have a constant orange-yellow colour, and that the variable tints pre- 
sented by crystalline formations, whether natural or artificial, depend 
on their thickness. 


Colouring-matter of Leaves and Flowers.t—Under this title Mr. 
P. Sewell gives a summary of the state of knowledge in regard to vege- 
table pigments, and communicates some suggestions as to their 
physiological import. The first part of the paper discusses the physical 
and chemical properties of the pigments. The second part deals with 
colour-changes, which are grouped as follows:—(1) those induced 
artificially by reagents, or naturally by the presence of substances of a 
like nature ; (2) those associated with particular environments ; (3) those 
characteristic of definite conditions of growth. Of each of these 
interesting illustrations are given. The third part of the paper reviews 
the various hypotheses suggested to explain colours and colour-changes. 
The observations of Buchan, Darwin, Grant Allen, J. E. Taylor, and 
others, are discussed. What Spencer pointed out as to the co-existence 
of colour and of flowers is emphasized and elaborated. The author 
agrees with Vines that colouring matters are physiologically waste 
products, and maintains that in contrast to the green of chlorophyll, 
“colour” is to be regarded “essentially as a product of a destructive 
metabolism (katabolism) in the cells in which it occurs.” The autumn 
tints, the colour of the young shoots of spring, the pigments of the 
reproductive organs or flowers are expressions of relative katabolic 


* See this Journal, 1886, p. 640. 
+ Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., xvii. (1887-8) pp. 276-308. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. Sh 


preponderance. Parts furthest from nutrition, the sunny sides where 
metabolism is quickened, parts growing at the expense of stores, plants 
growing under disadvantageous conditions, dying organs, &c., are 
adduced in support of the author’s thesis. Mr. Sewell recognizes the 
“‘immense power of selection ” in relation to the colours of plants, but also 
the etiological limits of this explanation. His general conclusion, 
though somewhat guarded, is that colours other than the green of 
chlorophyll are associated with katabolic preponderance. A copious 
bibliography is appended. 

Spherites.*—By this term Herr H. Leitgeb designates the various 
spheroidal deposits in tissues, whether composed of needle-shaped par- 
ticles, and hitherto known as spherocrystals, or of fine granules arranged 
in radial or tangential rows. The former kind are commonly deposited 
on treatment of sections of the tissue with alcohol; the examples 
specially treated of here are Acetabularia mediterranea, Galtonia (Hya- 
cinthus) radicans, the cactus-like species of Euphorbiacee and Ascle- 
piadez, and the well-known spherocrystals of inulin in the root-tubers 
of the dahla. They consist uniformly of organic substance and 
calcium phosphate. These were further compared with spherites 
preduced artificially. 

The spherites of inulin consist of alternate porous and compact 
layers, the porous layers alone possessing a crystalline structure, while 
the compact layers are altogether amorphous. In other cases the crys- 
talline portion forms an external layer, or it may occupy the central 
portion and be surrounded by an amorphous envelope. Pigments are 
sometimes abundantly taken up, both by the crystalline and by the 
amorphous portion. They are sometimes formed, already of their full size, 
by the solidifying of drops ; when they do grow, it is always by apposition. 

Aleurone-grains.j—Herr F. Werminski agrees in general with the 
conclusions of Wakker.{ From the examination of preparations in citron- 
oil of the endosperm of Ricinus, and of the seeds of some Leguminose, 
he concludes that the aleurone-grains are formed in vacuoles containing 
abundance of protoplasm by the abstraction of water; and that, on 
germination, they are again transformed into vacuoles by taking up water. 


Asparagin and Tyrosin in Tubers of the Dahlia.§—Herr H. Leitgeb 
finds that organs of plants may contain a very large amount of asparagin 
and tyrosin, even when alcohol does not precipitate them in a crystalline 
form in sections, if crystallization is prevented by some mucilaginous 
substance. Inulin has this effect in the tubers of the dahlia, whence the 
fact that the very large amount of these substances which they contain 
has been so long overlooked. Asparagin was found by Leitgeb to be a 
constant constituent of dahlia-tubers, although the quantity is less than 
in many seedlings. Tyrosin was found only in very small quantities in 
the individual cells, the test employed being Millon’s reagent. 

As the aérial stem of the dahlia developes, the author found a very 
rapid decrease, in the tubers, of both asparagin and tyrosin, but at the 
same time he was entirely unable to determine their presence in the 
green aérial organs of the plant. 


* MT. Bot. Inst. Graz, i. (1888) pp. 255-360 (2 pls.). 
+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 199-204 (1 pl.). 
t See this Journal, 1888, p. 443. 
§ MT. Bot. Inst. Graz, i. (1888) pp. 213-36 (1 pl.). 
1889. & 


82 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO ~ 


(8) Structure of Tissues. 


Litoral Plants.*—Herr C. Brick finds the general characteristics of 
litoral halophilous plants to be a succulent tissue in the form of a strongly 
developed cortical parenchyma; the invariable presence of a vascular 
bundle-sheath, which serves as a starch-sheath ; and the rarity of starch 
in the chlorophyll-grains. The strong turgidity of the cells may be due 
to the formation of salts of an organic acid with the soda with which 
they are so abundantly supplied. 

Herr Brick proposes the following types of halophilous plants :— 
(1) The cortical parenchyma is composed of round cells, between which 
are small triangular or polygonal intercellular spaces; the chlorophyll 
is either distributed through the parenchyma, or is limited to a special 
outer zone of the cortex (Honckenya peploides, Cakile maritima). (2) The 
cortical parenchyma consists of round cells, between which are large 
nearly regular air-passages (Aster Tripolium, Glaua maritima). (8) The 
cortical parenchyma has a structure similar to that of a leaf; the chloro- 
phyll is usually confined to the palisade-cells (Salsola Kali, Salicornia 
herbacea). 


Comparative Anatomy of Desert Plants.,j;—M. P. Maury has 
examined the structure of a large number of species of flowering plants 
from the Algerian Sahara, and finds them characterized in common by 
the following features :—But slight thickening of the epidermal walls ; 
the epidermis similar on the two faces of the leaf; the hypoderm con- 
sisting of a single layer of cells; the cortical parenchyma partly of a 
palisade nature, or simply assimilating; the pericycle with sclerotized 
elements ; the vessels of the root with a larger diameter than those of the 
stem; a palisade-parenchyma on both faces of the leaf; the median 
parenchyma uncoloured, with gummy cells; ramifications of the vessels 
in the horizontal plane of the leaf not provided with sclerotized 
strengthening elements. In no case do these features conceal the special 
characters of the genus or family, but serve to adapt the species to its 
peculiar conditions of life. 


Palisade-parenchyme.{—From observations made on both water and 
land plants, Herr O. Eberdt concludes that the chief factor in determin- 
ing the formation of palisade-parenchyme in leaves is not light, but 
strong transpiration and the rapid transport of formative substances. 
Diminished transpiration, even when there is strong assimilation, causes 
directly a disruption of the palisade-parenchyme; its cells become much 
less closely fitted together, intercellular spaces appearing between them. 


Stem of Ephedra.s—Mr. W. H. Evans points out that, according to 
Bentham and Hooker, Ephedra occupies an intermediate position between 
Welwitschia and Gnetum in the order Gnetacee. Holding thus a low 
rank among Gymunosperms, we would expect interesting anatomical 
structure. In all there are about thirty species, most of which are 


* Schrift. Naturf. Gesell. Danzig, vii. (1888) pp. 108-15. See Naturforscher, xxi. 
(1888) p. 214. 

+ Assoc. Franc. pour lavance. d. sci., Congres de Toulouse, 1887. See Morot’s 
Journ. de Bot., ii. (1888) Rev. Bibl., p. 101. 

{ ‘Beitr. zu d. Unters. iib. d. Entstehungsweise des Pallisaden-parenchyms,’ 
Freiburg-i.-B., 1887, 52 pp. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxv. (1888) p. 362. 

§ Bot. Gazette, xiii. (1888) pp. 265-8. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 83 


tropical. The author has made a special study of EH. nevadensis, com- 
paring it with several of the other species. 

The stem bears no leaves, but at the nodes of the young shoots are 
two or three scale-like bracts one to six lines long. These scales are in 
all probability rudimentary leaves, yet they do no leaf work, having 
no fibrovascular connection with the stem. The epiderm of the stem is 
rather tough, and is composed of irregularly shaped cells. The cortex 
is for the most part made up of palisade-parenchyme, containing chloro- 
phyll. Scattered singly or in groups of from two to ten within the 
cortex, and also in the pith, are found very long sclerenchymatous fibres. 
They are thick-walled and shining. Next within the cortex is found the 
bundle-sheath of very thin-walled cells, and within this the phloém. 
The xylem-area resembles that of Pinus, having rectangular-shaped 
cells with heavy lignified walls. The medullary rays are not very 
prominent, and the pith consists of large irregular cells. 

Anatomy of the Wood of Laurinee.*—Herr H. Knoblauch has 
examined the wood of a large number of species of Laurinez, in order to 
determine whether characters can be obtained from it for the determina- 
tion of the genus or the order. As far as generic characters are con- 
cerned, the results were negative, and for the order no single character 
can be relied on, but only the concurrence of a number of characters, 
each of which may belong also to other natural orders. These are as 
follows :—Vessels in the annual rings of about uniform width (only in 
Sassafras are they very broad in the spring, very narrow in the autumn 
wood); in some species they are broader in the autumn-wood, quite 
visible to the naked eye, usually solitary, and in regular radial rows, 
less often in irregular groups. The transverse walls usually perforated 
by roundish or elliptical orifices, sometimes also scalariform, rarely the 
latter only. In the walls which separate them from one another the 
vessels have close roundish clearly bordered pits, and in those which 
separate them from the wood-parenchyme and the medullary rays nume- 
rous large pits of variable form, usually round or elliptical and slightly 
-or evidently bordered, often passing into one another. The wood- 
parenchyme-cells are always present, but vary in number and arrange- 
ment and in the thickness of their walls. The medullary rays are of 
one kind only, the cells usually in from one to five rows; those in the 
centre and at the angles high and short. The rays are very close 
together, so that in the breadth of the medullary rays there are usually 
from 1 to 20 wood-parenchyme-cells and from 1 to 3 vessels. In many 
species a larger or smaller number of the wood-parenchyme-cells and 
those of the medullary rays are transformed into large thin-walled oil- 
cells without pits. 

Radial Connection of the Vessels and Wood-parenchyme.}|—Herr 
F. Gnentzsch states that radial connections are much more common 
than is usually supposed between the vessels and the wood-parenchyme 
of successive annual rings in dicotyledonous trees. The observations 
were made on a large number of trees and shrubs belonging to many 
different natural orders. The annual rings are not by any means always 
completely isolated ; the xylem-vessels at the boundary line of two suc- 
cessive rings are, in fact, usually in connection with one another, either 
directly, or by tracheides, which must then be considered as equivalent 


* Flora, Ixxi. (1888) pp. 339-400 (1 pl). t Ibid., pp. 309-35 (1 pl.). 
G 2 


84 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


to vessels. Through this connection there is an active interchange 
of formative material between the annual rings, which plays the greatest 
part when, as in spring, the medullary rays cannot serve this purpose in 
consequence of the accumulation of reserve-material. With regard to 
the cells of the wood-parenchyme, it must be assumed that they serve, as 


a rule, only for conduction in the tangential, and only exceptionally in 
the radial direction. 


Order of Appearance of the first Vessels in the Leaves of Humulus 
Lupulus and H. japonicus.*—M. A. Trécul states that the leaves of 
Humulus Lupulus and H. japonicus are palmatisect, with a stipule on 
either side. In H. japonicus the stipules arise before the lower leaves, 
and in some cases even before the upper ones; and in the case of the hop 
the leaves appear in the form of a little eminence only when the stipular 
lamella are already bilobed. The first vessel appears in the median vein 
of the stipules before that in the median vein of the corresponding 
leaf. The author then describes in detail the appearance of the vessels 
first in the stipules and then in the leaves. 


Primary Liber-fibres in the Root of Malvacee.j—M. P. Van 
Tieghem finds fibres in the primary vascular bundles in the root of 
many genera of Malvacez, also in some of Sterculiaces and Tiliacee. 
They have at present been met with almost solely in Leguminose 


among Dicotyledons, and are unknown in Monocotyledons or Vascular 
Cryptogams. 


Development of Cork-wings on certain Trees.{— Miss E. L. Gregory 
applies the term cork-wing to ridges of corky substance extending 
lengthwise along the young stems of certain trees and shrubs. The 
species examined may be considered as represented by three types: 
viz. Quercus macrocarpa, Liquidambar styraciflua, and Huonymus alata. 
The last genus is extremely interesting from a systematic standpoint. 
No two species agree in the manner of cork development, while a 
variety differs from its typical form only by a slight and unimportant 
variation. The author describes in detail the anatomy of the superficial 
periderm of Quercus microcarpa. 

Two kinds of Acer were further examined, one, A. campestre, con- 
spicuously winged till the stem is three or four years old; the other, 
A. monspessulanum, much less so. The development differs in both 
cases from that of Quercus. Instead of five, as in Quercus, there are six 
longitudinal bands growing faster than the remaining six; this con- 
tinues tilla furrow is formed along the top of each wing, making a shell- 
shaped appearance on cross section. In Liquidambar styraciflua the 
cork-wings have one striking peculiarity which renders them an 
exception to all other cases examined—this is their eccentric or one- 
sided origin and growth. In this respect this species seems to stand 
quite alone. The wings of the lateral branches appear always on the 


upper side, and generally stand at such an angle as to form troughs 
along the entire length of the branches. 


Mode of Union of the Stem and the Root in Angiosperms. §—M. 
P. A. Dangeard gives the following as his conclusions on this subject: 


* Comptes Rendus, evil. (1888) pp. 577-83. 

¢ Ann. Sei. Nat. (Bot.), vii. (1888) p. 176. 

+ Bot. Gazette, xiii. (1888) pp. 249-58, 281-7, 
§ Comptes Rendus, cvii. (1888) pp. 635-7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 85 


—(1) The median vertical plane of the cotyledons always corresponds with 
a vascular bundie in the root. (2) The bundles of the root never pass 
the cotyledons. (8) The insertion of the cotyledonary bundles on the 
bundles of the root follows a general principle. (4) There is no 
absolute limit between the stem and the root. (5) The number of 
bundles in the root corresponds in a certain measure with those of the 
cotyledons. 


(4) Structure of Organs. 


‘ Dimorphism of the Flowers of the Horse-chestnut.* — Sig. U. 
Martelli has observed two kinds of dimorphism in the flowers of 
Afsculus Hippocastanum. One kind relates to the arrangement of the 
patches of colour at the base of the petals, and appears to be related to 
the visits of insects. In addition to this, the greater number of the 
flowers in a spike are abortive, only a few being perfect. These fertile 
flowers are found only in the lower part of the inflorescence, and appear 
there to be arranged in regular order. Similar observations were made 
on some other species of the genus. 


Cleistogamous Flowers of Tephrosia heterantha.t—Herr G. Hiero- 
nymus describes the structure and mode of fertilization of this plant 
from the Argentine Republic. The cleistogamous flowers contain only 
five stamens and two or three instead of the fifteen ovules in the open 
flowers. The pollen-grains are few in number, and their pollen-tubes 
pierce the wall of the anther in order to reach the stigma. 


Hermaphroditism of Lychnis dioica when attacked by Ustilago.t— 
M. A. Magnin points out that the flowers of Lychnis dioica L. (L. ves- 
pertina Sibthrp.) are ordinarily unisexual ; Linnzeus, however, determined 
the possibility of hermaphroditism, and M. Crié has called attention to 
the floral polymorphism of this plant. The author states that Lychnis 
dioica is often attacked by Ustilago antherarum, and that the effects pro- 
duced are different according to the sex that is attacked. In the male 
it only causes a slight malformation of the anthers, and the replace- 
ment of the pollen by the spores of the Ustilago, while in the female it 
causes the appearance of stamens; the female organs undergo partial 
atrophy, while the plant retains otherwise altogether the characters of 
the female plant in habit, mode of branching, &c. 


Zygomorphy and its Causes.§— Mr. C. Robertson discusses the 
causes of zygomorphy in flowers, especially in relation to the mode of 
pollination by insects, whether the flower is nototribal, sternotribal, or 
pleurotribal, in Delpino’s use of these terms, i. e. whether the pollen 
from the open anthers is deposited on the back, the abdomen and legs, 
or the side of the visiting insect. Mr. Robertson holds that the first 
change towards zygomorphy is for the stamens and styles to turn 
down at the bases and up at the tips, so as to strike the under side of 
the insect more effectually ; the lower nectaries, being thus rendered 
less accessible, will tend to abort. Irregular polypetalous flowers are, 
as a rule, sternotribal ; some, however, are nototribal, as most orchids, 


* Nuoy. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xx. (1888) pp. 401-4. 

+ JB. Schles. Gesell. Vaterl. Cultur, 1887, pp. 235-8. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxvi. 
(1888) p. 170. t Comptes Rendus, cvii. (1888) pp. 663-5, 876-8. 

§ Bot. Gazette, xiii. (1888) pp. 146-51, 203-8, 224-30 (2 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 
1887, p. 779. 


86° SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Viola, and Impatiens. Orchids must have developed as sternotribal, and 
become nototribal by the twisting of the ovary. The following is a 
summary of the general conclusions at which Mr. Robertson has 
arrived. 

When shallow flowers become horizontal, insects light on the stamens 
and styles, and prefer the upper nectary. ‘The stamens and styles bend 
to the lower side, and the lower nectaries abort. Zygomorphic flowers 
of shallow origin are sternotribal, and have a single nectary, or a central 
nectary more strongly developed or more accessible on the upper side. 
Nototribal flowers of shallow origin are inverted. When regular 
tubular flowers with included stamens and styles become horizontal, 
insects land on the lower border and prefer the lower nectary. The 
stamens and styles bend to the upper side, and the upper nectaries abort. 
Zygomorphic flowers of deep gamopetalous origin are nototribal, and 
have a single nectary, or a central nectary more strongly developed or 
only accessible on the lower side. Sternotribal flowers of deep gamo- 
petalous origin have originally exserted stamens and styles, or have 
become shallow. Izregular flowers were modified with reference to a 
landing-place, and were modified through the influence of insects light- 
ing upon them. Irregular flowers adapted to insects which do not light. 
have changed visitors. Small closely-crowded flowers do not tend to 
become zygomorphic. Small closely-crowded irregular flowers are 
liable to lose their zygomorphic characters, unless the stamens and 
styles are protected by galexw, carine, &c. 


Opening of the Anthers of Cycadew.*—Of the different modes in 
which, according to Herr J. Schrodt, anthers and sporanges open in 
order to allow of the escape of the pollen and spores respectively, the 
anthers of Cycadeze belong to the class in which there is no “ fibrous 
layer” in the wall, the mechanism of the rupture being due to other 
causes. From the examination of a number of species of Zamia, Cerato- 
zamia, Stangeria, Cycas, Encephalartus, &c., Herr Schrodt arrives at 
the conclusion that the epidermal cells of the anther-wall contain, in 
their membrane, a substance which varies according to the species, and 
which, when in contact with water, swells up more strongly than the 
cell-wall which incloses it, so that the latter is placed in a state of 
tension. Of the three layers of cells of which the anther-wall of Cycadez 
is composed, it is only the epiderm which takes any part in the opening 
and closing of the valves. The epiderm consists of cells elongated 
in a direction parallel to the longitudinal axis, which contain within 
their walls masses of cellulose capable of great expansion and contraction, 
and whose thick lignified inner membrane offers greater resistance to the 
contraction which results from desiccation than the thinner cuticularized 
outer membrane. 


Protection of Buds in the Tropics.;—Herr M. Treub describes the 
contrivances by which, in many cases, leaf-buds and flower-buds are 
protected against excessive insolation in the Tropics. Among the most 
interesting is that of Spathodea campanulata (Bignoniacex), a tree of 
Tropical Africa, in which the inflorescence is umbrella-shaped, and the 
flowers completely exposed to the rays of the sun. The buds have the 


* Flora, Ixxi. (1888) pp. 440-50 (1 pl.). Cf this Journal, 1886, p. 828. 
' + Handel. Nederl. Nat. en Gencesk. Congres, Sept. 30, 1887, p. 130. See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxxv. (1888) p. 328. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 87 


appearance of elastic pear-shaped bladders ending in a sickle-shaped 
point. This is the calyx, within which the corolla is formed at a much 
later period enveloped in a watery fluid. When mature the calyx splits 
open, and the petals are exposed, copiously moistened by the fluid. 


Extrafloral Nectaries in Composite.*—Dr. R. v. Wettstein points 
out the existence of nectariferous scales in the following species of 
Composite :—Jurinzea mollis, Serratula lycopifolia, S. centauroides, and 
Centaurea alpina. The nectary is in all cases of very simple structure ; 
the excretion of the saccharine fluid takes place through orifices which 
are usually distributed uniformly over the surface of the scales, but in 
Serratula are collected together below the apex. The nectar attracts 
ants, which appear to keep off noxious insects. 


Structure and Development of Seeds with ruminated Endosperm.t 
—TIn continuation of previous observations on the seeds of the nutmeg, 
Herr A. Voigt now extends his investigations to other seeds with rumi- 
nated endosperm, belonging chiefly to Javanese Palme and Anonacez. 
In the palms he distinguishes two types. 

The first type is illustrated by species of Calamus and by Actinorhytis 
Calapparia. The appendages to the integuments which project inwards, 
and which have no connection with the vascular bundles of the testa, 
form nearly cylindrical cones at nearly equal distances from one another, 
varying in number and length in different species. After fertilization 
the embryo-sac elongates considerably at the expense of the nucellar 
tissue, and, when the ovary has attained about one-third of its ultimate 
size, the appendages to the testa make their first appearance. While 
the nucellar tissues gradually disappear, these project further into the 
embryo-sac, especially on the side opposite to the raphe. They consist 
of comparatively large thin-walled cells containing tannin, and are 
covered by a small-celled epiderm. In the ripe seed the nucellus has 
entirely disappeared; the space inclosed by the integument is com- 
pletely filled up by the embryo and the endosperm. 

In the second type among palms the appendages to the testa have 
quite a different form, and their arrangement is closely connected with 
the vascular bundles of the testa. They consist of plates, cushions, 
and ridges, the lines of insertion of which correspond to the vascular 
bundles; they vary greatly in breadth. To this type belong Actino- 
phleus ambiguus, Piychococcus paradoxus, Chamerops humilis, Ptycho- 
sperma elegans, Caryota furfuracea, Nenga Wendlandiana, Archontophenix 
Alexandre, Arecha Catechu, and Pinanga Kuhlit. In the last-named 
species the appendages also gradually consume the nucellus, and the 
endosperm is not formed until the ridges are fully developed. In both 
types the rumination probably begins a little before impregnation. In 
all the species of palm examined the seed has only a single integument. 

In the seed of Myristica fragrans the structure of the endosperm is 
very different. The ovule has two integuments, but the inner one covers 
only the upper half of the nucellus. Almost the entire tissue of the inner 
integument and of the upper portion of the nucellus passes over, soon 
after the opening of the flower, into permanent tissue. The inner portion 


* SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, July 12, 1888. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxv. (1888) 
p- 398. 

t+ Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, vii. (1888) pp. 151-90 (3 pls.). See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxxvi. (1888) p. 134. 


88 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of this tissue serves for the nutrition of the embryo-sac, and is ultimately 
resorbed ; the outer portion takes part in the formation of the testa. In 
the permanent tissue there is developed a much-branched system of 
vascular bundles, and as these develope the rumination of the endosperm 
makes its appearance. The testa of the ripe seed has a very complicated 
structure. 

In other Anonaces with ruminated endosperm the ovule has two 
integuments, and the appendages spring from the inner of these; they 
have a very regular arrangement. The primary nucellus is ultimately 
resorbed entirely. The first endosperm-cells are formed in the embryo- 
sac, not by free-cell-formation, but by ordinary cell-division. 


Integument of the Seed of Geraniacew.*—Dr. G. B. de Toni de- 
seribes the peculiarities of the Italian species of Geranium as respects 
the seminal integument. He finds that they can be classed under three 
heads, viz.:—(1) Seeds with areoles not exceeding 12 » in diameter; 
(2) seeds with areoles from 20 to 35 » in diameter, nearly or quite regular, 
having therefore a finely reticulated appearance; and (8) seeds with 
large areoles, at least 40 » in one direction, hence reticulated, or with 
minute pits. The genus belongs to the class characterized by having 
hard seeds, with one or two protective strata of cells, and nearly or quite 
destitute of endosperm. 


Hygroscopic Movements in the Cone-scales of Abietinese.t — Mr. 
A. N. Prentiss calls attention to the fact that in most of the Abietinez, 
soon after the ripening of the cones, the persistent seales fold backward 
or outward from the axis to permit the ripe seeds to escape. Thescales 
are very sensitive to moisture, and in many species exhibit very rapid 
movements when wet. This is strikingly the case with Tsuga canadensis. 
This property is very efficient, first, in loosening the winged seeds from 
the scale which bears them, and, secondly, in securing their wide dis- 
persion in different directions by the wind. 


Relationship of the Twisting Action of the Vascular Bundles to 
Phyllotaxis.{—Dr. P. Teitz ccnfirms Schwendener’s view § as to the 
mechanical origin of the special mode of phyllotaxis in any particular 
species. It is the result of the action, during the formation of the 
leaves, of the concurrence of definite forces of pressure and traction, 
resulting in a regular law as to the arrangement of the leaves. 


Development of Floating-Leaves.||—Herr G. Karsten has investi- 
gated the cause of the phenomenon that when aquatic or amphibious 
plants whose leaves ordinarily float on the surface of the water grow 
entirely in the air, their petioles elongate greatly. The observations 
were mostly made on Hydrocharis morsus-ranze, Ranunculus sceleratus, 
and Marsilea quadrifolia. The conclusion arrived at was that it is the 
oxygen of the atmosphere which causes the arrest of growth of the 
petiole of floating-leaves as soon as the lamina reaches the surface. 
The same is the case also with the water-lilies; while, on the other 
hand, in Trapa natans and the batrachian Ranunculi, belonging to the 
section R. aquatilis, the elevation of the floating-leaves to the surface 


* ‘Ricerche sul istologia del tegumento seminale dei Geranii Italiani,’ Venezia, 
1888, 43 pp. (9 pls.). + Bot. Gazette, xiii. (1888) pp. 236-7. 

{ Flora, Ixxi. (1888) pp. 419-39 (1 pl.). § See this Journal, 1887, p. 475. 

|| Bot. Ztg., xlvi. (1888) pp. 565-78, 581-9. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 89 


depends not so much on the growth of their petiole as on the greater 
or less development of the upper internodes of the floating stem. 


Glands on the Rhizome of Lathrea.*—Herr A. Schertfel has care- 
fully examined the glands in the hollows of the scales on the rhizome 
of Lathrea squamaria, and has come to a conclusion adverse to the 
function, ascribed to them by some, of assisting in the capture of 
animals. The rod-like bodies found generally, but not invariably, 
attached to the summit of these glands, are not, as some have supposed, 
protoplasmic outgrowths from the gland; the author believes, on the 
other hand, that he has determined them to be bacteria, the exact 
nature of which requires, however, further investigation. 

In the corresponding glands in Bartsia alpina, the author was quite 
unable to find any similar structures; still less, therefore, than in the 
case of Lathrza can insectivorous habits be assigned to this plant. 


Adaptation of Anatomical Structure to Climatal Conditions.t— 
Herr EH. Giltay classifies under the following heads the contrivances 
for preventing excessive transpiration, viz.:—(1) Reduction of the 
surface of the leaf (Statice elongata, Aster Tripoliwm, Convolvulus Sol- 
danella, Plantago maritima, Schoberia maritima, Halianthus peploides, 
Salicornia herbacea); (2) Number, size, structure, and position of the 
stomates; they are depressed in Eryngium maritimum, Euphorbia Para- 
lias, and in many maritime grasses; (3) Reduction of the inter- 
cellular passages (Festuca rubra, Triticum acutum); (4) Cuticularizing 
of the epiderm and its extension into the stomates and intercellular 
passages (Eryngium maritimum, Halianthus peploides, Plantago maritima) ; 
(5) Halophytic plants, with large quantities of salts in the cell-sap 
(Salsola Kali). 


B. Physiology.{ 
(4) Reproduction and Germination. 


Fertilization of Kuphrasia.§ —Dr. M. Kronfeld refers to Kerner’s 
observations on the mode of fertilization of the various species of 
Euphrasia, and points out that, although they are all distinctly protero- 
gynous, yet, by secondary growth of various parts of the flower, the 
anthers are eventually brought into immediate contact with the stigma, 
which may lead to autogamy. 


Case of Germination of Ranunculus aquatilis.||—M. J. B. Schnetzler 
has determined the presence of leucine, which is formed in considerable 
quantity during the germination of the seeds of Ranunculus aquatilis. 
This amide had not before been noticed in the higher plants. 


(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Movements of Fluids). 


Resistance of plants to causes which alter the normal state of life. 
—According to M. J. B. Schnetzler, the substratum of life, the proto- 


= MT. Bot. Inst. Graz, i. (1588) pp. 105-212 (1 pl.). Cf. this Journal, 1887, 
. 111. 
E + Niederl. Kruidk. Archief, iv. (1887) pp. 413-40 (1 pl.). See Bot. Centralbl., 
XXXVI. (1888) p. 42. 

{ This subdivision contains (1) Reproduction and Germination; (2) Nutrition 
and Growth (including Movements of Fluids); (3) Irritability; and (4) Chemical 
Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 

§ Biol. Centralbl., viii, (1888) pp. 518-9. 

|| Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., xxiv. (1888) pp. 28-9. qT. c., pp. 23=7- 


90 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


plasm, in which the resultant of the chemical and physical forces pro- 
duces a state which we call life, offers a remarkable resistance to all the 
actions which would interfere with the harmony of these forces. The 
degree of this resistance varies with the individual, but the end is always 
the maintenance of the integrity of the organism. This result is more 
easily obtained when the organism is of simple constitution ; and the 
equilibrium which exists between the forces is more stable than when 
the organism is more highly constituted and the equilibrium is more 
easily disturbed. 


Action of Oxygen under high pressure on growth.*— From the 
result of experiments on various flowering plants and on Phycomyces 
nitens, Herr 8. Jentys finds that an increase of the partial pressure of 
oxygen up to one atmosphere does not, in most cases, exercise any per- 
ceptible influence on the rapidity of growth. Only in a few cases is 
there a distinct acceleration. Beyond one atmosphere an increase in 
the pressure of oxygen retards growth in proportion to the increase. 
The result is the same if the increased pressure is due to nitrogen. 
The author believes compressed oxygen to have a directly injurious 
effect upon the growth of the plant. 


Influence of the Substratum on the Growth of Plants.;—Herr S. 
Dietz finds that the influence said to be exerted by the substratum on 
the direction of the growth of the hypocotyledonary portion of plants 
is due entirely to heliotropism, since it is not exercised in the dark. 
Heliotropism and haptotropism both exercise an influence on the 
sporangiophores of Phycomyces nitens; the contact of fine wires and 
tinfoil affects the direction of growth even at an early stage before the 
complete formation of the sporanges. 


Conduction of Fluids through the Alburnum.{—From observations 
made mainly on the birch, Herr R. Hartig confirms his previous con- 
clusions that the younger or outer alburnum of a trunk is the part 
through which the conduction of water chiefly takes place, the inner 
alburnum and duramen taking but a subordinate part in it. He takes 
the opportunity also of expressing his general concurrence with the 
conclusions of Wieler.§ 


(3) Irritability. 


Forces which determine the Movements in the Lower Organisms. ||— 
Dr. R. Aderhold has attempted to ascertain the causes which determine 
the movements of swarm-spores and of some of the lower alge. In the 
first place with regard to rheotropism and aerotropism, he is of opinion 
that the former does not exist, while Huglena is certainly positively 
aerotropic. The geotropic sensitiveness of Huglena can be demonstrated 
when the aerotropic movement is prevented. Similar phenomena to 
those of Euglena are presented also by the mega- and microzoospores of 
Chlamydomonas pulvisculus, by Hzematococcus lacustris, and by the swarm- 


* Unters. Bot. Inst. Tiibingen, ii. (1888) pp. 419-64. Sec Bot. Centralbl., xxxvi. 
(1888) p. 105. 

+ Unters. Bot. Inst. Tiibingen, ii. (1888) pp. 478-88. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxvi. 
(1888) p. 106. { Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 222-5. 

§ See this Journal, 1888, p. 768. 

|| Jenaisch. Zeitsch. f. Naturw., xxii. (1888) pp. 310-42. See Bot. Ztg,, xlvi. 
(1888) p. 621. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 91 


spores of Ulothrix tenuis, the latter with a slight difference. Swarm- 
spores of Polyphagus Euglenze and a Bodo (?) appeared to be quite 
indifferent to gravitation; and diatoms and Oscillariacez appear to 
be neither geotropic nor aerotropic. 

The most complete series of experiments made were those with 
regard to the heliotropic inovements of desmids. He found, in all the 
species examined, that when subjected to diffused light on all sides, the 
longer axis placed itself in such a direction that one end of the cell 
rested on the substratum, while the other placed itself in such a position 
that the angle of elevation was between 30° and 50°. The free end of 
the cell moves about with a motion which the author believes to depend 
on nutation ; but in diffused daylight there is no definite direction of the 
axis nor of the movement. In Pleuroteeniwm nodulosum and carinatum he 
found a nutating movement of the free end of the cell, the direction 
of the axis changing with the direction of the incident rays of light. 
Cosmarium Meneghinit and Closterium striolatum exhibit also a definite 
direction of the axis with very weak light; but this was not the case 
with the other species examined. The direction of the movement in 
Pleurotenium is towards the light. Desmids are, therefore, positively 
keliotropic. 

When swarm-spores move forwards with the portion which bears the 
cilia in front, this, the author believes, is another illustration of the same 
law. When light is allowed to fall on them on one side, the swarm- 
spores place themselves with their longer axis in the direction of the 
incident light, and with the cilia turned either towards or away from 
the source of light, and then either positive or negative heliotropic 
movement takes place; the author finds in these phenomena an exact 
analogue of the heliotropic or geotropic curvatures of the higher 
organisms. 

The angle which the alga makes with the substratum varies with the 
species ; and this he terms the “special angle” (Higenwinkel) of the 
species, and asserts that it is not affected by the nature of the sub- 
stratum. He is able to reconcile with the above theory the statement 
of Stahl that, when moving away from the light, the axis of the alga is 
nearly or quite at rightangles to that of the rays of light, and he 
confirms Stahl’s statement that when the illumination is strong, Pleuro- 
tznium exhibits striking negative heliotropism. 

The author has at present been unable to determine whether desmids 
are also geotropic. 

Photo-position of Leaves.*—Herr H. Véchting calls attention to 
some old observations of Ratchinsky that, in Malva rotundifolia and 
in some allied species, at night the leaf-stalk makes a more acute angle 
with the leaf than in the day; and that in the daytime the leaves 
follow the course of the sun in such a way that the surface of 
the lamina is always at right angles to the incident rays of light, 
whether the radiation be more or less intense. Soon after sunset 
they take up their nocturnal position. These changes in position 
Vochting states to be determined entirely by light, causing the morpho- 
logical upper side only to be illuminated; the geotropism of the lamina 
and its weight have no influence on these movements. While the 
lamina of the leaf shows neither epinasty nor hyponasty, the lower 


* Bot. Ztg., xlvi. (1888) pp. 505-14, 517-27, 533-41, 549-60 (1 pl.). 


92 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


portion of the petiole is, on the other hand, epinastic. The actual 
movements of the leaf-stalk by which the different positions of the 
lamina are brought about, consist either of curvature or of torsion, or of 
a combination of the two, the movement being always in the direction of 
least resistance. 


Phenomena of Curvature.*—Herr J. Wortmann replies to the 
objections of Elfving to the explanation of the phenomena of geotropic 
curvature advanced by him,t and reaffirms his previous conclusions. 
The vertical elevation from a horizontal organ must be due, as de Vries’s 
plasmolytic experiments have shown, to unequal growth of the upper 
and under side of the organ, and this must be the consequence of one of 
two forces, or of a combination of the two—viz. unequal turgidity of the 
two sides, and the unequal stretching of the membrane on the two sides. 
De Vries supports the former theory, viz. that the geotropic curvature 
is due to an accumulation of osmotic substances in the under side of the 
organ. From experiments both on multicellular and on unicellular 
organs like the sporangiophore of Phycomyces, Wortmann has come to 
the opposite conclusion, that there is no evidence of any change in 
turgidity, and therefore in osmotic force; and that the geotropic curva- 
tures both of unicellular and of multicellular growing organs are caused 
by changes in the extensibility of the membranes, that of the under side 
becoming greater when the geotropism is negative. This is, however, 
not necessarily a mechanical stretching, but may be due to accumula- 
tions of cellulose on the under side, and this again can be the result 
only of movements in the protoplasm which cannot take place except in 
living cells. 


(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 


Chemical process in Assimilation.t{—Dr. T. Bokorny has made a 
fresh series of experiments, the results of which he considers further 
confirm the probability of Baeyer’s hypothesis that the first product of 
assimilation in plants is formic aldehyde. They were made in the light, 
chiefly on cells of Spirogyra. He finds that, when carbon dioxide is 
excluded, but mineral food-material supplied, green cells are able to 
form starch out of methyl-alecohol and out of glycol, as well as out of 
glycerin. 

Decomposition of Albumen in the absence of free oxygen.§—From 
a series of experiments made chiefly on Triticum vulgare and Vicia Faba, 
Herr W. Palladin draws the following conclusions :—(1) If green plants 
containing non-nitrogenous substances are placed in an atmosphere 
destitute of oxygen for not longer than 20 hours, no loss of albumen 
takes place. (2) If, however, the plants have been previously deprived 
of their non-nitrogenous substance, they will, in these circumstances, lose 
a portion of their albumen in the first 20 hours. (3) The decomposition 
of albumen can maintain the life of a plant for a time in an atmosphere 
containing no oxygen; (4) this decomposition is independent of the 
atmospheric oxygen; (5) the decomposition of albumen which takes 
place in a non-oxygenous atmosphere during the fourth and fifth days is 


* Bot. Ztg., xlvi. (1888) pp. 469-78, 485-92. + See this Journal, 1888, p. 259. 
t ‘Stud. u. Exper. tib. d. Chem. Vorgang d. Assimilation,’ Erlangen, 1888, 36 pp. 
§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell, vi. (1888) pp. 205-12. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 93 


a phenomenon which continues after the death of the plant; (6) active 
decomposition of albumen takes place in the ordinary atmosphere in the 
dark, beginning even during the first 24 hours. 


y. General. 


Parasites on Trees.*—Freiherr C. vy. Tubeuf describes the diseases 
produced in a number of trees by parasites, both phanerogamic and 
cryptogamic. These include Botrytis Douglasii on Pseudotsuga Dou- 
glasti ; Arceuthobium Douglasii and americanum on Pseudotsuga Douglas 
and Pinus Murrayana ; the Japanese Loranthacee ; a new parasitic fungus 
Trichospheria parasitica on several conifers ; the witch-broom of Alnus 
incana caused by Taphrina borealis ; Pestalozzia conorum Picez nu. sp.; 
and the mycorhiza of Pinus Cembra. 


Protection of Plants against Snails.;—Herr EH. Stahl goes in great 
detail into the means of protection exhibited by many plants against the 
attacks of snails, whether land or fresh-water species. ‘These may be 
classed under two categories—substances contained within the cells, and 
external morphological protection. 

Among the former may be named tannin, an acid cell-sap, especially 
if due to calcium binoxalate, volatile oils, bitter substances, as in 
Gentiana, Polygala, &c., and the oil-receptacles of some Hepatice, cc. 

Among external protections are stiff hairs, impregnation of the 
epiderm with lime or silica, and the formation of mucilage or jelly (this 
applies especially to water-plants). Raphides also protect plants, both 
by their poisonous properties, and by the injury inflicted by the sharp 
crystals on the internal organs of animals; some animals, however, such 
as the caterpillars of Deilephila, consume greedily plants which contain 
raphides. 


B. CRYPTOGAMIA. 
Cryptogamia Vascularia. 


Chlorophyll-bodies of Selaginella.{—Herr G. Haberlandt describes 
the structure of the chlorophyll-bodies in several species of Selaginella. 

In the cells which are specially connected with assimilation in many 
species of Selaginella, there is only a single chlorophyll-body, resembling 
the similar arrangement in Anthoceros, and this has frequently somewhat 
of a cup-form; but in its finer structure it agrees completely with the 
chloroplasts of the higher plants, showing distinct granulation. In the 
cells of the Lase of the leaf there is usually either one irregularly lobed 
chlorophyll-body, or several of different forms. In the parenchymatous 
cells of the cortex of the stem are a number of chloroplasts, usually more 
or less of a spindle-form. They are united together by delicate colour- 
less strings of protoplasm forming a continuous branched or unbranched 
chain in each cell. ‘The substance of these chains does not belong to 
the cytoplasm, but to the chlorophyll-bodies. Some of the chloroplasts 
in these chains are usually transformed into leucoplasts. The starch in 
them occurs in the form of either minute grains or rods. 

As regards their history of development, Haberlandt finds even in 


* ‘Beitr. z. Kenntniss d. Baumkrankheiten,’ Berlin, 1888, 58 pp. See Bot. Ztg., 
xlvi. (1888) p. 659. 


+ Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Naturw., xxii. (1888) 126 pp. See Bot. Centralbl., 
XXXvi, (1888) p. 164. } Flora, Ixxi. (1888) pp. 221-308 (1 pl.). 


94 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the meristem of the growing-point small pale chloroplasts; the chloro- 
phyll-chains in the young cortical cells being formed from them by suc- 
cessive bipartitions; a minute portion of the colourless protoplasm 
remains over in the form of the connecting strings. From the mode 
of formation and position of the starch-grains, the author believes that 
the nucleus plays an important part in their production. 


Prothallium of Lycopodium.*—Dr. M. Treub describes the pro- 
thallium of a new species of Lycopodium, L. Salakense, found by him in 
one spot only in Java, and allied to L. cernuum. Of the three types of 
Lycopodiwm-prothallium, it belongs to that of L. cernuum, being inter- 
mediate between that species and L. inundatum. 

Some days after the spores were sown in the laboratory they de- 
veloped a number of small tubers or primary tubercles, and growth then 
ceased for atime. After a lengthened period of rest, apparently inde- 
pendent of external circumstances, a further development of the pro- 
thallium took place into at first a single, and afterwards several filaments 
consisting of several rows of cells lying side by side. The prothallium 
of L. Salakense does not bear the small outgrowths found on that of 
L. inundatum which perform the function of leaves, but in their place 
small elevations. On the cylindrical portion near the apex are produced 
first the antherids and later the archegones; but the development of 
these organs presents no special features. Rhizoids are almost or 
entirely wanting; but the prothallium is green, and not saprophytic. 

The prothallia of L. carinatum, L. nummularifolium, and L. Hippuris 
belong to the type of L. Phlegmaria, and the last contains also the 
same endophyte. The prothallium of L. nummularifolium consists of 
filaments which are not more than three cells in thickness. 


Influence of Light on the Origin of Organs in the Fern-embryo.t 
—Herr E. Heinricher confirms Leitgeb’s statement that the origin of 
organs in the embryo of the Polypodiace is influenced only by 
its position in the prothallium, and is quite independent of gravity ; 
and his observations lead also to the additional conclusion that 
it is quite independent of light. The experiments were made on the 
prothallium of Ceratopteris thalictroides, but the author has no doubt 
the results apply equally to the whole of the Polypodiacee. The first 
root originates in all cases from the octant in the embryo which faces 
the neck of the archegone. ‘This first root exhibits extraordinarily 
vigorous negative heliotropism; when the light falls on the embryo 
from below, the root rises vertically erect from the nutrient fluid, 
unaffected by gravity. ‘Temperature has also a very powerful influence 
on the development of the embryo. The position of the archegones on 
the underside of the prothallium, which is determined by light, insures 
that the root shall be formed on the shaded, the first shoot on the 
illuminated side. 


Muscinee. 


Acutifolium-Section of Sphagnum.{ — Herr ©. Warnstorf gives a 
critical review of this group of European bog-mosses, which he further 


* Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, vii. (1888) pp. 141-50. See Bot. Contralbl., xxxvi. 
(1888) p. 101. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 262. 

+ MT. Bot. Inst. Graz, i. (1888) pp. 287-53 (8 figs.). 

+ Verhandl. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brandenburg, 1888, pp. 79-127 (2 pls.). See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxxvi. (1888) p. 69. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 95 


classifies as follows:—A. Stem-leaves with completely resorbed cell- 
membranes in their upper portion (S. fimbriatum Wils., Girgensohnii 
Russ.) ; B. Stem-leaves never with completely resorbed cell-membranes, 
usually toothed at the apex (S. Russowii Warnst., fuscum Klinggr., 
tenellum Klinger., Warnstorfii Russ., quinquefarium Warnst., acutifolium 
Ehbrh. ex p., subnitens R. & W., molle Sulliy.). 


Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Musci).—The two 
most recently issued parts of this work (Nos. 9 and 10) are almost 
entirely occupied by the family Pottiacez, which is divided into the 
two sub-families Pottiee and Trichostomez, distinguished by the 
structure of the mid-rib. The former comprises the genera Pterygo- 
neurum, Aloina, Crossidium, Pottia, Desmatodon, Tortula, Dialytrichia, 
and Syntrichia, the latter Timmiella, Hydrogonium, Leptodontium, Tricho- 
stomum, Oxystegus, Leptobarbula, Pleurochzte, Tortella, Didymodon, and 
Barbula, Hach genus is illustrated by at least one beautifully executed 
woodcut. 


Alge. 


Chromatophores of Phzeosporee.*—Herr J. Reinke has examined 
the form and appearance of the chromatophores in a number of Phzo- 
spore, for the purpose of determining whether any character can 
be derived from them that will be of use in classification. He finds 
that, while in some instances a special form of chromatophore is 
characteristic of all the members of a group, in other cases nearly 
related species will differ widely in this respect. Thus both the genera 
of Scytosiphonee, Phyllitis, and Scytosiphon, are characterized by the 
presence of a single large oval or sometimes nearly rectangular chro- 
matophore in the parietal protoplasmic layer of each cell. In the 
Sphacelariacez and Laminariacex there are also general characters to be 
derived from the chromatophores. In the Ectocarpacex, on the other 
hand, the form and arrangement of the chromatophores are constant 
within the species only, varying greatly in nearly related species; and 
the same is the case in Ralfsia and Myrionema. 


Mode of Distribution of Alge.t—Herr W. Migula gives a list of 
Algz and Schizophyceze found attached to water-beetles, especially 
Gyrinus natator, in a tarn at a height of 1050 metres. He believes that 
these insects play an important part in their distribution. 


Genetic Connection of Draparnaldia glomerata and Palmella 
uveeformis.{—Herr O. F. Andersson has found a mass of Draparnaldia 
glomerata in the spring, partly in the ordinary vegetative condition, 
partly with resting-spores. These last consisted of round cells inclosed 
in a membrane, identical in size, form, colour, and nature of the cell- 
walls, with Palmella weformis Ktz. Every intermediate state between 
the two occurred on the same plant, and it was evident that the two 
were stages in the cycle of development of the same species. 


Inferior Algze.§—In continuation of his previous researches on the 
lower forms of vegetable life, M. P. A. Dangeard reviews the position 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 213-7 (1 pl.). 

+ Biol. Centralbl., viii. 1888) pp. 514~7. 

t Naturvet. Studentsillsk. Upsala, Nov. 5, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxv. 
(1888) p. 351. 

ae Sci. Nat. (Bot.), vii. (1888) pp. 105-75 (2 pls.). Cf. this Journal, 1888, 
p. 754. 


96 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


and structure of the Chlamydomonadinee, which he regards as a sub- 
division of the Volvocinez, and to be separated from the Chrysomona- 
dinew, which belong properly to the animal kingdom. The points of 
departure of the Volvocinee from the Chrysomonadinee is Polytoma 
uvella Ehr., which does not possess the power of absorbing solid aliment 
into its interior, but which has no chlorophyll. 

Very nearly related to Polytoma is Chlorogonium euchlorum Ehr., 
under which name two species have hitherto been confounded, and the 
conjugating form of which has been described by Ehrenberg as Dyas 
viridis. A new genus and species Cercidium elongatum is described, 
differing from Chlorogonium in having only two amyliferous corpuscles 
stained a light blue by iodine, instead of five or six; it is reproduced 
sexually by gametes formed six in a cell; the germination has not been 
observed. In the same circle of affinity come also Phacotus angulosus 
Stein (Cryptoglena angulosa Cart.) and Phacotus viridis Pert. 

The author’s previous researches on Chlamydomonas and Chlamydo- 
coccus * are then given more in detail; and a new genus and species 
described, Pithiscus Klebsii, nearly related to them, found among Goniwm 
and Pandorina. The body is barrel-shaped, enveloped in a thick mem- 
brane ; at the base of a small conical anterior papilla are four cilia ; the 
protoplasm is coloured an intense green; there is a nucleolated nucleus, a 
posterior amyliferous corpuscle, and a pigment-spot; reproduction takes 
place by two, four, or eight zoospores. To the same family belong also 
Tetraselmis cordiformis Stein, Coccomonas Stein, and Chlorangiwm Stein. 

In the general review of the characters of the Chlamydomonadinex 
it is stated that they are distinguished by the presence of special bodies, 
charged with the production of starch, the amyliferous corpuscles ; these 
are usually one or two in number, occasionally five or six. There are 
always two or three contractile vacuoles. Reproduction takes place by 
zoospores or by conjugation of zoogametes; in the latter case the en- 
velope of the gametes may contribute or not to the formation of the 
zygote (zygosperm). In some genera the sexual mode of reproduction 
is replaced by encystment. 

The author then proposes the establishment of a new family, the 
PoLyBLEPHARIDES, founded on a single new genus and species, Poly- 
blepharides singularis. Its internal structure agrees with that of the 
Chlamydomonadinex, but it differs in its mode of multiplication, viz. by 
longitudinal division of the body into two individuals; cysts are also 
formed. 

Under Volvocine proper the author includes the genera Gonium, 
Pandorina, Eudorina, Stephanosphera, and Volvoa ; the Hydrodictyex 
(Hydrodictyon, Pediastrum, Sorastrum, and Celastrum) forming quite a 
distinct group. 

The provisional group TeTrRasPoREz comprises the genera Gleocystis, 
Apiocystis, Schizochlamys, and Tetraspora, characterized by the property 
of surrounding themselves by a mass of gelatin. They are reproduced 
by biciliated zoospores ; conjugation of gametes takes place in Tetra- 
spora, and the formation of cysts in Glwocystis; they are chiefly 
distinguished from the Chlamydomonadinew by the immobility of the 
cell during the vegetative period. 

The PLEUROCOCCACE®, comprising the genera Pleurococcus, Dactylo- 
coccus, Raphidium, Scenedesmus, and Nephrocytium,} are distinguished 


* See this Journal, 1888, p. 1004. + Tbid., p. 1013. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 97 


from the Tetraspores by the absence of the power to form zoospores ; the 
production of new cells takes place by repeated bipartitions of the pro- 
toplasm; each cell is capable of becoming encysted. Cosmocladium, 
sometimes incorrectly included here, belongs to the Desmidiew. Klebs’s 
family of ExpospH#racea is made up of the genera Chlorochytrium, 
Endosphzra, Phyllobium, and Scotinosphera ; the cells produce zoospores, 
which may be sexual or not. The zygote (zygosperm) resulting from 
the conjugation of the zoogametes gives birth, in Phyllobiwm, to a thallus, 
which may hibernate in the encysted condition. In the CHaraoira, 
consisting of the genus Characium alone, there are mega- and micro- 
zoospores, both apparently non-sexual. 

The author concludes by stating that the Chlamydomonadines, 
detaching themselves from the Flagellata, constitute the base of the 
great group of Algw, and that there is a clear distinction between the 
lower members of the animal and vegetable kingdoms in the mode of 
nutrition, animal digestion taking place in the interior of the protoplasm, 
vegetable digestion in contact with the cell-wall; while assimilation is 
subject to the same laws in both kingdoms. 


New Alge from Porto Rico.*—Dr. M. Mébius describes a new 
species and genus of epiphytic alge, Phyllactidiwm tropicum, from Porto 
Rico. It occurs as small discs resembling Coleochzte on the leaves of 
various orchids, but without appearing to have any organic connection 
with them. The nearly circular thallus consists of repeatedly bifur- 
cating rows of cells, each containing a nucleus; growth takes place in 
the same way as in Mycoidea, by the division of the peripheral cells. 
The thallus also puts out ascending filaments from certain cells, which 
are not hyaline bristles, as in Coleochxte, but are divided transversely 
into a number of cells. It is propagated by swarmspores, between which 
no conjugation was observed, but which develope directly into a new 
thallus. They are formed in zoosporanges which are transformations of 
the ends of ordinary filaments of the thallus; the number formed in a 
sporange varies between 8 and 32. A Chroolepus-form of the alga is 
also described ; and, as in the case of Mycoidea, the author believes that 
it unites in a symbiotic manner with a fungus to form an epiphytic 
lichen, Dr. Mobius placed Phyllactidiwm near Mycoidea, and considers 
it to belong probably to the Chroolepidee. 

Several other alge from Porto Rico are also described, and among 
them the little-known Compsopogon chalybeus Ktz., a fresh-water Floridea 
found growing on leaves of a Potamogeton. 


Alge of New Zealand and Australia.|—Prof. O. Nordstedt describes 
the fresh-water algee collected by Dr. 8. Berggren in New Zealand and 
Australia in 1874 and 1875. Among them are a number of new species 
belonging to the genera Aphanochexte, Rhizoclonium, Hyalotheca, Euas- 
trum, Staurastrum, Cosmarium, &c. 


Fungi (including Lichenes). 


Sporids of Lichens.{—Rev. W. Johnson claims for lichens a charac- 
ter quite distinct from fungi, as seen in the nature of their tissues, as 
well as in the circumstances of their growth. lichens never putrefy 


* Hedwigia, xxvii. (1888) pp. 221-49 (3 pls.). 

+ K. Svensk. Vetens. Akad. Handl., xxii. (1888) 98 pp. (7 pls.). 

{ North of England Mier. Soc., Neweastle-on-Tyne, Dec. 11, 1888. 
1889. H 


98 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


like fungi, and they endure for ages unaffected by frost or snow, whereas 
fungi are short-lived and disappear on the first approach of frost. 
Lichens have many chemical elements in their composition unknown to 
fungi, such as colouring matters, various acids, and lichenin. The 
hyphae and paraphyses of the latter are thin-walled, non-elastic, non- 
amylaceous, and dissolve in hydrate of potash; while those of lichens 
are thicker-walled, more flexible, and do not dissolve in hydrate of 
potash. A difference is also manifested in the spores of lichens; they 
are smoother, capable of greater endurance, their walls are thicker, more 
mucose and pellucid than those of fungi. 

The development of sporids in the asci is traced and illustrated, 
but Stahl’s theory of the origin of the apothece in a fertilized ascogone 
was doubted. ‘The apothece may begin in an act of fertilization by the 
“spermatia”’ (pollinoids), while much mystery still hangs about the 
process of lichen-fertilization, yet present knowledge, as far as it goes, 
favours the idea that such fertilization takes place in the substance out 
of which the spores are formed rather than by direct contact between 
the “ spermatia” and the spores themselves, and the impregnated mass 
could only take place at the origin of the apothece, or at some initiatory 
stage, as the spores and asci are developed within it; but that the 
apothece springs from a fertilized ascogone is not proved. It seems 
rather to begin in the fruitful centre, by the hypha becoming denser, and 
then differentiating into the cellular hypothece or bed, from which arise 
the whole contents of the hypothece. 

Lichen spores originate in the hyaline protoplasmic contents of the 
ascus or theca, which become more grumous as the parent-cell advances. 
Through the pellucid walls of the theca denser spots begin to show, 
casting a slight shadow, as may be seen in the young asci of Pertusaria 
fallax, Physcia ciliaris, &. 'These denser spots are the spores taking 
shape, and they gradually show a thin coating and distinct form. The 
spore is a double-walled cell of varying size and shape, simple or 
septate. 

How the colour of lichen-spores is taken up, or whence it is 
secreted, isa mystery; but there is the fact, in many lichens, of a hyaline 
or colourless closed theca or spore-sac, full of blackish-brown or reddish- 
brown spores. The coloured pigment of the spores is lodged, not in the 
contents, but in the epispore or outer wall. When spores of Physcia 
pulverulenta are broken up, every separate particle retains the same dark 
colour as when the spore is entire. 


Saccharomyces apiculatus.*—Herr C. Amthor concludes, from the 
different composition of the same wine fermented by different cells of 
this ferment, that there must be distinct varieties of the yeast. The 
total amount of acid formed during fermentation is about three times 
greater than that found by Pasteur with ordinary yeast. In beer-wort, 
S. apiculatus caused, in 30 days, the formation of only 0°93 per cent. of 
alcohol. The author believes that this species does not ferment maltose, 
and that this property furnishes us with a means, not only of detecting 
small quantities of dextrose in the presence of maltose, but of estimating 
the quantity present by the amount of alcohol formed. 


* Zeitschr. Phys. Chem.. xii. (1888) pp. 558-64. See Journ. Chem. Soc., 1888 
(Abstr.), p. 1218. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 99 


Kefir.*—Sig. G. Arcangeli has investigated the source of this intoxi- 
cating drink prepared in the Caucasus by the fermentation of cows’ milk. 
The ferment is sold in the form of tubercle-like bodies from 1 mm. to 
1 cm. in diam., of a yellow colour and horny consistency. These pre- 
serve their activity for a long period, and induce fermentation in milk 
in twenty-four hours at the ordinary temperature. Arcangeli agrees 
with Kern { that the ferment is a cultural form of Saccharomyces cerevisiz, 
closely resembling S. minor. He was unable to detect with certainty 
the presence of Bacillus acidi-lactict. 'The organism described by Fligge 
and others as Dispora caucasica, he believes to be a form of Bacillus 
subtilis, which, coming in contact with the grains of kefir, has the power 
of peptonizing the albuminoids and determining the partial solution of 
the casein. 


New Type of Hymenomycetes.{—Under the name Hymenoconidium 
petasatum, Herr H. Zukal describes a new fungus found on rotting 
leaves and fruits of the olive under a glass bell. Resembling somewhat 
a minute Marasmius, it yet differs in some respects from all hitherto 
known hymenomycetous fungi. The hymenium clothes the upper 
convex side of the pileus in the form of a smooth layer. The densely 
packed club-shaped basids(?) bear each a single brownish spore with 
spinous thickenings. The spore is not formed by budding nor from 
a sterigma, but by the cutting off of the upper swollen portion of the 
basid (?) by a septum; the lower portion becoming the sporophore, the 
upper portion the spore. All attempts to cause the spores to germinate 
were unsuccessful. The author believes Hymenoconidiwm to present a 
type of very simply organized Hymenomycetes, in which the conidio- 
phore has not become specialized into basids. 


Ustilago Treubii.S—Graf zu Solms-Laubach describes this new 
species, which forms small wart-like excrescences on Polygoniwm chinense 
in Java, with a curved stalk and dark violet ustilago-spores. It causes 
the production of abnormal wood in the cambium. The spores are 
separated from one another by vertical rows of parenchymatous cells 
which are connected above and below with the closed tissue. When the 
spores are ripe they burst through the outermost layer of the tissue, 
and these columns project in the form of a capillitium-like structure 
which promotes the dissemination of the spores by protecting them from 
moisture, and thus preventing their germination before they are scattered. 
The spores are about 4 u in diameter, and germinate in the ordinary 
way, producing a promycele which is usually short and unicellular, on 
which are borne terminal or lateral sporids which conjugate before the 
germination of the filament. The pathological structures produced by 
this parasite bear a strong resemblance to galls. 


Saprolegniez.||—A posthumous fragment on this subject by Prof. 
A. de Bary is published by Graf zu Solms-Laubach. Four new genera 
are briefly described, viz.:—(1) Leptolegnia ; resembling Saprolegnia, 


* Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xx. (1888) pp. 381-7. 
+ Cf. this Journal, 1882, p. 383. 


t Verhandl. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxviii. (1888). See Biol. 
Centralbl., viii. (1888) p. 513. 


§ Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, vi. (1888) pp. 79--92 (1 pl.). See Bot. Centralbl., 
XXXyvi. (1888) p. 67. 


|| Bot. Ztg,, xlvi. (1888) pp. 597-610, 613-21, 629-36, 645-53 (2 pls.). 
He 2 


100 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


but with only a single oosperm which entirely fills up the oogone. 
(2) Pythiopsis ; gonids with two terminal cilia, escaping separately from 
the mouth of the sporange, and moving about with a swarming motion, 
then coming to rest and germinating without becoming invested with 
cellulose or a second period of swarming; zoosporanges terminal on the 
branches of the primary filaments, in rows, or with a cymose arrangement, 
never proliferous after emptying; oogones and oosperms as in Sapro- 
legnia. (3) Aplanes, resembling Achlya, but the gonids not swarming. 
(4) Leptomitus (Apodya Corn.) ; thallus divided into compartments by 
strictures without any actual septum, each containing a single nucleus ; 
zoosporanges terminal, often several, one behind another, not proliferous ; 
zoospores with terminal cilia, germinating directly, without a second 
period of swarming; sexual organs unknown, ‘The following new 
species are also described :—Saprolegnia monilifera, Leptolegnia caudata, 
Pythiopsis cymosa, Achlya apiculata, A. oligacantha. 


Structure of White Rot.*—MM. G. Foex and L. Ravaz state that 
a transverse section of the portion of a plant attacked by “ white rot” 
reveals the presence of the mycele of Coniothyrium diplodiella. The 
filaments which compose it have a uniform structure. The spores arise 
on the stigmata, to the summit of which they remain fixed until they 
have finished growing, when they detach themselves from their support. 
They are generally ovoid in form; and if they are placed in a drop of 
water they germinate in a few hours at a temperature of 18° to 20°. 
As for the remedies to apply for “‘ white rot,” it has been found that 
the salts of copper are the most efficacious. 


Cancer of the Cinchona.}|—Herr O. Warburg describes two kinds of 
cancer which attack the cinchona-plantations of Java: one on the root, 
the other on the stem. ‘The former closely corresponds to the disease 
produced by Agaricus melleus, and appears to be due to a fungus pro- 
pagated by an underground rhizomorph rather than by spores. The 
latter is caused by a different fungus, propagated by its spores, and is 
not unlike the cancer of the larch. 


New Fungi of the Vine.{—Dr. F’. Cavara enumerates the following 
new species of fungus as attacking the vine :—Physalospora baccx, Gleo- 
sporium Physalospora, Pestalozzia viticola, Napicladiwm pusillum, Alter- 
naria vitis, and Tubercularia acinorum. The author gives the following 
diagnosis of the new genus Briosia :—Stroma verticale, cylindraceum, 
stipitatum, hyphis fasciculatis compositum, apice capitulum compactum 
efformans; conidia globosa, tipice catenulata, fusca, acrogena. 


Diseases of the Vine.S—MM. P. Viala and L. Ravaz state that the 
disease known as mélanose, which is caused by the parasite Septoria 
ampelina B. & C., originally came from America. Mélanose appears 
only to attack the leaves of the vine, and has not as yet been observed 
either on the branches or on the fruit. Small circular brown spots, 
which are equally apparent on both surfaces of the leaf, are the first 
indications of this disease ; these grow rapidly and change in colour to a 
deep brown or sometimes even black. The myeele of this fungus, which 


* Rev. Mycol., x. (1888) pp. 201-3. 

+ SB. Gesell. Bot. Hamburg, iii. (1887) pp. 62-72. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxvi. 
(1888) p. 145. 

{ Rev. Mycol., x. (1888) pp. 207-8. § Ibid., pp. 193-9. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETC. 101 


grows in the tissue of the leaf, is wavy, thin, and hyaline, and the 
pycnids are ovoid and nearly entirely buried in the palisade-tissue of 
the leaf. The cells of the envelope of the pycnid are small, irregular, 
and with a rather thick membrane; the innermost layer gives rise to the 
spores. 


Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Fungi).—The two 
last-published parts (29 and 80) of this work are still devoted to the 
Discomycetes. The first sub-order is completed by the families Pseudo- 
phacidiess (Pseudophacidium, Coccophacidium, Pseudographis, Clithris, 
Cryptomyces, and Dothiora). The second sub-order, or Stictidex, is made 
up of the following families :—Eustictee (Trochila, Ocellaria, Nevia, 
Xylographa, Briardia, Stegia, Propolis, Phragmonzxvia, Cryptodiscus, 
Propolidium, Xylogramma, Mellitiosporium, Neemacyclus, 'Stictis, and 
Schizoaxylon) ; Ostropeee (Laquearia, Ostropa, and Robergea). The third 
sub-order or Tryblidieee commences with the families Tryblidiaceze 
(Tryblidiopsis and Tryblidiwm), and Heterospheriew (Heterospheria, 
Odontotrema, and Scleroderris). 


Protophyta. 
a, Schizophycee. 


‘ Dicranochete a new genus of Protococcacese.*—Under the name 
Dicranochzxte reniformis, Herr G. Hieronymus describes a new genus and 
species of Protococcacex, growing as an epiphyte on Mosses and Hepatice, 
and on decaying grass-leaves. Itis hemispherical or reniform, with the 
indentation facing the substratum ; at the base of this indentation is a fine 
hyaline dichotomously branched bristle, composed, like the cell-wall, of 
gelatin. In the summer swarm-spores are formed by continued bi- 
partition of the protoplasmic celi-contents and of its nucleus. They 
are naked, and have apparently four cilia and a red pigment-spot. They 
germinate directly without conjugation. 

- The author claims also to have established that Chlamydomyxa 
labyrinthoides belongs to the same cycle of development as Protococcus 
macrococcus, P. aureus, Urococcus insignis, and Peridinium cinctum. 


Structure of Diatom-valves.;—Mr. J. Deby has made a minute 
examination of the structure of diatom-valves, by imbedding in a 
mixture of zinc chloride and zinc oxide, or of magnesium chloride with 
magnesia, and then making excessively fine sections of the dried mass. 
His conclusion is that the valve consists of several layers, but is not 
everywhere perforated in the fashion of a sieve, the result differing 
therefore from that of Van Ermengem, and from Prinz’s observations, in 
which the membranes which close the pores had completely dis- 
appeared. 

New Species of Navicula.—Mr. F. Kitton describes the following 
new species:—Navicula venustissima. Valve elliptical, apices more or 
less produced, marginal striz close, slightly radiant, moniliform, space 
between the strie and median line irregularly punctate, puncta some- 
times confluent, length 0-008 in. to 0:01 in. In dredgings from 
Samarang, Java, and Aberdeen Bay, Hong Kong, made by Mr. A. 
Durrand. The dredgings in which the above species was found also 


* JB. Schles. Gesell. Vaterl. Cultur, 1887, pp. 298-7. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxv. 
(1888) p. 321. + Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, ii. (1888) pp. 308-16. 


102 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


contained N. Durranditi, not so fine as those occurring in the gathering 
from the island of Rea; many of the valves are bullate on each side 
of the median line; the presence or absence of these markings is, 
however, of no specific value. 


Diatoms of Hot Springs.*—Count F. Castracane enumerates the 
diatoms found among the “ muffe” in the hot springs of Valdieri, at a 
height of 1336 metres, the temperature of the water varying between 
28° and 69° C. in different springs. He finds the prevalent forms not 
to be those usually found at high elevations, from which he draws the 
conclusion that the distribution of diatoms is dependent rather on 
temperature than on altitude. 


Composition of the Marine Tripolis of the Valley of Metaurus.j— 
According to Count F. Castracane, the community of types of 
diatoms in all the marine tripolis of Italy indicates that they are a 
portion of one and the same deposit. In the tripolis examined by him 
from the valley of the Metaurus between Fano and Fossombrone, the 
diatoms are nearly all of familiar species. But the following new 
genera are described :—Thalassiotriv.—F rustulis linearibus radiatis per 
pulvillum gelineum armilliforme unitis, bino erectiorum punctulorum 
ordine instructis ; post frustulorum deduplicatione armilla disrumpitur, 
et frustula in seriem alternam per isthmum triangularem coalescunt. 
Etmodiscus.—Frustula solitaria discoidalia; valvis tenuissime et in- 
conspicue striolatis; forma plus minus convexa, quandoque diversi- 
mode denticulata ; zona connectiva punctulata. 


Classification of the Cyanophycee.t—Dr. A. Hansgirg gives a 
synopsis of all the known genera and subgenera of Cyanophyce, or, as 
he prefers to call them, Myxophycesw. He arranges them under three 
orders, viz.:—(1) GuaosipHex (suborders Heterocystee and Iso- 
cysteve); genera, Stigonema, Hapalosiphon, Mastigocoleus, Capsosira, Nosto- 
chopsis, Scytonema, Tolypothrix, Plectonema, Desmonema, Hydrocoryne, 
Diplocaulon, Isactis, Rivularia, Gleotrichia, Brachytrichia, Calothria, 
Sacconema, Leptochzxte, Amphithrix, Microchxte, Nostoc, Anabeena, Nodu- 
laria, Microcoleus, Inactis, Symploca, Lyngbya, Isocystis, Aphanizomenon, 
arranged under various subfamilies and tribes. (2) CHAMSIPHONACEE ; 
genera, Chamesiphon, Clastidium, Godlewskia, Hyella, Cyanocystis, 
Dermocarpa, Cyanoderma, Pleurocapsa. (3) CHRoococcoIDEm; genera, 
Allogonium, Oncobyrsa, Xenococcus, Entophysalis, Homalococcus, Placoma, 
Gleochzte, Chroothece, Gleothece, Aphanothece, Synechococcus, Dactylo- 
coccopsis, Glaucocystis, Coccochloris, Merismopedium, Tetrapedia, Cclo- 
spherium, Gomphosphzxria, Clathrocystis, Polycystis, Gleocapsa, Aphano- 
capsa, Chroococcus, Oryptoglena, Chroomonas. Oscillaria is reduced to a 
subgenus of Lyngbya. 

Dactylococcopsis is a new genus, with the following characters :— 
Cellule graciles, solitaria vel 2-8 in familias fasciculatim consociate, 
fusiformes, subovatz-lanceolate, modice vel falcato-curvate, utroque 
polis angustatis, subacutis vel longe cuspidatis. Cytioplasma pallide 
zrugineum vel olivaceo subceruleum, granula oleose nitentia, bina raro 
pluria vel singula includens. Membrana tenuis, homogenea, levis. 
Propagatio fit cellularum divisione ad unam directionem. The only 
species, D. rhaphidioides, was found on wet rocks. 


* Notarisia, iii. (1888) pp. 384-6. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 633. 
+ Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital., v. (1886) 7 pp. t Notarisia, iii. (1888) pp. 584-90. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 103 


Heterocystous Nostocaceer.*—MM. E. Bornet and C. Flahault 
complete their monograph of the Heterocystous Nostocaces contained 
in the principal herbaria of France. The fourth and last tribe, the 
Nostocex, constitute the simplest group, and are divided into the two 
subtribes Anabeenee and Aulosireze. 

The Anabenez are distinguished by the sheath being inconspicuous 
or dissolving into jelly, or firmer, thick and gelatinous, and are made 
up of the six genera, Nostoc, Wollea, n. gen., Anabena, Aphanizomenon, 
Nodularia, and Cylindrospermum. Under Nostoc are described twenty-nine 
species, arranged in nine sections; among them is one new species 
N. maculiforme, found on Enteromorpha intestinalis. The new genus 
Wollea, belonging to the United States, is founded on Spherozyga saccata, 
and is thus described:—Thallus tubulosus, cylindricus, mollis; fila 
suberecta, paralleliter agglutinata vel leniter curvato-implicata, vaginis 
confluentibus; heterocyste intercalares; spore catenate, heterocystis 
contigue vel ab eis remote. Anabeena includes eleven species, divided 
among the three sections, Trichormus, Dolichospermum, and Sphzrozyga. 
Two new species, A. spherica and laxa, are described. Aphanizomenon 
includes only two species, and Nodularia four, one of the latter, N. 
spherocarpa, being new. Under Cylindrospermum are enumerated five 
species. 

The subtribe Aulosires is characterized by the filaments having 
a thin membranaceous sheath, and being free or agglutinated into 
parallel bundles. It is made up of the genera Aulosira with two 
species, and Hormothamnion Griin. also with two, one of them, H. 
solutum, being new. 

As an appendix is added the subtribe Isocystee of Borzi, made up 
of the single species Isocystis Messanensis Borz. The subtribe differs 
from the typical Nostoces by the absence of heterocysts, and is thus 
characterized :—Trichomata cellulis perdurantibus (heterocystis) desti- 
tuta, muco parcissimo involuta, in thallum irregulariter diffusum 
densissime aggregata, raro subsolitaria. 


Relationship of Bacillus muralis and Glaucothrix gracillima.;— 
Prof. H. Tomaschek adduces further arguments ‘against the view of 
Hansgirg ¢ that there is a genetic connection between these two organ- 
isms, and that of Zukal§ that the Schizomycetes are descended from 
_ the Schizophycez. 

He regards Bacillus muralis as an endosporous and not an arthro- 
sporous bacterium (in de Bary’s sense), and therefore characterized by 
the production of aplanospores, while in the Phycochromacee only 
akinetes are formed. The objection that B. muralis is not a true 
bacterium, founded on its immotility, is also not conclusive, since the 
same objection would apply to B. anthracis. Equally inconclusive is 
the objection that B. muralis is invested with a gelatinous envelope, 
since this also holds good of some undoubted bacteria, such as Bacteriwm 
cyanogenum, and of Beggiatoa. 

Prof. Tomaschek has found intermixed with Bacillus muralis true 
zooglcea-colonies of Glaucothrix gracillima or Aphanothece caldariorum, 


* Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), vii. (1888) pp. 177-26. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 472. 

i eee Centralbl., xxxvi. (1888) pp. 180 (figs. 2-6). Cf. this Journal, 1888, 
p. 786. 

t See this Journal, 1888, p. 787. § Ibid., 1884, p. 601. 


104 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


and finds very important points of difference between them. In A. 
caldariorum the rods or cocci have a distinct bluish or verdigris colour ; 
the gelatinous envelopes of the separate cells have a circular or oval 
form ; and not more than from two to four rods or cocci are inclosed in 
the same envelope. In Bacillus muralis, on the other hand, the cells are 
colourless ; the number of rods inclosed in the same envelope is con- 
siderably greater, up to eight; and of the spore-like micrococci a very 
large number go to make up the secondary micro-zooglea, the envelope 
being usually considerably longer in one direction ; and the rods and 
cocci have a tendency, like those of Nostoc, to arrange themselves in 
TOWS. 


8. Schizomycetes. 


Bacterium Balbianii, a chromogenous marine Bacterium.*—M. A. 
Billet describes a new micro-organism, Bacterium Balbianii, which 
makes its appearance in macerations of marine alge after a period of 
several weeks, either on the surface of the liquid or on the sides of the 
cultivation vessels. In colour it varies between a pale and an orange 
yellow. In its zooglcea condition it appears as a number of spheroidal 
bodies inclosed in a thin gelatinous capsule. Within the capsule are 
thin straight rodlets,; 1 to 2 » long, usually in pairs. The capsule 
rapidly increases in size, and by agglomeration a mass is formed with a 
bran-like appearance. Pure cultivations were made in solid and liquid 
media. The former was 1°5 per cent. agar-agar ; the latter an infusion 
of Laminaria made by boiling these alge in sea-water for an hour, and 
after filtration sterilizing at 120°. The density of the liquidis1-029. By 
growing the bacterium in the foregoing media, the author found that 
this bacterium passed through certain stages of development, or an 
evolution cycle, which comprised four distinct states. The stages were 
the filamentous, i.e. numerous motionless elements joined end to 
end; when the filaments got matted together a felt-like pad was pro- 
duced. This constituted the second stage. The third stage, or that of 
dissociation, was distinguished by the mobility of the elements, which 
were either isolated or formed chains of not more than two or three 
individuals. The fourth stage was the zooglea condition, already 
described. 


Ferment from putrefactive Bacteria.;j—Herr E. Salkowski placed 
fibrin which had been well washed and exposed for a few days to a 
temperature of 7°-10° C. for many months under chloroform-water 
(5 ccm. chloroform to a litre of water), by which putrefaction was 
entirely prevented. The fibrin, however, dissolved slowly; the proteids 
in solution were at first globulin and albumin, later albumoses, and 
finally peptones. The cause of these changes must certainly have been 
an unorganized ferment, since bacteria were excluded during the experi- 
ment. The author determined that this ferment must have been derived 
from the bacteria which contaminated the fibrin after the process of 
washing. Such a ferment was discovered in the undissolved residue; it 
was active in an alkaline solution, and was therefore of the nature of a 
trypsin. 


* Comptes Rendus, cvii. (1888) pp. 423-5. 
+ Zeit. Biol., xxy. (1888) pp. 92-101. See Journ. Chem. Soc., 1888 (Abstr.), 
p. 1326. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 105 


Contributions to Vegetable Pathology.*—M. J. H. Wakker dis- 
cusses the malady caused by Bacterium Hyacinthi. 'The bacteria which 
may be regarded as the cause of this disease are more or less cylindrical 
and colourless, and may be found by myriads in the yellow mucilage of 
the bulbs that are attacked. The spores of B. Hyacinthi are slightly 
longer than they are broad, and are bluish in colour. 

Another disease of hyacinths and allied plants, caused by Peziza 
bulborum, is also described. The spores of this fungus are ovoid and 
colourless, and are contained in asci; they show two bright bluish spots, 
each situated at the same distance from the extremities. 


Purple Bacteria and their relation to Light.t—Prof. Th. W. 
Engelmann, who has long interested himself in the behaviour of bacteria 
towards light, has continued his observations in the same field, taking 
for his subjects those forms which are well known and have been 
thoroughly described, such as Bacterium photometricum, roseo-persicinum, 
rubescens, sulfuratum, Beggiatoa roseo-persicina, and several others. In 
these, most of which belong to the sulphur bacteria, a purplish pigment, 
bacterio-purpurin, is diffused throughout their plasma. The behaviour 
of these organisms towards light was found by the author to depend not 
on the sulphur, but on the bacterio-purpurin. 

With regard to the direct influence of light, it was found that the 
rapidity of the movements was increased by illumination, and, per contra, 
ceased in the dark; and that purple bacteria were differently affected 
by light of different wave-lengths. 

With regard to the spectrometric investigation of the colour of 
purple bacteria and the measurement of the absorption of the dark heat- 
rays, the original must be consulted. 

The author also discusses the excretion of oxygen by these purple 
bacteria while they are in the light, and the dependence of their growth 
on light. 

With regard to bacterio-purpurin, he comes to the conclusion that it 
is a true chromophyll, in so far as the absorbed actual energy of light 
is changed by it into potential chemical energy. 


Pathogenic Bacterium found in Tetanus.t—Drs. Belfanti and 
Pescarolo describe a bacillus which they have obtained from the dis- 
charges of a person who died presumably of tetanus. Injection of this 
material into mice produced tetanic symptoms in from 10 hours to 10 
days. From this material the authors isolated a bacterium which, injected 
into rabbits, mice, sparrows, &c., caused death preceded by paralytic or 
convulsive phenomena. Cultivated on the usual media, the development 
of this bacillus was examined in hanging drops, wherein it appeared as 
a rodlet, rather longer than broad, and resembling the bacillus of fowl- 
cholera. The ends are rounded. It is mobile even at a temperature of 
23°-25° C., and it multiplies by fission. It was stained well by the 
usual methods, and was decolorized in 2 minutes when Gram’s method 
was used. The colonies are white or whitish yellow, and do not liquefy 
gelatin. 


* Arch. Néerland., xxiii. (1888) pp. 1-71. 

+ Bot. Ztg., xlvi. (1888) pp. 661-9, 677-89 (2 figs.), 693-701 (1 fig.), 709-20. 
Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 473. : 

{ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., iv. (1888) pp. 513-9. 


106 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Algophaga pyriformis.*—Prof. N. Sorokin describes an organism 
which he first discovered in 1886 in its monad form. Since then he 
has observed the various phases of its development. In the free- 
swimming stage it occurs as small colourless monad-like bodies, which 
move slowly forward by the aid of cilia. These corpuscles consist of 
two parts—a head and long processes. The head is oval or pyriform, 
and is from 2 to 4 » long. These bodies are termed small swimmers, 
in contradistinction to larger bodies of similar appearance, which are 
developed from a combination or melting together of two or more small 
ones. Both kinds seem, from the illustration, to be very much alike, and 
to nourish themselves by sucking at unicellular alge. After sucking at 
the alga the swimmer loses the pseudopodia, and forms a microcyst, 
which is apparently a quiescent condition, during which the absorbed 
chlorophyll is digested. 

Another condition in which this organism appears is as a macrocyst. 
In this state the pseudopodia are withdrawn, and a transparent mem- 
brane envelopes the whole body, just as has happened with the microcyst. 
The only difference appears to be in the size, the macrocysts being 
four or five times larger than the microcysts. When the membrane 
has been formed, vacuoles, oil-drops, and nuclei appear within the 
macrocysts. Next the vacuoles disappear, the oil-globules crowd 
together, and the bottom of the cell is filled with a green mass. As 
time goes on—a question of a few hours—further changes occur within 
the cell-contents, spherules appear, the cell bulges at one end, and then 
having burst owing to the pressure, gives exit to a number of small free 
swimmers with pear-shaped heads and long pseudopodia usually three 
in number. 

The author was fortunate enough to observe a resting form of this 
organism, which was not distinguishable from the zygosperms of fungi. 
From the text and illustration it would seem that two separate organisms 
were concerned in this phase. 


Sarcine of Fermentation{.—Dr. P. Lindner describes eight varieties 
of Sarcina which he has found in beer, mash, and in the air and water 
of breweries. 

Pediococcus cerevisiz Baleke is a bacterium which occurs as a mono-, 
diplo- or tetracoccus. It was first described by Pasteur, and has been 
found to be one of the principal causes of the clouding of beer. It grows 
well on the usual media, and its most marked characteristic is that it 
will not bear being transferred from alkaline to acid media, but does 
from acid to alkaline. It will not grow in sterilized beer. Cultivated 
on potato it produces involution forms like Bacterium aceti and B. termo. 
It is killed in eight minutes by a temperature of 60° C. 

Pediococcus acidi lactict. As its name implies it produces an acidity 
of the media on which it is cultivated (neutral malt extract solution at 
41°C.) The acid solution replies to tests for lactic acid. The sarcina 
is found to be identical with the organism which plays an important 
part in fermentation, and which is known by the name of “ Kugelbac- 
terium.” It developes best at a temperature of 41° C.; is killed in five 
minutes at 62° C., and in 20 minutes at 56°C. It appears to thrive 
better in the absence of air. 


* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., iv. (1888) pp. 419-27 (1 pl.). 
+ Inaug. Diss., 1888, 58 pp. (1 pl.). Cf. Bot. Centralbl., xxxvi. (1888) pp. 97-100, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 107 


Pediococcus albus was found in a water-spring supplying a brewery, 
and in white beer. It liquefies gelatin rapidly, and forms a white crust 
on the surface. 

Sarcina candida, found in brewery water as spherical or irregular 
zoogloee about the size of a pin’s head. These consist of diplococci, the 
sarcina form only appearing in hay decoction. Gelatin is rapidly 
liquefied by this organism. Diameter of the individual cells 1-5 to 

chiefs 

Sarcina rosea, found in the fermenting room of breweries. On agar 
it forms little colonies, which consist of small spherical elements, among 
which very large cells often appear. In liquid media it throws down a 
red sediment that becomes green on addition of sulphuric acid and 
reverts to red on neutralizing with caustic soda. 

Nitric and hydrochloric acids, caustic soda and ammonia, do not alter 
the pigment, which is soluble in alcohol but not in chloroform, petro- 
leum-ether, benzol, or bisulphide of carbon. 

Sarcina aurantiaca from orange-coloured sarcine or hay decoction. 
It is also found in Berlin white beer. 

The pigment is turned a dark blue-green by sulphuric acid, and on 
addition of caustic soda becomes red. 

Sarcina flava was isolated from beer which contained Pediococcus 
cerevisie. This sarcina should not be confounded with the yellow 
Sarcina lutea Schroter. The size of the individual cells amounts to 
2-25 , and the cube-masses often measure along the side 38 p. 

The pigment is changed to a dirty green with sulphuric acid; soda 
restores the yellow colour. . 

Sarcina maxima found in mash. It closely resembles Sarcina 
ventriculi, but is distinguished therefrom by the absence of the cellulose 
reaction. Grown at 40°-45° C. the cells often attain a diameter of 
3-4 p. Mash at other temperatures did not develope this Sarcina. 
In none of these Sarcinz were involution forms observed. 


Photomicrographic Atlas of Bacteriology—Dr. ©. Fraenkel and 
Dr. R. Pfeiffer are bringing out an Atlas of Bacteriology which is to be 
illustrated by photographs of the various micro-organisms, showing them 
in their different phases, and as they appear in cultivations, in sections, 
&c. The illustrations will be accompanied by an explanatory text. 

The atlas will be completed in from 12 to 15 parts, each of which 
will contain about ten photographs. 


Protoplasm considered as a Ferment Organism.*—This comprehen- 
sive work is a posthumous expansion of a brochure of the author, Prof. 
A. Wigand. The book has been put through the press by Dr. E. 
Dennert, who co-operated with the writer during his lifetime. It is 
essentially a series of essays on Bacteria and their work, putrescence, 
fermentation, and the production of diastase, and contains also lucubra- 
tions on molecular physiology. The volume is divided into three parts, 
the first of which discusses the fermentative action of Bacteria, the second 
part treats of the theory of fermentation, while the third in entitled the 
Anamorphosis of Protoplasm. In the first part the author discusses the 
relations between putrescence and Bacteria, lactic fermentation, and 
the ferment-organisms which produce diastase ; the second part treats 


* Botanische Hefte (Wigand), Heft 3, x. and 294 pp., 8vo, Marburg, 1888. 


108 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of Wigand’s peculiar theory of fermentation, and the third of the 
anamorphosis of protoplasm. 


Yeast-poisons.*—Herr H. Schulz has experimented on the effects on 
ferments of very dilute solutions of well-known yeast-poisons, such as 
corrosive sublimate, iodine, potassium iodide, bromine, arsenious acid, 
chromic acid, sodium salicylate, and formic acid, and finds that in all 
cases it promotes the activity of the fermentation. The mode of experi- 
ment was as follows. In each of a number of glass cylinders of 200 ccm. 
capacity were placed 50 ccm. of a 10 per cent. solution of grape-sugar, 
and to each was added 1 ccm. of fresh baker’s yeast and distilled water. 
The cylinders were closed by a metal lid, which was screwed in, and in 
this were placed a long divided glass tube and a short one, furnished 
with a cock for ventilation. The lower end of a long tube dips into a 
vessel filled with mercury, the upper edge of which projects above the 
level of the nutrient solution in the cylinder. The carbon dioxide pro- 
duced during fermentation presses up the mercury in the divided tube, 
and the course of the process of fermentation was concluded from that 
of the column of mercury. All the cylinders were placed in a water- 
bath heated to 21° C., and were submerged, so that any defect in the 
closing of the cylinder would be shown by the ascent of bubbles of gas. 


* Arch. f. d. Gesammt. Physiol. (Pfliiger), xlii. (1888). See Bot. Ztg., xlvi. 
(1888) p. 610. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 109 


MICROSCOPY. 
«. Instruments, Accessories, &c.* 
(1) Stands. 


Fasoldt’s “ Patent Microscope.’—Mr. C. Fasoldt, the well-known 
ruler of fine lines, has devised the Microscope shown in fig. 1. 

The peculiarities of the construction are (1) the combination of the 
coarse- and fine-adjustments in one mechanism, which is shown in 
fig. 2, “intended to prevent the breaking of objects and injury of 
objectives through the accidental moving of the tube”; (2) the vertical 
illuminator, in which by a pair of plates opening angularly by the 
rotation of a cam and a single diaphragm plate, pivoting together or 
separately in front of a fixed quadrangular aperture, the light can be 
variously regulated. The glass disc reflector is attached to a bar, which 
can be withdrawn for cleaning or replacing by turning the milled-head 
cap in front. It can also be inclined as well as moved out of the field 
of view by pulling the bar through the milled-head cap, when the disc 
lies in the piece of tubing on which the cap fits; (3) the changing 
nose-piece applied below the vertical illuminator, by which the objective 
can be attached or released by the action of a trigger-piece on a sliding 
tooth, the inner edge of which has the Society screw-thread, and presses 
the screw of the objective against two similar but fixed teeth opposite ; 
and (4) the fixed stage-ring has a deep groove round the outer edge, in 
which the upper plate rotates by means of two short pins on the inner 
edge of an overlapping flange, two diametral slots in the fixed ring ~ 
enabling the upper plate to be removed. 

The combined coarse- and fine-adjustments are shown in fig. 2. At 
the back of the body-tube slide is fixed a short screw-socket, through 
which a long coarse-threaded screw passes, the rotation of the screw 
causing the socket, and with it the body-tube, to move up or down. 
Near the lower end of the screw is fixed a small pinion with spiral teeth, 
in which a similar but much larger pinion engages for the coarse- 
adjustment, raising or lowering the body-tube somewhat slowly, after 
the manner of worm-wheel and tangent-screw mechanism. The screw 
has a plain cylindrical fitting at each end, by which the small pinion is 
kept in close contact with the larger one. 

Mr. Fasoldt claims for this system of coarse-adjustment the impossi- 
bility of any running down occurring by the accidental concussion of 
the body-tube, as the mechanism remains locked unless set in motion by 
the milled heads. 

For the fine-adjustment a long bent lever is applied to the lower end 
of the coarse-adjustment screw, so as to raise it through a space of about 
1/8 in. against the downward pressure of a short spiral spring encircling 
the upper end, the great difference in the size of the pinions permitting 
this range of motion without disengaging the teeth. The lever is acted 
upon at the back by a milled-head micrometer-screw. 

Mr. Fasoldt writes that he uses the illuminator in the following 
way :— 

“‘ When the Microscope is in position and the object on it, first find 

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Hye-pieces and Objectives; (8) Ilu- 


minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics 
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous. 


110 


SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the object with any objective from 2-3/4 in., using either trans- 
mitted light or dark field with light through condenser, the latter 


S 


u 


Uj 


Fia. 1. 


Yim, 
= Ly 
Wy | 


SSSSS 


7 lil 


L/f 


standing at an angle of about 45° from the stage, and throwing the light 
directly on the lines, when the latter will give a spectrum. After 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. leet 


having them in focus the objective can be changed for a higher homo- 
geneous-immersion lens. Set the lamp about 20 in. distant from illu- 
minator (at which distance I get the best resolution), using the sharp 
edge of the flame, and in horizontal line with opening of illuminator. I 
use an achromatic lens 2 in. focus as condenser (1 in. in diameter), and 
put it further away from illuminator opening than focal distance, the 
opening being open about the thickness of a penny and the light appears 
on shutters like a ‘cat’s-eye. After having light in place and the pin 
in front of illuminator, to which the reflecting glass is attached, standing 


Hire. 2: 


WHEE 
y 


Wl 


TCRTETUUECAET TV 


ill 


in an angle of about 45°, you will see only a partially illuminated field, 
with dark spot in centre; when you have it so you are ready for work. 

The illuminator can be used only on dry mounts. If you do not 
want to use the illuminator the reflector can be drawn out by the bar in 
which the pin is. Then it forms only a single patent nose-piece. 

Before putting the light through the illuminator the object should 
first be brought in focus, using either oblique or central illumination, 
for lenses of short working distance. The reflector can be set at any 
angle by turning the milled cap through which the bar passes to which 
the reflector is fastened. The milled cap is held down by two pins in 
the cylinder and a groove in the cap into which the pins pass. There 
are two notches in the cap, which enter into the round groove directly 
opposite each other. When they are brought in perpendicular position 


112 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


with the illuminator and to where the pins stand, the whole cap can be 
taken off for the purpose of putting glass in should one be broken. 

For dry lenses I place the flame lower than the opening and use no 
condenser, but open the shutters to their fullest extent. You will obtain 
different results by using the light at longer and shorter distances. For 
examining blood-corpuscles, latter should be mounted on cover-glass, 
and you can get the best results by using less light.” 


Czapski’s Ear- (Tympanum) Microscope.*—At the instigation of 
Prof. Kessel, the representative of aural surgery in the Jena University, 
Dr. 8. Czapski undertook the construction of 
a Microscope which, provided with its own 
means of illumination, should by its handy 
form permit of observation of the ear under 
a magnification of about six to eight times. 
The following arrangement was given to the 
instrument (fig. 3) which repeated trials 
proved to be the most suitable. 

An objective of about 10 mm. opening and 
20 mm. focal length is connected by a tube 
60 mm. long with an eye-piece magnifying 
ten times. The objective alone contributes 
nothing to the magnification; it simply 
throws the image in approximately un- 
changed magnitude in front of the eye-piece, 
so that the whole magnification is about that 
of the latter. Above the eye-piece is screwed 
a tube 25 mm. long, which carries a dia- 
phragm for directing the line of sight, here 
so widely divergent, but this is not absolutely 
necessary. The length of the whole Micro- 
scope is about 100 mm. 

Above the objective is a reflecting prism 
(silvered on the hypothenuse surface) which 
covers half the objective, and for the avoid- 
ance of all external reflections is completely 
inclosed with a tin cover. The position of 
the prism is adjustable, so as to direct the 
light exactly in the middle of the field of 
view. The light from a small electric in- 
candescent lamp, after passing through a 
lens, is thrown upon the prism through an 
opening in the tube opposite the prism. 
Lamp and illuminating lens are contained 
in a side tube, the former being indepen- 
dently movable and easily replaceable. Instead of the glow-lamp a gas 
or petroleum lamp can be used, placed at the side. A socket in which 
the Microscope slides smoothly is attached by means of a bayonet catch 
to the ordinary ear-funnel ; for the passage of the side tube the socket 
is slit along three-quarters of its length. The above mode of con- 
nection of funnel and tube was preferred to a solid join, partly in order 


Fie. 3. 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 325-7 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 113 


to leave the funnel unchanged for its ordinary use with the reflector, 
and also to enable it to be easily cleaned. 

To use the instrument the funnel, with or without the additional 
tube, is placed in the ear and its position arranged by means of an 
ordinary reflector for viewing the interior of the ear. The Microscope 
is then carefully pushed down into the socket until the image is sharply 
defined. By moving the instrument to and fro it is possible to obtain a 
view of every part of the external meatus which can be seen by the naked 
eye, and its use presents no difficulty even to the novice. 

The field of view is not contracted by the prism over the objective, 
but the light is halved in intensity. The lens-openings are, however, 
made so large that the brightness of the image is quite sufficient. The 
illumination is of course most intense over 
the whole field of view when the lamp is Fic. 4. 
as near as possible to the prism, but regard & 
for the ear and cheek of the patient places 
a certain limit to the approach of a hot 
source of light. - The lamp and illumi- 
nating lens must be so arranged that only 
the part of the objcct appearing in the 
field of view is illuminated, but this as 
uniformly as possible. The proper arrange- 
ment is easily obtained by trial. 


Moreau’s Monkey Microscope.—This 
Microscope (fig. 4), by M. Moreau of 
Paris, was exhibited at the December meet- 
ing of the Society. In its design Art as 
well as Science has been drawn on, for in- 
stead of an ordinary base and pillar a figure 
of a monkey is introduced which holds in 
its hands the stage and mirror, while the _ 
cross-arm carrying the body-tubeand socket 
is screwed to the top of its head ! 


Crouch’s Petrological Microscope.—Messrs. Henry Crouch, Limited, 
have constructed an instrument on the model of that of MM. Nachet, in 
which the stage and objective rotate together with the upper part of the 
body-tube, while the eye-piece remains stationary. It is not, therefore, 
necessary to centre afresh with every change of objective. 

Among other points is the device for the convenient focusing of the 
substage condenser when convergent polarized light is employed. The 
lenses are placed in the tube of the polarizer and are then thrown in 
and out of the line of light at the same time as the polarizer, by merely 
moving the bar on which both are mounted. A milled ring above the 
polarizer focuses the condensers by a single rotating movement, similar 
to that by which the polarizer itself is rotated. Two analysers are pro- 
vided, one in the eye-piece and the other in a draw-box above the 
objective.* 


Reichert’s Petrological Microscope.—Herr C. Reichert’s Petro- 
logical’ Microscope (fig. 5), constructed for the Vienna Mineralogical 
Institute, has two specialities. 


* Cf. Mawer’s ‘ Primer of Micro-petrology, Sve, London, 1888, pp. 64-6 (1 fig.). 
1889. I 


114 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The first is the introduction into the body-tube of a second analyser c, 
which is supported on a hinged arm so that it can be rapidly inserted 


Vig. 5. 


ccc 


0 


and removed. This arrangement was adopted by M. Nachet for the 
Microscope which we described in 1881.* 


* See this Journal, 1881, p. 934. 


| 
| 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ILLS 


The second is thus described (in English) by the designer :—“ The 
tube has three ouvertures 0, 0’, and a@; a serves to place there a quartz 
wedge ; o’ to place there a quartz plate, and o for the reception of a lens s, 
which magnifies the axial image sketched by the objective, and which 
conducts the rays of the objective, so that if we will pass from the ob- 
servation in parallel light to that in convergent light, it is but necessary 
to place the corresponding objective and the lens s without changing the 
- eye-piece, which can be exactly adjusted on the object by the aid of a 
rackwork of the draw-tube b.” 

The Microscope has the usual rotating stage, centering movements 
to the body-tube & and &', diaphragm holder e, polarizer d, and eye-piece 
analyser. 


Hughes’ Patent Oxyhydrogen Microscope.—This instrument (fig. 6) 
has been designed and constructed by Mr. W. C. Hughes “ with a view 
to enable scientists, teachers, and lanternists to display on the screen in 
a clear and well-defined manner the minutie of anatomical and geo- 
logical sections, preparations of insects and vegetable tissues, and 
general microscopic objects either by ordinary or polarized light. 


Fic. 6. 


——~ —S eS 


a, 


Al 
ll 
Hl 


~ WEADINCTON 


| | 
iy 
HHI 
} 
Hh 


“ After a careful and protracted series of experiments, an arrangement 
has been adopted by which the rays of light converging from a new form 
of triplet condensers are concentrated into a narrow parallel beam which 
will pass through the small apertures of the ordinary microscopic 
objectives, and so be transmittod to the screen, without that loss which 
is so disappointing in the ordinary lantern Microscope. 

“To obtain this maximum of illumination Mr. Hughes has designed 
a special chamber jet, with which sufficient light can be obtained to 
magnify transparent subjects to 1900 diameters, which has hitherto been 
unattainable ; thus a flea, which is about 1/10 in. total length, will be 

I 2 


116 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


thrown on the screen 16 feet long, and every hair distinctly defined, and 
nearly as brilliantly as a picture shown by the Pamphengos lantern. 
The proboscis of the blow-fly can, with various powers, be projected 
from 8 to 16 feet long, and all the details of an insect’s eye in section 
can be shown most perfectly ; the circulation of the blood in the foot of 
a frog is easily displayed, and the wonders of pond life made manifest 
without the slightest difficulty or trouble. With the electric light no 
limit can be put on the magnifying power of the instrument, although, 
for all ordinary purposes, the lime light is all that is needed to obtain 
the resulis above mentioned. Every precaution has been taken to arrest 
the passage of heat to the objects by means of non-conductors, and the 
results obtained have met with the approval of all those who have seen 
its perfect performances. 

“This Microscope can be fitted to any good optical lantern, but it is 
preferable to purchase the instrument in its entirety, as above illustrated. 
The lantern and Microscope are firmly attached to a solid base-board, 
rendering any interference with the adjustment unnecessary, an arrange- 
ment which will be found invaluable for perfect manipulation. Any 
ordinary microscopic objective may be used, but it is advisable to adopt 
those . . . which are specially corrected to insure the largest amount 
of light, and give a very flat and sharply defined image on the screen.” 


Hughes’ Improved Microscopic Attachment—Cheap Form.—Mr. W. 
C. Hughes has devised this form of Microscope (fig. 7) for use with the 
ordinary magic lantern in place of the front lens, and claims that it will 


IMG, To 


= on pon = | i@ | il 7 wail tl i () 


yy I 


show ordinary microscopical slides on the screen for class or demonstrat- 
ing purposes far more brilliantly and better defined than the old form of 
cheap lantern microscopic attachment. It will show chemical, anatomical, 
and other objects on a dise 8 to 10 feet when limelight is used, and with 
the ‘“‘Pamphengos” lantern very excellent results can be obtained. 
“With a 1/2-in. the spiral formation of a blow-fly’s tongue can be 
shown, the sheep tick, 6 ft. long, exceedingly sharp and well defined, 
sections of wood, spiders, flies, scorpions, and each hair on a flea or other 
small insect is brought out with great distinctness. Pond life is easily 
demonstrated, Volvo globator, showing young inside, and Hydra, 6 ft. to 
7 ft. long. It has a movable substage condenser which enables it to be 
used with different object-glasses, new form of spring on the stage, by 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ILIV? 


means of which the thinnest objects can be held as firmly as the glass 
zoophyte troughs. The bar with rack motion is constructed on the best 
principle by which wear and tear can be compensated for, by simple 
adjustment of the screws, thus insuring absolute absence of all shake. 

‘If desired, the image, by a special contrivance superior to the usual 
right angle reflecting prism, can be thrown direct on the paper for 
drawing. It has a new form of diaphragm arrangement, by which the 
aperture can be changed with great facility. 

“The Microscope can be adapted, say to the centre lantern of a 
triple, while the other two can be utilized for showing ordinary photo- 
graphs and photomicrographs to consecutively illustrate a given object 
under different phases without leaving the screen blank.” 


Hughes’ Special Combination Scientist Optical Lantern.—Mr. W. 
C. Hughes has patented the new form of lantern shown in fig. 8, in 


Fie 8. 


which he “lays claim to having supplied a want long felt by the profes- 
sional lecturer, both in the class-room and in the theatre, namely, that 
of rapidly throwing upon the screen (a) the general view of an object 


118 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


(b) the microscopic portion of the same enlarged, and (c) in the matter 
of chemistry and physics, the experiment in actual operation.” 

The mahogany body is hexagonal, and each of the three front sides 
is provided with condensers and projecting arrangements. The back 
opens to give access to the radiant, which in this case is a Brockie-Pell 
arc-lamp; but, if necessary, a lime-light can be readily substituted. The 
lamp is fixed to the base-board, 3 ft. square, and the body can be rotated 
through 60° on either side of the central position, thus allowing any of 
the three nozzles to be directed towards the screen. The three sets of 
condensers are placed so that their axes intersect at a point about which 
the radiant is placed. The centre nozzle is fitted as a lantern Micro- 
scope, with the Microscope-attachment described in the preceding note, 
with alum cell and various sets of condensing lenses and objectives, and a 
space in front of the main condensers is provided for polarizing ap- 
paratus. The focusing arrangement consists of a skew rack and pinion 
and a fine screw adjustment ; and the whole Microscope can be easily 
removed and a table-polariscope substituted. The right-hand nozzle is 
arranged for the projection of ordinary lantern-slides, and the left-hand 
one is provided with an adjustable slit for spectrum work. A small 
table sliding on rails serves to carry the prisms, and the same rails 
support projecting lenses. 

Due de Chaulnes’ Microscope.—In the Museo di Fisica, Florence, 
we recently saw the Microscope shown in fig. 9, and by the courtesy 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ALY) 


of the Curator, Prof. Meucci, we were enabled to secure a photograph of 
it. Nothing was known as to the origin of the instrument, but trom its 

resemblance to the Microscope figured in plate i. of a folio work 

entitled ‘ Description d’un Microscope et de différents micrometres, &c.,’ 

published in Paris, in 1768, by the Duc de Chaulnes, we are able to 

assign the design to him. 

The principal aim in the construction seems tv have been to facilitate 
the verification of micrometric measurements, especially of micrometer- 
divisions, for the production of which the Duc de Chaulnes devised an 
elaborate dividing engine in which he claimed to have embodied some 
original methods of obtaining accuracy in dividing scales. 

The design of the Microscope proper, and of the eye-piece micrometer, 
seems to have been copied to a considerable extent from instruments 
made in England by John Cuff. ‘lhe noveltics were (1) in the applica- 
tion of a stage of an unusually substantial character, supported by four 
shaped legs on a framed base, the stage being arranged specially to carry 
screw-micrometers acting on the object in rectangular directions ; 
(2) the body-tube is supported both at the nose-piece and near the eye- 
piece in centering sockets, by which the optic axis can be exactly 
collimated. In the original figure the body-tube is not mounted with 
these centering arrangements, and levelling screws are shown at each 
corner of the base, while a rack-work is applied for the coarse-adjustment. 
The Florence instrument is constructed more solidly than the one shown 
in the Duc de Chaulnes’s figure, the extreme importance of solidity 
being probably discovered more and more during the progress of the 
construction. 


Dirre., L.—Aus dem optischen Institute von Carl Reichert in Wien. (From the 
Optical Institute of Carl Reichert in Vienna.) 

[I. The new large stand, No. 14. IL. The apochromatics and compensation 

eye-pieces. | Zcitsch”. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 145-50 (1 fig.). 


(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives. 


Monobromide of Naphthaline as an Immersion Medium.—Mr. H. 
Jackson, of the Chemical Laboratory, King’s College, recommends this 
substance, not only as a solvent for balsam in mounting, but more par- 
ticularly as a medium for immersion objectives. The refractive index 
is too high to use it alone, but diluted with castor-oil it gives excellent 
results. The relation of its dispersive power to the refractive index 
shows it to be both theoretically and practically superior to cedar-oil. 
The smell of it after remaining on the fingers for a little time is 
unpleasant. 


Czaprsxkt, S.—Compensationsocular 6 mit 1/1 Mikron-Theilung zum Gebrauch 
mit den apochromatischen Objektiven von Carl Zeiss in Jena. (Compensation- 
ocular 6 with 1/1 micron graduation for use with Zeisss apochromatice ob- 
jectives.) 


[Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 797.] Zeitschr. f, Wiss. Mikr., v. (A888) pp. 150-5. 
(3) Illuminating and other Apparatus. 


Thoma’s Camera Lucida.*— Prof. Dr. R. Thoma considers that the 
ordinary form of camera lucida is unsatisfactory for low magnifications 
(1-6). Moreover no account is taken of the refractive condition of the 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 297-304 (4 figs.). 


120 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


_ observer’s eye, to suit which, changes have to be made in the distance of 
the paper which give rise to distortions. 

His new camera (fig. 10) has two mirrors, one C silvered, and the other 
a of clear glass, and both set at 45°. The observer looks at the object 
through the unsilvered mirror, and at the same time by reflection from 
the two mirrors sees the drawing paper z. ‘There are two convex lenses, 
one 6 in a vertical plane between the two mirrors, and the other d in 
a horizontal plane between the object and the unsilvered mirror. The 
camera and stage slide on a graduated vertical rod (fig. 11), the feet of 
which rest on the drawing paper, and the positions of the camera and 
stage are so arranged that the object and the paper are at the foci of the 
two lenses. Consequently an eye accommodated to infinity sees both 


Fic. 10. Fie. 11. 


object and drawing clearly. To regulate the illumination of the two 
images, smoked glasses are used. A spectacle glass f can, if necessary, 
he placed in the eye-piece to correct to infinity the eye of the observer. 
To avoid parallactic displacement of the images a diopter g is fitted in 
the eye-piece above the spectacle glass. The author gives tables of the 
necessary lenses and distances of object and drawing plane for different 
magnifications. For diminutions, the positions of object and drawing 
plane are reversed. 

Besides the capability of accommodation to the state of the observer’s 
eye, the apparatus possesses the advantage that for weak magnifications 
a large field of view is obtained. 

Finally the author points out how the use of weaker convex lenses 
may enable the observer to dispense with the concave glass used for 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 121 


correcting to infinity a myopic eye. The stronger the myopia, the 
weaker may be the lenses used to produce a considerable magnification. 
Thus for a myopic eye of — 8 D, to produce a magnification of ten times, 
the object-lens need only be one of + 13:5 D, and the drawing lens 
oneof —9D. To bring any eye then to this state of myopia, a suitable 
convex lens is placed in the eye-piece. By this means high magnification 
up to ten times can be obtained without distortion of the images. 


Finder.*—Dr. J. Pantocsek describes the finder shown in fig. 12, 
which he considers to be more serviceable than Maltwood’s finder, which 
he considers “ time-wasting ” and “ minute.” 

Four lines are drawn on the stage at right angles, intersecting in 
the optic axis; these are marked 0. Lines a millimetre apart are 
drawn parallel to those on the upper half and the left half of the 
finder, thus giving horizontal lines in the right upper quadrant, vertical 


lines in the left lower quadrant, and squares in the left upper one. 
Each ten of the lines are marked as shown in the fig. When the 
object is in the field, note is taken of the two lines on which the left and 
upper sides of the slide rest, thus: 42/11. 


Fic. 13. 


Adjustable Safety-stage.—In this form of safety-stage the additional 
refinement has been introduced of two clamp screws at either end of the 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss, Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 39-42 (3 figs.). 


2, SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


plates, by which the upper plate can be brought nearer to or further 
from the lower plate. The result of this is to make the stage more or 
less sensitive. If, for instance, the plates are widely apart so that the 
pair of springs between them are relaxed, the upper plate yields to the 
slightest touch ; when, however, the plates are brought closer together, 
so that the springs are compressed, the upper plate is much more rigid. 


Engelmann’s Microspectrometer.*—Prof. T. W. Engelmann points 
out that both the microscopic anatomist and physiologist are com- 
pelled to use peculiar methods of research, and that this is especially the 
case when it is necessary to examine properties and appearances quanti- 
tatively as well as qualitatively. A review of the ordinary methods of 
microscopical investigation shows that they are almost solely qualitative. 
As a contribution therefore to quantitative methods of microphysio- 
logical research, the author describes a microspectrometer for the analysis 
of the colour of microscopically small objects. 

Originally devised for the quantitative determination of the absorp- 
tion of different colours through living plant-cells, the apparatus is 
serviceable for quantitative microspectral analysis generally, and can be 
used with advantage for most microspectrometrical researches in place 
of the ordinary larger apparatus. ‘The principle of the instrument is 
practically that of Vierordt’s spectrophotometer. The spectrum of the 
object is compared with a standard spectrum, and quantitative measure- 
ments are obtained by altering the width of the slit until the brightness 
of corresponding parts of the two spectra is the same. The apparatus, 
which in use takes the place of the eye-piece in the body-tube, is repre- 
sented in figs. 14,15, and 16. The lower part contains the two slits and 
the arrangement for obtaining a comparison spectrum. The upper part 
is the spectroscope proper. 

The under part consists of a rectangular box A, provided above and 
below with wide circular openings, into which are screwed the tubes b 
and c. The tube 6 fits in the place of the ordinary eye-piece, and is 
fastened by the screw 0b’, while into the tube ¢ fits the eye-piece oc 
during the setting up of the object, replaced later by the cylindrical 
underpiece a’ of the spectroscope. The latter rests with the ring r 
in the circular groove s, and is here fixed in a constant position with 
respect to the slits. The insertion and removal of the upper piece can 
thus take place without any shaking, so that there is much less danger 
of displacement of the images than in the micro-spectral ocular of Abbe 
and Zeiss, in which the two pieces are movable one within the other. 

In the right of the box A is fixed the small tube d, through which, 
by means of a mirror § or lens, the light from a source at the side is 
directed upon the totally reflecting prism pr. By means of the handle 
h projecting from the box A at h’, this prism can be brought at will 
beneath or out of reach of the right slit which gives the standard 
spectrum. 

The tube d carries at its end a frame n for the reception of diaphragms 
and ground or coloured glasses. In order in all cases to obtain a uniform, 
and, from the position of the observer’s eye, as far as possible indepen- 
dent illumination of the standard slit, at the recommendation of Prof. 
Abbe a lens is fitted into the inner opening of the tube d; this throws a 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 289-98 (1 fig. and 1 pl.); and Arch. 
Neéerland., xxiii. (1888) pp. 82-92 (1 fig. and 1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 123 


virtual image of the outer opening of the tube on the spot where is the 
opening of the objective. 

The most important part of the lower piece is the mechanism of the 
two slits, which are independent of each other and lie in the same hori- 
zontal plane. ‘The symmetrical movement of the edges is effected, as in 
the author’s microspectral objective and in the spectral apparatus of 


Fig. 14. 


Ky 
ky 


Fig. 15. 


Donders, by a single screw which carries two oppositely wound threads. 
The mechanism of one of the two slits is shown in vertical section in 
fig. 15. The edges p and p' are screwed on the blocks e and e', which 
carry companion screws for the screw-threads on the common axis a. 
The screw on e is right-handed, that on e’ left-handed. To avoid back- 
lash e and e’ are kept apart by a spring not visible in the figure. The 
axis @ is firmly fixed on the strong metal frame m, so as not to be moy- 
able in the direction of its length. Consequently, by rotation of a, the 


124 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


edges of the slit separate equally from the unchanged middle of the 
slit. 

The movement of the screw is read off on a divided scale T fixed to 
the axis, of which 50 divisions, about 1:57 mm. apart, correspond to 100th 
of a millimetre. The scale readings were controlled by placing the slit 
apparatus on the stage of the Microscope and measuring the width of the 
slit with the eye-piece micrometer under a magnification of 500. 


Fic. 16. 


On loosening the screw M which fixes the scale to the axis, the former 
can be turned about a so as to bring the zero point into position. 

The piece of white card p seen in fig. 16 is used for the better 
illumination of the scale. 

The mechanism of the second slit, of which only the scale T’ and 
screw-head M’' are seen in the fig., is exactly similar. In order, in 
case of accidental displacement of the edges, to bring the middle of the 
one slit exactly in the line of prolongation of the other, and so insure 
accurate superposition of corresponding parts of the two spectra, the 
two edges are fastened by means of two adjusting screws on the plates 
f and f' carried by the blocks e and e’. 

The upper piece, the details of which are shown in vertical section 
in fig. 14, consists of the box A’ containing the prism system P, which is 
composed of two prisms of crown glass (refractive index for the yellow 
rays 1:511, refractive angle 40° 20’) and one of flint (index 1-691, 
angle 110° 42"). Beneath the box A’ is screwed the collimator-tube a’, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1) 


of which the lens / throws the rays coming from the slits parallel upon 
the prism system. The long axis of the box is at an angle of 30° with 
both collimator and telescope B. By the objective I’ of the lattter a real 
spectrum of the two slits is thrown in the plane 7, which is observed 
under a magnification of 20 times by the lens L contained in the tube B’. 
The apparent magnitude of the spectra thus exceeds by about 4 times 
that of the spectrum in the microspectral-ocular of Abbe-Zeiss, and by 
8 times that of the Sorby-Browning ocular. Projected to a distance of 
250 mm., the distance of the Fraunhofer lines a and g amounts to 185 mm, 
Except for observations on the extreme red and violet, the intensity 
when using gaslight is sufficient to allow of the use of the strongest 
immersion system. With a slit of less than 0°025 mm. the spectrum 
of the sun’s light after passage through two ground glasses showed the 
D line doubled, with one line clearly broader and darker than the other. 

Fitted into a third opening in the prism-box is a second collimator- 
tube C carrying at sc an Angstrém’s scale of wave-lengths (bright lines 
on a dark ground) which is illuminated by means of a mirror 8’. When 
not in use, a movable screen d’ is pushed over the opening of C. The 
light rays from the scale rendered parallel by the lenses J" and l’” are 
reflected into the telescope from the end face of the prism system, and 
an image of the scale is formed by the lens /' in the plane 2. 

To obtain the proper position of this image with respect to the 
spectra, the tube C is movable to a limited extent in the box A’, so that 
the direction of its axis to the end-face of P can be altered. For this 
purpose, C is fastened to the metallic arm m', which is pressed by means 
of a spring v against the screw w. By turning the latter the correct 
position of C is easily obtained. 

Finally, the tube B is provided with two pairs of diaphragms movable 
in the plane i at right angles to each other. One pair is used in order 
to limit the spectra to the particular group of wave-lengths under 
examination. ‘I'he edges, which run 
parallel to the Fraunhofer lines, are Fic. 17. 
adjusted by the screws ¢ and 7. 
The other pair, movable by the 
screws wu and w’ (seen in fig. 16) 
serve to make the two spectra of 
the same breadth, for experience 
shows that, in order to compare 
two spectra, they should be of the 
same form and size. 


Powell and Lealand’s Apochro- 
matic Condenser.—Following upon 
the extension of the apertures of ob- | 
jectives due to what Prof. Abbe has __| 
termed “Stephenson’s homogeneous- = 
immersion system,’ Messrs. Powell 
and Lealand have brought out the 
A pochromatic Condenser of 1:4 N.A., 
shown in fig. 17. This extended aperture involves the employment of a 
combination of lenses of such large diameter, that it was not found prac- 
ticable to utilize the usual revolving dise of diaphragms, stops, &e.; 
hence the application of a pivoting diaphragm-carrier that can be slid 
up in close contact with the posterior lens of the condenser, the pivoting 


126 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


facilitating the changing of the diaphragms. The carrier is arranged 
to hoid either a series of graduated apertures alone or in combination 
with a series of central 
Fic. 18. stops, and a few dia- 
phragms are supplied of 
special forms, such as 
single or double slots, 
and single or double 
i circles cut more or less 
eccentrically, so that a 
ereat variety of dif- 
ferent kinds of illumi- 
| nation can be obtained. 
We understand that 
the sliding arrangement 
of the tube supporting 
Ge the diaphragm-carrier, 
as shown in the figure, 
was suggested by Dr. 
Hl Dallinger as being more 
i ' : convenient in use than 
the system first em- 
| ployed by Messrs. 
5)uca Powell and Lealand, in 
TTI] wien tho “tube was 
wholly removed for 
| | IM AMMAN TT every chan ge in the dia- 
phragms. 


Koch and Max Wolz’s Lamp.—Fig. 18 shows this lamp in position, 
when the solid glass rod is used to illuminate a transparent object. The 
principles of its construction were described at 
p- 1025 of the last volume of this Journal. 

L is the source of light—a mineral oil lamp. 
Outside the glass chimney is a black one, on the 
inside of which is a reflector R. At Ois an opening 
fitted with a short tube, in which is fixed the curved 
glass rod G. The end of this rod is squared off, and 
lies underneath the stage. The quality of the light 
may be modified by putting coloured glasses upon 
the smooth end of the rod. 

Although the source of light shown in the illus- 
tration is derived from mineral oil, gaslight or 
other sources can be used.* 


Adjustable Hemispherical Illuminator.—The 
Bausch & Lomb Optical Co. now fit this illuminator 
as shown in fig. 19. The glass hemisphere is 
attached to an adjustable rod which slides in an 

_ adapter screwing on a substage adapter. It is a 
very convenient accessory in instruments having 
separate mirror and substage bars, as any number 


MTT 


* Cf. Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) p. 478 (1 fig.); and this Journal, 1888, 
p. 1025. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. WAT 


of slides may be used, and any degree of obliquity obtained without dis- 
turbing the illuminator. 


WuHewtpuery, H. M.—{ Illumination. ] The Microscope, VIII. (1888) p. 351. 


(4) Photomicrography. 


Kibbler’s Photomicrographic Camera.—This (fig. 20) was devised 
by Dr. A. Kibbler and carried out in detail by Mr. W. Bailey. It is 
thus described by the designer. 

“ The stand consists of a base and an upright, the latter being pierced 
for the object-glass. At the back of the upright is a shutter for making 
the exposure and a hood to connect this part of the apparatus with a 
camera. ‘I'he connection can be made to any size camera by a simple 
tube made either of wood or metal and of a length to please the 
operator. From the lower part of the upright is a rod (firmly supported 
at the further end by the base) upon which travels the stage with its 
clamp and screw. The sliding movement of the stage upon the rod 
serves for a rough adjustment. The fine-adjustment is at the end of the 
rod and is controlled by a long arm working at the side and connected 


Fie. 20. 


by a cord. In order that the tension of the cord may be constantly 
maintained one end of the long arm is made to travel outwards by a 
tangent screw, the other end working in a ball-and-socket joint to com- 
pensate for this lateral movement. At the upper part of the upright is 
a V-shaped rod upon which the stage also runs. The upper rod tends 
materially to steady the movements of the stage and is also furnished 
with a screw which can be used for clamping the position of the stage, 
after the focusing is accomplished by the fine-adjustment, so that no 
movement can occur during the process of changing the sensitized plates 
or exposing. The lower rod which supports the stage and the upper 


128 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


clamping rod are placed as far away from the optical centre as possible 
in order to prevent any disturbance of the focus from expansion when 
subjected to a strong heat-producing light. 

“'The substage consists of a tube about 3 inches long with a short- 
focus condenser at the proximal end and the diaphragm plate at the 
distal end. It can be moved either backwards or forwards or can be 
accurately centered by screws which are shown in the woodcut. This 
particular form of substage possesses, Dr. Kibbler considers, manifold 
advantages. In the first place the diaphragm plate, being removed to 
some little distance from the stage and having the short-focus condenser 
in front of it, is thrown quite out of focus with the object-glass and 
consequently does not tend in any way to diminish the area of the field, 
but, on the contrary, produces a general and uniform diminution of light. 
But what is of still more importance the diaphragm-plate is found in 
this combination to have developed new functions and acts somewhat 
similarly to the “stop” used by photographers in the photographic 
lens. That is, it increases both the area of definition and the depth of 
focus. Without the condenser the diaphragm-plate, to produce a 
similar effect, would have to be removed to a distance that would 
become inconvenient in practice. The condenser obviates this by 
projecting the diaphragm-plate optically further away by making it 
still more out of focus and so lessens the distance at which it is 
necessary to be placed. The condenser also has the effect of converting 
what otherwise would be a straight pencil of light, into a cone before it 
reaches the object and transforms it into a more suitable form of illumi- 
nation for showing the defining powers of an object-glass to the best 
advantage.” 

The instrument is made entirely of brass and possesses great 
stability. 

Mawson and Swan’s Photomicrographic Apparatus.— This ap- 
paratus (fig. 21) is of an extremely simple character and enables an 
ordinary camera to be used for photomicrography. 

It consists of a light metal disc, which can be screwed on the camera 

front in place of the ordinary 

Fig. 21. lens, the opening in the centre 

being furnished with the Society 

screw, so that ordinary micro- 

scopic objectives can be readily 

attached. Upon three horizontal 

rods projecting from this dise 

slides another similar disc, also 

with an opening in the centre, 

and having a pair of small spring 

ZZ : clips for the slide which it is 

* S= —— desired to photograph. The 

i By 3 third rod is encircled, behind 

the stage, by a spiral spring, and focusing is effected by turning the 

‘screw-nut on the rod, which forces the stage towards the objective, the 
spring moving it back again when the screw is released. 


Robinson’s Photomicrographic Cameras. — Messrs. J. Robinson 
& Sons make two forms of cameras which are of an extremely simple 
character. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 129 


_ The “Student’s Micro-Camera ” is shown in fig, 22, and is intended 
for plates 21 in. x 18 in. It is made of mahogany, and is fitted to the 
Microscope by cutting a hole in front and lining it with velvet, the eye- 


piece being removed. After focusing, the camera must be removed from 
the Microscope to the dark room, where the ground glass is replaced by 
the plate. 

The “ Superior Micro-Camera” (fig. 23) has a double dark slide which 
avoids the necessity of removing the camera from the Microscope during 
the operation, and the inside shutter (shown by dotted lines in the fig.) 
enables the exposure to be made more easily without any danger of 
shaking the apparatus. 


Photomicrography with Magnesium Light.*—Dr. E. Roux recom- 
mends a magnesium oxyhydrogen light for photomicrography. 

Common powered magnesia is mixed up with water to a stiff paste, 
then stuffed into glass tubes of 4-5 mm. internal diameter. From this 
it is squeezed out and then cut up into pieces 5 mm. long. These 
pieces are rolled into balls and stuck on the end of a piece of platinum 
wire. ‘They are then exposed for three or four hours to a temperature 
of 100°. They are then first exposed to the hydrogen flame of an oxy- 
hydrogen burner, and afterwards to that of the oxygen. After this 
treatment they are hard and unalterable in the air. 

One of these small pieces of magnesia will last for fifteen hours 
straight off. The light is uncommonly effectual for photography, and 
offers the advantage that it illuminates regularly, is not diffusive, and 
remains fixed to the same point. 


Marktanner’s Instantaneous Photomicrographic Apparatus. — 
Dr. G. Marktanner points out that when single individuals out of a 
great number of moving objects (e. g. fresh blood-corpuscles) are to be 
photographed, the observer must be in a position, with apparatus ready 
for the exposure, to wait for the instant when the moving object appears 
in the field of view. Two conditions are to be noted: that the object 
during the observation must be only moderately illuminated; and, 
further, that the observation must be made through a second tube 
while the body-tube is connected in the usual way with the camera. 
The latter condition is fulfilled in the Nachet apparatus: it was the 
consideration of the former which led the author to construct the new 


* Photogr. Wochenbl. Berlin, 1888, No. 5. Cf. Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) 
pp. 497-8. 


1889. : K 


130 


SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


arrangement, which can be fitted to any photomicrographic apparatus in 
which Microscope and camera are not rigidly connected. 


Fic, 24 


The apparatus (fig. 24) consists of two instantaneous shutters A 
and B. The double function of A is to shut out the sunlight during the 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 131 


observation, and during the taking of the picture to allow a momentary 
entrance of direct sunlight; while that of B is to throw, during the 
observation, the light from the object by means of a totally reflecting 
prism into a second tube through which the image can be observed; at 
the moment of exposure the prism moves to one side, and permits light 
from the object to enter the camera. 

The shutter A, fig. 25, consists of a slide, 54-6 cm. broad and about 
15 cm. long, working between grooves in a wooden or metal frame, and 
movable by a spiral spring s, the tension of which is regulated by the 
screw m. At one side of the slide is a circular or square aperture, over 
which a smoked or opalescent glass can be placed. Beyond the aperture 
is an open space of variable breadth of 1-2 cm. Before the slide is 
released the aperture is in front of a corresponding circular opening of 
4—5 cm. diameter in the frame. The release of the slide takes place pneu- 
matically by the knob of the cylinder ¢ raising the spring with the catch r. 
This slide is placed behind the diaphragm opening of the Microscope in 
such a way that the middle-point of the opening in the frame is on the 
optic axis, The shutter B, fig. 26, provided with brass tubes for con- 
necting it with camera and Microscope, consists of a metal box containing 
a totally reflecting prism which, during the observation, directs the ligut 
from the object into the side tube é, and at the same time closes the 
opening behind leading to the camera. The prism is fixed to a movable 
slide which is under the tension of the spring s, with screw m; on 
releasing it pneumatically, the slide carrying the prism moves to one 
side and allows light to pass from the tube to the camera. 

In order to allow of observation with the eye-piece for different 
positions of the camera, the author makes the two lenses composing the 
eye-piece movable, so that the distance between them can be varied 
within certain limits; the images thus obtained are not quite plane, and 
have coloured edges, but are otherwise sufficiently well defined. 

The two shutters are released together by means of two tubes joined 
by a three-way piece to a caoutchouc ball. Care must be taken, how- 
ever, that the shutter B works somewhat quicker or is released sooner 
than A, so that the light-path to the camera is open during the illu- 
mination of the object as the open space fin A passes in front of the 
opening in the frame. This is easily effected for equal tension of the 
two springs by using a three-way cock instead of merely a three-way 
piece, and placing the cock in a definite position. 

To avoid shaking the whole apparatus, the two shutters are mounted, 
as seen in fig. 24, on a single separate stand. The shutter B is 
connected with the camera by Zeiss’s method. Somewhat large moving 
objects (e.g. Daphnida) are placed in cells which just leave room for 
movement between the two sides. 

Sunlight rendered monochromatic by ammonio-copper oxide or 
Fehling’s solution is the light employed for the adjustment. When 
the objects move too fast for successful adjustment, observation is made 
of an air-bubble in the cell. 

To increase the illumination during the exposure, a condensing 
lens L of large opening (10 cm.) is inserted in such a position 
that the object is at its focus, or, if the field of view of the objective is 
greater than the surface thus illuminated, so that the object is in the 
converging part of the beam. If, however, the object surface to be 
illuminated is smaller (by use of a stronger objective), a condenser can 


K 2 


132 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO 


be used with the lens, which in this case should not be of too short focal 
length (at least 30 cm.). 

The whole disposition of the instrument is seen from the figure (24), 
in which d is the three-way piece, P the plate mirror, L the condensing 
lens, Bl the diaphragms, C the cell, K the front part of the camera, 
T, and T; tables on which rests the base-board carrying the camera and 


Fia. 25. 


2 s 
i ; 
vii) 


optical bank, T, the table on which stands the small table G carrying 
the shutters A and B, and & the screw for regulating the tension of 
the adjustment-cord, whieh, in this apparatus as in that of Prof. Stricker, 
works not on the micrometer-screw of the Microscope, but on a second 
micrometer-screw connected with the stage. 

For the adjustment the condensing lens is removed, and the path of 
the beam of light reflected from the mirror is centered ‘by means of the 


Fic. 26. 


yA Gates a (aa 
cael mile 


two diaphragms of equal opening. In the figure is represented the 
moment when the adjustment is just finished and the lens inserted, but 
the diaphragm turned towards the mirror not yet replaced by one of 
wider opening. The latter is chosen of such a size that it cuts off only 
the zonal edge of the beam, and is situated at such a distance (at least 
15 cm.) from the second diaphragm, that the light cone exactly passes 
through the latter. With a condensing lens of 10 cm. opening and 
focal length of 33 cm., diaphragm I. (with 70 mm. opening) is distant 
62 mm., and diaphragm II. (with 28 mm. opening) 222 mm. from 
the lens. 

As regards the time of exposure, for small crustacca with a magnifi- 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 133 


cation of 100 and condensing lens as above of 10 cm. opening, 1/20 of a 
second is sufficient. 

A construction similar to that used in Marey’s photographic pistol 
may be employed to take several successive pictures of moving objects. 
The same result may, however, be more simply attained by using 
Janssen’s principle, viz. that by quick working of the shutter sharply- 
defined pictures can be taken on a moving plate, which need not come 
to rest (as in Marey’s apparatus) during each exposure. To this end 
the photographic plate is pneumatically put in motion (rotation, sliding 
or free fall) at the same time as the shutters, and the shutter A acts so 
as to give quick successive illuminations of the object. This is effected 
by means of a rotating slide, carrying on its periphery 10-12 sector- 
shaped openings: one opening, viz. that behind the object before the 
release of the slide is circular, and provided, as above described, with an 
opalescent glass. 


Easy Method for “Photographing” Sections.*—Dr. A. Trambusti 
says that he has obtained very excellent results from photographing 
mounted sections in the following simple manner, which is directly 
derived from De Giaxa’s method of reproducing by coarse photography 
cultivation-plates.f 

A small piece of albumenized paper sensitized with silver nitrate is 
placed on a piece of wood covered with black. To this is clipped on, 
cover-glass downwards, the slide to be photographed, and this simple 
apparatus is then exposed to direct or diffuse sunlight until the paper 
outside the section has become sufficiently black. The paper is then 
removed to a water-bath in order to remove any excess of silver nitrate 
and after a little time placed in a bath of chloride of gold. It is next 
fixed with hyposulphite of soda in the usual way. 

Instead of paper sensitized with silver nitrate the author has also 
tried paper prepared with ferrocyanide. The apparatus arranged as 
before is exposed until the olive colour is no longer perceived. It is 
then washed in water. This completes the process. The picture ob- 
tained by this method, which is certainly quicker than the other, is of a 
sky-blue colour. 

A score or more of these reproductions may be made in less than an 
hour. 

The author used preparations stained red, and expresses the opinion 
that the results therefrom are better than with other colours. 


Chromo-copper Light-filter.{— Prof. E. Zettnow says that the 
copper-chromium filter is very useful for bacteriological purposes, as 
bacilli stained red, blue, or violet come out quite black on the focusing 
glass, and therefore a preparation (cover-glass or section) stained with 
methylen-blue can be photographed with great brilliancy. If sunlight 
is used and a very concentrated fluid be desired, then the following 
mixture, diluted afterwards if required, is made :—160 erm. copper nitrate 
and 14 grm. chromic acid mixed with 250 cem. of water. For general 
purposes the following solution in a layer 1-2 ccm. thick is more con- 
venient :--175 grm. copper sulphate and 17 grm. bichromate of potash 
mixed with 1 litre of water. 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 335-6 (1 pl.). 
+ See this Journal, 1888, p. 827. 
{ Centralbl. f, Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., iv. (1888) pp. 51-2. 


134 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Over other yellow or green fluids the copper-chromium filter pos- 
sesses the advantage of only letting through a very small part of the 
spectrum ; if concentrated, only yellow-green rays from 2» 580-A 560 ; 
if diluted, X 590-A 545; with great dilution orange rays appear; for 
these the erythrosin plate possesses very slight sensitiveness. 

A filter roughly resembling the foregoing may be made by adding 
ammonia in excess to a mixture of copper salts and chromate of potash. 
This, however, only lets through such green rays as the erythrosin 
plate is but little sensitive to. ‘The maximum and minimum of sensi- 
tiveness in the plate lie close together. 

It was found that by using the copper-chromium filter combined 
with mineral-oil light and long exposure the sharpness left nothing to 
be desired with ordinary objectives up to a magnification of 400. After 
this difficulties arise which are only overcome by the use of apochro- 
matics, a condenser, and the light-filter. 


(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. 


Optical Effect of Focusing up or down too much in the Microscope.” 
—Mr. W. M. Maskell writes that, if when observing Gontum, the objec- 
tive be lowered a very little, so as to throw the alga out of focus, and to 
see, aS it were, beyond its surface, not only do the outlines become 
blurred and indistinct, but a somewhat curious change of colour is notice- 
able. The whole plant assumes a green ground colour, the spaces 
formerly visible between the cells being obliterated, and at the same 
time an elegant geometrical pattern is produced, with various tints. 
Four crimson specks appear at about the middles of the four inner cells, 
and with these as centres four delicate circles of bright yellow interlace 
each other, the radius of each circle being the distance between two 
rrimson spots. The spots are also connected by narrow bands of lighter 
red colour. The outer ring of cells appears as composed of pyriform 
bodies, the points inwards and overlapping, producing thus the semblance 
of green spokes in the four circles. In each of these e¢ells, on the cir- 
cumference of the circles, is a crimson spot formed of concentric curves 
open towards the middle ‘of the plant. By focusing downwards a little 
more or less the crimson spots or the golden circles may be made more 
or less conspicuous on the green ground. 

If, again, the object-glass be screwed up, past the true focus, an 
entirely different effect is produced. Instead of the whole plant appear- 
ing solid, the spaces between the cells are amplified, and the whole 
colony seems larger and more scattered ; and the cells, quite disconnected, 
are now not green, but yellowish-brown, with a broad darker band 
encircling each. These effects of colour are noticeable not only with 
a 1/4 in. objective, but also with the 1/8 in., and they may even be 
made out with the 1 in., though, of course, not ‘well, as the plant then 
appears so small. 

The author adds, “ Of course, I presume that the effects here spoken 
of are easily explicable : the passage of the light through the semi- 
transparent green cells, the translucent envelopes, and the empty spaces, 
producing complementary colours. And in itself the thing is doubtless 
not of any importance. Yet indirectly it may possess some value, as in 
a certain kind of way a warning. From the measurements which 1 have 


* Sci.-Gossip, 1888, pp. 248-9 (3 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 135 


been able to make I imagine (my fine-adjustment not being graduated 
there is no attempt at complete accuracy) that the distance through 
which the 1/4 in. objective passes from the true focus to the lower 
position is not more than the 1/150 in.; and from the true focus to the 
higher position about the same, or rather less. This is accomplished by 
a very slight turn indeed of the milled head of the fine-adjustment. 
In the case of Gonium pectorale it is usually pretty clear when one has 
the plant properly in focus, especially as the view of the flagella comes 
asa guide. But there are many objects as to which it may be supposed 
that so small a difference as 1/150 in. may not seem to throw them out 
of focus, whilst in reality they are so to an extent which might cause 
error. Query: might the striae of diatoms come under such a category ? 
It is a common thing to hear and read that the appearances of things 
under the Microscope are not always to be taken as strictly true; and 
doubtless the microscopists of old days owed some of the queer figures: 
they drew to this cause. The changing colours and form of Gonium 
pectorale as above noticed may perhaps serve a useful purpose, if they 
warn some young microscopists to be very particular in the observations 
they make ; possibly also some older hands might take a hint.” 


Penny, R. G.—Microscope Objectives—Angular Aperture. 
Ling!, Mech., XLVIII. (1888) p. 316. 


(6) Miscellaneous. 


Death of Dr. Zeiss.—We deeply regret to have to record the death 
of Dr. Carl Zeiss, the eminent Jena optician, who in conjunction with 
Prof. Abbe has done so much to advance the practical construction of 
objectives. His name will for many generations be associated with the 
most important epoch of Microscopy; the epoch in which the famous 
ditiraction theory of Prof. Abbe was promulgated which revolutionized 
microscopical optics, to be succeeded by the important suggestion of 
our late Treasurer, Mr. J. W. Stephenson, which resulted in the homo- 
geneous-Immersion objectives first made in 1878, and later followed by 
the still further advance shown by the construction of apochromatic 
objectives. In the practical construction of these and the homogeneous- 
immersion objectives the deceased played a leading part, and whilst it ig 
impossible to exaggerate the services which Prof. Abbe has rendered to 
microscopy in these matters, he would, we are sure, be the first to admit 
the invaluable assistance he received from Dr. Zeiss. 

The remarks of the President and others on Dr. Zeiss’s death will 
be found at p. 162. 


Death of Mr. Zentmayer.—The following is the report of the Com- 
mittee of the New York Microscopical Society, which was appointed, 
more Americano, to draft resolutions relative to the death of Mr. J oseph 
Zentmayer :— 

“ Whereas this Society has received with sorrow the announcement 
of the death of Mr. Joseph Zentmayer, which occurred at Philadelphia, 
Pa., on March 28th, 1888, it is hereby 

“ Resolved :— 

“1, That in the death of Mr. Joseph Zentmayer the labourers in the 
various branches of science employing optical instruments have lost the 
inspiriting presence and helpful co-operation of an eminently intelligent 
and successful author, inventor, and mechanician, whose knowledge of 


136 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


optical principles has been attested by his brilliant publications ; whose 
attainments have been recognized by his election to membership in 
various organizations, and whose mechanical skill and conscientious 
carefulness are still shown in the large variety of instruments issued 
from his establishment. 

“2, That a record of this action be forwarded to the family of Mr. 
Zentmayer as a token of our heartfelt sympathy with them in this 
bereavement.”* 


American Society of Microscopists.—Meeting of, in 1888. 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., 1X. (1888) pp. 96-7, 133-4, 153-4, 187-95. 
The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 242-3, 275, 377-80. 
Queen’s Micr. Bulletin, V. (1888) p. 16. 
St. Lowis Med. and Surg. Journ., LY. (1888) pp. 163-4. 


Fapre-DOMERGUE.—Premiers principes du Microscope et de la Technique micro- 
scopique. (First principles of the Microscope and of microscopical technique.) 
viii. and 280 pp., 32 figs., 8vo, Paris, 1889. 
Internationalen Ausstellung zu Briissel, Die wissenschaftlichen Instrumente auf der. 
(The scientific instruments at the International Exhibition at Brussels.) 
_({Microscopy only sparingly represented. | 
Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., VIII. (1888) pp. 394-8. 
James, F. L.—W. J. Lewis, A.M., M.D., F.R.M.S., President American Society of 
Microscopists. 
[Biographical sketch. ] The Microscope, 1X. (1889) pp. 7-10 (portrait). 
(Manton, W. P., and others.—Lantern Illustrations of Microscopical Subjects. ] 
[‘‘ We notice that physicians are beginning to avail themselves of the lantern 
to illustrate their papers on microscopical subjects. At the recent meeting 
of the American Medical Society, some excellent views of diseased tissues 
were shown, and we notice that Dr. A. G. Field, of Des Moines, recently 
entertained the Iowa State Medical Society by a stereopticon exhibition of 
the microbes mentioned in his paper before that body. This is an excellent 
method of impressing an audience with the idea that the author of an article 
knows what he is talking about. We expect to see the lantern commonly 
used for such purposes in the near future.’’] 
The Microscope, VIII. (1888) p. 207. 


Microscope and Adulteration. Tit-Bits, XIV. (1888) p. 305. 


Royston-Pigort, G. W.—Microscopical Advances. XLI., XLII., XLIII. 
[Attenuated dots and lines. Size of fine threads or of organic particles. 
Delicate attenuations and anti-diffraction micrometer. Attenuations. Mr. 
Boys’ infinitesimal glass gossamers. The use of a new micrometer gauge 
(consisting of parallel fibres of spun glass cemented on to a brass plate pro- 
jecting freely in the field of the eye-piece). | 
Engl. Mech., XVIII. (1888) pp. 325, 389 (1 fig.), 431-2 (7 figs.). 
Schott & Gen. in Jena, Neue optische Glaser des glastechnischen Laboratoriums von. 
(New optical glass from the glass laboratory of Schott & Co., of Jena.) 
[Note as to further kinds of glass, principally for photography. | 
Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., VIII. (1888) pp. 392-3. 
Stroxes, A. C.—Microscopical Work for Amateurs. 
[Description of Leeuwenhoek’s Microscopes and his work.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., 1X. (1888) pp. 219-23 (5 figs. and 1 pl.). 


* Journ. New York Micr. Soc., iv. (1888) pp. 173-4. Queen’s Micr. Bulletin, v. 
(1888) p. 24 (portrait). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 137 


Bb. Technique.* 
(1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes. 


Collecting Diatoms.j—Mr. C. H. Kain, speaking of the bright- 
brown patches of diatoms frequently seen covering the surface of mud, 
recommends that they be collected in the following manner. 

Half fill a bottle with water. Touch one of the brown patches 
lightly with the tip of the finger, and the diatoms will adhere; then 
place the finger over the mouth of the bottle and shake it. The diatoms 
are, of course, washed off and remain. By repeating this process again 
and again the water finally becomes quite brown. By the time the 
collector reaches home the diatoms will have settled to the bottom, and 
the water may be poured off and the diatoms cleaned. It is worth while 
to examine under the collecting lens every promising patch of brown 
mud, for very pure gatherings of quite different species may often be 
collected within a few feet of each other. 


Culture of Unicellular Alge.t—Herr V. Jodin has made cultivations 
of various species of Protococcus, Zygnema, &c., in artificial media, consist- 
ing of solutions of the requisite minerals in distilled water. The most 
suitable solution is the same as that used by Raulin in his experiments 
on Aspergillus nger. 'The solution is placed in flasks which are exposed 
to the light and the carbonic anhydride is renewed in the air of the 
flasks by an automatic generator. ‘This simply consists of a flask filled 
with a solution of ferric oxalate, connected with the culture-flask by a 
bent glass tube passing through the caoutchoue stopper of the latter. 
The ferric oxalate evolves carbonic anhydride on exposure to light. 
Under favourable circumstances the crop obtained in several weeks’ 
exposure amounts to 10 grams of fresh alge or 1 to 2 grams of 
dried product per litre. These cultivations are well adapted to throw 
light on the chemical processes taking place in the green cell, since the 
crops obtained are uniform and homogeneous, and are free from the 
disturbing influences arising from the differentiation of organs and the 
migration of proximate principles in the higher plants. The author 
concludes by stating that the proportion of nitrogen in Protococcus 
varies from 1:45 to 6°67 per cent. of the crop. The conditions of 
assimilation of this element are still under experiment. 

