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Journal  of  tbe 

Ropal  microscopical  Societp 

CONTAINING    ITS   TRANSACTIONS   AND    PROCEEDINGS 

AND 
A   SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

ZOOLOGY       .A.  3NT  TO       BOTANY 
(principally   Invertebrata   and  Cryptogamia) 

MICROSCOPY,     Sza. 

EDITED    BY 
R.  G.  HEBB,  M.A.  M.D.  F.R.C.P. 

Joint  Lecturer  on  Medicine  at   Westminster  Hospital 

WITH    THE   ASSISTANCE  OF   THE    PUBLICATION    COMMITTEE    AND 

J.  ARTHUR  THOMSON,  M.A.  F.R.S.E. 

Regius  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  the  University  of  Aberdeen 

A.  N.  DISNEY,  M.A.  B.Sc.  J-  W"  H-  EYRE>  M-D-  *-B-S.H. 

Bacteriologist  to  Guy's  Hospital 
FELLOWS     OF    THE    SOCIETY 
AND 

A.  B.  RENDLE,  M.A.  D.Sc.  F.L.S. 

Assistant  in  Botany,  British  Museum 


Minimis  partibus,  per  totum  Naturae  campum,  certitudo  omnis  innititur 
quas  qui  fugit  pariter  Naturam  fugit.— Linnceus. 


FOR      THE      YEA  R 
1902 


TO    BE    OBTAINED  AT    THE   SOCIETY'S   ROOMS, 

20    HANOVER    SQUARE,    LONDON,  W.  ; 

of  Messrs.  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE  ;  and  of  Messrs.  DULAU  &  CO. 


■XH-1 


THE 


(Established  in  1839.     Incorporated  by  Eoyal  Charter  in  1866.) 


The  Society  was  established  for  the  promotion  of  Microscopical  and 
Biological  Science  by  the  communication,  discussion,  and  publication  of  observa- 
tions and  discoveries  relating  to  (1)  improvements  in  the  construction  and 
mode  of  application  of  the  Microscope,  or  (2)  Biological  or  other  subjects  of 
Microscopical  Besearch. 

It  consists  of  Ordinary,  Honorary,  and  Ex-officio  Fellows  of  either  sex. 

Ordinary  Fellows  are  elected  on  a  Certificate  of  Recommendation 
signed  by  three  Ordinary  Fellows,  setting  forth  the  names,  residence,  and 
description  of  the  Candidate,  of  whom  the  first  proposer  must  have  personal 
knowledge.  The  certificate  is  read  at  two  General  Meetings,  and  the  Candidate 
balloted  "for  at  the  second  Meeting. 

The  Admission  Fee  is  2/.  2s.,  paid  at  the  time  of  election  and  the  Annual 
Subscription  is  2?.  2s.,  payable  on  election,  and  subsequently  in  advance  on 
1st  January  in  each  year,  but  future  payments  may  be  compounded  for  at  any 
time  for  31/.  10s.  Fellows  elected  at  a  meeting  subsequent  to  that  in  February 
are  only  called  upon  for  a  proportionate  part  of  the  first  year's  subscription. 
The  annual  Subscription  of  Fellows  permanently  residing  abroad  is  1?.  lis.  Qd  . 
or  a  reduction  of  one-fourth. 

Honorary  Fellows  (limited  to  50), 'consisting  of  persons  eminent  in 
Microscopical  or  Biological  Science,  are  elected  on  the  recommendation  of  five 
Ordinary  Fellows  and  the  approval  of  the  Council. 

Ex-officio  Fellows  (limited  to  100),  consisting  of  the  Presidents  for  the 
time  being  of  any  Societies  having  objects  in  whole  or  in  part  similar  to  those  of 
the  Society,  are  elected  on  the  recommendation  of  ten  Ordinary  Fellows,  and  the 
approval  of  the  Council. 

The  Council,  in  whom  the  management  of  the  property  and  affairs  of 
the  Society  is  vested,  is  elected  annually,  and  is  composed  of  the  President, 
four  Vice-Presidents,  Treasurer,  two  Secretaries,  and  twelve  other  Ordinary 
Fellows. 

The  Meetings  are  held  on  the  third  Wednesday  in  each  month,  from 
October  to  June,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W.  (commencing  at  8  p.m.).  Visitors 
are  admitted  by  the  introduction  of  Fellows. 

The  Journal,  containing  the  Transactions  and  Proceedings  of  the 
Society,  and  a  Summary  of  Current  Besearches  relating  to  Zoology  and  Botany 
(principally  Invertebrata  and  Cryptogamia),  Microscopy,  &c,  is  published 
bi-monthly,  and  is  forwarded  post-free  to  all  Ordinary  and  Ex-officio  Fellows 
residing  in  countries  within  the  Postal  Union. 

The  Library,  with  the  Instruments,  Apparatus,  and  Cabinet  of  Objects, 
is  open  for  the  use  of  Fellows  daily  (except  Saturdays),  from  10  a.m.  to  5  p.m. 
It  is  closed  for  four  weeks  during  August  and  September. 

Forms  of  proposal  for  Fellowship,  and  any  further  information,  may  be  obtained  by 
application  to  the  Secretaries,  ort  Assistant-Secretary,  at  the  Library  of  the  Society, 
20  Hanover  Square.,  W. 

a  2 


patron 

HIS    MAJESTY    THE    KING. 


|)ast-|1  residents. 

Elected 

*Sib  Richabd^Owen,  K.C.B.,  D.C.L.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.     1840-1 

*John  Ldjdley,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S 1842-3 

*Thomas  Bell,  F.E.S 1844-5 

*James  Scott  Bowebbank,  LL.D.,  F.R.S 1846-7 

*Geobge  Busk,  F.R.S 1848-9 

*Akthub  Fabbe,  M.D.,  F.R.S 1850-1 

*Geobge  Jackson,  M.R.C.S 1852-3 

*  William  Benjamin  Cabpenteb,  C.B.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. .     1854-5 

*Geoege  Shadbolt 1856-7 

*Edwin  Lankestee,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S 1858-9 

*John  Thomas  Quekett,  F.R.S 1860 

*Robeet  James  Fabbants,  F.R.C.S 1861-2 

*Chaeles  Beooke,  M.A.,  F.R.S 1863-4 

* James  Glaishee,  F.R.S 1865-6-7-8 

*Rev.  Joseph  Bancboft  Reade,  M.A.,  F.R.S 1869-70 

*William  Kitchen  Paekee,  F.R.S 1871-2 

*Chables  Beooke,  M.A.,  F.R.S 1873-4 

Heney  Clifton  Sobby,  LL.D.,  F.R.S 1875-6-7 

*Henby  James  Slack,  F.G.S 1878 

Lionel  S.  Beale,  M.B.,  F.R.C.P.,  F.R.S 1879-80 

*Petek  Mabtin  Duncan,  M.B.,  F.R.S 1881-2-3 

Rev.  William  Hy.  Dallingee,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.    1884-5-6-7 
Chables  Thos.  Hudson,  M.A.,  LL.D.  (Cantab.),  F.R.S.  1888-9-90 

Robebt  Bbaithwaite,  M.D.,  M.R.C.S 1891-2 

Albebt  D.  Michael,  F.L.S 1893-4-5-6 

Edwabd  Milles  Nelson 1897-8-9 

William  Cabeuthees,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S. 1900-1 


* 


Deceasea. 


COUNCIL. 

Elected  15th  January,  1902. 


Jlresiocnt. 

Henry  Woodward,  Esq.,  LL.D.,  F.E.S.,  F.G.S.,  F.Z.S. 

*Robert  Braithwaite,  Esq.,  M.D.,  M.K.C.S.,  F.L.S. 
♦William  Carruthers,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S. 
*George  C.  Karop,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S. 
The  Right  Hon.  Sir  Ford  North,  P.C.,  F.R.S. 

Creasurcr. 

J.  J.  Vezey,  Esq. 

Sccrjttams. 

Hev.  W.  H.  Dallinger,  LL.D.,  D.Sc,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 
R.  G.  Hebb,  Esq.,  M.A.,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P. 

(Orbmarn  glcmbcrs  of  Council. 

Conrad  Beck,  Esq. 
^Alfred  W.  Bennett,  Esq.,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  F.L.S. 

E.  T.  Browne,  Esq. 

Rev.  Edmund  Carr,  M.A.,  F.R.Met.S. 
*A.  N.  Disney,  Esq.,  M.A.  B.Sc. 
*A.  D.  Michael,  Esq.,  F.L.S. 
*E.  M.  Nelson,  Esq. 

Henry  George  Plimmer,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.,  F.L.S. 

Thomas  H.  Powell,  Esq. 

Percy  E.  Rabley,  Esq. 
^Charles  F.  Rousselet,  Esq. 

Thos.  W.  Shore,  Esq.,  M.D.,  B.Sc,  F.L.S. 

librarian. 

Percy  E.  Rabley,  Esq. 

Curator. 

Charles  F.  Rousselet,  Esq. 

Assistant  Stcxetarg. 

Mr.  F.  A.  Parsons. 


*  Members  of  the  Publication  Committee. 

t  Mr.  Bennett  died  23rd  January.  1902,  and  the  Council  elected  Mr.  Jas. 
Mason  Allen  in  his  place. 


CONTENTS. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SOCIETY. 

PAGE 

i. — Report  of  a  Demonstration  of  the  Methods  used  in  the  Photomicrography 
of  Iron  and  Steel.  By  William  H.  Merritt,  Assoc.  R.S.M.,  F.C.S. 
(Figs.  1  and  2,  and  Plates  I.  and  II.)         1 

II.— On  Stereomicrogiapiiy.  By  G.  P.  Gird  wood,  M.D.,  M.Il.C.S.Eng.,  F.R.S.C, 
F.I.C.,  &c,  Professor  of  Chemistry  Med.  Fac.  M'Gill  College,  Montreal ; 
Consulting  Surgeon  Montreal  General  Hospital ;  late  Asst. -Surgeon 
Grenadier  Guards.     (Fig.  14)      12 

III. — The    First   English    Achromatic   Objectives.      By  Edward   M.    Nelson. 

(Fig.  15) 16 

IV. — The  President's  Address  :  On  the  Life  and  Work  of  Nehemiah  Grew.     By 

William  Carruthers,  F.R.S 129 

V. — New  Methods  in  Microscope  Work.     By  Edward  M.  Nelson.     (Figs.  '.'A 

and35) H2 

VI.— Third  List  of  New  Rotifers  since  1889.     By  Charles  F.  Rousselet,  Curator 

andF.R.M.S 148 

VII. — The  Genus  Synchaeta:  A  Monographic  Study,  with  Descriptions  of  Five 
New  Species.  By  Charles  F.  Rousselet,  Curator  and  F.R.M.S. 
(Plates  II1.-VI II.)         269,  39:? 

VIII. — Undescribed  Palpi  on  the  Proboscis  of  Some  Dipterous  Flies,  with  Remarks 
on  the  Mouth-parts  in  several  Families.  By  Walter  Wesche',  F.R.M.S. 
(Plates  IX.  and  X.)        41'-' 

IX. — Report  on  the  Recent  Foraminifera  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  collected 
by  Mr.  A.  Durrand,  F.R.M.S.— Part  XIII.  By  Fortescue  William 
Millett,  F.R.M.S.    (Plate  XL) 509 

X. — Electrical  Method  of  Taking  Microscope  Measurements.     By  Philip  E. 

Shaw,  B.A..  D.Sc.  (Figs.  126-128)      62f> 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

NOTES. 

PAGE 

Holtzapffel's  Microscope.     By  Edward  M.  Nelson.     (Figs.  16  and  17) 19 

A  Bibliography  of  Works  (dated  not  later  than  1700)  dealing  with  the  Microscope 

and  other  Optical  Subjects.     By  Edward  M.  Nelson       20 

Waddel's  Erecting  Microscope.     By  Edward  M.  Nelson -91 

Photograph  of  Pleurosigma  angulatum  by  F.  E.  Ives.     (Plate  XII.)     529 


OBITUARY 

Henry  George  Madan,  M.  A 24 

A.W.Bennett.     Biographical  Memoir  of,  by  J.  G.  Baker.  F.R.S.     (Portrait)      ..  155 

Thomas  Comber         158 

William  Miller  Ord,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P 417 

Richard  Leach  Maddox 530 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

Relating  to  Zoology  and  Botany  (principally  Invertebrata  and 
Cryptogamia),  Microscopy,  &c,  including  Original  Communications 
from  Fellows  and  Others.*  25,  159,  292.  418,  533,  631 

ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 

a.  Embryology. 

Fraenkel,  L.,  &  F.  Cohn — Function  of  Corpus  Luteum  in  Relation  to  Insertion  of 

Ova  in  Uterus         25 

Giard,  A. — Note  on  the  History  of  Merogony       26 

Leslie,  C.  de — Influence  of  Spermotoxin  on  the  Fertilising  Poiver  of  Spermatozoa ..  26 

Hertwig,  Oscar — Germ-layers  of  Vertebrates      26 

Studnicka,  F.  K. — Origin  of  Cerebral  Hemispheres 26 

Hammar,  J.  Aug. — Development  of  Tongue  in  Man 26 

MacCallum,  J.  B. — Development  of  Pig's  Intestine '11 

Hochstktter,  F. —  Variations  in  the  Aortic  Arches  and  the  Origin  of  Arteries  in 

Reptiles ' 27 

Kapelkin,  W. — Development  of  Axial  Skeleton  in  Amphibia 27 

Braus,  Hermann — Dorsal  Groove  and  Dorsal  Suture  in  Gastrula  of  Triton   ..      ..  2S 

Montgomery,  T.  H.,  Jun. — Larva  of  Plethodon  cinereus 28 

Barbadoro,  Luigi — Development  of  Frog's  Retina       28 

Dean,  Bashford — Reminiscence  of  Holoblastic  Cleavage  in  Ovum  of  Cestracion     . .  29 

Allis,  E.  P.,  Jun. — Ophthalmic  Nerves  of  Musteluslsevis 29 

Lubosch,  W. — Development  of  Olfactory  Organ  of  Ammocoetes 29 

Hatta,  S. — Relation  of  Metameric  Segmentation  in  Petromyzon  to  that  in  Amphi- 

oxus  and  in  Higher  Craniota        29 

Chariun,  A.,  &  G.  Delamare — Influence  on   Offspring  of  Injecting  Toxins  into 

Parents 29 

*  In  order  to  make  the  Contents  complete,  the  papers  printed  in  the  '  Transactions' 
and  the  Notes  printed  in  the  'Proceedings'  ure  included  here. 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PAGE 

Ivaestner,  Sandor — Embryological  Methods         30 

Rosner,  A. — Monochorial  Twins      159 

Bergh,  R.  S. — Origin  of  Blood-vessels 160 

Schimkewitsch,  W. — Influences  of  Injections  into  the  Albumen  of  Fowls'  Eggs       . .  160 

Nussbaum,  M. — Cell-division  and  Mitosis      160 

Loyez.  Makie — Germinal  Vesicle  of  Reptiles        161 

Battelli,  F. — Rheotactie  Properties  of  Spermatozoa 161 

Loisel,  G. — Function  of  Sertoli's  Cells 161 

Broman,  Ivar — Movements  of  Spermatids  and  their  Parts 102 

Prowazek,  S. — Tetrads  in  Spermatogenesis 162 

Bild,  A. — Development  of  Teeth  iti  S us  domestica         162 

Fischer,  Eugen — Chondrocranium  of  Cercopithecus  cynomolgus        163 

Aigner,  Albert — Epithelium  of  Epididymis  in  Mammals         163 

Hammar,  Aug. — Development  of  Ear  in  Man        163 

SziLi,  A. — Development  of  Iris  in  Man 164 

Leche,  W. — Alleged  Case  of  Transmission  of  Acquired  Characters 164 

SALYi,  G— Copulation  of  Bats 164 

Strasser,  H, — Olfactory  Organ  in  Vertebrates 164 

Volker — Development  of  Pancreas  in  Amniota 165 

Pedaschenko,  D. — Development  of  Mid-brain  in  Bony  Fish      165 

Schumacher,  Siegmund  v.  —  Yolk-organ  of  Salmo  fario       166 

Waite,  Edgar  R,—  Development  of  Galeus  antarclicus       166 

Schneider,  Guido — Life-history  of  CI upea  sprattus 166 

Byrne,  L.  W. —  Young  of  Montagu's  Blenny 167 

Dybowski,  B. — Life-history  and  Young  Stages  of  the  "  Fat-Fish"  of  Lake  Baikal  167 

Kennel,  J. — P rogeny  of  a  Tailless  Cat 292 

Loisel,  G. — Spermatogenesis  in  Sparrow       293 

Kolster,  R. — Peculiar  Process  in  Seminal  Vesicles  of  Elk 293 

Houssay,  F. — Influence  of  Diet  on  Egg-Laying  in  the  Fowl       294 

Mitrophanow,  P. — Early  Stages  in  the  Development  of  Duck  and  Tern 29-4 

Le  Hello — Maternal  Impression  in  a  Mare 294 

Ccenot,  L. — Heredity  Studied  in  Alice 294 

Hunter,  S.  J. — Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in  Arbacia  induced  by  the  Use  of  Sea- 
water  concentrated  by  Evaporation      418 

Boveri,  Th. — Problem  of  Fertilisation 418 

IIertwig,  R. — Nature  of  Fertilisation 419 

Blanchard,  N. — Grand-parental  Inheritance       419 

Beard,  J. — Numerical  Law  of  the  Germ-Cells       419 

Kobf,  K.  von — Spermatogenesis  in  Phalangista  vulpina 419 

>WINNerton,  H.  H. — Morphology  of  Teleostean  Head  Skeleton 420 

Denis,  P. — Development  of  Inner  Ear  in  Bat       420 

Williams,  S.  R—  Migration  of  Eye  of  Flat-  Fish         420 

Reese,  A.  M. —  Thyroid  of  Lamprey       421 

Zolotnisky,  N. — Reproduction  of  Gerardinus  decemmaculatus 421 

Brauer,  A. — Development  of  Excretory  Organs  in  Gymnophiona      421 

Southwell,  T. — Hermaphroditism  in  the  Herring       421 

Kidd,  W. — Argument  for  the  Use- Inheritance  Interpretation      421 

Ewart,  J.  Cossar — Variation:  Germinal  and  Environmental  . .      ' 533 

Beard,  J. — Determination  of  Sex  in  Animal  Development 534 

Van  Lint,  A. — Determination  of  Sex 535 

Biller,  A.  H.  R. — External  Phenomena  of  Fertilisation 536 

Morgan,  T.  H. — Dispensability  of  Gravity  in  Development  of  Toad' s  Egg      ..      ..  537 

(tIardina,  A. — Early  Stages  in  Oogenesis  and  the  Synaptic  Phases 537 

Bataillon,  E. — Experimental  Parthenogenesis  in  Amphibians 537 

Meyer,  J.  A. — Disruptive  Processes  in  Ovarian  Ova  of  Lacerta  agilis 538 

Loisel,  G. — Internal  Secretion  of  Testis 538 

•Janssens,  J.  A. — Spermatogenesis  in  Newt 538 

Merlin,  A.  A. — Spermatozoon  of  Rat 538 

Ballowitz,  E. — Two-tailed  Spermatozoa       5:;S 

Capurro,  M.  A. — Alleged  Peritubular  Lymphatic  Tubes  of  the  Testis      538 

Cameron,  J. — Development  of  Layers  of  Retina •_);'s 

Berliner,  K. —  Uofmann's  Nuclei  (Kolliker)  in  Spinal  Cord  of  Chick      539 


X  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Pricnant,  A.,  &  G.  Saint-Remy — Branchial  Clefts  in  Ophidia        539 

Norms,  H.  N. — Pseudothyroid  of  Frog 539 

Lamb,  A.  B. — Eye-Muscles  of  Acanthias        539 

Hunter,  G. — Notes  on  Development  of  Liver         _ 540 

Tecqmenne,  Ch. — Development  of  Ventral  Pancreas  in  Laeerta  muralis ..      ..    _..  o40 

Herring,  P.  T.— Comparative  Anatomy  and  Embryology  of  the  Malpighian  Bodies  540 

Williams.  W.  Roger — Precocious  Sexual  Development       541 

Windle,  B.  C.  A. — Recent  Teraloloyical  Work ■ 541 

Edwards.  C.  L—  Influence  of  Temperature  on  Development  of  Fowl's  Egg      ..      ..  631 

BiJHLER,  A. — Retrogressive  Changes  in  Ovarian  Follicle* 631 

Ebner,  V.  von — Albuminoid  Crystals  in  Ova  of  Eoe  Deer 632 

Halban,  J. — Ovary  and  Menstruation 632 

d'Hollander,  F. — Pseudochromosomes  in  Ova  of  Birds     632 

Broman,  I. — Atypical  Spermatozoa,         °32 

Stricht,  0.  Van  Di.R — Fertilisation  in  the  Bat 6;.: 

Ghigi,  A.— Epithelial 'Structures  on  Parrots'  Beaks 633 

Barfurth,  D.,  &  O.  Dbagendorff — Regeneration  of  the  Lens  in  Chick  Embryos 

Prenant  &  Saint-Remy — Branchial  Clefts  in  Lizard  and  Slow-worm 634 

Sewertzoff,  A.  N. — Skull  and  Nervous  System  of  Geratodus •  •  l'J-'A 

Hilton,  W.  A. — Structural  Feature  connected  with  Mating  of  Diemyctylus  viri- 

descens      *£" 

Koken.  E. — Paleontology  and  Evolution       "34 

b.   Histology. 

Houser,  G.  H.— Brain  of  Mustelus        30 

Ancel,  P. — Skin-Glands  of  Amphibians        'j{) 

Sala,  Gutdo— Structure  of  Herbst's  Corpuscles  in  the  Sparrow  and  Fowl        ..      ..  31 

Giglio-Tos,  E. — So-called  Germinative  Cells  in  Medullary  Canal  of  Man       ..      ..  167 

Shinkishi  Hatai — Efferent  Neurons  in  Electric  Lobes  of  Torpedo  occidentalis       ..  168 

Botezat,  Eigen — Nerve-Endings  in  Taste  Menisci      168 

Timofejew,  D.  A. — Nerve-Endings  in  Peritoneum  of  Mammals         168 

Birne,  R.  H. — Innervation  of  Supra-orbital  Canal  in  Chinuera  monstrosa     ..      ..  168 

Sterzi,  G. — Membranes  of  the  Spinal  Cord 169 

Morandi.  E.,  &  P.  Sisto — Hxmolymph  Glands  in  Man  and  Mammals 169 

Limon,  M. — Lacteal  Secretion 

Helly,  K. —  Circulation  in  the  Spleen |69 

Vincenzi,  L. — Limiting  Membrane  in  Human  Serosa 169 

Gurwitsch,  A.— Filamentous  Tufts  of  Epithelial  Cells  in  Vas  epididymis  of  Man  170 

Schwalbe,  Ernst — What  are  " Blood-plates"       170 

Metchnikoff,  E.— On.  the  Process  of  Hair  Turning  White         295 

Lachi,  P. — Accessory  Lubes  on  Spinal  Cord  of  Birds  ..               295- 

Schafer,  E.  A.— Nutritive  Channels  within  the  Liver-Cells   communicating  with 

the  Lobular  Capillaries 295 

Grabower — Nerve-Endings  in  Human  Muscle     295 

Joseph,  H. — Supporting-Substances  of  the  Nervous  System         296 

AddariO,  C. — Matrix  of  Vitreous  Humour  in  the  Eye  of  Man  and  Animals    ..       ..  296 

Adaohi,  B. — Skin- Pigment  in  Man  and  Monkeys 296 

Browicz,  M.  T. — Intracellular  Canals  in  Hepatic  Cells       422 

Alerbach,  M. — Brown  Fat  in  Rodents  and  Insectivores       4-2 

Ramon  y  Cajal,  P. — Evolution  of  Pyramidal  Cells  of  the  Cerebrum        422 

Kosaka,  K. — Cerebral  Degenerations      422 

Grosser,  O. — Arterio-Venous  Anastomoses  in  Man  and  Mammals' 422 

Pollicard,  A. — Lympho-mijeloid  Connective  Stroma  in  Testes  of  Young  Rays        ..  422 

Stephan,  P. — Interstitial  Cells  of  the  Testis 423 

CcGGi,  A. — Nerves  of  Lorenzim's  AmpulliB 423 

Koppen,  H. — Spines  of  Spinax        423 

Bernard,  H.  M— Studies  on  the  Retina        °41 

Virchow,  Hs. — Retina  of  Hatteria 541 

Mills,  C.  K. — Neurofibrillar  Theory      o4l 

Schafer,  E.  A.— Minute  Structure  of  the  Muscle-Fibril       542 

Mayer,  S. — Muscular  isation  of  Capillary  Vessels         542 


CONTENTS.  Xi 

PAOB 

Calleja,  C. — Cseca  of  Birds 542 

Werner,  R. — Artificially  induced  Anomalies  in  Cell-Division 635 

Schimkewttsch,  W. — Direct  Division  in  Artificial  Conditions 635 

Jaworomski,  M. — Reticular  Apparatus  in  Spinal  Ganglion  Cells 635 

Bochenek.  A. — Pituitary  Body  of  Amphibians 635 

Prymak,  T. — Structure  and  Function  of  Thymus  in  Teleosteans        636 

Grynfeltt,  E. — Supra-renal  Bodies  of  Plagiostomes 636 

„          „          Inter-renal  Body  of  Blag iostomes      636 

Herrera,  A.  L. — Plasmic  Appearance  of  Metaphosphate  of  Calcium       636 

c.  General. 

Gautier,  Armand — Chemical  Basis  of  Variation        :!! 

Le  Dantec,  Felix — Two  States  of  Living  Matter       .'!] 

Nagel,  W.  A. — Effect  of  Light  on  Animals 31 

Reinke,  Fr. — Outlines  of  General  Anatomy 32 

Patterson — Segmentation  of  the  Vertebrate  Body       32 

Pizon,  Antoine — Mechanical  Theory  of  Vision 32: 

Floresco,  N. —  Correlation  of  Colouring  in  Liver,  Skin,  and  Hairs 32 

Camichel  &  Mandodl — Blue  and  Green  Coloration  in  Shin  of  Vertebrates    ..      ..  33 

Johnstone,  James — Cervical  Glands  of  Marsupials 33 

Banchi,  A. — Parafibula  in  Marsupials 33 

Rulot.  H. — Hibernation  of  Bats 33 

Bohn,  G. — Marine  Intoxications  and  the  Life  of  Burroicers       34 

Eycleshymer,  A.  C. — Breeding  Habits  of  Ameiurus  nebulosus 34 

Osborn,  H.  L. — Axolotl  and  Ambly stoma       34 

Dkuner,  L. — Musculature  of  Urodela 35 

Joseph,  H. — Abnormalities  in  Veins  of  Salamander 35 

Shipley,  A.  E. — Abysmal  Antarctic  Fauna 35 

Zschokke,  F. — Fauna  of  Switzerland  and  the  Glacial  Period 35 

Seeliger,  O. — Deep-Sea  Fauna      35- 

Keissler,  Carl  v. — Plankton  of  Alter  see       36 

Muller,  F.  G. — History  of  Medicine  and  Biology  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  ..       ..  170 

Zieuler,  H.  E. — Present  Position  of  the  Theory  of  Descent         171 

Mudge,  G.  P. —  Aid  to  the  Study  of  Zoology 171 

Metchmkoff,  Elie — Immunity      171 

Camerano,  L. — Statistical  Study  of  Organisms 171 

Issel,  R. — Animals  in  Hot  Water 171 

Lankester,  E.  Ray— Ohapia  johnstoni . .      172 

Beddard,  F.  E. — "  Chestnuts"  of  Horse        172 

TIoussay,  F. — Modifications  in  Alimentary  System  of  Birds  induced  by  Diet    ..      ..  172 

Neuville,  Henri — Vascularisation  of  Intestine  in  Vertebrates 172 

Barrett-Hamilton,  G.  E.  H. — Origin  of  Colour  in  Animals 173 

Poche,  Franz — Distribidion  of  Siluroids       173 

„         „         Distribution  of  Anoplopterus  platychir        173 

Thomson,  J.  Stuart — Periodic  Growth  of  Fish-Scales       173 

Jackson,  C.  M. —  Vascular  System  of  Bdellostoma  dombeyi         174 

Allen,  E.  J.,  &  R.  A.  Todd — Fauna  of  Exe  Estuary 174 

Palacky,  J. — Distribidion  of  Marine  Mammals 297 

Lo  Bianco,  S. — Planhtmi  and  Abyssal  Fauna  around  Capri 297 

Roule,  L. — New  Species  of  Atherine  in  Fresh  Water 297 

Mingazztni,  P. — Molluscum  Contagiosum  in  Amphibiajis 2'.»7 

Werner,  Fr. — Prodromus  of  Monograph  on  Chamxleous 297 

Goodrich,  E.  S. — Excretory  Organs  of  Amphioxus       298 

Yung,  E. — Monstrosity  in  a  Trout 298 

Stiles,  C.  W. — Questions  of  Nomenclature 298 

Gaitrelet,  Jean — Occurrence  of  Compounds  of  Pltosphorus  in  Invertebrates         ..  298 

Bohn,  Georges — Biological  Theory  of  Vision       298 

Hofmeister,  F. — Chemical  Organisation  of  the  Cell 423 

Kukenthal,  W.— Practical  Course  of  Zoology      423 

Lindsay,  B. — Story  of  Animal  Life         -12:; 

Warren,  E.—  Variations  in  Vascular  System  of  Rana  temporaria 424. 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Ancel,  P.,  &  L.  Sencert — Variations  in  Human  Vertebral  Column        424 

Eckel,  E.  C. —  Variation  in  Snakes         424 

Warren,  E. — Teeth  of  Han  and  Lamprey     424 

Goodrich,  E.  S. — Excretory  Organs  of  Amphioxus        424 

Paton,  D.  Noel  —  Amount  of   Dissolved    Oxygen   in   Water  required  by   Young  425 

Salmonidm        425 

Kyle,  H.  M. — Action  of  Spurge  on  Salmonoid  Fishes 425 

Grandis,  V. — Electrical  Properties  of  Nerves       425 

Roos,  E. — Function  of  the  Thyroid  Gland 425 

Lydekker,  R. — European  Wild  Cattle 425 

Jacobi,  A. — Biogeographieal  Regions 426 

Zacharias,  O. — Plankton,  of  the  Lake  of  Maria- Laach       426 

MSbius,  K. — Concept  of  Species       542 

Rabaud,  E. — Pathogenic  and  Teratogenic  Agents 543 

Houssay,  F. — Growth  and  Auto-Intoxication       543 

Nittall,  G.  H.  F. — Biological  Test  for  Blood     543 

Gautier,  A. — Minute  Traces  of  Arsenic  in  Animals 544 

Boutan,  L. — Experiments  on  Pigeons  in  relation  to  the  Semicircular  Canals  ..      ..  544 

Enriques,  P. — Reactions  to  Anisotonic  Solutions 544 

Calmette,  A. — Essmoly tic  Action  of  Cobra  Poison       544 

Phisalix,  C. — Hemolytic  Effect  of  Viper's  Venom        544 

Pellegrin,  J. — Long  Fast  of  Python 545 

Denoy,  A. — Ciliated  Grooves  in  Brain  of  Ammoccete 545 

Kingsley,  J.  S. — Cranial  Nerves  of  Amphiuma 545 

„  „  Systematic  Position  of  Caecilians      545 

Johnston,  J.  B. — Homology  of  Selachian  Ampullae      546 

Boeke,  J. — Homologue  of  Infundibular  Organ  in  Amphioxus 546 

Vaney,  C,  &  A.  Conte — Note  on  Additions  to  Fresh-ivater  Fauna 546 

Williams,  H.  S. — Fossil  Faunas  and  Geological  Formations     54(1 

Jaquet,  M. — Dolphin  Carp      547 

Eastman,  C.  R. — Carboniferous  Cestracionts  and  Acanthodians        547 

Packard,  A.  S. — Lamarck,  Life  and  Work '. .      ..  547 

Jordan,  D.  S.,  &  H.  Heath — Introductory  Text-book  of  Zoology       547 

Gauuiner,  J.  Stanley — Classification 636 

Mandoul,  H. — Physical  Coloration         637 

Dubois,  R. — Copper  in  the  Animal  Organism       637 

Bovtan,  L. — Lesion  of  the  Semicircular  Canals 637 

Smith,  G.  Elliot — Brain  of  Macroscelides  proboscideus 637 

GiKUTARO  Osawa — Anatomy  of  G iant  Salamander  of  Japan 637 

Alcock,  A.,  &  L.  Rogers — Toxic  Properties  of  the  Saliva  of  Certain  Non-poisonous 

Colubrines        63S 

Delezenne,  C. —  Venom  of  Snakes 638 

Boulenger,  G.  A. — Systematic  Position  of  Pleuronectidee 638 

Reichenbach,  E.  Strom i:r  von — Vertebrae  of  Terrestrial  Carnivores       6H8 

Zoologischer  Jahresbericht      638 

Camei;ano,  L. — Bonelli,  an  early  Italian  Lamarckian        63S 

Tunicata. 

Bonnier,  J.,  &  C.  Perez — New  Giant  Pyrosoma 426 

Redikorzew,  W. —  Ovum  within  Testes  of  Fragarium  elegans 548 

Huktek,  G.  W.,  Jun. — Heart  of  Molgula  manhattensis       548 

Van  Name,  W.  G. — Ascidians  of  Bermudas ..      ..  548 

Pizon,  A.— Heart \  of  Diplosomid.ee 638 

Damas,  D.  —Development  of  Molgulidee 638 

INVERTEBRATA. 

Riggenbach,  Emanuel — Autotomy  in  Marine  Invertebrates       174 

Scott,  Andrew — Additions  to  British  Fauna       175 

Thiele,  Joh. — Homologies  of  Cozlom      175 

Zschokke,  F. — Fauna  of  a  Mountain  Stream       548 

Yung,  E. —  Variations  of  Plankton  in  Lake  Geneva 631) 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

Mollusca. 

PAGK 

Friele,  H.,  &  J.  A.  Grieg—  North  Atlantic  Molluscs L76 

Sanchez,  Domingo — Diverticulum  of  Duct  of  Spermotheca  in  Helix  aspersa    ..      . .  17G 

Krembzow,  Ernst — Papilhe  of  Eolidse         17t*> 

Smidt,  H. — Free  Intra-epithelial  Nerve-endings  in  Helix 17G 

Simroth,  Heinkich— New  Genus  of  Stylommatophora         177 

Sturnay,  R. — New  Cave  Gasteropod      177 

Gkaeffe,  E. — Fauna  of  the  Gulf  of  Triest 5-1 8 

a.    Cephalopoda. 

Dean,  Basiiford— iVotes  on  Living  Nautilus        30 

Rottmann,  G. — Development  of  Radula  in  Cephalopoda 36 

Parona,  C. — Dichotomy  of  Arms  in  Cuttlefish       299 

Pfeffer,  G. — Synopsis  of  QSgops id  Cephalopods '299 

Ijima.  I.,  &  S.  Ikeda — Amphitretus  from  the  Sagami  Sea 039 

0.  Scaphopoda. 

Ariola,  V. — "  Pseudogamy  ''  in  Dentalium  entalis       299 

y.  Gastropoda. 

Mitsukuri,  K. — Experiments  on  Littorina 37 

Filsbry,  H.  A. — Affinities  of  Genus  Neobeliscus 37 

Cockerell.  T.  D.  A. —  Pigments  of  Nudibranchs         38 

Kerr,  J.  Graham — Relationship  between  Amphineura  and  Cephalopoda         ..      ..  US' 

Mazzarelli,  G. — Affinities  of  Phyllaplysia 38 

Kowalevsky,  A. — The  Genus  Chsetoderma 3$ 

Ashby,  E.,  &  W.  G.  Torr — Fossil  Polypla eophora       177 

Frandsen,  P. — Reactions  of  Limax  maximus       299 

Enriques,  P. — Digestive  Gland  in  Molluscs 300 

(  okney,  R.  G. — Poisoning  from  Conus 301 

Bonnevie,  Kristine — New  Parasitic  Gasteropod  in  Holothurian      42<"> 

Randles,  W.  B. — Crystalline  Style  and  Style-Sac  in  Turritella  communis       ..      ..  427 

Beutler,  B. — Paryphanta  hochstetteri  Pfr 427 

Vayssiere,  A. — '  Talisman'  Opisthobranchs 427 

Pruyot,  G. — Classification  of  Neomenians      549 

Drtjmmond,  Isabella  M. — Development  of  Paludina  vivipara 549 

Fleure,  H.  J. — Relations  of  Kidney  in  Haliotis 559 

Letelliek,  A. — Purple  of  Purpura  lapillus 550 

Baker,  F.  C. — Structure  of  Limnasa  emarginata  ..      .»      55u 

Ccenot,  L. — Bivalves  with  Red  Blood-Corpuscles        550 

Couvreor,  E. — Blood  of  the  Snail G4u 

Digby,  Lettice — Tanganyika  Gastropods:  Chytra  and  Limnotrochus 640 

5.   Iiamellibranchiata. 

Dubois,  R. — Formation  of  Pearls 38 

Sevrat,  L.  G. — Origin  of  I 'earls 39 

Jourdain,  S. — Formation  and  Diseases  of  Pearls       39 

Stenta,  M. — Inferior  Backward  Current  in  Bivalves 39 

Scott,  A. — Spawning  Period  of  Mussels        178 

Kostanecki,  C. — Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in  Mactra        649 

Thiele,  J. — Systematic  Position  of  the  Solenogastres 641 

Downing,  E.  R. —  Variation  in  Position  of  Adductors  in  Anodonta  grandis  Say    ..  641 

Ridewoop,  W.  G. — Structure  of  Gills  of  Lamellibranchs 641 

Reis,  O.  M. — Ligament  of  Bivalves        642 

Arthropoda. 

Meijere,  J.  C.  H.  de — Last  Joint  of  the  Limbs  in  Arthropods !-■ 

Beecher,  C.  E. —  Ventral  Integument  of  Trilobites       1-7 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

PAGB. 

Leger,  L. — Epithelial  Regeneration  in  Mid-gut  of  Arthropods 551 

Trouessart,  E. — Collection  of  Microscopic  Marine  Arthropods 551 

Beecher,  C.  E. — Eurypterid  Remains  in  Cambrian 642 

a.  Insecta. 

Fielde.  Adele  M. — Senses  of  Ant s        39 

Wheeler,  W.  M. — Macroergates  in  Pheidule  commutata 40 

Kohl,  Franz  Friedr. — Gynandromorphy  in  a  Wasp 40 

Stitz,  Hermann — Female  Genital  Apparatus  in  Microlepidoptera 40 

Giard,  A. — Determination  of  Sex  in  Lepidoptera       41 

Marshall,  G.  A.  K. — Experiments  in  Seasonal  Dimorphism 41 

McClung,  C.  E. — Accessory  Chromosome  in  Insect  Spermatogenesis 41 

En riques,  Paolo — Histolysis  in  Metamorphosis  of  Flies 42 

Wahl,  Bruno — Development  of  Hypodermal  Imaginal  Discs  in  Larval  Diptera  ..  42 

Muggenburg, — . — Mimicry  of  a  Moss  by  a  Larva  and  Pupa 43 

Wasmann,  E. — Genus  Termitoxenia       43 

Sinety,  R.  de — Spermutocytic  Kineses  in  Orthoptera 43 

Zander,  Enoch — Copulatory  Apparatus  of  Male  Trichoptera 41 ■! 

Borner,  Carl — New  Collembola      44 

Holmgren,  Nils — Chitin-Formation,  Muscle-Insertion,   and    Cell-Connections    in 

Injects       178 

Sutton,  Walter  S.,  &  C.  E.  McClung — Spermatogenesis  in  Insects        179 

Needham,  J.  G.,  &  Cornelius  Betten — Aquatic  Insects  in  the  Adirondack*..      ..  170 

Dewitz,  J. — Hindering  Pupation 180 

Donisthorpe,  Horace  St.  John  K. — Coloration  of  British  Beetles ISO 

Champion,  G.  C. — Sexual  Dimorphism  in  Buprestis  sanguinea ISO 

Klos,  Rudolf — Life-history  of  Tephroclystia  virgaureata 180 

Petri,  L. — Stigmata  of  Sericaria  mori 180 

Dickel,  Feud. — Life-history  of  Hive  Bee       180 

Gatta,  Manuel  Fernandez  de — Studies  on  Galls      J  SI 

Needham,  J.  G,  &  Hart,-C.  A. — Dragon-flies  of  Illinois 181 

Burner,  Carl — New  Collembola 181 

Carpenter,  G.  H. — Collembola  from  Franz  Josef  Land     1S2 

Berlese,  A.  —  Copulation  of  House-Fly 301 

Escherich,  K. — Development  of  Nerve-Cord Sol 

De  Gatta,  D.  M.  F.— Notes  on  Galls 301 

Silvestri,  F. — Notes    on    South    American    Termites    and    their   Termitophilous 

Associates 302 

Croft,  W.  B. — Colours  of  Butter flies  not  due  to  Diffraction       302 

Deegener,  P. — Odoriferous  Organ  of  the  Male  Hepialus  hectus         302 

Vehhoeef,  K.  W. — Dermaplera  and  the  Microthorax 302 

Borner,  Carl — Structure  and  Classification  of  Collembola         302 

Donisthorpe,  Horace  St.  John  K. — Life-History  of  Clythra  quadri-punctata  . .  303 
Wesche,  W. — Undescribed  Palpi  on  the  Proboscis  of  some  Dipterous  Flies,  with 

Remarks  on  the  Mouth-parts  in  several  Families  (Plates  IX.  and  X.)  ..      ..  412 

Tichomirow,  A. — Artificial  Parthenogenesis  of  Silk-Moth  Ova 4'JS 

Meijere,  J.  C.  H.  de — Prothoracic  Respiratory  Apparatus  in  Dipterous  Pupse      ..  428 

Butler,  E.  A. — Some  British  Hemiptera       42S 

Scudder,  S.  H. — Index  to  North  American  Orthoptera        428 

Newstead,  Robert — Monograph  on  Coccidie  occurring  in  Britain 429 

Silvestri,  F. — Studies  on  Thysanura  & 429 

Wheeler,  W.  M. — New  Agricultural  Ant  from  Texas 429 

Arsolon,  C. — New  Moravian  Cave- Insect       429 

Felt,  E.  P. — Insects  injurious  to  Elm-Trees 429 

Jimero,  H. — Honey  of  Bees       429 

Comstock,  J.  H.,  &  V.  L.  Kellogg — General  Course  of  Entomology 551 

Giard,  A. — Habits  of  Larvte  of  Sciara  medullaris       551 

„      Expulsion  of  Spermatozoa  in  Sciara         551 

Fielde,  Adele  M. — Studies  on  Ants      551 

Cobelli,  R. — Sense  of  Taste  in  an  Ant 552 

Leon,  N. — Morphology  of  Labial  Parts  in  Hydrocoridse..          552 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAG8 

McClendon,  J.  F. — Life-History  of  Ulula  hyalina  Latreille     552 

Wesche,  W.— Seta  on  the  Legs  of  Flies  ..      ..  _ 553 

Cholodkovsky,  X. — Hermaphroditism  in  Species  of  Ghermes 553 

Kuwajja,  S.  I. — Scale-Insects  of  Japan 553 

Osborn,  H. — Interesting  Case  of  Mimicry      642 

Anthony,  Maude  H. — Metamorphosis  of  Sisyra 642 

Silvestri,  F. — So-called  Microthorax  of  Insects 043 

Hilton,  W.  A. — Sense-Hairs  of  Lepidopterous  Larvm        043 

Soi/lie,  H. — Culicidx  of  Algiers      643 

Megusar,  Fr. — Oogenesis  in  Hydrophilus  piceus         04:; 

Aggazzo tti,  A. — Serve-Endings  in  Striped  Muscle  of  Insects 044 

Linden,  M.  von — Influence  of  Temperature  during  Pupation 644 

Neveu-Lemaire,  M. — Beceptacula  seminis  in  Culicidse      644 

Demokidoff,  K. — Testis  of  Tenebrio       644 

Verson,  E. — Exuvial  Glands ■•  644 

/8.    Myriopocla. 

Heymons,  R. — Development  of  Scolopendra 44 

Thomas,  Rose  Haig — Luminosity  in  Centipedes 182 

Blackman,  M.  W. — Spermatogenesis  of  Scolopendra 182 

Tonniges,  Carl — Spermatogenesis  and.  Oogenesis  in  Lithobius  forfieatus 304 

Veehoeff,  K.  W. — Comparative  Morphology  of  Ghilopoda 305 

Rossi,  G. — Resistance  of  Myriopods  to  Asphyxiation 305 

Silvestri,  F. — Notes  on  Myriopods         306 

Pocock,  R.  I. — Annectant  Type  of  Chilopod 429 

Silvestri,  F. — Anterior  or  Cephalic  Glands  of  Diplopoda 553 

Rossi,  G. — Locomotion  of  Myriopods       553 

„       „      Alimentary  Tract  of  Jul  us  communis 553 

Verhoeff,  K. — Chilopoda  in  Bronn's  '  Tierreich'       044 

y.  Prototracheata- 

Dendy,  A. —  Oviparous  Species  of  Onychophora     ..        300 

Bouvier,  E.  L. — Papillie  of  Onychophora      - 306 

5.  Araclinida. 

Bordas,  L. — Bites  of  Latrodectus  IS-guttatus        45 

Rosenberg,  W. — Monograph  on  Spiders  of  Germany 45 

Thor — New  Genera  of  Hydrachnids       183 

Prutz,  A.,  &  R.  Piersig — New  Hydrachnids        188 

Berlese,  A.,  &  G.  Ledxarui — South  American  Acarids     183 

Wasmann,  E. — Myrmecopldlous  Mites 188 

Stschelkanovzeff,  J.  P. — Breathing  Organs  of  Pseudoscorpionidse         1S4 

Carpenter.  G.  H. — Arctic  Pantopoda    ■■      . 184 

Cole,  Leon  J. — Discoarachne  brevipes  Hoele        307 

Croneberg,  A. — Hydrachnids  of  Central  Russia 307 

Govgh,  L.  H. — Development  of  Admetus pumilio  Koch       430 

Oudemans,  A.  C. — Hibernating  Cyst  of  a  Mite 431 

Michael,  A.  D. — British  Tyroglyphidse         431 

Trouessart,  E. — Arctic  Hal acar id x      431 

Rechinger,  C. — Peculiar  Phytoptid  Galls     553 

Trouessart,  E. — Neio  Uropodinse 554 

Soar,  C.  D. — New  British  Hydrachnid 554 

Dahl,  Fr. — Arrangement  of  a  Spider  Collection 554 

,,       „       Classification  of  Spiders      554 

Lamy,  E. — Trachese  of  Spiders        645 

Pocock,  R.  I. — Studies  on  the  Arachnid  Entosternite 645 

Bosenberg,  W. — Spiders  of  Germany 645 

Tragarlh,  I. — Limbless  Acarid      645 


XVI  CONTENTS. 


e.    Crustacea. 

PAlit 


Wallengren,  Hans — Glands  of  Alimentary  Canal  in  Decapoda      46 

Kent,  W.  J. — Colours  of  American  Crayfish.         46 

Kane,  W.  F.  de  Vismes — My  sis  relicta  in  Ireland       ■ 46 

Malaquin,  A. — Life-history  of  Monstrillidx        46 

Davenport,  C.  B.,  &  W.  B.  Cannon— Reaction  of  Daphnia  to  Light      47 

Nichols,  M.  Lodise — Spermatogenesis  of  Oniscus  asellus 47 

Harris,  J.  Arthur — Structure  of  Male  in  Genus  Cambarus 48 

Sayce,  O.  A. — New  Blind  Crustacea       48 

Przibram,  Hans — Observations  on  Homarus  europxus        J8.~> 

Bell,  F.  Jeffrey — Occurrence  of  Squilla  desmaresti  in  North  Sea l>s-~> 

Garbini,  A. — New  Gammarus         185 

Wolfenden,  R.  N. — Copepods  of  Faroe  Channel  and  Shetlands       J  8.3 

Scott,  Andrew — Structure  of  Lepeoph  their  us  and  Lernxa        ..      ..  185 

Calman,  W.J. — Affinities  of  Uronectes L8o 

Stingelin,  Th. — Notes  on  Fauna  of  Neuenburgersee 307 

Morgan,  T.  H. — Regeneration  in  Hermit  Crab  and  Crayfish 431 

Williamson.  H.  C. — Larval  Stages  of  the  Sl/rimp      431 

Samter,  M.,  &  W.  Weltner — Relict  Crustaceans  in  North  German  Lalies      ..      ..  432 

Filatowa,  E. — Observations  on  Young  Stages  of  Balanus  improvisus      432 

JSchenkel,  E. — Decapods  of  Celebes 4: 12 

Sayce,  0.  A . — Neiv  Genus  of  Blind  Isopods 432 

Fulton,  S.  W.,  &  F.  E.  Grant — New  and  little-known  Victorian  Decapods  . .      ..  432 

Haecker,  V. — Reproduction  of  Limnetic  Crustacea 432 

Burger,  O. — Lateral  Hermaphroditism  in  Palinurus  frontalis 433 

Scourfield,  D.  J. — Ephippia  of  the  Lynceid  Entomostraca       554 

(outiere,  H. — New  Rhizocephalid  Type        '..      ..  555 

„         „         Structure  of  Thylacoplethus 555 

Scott,  T. — Scottish  Crustacea 555 

Bonnier,  J.,  &  C.Perez — Commensal  Schizopod         555 

Bigelow,  M.  A. — Early  Developmerd  of  Lepas 555 

Huie,  L.  H. — So-called  Hepatico- Pancreatic  Glands  of  Isopods         556 

Zykoff,  W. — Mysisinthe  Volga 556 

Gruvel,  A. — Dioarf  Males  and  other  Sexual  Peculiarities  in  Cirripedia         ..      ..  646 

Fulton,  S.  W.,  &  F.  E.  Grant — New  Victorian  Decapods        646 

Steuer,  A. — New  Parasitic  Copepod  in  Intestine  of  Mussel       646 

JSayce,  O.  A. — New  Victorian  Amphipods 646 

Annulata. 

Bohn,  G. — Seasonal  Histolysis  in  Polychsets 48 

Wallengren,  Hans — Sensory  Cells  in  Proboscis  of  Polychsets 49 

Willcox,  M.  A. — Commensal  Oligochxte  in  New  England 4!' 

Bretscher,  K. — Life  of  Earthworms      186 

Mateos,  Marcelo  Bivas — Hirudo  tract ina  John 186 

Janda,  V. — Notes  on  Molosoma  tenebr arum 186 

Skorikow,  A.  S. — Geographical  Distribution  of  Priapul us        18G 

Pruvot,  G.,  &  E.  Perrier — Slolonial  Grotdh  in  Syllidx 307 

Brasil,  L. — Alimentary  Canal  of  Lagis  horeni 308 

Nusbaum,  J. — Regeneration  in  Enchytrxidx         43:; 

Johnston,  J.  B.,  &  Sarah  W.Johnson — Circulation  in  Lumbricus       433 

Beddard,  F.  E. — Two  new  Earthtcorms 433 

Herubel,  M.  A. — Peritoneal  Elements  of  Phascolosoma  vulgare        43; 

Oka,  A. —  Vascular  System  of  Hirudinea       556 

Torhey,  J.  C. — Early  Development  of  Mesoblast  in  Thalassema 557 

Eounhiol,  J. — Respiration  in  Folychxta       647 

Winkler,  G. — Regeneration  of  Alimentary  Canal  in  Rhynchelmit  limosella    ..      ..  647 

Oppenheimer,  Adele — Sense-Oryans  of  the  Polychset  Proboscis        647 

Bretcher,  K. — Observations  on  Swiss  Oligochxia        648 

Eosa,  D. —  Chloragogen  of  Oligochxta 64  s 


CONTENTS.  XVii 

PAGR 

Bartolotti,  C. — Function  of  Chloragogen  Cells 648 

Foot,  Katharine,  &   Ella   Church  Strobell — Spermatozoa   of    Allolobophora 

foetida      64S 

Burger,  O. — Development  of  Clepsine 648 

Herubel,  Marcel  A. — Brain  of  Phascolosoma 649 

Doncaster,  L. — Development  of  Sagitta        649 

Nematohelminth.es.  2 

Golowin,  E.  P. — Phagocytic  Organs  in  Nematodes      40 

Bonnevie,  Kristine  —  Chromatin-lieduction  in  Somatic  Cells 50 

Strong,  R.  P. — Strongyloides  intestinalis       50 

Willot, — . — Helerodera  schachtii 50 

Zykoff,  W. — Cystoopsis  acipenseri 308 

Linstow,  0.  ton — New  Nematodes         434 

'Weinland,  E. — Fermentation  of  Glycogen  in  Ascaris 557 

Linstow,  O.  yon — New  Nematodes         557 

Gemmill,  J.  F.,  &  O.  von  Linstow — Largest  of  known  Nematodes 650 

Linstow,  O.  von — New  Filaria      651 

Platyhelminthes. 

Fuhrmann,  O.— Avian  Cestodes       ..      50 

Saint-Remy,  G. — Germinal  Layers  in  Cestoda ...      ..      ..  50 

Linstow,  O.  yon. — Position  of  Ligula 51 

ISsinitzin,  D.  Th. — Life-history  of  Distomum  folium 51 

Halkin,  H. — Early  Stages  in  Development  of  Polystomum  integerrimum        ..      ..  51 

Linton,  Edwin — Fish  Parasites 52 

Benhasi,  W.  Blaxland— Platyhelmia,  Mesozoa,  and  Nemertini       186 

TMingazzini,  P. — Superficial  Secretion  of  Tapeioorms 187 

Richiardi,  S. — Neio  Species  of  Didymozoon 187 

Johnston,  S.  J. — New  Species  of  Distomum  from  the  Duchmole 1S7 

Pdnnett,  R.  C. — Structure  of  Lineus  gesserensis  . . 187 

Voigt,  W. — Distribution  of  Planarians  as  affected  by  Temperature 308 

Odhner,  Th.  —Neio  Trematodes  from  Crocodile 308 

Thompson,  Caroline  B. — Zygeupolia  lil oralis,  a  new  Heteronemertean 309 

Bergendal,  D. — Notes  on  Carinoma  armandi       309 

Laidlaw,  F.  F. — New  Ehabdocael 434 

Raspail,  X. — Notes  on  a  Plana rian     - 434 

Risuss,  H. — Distomum  duplicatum  in  Fresh-water  Mussels 434 

Henneguy,  L.  F.— Maturation  and  Fertilisation  in  Distomum  liepaticum      ..      ..  434 

Fuhrmann,  O. — Fertilisation  in  Cestodes       557 

Schneider,  G. — New  Species  of  Caryophyllxus 557 

Zschokke,  F. —  Unusual  Human  Parasite      558 

Odhner,  Th. — New  Distomids 558 

Braun,  M. — Fasciolid  Parasites  of  Birds      558 

Caullery,  M.,  &  F.  Mesnil — Fecampia       558 

(  'oe,  W.  R. — Nemertean  Parasites  of  Crabs 558 

Kostanecki,  C. — Maturation  and  Fertilisation  in  Cerebratulus  marginatus   ..      ..  651 

Thacher,  Henrietta  F. — Regeneration  of  Pharynx  in  Planaria  maculabc   ..      ..  651 

Cohn,  L. — New  Species  of  Monostomum         651 

Incertae  £edis. 

Ikeda,  Iwaji — Development  of  Phoronis  ijimai 52 

Torrey,  Harry  Beal — New  Species  of  Phoronis       53 

Caullery,  M.,  &  F.  Mesnil — Free  Phase  in  the  IAfe-Cycle  of  Orthonectids ..      ..  53 

Fkiele,  H,  &  J.  A.  Grieg — North  Atlantic  Brachiopods 187 

Voigt,  Max — New  Species  of  Gastrotricha 187 

Mack,  H.  von — Central  Nervous  System  of  Sipunculus  nudus  L 309 

Spengel,  J.  W. —  Genera  of  Enteropneusta 310 

Zykoff,  W. — Plumatella  and  Vivipara 310 

December  17th,  1002  b 


XVill  CONTENTS. 

PAG73 

Longchamps,  M.  de  Selys — Development  of  Phoronis        435 

Menon,  K.  K.,  &  A.  T.  Masterman — Notes  on  Actinotrocha      4155 

Naohide  Yatsu — Habits  of  Lingula       ..      ..  559 

Hisato  Kuwano — New  Enieropneust     559 

Cumings,  E.  R.,  &  A.  V.  Mauck — Variation  in  Platystrophia  Lynx        560 

Harmer,  S.  F. — Structure  of  Cheilostomata 651 

Conte,  A.,  &  C.  Vanet — Contributions  to  the  Anatomy  of  Rhabdopleura  normani  652 

Rotatoria. 

Rousselet,  C.  F. — Tliird,  List  of  New  Rotifers  since  1SS9 14S 

Voigt,  Max,  &  C.  F.  Eousselet — New  Rotifer 187 

Rousselet,  C.  F. — The  Genus  Synchxta  :  A  Monographic  Study,  with  Descriptions 

of  Five  New  Species  (Plates  III.— -VIII.) 269.393 

Dixon-Nuttall,  F.  R.,  &  others — New  Rotifers        435 

Zacharias,  O. — Parasites  of  Rotatoria         653 

Murray,  James — New  Rotifers  from  Scotland tin's 

H.  S.  M. — Key  to  the  Rotif  era  for  the  Amateur 653 

Echinoderma. 

Theel,  Hjalmar — Hermaphrodite  Holothurian 54- 

Cuenot,  L. — Physiology  of  Echinoderms       54 

Herouaru,  Ed — Calcareous  Plates  of  Synapta  and  Ankyroderma 436 

Barthels,  Ph. — Minnie  Structure  of  Cuvierian  Organs      436 

Reiffen,  A. — New  Holothurian  from  New  Zealand     436 

Hartmann,  M. — Maturation  in  Asterias  glacialis       437 

Clark,  H.  L. — Echinoderms  from  Puget  Sound 437 

Del  age,  Yves — Function  of  Sphseridia  in  Sea-UrcMns      437 

Marshall,  W.  S. — Genital  Pores  of  Male  Antedon  rosacea        437 

Follmann,  O. — New  Crinoid 437 

Clark,  H.  L. — Extraordinary  Animal 560 

Herocard,  E. — Body-Wall  and  Gut-Wall  in  Echinoderms        560 

Ackermann,  A. — Structure  and  Hermaphroditism  of  Cucumaria  laevigata     ..      ..  653 

Dubois,  R. — Red  Pigment  of  Asterias  rubens         654 

Viguier,  C. — Natural  Parthenogenetic  Development 654 

Bryce,  T.  H. — Maturation  in  Echinus  esculentus        654 

Ccelentera. 

Torrey,  H.  B. — Regeneration  and  Regulation  in  Renilla 54 

Citron,  E. — Multicellular  Sense-Organs  in  Syncoryne  sarsii      55 

Wulfert,  J. — Development  of  Gonothyrxa  loveni        55 

Hautlaub,  Cl. — Revision  of  Genus  Sertularella 55 

Linko,  A. — An  Interesting  Medusoid     188 

Perkins,  H.  F. — Occurrence  of  Cladonema  in  the  Bahamas       188 

Morgenstern,  Paul — Development  of  Cordylophora  lacustris 188 

Hickson,  S.  J. — Structure  of  Alcyonium  digitatum       J89 

Duerden,  J.  E. — Relationships  of  Rugose  Corals 189 

Tornquist,  A. — Position  of  Neostroma 189 

Friedemann,  O. — Post- Embryonic  Development  of  Aurelia  aurita 310 

Bedot — Historical  Study  of  the  Zoological  Investigation  of  Hydrcids      311 

Wulfert,  J. — Development  of  Gonothyrsea  loveni 311 

Duerden,  J.  E. — Relationships  of  the  Rugosa  to  living  Zoanthex      437 

Dendy,  A. — Free-Swimming  Hydroid 561 

Perkins,  H.  F. — Budding  in  Larvse  of  Gonionema  murbachii 561 

Duerden,  J.  E. — Aggregated  Colonies  in  Madrepor avian  Corals       561 

„          „         Actinians  of  Porto  Rico 562 

Parker,  G.  H. — Dispersal  of  Sagartia  lucim        562 

Duerden,  J.  E. — Increase  of  Mesenteries  in  Madrepora      655 

Godlewski,  E. — Regeneration  in  Tubularia         655 


CONTENTS.  XIX 

FAQE 

Rowley,  H.  T. — Regeneration  in  Hydra        655 

Kamakichi  Kishinouye — Japanese  Scyphomedusas       (JoG 

Porifera. 

Maas,  Otto — Gemmation  of  Tethya      55 

Cotte,  J. — Suberites  domuncula      56 

Bidder,   George — Modifications  or  Metampy  in  Halichondria  panicea  and    in 

Suberites  domuncula       190 

„           .,          Sycon  compressum      190 

Whitelegge,  Thomas — Sponges  from  New  South  Wales     100 

Urban,  F. — Neio  Calcareous  Sponge       312 

Wilson,  H.  V. — Asexual  Origin  of  the  Ciliated  Sponge  Larva 502 

Topsent,  E. — Algerian  Sponges       562 

Is  ao  I  JIM  A — Studies  on  Hexactinellids 656 

Protozoa. 

West,  G.  S. — British  Fresh-water  Rhizopods       56 

Nishikawa,  T. — Discoloration  of  Water  by  Gonyaulax      57 

Dangeard,  P.  A. — Zoospore  and  Spermatozoon      57 

Scherffel,  A. — Phytogeny  of  Protists  ..      ..      , 57 

Lemmermann,  E. — Silicoflagellate  Proto.:oa 57 

Metzner,  Rudolph — Megastoma  enter icum  Grassi      58 

Laveran,  A.,  &  F.  Mesnil—  Trypanosoma  in  Fishes 58 

Vaney,  C,  &  A.  Conte — New  Microsporidian      58 

Leger,  Louis— Sex-Elements  in  Stylorhynchus      58 

Layeran,  A.,  &  F.  Mesnil—  Two  New  Hxmogregarines  from  Fishes       59 

Jennings,  H.  S. — il  Artificial  Protoplasm" 190 

Wolfenden,  R.  N. — Radiolarians  of  Faroe  Channel  and  Shetlands 19  L 

Sosnowski,  J. — Changes  in  the  Geotaxis  of  Parametrium  aurelia     191 

Jennings,  H.  S.,  &  E.  M.  Moore — Reactions  of  Infusorians  to  Carbonic  and  other 

Acid*        191 

Wallengren,  Hans — Comparative  Morphology  of  Hypotrichosis  Infusoria      ..      ..  192 

Yoigt,  Max — New  Ciliata        192 

Garbini,  A. — New  Species  of  Peridinium      192 

Minkiewicz,  Romuald — Adaptability  of  Infusoria  to  Concentrated  Solutions..      ..  192 

IStassano,  H. — Conjugation  in  Trypanosoma  of  Hat 193 

Johnstone,  James — Protozoon  Parasite  in  Plaice        193 

Florentin,  R. — Significance  of  Ionisation  in  Acclimatisation 312 

Penard,  E.- — Heliozoa  around  Geneva 312 

Leger,  Louis — Multiplication  of  Herpetomonas 313 

Brasil,  L. — New  Sporozoon      313 

Laveuan,  A. — Action  of  Human  Serum  on  Trypanosomabrucei         313 

Zykoff,  W. — Protozoa  of  the  Volga-Plankton      313 

Hickson,  S.  J. — Conjugation  of  Dendrocometes  paradoxus 438 

Enriques,  P. — Osmotic  Phenomena  in  Infusorians       439 

Chapman,  F. — Foraminifera. 439 

Bradford,  J.  R.,  &  H.  G.  Plimmer — Trypanosomabrucei        440 

Layeran,  A. — New  Trypanosoma 440 

Lankester,  E.  Ray — Terminology  for  various  Stages  of  the  Malaria  Parasite       ..  440 

Hintze,  R. — Life-History  of  Lanhesterella  minima 441 

Crawley,  H. — Progressive  Movement  of  Gregarines 441 

Feinberg,  L. — Cabbage,  and  Cancer        441 

Millett,  F.  W. — Report  on  the  Recent  Foraminifera  of  the  Malay  Archipelago, 

collected  by  Mr.  A.  Durrand  (Plate  XI.) 509 

Chrzaszcz,  T. —  Yeast-eating  Amoeboid  Organism 562 

Mouton,  H. — Digestion  in  Amozbse 562 

Przesmyckt,  A.  M. — Parasites  of  Rotifers 563 

Siedlecki,  M. — New  Parasitic  Infusorian 563 

Zacharias,  O. — Two  new  Dinoflagellata       563 

12 


XX  CONTENTS. 

TAGB 

Ledoux-Lebard — Action  of  Blood-Serum  on  Paramozc turn        5G3 

"Weitlaueb,  Fk. — Marine  Phosphorescence 563 

Simpson.  J.  Y. — Observations  on  Protozoa      '  563 

Bruce,  D. — New  Trypanosoma        564 

Laveran,  A.,  &  F.  Mesnil — Multiplication  of  Trypanosoma  in  Fishes 564 

Leger,  L.,  &  O.  Duboscq — Sexual  Phenomena  in  Pterocephalus       564 

Vuillemin,  P. — Sarcocystis  tenella  in  Man 564 

Silvestri,  A. — Variations  of  Nodosaria  scalaris 6i)6 

„         „         Dimorphism  of  For aminif era       656 

Torret,  H.  B. — Discoloration  of  the  Sea  by  Dinoflagellata         656 

Zacharias,  O. — Infusoria  in  Cuckoo-Spit      657 

Laveran,  A.,  &  F.  Mesnil — Coccidium  of  Frog's  Kidney* 657 

Galli-Valerio,  B. — Hxmosporidia  of  Alpine  Birds 657 

Fuhbmann,  0. — Myxosporidia  of  Coregonus 657 


CONTENTS.  xxi 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including1  Cell  Contents. 