Soyvxa, J—Ueber Milchreis, einen neuen festen Nahrboden. (On rice-milk, a new 
solid culture medium.) 
Deutsch. Med. Wochenschr., 1888, p. 833. 


(2) Preparing Objects. 


Reaction of Elastic Fibres with Silver Nitrate.s—Prof. ©. Mar- 
tinotti describes a new method for demonstrating elastic fibres in the 
various tissues and organs. 

Fresh tissue in pieces of 2 to 3 ccm. are placed in a 2 per cent. solu- 
tion of arsenic acid for 24 hours, but if parts attached to bone are to be 


* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro- 
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes; 
(4) Staining and Injecting; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &e. ; 
(6) Miscellaneous. + Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 1888, pp, 128-31. 

uae Agronom., xiv. pp. 241-5. See Journ. Chem. Soc. 1888 (Abstr.), 
$9 : 

§ Comm, alla R. Accad. di Med. di Torino, 1888, pp. 5-15. Cf. Zeitschr, f. 
Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp, 521-2, 


138 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO 


examined (periosteum, tendon, &c.) a 4 per cent. solution warmed to 
50° C. is preferable. In this the bones are decalcified. The pieces are 
next placed for 5-15 minutes in Miiller’s fluid, and then in the following 
silver-glycerin solution :—2 grm. of silver nitrate are dissolved in 3 ccm. 
of distilled water; to this are added 15-20 ccm. pure glycerin. Herein 
they remain for 24-48 hours. On removal they are quickly washed 
in distilled water and then transferred to alcohol; therein the excess 
of silver nitrate is removed. ‘The preparations may be kept in spirit 
for any length of time. Sections are made under alcohol. In order to 
prevent any harm from the action of light the sections are immersed for 
a short time in a 3/4 per cent. solution of salt, and from this at once 
transferred to absolute alcohol for dehydration. ‘They are cleared up in 
creosote and mounted in balsam. 


Solvent for the Gelatinous Envelope of Amphibian Eggs.* —Dr. 
C. O. Whitman has found hypochlorite of sodium an excellent solvent for 
the gelatinous envelope of the amphibian egg. He obtained a 10 per 
cent. solution, and diluted it with five or six times its volume of water. 
The eggs are first hardened by heating or by immersion in some pre- 
servative fluid, then placed in the Labarraque solution until the 
gelatinous envelopes are so far dissolved that the eggs may be easily 
shaken free. They are then washed and preserved in alcohol. This 
method works perfectly with the eggs of Necturus, and has given equally 
good results with the eggs of the frog. The time required for dissolving 
the envelope in the case of Necturus is about five minutes. Care should 
of course be taken not to leave the eggs exposed to the solvent longer 
than is necessary in order to destroy the envelope. 


Method of Examining Fragaroides.;—M. C. Maurice gives the 
following account of the methods adopted in his study of this Ascidian. 
He found that, owing to the presence of transverse muscles in the gill, 
the creature contracted too suddenly when treated with picrosulphuric 
acid, and he used, therefore, the acetic acid method of MM. Van Beneden 
and Julin. Pure glacial acetic acid (crystallizable) must be used. The 
colonies were plunged into it entire, and remained there for from 2 to 5 
minutes, according to their size. They were then placed in 70 per cent., 
90 per cent., or even absolute alcohol at once. By this means the 
natural appearance was completely preserved. Specimens of which 
sections were to be made were placed in borax-carmine for from 15 to 
18 hours, for it was necessary that the red coloration of the nuclei 
should be very intense. They were next cleared with hydrochloric acid 
and washed with 70 per cent. alcohol till the acid had all disappeared. 
They were then placed in an exceedingly weak solution of Lyons blue 
made with 70 per cent. alcohol. After remaining in this for from 15 to 
20 hours, and being shaken two or three times, they were fixed in 
paraffin in the ordinary way. 


Preparing Fresh-water Bryozoa.{—Although it is not easy to pre- 
serve Bryozoa in the extended condition, Herr M. Vorworn claims to 
have obtained excellent results with Cristatella by means of a 10 per 
cent. solution of chlorai hydrate. The colonies were placed direct 
in this solution, and though at first they became contracted, they 


* Amer. Natural., xxii. (1888) p. 857. + Arch. de Biol., viii. (1888) pp. 220-3. 
{ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvi. (1887) p. 99 ( 2 pls. and 9 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 
1888, p. 27. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 139 


slowly relaxed again, and after a few minutes were so benumbed that 
they could be placed without harm for 10 minutes in a watery solution 
of sublimate. The author dves not recommend that sublimate should be 
replaced by alcohol or osmic acid. Borax-carmine was used for staining 
the animals. 


Preparing Tetrastemma melanocephala.*—Mr. A. Bolles Lee used 
Tetrastemma melanocephala for studying spermatogenesis in Nemertines. 
The best fixative for these preparations was found to be concentrated 
sublimate solution with the addition of 1 per cent. acetic acid. This 
reagent showed itself to be superior to osmic acid, chromic acid, and 
iron chloride, all which kill less quickly, and frequently excite such 
violent muscular contraction that the contents of the seminal vesicles 
are greatly altered. 

The hest staining solution for the sections was an alcoholic hydro- 
chloric acid carmine (100 ccm. of 80 per cent. spirit are boiled with two 
drops of strong hydrochloric acid and excess of carmine). From this 
fluid the preparations are transferred to pure spirit, wherein they remain 
until no more colouring matter is extracted. A good nuclear and double 
stain is effected by adding a little picric acid to the spirit, the picture 
thus obtained being sharper than that produced by borax-carmine. As a 
preliminary to deposition in paraffin, the author recommends cedar oil 
in place of chloroform. Preparations are best teased out in a 4 per cent. 
chloral hydrate solution and stained afterwards with Delafield’s hemato- 
xylin and methyl-green. 


Karyokinesis in Euglypha alveolata.|—Dr. Schewiakoff found that 
the best fixative was Flemming’s chrom-osmium-acetic acid, but it must 
not be allowed to act long, and the animal must be thoroughly washed 
afterwards. Grenacher’s alum-carmine and picrocarmine were the best 
stains, but picrocarmine must be used with care, as it easily overstains. 
The animals are then thoroughly washed, and having been passed 
through spirit of increasing strength and oil of cloves, mounted in 
balsam or dammar. The foregoing manipulations were carried out in 
a watch-glass, in which the selected animal was placed. The selection 
was made by means of a lens magnifying 30 times and a capillary tube. 

The nucleus was isolated by Bitschli’s method. The animal was 
fixed to a certain spot by pressure on the cover-glass; this pressure 
was kept up carefully until the siliceous envelope was broken. A few 
more taps and a to-and-fro movement of the cover-glass broke up the 
protoplasm and isolated the nucleus. This procedure was assisted by 
means of a stream of water added at one side in such quantity that it 
was at once absorbed by bibulous paper at the other. 


Permanent Preparations of Fresh-water Alg.t—Dr. L. Klein re- 
commends, for marking the position of any individual example, Schieffer- 
decker’s apparatus.§ ‘This is in appearance and size somewhat like an 
objective, and can be screwed on to the nose-piece. At its lower end it 
carries a diamond point, which by aid of a screw can be moved excen- 
trically. When used, the object is first placed in the centre of the field. 
The nose-piece is then turned round and the tube lowered until the 


* Recueil Zool. Suisse, iv. (1888) pp. 409-30 (1 pl.). 

+ Morphol. Jahrb., xiii. (1887) pp. 193-258 (2 pls. and 4 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 
1888, p. 66. t Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., y. (1888) pp. 456-64. 

§ Described in this Journal, 1887, p. 468. 


140 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


diamond point just touches the cover-glass. By moving the point out 
eccentrically, a circle may be scratched on the cover-glass with com- 
parative ease. ‘This device can be employed with advantage for alge 
mounted in glycerin jelly, but is not to be adopted for wet mounts, 
because small objects are easily moved out of position. 

If several specimens are to be mounted together, the author advises 
the use of a capillary tube bent at an angle of 120° about 2 cm. from 
the end of the tube. Then under a magnification of about 100 the 
desired specimens are sucked up by capillary action, and the process 
repeated until a sufficient quantity have been obtained. 

For collecting Desmidiacex the author uses a syringe of the following 
construction :—A thick glass tube about 2 em. wide and 30-40 cm. long 
is closed in front with a cork, through which passes a short fine tube of 
glass terminating in an opening of 1-2 mm. in diameter. It is advised 
to have several of these points, and that some should be bent at an angle 
of 90°, as this angularity is often convenient. The piston is plugged 
with tow and thread. 

Owing to the influence of light on Desmidiacezx and on Volvocinia, 
these objects may be successfully separated if the vessels containing 
them be exposed to sunlight in such a way that they are protected from 
the direct rays. In a day or two it will be found that many forms will 
crawl out of the mud towards the light side, where they may be collected. 
A pure sample of Volvox may be frequently obtained by placing a small 
quantity of the material in a pipette, and then placing the pipette point 
end upwards against the window. In a few minutes the Volvocinie will 
be found at the top, from whence an almost pure collection can be expelled. 

For ringing round preparations mounted in glycerin-gelatin the 
author advises the employment of amber-lac dissolved in linseed oil. 
Put on in thin layers it is quite transparent, and allows the use of 
immersion lenses. 

Heydenreich’s cement, although it has excellent points, has the 
disadvantage of requiring to be stained, and the dyes used for this 
purpose gradually work into the preparation. For completing the 
fastening down, the author formerly used equal parts of colophonium 
and yellow wax. ‘To this he now adds to every 10 parts 1-2 parts 
linseed oil and 1 part of Canada balsam. This is put on warm. 


Mounting Fresh-water Alge.*—Dr. L. Klein mounts fresh-water 
alge in glycerin or glycerin-gelatin. The author uses the former for 
very small objects, and adopts for this purpose the technique proposed 
by Migula. A drop of 1 per cent. osmic acid is run under the cover- 
glass, and in ten to twenty minutes afterwards the glycerin. In order 
not to blacken the oil-drops, &c., the osmic acid is added in as small 
quantities as possible, and this is best done by blowing it under the 
cover-glass through a capillary tube. In all other cases the author uses 
glycerin-gelatin, which, with the proper precautions, is an excellent 
imbedding material. The object is first hardened by exposing it as a 
hanging-drop to the fumes of the acid for a few minutes. It is then 
placed in one or two drops of dilute glycerin, and the surplus having 
been drained off or the water evaporated, a drop of glycerin-gelatin pre- 
viously heated in a test-tube is dropped on by means of a fine glass tube. 
By this device air-bubbles are avoided. 


* Hedwigia, 1888, pp. 121-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 141 


Some objects may be fixed by heating them on the slide up to near 
boiling-point, instead of using osmic acid. 


Preparation of Fungi.*—Dr. G. Istvanffi describes the various 
modes of preparing fungi for microscopical examination. Preservation 
in alcohol of 60 per cent. serves for smaller dry fungi, Gasteromycetes 
(except such as can be preserved dry), most Ascomycetes, the colourless 
Agaricini and Polyporex (but not the Boleti), and the Hydnei, Clavariei, 
Thelephorei, and Tremellini. For the softer Hymenomycetes, alcohol 
cannot be used. A solution of salt answers better for these ; but, with 
many, only preserves them for a comparatively short time. Pure sodium 
chloride should be dissolved in freshly boiled water till saturated, then 
filtered and used at once. The fungus should be completely immersed 
in it. This answers for many Hymenomycetes and Pezize. Other 
preserving fluids are corrosive sublimate of 0:1 per cent., boracic acid of 
2 per cent., and a mixture of acetic acid and glycerin. Fungi which are 
preserved dry should always be washed with a 0°5-1:0 per cent. solu- 
tion of corrosive sublimate, to destroy bacteria, larve, &e. 

A convenient mode of making sections is also described, which should 
be set, in the case of dark-spored species, by an alcoholic solution of 
mastic or Canada-balsam ; in that of white-spored species with gelatin. 


Experiments with Chitin Solvents.t—The first experiments of Mr. 
T. H. Morgan were made upon the eggs of the common cockroach, 
and the selection turned out to be a most fortunate one. A great many 
eggs are laid at one time, the whole number being surrounded by a stiff 
chitinous coat, forming the so-called raft. The solvents used were the 
hypochlorites of sodium and potassium, recommended by Dr. Looss in 
1885. 

The most successful experiments on the cockroach’s eggs were as 
follows :— 

(1) The rafts were placed, in a fresh condition, in a weak solution of 
eau de Labarraque (commercial fluid diluted with five or six times its 
-volume of water), and left until the chitinous envelope became soft and 
transparent. ‘The time varies ; if slightly warmed the time is less for 
the warm solution, perhaps thirty minutes to one hour ; but one must go 
more by the appearance of the chitin than by any definite time. If the 
embryos are far advanced, they may now be removed from the envelope 
one by one; if still young, they had better be hardened and cut all 
together. In both cases the eggs or embryos were next washed for a few 
minutes in water, and then transferred for an hour to picro-sulphuric 
acid, then as usual they are passed through the grades of alcohol, 70 per 
cent., 80 per cent., 95 per cent. 

(2) To specimens which have been already hardened and preserved 
the solvent may also be applied; but in all cases where fresh material 
is easily obtainable, it should immediately have its chitin softened and 
then afterwards be preserved. Here the method is somewhat shorter, 
since the substance has been previously hardened. From alcohol— 
weak solution—they are put into the Labarraque and softened as 
above, then passed through water and the alcohols, &c. 


* Bot. Centralbl., xxxv. (1888) pp. 343-5, 381-3, 394-5. 
+ Stud. Biol. Lab. Johns Hopkins Univ., iv. (1888) p. 217, and Dr. C.O. Whitman 
in Amer. Natural., xxii. (1888) pp. 857-8. 


142 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


In most cases in which an animal egg or embryo is encased in chitin, 
the best results have been obtained by straining the sections after they 
have been cut and fixed to the slide. If the specimen is small, staining 
in toto—after having the chitin softened, or if before this has taken 
place, after having made an entrance through the chitin with the point of 
a needle—is equally good. The greatest difficulty, and practically the 
only one which is met with, is that the Labarraque solution not only 
attacks the chitin itself, but after a time the soft tissues of the animal— 
apparently the connective tissue. Where the chitin surrounds the 
object completely, as is the case with the cockroach’s raft, the object 
can be removed from the solution as soon as the chitin is softened, and 
before the underlying parts have been attacked. In cases like this the 
solvent is at its best. 

- Very often, however, the soft tissues of the animal are exposed in 
places between the chitin covering. ‘This is well illustrated by the joints 
of insects’ legs, &c., and very frequently these exposed places are attacked 
before the chitin is completely softened, thus causing the joints, if much 
handled, to fall apart. By judiciously diluting the solution and taking 
the parts to be softened from it before the joints are attacked, its appli- 
cation will be found practicable even here. 

The greatest difficulty of all is when the chitin is internal, completely 
surrounded by soft tissue. Better results are obtained here with very 
dilute solutions—diluted from eight to ten times, or even more. It must 
be admitted that in this last case the application of the solvent is more 
doubtful, and of not nearly so much service as in the first and second 
supposed cases. 

Strong solutions, then, had better be used only when the chitin 
completely surrounds the soft animal parts, and dilute solutions must be 
used in all cases where these latter substances are exposed. The solu- 
tion not only softens the chitin, but removes all pigment either in the 
chitin or in the tissue beneath, and this is at times advantageous. 


Bonda’s Hardening Method.*—Dr. C. Bonda describes a new harden- 
ing process especially adapted to the central nerve-system. It is briefly 
as follows :— 

The material in mass (as for instance the brain of a large dog) is 
placed for from twenty-four to forty-eight hours in a 10 per cent. 
aqueous solution of pure nitric acid, whence it is removed without 
rinsing into a solution of potassium bichromate, made by dissolving one 
volume of a cold saturated solution of the salt in two volumes of water. 
The bichromate solution must be replaced in the course of a few hours 
with a solution consisting of equal volumes of the saturated solution and 
water. In this the material is left until sufficiently hardened. It is 
recommended that brain and spinal cord be kept at least eight days in 
the fluid, and that the temperature be maintained at about that of incuba- 
tion, or say from 100° to 110° F. The author highly eulogizes the 
manner in which material thus hardened shows up after staining with 
hematoxylin. 


* St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., lv. (1888) p. 230, from Centralbl. Med. 
Wiss. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 143 


(3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes. 


Minot’s Automatic Microtome.*—The microtome of Dr. Minot is, 
in the opinion of Mr. J. 8. Kingsley, the best of the automatic forms. 
Equipped with it and a Thoma or Schanze instrument for celloidin 
sections, any laboratory may be considered as well prepared for any 
ordinary section work. 

In the Minot microtome, the general features of which can be seen 
from fig. 27, the knife is stationary, while the object is moved. Motion 


is communicated either by a crank or by a belt to the balance-wheel from 
a water-motor. Hach revolution of the shaft raises and lowers the 
object-carrier, the section being cut on the downward stroke. Tho 
object-carrier is advanced towards the knife when at its extreme height, 
by means of a micrometer screw placed between the ways on which it 
runs. This screw has threads 0°5 mm. apart, and the large wheel Z 
which turns the screw bears 300 teeth upon its margin. This wheel is 
turned by means of a pall which strikes the upright lever H, seen in 
the fig., while a set-screw E allows the pall to engage from one to twelve 
teeth at a revolution. Thus the instrument has a capacity of cutting 
sections from 0:04 mm. to 0°0033 mm. as desired. The object P im- 
bedded in paraffin is soldered with the same material to one of the 
section-holders, and this is then placed in its proper socket and clamped. 


* The Microscope, viii. (1888) pp. 241-2 (1 fig.); and Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., 
v. (1888) p. 474 (1 fig.). 


144 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


This part of the apparatus is provided with proper clamps and set-screws, 
so that motion is possible in the three dimensions of space, allowing 
perfect orientation of the 

Fic. 28. specimen. 

Mr. Kingsley has used 
this machine for about three 
months almost daily, and it 
has proved itself all that 
could be expected. It is 
well-made and simple, and 
it is an easy matter to cut 
with it ribbons three feet 
or more in length, without 
a break and without losing 
a single section. 

A second view of the 
instrument is shown in 


fig. 28. 


Plate Modelling Method 
or Plastic Reconstruction 
of the Object.*—Prof. G. 
Born once again attacks 
this subject in an article of 
twenty-three pages. At the 
end he apologizes for the 
length of his article, but 
bids his readers be of good courage, for the actual manipulation is not 
nearly so long as the description. 

The method, which has been several times noticed in this Journal, 
essentially consists in making an enlarged model of the object, from 
which the sections are taken. The first principles are that no section 
should be lost, that they should be of the same thickness, and that they 
should be so marked that when laid together no difficulty should be ex- 
perienced in applying them one to the other, or in cutting off or out the 
superfluous parts. 

The object is asa rule imbedded in paraffin, and a block thereof made 
so that the sides are parallel and the angles right angles. Certain 
marks are intercalated on the block so that their correct position is easily 
noted. When the sections are cut, the next thing is to draw a magnified 
image of the object. This is done on sheets of wax, or rather a layer of 
wax on a sheet of paper. The magnified image is then cut out of the 
wax-paper, and all the sections having been laid. together, an enlarged 
model of the original object is produced correct in all its details. 

This of course sounds very simple, but the difficulty of manipulation 
is great but not insurmountable. After having imbedded the object very 
carefully in paraffin, it is laid in its rough state on the orthostat, an 
instrument shown in fig. 29,O, F. The adjacent part of the apparatus 
ab is then applied, and the outer space filled up with paraffin, so that a 
roughly rectangular block is produced. But in order to make the sides 
‘perfectly flat and level and at right angles, another instrument is 
required. This is shown in fig. 30, the uplifted arm being a knife and 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 433-55 (4 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 145 


the cut-out oblong the space into which the paraffin block is fitted. 
When the sides have been accurately pared down they are marked by 
means of the apparatus shown in fig. 81, which makes a series of holes in 
one of the planed-down sides. The holes and sides are then stained 
with soot or any other suitable medium, 
after which the block is dipped again 
in paraffin. 

For the purpose of plastic recon- 
struction the author advises that ribbon 
sections should not be cut, and in order 
to unroll sections he advocates the use 
of the apparatus shown in fig. 32. 
This is essentially an iron table pro- 


Fig. 29. 


vided with a flap coming off at a right angle. Beneath the flap is placed 
a spirit-lamp, and on the table the section. The position on the table 
given to the section must of course vary with the heat. It should be so 
placed that it gently unrolls itself. 

With regard to the modelling process it is only necessary to state 
that the chief difficulty lies in making the wax-paper plates. For this 


Fig. 31. Kies 32: 


purpose are required a lithographer’s stone, strips of metal which vary 

in thickness but not in length and breadth (50 cm. by 1°5 ecm.), and an 

iron roller. The thicknesses given are 0:4, 0-6, 0:8, 0-9, IL Ilo), iL obs), 
1889. L 


146. SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


1-8,and 2mm. With such thicknesses if the sections be made 0:015, 
0:02, 0:03, 0:04 in thickness, a suitable multiple will always be found. 
The principle of making the plates consists in rolling out a layer of 
wax on a sheet of paper, the thickness varying with the size of the model 
required. Upon the paper has already been drawn the magnified image 
of the object. Along the sides of the stone are laid two strips of metal ; 
the surface is then brushed over with turpentine, the paper is placed on, 
and then the wax having been poured over the paper, the roller is used 
to make a flat and even layer. 

When these wax-paper plates are finished, the superfluous parts are 
cut out, and then they are stuck together so as to produce the magnified 
model desired. In this last part of course a good deal of manipulative 
skill is required so that no parts are damaged and that the surface is 
quite regular. 


Cutting Microscopical Objects for the purpose of Plastic Recon- 
struction.*—-Dr. N. Kastschenko has devised two more modifications of 
his apparatus intended for being adjusted to the object-holder of micro- 
tomes, the first of which was described in this Journal, 1887, p. 511. 

The original apparatus had for its object to pare down the sides of 
a paraffin block in such a way that some geometrical pattern might 
surround the object. This pattern or “definition line” was intended 
to facilitate the reproduction of the object in a magnified model (plastic 
reconstruction) from the sections made. 

From the author’s point of view of course it is important that the 
definition or boundary surfaces (which on section of the object are seen 


Fig. 33. Fig. 34. 


agi mi Cy aet 


illl 


ii 
‘T 


ey 


3 


as definition or boundary lines) should be perfectly parallel, or at any 
rate have a fixed and determined position. The apparatus which he advo- 
cates is intended to effect this. The first or original model was intended 
for the Schanze microtome. The two models given above were constructed 


* Zeitechr. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 173-81 (2 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 147 


for the Thoma-Jung, and for the Spengel-Becker microtomes. They are 
shown in figs. 33 and 34, their natural size. 

In fig. 833 is shown the “cutter” or parer, as constructed for the 
Thoma-Jung object-holder. It may, however, be fitted to any micro- 
tome with a cylindrical object-holder. Its construction is extremely 
simple. It consists of a stout ring b, the internal diameter of which is 
exactly equal to that of the object-holder. The ring is immovably united 
to the piece a, which in its turn is exactly like the paraffin cylinder 
which fits into the object-holder. In the ring is seen the binding-screw c. 
The paraffin-holder d, which fits inside the ring, may be either solid or 
hollow. 

The holes in d and a are for the purpose of turning round the 
apparatus. While the object is being pared down the part a is fixed 
firmly in the object-holder, and when the block has had its definition- 
surfaces thus prepared, it is removed from the cutter and fixed on the 
object-holder in such a way that it is cut in a direction perpendicular to 
the surfaces. 

The second model, fig. 34, differs very little from the author’s 
original apparatus. In this newer model the stem a is straight, instead 
of being bent at aright angle. This apparatus is intended to be used in 
any ordinary object-holder, and is of such dimensions that movement in 
any direction when it is fixed in the clamp is possible. This “ parer ” 
fits into the apparatus e, which consists of two blocks of wood loosely 
united by short metal wires. The wooden holder of course fits into the 
clamp while the block is being shaved down. When the boundary sur- 
faces have been satisfactorily adjusted to the paraffin block, the latter is 
removed from the “cutter” or parer, and inserted into the wooden 
holder wherein it is sectioned. 


Cotman, W. S.—Section Cutting and Staining. A practical guide to the prepara- 
tion of normal and morbid histological specimens. 

viii. and 107 pp., 6 figs. 8vo, London (Lewis & Co., 

136, Gower Street, W.C.), 1888. 


(4) Staining and Injecting. 


New Stains for Microscopical Purposes.}|—-Prof. E. Zschokke gives 
the results of his examination of the following six pigments, which he 
has used for staining animal and vegetable tissues :— 

(1) Benzopurpurin B. An amorphous brown powder, soluble in 
water, and giving a cinnabar red solution and corresponding stain. It 
acts very much like acid fuchsin and is much superior to eosin, being 
unacted on by alcohol, anilin oil, oil of cloves, &c. It makes a good 
contrast stain to hematoxylin, and can be used after Gram’s method. 

(2) Benzopurpurin 4 B. An orange-red dye, soluble in spirit. The 
sections should be transferred from spirit to the alcoholic solution of the 
dye. It stains connective tissue orange. It is little altered by acids or 
alkalies. It may be used sometimes as a double stain with logwood. 

(3) Deltapurpurin. A brownish-red powder, easily soluble in water. 
Preparations are stained in two minutes a diffuse purple-red. The dye 
is very stable and not easily extracted. Like the preceding two, it may 
be used as a contrast stain to hematoxylin. 

(4) Benzoazurin. A brown powder, easily soluble in water, the 


* Zeitachr. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 465-70. 
L 2 


148 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


solution having a blue-violet colour. Strong solutions stain rapidly, and 
the nuclei are darker than the protoplasm. Alkaline solutions change 
the blue hue to red, and eventually decolorize the section. Acids, 
alcohol, and clarifying media do not at all affect the dye. It appears to 
be a good substitute for hematoxylin. 

(5) Chrysophenin. A sulphur-yellow pigment, but little soluble in 
water, easily soluble in alcohol. Preparations stained in an alcoholic 
solution assume a diffuse yellow colour. It is unaffected by acids and 
alkalies. 

(6) Rhodanin-red and rhodanin-violet. Both are basic dyes, soluble 
in water and spirit. The stains imparted by their solution are carmine- 
red and reddish-violet. The pigment is rapidly extracted both by spirit 
and water. They stain bacteria, but no mordant has been found to fix 
them. 

Of the foregoing six pigments, it will be seen that two are very suit- 
able for histological purposes, viz. benzopurpurin B and benzoazurin. 


Carmine Staining of Nervous Tissue.*—Dr. H. 8S. Upson gives the 
three following methods for staining nervous tissue after Miiller’s fluid 
or alcohol. 

(1) The following alum-carmine solution is first made. 1 gram car- 
mine is boiled with 100 cem. ofa 5 per cent. alum solution (rubidium alum 
is the best). To 5 ccm. of this solution are added 10-20 drops of acetic 
acid and 1 to 3 drops of molybdo-phosphorie acid, and then filtered. 
The sections are placed in this mixture for 2 to 10 minutes. or longer, 
and then carefully washed, dehydrated, cleared up, and imbedded. The 
axis-cylinders, ganglion-cells, and connective tissues are stained, and 
the nuclei very clearly. 

(2) 5 ccm. of the foregoing alum-carmine solution are saturated with 
zinc sulphate and filtered. Sections are placed in this solution for 
1/2 to 12 hours, and then treated as above. This method gives very 
good results, especially with peripheral nerves and spinal cord. 

(3) 0-06 grm. carminic acid are dissolved in a mixture of 4 ccm. water 
and 1 cem. spirit.. The sections remain in the mixture for 3 to 10 minutes, 
are then washed for a short time in water, and are then placed in one of 
the following mordants for a few minutes. They are then washed in 
water and treated as before. The action of the mordants produces the 
following staining :—Dilute acetic acid, a yellowish-red; saturated so- 
lution of lead acetate, blue; iron sulphate, black ; manganese sulphate, 
red ; nickel sulphate or barium chloride, violet. The longer the tissue 
has remained in Miiller’s fluid or spirit the more lasting the stain will be. 


Staining Microbes black for Photomicrography.{—Dr. R. Neuhauss 
stains bacteria black in the following way. Campeachy wood extract is 
dissolved in boiling water and the solution filtered as hot as possible. 
After this has stood for at least eight days it is warmed up every time it 
is to be used. The cover-glass to be stained is boiled in the solution 
for ten minutes. It is next washed in hot water and afterwards im- 
mersed for a long time in a weak solution of neutral chromate of soda. 
This solution is made by adding, drop by drop, a 5 per cent. soda 
solution to a weak boiling solution of chromic, and until the liquid 
gives a neutral reaction. 


“ Neurol. Centralbl., vii. (1888) pp. 319-21. Cf. Zeitschr. f Wiss. Mikr., v. 
(1888) pp. 525-6. + Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 484-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSOOPY, ETO. 149 


In order to obtain a deep black the whole process must be repeated 
three or four times. 

The advantages of this black stain are that the negatives of bacteria 
are extraordinarily sharp and well defined both with sun and artificial 
light. The details in the bacteria, spores, &c., appear with the greatest 
clearness. The flagella, too, unstainable with anilin dyes, are stained 
quite black. 

Lastly the preparations do not lose colour. 


Nucina as a Staining Agent.*—Prof. N. Léon calls atténtion to the 
value of the black substance of “nuts” (Nucina) as a staining agent. 
Though chemists are, as it seems, still ignorant of its chemical formula, 
solutions are easily obtained. Nucina has the property of actively dif- 
ferentiating the parts of which cells are composed; it blackens nuclei, 
bacteria, and the leucites of vegetable cells and easily differentiates the 
constituent parts of spermatozoa. The aqueous solution is obtained by 
putting nuts into alcohol; as soon as the spirit becomes green, owing to 
the solution of chlorophyll, the nuts are carefully washed with water 
so as to extract the alcohol, 25 nuts were then placed in a 
porcelain vessel with 500 grams of distilled water, which was 
boiled till half the water had evaporated. The liquid, after being 
filtered several times, was boiled afresh with 10 per cent. of alum; the 
solution has a blood-red colour with direct light. The alcoholic solu- 
tion is made by boiling nuts in water, removing them, and allowing the 
water to deposit the black nucina; 100 grams of alcohol at 80° 
were added for every three grams of nucina. This solution has a black 
colour ; after its use a few drops of hydrochloric acid should be applied 
to the section. 


Baumgarten’s Triple Staining Method.j—This method as given by 
M. A. Lewin consists in the following series of operations :— 

(1) After having washed the sections in absolute alcohol, they are 
placed for 5 minutes in borax-picrocarmine; excess of stain is then 
removed with blotting-paper. (Borax-picrocarmine is prepared by 
adding powdered picric acid to a solution of Grenacher’s borax-carmine 
until the fluid assumes a blood-red colour.) 

(2) The sections are then plunged for 2 minutes into absolute alcohol 
to which crystals of picric acid have been added until the spirit re- 
sembles hock. ‘This operation is to be performed twice. 

(3) The sections are next immersed for 1 minute in Ehrlich’s gentian- 
violet solution. This solution should be freshly made. Excess of stain 
should be removed with filter-paper. (The gentian-violet solution is 
prepared by adding 11 volumes of a saturated alcoholic solution of the 
pigment to 100 volumes of a 5 per cent. solution of anilin oil in water 
and then filtering. 

(4) The sections are next immersed for one minute in a solution of 
iodine (iodine, 1; iodide of potassium, 2; water, 300); from this they 
are transferred to absolute alcohol, wherein they remain for 30 seconds. 

(5) Excess of gentian-violet is then removed with hydrochloric acid 
and alcohol (HCl 3; C,H,O 97). In performing this step it is neces- 
sary to watch the decoloration carefully, as the reaction is very delicate, 


* Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 624-5. 
+ Journ. de Microgr., xii. (1888) pp. 415-6. Cf. Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr., 1887, 
No. 7. 


150 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO 


(6) The preparations are next immersed for 5 minutes in absolute 
alcohol which has been rendered yellowish by means of a few crystals 
of picric acid. 

(7) The preparations are then cleared up in oil of cloves and mounted 
in xylol balsam. 

By this procedure a triple staining is obtained. 


Staining Actinomyces.*—Dr. A. Baranski recommends picrocarmine 
for staining Actinomyces. A small quantity of the yellow granules or 
of the pus is spread out on a cover-glass, and having been dried in the 
air is drawn several times through the flame of a spirit-lamp. The 
cover-glass is then placed in the picrocarmine solution for 2 or 3 
minutes, then washed in water or spirit and examined in water or 
glycerin. If for a permanent specimen the cover-glass is dried after 
having been washed and then mounted in balsam. Sections require to 
stay in the picrocarmine solution 2-3 minutes or longer. In other 
respects the manipulation is the same. 'The Actinomyces are stained in 
various shades of yellow, the surrounding tissue being dyed red. 


Method for Distinguishing and Isolating Cholera Bacteria.;— 
Cholera bacilli, says Dr. O. Bujwid, form a scum on the surface of 
nutrient media, and this scum consists of a pure cultivation of cholera 
bacilli. This skin or scum when grown for 24 hours at 37° C. in an 
alkaline solution containing 1-2 per cent. peptone and 0:5 per cent. of 
salt resembles very much that formed by Bacillus subtilis. Now cholera 
bacilli give with certain mineral and organic acids, but specially with 
hydrochloric, a reaction which has been shown to be due to the forma- 
tion of indol, and of a trace of nitrite. Impure cultivations and also 
bacteria resembling cholera bacilli also give this reaction, but it is 
much less intense, and only takes place after a longer time. For 
example, impure cultivations of cholera in a slightly alkaline 2 per cent. 
peptone solution, and kept for 24 hours at a temperature of 37° C., do 
not give any noticeable reaction, while pure cholera bacteria bred under 
similar conditions give a beautiful purple-red colour with hydrochloric 
acid. Hence it is possible to ascertain merely by the aid of hydrochloric 
acid if we are dealing with pure or impure cultivations of cholera spirilla. 

It is of importance for the success of this reaction that the peptone 
should be very good and that the time and temperature limits should be 
carefully observed, because if cultivated at ordinary temperatures and 
for longer periods (3 or 4 days) the same result will be obtained with 
the acid from other bacilli, for example, Finkler’s and Miller’s. Hence. 
the reaction is not only qualitative but quantitative. 


Shellac Injection for the Vessels of the Eye.{—Dr. Bellarminow 
has used shellac injection for the vessels of the eye with good results. 
Yellow shellac is used in a thick spirituous solution. About 1 part 
of shellac to 13 parts alcohol are placed in a flask for 24 hours and fre- 
quently shaken. The mixture is then heated at 45°-50° for 2-5 hours, 
and then filtered through two or three thicknesses of gauze. The 
syrupy filtrate is then stained with cinnabar or Berlin blue, and used 
for injecting arteries or veins. It will not penetrate the capillaries, 
and if required for this purpose should not be thicker than cream. 


* Deutsch. Med. Wochenschr., 1887, p. 1065. 
+ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk.,.iv. (1888) pp. 494—6. 
t Anat. Anzeig., iii. (1888) pp. 648-50. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 151 


The pigments are first rubbed up with spirit, and having been 
filtered through gauze, added in the desired proportion to the shellac 
solution. In 10-12 minutes the injected mass is hard. Syringe and 
canula must be immersed in spirit previously and carefully washed 
therewith after injection. After injection the eyes are placed for 
24 hours in 0:°2-0°3 per cent. chromic acid, and then having been 
cleaned up with a brush, are washed in running water for 24 hours. 
The thicker parts and those which retain the pigment are then macerated 
in eau de Javelle for a longer or shorter time. If allowed to work too 
long the macerating fluid destroys the walls of the vessels and renders 
the preparation useless. It is then washed again in running water for 
12 to 24 hours, and afterwards, having been mopped up with blotting- 
paper, it is stretched between two slides and allowed to dry. 

Permanent preparations may be mounted dry and ringed round with 
paraffin or some quick-drying varnish, or may be cleared up in turpen- 
tine and mounted in balsam. 

Double injection gives very good results, the arteries with cinnabar 
from the carotid, the veins with Berlin blue from the venz verticoszx. 


Black Injection-mass.*—Prof. A. Letellier advocates the use of a 
mixture of vanadate of ammonia and tannin as an injection-mass. The 
advantages of this mixture are that it is black in itself, and does not 
depend for its colour on solid particles in suspension; that it has no 
tendency to diffuse outside the vessels into the tissues; that the mass 
will pass through the finest canula and not block the point; that the 
walls of the vessels, even when not entirely filled, are stained black ; 
and that when pieces of the injected tissue are placed in spirit the 
colouring matter is not withdrawn, as vanadate of ammonia is insoluble 
in alcohol. 

The preparation of this injection-mass is extremely simple. Vana- 
date of ammonia is soluble in warm, and tannin in hot water. The two 
solutions are kept apart until required for use, when they are mixed in 
proportion to the tint required. 

For the tannin, pyrogallic acid or a solution of nut-galls, made by 
macerating the bruised galls in cold water, may be substituted. 


Technique of the “Corrosion” of Celloidin Preparations.{—Dr. 
Bellarminow recommends that celloidin sections of the eye injected with 
Berlin blue should be treated with eau de Javelle in order to destroy the 
pigment which interferes with the examination. Thick sections are 
placed for ten to thirty minutes in a solution of sodium carb., calcar. 
chlor., 12°5 each, water, 100 parts. Thinner sections in a weaker 
solution. They are then washed in running water for twenty-four 
hours. Then dehydration, clearing up, and Canada balsam. The 
celloidin imbedding increases the resistance of the sections to the action 
of eau de Javelle, consequently this reagent is very suitable for the 
purpose. 


* Bull. Soc, Linn. Normandie, i. (1888) pp. 171-4. 
+ Anat. Anzeig., iii. (1888) pp. 650-1. 


152 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c. 


Preparation of Type-plates and arranged Groups of Diatoms.*—Mr. 
K. M. Cunningham says that Mr. R. Getschmann prepares his slides of 
arranged diatoms after the following method :— 

A table is placed before a well-lighted window, and on this are 
the requisite appliances for work, the chief requisite being a small 
dissecting Microscope, fitted with simple achromatic lenses, varying 
in their focal length as the case might require, but a lens of about 
1/4 in. focus answering for actual work. Preparatory to begin- 
ning a selection of diatoms for the design to be arranged, a quantity 
of cleaned diatom material is evenly spread over an ordinary slide, 
this is carefully examined, and from it are selected all the perfect 
forms likely to be used in a design, and transferred to a cover-glass ; all 
forms of the same shape being grouped together, or arranged in lines for 
convenience afterwards. If necessary, several cover-glasses can be thus 
filled with perfect forms, free from cracks or other blemishes, and placed 
aside, protected from dust, until required. The diatoms are picked out 
from the spread layer of material by the aid of hair bristles of varying 
degrees of fineness mounted in a slender wooden handle, and projecting 
therefrom about a half-inch; the bristle should be straight and, if 
possible, have a fine taper to a sharp point; this is used with a free and 
steady hand, and, to facilitate steadiness in picking out, the two armsare 
rested upon two cushioned blocks of wood, tapering from the level of the 
stage of the Microscope to their bases on the table. A further indispens- 
able piece is a glass slide, having an area at its centre of about a quarter 
of an inch, or somewhat less, ruled into minute squares at the rate of 
about forty lines to the quarter-inch ; on this slide, and properly centered, 
must be placed the cover-glass upon which it is desired to produce the 
group. The cover-glass is prepared by spreading at its centre a minute 
drop of liquid gelatin, by means of a little brass spatula, and allowing it 
todry. A number of cover-glasses, after having been carefully chosen 
and thoroughly cleaned, might be prepared, and also set aside for use 
later. 'The clear and transparent gelatin should be filtered before use by 
passing it through suitable filter-paper, so as to prevent all chance dirt 
from marring the mount. When ready to begin a group, fix the cover- 
glass centrally over the area of squares by means of three little touches 
of wax, and then also adjust, close to the same cover-glass, one of the 
cover-glasses containing the diatoms previously selected for the grouping ; 
or, if necessary, two or more, according to the complexity of the proposed 
design. With the selecting bristle in the right hand, and the eye 
adjusted to the lens, bring the glass containing the selected diatoms into 
the field of view, then carefully select as a centre a perfect disc, say, a 
Coscinodiscus ; now shift the gelatined cover-glass into view and deposit 
the disc at its centre, and carefully adjust it so that its centre shall seem 
to cover the intersection of a group of the small squares ; around the disc, 
as a centre, adjust a series of small circular forms, spacing them at 
equal distances from each other. Should it next be desired to introduce 
a series of slender forms they may be adjusted into position by lining 
them over the guide lines radiating from the centre of the dise, or through 
the diagonals of the squares ; in this manner proceed until the design is 
completed. 


* The Microscope, viii. (1888) pp. 237-41 (2 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 153 


When the grouping is finally inspected, it is permanently fixed to the 
gelatin layer by holding the slide on a level, under the mouth, and 
breathing on it very carefully a few times. This is perfectly reliable and 
more expeditious than breathing through rubber or glass tubes for the 
same purpose. 

For the purpose of mounting, it is well to have a quantity of cells 
finished on slides and kept on hand. The slides are centered on the 
turntable, and shallow cells of black shellac are built up to suit the 
diameter of the cover-glass to be mounted thereon. This cell is filled 
with a drop of Canada balsam pressed out of a metal tube. The cover- 
glass containing the arranged diatoms is now freely immersed in filtered 
spirits of turpentine, and also flushed with it, so as to expel all air from 
the diatoms and to clean off all motes or particles that may have lodged 
upon it during or after preparation of the same. The cover-glass is then 
set upon its edge to drain off superfluous turpentine, and while it drains 
gently soften the shellac cell over a spirit-lamp, pick up the coyver-glass 
and gently lay it centrally over the cell, and press firmly into contact 
with the cell; the slide is then set aside with the cell-side down, and 
supported on a level, to obviate as much as possible the floating out of 
place of any of the forms, which are sometimes displaced while drying. 

The procedure described above is essentially that followed by the 
leading preparers, with more or less slight variations as to finish of cells 
and media used in mounting. 

For the arrangement of type-plates of diatoms, the guide-lines and 
squares ruled on the cover-glass carrier serve to allow the forms to 
be adjusted in lines and properly spaced with the same ease as in 
symmetrical grouping. When such beautiful results are produced by 
simple and inexpensive means, it does not seem to be worth while to 
attempt this class of work with compound Microscopes, with mechanical 
fingers and ruled guides set in the eye-piece. 


Xylol-dammar.*—M. Martinotti advocates the use of dammar dis- 
solved in xylol as a mounting medium to be preferred to balsam in 
certain cases. He prepares his solution in the following way :— 

Forty grm. of dammar and 40 grm. of xylol are mixed together 
in a stoppered bottle, and allowed to stand for three or four days at the 
ordinary temperature. The solution is then filtered. The filtrate, 
which will amount to about 70 grm., is then evaporated in a water- 
bath down to about 45 grm. 

The object of this concentration is to obtain a solution of the resin 
in the smallest quantity of xylol possible, just enough in fact to merely 
dissolve the resin. This concentrated solution becomes yellow, but 
retains its limpidity. The next step is to dilute this solution with oil 
of turpentine, by which means the yellowish colour is made to almost 
disappear. 


Kaiser’s Gelatin for arranging microscopical preparations in 
series.j—Dr. A. Poli arranges objects on the slide with Kaiser’s gelatin 
in the following manner :—With a fine brush, just as many daubs are 
made with the melted gelatin as there are preparations to be mounted, 
the preparations are then transferred on the brush to the places where 
the thin layers of gelatin are, slight pressure being used in order to 
make them stick. Should the preparations not lie in the desired 


* Malpighia, ii. (1888) p. 270. + Ibid., pp. 107-9. 


154 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


position, the slide may be heated a little, up to 45°, and when rearranged, 
allowed to cool. Glycerin is then added to the preparation, the cover- 
glass imposed, and the preparation fixed up in the usual way. 


Limpid Copal Solution.*—A limpid and colourless solution of gum 
copal has long been a desideratum to microscopists, and Dr. F. L. 
James has spent many hours in trying to obtain one. The follow- 
ing process he found originally in a German journal, ‘ Der Techniker,’ 
and having given it a fair trial, can say that if a high grade of bright 
copal is chosen, the product will be perfectly limpid and almost colour- 
less. By sorting the copal,a solution as limpid as water may be obtained. 

Dissolve 4 parts of camphor in 48 parts of sulphuric ether and add 
16 parts of pulverized gum copal thereto. Cork the flask carefully, and 
stand aside with occasional agitations until the copal is partly dissolved 
and partly swollen to its fullest extent. Then add 16 parts of alcohol 
of 96° and 1 part rectified oil of turpentine, and agitate thoroughly. 
Let stand with occasional agitations for several days, and at the expira- 
tion of a week or so, the contents of the flask will be found to have 
separated into two layers, of which the lower is rather dark, thick, and 
possibly dirty, according to the quality of the copal, but above this a 
layer will be found rich in copal and as clear as crystal itself. The 
lower layer may be further treated with camphor and sulphuric ether, 
and afterwards with alcohol, and made to give a still further yield of 
the crystalline fluid. The only objection to this solution of copal is 
that it is somewhat brittle when dry. This may be obviated by adding 
a few drops of purified nut or poppy oil thereto. 


Preserving-fluids for Fleshy and Succulent Plants.t—Herr R. 
Sadebeck recommends for this purpose a 4-5 per cent., i.e. a nearly 
saturated solution of barium-lead-nitrate, the object retaining its colour 
in it for one or two months, while the solution itself remains clear. 
Another good preserving-fluid for similar objects is a solution of cor- 
rosive sublimate of a 0-1 per cent. concentration, to which a few drops of 
hydrochloric acid have been added. _Boracic acid does not prevent decay, 
even in a saturated solution. For Fungi which contain but little soluble 
matter, a 20 per cent. solution of alcohol may be recommended. 

Determining the Thickness of Cover-glasses of Mounted Prepara- 
tions.t—Dr. 8. Czapski gives the following method for ascertaining the 
thickness of cover-glasses where the preparation is already mounted. 
This is very desirable for high powers. ‘The procedure presupposes the 
possession of some cover-glasses, the thickness of which is known, and 
that the head of the fine-adjustment screw is divided by radial lines. 

The upper and under surface are focused with an objective of 0:6 to 
0:9 aperture and central illumination, and the amount of turn given 
to the fine-adjustment screw noted for each cover-glass; of course it is 
unimportant whether the exact value of the screw turn is known or not. 
Tf the surfaces of the cover-glass do not present any obvious marks to 
focus on, an artificial one, such as dust or scratches, must be supplied. 
If the numbers thus obtained be compared with the known real thickness 
of the covers, a reduction factor is obtained from their quotients, which 
is available for determining measurements of a similar kind, that is to say 
for measurements of other cover-glasses with the same objective, ocular, 


* St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., lv. (1888) p. 231. 
+ SB. Gesell. Bot. Hamburg, iii. (1887) p. 61. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxvi. (1888) 
p. 128. J Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 482-4. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 155 


diaphragm, and tube-length. The focusing differences are always to be 
multiplied with this factor in order to obtain the true depth (thickness) 
of the layer. 

As an example:—Objective DD Zeiss, diaphragm 8 mm. diameter, 
tube-length 155 mm., and four cover-glasses, the thicknesses of which, 
already ascertained, are 0°146, 0°16%, 0:187, 0:22. The focusing 
differences marked by the head of the fine-adjustment screw were 35, 
40, 45, 52 divisions. Then the reduction factors in 1/1000 » are 

146 168 187 220 

35 = 4:17, Z0 = 4-20, iB = 4°16, 59 = 4°23, 
or on the average 4:19, say 4°2. If the thickness of these cover- 
. glasses had not been known, but the focusing differences had been 
obtained and multiplied by 4:2, the results would have been 0°147, 
0:°168, 0°189, 0°218, instead of 0°146, 0-168, 0-187, 0°22. Differ- 
ences of +0:°001, 0:0, +0:°002, — 0-002; a result more than 
sufficiently accurate for the purpose. 


(6) Miscellaneous. 
Garbini’s small Steam-generator for Microscopical Technique.*— 
Dr. A. Garbini describes a small steam-producing apparatus which he 


Fig. 35. KI 
Ia. 35 W/ 
| 


uses in microscopical technique, especially where paraffin ‘and gelatin 
are required. 
* Zeitschr. f. Wiss, Mikr., y. (1888) pp. 168-71 (1 fig.). 


156 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The apparatus (fig. 35) consists of a spherical copper boiler A, sup- 
ported on three legs, and having a water-gauge a, a steam exit pipe ), 
which is fitted with a stop-cock, opening two ways, and a pipe c, into 
which fits a funnel with a very long stem. This serves both for pouring 
water into the boiler, and also as a safety-valve. The funnel is connected 
with the boiler by means of a caoutchouc tube. The funnel B is fitted 
with three tubes, one through which the steam enters, and another 
through which it passes out. The diameter of the latter is less than 
half that of the former. The third tube is for a thermometer which is 
fixed by means of a cork bung. 

It is necessary to plug the aperture between the rims of the copper 
and glass funnels with a piece of flannel in order to prevent the steam 
from escaping. 

Paraffin Oven with simple arrangement for maintaining a constant 
temperature.*— Dr. E. Sehrwald describes a simple apparatus for heating 
paraffin, which is easily made and keeps a constant temperature. 


Fia. 36. 


It consists of a copper box (fig. 36), from the top of which ascends 
a tube for filling with water, and a second smaller one descends for the 
reception of a thermometer. When the box is filled with water the 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 331-4 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 157 


larger tube is closed with a cork bung, through which pass two tubes. 
One of these is Y-shaped, and has at its lower extremity a small bag 
made of vegetable parchment. The arms of the Y are connected by 
means of a cross tube having a narrow lumen, and the ends of the arms 
are joined on to a caoutchouc tube through which the gas passes. The 
effect of this arrangement is that when the water gets hot, the mercury 
with which the leg and bag of the Y-shaped tube are filled, rises into 
the Y, and thus shuts off the gas. The stream of gas, however, is still 
kept up through the narrow connecting tube, and this prevents the light 
from going out altogether. The second glass tube has a funnel con- 
nected by means of a short piece of rubber tubing and forms the arrange- 
ment whereby the apparatus is regulated for a given temperature. For 
when the water begins to get ,warm it rises up the tube and so into the 
funnel, the mercury remaining stationary. Directly the desired tem- 
perature is reached, a strong clamp is put on the short piece of rubber 
tubing, and then the mercury begins to regulate the supply of gas for 
this temperature. If a higher temperature be desired, it is only 
necessary to remove the clamp and allow the water to ascend until the 
proper point is reached, and 

then re-clamp. If a lower Fie. 37. 

one be necessary the clamp 
is undone, and the gas-jet 
removed until the tem- 
perature has fallen. 


Stein’s Steam Funnel.* 
—Dr. L. v. Stein has con- 
structed a funnel for facili- 
tating the filtration of 
gelatin and agar solutions. 

The outer funnel A, 
fig. 87, is made of copper, 
and has the following di- 
mensions : — Diameter, 14 
cem.; height 10 cm.; sides 
A B, 6-7 cm. The tube 
for heating it C, is seen at 
one side. The internal 
filter D has sides 3 cm. 
high, its diameter is 9 cm., | | 
and its height 10 cm. It / 
is covered with the lid B, 
into which are soldered the 
two tubes E and F, both being closed with corks. The filter is filled 
with water through KH, and through F' passes the solution to be filtered. 
In the middle is seen the section of the glass funnel G, the stem of 
which is fixed tight by the cork bung H. 

When required for use, the copper funnel is filled with water as far 
as A, and a filter-paper placed within the glass funnel. As the steam 
developes it exerts some pressure on the fluid, since it can only escape 
through the stem of the glass funnel. In one hour 100 em. of a thick 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 329-30 (1 fig.). 


158 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


agar solution can be filtered; while gelatin runs through with the 
rapidity of water, and the apparatus has the further advantage of 
sterilizing the solution at the same time that it filters it. 


Distinguishing Stains of Human Blood.—We observe that in a 
recent criminal trial an analyst deposed that human blood-corpuscles 
could be distinguished from those of some other animals. This opinion 
was based on the size of the corpuscles. 

It has been established by irrefragable evidence, both here and in the 
United States, that this view is an entire mistake, and it is to be hoped 
that the person charged in the case referred to will not be convicted 
and hanged before the error is corrected. 


Methods for ascertaining the Number of Atmospheric Germs.*— 
M. P. Miquel, who has done much for the analysis of germ-laden air, 
has given up the insoluble “filter” for a plug consisting of a soluble 
material. This device was suggested twenty-five years ago by Pasteur, 
and dried Glauber’s salt or dried sea salt have been recommended for 
the purpose. Indeed, any soluble substance, when dry and sterilized, 
and which does not act antiseptically, is suitable for the purpose; and in 
solving the problem required, i.e. of ascertaining how many germs were 
imprisoned in the plugs, it would appear that oscillations of temperature 
between 0° and 30° made little difference to the plugs. 

For the development of germs the necessary conditions are threefold, 
viz. a suitable medium, a temperature of about 30°, and sufficiently long 
period of observation (30-40 days). From numerous experiments it 
was found that peptonized meat broth was far superior to peptonized 
gelatin as a nutrient medium, only about one-half the germs really 
existing in the air being developed on gelatin plates. 

The author concludes by maintaining that the gelatin-plate method 
is inapplicable to air analysis in all those cases where the air contains 
more fungi than bacteria germs. 


Method for determining the true Shape of Microscopic Objects.} 
—Dr. E. Berger uses the following method for determining the shape of 
the posterior chamber of the eye :— 

The objects are imbedded in celloidin on threads placed vertically 
and set at a distance of 1 mm. ‘The sections are made serially and are 
marked numerically. The outlines of each section and of the transverse 
sections of the rows are then drawn with the camera in such a way that 
the last overlap. Then, if the thickness of the sections be known, the 
projections, to adopt the phraseology of architects, &c., of the object 
examined can be ascertained. 

The enlargement is found by calculating the distances of the images 
of two sections, next each other in a row, by means of their true distance, 
Imm. For each enlargement it is easy to construct a scale so that the 
real size of the object can be read off. 


Bessey, C. E.—Vacation Notes upon some Botanical Laboratories. 
(Strassburg, Leipzig, and Berlin.) The Microscope, IX, (1889) pp. 5-7. 
Brown, F. W.—A Course in Animal Histology. V., VI., VII. 
The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 336-7, 375-7, IX. (1889) pp. 12-14. 


* Ann. Instit. Pasteur, 1888, p. 346. 
+ Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol., v. (1888) pp. 215-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 


159 
Formap, H. F.—[Liquids for Re-moistening Blood.] 


The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 339-40, 


from Journ. of Comp. Med. and Surg. 
FREEBORN, G. C.—Notes on Histological Technique. 

[Selective stain for connective tissue. Carminic acid. Macerating fluid for 
nerve-cells, Substitute for cork in imbedding. 


Application of methyl- 
green for demonstrating the chemical reaction and death of cells. 


Making 
sections of teeth and bone with the preservation of the delicate parts. 
Easy method of reproducing photographically histological sections. 


] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., 1X. (1888) pp. 231-2, X. (1889) pp. 9-10. 
LatuHaM, V. A.—Notes on Practical Examination of Muscle-fibres. 
The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 330-3. 
(Manton, W. P., and others.]—Reagents in Microscopy. 


[Reagents should be “as mild and innocuous as can be obtained, and their 
effects carefully studied before we draw conclusions as to the structure of the 
objects examined. ] 


The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 246-8. 
£5 . Rudiments of Practical Embryology. 
[Celloidine m 


ethod. Embryos as transparent objects. 
Cabinet. ] 


Labelling. Slide 

The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 334-5, 374-5. 
S., D.—A Microscopist’s Table. Engl. Mech., XLVIII. (1888) p. 333 (1 fig.). 
WHELPLEY, H. M.—Microscopy of the United States Pharmacopeia. 


The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 317-8. 
WoTHTSCHALL, E.—Ueber die mikrochemischen Reactionen des Solanin. (On 
the microchemical reactions of solanin.) II. 


Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., V. (1888) pp. 182-95. 


(#160 9 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Merrtine or 12TH Decemser, 1888, at Kine’s Cottzen, Stranp, W.C., 
Dr. C. T. Hupson, M.A., LL.D., Presipent, in THE CuHarr. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 14th November last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the President. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received 
since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society given 


to the donors. 
From 
Colman, W. S., Section Cutting and Staining. vi. and 107 pp., 

6 figs. (8vo, London, 1888) .. ..  .. «2 «2 « 
Griffith’s Patent Tumtable -.. .. «2 «2 «2 «. « 
Lubbock, Sir J., On the Senses, Instincts, and Intelligence of 

Animals, with special reference to Insects. xxix. and 292 pp., 

118 figs. (Svo, London, 1888)... .. .. .. « «. . 
Whelpley, H. M., Chemical Lecture Notes. 2nd ed., iv. and 

211 pp., 102 tigs. (8vo, St. Louis, Mo., 1888) .. ..  .. 
Zeiss, C., Special-Catalog iiber Apparate fiir Mikrophotographie. 

52 pp., 16 pls., and 9 figs. (4to, Jena, 1888) 69° 00° 00 


The Author. 
Mr. E. H. Griffith. 


The Author. 
29 


thi 


Mr. T. Christy exhibited and described a new device as an attach- 
ment to a lamp for use with the Microscope. He met with it in the first 
instance whilst attending the Medical Congress at Cologne, where it 
attracted a great deal of attention, and was in such demand by the many 
German visitors that he found it was quite uncertain how long he might 
have to wait to get one made. He therefore endeavoured to make one 
for himself, and had done this by inclosing the chimney of an ordinary 
lamp in a tin tube, into one side of which, on a level with the flame, a 
short nozzle was inserted. A piece of solid glass rod, about 5/8 in. in 
diameter, and bent to the required shape, was fitted into this nozzle by 
passing it through a perforated cork, the other end of the rod curving 
upwards under the stage of the Microscope. The light from the lamp 
entering the end of the glass, and being prevented from emerging by 
the limiting angle, was totally reflected throughout its entire length, and 
finally escaping at the extremity below the stage, illuminated the object 
in a very satisfactory manner; by simply turning the tube the beam of 
light could be directed upon or through the object in any required 
direction. He had some difficulty in the first instance in getting any 
one to undertake its manufacture, from a belief that it was already the 
subject of an English patent. He found, however, on inquiry at the 
Patent Office, that although a similar lamp had been made about four 
years ago, and steps had been taken at that time to secure patent rights, 
the matter had not been taken up within the time allowed, so that it had 
now lapsed. The intending patentee had wanted it for the purpose of 
passing light down the throat and elsewhere for medical purposes, but 
had given it up in favour of the more convenient electric lamp. He was 
told that in making it there was a good deal to be worked out, because a 
special sort of glass was needed to secure the best results. It was found 
that no advantage arose from covering the outside of the glass with tin- 
foil or black varnish. The German professors found they could work 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 161 


much more easily with light conveyed in this way, because no stray 
light from the lamp could enter the eyes, and they had thus the great 
advantage of working in the dark with a good light on the object. They 
also found it very convenient to be able, from the same lamp, to furnish 
light separately to the Microscopes of four or five students sitting round 
a table. 

Prof. Pritchard said he had worked with a lamp of this kind three 
or four years ago, using it successfully as a light whilst operating in 
the ear. It looked at first very extraordinary to get light to come 
through a rod in that manner; but there was no difficulty in explaining 
how it occurred ; because the light once getting into the rod was pre- 
vented from getting out again at the sides by internal reflection. There 
seemed some little difficulty in getting a good light, because of the 
amount of heat from the lamp, and the necessity for a particular kind 
of flame. The one he used was lent to him by Messrs. Ash, the dentists’ 
instrument-makers, 

Mr. Crisp said the German form of it was described and figured in 
the Journal just published, at p. 1025. 

Mr. Karop said that on looking through the Microscope the illumi- 
nation of the object was fairly good, but there was too little light for 
use with any but low powers, and the arrangement entirely precluded 
the use of the condenser. 

The President thought this was a fatal objection to it, because prac- 
tically for all delicate work one required the condenser constantly going 
in some form or other. 


Mr. C. L. Curties exhibited and described a new form of portable 
Microscope, intended for the use of medical men. It consisted chiefly 
in the folding tripod foot adapted to one of Baker’s histological Micro- 
scopes. The body-tube was of the Continental length, 9 in. closing to 
6 in., and there was a centering substage. 


Mr. Ahrens’ new erecting Microscope was exhibited. In this two 
right-angled prisms are made use of over the objective, Mr. Ahrens 
claiming that by this method there was less distortion than when lenses 
were used for erecting the image (see this Journal, 1888, p. 1020). 


Mr. Crisp handed round for inspection a curious little Microscope, 
in which he remarked that both Science and Art were combined. A 
seated figure of a monkey held the stage and mirror in its extended 
hands, a small brass arm screwed to the head of the figure serving to 
carry the tube (supra, p. 118). 


Mr. Griffith’s description of a new form of camera for microphoto- 
graphy, consisting of a conical wire spiral covered with black cloth, was 
laid before the meeting (see this Journal, 1888, p. 1031). 

Mr. C. L. Curties said he had tried this plan, but found the spiral 
troublesome to close, as it had a tendeney to shoot out sideways. It did 
not offer much advantage in point of space over the pcertable bellows 
camera, which, though extending to 3 ft., could be shut up to 5 in. by 
4 in., inclusive of the back. 


1889. M 


162 PROOGEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Mr. H. Jackson’s note was read, recommending monobromide of 
naphthaline as a medium for homogeneous immersion (supra, p. 119). 


The President said that the Society would regret to hear of the 
death of Dr. Zeiss, of Jena, which had taken place since the date of 
their last meeting. He had lived to the good old age of seventy-three 
years, and was known to many amongst them, though not to himself. 
But he knew a great deal about his lenses, because it had come to this, 
that practically he had been obliged to put aside all large-angled English 
lenses in favour of those of Zeiss’s manufacture. For delicate and flat 
work nothing could be better than the lenses produced by our best 
English makers; but when they had to deal with an active animal not 
more than 1/250 in. in length, it was of immense advantage to get that 
additional focal distance which these foreign lenses afforded. Then 
another thing in which Dr. Zeiss had departed from the English plan 
was in not attempting to make screw collars to his high-power objec- 
tives, but fixed the combination once for all at a given thickness which 
his experience found to be the best average working distance. The 
benefit of this was found at once when a delicate animal of about 
1/300 in. was being held in such a way that the slightest pressure would 
crush it, and perhaps it was also the only one of its kind yet seen. At 
such a time it was best to have a lens that was fixed, and did not require 
a troublesome adjustment to be made at the time. Then he found also a 
further advantage in the fact that this kind of lens admitted of the use of 
dark-field illumination to a greater extent than our own. ven with 
the very highest powers some kind of dark field could be obtained, and 
would show what could not otherwise be made out so well. Some people 
said that this was only a matter of display; but this was not all, for 
with many of the Rotifera it was necessary to use this method of 
illumination in order to obtain a true idea of their structure. 

Mr. Crisp said he must add some tribute to the memory of Dr. Zeiss, 
on account of the great courtesy he had always extended to them as a 
Society. There was nothing they had ever asked for but they had got 
it immediately. 

Mr. J. Mayall, jun., said he should like to add his testimony also as 
to the value of the services rendered to microscopy by the late Dr. Zeiss. 
When he was at Jena some time ago, in discussing with Prof. Abbe the 
progress that had been made in the Microscope since the introduction of 
achromatic objectives, his attention was called to the fact that Dr. Zeiss 
had devoted himself specially in his early days to perfecting the simple 
or dissecting Microscope, and that he had succeeded in obtaining such 
large apertures with his doublets and triplets that, in resolving power, 
they were nearly on a par with the best contemporaneous German 
compound Microscopes. Prof. Abbe thought the technical skill shown 
by Dr. Zeiss in the production of these doublets and triplets had led 
him to neglect for many years the compound Microscope, and hence, 
probably, to retard the development of the compound Microscope in 
Germany. Simple Microscopes had been much more in vogue on the 
Continent than in England until about thirty years ago, and the favour 
they had met with was largely due, without doubt, to the enormous 
apertures obtained by certain skilled opticians, notably the late Dr. 
Zeiss. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 163 


Mr. John Rattray gave a résumé of his paper “On a Revision of the 
Genus Auliscus Ehrb. and of some of the Allied Genera” (see this 
Journal, 1888, p. 861). 

The President was sure that all would feel greatly obliged to Mr. 
Rattray for this communication, for nothing could be more useful than 
to have these revisions from time to time, embodying as they did all 
that was known of the particular group dealt with. He thought it was 
very fortunate that the Society possessed a Secretary and staff who did 
so much in the way of collecting together and classifying facts in 
microscopy as was the case. ‘Those who recollected the old ‘Monthly 
Microscopical Journal,’ and compared it with the Journal of the Society 
at the present time, would fully understand the great ditference between 
them and the great advance made. 


The President called attention to M. Weber’s paper “On Rotifera 
from the Neighbourhood of Geneva,’ which he criticized in detail, 
showing the ridiculous mistakes into which the author had fallen. 
Amongst other points, M. Weber declared that a structure which the 
President and others had recorded as having been seen by them (but 
which M. Weber could not see) had been seen by the eye of faith only! 
It might, perhaps, be said that more consideration should be shown to 
the author. He thought, however, that it would be well sometimes to 
express a little more freely than usual a strong sense of the grievous 
mischief done by the kind of papers which they sometimes met with 
upon these and other subjects, in which the want of knowledge and care 
on the part of the writers led them into a statement of errors of the 
most remarkable kind, calculated not only to mislead, but to bring dis- 
credit upon the investigations of others with whose work they were 
unacquainted, and upon the branch of science to which the subjects 
belonged. 

Mr. Crisp said that the same mischief which the President had 
referred to in connection with zoological matters had recently been 
manifested in a similarly aggravated form in the branch of microscopical 
optics. 


Mr. J. Mayall, jun., said it would be remembered that at the previous 
meeting a paper by Prof. Govi had been read, in which it was sought to 
prove that the compound Microscope was invented by Galileo in 1610. 
Apart from the question as to whether Prof. Govi was justified in 
regarding the Galilean combination of a convex object-glass and a 
concave eye-lens as strictly a compound Microscope, he thought the 
magnifying power obtained by Galileo was probably much exaggerated 
by the testimony of witnesses who were thus describing their first 
experience in viewing magnified objects. He did not think it possible 
to obtain a magnification of 36 diameters by the Galilean Microscope, as 
stated in one of Govi’s quotations. That any one looking through a 
Microscope for the first time should exclaim that a flea appeared as big 
as an elephant was matter of common experience; but such random 
observations were of no value, for in the great majority of cases the 
actual magnification amounted to 10 or 15 diameters only, such as 
might be obtained with an ordinary pocket-lens. He questioned 
the possibility of obtaining a useful magnification of 86 diameters 
with any Galilean combination, and certainly not with the so-called 


164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Galileo Microscopes in Florence. Prof. Govi’s paper had brought to a 
focus his own desire to examine thoroughly the so-called Janssen 
Microscope at Middelburg, which he had not been able to do to his 
satisfaction when it was exhibited at the South Kensington Loan Col- 
lection in 1876. Since the previous meeting he had therefore been to 
Middelburg, and by the courtesy of the curator of the museum (Mr. 
Fredericks) he had had every facility to enable him to examine and 
photograph the Microscope, and also the telescope with which it was 
“traditionally associated. Mr. Mayall said the question of the authen- 
ticity of these instruments—the possibility of referring their construction 
to the hands of “ Janse ’—one of the two or three alleged Dutch inventors 
of the Microscope and telescope, and whose house is commemorated as 
having existed against the church wall in 1590 by a tablet on the spot— 
was a difficult matter on which he could only touch with diffidence. 
The facts seem to be that in 1866 a member of a well-known family in 
Middelburg named Sniders presented to the museum two instruments 
which he designated telescopes, saying they had been in the possession 
of his family for a long time, and that they had always been considered 
as made by Janssen. The authorities of the muscum requested the late 
Prof. Harting, of Utrecht University, to examine and report upon the 
instruments, which he did, explaining, of course, that the smaller one 
was evidently a Microscope. He (Mr. Mayall) had no difficulty in 
admitting the possibility of the instruments being of great age. View- 
ing them with a somewhat experienced eye in the examination of old 
optical instruments in the various collections in Europe, he thought their 
design and construction clearly indicated very early forms. It should 
also be noted that in a quiet, stay-at-home town like Middelburg, where 
generations of families have occupied the same houses in many cases for 
two or three centuries, the mere traditional association of the instruments 
with the name of Janssen would be far more likely to be transmitted 
truthfully than would obtain, for instance, in London, where the rule 
was incessant change of people and their surroundings. On the sup- 
position that the instruments were genuine productions representing the 
types in vogue when they were made, he should unhesitatingly affirm 
the Microscope to be older than the so-called Galileo Microscopes ; 
while as to the telescope, the built-up iron fixed tube of 14 feet in length, 
with the funnel-like eye-piece having a few inches range of motion, in 
which there was probably inserted an eye-lens consisting of a large dise 
of glass having a sinall concave ground and polished in the centre of one 
side, he thought the arrangement all pointed to an extremely primitive 
type of instrument. 

The President thought they were much indebted to Mr. Mayall for 
his very interesting account of these old instruments. He thought he 
understood him to say he had seen an eye-lens made of a plate of glass 
with a concavity in the centre. Was that so ? 

Mr. Mayall said he had one of that construction in his possession. 
The telescope had a focus of 30 in. to 40 in., and bore the name 1AcoB 
CVNIGHAM, and the date 1661. 

The President said nothing was more curious than the different 
estimates which a number of people or children unaccustomed to make 
comparisons would make as to the apparent size of any given object— 
for instance, the moon; one would say as big as a saucer; another, a 
yard ; and go on. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 165 


The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited :— 

Mr. Bolton :—Melicerta tubicolaria. 

Mr. T’. Christy :—New Microscope Lamp. 

Mr. Crisp:—Ahrens’ New Erecting Microscope; Griffith’s Photo- 
micrographic Camera; “ Monkey ” Microscope. 

Mr. Curties :—Portable Medical Microscope. 

Mr. J. Mayall, jun.:—Photographs and reproductions of Janssen 
Microscope. 

Mr. Rousselet :—Asplanchna Brightwellii. 


New Fellows:—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 
Messrs. B. D. Loveland, M.D., Thomas F. Smith, F. W. Sutcliffe, 
Walter H. Tyas, and James H. Veitch; the President of the Nottingham 
Naturalist’s Society was also elected an Ex-officio Fellow. 


Meretine or 9tH JAaNuARY, 1889, at Kine’s Cottecs, Stranp, W.C., 
Dr. C. T. Hupson, M.A., LL.D., Presipent, iv THE Cuarr. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 12th December, 1888, were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the President. 


The List of Nominations for the Council was read. 


Mr. Parsons and Mr. Guimaraens were elected Auditors. 


Mr. Karop said he had brought to the meeting and exhibited under 
a Microscope in the room, a slide showing something, the nature of 
which he was unable to determine, and should therefore be very glad if 
any of the Fellows of the Society could help him in the matter. Some 
years ago he collected a large number of samples of sea-sand, from 
amongst which he selected and mounted numerous specimens, the chief 
interest of which was due to the fact that many of the calcareous 
particles were found to be marked in a peculiar way by the action of 
fungi or alge or some other cause. A short time ago he was going 
through these slides so as to select from them those most worth keeping, 
when he came across one which was of a very peculiar character. In 
this the marking showed numerous slender rays which appeared to 
branch out in all directions, and one which seemed to have touched the 
cover-glass was turned on one side as if by the contact. Further 
examination showed that there were several other particles identical with 
this one, and the questions arose, were they endolithic crystals or were 
they produced by fungi? If crystals, what of, and how produced, seeing 
that the particles were mounted in Canada balsam ? 

Mr. Crisp said the appearance was so exactly like those of a 
Radiolarian, that one could hardly believe it to be a specimen of 
crystallization. 

The President, after inspecting the specimen, agreed that it looked 
exactly like a living Radiolarian. 

Mr. J. G. Waller said that on examining this specimen he felt quite 
sure that it did not belong to the same class as any of those of which he 


166 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


had made a collection. His series were all excavations made by fungi 
in calcareous particles; the one before them differed entirely from 
these. 


Mr. H. Epps exhibited a Culpeper Microscope with wooden base. 

Mr. Mayall said this Microscope was an interesting model, but it 
was not a very uncommon form. By removing the body-tube they had 
what was known as the old Wilson form of Microscope, which afterwards 
became so very popular in connection with the heliostat. This was the 
same form as several examples in the cabinet of the Society. The 
maker was Edmund Culpeper, a very careful workman, accustomed to 
ornament his apparatus with engraved patterns. The general style and 
finish of the instrument were evidently due to his training as a mathe- 
matical instrument-maker. 


Mr. T. F. Smith said that about three months ago he brought before 
the notice of the Society his ideas of what he conceived to be the 
structure of Pleurosigma formosum ; since that time he had made some 
further researches upon this diatom and also upon P. angulatum. He 
then stated that he thought P. formosum might, on closer investigation, 
prove to consist of more than three layers of structure, but he had come 
to the conclusion that there were not more than three. By means of 
drawings on the board, Mr. Smith further explained his views, and 
illustrated the subject by the exhibition of numerous photomicrographs 
as well as by specimens under the Microscope of P. angulatum, showing 
a fine grating hitherto undescribed. 

Mr. Ii. M. Nelson said, though he could add nothing to what Mr. 
Smith had told them, he thought it was most difficult work to carry out, 
indeed the difficulty might be understood from the fact that although 
this diatom had been of all others the most persistently examined, yet 
the structure described by Mr. Smith had hitherto escaped notice. 

The President said no doubt it would be extremely desirable to get 
at what was the real structure of the diatom valve, but he often thought 
that, considering the conditions, it might be impossible after all to get 
at it. He did not profess to be competent to judge on a matter of this 
kind, but he often met with illustrations in the Rotifera which led him 
towards that conclusion. He was once greatly struck by the apparent 
alteration in7the striations in the muscle of one of the Rotifera, which 
he had been very carefully observing and measuring. In watching 
Triarthra he distinctly saw the size of the striw alter in fineness whilst 
under observation. Owing to there being parallel layers through which 
he was looking, the movement of the muscle caused an alteration in their 
relative positions, and so entirely changed the appearance, as to render 
all his previous measurements useless. 


Mr. Crisp exhibited the Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.’s spirit-lamp, 
the reservoir of which was facetted instead of globular, so that it might 
be used in various positions—vertical, inclined, or horizontal. Also 
Mawson and Swan’s photomicrographic arrangement for fixing on the 
front of an ordinary camera. Also the fitting for the binocular prism 
of Messrs. Bausch and Lomb, by which the prism instead of sliding was 
rotated out of the field. Also Falk’s rotating object disc for bringing a 
number of objects in succession under the objective. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 167 


Mr. A. D. Michael gave a résumé of his paper “On the Special 
Internal Anatomy of Uropoda Krameri,” the subject being illustrated 
by drawings on the board, as well as by coloured diagrams and prepara- 
tions exhibited under Microscopes in the room (supra, p. 1). 

Prof. Bell said he had listened with great pleasure to the most 
interesting paper of Mr. Michael, and in so doing he noted that attention 
was called to a very curious anomaly in the nomenclature of anatomists 
with regard to the terminal portion of the intestinal canal. It was the 
usual practice to call this terminal tube the rectum, although it might, 
as in the case mentioned by Mr. Michael, receive the Malpighian tubes 
giving off renal products. But it was also a fact that those very 
anatomists who were in the habit of teaching students of these subjects 
in various places, did adopt the nomenclature advocated by Mr. Michael 
when they came to deal with certain of the Vertebrata. By drawings 
upon the blackboard it was then pointed out that in the bird, by 
universal agreement, one portion was called the rectum and the other 
the cloaca. He regarded the question of name as being in this case of 
small importance, the really important consideration being that in both 
cases they had the primitive intestine form. Whether, however, it was 
called the rectum or the cloaca, he thought it would be well to get the 
terms into agreement. He noticed that in the diagram there was no 
body-cavity shown, and inquired if it had been found to exist ? 

Mr. Michael said that he had not found that there was any special 
lining of the body-cavity. 

Prof. Bell said that was of course very interesting in relation to what 
was found elsewhere, because there was in the crayfish what was known 
as ceelom, which was analogous to the body-cavity. If they were to 
define it in usual terms then they would say there was none either in 
the crayfish or in the lobster, although what was found seemed to him 
to be much the same thing only reduced to a minimum. 


Mr. Bowman’s paper “On the Frustule of Surirella gemma” was 
read. 


Count F. Castracane’s paper “On the Reproduction and Multiplica- 
tion of Diatoms” (supra, p. 22) was read. 


Mr. Crisp explained the changes intended to be introduced, in the 
current year, in the botanical section of the Journal by Mr. Bennett, in 
order to bring it into harmony with the most recent views of the classifi- 
cation and terminology of Cryptogams, as embodied in Bennett and 
Murray’s ‘ Handbook of Cryptogamic Botany.’ The Lichenes will be 
discontinued as a separate group, and included under the head of Fungi; 
while, on the other hand, the Mycetozoa will be separated from the 
Fungi, and form an independent group of the first rank. The Protophyta 
will be divided into two sub-groups: (a) Schizophycem, and (8) Schizo- 
mycetes. Under the former will be included the Diatomacez, hitherto 
ranked as Algz ; the latter will comprise the Bacteria only, the Saccharo- 
mycetes being regarded as a degraded group of Ascomycetes. In 
terminology, the most extensive change will be the anglicizing of the 
termination of a large number of terms, such as sporange, antherid, 
archegone, plasmode, ccenobe, epiderm, &c. For macrosporangium, 


168 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


macrospore, and macrozoospore, the more correct terms megasporange, 
megaspore, and megazoospore will be substituted. The term spore, and 
its derivatives zoospore, tetraspore, &c., &c., will be limited to propaga- 
tive cells of non-sexual origin ; while for those reproductive cells which 
are the result of a process of sexual union, terms will be used compounded 
of the termination sperm, e. g. oosperm, zygosperm, carposperm, &c. 


The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited :— 

Mr. Crisp :—(1 and 2) Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.’s Spirit-lamp 
and fitting for Wenham Binocular Prism; (3) Mawson and Swan’s 
Photomicrographic Attachment; (4) Falk’s Rotating Object-disc. 

Mr. Karop:— Particle of Quartz (?) sand with radiating lines 
(crystals ?). 

Mr. Michael:—Uropoda Krameri. Alimentary canal and female 
reproductive organs in situ. 

Mr. T. F. Smith :—Pleurosigma angulatum showing fine grating. 


New Fellows:—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 
Messrs. W. I. Chapman, Thomas Craig, Rev. James Horn, Alexis A. 
Julien, Ph.D., Rev. Albert Mann, jun., F. S. Newcomer, M.D., 
C. W. Plyer, and Henry M. Whelpley. 


The Journal is issued on the second Wednesday of 
February, April, June, August, October, and December. 


ates! 


a 
ae 1889. Part 2. _ APRIL. { *° price nly 
JOURNAL 
OF THE 


ROYAL 
-MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY; 


CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS, 


AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


] 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANYT 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 
MICROSCOPY, Soc- 


Lidited oy 
FRANK CRISP, LL.B. B.A, 
One of the Secretaries of the Society 
and a Vice-President and Treasurer of the Linnean Society of Londons 


WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE. AND 


A. W. BENNETT, M.A., BSc., F.LS., F,. JEFFREY BELL, M.A., F.Z.S., 
Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital, Professor of Coniparative Anatomy in King’s C allege, 


JOHN MAYALL, Joun., F.ZS., R. G. HEBB, M.A., M.D. (Caxtab.),. 
AND 
J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A;, 
Lecturer on Zoology in the School of Medicine, Edinburgh, 
FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 
S LONDON AND EDINBURGH. . 
tee = Ah 


PRINTED BY WM. CLOWES AND. SONS, LIMITED,] (STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROs 


CONTENTS. 


——— 


TRANSAOTIONS OF THE SoommTy— 


IV.—TuHeE pes ADDRESS. ° By C. TT. Hudson, M. ee LL.D. 
“(Cantab.) .. Fk as eee pice ea 


V.—Derscrirtion or «a New Drererovs oe gan 
protinata, By Julien Deby, F.R.MS. (Plate IV.)., 


SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES. 
ZOOLOGY. 


A. VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 


“hs Embryology. 


FAGE 
162. 


180 


187 


Ds Spake 


AM 
190 24 
196 ee 
197) 
LSS 


201 


“ SUTTON, J. Branp—Bvolution of the Central Nervous System ™ Vertebrata .. 4. s 
Orr, H.— Development of Central, Nervous Systen of unplatone Bris! isis) 
NANsEN, ¥.— Protandric Hermaphroditism of Myxine a es o» 188) 
Boum, A. A.—Maturation and Fertilization of Ovum in the Lamprey Ae » 189 
Netson, E. M.—Observaltons on Human Spermatozoa «1 se ne | we ee | ws 190 
Scuuuze, F. E.—Epithelial Glands in Batrachian Larve.. 4. a0 > ee oe we «S190 
PACKABD, oe S.—Factors in the Evolution of Cave Animale we ee ee oe ee TOL 

‘B. Histology. peers S58 
Toxdx, L.— Division of Red Blood-corpuscles in Amphibia ei eos eee 191 
".. y, General. 

HARTOG, M.—Adelphotasy ae 

es Functions and Hone of Contractile Vacwiole ‘im Plants and 

Animals -- By ne OD 
‘Brag, J J.—Annelidan Afinities im “Ontogeny of Ver tebrate: Ner vous System a 192 
M‘Kenpricx, J. G.—The Modern Cell-Theory EAU eS Sen Sate ire 193 

B. INVERTEBRATA, 
KéuuKeEr, A.—Transversely Striated Muscular Fibre Maret cen Magen on se) area ee eS 
“2 WEISMANN, A.—Number of Polar Bodies... ve ee on en we ae 
Happon, A. C.—TIrish Marine Fauna... BOF Pema th (oe ie acai a ee 
Hurmprin, A.— Marine Invertebrates of Ber muda ‘Tslands , GENS Arce am iuealpa (remind Beret LS): BSC 
M'‘Coy’s (F.) Zoology of Victoria .. 1. 6. ae ee ne ne ee . 194 
Mollusca. 

i ~ Bs Pteropoda. ee poe CST Ga 
GRoBBEN, 0.—Monphology of Pteropods PS ore enon adh Geen es tS)! ‘ 
; ¥- -Gastropoda.. ; 

Kuorz, J — Generative Apparatus of Lymmeus .. se an ene wee 
Sarnt-Lour, R.—Anatomy of Aplysia: 2. ss ev oe oe we we ee ten 
GrenacuER, H.—The Heteropod Eye .. : + Sans pence 
Vorer, W.—Lntocolax Ludwign, Parasitic ina Doetearan pace Relsieeeans ne ene 
vee, J.—Mouth-parts of Ancylus fluviatilis and. Velletia lacustris. 2, +. ve 

“2D. Lamellibranchiata. 2 
Rawitz, B.—Ldge of Mantle of Acephala .. : ve AIR 
Gaunagm, R.—WNervous Elements of Adduetor Misties of Lameltibranchs: s. - 201° 
Mosius, K.—Swelling of Foot of Solen pellucidus .. .. .. se oe ine 

; Molluscoida, ; 
B. Bryozoa- Ra 

Fawans, of Waren talied Bryozoon se swe tee ee ee we we 201 


193% = 


(a) 


i es -_ y. Brachiopoda. 


: : PAGE 
ab 2 Davipson, 'T.— Recent Brachiopoda Si eh SANs en Gee AVN ce Neer e AO 
eon So bee _ Arthropoda. 
pee Bes of Arthropods 4. as sa oe we 202 
: a. Insecta. 
_. JorpAn, K. Sua and Biology of Physapoda ——. Nese 08 
_ Mincain, E. A.—New. Organ and Structure of Eh ypoder mis in > Periplaneta 
is orientalis. Whe seu hcien ee en Obes 
~~ CARLET, Ee —New Mode of Closing Traches of Insects" Teche auf Gene ets Nek kent 
en eran New Organ of Hymenoptera, -.: RS yelp oe uk eon Unie acne Renee AO: 
He  Ravosexowsn1— Male Copulatory Apparatus of Pompilidie: SUaitadi Pie neuaea > 205 
\ Prize, A.—EHnteric Canal of Hphemeride .. .. Biug De cmmecon 206 
Pouuton, E. B.—Lepidopterous. Larvz Sinan are eae rues ga 206 
*  Watsincuam, Lorp—New Genus of Pyralidz FORD a dieind Ont 207 
Massa, C.— Parthenogenesis of Death's-head Moth 208 
Lewis, G.—Mouth-organs of two species of ede 208 
ee J. See and Collembola ~ .. 208 
aR Bp. Myriopoda. 
se Kinostny, C. 8. ey of Myr fopoda se ws ve we Se eer) 
7, Prototracheata. 
ag Suunon, L. ee of Pertpatus Nove-Zealandiz .. 210 
ROR ee a §. Arachnida. 
ss Loman, J. ©. C. Gueal Glands of Arachnida... se np on tees 210 
~ Saint-Riny, G.—Brain of Araneida SEU Seana) tare MR CAFC ira 211 
_ Croneserc, A.— Anatomy of Preudoseorpions: ie hes ae ee 2 21D 
~ Trovgssart, E. L.—Marine Acarina of Wimereux pete nt 
- Crarge, J. M.—Structure and Development of the Visual ‘Area, in Tr ilubites .. 212 
aS BABEs, V.—Migrations a Pentastomum denticulatum in Cattle .. 212 
€ Crustacea. 
 STAMATI, Ge aionsbaeity in a Orayfish Eee Gere er Sosy Cenisiaay 213 - 
--Cuaus, ©.—Nebalitde and Leptostraca.. 2 2 en ew 213 
= » Marine Ostracoda... SUNG ome cenua nate 214. 
: pss, E. Dy pe—Cladocera. of Hungary SON aU N at LK EA e A 915 
-Norpquist, O.—Calanida of Finland .. 1c eee 215 
~ _Hartoe, M.— Morphology Of Cyclopes ey a a ee we 215 
cae a Vermes. 
a, Annelida. 
LGucneen. C. 5 re pardial Glands OP Annelida Wn ee ha ie we BID ae 
_ Spenwr, W. B.—Anatomy of Megascolides australis... 216: 
~ Bepparp, BF. E.—Structure of Urocheta ana Cas and Hepa a8 Earth 
5 SWOPE <5 >. elect Aaa Ae 218 
< GARMAN, Tew Thorn: Gaia ee a See UU ARNG GE BA Ce ee ec Sara aae al, Sh pecans Mapa a OO) 
~. Rosa, D.—New. Genus of Budritide Ba es I ee rae RR OTN 220° 
a9 9 Endian Pericheetide® nue ce ne a ene 220 
a B. ‘Nemathelminthes. ; 
_ Bovent, Ta. —Fertilézation and Segmentation in Ascaris megalocephala.. 220 
‘Koutscuirzxy, N.—Maturation and Fertilization of Ova in Ascaris marginata (223 <2 
Cops, N. A.—Anatomy and Ontogeny of Nematodes ..0 i... cee a 224 
_Micuex, A.—Cellular Bpidermis of Nematodes -. ; Bannan sl cuss Baa ae SO 
Apucco, V.— Red Colouring Matter of Hustr ongyls gigas. mae ayaa aece tard ae 5 225 
_CAMERANO, 2 New Species of Gordius % Spot ed ae 225 
y- Platyhelminthes. 4 
hoary -Buanc, WH Papeucrme woth Perjorateds TOvitae cal 28 eS Ue A age ea ORO 
Grass, B.— Intermediate Host of Tenia cucumerind .. 0 ese te we D2 
: Loman, J. os C. —Structure of ee Aa aie Pe ect se ea ganna Ones MOG 


CE) 


; 5. Incertz Sedis, 
RousseLet, C.—New Rotifer... + Sa nate 
See Echinodermata. 


Lupwié, H.—Ludwig’s Echinodermata... .. «. 
CARPENTER, P. H.—Comatulids of Kara Sea 


WacusmutuH, C., & F. Sprincer— Ventral Structure of Taxocrinus and Haplo- 


erinus . Sore Relea tes ames 
3 si A Ae hoes 


Coelenterata. 


JUNGERSEN, H. F. E—Siructure and, Leone ee Cotony ue Rennes 


phosphorea : 
Grea, J. AL New Cacialarien Pures BSUS 
Sle es D, C.—North-Atlantic Actinida Ne Gear 
Lister, J. J.—Natural History of Fungia .. 4... 
Witson, H. V.—Derelopment of Manicina areolata . 
Isnixawa, C.—Origin of Female Generative Cells in Podocoryne Sars 
peer -—Cunoctantha and Gastrodes 4. 1. sy ae ee 


Porifera, 
Denpy, A Si loanie TS ONT ee pie ates heh eaten ain soit gaa 


‘Protozoa. 


Birscur’s * Protozoa’ 
Mostus,. K.—Infusorian Fauna of the Bay of Kiel 
Kunstier; J.— New or Litile-known Appar en 
Garp, A. —New Infusorian ; 

PLath, L. ey of Noctilaca miliaris 
Mosivus, K.—Red Organisms of the Red Sea. 
Grouper, A.—Rhizopods of Gulf of Genoa... ., 
ZaAcHartias, O.—Pseudopodia and Cilia... — ». 
Dreyer, F'.—Structure of Pylomata of Protista .. 


BOTANY. 


A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and nanan 
of the Phanerogamia. 


hi Anatomy. 
(1). Cell-structure.and Protoplasm. 


Drcacny, C.—Nuclear Origin of Protoplasm 92. ee ee ne ee we 
Satvaceau, C.—Intercellular Protuplasm 1. 2. ce ee ae we ws 


(2) Other Cell-contents Gneluding Secretions). 


Trrcuem, P.. Van—Hydroleucites and Grains of Alewrone .. 
~Macontati, L.—Xanthophyllidrine. : 

Tavuret, C.—New Principle from Ergot of Rye, Engosterin 

Rennigz, EH. H.—Colouring Matter of Drosera Whittaker . 

Briost, G.—M ineral Substances in Leaves .. ; a 


(3) Structure of Tissues. 


JADIN, E'.—Secretion-reservoirs. .. a 
GuienarD, L., & Corin—Reservoirs of Gum: OD Temi te 
EBERDT, O —Palisade Parenchyme ii 
Poronré, H.—Sclerenchymatous Cells in the Flesh of th the Pear = 


GREGORY, EB. L.— Development of Cork-wings ss 45 ee eee fe ae 


Witte—Bordered Pits of Conifers... i 

Harrie, R.— Accumulation of Reserve-substances in Tr. ee3 - 

~ Lamounerte—Fibrovascular Bundles in the Petiole of Nierenbergia rivularia 
Laux, W.—Vascular Bundles in the Rhizome of Dlenprotylogens Tpietee 
AA ser P.— Bacillar Tumour on Pinus halepensis 

DineiER, H.—Mechanical Structure of Floating-Organs . . 

Farmer, J. B. ee ge of the Endocarp am the Elder 


PAGE 


227 


227 
227 


228 - 


998 


229 
230 
230, 


O31 


231 
231 


932 


233 


284 


234 
239 


O35 


236 


2 O36. 
PORT 


237 
238 


Core) 
(4) Steactive of Geeuas: 


ds aes Tq. F.—Epiderm of the Seeds of eee Me sigapiy aw eee Re 
-Mez, O.—Embryo of Umbellifere.. SUN RD HE adn ate ek teas 
~ Reicar, K.— Winged Stems and Decurrent Leaves pen 
- Emery, H.—Bud of the Tulip-tree .. 
~ Riwiey, H. N.—Foliar Organs of a new species of Utricularia. 
Dacuri0n, A—Polymorphism of the Leaves of Abietinez .. 
HiABERLANDT, G.—Leaves of Begonia .. 
~ SHaAtTrocg,. 8. He —Scars on the Stem of Dammara robusta 
Prazmowsk1, A.—Root-tubercles of Leguminosz... A 
-Voiniemin, P:.—Tubercles of Leguminose .. 
DANGEARD, P.’ A—Formation of Subterranean Swellings i in Bhanthis hyemali 
' Souonnann, S —Morphology of the Mistletoe . Ey ; 


JurL, H. O.—Structure Rees ee Seman Ree ig, 
B. Physiology. 
poem (1) Reproduction and Germination. 


 Ravuay, E.— Distribution of the Sexual Organs in the Vine 
_ Kronrecp, M:—Constancy of Insects in visiting Flowers .. 
“Murnan, T'.— Fertilization of Lonicera japonica 


 Hemrert, A—Fertilization in the Nyctaginee .. 


MEDSBAN, T.— Cross-fertilization in Budeanyes 
» Life-history of Yucca os 
ARCANGELI, G.—Flowering of Euryale ferox ae 
5, Germination of the Seeds of HES Soros 
Winger, A.— Germination of the Hazel 


(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Movements of Fluids). 


ey in the soil... z Haney 
Wisi, eg aL of Water thorough ie Wooil tp hada ane 
a | (8) Irritability. 


Basie. H. b= Bpauilaitoous Movements of Stamens and Blakes 
Counnincuam, D. D.—Trritability of Mimosa eis oe 


i. _ ‘Kurrany, H. — Cause of violent Torsion 


(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 
PatLapin, W.—Products of the Peconpontion of arenes in the absence of 


Sree oxygen 


' Arcangent, G. —Panic Fe ermentation 


y General. 
a Mazz, G New Myrmecophilous Plait 00a as 


epee ‘Magizaoy,, A. KERNER v.—Scent of Flowers 


B. CRYPTOGAMIA. 


Cryptogamia Vascularia. 


Tircuem, P. Van—Doubling of the Endospermin Vascular ere: 
CampsetL, D. H.—Systematic Position of the Khizocarpee — .. 

se ¥ Germination of Marsilia eguplnen 

x Development of Palularia. : 

SreRns, E. BE —“ Bulblets” of Lycopodium Iucidulum 
Fartow, W. G.—Apospory in Pieris aquilina 
Borzi, A.—Xerotropism in Ferns .. 
- Miter, C. —Structure of the Comméssure of the ‘Leaf-sheath of ‘Equisetum 


fsa Muscinez. 
PHILIBERT. LS Perisionie of Mosses ~.4 ss ap 
Nou, F.—Shining of Schistostega osmundacea 

STEPHAN, F F.—New Hepaticz .: 2 


ca VINES, S. H.—Relation between the formation of Tubercles and the piesa a 


246 
247 


248 


249 
249 
249 
249° 
250 
250 
250 
250 
251 


251 
201 


251 
252 
253 


253 


wa 253 


253 
293 


254 
254 
204 
254 
255 
256 
256 
256 


297 
257 
257 


ee) 


. Algee. 


PAG 
Scatrr, F.—Phycoerythrin: Orie a eae ree aria a what 258. 
JOHNSON, T.— Reproduction of Spherococcus en AN Ae ag. elena Weare Ren 258 
Hanseire, A,—Hntocladia 9. 6. ek ue 259 
Wirrroox, V. B.—Binuclearia- Fae AOa we nto iie, Wa CN ee ith ER ae Min ds ear ERD 
Mosius, M.—Chatopeltis..  .. Tapea Line vid Wave Sear ota vis eset ale TAU et gneiwigtae AN 
Murray, G, & L. A. Boopin—Strauvea Penge ge ya ee Mace TSS C1 AO IES 
DANGRAnD, P. A. — Sexuality among the Lower Algz .. sere “(ave 260. 
Fungi (including Lichenes). 
Frank, B Physiological. Significance of Oat. Pattie eat vie ieee 261 
Macnus, P.— Hibernation of Peronosporexe 261 
Bronanrarr, Pe and their use tn Mahe deat vuction ee noxious 
Insects. Pevenpaxctawy -- 261 
LacEruem, G.— —Olpidiella, a. new ‘genus of Chytridiacese .. : -. 262 
Linpav, G.—Origin and Development of the Apotheces of Lichens- »» 262 
_ Mttirr, J.—Graphidex .. . Bsa lO) eee ane SATE: 

- MAssatonco, C.—Germination of the Spores of Sphen opsidece intend ae sche eae h eee 
NAWASCHIN, S.—Helotium parasitic on’ Sphagnum —.... ws ss wat fee cr uetnes 
aa P.—Pezize causing Cankers in Os 263 
Worontn, M.—Sclerotiniz of Vaccinium .. 263 
James, J. F.—Development of Oorynites. Curtissti ee oe Ok 
Cavara, F.—New Parasitic Fungi waht »» 264 

Warp, H. M.—Lily Disease .. .. » 265". 
SonoKiy, N.— Saccharomyces Alli, sp. te » 265 

5 4. Lolydesmus petalicolor, sp. mo 265, 

» . Sorosporella Agrotidis, g. et sp. 1... ve ne ee ewe 266 
G-AsPERINT, G.— Fermentation of Palm-wine SESE pe ea EE Ne . 266 
DI£TEL, P.—New Melampsora . 266. 
Lacrrneim, G.—New Urocystis 266 
Harz, C. O.—Fungi Pf Mines... aN Neg ee oe 6 266 

Protophyta. 

a, Schizophycez. 

CasTRACANE, | F, penal of Diatoms —s, ws we we 266 

: B. Schizomycetes. 
Bivrun, ‘H.—Doetrine of Phagocytes Rae oa Sete es 
Hiptwer— Bacteria of Fodder and Seeds. 4... -2. 05 ss 268 
Zasuxin, T.— Varieties of Koch's Comma Bacillus 5 269 

_ Pruni—Spore-formation in the Bacillus of Typhoid Fever 269 
Hericorer, J., & Cu. Ricamr—Staphylococcus py pyosepticus : 269 
KITASATA, 'S.— —Resistance of the Cholera Bacteria to Heat and Drying 270 — 
ee ee of Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus’ +... s+ 0. 270 
Seumerr, BH -Micro-organisms of Pneumonia of Lambs and Calves . 270 © 

MICROSCOPY. 
a. Instruments, Accessories, &e. see 
@) Stands.” ee 
PFEFFER’s (W.) leans Microscope (Fig. 38) . 272 
Aurens’ (0. D.) Giant Microscope (Fig. 39) 273. 
Swirr’s (& Son) Mineral Microscope (Fig. 40) 274 
Dycs, F. C. Van—Binocular Dissecting Microscope... 279 
Lertz’s large Dissecting Microscope (Fig. 41) .. .. 25 
(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives. 

(8) Diluminatine and other Apparatus. — 
Aurens’ (C. D.) Modification of Delezenne’s Polarizer 276 
Faurer’s (G., & Son) Rotating Object-holder (Fig. 42) Aa emer tO 
Larrraranny, G.— Apparatus for measuring very minute Crystals (Fig. 48) B 277 

(4). Photomicrography. : 
‘Zuiss’s large Photomicrographic Apparatus (Figs. 44-49)... 2718 


Coto) 


(5) Microscopical Opties and Manipulation. PAGE 
Microscoricat, OPrTics .. 283 
McMauon, C..A:—Mode of: using the Quartz Wedge “for estimating the ‘Strength of 

the Double-Refraction of Miner: als in thin slices of Rock (Big: 50)... 286 | 
Murcer, A. C.—* Method of using with ease Objectives of shortest working distance 

in the clinical study of Bacteria” 287 
Netson, E. M.—* Back of the Objective and ‘Condenser Hs Figs a1 “B1).. on 288 
Ae aoe erie ae 292, 
(6) Miscellaneous, 

B. ‘Technique. 
i @) Collecting Objects: including Culture Processes. 

Lom H, N.—Improved Form of the “ Wright.” Collecting Bottle (Wig. 55) . 295 
Monnicu, A. J.—Culture of Fungus of Vavus (Achorion Schonleinit) 296 

“Ceti, A.—Ordinary Foodstuff as Media for PEPER ges: pee Micro- 

Taye or ganisms 296 
e EUCEVEN: Van—Solid Media prepared fr om Milk 297 
cates - (2) Preparing Objects. 
Dees. i — Demonstrating Transverse Stréations in Bae and. 
pe Nerve-cells .. Se (eee nee RIO 
FERrreorn, G. °C. —Macerating Fluid for Nerve-cells oe 298 
_ Heiwennain, R.— Preparing small Intestine 298 
_ GALEAZZzI, R. so es of Nervous Hlements of A Acduetor Muséles of Lamelli- 
: » branchs ~~... ee 299 
_ REEs, J. VAN—Prepari ing Musca vométoria .. 299 
- OvupEmans, J. T.—Examination of Thysanura and Collembola 299 
Harroe, M. M.—Method of investigating Cyclops 300 

Cops, N. A. —Hzamination of Nematodes 300 

Cuccatt, J.-—Preparing the Brain of Somomya er Piiheocaphntces 301 

_ Grassi, 'B,, & W. Scuewisnorr— Preparing Megastoma entericum 301 — 
i Amany—Preparation of Muscinez... rigs Sno masts 301 
Weir, F. W.—Clearing recent Diatomaceous Materiat ia omen nee ois 302 
ie MORGAN, Us. HE -Ohitin: Solventa =o. oe ee iae ts aguas Seg sae Ss 303 
: (8) Cutting, including, Imbeddineg and Microtomes. 

~ Lurrz’s * Support” Microtome (Pig: 56) 6.0 ee ae oe ee we ae ee) B04 
-. Taytor’s (T.) Combination Microtome .. rie e crilam brine Srity samme eae a UE 

PREEBORN, G. C. — Substitute for. Corks im Imbedding 305 

(4) ‘Staining and Injecting,- 

“ Ferenony, G. C.—Carminic Acid Stain —.. 305 
i Staining. Connective Tissue “with. Nigro ostn 2 Endulin, Anilin 
 Blce-black) ae Sa) sae aah BOO 

Campsunr, D. HH. — Clearing and Staining of Vegetable Preparations 306 

' SauvacEau, C.—Staining of Vegetable Tissues .. . Sty eS 306 

‘ JAMES, F. L.— Red Stain for Vegetable Sections... 1. : 307 

_.. Metin, G.—Staining Bacilli of Rhinoscleroma... Bo 307 - 
a, Maver, P. Injecting and Preparing the Circulatory ‘Sistem: of Fishes .. 307 
“Perri, R. J. — Pua oe for eae Fluids ihe Bacteriological : 
Purposes. -«. ‘ : «1 e 308 
(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &e. ig 
 SEHLEN, Von—Fiwing Objects to ee Fe wag iialate Sieace ee TOUS 
G. ue C.— Glycerin ‘Mounts. ais ces Be casi ites ee aay etree Dae, see BOG 
(6); Miscellaneous. 
PRACTICAL Utility of the Microscope to Textile, Workers 309 

_ Renarp, A.—Value of the Microscopic Analysis of Rocks .. .. B10 
SeHLeN, VoN—Microscopical Examination of Urine for Bacteria + 8138 
WHELPLEY, H. M.—Action of Bleaching Agents.on Glass. es 814 

er W. S.-—Micro-organisms of the Bible Zale lane peices eee 814 
PROGEEDINGS On tie SouINEy Sue a Oy ere o15 


SE Ns PSSA NEALE eS CO APR RO ee ESAS AW Eas SoU UES ESS GES EES EE Set CREME 
. {Limit of Resolving Power, in Lines to an Inch. 


Numerical 
Aperture. 
(asin u=a.) | 


1:52 
1°51 


Corresponding Angle (2 w) for 


Aur 


(n= 1:00). 


APERTURE TABLE: 


Water 
(% = 1133). 


Homogeneous ( 


Immersion 
(n= 1752), 


180° 0! 
166° 51’ 
161° 23! 
157° 12! 
153°39’ 


White Light. 


I (A = 0°5269 ju, 


Line E,) 


146,543 
145,579 
144,615 
143,651 
142.687 
141,723 
140,759 
139,795 
138. 7830 
137, 866 
136, 902 
135, 938 
134,974 
133, 046 
131, ,118 
129, 189 
128, 995 
127, 261 
125. 5333 
123. 405 
121 ‘477 
119. 548, 
117,620 
115,692 
113,764 
111,835 
109.907 
107,979 
106,051 
104, 123 
102. 195 
100. , 266 
98° 338 
96, 410 
94. 482 
92, 5p 
90,625 
88,697 
86,769 
84,841 
82,913 
80,984 
79, 056 
77,128 
75,200 
73,272 
71,343 
693415 
7,487 
65,559 
63,631 
61, ‘702 
59,774 
57,846 
99,918 
53,990 
52,061 
50,133 
48,205 
43-385 
38,064 
33,744 
28,923 
24.103 
19,282 
14,462 
9,641 
4.821 


Monochromatic 
(Blue) Light. 
(A = .0°4861 pu, 

Line F.) 


158,845 
157,800. 
156,755 
155,710 
154,665 
153,620 
1525575 

151, 5 
1505485 
149,440 
148 395 
147,350 
146,305 
144,215 
142,125 
140,035 
138,989 
‘137, 944 
135,854 
133,764 
131, 674 
129,584 
127,494 
125,404 
123,314 
121, 224 
119,134 
117,044 
114 954 
112, 864 
110, s174 
108 "684 
106,593 
104,503 
102,413 
100,323 
98 , 233 
96,143 
194,053 
91,963 
89, 873 
87,783 
85,693 
83,603 
81,518 
719-4293 
717,339 
(3,242 
73,152 
71,062 
685972 
66,882 
64,792 
62,702 
60,612 
58,022 
56,432 
54,342 
§2,,252 
47,026 
41,801 
36,576 
31,351 
96,126 
20,901 
15,676 
105450 
5, 225 


a ae 
(A= 0°4000 1 
near Line h) oy 


193,037 
191,767 
190,497 
1895227 
187,957 
186,687 
185,417 
184, 147 
182,877 
181,607 
180, 337 
179, 067 
177,797 
173,257 
172,717 
170,177 
168,907 
167 , 637 
165,097 
162, 557 
160,017 
157,477 
154,937 
152,397 
149,857 
147,317 
144,777 
142,237 
139. 698 
137,158 
134,618 
132. 078 
129,588 
126,998 
124,458 
121,918 
119,378 
116,838 
114, (298 
‘111,758 
109: 218 
106, 678 
104,138 
101,598 
99,058 
96, 518 
93, 979 
91 "439 
88 899 
86,359 
83. ,819 
81, 279 
78, 739 
76. 199 
73, 6D9 
71,119 
68,579 
66,039 
63,499 
57,149 
50:,799 
44,449 
88,099 
31,749 
25. 400 
19,050 
12,700 
6,350 


Piolnatie 


ey 


2-310 | 


iss) 


yao 


Ped fel pd et pd fe fet et et ed, HD HD DO DO DOD DOO. 


Pene-* 


310 


ine) 
(o2) 
(=) 


250 


be bh 
So ty 
oo 


OOP WNHNNE eee ee ee ee ee eee eee eee eee 
Or 
ss 
Or 


003 420-000 


one of 
Power... 


OO 


Rapes 
ae a aS SiC 


See GS 
ee ae ee Re 


Wie 
ed 


WRI N ye oe rahe CEP 


eee 


wee 
ae oe. 


A Sage re 
Pe? eres 


“Table showing the Corresponding Degrees of the Fahrenheit and Centigrade 
Thermometers. 


© Faby, | Centigr. . - Fabr. Centigr. Kahr, . Centigr. 


aren 


Al 5 
40 4. 
39°2 ao 
38 3°33 
37-4 3. | 
36 2-92 | 
3516 Bese 
34 1°11 
33'8 1 
32 9} 
30°2 | = J 
80 = ill} 
B44 |. og 4 
28 - — 2:29 
6-6 |= -3 | 
26 Boas. 
24-8 |. 4 
24. = 4-44 


— 
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Pap b de Pebet) 


we WO 
I 
=) 
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i 

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(00) 


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© 


FAWRENHEIT 


_ AD 30 20 10 0 io ri 30 40 50 60 70 § fi a0 90100 110120 150 140 150 160170 180 190 200.212 
QUNNAOUANAGANARAUONAAOCUIOUILEITL TITIAN UICC 


40 30 20 10 


CEATIGRADE 


( 10 ) 
GREATLY EEE PRICES 


OBJECT - “GLASSES. MANUFACTURED BY 


R. & J. BECK, © 


68, CORNHILL, LONDON, E.C. 


PRICES OF BEST ACHROMATIC OBJECT-GLASSES. 


~ Focal length. 


4. inches 
3 inches 
3 inches 


‘|, 2, inches 


2 inches 

1} inch .: 
2inch .. 
2inch .: 


A inch 


3 inch ie 


Angle 
of 


aper=. 


ture, 
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iv) 


ee 


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COMAAAWAPOOYNYMVYH DHE 
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Revised Catalogue sent on application to 


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| No. 1.|'No. 2.) No. 3. 


No. 5. 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. 


APRIL 1889. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. 


IV.—The President's Address. 
By C. T. Hupson, M.A., LL.D. (Cantab.). 
(Annual Meeting, 13th February, 1889.) 


Ir is no longer possible, I think, for your President to give, as the 
substance of his Address, a summary of the most important improve- 
ments of the Microscope, and of the most remarkable results of 
microscopical research, which have been recorded in the preceding 
twelve months. 

All this is now so fully and so admirably done in your own 
Journal, by your energetic Secretary and his able colleagues, that 
your Presidents will most probably, in future years, have to follow the 
excellent precedent set by Dr. Dallinger, and choose for the subject 
of their Addresses some topic directly springing from their own special 
studies. For, on an occasion like this, each President would wish to 
give the Society the best he can, and it is clear that this best must be 
sought for among matters of which he has a special knowledge. 

Unfortunately, an accident, which befell me early last year, not 
only robbed me of the pleasure of being present at several of your 
monthly meetings, but also produced consequences that compelled me 
to put my Microscope aside; and, as I had not long before finished 
my share of the ‘ Rotifera, I feared at first that I had lost the power 
of pursuing any new investigation, just at the very time when I had 
published the results of all my old ones. 

There is, however, still a portion of my subject with which I am 
familiar, and which, I believe, has not as yet been touched upon by 
any one; and I venture to hope I may make it interesting to you. It 
relates to what may be called the foreign Rotifera; that is to say, to 
those Rotifera which have not as yet been found in our islands. One 
would naturally like to know what proportion these foreign species 
bear to the British ; whether there are any families or genera entirely 
absent from the British fauna; whether there appears to be any law 
of distribution among the Rotifera; and how far it is possible to 
account for the existence of the same species in places which are 
thousands of miles apart. But many of the numerous memoirs, from 
which information on these points is to be derived, are only to be 

1889. N 


170 Transactions of the Society. 


found scattered widely in various European periodicals, and so are 
difficult to be procured ; while, of those that have been published 
separately, the best are rare. 

Under these circumstances I thought it not improbable, that the 
members of our Society might be glad to know that the task of 
studying and condensing these memoirs had been in the main accom- 
plished, and that Iam able now to present them with some of the 
results. 

In the first place, I made a list of all the known species, and 
marked against each the various localities in which it has been found. 
It was curious to see, as the table grew, how certain well-known Roti- 
fera were picked out by their rapidly advancing scores, till at last 
about fifty typical Rotifera were separated from the rest, while of 
these a smaller group enjoyed the further distinction cf having a very 
wide range, not only in latitude and longitude, but also in altitude. 

The same table showed, at a glance, that Great Britain decidedly 
outstripped all other countries in the number of its recorded species, 
having quite two-thirds of the whole. Nor was this all; for the 
Rotifera seemed, like trade, to follow the flag, and to haunt the 
British colonies, just as if they were British ships. 

The reason for this curious pre-eminence of British Rotifera is 
clearly seen, when we notice how those species are distributed, which 
have as yet been found in one country only. There are about 240 
such species ; and of these no fewer than 173 (that is to say, more 
than two-thirds) are peculiar to Great Britain. It is of course obvious 
that this apparent selection of Great Britain as the fatherland of the 
Rotifera is simply due to the greater energy, industry, and skill with 
which the search for new species has been pursued in this country. 
It is, however, very remarkable that the naturalists of Great Britain 
should in late years have added to the Rotiferous fauna two-and-a- 
half times as many species, as the naturalists of all other countries put 
together have done; and this highly honourable result is mainly due 
to members of your own Society, and especially to my deeply lamented 
colleague and dear friend, the late Mr. Philip Henry Gosse, F'.R.8. 

After I had seen how greatly the value of the recorded distribu- 
tion of the Rotifera was affected by what I may term the “ personal 
equation,” I at first feared that I should obtain little else from my 
tables than a well-merited tribute to the energy of British naturalists. 
Further inspection, however, showed other points that are well worth 
your notice. 

In the first place, my lists showed that Germany, Switzerland, and 
Hungary come next in order to Great Britain in the total number of 
species that each records, and I have only to mention the names of 
Ehrenberg, Leydig, Cohn, Grenacher, Zacharias, Eckstein, Plate, 
Imhof, Perty, Bartsch, Vejdovsky, Zelinka, not to say many others, to 
make it obvious that the result is due, not to the real distribution of 
the species in these countries, but to the comparative skill and 
industry of their naturalists. 


The President's Address. By Dr. C. T. Hudson. Niall 


Next, my table shows clearly that in all cases a considerable 
number, and in some the great majority, of the above-named fifty 
typical Rotifera, range throughout Britain, France, North and South 
Germany, Denmark, Switzerland, Hungary, and Russia, so that we 
may reasonably conclude that a considerable proportion, of the 450 
known species, would probably be found in almost any part of Europe, 
if they were diligently searched for. Here, for instance, is a list of 
thirty well-known Rotifera, all of different genera, and all recorded in 
at least five of the above eight Kuropean countries :— 


Floscularia ornata. Diglena catellina. 
Stephanoceros Hichornit. Mastigocerca carinata. 
Melicerta ringens. Rattulus lunaris. 
Limnias ceratophylti. Dinocharis pocillum. 
Lacinularia socialis. Scaridium longicaudum, 
Philodina roseola. Salpina mucronata. 
Rotifer vulgaris. Euchlanis dilatata, 
Actinurus Neptunius. Cathypna luna. 
Asplanchna Helvetica. Monostyla cornuta. 
Triarthra mystacina, Colurus uncinatus. 
Hydatina senta. Metopidia lepadella, 
Notommata aurita. Pterodina patina. 
Proales decipiens. Brachionus urceolaris. 
Furcularia forficula. Anurza aculeata. 
Hosphora aurita, Notholca striata. 


Besides, many of the Rotifera are very tolerant of climate, and 
appear to be able to live anywhere that they can get food. For 
instance, Rotifer vulgaris is to be found all over Kurope, and at all 
heights, thriving under moss near the top of the Sidelhorn, and on 
the Tibia, at an altitude of 90U0 feet above the sea. It has been met 
with also in Nubia, on the slopes of the Altai Mountains in Siberia, 
in Ceylon at the top of Adam’s Peak, in Jamaica, and in the Pampas 
of La Plata. Brachionus pala has nearly as great a range, for it has 
been found in many parts of Europe, in Egypt, at the Cape of Good 
Hope, in Siberia, Ceylon, Jamaica, and New Zealand. Besides these, 
Diglena catellina, Hydatina senta, Actinurus Neptunius, and a few 
others, have all been met with in different quarters of the globe. 

But the distribution of the Rotifera presents us with other facts 
quite as curious as these. For not only are European species to be 
found ranging over Asia and Africa; but America, and even Australia 
and New Zealand, in spite of their ocean belts, possess the same 
familiar creatures ; and, moreover, seem to have hardly any peculiar 
to themselves. Here, for example, isa list of Rotifera that have 
been found in Sydney by Mr. Whitelegge, and in Queensland by 
Mr. Gunson Thorpe, M.R.C.S., of H.M.S. ‘ Paluma’ :— 


Floscularia ornata. CGcistes crystallinus. 
- campanulata, >» Janus 
90 chimera (n. sp.) Ts Limnias ceratophylli. 
6 cornuta,. 5 annulatus. 
” Milisir. »  cornuella. 
_ coronetta (var.) W. Lacinularia socialis. 
Melicerta ringens. a pedunculata (n. sp.) W. 
»  conifera, Cephalosiphon limnias. 


N 2 


172 


Transactions of the Society. 


Trochosphera xquatorialis ; & male, T. 
Megalotrocha bullata (a. sp.) T. 
Conochilus volvox. 
Philodina citrina. 
Rotifer vulgaris. 
>»  tardus. 

Actinurus Neptunius. 
Asplanchna Brightwellit. 

on Ebbesbornit. 
Polyarthra platyptera. 
Triarthra longiseta. 
Notops clavulatus. 
Notommata centrura. 
Copeus pachyurus. 
Furcularia longiseta. 
Diglena biraphis. 
Mastigocerca stylata. 
Rattulus lunaris. 


Coelopus tenmor. 
Dinocharis pocillum. 

- triremis (n. sp.) W. 
Scaridium longicaudum. 

5 eudactylotum. 
Diplois Daviesiz. 
Euchlanis triquetra (var.). 
Cathypna luna. 
Monostyla lunaris. 
Colurus amblytelus. 
Metopidia solidus. 
Pterodina patina. 
Brachionus Bakeri. 
Orthurus militaris. 

a apertus (no. sp.) T. 
Anurea aculeata. 

%) cochlearis. 
Pedalion mirum. 


Who would ever have imagined that in a sea-girt continent, at 
the opposite side of the globe, in a land whose fauna and flora are so 
strange as those of Australia, we should find that forty-five out of 
fifty-two recorded species were British, and that, of the remaining 
seven, one (Moscularia Millsiz) had a habitat in the United States ? 

The United States, too, Jamaica, and Ceylon, all reproduce the 
same phenomenon, though on a reduced scale, so that the question at 
once arises, how could these minute creatures, who are inhabitants of 
lakes, ponds, ditches, and sea-shore pools, contrive to spread them- 
selves so widely over the earth? Take, for instance, the case of 
Asplanchna Ebbesborni, which till quite lately had but one known 
habitat, viz. a small duck-pond in a vicarage garden in Wiitshire. 
The very same animal has been found by Mr. Whitelegge in the 
Botanical Gardens at Sydney, New South Wales. No doubt in time 
it will be found elsewhere also; but how, or when, did it pass from 
the one spot to the other ? 

That extraordinary spherical Rotiferon, too, Trochosphera xqua- 
torialis, discovered by Dr. C. Semper in the Philippine Islands, had, 
for the last thirty years, no other known habitat; yet both sexes have 
been found, quite lately, by Mr. Gunson Thorpe, in the Fern-island 
pond of the Botanical Gardens of Brisbane. 

Again, there is the strange Floscule F. Millsi7, a Rotiferon appa- 
rently linking together the genera Floscularza and Stephanoceros, 
and which has been found almost simultaneously by Mr. Whiteleege 
at Sydney and Dr. Kellicott at Ontario; the possibility of its 
journeying between two such points seems quite as hopeless as that 
of Asplanchna Hbbesborniivs passing from New South Wales to 
Wiltshire. 

And such cases are numerous. How did Hydatina senta and 
Brachionus pala get to New Zealand? or Notops brachionus, and 
Rotifer vulgaris to the top of Adam’s Peak and the Pampas of La 
Plata? Again, there is Pedalion miruwm: since I first found it in a 
pond at the top of Nightingale Valley at Clifton, it has been met 
with in four or five other places in England, including a warm-water 


The President's Address. By Dr. C. T. Hudson. 173 


lily-tank at Eaton Hall, but till quite lately in no other country. 
Now I have just received a letter from Mr. Gunson Thorpe, telling 
me that he has found it swarming in a pool on a rocky headland in 
Queensland. 

You have no doubt, long ere this, anticipated the solution of the 
puzzle; and see clearly enough that living creatures, to whom a yard 
of sea-water is as impassable a barrier as a thousand miles of ocean, 
could only have reached or left Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, 
Ceyion, &c., in the egg; not the soft, delicately shelled, quickly 
hatching, summer egg, but the ephippial egg, which is protected by 
a much harder and thicker covering, which is constructed so as to 
bear without injury a long absence from the water, and which 
hatches, so far as is known, some months after it has been laid. 

But this explanation still requires to be explained. The case of 
the free-swimming Rotifera is simple enough. They are most of 
them to be found, at some time or another, in small shallow pools ; and 
their eggs either fall to the bottom of the water, or are attached to 
the small confervoid growth on the stones in it. Such pools fre- 
quently dry up, leaving the ephippial eggs to wait for the rainy warm 
weather of next year. Then comes boisterous weather, and the dusty 
surface of the exposed bottom of the pool is swept by a wind which 
raises the dust high into the air, ephippial eggs and all. For these 
latter are minute things, few exceeding 1/300 in. in length, and many 
even half that size. Once raised in the air, I see no reason why the 
should not be driven by aerial currents, unharmed, half round the 
globe, falling occasionally in places where water, temperature, and 
food are alike suitable. The dust of the eruption at Krakatoa, which 
gave us such wonderful sunsets and green moons in 1883, travelled 
from the Sunda Isles to England in three months, and so the ephip- 
pial eggs of Asplanchna Ebbesbornii and other Rotifera may have 
traversed the distance from England to Australia, and yet have been 
capable of hatching at the end of the journey. 

It may perhaps seem a fanciful notion to account for the stocking 
of the ponds at Sydney by eggs carried thousands of miles in the air, 
but several well-known facts warrant the hypothesis. The tops of our 
houses, the heights of the Alps, the slopes of the Siberian mountain- 
ranges, are the haunts of the Philodines; which, being an exception- 
ally hardy race, have accommodated themselves to living in damp 
mosses at the edge of a glacier; or in a gutter, which now holds a 
mere handful of stagnant water, now is a racing current, and now a 
dusty leaden basin, glowing under a blazing sun. No doubt eggs of 
all sorts of species fall on the same spots, but only to perish under 
trials that none but a Philodine could survive. 

How various are the species, whose eggs are thus wafted up by the 
air, has been well shown by Mr. J. E. Lord; who has given a list of 
no fewer than forty-five species (contained in twenty-nine genera) 
that he found in the course of twelve months in the same garden- 
pond. It was, however, admirably situated for catching whatever 


174 Transactions of the Society. 


there was to be caught; for it lay ina flat plot of ground, where there 
was an entire absence of trees and shade, so that its surface was fully 
exposed to every wind that blew. 

The eggs, of course, must often fall on unsuitable places, and be 
carried past suitable ones ; and this accounts for the capricious appear- 
ances of Rotifera in some well-watched pond, and for the frequent 
disappointments of the naturalists who visit it. To this aerial carriage 
of the eggs is also due the otherwise perplexing fact, that when any rare 
Rotiferon is found in one spot, it is frequently found at the same time 
in closely neighbouring ponds and ditches, even in such,an unlikely 
hole as the print of a cow’s foot filled with rain, but not at all in 
more promising places at some distance off. 

Admitting then this fitful shower of eggs as proven, we at once 
see another way in which they may readily travel to distant lands. 
For it is quite possible that now and then they may fall on the cargo 
of an outgoing ship. Here they would lie safely in cracks and creases 
till, the journey being over, the knocking apart of packing-cases and 
the shaking of wrappers would set them afloat again, to drop down, 
it may be, into the Botanical Gardens of Sydney, the shore-pools of 
Ceylon, or the ponds of Jamaica. In fact these Rotifera would have 
really done what I have already pointed out that they seemed to do, 
they would have followed the flag. 

The eggs of the tube-makers, however, and of such Rotifera as 
live only in the clear waters of lakes and deep ponds, present a greater 
difficulty ; for their eggs either lie within their tubes, or are attached 
to growing weeds, or fall down to a bottom which lies covered all the 
year round with several feet of water. The wind and sun here cannot 
be the only means of dispersion. Aquatic birds and insects are pro- 
bably assisting agents. These, as they swim among the water-plants, 
must frequently set free the eggs from the tubes of the Rhizota, as 
well as those which adhere to conferve, potomogetons, and water- 
lilies, and so get them attached to their bodies. ‘Then away they 
fly, carrying the eggs to some far distant lake, or shaking them off 
into the air with the beating of their wings. 

In confirmation of this idea I may mention that the well-known 
naturalist Mr. John Hood of Dundee, who has added so many re- 
markable species of Rhizota to our rotiferous fauna, informs me that 
the Scotch lakes most prolific in new and rare species are those which 
are visited annually by wild-fowl from the north. Prof. Leidy also 
informs me that his collector, Mr. Seal, noticed sandpipers haunting 
the duck-pond where he found an Asplanchna very similar to Hbbes- 
bornit, and that he thought that “these birds were especially instru- 
mental in distributing the lower forms of aquatic life.” I may add 
also that, on one occasion, I found in a temporary rain-puddle, barely 
a yard across, a living ciliated ovum of Plumatella repens. Of course 
the puddle itself contained no adult forms, and the ovum must have 
been brought by some bird the distance of at least half a mile. The 
twin polypes were already partially developed inside the ovum, and it 


- 


The President's Address. By Dr. C. T. Hudson. 175 


is curious that so delicate a thing should have borne the transport 
safely. 

ituee probably play only a humble part in the dispersion of the 
Rotifera, but they cannot help taking some part init; by intercepting, 
as they swim, eggs that are slowly sinking to the bottom; or by 
brushing off, on to their coats, eggs which have been already caught 
by the weeds. For the ephippial eggs are frequently armed with 
hooks or spines, which make them adhere easily to a pond-weed or to 
a hairy coat, and yet would not prevent a dog’s vigorous shake, after 
his bath, from sending them flying into the air, or on to the dust, 
where sun and wind would do the rest. 

Perhaps one of the most curious illustrations, of this aerial con- 
veyance of Rotiferous eggs, is the account of Callidina symbiotica, 
which we owe to Dr. Carl Zelinka. It was in the depth of last winter 
that I read his interesting memoir concerning a new Callidina, that 
he had discovered inhabiting the little green cups on the under 
surfaces of the leaves of a scale-moss (Mrullania dilatata). As 
I knew that this plant grew on the elms of our Clifton promenade, I 
started off at once on the rather forlorn hope of finding some living 
specimens of the new Rotiferon. When I arrived at the promenade 
I passed patch after patch of the scale-moss, hoping in vain to find 
something more promising than the withered, liver-coloured stuff, which 
alone was to be seen on the tree-trunks. At last I gave up further 
search, and pulling off a scrap of what looked like old ragged carpet, 
I carried it home. ‘There I put a bit of it into a watch-glass, covered 
it with water, and gently teased it out with needles, till I found an 
under-frond that had some pretension to being green. This I trans- 
ferred to a glass cell, and placed it under the Microscope with the 
cups turned towards me; and it was with no little pleasure that, in 
about a quarter of an hour, I saw first one Callidina and then another 
stretch its proboscis out of a cup, unfurl its wheels, and begin to feed. 

No wonder that these Philodinide are to be found everywhere 
when they can bear to be frozen alive in the cell of a plant, or roasted 
by a midsummer sun in a leaden gutter. 

Some chance breeze must have first wafted a Callidina’s egg on 
to the scale-moss, just after a shower, when the whole plant was wet, 
and the little green cups were filled with water. The young Calli- 
dina, when hatched, could not have desired a better home. The 
rainfall, on an elm, flows down its furrowed bark in tracks as constant 
as those of a river and its tributaries ; and the growth of the Junger- 
man follows these tracks. Every shower fills the spaces between its 
flat layers of overlapping leaves with water; and the lower layers, 
sheltered by the upper, retain for a long time water enough for the 
Callidina to creep about or swim in. And when at last the sun and 
air have dried up the water, the creature retreats into its green cup, 
which presents so small an aperture to the air, and is so fenced round 
with thick juicy cells, that the contained water is almost certain to 
hold out till the next shower. If it does not, the Oallidina is still 


176 Transactions of the Society. 


content ; it becomes conscious of the coming crisis, draws in its head 
and foot, rounds its trunk into a ball, secretes round itself a gelatinous 
covering, and waits for better times. j 

But the Rotifera owe their wide dispersion not only to the ease 
with which their eggs are blown from one place to another, but also 
to their powers of endurance, and to their marvellous capacity for 
adapting themselves to new surroundings. A Philodine may say 
with Howell, “I came tumbling out into the world a true cosmo- 
polite.” I have already noticed how the Philodinide will endure such 
extremities of heat, cold, and dryness as Nature inflicts on them ; but 
she does not put their full powers to the test; for, when time is given 
to them to don their protective coats, they can bear a heat gradually 
advancing to 200° Fahr., or a 50 days’ exposure to a dryness produced 
over sulphuric acid in the receiver of a good air-pump. Ehrenberg 
tells us that whereas he killed Volvox globator with one electric shock, 
it took two of the same intensity to kill Hydatina senta ; and that 
Rotifer vulgaris will swallow laudanum and “yet be lively ;’ adding 
that a solution of Cantharides seemed “to give it new life”’ The 
same irrepressible creature will flourish in water containing a percep- 
tible quantity of sulphuric acid; while Asplanchna priodonta will 
swim about actively for twenty-four hours in a weak solution of 
salicylic acid; and Syncheta pectinata will do the same in chromic 
acid. The great majority of the fresh-water species die when 
dropped into sea water, but some will bear sudden immersion in a 
mixture of one part sea water to two fresh. We should not be 
surprised, therefore, to find not only that there are thirty-four known 
marine species of Rotifera, but that seventeen of these species are to 
be met with alike in salt water and in fresh. 

The following is the list of Rotifera found in salt or brackish 
water; those marked wlth a star are also the inhabitants of fresh 
water. 


Floscularia campanulata.* Colurus amblytelus. 


Melicerta tubicolaria.* » caudatus.* 
Rotifer citrinus.* »  dactylotus. 
Syncheta Baltica. »  pedatus. 

% tremula (?).* »  Uncinatus.* 
Pleurotrocha leptura (?).* Mytilia Tavina. 
Notommata Naias.* Pterodina clypeata. 
Proales decipiens.* Brachionus Bakeri.* 
Furcularia forficula.* 95 Miilleri. 

5 gracilis.* Notholca striata.* 

Reinhardti. 5 spinifera. 
Diglena catellina.* 5 inermis. 

se grandis.* »  scapha.* 
Distemma raptor. 5 thalassia. 

a marinum. Anureza valga.* 
Rattulus calyptus. 33 biremis. 
Monostyla quadridentata, Hexarthra polyptera. 


Although this is, doubtless, a very imperfect list, still it is sufficient 
to show how these fresh-water animals are slowly spreading into the 
tide pools on the sea-shore. Some may have commenced their change 
of habitat im the field drains, which are periodically invaded by the 


The President's Address. By Dr. C. T. Hudson. 177 


brackish waters of a tidal river. It was precisely in such a locality 
that I first found Brachionus Miulleri, in water only faintly salt, and 
at a height of 30 feet above the Severn. Ditches of this kind are 
to be found all down the Avon, from the highest point that the tide 
reaches to its mouth. As they approach the Severn, their water 
becomes more and more brackish, and the preponderance of marine 
species in them more pronounced ; so that it is easy to see how the 
descendants of a fresh-water Notiferon, passing slowly down the 
river-side from ditch to ditch, may, in course of many generations, 
come to endure the sea itself. 

In other cases the air-borne eggs may have dropped into the 
pools, of every degree of brackishness, which usually skirt the shores 
of our river estuaries. It is in such places, on the Scottish shore, 
that Mr. John Hocd has found so many new marine species; and 
where no doubt so many more are yet to be found. 

But the most noteworthy point about the above list is that the 
number of distinct genera is so great. One would rather have 
expected to find but four or five genera hardy enough to endure salt 
water ; and yet here are no fewer than nineteen genera for the thirty- 
four known marine species ; and, of these latter, seventeen species are 
yet in the transitional state, inhabiting alike salt waters and fresh. 
Still more curious is it to find that all the four orders are represented 
and that Rhizota, Bdelloida, and Scirtopoda have each furnished a 
contingent to the marine forms, as well as the more frequent Ploima. 
It is, of course, rather startling to hear that Melicerta and Floscu- 
laria are to be found inhabiting sea water; but I know of no reason 
why any doubt should be thrown on Dr. Weisse’s record of having so 
found them on the sea-shore at Hapsal. 

The capacity of the Rotifera, for adapting themselves to new 
surroundings, is shown bya mere enumeration of the strange places 
in which they are found. For these fresh-water creatures, the 
common inhabitants of lakes and ponds, are to be found in brackish 
ditches, sea-pools, the mud of ponds, the dust of gutters, in tufts of 
moss, on the blades of wet grass, in the rolled-up leaves and in the 
cups of liverworts, in the cells of Volvoz, the stems and sporangia 
of Vaucheria ; in vegetable infusions ; on the backs of Entomostraca, 
on their abdominal plates, on their branchial feet ; on fresh-water 
fleas, wood-lice, shrimps, and worms; in the viscera of slugs, earth- 
worms, and Naiades; and in the body-cavities of Synapte. 

But the great variability of every part of the external and internal 
structure of the Rotifera, points to their fitness for playing the 
parts of cosmopolites. See how, in Floscularia and Stephanoceros, the 
head and its appendages are so developed that they dwarf all the rest; 
how in Apslus the trunk predominates; while in Actinurus both 
head and trunk become appendages of a huge foot. The corona dimi- 
nishes continually from the large complex organs of Melicerta, 
Hydatina, and Brachionus, down to the furred face of Adineta and the 
tuft of Seison; and vanishes altogether in Acyclus. The antennz 
can be traced from long infolding or telescopic tubes, furnished with 


178 Transactions of the Society. 


setiferous pistons, special muscles and nerves, through a succession of 
shorter and simpler structures till they become mere pimples, or 
even setiferous pits in the body-surface. The skin is hardened into 
a perfect lorica in Brachionus; is partially hardened in Dapidia ; is 
merely tough in Mastigocerca; and is soft and quite unarmed in 
Notommata. The appendages of the body in Pedalion rise almost 
to the dignity of crustaceous limbs, for they have joints, and are worked 
by opposing pairs of muscles, passing across their cavities from point 
to point. In Asplanchna these appendages become stumpy pro- 
jections ; and the muscles, though still passing freely across the body- 
cavity, are reduced to threads. In T'riarthra the appendages become 
chitinous spines; and at last, when we reach Adineta, Taphrocampa, 
and Albertia, we find that we have passed from a Rotiferon closely 
resembling a Nauplius larva, to one that is a simple worm. 

The internal structure is just as plastic. The characteristic trophi 
exhibit a series of striking changes as we pass from one genus to 
another. In one direction the change is due to the degradation of 
the mallec ; in the other to that of the zncus; and in both this degra- 
dation is pushed so far that the changing parts may be said almost to 
disappear. For in Brachionus and Huchlanis the mallei are well 
developed; in Furcularia mere needle-shaped curved rods; in 
Asplanchna so evanescent that it is hardly possible to find them in an 
animal killed by pressure. 

By another set of changes the ram are, in their turn, reduced 
almost to evanescence, becoming feeble loops in Stephanoceros, and in 
Floscularia two membranes attached to the unc. 

Changes, great in degree, if not in variety, occur also in the 
excreto-respiratory system. For the contractile vesicle, which fills 
quite half the body-cavity in some Asplanchne, dwindles down in 
various species till it seems to vanish in Pterodina and Pedalion ; 
while in one abnormal form, Trochosphxra, the connection between 
the lateral canals and the contractile vesicle is snapped, and the latter 
becomes an appendage of the cloaca only. 

The nervous system, wherever it has been made out, is indeed 
always on the same plan ; but its central organ, the nervous ganglion, 
is in Copeus and Euchlanis a great cylindrical sac, stretching from 
the head below the mastax; while in Floscularia it shrinks into a 
small star-shaped body between the eyes and the organ of taste. 

The alimentary and reproductive systems are those which 
vary the least; but even here the difference in proportionate size is 
very great between the stomachs of Sacculus and Synchexta; and 
also between the ovaries of Asplanchnopus myrmeleo and Asplanchna 
priodonta. 

But not only do most of the external parts and internal organs 
vary in turn almost to vanishing, but these variations are not in any 
way simultaneous. The result is, that we find an organ, of a form 
characteristic of one family or genus, occurring in a species that belongs 
to another. 


The President's Address. By Dr. C. T. Hudson. L7G) 


Thus, for instance, the trophi of the Melicertidz appear in Pom- 
pholyz, one of the Triarthride. Nay, more, it is easy to point out 
Rotifera that bear some striking characteristics of two or three other 
genera, or even of two or three other families. Mv¢crocodon clavus, 
for example, has the central mouth and double ciliary wreaths of the 
Flosculariidex, the eye of a Notommata, the trophi of a Diglena, and 
the foot of a Monostyla. Again, Pterodina patina has the corona 
of Philodina, the lorica and transversely-wrinkled retractile foot of 
Brachionus, the foot-ending of a young Khizotan, and the mastax of 
the Melicertide. Then there is Mr. Thorpe’s new Australian Floscule, 
which swims freely like one of the Ploima, has the buccal cup and 
wreath of Floscularia, the dorsal eye of Notommata, and the body 
and forked foot of Proales. 

To sum up, we may say that in the female Rotiferon, the 
corona, head, foot, toes, appendages of the trunk, antenne, eyes, and 
contractile vesicle vary down to almost absolute extinction ; while, if 
we include the male in our survey, we must add that even the 
whole of the alimentary tract may disappear also. Moreover, the 
characteristics of the various groups interlace in so many ways, that 
no organ—nor indeed any combination of two or three organs—can 
be relied upon to determine with certainty an animal’s true position. 

Two conclusions are, in consequence, irresistibly forced on us: 
the first, that the Rotifera, from Pedalion to Albertia, are related by 
descent; the second, that their curious habitats, wide dispersion, and 
creat variations in their structure are due to causes that have been at 
work for a very long period of time. 

One other fact has also been made clear in this review: namely, 
that the British Rotifera give a very fair idea of the whole class. 
No doubt there are many foreign species, and some of these are very 
remarkable, and of great interest ; but the greater number fall readily 
enough into the divisions that contain our own species. 

And, indeed, it is a fortunate thing that we can here, at our own 
doors, study so many typical forms from life. For what books or 
drawings can give us the delight which we derive from observing 
the animals themselves ? 

To gaze into that wonderful world which lies in a drop of water, 
crossed by some atoms of green weed; to see transparent living 
mechanism at work, and to gain some idea of its modes of action ; 
to watch a tiny speck that can sail through the prick of a needle’s 
point; to see its crystal armour flashing with ever-varying tint, its 
head glorious with the halo of its quivering cilia; to see it gliding 
through the emerald stems, hunting for its food, snatching at its 
prey, fleemg from its enemy, chasing its mate (the fiercest of our 
passions blazing in an invisible speck); to see it whirling in a mad 
dance to the sound of its own music, the music of its happiness, the 
exquisite happiness of living—can any one, who has once enjoyed this 
sight, ever turn from it to mere books and drawings, without the 
sense that he has left all fairyland behind him ? 


180 Transactions of the Society. 


V.— Description of a New Dipterous Insect, Psamathiomya pectinata. 
By Juuien Depy, F.R.M.S. 


(Read 13th March, 1889.) 
Puate IV. 


Ar the meeting of the Society held on the 9th of May last, I 
exhibited slides of an interesting dipteron found by myself in abun- 
dance during the latter days of last April, at Biarritz, in the South 
of France. At the time I was not prepared to name or to describe 
it, but having since come to the conclusion that it belongs to a new 
genus and species, I now describe it in detail. . 

Psamathiomya pectinata is a marine insect, living below water 
during its early existence, the larvee feeding on Enteromorpha. The 
adult escapes from the pupa case while the descending tide has laid 
bare the alge-covered rocks; these small insects swarm at such 
times, being especially active when the sun shines on them. The 
males are more numerous than the females, and are also much more 
rapid in their motions. I have often seen several males surrounding 
one female, but I never caught any of these insects actually in copula, 
though I frequently saw the males seize the heavy pregnant females 
by the back of the head or neck by means of their formidable anal 
forceps, and drag them forcibly along after them, stopping occa- 
sionally, as if to rest, when the female would bend down her ovi- 
positor and probing right and left with it, would, | believe, deposit 
each time an egg among the green weeds or in some cranny of the 
rocks below them. 

Both sexes have very rudimentary wings, quite useless as organs 
of flight, so that these insects cannot possibly escape from the 
rising tide, which on this coast is accompanied by heavy surf and 
breakers. I presume therefore that the life of the imago does not 
exceed the few hours during which the tide has receded. Several 
specimens which I immersed in a phial of sea water were immediately 
drowned. ‘The insects being small have to be looked for with atten- 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE IY. 


Fig. 1.—Psamathiomya pectinata Deby, male 12/1. 
2.—Head seen from above. 
OS a below. 
4.—Anal forceps of male. 
5.—Ovipositor seen laterally. 
6.— 4 from above. The internal blades are figured too long. 
7.—Head and thorax from above. 
8.—Leg of male. 
9.—Terminal tarsal joint of male with its appendages 300/1. 
10.—Wing and haltere of male, 60/1. 
pp tlie 30 30 female. 


Norz.—The arrangement of the sete in some of the above figures, which were 
executed during my absence from England, is not quite true to nature, so that 
references to the text only must be relied upon in case of apparent discrepancies. 


JOURN.R.MICR.SOC.1889 Pl WV 


ap shy vg 

a Ns ) 

Vile 

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RAS 
Wat 
Q poe 
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West, Newman & Co.lith, 


Psamathiomya pectinata. 


Description of a New Dipterous Insect. By J. Deby. 181 


tion, but once discovered they are easily recognized; the black, very 
long-legg¢ed males looking like minute spiders, while the dingy brown 
louse-like females which they drag after them, have the appearance, 
from a distance, of the cocoons some spiders carry behind them. 

As was kindly pointed out to me by Mr. C. Waterhouse of the 
British Museum, this insect is exceedingly similar in its habits to 
Halirytus amphibius, discovered by the Rey. A. E. Eaton, in Kerguelen’s 
Land, and which was fully described in vol. clxviii. of the Phil. Trans. 
of the Royal Society (special volume on the Zoology of Kerguelen 
and of Rodriguez), p. 24, pl. xiv. fig. 6. It is, however, generically 
distinct from its antipodal representative, although belonging to the 
same group of aberrant Chironomidx, in which the antenne are 
only six-jointed and unfeathered. 

Dr. A. 8. Packard has described another marine dipterous insect 
under the name of Chironomus oceanicus, the larve of which he 
found on floating “eel-grass” and in green sea-weed at low-water 
mark in Salem Harbour, U.S.A. Besides the two-winged insects 
above named, several more have been noticed, and among these :— 
Ephydra ealifornicus, Ephydra gracilis, Ephydra halophila, as well 
as the larve of a species of Tanypus and of a Stratiomys, all of 
which were inhabitants of salt water. Nothing further is known of 
their respective life-histories. 

I have some remembrance of having myself seen, very many years 
ago, a very similar insect, running over sea-weed and mussels, upon 
the Ostend breakwater at low tide. If looked for in this site, I should 
advise that this be done during the first days of spring, as it no doubt 
is a precocious insect. 

As Psamathiomya pectinata will probably be found to live on 
other shores besides those of Biarritz, I have, in order to facilitate 
identification or comparison, prepared the following description of the 
insect which forms the subject of this communication. 


Genus.—PSAMATHIOMYA. 


Characters.—Antenne six-jointed in both sexes, three middle 
joints submoniliform, neither feathered nor plumed, much shorter than 
the head and thorax; mesonotum cucullate, projecting over the 
head ; legs very long and slender, especially in the males, the terminal 
joint of the tarsus being furnished (along with the usual claws), with 
a special finger-like projection, extending over and between the claws, 
while a doubly curved curious comb-like appendage faces it from 
below. 