PACE 

Gerassimow,  J.  J. — Influence  of  the  Nucleus  on  the  Growth  of  the  Cell 60 

Ishikawa,  C. — Reduction  of  Chromosomes  in  Larix  leptolepis    ..      60 

Allen,  0.  E. — Middle  Lamella  of  Cells        61 

Cross,  C.  F.,  &  E.  J.  Bevan — Researches  on  Cellulose       61 

Kraemer,  H. — Crystalline  and  Crystalloid  Substances  in  Plants       61 

d'Arbawhont,  J. — Evolution  of  Chlorophyll  and  Starch  in  the  Stem        62 

Syniewski,  VV. — Structure  of  Starch      62 

Deherain,  P.  P.,  &  E.  Dcpont — Formation  of  Starch  in  the  Grain  of  Wheat       ..  63 

Berthelot,  M.,  &  G.  Andre— Distribut ion  of  the  Acids  in  Plants         63 

Schneider,  A. — Function  of  Calcium  oxalate      63 

Bourquelot,  E. — Determination  of  the  Presence  of  Cane-sugar  in  Plants       ..      ..  63 

Micheletti,  L. — Poisonous  Properties  of  Lolium  temulentum 64 

Laurent,  E. — Poisonous  Principle  in  the  Mistletoe      64 

Haberlandt,  G. — On  Fibrillar  Structure  of  Protoplasm 194 

Petit,  L. — Refringent  Globules  in  the  Parenchyme  of  Leaves 194 

Kienitz-Gerloff — Protoplasmic  Continuity  in  Cryptogams       314 

Ewart,  A.  J. — Protoplasmic  Streaming  in  Pla?its        314 

Molisch,  H. — Scutellarin          315 

Van  Kysselberghe — Permeability  of  Protoplasm        442 

Gram,  Bille — Aleurone- Grains  in  Oily  Seeds       442 

Perkin,  W.  H.,  Jun.,  &  J.  Yates — Constitution  of  Hematoxylin      443 

Perkin,  A.  G.,  &  S.  H.  C.  Briggs — Colouring  Matters  of  Green  Ebony 443 

„        „        &  E.  J.Wilkinson — Colouring  Matter  from  Flowers  of  Delphinium 

consolida 443 

Pakatore,  E. — Nature  and  Function  of  the  Nucleolus 565 

Torrey,  J.  C. — Cytological  Changes  accompanying  the  Secretion  of  Diastase    . .      . .  565 

Percival,  J. — Crystals  of  Calcium  Oxalate  in  Seedlings  of  Alsike     565 

Dcnstan,  W.  K.,  &  T.  A.  Henry — Cyanogenesis  in  Plants        566 

Rammelberg,  K. — Composition  of  Orchid  Tubers 566 

Letjscher,  E. — Composition  of  Bananas         566 

Stager,  R. — Chemical  Demonstration  of  Nectaries  in  Pollen  Floicers  and  Anemo- 

philous  Flowers 566 

Borntraeger,  A. — Sugars  and  Organic  Acids  in  certain  Fruits        567 

Tauret,  C. — Two  new  Sugars  extracted  from  Manna 567 

Browne,  C.  A.,  Jun. — Constituents  of  Pith  of  Maize  and  Elder        567 

Marchlewski,  L. — Colouring  Matters  obtainable  from  Isatis  tinctoria     567 

Perkin,  A.  G. — Constituents  of  Acacia  and  Gambier  Catechus 568 

Schlagdenhauffen,  M.,  &  Reeb — Lecithin  in  Plants        568 

Barger,  G. — Saponarin 568 

Thorpe.  T.  E.,  &  G.  Stubbs— Taxme 568 

Dunstan,  W.  R.,  &  T.  A.  Henry— Poison  of  Lot  us  arabicus 658 

Structure  and  Development. 

Vegetative. 

Hohlke,  D.  F. — Resin-Receptacle  in  the  Polypodiacex  and  in  some  Phanerogams..  64 

Thiselton-Dyer,  W.  T. — Persistence  of  Leaf -traces 64 


XX11  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Dingleb,  H. — Floating  Organs  of  Plants      66 

Hansgirg,  A. — Biology  of  Leaves 67 

Church,  A.  H. — Phyllotaxis 67 

Berry,  E.  W. — Stipules  of  Liriodendron      67 

MacDoegal,  D.  T. — Bulbils  of  Lysimachia  terrestrie 67 

Dale,  E. —  Tubers  of  Dioscorea        68 

Miller,  J. — Assimilating  Boots  of  Tseniophyllum       68 

Linsbauer,  K. — Anatomy  of  Cassiope 68 

Perrot,  E. — On  the  Ksopo  or  Tanghin  de  Menabe  (Menabea  venenata  Baill.),  a 

Poison  Plant  of  the  Sakalaves       194 

Jeffrey,  E.  C. — Stem  of  Pteridophytes  and  Gymnosperms         194 

Schroeder,  A. — Anatomical  Investigation   of  the   Leaf  and  of  the  Axis  in  the 

Lipariem  and  Bossixie  (Tribe  Genistae) 195 

Hill,  A.  W. — Histology  of  the  Sieve-tubes  of  Pinus      195 

Matge,  A.,  &  C.  L.  Gatin — Structure  of  the  Tuberous  Boots  of  Thrincia  tuberosa  196 

Thiselton-Dyer,  W.  T. — Sucker  of  Loranthus  aphyllus     196 

Meierhofbr,  H.,  &  S.  Prowasek — Bladders  of  Utricularia      196 

Heinricher,  H. — Green  Hemi-Parasites       197 

Fischler,  G. — Formation  of  New  Sttms  from  Old  Willows         197 

Rennert,  R.  J. — Seeds  and  Seedlings  of  Arisxma  triphyllum  and  A.  Dracontium  198 

Scott,  D.  H.—The  Old  Wood  and  the  New 315 

Schwabach,  E. — Development  of  Stomata  in  Conifers 315 

Bahsickow,  M. — Secondary  Growth  in  Tliickness  in  Palms         316 

Tobler,  F. — Origin  of  the  Peripheral  Stem-Structure 316 

Bolygues,  M. — Origin  and  Differentiation  of  Vascular  Meristems  in  the  Leaf-Stalk  316 

Pirotta,  R. — Primary  Vascular  Elements  in  Boots  <f  Monocotyledons     317 

Sablon,  L.  du — Tubercle  of  Tamus  communis       317 

Bartelletti,  V. — Study  of  the  Family  Ochnacex,  especially  of  Malayan  Species  ..  318 

Saito,  K. — Bast-Fibres  of  Japanese  Fibre-Plants 318 

Gcignard,  L. — The  Secreting  Apparatus  of  Daniellia 31S 

Fritsch,  F.  E. — An  Anatomical  Systematic  Investigation  of  Leaf  and  Axis  in  the 

Hippocrateaceie      318 

Lonay,  H. — Anatomy  of  Banunculacese 444 

Goffart,  J. — Anatomy  of  the  Leaves  in  the  Banunculaceie 444 

Gaucher,  L. — Anatomy  of  the  Euphorbiaceai       445 

Ternetz,  C — Morphology  and,  Anatomy  of  Azorella  Sela go       446 

Brenner,  W. — Air-Boots  of  Avicennia  iomentosa 446 

Sargant,  E. — Origin  of  the  Seed-leaf  in  Monototyledons     446 

Gllck,  H. — Slipular  Structures  of  Monocotyledons      447 

Leavitt,  R.  G. — Subterranean  Plants  of  Epijjhegus 447 

Winkler,  H. — Begeneration  of  Leaf-Blade  in  Cyclamen 447 

Awberg,  O. — Cork-formation  in  the  Interior  of  the  Leaf-Stalk  of  Nuphar  luteum  ..  448 

Lenecek,  O. —  Union  of  Branch  and  Stem  of  the  same  Tree        448 

Schulze,  H. — Leaf-anatomy  of  Butacese        568 

Pearson,  H.  H.  \V. — Dischidia  with  Double  Pitchers] 569 

Chauveaud,  G. — Precursors  of  Sieve-tubes  in  Gymnoxperms       569 

Perrot,  E.,  &  G.  Lefevre — Botanical  Origin  of  Kinkeliba       569 

Harshberger,  J.  W. — Germination  of  Car apa  guianenxis 658 

Preston,  C.  E. — Peculiar  Stages  of  Foliage  in  the  Genus  Acacia      658 

Faircijild,  D.  G. — Precocious  Branching GiiS 

Rimbach,  A. — Subterranean  Organs  of  Californian  Liliacex     658 

Daniel,  L. — Bejuvenescence  as  a  Besult  of  Grafting 659 

Simon,  S. — Structure  of  the  Wood  in  Deciduous  and  Evergreen  Trees       659 

Borthwick,  A.  W. — Increase  in  Diameter  of  Trees 660 

Clark,  A.  M. — Abnormal  Secondary  Thickening  in  Kendrickia        660 

Pitard,  J. — Pericycle  of  Angiosperms 660 

Reproductive. 

Taliew,  W. — Polychroism  of  Flowers 64 

Uexhull-Gyllen band,  M.  ton — Distribution  of  the  Sexes  in  the  Compositx         ..  64 

Molliard,  M. — Double  Flowers  and  Parasitism 65 


contents.  xxiii 

PAGE 

Winton,  A.  L. — Fruit  of  the  Cocoa-nut       65 

Thiselton-Dyer,  \V.  T. — Carpophyll  of  Encephalartos     65 

Murbeck,  S. — Amphicarpous  Plants      t 65 

Pechoutre,  L. — Integument  of  the  Ovule  and  Seed  of  Geum      66 

Rendle,  A.  B. — Bulbiform  Seeds  of  Amaryllidese       66 

Schniewind-Thies,  J. — Seduction  in  the  Number  of  Chromosomes  in  the  Embryo- 
sac  Mother-cell         ..     . 68 

Guignard,  L. — Double  Fertilisation  in  Naias       69 

Arnoldi,  W. — Embryogeny  of  the  Sequoiacex       70 

Ferguson,  M.  C. — Development  of  the  Oosphere  and  Fertilisation  in  Pinus  Strobus  70 

Dccamp,  L. — Formation  of  the  Ovule  and  Embryo-sac  in  the  Araliacese 71 

„        ,,      Embryo  of  Hedera 71 

Clos,  D.,  &  Mainaedi,  A. — Cross-Pollination  and  Self -Pollination          71 

Gallardo,  A. — Change  of  Sexuality  in  Plants      71 

Mendel's  Laws  of  Hybridity 71 

Loew,  E. — Cleistogamy  of  Stellar  ia  pallida 72 

Berg,  E. — Biology  of  Ranunculus  Ficaria 73 

Nicotra,  L. — Origin  of  the  Flower         19S 

Herzog,  J. — Strengthening  and  Nourishing  System  in  Flowers ..  198 

Klein,  J. — Staminode-like  Structures  in  Dentaria  bulbifera       198 

8trasbcrger,  E.,  &  T.  C.  Frye — Formation  of  the  Pollen  in  the  Asclepiadex         ..  199 

Velexovsky,  M. — Abnormal  Flowers  of  For sythia  viridissima  Lindl 199 

Guignard,  L. — Double  Fertilisation  in  the  Solanacese  and  Gentianacese 199 

Correns,  C. — Hybridism  and  Xenia       200 

Webber.  H.  J. — Spermatogenesis  and  Fecundation  of  Zamia 201 

Bessey,  C.  E. — Morphology  of  the  Pine-Cone         318 

Coker,  W.  C. — Gametophytes  and  Embryo  of  Podocarpus 319 

Worsdell,  \V.  C. —  Vascular  Structure  of  the  Flowers  of  Gnetacese 320 

Martel,  E. — Anatomy  and  Morphology  of  the  Floiver  of  Cniciferse,  &c 320 

Gager,  C.  S. — Development  of  Poliinium  and  Sperm-Cells  in  Asclepias  Cornuti     ..  320 

Tscherhak,  E. — Influence  of  Pollination  on  the  Development  of  the  Pericarp ..      ..  321 

Mitlacher,  W. — Microscopic  Characters  of  the  Fruit- Envelopes  in  the  Acorn . .      . .  321 

Guerin,  P. — Development  of  the  Seed  in  Sapindacete 321 

Heckel,  E. — Germination  of  Onguehoa  and  Strombosia      322 

Harshberger,  J.  W. — Cockscomb  Fasciation  of  Pine-Apples 322 

Wieland,  G.  R. — Notes  on  Living  Cycads  :  The  Zamias  of  Florida        448 

Rosenberg,  O. — Development  of  Pollen  in  Zostera       HO 

„          „          Embryology  of  Zostera  marina 449 

Cook,  M.  T. — Development  of  Embryo-sac  and  Embryo  in  Castalia  and  Nymphxa  ..  449 

Ducajip,  L. — Embryogeny  of  Araliacex, 450 

Overton,  J.  B. — Parthenogenesis  in  Thalictrum  purpurascens 451 

Shoemaker,  D.  N. — Development  of  Hamamelis  virginiana       570 

Johnson,  S. — Development  of  the  Embryo-Sac  in  Piper  and  Heclceria       570 

Hall,  J.  G. — Embryology  of  Limnocharis 570 

Villari,  E. — Structure  of  Achenes 571 

Johnson,  D.  S. — Germination  in  Piper acese 571 

Harshberger,  J.  W. — Germination  of '  Steds  of  Carapa  guianeiisis 572 

Cook,  M.  T. — Polyembryony  in  Gingho 6G1 

Gardiner,  W.,  &  A.  W.  Hill — Histology  of  the  Endosperm 661 

Lloyd,  F.  E. —  Comparative  Embryology  of  the  Rubiacae 662 

Pechoctre,  F. — Development  of  Ovule  and  Seed  in  Rosacese 664 

Tieghem,  Ph.  Van — Existence  of  a  Hypostase  in  the  Ovule  and  Seed  of  Rosacea:  ..  6C6 

Webb,  J.  E. — Development  of  Flower  and  Embryo  of  Spiraea 667 

Physiology. 

Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Meehan,  T. — Bending  of  Mature  Wood  in  Trees        66 

Baranetzky,  J. — Causes  of  the  Direction  of  Branches       66 

Macchiati,  L.— Chlorophyll  Assimilation      72 

Pethybridge,  G.  H. — Action  of  Inorqanic  Salts  on  the  Structure  and  Development 
of  Plants ' 


XXIV  CONTENTS. 

TAGE 

Kovessi,  F. — Relation  of  the  Supply  of  Water  to  the  Ripening  of  Woody  Flan  fa     ..  73 

Jurie,  A. — Hybridisation  by  Grafting ,      ..  73 

Daniel,  L. — Grafting,  Pinching,  and  Annular  Decortication 73 

Friedel,  J.,  &  M.  Hauroy — Chlorophyll  Assimilation  of  Cut  Leaves       73' 

Boyer,  G. —  Vitality  of  Leaves  after  their  Fall      73 

Arker,  J. — Influence  of  the  Surrounding  Medium  on  the  Growth  of  Roots       . .      . .  74 

Genau,  K. — Development  of  Sauromatum  guttatum  Schott         202 

Andre,  G. — Nutrition  of  the  Seedling  at  the  Expense  of  its  Cotyledons 203' 

Fortheim,  L.  Ritter  v. — Necessity  of  Lime  for  Plants 203 

BIarchal,  E.,  &  E.  Laurent — Influence  of  Mineral  Salts  on  the  Production  of 

Root-tubercles  in  Pisum         203 

Miani,  D. — Action  of  Copper  on  the  Growth  of  Living  Cells       203 

Arber,  A.  E.  N. — Nitrates  and  the  Carbon-Assimilation  of  Algae      204 

Bcrgerstein,  A. —  Germinating  Power  of  the  Seeds  of  Cereals 204 

Gain,  E. — "  Ageing  "  of  the  Embryo  of  Grasses 204 

Jost,  L. — Theory  of  the  Shifting  of  Lateral  Organs  through  Mutual  Pressure ..      ..  322 

Kny,  L. — Influence  of  Tension  and  Pressure  on  the  Direction  of  the  Celt- Wall       ..  322. 

Sperlich,  A. — Suckers  of  the  Green  Rhinanthacese       323 

Charpentier,  P.  G. — Assimilation  of  Carbon  by  a  Green  Alga 323 

Renard,  Le — Chemauxism  of  Copper  Salts  on  Penicillium  glaucum         324r 

Cavara,  F. — Resistance  to  Salt  Solution        324 

Heinricher,  E. — Green  Hemiparasites 451 

Vochting,  H. — Germination  of  Potato  Tubers     452 

Deherain,  P.  P.,  &  C.  Dupont — Cultivation  of  Beet-root 452- 

Schulze,  E. — Leucine  and  Tyrosine  as  Food-stuffs       452. 

Pitsch,  O. —  Yield  of  Leguminous  Plants       452 

Clausen,  H. — Influence  of  Nitrogenous  Manures  on  the  Form  of  Cereals        ..      ..  453 

Piccioli,  L. — Soils  suitable  for  Chestnuts       453 

Eemy,  T.,  &  O.  Englisch — Nutrition  of  Hops      453 

Hanusch,  F. — Value  of  Green  Manures 453 

Gerlach,  M. —  Value  of  Kainite 453 

Leisering,  B. — Shifting  in  Heads  of  Sunflower  during  Development  from  Flowering 

to  Ripening      453 

Correns,  C. — On  the  Separation  of  Cliaracters  in  Hybrids  of  the  Pea  Type     ..      . .  454 

Curtis,  C.  C. — Observations  on  Transpiration       572. 

Shunsuke  Kusano — Transpiration  of  Evergreen  Trees  in  Winter 573 

May,  W. — Relations  of  Calcium  and  Magnesium  to  Plant  Growth 573 

Andre,  G. — Accumulation  of  Mineral  and  Organic  Matter  in  Woody  Plants ..      ..  573 
Brown,  H.  T.,  &  others — Influence  of  Varying  Amounts  of  Carbon  Dioxide  in  the 

Air  on  Photosynthesis  and  Plant  Growth 668 

Poisson,  Jules — Duration  of  Germinating  Power  of  Seeds        66£* 

Irritability. 

Blackman,  F.  F.,  &  Gabrielle  L.  C.  Matthaei — Reaction  of  Leaves  to  Traumatic 

Stimulation      74 

Massart,  M.  J. — Irritability  of  the  Higher  Plants       74 

Wiesner,  J. — Position  of  Flowers  ivith  respect  to  Light     204 

Selby,  A.  D. — Resistance  of  Seeds  to  Low  Temperatures 204 

Andre,  G. — Action  of   Temperature  on  the  Absorption  of  Minerals  in  Etiolated 

Plants       324 

Schulz,  N. — Light  and  Spore-Germination 324 

Newcombe,  F.  C. — Rheotropism  of  Roots       454 

Seckt,  H. — Influence  of  X-rays  on  the  Plant  Organism      455 

Passerini,  N. — Effect  of  Sunshine  on  Plants 574 

Tompa,  A. — Electrical  Phenomena  in  Plants         574 

Bose,  J.  C. — Electric  Response  in  Plants  under  Mechanical  Stimulus       574 

Darwin,  F. — Method  of  Investigating  the  Gravitational  Sensitiveness  of  the  Root- 
tip     575 

Sukatscheff,  L. — Action  of  Alcohol  on  Germination  of  some  Seeds 575 

McCallum,  W.  B. — Nature  of  the  Stimulus  causing  the  Change  of  Form  and  Struc- 
ture in  an  Amphibious  Plant        669 

Heald,  F.  D.— Electrical  Conductivity  of  Plant  Juices      ..      ..      669 


CONTENTS.  XXV 

Chemical  Changes. 

PAGE 

Zaleski,  \V. — Formation  of  Proteids      74 

Ahrens,  F.  B. — Fermentation  without  Cells 75 

Buscalioni,  L.,  &  G.  Pollacci — New  Mode  of  Measuring  Transpiration        ..      ..  75 

Newton,  C.  R. — Oxidising  Enzymes      205 

Vines — The  Proteolytic  Enzyme  of  Nepenthes        205 

Timberlake,  H.  G. — Starch-formation  in  Hydrodictyon  utncnlatum       205 

Maze,  M.  P. — On  the  Transformation  of  Fatty  Matters  into  Sugars  in  Oily  Grains 

during  Germination       206 

Schunck — Contributio7is  to  the  Chemist ry  of  Chlorophyll 20$ 

Brown,  A.  J.,  &  others — Enzyme  Action 325 

Vines,  S.  H. — Tryptophane  in  Proteolysis 325 

Bourquelot,  E. — Cane-Sugar  in  the  Reserve  Food-Stuffs  of  Phanerogams       ..      ..  326 

Grus,  J. — Conversion  of  Carbohydrate  iii  the  Germination  of  the  Date     326 

Kastle,  J.  H..  &  others — Reaction  and  Nature  of  Oxidising  Ferments         ..      ..  455 

Emmerlixg,  0. — Action  of  Sunlight  on  Enzymes 456 

Andre,  G. — Transformation  of  Proteids  during  Germination 456 

Nedokutschaeff,  N.  K. —  Changes  in  Nitrogenous  Substances  in  Ripening  of  Cereals    456 

Otto,  R. — Changes  during  Ripening  of  Apples 457 

Iwanoff,  K.  S. — Composition   of  Proteids  and  Cell-Membranes  in  Bacteria  and 

Fungi       457 

Czapek,  F. — Proteid  Formation  in  Plants 457 

Kirkwood,  J.  E.,  &  W.  J.  Gies — Chemical  Studies  of  the  Coco-nut 575 

Jayillier,  M. — Investigation  and  Presence  of  Rennet-ferment  in  Plants 575 

Baker,  J.  L. — Action  of  linger minated  Barley  Diastase  on  Starch 576 

Woods,  A.  F. — Mosaic  Disease  of  Tobacco 576 

Mourell,  R.  S.,  &  J.  S.  Ckofts — Action  of  Hydrogen  Peroxide  on  Carbohydrates 

in  Presence  of  Ferrous  Sulphate 576 

Mann,  H.  H. — Enzymes  of  the  Tea-leaf 670 

General. 

Harshberger.  J.  W. — Limits  of  Variation  in  Plants 75> 

Korschinsky,  S. — Heterogenesis  and I  Evolution 75 

Vogel,  P. — Means  of  Distribution  of  Alpine  Plants 76 

Beauverie,  J. — Influence  of  Osmotic  Pressure  on  the  Form  and  Structure  of  Plants  76 

Ward,  H.  Marshall — Disease  in  Plants       76 

Carrtthers,  W. — On  the  Lite  and  Work  of  Nehemiah  Grew    ..      ..      129 

Jaccard.  P. — Distribution  of  Plants  in  the  Alps  and  Jura  Mountains      206 

Shull,  G.  H. — Quantitative  Study  of  Variation  in  the  Bracts,  Rays,  and  Dish-florets 

of  Species  of  Aster 326 

Giard,  A. — Passage  from  a  Bisexual  to  a  Unisexual  Condition  by  Unilateral  Para- 
sitic Castration       326 

Boulay,  N. — Topographical  Botany       327 

Gibbs,  R.  E. — Phy'llospadix  as  a  Beach-Builder 327 

Lovell,  J.  H. — Colours  of  Northern  Polypetalous  Flotcers 457 

Griffiths,  D. — Anchoring  of  Plantain  Seed 458 

Warming,  Eug. — Burmanniacens  from  Brazil       458 

Engler,  A. —  Vegetation  of  the  Mountainous  Districts  North  of  Lake  Nyasa  . .      ..  458 

Warburg,  O. — History  and  Development  of  Applied  Botany      458 

HxssGiRG—Phyllobiologic  Types  in  some  Orders  of  Seed-Plants 576 

Zodda,  G. — Study  of  the  Genus  Serapias       577 

Stenzel,  Gustay — Malformations  of  the  Flower  of  Orchids       577 

Holm,  Theo. — North  American  Carices 577 

E.ngelhardt,  H.—  Tertiary  Plants  from  the  Himmelsberg 577 

Rodway,  L. — Botany  of  Tasmania 577 

Harshberger,  J.  W. — Oncological  Sketch  of  the  Flora  of  Santo  Domingo          ..      ..  57S 

Bennett,  A. — Liparis  Loeselii  and  Teucrium  Scordium 670 

Nicholson.  W.  A. —  Variations  in  Perianth  of  Ranunculus  Ficaria 670 

Pantanelli,  E. — Albinism  in  Plants 670 

Plowright,  C.  B. — British  Dye-plants 671 

Fernald,  M.  L.— Relationship  of  American  and  Old  World  Birches       67) 


XXVI  CONTENTS. 

CRYPTOGAMS. 
General. 

PAGE 

Goebel,  K. — Homologies  in  the  Development  of  Male  and  Female  Sexual  Organs  ..  206 

Pteridophyta. 

Lyon,  Florence  M. — Sporange  and  Oophyte  of  Selaginella       76 

Lang,  W.  H. — Prothallus  of  Ophioglossum,  Helminthostachys,  and  Psilolum  ..  ..  77 
Berteand,  C.  E.,  &  F.  Cornaille — Fibrovascular  Bundles  in  the  Stem  and  Leaf  of 

Filicinese          7S 

Burgenstein,  A. — Germination  of  Fern-Spores 78 

Giesenhagen,  K. — Niphobolus 71) 

Eenault,  B. — Fossil  Heterosporous  Ferns 7'.» 

Boodle,  L.  A. — Anatomy  of  the  Gleicheniacex 207 

Bertrand,  C.  E.,  &  F.  Cornaille — Fibrovascular  Chains  of  Filicinese 207 

Arber,  E.  N. — The  Type- Specimens  of  Lyginodendron  Oldhamium 208 

Thomas,  A.  P.  W. — Prothallium  of  Phylloglossum       208 

Lang,  W.  H. — Proihalli  of  Ophioglossum  and  Helminthostachys        327 

Underwood,  L.  M. — Classification  of  Ferns ■..      ..  32S 

Ford,  S.  O. — Anatomy  of  Ceratopteris  thalicfroides      328 

Tansley,  A.  G.,  &  E.  B.  Lulham — A  New  Type  of  Fern-stele 329 

Thomas,  A.  P.  "W. — Alga-lihe  Fern-prothallus '     ..  329 

„           „             Affinities  of  Tmesipteris 329 

Seward,  A.  C. — So-called  Phloem  of  Lepidodendron 330 

Kaciborski,  M. —  Vegetative  Propagation  in  Angiopteris  evecta 459 

Steinbrinck,  C. — Spore-casting  Mechanism  of  Selaginella  Sporangia       459 

Waters,  C.  E. — Analytical  Key  for  the  Fernn  of  the  North-Fastern  States,  based 

on  the  Stipes 57S 

Britton,  E.  G. — Filmy  Ferns  of  South  America 578 

Hieronymus,  G. — New  Species  of  Selaginella        57S 

Renault,  B. — Pollen  and  Male  Prothallia  from  the  Coal  Measures 671 

Sellards,  E.  H. — Fossil   American    Ferns :    Fertile  Fronds   of  Crossotheca   and 

Myriotheca       671 

Seward,  A.  C,  &  Elizabeth  Dale — Structure  and  Affinities  of  Dipteris      ..      ..  672 

Christensen,  C. — Danish  Pteridophyta         672 

Christ,  H. — Brazilian  Ferns 672 

Slosson,  M. — Hybrid  Origin  of  Asplenium  ebenoides 672 

G  WYNNE- Vaughan,  D.  T. — Nature  of  the  Stele  of  Equisetum 672 

Muscinese. 

Lorch,  W. — Anatomy  and  Biology  of  Mosses        79 

Kindberg,  N.  C. — Hypopterygiacese        79 

Lang,  VV.  H. — Apospory  in  Anthocems 79 

Giesenhagen,  K. — Leaf-Movements  in  Polylrichum 209 

Philibert,  H. — Structure  of  the  Peristome 209 

Jones  &  others — Mosses  new  to  Britain        .'.      209 

Limpricht,  K.  G. — Kabenliorst's  Cryptogamic  Flora  of  Germany  (Musci)       ..      ..  210 

Stephani,  F.,  &  others — Lists  and  New  Species         210 

Garjeanne,  A.  J.  M. — Spore  Distribution 330 

Palacky,  J. — Geographical  Distribution  of  Mosses      331 

Philibert,  H. — Peristome  of  Mosses       331 

Monkemeyer,  "VV.,  &  F.  Tobler — Abnormalities 331 

Macvicar,  S.  M.,  &  others — Lists  and  New  Species 331 

Hunter,  J.,  &  E.  Armitage — Irish  Mosses 459 

Braithwaite,  E. — British  Moss-Flora 459 

Howe,  M.  A. — Notes  on  American  Hepaticse 459 

Nicholson,  W.  E. — Mosses  of  South- Western  Switzerland 460 

Paris— Mosses  of  West  Tropical  Africa 460 

Pierce,  G.  J. — Forcible  Discharge  of  Antherozoids  in  Asterella  calif ornica     ..      ..  578 


CONTENTS.  XXVll 

l'AGE 

Gil,  A.  Casares — Bed-coloured  Hepatic*       579 

Kindbekg,  N.  C. — Genus  Thamnium 579 

Levier,  E.,  &  G.  Dismier — French  Muscinese       579 

Migtjla,  W. — Mosses  of  Central  Europe 5SO 

Podpera,  J. — Bohemian  Species  of  Bryum 580 

Paris,  E.  G. — Mosses  of  Madagascar      580 

Muller,  K. — Australian  Mosses      580 

Salmon,  E.  S. — Bryological  Notes 580 

Savery,  G.  B.,  &  others — British  and  Irish  Mosses r>S] 

Cardot,  J. — Leaf- Anatomy  of  the  Leucobryacese 673 

Nicholson,  W.  E. — British  Moss  Flora         <>7:; 

Mentz,  A. — Mosses  of  Jutland         073 

Bhitton,  Elizabeth  G. — European  Species  of  Sematophyllum 673 

Williams,  It.  S. — Preliminary  List  of  Montana  Mosses      673 

Stephani,  F. — Species  Hepaticarum      673 

Somsiier,  S. — Petalophyllum  Balfsii       074 

Stephani,  P. — Siamese  Hepatics 674 

Porsild,  M.  P. — Biella  cultivated  from  dried  Mud      674 

Evans,  A.  W. — Hepatics  of  Puerto  Bico       074 

Leviek,  E. — Priority  of  the  Name  Calypogeia      674 


Algse. 

Kjellman,  F.  R. — Galaxaura         79 

Montemartini,  L.— Abnormal  Conjugation  in  Spirogyra 80 

Ott,  Emma — Chromatophores  of  Fresh-water  Diatoms         80 

Karsten,  G. — Colourless  Diatoms 81 

Mereschkowsky,  C. — Stauronella,  a  New  Genus  of  Diatoms 81 

„           „             Ohedenia      81 

Peragallo,  H.  &  M. — Marine  Diatoms  of  France        82 

Schmidt's  Atlas  der  Diatomaceen-Kunde       82 

Wille,  N. — Pseudenclonium,  a  Neiv  Genus  of  Algse S2 

Brand,  ¥.—Cladophora 82 

Eleissig,  P.— Oil  in  Vaucheria        83 

Scherffel,  A. — Bemarks  on  GUdogonia  with  Semicircular  Foot-cell 210 

Sauvageau,  M.  C. — Sphncelariaceas ..      ..  211 

Mereschkowsky,  C. —  Classification  of  Diatoms   ..      211 

Brun,  J. — Fresh-water  Diatoms  from  the  Island  of  Jan  Mayen  and  the  East  Coast 

of  Greenland 212 

Hitchcock,  R. — Capillary  Absorptive  Action  of  Diatom  Frustules 212 

Heydrich,  F. — Perispermum,  a  new  Genus  of  Gorallinacese       212 

Cleve,  Astrid — Contributions  to  the  Flora  of  Bear  Island       212 

Schmidle,  W.,  &  Reinbold — Algse  from  the  Caroline  Islands 213 

West,  W.—New  Mougeotia      333 

Copeland,  E.  B. — Sexuality  in  Spirogyra 333 

Brand,  F.—Cladophora  Mgagropila       333 

Kolderlp  Ro»envinge — Spiral  Arrangement  in  the  Bhodomelavese 334 

Hassenkamp,  A. — Development  of  the  Cystocarp  in  some  Floridese 334 

Forti,  Achille— Algse  of  Verona 335 

Collins,  F.  S.—Algx  of  Jamaica 335 

Prowazek,  S. — Structure  and  Division  of  Polytoma 4(J0 

Fricke,  F.— Atlas  of  Diatoms         460 

Lederbauer— Growth  of  Cladophora  cornea  in  the  Form  of  Balls 460 

Schuoter,  C.  &  P.  Vogler — Variation  in  Frag ilaria  crotonensis      4t!l 

Chodat,  R.— Fresh-icater  Algse  of  Switzerland 461 

Jonsson,  Helgi  — itfurme  A Igse  of  Iceland 461 

West  &  others— Flora  of  Koh  Chang 462 

Cleve,  P.  T.—  Plankton 581 

Fritsch,  F.  E.,  &  Ida  A.  Keller— CEdogonium 582 

Bu llock- Webster,  G.  U.—Characese  from  Co.  Monaghan       582 

McMillan,  Conway — Observations  on  Pterygophora  californica      582 


XXVlil  CONTENTS. 

Cleye,  P.  T.,&  others — Recent  Publications  on  Diatoms 582 

Heydrich,  F. — Development  of  Tetrasporangium  in  Floridex 583 

Jonsson,  B. — Structure  and  Development  of  the  Desmarestix      583 

Falkenberg,  R. — The  Rhodomelacex 583 

Yendo,  K. — Corallinx  from  Port  Renfreiv,  Vancouver        581 

„       „       Japanese  Corallinx      584 

Schmidle,  \V. — Notes  on  some  Fresh-water  Algx 58! 

West,  William,  &  George  S. — Fresh-water  Algx  of  Ceylon     5S4 

Batters,  E.  A.  L. — British  Marine  Algx      585 

Mazza,  A. — Marine  Flora  of  the  Gulf  of  Naples 585 

Forti,  Achille — Algx  of  the  Verona  District       585 

Saunders,  De  Alton — Algx  of  the  Harriman  Alaska  Expedition 585 

Lohmann,  H. — Coccospheres  and  Coccoliths 674 

Keissler,  Carl  v. — Plankton  of  Alpine  Lakes 675 

Zacharias,  Otto — Pond  Plankton 675 

Lanzi,  Matteo — Diatoms  of  Lake  Cotronia 676 

Brehm,  V.,  &  others— Phyto-planhton  of  the  Erlaufsee,  and  the  Caspian  Sea       . .  676 

Corti,  Benedetto — Diatoms  of  the  River  Olona 676 

Senft,  E. — Diatoms  in  Agar-Agar 676 

Peirce,  George  J. — Extrusion  of  Gametes  in  Fucus 677 

Brand,  F. — The  Genus  Trentepohlia      677 

Darbishire,  Otto  V. — Chondrus  crispus      678 

Barton,  Ethel  S. — The  Genus  Halimeda 678 

Okamura,  K. — Japanese  Marine  Algx 679 

Ardissone,  Francesco — Marine  Algx  of  the  Mediterranean      679 

Matruchot,  L.,  &  M.  Molliard — Stichococcus  bacillaris  Naeg 679 

Scott,  Rina — Salt-ivater  Aquarium       680 


Mycetozoa  and  Fungi. 

Stevens,  F.  L. — Gametogenesis  and  Fertilisation  in  Albugo       S3 

Constantineanu,  J.  C. — New  Chytridinex 84 

Vuillemin,  P. — Penicillate  Tubes  of  Phyllactinia        84 

Bitter,  G. — Variability  of  Lichens  under  different  external  conditions 84 

„      „      Parmelia      8o 

Wroblewski,  A. — Buehner's  Yeast  Extract ..      ••  85 

Harden,  A.,  &  S.  Rowland — Microscopical  Appearances  of  Pressed  Yeast  after 

Liquefaction 85 

Dietel,  P. — Storing  up  of  Water  in  the  Spores  of  the  Uredinex       .      ..  85 

Allescher,   A. — RabenhorsV  s   Cryptogamic   Flora  of  Germany,  <tc.  (Fungi   Im- 

perfecti) ,s!6 

Hennings,  P.,  &  others — Parasitic  Fungi 86 

Fischer,  E. — Phalloidex 87 

Magalhaes,  P.  S.  de — Microbe  of  Piedra 87 

Joel,  H.  O. — Pyrrhosorus,  a  neio  Marine  Fungus         213- 

Brefeld,  O. — Sexual  and  Non-sexual  Reproduction  in  the  Zygomycetes 213 

Clinton,  G.  P. — Cladochytrium  Alismatis 214 

Thaxter,  R. — New  Genera  and  Species  of  Laboulbeniacex       214 

Neger,  F.  W. —  Contributions  to  the  Biology  of  the  Erysiphacex       215 

M'Alpine,  D.— "  Shot-hole ''  Fungi       216 

Yestergren,  Tycho — An  Arctic-Alpine  Rhabdospora         216 

Guilliermond,  A. — Sexuality  of  certain  Yeasts 216 

Magnus,  P.,  &  others — Uredinex 217 

H-AUTER-Binucleate  Cells  in  certain  Hymenomycetes 217 

Zahlbrdckner,  A.,  &  R.  P.  Longinos  Nayas — Lichens 21S 

Sernander,  R. — Haptera  of  Lichens      218 

Golenkin,  M. — Mycorhiza  in  the  Marchantiacex         219 

Trotter,  A.,  &  others — Parasitic  Fungi 219 

Klebahn,  Von,  &  others — Fungal  Diseases  of  Plants       219 

Poirault,  M.,  &  others — Mycology  in  France      221 

Sarnthein,  Count  von — Fungus  flora  of  Tyrol 222 


CONTENTS.  XXIX 

r.VGE 

Hennings,  P.,  &  L.  Eomell — South  A  merican  Fungi 222 

Bertrand,  G. — Blue  Colour  in  Fungi 222 

Clark.  F. — On  the  Toxic  Properties  of  some  Copper  Compounds       222 

Massee,  G.,  &  E.  S.  Salmon — Coprophilous  Fungi  II 335 

Miyake,  Kuchi — Fertilisation  of  Pythium  de  Buryanum 335 

Patouillard,  N.,  &  P.  Hariot — Bovista  ammophila 336 

Beauverie,  J. — Mycorhiza       336 

Magnus,  P. — An  Underground  Species  of  Urophlyctis 336 

Laxa,  0. — Decomposition  of  Butter-Fat 336 

Ulpiani  &  Sarcoli — Alcoholic  Fermentation  of  Indian  Fig-Must     337 

Bubak,  Franz — Puccinia 337 

AVard,  Marshall — Pure  Cultures  of  a  Uredine 337 

Eriksson,  Jakob — Bust  of  Cereals • 338 

Howard,  A. — Diplodia  cacaoicola          338 

Potter,  M.  C— Canker  of  the  Oah 338 

Miyoshi.  M.,  &  T.  Inui — Spore-Distribution  in  a  Lichen 330 

Ward,  Marshall,  &  others — British  Mycology 339 

Lloyd,  C.  G. — The  Gasteromyceles 339 

Bataille,  F. — Fungus  Flora 340 

Oudemans,  C.  A.  J.  A. — Fungi  of  the  Netherlands       340 

Schrenk,  H.  von — Vegetable  Pathology 340 

Peck,  C.  H.,  &  others — Lists  and  New  Species  of  Fungi 340 

Saccardo,  P.  A.,  &  P.  Sydow — Sylloge  Fungorum      341 

Lister,  Arthur  &  G. — Notes  on  Mycetozoa 462 

Olive,  Edgar  W. — The  Acrasiem 462 

Schostakowitsch,  W. — Genus  Mucor 463 

Marpjiann — Parasitic  Fungi  of  the  Diatomacex 463 

Beer,  Kudolf — Coemansiella  alabastrina 464 

Kabenhorst's  Cryptogamic  Flora  of  Germany,  &c.  {Fungi  Imperfecti) 464 

Klocker,  Alb. — New  Gymnoascus 464 

Kupfer,  Elsie  M. — Studies  on  Urnula  and  Geopyxis 464 

Salmon,  E.  S. — Notes  on  the  Erysiphacese 465 

Aderhold,  K. — New  Species  of  Venturia      466 

Uyeda,  Y. — "  Benilwji  "  Fungus 466 

Arthur,  J.  C. — New  Uredinete        466 

Klebahn,  H. —  Uredinex  Cultures 466 

Griffiths,  Dayid — West  American  Fungi 467 

Pietel,  P. — Paraphyses  of  the  Uredinese       467 

White,  V.  S. — The  Nidulariacex  of  North  America 467 

Fink,  Bruce,  &  others — Lichens 467 

Kanojevie,  N.- — Servian  Fungus  Flora          468 

Lazaro,  D.  B. — Spanish  Fungi       468 

Penzig,  O.,  &  P.  A.  Saccardo — Fungi  from  Java       468 

Hennings,  P.,  &  others — Some  New  Fungi 469 

Prunet,  M.  A.,  &  others — Plant  Diseases. — Black  Bot  of  the  Vine 469 

Peglion,  V. — Disease  of  Maize        470 

Corbie,  M.  C. — Fungus  Pests  of  the  Carnations     471 

Massee,  G. — Coprophilous  Fungi 471 

Trzebinski,  M.  J. — Influence  of  Irritation  on  the  Growth  of  Unicellular  Plants       ..  471 

O'Brian.  Abigail — Besistance  to  Temperature  of  Fungi 471 

Pulst,  Carl — Besistance  of  some  Moulds  to  Metal  Poisoning     472 

Wesenburg,  G,— Germicides 472 

De  Gomont  de  Lesparre,  A. — Spore-Germination  in  the  Higher  Fungi        ..      ..  472 

Ward,  Marshall — Predisposition  and  Immunity  in  Plants      473 

Lafar,  Franz— Technical  Mycology       473 

Jahn,  E. — Studies  in  My xomycetes          585 

Feinberg — Plasmodiophora  Brassicm 5S0 

Feistmantel,  Carl— Streptothrix  farcinica          586 

Magnus,  P.,  &  Fr.  Buvak— Urophlyctis        586 

Bokorny,  T. — Energy  of  Assimilation  in  Fungi 587 

Maze,  M.— Zymase  in  Fungal  Hyphae 587 

Brefeld,  O. — Pleomorphism  and   Chlamydospore  Formation  among   Filamentous 

Fungi       587 


XXX  CONTEXTS. 


TAGE 


Minden,  M.  V.—  The  Saprolegniese         587 

Klebs,  Georg — Sporodinia  grandis       588 

Winkler,  W. — Mucor  as  an  Alcohol  Yeast 588 

Schostakowitsch,  "\Vl. — Actinomucor  repens        589 

Aderhold,  K. — Clasterosporinm  carpophilum  (Ley.)  Aderh 589 

Marchal,  Em. — Erysiphe  Graminis       589 

Smith,  Ralph  E. — Parasitism  of  Botrytis  cinerea      590 

Uurand,  Elias  J.—  Some  North  American  Discomycetes 590 

Allkscher,  Andreas — Kryptogamen- Flora         590 

Marpmann,  G. — Yeasts 591 

Will,  H. — Observations  on  the  Vitality  of  the  Yeast  Plant 591 

Tubeuf — Smut  of  Cereals         ..      ..       ' 591 

Gruss,  J. — Biological  Phenomena  in  the  Cultivation  of  Vstilago  Maydis 591 

Busse,  Walter — Bust  of  Andropogon  Sorghum 592 

Eriksson,  Jakob — Witch's  Brooms  on  the  Barberry 592 

„           „          Bust  of  Timothy  Grass 592 

Ward,  Marshall — Belation  between  Host  and  Parasite 593 

Sydow,  P.  &  H. — Monograph  of  the  Vredinese       593 

Lloyd,  C.  G. — Geastrse 593 

Massee,  G. — European  Agarics       594 

Goffart,  Ji:les — Bhizomorpha       59-1 

American  Mycology 594 

Brzezinski,  F.  P. — Vegetable  Pathology        595 

Hennings,  P. — Fungi  on  Andromeda  polifolia 595 

Zimmermann,  A. — Fungal  Parasites  of  Tropical  Cultivated  Plants 596 

Pierce,  N.  B. — Black  Bot  of  Oranges 596 

Voglino,  P. — Disease  of  Cultivated  Chrysanthemums          596 

Prdnet,  A.—  Black  Bot 596 

Holborn,  Karl — Some  Fungus  Cultures       596 

Schostakowitsch,  Wlad. — Mucor s  of  East  Siberia 680 

Prillieux,  Ed. — Dematophora  in  Fruit        680 

Wehmer,  C. —  The  Genus  Aspergillus      680 

Pommel,  W. — Fruit  Yeasts      6S0 

Cohn,  E. — New  Pathogenic  Yeast  (Klein  s  Yeast)        681 

Lindroth,  J.  T. — Neio  Vredinese 681 

Diedicke,  H. — Relationship  between  Pleospora  and  Helminthosporium 681 

Tubeuf — Infection  Experiments  icith  Vredinese 681 

Lindroth,  J.  J. — Busts  of  the  Vmbelliferse 681 

Magnus,  P. — Function  of  Paraphyses  in  the  Vredinese       682 

Klebahn — Experiments  with  Busts        682 

Lanzi,  Matteo — Amanita  ovoidea         682 

Ferguson,  Margaret  C. — Germination  of  Basidiospores 682 

Banker,  Howard  J. — Hydnacese 682 

Bambeke,  Ch.  Van — Crystalloids  of  the  Basidiomycetes     683 

Percival,  J. — Silver-leaf  Disease 683 

Llenas  y  Fernandez,  M. — Spanish  Lichens       683 

Zanfrognini,  Carlo — Contribution  to  the  Lichen  Flora  of  Emilia 683 

Zopf,  W. — Compounds  from  Lichens      684 

Allescher,  Andreas — Kryptogamen-FIora 684 

Kanojevie,  N.,  &  others — Contributions  to  Fungus  Floras      684 

Hennings,  P. — Fungi  Javanici       685 

Strasser,  P.  Pirs — Fungus  Flora  of  the  Sonntagberg 685 

Ferrario,  Teodoro — Fungus  Flora  of  Piedmont         6S5 

Earle,  F.  S. — North  American  Mycology       685 

Massee,  G. — Diseases  of  Plants      686 

Hasselbring — Canker  in  Apple-Trees 686 

Wehner — Economic  Fungi      686 

Gedoelst,  L. — Pathogenic  Fungi 686 

Haan,J.de — Fungal  Disease  in  Horses       687 

Meyer,  Arthur — Continuity  of  Protoplasm  in  Fungi        687 

Maximow,  N.  A. — Influence  of  Light  on  the  Respiration  of  the  Lower  Fungi         ..  687 

Kostytschew,  S. — Respiration  of  Fungi       688 


CONTENTS.  XXXI 

PACK 

Sago,  Karl — Weather  and  Parasitic  Fungi 6SS 

Rosenheim,  O. — Decomposition  of  Compounds  of  Selenium  and  Tellurium  by  Moulds  68S 

Fernbach,  A. — Influence  of  Sulphocyanic  Acid  on  Growth  of  Aspergillus  niger     ..  688 

Klein,  E. — New  Pathogenic  Blastomyces      689 

Protophyta. 

Schizophyceae. 

Schmidt,  J. — Richelia,  a  New  Genus  of  Cyanophycem        88 

Schmidle,  W. — Pilgeria,  a  New  Genus  of  Ghroococcacese 88 

Tkodoresco,  E.  G. — Gomontiella,  a  new  Genus  of  Schizophycex.        223 

Hyams,  Isabel  F.,  &  Ellen  H.  Richards — Oscillaria  prolifica       341 

Massart,  J. — Structure  and  Affinities  of  the  Schizophyta 473 

West,  G.  S.— Flora  of  Hot  Springs        597 

Fritsch,  F.  E. — Observations  on  A phanochsete      597 

Wager,  H. — Cytology  of  Cyanophycex G89 

Schizomycetes. 

Cacace,  E. — Proteolytic  Power  of  Bacteria "j"..  "  88 

Jennings,  H.  S.,  &  J.  H.  Crosby — Reaction  of  Bacteria  to  Stimuli 88 

Pares,  W.  C.  C. — Effect  of  Nitrates  on  the  Shape  of  certain  Bacteria      88 

Muller,  P.  T. — Agglutination  of  Bacteria 89 

Matzuschita,  T. — Effect   of  Salt   in  Nutrient  Media  on   the    Growth  of  Micro- 
organisms                 89 

Greig-Smith,  R. — Bacteria  and  the  Disintegration  of  Cement 89 

Krompecher,  E. — Metachromatic  Granules  in  Sporiferous  Bacteria 89 

Bliesener, — . — Spore-formation  in  Cholera  Bacilli 90 

Hecke,  L. — Bacteriosis  of  Kohlrabi        90 

Conn,  H.  W.,  &  W.  M.  Esten — Bipening  of  Cream 90 

Houston,  A.  C. — Bacteriological  Examination  of  Potable  Water      91 

Goldberg,  S.  J. — Influence' of  Alcohol  on  Natural  Immunity 91 

Rosenfeld,  A. — Involution  Forms  of  some  Plague-like  Bacteria       91 

Flexner,  S—  etiology  of  Dysentery      92 

Gessard,  C. — Melanogenic  Variety  of  Bacillus  pyocyaneus         92 

Levene,  P.  A. — Biochemical  Studies  on  the  Tubercle  Bacillus 92 

Delepine,  S. — Human  and  Bovine  Tuberculosis 92 

Ravenel,  M.  P. —  Virulence  of  Bovine  and  Human  Tubercle  Bacilli        92 

Roth,  J. — Variability  of  Gas  Formation  by  Bacillus  coli  communis        92 

Lignieres,  J. — Classification  of  the  Hemorrhagic  Septicsemids          93 

Hewlett,  R.  T. — Probable  Identity  of  Achalme's  Bacillus  of  Acute  Rheumatism 

and  the  Bacillus  enleritidis  sporogenes        93 

tf          Indol-like  Reaction  given  by  Cultures  of  Diphtheria  and  Pseudo- 
diphtheria  Bacilli 93 

Smith,  R.  Greig — Vibrio  denitrificans  Sewerin    ..      ..      93 

Levy  &  Fickler — Corynebacterium  lymphss  vaccinalis       94 

Bibliography 94 

Delacroix,  G. — Bacterial  Disease  of  the  Potato 223 

Hinze,  G. — Besjgiatoa       223 

Maassen,  A. — Decomposition  of  Nitrates  and  Nitrites  by  Bacteria 224 

Meyer,  A. — Chlamydospores  of  Bacteria       ..  224 

Schcltz-Schcltzenstein — Effect  of  the  Human  Gastric  Juice  on  Cholera  Vibrios  224 

Macfadyen,  A.,  &  S.  Rowland — intracellular  Constituents  of  the  Typhoid  Bacillus  225 

Paratore,  E. — Polymorphism  of  Bacillus  radicicola 225 

Guerin,  C. — Avian  Diphtheria        225 

Folli — Acid-resisting  Bacilli  in  Grangrene 226 

Lesieur,  Ch. — Pseudo-diphtheria  Bacilli      226 

Frecdenreich,  E.  von — Use  of  Tyrogen  in  Cheese-making         226 

Stutzer,  A — Formation  of  Bacteroids  in  Artificial  Nutrient  Media        226 

Histerberger — Capsule  and  Flagella  of  B.  anthracis        226 

Neisser  &  Lubowski — Formation  of  Agglutins 227 


XXX11  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Weil,  R. — Preparation  of  Spores  for  Testing  Methods  of  Disinfect  ion,  &c 227 

Emmerich  &  Loew — Bio-chemical  Antagonisms 228 

Goldberg — Interpretation  of  Agglutination  Reaction  Remits 228 

Kohlbrugge — Agglutination  of  Vibrios 22S 

Cahn — Gram-staining  Bacteria  in  the  Intestines  of  Infants        229 

Walbaum — Enumeration  of  Water  Bacteria 229 

Bosse,  Brcno — Experiments  with  Deycke's  Media       229 

Bibliography 230 

Neumann — Nitrogen-Assimilating  Bacteria  in  Soils 341 

Bayer,  FR.—Alinit-  Bacillus  Beta 342 

Barnard — Luminous  Bacteria        342 

RfziCKA — Variability  of  Micro-Organisms 342 

Sartori — Detection  of  Tubercle  Bacilli  in  Milk 313 

Fasching — New  Capsulated  Bacillus 343 

Rist  &  Khoury — Micro-organisms  of  Egyptian  "  Leben  Raib" 343 

Moeller,  A. — Acid-fast  Bacilli      344 

Kresling,  K. — Fat-Substance  of  the  Tubercle  Bacillus        345 

Beyerinck,  Martinis — Lactic  Ferments  in  the  Arts 340 

Bra,  M. — Presence  of  a  Parasite  in  the  Blood  of  Epileptics        . . 340 

Besredka — Streptococcus  Hemolysin 316 

Voges — Normal  Serum  in  Pneumo-Enteritis 347 

Rogozinski — Resorption  of  Bacteria  from  the  Intestines      347 

Futterer — Micro-organisms  in  the  Systemic  Circulation ,.      ..  348 

Fischer — Plasmoptysis 348 

Beck  &  Rabinowitsch — Agglutination  of  the  Tubercle  Bacillus       348 

Miquel  &  Cambier's  Bacteriology 349 

Bibliography ..      ..  350 

Lepontre — Experimental  Production  of  Parasitic  Races  of  Bacteria       474 

Binot — Bacterial  Flora  of  Mont  Blanc 475 

Hauman — Retting  of  Flax        475 

Burr,  R. — Source  of  Acid  Organisms  of  Milk       47G 

Lochmann — B.  caseolylicus      477 

Russell  &  Hastings — Efficiency  of  Pasteurisation       477 

Haacke,  P. — Decomposition  of  Lactose  by  B.  acidi  lactici 47S 

Harrison — B.  tuberculosis  in  Cheese      478 

Anjeszky — B.  tuberculosis  in  Buda-Pesth  Butter        478 

Herzoc. — Tuberculosis  in  Cold-blooded  Animals 479 

Sabrazes — Pseudo-tuberculosis  (Streptobacillary)  of  the  Grey  Rat 479 

Abbott  &  Gildersleeve — Lesions  produced  by  Acid-resisting  Bacilli 480 

Veddar  &  Duval — JEtiology  of  Acute  Dysentery       ..      . .      480 

Schmidt,  G. — Resistance  of  B.  dysenterve  to  Cold        480 

Wood,  C. — Diphtheria  Toxins  in  Serum  Media 481 

Neumann — B.  diphtherise  in  Simple  Rhinitis       481 

Omelianski,  V. — Fermentation  of  Cellulose 597 

Potter,  M.  C. — Parasitism  of  Pseudomonas  destructans 597 

Strong — Infection  by  Paracolon  Bacillus      597 

Wolff — Differential  Diagnosis  of  Col i  and  Typhoid 598 

Marmorek — Unity  of  Pathogenic  Streptococci       59S 

MacCallum — Actinomyces  asteroides 599 

Valerio,  Galli — Botryomycosis 59!* 

Klein,  E. — Bacterium  phasianicida       600 

Wildboi.z — Cultivations  of  Gonococcus ,      ..      ..  <!01 

Stefansky — New  Pyogenic  Bacillus       001 

Issatschenko — Bacillus  Pathogenic  to  Rats 602 

Russell  &  Hastings — Heat-resisting  Micrococcus        602 

Vuillemin — Association  of  Amylomyces  and  a  Micrococcus        602 

?'ohulze,  C. — Alinit 603 

Wille — Gas  Vacuoles  in  Thiothrix        603 

Petit  et  Borne — Handbook  of  Bacteriology  and  Pathology      603 

Hefferan,  Mary — Unusual  Bacterial  Grouping         689 

Leger — Intestinal  Bacteria  of  Chironomus  Larvae       690 

Gruber — Bacillus  Lacto-rubifaciens      6SiO 


CONTENTS. 


XXXlll 


Middleton,  &  Potter — Black  Dry-rot  in  Swedes 

De  Lille  &  Jullien — Neiv  Syphilis  Bacillus 

Joseph,  Max,  &  Piorkowski — Bacilli  in  Syphilitic  Semen 

Gosio — Transmissibility  of  Plague  to  Bats 

Klein,  E. — Shell-fish  and  Typhoid 

Oaleotti  &  Zardo — Pathogenic  Bacillus  in  Cockles  .. 
Gordon,  M.  H. — Streptococcus  of  Scarlet  Fever    .. 

„  „  Bacteriology  of  Scarlatina 

Pkglione,  V. — Bacteria  and  Hemp        

Klein,  A. — Bacteriology  of  Human  Fences     .. 

I.ksage — Bacillus  Col i  in  Dysentery        

Klein,  E.,  &  A.  C.  Houston—  Cereal  Products  and  Bacteria 
Martin,  S. — Antagonism  of  the  Soil  to  the  Bacillus  typhosus 
Chester,  F.  D. — Manual  of  Determinative  Bacteriology 
Bibliography 


69] 
691 

692 
692 
692 
CDS 
694 
694 
695 
695 
696 
696 
696 
697 
697 


December  17th,  1902 


XXXIV  CONTEXTS. 


MICEOSCOPY. 

A.    Instruments,  Accessories,  &c. 

(1)  Stands. 

PAGE 

Nelson,  E.  M. — Holtzapffel's  Microscope  (Figs.  1(5  and  17)       19 

Beck's  Imperial  Microscope  (Fig.  18) ..      ..  95 

Baker's  Portable  Diagnostic  Microscope  (Fig.  19)       98 

Seibert's  Travelling  Microscope  (Figs.  20  and  21)       98 

„        New  Dissection  M icroscope  (Fig.  22)      101 

„        Large  Model  Microscope,  No.  3       101 

„        Laboratory  Microscope  (Fig.  23) 101 

Koss'  New  Microscope  (Figs.  36-39)        231 

Ashe's  Two-speed  Fine  Adjustments  (Figs.  40-42)       232 

Seibert's  Mineralogical  Stand  (Fig.  -43)        234 

Bibliography     236 

Nelson,  E.  M. —  WaddeVs  Erecting  Microscope 291 

„          „          Two  Early  Microscopes  by  Andrew  Boss  ?  (Figs.  05  and  66)         ..  351 

Pillischer's  "Lenticular  Microscope  "  (Fig.  67) 353 

Seibert's  Large  Model  Microscope  No.  2  (Fig.  68)      354 

Watson's  New  "  Holos  Fram  "  Microscope  (Fig.  69) 354 

„         New  Two-Speed  Fine  Adjustment  (Fig.  70) 354 

Beck's  Micrometer  Microscope  (Fig.  71)         357 

Albrecht's  Microscope  for  Measuring  Plant-growth  (Fig.  72) 358 

Bye's  Beading  Microscope  (Fig.  73)       358 

„      Short  Table-Cathetometer  (Fig.  74) 359 

Nelson.  E.  M. — An  Old  Backwork  Draw-tube      360 

Zeiss'  Stand  for  Brain  Sections  (Fig.  95)      483 

Czapski's  Cornea-Microscope  (Fig.  96) 4S4 

Zeiss'    Preparation  Stand  and  Drawing  Apparatus  for    Weak  Magnifications 

(Fig.  97)          485 

Hilger,  A. — Photo-measuring  Micrometer  (Fig.  98) ..  486 

Zeiss'  Smaller  Mechanical  Stage  (Fig.  110) 605 

Greenough's  Binocular  (Fig.  Ill)         ..  607 

Microscope  Adjustment  (Fig.  112)         607 

Males-Watson  Two-speed  Fine  Adjuxtment  (Figs.  113  and  114)     ..      ..  609 

Bekger's  Fine  Adjustment  (Fig.  115) 610 

Ztiss'  Small  Mineralogical  Stand  (Fig.  116) 610 

„      Small  Model  Polarising  Microscope  (Fig.  117) ..  613 

Messter's  Attachable  Mechanical  Stage         613 

Huntingdon's  Tilting-stage  for  Holding  and  Adjusting  Minerals  (Fig.  118)  ..      ..  613 

Swift's  "iratoft"  Fine  Adjustment  (Fig.  129) 60S 

Bibliography 698 

(2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives. 

Nelson,  E.  M. —  The  First  English  Achromatic  Objective  (Fig.  15) 10 

4dee,  A.  A. — Hastings  Apochromat       ..      ..      236 

Oearness,  J. — Magnifiers        237 

Bibliography 237 

Beck-Steinheil  Orthosligmats  (Fig.  75)       ..  360 

Leitz'  Spherically,  Chromatically,  and  Astigmatically  corrected  Objective  (Fig.  76)  360 

Zeiss'  Objectives          487 

Murbach,  L. —  Demonstration  Eije-piece  (Fig.  99)        487 

Schaffner,  J.  H. — Oculars  for  General  Laboratory  Work 487 

BlDLIOGRAPHY 487 


CONTENTS.  XXXV 

PAGE 

Zeiss'  A*  Objective  (Fig.  119) 614 

„     Assorted  Pairs  of  Objectives  for  Binocular  Microscopes 614 

„     Orthomorphic  Eye-piece  ..      615 

Bebger's  Stereoscopic  Loups 698 

Zeiss'  Improved  Algascope        699 

(3)  Illuminating-  and  other  Apparatus. 

Seibeet's  New  Projection  Microscope  ivith  Electric  Light  (Fig.  24) 103 

Meyer's  New  Microscope  Lamp  (Fig.  25)      104 

Seibeet's  Large  Polarising  Apparatus  (Figs.  26  and  27)           104 

Abbe  Drawing  Camera  (Fig.  28) 105 

Ross'  Lens  for  Dark-  Ground  Illumination 237 

Albrecht's  Objective-Carriers  (Figs.  44  and  45)          237 

Tammes,  T—  MicroscopisVs  Electrical sLamp  (Fig.  46)        239 

Leggett,  F.  W. — Glass-rod  Substage  (Fig.  47) 240 

Winkel's  Drawing  Apparatus  for  Weak  Magnifications  (Fig.  77) 361 

Moll's  Apparatus  for  the  Adjustment  of  a  Projection  Microscope  (Figs.  78  and  79)  362 

Giltsch's  Drawing  Stand  (Fig.  100) 48S 

Angus,  H.  F.—The  Apertometer  and  its  Use  (Fig.  101)      488 

Erssee,  T.  T).— Acetylene  Gas  for  the  Lantern      490 

Zeiss'  Centring  Apparatus  for   Microscope    Objectives   when   used  as  Condensers 

(Fig.  120)       615 

Cole,  A.  H. — Solar  Projection  Apparatus  and  its  Adjustment 615 

Zeiss'  Epidiascope  (Figs.  130-132)         699 

Cole,  A.  H. — Projection   Microscopes   using  Electric   Arc  or    Oxyhydrogen   Light 

(Fig.  133)        702 

Ives,  F.  E.— Method  of  Measuring  Objects  in  the  Microscope  (Fig.  134) 704 

Reighard.  J.— Form  of  Vertical  Camera  and  its  Uses  (Figs.  135-139) 705 

1(4)  Photomicrography. 

Merrett,  W.  H. — Report  of  a  Demonstration  of  the  Methods  used  in  the  Photo- 
micrography of  Iron  and  Steel  (Figs.  1  and  2,  and  Plates  I.  and  II.)    . .      . .  1 

Girdwood,  G.  P.— On  Slereomicrography  (Fig.  14) 12 

Selbert's  Apparatus  for  Vertical  Photomicrography  (Fig.  29)          106 

Dennis,  D.  W. — Photomicrography         ' 240 

Brasseur  &  Sampolo — A\Notable  Advance  in  Colour  Photography  (Figs.  48-50)  ..  241 

Dennis'  High-power  Photomicrography  (Fig.  51)         242 

Richardson,  F.  L. — Colour  Photomicrography  (Figs.  52-54)     ..      .. 243 

Stringer's  Focussing  Attachments  to  Photomicrographic  Cameras  (Fig.  55)    ..      ..  246 
Forgan,  W. — Simple  Means  of  Producing  Microphotographs   ivith   an   ordinary 

Camera 246 

Bibliography 247 

Richards  &  Archibald — Study    of  Growing   Crystals   by  Instantaneous    Photo- 
micrography (Fig.  80) 364 

Duncan,  F.  M.—Stereo-Photomi orography  (Figs.  81  and  82) 366 

Nelson,  E.  M. — Panoramic  View  Camera 367 

Foot,  Katharine,  &  Ella  C.  Strobell — New  Method  of  Focussing  in  Photo- 
micrography       490 

Ives,  F.  E.— Photomicrographic  Device  (Fig.  102)       491 

Golden,  Katherine  E. — Photomicrography  with  Simple  Apparatus  (Fig.  103)    ..  492 

Forgan,  W. — Photomicrographs  on  Gelatino-bromide  Films       493 

Ives,  F.  ~E.— Photograph  of  Pleurosigma  angulatum  (Plate  XII.) 529 

Observing  Prism  for  Photomicrography  (Fig.  121) 616 

Duncan's  Photomicrography 616 

Bibliography 709 

(5)  Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Nelson,  E.  M.— A  Bibliography  of  Works  (dated  not  later  than  1700)  dealing  with 

the  Microscope  and  other  Optical  Subjects 20 

„         New  Methods  in  Microscope  Work  (Figs.  34  and  35)      142 


XXXvi  CONTENTS. 

AGE 

Bibliography     .. 247 

Kheinbeeg,  J. — The  Black  and  White  Dot  Phenomenon  (Figs.  83-88) 367 

Wood,  ft.  W. — Prisms  and  Plates  for  showing  Dichromatism 493 

Andrews,  W. — Stopping-down  the  L^ns  of  the  Human  Eye       494 

Bibliography     , 494,017,709 


(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Langley,  S.  P.—  The  New  Spectrum 247 

Kohler,  A.—  Tape  Measure  for  Adjustment  of  Projection  Oculars 248 

Haas,  G.  C.  F. — Some  Evidences  of  Unscientific  Conservatism  in  the  Construction  248 

of  Microscopes         

Stokes,  W.  Balfour — Images  of  Diatom  Structure 248 

Kheinberg,  J. — Double-Image  Discs  and  Complementary  Interference  Colours       ..  249 

Holder  for  Metallurgical  Work  (Fig.  104) 494 

Merlin,  A.  A. — Certain  Minute  Structure  observed  in  some  Forms  of  Triceratium  495 

Thompson,  Silvanus — Opto-Technics 4;)5 

Zeiss'  Crystal  Films  and  Plates  for  Double  Befraction        617 

Chambers  &  Inskeep's  Improved  Ophthalmometer  (Figs.  140-143) 709 

Borelli,  Interesting  Extracts  from         712 


B.  Technique. 

(1)    Collecting'  Objects,  including  Culture  Processes. 

Slupski,  R. — Does  Anthrax  form  Spores  under  Anaerobic  Conditions?  (Fig.  30)    ..  107 

Cook,  M.  T. — Method  for  Bearing  Amcebse 107 

Will,  H. —  Yeast-water  for  Biological  Analysis 107 

Schouten,  S.  L. — Demonstration  of  Enzymes        108 

Boekhout,  F.  W.  J.,  &  Vries  H.  Ott  de — Cultivation  Medium  for  Cheese  Bacteria  108 

Greig-Smith,  R. — Cultivation  of  Bhizobium  Leguminosarum 108 

Vallet,  G. — New  Method  for  Isolating  the  Typhoid  Bacillus  from  Water      ..      ..  249 

Kedrowski,  W.  J. —  Cultivation  of  the  Leprosy  Bacillus     249 

Cambier,  R. — Medium  for  Isolating  Bacillus  Typhosus  in  presence  of  Bacillus  coli 

communis         250 

Turro,  R. — Apparatus  for  Anaerobic  Cultures  (Figs.  56  and  57)      250 

Bombicci— Apparatus  Jor  Cultivating  Anaerobes  (Fig.  58) 251 

Hammerl — Cultivation  of  Anaerobic  Bacteria     370 

Moore,  A. — Isolation  of  the  Typhoid  Bacillus      371 

Drigalski,  V.,  &  H.  Conradi — Medium  for  Isolating  Typhoid  Bacilli 371 

Lindner,  P. — Adhesion  Cultures 372 

Grijnbaum,  A.  S.,  &  E.  H.  Hume — Media  for  Distinguishing  B.  coli,  B.  typhosus, 

and  related  Species         496 

Castellani,  A. — Method  for  the  Detection  of  the  Typhoid  Bacillus  in  the  Blood    . .  496 

Gabritschewsky,  G. — Poly  thermostats         496 

Karop,  G.  C. — Hanging-drop  Cultivation     496 

Omelianski,  W. — Simple    Apparatus  for    Cultivating    Anaerobes    in    Test-tubes 

(Fig.  105)        497 

Weissbein,  S. — Method  for  Examining  Nutrient  Media      . .  49S 

Robin,  A. — Flask  for  Storing  Culture  Media  (Fig.  T22)      617 

Debrand,  L. — New  Method  of  Cultivating  Tetanus  Bacillus     ..      .. 618 

Omelianski,  W. — Cultivation  of  Nitrite-formers  on  Paper  Disks       618 

Whipple,  G.  C. — Physical  Properties  of  Gelatin,  in  reference  to  its  use  in  Culture 

Media       713 

Harrison,  F.  C. — Method  of  Cultivating  Anaerobic  Bacteria  (Figs.  144  and  145) . .  713 

Dorset — Eggs  as  a  Medium  for  the  Cultivation  of  Bacillus  tuberculosis 714 

Webb,  T.  L. — Apparatus  for  Bemoving  Pieces  of  Tissue  for  Microscopical  Exami- 
nation         714 


CONTENTS.  XXXvii 

(2)  Preparing1  Objects. 

PAGE 

Braddon,  W.  L. — Bandy  Method  of  Preparing  Slides  and  Slips  for  fairing  Blood- 
films ". '           ..  108 

Diederichs,  K. — Formal  as  a  Preservative  and  Fixative 109 

Heim,  L. — Demonstration  of  Cholera  Vibrios         110 

Argutinsky,  P. — Demonstrating  the  Malaria  Parasite       ..  251 

Deetjen  &  others — Examining  Blood- plates       252 

Wendt,  G.  yon — Method  of  Maliing  Microscopical  Preparations  for  Photographic 

Purposes 253 

Bradford,  J.  K.,  &  H.  Gr.  Plimmer — Fixing  and  Staining  Trypanosoma               ..  372 

Lenoble  &  Dominici — Method  for  Fixing  Blood-Preparations 372 

Dominici — Method  for  Fixing  and  Staining  Haematopoietic  Tissue 372 

Soulier,  A.—  Fixation  of  Polychxta  Embryos      ..  373 

Mack,  H.  yon — Examining  Nervous  System  of  Sipunculus  nudus     373 

Diederichs,  K. — Preparation  of  Radul 83       ..              374 

Hegler,  R. — Fixing  and  Staining  Phycochromacese ..              ..  374 

Enriques,  P. — Preparing  Liver  of  Mollusca 375 

Wendt,  G.  yon — Simple  Method  of  Fixing  Bacteria  to  the  Slide  or  Cover-slip  with- 
out Drying       498 

Peters,  A.  W  —  Methods  for  Use  in  the  Study  of  Infusoria  (Figs.  123  and  124)    ..  619 

Cross,  M.  I.— Preparation  of  Metal  Specimens  for  the  Microscope     . .      ....      ..  621 

Bosenberger,  H.  G. — Simple  Method  of  Preparing  Bone  Sections            714 

Hardesty,  Irying — Neurological  Technique 715 

(3)  ^Cutting,  including  Imbedding -and  Microtomes. 

Noll,  A. — New  Ether  Freezing  Apparatus  for  the  Microtome  (Fig.  31) Ill 

Steen,  R.  H. — Electrothermal  Paraffin  Bath         Ill 

Regaed,  Cl.,  &  Pi.  Fouilliand — Paraffin  Bath  heated  by  Electricity       112 

Heidenhain,  M. — Carbon  Bisulphide  in  Paraffin  Imbedding ..  112 

Kolster,  R. — Paraffin  Imbedding  in  Vacuo 112 

Arndt,  G. — Saiv  for  maliing  Microscopic  Preparations  of  Hard  Objects           .      ..  112 

Standing's  Imbedding  Microtome  (Fig.  89) 375 

Slide-Brake  of  Jung's  Microtome  (Figs.  90  and  91) 375 

Meissner,  P. — Apparatus  for  Imbedding  in  Paraffin 377 

Wright,  J.  H. — Rapid  Method    of  Making   Permanent    Preparations  of   Frozen 

Sections 377 

Burkholder,  J.iF. — Simple  Method  for  making  Bone  Sections 498 

Wittmack,  L.,  &  J.  Buchwald — Improved  Method  of  Sectioning  Carbonised  Wood  499 

Born  &  Peter's  Orientation  Plate 621 

Streeter,  E.  C. — Marble  Blocks  for  Celloidin  Tissues        715 

Bibliography 715 

(4)  Staining  and  Injecting. 

Reuter,  K. — Preparation  of  Pure  Romanoicsly-Nocht  Stain     112 

Morse,  R.  L. — Kresylecht  Violet 112 

Michaelis,  L. — New  Fat-staining  Pigment    ..      112 

Mangin,  L. — Staining  Woody  Tissue     ..      ..      113 

Hoffmeister,  C. — Demonstration  of  the  Cell-nucleus  of  Saccharomyces" 113 

Minervini,  R. — Modifications  of  WeigerVs  Method  of  Staining  Elastic  Tissue        ..  113 

Bettmann — Neutral' Red  for  Staining  Nucleated  Red  Blood-Corpuscles 114 

Regaud,  C.  0. — Demonstrating   the  Seminal   Tubules-    of  the  Rat  by   means  of 

RenauVs  Fluid        114 

Spdler,  A. — New  Method  for  Staining  en  masse 114 

Kodis,  T. — New  Methods  for  Staining  Nervous  Tissue         114 

Amberg,  S. — Staining  Dysenteric  Amoebie      254 

Meyer,  S. — Iron  Impregnation  of  Nerve-Fibr ill se       254 

Shinkishi  Hatai — Staining  Nerve-Fibrilbe  of  Neurones  in  Electric  Lobes      ..      ..  254 

Qeensel,  U. — New  Method  of  Examining  Sputum       2.14 

Diederichs,  K. — Picro-carmin  Solutions       255 

Gdrwitsch,  A. — Rapid  Method  of  Iron-Eaimatoxylin  Staining         256 


x'XXVlll  CONTENTS. 

1'A.GE 

Harris,  H.  F. — New  Method  of  Staining  Elastic  Tissue 256 

Nencki,  L.,  &  T.  Podczaski — Differential  Staining  for    Tubercle   and   Smegma 

Bacilli      256 

Kobertson,  W.  F. — Platinum  Method  for  the  Central  Nervous  System      256 

Pappenheim,  A. — New  Triple  Stain       257 

Rabiger — Staining  the  Capsule  of  Anthrax ..      ..  257 

Giemsa,  G. — Staining  Malaria  Parasites       378 

Slonaker,  J.  R. — Method  for  Washing,  Staining,  and  Dehydrating  Small  Specimens  378 

Plato,  J.,  &  H.  Guth — Intra  vitam  Staining  of  Fungi     37S 

Spuler,  A. — New  Method  for  Staining  in  Bull;     378 

Gabritschewsky,   G. — Influence   of   High    Temperatures   on   the   Stainability   of 

Bacteria 499 

Anglade,  D.,  &  C.  Morel — New  Method  of  Staining  Neuroglia        499 

Kadyi — Staining  the  Grey  Matter  of  Spinal  Cord  after  Mordanting  with  Metallic 

Salts 500 

Wynx,  W.  H. — Staining  the  Medullary  Sheath  of  Nerve-Fibres        500 

Paton,  S. — Staining  the  Neuro-Fibrils  in  the  Ganglion- Cells  of  the  Cerebral  Cortex  500 
Robertson,  W.  F.,  &  J.  H.  Macdonald — Methods  of  rendering  Golgi-Sublimate 

Preparations  permanent  by  Platinum  Substitution 501 

Kolster,  R. — Acid-fuchsin  Staining  for  Degenerated  Nerve-Fibres 501 

Kendall,  A.  J. — New  Method  of  Flagelhx-Staining 502 

Goldhoun,  L.  B. — Staining  Mast-Cells  and  the  Chromatin  of  Malaria  Parasites . .  502 

Ciechanowski,  St. — Staining  Biliary  Canaliculi 622 

Best — Glycogen  Staining 622 

Marino — Rapid  Method  of  Staining  the  Morphotic •Elements  of  Blood     715 

Osborn,  H.  L. — Staining  Axis-Cylinders  of  Fresh  Spinal  Cord         715 

Loewenthal,  N. — New  Alcoholic  Carmin  Solution      715 

Kuntze,  W. — Flagella  Staining      716 

Rawitz,  B. — Staining  Sections  of  Spinal  Cord  with  Coerulein  S        717 

„        „        Simplified  Method  of  Staining  w ith  Polychrome  Methylen- Blue  ..      ..  Ill 

Kopsch,  F. — Staining  the  Reticulum  of  Spinal  Ganglion-cells 717 

Bibliography 717 

(5)  Mounting-,  including-  Slides,  Preservative  Fluids,  &c. 

London,  E.  S. — Examination  of  Hairs  for  Medico-legal  Purposes 115 

Pranter,  V. — Substitute  for  Cover-slips       115 

Marpmann,  G. — Preparation  and  Preservation  of  Urinary  Sediment      115 

Rousselet,  C.  F. — Preserving  and  Mounting  Rotif era  378 

Schurhoft — Sodium  Silicate  as  a  Mounting  Medium  for  Microscopical  Preparations  622 

Rohnstein,  R. — Simple  Method  for  Preserving  Urinary  and  other  Deposits    ..      ..  622 

Perkins,  H.  F. — Double  Mounting  for  Whole  Objects 717 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Wesenberg,  G. — Dropper  for  Sterile  Fluids  (Fig.  32)       116 

Dodge,  O.  W. — Immersion  Oil  in  Collapsible  Tubes 116 

Vriens,  J.  G.  C. — Raising  the  Melting-point  of  Gelatin  by  means  of  Formalin      ..  117 

Caliper  Gauge  (Fig.  33) 117 

Laveran,  A.,  &  F.  Mesnil — Methods  for  Examining  Trypanosoma  Lewisi    ..      ..  118 

Gage's  '  The  Microscope ' 118 

Marpmann,  G. — Microchemical  Reactions  of  Wood  affected  with  Dry  Rot       ..      ..  118 

Apathy's  (S.)  Microtechnique  of  Animal  Morphology 257 

Marpmann,  G. — Distinguishing  between  Pleurosigma  angulatum  and  balticum  under 

Low  Powers 257 

Schneider,  G. — Gelatin  as  a  Substitute  for  Glass       ..  257 

Forti,   A. — Use  of   Formaldehyde  for  Preventing  Liquefaction  in  Glycerin-jelly 

Moitnts      258 

Marpmann,  G. — New  Fluid  Medium  for  Preserving  Zoological  Objects 258 

Leshure — Modification  of  Cornet's  Forceps 258 

Barbagallo — Preserving  Intestinal  Worms ••       ••  258 

Meek,  S.  E. — Mounting  Fish  for  Museums _• 258 

Inghilleri,  F. — New  Injection  Syringe  for  Bacteriological  Purposes  (Fig.  59)      ..  259 

Holzapfel,  K. — Stand  for  Holding  Slides  (Figs.  60  and  61)      259 


CONTENTS.  XXX  ix 

PAGE 

Davis,  T.  J. — New  Cover-glass  Forceps  (Figs.  62  and  Go) 260 

Preisz,  H. — Practical  Filtering  Apparatus  (Fig.  64) ..  260 

Heycock  &  Neville — Results  of  Chilling  Copper-Tin  Alloys 261 

Campbell,  W. — Crystallisation  produced  in  Solid  Metal  by  Pressure       261 

Stead,  J.  E. — Copper-Iron  Alloys 261 

Ewing  &  Rosenhain — Crystalline  Structure  of  Metals       •.  262 

Bibliography      263 

Halt,  H. — Method  of  Preserving  Museum  Specimens 379 

Flint,  J.  M. — Method  for  Demonstrating  the  Framework  of  Organs        379 

Epstein,  St.— Burette  for  Removing  Definite  Quantities  of  Sterile  Fluids  (Fi^.  92)  880 

Hill,  A.  W. — "Hanging  Block"  Preparation  for  observing  developing  Bacteria    ..  380 

Hubbert,  W.  R. — Ink  for  Writing  on  Glass 381 

Ersser's  New  Reversible  Live-box  (Fig.  93) 381 

Nicolle.  M.,  &  Adil-Bey — Cattle  Plague ..  381 

Cohn—  Trocar  for  the  Aseptic  Collection  of  Portions  of  Tumours  (Fig.  94)      ..       ..  383 

Arnold,  J.  O. — Properties  of  Steel  Castings         382 

Campbell,  "VV. — Alloys  of  Copper  and  Tin ..      ..  383 

Bibliography , 383 

Harris,  N.  M. — Improved  Method,  of  making  Collodion  Sacs 502 

Jones,  L. — Method  of  Cleaning  Slides 503 

Tiessen,  F.— Bottle  for  Cedar-Wood  Oil  (Fig.  106) 503 

Schottmuller,  H. — Germ-  and  Water-tight  Stopper  for  Flasks  (Figs.  107-109)  ..  503 

Andrews,  T. — Micro-Crystalline  Structure  of  Platinum      5114 

Bibliography 505 

Micrometer  Gauge  (Fig.  125)        622 

Lee  &  Henneguy's  Histological  Technique ..  623 

W all's  Dictionary  of  Photography ..      ..  623 

Rosenhain,  W. — Re-crystallisation  of  Platinum . .       . .  623 

Andrews,  T.  &  C.  K. — Microscopic  Effects  of  Stress  on  Platinum      624 

Bibliography 624 

Thiele,  R. — New  Counting  Apparatus  for  Plate  Cultures  ('Fig.  146)      718 

Coransson,  K.  F.—  Effect  of  Reheating  upon  Overheated  Steel .718 

Job,  R.,  &  others — Steel  Rails:  Relation  between  their  Structure  and  Durability  718 

Humfrey,  J.  C.  W.— Effects  of  Strain  on  the  Crystalline  Structure  of  Lead  ..      ..  719 

Stead,  J.  E. — Structure  of  Copper- Antimony  Alloys 720 

Bibliography . .       .  720 


CONTENTS. 


PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE  SOCIETY. 


I'AGt 


Meeting,  December  18,  1901 ll!' 

Anniversary  Meeting.  January  15,  1 90 2  ..  "2 

Meeting,  February  19,  1902 ••  -'^ 


Marcli  19 
April  16 
May  21 
June  18 
October  15 
November  19 


265 

384 
388 
506 
721 
724 


Index  of  New  Biological  Terms       730 

General  Index  to  Volume 731 


JOUKNAL 

*  OF    THE 

ROYAL  MICROSCOPICAL  SOCIETY. 

FEBRUARY  1902. 


TRANSACTIONS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


I. — Report  of  a  Demonstration  of  the  Methods  used  in  the 
Photomicrography  of  Iron  and  Steel. 

By  William  H.  Merrett,  Assoc.  E.S.M.,  F.C.S. 

(Bead  March  20th,  1901.) 
Plates  I.  and  II. 

The  photomicrography,  or,  as  it  is  now  more  frequently  termed,  the 
"  metallography  "  of  iron  and  steel,  has  of  late  years  received  much 
attention  from  eminent  engineers  and  metallurgists ;  for  it  is  possible 
by  the  aid  of  the  Microscope  not  only  to  determine  the  amount  of 
carbon  in  the  metal,  but  also  to  ascertain  the  exact  thermal  treat- 
ment it  has  received  during  its  manufacture. 

It  appears  that  the  metallography  of  iron  and  steel  has  not  been 
developed  from  petrography,  but  is  a  natural  extension  of  the  study 
of  meteoric  irons.  Dr.  Sorby,  who  was  one  of  the  first  to  work 
on  this  subject,  established  a  method  of  examining  opaque  bodies 
under  the  highest  powers  of  the  Microscope,  and  applied  this  method 
to  different  products  in  the  metallurgy  of  iron.  Professors  Marten 
and  Wedding  were  probably  the  first  to  systematically  examine  iron 
and  steel  under  the  Microscope.  Recently  M.  Osmond,  of  Paris,  has 
done  much  to  develop  the  science  of  metallography,  and  has  given  us 
methods  by  which  reliable  results  may  be  rapidly  obtained.  During 
the  past  few  years  much  advance  has  been  made  in  the  subject,  and 
already  many  laboratories  in  steel-works  are  fitted  with  photo- 
micrographic  apparatus. 

Although  it  is  possible,  by  the  aid  of  the  Microscope,  to  learn 
much  about  the  chemical  composition  of  the  metal  under  examination, 
it  is  nevertheless  not  for  this  purpose  that  the  Microscope  is  especially 
useful.  Many  samples  of  steel,  having  identical  chemical  compo- 
sitions, vary  enormously  in  mechanical  properties ;  and  it  is  by  the 

Feb.  10th,  190  >  b 


2  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

aid  of  the  Microscope  that  the  causes  of  these  variations  may  be 
explained.  Metallography  is  intended  to  augment,  rather  than  sup- 
plant chemical  analysis.  The  Microsco'pe  enables  us  to  ascertain 
much  about  the  mechanical  and  thermal  treatment  the  metal  has  re- 
ceived, which  in  commerce  is  often  of  the  utmost  importance. 

It  is  well  known  that  specimens  of  both  steel  and  iron,  produced 
under  apparently  the  same  conditions,  often  display  totally  different 
properties.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  steel,  which,  on  account 
of  its  more  complex  character,  is  easily  affected  by  small  alterations 
in  the  conditions  of  its  manufacture. 

The  causes  of  the  variation  in  properties  of  similarly  produced 
samples  of  metal  may  often  be  explained  by  the  aid  of  the  Micro- 
scope, when  all  other  methods  of  investigation  have  failed. 

To  be  able  to  determine  the  quality  of  the  quenching  of  a  steel 
is  of  vital  importance,  especially  in  the  case  of  large  masses  of  metal, 
e.g.  the  ingots  used  in  the  manufacture  of  ordnance.  If  a  gun-tube 
is  quenched  below  its  critical  point,  it  will  be  soft,  and  consequently 
very  unsafe  for  firing  purposes,  on  account  of  its  low  elastic  limit. 
The  Microscope  would,  however,  be  invaluable  in  such  circumstances, 
as  it  would  enable  one  to  say  definitely  whether  the  metal  had  been 
properly  quenched  and  tempered  or  not. 

For  the  engineer,  the  Microscope  is  especially  useful  in  deter- 
mining the  influence  exerted  by  thermal  treatment  on  varieties  of 
steel  of  different  composition.  It  is  also  useful  for  detecting  slag 
patches,  defective  welds,  "  cold  rolling  "  effects,  minute  blow-holes, 
cracks,  flaws,  and  allotropic  changes  in  the  metal. 

It  will,  perhaps,  be  as  well  at  this  period  to  give  a  short  account 
of  the  constitution  of  iron  and  steel,  and  also  to  show  the  effect  of 
altering  their  thermal  treatment  during  manufacture. 

Steel  is  composed  of  iron,  which  may  contain  from  0  •  05  to  2 
per  cent,  of  carbon,  together  with  other  impurities,  such  as  man- 
ganese, sulphur,  phosphorus,  silicon,  and  arsenic.  As  the  presence 
of  these  impurities  complicates  the  subject  considerably,  it  will  be 
better  in  this  demonstration  to  neglect  their  influence  altogether. 
Carbon-frae  iron  is  most  difficult  to  obtain,  and  can  only  be  prepared 
by  depositing  it  electrically,  or  by  reducing  ferric  oxide  by  alu- 
minium. 

Cast  iron  contains  from  2  to  4  •  5  per  cent,  of  carbon,  and  may  be 
either  white,  mottled,  or  grey,  according  to  the  state  in  which  the 
carbon  is  present ;  this  state  is  modified  by  the  thermal  treatment 
the  iron  has  received  during  its  manufacture.  Grey  iron  under 
certain  conditions  may  be  made  to  absorb  as  much  as  G  per  cent, 
of  carbon. 

In  steel  the  whole  of  the  carbon  is  combined  with  a  portion  of  the 
iron,  forming  the  iron  carbide  FeaC.  This  Fe3C  contains  by  weight 
about  7  per  cent,  of  carbon.  The  carbide  in  a  slowly  cooled  steel  is 
distributed  throughout  the  balance  of  the  iron. 


Photomicrography  of  Iron  and  Steel.     By  W.  H.  Merrett.      \\ 

Steel  may  therefore  be  considered  as  a  mixture  or  an  alloy  of  iron 
and  iron  carbide  (Fe3C),  and  it  has  been  shown  in  the  Reports  of 
the  Alloys  Research  Committee  to  the  Institution  of  Mechanical 
Engineers*  that  if  studied  from  this  standpoint,  the  formation  of  its 
structures  will  be  found  to  follow  the  laws  which  govern  the  forma- 
tion of  frozen  saline  solutions. 

In  order  to  understand  the  analogy  between  frozen  saline  solu- 
tions and  steel,  it  will  be  necessary  to  refer  to  the  work  of  Guthrie  in 
1876:— 

It  is  well  known  that  by  dissolving  common  salt  (sodium 
chloride)  in  water,  the  freezing-point  of  the  water  is  lowered.  By 
increasing  the  amount  of  salt  the  freezing-point  of  the  resulting 
mixture  is,  at  first,  correspondingly  lowered,  until  it  contains  a  cer- 
tain percentage  of  salt.  The  lowest  possible  freezing-point  of  a 
solution  of  sodium  chloride  in  water  is  then  reached,  and  further 
addition  of  salt  will  gradually  raise  the  freezing-point  of  the  brine. 
Dr.  Guthrie  found  that  the  mixture  which  has  the  lowest  freezing 
point  contains  about  23*50  per  cent,  of  salt;  and  as  the  hydrate 
containing  10  molecules  of  water  would  require  24  ■  50  per  cent,  of 
salt,  Dr.  Guthrie  inferred  that  the  solution  of  lowest  freezing-point 
was  a  hydrate  of  the  formula  NaCl  +10  H20.  He  proposed  for 
it,  and  for  all  similar  mixtures,  i.e.  for  all  saline  solutions  of  lowest 
freezing-points,  the  name  of  cryohydrate  or  eutectic,  by  which  he 
meant  to  imply  that  they  can  only  exist  in  the  solid  state  at  a  low 
temperature.  AVhat  actually  takes  place  in  the  freezing  of  solutions 
of  salt  and  water  may,  perhaps,  be  better  explained  by  the  aid  of  a 
diagram.!  Fig.  1  shows  how  a  thermometer,  plunged  in  the  solu- 
tion, falls  as  the  solution  cools  down.  The  dots  along  the  lines  are 
points  of  retardation  in  the  fall  of  the  mercurial  column  ;  it  is  seen 
that  in  most  cases  there  are  two  points  for  each  stage  of  concentra- 
tion. 

The  diagram  consists  of  two  branches,  the  one  marked  "  ice,"  and 
the  other  "  salt."  It  will  be  best  explained  by  taking  two  solutions 
containing  two  definite  amounts  of  salt  on  either  side  of  the  point  B 
where  the  branches  meet.  If,  for  instance,  a  thermometer  be  placed 
in  a  solution  of  10  per  cent,  of  salt  in  water  which  is  being  slowly 
cooled  down  by  means  of  an  external  freezing  mixture,  the  mercury 
will  stop  in  its  fall  at  about  —  8°  C.  or  18°  F. ;  this  is  due  to  the 
separation  of  pure  ice.  This  gives  the  point  d  on  the  branch  A  B. 
The  mercury  then  continues  to  fall  until  the  temperature  of  —  22°  C. 
or  —  8°  F.  is  reached,  and  the  cryohydrate  or  eutectic  of  ice  and  salt 
solidifies.  This  eutectic  consists  of  alternate  laminae  of  ice  and  salt 
in  juxtaposition,  and  is  merely  a  mechanical  mixture,  not  a  chemical 

*  See  4th  and  5th  Reports  of  the  Alloys  Research  Committee  to  the  Institution 
of  Mechanical  Engineers. 

t  Reproduced  from  Sir  W.  C.  Roberts- Austen's  Reports  to  the  Alloys  Research 
Committee,  by  permission  of  the  Council  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 

B    2 


4  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

compound.  As  the  degree  of  concentration  of  salt  in  the  original 
solution  increases,  the  initial  freezing-point  on  the  branch  A  B  will 
be  lower  and  lower,  while  the  second  freezing-point  always  remains 
constant  at  -22°  C.  or  -8°F. ;  and  when  the  solution  contains 
23  *  5  per  cent,  of  salt,  both  freezing-points  coincide  in  the  point  B  at 
-22°  Cor  -8°F. 

A  frozen  solution  of  salt  in  water  containing  less  salt  than  that 
necessary  to  form  the"  eutectic,  will  therefore  bo  made  up  of  ice  sur- 
rounded by  eutectic,  while  one  containing  more  salt  than  that  necessary 
to  form  the  eutectic  will  be  made  up  of  crystals  of  salt  surrounded  by 
eutectic.  If  one  of  these  mixtures  of  ice  and  eutectic,  or  salt  and 
eutectic,  be  suitably  prepared  and  examined  under  the  Microscope  it 
will  be  found  that,  whilst  the  ice  or  salt  crystals  are  homogeneous, 


Freezing-point  Curves 
of  solution  of  Common  Salt  in  Water. 


Per 
Cent.  0 


1 

5 

1 

■a 
t 

5. 


£ 


,   (Common 
30  Salt 


the  cryohydrate  or  eutectic  is  made  up  of  a  mechanical  mixture  of 
intimately  mixed  ice  and  salt  laminae  similar  to  that  shown  in  plate  I. 
fig.  3,  which  is  mainly  an  eutectic  of  iron  and  iron  carbide. 

It  will  now  be  shown  how  closely  structures  obtained  with  frozen 
masses  of  ice  and  salt  are  related  to  those  obtained  with  alloys  of  iron 
and  iron  carbide. 

It  will  hardly  be  possible  on  the  present  occasion  to  do  more  than 
roughly  consider  the  laws  controlling  the  formation  of  the  structures 
of  pure  iron,  steel,  and  white  iron.  The  case  of  grey  and  mottled 
irons  is  much  more  complicated,  and  will  have  to  be  left  for  the  present. 

Fig.  2  is  an  equilibrium  curve,  by  Sir  W.  Koberts -Austen,  of 
the  carbon-iron  series,  and  was  obtained  in  a  similar  manner  to  the 
ice-salt  curve,  although,  of  course,  a  pyrometer  had  to  be  substituted 


Photomicroyraphy  of  Iron  and  Steel.     By  W.  H.  Merrett. 


5 


for  the  thermometer  used  in  the  Guthrie  experiments,  on  account  of 
the  high  temperatures  at  which  the  constituents  separate. 

In  fig.  2  it  will  be  seen  that  the  line  GOS  marked  "iron" 
corresponds  to  the  "  ice  "  line  in  fig.  1,  and  the  line  S  E  marked  "  iron 
carbide"  corresponds  to  the  "salt"  line  in  fig.  1,  and  the  eutectic 
line  P  S  P'  is  similar  to  the  eutectic  line  in  the  ice-salt  curve. 

It  will,  for  the  present,  be  as  well  to  neglect  all  curves  not  already 
mentioned  in  the  description  of  fig.  2,  as  they  only  tend  to  complicate 
the  case. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  curve  that  the  point  S  in  fig.  2,  indicating 
0  •  8  per  cent,  carbon,  is  the  eutectic  point,  and  that  steels  containing 
less  than  this  amount  of  carbon  are  made  up  of  iron  and  eutectic,  whilst 


IS  00' 


1 4  CO 


I2CC 


10CO 


0  I  2  3  4  5%  CARBON 

Equilibrium  Curve  For  Carburised  Iron 

Fro.  2. 


the  steels  or  white  irons  containing  more  than  0  ■  8  per  cent,  of  carbon 
are  composed  of  eutectic  and  iron  carbide. 

While  the  formation  of  the  structures  of  frozen  ice-salt  solutions 
and  those  of  iron  and  iron  carbide  are  very  similar,  yet  there  is  one 
feature  in  which  they  differ  very  much  indeed.  In  the  equilibrium 
curves  of  saline  solutions  the  temperatures  at  which  the  constituents 
begin  to  segregate  from  the  mass  also  indicate  the  beginning  of  the 
solidification  of  the  constituents ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  iron-carbon 
alloys  the  mass  has  long  been  solid  when  the  critical  changes  occur. 
In  other  words,  in  the  iron-carbon  alloys  the  separation  takes  place 
from  a  solid  solution  some  hundreds  of  degrees  below  their  melting- 
points. 


6  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Having  briefly  considered  the  laws  controlling-  the  structures  of 
slowly  cooled  iron-carbon  alloys,  it  will  perhaps  be  well  now  to  con- 
sider how  these  structures  may  be  made  evident  under  the  Microscope. 

The  specimens  for  examination  are  generally  prepared  by  remov- 
ing sections  from  the  original  sample  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
square  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick.  The  surface  is  carefully  ground 
on  a  series  of  emery  papers,  mounted  on  carefully  "  trued  "  wooden 
discs  attached  to  a  lathe  head,  using  ultimately  the  finest  grades  which 
can  be  produced.  As  the  finest  commercial  papers  are  much  too 
coarse,  it  is  necessary  to  prepare  the  final  papers  oneself.  This  is 
done  by  washing  the  very  finest  slime  from  the  best  flour  emery, 
mixing  it  with  a  solution  of  egg-albumen  in  water,  and  brushing  it 
on  paper  specially  free  from  grit.  The  paper  is  then  allowed  to  dry 
in  a  cupboard,  great  care  being  taken  to  exclude  all  dust. 

Prof.  H.  le  Chatelier  has  recently  succeeded  in  shortening  the 
polishing  operation  by  means  of  a  new  method  of  preparing  the 
powders.  The  operation  which  has  been  until  now  considered  the 
most  tedious  has  become  the  quickest.  The  most  important  point  in 
the  preparation  of  polishing  powders,  and  also  of  emery  powders,  is  to 
obtain  an  absolutely  accurate  classification  with  regard  to  the  size  of 
the  particles  in  each  case.  The  levigation  method  previously  men- 
tioned is  altogether  defective,  even  when  carried  out  in  the  laboratory 
with  all  the  precautions  indicated  by  M.  Osmond.  Prof,  le  Chatelier 
claims,  however,  that  perfect  classification  is  obtained  by  the  washing 
method  used  by  M.  Schloesing  for  the  analysis  of  kaolins.* 

Briefly,  his  method  is  to  obtain  some  suitable  polishing  powder, 
such  as  the  alumina  obtained  by  calcining  ammonia  alum  or  even  flour 
emery,  and  treat  it  with  water  containing  0  ■  1  per  cent,  of  nitric  acid, 
in  order  to  dissolve  the  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime  and  other  salts 
that  might  be  present.  The  mixture  is  stirred  occasionally  for  several 
hours,  and  is  allowed  to  settle,  which  it  will  then  do  rapidly.  The 
powder  is  then  washed  several  times  by  decantation  with  distilled 
water  until  it  will  no  longer  settle  rapidiy.  The  conditions  are  now 
favourable  for  levigation,  which  operation  is  facilitated  by  adding  two 
cubic  centimetres  of  ammonia  to  each  litre  of  water,  which  helps  the 
finest  particles  to  remain  in  suspension.  Decantation  is  now  resorted 
to  at  intervals  of  fifteen  minutes,  one  hour,  four  hours,  twenty-four 
hours,  and  eight  days.  The  first  deposit  contains  all  the  grains  un- 
suitable for  polishing  ;  the  second  is  not  very  homogeneous,  but  may 
be  used  to  start  the  polishing  :  the  third  constitutes  a  good  polishing 
powder  for  hard  metals  such  as  iron  and  steel.  It  is,  however,  the 
fourth  deposit  that  constitutes  true  polishing  powder.  Instead  of 
waiting  eight  days  for  this  last  deposit,  it  may  be  thrown  down  im- 
mediately after  the  removal  of  the  twenty-four  hours  one  by  neutralis- 
ing the  ammonia  with  acetic  acid,  when  the  whole  of  the  particles  will 

*  See  Prof.  H.  le  Chatelier's  p  iper  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  Socictc  a" Encouragement 
pour  V Industrie  Nationale,  Sept. 1 1900. 


Photomicrography  of  Iron  and  Steel.     By  W.  H.  Merrett.      7 

be  deposited  in  a  few  hours.  Prof,  le  Cbatelier  recommends  that  the 
powders  should  be  converted  into  a  paste  by  mixing  them  with  soap. 
Very  dry  castile  soap  is  cut  into  thin  shavings  and  mixed  with  the  wet 
powder  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  soap  to  ten  parts  of  wet 
powder.  The  mixture  is  then  melted  in  a  water  -  bath,  stirred 
thoroughly,  and  when  the  mass  begins  to  thicken,  it  is  poured  into  tin 
tubes  similar  to  those  used  for  keeping  oil  paints. 

The  metals  may  be  polished  by  placing  a  little  of  the  paste  on  a 
piece  of  cloth  stretched  over  a  cast-iron  disc,  which  can  be  made  to 
revolve  mechanically. 

Having  obtained  a  thoroughly  polished  specimen  by  the  aid  of 
emery  and  rouge  papers,  or  by  means  of  the  paste  of  soap  and  powder, 
the  piece  of  metal  is  lightly  rubbed  on  a  wet  rouge  wheel  for  about 
two  thousand  revolutions.  The  rouge  wheel  generally  consists  of  a 
well-surfaced  horizontal  cast-iron  disc,  which  is  driven  either  by  a 
hand-wheel  and  belt,  or  better,  by  a  small  electric  motor.  The  disc 
is  covered  with  clean  non-ribbed  cloth,  which  is  wetted  and  slightly 
covered  with  the  finest  washed  rouge.  At  this  stage  the  specimen 
becomes  lightly  engraved,  the  harder  constituents  appearing  in  relief ; 
it  should,  of  course,  be  quite  free  from  scratches.  The  structure  of 
the  specimen,  in  most  cases,  is  not  shown  by  polishing  only,  and 
must  be  made  evident  by  physical  or  chemical  processes,  which  pro- 
duce different  effects  upon  its  constituents. 

The  constituents  are  usually  shown  up  either  (1)  by  rubbing 
the  specimen  with  liquorice  juice  on  parchment ;  (2)  by  attacking  it 
with  a  very  dilute  solution  of  nitric  acid  (0*1  p.c.)  in  either  alcohol 
or  water ;  or  (3)  by  heating  it  in  air  to  about  a  straw  colour  (about 
240°  C.). 

Since  the  specimens  are  opaque,  it  is  necessary  to  illuminate  them 
from  above.  Natural  illumination  can  be  used  for  eye  observation 
only.  For  oblique  illumination  we  have  the  well-known  parabolic 
mirrors  of  Sorby  and  Lieberkiihn,  both  of  which  may  be  mounted 
upon  the  objective.  For  vertical  illumination,  Beck's  vertical  illumi- 
nator is  extremely  useful.  This  is  a  small  transparent  mirror,  which, 
placed  at  45°  in  the  axis  of  the  Microscope,  receives  the  light  from  a 
hole  in  the  side  of  the  apparatus,  and  reflects  it  upon  the  objective ; 
the  lenses  concentrate  the  light  upon  the  object.  A  small  prism 
devised  for  vertical  illumination  by  Nachet,  of  Paris,  is  very  good, 
especially  when  it  is  necessary  to  economise  light. 

By  far  the  best  source  of  illumination  is  a  small  arc  lamp,  either 
hand-fed  or  automatic.  When  a  Nachet  vertical  illuminator  is  used, 
the  filament  of  an  incandescent  electric  lamp  placed  in  front  of  the 
slit  will  often  give  sufficient  light. 

If  electricity  is  not  available,  either  incandescent  gas  or  even  a 
paraffin  lamp  may  be  used,  but  the  time  of  exposure  will  be  much 
longer.  Where  long  exposures  are  necessary,  it  is  imperative  to  have 
the  apparatus  fitted  so  as  to  be  quite  free  from  vibration  and  also  light- 


8  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

tight.  When  using  a  small  arc  lamp,  the  exposures  with  Lumiere's 
plates,  sensitive  to  yellow  and  green,  vary  from  two  to  five  seconds  ; 
with  a  paraffin  lamp  under  similar  conditions,  it  would  probably  be 
necessary  to  give  an  exposure  of  at  least  twenty  minutes.  Faults  in 
the  construction  of  the  apparatus,  which  are  hardly  noticed  when  the 
exposure  is  short,  become  very  formidable  with  a  long  exposure. 

The  camera  may  be  either  vertical  or  horizontal ;  for  general 
purposes  the  latter  is  much  more  convenient,  and  even  when  using 
immersion  objectives,  very  little  inconvenience  will  be  experienced. 
It  is  as  well  to  use  a  long  camera — about  seven  feet  is  a  very  service- 
able length — and  to  have  the  Microscope  fitted  with  a  low-power  pro- 
jection eye-piece,  the  results  obtained  being  invariably  better  than 
when  a  high-power  eye-piece  had  been  employed. 

The  most  useful  magnifications  are  the  60,  200,  1000,  and  2000 
diameters.  AVhen  using  a  seven-foot  camera  at  full  length,  and  a 
low-power  Zeiss  projecting  eye-piece,  these  magnifications  may  be 
obtained  with  the  Zeiss  35  mm.  projecting,  the  24  mm.,  the  4  mm. 
with  correcting  collar,  and  the  2  mm.  immersion  objectives  re- 
spectively. The  projecting  lens  is,  of  course,  used  without  an  eye- 
piece. 

Steel  for  micrographic  purposes  is  viewed  as  if  it  were  a  rock 
with  various  minerals  distributed  through  it,  and  mineralogical  names 
are  conveniently  adopted  for  the  constituents. 

Pure  iron,  being  an  elementary  body,  is  made  up  of  one  substance 
only,  to  which  the  name  "  ferrite "  has  been  given.  A  sample  of 
ferrite,  magnified  850  diameters,  is  shown  in  fig.  4.  It  will  be  seen 
that  it  is  composed  of  a  number  of  interlocking  crystals. 

Steel  is  composed  of  iron  containing  approximately  from  0 '  05  to 
2  •  0  per  cent,  of  carbon,  and  it  has  the  peculiar  property  of  becoming 
much  harder  when  it  is  made  red-hot  and  quenched.  The  carbon  in 
steel  which  has  been  slowly  cooled  is  combined  with  a  portion  of  the 
iron,  forming  iron  carbide,  which  is  known  as  "  cementite."  This 
constituent  contains  about  7  ■  0  per  cent,  of  carbon,  and  remains  bright 
after  a  polished  section  of  the  steel  is  attacked  by  an  infusion  of 


EXPLANATION   OF   PLATE   I. 

All  fiss.  X  850  diameters. 


Fig.  3.— Iron  and  eutectic  (iron  the  plane,  and  eutectic  the  laminar  structure). 
„     4. — Pure  iron  (ferrite). 
„    5. — Steel  containing  0-6  p.c.  of  carbon  (pearlite  the  dark,  and  ferrite  the  whit* 

constituent). 
„     C. — Steel  containing  1*8  p.c.  of  carbon  (pearlite  the  dark,  and  cementite  the 

white  constituent). 
„     7. — White   cast   iron  containing  2-2  p.c.  of  caibon   (pearlite   the  dark,  and 

cementite  the  white  constituent). 
„    8. — Mottled  cast  iron  containing  3S  p.c.  of  carbon  (pcailite,  cementite,  and 

graphite). 


Jour.   R.  Micro.  Soc.   1902. 


PI.  I. 


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Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


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Fig.  5. 


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Fig.  H. 


Fir,.  7. 


Fig    8. 


Jour.  R.  Micro.  Soc.  1902. 


PI.  II. 


Fig.  9. 


Fig.  10. 


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Fig.   II. 


Fig.   12. 


Fig.  13. 


Photomicrography  of  Iron  and  Steel.     By  W.  H.  Merrett.      9 

liquorice  or  a  solution  of  nitric  acid.  Cementite  is  very  hard,  and 
stands  in  relief  when  the  steel  is  polished  on  the  finest  rouge  on  wet 
cloth.  A  good  specimen  of  cementite  is  shown  in  fig.  0  magnified 
850  diameters.  Free  cementite,  however,  does  not  often  occur  in  low 
carbon  steel,  but  usually  assumes  the  form  of  "  pearlite,"  which  is  an 
intimate  mixture  of  cementite  and  ferrite  arranged  in  laminae  which 
are  alternately  hard  and  soft.  These  laminae  are  very  minute,  and  it 
is  necessary  to  use  a  magnification  of  at  least  300  diameters  for  their 
identification.  The  laminae  of  pearlite  often  assume  a  more  or  less 
granular  form.  Penrlite  is  so  called  on  account  of  its  resemblance  to 
mother-of-pearl.  When  pearlite  is  attacked  with  either  an  infusion 
of  liquorice  or  a  solution  of  nitric  acid,  a  voltaic  action  is  set  up  which 
causes  the  ferrite  to  become  dark  in  colour.  A  pure  steel  containing 
0*9  per  cent,  of  carbon  will  consist  entirely  of  pearlite  ;  if  the  carbon 
be  less  than  this  amount,  the  mass  will  be  composed  of  pearlite  and 
ferrite.  If  the  carbon  exceed  0  •  9  per  cent.,  it  will  consist  of  pearlite 
and  cementite.  Fig.  5  shows  a  photomicrograph  of  a  steel  containing 
0*6  per  cent,  of  carbon.  It  consists  of  ferrite  (the  white  portion)  and 
pearlite  under  a  magnification  of  850  diameters.  Fig.  6  represents  a 
steel  containing  about  1  ■  8  per  cent,  carbon,  and  is  composed  of  cemen- 
tite (the  white  raised  portion)  and  pearlite. 

Cementite  may  be  distinguished  from  ferrite  by  its  greater  hard- 
ness. It  will  be  seen  that  the  cementite  in  figs.  6  and  7  appears  to 
stand  in  relief.  Ferrite  is  easily  scratched  by  an  ordinary  sewing 
needle,  while  cementite  is  not. 

Cast  iron  contains  more  carbon  than  steel,  the  amount  varying 
from  2  to  5  per  cent.  It  practically  consists  of  three  varieties,  white, 
mottled,  and  grey.  The  first  variety  is  composed  of  pearlite  and 
cementite ;  the  second  of  pearlite,  cementite,  and  a  little  graphite  ;  and 
the  third  of  pearlite  together  with  either  cementite  or  ferrite  and 
graphite.  In  both  cast  iron  and  steel  it  seldom  happens  that  free 
cementite  and  ferrite  exist  in  the  same  specimen. 

Fig.  7  is  a  sample  of  white  iron  containing  2*2  per  cent,  of 
carbon.  Fig.  8  is  a  mottled  iron  containing  3  ■  8  per  cent,  of  carbon, 
of  which  2*6  per  cent,  is  graphite.  Fig.  9  (plate  II.)  is  a  grey  iron 
containing  about  4'6  per  cent,  of  carbon.  As  it  has  been  before 
stated,  steel  differs  from  cast  iron  by   being  capable  of  acquiring 


EXPLANATION   OF   PLATE   II. 
All  figs,  x  SoO  diameters. 


Fig.  9. — Grey  cast  iron  containing  4*0  p.c.  of  carbon   (pearlite,   cementite,  aiui 
graphite). 
„    10. — Quenched  steel  (martensite). 

„    11. — Steel  which  lias  been  quenched  and  tempered  to  straw  colour. 
„    12. — Troostite  (the  black)  in  a  matrix  of  ferrite  and  martensite. 
„    13. — Aubtenite  (the  white)  and  a  variety  of  martensite. 


10  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

various  degrees  of  hardness,  and  it  is  upon  this  special  property  that 
the  great  value  of  steel  depends.  Although  there  is  no  well  defined 
line  of  demarcation  between  high  carbon  steel  and  white  iron,  yet  the 
former  has  a  much  wider  range  of  hardness  than  the  latter  when 
submitted  to  suitable  thermal  treatment. 

The  changes  in  the  hardness  of  a  steel  are  accompanied  by  a 
corresponding  change  of  structure.  Take,  for  example,  the  ordinary 
process  of  tempering.  Steel  is  generally  tempered  by  two  processes  : 
(1)  hardeniDg  by  quenching  in  water,  oil,  or  mercury ;  and  (2) 
re-heating  the  hardened  steel  to  a  given  temperature  and  plunging 
in  water,  or  allowing  to  cool  in  air.  Fig.  10  represents  the  quenched 
structure  of  the  steel  shown  in  fig.  5 ;  it  is  composed  of  a  system  of 
interlacing  crystalline  fibres,  and  is  known  as  "  martensite,"  after 
Prof.  Martens,  of  Berlin.  The  structure  of  martensite  is  developed 
by  a  prolonged  etching  with  an  infusion  of  liquorice,  or  by  an  attack 
of  alcohol  containing  J  p.c.  of  nitric  acid.  When  a  quenched  steel 
is  tempered,  the  interlacing  crystalline  fibres  disappear,  and  the 
structure  becomes  granular.  The  character  of  the  tempered  structure 
varies  greatly  with  the  temperature  and  the  time  the  steel  is  re- 
heated. No  name  has  yet  been  assigned  to  the  tempered  structure. 
Fig.  11  shows  the  structure  of  a  steel  which  has  been  re-heated  to  a 
straw  colour. 

In  practice,  the  workman  tempers  steel  by  watching  the  various 
colours  assumed  by  the  surface  of  the  metal  during  the  progress  of 
the  operation,  and  when  the  proper  colour  makes  its  appearance  the 
object  is  suddenly  cooled.  These  tints,  some  of  which  are  extremely 
brilliant,  are  probably  occasioned  by  films  of  oxide  corresponding 
with  considerable  exactitude  to  the  degree  of  heat  to  which  the  metal 
is  exposed,  and  they  consequently  serve  as  a  tolerably  accurate  guide 
in  determining  the  hardness  which  the  object  will  acquire  on  being 
cooled.  Although  this  method  is  often  wonderfully  accurate,  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  colours  will  appear  even  when  the  metal 
has  not  been  quenched,  so  that  the  tint  alone  is  not  indicative  of  a 
good  result.  This  may,  however,  be  easily  determined  by  the  Micro- 
scope. As  the  time  and  intensity  of  the  re-heating  increases,  the 
structure  more  and  more  resembles  that  of  pearlite,  so  that  it  is 
quite  possible  to  ascertain  the  quality  of  the  temper  from  the  micro- 
structure  alone. 

The  hardening  of  a  steel  by  quenching  is  not  merely  due  to  a 
change  in  the  condition  of  the  carbon,  but  also  to  the  molecular  trans- 
formation of  the  iron,  which  may  exist  in  a  soft  or  a  state,  and  a  hard 
or  7  state,  the  latter  being  produced,  in  the  case  of  a  high  carbon  steel, 
above  800°  C.  Therefore,  in  order  to  produce  hard  steel,  the  metal 
must  be  quenched  above  this  temperature.  Should  the  temperature  of 
quenching  be  rather  low,  the  structure,  instead  of  consisting  wholly  of 
martensite,  will  be  found  to  contain  another  constituent  known  as 
"  troostite  "  (from  Troost,  the  chemist).     Troostite  almost  invariably 


Photomicrography  of  Iron  and  Steel.     By  W.  H.  Merrett.     1  I 

occurs  in  a  matrix  of  martensite  or  a  mixture  of  martensite  and 
ferrite.  Fig.  12  shows  a  variety  of  troostite  in  a  matrix  of  martensite. 
Steels  containing  troostite  are  soft ;  they  are,  however,  not  so  soft  as 
steel  containing  pearlite.  In  ordinary  steel  the  pearlite  develops  at 
about  700°  C.  Should  a  specimen  be  quenched  after  the  formation  of 
this  constituent,  it  will  not  harden.  In  practice,  steel  is  generally 
quenched  at  nearly  1000°  C,  which  has  the  effect  of  converting  the 
whole  mass  into  martensite. 

If  the  proportion  of  carbon  in  a  steel  be  high,  say  I '  5  per  cent.,  and 
if  the  cooling  be  rapidly  effected  in  iced  brine,  another  constituent 
appears,  which  may  be  scratched  with  a  hard  needle,  and  to  which 
M.  Osmond,  who  discovered  it,  has  given  the  name  of  "  austenite," 
after  Sir  W.  Roberts-Austen,  Its  general  appearance  is  shown  white 
in  fig.  13,  magnified  850  diameters. 

Very  rapid  advance  has  lately  been  made  in  the  metallography  of 
iron  and  steel,  and  the  effects  of  elements  other  than  carbon  on  iron 
have  been  carefully  studied.  Mr.  J.  E.  Stead,  of  Middlesborough, 
has  recently  published  a  most  interesting  paper  on  the  alloys  of  iron 
and  pbo.sphorus.* 

Although  the  metallography  of  iron  and  steel  was  originally  of 
scientific  interest  only,  it  has  lately  become  of  the  greatest  commer- 
cial importance ;  as  from  a  suitable  photomicrograph  one  is  able  almost 
to  read  the  life-history  of  a  piece  of  steel,  at  any  rate  as  regards  the 
thermal  treatment  it  has  received. 

The  demonstration  was  illustrated  by  a  number  of  lantern  slides  of 
the  structures  of  iron  and  steel,  a  few  of  which  have  been  reproduced 
in  this  Eeport. 

*  See  this  Journal,  1901,  pp.  608,  721; 


12  Transactions  of  the  Society. 


II. — On  Stereomicrography. 
By  G.  P.  Girdwood,  M.D.,  M.R.C.S.  Eng.,  F.K.S.C,  FJ.C,  &c. 

PROFESSOR    OF   CHEMISTRY   MED.  FAC.  M'GILL   COLLEGE,  MONTREAL  ; 

CONSULTING    SURGEON,    MONTREAL    GENERAL    HOSPITAL  ; 

LATE   ASST.-SURGEON   GRENADIER   GUARDS. 

(Read  November  20th,  1901.) 

The  beauties  of  the  stereoscopic  vision  of  ordinary  objects,  the 
greater  amount  of  detail  which  is  brought  out  thereby,  the  greater 
amount  of  information  afforded  by  a  stereoscopic  over  an  ordinary 
picture  of  an  object,  which  enables  the  third  dimension  in  space  to 
be  appreciated,  have  doubtless  been  noticed  by  other  workers  with  the 
Microscope,  and  the  desire  to  obtain  a  stereoscopic  picture  of  a  micro- 
scopic object  often  been  felt  by  them  ;  but  as  to  how  to  obtain  the  two 
pictures  of  an  object  viewed  from  different  points  which  are  necessary 
to  produce  the  trae  stereoscopic  effect,  and  as  to  methods  to  obtain 
this  end,  if  thought  out  by  others,  no  one,  so  far  as  the  author  is 
aware,  has  published  anything  practical. 

It  occurred  to  the  author  that  this  might  be  attainable  in  a  manner 
somewhat  similar  to  the  plan  he  adopted  for  taking  stereoscopic  skia- 
graphs by  X-rays,  only  reversed  ;*  he  therefore  devised  a  small  piece 
of  apparatus  to  adjust  to  his  Microscope  that  would  enable  him  to  get 
the  necessary  two  pictures  at  an  angle  to  the  object  which  should 
equal  the  angle  of  normal  vision,  with  eyes  the  axes  of  which  are  at 
a  distance  of  1\  in.  apart  and  converging  to  a  point  at  a  focal  dis- 
tance of  12  in. 

Inasmuch  as  the  object-glass  of  the  Microscope  is  a  monocular 
apparatus  and  cannot  be  moved,  it  became  necessary  to  move  the 
object  itself  in  such  a  way  that  it  should  give  a  picture  on  the  screen 
of  the  camera,  as  seen  by  one  eye,  and  a  picture  thereof  taken,  and 
then  to  move  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  present  a  picture  as  seen  by  the 
other  eye,  and  a  picture  taken  in  the  second  position,  taking  care  to 
keep  the  same  object  or  point  thereof  in  the  axis  of  the  tube  in  each 
position,  and  thus  obtain  two  pictures,  one  of  which  is  as  seen  by 
each  eye. 

If  we  take  two  points  2^  in.  apart,  and  join  them  by  a  line,  and 
then  draw  lines  from  the  two  points  to  a  third  point  which  is  12  in. 
from  the  first  line,  and  in  such  a  position  that  a  line  drawn  therefrom 
would  bisect  the  first  line,  we  should  have  an  isosceles  triangle,  of  which 
the  two  equal  sides  would  represent  the  axes  of  the  two  eyes  when 
converged  upon  a  point  at  12  in.  focus.  The  same  may  be  arrived 
at  by  drawing  a  circle  at  12  in.  radius  from  a  point,  and  selecting  any 

*  Montreal  Medical  Journal,  March  1899. 


On  Stereomierograpliy .     By  G.  P.  Girdwood. 


13 


two  points  in  the  circumference  2h  in.  apart,  and  joining  those  points 
by  radii  to  the  centre ;  the  two  radii  will  represent  the  axes  of  the 
two  eyes,  and  the  line  between  them  the  distance  between  the  centres 
of  the  two  pupils.  And  now,  if  a  Microscope  slide  be  so  placed  as 
to  form  a  normal  with  the  radius  representing  the  axis  of  the  left  eye, 
a  picture  will  be  given  representing  the  object  as  seen  by  the  right  eye, 
and  then,  if  sloped  in  the  opposite  direction  without  moving  the  central 
object  or  part  thereof,  it  will,  when  viewed  in  the  course  of  the  second 
radius,  present  a  picture  as  seen  by  the  left  eye. 

Now,  if  a  Microscope  slide  with  the  objects  upon  it  be  moved  on  a 
centre  or  point  of  convergence  so  as  to  make  the  surface  of  the  slide 
a  plane  normal  to  the  line  representing  the  axis  of  the  left  eye,  it 


Fig.  14. 


The  apparatus  is  adjusted  upon  the  stage  of  the  Microscope  so  that  the 
centre  is  in  the  optic  axis  of  the  instrument.  The  object  is  placed  on 
the  tilting  table  by  spring  pressure  (springs  not  shown).  The  level  of  the 
object  is  the  same  as  the  axis  upon  which  the  tilting  table  swings,  so  that 
the  motion  of  the  table  does  not  alter  the  position  of  the  object  except  as 
to  inclination.  The  object  may  be  moved  about  till  the  required  portion 
to  be  photographed  is  found,  the  tilting  table  being  rigidly  attached  to  the 
Microscope;  and  the  inclination  of  the  table  is  set  by  means  of  the  two 
screws  at  its  ends. 


right 


will  give  a  picture  as  seen  by  the  right  eye ;  and  shows  from  the 
what  is  hidden  behind  the  central  object  of  the  picture ;  and  if  it  be 
inclined  so  as  to  form  a  normal  with  the  line  representing  the  axis  of 
the  right  eye,  the  picture  seen  in  the  Microscope  will  be  the  picture 
as  seen  by  the  left  eye,  and  shows  objects  behind  the  central  object 
as  seen  from  the  left  side.  If  two  pictures  be  taken  thus,  and  these 
two  pictures  printed  and  mounted,  they  will  give  most  beautifully  the 
stereoscopic  effect,  and  will  show  at  once  in  the  stereoscope  the  third 
dimension  and  the  different  planes  in  which  the  objects  are  seen  at  the 
time  of  observation. 


14  Transactions  oj  the  Society. 

The  plan  adopted  by  the  author  to  obtain  these  results  was  to 
have  a  rocking  stage  made  in  such  a  way  that  an  ordinary  glass  slide 
with  its  object  shall  be  held  securely  and  focussed  ;  and  as  soon  as  the 
particular  part  of  the  specimen  to  be  photographed  is  placed  exactly 
in  the  centre  of  the  field,  and  the  nearest  part  of  the  object  focussed 
sharp,  or  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  the  best  picture  of  the  object, 
then  the  rocking  stage  is  rocked  by  means  of  the  screws  for  that 
purpose  till  the  one  side  is  depressed  (say  the  right  side  of  the  slide) 
to  an  angle  of  7h  degrees  to  the  plane  of  the  Microscope  stage,  and  a 
picture  taken.  Then,  after  seeing  that  the  focus  is  unimpaired  by  the 
movement,  and  that  the  object  has  not  moved  from  its  central  position, 
the  slide  is  made  to  rotate  about  the  point  of  convergence  till  it  is 
rocked  to  the  extent  of  7h  degrees  inclination  to  the  proper  stage  of 
Microscope  on  the  opposite  side.  Then,  on  seeing  that  the  focus  is 
correct  and  the  object  still  in  the  centre,  the  picture  as  seen  by  the 
right  eye  is  represented,  and  a  picture  is  taken.  The  negatives  so 
obtained  are  printed,  and  the  prints  mounted  give  the  proper  stereo- 
scopic effect.  The  accompanying  mount,  which  is  a  photograph  of  uric 
acid  crystals,  shows  the  result.  The  results  so  obtained,  when  seen 
by  any  one,  will  be  admitted  to  give  a  better  idea  of  the  object  than  a 
single  picture. 

The  rocking  slide  used  by  the  author  consists  of  a  flat  stage  with 
a  central  opening  which  attaches  to  the  ordinary  Microscope  stage  by 
springs.  From  the  upper  surface  of  this  project  two  lugs,  one  in  front 
and  one  in  rear,  and  from  these  lugs  project  inwards  towards  each 
other  two  knife-edges,  the  edges  placed  downwards  towards  the  Micro- 
scope stage  ;  under  these  knife-edges,  and  pressed  up  against  them  and 
rocking  on  them,  is  a  flat  plate  of  brass  cut  out  flat  to  receive  a  glass 
slide  so  a3  to  allow  of  the  movement  of  the  object,  and  cut  out  of  such 
a  depth  that  the  surface  of  the  glass  and  the  knife-edges  are  in  the 
same  plane.  This  plate  of  brass  is  extended  far  enough  on  either  side 
to  be  drilled  at  equal  distances  from  the  centre  and  tapped  for  a 
screw ;  a  thumb-screw  is  placed  in  each  ;  and  as  one  screw  is  turned  in 
the  other  is  turned  out,  till  the  slide  is  either  parallel  with  the  Micro- 
scope stage  proper,  or  at  the  required  angle  to  it. 

A  little  angle  of  brass  being  screwed  on  to  the  bed-plate  of  the  stage 
and  projecting  up  in  front  of  one  end  of  the  rocking  stage,  and  marked 
with  a  zero  point  at  which  the  rocking  stage  will  be  parallel  with  the 
bed-plate,  and  then  with  10  degrees  marked  above  and  below  the  zero 
point,  the  inclination  of  the  slide  in  the  two  positions  can  be  made 
exact ;  and  7£°  angle  with  the  stage  base  is  enough  to  place  the  slide 
in  the  position  of  a  normal  to  the  axis  of  vision.  The  author  avails 
himself  of  this  opportunity  of  recording  his  thanks  to  Messrs  E.  and 
J.  Beck,  of  Cornhill,  London,  for  the  kind  attention  they  gave  him. 
in  making  the  piece  of  apparatus  by  which  these  results  have  been 
attained. 

The  author  gives  this  account  of  his  success,  that  others  may  be 


On  Stereomicrography.     By  G.  P.  Girdwood.  15 

able  to  extend  the  work,  apply  this  method  to  other  objects,  and  pro- 
duce pictures  of  microscopic  objects  in  relief,  and  thus  give  to  students 
a  more  realistic  idea  of  the  objects  before  them. 

The  method  adopted  in  taking  the  pictures  exhibited  with  this 
paper  was  to  place  an  ordinary  photographic  camera  horizontally  on 
the  table,  raised  so  that  the  opening  for  the  lens  should  be  just 
centred  with  axis  of  the  Microscope  tube;  when  the  Microscope  was 
turned  on  its  stand  to  the  horizontal  position,  a  thin  sheet  of  vulcanised 
india-rubber  was  secured  over  the  hole  for  the  lens  in  front  of  the 
camera,  a  small  hole  was  cut  in  the  centre  of  the  rubber-sheet,  and 
the  Microscope  tube  without  an  eye-piece  was  thrust  through  the 
small  hole  in  the  rubber,  which  fits  tight  round  the  tube  and  stops 
all  light  entering ;  a  small  diaphragm  was  placed  in  the  end  of  the 
tube  to  stop  light  reflected  from  the  inside  of  the  tube,  and  the  object 
was  illuminated  by  a  coal-oil  lamp  placed  opposite  the  opening  in  the 
stage  and  condensed  by  a  bull's-eye  focussed  in  the  usual  way.  If 
necessary  a  micrometer  might  be  used  on  the  stage  to  show  magni- 
fication. 

In  the  case  of  the  crystals  of  uric  acid  shown,  a  1-in.  object-glass 
was  used,  30  seconds  exposure  with  a  small  single  coal-oil  lamp,  and 
the  picture  was  developed  with  Kodinal  developer  in  the  ordinary 
manner.  In  the  case  of  starch-granules  of  ginger  grown  and  prepared 
by  the  author  himself,  a  £-in.  object-glass  was  used  with  polariscope ; 
exposure  for  each  picture  half  an  hour. 

Since  perfecting  the  apparatus  for  this  work,  the  author  has  had 
brought  to  his  notice  the  original  article  by  Sir  Charles  AVheatstone, 
■  Contributions  to  the  Physiology  of  Vision,  Part  the  First,  On  some 
remarkable  and  hitherto  unobserved  Phenomena  of  Binocular  Vision,' 
Philosophical  Transactions,  1838,  reprinted  in  1879,  wherein  the 
correctness  of  the  ideas  the  author  had  in  designing  this  stage  are 
completely  borne  out. 

When  a  picture  is  taken  by  a  Microscope,  the  picture  of  the  object 
is  reversed,  and  when  this  negative  is  printed  it  is  reversed  again,  so 
that  the  print  corresponds  to  the  object  itself  as  seen  in  the  Micro- 
scope ;  but  in  transparent  objects,  reversal  of  the  prints  in  mounting 
would  give  a  stereoscopic  view  of  the  object  as  seen  from  the  other 
side,  which  in  some  cases  may  be  desirable. 


16  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

III. — The  First  English  Achromatic  Objectives, 
By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

{Head  December  ISM,  1901.) 

The  Goring-Tullerj  Triple  (1824). 

This  first  English  achromatic  object-glass  was  made  in  1824  by 
W.  Tulley,*  the  telescope-maker  at  Islington,  at  the  suggestion  of 
C.  E.  Goring,  M.D.,  who  paid  90/.  for  it.  An  account  of  this  historical 
lens  may  be  of  interest. 

The  back  lens  is  an  equi-convex  of  Dutch  plate  of  specific  gravity 
2*519,  thickness  0*175,  the  radii  being  0*575.  The  middle  lens  is 
an  equi-concave  made  of  Guinand's  flint,  specific  gravity  3  *  627,  thick- 
ness at  edge  0*164,  and  the  radii  0*500.  The  front  lens  is  a 
biconvex  crown  of  specific  gravity  2*527,  thickness  0*15,  radius  back 
surface  (next  flint)  0*525,  and  front  surface  (next  object)  0*825. 
The  focus  of  the  combination  is  0*933,  diameter  of  the  lenses  0*55, 
the  clear  aperture  0  *  50,  the  initial  magnifying  power  10  ■  72,  the  N.A. 
0*259,  and  the  O.I.  the  large  amount  of  24*2.  Fig.  15  A  is  drawn 
to  scale  and  is  enlarged  twice. 

The  Chevalier-Euler  Achromatic  Doublet  (1824). 

In  1823-4  Messrs.  Vincent  and  Charles  Chevalier,  of  Paris,  made 
an  achromatic  Microscope  objective  for  M.  Selligue.  In  this  Micro- 
scope the  lenses  of  the  objective  were  turned  round  the  wrong  way, 
viz.  with  their  convex  surfaces  facing  the  object.  In  the  next  year. 
1824-5,  Messrs.  Chevalier  brought  out  a  "  Microscope  d'Euler,"  in 
which  the  lenses  of  the  object-glass  were  turned  round  the  right  way, 
so  that  the  plane  side  faced  the  object. 

The  mention  of  Euler's  name  in  the  title  of  this  Microscope  refers 
to  the  objective,  the  doublet  of  which  it  was  composed  being  con- 
structed upon  principles  published  by  Euler  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  1774. 
The  principle  was  the  combination  of  an  equi-convex  crown  with  a 
plano-concave  flint,  the  radii  of  the  three  spherical  surfaces  being  alike. 
The  data  of  the  Chevalier-Euler  cemented  plano-convex  doublet  are  as 
follows. 

Back  lens  an  equi-convex  of  plate  glass,  thickness  0  *  072,  radii  0  *  GC, 
cemented  to  a  plano-concave  front  lens  of  Guinand's  flint,  radius  0  *  60, 
thickness  at  edge  0  *  074,  diameter  of  the  doublet  0  *  36.  Focus  1  *  65, 
N.A.  0  ■  109,  O.I.  18  *  0.  These  measurements,  as  well  as  of  those  above, 
are  in  inches.     Fig.  15  B  is  to  scale  and  is  enlarged  twice. 

*.  Also  spelt  Tully. 


The  First  English  Achromatic  Objective.     By  E.  M.  Nelson.     17 


B 


Fig.  15. 


The  Lister  Achromatic  Combination  (1827). 

In  1827  Mr.  J.  J.  Lister  put  one  of  Chevalier's  doublets  as  a 
front,  Tulley's  triple  being  the  back  lens  ;  the  combination  was  of  0  ■  52 
focus,  0  •  53  N.  A.,  and  27 '  G  O.I.  This  constituted  the  finest  Microscope 
objective  that  had  up  to  that  time  been  produced.  (Fig.  15,  A  and  B.) 
It  was,  strictly  speaking,  the  first  really  success- 
ful scientific  Microscope  objective.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  belittle  Mr.  Lister's  work 
in  connection  with  the  evolution  of  the  Micro- 
scope  objective ;  *    in   answer,   allow   me   to 


present  to  you  what  is  probably  the  true  his 
tory  of  the  early  Microscope  objective. 