Wings rudimentary; much smaller in the females than in the 
males; without nervures. Halteres distinct. The convex eyes are 
distant in both sexes, but farthest apart in the females. Both 
the ordinary claws on the end joint of the tarsi in the male are 
deeply cleft or bifid; those in the female being simple. The comb- 
like appendages are similar in both sexes. 


182 Transactions of the Society. 


The external genitalia of the male consist of a powerful two- 
jointed pair of forceps, the lower joints of which are large, massive, 
subglobular, while the terminal joints are small and linear, and so 
articulated to the first as to curve inwardly between them when not 
in use. ‘These terminal joints of the forceps carry at their tips an 
armature of short, sharp, scattered, horny spines. ‘The ovipositor of 
the female is conical, narrowing towards the acute apex; it is con- 
stituted of two lateral plates or valves which cover and protect two 
very delicate, parallel, acute, membraneous spicule. 


Specific Description of PSAMATHIOMYA PECTINATA. 


I. Heap.—The head in both the male and female is of average 
size and of the full width of the mesonotum, which projects conically 
over it. The eyes are prominent and convex. The facets are large 
and project hemispherically. ‘Twelve facets occupy the whole antero- 
posterior convexity of the compound eye, as seen from above. Ocelli 
absent. The truncate vertex projects bluntly beyond and between 
the eyes. The cheeks are prominent and rounded behind. The 
anterior termination of the mesonotum reaches as far as the middle 
of the eyes. yes protected by a group of 10 or 12 stout and long 
setze or bristles, which are inserted above them as eyebrows. The 
clypeus carries two parallel rows of distant, stiff bristles. Each 
eye carries at its posterior lateral edge a black chitinous appendage 
of an oblong shape and of unknown use. 

The ¢rophi.—l have not been able to make these out to my satis- 
faction. ‘lhey are very short and consist apparently of a geniculate 
haustellum, and of conspicuous, two-jointed palpi, the terminal joints 
of which are rich in sensory bristles. 

The antennz in both sexes are six-jointed and much shorter than 
the head and thorax together. 

The basal joint is the stoutest, it is broadly truncate at its apex 
and is four times wider at this point than the base of the following 
joint inserted into it. The apical joint is oval or somewhat pyriform ; 
its extreme tip is slightly produced and narrowed to an obtuse point. 
The second joint of the antenne is the longest; then follow about 
equal in length the first and the last joints, while the remain- 
ing three joints are small, subglobular, and nearly equal in size. 
The second joint, near its basal third, is constricted and slightly 
contorted, while an indentation is also noticeable near the anterior 
third, on the opposite side. The basal joint of the antennz is liberally 
furnished with stout and stiff bristles, which are of the same length 
as the joint which carries them. One or two much smaller bristles 
show themselves frequently on the sides of the sixth joint, but all the 
intermediate joints, namely the second, third, fourth and fifth, are 
always without any sete, and carry nothing but a rough, short 
inconspicuous pubescence, visible only under the Microscope. 


Description of a New Dipterous Insect. By J. Deby. 188 


Dimensions of the Head and its Parts. 


Mikrons., 
Head ., Antero-posterior length SOM been 240 
Lateral (extra- ocular) w width oo... 440 
Eyes .. Diameterin g .. seh Seah oe 160 
4 Ns eoe (hoor eis 128 
Inter-ocular space $ Aig came state ls 240 
- oo eee ia gr owate 280 
Diameter of individual facets .... 16 
Antenne. Average totallength .. .. .. .. 352 
Ist or basal joint, length .. .... 80 
2nd 56 5 aioe ss 1 O0=96 
3rd nN 3 ae th ae 40 
Ath % " Te tee 32 
5th <3 <3 nol apooe ae 24 
6th or apical ,, - set Bae eR 88 
Inter-antennal space ¢ Solid tae, wa: 80 
i n si 136 
lropiiice stHaustellutm 3.) ses bes ees ast 80 
IPAM Dita esl yeecat S55 ek NR Maro aise 160 


THorax.—The scutum of the mesothorax or mesonotum for a 
length of 0-15 mm. from its anterior apex is bluntly conical. Its 
lateral sides are after this nearly parallel, with a very slight 
rounded constriction in the middle. The dorsum carries on each side 
two irregular longitudinal rows of spare stout bristles, with a few 
scattered ones in the middle between the two internal rows. Lateral 
appendages, or calli humerales, project from either side of the 
anterior portion of the mesonotum just above the insertion of the 
anterior coxe. 

The scutellum is narrow, transverse, with acute lateral angles, 
near to each of which six to eight bristles are planted, while the 
dorsal portion is glabrous. The metathoracic scutum is well 
developed, transverse, and shows by transparency a dorsal transverse 
trachea, 


Dimensions of the Mesonotum and Seutellum. 


Mikrons. 

Mesonovuneemeluencthh sce ee =e) 540 
5 .. Breadth . Bs os a 420 
Scutellum .. Length (antero-posterior) emer 90 
x .. Breadth (transverse) .. .. .. 240 


Tuoracic APPENDAGES. 


A. Legs.—The legs in both sexes are long and slender in all 
their parts, especially in the ¢, the coxe being “the stoutest portion. 
These latter carry a few stiff curved bristles near their extremities, 
on their lower surface. The linear, middle, and hind femurs and 
tibias are very slightly arched. The trochanters are small and 


184 Transactions of the Society. 


insignificant. Both the femurs, the tibias,and the first two joints 
of the tarsi carry several longitudinal rows of stiff, sparse bristles. 
The three terminal joints of the tarsi have bristles only on their 
upper surface. 

The legs increase in length from the first to the last pair. The 
tarsi of the third pair of legs are much the longest, while those of 
the second pair are the shortest. ‘The hinder coxe are one-third 
longer than the coxee of the middle and front legs. The insertion of 
the legs into the sternum is as follows ::‘, the front pair being 
distant from the approximating posterior limbs and also further 
apart laterally from each other. 

The female differs from the male only as regards the legs, by 
these being but half as long. ‘This is readily seen by the simple 
inspection of the femurs, tibias, and first joints of the tarsi, in both 
SEXES. 

The ungual, or terminal joint of the tarsus is furnished with 
two claws, which in the male are deeply cleft or bifid, while in the 
female they are simple. In both sexes a prominent finger-like fleshy 
projection of the tarsal joint projects above and between the claws 
for nearly their length. 

In opposition to this interungual appendage and starting from 
the opposite angle of the truncate extremity or heel of the tarsal 
joint, a very remarkable S-shaped comb exists. This singular 
apparatus ends beyond the apex of the claws. Its outer edge is 
deeply fringed by a series of lengthened simple as well as forked or 
bifid teeth, while its inner edge is quite smooth. ‘This tarsal comb 
is similar in both the male and the female, which proves its use to be 
ambulatory or adhesive and not sexual. This appendage is hyaline, 
of glassy aspect. 


Dimensions of the Legs of the Male. 


First Leg. Second Leg. Third Leg. 
mm. mm. mm. 
(CO oo oo 00° 00 00 0:42 0:42 0-60 
Trochanter 0-15 0°15 0°15 
Femur 1:26 1°65 1°65 
Abilis ena 1:20 1:56 1°85 
Tarsus (total)... .. .. 1-275 1-14 1°755 
» Ist joint 00 08 0°63 0°57 0-90 
op NOL op Satan 0°2t 0-18 0-405 
aL gy 0°135 0-12 0:15 
» 4th, 0-12 0°09 0:12 
> 9 60 0-18 0:18 0-18 
(claws included) 
Total length of legs a0 4°305 4-920 6°015 


B. Wings and Halteres—The rudimentary wings are opaque, 
linear, and show a constriction ata distance equal to 1/4 of their length, 
measured from their apex. ‘They are fringed with long hairs on their 


Description of a New Dipterous Insect. By J. Deby. 185 


lower margin, the breadth of which fringe is equal to the diameter 
of the wing. ‘The halteres are distinct and spatulate. No traces of 
nervures are discernible on the surface of the wings. 

The total length of the wings in the males is 1:20-1:26 mm., 
in the female 0°51 mm. only. The maximum width is only 0°15 mm. 
The halteres measure in the male 0:12 mm. in length. These 
abortive wings seem to be useless to the insects. 

Avpomun.—The tergites in both sexes number eight. A few 
scattered bristles occupy the dorsum of each of them and a trans- 
verse trachea, seen by transparency, runs near and parallel to their 
anterior border, curving down along each side. This is best seen by 
means of the paraboloid. The tergites of the male measure in length 
0°36 mm. each; equal to 2°88 mm. for the whole length of the 
abdomen ; those of the female measure 0°45 mm. each in length ; 
equal to 3°60 mm. for the whole length of the abdomen. The 
maximum breadth of the tergites is 0°57 mm. in the male and 
0-75 mm. in the pregnant female. 

ABDOMINAL APPENDAGES.—¢. Hach branch of the powerful 
anal forceps of the male is bi-articulate; the basal joint being 
massive and carrying long scattered bristles. The terminal joint is 
less than half as long and half as broad as the preceding one which 
supports it. The apex of this small joint is provided with a number 
of short, hard, acute teeth intermixed with which are some fine 
bristles. The apical joints articulate into the basal joints, so as to 
permit their folding back between these last, when not in use, so 
that their pots are turned inwards. 

The ovipositor in the female is formed of two plates or valves 
which cover two internal styles. These protecting plates, viewed 
laterally, are somewhat lunate and rounded below, obliquely truncate 
at the apices and clothed with a very short or obsolete pubescence. 
The inclosed stylets are delicate, membraneous, and end very acutely 
at some short distance from the tip of the outer sheaths of the 
ovipositor. The length of the ovipositor is 0:38 mm. 

The total length of the imago averages for the males 3:99 mm. ; 
for the females, 4°50 mm. 

The colour of the males is dark cinereous, nearly black, the feet 
and antennz being somewhat lighter; the females have a lurid hue, 
the abdomen when distended with eggs having a dirty yellowish or 
greenish tinge. 

Tue Larva—tThe larva of Psamathiomya is linear, yermiform, 
and of a yellow colour. 

The apparent number of segments of the body, including the head, 
is twelve, one for the head, three for the thorax, and eight for the 
abdomen. 

The thoracic segments are shorter than the following; the apical 
one, into which the head is retractile, being the smallest. The 
thoracic anterior inferior angles of the somites carry inconspicuous 
minute bristly tubercules, while the abdominal segments, with the 

1889, fe) 


186 Transactions of the Society. 


exception of the first and of the anal segment, are supplied in the 
same place with prominent rounded elevations or cushions which 
infringe on the anterior edge of the preceding segment. These 
appendages carry nine to ten parallel rows of very minute dark- 
coloured teeth, giving them a resemblance to microscopical convex 
curry-combs. In front of each row of these teeth, and standing at 
some distance, one much stouter spine is visible. 

The anal segment terminates in five conical and somewhat in- 
curved fleshy appendages, one of which is ventral and much larger 
and broader than the others. This appendage carries near its apex a 
large bunch of short curved bristles, while those opposed to it bear 
several tufts of similar bristles, and the intermediate appendages are 
quite glabrous. 

The total length of this larva is 5°10 mm. The length of the 
anal segment including its appendages is 0°66 mm.; that of the three 
thoracic segments 0°66 mm., while the middle segments of the 
abdomen measure 0°45 mm. in length, by 0°90 mm. in width. 

The chinitous mandibles are distinctly visible; they appear, as far 
as I can make them out, to be widely three-lobed or toothed, and to be 
in communication with two long internal chitinous rods, with slightly 
swollen heads, which terminate as far back as the last thoracie 
segment. 

Popa or Matz—The pupa-case, after the imago has escaped 
through a dorsal slit in the mesonotum, shows distinctly the three 
sternal divisions of the thorax, as well as the various segments of the 
abdomen. ‘These are eight in number, unless the anal terminal 
process is considered as a segment, in which case the abdomen has 
nine segments. 

The sheaths of the legs are quite free, bag-shaped, distinctly 
jointed, rounded at the ends. The hinder ones are convolute. The 
mesonotum shows a median transverse depression. The total length 
of the pupa is 4°50 mm. 

As during my flying visit to Biarritz I found only one larva, and 
a single pupa, from which the perfect insect,a male, was escaping, 
my material has proved too scanty for a completely satisfactory study 
of the external metamorphoses of this insect, the further elucidation 
of which I must leave to some more successful collector, who should 
be on the hunting ground as early as March or the beginning of April, 
in order to secure the younger states of our insect. 


( 187 ) 


SUMMARY 


OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


LO ONO GY AN DBO TAN Y¥ 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 


MICROSCOPY, &c., 


INCLUDING ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS FROM FELLOWS AND OTHERS.* 


ZOOLOGY. 
A. VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 
; a, Embryology.+ 


Evolution of the Central Nervous System of Vertebrata.t—Prof. 
J. Bland Sutton, who has published the suggestion that the central 
canal of the nervous system may be regarded as a modified portion of 
bowel, finds support in the opinions of Dr. Gaskell. Prof. Sutton urges 
that the approximation of the edges of the archenteron of the gastrula of 
Echinus at one point would produce a thickening and divide the cavity 
into a dorsal and a ventral portion, the part below corresponding to the 
bowel or ccelom, while the parts on the dorsal aspect would represent 
the medullary folds of Vertebrata. By occluding the blastopore we 
should get an arrangement of parts which would correspond in transverse 
section to what obtains in the early vertebrate embryo, and in longi- 
tudinal section with the U-shaped tube with which his hypothesis starts. 

This view tends to show that the upgrowths known as the medullary 
lamine, and the downgrowths forming somatopleure and splanchnopleure 
represent a modification or an abridgment of the invagination process so 
universal among Invertebrata. This view of the origin of the central 
canal absolutely removes the objection that its epithelium is epiblastic, 
whereas that which lines the gut is hypoblastic. In its simplest form, 
the hypoblast is that portion of the epiblast which, after invagination, 
lines the archenteron. According to this view the epithelium of the 
central canal of the nervous system from the infundibulum of the third 
ventricle to the extremity of the cord, that lining the neurenteric passage, 
as well as others, are of hypoblastic origin. 

The discovery of His that the cells which make up the medullary 
folds are not, as is usually taught, metamorphosed into nerve-cells, but 
form the sustentaculum of the nervous axis, is an important fact in 
support of the intestinal origin of the spinal cord. 


* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “we,” and they do 
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted, 
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of 
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published, and to 
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have 
not been previously described in this country. 

+ This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called, 
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, and Reproduction, and allied 
subjects. { Brain, xi. (1888) pp. 336-42. 

02 


188 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Development of Central Nervous System of Amphibians.*—Dr. H. 
Orr finds that the central nervous system of Amphibians first appears 
as a transverse epiblastic thickening dorsal to the mouth-fusion, and con- 
tinues with paired elongated epiblastic thickenings lying dorsally on 
either side of the median line. The primary cranial flexure is due to 
the presence of this transverse epiblastic thickening or anterior medullary 
plate. When the brain is inclosed this thickening forms that part of 
the brain-wall which les between the infundibulum and the optic 
groove. The first nerve-fbres which develope in the brain appear on 
what was originally the internal surface of the primitive epiblastic 
thickenings which run longitudinally in the dorsal region and unite 
continuously in the region of the primitive transverse thickening. <A 
subsequent development of nerve-fibres gives rise to a continuous ventral 
commissure which extends through the floor of the mid- and hind- 
brain and of the spinal cord, as well as to the anterior and posterior 
commissures of the brain. The fibres of the optic nerves are intimately 
connected with and are developed in the same manner as the main bundle 
of fibres in the region of the primitive transverse epiblastic thickening. 
The mode of development of the hypophysis of Amblystoma has been 
studied, and it has been found to be intermediate between that of the 
lizard and that of the frog. 

The structure of the larval rod-like organs which Clarke called 
“‘ balancers” in Amblystoma has been investigated, and they have been 
found to be homologous with external gills, so that we have the case of 
a homologue of the external gills being metamorphosed into an organ 
for the support of the body. It is possible that further research will 
show that the suckers on the tadpole of the frog are similar organs. 


Protandric Hermaphroditism of Myxine.t—Mr. F. Nansen finds 
that Myxine glutinosa is, ordinarily, a protandric hermaphrodite. Till 
its body is about 32 cm. long it is a male, and after that it produces ova. 
The proportions of the male and female portions of the gonad are not 
constant, but the male is generally one-third of the whole length of the 
organ. In a few cases what are called “‘ true” males were observed, but 
they are probably transformed hermaphrodites. This strange irregularity 
in the occurrence and extent of the male and female organs seems to 
show that Myxine is an animal which, in sexual respects, is just at 
present in a transition stage ; it seems still to be seeking, without yet 
reaching, that mode of reproduction which is most profitable for it in 
the struggle for existence. 

The young testicular follicles are similar in structure to the young 
evarian ; they contain a large sexual cell, spermatogon, which is enveloped 
by an epithelium, follicular epithelium, and a connective-tissue envelope. 
This spermatogon undergoes subdivision and becomes converted into 
spermatides which are separated from one another and swim in a fluid 
contained in the testicular capsules. The nucleus and whole cell 
gradually elongate, and, on the bursting of the testicular capsules, ripe 
spermatozoa pass into the body-cavity. Mr. Nansen does not agree with 
Mr. J. T. Cunningham’s account of the form of the spermatozoa, and 
thinks that observer’s specimens must have been in some way altered. 
Nearly ripe spermatozoa may be found in specimens of Myaxine at all 


* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxix. (1888) pp. 295-324 (8 pls.). 
+ Bergen’s Museum Aarsberetning for 1887 (1888) No. 7, 34 pp. (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 189 


seasons of the year; little is known as to the characters of freshly 
deposited ova, but, from the evidence which he has been able to collect, 
the author is of opinion that ova are deposited throughout the year, and 
that there is no special breeding season. 


Maturation and Fertilization of Ovum in the Lamprey.*—Herr 
A. A. Béhm gives a more detailed account than that previously published 
of his investigations on the maturation and fertilization of the ovum of 
Petromyzon planeri. 

A. Maturation.—An account of previous observations is as usual 
prefixed. The author then follows Rathke in a description of the ovary. 
In young Ammoceetes, 5 cm. in length, the ovary is a single median sac. 
An apical portion, bent sideways, was the seat of formation of new ova; 
in the main median portion all the ova were of the same stage. The 
evolution of the ovarian folds is then traced. In the last months before 
metamorphosis it was seen that all the ova were arranged in the same 
way, with the vegetative pole towards the body-cavity, and the animal 
pole (with the approximated nucleus) towards the axial blood-vessels. 

In Ammocetes 5 em. in length the ova exhibited a central germinal 
vesicle; they grow continuously to the time of metamorphosis ; the yolk 
appears while the nucleus is still central. At the time of metamor- 
phosis, the ova are inclosed in a double membrane, and this by,a layer 
of granulosa. The substance exhibits crystal-like yolk-granules and 
numerous “vacuoles,” perhaps of connective material hike that which 
sparsely unites the granules. A two-layered cortical zone and a pellucid 
central area are conspicuous. The nucleus becomes eccentric in position. 
Between it and the surface lies a peculiar disc-like mass, the lid of 
A. Miller. This is only a transitory structure, not seen in the ovarian 
ova of mature lampreys, in which the germinal vesicle is quite superficial 
and polar. The granulosa undergoes mucous degeneration, more marked 
at the vegetative pole. In the freed ovum within the body-cavity the 
karyoplasma of the germinal vesicle expands like a cup, and forms the 
** pole-plasma.” 

B. Fertilization —The author gives a report of the results reached by 
A. Miller, Calberla, Kupffer, and Benecke. He then proceeds to detail 
his own observations at successive periods, first of minutes, and then of 
hours after fertilization. The fresh laid egg exhibits a mucous envelope, 
and at the animal pole a hyaline cupola. This is situated on a watch- 
glass-like arch of the egg-shell, which here as elsewhere consists of an 
internal radially porous, and an external homogeneous layer. On such 
unfertilized eggs no micropyle is to be seen. Several spermatozoa enter 
at the cupola; elsewhere the ovum is impenetrable. Within the cupola 
the spermatozoa are to be seen, which steer towards the centre of the 
ovum. Only one, however, penetrates. But, before the spermatozoa have 
touched the egg-membrane, a constriction is formed at the margin of the 
watch-glass-like elevation, the pole-plasma separates from the membrane, 
and forms in so doing a space traversed by numerous thin threads. Even 
this several spermatozoa may reach, but get no further. 

During the further retraction of the ovum, in the region of the pole- 
plasma, the above-mentioned threads and a thicker axial strand are 
withdrawn into the main mass, which has meanwhile assumed a spherical 
form. At the same time the first polar body is extruded. The yolk- 


* Aych. f. Mikr. Anat., xxxii. (1888). pp. 613-70 (2 pls.). 


190 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


membrane is formed round the entire egg, and the main mass of the 
pole-plasma surrounds itself internally with an undulating membrane 
at the contact surface with the yolk. Within the pole-plasma one then 
finds the spermatozoon and the provisional female pronucleus. Their 
position is not fixed, for the plasma is very mobile. Some time after the 
retraction of the axial strand the apical knob is raised towards the watch- 
glass-like arch, comes in contact with its inner surface, receives particles 
from the already-mentioned imprisoned or impeded spermatozoa, and is 
retracted into the main mass. The second polar body is formed; the 
final female pronucleus remains; and the sperm takes up a definite 
position in relation to it. 

A quarter of an hour after fertilization both elements begin to change. 
The female pronucleus becomes pale, diffuse, and rather larger. The 
sperm-head breaks up into spherical, connected, linearly disposed ele- 
ments. The formation of an associated “sun-figure” is described. The 
“spermatomerites” come into contact with the female nucleus, which 
takes or has taken the form of a group of spherical “ovomerites.” The 
two sets of elements come into intimate contact, undergo binary division 
into smaller and smaller portions, but do not fuse. Hach merite consists 
of a body and one or two granules or microsomata. At the end of the 
third hour the bodies of the merites fuse, the segmentation nucleus is 
formed, and the undulating membrane of the pole-plasma dissolves. 

The microsomata, which become free when the merites fuse, arrange 
themselves in short chains. They become grouped in an axial plate. 
The central mass of the sun probably falls into two masses with two 
suns, disposed at opposite poles in relation to the plate. Spindle strands 
appear, the short chains of the plate curve into loops, and a metaphasis 
sets in. After the formation of daughter-nuclei the pole-plasma begins 
to constrict in the axis of ovum. The author concludes his memoir with 
a comparison between his results and those of other investigators of 
fertilization. 


Observations on Human Spermatozoa.*—Mr. E. M. Nelson gives 
an account of some observations on the human spermatozoon. He thinks 
that the head or spore, as he calls it, has not been correctly figured 
hitherto. Its outline is oviform, the part towards the tail being the 
small end, but in all drawings which he has met with, the reverse of this 
is represented. The spore fits into a cup, and the edge of this can be 
distinctly seen both in front and side views, though the outline of the 
head has always been represented as unbroken. At the bottom of the 
cup there is what Mr. Nelson calls the calyx; this is exceedingly 
variable. Between the cup and the tail proper there is the stem, which 
varies in thickness; then there is the break which the author calls the 
joint; the tail is fairly constant in thickness and length. On the spore 
there is a process which it is proposed to call the filament, and not the 
flagellum (though it is like one), inasmuch as it is regarded as a director, 
or kind of antenna for the purpose of guiding the spore into an aperture 
in the ovum. As many as four nuclei have been observed in the spore 
of a human spermatozoon, but, though Mr. Nelson does not say so, this 
must be a very abnormal case. 


Epithelial Glands in Batrachian Larve.{—Prof. F. E. Schulze 
reports an interesting histological discovery made by him, while ex- 
* Journ. Quek. Mikr. Club, iii. (1889) pp. 310-4 (1 pl.). 


+ Biol. Centralbl., viii. (1888) pp. 580-2; Abh. K. Preuss. Akad. Berlin, 1888, 
pp. 46-9. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 191 


amining the larvee of Pelobates fuscus. He found in the posterior region 
of the roof of the pharyngeal cavity (from ceratohyal to cesophagus), a 
highly developed system of multicellular glands differing from all other 
known multicellular glands of vertebrate animals in that they are not 
imbedded in the connective-tissue layer, but are entirely limited to the 
epithelium, which at that point is fourfold. Hach gland is in shape like 
a more or less broad, round pumpkin flattened in the main axis. The 
flattened basal surface is seated on the connective-tissue layer, while the 
upper surface reaches to the surface of the epithelium. The cells which 
form the glands consist of longitudinally extended prisms closely 
pressed together. The glands form a belt of about 2 mm. in breadth. 
At the edges of this belt they are comparatively far apart, but in the 
middle they stand so close together that their edges touch. 


Factors in the Evolution of Cave Animals.*—Prof. A. S. Packard, 
in the advance sheets of an essay on the cave animals of North America, 
contends that the phrase “Natural Selection” expresses rather the 
result of a series of causes than a vera causa in itself; and that the 
constant use of such a phrase tends to obscure vision, and to prevent the 
discovery, by observation and experiment, of the tangible, genuine, 
efficient factors of organic evolution. He enumerates the following as 
the most important and potent factors in the evolution of cave animals :-— 
(1) Change in environment from light, even partial, to twilight or total 
darkness, involving diminution of food, and compensating for the loss of 
certain organs by the hypertrophy of others. (2) Disuse of certain 
organs. (3) Adaptation, enabling the more plastic forms to survive and 
perpetuate their stock. (4) Isolation, preventing intercrossing with out- 
of-door forms, thus insuring the permanence of the new varieties, species, 
or genera. (5) Heredity, operating to secure the permanence of the 
newly originated forms, as long as the physical conditions remain the 
same. Prof. Packard gives illustrations of the action of these factors, 
citing facts both new and old, and argues on behalf of what he calls 
“‘ Neo-Lamarckism.” 


B. Histology.+ 


Division of Red Blood-corpuscles in Amphibia.{—Dr. L. Térék has 
investigated the phenomena of cell-division in the red blood-corpuscles 
of Amphibians (Salamandra maculata), in regard to which Flemming and 
others had previously noticed certain deviations from the normal type. 
In the resting stage the chromatin is present in relatively greater 
abundance and denser disposition than in the resting nuclei of other 
kinds of cells. The large size of the subsequent nuclear figures is inter- 
preted as due partly to the dissolution of the filaments and strands from 
their previously close arrangement, partly to a change of the chromatin 
into a less dense state. The processes of division are described in detail 
—the formation of the close coil, of the loose coil, of the loops and the 
aster; the longitudinal division of the filaments in the loose coil and 
star-figure, or even in the first stage; the disappearance of the nuclear 
membrane in the loose coil and the consequent mingling of cell-proto- 


* Amer. Natural., 1888, pp. 808-2]. 
+ This section is limited to papers relating to Cells and Fibres. 
t Arch. f. Mikr, Anat., xxxii. (1888) pp. 603-13 (1 pl.). 


192 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


plasm and enlarged nucleus. The metakinesis is very brief, and few 
observations of this phase were made; except that the loops extend 
almost over the entire cell, the process seems typical enough. The 
regular barrel form of the separate nuclei, the daughter-asters and coils, 
and the like, are followed out. 


y. General. 


Adelphotaxy.*—Prof. M. M. Hartog has a note on an undescribed form 
of irritability, which he calls adelphotaxy. It may be defined as con- 
sisting in the tendency of spontaneously mobile cells to assume definite 
positions with regard to their fellows. In Achlya the zoospores lie in 
the sporange before liberation closely appressed together, with their long 
axes parallel ; on liberation, they do not separate and swim off each on 
its own account, but remain near the mouth of the sporange. They there 
form a hollow sphere, each zoospore rotating round its long axis before 
encysting in its place. The only explanation of these phenomena is 
that the zoospores are endowed with a peculiar irritability, in virtue of 
which they tend to place themselves close together side by side, with 
their long axes parallel. 

Though rare in the Vegetable Kingdom, two good instances occur in 
the Chlorophytes, in Pediastrum and Hydrodictyon ; possibly the forma- 
tion of plasmodia is a mode of adelphotaxy. The principle appears to 
afford a ready explanation of many cases of cellular aggregations in the 
animal embryo, and the formation of the spermatophores of many 
animals. 


Functions and Homologies of Contractile Vacuole in Plants and 
Animals.{—Prof. M. M. Hartog has a preliminary note on the contractile 
vacuole. He finds that all naked protoplasmic bodies living in fresh - 
water have at least one contractile vacuole; the possession of this is 
quite independent of the systematic position of the organism, and of the 
presence of chlorophyll. The vacuole loses its contractility on the 
formation of a strong cell-wall or cyst, and may even disappear, It is 
absent from Opalina, Gregarinida, and the Radiolaria which inhabit 
saline liquids. When, owing to morbid conditions, the efficiency of the 
contractile vacuole ig impaired, excessive vacuolation and diffluence 
ensue. Conversely, as soon as contractile vacuoles appear, the tendency 
to excessive vacuolation and diffluence is arrested. Prof. Hartog 
suggests that the perforation of the nephridial cells in Vermes and 
embryonic Molluscs, and of the epiblastic gland-cells of Vermes and 
Arthropods are due to persistence of the contractile vacuole, the opening 
of which has become permanent. 


Annelidan Affinities in Ontogeny of Vertebrate Nervous System.{ 
—Dr. J. Beard gives an account of some observations on the develop- 
ment of the central nervous system of a lizard. He points out that the 
cranial and spinal ganglia do not arise as outgrowths of the central 
nervous system, but from epiblasts outside and beyond its limits; this 
is just what happens with the parapodial ganglia of Annelids. Dr. Beard 
thinks he has discovered evidence of the bilateral origin of the central 
nervous system, for the two bands of neuro-epithelium are separated 


* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., iii. (1889) pp. 66-7. + Ibid., pp. 64-6. 
t Nature, xxxix. (1889) pp. 259-61. ; 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 193 


from one another by a ciliated groove, and this, too, is found in Anne- 
lids; it is this ciliated groove which by the growth and increase of its 
elements forms most, if not all, of the ciliated epithelium of the 
permanent central canal. 

Other points which favour the annelidan affinities of the Vertebrates 
are the formation of the notochord and swimming bladder, the lateral 
sense-organs, the characters of the nephridial system, and the agreement 
between the development of the hypophysis cerebri of Vertebrates and the 
development of the permanent cesophagus and its special nervous system 
in Annelids. 


The Modern Cell-Theory.*— Prof. J. G. M‘Kendrick traces the de- 
velopment of the modern cell-theory through a long series of classical 
investigations. The constitution and réle of the nucleus and the phe- 
nomena of division are discussed, while notice is taken of recent progress 
concerning oogenesis, spermatogenesis, and fertilization. The bearing of 
recent researches on the problems of heredity is then emphasized, and 
several formidable objections are urged against Weismann’s position 
relative to acquired characters. 


B. INVERTEBRATA. 


Transversely Striated Muscular Fibre.;—Prof. A. Kélliker, in view 
of the, as he thinks, erroneous teaching lately promulgated by A. v. 
Gehuchten and Ramon y Cajal, gives an account of his own long con- 
tinued observations on the structure of transversely striated muscular 
fibre. The chief object of his investigations have been the fibrillar 
wing-muscles of Insects: these are not found in all flying insects; they 
all consist essentially of two constituents, muscular fibrils and an inter- 
mediate substance—sarcoplasm; the fibrils are from 1-4 » broad, are 
contractile along their whole length, and in a state of contraction, all 
the parts are doubly refractive. When the fibres are at work there is an 
active chemical action, and the rapidity of contraction in insects’ fibres 
may be ascribed to the large supply of trachee. The chief seat of this 
activity is the sarcoplasm, as the large quantity present and the fat- 
molecules which are found in it are sufficient to show; it is not to be 
supposed, however, that the substance of the fibrils is not also ener- 
getically changed. There is no coagulation of an albuminoid body 
during contraction. If these views are correct it may further be 
supposed that the fibrils consist of typically formed particles (the dis- 
diaklasts of Briicke), the arrangement of which is the cause of isotropy 
or of anisotropy, and which, during contraction, undergo changes of 
position and form, the causes of which are to be found in electrical or as 
yet unknown chemical processes. 


Number of Polar Bodies.t—Prof. A. Weismann replies at length to 
an attack made upon him by Prof. Blochmann, in reference to the dis- 
covery of the fact that only one polar body is formed in parthenogenetic 
ova. ‘The question is one both of priority and of accuracy of statement, 
in regard to both of which Weismann more than vindicates himself. 


* Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow, xix. (1888) pp. 71-125. 
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvii. (1888) pp. 689-710 (2 pls.). 
t Morphol. Jahrb., xiv. 888) pp. 490-596. 


194 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Irish Marine Fauna.*—In the second report of the Dredging Com- 
mittee of the Royal Irish Academy, Prof. A. C. Haddon gives a general 
account of the forms observed. The erect variety of Hpizoanthus 
papillosus with a Pagurus was taken; this form has the remarkable 
power of dissolving away the hard molluscan shell, and replacing it with 
its own sand-impregnated tissues; in this way the shelter of the Pagurid 
is formed entirely by the Actinian, and as it grows with the growth of 
the hermit-crab, Paguri associated with Epizoanthus have not to seek a 
fresh home after each moult. Strongylocentrotus lividus was found in 
Lough Hyne merely resting on the rock; it is probably on account of 
their sheltered position that these specimens had not made “nests” for 
themselves, as do specimens found on the exposed coasts of Clare and 
Kerry. Ninety-two specimens of Pontaster tenuispinus and ten of 
Brisinga endacnemos were obtained. Holothuria tremula was dredged not 
far from the coast. A fine addition to our fauna is Chitonactis richardi, 
of Marion, first found in deep water in the Bay of Biscay. This is a 
very useful report to those who are interested in the fauna of our seas. 


Marine Invertebrates of Bermuda Islands.;—Prof. A. Heilprin 
gives a list of species collected within a depth of 16 fathoms in the 
lagoons of the Bermuda Islands. Although the Actinozoa were numerous 
the common genus Madrepora appears to be absent; the largest specimen 
of “ brain-coral” obtained had a diameter of 28 in.; one was seen which 
was four feet in diameter, but efforts to dislodge it were unsuccessful. 
Of the Echinodermata four novelties were found among the Holothurians, 
viz. Holothuria abbreviata, Stichopus diaboli, S. xanthomela, and Semperia 
Bermudensis. Pacific and old-world types were recognized both among 
the Crustacea and the Mollusca; of the former no new species are 
recorded, though the list of species now given is much longer than any 
of its predecessors; more than one hundred species of Mollusca were 
obtained, and among these Octopus chromatus, Aplysia xquorea, Chromo- 
doris zebra, and Onchidium (Onchidiella) transatlanticum appear to be 
new. 


Zoology of Victoria.{—The seventeenth decade of Prof. F. M‘Coy’s 
Prodromus contains further descriptions and figures of Polyzoa by Mr. 
M‘Gillivray; thirteen species of Cellepora are now described. The 
author considers that the holostomatous and schizostomatous divisions of 
Cellepora are of generic value, and he retains the name of Cellepora for 
the former, and proposes that of Schismopora for the latter; nine of the 
species appear to be new. A new genus of Squid—Ommastrephes 
Gouldi—is described by Prof. M‘Coy; it appears to be most closely 
allied to O. equipeda Riippell. 


Mollusca. 
Bp. Pteropoda. 


Morphology of Pteropods.§—Prof. C. Grobben writes in regard toa 
passage from one of his papers, which has been misunderstood by Boas 
and Pelseneer. By “ Rickdrehung” he meant the movement of the 
visceral sac on the dorso-ventral axis, not an “ Aufrollung ” or untwist- 


* Proc. R, Irish Acad., i. (1888) pp. 29-56. 

+ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1888, pp. 302-28. 

t ‘Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,’ xvii. (1888). 

§ Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien (Claus), viii. (1888) pp. 155-7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 195 


ing. The Pteropods are now regarded as Gastropods; in this Fol, 
Spengel, and Grobben, who refer them to the Euthyneura, as well as 
Boas and Pelseneer, who rank them with Opisthobranchiata, agree with 
the older views of Souleyet and de Blainville, who placed the Pteropods 
beside Bulla, Gastropteron, and Aplysia. They are Gastropods modified 
for pelagic life, and on such an understanding their peculiarities are to be 
interpreted. ‘The protopodium of Pteropods is the sole of the Gastropod 
foot, not only morphologically, but also in function, as Souleyet pointed 
out for Pneumodermon. The epipodia are paired derivatives of the 
protopodium, as Grobben has previously mentioned in regard to the 
pterygopodium of Heteropods. In a certain sense they may. be termed 
new structures. 


y. Gastropoda. 


Generative Apparatus of Lymneus.*—Dr. J. Klotz supports 
Brock and Rouzaud in the statement that the generative apparatus of 
the Pulmonata begins to be developed before the escape of the embryo. 
The penis is developed independently at the hinder margin of the 
tentacle, and is an ectodermal invagination which is hollow, and not 
solid, as stated by Hisig. There is no “ migration ontogénique” of the 
penis, as supposed by Rouzaud, in Lymnzus; further investigations 
must show whether, in other Basommatophora, the penis is to be regarded 
as a diverticulum of the female efferent duct. Both uterus and prostate 
are at first hollow, and, apparently, mesodermal in origin. The 
cylindrical portion of the vas deferens forms a secondary connection 
between the penis and the uterine prostatic portions; there is no rudi- 
mentary male duct in the sense of Brock. The hermaphrodite gland has 
an independent mesodermal origin, as Hisig and Brock have correctly 
stated ; Rouzaud was wrong in affirming it to be ectodermal. The 
general statement of previous writers that the uterus and prostate are 
separated only by the ingrowth of a fold into the common duct is 
correct; a further dorsal fold in the prostate is the cause of the forma- 
tion of the pyriform body. The receptaculum seminis is formed by a 
further fission of the uterus. By a fold similar to that of the prostate 
the small tube at the proximal part of the rudiment of the penis is 
formed. The albumen-gland is an evagination of the oviduct. The 
folds in the uterus appear very early, and the glandular cells in it are, 
in the Basommatophora, only epithelial cells, but those of the prostate 
are not so, and they are differently arranged to those in the uterus. The 
glandular cells of the albumen-gland are likewise epithelial, but they 
do not, as Semper supposed, he freely in the follicles, for they are 
connected with an efferent duct. Folds similar to those of the uterus 
are found in the receptaculum, but are not so numerous. The small 
tube is separated peripherally from the copulatory organ, and can be 
completely invaginated. In a large number of points the author agrees 
with Brock and Rouzaud, and in an almost larger number he contra- 
dicts Hisig. 

Anatomy of Aplysia.j—M. R. Saint-Loup has some anatomical 
notes on a form of Aplysia fasciata, which is smaller, more active, and 
more highly coloured than ordinary examples. He finds that itg 


* Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxiii. (1888) pp. 1-40 (2 pls.). 
+ Comptes Rendus, cvii. (1888) pp. 1010-12. 


196 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


“hermaphrodite gland” contained only spermatozoa, but the author is 
not certain whether this is a case of protandry or of separate sexes. 
Herr Kollmann has erroneously stated that the arterial system of 
Aplysia is completely closed, for the capillaries were found to communi- 
cate with intermuscular lacune or with the general cavity. The purple- 
gland plays a very active part in the depuration of the blood and in the 
elimination of substances which are hurtful to the animal ; if methylen- 
blue be injected into a living specimen the glandular capsules of the 
gland will be found gorged with this substance. 


The Heteropod Eye.*—In the second of a series of papers on the 
comparative anatomy of visual organs, Prof. H. Grenacher describes the 
eye of Heteropoda, and specially that of Pterotrachea coronata Forsk. 
He sums up his conclusions as follows :— 

(1) The retina of the Heteropoda, like that of the Cephalopoda, is 
not to be considered as made up of histologically distinct layers. It 
consists of a single layer of cells, whose individual elements are made 
up of nucleus-bearing portions, rod-sockets, and rods. The first named 
lie outside, both the others inside a.thin limiting membrane. 

(2) The striated or fibrillated contents of the nucleus-bearing 
portions of the retina cell cannot be referred, with any sufficient ground, 
to a disruption into nerve-fibres; rather are the striations related to 
the formation of the so-called radicule, which, as root-like processes, 
seem destined to fix the retina cells to the cuticle. 

(3) The rod-sockets, also finely striated, are segtnents of varying 
length, which is determined by the height of their point of insertion 
in the rods above the bounding-membrane. 

(4) The rods must be considered as compound structures, since a 
number of socket-parts are in connection with each of them, and indeed 
because each rod owes its origin to a number of retinal cells. This 
is also the case in the rhabdoms of the Arthropoda and Cephalopoda ; 
but while the components of a rhabdom are placed side by side, they are 
here in rows over one another, one end free, the other uniting with the 
corresponding socket-parts. Their transverse striation, contrary to 
M. Schultze’s statement, is due to a relatively simple lamellar texture. 

(5) The rods are arranged in longitudinal rows (of which there are 
six in Pterotrachea) which extend over the retina in nearly parallel 
courses. 

(6) The retina is traversed by a cleft to the whole depth of the 
rows of rods, running parallel to them, and separating them into dorsal 
and ventral halves. In the dorsal half are two, in the ventral four 
rows. ‘The dorsal rows have their free side ventral, the ventral rows 
are free dorsally. 

(7) The retina is innervated from a layer of nerve-fibres which run 
between or under the basal ends of the retinal cells. They run to that 
part of the retinal cells where these split up into radicule, and there 
unite with them. There is no ground for supposing that the nerve-fibres 
pass into the retinal cells on the analogy of the Cephalopoda. Besides 
the nerve-fibres, in the dorsal half, there are small ganglionic cells. 

(8) The structureless limiting membrane which extends between 
the free ends of the rods and the vitreous body gives off, on the side 
next the rods, rows of fine fibres which insinuate themselves between the 


* Abh. Nat. Gesell. Halle, xvii. (1888) pp. 1-64 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 197 


rods. They are most probably united with the cellular elements which 
lie between the nucleus-bearing portions of the retina cells, and whose 
distribution, in the ventral half at least of the retina, exactly resembles 
that of the fibres. These cells are probably, as in the Cephalopoda, 
the material for the formation of the fibres, and also for the limiting- 
membrane itself. A further net of circular fibres arises apparently from 
cellular elements which lie in the retinal cleft. 

(9) The nervous layer of the retina extends over this, out into the 
pigmented epithelium of the so-called costal region, where it can be 
followed with gradual diminutions to certain areas marked by epithelial 
projections. On the ventral side of the eye, the fibres can be traced to 
large cells surrounded by the pigment-epithelium. This points to an 
analogous condition on the dorsal side, where the said cells are smaller, 
but there the point cannot be settled. Whether it can be shown that 
these cells are of secretory function, it is impossible to determine. 
The relations of the Heteropod eye to the visual organs of the other 
Cephalophora, and the general morphology of the latter are then 
discussed. 


Entocolax Ludwigii, Parasitic in a Holothurian.*—Dr. W. Voigt 
gives an account of a remarkable Mollusc found by Prof. Ludwig living 
parasitically on Myriotrochus Rinkii ; the specimen which carried the 
parasite was collected in Behring’s Sea. It belongs, in the author's 
opinion, to the group of Prosobranchiate Mollusca, of which it must form 
the representative of a special suborder to be called Cochlosyringia, 
These may be defined as endoparasitic Gastropods which, when adult, 
have the form of an acephalous naked tube, which by means of its knoblike 
anterior end, penetrates into the body-wall of its host. At the tip of 
the anterior end there is an orifice which leads into the oral invagina- 
tion. This has neither jaws nor radula. There are no circulatory or 
respiratory organs. The female gonads have a rudimentary efferent 
duct, and a well-developed receptaculum seminis; the ova are evacuated 
by tearing the wall of the ovary. The female of Entocolaz is as yet 
alone known; its body is 1 em. long, tubular, narrower behind than in 
front ; for a short distance behind its anterior end it forms a large sphere 
3 mm. thick, which contains the ova. 


Mouth-parts of Ancylus fluviatilis and Velletia lacustris.t—Herr 
J. Ulitny describes the jaw and radula of the above forms. The jaw of 
Ancylus is a deep arch formed of about 100 plates, which are somewhat 
rectangular, and have their long axis directed towards the mouth of the 
arch. ‘Their surface is granular, and they are fringed at the lower end, 
The centre of the arch and its extremities have only one row of plates, 
but in the middle of each side they are six or seven irregular rows 
thick. 

In the jaw of Velletia, there are about 50 plates pointed at each end, 
i.e. somewhat lancet-shaped, and finely striated. ‘They form a single 
row still more deeply arched than in Ancylus. No one plate can be 
said to have a central position. At the sides they lie pointing down- 
wards and outwards, thus touching one another laterally only. 

The radula in Ancylus is composed of some 140 transverse rows of 
teeth, curved so as to be convex backwards. The central tooth is 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvii. (1888) pp. 658-88 (8 pls.). 
+ Verh. Nat. Ver. Briinn, xxvi. (1888) pp. 120-4. 


198 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


symmetrical about itself, and on each side of it are from 25 to 32 teeth, 
so that there are in all 51 to 65 longitudinal rows. 

In Velletia the radula has some 84 transverse rows of teeth. The 
well-developed central tooth is smaller than in Ancylus; 11 to 15 teeth 
lie on each side of it, and outside these come 4 to 7 little plates, the row 
thus containing 35 to 37 pieces. Comparing these with the mouth- 
organs of other members of the family, Herr Uliény concludes that a 
natural classification demands the breaking up of the family Limneide 
into several independent families. 


6. Lamellibranchiata. 


Edge of Mantle of Acephala.*—Dr. B. Rawitz deals, in his first 
account of the mantle of acephalous Lamellibranchs, with the Ostreacea. 
In Anomia ephippium the margin forms a thickening of the mantle which 
is best developed in the middle, and gradually passes to a simple ridge 
at the edges. The left margin of the mantle is feebler than the right; 
its inner surface is generally flat, and has only rarely an elongated 
brownish swelling which is always at some distance from the edge; the 
inner surface of the right half has a rounded swelling of the tissue 
which, though varying with the age of the animal, is always better 
developed than that of the left. Both edges are beset with several rows 
of conical papille or tentacles, of which the innermost are the longest 
and the outermost the shortest. This arrangement obtains also in Ostrea, 
Lima, Spondylus, and Pecten. 

The edge of the mantle of Ostrea edulis is pigmented at the centre of 
its curve, but is free of pigment on the dorsal and ventral sides of the 
animal. As in Anomia the two halves of the mantle are separate along 
their whole extent; macroscopically, these two halves are exactly 
similar. 

In Lima the tentacles are all marginal in position; the mantle-valve 
is extraordinarily long, as is, in the Spondylide and Pectinide, the 
valve which hangs down inwardly; in the latter, however, its free 
margin may carry several rows of short tentacles. 

The nerves which supply the mantle and its edge, arise from the 
cerebral and visceral ganglia. Hach of the former gives off one nerve, 
the nervus pallialis anterior; it divides dichotomously into two branches 
which fork and end in very fine branches in the substance of the margin ; 
it is principally supplied to the anterior fourth. The median pallial 
nerve arises as a strong trunk from the visceral ganglion, and has at first 
a direction perpendicular to the long axis of the animal; at the margin 
it divides into two equal branches which diverge and supply a large part 
of the edge with finer branches. The hinder pallial nerve is relatively 
delicate, and divides into three fine branches which supply the greater 
part of the hinder fourth of the margin. The finest branches of this 
nerve supply pass into a nervus pallialis circularis. 

The differences in the minute structure of the mantle and its margin 
in the five families of Ostreacea which were examined are so great that 
the author describes each separately ; this he does in greater detail than 
we are able to follow him. But some points of interest may be noted. 

In the Anomiide the epithelia which cover the marginal tentacles 
in several rows are sensory or indifferent ; the latter may or may not be 


* Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxii. (1888) pp. 415-556 (6 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 199 


pigmented ; there are noticeable differences between the epithelia of the 
right and left margins. The sensory cells are very delicate, and there 
are two kinds of them. Some are like the typical forms described by 
Flemming, and have a capitulum which is only very rarely distinctly 
marked off, and which is covered by stiff hairs; the long neck has a 
basal spindle-shaped swelling which contains the nucleus; the nerve- 
fibre which enters the cell is not in direct contact with the nucleus. 
The second kind of sensory cell is represented by delicate structures 
having nearly the form of an equilateral triangle; the base carries the 
cilia, while the tip is continued into a varicose terminal nerve-fibre. 

The left mantle margin is beset with five rows of tentacles ; those of 
all but the fourth row are simple, and those of the fourth are branched ; 
they are all pigmented, but the pigment is distributed irregularly ; each 
of these rows are separately considered, as are those of the right side. 
While the musculature of the true mantle is exclusively longitudinal, 
the tentacles have longitudinal, transverse, and circular muscles; all 
these kinds have numerous small nuclei, which stain intensely. 

The connective substance of the two halves of mantle which contain 
the already mentioned swellings has a peculiar structure. In its meshes 
there is a mass which, like that seen in the tentacles, does not appear to 
be connected with definite histological elements. It is in some parts so 
well developed as to completely obscure the other constituents of the 
mantle-substance ; mucous cells are found in the amorphous mass. It 
is possible that we have here to do with mucous cells, the substance of 
which has passed into an amorphous mass. 

In the Ostreidz the circular nerve of the mantle lies closer tu the 
outer than the inner surface, and has a ganglionic cortex and nerve- 
fibres ; it is surrounded by a delicate covering, which accompanies the 
branches that pass into and occupy the axis of the tentacles. There 
are two kinds of goblet-cells in the connective substance, and they are 
present in large numbers. Their secretion appears to be protective. 
The author is of opinion that Ryder’s observations quoted by Sharp do 
not serve to prove that Oysters are sensitive to light; they are quite 
blind, and their pigment-cells are indifferent structures. 

In the Radulide, of which Lima hians and L. inflata are taken as the 
types, Dr. Rawitz has already reported the presence of two forms of 
marginal tentacles, which may be distinguished as sensory and glandular 
filaments; the differences in the microscopic structure of these are fully 
described. There are three kinds of unicellular glands, all of which 
agree in wanting a true cell-membrane. The secretion of the glandu- 
lar filaments is, no doubt, of use in forming the nest of Lima, which 
consists of various inorganic particles and remains of organic structures 
held together by very delicate filaments. The great quantity of secre- 
tion suggests that it has also some other function, and it may be that it 
is a kind of defensive apparatus. 

In the Pectinide and Spondylide the edge of the mantle has 
an extraordinary number of tentacles which are arranged in several 
rows; these vary in various species; the innermost tentacles are the 
longest. Pigment is found associated with indifferent epithelial cells, 
and is so intensely developed in Spondylus as to render the investi- 
gation of the minute structure exceedingly difficult. The several species 
examined are discussed in great detail. 

In conclusion, the author gives an account of his examination of the 


200 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


eyes of the Pectinida, which he prefaces by a critical and historical 
notice of the works of his predecessors. The smaller species have more 
eyes on the mantle than have the large. These eyes are placed on 
stalks, the substance of which is a direct continuation of that of the 
edge of the mantle, and is covered by epithelial cells which vary in form 
in different regions. The stalk, which varies in length, is generally 
cylindrical in form; the fibrils, of which its connective substance is 
formed, are less numerous, and the meshes are larger than in the tactile 
filaments on the edge of the mantle, and the whole tissue has a more 
homogeneous appearance. Patten was right in asserting the presence of 
vascular lumina; there are also muscles, but these are not formed, as 
Patten declares, of elongated spindle-shaped cells, but they form long 
multinuclear cords, the cellular components of which are closely packed 
against one another; the whole forms a contractile subepithelial tube. 
The ciliaris of Patten does not appear to exist, that observer having 
mistaken connective-tissue fibrils for muscular fibres. 

The epithelium of the optic stalk is flat or low, but becomes higher 
at about the equator of the organ ; here the cells contain pigment which 
varies in colour in various species. Hensen was quite right in objecting 
to the term choroid being applied to the pigment-mantle, for it is the 
vascularization and not the pigmentation which is the characteristic of 
the choroid. The pellucida of Hensen or cornea of most authors has an 
outer layer which is formed on one of three types; it is succeeded by 
an inner layer which is a direct continuation of the connective substance 
of the stalk. 

The true optic organ consists of two parts which differ from one 
another in structure and formation; the distal portion is the dioptric, 
the proximal that which perceives the light. Biitschli was wrong in 
doubting the existence of the septum which Krohn discovered to separate 
these two regions. ‘The dioptric apparatus is formed by the lens; this 
is biconvex in form, and its greater diameter is along the lateral axis of 
the eyeballs. It consists of numerous cells, which are generally poly- 
hedral in form; the plasma of these is thick and granular and stains 
very intensely, especially with eosin; the nucleus is generally present, 
and small; these cells have no investing membrane, but present a 
distinct contour after treatment with corrosive sublimate. The author 
cannot agree with Patten in the latter’s statement that the lens is 
invested by a membrane. 

The -proximal part of the eye consists of three layers—retina, 
tapetum, and pigment-membrane. In the retina there are again three 
layers, which can be seen in longitudinal sections, which lie in the 
following order proximally to the septum: layer of ganglion-cells, layer 
of rod-cells, and layer of rods; these are described in detail, and the 
differences between the author’s results and those of preceding writers 
carefully pointed out. ‘The innervation of the eye is also discussed. 

An explanation of the morphological difficulty that the rods of the 
eye of Pecten are turned away from the light, has been attempted by 
Biitschli, who ascribes the difference from the eye of other Molluscs to 
the different mode of development of the lens; in Vertebrates and in 
Pecten it is formed outside the optic vesicle, but in other Molluscs 
within the eye. If, however, the eyes of Pecten are not, as Patten says, 
homologous but only analogous with those of other Molluses, the eye of 
Pecten will remain a histological and morphological unique. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 201 


Another problem is offered by the multiplication of the eyes in the 
Pectinide. Patten’s explanation is altogether rejected, and a kind of 
mosaic theory is suggested. The aberrant structure is due to the special 
conditions of life of these Lamellibranchs, for the only free surface on 
which eyes can be developed is the edge of the mantle. 


Nervous Elements of Adductor Muscles of Lamellibranchs.*— 
Signor R. Galeazzi has investigated the nervous element of the adductor 
muscles of Mytilus edulis and of Ostrea. He finds that these muscles 
are very rich in nerve-fibres and ganglion-cells. The former give rise 
to a very fine reticulum in the muscle; the terminal nerve-fibrils are 
united to the nucleus of the fibre-cell, or rather with its protoplasmic 
nuclear prolongations. He is of opinion that all the muscular fibres may 
have a nerve-fibre, and he cannot agree with those who think that it is 
absolutely impossible for every muscular fibre to have a nerve. ‘The 
large number of ganglionic cells in the connective tissue between the 
muscular bundles leads us to admit the presence of certain automatic 
neryous centres in the muscle itself; the presence of these would 
explain the considerable power possessed by the adductor muscles. 


Swelling of Foot of Solen pellucidus.;—Herr K. Mobius states that 
if young (1-2 cm. long) examples of Solen pellucidus be magnified from 
twenty to thirty times they may be seen to suddenly protrude their foot 
and to swell it out. While this is being done fluid may be scen to pass 
from the basal parts to the free end, and this can be nothing but blood 
which comes from the pallial reservoirs. 


Molluscoida. 
B. Bryozoa. 


Stalked Bryozoon.{—Mr. J. Walter Fewkes gives the name of 
Ascorhiza occidentalis to anew Bryozoon found at Santa Barbara. It is 
remarkable for having the zoarium massed into a spherical or oval 
capitulum, which is mounted on a jointed stem; the latter is flexible 
and highly sensitive to the touch. It is about an inch in height, and is 
of a uniform brownish red, the colour closely approximating to that of 
the giant kelp (Macrocystis), with which it was found associating. It 
has a carnose body which recalls that of Alcyonidium ; it differs from the 
-entoproctous genera in its colonial form, though its stem closely 
resembles that of Urnatella, with which it is probably homologous. It 
also has some likeness to Busk’s genus Ascopodaria, in which there is a 
barrel-shaped body at the base of the peduncle. The structure of this 
form is possibly to be explained by regarding it as a Ctenostomatous 
form allied to Alcyonidium, but with a stem. If this be so, the new 
genus presents characters of both the great divisions of the Byozoa, but 
a new family will have to be formed for it. Sufficient knowledge of the 
polypide has not yet been obtained for us to say whether it is cteno- 
stomatous or cheilostomatous. 


* Arch. Ital. Biol. x. (1888) pp. 388-93 (1 pl.). 
+t SB. Gesell. Naturf. Freunde, 1888, p. 34. 
~ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., iii. (188: Y) pp. 1-6 C1 pl.). 


1889. P 


202 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


y. Brachiopoda. 


Recent Brachiopoda.*—The late Dr. T. Davidson’s monograph of 
recent Brachiopoda is now completed. The two groups Arthropomata 
and Lyopomata each contain three families; the former, which has the 
greater number of species, is divided into the Terebratulide, in which a 
number of subfamilies are recognized, the Thecidiide, and the Rhyn- 
chonellide; and there are in all seventeen genera or subgenera. The 
Lyopomata embrace the Craniide, Discinide, and Lingulide, the only 
subgenera being Discinisca and Glottidia. Some additional notes are 
added by Miss A. Crane, who has had the editorial charge of the 
work. 

Arthropoda. 


Vision of Arthropods.|—Prof. F. Plateau gives a short summary of 
the results of his long continued experiments on the phenomena of vision 
in Arthropods. Those that have no eye, such as certain Myriopods, 
distinguish light from darkness. These dermatoptic perceptions very 
probably exist in most Arthropods whether or no they have visual 
organs, and they explain most of the special facts presented by in- 
dividuals who have been artificially blinded. In Arthropods with simple 
eyes only, vision is, as a rule, very bad. Some, like Myriopods, Spinning 
Spiders, and Phalangida, do not seem to perceive the form of a body at 
any distance at all; others, like Hunting Spiders, Scorpions, and larve, 
seem to see the contours of objects more or less confusedly ; but the 
distance seen is always small. A large number of Arthropods perceive 
the displacements of mobile bodies; all aid their insufficient visual 
organs by a skilful use of the organs of touch. Notwithstanding the 
absence of a power of really distinct vision, in the sense understood of 
Vertebrates, there are three chief factors which cause Arthropods with 
simple eyes to move about with sufficient adroitness to provide food, and 
to sometimes present such a bearing as to lead a superficial observer to 
believe that they are endowed with good sight. When an Arthropod 
has both compound and simple eyes the latter are of hardly any use. 

An Insect with compound eyes has no sharp perception of form; from 
the functional point of view facetted eyes are inferior to the eyes of 
Vertebrates. Though they have no complete perception of form some 
perceive movements which are not too rapid, as do the Lepidoptera, 
Hymenoptera, Diptera, and Odonata; at distances which vary between 
58 cm. and 2 metres these animals see displacements of objects of a 
certain size much better than they see the objects themselves. What, in 
a general way, happens with a flying insect is this—the animal moving 
in air with a very lively perception of light and shadow is able to avoid 
masses, such as trunks of trees, rocks, or walls, and passes them ata 
suitable distance. If by chance he should be in the midst of underwood 
or any other group of plants, he profits by the solutions of continuity 
through which light is filtered, or which offer him the largest surface. 
If the wind agitates the leaves the openings oscillate, but, thanks to his 
power of perceiving movement, he sees them all the better; he describes, 
in flying, undulations so as to follow the direction of the displacements, 
and to get out without injuring himself. When his mode of feeding 


* Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., iv. pp. 1-74, pls. ixiii. (1886); pp. 75-182, pls. 
xiy.-xxv. (1887); pp. 183-248, pls. xxvi.—xxx. (1888). 
+ Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Belg., lvili. (1888) pp. 895-457 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 208 


requires him to visit certain flowers he comes to them with certainty, if 
his sense of smell is well developed, or by chance, if it is not. Incapable 
of distinguishing different flowers by their forms, he hastens towards 
coloured spots, hesitates, and only decides when he is close enough to 
know by their odour whether he has found what he was seeking. The 
same is true of living prey; if it is ordinarily immobile it is known by 
its odour, if it is agile it is recognized by its movements. Smell or 
smell with sight bring about the congress of the sexes. The perception 
of movements warns the insect of the approach of an enemy. Prof. 
Plateau feels that in thus insisting on the imperfect visual power of 
Insects he is taking up a position which is opposed to deeply seated 
beliefs, but he bases himself on his experiments, and demands that he be 
answered by experiments alone. 


a. Insecta. 


Anatomy and Biology of Physapoda.*—Dr. K. Jordan gives an 
account of the group of Insects to which the term Thysanoptera is often 
applied, and which Prof. Claus—for example—more correctly calls 
Physopoda. The author would separate these insects from the Ortho- 
ptera, and establish a special order for them. He is of opinion that 
the difference between Insecta metabola and ametabola is only apparent ; 
the mode of development of the latter is not opposed to that of the 
former; in the one case there is continuous, in the other interrupted 
change, and between the two extreme types there are intermediate stages. 
It is not true that all Orthoptera or Rhynchota are now ametabolous. 
The Orthoptera amphibiotica have larve which are unlike their imagines, 
and may be called hemimetabola. Change goes still further in the 
Coccide among the Rhynchota, and the metamorphosis of the Physopoda 
is quite similar to that of the Coccide. 

The palzozoic insects are allied to Orthoptera, Thysanura, Homoptera 
or Neuroptera, and the other orders of Insects only appear in mesozoic 
or cainozoic periods; paleontology tells us nothing as to the point of 
origin of recent insects. 'The Hemiptera appear to be derived from the 
Homoptera, while all the rest are further developments of orthopteroid 
or neuropteroid forms. The carboniferous Homoptera and Neuroptera 
were probably derived from orthopteroid forms. And there appear, 
therefore, to have been two series of developments arising from the 
broad base of the Orthoptera—one to the Insecta holometabola, the other 
through the Homoptera to the Heteroptera. The latter group have the 
germinal stripes internal, and includes those insects whose larval stages 
are anatomically similar to the imaginal; among these the Physopoda 
must be placed. 

When we come to inquire more closely as to their position we must 
consider their special anatomy and biology. They, especially in their 
larval state, resemble the small Cicadelline; the hypognathism of the 
vesicular feet is so strongly marked that the oral cone comes to le under 
the prothorax ; the number and position of the ocelli calls to mind the 
Orthoptera rather than the Hemiptera, while the position of the 
antenne is as much orthopteroid as aphidoid. In the development of 
the mandibular organs the Physopoda do not differ as much as do the 
Rhynchota; the physopod proboscis is intermediate in type between 


* Zeitschy, f. Wiss. Zool., xlvii. (1888) pp. 541-620 (3 pls.). 


p 2 


204 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


that of the biting Orthoptera and the sucking Rhynchota. With both 
they agree in having a free prothorax; with regard to other parts of 
their exoskeleton they agree sometimes with one and sometimes with the 
other group. The wing is of the pterophorine type. In the possession 
of a concentrated nervous system the Physopoda come very near to the 
Rhynchota, and are widely separated from the Orthoptera, the aberrant 
Mallophaga, however, having also a concentrated nervous system. The 
tracheal system has only three or four pairs of stigmata, but such a 
reduction is often seen among holometabolous insects. The digestive 
apparatus is characterized by having only four Malpighian vessels, as is 
the case in most Rhynchota, except the Aphides which have none, and 
the Coccide which have only two tubes. Most Orthoptera have a 
number, but the Termites and the Psocide have only six, and the 
Mallophaga four. 

The male generative apparatus with its simple, often pyriform testi- 
cular tubes, is somewhat like that of both the Mallophaga and the 
Phytophthira; the female organ, by the rosette-like arrangement of the 
few ovarian tubes, resembles the tubes of the Rhynchota. On the whole, 
then, the Physopoda appear to have a closer anatomical resemblance to 
the Homoptera than to the Orthoptera, and there are certain biological 
facts which sustain this conclusion ; and there can be no doubt that the 
Physopoda should be separated from the Orthoptera. 

It depends upon the view which we take as to the general classifi- 
cation of Insects as to what we shall next do; if we hold to the old 
views, we must place the Physopoda with the Rhynchota, and divide 
that order into Heteroptera, Homoptera, and Physopoda. If, however, 
we break up the “conglomerate” of Orthoptera into several orders equal 
in value to such as the Coleoptera or Diptera, we should destroy the 
true rhynchote type by inserting the Physopoda under it, and we must, 
in that case, make a special order for them. Such an order would stand 
between the Rhynchota and the Conodontia (or Mallophaga, Psocide, 
and Termites). It might be defined as having, among others, these 
characters: a very small body ; a hypognathous head; unsymmetrical, 
sucking mouth-parts; antennze with seven to nine joints; facetted eyes, 
large; generally three ocelli. Thoracic rings pretty long; prothorax 
free; metanotum longer than mesonotum ; mesophragm free, metaphragm 
absent ; abdomen with ten segments, anal segment often tubular. Legs 
short; tarsus with one or two joints. ‘Two pairs of very small wings, 
with nervures reduced. Three or four pairs of stigmata. Four Mal- 
pighian vessels; two pairs of salivary glands. Nervous system concen- 
trated. Heart small. With or without an ovipositor, female orifice 
between eighth and ninth or ninth and tenth abdominal segments; male 
orifice between ninth and tenth. Reproduction sexual or parthenogenetic. 
Germinal stripe completely internal. Larva like imago, nymph does not 
feed, but larva and imago phytophagous. 


New Organ and Structure of Hypodermis in Periplaneta orientalis.* 
—Mr. E. A. Minchin gives an account of an undescribed organ in the 
Cockroach. ‘T'wo pouch-like invaginations of the cuticle le close on 
each side of the middle line, between the fifth and sixth terga of the 
abdomen. ‘They are lined by a continuation of the chitinous cuticle, 
which forms, within the pouches, numerous stiff, branched, finely pointed 


* Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., xxix. (1888) pp. 229-31 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 205 


hairs, beneath which are a number of glandular epithelial cells. They 
have no special muscles. The function of these bodies is probably that 
of a stink-organ. 

Mr. Minchin gives a somewhat different account of the structure of 
the hypodermis than that which is found in Miall and Denny’s work 
on the Cockroach. He finds that the hypodermis does not consist of a 
single, but of two layers of cells, except where the cuticle is folded to 
form an articulation, when the upper alone remains. In certain parts 
the cells of the lower layer become giant-cells, and are undoubtedly gan- 
glionic; they are extremely abundant in the fore-part of each tergum. 
The nerve-end cells are probably connected with a seta where the terga 
are exposed, but where these are overlapped they seem to be merely 
connected with small papille. 


New Mode of Closing Trachez of Insects.*—M. G. Carlet describes 
a mode of closing the trachez of insects which has been hitherto unde- 
scribed. He calls it “fermeture operculaire.” In the Hymenoptera 
there is between the genital armature and the integument a piece which 
he calls the fenestrated scale, as it is pierced by a large stigma. Within 
this stigma the trachea resembles one of the baskets with an oblique 
cover which are carried by fishermen. A tracheal muscle is spread on 
this cover (operculum); when the latter is raised, the trachea is closed 
and its contents isolated from the outer air. 


New Organ of Hymenoptera.t|—M. G. Carlet has found it difficult 
to understand how the sting of Hymenoptera, or even the movements of 
respiration, can fail to affect injuriously the delicate tracheal apparatus 
described in the preceding note. He has now, however, found a new 
organ, which he calls the coussinet ; this has a plano-convex form and is 
fixed by its plane surface against the anal scale, while its convex side 
answers to the portion of the fenestrated side not occupied by the tracheal 
apparatus. By its means this last is kept free from the anal scale; the 
operculum is in contact with no other piece of the poison apparatus, and 
may be raised or depressed freely by the contraction or relaxation of the 
tracheal muscle. This new organ is composed of spheroidal cells with 
granular protoplasm, which are connected with one another by a fine 
and transparent chitinous substance ; this last connects the mass of cells 
with the anal scale. It may be said to form a pivot for the poison 
apparatus, the movements of which it facilitates. 


Male Copulatory Apparatus of Pompilide.t—General Radoszkowski 
finds that the structure of the copulatory apparatus of the genera of this 
family of Hymenoptera is of a common type. He considers it under 
the five heads of preparatory apparatus, forceps, basilar piece, genital 
operculum, and genital palpi. 

The preparatory apparatus is composed of two bodies united by a 
membrane which it is very difficult to detach; the hooks are more or 
less elongated, and their terminations may be rounded, or cut sharply 
off, or forked. The forceps is composed of a long and wide arm, which 
is always provided with hairs, of a basal piece of varying form, and of 
a “volvella,” at the base of which are two or three teeth. The basilar 
piece is always more or less large. The genital operculum is composed 


* Comptes Rendus, cvii. (1888) pp. 755-7. + T.c., pp. 955-6, 
{ Bull. Soc. Imp. Moscou, 1888, pp. 462-93 (4 pls.). 


206 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of two parts, which vary in form, while the genital palps are elongated 
or round, and are always provided with hairs. The several genera 
examined are described in detail, and some new forms are to be found 
among the species. 


Enteric Canal of Ephemeride.*—Herr A. Fritze finds that the 
digestive tract of the Ephemeride consists, in all stages of development, 
of fore-, mid-, and hind-gut. The cesophagus of the larva is spacious, 
but in the imago it is very narrow, so as to hinder the exit of the air 
contained in the tract. The mid-gut of the larva has the form of a 
cylindrical tube which extends from the beginning of the thorax as far 
as the seventh segment of the thorax; it consists, histologically, of a 
strong layer of circular muscles and a high palisade-like epithelium, the 
cells of which are filled with granular matter. In the imago the muscular 
layer has disappeared, and the epithelium has become flattened. The hind- 
gut, which in the larva serves for the passage of the feces and the secretion 
of the Malpighian tubes, and in the imago for that of the latter only, 
is divisible into small intestine, large intestine, and rectum. The first 
of these portions is, in the imago, converted into a very complicated 
sphincter, the function of which is to hinder the escape of the air con- 
tained in the mid-gut. The large intestine has a very peculiar lining 
epithelium, the function of which is, probably, excretory ; its cells are 
constantly being destroyed and renewed. 

The enteric canal of the Ephemeride is in no stage rudimentary, but 
is everywhere completely formed histologically ; in the various stages of 
the development of the animal it alters its function, for while in the 
larva it serves for purposes of digestion, in the imago it contains air, 
&e., and serves as a parachute on the one hand, and aids, on the other, 
the functions of the reproductive organs. ‘This change of function 
affects its external form and its histological structure ; the metamorphosis 
occurs in the nymph and subimago stages. Among the species examined 
were Ephemera vulgata (imago), Betis fluminum (larva, nymph, sub- 
imago, and imago), Cloe diptera (all four stages), and Czenis lactea 
(imago). 

Lepidopterous Larve.j—Mr. HE. B. Poulton gives, in detail, an 
account of his observations on Lepidopterous larve in 1887. He com- 
mences with complete accounts of the life-history of Sphinz convoluti 
and Aglia tau. The ovum of the former is remarkable for its extremely 
small size; its development is at about the same rate as that of S. 
ligustri, namely, from eight to ten days. Jn the ontogeny of the latter 
there are a number of important characters by which it shows itself 
related to the Sphingide, and especially to Smerinthus ; these have led 
the author to consider the natural position of the Sphingide, and he 
concludes that there is a large body of evidence in favour of the view 
that they are a specialization of Saturnian Bombyces. From a con- 
sideration of the larve Mr. Poulton concludes that the characteristic 
Sphinx attitude is to be explained as the combined effect of gravity and 
of muscular reaction upon the anterior unsupported parts of the body. 
An account is given of the use of the graphic method of representing 
the growth of lepidopterous larve. 'The means of defence adopted by 
the larva of Stauwropus fagi are next considered; the irritated larva 


* Ber. Naturf. Gesell. Freiburg, iv. (1888) pp. 59-82 (2 pls.). 
+ Trans. Entomol. Soc. Lond., 1888, pp. 515-606 (8 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 207 


assumes a spider-like attitude for the purpose of alarming its enemies. 
He discusses the matter at some length, and finds that “the larva of 
Stauropus fagi bristles with defensive structures and methods. When at 
rest it is concealed by a combination of the most beautiful protective 
resemblances to the commonest objects which are characteristic of its 
food-plant. Attacked, it defends itself by a terrifying posture, which is 
made up of many distinct and highly elaborate features, all contributing 
to this one end. Further attacked by an insect-enemy it reveals marks 
which suggest that itis of no interest to its enemy, for another parasite is 
already in possession. 

The black colour of the eggs of Paniscus cephalotes appears to serve 
as a warning to the other insect parasites belonging to the same and other 
species that the larva of Cerura vinula is aiready occupied. The 
defensive value of ‘“‘ tussocks”” and the associated black intersegmental 
markings are next considered. A “tussock” may be defined as a tuft 
of fine hairs, very closely placed, and of approximately equal length, so 
that the structure is flat-topped; the constituent hairs bristle with 
minute lateral branches; if seized the fine hairs come out in immense 
numbers in the mouth of the enemy, and produce such an effect that the 
larva escapes unhurt. When the larvais irritated the tussocks are held in 
an especially conspicuous manner, while the black markings are revealed, 
and assist by rendering the tussocks more obvious and giving an appear- 
ance of increased projection. 

The larve of the Cochliopodide gain protection by assuming a form 
which is quite unlike that of a caterpillar, and does not suggest the 
appearance of the food of any insect-eating vertebrate. Other points on 
which, in this interesting paper, Mr. Poulton has notes are the protective 
resemblances of the larvee of Geometra papilionaria, a proof of the pro- 
tective value of dimorphism in larve, the protective resemblance of the 
pupa of Apatura iris, the defensive secretion of the larva of Crasus varus, 
the geometriform structure and attitudes of Huclidia mi, and the 
determination of sex in certain living lepidopterous larve. As to the 
last point, use has been made of the distinctness of the testes which lie 
beneath the skin of the fifth abdominal segment, and which can be easily 
seen beneath the skin of all fairly transparent larve, and by careful 
examination in moderately transparent forms. 


New Genus of Pyralide.*—Lord Walsingham describes a remark- 
able Indian Pyralid, which he calls Conodomus hockingii. The larve 
are gregarious, and live in strong tubes of white silk, of the consistency 
of stout cardboard; these are open at both ends, and from three to 
fifteen are agglomerated together, the heads of the larve projecting from 
one or other end, according to the position of the leaves of their food, to 
which the whole mass of tubes is attached by stout silken threads con- 
sisting of many strands. The walls of these tubes are double, and of 
very curious construction ; the inner lining of white silk is smooth and 
rather shining, while the outer layer is much stouter and has an uneven 
surface; this last is due to the interposition of larval excrement 
between the two walls. A more perfect arrangement for keeping off 
heat from the body of the larvee cannot be imagined. The silk at the 
ends of the tube is frayed out, and has apparently been used for attaching 
them to the leaves and twigs, or for changing the position of the 


* Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., v. (1888) pp. 47-52 (1 pl.). 


208 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


common dwelling, according to the feeding requirements of its various 
inmates. 


Parthenogenesis of Death’s-head Moth.*—Sig. C. Massa describes 
a case of parthenogenetic birth in the Death’s-head moth (Sphinx 
atropos). The insects were isolated in the larval stage, only one survived, 
a female which laid eggs, a few of which hatched, though none survived. 
If this is the first time the fact has been noticed in Sphinx atropos an 
addition must be made to the already long list of occasionally partheno- 
genetic moths. 


Mouth-organs of two species of Rhysodide.j{—Mr. G. Lewis gives 
an account of the mouth-organs of Rhysodes niponensis and Clinidium 
veneficum, which have been dissected out by the Rev. A. Matthews. The 
gnathites of the latter are exceedingly fragile, while the surrounding 
integument is almost as hard as iron, and cannot be penctrated without 
more or less danger to the finer parts. These organs are the most 
extraordinary that Mr. Matthews has ever seen; the labrum is very 
large, the clypeus and mentum very large and of the hardest and most 
impenetrable horn; the maxillary palpi are very long, the maxilla, 
labium, and lingua exceedingly fragile and minute. The labium appears 
to be extensile, like that of Stenus ; the lingua is very large and broad, 
and so thin as to be perfectly transparent. The mandibles are abnormal, 
being inclosed in a horny envelope open on the inside. 


Thysanura and Collembola.t—Dr. J. T. Oudemans has a contribu- 
tion to our knowledge of these Insects, He finds that the Thysanura 
present many points of agreement with one another; all have ten 
abdominal segments, the last of which carries cerci, and several of those 
in front have actively moving, laterally placed legs. In the Collembola 
the number of abdominal segments varies, but is always less than ten; 
there are no appendages on the last segment, for the anal hooks cannot 
be considered as such ; there is a springing apparatus on the median 
line of the ventral surface. Eyes may or may not be present; in the 
former case the Thysanura have compound, but the Collembola merely 
simple eyes. ‘The body may or may not be covered with scales. The 
eversible vesicles on the hind-body of Machilis, Nicoletia, and Campodea 
have a very similar structure to the eversible parts of the ventral tube 
of the Collembola. 

The abdominal nervous system of the Thysanura has eight ganglia ; 
in Campodea there appear to be only seven; the fusion of ganglia 
seems to be less marked in elongate forms (e.g. Templetoniinz and 
Lipurine) than in the compressed Sminthurine. The eyeless forms 
appear to have lost their eyes in consequence of their mode of life under 
stones, in earth, bark of trees, and so on. 

The form of the mouth-parts in the two groups is very similar; the 
labium is always deeply cleft, as in the Orthoptera. In the Thysanura 
the mandibles and maxille are open internally, and by this orifice the 
muscles pass which are attached to the outer wall; it is probable, 
though not certain, that the same is true of the Collembola. The 
enteric canal is always straight and never longer than the body ; a mas- 
ticatory stomach is found in Lepisma only. The epithelium of the 


* Bull. Soc. Entom. Ital., xx. (1888) pp. €4-5. 
+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ii. (1888) pp. 483-4. 
{ Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde, xvi. (1888) pp. 146-226 (3 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 209 


stomach varies in character; in Machlis (and Lepisma?) there are 
depressed spots which are centres of regeneration. In Campodea and 
Macrotoma plumbea {um| these spots are wanting. The Thysanura 
have salivary glands, but it is not yet certain that these organs are 
generally present in the Collembola. Malpighian vessels are found in 
Machilis, Lepisma, and Nicoletia, but wanting in Japyx and the Collem- 
bola; Campodea is in this respect an intermediate form, for it has 
diverticula. So far as is known the Thysanura have nine pairs of 
ostia in the dorsal vessel; such representatives of the Collembola as 
were examined have only five pairs; the blood is always coloured 
yellow, and contains blood-corpuscles. In both groups trachee are 
found, but they may be wanting in the Collembola, and, where present, 
are always feebly developed. In some of the Thysanura the trachee 
do not form anastomoses ; the stigmata of these forms are thoracic and 
abdominal in position ; in the Collembola they are found on the head. 

The generative organs of the two groups show some differences. 
The female gonads of Machilis, Lepisma, and Nicoletia agree in most 
points; there are two oviducts, and with each a varying number of 
ovarian tubes are connected; they have an ovipositor which always 
belongs to the eighth and ninth segments of the abdomen. Both male 
and female gonads in Campodea exhibit considerable resemblance to 
those of the Collembola; in the latter these organs are always two 
simple tubes. 

The author thinks that neither group can be placed in any of the 
orders of Insects, for the complete absence of wings and of any sign of 
metamorphosis forbid it. He agrees with P. Mayer and F. Brauer in 
speaking of them as Apterygogenea as opposed to the other Insects, 
which are Pterygogenea. He regards the Thysanura as a distinct 
family from the Collembola; the former are divided into the Lepismidsx 
and the Campodeide, and for the latter he accepts Tullberg’s divisions 
of Sminthurine, Templetoniinew, and Lipurine. He concludes with a 
tabular statement of the various points of difference. 


8B. Myriopoda. 


Classification of Myriopoda.*—Mr. C. 8. Kingsley doubts the 
homogeneity of the group of Myriopoda, and considers that the features 
common to the Chilopoda and Chilognatha are possessed by all other 
air-breathing Arthropods. The best definition for the whole group will 
probably run as follows:—The Myriopods are air-breathing Arthropods 
with elongate bodies and more than three pairs of legs. 

The Chilognatha or Millipedes have a head which bears, besides 
antenne, only two pairs of appendages; all but the more anterior 
segments of the body carry two pairs of appendages; and the bases of 
these legs are placed close to one another. The Chilopoda have three 
pairs of gnathites, each segment has but a single pair of legs, and these 
are widely separated at their base. The stigmata of Chilopods are 
placed at the sides of the body, above and outside the line of the legs; 
in the Chilognaths they are placed beneath or even in the coxal joints 
of the legs. The most marked points of difference are to be found in 
the generative organs. Chilopods are very closely allied to Insects; 
the Chilognaths seem to stand alone, Peripatus being nearer the annelid 
than the hexapod steck. 


* Amer. Natural., xxii. (1888) pp. 1119-21. 


210 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


y. Prototracheata. 


Development of Peripatus Nove-Zealandie.*—Miss L. Sheldon 
has a further account of her observations on the development of Peripatus 
Nove-Zealandiz. The central nuclei of the segments of the yolk which 
lie just beneath the periphery multiply much more rapidly than those 
over the rest of the ovum. They thus come to form a special area, 
which finally extends along about the middle third of the ovum, and 
consists of a loosely reticulate mass of protoplasm which contains a large 
number of nuclei. This area is triangular in form, and becomes more 
compact, and flattens itself out to form the blastoderm. It grows round 
the ovum till it covers about one-half of its surface, and the epibolic 
growth continues until the blastoderm covers all but a very small space 
in the middle of the ventral face of the ovum. Behind the uncovered 
area, and in the middle line, there is a proliferation of nuclei, which, 
in transverse section, gives rise to a keel-shaped mass of nuclei which 
extends along the posterior half of the ovum; round this space the 
protoplasm becomes inflected, or forms a blastopore. This last increases 
in length considerably, and becomes more open. The primitive streak 
also becomes wider and deeper, and the primitive groove appears along 
its centre. A small cavity, apparently homologous with the polar area 
of P. capensis, appears and then disappears. Up to this stage there are 
no signs of any cell-outlines, but the protoplasm forms a syncytium in 
which nuclei are irregularly scattered. Want of material causes a large 
gap in the observations at this point. After the appendages are formed, 
the history of development is very similar to that of P. capensis, but it 
is interesting to note that the duct of the first somite opens to the 
exterior. 

The study of this new set of specimens has made the difference 
between the developmental history of this species and that of P. capensis 
less marked than it had previously been supposed to be. In fact, it is 
rather strange that the almost total loss of yolk by the Cape species 
should have apparently been accompanied by so few modifications in its 
development. The material in hand does not allow of any statement 
as to the mode or time of origin of the ectodermal yolk in P. Nove- 
Zealandiz, but as it appears in both species after the gastrula stage, it is 
probably an ancestral feature in the development. 

The ova probably pass from the ovary into the uterus in December, 
and the young are born in July; to this, however, there are some 
exceptions, as some January specimens contained embryos ready for 
birth, and the embryos in one female vary somewhat in age. 


5. Arachnida. 


Coxal Glands of Arachnida.{—Dr. J.C, C. Loman has examined the 
coxal glands of six Arachnids, among which are Scorpio, Epeira, and 
Phalangium ; on the whole he corroborates the results of those who have 
preceded him in these investigations; the organ in Phalangium is 
described at somewhat greater length than those of the other types. He 
cannot think there is any doubt about our having here the homologue 
of a segmental organ, but he is not so certain that the coxal gland is the 


* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxix. (1888) pp. 283-93 (2 pls.). 
+ See this Journal, 1888, p. 33. 
{ Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde, xiv. (1887) pp. 89-96 (4 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. PAI 


homologue of the shell-gland of the Entomostraca. The poison-gland 
of Galeodes is an allied and perhaps a homodynamous organ. 


Brain of Araneida.*—M. G. Saint-Rémy has been investigating the 
brain of dipneumonous Araneida. It is on the same plan as that of 
the Phalangida and Scorpionida; it 1s most complicated in the Citigrada, 
the appearances in Lycosa narbonensis and Cardosa sacrata being de- 
scribed. The greatest modifications are seen in the inferior lobule; 
this portion undergoes considerable reduction in the Orbitelaria, and 
more so in Hpeira diadema than in EH. sericea. In the Tubitelaria the 
inferior medullary masses have disappeared, and the fibrillar layers are 
directly attached to the lateral lobes. In Tegenaria the medullary layer 
is formed of three layers of nerve-tubes; in Drassus it is formed of a 
compact mass of tubes; in Segestria it is less distinct, and the commissure 
of the masses is a mere thread. In the Retitelaria (Pholcus) the inferior 
and superior lobules are separated, and the medullary layers are simple 
dotted masses, with a reticular structure. In the Saltigrada (Hresus) the 
inferior lobules are large and separate. 


Anatomy of Pseudoscorpions.|—Herr A. Croneberg gives an account 
of his investigations into the structure of the so-called Pseudoscorpions. 
The characters of Chernes and Chelifer show that they have no close 
relationship to the Scorpions. The respiration by means of trachez, 
the concentration of the nervous system, and the position of the generative 
orifices remove the Chernetide from the Scorpions; the peculiarities 
of their development point to the great age of this group, some of the 
characters of which, such as the complete segmentation of the body, 
the relative development of the rostrum, and the transverse musculature 
of the abdomen, may have been retained to the present day. The 
Pseudoscorpions may be more nearly allied to the simpler forms of 
Opilionida, such as the Sironoids, but are separated from them by the 
important relation of the first two pairs of legs to the mouth. Gibbocellum, 
as Thorell has rightly insisted, must be separated from the Sironoids and 
placed with the Pseudoscorpions; for it has only a superficial resem- 
blance to the former. Much remains to be done before the affinities of 
the various groups of Arachnids can be satisfactorily determined. 


Marine Acarina of Wimereux.{-——-M. E. L. Trouessart gives an 
account of a small collection of marine Acarina made at Wimereux by 
Prof. Giard. He has found a number of the species described from the 
English coast by Gosse and Hodge and Brady, as well as several new 
forms. There is a perfectly typical Gamasus which he calls G. Giardi ; 
Eupalus sanguineus sp. n. was found with H. Giardi on Balanus bala- 
noides, on which also lives Rhyncolophus rubipes sp. un. Six species of 
Halacaridz were found, and of these there are two new genera. Copido- 
gnathus (C. glyptoderma) has the chelicerz swollen and free from their 
base, and there is no trace of the unpaired eye; Leptosalis longipes 
g. et sp. n. was found in Mussels; its palpi have the last joint bifid, and 
so form a small cheliform forceps, the lower lip is prolonged into the 
form of a spatula, and so gives rise to a groove, in which the mandibles 
move; these last are intermediate in form between those of Copidognathus 
and those of Halacarus. 


* Comptes Rendus, evii. (1888) pp. 926-9. 
+ Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 1888, pp. 416-61 (3 pls.). 
{ Comptes Rendus, evii. (1888) pp. 753-5. 


Pile SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Structure and Development of the Visual Area in the Trilobites.* 
—Mr. J. M. Clarke has made an interesting addition to our knowledge 
of the eyes of Arthropoda by an account of those of the common fossil 
Phacops rana. In many cases both cornea and scleron are normally pre- 
served ; in others one alone is retained ; in others both may be removed, 
leaving pillars of the matrix with cup-shaped surfaces, each bearing a 
little ball at the centre; an external film may be removed from the 
entire visual area, destroying the cornea, or, lastly, silica may be 
deposited as a thin film upon or replace a thin film of the external 
and internal surfaces of the test, and all the rest of the substance of the 
test and matrix may be removed. 

Mr. Clarke thinks that the schizochroal eyes of the Trilobites are 
aggregated, and not properly compound eyes. The visual organs of 
Harpes may prove to be of similar character. The scleral portion of 
the visual surface is of the same structure as the test, and is a direct 
continuation of it. There is no evidence of any continuous corneal layer 
covering the entire surface. The corneal lenses are wholly discrete 
from the epidermis, but are of epidermal origin. In the addition of new 
lenses to the visual surface, they appear to arise from a thinning of both 
surfaces of the integument. The corneal lenses were hollow or were 
filled with some matter not homogeneous with the cornea itself. The 
corneal lenses, and, therefore, the ommatidia were added to the visual 
surface with advancing age until the mature growth of the individual 
was attained; thereafter they diminished in number with increasing 
senility. The addition of corneal lenses occurred regularly at the 
extremities of the diagonal rows. No evidence is preserved of crystalline 
cones in the ommatidial cavities, but they may have been removed in 
the decomposition of the soft parts of the eye. 

With regard to the suggestion of Dr. J. 8. Kingsley, in his paper on 
the eye of Crangon, that the mere fact of invagination indicates an 
ancestral condition, Mr. Clarke states that in Mesothyra oceani, one of 
the largest known representatives of the Phyllocarida, the eye consists of 
a simple deep pit at the summit of the optic node. There is no evidence 
that this pit contained a series of lenses, but it may serve as the ancestral 
condition of the Decapod eye. 


Migrations of Pentastomum denticulatum in Cattle.j—Dr. V. 
Babes had in the summer of 1888 the opportunity of examining some 
thirty-five cattle which had died of epidemic hemoglobinuria. In all 
but one instance he was able to verify the existence of the Pentastomum 
denticulatum. He found numerous specimens of the parasite in the 
mesenteric glands and between the two peritoneal layers of the me- 
sentery; while in the convexity of the intestinal coils he met with 
roundish nodules about 5 mm. broad, and often arranged at regular 
distances. These nodules contained a living Pentastomum larva. As 
the parasite advances in development, so it proceeds towards the lumen 
of the intestine, the perforation of the mucosa being accompanied by 
hemorrhage. In one case hundreds of parasites were found free in the 
intestinal canal. 

It sometimes happened that living examples were not discovered 
either in the glands or in the intestinal walls, but the glands were found 


* Journal of Morphology, ii. (1888) pp. 253-70 (1 pl.). 
+ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., v. (1889) pp. 1-5. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. Plies 


in various stages of degeneration, and scar-like points were seen in the 
intestinal coats. 

The author is of opinion that the migration path of these parasites 
is outwards, that is, towards the lumen of the gut, but he does not 
neglect to notice that the animals may burrow back into the mucosa 
for a short distance. 

The connection between this parasite and the hemoglobinuria, said 
to be endemic in Roumania, is very interesting. 


e. Crustacea. 


Monstrosity in a Crayfish.*—M. G. Stamati remarks that accessory 
pieces have not yet been noticed except on the legs of Crustacea. He 
describes a specimen in which the exopodite or squama of the left 
antenna had a bifurcated appendage so placed that the free point of the 
scale appeared to be trifurcate. This supernumerary growth appears to 
arise from the left half of the scale, and there is no reason to suppose 
that it is, as Résel von Rosenhof would have suggested, the-result of any 
lesion, nor with Herklots, to regard it as a simple excrescence. It seems 
to the author more reasonable to regard the appendage as a dependent 
of the external half of the scale which is regularly developed; it is only 
because of the growth of its two halves that the two points have been 
directed forwards. The investigation of the development of super- 
numerary growths on the appendages of Crustacea can only be investigated 
on young specimens and after ecdysis. 


Nebaliide and Leptostraca.t—Prof. C. Claus publishes a mono- 
graphic account of the Nebaliide, on the structure of which he gave a 
preliminary report more than ten years ago. The present memoir dis- 
cusses the history, general morphology, general physiology, reproduction, 
and distribution of the family. The systematic portion includes diagnoses 
of Nebalia, Paranebalia, Nebaliopsis, and discusses the general relations 
of the Leptostraca. 

The following forms have to be distinguished :—(a) Mature males, 
characterized by the lank body, long furcal joints, bushy sete on the 
anterior antenne, and much elongated sete on second pair of antenne; 
(b) pregnant females with fans of bristles on the terminal joint of 
each thoracic appendage; (c) mature females and younger females of 
variable size with a short equipment of bristles on the terminal joint 
of the thoracic limbs; (d) young males of variable size, characterized 
by the short-ringed setose joints of the second antenne; (e) larve: with 
three-jointed antennary sete, and a still simple fourth pair of pleopods. 

The northern N. bipes O. Fabr. is a large variety of the Adriatic, 
Mediterranean, and Atlantic N. geoffroyi. The form found on the east 
coast of North America, those from Chili and Japan, and probably the 
N. longicornis of New Zealand, are to be regarded as mere varieties of 
the same species. 

The so-called rostral plate represents a third portion of the shell, 
which forms a movable head-valve. It covers two rostral processes of 
the head, and is so connected with them that raising the head elevates 
the head-valve. The two last segments of the abdomen with the 


* Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xiii. (1888) pp. 199-201. 
+ Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Wien (Claus), viii. (1888) pp. 1-148 (11 pls.). 


214 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


branchipodiform furca represent the telson of Malacostraca. The anus 
is also ventral. 

The brain is much more highly differentiated than that of Phyllopods, 
and approaches that of Malacostracans. ‘The mid-brain with the olfac- 
tory centres agrees in the presence of “olfactory glomeruli” with the 
olfactory lobes of Isopoda and Podophthalmata. The hind-brain (ganglia 
of the second antennz) lies on the cesophageal commissure, and has a 
slightly developed sub-cesophageal transverse commissure in front of 
that of the mandibular ganglia. ‘The mandibular and maxillary ganglia 
are quite distinct, as in Apseudes and Sphzroma. So too are the thoracic 
ganglia. Behind the six abdominal ganglia, there is in embryo and 
larva the rudiment of a seventh (as in Spheroma). This degenerates. 
On the median surface of the stalked eye, between two protuberances, 
there is a special sense-organ of unknown import (frontal organ ?). The 
histological characters of eye and optic ganglion most closely resemble 
those of the Myside. 

The masticatory apparatus in the stomach is complex, as in Mala- 
costraca. Two cardiac teeth, a bristle-bearing ridge on the right side, 
two pairs of pyloric sieves, and a funnel-groove extending far into the 
intestine, are demonstrable. 

The liver consists of two anterior sacs entering the head, and three 
pairs extending posteriorly to the last abdominal segments. Mid-gut 
and posterior liver-sacs are inclosed in a perivisceral connective-tissue 
which also surrounds the reproductive glands. The cells thereof are 
filled with fat-spherules of nutritive import in the fasting period. 
Pregnant females and mature males gradually use this material, and as 
it disappears the perienteric cellular strand shrivels, and the vascular 
space enlarges in proportion. At the end of the mid-gut there opens a 
cecum, which lies above the rectum. The high cylindrical cells of this 
structure are continued far forward on the dorsal wall of the gut. 

Besides the antennary gland there is a much reduced shell-gland, 
and eight pairs of limb-glands. 

The heart extends from the maxillary region to the fourth abdominal 
segment; it has seven pairs of ostia, of which four to six are small and 
dorsal, the others lateral. Besides an anterior and posterior aorta, 
there are branched arteries in both pairs of antenne and in the 
abdomen. 

The reproductive ducts are as in Malacostraca. The females carry 
eggs and young in a sort of basket formed between the lamellar 
thoracic limbs and their bristle-fans. Even the hatched and moulting 
larvee are sheltered therein. 

The Leptostraca form the first main division of the Malacostraca. 
The fossil Archzostraca (Ceratiocaride, &c.) belong to the same series 
as the Leptostraca, as the mobile head-valve shows. They cannot, how- 
ever, be included in the same order. The general structure, the form of 
the mouth-parts and appendages, the numbers of the segments, may have 
been very different. The memoir is copiously and beautifully illustrated. 


Marine Ostracoda.*—Prof. C. Claus makes a brief communication 
in reference to a recent work by G. O. Sars on Mediterranean Ostracods. 
In this work Sars has entirely overlooked three important memoirs by 
Prof. Claus on Cypridine, Halocyprinide, and the general genealogy of 


* Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Wien (Claus), viii. (1888) pp. 149-54. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. DING) 


Crustacea, as well as some contributions by other investigators. The 
author refers to some of the results of his papers which it would have 
been well that Sars had known of. 


Cladocera of Hungary.*—Dr. E. D. de Deés has produced a mono- 
graph of the Crustacea Cladocera of Hungary, of which, unfortunately, 
the diagnoses of the genera and species are alone in Latin. About a 
hundred species are described, a few of which are new, but there are no 
new genera; the comparative tables of distribution will be the part of 
the work most accessible to the majority of English readers. 


Calanida of Finland.j—Herr O. Nordquist, who has been working 
at the Copepoda of Finland, has published a monograph on the Calanida, 
Nearly all the forms are represented in the North Sea, and the Baltic 
specimens are more or less reduced in size somewhat in proportion to 
the diminution of the amount of salt in the water. Twelve species in 
all are described, among which Temosella affinis has two new varieties— 
hirundoides and hispida. The only Finland species not found in the 
North Sea is Linnocalanus macrurus ; this must be assumed to have 
been produced in the Baltic or in the lakes, or to be a remnant of an 
Arctic fauna. The former view is negatived by the fact that this species 
is also found in the lakes of North America. The ova of this species 
are not carried about by the female, but sink to the bottom after 
extrusion, and we may, therefore, safely regard it as a relic. 


Morphology of Cyclops {—Prof. M. M. Hartog gives a full ana- 
tomical description of Cyclops. The Copepoda may be regarded as 
very primitive forms among the Crustacea on account of (1) the plasticity 
of the eye, derivable from the triune inverted eye of the Nauplius, and 
of the absence of eyes of the paired compound type which may 
be termed the phyllopod eye ; (2) the condition of the appendages, the 
antennules being always uniramous or retaining the primitive larval 
condition, the mandibles being sometimes biramous, and the first pair of 
maxille being most plastic; (3) the pleura are feebly developed, and 
never encircle the body; (4) the absence of gills, and the respiratory 
function of the anus; (5) the plasticity of the forepart of the alimentary 
canal; (6) the circulation and (7) the general form of the body. After 
making some critical and general remarks on these characters, the author 
gives a phylogenetic table in which the Copepoda Natantia occupy 
the lowest place. If in any Crustacean we are to seek a common 
relative to the Tracheata, and especially to the Arachnida, it must be 
among the Copepoda that we have to look. 


Vermes. 
a, Annelida. 


Pericardial Gland of Annelids.§s—Prof. C. Grobben gives a more 
detailed account of his views on the pericardial gland of Chetopods, 
along with some notes on the perienteric fluid. The general tenor of 
his conclusions has already been reported.|| The pericardial gland 


* «Crustacea Cladocera Faunse Hungarice,’ 4to, Budapest, 1888, 128 pp. (4 pls.). 

t ‘Die Calaniden Finlands,’ 8vo [2 plates stated to be 4to] 1888. See Ann. and 
Mag. Nat. Hist., iii. (1889) pp. 62-4. E 

t Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., v. (1888) pp. 1-46 ¢ pls.). 

§ SB. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xevii. (1888) pp. 250-63. 

|| See this Journal, 1887, p. 939. 


216 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


arises on the epithelium of the secondary body-cavity, and thus the 
author associates the branchial heart appendage of Cephalopods, the 
pericardial glands in Lamellibranchs, Prosobranchs, and Opistho- 
branchs, the appendages of the dorsal vessel in Lumbriculide, and 
other structures in Chetopods. The body-cavity fluid is for the most 
part and perhaps originally of excretory import, but also takes on the 
respiratory and nutritive functions of lymph or hemolymph—an example 
of great adaptability. 

Anatomy of Megascolides australis.*—Prof. W. B. Spencer has a 
memoir on the anatomy of the giant earthworm of Gippsland, where it 
appears to be not uncommon, though its area of distribution is limited. 
The best sign of the worm’s presence is a very distinct gurgling sound 
made by the animal retreating in its burrow when the ground is stamped 
upon by the foot. It has a curious odour, resembling somewhat that of 
creosote. When held in the hand the worm, on contracting its body, 
throws out jets of a milky fluid ; an important, if not primary, function 
of this fluid is that of making the burrow walls smooth, moist, and 
slippery, and thus of enabling the animal to glide along with ease and 
speed. Its seta appear to be of but little use to it in locomotion. Its 
cocoons are 14 to 2 inches in length, vary in colour according to age, 
and contain only one embryo each. 

The largest living specimen found was 6 feet long, and the average 
length is from 44 to 48 in., with a breadth of 38/4 in.; there are 
from 300 to 500, or perhaps even more, segments in a sexually mature 
worm. The sete project only slightly beyond the surface of the body, 
and none are specially modified in connection with the male genital 
aperture. The dorsal pores are very evident oval openings in the mid- 
dorsal line. No nephriodiopores are visible. 

The anterior septa are enormously developed, the first fourteen 
forming deep cups, with their concavities facing forward; their septa 
are connected with each other and with the body-wall by strong 
muscular slips. It is curious to note that the insertions of the septa do 
not correspond with the grooves separating the segments. The structure 
of the body-wall in the non-clitellar region is that which is characteristic 
of most earthworms, though in minor points it shows variations from 
that of Lumbricus. In the clitellar region the skin is, as usual, much 
modified, but differs in structure from that of Lumbricus or Microcheeta. 
The narrow elongated cells containing granules similar to those of the 
goblet cells are absent, but there is a great development of glandular 
cells with long ducts leading towards the exterior ; some have branched 
bases. ‘The glandular portion is very rich in blood-vessels, which 
usually form distinct coils. 

Salivary glands, which are obviously modified nephridia, are described, 
but there is no trace whatever of cesophageal glands, or of a typhlosole ; 
the only modification of the intestine occurs in segments 12-18, where 
the walls are highly vascular and devoid of strong muscles. 

The vascular system is comparatively simply developed, consisting 
of a dorsal and a ventral trunk, and transverse and dorsal vessels; there 
is no subneural trunk. The blood is red, owing to the presence of 
hemoglobin, and contains very numerous nucleated corpuscles oval or 
rounded in shape, with a diameter of about 0°0016 mm., and few more 


* Trans. R. Soc. Victoria, i. (1888) pp. 1-60 (6 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. nll 


irregularly shaped nucleated corpuscles, from which few or many stiff 
pseudopodia-like processes may be extended. The cclomic fluid is of a 
milky white colour and opaque, and its numerous corpuscles resemble 
the latter of the two forms found in the blood. 

The nervous system has, in the main, the form usual in earthworms, 
and its minute structure is very similar. The giant-fibres, which can in 
no way be called neural canals, are remarkable for the very definite central 
rod of homogeneous gelatinous material, and for the equally definite - 
inclosing sheath of connective tissue. Prof. Spencer thinks that the 
most appropriate name for these organs is Vejdovsky’s term neurochord. 

The characters of the nephridia are dealt with at some length; the 
main features of the system are the presence of numerous nephridia in 
each segment, the modification of the nephridia in various parts of the 
body, and the connection of the ducts of the various nephridia. Two 
distinct kinds are present; there are numerous small nephridia, which 
lie so close to one another that the shape of each separate one cannot be 
distinguished ; each of these consists of a small, somewhat straight tube, 
and a larger coiled part; these are present in every segment after the 
fourth, and are most largely developed in the clitellar region, where 
they form an almost complete investment for the body-wall, and where 
each segment has certainly more than one hundred. The second kind 
of nephridia are much larger, are only present in the posterior region of 
the body, and occur in the same segments with the smaller kind ; these 
latter have internal openings, and there is only one pair of them in each 
segment. The series of gradations which Prof. Spencer was able to 
make out lead him to the generalization that the specialization of 
nephridia appears to commence at the posterior end, and to pass gradually 
forward, the anterior being in a much more primitive condition than the 
posterior end of the body. The structure of the nephridia is described 
in detail, and it is especially pointed out that in no part of the body is 
there any relationship between the nephridiopores and the sete, even 
when the nephridia become more localized. 

The general characters of the nephridia of Cheetopods are discussed 
at some length, and many interesting questions considered. In dealing 
with their homologues, Prof. Spencer thinks that it is important to 
remember that in Chaetopods there is a very clear distinction of the 
nephridial ducts into two parts—one intracellular, and one intercellular ; 
the latter leads to the exterior, and has the vesicular part connected with 
it. Itis possible that the former is always mesoblastic in origin, and 
the latter epiblastic. It is suggested that the various stages in the de- 
velopment of the nephridia of Chaetopods may be somewhat as follows :— 

(1) A stage (in some Platyhelminth-like ancestor) in which in an 
unsegmented body a continuous network of nephridial tubules, with 
flame- or internally ciliated cells, the former uniting to form longitudinal 
canals leading to the exterior. 

(2) A modification (as seen in Dinophilus gyrociliatus) in which the 
excretory organs are still in the form of a network with flame cells, but 
with secondary external openings in each segment, irregularly arranged 
as in some Planarians, or regularly arranged, as in Dinophilus. 

(3) A further modification, resulting in the formation of numerous 
irregularly arranged outgrowths from the nephridial network, having 
the nature of coiled tubules which are directly continuous, and identical 
in structure with the network. These form the nephridia of the more 

1889. Q 


218 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


highly developed worms, and their development is to be regarded as 
intimately associated with that of the segmentally arranged ccelomic 
chambers, such as are af any rate but feebly represented in the 
Hirudinea. 

(4) In connection with these numerous nephridial tubes many 
external openings leading into the still persisting network are formed 

e.g. Perichxta aspergillum). 

(5) The small nephridia become aggregated into groups, the aggrega- 
tion commencing in the posterior region of the body (as in Acanthoporus 
multiporus and Megascolides australis). As the aggregation proceeds the 
external openings diminish in number, and the network lessens in 
extent. 

(6) The formation of large nephridia, either out of an aggregate of 
small nephridia, or by the special growth of one of an aggregation of 
small nephridia. Hach large nephridium acquires secondarily an 
internal opening into the celom. These openings, which have a very 
definite relationship to the coelomic chambers, must be supposed to be 
new formations within the group. 

(7) The final disappearance of all trace of the small nephridia, and 
with them of the network and longitudinal duct. Then there remains 
in each segment, as in most adult earthworms, a limited number—usually 
one pair—of large nephridia, with internal and external openings. 

When it is considered that the character of a nephridium is that in 
some part of the funnel-shaped structure the duct is not intercellular, but 
the funnel bends back into an intracellular duct, always of considerable 
length and complication, and never absent, while the whole of the genital 
duct is intercellular, we see that there is little reason for supposing that 
the latter is a modified nephridium. The testes can, apparently, be 
found at any time of the year, and closely resemble the ovaries—of 
which there is one pair—externally. Spermatozoa undergo their develop- 
ment in the vesiculz seminales, which are broken up into a great series 
of capsular chambers. 


Structure of Urocheta and Dichogaster, and Nephridia of Earth- 
worms.*—Mr. F. E. Beddard has some notes on the structure of Uro- 
cheeta in supplement to and criticism of Prof. Perrier’s memoir on this 
earthworm. Mr. Beddard cannot believe that there are in it any pores 
which put the hemal system into communication with the surrounding 
medium. ‘The mucous glands described by Perrier may be shown to be 
nephridial in character by the presence of ccelomic funnels which agree 
in their structure with the funnels of the nephridia in the other seg- 
ments of the body ; from the typical nephridium the gland differs by its 
branched character and the presence of several coelomic funnels; the 
author concludes that the mucous gland is a branched nephridium, of 
which the greater number of branches end blindly, while a few open 
into the ccelom by ciliated funnels. In Dichogaster g.n. (D. Damonis 
sp. n. from Fiji) the mucous gland has no celomic funnel, and the duct 
opens, not on the exterior of the body, as in Urochzta, but into the 
buccal cavity, and, lastly, it appears to be formed by a simple much 
coiled tube. Mr. Beddard thinks there is evidence that the specializa- 
tion of this part of the nephridial system ultimately led to the concen- 
tration of the numerous excretory pores into one long duct; in other 


* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxix, (1888) pp. 235-82 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 219 


words, the branched mucous gland of Urochzta is traceable to the 
specialized nephridial mass of the anterior segments of Perichzta, the 
numerous external pores of the latter being replaced by the single 
aperture of Urocheta. The ova are of larger size, and, like those of 
Allurus, differ from those of most earthworms and agree with those of 
the “ Limicole ” in this point. 

The alimentary canal of Dichogaster Damonis has two gizzards, each 
of which occupies two segments, and in the characters of its nephridia 
it approaches the “ Limicole.” 

The latter part of the present memoir is taken up with further 
remarks on the nephridia of earthworms. It seems possible to separate 
into two groups the genera in which there is a greater or less develop- 
ment of a network with numerous external pores in each segment, and of 
these there appears to be a parallel series of differentiations. 


A. Nephridia forming a network, 3B. Nephridia forming a network 
consisting of excessively fine consisting of wider canals, 
canals, continuous from seg- discontinuous at the septa. 
ment to segment. 

GD) 2 (1) No further specialization. — 

Deinodrilus. 
(2) Nephridial network of pos- (2) Nephridial network partly 


terior segments partly com- 
posed of tubules of greater 
calibre. Numerous ccelomic 
funnels—Pericheta aspergil- 
lum. 


(3) Larger nephridial tubules in- 


creased in size and forming a 
nephridium nearly indepen- 
dent of the finer tubes, and 
opening by a single coelomic 


composed of tubes of greater 
calibre. Numerous ccelomie 
funnels.—Acanthodrilus multi- 
porus. 


(8) Nephridial network of pos- 


terior segments chiefly com- 
posed of larger tubules open- 
ing by a simple cclomic 
funnel.— Dichogaster. 


funnel.—Pericheta  armata, 
Megascolides. 


Tn treating of the evolution of the nephridia the author states that, 
in his opinion, the nearest approach to the primitive condition in the 
Oligocheta is to be seen in Perichxta aspergillum,; in the anterior 
segments the resemblance to the Platyhelminth excretory system is 
closest, for there ig a continuous network of tubules with numerous 
external pores. The network is not interrupted by the septa, and the 
external pores are not in any way related to the segmentation of the 
body. In the posterior segments the network of tubules are beginning 
to break up into more or less isolated tufts, but this has no discernible 
relation to the segmentation. From this point the modification of the 
excretory system appears to have gone along one of two paths, but in 
both cases the same goal—the reduction of the nephridial system to a 
pair of isolated nephridia in each segment—has been reached. Mr. 
Beddard agrees with Prof. W. B. Spencer that the single pairs of 
nephridia of certain earthworms (e.g. Pericheta Nove-Zealandiz# and 
Perionyx) have arisen by a gradual increase in calibre of a part of the 
nepnridial network in each segment to form a pair of nephridia, and by 
the gradual reduction of the rest. In certain other forms (e.g. Acantho- 
drilus Novee-Zealandix) the nephridia have been derived through the 

Q 2 


220 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


gradual increase in calibre of the tubules forming the primitive network 
and have become isolated into metamerically disposed tufts of tubules, 
corresponding more or less to the sete; these separate nephridia have 
become ultimately reduced to a pair in each segment. 


New Earthworm.*—Mr. H. Garman describes a new American earth- 
worm under the name of Diplocardia communis. It belongs to the family 
of the Acanthodrilide, but is distinguished by the absence of a subneural 
vessel, and the existence of a double dorsal vessel, the two halves of 
which are separate throughout their length, except where they pass 
through the septa between the somites. Sixteen species of American 
earthworms have been named, and there is an undetermined species of 
Perichzxta. 


New Genus of Eudrilide.t—Dr. D. Rosa describes a new genus of 
the family Eudrilide—Teleudrilus ragazzti, from Africa (Scioa), which 
he regards as throwing some light on the characters of Hudrilus. The 
new genus is certainly very nearly allied to it, and from its examination 
the author concludes that it is probable that some of the more divergent 
characters ascribed to Hudrilus cannot be really sustained. It is certain 
that all these aberrant characters are not demonstrable in Teleudrilus. 
He discusses the aberrant features noted by Beddard, and would not 
separate either Hudrilus or Teleudrilus from the other members of the 
family, for which he gives a somewhat modified diagnosis. He also 
describes a new species of Acanthodrilus (A. sctoanus),. 


Indian Perichetide.{—Dr. D. Rosa describes certain Indian Peri- 
chetides found by Sig. L. Fea, viz. Perionyx excavatus Perr. from 
Irawaddy and Tenasserim; Megascolex armatus Bedd. from Mandalay ; 
Perichexta fee sp. n., from Tenasserim ; and Pericheta birmanica sp. n., 
from Irawaddy. He divides the Perichetide into two sets: (a) with 
the orifices of the male ducts and of the spermathece contiguous— 
gen. Perionyx; (b) with the orifices of the male ducts and of the 
spermathece distant—gen. Megascolex and Pericheta. The last two 
genera are thus distinguished : in the former the sete are in interrupted 
rings, and there are no intestinal ceca; in the latter the sete are in 
continuous rings, and intestinal ceca are present. The characters of all 
the four species are given at length. 


B. Nemathelminthes. 


Fertilization and Segmentation in Ascaris megalocephala.§—Dr. 
Th. Boveri, continuing his ‘“Cell-Studies,” describes in great detail the 
phenomena of fertilization and segmentation in the ovum of Ascaris 
megalocephala. Qn this subject at least eight important investigations 
have been made since Schneider’s memoir in 1883, and, in spite of mani- 
fold contradictions, it would be vain to assert that there has not been 
great progress towards certainty and clearness. To this end the present 
memoir contributes much. Dr. Boveri discusses the various stages and 
aspects in eight chapters, extending over nearly 200 pages, and illus- 
trates them in five most beautifully executed plates which well deserve 
to be ranked among the masterpieces of microscopic draughtsmanship. 


* Amer. Natural., xix. (1888) pp. 1030-1. 

+ Ann. Mus. Nat. Genova, vi. (1888) pp. 571-92 (1 pl.). 

t Ibid., pp. 155-66 (1 pl.). 

§ Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxii. (1888) pp. 685-882 (5 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ~ A 


(1) Method.—No pathological condition occurs, as the result of any 
mode of preservation, in ova which have passed beyond the stage with 
vesicular pronuclei. Boveri's principal methods of fixing were (a) by 
alcohol of various degrees of concentration, with 1 per cent. acetic acid, 
or (b) by picro-acetic acid. 

(2) The spermatozoon from its entrance to the extrusion of the second 
polar globule.—There is no special “bouchon d’impregnation” nor 
micropyle of Meissner. Polyspermy is exceedingly rare, and due to a 
weakness in the ovum, which prevents it excluding other spermatozoa 
after one has been received. It is in the highest degree probable that 
the nucleus of the sperm in all stages consists of two independent 
chromatin elements (Carnoy’s type), except in those males which cor- 
respond to the females with eggs including only one chromatin element 
(van Beneden’s type). These two varieties have to be distinguished. 
Carnoy’s type of ovum (with two elements) is always fertilized by a 
sperm with two elements, and so with the other variety. 

(3) Nuclei of ovum and sperm till the formation of the first spindle of 
division—After the extrusion of the second polar body, the male and 
female nuclei present very close resemblance. From the second polar 
figure the female pronucleus receives the two chromatin elements 
(Carnoy’s type is followed) of the internal daughter-plate. ‘These 
become surrounded by homogeneous nuclear sap, from which the proto- 
plasm is separated by a delicate membrane. Into these vacuoles, towards 
the membrane, the chromatin-rods give off processes, which grow, and 
grow together, till a framework is formed, in which the rod is lost. For 
a while the results of the modification of each rod are separable, later 
on this cannot be demonstrated. Minute nuclear bodies appear and are 
distributed throughout the nucleus. The movements associated with 
the making of the above reticulum are extremely Rhizopod-like. The 
differences between the above account of the differentiation of the 
nucleus and that given by van Beneden depend upon the preservation of 
the ova. 

In the sperm-nucleus also, a growing vacuole forms round the 
chromatin elements, into this the elements give off anastomosing pro- 
cesses, nucleolus-like bodies appear, the solid chromatin masses are gra- 
dually transformed into framework, which is gradually drawn towards 
the nuclear membrane. The chromatin elements, however, which form 
the female pronucleus are very simple and regular, both in form and 
disposition ; the opposite is true of the elements of the sperm; and this 
causes certain differences. 

The position of the nuclei within the ovum is then discussed ; van 
Beneden’s results as to the protoplasmic mantle of the sperm-nucleus 
are corroborated and extended ; the “ germ-dualism” theory of Zacharias, 
involving the conclusion that the pronuclei of van Beneden are not 
pronuclei, but already conjugated nuclei, is unfavourably criticized. 
Boveri maintains the generally accepted view, which van Beneden now 
also allows, that the two vesicular pronuclei really fuse into a uniform 
segmentation nucleus. Details of this are given. Against van Beneden 
and Zacharias the author contends that the nuclear filaments are not 
necklace-like, but parallel in contour, homogeneous, and uniformly 
chromatic. Nor has he ever seen the continuous coil they describe. 

(4) The changes in the cell-substance during this period.—Beyond 
their four essential chromatin loops, the two nuclei furnish nothing for 


222, SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the karyokinetic figure. The entire achromatic division figure is due to 
the cell-substance. Parallel with the phases of the nuclei there are 
phases of the protoplasm, which finally lead to the well-known appear- 
ance of the achromatic nuclear spindle with the two polar suns. It was 
Boveri’s merit in 1887 to point this out for the first time; van Beneden 
and Neyt have since followed him. The cell-substance, according to 
Boveri, consists of a homogeneous matrix and a fine network, between 
the meshes of which lie yolk-corpuscles, irregular granules, and a specific 
granular or filamentar substance. This last alone has an active role in 
the process of division. For it, Boveri proposes the new title of archo- 
plasma. It is demonstrable by a certain action of picro-acetic acid, of 
which the author does not give the details, but which leaves the nucleus 
and the archoplasma alone distinct. It is unfortunately difficult, within 
the limits of a report, to relate how Boveri has followed the modifications 
of the archoplasma in relation, for instance, to the ‘central corpuscle” 
or “centrosoma” of van Beneden and Neyt, or other phenomena of 
division. ‘The centrogoma exereises upon the archoplasma contained 
in the cell an attraction of this sort, that round itself as centre it con- 
tracts the above substance into a dense granular sphere.” 'The division 
of the originally single mass of archoplasma into two spheres is the 
result of the presence and opposition of two equally strong centrosomata. 
It is probable that the sperm brings with it a centrosoma which divides. 
When the two are adjacent, their attractions only modify the archo- 
plasma slightly from the spherical form. As they go apart, the more 
marked does the constriction of the archoplasma become. Dr. Boveri 
draws a sharp contrast between the polar and the segmentation spindles, 
which turn out to be extremely different so far as their achromatin 
constituents are concerned. 

(5) The origin and division of the first segmentation spindle.—In the 
first part of this chapter the relations between the archoplasmic spheres 
and the nuclear elements are followed from their beginning to their 
perfected result. 

The spindle-formation begins with the radiate metamorphosis of the 
two archoplasmic spheres. Radiating fibrils, growing at the expense 
of the central granular portion, meet and attach themselves to the 
chromatin elements. Is this by chance or by attraction, is a question 
hard to answer, but probabilities are in favour of the former. All the 
threads which connect one sphere with a chromatin element attach 
themselves exclusively to the one narrow surface; all those from the 
other sphere likewise attach themselves to the other narrow surface. 
Each daughter-element within a mother-element admits of the attach- 
ment of the threads from one pole only. The fibrils thus attached to a 
chromatic loop seek to contract, and this contraction may go so far that 
the length of the threads approaches the radius of the original sphere. 
The contraction brings about a corresponding approximation between 
the centrosoma and the point of the loop with which the fibrils are 
associated. These archoplasmic threads are genuinely like muscle- 
fibrils. ‘The movement of the elements is solely and wholly the result 
of the contraction of the attached fibrils, and the final arrangement of 
the above into an ‘equatorial plate’ is the result of the equal action 
of the two archoplasmic spheres exerted through the said fibrils.” 

In a later portion of the chapter the author enters into detail in 
regard to the stage with the equatorial plate. The stage has very definite 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 223 


limits. It is a condition of rest par excellence in the life of the cell. 
It is interrupted by the action of a new factor—the longitudinal splitting 
of the chromatin elements. The author seeks to justify his regarding 
this as “an independent expression of life, a reproductive act in the 
chromatin elements.” 

(6) The nuclei of the two first segmentation spheres are discussed in 
the next chapter. The reconstructive processes and the individuality of 
- the nuclear elements are especially treated. “The general agreement 
in the number and disposition of the chromatin elements befdre and 
after the resting stage of the nucleus, makes it probable that each 
element of the daughter-plate is identical with an element again pro- 
duced from the nuclear framework. This is confirmed by the demon- 
stration that (1) each new end of a chromatin loop is identical with an 
end of the loops forming the nucleus, and (2) each two ends, united 
before the reconstruction in one element, are after the retraction of 
the framework again united in one loop.” The only question is about 
the middle portion uniting the two ends. If the hypothesis is correct, 
then of the four chromatin loops, observed in the division figure of a 
segmentation cell, two are derived from the male and two from the 
female. The importance of this in regard to heredity, is emphasized 
by the author. 

(7) Archoplasma and Centrosomata in the two primary segmentation 
spheres are discussed in the next chapter. The presence of the centrosoma 
(in itself an important fact), its division, the modification and disposition 
of the archoplasma, are discussed. The last chapter (8) on abnormal and 
pathological phenomena is rich in suggestions as to the physiology of 
the cell-division. An appendix unfavourably criticizing Kultschitzky’s 
results concludes this valuable memoir. 


Maturation and Fertilization of Ova in Ascaris marginata.*—Dr. 
N. Kultschitzky follows up his recent investigation of the phenomena of 
maturation and fertilization in Ascaris megalocephala by a similar study 
of Ascaris marginata. His general results are thus summed up :— 

(1) In the first stages of development, he shows that the chromatin 
of the germinal vesicle, and the (paler on staining) substance of the 
nucleolus arise from the same source. This confirms an opinion long 
since expressed by Flemming. 

(2) The mature ovum has the following characteristics :—(a) the 
chromatin of the germinal vesicle becomes a group of rods, variable in 
size and number; (b) the other constituents entirely disappear; (c) an 
egg-envelope may be developed, but only fully after fertilization, never 
perfectly in unfertilized ova. 

(8) The achromatin substance forming the spindles in polar globule 
extrusion arises from the protoplasm of the ovum, as in every other 
division of the egg-cell. 

(4) The extrusion of polar globules is a genuine typical process of 
indirect (“ karyomitotic”’) division, and the extruded elements are to be 
regarded as cells. 

(5) The structure of the pronuclei deviates considerably from the 
general type of nucleus. Its framework is formed of achromatin sub- 
stance, which with the membrane determines the form. In other nuclei 


* Arch, f. Mikr. Anat., xxxii. (1888) pp. 671-82 (2 pls.). 


224 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the framework is supposed to consist of chromatin. Whether this is a 
real difference or not remains to be seen. 

(6) “The study of the origin of the pronuclei has an extraordinary 
importance in this way, that it, as it appears to me, presents the only 
possibility of following the developmental history of the nucleus.” 

“In regard to the formation of the pronuclei, apart from all the 
incompleteness of my observations, I consider it possible to demonstrate 
that the pronuclei arise quite independently of one another, and that the 
female pronucleus contains only the chromatin of the ovum, and the male 
pronucleus only that of the spermatozoon.” 


Anatomy and Ontogeny of Nematodes.*—Herr N. A. Cobb com- 
mences with an account of Ascaris Kikenthalii sp. u., from the stomach 
of Beluga leucas. The male is from 7-9, and the female 8-10 cm. long ; 
there are about one hundred caudal papille, arranged in two irregular 
rows. Behind the cesophagus there are two delicate organs which con- 
sist of several hundred tubular elements, connected with one another by 
fine fibres of connective tissue. The walls of the separate tubes are 
formed by a layer of epithelial cells, and the tubes contain one to five 
large vesicular cells, and have an efferent duct; the several ducts are, 
at various points, collected into common tubes. Nematodes that live in 
the stomach of their hosts rarely want these glands, which are absent in 
such forms as live in the small intestine and the body-cavity ; they may, 
therefore, be regarded as digestive glands. The ova make their first 
appearance as nuclei, but soon become surrounded with protoplasm, and 
finally with a cell-membrane. There are generally three to six masses 
of chromatin. At a distance of 3 mm. from the blind end of the 
ovarian tube the ova group themselves round the rachis, and then 
gradually increase in size. Fertilization and maturation are effected in 
the seminal pouches, and the upper end of the uterus. Segmentation of 
the ova, as far as the progastrula stage, is effected in the uterus. As in 
all Nematodes yet examined, the first change is equatorial, but in the 
worm under consideration the two products of division were unequal, the 
first ectoblastomere being very much smaller than the first endoblasto- 
mere. The author’s results agree pretty closely with those of Gotte and 
Hallez. 

Seven distinct layers could be made out in the integument; the 
cuticle is distinguished by the large quantity of haematoxylin which it 
can take up; the subcuticula is very like the cuticle ; then follow three 
so-called fibrous layers, each of which appears to consist of parallel 
fibres united by a connecting membrane. There is a very thin limiting 
membrane which separates them from the so-called subcutaneous layer, 
with which the muscle-cells are directly connected. Two kinds of 
ganglion-cells are distinguished in the central nervous system; some 
are large, have a large vesicular nucleus, and give off two or three pro- 
cesses; others are much smaller and spindle-shaped, and have two 
processes; the ganglia formed by them are set close to the nerve-ring, 
and are connected therewith by nerve-fibres. 

The other new species are Ascaris bulbosa from the stomach of Phoca 
barbata, Strongylus arcticus from the auditory organ of Beluga leucas ; the 
anatomy of these new forms is described in some detail. In Oxyuris 


* Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxiii. (1888) pp. 21-76 (3 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 225 


vermicularis the author has found a structure which he takes to be a 
salivary gland. 

Of the free worms on which there are notes Dorylamius Langit is a 
new species, found at Jena, of which the male is alone known. 
Tylenchus gracilis is a new species from Jena, whence, also, comes 
Spilophora impatiens sp. n.; this last is closely allied to Chromadora 
Leuckarti, but differs from it in the structure of the cuticle, the rings of 
the skin consisting of elongated corpuscles, the nature of which it is 
hard to explain. 


Cellular Epidermis of Nematodes.*—M. A. Michel, doubting the 
truth of the statement that the hypodermis of Nematodes is formed of a 
continuous protoplasm with scattered nuclei, has made an examination of 
the integument of Gordius. In the greater part of the body the sub- 
cuticular layer has a single layer of flat cells, with sinuous contours, 
which are arranged like the endothelial elements of the lymphatic 
capiliaries of Vertebrates. Near the extremities of the animal 
the cells become cylindrical. The cuticle of Nematodes does not, 
then, consist of an epidermis and dermis, but of a membrane external 
to the elements of the cellular layer, and this membrane is of more 
than ordinary thickness. The subcuticular cellular layer is not a 
hypodermis, but an epidermis, and the dermis, as in most Invertebrates, 
becomes part of the muscular layer. There is no reason to suppose that 
there is any peripheral nervous system in this epidermis. 


Red Colouring Matter of Eustrongylus gigas.;—Dr. V. Aducco 
has made an elaborate physiological study of the nature of the red 
colouring substance in the hemolymph and body-wall of Eustrongylus 
gigas. Specific gravity, coagulability, result of loiling, effects of 
reagents, pressure, &c., spectroscopic characters and the like were 
studied in great detail. 

The general conclusion of the author is as follows:—The animal 
‘has in its hemolymph and in its cuticle a red colouring substance, 
which is very similar to the oxyhemoglobin of the blood of verte- 
brates, but differs from it in the temperature at which it coagulates, and 
in its greater resistance to reagents and in a special way to pressure, 
acetic acid, and reducing agents.” 


New Species of Gordius.t— Dr. L. Camerano describes a new species 
of Gordius (Gt. fez), found in Irawaddy by Sig. L. Fea. The species is 
easily distinguished by the structure of the cuticle which presents 
irregularly scattered areole, and by the co-existence of a post-cloacal 
lamina and the areole. 


y. Platyhelminthes. 


Tapeworms with Perforated Joints.s—Dr. H. Blanc has investi- 
gated the nature and origin of the perforated joints which are occasionally 
exhibited by Tzenia and Bothriocephalus. His cases are of 7’. saginata and 
B. latus, the latter from a set of ninety which were voided at one time! 
The anomaly affects isolated proglottides, or a group, or a long series; 
the form of the perforation is broad in Tenia, long in Bothriocephalus ; 


* Comptes Rendus, evii. (1888) pp. 1175-7. 

+ Atti R. Acead. Lincei—(Rend.), iv. (1888) pp. 187-94, 213-20. 
{ Ann. Mus. Nat. Genova, vi. (2) (1888) pp. 168-70 (2 figs.). 

§ Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., xxiv. (1888) pp. 9-16 (1 pl.). 


226 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the perforations are usually central, but not always. The histological 
features are described, and the various opinions on the subject are noted. 
The author regards the anomaly as primarily an integumentary 
variation,—“ an irregular, abnormal development of the cuticle of some 
of the rings, resulting in a kind of pathological condition, completed 
by an external digestive action.” 


Intermediate Host of Tenia cucumerina.*—Professor B. Grassi 
communicates a preliminary note in regard to the intermediate host of 
Tenia cucumerina. This is usually supposed to be the louse Trichodectes 
latus, as has indeed been demonstrated, but Grassi was led to doubt this 
on account of the rarity of the “louse” compared with the abundance 
of the tapeworm. His experiments inclined him in fact to suppose that 
the development might be direct as in 7. murina. Now, however, he 
has been led to regard it as more probable that the ordinary intermediate 
host is no other than the flea (Pulex serraticeps). 


Structure of Bipalium.j—Dr. J. C. C. Loman has a memoir on the 
genus Bipalium, twenty-one species of which have already been more or 
less completely described. Kuhl and v. Hasselt examined forms which 
are now to be called B. vittatum and B. marginatum, and the author 
describes as new B. moseleyi from Borneo, B. sumatrense from Sumatra, 
and B. javanum from Java. 

In dealing with the integument the author raises objections to 
Moseley’s explanation of the disappearance of cilia in certain parts being 
due to the expulsion of large numbers of rod-like bodies, and contends 
that these are tegumentary cells which are not ciliated ; in fact he declares 
that the cilia of the surface are confined to what he calls the ambulacral 
bands. The rod-cells are regarded as mesenchymatous structures which 
wander through the surrounding connective tissue, while their contents 
become converted into filamentar rods. Mucous glands are especially 
numerous, and are found over the whole body; their efferent ducts do 
not appear to have special walls, and the granulated mucous filament is 
found lying in simple lacune of the connective tissue. 

The number of layers in the dermomuscular tube appears to vary 
somewhat in Planarians; in Bipalium dorsoventral and transverse 
fibres are present in addition to oblique (with a few circular), external 
and internal longitudinal fibres. There is really a kind of muscular 
foot such as is not known even in other Land Planarians. ‘The majority 
of the muscles are homogeneous, and do not even exhibit a differentiation 
into cortex and medulla. B. javanum is strongly pigmented, and the 
colour is due to small black granules which are collected in the connective 
tissue cells and their fine processes; the pigment is not confined to the 
surface of the body, whereas it is in B. swmatrense very rare in any other 
than the superficial parts. 

The investigation of the nervous system is a matter of some difficulty, 
as the cells and fibres are not easy to distinguish from the larger 
mesenchym cells, but the nuclei of the connective tissue are always 
smaller than those of the ganglion cells, and are always much more 
intensely coloured by hematoxylin and borax-carmine. Professor Mose- 
ley’s account of the histology of the eyes is stated to be correct. The 


* Bull. Soc. Entom. Ital., xx. (1888) pp. 66. 
+ Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde, xiv. (1887) pp. 63-88 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. PAT 


author thinks there is evidence, though of a negative character, that 
the nervous system has a mesodermal origin. 

The species examined were found to be protandric; in B. javanum 
there are on either side a number of testes lying behind one another, 
and a vas deferens which lies internally to them; after forming a seminal 
vesicle it opens into a penis, which consists of a sheath, an antrum, and 
an external genital orifice. The ovaries lie just behind the head, the 
oviduct is long, and passes into the so-called uterus; from the uterus 
the ova pass into the same antrum as that in which the male duct opens. 
Numerous yolk-glands are scattered in the mesenchym. The antrum is 
a spacious cavity, and its epithelium consists of low cells carrying short 
cilia. The ova of B. javanum are said to be laid in a cocoon, which is 
probably fermed in the antrum; the shell appears to be a secretion of 
the penial sheath, and the high glandular epithelium of that organ 
supports this supposition. 


6. Incertz Sedis. 


New Rotifer.*—Mr. C. Rousselet describes, under the name of 
Limnias cornuella, 1 new Rotifer which he found attached to the rootlets 
of a plant (“ Triane Bogotensis”) in one of the hot-house tanks in the 
gardens of the Botanical Soeiety in Regent's Park. Its tube looks very 
much like a little horn, and is only about half the size of that of the two 
other species of the genus; it is not ringed quite as distinctly as that 
of L. annulutus. Its most striking character is the possession of two 
long ventral antenne, which are surmounted by tufts of long sete. 


Echinodermata. 


Ludwig’s Echinodermata.|—Prof. H. Ludwig has commenced a 
second edition of the Echinodermata of Bronn’s ‘ Klassen,’ &e. The 
author commences, without any preface, with the Holothurians, of which 
there is a bibliography and a short introductory account. The descrip- 
tion of the skin is begun, but the account of the spicules is not yet 
completed. 


Comatulids of Kara Sea.{—In his report on the few species of 
Comatulide collected in the Kara Sea, Dr. P. H. Carpenter makes some 
remarks on pentacrinoid larve collected during the expedition, but, 
brought up, unfortunately without any adult specimens accompanying 
them. With the exception of the Pentacrinoids dredged by the ‘ Chal- 
lenger’ near Ascension, those now under discussion are the largest and 
most robust that the author has seen, and they are much more developed 
than the ‘Challenger’ specimens. It is possible, though not probable, 
that we have here the larval forms of Antedon dentata, but Dr. Carpenter 
is inclined to think that they are the young of A. eschrichti. The larger 
larva had a length of 85 mm., which was about equally divided between 
the head and stem; the latter, which is singularly like that of Rhizo- 
crinus, has twenty-nine joints. Its centrodorsal bears fifteen cirri, the 
longest of which has a length of 5 mm. The adult specimens were 
examples of Antedon eschrichti, A. quadrata, and A. prolixa. 


* Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, iii. (1888) pp. 337-8 (1 pl.). 

+ Bronn’s Klassen u. Ordnungen, ii. 3, bearbeitet von Dr. H. Ludwig, 1. Licf,, 
8vo, Leipzig and Heidelberg, 1889, pp. 1-48. 

{ Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde, xiv, (1887) pp. 41-9 (1 pl.). 


228 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Ventral Structure of Taxocrinus and Haplocrinus.*—Messrs. C. 
Wachsmuth and F. Springer have made certain discoveries in the ventral 
structure of Taxocrinus and Haplocrinus which lead to modifications in 
the classification of the Crinoidea. They have found that the whole 
ventral surface of Haplocrinus is covered by five large plates which meet 
in the centre as in Allagecrinus, and that the ‘“‘ central plate” is a myth; 
what had been taken for it was a more or less tongue-like prolongation 
of the posterior plate, and a fracture in their original specimen had been 
taken for a suture on the posterior side. They give reasons for now 
thinking that the apparently central plate of many Platycrinide and 
Actinocrinide is the posterior oral, pushed inward to a central position by 
anal structures. It would then appear that the five orals of Neocrinoids 
were represented in the Paleocrinoids by the central plate and four 
large proximals; and this view does much to reconcile the conflicting 
views of our authors and of Dr. H. Carpenter; “the orals being found 
at last to consist of a portion of the proximals which he has claimed, 
with the addition of the central plate which we have contended for. 
This rational result, as often happens in such cases, adopts what was 
sound, and rejects the errors in the views of both parties.” 

A well-preserved specimen of Taxocrinus intermedius has demon- 
strated that it had an external mouth, surrounded by five parted oral 
plates, with the ambulacra converging to it and passing in between the 
orals. The authors have now very little doubt that the structure here 
discovered is substantially that of the Ichthyocrinide in general, and 
that the ventral side of the calyx in this family is morphologically in 
the condition of Thawmatocrinus, and similar to that of Hyocrinus and 
Rhizocrinus. After discussing this matter in some detail and considering 
the alleged points of difference between the Palzocrinoidea and Neo- 
crinoidea, Messrs. Wachsmuth and Springer come to the conclusion that 
this division is not natural. They now think that four well-defined 
groups can be distinguished as independent primary divisions of the 
Crinoidea :—1. Camarata; 2. Inadunata; 3. Articulata, including the 
Ichthyocrinide; and 4. Canaliculata; the last includes most of the 
mesozoic and recent Crinoids. They are inclined to put Holopus, 
Bathycrinus, and Hyocrinus under the group Larviforma of the Inadunata, 
for they are all monocyclic, and retain throughout life large oral plates. 
Thaumatocrinus may be referred to the Articulata. With these altera- 
tions the Canaliculata would form a well-defined group, containing only 
dicyclie Crinoids, in which the underbasals are anchylosed to the top- 
stem-joint, with which they form the centrodorsal. A revised diagnosis 
of the Icthyocrinide is given. 


Crotalocrinus.;—Messrs. C. Wachsmuth and F. Springer give a 
detailed account of the structure of this remarkable paleozoic Crinoid. 
Its net-formed radial appendages, resembling rather the fronds of a 
Bryozoan than the arms of a Crinoid, have long made it a puzzle to 
naturalists. It is only lately that they have had the opportunity of 
observing actual specimens, and they find that the views as to its struc- 
ture and relationships which they published in their revision of the 
Paleocrinoids were completely erroneous. They now come to the con- 
clusion that a family of the suborder to be called Crotalocrinidz must be 


* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1888, pp. 337-63 (1 pl.). 
+ Ihid., pp. 3864-90 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 229 


made for Orotalocrinus and its ally Enallocrinus, and suitable diagnoses 
are given; this family is allied to the other Camarata through Marsu- 
procrinus. 


Coelenterata. 


Structure and Development of Colony of Pennatula phosphorea.*— 
Herr H. F. HE. Jungersen has had the opportunity of examining a Series 
of young stages of Pennatula phosphorea, of which he gives an account.. 
To this he prefixes some notes on the anatomy of the adult form, dealing 
with neglected or unobserved points in its structure. Attention is drawn 
to the fact that a transverse section through one of the leaves shows that 
all the polyps of one leaf are arranged in the same direction. Below the 
pharynx the eight septa are continued into the axis through the gastric 
cavity; the two dorsal septa are lower than the rest and are of ecto- 
dermal origin, while the other six, which are much thicker, more coiled 
and shorter, are of endodermal origin. Gonads are never developed on 
the two dorsal septa; their filaments take no part in the work of digestion, 
but are of use, thanks to their rich supply of cilia, in the circulation of 
water. In the opinion of the author the dorsal and ventral primary 
canals of the axis have a different morphological value to the two lateral ; 
the latter do not appear te be in direct connection with the animals, but 
communicate by small orifices with the median canals. So little is 
known regarding the developmental history of the Pennatulide that 
Herr Jungersen’s observations, though incomplete, are of considerable 
interest. The youngest specimen, which was 7 mm. long, consisted of a 
single well-developed individual, the stem-polyp or the first individual 
formed from the larva; it may be called the axial individual or terminal 
polyp. Above, it forms an open cup, at the edge of which are eight 
processes formed by long calcareous needles; this cup contains a re- 
tracted animal with seizing arms. Below the cup the body is prolonged 
in the form of a stalk, and below the lowest bud passes into a somewhat 
enlarged peduncle, which appears to be colourless and was clearly fixed 
in the bottom of the sea; an internal calcareous axis is already developed. 
There are five buds, four of which are lateral, while one lies in the 
median plane of the axial individual; the last has no tentacles, under- 
goes no further development, and may be called the axial or terminal 
zooid. It can be easily traced in later stages, and it was found that the 
surface of the axis on which it is placed is that which is generally known 
as the ventral surface. What has been called the ventral surface of the 
whole colony must be called the dorsal, and the dorsal the ventral. The 
uppermost leaf is always found on the right side of the terminal polyps. 
When four or five well-developed leaves have been developed on either 
side of the axis the first lateral zooids begin to be formed ; these increase 
in number as development goes on, but no regular arrangement could be 
detected in them. In all cases it happens that there is no terminal 
polyp in the adult colonies of Pennatula phosphorea, though the young 
stages always have one. This terminal polyp remains a purely vegetative 
individual, the individualized part of which either disappears or becomes 
converted into a zooid, while the rest of its body persists as the axis of 
the colony. 

A comparison of the young stages of Renilla and Pennatula points 


* Vilenskab. Meddelelser, Copenhagen, 1888, p. 154; translated in Zeitschr. f. 
Wiss. Zool., xlvii. (1888) pp. 620-49 (1 pl.). 


230 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


to the conclusion that in the still unknown larva of the latter there is, 
as in the former, developed a transverse wall—the septum of the stalk ; 
in this two longitudinal spaces and a supporting hard structure are later 
developed. It follows that the dorsal and ventral canals are parts of the 
primitive gastric cavity of the axial polyp, while the lateral canals are 
cavities in the walls that separate them, and are probably enlarged 
nutrient canals. This generalization may, perhaps, be safely extended 
-to all other genera of Pennatulidee. 


New Cornularie.*—Mr. J. A. Grieg describes two new species of 
Cornulariz from the coast of Norway. Rhizoxenia alba has a creeping 
stolon which is adherent to submarine objects; from this lateral branches 
are given off at right angles to the parent stem, which they connect with 
those adjacent; the polyp is elongated and smooth, the septa are non- 
calcareous, and the attenuated points of the tentacles are furnished with 
pinnules. The stolon, cell, and polyp are closely covered with spicules. 
Sympodium margaritaceum has a creeping basal part which adheres to 
shells and other marine objects; the polyps, which are ordinarily 
solitary, are small and project but little; the cell is firm, very finely 
granulated, and of the same Havannah-brown colour as the lower part ; 
it has eight coste. The polyp-body is of a fine pale rose-red colour, 
cylindrical, and with eight tentacles. The oral dise is smooth; the 
mouth oblong and slightly protuberant; the pinnules and gullet are non- 
calcareous; the spicules of the polyp and tentacles are colourless; they 
extend as far as the points of the latter. 


North-Atlantic Actinida.t—Dr. D. C. Danielssen describes two very 
remarkable genera, the exact systematic position of which is very hard 
to define; he places them provisionally with the Actinida, but makes for 
them a new tribe, that of the Mgiresx, which he describes thus :—Actinida 
with a perfect body-cavity (ccelom) and a developed digestive apparatus, 
consisting of cesophagus, intestine, and anus. The family Algiride 
contains Aigirese, whose body is cylindrical and vermiform; there are 
twelve single septa, and the ccelom is divided into twelve longitudinal 
chambers. The genus Fenja has an elongate body, furnished with twelve 
longitudinal grooves, between which are twelve longitudinal areas covered 
with suckers. There is a series of a few retractile tentacles. Twelve 
longitudinal muscles have prominent transverse muscles between them. 
There are twelve genital pores round the anus, outside the rectum. The 
circular muscles are mesodermal, and the sexes are united. ‘The species 
is called F. mirabilis. The genus Algir (4. frigidus) has a mucous 
sheath, and small suckers are scattered between the twelve longitudinal 
ribs. There is one cycle of a few tentacles. Immediately above the 
anus there are twelve slender fissures which communicate directly with 
the intestinal passage. 'The other characters are very similar to those 
of Fenja. 

The anatomy of these interesting forms is described with great care 
and in some detail. As observed alive Fenja was regarded as a Halcampa, 
and Avgir as one of the Cerianthide. The integument with its epi- 
thelium, nematocysts, mucous glands, and connective tissue; the form of 
the tentacles, septa, gonads, and nervous system are all of the Ccelenterate 
type; but the chief characteristic of the Coelenterata—the gastrovascular 


* Bergen’s Museum Aarsberetning for 1887 (1888), No. 2, 18 pp. (2 pls.). 
+ T.c., No. 1, 24 pp. (8 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 231 


cavity—is transformed into a fully developed intestinal canal which, in 
Fenja, does not communicate directly with the body-cavity. The fissures 
found in Afgir do remind us somewhat of the anatomy of the Ctenophora. 