Mr.  Lister,  who  had  interested  himself  in 
the  Microscope  from  boyhood,  began  to  work 
at  the  objective  in  1825,  and  it  was  the 
possession  of  a  -fa  and  a  j2tT  of  Tulley's  that 
directed  his  attention  to  this  subject.  He 
rightly  judged  that  these  objectives  were  too 
thick,  and;  he  persuaded  Mr.  W.  Tulley  to  make  for  him  a  ^  much 
thinner  in  proportion  to  its  focal  length.  (The  reason  one  hears 
and  reads  so  much  about  "  thickness  "  in  old  books  is  that  when  //,  =  |, 

y2 

the  thickness  is  equal  to  -~,  and  this  is  the  factor  in  one  limb  of  the 

mathematical  expression  for  spherical  aberration ;  so,  by  reducing  the 
thickness  the  spherical  aberration  is  diminished.)  Lister  found  that 
the  performance  of  this  new  lens  was  very  nearly  equal  to  Tulley's 
best  t2q  ;  he  noted  that  whereas  the  ^  was  free  from  "  coma  "  the  j% 
and  yTj  were  not  free  from  it,  except  in  a  small  part  in  the  centre  of  the 
field.  The  testing  of  a  lens  on  a  mercury  globule  and  the  observation 
of  "  coma  "  at  this  early  date  indicates  not  only  an  important  advance 
but  also  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  subject. 

In  December  1826  Lister  examined  a  set  of  four  Chevalier-Euler 
objectives,  and  found  the  apertures  were  much  stopped  down;  he 
improved  them  by  opening  out  the  stop.  Afterwards  he  combined  a 
Chevalier  front  with  a  Tulley  back,  which  made  what  may  be  called 
the  first  scientific  Microscope  objective.  Fig.  15  shows  this  combination. 
In  1830  his  paper  on  the  twoaplanatic  foci  was  read  before  the  Royal 
Society ;  and  towards  the  end  of  that  year  he  took  up  lens-grinding 
because  Tulley  was  too  busy  to  continue  the  experiments.  In  1837 
he  began  to  coach  Andrew  Ross,  and  drafted  for  him  a  triple  fronted  I . 
It  is  therefore  manifest  that  Andrew  Ross  owed  his  success  in  a  great 
measure  to  improvements  which  Mr.  Lister  originated.  In  1840  he 
coached  James  Smith,  who  made  1-in.,  i-in.  and  £-in.  objectives 
on  his  formula.     With  regard  to  Powell,  his  older  objectives  show  no 


*  Society  of  Arts,  Cantor  Lecture,  Dec.  21,  18S5.  pp.  94,  05. 
Feb.  10th,  1902 


18  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

superiority  over  those  of  his  contemporaries,  but  eventually  he  adopted 
the  Lister  formula  and  continued  to  make  use  of  it  for  upwards  of 
fifty  years. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  up  to  the  time  of  the  Great  Exhibi- 
tion of  1851  *  the  objectives  made  by  Ross,  Smith,  and  Powell, 
on  the  Lister  formula,  were  far  superior  to  those  made  on  the  Con- 
tinent or  anywhere  else ;  they  had  greater  aperture,  were  more 
achromatic,  and  had  less  spherical  aberration  than  any  other  lenses- 
of  that  date.  This  is  not  a  matter  of  theory  or  of  conjecture  but 
of  lact,  for  the  lenses  are  in  existence,  and  may  be  tested  by  any  one 
wishing  to  satisfy  himself  on  this  point.  After  this  the  Amici 
water-immersion,  the  solid  front,  and  other  devices,  in  which  Mr. 
Lister  took  no  part,  were  introduced ;  these  greatly  improved  the 
higher  powers,  but  the  lower  powers  constructed  on  Lister's  principles 
remained  without  a  rival  for  fifty  years ;  then  at  last  his  £  had  to  give 
way  to  one  with  a  duplex  front,  but  the  other  powers,  viz.  the  T%,  ^, 
§,  1-in.,  li,  2-in.  still  remained  the  best  until  the  advent  of  the 
apochromatics  and  semi-apochromatics  in  1886.  These  facts  are 
sufficient  to  demonstrate  the  value  and  importance  of  Lister's  work. 

*  The  following  extracts  are  from  the  Jurors'  Report,  Great  Exhibition,  1851 : — 
"Nachet  (France).    The  object-glasses,  though  inferior  to  both  those  of  Boss 
and  Smith  and  Beck,  are  by  far  the  best  of  the  foreign  ones." 

"Chevalier  (France).    A  Microscope  with  indifferent  object-glasses.    The  work- 
manship of  the  mechanical  parts,  however,  is  very  good." 


19 


NOTES. 


HoltzapffeTs  Microscope. 
By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

As   Holtzapffel's   Microscope,  in  which   there  are   several   original 
details,  is  little  known,  a  short  account  of  it  may  be  of  interest.     On 
reference  to  fig.  16,  it  will  be  at  once  seen  that  the  foot  is  similar  to 
that   of    Cornelius    Varley's    Micro- 
scope,* inasmuch  as   it  is  a   screw- 
clamp  for  attachment  to  the  edge  of 
a  table,  a  form  evidently  suggested 
by  the  stand  of  Wollaston's  camera 
lucida.     The  main  stem,  which  is  a 
cylindrical  rod  with  a  groove  in  it,  is 
joined  to  the  foot  by  a  kind  of  uni- 
versal ball-joint  (not  ball-and-socket). 
A  mirror  slides  on  this  rod,  and  it  is 
stated  that  the  back  of  this  mirror  is 
flat  polished  brass,  so  that  monochro- 
matic light  may  be  reflected   by  it. 
On  the  top  of  the  rod  is  the  lens- 
(Wollaston  doublet)  holder  (fig.  17); 
this,  instead  of  fitting  in  a  V~Sroove> 
slides  between  three  studs,  of  which 
a  and  b  are  fixed  and  c  loose ;  e  is 
acted  on  by  a  spring  so  as  to  keep 
the   slide   pressed   against  a   and    b. 
This   lens-holder  is    moved    by   the 
milled  head  d ;  but  in  place  of  a  rack- 
and-pinion  gear,  there  is  a  steel  tape 
which  takes  a  round  turn  round  the 
pinion,  an  end  being  fixed  to   each 
end  of  the  lens-holder;    the  screw  e 
is   for   the  purpose  of  keeping  this 
tape  taut.     A  similar  mechanical  de- 
vice  was,   twenty    years    afterwards, 
used  by  Ladd.f  who  fitted  a  steel  chain  with  a  turn  round  a  pinion 
for  the  coarse  adjustment  of  his  Microscope. 

The  milled  head  /  is  for  the  purpose  of  rotating  the  lens-holder 

*  Journ.  R.M.S.,  1900,  p.  283,  fig.  70. 

t  Exhibited  at  the  Great  Exhibition,  1851.     This  movement  is  said  to  havebeen 
applied  to  the  Microscope  many  years  previously  by  Mr.  Julius  Pftge. 

c  2 


Fig.  10. 


20 


Notes. 


on  the  top  of  the  pillar  ;  this  gives  the  lens  a  transverse  motion  in  arc 
across  the  object.  The  idea,  in  those  days,  was  to  move  the  lens  over 
the  object,  so  that  when  infusoria  were  being  examined  they  might 
not  be  disturbed  by  the  movement  of  the  stage. 


llliliil'H'U    7 


d  e 


ft  :tl  illlHIMIIII 

Fig.  17. 

This  Microscope  is  a  stage-focusser ;  a  rough  adjustment  is  ob- 
tained by  sliding  the  mechanism  on  the  rod  by  the  hand,  and  then 
clamping  it  by  a  pinching  screw,  after  the  manner  employed  in  many 
old  Microscopes,  J.  Cuff's  for  example.  The  mechanical  adjustment 
is  by  means  of  an  excentric  strap  on  the  head  of  the  pinion,  in  fact, 
similar  to  the  coarse  adjustment  on  the  Plossl  Microscope  lately  pre- 
sented to  the  Society  by  Sir  Ford  North,  the  difference  being  that, 
while  the  Plossl  has  a  crank-pin  and  a  connecting-rod,  Holtzapffel's 
has  an  excentric. 

The  lenses  were  supplied  by  Andrew  Pritchard. 

The  date  of  this  Microscope  is  1830,  and  in  it  we  find  four  original 
devices: — (1)  The  clamp-foot;  predating  that  of  Varley's  in  1831. 
(2)  The  polished  brass  monochromatic  mirror.  (3)  The  focussing 
movement  by  an  excentric,  which  differs  from  and  predates  the  some- 
what analogous  device  of  Plo?sl.  (4)  The  extension  movement  of  the 
lens-holder  by  a  steel  tape  and  pinion. 


A  Bibliography  of  Works  {dated  not  later  than  1700)  dealing 
icith  the  Microscope  and  other  Optical  Subjects. 

By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

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Basil.  1572.) 

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Bayer,  John  :  Uranometria.     (1603.) 

Bettimis,  Marius  :  De  Apiariis  novissimi.*. 


Notes.  21 

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Gray,  Stephen  :  Phil.  Trans.     (1696.) 

*  Probably  the  earliest  work  on  Microscopical  Objects. 
t  Inventor  of  the  King  Di;il  (1534),  n  form  of  Astrolabe. 


22  Notes. 

Gregory,  David:  Catoptrics  et  Dioptricae  Sphaericae  Elementa. 
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Grindl  ab  Ach,  Johannes  Franciscus:  Micrographia  Nova. 
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Harriot,  Thomas :  examines  Spots  on  the  Sun  through  a 
Telescope.     (July  1609.) 

Harris:  Lexicon  technicum.     (1704.) 

Harsdorffer,  George  Philip:  In  delitiis  Mathematicis. 

Hartsoeker  :  Essay  de  Dioptrique.     (Paris,  1694.) 

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Kepler,  John  :  Astrononiiae  pars  Optica.  (1604.)  Astronomia 
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Kunckelius,  John :  Ars  vitraria. 

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Lai  lis,  Franciscus  Tertius  de:  Magisterium  Naturae  et  Artis. 

Leeuwenhoek,  Antony  van:  Opera  Omnia.  |(Lugduni  et  Delphis 
Batavorum,  1687-1719.)  Translated  from  Dutch  and  Latin  by 
Samuel  Hoole.     (London,  1798-1807.) 

Leibnitz,  Gottfried  Wilhelm  :  The  Principle  of  Optics,  Catoptrics 
and  Dioptrics,  one  and  the  same.     (Leipsic,  1682.) 

Maignan,  Emanuel :  Perspectivum  Horarium. 

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Manzini  :  L'occhiale  all'occhio.     (Bologna,  1660.) 

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Merritt,  Christopher:  translates  the  Ars  vitraria  of  Antonio  Neri. 
(1662.) 


Notes.  23 

Mersenne,  Pere  Marin :  Catoptrics.     (1651.) 

Miscell.  Curiosa.     Langenmantell.     (1G89.) 

Molyneux,  William :  A  Treatise  of  Dioptrics.     (Lond.  1692.) 

Monconys :    Journal  des    voyages  de   Monsieur   de   Monconys. 

<Lyon,  1665.) 

Mouffet,  Thomas  :  Iusectoruni  sive  Minimorum.    (Londini,  1634.) 

Theater  of  Insects.     (London,  1658.) 

Neri,  Antonio :  Ars  vitraria.     v.  Merritt. 

Newton,  Isaac :  Principia.    (Cambridge,  1686.)     Optics.    (1704.) 

Phil.  Trans. 

Porta,  Giambattista  della:    Magia  Naturalis.    (1569.)      De  re- 

fractione.     (1593.) 

Power,  Dr.  Henry  :  Experimental  Philosophy.*     (1664.) 
Ptolemy,  Claudius  (140) :  Almagest.   (Translation,  Venice,  1515.) 
Eecorde,  Robert:  Pathway  to  Knowledge.     (London.  1551.) 
Redi,  Francesco  :    Experienzo  intorno.     (Firenze,  1668.)     Ex- 

perimenta   circa   generationem   Insectorum.      (Amstelodami,    1671.) 

Opusculorum.     (Amstelodami,  1686.) 

Regius,  Henricus  :  Fundamentum  Physicae. 

Rheita,  Antonius  Maria  Schyrlaeus  de:  Oculus  Enoch  et  Eliae. 

(Antwerp,  1645.) 

Riccioli,  Giovanni  Battista:  Almagestum  Novum. 

Roemer,  Ole :  discovers  Velocity  of  Light.     (1676.) 

Scheiner,  Christopher  :  Oculus  et  Rosa  ursina.     (1630.) 

Schott,  Gaspar:   Magia  Universalis.     (Herbipol.  1657.)     Tech- 

nica  Curiosa.     (Herbipol.  1687.) 

Schrader,  Friedrich  :  De  Microscopiorum  usu.     (Gotting.  1681.) 
Sirturus:  Telescopium  sive  ars  perspiciendi  etc.    (Francof.  1618.) 
Snell,  Willebrord :  Discovers  law  of  Refraction.     (Circa  1621.) 
Stellutus,  Franciscus :    Apiarium   ex  frontispiciis  etc.    (Romae, 

1625.) 

Sturm,  Johann  Christoph :  Collegium  Experimentale  sive  Curio- 
sum.     (Norimb.  1676). 

Swammerdam,     Johannes  :      Histoire     generale     des    Insectes. 

(Utrecht,  1685.) 

Traber,  Zacharias  :  Nervus  Opticus.     (Vienna,  1675.) 
Vitellio  (1260) :  Thesaurus  Opticas.     (Norimb.  1535.) 
Vopiscus,  Fortunatus  Plembius  :  Ophthalmographia. 
Voss,   Isaac:    De   lucis   Natura   et   Proprietate.      (Amsterdam, 

1662.)     Responsio  ad  Objectiones  etc.     (Hagae  Com.  1663.) 

Willis,  Thomas:    De  Anima   brutorum   et   De   Fermentatione. 

(Amsterdam,  1682.) 

Zahn,  John:    Oculus   Artificialis.       (Herbip.    1685.      2nd   ed. 

Norimb.  1702.) 

Zucchius,  Nicholas :  De  Optica  philosophia.     (Lugd.  1652.) 

*  The  earliest  English  work  on  ihc  Microscope. 


24 


OBITUAEY. 

Henry  George  Madan,  M.A., 
Fellow  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford. 

Died  Dec.  22,  1901,  aged  63. 

Although  not  a  Fellow  of  this  Society,  Mr.  Madan  contributed 
several  valuable  papers  to  our  Journal.  His  researches  on  Dense 
Mounting  Media  will  be  remembered  by  many  Fellows ;  but  probably 
few  are  aware  that  he  was  the  first  to  point  out  the  value  of  "  Signal  " 
green  glass  as  a  screen  for  Microscope  work.  He  was  also  the 
designer  of  a  polarising  prism.  Shortly  after  reading  his  last  paper 
he  met  with  an  accident,  being  crushed  by  a  railway  truck ;  although 
he  made  light  of  it,  he  really  never  got  over  the  effects  of  this  serious 
accident.  He  was  a  genuine  worker,  and  his  genial  companionship 
will  be  missed  by  all  who  knew  him. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  his  papers  published  in  our  Journal : — 
A  Modification  of  Barker's  Selenite  Holder.     (1883,  p.  718.) 
A  Method  of  Isolating  Elue  Eays.     (1885,  p.  327.) 
A  Modification    of  Foucault's   and   Ahrens'    Polarising  Prism. 
(1885,  p.  328.)  _ 

On  some  High  Eefractive  Organic  Substances.     (1898,  p.. 273.) 
On  a  Method  of  Increasing  the  Stability  of  Quinidine.     (1901, 
p.  246.) 

On  the  Spectrum  of  Piperine.     (1901,  p.  603.") 


SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

KKLATIXG    TO 

ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY 

(principally  invertebrata  and  cryptogamia), 

MICROSCOPY    Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 
a.  Embryology,  f 

Function  of  Corpus  Luteum  in  Relation  to  Insertion  of  Ova  in 
Uterus4 — Dr.  L.  Fraenkel  and  F.  Cohn  have  made  a  number  of  experi- 
ments which  support  an  interesting  theory  suggested  by  the  late  Prof. 
G.  Born  shortly  before  his  death.  The  theory  was  that  the  corpus 
luteum  had  in  part  a  glandular  significance,  secreting  into  the  blood 
substances  which  prepare  the  uterus  for  the  attachment  of  the  ovum, 
and  give  an  impulse  to  the  changes  associated  with  pregnancy. 

The  authors  regard  the  following  facts  concerning  the  rabbit's  sexual 
processes  as  certain  : — (1)  On  the  day  of  parturition  (  Wurf)  an  ovulation 
occurs,  and  a  large  number  of  ripe  follicles  burst ;  (2)  on  this  day  the 
doe  readily  yields  to  the  buck  ;  (3)  the  insemination  is  fertile  in  about 
00  p.c.  of  cases  ;  (4)  the  fertilisation  of  the  ova  follows  within  24  hours 
in  the  Fallopian  tubo ;  and  (5)  the  insertion  of  the  ova  in  the  uterus  is 
effected  in  about  six  days.  By  removing  both  ovaries  during  these 
six  days  the  authors  pre  vented  pregnancy  in  the  thirteen  cases  experi- 
mented on.  To  the  objection  that  the  severity  of  the  disturbance  might 
be  a  sufficient  cause  of  the  absence  of  pregnancy,  they  answer  that,  when 
one  ovary  was  removed,  in  nine  cases  pregnancy  occurred  in  two-thirds 
of  the  cases.  They  conclude  that  the  ovary,  besides  being  an  egg-pro- 
ducing organ,  has  a  glandular  function  associated  with  pregnancy. 

After  removal  of  both  ovaries,  they  injected  corpus-luteum-extract, 
but  no  conclusive  results  followed  from  this  experiment.  With  a 
galvanocaustic  needle  they  destroyed  all  the  corpora  lutea  in  eight 
cases,  and  no  pregnancy  occurred.  There  seems  some  basis,  therefore, 
for  the  theory  that  the  lutein-tissua  is  essential  in  preparing  the  uterus 
for  the  implantation  of  the  ova. 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denrted  by  tbe  editorial  "  we,"  and  they  do 
not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  tbe  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers  noted, 
nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  l>y  them.  The  object  of  this  part  of 
the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  published,  and  1o 
describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  &c,  which  are  eitber  new  orhavi 
not  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

t  This  section  "includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  bo  called, 
but  also  those  dealing  with  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  and  allied  subject*. 

%  Anat.  Anzcig.,  xx.  (1001)  pp.  294-300. 


26  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Note  on  the  History  of  Merogony.* — Prof.  A.  Giard  points  out 
that  the  first  to  discover  the  possibility  of  merogony  was  J.  Rostafinski,| 
who  experimented  on  the  ovum  of  Funis.  A  useful  summary  of  his 
paper  is  given.  The  method  used  was  bruising  and  cutting.  Prof. 
Giard  also  recalls  Balbiani's  experiments  on  merotomy  of  Infusorians, 
but  concludes  that  merogony  was  first  demonstrated  in  plants  by  Kosta- 
finski  (1877)  and  in  animals  b}*  Boveri  (1885). 

Influence  of  Spermotoxin  on  the  Fertilising  Power  of  Spermato- 
zoa.!— Mile.  C.  de  Leslie  injected  male  white  mice  with  spermotoxic 
serum  furnished  by  the  guinea-pig,  and  found  that  sterility  resulted, 
lasting  for  16-20  days.  There  was  no  effect  on  the  sexual  appetite  or 
on  the  spermatogenetic  function,  but  the  spermatozoa  had  lost  their 
fertilising  power. 

Germ-layers  of  Vertebrates.§ — Prof.  Oscar  Hertwig  returns  to  the 
discussion  of  some  contested  points  in  regard  to  this  subject.  The  first 
of  these  has  reference  to  the  question  as  to  what  represents  the  gastrula 
in  the  development  of  the  three  highest  vertebrate  classes.  The  author 
believes  that,  to  decide  this  point,  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  two 
phases  in  gastrulation  in  the  Anamnia.  The  first  phase,  that  in  which 
the  layer  lining  the  future  intestine  is  formed,  cannot  be  said  to  be 
•definitely  represented  in  Amniota  ;  but  the  second,  that  in  which  the 
mesoblast  and  notochord  originate  from  cells  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
blastopore  lip,  is  distinctly  shown,  and  may  be  emphasised  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  small  invaginations,  such  as  those  of  the  embryonic  shield 
in  certain  reptiles. 

The  second  disputed  question  is  the  part  played  by  the  blastopore 
in  the  formation  of  the  Vertebrate  body.  Hertwig  believes  that  the 
lips  of  the  blastopore  fuse  together  in  front  along  the  middle  line,  and 
at  the  same  time  go  on  growing  backwards  so  long  as  the  body  continues 
to  increase  in  length.  He  thus  holds  that  the  blastopore  is  an  important 
factor  in  the  formation  of  the  dorsal  region  of  the  embryo ;  while  some 
other  embryologists  believe  that  the  increase  in  length  of  the  embryo 
is  due  to  a  special  zone  of  growth  in  front  of  the  blastopore.  Hertwig 
flnds  confirmation  of  his  own  view  in  the  malformation  known  as  spina 
bifida,  which  is  most  readily  explained  as  due  to  want  of  fusion  of  the 
lips  of  the  blastopore. 

Origin  of  Cerebral  Hemispheres.[|  —  Prof.  F.  K.  Studnicka  main- 
tains that  the  cerebral  hemispheres  have  from  the  first  a  paired  origin, 
which  is  by  no  means  the  general  conclusion.  The  cerebral  hemi- 
spheres arise  from  the  upper  portions  of  the  lateral  walls  of  the  primi- 
tive first  vesicle,  and  are  as  truly  paired,  as  the  eyes  are.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  admitted  that  the  median  anterior  portion  of  the  first  vesicle 
may  grow  forward  into  an  "  epencephalon." 

Development  of  Tongue  in  Man.^f — J.  Aug.  Hammar  finds  that  the 
tuberculum  impar  is  not  the  rudiment  of  the  tip  and  body  of  the  tongue, 

*  Comptes  Rendus  Soc.  Biol.,  Oct.  10,  1901,  3  pp. 
t  Osobne  odhicie  z  Kozpraw  Akad.  Umiejet,  1877. 
X  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  514-6. 
§  SB.  Akad.  Wiss.  Berlin,  xxiv.  (1901)  pp.  52S-33. 

I!  SB.  bohmisch.  Ges.  Wiss.,  1901,  33  pp.  mid  11  figs.  See  Zool.  Centralbl.,  viii. 
{1901)  pp.  776-7.  If  Annt.  Anzeig.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  570-5. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  27 

but  is  a  structure  of  transitory  nature.  The  root  of  the  tongue  develops 
from  the  ventral  ends  of  two  visceral  arches,  the  third  arch  playing  no 
part  in  its  formation.  The  large  salivary  glands  develop  in  the  follow- 
ing order : — parotid,  suh-maxillary,  sub-lingual. 

Development  of  Pig's  Intestine.*  —  Dr.  J.  B.  MacCallum  has  dis- 
sected numerous  pig  embryos  of  sizes  varying  from  12  mm.  to  12  cm. 
The  various  loops  were  modelled  with  copper  wire.  At  an  early  stage 
the  gut  consists  of  an  uncoiled  tube  which  sends  a  single  loop  out  into 
the  coelom  of  the  umbilical  cord.  The  first  half  of  the  loop  is  on  the 
right  side,  and  gives  rise  to  the  small  intestine.  From  the  other  half  is 
formed  the  large  intestine.  The  gut  increases  in  length  by  the  forma- 
tion of  regular  loops,  which  grow  around  an  axis  corresponding  with 
that  of  the  cord  and  the  large  intestine.  These  loops  form  first  in  the 
part  which  is  to  become  the  small  intestine.  They  also  develop  in  the 
part  of  the  small  intestine  near  the  stomach  before  they  appear  in  the 
cord.  Up  to  a  certain  stage  the  further  growth  in  complexity  is  greatest 
near  the  stomach.  After  the  small  intestine  has  become  considerably 
coiled,  a  mass  of  loops  is  formed  in  the  large  intestine.  In  embryos 
between  35  mm.  and  40  mm.  in  length  the  group  of  coils  which  has 
formed  in  the  coelom  of  the  cord  enters  the  general  body-cavity  by  a 
mechanism  which  is  not  clearly  understood.  In  embryos  of  the  above 
sizes  the  coils  are  constant  in  arrangement  and  definite  in  their  posi- 
tion ;  in  older  embryos  the  groups  of  coils  always  hold  the  same  relative 
position  in  the  body.  These  groups  arrive  at  their  final  situation  by  a 
rotation  which  takes  place  posteriorly  and  to  tho  right  round  an  axis, 
running  from  the  beginning  of  the  duodenum  to  a  point  a  short  distance 
posterior  to  the  opening  of  the  cord. 

Variations  in  the  Aortic  Arches  and  the  Origin  of  Arteries  in 
Reptiles. f — F.  Hochstettor  has  observed  and  collected  a  large  number 
of  cases  which  he  arranges  iu  four  groups: — (1)  Cases  in  which  the 
obliteration  of  the  ductus  Botalli  is  partial  or  has  not  been  effected,  on 
one  side  or  on  both  sides  ;  (2)  cases  of  supposed  or  real  persistence  of 
a  ductus  caroticus  (the  region  of  the  dorsal  aortic  root  between  the 
openings  of  the  third  and  fourth  aortic  arches),  on  one  side  or  on  both 
sides ;  (3)  cases  in  which  certain  portions  of  the  carotid  system  which 
normally  disappear  are  persistent ;  (4)  cases  in  which  certain  portions 
of  the  aortic  system  which  normally  persist  are  obliterated. 

Development  of  Axial  Skeleton  in  Amphibia.:}: — W.  Kapelkin  has 
studied  the  embryos  of  various  species  of  Triton,  Salamandra,  Ac,  with 
the  special  object  of  deciding  some  of  the  disputed  questions  in  regard 
to  the  number  and  origin  of  the  sheaths  of  the  notochord,  and  the  part 
played  by  its  elements  in  forming  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae,  together 
with  some  other  points.  He  finds  that  the  central  cells  of  the  notochord 
•early  become  vacuolated  and  degenerate,  but  the  peripheral  cells  persist, 
and  form  the  so-called  notochord  epithelium,  v\hich  forms  the  thin  noto- 
chordal  sheath  on  its  outer  surface.  This  sheath  later  splits  into  two, 
the  inner  fibrous  and  the  outer  elastic  sheath  (clastica  externa).     Mean- 

*  Bull.  Johns  Hopkins  IIosp.,  xii.  (1001)  pp.  102-8  (2  pis.  and  19  fi<js.). 
+  Morph.  Jalirb.,  xxix.  <  IDul)  pp.  415-38  (1  pi.). 
:  J  Bull.  Soc.  Imp.  Nut.  Mosoou,  1900  (published  1901)  pp.  433-48  (2  pis.). 


28  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

time,  the  surrounding  connective  tissue  (skeletogenous  layer)  has  formed 
a  homogeneous  sheath — the  cuticula  6celeti  or  skeletogenous  sheath.  Tho 
fibrous  sheath  is  thickened  intervertebrally,  where  the  notochordal  epi- 
thelium is  also  better  developed  than  round  the  future  vertebra.  When 
these  sheaths  are  fully  differentiated  round  the  notochord,  a  mass  of  cells 
appears  between  the  notochord  and  the  medullary  canal,  in  the  regions 
which  form  the  future  vertebrae.  These  cells  spread  above  the  nerve- 
cord,  become  cartilaginous,  and  form  the  superior  arches  of  the  verte- 
bras ;  together  with  the  skeletogenous  sheath  they  form  bone.  At  the 
same  time  the  perichordal  tissue  forms  intervertebral  swellings,  whoso 
cells  rupture  the  skeletogenous  sheath  in  three  places,  and  come  to  lie 
between  it  and  the  underlying  elastic  sheath.  They  there  form  the 
intervertebral  cartilage,  and,  as  Gadow  first  showed,  are  the  homologues 
of  the  interdorsalia  and  interventralia  of  other  Anamnia.  The  cells  of 
the  intervertebral  cartilage  spread  backwards  and  forwards  from  their 
points  of  entrance,  splitting  the  skeletogenous  sheath  from  the  elastica 
externa,  and  increasing  more  and  more  in  number,  and  finally  by  division 
into  two  halves,  form  the  articular  surfaces  between  the  contiguous 
vertebras.  At  the  time  when  this  occurs,  the  cells  of  the  notochordal 
epithelium  in  the  region  of  the  vertebrae  proliferate  and  form  the  plugs 
of  cartilage  within  the  vertebrae,  which  have  thus  no  connection  with 
the  intervertebral  cartilage,  but  originate  from  notochordal  cells. 

Dorsal  Groove  and  Dorsal  Suture  in  Gastrula  of  Triton.* — Prof. 
Hermann  Braus  finds  that  his  statement  that  in  the  embryo  of  Triton 
alpe8tris  a  primitive  or  dorsal  groove  and  a  dorsal  suture  (blastopore 
suture  of  Semon),  occur  on  the  future  dorsal  region,  has  been  disputed 
by  Rothig,  who  investigated  T.  tseniatus.  He  therefore  figures  the  ap- 
pearances observed  in  both  living  and  preserved  eggs  of  T.  alpestris ;  in 
both  cases  the  structures  mentioned  can  be  clearly  seen  during  certain 
stages. 

Larva  of  Plethodon  cinereus.  f —  Dr.  T.  H.  Montgomery,  jun.,  de- 
scribes the  terrestrial  larvae  of  this  American  Urodele.  He  found  five 
eggs  beneath  a  stone  with  the  female  curled  round  them.  The  eggs 
were  of  relatively  large  size,  and  contained  larvae  with  threo  pairs  of 
gills,  and  the  limbs  fully  formed.  The  posterior  limbs  were  larger  than 
the  anterior.  The  eggs  showed  a  large  yolk-mass,  round  which  the 
larvae  were  curled,  but  close  examination  showed  that  this  is  not  a  yolk- 
sac,  but  an  integral  part  of  the  intestine.  The  anterior  and  posterior 
regions  of  the  intestine  are  both  tubular,  but  the  middle  region  is  made 
up  of  large  yolk-cells. 

Development  of  Frog's  Retina.:}: — Dr.  Luigi  Barbadoro  finds  that 
all  the  layers  of  the  retina  increase  in  size  in  Rana  esculenta  during  the 
passage  from  the  larval  to  the  adult  state.  He  gives  a  table  showing 
the  thickness  of  the  whole  retina,  and  of  each  of  its  constituent  layers, 
in  various  stages  of  development  from  specimens  of  5  mm.  in  length,  to 
adults  of  65  mm.  The  cells  of  all  the  strata  multiply,  and  their  nuclei 
increase  in  number,  and  change  in  form  and  size. 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1901)  pp.  238-40  (5  figs.). 

+  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1901.  pp.  503-8  (1  pi.). 

X  Anut.  Anzeig.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  597-601  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  29 

Reminiscence  of  Holoblastic  Cleavage  in  Ovum  of  Cestracion.* — 
Prof.  Bashford  Dean  notes  the  interesting  fact  that  in  the  eggs  of  Hetero- 
dontus  (Cestracion)  japonicus,  the  surface  which  keeps  uppermost,  the 
animal  pole,  is  traversed  by  definite  and  sharply  marked  lines,  separating 
areas  resembling  the  blastomeres  in  a  late  cleavage  stage  of  Lepidosteus, 
and  easily  visible  from  a  distance  of  six  or  seven  feet.  The  red-coloured 
germinal  disc  is  further  down  the  side  of  the  egg. 

The  author  presents  the  arguments  for  and  against  regarding  the 
lines  as  reminiscent  of  holoblastic  cleavage,  and  concludes  that  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  lines  are  cleavage  lines.  We  can  thus  con- 
clude that  the  great  size  of  the  eggs  of  sharks  was  attained  before  total 
cleavage  became  lost ;  and  that  the  yolk  region  of  such  eggs  is  homo- 
logous with  the  lower  pole-cells  in  other  Ichthyopsids. 

Ophthalmic  Nerves  of  Mustelus  laevis.f— E.  P.  Allis,  jun.,  has  made 
a  useful  analytic  study  of  the  ophthalmic  nerves  in  this  Selachian  and  in 
other  fishes.  It  is  well  known  that  there  are  in  fishes  several  ophthalmic 
nerves  between  which  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish.  While  their  exact 
interhomologies  cannot  as  yet  be  definitely  affirmed,  certain  very  probable 
homologies  can  be  arrived  at,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  problem 
has  been  advanced  towards  solution  by  Mr.  Allis's  investigation. 

Development  of  Olfactory  Organ  of  Ammocoetes4 — Dr.  W.  Lubosch 
finds  that  the  olfactory  organ  arises  from  an  ectodermic  thickening  which 
lies  exactly  in  the  position  of  the  last  connection  between  brain  and 
ectoderm.  In  Bdellostoma,  according  to  Kupffer,  the  olfactory  plate 
appears  ventrally  to  the  neuropore,  and  the  author  suggests  that  the 
difference  is  due  to  differences  in  the  rate  of  development  of  the  anterior 
point  of  the  head  in  the  two  types,  in  other  words,  to  a  difference  in  the 
time  of  closure  of  the  neuropore.  Lubosch  discusses  the  relation  of  his 
observations  to  the  comparison  which  Legros  has  elaborated  between  the 
head  in  Amphioxus  and  in  Ammocoetes. 

Relation  of  Metameric  Segmentation  in  Petromyzon  to  that  in 
Amphioxus  and  in  Higher  Craniota.§ — Prof.  S.  Hatta  directs  attention 
to  the  close  resemblance  between  the  history  of  the  mesoblast  in  Petro- 
myzon and  in  Amphioxus.  In  its  earlier  stages  the  differentiation  of  the 
mesoblast  in  Petromyzon  is  exactly  parallel  with  that  in  Amphioxus, 
while  in  later  stages  it  shows  the  features  seen  in  the  higher  Craniota. 
"  We  can  thus  observe  in  one  and  the  same  animal,  Petromyzon,  the 
stages  through  which  the  primitive  state  of  the  mesoblast  in  Amphioxus 
has  developed  into  the  condition  in  the  higher  Craniota."  Thus  the 
lamprey  is  in  this  respect  a  connecting  link. 

Influence  on  Offspring  of  Injecting  Toxins  into  Parents.  || — A. 
Charrin  and  G.  Delamare  experimented  with  rabbits  of  both  sexes,  and 
found  that  the  injection  of  bacterial  toxins  was  apt  to  be  followed  by 
abortion,  death  at  birth,  nanism,  rachitism,  and  various  malformations. 
Even  digestive  ferments  were  followed  by  abnormal  results,  and  the 

*  Annot.  Zool.  Jason.,  iv.  (1901)  pp.  35-41  (1  pi.). 

t  Qnart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlv.  (19(11)  pp.  87-236  (3  pis.). 

X  Morph.  Jabrb.,  xxix.  (1901)  pp.  402-14  (4  figs.). 

§  Annot.  Zool.  Jnpon.,  iv.  (1901)  pp.  43-7. 

II   Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  955-7. 


30  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

authors   refer   especially  to    nodular    tuberculiform    growths  (pseudo- 
tuberculosis), apparently  occurring  apart  from  bacterial  infection. 

Embryological  Methods.*  —  Sandor  Kaestner  discusses  in  an  intro- 
ductory lecture  the  history  of  embryology,  and  emphasises  the  transition 
from  a  morphological  to  an  experimental  basis.  Modern  regeneration- 
experiments  and  teratogenetic  experiments  represent  the  high-water 
mark.  The  recapitulation-doctrine  was  a  powerful  impulse  for  a  time, 
but  the  conception  of  Entwicklungsmechanih,  so  prominently  associated 
with  the  work  of  Roux,  is  now  dominant. 

b.  Histolog-y. 

Brain  of  Mustelus.f — Prof.  G.  H.  Houser  has  made  a  detailed  study 
of  the  structure  of  the  brain  in  this  Selachian,  with  particular  reference 
to  the  neurones  and  supporting  elements.  We  must  restrict  ourselves 
to  noticing  his  most  general  conclusion.  There  is  a  most  remarkable 
structural  similarity  between  the  brain  of  Mustelus  and  the  brains  of 
higher  vertebrates.  The  neurones  are,  of  course,  simpler  in  their  external 
structure,  and  their  architectural  relations  are  of  a  far  less  complicated 
order,  yet  it  is  none  the  less  true  that  they  anticipate  the  conditions 
found  in  higher  vertebrates  in  all  important  particulars.  The  fact  can 
only  be  interpreted  to  mean  that  the  nervous  system  of  the  primitive 
vertebrate  had  its  essentials  of  organisation  well  denned  before  the 
divergence  of  the  several  phyla  occurred. 

The  cerebellum  is  far  more  highly  differentiated  than  that  of  am- 
phibian or  reptile ;  the  medulla  oblongata,  on  the  contrary,  has  retained 
the  plan  of  structure  of  the  primitive  neural  tube  without  the  inter- 
vention of  profound  changes ;  a  more  extreme  degree  of  simplicity  is 
found  in  the  inter-brain  or  thalamencephalon ;  the  fore-brain  is  far  in 
advance  of  that  of  teleosts  or  ganoids. 

These  illustrations  point  to  an  underlying  principle.  The  organi- 
sation of  the  brain  is  the  expression  of  the  adjustment  which  has  con- 
stantly taken  place  between  the  race  of  animals  and  the  stimuli  to  which 
they  have  been  subjected.  Hence  it  is  that  the  cerebellum  of  Mustelus 
is  so  highly  organised ;  for  this  is  the  correlative  of  the  powerful 
swimming  capacity  of  the  animal,  requiring  an  adequate  mechanism  of 
equ  libration.  The  fore-brain,  with  its  luxurious  development  of 
neurones,  has  arisen  in  connection  with  the  large  place  occupied  by 
olfactory  impressions  in  the  Selachii. 

Skin-Glands  of  Amphibians.^ — Dr.  P.  Ancel  shows  that  these  glands 
have  an  ectodermic  origin.  The  pi'imordium,  arising  from  the  cells  of 
the  deep  layer  of  the  epidermis,  protrudes  into  the  dermis,  and  comes  to 
be  surrounded  by  it  except  at  the  upper  pole.  The  excretory  canal  is 
formed  from  a  depression  of  the  stratum  corneum  between  several  epi- 
dermic cells.  As  to  the  "  collar,"  it  is  formed  secondarily  at  the  union 
of  ti»e  epidermis  and  glandular  bud,  and  is  from  the  very  first  dis- 
tinguishable into  an  internal  and  external  portion.     Precisely  the  same 

*  Embryologische  Forschungsmethoden.  Antrittsvorlesung,  Leipzig,  1900.  30  pp. 
See  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxi.  (1901)  p.  683. 

t  Journ.  Comp.  Neurol.,  xi.  (1901)  pp.  65-175  (8  pis.). 
t  Arch.  Biol.,  xviii.  (1901)  pp.  257-89  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICHOSUOPV,   ETC.  31 

mode  of  development  was  seen  in  both  kinds  of  gland  (large  aud  small) 
in  the  salamander's  skin.  The  large  poison-glands  must  be  described 
as  more  perfectly  differentiated  towards  a  special  function.  Dr.  Ancel 
maintains  that  even  the  smooth  muscle-fibres  which  penetrate  into  the 
epidermis  arise  from  epidermic  cells;  they  do  not  assume  their  elongated 
form  until  the  bud  has  penetrated  into  the  dermis,  and  they  remain  (in 
the  adult)  united  to  neighbouring  epidermic  cells  by  protoplasmic 
bridges. 

Structure  of  Herbst's  Corpuscles  in  the  Sparrow  and  Fowl.*— 
Guido  Sala,  by  the  use  of  chloride  of  gold,  has  succeeded  in  demonstrating 
that  the  stroma  of  these  corpuscles  does  not  consist,  as  has  been  hitherto 
supposed,  of  the  union  of  concentrically  arranged  lamellae  of  connective 
tissue,  but  is  formed  of  a  thick  network  of  skein-like  twisted  fibres,  in 
whose  meshes  the  connective-tissue  cells  are  placed. 

c.  General. 

Chemical  Basis  of  Variation.!, — Armand  Gautier  returns  to  the  thesis 
of  a  well-kuown  memoir  which  he  published  in  1886, — that  the  variations 
which  mark  the  beginning  of  a  new  variety  are  detectable  even  in  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  cells,  and  that  they  may  appear  suddenly 
without  intermediate  steps.  He  brings  for  ward  some  fresh  facts  support- 
ing this  view.  The  plant  or  animal  organism  may  exhibit  important 
variations  with  some  abruptness ;  these  variations  have  their  basis  in 
changes  in  the  plasmic  molecules  of  particular  organs,  and  these  plasmic 
changes  are  referable  to  the  reciprocal  influence  of  other  plasmas,  and  to 
a  less  extent  to  changes  in  environment  and  nutrition. 

Two  States  of  Living  Matter.:}: — Felix  Le  Dantec  argues  in  support 
of  the  hypothesis  that  there  is  a  fundamental  and  widespread  occurrence 
of  cellular  dimorphism,  of  units  with  n  chromosomes  and  units  with  2  n 
chromosomes,  as  seen  in  the  contrast  between  the  cells  of  sporophyte  and 
gamophyte  in  ferns,  between  somatic  cells  and  germ-cells  in  animals. 
He  applies  his  idea  to  the  phenomena  of  maturation  and  fertilisation. 

Effect  of  Light  on  Animals.  §  — Prof.  W.  A.  Nagel  gives  a  critical 
resume  of  recent  research  on  this  subject,  with  special  reference  to  the 
comparisons  which  have  been  made  between  plants  and  animals  in  respect 
to  their  reaction  to  light.  He  applies  the  term  phototropism  to  the 
peculiarity  displayed  by  many  sedentary  organisms  or  special  organs,  of 
taking  up  a  fixed  position  in  regard  to  light,  by  means  of  bending 
movements,  movements  of  growth  or  of  torsion.  On  the  other  hand, 
phototaxis  is  the  peculiarity  displayed  by  free-swimming  organisms  of 
orienting  the  body  so  as  to  place  its  long  axis  in  a  definite  relation  to  the 
direction  of  the  rays,  and  of  retaining  ibis  position,  if  movement  ensues, 
during  progression  through  the  surrounding  medium.  In  both  cases  a 
positive  and  negative  form  of  the  phenomena  can  be  distinguished. 
Eothert  has  given  the  name  of  "  apobatic  phototaxis  "  to  that  suscepti- 
bility to  alterations  of  intensity  (Unterschiedsempfindliclikeit)  which  is  so 
pronounced  in,  e.g.  Amphioxus,  many  tube-inhabiting  worms,  burrowing 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xis.  (1901)  pp.  095-6  (1  pi.). 

t  Connotes  Kendus,  cxsxiii.  (1901)  pp.  570-2.         J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  698-700. 

§  Bot.  Ztg.,  lix.  (1901)  pp.  289-99. 


32  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

molluscs,  and  soon  ;  but  the  author  regards  this  combination  as  unjusti- 
fiable, and  prefers  simply  to  speak  of  a  susceptibility  to  differences  of 
intensity.  Again,  certain  animals  respond  to  light- changes,  either  by 
active  movements  or  by  a  cessation  of  the  usual  movements  :  to  such  cases 
the  author  would  apply  the  term  photoJcinetic.  Certain  burrowing  molluscs, 
for  instance,  display  great  activity  if  entirely  exposed  to  light,  but  become 
quiescent  if  in  darkness,  e.g.  within  their  burrows. 

Outlines  of  General  Anatomy.  *  —Prof.  Fr.  Eeinke  has  written  an 
introduction  to  anatomy  from  a  biological  basis.  He  discusses  the  cell- 
theory,  the  life  of  cells,  functional  adaptation,  regulative  processes  in 
growth  and  regeneration,  correlation,  and  so  on, — in  short,  not  anatomy, 
but  the  biological  prolegomena. 

Segmentation  of  the  Vertebrate  Body.f — Prof.  Patterson  considers 
that  too  much  stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  occurrence  of  segmentation 
in  various  organs  of  the  Chordata.  He  believes  that  it  is  really  a  secondary 
process  in  vertebrate  architecture,  and  emphasises  the  number  of  impor- 
tant organs  which  form  a  longitudinal  series,  such  as  notochord,  central 
nervous  system,  alimentary  canal,  vascular  and  genital  systems,  and  are 
only  secondarily  and  partially  affected  by  the  process  of  segmentation. 
Even  where  structures  are  distinctly  segmented,  the  process  is  often 
incomplete,  e.g.  in  regard  to  the  vertebral  column.  Segmentation  is 
suppressed  in  the  sacrum  in  most  mammals,  and  in  the  cervical  region  in 
certain  Cetacea.  In  brief,  the  process  of  segmentation  is  superadded 
to  the  still  more  fundamental  style  of  architecture,  the  longitudinal 
tubular  arrangement  of  the  essential  organs  of  the  body. 

Mechanical  Theory  of  Vision4  —  Antoine  Pizon  refers  to  some  of 
the  difficulties  which  beset  the  theory  that  in  vision  light  has  a  chemical 
action  on  the  retinal  purple  with  which  the  rods  are  impregnated.  He 
refers  to  the  absence  of  the  retinal  purple  in  Invertebrates  and  in  the 
fovea  lutea  of  Vertebrates,  to  the  absence  of  both  rods  and  purple  in 
snakes,  to  the  absence  of  purple  in  pigeons,  bats,  and  albinos.  After 
prolonged  exposure  to  bright  light,  the  retinal  purple  is  destroyed  in 
frogs,  but  the  animals  seem  still  to  see  as  usual. 

Pizon  maintains  that  the  pigment-granules  are  influenced  by  the 
light,  not  chemically,  but  so  as  to  exhibit  a  vibratory  movement,  which 
they  transmit  to  the  cones  or  rods  with  which  they  find  themselves  in 
contact.  He  refers  to  Bernard's  recent  theory,  and  gives  evidence  in 
support  of  his  own,  that  the  phototactic  granules  move  under  the  influence 
of  light,  and  transmit  their  movements  to  contiguous  visual  cells. 

Correlation  of  Colouring  in  Liver,  Skin,  and  Hairs.§— N.  Floresco 
has  previously  shown  (1)  that  a  snail  with  a  dark  shell  has  a  dark 
mantle  and  a  dark  liver ;  that  a  snail  with  a  yellowish-grey  shell  has  an 
almost  transparent  mantle  and  a  yellowish  liver,  and  that  there  are 
intermediate  gradations ;  (2)  that  there  is  more  iron  in  the  livers  and 

*  Grundziige  der  allgerueinen  Anatomie.  Zur  Vorbereitung  auf  das  Studium 
•der  Medizin  nach  biologiscben  Gesicbtspunkten  bearbeitet,  Wiesbaden,  1901,  xxii. 
and  339  pp.  and  64  figs. 

t  Proc.  Liverpool  Biol.  Soc,  xv.  (published  1901),  pp.  3-18. 

%  Comptea  Rendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  835-7.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  828-30. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  33 

mantles  of  snails  with  dark  shells  thau  in  those  of  snails  with  light- 
coloured  shells. 

He  now  extends  bis  observations  to  dogs  and  cats.  Again  tbere 
seems  to  be  correlation.  The  liver  and  the  skin  of  the  animals  with 
dark  bair  contain  almost  twice  as  much  iron  and  pigment  as  those  with 
light  hair. 

Blue  and  Green  Coloration  in  Skin  of  Vertebrates.  *  —  Messrs. 
Camichel  and  Mandoul  have  made  a  physical  study  of  some  of  the  blue 
and  green  colorations  familiar  in  mackerel,  dragonet,  frog,  lizard,  throat 
of  casuary,  snout  of  mandrill,  &c.  The  blue  coloration  is  due  to  a 
black  pigment,  and  analogous  phenomena  can  be  obtained  from  Chinese 
ink  and  the  like.  In  the  case  of  tbe  green  colorations,  there  is  a 
yellow  pigment  in  addition  to  the  black  one.  It  is  suggested  that  the 
value  of  tbe  coloration  is  as  a  screen  which  admits  useful  rays,  but  is 
impermeable  to  those  which  would  injuriously  affect  the  skin.  In  short, 
tbe  coloration  is  functionally  protective. 

Cervical  Glands  of  Marsupials. f — James  Johnstone  has  examined  a 
young  male  of  a  species  of  Dendrolagus  and  a  male  of  Acrobates  pyg- 
mse-us,  in  order  to  find  out  whether  the  peculiar  superficial  cervical 
thymus,  described  in  certain  other  Diprotodonts,  is  also  present  in  these 
cases.  In  the  first-named,  he  finds  that  the  cervical  thymus  is  large  and 
two-lobed ;  it  exceeds  in  size  the  typical  thoracic  thymus.  In  Acrobates, 
the  organ  appeared  to  be  absent,  but  close  examination  showed  that  it 
was  bound  up  with  a  portion  of  the  sub-maxillary,  being  enclosed  in  the 
same  sheath  as  this  gland.  Comparing  these  cases  with  those  of  other 
marsupials  previously  examined,  it  appears  certain  that  in  Diprotodonts 
generally  this  cervical  thymus  is  present,  while  in  Polyprotodonts,  as  in 
other  mammals,  it  is  absent.  Too  little  is  known  of  tbe  development  of 
the  cervical  thymus  to  make  it  possible  as  yet  to  draw  any  general 
conclusion  as  to  the  meaning  of  its  presence. 

Parafibula  in  Marsupials.  J — Dr.  A.  Banchi  has  previously  described 
in  various  Lacertilians  a  skeletal  element  whose  primitive  position  is  on 
the  external  side  of  the  fibulo-femoral  articulation.  Ho  finds  distinct 
evidence  of  the  same  in  the  embryos  of  two  Marsupials,  Pseudechinus 
archerii  and  Halmaturus  tlietidis,  and  in  the  young  of  Macropus  anti- 
lopinus. 

Hibernation  of  Bats.§ — H.  Eulot  finds  (1)  that  the  proportion  of 
water  in  the  body  increases  from  November  to  April,  though  there  is 
absolute  loss,  especially  towards  the  end  of  the  hibernation ;  (2)  that 
the  absolute  and  relative  weight  of  fat  diminishes  through  the  winter, 
most  rapidly  in  the  later  months ;  (3)  that  the  same  is  true  for  glycogen 
from  November  to  March,  with  a  slight  increase  in  April,  but  the 
quantity  is  too  small  to  form  an  important  nutritive  reserve ;  (4)  that 
the  consumption  of  proteids  is  almost  nil  in  the  first  months,  that  it  is 
more  considerable  in  the  later  months,  and  that  the  relation  between  the 
quantity  of  proteid  used  up  and  the  quantity  of  fat  consumed  increases 

*  Comptes  Eendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  826-S. 

f  Proc.  Liverpool  Biol.  Soc,  xv.  (published  1901)  pp.  351-62  (3  figs.). 

X  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1901)  pp.  273-83  (10  figs.). 

§  Arch.  Biol.,  xviii.  (1901)  pp.  365-75. 

Feb.  19th,  1902  D 


34  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

markedly  in  April ;  and  (5)  the  sleep  is  more  profound  at  the  beginning 
than  towards  the  end  of  winter, — the  quantity  of  carbon  used  up  in- 
creasing from  November  to  April. 

Marine  Intoxications  and  the  Life  of  Burrowers.*  —  G.  Bohn  has 
some  interesting  observations  and  suggestions  on  this  subject.  He  has 
shown  that  sea-water  in  which  red  Algas  (especially  Lithotliamnium)  have 
been  living  is  "very  toxic  (alkaline),  while  that  which  has  filtered  through 
the  sand  is  not."  Burrowing  animals  have  chemical  as  well  as  mechanical 
protection. 

We  are  unable  clearly  to  understand  Bohn's  somewhat  too  terse 
sentences  in  regard  to  burrowing  Crustaceans,  where  the  respiratory 
current  is  reversible.  The  auimals  are  said  to  dispose  their  anterior 
appendages  in  such  a  way  that  the  entrant  currents  filter  through  the 
sand,  and  to  return  to  the  direct  current  when  external  poisons  or  their 
own  excreta  begin  to  reach  the  gills,  which  thus  act  as  organes 
avertisseurs.  We  hope  that  a  less  condensed  memoir  will  give  a  full 
account  of  the  actual  procedure. 

The  author  goes  on  to  discuss  Arenicola  marina  and  other  burrowing 
Annelids.  The  lobworm  in  its  vertical  burrow,  and  Pectinaria  in  its 
tube,  produce  ascending  (inverse)  and  descending  (direct)  currents  of 
water  by  active  and  successive  dilatations  of  the  segments  of  the  middle 
region  of  the  body.  By  altering  its  position  or  the  direction  of  the 
muscular  wave,  the  exceedingly  sensitive  worm  averts  the  external 
alkaline  intoxication.  Yet  at  the  end  of  August  circulatory  troubles 
begin  in  the  gills  and  skin ;  there  is  an  autumnal  intoxication  ;  leuco- 
cytes accumulate  around  the  vessels ;  phagocytosis  sets  in  ;  the  skin  is 
ruptured  near  the  parapodia  (such  as  they  are)  and  the  nephridial 
orifices.    One  of  the  consequences  of  histolysis  is  the  escape  of  the  ova. 

Breeding  Habits  of  Ameiurus  nebulosus.  t  —  Dr.  A.  C.  Eycleshymer 
has  made  some  observations  on  the  nesting  and  spawning  of  this 
American  catfish,  both  in  natural  and  artificial  conditions.  In  natural 
conditions  the  egg-mass  is  laid  in  shallow  water  under  logs  or  stumps, 
or  even  in  old  pails,  pieces  of  stove-pipe,  and  so  on  ;  it  is  first  watched 
by  both  parents,  but  later  only  by  the  male.  Where,  as  in  artificial 
fish-ponds,  objects  which  may  serve  as  shelters  are  absent,  the  fish  exca- 
vates deep  holes,  in  which  the  eggs  are  deposited.  Both  sexes  appear 
to  take  part  in  the  process  of  excavation. 

Axolotl  and  Ambly stoma.  *  —  Prof.  H.  L.  Osborn  describes  various 
axolotls  obtained  from  different  regions,  and  makes  some  remarks  on  the 
relation  of  the  two  forms.  He  distinguishes  between  the  primary  and 
the  secondary  adult  characteristics.  The  acquisition  of  the  first  in- 
volves radical  morphological  changes,  and  these  changes  take  place  in 
all  forms,  whether  terrestrial  or  aquatic.  The  secondary  characteristics 
are  largely  points  connected  with  the  external  anatomy,  and  instead  of 
always  taking  place  pari  passu  with  the  primary  changes,  may  occur 
later,  or  not  at  all.  The  author  distinguishes  three  types  of  develop- 
ment : — the  amblystoma,  where  primary  and  secondary  changes  occur 
simultaneously  ;  the  siredon,  where  the  secondary  changes  take  place  later 
than  the  primary ;  and  the  axolotl,  where  the  latter  never  occur  at  all. 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  593-6. 
t  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxv.  (.1901)  pp.  911-8.        %  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  8S7-903  (G  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  60 

At  St.  Taul  the  amblystoma  first  becomes  terrestrial  and  then  matures, 
acquiring  the  spotted  salamander-like  coloration  of  the  land  form  ;  in 
Colorado  the  animals  mature  in  the  water,  and  there  also,  at  a  later 
stage,  acquire  the  terrestrial  characters ;  in  Mexico  the  terrestrial 
characters  are  never  acquired  at  all.  But  all  three  forms  become  truly 
mature.  Very  careful  measurements  are  given  of  the  parts  of  the  body 
in  the  different  forms,  and  they  show  that  the  terrestrial  amblystoma 
("  salamander "  form)  differs,  especially  as  regards  the  shape  of  the 
head,  alike  from  the  axolotl  and  from  the  metamorphosing  siredon  stage. 

Musculature  of  Urodela.  *  —  Dr.  L.  Driiner  has  published  a  paper 
on  certain  of  the  muscles  of  the  anterior  region  in  these  Amphibia, 
which,  being  entirely  anatomical,  is  beyond  our  scope.  But  his  results 
have  led  him  to  the  general  conclusion  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Urodeles 
must  have  had  at  least  seven  gill-arches  between  the  hyoid  and  the 
shoulder-girdle;  that  is,  there  cannot  have  been  any  Selachian-like 
forms  in  the  direct  line  of  ancestry  ;  for  the  development  of  specifically 
Urodele  characters  must  have  occurred  at  a  much  older  phylogenetic 
stage.  Mention  should  be  made  of  the  very  fine  anatomical  plates 
accompanying  the  paper. 

Abnormalities  in  Veins  of  Salamander.f— Dr.  H.  Joseph  describes 
two  interesting  cases  of  abnormality  in  Salamandra  maculosa.  The  first 
recalls  primitive  conditions, — tho  persistence  of  two  separate  symme- 
trical hepatic  veins  (cf.  Torpedo,  &c),  or  the  suppression  of  the  hepatic 
sinus  anastomosis.  This  seemed  to  be  due  to  an  adhesion  of  the  peri- 
cardium to  the  anterior  pole  of  the  liver  by  means  of  stiff  connective- 
tissue  exactly  between  the  two  large  veins.  In  the  second  case  there 
was  a  defect  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  inferior  vena  cava,  and  an 
associated  exaggeration  of  the  left  cardinal  vein.  But  this  is  a  commoner 
occurrence. 

Abysmal  Antarctic  Fauna.^ — A.  E.  Shipley  gives  a  summary  account 
of  the  characteristics  of  abysmal  animals  generally,  with  lists  of  the 
forms  found  by  the  Challenger  in  the  Antarctic  region. 

Fauna  of  Switzerland  and  the  Glacial  Period.  §  — Prof.  F.  Zschokke 
gives  a  concise  account  of  the  present  fauna  of  Switzerland,  particularly 
of  the  animals  of  the  Alpine  lakes  and  streams,  with  the  special  object 
of  showing  to  what  a  large  extent  the  peculiar  forms  are  Arctic  species, 
and  therefore  relics  of  the  glacial  period.  He  lays  special  stress  upon 
the  Salmonidte  of  the  lakes,  showing  that  the  ancestors  of  the  existing 
species  must  have  migrated  from  the  north  at  the  close  of  the  glacial 
period,  but  have  remained  isolated  for  a  time  long  enough  to  permit 
them  to  form  new  varieties  or  species. 

Deep -Sea  Fauna.  || — 0.  Seeliger  discusses  in  a  popular  style  the 
abysmal  fauna,  and  the  results  of  the  German  Deep-Sea  Expedition  (1898). 
Attention  is  directed  to  the  present-day  methods  of  investigation  and  the 
general  biological  importance  of  the  study  of  the  deep-sea. 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  4.35-G22  (7  pis.). 

t  Anat.  Anzeis.,  xx.  (1901)  pp.  283-93  (4  figs.). 

%  Antarctic  Manual.  London,  1901,  pp.  241-75. 

§  Die  Tierwelt  der  Schweiz  in  ihren  Beziehimgen  zur  Eiszeit,  Basel,  1901,69  pp. 

fl   Tierleben  der  Tiefsee,  Leipzig-,  1901,  8vo,  49  pp.  and  1  coloured  pi. 

D    2 


36  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Plankton  of  Attersee.  *  —Dr.  Carl  v.  Keissler  gives  a  list  of  the 
organisms  of  this  Upper  Austrian  lake  during  the  month  of  August  1900, 
together  with  some  critical  remarks.  The  nettings  at  a  depth  of  20-30 
metres  showed  a  smaller  amount  of  plankton  than  that  present  at  the 
same  depths  in  the  North  German  lakes,  but  greater  than  that  of  the 
large  Alpine  lakes,  e.g.  the  Neueuberger  See.  Just  as  in  the  Alpine 
lakes,  the  upper  layers  of  water  showed  a  small  volume  of  plankton  ;  for 
not  till  a  depth  of  five  metres  was  reached  was  any  considerable  amount 
ohtained.  But  as  also  occurs  elsewhere,  the  organisms  rise  to  the  surface 
in  the  evenings,  and  then  the  layers  from  0-5  metres  and  from  2-5  metres 
contain  three  to  four  times  the  plankton  volume  which  they  possess  by 

day. 

The  same  author  f  gives  an  account  of  the  contents  of  two  tow-nettings 
made  in  April  in  the  Aber  or  Wolfgang  Lake  in  Salzburg.  The  most 
numerous  animals  were  Crustacean  larva}  and  DiajAomus  graciloides. 
Eotifers  were  remarkable  for  their  absence. 

INVERTEBRATA. 
Mollusca. 
o.  Cephalopoda. 

Notes  on  Living  Nautilus.! — Prof.  Bashford  Dean  has  studied 
Nautilus  in  the  region  of  southern  Negros  (Philippines),  where  it  is 
collected  by  the  fishermen  in  fish-cages. 

There  are  often  visible  sexual  differences  in  the  shells,  that  of  the 
female  bein<*  wider  at  the  sides  of  the  oral  aperture  and  with  a  somewhat 
angular  contour.  But  this  test  is  not  always  applicable.  Irregular, 
sometimes  undulating,  lines  of  growth  on  the  shell  may  be  seen,  some- 
times several  on  the  wall  of  a  single  chamber.  In  captivity  the  animal 
often  rests  quietly  for  hours,  with  its  face  and  exposed  parts  a  clean 
opaque  white,  like  the  shell ;  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  hood,  which  is 
brownish,  is  almost  the  only  area  of  pigmentation.  They  died  in  less 
than  a  day  in  captivity,  but  retain  a  life-like  position  after  death.  One 
dead  one  was  seen  to  float  on  the  surface.  The  appearance  of  the  animal 
when  resting  and  when  retracting  is  carefully  described. 

The  author  notes  the  mobility  of  the  tentacles,  their  great  possibilities 
of  extension  and  retraction,  and  suggests  that  the  lengthening  and 
shortening  may  be  connected  with  the  transverse  foldings  which  enable 
the  tentacles  to  serve  as  adhesive  organs.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  Nautilus  is  naturally  very  active ;  it  will  suddenly  sweep  from  the 
bottom  and  bump  into  a  corner  with  some  force,  rising  usually  not  more 
than  three  or  four  inches  off  the  ground ;  rotation  (turning  to  right  or 
left)  is  readily  accomplished  ;  a  curious  rocking  movement  is  common. 

A  fisherman's  uninspired  description  of  what  may  have  been  the 
deposited  eggs  is  given. 

Development  of  Radula  in  Cephalopoda.§—  G.  Eottmann,  who  has 
chiefly  employed  Loligo  vulgaris  as  material,  finds  that  the  radular  sac 

*  Verhaudl.  k.  k.  Zool.-bot.  Ges.  Wien,  li.  (1901)  pp.  392-401  (2  figs.). 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  401-4.         J  Araer.  Nat,  xxxv.  (1901)  pp.  S1S-37  (15  figs.). 

§  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxx.  (1901)  pp.  236-62  [2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  37 

arises  as  an  evagination  of  the  ectodermal  fore-gut.  The  radula  fold  is 
developed  at  an  early  stage,  but  the  organ  itself  does  not  appear  till  later. 
It  begins  with  the  formation  of  a  cuticular  plate  by  the  basal  epithelial 
cells.  At  the  base  of  the  sac,  and  exactly  in  the  middle  line,  this  plate 
is  elevated,  owing  to  the  formation  of  fresh  substance  by  the  odontoblasts, 
which  are  the  epithelial  cells  in  the  fundus  of  the  sac.  The  further 
development  takes  place  by  the  constant  formation  of  new  teeth  by  fresh 
odontoblasts,  which  move  forward  with  the  teeth,  and  become  converted 
anteriorly  into  flattened  epithelial  cells.  Each  tooth  arises  as  a  thin 
lamella,  continuous  in  front  and  at  both  sides  with  the  cuticular  plate  ; 
this  forms  the  back  of  the  tooth,  and  the  body  and  base  are  produced  by 
the  activity  of  the  odontoblasts.  The  median  row  of  teeth  is  the  first  to 
be  developed,  and  is  followed  by  two  side-rows,  and  so  on  in  ihis  order. 
The  forward  move  of  the  embryonic  tongue  is  due  only  to  the  gradual 
growth  of  odontoblasts  and  teeth  in  the  forward  direction,  no  motor 
apparatus  being  as  yet  present. 

y.  Gastropoda. 
Experiments  on  Littorina.* — Prof.  K.  Mitsukuri  has  made  a  number 
of  interesting  observations  and  experiments  on  Littorina  exigna,  and 
formulates  the  following  conclusions: — (1)  The  mollusc  shows  a  strong 
negative  phototaxis  under  ordinary  circumstances.  That  this  is  not  due 
to  negative  hydrotaxis  is  shown.  (2)  There  is  a  disinclination  to  be 
submerged,  and  a  rise  of  water  drives  the  molluscs  upwards.  When 
negative  phototaxis  and  negative  hydrotaxis  act  together,  the  mollusc  is 
driven  upward  without  hesitation  ;  when  they  act  against  each  other,  at 
least  in  small  depths,  negative  phototaxis  seems  to  overcome  negative 
hydrotaxis.  (3)  In  nature  they  occur  scattered  over  the  rocks,  because 
the  unevennesses  which  provide  them  with  holes  occur  irregularly.  On 
smooth  glass  plates  they  move  until  stopped  by  some  obstacle  which 
they  cannot  overcome.  (4)  When  splashed  on  by  water  for  some  length 
of  time,  as  by  waves  in  rising  tide,  or  artificially  by  a  jet,  and  then  left 
quiet,  they  may  become  positively  phototactic,  and  then  they  go  down 
from  the  land  towards  the  sea.  But  they  still  hesitate  on  touching  the 
water's  edge,  which  shows  that  the  behaviour  is  not  due  to  hydrotaxis. 
{5)  While  disliking  deep  water,  they  cannot  live  on  dry  surfaces.  They 
must  have  a  certain  amount  of  water  if  they  are  to  crawl  and  feed  (?). 
Those  left  dry  at  the  highest  tide-level  pass  into  a  dormant  state  till  the 
next  spring-tide  comes  round  again  in  a  fortnight.  (6)  The  individuals 
do  not  seem  to  wander  much.  One  that  was  marked  had  not  stirred 
from  the  identical  spot  after  an  interval  of  about  four  months.  These 
remarks  probably  hold  true  of  L.  sitchana  var.  brevicula,  which  was  also 
observed,  and  of  other  species.  It  seems  likely  that  the  facts  under  (2) 
and  (5)  are  the  primary  ones ;  that  the  animals  live  by  preference  on 
slightly  moist  surfaces  of  rocks.  "  The  mollusc  probably  knows  in- 
stinctively only  to  go  toward  dark  when  water  begins  to  splash  it,  and 
to  move  toward  light  when  splashing  has  stopped." 