If the coelom is to be regarded as the decisive feature these two 
genera must be removed from the Coelenterata; further research may 
show that too much stress has been laid on this character, or we may 
have here only the final stage of a process of development already begun 
in other Actinida. 


Natural History of Fungia.*—Mr. J. J. Lister has a preliminary 
notice of his observations on the life-history of Fungia. 'The young 
stock has vertical thecal walls; after a time the upper part begins to 
widen out, and, after forming a shallow cup, gives rise to a disc, de- 
pressed in the centre, with the thecal walls facing directly downwards. 
After the disc is distinctly formed absorption of the calcareous skeleton 
takes place in a plane at right angles to the axis of the attaching stalk. 
When the disc becomes free it has a round scar in the middle of the 
under surface which corresponds to a similar scar at the summit of the 
stalk. This scar ultimately disappears. The free end of the stalk 
throws up delicate fluted laminzs which project above the level of the 
other structures of the scar; a mouth is formed in the centre, a thecal 
wall becomes developed round the thecal laminz, and a new cup is 
formed ; this is not a bud, but a product of the growth of the structures 
already existing in the base of its predecessors. A new disc having been 
formed its stalk undergoes absorption; in due course a third disc is 
formed, the stalk growing in height as the process is repeated. 


Development of Manicina areolata.t|—Dr. H. V. Wilson gives a full 
account of his observations on the development of Manicina areolata, 
the preliminary notice of which was referred to at the time of its appear- 
ance.t With regard to the origin of the Anthozoa the author considers 
that Gétte’s objection to the hydroid polyp ancestry of the group is no 
longer valid. The question whether or no the Anthozoa are descended 
from hydroid polyps must be argued out on the ground of some more 
primitive anthozoan development, such as that of Manicina. Here it 
is at once seen that, contrary to Gotie’s idea, the invagination of the 
cesophagus does not necessitate the formation of endodermal sacs. 'The 
surface ectoderm and the cesophagus become apposed along the lines of 
the first and second mesenteries; this process, though seen in the 
Scyphomeduse as well as the Zoantharia, was probably acquired 
secondarily, and was not a peculiarity of the primitive Anthozoa; this 
belief is supported by the entire absence of the process in the Alcyonaria. 
The explanation of the process is probably connected with the early 
development of the first pair of filaments. 


Origin of Female Generative Cells in Podocoryne Sars.§—Mr. C. 
Ishikawa has studied the history of the development of the female 
generative cells of Podocoryne carnea. Weisriann was unable to observe 
the wandering of the ectodermal cells into the endoderm, but his pupil 
now brings forward evidence to show that the primordial female germ- 
cells arise in the ectoderm of the young medusa-bud, and thence wander 


* Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., xxix. (1888) pp. 359-63. 

+ Journal of Morphology, ii. (1888) pp. 191-252 (7 pls.). 
{ See this Journal, 1888, p. 434. 

§ Zeitschr, f. Wiss. Zool., xlvii. (1888) pp. 621-5, 


232 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


very early into the endoderm, where they become differentiated into 
germ-cells as Weismann had supposed. 


Cunoctantha and Gastrodes.*—Prof. A. Korotneff has notes on these 
two difficult forms; Gastrodes is new; of Cunoctantha he has studied 
two quite young stages which he found in the stomach of very young 
Geryoniz, where they appeared as small white dots. A transverse section 
through the gastric wall of a young Geryonia revealed an elongated oval 
larva completely imbedded in an endoderm formed of large cells. Its 
ectoderm consists of long delicate cells, which only form one row, and 
contain a considerable number of nematocysts. These ectodermal 
elements are, obviously, in a state of active division, at the free pole of 
the body, and the appearance was that of a somewhat coarsely granular 
plasmodium, in which separate nuclei were imbedded. At the free pole 
the ectoderm and entoderm pass into one another; the larva under 
observation was just forming its endoderm, and only two nuclei were 
apparent in that layer. In a later stage the ectoderm was found to 
contain a considerably larger number of nematocysts, and the endoderm, 
though still plasmodial in character, had many more nuclei, which were 
much smaller than those of the ectoderm. One nucleus of the ingrowing 
ectoderm has become very large, and is placed at the upper, oral end of 
the larva; this is, no doubt, the peculiar colossal nucleus of the larva. 
The nematocysts, which are wanting in the adult Cwnoctanthe, are 
present in numbers in free-swimming larve. The loss of these organs 
may be due to the acquirement of a parasitic habit. 

The name of Gastrodes parasiticum is given to a form which appears 
to have some affinities to Cunoctantha ; it was found in the gelatinous coat 
of Salpa fusiformis in the winter of 1886; in 1887 the author failed to 
find it. When slightly magnified it has the form of a round cake with 
a flat base and a curved upper surface. From the base a process projects 
into the interior; looked at from above this invagination is seen to carry 
a central oral opening. It is a scarcely altered gastrula, for it is a 
saccular organism in which only two layers can be made out, which 
has no true coelom, and takes in nourishment by means of a primitive 
mouth. This mouth is not at the end of the body, but at the tip of a 
proboscis-like prolongation which is invaginated into the interior. It 
calls to mind the stomach of an Actinian, and leads into a cavity which 
has, however, no septa. The ectoderm and endoderm are separated by 
a supporting lamella. The ectoderm is of the simplest construction 
on its curved surface, for there is there a single layer formed of low cells, 
and only in places multilaminate; this layer owes the simplicity of its 
structure to the parasitic habit of Gastrodes ; there are no nematocysts 
or muscular fibres. On the lower surface and on the oral tube there are 
large distinct ovarian cells, in which may be seen a large germinal vesicle 
and a fine reticulum ; they form an unbroken series round the margin of 
the animal; the complete development of these eggs may be studied in 
one and the same individual. The gelatinous layer is a thin lamella 
which is only well developed at the margin, where it forms a ring. ‘The 
endoderm consists of two sets of elements; some are low, cubical cells 
like those of the ectoderm, others, which are large, form the lateral walls 
of the gastric cavity ; the latter also form a plasmatic network. ‘There 
are no special gland-cells in the endoderm of Gastrodes. 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvii. (1888) pp. 650-7 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 200 


In a younger stage the gelatinous ring was found to be wanting; in 
its place there was a large cell which appears to be quite identical with 
an endodermal cell, as it has a plasmatic plexus, and a large network ; 
as to the fate of this cell nothing is yet known. This younger form 
had only a single row of large endodermal cells, and these form a 
circular lining to the gastric cavity; each of the large cells assimilates 
the neighbouring small cells. The resemblance between Cunoctantha 
and Gastrodes is unmistakable; the endodermal dimorphism of 
Gastrodes differs only from that of Cunoctantha in that the small cells of 
the latter are at first completely covered by the giant cells. Morpho- 
logical differentiation is more markedly exhibited in Gastrodes than in 
Cunoctantha; instead of one large cell there is a complete generation of 
such cells, which have, however, lost their power of movement (formation 
of pseudopodia) and only function as gastric digestive cells. 


Porifera. 


Stelospongus flabelliformis.*—Mr. A. Dendy gives an account of the 
anatomy and histology of this South Australian sponge, the characteristics 
of which were briefly diagnosed by Mr. H. J. Carter in 1885. A specimen 
was fortunately found containing a large number of enormous spherical 
embryos, each as large as a small pea. The entire surface of the sponge 
is thickly incrusted with sand-particles, which give a very hard, im- 
penetrable character to the sponge, and must form an admirable protec- 
tion against the attacks of the numerous parasites to which sponges are 
very subject, and it functionally replaces the special dermal skeleton of 
spicules which is found in very many siliceous sponges. 

The skeleton is thoroughly typical in structure and arrangement, 
and is essentially the same as that of the bath-sponge, only much 
coarser. A reticulate skeleton may be regarded as derived from the 
radiate by a development of secondary fibres connecting the primaries ; 
the majority, at any rate, of the so-called horny sponges are descended, 
probably along several lines, from the Halichondrina, by the gradual loss 
of the spicules and the greater development of spongin in a reticulate 
skeleton. In the species under discussion the skeleton fibres may some- 
times be seen projecting freely from the surface of the sponge; this/is a 
character often observed in siliceous forms. 

The canal system, which is carefully described, is seen to differ 
little from the ordinary lacunar type so characteristic of the Halichon- 
drina. The outermost portion of the ectosomeis formed by an extremely 
thin and delicate epidermis; cystenchyme cells are present, and the 
stellate mesodermal cells appear to be thoroughly typical. ‘The struc- 
ture of the choanosome is considered under the heads of (1) the walls of 
the inhalant and exhalant canals, (2) the walls of the embryo-containing 
cavities, (3) the walls of the flagellated chambers, (4) the general mass 
of mesoderm in which the chambers and canals are imbedded, and (5) the 
ae and other mesodermal cells surrounding the skeleton 

res. 

The ovum of S. flabelliformis lies in a fibrous capsule, and has a 
longer diameter of 0°076 mm., while that of the nucleus, which lies at 
one pole, is 0°024 mm. All the embryos, except one or two of the 
smaller ones, were solid. The surface, under a pocket-lens, exhibits a 


* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxix. (1888) pp. 325-58 (4 pls.). 
1889. R 


234 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


minutely punctate appearance, due to the presence of an immense 
number of shallow pits; each of these is the imprint of one of the large 
epithelial cells of the embryo-capsule. The outer layer of the embryo 
consists of rather large, closely-packed cells, inclosing a mass of clear, 
transparent, jelly-like substance, in which immense numbers of amceboid 
wandering cells are imbedded. The ectoderm consists of a single layer 
of large sac- or flask-shaped cells, the neck of which is on the outer side 
of the embryo; the swollen portion projects inwards into the gelatinous 
intercellular substance, and from its inner extremity frequently sends 
out a few very short, slender, pseudopodial processes. 

The unusual length of time during which the embryo remains within 
the mother sponge, and the great size to which it attains, necessitate 
some special arrangement whereby it may be nourished; Mr. Dendy 
believes that the investing epithelium has the function of nourishing the 
embryo, absorption of nutriment being effected through the elongated 
necks of some of the ectodermal cells. 

Within the ectodermal layer the embryo consists of a clear, jelly-like 
matrix, in which there are numerous large ameeboid cells. These appear 
to be simply ectodermal cells which have wandered into the central 
jelly ; many of them become rounded, and so arranged as to give rise to 
hollow chambers, lined by small spherical cells; these cavities the 
author regards as young flagellated chambers. Coincidently with the 
formation of these a slit-like invagination appears on the surface of 
the sponge, and it is around this that the chambers are formed. The 
invagination is probably the commencement of a communication between 
the chambers and the exterior; but, unfortunately, it has not yet been 
possible to trace the development further. 

It is not yet known how the embryos of Stelospongus escape from 
the parent; they may, as they increase in size, rupture the walls of the 
oscular tubes near which they lie, when they would be forcibly ejected 
with the outgoing stream of water; or the sponge may die down in the 
winter, and the embryos be released by the decay of the maternal 
tissues. 


Protozoa. 


Butschli’s ‘Protozoa.’*—Prof. Biitschli continues his general ae- 
count of the organization of the ciliate Infusoria, and devotes a large 
portion of the lately published parts to a history of the nuclei; the 
membranous investments are also described, and the processes of repro- 
duction are begun, though not disposed of. 


Infusorian Fauna of the Bay of Kiel.j—Prof. K. Mobius com- 
mences his account of the Infusoria of the Bay of Kiel with a description 
of Euplotes harpa ; various corrections are made in Stein’s account of 
this species. In addition to reproduction by transverse fission, a special 
mode of gemmation after encystation was observed. In the latter mode 
the creature rolls itself up, the cilia cease to beat, and the body becomes 
surrounded by a delicate cyst; granules appear in the ectoplasm which 
refract the light strongly. The contractile vacuole grows considerably 
and divides into smaller vacuoles; these continually alter in form and 
size and make their way into the protoplasm. Opposite the pectinellz 


* Bronn’s Klassen u. Ordnungen, i. Protozoa (1888) pp. 1489-1584 (pls- 
1xxii.-v.). + Arch. f. Naturgesch., liv. (1888) pp. 81-116 (7 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 2385 


there appears a wart-like elevation which contains vacuoles; this 
increases in size, becomes constricted off from the mother-body, pushes 
out delicate cilia, elongates and takes on the form of its parent. While 
these changes have been going on the nucleus undergoes considerable 
changes; it elongates, becomes bowed, then constricted, and finally 
breaks up into several pieces. The difference between the behaviour of 
the nucleus in fission and gemmation is explained thus: in fission all the 
developed external organula take part; but they merely distribute 
themselves into the two halves, and in each there isa kind of regeneration 
which affects the nucleus; in gemmation, on the other hand, the whole 
body of the bud is newly formed from the substance of the parent, and 
a closer relative connection between the nuclear substance and the body- 
plasma becomes necessary. 

A more accurate account and figures than any yet published are 
given of the red spots of Oxytricha rubra ; they are not sharply bounded 
spheres, but merely consist of spherical aggregations of yellowish-red 
granules. Three new species of Stichotricha, 8. gracilis, S. saginata, 
and S. horrida, are described. 

Of the Heterotricha Porpostoma (P. notatum) is a new genus which 
is distinguished from Spirostoma by the lip-like thickenings near the 
mouth. In dealing with the Peritricha a somewhat detailed account is 
given of Zoothamnium Cienkowskii; among the Holotricha Uronema 
marinum is fully described, as is Hoplitophrya fastigata sp. n. Tricho- 
nema gracile is a new cilio-flagellate; Salpingeca procera and Monosiga 
sinuosa new choanoflagellates; while Urceolus ovatus, Anisonema multi- 
costatum, and Diplomastia Dahli are new flagellates. 


New or Little-known Infusoria.*—M. J. Kunstler has found an 
infusorian about 60 y» long in the terminal part of the intestine of 
Iimulus. Tts general appearance recalls that of Lophomonas Dlat- 
tarum, but the present species, which is not named, is not identical with 
it. In the intestine of a Tipulid larva a number of Flagellaia allied to 
Bodo were found; some of the creatures are from 8 to 10 » long, and 
the anterior flagella are remarkable for their length; others, which 
appear to belong to a different species, have an elongated body and 
execute spiral movements. The intestine of Hydrophilus contains a 
small Monocercomonas ; its form changes, and while some of these 
changes do not alter the general configuration of the body, others are 
true amceboid movements which are localized at the hinder part of the 
body ; at the anterior extremity there are four equal flagella, three of 
which are connected at their base. Encystation has been observed. 
The same insect has a small Ameba as a guest. The vagina of the cow 
contains a Trichomonas, as does the intestine of the pig, and the mouth 
of a man in ill-health. A very remarkable new ciliated infusorian has 
been observed in the intestine of Periplaneta orientalis. 


New Infusorian.j—Prof. A. Giard gives the name of Pebrilla 
(P. paguri) to a new genus of Infusorians found living on the hermit- 
crab. It forms small colonies which are placed either in the vicinity 
of the foot or at the posterior extremity of the abdomen, and which are 
visible to the naked eye as black patches which retain their colour, 


* Comptes Rendus, evii. (1888) pp. 953-5. 
+ Bull. Sci. de la France et de la Belg., 1888, p. 316 (2 figs.). Ann. and Mag, 
Nat. Hist., iii. (1889) p. 69. 
1 2 


236 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


even after having been long preserved in spirit. Its capsule is of an 
oblong-ovate form with a projecting tuberele at the hinder extremity, 
within which the actual body of the infusorian is attached ; it is strongly 
constricted in the middle, and the aperture is surrounded by a nearly 
erect or slightly everted collar. It forms an interesting addition to the 
long list of commensals found on Hupagurus Bernhardus. 


Luminosity of Noctiluca miliaris.*—Dr. L. Plate has lately made 
a thorough investigation of Noctiluca miliaris. He describes the 
nucleus as a vesicle bounded by a distinet membrane, the limpid 
contents of which are sometimes perfectly homogeneous, but which, asa 
rule, have several nucleoli which are true globules and not threads, as 
described by Cienkowski. He accepts Biitschli’s explanation of the 
so-called bacillar organ, according to which its ridges are produced 
merely by a particularly close attachment of the plasma to the body 
membrane. The formation of swarmers is more frequent than repro- 
duetion by simple division. 

All observers are agreed that the luminosity of Noctiluca may be 
called forth by any strong irritation, so long as air is not excluded; as 
the light is extinguished in nitrogen it seems to follow that the lumin- 
osity is an oxidation process. Further observations may be adduced in 
favour of this proposition ; the luminosity occurs only in the peripheral 
plasma of the body, and regenerating forms, which accumulate at the 
bottom of a vessel of water, are made to phosphorize with much more 
difficulty than normal individuals swimming at the surface, and under 
the influence of the atmospheric air. When pure oxygen was passed 
over specimens for some minutes a dull light was produced which was 
visible for about ten minutes after the evolution of the gas. 

If Noctilucz be laid upon moist blotting-paper and examined under a 
high power, the light may be found to belong to one of four categories :— 

(1) Lightning-like; intense luminosity of the whole outer layer, 
immediately followed by darkness. 

(2) The same, but with a faint after-luminosity persisting for one or 
two minutes. 

(3) Dull luminosity of the outer zones of plasma, or of some consider- 
able portions of it, with simultaneous strong sparkling of small points. 

(4) A large portion of the surface is entirely or partially luminous 
the luminosity being composed of numerous small points. 

This luminosity appears to be involuntary, and induced by external 
irritation. As to the lighting-up of the sea, it would appear that the 
wind and the strength of the waves alone exert any appreciable influ- 
ence ; the light is not so fine when the waves break strongly, as then the 
Noctilucz are drawn down too far beneath the surface of the water. 


Red Organisms of the Red Sea.t—Herr K. Mobius criticizes the 
theory of Krukenberg that the red colour of the Red Sea is due to 
specimens of Noctiluca miliaris; this red colour (hematochrome) is 
stated to disappear rapidly in alcohol. As the Noctiluce of the North 
Sea are always colourless, Mébius suggests that the colour was due to 
the infusoria having recently eaten Trichodesmium erythreum, or that 
specimens of that Oscillarian had got into the bottle with the Noctiluce. 
We still require to know what substances, if any, of the animal are 


> 


* Zool. Jahrb., iii. (1888) pp. 174-80. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., iii. (1888) 
pp- 22-8. t SB. Gesell. Naturf. Freunde, 1888, pp. 3-4, 17-18. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. Zoe 


reddish, or whether it was food, or other red organisms that produced 
the colour. 


Rhizopods of Gulf of Genoa.*—Prof. A. Gruber, who described in 
1884 some Protozoa from Genoa, gives here some notes on new and 
little-known Rhizopods. 

Protomyxa pallida sp. n. is seen at once to differ from Haeckel’s 
P. aurantiaca by its colourless protoplasm. It never takes on a 
Heliozoon stage, but tends to extend itself; the streaming in the pro- 
cesses is very lively, and the pseudopodia form such wide branches as 
to sometimes extend over a space of 4-8 mm. The nuclear substance is 
scattered in numerous small constituents through the protoplasm; the 
granules are so small that, with high powers, they are merely fine dots 
coloured dark-red by picrocarmine ; in life they cannot be distinguished 
from the other granulations in the protoplasm. It will be remembered 
that Haeckel’s species was said to have no nucleus, but that is only to 
be expected when the condition of microscopical technique at the time of 
its discovery is considered. 

Under the head of various Amebzx Prof. Gruber remarks that, on 
several occasions, he has attempted to show that definite specific diagnoses 
can be drawn up of these variable forms; the amount of difficulty in 
doing so varies, and with regard to the marine species, he has not yet 
been very successful. He has, however, recognized the species which he 
has called Ameba fluida. Another one, which always contains yellow 
drops or spheres, he now calls A. globifera, and a third, on account of 
its yellowish colour, is called A. flavescens. In the last no nucleus can 
be made out during life, but after staining, several vesicular nuclei may 
be seen ; it is the first true multinuclear Ameba which the author has 
found in the sea. 

The name of Schultzia diffluens is now applied to the species which 
the author first called Lieberkiihnia diffluens ; its whole sarcode is filled 
with extremely small nucleoli, which become evident on treatment with 
picrocarmine. A real member of the genus Lieberkiihnia is a new species 
which is called L. Biitschlii ; it agrees in many points with L. Wagner, 
as described by Maupas, but differs by its much larger size, and by the 
characters of its nuclei. 

The protoplasm of Polymastiz sol sends out processes which, though 
they look like pseudopodial rays, are capable of flagellar movements, 
and the question arises whether we have here a Heliozoon with flagellate 
pseudopodia, or a Fagellate with radiate flagella; the organism named 
by Cienkowski Multicilia marina appears to be identical with this 
Polymastix. 


Pseudopodia and Cilia.t—Prof. O. Zacharias refers to a statement 
by Prof. A. Gruber in regard to Polymastix sol, in which he says, “ of 
pseudopodia which behave like cilia, nothing is hitherto known.” 
Zacharias recalls his experiments { with the spermatozoa of Polyphemus 
pediculus which, in 3 per cent. salt solution, developed very active 
pseudopodia. Reference might also be made to the facts noted by 
Geddes in his ‘ Restatement of the Cell-Theory.’ § 


* Ber. Naturf. Gesell. Freiburg, ii. (1888) pp. 33-44 (1 pl.). 
+ Biolog. Centralbl., viii. (1888) pp. 548-9. 

{ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xli. (1884) pp. 252-8 (1 pl.). 

§ Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., xlii. (1883-4) pp. 266-92 (1 pl.). 


238 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Structure of Pylomata of Protista.*—Herr F. Dreyer gives us a 
comparative and developmental history of the structure of the pylomata 
of the Radiolarians and of the Protista in general, to which he adds a 
system and description of new and known pylomatic Spumellaria. The 
work is mainly based on ‘ Challenger’ material, and may be considered 
as a continuation of that done by Haeckel on the Radiolaria. The 
term ‘‘ pylom” is used instead of “osculum,” which was the name used 
by Haeckel for the oral orifice of some Spumellaria; the change of 
designation recommends itself as preventing any misunderstanding 
which might arise from the central capsule having an “ osculum.” 

In the chapter on the system and special description of the pylomatic 
Spumellaria a number of new forms are described, which we must be 
content to enumerate. The Spheropylida is a new family of the 
Spheroidea ; it has two subfamilies, the Monostomida, with the genus 
Sphzropyle, in which there are seven new species, and Prunopyle, in 
which there are eleven; and the Amphistomida has a single new genus 
Stomatosphzxra, with two species. Of the Phacodiscida, the Phacopylida, 
with Phacopyle stomatopora g. et sp. n., is a new family; of the 
Porodiscida there are eight new species; the Spongopylida is a new 
family of the Spongodiscida, with a single genus Spongopyle and eight 
species. The Larcopylida is a new family of the Larcoidea for Larco- 
pyle Biitschlii g. et sp. n. 

The third chapter deals with the comparative anatomy and develop- 
ment of the pylomata of Radiolarians in general. These structures may 
be primary or secondary; the former are pylomata which were already 
present when a connected skeleton began to be formed, the latter have 
appeared after the skeleton was complete, and, in many cases, when it 
was already highly developed. The characters of these are considered 
in detail. 

The influence of the pyloma on the form of the whole shell in the 
Protista in general is next discussed ; it appears to have a tendency to 
draw out the shell in the direction of its primary axis. In this direction 
the radial skeletal parts become disposed. The various modifications 
which obtain are dealt with in considerable detail. 

The fifth chapter treats of the constancy of the pylom in species and 
its ontogenetic development in the Radiolaria. It would appear that the 
pylom is not constant, being sometimes present and sometimes absent, 
whence we may conclude that the process of pylom formation is still in 
a fluid condition. It does not, of course, follow that all pylomata are 
inconstant, and in many cases it is not so. 

The author gives ample evidence of the extraordinary “labyrinth of 
forms” which is to be seen among Rhizopods, and hopes that this and 
succeeding memoirs will do something to make us understand the 
complex morphological relations of the Rhizopoda and the causes that 
have brought them about. 


* Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxiii. (1888) pp. 77-214 (6 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 239 


BOTANY. 


A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology 
of the Phanerogamia. 


a. Anatomy.* 
(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm. 


Nuclear Origin of Protoplasm.|—M. C. Degagny discusses further 
some points which were only briefly treated in his former communication 
on this subject. The history of the cell-nucleus is by no means finished. 
New facts are continually being added which at first appear contradictory 
to those already known. Observers who have studied the cell-nucleus 
have noticed the peculiar phenomena which accompany the different 
movements and evolutions of the chromatic bodies. 'These movements 
are in part the result of intermittent contractions and dilatations, of which 
these bodies are the seat. From observing the nucleus of the mother- 
cell of the embryo-sac of the fritillary, the author shows that there 
exists an immediate antagonism between the freshly formed protoplasm 
which condenses at the base of the nucleus and the chromatic bodies. 

The hyaloplasm is secreted in quantity by the hypertrophied nucleus 
of the mother-cell of the sac; but hyaloplasm is not only produced in 
the nucleus, but is expelled by incompatibility with the chromatic 
bodies. Among the processes which belong especially to matters derived 
from nuclear activity is one by means of which these bodies are able to 
take upon themselves well-determined geometrical forms. 

Intercellular Protoplasm.{—M. C. Sauvageau describes an instance 
of this structure in the roots which proceed from the nodes of the stem 
of Naias major and minor. These have a very small central vascular 
cylinder and a large cortex; the cortical parenchyme consists of several 
rows of cells with intercellular passages, which increase in size from the 
tip to the older part of the root; in the adult region these become 
aeriferous canals, with cuticular coatings.§ Towards the tip of the root 
there is no intercellular protoplasm ; it begins to be observed, however, 
in the aeriferous canals 1-2 cm. from the tip. 

The origin of this intercellular protoplasm is from hernioid pro- 
tuberances which project from the adjacent cells into the canals; some- 
times a cell will put out protuberances into two contiguous canals. 
They can become so large as to fill up the whole of the canal; they 
frequently contain starch-grains, and very rarely the cell-nucleus is to 
be found in them. The protrusion may be either closed or ruptured at 
the extremity. They are especially well shown on longitudinal section, 
and are then seen usually to proceed from the lower extremity of a cell. 
Their formation takes place at a very early period. 


(2) Other Cell-contents (including Secretions). 


Hydroleucites and Grains of Aleurone.||—M. P. Van Tieghem calls 
attention to the researches of Wakker and Went { by which the so-called 


* This subdivision contains (1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm; (2) Other Cell- 
coments (including Secretions); (3) Structure of Tissues; and (4) Structure of 
rgans. 
t Bull. Soc, Bot. France, xxxvy. (1888) pp. 348-57. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 440. 
t Morot’s Journ. de Bot., ii. (1888) pp. 396-403 (4 figs.). 
§ Cf. this Journal, 1886, p. 471. || Morot’s Journ. de Bot., ii. (1888) pp. 429-32. 
4 Cf. this Journal, 1888, pp. 443 and 981. 


240 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


aleurone-grains have been proved to be vacuoles containing albuminoid 
substances which have undergone desiccation. He proposes to limit in 
future the use of the term vacuole to actual cavities in the protoplasm, 
and to call the structures hitherto termed vacuoles which make up the 
cell-sap hydroleucites, corresponding to amyloleucites, chromoleucites, 
chloroleucites, elaioleucites, oxalileucites, &c. These hydroleucites may 
be tanniferous, oxaliferous, coloured, albuminiferous, &c., the last cor- 
responding to the structures ordinarily known as aleurone-grains. They 
have been rendered for the time passive and inert by desiccation, and 
pass again into the active state during the germination of the seed. 
They may be distinguished as passive or reserve-leucites in contra- 
distinction to the active leucites. 


Xanthophyllidrine.*—Prof. L. Macchiati gives a short note on this 
substance, which he believes to be entirely new and quite distinct 
from xanthophyll, or from the yellow colouring matter of petals, being 
especially distinguished by its property of crystallizing, and by its 
insolubility in ether and alcohol. It is an invariable accompaniment 
of chlorophyll, at least in all flowering plants examined, and probably 
exercises an important function in connection with it, which will be 
the subjects of future investigation. 


New Principle from Ergot of Rye, Ergosterin.t—M. C. Tauret 
describes the preparation, composition, and chemical and physical 
properties of ergosterin, a new crystallizable substance obtained from 
ergot of rye. Hrgosterin gives the same colour reactions as chole- 
sterin, except in the case of sulphuric acid and chloroform. 


Colouring Matter of Drosera Whittakeri.{—Prof. E. H. Rennie 
has examined the tubers which grow at the end of the underground 
stem of this species, found in the neighbourhood of Adelaide, and 
finds them to contain a red colouring matter with the formula 
C,,H,O,, probably a methyl-trihydroxy-napthaquinone. 


Mineral Substances in Leaves.§—-Sig. G. Briosi has examined the 
amount of ash in the leaves of a large number of trees and shrubs, 
both evergreen and deciduous, belonging to a great variety of natural 
orders, and gives the following as his general conclusions. 

Except in a few cases, the amount of mineral substances in ever- 
green leaves increases with age, while the proportion of organic sub-. 
stances not only does not increase, but even tends to diminish. The 
proportion of mineral substance is less in the petiole than in the 
lamina; and in the petiole the amount both of mineral and of organic 
substances increases with age. In Hucalyptus globulus the horizontal ’ 
are richer in mineral matter than the vertical leaves. 

In trees with deciduous leaves the quantity of inorganic substances 
increases, during the first months of life, from spring to autumn (except 
in Cerasus avium); in the annual leaves of herbaceous plants the 
quantity of ash does not increase with age, but decreases regularly from 
spring to autumn. In the wood and bark the proportion of inorganic 


* Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xx. (1888) pp. 474-6. 
+ Comptes Rendus, eviii. (1889) pp. 98-100. 
{ Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Australia, x. (1888) pp. 72-38. 


§ Ist. Bot. R. Univ. Pavia, 1888, 63 pp. See Bull, Soc. Bot, Fr ‘ 
(1888), Rev. Bibl., p. 177. : eowely ae 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 241 


substances is much less than in the leaves. Generally speaking, the 
leaves of evergreen trees one year old contain a greater quantity of 
ash than those of herbaceous plants. 


(3) Structure of Tissues. 


Secretion-reservoirs.*—M. F. Jadin has examined the location 
of the reservoirs of secretions in plants belonging to a large number of 
different families. The Aroidee have canals, pockets, and cells, all 
of which play the part of secreting organs. The arrangement in Dico- 
tyledons may be grouped under the following heads, viz. :—(1) 
Cortical canals in the root and the stem (some Clusiacez) ; (2) endo- 
dermal canals in the root and the stem (Composite); (8) pericyclic 
canals in the root and the stem (Umbellifere, Araliacee, Pittosporee, 
Hypericacez); (4) liber-canals in the root and the stem (Terebin- 
thacee); (5) liber-canals in the root only (Liquidambaracee); (6) 
ligneous canals in the root and the stem (Dipterocarpez) ; (7) ligneous 
canals in the stem only (some Simarubeze and Liquidambaracee); (8) 
medullary canals in the stem only (Bixacez). The part of the plant 
in which secreting organs are least often found is the root. 


Reservoirs of Gum in Rhamnacee.;—MM. L. Guignard and Colin 
have observed in certain Rhamnacewe reservoirs of gum or mucilage, 
analogous to those found in Malvacez and Tiliaceez. They are to be 
met with in Rhamnus, Hovenia, Ceanothus, Palinurus, Zizyphus, Gouania, 
&c., while they have not been observed in Berchemia, Sarcomphalus, 
Alphitonia, Colubrina, &c. In every case the reservoirs, whatever their 
size, can be easily studied with the aid of alcoholic hematoxylin, which 
colours the contents. The reservoirs are to be met with either in the 
stem, leaf, or petiole, or in the pericarp of the fruit; they, however, 
appear to be absent from the primary and secondary roots. 


Palisade-parenchyme.{—Herr O. Eberdt has investigated the struc- 
ture and origin of the palisade-parenchyme in the leaves of a number of 
species of plants. He dissents from the view of Stahl that this particular 
form of cell can be called into existence directly by the action of light, 
regarding it, on the contrary, as in general a hereditary property. Most 
plants, or especially their leaves, display from the first a disposition to 
form at least one layer of palisade-cells without the influence of any 
external agency. ‘This is shown by the existence of this one layer even 
in leaves found in the deepest shade or in the dark. The lengthening 
of the palisade-cells and the increase in the number of layers are 
brought about by the concurrent action of assimilation and transpiration, 
the length of the cells or the number of layers being in proportion to 
the extent to which these two forces co-operate. If the amount of 
transpiration be very small, then, notwithstanding active assimilation, a 
dissolution of the palisade-parenchyme may take place by the formation 
of intercellular spaces, and the consequent loosening of the tissue. 


* ‘Les organes sécréteurs des végétaux et la matiere médicale,’ 83 pp. and 8 pls., 
Montpellier, 1888. See Bull. Bot. Soc. France, xxxvi. (1888) Rev. Bibl., p. 178. 
+ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxv. (1888) pp. 325-7. 


a Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 360-74. Cf. this Journal, ante, 
p. 82. 


242 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Sclerenchymatous Cells in the Flesh of the Pear.*—According to 
Herr H. Potonié, the sclerenchymatous cells which, in the cultivated 
pear, are scattered through the flesh, lie, in the wild forms, in a closed 
very hard zone surrounding the core; and he regards them as the 
remains of a shell which, in the ancestors of the present species, 
inclosed the seeds, as is now the case with the medlar and with many 
species of Crategus. ‘The same applies also to the quince and to some 
Oleacez. 


Development of Cork-wings.t—Miss HE. L. Gregory now describes 
the development of cork-wings in certain species of the genus Huonymus. 
The first important consideration on taking up the study of the wing in 
this genus is, that we have no longer to do with large trees, but with 
small trees and shrubs. Of the thirteen species of Huonymus examined, 
five may be said to be winged, and of these H. alatus, formerly described 
as Celastrus alatus Thb., presents the most marked and striking example. 
In this species there are four sharp thin wings extending along the 
internodes, not at the corners, but as nearly as may be exactly between 
them. The formation of the wing takes place ordinarily after the 
internode has reached its full length. The first indication of it externally 
is a little line of brown flecks at equal distances from the ridges at the 
corners. The author concludes by stating that the periderm does not 
originate from the epidermal cells, if by periderm is meant the corky 
growth covering older stems, but from certain layers of cells at a greater 
or less distance below the epiderm. The cells which are cut off from 
the epidermal layer form an additional support to the outer collen- 
chymatous cylinder which at first is only two layers in thickness. By 
means of these additional cells from the epiderm the number of layers 
is often increased to six or seven. 


Bordered Pits of Conifers.{—Dr. Wille gives particulars of the size 
and distribution of the bordered pits in Conifers, especially in Pinus 
sylvestris, P. Larix, and P. Abies. He finds that in each section (zone) 
of the stem the outer and the inner border of the pits do not attain 
their full size for about ten years, the size remaining after this nearly 
constant. The border of the pits in the autumn-cells is nearly of the 
same size in all the annual rings. No rule can be laid down with 
regard to the relative size of the pits at different heights in the stem. 


Accumulation of Reserve-substances in Trees.§—Dr. R. Hartig 
has determined, as the result of a number of experiments, that the 
purpose of the accumulation of reserve-materials in the trunks of trees 
is to supply the material for the production of seeds; and that the 
periodicity in the occurrence of good fruit-years depends on the gradual 
collection of food-supplies, which are then used up in the abundant pro- 
duction of seeds. 


Fibrovascular Bundles in the Petiole of Nierenbergia rivularia.|| 
—M. Lamounette states that the petiole of Mierenbergia rivularia is 
slightly winged on the two sides. Ifa transverse section be made of an 


* Naturwiss. Wochenschr., iii. (1888) pp. 19-21 (1 pl.). See Bot. Centralbl., 
XXXvi. (1888) p. 266. 

+ Bot. Gazette, xiii. (1888) pp. 312-6. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 84. 

{ Ber. Naturf. Gesell. Halle, (1887) 1888, pp. 1-39. 

§ Bot. Ztg., xlvi. (1888) pp. 837-42. 

|| Bull. Soc. d’Hist. Nat. Toulouse, xxiv. (1888) pp. xviii—xxi. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 243 


adult petiole, a central fibrovascular arc will be found, and between the 
extremities of this are and the wing, both to right and to left, will be 
seen three or four fibrovascular bundles. By a most cursory observa- 
tion it will be seen that these lateral fibrovascular bundles are exactly 
parallel to the foliar bundle, and longitudinal sections will show that 
there is no communication between the different bundles of the petiole. 
Finally it will be seen that each of these lateral bundles possesses a 
simple and complete pericyclic layer. The author then traces the 
formation of these lateral bundles which he states are formed at the 
expense of the parenchyme of the wings of the petiole. 


Vascular Bundles in the Rhizome of Monocotyledons.* —Herr 
W. Laux gives the following as the general results of his investigations 
on this subject. The concentric or perixylematic bundles of the rhizome 
are not distinguished from the collateral bundles of the leaf and stem 
by the nature of their elementary constituents, but only by the relative 
position of the xylem and phloem. The passage from a collateral to a 
concentric bundle usually takes place by the xylem enveloping the 
phloem in one and the same bundle ; and the transition from one to the 
other is usually very gradual. One and the same collateral bundle may 
be first transformed into the concentric and then back into the collateral 
type; this has been observed in the nodes of Juncacez. In one and the 
same transverse section all stages of transition may be seen from the 
collateral to the concentric type; the collateral bundles belonging to 
older, the concentric to the younger leaves. 

As regards the arrangement of the bundles in the rhizome, this is 
nearly uniform in the genus Juncus, while in Carew it displays the 
greatest variation, arranged under as many as nine different types, if the 
structure of the cortex is taken into account. A connection in general 
terms was observed between the arrangement under these different types 
and the nature of the habitat of the species. Those species which 
exhibit large lacune in the fundamental tissue, especially in the cortical 
parenchyme, inhabit moist localities; whilst those which grow in dry 
situations, as on grass-plots, have their fundamental tissue more solid. 
Both collateral and concentric bundles occur in the same genus. 


Bacillar Tumour on Pinus halepensis.t—WM. P. Vuillemin describes 
the structure of a bacterian gall found on Pinus halepensis. In the 
cavity which was found on making a section was an accumulation of 
immotile bacilli which were feebly stained by anilin. In the hyper- 
trophied parenchyme were woody irregular nuclei having circular or 
sinuous outlines. A more complete dissection, combined with the 
examination of young material, showed that these hard corpuscles were 
connected with each other, and that they were expansions of a ligneous 
mass dependent on the normal wood of the stem. 


Mechanical Structure of Floating-Organs.{—Dr. H. Dingler de- 
scribes the various mechanical contrivances by means of which fruits and 
seeds are enabled to float in the air, classifying them under twelve heads. 
Excessively slow deposition in the air is secured in some cases by the 


me Verhandl. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brandenburg, xxix. (1888) pp. 65-111 (2 pls. and 
1 fig.). 

+ Comptes Rendus, evii. (1888) pp. 874-6. 

. SB. Bot. Vereins Miinchen, April 23, 1888. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxvi. (1888) 
p- 386. 


244 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING 'TO 


organs being enveloped in a vesicle of air. The torsion which a large 
number of fruits exhibit in falling to the ground is due to the centre of 
gravity not corresponding to the mechanical centre. 


Development of the Endocarp in the Elder.*—Mr. J. B. Farmer 
states that if sections of the ovary of Sambucus nigra be made while the 
bud is still very young, it will be readily seen that the two innermost 
cell-layers which surround the 2-4 cavities containing the ovules are 
perfectly distinct both from each other and from those cells which lie 
immediately outside them; subsequently, however, a third layer is 
formed immediately outside these two layers. The cells which compose 
this third layer are much larger in transverse section than those lying 
internally to it. The first change which takes place consists in a slight 
radial extension of the cells, and at the same time the nucleus becomes 
spindle-shaped. Very soon after flowering, thickening of the cell-walls 
of each of the three layers commences. Transverse sections taken at 
a later period show the endocarp, which is very hard and lignified, to be 
apparently inclosed in a sheath of tangentially flattened cells. 


(4) Structure of Organs. 


Epiderm of the Seeds of Capsicum.t—Herr T. F. Hanausek states 
that the ordinary description of the seeds of Capsicum is incorrect in one 
point. Instead of a thick colourless cuticularized outer membrane, he 
finds, in three species examined, that the outer wall is not cuticularized, 
but consists of pure cellulose, a true cuticle being wanting or very feebly 
developed. All the other spots of the membrane of the epidermal cells 
are very strongly lignified, and the passage from these lignified portions 
to the lamella of cellulose is a very abrupt one. 


Embryo of Umbelliferze.{ —Herr C. Mez describes the specialities 
in the structure of the embryo in a very large number of genera and 
species of Umbelliferze. Its position is perfectly uniform throughout 
the family. Where the form of the seed allows of it, the plane of 
symmetry of the entire fruit, vertical to the commissure-surface of the 
mericarp, cuts the plane of the surfaces of contact of the cotyledons at a 
more or less acute angle. The root-cap of the primary root is always 
well developed ; the plumule is never formed before germination. The 
size of the embryo varies very greatly in relation to that of the seed. 
The two cotyledons are usually of the same length, but in Scandia one 
is normally longer than the other. 


Winged Stems and Decurrent Leaves.s—Herr K. Reiche distin- 
guishes from true wings—on morphological, not on anatomical grounds 
—the elevated lines and ridges on opposite sides of stems with decussate 
leaves, which can be compared with the lines of hairs on such stems as 
those of Veronica Chamzdrys and Stellaria media. Of true wings he 
distinguishes three kinds, viz.:—(1) where the leaves are continued 
from their base into two descending wings in immediate contact with 
the edge of the leaf (Onopordon, Cirsium, Carduus, Symphytum officinale, 
&c.); (2) where the leaves are distinctly detached from the wings 


* Ann. of Bot., ii. (1888) pp. 389-92 (38 figs.). 

+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 329-32 (1 pl.). 

{ Verhandl. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brandenburg, xxix. (1888) pp. 31-6. 
§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 323-9. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 245 


(Genista sagitialis); (3) where the leaves are suppressed (Acacia alata). 
The object of ridges and wings on the stems is to assist in assimilation, 
that of those on fruits and seeds to aid in dissemination. 


Bud of the Tulip-tree.*—M. H. Emery criticizes Sir J. Lubbock’s 
explanation ¢ of the singular truncation presented by the extremities of 
certain leaves of Liriodendron tulipifera, viz. that the extremities of the 
leaves are hindered in their development by the formation of stipules, 
and cannot elongate as is usually the case. This the author doubts on 
two grounds; firstly, because the obstacle does not exist in the bud, and 
secondly, if it did exist, only the growth of the lamina would be affected. 
The author then traces the development of the bud, which he states 
grows for three years. 


Foliar Organs of a new species of Utricularia.{—Mr. H. N. Ridley 
describes certain spathulate leaf-like bodies belonging to a small epi- 
phytic species of Utricularia, from St. Thomas’s Island, West Africa. 
They were narrow and filiform at the base, broadening into a lamina 
about 1/16 in. in diameter, and apparently had been green in colour, 
with three veins. Further examination showed that every stage occurred 
between the filiform process, frequently branched and bearing numerous 
utricles, and the flattened leaf-like lamina. A similar modification was 
figured by Oliver in Utricularia Jamesoniana, a small epiphytic species 
from the Andes, and apparently allied to the one described here. The 
author concludes by giving a technical description of this new species, to 
which he has given the name of U. bryophila, and by stating that in the 
epiphytic species of Utricularia, at least, these leaf-like bodies are 
dilated phylloclades. 


_ Polymorphism of the Leaves of Abietinee.s—M. A. Daguillon 
points out that in many species of pines two forms of leaves occur: the 
primordial form, succeeded by a more defined form. The primordial 
form of leaf immediately succeeds the cotyledons, and remains for the 
first year or two, while the adult leaves are fascicled, and occur in 
bundles of two, three, or five, according to the species. The author’s 
conclusions are that in the Abietinez the existence of primordial leaves 
is tolerably constant. The passage from the primordial leaves to those 
of the adult is made either suddenly, in the genus Pinus, or by insen- 
sible gradations, in Abies, This passage is characterized by the pro- 
gressive development of hypoderm and sclerenchyme next to the fibro- 
vascular system, and in certain genera by the formation of the central 
vein in two bundles, with a common endoderm. 


Leaves of Begonia.|—Herr G. Haberlandt describes the peculiar 
emergences on the leaves of Begonia smaragdina (B. imperialis Lem. 
B smaragdina). On the upper side of the lamina are a number of 
hollow conical projections, each of which is prolonged at the apex into a 
curved hair; and corresponding to each of these there is on the under 
side a funnel-shaped depression. The veins and leaf-stalk are furnished 
with similar hairs. The epiderm of the leaf is continuous with that of 
the elevation and of the hair, the extremity of which is frequently 
oceupied by strongly refringent cells containing tannin. These hairs 


* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxv. (1888) pp. 327-9. 

+ Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 112. t Ann. of Bot. ii. (1888) pp. 305-7 (1 pl.). 
§ Comptes Rendus, ecviii. (1889) pp. 108-10. 

|| M'T. Nat. Verein. Steiermark, (1887) 1888, pp. 117-26 (1 pl.) 


246 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


are distinguished from those of other species of Begonia by almost 
invariably containing a mechanical element in the form of one or more 
rows of sclerotized bast-cells running through their whole length. A 
few of the weakest of the hairs are destitute of this mechanical element. 
They are true emergences, being of hypodermal origin, and always 
springing from a single meristem- or periblem-cell. The peculiarity of 
these structures lies in their being emergences in which the sclerotized 
element is not the epiderm but an internal skeleton. 

The leaves of the same species of Begonia contain also mechanical 
elements imbedded in the assimilating-tissue in the form of sclerotized 
branched bast-cells, resembling those of other thick-leaved plants such 
as Camellia and Olea. Similar stereides also accompany the vascular 
bundles of the veins and leaf-stalk. 

The author believes these peculiarities of structure to be connected 
with the habit of the species, which is probably a native of dry sunny 
localities. 


Scars on the Stem of Dammara robusta.*—Mr. 8. G. Shattock 
states that in Dammara robusta C. Moore, the base of the branch presents 
a marked enlargement due almost solely to an increase of the cortical 
parenchyme; this excess serves to aid the wood in this situation 
in supporting the branch; the cortical parenchyme generally and the 
medulla as well contain a considerable proportion of branching scler- 
enchymatous idioblasts. In Dammara robusta the process of disarticula- 
tion is like that by which a leaf or other organ is shed; that is, the 
parenchymatous cells across the whole zone of articulation multiply by 
transverse division, a layer of cork resulting from the formation of this 
secondary meristem, and through the distal limits of this the solution 
of continuity occurs. It thus happens that the whole of the paren- 
chymatous system of the stem is closed by cork before the branch is 
actually shed. The branch-scar, when examined immediately after 
disarticulation, is ovoid, concave, and has a finely granular surface; 
the narrow circular zone of the fractured wood projects slightly at 
the bottom of the cicatrical fossa, and in the cortical parenchyme are 
imbedded the ruptured ends of the bast-fibres. 


Root-tubercles of Leguminose.{—Dr. A. Prazmowski reviews the 
various theories with regard to the nature of these structures and of 
the organisms contained in them, and appends the results of observa- 
tions and experiments of his own. 

In order to test whether the tubercles are normal or pathological 
productions, he grew plants of Pisum sativum and Phaseolus vulgaris 
in sterilized soil watered with distilled water and protected from all 
possible access of microbes, side by side with others grown in normal 
conditions or in sterilized soil and watered with ordinary water in 
which soil had been soaked. In all of a large number of experiments 
abundance of tubercles were found on the root in the latter cases, 
while not a single one could be seen on those from which the possi- 
bility of infection had been excluded. Under normal conditions the 
tubercles appear to be formed about the time of the appearance of the 
root-hairs. 


* Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., xxiv. (1888) pp. 441-50 (1 pl.). 
+ Bot. Centralbl., xxxvi. (1888) pp. 215-9, 248-55, 280-5. Cf. this Journal, 
1888, p. 608. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. QAT 


The filiform bodies found in the tubercles are, according to Praz- 
mowski, true hyphe-filaments, as Ward has already proved; * he does 
not, however, think with Ward that they enter the root only through 
the root-hairs, but also through the young epiderm. The tubercles he 
finds invariably to be formed only where the fungus-hyphe penetrate 
the tissue of the root. They branch copiously in the epidermal cells. 
As soon as the hyphe reach the lower layers of the bark, the trans- 
ference of formative materials into them commences. The first 
substance produced in them is starch; subsequently in the inner part 
of the tuber is formed the so-called “ bacteroid-tissue,’ in which are 
found the peculiar bodies regarded by some observers as of the nature 
of bacteria, or detached portions of the fungus-hyphe, by others as 
simply unorganized food-materials. The author does not agree altogether 
with either of these views; he regards them as internal protoplasmic 
structures found within the fungus-hyphe before the development of 
the “bacteroid-tissue.” Their form varies in different species; in 
Phaseolus and Lupinus they maintain during their whole existence the 
form of bacterium-like rods; in Pisum, Medicago, and Vicia they 
branch ; in Trifolium they are usually pear-shaped. 

With regard to the nature of the fungus, the author regards it as 
belonging properly neither to the Hyphomycetes nor to the Myxomy- 
cetes, but presenting in some respects the closest analogy to Plasmo- 
diophora Brassicx, differing from this chiefly in having, in an early 
stage of its existence, a filiform state, and in the peculiar “ bacteroids” 
contained within its hyphe. It is possible that these, although not 
true spores, may have a reproductive function, and may possibly, 
under certain conditions, develope into plasmodes. With respect to 
the function of these tubercles, the author is disposed on the whole to 
agree most with Hellriegel’s view that the connection between the 
plant and the fungus is a symbiotic one, and that the fungus enables 
the host in some way to avail itself, in its nutrition, of the free nitrogen 
of the atmosphere. 

The observations were made chiefly on the species above-mentioned, 
but the following agree also in the general facts:—Vicia sativa, 
V. Faba, Lupinus angustifolius, L. luteus, L. perennis, Trifolium pratense, 
T. hybridum, Medicago sativa, and M. lupulina ; the phenomena differing 
only in unimportant points in the different species. 


Tubercles of Leguminose.}—M. P. Vuillemin describes, in the root- 
tubers of Medicago disciformis and G'alega officinalis, the occurrence of a 
Cladochytrium, which produces its sporanges and uniciliated zoospores 
at the end of the winter when the tubercles are quite mature. The 
“‘bacterioids ” he regards, with Brunchorst, as simply fragments of the 
protoplasmic network. The anatomical structure of the tubercles 
themselves he compares to that of the aggregated buds of Petasites, 
resulting from the isolation of the fibrovascular bundles. 


Formation of Subterranean Swellings in Eranthis hyemalis.{— 
M. P. A. Dangeard states that the first subterranean sweliing of the 
winter aconite includes the upper part of the principal root, the hypo- 
cotyledonary axis, and the region of insertion of the cotyledonary 


* Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 788. 
+ Ann. Sci. Agron., i. (1888) 96 pp. and 2 pls. See Morot’s Journ. de Bot., ii. 
(1888) Rev. Bibl., p. 153. { Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxv. (1888) pp. 366-8. 


248 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


bundles; it is produced by a division of the internal layers of the 
cortex and cells of the pericycle and the pith; it forms immediately a 
meristematic zone outside the primary formations, and new swellings 
are formed by a lateral extension of this zone with production of a new 
bud. In the case studied by the author the structure of the cotyledons 
was peculiar; the axis was arrested at the summit of the tubercle, the 
cylinder which supported the cotyledons with its two bundles only 
represented a sort of sheath, the axis being replaced by a central 
lacuna. 


Morphology of the Mistletoe.*—Dr. S. Schénland has observed a 
large number of abnormalities in the structure and arrangement of the 
organs of the mistletoe, many of which have been noticed before, while 
others are apparently new. The present paper deals with the mor- 
phology of the flowering shoots, including both the arrangement and 
general structure of the flowers. The mistletoe is dicecious. The plants 
of the two sexes have on the whole the same structure. The inflo- 
rescences are usually found between the two foliage-leaves, and nor- 
mally consist of two lateral flowers at right angles to these leaves, and 
a terminal flower. The terminal flower of the male inflorescence is, as 
a rule, not preceded by scale-leaves. But Hofmeister has stated that 
they are present here, as in the female. This is really often the case, 
although not observed by-Hichler; but still the structure of the inflo- 
rescences in which it occurs is not the same as that of the female 
inflorescences, and this apparent abnormality can be observed in inflo- 
rescences developed from dormant buds. In the female flowers the 
perianth usually consists of two dimerous alternating whorls of scale- 
leaves, which cohere more or less at the base. An increase in the 
number of parts composing the male terminal flowers is not rare. 
Hichler only knew of pentamerous and hexamerous flowers besides the 
normal ones; the author, however, has observed one heptamerous and 
one decamerous flower. 


Structure of Marcgraviacee.j—Herr H. O. Juel gives details of 
various points of structure in the plants belonging to this tropical 
natural order, especially of Marcgravia polyantha and Norantea brasiliensis, 
both from Brazil. 

The outer bark contains a close tissue, supported by stereides; in 
the inner bark there are no mechanical elements. There are no tracheides 
in the wood; the wood-fibres are septate, and have narrow fissure-like 
slightly bordered or larger elliptical pits. In the nectaries the secreting 
tissue is formed from the fundamental tissue, and is covered by a thin 
epiderm without stomates. The gamopetalous corolla is composed of 
four leaves alternating with the sepals. The outer integument of the 
ovule is shorter than the inner one, and the embryo-sac is near to the 
micropyle. When the seed is ripe the end of the inner integument 
projects beyond the testa, the outer integument forming the single hard 
layer of the testa. The embryo is surrounded by a layer of cells, the 
outermost endosperm-layer ; and in Noraniea there are also the remains 


of astarchy endosperm, In Marcgravia some of the seeds are sterile, 
without embryo. 


* Ann. of Bot., ii. (1888) pp. 283-90 (1 pl.). 


+ Bih. K. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Handl., xii. (1887) No. 5, 28 pp. and 3 pls. Cf. 
this Journal, 1888, p. 449. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 249 


B. Physiology.* 
(1) Reproduction and Germination. 


Distribution of the Sexual Organs in the Vine.{— Prof. H. Rathay 
records a number of observations which support his statement that there 
is a certain amount of differentiation of the sexes in the cultivated vine. 
Many of the flowers are functionally female ; they contain stamens, but 
the pollen-grains have no power of putting out pollen-tubes; and these 

female flowers differ somewhat in form and appearance from the her- 
maphrodite flowers. He finds, moreover, that those individuals which 
bear female never bear hermaphrodite or male flowers. The male 
individuals also never bear female, but not unfrequently hermaphrodite 
flowers. The hermaphrodite individuals may bear male but never 
female flowers. Dr. Rathay suggests that the wild ancestor of the 
cultivated grape-vine must have been dicecious. 


Constancy of Insects in visiting Flowers.{—Observations made by 
Dr. M. Kronfeld on Apis mellifica and Bombus hortorum tend to show 
that these insects will, on the same flight, confine their visits to the 
same species of flower, even when a number of others are equally acces- 
sible which would just as well affurd them a supply of nectar and pollen. 


Fertilization of Lonicera japonica.s—Mr. 'T. Meehan describes, in 
relation to their mode of fertilization, three different forms of this 
species grown in American gardens. He states that, notwithstanding 
the length of the corolla-tube, it is, after the dehiscence of the anthers, 
so completely filled with nectar that bees and other short-tongued 
insects have no difficulty whatever in obtaining it. These visit the 
honeysuckle in large numbers, and, from the position of the stamens 
and stigmas, can in no possible way aid in fertilization. Mr. Meehan 
sees in this evidence of design for the benefit of the insect rather than of 
natural selection for the benefit of the flower alone. 


Fertilization in the Nyctaginee. ||—Dr. A. Heimer] describes the 
mode of pollination in several species belonging to this order. In 
Oxybaphus viscosus, the styles and filaments undergo several changes in 
direction, from nearly straight to strongly curved, ultimately bringing 
the stigma and anthers in close proximity to one ancther. The showy 
scented perianth appears to point to the visits of insects, and cross- 
pollination is not excluded; but, on the other hand, the structure seems 
contrived to ensure the possibility of self-pollination. The main facts 
are the same in Mirabilis Jalappa, and in the night-flowering M. longi- 
flora. In other genera of the order, Boerhavia, Acleisanthes, Pentacophrys, 
and Selinocarpus, there is a gradual transition from the ordinary open to 
cleistogamous flowers which are, of course, exclusively self-fertilized. 
In the suborder Pisoniez, on the other hand, consisting of tropical and 
subtropical trees and shrubs, cross-pollination is insured by diclinism, 
or the suppression of the pistil and the stamens respectively in the male 
and female flowers. 


* This subdivision contains (1) Reproduction and Germination; (2) Nutrition 
and Growth (including Movements of Fluids); (3) Irritability; and (4) Chemical 
Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 

+ SB. K.K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell., xxxviii. (1888) pp. 87-92. 

¢ Abh. K.K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell., xxxviii. (1888) pp. 785-6. 

§ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1888, pp. 279-83. 

|| Abh. K.K. Zool,-Bot. Gesell., xxxviii. (1888) pp. 769-74. 

1889. 8 


250 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Cross-fertilization in Hydrangea.*—Mr. T. Mechan shows, by some 
studies in Hydrangea, that the variations in the species are of the most 
contradictory character taken from the standpoint of benefits in the 
struggle for life; while they are entirely consistent with the author’s 
view of variation for variety’s sake. Hydrangea hortensis from Japan 
has the ray-florets sterile, or rather it is the lateral florets of the com- — 
pound cyme that give the enlarged sepals and fail to perfect the gyne- 
ceum. The terminal florets are fertile. In H. quercifolia all the lateral 
florets are fertile, and it is only the terminal one that has petaloid sepals 
and is barren. Will any one assert that these exactly opposite condi- 
tions can have any bearing whatever as aids in a struggle for life? It 
is broadly asserted that we owe to the existence of insects the various 
forms and colours of flowers. In the genus Hydrangea, however, we 
have illustrations of the most dissimilar and contradictory variations. 
The facts are absolutely inexplicable on any theory of the survival of 
the fittest in the struggle for life; but on the author’s view of the 
absolute necessity of variation for its own sake, the explanation seems to 
him simple enough. 


Life-history of Yucca.;—Mr. T. Mechan continues his contribu- 
tions to the life-histories of plants. This year (1888) Yucca filamentosa 
commenced to bloom about the end of June. During the first week or 
ten days of the flowering period, an enormous amount of moisture exudes 
from every part of the flower. 'The moths become very active just after 
sunset, travelling rapidly up and down over the moistened stigma, 
apparently feeding on the moisture. When, however, half the blossoms 
on the panicle have matured, the production of moisture ceases, and on 
the evening of the 8th of July no trace of exudation of moisture could 
be found, nor was there any during the whole remainder of the flowering 
period. 


Flowering of Euryale ferox.t—Further examination of the mode 
of flowering of this plant leads Prof. G. Arcangeli to the conclusion 
that it possesses both chasmogamous and cleistogamous flowers, and that 
the former exhibit all the peculiarities of flowers which depend on the 
visits of insects for their fertilization; their number is small compared 
to that of the cleistogamous flowers. The author, however, agrees now 
with Darwin’s view that this plant is abundantly fertile when self- 
pollinated. 


Germination of the Seeds of Euryale ferox.§—Prof. G. Arcangeli 
describes the structure of the seed of this water-lily, which is covered 
by a large thick aril, the bubbles of air in the cells of which assist in 
the floating and consequent dissemination of the seeds. The aril -is 
composed of two parts, an outer larger pulpy, and an inner smaller 
corrugated cartilaginous portion. Within the aril the seed is inclosed 
in a double integument. The nucleus is composed, as in Nymphea, 
Nuphar, and Victoria, of three portions—embryo, albumen (endosperm), 
and perisperm. The endosperm consists of a single layer of cells, while 
the perisperm, derived from the tissue of the nucellus, occupies the 


Proe. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1888, pp. 277-9. 

T. c., pp. 274-7. Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 116. 

Atti Soc. Tose. Sci. Nat., ix. (1888) pp. 369-83. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 83. 
Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xx. (1888) pp. 467-73. 


t+-b % 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. TATA 


larger portion of the seed. The embryo is small, and is situated near 
the micropylar region. 

The process of germination itself is characterized by the small de- 
velopment of the radicle, of the hypocotyledonary axis, and of the 
cotyledons. The absorption into the growing embryo of the nutrient 
substances contained in the perisperm appears to be assisted by a ring 
of small protuberances in the neighbourhood of the collar, corresponding 
apparently to the appendages described by Briosi in the seeds of 
Hucalyptus. 


Germination of the Hazel.*—Herr A. Winkler describes the rarely 
observed germination of the hazel-nut. The seed appears to retain its 
germinating power only for about a year; it is very liable to destruction 
by frest and by animals. The oily fleshy cotyledons never emerge from 
the shell, and in the first autumn after germination in the spring have 
scarcely changed their appearance, but have lost their oil. The two 
cotyledons resemble those of Aisculus in being closely adpressed to one 
another, but are not actually united, as in Castanea. In the second 
spring the growing point emerges from the shell, and a strong tap-root 
is developed, but the root is never pushed above the surface of the soil. 
During the first year four leaves are formed with almost perfect regu- 
larity, and the subsequent development is very slow. 


(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Movements of Fluids). 


Relation between the formation of Tubercles and the presence of 
nitrogen in the soil.t—Dr. 8S. H. Vines gives the details of a series of 
experiments which tend to confirm his previous conclusion that the 
development of tubercles on the root of Vicia Faba and of other Legu- 
minose is directly related to the absence of assimilable nitrogen in the 
surrounding medium. ‘The experiments do not conclusively prove that 
the tubercular disease is not infectious, but they do prove the influence 
of nitrate in the soil in diminishing the development of tubercles. 


Conduction of Water through Wood.{—Herr A. Wieler replies to 
the criticisms of Hartig§ on his previous communications on this 
subject, and maintains his assertion that any considerable occupation of 
the transpiring surfaces with water is only possible in the newest of the 
annualrings. He further states that the formation of alburnum can have 
no connection with the conduction of water, since this proceeds more 
rapidly in the higher than in the lower regions of the tree. 


(3) Irritability. 


Spontaneous Movements of Stamens and Styles.||—Herr H. Beyer 
gives a resumé of all that is known respecting these interesting phenomena 
and their connection with fertilization. 

He first deals with those actinomorphic flowers which are adapted for 
“under-pollination” by insects. He regards flowers with a single whorl 
of stamens as a later derivation from polyandrous flowers, and commences 
with those of the latter in which the stamens are arranged spirally. 


* Verhandl. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brandenburg, xxix. (1888) pp. 41-3 (1 pl.). 
+ Ann. of Bot., ii. (1888) pp. 386-9. Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 788. 
+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi.(1888) pp. 406-35. § Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 90. 
|| ‘ Die spontanen Bewegungen d. Staubgefasse u. Stempel,’ 1888, 56 pp. See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxxvi. (1888) p. 262. 
Smee 


Axa SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Of these he describes mainly the phenomena in question in Ranuncu- 
laceze (Ranunculus auricomus, Batrachium aquatile, Clematis recta, Thalic- 
trum aquilegifolium, Adonis vernalis, and Aquilegia), Malvacez (Alcea 
rosea, Malva sylvestris), and Rosacezee (Sorbus, Rosa, Chimonanthus, 
Spireea, Prunus, Potentilla). In the Ranunculacee the stamens bend 
from a joint-like zone at the foot of the filament; in the Malvacez 
this zone lies in the middle of the filament; while in the Rosacez there 
is a nearly uniform bending of the entire filament. This spontaneous 
movement is a frequent phenomenon in polyandrous actinomorphic 
flowers ; its purpose being either to place the anthers with their fissures 
round the nectary, or, at the end of the period of flowering, in contact 
with the stigma. 

Next follows a discussion of actinomorphic flowers with two rows 
of stamens, including Allium (especialiy A. ursinum), Caryophyllacee 
(Stellaria and its allies, Dianthus deltoides, Silene), Geranium (sylvaticum, 
pyrenaicum, molle, pusillum), Hrodium, Sedum, Sempervivum, Saxitragacee, 
Rutaceze (Ruta graveolens), Hpilobium, Philotheca australis, and Asarwm 
europeum; and then those with a single row:—Lilium, Hremurus 
spectabilis, Methomia superba, Trientalis europea, Cobzea penduliflora, 
CU. scandens, Sabattia angularis, Valeriana officinalis, Linwm, Boronia 
pinnata, Paliurus aculeatus, Umbelliferee, Parnassia palustris, Teesdalia 
nudicaulis, Faramea, Polygonum, Fagopyrum, Ceratophyllum demersum, 
and Hschscholtzia. 

The few cases in which actinomorphic flowers show contrivances for 
“ over-pollination” by insects are also described, viz. :—Migella, Passi- 
flora, and Veratrum album ; and for lateral pollination :—Jasione montana, 
Picris hieracioides, Leontodon autumnalis, and Solanum rostratum. 

Of zygomorphic flowers those only are referred to which display 
spontaneous motions and which are adapted for under-pollination :— 
Delphinium, Aconitum, Reseda, Tropxolum, Dictamnus, Polemonium, 
Aisculus. 

These spontaneous movements are a very constant character of 
families, and, being usually derived from the earliest periods, do not 
disappear with the most complete changes in the parts of the flower. 


Irritability of Mimosa.*—Mr. D. D. Cunningham records the 
result of a series of experiments on the phenomena of propagation of 
movement in Mimosa pudica. He favours the view that it is due to 
mechanical causes connected with the transference of water, together 
with peculiarities in the structure of different masses of tissue, rather 
than to the contractility of the protoplasm. The following are some 
of the results on which this conclusion is founded. 

The intensity in the propagation of the movement is proportional 
to the ease with which variations in the tensions of the tissues spread 
themselves. ‘The direction in which the movement advances is, in many 
cases, that in which variations in the tensions of the tissues can be 
determined ; while they cannot be explained as a result of protoplasmic 
conduction. The order of succession of the excitations in cases of 
advancing irritation is often inexplicable on the theory of a continuous 
conduction of protoplasmic irritation, while it can easily be explained 
as the result of variations of pressure in masses of tissue differing in 
their anatomical structure. 


* Scient. Mem, by medical officers of the army of India, iii. (888) pp. 83-138. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 253 


Cause of violent Torsion.*—F rom observation of an extreme case of 
violent torsion (Zwangsdrehung) in the case of Galium Mollugo, Herr H. 
Klebahn has come to the conclusion that the cause is to be found in an 
alteration in the growing points, which shows itself in a change from 
the decussate arrangement of the leaves to a 2/5 phyllotaxis, and in a 
coalescence of the bases of the successive leaves, resulting in a union of 
the vascular bundle of each leaf with that of the next. 


(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 


Products of the Decomposition of Albuminoids in the absence of 
free oxygen.j—In continuation of previous researches,{ Herr W. 
Palladin gives the following as the most important results of a fresh 
series of observations. 

When albuminoids decompose in the absence of free oxygen, nitro- 
genous substances are formed in different proportions to what occurs in 
the open air. Asparagin is, under these circumstances, formed in very 
small quantities, while the principal products are tyrosin and leucin. 
Asparagin is formed during the first day when there is no free oxygen 
present, but disappears on the death of the plant, passing over into 
ammonium succinate. In wheat, when albuminoids decompose in the 
presence of atmospheric oxygen, asparagin is almost the only nitrogenous 
product. The formation of a large quantity of asparagin as the result 
of the decomposition of albuminoids in plants, can only take place when 
atmospheric oxygen is being assimilated, and is therefore, a consequence 
of the oxidation of the albuminoids, not of their dissociation. 


Panic Fermentation.§—Prof. G. Arcangeli maintains, in opposition 
to the assertion of Chiaudard, that alcohol is one of the products of the 
fermentation of bread. This can be proved, both by the slight alcoholic 
odour and by the production of iodoform on the addition, with proper 
precautions, of potassium carbonate and iodine to the distilled liquid. 
This alcoholic fermentation is due, he believes, not to the bacilli which 
may always be found in the paste, but to the presence of small quantities 
of Saccharomyces minor. These microbes assist also in the transforma- 
tion which does take place of a portion of the albuminoids of the gluten 
into soluble albuminoids, and then into peptones. 


y. General. 


New Myrmecophilous Plant.|—Herr C. Mez points out an instance 
of myrmecophily in Pleurothyrium, a South American genus of Lauracez. 
The habitation of the ants is in hollows excavated in the pith of the 
woody portion of the branches. 


Scent of Flowers.—Prof. A. Kerner v. Marilaun discusses the 
various odours of flowers, which may be either for the purpose of at- 
tracting or of keeping off insects. The mutual adaptations of the scented 
flower and of the olfactory faculty of animals are described at length. 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 346-53 (1 pl.). 

+ Ibid., pp. 296-304. t See this Journal, 1887, p. 437. 

§ Atti Soc, Tose. Sci. Nat., ix (1888) pp. 140-211. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 633. 
|| Verhandl. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brandenburg, xxix. (1888) p. xxiv. 

{| SB. K.K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell., xxxviii. (1888) p. 87. 


254 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


From the point of view of their chemical composition, the author 
classifies the odours of flowers under the following four heads, viz. :— 
(1) indoloids (Stapelia, Rafflesia, Aristolochia, Aroidez) ; (2) aminoids 
(Crateegus, Pyrus, Pachysandra, Sanguinaria, Ailanthus, Castanea) ; 
(3) terpenoids (Lavandula, Dictamnus); (4) benzoids (Caryophyllus, 
Dianthus, Hyacinthus, Asperula, Syringa, Robinia, Viola, Orchidez). 


B. CRYPTOGAMIA. 
Cryptogamia Vascularia. 


Doubling of the Endosperm in Vascular Cryptogams.*—Accord- 
ing to M. P. Van Tieghem polystelic stems or leaves, with double 
endoderm, exhibit, according to the diameter of the vascular bundles, 
sometimes a pericycle in all of them, as in the single bundle in the 
stems of Hymenophyllum and the stolons of Nephrolepis, sometimes an 
absence of pericycle in all of them, as in the single bundle of the stem 
of Azolla, sometimes both arrangements. The doubling of the endoderm 
occurs in many species of Polypodium ; and the bundles may be sur- 
rounded by a pericycle, or this may be entirely wanting ; and these two 
forms may occur in the same stem, the large bundles being provided 
with a pericycle, whilst the smaller ones are without one. 


Systematic Position of the Rhizocarpee.j—From an investigation 
of the structure of the prothallium in Marsilea and Pilularia, Dr. D. H. 
Campbell has come to the conclusion that the family of Rhizocarpee, as 
now constituted, consists of two groups, which represent the last terms 
of two distinct series of forms. Of these the Marsileacee are in all 
probability derived from forms closely allied to living Polypodiacee. 
The exact position of the Salviniacezee must remain for the present in 
doubt, but they certainly should be removed from their present close 
proximity to the Marsileaceze. 


Germination of Marsilia egyptiaca.{—Dr. D. H. Campbell has 
followed out the germination of both microspores and megaspores of 
this species. ‘The microspore divides first of all into a larger and a 
smaller cell, the latter of which is the vegetative portion of the prothal- 
lium, and undergoes no further division. As in Pilularia and the 
Polypodiacez, the former is the mother-cell of the antherid, and divides 
further into the mother-cells of the antherozoids. The antherozoids 
themselves resemble those of other species of the genus. In the 
development of the archegone in the female prothallium there is no 
production of “ primordial cells”; septa are formed at all stages of the 
division. Only a single canal-cell could be detected with certainty, and 
that was very short. 


Development of Pilularia.s—Dr. D. H. Campbell has very care- 
fully examined the structure and development of the male and female 
prothallium and of the embryo of Pilularia globulifera. He has em- 
ployed, and strongly recommends for similar investigations, the process 
of paraffin-imbedding and cutting with a microtome. 

In the microspore the vegetative portion is more considerable than 


* Morot’s Journ. de Bot., ii. (1888) pp. 404-6. 

+ Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xv. (1888) pp. 258-62. 

{ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (4888) pp. 840-5 (1 pl. and 1 fig.). 
§ Ann. of Bot., ii. (1888) pp. 283-64 (3 pls.), 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 250 


has been stated by previous observers. The very thin endospore exhibits 
the reactions of cellulose, the three layers of the exospore those of 
cuticularized membrane; the very thin nearly transparent epispore is 
apparently derived from the epiplasm, not from the protoplasm of the 
mother-cell. The first wall in the germinating microspore is at right- 
angles to the shorter axis of the spore, and divides it into a small basal 
cell, which again frequently divides into two cells of very unequal size 
which represent the vegetative part of the prothallium, and a much 
larger upper cell, the mother-cell of the antherid. The further divisions 
in the latter closely resemble those in Polypodiacee ; the normal number 
of antherozoids is thirty-two, formed by repeated divisions in the central 
cell of the antherid, not by free-cell-formation. The vegetative part of 
the prothallium is separated from the mother-cells of the antherozoids 
by a strong wall, the basal cell of the antherid intervening between 
them. Eventually the wall of the microspore is ruptured by the ab- 
sorption of water by the internal walls; owing to its strong turgescence 
the cap-cell is very conspicuous just before the rupture. The gradual 
development was followed out of the nuclei of the mother-cells into the 
antherozoids, which are furnished with a large number of cilia, as in 
other Vascular Cryptogams. The attached vesicle is large, and is sur- 
rounded by a very delicate membrane; occasionally the swarming 
antherozoid frees itself entirely from the vesicle. 

The structure of the megaspore and the succession of its early 
divisions are much as has been described by previous observers. The 
mother-cell of the archegone is distinguished from the other cells by its 
central position and by its more densely granular protoplasm. The 
ventral canal-cell appears to be formed not by further division of the 
central cell, but by division of the primary canal-cell. Fecundation 
takes place very soon after the archegone opens, and the oosphere 
becomes almost at once surrounded by a membrane which prevents the 
further penetration of antherozoids; as soon as the latter enters the 
oosphere it appears to undergo similar changes, only in reverse order, 
as those which it underwent in transforming itself from a nucleus of a 
mother-cell to an antherozoid. 

The first divisions of the embryo are into two primary cells, and 
then into four quadrant-cells, which Dr. Campbell regards as of equal 
morphological importance. The development is described in detail, 
from the four quadrants respectively, of the first leaf, the first root, the 
stem, and the foot. In the leaf the apical growth ceases early; the 
apical cell of the root is from the first very conspicuous, and immediately 
recognizable as such. The apical cell of the stem is formed indifferently 
from either of the two octants of the stem-quadrant. The first leaves 
show scarcely a trace of the circinate vernation of the later ones. 

From the very great resemblance in the structure of the antherid, 
the author derives a conclusion favourable to the very close relationship 
of the Marsileaceze to true ferns. 

“Bulblets” of Lycopodium lucidulum.*—Mr. EH. E. Sterns de- 
scribes the bulblets of Lycopodium lucidulum Michx., which are borne on 
the end of the 6-bracted stipes. These stipes are short thickish sub- 
terete ascending branches, not axillary in any sense, but occupying, 
side by side, the exact position of leaves. The bulblet resembles the 


* Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xy. (1888) pp. 317-9, and xvi. (1889) pp. 21-2 (8 figs.). 


256 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ovary of an apetalous pistillate flower, and looks like a small plump 
dust-pan. The body of the “pan,” which is horizontal inclining to 
cernuous in position, is formed of two broa oblong scales, subconcave 
at base, and placed close side by side. Here then, we have a stipe, six 
bracts, five scales, and a germ, in all thirteen separate elements, com- 
pletely differentiated, regularly combined, and adapted to each other in 
the most systematic fashion. 


Apospory in Pteris aquilina.*— Prof. W. G. Farlow describes an 
instance of apospory in the common brake. On pinne which presented 
a peculiar curled appearance, some of the sporanges had developed at an 
early period into abnormal structures, while others were altogether 
replaced by such. Some of these abnormal structures presented most 
resemblance to the protoneme of a moss, others to the prothallus of a 
fern. On none of them had antherids and archegones been formed. 


Xerotropism in Ferns.t—By the term «erotropism Prof. A. Borzi 
designates the tendency of plants, or of parts of plants, to alter their 
position in order to protect themselves from desiccation. The property 
is but rarely exhibited among Phanerogams, much more frequently 
among Cryptogams,{ especially in the vascular section. Among Thallo- 
phytes, however, we find it displayed by many Oscillariacex, and by | 
species of Ulothrix and Schizogonium. Among Vascular Cryptogams, 
striking examples ave afforded by many species of Selaginella, and by 
ferns growing in dry or stony situations, such as Asplenium Trichomanes, 
and several species of Ceterach and Notochlena. The structure adapting 
the fern to this end is especially described in the case of Ceterach 
officinarum. 

Under prolonged desiccation the leaves of this fern become com- 
pletely rigid, the lamina recurving itself on the upper surface, and 
exposing the under surface covered with brown scales. A few hours of 
rain are sufficient to cause the leaves to resume their normal position 
and appearance. The xerotropic movement is more vigorous in young 
than in adult leaves; each pinna has a movement independent of that 
of the others. 

The anatomical structure which gives rise to these movements is as 
follows. The upper epiderm is composed of large cells with wavy 
sinuous walls somewhat thickened and collenchymatous. When dry they 
contract considerably in the transverse direction, and this is accompanied 
by a corresponding enlargement of the subjacent tissue, the lower 
mesophyll having very thin cell-walls, and being abundantly supplied 
with intercellular passages. The palisade-parenchyme takes no active 
part in the movements, but its cells are affected by the contraction of 
the epiderm, and their chlorophyll-grains are transferred from their 
radial walls to the lower portion of their cell-cayity. 

Similar structures are described in Notochlena vellea, Asplenium 
Trichomanes, and scveral species of Cheilanthes. 


Structure of the Commissure of the Leaf-sheath of Equisetum.$ 
—Dr. C. Miiller enters in great detail into the mathematical questions 
connected with the arrangement of the sheath-teeth of Equisetum and of 


* Ann. of Bot., ii. (1888) pp. 383-5 (4 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 996. 

+ Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xx. (1888) pp. 477-82. 

t Cf. this Journal, 1888 p. 1001. 

§ Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot,—(Pringsheim) xix. (1888) pp. 497-579 (6 pls. and 5 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 257 


their divergence. He regards the sheath as intended for the protection 
of the young growing point, and therefore as corresponding in function 
to the bud-scales of dicotyledons. The points of resemblance and differ- 
ence between the leaf-sheath of Hquisetum and of Casuarina are also 
dwelt upon. In the Equisetacez the firmness of the commissure is chiefly 
dependent on the silicification of the epidermal layer of cells; in 
Casuarina, on the other hand, to the hgnification of internal cells. 


Muscinee. 


Peristome of Mosses.*—M. Philibert continues his observations on 
the peristome of mosses. In the first place he discusses the difference 
between the Nematodontez and the Arthrodontesx, and then points out 
certain transitions between these two groups. One of the Polytrichacez, 
Polytrichum juniperinum, is then described in detail. If a transverse 
section be made of one of the teeth of this moss, it will be found to be 
of the form of an isosceles triangle; cell-cavities may be distinguished 
which are oval towards the middle of the tooth but lunar at the edges. 
The author in conclusion states that the structure of the peristome in 
the Polytrichaceze does not resemble either in plan or origin that of 
any other family of mosses. Besides Dawsonia, which is evidently allied 
to this family, it is only approached to a very slight extent by the 
Tetraphidex (Georgiace Lind.). 


Shining of Schistostega osmundacea.|—Dr. F’. Noll describes the 
peculiar optical phenomena belonging to this moss, but only to its pro- 
tonemal condition, it which it often clothes dark clefts in rocks. The 
protoneme consists not of cylindrical cells, but of a single layer of cells 
of very peculiar form lying at right angles to the direction of the 
incident light. Hach cell is of elliptical form, with the longer diameter 
at right angles to the incident light, and with a projection on the side 
furthest removed from the light. In this protuberance lie a small 
number of chlorophyll-grains and the nucleus, the rest of the cell being 
occupied by a colourless highly concentrated cell-sap. Dr. Noll points 
out that the effect of this peculiar structure is, on optical principles, to 
concentrate the rays of light on the portion of the cell occupied by the 
chlorophyll-grains, and thus to counteract tke influence of the small 
amount of natural illumination. The effect is to cause an apparent 
radiation of light from patches of the protoneme as it grows on the 
wall of the dark rock. 


New Hepatice.t{—Among the plants collected by Sintenis in the 
West Indies in 1885-1887, Herr F. Stephani describes the following 
unpublished species of Hepatic. From Porto Rico :—Aneura digiti- 
loba, A. virgata, A. Zollingert, A. Schwaneckit, Kantia portoricensis, 
Taxilejeunea antillana, T. Eggersiana, Odontolejeunea Berteroana, O. Breu- 
telii, Microlejeunea ovifolia, Cololejeunea stylesa, Pycnolejeunea Schwa- 
neckii, C. Sintenisii, Lepidozia commutata, Micropterygium portoricense, 
M. Martianum, Radula portoricensis, R. tectiloba. From 8. Domingo 
and Dominica, collected by Eggers :—Bazzania Krugiana, Hulejeunea 
Urbani, Raddia Eggersiana. 


* Rev. Bryol., xv. (1888) pp. 90-3. Of. this Journal, 1888, p. 1000. 

+ Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg, iii. (1S88) pp. 477-88 (5 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 
1888, p. 774. 

t Hedwigia, xxvii. (1888) pp. 276-302 (4 pls.). 


258 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Algee. 


Phycoerythrin.*—Herr F. Schiitt has found, by a combination of 
Reinke’s spectrophore with Zeiss’s microspectroscope, that the intense 
orange-yellow fluorescence of phycoerythrin belongs only to a light with 
the wave-length between ’ = 590-560, and that only rays between X = 
600-486 can produce a powerful fluorescence, a smaller degree being 
caused by rays between A = 490-470. The maximum of absorption and 
of the power of producing fluorescence concur. 

Besides the normal blue-red a phycoerythrin, which can be 
obtained from alge directly by extraction with water, Herr Schiitt has 
obtained two derivatives which he calls @ phycoerythrin and y phyco- 
erythrin. The former is pure red instead of blue-red, and is obtained 
by the action on a phycoerythrin of such neutral substances as alcohol, 
barium chloride, &c. ; the latter is violet-blue, and is obtained by pre- 
cipitation by acids from the normal pigment. 

The author regards phycoerythrin as a chromatophore-pigment quite 
distinct from chlorophyll and its derivatives. 


Reproduction of Spherococcus.t—Mr. T. Johnson describes the 
hitherto unknown procarp of Sphzrococcus coronopifolius. The main 
stem produces irregularly placed branches, from which very numerous 
short flat branchlets spring in an upward direction; and these branchlets 
have their two edges beset with small cylindrical filaments. Running 
through the middle of each filament is a central axis consisting of a 
uniseriate row of large tubular cells. In these cylindrical filaments or 
procarp-branches are formed the procarps which are very numerous. 
Any primary lateral branch of the central axis may develope a procarp. 
The carpogenous branch consists of three cells, the apical cell of which 
is the carpogone and developes the trichogyne, which is exceedingly long 
and reaches the surface of the thallus after curving in all directions. 
The procarp is completed by the formation of a number of small 
secondary lateral branches, the carpogenous cells. Contact of the 
“ spermatia ” (pollinoids) with the trichogyne was not actually observed. 

The course of development of the cystocarp is as follows :—After 
fertilization the carpogone fuses with the hypogynous cell, and this 
apparently with the basal cell of the carpogenous branch. Further 
fusion then takes place with cells of the lateral branch and of the 
central axis in succession, and a large conjugation-cell is thus formed, 
from the greater part of the surface of which ooblastema-filaments arise 
even before the process of fusion is completed. These filaments are 
short, and composed of but few cells, the terminal one or two of which 
become carpospores. The carpogenous cells also become connected 
directly with the large conjugation-cell, and produce carpospores at their 
apices. As the cystocarp developes, its presence is manifested by a 
spherical swelling in the frond, and the carpospores ultimately escape 
through an irregular slit in the pericarp, not through a definite pore. 
Each cystocarp is the product of one procarp only. All the cells which 
fuse with the carpogcne to produce the central cell of the cystocarp are 
auxiliary cells. 

If Gracilaria and Nitophyllum are united with Sphzrococcus to form 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 305-23. 
+ Ann. of Bot., ii, 1888) pp. 293-304 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 259 


the family Spherococcacez, then this family includes genera which give 
examples of three of the four main types of thallus-structure exhibited 
in the Floridee ; i.e. of all except the simplest, which occurs in the 
Helminthocladiacee. This fact illustrates the difficulty of determining 
the systematic position of a genus of Floridex from a consideration of 
the structure of the thallus alone. 


Entocladia.*—A fresh-water species of this hitherto exclusively 
marine genus is described under the name Hntocladia gracilis by Dr. A. 
Hansgirg. It was found growing both endophytically and epiphytically 
on a species of Cladophora, germinating in the former case within the 
cells of the host. It is reproduced either by the direct germination of 
larger zoospores or by the conjugation of smaller zoogametes. The 
filaments may either remain distinct or may be associated into a 
pseudo-parenchymatous mass. 

The genus Hntocladia Reinke was recently assigned by Hansgirg 7 
to a systematic position among the Chetophoracee ; the mode of escape 
of the zoospores through an orifice in the cell-wall, and the abseuce of 
Chetophora-like bristles, now incline kim to place it rather among the 
Trentepohliacex, or to refer it to an independent family, the EHntocla- 
diacee, intermediate between this order and the Chetophoracee. 
Kiitzing’s imperfectly described Peripleqmatium may possibly be iden- 
tical with Entocladia ; and Endoclonium Szym., Chetonema Nowak., and 
Bolbocoleon Prings. may belong to the same family. Chztopeltis he now 
places among the Chetophoracez rather than the Coleochetacee. 


Binuclearia.t{—Prof. V. B. Wittrock gives the following diagnosis 
of this new genus of Confervacez :—Planta serie simplici cellularum 
formata. Incrementum plantarum bipartitione cellularum intercalare. 
Cellule cylindric binucleate; nuclei bini cellularum vegetantium 
inequales, unus major, alter minor. Chlorophori in unaquaque cellula 
singuli, parietales fascizeformes, semiannuliformes. Dissepimenta cellu- 
larum crassitudine inequali. Zoospore adhuc ignote. Propagatio fit 
cellulis vegetativis in cellulis perdurantibus, membrana incrassata, 
transformatis. 

The only species, B. tatrana, was found in the Csorber-See in 
Hungary. The filaments are not enveloped in mucilage; the vegetative 
cells are from 6 to 9 » in diameter, and from the same length to eight 
times longer. 


Cheetopeltis.s—Herr M. Mobius finds, attached to Myriophyllum, a 
new species of Chzetopeltis, differing from "Berthold’s C. orbicularis both 
in its smaller size and also in its mode of reproduction, by means of 
biciliated zoogametes, which conjugate into a zygosperm which is at 
first 4-ciliate, instead of by non-cestel 4-ciliate zoospores. He proposes 
for the species the name C. minor; and regards the resemblance of 
Chetopeltis to Coleochete as only erica constituting in reality, 
along with Phycopeltis, Mycoidea, and Phyllactidium,|| a group nearly 
allied to the Chetophoracee. 


* Flora, Ixxi. (1888) pp. 499- pg (1 pl.). Cf. this Journal, 1880, p. 1023. 

+ Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 776 

{ Bih. K. Svensk. Vet. -Akad. Handl,, xii. (1887) No. 1, 11 pp. (1 pl.). Cf. this 
Journal, 1887, p. 441. 

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 242-8 (1 pl.). || Cf. ante, p. 97. 


260 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Struvea.*—Messrs. G. Murray and L. A. Boodle give a monograph 
of this genus of Siphonocladacez, of which they make five species :— 
S. plumosa Sond., S. macrophylla Harv., S. ramosa Dick., S. delicatula 
Kiitz., and S. pulcherrima nob. (Phyllodictyon pulcherrimum Gray), 
excluding S. scoparia Kiitz., which appears to be identical with Apjohnia 
letevirens Harv. 

The organs described are the stalk, the root, and the frond. The 
stalk consists of a single cell from its earliest stages to the time of 
formation of the frond, when a transverse wall is formed a short distance 
below the base of the frond. The calcareous incrustation described by 
some authors is due to the presence of an epiphytic calcareous alga, 
generally a Melobesia. In S. ramosa the pinne of the frond consist of a 
series of segments separated by transverse walls. The pinne are again 
divided into pinnules. When a pinnule has, in its growth, brought its 
tip into contact with another part of the frond, it forms at its apex a 
special organ of attachment, called by the authors a tenaculum, con- 
sisting of a ring of radiating branched rhizoids, which, however, appear 
to be entirely superficial, never penetrating the cell-wall to which they 
are attached. Similar organs occur in other species, as well as in some 
allied genera. Although filaments become attached to one another by 
means of these tenacula, there is no true anastomosis, as described by 
Harvey and Dickie. 

No reproductive organs were detected in any species of Struvea; but 
in S. ramosa, singular structures at the base of some of the filaments of 
the frond, resembling in shape the sporanges of Botrydium. Until the 
organs of reproduction are known the position of the genus is somewhat 
uncertain; but it appears to connect Valonia on the one hand with 
Cladophora and Spongocladia on the other hand. 


Sexuality among the Lower Alge.j—M. P. A. Dangeard believes 
that a sexual mode of reproduction will eventually be found to occur in 
many of the lower algz where it is at present unknown, and that it is in 
particular incited by defective nutrition, progressive desiccation, the 
action of injurious substances, and other similar causes. 

He describes its occurrence in Phacotus angulosus, an organism first 
described by Carter under the name Cryptoglena angulosa, and usually 
placed among the Protozoa. Under cultivation the non-sexual mode of 
propagation was found to be almost suppressed. On the other hand 
individuals, after losing their cilia, formed four or eight small biciliated 
zoogametes by successive bipartitions. These swarmed for a time within 
the parent-cell, then escaped, and finally conjugated with very great 
rapidity, losing their cilia, into a spherical oosperm. These zoogametes 
differed from all others previously observed in having the chlorophyll 
located at the anterior extremity. The author believes that the bodies 
previously described as resting-cells in this genus are in reality 
oosperms. No sexual differentiation was observed in the zoogametes. 
Phacotus forms, therefore, sexually produced oosperms in the same way 
as Chlorogonium,t{ Cercidium, and Chlamydomonas; and these genera 
must be regarded as belonging to the same family. 

A new marine species of Chlamydomonas is described, C. minima. 


* Ann. of Bot., ii. (1888) pp. 265-82 (1 pl.). 
+ Morot’s Journ. de Bot., ii. (1888) pp. 350-8, 415-7 (2 figs.). 
{ See this Journal, 1888, p. 1003. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 261 


The resting-cells divide into zoogametes 8 » long by 5 p broad, which 
move about with great velocity, and are provided with four cilia, 
distinguishing them from the other species of the genus. 

Oosperms resulting from the fusion of zoogametes, the author states, 
differ in no essential point from those produced by oospheres and an- 
therozoids; indeed, Hudorina may, under exceptional circumstances, 
produce its oosperms in the former way instead of the latter. 

The author reaffirms his previous conclusion that the Chlamydo- 
monadinez and Huglenes must be regarded as families of Alge rather 
than of Protozoa, and expresses an opinion that normal chlorophyll is 
to be found only in organisms belonging to the vegetable kingdom, 


Fungi (including Lichenes). 


Physiological Significance of Mycorhiza.*—In opposition to the 
views of Hartig} and Grosglik, Herr B. Frank reaffirms the view that 
the phenomena of mycorhiza are of the nature of mutual symbiosis, and 
that the fungus is in no true sense a parasite on the root of the tree 
which it attacks. 

The mycorhiza depends for its existence and subsistence, not on the 
root of the tree, but on the presence in the soil of undecayed vegetable 
matter. The fungus behaves like a haustorium or absorbing organ, the 
hyphe radiating on all sides like root-hairs; they may be isolated or 
united in fascicles, giving to the root the appearance of a bottle-brush. 

Trees, the roots of which are infested with mycorhiza, resemble 
such saprophytes as Neottia nidus-avis in not exhibiting a trace of 
nitrates; while trees which are not attacked by it contain nitrates, at 
least in their absorbing roots. It is most probable that the mycorhiza 
removes nitrogen from ammonia and organic nitrogenous substance, and 
thus enables the tree to obtain nitrogen in the same way that saprophytic 
fungi do; and the fungus on the other hand receives equal benefit from 
the mutual symbiosis. 


Hibernation of Peronosporee.{—Herr P. Maenus states that the 
hibernation of the mycele when oosperms fail to be formed, which, in 
Phytophthora infestans takes place in the tuber of the potato, is effected 
in Peronospora effusa in the rosettes of young leaves of the spinach on 
which it is parasitic, and in P. Alsinearum in the stem and leaves of the 
autumn shoots of Stellaria media. 


Entomophthorez and their use in the destruction of noxious 
Insects.S—M. C. Brongniart states that the Entomophthorex are very 
widely spread in nature, and that they cause certain and rapid destruction 
to a great number of noxious insects. All locusts are rapidly attacked 
by these fungi, death resulting in about twenty-four hours after the first 
indication of the attack. On these insects Hntomophthora is found 
under two forms which were formerly considered as two distinct genera, 
Empusa and Tarichium. Empusa fructifies in the interior of the body, 
and produces conidial spores, while Tarichium consists of the oosperms 
which are formed also in the interior of the body. The author considers 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 248-69 (i pl.). Cf. this Journal, 
1888, p. 268. + Cf. this Journal, 1886, p. 662. 

{ Verhandl. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brandenburg, xxix. (1888) pp. 13-5. 

§ Comptes Rendus, cvii. (1888) pp. 872-4. 


262 SUMMARY OF GURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


that the Entomophthoreew might very well be used in the destruction of 
noxious insects. 


Olpidiella, a new genus of Chytridiacee.*—-Herr G. Lagerheim 
describes a new Chytridiacea found on the uredospores of a Uredo 
parasitic on the glumes of Aira czxspitosa, which he regards as the type 
of a new genus, Olpidiella, nearly allied to Olpidium, with the specific 
name O. Uredinis. The wall of the zoosporange is covered with 
minute elevations, and opens by a pore to allow of the emission of the 
evacuating canal by which the zoospores escape, and the escape of the 
zoospores is very easy to follow under the Microscope. The normal 
zoospores are uniciliated, the cilium being fixed to the posterior extremity ; 
no conjugation of zoospores was observed. There are in addition larger 
multiciliated zoospores. In the same genus Herr Lagerheim proposes 
to include Olpidium endogena A. Br., Chytridium decipiens A. Br., and 
Chytridium luxurians Toni (Olpidium Diplochytrium Schreet.). 

The author gives the following diagnoses of the genera which make 
up the family Olpidiaceze :—(1) Sphzrita Dang.; zoospores with a single 
anterior greatly curved cilium; the wall of the zoosporange opens to 
allow the escape of the zoospores, and subsequently deliquesces. 
(2) Olpidium A. Br.; zoospores with a single straight anterior cilium ; 
zoosporanges opening by a pore or neck. (8) Olpidiella n. gen.; 
zoospore cilio singulo recto posteriore preedite ; zoosporangium orificio 
singulo. (4) Plezotrachelus Zopf; zoospores with a single posterior 
cilium, zoosporanges globular, opening by several necks. (5) Ectrogella 
Zopt; zoospores with a single straight cilium; zoosporanges vermiform, 
opening by several necks. (6) Olpidiopsis Fisch. ; zoospores biciliated ; 
zoosporanges opening by a neck. 

Origin and Development of the Apotheces of Lichens.t—The 
general conclusions arrived at by Herr G. Lindau from observations of 
the development of the apothece in a large number of Fungi are that the 
ascogenous system and the enveloping system are distinct, and that the 
course of development of this organ corresponds in all cases closely to 
that in the Collemaceze. . 

Taking Anaptychia ciliaris as a typical example, the apotheces are 
formed in the gonidial zone as club-shaped cells originating either 
laterally or terminally on hyphe which are distinguished from the vegeta- 
tive hyphee by their strongly refractive contents which are coloured dark 
brown by chior-zine-iodide. These are very numerous, but only a few 
of them develope into ascogones. The ascogones are spirally or 
irregularly coiled hyphae, surrounded by paraphyses, and by large 
numbers of gonids. Hach ascogone terminates in a trichogyne which 
can only be distinguished from the cortical hyphe by the colouring of 
its contents by chlor-zinc-iodide. The actual entrance of the pollinoids 
(spermatia) into the trichogyne was not observed. It is only after the 
dying off of the trichogyne that an “ excipulum thallodes ” is produced, 
and the asci are formed in the midst of the paraphyse-tissue. 

The other species examined exhibited a general agreement in the 
phenomena with <Anaptychia. In Ramalina fraxinea the apotheces are 
distinguished by the dense masses of gonids which surround them. The 
contents of the pollinoids: appeared here to pass into the trichogyne. 


* Morot’s Journ. de Bot., ii. (1888) pp. 432-40 (1 pl.). 
t Flora, ixxi. (1888) pp. 451-89 C1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 263 


In Placodium saxicolum the ascogones are sometimes branched. In 
Lecanora subfusca, in addition to the normal yellow-green gonids, there 
are colonies of blue-green gonids (Glwocapsa) also surrounded by 
the fungus-hyphe, and still other smaller gonids. The author was not 
able to determine the connection of these with the Lecanora-thallus. 
One ascogone occasionally bears two trichogynes; and the apotheces 
appear to be sometimes formed of several ascogones. Both in this 
species and in Lecidella enteroleuca, the hyphz have apparently the 
property of dissolving cellulose, and using it for the nutrition of the 
plant. In this species, and in some others, especially Usnea barbata 
and Oornicularia aculeata, the cavities of the functionless antherids 
(spermogones) are filled by a weft of hyphe. 


Graphidee.*—Dr. J. Miiller describes in detail the Lichens belonging 
to the section Graphidez, in the collection of M. Fée from Rio Janeiro. 
A large number of new species are described, and some new genera and 
sections proposed. 


Germination of the Spores of Spheropsidez.|—Sig. C. Massalongo 
describes the mode of germination of the spores in several fungi 
belonging to this family, which closely resembles that of Saccharomyces. 
In consequence of this peculiarity he distinguishes three new species, 
Phyllosticta Bizzozeriana parasitic on the vine, P. Aristolochiz on the 
leaves of Aristolochia Clematitis, and Phoma Orobanches, on the dry 
corolla of Orobanche rubens. 


Helotium parasitic on Sphagnum.{—Herr S. Nawaschin describes 
a parasitic fungus which he finds abundantly among the perigynial 
leaves of the female “ flowers,’ and also among the archegones them- 
selves, of Sphagnum squarrosum, and which was described by Schimper 
as paraphyses of the moss. ‘They constitute, in fact, the mycele of 
a fungus, the peritheces and asci of which the author is now able to 
describe, and establishes it as a new species under the name Helotium 
Schimperi, nearly related to H. (Peziza) phascoides. 


Pezize causing Cankers in Conifere.§—M. P. Vuillemin states 
that Willkomm in 1867 pointed to Corticium amorphum Fries as being 
the fungus causing the canker in pines. The disease has been attributed 
to several other fungi, and the author considers that the parasite of the 
pines ought to be left in the genus Trichoscypha, by the side of 
T. chrysophthalma, and he gives a definite diagnosis for T. calycina. 


Sclerotiniz of Vaccinium.||— Dr. M. Woronin has followed out the 
life-history of the various species of Sclerotinia which are parasitic on 
different species of Vaccinium. In addition to the well-known S. bac- 
carum, which attacks the berries of V. Myrtillus, causing them to turn 
white, three new species are described :—S. Vaccinii on V. Vitis-Idea, 
S. Oxycocei on V. Oxycoccus, and S. megalospora on V. uliginosum. They 
all possess the character which he terms “ lipoxeny,” i.e. the faculty of 
leaving their host when the sclerote is mature in order to live on their 
accumulated food-material. 


* Mem. Soe. Phys. et d’Hist. Nat. Genév., xxix., Part ii. (1887) 80 pp. 

t+ Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xx. (1888) pp. 437-40 (8 figs.). 

{ Hedwigia, xxvii. (1888) pp. 306-10 (1 pl.). 

§ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxv. (1888) Sess. Extraord., pp. Ixiv.-Ixxi. 

| Mém. Acad. Imp. Sai. St. Pétersb., xxxvi. (1888) No. 6, 49 pp. and 10 pls. 


264 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The ascospore of S. Vaccinit produces, on germination, a filament 
which perforates an epidermal cell of the host, and forms in the cambium 
of the stem branched rows of toruloid conids, which separate from one 
another in a singular way. When the constrictions have become con- 
siderably developed there is formed in the dividing-wall between two 
adjacent partially formed conids what appears to be a pore, through 
which is pushed out of the protoplasmic contents of each cell a cone- 
shaped mass of cellulose; these meet in the middle, and unite into a 
body which M. Woronin terms a “disjunctor.” Finally the conids 
remain joined to one another only by a very slender fusiform con- 
nection, a conical mass of cellulose remaining attached to each end of 
the conids and giving them a lemon-shaped form. The fruit appears in 
the spring, but is comparatively rare; the asci contain eight spores, 
of which four are slightly smaller than the other four; the lower part 
of the ascus contains epiplasm or glycogen. 

Sclerotinia Oxycocci is distinguished by its smaller conids, and by 
four out of the eight ascospores being always much smaller and sterile ; 
and the same is the case in S. baccarum. 'The conids of S. megalospora 
attack exclusively the leaves of Vaccinium uliginosum, and the sclerote is 
more simple in structure than in the other species. The eight ascospores 
are all of the same size and fertile. In these species the conids are 
also separated by “disjunctors,” which are, however, smaller than in 
S. Vaccinit. 

Similar sclerotes, the structure of which has not, however, been 
accurately examined, are found also on the fruit of the bird-cherry, and 
on that of species of Alnus and Betula. 


Development of Corynites Curtissii.*—Mr. J. F. James describes 
the development of Corynites Curtissii B. The first figure shows the 
outer wall surrounding a mass of greyish glairy matter, in the centre of 
which is a white column, surmounted by a two-lobed mass of dark brown 
or blackish matter. A little later the stipe begins to be plainly manifest. 
Little pits represent what develope finally into openings; the second 
layer represents the inner wall of the peridium, while a dark mass of 
matter at the top, gradually diminishing in size, eventually forms the 
glebe and contains the spores. ‘The mature fungus is bright pink, full 
of small holes, surmounted by the glebe, and springing from the ruptured 
sac which previously inclosed it. 


New Parasitic Fungi.t—M. I’. Cavara describes several new species 
of parasitic fungi which attack cultivated plants. Dendrophoma Marconi 
n. sp. belongs to the section Hudendrophoma of the genus Dendrophoma, 
and attacks the stems of the cultivated hemp. Pseudo-peziza Trifolit 
(Bern.) Fck. has been observed this year on Medicago satiwa; while 
another new spheropsid, Phleospora Trifolii, has been found on the leaves 
of Trifolium repens. Botrytis parasitica n. sp. has been found on the 
culivated tulips in the Botanic Garden at Pavia,and the author describes 
anew genus Basiaschum, with a new species B. Hriobothryz, which he 
has found attacking the leaves of Eriobothrya japonica Lind. .Pleno- 
domus Olexz n. sp., belonging to the section hyalospore of Plenodomus 
Preus., has been found on the fruit of the olive, and Pestalozzia Banksi- 
ana n. sp. on the lower part of the leaves of Banksia robur. 


* Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xv. (1888) pp. 314-5 (1 pl.). 
+ Rey. Mycol., x. (1888) pp. 205-7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 265 


Lily Disease.*—Prof. H. M. Ward discusses the cause of certain 
discolourations in the form of orange-brown and buff specks which 
appear on the stems, pedicels, leaves, and buds of the white lily (Lilium 
candidum). He traces the development and describes the structure of 
the fungus which causes them, and which he states belongs to the genus 
Botrytis, and the section known as Polyactis, and is probably a gonidial 
stage in the life-history of some Peziza ; whether the alternative form 
is developed on some other plant, or whether it is lost, cannot be said. 
It is quite conceivable, however, that, in consequence of their pronounced 
parasitism, this fungus and Phytophthora infestans may have lost their 
alternative form. The fungus is characterized by some of its branches 
forming cross-connections which it is very difficult to distinguish from a 
true process of conjugation, and by some of the free branches developing 
into singular organs of attachment which glue themselves to solid bodies 
and display an irritability to contact. 


Saccharomyces Allii, sp. n.,—A new species of blastomycete has 
been found by Prof. N. Sorokin on bulbs of Allium cepa, which were 
being destroyed and reduced to a gelatinous condition, accompanied by 
the development of a powerful odour. Microscopical examination of the 
diseased bulbs showed numerous bacteria and a ferment fungus, 
Saccharomyces Allii. Healthy bulbs inoculated from the diseased ones 
rapidly succumbed with the presence of the same micro-organisms, onl 
one of which is seen at the commencement of the disease, S. Allii, The 
cells of this fungus are from 3-15 yw long and 3-4 pw broad; they 
contain one large or several small vacuoles, and one or two small 
nucleoli. The cells increase by budding, and are very variable in size 
and arrangement. 


Polydesmus petalicolor, sp. n.{—This micro-organism was found on 
certain asters by Prof. N. Sorokin, and causes a black broad streak on 
the corona. It consists of a colourless branched mycele, the filaments of 
which are composed of cells of various size and shape. The plasma is 
granular, and contains numerous oil-drops. The mycele is entirely 
epiphytic, and forms a rather thick layer, which is quite colourless. 
From the mycele rise brown hyphe, which are for the most part 
unbranched. At the extremity of the brown hyphe there are formed 
spores, which may or not be spherical. These spores are not necessarily 
of the same shape and size. The spores may also collect together in 
chains of 2—5 individuals. The only organism which at all resembles 
Polydesmus petalicolor is P. exitiosus. Of this there are two varieties, 
luauriosus and alternarioides. The latter resembles the form described 
by the author, but is distinguishable from that fungus in that 

1) P. ewitiosus is a true parasite, i.e. penetrates the tissue of the 
plant, while P. petalicolor is an epiphyte. 

(2) P. exitiosus has smooth spores; those of P. petalicolor are covered 
with prominences. 

(3) In P. exitiosus the spores are seated singly on the hyphe, while 
in P. petalicolor two or three may be gathered together. 

(4) Spores of P. petalicolor are never seated on such short hyphe as 
those of P. exitiosus. 


* Ann. of Bot., ii. (1888) pp. 319-82 (5 pls.). 
+ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., iv. (1888) pp. 641-4 (5 figs.). 
{ T.¢., pp. 647-9 (16 figs.). 

1889. T 


266 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Sorosporella Agrotidis g. et sp. n.*—Prof. N. Sorokin obtained 
this microbe from the caterpillar of Agrotidis segetum, an insect which 
is extremely harmful to corn. The intention of the author was, having 
found the organism which kills the caterpillar, to obtain the microbe in 
sufficient quantity, and sow the corn land with it. Within the 
mummified body of the caterpillar was a powder consisting of large 
round granules. Under the Microscope these were found to be spores 
which were rose-coloured when seen in aggregations. In size they are 
from 4—7 »; they are invested by a smooth membrane, and their contents 
are colourless. Under a magnification of about 1400, the cell-contents 
are seen to be not homogeneous, but filled with oil-drops and vacuoles. 


Fermentation of Palm-wine.{—Sig. G. Gasperini finds the cause of 
fermentation in “leghbi,” the alcoholic drink obtained from the juice of 
the date-palm, to be Saccharomyces cerevisiz, accompanied by large 
quantities of Bacillus subizlis. 


New Melampsora.{—Under the name Melampsora congregata, Herr 
P. Dietel describes a new species parasitic on the leaves of Huphorbia dulcis. 
Both uredospores and teleutospores were observed; the latter are 
characterized by their dense aggregation, sometimes completely covering 
the under side of the leaf. 


New Urocystis.s—Herr G. Lagerheim describes a new species of 
Urocystis, U. Junci, parasitic on Juncus filiformis and bufonius. It 
attacks the leaves, causing but little deformity. 


Fungi of Mines.|—Dr. C. O. Harz enumerates 11 species of fungi 
found in the mines of Germany, belonging to the Thelephorei, Hydnet, 
and Polyporei. Among them two new species are described :—Radulum 
subterraneum and Polyporus Engetit. 


Protophyta.. 
a, Schizophyceee. 


Antiquity of Diatoms.f—Abbé F. Castracane gives reasons for 
believing that diatoms belonging to species now existing lived in the 
Carboniferous period, and discusses the bearing of this fact on the theory 
of evolution. From the fact that he finds in beds belonging to the older 
Carboniferous strata diatom-valves identical in the minutest particular 
with the existing Epithemia gibba and E. granulata, and that similar facts 
are recorded also with regard to Foraminifera, he eoncludes that the 
same laws of the immutability of generic and specific characters prevailed, 
and always have prevailed, equally in the lowest and in the highest 
families of both the vegetable and the animal kingdom. 


* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., iv. (1888) pp. 644-7 (18 figs.). 

+ Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xx. (1888) pp. 445-51. 

{ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 400-2 (2 figs.). 

§ Bot. Notis., 1888, p. 201. See Morot’s Journ. de Bot., ti. (1888) Rev. Bibl., 

. 147. 

|| SB. Bot. Vereins Miinchen, Ist Dec. 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxvi. (1888) 
pp. 375, 385. 

q ‘Le Diatomee e il Transformismo Darwiniano,’ 20 pp., Roma, 1888, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 267 


B. Schizomycetes. 


Doctrine of Phagocytes.*—The interest excited by the ingenious 
hypothesis of Metschnikoff is shown by the number of experiments made 
and articles written in support or contradiction of the assumption that 
the mesoblastic cells of Vertebrata inherit the capacity of absorbing and 
destroying pathogenic bacteria from their ancestors, the unicellular 
ameoebee, the mesodermic cells of Coelenterata, Turbellaria, &e. Dr. H. 
Bitter, in his critique on the doctrine of phagocytes, thus balances the 
evidence for and against the theory. 

Unicellular lower animals, amcebe, and also mesodermic cells of 
sponges, take up small plants into their protoplasm, and digest them. 
In more highly organized animals this intracellular digestion becomes 
extracellular and fermentative; certain cells, however, still possess a 
capacity for picking up and dissolving foreign bodies. This contrivance 
is regarded by Metschnikoff as a special arrangement whereby harmful 
elements, especially pathogenic micro-organisms, are prevented from 
penetrating the animal economy, the process being complicated by the 
resistance made by the parasite to digestion. ‘Those cells which are 
able to digest foreign bodies are called phagocytes, and are further sub- 
divided into large and small. Infectious diseases are recovered from 
when the phagocytes overmaster the exciting causes, and immunity after 
one attack or after inoculation depends on the phagocytes having become 
accustomed to combat the micro-organisms. 

This theory is supported by Metschnikoff’s observations on Daphniz 
which are attacked by a torula with needlelike ascospores. These latter 
having been swallowed penetrate the tissues; as soon as this happens, a 
leucocyte appears, and the spores are enveloped and destroyed. If the 
spores remain unattacked and germinate, the animal isinfected. In frogs 
too, anthrax bacilli are taken up by leucocytes, and destroyed. At a 
temperature of about 30°, only a few leucocytes take up the bacilli, and 
the animals become infected. This is explained on the hypothesis that 
the anthrax bacilli are more potent at this temperature owing to their 
being accustomed to deal with warm-blooded leucocytes. In warm- 
blooded animals Metschnikoff rarely found bacilli in leucocytes, but if 
the animal had been protected by a weakened virus, the bacilli were 
picked up in quantities and destroyed. Hence it is concluded that 
immunity is derived from the leucocytes having got used to the poison 
of the bacteria. 

Bacteria-eating phagocytes were also found in erysipelas and 
relapsing fever, and are also assumed to be present in gonorrhea, 
leprosy, and tuberculosis. 

According to Hess, the phagocytic privilege is shared by the cells of 
the splenic parenchyma, and of the liver, and Ribbert asserts that the 
spores of various kinds of Aspergillus and Mucor are got rid of in a 
similar manner. If, however, many spores be injected, the number of 
leucocytes may not suffice to prevent their development, and this last- 
mentioned author also believes that the viability of the fungi is 
diminished by the leucocytes cutting off the supply of oxygen. Other 
facts in support of the theory are that if an animal survive the intro- 
duction of a small quantity of spores, there will be found, on a second 
injection, a much larger number of leucocytes, and that, as stated by 


* Zeitschr. f. Hygiene, iv. (1888) No. 2. 
Wed 


268 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Lubarsch, anthrax bacilli killed by boiling, are not so quickly taken up 
by leucocytes in the frog, as when injected in the living condition. 

Against the theory are ranged numerous writers and experimenters, 
among whom may be mentioned Baumgarten and Weigert, who while 
accepting the data, doubt the interpretation of the facts and the correct- 
ness of the hypothesis. Experiments made by C. D. Holmfeld showed 
that only a few bacteria were taken up by leucocytes, and that the 
greater number of bacteria were destroyed outside the cells. Emmerich 
gives similar results; thus after inoculating rabbits with erysipelas he 
found that this conferred a certain immunity against subsequent inocula- 
tion with anthrax, and also that the destruction of the bacteria was 
chiefly extra-cellular, and that the phagocytes made away chiefly with 
the dead bacilli. Again, it is noticed by the author (H. Bitter), that in 
none of Metschnikoff’s works, or in those of other writers, is it certainly 
proved that the bacteria are only destroyed by phagocytes, and by these 
alone, and in conjunction with Nuttall has proved this experimentally. 

With regard to Metschnikofi’s experiments on frogs at high 
temperatures, it is obvious that the fluids of the body may become so 
altered by the increased heat that this fluid is thereby no longer able to 
weaken the bacteria. 

Moreover, a series of observations has shown that anthrax bacilli 
have always suffered some damage before they became a sacrifice to the 
phagocytes. On the whole the author inclines to bring in a verdict of 
not proven. 


Bacteria of Fodder and Seeds.*—It had been proposed by Emmer- 
ling to ascertain the freshness of fodder by the quantity of fungus germs 
contained therein, but Herr Hiltner concludes from his researches that 
bacteria are more suitable for this purpose than fungi, and, therefore, 
proceeded to go thoroughly into the question of the influence of these 
~ microbes (bacteria) on seeds and fodder. 

Tn addition to certain kinds of bacteria not accurately determined, 
the author found Clostridium in all kinds of fodder. In about half the 
number of cases, on digesting with water, bacteria only developed, and 
no fungi. If both appear, they do so at different intervals of time; the 
bacteria first, the fungi later. 

With regard to the question where the bacteria originate, the author 
believes that they are always present within the uninjured seed. Seeds 
which have lost their germinating power are always found to ke full of 
bacteria; and in badly germinating seeds they may be found in the young 
roots, which then have brown tips, and look glassy. It is interesting 
to note that each kind of seed has one or more peculiar bacteria which 
appear afterwards in the fodder. From investigation it was found that 
the germinative power of peas was always destroyed by Clostridium, 
and that of red clover by Bacillus subtilis. ? 
_ If the seeds are able to germinate and develope normally, the bacteria 
cease to be harmful. Late-germiuating seeds, the cells of which are 
full of bacteria, develope quite normally if light and air have free access 
to the earth above them. They are not even damaged if grown in 
a nutrient medium crowded and cloudy with bacteria. If, however, a 
germling be covered with a glass jar, it perishes at once. Thus, experi- 
ments with peas showed that the cotyledons were reduced to a pulp in 


* «Landwirthschaftliche Versuchsstation,’ xxiy. (1887) pp. 391-402. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 269 


three to four days, and on microscopical examination the bacteria were 
found to have undergone enormous increase, rods with spores being 
copiously developed ; Clostridiwm had dissolved the middle lamella of 
the cell-membrane, so that the connection between the cells was de< 
stroyed. This destructive process, which is here so rapidly completed, 
proceeds only slowly during the resting period of seeds, because moisture 
is a requisite for the development of bacteria. 


Varieties of Koch’s Comma Bacillus.*—Dr. T. Zaslein, who has 
directed his attention to the varieties of Koch’s comma bacillus, has 
obtained the following results. (1) The variety usually cultivated 
grows on plates in the way described by Fliigge. (2) There exist 
varieties which grow more strongly at lower temperatures than the 
freshly imported bacillus, and die earlier at lower maximum tempe- 
ratures, and at the body temperature the course of their development is 
hastened. (3) Bacilli obtained from simultaneous European epidemics 
now behave differently. (4) A bacillus which was grown for a month 
strictly according to Koch’s procedure afterwards became altered in the 
same medium. (5) The changes which Koch’s bacillus has shown take 
place gradually and irregularly, but may be influenced by artificial 
cultivation. (6) The author’s experiments have not shown that the 
cholera bacillus, as far as regards the formation of varieties, is not subject 
to other laws than those laid down by Darwin for plants and animals in 
general. (7) The formation of definite varieties may take place without 
artificial cultivation. 


Spore-formation in the Bacillus of Typhoid Fever.t—Dr. Pfuhl 
followed in his investigation the method previously used by Buchner, 
who, to ascertain the nature of these polar bodies, suspected of being 
spores, first examined their behaviour towards certain pigments, then 
their resistance to drying and high temperatures, and lastly their capa- 
city for germination. ‘I'he conclusion the author arrives at is the same 
as Buchner’s, viz. that these supposed spores are not spores at all, but 
are, rather, a retrograde condition, or kind of involution form. As the 
author’s method and his conclusions are the same as Buchner’s, already 
noticed in this Journal,{ there is no need to give the details. 


Staphylococcus pyosepticus.§—MM. J. Héricourt and Ch. Richet 
found in a cutaneous abscess of a dog a microbe which in form, size, 
colour, reaction, and biological characters is allied to Staphylococcus 
pyogenes albus, but is distinguished therefrom by the following dif- 
ferences :—(1) In fluid cultivations (peptonized meat broth) it grew on 
the surface, forming whitish colonies, which pass away into viscid fila- 
ments, while S. pyogenes albus causes all the fluid to become cloudy, and 
does not form any special collections on the surface. (2) It is more 
septic and virulent than S. albus. One or two drops injected under the 
skin killed a rabbit (2 kg.) in about 24 hours, while S. albus only killed 
rabbits with stronger doses and after a longer time. (3) The one or 
two drops injected subcutaneously produced a gelatinous transparent 
edema. It begins its development one or two hours after inoculation, 
and attains its maximum in 24 hours. 8S. albus causes suppuration, but 
without the cedematous swelling. In animals which do not succumb in 


* Deutsch. Med. Ztg., 1888, Nos. 64 and 65. 
+ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., iv. (1888) pp. 769-76. 
t 1888, p. 1016. _ § Comptes Rendus, cvii. (1888) p. 690. 


270 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the first two days after inoculation the cedema partly disappears and 
collections of pus, similar to the abscesses produced by S. albus, accu- 
mulate. In dogs neither death nor cedema occurs, but a large abscess 
appears. The authors have distinguished their microbe by the name of 
Staphylococcus pyosepticus. Vaccinations with this organism, the viru- 
lence of which had been diminished, not only protected against death, 
but diminished the cedema. 


Resistance of the Cholera Bacteria to Heat and Drying.*—Dr. 
S. Kitasata, as the result of experiments made with the cholera vibrio 
in reference to its resistance to heat and drying, comes to the following 
conclusions :— 

(1) Between old and young cultivations there is no difference in the 
resistance. 

(2) The time required to kill the Bacteria after they have been dried 
depends on the way in which the material has been prepared. 

(8) This time, moreover, is also dependent on the condition of the 
cultivation. 

(4) No real difference in the behaviour of cholera cultivations at 
temperatures from 50° to 60° was observed. 

(5) The discrepancies of previous observers with regard to this 
resistance are explicable from the fact that the more quickly and perfectly 
the drying is effected the more quickly do the cholera bacteria die. No 
special resting form which renders this bacillus more resistant to drying 
has been observed by the author, who also failed to discover any 
evidence of growth from spores. On the contrary, he feels satisfied that 
new cultivations can only arise from old ones when the latter contain 
bacilli. 


Structure of Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus.j —Dr. Heydenreich 
finds that S. pyogenes aureus is possessed of a more complicated 
structure than is usually supposed. He states that it is not a coccus 
but a diplococcus which consists of two halves separated by a trans- 
verse line and also surrounded by a mucous layer. As the latter does 
not stain so well as the protoplasm the outline of the diplococcus is less 
clearly visible, but this becomes more distinct as the diplococcus ages. 
The author’s method is to treat the unstained cover-glass with 1/2 to 
1 per cent. acetic acid, and then to stain it by Gram’s method. As 
seen under the Microscope the organisms vary from 0°75 pu to 1:7 p, or 
even larger. In cultivating these diplococci forms resembling Sarcina 
tetrads are seen. Some of these sarcinee resemble M. tetragonus, pre- 
senting four equally stained spherules surrounded bya broad transparent 
membrane. If such a preparation be decolorized diplococci reappear. 
This near relationship of Sarcina and Diplococcus has been noticed 
before, especially in the case of Sarcina ventriculi, which is possibly 
only a variety of diplococcus owing its tetrad form to some unknown 
condition. 


Micro-organisms of Pneumonia of Lambs and Calves.{—Dr. E. 
Semmer has observed several cases of red-grey hepatization of the lung 
in calves. From the expresscd juice were obtained cocci 0°5 yw in 


* Zeitschr. f. Hygiene, v. (1888) p. 134. 

+ Wratsch, 1887, No. 42 (Russian). Cf. Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 
vy. (1889) pp. 59-61. 

+ Deutsch. Zeitschr. f. Thiermed. u. Vergleich. Pathol., 1888, p. 242. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 271 


diameter, diplococci 1°0 p» long, and bacilli 1-0 » long and 0°5 p» broad. 
Injection of these organisms into calves gave a negative result. 

In the pneumonia of lambs the author found six different kinds of 
microbes. (1) Large cocci and diplococci 0°5 win diameter ; (2) medium 
sized cocci and diplococci 0:2 » in diameter; (3) small cocci, diplo- 
cocci, and streptococci 0:1 m in diameter; (4) rodlets 0:5-1-0 » long 
and 0-3 » broad; (5) small bacilli 0°5 w long and 0-1 p thick; 
(6) streptobacteria 0:2 w long and 0°1 » thick. Grown in bouillon, on 
gelatin, and on potato, these developed white colonies of single cocci, 
yellowish-white colonies of short rods, and, on potato, brownish-red 
colonies of larger bacilli. Most of these were probably the result of 
secondary invasion. 


272 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


MICROSCOPY. 
a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.* 
(1) Stands. 


Pfeffer’s Botanical Microscope.t—This instrument (fig. 38) was de- 
signed by Dr. W. Pfeffer for measuring the growth of plants, more 
especially in cases where it would be inconvenient to make use of a 
lever which requires a thread to be tied to the plant. 

The body-tube racks in a horizontal socket, over which is supported 


q ==) 
POLAT TTT TNT EAT = 


a spirit level, the instrument being adjusted by the three screws in the feet 
of the tripod. The socket is attached to a fine micrometer screw, which 
works through a screw collar on the top of the pillar; by turning thiscollar, 
which is graduated and milled, the screw rises and falls, and with it the 


* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (3) Ilu- 
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics 
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous. 

+ Pfeffer’s ‘Pflanzenphysiologie,’ Band ii. (1881) pp. 84-5 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 273 


socket and body-tube, forming a fine-adjustment. 
A coarse-adjustment is formed by the collar not 
being attached directly to the pillar, but to a : 
tube sliding in it, which can be raised and lowered i anon 
and clamped by a clamp screw. ‘The eye-piece 
micrometer is somewhat peculiar, every alternate 
line of the principal set of 24 lines being num- 
bered from 0 to 11, with longer lines at 1, 6, and 
11. In the middle of their length the spaces 
between the principal lines are redivided into 
5 subdivisions. 

Ahrens’ Giant Microscope.—The object of 
Mr. C. D. Ahrens in constructing this instrument 
was to have a Microscope with an exceptionally 
large field for use with his new form of polarizer.* 

The body-tube is 4} in. in diameter at the 
top, and below the field-lens it cones down to 
the nose-piece; it has two attachments, one by 
screws to the top of the stem and tail-piece, and 
another at the nose-piece, where it is attached 
to a short bar screwed to the stem. The stage 
racks on the stem which ends in 
a cross-piece which carries a short 
tail-piece on which the mirror 
socket racks. The pillar rotates 
on the tripod. 

The achromatic eye-lens is 
1? in. in diameter, and the field- 
lens 3? in., the foci being respec- 
tively 3in.and6in. A diaphragm 
is placed in the focus of the eye- 
lens. 

Mr. Ahrens considers that the 
defects in flatness of field { and 
marginal colour referred to when 
the Microscope was exhibited 
were due to the objective used. 


* See infra, p. 276. 
+ See this Journal, 1888, p. 1066. 


WC, 


UK 
em 


274 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Swift’s Mineral Microscope.—This extraordi- 
a nary instrument (fig. 40) was made by Messrs. 

Swift and Son on the instructions and after the 
Fic. 40. design of an amateur who desired to have a Micro- 
scope which would allow of the examination of 
large pieces of mineral. The whole is of wood, 
except the body-tube and stem. 

The stem carrying the body-tube is fixed to 
an inclined plate on which moves by rack and 
pinion a large stage. In this stage slides laterally 
a broad plate on which rotates a truncated disc 
with two uprights. ‘The uprights have slots and 
clamp-screws for allowing yet another plate to be 

raised and lowered. In the last plate slides 
from back to front (by a slot and clamp-screw) 

a narrow plate with a high ledge at the lower 
end, the ledge and end of the plate being 
padded with wash-leather. In the uprights 
are sockets for two large wooden screws 
with spherical ends and indiarubber rings 

to hold the object. 


tie 
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AW 
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LEA; 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 275 


Binocular Dissecting Microscope.*—Prof. F. C. Van Dyck de- 
scribes a “binocular dissecting and mounting simple Microscope, made 
of a stereoscope by turning the lenses end for end, and tilting them so 
as to prevent the disagreeable convergence of optic axes, which an ordi- 
nary ‘reading glass.’ necessitates. The arrangement is equivalent to a 
reading glass cut in two, so that its parts may be set at such angle and 
distance as prove effective. If you try it by holding a couple of stereo- 
scopic lenses about five inches from a flower, you can prove the comfort 
of the thing, and try, by shutting one eye, how much good the binocular 
effect does. The aberrations are very marked, of course, but do not 
practically annoy.” 

“T have used mine,” he says, “for a year or more, and find it very 
convenient. The affair is so cheap and so easily made by any one that I 
am inclined to publish a note on it if new, which it is, so far as I know.” 

Leitz’s large Dissecting Microscope.— The speciality of this 
Microscope (fig. 41) consists in the arrangement for extending the lens- 


Fig. 41. 


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i 
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LET a 


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AN [= 


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holder. This is attached to a bar which slides by a small knob in a 
grooved plate, the latter again sliding in a second grooved plate rotating 


* Queen’s Micr. Bulletin, v. (1888) p. 25. 


276 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


on the top of the stem. The second plate is moved by two knobs at the 
sides. 

A blackened brass plate slides beneath the glass stage, so that it can 
be used for both transparent and opaque objects. 

Two large wooden hand-rests, similar to those of Mayer’s dissecting 
Microscope, fit on pins (not shown in the fig.) at the sides of the stage. 


Hewnricyi, J. F., and C. C. MELLOR.—An Old Microscope of the Culpeper Type. 
[Same model as figured on Plate IV. of ‘Adams’ Essays on the Microscope,’ 
1787.] Proc, Amer. Soc. Micr., X. (1888) pp. 140-2) (1 fig.). 
PixERsou, G. A.—Continental Microscopes. 
Qucen’s Micr. Bulletin, V. (1888) pp. 23-4. 


(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives. 


Beck, C.—The Construction of Photographic Lenses. 

[“ The achromatic Microscope was worked out by Lister and others by practical 
methods, and even at the present time many things are done in practice which 
are not even known of by theoretical men. I believe I am correct in saying 
that there is no book which gives a correct representation of a high-power 
microscopic object-glass, and most of the figures which are to be seen in books 
are entirely misleading.” Also remarks on Jena glass. | 

Journ. Soc. of Arts, XX XVII. (1889) pp. 180-92 (6 figs.). 
Detmers, H. J.—American and European Microscopes. 

[Controversy as to Objectives. ] 

Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., X. (1888) pp. 149-54; ef. also The Microscope, IX. 
(1889) pp. 14-15, and St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., LY. (1888) p. 348 ; 
also Dr. J. Pelletan in Journ. de Microgr., XIII. (1889) pp. 101-4. 


Ewe.t, M. D.—American Objectives and Dr. Zeiss’s Apochromatic Objectives. 
[Opinion unfavourable to the latter. | 
The Microscope, 1X. (1889) pp. 30-1. 
Hevrcs, H. van.—Les Apochromatiques juges en Amérique. (The Apochro- 
matics judged in America.) Journ. de Microgr., X11. (1888) pp. 438-40. 
James, F. L.—The 01d Nonsense still on its Rounds. 
[Comments on the “ Wonderful Swedish Optical Glass” paragraphs. See this 


Journal, 1888, p. 499. ] 
St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., LV. (1888) pp. 350-1. 


(8) Illuminating and other Apparatus. 


Ahrens’ Modification of Delezenne’s Polarizer.*—Mr. C. D. Ahrens 
hag devised a modification of Delezenne’s polarizer, which consists of a 
total-reflection prism combined with glass plates and black glass mirror, 
arranged so that the polarized beam is parallel to the original one. 
The combination of plates and mirror is adopted so as to give enough 
light and still keep the polarization sufficiently good. One or two 
plates laid over the mirror are found to give the best results. The fact 
that a beam polarized by reflection is not coincident with the original 
beam renders it inconvenient if not impossible to rotate the polarizer, 
and to overcome this defect Dr. S. P. Thompson has arranged two 
quarter-wave plates, one of which may be rotated. The first plate 
circularly polarizes the plane-polarized beam, and the second (or 
rotating one) re-plane-polarizes it in any desired plane. 

Falter’s Rotating Object-holder.—This apparatus (fig. 42) of 
Messrs. G. Falter & Son of Munich is intended to provide a rotating 
object-holder which can be adapted to any Microscope. 

The objects are arranged round the circumference of a glass disc 


* Nature, xxxix. (1889) p. 398. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. PAT 


which rotates on an arm pivoting on a second arm which is clamped to 
the stage. The first arm can be clamped to the second in any position 
by the milled head screw shown in the woodcut. A piece of watch- 
spring beneath the disc serves as a brake to steady the motion. When 


Fic. 42. 


the arm is set excentrically, the apparatus enables the observer to search 
over a fresh gathering of diatoms, &c. Other discs can be substituted 
as desired. 


Apparatus for measuring very minute Crystals.*—Herr G. Latter- 
mann has devised the small apparatus shown in fig. 43, for the measure- 
ment on the goniometer of crystals 1/10 to 1/20 mm. in length, which on 
account of their smallness could not be 
adjusted on this instrument. 

The apparatus consists of a small hollow 
cube of metal, and a jointed piece with axes 
a and 6. The crystal to be measured is 
fastened on the point of a fine needle, with 
somewhat stiff Canada balsam. By turning 
the axis a, the edge between two faces of the 
zone to be measured (or rather its horizontal 
projection) is adjusted under the Microscope 
upon the thread of the eye-piece running from 
back to front, while at the same time the edge A B is directed on the 
stage also from back to front. The effect of this movement is to bring 
the zonal edge into a vertical plane parallel to a face of the cube. The 
cube is then turned over on its left side, and the zonal edge (now in a 
horizontal plane) is brought strictly parallel to A B, by turning about 
the other axis b. If the apparatus be now placed on the goniometer 
resting on a face at right angles to A B, and be centered, the crystal 
will be in a suitable position for measurement. 


Electricity, Application of, to Microscopy. 
[Discussion by Dr. W. J. Lewis, Dr, L. D. M‘Intosh, and Dr. W. M. Seaman. ] 
Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., X. (1888) pp. 178-9 (1 fig.). 
Royston-Picort, G. W.—The Anti-diffraction Micrometer. 

(‘In using spider lines a certain amount of diffraction confuses the measure- 
ment. When a metallic obstacle is interposed, the impingent rays of light 
are dispersed in a fan-like form. It has occurred to me that a refracting 
cylinder, on the contrary, would refract or inflect these rays inwards, pro- 
ducing darkness. These principles are best il:ustrated by optical diagrams. 
The opaque jaws of the micrometer slides are edged with thin rods of glass, 


* Tschermak’s Mineral. u. Petrogr. Mittheil., ix. (1887) p. 49 (1 fig.). Cf. 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., iv. (1887) p. 542 (1 fig.). 


278 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


fitting together accurately parallel. The image of the object to be measured 
is brought between them and the ivory wheel, divided into hundredths, each 
division representing with 1000 the one-millionth of an inch. Each revolu- 
tion of this wheel is audibly marked by a spring catch ; besides this, an 
adjusting screw serves to set the zero-jaw accurately, and teeth 50 to the 
inch display the number of whole turns.”} 

Eng!. Mech., XUVIII. (1889) p. 389 (1 fig.), 


(4) Photomicrography. 


Zeiss’s large Photomicrographic Apparatus.---Dr. Zeiss supplies» 
for photomicrographic purposes the special stand shown in fig. 44, which 
is generally similar in form and size to the other large stands of the 
maker. There is, however, in addition, an unusually large stage, with 
mechanical movements, rotating by rack and pinion, and having a wide 
opening for use with a low-power objective giving a very large field of 
view. The Abbe illuminating apparatus is so arranged that it can be 
easily removed and replaced by special spectral, polarization, &c. appa- 
ratus. The body-tube is also of an unusually large diameter, partly for 
avoiding internal reflection, and partly to render possible the use of the 
low-power objective. 

The Microscope is not attached to the same support as the camera, 
but both parts are on separate stands, which it is claimed is more con- 
venient for working. The stand, screwed to a metal support which is pro- 
vided with three levelling screws, is set up at one end of the platform 
A (figs. 45 and 46), which is adjustable for height. At the other end of 
the platform is an angle-plate C, which supports an electric lamp; while 
the space between the lamp and the Microscope M is occupied by an 
optical arrangement consisting of two stout metal rails carrying the 
illuminating apparatus for use with sunlight, two vertical screens 
E and F, movable by rack and pinion, which can be quickly turned on 
one side, and again brought back exactly to their old position; a plane 
mirror G, adjustable in height, with coarse- and fine-adjustment in the 
vertical as well as in the horizontal axis, in order to correct slight 
irregularities in the course of the heliostat; and a stand H for the 
reception of glasses for yellow and blue absorption liquids. For the use 
of the arc-lamp, as shown in fig. 46, there is a water-chamber T with 
plate-glass ends for the absorption of the heat-rays, and a lens L for pro- 
jecting the image of the carbon points on the ground-glass plate. On 
the end of the metal support B is an arrangement a, by which the 
movement of a Hooke’s joint 6 with rod b’ can be transferred to the 
micrometer screw. ‘This is effected by means of a toothed wheel which 
can be brought into gear with the toothed whecl of the micrometer screw. 
The tube carries a double socket h into which, by turning the camera, 
slides a corresponding socket-piece attached to the end of the camera, 
so that a very perfect light-proof connection between Microscope and 
camera is effected without disturbing the former. The socket-piece can 
be easily removed and replaced by a macroscopic objective for ordinary 
photographic work. The camera K is mounted on a separate light but 
solid cast-iron stand SS, provided with iron rails on which it can slide 
smoothly by means of rollers. The total length of the camera when 
fully extended is 1-5 m. 

In order to fit the apparatus for taking fluid preparations, the camera 
is divided into two halves, of which the one nearest the Microscope can 
be turned up vertically, as in figs. 47 and 48, or inclined at any angle. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 279 


Col. Wa 


MW 


280 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


5 s 
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ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 281 


Movement of the plane of the image, and also of the Microscope end 
of the camera is effected by pinions acting on a strong rack. Both 
halves of the camera are arranged for plate-holders of 24 by 24 cm. 
which, however, by the addition of frames can be used for plates of any 


smaller size. Two adjusting plates, one of ground glass, and the other 
transparent, and provided with a cross on the Microscope side, serve for 
the coarse- and fine-adjustment of the image. A third plate-holder can 
be added, which for the purpose of ascertaining the best time of exposure, 
permits a great number of proofs to be taken one after another on the 
same plate. To this end the holder is movable in a guide, and is made 
to pass in front of a slit which allows only a small strip of the image to 
fall on the sensitive plate. The bellows of the camera can be drawn a 
little away from the plate-holder, so as to permit the image to be viewed 
from the front, it being thrown on a piece of white paper as in Nachet’s 
method. 

With regard to the choice of a room to serve as a laboratory for 
photomicrographic work, and the setting up and adjustment of the 
apparatus, Dr. Zeiss’s very elaborate catalogue of photomicrographic 
apparatus * should be consulted, in which valuable information is also 
given on the nature of different sources of light and the manner of their 
use for photomicrography, and on the special precautions required in 
the chemical part of photomicrography. 

In photomicrographic work an objective of 75 mm. focal length has 
been constructed which serves to take large objects (2 to 4 cm.) under a 
magnification of ten to fifteen times. It possesses all the advantages of 
the other apochromatic objectives. 

As illuminating apparatus, either an Abbe condenser of 1°20 to 


* C. Zeiss, ‘Special-Catalog iiber Apparate fiir Mikrophotographie,’ 4to, Jena, 
1888, iv. and 56 pp., 16 pls. and 9 figs. 
1889. U 


282 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


1:40 mm. aperture, or a specially constructed achromatic condenser of 
1:0 mm. aperture can be used. To obtain a successful photomicrograph 
it is necessary that the illumination should be limited to that part of the 
object which it is desired to photograph, because otherwise the light 


coming from the surrounding parts has the effect of fogging the picture. 
A sharp image of the source of light must therefore be projected upon 
the object, and to this end the condenser is provided with an arrange- 
ment for cross-centering and for fine-adjustment. The limitation of the 
illuminating cone is effected by an iris-diaphragm. ; 


Fie. 48. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 283 


For the 75 mm. objective a specially small lens of great focal length 
is used as condenser, since it is here necessary to project an image of 
the source of light within the objective. The condenser for use with 
the electric are light consists of two plano-convex and one concavo- 
convex lens L (fig. 49). The part of the system near the lamp is fixed 


Fic. 49. 


= 


once for all at the proper distance for producing a parallel beam, and 
to diminish spherical aberration the concave face is turned to the lamp. 
The part turned to the Microscope, which brings the parallel rays again 
to a focus, is movable in a sliding socket which permits the displace- 
ment of the image on the optic axis within pretty wide limits. 


DetmeRs, H. J.—Photography with High-powers by Lamp-light. 
Proc. Amer, Soc. Micr., X. (1888) pp. 143-8 (1 fig.). 
F. C. 8.—Beginner’s Guide to Photography. 
[Includes ‘ Apparatus for Photomicrography,’ pp. 58-62. ] 
128 pp., 34 figs., 8vo, London, n.d. 
Gray, W. M.—Photomicrography. 
Queen’s Micr. Bull., V. (1888) pp. 21-2, from ‘ Science of Photography.’ 
Nevuavuss, R.—Anleitung fiir Herstellung von Mikrophotogrammen. (Guide to 
preparing Photomicrographs.) : Aerztl. Centr.-Anzeig., 1888, No. 38. 
Perken, Son, and Rayment’s Photomicrographic Apparatus. 
Engl. Mech., XLVIII. (1889) pp. 369-70 C1 fig.). 
Swift and Sons’ (J.) Photomicrographic Apparatus. 
[Lord Edward Churchill’s. See this Journal, 1888, p. 1061.] 
Scientific News, II. (1888) p. 379 (1 fig.). 


(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. 


Microscopical Optics.—Recent occurrences would appear to show that 
we have allowed too long a period as the measure of a microscopical 
“generation.” In ordinary life thirty years is considered to represent a 
generation, and as it is less than ten years since the more salient facts of 

u 2 


284 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


microscopical optics were brought prominently before microscopists, we 
were a little surprised to find that principles which it had cost so much 
time and trouble and money to record should be suddenly trampled upon 
in what, from our point of view, was a most unreasoning and unreason- 
able manner. 

As it is possible that the explanation is to be found in the fact that, 
notwithstanding the shortness of the time, new minds have come upon 
the scene which were not in being at the time of the old discussions, we 
propose to consider in detail in this and following numbers of the Journal 
the various errors above referred to, so that at any rate for the next ten 
years, we nay hope to be free from similar misapprehensions. 

(1) We will first deal with the notion that the diffraction theory as 
promulgated by Professor Abbe is affected either in principle or applica- 
tion by the increase of the theoretical maximum of the apertures of objec- 
tives from 1°33 (water) to 1:5 (oil). The text on which we found this 
explanation is a statement quoted in this Journal for 1888, p. 1034, and the 
full text of which will be found in the place indicated in the footnote.* 

The best answer that can, we think, be given to this notion is the 
following paragraph from a paper written by Professor Abbe before the 
introduction of homogeneous-immersion lenses, and it will be seen that 
at that time he assumed the existence of objectives of 1:5 and discussed 
the capabilities of much larger apertures, a point which we need hardly 
remind our readers, has not yet been reached. 

Professor Abbe said :—“ With regard to a still further extension of 
aperture beyond 1:5 (the refractive index of crown glass), it may be 
thought that in process of time transparent substances, available for the 
construction of objectives, will be discovered, whose refractive index 
will far exceed that of our existing kinds of glass, together with 
immersion fluids of similarly high refractive power, so as to give new 
scope to the immersion principle. What, however, will be gained by 
all this? We shall, perhaps, with certain objects, such as diatoms, 
discover further indications of structure where we now see bare surfaces ; 
in other objects, which now show only the typical striations, we shall 
see something more of the details of the actual structure by means of 
more strongly diffracted rays ; but we should get on the whole little deeper 
insight into the real nature and composition of the minuter natural forms, 
even should the resolving power of the Microscope be increased to twice tts 
present amount ; for, whatever part of the structure cannot at present be 
correctly represented, on account of its small size, will then also give 
an imperfect image, although presenting a somewhat higher degree of 
similarity than before. If, therefore, we are not to rest upon conjec- 
tures which surpass the horizon of our present knowledge (as, for 
instance, would be the expectation of the discovery of substances of 
considerably higher refractive power than has hitherto been found in 
any transparent substance), our progress in this direction in the future 
will be small, and the domain of microscopy will only be very slightly 
enlarged, the more so because every such advance, however great, will 
be but of limited utility to science on account of very inconvenient 
conditions. For a given extension of the aperture can only render 
possible a correspondingly enhanced performance of the Microscope 
when the object is surrounded by a medium whose refractive index at 


* Eng. Mech., xlviii. (1888) p. 178. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 285 


least equals that aperture. If the Microscopes of the future should 
utilize the refractive power of the diamond, all the objects would have 
to be imbedded in diamond, without any intervening substance. The 
result of this consideration is, therefore, that as long as aperture serves 
that specific function which experiment and theory compel us to ascribe 
to it at present, there is a limit to the further improvement of the 
Microscope, which, according to the present condition of our knowledge, 
must be considered as insurmountable.”* 

It will be seen, therefore, that the diffraction theory, even before 
the introduction of homogeneous-immersion objectives, took account of 
apertures higher than 2, so that there is no foundation for the wildly 
ridiculous suggestion that it is possible to “trace in all Dr. Abbe’s 
“‘ subsequent papers the influence of two moods, and that at times he 
“could not resist the evidence, as the aperture of the objectives became 
“ larger, that the image given by them was a truthful one.” + 

In addition to this it should be recalled that the first detailed 
exposition of the diffraction theory on its final basis was published by 
Professor Abbe in 1882. As homogeneous-immersion objectives were 
made by Professor Abbe and Dr. Zeiss in 1878, it is quite 2 misapprehen- 
sion to write that “since then has come the oil-immersion objective and 
“ the oil-immersion condenser, throwing a flood of light on the image 
“ not possible under the old methods, and what I cannot understand is that 
“ people should now revive the old doubts.” Whatever were the old doubts 
they still remain in the same position—unchanged and unremoved by 
anything that has happened since they were first shown to exist. 