Affinities  of  Genus  Neobeliscus.t— Dr.  H.  A.  Pilsbry  modifies  some 
of  his  former  J  statements  in  regard  to  this  genus  of  South  American 

*  Annot.  Zool.  Japon.,  iv.  pp.  1-19  (6  fi£3.). 
t  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1901,  p.  142.       J  Op.  cit.,  1899,  p.  36G. 


38  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

land  snails.  He  now  finds  that  it  is  most  nearly  allied  to  the  West 
African  Atopocoddis,  which  is  apparently  also  viviparous  and  has  the 
albumen-gland  greatly  reduced. 

Pigments  of  Nudibranchs.* — T.  D.  A.  Cockerell  calls  attention  to 
the  pigmentation  in  three  hitherto  undescribed  species  of  Chromodoris, 
e.  g. —  C.  universitatis  (bearing  the  colours  of  the  University  of  California), 
ultramarine  aud  cobalt-blue  with  orange  spots.  In  this  species  and  in 
C.  porter  se,  the  blue  dissolves  out  in  formalin ;  in  C.  mcfarlandi  the 
dominant  pigment  is  purple  and  does  not  dissolve  out.  The  blue  solution 
referred  to  is  bleached  by  caustic  potash,  and  turned  pink  by  hydrochloric 
acid.  The  orange  is  not  affected  by  the  formalin.  No  doubt  all  the  pig- 
ments illustrate  "  warning  coloration." 

Relationship  between  Amphineura  and  Cephalopoda.^ — J.Graham 
Kerr  is  of  opinion  that  Prof.  Ludwig  Plate  has  failed  to  fully  appreciate 
his  view  as  to  the  phylogenetic  relation  between  these  two  groups  of 
Mollusca.  Prof.  Plate  denies  that  Cephalopods  can  be  regarded  as 
having  descended  from  forms  resembling  Chitons ;  but  Mr.  Kerr  states 
that  he  had  no  intention  of  maintaining  such  a  position.  He  only 
suggested  that  the  Amphineura  were  the  nearest  living  allies  of  the 
Cephalopoda,  that  is,  "  that  the  ancestral  group  common  to  the  two  groups 
was  probably  more  recent  than  that  common  to  either  of  them  and  any 
other  group  of  molluscs."  This  position  the  author  considers  is  fully 
justified  by  the  existence  in  the  two  groups  of  numerous  points  of  re- 
semblance in  regard  to  deep-seated  morphological  features  without  any 
apparent  adaptive  relations  to  conditions  of  existence. 

Affinities  of  Phyllaplysia.J — Prof.  G.  Mazzarelli  has  been  able  to 
make  some  observations  on  two  species  of  this  Molluscan  genus,  P. 
lafonti  and  P.  paulini  sp.  n.  He  figures  and  describes  the  brain,  jaw, 
penis,  and  radula  teeth  of  the  first  species,  and  concludes  that  the  genus 
is  most  nearly  allied  to  Notarchus,  the  two  differing  chiefly  as  regards 
secondary  characters. 

The  Genus  Chsetoderma.§ —  A.  Kowalevsky  has  obtained,  while 
dredging  in  the  Sea  of  Marmara,  two  species  of  Chsetoderma,  both  of 
which  appear  to  be  new.  The  first  of  these  is  characterised  by  the 
presence  of  a  complex  radula,  bearing  nine  rows  of  teeth  ;  it  has  in  con- 
sequence received  the  name  of  Ch.  radulifcra,  in  order  to  mark  the 
contrast  with  other  known  species  in  which  the  radula  is  rudimentary. 
The  other  species  externally  resembles  to  some  extent  both  Ch. productum 
and  Ch.  nitidulum,  but  differs  from  both  in  the  structure  of  its  radular 
apparatus.  The  author  makes  it  a  lcw  species,  and  names  it  Ch.  gut- 
turosum,  from  a  curious  habit  which  it  displays  of  inflating  the  head- 
region,  a  habit  which  is  of  great  aid  in  burrowing. 

8.  Lamellibranchiata. 

Formation  of  Pearls. || — Prof.  E.  Dubois  finds  that  in  Mytilus  edulis 
pearls  are  formed  around  a  small  Trematode — Distom'um  luteum  (?),  or 

*  Nature.  Ixv.  (1901)  pp.  79-80. 

t  Zoul.  Anzeig.,  xxiv.  (1901)  pp.  437-S.         J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  433-7  (G  figs.). 

§  Arch.  Zool.  Expe'r.,  ix.  (1901)  pp.  261-83  (3  pis.). 

||   Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  G03-5. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  39 

as  the  author  proposes  to  call  it,  D.  margaritarum.  He  suggests  that  a 
Sporozoon  or  the  like  may  also  be  involved  in  the  death  of  the  Trema- 
tode  ;  hut  in  many  cases  the  Trematode,  encysted  in  August  of  one  year, 
is  liberated  from  its  pearly  investment  in  the  following  summer.  Shortly 
before  liberation  the  cyst  is  quite  gelatinous.  A  true  or  permanent 
pearl  implies  the  death  of  the  parasite,— is,  in  short,  its  "  brilliant 
sarcophagus." 

Origin  of  Pearls.* — L.  G.  Seurat  calls  attention  to  the  observations 
of  Gamer  f  (1863,  &c.)  from  which  it  was  concluded  that  pearls  in 
Alasmodon  and  Mytilus  are  formed  around  parasitic  Distomes.  Even 
before  this  (1852)  de  Filippi  had  referred  to  Distoma  dwplicatum  as  the 
provoking  cause.  Kiichenmeister  (1856)  had  suggested  Atax  ypsilophorus. 
For  the  pearl  oyster,  likewise,  the  importance  of  parasitic  worms  in 
producing  pearls  has  been  indicated  by  Mobius,  Kelaart  aud  Humbert, 
Thurston,  and  Giard.  But  no  definitive  proof  has  yet  been  given,  not 
even  by  Dubois  in  his  recent  paper  referred  to  above. 

Formation  and  Diseases  of  Pearls.  J — S.Jourdain  expounds  the  view 
that  a  lesion,  or  the  presence  of  an  organic  or  inorganic  intrusion  which 
produces  a  depression  of  the  pallial  surface  of  the  shell,  is  followed  by  a 
hyper-secretion  of  nacreous  matter  around  the  nucleus  whatever  that 
may  be.  He  alludes  to  the  "  nacrotyping  :'  which  follows  when  a  foreign 
body  is  inserted  between  the  mantle  and  the  shell. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  diseases  in  pearls, — spontaneous  and  acquired. 
In  the  first  case  the  superficial  layers  may  undergo  disintegration  and 
thus  destroy  "  V eclat  et  V orient  de  la  perle."  But,  as  he  has  said,  this 
may  be  doctored.  The  acquired  diseases  are  due  to  prolonged  and  re 
peated  contact  with  the  skin,  whose  acid  secretions,  "  sebaceous  matters 
and  "  gaseous  emanations  "  spoil  the  pearl  if  their  action  is  long  con- 
tinued.    For  the  pearl  so  diseased  there  is  no  known  cure. 

Inferior  Backward  Current  in  Bivalve  .§ — M.  Stenta  finds  that  in 
"  open''  forms  (Meleagrina,  Anomia),  and  in  those  which  get  rid  of  sus- 
pended foreign  particles  by  sudden  closure  of  the  shell  (Pecten),  there 
is  no  hint  of  inferior  backward  current.  In  "  half-open  "  forms  (Cardium), 
and  in  sedentary  forms  (JSIytilus),  there  is  more  or  less  of  an  inferior 
backward  current.  In  Pinna,  whose  shell  lies  upright,  half-hidden  in 
the  sand,  there  is  a  strong  development  of  the  inferior  backward  current, 
and  Pinna  possesses,  in  association  with  this,  a  special  ciliated  groove 
on  the  mantle. 

Artliropoda. 

a.  Insecta. 

Senses  of  Ants.||  —  Adele  M.  Fielde  finds  that  Stenammafuhum  var. 
piceum  apparently  follows  the  trail  made  by  her  own  feet  by  means  of 
its  scent,  but  this  power  of  following  without  hesitation  an  old  track  is 
lost  if  the  tenth  segment  of  the  antenna  is  removed.     Similarly,  ants  of 

*  Comptes  Kendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  700-2. 

t  Rep.  Brit.  Ass.  for  1803;  Joum.  Linn.  Soc.  (Zool.),  xi.  (1873)  pp.  426-8. 

X  Comptes  Eendus.  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  832-3. 

§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxiv.  (1901)  pp.  521-4. 

||  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1901,  pp.  521-44  (1  fig.). 


5> 
J 


40  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

the  same  lineage,  whether  queens  or  workers,  appear  to  possess  a  diffused 
scent  which  is  the  same  for  all  the  individuals  of  common  descent,  and 
is  the  means  of  recognition.  The  power  of  recognising  this  scent  is  lost 
if  the  eleventh  segment  of  the  antenna  be  destroyed.  Again,  the  ants 
appear  to  recognise  the  aura  of  their  own  nest  by  means  of  the  twelfth 
segment  of  the  antenna.  If  the  eighth  and  ninth  segments  of  the  antennae 
are  destroyed,  the  ants  no  longer  show  any  care  for  the  eggs  or  young, 
and  if  the  five  distal  segments  are  destroyed,  they  no  longer  exhibit 
gregarious  instincts.  The  care  bestowed  by  the  ants  on  the  eggs,  larvae, 
and  pupae,  docs  not  appear  to  be  essential  for  the  development  of  these, 
but  if  not  so  tended  they  hecome  overgrown  with  the  mycele  of  Peni- 
cillium  erustaceum.  The  author  believes  that  the  worker  ants  feed  upon 
this  mould,  which  they  obtain  by  constantly  licking  the  eggs  and  young. 
It  does  not  grow  upon  the  bodies  of  dead  ants,  which  become  covered  by 
Bhizopus  nigricans,  a  mould  with  spreading  hyphae  apparently  not  used 
as  food. 

Macroergates  in  Pheidole  commutata.  *  —  Prof.  W.  M.  Wheeler 
describes  the  finding  in  Texas  of  nests  of  this  ant  which  contained  the 
one  six,  and  the  other  three  specimens  of  very  large  workers,  answering 
to  Wasmann's  definition  of  macroergates.  The  body  was  about  four 
times  as  large  as  that  of  the  normal  workers,  and  though  the  total  length 
did  not  greatly  exceed  that  of  the  normal  soldiers,  the  enormous  dis- 
tension of  the  abdomen  made  the  macroergates  appear  more  bulky. 
They  had  not  however  the  large  heads  of  the  soldiers.  Close  examina- 
tion showed  that  these  giant  forms  contained  within  the  distended 
abdomen  a  parasitic  Nematode  belonging  to  the  genus  Mermis.  In  one 
case  the  parasite  was  fully  50  mm.  long,  some  ten  times  the  length  of 
the  ant.  The  author  ascribes  the  great  increase  in  size  of  the  body  to 
the  presence  of  the  parasite  increasing  the  appetite  of  the  host,  while  the 
fact  that  ants  feed  each  other  and  their  larvae  renders  it  possible  for  the 
parasitised  forms  to  obtain  extra  food  with  ease.  Infection  must  take 
place  in  the  larval  stage. 

Gynandromorphy  in  a  Wasp,  f  —  Franz  Friedr.  Kohl  has  found, 
among  a  collection  of  American  wasps,  a  specimen  of  Ammophila 
abbreviates  F.,  which  has  the  head  and  legs  of  a  female,  but  bears  normal 
mule  genitalia  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  The  abdomen  resembles  that 
of  a  female  in  its  robust  form,  but  in  the  number  of  its  segments,  no 
less  than  in  its  genital  apparatus,  is  definitely  male.  The  author  is 
satisfied  that  the  specimen  is  genuine  and  is  not  an  artifact.  This  is  the 
first  time  gynandromorphy  has  been  described  in  a  wasp.  Though  the 
legs  are  detinitively  of  the  female  type,  they  are  slightly  stouter  in  form, 
and  the  tarsus  bears  a  few  more  hairs  than  usual.  Tho  case  falls  into 
Dalle-Torre  and  Friese's  Group  iii.  2,  b. 

Female  Genital  Apparatus  in  Microlepidoptera4 — Hermann  Stitz 
finds  that  there  are  three  kinds  of  chitinous  structures  round  the  genital 
openings,  the  squamae,  the  setae,  and  the  spinae.  The  abdomen  in  the 
female  consists  originally  of  ten  segments,  of  which  the  first  is  aborted 

*  Araer.  Nat.,  xxxv.  (1901)  pp.  877-86. 

t  Verb.  k.  k.  Zool.-bot.  Ges.  Wien,  li.  (1901)  pp.  405-7  (4  figs.). 

X  Zcol.  Jalnb.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  385-434  (5  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  41 

ventrally,  and  the  ninth  and  tenth  are  fused.  The  end  of  the  ahdomen 
bears  the  lamime  abdominales,  between  which  lie  the  genital  and  anal 
apertures  in  a  groove.  Except  in  Tineola  the  two  openings  are  however 
distinct  from  one  another.  In  relation  to  the  laminae  abdominales,  thero 
are  two  pairs  of  chitinous  rods — the  apophyses.  The  ovaries,  as  in 
Lepidoptera  in  general,  consist  of  four  ovarian  tubes.  The  common 
oviduct  of  each  side  opens  into  the  vestibulura,  which  again  opens  into 
the  vagina.  The  vestibulum  receives  the  common  ductus  sebaceus  of 
the  paired  sebaceous  glands,  and  also  the  canalis  vestibuli  of  the  recepta- 
culurn  seminis.  This  organ  consists  of  a  glandular  tube,  the  glandula 
receptaculi,  and  the  lagena  receptaculi,  or  receptacle  proper,  from  which 
leads  the  canalis  receptaculi,  which  becomes  the  canalis  spiralis  before 
passing  into  the  canalis  vestibuli.  The  bursa  copulatrix  consists  of  a 
spacious  sac  and  a  narrowed  neck  (cervix)  ;  it  communicates  with  the 
vestibule  by  a  tube  called  the  ductus  seminalis.  Full  details  of  all  these 
organs  are  given  for  the  forms  studied  by  the  author. 

Determination  of  Sex  in  Lepidoptera.*  —  Prof.  A.  Giard  calls  at- 
tention to  the  need  for  caution  in  drawing  conclusions  from  experiments 
on  caterpillars  in  reference  to  the  determination  of  sex.  The  morpho- 
logical facts  must  be  kept  in  view,  and  this  fact  in  particular,  that  the 
sex  is  often  clearly  marked  at  hatching,  and  is  sometimes  quite  certainly 
determined  in  the  ovary.  This  was,  he  says,  established  years  ago  by 
the  investigations  of  La  Valette  St.  George  and  of  Brocadello.  The 
experiments  of  Mary  Treat,  Gentry,  Landois,  and  Giard  himself,  in  sub- 
jecting caterpillars  to  restricted  diet  and  so  on,  do  not  offer  any  general 
physiological  conclusion  as  to  sex-determination. 

Experiments  in  Seasonal  Dimorphism,  f —- G.  A.  K.  Marshall  has 
made  in  Mashonaland  a  number  of  experiments,  especially  with  species 
of  Terias,  in  order  to  ascertain  how  far  humidity  alone,  as  apart  from 
heat,  can  be  regarded  as  responsible  for  the  marked  differences  between 
the  summer  (wet)  and  the  winter  (dry)  broods. 

From  his  results  it  seems  probable  that,  in  the  case  of  those  species 
which  are  amenable  to  the  influences  of  climate,  the  stimulus  necessary 
to  induce  seasonal  change  would  consist  in  a  combination  of  either 
moisture  and  heat,  or  dryness  and  cold,  and  not  in  either  of  these  factors 
exclusively. 

Accessory  Chromosome  in  Insect  Spermatogenesis.^:— C.  E.  McClung 
gives  a  brief  abstract  of  a  paper  on  this  subject  which  he  has  written  for 
publication  elsewhere.  The  structure  called  "  accessory  chromosome  " 
is  identical  with  the  "  small  chromosome "  of  Paulmier,  and  the 
"  chromatin  nucleolus  "  of  Montgomery.  It  is  most  distinct  in  the  first 
spermatocyte,  has  been  recorded  in  a  number  of  insects  belonging  to 
different  orders,  and  probably  occurs  elsewhere.  The  special  peculiarities 
are: — that  it  exhibits  a  remarkable  uniformity  of  staining  power,  similar 
to  that  exhibited  by  chromosomes  in  the  metaphase ;  that  it  occupies  a 
peripheral  position  during  at  least  the  spireme  stage ;  that  it  is  isolated 
from  the  chromatin  reticulum  and  does  not  participate  in  its  changes ; 

*  Comptes  Eendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  407-10. 
t  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  viii.  (1901)  pp.  898-403. 
X  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1901)  pp.  2'20-G. 


42  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

and  that,  during  inetakinesis,  it  divides  by  fission  like  the  chromo- 
somes. As  to  history,  it  is  first  observed  in  one  of  the  early  generations 
of  the  secondary  spermatogonia,  and  subsequently  takes  part  regularly 
in  the  spermatogonial  mitoses,  differing  from  other  chromosomes  chiefly 
in  the  possession  of  a  separate  vesicle  during  the  prophase.  At  the  end  of 
the  spermatogonial  divisions  it  persists  as  a  more  or  less  clearly  defined 
chromosome,  at  a  time  when  tlic  other  chromatin  elements  break  up  to 
form  the  spireme.  During  the  first  spermatocyte  division  it  divides 
with  the  other  chromosomes,  but  fails  to  do  this  in  the  second  division, 
so  that  two  kinds  of  spermatozoa  are  produced  in  equal  numbers.  The 
author  believes  that  those  derived  from  the  spermatocyte  containing  the 
accessory  chromosome  possess  the  power  of  causing  the  eggs  they 
fertilise  to  develop  into  males,  and  that  thus  the  accessory  chromosome 
determines  sex. 

Histolysis  in  Metamorphosis  of  Flies.* — Dr.  Paolo  Euriques  finds 
that  in  Calliphora  and  Sarcoplmga  a  crystalline  substance  is  formed 
within  many  of  the  larval  muscular  fibres.  This  substance  finally  finds 
its  way  into  the  adipose  cells,  where  it  appears  in  the  form  of  minute 
crystals.  The  aggregation  of  these  crystalline  bodies  produces  the  ap- 
pearance described  by  former  authors  as  endocellular  phagocytes.  In 
the  sarcolytes  engulfed  by  the  phagocytes  the  striation  is  lost,  and  the 
anisotropic  substance  segregates  to  form  a  large  zone,  which  is  luminous 
when  examined  with  the  spectroscojje  under  crossed  nicols.  This 
luminous  substance  shows  successive  stages  in  the  development  of  the 
crystals  mentioned  above,  and  the  author  believes  that  these  are  in  all 
probability  derivatives  of  the  anisotropic  substance  which  is  taken  up 
by  the  adipose  cells. 

Development  of  Hypodermal  Imaginal  Discs  in  Larval  Diptera.f 
— Dr.  Bruno  Wahl,  as  the  result  of  his  own  observations  on  Eristalis 
larvaa,  and  those  of  other  observers  on  other  flies,  finds  that  in  the 
Diptera  generally,  the  imaginal  hypodermis  together  with  its  derivatives 
arises  from  the  larval  hypodermis.  In  the  Cycloraphas,  the  imaginal 
organs  develop  from  small  parts  only  of  the  larval  organs.  Many  of 
the  imaginal  discs  sink  below  the  surface  in  the  form  of  sacs,  and  re- 
main united  with  the  surface  only  by  stalks.  In  Eristalis  this  occurs 
with  regard  both  to  the  thoracic  and  the  abdominal  discs.  In  both 
cases  the  formation  of  the  discs  is  preceded  by  histological  changes  in 
certain  parts  of  the  larval  tissues,  the  cells  concerned  exhibiting  what 
the  author  calls  "  renovation."  Its  result  is  to  give  to  the  cells  a  renewed 
strength  and  vitality,  enabling  them  to  withstand  the  histolytic  influ- 
ences to  which  the  cells  which  have  not  been  renewed  yield  at  once. 
The  renewal  of  the  cells  of  the  imaginal  discs  gives  them  further  the 
power  of  regenerating  the  whole  organ  of  which  they  themselves 
originally  formed  but  a  part.  In  other  cases,  instead  of  a  part  only  of 
the  cells  composing  an  organ  becoming  renewed,  the  whole  organ  may 
undergo  rejuvenescence  in  this  way,  and  thus  a  larval  structure  may 
pass  over  with  but  little  change  into  the  adult.  This  seems  to  occur  in 
regard  to  certain  parts  of  the  tracheal  system,  perhaps  is  also  true  of 

*  Anat.  ADZeig ,  xx.  (1901)  pp.  207-19  (1  pi.). 

t  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxx.  (1901)  pp.  171-91  (1  pi.  and  4  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  43 

the  nervous  system,  and  possibly  of  the  heart.  On  the  other  hand,  re- 
generation occurs  chiefly  in  regard  to  those  organs  in  which  the  larval 
type  differs  from  the  adult. 

Mimicry  of  a  Moss  by  a  Larva  and  Pupa.* .  Mliggenburg  points 

out  the  remarkable  resemblance  to  a  moss  presented  by  the  larva  and 
pupa  of  a  gnat,  Cylindrotoma  glabrata.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  August  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves  of  the  moss,  Hypnum  (ITylocomiuvi)  squamosum. 
The  larva)  soon  emerge,  and  remain  very  small  through  the  winter  ; 
they  are  of  a  moss-green  colour,  and  are  furnished,  especially  on  the 
back,  with  curved  spines  which  closely  resemble  the  leaves  of  the  moss  ; 
while  dark  patches  on  the  upper  side  of  the  body  recall  dead  plant- 
remains  and  patches  of  shade.  They  are  about  2  cm.  in  length.  They 
feed  on  the  moss,  and  change,  in  the  summer,  into  the  very  similar 
pupa ;  the  imago  emerging  in  a  very  few  days. 

Genus  Termitoxenia.j — E.  Wasmann  adds  some  further  notes  to  his 
prevous  J  description  of  this  interesting  Dipteron  from  the  nests  of 
Termites.  He  now  finds  that  the  genus  must  be  regarded  as  the  type 
of  a  new  family,  to  which  he  gives  the  name  of  Termitoxeniidse,  and 
which  must  be  regarded  as  standing  between  tho  Eumyidaa  and  the 
Pupipara.  Some  of  the  most  striking  differences  from  the  Eumyidoe 
are  that  the  frontal  cleft  (Stirnspalte)  lies  in  front  of  instead  of  be- 
hind the  origin  of  the  antenca3,  the  ovaries  consist  at  each  side  of  only 
a  single  tube,  and  finally,  owing  to  the  suppression  of  the  larval  and 
pupal  stages,  the  Terniitoxeniidse  have  become  ametabolic.  In  Termi- 
toxenia  s.  str.,  tho  stenogastric  imago  emerges  direct  from  the  very 
large  eggs,  while  in  the  sub-genus  Termitomyia  the  development  appa- 
rently takes  place  within  the  body  of  the  mother,  from  which  the  steno- 
gastric imago  emerges.  This  imago  possesses  certain  larval  characters, 
and  gradually  develops  into  the  physogastric  adult.  The  four  known 
species  are  protandrous  hermaphrodites,  and,  as  indicated  above,  the  one 
sub-genus  is  oviparous  and  the  other  viviparous. 

Spermatocytic  Kineses  in  Orthoptera.  § —  E.  do  Sinety  has  studied 
the  spermatogenesis  in  many  Orthoptera,  and  confirms  some  of  the  re- 
sults of  McClung.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  admit  that  there  is  a 
double  longitudinal  division  of  the  chromosomes.  The  author  has  also 
found  the  "  accessory  chromosome  "  ("  small  chromosome  "  of  Paulmier, 
"  chromosome  x  "  of  Montgomery),  whose  behaviour  is,  to  say  the  least, 
peculiar. 

Copulatory  Apparatus  of  Male  Trichoptera.|j — Dr.  Enoch  Zander 
has  studied  the  genital  armour  of  these  insects  as  a  continuation  of  his 
previous  work  on  Hymenoptera.  He  finds  that  though  the  mature  in- 
sects of  the  two  orders  appear  to  be  markedly  contrasted  as  regards  tho 
organs  in  question,  yet  these  are  in  both  cases  developed  from  morpho- 
genetically  equivalent  rudiments.  In  both  cases  a  genital  pocket  is 
developed  near  the  post-segmental  border  of  the  twelfth  sternum.  At 
the  base  of  this  pocket  a  pair  of  projections  appear  which  develop  into 

*  Arch.  Naturgesch.,  1901.  Beih.,  pp.  169-86  (1  pi.).     See  Hedwigia,  xl.  (1901) 
Beibl.,  p.  133.  f  Zeitsclir.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxx.  (1901)  pp.  289-9S. 

%  Cf.  this  Journal,  1901,  p.  33.      §  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  824-G. 
||  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxx.  (1901)  pp.  192-235  (1  pi.  and  21  figs.). 


44  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

the  rudiments  of  the  penis  and  the  valvar  at  each  side.  Later,  the  two 
penis-rudiments  fuse  in  each  case  in  the  middle  line  to  form  a  single 
structure.  From  this  point  the  development  differs  in  the  two  orders. 
In  the  Hymenoptera,  the  genital  pocket  persists,  and  the  penis  and 
valvae  remain  close  to  one  another.  In  the  Trichoptera,  the  genital 
pocket  disappears,  the  penis,  owing  to  the  development  of  a  secondary 
invagination,  sinks  into  the  abdomen,  while  the  valvae  advance  to  the 
surface.  In  other  words,  the  male  genital  apparatus  in  Hymenoptera 
remains  in  a  far  more  primitive  condition  than  in  Trichoptera. 

New  Collembola.* — Carl  Borner  describes  a  number  of  new  forms, 
one  of  which  he  places  in  a  new  genus  as  Willemia  anophthalmia.  The 
characters  of  the  new  genus  are  as  follows : — Shape  of  body  as  in 
Aphorura  ;  antennae  cylindrical ;  the  fourth  segment  with  olfactory  hairs 
but  no  olfactory  papillae ;  post-antennal  organ  present,  but  eyes  entirely 
absent ;  mouth-parts  biting  ;  tarsus  with  two  claws ;  furca  and  tena- 
culum entirely  suppressed ;  two  anal  spines  placed  on  small  papillae. 
The  author  also  founds  a  new  sub-family  of  the  Achorutidae,  under  the 
name  of  Neanurinec,  for  the  following  genera  : — Pseudachorutes,  Apho- 
romma,  Anurida,  and  Neanura,  all  of  which  have  primitive  ocellae,  and 
not  ommatidia  as  in  the  sub-family  Achorutinae. 

j8.  Myriopoda. 

Development  of  Scolopendra.j — Dr.  E.  Heymons  has  been  successful 
in  breeding  from  S.  cingulata  and  *S'.  dahnatica  in  captivity,  and  thus 
obtaining  abundant  material  of  eggs  and  embryos.  He  finds  that  the 
female  coils  herself  round  the  eggs  after  these  are  laid,  and  that  the 
presence  of  the  mother  is  essential  to  hatching.  He  ascribes  this  partly 
to  the  glandular  secretion  with  which  she  lubricates  the  eggs,  partly  to 
the  fact  that  her  presence  prevents  the  eggs  coming  into  immediate 
contact  with  the  surrounding  soil. 

The  embryological  part  of  the  paper  is  so  comprehensive  that  some 
only  of  the  more  general  of  the  results  can  be  indicated  here.  In 
regard  to  the  segmentation  and  the  formation  of  the  germ-layers,  the 
author  is  of  opinion  that,  anomalous  as  these  processes  seem  in  Scolo- 
pendra, they  may  without  difficulty  be  homologised  with  those  of  Anne- 
lids, the  differences  being  due  to  the  great  development  of  yolk  in  the 
Myriopods.  In  Scolopendra  the  method  of  formation  of  the  blastoderm 
is  to  be  regarded  as  due  to  a  modified  epibole  of  yolk-laden  macro- 
meres  by  yolk-free  micromercs.  As  in  Annelids  and  in  Arthropods  in 
general,  it  is  possible  to  divide  the  body  into  three  regions,  a  head- 
region  or  acron  (  =  prostomium  of  Annelids),  which  is  without  appen- 
dages or  ccelomic  cavities,  a  terminal  telson  (  =  end-segment  of  Anne- 
lids), of  which  the  same  is  true,  and  between  these  extremes  a  series 
of  metameres  furnished,  during  embryonic  life  at  least,  with  paired 
appendages,  with  paired  ccelomic  cavities,  and  with  paired  ganglia.  Jn 
Scolopendra  there  is  also  for  a  long  period  an  undifferentiated  zone 
between  the  last  (30th)  metamere  and  the  telson,  which  is  homologous 
with  the  zone  of  budding  in  lower  forms.     The  author's  results  lend  no 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxiv.  (1901)  pp.  422-33  (0  figs.). 

t  Zoolngica,  Leipzig,  xiii.  (1901)  pp.  1-244  (S  pis  and  42  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICKOSCOPY,    ETC.  45 

support  whatever  to  tlie  suggestion  that  tlie  coelom-sacs  of  Myriopods 
are  enterocoelic  in  origin,  as  in  Annelids  the  ccelom  arises  by  the  split- 
tino-  of  the  mesoderm.  In  Scolopcndra  there  are  two  kinds  of  mesodermal 
lymphoid  organs,  (1)  the  lymph-bodies  of  the  head  which  are  present 
only  in  the  embryo,  and  (2)  apparently  replacing  these,  the  lymphatic 
bands  (filaments  aeides  of  Duboscq)  of  the  adult.  The  author  brings 
forward  reasons  for  believing  that  the  latter  are  morphologically  as 
well  as  physiologically  tho  equivalents  of  the  nephridia  of  Annelids, 
while  he  further  compares  the  cephalic  lymph-bodies  (  =  the  sub-ceso- 
phageal  bodies  of  insects)  to  the  green  glands  of  Crustacea,  and  with 
less  certainty  to  the  primitive  kidneys  of  Annelids.  Again,  the  author 
finds  that  the  brain  of  Scolopendra  consists  of  a  preoral  syncerebrum, 
homologous  with  the  Annelid  brain,  plus  three  pairs  of  postoral  ganglia. 
The  "head"  in  Diplopoda,  Chilopoda  and  Insecta  consists  of  the  acron 
united  to  six  anterior  metameres.  This  is  true  also  of  the  Crustacea, 
but  in  the  Arachnoidea  and  Gigantostraca  another  segment  is  added.  A 
new  classification  of  Arthropods  is  proposed,  based  in  part  upon  the 
number  of  segments  composing  the  head,  and  in  part  upon  the  nature 
of  the  appendages.  In  regard  to  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the  mid- 
gut in  Myriopods  and  Insects  generally,  the  author  considers  that  in 
Scolopendra  and  in  many  Apterygota  the  primary  endoderm  is  partly 
converted  into  embryonic  yolk-cells,  and  partly  forms  the  permanent 
endoderm  lining  the  mid-gut ;  but  in  the  majority  of  Pterygota  the 
primary  endoderm  is  entirely  converted  into  the  embryonic  yolk-cells, 
and  the  mid-gut  is  therefore  lined  by  ectoderm.  But  this  does  not 
affect  the  fact  that  the  mid-gut  is  phylogenetically  homologous  through- 
out these  groups. 

5.  Arachnida. 

Bites  of  Latrodectus  13-guttatus.* — L.  Bordas  has  made  a  number 
of  experiments  in  regard  to  the  bites  of  this  spider,  popularly  called 
malmignatte.  In  some  countries,  e.g.  Corsica,  they  are  believed  to  be 
fatal  to  man  and  large  animals  ;  the  author  finds  no  evidence  of  this. 
Bites  on  arm  and  wrist  were  followed  by  slight  inflammation  and  much 
itching,  but  by  no  serious  symptoms.  To  insects — flies,  beetles, 
Orthoptera — the  bite  is  rapidly  fatal.  The  author  describes  the  struc- 
ture of  the  poison-glands. 

Monograph,  on  Spiders  of  Germany,  f  — W.  Bosenberg  begins  what 
promises  to  be  a  very  valuable  monograph.  The  first  part  gives 
detailed  diagnostic  tables,  and  goes  on  to  a  description  of  the  members 
of  the  families  Euetriodae,  Uloboroidas,  Tetragnathoidae,  and  Theridioidae. 

In  the  introduction  the  author  directs  attention  to  the  great  varia- 
bility that  makes  identification  often  difficult.  Abundant  food  may 
double  the  usual  size,  and  colour  varies  according  to  locality.  Ex- 
periments with  Tegeneria  domcsilca  and  Theridium  corroborated  this 
observation.  In  general  terms  it  may  be  said  that  in  dark  places  the 
characteristic  colour  and  markings  tend  to  be  lost.  Even  the  genital 
appendages  change  not  a  little  according  to  the  functional  state. 

'•   Comptes  Bendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  953-5. 

f  Zoologica,  xiv.  Heft  35'  (1901)  95  pp.,  10  pis.  and  11  figs. 


46  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELA  TING   TO 

e.  Crustacea. 

Glands  of  Alimentary  Canal  in  Decapoda.* — Dr.  Hans  Wallengren, 
by  the  use  of  nitrate  of  silver,  has  been  successful  in  making  a  number 
of  preparations  of  the  alimentary  canal  in  Decapod  Crustacea,  which 
show  clearly  the  glands  called  intestinal  by  various  authors.  He  finds 
that  these  occur  freely  in  the  wall  of  the  oesophagus,  as  well  as  on  such 
outgrowths  of  the  mouth  region  as  upper  lip  and  labium,  and  also  on 
the  wall  of  the  hind-gut.  The  function  of  the  glands  remains  un- 
certain. Perhaps  those  of  the  oesophagus  are  salivary,  and  those  of  the 
hind-gut,  mucous  glands,  but  all  may  be  mucous  glands. 

Colours  of  American  Crayfish. j — W.  J.  Kent  finds  that  in  Cambarus 
hnmunis,  and  some  other  species,  the  colours  generally  resemble  those  of 
the  surroundings,  except  that  the  colour  of  those  living  in  shallow  water 
in  small  streams  is  red.  This  fact,  the  author  believes,  is  due  to  the 
influence  of  light,  which  has  the  power  of  turning  the  pigment  of  the 
crayfish  red.  He  finds  confirmation  of  this  view  in  the  fact  that 
in  C.  diogenes,  which  is  a  burrowing  species,  the  colour  is  varied  in 
spring,  but  in  autumn,  after  exposure  to  the  light  throughout  summer, 
nearly  all  the  individuals  are  red.  In  confinement  the  crayfish  acquire, 
though  slowly,  the  colour  of  their  surroundings. 

Mysis  relicta  in  Ireland.  J  —  W.  F.  do  Vismes  Kane,  in  an  inter- 
esting paper,  reports  the  abundant  occurrence  of  this  species  in  Lough 
Neagh  and  Lough  Erne,  into  which  it  was  doubtless  introduced  by  the 
Glacial  sea. 

Life-History  of  Monstrillidee.§ — A.  Malaquin,  in  the  course  of  some 
observations  on  the  reproduction  of  the  Annelids  Filograna  and  Salma- 
eyna,  unexpectedly  obtained,  instead  of  the  trochospheres  for  which  he 
hoped,  a  cloud  of  Copepoda  of  the  family  MonstrillidaB.  These  emerged 
from  the  bodies  of  the  Annelids,  and  as  the  life-history  has  not  hitherto 
been  adequately  worked  out,  he  gave  up  his  first  research  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  Copepoda.  The  results,  of  which  the  following  are  the 
most  striking,  are  published  in  an  extensive  memoir.  From  the  eggs 
contained  in  the  ovigerous  sacs  of  the  free-swimming  female,  nauplii 
develop,  which  possess  the  normal  number  of  appendages.  Of  these, 
the  first  have  the  usual  structure,  the  second  are  slightly  modified,  while 
the  third  pair  (mandibles)  are  entirely  converted  into  organs  of  fixation. 
There  is  no  alimentary  canal,  but  the  eye  is  present  and  well  developed. 
There  is  a  distinct  nerve-mass,  and  the  muscles  arc  striated.  These 
nauplii  attach  themselves  to  their  host  by  means  of  their  piercing 
mandibles,  and  lose  their  cuticle,  appendages,  and  furcal  bristles,  while 
the  central  mass  of  cells  only  penetrates  first  the  skin,  and  then  one  of 
the  blood-vessels  of  the  host.  During  this  period  of  penetration,  the 
only  differentiated  part  of  the  body  is  the  nauplius  eye,  which  is  re- 
tained, but  even  this  gradually  breaks  down,  so  that  the  Copepod  within 
the  blood-vessel  has  returned  to  an  undiil'erentiated  embryonic  condition 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  Ixx.  (1901)  pp.  321-45  (12  figs.). 

f  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxv.  (1901)  pp.  933-6. 

X  Ami.  Nat.  Hist.,  viii.  (1901)  pp.  391-7. 

§  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  ix.  (1901)  pp.  Sl-232  (7  pis.  and  6  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY  AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  47 

— a  phenomenon  to  be  compared  with  that  observed  by  Delagc  in  the 
case  of  Sacculina. 

In  the  case  of  the  Monstrillid,  a  secondary  process  of  development 
begins  as  soon  as  the  blood-vessel  is  reached,  a  cuticle  is  formed,  and 
two  appendages  appear  in  the  form  of  unjointed  tentacles,  which  are 
bathed  by  the  blood  of  the  host,  and  constitute  the  organs  of  nutrition. 
At  the  same  time  the  cells  of  the  body  become  differentiated  into 
layers.  Later  a  pair  of  jointed  antennae  appear  in  front  of  the 
"  tentacles,"  showing  that  these  are  to  be  regarded  as  the  second 
anteniue.  As  at  this  stage  the  body  is  unsegmented,  and  appendages 
homologous  with  mandibles  are  sometimes  present,  this  must  bo  re- 
garded as  a  second  nauplius  stage.  From  this  point  the  development 
takes  place  normally,  save  that  that  of  the  alimentary  canal  ceases  with 
the  appearance  of  the  stomodseum.  Finally  the  adult  leaves  the  body 
of  the  host,  and  enters  upon  the  brief  free-living  life. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  eggs  of  the  Monstrillid  chiefly 
studied — Eoemocera  danse — are  green,  and,  according  to  the  author's 
coloured  plates,  the  same  tint  as  the  green  blood  of  the  Annelid  host. 

Reaction  of  Daphnia  to  Light.*  —  C.  B.  Davenport  and  W.  B. 
Cannon  have  experimented  on  the  effect  of  light  on  this  crustacean. 
They  find  that  it  moves,  under  certain  conditions,  from  a  strong  light 
to  a  feeble  one,  but  this  does  not  depend  upon  the  intensity  of  the 
illumination,  but  only  upon  its  direction.  In  other  words,  Daphnia  is 
phototactic.  A  diminution  of  the  intensity  of  the  light  only  affects  the 
swiftness  of  the  movements  to  a  slight  extent.  Thus,  when  they 
diminished  the  intensity  to  one-fourth  the  crustacean  took  18  per  cent, 
more  time  to  move  over  a  given  distance  than  when  the  light  had  the 
original  intensity. 

Spermatogenesis  of  Oniscus  asellus.f — M.  Louise  Nichols  finds  that 
in  this  form  the  spermatogonia  chromosomes  are  joined  together  in  pairs 
in  the  synapsis  to  form  sixteen  bivalent  chromosomes,  and  at  this  stage 
a  splitting  of  the  chromosomes  occurs.  In  the  structure  and  mode  of 
origin  of  the  bivalent  chromosomes  two  main  types  may  be  distin- 
guished, (1)  that  in  which  the  component  chromosomes  lie  end  to  end, 
and  (2)  that  in  which  they  lie  side  by  side.  In  the  first  maturation 
division  univalent  chromosomes  are  separated,  so  that  the  division  is 
reducing.  The  idiozome  is  only  discernible  for  a  short  time  during  the 
prophases  of  the  first  spermatocyte.  The  nucleolus  of  the  spermato- 
gonium disappears  shortly  after  the  dissolution  of  the  nuclear  membrane, 
while  that  of  the  spermatocyte  first  discovered  in  the  synapsis  persists 
throughout  the  division.  The  spermatids  become  associated  in  groups 
to  form  colonies  of  nuclei  lying  in  a  common  plasma.  Within  the  latter 
arise  bundles  of  fibres  of  great  length,  whose  connection  with  the  nuclei 
could  not  be  demonstrated,  as  well  as  single  fibres  of  greater  delicacy 
which  are  continuous  with  the  nuclei.  The  mature  sperm  colony  con- 
sists of  a  variable  number  of  filamentous  nuclei  contained,  together  with 
the  bundle  of  cytoplasmic  fibres,  in  a  tenuous  sheath,  which  is  flagellate 
at  its  anterior  extremity. 

*  Journ.  Phvsiol.,  xxi.  (1901).     See  also  Bot.  Ceutralbl.,  lxxxvii.  (1901)  p.  48G. 
f  Amur.  Nat.,  xxxv.  (1901)  pp.  919-20  ;S  tigs.). 


48  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Structure  of  Male  in  Genus  Cambarus.*— J.  Arthur  Harris  discusses 
the  "dimorphism"  which  has  been  described  in  the  males  of  the  species 
of  this  genus.  He  has  been  able  in  the  first  place  to  entirely  confirm 
Faxon's  statement  that  the  two  forms  alternate  in  the  life-history  of  the 
individual.  Of  the  two  forms,  the  first  is  definitely  male  and  capable  of 
copulation,  while  the  second  approaches  the  female  in  type,  and  from 
the  shape  of  the  copulatory  abdominal  appendages  is  probably  incapable 
of  sexual  union.  In  C.  immunis  the  animals  emerge  from  their  winter 
burrows  in  the  first  form,  and  retain  this  form  till  about  the  end  of  April 
when  they  moult  and  appear  in  the  second  form.  The  length  of  time 
during  which  this  form  is  retained  is  not  perfectly  definite,  but  in  the 
late  summer  and  in  autumn  another  moult  occurs,  and  the  first  form  re- 
appears. To  these  statements  there  are,  however,  exceptions,  the  regular 
alternation  being  absent  in  some  adult  individuals.  No  very  marked 
differences  could  be  made  out  between  the  testes  of  the  two  forms,  but 
the  author  is  on  the  whole  disposed  to  believe  that  the  greater  part  of 
the  regeneration  of  the  sexual  elements  takes  place  during  the  period  in 
which  the  body  has  the  second  form. 

New  Blind  Crustacea,  f  —  0.  A.  Sayce  records  the  very  interesting 
discovery  of  three  new  Crustacea  from  the  same  fresh-water  runlet  in 
the  district  of  Gippsland,  Victoria,  Australia,  which,  though  not  closely 
allied,  resemble  one  another  in  the  absence  of  eyes.  The  streamlet  is  in 
a  densely  wooded  region  in  which  the  thick  undergrowth  largely  shuts 
out  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  but,  in  addition  to  the  blind  forms,  con- 
tains numerous  specimens  of  a  crayfish  (Astacopsis)  and  an  Amphipod 
(Atyloides),  both  of  which  have  normal  eyes  and  occur  elsewhere.  The 
new  forms  are  two  Isopods,  not  nearly  related  (Phreatokoides  gracilis 
and  Janirella  pusilla),  and  an  Amphipod  (Nipliargus  pulcliellus),  all  of 
which  have  been  described  by  the  author  elsewhere.  All  are  perfectly 
blind,  are  of  a  uniform  white  or  pale  yellow  colour,  and  appear,  as  con- 
trasted with  related  forms,  to  have  the  antennas  elongated.  Except  in 
Janirella  the  body  further  appears  to  be  remarkably  slender,  a  common 
character  in  subterranean  forms.  The  interesting  point  is  that  the  author 
was  not  able  to  find  any  subterranean  waters  in  the  locality,  and  the 
geological  characteristics  of  the  district  appear  to  negative  the  idea  that 
any  large  caves  can  occur  in  the  district. 

Annulata. 

Seasonal  Histolysis  in  Polychaets.^;— G.  Bohn  describes  some  of  the 
autumnal  troubles  of  Arenicola  and  Pectinaria,  such  as  disappearance  of 
gills  and  perforations  of  the  skin.  There  seems  to  be  a  seasonal 
histolysis,  and  the  author  believes  that  one  of  the  determining  conditions 
is  an  "  alkaline  intoxication "  due  to  red  Algae,  such  as  Ploeamium 
coccineum,  and  this  seems  to  have  for  its  consequence  an  absorption  of 
carbonic  acid  on  the  part  of  the  animal.  [Here  the  author's  physiology 
seems  to  us  somewhat  elliptical.] 

"  The   histolytic  changes  exhibited    by   Annelids   in    autumn,    and 

i  *  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxiv.  (1901)  pp.  683-9. 
t  Ann.  Ma<:.  Nat.  Hist.,  viii.  (1901)  pp.  558-64. 
J  Coruptcs  Eendus,  cxxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  646-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  49 

accompanied  by  circulatory  and  respiratory  troubles  of  toxic  origin,  may 
have  as  their  consequence,  eitber  tbe  dissemination  of  the  eggs  by  a 
pelagic  form  (epitoky),  or  simply  the  expulsion  of  the  eggs  by  a  rupture 
in  the  integument  of  a  sedentary  form  (matricidal  epitoky.)  These  facts 
show  once  more  the  great  importance  of  external  and  internal  intoxi- 
cation in  the  life-history  of  organism?,  and  in  particular  the  importance 
of  the  role  of  marine  Algae." 

Sensory  Cells  in.  Proboscis  of  Polychaets.  *  — Hans  AVallengren  has 
studied  the  proboscis  in  a  number  of  genera,  and  finds  that  sensory  cells 
are  restricted  to  the  papillas.  In  Nephthys  and  Phyllodoce  they  are 
radially  arranged,  but  not  integrated  into  multicellular  organs  as  in 
Glycera  and  Goniada.  The  sensory  cells  penetrate  the  cuticula  peripher- 
ally, and  in  Glycera,  if  not  also  in  others,  they  terminate  in  a  kind  of 
brush.  It  seems  likely  that  these  free  ends  are  retractile.  Proximally 
the  cells  may  extend  unbranched  towards  the  central  organ  (as  in 
Nephthys),  or  they  may  divide  like  the  letter  T  below  the  base  of  the 
papilla?.  The  subcutaneous  nerve-plexus  is  very  richly  developed  in  the 
wall  of  the  proboscis.  It  seems  likely  that  the  function  is  tactile,  or  both 
tactile  and  gustatory. 

Commensal  Oligochaete  in  New  England,  f  —  Prof.  M.  A.  Willcox 
describes  a  small  Oligochaete,  probably  identical  with  Chsetogaster  Hmnsei 
von  Baer,  which  occurs  on  snails  belonging  to  the  genera  Physa  and  Plan- 
orbis,  in  a  small  stream  at  Willesley.  The  worms  occur  apparently  free  on 
the  head  and  within  the  respiratory  cavity  of  the  snail,  and  are  probably 
not  parasitic.  They  reproduce  by  fission,  and  chains  consisting  of  three 
persons  are  frequent,  but  it  is  rare  to  find  colonies  with  more  persons 
than  this.  The  worms  differ  from  the  European  forms  chiefly  as  regards 
the  number  and  arrangement  of  their  setae,  but  it  is  uncertain  whether 
this  does  or  does  not  constitute  specific  difference. 

Nematohelminthes. 

Phagocytic  Organs  in  Nematodes.  J  — E.  P.  Golowin  has  made  a 
detailed  study  of  the  tuft-like  bodies  or  phagocytic  organs  in  many 
different  nematodes,  both  parasitic  (Ascaris  lumbricoides,  A.  spiculigera, 
A.  ostroumovi  sp.  n.  from  the  sturgeon  (Acipenser  ruthenus),  Filaria 
papillosa)  and  free-living  forms, — Oncholaimus  vulgaris,  Symplocostoma 
longicolle,  Aniicoma  pellucida,  Anguillula  oxopltila,  &c.  In  the  large 
parasitic  forms  the  tuft  is  known  to  consist  of  a  large  central  nucleus 
and  small  roundish  "  terminal  organs,"  sometimes  with  chromophilous 
central  corpuscles.  In  the  small  free-living  forms  there  are  ovoid  organs 
with  a  large  reticular  nucleus  and  numerous  rod-like  or  roundish 
chromophilous  granular  bodies,  sometimes  with  small  end-organs  on  the 
external  surface.  They  lie  on  the  inner  side  of  the  musculature,  some- 
times in  groups,  sometimes  distributed  over  the  whole  body,  and  in 
Cyatholaimus  ocellatus  in  longitudinal  rows.  In  the  small  forms  intra 
vitam  coloration  of  the  phagocytic  organs  alone — apart  from  the  rest  of 
the  body — was  successfully  effected. 

*  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  Naturwiss.,  xxxvi.  (1901)  pp.  165-80  (1  p].). 
t  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxv.  (1901)  pp.  905-9. 

X  Beobachtungen  von  Nematoden,  Kasan.  1901,  149  pp.  and  3  pis.  (in  Russian). 
See  Zool.  Ccntralbl.,  viii.  (1901)  pp.  751-2. 

Feb.  10th,  1902  E 


50  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Chromatin-Reduction  in  Somatic  Cells.*  — Kristinc  Bonnevie  finds 
that  this  interesting  process  occurs  (as  O.  Meyer  described)  in  Ascaris 
lumbricoides  ;  but  no  hint  of  it  was  seen  in  Strongylus  paradoxus  or 
Bhabdonema  nigrovenosa.  The  process  was  seen  in  four  generations  of 
cells ;  each  chromosome  breaks  up  in  the  prophasis  into  three  spherules, 
of  which  the  two  lateral  ones  are  thrown  off.  The  remaining  middle 
piece  does  not  break  up  into  small  particles,  as  in  A.  megalocepliala.  It 
is  also  noted  that  the  position  of  the  second  polar  body  is  quite  irregular, 
and  that  it  is  sooner  or  later  absorbed  by  the  cell  to  which  it  is  apposed. 

Strongyloides  intestinalis.  j — Dr.  E.  P.  Strong  records  a  fatal  case  of 
infection  with  this  Nematode  in  Baltimore,  U.S.A.,  in  a  man  of  German 
birth,  and  four  other  cases  (one  fatal)  in  Manila.  In  no  case  did  he  find 
embryos  in  the  blood,  nor  eggs  nor  adults  in  the  faeces,  though  embryos 
of  the  rhabditis  type  occurred  there  abundantly.  These  embryos  gave 
rise  to  free-living  males  and  females  producing  filariform  larvae,  but  in 
some  cases  this  generation  was  omitted,  and  the  rhabditiform  embryos 
gave  rise  directly  to  filariform  larvae.  The  adult  females  of  the  strongy- 
loid  type  were  found  abundantly  in  the  duodenum  and  jejunum  of  the 
host.  No  males  of  this  generation  were  found.  No  suggestions  are 
made  as  to  the  means  of  infection. 

Heterodera  schachtii.ij: — Willot  found  that  in  1901  the  brown  female 
nematodes  in  the  beetroot,  which  are  usually  dead  and  empty  in  July  and 
August,  were  full  of  living  eggs,  embryos,  and  larvae  even  in  September. 
He  sees  in  this  confirmation  of  what  he  indicated  in  1890,  that  warmth 
and  moisture  cause  the  dead  females  to  swell  and  rupture,  allowing  the 
larvae  to  escape.  The  prolonged  drought  of  last  summer  hindered  this 
mechanical  rupture  of  the  vaginal  canal. 

Platyhelininth.es. 

vian  Cestodes.§ — 0.  Fuhrmann  discusses  the  structure  and  relations 
of  several  new  Cestodes  which  have  been  recently  described  by  various 
authors.  He  especially  criticises  descriptions  by  Sintzin  ||  of  various  new 
forms,  rejecting  entirely  two  new  genera  (Trichocephaloides  and  Copesoma) 
founded  by  this  author  for  tape-worms  which  in  the  one  case  at  least  are 
not  even  new  species. 

Germinal  Layers  in  Cestoda.1T — G-.  Saint-Berny  discusses  the  diffi- 
culty of  bringing  the  early  stages  in  the  development  of  Cestodes  into 
line  with  those  of  other  Metazoa.  If  one  insists  on  finding  the  two 
primary  germinal  layers  in  Cestodes,  the  olements  of  the  external 
envelope,  the  "  vitellophagous  cells,"  have  most  claim  to  be  regarded 
as  endoderm.  But  this  is  far-fetched,  and  the  author  prefers  to  say 
that  the    abbreviated  development  of   these  parasites  has  resultedJin 

*  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  Naturwiss.,  xxxvi.  (1901)  pp.  275-S8  (2  pis.).  See  Zool. 
Centralbl.,  viii.  (1901)  p.  640. 

t  Jotms  Hopkins  Hosp.  Rep.,  Baltimore,  1901,  pp.  91-132  (2  pis.). 

%  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  p.  703. 

§  Centralbl.  Bakt,  xxix.  (1901)  pp.  757-63. 

|l   Arb.  Zool.  Lab.  Univ.  Warschau,  1896  (Russian). 

Tf  Arch.  Parasitol.,  iv.  (1901)  pp.  333-52.  See  Zool.  Centralbl.,  viii.  (1901) 
pp.  748-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  51 

(mechanical)  conditions  which  have  inhibited  the  distinct  formation  of 
the  primary  germinal  layers. 

Position  of  Ligula.* — Dr.  0.  von  Linstow  gives  a  diagnosis  of  the 
genus  : — In  the  dorsal  and  ventral  median  line  a  longitudinal  groove ; 
rudimentary  dorso-ventral  suckers  without  special  musculature ;  no 
formation  of  proglottides,  "  segmentation  "  absent  in  the  larva  and 
restricted  to  the  anterior  third  of  the  body  in  the  adult ;  gonads  as  in 
Bothrioceplialus,  but  compressed  into  closely  compacted  successive 
groups  to  which  the  segmentation  does  not  correspond  ;  cirrus,  vagina, 
and  uterus  open  beside  o)ie  another  in  the  ventral  median  line  in  a 
genital  sinus  in  a  transverse  row  (the  vagina  in  the  middle,  the  cirrus 
sometimes  right,  sometimes  left) ;  excretory  vessels  in  the  larva  in  the 
medullary  and  cortical  layers,  in  the  sexual  form  two  sets  of  longitudinal 
vessels  in  the  cortical  layer. 

Therefore,  he  says,  the  genus  Ligula  belongs  to  the  Bothrioeephalidas 
along  with  the  nearly  related  Scliistocephalus. 

Life-history  of  Distomum  folium.f — D.  Th.  Ssinitzin  has  found  that 
the  first  host  of  this  fish-parasite  is  Dreissensia  polymorpha.  The  mira- 
cidium  probably  enters  with  the  water  of  respiration  ;  it  at  least  finds  its 
way  to  the  gills,  there  loses  its  covering  of  cilia,  and  by  peristaltic 
contractions  of  the  body  forces  its  way  into  the  interfoliar  space  of  the 
gills.  There  it  becomes  a  sporocyst  and  within  the  body  germ-cells 
develop,  and  produce  12-14  new  sporocysts.  The  process  is  repeated 
several  times,  until  the  interfoliar  spaces  of  the  host's  gills  become 
crowded  with  the  parasites.  The  last  generation  includes  forms  of  large 
size,  with  the  cells  of  the  body-wall  crowded  with  drops  of  fat,  and 
containing  cercarige  in  various  stages  of  development.  Absolute  proof 
of  the  identity  of  these  with  _D.  folium  was  obtained  by  removing  speci- 
mens from  the  sporocysts,  and  rearing  them  in  a  nutritive  solution. 
Successful  infection  experiments  were  also  made  with  fish  in  aquaria. 
Full  details  are  promised  later. 

Early  Stages  in  Development  of  Polystomum  integerrimum.l  — 
Dr.  H.  Halkin  finds  that  there  is  the  usual  period  of  maturation  resulting 
in  the  elimination  of  two  polar  bodies ;  that  these,  though  very  small, 
are  formed  from  a  karyokinetic  figure  occupying  the  whole  diameter  of 
the  ovum  ;  that  the  first  maturation  division  is  characterised  by  the 
presence  of  central  corpuscles  in  the  form  of  long  bent  rods  (divided  or 
not),  while  the  second  division  shows  none  ;  that  the  pronuclei,  lobulated 
from  the  start,  persist  throughout,  enclosing  the  nucleoli  from  their 
formation,  and  subsequently  exhibiting  a  chromatic  network;  that  the 
first  division  figures  show  large  central  corpuscles,  spherical  and  slightly 
stainable  ;  that  the  typical  number  of  chromosomes  is  twenty ;  and  that 
the  aspect  of  the  vitellus  is  characteristic  for  each  of  the  three  successive 
mitotic  figures  which  are  formed  in  it. 

The  cleavage  is  unequal  and  "  adiaphorogenetic  " — a  term  used  by 
Hallez  to  express  the  fact  that  the  blastomeres  are  not  from  the  first 
specifically  differentiated  (e.g.  into  ectoderm  and  endoderm).  It  may 
be  permitted  to  us  to  hope  that  the  ungainly  term  will  have  a  short  life. 

*  Zool.  Anzeig..  xxiv.  (1901)  pp.  627-34  (1  fig.).        f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  G89-94. 
X  Arch.  Biol.,  xviii.  (1901)  pp.  291-363  (5  pis.). 

E  2 


52  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

The  blastomeres  have  at  first  but  little  coherence,  yet  the  reciprocal 
position  of  the  first  cells  is  typical.  At  first  there  is  no  apparent  plan 
of  symmetry,  but  later  on  there  is  bilaterality.  In  the  first  blastomeres 
the  nuclei  are  tabulated,  but  as  the  cells  become  smaller  the  nuclei  are 
"  regulated,"  though  there  may  be  considerable  diversity  of  size  even  in 
the  same  embryo.  There  seems  to  be  an  epibole  resulting  in  a  solid 
mass,  but  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  germinal  layers.  Around  the 
ellipsoidal  solid  mass  there  is  differentiated  an  enveloping  layer  of  flat 
cells. 

As  to  organogenesis,  the  solid  mass  which  forms  the  larva  gives  rise 
to  (ectodermic)  bulb,  cerebral  ganglion,  sense-organs,  and  hooks,  and  to 
the  (endodermic)  wall  of  the  gut,  and  to  presumably  mesodermic  elements 
occupying  the  rest  of  the  space.  The  gut  arises  from  a  hollowing 
(creusement)  of  the  solid  rudiment ;  its  primitive  dorsal  orifice  is  different 
from  the  definitive  ventral  orifice ;  there  is  at  first  a  complete  tube  as  in 
Hirudinea.  Complications  in  the  gut  appear  later,  but  in  the  larva,  as 
in  the  adult,  there  are  glands  annexed  to  the  pharynx.  There  is  an 
anterior  hint  of  a  coelomic  cavity,  primarily  in  communication  with  the 
gut.  The  hooks  have  a  twofold  origin,— (a)  a  deep  part  arises  in  a  sort 
of  follicle,  (6)  the  superficial  part  is  cuticnlar.  The  cuticle  arises  from 
a  complete  investment  whose  cells  go  further  and  further  apart,  remaining 
connected  by  a  delicate  membrane.  Among  the  cells  some  are  differen- 
tiated into  ciliated  elements  with  particular  localisation. 

Fish  Parasites.* — Dr.  Edwin  Linton  gives  a  list  of  fish  parasites 
from  the  Woods  Holl  region,  with  their  hosts.  A  number  of  forms  are 
described,  amongst  which  are  twelve  new  species,  seven  of  which  belong 
to  the  genus  Distomum.  Some  notes  on  certain  pathological  conditions 
in  the  hosts  are  also  given. 

The  same  author  f  gives  an  annotated  list  of  the  parasites  of  Woods 
Holl  fishes  which  have  been  previously  described  by  him  in  various 
papers.  Analytical  keys  for  the  determination  of  genera  of  Cestodes 
and  species  of  Distomes  mentioned  in  the  paper — and  there  is  a  goodly 
list — are  added.  Notes  on  the  food  of  the  fishes  examined  for  Entozoa 
are  also  given. 

Incertee  Sedis 

Development  of  Phoronis  ijimai.  |  —  Iwaji  Ikeda  finds  that  this 
species  occurs  abundantly  in  shallow  water  near  the  Misaki  Marine 
Biological  Station,  and  breeds  from  about  November  to  May  or  June. 
The  eggs  and  early  embryos  occur  in  embryonal  masses  attached  to  the 
lophophore  of  the  adult,  while  four  kinds  of  Actinotrocha  larvae  were 
found  in  the  surface  waters  of  the  inlets  near  the  station.  The  abund- 
ance of  the  materia],  especially  as  regards  early  stages,  enabled  the 
author  to  make  some  observations  on  fertilisation  and  segmentation.  He 
finds  that  in  Ph.  ijimai,  the  oogonia  fall  into  the  body-cavity  by  the  de- 
hiscence of  the  ovarian  wall,  and  develop  there  until  they  reach  the 
state  of  primary  oocytes.  They  then  travel  gradually  upwards  to  the 
region  of  the  nephridia,  and  finally  leave  the  body  by  these  and  are 

*  U.S.  Fish  Commission  Bulletin,  1S99,  pp.  2G7-304. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  405-92. 

t  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Tokyo,  xiii.  (1901)  pp.  507-92  (6  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  53 

fertilised  externally.  Segmentation  was  not  very  regular,  the  blasto- 
meres  frequently  not  dividing  simultaneously,  so  that  odd  numbers  of 
cells  occurred.  The  "  plasmic  corpuscles  "  described  by  other  authors 
were  found  within  the  advanced  blastula,  and  shown  to  be  distinct  from 
the  mesoblast  cells.  In  regard  to  gastrulation,  the  author  finds  that 
both  the  anterior  diverticula  and  the  ventral  groove  are  simply  temporary 
remnants  of  the  original  mesentoblast,  and  sooner  or  later  split  into 
mesoblastic  and  entoblastic  cells. 

In  regard  to  the  Actinotrocha,  it  is  probable  that  the  four  forms 
found  near  Misaki  represent  as  many  species  of  Phoronis ;  the  four 
types  are  described  by  the  author  in  detail.  The  author  believes  that 
Masterman's  "  oral  and  pharyngeal  grooves,"  compared  by  the  latter  to 
the  gill-slits  of  Chordata,  are  artifacts.  The  body-cavities  of  the  larva 
are  not  enterocoelic  but  schizocoelic  in  origin,  and  do  not  genetically 
correspond  to  those  of  the  adult.  The  preoral  cavity  of  the  larva  largely 
disappears  in  the  adult,  the  collar-cavity  becomes  avascular  space  in  the 
adult,  while  the  trunk-cavity  only  of  the  larva  persists  as  the  infraseptal 
cavity.  The  author  does  not  find  that,  as  stated  by  Masterman,  the 
canals  of  the  nephridia  open  into  the  collar-cavity  in  the  larva,  the 
nephridia  seem  to  him  to  end  blindly.  The  paper  contains  numerous 
other  details  in  regard  to  the  structure  of  the  Actinotrocha  and  the 
process  of  metamorphosis,  but  for  those  the  original  paper  must  be 
consulted.  The  author  does  not  make  any  suggestions  as  to  the  affinities 
of  Phoronis. 

New  Species  of  Phoronis.* — Harry  Beal  Torrey  has  examined  five 
specimens  of  this  genus  from  Humboldt  Bay,  California,  and  three  from 
Puget  Sound.  This  is  the  first  time  Phoronis  has  been  recorded  from 
the  Pacific,  and  all  the  specimens  prove  to  belong  to  one  species, 
described  as  Ph.  pacifica.  The  lophophore  is  spirally  coiled  with  li— 2 
complete  turns,  the  tentacles  number  170-200,  the  lophophore  organ 
when  present  is  very  variable  in  form,  and  may  be  absent,  the  tube  is 
straight,  cylindrical,  and  encrusted  with  sand,  the  sexes  are  possibly 
separated.  The  material  was  not  well  preserved,  but  it  was  made  out 
that  the  longitudinal  nerve-trunks  unite  across  the  median  line  between 
mouth  and  anus.  Just  beneath  the  median  longitudinal  blood-vessel 
there  is  a  ridge  of  thickened  epithelium  in  the  descending  limb  of  the 
digestive  canal. 

Free  Phase  in  the  Life-Cycle  of  Orthonectids.  f  —  M.  Caullery  and 
P.  Mesnil  think  that  they  have  found  evidence  to  prove  that  there  is  a 
free  phase  in  the  life-history  of  Orthonectids, — a  phase  in  which  the 
female  is  fertilised  by  the  male,  and  in  which  the  ova  develop  into  free- 
living  embryos.  Eventually,  the  embryos  invade  new  hosts  and  assume 
plasmodial  form. 

From  observations  on  Bhopalura  ophiocomse  (from  Amphiura  squamata) 
the  investigators  conclude  that  there  is  an  alternation  of  (1)  a  parasitic, 
sporocyst,  or  plasmodial  phase  producing  males  and  females;  and  (2)  a 
free-living  phase  of  non-sexual  embryos  which  become  plasmodia  after 
invading  a  new  host. 

*  Biological  Bulletin  Boston,  ii.  (1901)  pp.  2S3-8  (5  figs.), 
t  Comptes  Kendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  502-3. 


54  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Echinoderma. 

Hermaphrodite  Holothurian.* — Hjalmar  Theel  describes  the  herma- 
phroditism of  Mesothuria  intestinalis.  The  genital  tubules,  developed 
on  the  "  genital  basis "  from  in  front  backwards,  occur  in  male  and 
female  sets.  In  the  "  genital  strand,"  which  is  the  foundation  from 
which  the  genital  basis  and  the  transitory  genital  tubules  arise,  there 
are  young  germ-cells.  The  older  genital  tubules  with  unused  ova  and 
sperms  degenerate  and  show  much  phagocytosis.  Ludwig  notes  in  a 
report  on  Theel's  paper  that  hermaphroditism  also  occurs  in  Cucumaria 
crocea,  C.  Isevigata,  and  Pseudopsolus  macquariensis. 

Physiology  of  Echinoderms.f — Prof.  L.  Cuenot  has  made  a  series 
of  observations  on  certain  points  connected  with  the  physiology  of 
Asteroids.  He  finds  that  the  amo3bocytes  multiply  only  by  direct 
division  ;  there  is  no  organ  having  for  its  function  the  production  of 
amoebocytes.  The  digested  food  is  absorbed  by  a  system  of  lacunas, 
lying  on  the  radial  casca,  which  communicate  with  the  ovoid  gland.  In 
Asterias  ruhens,  two  longitudinal  lacunas  lie  on  each  of  the  ten  radial 
casca.  All  these  lacunas  unite  together,  and  pass  ultimately  into  the 
ovoid  gland  (plexiform  organ) ;  their  contents  probably  there  undergo 
some  change,  and  then  pass  by  the  nutritive  lacunas  to  the  oral  and 
aboral  surfaces,  where  they  probably  reach  the  organs  by  means  of 
osmosis  through  the  walls  of  the  lacunas.  In  starfish  and  sea-urchins, 
two  kinds  of  excretory  cells  exist,  tlie  indigo-nephrocytes,  represented 
by  the  epithelium  of  parts  of  the  digestive  tube,  and  the  carminate- 
nephrocytes,  represented  by  the  epithelium  of  the  coelom,  of  the  peri- 
lacunar  and  ambulacral  cavities,  and  of  Tiedemann's  bodies,  and  by  the 
free  amoebocytes  and  the  internal  cells  of  the  ovoid  gland.  It  is  pro- 
bable that  the  excretory  substances  produced  by  the  cells  excreting 
carminate  of  ammonia  fall  into  the  coelom,  and  are  taken  up  by  the 
phagocytes  ;  as  already  observed  by  Durham,  the  phagocytes  are  capable 
of  leaving  the  body  by  means  of  the  skin-gills,  whose  walls  they  cross. 

Coelentera. 

Regeneration  and  Regulation  in  Renilla4  —  H.  B.  Torrey  finds 
that  colonies  of  Henilla  readily  regenerate  lost  parts.  They  exhibit  a 
strong  polarity ;  when  a  peduncle  is  removed  by  a  transverse  cut  an 
axial  polyp  is  never  regenerated  in  iis  place,  and  vice  versa.  There  is 
an  anterior  limit  beyond  which  anterior  pieces  do  not  regenerate  pos- 
teriorly, and  a  posterior  limit  beyond  which  posterior  pieces  do  not 
regenerate  anteriorly.  These  correspond  to  the  limits  of  the  budding 
zone.  The  colonies  regulate  themselves  in  a  plastic  fashion  when  cut 
in  certain  ways,  obliquely,  for  instance.  It  is  thus  possible  to  obtain 
two  new  colonies,  one  of  which  retains  the  original  peduncle  with  a 
lateral  polyp  displaced  into  the  position  formerly  occupied  by  the  axial 
polyp.  Whether  the  colony  develops  symmetrically  around  this  new 
axis  is  not  known.     If  the  oblique  cut  makes  with  the  colonial  axis  an 

*  Bib.  Svensk.  Vet.-Ak.  Handl.,  Bd.  27,  Afd.  iv.  No.  6  (1901)  38  pp.,  2  pis.,  and 
12  figs.     See  Zool.  Centralbl.,  viii.  (1901)  pp.  717-8. 
t  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  ix.  (1901)  pp.  233-59  (1  pi.), 
j  Biol.  Bull.,  ii.  (1901)  pp.  355-6. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  55 

angle  larger  than  45°,  there  is  no  displacement  of  the  lateral  polyp,  the 
extirpated  axial  polyp  regenerating  as  though  it  alone  had  been  removed 
by  a  transverse  cut.  When  a  lateral  group  of  polyps  is  removed  by  a 
longitudinal  cut,  it  regenerates  a  new  peduncle  approximately  at  a  right 
angle  to  the  cut  surface,  and  approximately  in  the  axis  of  the  chief 
lateral  polyp  of  the  group.  The  futuro  of  such  pieces  is  unknown. 
This  is  a  case  of  heteromorphosis. 

Multicellular  Sense-Organs  in  Syncoryne  sarsii.*  —  E.  Citron  has 
studied  what  Schulze  describes  as  palpocils  on  ithe  tentacles  of  this 
hydrozoon,  and  finds  that  each  consists  of  a  group  of  (at  least  two) 
sensory  cells  ending  peripherally  in  a  stiff  pointed  filament,  and  basally 
in  a  nervous  plasmic  process.  The  adjacent  covering  cells  of  the  ecto- 
derm form  a  conical  protection  for  the  sensory  group,  and  this  is  per- 
forated by  the  projecting  filament. 

Development  of  Gonothyraea  loveni.f — J.  Wulfert  notes  in  a  pre- 
liminary communication  the  following  points.  The  migratory  primitive 
sex-cells  appear  very  early,  soon  after  the  fixing  of  the  planula.  They 
arise  from  interstitial  ectoderm  cells,  and  migrate  eventually  to  the 
gonangia  ;  in  older  stocks  there  is  a  continuous  procession.  The  form 
and  position  of  the  ovum  in  the  gonophore  is  variable.  Two  polar 
bodies  are  given  off.  Fertilisation  occurs  in  two  ways  (not  mentioned), 
and  the  cleavage  is  of  two  types  connected  by  intermediate  modes.  A 
cceloblastula  is  formed  and  the  endoderm  is  established  by  multipolar 
immigration.  But  in  the  second  type  of  cleavage  some  cells  are  in- 
ternal at  about  the  24-cell  stage,  so  that  cleavage  and  endoderm-forma- 
tion  cannot  be  rigidly  separated.  The  segmentation-cavity  is  filled  up 
with  endoderm  cells,  and  the  embryo  becomes  a  solid  planula.  This 
settles  down,  becomes  a  flat  disc,  and  buds  off  a  hydrocaulus  from  its 
■centre. 

Revision  of  Genus  Sertularella.t  —  CI.  Hartlaub  has  tried  to  put 
this  genus  in  order.  There  are  about  90  species,  mostly  littoral,  pre- 
dominantly Arctic  and  Antarctic  (47  sp.).  There  is  great  diversity 
in  bathymetrical  distribution,  e.g.  S.  tricusjpidata  from  11  to  2438  metres, 
and  S.  polyzonias  from  the  shore  to  500  metres.  The  specific  tables 
show  that  there  is  great  variability  in  details.  Two  groups  are  recog-. 
nised, — with  a  3-valved  operculum  (tricusjriclata)  and  with  a  4-valved 
operculum  (rugosa-polyzonias).  These  groups  are  also  marked  by  dif- 
ferences in  the  position  and  form  of  the  gonothecae. 

Porifera. 

Gemmation  of  Tethya.§ — Dr.  Otto  Maas  has  studied  the  methods 
of  reproduction  of  this  interesting  sponge,  which  is  not  known  to  pro- 
duce sexual  elements.  It  periodically  gives  rise  to  buds,  which  are 
liberated  from  the  parent,  and  float  away  as  young  sponges,  but  the 
exact  origin  of  these  has  not  hitherto  been  ascertained.  Maas  finds 
that  they  do  not  arise  from  parthenogenetic  ova,  but  nevertheless  offer 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxiv.  (1901)  pp.  625-6.  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  G26-7. 

t  Abb.  Nat.  Ver.  Hamburg,  xvi.  (1901)  143  pp..  6  pis.,  and  56  figs.     See  Zool. 
Ceutralbl.,  viii.  (1901)  pp.  5b7-8. 

§  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxx.  (1901)  pp.  263-8S  (2  pis.). 


50  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

an  interesting  parallelism  in  development  to  ova,  Ova  in  sponges  arise 
normally  from  clusters  of  archaeocytes,  but  of  these  certain  lose  their 
individuality,  and  are  sacrificed  to  feed  the  one  successful  ovum-cell. 
The  buds  of  Tethya  arise  from  similar  groups  of  archaeocytes,  but  here 
the  cells  for  the  most  part  retain  their  individuality,  though  even  here 
certain  of  them  fuse  together  to  form  a  few  large  complexes  similar  to 
blastomeres,  within  a  chitinoid  capsule.  A  further  even  more  striking 
resemblance  between  developing  bud  and  developing  egg  is  that,  before 
the  sponge-bud  becomes  functional,  its  cells  become  arranged  in  two 
layers,  an  inner  gastral,  and  an  outer  dermal,  and  the  development  of 
the  central  cavity  and  flagellated  chambers  takes  place  according  to 
methods  comparable  to  those  exhibited  by  other  groups  of  sponges. 
The  method  of  formation  of  the  chambers,  whether  lacunar  or  parenchy- 
matous, depends  in  sponges  in  general  on  the  time  at  which  histological 
differentiation  takes  place.  In  Calcareous  Sponges  this  differentiation 
occurs  first  during  or  after  fixation ;  in  Siliceous  Sponges  often  in  the 
larvae  or  even  in  the  embryo.  In  Tethya  the  method  of  development 
approaches  the  one  condition  or  the  other,  according  as  the  bud  is 
liberated  early  or  late.  A  striking  difference  between  the  development 
of  the  buds  of  Tethya,  and  of  the  embryos  of  other  sponges,  lies  in  the 
fact  that  in  the  latter  case  the  flagellated  cells,  which  are  not  here  tem- 
porarily required  for  locomotor  purposes  as  in  the  larvae  of  other  forms, 
develop  late  instead  of  early,  and  the  remarkable  metamorphosis  of 
larval  development  is  therefore  here  absent.  But  this  mode  of  develop- 
ment by  buds  must  be  looked  upon  as  secondary  and  not  primary,  as 
derived  from  a  sexual  condition. 

Suberites  domuncula.* —  J.  Cotte  discusses  the  commensalism  be- 
tween this  interesting  sponge  and  the  hermit-crab,  but,  in  particular, 
the  chemical  composition  of  the  body.  It  is  very  rich  in  bromine,  with 
traces  of  iodine ;  without  iron  or  arsenic ;  with  some  manganese  along 
with  the  silicon  in  the  ash.  He  found  no  mucin,  uric  acid,  fat,  or 
glycogen,  and  very  little  starch.  The  pigment  is  regarded,  with 
Krukenberg,  as  a  kind  of  tetronerythrin ;  it  is  not  due  to  symbiotic 
Algae ;  it  is  usually  orange-yellow,  but  may  be  blue  on  the  surface. 

A  study  of  the  expressed  juice  showed  the  presence  of  many  kinds 
of  ferments  : — oxydising  (?),  diastatic,  fat-splitting,  proteolytic,  &c. 

Protozoa. 

British  Fresh-water  Rhizopods.  f — Prof.  G.  S.  West  contributes 
notes  on  G8  species  of  Rhizopods  (including  Heliozoa)  which  he  has 
observed  in  Britain.  He  describes  as  new  species  Cochliopodium  longi- 
spinum,  C.  minuium,  Gromia  stagnalis,  Acanthoeystis  paludosa,  &c. ;  and 
establishes  a  new  genus  Leptochlamys,  undoubtedly  near  to  Penard's 
Crypt odifflugia.  Some  of  the  observations  in  the  paper  relate  to  the 
habits  and  structure  of  well-known  forms ;  others  are  descriptive  of 
peculiar  variants  in  common  species ;  others  again  are  records  of  rarer 
and  less-known  species.   A  point  of  considerable  interest  is  the  presence 

*  Notes  Biologiques  sur  le  Suberites  domuncula,  Paris,  1901,  128  pp.     See  ZooL 
CentraJbl.,  viii.  (1901)  p.  501. 

T  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  Zool.,  xxviii.  (1901)  pp.  308-42  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  57 

of  a  perforation  at  the  apex  of  the  shell  of  some  forms  of  Dtjiugia 
acuminata.  The  paper  is  a  very  welcome  contribution  to  a  little-worked 
field  of  British  Zoology. 

Discoloration  of  Water  by  Gonyaulax.*  —  T.  Nishikawa  investi- 
gated streaks  and  patches  of  brownish-yellow  water  emitting  an  un- 
pleasant odour  in  the  Bay  of  Agu  in  the  southern  part  of  the  province  of 
Shinia,  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  Hondo.  The  "  red-tide,"  as  it  is  called,. 
is  due  to  Gonyaulax polygramma  Stein,  one  of  the  Peridiniacese  (identified 
by  Mr.  George  Murray),  of  which  there  may  be  800-3000  in  a  drop. 
Nishikawa  refers  to  previously  recorded  cases  of  unusual  coloration, 
due  to  Peridinium  sanguineum,  Glenodinium  rubrum,  and  Gymnodinium. 
The  appearance  of  the  red-tide  is  associated  with  great  mortality  among 
fishes,  molluscs,  shrimps,  &c,  but  it  is  also  certain  that  the  pearl  oysters 
feed  upon  the  Gonyaulax  forms  as  they  usually  do  on  Bacillariacese.  It 
is  probable  that  the  injurious  effects  arc  indirect. 

Zoospore  and  Spermatozoon.!  —  Prof.  P.  A.  Dangeard  finds  a  re- 
markable confirmation  of  his  theory  of  sex  in  the  minute  homologies 
which  seem  to  exist  between  the  zoospores  of  Polytoma  uvella  and  the 
spermatozoa  of  various  Metazoa.  In  Polytoma  the  locomotor  apparatus 
consists  of  two  flagella.  At  the  base  of  these  is  a  blepharoplast  or  small 
thickening  of  the  ectoplasm,  which  is  slightly  chromatic.  From  this 
there  runs  towards  the  nucleus  a  chromatic  thread,  to  which  he  gives  the 
name  of  rhizoplast,  which  is  inserted  in  the  nucleus  by  means  of  a  little 
swelling,  to  which  he  gives  the  name  of  condyle.  All  these  structures 
are  also  to  be  found  in  spermatozoa,  or  have  been  described  there  by 
various  authors.  Dangeard  believes  that  the  zoospore  of  Polytoma  is  to 
be  regarded  as  the  ancestor  of  the  Metazoon  sperm,  and  considers  that 
the  resemblance  described  above  confirms  his  conclusions.  As,  however, 
tbe  structures  described  in  Polytoma  are  mere  transitory  differentiations 
of  the  protoplasm  comparable  to  the  flagella,  while  those  of  the  Metazoon 
sperm  have  been  ascribed  to  the  centrosome,  the  author  is  of  opinion  that 
the  centrosome  of  the  sperm  does  not  play  the  important  part  attributed 
to  it  by  embryologists. 

Phylogeny  of  Protists.J  —  A.  Scherffel  discusses  some  of  the  difficult 
questions  connected  with  the  relationships  of  the  lower  organisms,  and 
especially  their  relation  to  tbe  Alga3  and  Fungi.  He  does  not  believe 
that  nearly  related  Protists  have  independently  acquired  chromatophores, 
but  maintains  that  the  chlorophyll-containing  and  colourless  forms  have 
followed  throughout  independent,  though  it  may  be  parallel,  lines  of 
evolution.  But  at  the  same  time  he  admits  that  members  of  chlorophyll- 
containing  groups  may  lose  their  chlorophyll,  as  an  adaptation  to  special 
conditions.  Examples  of  such  forms  are  the  colourless  forms  of  the 
Euglenoids,  the  Polytoma?  among  the  Volvocinse,  and  so  on. 

Silicoflagellate  Protozoal  —  E.  Lemmermann  has  obtained  from 
various  sources  plankton  nettings  containing  specimens  of  the  organisms 
described  by  Borgert  as  Silicoflagellata,  and  gives  a  summary  account  of 

*  Annot.  Zool.  Japon,  iv.  (1901)  pp.  31-4. 

t  Le  Botaniste  (Dangeard),  vii.  (1901)  pp.  269-72  (3  figs.). 

%  Bot.  Ztg.,  viii.  (1901)  pp.  143-58  (1  pi.). 

§  Ber.  Deutscli.  Bot.  Ges.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  247  71  (2  pis.;. 


58  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

the  group.  In  several  cases  the  hard  parts  only  were  available,  and  it 
is  on  the  basis  of  these  that  the  genera  and  species  are  defined.  The 
author  recognises  five  geEera,  Mesocena,  in  which  the  skeleton  occurs 
in  its  simplest  form,  JUictyocha,  Disteplianus,  Cannopilus;  in  all  these 
the  skeleton  is  constructed  out  of  hollow  rods  of  silica,  while  in  Ebria  the 
rods  are  solid.  All  the  species  are  very  variable,  and  on  the  whole  the 
peripheral  spines  seem  longer  in  the  forms  from  the  colder  regions  of 
the  sea  than  in  those  from  the  warm  regions. 

Megastoma  entericum  Grassi.*  —  Prof.  Rudolph  Metzner  has  ob- 
tained an  abundant  material  of  this  parasite  from  the  intestine  of  the 
rabbit,  and  has  been  able  to  make  some  observations  on  the  finer  details 
of  structure.  The  organism  in  life  has  the  body  prolonged  into  a  long 
vibratile  tail  furnished  with  two  terminal  flagella.  But  in  spite  of  its 
active  movements,  this  tail  is  not  the  main  organ  of  propulsion,  the 
locomotor  function  being  discharged  by  the  "  middle  flagella  "  of  the 
body.  In  addition  to  these  two  middle  flagella  there  are  two  anterior 
and  two  lateral  flagella.  In  each  case  there  is  a  basal  swelling,  which 
is  obviously  the  centre  from  which  the  movement  starts.  From  these 
knob-like  structures  non-motile  prolongations  of  the  flagella  extend 
inwards  through  the  protoplasm.  Internally  there  is  not  only  a  nucleus 
divided  into  two  halves  united  by  a  bridge,  but  also  in  very  many  cases 
another  body  of  variable  form,  lying  near  the  insertion  of  the  middle 
flagella.  The  author  believes  that  the  above-mentioned  prolongations 
of  the  flagella  constitute  a  system  for  the  transmission  of  stimuli,  which 
pass  first  to  the  "  central  body,"  and  from  it  to  the  nucleus,  thence, 
perhaps,  to  the  middle  flagella,  the  main  organs  of  locomotion.  The 
anterior,  lateral,  and  caudal  flagella  may  thus  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of 
feelers  connected  with  a  central  organ.  The  author  briefly  compares 
these  results  with  those  of  other  investigators  of  other  flagellates  or  of 
ciliated  cells. 

Trypanosoma  in  Fishes,  f—  A.  Laveran  and  F.  Mesnil  describe 
Trypanosoma  remahi  sp.n.  from  a  fresh-water  fish  (brocket),  Tr.  solese  sp.  n. 
from  the  sole  (in  four  cases),  and  Trypanojolasma  borreli  g.  et  sp.  n.  from 
Scardinius  erythrophtTialmus. 

Mew  Microsporidian.  %  —  C.  Yaney  and  A.  Conte  describe  Pleisto- 
pJwra  mirandellse  g.  et  sp.  n.  from  the  ovary  of  the  fish  Alburnus 
mirandella.  There  are  small  cysts  forming  microspores  and  large 
cysts  forming  macrospores  (evaginating  a  very  long  filament  in  iodised 
water).  All  the  spores  have  a  nucleus  like  a  double  T  at  right  angles 
to  the  longitudinal  axis  ;  this  has  been  seen  by  the  authors  in  Henneguya 
tenuis,  Glugea  bombycis,  and  Nosema  varians.  The  eggs  of  the  fish  are 
invaded  by  amoeboid  forms  which  produce  the  spores.  The  micro- 
spores are  more  resistant,  and  probably  spread  to  other  hosts;  the 
macrospores  and  the  amoeboid  form  probably  spread  on  the  host  itself. 

Sex-Elements  in  Stylorhynchus.  §  —  Louis  Leger  makes  another  of 
his  interesting  communications  on  the  reproduction  of  Stylorhynchid 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxx.  (1901)  pp.  299-320  (1  pi.). 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxsxiii.  (1901)  pp.  670-5.  t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  644-6. 

§  Tom  cit.,  pp.  414-7. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  59 

Gregarines.  Within  the  cyst,  one  of  the  two  Gregarines  gives  rise  to 
flagellate  gametes  (spermatozoa),  and  the  other  to  clear  spherical  ova. 
In  fact,  in  a  normal  cyst  there  is  a  male  and  a  female  Gregarine ;  and 
the  observer  describes  the  differentiation  and  (anisogamous)  conjugation 
of  the  gametes.  A  very  remarkable  fact  is  that  the  flagellate  gamete — 
so-called  spermatozoon — is  relatively  large,  and  bears  with  it  the  great 
part  of  the  nutritive  reserve,  while  the  spherical  gamete— so-called 
ovum — is  much  smaller,  and  with  much  less  nutritive  material.  It 
seems  like  a  strange  by-path  in  the  evolution  of  sex. 

Two  New  Hsemogregarines  from  Fishes.  *  —  A.  Laveran  and  F. 
Mesnil  report  the  discovery  of  Hsemogregarina  simondi  sp.  n.  from  the 
sole  (Solea  vulgaris)  and  H.  bigemina  sp.  n.  in  blennies  (Blennius  pholis 
and  Bl.  gattorugine).  Hitherto  the  recurrence  of  true  Hsemogregarines 
in  fishes  has  been  rather  doubtful,  but  the  two  forms  described  and 
provisionally  figured  are  in  many  ways  like  known  Haemogregarines, 
especially  H.  ranarum  and  H.  stepanoivi.  As  with  all  other  Haemo- 
gregarines, the  source  of  infection  is  in  the  above  cases  unknown. 

*  Comptes  Kendus,  cxxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  572-7  (2  sets  of  figs.). 


■^-4-^3-1  ♦- 


GO  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


BOTANY. 

A.    GENERAL,  including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology 

of  the   Phanerogamia. 

a.  Anatomy. 

(1)    Cell-Structure  and  Protoplasm. 

Influence  of  the  Nucleus  on  the  Growth  of  the  Cell.  * — A  further 
series  of  experiments  on  non-nucleated  cells  of  Spirogyra  bellis  have  led 
J.  J.  Gerassimow  to  the  following  results. 

The  growth  of  cells  containing  an  unusually  large  amount  of  nuclear 
uubstance  exceeds  the  average  growth  of  the  ordinary  uninucleated  cell ; 
the  cell-walls,  the  chlorophyll-bands,  and  apparently  also  the  protoplasm 
grow  more  energetically.  The  division  of  these  cells  is  usually  delayed, 
and  does  not  commence  until  tbey  have  attained  a  larger  size.  Non- 
nucleated  cells  are  capable  of  growing  in  length,  though  only  to  a  small 
extent.  Their  turgor  at  first  increases,  diminishing  when  they  die.  The 
extensibility  of  their  lateral  walls  is  less  than  in  the  ordinary  nucleated 
cells.  Non-nucleated  cells  under  the  influence  of  the  nucleus  of  adjoin- 
ing cells  grow  for  a  longer  period  and  more  energetically  than  other 
non-nucleated  cells.  Cells  which  contain  an  unusually  large  amount  of 
nuclear  substance  are  capable  of  conjugating  both  with  one  another  and 
with  ordinary  cells,  whether  one  or  the  other  is  a  male  or  female  cell. 
The  size  of  the  resulting  zygotes  is  directly  proportionate  to  the  size  of 
the  conjugating  cells,  and  therefore  to  the  amount  of  nuclear  substance 
in  them. 

Reduction  of  Chromosomes  in  Larix  leptolepis.f — Prof.  0.  Ishikawa 
has  made  the  following  observations. 

The  nuclei  of  the  young  pollen  mother-cells  are  characterised  by  the 
presence  of  a  loose  knot ;  a  rather  large  oval  or  round  nucleole  is  usually 
found  at  this  stage.  At  the  next  stage  the  separate  chromosomes  are  well 
developed,  and  are  usually  united  in  pairs,  of  which  there  are  twelve. 
They  then  contract ;  pairs  often  uniting  at  one  or  both  ends  and  forming 
a  variety  of  different  figures.  The  stainability  of  the  chromosomes 
gradually  increases,  while  that  of  the  nucleoles  diminishes.  The  nuclear 
membrane  and  the  nucleoles  now  disappear,  and  the  pairs  of  chromo- 
somes arrange  themselves  in  the  equatorial  plane  of  the  spindle.  Then 
they  disperse  in  pairs  to  the  opposite  ends  of  the  spindle,  forming 
different  figures,  finally  separating  from  one  another.  The  daughter- 
chromosomes  take  a  U  or  V  form,  and  gradually  travel  towards  the  two 
poles. 

When  they  reach  the  poles  the  arms  of  the  chromosomes  separate 
from  one  another,  twelve  pairs  being  thus  again  formed.  But  this  separa- 
tion lasts  only  for  a  short  time,  for  the  separated  arms  again  unite,  not 
only  at  the  broken,  but  also  at  the  other  ends,  thus  forming  twelve  ring- 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Imp.  Nat.  Moscou,  1901,  pp.  1S5-220  (2  pis.  find  3  figs.).  Cf.  this 
Journal,  1900,  p.  475.  f  Beih.  z.  Bot.  Ceutralbl.,  xi.  (1901)  pp.  6-7. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  61 

shaped  chromosomes  lying  close  on  one  another.  The  chromosomes 
gradually  disperse  until  they  are  evenly  distributed  through  the  nucleus. 
Many  nucleoles  are  now  visible,  and  cell-division  commences.  The 
chromatin  elements  gradually  form  a  knot ;  the  nucleoles  decrease  in 
number,  but  increase  in  size.  In  the  daughter-nuclei  the  chromosomes 
again  make  their  appearance  in  rings  or  in  paired  strings ;  the  nuclear 
membrane  disappears,  and  the  nucleoles  lose  their  staiuability.  The 
division  of  the  daughter-chromosomes  appears  to  take  place  in  the  same 
way  as  that  of  the  mother-chromosomes. 

Middle  Lamella  of  Cells.  *  — C.  E.  Allen  differs  from  both  of  the 
current  explanations  of  the  differentiation  of  a  central  layer  in  the  mem- 
brane of  cellular  tissues,  differing,  in  its  optical  and  staining  properties, 
from  the  layers  on  each  side  of  it,  viz. — that  it  is  an  intermediate  product, 
a  Zwischensubstanz,  distinct  from  the  cell-walls  proper,  and  that  it  is  a 
cementing  substance  for  keeping  them  together.  The  author  details  the 
results  of  observations  made  on  a  number  of  woody  plants  which  show 
that  this  layer  is,  from  a  chemical  point  of  view,  of  a  pectic  nature,  and 
that  it  is  a  plastic  portion  of  the  cell-wall  itself,  capable  of  increase  or 
decrease,  and  of  alterations  in  chemical  composition,  adapting  the  cell- 
wall  to  the  changes  in  size  and  form  of  the  protoplast  itself.  The  staining 
reactions  at  various  stages  of  development  are  given  in  great  detail. 

Researches  on  Cellulose,  f  — C.  F.  Cross  and  E.  J.  Bevan  publish  a 
supplement  to  their  work  issued  in  1895,  giving  an  account  of  all  the 
observations  and  discoveries  of  importance  that  have  been  made  during 
the  five  succeeding  years.  It  is  divided  into  the  following  sections  : — 
Introduction,  dealing  with  the  subject  in  general  outline ;  General 
chemistry  of  the  typical  cotton  cellulose ;  Synthetical  derivatives : 
sulphocarbonates  and  esters  ;  Decompositions  of  cellulose  such  as  throw 
light  on  the  problem  of  its  constitution  ;  Cellulose  group,  including 
Hemi-celluloses  and  Tissue-constituents  of  Fungi ;  Furfuroids :  i.e. 
Pentosanes  and  furfural-yielding  constituents  generally ;  the  Ligno- 
celluloses  ;  Pectic  group ;  Industrial  and  Technical :  General  review. 
Indices  of  authors  and  subjects  are  appended. 

(2)  Other  Cell-contents  (including  Secretions). 

Crystalline  and  Crystalloid  Substances  in  Plants.^ — Dr.  H.  Kraemer 
has  studied  the  structure  and  mode  of  formation  of  these  substances. 

Sphere-crystals  are  spherical  aggregates  of  crystals  with  sharp 
angular  contours,  which  are  made  up  of  but  one  substance,  the  molecule 
of  which  is  simple,  or  at  least  not  very  complex.  It  includes  carbon 
compounds  as  well  as  inorganic  substances.  Some  of  these  substances 
are  soluble  in  water  (the  glucosides  and  alkaloidal  salts,  amygdalin,  &c.)  ; 
while  others  are  insoluble  (calcium  phosphate  and  oxalate,  the  alkaloids 
such  as  strychnine,  berberine,  &c).  Spherites  are  distinguished  from 
sphere-crystals  in  having  a  more  complex  constitution,  and  in  the 
individual    crystals    having    a    somewhat    rounded    outline,    or    being 

*  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxii.  (1901)  pp.  1-34. 

t  Researches  on  Cellulose,  1895-1900,  London,  1901,  vii.  and  180  pp. 
J  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  liii.  (1901)  pp.  -150-6.     Cf.  this  Journal, 
1900,  p.  47S. 


62  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

imbedded  in  colloidal  substances.  They  are  also  soluble  in  water 
(hesperidin,  inulin,  and  other  carbohydrates),  or  insoluble  (starch  and 
the  fundamental  substances  entering  into  the  composition  of  the 
cell-wall). 

In  the  cell-wall  the  crystalloids  occur  in  very  close  radial  and 
tangential  rows,  and  constitute  by  far  the  greater  proportion  of  the  wall. 
In  the  starch-grain,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  apparently  a  greater  pre- 
ponderance of  colloidal  matter  which  takes  up  certain  stains.  The 
structure,  as  well  as  the  mode  of  formation  of  spherites  and  sphere- 
crystals,  appears  to  be  the  same. 

The  author  enters  into  further  particulars  with  respect  to  certain  of 
these  substances  of  both  kinds,  and  compares  them  with  those  produced 
artificially. 

Evolution  of  Chlorophyll  and  Starch  in  the  Stem.*  —  J.  d'Arbau- 
mont  has  a  very  elaborate  treatise  on  this  subject,  arranged  under  the 
following  heads  : — Period  of  Formation ;  Summer  and  Autumn  ;  Winter 
Period ;  Renovation  in  the  Spring.  The  observations  were  made  on  a 
large  number  of  trees  and  shrubs  belonging  to  many  different  natural 
orders. 

In  the  course  of  his  observations  the  author  distinguishes  between 
two  kinds  of  cell  in  which  starch  and  chlorophyll  are  found  : — cyanocysts, 
which  contain  substances  stainable  by  aqueous  solutions  of  methylen- 
blue  and  anilin-violet-blue ;  and  achroocysts,  the  contents  of  which  do 
not  stain  by  these  reagents.  The  chlorophyllous  plastids,  or  chlorites, 
are  also  classified  under  two  categories: — gymnochlorites,  or  chlorites 
contained  in  cyanocysts,  which  usually  become  detached  at  an  early 
period  from  the  protoplasmic  layer  in  which  they  were  formed ;  and 
endochlorites,  those  contained  in  achroocysts,  which  remain  for  an  in- 
definite period  enclosed  within  that  layer. 

The  special  points  investigated  are  as  follows  (for  details  the  original 
memoir  must  be  consulted) : — The  formation  of  amylo-chlorophyll  in 
the  growing  cone  and  the  first  internodes  of  the  growing  stem  ;  the 
reciprocal  relations  of  chlorophyll  and  starch  in  the  course  of  the 
summer  and  autumn,  in  other  words,  during  the  period  when  the  stem 
ceases  to  increase  in  length  and  establishes  for  each  period  a  maximum 
annual  increase  in  diameter;  the  condition  of  starch  and  chlorophyll, 
and  of  the  medium  in  which  they  are  imbedded  during  the  winter  ;  the 
phenomena  of  regeneration  of  which  they  are  the  seat  on  the  return  of 
spring.  In  the  adult  stem  are  found  the  two  kinds  of  amylo-chloro- 
phyllous  plastids  mentioned  above,  distinguished  both  by  their  morpho- 
logical characters  and  by  their  behaviour  towards  reagents. 

Structure  of  Starch.j — According  to  W.  Syniewski,  the  composition 
of  starch  itself  is  perfectly  uniform,  with  the  empirical  formula  C6H10O5  ; 
the  more  resistant  constituent — starch  cellulose,  a-amylose — being  a 
reversion-product  subsequently  formed  from  the  starch  which  has 
become  dissolved.  The  substances  formed  by  the  action  of  boiling 
water  or  of  KOH  on  starch-grains,  are  the  product  of  the  hydrolytic 

*  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  (Bot.),  xiii.  (1901)  pp.  319-423;  xiv.  (1901)  pp.  125-212. 
t  Akad.  Wiss.  Krakau.  naturw.  CI.,  xxxix.  (1899)  (Polish).    See  Bot.  Centralbl., 
lxxxvii.  (1901)  p.  408. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  63 

splitting-up  of  starch.  The  simplest  of  these  is  a  substance  with  the 
composition  C54H9G04s,  to  which  the  author  proposes  to  give  the  name 
amylogen.  He  further  suggests  that  the  term  dextrin  should  be  limited 
to  the  products  of  the  hydrolysis  of  starch  (except  the  sugars),  those 
which  do  not  reduce  Fehling's  solution,  and  which  are  coloured  indigo- 
blue  by  iodine  being  amylo-dextrins. 

Formation  of  Starch  in  the  Grain  of  Wheat.  *  —  P.  P.  Deherain 
and  E.  Dupont  point  out  that  the  relative  times  at  which  the  starch  and 
the  proteids  are  formed  differs  in  the  case  of  wheat  from  what  occurs 
in  the  potato,  tobacco,  vine,  &c.  While  in  these  plants  reserves  of 
starch  are  formed  in  the  leaves,  this  is  never  the  case  with  wheat.  It 
would  appear  that  the  starch  ultimately  formed  in  the  grains  is  not 
transferred  from  the  leaves,  as  is  the  case  in  the  other  plants  men- 
tioned, but  is  formed  at  a  later  period  in  the  upper  part  of  the  stem. 

Distribution  of  the  Acids  in  Plants.  —  M.  Berthelot  and  G.  Andre  t 
point  out  that  the  intensity  of  the  acid  reaction  of  the  sap  is  not  a 
certain  test  for  the  amount  of  acids  contained,  the  proportion  of  them 
which  exists  in  the  form  of  saline  (neutral)  compounds  being  very 
variable.     The  sap  of  plants  has  most  commonly  an  acid  reaction. 

According  to  A.  Astruc,  %  the  maximum  amount  of  acid  is  always 
found  in  the  youngest  part  of  the  plant ;  it  is  connected  with  the  vigour 
of  growth  and  with  the  activity  of  cell-division.  Thus  the  acidity  of 
the  stem  increases  as  the  apex  is  approached.  The  leaves  contain  more 
acid  than  the  stem,  and  the  largest  amount  is  towards  the  zone  of 
growth.  The  acidity  of  the  flower  decreases  from  the  bud  condition  up 
to  the  period  of  complete  expansion. 

Function  of  Calcium  oxalate.  §  —  A.  Schneider  discusses  the  pur- 
pose of  the  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  so  widely  distributed  in  plants, 
and  disputes  the  accepted  theory  that  they  are  protective,  since  calcium 
oxalate,  being  insoluble  in  water,  has  no  taste,  and  is  not  poisonous. 
The  salt  occurs  in  plants  in  four  predominate  types : — as  crystal-sand 
(root  of  Atropa  Belladonna,  stem-parenchyme  of  Solatium  dulcamara,  sp. 
of  Datura  and  Physalis,  bark  of  Sambucus  and  Cinchona,  &c.)  ;  in  the 
aggregate  form ;  in  the  prismatic  form  ;  and  as  needle-shaped  crystals 
(raphides)  ;  the  last  especially  in  Monocotyledonous  plants.  The 
author  believes  the  function  of  calcium  oxalate  to  be  mainly  that  of 
mechanical  support ;  while  secondarily  it  plays  the  part  of  a  reserve 
product.  This  argument  is  supported  by  a  reference  to  the  parts  of  the 
plant  in  which  these  crystals  are  most  commonly  found. 

Determination  of  the  Presence  of  Cane-sugar  in  Plants.  ||  —  E. 
Boui'quelot  recommends,  as  a  test  for  the  presence  of  cane-sugar,  the  use 
of  the  invertin  of  yeast,  which  decomposes  cane-sugar  (also  gentianose 
and  raffinose,  but  these  sugars  arc  rare  in  plants).  This  reagent  has  de- 
termined the  presence  of  cane-sugar  in  the  substances  tested, — rhizome 
of  Scrophularia  nodosa,  succulent  pericarp  of  Cocos  Yatai  (25  grm.  per 
kgrm.),  and   horny   endosperm    of   Asparagus  officinalis  (15  grm.   per 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  774-8.  t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  502-4. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  491-v?.  §  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxi.  (1901)  pp.  142-4. 

||   Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  G90-2. 


6-4  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

kgrm.).  In  neither  of  these  two  latter  was  the  reaction  with  emulsin 
obtained,  showing  the  absence  in  these  organs  of  a  glucoside  which  is 
decomposed  by  that  ferment. 

Poisonous  Properties  of  Lolium  temulentum.* — L.  Micheletti  con- 
firms the  observations  of  Guerin  and  Nestler  that  the  seeds  of  Lolium 
temulentum  always  contain  a  poisonous  principle,  due  to  the  presence  of 
a  fungus-mycele. 

Poisonous  Principle  in  the  Mistletoe,  f —  E.Laurent  finds  in  seed- 
ling plants  of  mistletoe  a  substance  which  is  toxic  to  the  pear-tree.  It 
occurs  also  in  the  pulp  of  the  berry,  and  is,  no  doubt,  secreted  by  the 
embryo. 

(3)    Structure   of  Tissues. 

Resin-Receptacle  in  the  Polypodiaceae  and  in  some  Phanerogams.^ 
— D.  F.  Hohlke  finds  the  formation  of  resin  to  be  a  very  widely  distributed 
phenomenon  in  ferns  (Polypodiaceae).  The  resin-forming  organs  are 
always  glands ;  and  these  may  be  either  external  or  internal.  The 
resin  is  usually  a  product  of  transformation  of  a  layer  of  the  cell-wall, 
being  formed  between  the  cuticle  and  the  inner  layer ;  less  often  it  is 
excreted  by  the  cell-membrane.  The  internal  glands  occur  in  a  large 
number  of  species,  and  on  different  organs ;  they  are  almost  invariably 
unicellular  trichomic  structures;  the  external  glands  often  consist  of  a 
number  of  cells,  but  the  head  is  always  unicellular. 

In  the  flowering  plants  examined — Senecio  viscosus,  Ononis  spinosa, 
Pelargonium  zonale,  Erodium  cicutarium,  the  author  finds,  in  opposition 
to  the  statement  of  Behrens,  that  the  resin  is  also  always  a  product  of 
the  disintegration  of  a  layer  of  the  cell-wall. 

Persistence  of  Leaf-traces.§— Sir  W.  T.  Thiselton-Dyer  finds  the 
persistence  of  leaf-traces  already  recorded  by  him  not  to  be  confined 
to  Araucaria,  but  to  occur  also  in  other  genera  of  the  Araucarieaa.  He 
has  found  it  in  Agathis  australis,  and  in  Cunninghamia  sinensis,  but  not 
in  Sciadopitys  verticillata. 

C4)    Structure   of  Organs. 

Polychroism  of  Flowers.|| — By  this  term  W.  Taliew  expresses  the 
tendency  of  a  species  to  produce  flowers  of  more  than  one  colour.  The 
differently  coloured  flowers  may  either  be  produced  on  the  same  plant,  as 
Pulmonaria  officinalis  and  Orobus  vcrnus,  or — which  is  much  more  com- 
mon— on  different  individuals.  Of  this  a  number  of  examples  are 
given: — Anemone  ranunculoides,  A.  patens,  Iris  pumila,  Tulipa  Ges- 
neriana,  Myosotis  amoena,  Primula  acaulis,  Matthiola  odoratissima. 

Distribution  of  the  Sexes  in  the  Compositae.1T  —  M.  von  Uexhiill- 
Gyllenband  treats  in  great  detail  of  the  distribution  of  the  sexes  in  the 
capitule  of  the  Composite,  his  conclusions  being  founded  on  observations 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital,  1901,  pp.  215-7.     Cf.  this  Journal,  1899,  p.  191. 
+  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  959-G1. 
t  Beih.  z.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xi.  (1901)  pp.  8-45  (3  pis.). 
§  Ann.  Bot.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  547-8.    Cf.  this  Journal,  1901,  p.  G60. 
||  Beih.  z.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  x.  (1901)  pp.  562-4. 

Tf  Bibliotheca  Botanica,  lii.  (1901)  SO  pp.,  2  pis.,  and  2  tigs.     See  Bot.  Ztg.  lix. 
(1901)  2t0  Abt,  p.  262. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  65 

made  on  no  less  than  458  species,  which  are  classified  in  a  numher  of 
groups,  according  to  the  presence  or  arrangement  of  male,  female,  her- 
maphrodite, and  non-sexual  flowers.  The  original  type  of  flower  is 
unquestionably  the  hermaphrodite  tubular  flower.  These,  when  present, 
always  occupy  the  centre  of  the  capitule,  the  most  strongly  modified 
forms  of  flower  being  at  the  periphery.  The  most  complicated  arrange- 
ments occur  in  Antennaria  dioica  and  Leontopodium  ;  in  the  former  there 
are  no  less  than  seven  forms  of  flower. 

Double  Flowers  and  Parasitism.* — M.  Molliard  give3  a  summary 
of  the  examples  at  present  known  where  flowers  assume  a  "  double  " 
character  or  are  otherwise  modified  by  the  attacks  of  insects  or  of 
fungi : — Knautia  arvensis  by  Peronospora  violacea  ;  Matricaria  inodora 
by  P.  Radii ;  Viola  syloatica  by  Puccinia  Violas  (petalody  of  the 
stamens)  ;  many  UmbelliferaB  and  Cruciferae  by  the  attacks  of  Hemiptera 
or  Acari.  He  now  adduces  two  other  instances  of  petalody  caused  by 
parasitic  fungi : — Petalody  of  the  stamens  and  carpels  in  Primula 
officinalis,  caused  by  the  invasion  of  the  root  by  the  mycele  of  a  fungus 
belonging  to  the  DematieaB ;  petalody  of  the  stamens  in  plants  of 
Scabiosa  Columbaria,  the  roots  of  which  were  infested  by  galls  of  Hetero- 
dera  radicicola. 

Fruit  of  the  Cocoa-nut-! — A.  L.  Winton  gives  an  elaborate  descrip- 
tion of  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  fruit  of  Cocos  nuci/era.  The  cells 
of  the  endosperm  contain  bundles  of  needle-shaped  "  fat-crystals,"  and 
lumps  of  proteid  matter,  each  lump  containing,  as  a  rule,  a  single 
crystalloid. 

Carpophyll  of  Encephalartos.j  —  Sir  W.  T.  Thiselton  -  Dyer  has 
studied  the  structure  of  a  monstrous  female  cone  of  Encephalartos 
villosus,  from  which  he  concludes  that  in  this  species  the  carpophyll  is  a 
reduced  and  modified  equivalent  of  an  entire  foliage-leaf,  the  pinnse  of 
the  himiua  being  represented  by  teeth.  In  E.  longifolius,  brachyphyllus, 
and  other  species,  on  the  other  hand,  the  carpophyll  is  entirely  petiolar  ; 
below,  and  concealed  by  the  peltate  extremity,  it  bears  a  pair  of  ovules, 
one  on  each  side. 

Amphicarpous  Plants.§-S.  Murbeck  describes  the  following  cases 
of  amphicarpy  from  the  flora  of  N.  W.  Africa  : — (1)  Emex  spinosa 
(Polygonaceae).  The  object  of  the  underground  formation  of  fruit  does 
not  appear  to  be  here  protection  against  frugivorous  animals,  since  this 
is  already  effected  by  the  spiny  nature  of  the  fruit.  The  underground 
female  flowers  display  a  remarkable  development  of  the  stigmas. 
(2)  Scrophularia  arguta.  The  underground  flowers  are  cleistogamous, 
although  the  corolla  is  not  altogether  suppressed.  (3)  Catananche  lutea 
(Compositae).  The  underground  capitule  consists  of  only  from  1-3 
flowers ;  its  flowers  are  not  cleistogamous,  but  are  apparently  self- 
fertilised.  In  all  these  three  cases  there  appears  to  be  a  connection  be- 
tween the  production  of  underground  flowers  and  the  partial  suppression 
of  the  tap-root. 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  548-50. 

t  Amer.  .Journ.  Sci.  (Silliman),  xii.  (1901)  pp.  265-80  (11  figs.). 

X  Ann.  Bot,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  548-50  (1  pi.). 

§  Ofv.  k.  Vetensk.  Akad.  Forhandl.,  lviii.  (1901)  pp.  549-71  (7  figs.)  (German). 

Feb.  19th,  1902  v 


66  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Integument  of  the  Ovule  and  Seed  of  Geum.  *  —  L.  Pechoutre  has 
investigated  this  process  in  the  case  of  Geum  urbanum,  and  states  that, 
as  in  the  case  of  other  so-called  "  exalbuminous  "  genera  of  Kosacere,  the 
term  is  not  literally  correct ;  but  the  endosperm  is  reduced  to  a  single 
proteid  layer  of  cells.  The  ovule  is  strictly  monochlamydeous,  the  single 
integument  corresponding  to  the  outer  integument  in  bitegmentary  seeds. 
In  the  allied  genus  Dryas,  the  ovule  is  bitegmentary. 

Bulbiform  Seeds  of  Amaryllideae.t — Dr.  A.  B.  Eendle  gives  a  de- 
tailed account  of  what  bad  been  previously  known  respecting  these 
singular  structures,  found  chiefly  in  species  of  Amaryllis  and  Crinum, 
and  thus  sums  up  the  results.  Tbree  forms  of  seed  may  be  dis- 
tinguished : — A.  True  Seeds;  (1)  Developed  from  a  normal  ovule,  the 
outer  integument  of  which  becomes  thick  and  fleshy  after  fertilisa- 
tion, and  forms  the  substance  of  the  bulbiform  mass  (Hymenocallis) ; 
(2)  Developed  from  a  naked  ovule,  the  flesby  substance  being  derived 
entirely  from  the  endosperm,  which  develops  chlorophyll  in  its  outer 
layers,  and  continues  to  grow  for  some  time  (Crinum  asiaticum,  &c). 
B.  A  vegetative  growth  rejjlacing  the  seed ;  (3)  A  normal  ovule  is  pro- 
duced, but  a  viviparous  growth  of  an  adventitious  shoot  and  root  takes 
place  at  its  base,  and  a  bulbil  is  formed,  the  ovule  integuments  forming 
the  outer  coats  (Calostemma  Cunninghami).  Germination  of  these  struc- 
tures follows  a  course  common  to  many  bulbs  of  Monocotyledons. 

Bending  of  Mature  Wood  in  Trees.  $  —  The  late  T.  Meehan  calls 
attention  to  the  stupendous  power  exhibited  by  plant  life  in  the  enormous 
weight  lifted  by  roots,  or  shifted  by  the  bending  of  boughs.  This  bending 
may  take  place  without  a  break  in  an  old  branch  or  trunk  that  would 
require  an  immense  mechanical  pressure  for  man  to  accomplish.  The 
life-growth  of  a  plant  is,  according  to  the  author,  in  a  measure  a  struggle 
against  gravitation  ;  it  is  to  energy  transmuted  from  nutrition  that  we 
have  to  look  for  the  various  forms  that  plants  assume. 

Causes  of  the  Direction  of  Branches.§ — J.  Baranetzky  goes  in  great 
detail  into  this  subject  from  an  experimental  point  of  view,  giving 
the  results  of  a  large  number  of  experiments  on  trees  and  shrubs. 
It  is  discussed  under  the  following  heads : — The  property  of  counter- 
acting curvature  (Gegenkrummung~)  ;  Experiments  and  observations 
in  the  open  air  ;  Unequal  length  in  growth  of  the  secondary  woody 
elements.  Every  unilateral  growth  of  the  stem  incites,  in  many  plants, 
and  especially  in  those  that  are  woody,  a  more  active  growth  on  the 
opposite  side,  in  consequence  of  which  the  curvature  may  ultimately 
become  effaced. 

Floating  Organs  of  Plants.  ||  —  H.  Dingier  gives  a  resume  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  parts  of  plants  which  assist  in  their  distribution  by 
their  power  of  floating  in  the  air  ;  the  subject  being  treated  mainly  from  a 
mathematical  point  of  view,  i.e.  in  regard  to  the  mechanics  of  the  motion. 

*  Journ.  de  Bot.  (Morot),  xv.  (1901)  pp.  213-7. 
t  Journ.  R.  Hort.  Boo,,  xxvi.  (1901)  pp.  S9-96  (5  figs.). 
%  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1901,  pp.  354-65  (2  pis.). 
§  Flora,  lxxxix.  (1901)  Erganzbd.,  pp.  138-239  (20  figs.). 

||  Die  Bewegung  d.  pflanzlichen  Flugorgane,  Miinchen,  1899,  ix.  and  342  pp. 
and  8  pis.     Sec  Bot.  Contralbl.',  lxxxv'ii.  (1901)  p.  283. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  67 

The  organs  treated  of  are  spores  of  flowerless  plants,  seeds,  fruits,  pollen- 
grains,  &c.  ;  these  are  arranged  in  classes  characterised  by  the  nature  of 
the  motion  rather  than  by  their  morphological  characters. 

Biology  of  Leaves.  *  —  With  immense  wealth  of  detail,  Prof.  A. 
Hansgirg  treats  of  the  great  variety  in  the  form  and  structure  of  leaves, 
classifying  them  under  a  number  of  different  heads.  While  in  individual 
cases  the  process  is  always  obscure,  yet,  as  a  general  law,  the  frequent 
enormous  difference  in  the  form  and  structure  of  the  leaves  of  closely 
related  species,  and  in  other  cases  the  minute  resemblance  between  the 
leaves  of  plants  in  no  way  related  to  one  another,  must  be  attributed  to 
natural  selection  acting  through  the  internal  laws  of  variation  about 
which  so  little  is  known.  The  archaic  form  of  leaf  from  which  all  others 
have  been  derived,  was  probably  simple,  entire,  sessile,  of  delicate 
structure,  deciduous,  glabrous,  and  without  any  special  protection 
against  excessive  transpiration,  insolation,  or  cold.  The  highest  type  of 
leaf  is  to  be  found  in  the  higher  Monocotyledons  and  Dicotyledons, 
and  in  some  ferns.  The  author  classifies  leaves  in  two  great  classes 
from  a  biological  point  of  view : — (A)  Aquatic  and  Marsh  leaves,  Hydro- 
phytes and  Halophytes ;  (B)  Aerial  land-leaves ;  these  are  again  classi- 
fied under  leaves  belonging  to  Tropophytes,  Mesophytes,  Xerophytes, 
Ombrophytes,  and  Halophytes. 

Phyllotaxis.f  —  Eejecting  the  various  mathematical  theories  that 
have  been  proposed  to  account  for  the  phenomena  of  phyllotaxis,  Dr. 
A.  H.  Church  has  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  whole  subject  is  a 
question  of  the  mechanical  distribution  of  energy  within  the  substance 
of  the  protoplasmic  mass  of  the  apex  of  the  plant ;  and  that  tho  phenomena 
of  phyllotaxis  are  the  result  of  inherent  properties  of  protoplasm ;  the 
energy  of  life  being  in  fact  distributed  according  to  the  laws  which  govern 
the  distribution  of  energy  in  any  other  form. 

Stipules  of  Liriodendron.J — From  the  examination  of  a  large  number 
of  leaves  of  Liriodendron  Tulijrifera,  and  a  comparison  with  those  of 
some  fossil  species,  E.  W.  Berry  supports  the  view  that  the  large 
fugacious  stipules  of  our  living  tulip-tree  represent  former  leaf-lobes, 
which,  becoming  separated,  formed  basilar  lobes,  then  winged  petioles, 
and  finally  the  modern  stipules. 

Bulbils  of  Lysimachia  terrestris.§ — Prof.  D.  T.  MacDougal  regards 
the  bulbils  formed  in  the  axils  of  the  aerial  stems  of  this  plant  as 
representing  a  new  category  of  propagative  bodies.  They  are  branches 
of  restricted  development,  and  are  formed  under  conditions  unfavourable 
for  seed  formation.  They  are  free  from  transpiratory  organs  of  any 
kind,  and  resemble  rhizomes  in  structure  rather  than  the  aerial  stems  on 
which  they  are  borne.  The  germination  of  the  bulbil  occurs  without 
any  appreciable  resting  period,  and  is  followed  by  the  final  stages  in  the 
differentiation  of  the  stele.  The  bulbil  becomes  the  main  axis  of  the 
new  plant,  becoming  converted  into  a  rhizome. 

*  SB.  k.  bohm.  Ges.  Wiss.  Prag.  Math.-nat,.  CI.,  1900,  142  pp. 
+  Ann.  Bot.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  481-90  (2  figs.). 
%  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxviii.  (1901)  pp.  493-8  (2  pis.). 

§  Bull.  N.  York  Bot.  Card.,  ii.  (1901)  pp.  82-9.  See  Bot.  Gaz.,  xxxiL  (1901)  p.  65. 

F    2 


68  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Tubers  of  Dioscorea.* — Miss  E.  Dale  describes  in  detail  the  structure 
of  the  tubers  of  Dioscorea  sativa,  which  occur  both  underground  and  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  which  resemble  potato-tubers  in  possessing 
both  "  eyes  "  and  adventitious  roots.  When  planted  the  "  eyes  "  develop 
stems  bearing  axillary  tubers.  The  axillary  tubers  are,  in  all  cases, 
stem-structures ;  and  the  authoress  differs  from  most  previous  authorities 
in  regarding  the  underground  tubers  of  the  Dioscoreaceae  as  also,  in 
most  cases,  stem-structures. 

Assimilating  Roots  of  Taeniophyllum.  f  —  An  examination  by  J. 
Midler  of  the  anatomy  of  the  assimilating  roots  of  Taeniophyllum 
Zollingeri  (OrchideeB)  leads  to  the  following  among  the  more  important 
results. 

The  assimilating  organs  consist  exclusively  of  dorsiventral  aerial 
roots.  The  envelope,  consisting  of  two  layers  of  cells,  persists  only  on 
the  ventral  side.  The  exoderm  is  more  strongly  developed  on  the  dorsal 
than  on  the  ventral  side,  and  is,  in  the  former  case,  exposed.  The 
pneumathode  cells  are  found  only  on  the  ventral  side.  The  walls  of 
the  ordinary  exoderm  cells  consist  of  alternate  suberified  and  non- 
6uberified  layers.  In  older  roots  the  passage  of  air  may  be  stopped  by 
suberified  chlorophyllous  wedge-shaped  cortical  parenchyme  cells. 

Besides  the  ordinary  exoderm  cells,  the  pneumathode  cells,  and  those 
for  the  passage  of  air,  there  occurs  in  the  exoderm  a  fourth  kind  of  cell. 
They  are  very  thin-walled  dead  cells,  occurring  singly  or  in  large 
numbers,  into  which  the  adjoining  cortical  parenchyme  cells  force  their 
way.  They  have  somewhat  thickened  and  suberised  walls,  are  destitute 
of  chlorophyll,  and  obviously  possess  the  function  of  checking  transpi- 
ration through  the  overlying  very  thin-walled  exoderm  cells. 

Anatomy  of  Cassiope.J  —  Dr.  K.  Linsbaucr  has  investigated  the 
anatomical  structure  of  the  vegetative  organs  of  Cassiope  tetragona,  an 
Arctic  representative  of  the  Ericaceae,  with  the  following  results.  The 
leaf  has  on  its  under  side  a  closed  cavity,  which  is  cap-shaped  in  its 
upper  portion.  This  cavity  is  not  caused  by  a  rolling  up  of  the  margin 
of  the  leaf,  but  by  a  swelling  on  all  6ides  of  a  horseshoe-shaped  part  of 
the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  and  hence  from  intercalary  growth.  Tho 
arrangement  of  the  tissues  of  the  leaf  differs  materially  from  that  of 
normal  dicotyledonous  leaves,  especially  in  the  fact  that  the  palisade- 
parenchyme  is  formed  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf. 

$.  Physiology. 
(1)   Reproduction  and  Embryology. 

Reduction  in  the  Number  of  Chromosomes  in  the  Embryo-sac 
Mother-cell.§  —  In  a  number  of  Liliifloras  examined,  J.  Schniewind-Thies 
finds  three  different  types  in  tho  development  of  the  embryo-sac  from 
its  mother-cells,  viz. : — (1)  An  embryo-sac  mother-cell  divides  into  two 
daughter-cells ;  and  these  again  into  four  cells,  each  of  which  is  capable 

•  Ann.  Bot.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  491-501  (1  pi.), 
t  SB.  k.  Akad.  Wies.  Wien,  cis.  (1900)  pp.  667-83  (1  pi.). 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  685-99  (2  pis.). 

§  Die  Reduction  d.  Chroniosrroenzahl  u.s.w.,  Jena,  1901,  34  pp.  and  5  pis.     See 
Bot.  Ztg.,  lix.  (1901)  2<«  Abt.,  p.  276. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  6(J 

©f  development  into  an  embryo-sac.  In  the  embryo-sac  three  divisions 
then  succeed  one  another,  the  last  of  which  gives  riso  to  the  ovum- 
nucleus.  There  are  here,  therefore,  four  stages  in  the  reduction  of  the 
number  of  chromosomes.  (2)  An  embryo-sao  mother-cell  divides  into 
two  daughter-cells,  of  which  either  only  the  upper  or  only  the  lower  is 
capable  of  developing  into  an  embryo-sac.  In  the  embryo-sac  three 
further  divisions  take  place,  the  last  of  which  gives  birth  to  the  ovum- 
nucleus.  The  number  of  stages  in  the  reduction  is  only  three.  (3)  An 
ombryo-sac  mother-cell  develops  directly  into  an  embryo-sac,  in  which 
three  stages  in  the  process  of  division  are  required  for  the  production 
of  the  ovum-nucleus.  There  is  therefore  a  further  reduction  in  the 
number  of  stages. 

In  the  first  type  (Galtonia  candicans,  Convallaria  majalis),  the  hetero- 
type  and  homotype  divisions  of  the  nucleus  are  completed  in  the  two 
progamic  generations  which  precede  the  formation  of  the  embryo-sac ; 
in  the  embryo-sac  three  typical  nuclear  divisions  succeed  one  another. 
In  the  second  type  (Scilla  sibirica,  Allium  ursinum)  only  the  heterotype 
nuclear  division  is  progamic ;  the  homotype  division  represents  the  first 
nuclear  division  in  the  embryo-sac  ;  the  two  following  divisions  in  the 
embryo-sac  are  typical.  In  the  third  typo  (Tulipa  Gesneriana)  both 
heterotype  and  homotype  divisions  take  place  in  the  embryo-sac  ;  only 
the  third  nuclear  division  is  typical. 

The  result  is  that  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  chromosomes  in 
the  nucleus  of  the  embryo-sac  mother-cell  causes  in  it  a  heterotype 
division  ;  this  is  succeeded  by  a  homotype  division,  and  only  the  sub- 
sequent divisions  are  typical.  These  observations  point  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  reduction  in  the  number  of  chromosomes  in  the  rudiment 
of  the  seed  is  the  point  of  time  of  the  birth  of  the  new  generation. 

Double  Fertilisation  in  Naias.*  —  L.  Guignard  describes  another 
case  of  double  fertilisation  in  the  case  of  Naias  major.  The  formation 
of  the  egg-apparatus  in  the  embryo-sac  takes  place  in  the  usual  way. 
The  nuclei  of  the  pollen-mother-cells  and  those  derived  from  them 
present  the  phenomenon  of  chromatic  reduction ;  instead  of  containing 
twelve  chromosomes,  they  possess  only  six,  the  smallest  number  which 
has  as  yet  been  found  in  the  sexual  nuclei  of  plants ;  and  these  present 
greater  differences  than  usual  in  length  in  the  same  nucleus.  Similar 
characteristics  are  presented  by  the  nuclei  of  the  embryo-sac.  The 
three  antipodals  are  not  alike  ;  the  two  lower  ones  are  bounded  by  cell- 
walls,  and  are  distinguished  from  the  upper  one  by  their  smaller  nuclei ; 
while  they  become  gradually  absorbed,  this  latter,  which  has  no  limiting 
wall,  continues  to  grow,  and  persists,  after  impregnation,  at  the  base  of 
the  embryo-sac.  The  two  polar  nuclei  do  not  fu^e  until  shortly  before 
impregnation.  One  of  the  synergids  is  also  absorbed  considerably 
before  the  other  one.  The  fusion  of  the  male  with  the  female  nuclei 
takes  place  with  great  rapidity,  and  is  very  difficult  to  follow. 

After  impregnation,  contrary  to  what  usually  occurs,  the  division  of 
the  ovum-cell  takes  place  before  that  of  the  secondary  nucleus.  Two 
embryos  were  several  times  observed  in  an  embryo-sac,  presenting  all 
the  characters  of  normal  embryos  formed  by  impregnation. 

*  Journ.  de  Dot.  (Morot),  xv.  (1001)  pp.  205-13  (15  figs.). 


70       SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

Embryogeny  of  the  Sequoiacese.* —  W.  Arnoldi  has  studied  the 
development  of  the  embryo  in  the  family  Sequoiacese,  comprising  the 
genera  Sequoia,  Wellingionia,  Taxodium,  Cryptomeria,  Cunningham! a, 
Arthrotaxis,  Glyptostrobus,  and  Sciadopitys,  especially  in  Sequoia  sem- 
pervirens. 

From  his  observations  the  author  concludes  that  the  Sequoiacese  do 
not  form  a  single  sharply  differentiated  family,  but  that  they  are  com- 
posed of  at  least  three  distinct  sections.  The  first  two  genera  form  a 
distinct  group,  the  Sequoiese ;  Sciadopntys  should  probably  be  made  the 
type  of  a  distinct  family ;  while  Taxodium,  Cryptomeria,  and  Cunning- 
liamia  might  be  referred  to  the  Cnpre&sinese. 

The  characteristics  of  the  family  Sequoiese  indicate  their  antiquity. 
In  Sequoia  (sempervirens)  there  may  be  one  or  more  embryo-sacs,  the 
number  being  quite  indefinite ;  in  Wel1i7igtonia  (gigantea),  more  than 
one  never  become  fully  developed.  In  these  two  species  there  are  also 
all  possible  transitional  forms  between  a  single  sessile  archegone  and  a 
complex  of  archegones ;  the  solitary  sessile  archegones  are  never  ferti- 
lised, but  represent  functionless  organs.  The  structure  of  the  pollen- 
tube,  and  to  a  large  extent  that  of  the  archegone,  in  the  Sequoiese,  agrees 
with  that  in  Cupressinese,  differing  from  the  other  families  of  Coniferse. 
The  Cupressinese  have  probably  been  derived  from  the  Sequoieas,  through 
Taxodium  and  Cryptomeria. 

Development  of  the  Oosphere  and  Fertilisation  in  Pinus  Strobus.f 
—An  examination  of  the  development  of  the  "  egg"  (oosphere)  and  of 
the  process  of  fertilisation  in  several  species  of  Pinus,  especially 
P.  Strobus,  leads  Miss  M.  C.  Ferguson  to  the  following,  among  other, 
conclusions. 

The  time  at  which  the  archegones  appear  varies  somewhat ;  but  in 
general  they  can  be  detected  about  two  weeks  before  fertilisation ;  they 
are  usually  found  at  the  micropylar  end  of  the  prothallium.  The 
number  of  archegones  varies  in  the  different  species  from  one  to  nine. 
The  number  of  cells  of  which  the  neck  is  composed  varies  between  four 
and  eight.  The  ventral  canal-cell  is  cut  off  about  a  week  before  ferti- 
lisation. In  the  division  of  the  central  cell  the  spindle  arises  as  a 
multipolar  diarch,  and  lies  wholly  within  the  nucleus.  During  the 
maturation  of  the  oosphere,  many  nutritive  spheres  arise  in  the  cyto- 
plasm. As  the  nucleus  of  the  oosphere  assumes  its  central  position,  it 
increases  much  in  size,  and  many  threads  arise  in  the  cytoplasm  sur- 
rounding it.  The  cytoplasm  of  the  oosphere  presents  a  delicate  net- 
work. Immediately  before  fertilisation  an  opening  appears  in  this 
cytoplasm,  apparently  for  the  reception  of  the  sperm-cell.  At  the  time 
of  fertilisation  an  opening  is  formed  in  the  apex  of  the  pollen-tube,  and 
the  cells  of  the  male  gametophyte  which  still  persist,  together  with  a 
portion  of  the  cytoplasm  and  some  of  the  starch  of  the  pollen-tube, 
pass  into  the  protoplasm  of  the  oosphere.  The  larger  sperm-nucleus 
escapes  from  the  protoplasm  of  the  sperm-cell,  and  moves  directly  to- 
wards the  oosphere  nucleus.  At  the  time  of  conjugation  the  oosphere 
nucleus  is  several  times  larger  than  the  sperm-nucleus.     There  is  no 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Imp.  Nat.  Moscou,  xiv.  (1900)  1901,  pp.  449-76  (2  pis.  and  30  figs.). 
Cf.  this  Journal,  1900,  p.  482;  nlso  189G,  p.  047. 
t  Ann.  Bot„  xv.  (1901)  pp.  435-79  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  71 

actual  fusion  betwoeu  the  two  nuclei.  No  individualised  centrosomes 
or  centrospheres  have  been  found  to  occur  in  connection  with  the  first 
division  following  fertilisation.  The  number  of  chromosomes  in  the 
nucleus  of  the  ventral  canal-cell,  in  the  nuclei  of  the  sheath-cells,  and  in 
the  nucleus  of  the  oosphere,  has  been  found  to  be  twelve,  while  the 
mitotic  figure  in  the  first  division  following  fertilisation,  shows  twenty- 
four  chromatic  segments. 

A  good  bibliography  is  appended  to  the  paper. 

Formation  of  the  Ovule  and  Embryo-sac  in  the  Araliaceae.* — 
L.  Ducamp  has  followed  these  out  in  several  genera  of  this  order,  the 
following  being  among  the  more  important  results  obtained. 

The  ovular  protrusions  are  formed  in  pairs  for  each  loculus  on  the 
margin  of  the  carpel ;  one  of  the  two  grows  upwards  and  aborts ;  the 
other  descends  into  the  cavity  of  the  ovary  and  occupies  a  lateral  posi- 
tion. The  nucellus  is  developed  from  three  or  four  hypodermal  cells. 
One  of  these,  the  privileged  cell,  gives  birth,  after  several  divisions,  to 
the  primordial  mother-cell  of  the  embryo-sac.  The  fusion  of  the  polar 
nuclei  in  the  embryo-sac  takes  place  before  the  flower  opens.  When  the 
embryo-sac  is  developed,  the  nucellus  has  become  reduced  to  a  small 
column  of  four  or  five  filaments  of  cells  ;  the  result  of  a  diastatic 
action  in  the  cells  before  the  formation  of  the  embryo-sac.  A  similar 
change  appears  to  take  place  in  the  integument,  an  inner  zone  of  which 
contributes  to  the  nutrition  of  the  embryo-sac.  At  maturity  the  endo- 
sperm is  covered  by  a  membrane-like  layer  representing  the  inner  zone 
of  the  integument,  a  horny  layer  with  masses  of  calcium  oxalate  derived 
from  the  outer  zone,  and  the  external  integument. 