2) The second point with which we will deal is contained in a 
statement the text of which is as follows :— 

““. , . Even Dr. Abbe seems to be frightened at the logical 
outcome of his own theory, for further on he says, ‘It is obvious 
that a perfect fusion in every case of the same diffraction images, 
and then an exact superposition of the resultant diffraction image 
upon the absorption image, is only possible when the objective 
is uniformly free from aberration over the whole area of its 
aperture. This clearly means that given perfect correction of 
the objective there is perfect definition of the object, which to 
me seems to contradict the former part of the paper.” § 

The misunderstanding here arises from not comprehending the 
difference between the defining and the delineating power of an objec- 
tive. 

Take, for example, the case of an objective which has an aperture 
sufficient only to take in the first set of spectra of Pleurosigma angu- 
latum. If the objective is perfectly corrected we shall have perfect 
definition of the image to which those spectra give rise. But the objective 
not having an aperture sufficiently large to take in the second set of 
spectra will necessarily give a less perfect image than another 
objective which takes in those spectra, and the first objective therefore, 
though perfectly corrected and giving perfect definition of what it does 
show, gives only an imperfect image. 

In the next number of the Journal we shall deal with further mis- 
apprehensions of the same kind as those above referred to. 


* This Journal, 1884, pp. 292-3 
+ Journ, Quek. Micr. Club, iii. (1888) p. 268. { Ibid. p. 269.  § Ihbid., p. 268. 


286 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Mode of using the Quartz Wedge for estimating the Strength of 
the Double-Refraction of Minerals in thin slices of Rock.*—Major- 
General C. A. McMahon describes a rough and ready method for esti- 
mating the strength of the double-refraction of minerals in rock sections, 
which he has used with advantage for some years. It serves to replace 
the somewhat complicated methods, requiring special apparatus, of 
Babinet and Michael Lévy, when perfect exactness is not required. 

When a quartz wedge is inserted in a slot in the eye-piece of a 
Microscope, arranged with crossed nicols, at an angle of 45° to the 
plane of polarization, a series of chromatic bands will be observed in 
the wedge, each band consisting of a spectrum of colours in an ascend- 
ing order, the colours of ths first order of Newton’s scale being the 
nearest to the thin edge of the wedge. The width of these bands varies 
directly with the thickness of the quartz, and inversely with the slope 
of the wedge. 

The stronger the double-refraction of a mineral, the higher will be 
the order of the tint exhibited by it when slices of different minerals of 
uniform thickness and at the same angle to an optic axis are examined. 
The usual method of using the wedge therefore consists in comparing 
the tint exhibited by the mineral with the corresponding tint in one of 
the chromatic bands in the wedge. 

In working this method the author employs a special wedge (fig. 50), 
which only occupies half the depth of the slot, so" that the observer is 


<r ed 


LIL Ley 


Lo DB AS 


able to directly compare the tint of a mineral, say at d (fig. 50), with 
the spectra seen in the wedge a be. 

The method now to be described differs from the above in depending 
on the phenomena produced in the wedge by the passage of light 
through the mineral to the quartz. 

If, while the quartz wedge is inserted in the eye-piece as above, a 
second quartz wedge be placed on the stage with its axis at right angles 
to that of the wedge of the eye-piece, the velocity of the extraordinary 
ray is retarded in one of the two plates and accelerated in the other. A 
dark line will then appear due to the points where the velocity of the 
extraordinary ray on emergence from the upper quartz wedge becomes 
the same as that of the ordinary ray. 

If the analysing quartz wedge be kept stationary and the other 
moved on the stage so that thicker and thicker portions of the quartz 
are successively brought within the range of vision, the dark line moves 
gradually from the thin towards the thicker end of the analysing wedge, 
so that spectra (in inverse order) of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and higher orders 
come in between it and the thin edge of the wedge. Thus the distance 


* Geol. Mag., v. (1888) pp. 548-58 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 287 


of the black line from the thin end of the wedge is proportional to the 
thickness of the quartz on the stage. 

By substituting for the quartz wedge on the stage mineral sections 
of uniform thickness cut at the same angle to the optic axis, the distance 
of the black line from the thin end of the analysing wedge in each case 
gives a means of estimating the strength of the double-refraction. 

As applied to the examination of minerals contained in rock sections, 
the method is complicated by the fact that they vary in thickness and 
also in the angle to an optic axis at which they are sliced. The fact 
that sections prepared by a skilful lapidary do not differ greatly in 
thickness, helps to obviate the first difficulty ; and the second is partly 
overcome by choosing for examination the most brilliantly coloured 
crystals, which are presumedly those cut approximately parallel to an 
optic axis. At any rate, the method enables one to separate at a glance 
such strongly refracting minerals as rutite, dolomite, calcite, sphene, 
anatose, and zircon. So powerful is the double-refraction of rutite, 
calcite, and sphene that two wedges are sometimes necessary in order to 
bring the dark line within the range of vision. 

So also the minerals of very feeble double-refraction are easily 
separated. In these cases sometimes the black line is on the very edge 
of the quartz wedge, or is just beyond the range of vision. In the latter 
case a 1/4 undulation plate is inserted above the object-glass, which has 
the effect of shifting the spectra up the wedge. 

In ordinary rock sections quartz rarely exhibits more than one 
chromatic band between the dark line and the edge of the wedge; 
whilst such minerals as muscovite, olivine, and actinolite commonly 
present three and sometimes as many as five such bands. A feeble 
double-refracting mineral will never exhibit the phenomena presented 
by one of strong double-refraction, but the latter when cut approximately 
at right angles to an optic axis will resemble a mineral of feeble double- 
refraction cut approximately parallel to an optic axis. In this case, 
however, the mineral will exhibit characteristic appearances when ex- 
amined in convergent light. 

In cases where a mineral is so minute as to be less in diameter than 
the width of one of the chromatic bands exhibited by it, the number of 
bands which come in between the dark line and the thin edge of the 
wedge can still be counted if, confining his attention to one colour, the 
observer counts the number of times before extinction that the mineral 
assumes that colour as the wedge is moved across it. 

As an illustration of the close approach to accuracy obtained by the 
use of the method the author mentions the case of sphene, which the 
determinations of refractive indices made by M. Lévy and Lacroix show 
to have a position, as regards intensity of double refraction, between 
zircon and calcite, a position assigned to it by the author on the evidence 
afforded by the rough and ready use of the quartz wedge. 


“Method of using with ease Objectives of shortest working dis- 
tance in the clinical study of Bacteria.” *—Dr. A. C. Mercer writes 
as follows :— 

“The working distance of homogencous-immersion objectives of 
short focus and great numerical aperture is little. In the clinical study 
of bacteria, sputa and other more or less fluid material are generally 


* The Microscope, ix. (1889} p. 46 


288 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


prepared on the under surface of cover-glasses, commonly, when not 
measured and assorted, so thick as to make examination with the above 
most suitable objectives impossible. 

To avoid this difficulty I dry and stain the material on the slide, 
drop homogeneous-immersion fluid upon the preparation, and lower the 
objective into the drop. Homogeneous fluid replaces both the balsam 
and the cover-glass with optical propriety. 

A twenty-fifth, which has been nearly useless over ordinary cover- 
glass preparations, is now used with gratifying freedom in manipulation 
over uncovered, but homogeneously immersed, slide preparations.” 


“Back of the Objective and the Condenser.’*—The following are 
extracts from an interesting article by Mr. EH. M. Nelson on this subject. 
Observing that a condenser was described as a “fad of English micro- 
scopists,” he thinks it will be worth while to try and account for this by 
no means uncommon idea. The task is not an easy one, for there are 
many fallacies underlying this impression. 

“ Hirst, we have spherical aberration. Many objectives, both cheap 
and expensive, are turned out full of spherical aberration. If more than 
the immediate centre of these lenses is used, the object will be flooded 
. or drowned in light. 

There are two kinds of flooding with light: one is due to spherical 
aberration, as above, the other to the too powerful illumination of the 
object. This last, however, seldom obtains in the Microscope, but is 
always made an excuse for the other. Suppose we have a first-rate 1/2 
of 60°. This lens will not be performing at its best unless it is illumi- 
nated by a solid axial cone of 60° from a condenser, the object being 
placed in the apex of the two cones. 

Under these conditions, it is by no means necessary that the illumi- 
nation of the object should be too brilliant for the eye. If it is, it may 
be modified by blue or neutral tinted glass. If the lens is free from 
spherical aberration, the image will be clearer and sharper than if the 
cone were to be reduced by means of a diaphragm. But if the lens is 
mediocre or inferior in its correction for spherical aberration, then the 
image will be fogged, though not necessarily too bright for the eye. 
This fog, however, will pass off, as the angle of the illuminating cone is 
reduced by the diaphragm. 

Very many histologists, biologists, &c., prefer their Microscopes 
without condensers, because they are unable to illuminate their objects 
with cones large enough to develope, so to speak, the latent spherical 
aberration in their objectives; at the same time, they seem to be 
unaware of the fact that neither can they develope the resolving power of 
the lens. 

Secondly, low-angled glasses for penetration: this fallacy is hung 
on a peg of physical truth—viz. that penetration is inversely propor- 
tional to aperture. 

The continual parading of this truth, and the placing of it in undue 
prominence in several well-known microscopical works, has wrought an 
incalculable amount of mischief. 

It has not only held back the progress of microscopy, but it has 
directed many earnest workers in the wrong way. 


* Eng. Mechanic, xlviii. (1888) pp. 286-7 (4 figs.). See also pp. 260, 277, 278, 
295, and 296. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 289 


I was myself caught with this plausible fallacy some years ago, and 
lost a good deal of ground before I discovered the error. This fallacy is 
an exceedingly difficult one to confute in an article such as this, because 
it does not consist solely of one error, but is, in reality, a whole cluster 
of errors. 

To illustrate one of these errors, I take two quarters, one wide, the 
other low-angled, both of the same power, and both thoroughly well 
corrected. I, the demonstrator, allow the demonstratee to select any 
object out of my cabinet, or bring one of his own; this object is then suc- 
cessively examined by each lens, properly illuminated by a condenser, and 
by the same eye-piece; the unanimous testimony of the demonstratees 
being that the observations are much more satisfactory with the wide- 
angled lens. 

I then ask the demonstratee to fix on some definite point in the object 
illustrating the superior penetrating power of the low-angled lens. 

The object is re-examined, the objectives are changed a score of 
times; but the result of it all is, that they say, they thought there 
would have been more difference ; but, practically, there does not appear 
to be any. I have devoted a great deal of time to this question, and 
have gone carefully over these experiments myself, and consequently 
know what must be the verdict of every impartial observer. 

The explanation is as follows:—Let us suppose that a section of 
tissue is the object,* and the test is to trace the course of a vessel in it. 
Where no special difficulty arises the one lens is as good as the other,j| 
but the moment the vessel gets involved in similarly coloured or other 
tissue, the increased resolving power of the wide-angled lens makes itself 
felt, and at once differentiates the structure, which the narrow-angled 
lens fails to do. ; 

The difference of focal depth might form an element for considera- 
tion if the lens were rigidly fixed at a certain distance from the object ; 
but there is such a thing as a fine-adjustment, and by means of it the 
observer is able to trace the course of the vessel by the wide-angled lens, 
and without effort or thought to direct the movement of the lens; there- 
fore, the question of depth of focus assumes more of a theoretical 
objection than a practical one. ; 

The question will be asked, What has all this to do with condensers ? 
The answer is, that histologists invariably use narrow-angled lenses. A 
plane mirror when used with diffused daylight near an ordinary window 
gives a cone of illumination; the angle of this cone varies with the 
diameter of the mirror and its nearness to the object, say from 10° to 
30°. In no instance of mirror illumination, either plane or concave, 
would I expect to find 80° exceeded, and such an angle as that would 
never be reached by the average histological Microscope. 

Therefore we can see that a histologist would, perhaps, be able to fill 
his low-angled inch, and to inadequately fill his low-angled 1/4. The 
1/4 he would not be able to fill enough to develope any spherical aber- 
ration it might have, unless, indeed, the lens was execrably bad. 


* Histologists invariably choose this or some similar object. They fight shy of 
diatoms, because they know the superior defining power of the wider-angled lens 
would be more apparent. The diatom would exhibit the difference of focal depth 
better than any other histological object. 


+ Not strictly speaking, for a narrow-angled lens never gives such-a good image 
as a wide one. 


290 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Suppose he now tries his lenses on a Microscope with a condenser. In 
regard to his low-angled inch, he can find no difference as it was filled 
before, but with his 1/4 the definition is worse, because he has brought 
out the spherical aberration of his lens; he therefore prefers the Micro- 
scope without a condenser, and calls them a ‘fad of English micro- 
scopists.’ Let him, however, view the same objects with similar lenses, 
well corrected and of decent angles, properly illuminated by a condenser, 
and his conversion will be complete. 

Thirdly, the object. There is a golden rule for microscopists which 
has been so frequently stated that I would not repeat it were it not that 
it is so frequently disregarded. It is this: ‘Use as low a power as 
possible.’ 

The favourite procedure with histologists is to use a high power 
uncritically where a low power used critically would be far better. 

I would greatly prefer to use a 4/10 of 80° with a 1 in. eye-piece 
than a 1/6 of the same angle with a 2 in. eye-piece, both being used 
with a condenser. What shall we say when a 4/10 of 80° with the 
1 in. eye-piece is used with a condenser, and the 1/6 of 80° and 2 in. 
eye-piece is used without ? 

I am firmly persuaded that we should hear far less of ‘low-angled 
glasses for penetration’ if powers suitable to the object were used. 

There are published microscopical works with diagrams stated to 
have been drawn under the magnification of an oil-immersion 1/12, 
which, as far as the detail in them is concerned, might have been drawn 
with a 1/2 in.; and yet such a thing calls forth no remark in the 
microscopical world... . 

Let me append just two statements out of the many I have heard 
from histologists themselves on this subject. ‘ We cannot see anything 
like this with an oil-immersion 1/12.’ The object in this case was 
tubercle bacillus with a 1/2 in. A yonng graduate fresh from one of 
the first laboratories in the kingdom remarked, ‘We have nothing like 
this at Some anatomical subjects under a power of 140 with a 
4/10 of 80° called forth that statement. So much for the testimony of 
others. I will now give two instances from my own experience. A 
curved piece of pink-stained dirt about the size of a Rotifer vulgaris was 
shown to me for a comma bacillus. If a true comma bacillus had been 
placed under that Microscope it would have been quite invisible. 

On another occasion I was shown B. anthrax under an oil-immersion 
1/12; in this instance it was just possible to differentiate a something 
out of the general smudge which might be said to resemble the object 
when you knew what to look for. The exhibitor has public reputation 
for microscopical knowledge. 

Fourthly, a histologist prefers his Microscope without a condenser, 
because the condenser would accentuate the deplorable condition of his 
fine-adjustment. A sharp critical image requires a precise focusing 
apparatus, but an uncritical image, i.e. an image without an edge* to 
it, can stand a jerky fine-adjustment. 

Fifthly, daylight. Bad as a Microscope without a condenser is, it be- 
comes far worse when illuminated by artificial light instead of daylight. 

With lamplight a cone from the plane mirror becomes an impossi- 
bility, so one has to be contented with the best that can be got (sometimes 


* An image in which the boundaries of the detail are all finff. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 291 


diverging rays) from what is often an ill-arranged* concave mirror. The 
concave mirror is generally made too small, and of too shallow a curve. 

I now come to the second part of my subject, viz. the condenser and 
the objective back. 

1. It is advantageous to know the maximum aperture of your 
condenser. It can be easily measured by an Abbe’s apertometer. 

2. It is of more importance, however, to know the aperture of the 
largest cone free from spherical aberration which can be obtained from 
a condenser. This cannot be found out by the apertometer. 

3. It is also of paramount importance to know the apertures of the 
cones which the various diaphragms will give. These, of course, could 
be measured by an apertometer; but with very many forms of dia- 
phragms it could only be accomplished with difficulty. 

I will now endeavour to give some useful hints with regard to these 
questions. I will take No. 3 first. 

Fig. 51 exhibits the back of a dry lens of N.A. 0°5 = 60°, illumi- 
nated by a condenser of greater aperture free from spherical aberration, 
the condenser and flame image having been centered and focused. 

Fig. 52 shows the same objective, with a smaller diaphragm placed 
at the back of the condenser. The edge of this diaphragm is seen just 


Fie. 51. Fig. 52. 


ek 


appearing at the margin of the objective. The aperture of the con- 
denser, when used with this diaphragm, is therefore a shade less than 
N.A. 0°5—say 55°. 

In a similar manner the apertures of the condenser with other 
diaphragms may be estimated with sufficient accuracy for all practical 
purposes. 

Now with regard to No. 52, it is necessary to have a wide-angled 
objective ; the condenser and flame are centered and focused as before, 
the eye-piece removed, and while the back of the objective is being 
examined the condenser is slowly racked up. It will be noticed that a 
point is reached when the disc of light is at its largest (fig. 53); ona 
further movement of the condenser two black spots appear, one on either 
side of the middle of the dise (fig. 54), and these increase as the con- 
denser is further racked up. The last point before the appearance of the 
black spots indicates the largest aperture of the condenser free from spherical 
aberration, and is the limit of the condenser for critical work. Any further 
advance of the condenser gives merely annular illumination, which, of 
course, is to be avoided, except in the case of dark grounds with stops 
for low powers. The extreme margin of even the best condenser is only 
useful for giving an oblique beam with a slot.” 


* The concave mirror is usually fixed to the tail-piece, with or without a crank. 
This is thoroughly wrong in principle. A concave mirror should always be fixed to 
a tube sliding in the tail-piece to allow of it being focused. The crank-arm is quite 
of secondary importance. 


292 


SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Aperture Table.—The following Table of Apertures has for some years been printed 
on the wrapper of this Journal, but as part of the space which it occupies is now required 
for other purposes a condensed table will in future be used, the full table being reprinted 
here for future reference. 


Numerical 
Aperture. 
(nm sinu=a) 


CODD ODCOC OBB EEE Be eH fl by pe by fe ee et fe en fe ef ef fe fd ed fe fet fed fd pe fe fe fe 
5 : 3 5 Se ee es Bia sar tes 5 
© 


Corresponding Angle (2 w) for 


Limit of Resolving Power, in Lines to an Inch. 


Air 


(n = 1°00). 


Water 
(m = 1°33). 


Homogeneous 
Immersion 


| White Light. 
f(A = 0°5269 p, 


Monochromatic 
(Blue) Light. 


Photography. 
(A =0°4861 pw, | (A = 0°4000 pw, 


(m = 1°52). | Line E.) Line F.) near Line h.) 
1s0° 0’ | 146,543 | 158,845 | 193,037 
166° 51’ | 145,579 157,800 191,767 
161° 93’ | 144/615 | 156.755 | 190,497 
IB 1D? 143,651 155,710 189,227 
158° 39’ 142,687 154,665 187,957 
150° 32’ 141,723 153, 620 186, 687 
147° 42’ 140,759 152,575 185,417 
145° 6’ 139,795 151,530 184, 147 
142° 39’ | 138.830 | 150.485 | 182.877 
140° 22’ 137,866 149,440 181,607 
138° 12' 136,902 148,395 180,337 
136° 8’ 135,938 147, 350 179,067 
134° 10’ 134,974 146,305 177,797 
132° 16’ 134,010 145,260 176,527 
180° 26’ 133, 046 144,215 175, 257 
128° 40’ 132,082 143,170 173,987 
126° 58’ | 131,118 | 1422195 | 172,717 
125° 18’ 130,154 141,080 171,447 
123° 40’ 129,189 140,035 170,177 
UDRO (BY 128 , 225 138,989 168,907 
120° 33 127,261 137,944 167, 637 
WIGS gy 126,297 136,899 166,367 
ING Bay 125,333 135,854 165,097 
116° 8’ 124,369 134,809 163,827 
114° 44’ 123,405 133,764 162,557 
IBS Dil? 122,441 132,719 161,287 
111° 59’ 121,477 131,674 160,017 
110° 39’ 120,513 130,629 158,747 
109° 20’ | 119,548 | 129.584 | 157,477 
IQ32 2 118,584 128,539 156,207 
106° 45’ | 117,620 | 127,494 | 154,937 
105° 30’ 116,656 126,449 153,668 
IO 15Y 115, 692 125,404 152,397 
O37 114,728 124,359 151,128 
101° 50’ 113,764 123,314 149,857 
100° 38’ 112,799 122,269 148,588 
GE? Bey 111,835 121,224 147,317 
98° 20’ 110,872 120,179 146,048 
Sie 109,907 119,134 144,777 
S6gue2y 108,943 118,089 143,508 
94° 55! 107,979 117,044 142, 237 
3° 47’ 107,015 115,999 140,968 
92° 43 106,051 114,954 139,698 
91° 38’ 105,087 113,909 138 ,428 
90° 34’ 104,123 112,864 187,158 
89° 30’ 103,159 111,819 135,888 
8382) 277 102,195 110,774 134,618 
87° 24’ 101,231 109,729 133,348 
86° 21’ 100,266 108, 684 132,078 
85° 19’ 99,302 107,639 130,808 
84° 18’ 98,338 106,593 129,538 
832 7’ 97,374 105,548 128,268 
82° 17’ 96,410 104,503 126,998 
81° 17’ 95,446 103,458 125,728 
80° 17’ 94,482 102,413 124,458 
79° 18’ 93,518 101,368 123,188 
78° 20’ 92,554 100,323 121,918 
UT BY 91,590 99,278 120,648 
76° 24’ | 90,625 | 98,933 | 119,378 
75° 97' | 89.661 97.188 | 118,108 
74° 30’ 88,697 96,143 116,838 
Ua? Sey 87,733 95,098 115,568 


Pene- 
Illuminating} trating 
Power. Power. 
(@2.) | 1 
() 
2°310 *658 
2°280 "662 
2-250 ‘667 
2°220 ‘671 
2°190 *676 
2°161 -680 
2°132 “685 
2°103 “690 
2°074 694 
2°045 “699 
2-016 | -704 
1:988 ‘709 
1-960 “714 
1-932 “719 
1-904 “725 
1:877 | -739 
1:850 *735 
1:823 *746 
1:796 “741 
1-769 "752 
1:742 *758 
1:716 *763 
1-690 *769 
1:664 “775 
1:°638 “781 
1:613 °787 
1°588 +794 
1:563 -800 
1°538 “806 
1°513 “813 
1:488 “820 
1:464 | -826 
1:440 °833 
1°416 -840 
1:392 *847 
1°369 *855 
1:346 *862 
1°323 *870 
1:300 | -:877 
1-277 “885 
1:254 -893 
1-232 | -901 
1:210 -909 
1-188 -917 
1:166 *926 
1:145 | -:935 
1:124 | -948 
1:103 +952 
1:082 *962 
1:061 4 :971 
1-040 -980 
1:020 -990 
1:000 1°000 
“980 { 1-010 
“960 | 1:020 
“941 | 1:031 
"922 1:°042 
°903 | 1-058 
“88+ 1:064 
865 1:075 
*846 | 1 087 
“828 4 1:099 


Numerical 
Aperture. 
(m sin u = 4.) 


QO: 


299990990990 9990009009909900909009009099099009009009999000900900900900 


86 


Corresponding Angle (2 w) for 


39° 
37° 
34° 
32° 
30° 
28° 
27° 
25° 
23° 
20° 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 


25° 
27° 
26° 
24° 
22° 
21° 
20° 
Ge 


25° 
240 
22° 
21° 
19° 
18° 
18° 
16° 


32,779 
30,851 
28,923 
26,995 
25,067 
24,103 
23,138 
21,210 
19,282 
17,354 
15,426 
14,462 
13,498 
11,570 

9,641 

7,713 

5,785 

4,821 


Air Water  |Homogeneous } white Light, Mine) Light. 
Immersion 4, — 0+5269 pry |(A = 0°4861 p, 
(n = 1:00). (n => 1°33). (a = 1°52). f Line EK.) Line F.) 
128° 19’ 85° 10’ 72° 36’ 86,769 94,053 
125° 46’ He O71) Ale 4Koy 85,805 93,008 
WAS Ace 82° 51’ 70° 44’ 84,841 91,963 
120° 55’ 81° 42’ 69° 49’ 83,877 90,918 
118° 38’ 80° 34’ 68° 54’ 82,913 89,873 
116° 25’ TS? Ba’ 68° 0’ 81,949 88,828 
114° 17’ 78° 20! Giigaos 80,984 87,783 
122 12" 77° 14’ 66° 12’ 80,020 86,738 
110° 10’ US? BY 65° 18’ 79,056 85,693 
108° 10’ We? By 64° 24’ 78,092 84,648 
106° 16’ 73° 58! 63° 31’ 77,128 83,603 
104° 22’ 72° 53! 62° 38’ 76,164 82,558 
G2 Sil! 71° 49’ 61° 45’ 75, 200 81,513 
100° 42’ 70° 45 60° 52’ 74,236 80,468 
98° 56’ 69° 42’ 60° 0’ 73,272 19,423 
Sigal 68° 40’ 59° 8” 72,308 78,378 
Qoge287 Bo Bz 58° 16’ 71,343 717,333 
93° 46’ 66° 34’ 57° 24’ 70,379 76,288 
IZE 6! 65° 32’ 56° 32’ 69,415 70 , 242 
90° 287 64° 32’ D0° 41’ 68,451 74,197 
88° 51’ 63° 31’ 54° 50’ 67,487 73,152 
87° 16’ 62° 30’ 93° 59’ 66,523 72,107 
85° 41’ 61° 30’ Geo oY 65,559 71,062 
84° 68! 60° 30’ 02° 18’ 64,595 70,017 
82° 36’ 59° 30’ 51° 287 63,631 68,972 
81° 6’ 58° 30! 50° 38’ 62,667 67,927 
79° 36’ Siow 49° 48’ 61,702 66,882 
US OF 56° 32’ 48° 58’ 60,738 65,837 
76° 38’ 58° 34’ ayes) By 09,774 64,792 
TE? WO 54° 36! 47° 19’ 08,810 65,747 
73° 44! ap Siey 46° 30’ 07,846 62,702 
72° 18’ 52° 40’ 45° 40’ 06,881 61,657 
70° 54’ 51° 42’ 44° 51’ 59,918 60,612 
69° 30’ 50° 45’ 44° 9! 54, 954 99,567 
68° 6’ | 49° 48’ | 43° 14” 53,990 58,522 
66° 44" | 49° 51’ | 49° 957 53,026 57,477 
652 227 47° 54! 41° 37’ 52,061 56,432 
64° 0’ 46° 58’ 40° 48’ 51,097 05,387 
62° 40’ 46° 2’ 40° 0’ 90,133 04,342 
61° 20’ 45° 6! 39° 12? 49,169 93, 297 
60° 0’ | 44° 10’ | 38° 24’ 48,205 52,252 
Diez 42° 18’ 86° 49’ 46,277 00,162 
54° 47’ 40° 28’ 85° 15’ 44,349 48,072 
53° 30’ Bu Bay 34° 27’ 43,385 47,026 
92° 13’ 38° 38’ 33° 40’ 42,420 45,981 
49° 40’ 86° 49’ 322 5! 40,492 43,891 
47° 9! 85° 0’ 30° 31’ 88,564 41,801 
44° 40’ Be IBY 28° 57’ 36,636 39,711 
42° 19! 31° 24’ 27° 24’ 34,708 37,621 
40° 58’ 30° 30’ 26° 38’ 33, 744 36,576 


35,531 
33,441 
31,351 
29,261 
27,171 
26,126 
25,081 
22,991 
20,901 
18,811 
16,721 
15,676 
14,630 
12,540 
10.450 

8,360 

6,270 

5,225 


}Limit of Resolving Power, in Lines to an Inch. 


Photography. 


(A= 0°4000 p, 
near Line h.) 


114,298 
113,028 
111,758 
110,488 
109,218 
107,948 
106,678 
105,408 
104,138 
102,868 
101,598 
100,328 
99,058 
97,788 
96,518 
95,248 
93,979 
92,709 
91,439 
90,169 
88,899 
87,629 
86,359 
85,089 
83,819 
82,549 
81,279 
80,009 
78,739 
77,469 
76,199 
74,929 
73,659 
72,389 
71,119 
69,849 
68,579 
67,309 
66,039 
64,769 
63,499 
60,959 
58,419 
57,149 
55,879 
93,339 
300,799 
48,259 
45,719 
44,449 
43.179 
40,639 
88,099 
35,559 
83,019 
381,749 
30,479 
27,940 
25,400 
22,860 
20,320 
19,050 
17,780 
15,240 
12,700 
10,160 
7,620 
6,350 


293 


| Pene- 
Tiluminating) trating 
i} Power. {| Power. 
(a2.) f /1 
| ©) 
ogi) |) Torii 
*792 ) 1-124 
“774 | Lele 
“757 4 1:149 
“740 1°163 
*723 1-176 
*706 1°190 
“689 | 1-205 
°672 || 1-220 
“656 49 1°235 
“640 # 1-250 
°624 | 1:266 
“608 ff 1-282 
‘5938 } 1-299 
“978 | 1°316 
“563 ff 1-333 
“548 f 1-351 
‘533 7 1°370 
°518 } 1-389 
“504 | 1-408 
-490 | 1-429 
*476 1:449 
"462 | 1-471 
"449 f 1-493 
"436 # 1:d15 
°423 § 1-538 
“410 § 1:562 
397 | 1:587 
“384 1-613 
Oe 639 
*360 § 1 667 
“348 § 1-695 
*336 | 1°724 
i °325 | 1-754 
i “814 | 1-786 
303 4 1-818 
292 | 1°852 
“281 § 1:887 
-270 1:923 
“260 § 1-961 
-250 | 2:000 
°230 | 2-083 
“212 | 2-174 
°203 f 2-222 
°194 § 2°273 
176 } 2-381 
160 | 2°500 
144 | 2°632 
“130 | 2°778 
W233 || OCS 
116 2-941 
102 § 3 125 
090 | 3°333 
078 3:57] 
068 | 3-846 
063 | 4-000 
058 4-167 
“048 4-545 
“040 § 5:000 
O32 OL 505) 
026 6° 250 
023 6°667 
020 7°148 
O14 8°33 


294. SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Feruu, G. E.—Report of Committee on Micrometry. i 
y Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., X. (1888) pp. 163-4. 
Garie., C. M.—Etudes d’Optique Geométrique, Dioptres, Systemes Centres, 
Lentilles, Instruments d’Optique. (Studies in Geometrical Optics, Dioptrics, 
Centered Systems, Lenses, Optical Instruments.) 
viii. and 240 pp., 149 figs. 8vo, Paris, 1889. 
Magnifying Power, The Determination of. A prevalent Error. 
Queen’s Micr. Bulletin, V. (1888) p. 17. 
M esuin, G.— 

[Explanation of the reason why one sees in the bright circle of light of the 
Microscope his own eyelashes as an inverted or erect image, according to the 
kind of ocular used. The explanation lies in the fact that the lashes pro- 
duce in the cone of light which proceeds from the mirror a shadow figure, 
the projection of which into the retina depends on the focus of the rays 
issuing from the ocular. If these be little convergent, or the eye be far 
enough from the ocular, the image would be thrown behind the retina; 
accordingly an erect image (perceived inverted) appears. In the reverse 
condition (strong convergence of the rays issuing from the ocular, or a near 
position of the eye) the image falls in front of the retina. The shadow 
figure originates in the prolongation of the rays diverging from the image, 
which is really inverted but perceived erect. ] 

Journ. de Phys., VI. (1887) p. 509. 
Newson, E. M.—A Popular Explanation of Interference Phenomena. 
Engl. Mech., XLVIII. (1889) p. 380 (2 figs.). 
Pout, A.—Note di Microscopia. (Notes on Microscopy.) 
kiv. Scient. Industr., 1888, pp. 187-44, 169-75, 190. 
3 Le Microscope et sa Theorie. (The Microscope and its theory.) 
Rev. de Bot., VII. (1838) p. 20. 


(6) Miscellaneous. 


Davis, G. E.—Practical Microscopy. 
New and revised ed., viii. and 436 pp., 310 figs. and 1 pl. 8vo, London, 1889. 
ForrsteR.—Vorschlage, betreffend die Begriindung einer offentlichen tele- 
skopischen, spectroskopischen und mikroskopischen Schaustatte. (Proposals 
for the establishment of a public telescopic, spectroscopic, and microscopic 
observatory.) Prakt. Phys., 1888, No. 7. 
Herworru, T. C.—The Book of the Lantern, being a Practical Guide to the 
working of the Optical (or Magic) Lantern. With full and precise directions for 
making and colouring lantern pictures. 
(Chap. XV. The Art of making Photo-micrographs. Chap. XVII. The 
Lantern Microscope and the Opaque Lantern. ] 
2nd ed., x. and 278 pp., 1 pl. and 75 figs. Svo, London, 1889. 
James, F. L.—[Value of the Microscope to the Physician. | 
St. Lowis Med. and Surg. Journ., LVI. (1889) pp. 27-8. 
Kexurcorz, D. §.—Annual Address of the President (of the American Society of 
Microscopists.) Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., X. (1888) pp. 5-32. 
LeHMaNN, O.—Molekularphysik mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung mikroskopischer 
Untersuchungen, und Anleitung zu solchen, sowie einem Anhang tiber mikro- 
skopische Analyse. (Molecular physics, with special reference to microscopical 
investigations, and a guide thereto, as well as an appendix on microscopical 
analysis.) 
[Contains an appendix on microphysical and microchemical methods in chemical 
analysis of crystals, pp. 533-55, figs. ] 
Vol. IL. vi. and 697 pp., 250 figs. and 5 pls., 8vo, Leipzig, 1889. 
Livy, A. M., and A. Lacrorx.—Les Mineraux des Roches. (The Minerals of 
Rocks. 
[1. Ropiaton of mineralogical and chemical methods to microscopical study. 
By A. M. Lévy. 2. Physical and optical facts. By A. M. Lévy and A. Lacroix. 
(Microscopes and Comparator, pp. 54-9, 4 figs.).] 
xi. and 334 pp., 218 figs. and 1 pl. 8vo, Paris, 1889. 
Microscope-makers, A Good Hint to. 
[The Bridge to the Monument, from Lowell’s ‘ Biglow Papers.’] 
Queen’s Micr. Bulletin, V. (1888) p. 25. 
REecKNAGeEL, G.—Kompendium der Experimental-Physik. (Compendium of Ex- 
perimental Physics.) 
(Das Mikroskop, §§ 709-13 (4 figs).—The Microscope figured is a French form !} 
2nd ed., xix. and 1008 pp., 616 figs. S8vo. Kaiserslautern, 1888. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 295 


RosENBUSCH, H.—WMicroscopical Physiology of the Rock-making Minerals: an 
aid to the microscopical study of Rocks. Translated and abridged for use in 
schools and colleges by J. P. Iddings. 

xy. and 333 pp., 121 figs. and 26 photomicr., 
8vo, London and New York [1888]. 
Royston-Picott, G. W.—Microscopical Advances. XLIV. 


Pep eentoae results. Refractions in jet-black margins and attenuated lines 
of light. ] 
Engl. Mech., XLIX. (1889) p. 21 (5 figs.). 
W.—Die wissenschaftlichen Instrumente und Apparate auf der diesjahrigen Natur- 
forscher-Versammlung zu Koln. (The scientific instruments and apparatus at 
the Cologne Naturalists’ Meeting of 1888.) 
| Microscopes, microtomes, photomicrographic apparatus, &c. 
Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., VIII. (1888) pp. 430-5. 
WertrorD, W. D., and H. Sturmry.—The “Indispensable Handbook” to the 
Optical Lantern: a Complete Cyclopzdia on the subject of Optical Lanterns, Slides, 
and Accessory Apparatus. ‘ 
{Contains Lantern Microscopes and microscopic attachments. | 
370 pp., figs. and 1 pl., 8vo, London, 1888. 
ZeEIss, C., Obituary Notice of. Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., 1X. (1889) pp. 36-8. 


B. Technique.* 
(1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes. 


Improved Form of the “Wright” Collecting Bottle.|—The bottle 
I now use, says Dr. H. N. Lyon, is made of an ordinary metal-top fruit 
jar (fig. 55). In the cover are two holes. 
In one is soldered a funnel for the en- 
trance of the water. In the other is a 
tube about half an inch in diameter. 
This tube reaches half-way to the bottom 
of the bottle on the inside, and extends 
far enough above the cover for a piece of 
rubber tubing to be firmly fastened to it. 
Surrounding the tube is a square frame 
reaching almost to the bottom of the 
bottle, made of four brass rods. This is 
covered for three-quarters of an inch at 
the upper end by a brass ferrule soldered 
to the rods and to the cover. 

The strainer, which is of fine muslin, 
is made like a long narrow bag, and is 
drawn over the frame and secured by 
a thread passing round the ferrule. A 
rubber tube is attached to the outer end 
of the central brass tube, and a spiral 
spring is slipped over it to keep it from 
bending too short. This tube reaches 
about an inch below the bottom of the 
inner tube, and serves as a siphon to 
draw off the surplus water. It is self- 
acting, starting when the water in the 
funnel reaches the level of the highest 


* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro- 
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes; 
(4) Staining and Injecting; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &e. ; 
(6) Miscellaneous. + Queen’s Micr, Bull., v. (1888) p. 33 (1 fig.). 


296 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


part of the bend in the siphon ; it continues to act until the level of the 
water reaches the bottom of the inside tube. From four years’ experi- 
ence the author asserts that this strainer never becomes clogged. 


Culture of Fungus of Favus (Achorion Schonleinii).*—Dr. A. J. 
Munnich obtained beautiful cultivations of the Favus fungus upon 
Léffler’s alkaline-gelatin-agar, with 1 per cent. grape sugar, hydrocele- 
agar, and upon blood-serum. It grew most quickly and luxuriantly on 
meat-pepton-agar acidulated with lactic acid. 

Pure cultivations were only obtained by taking the root of a hair, 
which had been cut off with every care from a scalp previously well 
cleaned, and dropping it into tubes of fluid gelatin or agar. Other 
methods such as plate cultivations and the like were always complicated 
with all sorts of fungi. Achorion grows best at 30°, and only slowly at 
22°. The mycelium consists of filaments of different lengths and 
thicknesses, which end terminally in spheroidal or somewhat flattened 
expansions, or in bodies somewhat resembling the oogonia of Sapro- 
legnia. There are also other bodies, perhaps sclerotia; these are large 
and small, flat or round, oval or reniform. Inoculation of the culti- 
vations on animals were unsuccessful. 


Ordinary Foodstuff as Media for propagating Pathogenic Micro- 
organisms.t-—Prof. A. Celli has made some experiments to ascertain 
how far our ordinary foodstuffs offer suitable conditions for the growth 
and multiplication of pathogenic micro-organisms. The experiments 
were made from pure cultivations of the bacilli of anthrax, typhoid, 
Asiatic cholera, Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus, bacteria of fowl-cholera, 
glanders, streptococci of erysipelas, and Finkler-Prior’s vibrio, partly 
on sterilized and partly on unsterilized media. ‘These media were egg- 
albumen, meats fresh, boiled, salted, smoked, and roasted, ricotta (butter- 
milk curd), various cheeses, and some fruits, apples, pears, melons, and 
pumpkins. The conclusion drawn is that it is quite possible that our 
foods may become the vehicle for the spread of infectious diseases. 
Although most of the results might have been anticipated from a priori 
considerations, others are worth mentioning. ‘Thus, fresh meat, when 
dried, loses its nutritive capacity. The cholera vibrio dies in twelve 
hours on boiled ham, and in six hours on saveloys, while the typhoid 
bacillus retains its viability for about a month, and anthrax for about 
two and a half months. On ricotta, typhoid germs were still viable 
after five days, while cholera vibrios were no longer so. On uncooked 
cheese, the viability of cholera germs was found to be impaired in 
twelve hours, while those of typhoid, anthrax, and of Staphylococcus re- 
tained their activity after seventeen days. On sterilized cheese, cholera 
germs did not seem to be able to obtain a foothold. On apples and pears, 
cultivations of typhoid bacilli and Staphylococcus did not thrive, and 
cholera bacilli were only recognizable microscopically ; the latter seemed 
to lose in six to twenty hours their power of reproduction on transfer- 
ence to other media, although they retained their characteristic form, 
even if the fruit were dried. On pumpkins and melons, the bacteria of 
typhoid, anthrax, and cholera, and Staphylococcus kept pure up to six 


* Archiv f. Hygiene, viii. (1888) p. 246. 
+ Bull. R. Accad. Med. Roma, 1888. Cf. Centralbl. f. Bacteriol. u. Parasitenk., 
v. (1889) pp. 159-61. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 297 


hours, that is to say, pure cultivations could be obtained by transference 
to gelatin. After about six hours the colonies were no longer pure. 


Solid Media prepared from Milk.*—Dr. Van Puteren produces 
solid media for the cultivation of micro-organisms from milk in the 
following manner. The milk is evaporated with rennet which contains 
no pepsin, and it is then filtered in a vacuum. This procedure will 
produce a sufficiently transparent medium in 3/4 to 1 hour, and if 
gelatin or agar be added, in 14 to 2 hours a crystal clear medium is 
obtained. The milk whey is prepared as follows. 1 litre of skim milk 
is poured into a tin saucepan holding 14 litre; to this is added 5-6 ccm. 
of rennet essence, and the mixture warmed over a Bunsen’s burner to 
40°-42°. When coagulation has set in (8-5 minutes) the mixture is 
filtered through gauze folded eight times. The filtrate, amounting to 
860-880 cem., is repoured into the saucepan, and 6 to 10 per cent. dry 
gelatin and the albumen of two eggs added. When dissolved the fluid 
is again filtered, and 2 per cent. of sodium albuminate is added. It is 
then neutralized with a weak solution of caustic potash, and afterwards 
filtered through a simple cotton-wool filter moistened with hot water in 
an exhausted space. 100 ccm. of distilied water are afterwards added 
to make up for the loss in boiling. The filtrate sets well, and is suit- 
able for all bacteriological work. If a crystal clear solution be desired 
the filtration as before must be repeated, and afterwards through a paper 
filter on a Plantamour’s hot funnel. 

Another solid medium is made with agar. The same procedure is 
adopted, the only differences being that 1 per cent. of agar is added to 
the filtrate and 1 per cent. of sodium albuminate. 

A list of some thirty micro-organisms examined on these media is 
given. The list includes Blastomycetes, Hyphomycetes, and Schizo- 
mycetes. 


(2) Preparing Objects. 


Demonstrating Transverse Striations in Axis-cylinders and Nerve- 
cells.;—M. J. Jakimovitch, who has been examining by the silver 
method the transverse striations on the axis-cylinders of the central and 
peripheral fibres, has found that similar striations exist in the large 
nerve-cells of the anterior cornua. The following method is recom- 
mended : — 

Very small pieces of nerve or spinal cord from a recently killed and 
healthy animal are placed in silver solution in the dark. For the cen- 
tral nerves the solution should be 1/4 per cent., for the peripheral 1/2 
per cent., and for the nerve-cells 1 per cent. The nerves are left 
24 hours, the cells 48 hours in the solution. The preparations are then 
carefully washed in water and exposed in this to the light. When the 
preparation has become of a dark brown colour it is placed in a mixture 
of formic acid (1 part), amyl-alcohol (1 part), and water (100 parts). 
The object exposed to the light in this mixture for 2 or 3 days at first 
becomes brighter, a part of the reduced silver being dissolved ; hence 
the mixture must be renewed from time to time. When all the silver 
has dissolved a darker colour is permanently assumed. The nerve-cells 
are left in this mixture for 5 to 7 days. 


* Wratsch (Russian), 1888, No. 15. Cf. Centralbl. f. Bacteriol. u. Parasitenk., 
v. (1889) p. 181. 


+ Journ. de l’Anat. et de Ja Physiol., xxiii. (1888) pp. 142-67 (1 pl.). 
1889, x 


298 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Preparations thus made are teascd out in a drop of dilute glycerin, 
or they may be sectioned after hardening in spirit. 


Macerating Fluid for Nerve-cells.*—Dr. G. C. Freeborn obtains 
nerve-cells from the spinal cord in the following manner :—Thin slices 
of spinal cord or cerebellum not over 1/16 in. thick are placed in fifty 
times their volume of a 5 per cent. aqueous solution of potassium 
chromate for 24 hours. At the end of this time the grey matter has 
become jelly-like and transparent, and then, having been cut away from 
the white, is placed in a long narrow tube. Mohr’s burette with the 
lower end plugged with a cork answers the purpose perfectly. ‘The 
burette is then filled up to within an inch of the top with fresh mace- 
rating fluid and a cork forced in until it comes within 1/2 in. of the 
surface of the fluid. The burette is then inverted, and this manipulation 
is repeated at intervals of half an hour until the bits of tissue are re- 
duced to powder. The burette is then placed upright, and when the 
material has all settled the fluid is poured off. The material is then 
carefully washed with distilled water by repeated decantation, and 
finally poured into a conical glass burette. The water is then poured 
off and the material stained with picro- or ammonia-carmine. This, 
which takes from 12 to 15 hours, is followed by washing in distilled 
water and preservation in a mixture of 1 part spirit and 3 parts 
glycerin. 

By this method cells from spinal cord and cerebellum may be 
obtained with their processes attached down to the fourth division. 


Preparing small Intestine.t—-For hardening the small intestine in 
order to examine the epithelium, Dr. R. Heidenhain recommends a 
saturated aqueous solution of picric acid, alcohol or chromic acid, then 
alcohol. Sections parallel or vertical to the surface show bridges of 
protoplasm uniting the adjacent cells. In order to render the rodlets 
clearly visible, pieces of intestine on the cells are placed for a day in a 
5 per cent. solution of chromate of ammonia. In the fresh villi similar 
results can be obtained by placing pieces of the fresh mucosa in about 
2 per cent. salt solution (1-3 per cent. according to the animal) for 
15 to 20 minutes, then fixing in 0°1-0:2 per cent. osmic acid, and 
isolating the cells in order to examine the relation of the rodlets to the 
protoplasm. To show the nodular thickenings at the lower end of the 
rodlets, the mucosa is best hardened in alcohol and stained with 
hematoxylin and chromate of potash. 

In order to differentiate by staining the separate elements in the 
villous stroma the following method is said to be very good. The pieces 
of intestine taken from a recently killed animal are placed for 24 hours 
in a half per cent. salt solution saturated with sublimate. They are 
then transferred every 24 hours to alcohol of 80, 90, 97, and 100 per 
cent. The pieces are then treated with xylol, imbedded in paraftin, and 
sections 0:005 to 0:01 mm. thick made; these are fixed warm on the 
slide with 50 per cent. alcohol. It is important that the temperature 
should not exceed 85° C. or the villous tissue will be much shrunken. 
Staining on the slide is done with the following solution : orange 100 cem., 
acid fuchsin 20 cem., methyl-green 50 cem., all saturated solutions. This 


* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., ix. (1888) pp. 231-2. 
+ Pfliger’s Arch. f. d. Gesammt. Physiol., xliii., Supplement (1888) pp. 1-108 
(4 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSOOPY, ETO. 299 


mixture is diluted with water in the proportion of 1 to 60-100, in order 
to stain the sublimate preparation. In order to stain many sections at 
once, glass troughs 15 cm. long, 2°5 cm. broad, and 5 cm. high were 
used, and half filled with the staining solution. Herein, the prepara- 
tions remained for 6 to 24 hours. Excess of the dye was removed with 
90 per cent. alcohol, and after dehydration in 98 per cent. spirit and 
clearing up in xylol, the preparations were mounted in xylol balsam. 

It is remarked that in the leucocytes found in the intestinal mucosa 
black granules become visible after treatment with osmic acid, but as 
these stained red after the foregoing solution, and were insoluble in 
ether and xylol, they could not be fat. 


Investigation of Nervous Elements of Adductor Muscles of 
Lamellibranchs.*—Sig. R. Galeazzi made use of the following method 
in his investigation of the nervous elements of the adductor muscles. 
The muscles were placed in a mixture of one-third formic acid, and two- 
thirds water, in order to soften the connective tissue which surrounds 
the muscular bundles. After ten minutes they were washed with dis- 
tilled water, and then cut into small pieces in the direction of the 
longitudinal axis of the muscular fibres; then were put into a 1 per 
cent. solution of chloride of gold, where they were left till they had a 
yellowish-orange colour. They were then placed in distilled water, to 
which a third part of formic acid had been added, and were placed in 
the shade; after 24 to 86 hours they were coloured dark violet. They 
were next placed in a mixture of water, glycerin, and nitric acid, and, 
after 24 to 36 hours, could be easily isolated in glycerin. This method 
is much to be preferred to that of making sections. 


Preparing Musca vomitoria.j—For fixing the chrysalides of flies, 
Dr. J. van Rees coagulated the albumen by means of warm fluids, water, 
alcohol of 30 to 100 per cent., and weak chromic acid. Imbedding was 
effected in paraffin with benzin; sometimes 3 to 5 days were found 
necessary for saturating with paraffin heated from 52° to 58° C. 
Ranvier’s picrocarmine and Flemming’s hematoxylin did _ good service 
singly or combined, also double staining with hematoxylin and eosin, 
and lithium-carmine. 

The logwood staining is made more effective by washing in slightly 
acidulated 70 per cent. alcohol, and the acid afterwards neutralized in 
ammoniated alcohol. 

For examining the cutaneous muscular system of the larva or chrysalis 
the author belauds eosin dissolved in oil of cloves. 


Examination of Thysanura and Collembola.{—Dr. J. T. Oudemans 
dissected with needles living specimens of these insects, under the 
dissecting Microscope, but he examined them in 15-20 per cent. alcohol, 
and not in water. The tracheal system was studied in specimens 
opened in dilute glycerin. Other examples were hardened and cut into 
sections with Jung’s microtome. Hardening was effected by warmed 
dilute picro-sulphuric acid (1 part acid to 5 parts water), and then by 
80, 90, and 100 per cent. alcohol; another method, which had some 
advantages, was the use of 1 part alcohol 80 per cent., and 1 part alcohol 
80 per cent. saturated with sublimate, and later, alcohol as before. ‘I'o 


* Aych. Ital. Biol., x. (1888) p. 389. 
+ Zool. Jahrb. (Anat. Abth.), iii. (1888) p. 1. 
{ Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde, xvi. (1888) p. 152. 


a 


300 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


insure rapidity of hardening it is well to remove a part of the chitinous 
membrane, after the animal has been for a few minutes in the fluid. 
Sublimate and alcohol with a drop of nitric acid were used for hardening 
the free enteric canal; for the examination of the eyes use was made of 
Grenacher’s depigmenting mixtures. The staining of sections, which 
were fixed to the slides by Meijer’s albumen, gave better results than 
staining the whole animal or parts thereof; Weigert’s picrocarmine, alum- 
carmine, and others were used, but hematoxylin gave the best results. 


Method of investigating Cyclops.*—In his researches into the 
morphology of Cyclops Prof. M. M. Hartog sometimes found it necessary 
to examine living specimens; undue pressure was avoided by putting 
under the cover a frond or two of Lemna; this arrangement has the 
advantage that by a push at the edge of the cover the Cyclops can be 
rolled over. The Abbe condenser was found invaluable. For dissec- 
tion, French spear-head needles were used; the hard parts are best seen 
in water after treatment of the fresh animal with ammonia. For pre- 
servation Giesbrecht’s method was used; staining was effected with 
Mayer’s saturated tincture of cochineal in 70 per cent. spirit, or Klein- 
enberg’s hematoxylin. For imbedding xylol was used, and paraffin 
little by little added. Hematoxylin is to be preferred for staining, but 
cochineal runs it close, especially when osmic acid has distinctly 
browned the specimen, the resulting colours varying from brick-red to 
chocolate-brown or violet, much like gold chloride. The last-named 
reagent was not very successful, owing to the tendency of the soft struc- 
tures to shrink from the cuticle; for rapid staining diluted glycerin and 
picrocarmine is a useful medium. 


Examination of Nematodes.;—Herr N. A. Cobh states that he 
obtained the most instructive results by dissecting Nematodes under the 
dissecting Microscope with a needle and a small knife about 1 mm. 
broad, It is best to cut along the lateral areas. For the examination 
of the central nervous system of the larger species he took about half a 
centimetre of the front end of the body and divided it by a longitudinal 
section in such a way as to get two lateral or, in other cases, dorsal and 
ventral halves. After removing the cesophagus the pieces were stained 
and imbedded in Canada balsam. In the case of the smaller free-living 
species, which it was impossible to dissect, they were either examined 
alive or after treatment with 1 per cent. osmic acid ; the nervous system 
was most distinct after two or three hours’ treatment. A compressorium 
was sometimes necessary ; in its place the use of the following process 
was often found to be attended with good results. ‘The worm was 
placed in a drop on a slide; two fine hairs were laid on either side of 
the drop, and over it a large cover-glass. If the drop of water was not 
sufficient to fill the space between the slide and the glass the animal 
could be squeezed between the slide and the cover-glass, and its position 
altered as might be required by moving the latter. 

The preparation of good sections of large Nematodes is not easy, as, 
after imbedding in paraffin, the object becomes very hard, and sections 
difficult to cut; in fact, it became evident that good sections could not 
be obtained in the ordinary way. At last Herr Cobb set his razor per- 
pendicularly to the path of the microtome and cut as quickly as possible ; 


* Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond.—Zool., v. (1888) pp. 2-3. 
+ Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxiii. (1888) pp. 42-3. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 301 


by this method he obtained bands consisting of perfect series. The 
sections were, almost without exception, treated by Schallibaum’s 
method. Double-staining with hematoxylin and eosin sometimes gave 
good results, as did also those reagents with osmic acid added. The 
last reagent may be recommended for the nervous system, borax-carmine 
for the generative organs, gold chloride and hematoxylin with eosin for 
the cuticle. The reagents performed their work best when the prepara- 
tions were placed in the warm oven. For the careful examination of 
the cuticle, and in the study of the ova, the author made use of a 2 mm. 
apochromatic immersion lens by Zeiss, the use of which he strongly 
recommends, 

Preparing the Brain of Somomya erythrocephala.*—In order to 
harden the brain of Somomya erythrocephala Dr. J. Cuccati uses Flem- 
ming’s mixture for 24 hours, or Rabl’s fluid. In order that these may 
penetrate the head quickly he cuts away part of the cuticle and of the 
front of the mouth, and thus exposes the air-spaces in the head. In 
order to keep the heads immersed they were placed in test-tubes plugged 
with perforated discs of elder-pith. After hardening they were washed 
for a quarter of an hour, and then transferred to spirit of 86 and 40 per 
cent. for half an hour. This was followed by a mixture of spirit and 
chloroform for 12 hours. They were then imbedded in paraffin, and the 
chloroform slowly evaporated. The sections were stuck on with Meyer’s 
albumen, then transferred to alcohol and water, and next stained with 
the following solution :—acid fuchsin, 3 grm.; distilled water, 100 ccm. ; 
chloral hydrate, 1 grm. In half an hour they were stained, and then 
washed for 10 minutes in water, and having been dehydrated in alcohol 
were passed through oil of cloves and mounted in Canada balsam. 

Preparing Megastoma entericum.{— Dr. B. Grassi and W. 
Schewiakoff, on examining Megastoma entericum, found that these endo- 
parasitic Flagellata became detached from the epithelial cells of the 
small intestine (rats and mice), swam about, and died. They avoided 
this by scraping off the villi and teasing them out in an artificial serum 
composed of albumen 20 ccm., water 200 cem., salt 1 gr. The animals 
were then killed in the vapour of osmic acid slightly warmed, and treated 
with a 10 per cent. soda solution, in order to examine the cilia, flagella, 
and undulating membranes. Staining of the nuclei was difficult, the 
best results being from Brass’s acid carmine and hematoxylin. Previous 
treatment with Flemming’s chrom-osmium-acetic acid was found to be 
advantageous. 

Preparation of Muscinee.{—M. Amann prepares the peristome and 
leaves in the following manner. The two halves of the moistened 
capsule divided longitudinally are placed in a drop of a mixture of 
equal parts pure glycerin and strong carbolic acid. A cover-glass is 
imposed, and the slide heated with a spirit-lamp until the fluid boils 
and all the air-bubbles have disappeared. 

Preparations thus mounted in carbolated glycerin may be preserved 
for years if kept in a dust-tight box, and the liquid which evaporates in 
the course of the first few days replaced. 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvi. (1888) pp. 240- (2 pls.). See this Journal, 
1888, p. 944. 

+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvi. (1888) pp. 143-54 (1 pl.). Cf. this Journal, 1888, 
p. 999. 

~ Journ. de Micrographie, xii. (1888) pp. 527-9. Rev. Bryol., xv. (1888) pp. 81-3. 


302 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Tf a more stable mounting is desired, proceed as before, and then 
cover the specimen with a drop of carbolated gum, after which the 
cover-glass is put on. This medium is preferable to glycerin jelly, as 
it is manipulated cold. The gum is made as follows. Best white gum- 
arabic 5 grm., distilled water 5 grm. After the gum has dissolved add 
10 drops of carbolated glycerin and warm gently until the fluid clears. 

The author states that with a little practice very good sections can 
be made by merely placing the object moistened with water on the 
thumbnail of the left hand and chopping at it with a razor. 

The sections are put in a drop of carbolated glycerin on a slide 
between two cover-glasses, and covered with a third cover-glass, so that 
the latter is supported by the two former. This renders their manipu- 
lation easy. 

For bringing out the details of the structure of the peristome, and 
to distinguish certain cell-walls, the author uses a dilute solution of 
perchloride of iron (officinal solution of perchloride 1 part, distilled 
water 9 parts). 


Clearing recent Diatomaceous Material.*—The preparatory clear- 
ing, says Mr. F. W. Weir, must of course vary with the nature of the 
material. A poor gathering, requiring a quart or two of material to 
commence with, and consisting chiefly of coarse sand, should be placed 
in a large pail of water, and stirred with a very rapid rotary motion, 
allowed to settle a moment, poured off and saved. This process should 
be repeated until the portion saved is sufficiently concentrated to be 
suitable for further treatment. If the collection is comparatively rich, 
and consists of the usual marsh deposit, it should be at once subjected 
to acid treatment, with, however, a thorough washing with salt. In 
order not to lose any diatoms it is often necessary to use the filter. For 
acid treatment the author prefers sulphuric acid and bichromate of 
potash, Place the wet material in a porcelain vessel; add about half as 
much powdered bichromate of potash as there is material; while stirring 
pour in sulphuric acid slowly, but with increasing rapidity. Allow the 
acid to cool, and pour into a gallon jar of filtered water. When 
thoroughly settled draw off the liquid with a sipkon, repeating the 
process until the acid is entirely removed. If the acid clearing have 
been complete, there will now remain undesirable matter of three kinds, 
coarse sand, fine sand, and fine amorphous matter, which must be 
removed in three ways: coarse sand by centrifugal force, fine sand by 
friction, and amorphous sand by gravity. 

Place a proportionate quantity of the material in a small tumbler ; 
between the thumb and finger take a glass rod about 10 inches long, 
suspend with lower end in the glass, and by giving the hand a rotary 
motion in a small circle, cause the lower end of the rod to travel round 
the periphery of the bottom of the glass with the utmost possible speed. 
This keeps up the coarse sand in the centre, and the remainder may be 
drawn off before settling with a siphon applied to the edge of the bottom 
of the glass. Repeat the process until nothing but sand remains. ‘ Take 
the settlings and go through a similar process until sand no longer 
collects in the centre of the glass. 

Now place the material in a wide-mouthed vial of suitable size. 
Fill the vial two-thirds full of filtered water and shake vigorously. Allow 


* The Microscope, ix. (1889) pp. 1-4. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 303 


to settle for ten minutes, then draw off the water with the siphon and 
repeat the process until perfectly clear. 

Next attack the fine sand. Take a shallow glass dish with very 
slightly concave bottom (a photographer’s “ bender” is most suitable), 
and place in it a quantity of the material not sufficiently great to heap 
up much. Separation is effected by rocking and tipping and shaking 
gently from side to side. As the diatoms are separated from the sand, 
draw them off with a pipette, add more water, and continue until none 
are left; repeat the process until all the sand is removed. Next allow 
to settle until all forms desired in a given settling are precipitated, 
draw off the water into a larger vessel, fill up the vial, shake and settle 
the same length of time as before, and continue until everything which 
will not settle in that time is washed out. The material will then be 
finished. Then take the residue, shake and settle longer, to deposit the 
next smaller forms desired. Proceed thus until all the forms are 
separated. Ifit be not desired to separate the different forms, but only 
to remove any fine particles which may remain, simply shake the vial 
vigorously, allow the material to settle until the Microscope shows that 
all the diatoms have sunk, siphon off the water and renew it, adding a 
few drops of ammonia, and repeat until all is clear, always replacing 
the filtered with distilled water in the last three or four shakings. Asa 
mounting medium the author considers that styrax properly prepared is 
superior to any other and that no cement is better than hard oil finish. 
This, with the addition of finest dry lampblack, makes a cement that is 
not excelled. 


Chitin Solvents.*—Mr. T. H. Morgan uses the Labaraque and 
Javelle solutions (potassium and sodium hypochlorites) for dissolving 
the chitinous parts of insects, so that they may be sectioned and rendered 
penetrable to staining fluids. The material, say the eggs of the common 
cockroach surrounded by the chitinous raft, is placed in the Labaraque 
solution, diluted five or six times, and slightly warmed for thirty minutes 
to an hour. The embryos are, after being well washed, then trans- 
ferred to picrosulphurie acid, then to alcohols up to 95 per cent., then 
imbedded in paraffin cemented on the slide, and stained on the slide. 

Corrosive sublimate and chromic acid were also used, but with less 
satisfactory results. Embryos transferred directly from Javelle solution 
to alcohol were nearly as good as those put through picrosulphuric acid. 


BEenpaA, C.— Makroskopische und mikroskopische Praparate fiir eine neue 
Hartungsmethode. (Macroscopival and microscopical preparations for a new 
hardening process.) 

Anat. Anzeig., III. (1888) p. 706. 
(Verh. Anat. Gesellsch. Wiirzburg.) 

GREPPIN, L.—WMittheilungen tiber einige der neueren Untersuchungsmethoden 
des Centralen Nervensystems. (Notes on some of the recent methods of investi- 
gating the central nervous system.) 

Corrbl. Schweizer Aerzte, XVIII. (1888) No. 16. 

Mosso, A.—Esame critico dei metodi adoperati per studiare i corpuscoli del sangue. 
(Critical investigation of the methods used in the study of the blood-corpuscles.) 

Atti R. Accad. Lincei—Rend., 1V. (1888) pp. 427-33. 

» », Kritische Untersuchung der beim Studium der Blutkorperchen 

efolgten Methoden. (Critical investigation of the methods used in the study of 
the blood-corpuscles.) 

Virchow’s Archiv, CXIIT. (1888) p. 410. 


* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., ix. (1888) p. 234. 


304 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


(3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes. 


fae ee ce ee eae 
itz’s “Support” Microtome.—The speciality of this micro 
(dig, $6) which aan the Schanze model, consists in the motion given to 


Fra. 56. 


1 
ff 


—_ fai 
SS = in 


AUNT UTTCUU Tan uu eHUNNTTTAATTTTTENNATTATNMTITTTTTTTTTTTTT 


ATTA 


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ERA 
: = ToL OSHETM: © 


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the knife, which is not actuated by hand, but by the handle seen on the 
right, by which the knife is made to pass over the section. 


Taylor’s Combination Microtome.*— Dr. T. Taylor’s microtome 
adapted to three methods of section cuttings. The instrument is 0 
metal screwed to a block of polished mahogany. ‘There is a revolving 
table with graduated margin in the centre of which is fitted a meee 
box having two projecting tubes, one to admit freezing water, the ee 
as an outlet for it. The water is supplied from the reservoir and carrie 
off by means of rubber tubing attached to these metal tubes, the one 
end of the outlet tube being furnished with a small glass tube, by whic 
means a too rapid outflow of water is prevented. The tubes of the 
freezing box are so arranged as to prevent their revolving with the 
revolutions of the table. ; 

When ether is used a little brass plug in front of the freezing box 
is removed and the rubber tubing detached. i + 

In preparing to make sections, remove the freezing box altoget a 
and in its place substitute a cork, which projects suitably and presents is e 
object from which sections are to be taken, imbedded in wax or paraffin, 


* The Microscope, ix. (1889) pp. 4-5 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 305 


at the proper angle to the blade of the knife, regulated by means of the 
finely cut screw-thread of the table. 

The knife is curved, about five inches in length, and about one inch 
in breadth, ground flat on the under side, and held in position by a 
binding screw after the fashion of several microtomes now in use. A 
straight knife may be used if desired. 


Substitute for Corks in Imbedding.*—Dr. G. C. Freeborn suggests 
as a substitute for corks, cylinders of white pine, one inch high, and 
varying in diameter from half to one and a half inches. These “deck 
plugs” offer the same advantages as corks for cellvidin imbedding, but 
do not, like corks, get soft in spirit. 


Hvusrecut.—Demonstration des De Groot’schen Mikrotomes. (Demonstration of 
the De Groot microtome.) 

Anat. Anzeig., III. (1888) p. 722. 

(Verh. Anat. Gesell. Wiirzburq.) 


“Microtomes ad infinitum have been invented within the past few years for the 
purpose of more effectually slicing into infinitesimal and well-nigh invisible 
sections the ‘harmless, necessary cat,’ and other animals. This may be called 
the microtome era of microscopy—microtomes rival camera-lucidas in multitude.” 

Queen’s Micr. Bulletin, V. (1888) p 382. 


SCHIEFFERDECKER, P.—Mittheilungen von den Ausstellungen wissenschaftlicher 
Apparate auf der Anatomen-Versammlung zu Wiirzburg und der 61. Versammlung 
deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte in Koln im Jahre 1888. (Notes on the 
Exhibitions of Scientific Apparatus at the Anatomists’ Meeting at Wiirzburg, and 
the 61st Meeting of German Naturalists and Physicians at Coloene in 1888.) 

[Contains especially notes on the various microtomes at the exhibitions. ] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., V. (1888) pp. 471-81 (2 figs.). 


(4) Staining and Injecting. 


Carminie Acid Stain.j—Dr. G. C. Freeborn recommends Dim- 
mock’s solution for histological work. This is a 3/4 per cent. solution 
of carminic acid in 85 per cent. alcohol. The sections are stained in 
two to five minutes. Ifa pure nuclear stain be required, wash in 1 per 
cent. hydrochloric acid. The solution stains ganglion-cells very well if 
used in the following manner: sections of central nervous system are 
overstained in Dimmock’s solution, and then washed in a 10 per cent. 
aqueous or alcoholic solution of the officinal solution of the chloride of 
iron. Herein the colour of the sections changes from red to black, and 
as soon as the hue alters to yellow, the section is washed thorouczhly in 
water, dehydrated, cleared in origanum oil, and mounted in balsam. 

By this process the nerve-cells and their processes are stained black, 
the intercellular substance being yellowish. 


Staining Connective Tissue with Nigrosin (Indulin, Anilin Blue- 
black).{—Dr. G. U. Freeborn recommends nigrosin for staining con- 
nective tissue. 'The solution used is made by mixing 5 ccm. of a 1 per 
cent. aqueous solution of nigrosin with 45 cem. of an aqueous solution 
of picric acid. This makes a dark olive-green fluid. Sections are 
placed in this solution for three to five minutes, and then washed in 
water until their colour changes from a yellowish-green to a deep blue. 
The sections are then dehydrated, cleared in oil of cloves, and mounted in 
balsam. 

After dehydration the sections may be double stained for five or six 


* Amer. Men. Micr. Journ., ix. (1888) p. 232. + Ibid., p. 231. 
t Ibid., p. 2381. 


306 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


minutes in a mixture of 1 ccm. of a saturated alcoholic solution of eosin 
and 49 ccm. of 97 per cent. spirit. 

Sections by the first method show the connective-tissue fibres stained 
bright blue, nuclei blackish, all other elements greenish-yellow. In the 
second method the yellow colour is replaced by red. 


Clearing and Staining of Vegetable Preparations.*—In his 
researches on the development of Vascular Cryptogams,t Dr. D. H. 
Campbell strongly recommends the practice of imbedding, and cutting 
with the microtome for similar investigations. In examining the 
structure of the megaspores of Pilularia, the spores were imbedded in 
paraffin, and then cut with a Cambridge rocking microtome. Schoénland’s 
methods, with some simplifications, were used in most cases, but in 
others the spores were gradually brought into clove-oil, and then into 
xylol instead of turpentine. This method requires little time, and often 
gives excellent results, but it is not always to be relied on, though in 
the early stages it answered very well, and the penetration of the 
paraffin was facilitated. When chromic acid mixtures were used, the 
specimens were brought gradually into absolute alcohol, which was then 
replaced by clove-oil, and finally by a saturated cold solution of paraffin 
in turpentine, before being placed in the melted paraffin. As a staining 
agent hematoxylin was used to some extent, but the best results were 
had with safranin and gentian-violet, the latter especially giving par- 
ticularly beautiful colouring, the nuclei being much better differentiated 
than with the other colours. 


Staining of Vegetable Tissues. —M. C. Sauvageau recommends the 
following process. If a section is treated with concentrated sulphuric 
acid, the cellulose-walls disappear almost instantly, while the inter- 
cellular cuticular coatings (the protoplasmic layer of Russow) remain 
unaffected, united to one another by the median lamelle which separate 
two contiguous cells; but the rounded walls of the cells and of the 
intercellular canals have become rectilinear. After the action of the 
sulphuric acid, the delicate network which remains may be stained and 
preserved in the following way. If some grains of fuchsin are added to 
the sulphuric acid, the liquid becomes orange-yellow, or even dark 
brown if the quantity of fuchsin is sufficiently large. A drop of this 
liquid placed in much water gives it a rose-colour, like that given by a 
drop of fuchsin to alcohol. The very thin sections are laid in a drop of 
dark brown sulphuric fuchsin, and covered by a cover-glass. Some 
drops of water are placed by the side of the cover-glass, and a piece of 
blotting-paper—which should be made from flax, and not from cellulose, 
in consequence of the less action upon it of concentrated sulphuric acid 
—placed on the other side in order to remove the sulphuric acid and 
replace it by the water, and as this is gradually effected the orange- 
yellow colour turns gradually to red as if coloured directly by the fuchsin. 
The section is then composed entirely of the cuticular coatings of the 
aeriferous canals united by the median lamelle. If the sections are 
treated with sulphuric acid and eosin, the cell-walls swell, and the 
cuticular coating is very clearly distinguished from the cellulose by its 
greater refringency. The parietal cytoplasm is coloured rose, and the 
punctations in the cell-walls are readily seen; there are usually one or 


* Ann. of Bot., ii. (1888) p. 243. ft See ante, p. 254. 
t Morot’s Journ. de Bot., ii. (1888) p. 400. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 307 


two very narrow ones in the wall which separates two contiguous cortical 
cells, but the author has not seen them on the walls which separate cells 
from aeriferous canals. The observation is rendered easier by immersion 
for some moments in hematoxylin dissolved in alcohol; the protoplasm 
preserves the rose-colour given to it by the eosin; the cellulose swells 
and becomes light violet, and the cuticular coatings, the corners, and the 
median lamelle are coloured dark violet. 


Red Stain for Vegetable Sections.*—Dr. F. L. James says that 
a beautiful red stain for vegetable sections may be extracted from the 
parings of wine-sap and other red apples, by absolute alcohol. The 
paring of a single medium-sized apple gives about 1 drachm of a very 
deep ruby-coloured solution. The author has experimented but little 
with the stain, but can say that it is apparently stable. 


Staining Bacilli of Rhinoscleroma.j—Dr. G. Melle advises the 
following new method for staining the bacillus of lihinoscleroma. The 
sections are stained for 10-15 minutes in gentian-violet (2 parts gentian 
violet, 15 alcohol, 100 water), they are then immersed for 2-3 minutes 
in the iodine solution, and decolorized in absolute alcohol. Decolora- 
tion is completed by placing the sections for 1-2 minutes in a 30-40 
per cent. nitric acid, and afterwards again in alcohol. The sections are 
next stained for 4 or 5 minutes in an aqueous solution of safranin. The 
bacilli are stained violet, and the ground tissue of the cells, &c., red. 

By this method of staining the capsule environing the bacilli is not 
seen, and these are found in collections of 10-40 within the cells. 


Injecting and Preparing the Circulatory System of Fishes.t{—For 
examining the circulatory system, says Dr. P. Mayer, injections are 
requisite. As the removal of coagula from the vessels of fishes is 
impossible, it is necessary to take special precautions. For killing the 
animals the author recommends fresh water, or a strong solution of 
potassium chloride in fresh water. Before the occurrence of rigor the 
animal must be cut through close behind the anus, and injected with 
distilled water or 10 per cent. alcohol. If the vessels be empty of blood 
the tissues may be allowed to relax, and then injected with soluble 
Berlin blue of the following composition:—1. Liq. ferri perchlor., 
10 ccm.; aq., 500 ccm. 2. Ferrocyanide of potash, 23 g.; aq., 
500 ccm. 

No. 1 solution is poured into No. 2, and left for 12 hours, the yellow 
fluid is poured off, and the filtrate washed until it trickles through a 
deep blue. About 1 litre of injection fluid is thus obtained, and this 
will keep for about six months. As this gives a precipitate with salts 
and with blood, the vessel must be well washed out. A slight addition 
of acetic acid to the injection water is useful as in the presence of 
alkalies Berlin blue loses colour. 

If a greater pressure than usual be required this may be obtained by 
inserting a 10 litre glass vessel provided with a manometer, in which 
the air can be compressed by means of a spray bellows. The caudal 
vessels were injected through the aorta by means of a conical glass 
cannula, and the superficial vessels from the vene laterales cutanee. 
The injection completed, the vessel is plugged with a glass cone, and 


* The Microscope, ix. (1889) p. 24; from ‘ National Druggist.’ 
+ Resoconto d. Accad. Med.-Chi. di Napoli, 28 Aug., 1887. Monatschr. f. Prakt. 
Dermatol., 1888, p. 82. t MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, viii. (1888) p. 307. 


308 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the animal transferred to weak and afterwards to strong spirit. If the 
skin be softened for about 15 minutes in strong acetic acid, or brushed 
over with hydrochloric acid, it is easily scraped off, and from young 
specimens of Scylliwm canicula can thus be obtained workable prepara- 
tions of the superficial veins. If the lateral muscles be cut away and 
the rest mounted in balsam, the deeper vessels are obtained. 

Of young animals decalcified with 90 per cent. spirit and nitric acid, 
sections 1/2 mm. thick are easily made. These are stuck on by 
Féttinger’s method and then stained with weak acid carmine. If picric 
acid be added to the alcohol for washing and dehydration a picro- 
carmine stain is obtained. The relations of the valves must be 
examined in uninjected specimens. 


Simple Apparatus for Injecting Fluids for Bacteriological Pur- 
poses.*—Dr. R. J. Petri’s injector consists of three parts, a needle- 
cannula, a pipette, and a spray-bellows, the tube of which is fitted with a 
stopcock. The fluid to be injected is sucked up into the pipette, the 
needle is then fitted on the point, and the tube of the spray-bellows 
adjusted at the other end. The stopcock is turned off up till now. 
Then the web-covered ball is distended and the cock turned on. This 
is found to give sufficient force to inject 5 ccm. of fluid. In case of 
bellows not being at hand the fluid may be blown in. 


BricKe.—veber das Verhalten des Congo-rothes gegen einige Sauren und Salze. 
(On the behaviour of congo-red with some acids and salts.) 
SB, K. Akad. Wiss., XCVII. (1888) p. 5. 
Dor, L.—Meéethode de Coloration rapide des Bacilles de la tuberculose et de la lépre. 
(Method of rapidly staining the bacilli of tuberculosis and leprosy.)} 
Lyon Meéd., 1888, No. 18. 
Centralbl. Klin. Med., 1888, p. 573. 
Frrria, L.—See Griesbach, H. 
GRiIESBACH, H.—Demonstration mikroskopischer Tinctionspraiparate. (Demon- 
stration of microscopical stained preparations.) 
Anat. Anzeig., III. 1888) p. 745. 
(Verh. Anat. Gesellsch. Wiirzburg.) 
38 st Kurze Bemerkung zu Dott. L. Ferria’s Mittheilung: ‘La colora- 
zione delle fibre elastiche coll’ acido cromico e colla safranina.’ (Short note on 
Dr. L. Ferria’s article, ‘The staining of elastic fibres with chromic acid and 
safranin.’) 


And reply by Dr. L. Ferria. 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., V. (1888) pp. 486-90 and 490-1. 
KLAATSCH.—Doppelfarbung von Ossifications-schnitten. (Double staining of ossifi- 
cation sections.) Anat. Anzeig., III. (1888) p. 722. 
(Verhandl. Anat. Gesellsch. Wiirzburg.) 


() Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c. 


Fixing Objects to Cover-glasses.{—Dr. Von Sehlen fixes samples 
of fluids or any non-viscous matter to cover-glasses by means of 
albumen. The albumen mixture is made by mixing the white of an 
egg with an equal quantity of cold saturated boracic acid solution (about 
4 per cent. of the acid). If after being kept a precipitate is thrown 
down, the solution is cleared by filtration. 

The solution is merely dropped on a cover-glass, and then some of 
the material to be examined is intimately mixed with it. An even layer 


* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., iv. (1888) pp. 785-7 (8 figs.). 
+ Ibid., pp. 685-7. (1888) pp (8 figs.) 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 309 


is then made in the usual manner, and the cover-glass dried in the air 
and fixed in the flame. 


Glycerin Mounts.*—G. H.C. says that for this purpose it is best to 
use a cell made of hard rubber, unless the object be very thin, in which 
case cement cells may answer, but they should be at least two or three 
weeks old, otherwise the cement in drying may shrink, so that the cell 
becomes too small to contain all the glycerin, part of which may thus 
be forced out and rupture the mount. Clean the cover, and having 
centered the slide on the turntable run a ring of fresh cement tolerably 
thick around the top of the cell, and as quickly as possible put in the 
glycerin, about a drop more than enough to fill the cell up level. Run 
a needle around inside the cell to draw the glycerin quite up to the 
cement all round but not on to it, otherwise you may have trouble with 
bubbles. Put in the object and arrange it as quickly as possible. Take 
the cover between the thumb and the forefinger, wipe the cement, brush 
so that there is no excess of cement on it, and draw a ring of about 
1/16 in. wide round the cover. Take it in the tweezers at the place 
where the cement is widest, not letting the points extend any further 
into the ring of cement than is unavoidable, breathe on the cover, invert 
it over the cell, and press down all round with a needle-handle. Rinse 
off the excess of glycerin with clear water and dry with blotting-paper. 
You may ring round afterwards or not as you please, but if you have 
been quick enough not to give the cement time to dry they will be 
tight and permanent. 


Becx, J. D—A beautiful and durable Cement for ringing Balsam Mounts. 

(“To a thick solution of gum arabic add a little glycerin to prevent cracking. 
Ring balsam mounts with this first, then finish with the cement coloured 
with magenta, or fuchsin, or the ‘Diamond’ black dye dissolved in water. 
Ornament with gold paint, &c., and finish with Winsor and Newton’s mastic 
picture varnish. Try cement on a blank slide; if brittle when hard, add 
a little more glycerin, so that it will harden in twenty-four hours without 
brittleness.”’] 

The Microscope, 1X. (1889) p. 18. 
BENEDIKT und EuRiicu.—Zur Kenntniss des Schellacks. (On shellac.) 
SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XCVII. (1888) p. 127. 
Cement (‘‘inside ”) for Balsam Mounts. 

[(1) Clear shellac cement, or colourless marine glue. (2) Seiler’s gelatin 
cement. ] 

Queen’s Micr. Bulletin, V. (1888) p. 45. 
Dry Mounts. Ibid., p. 25. 


(6) Miscellaneous. 


Practical Utility of the Microscope to Textile Workers.t—A ques- 
tion arising as to whether a large lot of yarn delivered at a mill equalled 
in quality the sample lot on which the order was based, tests were made 
as follows :—In lot No. 1, fifty fibres averaged under the Microscope 
1/1265 in. in diameter. In lot 2, fifty fibres averaged 1/1260 in. in 
diameter. Of lot 1, thirty-six fibres, and of lot 2, thirty-five fibres, 
ranged in diameter between and including 1/1500 and 1/1200 in., show- 
ing a most remarkably close approach in quality of a large delivery to 
the sample order. 

Sixteen loose outside fibres from a two-ply No. 40 worsted yarn, 


* Queen’s Micr. Bulletin, v. (1888) p. 42. 
+ T.c., p. 19. 


310 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


averaged 1/833 in. in diameter, while ten ditto from a two-ply No. 28 
worsted yarn averaged 1/833 in. Both yarns were from one spinner 
and both (as was afterwards discovered) made of three-eighths blood 
wool, which fact explains the exact correspondence in diameter as above. 

The superintendent of one of the largest mills in New England 
uses the camera lucida for microscopic measurement of fibres, by a 
method effecting great saving of time and eyesight. His mill sorts wool 
into eight different sorts, and he states a good sorter has no difficulty 
in determining one quality from another, wherein the difference as 
between two sorts is measured by less than 1/1000 in. in average 
diameter of fibres, which fact he has determined with the Microscope. 
A large establishment giving him a sample of foreign cloth to dupli- 
cate, he ascertained by the camera lucida method the quality of wool in 
both warp and weft threads, and knowing from previous records the 
measurements of his own mill’s sortings of wool, was thus enabled to 
pick out from stock on hand what would give, when worked up, a 
practical duplicate of the foreign fabric. 

The condition as to health or disease in wool fibres, the freedom from 
or appearance of previous manipulation (as in shoddy yarns), the 
lumpiness apt to prevail in yarns constituted largely of noils (fine waste 
stock), the adulteration of yarns by the smuggling of cheaper materials 
into wool, silk, &c. (the Microscope led to detection of fifteen per cent. 
cotton in a so-thought worsted yarn), the source of foreign matters 
found on the face of cloth, as discovered when dyed, whether cotton off 
the spinning machinery or flax from the twine of the wool-sacks, or 
grasses from the sheep pastures, all these are matters largely deter- 
minable through the use of the Microscope, which it is considered will 
be more and more generally employed in textile industries, as competi- 
tion becomes intense and general culture advances. 

The writer concludes :—“ As to the use of the Microscope on made- 
up goods this is microscopy in the gross, and is, I fancy, mainly confined 
to thread-counting. Consult some maker of fine cassimeres. A woman 
with a fifty-cent thread-counter can, I take it, distinguish much better 
as to the quality of two pieces of muslin or linen, by simply counting 
the threads to the quarter-inch, than she could by feel or naked eye.” 


Value of the Microscopic Analysis of Rocks.*—M. A. Renard in a 
lecture at the Royal Institution said:—“Our knowledge of eruptive 
rocks came to be enriched in an unexpected manner by the application 
of the Microscope to lithology. We need not here recall the almost 
marvellous results obtained by this method of investigation, inaugurated 
by Mr. H. C. Sorby, but we may say, in a word, that the microscopic 
analysis of rocks has changed the face of petrography. Let us confine 
our attention to some of the conceptions relating to modern volcanic 
rocks, as revealed by these new methods, methods which in delicacy, in 
certainty, and in elegance, are unsurpassed in any other branch of 
natural science. Not only have they enabled us to verify and control 
hypotheses, but they have led to the remarkable discoveries to which 
I am about to refer. : 

The eye, assisted even by the most powerful lenses, could recognize 
in lavas only those minerals which appeared in rather large crystals ; 


* Nature, xxxix. (1889) pp. 271-7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 311 


chemical analysis generally gave merely the composition of the total 
rock, and its mineralogical composition was only suspected. The 
intimate texture of the rock remained impenetrable ; it was impossible 
to determine with certainty the order in which the constituents of the 
molten mass had solidified ; neither could we trace the various states 
through which the crystals had passed—their germs, primordial forms, 
and skeletons—or the aspect of the rock at different stages of its 
development. . 

Let us now apply the Microscope to the examination of a thin slice 
of lava, rendered transparent by polishing. The lavas, as we have 
said, may be compared to vitreous masses; but whilst in our artificial 
glasses we seek to obtain a pellucid and homogeneous product, the lique- 
fied matter of volcanoes, when it flows forth, already contains certain 
differentiated products. The glass which contains these bodies may be 
regarded as the residue of the crystallization, whence the numerous 
crystalline individuals have extracted their constituent elements. In 
the black, brilliant, volcanic glasses, apparently opaque and destitute of 
crystallization, the Microscope discovers a world of mineral forms. It 
shows us their various states of growth, and the arrest of their develop- 
ment, consequent on the more or less rapid consolidation of the mass. 
It is especially in those rocks which, like obsidian, have preserved 
almost wholly their vitreous character, and are homogeneous to the naked 
eye, that we find the rudimentary crystals of curious form, representing 
the first step in the passage of the amorphous matter to the crystalline 
condition. Owing to the rapidity with which the vitreous paste consoli- 
dated, the crystals were unable to grow, and their development was sharply 
arrested. Hence the origin of these embryonic crystals which abound in 
natural glasses, and which we designate as crystallites. Analogous crystal- 
lites are produced in blast furnace slags, which have close relations to the 
matter of lavas. Their common origin is betrayed by certain family 
likenesses which the Microscope reveals. The slags, examined in thin 
sections, exhibit rudimentary crystalline forms, similar to the crystal- 
lites of volcanic glasses. 

But usually the crystals have not ‘remained in this embryonic state. 
If the lava has not been too rapidly cooled, the molecular movements are 
retained, even in a semi-liquid mass, and the paste developes crystals of 
minute dimensions, called microlites. These microscopic crystals are 
formed in the heart of the vitreous magma during its slow consolidation. 
Notwithstanding their infinite minuteness, these small polyhedra exhibit 
with marvellous exactitude all their specific characteristics, such as we 
are familar with in much larger crystals, and which we should not 
expect to find in lavas. They often form by their interlacement a 
beautiful network in the microlitie structure. 

The dimensions of these microlites, invariably microscopic, and 
their arrangement, prove that they may be referred to a period of dis- 
turbance; that they were formed, indeed, at a time when the lava, 
though still in motion, was solidifying. They separated from the magma 
during the very act of outflow or eruption. 

Besides these microscopic crystals and these groups of crystallites, 
which belong to the last stage of consolidation, the lava contains also a 
supply of larger crystals, more fully developed, and in many cases 
recognizable by the naked eye. These have been formed under calmer 
conditions, analogous to those presented by a tranquil fluid in which 


ale SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


crystallization is proceeding slowly. They were formed in the molten 
magma when it was still inclosed in the subterranean reservoirs. This 
slow growth is clearly proved by the formation of the crystals in con- 
centric zones, and by their size. These large crystals, existing ready 
formed in the lava at thé time of its eruption, are surrounded by micro- 
lites or by a vitreous mass. It was after their slow development in 
the magma, during an intra-telluric period, that the mass in which 
they floated was upraised. The period of calm was succeeded by 
one of agitation, and the lava in its violent ejection carried forth the 
crystals, breaking them, corroding them, and partially fusing them. The 
Microscope offers distinct evidence of these phenomena. We see the 
large crystals dislocated and their fragments dispersed, their edges 
rounded and eroded, and their substance invaded and penetrated by the 
aste. 

: While the physical and chemical agencies brought into play by the 
movement of the lava thus attack the ancient crystals to the verge of 
demolition, the microlites are in course of formation. This vitreous 
matter, in which the large crystals float, solidifies as a mass of micro- 
scopic individuals. The latter are therefore related to a second phase 
of crystallization: they are developed in a moving viscous magma, and 
their further growth is arrested by the rapid cooling which induces 
solidification en masse. 

The fluidal arrangement of the microlites distinctly shows, too, that 
the crystalline action was contemporaneous with the movement of the 
lava-flow. Indeed, we see in microscopic preparations that the micro- 
lites are accumulated around the large sections of crystals, forming 
wavy trains and presenting the arrangement which micrographers 
designate as flucdal structure. It is marked by the orientation of these 
infinitely small acicular crystals. When these streams of microlites 
meet the large imbedded crystals, they sweep round them, crowding 
into the spaces between the large sections, accommodating their flow to 
these outlines, and preserving for us the last movement of the mass at 
the very moment of solidification. 

The Microscope, therefore, proves that crystallization in lavas belongs 
to two periods: the first, anterior to the eruption, during which the 
large crystals already found are suspended in a mass that we may regard 
as entirely vitreous; and the second period, when the microlites and 
embryonic crystalline forms are separated, dating from the ejection or 
outflow, and contemporaneous with the solidification of the rock. 

From these microscopic observations on the crystals of the second 
period, we may conclude that they are formed purely and simply by 
igneous action, without requiring the hypothetical temperatures and 
pressures formerly considered necessary, and without that absolute 
repose regarded as needful for the regular crystallization of minerals. 
We see, indeed, that the microlites are formed after the outflow, at the 
normal barometric pressure and at a temperature far from being as high 
as generally supposed, and we witness the births of the crystals during 
the very flow of the lava stream. When the cooling is extremely rapid, 
the microlites have no time to form, and the lava can produce only 
crystallites. 

But the Microscope enables us to determine the chronology of the 
crystals in lava in a still more detailed manner. We have already 
distinguished two great periods in their history ; let us now indicate in 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETC. ole 


a general way how we may establish, to some extent, the date at which 
each species of the two groups is separated from the magma. Data 
leading to the determination of their relative age are afforded by their 
inclusions. 

A crystal developed in a vitreous mass frequently incloses particles 
of the medium in which it grows. In this way certain sections under 
the Microscope appear penetrated with vitreous grains, imprisoned in 
the interior of the crystals and frequently arranged along the zones of 
successive growth. These inclusions prove that the crystals in question 
were formed in a vitreous mass, liquefied by heat. In other cases the 
inclusions are mineral species in the form of microlites ; and it is clear 
that they must have been anterior in date to the mineral in which they 
are inclosed. Finally, in other cases, a species will mould itself around 
sharply defined crystals, conforming to other outlines, and filling up all 
the spaces between the minerals, thus showing that the crystals are of 
earlier origin than the surrounding mineral. 

From these facts, which speak for themselves, we have been able to 
draw up chronological lists indicating the relative date of crystallization 
of each species of the two great periods. I will not stop to cite these 
lists, but we shall soon see how the law which governs the successive 
formation of the crystals, and their relative age, is evolved from 
synthetic experiments. 

I have traced in broad outline the history of a lava, but have sketched 
only a few of the details which modern researches on lithological phe- 
nomena have developed with such startling reality ; nevertheless, what 
we have seen is sufficient to show in a striking manner the power of 
analysis when supported by reasoning. I think I am not wrong in 
saying that from this point of view the study of a lava presents one of 
the finest examples of the application of the inductive method to the 
natural sciences. We hardly know whether to admire most the 
analytical processes, or the subtilty of observation, or the logical 
method by which the observed phenomena have been brought into 
connection. 

Microscopie analysis, powerful as a method of investigation, has 
enabled us to trace, with close exactitude, the progress of crystallization 
in a rock where the unaided eye could discover only an indistinct and 
uniform mass; to penetrate into this marvellous tissue of volcanic 
products, where millions of polyhedra occur within the volume of a 
cubic centimetre; to determine, with mathematical precision, the nature 
of each of these infinitively small bodies; to track them to their birth, 
and follow them throughout their development, tracing all the modifi- 
cations to which they have been subjected under the influence of 
physical and chemical agents.” 

“The great improvements in the construction of apparatus, and the 
application of the Microscope to lithology, have at length enabled us to 
successfully attempt the reproduction of all the modern voleanic rocks.” 


Microscopical Examination of Urine for Bacteria.*—Dr. von 
Sehlen recommends the addition of boracic acid to urine, as it does not 
precipitate the albumen, and acts as an antiseptic, thus preserving the 
urine and its sediment for future examination. The solution is made 
by dissolving 8 per cent. borax in hot water, then adding 12 per cent. 


* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., iv. (1888) pp. 687-9, 722-4. 
1889. Ww 


314 SUMMARY OF CURRENY RESEARCHES, ETC. 


boracic acid, and afterwards 4 per cent. more borax. On cooling, the 
excess of the salt crystallizes out. In practice, 20 to 30 per cent. of 
this solution is added to the urine, so that the latter contains from 
2 to 4 per cent. of boracic acid. 


Action of Bleaching Agents on Glass.* —Prof. H. M. Whelpley calls 
attention to the fact that the ordinary bleaching agents employed in 
micrcescopy will corrode the glass of the solid watch-glasses sold for 
microscopic purposes. The action of those agents turns the glass 
opaque, and renders them unfit for use on the stage of the Microscope, 
where they are often employed, in low powers, in the examination of 
transparent bodies. 


Micro-organisms of the Bible.t--C. W.S. points out that the lips are 
most sensitive to the reception of disease germs, and from the motly 
throng of dirty and diseased persons who appear in court and kiss the 
Bible, what infectious germs may not be obtained through this medium 
of distribution? It would be interesting for microscopists to examine 
such greasy and worn backs of court bibles as they can have access to, 
and to report the kinds and amounts of bacteria found thereon. 

Certainly it is a wise precaution to keep court Bibles off the lips. 
Swearing with uplifted hand is not only safer, but more dignified. 

In a Massachusetts school, where scarlet fever and measles had 
prevailed, some text-books fell into disuse, were put away for a time, 
and, when wanted, got out and redistributed, several months having 
elapsed. In but a few days after the reissue of the books the children 
began to be ill with measles. There can be little doubt that scarlet 
fever is transmitted in the same way. 


Brown, F. W.—A Course in Animal Histology. VIII. 
[Bone.] The Microscope, 1X. (1889) pp. 47-51. 
FREEBORN, G. C.—Notices of New Methods. VII. 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., X. (1889) pp. 30-3. 
Houway, E. W. D.—[Use for the Microscope during the winter months.] 

[‘‘Some time spent in collecting through the other seasons would have provided 
beautiful objects in abundance.”’] 

The Microscope, 1X. (1889) p. 24, 
from ‘Swiss Cross.’ 
Prize offered to Medical Microscopists. 

{Dr. L. D. Mason, Vice-President of the American Association for the Study 
and Cure of Inebriety, offers a prize of one hundred dollars for the best 
original essay on “ The Pathological Lesions of Chronic Alcoholism capable 
of Microscopic Demonstration.” The essay is to be accompanied by carefully 
prepared microscopic slides, which are to demonstrate clearly and satisfactorily 
the pathological conditions which the essay considers. Conclusions resulting 
from experiments on avimals will be admissible. Accurate drawings or 
photomicrographs of the slides are desired. | 

St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., LVI. (1888) pp. 26-7. 


* The Microscope, ix. (1889) p. 25, from ‘ Meyer Bros.’ Druggist.’ 
t+ Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., x. (1889) p. 44. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


AnnvaL Mzetine or 137H Frs., 1889, at Kine’s Cottucn, Stranp, W.C., 
THE Presipent (Dr. C. T. Hupson M.A., LL.D.), in tHe Cuarr. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 9th January last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the President. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received 
since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society given 
to the donors. 


From 
Harting, P., Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Mikroskopische Fauna en 
Flora van de Banda-Zee. 34 pp., 3 pls. (4to, Amsterdam, 
1863) enone ne Mr. Crisp. 


Miller, O. F., Von Wiirmern des siissen and salzigen Wasson 
200 pp., 16 pls. (4to, Kopenhagen, 1771) Son econ Sos ac 55 


The President having appointed Mr. W. W. Reeves and Mr. H. 
Epps to act as Scrutineers, the ballot for the election of Officers and 
Council for the ensuing year was proceeded with. 


The Report of the Council was read as follows :— 

Fellows.—During the year forty Fellows have been elected whilst 
twenty-eight have died or resigned, a somewhat larger average than usual. 

Four Honorary Fellows have died: Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, Prof. 
A. de Bary, and Dr. Asa Gray, whose deaths were noticed in the last © 
Report, and Mr. P. H. Gosse, an obituary notice of whom appears in the 
current volume of the “ Proceedings” of the Royal Society. In their 
places were elected: Prof. Virchow, Prof. Lovén, Prof. Govi, and Prof. 
Allman. 

One ex-officio Fellow has also been elected; the President of the 
Nottingham Naturalists’ Society. 

This leaves the list of Fellows, 641 Ordinary Fellows, 50 Honorary 
Fellows, and 88 ex-officio Fellows, or 779 in all. 

Finances.—Notwithstanding that the deaths and resignations have 
exceeded the average of previous years, yet as these have occurred to a 
large extent amongst the compounders and Fellows paying the old rate 
of subscription, the increase in the revenue of the Society is larger than 
previously, namely 411. 9s. 6d., as against 341. 2s. 6d. in 1887, and 
251. 8s. in 1886. The invested funds of the Society consist of freehold 
mortgages, 1200/. and India Three per Cents, 875/. 10s. 8d., including 
the Quekett Memorial Fund, 100/. The total revenue of the Society 
from Fellows’ subscriptions alone is 9201. 

Library.—The Council regret to have to announce that they have 
received notice from the authorities at King’s College that, after the 
present year, the Society can no longer be accommodated at the College. 
As this notice has only been very recently received, the Council have 
not had an opportunity of considering future arrangements; but this 
will form the subject of discussion at the first meeting of the new 


OF THE SOCIETY. 


PROCEEDINGS 


316 


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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 317 


Council. It will probably be found convenient to arrange to share a 
meeting-room with some other societies. 

The Catalogue of the Library is now ready for distribution, and can 
be obtained by any Fellow on application to the Librarian. The Council 
have fixed its price at the moderate sum of 1s. 

Cabinet.—An important addition has been made to the cabinet by 
Mr. A. D. Michael’s donation of 130 type-slides, illustrating his work on 
the Oribatide, another set of which has been deposited in the British 
Museum. Mr. Suffolk has continued during the year his valuable revision 
of the slide cabinet, which is now completed. The thanks of the Society 
- aredue to Mr. Michael and to Mr. Suffolk for their contributions to the 
efficiency of the cabinet. 

Bye-Laws.—As mentioned in the last Report, the Bye-laws of the 
Society have been remodelled, and the Council have thought it desirable 
that they should be issued as part of the prefatory matter of the Journal, 
so that they may be preserved for future reference, great difficulty 
having been experienced in obtaining copies of the former Bye-laws. 

Upon the motion of Mr. Bettany, seconded by Mr. J. J. Vesey, it 
was resolved that the Report be received and adopted. 


The Treasurer presented his annual statement of accounts, and read 
the balance-sheet, duly audited by Messrs. Guimaraens and Parsons, 
who were elected Auditors at the preceding meeting. (See p. 317.) 

Upon the motion of Mr. A. D. Michael, seconded by Mr. Ingpen, the 
adoption of this Report, together with a vote of thanks to the Treasurer 
for his services during the past year, was duly passed. 


The President then read his Annual Address and exhibited 2 number 
of large transparencies of foreign rotifers and other objects, which were 
greatly admired by the Fellows present. 

Mr. James Glaisher said he rose to propose that a very hearty vote 
of thanks be given to the President for the most interesting and valuable 
address to which they had just had the pleasure of listening, and also for 
the exhibition of drawings by which they had all been so much interested. 
With regard to the address, he could only say that it contained matter 
which would afford them much profitable thought in their studies 
at home. He had also put them under a further obligation when he 
said that their Journal was so full of matters relating to the progress of 
microscopical science that it was no longer possible to find materials for 
a President’s Address by a detail of what had been done during the year, 
and that therefore they were to have in the future addresses which would 
enlarge their knowledge upon special subjects, instead of a repetition of 
facts with which the Journal had already made them acquainted. He 
felt that the Society was deeply indebted to the President for his address, 
and he had the greatest pleasure in moving that their hearty thanks be 
given him for it. 

Prof. Bell said he should be very glad to second the vote of thanks 
for the most instructive, and, he might also add, entertaining, presidential 
address to which they had just been listening. It was full of matter for 
reflection, and he had been especially struck by the concluding paragraph, 
which breathed so entirely the spirit in which they ought to attack the 


318 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


subjects of biology. It had also raised questions of great interest as 
showing how Nature often did the same things in different ways under 
different circumstances. The Rotifera were not the only creatures 
common to various parts of the world, or to this country and to Australia ; 
the Protozoa of both showed similarities of type and structure; but in 
their case the cause was doubtless altogether different from the causes 
which had been assigned to account for the wide distribution of many 
forms of the Rotifera. If he might make one criticism, it would be to 
point out one serious. omission from it, and that was that the President 
had not mentioned the work on the Rotifera which he had lately 
published, in which they had the results of researches which laid all 
students of the subject under the deepest obligations to him. 

Mr. Glaisher having put the motion, it was carried by acclamation. 

The President said he had to thank them very heartily for the way 
in which they had received his address, and for the cordial manner in 
which they had responded to the vote of thanks by Mr. Glaisher and 
Prof. Bell. He was glad on his part that he had been able to please 
them in that respect, and as he found that they had done him the honour 
to re-elect him as their President for another year, he hoped to have the 
pleasure of again addressing them on a future occasion. He also hoped 
that during his second year he should be more successful than in the 
past in the matter of regular attendance at the meetings. He had not 
yet entirely recovered from the effects of his accident, but was much 
better than he had been for some time past, and he ventured to hope 
that he should be able to occupy his place as often as occasion required. 


The Scrutineers having handed in the result of their examination of 
the balloting-papers, 

The President declared that the whole of the Fellows nominated 
were elected as follows :— 

President—Charles T. Hudson, Esq., M.A., LL.D. (Cantab.). 

Vice-Presidents—Rev. W. H. Dallinger, LL.D., F.R.S.; *James 
Glaisher, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. ; *Prof. Urban Pritchard, M.D.; Prof. 
Charles Stewart, F.L.S. 

Treasurer—Lionel 8. Beale, Esq., M.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.S. 

Secretartes—Frank Crisp, Esq., LL.B., B.A., V.P. and Treas. L.S. ; 
Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, M.A., F.Z.S. 

Ordinary Members of Council—Alfred W. Bennett, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., 
F.L.S.; *Robert Braithwaite, Esq. M.D., M.R.C.S., F.L.8.; Rev. 
Edmund Carr, M.A.; Prof. Edgar M. Crookshank, M.B.; Prof. J. 
William Groves, F.L.S.; George C. Karop, Esq., M.R.CS.; John 
Mayall, Esq., jun.; Albert D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S.; *Thomas H. 
Powell, Esq.; *William Thomas Suffolk, Hsq.; Charles Tyler, Esq., 
F.L.S.; *Frederic H. Ward, Esq., M.R.C.S. 

The President then proposed that the thanks of the Society be given 
to the Auditors and Scrutineers for their services. 

The motion having been seconded by the Rev. Edmund Carr, wes 
put to the meeting and carried unanimously. 


* ‘The names with an asterisk have not held during the preceding year the office 
for which they were nominated. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 319 


Mr. A. D, Michael said they should not separate that evening with- 
out passing a hearty vote of thanks to their Secretaries, who had done 
the work of the Society so admirably during. the past year. How well 
they had performed their duties was so perfecty well known to the 
Fellows that it was impossible for him to say anything new about it; he 
would, therefore, simply move that the best thanks of the Society be 
given to the Secretaries for their valuable and efficient services during 
the past year. 

The motion was seconded by the Rev. T. 8. King, and on being put 
to the meeting by the President, was carried unanimously. 

Prof. Bell said that his feelings, when any allusion was made to the 
secretarial work, might be compared to those of one of two men who had 
agreed to share a bottle of wine together; the other man was such an 
efficient drinker that the amount which he got himself was only a very 
small glass now and then. He thought that in the matter of thanks for 
work done in connection with the office, he deserved the one-hundredth 
part and Mr. Crisp the other ninety-nine hundredths. It was probably 
due to the fact that Mr Crisp thought he had usually so little to do that 
he put upon his shoulders the difficult task of responding to-night to the 
vote. He thanked the Fellows, on behalf his colleague and himself, for 
the way in which they had passed it. 


New Fellows——The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 
Messrs. Anthony Dalzell; C. W. Turner, M.R.C.S.; Charles H. Wright ; 
and Miss Mary Aun Booth. 


Meetine or 131Ta Maron, 1889, at Kine’s Cottecr, Srranp, W.C., 
THE Presrpent (Dr. C. T. Hupson, M.A., LL.D.) in Tae Cuatr. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 13th February last’ were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the President. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received 
since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society given 
to the donors. 

From 

Bennett, A. W., and G. Murray, A Handbook to Cryptogamic 
Botany. viii. and 473 pp., 382 figs. (8vo, London, 1889) .. The Authors. 

8 Photomicrographs — Arachnoidiscus Ehrenbergii, scale of Test 
Podura (2), scale of Degeeria domestica, Surirella gemma (2), 
Coscinodiscuskcentralis;(2)\ sens eae ee) es Mr. T. F. Smith. 

Photomicrograph of spermatozoon, showing filament .. .. .. Mr. E. UM. Nelson. 

8 Slides of Psamathiomya pectinata. 1. Slide of adult g. 2. Slide 
of adult £. 3. Wings of ditto. 4. Ovipositor. 5. Male anal 
forceps. 6. Leg with foot and appendages. 7. Larva. 


8. Pupa with male escaping from it .. Mr. Deby. 


Mr. Crisp called attention to Bennett and Murray’s ‘ Cryptogamic 
Botany’ and read some extracts from the introduction. 

Mr. Bennett, in reply to a question from Mr. Crisp, said he had 
nothing further to say with reference to this book, because in a recent 
number of the Journal a description was given of the principal changes 


320 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


which it was proposed to make in the classification of the organisms, 
and in the book before them it would be found that the altered method 
had been followed. 


Mr. Crisp exhibited a Microscope which had been made to order 

for the purpose of examining large specimens of minerals (supra, 
. 274), 

: te J. Mayall, jun., thought it would be unfair to criticize an instru- 
ment of that sort except as to its adaptation for the purpose for which 
it was designed. This one, notwithstanding its unusual appearance, 
might answer its purpose very well, and he thought if a person had a 
block of granite or quartz to examine, he would hardly like to use a 
valuable Microscope of ordinary construction for the purpose. 


Mr. T. F. Smith exhibited a number of photomicrographs of Podura 
scales and diatoms taken with one of Zeiss’s apochromatic objectives, 
the former showing secondary markings not previously described, and 
some illustrating the difference of appearance presented by the same 
object with different corrections of the objective; the peculiarities 
presented were further illustrated by drawings upon the blackboard. 

Professor Stewart said he should be glad to know what was the result 
of Mr. Smith’s final examination as to the general meaning of the entire 
structure of the Podura scale. In aspecimen which he saw exhibited at 
the Quekett Club, the turned-over edge of the scale was clearly shown, 
and the interrogation marks appeared to be upstanding processes from 
the surface of the scale (drawn on the board). What did Mr. Smith 
think was the real structure of the scale, the upper surface being smooth 
and the lower apparently bearing these projecting markings ? 

Mr. Smith said he had at present no definite idea of the real struc- 
ture, because he found that when the scale was examined in media of 
high refractive index, the whole appearance was altered. His impres- 
sion was, however, that these markings lay between two membranes, 
one corrugated and one plain, the latter being at least as thin as 
1/140000 in. In butterfly scales the existence of a second membrane 
could be sometimes shown, but in others, and in the Podura scale, it was 
optically invisible. 

The President inquired how, if the markings were between two 
membranes, the appearance of their projection could be accounted for ? 

Mr. Smith said he thought that there was a fine membrane spread 
over the surface of the scale, and that the markings extended between 
the two. He regarded the projections as being real, although they did 
not really stand out from the outer surface of the scale in consequence 
of being included within a fine membrane, which was in itself too 
delicate to be optically visible. 

Professor Stewart suggested that it was rather a dangerous proceed- 
ing to assume the existence of a membrane which they could neither se 
nor demonstrate by any means whatever. 

Mr. J. Mayall, jun., said that Mr. Smith had come forward re- 
peatedly, both there and in other places, attempting to determine the 
structure of objects of this class from the appearances presented. He 
had himself, had perhaps as much experience in these matters as most 
persons, and he could only say that to attempt to interpret such struc- 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 321 


tures merely by the optical images produced by them, was entirely 
illusive. If Mr. Smith based his conclusions on such grounds, then he 
could only say that his explanations were quite beside the mark, and, 
unless he would intelligently follow up the Abbe diffraction theory and 
make himself master of the practical conclusions to which it pointed, 
his remarks upon the subject could possess no value whatever. 

Mr. Smith said he had brought these photographs for exhibition 
rather as test objects, than as showing the structure. 

The President said they were very glad to have seen the photographs, 
many of which were extremely interesting; but as regarded the nature 
of the structures that Mr. Smith thought he could determine, he rather 
agreed with what had been said, that under the conditions it was at 
present a somewhat hopeless matter. 


Mr. E. M. Nelson’s letter was read as follows :— 

“Some time ago I had the honour of bringing to the notice of the 
Royal Microscopical Society the different appearances a transparent posi- 
tive of an Amphipleura pellucida presented when viewed under different 
sources of illumination. I now find that a film of water on the surface 
of the gelatin will cause an alteration in the image similar to that made 
by the edge of the flame in the former case. When the film of water 
has run off the gelatin the image is normal, although the gelatin is 
saturated with water. The saturation of the gelatin with water has 
nothing whatever to do with it; what is necessary to produce the 
phenomenon is that a film of water should be on the surface of the 
gelatin. I consider this matter extremely important, as I know of no 
physical law of light which will account for these strange appearances. 

T also inclose a photomicrograph of the ‘ filament’ at the head of a 
human spermatozoon. It is a very delicate object, and can only be seen 
in the Microscope with close attention.” 


Mr. J. Mayall, jun., said that at the Stuart Exhibition, now open at 
the New Gallery in Regent Street, there was a Microscope said to have 
belonged to Charles I. At Mr. Crisp’s request he went to examine it, 
but, on viewing the Microscope, he found that it had been misnamed. 
He held in his hand a Microscope from Mr. Crisp’s museum, which was 
identical with the so-called Charles I. Microscope, except that it pos- 
sessed a clamping collar: in fact, when he that day put the two 
instruments side by side they were found to be so exactly alike that 
they could only be distinguished by the covering of the tubes, which 
in one case was of parchment, and in the other of red leather. Having 
established the identity of the two forms, the question arose as to when 
they were made, and he thought this was conclusively settled by reference 
to an old work in Mr. Crisp’s library, which contained a figure of the 
instrument, and assigned the date as 1686. In M. Nachet’s collection 
there was also a model, which almost exactly corresponded with it. The 
body-tube was a good specimen of Italian work of the 17th century, and 
in that case it had been traced to the possession of Homberg, a member 
of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. The same kind of work was also 

seen in a model which belonged to Pope Benedict, also in one at the 
Jena University, and in one belonging to George III. One peculiarity 
1889. Z 


ae PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


of this model was that the draw-tube was made to slide outside the other 
tube, and not inside as in more modern forms; and by moving it the 
distance was altered between the field lens and the eye lens. As to the 
Stuart Microscope, Charles I. died in 1649, so that, of course, if the date 
assigned to the Homberg Microscope was correct, it was not made 
before 1686, and therefore not until nearly forty years later than 
Charles I. It was mentioned by Ciampini as being recently invented, 
and therefore, though it might have belonged to Charles IT., or possibly 
to James II., and on that account might be called a “‘ Stuart ” Microscope, 
it could not have belonged to Charles I., as stated in the Exhibition 
Catalogue. 

The President said they were much indebted to Mr. Mayall for his 
very interesting account of this curious old Microscope. 


Mr. Deby read his paper “Ona new Dipterous insect Psamathiomya 
pectinata” (supra, p. 180), the subject being illustrated by drawings, 
and by slides shown under the Microscope. Mr. Deby also presented 
to the Society a set of slides illustrative of the subject of the paper. 

Professor Stewart thought the peculiar form of the foot in this insect 
was very well adapted for walking upon damp seaweed, keeping it free 
from any chance of a sucking action. There was a certain resemblance 
to what was found in the foot of the spider, where the comb-like structure 
admirably fitted it for running upon the web; and it was very likely 
that in the case of this insect it would save it from entanglement in 
the fine filaments of the seaweeds over which it passed. 

The President hoped some enthusiastic member might go over 


to Ostend, and would make a search for the insect mentioned by 
Mr. Deby. 


Mr. Crisp exhibited, on behalf of Mr. T. B. Rosseter, of Canterbury, 
some slides illustrative of his observations on the presence of Cysti- 
cercoids in the body-cavity of Cypris. 

Prof. Bell said that he was afraid Mr. Rosseter, notwithstanding his 
laborious and painstaking observations, did not give sufficiently detailed 
information to enable a clear opinion to be formed on the subject. He 
thought the objects were the encysted parasites of some species of tape- 
worm, and in this surmise he was probably correct; it was also, he 
believed, a fact that no observer had yet put on record the discovery of 
parasites of a cestoid character in the Cypride. But it was well known 
that the encysted stage was not the most important part of the life- 
history of these creatures, and the life-history required to be worked out 
thoroughly. In tracing out the history of these parasites it was absolutely 
necessary to find in what creatures their various stages were passed, and 
to select some for experiment which might probably turn out to be the 
next host. If, therefore, the duck or the goose were taken, there might 
have been some probability of finding the next stage. 


The President said that at the last meeting he mentioned the fact 
of some Rotifera having been found in Australia almost at the same 
time as in this country. Curiously enough the next night he heard 
that Mr. Gunston Thorpe had found Trochosphera in great abundance 
at Brisbane, and as they had found it there he hoped it might be 
found here also. It was a rather remarkable form, being perfectly 


\ 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 323 


globular, surrounded by an equatorial belt of cilia, having two red eyes, 
and almost the whole of the animal’s structure lying in the upper 
hemisphere. The point he should like to get confirmed was the action 
of the contractile vesicle, a large kind of bladder opening into the 
cloaca, but entirely detached from the lateral canals, which came into 
the cloaca independently. It was generally thought to be an excretory 
system, and that the excretory products passed out into the contractile 
vesicle and thence into the cloaca. In some of the animals it was 
remarkable to note that the contractile vesicle was very large in 
proportion to their size, being nearly 1/3 the size of the creature, and 
when it was seen that it would contract and fill again in about 1/3 of 
a minute, discharging each time a bulk of fluid nearly equal to 1/38 
the size of its own body, it became a question whether so much 
excretory matter could be produced in so short a time, or whether it 
was, after all, water which was taken in and passed through. For his 
own part he did not see any reason why both ideas should not be true, 
and that there should be a mixture of the two fluids. Cohn, in en- 
deavouring to test the action, put some pigment into the water, 
and he saw some of the pigment particles afterwards in the contractile 
vesicle, and though it was possible that he might have been mistaken 
as to the plane in which he saw these particles, through not using a 
binocular Microscope, yet he was himself inclined to think the obser- 
vation was a correct one. ‘That the contractile vesicle did drive 
water out of the cloaca was positively certain. By means of a 
drawing on the board it was shown how in the male of Asplanchna 
the tube swelled out at one part, forming a kind of bulb which was 
seen to traverse the tube during the action of the contractile vesicle. 
He thought the Society would be glad to know that T’rochosphera had 
got as near as Australia, and hoped that it might be found in this 
country before long. 

Prof. Stewart said he quite agreed with the President that they 
had in these cases to deal with an indrawing and a driving-out process, 
and he found a parallel in the case of the Infusoria, having seen a 
non-living particle lying near the mouth of the contractile vesicle shot 
out suddenly by the action described. He had come to the opinion that 
it was mainly filled with the drainage from the watery media by which 
it was surrounded, and that at the same time it to a certain extent took 
in water as well. Ag another case of curious coincidence of the finding 
of a new species in widely different localities about the same time, he 
remembered that in 1856 Mr. Carter described a new genus Ofostoma in 
the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History.’ In this—as shown by a 
drawing upon the board—the bars were arranged in a beautiful shell- 
like form, spirally curled, from which circumstance it received its name. 
Within a week of the appearance of the description in the Annals, he 
found the same creature in the water filling the impression of a cow's 
foot in the neighbourhood of Plymouth. It might have been overlooked, 
but as his friend—to whom he was at that time acting as jackal in these 
matters—had been for some time engaged in making accurate drawings 
of all species to be found in the locality, he thought that it was not 
likely to have been the case; but he remembered very well bringing it 
in, and that as soon as it was seen his friend exclaimed, “ Good gracious ! 
its a new thing; why it is the same as described in the Annals.” 


324 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited :— 

Mr. Crisp :—Swift’s Mineral Microscope. 

Mr. J. Deby :—Slide of 300 forms of Coscenodiscus in Monobrom- . 
naphthalin. Slide of 879 Marine forms of Navicula in Monobrom- 
naphthalin. 

Mr. J. Mayall, jun. :—Microscope from the Stuart Exhibition. 

Mr. Nelson: —Photomicrograph of Spermatozoa showing filaments. 

Mr. T. F. Smith :—8 Photomicrographs of Scales and Diatoms. 

Mr. T. B. Rosseter :—Cysticercoids in body-cavity of Cypris. 


New Fellows :—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 
Messrs. C. Haughton Gill, F.C.S.; William E. R. Martin; Enoch 
Mather, M.D.; and Henry G. Thompson, M.D., J.P. 


“he J pueselt is Seeued ‘on the second Wednesday of 
February, April, June, August, October, and December. 


As 


= CAR 
oo 


xz 


Sy 1889. Part 3. ae JUNE. _ To Non- Follaws- 0 


Price 5s. 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ROYAL 
| MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY: 


] 
CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS, 


AND A SUMMARY GF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 
FoOooLoOGY AND BOTANY 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 
MICROSCOPY, Sc. 


Lidited iy 


FRANK CRISP, LL.B. B.A, 
One of the Secretaries of the Society 
- and a Vice-President and Treasurer of the Linnean Society of London; 
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND 


a2 A. W, BENNETT, MA. BSc, F.LS., F. JEFFREY. BELL, M.A., E.Z.8., 
' — Lecturer on Botanyat St. Thomas's Hospital, Professor of Comparative Anatomy in King’s College, - 


JOHN MAYALL, Joy. F.ZS.,  R. G. HEBB, M.A. M.D. (Caziad.), 
AND . 
J. ARTHUR THOMSON, W.A., 
Lecturer on Zoology im the School of Medicine, Edinburgh, 
FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY, 


ae WILLIAMS & NORGATE. 
lb. . LONDON AND. EDINBURGH. A 


pees Leen & era ane ere ee eae 
SF 


- PRINTED BY WM. CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,] [STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS, 


> 


CONTENTS. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SoclnTy— 


VI.—A Reviston or rom TRICHIACER. By Georg) Massee. - 


V., VL, VIL, ee wo Sigs 


SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES. 


ZOOLOGY, 


A. ES -—ambryology;. Histology, and General. 


q. Embryology. : 
ie, W. H.—Origin of Nervous System of Vertebrates... 


Esyer, V.. v.—Protovertebre and the Segmentation ef the Vertebral Column. 


Parsanix, C.—Study of a Human Einbryo 

Huwnnecvuy, F'.—Development of Bony Fishes  .. ne 
Lanxneres, EH. Ray—Siructure of Amphioxus lanceolatus <f 

Verson, E.—Spermatogenesis .. BE er dior cinerea ea 

Bionp1, D.—Spermatogenesis in Man... ve ee ee 

Puatrner, G.—Import of Polar Globules §... s. se 

Born, G.— Segmentation in Double Organisms : 


Bs Histology. 


_PLATNER, G. Lae of the Cell and Phenomena of its Division ; 
pO OU ES ones of Ossisication 2. 6. we ee 
4. General. 


; GUERNE, J. DE, & J. RicHarp—Fresh- water Tie of Greenland 


B. IN VERTEBRATA. 


Kowatevsxy, A.—Evxeretory Organs Soe cue oo es 


Mollusca, 
Peisenrer, P.— Anatomy of Deep-sea Mollusca .. 
Oe Cephalopoda. 
- Dewirz, H.—Séructure of Silurian Cephalopods «. 
VIALLETON, L Development of Sepia .. A 
: y. Gastropoda. — 
KOEHLER, R. __Doitle Forms of Spermatozoa 


GARNAULT, P.—Fertilization in Helix aspersa and Arion ‘empiricorum aS 


Brook, J.—Neurology of. Prosobranchiata —. 

Rosert, E.—Hermaphroditism of Aplysiz -.. 

Burcu, R.—Genera of Holidiidze .. : Soleus 
SMITH, E. A.— New Genus of Parasitic Mollusea paces 


oe Lamellibranchiata. 


Turin, J.—Abdominal Sensory Organs in Lamellibr anchiata is 
Muntcavx, A.—Turgescence in Lamellibranchs .. ee 
J AOKSON, KR. T. — Development of Oyster and Allied Genera 
Rypmr, J. A.—Byssus of young of common Olam 
Fiscumr, K.— Distribution of Unio. margaritifer ..- .. + 


‘Molluscoida. 
; a. Tunicata. ~ 
Henan, W. A.—Tunicata of the Voyage of the ‘Challenger’ 
Toparo, F.—Branchial Homologies of Salpa ~ 1. es 0. 
Lantus, F.—Relation of Tunicata to Vertebrata .. +a 


oe 


- (Plates 


oo” 


PAG 


825 


376 


eg) 


8. Bryozoa. 


Miler, w. GC Phan Buskit 


“Warmrs, A 


yee 
Brareu, F 


. W.—Ovicells of Cyclostomatous Bri youd c 
Se Ovicells of Lichenopore ue an 
_—Formation of Statoslasts in Plumatella 


cee Joynux-Larrum, J., & EH. Euners—Delagia Chetopteri 


Arthropoda. 
qa. Insecta. 


ee N= Ember yology of Insects 2° << 
-Mernirieip, F.—Incidental Observations in Pedigree ‘Moth- breeding: 


_ Emmrtoy, J. H.—Changes of Internal. oe in pe ae Milkweed t Butterfly 
_Dreveus, L.—Chermes and Phylloxera .. 


_ CHOLODROVSEY,, We Cherm ie Aah ove see ee Gare a 


Wacnur, Ww. — Bagi of Hee 


-  Bucwanan, F.— Ancestral Development of. Respiratory Or. gee es Eee 


igs  Aeaclin ide, 


€ Crustacea. 


Crustacea «.. 
Herrick, F. H. Development of Compound Eye of ae 
HEnvErson, J. R.—Anomura of the * Challenger’? .—.. 
Stupsine, T. R. R.—Amphipoda of the ‘ ‘Challenger ’ 
“Leypie, F ee foliaceus 


Nusspacn, M : 


hres 


_Mnyer, E. Miata of Annelids 


Broom, R 


_ Rove, / 


_ Vermes. 
he Annelida. 


Abnormal Harthworm, . 


L.— Development of Colom 4 am. Enchytrocides Marioni .. 


SED, EB 5. Structure of Clitellio.. ~~. 


Vintor, A ee and Peripheral Nervous See y cole Me 


a” 


37 


B: Nemathelminthes. 


Coe eemiie eal Cavity of Gordiz... 


y. Platyhelminthes. : 


Wanna F, tou been Reproduction of Microstoma 
Grassi, B., & G. Royur11—Hmbryology of Cestodés .. 


BENEDEN,: ie J, Jee Cestodes from “Lamna cornubica, Snes 


fe Bua Hh 2 Bab ytogy of Echinoderms... 


Echinodermata. 


- Lupwic, H.—Rhopalodina lageniformis : 
Poucumn, ve & Se aaa Larve of. Boheins 


Coelenterata. 


Vcc. C.—New Anthozoon .. «« 


se Fiscuer, C.—french Pennatulids .. 


Brpor, M.—Agalma Clausi .. . 
HAxcKEL, E.—‘ Challenger’ Siphonophora 
Waener, J.—Monobrachium parasttiewm 


; GREENWOOD, M Digestion im sy Ae 


 povidsca, 


“MacMony: C. a ‘Ohismatatogy of British Sponges. 
TTOPSENT,- ee —Notes on Sponges... : B 
A.—Sponges from the Gulf of Manaar 


DENDY, 


Carter, J. H., & R. Hops—New British Species os, 
Duxvy, A A 


—List of Mr. Carter’ s Genera and ieee of Sponges 


ee 


is mation and, Number of Polar Globules in Cities 


cd 


o> 


PAGE 


» > 376 


377 
377. 
317 
37 


317 
319 
379° 
379 
380 


380 


381 
382 
382 
383 
383 


aon 


385 
387 
387 


_- 387 


385 
388 


> 88s 


389° 
390 


390 
392 © 


892 


393 
393 
393 


Sen 
. 394 


395 


396 
396 
396 
396 
397 


( 4) 


406 


410 


Protozoa. PAGE 
Bursouxr’s (O.) Profozoa.. ~ .. Se eis Sree alls roads Meaet  SARN RRE  G 
Bawpiani, E; G. =Merotomy of Cilinted ‘Infusoria ee Pigteemtas 5) | 
Gourrer, P., & M. P. Rorstr—Two Infusorians from the Port of Bastia it eae OO 
KELLICOTT, D. S.—Fresh-water Infusoria .... sien da ee «398 
Fapre-Domercue—New Ciliate Infusoria from Concarnear pai rok Re ae eek a SOO 
Srumons, W. J.—Holotrichous, Page aes im White Ahis ira wee aoe 
Zorr, W.—Parasitic Monad .. -.. ; Pa neues ees Eat Wate oO 
Prnarv, E.—Dino-Flagellata .. Bae aes Sue Rise codes OOO 
STEDMAN, J. M.— Development of Actinospherium eichhorndt eee tomate meets toe 0, 
Bravy, H. B—New Type of Astrorhizide +. 6 te be te nee ee 400 
Lewy, J.—New Gregarines ..  . Die aS apa ay AMA rine vara dpe se ey Pah ere xen 0 [one 
Merritt, G. P.—Hozoon Canadense at SNK a AG ice CAS tm ate pes a also ne aah er OE 
"BOTANY. | | 
A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology 
of the Phanerogamia. 
a, Anatomy. 
(1) Cell-structure and Provoplesmt: 
~ Scunerzurr, J. B.—Rotation of Protoplasm Mays Soy ten oa eOe 
Kou, F. G.—Growth of Albuminous Composition of Cell-walls PM ona au poance (y's 
Waxrker, J. H.—Contents of the Cell - Bico uw Serr runs sees). 
STEINBRINCK, C.—Connection. of the Direction of Hygroscopic Tensions with the 
Structure of the Cell-wall Moke SS Pts Saree Mas ieee walsh amen, eae Oe 
(2) Other Cell-contents Gneluding Secretions). sg 
Mitusr, N. J. C.—Svectrum-analysis of the Colours of Flowers .. 2. 0s ~~». 408 
Mo.iscu, H.— —Change in Colour of Leaves containing Anthocyan NESE 404 
KLERcKer, J. E. FB. ar—Tannin-vacuoles 3. oe ee ee ae ee ee oe AOE 
Pincka,; E:—Cysteliths-in, Hxostenmmais 16 See a ee hes ae ee ae ee a AOD 
BApeactia, Ge Bi Oil of Bay lees iF ae oa a awh be a ete Fret AUD 
; (8) Structure of eceaes. we 
Lreomtn, H.—Development of Steve-plates in the Phloem of Angiosperms vee 409 
Gregory, HE, L.—Development of Cork-wings 6. 4. we we ne ee we AOD 
~ Dorior, H,—Researches on the Pertderm 2 ey) ue one ek pe Foe ae ve 06: 
(4) Structure of Organs. 
Sroxes, A. C.— Pollen of the Convolvulacez Pascale Baten ere eee Sins Shoe 
SVELENOVSKY, J.—Sruit-seales of Abietineze 6 1. 6s ne nee ee eee A0T 
ARCANGELI, G.—Seeds of Nympheacez .. 9 se 1 aes ev oo See i AOE 
Meenan, T.—Bract in. Tilia RI anata SRO 
DanieL, L.—Comparative Anatomy of the Bracts of the Tnvoluere é in : Cichoriaces « ves 408 
Hexen, Ei——Pitchens of Sarracenta 9-50 a ae) bec eek be) ae ROD 
Perit, L.— Petiole of Dicotyledons ., :. BOC cH ees RNS ne ea RUS 
PRITLIEUX, H —Ligneous Tumours inthe Vine gin ediwee dy oR acl a vee eigen 
Hooker, H. E.—Cuscuta Gronovit 410 
Hovenacque, M.—Vegetative Organs of Bignoniaces, Rhinanthacen, Orobanchez, 
and Utriculariacer .. Hic ene este SO CS 
eae: A, pe—Anatomy of Bromeliaceze eia aetee vie vas Sepa as eb aearee a . 411 
@. Physiology. 
_() Reproduction and Germination. _ 
Pirotra, R. —Forlilon of _Amorphophallus Riviert .... + ». 411 
SCHULZ, fe —Cleistogamic Flowers . | . BORG IApN PROS PIE SERA arg sail dW 
Giarp, A.—Parasitic Castration of Lychni edioteacey oh Saati ay ecins eede 
TomEs, A.—Fly-catchtig Habit of Wrightia coccinea .. ; Be 


412, 


(co) 


(2) Nutrition and Growth Gueluding Movements of Fluids). 
oye .— Absorption of Light in assimilating leaves Wigesitich teaoti. Wouter 

Frank, B Absorption e ENG ESOGENS DYE LONER ii sas PRS Gary adh werecee uae ner ees 

eee (8) Irritability. 

“Not, F— Piysical Baplanation of etree eteritunes Poe Teena eran fee 
(4) Chemical Changes Gxcinding Réupieation and Fermentation). 
ee d £.— Formation of Starch from Organic Solutions =... .. 
Tacky, B.—Development of Nitrogen in ae eel HE es 

7 General. 
ScunmPER, A. F. W.—Epiphytéc Vegetation of the Tr opics  .. yes 
‘Bonntur, G.— Influence of Alpine Climate on ees San Regen eee 
: “Krasay, F.—Parallel Forms: 3.= + Dee a a 
f B. ‘(CRYPTOGAMIA. 
‘Bayseve & WOR Cryptogamic Botany. 1. 6s se ae 
. . Cryptogamia Vascularia, 
Rove Abella filieuloides Sat A wae ig bal Qe aa ee Uren apd ey Cee dake 
Eas Characez. ! 
GurcNaxp, L.—Antherozoide Of GROTON 
a : Algee.— 
Micuna, W —aifect of dilute Acids.on Algz ss > ws Aue tee gmat oe 
_~ BicEtow, R. P.—Structure of the Frond of ees parvula data cuces pee eas 
. Mosius, M.—Askenasya polymorpha .s .. +. : Bag a 

Nout, E.— sea ee matter-Of BONGUG .6 se ea oie Fee ee we oe 
Hanscire, A.—Classification of Confervoidece bane tis Saeeteee oenote Se 
Toni, G. B. pr, BE. DE Witpeman, & A. Hansome—Mycoiden, Hansgirgia, and 

’ Phyllactidium erate SRL Seen Seem CSUN era Ree ieee a Eni 

REINKE, J.— —Tilopteridez .. ae = ee aietaie: Geigele ON ete v eae ples 
STOCKMAYER, S.— New Genus Of Desimidiacer ae nates deen a aneuains 
Hanscie, A.—Crenacantha, Periplegmatium, and d Hanegirgia. PRU a ane cae 
Witprman, 5. pE—Trentepohlia SC PU Ee aah nat at's tee CaCO ae Rn Sear 


Tont, G. B. DE—Pilinia and Aeroblaste —.. 
Nou, F.—Influence of Position on the Morphological Development of some Siphono- 
cladacez, Eben arene tan ee nace ay Sewers : 


Pac 


Dore” G.— Toxie Principles of SHUM Geers Miyata eas. Gea Ehcamala ene ee eae 
SCHIOHT, te eee Cazes’ OF MY GOuRe Ze ness cs oe awh ge ee nes aa eS 
Costantin, J.—Simple Mucedinex As eile ea Sena Sea ae eae diy tre 
» DancEeArD, P. A.—Biology of Ohatiltiaae a a 
Cunninguam, D. D.—Ramphospora, a new genus of Ustitapines hak 

- Lorr, W.—Fungi parasitic on the lower Animals and Plants 

_ PLowrient’s British Uredinee and Ustilaginer ..  .. ee COT eee gan Chee 
EG “a new genus of Ascomycetes Me eae iat aka ene 


Fiscuer, H.—Cytiaria ~-., ee OR i SE CT 
_ Bora, A.—Hremothectum, a new genus of Ascomycetes Ss 
“ Bacoarint, P.—Coniothyrium diplodella .. —.. Sees 


Martirozo, O. —Polymorphism of Pleospora, her baru. 

Jonsson, B.—Presence of Sulphurous Oil in Penicillium glanewm 
Kiepann, H.—Dissemination of the Spores in Rhytisma accrinum .. 
ApamEtz, L.—Saccharomyces lactis : Bera 
ARCANGELI, G.—Phosphorescence of Pleur otus olearius rae Ns 
ZUKAD, HH. ~-Hymenoconidium Setanta ee mbege ee eu Sern Vere te ent raarien Mae aa Smet or 


PAGE 


412 
412 


413 


414 
414 


. 414 


415 
415 


415 


417 


(6) 


Rae tte: 


KLAATScH’s (H.) Radial Micrometer (Fig. 67) 447. 
Krysinsxr's (8.) Eye-piece Micrometer and tts uses in Meroscopiea Grystltogvopy ce 
(4) Photomicrography, 
Mont Len s “@) Photomicrographic Apparatus (Fig: S68) cua ( 
Bezu, Hausser, & Co.'s Photomicrographic Apparatus ae 69) 452. 
Scumipr AND oe 8 as for ivegen ig! the TLarnish Gator of Iron ‘ae 
Surfaces ss aA © 453 
(5) Micrecoswiet Optics and Manipulation. ee SOC 
APERTURE TABLE wo 454 — 
(6) mrcodekeene aes rote 
Cox, -C. ih onene. of Darwin to Owen: PS Sar ucnyn Se eee ee 404 
B Penne 
(1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Process, ml 2 
ga we B.— Collecting Salt-water Sponges .. rushes . 406) = 
-Bryorst, L.—Nutritive Media for the Cultivation of Bacteria... 1. oe. ale AD ON 
Moore, N.. A.—Method of Preparing Nutritive Gelatin 2. 6c ke ee eee OT 


- Perri, R. J.—Presence y Nitrie Acid in Nutrient Gelatin... ss 


4320 


PAGE 
MirraKAnris, S.—Tylogonus Agava .. 6. ce oe ae ae ae ne as 427 
oo oe = 
-  q, Schizophycecze: 
WILDEMAN, Hi. DE—Scenedesmus. 00° ee Seen eee ee we es ne oe EE 
PeRaGalio— Mediterranean Diatoms. se 5 LS ee ae a ei, en ee a A 
Scumipr’s Atlas der Diatomaceenkunde..  . Paes Nae eco ema ae 
Hanserrc, A.— Bacillus muralis and Grotte-Schizophycece raed hia iam a ig ont ee GOs 
_ B. Schizomycetes. _ 
Sonorine ive Nucleus or nucleoid bodies of Schizomycetes Peon hey 420: 
Lustac, A.—Micro- -organisims of Mytilus edulis 1.0 05 0 6. oe ne ee ce 429° 
Liwin—Spore-formation in Bacillus Anthracis. ... ; Baer te 429 
-Bryertex, M. W.—Bacteria of the. Tubercles of Piponaees Puro Nps ar tance Mee 
Gamatris, N.—Natural mode of infection of Vibrio Mean ons ES eS Ae Sones ee ote: a8 
Hourreg, F. ee Bactemelogy: heal panes etree sunt seas 451 
_ MICROSCOPY. 
i Instruments, Accessories, &e. 
oes d) Stands. : 
Dick anp Swirr’s Patent Petrolugical Microscope (Fig. 57) 
-Konroty’s (N. v.) Piero jor observing the Lines tn Photograyied Cae. 
@ig..58) 3. 436 
Microscope for Reading the Rnorre-Fuess Declinograph Cig 59) 437 
Luiz’ 8 No. 1. Stand (Pig. 60) 2. ue te waa 
Avams’s large Projection and Compound Microscope Pate 1 IX. - cet ine ee 
Cuares I. Microscope (Figs. 61-64) ..- : seo h ae Se ies ee ESD. 
“Duc DE SS: ”’ Microscope (Fig. 65) .. oe WDSc ce aneu yi bites eee 
(3) Illuminating and other Apparatus. : Ze) 
~ Warp, R. H.—Rogers’ Eye-piece Micrometer (Fis. AOS EROS Meeting inare aa 
“HWELL, M.: D.—Glass’'versus Metal Micrometers . SDE ie OT Gah Satan ee us ng tesa aD 
Micrometer Measurements.» 25s ee ae ete ee ne) AAT 


448 - 


ASO 8 = 


Moye 


oD) 


“Scn1tt— Preserving Plate and Tube Cultivations :.°- ..  ..- 9 as 8 oe 
iy . Lwo Modifications of Esmarch's: oe Cultivation a 
a Flask Cultivations: . .. ie 
~ Wafers for Cultivation Purposes 


ss Beene & Banpier—Development of Pathogenic Mier obes on Media previously 


exhausted by other micro-organisms 
Praut, H. gE of Cultiwations from. Drying 9 


(2) Preparing Objects. 
Eranuees @. Pp. — Investigation of Cell-structure . 


Brwioner, J.—Lramining the Central Termination of Optic Nervé.4 am Ver tebota 


- Sanpers, A.— Preserving Nervous Systems 
-Viatteton, Li.—Investigation-of Ova of Sepia... ; 
"Simons, JW. —Huamining Ants Sor Intestinal Parasitic ? Infusoréa 
_ Vizn, J. E—Mounting Fungi... .. 
: ee c 0. ee of the Spores of Hymenonaycetes 


‘®) Casene. including Imbedding ‘and Microtomes. 


Puna G. A. —Imbedding ¢ in Paragin 
-PREEBORN, G. ©.—Substitute for Corks in Titeiding 


(4) Staining and Injecting. 


Gipers, oe Staining Solution 
-Guiener, C. E.—Soluble Prussian Blue .. 
Joseru, Max—Vital Reaction of Methyl-blue 


~ KuKxentHar—Process of Staining Sections simplified by nizing ‘the staining fui 


with turpentine .. 


. > Grirspacu, H.—Double, Triple, and Quadruple Staining 


Luven—Staining Muscle with Sajfron 

aE ‘L.—Iodine Reactions of Cellulose .. 

| Kitunr, H.—Staining the Bacillus of Glanders Rees 
2 Sees o Bovx New Rapid Process for Staining Bacillus Tuberculi .. 


=(8)- Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &e. 


PERAGAELO, ” M.—Preparing and Mounting Diatoms .. .. .. 
Lancipaupibre, BiaLLe De—Mounting Diatoms a 
Guang, 8. G.—Cement Varnishes and. Cells... 

Davies, W. Z.—Copal Cement 

Boor, M. A. ees Slides... 


(6) Miscellaneous. : 


i Tayei— Connting the Colonies in an Esmarch Plate 


: Proce Gene Soom 


PAGE 
458 
458 
458 
458 


458 - 
459 


459 
460 
460 
460 
461 
461 
461. 


2. 462 


462 


462 
463 
463 


Numerical || 


Aperture. 
(msin u= a.) 


1°52 
1-51 
1:50 
1:49 
1-48 
1°47 
1:46 
1:45 
1:44 
1:43 


APERTURE ae : 


Corresponding Angle (2 w) for 


Limit of Resolving Power, in Lines to an Inch. 


An 


(nm = 1700). 


Waiter 


(nm = 1°33). 


118° 0' 
114° 44’ 
111° 36’ 
108° 30’ 
105° 42! 
102° 53’ 
100° 10! 
97° 381’ 


94° 56’ 


92° 24" 
89° 56’ 


- 87° 82! 


85° 10! 
2° 51 
80° 34 
78° 20° 
76° 8! 
73° 58" 
71° 49! 
age 49” 
67° 37" 
65° 32! 
63° 31’ 
61° 30’ 


> 59°. 80" 


oT? Bl. 
50° 34" 
93° 38’ 
“Ol? 42’ 
49° 48! 
472. 54 
46° 2’ 


44° [Q! 


39° 337 
35°. 0! 
30° 30! 
26° 4’ 
21° 40° 
17° 18’ 
12° 58’ 
8° 38’ 
4° 18’ 


4,821 


Monochromatic 
Shel oes White Light. | (Blue) Light. | Photography. 
(w= 1°52). (A= 0°5269 p,| (A= 0°4861 p,|(A=0°4000 p, 
Line HE.) Line F.): | near Line h,) 
180° 0’ 146,543 158,845. |. 193,037 
166° 51’ 145,579 157,800 191,767 © 
161° 23! 144,615 156,755 190,497 
157°: 12’ 143,651 155,710 189,227 - 
|. 153° 39’ 142,687 154, 665 187,957 
150°: 32’ 141,723 153,620 | © 186,687 
147° 42’ fF 140,759 152,575 185,417 
145° 6' | 139,795 | 151,530 | 184,147 
142° 39’ 138, 830 150,485 182,877 
140° 22’ 137,866 149,440 181,607 
138° 12’ | 136,902 | 148,395 | -180,387 
136°. 8 135,938 147,350 —| -179,067 
134° 10’ 134,974 146,305 177.797 
132° 16 134,010 145,260 176,527 
|. 186° 26’ | 133,046 144,215 175,257 
128° 40’ | 132,082 | 143,170 | 173,987 
126° 58’ | 131,118 | 142,125 | 172,717 
125° 18’ 130,154 141,080 171,447 
123° 40’ 129,189 140,035 |. 170,177 
122° 6’ | 128,295 | 138,989 | 168,907 
120°°38": | <127, 261-*) - 187,944. | 167, 637 
117° 33’ 125,333 135,854 165., 097 
114° 44’ | 123,405 | 183,764 | 162,557 
‘111° 59' ff 121,477 |-. 131,674 | 160,017 
109° 20' [| 119,548 | 129,584 | 157,477 
106° 45’ 117,620 127,494 154,937 
104°. 15’ | 115,692 125,404 152,397 
101° 50’ | 113,764 | 123,314 | 149,857 
99° 29! 4 117,835 121,224 147,317 
97° 11’ | 109,907 | 119,134 | 144,777 
94° 55" | 107,979 | 117,044 | 142,937 
92° 43’ 106,051 114,954 139,698 
90° 34’ f 104,128 112,864 137,158 
88° 27’ | 102,195 | 110,774 | 184,618 
86° 21" 100,266 - 108, 684 132,078 
84° 18’ 98,338 106,593 |. 129,538 
82° 17’ | 96,410 104,503 126,998 
80° 17’ 94,482 | 102,413 | 124,458 
78° 20' | 92,554 | 100,323 | 121,918] 
76° 24" § 905625 98,233.- | 119,378 
74° 30’ | 88,697 96,143 | 116,838 
72° 36’ 86,769. 94,053 | 114,298 
70° 44! 84,841 | 91,963 | 111,758 
68° 54 82,913 89,873 | 109,218 
67°. 6’ 80,984 87,783 | 106,678 
65° 18’ 79,056 | .- 85,693 } 104,138 
63° 81’ | 77,128 |-- 83,603 | 101,598 
61° 45° 75,200 | ~ 81,513 | 99,058 
60° 0! 73,272 79,423 “96,518 
58° 16’ | 71,343 77,333 93,979 
56° 39! 69,415 | 75,242 91,439 - 
54° 50’ | 67,487 | 78,152 88,899 
53° 9! 65,559 | 71,062 | 86,359 
51° 28 63, 631 68,972 83,819 
49° 48’ | 61,702 66,882 | 81,279 
48° 9’ | 59,774 64,792 78,139 
46°30! 07 , 846 62,702 76,199 = 
44° 51’ 55,918 | 60,612 73,659 
43° 14’ f° 53,990 | 58,529 71,119 
41° 87 | 52,061 |. 56,432 -| 68,579 
40° 0° f- 50,133 D4, 342 66,039 
38°. 24! 48,205 52, 252 63,499 
342° 27! 43,385 | .-47,026 57, 149 - 
30° 31! 38,564 | 41,801 50,799 
26° 38’ 33,744 36,576 44,449 
22° 46’ | 28,923 31,351 38,099 
18° 56" | 24,103 96,126 | 81,749 
15° 7’ “19,282 20,901 25,400 
11° 19’ 14, 462 15,676 195050 . 
7° Bd! 9,641 10,450 12,700 
3° 46' 5,225 6,350 


OTE 


Pene- 
IMuminating ‘ating. 
Power. Power, - 
(a2.) (=) 
; F a 
"658 
2-280 662 
2-250 *667 
2°220 
2°190 *676 
+ 2-161 
2°1382 “685. ~ 
2°103 
2°074 “694 
~ 2°045. +699 
2°016 704 
1-983 
1-960 “714 
1°:932 "f° +719 
1-904 
1°877 e729 
1°850 - *735 
1°823- “741 
1-796 “746 - 
1:769 +752 
1:742 | -758 
1-690. -}~- -769 
1:6388 "781 
1:588 | -794. 
1-538 “806 
1:488 ~820. 
1°440. *833 
--1°392 -[. -847 
_ 1:346 “862 — 
1-300 | :877 
1:254 +893. 
1210 “909°. 
1-166 7926 
1-124 943 
1-082 962. 
1-040 980 
1-000 000 
+960 020 
*922 042: 
-884 064 
“846 - 087. 