Embryo  of  Hedera.j — L.  Ducamp  gives  further  details  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  embryo  in  the  ivy,  which  presents  no  important 
departure  from  the  normal  in  its  early  stages.  The  first  division  of 
the  impregnated  cell  is  transverse ;  the  upper  segment  giving  birth  to 
the  embryo,  the  lower  to  the  suspensor.  In  the  formation  of  the  root- 
cone,  the  central  cylinder  is  entirely  independent  of  the  suspensor  ;  the 
growth  downwards  of  the  latter  gives  rise  to  the  cap ;  while  the  upper 
elements  of  the  cap  are  formed  by  the  base  of  the  embryonal  epiderm. 

Cross-Pollination  and  Self-Pollination.— -Dr.  D.  Clos  J  describes  the 
phenomena  connected  with  the  flowering  and  pollination  of  several 
species  grown  in  the  botanic  garden  at  Toulouse,  including  Cobsea 
scandens,  which  he  regards  as  self-pollinated. 

A.  Mainardi  §  regards  the  poppy  (Papaver  Bliceas)  as  probably 
originally  anemophilous.  The  dark  spots  at  the  base  of  the  petals  now 
serve  to  attract  species  of  Xylocopa  ;  these  press  out  the  pollen  on  to  the 
hairs  which  cover  the  abdomen ;  then  carry  it  away,  and  deposit  it  on 
the  stigma  of  another  flower. 

Change  of  Sexuality  in  Plants. || — A.  Gallardo  has  experimented  on 
the  production  of  male  and  female  flowers  in  successive  generations  of  a 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  753-6.  t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  651-3. 

X  Bull.  Acad.  Sci.  Toulouse,  1900,  pp.  219-31. 
§  Nuov.  Giorn.  Bot.  Ital.,  viii.  (1901)  pp.  49-63. 

||  Cornni.  d.  Mus.  Nat.  Buenos  Aires,  i.  (1901)  pp.  273-91.  See  Bot.  Centralbl., 
Ixxsvii.  (1901)  p.  434. 


72  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

number  of  species  with  uuissxual  flowers,  and  has  arrived  at  the  general 
conclusion,  in  accordance  with  that  of  Klebs,  that  the  production  of 
female  flowers  is  promoted  by  a  copious  supply  of  nutrient  substances, 
that  of  male  flowers  by  deficient  nourishment.  While  the  pruning  of 
the  root  or  rhizome  will  tend  to  the  production  of  male  flowers,  the 
formation  of  female  flowers  is  promoted  only  by  increased  vital  activity. 

Mendel's  Laws  of  Hybridity. — A  reprint  of  G.  Mendel's  important 
treatise  on  Hybridity  in  Plants — which  appeared  in  the  Verhandlungen 
des  naturw.  Vereins  in  Briinn  for  February  8  and  March  8,  1865  (pub- 
lished in  1866) — appears  in  the  Erganzungsband  of  Flora  for  1901, 
pp.  364-403  ;  and  a  Translation,  with  an  Introductory  Note  by  W.  Bate- 
son,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society,  vol.  xxvi.  (1901) 
pp.  1-32. 

Cleistogamy  of  Stellaria  pallida.  *  —  E.  Loew  regards  Stellaria 
pallida  as  a  clearly  distinct  species  from  S.  media.  The  former  is  a 
typical  cleistogamous  plant ;  impregnation  takes  place  within  the  closed 
flowers,  the  pollen-tubes  fixing  the  anthers  to  the  stigma ;  the  corolla  is 
greatly  reduced  or  entirely  abortive.  In  S.  media,  although  the  flowers 
often  do  not  open  under  unfavourable  conditions,  the  corolla  is  fully 
formed,  and  it  is  only  exceptionally  that  impregnation  takes  place  within 
the  closed  flower.     The  species  is  only  pseudo-cleistogamous. 

(2)   Nutrition  and  Growth  (including  Germination, 
and  Movements  of  Fluids). 

Chlorophyll  Assimilation.! — L.  Macehiati  regards  the  production 
of  the  numerous  diastases  or  enzymes  which  exist  in  animals  and  in  the 
higher  plants  as  a  function  of  the  vital  activity  of  tbe  living  cell.  The 
chlorophyll  function  of  green  cells  is  in  all  probability  the  result  of  the 
action  of  a  special  diastase  secreted  by  the  chloroplasts,  and  the  chloro- 
phyll-pigments under  the  influence  of  solar  radiation.  The  phenomena 
of  synthesis  (assimilation)  and  of  decomposition  (dissimilation)  are 
equally  expressions  of  fermentative  processes.  The  author  classifies 
under  seven  heads  the  various  modes  in  which  these  numerous  ferments 
occur  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.     Further  researches  are  promised. 

Action  of  Inorganic  Salts  on  the  Structure  and  Development  of 
Plants.:}:  —  A  series  of  experiments  by  G.  H.  Pethybridge,  chiefly  on 
wheat,  oat,  and  maize,  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  growth  in  distilled 
water  causes  very  great  lengthening  of  the  root,  and  thickening  of  the 
cell- walls  of  the  endoderm  and  central  cylinder.  In  contrast  to  a  normal 
nutrient  solution,  dilution  of  the  solution  and  the  addition  of  sodium 
chloride  have  both  a  similar  effect,  viz. : — lengthening  of  the  root, 
diminution  in  the  number  of  shoots  and  in  the  number  of  leaves,  also  of 
the  average  length  and  breadth  of  the  leaf.  As  regards  anatomy,  they 
bring  about  a  decrease  in  the  diameter  of  the  roots,  of  the  vessels  in  the 
root,  and  of  the  haulm,  an  increase  in  the  thickness  of  the  cell-walls  of 

*  Abhandl.  Bot.  Verein  Prov.  Brandenburg,  xli.  pp.  169-83.  See  Bot.  Centralbl., 
lxxxviii.  (1901)  p.  172. 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital.,  1901,  pp.  323-35. 

t  Beitr.  z.  Keuntniss  d.  Eiuwirkung  d.  anorganischen  Salzen  u.a.w.,  Gottingen, 
1899,  95  pp.     See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxvii.  (1901)  p.  235. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  73 

the  endoderra  and  central  cylinder  in  tho  root,  haulm,  and  leaf,  and  of 
the  absolute  number  of  fibres  in  the  leaf.  In  wheat  grown  in  sodium 
■chloride  or  in  distilled  water,  the  stomates  disappear  almost  entirely 
from  the  under-side  of  the  loaf. 

Relation  of  the  Supply  of  Water  to  the  Ripening  of  Woody 
Plants.* — According  to  F.  Kovessi,  the  form  of  a  tree,  as  well  as  the 
location  of  its  flowering  branches,  are  largely  determined  by  the  con- 
ditions relating  to  ripening.  Tho  degree  of  ripening  of  the  branches, 
and,  in  consequence,  the  abundance  of  flowers  and  fruits  for  the  following 
year,  are  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  water  received  by  the 
plant. 

Hybridisation  by  Grafting.f — A.  Jurie  records  an  instance  of  the 
transmission  of  characters  from  the  graft  to  the  stock.  Using  as  the 
stock  a  vine  which  had  never  produced  any  but  male  flowers,  there  was 
grafted  on  this  a  bud  from  an  ordinary  hermaphrodite  vine.  The  stock 
put  out  a  long  and  vigorous  shoot  which  bore  fertile  flowers  producing  a 
well-developed  bunch  of  grapes. 

Grafting,  Pinching,  and  Annular  Decortication.^ — L.  Daniel  draws 
an  anatomical  comparision  between  the  processes  of  grafting  (simple  and 
mixed),  pinching  (pincement),  and  annular  decortication.  He  further 
points  out  that  the  artificial  increase  in  the  number  of  concentric  layers 
corresponds  with  what  takes  place  in  nature  by  the  action  of  phyto- 
phagous animals  or  of  wind. 

Chlorophyll  Assimilation  of  Cut  Leaves.  — In  an  additional  note 
on  the  assimilation  carried  on  by  leaves  (Pelargonium,  spinach,  chick- 
weed)  after  being  detached  from  the  parent  plant,  J.  Friedel  §  states 
that  this  process  goes  on  much  less  energetically  in  the  autumn  than  in 
the  summer,  the  difference  displayed  in  the  two  seasons  being  greater 
even  than  is  the  case  with  living  leaves. 

M.  Harroy  ||  has  repeated  Friedel 's  experiments,  with  negative 
results. 

Vitality  of  Leaves  after  their  Fall.f — G.  Boyer  has  noticed  that 
after  leaves  have  fallen  to  the  ground  in  the  autumn,  they  still,  as  a  rule, 
exhibit  some  of  the  phenomena  of  life.  Especially  can  it  be  demon- 
strated that  the  process  of  respiration  has  not  altogether  ceased  ;  but  that 
it  may  even  proceed  with  considerable  energy.  The  experiments  were 
chiefly  made  with  leaves  of  Euonymw. 

Biology  of  Ranunculus  Ficaria.**  —  E.  Berg  has  noticed  that  the 
axillary  buds  will  develop,  whether  borne  on  barren  shoots  or  on  those 
which  produce  ripe  fruits  and  seeds,  but  only  after  a  period  of  rest.  In 
Germany  and  Switzerland  the  species  is  propagated  not  only  by  the 
bulbils  but  also  sexually  through  insects  attracted  by  the  bright  corolla 
and  the  fragrant  nectaries. 

*  Comptes  Itendus,  exxxii.  (1901)  pp.  1359-61.     Cf.  this  Journal,  1901,  p.  302. 
t  Op.  fit.,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  445-6. 

J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  837-40.     Cf.  this  Journal,  1901,  pp.  ITS  and  182. 
§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  840-1.     Cf.  this  Journal,  1901,  p.  436. 
||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  890-1. 

ii  P.V.  Soc.  Sciences  phys.  et  nat.  Bordeaux,  1900,  pp.  68-72. 
**  Studien  lib.  d.  Dimorphismus  v.  Ranunculus  Ficaria,  Erlangen,  1899,  49  pp. 
and  1  pi.     See  liot.  Central!)'.,  lxxxvii.  (1901)  p.  315. 


74  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Influence  of  the  Surrounding  Medium  on  the  Growth  of  Roots.* — 
As  the  result  of  experiments  on  Lupinw  albus,  J.  Arker  states  that  the 
rapidity  of  the  growth  of  the  roots  is  increased  when  a  current  of  atmo- 
spheric air  is  passed  through  the  soil  in  which  they  grow  (or  through  the 
water  in  the  case  of  aquatic  plants).  In  the  open  air,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  growth  of  roots  is  extremely  slight. 

(3)   Irritability. 

Reaction  of  Leaves  to  Traumatic  Stimulation.!  —  According  to 
Dr.  F.  F.  Blackman  and  Gabrielle  L.  0.  Matthaei,  leaves  of  the  cherry- 
laurel  or  oleander  will  retain  their  vitality  for  weeks  or  even  months 
after  being  cut  off,  if  kept  in  the  dark  and  supplied  with  water ;  a  callus 
being  formed  in  the  former  case  over  the  cut  surface  ;  while  in  the  latter 
case  a  large  number  of  adventitious  roots  are  produced  from  the  stump 
of  the  leaf-stalk.  If  a  clean  cut  be  made  through  the  substance  of  the 
leaf  (cherry-laurel),  or  even  if  the  leaf  be  cut  into  a  number  of  strips,  no 
healing  reaction  will  follow,  only  the  cells  which  are  actually  cut  through 
being  killed.  But  if  patches  of  cells  in  the  leaf  are  killed,  the  sur- 
rounding tissues  will  always  react  by  cutting  off  and  exfoliating  the 
injured  patch,  so  that  it  drops  out  of  the  leaf,  leaving  a  hole.  The  mode 
of  formation  of  the  new  tissue  is  described  in  detail. 

Irritability  of  the  Higher  Plants.:}: — M.  J.  Massart  defines  as  the 
"  equilibrium  of  reaction  "  (equilibre  reactionnel)  the  position  ultimately 
attained  by  organs,  when  subjected  at  the  same  time  to  various  reflex 
actions,  each  of  which  tends  to  bring  about  a  displacement  of  its  own. 
There  are  two  sets  of  reflex  action,  one  having  its  source  in  the  part  of 
the  organ  which  displays  curvature,  the  other  in  the  apex  of  the  organ. 
The  author  has  especially  studied  the  phenomena  of  irritation  in  the 
climbing  species  of  Ficus,  which  have  three  kinds  of  aerial  root  differing 
from  one  another  in  their  origin  and  in  their  sensitiveness : — early  ad- 
hesive roots,  later  adhesive  roots,  and  nutrient  roots. 

(4)   Chemical  Changes  (including-  Respiration 
and  Fermentation). 

Formation  of  Proteids.  §  —  According  to  W.  Zaleski,  none  of  the 
theories  at  present  propounded  fully  account  for  the  formation  of  the 
proteids  in  plants.  He  brings  forward  evidence  to  show  that  it  may 
take  place  both  from  organic  nitrogen  compounds  and  from  nitrates,  even 
in  the  dark,  though  it  is  greatly  promoted  by  light.  A  good  material 
for  demonstrating  the  formation  of  proteids  out  of  organic  nitrogen  com- 
pounds in  the  dark  is  the  bulbs  of  Allium  Cepa.  It  does  not  take  place, 
as  has  generally  been  stated,  at  the  cost  of  the  asparagin,  but  of  other 
unknown  nitrogen  compounds.  The  regeneration,  or  secondary  formation 
of  proteids  out  of  the  products  of  the  decomposition  of  these  substances 
is  illustrated  in  the  case  of  etiolated  seedlings  of  Lupinus  angustifolius ; 

*  Die  Beeinflussung  d.  Wachsthuma  d.  Wurzeln  durch  d.  umgebende  Medium 
Erlangen,  1900,  76  pp.     See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxvii.  (1901)  p.  433. 

t  Ann.  Bot.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  533-46  (1  pi.  and  5  figs.). 

X  Acad.  R.  Belg.  Bull.  CI.  Sciences,  1901,  pp.  547-9. 

§  The  Conditions  of  the  Formation  of  Proteids  in  Plants,  Charkow,  1900 
(Russian).    See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xxxvii.  (1901)  p.  277.   Cf.  this  Journal,  1901,  p.  558. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  75 

the  synthesis  of  proteids  out  of  nitrates  and  sugar  in  the  leaves  of  Heli- 
anthus  annuus  ;  this  can  take  place  in  the  dark. 

Fermentation  without  Cells.  *  —  F.  B.  Ahrens  finds  that  yeast  ex- 
tract may  be  concentrated  by  cooling  to  a  temperature  not  lower  than 
—  2°,  stirring  and  expressing  the  liquor  from  the  resulting  magma  of 
crystals.  By  repeating  this  process  several  times  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  liquor  may  be  raised  from  1-0378  at  12°  to  1-0765  at  14°.  This 
concentrated  extract  gave  satisfactory  results  on  experiments  where  the 
original  extract  was  too  dilute.  The  author  considers  that  zymase  is 
present  as  a  colloidal  substance  and  not  in  a  state  of  true  solution ;  that 
its  loss  of  activity  is  due  to  acidity  which  always  develops  in  a  few  hours, 
and  that  the  fluorescence  which  disappears  when  the  extract  is  kept  or 
used  as  a  fermenting  agent  is  caused  by  the  zymase  itself. 

New  Mode  of  Measuring  Transpiration,  f  —  L.  Buscalioni  and  G. 
Pollacci  utilise  for  this  purpose  the  property  of  an  alcohol-ether  solution 
of  collodion  to  become  turbid  in  contact  with  aqueous  vapour.  By  this 
means  they  determined  that,  in  a  large  number  of  plants,  transpiration  is 
less  energetic  from  the  red  than  from  the  green  plants. 

y.  General. 

Limits  of  Variation  in  Plants.  X  — Dr.  J.  W.  Harshberger  describes 
and  tabulates  the  results  of  a  long  series  of  observations  on  the  variabi- 
lity of  the  following  organs : — Fruit  of  Podophyllum  peltatum,  leaf  of 
Liriodendron  tulipifera,  leaf  of  Ampelopsis  Veitehii,  fruit  of  Quercus  alba 
and  of  Q.  prinus  palustris,  leaf  of  Menispermum  canadense,  entire  plant  of 
Arisxma  tripliyllum.  leaf  of  Sanguinaria  canadensis,  leaf  of  Ailanthus 
glandulosa.  In  three  instances  (Liriodendron  tulipifera,  Sanguinaria 
canadensis,  Ailanthus  glandulosa)  it  was  found  that  variation  in  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  leaves  is  in  part  due  to  the  persistence  of  juvenile  forms, 
to  the  arrested  development  of  such  leaves,  and  to  their  evolution  and 
transformation  into  higher  forms.  These  changes  are  in  most  cases  due 
to  two  causes, — the  internal  hereditary  impulse  and  the  direct  environ- 
mental influence. 

Heterogenesis  and  Evolution.  § — S.  Korschinsky  marshalls  a  large 
number  of  observations  on  heterogenesis,  especially  in  connection  with 
their  bearing  on  the  evolution  of  species,  under  the  following  heads : — 
Variations  in  growth  ;  variations  in  the  stem  ;  variations  in  the  foliage  ; 
form  of  the  leaves  ;  colour  of  the  leaves ;  colour  of  the  flowers ;  variations 
in  the  structure  of  the  flower ;  variations  in  the  time  of  blossoming ; 
variations  in  the  fruit ;  the  nature  of  heterogenesis  ;  the  peculiarities  of 
heterogenetic  characters ;  the  external  conditions  of  heterogenesis ;  the 
directions  of  variability ;  the  properties  of  heterogenetic  variations  ; 
the  heredity  of  heterogenetic  deviations. 

*  Zeit.  ano;ew.  Chem.,  1900,  pp.  483-6.  Sec  Journ.  Chem.  Soc,  lxxviii.  (1900) 
Abstr.  ii.  pp.  610-1.     Cf.  this  Journal,  1899,  p.  G22. 

t  Atti  1st.  Bot.  Univ.  Pavia,  vii.  (1900)  13  pp.  and  1  pi.  Sec  Bot.  Centralbl., 
lxxxviii.  (1901)  p.  186. 

X  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  liii.  (1901)  pp.  305-19. 

§  Flora,  lxxxix.  (1901)  Erganzbd.,  pp.  '240-303. 


76  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Means  of  Distribution  of  Alpine  Plants.* — Dr.  P.  Vogel  points  out 
what  a  large  part  is  played  in  the  Swiss  Alps  by  the  wind  in  the  dissemi- 
nation of  plants,  the  very  strong  and  variable  winds  being  accompanied 
by  a  comparative  scarcity  of  auimal  life  and  the  almost  complete  dis- 
appearance of  stagnant  waters.  By  the  law,  therefore,  of  natural  selec- 
tion, those  plants  which  are  furnished  with  ready  means  of  wind  disper- 
sion, such  as  the  possession  of  winged  seeds,  are  more  likely  to  establish 
themselves  in  Alpine  regions  than  those  with  no  such  advantage. 
Although  the  carriage  of  seeds  to  much  greater  distances  does  occur,  it 
is  the  transport  to  distances  between  3  and  40  kilometres  that  plays  the 
most  important  part  in  the  dispersion  of  Alpine  plants.  A  number  of 
tables  are  appended,  exhibiting  the  mode  of  distribution  of  a  very  large 
number  of  Alpine  plants  :  by  the  wind,  by  birds,  by  ants  or  other  insects, 
by  barbed  bristles,  by  violent  expulsion  of  the  seeds,  &c,  &c. 

Influence  of  Osmotic  Pressure  on  the  Form  and  Structure  of  Plants.f 
— From  a  series  of  experiments  on  tho  higher  plants  (Phaseolus,  Pisum, 
Lupinus,  Triticum,  Zed),  J.  Beauverie  concludes  that  the  external  changes 
manifested  by  cultivation  are  connected  with  modifications  in  the  ana- 
tomical and  histological  structure.  In  the  case  of  Phaseolus  the  use  of 
a  concentrated  Knop's  solution  results  in  the  disappearance  of  the  pith 
from  the  roots,  while  an  abundant  pericyclic  suber  is  produced  at  an  early 
period.  The  cells,  reacting  against  the  medium  in  order  to  ensure  the 
excess  of  osmosis  necessary  to  maintain  their  integrity,  absorb  especially 
certain  elements  which  are  capable  of  retaining  the  water  in  their 
interior. 

Disease  in  Plants.J— Prof.  H.  Marshall  Ward  publishes  an  exhaus- 
tive and  excellent  manual  on  this  subject.  The  following  are  the 
headings  of  the  chapters : — The  Plant  and  its  surroundings  ;  The  Plant 
and  its  Food  ;  The  Plant  a  living  machine  ;  Metabolism ;  Boots  and 
Eoot-hairs ;  The  Function  of  Eoot-hairs ;  The  Biology  of  soil ;  Hybridi- 
sation and  Selection  ;  Phyto-pathology ;  Health  and  Disease  ;  Causes  of 
Disease ;  Nature  of  Disease  ;  Spreading  of  Disease  and  Epidemics  ;  The 
Factors  of  an  Epidemic ;  Eemedial  measures ;  Variation  and  Disease  ; 
Symptoms  of  Disease  ;  Artificial  Wounds ;  Natural  Wounds  ;  Excres- 
cences ;  Exudations  and  Eotting  ;  Necrotic  Diseases  ;  Proliferations  ; 
Grafts  ;  Life  and  Death.     A  copious  index  is  appended. 

B.    CRYPTOGAMIA. 

Cryptogamia  Vascularis. 

Sporange  and  Oophyte  of  Selaginella.§  —  Florence  M.  Lyon  has 
studied  the  structure  and  development  of  the  microsporanges  and 
megasporanges,  and  of  the  gametophyte  (oophyte)  in  two  American  species 
of  Selaginella,  S.  apus  and  S.  rupestris. 

In  both  species  the  sporange  may  frequently,  if  not  always,  be  traced 
to  a  single  superficial   cell,  the   archespore.      The  sporogenous  tissue 

*  Flora,  Ixxxix.  (1901)  Erganzbd.,  pp.  1-137  (4  pis.  and  1  fig.). 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxii.  (1901)  pp.  226-9. 

X  Disease  in  Plants,  London,  1901,  xiv.  and  291  pp. 

§  liot.  Gazette,  xxxii.  (1899)  pp.  121-41,  170-94  (5  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  77 

arises  in  tvo  ways : — in  S.  rupestris  from  the  single  hypodermal  cell 
formed  by  the  archespore  being  divided  by  a  periclinal  wall,  thus  pro- 
ducing a  wall  and  a  sporogenous  cell ;  or  by  the  archespore  dividing  into 
four  cells  by  a  periclinal  wall,  the  two  hypodermal  cells  thus  formed 
developing  the  sporogenous  tissue.  The  tapete  is  formed  in  part  from 
the  sporogenous  cells  near  the  exterior  of  the  mass,  in  part  from 
adjacent  vegetative  cells. 

The  micro-  and  megasporanges  are  indistinguishable  before  the 
spore-mother-cells  are  differentiated.  The  normal  number  of  meg;tspores 
in  a  sporange  is  4  ;  but  in  S.  rupestris  only  2,  or  even  only  1,  may  reach 
maturity.  In  both  species  the  megaspore  has  three  distinct  coats, — 
exospore,  mesospore,  and  endospore.  The  female  oophyte  is  formed  by 
free-cell-division  of  the  megaspore,  the  nuclei  dividing  by  indirect 
division.  The  microspores  develop  in  a  manner  analogous  to  the 
megaspores.  The  male  oophyte  (of  S.  apus)  consists  of  a  single  prothal- 
lial  cell  and  a  mass  of  potential  sperm-cells  ;  there  is  no  antherid,  nor 
is  there  a  wall  separating  the  prothallial  from  the  sperm-cells.  In  both 
species  the  spermatozoid  is  a  spirally  coiled  body,  on  which  no  cilia  were 
detected.  Both  kinds  of  sporange  open  by  definite  lines  of  dehiscence. 
Fertilisation  occurs,  in  both  species,  while  the  spores  are  unshed  and  the 
sporanges  are  still  attached  to  the  strobile. 

Prothallus  of  Ophioglossum,  Helminthostachys,  and  Psilotum.  *  — 
Dr.  W.  H.  Lang  gives  a  preliminary  account  of  the  prothallus  of  these 
genera  of  Vascular  Cryptogams  found  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  and 
Ceylon. 

Ophioglossum  pendulum.  The  very  young  prothallus  is  button-shaped. 
A  close  covering  of  paraphyses  extends  uninterruptedly  from  just  above 
the  base  over  the  whole  surface.  The  youngest  prothalli  are  radially 
symmetrical.  Subsequently  a  more  active  growth  takes  place  at  two 
or  three  points  on  the  margin  ;  a  corresponding  number  of  cylindrical 
branches  arise,  and  the  prothallus  becomes  irregularly  star-shaped  ;  the 
larger  prothalli  consist  of  branches  radiating  in  all  directions.  From 
a  short  distance  behind  the  smooth,  bluntly  conical  apex  the  surface 
of  the  branch  is  covered  with  short  wide  unicallular  paraphyses, 
which  are  absent  only  above  the  sexual  organs.  The  prothalli  are 
monoecious,  archegones  and  antherids  being  found  close  together  on  the 
same  branch.  The  surface  projects  very  slightly  above  the  large  sunken 
antherid ;  the  neck  of  the  archegone,  which,  as  seen  from  above,  con- 
sists of  four  rows  of  cells,  hardly  projects  from  the  prothallus.  Rhizoids 
were  not  seen  on  any  of  the  prothalli  examined.  An  endophytic  fungus 
occupies  a  middle  zone  of  tissue  in  all  the  branches. 

Helminthostachys  zeylanica.  The  prothalli  were  found  at  a  depth  of 
about  three  inches.  The  youngest  prothallus  obtained  was  a  short 
cylindrical  body  a  little  over  ^  in.  in  length  ;  the  lower  end  bore  a  number 
of  short  rhizoids  ;  the  apex  was  bluntly  conical.  The  lower  vegetative 
region  increases  in  size  and  becomes  lobod,  while  the  antherids  are  confined 
to  the  cylindrical  upper  portion.  Seven  of  the  young  prothalli  found  were 
male,  two  female.  The  female  prothalli  were  stouter  and  more  lobed 
than  the  male  ones ;  but  both  antherids  and  archegones  might  occur  on  the 

*  Proc.  Koy.  Soc,  lxviii.  (1901)  pp.  405-9  (3  figs.). 


78  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

same  prothallus.  The  antherids  were  large,  and  often  closely  crowded 
together ;  they  hardly  projected  from  the  surface ;  the  wall  being  only 
slightly  convex.  The  archegonial  neck,  which  was  formed  of  four  rows  of 
cells,  projected  distinctly  from  the  prothallus.  An  endophytic  fungus 
occupied  a  wide  zone  in  the  basal  part  between  the  two  or  three  superficial 
layers  of  cells  and  the  central  tissue,  but  was  entirely  absent  from  the  re- 
productive region.  The  young  plants  attained  a  considerable  size  while 
still  attached  to  the  prothallus. 

Psilotum  sp.  (The  single  prothallus  found  was  not  in  genetic  con- 
nection with  a  sporophyte,  and  may  possibly  belong  to  a  Lycopodium.) 
The  prothallus  was  about  £  in.  in  length  by  about  y\  in.  at  the  widest 
part.  The  lower  portion  is  cylindrical  and  rounded  below  ;  on  one  side 
near  the  lower  end  is  a  well-marked  conical  projection  directed  obliquely 
downwards.  Ehizoids  were  borne  on  the  lower  three-fourths  of  the 
prothallus,  but  were  absent  from  the  upper  part.  In  the  tissue  of  the 
overhanging  margin  the  numerous  sunken  antherids  occur,  closely 
crowded  together.     No  archegones  were  seen. 

Fibrovascular  Bundles  in  the  Stem  and  Leaf  of  Filicineae.  *  — 
C.  E.  Bertrand  and  F.  Cornaille  point  out  that  in  the  stipe  and  leaf  of 
Filicineae  (Megaphyllidae)  the  conducting  tissue  occurs  in  the  three 
following  forms : — (1)  a  bipolar  bundle ;  (2)  a  diverging  bundle,  which 
may  be  closed  or  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  bipolar  mass ;  (3)  an 
indeterminate  fibrovascular  mass  or  bundle.  The  first  form  is  repre- 
sented in  the  foliar  trace  of  Osmunda ;  the  second  in  that  of  Cyathea 
medullaris.  The  third  form  has  a  concentric  structure ;  the  tracheae 
are  central  in  relation  to  the  xylem,  this  latter  being  surrounded  by 
a  phloem.  The  bipolar  bundles  of  the  Filicineae  are  usually  convex 
towards  their  anterior  face  ;  this  convexity  may  be  slight,  but  never 
disappears  altogether.  A  divergent  bundle  may  have  very  unequal 
wings.  When  the  anterior  phloem  is  greatly  reduced,  it  may  assume 
the  aspect  of  a  unipolar  bundle.  When  the  indeterminate  fibrovascular 
masses  are  destitute  of  tracheae,  they  are  termed  by  the  authors  "apolar." 
Divergent  and  bipolar  bundles  unite  laterally  into  fibrovascular  chains. 
A  chain  is  continuous  when  there  is  no  solution  of  continuity  in  its 
xylem  between  its  extremities ;  discontinuous  when  there  is  such  a 
solution;  dialy  divergent  when  all  its  divergents  are  independent  in 
their  xylem  portion.  A  chain  is  open  when  its  extremities  are  separated 
from  one  another.  An  example  of  a  closed  dialy  divergent  chain  is 
afforded  in  the  external  arc  of  the  foliar  trace  in  the  centre  of  the  petiole 
of  Helminthostachys  zeylanica. 

Germination  of  Fern-Spores,  f  —  A.  Burgenstein  confirms  the  state- 
ment of  most  previous  observers,  that  a  certain  amount  of  light  is 
necessary  both  for  the  germination  of  the  spores  of  ferns  (Pteris)  and 
for  the  development  of  the  prothallus.  Under  favourable  conditions 
the  spores  of  ferns  will,  however,  retain  in  the  dark  their  power  of 
germination  for  many  weeks.  The  conditions  of  germination  are, 
therefore,  not  the  same  for  fern-spores  as  for  seeds. 

*  Comptes  Eendus,  cxxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  524-6,  546-S,  695-S. 
t  Wien.  illustr.  Gartenzeit.,  1900,  2  pp.     See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxviii.  (1901) 
p.  105. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  79 

Niphobolus.  *  —  Dr.  K.  Gicsenhagen  publishes  a  monograph  of  this 
genus  of  tropical  and  subtropical  ferns,  preceded  by  a  general  account 
of  the  structure  of  the  genus  and  a  statement  of  the  general  principles 
of  the  classification  of  ferns.  Fifty  species  are  enumerated  and  de- 
scribed, including  several  new  ones. 

Fossil  Heterosporous  Ferns.  |  —  B.  Eenault  points  out  that  the 
family  of  fossil  Vascular  Cryptogams  known  as  Botryopterideaa,  having 
megaspores  and  microspores  closely  resembling  one  another,  may  be 
regarded  as  a  family  intermediate  between  the  isosporous  Filices  and 
the  heterosporous  Hydropterideas  (Bhizocarpese).  He  now  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  in  the  terrain  houiller  of  Grand-Croix  are  the  re- 
mains of  a  true  leptosporangiate  fern,  Pecopteris  asterotheca,  in  which 
there  were  distinctly  two  kinds  of  spore.  It  would  appear  that  at  that 
period  both  Eusporangiate  and  Leptosporangiate  ferns  had  both  iso- 
sporous and  heterosporous  genera. 

Muscineee. 

Anatomy  and  Biology  of  Mosses.  J  —  W.  Lorch  supplements  his 
earlier  treatise  on  the  Anatomy  and  Biology  of  Musci  with  some  addi- 
tional notes  on  the  following  points : — Development  of  the  leaf  of 
Leucobryum  vulgare  ;  Development  of  the  leaf  of  Encalypta  streptocarpa ; 
Anatomical  investigation  of  the  leaf  of  E.  ciliata  and  of  some  species 
of  Barbula  ;  Development  and  anatomy  of  the  leaf  of  Sphagnum. 

Hypopterygiacese.§ — Dr.  N.  C.  Kindberg  gives  a  monograph  of 
this  chiefly  tropical  family  of  Mosses,  of  which  the  following  are  given 
as  the  characters  of  the  reproductive  organs : — Bryineae  dicholepidese 
platylepidese  ;  peristomium  duplex,  vel  in  uno  genere  simplex,  processus 
endostomii  carinati,  dentibus  vix  angustiores ;  capsula  collo  saepissime 
destituta;  operculum  rostratum,  seta  laevis  ;  spori  vix  0*01  mm.  The 
family  consists  of  two  genera,  Catharomnion  with  one,  and  Hypo- 
pterygium  with  thirty-six  species. 

Apospory  in  Anthoceros.|| — Dr.  W.  H.  Lang  describes  a  case  of 
artificially  produced  apospory  in  Anthoceros  Isevis,  the  first  recorded  in 
the  Hepaticae.  The  process  was  the  same  as  that  which  has  been  suc- 
cessful with  some  Mosses.  Small  pieces  were  cut  off  an  unopened 
sporogone  and  laid  on  damp  sand  under  a  bell-glass.  In  the  course  of 
a  few  weeks  small  outgrowths  of  a  deep  green  colour  had  been  formed 
on  some  of  the  pieces,  and  had  put  out  rhizoids.  In  almost  every  case 
the  new  growth  appeared  to  owe  its  origin  to  a  single  cell  of  the  sporo- 
gone. 

Algse. 

Galaxaura.lf  —  F.  B.  Kjellman  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the 
structure  of  this  genus  of  Florideaa,  with  a  monograph  of  the  known 

*  Die  Famgattung  Niphobolus,  Jena,  1901,  223  pp.  and  20  figs. 

t  Comptes  Kendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  64S-51  (5  figs.). 

|  Flora,  lxxxix.  (1901)  Ergz.-Band,  pp.  434-54  (32  figs.).  Cf.  this  Journal,  1894, 
p.  596.  §  Hedwigia,  xl.  (1901)  pp.  275-303. 

||  Ann.  Bot.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  503-10  (1  pi.). 

•ff  K.  Svensk.  Vet.-Akad.  Handl.,  xxxiii.  (1900)  pp.  1-110  (20  pis.).  See  Bot. 
Ztg.,  lix.  (1901)  2,e  Abt.,  p.  337;  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxviii.  (1901)  p.  330. 


80  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

species.  The  flat  or  round  always  erect  thallus  has  a  regular  dicho- 
tomous  branching  ;  the  basal  portion  or  stipe  differs  in  form  and  struc- 
ture from  the  rest  of  the  thallus.  The  growing  point  is  very  uniform 
in  structure  throughout  the  genus,  and  is  composed  of  a  mass  of  densely 
interwoven  hyphse. 

Carpogones  in  a  rudimentary  condition  were  found  only  in  one 
species  ;  but  ripe  cystocarps  were  not  infrequently  obtained,  though  in 
comparatively  few  species.  Antherids  were  met  with  frequently,  always 
in  separate  individuals,  the  appearance  of  the  male  organs  resembling 
that  of  the  male  conceptacles  of  Fucus.  The  tetrasporanges  are,  at 
present,  of  much  greater  use  in  characterising  the  species.  The 
assimilating  tissue  consists  (in  G.  Diesingiana)  of  two  or  three  layers 
of  cells,  covered  by  short,  unbranched,  club-shaped  shoots.  From  the 
terminal  cells  of  these  shoots  spring  two-celled  filaments,  the  upper  cell 
of  which,  dividing  crucially,  becomes  a  tetrasporange.  In  G.  striata 
the  stalk  of  the  sporange  consists  from  the  first  of  a  number  of  cells. 
Proliferation  is  common. 

The  numerous  species  are  classified  under  nine  sections,  and  the 
specific  characters  and  relations  of  the  sections  to  one  another  are  dis- 
cussed in  detail. 

Abnormal  Conjugation  in  Spirogyra.* —  Dr.  L.  Montemartini  re- 
gards the  mode  of  conjugation  in  Spirogyra  as  exhibiting  an  advance  on 
that  in  the  Desmidieae,  where  there  is  no  differentiation  between  the 
conjugating  cells;  Mesocarpm,  where  conjugation  takes  place  in  the 
canal  which  unites  the  two  conjugating  cells,  presenting  an  intermediate 
stage.  He  records  instances  of  abnormal  conjugation  in  different  species 
of  Spirogyra,  some  of  which  correspond  to  abnormalities  frequently 
met  with  in  flowering  plants : — conjugation  between  three  cells ;  poly- 
gamy and  polyandry  ;  parthenospory ;  and  hermaphroditism. 

Chromatophores  of  Fresh-water  Diatoms,  f  —  Emma  Ott  has  ex- 
amined in  detail  the  structure,  arrangement,  and  mode  of  division  of 
the  chromatophores  in  a  number  of  genera  and  species  of  fresh-water 
diatoms.     The  following  are  the  more  important  new  observations. 

In  all  the  genera  which  have  two  chromatophores  (Fragilaria, 
Synedra,  Eunotia,  Pleurosigma,  Navicula,  Pinnularia)  a  transverse  septa- 
tion  is  the  most  essential  factor  in  the  process  of  division,  viz.  at  right 
angles  to  the  longer  diameter.  A  transverse  division  was  established 
by  the  authoress  for  the  first  time  in  Navicula  and  Pinnularia.  In 
Nitzschia,  although  it  has  two  chromatophores,  the  fission  is  longi- 
tudinal ;  but  the  formation  of  the  new  cell-wall  begins  even  here  in 
the  middle.  In  genera  with  only  one  chromatophore,  longitudinal 
fission  has  the  greatest  influence  in  the  process  of  division.  The 
formation  of  the  new  cell-walls  causes  the  chromatophore  to  be  pushed 
aside. 

The  following  is  suggested  as  a  classification  of  the  genera  of  fresh- 
water diatoms  founded  on  the  mode  of  division  of  the  chromatophores. 

*  La  Nuova  Notarisia,  xii.  (1901)  pp.  129-3G  (1  pi.). 

t  SB.  k.  Akad.  Wise.  Wien,  cix.  (1900)  pp.  769-801  (6  pis.) 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  81 

A.  Chromatophore  single. 

I.  Chromatophore  divides  by  longitudinal  fission. 

(a)  Without     translocation     (Umlagerung),    Rhoicosphenia, 

Cymbella,  Encyonema,  Gomphonema,  Epithemia. 
(o)  With  translocation. 

(a)  With  previous  translocation,  Amphipleura. 
(/?)  With    subsequent    translocation,   Cymatopleura, 
Surirella,  Campylodiscus. 

B.  Chromatophores  two. 

I.  Chromatophores  divide  by  longitudinal  fission,  Nitzschia. 
II.  Chromatophores  divide  by  transverse  septation. 

(a)  With  subsequent  translocation,  Synedra,  Eunotia. 

(b)  With  previous  and  subsequent  translocation,  Fragilaria, 

Pleuroslgma,  Navicula,  Finnularia. 

Colourless  Diatoms.* — The  cultivation  by  G.  Karsten  of  Nitzschia 
jmlea  in  favourable  nutrient  media — glycerin,  glycocoll,  and  grape- 
sugar — brought  out  the  peculiarity  of  the  appearance  of  a  fatty  shimmer 
(Speckglanz)  throughout  the  cell-contents,  larger  or  smaller  fat-like 
drops  being  dispersed  among  them.  The  size  of  the  chromatophores 
gradually  decreased,  especially  when  the  culture  was  exposed  to  strong 
illumination  ;  and  they  were  finally  reduced  to  a  minute  dot-like  residue 
but  the  diatoms  still  retained  their  power  of  motion  under  the  sapro- 
phytic conditions,  and  the  capacity  for  propagation  was  increased.  On 
the  other  hand,  all  attempts  to  induce  the  production  of  chromatophores 
or  leucoplasts  in  the  colourless  Nitzschia  putrida  failed. 

Stauronella,  a  New  Genus  of  Diatoms.f — Out  of  Stauroneis  constricta 
Ehr.,  C.  Msreschkowsky  proposes  to  establish  a  new  genus  Stauronella, 
with  the  following  characters: — Valve  narrow,  linear,  or  attenuated 
towards  the  ends,  usually  constricted  in  the  middle  ;  extremities  truncate 
or  ro  mded,  rarely  cuueate;  raphe  straight,  symmetrical;  central  nodule 
elongated  transversely  in  a  stauros ;  girdle-face  constricted,  zone  com- 
plex; enduchronie  composed  of  two  plates  disposed  transversely  along 
one  of  the  connecting  zones,  each  plate  with  a  conspicuous  pyrenoid. 

Okedenia.J — C.  Mereschkowsky  proposes  the  re-establishment  of  this 
MS.  genus  of  diatoms  of  Eulenstein's,  to  include  Navicula  scopulorum 
Breb.,  Amphipleura  inflexa  Breb.,  and  two  new  species.  The  following 
is  the  diagnosis  of  the  genus  : — Valve  elongated,  very  narrow,  linear, 
often  inflated  at  the  middle  and  at  the  extremities,  straight  and  sym- 
metrical, or  arcuate  and  asymmetrical,  terminal  nodules  usually  distant 
from  the  margin  ;  striae  fine ;  connecting  zone  complex ;  endochrome 
composed  of  numerous  chromatophores  usually  of  the  shape  of  the  letter 
H,  sometimes  rounded,  disposed  in  pairs  along  the  connecting  zone, 
rarely  along  the  valves,  with  a  central  pyrenoid  usually  common  to  each 
pair. 

•  Flora,  lxxxix.  (1901)  Ergz.-Heft,  pp.  404-33(1  pi.).     Cf.  this  Journal,  1901, 
p.  306. 

+  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  viii.  (1901)  pp.  424-34  (1  pi.  and  3  figs.). 
X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  415-23  (1  pi.  and  2  figs). 

Feb.  19th,  1902  a 


82  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

Marine  Diatoms  of  France.  *  —  The  second  part  of  this  very  fine 
work,  by  H.  and  M.  Peragallo,  is  devoted  to  the  Pseudoraphideae,  a 
commencement  being  made  also  of  the  Anaraphideae,  distinguished  by 
the  central  structure  of  the  valves.  The  genera  are  arranged  under 
two  tribes,  the  Biddulphioidse  and  the  Discoidese. 

Schmidt's  Atlas  der  Diatomaceen-Kunde.— Heft  57  of  this  work  con- 
tains the  usual  4  plates  of  the  customary  excellence,  viz.  pis.  225-228. 
It  is  chiefly  devoted  to  the  genus  Stej)hanodiscus,  but  species  of  Cyclotella, 
Coscinodiscus,  and  Tlialassiosira  are  also  illustrated. 

Pseudenclonium,  a  New  Genus  of  Algae.f— In  the  first  seven  instal- 
ments of  his  studies  on  Chlorophycese,  made  at  the  biological  station  at 
Drobak,  Prof.  N.  Wille  has  a  number  of  notes  on  the  structure  and  life- 
history  of  algre  belonging  to  the  Chlorophyceae,  with  descriptions  of 
several  new  species  and  forms,  and  of  one  new  genus  Pseudenclonium,  a 
marine  genus  of  Chsetophoraceae.  The  thallus  consists  of  an  irregular 
foot  with  irregularly  branched  cells,  some  of  which  form  unicellular  or 
less  often  multicellular  branched  rhizoids.  The  terminal  bristle  is 
wanting  in  the  erect  branches ;  they  branch  irregularly,  and  often  form 
Pleurococcus-liko  colonies.  The  cells  have  a  parietal  chlorophyll-disc 
with  a  pyrenoid  and  a  nearly  central  nucleus.  Propagation  takes  place 
by  zoospores  and  akinetes.  The  zoospores  are  broadly  ovate  with  four 
cilia,  but  with  no  red  eye-spot.  The  resting  akinetes  have  a  thick 
membrane  and  yellow-green  contents,  and  are  surrounded  by  a  gelatinous 
envelope. 

Cladophora.* — Pursuing  his  researches  on  the  structure  of  this  genus 
of  Algae,  F.  Brand  states  that  in  young  cells  of  aquatic  species,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  inner  and  outer  layers  of  the  cell-wall,  there  is  always  a 
distinct  outermost  stratum,  which  can  be  detached  by  the  application  of 
acetic  acid.  The  membrane  of  old  cells  becomes  thin  at  the  spots  where 
adventitious  branches  are  about  to  be  formed,  apparently  by  the  action 
of  some  solvent  proceeding  from  the  apical  protoplasm,  in  the  same  way 
that  the  cell-wall  is  completely  absorbed  at  the  spots  where  the  zoospores 
escape.  A  similar  process,  proceeding  from  the  apical  protoplasm, 
appears  to  be  the  efficient  cause  of  the  layers  which  compose  the  hinge- 
portion  of  the  filament.  The  necessary  pushing  upwards  of  the  base  of 
a  branch  in  the  process  of  formation  is  assisted  by  a  corresponding  in- 
crease in  the  upper  portion  of  the  mother-cell.  The  most  common  form 
of  the  chlorophores  is  reticulate  ;  there  are  all  intermediate  forms  between 
an  elongated  reticulum  and  isolated  plates ;  but  the  extreme  cases  do 
not  occur  in  ordinary  vegetative  cells  ;  the  statement  that  spiral  bands 
have  been  observed  in  Cladophora  is  probably  erroneous.  The  number 
of  nuclei  in  a  cell  is  usually  great,  but  they  are  often  reduced  to  two, 
and  occasionally  to  one. 

*  Les  Diatomecs  marines  de  France,  '2m0  partie,  Paris,  128  pp.  and  39  pis.  Cf. 
this  Journal,  1890,  p.  91. 

t  Vidensk.  Skrift.  I.  Math.-naturw.  CI.,  1900,  No.  V,,  Christiania,  pp.  1-46.  See 
Hedwigia,  xl.  (1901)  Beibl.,  p.  73. 

X  Beih.  z.  Bot.  Central!)].,  x.  (1901)  pp.  1S1-521  (10  figs.).  Cf.  this  Journal. 
1900,  p.  92. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  83 

Oil  in  Vaucheria.* — P.  Fleissig  inclines  to  the  view  that  tho  oily 
substance  found  in  the  filaments  of  Vaucheria  is  a  reserve  substance, 
analogous  physiologically  to  starch,  rather  than  a  product  of  assimila- 
tion or  of  degeneration.  It  is  never  accompanied  by  starch,  tannin, 
cane-sugar,  or  aldehyd,  and  by  only  traces  of  glucose.  The  oil-drops 
are  always  found  in  connection  with  chloroplasts,  but  not  enclosed  within 
the  chlorophyll-bodies. 

Fungi. 

Gametogenesis  and  Fertilisation  in  Albugo.f  —  F.  L.  Stevens  has 
further  followed  cut  the  life-history  and  phenomena  of  impregnation  in 
four  species  of  Albugo,  A.  Candida,  Bliti,  Portulacse,  and  Tragopogonis, 
and  has  arrived  at  the  following  general  conclusions. 

A.  Portidacse  possesses  a  multinucleate  oosphere  ;  the  nuclei  all  pass 
to  the  periplasm,  dividing  mitotically  ;  some  of  the  daughter-nuclei  re- 
-enter the  ooplasm  and  divide  again,  their  products  becoming  the  female 
nuclei,  the  plasmoderma  being  in  the  meantime  differentiated.  Two 
mitoses  occur  in  both  oogenesis  and  spermatogenesis.  The  nuclear 
figuro  of  the  second  mitosis  is  clearly  distinguishable  from  tho  first  by 
the  diminished  kinoplasm.  The  antheridial  tube  is  multinucleate.  The 
numerous  antheridial  nuclei  fuse  in  pairs  with  the  numerous  oospheric 
nuclei ;  these  fusion  nuclei  passing  the  winter  without  further  change. 
A  ccenocentrum  is  present.  The  receptive  papilla  is  larger  than  in  the 
other  known  species. 

In  A.  Tragopogonis  a  multinucleate  oosphere  develops  in  the  same 
manner,  and  is  then  reduced  to  a  uninucleate  condition  by  disorganisa- 
tion of  the  supernumerary  nuclei.  The  nuclei  pass  to  the  periplasm, 
divide,  and  return  to  the  ooplasm  much  diminished  in  achromatic  con- 
tent. Two  mitoses  occur  in  oogenesis  and  in  spermatogenesis.  The 
nuclei  figure  of  the  second  division  may  be  distinguished  from  the  first 
by  a  diminution  of  kinoplasm.  The  antheridial  tube  conveys  one  or 
more  nuclei  into  the  oosphere,  where  one  fuses  with  the  female  nucleus. 
Both  the  supernumerary  male  and  female  nuclei  disorganise.  The 
fusion-nucleus  undergoes  repeated  mitosis,  and  the  winter  oosphere  is 
consequently  multinucleate.  The  ccenocentrum  is  very  highly  developed ; 
it  possesses  an  attraction  for  the  primary  oospheric  nuclei,  and  serves  as 
a  source  of  nourishment  for  the  surviving  female  nucleus. 

In  A.  Candida  the  oosphere  is  developed  in  a  manner  quite  different 
from  that  in  the  other  three  species.  The  periplasm  and  ooplasm  are 
not  differentiated  until  the  second  mitosis  is  completed.  The  nuclei, 
excepting  one,  eventually  pass  to  tho  periplasm,  which  is  then  cut  oft 
by  a  wall.  One  nucleus  remains  in  the  oosphere  attached  to  the  coeno- 
centrum.  The  ccenocentruin  attracts  the  nuclei  very  strongly,  and  later 
serves  as  a  source  of  nourishment  for  the  surviving  female  nucleus.  The 
antheridial  tube  occasionally  contains  two  nuclei. 

The  processes  leading  to  zonation  may  be  regarded  as  the  differentia- 
tion of  an  ooplasm  rich  in  trophoplasm.     Tho  cell-plato  is  formed,  with- 

*  Ueb.  d.  phys.  Bedentung  d.  oelartigen  Einschllisse  in  d.  Vaucheria,  Basel.  1900. 
46  pp.     See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxvii.  (19i»l)  p.  340. 

t  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxii.  (1901)  pp.  77-98,  157-69,  238-61  (4  pis.  and  9  figs.).  Cf. 
this  Journal.  1900,  p.  92. 

G  2 


84  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   REL.VTIXG   TO 

out  the  participation  of  the  nuclei,  by  a  rearrangement  of  alveolar 
planes.  The  simultaneous  mitosis  in  gametogenesis  is  a  phylogenetic 
reminiscence,  and  was  of  value  in  ancestral  forms  in  increasing  the 
number  of  gametes.  The  supernumerary  nuclei  are  phylogenetically 
gametes.  The  receptive  papilla  is  the  result  of  a  softening  of  the 
oogonial  wall  by  the  oogonial  contents ;  while  the  receptive  spot  is  a. 
differentiated  region  of  the  oosphere. 

The  four  species,  A.  Portulacse,  Bliti,  Tragopogonis,  and  Candida, 
constitute  a  series  in  which  the  ccenocentrum  increases  in  complexity, 
the  receptive  papilla  decreases,  and  the  number  of  functional  nuclei 
decreases.  The  ccenocentrum  was  an  important  factor  in  evolution  from 
the  multinucleate  to  the  uninucleate  condition  of  the  oosphere.  The 
division  of  the  fusion-nucleus  before  passing  to  the  winter  condition  is- 
a  consequence  of  the  uninucleate  condition,  and  constitutes  the  initial 
step  in  germination. 

The  paper  concludes  with  a  statement  of  the  author's  views  as  to  the 
phylogenetic  relationship  of  Albugo  to  other  genera  belonging  to  the 
Phycomycetes, — Peronospora,  Saprolegnia,  Pythium,  &c. 

New  Chytridineae.*  —  In  the  commencement  of  an  account  of  the 
narcological  flora  of  Roumania,  J.  C.  Constantincanu  describes  several 
new  species  of  Chytridineae,  parasitic  on  fresh-water  algae,  and  com- 
pletes the  hitherto  imperfectly  known  cycle  of  development  of  other 
species. 

Penicillate  Tubes  of  Phyllactinia.f — P.  Vuillemiu  now  confirms 
Neger's  statement  that  the  penicillate  tubes  on  the  perithece  of  Phyllac- 
tinia  spring  from  the  outer  wall  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  perithece. 
When  the  perithece  falls  off,  it  lies  in  an  inverted  position  ;  and  these 
gelatinous  tubes  then  fix  it  to  the  substratum.  The  author  compares 
these  tubes  to  the  periphyses  which  clothe  the  canal  of  the  ostiole  of 
the  perithece  of  many  Pyrenomycetes. 

Variability  of  Lichens  under  different  external  conditions.} — 
G.  Bitter  treats  of  this  subject  copiously,  his  observations,  chiefly  made 
on  species  of  Parmelia,  being  arranged  under  the  following  heads:  — 
The  behaviour  of  certain  lichens  according  to  the  angle  which  the  sub- 
stratum makes  with  the  horizontal ;  the  conditions  of  the  transition  from 
vegetative  growth  to  soral  formation  ;  the  relationship  of  the  production 
of  apotheces  and  soredes,  dependent  on  external  conditions  ;  the  in- 
fluence of  external  conditions  on  the  growth  and  form  of  the  sorals  ; 
the  conditions  for  the  formation  of  isidia-like  branchings  in  Parmelio) 
physode8  and  P.  tubulosa ;  the  influence  of  the  intensity  of  illumination 
on  the  colour  and  structure  of  the  thallus ;  the  disposition  (Felderungy 
of  the  assimilating  surfaces  of  various  lichens  by  portions  destitute  of 
gonids,  and  the  influence  on  them  of  the  conditions  of  the  habitat ; 
the  influence  of  the  thallus  on  the  structure  of  later  branchings  within 
its  closed  central  portion  ;  variations  in  individuals  of  the  same  species 
under  similar  external  conditions. 

*  Rev.  Gen.  de  Bot.  (Bonnier),  xiii.  (1901)  pp.  369-S9  (15  figs.), 
t  Rev.  Mycol.,  xxii.  (1900)  pp.  124-5.     See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxviii.  (1901> 
p.  161.    Cf.  this  Journal,  1900,  p.  494. 

%  Pringsheim's  Jahrb.  f.  wisa.  Bot.,  xxxiv.  pp.  421-92  (7  pis.  and  9  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AT.JD   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  85 

Parmelia.*  —  G.  Bitter  enters,  in  great  detail,  into  the  characters 
which  distinguish  the  species  of  the  suhgenus  Hypogyinnia  of  this  genus 
of  Lichens  from  one  another.  The  specific  characters  especially  relied 
on  are  those  connected  with  the  place  and  mode  of  formation  of  the 
soredes.     Nineteen  species  in  all  are  described,  six  of  them  new. 

Buchner's  Yeast  Extract.f — The  extract  as  obtained  by  A.  Wrub- 
lewski  is  a  somewhat  viscous  liquid,  of  aromatic  odour  and  sweet  taste, 
and  exhibits  a  brownisb-yellow  or  greyish-blue  fluorescence.  It  is 
either  optically  inactive  or  feebly  dextro-rotatory.  Filtration  through 
a  Berkefeld  or  sandstone  filter  diminishes,  and  through  a  Chamberland 
filter  entirely  removes  the  fermenting  power.  The  extract  does  not  act 
on  starch-granules,  but  ferments  starch-paste,  soluble  starch,  glycogen, 
and  sucrose.  In  fermentation  by  yeast-cells,  the  zymase  remains  in  the 
cells  and  does  not  diffuse  into  the  sugar  solution.  If  the  cells  are  col- 
lected on  a  sandstone  filter,  fermentation  in  the  sugar  solution  ceases. 
The  sugar  solution  probably  passes  into  the  cells  and  is  there  fermented. 
Alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide  accordingly  are  true  excreta  of  the  yeast- 
cells.  The  author  believes  that  the  zymase  is  not  an  enzyme  but  a 
colloidal  substance,  which  exists  in  the  extract  in  a  state  of  semi-solution 
and  belongs  to  the  group  of  protoplasmic  ferments. 

Microscopical  Appearances  of  Pressed  Yeast  after  Liquefaction.  $ 
— A.  Harden  and  S.  Bowland,  after  narrating  the  changes  culminating 
in  the  liquefaction  of  yeast,  describe  the  following  series  of  structural 
changes  which  were  observed  microscopically.  The  freshly  pressed 
yeast  consists  of  large  cells  with  a  small  vacuole  and  granular  proto- 
plasm, staining  a  deep  brown  with  iodine.  As  the  evolution  of  carbon 
dioxide  proceeds,  the  vacuole  increases  in  size,  the  brown  stain  obtained 
with  iodine  diminishes,  and  just  before  liquefaction  there  is  usually  no 
glycogen  left  in  the  cell.  After  liquefaction,  the  cells  have  no  vacuole 
and  are  shrunken,  the  cell-walls  being  crumpled,  and  the  cell  substance 
highly  granulated  and  contracted  to  a  centrally  aggregated  mass,  float- 
ing in  a  small  amount  of  clear  fluid.  No  brown  reaction  is,  as  a  rule, 
obtainable,  and  although  in  the  case  of  yeast  liquefied  at  50°,  the  brown 
stain  is  obtained,  the  cell  does  not  in  other  respects  differ  from  the 
normal  character.  It  therefore  seems  probable  that  the  liquefaction  of 
the  yeast  is  due  to  the  discharge  of  the  contents  of  the  vacuole,  and 
that  the  progressive  increase  in  the  sizo  of  the  vacuole  results  from  the 
accumulation  of  some  substance  produced  along  with  carbon  dioxide 
from  the  glycogen.  The  changes  described  terminating  in  the  extrusion 
of  the  contents  of  the  vacuole  were  watched  on  the  hot  stage,  and  the 
cell-wall  could  be  readily  distinguished  throughout  the  process. 

Storing  up  of  Water  in  the  Spores  of  the  Uredineae.§ — According 
to  P.  Dietel,  the  thickenings  which  are  so  frequently  found  in  the  walls 
and  in  the  stalks  of  spores  of  Uredineae  serve  as  a  reservoir  of  water, 
to  prevent  the  spores  getting  prematurely  dried  up  and  thus  inhibiting 

*  Hedwigia,  xl.  (1901)  pp.  171-274  (2  pis.  and  21  figs.). 

t  Journ.  Pr.  Chem.,  lxiv.  (1901)  ii.  pp.  1-70.  See  Journ.  Chem.  Soc,  Ixxx. 
(1901)  Abst.  ii.  pp.  616-7.  t  Journ.  Chem.  Soc ,  lxxix.  (1901)  pp.  1227-35. 

§  Naturw.  Rundschau,  xvi.  (1901)  pp.  41-1.  See  Hedwigia,  xl.  (1901)  Beibl., 
p.  74. 


S&  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

germination.  The  germinating  pores  of  many  uredospores  are  protected 
by  stoppers  of  this  kind.  This  absorption  of  water  is  most  strongly 
displayed  in  spores  of  Gymnosporangmm ;  also  in  some  species  of 
Puccinia  and  Uromyces,  especially  in  the  Brazilian  U.  giganteus. 

Rabenhorst's  Cryptogamic  Flora  of  Germany,  &c.  (Fungi  Imper- 
fecti). — Parts  78-81  by  A.  Allescber,  are  now  published.  The  genus 
Hendersonia  is  completed  with  163  (besides  11  doubtful)  species,  fol- 
lowed by  Couturea  (1),  Wojnoicicia  (1),  Angiopoma  (1),  Cryptostictis  (8), 
Eriosporina  (1),  Prosthemium  (3),  and  Hendersonula  (1  sp.).  The  eighth 
section  of  this  division,  the  Dictyosporae,  has  rusty  or  olive-coloured 
ovate  or  elongated  spores  with  two  or  more  septa.  It  comprises  the 
genera  Camarosporium  (92),  Cytosporium  (2),  and  Dicliomera  (10  sp.). 

The  second  family,  the  Nectrioideae,  are  characterised  by  having  the 
receptacle  and  stroma,  when  present,  somewhat  fleshy  and  waxy,  light- 
coloured  (whitish,  yellow,  red,  or  orange),  spherical,  or  less  often  two- 
lobed  or  bowl-shaped.  They  are  divided,  according  to  the  colour  or 
septation  of  the  spores,  into  Hyalosporae,  Didymosporaa,  Hyalophragmia?, 
and  Scolecosporae.  Tho  HyalosporsB  have  spherical,  ovate,  or  elongated 
spores,  which  are  unicellular  and  hyaline.  The  genera  are  Zythia  with 
10,  Libertiella  with  1,  Boumegueriella  with  1,  Pleosporopsis  with  1T 
Chsetozythia  with  1,  Collacyslis  with  l,and  Sphseronsemella  with  9  species. 
The  Didymosporae,  comprising  the  single  monotypic  genus  Pseudo- 
diplodia,  have  slightly  olive-coloured  uniseptate  spores.  The  Hyalo- 
phragmiae  havo  hyaline  spores  with  two  or  more  septa,  and  comprise  the 
genera  Stagonopsis  (3),  Pseudostictis  (2),  and  Chiatospora  (1  sp.).  In 
the  Scolecosporae,  the  spores  are  filiform  or  rod-shaped  ;  they  comprise 
the  monotypic  genera  Trichocrea,  Bhynchomyccs,  and  Polystigmina. 

The  third  family,  the  Leptostromaccae,  have  a  membranous  or  car- 
bonaceous receptacle,  which  is  more  or  less  distinctly  bisected.  A 
similar  classification  is  made  into  Hyalosporas,  Phaeosporae,  Hyalo- 
didymae,  Phaaodidymae,  Hyalophragmiae,  Phseophragmise,  and  Scoleco- 
sporas.  In  the  Hyalosporae  are  comprised  LeptotJiyrium  with  68  species, 
Piggotia  with  5,  Actinothccium  with  1,  Leptostroma  with  45,  Labrella 
with  10,  Socidium  with  14,  Melasmia  with  2,  and  Triclioplila  with 
1  species.  The  Phaeosporae  include  only  a  single  genus,  Pirostomar 
with  3  species ;  the  Hyalodidymae  also  a  single  monotypic  genus  Lepto- 
thyrella  ;  and  the  PhaeodidymaB  a  single  monotypic  genus  Diplopeltis. 
The  Hyalophragmiae  are  made  up  of  two  genera,  Discosia  (5  species), 
and  Entomosporium,  of  which  two  species  are  described. 

Parasitic  Fuugi. — On  the  leaves  of  a  grass,  Cynosarus  elegans,  from 
Tunis,  P.  Hennings  *  finds  an  undescribed  species  of  Uromyces,  which 
he  names  TJ.  pJiyllaclwr aides  sp.  n. 

As  the  result  of  an  examination  of  the  infection  of  species  and 
varieties  of  Bromus  by  Puccinia  dispersa,  Prof.  H.  Marshall  Ward  f 
concludes  that  the  uredospores  infect  most  easily  the  species  and  variety 
on  which  they  have  been  developed,  less  easily  species  or  varieties 
more  remote,  and  fail  altogether  to  gain  a  hold  on  more  distant  ones. 
The  acts  of  infection  and  incubation  occupy  about  10  days.     The  lack 

•  Hedwigia,  xl.  (1901)  Beibl.,  pp.  129-30. 
t  Ann.  Bot.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  5G0-2. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  87 

of  certain  mineral  substances,  e.g.  potassium  or  phosphorus,  causes  a 
starvation  of  the  fungus ;  partial  etiolation  of  the  host,  or  any  other 
hindrance  to  free  nutrition,  assimilation,  transpiration,  &c,  also  act 
detrimentally  to  the  well-being  of  the  mycele. 

L.  Lewton-Brain  *  has  studied  the  parasitism  of  Cordyceps  ophioglos- 
soides  on  various  species  of  Elaphomyccs.  The  connection  between  the 
two  fungi  appears  to  be  one  of  true  parasitism  ;  but  nothing  in  tbe  shape 
of  a  definite  haustorium  could  be  made  out  in  the  Cordyceps.  Fusion 
takes  place  between  the  hyphaj  of  the  two  species,  the  adjoining  walls 
fusing  and  becoming  considerably  thinner.  ElapJwmyccs  variegatus 
forms  a  mycorhiza  with  the  roots  of  conifers,  presenting  different  forms 
under  different  conditions. 

J.  Eriksson  f  has  an  elaborate  memoir  on  the  origin  and  propagation 
of  the  rust  of  cereals,  in  which  he  includes  four  species, — Puccinia 
graminis,  P.  glumarum,  P.  triticina,  and  P.  coronifera. 

Phalloidese .% — Prof.  E.  Fischer  describes  the  development  of  the  re- 
ceptacle in  a  number  of  genera  and  species  of  Phalloideae, — Clathrella 
chrysomycelina,  C.  pseudocancellata  sp.  n.,  Blumenavia  rhacodes,  Dictyo- 
pliora  irjricina,  Itajahja  galericulata,  Echinophattus  Lauterbachii,  Mutinus 
Zenkeri,  M.  Nymanianus.  A  description  is  given  in  detail  of  all  new 
species  described  since  1893.  All  the  pseudoparenchymatous  parts  of 
the  receptacle  in  the  Phallaceaa  and  Olathraceaa  are  regarded  by  the 
author  as  a  paraphyse  structure  which  fills  up  the  sterile  portions  of  the 
gleba-chamber  and  is  homologous  with  the  cortical  layer  of  the  surface 
of  the  receptacle. 

The  Phalloideaa  consist  of  two  series,  the  Phallaceoe  and  the 
Clathraceae.  The  origin  of  the  latter  may  be  traced  to  Phallogaster,  of 
the  former  to  the  Secotiea.  The  Gastromycetes  cannot  be  regarded  as 
a  single  independent  series  of  forms ;  but  must  be  arranged  in  a  number 
of  parallel  rows,  viz.  the  Secotiaceae,  Hysterangiaceae,  Hymenogastraceaa 
(with  the  Nidulariaceae  as  a  side-branch),  Podaxacere,  Sclerodermataceee, 
Sphaerobolaceai,  and  Tulostomatacese. 

Microbe  of  Piedra.§—  P.  S.  de  Magalhaes  studied  the  development 
of  the  parasite  of  this  disease  in  hanging  drops,  the  medium  being 
gelatin  or  sugar-gelatin.  Thin  filaments  were  observed  to  grow  from 
the  nodosities  on  the  hairs.  The  filaments  were  divided  by  transverse 
septa  into  short  segments.  In  their  interior,  while  still  young,  small 
granules  could  be  made  out,  and  in  later  stages  chains  of  spores.  The 
spores  were  terminal  or  inclosed  in  the  continuity  of  the  filament,  and 
from  any  one  a  fresh  mycelial  filament  might  arise. 

The  presence  and  the  appearance  of  tbe  parasite  in  the  hair  were 
studied  by  the  aid  of  various  stains  which  showed  up  the  filaments  and 
the  spores.  The  action  of  caustic  potash  solution  was  found  to  be 
detrimental. 