-490 429 
-462 471 
“436 515 
“410 562° 


NMP E RE eee eee eee eee ee ee ee : 

. eye . ° . . o sl . * . . * . . * . - . . .* . . . . ee . 
(Sy) - 
or 
peare 


-040 | 5-000 
“023 | 6°667 
-010 {10-000 


-003 420-000 


680. 
+690. 


TOO cae 


“725. - 


vey 


COMPARISON OF THE FAHRENHEIT AND CENTIGRADE THERMOMETERS 


Fahr Centigr 
io) fo) 

50 10 
48-2 9 

48 8°89 
46°4 8 

46 7°78 
44°6 7 

44. 6°67 
42°8 6 

42 5°56 § 
41 5 

40 4°44 | 
39°2 4 

88 3°33 
87°4 3 

oG 2°22 | 
35:6 2 

34 1-11 | 
33:8 1 

o2 0 

~30°2 Soe: 

30 = Ill} 
98°4 —~ 2 

28 = 2-99 
26°6 See we 

26 poe OS RY 
94°8 = 4 

24 = 4°44 

23 = 5 

22, — 5°56} 
21-2 Gea 

20 = 6°67 
19+4 sl 

18 | = 7°78:4 
17°6 |-- gs 

16— —. 8°89 { 
15°8 = 9 

14 - 10 
19°92 | ~ Jl 

12 = 11-11 
10°4 ~ 12 

10 = 12°22 
8°6 By 
8 — 13:33 
6°8 Zyay: 

6 = 14:44 
5. -15 
4, = 15°56 
3°2 -16 
2 = 16°67 
1-4 -17 
1 — 17°22 
oO. = 17°78 

— 0:4 -18 

=1 — 18:33 

=-2 = 18°89 

18-2 -19 

Pawn 
- A0 30 2010 0 10 00 50 40. 50-60 70 80 a 110120 150 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 212 
SUMOUVANTUAQUAOAEGNAIVEGARIVEQARAAUUGORN CO EGAAUCOQOQENOAOOOTIOEH TH HUET EEUU z 


TTT 
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 


CENTIGRADE 


TT 
40 30 20 10 0 10 


( 10 ) 
GREATLY Benen PRICES | 


OBJESCT- -GLASSES MANUFACTURED BY 


R. & J. BECK, 


68, CORNHILL, LONDON, EC. 


PRICES OF 1 BEST ACHROMATIC queer orcas. 


No. = Focal length. 


100 | 4 inches 
°101 | 38 inches 


rey 
o 
Ko} 

ee 

oe 
B 
Q 
=r 


110 | =#- inch 
111 | Z inch 
112 | inch 
113 | }inch 


Angele 
1-~ of 


aper= 


-| ture, 
‘about 


Price. 


iva} 


Be PREY HeY 
(eolals aloe lelelolelo!s\elalsialoy, 


COMAAPOUAYMMUYYYEVHRA 
ee 


wH 


COOSOCSSOOGOOOOSOOOOR 


Linear ma enifying-power, with 1o-inch 
hody-tube and eye-pieces. 


No. I.| No. 2.|No. 3.. No. 4.| No. 5. 


10 16 30 40 50 
\ 15} 924} 45 | 60, * 95 
\ 22 36 674) 200%). Te 
30 “48 | “go |. 120 150 
\ ol | Tid at 2Bot .35 0% 
100 |. 160 | 300 | 400°} 500 
125 200 375 500°} = 625 
150 240 |--450 600 750 
200.| +320 | 600 |. 800 | 1000 
250 |. 400 | 750 | 1000 | 1250 
“400 | 640°} 1200 | 1600:|} 2000 
500 | 800 | 1590 | 2000 2500 
750 | 1200 | 2250 }-3000 } 3750 
1000 |} 1600 } 3000: | 4000} 5000 


2000 | 3200 | 6000 | 8000 || 10,0c0 


ECONOMIC ACHROMATIC OBJECT-GLASSES, — 
APpplicABLE TO ALL INSTRUMENTS MADE: WITH THE UNIVERSAL SCREW. 


150 | 3 inches 
151 | 2 inches 


155 | dinch . 


Sai 
157 | >; imm. 


152 | Linch. 
153 | d inch ... 
154°|}°4 inch ~.. 


156 | }inch . 


No. Focal length. 


——————— | 


_| aper- 


Angle 
of | 


ture, 
about 


OWOUEH HHH 


= Price. Ba EYEPIECES, 


i 
MAGNIFYING-POWER, | 
| with 6-inch body and | ' 


No. 1.; No. 2.No. 8 3. 


Sr Gs : : : 

0 0. 12 E52 

0 0 ABM 4.23004 qt 
5.0 46 61 | 106: | 
5 0 gO | 116.) 205° | 
6.Q. r7o. | 220) 415} 
5. O- | 250. | 330 | 630 © 
10.0: | 350 | 450 -) 860 

O O 654 12844" 1500 


Revised Catalogue sent on application to 


He. & 3. 


BECK, 


GS, Cornhill. 


“ JOURN RMICR.SOC.1882.Pl V. 


GMassee del. a West, Nevwaman, lith 


i“ JOURN... MICR.SCC1889.P1VL 


GMassee ach : West Newman hth. 
a ; 
Irichiaces. 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. 


JUNE 1889. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. 


VI.—A Revision of the Trichiacee: By Guorcze Masses. 
(Read 10th April, 1889.) 
Puatses V., VI., VIL, ann VIII. 


Trichiacex, Rost. (emended).—Sporangia sessile or stipitate, dehiscing 
irregularly or in a circumscissile manner near the apex, wall of sporan- 
gium single or double, without lime (except in Hemiarcyria para- 
doxa); capillitium without lime, elaters free, or attached to the wall 
of the sporangium, or sunk in the hollow of the stem, either simple, or 
branched, or combined into a net, and furnished with raised bands or 


EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 


Puate V. 


Fig. 1.—Trichia intermedia, Mass., tip of elater, x 1200; 1a, spores of same, x 1200. 
»  2.—Trichia abrupta, Cooke, tips of elaters, x 500; 2a, spore of same, x 1200. 
»  3%—Trichia sulphurea, Mass., tips of elaters, x 500; 3a, spore of same, x 1200. 
»  4.—Trichia Balfourii, Mass., tips of elaters, x 500; 4a, spore of same, x 1200. 
» 0.—Trichia Jacki, Rost., tips of elaters, x 500; 5a, spore of same, x 1200. 

»  6.—Trichia superba, Mass.,: entire plant, x 50; 6a, tip of elater, x 1200; 6%, 
spore, x 1200. 
»  7.—Trichia afinis, De Bary, spore, x 1200; 7a, spore showing a free end on the 
raised network, x 1200. 
»  8.—Trichia Kalbreyeri, Mass., tip of elater, x 1200: 8a, spore of same, x 1200. 
»  9%.—Trichia verrucosa, Berk., group of plants springing from a broad hypothal- 
lus, x 50; 9a, spore of same, x 1200; 98, tip of elater of same, x 1200. 
s, 10.—Trichia chrysosperma, Rost., spore, X 1200; 10a, tip of elater of same, x 
1200. 5 - 
» 1l1.—Trichia nitens, Fr., tip of elater, x 1200; 11a, spore of same, x 1200. 
», 12.—Trichia nana, Mass., elater, x 400; 12a, spore of same, x 1200. 
», 13.—Trichia scabra, Rost., plant nat. size; 13a, tip of elater, x 1200; spore, x 
1200. 
Pruate VI. 


Fig. 14.—Trichia fragilis, Rost., botryoid form, x 50; 14a, elater, x 400; 148, tip of 

elater, x 1200; 14c, spore, x 1200. 

», 19.—Trichia Carlyleana, Mass., group of plants, nat. size; 15a, plants, x 50; 156, 
portion of wall of sporangium seen from the inside, and showing 
numerous amorphous lumps of organic matter arranged in clusters, x 
300; 15c, tip of elater, x 500; 15d, spore, x 1200. 

», 16.—Trichia heterotrichia, Balf, fil., spore, x 1200; 162, tip of elater, x 1200. 

» 17.—Trichia varia, Rost., normal spore with minute rounded warts, x 1200; 177, 
spore of same, showing the warts with a tendency to become elongated, 
thus forming a transition to the section having spores with flat, raiscd 


1889. , Dn 


326 Transactions of the Society. 


ridges arranged in a spiral manner; spores globose or subglobese, 
epispore smooth or ornamented with warts or raised bands variously 
arranged. 
Rost., Mon., p. 243 ; Cooke, Myx. Brit., p. 61 (in part). 
Rostafinski divides the Mycetozoa or Myxomycetes into two primary 
groups depending on the colour of the spores. Amaurosporex, spores 


bands, x 1200; 176, a young spore with the epispore yet smooth, after 
immersion for an hour in absolute alcohol; a, epispore; b, protoplasm 
contracted; c, nucleus, x 1200; 17c, spore germinating after being in 
water for 22 hours; a, epispore: b, endospore; ¢, ciliated zoospore escap- 
ing from the spore; d, its contractile vesicle, x 1200; 17d, portion of 
an elater, x 1200; 17e, tip of an elater after immersion for an hour in 
dilute potassic hydrate, the prominent ridges have disappeared, and a 
narrow cavity terminating in the swollen portion near the tip, and con- 
taining a granular substance, is brought into view, x 1200; 17/, portion 
of wall of sporangium seen from the inside, the circular or crescent-shaped 
markings are thickened portions of the wall, x 50U. 
Fig. 18.—Trichia minima, Mass., spore, x 1200; 18a, group of plants seen from 

above, x 50. ; 

» 19.—Alwisia bombarda, B. and Br., plants, x 2; 19a and 190, plants x 50; 19c, 
threads of capillitium attached by one end to the wall of the sporangium 
near its base, x 400. 

», 20.—Oligonema minutula, Mass., plants, x 50; 20a, spore of same, x 1200; 200, 
tip of elater of same, x 1200. 


Puate VII. 


Fig. 21.—Trichia fallax, Rost., section of stem and base of sporangium, showing 
the hollow of the stem filled with masses of an organic substance, a, a, 
which pass by degrees into normal spores, 6, 6; x 350. 
» 22.—Oligonema Broomei, Mass., group of plants, x 35; 22a, tip of elater and two 
spores, x 400. 
» 23.—Prototrichia flagellifer, Rost., branched elater, x 400 ; 23a, spores of same, x | 
400. 
», 24.—Prototrichia cuprea, Mass., branched elater and spores, x 400. 
5, 20.—Oligonema nitens, Rost.; var. Bavarica, elaters, x 400. 
5, 26.—Prototrichia metallica, Mass., plants, x 35; 26a, elater, x 400; 260, spores, 
x 400. 
‘5, 27.—Trichia fallax, Rost., a genuina; entire plants, x 35. 
» 28.—Trichia fragilis, Rost., y serotina; plants, x 50. 
», 29.—Oligonema nitens, Rost., cluster of plants nat. size; 29a, spores of same, X 
1200; 290, elaters of same, showing ring-like thickenings at a; on one 
of the elaters, a very diffuse single spiral is present. 


Puate VIII. 


Fig. 30.—Hemiarcyria Eilisii, Mass., plants nat. size; 30a, botryoid or fasciculate 
form, x 50; 300, portion of capillitium, x 400; 30c, spore, x 1200. 
» 3l.— Hemiarcyria rubiformis, Rost., spore, x 1200. 
» 82.—Hemiarcyria stipitata, Mass. plants nat. size; 32a, fasciculate form; 326, 
simple form, with the elastic capillitium, a, "expanded, x 50; 32c, spore, 
x 1200; 32d, portion of capillitium, x 400. 
5, 33.—Hemiarcyria leiocarpa, Cooke, entire plant, x 35; 33a, spore, x 1200. 
» 34.—Hemiarcyria serpula, Rost., entire plant, x 5; 34a, tip of elater, x 1200;— 
34), spores, X 1200. 
», 30.—Hemiarcyria paradoxa, Mass., plants, x 50; 35a, portion of capillitium, x 
400; 350, free tip of branch of capillitium, x 1200; 35c, spore, x 1200. 
» 36.—Hemiarcyria Karsteni, Rost., portion of capillitium, x 400. 
» 31.—Hemiarcyria chrysospora, Lister, spore, x 1200. 
» 38.—Trichia advenula, Mass, elaters, x 400; 38a, spore, x 1200. 
The structures said to be magnified 1200 diameters are enlarged, but the orna- 
mentation is as seen under a power of 1200 diameters. 


JOURN.R-MICR.SOC1889 PL VIL 


Te ee 


Io 


f 


Ge 


a 
as 
ahha 


West, Newaman ch. 


Trichiacess. 


see del 


JOURN .RMICR.SOC1889 PLVIIT. 


lth. 


West, Newman 


Trichiacez. 


G Massee del. 


A Revision of the Trichiacex. By G. Massee. 327 


violet or brownish-violet; Lamprospors, spores variously coloured, 
usually some shade of yellow, but never violet. These primary groups 
are each again divided into two sections, Atriche, sporangia without 
a capillitium, and Trichophore, sporangia furnished with a capillitium. 

The Trichiacew belong to the Lamprosporz, section Trichophore, 
and the leading characteristic of the family consists in the spérally 
arranged ridges on the elaters or threads forming the capillitium. 
The species are all minute, not exceeding 4 mm. high, generally very 
much less, but, owing to the gregarious habit, are often conspicuous 
objects, especially after dehiscence, when the bright yellow spores of 
most species cannot fail to attract attention. The most usual habitat 
is decaying wood, where most species pass the vegetative period, and 
from which in all probability their food is obtained, but during the 
commencement of the reproductive stage, the motile plasmodium fre- 
quently creeps to the surface, or even passes on to living leaves, &c., 
where the sporangia are formed. Nostafinski first suggested the 
worthlessness of external form in the discrimination of species, and 
accordingly his species are distinguished by the microscopic characters 
furnished by the spores and capillitium when present, and the question 
arises as to the relative value of the form of the sporangium and 
presence or absence of a stem on the one hand, and the microscopic 
characters of the capillitium and spores on the other. It is perfectly 
true that if we adopt the form of sporangium and presence or absence 
of stem as the primary idea in determining species, we must ignore 
the microscopic features ; whereas if the structure of the capillitium 
and spores constitutes the basis of classification, then we bring together 
forms in which the sporangia are sometimes of a definite form and 
seated on a distinct stem, in other instances sessile, and sometimes very 
irregular in shape and forming shapeless conglomerations ; nevertheless, 
the sequence from one shape of sporangium to another is in numerous 
instances, even in the same cluster, so very evident, that in all pro- 
bability, Rostafinski’s idea, although not altogether satisfactory, is the 
best known, and has been followed in the present paper. A very 
constant sequence of development in the ornamentation of the epispore 
is evident in every genus belonging to the family under consideration, 
which is as follows :— (1) species with the epispore smooth ; (2) species 
with the epispore rough with rounded warts ; (8) species having the 
epispore with slightly elongated raised bands, the surface of the raised 
bands plain ; (4) the raised bands as in (3), but having the surface of 
the bands ornamented with minute pits; (9) species having the epi- 
spore with elongated and curved raised bands that remain distinet 
From each other, surface of raised bands plain; (6) species with 
bands as in (5) but surface of bands with minute pits; (7) species 
having epispore with raised bands anastomosing to form a more 
or less regular polygonal network, surface of bands plain ; (8) species 
with the epispore having bands as in (7) but swrface of bands with 
uunute pits. This peculiar sequence of spore ornamentation is not 
confined to the Myxogastres, but is also present in other eu: of 

Za 2 


328 Transactions of the Socvety. 


fungi, as the Tuberacew. The same sequence is also to be met with 
in some genera belonging to the Hepatice. Throughout the fungi 
the rule is that the largest and most elaborately ornamented spores are 
met with in the morphologically lowest groups, and the same rule 
holds good for the species constituting a genus. 

Externally the species included in the Trichiacezw frequently re- 
semble each other closely, and, from what has already been said, it will be 
seen that general form is of little value in the discrimination of species 
as understood in the present work ; hence I have not attempted to give 
synonyms dating further back than Rostafinski’s monograph, unless 
justified by the existence of type specimens; but for the peace of mind 
of those who consider synonyms as of far greater importance than a 
knowledge of the organism treated of, I have added the synonyms 
given by Rostafinski, but it must be clearly understood that they rest 
entirely on the authority of the last-mentioned author, whose genius 
in being able to give so many, and with such apparent certainty, I 
admire. 

Key To THE GENERA. 
I. laters free. 


Trichia.—Klaters simple or branched, spirals well marked. 
Oligonema.— laters simple or branched, spirals rudimentary. 


JI. Elaters fixed by one end to wall of sporangium, not combined into 
a net. 
Alwisia.—F ree tips of elaters simple or slightly branched, spirals 
rudimentary. 
Prototrichia.—Free tips of elaters much branched, spirals well 
marked. 


III. Elaters combined in a net usually with free ends. 
Hemiarcyria.—Spirals well marked, often furnished with spines. 


Tricor, Haller (emended). 


Wall of sporangium single, debiscing irregularly ; capillitium 
consisting of free, simple or branched threads having the walls 
furnished with raised bands arranged in a spiral; spores globose, 
epispore smooth or variously ornamented, yellow or orange, sometimes 
tinged with red or brown. 

Trichia, Haller, Helv., ii. p. 114; Rost., Mon., p. 248% Cooke, 
Myx. Brit., p. 61 (in part) ; Sace., Syll., v. 7, pt. i. p. 488 (in part). 

A genus marked by the presence of well-developed external ridges 
arranged in a spiral manner on the perfectly free elaters or threads 
of the capillitium. The elaters are in most species unbranched, cylin- 
drical or fusiform, and more or less attenuated at the ends into a smooth 
spine. Ina few species the elaters are branched, the ends varying from 
three to ten. The only other genus with free elaters is Oligonema, 
but here the spirals are at best rudimentary, and the tips obtuse. 


A Revision of the Trichiacee. By G. Massee. 5329 


The genus is cosmopolitan, some species having a wide distribution. 
Twenty-nine species are known, twenty-two of which are met with in 
HKurope. 


ape Spores smooth. 
* Hlaters fusiform. 
Trichia Carlyleana, Mass. (n. sp.) fig. 15. 


Sporangia clavate or cylindric-oblong, stipitate, dark purple-brown, 
smooth, dull; stem about half as long as sporangium, equal or slightly 
inerassated downwards, and expanded into a small discoid base, 
wrinkled longitudinally, coloured like the sporangium ; znner surface 
of sporangial wall and hollow of stem with numerous rather large 
organic masses of a bright reddish-purple colour ; mass of elaters and 
spores dingy deep yellow; elaters fusiform, 5-6 p» at thickest part, 
simple or frequently branched, tips attenuated into a long, smooth, 
very fine, straight or flexuous spine, spzrals crowded, thin, not pro- 
minent ; spores globose, smooth, 10-12 » diameter. 

On wood, Britain. (Carlisle ! 1* Dr, Carlyle.) (Type in Herb. Kew.) 
Sporangia in fascicles of 3-5 ; 2-8 mm. high. Superficially resembling 
some forms of Trichia fragilis, but perfectly distinct in the smooth 
spores, and the narrow, crowded, and not at all prominent spirals of the 
elaters which are frequently branched near the tips, and above all in the 
organic lumps of a deep reddish-purple colour which line the inside of 
the wall of the sporangium and the hollow of the stem. The colouring 
aa in the organic masses is soluble in dilute potassic or ammonic 

ydrate. 


** Hlaters cylindrical. 
Trichia heterotricha, Balf. fil., fig. 16. 


“Sporangia sessile in clusters, dark yellow, wall thick, tough and 
leathery, inner layer areolate; elaters few, cylindrical, -0071 mm. 
diameter (thickenings excluded), with walls of medium thickness, irre- 
gularly and variously thickened, either with spines often twice diameter 
of elater, or with short prickles or warts, or with complete or half- 
rings, or sometimes with interrupted and irregular spirals leaving 
large intervening unthickened portions, swollen towards the ex- 
tremities, and ending in a tapered, rarely smooth, arcuate or twisted 
point, in length twice the diameter of elater, tube ‘0035 mm. diameter 
terminating in the swelling of elater, or sometimes continued to the 
apex ; spores globose, -0160-:0178 mm. diameter, with a very thick 
smooth membrane. 

Balf., Grev., v. 10, p. 117; Sacc., Syll., n. 1505. 

In Herb. Currey. No locality. On bark. (Type in Herb. 
Kew. !) . 

A species resembling most nearly forms of Tr. varia, Pers., but 


* The sign ! signifies that a specimen has been examined from the locality 
indicated. 


330 Transactions of the Society. 


the few elaters with the very varying sculpturing and the larger 
smooth spores sufficiently separate them.” 

A very distinct species, characterized by the very irregular 
ornamentation of the elaters and the large smooth spores. The type 
specimen is in the Currey collection, now in the Kew Herbarium, and 
although no locality is given, the species is in all probability 
British. 

B. Spores with rounded warts. 
* Hlaters fusiform. 
Trichia fragilis, Rost., figs. 14 and 28. 


Sporangia pyriform or subglobose, stipitate, either solitary or 
fasciculate on a common stem, colour variable, most frequently blackish 
brown, sometimes paler brown or yellowish, stem dark, wrinkled, 
equal or attenuated upwards, erect or drooping; mass of capillitium 
and spores separated from the hollow stem by a membrane, varying 
from dull orange to clear yellow: elaters fusiform, 4-5 yw at the 
thickest part, sp'rals flat, rather broad, not very prominent, tips 
smooth, tapering to a thin point ; spores globose, minutely warted, 
11-14 p diameter. 

a. genuina. Sporangia pyriform, solitary or fasciculate, clear or 
blackish-brown, opaque; mass of eapillitiam and spores varying from 
reddish-brown to dirty ochre; stem erect. 

B. Lorinseriana. Sporangium pyriform, solitary or fasciculate, 
reddish-brown, polished; mass of capillitium and spores dirty 
ochraceous ; stem generally drooping. 

y. serotina. Sporangia clavate or pyriform, solitary or fasciculate ; 
mass of capillitimm and spores clear yellow or ochraceous; stem 
erect. 

8. lateritia. Sporangia subglobose, solitary or fasciculate, almost 
black ; mass of capillitium and spores dark brownish-orange; stem 
erect, attenuated upwards. 

Trichia fragilis, Rost., Mon., p. 246, figs. 203, 204, 225, 226 (in 
part) ; Cooke, Brit. Myx., p. 63, figs. 203, 204, 225, 226 (Gn part) ; 
Sace., Syll., n. 1494 (in part); Balf., Grev., v. 10, p. 116 (in part). 

Trichia lateritia, Lev., Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. iii. vol. v. p. 167 (an 
part). 

Trichia botrytis, Schroeter, p. 112 (in part); Raunk., Myx. Dan., 
p- 67 (in part). 

Spherocarpus fragilis, Sow., t. 279. 

Exsice.—Cooke, Fung. Brit., 612! (as Trichia Neesiana)! Rab., 
Fung. Eur., 244 (as Trichia pyriformis, Batsch)! Jack, Leiner u. 
Sitzenb. Krypt. Badens, 329! (as Trichia pyriformis, Hoffm.) ; 
Erbar. Crittogam. Ital., 640! (as Trichia fallax, b. Pers.); Ellis and 
Everhart, N. Amer. Fung,, ser. iii. n. 2097 and 2098! Fuckel, Fung. 
Rhen. 1487! (as Trichia pyriformis, Hoffm.). 

On wood, twigs, &c. Britain (Brighton! Kew! Gloucester ! 


A Revision of the Trichiacee. By G. Massee. B81 


Orton Wood, Leicester! Castle Howard, Yorks! Carlisle! Appin, 
N.B.!)! France! Germany! Sweden! Bohemia! Belgium! Italy! 
Finland! Denmark! United States! Canada! Chili! Ceylon! §. 
Africa! §.W. Australia! Tasmania! New Zealand ! 

In the form and colour of the sporangia, and in the colour of the 
capillitium and spores, the present species varies considerably, the 
constant characters are the fusiform elaters with flat bands and smooth 
taperings tips, and the delicately warted spores. The plants vary 
from 2-4 mm. in height, and the sporangia may be solitary on the 
stem, or in fascicles of from 2-7, in which case the common stem is 
obviously composed of several stems more or less confluent, or entirely 
welded together and often twisted. The elaters are in rare instances 
branched towards the tips. I have had an opportunity of examining the 
type specimen of Trichia lateritia, Léy., in the Herbarium of the 
Paris Museum, and find that it agrees exactly in the elaters and 
spores with Trichia fragilis ; the spores are certainly warted, quite 
as much so as in 7’. fragilis, although under a quarter-inch objective 
they would probably be described as smooth. Rostafinski does not 
appear to have been acquainted with T’. dateritia, or at all events, not 
with the type specimen, as his description of the species is copied 
from Leveille. The British specimen from Orton Wood, described by 
Professor Balfour, has warted spores. 

The size of the warts on the spores varies in specimens from 
different localities, and in some instances they are very minute, as in 
No. 2097 of Ellis and Everhart’s N. American Fungi. 


(Rostafinski’s Synonyms.) 


Lycoperdon bombacinum, Batsch, El., p. 153 (1783). 
Stemonitis botrytis, Pers. in Gmel., Syst., 1468 (1791). 
| Lrichia, botrytis, Pers. Disp, p. 9 (1797); Ie Pict. t. 12) 
1 dl, 
Trichia botrytis, 8B minor, Pers. Disp., 54 (1797). 

Trichia serotina, Schrad., Journ., t. 3, f 1 (1799); Eng. FI, v. 
p. 310; Cooke, Hdbk., No. 1181. 

Spherocarpus fragilis, Sow., t. 279 (1803). 

Trichia notata, Fl. Dan., 1680 (1823). 

Trichia badia, Fr., Stirp. Femsj., 83 (1823). 

Trichia pyriformis, Fr., 8. M., iii. 184 (1829); Curr. Mie. 
Journ, ii. t. 2, tf. 9, 10; Cooke, Hdbk., No. 1178. 

Trichia Lorinseriana, Corda, Ic., f. 228 D (1837); Curr., Mier. 
Journ., v. p. 129; Cooke, Hdbk., No. 1180. 
 * Lrichia pyriformis, B serotina, Rtfki., in Fckl., Symb. 2, N. 75 

18738). 

Craterium floriforme, Schw., Am., No., 2307. 

Aluisia bombarda, B. and Br., Ceylon Fungi, No. 784, t. 1. f. 6, 
(1873). 


3o2 Transactions of the Society. 


Trichia purpurascens, Nyl. 


Sporangia stipitate, ovate or spherico-ovate, solitary or gregarious, 
purplish-red, opaque; stem striato-rugose (when dry), erect or 
cernuous, rather firm and thickish, coloured like the sporangium, 
which it equals in length; elaters yellow, 5 w thick at the centre, 
attenuated at each end into a smooth, rather flexuous, very long, 
tapering apiculus, about 45 w long; spirals three, rather prominent, 
separated by interstices from two to three times their width ; spores 
globose, verruculose, yellowish ochre ; yellowish under the Microscope, 
9-11 » diameter. Nylander, in Sallsk. pro Faun. et Flor. Fenn. 
notis. Ny. Ser. H, I, p. 126; Sacc., Syll., 1508; Myx. Fenn, iv. 
» UB. 
On old fir-wood, Helsingfors, Finland. 

Of the above species I have seen no authentic specimen, but, 
judging from the description, it appears closely related to, if really 
distinct from T'richia fragilis. 


Trichia fallax, Rost., figs. 21 and 27. 


Sporangia pyriform or broadly clavate, stipitate, ochraceous, olive- 
yellow, or sometimes with a tinge of olive-green, dull or shining ; 
stem dark, usually wrinkled longitudinally, filled with cells which 
_ towards the apex pass by degrees into normal spores ; mass of elaters 
and spores yellow; elaters semple or branched, fusiform, 5-6 p at 
thickest part, ending in long, smooth, tapering tips, spirals rather 
close, not prominent; spores globose, minutely verruculose, 10-13 py 
diameter. 

The following forms are recognized by Rostafinski, but they do 
not appear to be so well defined as the forms of some other species. 

a. minor. Sporangia pyriform or clavate, dirty ochre or brownish, 
about 1°5 mm. high. 

B. genuina. Sporangia pyriform or clavate, ochraceous or olive- 
green, 2-3°5 mm. high. 

y. cerina. Sporangia pyriform, usually olive-yellow, very thin, 
and when empty shining, 4-5 mm. high, elaters simple or branched. 

Rost., Mon., p. 248, figs. 211, 221, 222, 233-236; Cooke, Myx. 
Brit., p. 61, figs. 211, 221, 222, 233-236; Sacc., Syll., v. 7, part i., 
n. 1493; Schroeter, p. 111; Raunk., Myx. Dan., p. 66, t. 4, f. 4. 

Exsicc.—Fuckel, Fung. Rhen., 1435 (Trichia fallax, var. minor) ; 
Jack, Leiner u. Sitzenberger, Krypt. Badens, 420; Rab., Fung. Eur., 
1666 ; Moug. and Nestler, 284 (as Tirrichia clavata); Roum., Fung. 
Sel. Gall., 42 (as Licea cireumscissa, Pers., var. pannosa, Roum.). 

On rotten wood. Britain, (King’s Cliffe, Norths.! Kew! Bristol ! 
Scarborough! Carlisle! Linlithgow and Glamis, N.B.! Coed Coch !) ; 
France! Germany! Switzerland! Denmark! United States! Cuba! 

A well-marked species, characterized externally by the pyriform 
sporangium supported on a dark-brown or almost black, longitudinally 
wrinkled stem. The microsco) ic characters are also well marked,—spores 


A Revision of the Trichiacex. By G. Massee. 333 


minutely verruculose, elaters fusiform, spirals close, not prominent. 
Tn some plants the elaters are simple, and often in other plants all 
- branched, the number of ends varying from three to ten. 

Rostafinski in his monograph represents a portion of an elater 
belonging to the present species (fig. 222) as having flattened spirals, 
which is not correct. 


(Rostafinskis Synonyms.) 


Mucor capitulis pyriformis, Fl. Dan., t. 647, f. 2 (1770). 

Mucor miniatus, Jacq., Mise., t. 229 (1778). 

Stemonitis flavescens, Schrank., p. 19 (1792). 

Lycoperdon aggregatum, Liljeb., Fl. Scan., 460 (1792). 

Lycoperdon pusillum, Hedw., Abh., t. 3, f. 2 (1793). 

Trichia fallax, Pers., Obs., ni. t. 4, 5 (1797) ; Nees, f. 113 ; Corda, 
Ic., iv. 97; Eng. Fl, v. 319; Cooke, Hdbk., 1182. 

Physarum pyriforme, Schum., Saell., 1448 (1803). 

Trichia virescens, Schum., Saell., 1459 (1803). 

Trichia cerina, Ditm., t. 25 (1817); Curr., Mier. Journ., v. p. 127 ; 
Cooke, Hdbk., n. 1184. 

Trichia fulva, Purt., Mid. Fl., 1534 (1817). 

Trichia clavata, Wigand, No. 3 (1863). 

Trichia furcata, Wigand, No. 4 (1863). 

Arcyria elongata, Bong. Herb. 


** Hlaters cylindrical. 


§ Spirals not spinulose. 
Trichia nitens, Fries, fig. 11. 


Sporangia sessile on a broad base, crowded, circular or subangular, 
bright yellow, smooth and shining ; mass of elaters and spores dull 
orange ; elaters cylindrical, 14-16 pw thick, rather short, ending in a 
very short, abrupt, smooth apiculus, spirals rather prominent, distant, 
not spinulose ; spores globose, warted, 14-16 pw diameter. 

(Specimen from I'ries in Herb. Kew, and named by him “ Trichia 
nitens, Fr.’’) 

On wood. Upsala! 

A very fine and distinct species, externally closely resembling 
Oligonema natens (Lib.), Rfki., distinct from T. varia in the polished, 
shining sporangia, and the thicker elaters with very short, abruptly 
apiculate tips. 


Trichia varia, Rost., fig. 17. 


Sporangia scattered or aggregated, sessile on a broad base, tur- 
binate, or subspherical and distinctly stipitate, smooth, yellow, dirty 
ochraceous, sometimes tinged olive, stem when present, blackish ; mass 
of capillitium and spores yellow; elaters cylindrical, 4-5 w thick, 
spirals distant, prominent, more especially on the convex side when 
the elaters are curved, tips smooth, tapering, straight or bent, 8-10 « 


O34 Transactions of the Society. 


long, but sometimes shorter, the elaters are sometimes swollen at the 
commencement of the tapering tips; spores globose, minutely warted, 
10-14 p diameter. 

a. nigripes. Sporangia stipitate, stem blackish, length variable. 

8. sessilis, Sporangia sessile, base narrow. 

y. genuina. Sporangia sessile on a broad base, often compressed, 
circular or sausage-shaped. 

The above forms cannot be considered as true varieties, the first is 
most permanent, the other two may frequently be seen passing into 
each other in the same cluster. 

Rost., Mon., p. 251, figs. 191, 202, 208, 212, 218, 237; Cooke, 
Myx. Brit., p. 63, figs. 191, 202, 208, 212, 218, 237; Schroeter, 
p. 112; Sace., Syll., n. 1497; Raunk., Myx. Dan., p. 65, t. 3, f. 14, 
and t. 4, f. 3. 

Exsice.—Jack, Leiner u. Sitzenberger, Kr. Bad., 419! Karst., 
Fung. Fenn., 288! Fuckel, Fung. Rhen., 1431! Roum., Fung. Gall., 
1101! Rab., Fung. Eur., 799 and 2137! Syaow, Myc. March., 487 ! 
Rab., Fung. Eur., 2138! (as Trichia nigrip-s, = IV’. varia, v. nigripes); 
Fuckel, Fung. Rhen., 14383! (as Trichia mgripes, = T. varia 
v. nigripes) ; Roum., Fung. Gall., cent. xiv. n. 13815! (as Trichia 
chrysosperma, = Trichia varia); Karst, Fung. Fenn. 699! (as 
Trichia chrysosperma, = Trichia varia); de Thum., Myc. Univ., 
1999! (as Trichia fallax) ; Sace., Myc. Ven., 794! 

On bark, wood, moss, &c., Britain (Weybridge! Kew! Bishops’ 
Wood, Highgate! Staunton, Notts! Bristol! Scarboro’! Carlisle ! 
Abergavenny! Appin, N.B.!) ; France! Denmark! Germany! Finland! 
Italy ! Bohemia! United States! Tasmania! New Zealand ! 

A well-marked species without marked affinity with any known 
species, differing considerably in the form of the sporangia, and 
presence or absence of a stem, but readily recognized by the minutely 
warted spores and cylindrical elaters with distant, prominent spirals. 
In the specimen in Rab., Fung. Eur.,n. 2137 (Brit. Mus. copy), the warts 
show a tendency to become elongated and flattened, thus forming a 
transition to the section with the spores having bands not connected 
into a network, but in other respects the plant is typical. The elaters 
are rarely slightly bifurcate at the tip, as shown by Rostafinski, fig. 
237. The plant is pure white when immature. 


(Rostafinski’s Synonyms.) 
a. Trichia varia, v. nigripes. 


Mucilago minima, Mich., t. 96, f. 4 (1729). 
Embolus albissimus, Hall, Herb., p. 8 (1742). 
Embolus, Hall, No. 2138 (1768). 

Mucor pyriformis, Scop., Fl. Carn., 492 (1772). 
Mucor pomnformis, Leers, Fl. Herb., 1136 (1775). 
Mucor lacteus, Leers, Fl. Herb., 1182 (1775). 
Stemonitis pyriformis, Willd., Fl. Ber., 409 (1787). 


A Revision of the Trichiacer. By G. Massee. 335 


Eimbolus lacteus, Hoff., Veg. Cr., t. 11, f. 3 (1790). 

Spherocarpus chrysospermus, Bull., t. 417, f. 4 (?). 

Trichia olivacea, Pers., Obs. 1, 62 (1796). 

- Arcyria olivacea, Rausch (1797). 

Trichia cylindrica, Pers., Obs. 11, 33 (1799). 

Trichia cordata, Pers., Obs. 11, 33 (1799). 

Trichia nigripes, Pers., Syn. 178 (1801). 
a pyriformis, B cordata, y cylindrica, 6 vulgaris; Fl. Dan., 
t. 1313, f. 2; Curr., Micr. Journ., v. p. 128; Cooke, Hdbk., n. 1183. 

Trichia craterioides, Corda, Ie., i. f. 85 (1838). 


y. Trichia varia, v. genwina. 


Lycogala luteum, Mich., t. 95, f. 4 (1729). 

Mucor quintus, Schff., 296 (1770). 

Mucor granulatus, Schff., 286 (1770). 

Lycoperdon vesiculosum, Batsch, 283 (1786). 

Spherocarpus chrysospermus, Bull. t. 417, p. 4 (?). 

Stemonitis varia, Pers., in Gmel., Sys., 1470 (1791). 

Stemonitis vesiculosa, Gmel., Sys., 1470 (1791). 

Trichia varia, Pers., Disp., p. 10 (1797); Eng. Fl., v. 320; 
Cooke, Hdbk., n. 1188. 

Lycoperdon luridum, Hedw., Obs., t. xiv. (1802). 

Trichia favoginea, Schum., Saell., 1455 (18038). 

Trichia applanata, Hedw., in D. C. Organ., t. 60, f. 1 (1827). 


Trichia proximella, Karst. 


Sporangia stipitate or sessile, spherical or often irregularly sub- 
spherical, pale dirty ochre, rather shining, about 0:4 mm.; elaters 
cylindrical, yellow, 4-5 yw thick, very rarely furcate, apiculus 
oblique, smooth, in length about equal to the diameter of the elater 
or a little more, spirals three or four, rather prominent, separated 
by interspaces scarcely double their width; spores globose, warted, 
ochraceous or ferruginous ochre in the mass, under the Microscope 
yellow, 12-14 » diameter. Karsten, Myc. Fenn, iv. p. 139; 
Sace., Syll., n. 1507. 

On wood. Finland. 

Allied to T. inconsyicua, but differs in the larger sporangia, 
spores, and elaters; the spirals on the elaters are also more promi- 
nent. (Karst.) 


Trichia inconspicua, Rost. 


Sporangia very minute, subspherical, brown, shining, collected in 
clusters or scattered, hypothallus absent; elaters cylindrical, 3°3 wu 
thick, tips pointed, 6-7 » long, curved, sometimes with elongated 
swellings near the ends, spirals 3-4, but slightly prominent, rather 
close ; spores delicately verruculose, 10-12 wu. 

Rost., Mon., p. 259; Sace., Syll., 1502. 

Germany; France. 


336 Transactions of the Society. 


Trichiu advenula, Mass. (n. sp.), fig. 38. 


Sessile on a broad base, densely crowded, rarely scattered, circular, 
or subangular from mutual pressure, primrose-yellow, rather shining ; 
mass of capillitium and spores orange; elaters cylindrical, 4-5 p 
thick, usually inflated at one or both ends and also with from 1—3 
interstitial swollen portions, beyond the swollen ends, terminating 
in a thin straight or usually flecuous slender spine 15-20 pu long, 
spirals very close, thin, but little prominent, almost obsolete on the 
inflated portions; spores globose, minutely verruculose, 12-14 pu 
diameter. 

(Type in Herb. Berk., Kew.) 

On rotten wood. Scotland (Glamis!). Forming densely crowded 
patches, 1-2 inches across. Most nearly related to Trichia minima, 
but distinguished by the long, slender tips to the elaters and the 
interstitial swollen parts; in 7. menima the capillitium and spores are 
pale primrose in tie mass, and not orange as in the present species. 


Trichia minima, Mass. (n. sp.), fig. 18. 


Sporangia crowded, sessile on a broad base, circular, elliptical, or 
irregular from mutual pressure, pale primrose-yellow ; mass of elaters 
and spores same colour; elaters cylondrical, 6—-T w thick, ending in 
smooth tapering points about 8-10 w long, spirals thin, rather 
distant, not prominent, without spines ; spores globose, very minutely 
warted, 10 diameter. 

(Type in Herb. Kew.) 

On wood. Britain (Oldham !). 

Allied to T. scabra, but distinct in the smaller size of every part, 
and in the absence of spines on the spirals of the elaters. In colour 
resembling YT’. chrysosperma. 


Trichia nana, Mass. (n. sp.)., fig. 12. 


Sporangia scattered or aggregated, rarely crowded, sessile on a 
broad base, smooth, pale bright ochre, opaque, wall very thin; mass 
of elaters and spores pale primrose yellow; elaters cylindrical, 3—4 
pu thick, spirals irregular, very distant and prominent, tips abrupt, 
the spirals usually running quite to the end ; spores globose, menutely 
verruculose, 6-8 pw diameter. 

(Type in Herb. Kew.) 

On wood. Westbrook, Maine; U.S.! 

Sporangia rarely exceeding -5 mm. diameter, hemispherical or 
sausage-shaped and curved. By far the smallest of all known species, 
resembling superficially T'richia minima, from which it differs in the 
_ distant and prominent spirals of the elaters ; in the latter character it 
agrees with 7. varia, but differs in the spirals not being markedly 
more prominent on the convex side of bent elaters, the abrupt tips, 


and smaller size of every part. The elaters are rarely more than 
200 pe long. 


A Revision of the Trichiacex. By G. Massee. 3387 


Trichia reniformis, Peck. 


Sporangia gregarious or clustered, sessile, swhglobose or reniform, 
small, brown ; flocci few, short, sparingly branched ; spores globose, 
minutely echinulate, yellow-ochre, sometimes tinged with green, 
-0005 in. in diameter (= 12-13 p). 

Peck, Twenty-sixth Report of the State Museum, New York, 
p. 76; Sace., Syll., n. 1510. 

Owing to the scanty information respecting the elaters, the 
affinities of the present species are doubtful; may possibly be allied to 
Trichia inconspicua. 


Trichia contorta, Rost. 


Plasmodiocarp creeping, flecuous, subcompressed, wmber or bay- 
brown; mass of elaters and spores yellow; elaters 2°5-3-°5 uy, 
cylindrical, tips usually swollen and terminated by a long slender 
spine, there is sometimes an interstitial swelling ; sperals indistinct ; 
spores globose, minutely warted, 12-15 » diameter. 

Trichia contorta Rost., Mon., p. 259, fig. 229 ; Schroeter, p. 113; 
Sace., Syll., v. 7, pt. i. n. 1503; Cooke, Myx. Brit., fig. 229 ; Raunk., 
Myx. Dan., p. 68, t. 3, f. 18. 

On rotten wood. Britain; Germany; France; Denmark ; 
Sweden; Australia. 

_ The peculiar cylindrico-compressed, flexuous plasmodiocarp of a - 
dark brown colour, and the elaters with long spine-like tips and 
indistinct spirals mark the present species. 


(Rostafinski’s Synonyms.) 


Lycogala contortum, Dit., in Sturm. Deut. Cr. Fl. t. 5 (1817). 
Trichia reticulata, b, Grev., Se. Cr. FI., t. 266 (1827). 
Perichena contorta, Fr., 8. M., ui. 192 (1829). 
Licea contorta, Wallr., Fl. Cr. Ger., n. 2110 (1833). 
Hemitrichia contorta, Rost., ap. Fuckel Syn. 2, Nach. p. 75 
(1873). 
§§ Spirals spinulose. 
Trichia scabra, Rost., fig. 13. 


Sporangia rarely scattered, typically gregarious, sessile on a broad 
base, seated on a hypothallus, circular or polygonal from mutual 
pressure, varying from yellow through orange to pale brown; mass 
of elaters and spores orange ; elaters cylindrical, 6-8 p thick, ending 
in smooth, acute, straight or slightly bent tips 7-10 wu long, spirals 
not very prominent, rather distant, bearing numerous short acute 
spines ; spores globose, epispore warted, warts rather large, numerous, 
8-12 p» diameter. 

Rost., Mon., p. 258, figs. 214-217 and 239; Cooke, Myx. Brit., 
figs. 214-217 and 239; Schroeter, p. 113; Sacc., Syll., n. 1500; 
Raunk., Myx. Dan., p. 68, t. 4, f. 2. 


338 Transactions of the Society. 


Trichia scabra, v. awrea, Cooke, Myx. U. States, in Ann. 
Lyceum Nat. Hist. N. York, vol. xi. No. 12, p. 408. 

Exsice.—Ellis and Everh., N. Amer. Fung., 2100! Roumeg., 
Fung. Gall. Exs., 1005 ! 

On wood, moss, &c. Britain (Queen’s Cottage Wood, Kew! 
Birmingham! Taunton, Notts! Scarboro’!)! France! Germany ! 
Denmark! United States! Ceylon ! 

Spores resembling those of 7’. nitens, but the latter is separated 
by the polished sporangia and absence of spines on the spirals of the 
elaters. The last character also separates T. varia from the present 
species. 

Var. analogia, Cooke. Hlaters with the spirals furnished with 
only rudimentary spinules, or in some instances entirely absent. 

Cooke, Myx. U. States, in Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, vol. x1. 
Ne WY, Jo, kOe 

On rotten wood. New York! 


Trichia Decaisneana, De Bary. 


Sporangia pyriform, brownish flesh-colour, shining, stepitate ; stem 
red then blackish brown, very much plicate, equal; mass of capilli- 
tium and spores yellowish flesh-colour, znclosed in an inner membrane 
connate with the outer wull of the sporangium , elaters cylindrical, 
inflated near the tips and ending in smooth, tapering, curved spines 
3-6 times as long as diameter of elater, spirals 5-6, flexuous, spinu- 
lose, in some cases parts of the elaters have the spirals in the form 
of distant ridges or wrinkles; spores delicately warted, 10-11 pu 
diameter. 

De Bary in Rost., Mon., p. 250, figs. 219, 220; Schroet., p. 112; 
Cooke, Brit. Myx., figs. 219, 220. 7 

On Jungermannia. Germany. 

According to Schroeter the spores measure from 11-13 p, the 
elaters have four spirals, and are 4—5 wz thick. As these measurements 
differ from those given by the author of the species, the question that 
naturally suggests itself is, has Schroeter had the true species of 
De Bary in view? In Rostafinski’s monograph, fig. 220, the ypirals 
of the elaters are represented as broad and flat, no spines are shown 
in the figure. 


Trichia persimalis, Karst. 


Sporangia aggregated, sessile, spherical or nearly so, yellowish- 
brown, shining; elaters cylindrical, yellow, 4—6 » thick, tips smooth, 
commonly curved, twice the length of the diameter of the elater, 
spirals 3-4, prominent, rather distant, with scattered, spreading, 
curved, hyaline spines 8-10 pw long, and 4-6 » thick; spores 
spherical, warted, ochraceous, 13—14 », diameter. 

Karsten, in Not. Sallsk. pro Faun. et Flor. Fenn. Forh., 1868, 
ix, p. 303; Karst., Myx. Fenn., p. 1893 Sacc., Syll., n. 1506. 

On birch-wood. Finland. 


A Revision of the Trichiacex. By G. Massee. 039 


Karsten describes the colour of the sporangia as “subargillaceo- 
castaneis.” 

I have not had an opportunity of examining the present species, the. 
elaters—unless some inaccuracy has crept into the description—being 
very remarkable in being furnished with spines as thick as themselves, 
and 8-10 » long, a character which alone stamps the species. 


C. Spores with elongated, raised, flat bands not combined to form 
a network. 


* Bands plain. 
Trichia sulphurea, Mass. (n. sp.), fig. 3. 


Sporangia densely crowded, sessile on a broad base, circular, 
subangular or reniform in outline, pale yellow, smooth; mass of 
elaters and spores pale lemon-yellow ; elaters cylindrical, simple, or 
frequently branched, especially near the tips, 9-10» thick, spirals 
crowded, not very prominent, tips not thickened, smooth, acute, 
straight or slightly curved, 10-14 » long; spores globose, with 
numerous short, slightly raised, straight or crescent-shaped flat 
bands, 10-14 p» diameter. 

(Type in Herb. Berk. Kew, n. 10,906.) 

On wood. Ceylon! 

A very fine large species, sporangia ‘5-1 mm. diameter. The 
distinguishing features are the thick cylindrical elaters with crowded 
spirals, and the numerous short flat bands on the spores, which under 
a low power look like warts. From 15-20 bands are present on a 
hemisphere of a spore. Most nearly related to Tr. nitens, but in the 
latter the markings on the spores are true rounded warts, and the. 
spirals on the elaters are much wider apart. 


Trichia Balfourii, Mass. (n. sp.), fig. 4. 


Sporangia sessile, base broad or narrowed, crowded, hemispherical 
or angular from mutual pressure, clear primrose-yellow; mass of 
elaters and spores deeper and duller yellow; elaters cylindrical, 
9-10 w thick, sometimes swollen near the apex, which is abruptly 
narrowed into from one to three short, smooth spines, generally more 
or less bent, spirals thin, rather distant, not prominent, Furnished 
with scattered rudimentary spines; spores globose, with a few 
broad, slightly raised, flat bands, not punctate, nor combined in a 
reticulate manner, 16-18 yw diameter. 

With Trichia Jacki, in Herb. Kew, marked “ Trichia Jackii, 
spores not typical,” by Professor I. Bayley Balfour. (Type in Herb. 

ew.) 

On wood. Cape of Good Hope! 

Closely related to 7. Jackiz, but readily known by the absence of 
punctiform markings on the raised bands of the spores. In T. verru- 
cosa, the bands on the spores are much shorter and more numerous,. 


540 Transactions of the Society. 


looking under a 1/4 objective, like warts, the elaters are also very 
different, having simple stouter tips and crowded spirals, which are 
not spinulose. 


* * Bands with minute depressions. 
richia abrupta, Cooke, fig. 2. 


Sporangia densely gregarious on a well-developed hypothallus, 
sessile on a broad base, generally more or less polygonal from mutual 
pressure, clear pale yellow; mass of elaters and spores orange ; elaters 
cylindrical, 8-11 w diameter, spirals rather distant, not prominent, 
_ with scattered rudimentary spinules, tips smooth and equal in thick- 
ness to elater for a length of 8-10 yu, then abruptly terminating in 
two or three thin, tapering, straight or curved spines 8-10 p long ; 
spores globose, with numerous slightly raised, straight or curved flat 
bands furnished with nunute depressions in a single row, or rarely 
irregularly scattered, 10-16 w diameter. 

Cooke, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, v. xi. No. 12, p. 404; 
Cooke, Myx. Brit., fig. 256 (without description); Sacc., Syll., n. 
1511. (Type in Herb. Kew.) . 

On wood. Britain (Ken Wood, Hampstead! Scarborough !) 
Westbrooke, Maine, U.S. ! 

A very distinct and beautiful species, most nearly related to 
T. Jacki in the spores but distinguished by the more numerous and 
shorter bands, and by the branched tips of the elaters In the last 
named character it agrees with T. Balfouriz, but in the latter the 
bands on the spores are not punctate. T'. cntermedia is distinguished 
by the presence of ridges on the elaters running parallel to their long 
axes between the spirals. 


Trichia Jacki, Rost., fig. 5. 


Sporangia generally crowded, sessile on a broad or narrow base, 
hypothallus well developed ; circular, polygonal, or elliptical in shape, 
dull yellow; mass of elaters and spores yellow ; elaters cylindrical, 
5-7 p thick, tips smooth, acute, straight or a little bent, spirals not 
very prominent, distant, smooth or with rudimentary spinules; spores 
globose, with a few slightly elevated, broad, flat bands, which are 
slightly sinuous, sometimes branched, but not combined to form a 
network, surface of bands with a central row of minute depressions, 
12-15 p diameter. 

Rost., Mon., p. 258, f. 242; Cooke, Myx. Brit., f. 242; Balf, 
Grev., v. 10, p. 117; Schroeter, p. 113; Sac., Syll., n. 1500; Raunk., 
Myx. Dan., p. 69, t. 4, f. 5. : 

On wood, &., Britain (Hassock’s Gate, Brighton! Bishop’s Wood, 
Highgate! Castle Howard, Yorkshire! Glamis, N.B.!). Germany! 
Italy! Switzerland! Denmark! ; 

Most nearly related to T. abrupta, from which it is at once dis- 
tinguished by the comparatively longer bands on the spores, which 


A Revision of the Trichiacer. By G. Massee. 341 


are also fewer in number, the undivided tips of the elaters, and the 
absence, or rudimentary nature of the spinules on the spirals. 


Trichia intermedia, Mass. (u. sp.), fig. 1. 


Sporangia subglobose, sessile on a broad base, crowded, often 
irregular from mutual pressure, smooth, shining, bright ochre; mass 
of capillitium and spores, clear pale chrome yellow; threads simple, 
cylindrical, about 10 pw thick, ending in a short smooth apiculus, 
spirals close, not prominent, sometimes branched, with a few short 
spines here and there, connected by thinner raised bands running 
parallel to the long axis of the thread; spores globose, with distant 
raised flat bands that rarely anastomose irregularly, surface of bands 
with minute depressions, usually arranged in a single row, 9-11 yu 
diameter. (Type in Herb. Kew.) 

On trunks, Scarborough ! 

The spores closely resemble those of Trichia Jackii, but the 
spirals of the capillitium threads are connected by raised bands as in 
Trichia chrysosperma, and the spines are rare and rudimentary. 
Known from 7. affinis by the bands on the spore not being uniformly 
combined with a network, and the presence of ridges connecting the 
spirals of the elaters. 


D. Spores with raised flat bands combined to form a network. 
* Bands plain. 
Trichia chrysosperma, Rost., fig. 10. 


Sporangia crowded, rarely scattered, sessile on a broad or narrow 
base, circular or irregular in form from mutual pressure, varying in 
colour from clear pale yellow to ochraceous cinnamon; mass of elaters 
and spores yellow; elaters cylindrical, 5-9 yw thick, tips smooth, acute, 
straight or slightly bent, not longer than diameter of elater, spirals 
not very prominent, rather distant, sometimes with a few scattered 
rudimentary spinules, connected by thin ridges running parallel to 
the long axis of the elater ; spores globose, with rather deep, narrow, 
raised bands, combined into an trregular polygonal network, bands 
not punctate, 12-15 p diameter. 

Rost., Mon., p. 255, figs. 209, 213, 240; Cooke, Myx. Brit., 
p. 64, figs. 209, 218, 240; Schroeter, p. 113; Sacc., Syll. n. 1498 ; 
Raunk, Myx. Dan., p. 69, t. 4, f. 1. 

Exsice.—Rab., Fung. Eur., 567, 2137! (called Trichia varia, 
Pers.); Jack, Leiner u. Sitzenberger Krypt. Badens, 622! Ellis, 
N. Amer. Fung., 1112! 

On wood, bark, moss, &c. Britain (Highgate! Castle Howard, 
Yorks! specimen in “ Dawson—Turner’s Herb.” at Kew, without 
locality !) Germany! France! Belgium! Denmark. United States! 
According to Rostafinski the present species occurs in Finland, but 
Karsten’s plant, called Trichia chrysosperma in Karst., Fung. Fenn., 
n. 699, is Trichta varia in the Kew copy. 

1889. 2B 


342 Transactions of the Society. 


Respecting the synonymy of the present species Professor Bayley 
Balfour writes as follows:—“ Under Tr. chrysosperma, Rostafinski 
quotes a very extensive synonymy. I have devoted some time to 
the study of the synonyms quoted, but I am not satisfied from the 
descriptions and figures by the several authors that the identification 
in all cases is correct. Indeed, I do not see how, by such descriptions 
and figures as are given, one can determine which of the sessile 
ageregated species—Tr. chrysosperma, Tr. scabra, Rtfki., Tr. 
Jackit, and T’r. affinis, De Bary, all having a general likeness in 
habit—is referred to by the older authors. A correct estimate would 
only be possible after examination of the type specimens. How many 
of these Rostafinski was enabled to study I do not know. As I have 
not yet had the opportunity of seeing a sufficient number of these, 
I shall not at present criticize in detail the synonymy, but that great 
confusion has occurred in the identification of the several species of 
sessile, aggregate Trichias, an examination of the specimens in the 
Kew Herbarium has convinced me. 

. . . But first let me say a word as to the name Trichia 
chrysosperma, as adopted by Rostafinski. As I have stated, he 
ascribes it to Bullard (‘ Hist. des Champign., T. (1791) 131, t. 417, 
f. 4), who describes a form, Spherocarpus chrysospermus, pre- 
senting three varieties, the first of which is taken by Rostafinski as 
the type of the species Trichia chrysosperma, Bull. Now, in 
Bulliard’s description and figures there is nothing regarding the 
elaters and spores to show that his species really conforms with the 
definition of the species given by Rostafinski, and is not such another 
form as Tr. affinis, De By. Indeed, as I have mentioned already, 
Fuckel quotes the species as being in part De Bary’s Tr. affinis, 
though I do not know the ground for his identification. But, sup- 
posing Rostafinski’s identification to be correct, there is no warranty 
for affixing Bulliard’s name to the species, as he describes it under 
another genus. ‘The real authors of the name, it would appear, are 
Lamarck and De Candolle, who (‘Synops. Plant.,’ No. 673, and again, 
‘Flor. Frane., ii. 250) describe under this name what they take 
as identical with Bulliard’s Sphewrocarpus chrysospermus, which 
they quote as a synonym. Bulliard has no claim to the name. 
Rostafinski having adopted the name for the form he so carefully 
describes, there need be now no longer any difficulty or confusion in 
the determination of the species, as it is preserved in herbaria or 
gathered at the present day, whatever decision be come to as regards 
syhonyms. * 

So much for the synonymy. From the above it appears that it is 
more than doubtful as to whether the variety of Bulliard’s plant was 
the same as the species described by Rostafinski, a doubt not cleared 
up by the description given by Lamarck and De Candolle; and fur- 
ther, as types, so far as I have been able to ascertain, do not exist, it 


* Grev., x. p. 118. 


A Revision of the Trichiacer. By G. Massee. 343 


will be wise to consider Rostafinski as the author of the species in 
question. 

Acreeing more especially in spore sculpture i Tr. dictyospora 
and T’r. Archert, for distinctive features, see under these species. 

The specimen in Rabenh., Fung. Eur, n. 567, has the spirals of 
the elaters furnished with scattered minute spinules. 


(Rostafinski’s Synonyms.) 


Lycoperdon gregarium, Retz., Obs. 1, 33 (1769). 
Lycoperdon favogineum, Batsch., f, 173 (1786). 
Stemonitis pyriformis, Roth., Fl. Germ., 1, 548 (1788). 
Spherocarpus chri ysosper mis, Bull., t. 417, ii, BE (ALA SIL) 
Stemonitis favoginea, Gmel., Syst., 1470 (1791). 
Trichia nitens, Pers., Obs. i 62 (1796). 
Trichia favogined, Pers., Disp. ONGEGO TO): 
Trichia chrysosperma, D. C., Fl. Fr., 673 (1805); Eng. FL, 
y. 320; Cooke, Hdbk., No. 1187; Fungi Britt, ii. 524, 527. 
Prichia turbinata, Purt., Brit., My JEILILS (1817). 
Clathroides flavescens, Hall., t 1, f. 7 (1742). 
Trichia, Hall, 2168, t. 48, f. 7 (1768). 
Lycoperdon aggregatum, Retz., Fl. Scan., 1627 (1769). 
Lycoperdon epiphyllum, Light, F1. Sc., 1069 (1777). 
Clathrus turbinatus, Huds., Fl. Angl., 632 (1778) ; Bolt., t. 94, £5. 
Trichia pyriformis, Vill., Fl. Dauph., 1060 (1789). 
Stemonitis pyriformis, Pers., in Gmel., Syst., 1468 (1791). 
Trichia turbinata, With., Arr., iv. 480 (1792); Sow., t. 89; 
Eng. FL, v. 8320; Cke., Hdbk., n. 1186. 
Trichia pyriformis, Pers., Disp. 19 (1797). 
Trichia olivacea, Pers., Obs. I., 62 (1796) in part. 
Trichia ovata, Pers., Obs. II., 85 (1796) ; Schum., Saell., 1454 ; 
Fl. Dan., t. 1813, f. 1. 
Trichia vulgaris, Pers., Obs. II., 32 (1799). 
Physarum conteatum, Spr., Syst. me PAY) (ksilig())- 


Trichia verrucosa, Berk., fig. 9. 


Sporangia pyriform, brown or chestnut, shining, passing down- 
wards into a long slender stem, simple or botryoid, scattered, springing 
Strom a thick, broadly effused hypothallus ; mass of capillitium and 
spores ochraceous ; threads of capillitium simple, cylindrical, 8-10 pw 
thick, with smooth tapering ends of variable length and straight or 
curved, spirals close, thin, not prominent ; spores globose, with narrow, 
raised flat bands combined into a few large wregular polygonal 
meshes, 14-16 wu diam. 

Berkeley, in Flora Tasm., p. 269. 

(Type in Herb. Berk., n. 10,906.) 

On wood. Tasmania! (Archer). Differs from Trichia chryso- 
sperma and T. dictyospora in the scattered stipitate sporangia springing 

2B 2 


344 Transactions of the Society. 


from a stout hypothallus, and also in the characters of the capillitium 
threads and spores. Plants 2-3 mm. high. Usually not more than 
one complete polygon is present on a hemisphere of the spore. 


Trichia Kalbreyeri, Mass. (n. sp.), fig. 8. 


Sporangia crowded, sessile, often irregular from mutual pressure, 
pale yellow, smooth; mass of capillitium and spores pale primrose- 
yellow; threads of capillitium cylindrical, 9-10 p thick, with short, 
smooth, tapering ends, spirals not prominent, thin, close; spores 
globose, with raised narrow flat bands forming an irregular polygonal 
network, 11-14 pw diam. 

(Type in Herb. Kew.) 

On wood and living leaves. New Granada! (W. Kalbreyer). 

Externally resembling Trichia chrysosperma, but readily distin- 
guished by the absence of the ridges between the spirals on the 
capillitium threads, and the narrow bands forming more numerous 
polygons, from two to three complete ones being present on a hemi- 
sphere of the spore. 


** Bands with minute depressions on the surface. 
Trichia affinis, De Bary, fig. 7. 


Sporangia sessile on a broad base, crowded, circular or elliptical, 
often seated on a well-developed hypothallus, clear pale yellow; mass 
of elaters and spores pale yellow; elaters cylindrical, 4—7 w thick, 
ending in short, tapering, smooth tips, sperals thin, rather close, not 
prominent, sometimes furnished with scattered rudimentary spinules ; 
spores globose, with broad, slightly raised, flat hands combined into a 
few irregular polygons, surface of bands with a central row of minute 
pits, 10-14 w diameter. 

De Bary, MS., in Rost., Mon., p. 257, fig. 241; Cooke, Myx. 
Brit., fig. 241; Schroet., p. 113; Sace., Syll., n. 1499 ? 

Exsicc.—Cooke, Fung. Brit. 614! (as T. chrysosperma) ; Cooke, 
Brit. Fung., ed. 2, 527! (as T. chrysosperma); Thum., Myc, Univ., 
2000! Fuckel, Fung. Rhen., 1432! 

On wood, twigs, moss, &c. Britain (Epping! Scarborough! 
Brandon! Castle Howard, Yorks.! Lillieshall! Weybridge! Appin, 
N.B.! Chislehurst! Carlisle!). Europe! United States! Cuba! 
Tasmania ! 

Superficially resembling T. chrysosperma, from which it is known 
by the row of pits on the raised bands of the spores. ‘The bands are 
united into very few polygons, rarely more than one being complete 
on a hemisphere of the spore. Rarely there is a free end to the band. 
For distinctions from 1’. intermedia and T. superba, see under these 
species. It is doubtful what species is intended in Sace. Syll., as the 
spirals of the elaters are said to form a network, and the puncte on 
the bands are not mentioned. 


A Revision of the Trichiacex. By G. Massee, 345 


Trichia superba, Mass, (n. sp.), fig. 6. 


Botryoid, rarely simple. Sporangia broadly obovate, pale yellow, 
common stem more or less wrinkled longitudinally, often twisted, 
colour of the sporangium above becoming orange downwards, springing 
from a well-developed hypothallus; mass of capillitium and spores 
deep yellow; elaters simple, cylindrical, 9-11 w thick, with abruptly 
tapering, smooth, short ends, often more or less bent, spirals close, 
thin, but little prominent; spores globose, with raised flat bands com- 
bined into a polygonal network ; bands with a row of minute depres- 
sions, 17-20 pw diameter. 

(Type in Herb. Kew.) 

On mosses and logs. New Zealand! 

Allied to Trichia affinis, but known by the much larger spores 
with smaller and more numerous reticulations, and the obovate 
sporangia arranged in a botryoid manner, and supported on a long 
stem. 

Plants scattered, 3-4 mm. high, stem about equal in length to the 
sporangium, thin and weak, so that the sporangia are often drooping. 
From three to four polygons present on a hemisphere of the spore. 


Trichia Kickxii, Rost. 


Sporangia spherical, sessile, in several crowded strata forming 
cakes some mm. high, and sometimes several cm. long and broad ; 
walls of single sporangia rigid, flesh-colowr, polished and shining ; 
elaters simple, either flexuous or curved into circles, 4°2 p thick, 
spirals two, not very prominent; tips obtuse; spores with an trre- 
gular network, 14-15 pw diameter. 

Rost., Mon. App., p. 40; Sacc., Syll., n. 1504. 


Trichia pusilla, Schroeter. 


Sporangia subglobose, very small, 0°3-0°5 mm. diameter, gre- 
garious, scattered or collected in clusters, golden or brownish-yellow, 
smooth, shining, fragile; hypothallus absent ; elaters very short, about 
100 yp long, 4—5 w thick, here and there thickened, apices rounded, 
often mucronate and curved, 4-5 p long; spirals 2-3, slightly pro- 
minent, here and there inconspicuous; spores globose, unequally 
costulato-reticulate, 11-12 » diameter. 

Schroeter, p. 114; Sacc., Syll., 1509. 

On bark. Germany. 


Ouiconema, Rost. 


Wall of sporangium single, dehiscing irregularly; capillitium 
composed of free, simple, or branched elaters, furnished with ring-like 
thickenings, or rudimentary spirals, tips obtuse ; spores globose. 

Rost., Mon., p. 291; Cooke, Myx. Brit., p. 77; Sacc., Syll., 
p. 436. 

Agreeing with T'richia in the free elaters, but distinguished by 


346 Transactions of the Society. 


the rudimentary markings on their walls, never having more than a 
single, indistinct, very open spiral, which may be present on one part 
of an eliter, and absent on another part, or not unfrequently altogether 
absent from the elaters of one sporangium, and present on some of 
those in another sporangium taken from the same group. A type 
of ornamentation on the walls of the elaters in the present genus 
consists of annular or ring-like thickenings, which present the 
appearance of thin, flat, circular, perforated discs, rather larger than 
the diameter of the elater, and placed at right angles to its long axis. 
These annular ridges are not peculiar to the present genus, but occur 
in Oornuvia, and also in Didymium Hookeri, Berk., where they are 
coloured. In rare instances, the two ends of an elater coalesce and 
form a closed ring, as figured by Rostafinski in Oligonema nitens, 
Rost., Mon., fig. 198. 

Five species known; three European, one North America, one 
N. Africa. 


A. Spores warted. 
Oligonema Broomet, Mass. (n. sp.), fig. 22. 


Sporangia scattered, or aggregated in small clusters, depressed, 
circular or elongated and irregular, dark brown, dull; mass of capil- 
litium and spores reddish ochre; elaters cylindrical, 3-4 w thick, 
erregularly branched, dull orange, furnished with narrow thickenings 
im the form of rings, which are either scattered or 3-4 close 
together, tips obtuse; spores rather coarsely warted, globose, 13-14 
p diameter. 

Type in Broome Herb. in Brit. Mus., marked “ Trichia serpula?” 

On bark. England (Warleigh! ). 

Sporangia 1-2 mm. across. Possessing several characters in com- 
mon with O. eneum, but distinguished by the scattered, dark brown 
dull sporangia, branched elaters, and larger spores. ; 


Oligonema eenewm, Karst. 


Sporangia densely crowded, often confluent and venulose, rarely 
scattered, orbicular or angular from mutual pressure, depressed, 
shining, with copper, green, or olive metallic tints , threads of the 
capillitium free, 2-3 thick, with scattered thickenings in the form 
of circles; spores globose, warted, rather ferruginous or pale reddish 
ochre, 12 w diameter. 

Karsten, Myc. Fenn., iv. p. 125; Sacc., Syll., n. 1487. 

Finland. 


Oligonema brevifilum, Peck. 


Sporangia crowded in effused heaps, bright ochraceous-yellow ; 
elaters few, short, cylindrical or subfusiform ; spores globose, rugose, 
11 w diameter. Peck in 31st Rep. State Agric. Mus., p. 42; Sacc., 
SylL, n. 1489. 

On mosses. Oneida, U.S. 


A Revision of the Trichiacex. By G. Massee. 347 


In the diagnosis, Peck states that the elaters are “ not septate,” 
which probably means that the walls have no ring-like thickenings. 
The description is too imperfect to indicate its affinities and possibly 
also to insure its future identification. 


B. Spores with raised bands combined into a network. 
Oligonema nitens, Rost., fig. 29. 


Sporangia densely crowded, often several layers superposed, sessile 
on a broad or slightly contracted base, clear primrose-yellow, very 
smooth and shining ; mass of capillitium and spores yellow; elaters 
scanty, variable, 4-5 w, thick, simple or branched, perfectly smooth, 
or with scattered narrow rings, sometimes with an indistinct, very open 
spiral on the whole or portion only of an elater, tips usually abrupt, 
rarely ending in a short apiculus ; spores globose, with narrow raised 
ridges of varying thickness, forming an irregular network, 11-13 
diameter. 

Rost., Mon., p. 291; Schroet., p. 108; Sace., Syll., n. 1488 (the 
colour of the sporangium described as “‘ gilvo” by mistake). 

Exsice.—Lib., Pl. Crypt. Ard., fase. ii. n. 227! (as Trichia 
mitens) ; Klotzsch, Herb. Myce. (Rabenh.) 137! (as Tr. ctrcumscissa) ; 
Fuckel, Fung. Rhen., 2198! (as Tr. nitens). 

On wood, bark, &. France! Bavaria ! Germany ! 

Sporangia ‘5-1 mm. diameter, clear yellow, polished and shining. 
The elaters are very variable, in some sporangia simple and without a 
trace of spiral or ring-like thickening, in others the simple smooth 
elaters are mixed with others that are branched and ornamented as 
described above. 

Var. bavarica, fig. 25, elaters short, tips more or less acute, 
generally with a more or less distinct diffuse spiral, 5-7 thick. 

Oligonema bavarica, Balf. and Berl., Sacc., SylL, n. 1490. 

Exsice.—Thum., Myce. Univ., n. 399 and 1497! 

On wood. Bavaria ! 

Professor Bayley Balfour in some notes on British Myxomy- 
cetes, ‘Grevillea,’ x. p. 119, writes as follows respecting the above 
variety :—“ Trichia bavarica, Thum., Myc. Univers., No. 1497, is no 
Trichia. It is an Ohgonema. Typical Oligonema nitens has few 
elaters without any pattern on the walls. In the De Thumen’s 
specimens I find that the walls have a tendency to become spirally 
thickened, and the elaters sometimes are slightly pointed, and it, 
therefore, shows an approach to Trichia. But still the elaters are very 
few, and the whole plant is essentially an Oligonema, but I am not 
convinced as to its being Olig. nitens. De Thumen has sent out the 
same plant as Trichia chrysosperma, D.C., under No. 399, Mycoth. 
Univ.” i 

Dr. Berlese, on the strength of the above statement, established 
the species O. bavarica, in Saccardo’s Sylloge, as quoted above. In 
the Kew copy of Madame Libert’s Exs., examined by Professor 


348 Transactions of the Society. 


Balfour, the elaters are mostly without ornamentation, but im Dr. 
Cooke’s copy, now in the Kew Herbarium, and also in the British 
Museum copy, I find along with unornamented elaters, others present- 
ing the markings described above. The variety differs in having 
thicker elaters with a more evident and constant spiral. 


(Rostafinski’s Synonyms.) 


Trichia nitens, Libert, non Pers. ! in Lib., Plant. Arden. Collec., 
fase. iii. No. 277 (1834). 


Oligonema minutula, Mass., fig. 20. 


Sporangia scattered, rarely aggregated, sessile on a narrow base, 
lemon-yellow, dull, mass of capillitium very scanty, elaters simple, 
short, cylindrical, 5-6 w thick, rugulose, and with a very open indis- 
tinct spiral, tips obtuse, rounded ; spores globose, with slightly raised, 
flattened bands forming a network of wumerous almost regular and 
equal-sized polygons, 12-14 w diameter. 

Type in Herb. Berk., Kew, n. 10,902, marked “ Trichta minu- 
tula, D.R. et Montag., Algiers.” 

On wood. Algiers! 

Related to O. nitens, but known by the scattered, dull sporangia, 
and the very few short elaters having thick rugulose walls with an 
indistinct spiral. In rare instances a swollen portion 15-20 w long 
and 8-12 w thick is present near the middle of an elater, but there is 
no indication of the narrow, ring-like thickenings as in O. nitens. 
From 7-9 complete polygons present on a hemisphere of a spore. 


Alwisia, B. and Br, 


Sporangia fasciculate on a common stem, wall single, dehiscing 
irregularly ; capillitium scanty, elaters attached to the wall at the 
base of the sporangium, tips free, abrupt or attenuated and occasionally 
bifid, walls thin, spirals and spinules rudimentary ; spores globose. 

_ B. and Br., Journ. Linn. Soc., xiv. p. 87, t. 2, f. 6, and xv. 
li ary te dL 

Trichia, Rost., Mon., p. 246 (in part); Sacc., Syll., vii. pt. 1., 
n. 1494 (in part). 

In the generic diagnosis given by Berkeley and Broome, the spo- 
rangia are described as subcoriaceous, but examination of the type 
specimens shows this to be only when the specimens are not quite 
mature, when, as in most Myzxogastres, they become more or less 
cartilaginous on drying. The cavity of the sporangium is continuous 
with the hollow stem. The present genus is most nearly allied to 
Prototrichia, with which it agrees in having the elaters attached to 
the base of the sporangium, and the tips free; but in Alwista the 
markings on the walls of the elaters are rudimentary, and the habit is 
very different. The fasciculate form is the only one at present 


A Revision of the Trichiacex. By G. Massee. ~ 3849 


known, but judging from what occurs in allied genera, the simple form 
may be supposed to exist. 
Only one species, from Ceylon. 


Alwisia bombarda, B. and Br., fig. 19. 


Sporangia broadly fusiform or elliptical, several seated on the apex 
of an elongated stem, smooth, dark brown, sometimes with a purple 
tinge; stem same colour, hollow, springing from a well-developed 
hypothallus ; mass of elaters and spores brown; elaters cylindrical, 
6—7 w thick, sometimes furnished with one or two swollen portions, 
walls thin, collapsing when dry, with a few scattered, very rudi- 
mentary spinules and a very indistinct open spiral, free ends obtuse, 
rarely attenuated and bifid; spores globose, smooth, 5-6 p 
diameter. 

Jour. Linn. Soc., xiv. p. 87, t. 2, f. 6, and xv. t. 2, f. 1. 

Trichia fragilis, Rost., Mon., p. 246 (in part); Cooke, Brit. 
Myx., p. 63 (in part); Sace., Syll., n. 1494 (in part). 

On decayed wood. Gongolla forest; Ceylon! (Type in Herb. 
Berk., Kew, n. 10,921.) 

Plant 2-3 mm. high, scattered. The fasciculate sporangia are in 
some specimens connate except at the tips, and then present the 
appearance of a single sporangium with several subacute apical 
lobes. 

The stem is somewhat contracted and wrinkled longitudinally 
when dry. The present plant resembles to a certain extent, when 
examined with a pocket-lens, fasciculate forms of Trrichia fragilis, and 
from such superficial examination Rostafinski gave it as a synonym of 
the last-mentioned species. It it had been properly examined thig 
mistake would not have been made. 


Prototrichia, Rost. 


Sporangia stipitate or sessile; dehiscing irregularly; wall single ; 
elaters with one end grown to the lower part of the sporangium, the 
other end free and terminating in a tuft of thin, smooth threads ; 
spores globose. 

Rost., Mon. Appendix, p. 38; Cooke, Myx. Brit., p. 65; Sacc., 
Syll., vii, pt. i. p. 437. 

Trichia, B. and Br. (in part). 

A well-marked genus, differing from Trichia in having the elaters 
grown at one end to the wall of the sporangium near its base. In 
the last character it agrees with Alwisia. For remarks on this point 
of agreement, see under last-named genus. . ; 

The species are scattered in habit, sessile, or shortly stipitate, but 
up to the present no fasciculate forms are known. 

Three species, all occurring in Kurope (Britain and Sweden), one 
extending to Tasmania. 


350 Transactions of the Society. 


A. Spores smooth. 
Prototrichia flagellifer, Rost., fig. 23. 


Sporangia scattered, globose, sessile, attached by a very narrow 
base, wall thin, smooth, copper colour and reflecting metallic tints ; 
mass of capillitium and spores flesh-colour; elaters broad at the base, 
7-9 p, and tapering to the apex, branching at some distance from 
the base into two or three arms, each of which is sometimes divided 
near the apex, spirals thin, not prominent, sometimes crowded, at 
others distant, disappearing below the ultimate branchlets, brown, 
becoming colourless towards the tips ; spores globose, smooth, 10-13 wu 
diameter. 

Rost., Mon., Supp. p. 38 (in part); Cooke, Myx. Brit., p. 65; 
Sacc., Syll., n. 1492 (in part). 

Trichia flagellifer, B. and Br., Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, xviii. 
p. 56, No. 1143, pl. 2, f. 4. 

Dermatricha flagellifer, Cooke, MS. (Type in Herb. Berk., 
n. 10,905.) 

On spruce fir. Britain (Badminton, Glo’ster !) ; Sweden ! Scattered, 
or rarely 2-3 in a cluster, but not crowded together, 5 mm. or a little 
more in diameter. Very distinct from Prototrichia metallica with 
which it has been confused by Rostafinski, probably from want of 
microscopic examination. In the present species the elaters are widest 
at the fixed base and taper gradually to the free tips, and are divided 
into two or three main branches, whereas in I. metallica the main 
branch of the elater is undivided and very thin at the fixed base, and 
terminates at the apex in several long, smooth spines. The spiral 
markings are algo very different in the two species. 


Prototrichia metallica, Mass., fig. 26. 


Sporangia scattered, stipitate or sessile on a broad base, spherical 
or depressed and lenticular, smooth, shining, copper colour with 
metallic tints ; stem very short, rather thick, darker in colour than the 
sporangium; mass of capillitium and spores pale flesh-colour or 
yellowish ; elaters elongato-fusiform, 6-7 » at thickest part, 300— 
400 p long, terminating at the apex in a pencil of simple or branched, 
cylindrical, smooth, sometimes nodulose filaments, 2 mw thick, and 
40-60 » long; spirals broad, flat, close; spores globose, smooth, 
9-11 » diameter. 

Trichia metallica, B. and Br., Fl. Tasm., p. 268. 

Prototrichia flagellifera, Rost., Mon., Appendix, p. 38 (in part) ; 
Sace., SylL, n. 1492 (in part). 

Prototrichia elegantula, Rost., Mon., Appendix, p. 39, fig. 246; 
Sace., Syll., n. 1491. 

(Type in Herb. Berk., Kew, n. 10,905a). 

On wood. Tasmania! Sweden! 

Sporangia *5 to nearly 1 mm, diameter. 


A Revision of the Trichiacex. By G. Massee. 351 


Rostafinski founded his Prototrichia elegantula on a specimen in 
the Berkeley herbarium at Kew, which was sent by Fries, and marked 
“‘(Pericheena ?) nova species, in Betula. Lindblad’ This specimen 
on examination proves to be identical with Trichia metallica, B. 
The last-named species is given as a synonym of P. flagellifer, B. and 
Br., by Rostafinski—evidently the outcome of pocket-lens examination. 


B. Spores minutely warted. 
Prototrichia cuprea, Mass. (n. sp.), fig. 24. 


Sporangia scattered or crowded, subglobose, sessile on a broad base, 
or attenuated below, or with a very short distinct stem, bright copper- 
colour, shining, sometimes iridescent ; mass of capillitium and spores 
reddish flesh-colour; capillitium copious, threads attached at one end 
to the base of the peridium, basal part of thread 6-8 » thick, 
60-80 p long, then branching once or twice in a dichotomous manner, 
branches tapering upwards 150-200 » long or more, each ending im 
a more or less corymbose tuft of slender, smooth, colourless filaments 
of variable length, and 1-2 » thick, main trunk and branches 
brownish, with rather close, not prominent, spirals; spores globose, 
minutely verruculose, 10-13 » diameter. 

(Type in Herb. Kew.) 

On dead thorn. Scarborough ! 

Sporangia *O—1 mm. diameter, bright copper-colour, polished, and 
often iridescent, especially when old and empty. Characterized by 
the warted spores. When I first collected the present species, some 
years ago, I concluded that it was identical with Berkeley’s Proto- 
trichia flagellifer, and, noticing that the spores were warted, had 
the presumption to think that a mistake had been made by Berkeley 
in describing the spores as smooth, an idea which I expressed in 
Roy. Mier. Soc. Journal, v. p. 757. Having since had an opportunity 
of examining Berkeley’s type-specimen, I find that the mistake was 
on my own part, and that the spores were smooth as described. 


Hemiarcyria, Rost. 

Sporangium consisting of a single wall, dehiscing irregularly ; 
threads of the capillitium with ridges arranged in a spiral, forming a 
net with usually free ends; spores globose, epispore smooth or 
variously ornamented. 

Rost., Mon., p. 261; Cooke, Myx. Brit., p. 67; Sace., Syll., vii. 
part 1, p. 446. 

The only genus belonging to the Trichiacew having the threads 
of the capillitium combined into a net. Most nearly related to Arcyria, 
in fact the only point of difference consists in the ornamentation of 
the capillitium threads. In Heméarcyria spiral bands are always 
present, and may be supplemented by spines or warts, whereas in 
Areyria the threads may be smooth, warted, spinulose, or with half- 
rings ; but r¢dges spirally arranged are never present. It is more than 


352 Transactions of the Society. 


doubtful whether the above distinction is of generic value, as the 
spiral arrangement is very evident in many species of Arcyria where 
the spines or half-rings are arranged in a very open spiral, while in 
Hemiarcyria melanopeziza the spirals are very rudimentary, but yet 
present, whereas the threads bristle all over with long slender 
spines. 

The thirteen known species are distributed as follows :—Hurope, 
seven; United States, two; South America, three; Java, one. Some 
of the European species extend to Africa, Ceylon, Australia, and New 
Zealand. 

; A. Spores smooth. 
Hemiarcyria Karstent, Rost., fig. 36. 


Sporangia effused, vermiform, sinuous, sometimes forming irregular 
reticulations, or hemispherical, scattered, and sessile on a broad base, 
varying from dirty ochraceous brown to dark chestnut; mass of 
capillitium and spores dingy ochre ; threads often irregularly branched 
and forming a very loose net, 3-4 mw thick, with scattered inflated 
portions 12-15 p thick and 30-50 p long, spirals very indistinct, a 
tew scattered rudimentary spines now and then present, free tips not 
distinctly attenuated, usually abrupt or clavate ; spores globose, smooth, 
10-12 » diameter. 

Rost., Mon. Suppl., p. 41; Karst, Myx. Fenn., iv. p. 142; 
Schroeter, p. 115 ; Sacc., Syll., n. 1516. (Specimen from Ceylon in 
Herb. Berk., n. 10,893, named by Rostafinsk.) 

On wood. Finland, Silesia, Ceylon! 

Recognized by the threads of the scanty capillitium being con- 
siderably swollen at intervals, and by the indistinct spirals. 


Hemiarcyria pusilla, Berlese. 


Sporangia rather closely gregarious, subcylindrico - elliptical, 
0:4-0°5 mm. high, 0:15-0:25 mm. diameter, rather obtuse above, 
abruptly subtruncate below with only a trace of a stem or altogether 
without ; at first blood-red with an amber tinge, afterwards. rose- 
colour ; capillitium rather dense, forming a rose-colowred network, 
threads round, 38-4 pw thick, spirals three or four, furnished with 
minute spinules; spores rose or flesh-colour, globose, smooth, 7-9 p 
diameter. 

Berlese in Sacce., Syll., n. 1521. 

Hemitrichia pusilla, Speg., Fung. Argent., Pug. LV., n. 269. 

On bark. Argentine Republic. 


Hemiarcyria levocarpa, Cooke, fig. 33. 


Sporangia scattered or aggregated, obovate or pyriform, rarely 
almost globose, pallid, stem same colowr, as long as diameter of 
sporangia ; mass of spores and capillitium concolorous, or with a 
slight ochraceous tint ; capillitiwm sparse, forming a loose net, threads 
5-6 p thick, sperals thin, rather close, slightly prominent on the 


A Revision of the Trichiacee. By G. Masse. 308 


convex side of the bent threads, usually furnished with scattered 
rudimentary spinules, free tips very rare or absent; spores globose, 
smooth, 12-14 « diameter. 

Cooke, Myx. U. States, in Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York, xi. 
n. 12, p. 405; Cooke, Myx. Brit., figs. 252, 255; Sace., Syll., n. 1519. 

On decaying vegetable débris. Portland, Maine, U.S. ! 

In Saccardo’s Sylloge, vii. part i. p. 440, n. 1519, Rostafinski is 
quoted as the author of the present species, and furthermore the reader 
is referred to “ Rost., Mon., p. 267,” for the description, whereas the 
species is not included at all in Rostafinski’s work. The above is but 
one of the numerous inexplicable complications so common in those 
portions of Saccardo’s Sylloge compiled by incompetent assistants. 


* Hemiarcyria rubiformis, Rost., fig. 31. 


Sporangia usually fasciculate springing from a short common 
stem, or sessile on a hypothallus, rarely an irregular plasmodiocarp, 
brown or almost black, polished and with a metallic lustre, or opaque ; 
mass of capillitium and spores orange-brown ; threads of capillitium 
brown, 5-6 p thick, combined into an elastic net which at maturity 
elongates considerably, carrying the apical portion of the sporangium 
at its apex, where it remains in the form of a cap, free tips usually 
terminated by from one to three short, smooth spines, rarely obtuse, 
spirals flat, distant, furnished with numerous slender spines; spores 
globose, smooth, 10-12 p» diameter, 

a. genuina. Sporangia cylindrico-turbinate, dark brown, opaque, 
or with a steel lustre, seated on a common fasciculate stem. 

8. sessilis. Sporangia sessile, cylindrical or subangular from 
mutual pressure. 

y. plasmodiocarpia. Plasmodiocarp irregular with a broad base 
attached to a hypothallus. 

Rost., Mon., p. 262, figs. 201, 230, 231; Cooke, Myx. Brit., p. 67, 
figs. 201, 230, 231; Schroeter, p. 114; Sacc., Syll, vii. n. 1512; 
Raunk., Myx. Dan., p. 63, t. 3, f. 15, t. 4, f. 6. 

Exsice.—Roum., Fung. Gall., 1686! Fuckel, Fung. Rhen., 1438! 
(as Trichia rubiformis); Cooke, Fung. Brit., 612! (as Trichia 
Neesiana) ; Jack, Leiner u. Sitzenb. Krypt. Bad., 421! (as Trichia 
rubiformis); Sace., Myce. Ven., 962! (as Trichia pyriformis, 
-Hoffm.); Karst., Fung. Fenn., 700! 

A very beautiful and distinct species characterized by the cylin- 
dric dark-brown fasciculate sporangia, usually with metallic tints, the 
dense capillitium of orange-brown spinulose threads, and smooth 
spores. Hemearcyria Hilisic closely resembles the present species in 
colour and habit, but is sharply separated by the warted spores. 

On rotten wood, mosses, &c. Britain (Apethorpe! Weybridge! 
Twycross! Bulmer, N. Yorks! Orton Wood, Leicester ! Wothorpe! 
Scarborough !) France! Germany! Switzerland! Italy! Belgium ! 
Denmark; Hungary; Finland; Bohemia; United States! Cuba! 
Venezuela! Ceylon! Australia! 


bb4 - Transactions of the Society. 


(Rostafinsk’s Synonyms.) 


Olathroides pyriforme, Hall., t. 1, f. 5 (1742). 

Trichia, Hall, t. 48, f. 5, No. 2167 (1798). 

Lycoperdon vesparium, Batsch, t. 30, f. 172 (1786). 

Stemonitis cinnabarina, Roth, Fl. Germ. 347 (1788). 

Lycoperdon favaceum, Schr., Fl. Bav., 1. 667 (1789). 

Trichia pyriformis, Hoftm., V. Cr., t. 1, f. 1 (1790). 

Stemonitis fasciculata, Pers. in Gmel., Sys. 1468 (1791). 

Trichia rubiformis, Pers., Disp., t. 1. f. 3, t. 1. f. 3 (1797); 
FPerk., Ann. Nat. Hist., No. 218; Cooke, Hdbk., n. 1177. 

Trichia rubiformis, 8 minor, Pers., Disp., 54 (1797). 

Lycoperdon ferrugineum, Hedw., t. x. f. 1-4 (1802). 

Trichia chalybea, Chev., Fl. Par., t. 9, f. 24 (1827). 

Trichia Neesiana, Corda, Ic., i. f. 288 C. (1887). 

Trichia Ayresit, B. & Br., Ann. Nat. Hist., No. 390; Cooke, 
Hadbk., No. 1179. 


B. Spores with minute warts. 
Hemiarcyria Ellisiz, Mass. (n. sp.) fig. 30. 


Sporangia fasciculate, from three to seven on a common twisted or 
wrinkled stem, or sessile, smooth, rather shining, dark chestnut; mass 
of capillitium and spores dingy brownish-orange, capillitium elastic, 
rupturing the peridium in a circumscissile manner near the apex and 
carrying up the apical portion hke a cap, threads 6-7 yw thick, rarely 
branched, spérads thin, not prominent, rather distant, furnished with 
numerous, short, acute spines, tips short, acute, smooth; spores glo- 
bose, rather coarsely warted, 10-12 » diameter. 

Type, Ellis, N. Amer. Fung. exs., n. 1113! (called Hemiarcyria 
rubiformis (Pers.)) (Kew copy). 

a. genwina. Sporangia cylindrico-turbinate, from 3-7 on a stout, 
twisted or wrinkled stem about equal in length to the sporangia. 

B. sessilis. Sporangia in small clusters, sessile on a broad base. 

On wood. United States. 

Externally indistinguishable from Hemeareyria rubsformis, but 
quite distinct in the warted spores. 


Hemiarcyria stipitata, Mass. (n. sp.) fig. 32. 


Sporangia pyriform, from two to five on a common stem, or solitary, 
pale lemon- yellow, opaque; stem elongated, equal, dark brown or 
black, longitudinally rugulose; mass of capillitium and spores dingy 
ochre ; capillitium dense, much branched and forming a net without 
free tips, 4-5 p thick, spirals very open, rather distant, thin, not 
prominent ; spores globose, minutely warted, 7-8 p diameter. 

a. genwina. Sporangia single on an elongated stem. 

B. fasciculata. Sporangia fasciculate on a common stem. 

On palm stems. Java! 

(‘Type in Herb. Berk., Kew, n. 10,892a). 


A Revision of the Trichiacee. By G. Massee. B09 


Scattered or aggregated, 3-4 mm. high, stem about 2 mm. high, 
thin, hollow. Capillitium elastic, protruding after dehiscence. Allied 
to Hemiarcyria clavata, but distinct in the dense capillitium without 
free tips, and the loose spirals, and in the long, thin, black stem. 


* Heniarcyria clavata, Rost. 


Sporangia simple, stipitate, varying from clavate to subglobose, 
yellow, polished, stem rather thin, yellow, often becoming reddish at 
the base, mass of capillitium and spores clear yellow, ochraceous- 
orange, or tinged with olive; threads of capillitium 4-5 p thick, 
forked, free ends not numerous, obtuse or sometimes slightly swollen, 
spirals thin, not prominent, distant ; spores globose, minutely warted, 
S8-10 pw diameter. 

Rost., Mon., p. 264, figs. 205, 207, 210, 235; Cooke, Myx. Brit., 
p- 68, figs. 205, 207, 210, 238; Sace., Syll., vii, 1513. Raunk., 
Myx. Dan., p. 64; Schroeter, p. 114. Exsice. Fekl., Fung. Rhen. 
1434 (as Trichia clavata)! Jack, Leiner u. Sitzenb. Krypt. Badens, 
621 (as Trichia clavata)! Ellis, N. Amer. Fung., 523! 

On decayed wood. Britain (King’s Cliffe! Apethorpe ! Carlisle !) 
France! Germany! Denmark! United States! Cuba! Brazil! Cey- 
lon! Bonin Island! 

A neat species, scattered or gregarious, 1-5-2 mm. high; stem 
slender, often attenuated downwards and longitudinally wrinkled, 
resembling in form Hemiarcyria leiocarpa, Cke., but known by the 
warted spores, and absence of spines on the elaters. 


(Rostafinski's Synonyms.) 


Clathrus pedatus, Schm., Ic., t. 38, f. 1, 17 (1776). 

Spherocarpus pyriformis, Bull., t. 417, f. 2 (1791). 

Stemonitis pyriformis, Gmel., Syst., 1469 (1791). 

Trichia pyriformis, Sibth., Fl. Ox., 406 (1794); Sow., 400, f. 6. 

Trichia clavata, Pers., Disp., p. 11 (1797); Eng. FL. v. p. 320; 
Cooke, Hdbk., 1183. 

Trichia citrina, Schum., Saell., 1460 (1803). 

Arcyria trichioides, Rudolph, Linn., p. 120 (1829). 

Trichia erythropus, Borszezow (1856). 

Trichia obtusa, Wigand, p. 30, t. 11, f. 4 (1863). 

Trichia Thwaitesi:, B. & Br., Ceylon Fungi, No. 776 (1873). 


Henviarcyria melanopeziza, Berl. 


Sporangia sessile, creeping, subterete, generally forming rings, 
1-2 mm. long, very black, scarcely or not at all shining, very smooth ; 
wall black, opaque, subcellulose, rather coriaceous ; splitting longitu- 
dinally and dehiscing in a valvate manner ; capillitium yellow, pro- 
truded elastically, threads round, 4-5 » thick, combined into a loose 
net, everywhere covered with erect spines, 5-6 x 1 p, spirals almost 


396 Transactions of the Society. 


obsolete; spores elliptico-globose, papilloso-scabrid, 10-12 x 10 yp, 
yellow. 

Berlese in Sacc., Syll., n. 1520. 

Hemitrichia melanopeziza, Spegazzini, Fung. Arg., Pug. iv. n. 
268. 

On bark. Brazil. Looking exactly like some black Peziza. 


Hemiarcyria calyculata, Speg. 


Sporangia simple, gregarious, stipitate, globose or elliptical, dirty 
foxy-brown, 1-2 mm. diameter, stem 3-5 mm. long, 200-250 , thick, 
round, glabrous, rather tough, apex dilated into a little dimidiate 
cup equal to the peridium, base dilated, fibrellose, colour of the 
sporangium ; spores and capillitium dingy yellowish-fulvous ; elaters 
7-8 p thick, cylindrical, yellowish, sparsely branched, free tips acute ; 
spirals 3-5, flat, not very conspicuous, separated by interspaces their 
own width, spinulose; spores discotdeo-lenticular, concavo-convex, 
margin muriculate, 10 x 3». Spegazzini, Fung. Argent., Pug. iu. 
n. 92; Sace., Syll., 1518. 

On rotten willow trunk. Argentine Republic. 

A most remarkable species if the spores as described above are the 
normal condition. Many species of Mymogastres have the spores 
concavo-convex when dry, and it is more than probable that the spores 
in the above species had not been soaked sufficiently long before 
examination. 


Hemiarcyria Wigandi, Rost. 


Sporangia clavate, discoid, or irregularly subrotund, very small, 
almost sessile; mass of spores and capillitium bay or flesh-colour 
verging on yellow; elaters rarely branching, spirals one or two, 
flexuous, either separated by interspaces from three to four times their 
own width or crowded and almost forming rings, tips scarcely 
narrowed, truncate or inflated; spores minutely verruculose, 10-11 p» 
diameter. 

Rost., Mon., p. 267, fig. 232; Sacc., Syll., 1517; Cooke, Myx. 
Brit., fig. 232. 

Germany. 


(Rostafinski’s Synonym.) 
Trichia abietina, Wegd., |. c., p. 33, t. 1. f. 11 (1863). 


* Hemiarcyria paradoaa, Mass. (n. sp.) fig. 35. 


Sporangia scattered or aggregated, sessile on a broad base, hemi- 
spherical or irregularly elongated and subvermiform, smooth, rather 
shining, dirty ochre, inner surface of the wall with a thick layer of 
amorphous particles of lime; mass of capillitium and spores pale 
lemon-yellow ; capillitium scanty, threads 4—5 » thick, much contorted 
and forming a loose net, with but few abrupt free tips, spzrals very 


A Revision of the Trichiaceer. By G. Massee. B57 


much crowded, not prominent; spores globose, minutely warted, 
8-10 w diameter. 

(Type in Herb. Currey, Kew.) 

On wood. Britain (Weybridge, Surrey !). 

Sporangia when hemispherical, from -5—-1 mm. diameter, sometimes 
vermiform. Distinguished amongst the species with warted spores by 
the densely crowded spirals of the elaters. A note by Currey accom- 
panying the specimen says, “The spores of this specimen sown in 
water produced de Bary’s zoospores in 24 hours.” 

Remarkable in having the inner surface of the wall of the 
sporangium covered with large amorphous lumps of lime, differing in 
this respect from any known member of the Trichez. 


C. Spores with raised flat bands combined to form a network. 
* Henviarcyria chrysospora, Lister, fig. 37. 


Sporangia sessile on a broad base, generally closely aggreeated, 
bright ochraceous yellow; mass of capillitium and spores yellow; 
threads 5» thick, forming a loose net with many free ends, which 
generally terminate in slightly expanded, smooth, bent or straight, 
conical apices, sprrals fowr, rather close, not prominent, connected by 
less prominent ridges running parallel to the long aais of the thread ; 
spores globose, with raised flat bands forming a polygonal network 
16 » diameter. 

‘Grevillea,’ v. p. 126. 

(Authentic specimen from author in Herb. Kew.) 

On twigs of larch lying on the ground, and on the surrounding 
herbage. Britain (Lyme Regis !). 

A fine species with the sporangia 1 mm. diameter, well marked by 
the reticulated spores, and the parallel bands connecting the spira's on 
the elaters. From three to five complete polygons on a hemisphere 
of the spore. 


? 


* Hemiarcyria serpula, Rost., fig. 34. 


Plasmodiocarp vein-like, creeping, usually anastomosing to form 
a net, wall thin, fragile, yellow, sometimes tinged with brown ; mass 
of capillitium and spores yellow; threads of capilliticm 5-6 p thick, 
forming a net with numerous free ends terminating in a smooth, 
tapering spine 8-10 y» long, spirals thin, not prominent, distant, 
furnished with numerous long, slender spinules; spores globose, 
with raised flat bands forming an irregular network, 10-12 p 
diameter. 

Rost., Mon., p. 267, figs. 200, 227, 228 ; Cooke, Myx. Brit., p- 68, 
figs. 200, 227, 228; Schroeter, p. 115; Sacc., Syll., vii. part 1, 
No. 1514; Raunk., Myx. Dan., p. 64, t. 3, f. 16. 

Exsicc.—Fuckel, Fung. Rhen., 2692! (as Hemitrichia contorta 
(Ditm.) Rost.). 

On rotten wood, branches, leaves, &c. Britain (Carlisle! specimen 

1889. 26 


308 Transactions of the Society. 


in Herb. Berkeley, from Sowerby’s herbarium, no locality, named 
“Trichia reticulata,’ undoubtedly British!); Germany! Sweden! 
Belgium; Italy; United States! Cuba! St. Vincent! Bombay ! 
N.W. Australia! New Zealand! Ceylon ! 


Readily known by the vein-like plasmodiocarp forming a net-like 
pattern. 


(Rostafinski’s Synonyms.) 


Mucor serpula, Scop., Fl. Carn., t. 65 (1772). 
Lycoperdon lumbricata, Batsch, f. 174 (1786). 
Trichia spongioides, Vill., Fl. Dauph., 1061 (1789). 
Stemonitis lumbricalis, Gmel., Sys., 1470 (1791). 
Trichia reticulata, Pers., Disp. 10 (1797); Ie. et Dese., t. 12, 
6 le 
Trichia serpula, Pers., Disp., 10 (1797) ; Eng. FL, v. 320 ; Cooke, 
Hdbk., 1189. 


Trichia serpula, 8 spongisides, Pers., Syn.,181 (1801). 
Trichia venosa, Schum., Saell., 1456 (1803). 
Hyporhamma reticulatum, Corda, Ic., v. 34 (1842). 
Trichia retiformis, Payer, Crypt., f. 574 (1850). 


AUTHORS QUOTED. 


Balf., Grev.wRemarks on British Myxomycetes, Grevillea, x., p.117. Professor 
Bayley Balfour. 

B. & Br., Ann. Nat. Hist—Berkeley and Broome in Annals and Magazine of 
Natural History. 

B. & Br., Journ. Linn. Soc.—Berkeley and Broome in Journal of the Linnean 
Society. 

Gea, Myx. Brit—Myxomycetes of Great Britain. M. C. Cooke. 

Cooke, Myx. U.S.—Myxomycetes of United States, in Annals of Lyceum of 
New York. M. C. Cooke. 

Grev.—Grevillea ; a quarterly record of Cryptogamic Botany. M. C. Cooke. 


Haller, Helv.—Enumeratio Methodica Stirpium Helvetie indigenarum, D. 
Alberti Haller. 


Karst., Myx. Fenn.—P. A. Karsten. 

Karst., in Not. Sallsk—Karsten in Notiser ur Sallskapets pro Fauna et Flora 
Fennica. 

Lév., Ann. Sci. Nat.—J. H. Léveillé in Annales des Sciences Naturelles. 

Nyl. in Not. Sallsk—Nylander in Notiser ur Sallskapets pro Fauna et Flora 
Fennica. 


Peck, Rep. St. Agr. Mus.—Report on the State Agricultural Museum. Chas. 
H. Peck. 


a Peck, Rep. St. Mus.—Report on the State Museum of Natural History. Chas. 
. Peck. 

Rost., Mon.—Monografia Sluzowee (Mycetozoa). J.T. Rostatinski. 

Rost., Mon. App. (or Suppl.).—Supplement to above. 

Raunk., Myx. Dun.—Myxomycetes Danice; C. Raunkier, in Botanisk Tids- 
skrift, 17 Bind, 1-2 Hefte Journal de Botanique, publié par la Société Botanique 
de Copenhague). 

Sace., Syll—Sylloge Fungorum. P. A. Saccardo. 

Schroet.—Flora von Schlesien, Pilze. Dr. J. Schroeter. 

Sow.—English Fungi. James Sowerby. 

Speg., Fung. Arg., or Speg., Fung. Guar.—Fungi Guaranitici. Carolo Spegaz- 
zini, in Annales de la Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, 1886. 


A Revision of the Trichiacex. By G. Massee. 309 


EXSICCATI QUOTED. 


Cooke, Fung. Brit.—Fungi Britannici Exsiccati, M. C. Cooke. 

Cooke, Fung. Brit., Ed. 2.—Fungi Britannici Exsiccati, Ser. II. M. C. Cooke. 

Ellis, N. Amer Fung.—North American Fungi. J. B. Ellis. 

Hillis & Everhart, N. Amer. Fung.—Hllis & Everhart, North American Fungi. 
Second series. 

Erbar. Crittogam. Ital.—Erbario Crittogamico Italiano. 

Fuckel, Fung. Rhen.—L. Fuckel’s Fungi Rhenani Exsiccati. 

Herb. Berk., Kew.--Herbarium of the late Rev. M. J. Berkeley, now deposited 
at Kew. 

Herb. Broome, Brit. Mus.—Herbarium of the late C. E. Broome, now in the 
British Museum. 

Jack, Leiner u. Sitzenb.—Jack, Leiner u. Sitzenberger, Kryptogamen Badens. 

Karst., Fung. Fenn.—Fungi Fennix Exsiccati. P. A. Karsten. 

Klotzsch (Rabenh.) Herb. Myc.—Herbarium vivum Mycologicum. J. F. 
Klotzsch. Continued by Rabenhorst. 

Lib., Pl. Crypt. Ard.—Plantes Cryptogames des Ardennes. Madame Libert. 

Moug. & Nest.—Stirpibus Cryptogamis Vogeso-Rhenanis. J. B. Mougeot, C. 
Nestler et W. P. Schimper. 

Rab., Fung. Eur.—Rabenhorst’s Fungorum Europeorum Exsiccatorum. 

Roum., Fung. Gall. or Roum., Fung. Sel. Gall—Fungi Selecti Gallici Exsiccati. 
M. C. Roumeguere. 

Sace., Myc. Ven.—Mycotheca Veneta. P. A. Saccardo. 

Syd., Myc. March.—Mycotheca Marchica. Sydow & Zopf. 

Thum. de Mye, Univ.—Mycotheca Universalis, F. de Thumen. 


GB 


360 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


SUMMARY 


OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ZO OLOGY AN Dy os OA NeY 
(principally Invertebrata and Oryptogamia), 


MICROSCOPY, &c., 


INCLUDING ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS FROM FELLOWS AND OTHERS.* 


ZOOLOGY. 
A. VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 
a. Embryology.t 


Origin of Nervous System of Vertebrates{—Dr. W. H. Gaskell, | 
after a discussion of the relation between the structure, function, distri- 
bution, and origin of the cranial nerves, propounds a new theory of the 
origin of the nervous system of Vertebrates; any theory that shall be 
satisfactory must take into account not only its segmental arrangement 
but also its tubular formation. If we fix our attention exclusively upon 
the nervous elements of the central nervous system we can describe it 
as a system composed of a bilateral chain of ganglia connected together 
by means of longitudinal and transverse commissures, which gives origin 
to a series of segmental nerves, and is connected by means of well- 
defined commissural tracts with another nervous system of higher 
function, which gives origin to no outgoing nerves, except such nerves 
of special sense as the optic and olfactory. In addition, however, to its 
nervous elements the spinal cord contains an elaborate system of non- 
nervous structures, viz. the supporting structures of the cord, and the 
folding over of the medullary plates gives origin not merely to nervous 
material but also to a tube of supporting tissue, which was originally 
formed of compact layers of epithelial cells arranged symmetrically 
around the central canal. Dr. Gaskell thinks that, in the embryological 
development of the central nervous system, we are observing the 
simultaneous development of two different organs, the one the nervous 
system, and the other the tube of supporting tissue, the formation of 
which is not necessarily involved with that of the nervous system. In 
certain parts of the central nervous system the sole structure formed by 
the folding over of the medullary plate is the supporting tube which is 
not and never was nervous, while in other parts the simultaneous forma- 
tion of nervous material with that of the supporting tube has so compli- 


* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “we,” and they do 
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted, 
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them.. The object of this part of 
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published, and to 
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have 
not been previously described in this country. : 

+ This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called, 
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, and Reproduction, and allied 
subjects. { Journ, of Physiol., x. (1889) pp. 153-211 (5 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. aor 


cated the problem that it is difficult to decide which of the embryonic 
cells form supporting structure and which nervous material. Both 
ontogenetical and phylogenetical evidence appears to lead to the con- 
clusion that the central nervous system of the higher Veitebrates has 
been formed by the spreading and increase of nervous material over the 
walls of an original non-nervous tube, the cellular elements of which 
tube, whatever its original function, have been utilized as supporting 
structures for the nervous elements in those parts where the latter have 
invaded its walls; while in other parts, where no such invasion has 
taken place, the walls of the tube have retained their simple cellular 
structure, or have undergone gelatinous degeneration. 

If a comparison be made of the brain of Petromyzon and that of 
Mammals we are led to the view that the nervous material of the Verte- 
brate central nervous system is situated in definite places outside but in 
close contact with the walls of a pre-existing non-nervous tube, and that 
the elements of this non-nervous tube, which is formed by the folding 
over of the medullary plate, become utilized as the supporting tissue or 
myelospongium, wherever the nervous matter comes into contact with it. 

With regard to the embryological evidence, the difficulty les in decid- 
ing which of the elements of the original embryonic tube will form nervous 
material, and which will form supporting structure; though there has 
been much discussion on this point, Dr. Gaskell does not think that we 
can yet go much further than the observations of His—(1) all the 
cells of the embryonic tube do not form nervous material; (2) all the 
motor nerve-fibres arise as prolongations of the motor nerve-cells ; 
and (3) the motor nerve-cells, as soon as they can be recognized, are 
always situated in a perfectly definite place in the embryonic tube, viz. 
in the outer and not in the inner part. 

_ As a possible explanation of the ancestral history of the spinal cord, 
it is suggested that it was originally composed of a bilateral chain of 
ganglia, situated ventrally to a non-nervous tube, the parts of each 
chain being connected together by commissures also situated ventrally 
to this tube. By the increase and spreading round of the nerve-cells 
and nerve-fibres to the dorsal side, the original tube was so invaded with 
nervous elements that it lost its original character and became the 
supporting structure of the spinal cord; as most marked indications of 
its original character are the epithelial lining of the central canal and 
the peculiar structure of the substantia gelatinosa centralis. 

This definition does not, however, apply to the more anterior portion 
of the central nervous system; in it the ventral chain of ganglia, instead 
of spreading round to the dorsal side of the tube, is connected by means 
of strong encircling commissures, which form a commissural collar 
around the tube, with a series of ganglia lying on the dorsal side of the 
tube, whose function is of a higher character than that of the ventral 
chain, and which give rise to no outgoing nerves, except those of such 
special senses as sight and smell. 

Clearly this description would apply as well to an invertebrate 
central nervous system, and, if it be true, it follows that the tube of 
supporting tissue around and within which the nervous system is formed, 
with its extraordinary continuation by the neurenteric canal into the 
present alimentary canal, was originally the whole or part of the 
alimentary canal of the invertebrate from which the vertebrate ancestor 
arose. Further, this tube must have had an anterior as well as a 


362 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


posterior opening. Examination of the infundibular region (or that 
where the notochord and the nervous tissue which corresponds to the 
infra-cesophageal ganglia terminate) of an adult sheep has led Dr. 
Gaskell to the discovery of what he believes to be the remains of the 
terminal esophageal tube. Sections revealed the existence of a canal 
leading from the cavity of the infundibulum towards the corpus 
mamillare ; this canal lies quite on the surface of the brain, and occu- 
pies the greater portion of the length of the tuber cinereum; it is lined 
with epithelium continuous with that of the third ventricle and of the 
infundibulum; its walls are composed of substance similar to the 
substantia centralis gelatinosa ; the further away it is from the infundi- 
bulum the more is its cavity closed by the approximation of its walls, 
and it vanishes at the very surface, completely closed. Its appearance is 
exactly that of an open tube which has been bent down on the surface 
of the brain, so that its open extremity became obliterated by the coming 
together of its walls. The skate, the dogfish, and the lamprey have 
been all found to have this tube. Dr. Gaskell suggests that the terminal 
part of the cesophagus has been obliterated by being folded down on 
the infra-cesophageal ganglia, while the next portion of the cesophagus 
has been dilated to form the infundibulum with the glands of the 
pituitary body lying on the anterior lip of the original mouth or ceso- 
phagus. Dohrn’s picture of the nervous system of a young Limulus is 
given to illustrate the author’s meaning. 

This view brings the vertebrate nervous system into complete harmony 
with that of Invertebrata, and supports the views of Owen, Balfour, 
Dohrn, and others. For the present the author says nothing as to the 
origin of the present alimentary canal of Vertebrates, but he promises to 
discuss the question shortly, 


Protovertebre and the Segmentation of the Vertebral Column *— 
Prof. V. v. Ebner discus:es the developmental relations of the proto- 
vertebree and the vertebral column. The material worked with consisted 
mainly of embryos of the ringed snake. Remak, it will be remembered, 
derived the vertebree from the protovertebree by secondary segmenta- 
tion; according to His the protovertebre are “archiblastic,” giving 
origin to muscles, &c., but without any share in forming the “ parablas- 
tic” skeleton. Both views have had their supporters. Von Ebner 
corroborates the view of Remak, and describes how his sections will 
only admit of this interpretation. Remak’s conclusion is to be cor- 
rected in this point, “that the segmentation of the vertebral column 
does not arise from a uniform blasteme of the protovertebre, but appears 
at a time when the latter are still independent complexes of embryonic 
cells.” He gives several interesting figures of the intervertebral cleft 
in the protovertebre, which “being very delicate, and often hardly 
demonstrable, appears to have been hitherto overlooked.” 


Study of a Human Embryo.t—Dr. C. Phisalix has had the oppor- 
tunity of making a study of a human embryo, 10 mm. long. He has 
discovered a certain number of new facts with regard to the cranial 
nerves and the central nervous system, the arrangement of the valves 
and septa of the heart, the origin of the pancreas and the Wolffian body. 
Additons and corrections have been made to many of the statements of 


* SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xcvii. (1889) pp. 194-206 (2 pls.). 
+ Arch. Zool. Exper. et Gen., vi. (1888) pp. 279-350 (6 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 363 


His. ‘The most remarkable point in the embryo was that, although there 
was no reason for supposing that the condition was due to pathological 
causes, there was a certain want of symmetry in the development of the 
two sides of the body. The left side was, for several organs, and 
especially for the cerebral vesicles, in advance of the right. The author 
cannot say whether this asymmetry is peculiar to man, and asks if it has 
any relation to the functional predominance of the right side of the body 
in the adult. He asks if it is a result of a habit or the consequence of 
anatomical peculiarity of the embryo. But he is unable to answer these 
questions. 


Development of Bony Fishes.*—M. F. Hennéeuy gives a detailed 
account of his observations on the development of Bony fishes; the chief 
object of his investigations has been the trout From his studies, as 
from those of his predecessors, it is obvious that the embryology of the 
Teleostei is particularly interesting as introducing us to a special mode 
of development which sharply separates these animals from other fishes ; 
such are the constitution of the egg, the format on of the gastrula, the 
presence of a rudimentary primitive line, the primordial constitution of 
the nervous system and of some other organs; and these characters 
indicate that the Teleostei form a divergent branch of the piscine 
phylum. The facts of Embryology corroborate those of Comparative 
Anatomy, and show us that, even if in certain points the Teleostei are a 
degraded type of fish, we find in them the earliest indications of the 
distinctive characters of the hi gher Vertebrata. 


Structure of Amphioxus lanceolatus.{—Prof. E. Ray Lankester has 
a contribution to the knowledge of this interesting animal, which is 
illustrated by, inter alias, figures which represent, in semi-diagrammatic 
form, the structure of Amphioxus, not merely as seen in sections or 
dissections, with all the imperfections necessarily arising from the action 
of preservative media, but as reconstructed and corrected from numerous 
specimens, so as to give as nearly as may be a true view of the undis- 
torted organism. 

After some account of the external marks and numerical character- 
istics, in which the numbers of the myotomes, of the dorsal and ventral 
fin-rays, and of the preoral cirri are considered, attention is drawn to the 
size and importance of the post-oral tentacles or tentacles of the 
sphincter oris, and to the fact that there are no “ ventral canals” beneath 
the plaited ventral wall of the atrium. There are three distinct kinds 
of spaces containing liquid in the living state; these are the atrial 
cavity, the enteric cavity, and hemo-lymph cavities. The last break up 
into numerous groups, such as the vascular system which is in open 
cont nuity with the suprapharyngeal and perienteric portions of the 
celom ; the perivascular spaces of the dorsal aorte ; the perigonadial 
celom; various lymph spaces and canals; the neuraxial canal; the 
myoccelomic pouches or intra-muscular lymph-spaces of the head; and 
the series of intra-skeletal lymph-spaces of the myotomes. The 
distorting action of the reagents used for hardening Specimens causes 
the correct conclusion as to the existence of spaces in the body of 
Amphioxus to be a very difficult matter. 

The vascular system appears to be in a condition of degeneration, as 


* Journ. Anat. et Physiol. (Robin), xxv. (1888) pp. 413-502, 525-617 (4 pls.). 
+ Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., xxix. (1859) pp. 365-408 (5 pls.). 


364: SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


‘the vascular trunks which are developed do not, in their present 
relations, appear to have a physiological significance. It is important to 
note that the vascular trunks and lymphatic spaces are continuous ; the 
author gives some notes descriptive of several of the blood-vessels. The 
question how, and indeed whether, the blood circulates has not yet been 
satisfactorily answered. It is probable that the present branchial 
apparatus has been modified, as compared with an earlicr stage in which 
the blood-vessels played a more important part. 

Below the epithelium of the endostyle, or median ventral tract of 
the pharynx, there is a chitinous plate which has never yet been 
described : it consists of right and left halves, and is segmented. Prof. 
Lankester doubts the existence of the muscular tissue which has been 
described by Schneider in the region of the endostyle. 

The atrio-eelomic funnels or brown canals discovered by the author 
fifteen years ago have not been described or discussed by any other subse- 
quent writer, with the exception of Mr. Bateson. Itis impossible at present 
to assign definite physiological characters to these tubes; their morpho- 
logical marks are that they are paired short tubes which put the ccelom 
in continuity with the exterior; so far they resemble the abdominal 
pores of certain craniate Vertebrates; Bateson has shown that they 
correspond in some points to the collar-pores of Balanoglossus. Whether 
all these three structures are modified nephridia remains to be seen; at 
the present moment our conceptions of the nephridium are themselves 
undergoing development and extension. Further observations are 
needed on the later development of Amphioxus. 

In conclusion, the author has some remarks on the connective tissucs, 
which, like other tissues of this animal, differ very greatly from the 
corresponding placed tissues in other Vertebrates, and do not closely 
resemble tho-e of any other animal. The structural varieties of the 
connective tissue are lamellar, gelatinons, and cartilaginoid. 


Spermatogenesis.*— Signor E. Verson finds that Bombyx mori offers 
excellent material for a study of spermatogenesis. In each division of 
the gonad there is but one large germinal cell, from which all the 
organized structures, of which the contents of the division consist, 
gradually take their origin. Its gigantic protoplasmic body gives off 
per:pheral rays in the form of finely branched arms, and contains, in 
addition to its large vesicular nucleus, with nucleoli, well-characterized 
granules which are imbedded in the protoplasm of the radiating arms, 
and are always more numerous near the centre. Later on the granules 
separate themselves from the radial processes of the germinal cell, and 
appear to be independent and surrounded by a thin area of protoplasm, 
They are succeeded by rounded or more irregular protoplasmic masses 
which contain a number of nuclei. There are also larger almost 
spherical masses which are much clearer and are definitely limited at 
their periphery by a circular contour; their nuclei are also clear, 
become vesicular, and inclose highly refractive, sharply limited cor- 
puscles, which, in profile, have the form of a comma or a horse-shoe. 
In addition to these there are still larger vesicles in which an enveloping 
layer can be distinguished from the contents; the latter contains a large 
number of nuclei, while here and there a delicate surrounding layer of 
protoplasm can be made out; the central space appears to be free from 


* Zool. Anzeig., xii. (1889) pp. 100-2. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 365 


formed elements. Other vesicles have the same appearance as these 
last, but have a longer diameter. Others, again, have their contents 
altered; the epithelial layer found in the others has disappeared, the 
cells are smaller and fill up irregularly the whole cavity of the vesicle. 
The vesicles next extend irregularly and the spherical form may 
gradually yield to the pyriform or tubular; the investing layer becomes 
thinner and the contained cells begin to break up in such a way that the 
nucleoli become free, while the protoplasm breaks up into elongated 
droplets. The tubes elongate, the nucleoli and their derivates collect 
together, and the other contents form varicose filaments. 


Spermatogenesis in Man.*—Herr D. Biondi describes the develop- 
ment of spermatozoa in Man. Before puberty the canals contain only 
one kind of cell, round in shape, lying in a single or double row on 
their wall, or sparsely and irregularly imbedded in a matrix towards the 
lumen. After maturity the round cells are arranged in pillars, in the 
three zones which Biondi has elsewhere distinguished—primitive cells, 
mother-cells, and, most centrally, daughter-cells. The spermatozoon is 
developed from the nucleus of the last, and the cell-substance forms 
imbedding débris. The next zone of cells also become transformed into 
spermatozoa, and the peripheral cells may form mother- and daughter- 
cells. he daughter-cells in their development into spermatozoa exhibit 
five stages—(1) movement of the nucleus to the peripheral pole, (2) for- 
mation of the middle portion, (3) formation of the head, (4) formation 
of the tail, (5) liberation. The spermatozoa are expelled, along with 
the basal cell, by the expansion of neighbouring cells. The epithelial. 
cells of Sertoli, the supporting cells of Merkel, the spermatoblasts of 
von Kbner, are artificial products, resulting from the collocation of 
spermatozvca, protoplasmic débris, and basal cells. 


Import of Polar Globules.t—Herr G. Platner notes an important 
histological fact, which must be considered in the interpretation of polar 
globules. In ordinary cell-division, the nucleus after dividing returns 
from aster to coil, and thence to reticulum and rest. There are, however, 
two exceptions. Itis well known that in the formation of the second polar 
globule the resting-stage is skipped. The second polar spindle arises 
directly from the internal daughter-plate of the first polar spindle. The 
half of the nucleus which goes off in the first polar body frequently 
behaves like the half which remains. The second exception seems to be 
less known; it occurs in the last division of the sperm-forming cells. 
Here again the resting-stage is skipped ; from the daughter-plate of the 
second last division the final division-spindle arises directly. The 
overleaping of the resting-stage in spermatogenesis was studied by 
Platner in Lepidoptera and Pulmonata. He correlates the two parallel 
and exceptional facts; in both cases there is a reduction by division of 
the nuclear mass previous to the final differentiation of female pronucleus 
in the one case, of spermatozoon nucleus in the other. 

In the testes of Lepidoptera there are at first only small cells, which 
divide frequently and regularly. Suddenly large cells appear, which 
Platner compares to ova. These divide twice as ova do in forming 
polar globules. This fact adds a new precision to the comparison 
between the male and female elements. Furthermore, if the fact 


* JB. Schles. Ges., Ixv. (1888) pp. 35-8. 
+ Biol, Centralbl., viii. (1889) pp. 718-20. 


366 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


observed be of general occurrence, it will follow that “just as the 
products of the division of sperm-forming cells are equivalent, so also 
the nuclei arising from the division of the directive spindle will contain 
equivalent material.’ Herr Platner does not discuss the relation of the 
homology which he emphasizes to the various theories of polar globules, 
but such application will doubtless be forthcoming. 


Segmentation in Double Organisms.*—Prof. G. Born has been 
investigating the conditions of segmentation in ova which give rise to 
double monsters. Starting from the conclusion of Roux and Pfliger, 
that the first segmentation of the frog’s ovum divides the material into 
symmetrical halves which correspond to the future right and left sides, 
Born first supposed that a duplicity would be evident from the beginning 
in cases where double monsters arose. He sought for material, but the 
monstrosities were too rare in frogs, and the eges of Salmcnide were too 
opaque. Pike ova, however, suited his purpose. With different females 
the percentage of double monsters varies greatly from 3 to 0°2 or 0:5 
per cent. His first year’s experiments have not led him very far, but it 
appears certain that “ those ova which give rise to double monsters form 
a first segmentation cleft single and regular, as in those from which 
ordinary embryos develope.” Born believes, however, that when the 
double eggs, as we may call them, divide first into two, and then into 
six portions, there must have been to start with two primary segmenta- 
tion nuclei and two germinal vesicles. In such cases a double fer- 
tilization must also occur. In ordinary segmentation he maintains that 
the nuclei which divide to form right and left, or anterior and posterior 
centres, are not congruent, but at most symmetrical. In double 
monsters, he supposes that the first division is entirely congruent, that 
the two nuclei are absolutely equivalent, that the differentiation into 
right and left or fore and hind portions is only effected in the second 
division. ‘The appearances are the same as in the normal segmentation, 
but their import is different. As to ova which at once divide into three 
and four, they always perish, and probably illustrate the result of 
polyspermy. 

B. Histology-+ 


Structure of the Cell and Phenomena of its Division.{}—Herr G. 
Platner commences his essay with an account of his observations on 
cell-division and spermatogenesis in the hermaphrodite gland of Limax 
agrestis. The secondary nucleus, first observed by la Vallette St. 
George, is not the peculiar body it has hitherto been supposed to be, but 
must be ranked with the “sphéres attractives” described by van 
Beneden in the cleavage-cells of Ascaris megalucephala, with the “ archo- 
plasm” of Boveri, and the “ periplasts” of Vejdovsky. The author 
agrees with van Beneden in thinking that similar elements will be found 
in all cells. 

Spermatogenesis and cell-division in Paludina vivipara and Helix 
pomatia is next considered. All the constituents of the sperm-producing 
cells are oriented towards the centrosoma, which is contained in the 
secondary nucleus. In cell-division the achromatic spindle, and then 
the centrosomata with the primary rays of the polar radiate figures, are 


* JB. Schles. Ges., lxv. (1888) pp. 79-90. 
+ This section is limited to papers relating to Cells and Fibres. 
{ Arch. f, Mikr. Anat., xxxiii. (1889) pp. 125-52 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 367 


given off from the secondary nucleus. The primary rays of the polaster 
have a definite numerical relation to the chromosomata, the number of 
the latter being twice as large as that of the former. After division 
the secondary nucleus is formed from the polar elements, that is, the 
centrosoma and the primary rays, and into it the substance of the 
spindle-fibres seems again to pass. The tip of the head of the sperma- 
tozoon is formed from the centrosoma. ‘The secondary nucleus formed 
from the spindle-fibres after the last division of the spermatocytes takes 
a direct or indirect share in the formation of the covering of the axial 
filament. The last division of the spermatocytes is of a reducing nature, 
as it follows directly on the one which precedes it without the inter- 
calation of _a resting-stage ; it corresponds to the division of the second 
polar globule, and the number of chromatic elements is reduced by one- 
half. 
Herr Platner concludes with some notes on direct nuclear division 
in the Malpighian vessels of Insects, which are particularly suitable 
objects for such investigations. Division was found to be not mere 
elongation and constriction, but a more complicated process; this is 
xplained by supposing that there are in the nucleus chromatic elements 
of different characters; the more highly differentiated are as nearly as 
possible divided into two, while those that are less so are more coarsely 
divided. 


Process of Ossification.*—Dr. Drogoul has investigated the much 
discussed process of normal ossification in mammals. He emphasizes 
the observation that the osseous cells do not multiply, but that the 
reproductive activity is exhibited by the cartilaginous elements, peri- 
osteal and medullary. His object has been to investigate the cell- 
divisions in those structures which afford the new tissue. The ossification 
does not occur in the same way in the epiphysis and in the extremity of 
the diaphysis; the former is wholly neoplastic, the latter to some 
extent metaplastic. The articular cartilages are distinguished from the 
cartilages destined to become ossified in the character and behaviour of 
their component elements, since only the transitional elements which 
give rise to the capsule, the ligaments, and the periosteum multiply, 
never those of the body of the cartilage. The perichondrium is 
equivalent to the external stratum of the periosteum, and its functions 
are limited to the protection of the cartilage, in the growth of which it 
has no share. 


y. General. 


Fresh-water Fauna of Greenland.j— MM. J. de Guerne and 
J. Richard report on the result of M. Ch. Rabot’s exploration of some 
fresh-water basins in different parts of Greenland. Two Phyllopods, 
Branchinecta paludosa O. F. Miiller and Lepidurus glacialis Kroyer, 
previously reported from Greenland, were found abundantly. Cladocera 
were represented by twelve species, of which the most widely dis- 
tributed seemed to be Bosmina arctica. It was interesting to find Holo- 
pedium gibberum, which is characteristic of the pelagic zone of great 
mountain lakes, occurring in Greenland in small shallow basins, at the 
level of the sea. Copepods were represented by Cyclops viridis Fisch., 
of rare occurrence, and Diaptomus minutus in great abundance. The 


* Atti R. Accad. Sci. Torino, xxiv. (1888-9) pp. 264-8 (1 pl.). 
+ Comptes Rendus, eviii. (1889) pp. 630-2. 


368 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


following rotifers were abundant in the lake of Hgedesminde :—Triarthra 
longiseta Ehr., Asplanchna helvetica Im., Anurzea cochlearis Gosse, 
A. longispina Kell., Conochilus volvox (?). These are new additions to 
the Greenland fauna. The fauna of the Greenland fresh-water basins 
resembles in several ways that of Europe, but differs in the presence 
of special types. 


B. INVERTEBRATA. 


Excretory Organs.*—Prof. A. Kowalevsky has made an investigation 
into the structure of excretory organs of animals, which he has fed or 
injected with various colouring matters; the organs were then examined 
fresh, or treated with alcohol and cut into sections. 

Beginning with the Crustacea he injected into a crayfish a 1 per 
cent. solution of carmine and ammonia; after some hours he found that 
the terminal saccules of the antennary gland began to colour, and 
gradually become more and more red; in the course of two or three 
days the coloration reached its maximum. The nuclei of the cells 
remained quite normal and white, as only the granules took up the red 
colouring matter; at the ends of the cells which were directed towards 
the lumen of the gland the granules became collected into small masses ; 
these separated from the cell-substance and fell into the lumen of the 
gland. Different results were attained when indigo-carmine was used. 
Tt was, in effect, found that Weismann and Grobben are right in com- 
paring the terminal saccules with the Malpighian capsules, while the 
urinary canaliculi of Astacus and of the Vertebrate kidney correspond to 
one another in relation to indigo-carmine. From these experiments and 
from others with other colouring matters, it may be concluded that in 
the antennary gland of the crayfish there are three divisions which are 
physiologically distinct :—the terminal saccules with acid reaction, the 
commencement of the urinary canaliculi where indigo-carmine is excreted 
and the reaction is alkaline, and a third portion, the white loop, which 
for a long time remains indifferent to the staining materials; where 
large quantities are used for some time small quantities of indigo 
carmine are deposited in it. Various other Crustacea were experimented 
with, and it was found that in the shell-gland of the lower forms the 
terminal saccules and the urinary canaliculi have the same functions as 
in the antennary gland. 

A number of observations were made on Insects and it was found 
that, in comparison with Crustacea, the function of the antennary or shell- 
gland is so far separated that that of the urinary canaliculi is performed 
by the Malpighian vessels, while there is no organ corresponding to the 
terminal vesicles; their function is performed by the pericardial cells. 
The author has already shown that these have the office of purifying the 
blood and extracting from it foreign or dangerous bodies; the action of 
these cells may be compared to that of phagocytes, as they have no 
efferent ducts. 

Numerous representatives of the Mollusca were examined, and it was 
found that the indigo-carmine was secreted by the same elements as 
those which secrete the renal salts, for the colouring matter was deposited 
not only in the same renal cell, but in the same vacuole as the urinary 
concretions. We may conclude, therefore, that in the Moilusca there 


* Biol. Centralbl., ix. (1889) pp. 33-47, 65-76. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 369 


are organs which play the part of the Malpighian corpuscles and the 
tubuli contorti of Vertebrate kidneys. ; 

Among the Vermes, Cheetopods, Gephyreans, and Leeches were alone 
examined; small examples of Nereis cultrifera were found to be very 
suitable objects for examination, and fuller information than is here 
afforded us is promised shortly. Carmine is got rid of by the nephridium 
of the earthworm, but it is only a small part of the organ that is engaged 
in so doing; the chloragogue cells also take up indigo-carmine. In the 
Hirudinea the relations are very complicated, and are not as yet com- 
pletely understood. 

In the Echinodermata, Tiedemann’s bodies appear to be the excretory 
organs of the water-vascular system, while the so-called heart or ovoid 
gland is the excretory organ of the body-cavity ; both of these organs 
appear to have the same reaction as the segmental organs of most 
Annelids, that is, they excrete carmine and have a slight acid reaction. 
Prof. Kowalevsky observed distinct contractions of the ovoid glands in 
Kchinoids; though these were not regular pulsations, yet there were 
repeated contractions of the whole organ. 

The arrangements of some Ascidians are very remarkable, for in 
Phallusia mentula all the organs are imbedded in a stroma which 
consists of a number of vesicles in which le rounded concretions. If 
indigo-carmine be injected into Ascidia mentula, crystals are found in 
the secreting vesicles around the concretions already there, just as in the 
case of the organ of Bojanus in Molluscs. ‘The author concludes that 
the Ascidians have organs which correspond to the renal canaliculi of 
the Vertebrate kidney. 

In an additional note,* in which some further information is given, 
the most interesting point is, perhaps, the discovery that if a dog con- 
taining Echinococcus vesicles be fed for three weeks with carmine and 
ammonia, the water-vascular system, and especially the larger lateral 
trunks of Teenia echinococcus, become coloured red. 


Mollusca. 


Anatomy of Deep-sea Mollusca.t—Prof. P. Pelseneer, who had to 
make a somewhat hasty examination of the deep-sea Mollusca collected 
by H.MLS. ‘Challenger,’ arrives at three general conclusions :— 

(1) An organ of special sense, the organ of vision, may atrophy and 
disappear in consequence of the absence of sufficient light in the great 
depths. 

(2) Correlatively, the organs of general sense may multiply and 
acquire a high degree of development, as the labial palps of Trochus 
infundibulum, and the siphonal tentacles of varied structure found in the 
deep-sea Anatinacea and in Malletia. 

(8) The respiratory activity may diminish, and the gills become 
rudimentary in various ways or may retain great simplicity of structure. 


a. Cephalopoda. 


Structure of Silurian Cephalopods.t—Dr. H. Dewitz calls attention 
to the fact that in 1878 he demonstrated that the horizontal walls found 
inside the air-chambers of Silurian Cephalopoda were of organic origin, 

* Biol. Centralbl., ix. (1889) p. 127. 


+ Reports of the voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger,’ Zoology, xxvii., part Ixxiy. 
(1888) 42 pp. (4 pls.). { Zool. Anzeig., xii. (1889) pp. 147-52. 


370 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


secreted by the animal itself. He gave to these structures the name 
Hilfskammerwande. He writes against the change of this term into 
pseudoseptum, and against sundry misrepresentations both of his 
discovery and of the facts of the case. 


Development of Sepia.*—M. L. Vialleton has a memoir on the early 
stages in the development of this Cephalopod. The egg is at first a 
simple nucleated cell, surrounded by a few flattened cells which form 
a rudimentary follicle. This follicle soon becomes complicated, and 
presents an inner epithelial layer, and an outer connective and lamellar 
one. The former becomes folded, and begins to secrete the nutrient 
yolk which does not mix with the protoplasm of the egg. The follicular 
cells do not emigrate into the interior of the egg to serve as food, but 
simply furnish it with their secretion. As the egg grows, the germinal 
vesicle does the same, and undergoes considerable modifications; its 
contents, which at first consisted chiefly of chromatic material in different 
stages of division, contain, later on, only a few chromatic grains dis- 
tributed in a large mass of finely granular protoplasm. When the 
follicular cells have secreted all the nutrient yolk necessary for the egg, 
they provide it with a chorion. The germinal vesicle disappears. 'The 
egg, now ripe, drops into the peritoneal cavity, but it is not fecundated 
till it leaves the oviduct. 

The egg is expelled by the funnel, seized by the ventral arms and 
buccal membrane, and fertilized by sperm from the copulatory pouches ; 
it is then enveloped in its capsule, and fixed to submerged bodies. The 
formation of polar globules takes place, no doubt, at the moment when 
the egg is expelled. The two pronuclei are identical in structure, have 
no proper separable membrane, but a very fine pellicle of chromatin ; 
they fuse in the ordinary way. As they pass over the formative yolk 
the protoplasmic granulations which inclose it group themselves around 
the pronuclei so as to form the germinal disc. The formative yolk at 
the periphery of the disc is a very delicate hyaline lamella, which 
gradually fuses with the nutrient yolk. The first segmentation-nucleus 
is near, but not exactly at the centre of the germinal disc. 

The first segmentation-groove is meridian, and divides the germinal 
disc into two equal parts; the next two grooves are likewise meridian, 
and give rise to eight unequal segments which are arranged symmetrically 
in relation to the first groove, which becomes the axis of the blastoderm ; 
though unequal, these eight segments are all macromeres. The six 
upper and lateral segments are next divided by a meridian groove, but 
the two lower by an equatorial one; the uppermost of the latter set 
occupies the centre of the blastoderm, and its cells correspond to the 
micromeres. Segmentation becomes more irregular. At the end of 
segmentation the blastomeres (micromeres) are very numerous, as there 
are more than three hundred present ; they form a circular plate limited 
externally by the zone of blastocones. 

As development proceeds the differences between these two sets of 
cells becomes more and more marked, till at last the blastomeres form a 
multistriated cellular disc (blastoderm), while the blastocones have 
scattered their nuclei throughout the whole extent of a hyaline layer, 
which they thus transform into a multinucleated true plasmodium, the 
perivitelline membrane. The blastoderm gradually covers this membrane, 


* Ann. Sci. Nat., vi. (1888) pp. 165-280 (8 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 371 


which furms a specialized independent layer, and which we may, at a 
later stage, regard as the primitive endoderm ; the blastoderm becomes 
differentiated into an ectoderm, which forms a rounded plate one layer 
thick in its centre, and formed of several rows of cells at the periphery ; 
these cells are formed by delamination; the deeper layers of the edge of 
the blastoderm form part of the mesoderm. 

The author concludes with carrying further the modifications of the 
germinal layers, and takes the opportunity of discussing the views of 
those who have preceded him. Other parts of the mesoderm are formed 
by the ectoderm in different parts of the body; as at the periphery of 
the eye, the region of the siphon, where it gives rise, by proliferation, 
to a mass in which the muscles of the siphon and the visceral ganglion 
are, later on, differentiated, the cephalic lobes, and the extremity of the 
brachial folds. It will be seen that the character of these secondary 
delaminations is to be isolated and partial, and this secondary prolifera- 
tion of the ectoderm produces very different tissues, fur the masses to 
which it gives rise are sometimes muscular and sometimes nervous, The 
author does not think there can be any doubt as to the justice of regarding 
the perivitelline membrane as the primitive endoderm. 


y. Gastropoda. 


Double Forms of Spermatozoa.*—Dr. R. Koehler gives a descrip- 
tion of the two forms of spermatozoa found in Murex brandaris and 
M. trunculus. It is pointed out that in the Pulmonate Gastropods (Arion, 
Helix) the mother-cells of the spermatic products, or spermatogonia, 
arise from nuclei which are scattered irregularly in a layer of protoplasm 
which lines the inner surface of the testicular tubes. These nuclei with 
the protoplasm correspond to the regular embryonic epithelium of these 
tubes, and represent the primordial sexual cells. It is probable that 
these nuclei also give rise directly to the special elements which have 
been called basal cells. 

In Murex, the nuclei, which are arranged in a similar manner, give 
rise to two very distinct categories of elements; some are large cells 
with definite contours which are the mother-cells of the vermiform 
spermatozoa, while others are smaller, have no membrane, and give rise 
to the filiform spermatozoa; these last undergo the changes usual in 
spermatogenesis. The mother-cells of the vermiform spermatozoa 
inclose only a single nucleus which will, later on, break up to form the 
large multinucleated cells; they do not undergo the repeated divisions 
which characterize the development of ordinary spermatozoa. The 
substance of one of the nuclei is converted into a bundle of fibrils, one 
end of which will give rise to a tuft of cilia, while the other will form 
the cephalic extremity of the vermiform spermatozoon. During its 
development the nuclei largely disappear in the cellular protoplasm, but 
their remains will form the colourable granulations which the proto- 
plasm of their spermatozoa contains in their adult state. These have no 
distinct central filament, except in the cephalic region. Although the 
organization of the spermatozoa is similar in the two species, those of 
Murex brandaris are immobile, and of M. trunculus very active, The 
vermiform spermatozoa of the Prosobranch Molluscs are not adapted to 
any definite function; as their early history shows, they have the 


* Ree. Zool. Suisse, v. (1888) pp. 101-50 (2 pls.). 


BZ SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


morphological value of ova, and they give to the gonad which produces 
them the appearance of a hermaphrodite organ. It may be that, in the 
testes of the higher Prosobranchs, they represent the ova produced by 
the gonad of the hermaphrodite types which were separated from the 
Prosobranch stock at the same time as that at which the higher or 
Monotocardate Prosobranchs made their appearance. 


Fertilization in Helix aspersa and Arion empiricorum.*—Dr. P. 
Garnault has been led by his researches to recognize two distinct actions 
in the process of fertilization in these two molluscs. One consists in the 
impulsion given to segmentation which is, indeed, produced by the 
spermatozoon, but which may be caused by an external and mechanical 
excitation, as has been shown by the experiments of 'Tichomiroff on the 
ovum of Bombyx mori. The other consists in the assurance of the 
transmission of characters; this may, in organisms with a diffused 
nucleus, merely consist of the fusion of two bodies. In higher organisms, 
where there is a vesicular nucleus, the fecundating individual, the 
spermatozoon, fuses with the yolk by its protoplasmie part, but its nucleus 
(head) is the point of departure of a nuclear formation (male pronucleus) 
which becomes relatively enormous by borrowing its materials from 
the ovum. 

In fact, if in the parthenogenetic ovum a single nucleus is developed, 
evidently at the expense of the egg, two are developed in the fecundated 
egg, and they are equivalent in mass to the single nucleus; they are 
both developed at the expense of the egg, but one of them has arisen 
from the head of the spermatozoon. ‘They elaborate in common sub- 
stances destined to fuse later with the protoplasm; from the point of 
division they behave as in the parthenogenetic egg, but the nuclear 
substance has received the influence of the male. It is impossible to 
say what is the precise moment of fertilization; all the phenomena 
which occur are of the nature of cellular actions, the morphological 
manifestations of which are simple in the lower organisms which have no 
nuclei, and are more complicated in those which possess one. In the 
latter case one can only admit that the nuclear phenomena which are 
produced at the moment of fertilization, constitute the essential part of 
the phenomenon, while the nucleus is the sole substratum of the 
essential characters of the individual. 


Neurology of Prosobranchiata.j—Dr. J. Brock has made an 
investigation of the nervous system of a number of Prosobranch 
Molluscs. He comes to the conclusion that the great majority of 
Prosobranchiata are, so far as the development of the terminal plexus of 
the anterior margin of the foot is concerned, higher than the Rhipido- 
glossa. There appears to be a definite connection between the delimita- 
tion of an anterior portion of the foot as propodium and the better 
development of the ganglionic plexus which is so characteristic of the 
anterior margin of the foot. This is the more remarkable as the 
whole formation of the propodium in the few families that are pro- 
vided with it is so different that its appearance must, in many cases 
at least, have been independent of the rest. Although the author 
does not propose to rehabilitate Huxley’s division of the Gastropod 
foot into pro-, meso-, and metapodium, which has, indeed, been shown by 


* Zool. Anz ig , xi. (1888) pp. 731-6; xii. (1889) pp. 10-15 and 33-S. 
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlviii. (1889) pp. 67-S3 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 373 


Grenacher’s embryological investigations to have no certain basis, yet he 
perceives that there is at least a possibility of characterizing a propodium 
by anatomical characters. 

The physiological significance of the nervous plexus is very difficult 
to explain. Where it is highly developed, as in Harpa, Natica, &c., the 
portion of the foot which contains it is provided with a wealth of nerves 
such as there is not the like of among the Mollusca. The tendency of 
nerves, especially in their terminal branches, to break up into a plexus 
is very great in the Mollusca; they have been described in the gastric 
and enteric walls of various Proso- and Opisthobranchiata, and Pulmo- 
nata, in the branchie, pericardium, wall of the heart, mantle, lips and 
kidney of Prosobranchs, and elsewhere. 

An account is given of the central nervous system and the visceral 
commissure of Pteroceras, which present some abnormal characters. 
Instead of a ganglionic mass above and below the enteric canal, there 
is one to the right and another to the left of it. The commissure which 
generally goes from the right pleural ganglion to the supraintestinal 
ganglion appears to be wanting, and instead of it a strong nerve passes 
from the left pleural to the subintestinal ganglion. The difficulties 
raised by these peculiar arrangements are explained when an examina- 
tion is made of the ganglia of the cesophageal ring, which has been 
twisted through a right angle in the-direction opposite to that of the 
hands of a watch. A similar alteration has been observed in Strombus 
luhuanus. 

We now know of three ways in which the simple, typical, visceral 
commissures of Prosobranchs may be made more complicated. The 
first consists in a fusion of the parts of the hinder loop, together with 
a marked shortening of the anterior. This very peculiar differentiation 
leads to the apparently orthoneural visceral commissure of the Neritina 
and Helicina. If Pelseneer’s views are correct, the Heteropoda would 
form a kind of intermediate stage. The second mode of differentiation 
is that here described ; it ends in the anterior loop of the visceral com- 
missure, being placed to the left of the intestine, and this is seen in the 
Cypreee and Alata. <A third method is the approximation and fusion of 
the supra- and subintestinal ganglia with the pleural ganglia of their 
proper side; this may be seen in all stages in many of the higher Proso- 
branchiata. It generally happens that the subintestinal ganglion first 
fuses with the right pleural ganglion, while the supraintestinal long 
remains independent. The final result is the extreme shortening of the 
anterior loop of the visceral commissure. 


Hermaphroditism of Aplysize.*—M. E. Robert has some observations 
on the recent paper of M. hémy Saint-Loup.{ He does not for a moment 
doubt that Aplysia fasciata or A. depilans have the sexes united, and the 
information which can be got by examining the hermaphrodite gland 
may be supplemented by a study of the conformation of the accessory 
reproductive organs, which are altogether on the hermaphrodite type. 
No difference can be observed between the individuals in copulation. 

M. Saint-Loup’s error appears to have arisen from his taking for 
males younger animals than those which he calls females; the latter are 
adults perfectly hermaphrodite. In young forms spermatoblasts and 


* Comptes Rendus, eviii. (1889) pp. 198-201. 
t See this Journal, ante, p. 195. 


bo 
=) 


1889. 


374 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


spermatozoa are more abundant than are ova. ‘The pouch which Cuvier 
took for a bladder appears to be not a spermatic reservoir, but a store- 
place for reserve elements which do not escape at the same time as the 
ejaculated mass of spermatozoa. 

In answer to these remarks M. R. Saint-Loup* urges that at one 
period the hermaphrodite gland elaborates male elements, and that such 
individuals may, for the time, be regarded as males; at other times it 
produces both male and female elements without either predominating, 
and lastly the female elements distinctly predominate. In all these 
stages the individuals are fit for copulation. 


Genera of Molidiide.{—Dr. R. Bergh continues his investigations on 
Nudibranchs in a systematic account of the Alolidiide, accompanied by 
five plates. The genus Molidiella, with 4. orientalis sp. n.; Glaucus, 
with Gl. atlanticus Forst.; Hervia, with H. rosea sp. n.; Moridilla g. n., 
with M. brockii sp.n.; Cerberilla, with C. annulata (Quoy et Gaim.) var., 
afinis Bgh.; Melibe Rang, with M. ocellata sp.n.; Doto, with Doto 
fragilis Forbes; Hero Lovén, with H. formosa Lovén, are described and 
figured. 

The new genus Moridilla is thus diagnosed :—Body slender, elongated, 
subcompressed ; rhinophoria somewhat mulberry-like; tentacles long; 
dorsal papille not readily caducous, elongated, disposed in oblique rows, 
anteriorly in groups; foot rather narrow, with the anterior angles pro- 
duced like tentacles; mandibles moderately long; masticatory proccss 
not curved, with a single series of coarse denticles; lingual teeth in a 
single row, almost as in Facelline; penis unarmed. 


New Genus of Parasitic Mollusca.t;—Mr. E. A. Smith forms the 
new genus Robillardia on a single specimen of a shell which was stated to 
have been found living on an Hchinus. In the absence of the animal it 
is impossible to assign this new form to any definite systematic position, 
but the delicate shell is stated to have the glassy texture of Carinaria, 
and somewhat the form of a certain species of Hyalina ; it appears to be 
viviparous. ‘The shell of RB. cernica has a longer diameter of 8, and a 
shorter diameter of 6:5 mm., with a height of 5mm. Mr. Smith takes 
the opportunity of collecting in a very convenient form the names and 
habitats of most of the already described parasitic genera of Mollusca. 


6. Lamellibranchiata. 


Abdominal Sensory Organs in Lamellibranchiata.§—Dr. J. Thiele 
gives a full account of the sensory organs discovered by him in certain 
Lamellibranchs, the preliminary account of which we have already 
noticed.|| It is now noted that in several genera the sensory body on 
the left side is degenerate, or, as in Pecten and Ostrea, wanting. The 
search for these organs in the siphoniate forms has remained vain. 
The only organs in other Molluscs which can in any way be compared 
to them are the sensory structures found near the gill of Nautilus, but 
this even is doubtful. 

The extraordinary resemblance between the epithelium of these 


* Comptes Rendus, eviii. (1889) pp. 364-5. 

+ Verh. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Geseil., xxxviii. (1888) pp. 673-706 (5 pls.). 
~ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., iii. (1889) pp. 270-1. 

§ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlviii. (1889) pp. 47-59 (1 pl.). 

|| This Journal, 1888, p. 942. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 310 


organs and of the lateral organs of the abdomen of the Capitellide was 
noticed in the preliminary communication; since then the author has 
had the opportunity of examining preparations of the latter, and finds 
that the likeness is very great. A detailed account is now given of the 
histological characters of these bodies in Lamellibranchs, and it is shown 
that in them, as in the Capitellide, only one kind of cell is in contact 
with the surface, and that the nuclei thereof are spindles. The character 
of the epithelium and its connection with the nervous system justifies 
the conclusion that the papille found in the region of the anus are 
sensory organs; as they are provided with a number of long hairs, 
which are set in motion by every current of water, their function would 
appear to be that of perceiving movements in the surrounding medium. 
They are, in other words, organs of the sixth sense. It is, indeed, 
possible that they have also some power of olfactory perception, but it 
cannot be that they have any tactile power. Their absence in the 
Siphoniata seems to show that their chief duty is the perception of 
movements in the water; in siphoniate forms sensory organs for the 
perception of water-movements are placed at the end of the in-current 
siphon. 


Turgescence in Lamellibranchs.*—M. A. Ménégaux has made a 
somewhat extended examination of the phenomena of the turgescence of 
the foot in Lamellibranchs. He comes to the conclusion that, in all 
those in which this organ is well developed, there is an orifice provided 
with a sphincter muscle, and that this is wanting in the rest; the inter- 
vention of water is, therefore, not necessary to explain the enlargement. 
A post-ventricular and muscular dilatation aid the heart in driving the 
blood into the siphons, while two successive valves oppose the direct 
return of the blood into the heart during the rapid contraction of the 
siphons. 


Development of Oyster and Allied Genera.t|—Mr. R. T. Jackson has 
a preliminary paper on the later development of the oyster, with studies 
of allied genera. He considers that the two valves of an adult oyster 
are altogether homologous with the single valve of adult cephalous 
Mollusca, for both originate from the preconchylian gland. As the 
adult shell of the latter is termed a conch, the name dissoconch (double 
shell) is suggested for that of adult Lamellibranchs. The form and 
structure of the shell in the stages recognized by Ryder—prodissoconch, 
silphologic (spat), and adult, are considered in detail. Mr. Jackson 
directs attention to a striking peculiarity in the Ostreide which he 
thinks has escaped notice; the two valves are as dissimilar as if they 
belonged to distinct species. This is regarded as evidently a case of 
inherited or acquired characteristics. 


Byssus of young of common Clam.t—Mr. J. A. Ryder has made 
some observations on the byssus of the young of Mya arenaria. Sections 
were prepared to determine if there was a byssus-gland in the foot; these 
were obtained by treatment with 1/2 per cent. chromic acid solution, 
which was afterwards acidulated with nitric acid. In the sections of the 
median region at the apex of the foot a median saccular depression, which 
was undoubtedly the byssal gland, was detected. The presence of this 


* Comptes Rendus, eviii. (1889) pp. 361-4. 
+ Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xxiii. (1888) pp. 531-56 (4 pls.). 
¢ Amer. Natural., xxiii. (1889) pp. 65-7. 

2 i) % 


376 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


byssal attachment reopens the question of the life-history of this im- 

ortant shell-fish ; other forms may also have an unknown byssal stage, 
and if that be the case the methods hitherto proposed to be adopted in 
order to secure the young for purposes of transplanting will have to be 
greatly modified. To obtain the early stages of the young it will be 
necessary to resort to some forms of “collector,” such as is used in 
oyster-culture, to allow the fry to affix itself. 


Distribution of Unio margaritifer.*—Herr K. Fischer reports the 
presence of the pearl-bearing Unio in the district of Trier. Where the 
water is limy it is not found. 


Molluscoida. 


a. Tunicata. 


Tunicata of the Voyage of the ‘Challenger.’ {—With his third 
part Prof. W. A. Herdman completes his description of the Tunicates 
collected by H.M.S. ‘Challenger.’ He here gives accounts of the 
Ascidiz salpiformes, the Thaliacea, and the Larvacea, and discusses the 
affinities and classification of the Tunicata and their probable phylogeny. 
Altogether twenty-six species of pelagic Tunicata, mostly belonging to 
the genus Salpa, were collected, and of these nine are new to science. 
The remarkable deep-sea genus Octacnemus of Moseley is made the 
subject of a new family, the Octacnemide. Pyrosoma, although now a 
free-swimming organism, is, in the author’s opinion, derived from the 
fixed compound Ascidians, to the most typical of which it is, through 
Celocormus hualeyi, directly related. The Synascidie are polyphyletic 
forms, derived from the simple Ascidiz at three distinct points; they 
form, therefore, three groups :-—(1) the Polystelide, (2) the Botryllide, 
and (3) the remainder, which are more nearly related to particular 
groups of simple Ascidians than they are to one another. 


Branchial Homologies of Salpa.{—Sig. F. Todaro compares the 
anatomy and development of Salpa with that of other "Tunicata, and 
comes to the general conclusion “that the two large branchial clefts of 
- Salpz are homologous with the two branchial clefts in Appendicularia, 
and with the two primary branchial clefts in the Ascidizw, while the 
numerous stigmata or secondary branchial clefts of the Ascidiz are 
homologous with those of Salpz.” 


Relation of Tunicata to Vertebrata. §—M. F. Lahille summarizes 
his objections to the view that the Tunicata are the ancestors of the 
Vertebrata. He thinks that the two groups are very distinct from one 
another, and cites a number of facts to support his contention. 


8. Bryozoa, 


Phoronis Buskii.||—Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh reports on a new species 
of Phoronis dredged by H.M.S. ‘Challenger. He gives a detailed 
description of its anatomy, but is unable yet to definitely assert the 


“ Verh. Nat. Ver. Preuss. Rheinl., xlv. (1888) pp. 292-4. 
an oe of the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger,’ xxvii. part 1xxvi. (1888) 163 pp. 
pls.). 
t Atti R. Accad. Lincei (Rend.), iv. (1888) pp. 487-44 (2 figs.). 
§ Bull. Soc. d’Hist. Nat. Toulouse, xxii. (1888) pp. xcii.—vi. 


| Reports of the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger’ Zoology, xxvii. part Ixxv., 
27 pp. (8 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 377 


relationship of this genus to other known groups. It seems to be most 
closely allied to the aspidophorous group of the Polyzoa; and, for the 
present, must be regarded as an aberrant Polyzoon. 


Ovicells of Cyclostomatous Bryozoa.*—Mr. A. W. Waters thinks 
that the ovicells of cyclostomatous Bryozoa are important characters, 
so that it is to be regretted that so little is known about them. He now 
describes and figures those of three of the species found by the 
‘Challenger’; the result of the examination of Idmonea fissurata Busk 
is to remove it to the genus Hornera. In addition to I. irregularis and 
I. milneana, Mr. Waters has some notes on I. Meneghini. 


Ovicells of Lichenopore.t— The same author has notes on the ovicells 
of some Lichenopore ; this contribution is of importance, as in the third 
part of Mr. Busk’s British Museum Catalogue, and in the same author’s 
‘ Challenger’ Report, no notice is taken of these structures. 


Formation of Statoblasts in Plumatella.t—Herr F. Braem, in the 
continuation of his researches,§ has been able to detect the passage of 
ectodermal cells into the funiculus to aid in the formation of the stato- 
blasts of Plumatella. In consequence of this immigration, the funiculus 
swells up at its point of origin and represents a multicellular germinal 
stock from which the first statoblast begins to be constricted off. In 
later stages the connection of the ectodermal material of the germ-stock 
with the integument becomes lost. As the immigration is effected 
rapidly, it is not easy to demonstrate the passage of the cells, and, 
further, the mode of development of the colonies appears to vary with 
the period of the year. 


Delagia Chetopteri. ||—From notes of Prof. J. Joyeux-Laffuie and 
Prof. E. Ehlers it seems clear that the Bryozoon described by the former 
under the above name {J was named Hypophorella expansa by the latter 
in 1876. 


Arthropoda. 
a. Insecta, 


Embryology of Insects.**—The first subject dealt with by Herr N. 
Cholodkovsky is the development of the external form in the embryos 
of Blatia germanica. ‘The species recommended itself as appearing to 
be one which was very suitable for the determination of some unsolved 
problems in the embryology of the Hexapoda. The cocoon offered 
considerable technical difficulties, which were got over by placing 
cocoons, opened at either end, for from eight to twenty-four hours in 
Perenyi’s fluid, then in 70 per cent., and then in 90 per cent. alcohol. 
The chitinous capsule of the cocoon could then be removed with needles, 
and the eggs, as a rule, be isolated without injury. The egg has the 
form of an elongated plate, near the straight margin of which lies the 
germinal band, while the other surface is covered by undifferentiated 
blastoderm. The latter is not at first continuous, but consists of 
separate flat cells, which are, later, used to form the serous investment. 


* Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., xx. (1889) pp. 275-80 (1 pl.). 

+ T.c., pp. 280-5 (1 pl.). 

t Zool. Anzeig., xii. (1889) pp. 64-5. § See this Journal, 1888, p. 937. 
|| Arch. Zool. Expér. et Gén., vi. (1888) pp. xliv.—vi. 

| See this Journal, 1888, p. 936. 
** Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvili, (1889) pp. 89-100 (1 pl.). 


378 SUMMARY OF CURKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The germinal band forms a narrow elongated layer of low cylindrical 
cells, which broadens out at the future head-end into two large lateral 
lobes. Segmentation of this band does not take place till a relatively 
late period, though it is, at a very early stage, remarkable for the 
centralization of its cells around certain points which are the centres of 
the formation of the future extremities. 

In an early stage of development all the rudiments of the extremi- 
ties have a similar structure; they form simple outpushings of the 
ectoderm, the cavities of which are invested by rounded mesodermal cells. 
The antenne are pretty long; the mandibles are very small; the pro- 
portionately very long thoracic feet begin very early to exhibit signs of 
segmentation. The first pair of ventral appendages are considerably 
longer than the others, though they have exactly the same structure. 

The succeeding changes in the form of the embryo, in addition to 
its general growth and the development of the lateral parts of the body, 
chiefly consist in a change in the form and internal structure of the 
first abdominal appendage; instead of becoming longer they become 
broader, while the base narrows ; the mesodermal cells appear to wander 
into the body-cavity of the embryo; at any rate, the number in the first 
abdominal appendage gradually decreases. This becomes pyriform in 
shape, and is only attached to the body by means of a thin and small 
stalk. The greater part consists of very long and narrow, almost 
spindle-shaped, ectodermal cells, which form, by their diverging distal 
ends, the surface of their appendage, while their proximal ends converge 
towards the stalk. They lie very close to one another, and there is no 
internal cavity in this part of the altered extremity, while in the axis of 
the stalk there is only a canal leading into the body-cavity. In the 
later stages of development the organ disappears in a manner which 
has not yet been worked out. 

Patten is not correct in saying that all the other abdominal appen- 
dages disappear rapidly ; while the second to the ninth disappear as 
changes occur in the hinder part of the body, the tenth and eleventh 
undergo further development; the eleventh form the future cerci, and 
the tenth pair forms small appendages which persist throughout life in 
the male, but become lost in the female. The cerci do not become 
jointed till the embryo leaves the egg. 

The development of the dorsal region is next briefly described, and 
it is stated that the trachez do not begin to be formed as invaginations 
of the ectoderm until it is completed. It is in consequence of this late 
appearance of the trachee that the embryo of Blatia is so especially 
adapted for the study of the rudimentary appendages, for in other 
insects the stumps of these organs may be easily confused with the 
ridges of the stigmata. 

In the next place the author advances some general considerations. 
He first insists on the fact that the embryo described by him had 
eighteen pairs of well-developed appendages, nine of which in the male, 
and eight in the female persist throughout life. All these appendages 
have at first an altogether similar structure, and their cavities com- 
municate with the corresponding cavities of the somites. He is led to 
believe that the insects are derived from ancestors that were polypodous 
and homopodous, and probably like Scolopendrella ; that these ancestors 
did not live in water, but led, at most, an amphibious life, and that, in 
any case, they had nothing to do with the Crustacea. There does not 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 379 


appear to be any ground for regarding the “ pedes spurii” of cater- 
pillars as secondary structures; they are, rather, true embryonic 
appendages, which were retained in the postembryonic development, and 
the last pair of which persists through life in the male as the appendices 
copulatorii. Furthermore, the apparently truly secondary abdominal 
appendages of the complete insect are of the same morphological signifi- 
cance, and must be regarded as true homologues of the other extremities. 
In conclusion, the author refers to the morphology of the larval 
forms of Insects. The theory of Brauer as to the so-called Campodea- 
like larve being the most primitive must be somewhat modified in the 
light of other researches. The development of Blatta leaves no room 
for doubt that the insect-embryo is essentially polypodous, and that, 
consequently, the ancestor of Insects is to be sought for in Myriopod- 
like forms. Balfour rightly called attention to the similarity between 
the structure of Peripatus and the organization of lepidopterous larve. 


Incidental Observations in Pedigree Moth-breeding.*—Mr. F. 
Merrifield has some interesting notes on the breeding of Moths. The 
usual difference in size between the spring and the summer emergences 
appears to be due to the fact that the larva of the former is much longer 
in feeding up than the latter. The author thinks he has observed that, 
when there is no stunting or retarding from unhealthy conditions, those 
larve of a brood which are longest in feeding up are the largest. 
Variety in markings and colours, and also in size, is much greater in the 
summer than in the spring emergence ; some successful experiments have 
been made in increasing these differences by selection. The application 
of cold in the earlier stages has a tendency, operating possibly by 
retardation, to produce or develope a darker hue in the perfect insect ; 
this may throw some light on the melanism which is so often remarked 
in north-country examples of widely distributed moths. 


Changes of Internal Organs in Pupa of Milkweed Butterfly.t— 
Mr. J. H. Emerton has some notes which may be regarded as supple- 
mentary to the memoirs of Burgess and Scudder on the life-histories of 
Butterflies. He describes chiefly the earlier pup from the time the 
larval skin is thrown off till the seventh or eighth day. 


Chermes and Phylloxera.t—Herr L. Dreyfus confirms Blochmann’s 
recent account of the bisexual generation of Chermes abietis, but the 
general results of his observations do not agree with those of that 
author, for he finds that the course of development is much more com- 
plicated than has been supposed ; indeed it is probable that the cycle is 
not completed in a single year. He thinks it probable that OC. abietis, 
C. laricis, and C. obtectus are all forms in the developmental cycle of one 
species. ‘The course of development seems to be as follows:—in the 
first year C. abietis, having survived the winter, lays eggs; in the gall 
on the pine a generation is developed which has wings, and this flies out; 
some members of this generation migrate to the larch, where they lay 
eggs as C. laricis ; the third generation passes the winter on the larch 
as C. laricis. At the end of April of the second year there is a fourth 
generation which escapes at the end of May as UV. laricis; the greater 
number of these return to the pine, where they lay eggs as C. obtectus ; 

* Trans. Entomol. Soc. Lond., 1889, pp. 79-97. 


_{ Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xxiii. (1888) pp. 457-61 (1 pl.). 
t Zool. Anzeig., xii. (1889) pp. 65-73, 91-9. 


380 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the fifth generation developed therefrom is bisexual; from the fertilized 
egg the animal which is to live over the winter is slowly developed, and 
it gives rise to the first generation of the cycle. Further details are 
given as to other species of the genus. 

The developmental history of Phylloxera is also incompletely known 
and is more complicated than is generally supposed; in many points 
there is a resemblance to what obtains in Chermes, and it is probable that 
forms which are generally regarded as specifically distinct belong to 
different periods in one developmental cycle. There are, also, reasons 
for supposing that external conditions may affect the rotation in which 
the various stages follow one another. In P. coccinea there are two and 
not only one winged sexupara during the year, for there is one at the end 
of June and another at the end of August; in addition to the wingless 
sexupara of September, described by Balbiani, there are others in July 
which produce a number of males or females. The author has brought 
together numerous facts relating to the life-history of these insects, and 
concludes that, in the natural development of Phylloxera vastatrix, the 
gall-generation never follows directly on the parthenogenetic root- 
generation ; the first young form (stem-mother) which arises from the 
fertilized winter egg and its direct descendents, sometimes for several 
generations, begins the cycle with the formation of galls. 

Dr. Dreyfus has also published a small treatise * on these insects 
which may be considered as a monograph of the group. He regards the 
Phylloxerina as forming the intermediate stage between the Coccine 
and Aphidine, and as constituting a distinct family of the suborder 
Phytophthires. The group is pretty widely distributed; the most 
important fact in their developmental history is that, in certain genera- 
tions, the ova of one and the same mother give rise to completely 
different animals which pass, simultaneously, through quite different 
courses of development; there is, in other words, a division of the 
developmental series. The author thinks that these “parallel series” 
will be found in other Insects, and that a knowledge of them will afford 
the key to the difficulties now associated with their developmental history. 


Chermes.{—Herr N. Cholodkovsky has two communications on this 
insect, in the second of which he points out how his observations control 
those of Blochman and Dreyfus; he finds that the yellow males and 
females described by the former do not belong to the developmental 
cycle of Chermes strobilobius but to that of C. viridis, while the black 
sexual animals which he has himself found are those of C. strobilobius. 
There are similar criticisms of other points of detail into which we 
cannot enter here. 


6. Arachnida. 


Ecdysis of Spiders.t—M. W. Wagner has made a close study of the 
phenomena of ecdysis in Spiders. He considers that the casting of the 
old integument only forms part of the process, and that a secondary one. 
Some of the phenomena begin at a comparatively long period antecedent 
to the casting of the skin, and these are partly due to the fact that for a 
time the animal is deprived of some of its faculties—of sight, hearing, 
touch, movement, and, for a short time, of respiration. Some of the 

* ¢Ueber Phylloxerinen,’ 8vo, Wiesbaden, 1889, 88 pp. 


+ Zool. Anzeig., xii. (1889) pp. 60-4, 218-23. 
{ Ann. Sci. Nat., vi. (1888) pp. 281-393 (4 31s). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 381 


ectodermal products and such of the mesodermal as are subjected to 
the chitinizing activity of the ectoderm undergo ecdysis. The blood- 
corpuscles, which, in Spiders, are formed at the expense of the endoderm, 
are subjected to periodic modifications at every ecdysis, the result of 
which is the proliferation of a large number of them. Besides these 
there are other changes which occur principally about the time of 
ecdysis, and are more or less closely connected with it; they are by no 
means confined to changes in size or to the complete development of the 
genital organs. At the period of ecdysis Spiders are able to regenerate 
organs which they have lost, and at that time they lose, more or less 
early, certain provisional organs. 


e. Crustacea. 


Ancestral Development of Respiratory Organs of Decapodous 
Crustacea.*—Miss F. Buchanan attempts to answer the question how 
the gills of Decapodous Crustaceans came to be situated in the different 
positions in which they are found. 

The Chetopod-like ancestor probably had no special respiratory 
organs ; when the vascular surface became concentrated it would natu- 
rally happen that the concentration would be in such parts of the body 
as are most brought into contact with water; and so, when certain limbs 
became modified for swimming, the parts behind those limbs would first 
become especially vascular and branchial. As it would be an advantage 
to have the surface increased the surface became folded; and a simple 
respiratory plate is found in the nearest living representatives of the 
Crustacean ancestor—the Phyllopoda. The typical thoracic appendage 
of Apus consists of a basal or axial portion, six endites, and two exites, 
viz. a flabellum and a bract. The fifth endite probably represents the 
endopodite of the crayfish’s limb, the sixth the exopodite, the flabellum 
the epipodite, and the folded stem or bract is probably homologous 
with the branchie of the Decapod. 

This primitive position of the respiratory behind the swimming 
organ is retained in Schizopods, Stomapods, and in the higher group of 
Isopods. The Archimalacostraca probably had not a settled respiratory 
organ, for Nebalia has no special branchial organs. The next or archi- 
schizopod form probably had a fixed number of segments, and differed 
from the Archimalacostraca by its different manner of swimming, the 
exopodite and not the epipodite being the branch used; the respiratory 
organs would, as usual, be developed on the swimming appendages. Of 
living Schizopods, the Euphausiide are the most nearly related to the 
Archischizopoda, and they all have branchie attached to the bases of 
their thoracic appendages, which are called podobranchiz. In these 
forms the gills have a very simple structure, for they merely consist of 
branching lobes with no secondary branches. In the higher Lophogas- 
tride the gill is more complex, the primary lobes of the stem being 
themselves lobed, and the attachment of the gill is not to the limb 
itself, but to the arthrodial membrane near the base of the gill. In both 
these groups the epipodites are reduced or absent on all the appendages 
on which there are gills. 

In the Decapoda the thoracic feet have no longer a swimming func- 
tion, and the exopodite has become vestigial or is altogether wanting ; 


* Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci., xxix. (1889) pp. 451-67 (1 pl.). 


382 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


but this change in function does not affect the gills, which became 
fixed to the thoracic region in the Schizopod stage, which is gone 
through both phylogenetically and ontogenetically by the Decapoda. 
In consequence of the raising of the pleura the epimeral walls, and 
probably also the arthrodial membrane at the base of the appendages, 
have become stretched, and the gills are no longer situated close 
together, but are separated. This stretching of the arthrodial membrane 
and the time at which it took place, the need of protection to the 
branchie, the condition of the larva when hatched, and probably also 
the condition of the tissues of the creature, will probably serve to 
explain all the various positions in which branchiz are found. 

In Stomapods the mid-body is developed before the hind-body, and 
here there are abdominal swimming appendages and branchial tufts 
attached to the epipodite. The degenerate Cumacea have only one gill 
remaining. The Arthrostraca are probably to be derived from the 
Archischizopod, but have from the beginning taken a different line of 
descent to the true Schizopoda. 


Development of Compound Eye of Alpheus.*—Dr. F. H. Herrick, 
who has for some time past devoted himself to the embryology of this 
crustacean, has a short account of the mode of development of the eye. 
He draws attention to some leading points; the optic disc is at first a 
unicellular layer of ectoderm; this disc becomes thickened by migration 
of cells from the surface, by delamination, and, probably also, by the 
addition of cells from the yolk. The optic lobe thus formed becomes 
differentiated into two parts, which are separated by a structureless 
membrane. From the outer portion or retinogen, which is at first a 
single layer, the retina is developed; the rest of the lobe (gangliogen) 
gives rise to the ganglia and parts of the eye below the basement mem- 
brane. The retinule, retinophoree, and corneal cells are differentiated 
ectodermal elements belonging to the retinogen. The retinophore are 
not prolonged far inwards and do not enter the retinular bundle. There 
is no swollen pedicle, and nothing answering to pedicle, rhabdom, or 
spindle kas been detected. No invagination or formation of cavities of 
any kind occur in the development of this eye. (The ommatidium 
consists of thirteen cells disposed in three layers, as follows: (a) corneal 
layer—2 cells ; (6) retinophoral layer—4 cells ; and (c) retinular layer— 
7 cells. No nerve-fibres were detected in the crystalline cones. 

The author is of opinion that there is a tendency to exaggerate the 
significance of an invagination of ectoderm, for he thinks it improbable 
that, at the time when most of these infoldings occur, a cell has any 
true upside or downside, or that an included cell is differentiated from 
one next it, which does not share in the invagination. He suggests as a 
temporary working hypothesis that all invaginations of ectoderm, where- 
ever they occur in the Animal Kingdom, are primarily of no morpho- 
logical importance, but simply mechanical expedients for introducing 
rapidly a large number of ectoderm cells below the surface; where 
there is any significance it is secondary. 


Anomura of the ‘ Challenger.’{—Prof. J. R. Henderson states that 
the collection of anomurous Crustacea made by H.M.S. ‘Challenger’ is 


* Zool. Anzeig., xii. (1889) pp. 164-9. 
[+ Reports of the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger,’ Zoology, xxvii., No. Ixix. (1888) 
221 pp. (21 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 383 


one of the most valuable which has ever been brought together in a 
single voyage ; before its arrival we had little or no knowledge of the 
bathymetrical distribution of the group. Species of Munida are pre- 
valent, and there are here described fifteen new species. In most of the 
deep-water Galatheids the eggs carried by the female are few in number 
and very large in size, whence we may infer that in the deep sea enemies 
are fewer. In Ptychogaster and Uroptychus the abdomen is twice folded 
on itself; these seem to lead a sedentary life in the branches of 
Gorgonids. In all, 161 species belonging to 52 genera are described ; of 
these, 7 genera and 86 species are new to science. 


Amphipoda of the ‘Challenger ’.*—The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing has 
published an enormous report on the Amphipoda collected by the 
‘Challenger, 640 pp. of which are bibliography. The ordinary division 
of the Amphipoda into three groups, the Gammarina, Caprellina, and 
Hyperina is adopted. All the waters of the world are found to contain 
them, and they are pushing out advanced guards in a sort of tentative 
manner on to the land, where they may have a great future before them ; 
they are readily able to adapt themselves to many varying circumstances. 
From below 300 fathoms the ‘Challenger’ possibly dredged thirty-one 
specimens of Gammarina, which represent twenty-five genera, of which 
ten are new, and twenty-eight species, of which twenty-six are new. In 
all, thirty-one genera and one hundred and eighty species are described 
as new. 


Argulus foliaceus.t—Prof. F'. Leydig has some fresh observations to 
record on a creature whose anatomy he first described nearly forty years 
ago. Among the subjects discussed as parts of the integument are the 
dermal glands ; these have a nucleus proportionately small to the size of 
the body of the gland; after the use of reagents a body may be seen 
projecting from the orifice of the efferent duct; it appears to be the 
secretion of the gland hardened into the form of a cylinder. In the 
living animal the body of the gland exhibits such modifications of form 
that one is inclined to ascribe to it a proper power of contractility. 
In a few cases the glands are compound and not unicellular. The muscu- 
lature of the body is not highly developed. With regard to the histology 
of the nerve-centres it is stated that the cortex of the brain and cord, 
below the cuticular neurilemma, is formed of ganglionic spheres which 
hardly ever exhibit anything more than the character of small naked cells. 
Dotted substance is found within the ganglionic swellings. On the 
inner portion of the lateral commissure going from the upper to the 
lower portion of the brain the most internal bands of these fibres form 
a completely closed ring. As there is a similar arrangement in the 
brain of the Lumbricina, it is probable that we have here a structure of 
general distribution. Some of the bands which compose the commissures 
radiate out towards the optic nerves and cross from one side to the other. 
In the enlargements of the ventral cord there are fibres in addition to 
the small-celled cortex and the internal dotted substance. The nerves 
arising from the cord have a dorsal and a ventral root which lie close 
together; this would seem to be a general arrangement in Arthropods 
and Annelids. The tubular character of the nerve-fibres of Argulus is 


* Reports of the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘ Challenger,’ Zoology, xxix., No. Ixvii. (1888). 
Text in two halves, pp. xxiv. and 1737, and Atlas of 210 pls. 
+ Arch. f. Miky, Anat., xxxiii. (1889) pp. 1--51 (5 pls.). 


384 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


very well marked, and in some of the tubes there are indications of 
septa or of a meshwork. Two nerves enter the carapace; the anterior 
is directed towards the head, and the other, which is thicker, is distri- 
buted to the hinder portion. With repeated divisions these nerves 
become smaller and smaller and very difficult to follow out; they lose 
themselves in the cellular matrix-layer of the integument. The mode 
of termination of the nerves in the sete is not what has been ordinarily 
supposed. In the setze at the edge of the carapace the inner filament 
appears as a hard line or looks as if it were cuticularized ; at its root, in 
Argulus phoaini, a small corpuscle with similar optical characters may be 
seen. Prof. Leydig formerly regarded these structures as being nervous in 
nature, but he is now convinced that they are connected with the sup- 
porting or skeletal tissue which is distributed between the two plates of 
the shield. The nerves lose themselves in the cellular substance of the 
matrix layer. A connection between the internal filament of the seta 
and the nerves is only to be regarded as due to the fact that the 
hyaloplasm of the nerves may pass into the substance of the layer and 
thence flow over into the sete. 

In the frontal eye the most striking character is the pigment; there 
are scattered, yellow, fat drops, a diffused blue pigment, a pigment 
consisting of molecular granules, and a brownish pigment which is so 
arranged as to form cup-like divisions; of these last there are four. In 
the paired eye there is a homogeneous matrix-layer which gives rise to 
the cuticle; the membrane is a continuation of the neurilemma of the 
optic ganglion, and corresponds to the connective tissue which surrounds 
the eye of higher animals. The crystalline cone is surrounded by a 
special envelope which clearly corresponds to the tube which incloses 
every cone and its nerve-rod in the compound eye of other Arthropods. 
There is a quadrangular area at the hinder part of the lens, and with 
this there is connected a nerve-rod, which is likewise four-sided. The 
crystalline cones exhibit a distinct and remarkable dimorphism ; there 
are smaller cones which form a special compact group near the hinder: 
margin of the eye; they are not only distinctly four-lobed but surrounded 
by a darker margin than the rest; there are about a dozen of them. 
The pigment of the eye is dark-violet in parts, and elsewhere brown. 

The body-cavity is stated to be at first a blood or lymph-space ; 
eanal-like constrictions and ramifying prolongations become blood-lymph 
vessels; the spaces and canals are bounded by matrix-cells of the 
cuticular and connective tissue which secrete on the inner surface a 
homogeneous fringe; there is as close a connection between connective 
tissue and blood-spaces as between hill and valley; the final processes 
of the cavitary systems are the ducts in the clefts of the connective 
tissue and the pore-ducts of the cuticular. 

There is a fluctuation rather than a circulation of the blood. The 
heart is a median cylindrical tube which is, primitively, a longitudinal 
eleft between the muscles of the back, and so completely resembles other 
blood-spaces found between muscles. Even in the adult stage the anterior 
end of the heart has no definite limits. Its histological structure is 
difficult to make out; the inner bounding line is not perfectly regular, 
but appears to be alternately thickened and narrowed. In animals which 
have been for a long time without food the blood-corpuscles become 
rounded, and one large or several smaller vacuoles appear in their 
interior. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 385 


The sac connected with the ovary seems to be the body-cavity ; some 
further remarks are made concerning the seminal pouch, but the author 
notes that many points, both histological and physiological, still remain 
obscure. The groups of large, sometimes very large, cells which are 
found in the body of Argulus appear to belong to the category of fat- 
bodies; the author has recently discussed the structure of these giant 
cells. 

The justice of Claus’s criticisms on the author’s earlier views as to 
the segmentation of the body is acknowledged, and the characters of 
some of the appendages are discussed in detail, and descriptions of larval 
characters are given. 

It has been remarked by Claus that the males of Argulus are much 
less numerous than the females. When, in July, Prof. Leydig noticed a 
number in the basin at the Botanic Garden at Bonn, the number of males 
was easily seen to be greater than that of the females. Later on, how- 
ever, this proportion changed; in the new swarms, about the middle of 
August, the females, which were full of ripe eggs, were more numerous. 
It would appear then that the males die off towards the beginning of 
autumn. 


Formation and Number of Polar Globules in Cirripedes.*—Prof. M. 
Nussbaum states that in Cirripedes, and particularly in Pollicipes, there 
are two polar globules in the egg. One arises in the ovary, and the 
other after fertilization. The first lies without, the other within the 
vitelline envelope. 


Vermes. 
a, Annelida. 


Morphology of Annelids.;—In the fourth of his memoirs on this 
subject, Dr. H. Meyer treats of the Serpulaces and the Hermellide. 
The first point dealt with is the development of the thoracic excretory 
system; the larval nephridia of these forms are most like those which 
Hatschek described in a larva from Faro, but differs in that they have 
apparently no direct contact with the secondary mesodermal bands; both 
are completely closed internally. The earliest rudiments of the definite 
thoracic nephridia are next considered under several heads. In the 
complete development of these organs it is important to notice that the 
lumen of the duct has a quite independent external pore, and that its 
communication with the secondary ccelom is only effected by the ciliated 
infundibulum. The two distal ends of the nephridial tubes fuse in the 
middle line after the closure of the hemal longitudinal groove. 

The supports of the cephalic gills of the Serpulacez and the palez 
of the Hermellide are next discussed ; this is followed by an account of 
the lateral neck-lobes of the Serpulacez and the neural parapodia of the 
first somite of the Hermellide. The neural neck-lobes, which are next 
described, are stated to be formed by a fold of the ventral integument, 
and they are independent of the lateral lobes. The succeeding chapter 
deals with the thoracic membrane of the true Serpulide and the trunk- 
cirri of the Hermellide ; all the parapodial cirri of the latter are hollow 
processes, and are, therefore, lined internally by the peritoneum. 

The hemal and neural cheetopodia form the subject of the sixth chapter ; 
it appears to be characteristic of the larvee of the Serpulacez that three 


* Zool. Anzeig., xii. (1889) p. 122. 
+ MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, viii. (1888) pp. 462-662 (8 pls.). 


386 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


pairs of heemal bundles of sete, and as many neural hooklets are developed 
very early; there is then a pause before the other cheetopodia appear. 
he author discusses the results of earlier observers, and is largely in 
agreement with Claparéde and Hisig. We have as yet no observations 
on the permanent cheetopodia of the Hermellide. The term of thoracic 
or ventral shields is applied to the more or less distinctly bounded 
integumentary thickenings, which appear on the lower surface of these 
worms, between the lateral rows of 
parapodia. ‘T'hey are characterized by 
their intimate connection with a large 
number of unicellular glandular tubes 
which open to the exterior between 
their cells and project for a variable 
distance into the ccelom ; the arrange- 
ment, form, and structure of these are 
somewhat fully discussed, as is also 
their development. 

The eighth chapter is occupied by 
an account of the cephalic gills of the 
Serpulacez, and the oral tentacles of 
pees the Hermellide; the ninth deals with 

the mouth, which, in both these groups, 
is terminal in position; the changes © 
undergone during the larval stages are 
described. The frontal tentacles form 
the subject of the tenth chapter; they 
are paired, are often greatly reduced, 
or may be altogether wanting; so 
hidden are they that no observer but 
Serpulacese Pruvot has as yet detected them; they 
are hollow filaments, which are pro- 
vided externally on their median upper 
surface with a special ciliated epi- 
| 5 thelium ; they have a proper muscular 
layer, and are lined internally by the 
peritoneum; below the ciliated longi- 
tudinal grooves there runs, in the 
hypodermis, a nerve which comes from 
Spionid stem-form the brain; and in the axial cavity is a 
much coiled contractile vessel which 
ends blindly in front. 

The central nervous system is very 
fully described; the ventral medulla 

Free-living (carnivorous) ancestor of the two groups under consideration 

is characterized by consisting of two 
separate halves or cords; in each segment there are two pairs of ganglia 
connected by two pairs of transverse commissures; with these two pairs 
of primary nerves correspond. The development of this system is also 
discussed very fully. 

The vascular system forms the subject of the twelfth chapter, and 
the peritoneal glands that of the thirteenth ; the latter are the gonads, 


the sites of origin of the lymphoid cells, and the pigmented lymph- 
glands or chloragogue-glands. 


Serpulide (s.8.) 
Eriographidee 
Amphicoridze 


— Hermellidee 
Sabellidze 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 387 


In the second half of this memoir, the more general questions and 
conclusions to which a study of some of the described organs lead, are 
discussed in great detail; one of the most interesting of these is the 
phylogeny of the nephridial system; here we have only space to say 
that this question is considered under the heads of the significance of the 
ectodermal terminal portion of the unpaired efferent ducts of the thoracic 
nephridia, the origin of the variations in the form of these organs, and 
the genital tubes. 

In conclusion the author discusses the affinities of the Hermellide 
and Serpulide, and his views are given in the adjoining tabular form. 


Abnormal Earthworm.*—Mr. R. Broom reports on another earth- 
worm with bifid hinder ends, several of which have been noticed during 
the last few years. Reminding us of Kleinenberg’s discovery that, in 
Lumbricus trapezoides, two complete individuals are normally developed 
from one ovum, he suggests that this sometimes happens in L. terrestris ; 
in support of this view he states that the two posterior parts of the 
worm examined by him are attached by their sides, the ventral surface 
of each part being continuous with that of the front part of the body. 
Although in some of the already published cases the posterior ends 
were unequal, Mr. Broom thinks it probable that they were equal at an 
early stage, but for some reason or other developed unequally, as is 
known to be frequently the case with double monsters of the higher 
animals; these last may, indeed, owe their origin to a change in the 
ovum similar to that which normally happens in L. trapezoides. 


Development of Celom in Enchytroeides Marioni.;—M. L. Roule 
has studied the development of the ccelom in this marine Oligochete. 
He finds that it appears in the form of irregular cavities hollowed out in 
the mass of mesoendoblastic cells; some of these cells become free in 
the coelomic cavities, and have a complete resemblance to the typical 
mesenchymatous elements. As the ccelom of Polygordius is formed on 
the epithelial plan, it follows that the mode of appearance of the meso- 
blast and of the celom is only of secondary importance, and the 
Hertwigs’ division of the Metazoa into Enteroccelia and Pseudoccelia 
cannot be considered natural. 


Structure of Clitellio.}—Mr. F. E. Beddard is able to make some 
additions to Claparéde’s account of the anatomy of this oligochete. 
Like many other writers, he confounded the testes with the vesicule 
seminales, and did not describe the true testes at all. They lic in the 
tenth segment, and each organ is long and narrow. The presence of 
oviducts is recorded, and as Stole has already seen them in Ilyodrilus 
and Psammoryctes, it is probable that they will be found to be invariably 
present in the Tubificide. As in that group generally, the mature ova 
of Clitellio are of very large size (half the diameter of the body), and 
are loaded with yolk-spherules; they are inclosed in independent ovisacs. 
The author points out the more important differences between Clitellio 
arenarius and C. ater, and shows that the two are not congeneric; the 
latter will be better placed in Hisen’s genus Hemitubifex. Mr. Beddard 
takes the opportunity of making a few remarks on some other marine 
species of Tubificide. 


* Trans. Nat, Hist. Soc. Glasgow, 1889, pp. 203-6. 
+ Bull. Soe. d’Hist. Nat. Toulouse, xxii. (1888) pp. lviii. and lix. 
{ Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1888 (1889) pp. 485-94 (1 pl.). 


388 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


R. Nemathelminthes. 


Hypodermis and Peripheral Nervous System of Gordiide.*—M. 
A. Villot considers that M. Michel ¢ has incorrectly interpreted his 
observations. He considers that the hypodermis of Gordius represents, 
in the cellular stage, a layer of embryonic tissue which belongs to the 
ectodermal layer; the embryonic cells produce, at first by secretion, the 
different layers of the cuticle, but this is not the only part which they 
play in organogenesis. The cells which invest the inner wall of the 
cloaca of adult females are converted into unicellular glands ; beneath 
the integument they ramify and anastomose, and so form an absorbent 
and perhaps excretory apparatus. The peripheral nervous system is 
connected with the hypodermis by its origin and by the relations of its 
constituent elements. It is formed of a plexus of ganglionic cells, 
placed between the subcutaneous layer and the perimysium. The 
ganglionic cells, which are remarkable for their small size, give off, 
independently of their anastomoses, two kinds of prolongations. Some 
of these are directed towards the muscular fibres, and penetrate the 
perimysium ; others pass into cuticular papille, which are true tactile 
organs. 


Circum-intestinal Cavity of Gordii.t—M. A. Villot has a brief note 
on the histological significance, mode of formation, and use of this 
cavity. He regards it as the last phase in the development of these 
round worms. It is formed by the destruction and forcing back of the 
parenchymal cells which are found in the neighbourhood of the intestine 
and ventral cord. These cells undergo fatty degeneration and become 
resolved into a granular substance of yellowish colour, which lines the 
cavity around the intestine, and fills it completely at either end. The 
fatty matter thus produced serves as food for adult individuals living a 
free life. After leaving their host Gordit become in a way parasitic 
on themselves, and absorb, under the form of degenerate embryonic 
elements, that part of their mesoderm which has not been utilized by 
organogenesis. 


y. Platyhelminthes. 


Asexual Reproduction of Microstoma.§—Dr. F. von Wagner has 
made a close study of the phenomena of asexual reproduction in Micro- 
stoma. The first step is usually the formation of a septum between the 
second and last thirds of the body ; this is directed transversely to the 
long axis of the body. At the same time a fold of the enteron becomes 
fixed, and this gives the rudiment of the first bud. The size of the 
animal thus exhibiting gemmation varies considerably. If we make a 
general survey of the gemmations in an animal we see that the formula 
of Hallez and Graff is often broken; this is due to the fact that there 
are temporary alterations in the mode and intensity of budding. The 
enteron, the integument with its differentiations, the parenchyma and 
the two lateral nerves pass directly from the mother individual to the 
child, while the fresh formations of brain, eyes, ciliated pits, mouth, 
pharynx, and glands are to be regarded as simple phenomena of 
regeneration. 


* Comptes Rendus, eviil. (1889) pp. 304-6. + Ante, p. 225. 
{ Comptes Rendus, eviii. (1889) pp. 685-7. 
§ Zool. Anzcig., xii. (1889) pp. 191-5. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSOOPY, ETC. 389 


Embryology of Cestodes.*—Prof. B. Grassi and Dr. G. Rovelli begin 
by discussing the developmental cycle of Cestodes. They find that 
Teenia elliptica has an intermediate host in the flea of the Dog and 
of Man, as well as in Trichodectes. They do not accept the doctrine of 
Megnin that T. serrata can develope without an intermediate host. On 
the other hand they are certain that T. murina of Mus decumanus 
developes without an intermediate host, though not without a cysticer- 
coid stage; to demonstrate this it is necessary to make use of white 
mice three to four months old. Moniez and Linstow are correct in sup- 
posing that the cysticercoid found in Tenebrio molitor is that of T. micro- 
stoma ; it is not that of T. murina, As has been already shown, T. nana 
has also a distinct mode of development, and indeed this is only a 
variety of, even if it be not distinctly the same as T. murina. Of the 
tapeworms of fowls, J. proglottina has an intermediate host in Limas 
cinereus, L. agrestis, and L. variegatus ; T.infundibuliformis in the house- 
fly, and T. cuneata in the earthworm Allolobophora fotida. T. leptocephala 
of the rat has an intermediate host in several insects, of which the most 
ordinary appear to be the lepidopterous Asopia. Parona was right in 
regarding the perch as the other host of Bothriocephalus latus. 

The authors have set before themselves three morphological pro- 
blems:—(1) To determine why the scolex of the cysticereus (and 
probably also of the cysticercoid) is developed as hollow and invaginated ; 
(2) To see whether the embryology of Cestodes affords new arguments to 
support the view of an affinity between them and the Trematodes ; and 
(3) To put in a clearer light the development of the organs of Cestodes. 
The larve of Cestodes may be arranged in three chicf groups: there are 
cysticerci with inconstant invagination and no embryonic coverings 
(Archigetes); cysticerci with later invagination (Tenia elliptica and 
T.murina) ; these may be again subdivided, for the invagination may be 
simple (7. elliptica), or it may follow the formation of embryonic 
coverings (T. murina); thirdly, there are cysticerci in which the 
invagination is early, and is succeeded by the formation of embryonic 
coverings (cysticerci in the strict sense). 

The authors are of opinion that the development of the invaginated and 
hollow scolex is explicable by cenogeny and the better development of 
the embryo (as by the formation of special envelopes) in agreement with 
the great power of regeneration which is possessed by the body of 
Cestodes. 

As to the relationship between the Cestodes and the Trematodes 
the authors have shown that the cercarieeform period, which was believed 
to be confined to a few forms, is very common, and its significance is 
very high; in the Tzeniide there have been found distinct signs of a 
foregut (oral cavity and pharynx separated from it by a constriction) ; the 
primitive cavity is comparable to the mesenteron of Trematodes. It must 
be remembered that in the Cestodes, in correlation with the disappearance 
of the sensory organs and mesenteron and the want of a blood-wascular 
apparatus, development is much abbreviated, and the differentiation of 
germ-layers is very incomplete; indeed, there is but a single mass of 
cells (blastema) from which all the organs arise. It is possible that the 
six-hooked embryo consists only of ectoderm, although against this we 
must set Lang’s discovery of the endodermal origin of the gonads of 


* Centralbl, f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., v. (1889) pp. 370-7, 401-10. 
1889. 25 


390 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Platyhelminthes. The primitive cavity probably represents the space 
which was once bounded by the cells of the mesenteron. 

In conclusion, the authors discuss the colonial nature of the Cestoda, 
and the possibility of an alternation of generations. They find that the 
eysticerci, with the exception of the echinococci, &c., undergo a simple 
metamorphosis, which is often largely wanting. This may be made 
clearer by a consideration of the case of T. elliptica ; in it the anterior 
part of the six-hooked embryo forms the scolex, and the hinder part a 
rudimentary organ, the tail, which, later, falls off. In other Teniz this 
hinder part is converted into a tail, but in them the hinder part of the 
anterior portion forms an embryonic covering ; consequently, only the 
anterior part of the anterior portion forms the scolex, and it is by the 
growth and segmentation of the scolex that the adult Tenia is formed. 
The authors do not believe in any asexual generation; such does, of 
course, obtain in Hchinococci, but this is a secondary and adaptive 
phenomenon. 

In the development of the organs it is observed that the six-hooked 
embryo is formed from a blastema, or embryonal tissue which is not 
differentiated into germinal layers; from this the organs are developed 
directly, and are at once found, with the exception of the rostellum, in 
their definite positions. As we pass from without inwards in a young 
cysticercoid we meet with a peripheral zone of subcuticular cells, a 
parenchyma in which the cells are closely packed, and a soft parenchyma 
in which the cells are scanty; and between these three there are no 
definite boundaries. The authors suppose that the nervous system and 
the water-vascular apparatus are developed from the closely packed 
parenchyma, with the exception of the efferent vesicle, which is chiefly 
formed from the subcuticular zone; this last also gives rise to the 
subcuticular musculature. 


New Cestodes from Lamna cornubica.*—Prof. P. J. Van Beneden 
describes two new cestodes found in the intestine of this Shark. One, 
which is called Dinobothrium septaria, resembles when contracted in 
alcohol a shell of the genus Septaria, and appears to have no hooks; the 
other is called Diplobothrium simile, on account of the similar suckers 
which are united in pairs. Both forms have a complete septum between 
the two pairs of suckers, and this has at its tip four pieces which appear 
to furnish points of attachment for the muscular layer. The other host 
of these parasites is not yet known; they both belong to the group of 
Phyllobothriide, all of which are, so far as is yet known, parasitic in 
plagiostomous fishes. 


Echinodermata. 


Embryology of Echinoderms.t—In his present paper Mr. H. Bury 
confines himself to the bilateral symmetrical stage, which is more or 
less clearly represented in all Echinoderm-larve, and to which Semon 
has recently given the name of Dipleurula. He deals, therefore, only 
with the primary divisions of the ewlom, starting from a stage in which 
at least two enteroccel-pouches are already present, with the development 


and connections of the hydroccel, and with the skeleton so far as it is 
developed. 


* Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Belg., lix. (1889) pp. 68-74 (1 pl.). 
t Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., xxix. (1889) pp. 409-49 @ pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 391 


From the study of larve of the various classes, the author concludes 
that a pair of anterior enterccels was probably originally present in all 
Echinoderms; the hydroccel is generally formed distinctly later than the 
other cavities; as there is no trace of any right hydroccel, it is probable 
that this organ was never paired; it varies in its mode of origin, but 
its normal position seems to be between the anterior and posterior 
enterocels. The water-pore always (? Holothurians) arises in connec- 
tion with the posterior end of the left anterior enterocel, and only 
communicates indirectly, if at all, with the hydrocel. Mr. Bury thinks 
that the water-pore existed in a very early stage in the history of 

Echinoderms, and probably before the hydroccel. 

The current passing through the water-pore is exhalent, but not 
usually very strong; this pore, and the short tube by which it com- 
municates with the enteroceel, are regarded as forming a primitive 
nephridium. : 

The hydroccel always arises on the left side from one or other 
division of the ccelom, which differs in different groups; this variation 
may mean that when the hydroccel originally appeared, the anterior and 
posterior enteroccels were connected, as they are in Asterina and some 
Bipinnariz ; or it is possible that the original mode of development of 
the hydroccel was more complicated, and that it has become simplified 
independently in the different groups. The author has a few observa- 
tions on the difficult question of the closure of the water-vascular 
ring. 

In the study of the skeleton it was found that many plates are 
developed in the bilateral larva, and that they bear a definite relation to 
the body-cavities ; it was also found that the terminals lie on the left 
side, and this discovery enables us to establish a typical bilateral form 
from which all the conditions found in existing larvee may have been 
derived. This is shown in the following table :— 


| Right Enteroccel Left Enterocel 
Position | - 


Radial | Interradial Radial Interradial 


| 


Basals Terminals | Orals 


J Primary 
seis ( Radiale 


Mr. Bury thinks it probable that in all groups (except perhaps 
Holothurians), the radii of the abactinal part of the body (including 
the regions of the right and left posterior enterocels) bear a very 
definite relation to the mouth, anus, and water-pore of the larva; that, 
in fact, these organs mark out an interradius, which, since it contains 
both mouth and anus, might be called ventral, or, as it is anterior to the 
system of radial plates, and contains, when present, the preoral lobes, 
may be called anterior. The latter term seems preferable, but, if it is 
used, we must be guided by the situation of the water-pore rather than 
by the indefinite and variable positions of the mouth and anus, when 
seeking for an anterior interradius in adult forms. 


Js, aD, 


392 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Rhopalodina lageniformis.*—Prof. H. Ludwig has made a renewed 
investigation of this interesting Holothurian. Some corrections in the 
descriptions of previous writers are made. A piece from the middle of 
the stalk-like portion of the body was cut into a series of fine transverse 
sections; in these the fine water-vessel and the radial nerve were found 
lying outside each of the ten muscles; the cesophagus was only attached 
by the mesentery inclosing the genital duct, while the rectum was 
fastened by a number of radial bands, in which were found proportionately 
large round cells. The five muscles seen in section around the rectum 
were all of the same size, but of the five around the cesophagus the two 
which lay nearest to the genital duct—and which, therefore, were, in com- 
parison with those of other Holothurians, the two dorsal—were much 
thicker than the other three. The five circular muscles of the body-wall 
in the region of the cesophagus were continued to the partition which 
soparates this part from the region of the rectum; this character seems 
to show that the “ stalk” of Rhopalodina owes its origin to the fusion of 
an oral and an anal stalk-like and narrower portion of the body. The 
connection of the cesophagus with the rectum by radial septa, as described 
by Semper, does not exist, for the part of the ccelom surrounding the one 
is separated from that round the other by a partition which traverses 
the whole length of the stalk-like portion of the body; this partition is 
clearly the remnant of the median dorsal interambulacrum, by the 
shortening of which the oral and anal ends of the body have become so 
closely approximated. 

The five pairs of radial papille at the anal calcareous ring are really 
hollow internally, and seem to be nothing more than the anal ends of 
the radial water-vessels; a single layer of small, branched, and closely 
packed calcareous corpuscles is found in their walls. The five pairs of 
radial papille form forks of five simple, radially-placed, hollow papille, 
the walls of which present continuous calcifications. The interradial 
tips of the anal calcareous ring are solid. This ring does not,as Semper 
thought, consist of five radials and five interradials, but of five calcified, 
hollow, and bifurcate radial papille, which are surrounded by a circlet 
of interradial and radial calcareous plates. 


Monstrous Larve of Echinus.;—MM. G. Pouchet and Chabry have 
made some experiments on the production of monstrous larve of Hchini 
effected by deprivation of carbonate of lime. They have started from 
the doctrine of Chevreul that the morphological characters of living 
beings are, to a certain extent, the function of their chemical constitution. 
Their experiments were made by rearing larve in water which had been 
deprived of the greater part of its chalk by oxalate of soda. As they 
expected, they found that the spicular substance can be totally sup- 
pressed by depriving the organism of one of its constituents. Morpho- 
logical deviation is more marked in proportion as a greater quantity of 
carbcnvte of lime is removed from the sea-water. 

In water which retained more then one-tenth of its chalk, the larve 
were at the sixtieth hour still in the gastrula-stage, while the control 
larvee had ramified spicules and a complete intestine. After ninety 
hours, the former larve, without developing spicules, passed into a true 
pluteus-stage, characterized by the differentiation of the intestine into 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlviii. (1889) pp. 60-6 (1 pl.). 
+ Comptes Rendus, eviii. (1889) pp. 196-8. 


°c 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 393 


three regions, but the general form was spherical, there were no prolonga- 
tions, and death supervened after a few days passed in this condition. 
When the quantity of chalk was less the larve did not pass beyond the 
gastrula-stage. 

Coelenterata. 


New Anthozoon.*—Dr. C. Viguier gives an account of the new 
Anthozoon of which Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers has spoken as Paralcyonium 
edwards, but for which he proposes the new generic term of Fascicularia. 
Dr. Viguier found it in the Bay of Algiers. ‘Though the appearance of 
the stolons is different, a colony has, especially when its polyps are con- 
tracted, considerable resemblance to Paralcyonium ; when, however, the 
polyps are protruded, very marked differences become apparent. 

The stolons are flattened, and vary in width from two or three {o 
seven or eight mm. They form an irregular plexus which is covered 
by a light greyish-yellow layer of slime. There are only a few small 
spicules in the stolons, the walls are essentially constituted of a well- 
developed connective layer. In well-developed pieces the endodermal 
investment is reduced to a simple layer of cells, and the same may be 
said of the true ectoderm. 

The groups of polyps are scattered irregularly on the stolons. These 
groups may be divided into a basal and a free portion. The common 
basal column has the same appearance as the stolons; it has a lower 
surface which adheres to the foreign body which serves as its support, 
and an external surface. On the latter, when the group is well expanded, 
there are visible longitudinal grooves which correspond to the lines of 
separation of the polyps. In addition to these there are transverse 
grooves which obscurely divide the column into segments. The presence 
of large vertical spicules prevents any flexion in this part of the column, 
as is the case also in Paralcyonium. 

Unlike most of the Alcyonaria, Fasciolaria has spicules unlike those 
of the rest of the body in the upper region of the polyp; these are 
small oval plates, slightly constricted in their middle; they are seen, 
when highly magnified, to be marked by parallel striz; the presence of 
these planes of cleavage causes the spicule to be almost opaque. A 
siphonoglyph is developed. The author has a few notes on the pro- 
cesses of reproduction. 

As to the systematic position of this new genus, M. Viguier believes 
that it is necessary to institute a new family, which would be charac- 
terized by the network of stolons uniting the different groups into one 
colony, and by the absence of vascular connections between the polyps 
of one and the same group. 


French Pennatulids.t—Dr. C. Fischer has a note on the Pennatulids 
found on the French coasts, of which there are, at least, eleven species, 
so that their Pennatulid-fauna appears to be very much richer than that 
of the British seas is at present known to be. 


Agalma Clausi.{—Dr. M. Bedot describes under this name a new 
species, which, in the recently published system of Siphonophora by 
Prof. Haeckel, would be placed in the genus Crystallodes. It was found 


* Arch. Zool. Expér. et Gén., vi. (1888) pp. 351-73 (2 pls.). 
+ Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xiv. (1889) pp. 34-8. 
{ Rec. Zool. Suisse, v. (1888) pp, 73-91 (1 pl.). 


394 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


off Villefranche, and measured in all 24cm. The nervous system has 
a close resemblance to that of Halistemma rubrum, as described by 
Korotneff. 'The most characteristic organs are the bracts, of which there 
is a considerable number; their peculiar appearance is due to the 
presence, on their surface, of a large number of small, deep-carmine-red 
dots, which are small glands which open and expel an intensely yellowish- 
red colouring matter when the animal is captured. These glands are 
formed of an aggregate of cells, the protoplasm of which is coarsely 
granulated. About half of the gland is above the surface of the bract. 
When the colouring matter has been discharged all trace of the glandular 
cell disappears, and there is only a small excavation surrounded by a light 
yellow cloud. The tentacles of this new species have a characteristic 
appearance which is due to the presence of a terminal orifice and to 
the site of the point of attachment of the accessory filament. All the 
characters of this new form are fully discussed. 


‘Challenger’ Siphonophora.*—Prof. E. Haeckel has published a 
report on the Siphonophora collected by the ‘Challenger, with which 
he has incorporated notes on other specimens. The generalizations are 
of interest, but they were made known to our readers at the time of their 
original publication in Germany.| ‘Two hundred and forty species are 
enumerated. The plates, as usual in Prof. Haeckel’s works, are of great 
beauty. 


Monobrachium parasiticum.t—Herr J. Wagner has some notes on 
interesting structural characters in this Hydrozoon. The periphery of 
the colony is characterized by special structures which the author pro- 
poses to call pseudonematophores; they probably represent specialized 
individuals, and form an intermediate stage between true nutrient polyps 
and nematophores. ‘The subepithelial layer is wanting in most parts of 
the organism, and the author was unable to find differentiated ganglionic 
cells. In the hydrorhiza there are often poorly developed nemato- 
cysts with very short threads and vesicular contents. The urticating 
capsules have no enidocils; where this is the case the filament is 
generally looped, but in Monobrachium it is spirally coiled. The axial 
tissue of the single tentacle consists of a number of large cells which are 
irregularly arranged; it is not separated from the endoderm by the 
supporting lamella, and the gradual passage of the nutrient info the axial 
cells may be clearly seen. The gonophore is in the form of an almost 
completely developed Medusa; its blind gastric cavity has the form of a 
spadix and contains a small cavity; in some the circular vessel is 
distinctly developed, but in others it could not be detected. The nerve- 
ring is formed of filaments of the subepithelial cells. The endoderm of 
the tentacle of the medusa-form is made up of ordinary cartilaginous 
cells, and there is no cavity in them. 

__Unripe ovarian cells and similar amoeboid male cells, which only 
differed in having nuclei which colour more intensely, were often found 
in the ventral endoderm of the radial vessels. In two cases some 
maturer cells were found in the genital sacs in their passage from the 
endoderm of the radial vessels. Smaller cells, which appeared to be 
younger eggs, were found in the endoderm of the hydrorhiza at the 
deans o ae of H.M.S. ‘Challenger,’ Zoology, vol. xxviii., part Ixxvii. 


t See this Journal, 1888, p, 741. t Zool. Anzeig., xii, (1889) pp. 116-8, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 395 


base of the gonophores. Owing to the want of specimens of a certain 
age Herr Wagner was unable to determine the layer from which the 
genital celis were developed, but he does not doubt that they first appear 
in the endoderm of the hydrorhiza, and that they are matured in the 
ventral epithelium of the radial canals, whence they pass into the genital 
sacs which form vertical folds along the radial canals. 


Digestion in Hydra.*—Miss M. Greenwood has made a careful study 
of the process of digestion in Hydra. She finds that the ingestion of 
solid matter is performed by slow advances over the prey of lip-like 
projections of the substance of the polyp. During this action the 
tentacles for the most part remain extended, having previously been in 
contact with the prey or discharged their thread-cells into it. The 
endodermal cells of the foot are more markedly vacuolated than those 
of the body; an ingested organism never, apparently, enters its cavity 
but remains in that of the body, which it often distends greatly. The 
digestion of inclosed food is effected entirely outside the endoderm cells 
which line the body-cavity of the Hydra, and among these cells two 
types may be distinguished: (a) cells of pyriform shape destitute of 
large vacuoles; these hold many secretory spherules in hunger, and tend 
to be emptied during digestive activity; (b) ciliated vacuolated cells 
which at times hold pigment. The water of the digestive secretion is 
probably, at any rate in part, to be associated with the vacuoles of these 
ciliated cells, for intracellular fluid is never so conspicuous as in the 
fasting state, nor so little marked as after abundant nourishment. The 
pigment, whick is often conspicuous in the endoderm, is formed by 
the activity of the cells, and is probably, as a rule, expelled into the 
body-cavity during an act of digestion. The formation of secretion by 
the endoderm and the loss of pigment are made inconspicuous during 
the later stages of a digestive act, by the onset of absorption; this finds 
expression in the gathering of proteid matter within the vacuolate 
endoderm cells. This matter is deposited as a store of reserve sub- 
stance in the basal part of the cells and eventually takes on the form of 
spheres; Miss Greenwood believes that it is absorbed as fluid, forms 
definite vacuoles bounded by the apical protoplasm of the cells, and is 
by the indirect action of the protoplasm converted into the insoluble 
form. 

It is probable that the excretory pigment takes its rise in some 
residues of these proteid bodies, and it is possible that they may, at 
times, be the source of fat. A large proportion of the spheres undergoes 
final solution, and, when dissolving, they probably constitute the angular 
particles of some authors. When this solution is effected it takes place 
towards the apex of the inclosing cell; the little masses of proteid are 
moved upwards from their resting position, and fluid is secreted around 
them by the investing layer of protoplasm. The medium in which the 
digestive activity of a Hydra goes on is probably not acid. 

In a note a short account is given of the histological characters of 
the endoderm of Hydra viridis. The “ chloroplastids” of Lankester lie 
especially thickly towards the base of the vacuolate endoderm cell, and 
distally to them, in well-nourished specimens, are the true nutritive 
spheres. Gland-cells do not form a conspicuous feature in the endoderm 
of H. viridis; this may be because the presence of chlorophyll has 


* Journ. of Physiol., ix. (1888) pp. 317-44 (2 pls.). 


396 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


changed the mode of nutrition, or it may be that the numerous and con- 
spicuous chloroplastids makes the detection of the “glands” difficult. 

It will be seen that Miss Greenwood’s description does not tally with 
views generally held; she thinks that lack of continuity in observation 
has led to the interpretation of what is really a phase of structure as a 
permanent histological condition. 


Porifera. 


Chromatology of British Sponges.*—Dr. C. A. MacMunn has found 
chlorophyll in ten out of twelve species of marine sponges; this may be 
shown to be of purely animal origin by various tests. It is very probable 
that it'as of use in the constructive metabolism of animals by removing 
waste carbonic acid, and then by the influence of light building up from — 
carbonic acid and water some substances, such as starch, glycogen, sugar, 
or fat, which are of direct service to the animal. It does not seem likely 
that the chlorophyll has a respiratory function, for the union between it 
and oxygen cannot be loose, as it is in the case of hemoglobin, and a 
histioheematin which is of respiratory use may coexist with chlorophyll 
in Sponges. 

Notes on Sponges.t—Dr. HE. Topsent first deals with Dendoryx 
Hyndmanni and the other species of that genus; one new form, 
D. luciensis, is described. He gives reasons for including in this genus a 
number of species which were placed by Bowerbank with Halichondria, 
Isodictyon, and Hymenacidon, as well as various species described by 
other authors. In a second essay he gives an account of the larval stage 
of Dysidea fragilis, which is shown by its embryology, as much as by its 
anatomy, to be a Spongelia. 

Sponges from the Gulf of Manaar.t—Mr. A. Dendy gives an 
account of a second collection of sponges made by Mr. Thurston; of the 
twenty-four determinable species fourteen are new to science, and two are 
represented by new varieties; the great majority are Monaxonids. The 
characters of Awinella tubulata seem to have been misunderstood by the 
late Dr. Bowerbank; its peculiarities are due to the presence of a com- 
mensal tubicolous oligocheetous annelid; it is not yet known whether 
either the worm or the sponge ever live separately; Mr. Dendy points 
out that Canon Norman’s new generic name Aulospongus for this species 
1s unnecessary. The genus Auletia has not yet been found except in the 
Atlante and Arctic oceans; the species discovered by Mr. Thurston is 
called A. awrantiaca. Mr. Dendy, from his own observations and from 
that of Mr. Bracebridge Wilson, is inclined to believe that the colours of 
living sponges will be found to be of great service in distinguishing 
species ; the sponges here reported on scem to have had great brilliance 
and variety of natural colouring. 

New British Species of Microciona.—Messrs. H. J. Carter and R. 
Hope give an account of Microciona spinascus sp. n. from Hastings. Mr. 
Carter formerly referred it to M. armata Bowerbank on the supposition 
that the spiniferous character of the ends of the tricurvate spicules had 


been overlooked by Bowerbank, but he is now convinced that he was 
mistaken in that view. 


* Journ. of Physiol., ix. (1888) pp. 1-25 (1 pl.). 
Tt Arch. Zool. Expér. et Gén., vi. (1888) pp. xxxiii—xliii. 
{ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., iii. (1889) pp. 73-99 (8 pls.). 


Q If 


§ T.c., pp. 99-106 C1 pl,). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 397 


List of Mr. Carter’s Genera and Species of Sponges.*—Mr. A. 
Dendy has prepared an alphabetical list of the genera and species of 
sponges described by Mr. H. J. Carter, together with a number of his 
more important references to those of other authors, which will doubtless 
prove a useful guide to students of this group. 


Protozoa. 


Biitschli’s Protozoa.t—Prof. O. Biitschli completes his account of 
the morphology of the Ciliata, and commences the systematic descrip- 
tions. In the former, division, formation of colonies, conjugation and 
copulation, and encystation are discussed. The systematic part begins 
with an historical introduction in which the chief earlier classifications 
are tabulated ; of the origin of the group we know but little, and we can 
almost certainly state that no other gronp of animals is derived from 
them. There are from 450 to 500 more or less well known species ; 
twenty-seven genera are exclusively marine, and there are from 170 to 
200 marine species; twenty-four genera are exclusively parasitic. It 
cannot be certainly said that Multicilia or Grassia are true Ciliates. 
The first order of true Ciliata are the Gymnostomata of Biitschli, which 
represent part of Stein’s Holotricha; the families of this order are 
Kuchelina, Trachelina, Chlamydodonta. The second order is that of 
the Trichostomata, which is equal to part of the Holotricha plus the 
Spirotricha ; its first suborder is that of the Aspicotricha, which is 
equivalent to the old family Paramecina. 


Merotomy of Ciliated Infusoria.t—M. EH. G. Balbiani has a contri- 
bution to the study of the physiological réle of the nucleus of the cell. 
By the term merotomy he means the operation which consists in cutting 
off from a living organism a more or less considerable portion, with the 
object of studying the anatomical or physiological modifications of the 
separated part. The account of the experiments commences with a 
detailed notice of the structure of Cyrtostomum leucas; the study of the 
effects of merotomy showed that a fragment of an individual, or mero- 
zoite, which contains the nucleus is alone capable of regeneration, that 
is to say, of reconstituting a complete individual which presents all the 
characters of Cyriostomum. This regeneration is completed in twenty- 
four or forty-eight hours, at the latest ; the regenerated individual only 
differs from an ordinary one in its smaller size, and this is correlated with 
the size of the fragment from which it took its origin. The regenera- 
tion of the specific form and of the organs is effected under the influence 
of the nucleus, for such regeneration is never observed in fragments 
which have no nucleus. This nucleus has even the secretion of the 
cuticle under its influence ; the cicatrization of the parts is effected by 
the secretion of a new cuticle at the point of denudation. The nucleus 
also appears to play a part in the trophic phenomena of the protoplasm, 
for this becomes gradually disorganized and finally dies, when deprived 
of a nucleus. ‘The disorganization of the protoplasm is manifested by 
the taking-in of water, formation of vacuoles, disappearance of the 
stratified structure, absorption of the trichocysts and vibratile cilia, the 


* Published by Roy. Soc. Victoria, 8vo, 1888, 26 pp. 
+ Bronn’s Klassen u. Ordnungen, i., Protozoa (1889) pp. 1585-1712. 
{ Ree. Zool. Suisse, x. (1838) pp. 1-72 (2 pls.). 


398 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


aqueous hypertrophy of the contractile vesicle the pulsations of which 
become slow and irregular, and, finally, by the destruction of the proto- 
plasm by diffluence. The functions which are not immediately affected 
by the absence of the nucleus are: ciliary movement, pulsations of the 
contractile vesicle, prehension and ingestion of food, and defecation. 
Merozoites without a nucleus live from two to three days, but sometimes 
for seven or eight; under similar conditions nucleated merozoites may 
live for nearly a month after regeneration. Essentially similar results 
were obtained with Trachelius ovum and Prorodon niveus. 


Two Infusorians from the Port of Bastia.*—Prof. P. Gourret and 
M. P. Roeser give a detailed account of Strombidium sulcatum, and of a 
new generic form, for which they propose the name of Glossa ; the latter 
is more or less ovoidal in form, and has on one side a shallow vertical 
eroove, the dorsal edge of which is smooth and entire, while the ventral 
has, not far from the hinder end, a semilunar depression which corre- 
sponds exactly to the mouth. ‘Two triangular membranous layers are 
inserted by their base along the groove, aud fuse with one another at the 
apex. A kind of endostyle is developed which, with the cilia that 
border it, aid in forming an alimentary rotatory apparatus. Connected 
with the mouth is a short cylindrical cesophagus which ends in a nutrient 
vesicle; this cesophagus can be turned inside out like the finger of a 
glove, and project to the exterior. 'The anal orifice is permanent, and 
near it is the single contractile vesicle. Regularly arranged and parallel 
striz extend along the body, and the cilia which they carry are all of 
the same dimensions. The affinities of this genus are somewhat obscure ; 
it has certain relations to Ancistrum and Ptychostomum. The new species 
is called G. corsica. 


Fresh-water Infusoria.j;—Dr. D. 8. Kellicott calls attention to 
some of the species of Infusoria found in the Niagara river and its 
tributaries. Owing to the constancy of its volume, the temperature of 
this river is very constant, and it affords consequently excellent infu- 
sorial fishing, even in winter. Hnchyleodon pellucidus sp. nu. forms 
colourless globular cysts, which seem to be only made use of temporarily. 
Balantidium gyrans sp. nu. was found in the intestinal cavity of a not 
identified aquatic worm, where it is abundant; it is very lively. 
Pixidium hebes sp. n. was found on the legs of Asellus. Vorticella 
rubristigma sp. 0. is characterized by numerous red points, which are 
attached to the muscle. Opercularia Niagare sp. n. was found abun- 
dantly on Lernzocera cruciata, which is parasitic on the Rock Bass; it 
is rather hardy, living in stale water long after other Vorticellide have 
perished. Three tube-making species of Stichotricha were observed, one 
of which—S. ampulla—appears to be new; it was found on Myrio- 
phyllum, and appears to be most closely allied to S. secunda. Among 
already known species, Enchyleodon farctus and Zoothamnium arbuscula 
are described. 


New Ciliate Infusoria from Concarneau.{—M. Fabre-Domergue 
describes a new genus of Ciliata, which he calls Spathidiopsis (S. socialis). 
Its habits are very peculiar; it lives in small colonies of eight to ten 


* Journ. Anat. et Physiol., xxiv. (1888) pp. 656-64 (1 pl.). 
t Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., x. (1888) pp. 97-106. 
} Ann. de Miecrogr., ii, (1889) pp. 305-9 (1 pl ) 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 399 


individuals, in a kind of nest hollowed in the detritus which floats on 
the surface of the water. From time to time an individual goes out, 
makes a short excursion in the neighbourhood, and returns to its home. 
Those which remain in the nest are almost immobile, making only a 
slow rotatory movement, comparable to that of encysted Infusoria. The 
body is flexible, but not contractile, and its form varies considerably 
with the state of repletion of the individual. The mouth has the form 
of a long cleft, which is bordered on either side by a cuticular thicken- 
ing, and it has a considerable power of comparatively rapid distension. 
The arrangement of the striz of cilia is always more or less spiral, but 
differs a little at either pole. 

The author also describes a new species of Opalina, which he calls 
O. cerebriformis, on account of the presence on its convex surface of 
a deep groove, and the arrangement of its strie of cilia, which give a 
twisted appearance to the whole mass. 


Holotrichous Infusoria parasitic in White Ants.*—Mr. W. J. 
Simmons finds that the lower portion of the alimentary canal of the 
white ant teems with parasites. Among these there is a holotrichous 
infusorian which changes constantly in form. No name is given to the 
creature, and the author seems to be in doubt as to the morphology of 
some parts of its organization. 


Parasitic Monad.t—Herr W. Zopf gives an account of the de- 
velopment of a new pleosporous fresh-water Monad, which he calls 
Polysporella ~ Kiitzingii ; it was found parasitic in various Alge. The 
lasting spores or sporocysts are distinguished from those of other Monads 
by being pleosporous (4, 8, 16 lasting spores); the form of the cysts is 
adapted to the cells of their hosts. The investment is simple as com- 
pared with that of other Monads. The zoocysts are generally somewhat 
smaller than the sporocysts, and the zoospores make their way to the 
exterior, but the direct infection of new algar cells has not yet been 
observed, but it may be considered as certain that they give rise to 
Amoebee; these grow by the ingestion of food. When sufficient has 
been taken in the Ameosbee draw in their processes, become rounded 
and encysted. The further development of the contents varies according 
as the cyst shall give rise to a zoocyst or a sporocyst. The development 
of either is by successive fission of the protoplasm. These organisms 
belong to the family Pseudosporee. 


Dino-Flagellata.§ —M. E. Penard treats especially of the structure 
of the genus Ceratiwm, which he regards as belonging to the vegetable 
rather than to the animal kingdom. He describes three modes of re- 
production, viz. :—(1) By internal embryos. In the summer he found 
in some individuals from one to four elliptical cells, with nucleus, chloro- 
phyll, and eye-spot. These escape from their inclosing envelope, are 
either motile or immotile, according to the rigidity of the membrane ~ 
which envelopes them, become encysted, and pass through a resting 


* The Microscope, ix. (1889) pp. 53-5. 

+ ‘Untersuchungen tiber Parasiten aus der Gruppe der Monadinen,’ fol., Halle, 
1887, 39 pp., 3 pls. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxvii. (1889) pp. 206-8. 

{ At the end of the abstract the new generic name is said to be Pleosporeila. 

§ ‘Contrib. a l'étude des Dino-Flagellés,’ Geneve, 1888, 48 pp., 3 pls. See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxxvil. (1889) p. 131. 


400 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


condition, their contents sometimes segmenting into cysts. (2) By entire 
cell-rejuvenescence, similar to that described by Schitt in Peridinium ; 
the contents escape in the form of two swarm-spores, the further history 
of which is not followed out. (8) By fission, corresponding to division 
in the motile state. 


Development of Actinospherium eichhorni.*—Mr. J. M. Stedman 
remarks that the youngest examples of this species seen by him re- 
sembled white blood-corpuscles with a distinct and sharply defined 
nucleus. Later, a vacuole appears, which attains to a very large size, 
and at this stage a pseudopodium may be present. Two of these were 
seen to unite, and in the course of five minutes the two vacuoled forms 
developed a ray, and the characteristic axis-thread could be seen in its 
interior. 'The number of rays in young forms is of no special value, as 
it varies with different individuals of the same age. The form under 
observation was, a little later, seen to unite with one which had three 
vacuoles but no rays, and immediately afterwards a spherical form was 
assumed. Again a union occurred, and now the characteristics of 
A. eichhorni began to be apparent. The author suggests that in the 
autumn, at any rate, full-grown Heliozoa become encysted, that the 
protoplasm divides and subdivides until it is converted into a mass of 
minute bodies, which, when the cyst is ruptured, make their escape 
into the surrounding water, and then appear as naked spherical masses 
of granular protoplasm with a nucleus. 


New Type of Astrorhizide.t—Mr. H. B. Brady gives an account of 
an undescribed type of Rhizopod, dredged by Mr. Wood-Mason in tke 
Bay of Bengal. Masonella is proposed for the generic name, and two 
species, M. planulata and M. patelliformis, are recognized. ‘The general 
structural features can almost be read by the naked eye, and are easily 
made out under a low magnifying power. There is a central chamber 
with a number of radiating tubes which extend, either simple or 
branched, to the periphery. We have here branched and radiate 
Astrorhize with the sandy investment continued between the arms, so 
as to produce an even, rounded, peripheral outline. The species appear 
to be common at the localities in which they were found. 


New Gregarines.{—Prof. J. Leidy describes a new species of 
Gregarina, which he proposes to call G. philica, found in the proventriculus 
of a common American beetle Nyctobates pennsylvanicus. It is remark- 
able and apparently peculiar in its mode of conjugation, for the pairs 
conjoin with the heads together and the bodies side by side. G. actinotus 
sp. n. is frequent in the common Myriopod Scolopocryptops seaspinosus ; 
it looks like a minute Hchinorhynchus when found adherent by its 
rostrum to the inner surface of the proventriculus. G. megacephala is a 
new species found in Cermatia forceps which appears to be allied to 
Dufouria agilis found in the larva of a Hydracantharis. Another new 
species is called G. microcephala ; it was found in the tenebriouid beetle 
Hoplocephala bicornis, and bears a close resemblance to Echinocephalus 
ee of Schneider, but is without the digitiform processes to the 
nead., 


* The Microscope, viii. (1888) pp. 833-61 (1 pl.). 
+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., iii. (1889) pp. 293-6. 
¢ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1889, pp. 9-11. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 401 


Eozoon Canadense.*—Mr. G. P. Merrill, in an article on Warren 
County Ophiolite or Verdantique Marble, remarks that the serpentization 
of pyroxene is destined to throw some light on the Kozoon problem. He 
suggests that we have in the alteration in situ of the pyroxene granules 
the source of the serpentinous material, and that the mineral pyroxene of 
the white or colourless variety, which often occurs in the lower layers 
and fills some of the canals of Hozoon, is merely the residual mineral 
which has escaped alteration. 


* Amer. Journ. Sci., xxxvii. (1889) pp. 189-91. 


402 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


BOTANY. 


A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology 
of the Phanerogamia. 


a. Anatomy.* 


(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm. 


Rotation of Protoplasm.{—Herr J. B. Schnetzler finds the elongated 
cell in the protoneme resulting from the germination of the oosperm of 
Chara fragilis to be a very favourable object for observing the phenomena 
connected with the rotation of protoplasm. He believes it to be 
essentially a function of respiration, that is, of the chemical changes 
produced by the oxygen of the atmosphere; and compares it to the 
property of the pollen-grain to emit pollen-tubes, which is equally 
dependent on the free access of air. If the germinating Chara is 
immersed in irrespirable gases, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, &c., or in 
pure olive-oil, the movement of the protoplasm rapidly ceases, and the 
balls of dense protoplasm which float on the surface of the more fluid 
protoplasm assume a granular appearance, and surround themselves 
with a delicate pellicle. 


Growth of Albuminous Composition of Cell-walls.{—Dr. I’. G. 
Kohl has examined the structure of the hairs on many species of 
Borraginez, Moracez, Urticaceee, and Cucurbitacee, which exhibit a 
very marked thickening at their apex, followed by a partial calcification 
or silicification. ‘This thickening is effected neither by apposition nor 
by intussusception, but by the deposition of fresh masses of cellulose 
in a manner similar to that described by Krabbe § in the bast-fibres of 
Apocynacee and Asclepiadee. These masses of cellulose are in the 
form of caps placed one within another, and between them are masses of 
protoplasm. This structure is exceedingly well seen in the hairs of 
Symphytum officinale, after the calcium carbonate has been first removed 
by dilute hydrochloric acid. The multicellular hairs of the Cucur- 
bitaceze show in addition local thickening of the cell-wall by true 
apposition. The reaction with Millon’s reagent, even after first treating 
with hydrochloric acid, as proposed by Wiesner,]|| failed to detect the 
least trace of albuminous substance in the cellulose-caps themselves. 


Contents of the Cell.{—Herr J. H. Wakker states that according to 
the present state of our knowledge, the cell-protoplasm consists of: 
(1) the parietal layer or hyaline protoplasm, which chiefly serves merely 
as a protective organ for the rest, and for this purpose forms also the 
cell-wall; (2) the granular or streaming protoplasm which is concerned 
with the transport of nutrient material; (3) the nucleus, the function 
of which has not been determined experimentally ; (4) the amyloplasts, 
to which belong the chlorophyll-grains; and (5) the tonoplast, from 
which the turgidity of the cell is derived, but which has also other 


* This subdivision contains (1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm; (2) Other Cell- 
ponents Gncluding Seeretions); (8) Structure of Tissues; and (4) Structure of 
rgans. 
+ Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., xxi. (1889) pp. 100-7. 
t Bot. Centralbl., xxxvii. (1889) pp. 1-6 (1 pl.). 
§ Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 272. || This Journal, 1886, p. 818. 
{| Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot. (Pringsheim), xix. (1888) pp. 423-96 (4 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 403 


functions. Of the mode and place of formation of the fatty oils, the 
aleurone, the crystalloids, and the crystals, very little is at present 
definitely known; and the object of the present investigation is to de- 
termine some points in connection with this subject. The following are 
the more important results attained. 

Crystals of calcium oxalate which occur within the cell are formed 
exclusively in the vacuoles; and this theory is not opposed to the fact 
that they are carried along in the currents of protoplasm. Rosanoff’s 
cellulose sacs are formed by the death of the cell and subsequent passive 
distension by turgidity. The envelopes of cellulose or protoplasm are 
deposited on the crystals after their formation. 

Aleurone-grains are vacuoles filled up by albuminoids. The albumen 
dissolved in the vacuole becomes solid by the drying of the ripening 
seed ; in the softening of the seed, on the other hand, which precedes 
germination, the reverse takes place. During the formation of the seeds, 
the originally single vacuole of each cell divides, as its contents are 
being formed, into a very large number of small vacuoles; and the 
reverse of this takes place again during germination; after germination 
the empty cells again contain a single central vacuole. The albumen 
dissolved in the vacuoles of ripening and germinating seeds can be pre- 
cipitated by several reagents, such as dilute nitric acid, absolute alcohol, 
saline solutions, &c. By means of these substances the slow disappear- 
ance of the albumen on germination in the dark can be followed step by 
step. Globoids are formed in the vacuoles. 

Crystalloids may be formed in the most various parts of the cell, 
viz. :—in the vacuole (in seeds, in Thallophytes, and in Pothos scandens) ; 
in the protoplasm (in the potato); and in nuclei and plastids. 

The fatty oils are always formed in the protoplasm, and in two 
different ways, viz. in specially prepared spots, claioplasts (as in species 
of Vanilla, Hepaticee, Vaucheria, and possibly Laurencia and its aliies) ; 
or distributed uniformly through the protoplasm (as in seeds). 

The protoplasm can become perforated during plasmolysis without 
being thereby killed. 


Connection of the Direction of Hygroscopic Tensions with the 
Structure of the Cell-wall.*—Herr C. Steinbrinck has investigated the 
causes of the hygroscopic tensions which result in the twistings of 
organs, such as the inyolucral scales of Composite, the legumes of 
Leguminose, and the awns of Hrodium, Pelargonium, Stipa, and Avena, 
which are connected with their dissemination. He attributes the pheno- 
menon to two causes :—the production and the direction of strize and of 
pores on the organ in question; and the difference in the capacity for 
swelling of different cell-walls and layers of cell-walls. 


(2) Other Cell-contents (including Secretions). 


Spectrum-analysis of the Colours of Flowers.{—Dr. N. J. C. 
Miiller has examined the spectroscopic reactions of the pigments of sixty- 
five different plants, which he classifies under three heads, viz.:—red 
(erythrophyll), yellow and orange (xanthophyll), and blue to violet and 
purple (anthocyan). The following varieties are enumerated, and 
the characteristics of the spectra given, together with the reaction 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 385-98 (1 pl.). 
+ Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot. (Pringsheim), xx. (1889) pp. 78-105 (2 pls.). 


404 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


with sulphuric acid: Erythrophyll o—Rosa, Petunia, Dianthus, rasp- 
berry, black currant, beet, radish; 8—Geranium, Gladiolus, Papaver 
Rheas, Fuchsia; y—Epilobium angustifolium ; 6—Diervillea ; «—Caly- 
canthus. Xanthophyll a—Crepis, Hieracium ; B—Linum campanula- 
ceum ; y—Cruciferee ; 6—Ranuculacee ; «—Hypericum ; €—Lilium tigri- 
num ; y—Zinnia ; 2—Tropzxolum. Anthocyan oa—Lunaria, Malva, Viola ; 
B—Lobelia, Campanula, Geranium pratense; y—Gentiana acaulis ; 
d—(no example given); e—Centaurea Cyanus ; ¢—Delphinium consolida. 


Change in Colour of Leaves containing Anthocyan.*—According 
to Herr H. Molisch, the rapid loss of the colour of leaves which are 
coloured purple by anthocyan, is due to the fact that anthocyan, or the 
mixture of pigments known under this name, turns blue on the addition 
of a trace of alkali, green with a larger quantity, then yellow, and 
finally loses its colour entirely. On the death of the leaf or other 
organ, this is brought about by the contents of the cells which con- 
tained anthocyan mixing with the protoplasm of other cells from which 
they were previously separated. 


Tannin-vacuoles.t—Herr J. HE. F. af Klercker has carefully in- 
vestigated the mode of formation of tannin in a large number of plants, 
especially in the root. He finds that the tannin of the mature root 
occurs partly dissolved in the entire cell-sap, partly in special re- 
ceptacles or tannin-vacuoles, occasionally in the cell-wall, never in the 
protoplasm. These vacuoles are formed in the protoplasm by the co- 
alescence of small sap-cavities which contain tannin; in the first place 
vacuoles are formed in the protoplasm of the meristem-cells, some of 
which contain tannin, others not. If their coalescence is prevented by 
artificial means, abnormal vacuoles are formed. 

An excretion of mucilaginous tannin often takes place in the tannin- 
vacuoles by plasmolysis. ‘These vacuoles frequently, but not always, 
contain, besides tannin, substances in appreciable quantities which 
produce osmose. The tannin of the vacuoles, as well as that of many 
other cells, shows no, or scarcely any, tendency towards osmose. Ail 
the tannin-vacuoles which were examined took up methyl-blue. Albu- 
minoids never occur in solution in these vacuoles. 

The tannin-vacuoles are, during the whole of their existence, inclosed 
in a lamella of protoplasm, and are probably separated from it by a 
precipitated membrane of iron-tannate. Both in the vacuoles and in 
many other cases the tannin results from chemical decompositions in the 
protoplasm of the meristem-cells, and makes its first appearance in the 
form of solid granules in the protoplasm, which are afterwards dissolved 
into a vacuole. The tannin of the vacuoles of the bark of the root, as 
well as that of all root-caps, must be regarded as an excretion. In the 
epiderm a resorption of these vacuoles frequently takes place in the 
formation of the root-hairs. 

The tests for tannin employed by the author were the staining by 
methyl-blue, and the precipitation by alkaline carbonates. He also 
made use of a modification of Moll’s reaction, consisting of the substitu- 
tion of an alcoholic for an aqueous solution of copper acetate, whereby 
the tannin was stained and the entire cell-contents fixed. 

A table is appended of the species in which tannin was observed, 


* Bot. Ztg., xlvii. (1889) pp. 17-28. 
+ Bih. K. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Handl., xiii, (1888) No. 8, 63 pp. (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 405 


whether in vacuoles or dissolved in the sap, the part of the plant ex- 
amined being in all but one or two cases the root. 


Cystoliths in Exostemma.*—M. EH. Heckel describes a new type of 
calcareous concretion which he has found to exist in the genus Hxostemma 
(Rubiacee). If a tangential section be made of a young branch of 
LE. floribundum, two concentric cycles of cystolithic cells will be found 
in the last layers of the cortical parenchyme.- Examined under a 
sufficiently high power, the cystoliths are seen to be in the form of 
papille terminating in a point, and five or six in number; their apices 
are all turned towards the interior of the cortex, and their bases 
towards the exterior. Weak acid causes the dissolution of these 
calcareous masses, carbonic acid being liberated. It was noticed, how- 
ever, that after the calcareous mass was gone, a small pedicel composed 
of cellulose remained on the wall to which it had been affixed; in this 
respect, therefore, the cystoliths here described differ from those found 
in Urticaceew. Although the author found numerous cystoliths to exist 
in Hxostemma floribundum, in an allied species EL. caribzewm they were quite 
absent. 


Oil of Bay-leaves.j—Sig. G. A. Barbaglia has distilled the essential 
oil contained in the leaves of the bay-tree, Laurus nobilis, and finds it to 
have the composition C,,H,,0. This may be a substance belonging to 
the same series as camphor, C,,H,,O, or it may be a compound with the 
formula C,,H,, + H,O, a point which must be determined by further 
investigation of its chemical reactions. 


(8) Structure of Tissues, 


Development of Sieve-plates in the Phloem of Angiosperms.{— 
M. H. Lecomte states that the principal researches on the development 
of sieve-tubes have been by Wilhelm, Janczewski, and Russow, and the 
author criticizes briefly the observations of these three gentlemen. By 
the help of very sensitive and rapidly acting reagents, he was able to see 
that the membrane destined to become a sieve is not homogeneous, but 
is formed of a cellulose network. ‘The substance forming the meshes 
the author calls callus; this swells when it is traversed by the contents 
of the tubes, and forms cushions on each side of the septum. If the 
contents of the tubes are rich in albuminoids, and if the meshes are 
large, the osmotic action is very active, and the axis of the meshes can 
be stained by anilin-blue. From the researches of Baranetzki on 
the thickening of membranes, it appears that in soft parenchyme tho 
transverse walls of the cells possess polygonal punctations. The sieve- 
tube is therefore only an exaggerated parenchymatous cell. 


Development of Cork-wings.§s—Miss E. L. Gregory proceeds to 
discuss the physiology of the development of cork-wings. The earlier 
researches made on the subject of cork seem to have fixed its use in the 
plant economy as that of protection, mainly in the way of a substitute 
for epidermal tissue; we now, however, include as part of its function 
the repairing of tissues torn or broken by external or internal causes, 
and aiding in the regulation of gases and transpiration. 


* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxv. (1888) pp. 400-3 (8 figs.). 

+ Atti Soc. Tose. Sci. Nat., vi. (1888) pp. 181-4. 

t Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxv. (1888) pp. 405-7. 

§ Bot. Guzette, xiv. (1889) pp. 5--10, 37-44. Cf. ante, p. 242. 


1889. ZF 


406 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The author describes some experiments with Liquidambar ; and the 
result may be summed up by stating that the tendency is for the 
summer growth to form ligneous walls, the plate-cells always cork. 
In Quercus the results were very similar, and the same may be said of 
Acer campestre. In Acer monspessulanum the results were the same, 
excepting that there were ligneous cells along the line of breakage. 
Euonymus alatus differed from the preceding only in that the tendency 
to ligneous cells in the summer growth was more marked. In the 
formation of the wings of Quercus and Acer, and others of a similar 
type, the first steps in the process are easily explained on the seore of 
purely physical causes. The breaking of the tissues is the result of a 
strain greater here than in other places on the fresh yielding tissues. 
The author then says a few words on the function of lenticels. 

Various facts in regard to the anatomy of these growths have sug- 
gested certain inferences. The most important of these are:—(1) Young 
stems, which are entirely encircled by cork-wings, are found to lack 
other means of communication with the outside air. The anatomy of 
the wing in these cases is such as to enable it to supply this deficiency 
and to act as lenticels. (2) The wings of the horizontal branches of 
Liquidambar, covering as they do only part of the circumference, perform 
in part the same function; at the same time they increase the surface 
sufficiently to allow the growth within, while the remaining part of the 
surface of the stem retains the character and office of the early periderm. 
(8) In Euonymus, the symmetry of the stem is preserved, the surface is 
enlarged by the wing, while all the remaining surface of the stem plays 
the part of assimilation. (4) The characteristics of autumn cork are 
exactly those of autumn wood, the tracheal element alone excepted. 
Could it be proved that these changes are due to the same cause, another 
means of deciding the question as to the cause of the autumnal growth 
of wood, or annual rings, would be obtained. 


Researches on the Periderm.*—M. H. Douliot now describes the 
periderm of the Hypericaceee. M. Vesque found a considerable differ- 
ence in structure to exist between Hypericum and Ancistrolobus pulchellus ; 
the author, however, states that there is no difference in the origin of 
the periderm. In the nine genera of true Hypericacew belonging 
to the two tribes Hypericee and Vismiex, the periderm is pericyclic. 
Frankenia differs from the true Hypericacez in the two alternate whorls 
of stamens, and also in the origin of the periderm, which is not pericyclic 
but hypodermal. The author concludes by some observations on the 
development of cork in the Hypericacew. In Hypericum calycinum a 
folded layer may be observed in the middle of the soft cork, a phe- 
nomenon which has already been noticed by Sanio in a species of 
Melaleuca, and which is frequent in Rosacexe, Ginotherex, and Myrtacez. 
In Cratoxylon coccineum the periderm possesses folded layers and layers 
of hard cork with thickening cells in the form of a U, the opening being 
turned inwards. This form of thickening is also met with in the cells 
of the endoderm. 


(4) Structure of Organs. 
_ Pollen of the Convolvulacew.t—Dr. A. C. Stokes describes the 
minute structure of the pollen of several species of this order, especially 


* Morot’s Journ. de Bot., iii. (1889) pp. 37-9. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 987. 
+ The Microscope, ix. (1889) pp. 33-43 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 407 


of the “moon-flower,” Ipomza bona-nox. ‘This is characterized by two 
features not hitherto recorded: a fine velvety coating consisting ap- 
parently of rigid filaments adherent to one another, about 1/4500 of an 
in. in length, arising directly from the surface of the extine; and two 
kinds of papille. Of these the larger club-shaped processes proceed 
from the extine; but the smaller conical ones are processes of the intine 
protruding through the extine, a structure not previously observed in 
pollen-grains. The velvety covering of the grains was observed in several 
other species of Ipomea and Convolvulus ; and the conical intinal processes 
protruding through the extine also in the pollen-grains of the “ morning 
glory,” Ipomza purpurea. 

Fruit-scales of Abietinee.*—From the examination of a number of 
abnormally developed cones of the larch, Dr. J. Velenovsky draws the 
conclusion that in the Abietinez the fertile scale is composed of two 
leaf-scales, though it does not follow that this is also the case in the 
other sub-orders of the Conifere. The double scale of the cone of 
Abietineze can be compared to the double leaf of Sciadopitys, this 
doubling being a very common phenomenon in the vegetative organs of 
the Conifere. Some of the cases were prolonged above into shoots 
bearing leaves, many of which had ordinary leaf-buds in their axils. In 
some of these buds all the scales have become fleshy, and each bears on 
its under side a rudimentary ovule, the whole closely resembling the 
fructification of a Cycas. All intermediate forms are to be met with 
between these structures and normal buds. 


Seeds of Nympheaceze.t|— Pursuing his investigations on this 
subject, Prof. G. Arcangeli now describes the structure of the seeds of 
Nymphxa alba and Nuphar luteum. In the white water-lily the ripe 
seeds have a very short funicle, and are surrounded by a copious white 
aril, within which is a well-differentiated double integument. The seed 
itself is composed of three parts, the embryo, the albumen (endosperm), 
and the perisperm. Of these the first and the third occupy by far the 
largest portion of the seed, the endosperm consisting of a single layer 
of cells in direct contact with the surface of the embryo. The cells of 
the embryo and endosperm are full of albuminoid and oily substances, 
those of the perisperm, on the other hand, of starch. In the yellow 
water-lily the seeds have a longer funicle, and no true aril, but the 
integument again consists of two distinct coats. The endosperm is 
somewhat more developed than in Euryale and Nymphea, consisting of 
from two to four layers of cells. As in the latter genus, the perisperm 
is by far the largest constituent of the ripe seed, and is the principal 
reservoir of the amylaceous food-materials, the albuminous and oily 
substances being stored up in the cotyledons and the endosperm. 


Bract in Tilia.{—Mr. T. Meehan states that the small leaf adherent 
for some half its length to the common peduncle in the linden tree is 
known as a wing-bract. The use of the dried bract as a wing to aid in 
the distribution of the seed can scarcely be its sole purpose. But the 
lifting power of the growing bract is apparent; and, though it is difficult 
to understand how the adaptations are of much use to the plant, it will 
be perhaps more difficult to believe that the adaptations have been made 


* Flora, lxxi. (1888) pp. 516-21 (1 pl.). 
+ Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xxi. (1889) pp. 122-5, 138-40. Cf. ante, p. 250. 
¢ Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xv. (1888) pp. 316-7, 

2r2 


408 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


solely in the interest of the insect world ; though, so far, the facts barely 
admit of any other interpretation. The author’s view is that nature has 
not made varicty in structure and character solely for the peculiar 
advantage of the plant itself, but that a variety of purposes are also 
involved, 


Comparative Anatomy of the Bracts of the Involucre in Cichori- 
aces.*—M. L. Daniel describes the structure of the bracts in a number 
of the Cichoriacee. In Tolpis barbata, for instance, in a bract from the 
third row, the two hypodermal bands are formed by sclerenchymatous 
parenchyme, and unite, completely enveloping the bundles. The struc- 
ture found in the internal bracts is very different; the lower band is 
composed of two fibrous portions united by sclerenchymatous parenchyme, 
beneath one or several bands of aqueous polyhedral parenchyme. The 
author then goes on to describe numerous other genera belonging to the 
Cichoriacex, and clearly shows that great variation in structure is to be 
found within that tribe. 


Pitchers of Sarracenia.t—From an examination of the anatomical 
structure of the pitcher of Sarracenia Drummondii, M. EK. Heckel comes 
to the conclusion that it represents a hollow petiole, and the opercule 
the lamina of the leaf. The resemblance in structure is very close to 
the petiole of Nymphza alba, and the near affinity of the Nympheacez 
and Sarraceniacez cannot be doubted. The structure and arrangement 
of the vascular bundles are very similar. The parenchyme of the petiole 
of the water-lily contains large numbers of air-cavities lined with hairs. 
These appear to be fused in Sarracenia into one large central cavity, the 
cavity of the pitcher, in which we again find the hairs which prevent 
the escape of the captured insects. 


Petiole of Dicotyledons.{—M. L. Petit describes the anatomy of the 
petiole of nearly five hundred species of Dicotyledons belonging to three 
hundred genera and forty-eight families. In form the petiole is always 
convex below and concave on its upper face; the hairs present unim- 
portant characters for classification, their existence not being constant in 
the same family or genus. The external membrane of the epiderm is 
generally 5 » in thickness; in Clerodendron fetidum and Cyclanthera 
pedata it is 3 uw; while in Ranunculacee it is sometimes 10»; it is 
nearly always more or less cuticularized. The form of the epidermal 
cells is very variable, and their variations are independent of families or 
genera. ‘The presence of cork has been noticed in several cases, e. g. 
Ficus repens, Theobroma Cacao, and Hoya carnosa. In the two former it 
is in contact with the epiderm, but in Hoya carnosa it consists of five or 
six layers, and is separated from the epiderm by four or five layers of 
parenchyme. 

Collenchyme is present in the petiole in two distinct forms; some- 
times the walls of the cells are thickened everywhere to the same extent, 
as in Umbelliferzs and many Rosacew, while in other cases the thickening 
is localized at the angles of the cells, as in Polygonacesx. These two 
types of collenchyme are connected by intermediate forms. The con- 
junctive tissue is formed of round or polygonal cells with either thin or 


* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxv. (1888) pp. 432-6. 
+ Comptes Rendus, cvii. (1888) pp. 1182-4. 


t Mem. Sei. Phys. et Nat, Bordeaux, iii. (1887) pp. 217-404 (6 pls.), Cf. this 
Journal, 1888, p. 610. (1887) pp (6 pls.) 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 409° 


thick walls. In exceptional cases the cells forming the conjunctive 
tissue are smaller than the cortical cells (Mimosa pudica). Crystals are 
met with in the petiole in either the cortical parenchyme, the liber, or 
the pith, and are of some taxonomic importance. They are either 
(a) raphides; (6) crystalline granulations; (c) isolated crystals; or 
(d) quadrangular in shape. Various forms of secretory tissue may also 
be found, and thick fibres often exist, especially in Malvacez, Cruciferae, 
Umbellifere, and Composite. Sclerenchyme is present either as 
parenchymatous fibres or as sclerotized cells. 

As to the fibrovascular system: in the two peripheral bundles of the 
petiole the phloem faces outwards, while the central bundles have a 
variable structure. Bicollateral bundles are to be found in the petiole 
of Solanacez, Convolvulacee, Asclepiadee, Apocynacee, Myrtacen, 
Cucurbitaceze, and CEnotheree. 

The author then gives a table illustrating the course of the bundles 
in the petiole of Dicotyledons. The types may primarily be divided 
into simple and complex, and the simple types are again divided into 
those which have the bundles distinct both at the apex and base of the 
petiole, and those where the bundles show the opposite arrangement. 
Complex types are found in various natural orders, e.g. Rosacee, 
Cupuliferz, Salicaces, &e. 

The most important results, however, the author gathers together in 
a table at the end of the paper, in which he gives a resumé of the dif- 
ferential characters of the petiole in the principal families of Dicotyle- 
dons. The primary divisions of this table are :— (A) the terminal section 
in a petiole incloses secretory canals; and (B) the terminal section in a 
petiole does not inclose secretory canals. In division A we have 
Umbelliferz, Araliacez, Malvacee, Tiliacere Sterculiaces, and Compo- 
site ; Umbelliferee and Araliacee have a secretury canal behind each 
peripheric bundle, while the others have their secretory canals arranged. 
irregularly, and the hypodermal collenchyme discontinuous. In division 
B we have Asclepiadesw, Apocynacee, Convolvulaces, Solanaces, 
Myrtacee, and Cucurbitacew, with bicollateral bundles; and various 
Rosacez, Malvaceew, Geraniacew, Oxalidese, Cupulifere, Amaranthacee, 
Chenopodiacez, and Leguminose, with no bicollateral bundles. Then 
in the first five orders mentioned :—in division B the median bundle is 
much developed ; Scrophulariaceze, Oleacew, and Borraginee have the 
lower bundle preponderating, and furthermore they have no scleren- 
chyme. In Oleacez the phloem is of more importance than in Scrophu- 
lariaceee, where there are sometimes small prismatic crystals. Papa- 
‘veracezee and Composite possess secretory tissues; Composite have 
ordinarily thick and sometimes even sclerenchymatous fibres, which are 
never found in Papaveracee. Crucifere have thick fibres like Com- 
posite, but no secretory tissue; many Cruciferee can be recognized 
immediately by the structure of their radiating bundles. Ranunculacere 
are distinguished by a transverse section of their fibrovascular bundles, 
which have the form of an ellipse, in which the phloem is either circular 
or elliptical. 

The author concludes by pointing out the great variation in structure 
occurring in the petiole, also its importance for taxonomic purposes, and 
the law which governs the general distribution of fibrovascular bundles 
in herbaceous and woody plants; isolation of the bundles generally 
occurring in the former and aggregation in the latter. 


410 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Ligneous Tumours in the Vine.*—M. E. Prillieux states that fre- 
quently vines may be seen covered with ligneous tumours formed of a 
number of small nodules aggregated together. These bodies, which have 
a diameter of 6-8 cm. and a length of 15-20 cm., arise beneath the 
fibres of the cortex. The author states that they arise from hyper- 
trophy of the young tissues on certain points in the old wood. 


Cuscuta Gronovii.j—Miss H. E. Hooker describes the mode of 
parasitism of one of the common dodders of the northern United States, 
Cuscuta Gronovii. The seeds are exalbuminous, of comparatively large 
size, with a conspicuous hilum and hard testa; but the latter yielded 
readily to soaking in dilute potash, and careful dissection removed the 
two coats and freed the coiled vermiform embryo. The haustoria are, 
outwardly, enlarged fleshy discs, and differ from true roots, as does the 
root-acting end of the stem, in the absence of a root-cap. There is very 
little differentiation in the tissues of the dodder; the vascular system 
consists of alternate strips of tracheides and parenchyme, each about 
two rows of cells wide, and, in the best developed stems, occupies 
perhaps from one-third to one-half the diameter. Of the adventitious 
buds the author only studied those producing branches. The regular 
branching of a stem of Cuscuta is abnormal in the centrifugally arranged 
accessory buds, the last-formed bud being farthest from the parent stem, 
thongh sections show it to originate in the axillary bundle. The 
epiderm of the dodder varies with its position. On the long internodes 
between adjacent scales stomates are rare, while over haustoria, i. e. on 
the side of the stem opposite them, very small stomates are quite abun- 
dant. Fach flower has a short pedicel resembling the main stem in struc- 
ture, a thickened receptacle, a five-lobed calyx and corolla, and adherent 
stamens alternating with its lobes ; the ovary is bilocular with two ovules 
in each locule, and there are two knob-like stigmas on short styles. 


Vegetative Organs of Bignoniacee, Rhinanthacee, Orobanchee, 
and Utriculariacee.{—M. M. Hoveiacque describes in great detail. the 
structures included under these heads, The following are some of the 
more important generalizations :— 

The phloem shows a series of gradually increasing complications in 
structure from the annual Rhinanthacee through the woody Bignoniaces 
to the Orobanchew, In the xylem there is a corresponding series of 
stages in complication, the most perfect condition being found in the 
Bignoniaces, the simplest in the Utriculariacez. 

In the leaves we find the most highly developed internal structure in 
the woody and climbing Bignoniace, such as Catalpa and Eccremocarpus, 
Those of Utricularia are very simple, bnt exhibit a striking dimorphism. 

The orders under discussion do not belong to any common type as 
respects their vegetative organs, A certain resemblance is, however, ex- 
hibited in the stem of Bignoniacezs and Rhinanthaces ; but the former 
are of higher organization, and show some affinity to the Scrophulariacee. 
The Lathrees resemble the Rhinanthacee in all their anatomical 
peculiarities ; the Orobanchee display but little affinity to the Lathreeze, 


* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxy. (1888) pp. 393-5. 

+ Bot. Gazette, xiv. (1889) pp. 31-7. 

{ ‘Rech. sur Vappareil vég. d. Bignoniacées, Rhinanthacées, Orobanchées et 
Utricularices, 8vyo, Paris, 1888, 765 pp. and 651 figs. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxvii. 
(1889) p. 17, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 4\1 


-and resemble much more closely the Gesneriacee. The Utriculariaces 
are a well-defined group. 

The haustoria of the Orobanches and Rhinanthacee * are interesting 
from a morphological point of view. They are usually thallomes which 
develope above the surface on normal roots; the most simple resemble 
hairs, the more complicated have a central irregular bundle of xylem 
and phloem; and they may then assume the function of roots. ‘They 
may become so closely united with the root of the host, that xylem 
unites with xylem, phloem with phloem, parenchyme with parenchyme. 
This is in consequence of the meristem, when it enters the root of the 
host, developing xylem centripetally from the spot where it comes in 
contact with the xylem of the host; this again determining the position 
of the other tissues. 


Anatomy of Bromeliacee.|—M. A. De Wevre briefly describes the 
main points in the anatomy of this natural order, derived from the 
examination of a large number of species. 

The most conspicuous character, and a universal one without excep- 
tion, is the presence of scale-hairs on the leaves. Hach hair consists of 
a plate, a single cell in thickness, borne on a central pluricellular stalk ; 
their form varies greatly; and it is their presence that gives the 
characteristic silvery appearance to the leaves of bromeliads. In a few 
species they are found only on the lower part of the leaf. Similar hairs 
occur nowhere else among Monocotyledons, except in a few palms, 
where they are deciduous. 

There is never in the leaves a well-developed layer of palisade-cells ; 
but in some species the outer cells of the mesophyll are slightly longer 
than the others. The stomates are arranged in rows, separated by bands 
of tissue from which they are absent. The guard-cells are always four 
in number, of which two are parallel to the pore, and two perpendicular 
to it. All Bromeliacez are distinguished by the presence of an aquifer- 
ous hypoderm, which occurs also in Palme, Pandanacez, some Amaryl- 
lidex, &c. In Ananassa macrodosa and some other species it constitutes 
nearly three-fourths of the thickness of the leaf. The cells of which it 
is composed are sometimes polygonal, sometimes elongated, sometimes 
of both forms. A tangential section always shows the epidermal cells 
with undulating walls; these cells have generally thick walls, the 
thickening being sometimes on the outer, sometimes on the inner wall. 

The fibrovascular bundles which run through the whole length of 
the leaf are usually very numerous, and are collateral in structure, 
generally surrounded by a very strong sclerotized sheath, especially in 
the species with long leaves. As in most Monocotyledons, oxalate of 
lime occurs in the form of raphides, rarely in that of prisms (Caraguata 
Zahnii). 


8B. Physiology.} 
(1) Reproduction and Germination. 


Fertilization of Amorphophallus Rivieri.s—Sig. R. Pirotta has 
determined that the pollination of this species of Aroidee is effected by 


* Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 80. 

+ Bull. Soc. R. Bot. Belg., xxvii. part 2, 1887 (1889) pp. 103-6. 

{ This subdivision contains (1) Reproduction and Germination; (2) Nutrition 
and Growth (including Movements of Fluids); (8) Irritability; and (4) Chemical 
Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 

§ Nuoy. Giorn. Bot, Ital., xxi. (1889) pp. 156-7. 


412 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


necrophorous Coleoptera, the species which are by far the most active 
agents being Saprinus nitidulus and zeneus. 


Cleistogamic Flowers.*—Herr A. Schulz confirms Magnus’s state- 
ment} of the occurrence of cleistogamic flowers in Speryularia salina, 
and has observed the same phenomenon also in Sagina Linnzt, Scleranthus 
annuus, and Stellaria Borreana. The suppression of the corolla is in 
these cases also accompanied by a reduction in the number of stamens. 
The production of these autogamous or self-pollinated flowers appears to 
be dependent on unfavourable climatal conditions. 


Parasitic Castration of Lychnis dioica.{—M. A. Giard confirms the 
observations of Magnin § with regard to the effects produced on the floral 
organs of Lychnis dioica by the attacks of Ustilago antherarum, and 
extends them also to Silene inflata. He regards it as an example in the 
vegetable kingdom of a phenomenon which he had previously || described 
in Crustacea and other animals as parasitic castration, caused by the 
attacks of parasites, and resulting in partial or complete sterility, from 
the substitution of one kind of sexual organ for the other. This para- 
sitic castration may be androgenous when it produces in the female sex 
characters which belong ordinarily to the male sex, thelygenous when the 
reverse is the case, or amphigenous when it mingles the characters of 
both sexes by developing in each some of the characters of the other sex. 


Fly-catching Habit of Wrightia coccinea. —Mr. A. Tomes describes 
the peculiar structure in this plant by means of which insects (ants and 
flies), when seeking the honey in the nectaries, are caught in slits between 
the anthers, and then perish. The contrivance appears to be essentially 
counected with cross-fertilization ; self-fertilization being apparently 
rendered impossible by the structure and relative position of the anthers 
and stigmas. There is no evidence of the plant being insectivorous, 


(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Movements of Fluids). 


Absorption of Light in assimilating leaves.**—Dr. EH. Detlefsen 
has attempted the determination of the question whether the absorption 
of light in a green leaf which is not assimilating, is the same in amount 
as that of the same leaf while assimilating. He describes an apparatus 
in which an object can be exposed alternately to streams of air containing 
carbon dioxide and free from it, and the experiments from which he con- 
cludes that the quantity of light absorbed by an assimilating leaf is 
always greater than that of the same leaf in sunshine in an atmosphere 
containing no carbon dioxide; though the discrepancy is not great. 
About 0°8 per cent. of the kinetic energy of the sunlight which falls on 
an assimilating leaf is converted into potential energy. 


Absorption of Nitrogen by Plants.{{—Herr B. Frank has under- 
taken a series of experiments for the purpose of determining whether the 
source of nitrogen in the soil for the food of plants is supplemented by 


* SB. Ges. Naturf. Freunde, 1888, pp. 51-3. 

+ Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 994. 

t Comptes Rendus, evii. (1888) pp. 757-9. 

§ See unite, p. 85. || This Journal, 1888, p. 414. 

{| Scient. Mem. by med. officers of the army of India., part iii. (1888) pp. 41-3. 
** Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg, iii. (1888) pp. 534-52 (3 figs.). 
ee a Jahrb., 1388, pp. 419-554. See Bot, Centralbl., xxxvii. (1889) 

p, 248, 7 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 413 


nitrogen obtained by the plants directly from the atmosphere. He 
ascertained in the first place that plants contain nitrates only when they 
absorb these salts from the soil through the roots. Nitrates were found 
‘in all plants growing in the soil, though often only in the roots. When 
present in the parenchyme he believes it to be stored up there as a food- 
material, With regard to the total amount of nitrogen in the plant, his 
conclusion is that the presence of vegetation promotes a process which 
tends to the increase of the nitrogen contained originally in the soil and 
in the seeds as sown in the ground. He does not believe that the 
accumulation of nitrogen in the soil is brought about by the root-tubers 
of the Leguminose, but rather by small Algz or other chlorophyllous 
Cryptogams, which are always found in the soil. It depends on the 
presence of cells containing albuminoids, the development of which must 
be regarded as an independent process not connected with those which 
take place in the soil. 


(8) Irritability. 


Physical Explanation of Irritation-curvatures.*—Dr. F. Noll 
contests the view of Wortmann { that geotropic and heliotropic curva- 
tures are due to the accumulation of protoplasm on the convex in 
contrast to the concave side, and supports the theory that they are caused 
by greater growth of the membrane on the convex side. The observa- 
tions were made chiefly on the stem of Hippuris and on the haulms 
of grasses. 

The author asserts that it can be proved by experiment that there is 
no difference in turgidity between the two sides of the cell, and that 
the extensibility of the membrane is greater on the convex than on the 
concave side ; the latter is proved by mechanical bending, the former by 
the plasmolytic method. Measurements under the Microscope also 
show, at the commencement of the curvature, a smaller thickness 
of the membrane on the convex than on the concave side; but this is 
afterwards neutralized by the apposition of new layers on the thinner 
wall. 

The physical process in irritation-curvatures consists in the mem- 
brane Gn unicellular organs or non-cellular plants) or membranes (in 
multicellular plants) of the side which becomes convex becoming more 
capable of extension, and therefore growing more rapidly in length, 
than that of the concave side. The greater extensibility, or decrease in 
elasticity, of the membrane on one side is due to the activity of the 
parietal layer of protoplasm, in which the movable granular layer 
takes no part. The parietal layer is excited to this greater activity by 
external influences such as gravitation and light; and it is this phe- 
nomenon which is known as “ irritation.” 

To this Herr J. Wortmann replies,} regarding it as very improbable 
that the difference observed by Noll in the thickness of the membrane 
on the concave and convex sides of negatively geotropic organs is due 
entirely to internal causes. External purely mechanical forces must 
also take part in the phenomenon, and it is doubtful what set of causes 
has the greatest effect. 


* Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg, iii. (1888) pp. 496-533 (4 figs.). 
+ Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 259. 
{ Ber. Deutsch, Bot. Ge-_ell., vi. (1888) pp. 485-8. 


414 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 


Formation of Starch from Organic Solutions.*—M. BH. Laurent finds, 
as the general result of a series of experiments, that, in the potato, the 
following substances can be transformed into starch, viz. :—glycerin, 
dextrose, levulose, galactose, saccharose, lactose, and maltose, all of them 
except the first being sucroses. The following substances appear to have 
no effect as producers of starch, viz.:—monatomie alcohols, glucol, 
tetratomic and hexatomic alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, fatty bodies, amines, 
amides, aromatic compounds, glucosides, and alkaloids. 

It must not, however, be assumed that no body which cannot be con- 
verted into starch is useful for the nutrition of chlorophyllous plants. 
Such a substance may serve neither to aid in growth in length, nor in 
the formation of reserve food-materials, but for use in respiration. A 
typical instance of this distinction is furnished in Aspergillus niger. 
While saccharose and glucose are sufficient for the full growth of this 
fungus, alcohol, acetic acid, and even oxalic acid, are burnt by the 
mature plant. While these substances do not serve directly for nutri- 
tion, they yet, by their combustion, develope sufficient energy to assist 
in the supply of nutriment to organs already formed. 


Development of Nitrogen in Putrefaction.j—Herr B. Tacke finds, 
as the result of a series of experiments, that the ordinary view that free 
nitrogen can result from the decomposition of vegetable substances only 
when free oxygen is excluded, is incorrect. Free nitrogen is not formed, 
whether free oxygen be present or not, if the decaying substances do not 
contain nitrates. But, if the substance contain a nitrate, then in the 
presence or absence of free oxygen, the nitric acid is reduced either to 
the state of free nitrogen or to that of one of the intermediate oxides of 
nitrogen, N.O, NO, or N,O;. The ordinary gaseous products of the 
decomposition of vegetable substances are, according to circumstances, 
carbon dioxide, hydrogen or sulphuretted hydrogen, and marsh gas. 
The microbes by whose agency the reduction of the nitrates is effected 
do not bring about any elimination of free hydrogen. 


y. General. 


Epiphytic Vegetation of the Tropics.{—Continuing his investiga- 
tions on tropical plants, Herr A. F. W. Schimper enumerates the species 
of epiphytic Phanerogams and Vascular Cryptogams in Tropical and 
Southern America, 119 belonging to the Orchidacee. The mode of 
adaptation of the seed for the epiphytic habit is threefold: in most 
cases they have a succulent envelope which is devoured by animals, 
and the seeds themselves are then voided on to the branches of 
trees; or they are so small as to be carried readily by the wind to 
fissures in the bark (Orchidacez) ; or they are provided with a floating 
apparatus. As respects their nutrition ; they either find their nutriment 
on the moist surface of the host, and are then usually protected against 
desiccation by the presence of receptacles for holding water; or they 


* Bull. Soc. R. Bot. Belg., xxvi., part 1, 1887 (1889) pp. 243-70. Cf. this 
Journal, 1886, p. 643. 

t Landwirth. Jabrb., xvi. pp. 917--39. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxvii. (1889) p. 56. 

{ Bot. Mitth. aus d. Tropen, Heft 2, 162 pp. and 6 pls., Jena, 1888. See Bot. 
Centraibl., xxxvii. (1889) p. 180. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 772. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 415 


have aerial roots or roots which reach the soil; or they form themselves 
a matrix of decaying animal and vegetable matter. Some epiphytes, but 
exclusively those found on the lower branches of trees, grow also on 
rocks. The largest number of epiphytic plants are found on the 
arboreal vegetation of mountain slopes in tropical and subtropical 
climates. 


Influence of Alpine Climate on Vegetation.*—M. G. Bonnier 
describes certain experiments on the cultivation of plants at various 
altitudes. His general conclusion is, that, under the same atmospheric 
conditions, the leaves of plants growing at high altitudes liberate more 
oxygen than do those growing at lower levels. 


Parallel Forms.t—Herr F. Krasan attempts to trace the mode of 
genesis of one species out of another, and of parallel forms of different 
species under similar external conditions. He regards variability as 
not induced by the physical influence of the soil, but as independent of 
external factors. ‘Che environment can only give rise to tendencies 
which transform the possibilities already in the plant into actual meta- 
morphoses. In order to preduce positive results by cultivation, it is 
necessary to make use of observations and experiments on living plants 
conducted through a number of years; and only those forms are adapted 
to this which belong to notoriously variable types. 


B. CRYPTOGAMIA. 


Bennett and Murray’s Cryptogamic Botany.{—We heartily con- 
gratulate the authors on the publication of this book. Following in the 
wake of Vines’s ‘Physiology,’ Bower's ‘ Practical Botany,’ and the ‘ Annals 
of Botany, it is a healthy sign that the British school has successfully 
cast off its German moorings. Nothing of the kind “has appeared in 
the English language since the Rev. M. J. Berkeley’s in 1857.” “The 
aim of the authors has been to bring before the reader the main facts of 
structure, of development, and of life-history, which mark the larger 
groups,’ with reference “‘ only to the broader lines of demarcation.” By 
the attention they have paid to the fossil remains, by the numerous illus- 
trations, and precise terminology, they have succeeded in producing a 
singularly clear and readable handbook. 

The plan of dealing with the subject is a descent from the higher 
to the lower types, arranged in seven subdivisions. 

Subdivision I. (Vascular Cryptogams) occupies about one-quarter of 
the book, and concludes with an admirable account of several fossil forms. 
Then follow the Muscinez (Subdivision II.). The Characez (Subdivision 
III.) are considered to be a distinctly higher type than the Thallophytes. 
The Algz constitute the fourth subdivision, and occupy another quarter 
of the book. About 100 pages are devoted to a treatment of the Fungi 
(Subdivision V.) which forms an excellent introduction to De Bary’s 
‘Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungi, Mycetozoa, and 
Bacteria.’ Subdivision VI. deals with the Myxomycetes and Acrasiz, 
which are so closely linked with the Amcebe that they are regarded as 


* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxv. (1888) pp. 436-9. 

+ Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xxxviii. (1888) pp. 192-9, 232-7, 293-5, 237-40. 

{ ‘A Handbook of Cryptogamic Botany, by Alfred W. Bennett and George 
Murray,’ Syo, London, 1889, pp. viii. and 473, 378 figs. 


416 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


being “outside the limits of the vegetable kingdom.” The final sub- 
division (Protophyta) is remarkable for containing the Diatomacee, on 
the theory that they are not “a family derived from the Desmidiaceze by 
retrogression,’ but “represent a comparatively small ascent from an 
archaic type.” It will be remembered that Goebel also has placed them 
in the neighbourhood of the Protophyta. 

The most novel feature of the book is the terminology, in which 
there is a revolution of three kinds. In the first place, the authors con- 
sider that “the first requisite . . . after accuracy, is simplicity,” and 
‘have, wherever possible, used Anglicised instead of Latin and Greek 
forms.” Thus sporangium becomes “sporange,” epidermis “epiderm.” 
Secondly, some entirely new have been coined in place of older terms 
which the system of the book has required to be discarded; these 
describe the structures to which they are applied with such clearness, 
and so simplify the comparative life-histories of the different groups, 
that we think they will be heartily welcomed by teacher and student 
alike. The result of sexual union is called a “sperm,” variously modified 
as “ zygosperm,” “oosperm,” “carposperm,” “hypnosperm” (when it 
undergoes a period of rest), “ parthenosperm.” Spermatia has given 
way to “pollinoids.” But we must protest against ‘“ zoosphere” 
(pp. 252, 295). ; 

Thirdly, words the meaning of which has varied with writers who 
have employed them, have been limited in their meaning and accurately 
defined. Thus, a “spore” is ‘any cell produced by ordinary processes 
of vegetation, and not directly by a union of sexual elements, which 
becomes detached for the purpose of direct vegetative propagation.” 
“‘Gonids” (gonidia) has been replaced in the Lichens by “algal cells,” 
but lingers on in the Protophyta; but as it is there made equivalent to 
“ pseudocysts,” it might have been omitted entirely. 

Macrospore was always liable to be mistaken for microspore, and has 
given way to the more expressive “ megaspore.” 

There are a few errors which will no doubt be corrected in a future 
edition. On p. 55, the outer of the two cells produced by the division 
of the primary cell from which the antherid arises in Lycopodium is 
called a stigmatic cell. Writers of text-books are, we know, too prone to 
copy one another’s errors. Fig. 26 was first employed by Sachs, and 
has been borrowed by Goebel, Van Tieghem, and others. It depicts a 
fertile branch of Selaginella in longitudinal section with the extra- 
ordinary arrangement of megasporanges represented on one side of the 
spike, and microsporanges on the other. At the same time we must 
confess that the present authors state that the megasporanges are 
confined to the lower sporophylls. We would like to see the figure 
modified. 

’ In a handbook where so much trouble has been taken to simplify 
the terminology, we think it a pity that the word “nucleus” has 
been ee for the mass of carpospores in the sporocarp of Floridex 
(p. 201). 

Fig. 182 is Scapania, not Jungermannia Ceratiwm being the name 
of an animal on the borders of the animal kingdom, it seems undesirable 
that the mycetozoid organism figured on p. 404 should bear the same 
name. But of course a text-book is not the place for establishing new 
names. 

he method of inserting the authority for a name in brackets 


i ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 417 


leads to a remarkable complication on p. 316, where the list. of 
luminous fungi strongly reminds one of an algebraic expression re- 
solved into its factors. On pp. 97-100 Botrychium Lunaria Sw. is 
quoted in five several ways. This, however, is a mere incident of the 
system of giving the authority for the name of every plant mentioned— 
an excellent practice which we do not remember to have observed before 
in any botanical text-book. 


Cryptogamia Vascularia. 


Azolla filiculoides.*—M. Roze gives details of some observations on 
Azolla filiculoides Lam. 

Preliminary to the act of fecundation, the antherozoids emitted by 
the microspores glide under the upper part of the envelope of the mega- 
sporange; they then descend the funnel-shaped body which crowns the 
prothallium, and easily arrive at the archegones. The result of fecunda- 
tion is the formation of a cellular embryo which rapidly enlarges. 
The embryo at an early stage presents the rudiments of the two pri- 
mordial leaves, and it may be seen to rise to the surface, which it does 
by the help of a bubble of oxygen which has formed in the upper cavity 
under the action of solar light. It then emits a lateral root covered 
- with root-hairs which are connected with the two primordial leaves by 
tracheiform vessels. From experiments which the author has made, 
although the spores may have been submitted to a temperature of 
—T° C., they will still retain the power of emitting antherozoids, 
or producing a prothallium and archegones. The author concludes by 
calling attention to the curious vital suspension of the embryos of Azolla 
in their pseudo-cotyledonary period, when the temperature of the water 
is often about + 5° C. 


Characee. 


Antherozoids of Characee.{—M. L. Guignard has undertaken a 
series of observations on the antherozoids of Chara and Nitella, with 
a view to discover whether they proceed from the nucleus of the mother- 
cell in which they are formed, or from the cytoplasm, or from both together. 
By special methods of fixation, hardening, and staining, the details of 
which are not given, the author finds that the body of the antherozoid 
is formed from the nucleus itself. A band of nuclear substance appears 
on the surface of the nucleus, and grows longer and longer by extending 
between the two extremities which have first appeared, and becomes 
twisted spirally as it growslonger. As soon as the outline of the anterior 
extremity of this filament is discernible, the two cilia may be perceived 
in the thin layer of hyaline protoplasm which is nearest this extremity. 
Later on, the cilia, which at first lie up against the filament, become 
separated therefrom and the protoplasm gradually disappears, being 
absorbed and used up for the nutrition of the antherozoid, so that only 
a few granulations are left on the posterior extremity of the filament. — 

The latter proceeds altogether from the nucleus of the mother-cell, 
and moreover gives all the reactions of nuclein; the vibratile cilia are 
derived from the cytoplasm, corresponding, in this respect, to the mode 


* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxv. (1888) pp. 427-8. 
+ Comptes Rendus, eviii. (1889) pp. 71-3. 


A418 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of formation of the antherozoids of Muscinez and of Vascular Cryptogams, 
but differing from them im the absence of a vesicle formed from the 
cytoplasm of the mother-cell. 

The details of the technique employed in this investigation are pro- 
mised later. 

Algee. 

Effect of dilute Acids on Alge.*—Dr. W. Migula states that all 
acids, and especially mineral acids, have a poisonous effect on Alge ; 
but some species are much more susceptible to their influence than 
others. Thus Volvox globator is killed in a few hours by a 0°002 per 
cent. solution of phosphoric acid which Spirogyra orbicularis will with- 
stand for many weeks. It is a remarkable fact that growth of the cell 
will still continue after cell-division has been completely interrupted ; 
but this continued growth takes place in length only, not in diameter, 
and goes on until the cell has attained three to four times its normal 
length. Assimilation is arrested by all acids, and the chlorophyll-bodies 
are gradually bleached. 


Structure of the Frond of Champia parvula.;—Mr. R. P. Bigelow 
publishes a further account of the structure of the froud of this sea-weed. 
It is hollow and divided into chambers by nearly horizontal diaphragms, 
and with filaments running longitudinally clcse to the inner wall and 
passing through the diaphragms. All the filaments in each chamber 
have projecting from their inner side one or two small globular or pear- 
shaped ‘“bulb-cells.’ The wall or cortex of the frond and the dia- 
phragms are all composed of a single layer of nearly equal cells, and each 
filament consists of a single row of long cylindrical cells. Mr. Bigelow 
finds the apex of the frond to be occupied not by a single apical cell, 
but by a cluster of nearly equal apical cells, each of which is the apex 
of one of the longitudinal filaments. The diaphragms and the bulb-cells 
are all formed by outgrowths from the filaments. 

The structure of the hollow-chambered frond of Lomentaria Bailey- 
ana is somewhat similar. 


Askenasya polymorpha.{—Herr M. Mobius corrects, in one respect, 
his previous description of this new fresh-water Floridea. The cushions 
found attached to the Chantransia-like filaments he now believes to have 
no connection with them, but to be colonies of an epiphytic Cyanophycea, 
the rare Onocobyrsa rivularis. 


Colouring-matter of Bangia.§—Herr F. Noll describes Bangia 
Jusco-purpurea of the Gulf of Naples as having the outer cell-layers of 
its frond of a very gelatinous consistency, which serves as a protection 
against the great extremes of drought and moisture to which it is 
subjected. ‘The different cells in the same frond, and even in the same 
filament, vary greatly in colour between intense red-brown and blue- 
green, the most common being a dirty brown-red; but the colouring 
matter resides in the chromatophores alone, the cell-sap being always 


* ‘Ueb. d. Hinfluss stark verdiinnter Saurelésungen auf Algenzellen,’ Breslau, 
1888 (2 pls.). See Biol. Centralbl., viii. (1889) p. 737. 

+ Proc. Amer. Acad. Boston, xxiii. Part 1 (1888) pp. 111-21 (1 pl. and 1 fig.). 
Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 623. 


a Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp. 358-60. Cf. this Journal, 1888, 
p. 93. 
§ Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg, iii. (1888) pp. 489-95 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 419 


colourless. By heating to a temperature between 50° and 70° C., the 
author determined that two or three pigments are combined in the 
chromatophores, green with either blue or red or both. The green 
pigment is identical with chlorophyll; the red pigment appears also to 
have a nitrogenous composition. 


Classification of Confervoidexw.*— Prof. A. Hansgirg suggests the 
following modifications of his previously published classification of the 
Confervoidee. 

Under Trentepohliacee, the Hansgirgiacee are separated as a distinct 
family, comprising the genus Phycopeltis, which includes Phyllactidium 
Moeb., Chromopeltis ex p., and Hansgirgia ; the family Mycoidaceze now 
consists of Mycoidea alone. Under Confervacee is included the family 
Anadyomenacee, consisting of the genera Anadyomene and Microdictyon. 
Under Ulothrichacez, a new family Entocladiacee is proposed, made up 
of the genera Entocladia, Endoclonium, Chetonema, Bolbocoleon, Epicladia, 
and Pringsheimia (?). The genus Acroblaste is sunk in Pilinia ; Poly- 
chzte and Ochlochzte in Aphanochexte Berth.; Chroolepus in Trentepohlia ; 
and Ulothrix and Gleotila ex p. in Hormiscia ; while Aphanochete A. Br. 
is referred to Herposteiron. 


Mycoidea, Hansgirgia, and Phyllactidium.j|—Dr. G. B. de Toni 
identifies M6bius’s Phyllactidium tropicum,t epiphytic on the leaves of 
Orchidex, with his own Hansgirgia flabelligera,§ found on the leaves of 
Anthurium Scherzianum. The genus Phyllactidium Moeb. must be sunk 
in Hansgirgia, which De Toni regards as a connecting link between the 
Coleochetacexe, Trentepohliacer, and Mycoideacee. 

M. . De Wildeman || describes the fructification of both Mycoidea 
and Hansgirgia, both genera being, he considers, rather widely dis- 
tributed in the Tropics. He describes the organs of propagation in 
both genera, and states that they are readily distinguished by their 
habit and colour, the disc of Hansgirgia being, when fresh, orange, that 
of Mycoidea green. The cells of the upright filaments differ also greatly 
in size and form. 

Prof. A. Hansgirg J points out that two different genera have been 
confounded under the name Phyllactidium. The genus of Kiitzing is a 
section of Coleochzte, while that of Boreau and Mébius should be 
included in Phycopeliis Mill., which forms the subfamily Hansgirgiacex 
of Trentepohliacez. 


Tilopteridez.**—Herr J. Reinke has investigated the structure and 
development of this very imperfectly known family of brown sea-weeds, 
in which only three species are at present certainly included, Haplospora 
globosa, Scaphospora speciosa, and Tilopteris Mertensii, from the northern 
and western coasts of Europe. 

Haplospora globosa grows on stones and the shells of molluscs, 
rarely on larger sea-weeds, in tufts, resembling in habit a Sphacelaria in 
its lower portion ; each filament does not, however, end in a large apical 
cell, but branches like an Hetocarpus, and ends in a hair-like prolonga- 


* Hedwigia, XXviii. (1889) pp. 14-7. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 776. 
+ Atti R. Accad. Lincei, 1888 (Rendic.), pp. 221-3. 


t Cf. ante, p. 97. nt § Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 1003. 
|| Bull. Soc. R. Bot. Belg., xxvii. (1888) part i., pp. 119-26 (1 pl.), and CR. 
Soc. R. Bot. Belg., 1889, pp. 34-7. { Hedwigia, xxviii. (1889) pp. 12-4, 


** Bot. Ztg., xlvii. (1889) pp. 101-18, 125-39, 155-8 (2 pls.). 


420 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


tion. It is attached to the substratum by an attachment-organ which 
varies considerably in its form and degree of development. ‘The only 
reproductive organ detected was a sporange, which may be stalked, and 
is less often intercalary. The whole contents of this sporange, which 
are coloured brown by phycophein, clothe themselves with a cell-wall 
within the sporange, and escape as a single large motionless spore, 
formed non-sexually, the germination of which was followed out. The 
spore contains four, or sometimes a larger number of nuclei; and the 
author sees in this a possible rudimentary formation of tetraspores, and 
alliance with the Dictyotaces, although in its mode of growth Haplo- 
spora comes nearest to the Sphacelariaceze and Ectocarpacee. 

In habit and mode of growth Scaphospora speciosa closely resembles 
Haplospora. It presents, however, two distinct kinds of reproductive 
organs. The first, called by the author “ oosporanges ” and “ oogones,” 
are usually intercalary cells, from which the whole contents escape as a 
single “spore,” which differs, however, from that of Haplospora in 
having no cellulose-coat, and only one nucleus. Its germination was 
not observed. 'The bodies of the second kind are multilocular sporanges, 
from which escape a number of spores which are probably zoospores. 
It is most probable that there is in Scaphospora a sexual mode of re- 
production. Hither the “spores” contained in the organs first described 
are oospheres, and the others antherozoids, or, as the author thinks more 
likely, the former are non-sexual spores, the latter zoogametes. 

Tilopteris Mertensit resembles the other two genera in its habit and 
mode of growth, and Haplospora in the mode of production of its spores. 
The author thinks it probable that the three genera may eventually be 
combined into one. 


New Genus of Desmidiaceze.*—Herr S. Stockmayer proposes a new 
genus of Desmidiacez, Astrocosmium, most nearly related to Cosmarium 
and Cosmaridium, which it altogether resembles in form, but differing 
from them in having stellate chromatophores similar to those of 
Cylindrocystis, in contrast to the axile chlorophyll-bands of Cosmarium, 
Penium, Closterium, and Mesoteenium, and the parietal chromatophores of 
Spirotenia. 

Crenacantha, Periplegmatium, and Hansgirgia.j—From an ex- 
amination of Kiitzing’s little known Crenacantha orientalis from Hebron 
in Palestine, Prof. A. Hansgirg considers that it must be placed under 
Chetophoracez near to Draparnaldia. Reinke’s genus Entocladia must 
now be sunk in Peripleqmatium Ktz., of which there are two sections, 
Entocladia marine, and Entoderma fresh-water; the author agrees with 
Wildeman in placing Hansgirgia flagelligera De Toni (= Phyllactidium 
tropicum Moeb.) under the genus Phycopeltis Mill. 

Trentepohlia.t—M. HT. De Wildeman passes in review the described 
forms of this genus, and enumerates twenty-eight which he considers to 
be good species. He finds that T. awrea sometimes presents the cha- 
acter of having its gametanges stalked, a character on which Gobi had 
founded, in T. uncinata, a distinct section of the genus; but this species 
must now be sunk in J. aurea. Characters based on the form of the 


* SB. K.K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell., xxxviii. (1888) p. 85. 

+ Flora, lxxii. (1889) pp. 56-9 (1 fig.). Cf. ante, p. 259. 

-~ Bull. Soc, R. Bot. Belg., xxvii. (1888) part i., pp. 79-83, part ii., pp. 22-4, 
136-44, 178-82 (1 pl.). Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 777. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 421 


fructification or on the colour of the cell-contents cannot be used for the 
delimitation of the species; the only ones which will stand at present 
are those founded on the external form of the cells and on their arrange- 
ment with respect to one another. Several species of Trentepohlia enter 
into the composition of lichens, especially of those belonging to the 
genus Ovnogonium. The following new species are described :—T. 
monilia and T. torulosa from Chile, growing on the bark of trees; and 
T. diffusa from Ceylon, on leaves. 


Pilinia and Acroblaste.*—Dr. G. B. De Toni assigns reasons for 
suppressing the new genus of Chroolepideze Acroblaste proposed by 
Reinsch. The species included under it he regards merely as the fertile 
condition of Algz belonging to Kiitzing’s Pilinia, also belonging to the 
Chroolepidez. 


Influence of Position on the Morphological Development of some 
Siphonocladacexe.{—Herr F. Noll has endeavoured to determine experi- 
mentally whether the great development and branching of the leaf-like 
portion of the single cell in Bryopsis muscosa and Caulerpa prolifera is 
due to heliotropism or to geotrupism. By reversing the direction of 
growth, he found that it was invariably only on the illuminated side of 
cut leaves that any new development of “leaf” and “ stem” took place, 
whether this illuminated side faced upwards or downwards, while the 
‘“‘roots” were formed only on the dark side, the differentiation being 
therefore independent of gravity. Herr Noll compares these phenomena 
to the behaviour of soft iron towards a magnet, regarding it as a kind of 
polarity. In the Siphonocladaces, with their continuous parietal layer 
of protoplasm, we have plants which, like soft iron, are readily modified 
by external factors which affect growth, and whose polarity can, 
therefore, be easily reversed. 


Fungi. 


Toxic Principles of Fungi.{—M. G. Dupetit describes the separa- 
tion and isolation of certain toxic principles from various fungi, and 
also the effect produced when administered to animals. ‘The author in 
the first place gives a resumé of the toxic principles which are already 
known to exist in fungi. In Amanita muscaria there is a very poisonous 
alkaloid, muscarine; A. phalloides contains a tetanic alkaloid or a 
glucoside; and ergot of rye contains a very poisonous alkaloid, ergotine. 
The author then gives the results of an investigation of Boletus edulis, 
which contains a principle capable of causing death by hypodermic 
injection, but not if taken internally; the juice of the Boletus, however, 
loses its toxic properties under the influence of heat. The development 
of microbes in the juice of the Boletus does not in any way modify its 
toxic properties; the active principle was also proved to be a soluble 
poison. Contact with hydrogen or oxygen has no effect upon it, but if 
is destroyed by ozone. Various solvents were then tried, and the toxic 
principle was found to be insoluble in chloroform, ether, and alcohol. 

The author then gives a method for the extraction of the toxic 
principle of Boletus, which he states possesses the principal characters 
of a soluble ferment, and for which he proposes the name mycozymase. 


* Notarisia, iv. (1889) pp. 653-5. 

+ Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg, iii. (1888) pp. 466-76 (2 figs.). 

t Mem. Soe. Sci. Phys. et Nat. Bordeaux, iii. (1887) pp. 185-215. 
1889. 26 


422 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


A search was then made for mycozymases in various edible and 
poisonous fungi:—Agaricus campestris, A. rubescens, A. vaginatus, A. 
phalloides and A. cesarius contain a mycozymase similar to that of 
Boletus; these fungi (excluding A. rubescens), and also Boletus edulis, 
appear to be perfectly innocuous to frogs, while A. rubescens contains a 
substance which is extremely poisonous to these animals. The very 
poisonous fungi A. muscarius, A. mappa, and A. pantherinus do not 
appear more poisonous to frogs than do the edible fungi. A. phalloides 
has a marked action. The principle poisonous to frogs contained in 
A. rubescens is distinct from mycozymase ; it is soluble in alcohol, and is 
probably an alkaloid or a glucoside. 


New Cases of Mycorhiza.*—Herr A. Schicht finds this phenomenon 
much more widely distributed than is generally supposed. He has 
detected it in species belonging to the following natural orders :— 
Leguminose, Rosacew, Onagracee, Umbellifere, Geraniacee, Oxalidee, 
Hypericacer, Violacez, Ranunculaceze, Primulaceew, Borraginex, 
Labiate, Plantagines, Campanulacess, Rubiaceze, Composite, Dipsacace, 
Valerianacezee, Smilacexw, and Graminez; while in other species belong- 
ing to these or to other orders, the result was negative. He attributes 
the fact of its being frequently overlooked to the extreme fineness of 
the hypha, the diameter of which often does not exceed 0:04 mm. 


Simple Mucedinex.j—M. J. Costantin distinguishes between the 
simple and the compound Mucedinesx, including under the former all 
the Hyphomycetes except the Stilbieze, Tubercularies, and Melanconiez. 
The former are divided into fourteen groups, in three of which the spores 
or chaplets of spores are inserted on a special apparatus, and in nine 
directly on the filaments; while in one they grow in a chaplet at the 
extremity and in the interior of a filament which remains an open tube 
after their escape; in the last group, Racodium, Mycorhiza, &e., no 
spores are produced. 

One of the fifteen groups is made up of genera usually regarded as 
nearly allied to the Mucorini, e.g. Piptocephalis, being, like them, 
parasites; they may be classed as a separate family, the Martensellez. 
In another group are placed genera which are parasitic on fungi, such 
as Sepedonium, Asterophora, Mycogone, Ramularia, and Helmintnosporium ; 
these are related to the Hymenomycetes through Cephalosporium and 
Zygodesmus ; while Mycogone appears to have alliance with Hypomyces 
and Melanospora; and the species of Ramularia constitute, in their 
perfect state, Spheriacer, belonging to the genera Stigmatea aud 
Spherella. 

The general conclusion drawn by M. Costantin from his researches 
is that the Mucedinez should not be considered as belonging exclusively 
to the Ascomycetes, but partly also to the Basidiomycetes ; while others 
should be constituted into the distinct families Martensellee and 
Rhopalomycetes. 


Biology of Chytridiacee.t—M. P. A. Dangeard regards the Chy- 
tridiaces as never true saprophytes. Light appears to favour the 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vi. (1888) pp: 269-72. 

+ ‘Matériaux pour Vhist. des Champignons,’ ii., 8vo, Paris, 1888, 210 pp. See 
Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxvi. (1888), Rev. Bibl., p. 181. 

{ Mém. sur les Chytridinées, lre sér., fasc. 2 (2 pls.) 1888. See Morot’s Journ. 
de Bot., ili. (1889), Rev. Bibl., p.ii. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 783. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 423 


emission of the zoospores, which usually takes place at the close of a 
bright sunny day. It is only in the case of terrestrial species, such as 
some species of Synchytrium, that the emission is favoured by moisture. 
Temperature appears to have some influence on their development, but 
its effect is not general. 

The author divides the family into two groups, one consisting of the 
genera destitute of mycele, the other having nutritive filaments, even if 
rudimentary. The members of the former group are necessarily parasites 
within the cells of the host; and it is again divided into two sections, 
according as the sporange is simple or compound. In the second group 
the position of both mycele and sporange in relation to the host vary ; 
in some the sporange only is exposed; in others it is only the ex- 
tremities of the mycele which penetrate the cells of the host; other 
‘species again are entirely endogenous. 

Rosen’s section Dentigera of Chytridium is referred by the author to 
the genus Rhizidium. The following new species are described :— 
Group I. Section 1, Olpidium Sphexrite ; Group I. Section 2, Micromyces 
Zygonii ; Group Il. Chytridium Braun, C. zoophthorum, C. Brebissonii, 
C. simplex, C. EHlodex, and Rhizidium catenatum. 


Rhamphospora, a new genus of Ustilaginee.*—Dr. D. D. 
Cunningham describes, under the name Rhamphospora Nymphxx, a 
fungus parasitic on the leaves of several species of Nymphza in India. 
The spores are produced singly, near the sporiferous branches but not 
actually at their extremities, and are beaked when mature. The 
promycele consists of a long germinating tube, with terminal branches 
which bear the sporids at their apex. The sporids of one branch 
conjugate with those of another. 


Fungi parasitic on the lower Animals and Plants.{—Herr W. 
Zopf describes in detail a number of fungi parasitic on nematode worms, 
desmids, diatoms, and other low organisms, animal and vegetable. 

Arthrobotrys oligospora is a fungus carrying on at first a saprophytic 
existence on damp wood or soil, decaying fruit, excrements, &c. Its 
branches present the peculiarity of bending, so as to form loops in 
which species of Anguillula get captured, and are then rapidly attacked 
and destroyed by the mycele of the fungus. The author observes that 
the result of the attacks of the parasite is to set up a fatty degeneration 
in the organs of the animal attacked. In addition to the ordinary conids, 
Arthrobotrys produces resting-spores. 

Another very minute fungus parasitic on species of Anguillula is 
Harposporium Anguillule, with respect to which Zopf confirms the 
observations of Lohde, rather than those of Sorokin. It produces crescent- 
or sickle-shaped conids borne on sterigmata, and resting-cells; but its 
systematic position cannot as yet be determined. 

Chroococcus turgidus is subject to the attacks of a parasitic fungus 
belonging to the Rhizidiacew, to which Zopf gives the name Rhizophyton 
agile ; while another species, R. gibbosum, attacks Desmidiacez ( Cylindro- 
cystis, Huastrum, Penium), Diatomacese (Pinnularia, Navicula), as well 
as the ova of Rotifers. A new genus of Rhizidiacese, Septocarpus, 
distinguished by the mode of germination of the zoospores, 1s formed 


* Scient. Mem. by medical officers of the army of India, part iii., 1888, pp. 27-32. 
Tt Nova Acta Acad. K. Leop.-Carol. Akad., lii. (1888) pp. 313-76 (7 pls.). 
26 2 


‘494 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


for another species parasitic on Navicula. Rhizidium Braunit is also. 
parasitic on diatoms. 

The author records the remarkable observation that some Mucorini, 
especially Pilobolus erystallinus, when attacked by Pleotrachelus and 
Syncephalis, exhibit a tendency to intermit the ordinary mode of repro- 
duction by spores in favour of the much rarer production of 
zy gosperms. 

Observations follow on the deeay of the root of Stiftia chrysantha, 
a labiatifloral Composite, caused by Protomyces radicicolus; and on a 
parasitic fungus which attacks deeaying Charas, nearly allied to Lepto- 
mitus, which the author places in the genus Apodachlya, with the name 
A. pyrifera. 

Plowright’s British Uredinee and Ustilaginee.*—-This excellent 
monograph contains a detailed morphological account of these two 
classes of Fungi, followed by a systematic description of all the British 
species, including an enumeration of their host-plants. 4 is illustrated 
by eight excellent plates. 


Penicilliopsis, a new genus of Ascomycetes.j—Under the name 
Penicilliopsis clavarizformis Graf zu Solms-Laubach describes a fungus 
found on fallen fruits of Diospyros macrophylla, which is interesting as 
forming a connecting link between Hrotiwm and Penicillium on the one 
hand, and Onygena on the other hand, and showing that they all belong 
to the Tuberacee. 

The thallus obtains its nutriment from the endosperm of the seed, 
and projects above the surface of the fruit in the form of club-shaped 
horns, of a sulphur colour, on which are formed the conids. It also 
produces small hard reddish-brown tubers which are sporocarps, very 
similar to those of Penicillium, but not going through a period of rest. 
They consist of a dense mass of interwoven hyphe, which produce the 
asci within them only when they have attained nearly their full size; 
when ripe, the sporocarp consists of several chambers, not of only one, 
as in Hlaphomyces. 'The terminal cells of branches of the ascogenous 
hyphe develope directly into asci; the ascospores vary in number ; 
no epiplasm could be detected. When they are mature the outer wall 
disappears, as in Penicillium. 'The ovate ascospores resemble those of 
Eurotium and Penicillium, and are sometimes covered with minute spines, 
like those of Tuber ; they appear, however, to be dimorphic. 

The most important difference between Penicilliopsis and Penicillium 
lies in the mode of formation of the asci, which, in the latter genus, are 
connected together in long chains. No trace of sexual organs could be 
detected. The relation between Penicilliopsis and Onygena and Terfezia 
is also traced out. 

The colouring-matter of Penicilliopsis clavarizformis has been ex- 
amined by Herr J. Reinke,{ and is found to be a substance allied to 
chlorophyll and phycoerythrin, crystallizing in red prisms; he proposes 
to call it mycoporphyrin. 

Cyttaria.§—Dr. HE. Fischer has made a critical examination of this 
genus of exotic Ascomycetous Fungi, the first species of which, 


* ‘Monograph of the British Uredines and Ustilaginese, with an account of 
their Biology,’ 8vo, London, 1889, vii. and 348 pp. and 8 pls. 

+ Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, vi. (1887) pp. 538-72 (2 pls.). 

{ T.¢., pp. 73-8 (1 pL). § Bot. Ztg., xlvi. (1888) pp. 813-32, 842-6 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 425 


C. Darwini, was found by Darwin in Terra-del-Fuego, where it grows 
abundantly on beech-trees, and forms the chief vegetable food of the 
natives. Other species are distributed through the southern temperate 
zone, and grow on beeches and other trees, causing extensive de- 
formities. 

Dr. Fischer has determined Cytiaria to belong to the Discomycetes ; 
but the apotheces remain for a long period, sometimes even till mature, 
covered by a cortex. They are imbedded in large numbers in a common 
weft of hyphe, which may be called a stroma. In the development of 
the fructification the nearest alliance appears to be with Cenangium, 
although it differs from that genus in the form of the spores. In the 
discrimination of the species one character relied on is the arrangement 
of the antherids (spermogones). 


Eremothecium, a new genus of Ascomycetes.*—-Prof. A. Borzi de- 
scribes a new species and genus of Fungi, Hremothecium Cymbalarie, 
found on unripe capsules of Linaria Cymbalaria, attacking the interior 
of the ovary, and forming a dense weft of hyphe round the seeds. The 
following is the diagnosis of the genus, which the author regards as 
most nearly allied to Gymnoascus and Hremascus :—Mycelio arachnoideo- 
effuso albicante, hyphis tenerrimis hyalinis, laxe et irregulariter com- 
plicato-ramosis, remote septatis, ascis solitariis ad apices hypharum, 
lageniformibus, sessilibus aut basi breviter attenuatis, membrana levi, 
ztate provecta deliquescente, sporis 30 aut plurimis in singulo asco, 
clavato-acicularibus, rectis vel seepe curvulis, achrois, simplicibus. 


Coniothyrium diplodella.j—In continuation of his researches on 
the life-history of this parasite, so destructive to the vine-crop in Italy 
and the south of France, Sig. P. Baccarini states that the fructifications 
are found, on the approach of winter, still immature on the bunches of 
grapes, and frequently destroyed by the cold or by the moulds which 
grow over them; and they can scarcely be efficacious in the propagation 
of the species. The parasite appears to attack exclusively the bunches 
of grapes, and not the vegetative organs, commencing with the rachis, 
and then extending to the berries. The branching of the thallus is in 
all normal cases monopodial. In the formation of the pycnids no fusion 
takes place of the contents of the generating hyphae into a mass of 
granular hyphe, nor the formation of a parenchymatous tissue from 
which are derived the conceptacles and stroma, as has been erroneously 
stated; the pycnids are, on the contrary, derived from the sporigenous 
apparatus, which is the result of the seymentation of one or more initial 
cells; the peridium and superincumbent stroma being formed by the 
interweaving and segmentation of a large number of finger-like processes 
proceeding from the neighbouring hyphe. 


Polymorphism of Pleospora herbarum.{—-Dr. O. Mattirolo finds 
that the ascophorous states of two distinct species of fungus are confused 
under this name, doubtless due to admixture of the spores in cultures. 
He identifies the two species as P. Sarcinule Gib. & Griff. and P. Alter- 
narie Gib. & Griff. The former is synonymous with Spheria herbarum, 
the latter with Pleospora infectoria and Spheria infectoria. The conidial 
form of the former is known as Macrosporium Sarcinula, that of the latter 


* Nuoy. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xx. (1888) pp. 452-6 (1 fig.). 
+ Malpighia, ii. (1888) pp. 325-37, { T. c., pp. 357-78, 


426 SUMMARY OF CUBRENI RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


as Alternaria tenuis and Sporidesmius Alternaria. Pyenidial forms are 
known of both species; and of P. Sarcinule we are also acquainted with 
microconidial and sclerotoid forms. 


Presence of a Sulphurous Oil in Penicillium glaucum.*—Herr B. 
Jonsson records the occurrence of a fungus-mycele in a bottle of normal 
10 per cent. sulphuric acid, which culture proved to be Penicilliwm 
glaucum. In the cells of the hyphe were a number of strongly refrin- 
gent bodies varying greatly in size and form, sometimes completely 
filling up the cells, and consisting chiefly of sulphur. These bodies 
show a very strong resemblance to the globules of sulphur found in 
Beggiatoa and other “ sulphur-bacteria,” { agreeing with them in their 
general appearance, and in their solubility in carbon bisulphide and in 
other chemical reactions, but differing from them again in others which 
show that they do not consist of uncombined sulphur. In some respects 
they show more similarity to the sulphurous substance contained in the 
bulbs of Alliwm and the seeds of Lepidium, Sinapis, &c., and must 
probably be of the nature of a fatty oil containing sulphur. Sub- 
stances of an oily or fatty nature are by no means uncommon in 
Fungi allied to Penicillium, especially when in the resting condition or 
in the sclerotes, and the substance under discussion must certainly be 
regarded as a reserve food-material. 


Dissemination of the Spores in Rhytisma acerinum.{—Dr. H. 
Klebahn describes the mode in which the spores of this fungus, parasitic 
on the maple, are disseminated. The ascospores are about 65 p» long, 
and only 1:6 p» thick, so that they present a very large surface in pro- 
portion to their mass. They are surrounded also by a gelatinous 
envelope, by means of which they become firmly attached to the leaves 
on which they fall. 


Saccharomyces lactis.S—This new Torula, discovered by Dr. L. 
Adametz, is stated to be distinguished by the property it possesses of 
causing the fermentation of milk-sugar. The cells, which are elliptical 
or somewhat oval, are on the average 7 » long and 5 » broad. The buds, 
which are round, are 3 to 4 win diameter. Buds may form at either 
pole of a cell; sometimes two buds are produced at the same time. No 
ascospores were produced by cultivating on the gypsum block for twenty 
days at a temperature of 25°C. Account is given of the cultivation of 
this torula in pepton-gelatin, in wort-gelatin, in beer wort, and in milk. 
S. lactis causes fermentation of milk sooner or later, according to the 
temperature. At 40° the appearances of fermentation may be observed 
within twenty-four hours, at 38° in forty-eight hours, and at 25° C. in 
four days. No precipitation of paracasein occurs in the process, the 
milk-sugar only being decomposed. 

Phosphorescence of Pleurotus olearius.||—Prof. G. Arcangeli states 
that the phosphorescence of the olive-fungus, Agaricus (Pleurotus) 
olearius, is by no means confined to the hymenium, although this part 
manifests it most strongly, but is exhibited also by the stipe and the 
internal tissue, but not by the mature spores. It is displayed by day as 


* SB. Bot. Verein Lund, Nov. 18, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxvii. (1889) 
pp. 201, 232, and 264. 

t See this Journal, 1887, p. 1007. { Hedwigia, xxvii. (1888) pp. 305-6. 

§ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., v. (1889) pp. 116=20. 

|| Atti R. Accad. Lincei (Rendic.), iy. (1888) pp. 365-9. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 427 


well as by night, but is not the result of previous insolation. The 
author regards itas due not to any parasite or other extraneous organism, 
but to a process of oxidation in the tissue itself, dependent either 
directly on respiration or on a secondary process intimately connected 
with respiration. 

Hymenoconidium.*—Under the name Hymenoconidium petasatum 
Herr H. Zukal describes a remarkable hymenomycetous fungus, found 
on rotten olive-berries and leaves, in which the formation of the stipe 
is sometimes entirely suppressed, but the spores are still formed in the 
normal manner, the hymene being then sessile upon the substratum and 
remarkably resembling the aggregation of stylospores in the Uredines. 

M. V. Fayod} believes the fungus thus described to be simply a 
young state of Marasmius hygrometricus. 


Mycetozoa. 


Tylogonus Agave. {—Under this name M. §. Miliakaris describes 
an organism endophytic in the leaves of an Agave. It is found in the 
form of a white plasmode in the palisade-tissue beneath the epiderm, 
which the author believes to belong to a Myxomycete. The threads of 
which the plasmode is formed are surrounded by a gelatinous envelope, 
and the author states that the spores are formed and multiply by 
division within the cells of the host. 


Protophyta. 
a. Schizophycez. 


Scenedesmus.s—M. E. De Wildeman reviews the described species 
of this genus, which are very difficult to define, from the number of 
intermediate forms. ‘The presence or absence of horns cannot be re- 
garded as a specific character. One or two forms display a rose-tint in 
the cell-membrane, similar to that of some species of Pediastrum. 


Mediterranean Diatoms.||—M. Peragallo describes in detail the 
diatoms found by him in the bay of Villafranca on the coast of 
the Department of Alpes-Maritimes, obtained from the deep-sea, from the 
bottom by dredging, from alge to which they adhere, and from the 
stomachs of fishes and other marine animals. The deep-sea species are 
characterized by the comparatively small development of the siliceous 
coat, and consequently by their susceptibility to be destroyed by acids. 

In the division of the Diatomacee into the larger groups, the author 
holds it to be a mistake to depend too much on the characters to be 
drawn from the endochrome, as proposed by Petit. These characters can 
only be used with great caution in the case of marine diatoms, and not 
at all in fossil species. If also, as stated by M. Petit, the differences in 
the arrangement of the endochrome are always correlated with differ- 
ences in the structure of the valves, this renders the former unnecessary. 
The author prefers a combination of the systems of classification of 
Petit and Pfitzer with those of H. L. Smith, Grunow, and Cleve, based 


* Bot. Ztg., xlvii. (1889) pp. 61-5 (1 pl.). Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 99, 

+ T.¢., pp. 158-9. 

t ‘Tylogonus Agave. Ein Beitr. z. Kennt. d. niedern endophytischen Pilze,’ 
4to, Athens, 1888, 14 pp. and 1 pl. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxvii. (1889) p. 84. 

§ Bull. Soc, R. Bot. Belg., xxvii. (1888) part i., pp. 71-9 (1 pl.). 

|| Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Toulouse, xxii. (1888) pp. 13-100 (5 pls.) 


428 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


on external characters. Characters derived from the siliceous valves are 
in fact the only ones which can be made use of in prepared specimens; 
those derived from the endochrome, the external sheath, or the stipe, 
being equally fugacious, while the specific characters run into one 
another in inextricable confusion. M. Peragallo regards the whole 
family of diatoms as consisting of five groups, which may be clustered 
round five types, viz.:—(1) Navicula ; (2) Synedra or Nitzschia; (3) 
Diatoma or Tabellaria ; (4) Biddulphia ; (5) Coscinodiscus or Melosira. 
Of these the two first constitute, in general terms, the Placochromacee, 
the other three the Coccochromacez of Petit. Also in a general way 
the first corresponds to the Raphidez of Smith, the second and third to 
the Pseudoraphidee, the third and fourth to the Cryptoraphidee. 

A very large number of species are described, some of them new, 
arranged in the following sixty genera and twenty families :— 

J. Pracocnromacez. Fam. 1, Achnanthese (Raphoneis, Cocconeis, 
Achnanthes); Fam. 2, Gomphonemee (Fioicosphenia) ; Fam. 3, Cymbellez 
(Amphora, Auricula (?)); Fam. 4, Mastogloiacez (Orthoneis, Mastogloia) ; 
Fam. 5, Naviculee (Navicula, Schizonema, Berkeleya, Toxonidea, Pleuro- 
sigma, Donkinia); Fam. 6, Amphiproree (Amphiprora, Plagiotropis) ; 
Fam. 7, Nitzschiee (Trybbionella, Nitzschia, Bacillaria, Homeocladia, 
Hantzschia); Fam. 8, Surirellee (Surirella, Campylodiscus); Fam. 9, 
Synedrez (Synedra, Thalassiothriz). 

II. Coccocnromace®. Fam. 10, Fragilariee (Cymatosira, Dimere- 
gramma, Glyphodesmies, Plagiogramma); Fam. 11, Meridiez (Asterio- 
nella); Fam. 12, Licmophorez (Podocystis, Licmophora, Climzosphenia ; 
Fam. 13, ‘Tabellariee (Grammatophora, Khabdonema, Siriatella, 
Terpsinoé); Fam. 14, Biddulphiez (Biddulphia, Triceratium, Dytilum, 
Lithodesmium, Hemiaulus); Fam. 15, Eupodisceze (Cerataulus, Auliscus, 
Actinocyclus, Euodia); Fam. 16, Actinoptycheze (Actinoptychus); Fam. 
17, Asterolampres (Asterolampra, Asteromphalus); Fam. 18, Coscino- 
disceze (Coscinodiscus, Cyclotella, Eudictya, Stephanopyxis); Fam. 19, 
Melosireze (Melosira, Podosira, Hyalodiscus, Lauderia) ; Fam. 20, Cheeto- 
cereze (Rhizosolenia, Chetoceros, Bacteriastrum). 


Schmidt’s Atlas der Diatomaceenkunde.—The most recently pub- 
lished parts of this magnificent work, Hefte 27-30, with plates 105-120, 
relate to the genera Aulacodiscus, Auliscus, Eupodiscus, Glyphodiscus, 
Actinoptychus, Trinacria, Triceratium, Coscincdiscus, Cerataulus, Kittonia, 
and Biddulphia. Many new species are described. 


Bacillus muralis and Grotto-Schizophycee.*—Dr. A. Hansgirg 
returns to this subject, and confutes the view of Tomaschek that the 
organism known as Bacillus muralis must be a true Schizomycete, be- 
cause it is altogether destitute of chlorophyll. He reaffirms his state- 
ment with regard to its genetic connection with Aphanothece caldariorum, 
and adduces other instances where the presence of a blue-green pigment 
is not constant in the Cyanophycee. 

Dr. Hansgirg then enumerates the organisms found by him in dark 
caves in the limestone mountains of Austria and Bohemia. Among 
Cyanophycez he finds Gleothece rupestris, Aphanothece caldariorum, and 
Lyngbya calcicola, each presenting a varietal form of Protococcoidee, 
Protococcus glomeratus, and a Pleurococcus nearly allied to P. miniatus 
were found. é 


* Bot. Ceniralbl., xxxvii. (1889) pp. 33-9. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 786. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 429 


8. Schizomycetes. 


Nucleus or nucleoid_bodies of Schizomycetes.*—Prof. M. Schottelius 
claims that he is able to show that by suitable illumination and in the 
stained or unstained condition there exists in bacilli a central nuclear 
rodlet, and in cocci a central spherical nucleus. Beyond this point 
he does not go; that is, he does not conclude that these bodies arc 
nuclei in the sense that word is used in when speaking of the animal or 
vegetable cell, but limits his definition, and merely designs to express 
by it the central position of this piece of inspissated protoplasm. The 
bacterium is thus divisible into three zones, an outer homogeneous almost 
colourless sheath, next a greyish almost homogeneous zone, and finally in 
the centre a delicate dark streak which somewhat resembles the axis- 
cylinder in the sheath of anerve-fibre. These three zones are observable 
in the living condition, best in gelatin-drop-cultivations, or in clear agar. 
The differentiation is still clearer in the stained condition; for this 
purpose aqueous gentian-violet solution is the most suitable, the next most 
effective stain being fuchsin. With these solutions cover-glass prepara- 
tions are stained for 1/4-1/2 minute, and the bacillus is shown to be 
surrounded by an unstained homogeneous sheath. Next comes the 
stained contour of the protoplasm which is itself uncoloured ; next, and 
lying centrally, is the dark, almost black nucleus-rod, having very often 
a finely granular appearance as if composed of an aggregation of minute 
granules. These appearances are, however, only to be obtained from 
preparations of fresh viable individuals ; for when the bacillus dies its 
nucleus splits up into various pieces. 


Micro-organisms of Mytilus edulis.j— Dr. A. Lustig has been 
attracted by the poisonous effects of eating mussels to an examination 
of its contained micro-organisms. He finds well-marked differences 
between specimens living in open sea-water and those found in stagnant 
canals ; the former contain no microbes. The others have at least two, 
one of which has pathogenetic effects on certain Mammals, in which it 
appears to cause enteritis. The proof that it is this microbe which 
causes poisoning in Man can only be decided when the blood and vomit 
of patients have been examined with the view of seeing whether the 
microbe in question is there. 


Spore-formation in Bacillus Anthracis.t—Dr. A. M. Léwin has 
investigated the question whether anthrax loses its spores after being 
kept for some time at a high temperature. He comes to the conclusion 
that anthrax vaccine contains no spores. He proceeded by taking strong 
cultivations of anthrax obtained from guinea-pigs just dead (36-48 hours 
after inoculation) and keeping them at 42°-43° C. for 14-20 days. The 
media were neutral bouillon and agar in test-tubes. Every day four 
test-tubes were taken out of the thermostat and examined. One bouillon 
and one agar tube were examined microscopically, and another pair were 
kept for two hours at a temperature of 62—64° C. in order to kill the 
bacilli. If spores were really present the cultivations would still be 
inoculable. Cover-glass preparations were then made and stained 
by the Ehrlich-Koch method. The supposed spores were red (fuchsin), 


* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., iv. (1888) pp. 705-9. Cf. this Journal. 
1887, p. 1007. ~ Archi. Ital. Biol., x. (1888) pp. 393-400. 
t~ Wratsch, 1887, pp. 703 and 739. Cf. Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr.. vy. (1888) 
pp. 398-9. ' 


430 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the bacilli blue (methylen-blue). It was found that the nitric acid 
must not be stronger than 1:10 or 1:15, as the methylen-blue had the 
power of expelling the fuchsin. All the same, bacilli with true spores 
were stained. From these two series of experiments it was shown that 
the hollow spaces were never stained, while the true spores in the central 
series were stained red on a blue ground. On the other hand the weakened 
cultures which had been exposed to the temperature of 62°-64° and 
contained spore-like spaces (microspores) were quite dead, and did not 
germinate on plates. In order to meet the objection that the bacilli 
might have accidentally lost their capability of forming spores, the 
author inoculated from the originals on gelatin and agar. In a few days 
active spore-formation took place at the temperature of the room. 


Bacteria of the Tubercles of Papilionacez.*—The tubercles in the 
root of the Leguminose were first noticed two hundred years ago by 
Malpighi, who described them as galls. In the last twenty years these 
formations have been much discussed and various explanations offered 
as to their origin. Quite lately Prof. M. Ward showed that if Vicia 
Faba were grown in sterilized media these tubercles did not appear, 
and that they were probably caused by a fungus. This fungus was 
supposed by Prof. Ward to be one of the Ustilaginee. 

Herr M. W. Beyerinck has now gone a step farther and lays it down 
that a bacterium, Bacillus radicicola, is the cause of the tubercles ; so that 
we are still very much where we were two hundred years ago. 

Now the contents of the tubercles had from their appearance been 
described in 1885 as ‘“‘ bacteroids” by Brunchorst,j who conceived that 
they were autonomous formations of the vegetable protoplasm. The idea 
of the author (Beyerinck) is that these bacteroids, the existence of which 
is not disputed, originate from or are produced by immigration of the 
B. radicicola into the roots. To put it into other words, the bacteroids 
are metamorphosed bacteria which have lost the power of development, 
and now are virtually albumen corpuscles, though between the two con- 
ditions there exist many intermediate stages. Hence the tubercles are 
caused by the infection of the B. radicicola, and this is proved by the 
fact that they are not produced when the plants are cultivated in sterilized 
media. The bacillus forms in decoction of bean-stalks and gelatin 
-largish colonies, of irregular size, whitish in colour, and hemispherical 
in shape. The colonies appear to consist of rods 4 uw long and 1 p thick, 
and of small motile elements 0°9 » long and 0°18 » thick. These 
small elements are flagellated, and their motility depends on the 
presence of oxygen. Smaller colonies also are produced, and in these 
there seems to be a regular series of transition forms between the typical 
rodlet and the bacteroids. 

B. radicicola failed to produce either diastase or invertin. The 
author gives numerous varieties of his bacillus, and divides the varieties 
into two groups with somewhat different characteristics. 


Natural mode of infection of Vibrio Metschnikovi.t—'The disease of 
fowls, gastroenteritis cholerica, discovered by M. N. Gamaleia to be 
caused by Vibrio Meischnikovi, agrees in many clinical and pathological 
aspects with the cholera of man—temperature, diarrhcea, cramp, acute 


__ * Bot. Ztg., xlvi. (1888) pp. 725-35, 741-50, 757-71, 781-90, 797-802 (1 pl.). 
Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 788. + Cf. this Journal, 1886, p. 271. 
t Ann. Instit. Pasteur, 1888, p. 552. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 431 


inflammation of the intestine with copious shedding of epithelium, small 
spleen, &c. Hence the mode of infection by V. Metschnikovi becomes 
interesting, as throwing light on the infection of cholera asiatica. With 
regard to the latter, one of the chief objections to the cholera-vibrio 
of Koch is that gastric juice soon and completely destroys it. Hence the 
wtiology of Asiatic cholera is far from being explained by the discovery 
of the comma bacillus. 

With regard to this new cholera of fowls, it is found that it is not 
contagious, and that intramuscular and subcutaneous injections are 
quite useless to infect adult fowls. Hence this cannot be the natural 
mode of infection, nor was there any marked result from feeding the 
animals with infected food. 

As the mortality from this disease amounts to 10 per cent., a more 
effective method was evidently required. This was found in lung 
infection ; for when fowls and rabbits were infected by injecting them 
in the trachea or the lungs, they rapidly succumbed. ‘fhe author is led 
to conclude that it is probable that the natural mode of infection is 
through the air-passages. 


432 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


MICROSCOPY. 


a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.* 
(1) Stands. 


Dick and Swift’s Patent Petrological Microscope.{—Mr. A. Dick 
describes this Microscope (fig. 57) as follows :— 

“ Many years ago I requested Mr. Swift to make for me a first-rate 
Binocular Petrological Microscope. The centering of the stage by 
screws was, I suppose, as good as it could be made. I found it unsatis- 
factory when using high powers on small crystals. A centering nose- 
piece answered no better. Only by the simultaneous rotation of the 
polarizer and analyser by hand, little by little, could I keep the inter- 
ference figures of small crystals in the field of view, or feel certain that 
the figures had not left it during rotation owing to the eccentricity of 
the centering. By small crystals I mean crystals under 1/1000 in. in 
diameter, and of such thickness as one finds them at the edges of petro- 
logical sections. Results obtained thereby were only slowly got, and 
always with some uncertainty. I tried the Nachet Microscope, but 
found it a cumbrous instrument. Latterly, I connected the polarizer 
and eye-piece analyser by a jointed rod, and got thereby excellent 
results, whilst I could still retain binocular vision for all but certain 
observations. 

I suggested to Mr. Swift that he should manufacture a more perfect 
Student’s Microscope than any now obtainable; one which would suit 
alike the mineralogical, petrological, botanical, or medical student. 
Having agreed upon the design of the instrument, I left to Mr. Swift 
the carrying out of the details, which he did in an ingenious manner 
and with excellent workmanship. When the Microscope was finished 
I went over it carefully, and handed it to several friends interested in 
such matters for suggestions, all of which have been carried out. You 
see the result in a small Microscope where there is little lumber and 
much capability of good work. Its interest to the Mineralogical Society 
lies in its adaptation to the study of the optical properties of minerals 
generally, and particularly to that of the thin plates of minerals seen in 
ordinary sections of rocks prepared for microscopical examination. For 
this purpose the analyser and polarizer are connected together by toothed 
wheels. They can thus be turned together in any position relatively to 
one another—crossed, parallel, or inclined—each nicol being so fitted 
that it can be set in any position. The wheels can be clamped in any 
position. The tube of the Microscope is of the ordinary construction. 
Within the lower part of it is a sliding tube which carries a sliding 
plate. In the plate are three circular openings, of which the central one 
is always open. In one of the other openings is fitted a Klein’s plate ; 
in the othera lens. The lens can be easily removed and another of 
different focus put in its place, according to the purpose for which it is 
to be used. 

The lens of shorter focus brings interference figures into the eye- 
piece, where the dispersion may be studied, and also where the apparent 
angle in air of a biaxial crystal may be approximately measured, if the 


* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (8) Ilu- 
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics 
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous. 

+ Mineralogical Magazine, viii, (1889) pp. 160-3. 


<5) 


Cae 


YALAWOYOIW 


CES 
a 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 433 


section is large enough to fill, or nearly fill, the field. For this and 
other purposes, a micrometer can be pushed into the eye-piece. In the 
instrument now described, with a B eye-piece, 50° of the scale between 


Fic. 57. 


Ww 


a 


HELM ec FON = = 


the optic axes are equal to an apparent angle in air of 694° for muscovite. 


Exact measurements must, of course, be made by means of a stage 
goniometer. 


oa 


434 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The lens of longer focus is intended for use without the eye-piece, 
to enable the observer to see the interference figures (generally only the 
axial shadows being visible) by looking down the tube, when a 1/10 or 
1/12 in. objective is used on very small crystals, in convergent light, 
between crossed nicols. 

There is a weaker lens for the same purpose fitting into the top of 
the tube, which can be used with a 1/4 or 1/6 in. objective by those who, 
like myself, cannot see the figures without some aid. 

The eye-piece, when in use, turns with the polarizing apparatus. 
It contains the usual cross wires, and has an adjustment to enable an 
observer to focus the wires or the micrometer alluded to above. A 
quarter-undulation plate of mica or a wedge of mica or quartz can be 
pushed through the eye-piece at 45° to the direction of the cross wires. 

When the eye-piece is not in use its place can be taken by a fitting 
which carries the analyser and the weakest lens alluded to above. The 
condenser of the instrument consists of a lens screwed upon the top of 
the polarizer, which slides up and down. The lens is suitable for all 
objectives up to the 1/2 in. For higher powers and interference figures 
a small hemispherical lens is fitted into the stage and can be pushed into 
the axis of the instrument when required. The upper surface grazes the 
lower side of the glass slip carrying the object. The focusing is done 
by raising or lowering the polarizer carrying the aforesaid lens. This 
arrangement is found to work admirably. j 

The rotation of the eye-piece and polarizing apparatus is measured 
on a circle graduated to degrees, but by using a pocket-lens a good 
reading to half a degree can be obtained, and a fair reading to a quarter 
of a degree, nearer than which extinctions or angles cannot be measured, 
even under the most favourable circumstances. 

When the indicator is at zero on the graduated circle the cross 
wires are upright and horizontal as the observer looks into the instru- 
ment. If the polarizer is in its catch any suitable crystal with straight 
extinction will be at the maximum darkness when parallel to either 
cross wire. If Klein’s plate be now pushed into the tube of the Micro- 
scope, and the analyser turned in its fitting till the crystal and the field 
are of one uniform warm blue tint, it will be found that the nicols are 
accurately parallel. The nicols can then be turned parallel to one 
another by the toothed wheels. This is almost the only use I have found 
for the Klein’s plate. I wished to put it aside altogether from a student’s 
instrument, but Mr. Swift informed me that a Microscope, to be used even 
occasionally for petrological investigations, cannot be sold without such 
a fitting, buyers requiring it though they do not appear to make any use 
of it. It must be regarded as part of the little lumber which it seems 
this instrument must possess. 

If the mineral with straight extinction is not lying parallel. to either 
cross wire, it will be found that when the wheels are turned the crystal 
will be extinguished when either of the wires becomes parallel with it. 
If the mineral has an oblique extinction a reading of the circle must be 
made when one or other wire is parallel to one of the edges or lines of 
the crystal, and another reading after continuing the rotation till the 
maximum extinction is attained. The rotation is then continued through 
45°, and a mica- or quartz-wedge pushed through the slot in the eye- 
piece to ascertain the direction of the major or minor axis of elasticity 
and its inclination to the edge or line if desired. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 435 


It is with the use of convergent light for interference figures that 
the accuracy and simplicity of this instrument become apparent. No 
centering being required, it is evident that an interference figure once 
seen will remain in the centre of the field during the entire rotation. 
If it passes out of view it is on account of the nature of the figure. 
Even in the case of the smallest crystals, no doubt is ever left in the 
mind of the observer whether the figure may not have disappeared 
owing to imperfect centering. ; 

I have placed on the table two typical sections. The one contains 
large and well-defined crystals of augite, olivine, and felspar, from the 
Lion Haunch, near Edinburgh. It will be seen that by pushing any 
crystal towards the centre of the field till the angle to be measured 
touches the intersection of the cross wire, a reading of the angle is 
obtained. Pushing the crystal into the centre of the field, and examin- 
ing it by convergent light under a high power, it is easy to ascertain the 
direction of the line joining its optic axes if they can be seen in the 
section. This is noted, and one of the cross wires brought parallel to 
it. A reading of the circle is then made, and the rotation continued 
through 45°. The high power is then replaced by a lower power, and 
the strongly converging upper lens of the condenser is pushed out so 
that the mineral may be examined in less strongly convergent light for 
the purpose of ascertaining in what direction compensation is obtained 
when the mica or quartz wedge is thrust through the eye-piece parallel 
or at right angles to the optic axial plane, inclined 45° to the 
planes of the crossed nicols. By thus studying the emergence of a 
bisectrix it is seen whether it is positive or negative. The other section 
consists of a Scotch hornblende-schist. The greater part of the section 
consists of water-clear granules of quartz and felspar, containing 
amongst the mosaic a number of well-defined crystals of rutile, and an 
immense number of less well-defined crystals of some mineral showing 
very dark borders, due to the fact that its refractive index ig much 
higher or much lower than that of the mosaic. II the grains, except 
the hornblende and some parts of the mosaic, are under the 1/1000 of 
an inch, piled upon one another, for the section is a rather thick one 
except at the edges. In this section are two small grains, one of which 
shows the emergence of one optic axis of a felspar, whilst the other 
shows the cross of quartz cut nearly perpendicular to its principal axis. 
Close to it lies one of the still smaller grains of the more or less highly 
refractive crystal. It lies flat, gives straight extinction, and shows the 
nearly perpendicular emergence of an optic axis. I think the mineral 
is epidote, but draw attention to it merely to show the ease with which 
interference figures can be studied. To a petrologist accustomed to a 
rotating stage and fixed cross wires, a familiar section looks strange 
when first looked at on a fixed stage with movable cross wires, but after 
a few hours’ work with the instrument, the feeling of strangeness passes, 
and that of the solid advantage of a perfect centering alone remains. 

There is one fact which I should allude to in connection with the 
small interference figures seen on looking down the tube of the Micro- 
scope. It is, that the spot of light at the back of the objective in which 
the figures are seen rotates slightly when the wheels are turned. This 
is due to its being seen by the extraordinary ray. It may be regarded 
as a blemish, but is of no practical importance. 

Beneath the stage is a universal fitting, whereby any substage 


436 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


arrangement may be applied for special studies. In this paper I have 
confined my description to those concerned in the application of the 
Microscope to mineralogy and petrology.” 


Konkoly’s Microscope for observing the Lines in Photographed 
Spectra.*—Fig. 58 represents the apparatus devised by Dr. N. v. Konkoly 
on the type of Hilger’s instrument for the same purpose. f 

AA is a nickeled cast-iron base on which are mounted the two 
perforated supports BB; these are united by the two frames T and §, 
of which the former serves as object-stage, while the latter carries the 
Microscope M. The frame § carries the slide C between swallow-tail 


guides, and upon C the Microscope is fixed by three tension- and three 
pressure-screws. s is the steel screw which moves the Microscope, and 
the nut which propels it is the nave of the drum T’, which is turned by 
the milled head g. The screw terminates in a sphere which is inclosed 
in a socket upon the slide C; the screw is prevented from turning in 
the socket by a pin, which does not, however, fit into a hole as is usually 
the case, but into a slightly elongated slit, so that the serew, with a 


* Central-Ztg. f. Opt. u. Mech., viii. (1887) pp. 241-2 (1 fig.). 
+ See this Journal, 1887, p. 461. E 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 437 


little play, is able to follow the inequalities of the coarser parts of the 
apparatus (e.g. the guides 8). Backlash is prevented by a spiral spring 
which is partly inclosed in the box t; this spring is made of greater 
length than usual, so that within the limits of its action there shall be 
no appreciable variation in the resistance ; the author considers that the 
large resistance exerted at the beginning of its action by the spring as 
usually made causes great wear and tear of the micrometer-screw and its 
bearings, while at the end the resistance is so weak that the drum tends 
to leave its abutment. In this instrument the drum is a fixture upon 
the frame 8S. The drum:is divided into 100 parts; the divisions are 
read by the lens /', and whole turns are registered upon a millimeter 
scale, which is read by the lens l. 

The stage T carries a frame which is moved between swallow-tail 
guides by a fourfold screw of steep pitch (not shown in the figure) in a 
direction perpendicular to that of the slide C. Upon this frame the 
negative is placed, and is held by two clips. p is a special stage de- 
signed to carry the smaller sized negatives of siderospectrographs. By 
means of the sliding stage different spectra, which have been photo- 
graphed upon the same plate, can be brought under the Microscope in 
succession ; the negatives are illuminated from below by an adjustable 
mirror. 

Konkoly’s Microscope for Reading the Knorre-Fuess Declino- 
graph.*—Dr. N. v. Konkoly describes this as follows:—Screwed to a 


Fig. 59. 


a> ff ma: 


oo 


mahogany base A is a massive brass disc D, on which is the column B ; 
the latter consists of a tube 3mm. in thickness, in which a rod is free to 
* Central-Ztg. f. Opt. u. Mcch., viii. (1887) pp. 217-8 (1 fig.). 
1889. 2H 


438 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


turn, and is clamped after adjustment by means of six screws. On this 
rod is the guide of the sliding piece C, which carries on its left-hand 
side the Microscope M, having cross-wires in its eye-piece. The slider 
C and Microscope M are moved by a micrometer screw with drum T, 
which is divided into 100 parts. The drum is turned by a milled head, 
into which the ivory handle K is fitted for rapid movement. Atm isa 
scale on C, which serves to read the whole turns of the drum. Under 
the Microscope is the carrier for the strip of paper. With Knorre’s 
system the declination differences are recorded upon a paper ribbon, 
similar to that of the Morse telegraph, by means of a needle which 
moves with the micrometer, the zero point being marked by a fixed 
needle. ‘The carrier consists of a brass plate having a groove which is 
of exactly the same breadth as the ribbon, and about 1:5 mm. deep, this 
depth corresponding to the thickness of the glass plate e which rests in 
the groove. This plate carries two brass plates, one of which is visible 
at f, and each of these has at one end a hole which fits over a pin in the 
carrier. The glass plate presses the ribbon to the bottom of the groove, 
so that the distance between it and the Microscope is always the same ; 
the brass plates carry two knobs by which the glass plate is lifted. 
The ribbon passes between two rollers, the upper of which W is pressed 
by two springs against the lower, which is turned by the spindle a and 
milled head 6. §S is a mirror attached to a universal joint at the head 
of the column g, which serves to illuminate the ribbon. L is the reading 
lens held by the rod d, which can be turned in its socket on D by means 
of the handle c, and provided with two stops which bring it into position 
either over the scale n or the drum T. 


Leitz’s No. 1 Stand.—This is essentially a reproduction of the Zeiss 
form. Herr Leitz, however, was one of the first of the Continental 


makers to supply a rack movement and centering screws to the Abbe 
condenser. 


Adams's large Projection and Compound Microscope.—Plate IX. 
shows a Microscope of unusual design, bearing the inscription “ Adams, 
inventor, London,” which appears to have been intended to be used (1) 
as an ordinary compound Microscope, and (2) as a projection Micro- 
scope. 

The body-tube is about 7 in. diameter and 24 in. in length, and is 
supported on an arc-piece toothed on the edge, in which engages an 
endless-screw for inclining the instrument more or less in the vertical 
plane. The base and pillar are of wood. 

The focal adjustment is effected by an external screw and rod acting 
on the stage-support, after the manner of the usual focusing movement 
applied to reflecting telescopes of the Gregorian or Cassegrainian form. 

For viewing images on a screen the eye-piece was removed and a 
disc of ground-glass was inserted in a slot in the body-tube, and when 
more of the object was required to be seen in one view it is presumed 
that the ground-glass was removed from the slot and the iarge double- 
lens, shown on the box, was applied at the eye-piece end and the image 
projected through it upon a disc of ground-glass fitting on the end of 
the cylindrical mount of the double-lens. 

_The stage figured upon the instrument was for viewing opaque 
objects 5 the condenser in front collected the light upon the mirror, 
which was inclined suitably to reflect the rays upon the object. 


Adams’s Large Projee 


GCRUPARANTs Jey MCI. SOC. asso, 25255 wSs5 


Impound Microscope. 


rerry i 
i Say 


i 
7 
_ 
=, 7 
’ 
mie " 
“. 
ier 
} ul ~ 
¥ Pr Ne 
~ ary ‘ 
. 
’ 
2 
rh i 
a y 
a 
7 
7 
e 
U 


Fig. 60. 


we 


ni, Wy 
SING 


UI ww oo 


—— 
mu Mi S ie 
ST iy, 


ND. 
Sra 

=e No.1 

ZS 

Lerrz’ 


440 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


T'wo additional stages were employed for large or small transparent 
objects, various condensers being applied beneath. Fifteen simple-lens 
object-glasses formed the optical battery. 


Charles I. Microscope.—At the recent Stuart Exhibition a Micro- 
scope exhibited was thus described in the catalogue :—“ 389. Microscope, 
covered with gilt leather, which belonged to Charles I. Lent by Hon. 
A. Holland Hibbert.” 

By the courtesy of the owner we secured a photograph of the Micro- 
scope, whence our fig. 61 is engraved. The owner informs us that the 


Fig. 61, Fic. 62. 


Ss 


=i 


See Se 


a 


instrument descended to him “from an ancestor, Francis Rogers, for 
some time Keeper of the Wardrobe to Charles I.” 

As Charles I. died in 1647, the Microscope should represent a type 
of extremely early construction. In our opinion, however, though we 
have no difficulty in considering the instrument to date from the latter 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 44] 


part of the seventeenth -century, the type of construction is too modern 
for the pedigree assigned to it by the owner. 

The construction of the eye-piece is peculiar: the field-lens is fixed 
on the top of the body-tube, and the eye-lens is in the outer tube sliding 
over the body-tube, so that the distance between the eye-lens and the 
field-lens can be varied. 

We may remark that the first application of a field-lens to the eye- 
piece of a Microscope that we have hitherto found recorded is in 


Fig 64. 


Cm 


Monconys’ ‘ Voyages’ (Lyon, 1665, 4to), where the editor (M. de 
Moneconys’ son) mentions that the first Microscope of this kind was 
devised by M. de Monconys about ten years previously, and was made at 
Augsburg. 


442 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Hooke appears to have first suggested the use of a very large field- 
lens, as described in his ‘ Micrographia’ in 1665. 

The system of eye-piece shown in the so-called Charles I. Micro- 
scope was (we believe) devised by Homberg, the well-known member of 
the Académie des Sciences, and the instrument was first figured in an 
Italian work (which we have repeatedly cited in this Journal) entitled 
‘Nvovi inventicni di tvbi ottici, a communication to the Accademia 
Fisico-matematica, of Rome, in 1686, by Ciampini, the then editor of the 
Giornale de’ Letterati. [We note in passing that Ciampini’s authorship 
of the work in question is alluded to by Langenmantel in the Miscell. 
curtosa, 2ud Decade, 7th year, 1689, p. 444, and also in Bonanni’s 
‘ Micrographia curiosa’ (Rome, 1691, 4to), p. 15.] 

From the similarity to the figure of Homlerg’s Mieroscope, an 
instrument in the collection of M. A. Nachet has been identified, in 
which the peculiar construction of eye-piece above noted obtains. The 
identification of a number of other Microscopes of similar construction 
follows as a matter of reasonable prolability, and we have thought the 
present a favourable occasion to notice a few of them (from Mr. Crisp’s 
Collection). 

Fig. 62 shows a “ Homlerg” Microscope acquired in Groningen, 
Holland, which differs from the “Charles I.” instrument (1) in being 
covered with gilt parchment instead of leather, (2) in having a “ set- 
nut” or clamping screw-ring to correct the tendency of the body-tube to 
shake in the thin screw-socket in which the focusing screw acts. 

Fig. 63 shows a similar Microscope, formerly belonging to George III., 
but with a (probably ) modern base-support, in which a mirror was fixed. 

Fig. 64 shows a “ Homberg” Microscope, formerly belonging to 
Pope Benedict XIV., having a small disc object-stage with a slight 
range of motion in the opening of the base, with a clamp-serew beneath. 
This instrument shows that the viewing of opaque objects was princi- 
pally intended. 


“Duc de Chaulnes’”” Microscope.—We gave on p. 118 a figure of 
one of these instruments, which we examined in the Museo di Fisica, 
Florence, the specialty of which was evidently the verification of micro- 
metric measurements. 

We here give a figure of a Microscope (fig. 65) we obtained in 
Naples, which is remarkable (1) for its ornate character, and (2) for its 
general resemblance to the Duc de Chaulnes’ Microscope, though the 
aim of the construction probably differed considerably. . 

It bears the inscription, “D. Joannes de Guevave F. 1752,” at 
which date even the best Microscopes were seldom provided with any 
form of mechanical stage. This instrument, however, has object-carriers, 
consisting of two short pillars travelling laterally, actuated by screws 
in grooves right and left of the stage; the upper ends of the pillars are 
pierced to allow the slide to be adjusted and clamped. The b dy-tube 
pivots laterally, so that, in combination with the stage movements, every 
portion of the object can be viewed successively. The mirror is also 
mounted on a short pillar moving forward or backward in a groove 
actuated by a screw in front. 

In the general construction, stability seems to have been a very 
secondary consideration, whilst the ornamentation was elaborated with 
special attention. The body-tube is of tortoise-shell and ivory, and the 
shaped box base is of inlaid wood. . 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 443 


The peculiarity of the stage having four scroll supports, as in the 
Due de Ghaulnes’ instrument, suggests the influence of one design upon 


Fra. 65. 


the other, and we have therefore ventured to classify the Microscope 
under this heading. 


Mi.uier, K.—Die Verwendbarkeit des His’schen Embryographen. (The utility of 
the His Embryograph.) Naturwiss. Wochenschr., I. (1888) No. 22. 


(8) Illuminating and other Apparatus. 


Rogers’ Eye-piece Micrometer.*—Dr. R. H. Ward describes a form 
of eye-piece micrometer devised by Prof. W. E. Rogers. 


* ¢Remarks at the Microscopical Section of the Troy Scientific Association,’ 1889, 
February 4th. 


444 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


“The whole scale (fig. 66) is divided to 1/100ths in., leaving the 
field nearly unobstructed and free from the confusion effect of crowded 
lines; and these wide divisions may be used (taking advantage of the 
middle lines in the subdivided spaces as a means of reading halves) 


Fic. 66. 


a b 


ET 


with low powers where close work is not required. But every fifth 
space is subdivided into ten, or 1/1000ths in., and by using these 
divisions for decimals, or these for units and the broad spaces for tens, 
one may gain the precision of the finer scale with almost the facility 
of the coarser. With a 1/10 in. objective the coarse spaces may be 
made, with a moderate use of the draw-tube, to cover 1/10000 in., and 
to read, with the assistance of one of the fine bands for tenths, 
1/100000 in. A slight change of tube-length will give with equal 
facility a reading by 1/4ths of a micron (1), or even 1/5 p for easier 
relations to decimal notation. 

Thus an average human blood-dise may reach from the line 
marked 2 in the cut to about the 9th line in the fine band a, giving two 
tens and nine units (29) by direct reading in 1/100000 in. Likewise 
a disc of dog’s blood may reach from line 2 to the 7th line of a, of beef’s 
blood from 2 to the 8rd line of a; or of sheep’s blood from 1 to the 9th 
of a; reading respectively 27, 23, and 19 one-hundred-thousandth of an 
inch. Thus it would be easy to distinguish between all these except the 
first two, and possible in that case, if we were certain as to the true 
averages, and sure, which is more than doubtful, that the averages 
themselves may not vary enough to obliterate the narrow margin 
between them. 

Any one who can subdivide the smallest spaces to tenths, with the 
eye, can of course read in millionths of an inch, or in fortieths 3 but 
few persons are likely to go, at any advantage, beyond the record of 
the finest lines. ‘These appear wide enough apart to estimate in fourths 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 445 


or fifths. But this becomes difficult if not futile on account of diffrac- 
tion, imperfect definition, inequality in the illumination of the scale and 
of the object, parallax from tremor in both apparatus and observer, and 
error in making optical contact between the margin of the object and 
the line from which measurement is to begin ; elements which bring a 
large personal equation into the case, as they vary greatly according to 
the capacity of individual workers and the quality of their outfit. 

The above is intended to show what can be done by a skilful 
person with good but commonplace apparatus. The ruling may cost 
perhaps a couple of dollars, and a high-power ocular to carry it, about 
twice as much. The objective required for the work is not of unusual 
power or quality ; and any small, plain Microscope of fair quality and 
good fine-adjustment, can be employed, a lengthening tube being 
improvised if there be no draw-tube. A screw-movement to adjust 
the lines in the ocular to the image of the object, or else a mechanical 
stage for adjusting the object to them, will be of great assistance ; but 
as the latter, of efficient character and applicable to the most unpre- 
tending stands, can now be made for 18 dollars, it is not a very un- 
reasonable luxury.” 


Glass versus Metal Micrometers.*—Prof. M. D. Ewell writes :— 
“T think most persons who use stage micrometers in the ordinary way, 
prefer to have them covered, on account of there being less danger of 
injury and their always being ready for use. When my experience was 
less than it is now, I remember attempting to clean a really excellent 
micrometer by Prof. Rogers, 1 cm. long, ruled the whole length to 
0-001 mm. I found out that it was uncovered after I had scoured the 
lines vigorously. It was then clean, but that was its only remaining 
recommendatiou. 

Prof. Rogers has experimented much to avoid the sweating that 
so often obscures the lines when the cover-glass is secured in place by 
any kind of cement. The most successful method, I think, has been to 
rule the scale on a cover-glass and mount it with the lines downward, 
upon a thick ring perforated, so as to allow a free circulation of air. 
This, again, has its peculiar disadvantages, as I have learned after the 
point of my objective (a 1/25 Spencer) had gone through the cover. 
The lesson was more impressive after I had paid Mr. Spencer’s bill for 
re-centering the front lens. Micrometers so mounted are very fragile, 
unless the cover-glass is too thick for ordinary use. In a later commu- 
nication I shall describe a device of my own to prevent the sweating 
above alluded to. 

Another disadvantage of micrometers ruled on glass is the fact that 
there is always more or less uncertainty as to their staying qualities for 
some time after they have been ruled. This, so far as I have observed, 
is peculiar to all lines ruled on glass; for I have observed them not 
only in seales ruled by myself, but on those by Prof. Rogers and Mr. 
Fasoldt. I do not say that this is universal , but it happens often enough 
to make the possessor sad. The makers are not be blamed for this; for 
it seems due to an infirmity of the material. The only remedy is to let 
scales on glass season for an indefinite time, like thermometers, before 
issuing them. 

My own judgment is that the very best scales are ruled upon metal. 


* The Microscope, ix. (1889) pp. 43-5, 


446 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Thcse can be depended upon. I have never seen one deteriorate by 
simple lapse of time. But these have their disadvantages. They cannot 
be used with transmitted light, as can scales ruled on glass. Still this 
difficulty is not insurmountable. I use up to 400 diameters the opaque 
illuminating objectives made by Bausch and Lomb, which give excellent 
results. With higher powers, up to 1/18, I have used with satisfaction 
Prof. Smith’s vertical illuminator, with a bull’s-eye condenser to concen- 
trate the light. With a very high power, a 1/18 Zeiss’, draw-tube 
drawn out full length, amplifier and high ey e-piecing, I have never yet, 
on my standard centimeter on speculum metal by Prof. Rogers, been 
able to see anything but clear sharp edges to the lines, saving now and 
then a little pit in the metal. Of course, I understand that no practical 
use can be made of so high a power. I refer to its use simply to show 
the character of the lines. Any one who has used a glass micrometer 
with very high powers will agree with me in saying that in this respect 
they are vastly inferior to those on speculum metal. 

In order not to change the tube-length, when measuring miscel- 
laneous objects, such as blood-corpuscles, &e., 1 had Mr. Bulloch make 
for me an adapter or nose-piece of the same length as my Smith’s illumi- 
nator, also made by him, which I screw on to the front of the tube, in 
place of the illuminator, when I desire to measure transparent objects. 
This sort of combination is, in my judgment, the very best that can 
Le used. Metal micrometers have the disadvantage, however, of costing 
more than scales on glass; for such a scale should be ruled on a 
carefully prepared surface, which of course adds to the expense. 

Now as to covering micrometers, in consideration of the disadvan- 
tages incident to covered scales, I would recommend the use of a scale 
uncovered. If desired for use with a homogeneous-immersion objective, 
it can be used with a large temporary cover, which can be held down 
with a mere dot of mucilage or water, not enough to reach the lines. 
It should not be rubbed, but may he kept sufficiently clean with a 
camel’s hair pencil. I say sufficiently clean, of malice prepense ; I now 
think that no one but an amateur with very little experience, will be 
annoyed by a little dust on a standard when used with a dry objective. 
If it becomes too thick, it can be removed with a camel’s hair pencil. 
If used with an immersion objective, of course the top of the temporary 
cover should be clean. I find a little dust a real convenience, as facili- 
tating the finding and focusing of the lines. A really fastidious person 
should use “ Centimcter A” for a time. Its surface, the last time I saw 
it, was in places seamed and furrowed, like the track of a glacier. But 
enough of it is perfect for any sort of use, and its lines cannot well be 
excelled. Its correction for total length is very small, and its second 
mm. has practically no error. 

Of course a micrometer in its ultimate subdivisions, such as are 
usually used in determining the value to be assigned to one division of 
the eye- piece micrometer, should have au error so small as to be practi- 
cally insensible, or its error should be well determined. I have never 
yet seen, nor do I ever expect to see, a scale in every part absolutely free 
from error. I undertake to say that such a scale cannot be made by any 
living man, but the absolute and relative errors of a scale can be deter- 
mined within very narrow limits, and a scale can be made, the errors of 
whose ultimate subdivisions are practically insensible. Such a micro- 
meter is practically perfect. In a future communication, should the 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 447 


subject be thought of sufficient importance and interest, I will describe 
the process by which any good observer, who is the owner of a filar 
micrometer, and who knows the correction for total length of his micro- 
meter, and last but not ieast, who has sufficient patience, can determine 
the errors of any subdivisions small enough to be brought within the 
field of his Microscope.” 


Micrometer Measurements.*—Dr. M. D. Ewell, referring to his 
advocacy of the use of metal micrometers wncovered, recommends that if 
such a temporary cover should be used, it should always be used under 
precisely the same conditions, and the observer should be quite sure that 
both faces of such cover are parallel, otherwise the influence of refrac- 
tion, the cover acting as a prism at some part of its surface, might 
introduce errors of unknown magnitude. For this reason, on further 
reflection, he thinks it better to have a permanent cover on micrometers 
intended for use with high power objectives, and to have the corrections 
of such micrometer determined with such cover in situ. 

This leads him to notice a table of measurements published by 
Mr. C. Fasoldt.f intended to invalidate the result of the investigation 
of Centimetre Scale “A” of the American Society of Microscopists, 
and its so-called copies, by the different observers who have investigated 
them. As to this Dr. Ewell says :---‘‘ Mr. Fasoldt does not in his pub- 
lished paper give sufficient data to enable one intelligently to criticize or 
judge of the accuracy of his work; but there is one element of uncer- 
tainty about it that seems quite patent, viz. that it does not appear that 
the glass dise upon which the lines were ruled had either surface plane, 
or that the two surfaces of the dise were parallel. If nothing else 
appeared, to my mind the fact that the space was measured with different 
sorts of illumination, and with the lines first downward and then 
upward, thus introducing unknown errors due to the causes above 
specified, would deprive the results of any value they might otherwise 
possess. There is no means of intercomparison and of eliminating 
these unknown errors. 

I cannot ascertain, however, from the paper, with what standard the 
4/10 in. was compared, or exactly how it was compared. If, as I 
suppose, it was compared with the screw of a screw stage-micrometer, 
which was assumed to be a constant, I must beg to dissent from any 
conclusion thus obtained. I find it necessary, in ruling standards of any 
considerable length, to assume a value for the screw, rule a trial scale, 
and by actual comparison with some authentic standard deduce therefrom 
a series of corrections before ruling the final scale. If great accuracy 
is desired, it may be necessary to repeat this several times before ruling 
the final scale; and this is the case notwithstanding the errors of the 
screw have previously been carefully investigated. I would never trust 
any screw or train of whecls as a tinal standard of reference for more 
than about one-half the field of the Microscope, much less for so long a 
space as 4/10 in.” 

Klaatsch’s Radial Micrometer.t—The radial micrometer of Dr. H. 
Klaatsch consists of an eye-piece micrometer-disc, not only subdivided 
along the usual straight line, but traversed by two diameter lines cutting 
each other at right angles, and both of which are subdivided. In two 

* The Microscope, ix. (1889) pp. 74-6. 

+ See this Journal, 1888, p. $14. { Anat. Anzeig., 11. (1887) pp. 632-4. 


448 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


out of the four radii thus produced the divisions are interrupted for a 
distance of 10 division lines from the centre. The image is thereby 
rendered clearer in the centre. Besides these divided radii there are 
four undivided ones, each of which bisects a quadrant. One octant also 
is subdivided by radii into 10°, 15°, and 20°. To this division of the 
micrometer-plate corresponds a lithographic chart, which is used in the 
preparation of the drawing to be made. While the apparatus enables 
an object to be measured in various directions, by the aid of the paper 


Fic. 67. 


i} ft 1 
waluulnloylualitondunlyal tighotalastoulitigelnlaal al luahuifeutinlytintunl 
ut {! nf ip HUE ty TTT Pe UG Oo i nyt TET ay QUO OOLO ) H 

H i 

| 


chart it allows the sketch of an accurate drawing to be made. When 
once from the first position five points (at the centre and on the four 
radii) are accurately determined, the ocular is turned, so that the un- 
divided radii pass through the points of the preparation through which 
the divided radii previously passed. Thus four more points are obtained, 
and if these should not suffice for the sketch the radii of the octant can 
be made use of to obtain fresh points. Jn a similar way angles can be. 
measured. 


Krysinski’s Eye-piece Micrometer and its uses in Microscopical 
Crystallography.* —The method proposed by Wertheim in 1862 for 


* Zeitschy. f. Krystallogr., xiv. (1888) p. 17. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 449 


measuring the dihedral angle of microscopical crystals depends on the 
principle that the angle of inclination of two planes can be easily calcu- 
lated when the positions have been determined of six points in space, of 
which three (not collinear) lie in one of these planes. For the measure- 
ment of the rectangular co-ordinates of these points, Wertheim used (1) 
an eye-piece with cross wires ; (2) a fine division on the head of the 
micrometer screw of the Microscope ; and (8) an object-stage movable 
by screws in two directions at right angles. 

Dr. S. Krysinski considers that the practical application of this 
method can lead to no accurate measurements. In the first place the 
az and y coordinates cannot be exactly determined, since they are 
measured by turning the screws on the movable stage, by which no pre- 
cision can be obtained. The addition of stage micrometer screws would 
render the instrument too costly and complicated. To avoid this 
difficulty he proposes to use the screws only for producing the movement, 
and to effect the measurements by means of the eye-piece. For this 
purpose the eye-piece micrometer of Hartnack has been modified in the 
following way. 

On the eye-piece fitting, about 12 mm. from the lower end, is a metal 
drum, 55 mm. in diameter and 10 mm. in height, which consists of two 
cylinders rotating in one another, of which the under is rigidly connected 
with the lower end of the eye-piece, while the upper, connected with the 
upper part of the eye-piece, is movable on the under part. In this under 
part are fixed the cross wires, and in the upper, just above the cross 
wires, the micrometer scale. ‘This scale, movable to and fro ina guide by 
means of a projecting screw, consists of a right-angled triangle, of which 
one of the sides containing the right angle is exactly ten times as long as 
the other, and is divided into 100 equal divisions, with each division 
mark perpendicular to it, and equal in length to the shorter side. It 
follows from this construction that the segment of the division line cut 
off between the hypothenuse and the long side is equal to a tenth part 
of the corresponding segment of the long side. By means of two indices 
on both parts of the drum and catch-spring, care is taken that the long 
side of the scale can be brought at once into a position parallel or at 
right angles to one of the cross wires. Lastly, on the periphery of the 
drum is a corresponding vernier. 

If the size of the microscopical object to be measured does not exceed 
the value of ten divisions, the measurement is effected by first bringing 
the long side of the scale into exact coincidence with an edge of the 
object, and then by means of the screw parallel to the long side pushing 
_ the scale along until its hypothenuse cuts the object in the diametrically 
oppesite point. The division mark of the scale passing through this 
point of contact then gives directly the length of the object. This kind 
of measurement, which the author distinguishes as “ Hinkeilung,” is 
executed on any given point of the field of view. When, however, the 
diameter of the object exceeds the length of ten divisions the long side 
must be brought into coincidence with it, and the length read off directly. 
On account of the unreliability of the table supplied by opticians, the 
author strongly insists that a table of values of the scale divisions should 
be independently made out for each objective. 

The author then describes in what way with this instrument the 
« and y co-ordinates of a point in space can be easily and simply 
determined, and then the z co-ordinate by means of the micrometer-screw 


450 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of the Microscope. The directly found value of the z co-ordinates is the 
true one, only when object and objective are in the same medium ; in 


any other case the directly found value must be multiplied by the ratio 
of the refractive indices of the media. The co-ordinates of the six points 
and the angle required are connected in the most general case by the 
following equations :— 

G = Y2%3 — Ys %o 4 Ya % — Yy 2, + Yi 22 = Yr% 3 

b = &, 2% — Wy Zs &, 2, — £52, + SEAN a ay 

C= Ys — Ls Yn + Ui, — UY, + 2, Yo — Yi 5 

U = Ys Xo — Yo%s + Yo %y — Ys 2s Yas — Ys Bs 

b, = &2, — Ws %— + Hy %— — We %, + Us 2, — W, 2; 5 


C, = @; Ye — Uo Ys + UoYs — VyYs + 2, Y; — Ws Y,5 


aa,+bb,+ ce, 
VEEP +E Jar+be+e? 


In conclusion it is pointed out that the instrument described above 
is very convenient for measuring plane angles. This is simply effected 
by successively bringing the long side of the scale into coincidence with 
the two arms of the angle: the difference of the vernier readings in the 
two cases gives the value of the angle required correct to three minutes. 


and 


cos A = 


ENGELMANN, T. W.—Over electrische verlichting by het Mikroskoop, met demon- 
Straties. (On electric illumination with the Microscope, with demonstrations.) 
Handelingen v. h. I. Nederl. Natuur- en Geneeskund. Congres te Amsterdam. 
Op. 30, IX. en 1. X. 1887, p. 129, Haarlem, 1888. 
“Loiterer in a Microscopist’s Laboratory.”—Notes on the Substage Condenser, with 
special reference to that of Prof. Abbe. 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., X. (1889) pp. 55-60 (1 fig.). 
“Struggling Microscopist.”—Tho most useful Condenser for modern objectives. 
Engl. Mech., XIX. (1889) p. 196 (1 fig.). 


(4) Photomicrography. 

Moeller’s Photomicrographic Apparatus.* — Dr. H. Moeller’s 
camera (fig. 68) is similar to the one suggested by Harting, without 
bellows, and with which the eye-piece is used. It differs from it, how- 
ever, in being fixed directly to the Microscope without any stand of its 
own. As the stand and fine-adjustment have thus to support the weight 
of the camera, the latter must be made as light as possible. To this end 
it consists of a four-sided wooden frame, of the shape shown in the fig., 


which rests closely on the upper surface of the eye-piece, forming thus 
the point of support for the camera and a light-proof connection. For 
the sake of lightness the plate-holder is made of pasteboard with two 
easily moving shutters. The height of the camera is 21 em., and its 
weight about 445 grm., which is so slight as to have no injurious effect 
on the micrometer screw. 

On the subject of making use of the Microscope stand as a support 
for the camera, the author mentions that this was the case with the older 
apparatus of Gerlach, in which the weight was so great that a special 


* Zeitschy. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 155-65 C1 fig,). 


3 ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 4Adl 


catch had to be added in order to prevent the sinking of the tube. For 
this reason a separate stand was soon employed, which had, however, the 
effect of introducing objectionable complications, viz. a difficulty in 
adjusting the licht-proof connection between Microscope and camera, 
and in avoiding shakings which affected unequally the two parts of the 
apparatus. The author considers that to the latter cause is to be 
ascribed a very large proportion of the failures in photomicrography, 
and from this his apparatus is free. 

As the source of illumination, the author employs almost exclusively 
the Welsbach incandescent gaslight. The lamp is placed as near as 
possible (20-25 cm. in front of the mirror), and always without the 
interposition of lenses, so that the object is illuminated by transmitted 
light. The objection made by Neuhauss to the use of transmitted light, 
that shadows and coloured margins were produced, was not borne out by 
the author’s observations. 

Another source of error, however, viz. the difference hetween the 
visual and chemical foci, must in all circumstances be taken into account. 
_ This difference varies considerably for lenses of different construction : 


Fie 68. 


in immersion lenses it is so small as to be negligible, but the lower dry 
objectives show it without exception and require corresponding correction 
by the use of monochromatic-blue light. 

The focal adjustment of the image in the camera is made on a glass 


452 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING To 


plate placed in the frame of the plate-holder after drawing out the two 
shutters and putting a 50 grm. weight on the opposite side to prevent the 
camera from tilting over. The figure represents the apparatus during 
the adjustment. 

A simple method for determining the correct time of exposure was 
communicated to the author by Dr. Knoevenagel, of Linden, near 
Hanover ; it consists in partially drawing out the under shutter after 
certain intervals of time, whereby the object to be photographed is 
brought upon the same plate under three or four different times of 
exposure. As an explanatory example the author takes the case of a 
very dark green preparation, using a dry objective which for a clear 
colourless preparation required an exposure of an hour’s duration ; the 
under shutter, before the beginning of the illumination, is drawn out a 
third, again a third after the expiration of an hour, and quite drawn out 
after a further half-hour, after which the exposure is continued for 
another half-hour; thus, on the plate there will be parts of the picture 
under one, one and a half, and two hours’ exposure. 

The power of accommodation of the human eye is a trouble to the 
maker and observer of photomicrographs. The eye sees, in fact, several 
planes, of which the plate only fixes one ; thence arises the practice of 
the microscopist of rapid up-and-down focusing, by which an impression 
of relief is given to the object. In the appearance of a photograph there 
is thus something lacking which gives rise to a feeling of discontent 
until one has learnt to look at it in the right way. It is a matter of 
general experience that the drawing of a microscopic object often leads 
to a correct observation of it; for, whether consciously or unconsciously, 
it is possible to draw together in one plane images seen in different 
planes. If it is desired to demonstrate any one detail of a certain small 
part of a preparation, it is therefore desirable to make a drawing as well 
as a photograph. 

Bézu, Hausser, and Co.’s Photomicrographic Apparatus.*—MM. 
Bézu, Hausser et Cie. have just brought out a photomicrographic 
apparatus (fig. 69), of which the following is a description :— 

It is constructed on the vertical system, and is composed of three 
parts. The first is a strong stand, made of oak plank, 55 em. long and 
45 cm. broad, supported on four cast-iron feet about 20 em. high. In 
the middle of this oak stage is placed the Microscope upon a copper 
stand with four legs, and this is moved up and down by means of a screw 
placed between the legs. The Microscope is firmly fixed to the copper 
stand by jamming the horse-shoe between grooves and holding it in 
position by a screw behind. 

To the oak stand is fixed the table carrying the camera. This table 
is made of oak planking 35 em. long and 25 cm. broad, and its legs of 
cast iron are 45 em. high. Atits centre isa circular aperture for a copper 
tube lined with black velvet. In the latter the Microscope tube works. 

The camera is composed of three parts: a cubical box, the sides of 
which are 12 cm., a bellows, and a frame for the Opaque glass screen. 
The latter is kept in position by two iron supports, which are really 
continuations of the hind-legs of the table, and moved up and down by 
a rackwork arrangement. When the bellows is fully extended the 
diameter of the image is 18 em. 


* Journ. de Micrographie, xiii. (1889) pp. 189-91 (1 fig. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 453 


In order to examine and focus this image there is at the lower part of 
the camera a small shutter, behind which is a hole filled in with opaque 
glass. At the bottom of the 
camera-box is a mirror, which 
by means of a lever can be 
inclined at an angle of 45°, 
and the image thereby thrown . 
on the small plate of opaque ee 
glass. It is then focused in Se 
the usual manner. — 

If considerable amplifica- =e 
tion of the image and high =e 
magnification be necessary, 3 —— 
the focusing must be done = 
directly on the large opaque ea 
screen, For this purpose a a 
special arrangement is neces- rua 
sary, in order to be able to = 
work the fine-adjustment. The i 
milled head of the fine-adjust- aaa 
ment is replaced by a toothed ~ b | 
one. The stand which sup- | 
ports the camera is perforated | 
by a cleft, into which fits a 
metal piece capable of vertical 
and horizontal . movement. 
Connected with this piece is 
a rod, which, passing through 
the table, ends in a wheel, the 
teeth of which gear with those 


Fic. 69. 


of the head on the fine-adjust- 
ment. The upper end of this 
rod also carries a head, and by 
turning this fine focusing is 
effected. 


Schmidt and Haensch’s ————————— a 
Apparatus for Photographing 
the Tarnish Colours of Iron Surfaces.*— The researches of Martens show 
that correct pictures of the micro-structure of iron can be obtained by 
allowing a perfectly level weakly etched iron surface to tarnish at a high 
temperature, and observing it under the Microscope. Wedding found 
that the details of the micro-structure are brought out in a much higher 
degree if the iron surface is inclined obliquely to the axis of the Micro- 
scope. The same should apply to the taking of a photomicrograph of 
the surface. The camera which Schmidt and Haensch employ to this 
end is a bellows camera, which can be drawn out to a length of 1 m. 
The Microscope belonging to it has a low magnification, giving a field 
of view of about 16 sq.mm. The stage can be fixed obliquely to the 
optic axis of the Microscope by a mechanical contrivance. In this 
oblique position it is clear that only one line across the field of view 
will be sharply defined, and in order, then, to keep the stage and object 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., v. (1888) pp. 225-6. 


6 


1889. I 


454 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


BASTELBERGER.—Uses of Photomicrography. 
The Microscope, 1X. (1889) pp. 92-3. 
Manppox, R. L.—Sur PApplication de quelques Méthodes photomicrographiques. 
(On the application of some photomierographic methods ) 
Ann. de Micrograp. ic, I. (1889) pp. 145-52, 
SHENSTONE, J. C.—How to take Photomicrographs. 
Pharmaceutical Journ., 1889, April 6 (1 fig.). 


(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. 


Bessry, C, E.—The need of making Measurements in microscopical work. 

[“ It is greatly to be desired that all workers with the Microscope should make 
more general use of the mierometer than is now the custom, particularly in 
botany.” 

ved Amer, Naturil., XXIII. (1889) pp. 52-3. 

Pour, A.—Le Microscope et sa théorie. (The Microscope and its theory.) . 

Revue de Botanique, VII. (1888) pp. 20-5. 

Roystron-Preo TT, G. W.—Microscopical Advances. XLV., XLVL 

[Apochromatie results. Apochromatic focal planes. ] 

Engl. Mech., XUIX. (1889) pp. 123-4 (6 figs.), 209-10 (4 figs.). 
3 95 Microscopical Imagery. Solar Splendours, 

Journ. of Microscopy, IL. (1889) pp. 14-5 pl.), 106-10 (1 pl. and 1 fig.). 

54 5 53 A New Apochromatic Test. 

[“ The new test just discovered ig the butterfly Colias Cxsonia (foreign). Those 
scales distinguished by fine ribs widely separated are remarkable for closely- 
packed molecules, lying in curvilinear rouleaux, gencrally about 1 /120,000 in., 
and with the best glasses throw up brilliant focal dises.” ] 

Engl. Mech., XLIX. (1889) p. 156. 


Aperture Table—In the table printed at y. 292 two of the figures 
in the last column (Penetrating Power) have been transposed. 1:35 N.A. 
= ‘741 and 1-34 N.A.=-746 and not vice versd as printed. 1:37 N.A. 
=°729 and not -739. The water angle corresponding to 0:55 N.A. 
should be 48° 51’ and not 49° 51’, 


9 


(6) Miscellaneous. 


Letter of Darwin to Owen.*—Mr. C. F. Cox, President.of the New 
York Microscopical Society, recently laid before the Society the followin g 
letter of Charles Darwin to Sir Richard Owen, the date being supplied 
from the post-mark which it bears -—_ 

“Down, Farnborough, Kent, 


Sunday [March 26, 1848}. 
My Dear Owen, 


I do not know whether your MS. instructions are sent in; but 
even if they are not sent in, I dare say what I um going to write will be 
absolutely superfluous, but I have derived such infinitely great advantage 
from my new simple Microscope, in comparison with the one which I 


* Journ. New York Micr. See., v. (1889) pp. 79-81. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 455 


used on board the ‘ Beagle,’ and which was recommended to me by 
R. Brown, that I cannot forego the mere chance of advantage of urging 
this on you. The leading point of difference consists simply in having 
the stage for saucers very large and fixed—mine will hold a saucer three 
inches in inside diameter. I have never seen such a Microscope as mize, 
though Chevalier’s (from whose plan many points of mine are taken), of 
Paris, approaches it pretty closely. I fully appreciate the utter absurdity 
of my giving you advice about means of dissecting; but I have appre- 
ciated myself the enormous disadvantage of having worked with a bad 
instrument, though thought a few years since the best. Please to observe 
that, without you call especial attention to this point, those ignorant of 
natural history will be sure to get one of the fiddling instruments sold 
in shops. If you thought fit, I would point out the differences which, 
from my experience, make a useful Microscope for the kind of dissection, 
of the invertebrates, which a person would be likely to attempt on board 
a vessel. But pray again believe that I feel the absurdity of this letter, 
and I write merely from the chance of yourself possessing great skill 
and having worked with good instruments, may not possibly be fully 
aware what an astonishing difference the kind of Microscope makes 
for those who have not been trained in skill for dissection under 
water. ... 
Ever, my dear Owen, 
Yours sincerely, 
C. Darwin. 


P.S.—If I do noé hear, I shall understand that my letter is super- 
fluous. Smith and Beck were so pleased with the simple Microscope 
they made for me, that they have made another as a model. If you 
are consulted by any young naturalists, do recommend them to look at 
this; I really feel quite a personal gratitude to this form of Microscope 
and quite a hatred to my old one.” 

[ Addressed] “ Professor Owen, Royal College of Surgeons, Lincoln- 
Inn-Fields, London.” 


Bostock, E.—The Presidential Address [to the Postal Microscopical Society]. 
Journ. of Microscopy, II. (1889) pp. 1-8. 
Detmers, H. J.—American and European Microscopes. 
[“ Referring to the reports of his address which appeared last September, 
Dr. Detmers says, in contradiction, that he did not take Microscopes, 
objectives, or accessories to Europe; that he did not make a test of skill 
with the Germans; that he did not photograph objects in competition with 
them; and, in short, that no such fighting of objectives as was described 
oceurred.” 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., X. (1889) pp. 53-9. 
Hitcucock, R.—The making of Apochromatics. 
{Account of a visit to Jena. ] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., X. (1889) pp. 49-53 C1 pl. and 3 figs.). 
International Competition in Microscopy. 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., X&. (A889) pp. 70-1. 
[Manron, W. P., and others. |—Microscopical Outfit for Physicians’ use. 
The Microscope, LX. (1889) pp. 83-4. 
Zeiss, C. F.—[Obituary Notice and Portrait. ] 
Central.-Ztg. f. Optik u. Mech., X. (1889) pp. 85-7 (portrait). 


21 2 


456 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


8B. Technique.* 
(1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes. 


Collecting Salt-water Sponges.t —The collector, says Mr. W. B. Hardy, 
should be on the ground an hour before the tide begins to rise and 
choose some sheltered nook among the rocks if the coast be a rocky 
one, or about the piles of a pier if it be an open one. There will be 
found attached to the under surface of inclined stones, and in the clefts 
of the rocks, on sea-weed, and in any sheltered spots where there is- 
good surface for attachment, and where the sun does not strike too 
strongly, tenacious masses of sponge, yellow, green, brown, or orange- 
colour, and with large orifices on the surface. The most common is 
of a sponge-yellow colour, shading into green on exposed parts. This 
is the Halichondria panicea, or “ bread-crumb” sponge of Ellis. Another 
common form, of a salmon colour, is Hymeniacidon sanguinea. Pieces 
of the sponge should be removed ag carefully as possible and taken 
home in a considerable quantity of fresh water. 


Nutritive Media for the Cultivation of Bacteria.t—M. L. Benoist 
gives the following methods for preparing media for the cultivation 
of micro-organisms :— 

(1) Meat broth:—In 4 litres of water are boiled 1 or 2 kg. 
of lean beef, It is kept boiling 5 hours, and during this time con- 
tinually skimmed. When cold on the next day the fat is carefully re- 
moved and the liquid then filtered. It is then brought up to its 
original volume and neutralized with a 1:10 solution of caustic soda 
(8 em. of this solution always suffice to neutralize the acids in 1 ke. 
of beef). When neutralized the fluid is boiled again for ten minutes 
and afterwards filtered. To every 1000 cm. of the filtrate 10 g. of 
sodium chloride are added. 

(2) The foregoing may be satisfactorily replaced by the following 
artificial bouillon :—Water, 1000; pepton Chapoteau, 20; gelatin, 2; 
wood ashes, 0°15; chloride of sodium, 5. With the exception of the 
gelatin, the foregoing ingredients are boiled for a few minutes, and 
when the pepton is dissolved the mixture is filtered, and to it are 
added 20 em. of a 10 per cent, gelatin previously clarificd. The fluid 
thus obtained is always perfectly limpid and its composition invariable. 

(3) Nutritive gelatin:—Water, 1000: gelatin Coignet No. 1, 100; 
pepton Chapoteau, 20; chloride of sodium, 5. 

The vessels selected for dissolving the gelatin in should be lined 
with tin or silver, and not with porcelain. The pepton and salt 
having been dissolved in the boiling water, the vessel is withdrawn 
from the fire and the gelatin then added in pieces and kept stirred up 
until it is completely dissolved. The mixture is then neutralized by 
means of a 1:10 solution of caustic soda (1 cem. of the alkaline solution 
suffices for 100 g. of gelatin). Two whites of fresh eggs, dissolved 
separately in 100 ccm. of water, are then added when the temperature 
of the fluid is about 60° C.; the mixture is then vigorously shaken 


* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro- 
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects; (8) Cutting, including Imbedeing and Microtomes ; 
(4) Staining and Injecting; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &e. 


(6) Miscellaneous. t Sci.-Gossip, 1889, p. 11. 
t Ann, de Micrographie, i. (1888) pp. 75-8. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 457 


and replaced on the fire. It is then gradually heated up to boiling, 
when it is again removed, having been kept the while constantly stirred 
with a glass rod. The albumen is separated from the gelatin by 
filtering while warm through fine cotton cloth and plugging the stem 
of the filter with cotton wool. Filtration is effected in a few minutes, 
and the liquid thus obtained is perfectly transparent. 

(4) Nutritive agar:—The clarification of agar may be effected in 
the same way, but requires, for its dissolution, to be kept boiling for 
quite a long time. When quite dissolved it is necessary to add some 
tartaric acid in solution in order to render it acid. When clarified by 
means of white of egg, it is neutralized with the soda solution, When 
coagulated the solution becomes opalescent ; but the author states that 
he hopes shortly to be able to produce agar media as clear as those 
of gelatin. 


Method of Preparing Nutritive Gelatin.*—Mr. N. A. Moore first 
sterilizes the tubes to be used by heating them for one hour in a hot air 
sterilizer or oven at 150° C. Then take, say, 250 grams (about half a 
pound) of beef from which all fat has beenremoved. Chop or grind this 
toa fine pulpy mass. ‘Transfer it to a beaker, and add 500 ccm. distilled 
water, i.e. 2 ccm. to each gram. Thoroughly stir up and place in ice- 
box till nextday. The meat infusion should then be thoroughly stirred, 
and the liquid portion separated by filtering and squeezing through a 
linen cloth. The red liquid thus obtained must be brought up to 
500 ccm. by adding distilled water. To this is now added 1 per cent. of 
pepton, 1/2 per cent. sodium chloride, and 10 per cent. of the best 
gelatin (5 grams pepton, 2°5 salt, and 50 gelatin). The beaker 
containing the mixture is now placed in a water-bath, and heated to 
45° C., and allowed to stand until the gelatin is completely dissolved. 

The next step is to add, drop by drop, a nearly saturated solution of 
sodium carbonate to the beef-infusion-pepton-gelatin mass until the 
reaction is slightly alkaline. (If it be made too alkaline this condition 
may be neutralized by acetic acid.) It is next clarified by adding the 
whites of two eggs, and the mixture is then boiled for half an hour in a 
water-bath. It is next allowed to cool and set, and then reboiled and 
filtered in a hot-air filter at 60° C. into the sterilized tubes (7-8 cm. in 
each). If not perfectly clear it must be refiltered. After they have 
been filled, the tubes are sterilized in a steamer at 100° C., or three 
successive days for 10 minutes, or they may be boiled for 5 minutes in 
awater-bath. If the gelatin is boiled too much it will not set on cooling. 


Presence of Nitric Acid in Nutrient Gelatin.|—Dr. R. J. Petri has 
found that gelatin constantly gives the nitric acid reaction which was 
first obtained by means of the diphenylamin sulphuric acid reaction, and 
also by means of the brucin reaction and sulphate of iron with sulphuric 
acid. -As the gelatins used did not give Griess’s reaction for nitrous 
acid, it followed that this compound was a product of bacterial growth. 

The next step was to test the various ingredients of the nutrient 
gelatins. In meat infusion neither nitrates nor nitrites were present. 
Peptons examined in the same were almost always found to be free, 
although in a few preparations, traces of nitrate were discovered. 


* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., x. (1889) pp. 41-2. 
+ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., v. (1889) pp. 457-60. 


458 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The various crude gelatins examined always showed the presence of 
nitrates, 

The method employed was to soak commercial gelatin in distilled 
water and test the filtrate. This invariably showed the presence of 
chalk, sulphuric acid, phosphorie acid, and chlorine in addition to the 
nitric acid. 

A second addition of distilled water to the gelatin, showed that the 
watery extract was now free from nitrates, 

Hence it would appear to be advisable to treat gelatin for making 
nutrient media with distilled water, in order to obtain a pure substance. 


Preserving Plate and Tube Cultivations.*—Dr. Schill states that 
pat» and tube cultivations, &e., can be preserved indefinitely by covering 
tLem with a mixture of equal parts of aleohol and glycerin, to which one- 


Two Modifications of Esmarch’s Roll Cultivation.,—(a) When 
test-tubes are used for roll cultivations, the cotton-wood plugs become 
moistened during sterlization, &e.; this inconvenience is quite avoided, 
according tu Dr, Schill, if the common medicine bottle holding 100, 150, 
200 cem. be used, the narrow neck of which prevents the moisture from 
running up into the plug. 

(6) Very often in roll cultivations the gelatin layer ig very irregular, 
A regular and even layer of gelatin may be obtained by simply doing 
away with the rolling altogether, and adopting the following device. 
After the gelatin has been poured in, and the germs diseminated by 
shaking, a smaller (sterilized) tube is jammed inside it. This causes 


it at all. In the latter case, if it be desired to get at a colony, a piece of 
the outer tube must be removed with a diamond. 


Flask Cultivations.t—Instead of plate cultivations, Dr, Schill has 
used for several years small cast pocket-flasks (canteens) of colourless 


long, and is situate about the middle of one of the small sides. One 
third full of gelatin, and laid on a broad side, these bottles afford a 


Wafers for Cultivation Purposes.§— Wafers (Oblaten) are especially 
recommended by Dr. Schill as solid media for cultivating chromogenous 
Bacteria. The wafers are moistened with a nutrient solution, and 
sterilized in a Petri’s capsule. 


Development of _Pathogenie Microbes on Media previously ex- 
hausted by other micro-organisms.||—Dr, Soyka and Dr. Bandler have 


* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol, u. Parasitenk., y. (1889) p. 837. 


v WS @y aD, SBS) (1 fig.). T. c., p. 339, ST. 
| Fortschritte d. Med., 1888, pp, 76°74; ©? P 39 por 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 459 


made experiments with the object of ascertaining if in nutrient gelatin 
which has been exhausted by the growth of some other Schizomycete, 
other kinds of fission fungi, afterwards introduced, would develope. 
Their results are as follows :— 

(1) Sp. cholerz asiatice developed after M. tetragonus Pneumonie, 
swine erysipelas, pigeon diphtheria. 

(2) Sp. Finkleri after Emmerich’s short rods, erysipelas, rabbit 
septicemia, MW. tetragonus pneumoniz, swine erysipelas, pigeon diphthe- 
ria, typhus abd. 

(3) Bacillus anthracis after erysipelas, rabbit septicemia, M. éetra- 
gonus pheumonix, swine erysipelas, pigeon diphtheria, and typhus abd. 

(4) Staphylococcus pyogenes citreus after Emmerich’s short rods, 
erysipelas, rabbit septicemia, M. tetragonus pneumoniz, pigeon diphthe- 
ria, and typhus abd. 

(5) Bacillus pyocyaneus after Emmerich’s short rods, erysipelas, rabbit 
septicemia. M. tetragonus pneumonizx, pigeon diphtheria, and typhus abd. 

(6) Bacillus prodigiosus after Emmerich’s short rods, rabbit septi- 
ceemia, WM. tetragonus, Staphylococcus flavus, B. cyanogenes. 

(7) B. cyanogenes after B. typhi abd. 


Prevention of Cultivations from Drying.*—Dr. H. Plaut has found 
that sterilized oil preserves cultivations from drying excellently well. A 
flask of olive oil well plugged with cotton-wool is boiled, and when cold, 
is poured over the cultivation so that it forms thereon a layer about a 
finger’s breadth deep. This procedure may also be adopted for cultiva- 
tions which liquefy the medium, and does not prevent them from being 
inoculated on others. 


(2) Preparing Objects. 


Investigation of Cell structure.;—Herr G. P. Platner in his in- 
vestigations on cell-division found that the best method of preserving 
the subsidiary nuclei and their products is the use of osmic acid. The 
degree of concentration of Flemming’s acid mixture is quite sufficient if 
allowed to act long enough. But as half an hour is not sufficient, and as 
a longer period essentially affects the power of making sections, some new 
method had to be adopted. Pieces of hermaphrodite glands cut up as small 
as possible must be put fresh into the stronger of Flemming’s mixtures, 
and remain in it for an hour; the solution must then be diluted with 
three or four times its volume of water, and left to stand for twenty-four 
hours. After careful washing, alcohol of increasing degrees of strength 
may be added. The best staining material is hematoxylin prepared by 
Apathy’s method. The hematoxylin solution consists of 1 part of crystals 
of hematoxylin, 70 parts of absolute alcohol and 30 of distilled water ; 
the solution must be kept in dark vessels. The objects are stained in 
toto for twenty-four hours. Then they are removed to 1 per cent. 
alcoholic solution of bichromate of potash for a day; if lighter staining 
be required, the objects must remain longer. The objects were then 
placed in 70 per cent. alcohol, and kept in it, in dark vessels, for several 
days. Dehydration by absolute alcohol and use of cedar-wood-oil are 
all that are now necessary. _ 

The specimens should next be imbedded in overheated paraffin for 


* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., v. (1889) p, 324. 
+ Arch. f. Miky. Anat., xxxiii. (1889) pp. 126-7. 


460 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


about twenty minutes, when bands of section 0-005 mm. thick can be 
easily cut. The advantages of this method are a good hardening and 
coloration first, and a consequent preservation of all parts of the series 
of sections. 


Examining the Central Termination of Optic Nerve in Verte- 
brata.*—For tracing the course of nerve-fibres the following has been 
employed with great success by Prof. J. Bellonci :-— 

(1) The brain or a part containing the nervus opticus is placed in 
osmic acid (1/2 to 1 per cent.) for fourteen to twenty hours. 

(2) Freehand sections are then made in 70 per cent. spirit. The 
sections are washed in distilled water for a few minutes, and then placed 
in 80 per cent. spirit for three or four hours. 

(3) The sections are again placed in distilled water, and then trans- 
ferred to the slide and the cover-glass put on. 

(4) A few drops of ammonia are then allowed to mix with the water 
under the cover-glass. This reagent makes the brain as transparent as 
glass, except the nerve-fibres, which remain black, and which are brought 
out with such distinctness that their course is easily followed. 

The sections are of course thick, but this is an advantage in tracing 
the winding course of the nerve-fibres. Sections cut in celloidin with 
the microtome can be treated in the same manner, but the action of 
the ammonia is then much slower, requiring several days. 


Preserving Nervous Systems.t—Mr. A. Sanders has been examining 
the nervous system of Ceratodus Forsteri in the wild parts of Queensland. 
He adopted a method of treatment to which the nervous system was sub- 
jected before molecular death could take place. The head, immediately 
after it was cut off, was placed in Miiller’s solution to which alcohol in 
the proportion of one-third had been added; the solution wag changed 
next day, and two or three times in the course of the Succeeding three 
weeks. The skull containing the brain was then placed in a 2 per cent. 
solution of potassium bichromate, which was changed once a fortnight, 
until the brain was sufficiently hard to be cut into sections, This occurs at 
various periods, taking a shorter time in the higher Vertebrates than in 
the lower ; in the case of Ceratodus the period was longer than a year. 
Mr. Sanders has always found this method to succeed well, and thinks it 
is of great advantage when there is no opportunity of cutting sections 
till some time after the capture of the animals, and he “can recommend 
it as an all-round method for travellers.” 


Investigation of Ova of Sepia.[—M. L. Vialleton fixed the ova of 
Sepia with osmic acid and Kleinenberg’s picrosulphuric mixture. After 
two days they were placed in 70 per cent. alcohel, which was renewed 
till all colour was removed, and they were then stained with carmine, 
and cut into sections, To isolate the protoplasmic layer the ova were 
placed in a mixture of equal parts of Kleinenberg’s fluid and a 2:5 per 
cent. solution of bichromate of potash. This immediately hardens the 
chorion and allows of its being easily separated from ‘the yolk; the 
eggs should not remain in for more than one or two minutes. They are 
then placed in a watch-glass containing Kleinenberg’s fluid in such a way 
that the protoplasmic layer looks upwards. At the end of an hour and 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvii. (1888) Dian oe 
+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., iii. (1889) p, 158. 
} Ann. Sci. Nat., vi. (1888) pp. 168-71, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 461 


a half this layer may be removed with a spatula from the subjacent yolk, 
and should then be spread out in a flat glass containing a very small 
quantity of picrosulphuric acid. This last should next be replaced by 
alcohol of from 70° to 90°. Boracic carmine and alcohol are good for 
staining advanced embryos; Kleinenberg’s hematoxylin gives excellent 
results in the study of karyokinesis. Saffranin was used also as a 
control staining fluid. 

Examining Ants for Intestinal Parasitic Infusoria.*—Mr. J. W. 
Simmons cuts off the abdomen of the insect, places it in a drop of dis- 
tilled water, and teases. Cochran’s crimson ink is recommended for 
staining the organisms, but any carmine ink would probably answer the 
purpose. Rosein is also useful. Osmic acid is employed for killing 
and fixing the Infusoria. 

Mounting Fungij—The Rev. J. HE. Vize writes that as to the 
medium in which the microscopic forms are to be mounted, he had 
worked at the Microscope for thirty-five years, and cannot tell yet, nor 
does he think the man is born who can tell, which is the best mounting 
medium. What suits one fungus does not necessarily suit another. 
Canada balsam contracts the spores and is apt to contortthem. Glycerin 
pure and simple simply refuses in course of time to remain in the cell 
of the slide, and works its way out. Glycerin jelly is nearly as bad, 
and, in common with gelatin medium, contracts and expands with the 
temperature of the weather, and therefore is unreliable. ‘Thwaite’s fluid, 
like water, may be very successful for a time, but will be sure to change 
the colour of the tissue eventually. Camphor water and the other 
media which have been used in the vain attempt of beautifully balancing 
themselves, so as to check either the growth or decay of the plant, all 
fail. If any one asks him what media he should now use, and recommend 
others to use, his answer would be—for any fungi that would bear them 
(and they are not numerous), employ Canada balsam. First take the 
greatest possible care to keep the spores in their natural place by giving 
them as small a quantity, not of pure spirits of wine, which scatters 
them, but benzol, which has a different effect. Let the benzol evaporate, 
then mount. When Canada balsam will not suit, as is generally the 
case, he uses gelatin, warming all the materials used. Water is, to the 
best of his knowledge, indispensable when you want to see such portions 
of a fungus as the zoospores. Much advantage may be gained by putting 
on the label of the slide not only the name of the object, but the medium 
in which the same is mounted. He has slides in his cabinet of great 
scarcity, which it would be next to impossible to replace. Some of them 
have lost the whole of the medium in which they are placed through 
evaporation, and are almost valueless. Others have not gone so badly, 
but there are large bubbles of air in them, which are the forerunners of 
total evaporation. Had the original mounter of the same named the 
fluid in which they are placed on the slide, there would have been little 
difficulty in bringing them back to their primitive condition. 

Fixing of the Spores of Hymenomycetes.{—Dr. C. O. Harz finds 
that coloured spores of Hymenomycetous Fungi can be very well fixed 


* The Microscope, ix. (1889) p. 88. 
+ Provincial Med. Journ., 1888, November. Cf. The Microscope, ix. (1889) 
pp. 91-2. 


+ SB. Boe GE Miinchen, December 10, 1888. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxvii. 
(1889) p. 77. 


462 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


on white paper by moistening the reverse gide of the paper by a solution 
of Canada balsam in absolute aleohol. In the cases of colourless spores 
the difficulty is to find a coloured paper the pigment of which is not 
soluble in alcohol; and Dr. Harz used instead a slightly warmed solution 
of 1 vol. Canada balsam in 4 vols. turpentine oil, placed with a fine 
camel’s hair brush on the reverse gide of the paper. In the course of 
from two to four days the preparation can then be laid aside between 
paper, but is not completely dry for several weeks. 


Carrer, F, B.—Desmids: their Life-history and their Classification. II. 
[Contains directions for “ Collecting ” and « Preserving and Mounting.” 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., X. (1889) pp. 73-9. 
JameEs, F. L.—The Philosophy of Mounting Objects. 
Amer. Mon. Mier. Journ., X. (1889) pp. 61-3. 
from ‘ Elementary Microscopical Technology.’ 
WALLER, T. H.—Micro-chemical Methods for the Examination of Minerals. 
Midi, Naturalist. X11. (1889) pp. 59-65. 


(3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes. 


Imbedding in Paraffin.*—Dr. G. A. Pierso] says that although the 
turpentine-paraffin go commonly employed in histological work yields 
excellent results, the advantages of chloroform-paraftin have led ‘to its 
exclusive adoption in the laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania. 


water, the upper surface, which is alone left exposed, being cooled by 
blowing until a film is formed, when the whole is submerged. 

The best paraffin is that commercially known as winter worked gum 
stock, and comes in cakes about 4 em. thick ; that having a bluish tint 
and emitting a metallic ring when struck is the best. 


Substitute for Corks in Imbedding.t— Dr. G. C. Freeborn recom- 
mends “deck-plugs,” which are cylinders of white pine, to be obtained 
of manufacturers of barrel bungs, and vary in diameter from 1/2 in. 
to 15 in. Not only are they not made soft and yielding by soaking 
in dilute alcohol, but they may be written upon with lead pencil, thus 
enabling the microscopist to keep several Specimens in the same bottle 
of alcohol. 


JAMES, F. L.—Sharpening the Section Knife, 
St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., LVI. (1889) pp. 156-7 (2 figs.). 


(4) Staining and Injecting. 


Log wood Staining Solution.{— Prof. H. Gibbes recommends a log- 
wood stain which is made as follows:—Take of logwood chips, 1 Ib.; 
distilled water, 50 oz. Heat slowly to boiling in a porcelain-lined 
saucepan. Boil for 10 minutes, stirring the while with a glass rod, and 


to be added to turn the colour almost black. Set aside for 24 hours, 
then filter and add 4 oz. of rectified spirit. This solution is ready for 


University Medical Magazine, December 1888. The Microscope, ix. (1889) 
p. 89. 

+ The Microscope, ix. (1889) p. 93, from « Pharmaceutical Era.’ 

+ The Microscope, ix, (1889) p. 109, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 463 


Soluble Prussian Blue.*—M. C. E. Guignet gives the two following 
methods for making soluble prussian blue for injection purposes. 

(1) Ordinary soluble prussian blue. To a boiling solution of 110 
grams of ferridcyanide of potash, are gradually added 70 grams of 
crystallized iron sulphate. After boiling two hours it is filtered, and the 
filtrate washed with fresh water until the washings are strongly blue. 
The blue is then dried at 100° C. 

Thus made the blue is of an extremely rich colour, and will take up 
a large quantity of gelatin without precipitating it. 

(2) Pure prussian blue soluble in water. A saturated solution of 
oxalic acid is mixed to a pasty consistence with an excess of pure 
prussian blue. The liquid is filtered and allowed to stand for two 
months until all the blue is precipitated. It is then filtered and washed 
with weak spirit in order to remove any oxalic acid. When dried the 
blue dissolves easily in water. 

A similar result may be at once obtained by precipitating the oxalic 
solution with 95 per cent. alcohol, or with a concentrated solution of 
sodium sulphate, and then washing the precipitate with weak spirit. 

The author adds that molybdic acid will dissolve ordinary prussian 
blue in large quantities. A mixture of the blue and the acid are heated 
together, and after filtering, a deep blue liquid is obtained, which does 
not alter in boiling, or precipitate on the addition of gelatin, and when 
cold sets to a transparent mass of a dark blue colour. The molybdic 
solution is precipitated by sulphuric, nitric acids, &e. The molybdate 
and tungstate of ammonia also dissolve prussian blue. 


Vital Reaction of Methyl-blue.j—Dr. Max Joseph has tested 
Ehrlich’s method on Heteropods, and found that the clear intra vitam 
stain could not be satisfactorily fixed. He remarks that the commercial 
methyl-blue is unfit for use, and that only the chemically pure article 
will give the results obtained by Ehrlich. Instead of a saturated solu- 
tion, the author recommends the strength originally employed by Ehrlich, 
1/4 gram dye in 100 grams of physiological salt solution. 

The best stain was reached about six hours after injection in the 
body-cavity. 


Process of Staining Sections simplified by mixing the staining 
fluids with turpentine.{—According to Dr. Kiikenthal’s experiments, 
a large number of colouring substances admit of being mixed with 
turpentine, and serial sections may be stained in a short time by such 
a combination. Methyl-green, methyl-blue, gentian-violet, safranin, 
Bismarck-brown, eosin, fuchsin, tropzolin, and malachite-green may be 
used in this way. 

The dry colouring substance is dissolved in absolute alcohol, and the 
solution dropped into turpentine until the mixture has any intensity of 
colour desired. 

Meyer’s§ carmine solution.—Absolute alcohol, 100 cem.; pulverized 
carmine, 3 gr.; hydrochloric acid (neutralized with ammonia), 25 drops. 


* Journ. de Micrographie, xiii. (1889) pp. 94-5. 

+ Anat. Anzeig., 1888, p. 420. } Amer. Naturalist, 1888, p. 1140. 

§ The carmine is boiled in the aleohol and then the acid added. The solution is 
then filtered, hot, and enough ammonia added to neutralize. After filtering again. 
the solution is mixed with turpentine and absolute alcohol. 


464 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Can be united with a mixture of turpentine and absolute alcohol (in 
equal parts ?), and in this form used for staining sections. 

The method of using these stains is very simple. The sections are 
fastened to the slide by Schallibaum’s collodion, then left in the oven of 
the water-bath until the clove oil has been completely driven off. The 
paraffin is next removed by washing in turpentine, and then the slide is 
immersed in the staining mixture. As soon asthe desired depth of stain 
has been received, the sections may be washed in pure turpentine and 
mounted in balsam. 

If the stain is too deep, or a sharp nuclear stain is desired, it is only 
necessary to leave the slide a short time in a mixture of turpentine and 
pure (free from any trace of acid) absolute alcohol, and the colour will 
be reduced. 

The colouring mixture may become cloudy, as the result of the 
evaporation of the alcohol; in such an event, the addition of a drop or 
two of alcohol generally suffices to clear the mixture, 

This method enables one to use easily several stains in succession. 
Objects may also be coloured, in toto, with the advantage that the process 
of staining can be followed and easily controlled. 


Double, Triple, and Quadruple Staining.*—Dr. H. Griesbach 
demonstrated at the meeting of the Anatomical Society held at Wirzburg 
the following methods of staining. The dyes used were anilins in con- 
centrated aqueous solutions either in combination, or as single successive 
stains. The stained specimens were cleared in anise oil, and mounted 
in balsam. 

Double Stains.—Metanil yellow [phenylamidobenzolmetasul phonate 
of soda], and azo blue [tetraazoditolylbetanaphtholdisulphonate of soda]. 
Preparation; ala nasi of a child, alcohol hardening. 

The sections are stained in a mixture of equal parts of the two 
staining fluids for 10 minutes, or for 10 minutes in the yellow fluid, and 
then for four minutes in the blue. 

The epidermis, hair-shaft, inner root-sheath, striated and smooth 
muscle stain yellow; the rete Malpighii, the outer root-sheath, sebaceous 
aud sweat glands stain brownish-yellow ; connective tissue, elastic fibres, 
and membrane of fat-cell stain violet-blue ; hyaline cartilage and nuclei 
do not stain. 

Metanil-yellow and methyl-green.— Preparation: ala nasi of a child, 
alcohol hardening. 

The sections are stained in a mixture of 5 cem. of the yellow staining 
fluid, and 3 ccm. of the green. A crystalline precipitate forms which 
does not interfere with the staining. The sections are allowed to remain 
in this fluid for eight minutes or longer [1/4 of an hour], or they are 
stained for eight minutes in the yellow fluid, and then for one minute in 
the green. 

Epidermis, hair-shaft, inner root-sheath, striated and smooth muscle 
stain yellow ; the rete Malpighii, outer root-sheath, hair follicle, sweat 
and sebaceous glands, and nuclei stain green; hyaline cartilage and cells 
stain green. 

Metanil-yellow and crystal violet [Hydrochloride of hexamethyl- 
pararosaniline|.—Preparation : ala nasi of child, alcohol hardening. 

Mix 7 cem. of the yellow fluid with 2 ccm. of the violet. An amorphous 


* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., x. (1889) pp. 30-3. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 465 


precipitate results which does not interfere with the staining. The 
sections are stained in this mixture for 6 minutes, or they are stained 
for 10 minutes in the yellow fluid, and then for 30 seconds in the 
violet. 

Epidermis, hair-shaft, inner root-sheath, connective tissue, and 
elastic fibres, the membrane of fat-cells, and striated muscle stain 
yellow ; the rete Malpighii, the outer root-sheath, all glands, smooth 
muscle, and cartilage with its cell-nuclei stain violet. 

Metanil-yellow and safranin.—Preparation: human lip, alcohol 
hardening. 

Mix 6 ccm. of the yellow fluid with 1 ccm. of safranin. Anamorphous 
precipitate forms. This mixture gives either with a long or short stain 
more sharp pictures than the successive single staining. 

Connective tissue stains yellow; epidermis, the rete Malpighii and 
the analogous layer in the mucous tissue, muscle, and labial glands stain 
light red, the nuclei standing out sharply. 

Metanil-yellow and crystal Ponceau [alphaazonaphthallindisulfo- 
betanaphthol of soda].—Preparation: spinal -cord of calf, alcohol 
hardening. 

For the single as well as the combined stain, 24 hours are required. 

The grey matter stains yellow, the white reddish. Under strong 
magnification, the neuroglia and connective tissue are found to be stained 
yellow ; the axis cylinders dark bluish-red; the myelin light yellowish- 
red; one sort of ganglion-cells dark purple, another bluish-red ; nuclei 
do not stand out sharp. 

Metanil-yellow and Congo-red [tetraazodiphenyldinaphthylamindi- 
sulphonate of soda ].— Preparation: spinal cord of calf, aleohol hardening. 

The sections are stained in a mixture of the staining fluids for eight 
minutes, or they are stained for ten minutes in the yellow stain and then 
for five minutes in the red. 

Ganglion-cells [without clear nuclei staining] and axis-cylinders 
stain dark violet-red; the medullary sheath light citron-yellow ; 
neuroglia and all connective tissue light violet-red; epithelium of the 
central canal brownish-red. 

Carminate of soda and metanil-yellow.—The central nervous system 
is hardened in Miiller’s fluid, then stained in toto with the carmine fluid. 
Sections are then stained for ten minutes in the yellow stain. 

All nervous elements are stained red ; all connective tissue elements 
yellow. 

Crystal Ponceau and crystal violet.—Preparation: transverse section 
of the carotid of the calf, alcohol hardening. 

The sections are stained for five minutes in the red Ponceau fluid, 
and then for one minute in the violet. 

Nuclei of the endothelium and smooth muscle stain violet; all the 
other tissues red. 

Congo-red and anisol-red [bisulfoxylnatronbetaoxynaphthalinazo- 
orthometoxylbenzol].—Preparation : spinal cord of the ealf, alcohol 
hardening. 

The sections are stained for five minutes in the combined stains, or 
for five minutes in the Congo-red solution and then for five minutes in 
the anisol-red. 


_ Axis-cylinders and cell-bodies stain purple; all other tissues stain 
light red. Nuclei do not stain. 


466 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Metanil-yellow and ethylin-blue.—Preparation : ala nasi of a child, 
alcohol hardening. 

When the two staining solutions are combined a black precipitate is 
formed, which redissolves in an excess of the metanil-yellow solution. 
This solution stains yellowish-green, the eartilage only being stained 
blue. If the sections are first stained for five minutes in a mixture of 
5 ecm. of the yellow and 4 ccm. of the blue stain, or if the sections 
are stained for ten minutes in the yellow and then for two minutes in the 
blue, the pictures will be sharp. 

The epidermis, hair-shaft, outer root-sheath, connective tissue, elastic 
fibres, smooth and striated muscle stain yellow; all glands, membrane 
of fat-cells, cartilage, and nuclei stain blue. 

Triple stains.—Metanil-yellow, methyl-green, and safranin.—Pre- 
paration : ali nasi of a child, alcohol hardening. 

The sections are stained for eight minutes in the yellow solution, 
then for thirty seconds in the safranin solution, then for twenty seconds 
in the methyl-green solution, and finally passed through the metanil- 
yellow solution. 

The different elements are differentiated as in the double stain with 
metanil-yellow and methyl-green, except the colour is of a darker shade, 
and all muscular elements are stained red. 

Metanil-yellow, crystal Ponceau, and crystal violet.—Preparation : 
ala nasi of a child, alcohol hardening. 

The sections are stained for 2-16 minutes in a mixture of 5 cem. of 
the yellow solution, 5 cem. of the Ponceau solution, and 3 cem. of the violet 
solution, or they are stained for eight minutes in the yellow solution, 
then for six minutes in the Ponceau solution, and finally for fifteen seconds 
in the violet solution. 

Cartilage and nuclei of cartilage-cells, the superficial layer of the 
epidermis stain bluish-violet; connective tissue, elastic fibres, and 
glands stain light red; the deep layer of the epidermis, the rete 
Malpighuy, hair-shaft, the root-sheaths, membrane of fat-cells and muscle 
stain yellow. 

Metanil-yellow, azo-blue, and methyl-green.—Preparation : ala nasi 
of a child, alcohol hardening. 

The sections are stained for ten minutes in the yellow solution, then 
for six minutes in the blue solution, and then for two minutes in the 
green solution, finally, the sections are passed through the yellow 
solution. 

The epidermis, hair-shaft, inner root-sheath, smooth and striated 
muscle stain yellow; membrane of cells, the rete Malpighii, membrana 
propria of glands, elastic fibres, and connective tissue stain violet ; nuclei 
of gland cells and nuclei of the cells of the Malpighian layer, outer root- 
sheath, smooth muscle, and connective tissue stain green. 

Crystal Ponceau, methyl-green, and crystal violet.— Preparation : ala 
nasi of a child, alcohol hardening. 

The sections are stained for eight minutes in a mixture of 10 ccm. of 
the Ponceau solution, 4 cem. of the green, and 2 ccm. of the violet, or they 
are stained for eight minutes in Ponceau solution, then for three minutes 
in the methyl-green solution, and then for five seconds in the violet 
solution. 

The epidermis, hair-shaft, and outer root-sheath stain violet; smooth 
and striated muscle, elastic fibres, and connective tissue stain rose-red ; 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 467 


the stratum mucosum stain green ; the inner root-sheath, all glands and 
membrane of fat-cells, cartilage, and nuclei of its cells stain green. 

Quadruple stains. — Metanil-yellow, safranin, methyl-green, and 
erystal violet.—Preparation : ala nasi of a child, alcohol hardening. 

The sections are stained for twenty minutes in the yellow solution, 
then for one minute in the safranin solution, then again for five seconds 
in the yellow solution, then for two minutes in the methyl-green solution, 
then again for five seconds in the safranin, then again for five seconds in 
the yellow solution, and finally for ten seconds in the violet solution. 

The epidermis, hair-shaft, inner root-sheath, and all nuclei stain 
yellow ; the rete Malpighii, outer root-sheath, sweat glands, sebaceous 
glands, the nuclei of cells, and smooth muscle stain green; nuclei of 
eonnective tissue, elastic fibres, lobes of the sebaceous glands, with the 
nuclei of their cells, membrane of fat-cells stain red ; cartilage and the 
nuclei of its cells stain violet. 

Staining Muscle with Saffron.*—In his researches on the regenera- 
tion of striated muscle, Leven first injected Flemming’s solution into 
the muscle, and then having cut out a piece, this was, after further sub- 
division, placed for some days in the Flemming’s solution, and finally 
hardened in absolute alcohol. Sections were stained in 4—8 hours with 
a solution of saffron made as follows: saffron, 1 part; absolute alcohol, 
100 parts; distilled water, 200 parts. The sections were then washed in 
distilled water and left in acidulated alcohol (0°5 per cent. HCl) until 
they recovered their former yellow colour. They were then treated with 
absolute alcohol, oil of cloves, and finally mounted in dammar. If 
successfully done, the karyokinetic figures appear dark red, while the 
muscle nuclei are pale with dark-red nucleoli. Leucocytes take on the 
colouring matter more easily and keep it longer than the rest of the 
tissues, with the exception of the mitotic figures. 


Iodine Reactions of Cellulose.t—-M. L. Mangin describes a number 
of reagents into whose composition iodine enters which give staining 
reactions with cellulose. 

The two well-known reactions, the one with iodine and sulphuric 
acid, and the other with iodine and chloride of zinc, are to a certain 
extent inconvenient of application. If iodized sulphuric acid be em- 
ployed in too concentrated a state, the tissues are altered; while if it be 
employed too weak there will be no action. With solution of chloride 
of zine the concentration is variable, so that it is difficult to obtain 
identical results; and, furthermore, this reagent produces a coloration 
only after a certain period of time, and several hours are sometimes 
necessary for the staining to show itself. 

The author then gives a list of salts and acids which, together with 
iodine, produce a staining reaction with cellulose, viz. :—-Chloride of 
aluminium, chloride of calcium, chloride of manganese, chloride of mag- 
nesium, hydrated bichloride of tin, nitrate of zinc, nitrate of lime, 
phosphoric acid. These different reagents have not the same sensitive- 
ness. In the case, for instance, of iodized chloride of aluminium, the 
staining appears more rapidly than is the case with chloride of zinc, and 
is preserved for several days. The chlorides of manganese and mag- 
nesium, and the nitrates of lime and zine, only produce a feeble colora- 


* Medical Chronicle, November, 1888. The Microscope, ix. (1889) p. 88. 
+ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxv. (1888) pp. 421-6. 


468 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


tion, but the author specially recommends phosphoric acid and chloride 
of calcium as being likely to replace advantageously iodized chloride of 
zine and iodized sulphuric acid. 

The author then describes the preparation of several of these new 
reagents. In order to make iodized phosphoric acid, the pure crystal- 
lized phosphoric acid must be taken, and to this must be added, in order 
to effect solution, a fourth or a third of its bulk of water, and then some 
crystals of iodide of potassium or iodine must be added until the liquid 
acquires the tint of rum or curacoa. It is advisable to prepare this 
reagent in different states of concentration. It will be found to colour 
cellulose in a few minutes a deep blue colour. Occasionally, when the 
cellulose coloration is found to be partly masked by other matters 
present, it may be advisable to warm the sections to be studied with 
a weak solution of hydrocbloric acid (1 per cent.) or potash (4 per cent.). 
After this the staining will be found to appear instantly. 


Staining the Bacillus of Glanders.*—Dr. H. Kiihne, who considers 
the staining of B. mallet to be especially difficult, advises the following 
procedure. Before immersing in the stain the sections are to be 
thoroughly freed from spirit. This done, they are placed for 3-4 minutes 
in carbol-methylen-blue (water, 100; carbolic acid, 5; alcohol, 10 ; 
methylen-blue, 1°5 gr.) and then decolorized in water acidulated with 
hydrochloric acid, after which the acid is extracted with distilled 
water. After a transitory immersion in alcohol they are transferred to 
anilin oil to which 6-8 drops of oil of turpentine have been added. 
Then to pure turpentine, xylol, and lastly balsam. 


New Rapid Process for Staining Bacillus Tuberculi.—MM. Pittion 
and Roux have presented to the Société de Médecine de Lyon f{ a process 
for differential staining of bacillus tuberculi, in which the easily decom- 
posable anilin water, or its substitute, carbolized water, is supplanted by 
aqua ammonie. ‘There are in the process three fluids, viz. :— 

Solution A. ‘Ten parts of fuchsin dissolved in 100 parts of absolute 
alcohol. 

Solution B. Three parts of liquid ammonia dissolved in 100 parts 
of distilled water. 

Solution C. Alcohol, 50 parts; water, 30 parts ; nitric acid, 20 parts ; 
anilin-green, to saturation. In preparing this solution dissolve the 
green in the alcohol, add the water, and lastly the acid. 

To use. To 10 parts of solution B add 1 part of soluticn A, and 
heat until vapour begins to show itself, then immerse the cover-glass, 
prepared as in the ordinary method of staining. One minute suffices 
to thoroughly stain the bacilli. Wash with plenty of water, and after 
rinsing with distilled water let fall on the film side of the cover-glass 
2 or 3 drops of the green solution (C), and let it remain not longer than 
40 seconds. Wash off with abundant water, dry, and mount in xylol 
balsam. The bacilli will, on examination, be found to be stained a fine 
rose red upon a pele or delicate green ground. 

Most excellent preparations may be obtained by replacing the 
fuchsin with gentian-violet and the anilin-green with a weak solution 
of chrysoidin. 

An experiment made with the above stain by Dr, F. L. James { seems 


* Fortschritte der Med., 1888, p. 860. 
+ St. Louis Med, and Surg. Journ., lvi. (1889) p 155, t T.c., p. 156. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 469 


to prove its claims to superiority over all other stains yet tried. Not 
only is the process more rapid than any hitherto used (except that of 
Glorieux, and it equals even this remarkably rapid method), but a greater 
number of bacilli are developed. Further than this, the bacilli appear 
to be swollen by the process, and show up larger and more clearly. 


(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c. 


Preparing and Mounting Diatoms.*—In his account of the diatoms 
of the Bay of Villafranca, M. Peragallo recommends the following plan 
for separating and preparing them for examination, in the case of those 
species which are dredged up from the bottom mixed with sand and mud. 

The material is first passed through a coarse sieve with meshes about 
1 mm. in diameter, the residue (which has passed through the sieve) 
placed in a dish, and hydrochloric acid added drop by drop to dissolve the 
calcareous matter; when effervescence has ceased, the deposit is placed 
in a large vessel and allowed to settle repeatedly after washing with 
water until every trace of acid has disappeared. It is then boiled in 
water alkalized by potassium or sodium carbonate, and shaken; the 
diatoms fall to the bottom, while the mud remains in suspension, and by 
repeated decanting the diatoms are obtained with but small admixture 
of any foreign matter except sand, especially if finally treated with 
sulphuric acid. The diatoms are lastly separated from the sand by a 
tedious process of moistening with alcohol and passing down an inclined 
glass tube, when the diatoms pass down and the sand remains behind. 
The whole process occupies more than a month, but is stated to produce 
very good results. 

For mounting, the diatoms are always placed on the cover-glass. 
The fixing material recommended is gum adraganth, as prepared by 
M. Brun of Geneva, the refractive index of which is very near to that 
of glass, and as a saturating fluid a solution of styrax or liquidambar in 
benzin or in a mixture of benzin and absolute alcohol. The diatoms 
are placed in the position they are intended to occupy on the cover-glass 
by means of a mounted hair or small pincers with a wooden handle. 
The pincers are then lightly dipped into the solution of gum adraganth, 
and, after moistening the cover by the breath, the diatoms are lightly 
touched with the pincers. When the moisture has entirely evaporated, 
a drop of the saturating fluid is placed on the cover-glass, and when the 
air-bubbles have entirely disappeared, and before the fluid has completely 
evaporated, a drop of styrax is added. The preparation is then warmed, 
and placed by pincers on the slide, and the excess of styrax removed by 
linen soaked in alcohol. 

Mounting Diatoms.{—M. Bialle de Langibaudiére mounts diatoms in 
the following manner. Upona clean cover-glass, previously placed upon 
a bronze or iron table, are dropped from a pipette several drops of 
distilled water. Then from the bottle in which the diatoms aro 
preserved in spirit, is removed a small quantity of the fluid, with the 
same pipette. Of this fluid one drop is let fall into the distilled water 
on the cover-glass. Owing to the alcoholic fluid falling into water, the 
diatoms are scattered all over the cover-glass. The metal table is then 
gently heated, so that the water evaporates very slowly and without ebul- 
lition. The rest of the manipulation is performed in the usual manner. 

* Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Toulouse, xxii. (1888) pp. 16-35. Cf. ante, p. 427. 
+ Journ. de Micrographie, xiii, (1889) p. 59. 
1889. K 


470 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Cement Varnishes and Cells.*—Mr. 8. G. Shank finds that every 
medium of an aqueous or glycerin nature sooner or later softens all 
ordinary cell cements. Mounts of Alge, &c., in copper solution, glycerin, 
in solution of chloral hydrate, in cells of solution of sealing wax and 
such similar cements, when about three years old, all show the cement 
creeping in towards the centre of the mount. All cells to be used for 
fluid (other than alcoholic) and glycerin solutions should be carefully 
covered with shellac. This may whiten where the fiuid touches it, but 
it resists well. Cement down the cover with shellac also, and back it 
with a more tenacious varnish. 

Lovett’s cement, which is white fend 2, red lead 2, litharge 3, ground 
together with thin gold size to a working consistence, hardens more 
quickly than gold size, and seems to be entirely permanent. Mounts 
four years old prepared with this cement are still perfect, resisting 
glycerin and weak alcoholic solutions. This cement is troublesome to 
prepare and cannot be well kept, like shellac varnish. 

Cells are, as a rule, made too deep or too wide. The expansion and 
contraction of considerable bodies of fluid soon loosen any but very 
carefully made cells. Fluid mounts which show signs of failure should, 
as a rule, be immediately remounted. The presence of air seems to 
facilitate decomposition. Frequently the bubble is a gaseous result 
of internal decomposition, which progresses in spite of liberal coats of 
varnish subsequently applied. 

Glass slips, with concave centre, should be prepared for many objects. 
They cost about the same as loose glass cells, and are deep enough 
for a head of Txnia Solium, &c., and the addition of a ring of thick 
shellac, well dried, forms a cell deep enough for a wide range of objects. 
All fluid mounts ought to be revarnished every year whether they show 
signs of failure or not. 

King’s amber or Brown’s rubber are transparent varnishes, and 
neither will impair the beauty of any fancy finish. White and black 
finishing varnishes may be made by adding to shellac varnish, tube 
oil-colour, ivory black, or zinc white. The resulting finish does not 
crack, but is not as brilliant as zinc cement or asphaltum. 

The surface of a slide to which a cell is to be cemented, should be 
well cleaned with a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and chloroform. 
The best cement fails to adhere on a dirty glass surface. 

Copal Cement.;—Mr. W. Z. Davies makes a transparent and ecolour- 
less cement, which is useful as a finishing varnish and for cell-building, 
in the following manner :— 

Take best clear copal gum, coarsely pulverized, mix with a sufficient 
quantity of benzol to cover it, and let stand for 24 hours. Take of 
chloroform twice as much as of the benzol,and in it as much gum 
camphor to saturate the chloroform, and then add a small quantity of 
pale linseed, nut, or poppy oil. The quantity of oil will vary according 
as a quick or slow drying cement is desired. If no oil, ora very small 
quantity is added, the cement will dry very quickly. Next add the 
mixture to the copal and benzol, shaking at intervals for several days, 
until as large a quantity as possible of the gum has been dissolved. 
Pour off, filter, and evaporate to any desired consistency. 

This cement adheres well to glass, especially if the glass is warm 


* The Microscope, ix. (1889) pp. 126-7. + T.c., pp. 78-9. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 471 


when the first coat is applied. Cells built up entirely of it are as 
colourless as the glass itself. 


Finishing Slides.*—The only factors, says Miss M. A. Booth, to be 
taken into account fer filling up the distance from slide to cover-glass 
without spreading, are a proper cement and the proper consistency of that 
cement. Let us assume that the cell is of block tin, and firmly attached 
to the slide by shellac cement or by gold size or marine glue, and so 
thoroughly dried that the cell cannot be moved on the glass by the 
vigorous use of a file. Where strength is not required, no cement is so 
convenient as asphalte or Brunswick black for rounding out the wall, 
and if applied at one operation there is nothing treacherous about it. 
But never put a fresh coat over a partially dried one. 

Where it is desired to reinforce the cement which attaches the cell 
to the slip, the cement should be used pretty thick, and it is well to 
keep two bottles of each kind of cement, one a fresh and therefore thin 
one, and another from which the solvent has partially evaporated. 
With most cements it is best that they should be applied in successive 
coats, allowing time for each to dry before the next is applied. With 
cement of a proper thickness and a penknife to turn up the cement 
towards the cell, while the turntable is revolving, filling up the distance 
from slide to cover-glass is quite easy. 


Lyon, H. N.—Cements, Varnishes, and Cells. 
The Microscope, 1X. (1889) pp. 69-74. 
ZABRISKIE, J. L.—A Nest of Watch-glass Covers. 
Journ. New York Micr. Soc., V. (1889) pp. 76-8 (8 figs.). 


(6) Miscellaneous. 


Counting the Colonies in an Esmarch Plate.;—Where it is desirable 
to make an accurate enumeration of the number of colonies developed on 
an Hsmarch plate, and where these are not very numerous, Dr. Tavel adopts 
the following method. The tube to be counted is pushed slowly and with 
a screw-like motion into an Esmarch enumerator, and at the same time a 
glass rod is fixed to its clamp, so that a spiral line is traced upon the 
glass, the turns of which are about 1 cm. distant from one another. 
The counting is done by following with a lens the course of the spiral 
from its beginning to its end. In this way the risk of counting a 
colony twice over is prevented. 


BENECKEE, F.—Die Bedeutung der mikroskopischen Untersuchung von Kraftfutter- 
mitteln fiir die landwirthschaftliche Praxis. (The importance of the microscopical 
investigation of strengthening-fodder for practical agriculture.) 

15 pp., 8vo, Dresden, 1888. 

BIDWELL, W. D.—A Land Title settled by the Microscope. 

[Examination of some lead-pencil memoranda alleged to be of different dates. ] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., X. (1889) p. 69. 

Browy, F. W.—A Course in Animal Histology. IX. 

[Muscle.] The Microscope, 1X. (1889) pp. 81-2. 

FREEBORN, G. C.—WNotices of New Methods. VIII. IX. 

Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., X. (1889) pp. 66, 79-80. 

Tats, A. N.—The Application of the Microscope to Technological Purposes. 

20th Ann. Rep. Liverpool Micr. Soc. 1889, pp. 6-9. 

WuHELPLEY, H. M.—Microscopical Laboratory Notes. 

Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., X. (A889) pp. 65-6, 


* Micr. Bulletin, vi. (1889) p. 8. 
+ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., v. (1889) p. 552. 


( 472-) : 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Meeting or 10ts Arrit, 1889, at Kine’s Cotteas, Stranp, W.C., 
Pror. Caartes Stewart, F.L.S., Vicn-PresipEnt, Iv THE CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 13th March last were read and con- 
firmed, and were signed by the Chairman. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) 
received since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the 
Society given to the donors. 

From 
Didelot, L., Du Pouvoir Amplifiant du Microscope. 2nd edition. 
86 pp., and 1 plate. (8vo., Paris, 1887) .. .. » «, 


Mr, Crisp. 
Messrs. Dick & Swift’s new form of Petrological Microscope was 
exhibited by Mr. Crisp, and the detailed description read to the 
meeting (supra, p. 432). 
The Chairman thought that the instrument was very ingeniously 
contrived, and very well adapted to the particular purpose for which it 
was designed. 


Dr. Van Heurck’s communication was read giving the preliminary 
particulars of a Botanical and Microscopical Exhibition which it was 
proposed to hold at Antwerp in 1890 in celebration of the 300th 
anniversary of the invention of the Microscope. Further and more 
detailed information was promised hereafter. 


Mr. G. Massee’s paper on “A Revision of the Trichiaces” was 
taken as read, the Secretary explaining that its length and extremely 
technical character rendered it impossible for any one but the author to 
give a résumé of it. It would be published im eatenso in the Journal, 
and would be a valuable addition to their proceedings (supra, p. 325). 


Mr. E. M. Nelson’s paper on “The Action of the Wide-angled 
Tiluminating Axial Cone and its relation to the Diffraction Theory,” was, 
in the absence of the author, read by Mr. Crisp, many of the illustrations 
being enlarged upon the board by Prof. Stewart. 

The paper was discussed by the Chairman, Mr. Crisp, Mr. Ingpen, 
Prof. Lowne, and Mr. T. F. Smith, and will be printed in the next 
number of the Journal. The discussion occupied the rest of the 
evening. 


The Chairman announced that the next Conversazione would take 
place on May Ist. 


New Fellows.—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 
Messrs. William Gadd, C. W. Hoagland, M.D., and George H. F. 
Nuttall, M.D. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 473 


Meeting or 8TH May, 1889, at Kine’s Cottece, Strand, W.C., 
THE Presipent (Dr. C. T. Hupson, M.A., LL.D.) mv tae Cuatr. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 10th April last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the President. 


The President said that some new species of Asplanchna had 
recently been described by M. de Guerne, but upon examining the 
figures which were given in illustration he had come to the conclusion 
that this observer had studied the teeth by the examination of specimens 
which had either been crushed or treated with caustic potash. The 
teeth of these rotifera were extremely brittle, and if any pressure was 
applied to them, as was most frequently done, they were very liable to 
be fractured, and the pieces would then get scattered about in various 
directions. There were cases in which new species had actually been 
made out of them in accordance with the positions in which they 
happened to fall. By means of a drawing upon the black-board, the 
President showed the effects of such crushing in producing a variety of 
alterations in the apparent structure of the trophi of Asplanchna. 
The solid triangular base of the ramus, which was described as one of 
the new characters, was nothing more than a muscular portion at its 
lower end, namely, the half of a stout muscle which embraced the free 
end of the fulcrum and sloped upwards to a projection on either ramus. 
To make it quite clear how a difference in the aspect or position would 
produce some of the alterations described, he had made a large model in 
wax composition of the trophi of Asplanchna, by means of which he 
pointed out how some of the so-called new forms could readily be seen 
by viewing the model from different points. 

The President also said that amongst the nominations read that 
evening was the name of Mr. Thomas Whitelegge, a gentleman living in 
Australia, who had sent him a great many beautiful things at different 
times. Amongst these was a specimen of Lacinularia, which was very 
curious, consisting of a number of separate individuals associated together 
in a cluster, but all united at their lower ends to a common stem of re- 
markable length, the lower end of which was spread out as a kind of 
solid foot. A representation of the form having been drawn on the 
board and further described, the President said it was possible to suggest 
a way of accounting for this curious growth by supposing that these 
rotifers, being capable of secreting a viscid material, had done this some- 
what abundantly, and being drawn upwards by the action of the trochal 
discs, an elongation of that viscid material would take place, and then, 
by the motions given to them by the ciliary action, these stems would 
first be plaited together, and ultimately become fused. 

In modelling the trophi of Asplanchna, he had trusted to a formula he 
had met with for making the material ; this was equal parts of bees’-wax, 
olive oil, flake white, and lead-plaster. The result was as they saw 
before them ; something which it was very easy to mould in any required 
form, but which remained so soft that it could not be touched without 
spoiling. If any of the Fellows present could tell him how to make 
See of the kind which would harden he should be very much 
obliged. 

Mr. J. D. Hardy asked the President whether, in the case of the 


474 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Lacinularia to which he had drawn attention, there was any gelatinous 
surrounding to the stem. 

The President said that the spherical portion at the top of the stem 
was gelatinous, but the stem itself was not so; at the upper end it was 
white and clear, then lower down it got more horny, and became more 
and more yellow as it continued towards the base. 

Mr. Hardy thought that the idea of making a model such as the Pre- 
sident exhibited that evening was an extremely good one, and that if that 
plan was more adopted they would be able to get a better idea of the facts 
of the case than any drawing could give them. He suggested that if a 
photograph of that model was taken under a good oblique light, it would 
give any one a far better notion of the structure than any other mode of 
representation. 


Mr. T. F. Smith said he had brought for exhibition the Abbe diffrac- 
tion-plate, shown by means of stops of various apertures, to clear up a 
point of difference between Mr. Nelson and Prof. Lowne during the dis- 
cussion which took place at the previous meeting. Having drawn a series 
of diagrams upon the board to represent the bands of lines on the plate, 
parallel and crossed at right angles and obliquely, he proceeded to point 
out that the effect of reducing the size of the aperture in the stop was 
simply to alter the resolving power ; that where the lines were resolved 
they were shown correctly, and where not resolved they were blotted out 
altogether. In further illustration of his meaning, Mr. Smith exhibited 
a number of photomicrographs of the various bands taken under the 
conditions to which he had alluded. 

Mr. Crisp said that Mr. Smith had not explained the point he 
desired to make as the result of his observations. 

Mr. Smith said his conclusion was that it was not possible to falsify 
the appearance of the structure of an object with central light, and 
that if it was resolved at all it was under those conditions resolved 
correctly. 

Mr. Crisp inquired if Mr. Smith remembered where the contrary had 
been stated ? 

Mr. Smith could not give the reference asked for, but thought 
something to that effect had been stated at the Quekett Club. 

Mr. Crisp was glad to hear that it did not originate with this 
Society ; he had feared it was some heresy emanating from them which 
Mr. Smith was endeavouring to combat. 


Messrs. C. D. Sherborn and F. Chapman’s “ Additional note on the 
Foraminifera of the London Clay” was read, describing thirty-four 
varieties of Foraminifera from the London Clay exposed in the 
drainage works some time since carried out in Piccadilly. 


Dr. A. C. Stokes’ paper on “New Peritrichous Infusoria from the 
Fresh Waters of the United States” was read. 


The President said they had heard with great regret of the death 
of Dr. Warren de la Rue, one who was so well known to all as a 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 475 


scientist that it was needless for him to say more than to express 
their deep sense of the loss sustained by the removal of so eminent 
a man, who had formerly held the office of Vice-President of their 
Society. 

Mr. J. Mayall, jun., thought it was a point of special interest to be 
mentioned in connection with Dr. de la Rue that in quite the early 
days, when the Microscope was not so perfect as at present, he 
acquired for himself considerable skill in its application, and was the 
first to make a systematic study of Nobert’s lines, some account of 
which was published in the third edition of ‘Quekett on the Micro- 
scope. He corresponded with Nobert at the time upon the subject, 
and was one of the first to produce photomicrographs. 


The President said he might mention that a new species of 
Brachionus had been found by Mr. Rousselet which presented some very 
interesting features. He would not anticipate Mr. Rousselet by then 
describing them, but would draw upon the board the sideways appear- 
ance of the lorica of another curious species from Australia which 
had been sent to him by Surgeon Vidal Gunson Thorpe, R.N. He 
felt sure that most of the mistakes made in the descriptions of these 
creatures arose from attempts to kill them first and examine them 
afterwards; to get correct results from this was hopeless, because 
when killed they became opaque, and began to disintegrate almost at 
once. Another instance he might mention was that of Dr. E. von 
Daday’s elaborate memoir on Pedalion, in which there were drawings 
untrue to nature, owing to their having been made from creatures 
brought home in spirit, and consequently distorted in many ways. 
All the speaker’s own drawings had been made from life, after two 
months’ constant observation, in consequence of the extreme difficulty 
of getting the creature into the proper position for seeing the particular 
portion wanted ; and he must certainly say that of all rotifera Pedalion 
was the most aggravating one he knew of in this respect. For the 
correct observation of Rotifera there were only two directions to be 
given: first, see them alive; second, for reagents use patience. 

Mr. J. D. Hardy said it might be worth mentioning that the best way 
he knew of to keep these rotifera quiet for a sufficiently long time to be 
able to draw them, especially when they were such active creatures as 
the one last mentioned, was to make a strong solution of common loaf 
sugar, and add it drop by drop to the water until the rapid motion of the 
rotifer was stopped. This did not prevent them from keeping up their 
ciliary action, and the liquid remained sufficiently transparent to make 
observation quite easy. 

The President said this idea was quite new to him, and inquired how 
much syrup it was proper to add to the water. 

Mr. Hardy said the quantity would depend upon the size of the cell. 
The plan was merely to mix loaf sugar and water until a syrup was pro- 
duced about as thick as treacle, and then to add this drop by drop to the 
water in the cell until the rotifer was fairly fixed. 

The President inquired if Mr. Hardy had ever tried this plan with 
Asplanchna, because whenever he had tried mixing anything with the 
water he found that they either blew themselves out quite tight, or else 
shrivelled up altogether. 


476 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. ~ 


Mr. Hardy said that the syrup being added very gradually, diffused 
itself through the water, so that the density of the liquid very soon got 
to be the same within the creature as outside, which he thought would 
prevent the distortion mentioned. He did not remember to have tried 
the plan with Asplanchna, but he had done so with Bursaria, which was 
a very active animal. 

The President said he should certainly try the method.. There was 
another substance sometimes used for the purpose, and that was a very 
weak solution of salicylic acid. The rotifers would swim about in this 
for hours, and then slowly die. This was the only way in which he had 
found it possible to see Syncheta. Another thing sometimes used was 
a very weak solution of chromic acid. A weak mixture of the two acids 
was also a good preservative. 

Mr. Hardy asked whether the acid did not kill the rotifers. 

The President said that the solution used did so after six hours or so, 
but it also preserved them. 

Mr. Hardy said that the syrup had the great advantage of simply 
quieting without killing them, and their freedom of action could be 
afterwards restored by the addition of more water. 


The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited :— 
Dr. Hudson :—Wax model of the trophi of Asplanchna. 
Mr. T. F. Smith :—Abbe Diffraction-plate and Photomicrographs. 


New Fellows :—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 
Messrs. Joseph R. Ratcliffe, M.B.; Thomas W. Shore, M.D., B.Sc. ; 
Clarence M. Weed, M.Sc. ; and Rev. B. Jones Bateman. 


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