•  Tom.  cit,  pp.  521-30  (1  pi.). 

t  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  (Bot.;,  xiv.  (1901)  pp.  1-124  (1  pi.  and  2  figs.). 
X  Denkschr.  schweiz.  naturf.  Ges.  Bern,  xxxvi.  (1900)  84  pp.,  G  pis.,  aud  G  figs. 
See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxvii.  (1901)  p.  259.     Of.  this  Journal,  1897,  p.  153. 
§  Comptes  Rendus.  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  G01-3. 


88  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Protophyta. 
o.  Schizophyceae. 

Richelia,  a  New  Genus  of  Cyanophyceae.* — In  plankton  from  the 
Indian  Ocean,  J.  Schmidt  finds,  within  the  cells  of  certain  diatoms,  a 
blue-green  alga  which  he  names  BicJtelia  intracellularis  g.  et  sp.  n.  The 
genus  is  distinguished  from  Microchsete  by  the  absence  of  a  sheath  and 
by  its  intracellular  habit  ;  and  the  author  states  that  it  is  the  first 
recorded  example  of  a  cyanophyceous  alga  living  within  the  cells  of  the 
host. 

Pilg'eria,  a  New  Genus  of  Chroococcaceae.f — Under  this  name  W. 
Schmidle  describes  a  new  genus  of  blue-green  Algse  from  Brazil,  con- 
sisting of  polyedric  closely  associated  cells,  forming  small  hollow 
spheres  not  enclosed  in  jelly,  the  cells  being  empty  or  filled  with  jelly. 

#.  Schizomycetes. 

Proteolytic  Power  of  Bacteria.:}: — Dr.  E.  Cacace  shows  that  when 
bacteria  decompose  proteids,  protalbumose,  deuteralbumose,  and  pepton 
are  formed.  But  when  bacterial  action  has  attained  to  an  advanced  con- 
dition, the  products  of  proteid  decomposition  may  be  wanting.  Proteo- 
lysis is  practically  1he  same  in  all  living  animals.  The  foregoing 
results  were  obtained  by  cultivating  Sarcina  aurantiaca,  Bac.  anthracis, 
and  Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus  on  gelatin  and  on  blood-serum,  and 
submitting  the  products  to  chemical  examination. 

Reaction  of  Bacteria  to  Stimuli.§ — H.  S.  Jennings  and  J.  H.  Crosby 
describe  the  movements  of  Spirillum  volutans  when  exposed  to  the  influ- 
ence of  oxygen,  light,  and  chemical  stimuli.  When  the  microbe  reaches 
the  extremity  of  the  area  in  which  it  is  swimming  and  comes  in  contact 
either  with  an  area,  say,  devoid  of  oxygen  or  containing,  say,  salt,  it  re- 
verses its  movement  and  swims  back  in  the  opposite  direction.  This 
reaction  is  termed  the  ractor  reflex.  The  movement  is  comparable  to 
that  of  the  ciliate  Infusoria,  but  differs  therefrom  in  that  the  bacterial 
motor-reflex  consists  merely  in  a  reversal  of  the  direction  of  the  movement, 
without  subsequent  return  to  the  original  direction  except  as  a  response 
to  a  new  stimulus.  The  reason  is  that  there  is  no  difference  between 
the  bacterial  ends  while  the  infusorian  has  a  fore  and  aft. 

Effect  of  Nitrates  on  the  Shape  of  Certain  Bacteria.  ||  — W.  C.  C. 
Pakes  describes  the  action  of  various  percentages  of  nitrates  in  ordinary 
broth  or  broth  cultures  without  pepton,  containing  quantities  of  nitrate 
from  1-10  p.c,  upon  certain  bacteria.  With  B.  typhi  abdominalis  the 
presence  of  nitrate  causes  a  thickening  of  the  rod,  imparting  a  Clos- 
tridium-like  appearance.  With  greater  amounts  the  thickening  increases, 
the  rodlet  shortens  until  finally  (6  p.c.)  a  yeast-like  form  is  arrived  at. 
With  B.  coli  communis  the  changes  are  less  marked,  the  yeast-like  forms 
are  absent,  the  bacilli  are  merely  thickened  here  and  there,  but  form 

*  Hedwijriu,  xl.  (1901)  Beibl.,  pp.  112-5  (1  fig.). 
t  Tom.  cit.,  p.  45  (1  pi.). 

I  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  AW.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  241-8. 
§  Amer.  Journ.  Pliysiol..  vi.  (1901)  pp.  31-7. 
||   Trans.  Path.  Soc,  Hi.  (1901)  pp.  246-7. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  89 

Ion"  chains  of  oval  cocci.  With  B.  enteritidis  Gartner  the  changes  more 
nearly  resemble  those  of  B.  typhi  abdominalis.  On  B.  pyocyaneus  the 
first  eifect  of  nitrate  is  to  produce  long  non-motile  rodlets ;  with  higher 
percentages  the  bacilli  show  spurious  branching  and  resemble  Clado- 
thrix. 

Agglutination  of  Bacteria.* — Dr.  P.  T.  Miiller,  after  dealing  with 
the  position  taken  up  by  Emmerich  and  Loew  relative  to  the  agglutination 
of  bacteria,  maintains  that  his  observations  and  experiments  show  that : — 
(1)  There  is  no  proof  that  the  sediment  formed  in  old  cultures  has  any- 
thing whatever  to  do  with  true  agglutination  ;  (2)  that  with  old  bouillon 
cultures  (whether  in  the  undiluted  or  diluted  condition  or  even  after 
heating  to  55°)  fresh  suspensions  of  Bacillus  pyocyaneus  do  not  exhibit 
typical  agglutination ;  (3)  that  the  formation  of  the  agglutinating  sub- 
stances must  be  located  in  the  animal  organism  and  not  in  the  cultures 
of  the  bacillus  in  question. 

Effect  of  Salt  in  Nutrient  Media  on  the  Growth  of  Micro- 
organisms, f  —  T.  Matzuschita  found  that  different  microbes  are  very 
differently  affected  by  the  presence  of  salt  in  the  medium.  Many  will 
stand  10  p.c.  without  alteration  of  shape,  while  others  on  the  slightest 
addition  of  salt  exhibit  striking  involution  forme.  The  degeneration 
forms  exhibited  by  the  plague  bacillus,  cultivated  on  2*  5-3*  5  p.c.  salt- 
agar  at  37°  for  24-48  hours,  are  very  characteristic,  and  are  not  likely 
to  be  confounded  with  the  changes  presented  by  other  microbes  culti- 
vated under  the  same  conditions. 

Bacteria  and  the  Disintegration  of  Cement.  $  —  R.  Greig  -  Smith 
thinks  that  on  the  whole  there  is  considerable  reason  for  doubt  regarding 
the  action  of  micro-organisms  upon  cement.  There  is  more  reason  to 
believe  that  the  action  is  purely  chemical  and  brought  about  by  the 
decomposing  and  solvent  action  of  the  water  alone  upon  the  cement. 
The  presence  of  free  lime  in  the  cement,  capable  of  being  dissolved,  is 
the  source  of  weakness.  He  found  that  a  cement  which  after  exposure 
to  the  action  of  the  water  for  a  number  of  years  had  become  porous  and 
disintegrated,  still  contained  1*4  p.c.  of  free  lime  capable  of  being  dis- 
solved. The  presence  of  three  micro-organisms,  Micrococcus  radiatus, 
Vibrio  denitrificavs,  and  Bacterium  croceum,  was  detected  in  the  dis- 
integrated cement ;  but  experiments  showed  that  they  had  no  action 
upon  cement  blocks.  In  the  course  of  the  investigation  it  was  noted 
that  Bact.  croceum  was  able  to  grow  in  bouillon  containing  as  much  as 
5  p.c.  by  weight  of  sodium  carbonate. 

Metachromatic  Granules  in  Sporiferous  Bacteria.  §— Dr.  E.  Krom- 
pecher  has  detected  the  existence  of  a  new  kind  of  granule  in  anthrax 
by  staining  with  methylen-blue.  The  granules  are  centrally  placed  and 
stain  red.  These  granules  are  not  the  same  as  the  Babes-Ernst  cor- 
puscles as  is  shown  by  the  coexistence  and  different  location  and  colour 
of  the  two  kinds. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt ,  lu  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  65-9.   Cf.  this  Journal,  1901,  p.  690. 
t  Zeitschr.  f.  Hygiene  u.  Infektions.,  xxxv.  p.  495  (36  figs.).   See  Bot.  Centralbl., 
lxxxviii.  (1901)  pp.  65-6. 

I  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.W.,  xxvi.  (1901)  pp.  107-17. 

§  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  585-95,  425-8  (1  pi.). 


90  SUMMAKY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

Babes-Ernst  corpuscles  were  also  found  in  Bacillus  alvei  and  in  a 
species  of  Oidium. 

Spore-formation  in  Cholera  Bacilli.* .  Bliesener  filled  test-tubes- 

with  20  cm.  of  dirty  ditch  water,  sterilised  them,  and  then  inoculated 
with  a  loopful  of  cholera  culture.  376  days  after,  when  the  tubes  had 
dried,  in  the  reddish  fiocculent  deposit  were  found  oval  highly  refracting 
motionless  shining  corpuscles  which  could  be  stained  like  spores.  From 
the  deposit  the  author  cultivated  on  plates  typical  cholera  bacilli.  The 
"  cholera  spores  "  were  no  more  resistant  to  drying  than  cholera  bacilli. 
Eight  hours  after  complete  drying  the  power  of  developing  had  dis- 
appeared. Suspended  in  water,  they  were  dead  in  about  half  an  hour  at 
50°.  The  cholera  spores  could  retain  their  vitality  for  878  days  in  wat^r. 
The  author  suspects  that  these  "  cholera  spores  "  represent  the  resting 
forms  which  enable  the  cholera  to  hibernate,  and  then  to  break  out  in 
places  where  it  had  apparently  been  extinguished. 

Bacteriosis  of  Kohlrabi. j" — L.  Hecke  describes  a  disease  of  kohlrabi 
affecting  the  plants  in  Lower  Austria.  The  chief  effect  of  the  disorder 
was  to  deteriorate  the  quality,  the  plants  being  of  good  size.  The 
fleshy  parts  of  the  diseased  specimens  presented  a  marbled  appearance, 
produced  by  a  bacterial  mucus  in  which  the  organisms  existed.  The 
parasite  was  found  to  be  a  rodlet  of  very  variable  size.  On  roeat- 
extract-pepton-gelatin  the  young  colonies  were  colourless  spherules, 
which  later  became  yellow  with  liquefaction  of  the  medium.  The 
microbe  in  cultures  is  a  bacillus  0*9  to  1*6  //.  long  and  0*5  /a  broad  ;  it- 
exhibits  lively  movements,  and  possesses  a  single  polar  nagellum.  It  is 
identical  with,  or  closely  allied  to,  the  Pseudomonas  campestris  described 
by  Smith  and  Pammel. 

Ripening  of  Cream.J— H.  W.  Conn  and  W.  M.  Esten  give  the  fol- 
lowing general  summary,  drawn  from  a  long  series  of  experiments,  as 
to  the  actual  bacterial  development  occurring  on  the  normal  ripening 
of  cheese.  Milk,  as  it  is  drawn  from  the  cow,  contains  great  quantities 
of  bacteria,  most  of  them  being  liquefying,  and  other  non-acid  species. 
At  the  outset  the  number  of  acid  bacteria  is  small.  All  the  species  in- 
crease during  the  setting  of  the  milk  for  the  separation  of  the  cream. 
For  a  few  hours  the  alkaline  bacteria,  and  also  some  others,  increase- 
quite  rapidly,  while  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  are  hardly  evident.  After 
about  12  hours  the  lactic  bacteria  are  as  numerous  as  the  others  ;  they 
reach  their  maximum  in  about  48  hours,  after  which  they  decrease, 
and  finally  disappear.  The  ripened  cream  contains  vast  numbers  of 
bacteria,  nearly  all  being  lactic.  After  the  first  12  hours  all  species 
save  two  lactic  bacteria  decrease  and  disappear.  These  two  species 
increase  regularly  from  the  beginning  of  the  experiments  to  the  maxi- 
mum ;  one  is  always  present,  and  during  the  ripening  increases  in 
numbers,  though  not  in  proportion.  The  ripening  which  takes  place 
in  the  creamery  is  wholly,  or  almost  wholly,  due  to  the  growth  of  lactic 

*  Zeitschr.  f.  Hygiene  u.  Infektions.,  xxxvi.  p.  71.  See  Bot.  Ceutralbl.,  Ixxxviiu 
(1901)  p.  130. 

t  Zeitschr.  f.  d.  landwirthsch.  Versuchswesen  in  Oesterreich,  1901,  p.  469.  See 
Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxvii.  (1901)  |»p.  150-1. 

%  Centralbl.  Bakt,  1"  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  743-52,  769-75. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  91 

bacteria.  A  ripened  cream  is  almost  a  pure  culturo  of  acid  bacteria., 
but  whether  the  lactic  bacteria  are  the  sole  agents  in  the  ripening  is  not 
clear.  The  flavour  of  June  butter  is  not  due  to  the  presence  of  common 
lactic  bacteria,  but  to  what  it  should  be  ascribed  is  left  to  future  ex- 
perimeuts  to  decide. 

Bacteriological  Examination  of  Potable  Water.  *  —  Dr.  A.  C- 
Houston,  in  some  remarks  on  the  bacteriological  examination  of  potable 
water  from  the  public  health  point  of  view,  discusses  the  significance  of 
the  presence  of  Bacillus  coli  communis,  B.  enteritidis  sporogencs,  and 
Streptococci,  and  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  presence  of  Streptococci 
is  to  be  regarded  as  indicating  extremely  recent,  and  B.  coli  less  recent 
but  still  not  remote,  pollution  of  animal  soil.  The  presence  of  B. 
enteritidis  sporogenes  cannot  be  considered  to  afford  evidence  of  pollution 
bearing  a  necessary  relation  to  the  recent  evacuation  of  animals. 

Influence  of  Alcohol  on  Natural  Immunity. f  —  Dr.  S.J.Gold- 
berg records  experiments  made  on  pigeons  for  the  purpose  of  testing  the 
effect  of  alcohol  on  their  natural  immunity  to  anthrax,  and  on  the  course 
of  anthrax  infection.  The  results  showed  that  pigeons,  which  are 
naturally  immune  to  anthrax,  become  susceptible  of  anthrax  infection 
when  the  infected  animals  are  dosed  with  alcohol  (2-3  ccm.  of  40  p.c. 
brandy)  sufficient  to  produce  merely  a  transitory  alcohol-intoxication, 
and  insufficient  to  cause  death.  Chronic  alcoholic  intoxication  diminishes 
the  natural  immunity  of  pigeons  to  anthrax.  Small  doses  of  alcohol, 
when  repeatedly  administered  to  pigeons  infected  with  lethal  doses  of 
anthrax,  do  not  save  the  animal  from  death,  and  have  no  therapeutic 
influence  whatever. 

Involution  Forms  of  some  Plague-like  Bacteria.  J  —  Dr.  A.  Rosen- 
feld,  after  alluding  to  the  value  of  Hankin's  method,  communicates  the 
results  obtained  by  cultivating  the  following  bacteria  on  salt-agar : — 
(1)  Bacillus  typhi  murium  ;  (2)  B.  suipestifer  ;  (3)  B.  mustelse  septicus ;. 
(4)  Danysz  bacillus  ;  (5)  B.  cholerse  gallinarum  ;  (6)  B.  pseudotubercu- 
losis (Streptobacillus  jjseudohibcrrulosis  rodentium)  ;  and  (7)  B.  suisepticus. 
The  results  are  given  as  a  series  of  tables,  and  may  be  summed  up 
shortly  as  follows : — In  (1),  (2),  (3),  and  (5)  the  involution  forms  ex- 
hibit little  or  no  resemblance  to  those  of  plague.  The  involution  forms 
of  Danysz  bacillus  present  certain  resemblances  to  those  of  plague,  but 
no  real  difficulty  arises  in  differentiating  between  the  two.  The  resem- 
blances between  the  involution  forms  of  (6)  Pseudotuberculosis  and  of 
Suisepticus  and  those  of  B.  pestis  are,  under  some  circumstances,  more- 
pronounced  ;  though  even  here  caro  will  enable  the  observer  to  dis- 
criminate between  them.  Hankin's  salt-agar  medium  is  pronounced  to 
be  a  very  valuable  medium  for  diagnosing  plague. 

iEtiology  of  Dysentery.  §  —  Prof.  S.  Flexner  has  little  doubt  that 
the  acute  epidemic  dysenteries  of  America  are  caused  by  the  6ame 
micro-organism.  This  opinion  is  founded  on  a  comparative  study  of 
material  derived  from  five  different  sources.  In  growth,  shape,  size, 
motility,  and  in  their  serum  reaction,  there  is  such  closo  resemblance 

•  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  1901,  ii.  pp.  1793-7. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt,  1"  Alt,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  G9G-700,  731-41. 

X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  641-53.  v  §  Tom.  fit.,  pp.  449-54. 


92  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

that  the  general  acceptance  of  a  specific  organism  of  dysentery  seems 
unavoidable. 

Melanogenic  Variety  of  Bacillus  pyocyaneus.  *  —  C.  Gessard, 
after  alluding  to  Cassin's  discovery  of  a  variety  of  Bacillus  pyocyaneus, 
which  in  certain  media  produced  a  red,  and  finally  a  black  pigment, 
shows  that  the  principal  factors  in  the  production  of  the  pigment  are 
the  presence  of  tyrosin  in  the  medium  and  the  existence  of  tyrosinase 
in  the  microbe.  The  bacterium  uses  another  diastase,  trypsin,  to  bring 
the  tyrosin  into  a  condition  suitable  for  the  action  of  the  tyrosinase. 
It  can  attack  tyrosin  in  combination  and  in  the  free  state,  and  thus  may 
be  compared  to  Millon's  reagent. 

Biochemical  Studies  on  the  Tubercle  Bacillus,  f  —  Elementary 
analysis  of  tubercle  bacilli  cultivated  on  different  media  was  found  by 
r.  A.  Levene  to  give  widely  different  results,  especially  in  the  amount 
of  alcohol-ether  extract.  Differences  were  also  observed  in  the  amounts 
of  proteid  and  of  free  nucleic  acid  present.  By  fractional  heat-coagula- 
tion the  proteid  material  can  be  separated  into  three  substances,  each  of 
which  contains  phosphorus.  The  nucleic  acids  separated  vary  much  in 
■composition  ;  some  of  the  preparations  made  are  looked  on  as  purer 
than  tbe  others.  The  only  carbohydrate  studied  was  one  which  closely 
xesembles  glycogen  ;  this  appears  to  be  always  present. 

Human  and  Bovine  Tuberculosis.  J  —  Prof.  S.  Delepine,  in  a  pre- 
liminary communication  on  the  communicability  of  human  tuberculosis 
to  cattle,  relates  the  results  of  four  experiments  on  calves.  The  animals 
were  inoculated  with  a  mixture  of  several  tuberculous  sputa,  repre- 
senting several  types  of  human  tuberculous  sputa.  Of  these  four 
calves  two  survived  long  enough  to  allow  definite  results  to  be  obtained, 
and  showed  that  tuberculosis  had  been  contracted  as  the  result  of  inges- 
tion of  a  peritoneal  infection  with  human  tuberculous  sputa. 

Virulence  of  Bovine  and  Human  Tubercle  Bacilli.  §  —  Dr.  M.  P. 
Eavenel  records  some  important  experiments  and  observations  which  he 
has  made  on  the  comparative  virulence  of  tbe  tubercle  bacillus  derived 
from  human  and  bovine  sources.  From  these  he  draws,  among  others, 
the  following  conclusions : — The  bovine  bacillus  has  in  culture  fairly 
constant  and  persistent  peculiarities  of  growth  and  morphology,  by 
which  it  may  be  tentatively  differentiated  from  that  ordinarily  found  in 
man.  The  cultures  from  the  two  sources  differ  markedly  in  pathogenic 
power,  affording  further  means  of  differentiation  ;  the  bovine  bacillus 
being  much  more  active  than  the  human  for  all  6pecies  of  experimental 
animals  treated,  with  the  possible  exception  of  swine,  which  are  highly 
susceptible  to  both.  It  is  a  fair  assumption  from  tbe  evidence  at  hand 
and  in  the  absence  of  evidence  to  the  contrary,  that  the  bovine  tubercle 
bacillus  has  a  high  degree  of  pathogenic  power  for  man  also,  which  is 
especially  manifest  in  the  early  years  of  life. 

Variability  of  Gas-formation  by  Bacillus  coli  communis.  ||  —  J. 
ltoth  finds  that  the  power  of  B.  coli  communis  to  ferment  grape-sugar  is 

*  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  817-31. 

t  Journ.  Med.  Research,  vi.  (1901)  pp.  135-41.     See  Journ.  Chera.  Soc,  lxxx. 
<1901)  Abstr.  ii.  p.  675.  J  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  1901,  ii.  pp.  1224-G. 

§  Lancet,  1901.  ii.  pp.  349-56,  413-8. 
||  Inaug.  Diss.  Heidelberg.     See  Dot.  Centralis.,  lxxxviii.  (1901) 


ZOOLOGY   AND    I50TANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  93 

as  variable  as  that  of  forming  acid  or  indol,  or  of  coagulating  milk  ; 
and  that  this  power  is  seriously  influenced  by  the  serum  of  animals 
immunised  by  sterilised  coli  cultures. 

Classification  of  the  Haemorrhagic  Septicaemia.*  —  According  to 
J.  Lignieres,  the  following  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  pasteurella, 
a  group  of  pathogenic  micro-organisms  which  give  rise  to  haemorrhagic 
septicaemia: — Non-motile  cocco-bacilli,  not  staining  by  Gram's  method, 
very  polymorphic,  with  involution  forms,  not  liquefying  gelatin,  not 
coagulating  milk  which  retains  its  normal  reaction,  no  visible  growth 
on  potato,  not  forming  indol  in  pancreatic-bouillon,  not  reddening 
Wurtz  gelose,  markedly  aerobic  but  also  anaerobic,  developing  an  odour 
sui  generis.  No  spores,  no  flagella,  virulence  variable  but  usually  high. 
On  intravenous  injection,  a  special  affinity  for  synovial  sheaths  of 
tendons  and  joints. 

The  group  of  pasteurelloses  includes  diseases  affecting  birds,  pigs, 
sheep,  cattle,  horses,  and  dogs.  The  part  played  by  the  pasteurella  is 
variable :  it  is  rapid  and  severe,  in  which  case  the  organisms  are  easily 
detected  ;  or  it  is  slow,  passive,  and  preparatory,  in  which  case  the  diffi- 
culties of  unmasking  it  are  very  great. 

Probable  Identity  of  Achalme's  Bacillus  of  Acute  Rheumatism 
and  the  Bacillus  enteritidis  sporogenes.  f —  R.  T.  Hewlett  compared 
Achalme's  bacillus  and  B.  enteritidis  sporogenes  Klein,  and  was  unable 
to  discover  any  distinct  difference  between  them.  Both  are  anaerobic 
anthrax-like  bacilli  which  stain  well  by  Gram's  method  ;  both  curdle 
milk  in  the  same  peculiar  manner,  form  gas,  liquefy  serum  and  gelatin, 
and  form  spores  under  certain  but  identical  conditions,  viz.  in  gelatin 
and  serum,  but  not  on  agar  or  in  milk,  Their  pathogenic  action  on 
guinea-pigs  also  appears  to  be  the  same.  Morphologically,  culturally, 
and  in  their  pathogenic  action  the  two  organisms  appear  to  be  identical, 

Indol-like  Reaction  given  by  Cultures  of  Diphtheria  and  Pseudo- 
diphtheria  Bacilli.J — E-  T.  Hewlett  found  that  a  pink  reaction  followed 
the  addition  of  strong  acid  and  weak  nitrite  solution  to  cultures  of  the 
diphtheria  and  pseudo-diphtheria  bacilli.  The  pink  colour  was  found 
to  be  due  to  some  non-volatile  substance,  and  was  therefore  not  indol. 
Chemical  tests  showed  that  it  was  skatol-carboxylic  acid.  The  forma- 
tion of  this  body  by  both  diphtheria  and  pseudo-diphtheria  bacteria 
points  to  the  close  relationship  of  the  two  organisms,  and  it  further 
indicates  that  the  routine  method  of  testing  for  indol  is  insufficient,  the 
cultures  must  be  distilled  and  the  distillate  tasted. 

Vibrio  denitrificans  Sewerin.  §  —  R.  Greig  Smith  isolated  from 
Sydney  water  an  organism  which  morphologically  much  resembled 
Bhizobium  leguminosarum,  but  differs  therefrom  in  being  able  to  grow  on 
ordinary  media  as  well  as  in  media  containing  little  nutriment,  and  in  re- 
ducing nitrate  to  nitrogen.  It  is  polymorphic,  and  Y-forms  and  cells  bent 
at  angles  are  not  infrequent.  It  is  readily  stained.  It  is  motile ;  the 
flagella  are  usually  two  in  number,  and  are  polar.  The  optimum  tem- 
perature is  28°-30°  C.   On  acid-potato  the  growth  is  luxuriant,  moist  and 

*  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  734-6. 

+  Trans.  Patli.  Soc,  lii.  (1901)  pp.  114-5.  J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  113-4. 

§  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.W.,  xxvi.  (1901)  pp.  118-21  (1  pi.). 


94:  SUMMARY   OF   CDEBENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

creamy  white,  ultimately  becoming  brownish-yellow.  There  is  practically 
no  growth  in  nitrate  bouillon  at  37°.  V.  denitrificam  is  a  budding  fungus  ; 
and  as  it  simulates  a  bacterium  the  term  Mycobacterium  denitrificans 
would  be  more  appropriate.  It  does  not  form  true  branchings,  unless 
we  agree  to  call  everything  within  a  single  capsule  an  organism ;  and 
this  would  be  unwise.  The  branching  is  caused  by  the  capsules  and 
not  by  the  simple  organisms. 

Corynebacterium.  lymphse  vaccinalis.*  —  Levy  and  Fickler  found 
two  microbes  in  animal  lymph,  one  of  which  produced  on  Loeffler's 
blood-serum  an  orange-yellow  pigment.  Neither  organism  formed  any 
demonstrable  toxin  in  the  cultures.  In  young  cultures  the  bacteria 
were  wedge-shaped  or  cylindrical,  becoming  bent  with  increasing  age, 
and  exhibiting  a  granulation  of  their  protoplasm,  and  finally  became 
club-shaped.  The  last-named  forms  developed  on  egg-white  and  egg- 
yolk  plates.  They  were  stainable  by  Gram's  method,  but  did  not  ex- 
hibit the  granules  with  Neisser's  staining.  They  grew  well  at  37°  and 
badly  at  21°.  On  gelatin  the  colonies  were  opaque.  On  agar  the  deep- 
lying  growth  was  brownish  and  small,  the  superficial  layer  granular 
and  with  yellowish-brown  centre.  Bouillon  was  rendered  turbid  by 
one,  while  the  other  formed  a  collection  of  spherules  ;  both  produced 
a  sediment  and  occasionally  a  surface  scum.  Milk  was  not  coagulated. 
The  bacteria  were  killed  by  moist  heat  at  60°  in  ten  minutes.  The 
authors  consider  their  bacteria  to  be  identical  with  Nakanishi's,  and  to 
belong  to  the  Actinomyces  group. 

Bibliography. 

Feost,  W.  D. — A  Laboratory  Guide  in  Elementary  Bacteriology. 

Madison,  Wisconsin,  1901,  viii.  and  205  pp. 
Gottheil,  O. — Botanische  Beschreibung  einiger  Bodenbakterien. 

[A  series  of  articles  dealing  with  earth  bacteria,  the  method  of  species 
determination,  and  the  importance  of  earth  bacteria  in  agriculture.] 

Centralbl.  Bald.,,  2te  Abt.,  VII.  (1901)  pp.  430-5,  449-65,  481-97, 
529-44,  582-91,  627-37,  6S0-91,  717-30  (4  pis.). 
Lindner,  P. — Mikroskopiscbe  Betriebskontrolle  in  der  Gahrungsgewerben. 

3rd  ed.,  Berlin,  1901,  46S  pp.,  229  figs.,  and  4  pis. 

*  Deutsche  Med.  Wochenschr..  1900,  No.  26.     See  Centralbl.  Bakt.,   V  Abt., 
xxx.  (1901)  pp.  470-1. 


•*  i  =<£=>+■ 


ZOOLOGY   AND    I50TANV,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  95 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.  Instruments,  Accessories,  &c* 
(1)  Stands. 

Beck's  Imperial  Microscope. — This  instrument  has  been  designed 
for  critical  work  of  the  most  advanced  type.  At  the  same  time  it  is  com- 
pact, and  does  not  stand  too  high  from  the  table  to  be  comfortably  used 
in  a  vertical  position.  In  its  complete  form  it  is  provided  with  coarse 
focussing  adjustment,  double  speed  fine  adjustment  with  graduated 
head,  full  size  eye-pieces,  rack-and-pinion  focussing  draw-tube,  gradu- 
ated, additional  slidins;  draw-tube,  graduated  clamp  to  joint,  graduated 
concentric  rotating  stage,  rack-and-pinion  movement  to  rotating  stage, 
centring  screws  to  stage,  graduated  vertical  and  horizontal  stage  motion, 
coarse  focussing  sub-stage  adjustment,  fine  focussing  sub-stage  adjust- 
ment, centring  sub-stage  adjustment,  swinging  and  sliding  mirror. 

The  stand  is  made  upon  two  models ;  the  English  tripod  foot,  and 
the  Continental  base  and  pillar.  In  the  English  or  tripod  model  there 
is  a  splay  between  the  front  feet  of  8.j  in.,  and  9  in.  from  front  to 
back.  A  long  lever  clamp  is  provided  to  fix  the  Microscope  at  any 
inclination,  and  the  latter  is  limited  in  its  motion  in  the  exact  horizontal 
and  vertical  positions.  The  Continental  model  stand  is  unusually 
large  and  steady ;  the  base  measures  6 j  in.  in  length  by  4^  in.  in 
width,  and  is  provided  with  a  similar  clamp  to  the  joint.  The  limb 
of  the  Microscope  is  pierced  with  a  square  hole  and  clamp  screw,  in 
which  an  illuminator  for  opaque  objects  may  be  held. 

The  body-tube  of  tho  Microscope  is  2  in.  in  diameter,  and  3*6  in. 
long,  but  with  the  nose  and  draw-tubes  in  their  closed  position  it 
measures  140  mm.  or  5^  in.  The  nose-piece  and  draw-tubes  may  be 
removed,  and  a  photographic  lens  mounted  in  the  centre  of  this  short 
and  large  diameter-tube  allows  of  the  use  of  a  wide  angle  for  low-power 
photomicrographic  work.  The  draw-tube  is  provided  with  a  rack-and- 
pinion  adjustment,  and  has  a  ring  fitting  at  its  lower  extremity,  which 
carries  the  object-glass  screw-thread.  An  additional  sliding  draw-tube 
is  supplied,  and  both  are  graduated  in  millimetres ;  a  total  extension  of 
tube  with  the  two  draw-tubes  of  260  mm.  is  obtained.  The  diameter  of 
tho  tube  is  that  of  the  No.  4  largest  Royal  Microscopical  Society's 
standard  gauge,  1*41  in.,  and  an  adapter  is  supplied  to  take  tho 
!No.  1  size,  '917  in.  Low-power  and  orthoscopic  eye-pieces  may  be 
made  of  the  full  size,  which  give  a  much  larger  field  of  view  than  can 
be  attained  with  the  small  size  eye-piece.  A  small  size  body,  with 
sliding  graduated  draw-tube  with  a  range  of  length  of  140  mm.  to 
200  mm.,  is  supplied  to  the  simpler  forms  of  the  instrument. 

The  coarse  focussing  adjustment  is  by  means  of  a  spiral  rack-and- 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands;  (2)  Eye-piecos  find  Objectives;  (3)  Illu- 
minating  and  other  Appiiratus;  (4)  Photomicrography;  (5)  Microscopical  Optics 
and  Manipulation  ;  (6)  Miscellaneous. 


00 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


pinion  movement,   actuated  by  largo  milled  heads,  the  slide  buing  a 
most  substantial  dovetail  cradle.     When  at  its  highest  point  the  nose- 


Fir..  IS. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSCOPY,    ETC.  97 

piece  of  the  Microscope  is  4*1  in.  from  the  stage.  The  fine  focussing 
adjustment  is  upon  a  new  patented  method  invented  by  Mr.  Ashe.  A 
strong  lover  moves  the  cradle,  which  carries  the  body  of  the  Micro- 
scope by  means  of  a  block  which  is  a  projecting  portion  of  the  cradle. 
The  cradle  slides  in  a  fitting  in  the  limb  with  a  spring  acting  upon  the 
upper  side  of  the  projection,  which  drives  it  on  to  the  lever.  The  lever 
is  moved  by  a  steel  screw  with  milled  head ;  this  screw  works  through 
an  outer  screw  which  is  provided  with  a  large  graduated  milled  head, 
read  by  a  folding  indicator. 

One  screw  has  a  comparatively  coarse  thread,  and  when  revolved 
raises  the  body  a  distance  of  ^V^1  0f  an  iuch  in  a  complete  revolution. 
The  other  screw  has  a  fine  thread,  and  when  revolved  carries  the  former 
screw  with  it,  moving  the  body  only  ^^th  of  an  inch  in  a  complete  re- 
volution. At  any  moment  either  milled  head  may  be  used,  giving  a 
moderately  fine  adjustment  for  such  powers  as  {-in.  or  -J-,  or  a  very 
fine  movement  for  TV  or  higher  poAvers.  The  convenience  of  such  an 
arrangement  can  scarcely  be  overstated. 

A  slow  motion  fine  enough  for  focussiug  the  highest  powers  is  most 
troublesome  for  moderate-power  lenses. 

The  Stage. — In  the  complete  model  of  the  instrument  the  stage  is 
•circular,  5  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  graduated  circle  divided  in 
degrees  and  moved  by  a  rack-and-pinion,  which  may  be  thrown  out  of 
gear.  Centring  screws  are  provided  to  adjust  the  centre  of  rotation.  A 
mechanical  rack-and-pinion  top  stage  works  upon  its  surface  by  two 
milled  heads  having  a  horizontal  motion  of  2^  in.  and  a  vertical 
motion  of  1^  in.  This  is  so  designed  that  during  its  whole  travel 
it  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  substage  condenser.  Graduated 
finder-divisions  are  provided  to  both  motions  for  recording  and  finding 
again  individual  points  of  an  object,  and  for  rough  measurement  pur- 
poses. When  these  are  used  the  centring  screws  should  be  unscrewed 
to  their  full  extent  in  order  that  the  divisions  should  always  indicate 
the  same  position.  A  folding  stop  for  Maltwood's  finder  and  folding 
springs  aro  carried  by  the  mechanical  stage.  Even  with  the  mechanical 
stage  in  situ,  except  in  its  extreme  positions  of  travel,  a  complete  rota- 
tion of  the  stage  can  be  obtained. 

The  mechanical  stage  can  be  entirely  removed,  leaving  the  stage 
free  for  large  culture  plates  or  dishes.  Spring  clips  are  provided  for 
use  with  the  plain  stage. 

The  simpler  models  of  the  instrument  are  provided  with  a  large 
square  top,  4^  in.  by  4^  in.,  with  a  removable  mechanical  stage,  having 
a  horizontal  travel  of  2  in.  and  a  vertical  travel  of  1-J  in. 

The  substage  is  made  to  the  Royal  Microscopical  Standard  size, 
1*527  in.  It  has  coarse  adjustment  by  spiral  rack-and-pinion,  and 
a  lever  and  micrometer-screw  fine  adjustment.  It  has  two  centring 
screws  in  directions  at  right  angles.  The  substage  itself  has  no 
swinging-out  motion,  but  a  mount  may  be  supplied  carrying  the  con- 
denser, in  which  the  diaphragms  and  the  optical  portion  swing  out. 

The  mirror  is  flat  on  one  side  and  concave  on  the  other.  It  is 
2h  in.  in  diameter,  and  is  swung  on  a  fitting  which  slides  up  and  down 
on  a  dovetailed  bar.  This  bar  is  held  in  the  optic  axis  by  a  spring  stop, 
but  may  be  swung  to  one  side  or  the  other  if  desired. 

Feb.  19ih,  1902  h 


98 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


The  Binocular. — A.  special  form  of  the  Imperial  Microscope  is  made 
with  a  binocular  body,  in  which  the  limb  of  the  instrument  is  some- 
what lengthened  to  give  extra  length  of  fitting  for  the  body,  or  a 
binocular  body  interchangeable  with  the  ordinary  body  may  be  sup- 
plied 

Baker's  Portable  Diagnostic  Microscope. — This  instrument,  which 
in  1896  was  described  in  this  Journal,  has  now  been  made  of  "mag- 
nalium  "  by  Messrs.  C.  Baker,  and  was  exhibited  by  Mr.  Ciirties  at  the 
October  Meeting,  1901.  This  Microscope  was  originally  designed  by 
Surgeon-Major  Ronald  Boss  for  the  special  use  of  officers  in  the  Indian 
Army  Medical  Department  for  the  diagnosis  of  malarial  fever.     It  is 


Fig.  19. 

fitted  with  a  spiral  pinion  and  rack  coarse  adjustment,  a  direct-acting 
screw  fine  adjustment,  a  draw-tube,  which  when  extended  gives  a  tube 
length  of  G |  in.  (170  mm.),  a  sliding  tube  to  carry  a  substage  condenser, 
and  plane  and  concave  mirrors.  Its  weight  is  14  oz.  (397  grams).  When 
folded  the  instrument  measures  7  by  3  by  2|  (178  by  76  by  70  mm.), 
but  when  open  the  spread  of  the  tripod  is  6^  by  6  (165  by  i52  mm.). 
".Ma«nalium,"  an  alloy  of  aluminium  and  manganese,  is  a  tougher  and 
much  more  useful  metal  than  aluminium,  though  it  possesses  a  specific 
gravity  of  only  2*5. 

Seibert's  Travelling  Microscope.* — In  this  Microscope  the  designer 
has  tried  to  reduce  the  weight  to  a  minimum,  and  yet  to  adapt  the  instru- 

*  Zeitschr.  f.  angew.  Mikr.,  vii.  (1901)  pp.  141-3  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


99 


ment  for  the  most  delicate  investigations  likely  to  be  required  on  a 
journey.  The  stand  is  of  a  simple  character  with  parallelogram  screw 
adjustment,  illuminating  apparatus,  and  arrangements  for  oblique  light. 


,.«.»_...,.*»  «j.... 


Fig.  20. 


H    2 


100 


SUMMAltY    OF   ClUIIENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


The  illuminating  api  aratus  is  provided  with  g.  od  iris  diaphragm  and 
gives  light  sufficient  for  working  with  a  T^  immersion  lens.  The  stage 
is  large  enough  to  receive  the  ordinary  object-slides  safely :  it  is  strong 
and  not  removable  (as  is  generally  the  case  with  travelling  Microscopes)  : 


Fig.  21. 


it  is  rigidly  connected  with  the  pillar,  and  so  provides  a  permanent 
centring.  Figs.  20  and  21  show  the  instrument  half  the  full  size :  in 
figure  20  it  is  set  up  for  use :  in  figure  21  packed  away  in  its  case. 
In  order  to  prepare  the  Microscope  for  use  the  feet  are  everted,  the 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


01 


pillar  under  the  stage  pulled  out  and  clamped,  the  tuhe  drawn  out  to 
graduation  17,  aud  the  jointed  mirror  arm  arranged.  The  coarse  adjust- 
ment is  by  rack-and-pinion,  and  the  fine  by  micrometer  screw.  The 
movement  and  the  illumination  are  of  such  a  nature  that  oil-immersions 
can  be  used  and  the  instrument  applied  to  bacteriology. 

Seibert's  New  Dissection  Microscope.  —  The  foot  and  object-stage 
of  this  instrument  are  both  of  large  size,  the  latter  being  10  by  10  cm. 
The  adjustment  is  by  means  of  rackwork.  The  lens-carrier  is  movable, 
as  is  also  the  mirror.  The  support  for  the  operator's  arms  can  be  dis- 
connected and  removed.  The  instrument  can  be  fitted  with  a  drawing 
apparatus  (fig.  22),  formed  of  a  pillar  erected  on  the  horseshoe  foot,  and 


Fig.  22. 


carrying  a  jointed  arm  with  a  camera  lucida.  A  suitable  loup  and  con- 
cave leuses  are  also  supplied  for  drawing  larger  objects  slightly  magnified 
or  minified. 

Seibert's  Large  Model  Microscope,  No.  3.  —  This  instrument  is 
chiefly  distinguished  from  the  No.  2  stand  by  somewhat  smaller  dimen- 
sions, and  is  remarkable  for  its  low  price.  It  corresponds  to  the  Zeiss 
ii  A.     It  has  a  horse-shoe  foot  and  no  clamp  for  inclination. 

Seibert's  Laboratory  Microscope.  —  This  instrument  is  remarkable 
for  its  low  price.  As  will  be  seen  from  fig.  23,  the  construction  is  of 
the  simplest  character.  The  body  is  focussed  by  rack-and-pinion,  aud 
the  careful  workmanship  of  the  arrangement  renders  the  instrument 
available  for  use  with  high-power  objectives.  The  stage  is  of  large  size 
(100  by  120  mm.).  The  movable  mirror  is  plane  and  concave.  The 
makers  recommend  it  fur  the  detection  of  trichinae  and  as  a  very  useful 
laboratory  adjunct. 


102  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Fig.  28. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTAN'Y,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


103 


i(3)  Illuminating  and  other  Apparatus. 

Seibert's  New  Projection  Microscope  with  Electric  Light.*— The 
light-source  of  this  instrument  (fig.  24)  is  obtained  from  a  Schuckert's 
arc  lamp  of  16  ampere,  triple,  large  illuminating  system  (16  cm.  dia- 
meter).    A  water-cooling  chamber  is  placed  between  the  plano-convex 


Q_M^ 


w 


6 


*  Seibert's  Catalogue.  No.  1?,  p-  '3. 


104 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 


lenses.  The  Microscope  stand  consists  of  two  parts :  (1)  the  object- 
stage  with  Abbe's  illuminating  apparatus  and  iris  diaphragm  ;  and  (2) 
the  tube  with  the  adjustments,  rack-and-pinion  for  the  coarse,  and 
micrometer  screw  for  the  fine.  The  object-stage  is  movable  by  a  simple 
method.  The  Microscope  parts  run  on  iron  tongues  and  can  easily  be 
exchanged  for  the  apparatus  for  the  projection  of  photographic  slides. 
All  other  apparatus  and  objects  for  projection  can  be  easily  applied. 
The  instrument  also  lends  itself  to  photomicrography  if  it  is  connected 
with  a  corresponding  camera.  The  apparatus  can  be  used  both  with 
apochromatic  and  the  stronger  achromatic  objectives  in  conjunction  with 
projection  oculars ;  it  can  also  be  used  with  the  weaker  achromatic  and 
photomicrographic  objectives  without  oculars. 

New  Microscope  Lamp.*  —  Prof.  A.  Meyer,  in  carrying  out  his  re- 
searches on  the  structure  of  the  bacterial  cell,  experienced  the  need  of 
a  suitable  substitute    for  strong    sunlight,  and  devised    the   following 


r^M 


i       t? 


^\ 


jL 


rfe^r 


2l 


Fig.  25. 

apparatus,  which  gave  excellent  results: — The  source  of  light  is  an 
incandescent  gas-lamp  mounted  on  a  tripod.  The  light  is  placed  in 
the  focus  of  a  parabolic  mirror  P,  which  can  be  raised  or  lowered  on  the 
pillar  of  the  tripod-stand,  fig.  25.  The  rays  pass  through  a  ground-glass 
plate  M  to  the  mirror  of  the  Microscope  S.  The  grain  of  the  gruund- 
glass  plate  is  very  fine.  B  is  a  screen  to  intercept  the  light  coming  to  the 
eyes  of  the  worker.  The  Microscope  is  placed  from  25  to  35  cm.,, 
according  to  the  power  of  the  objective  in  use,  from  the  tripod-stand. 

Seibert's  Large  Polarising  Apparatus.  —  The  polariser,  with  con- 
denser combined,  is  shown  in  fig.  26,  and  the  analyser  in  fig.  27.  The 
polariser  is  pushed  into  the  collar  of  the  diaphragm-holder.  The  rota- 
tion direction  of  the  nicol  is  fixed  by  the  clamping  of  a  screw-head  in 
a  groove.     The  analyser  is  combined  with  an  ocular  fitted  with  cross- 

•  Zcitechr.  f.  m:es.  Mikr..  xviii.  (1001)  pp.  H4-G  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTAKY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


1  05 


threads,  and  has  two  divided  circles  :  one  graduated  to  every  ten  degrees 
(for  reading  off  the  rotations  of  the  fixed  cross-threads)  :  and  a  finer  one 
graduated  in  degrees  with  a  vernier.  The  prism  has  right-angled  end 
planes  and  provides  a  field  of  the  largest  possible  size.  The  instrument 
can  be  fitted,  if  desired,  with  a  long  glass  tube  provided  with  quadrant 
Bertrand's  quartz  plates  for  sugar  analysis. 


Fir..  20. 


Fig.  27. 


Abbe  Drawing  'Camera.  —  This  form  of  Abbe  camera,  made  by 
Messrs.  Zeiss  (fig.  28),  was  designed  by  Dr.  H.  W.  Heinsius  (1889), 
and  was  descrihed  in  this  Journal  (1890),  p.  94,  but  was  not  figured.    It 


differs  from  the  one  figured  in  the  Journal  (1884,  p.  119,  fig.  18),  inas- 
much as  it  is  attached  by  a  hinge  to  the  collar  which  fixes  it  to  the 
Microscope.     This  permits  it  to  be  turned  out  of  the  way  when  it  is  not 


in  use. 


106 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


(4)  Photomicrography; 

Seibert's  Apparatus  for  Vertical  Photomicrography. — This  appara- 
tus, whose  design  is  easily  understood  from  fig.  29,  is  applicable  to  every 


"   :<--.--. . 

Fig.  20. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


107 


Microscope  stand.    It  has  a  double  dark  slide  and  a  lens  for  fine  adjust- 
ment.    The  size  of  the  image  is  9  by  12  cm.,  and  the  bellows  have  an 


extension  of  50  cm. 


B.  Technique.* 


%» 


f 


.tnumummiMMmw 


agate^^r 


•.l-ni)lht?rr-rS' 


Fig.  30. 


(.13   Collecting:  Objects,  including-  Culture  Processes. 

Does  Anthrax  form  Spores  under  Anaerobic  Conditions?  — K. 
Slupski  \  answers  the  question  whether  anthrax  when  cultivated  under 
strictly  anaerobic  conditions  forms  spores,  in  the  negative.  The  method 
adopted  and  the  apparatus  used  are  as  follows.  The  essential  feature 
in  the  apparatus  is  a  glass  pan  with  a  broad  lip  (fig.  30,  c). .  This  pan, 
which  is  15  cm.  in  diameter,  5  cm.  high,  and  the  breadth  of  the  lip 
1JL  cm.,  is  placed  inside  another  glass  pan  upon  the  bottom  of  which  are 
two  dishes  a  and  b.  The  dish  a  is  for  pyrogallic  acid,  the  dish  &  for 
distilled  water.  Over  the  dish  a  is 
placed  a  glass  tripod  the  legs  of 
which  rest  in  b.  Upon  the  tripod  is 
placed  a  double  layer  of  blotting 
paper,  and  on -this  rests  an  open  Petri 
capsule.  One  half  of  the  agar  plate 
in  the  Petri  capsule  is  inoculated 
with  anthrax  blood  and  the  other  with 
tetanus.  As  tetanus  is  an  essential  anaerobe  its  growth  affords  an  excellent 
criterion  of  the  fulfilment  of  anaerobic  conditions.  Alter  the  plato  is 
inoculated  two  bits  of  caustic  potash  (about  14  grm.)  are  placed  in  the 
pyrogallic  acid  (about  25  grin.)  over  which  has  been  poured  some 
25  ccm.  of  warm  distilled  water.  The  various  parts  of  the  apparatus 
haviDg  been  adjusted,  warm  paraffin  is  poured  into  the  outer  jar  to  form 
a  layer  of  3-4  cm.  high  ;  and  when  this  has  cooled  and  set  another 
layer  of  liquid  paraffin.  This  done,  the  whole  apparatus  is  removed  for 
40-50  hours  to  a  refrigerator  at  a  temperature  of  5-6°  C.  This  is  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  anthrax  while  the  oxygen  is  being  absorbed. 
The  final  step  is  to  incubate  for  70-80  hours  at  37°. 

Methods  for  Rearing  Amoebae. J — M.  T.  Cook  makes  a  medium  by 
boiling  dead  leaves.  When  cool,  liquid  and  leaves  are  placed  in  ajar 
and  unboiled  leaves  and  enough  water  to  stand  about  1  in.  above  the 
leaves  added.  In  2  or  3  days  scum  forms,  and  in  from  5-10  days,  according 
to  the  temperature,  amoebae  will  be  found  in  the  scum  in  large  numbers. 
They  are  small  but  very  satisfactory  for  class  purposes. 

Yeast-Water  for  Biological  Analysis.§— H.  Will  recommends  the 
use  of  yeast-water  rendered  alkaline  by  the  addition  of  ammonia  for 
bacteriological  purposes.     8-10  ccm.  of  neutral  perfectly  clear  yeast 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Pro- 
cesses ;  (2)  Preparing  Objects  ;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes  ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting  ;  (5)  Mounting,  including  elides,  preservative  fluids,  &c. ; 
(6)  Miscellaneous. 

t  Centralbl.  l'nkt.,  l,e  Abt.,  xxx.  (1001)  pp.  396-400  (2  figs.). 

t  Journ.  Applied  Microscopy,  iv.  (190J)  p.  1566. 

§  Zeitschr.  ges.  Brauwcsen,  xxiv.  (1901)  pp.  289-91.  See  Centralbl.  Bakt., 
2!i  Abt.,  vii.  (1901)  pp.  8i>2-3. 


108  SUMMARY    OK   CUfillENT    LIESEABCHES    RELATING    TO 

water  are  placed  in  Frcudenrcich's  flasks,  and  just  before  inoculation  a 
drop  of  ammonia  sp.  gr.  0*90  is  added. 

Demonstration  of  Enzymes.* — S.  L.  Schouten  gives  a  method  for 
more  quickly  demonstrating  enzymes  than  that  of  Fermi.  He  mixes 
water  saturated  with  thymol,  7£  per  cent,  gelatin,  and  an  equal  quantity 
of  cinnabar.  The  solution,  which  is  red,  is  distributed  into  test- 
tubes.  By  rotating  the  tubes  under  a  stream  of  water,  a  thin  layer  of 
gelatin  is  formed  above  a  thicker  one.  "When  the  fluid  which  is  to  be 
examined  for  the  presence  of  enzyme  is  put  into  the  tube  the  action 
takes  place  readily  on  the  thin  layer,  and  the  result  is  more  easily  dis- 
covered owing  to  tho  red  colour  of  the  solution.  This  method  was 
adopted  for  examining  enzymes  of  the  Saprolegniaceae. 

Cultivation  Medium  for  Cheese  Bacteria.|— F.  W.  J.  Boekhout  and 
J.  J.  Ott  de  Vries,  in  their  investigation  on  the  ripening  of  Edam  cheese, 
used  cheese-gelatin  which  Avas  prepared  as  follows : — Pieces  of  cheese 
were  ground  up  fine  in  a  mill  and  a  definite  quantity  (lj  times  its 
weight)  of  water  added.  The  mixture  was  macerated  for  two  hours  at 
40°  and  then  heated  to  50°,  being  stirred  the  while,  so  that  the  insoluble 
and  partly  soluble  constituents  might  sink  to  the  bottom.  The  super- 
natant fluid  was  then  poured  off  and  allowed  to  stand  for  some  hours. 
The  scum,  which  is  composed  of  fat  and  albumen,  was  then  skimmed  off, 
and  the  residue  filtered.  The  filtrate  or  cheese-broth  was  worked  up 
into  cheese-gelatin  by  the  addition  of  10  per  cent,  gelatin.  This  medium, 
suitable  for  aerobic  and  anaerobic  cultures,  contains  no  milk-sugar  and 
is  of  acid  reaction,  thus  fulfilling  the  conditions  requisite  in  cheese- 
ripening  investigation. 

Cultivation  of  Rhizobium  leguminosarum.  J  —  R.  Greig  Smith  has 
obtained  fairly  luxuriant  cultures  of  Rhizobium  leguminosarum  in  a 
gelatin  medium  containing  glucose  and  inorganic  salts,  and  also  on  a 
medium  composed  of  faintly  acid  agar  (2  p.c.)  glucose  (2  p.c.)  and  in- 
organic salts  (CaCl2  ar  d  KH2P04),  nearly  neutralised  with  KOH.  In  the 
latter  medium  there  is  no  nitrogen  except  that  which  may  be  present  as 
impurity  in  the  washed  agar,  the  glucose,  or  the  tap-water.  He  has 
also  grown  the  organism  in  an  agar-free  fluid  medium  prepared  exactly 
as  the  agar  medium.  Such  a  fluid,  after  inoculation,  becomes  turbid, 
and  forms  a  slight  sediment  of  organisms,  together  with  a  bulky  zooglcea 
cloud  or  sedimentary  film.  The  experimental  flasks  were  found  to  con- 
tain exactly  the  same  amount  of  nitrogen  as  the  control  flasks,  hence  no 
fixation  of  nitrogen  could  have  occurred. 

(2)  Preparing1  Objects. 

Handy  Method  of  Preparing  Slides  and  Slips  for  taking  Blood 
Films. § — W.  L  Braddon  draws  attention  to  a  simple  method  of  pre- 
paring slips  and  slides  for  blood-examination.  (1)  A  slip  is  placed  on 
a  slide  in  such  a  position  that  one  of  its  edges  coincides  exactly  with 
that  of  the  slide.     Then,  for  temporary  use  vaselin,  for  permanent  pur- 

*  Kouk.  Akadem.  v.Wetensch.  Amsterdam,  1901.    See  Centralbl.  Bakt,  1"  Abt.,, 
xxx.  (1901)  p.  780.        t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2"  Abt.,  vii.  (1901)  pp.  817-33  (1  pi.). 
X  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.W.,  xxvi.  (1901)  pp.  15.'-5. 
§  Journ,  Tropical  Med.,  iii.  (190(1)  p.  110. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  101» 

poses  white  cement,  is  smeared  round  the  margins  of  the  slip  except  that 
which  corresponds  with  the  border  of  the  slide  and  a  small  portion  of 
the  edge  opposite.  (2)  Two  slips,  preferably  square  ones,  are  accu- 
rately superposed,  and  then  vaselin  or  cement  smeared  over  the  com- 
bined rims  except  one,  which  is  left  free,  and  a  part  of  the  edge  opposite. 

To  use  the  slips  or  slides,  touch  with  the  free  edge  the  drop  of 
Wood,  and  when  the  whole  space  has  been  slowly  filled  the  unsmeared 
portions  of  the  margin  are  closed  up  with  vaselin  or  cement.  Stains 
are  best  added  by  placing  a  drop  on  the  surface  and  puncturing  through 
the  drop. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  method  are  that  an  extremely  thin 
and  uniform  film  is  secured ;  that  the  slides  or  slips  can  be  used  by  the 
most  unskilful ;  and  that  when  prepared  beforehand  a  large  number, 
especially  of  paired  slips,  can  be  kept  in  a  small  space  quite  ready  for 
use. 

Formol  as  a  Preservative  and  Fixative.* — K.  Diederichs  in  some 
noies  on  the  u<?e  of  formalin,  which  is  a  40  p.c.  solution  of  gaseous 
formaldehyde  (CH20)  in  water,  alludes  to  its  most  important  uses  as  a 
fixative  and  preservative  agent.  For  soft  animals  such  as  Mollusca  and 
even  Medusae  it  is  excelleut  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  formalin  to 
20  or  more  parts  of  water.  As  a  rule  plants  do  not  keep  so  well  as 
animal  specimens,  though  for  fruit  and  fungi  it  is  suitable.  While 
formalin  hardens  animal  objects  it  softens  vegetables,  but  in  the  full 
40  p.c.  solution,  plants  can  be  hardened  and  thus  rendered  suitable  for 
microscopical  technique. 

In  combination  with  Muller's  fluid  1-10  it  forms  an  excellent 
medium  for  hardening  brain.  For  the  lens  1-40  is  sufficient.  At  the 
present  time  it  is  extensively  employed  in  bacteriological  technique,  many 
stains  being  made  up  with  it,  so  that  the  specimens  are  stained  and  fixed 
simultaneously.  It  is  of  inestimable  advantage  for  preserving  cultures 
so  that  they  shall  retain  their  characteristic  appearauce  at  any  given 
stage.     It  is  equally  applicable  to  plate  and  tube  cultures. 

Large  anatomical  preparations  are  preserved  by  immersing  them 
wrapped  in  cotton  wool  in  a  mixture  of  200  ccm.  formalin,  1000  ccm. 
water,  15  grm.  potassium  nitrate,  and  30  grm.  potassium  acetate  for 
24-48  hours.  Alternative  solutions  are  :  (1)  Formalin  100,  acetate  of 
soda  30,  chlorate  of  potash  5,  distilled  water  1000.  (2)  Water  1000, 
formalin  750,  nitrate  of  potash  10,  and  acetate  of  potash  30.  (3)  Forma- 
lin 50,  artificial  Carlsbad  salts  40,  water  1000.  After  removal  from 
any  of  the  foregoing  the  preparations  are  transferred  to  60  p.c.  alcohol 
for  2  days,  and  then  for  similar  periods  to  80  p.c,  90  p.c,  and  93  p.c. 
alcohol.  By  this  stage  the  colour  is  regenerated.  The  preparations  are 
next  transferred  to  the  preservative  which  consists  of  290  parts  glycerin, 
100  parts  acetate  of  potassium,  1000  parts  water.  Alternative  solutions 
are  :  (1)  Water  90,  glycerin  54,  acetate  of  soda  27.  (2)  Water  1000, 
nitrate  of  potash  2  *  5,  saccharum  20,  chlorate  of  soda  250. 

Formalin-gelatin  has  recently  been  applied  to  anatomical  objects. 
In  200  ccm.  of  water  at  90°,  6-7  p.c.  of  gelatin  is  dissolved  without 
stirring.     The  supernatant  thin  opalescent  layer  is  decanted  off,  filtered 

*  Zcitschr.  f.  nngew.  Mikr.,  vii.  (1T01)  pp.  14^-0. 


110 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


and  if  necessary  clarified  by  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid. 
To  every  10  ccm.  gelatin  G-8  drops  of  formalin  are  added.  The  objects, 
previously  hardened  in  alcohol,  are  washed  in  water  and  then  placed  in 
glass  vessels  containing  formalin-gelatin  cooled  down  to  about  60°. 
When  the  gelatin  has  set  the  jars  are  hermetically  closed. 

Another  similar  method  consists  in  making  a  5  p.c.  gelatin  solution, 
and  then  treating  it  with  i-1  p.c.  formalin.  The  objects  are  for  this 
method  previously  fixed  with  formalin. 

Demonstration  of  Cholera  Vibrios.* — Prof.  L.  Heim  states  that  the 
presence  of  blood  in  the  medium  much  facilitates  the  demonstration  of 
cholera  vibrios  in  suspected  fluids.  A  decoction  of  blood  is  prepared 
by  boiling  clot  and  then  filtering  the  solution.  To  200  ccm.  of  water 
containing  cholera  vibrios  4  grm.  of  pepton  and  2  grm.  of  common 
salt  are  added.  When  these  ingredients  have  become  perfectly  dis- 
solved the  fluid  is  distributed  into  two  glass  vessels.  To  one  is  added 
50  ccm.,  or  more,  of  the  blood  decoction,  and  both  are  incubated  for 
24  hours.  The  growth  in  the  sample  containing  blood  is  more  copious, 
the  indol  reaction  more  marked,  and  the  motility  of  the  vibrios  greater, 
than  in  the  pepton-salt  medium.  On  plates  containing  blood  .the 
colonies  are  more  luxuriant  than  on  ordinary  gelatin  plates,  the  dif- 
ference becoming  still  more  striking  in  a  few. days. 

(3)  Cutting-,  including'  Imbedding  and  Microtomes. 

New  Ether  Freezing  Apparatus  for  the  Microtome.f — Dr.  A.  Noll 
has  devised  a  freezing  apparatus,  by  which  the  necessary  coldness   is 


r 


w 


\mS 


Fig.  31. 

obtained  by  the  evaporation  of  ether  in  a  vacuum.    It  consists  (fig.  31)  of 
a  metal  chamber  K  with  two  side  pipes  a  and  b,  and  a  bar  c  for  fixing 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  570r3  (l,pl.). 
t  Zeitscbr.  f.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1901)  pp.  141-4  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  Ill 

to  the  microtome.  The  side  pipes  are  connected  by  tubes  s1  s2  ;  sx  joins 
on  to  a  funnel  and  is  supplied  with  a  stop-cock  T ;  s2  connects  with  a 
suction  apparatus  \)  (water  pump)  which  exhausts  the  air  in  the  chamber. 
The  apparatus  is  worked  by  pouring  in  ether  through  the  funnel, 
and  then  (having  closed  T)  opening  P.  In  about  half-a-minUte  the  speci- 
men which  lies  on  the  surface  K  is  frozen,  and  will  keep  so  for  about 
15  minutes.  The  apparatus  works  well,  the  consumption  of  ether  is 
small,  and  though  intended  for  the  Schanze  can  be  adapted  to  any 
microtome.  The  measurements  of  the  freezing  box  are  :  lower  surface 
4-2-5  cm.  ;  upper  surface  2*5-2  cm.  ;  height  3  cm. 

Electrothermal  Paraffin  Bath.  *  —  Dr.  E.  H.  Steen  has  devised  an 
apparatus  in  which  the  electric  current  from  the  main  is  utilised  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  a  paraffin  bath  by  means  of  the  heat  radiated  from 
one  or  two  ordinary  lamps  placed  in  an  asbestos  box  beneath  it.  A 
mercurial  thermostat  placed  in  the  bath  maintains  the  temperature  at  a 
constant  level  by  causing  the  lamps  to  be  switched  off  and  on  when  the 
temperature  tends  to  rise  or  Ml  below  the  degree  required.  An  incubator 
could  be  worked  by  the  same  apparatus,  as  the  upper  wire  in  the  thermo- 
stat can  be  adjusted  for  any  required  temperature.  The  bath  works 
satisfactorily  without  any  attention,  and  its  temperature  does  not  alter 
to  an  extent  which  is  appreciable  to  any  ordinary  thermometer. 

Paraffin  Bath  heated  by  Electricity.! — CI.  Eegaud  and  E.  Fouilliand 
have  devised  a  paraffin  bath  which  is  heated  by  an  electric  current. 
The  inventors  claim  that  it  possesses  many  advantages  over  baths 
heated  by  gas  or  petroleum,  that  it  is  much  lighter,  and  can  be  manipu- 
lated with  greater  facility.  For  saturating  the  pieces,  wire  baskets, 
suspended  by  a  wire  in  the  paraffin  bath,  are  used. 

Carbon  Bisulphide  in  Paraffin  Imbedding-.l — Prof.  M.  Heidenhain 
describes  a  new  method   of  imbedding   in  paraffin,  carbon  bisulphide 
being  used  for  saturating  the  objects.     Three  glass  vessels  with  ground 
stoppers  are  required.     One  contains  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  bisul- 
phide and   alcohol,  the  other   two  pure   bisulphide.     The  dehydrated 
pieces  are  passed  through  these  three  bottles,  remaining  24  hours  in 
each.     For  imbedding,  two  thermostats  are  used,  one  at  from  36°  to  38°, 
the  other  from  56°  to  57°.     Two  other  similar  glass-stoppered  bottles 
are  placed  one  on  eacli  of  the  two  thermostats.    Each  bottle  contains  bi- 
sulphide (about  \  to  -j-  in.  in  height),  and  in  each  is  placed  as  much  paraffin 
as  will  dissolve.     "When  the  pieces  have  been  passed  through  both  mix- 
tures, from  the  lower  to  the  higher,  they  are  removed  to  pure  paraffin  at 
55°,  and  the  last  step  repeated.    In  the  two  pure  paraffin  baths  the  pieces 
remain  for  an  hour  to  an  hour  and  a  half.     The  repetition  is  necessary 
in  order  to  completely  remove  the  bisulphide.    The  results  from  the  new 
procedure   are   excellent,  but    certain  precautions   are   necessary.     On 
account  of  the  inflammability  of  the  bisulphide  the  manipulation  should 
be  carried  out  in  a  part  of  the  laboratory  remote  from  open  fire  or  flame. 
The  disagreeable  odour  may  be  avoided  to  a  great  extent  by  refraining 

*  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  1901,  ii.  pp.  1733-4  (1  fig.). 

t  Journ.  Anat.  Physiol.,  xxxvi.  (1900)  pp.  574-9  (3  fi^s.). 

X  Zoitschr.  f.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1901)  pp.  166-70. 


112  SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

from  shaking  the  bottles.     When  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  stoppers 
this  should  be  done  in  a  closed  gas-chamber. 

Paraffin  Imbedding  in  Vacuo.  *  —  Dr.  R.  Kolster  uses  chloroform 
xylol  or  toluol  as  solvents,  and  after  saturating  the  pieces  in  the  usual 
way  places  them  under  the  air-pump  and  exhausts  the  air.  In  the  vacuum 
the  last  traces  of  the  volatile  solvent  or  of  air  are  removed  and  a  solid 
homogeneous  block  remains. 

Saw  for  making  Microscopic  Preparations  of  Hard  Objects.f — 
G.  Arndt  has  devised  a  saw  for  making  microscopical  sections  of  hard 
objects.  It  is  on  the  lines  of  a  fret-saw  but  having  two  parallel  blades 
which  arc  kept  in  a  state  of  tension  and  prevented  from  sagging  by 
clamping  screws.     The  results  obtained  from  its  use  are  satisfactory. 

(4)    Staining-  and  Injecting-. 

Preparation  of  Pure  Pvomanowsky-Nocht  Stain.  J  — Dr.  K.  Reuter 
prepares  eosin- methyl  en-blue  by  heating  for  three  days  in  an  incubator 
at  from  50°-60°  C.  0*5  Na2C03  and  100  ccm.  1  p.c.  aqueous  solu- 
tion of  medicinal  methylen-blue  Hochst,  and  after  filtering,  adding 
saturated  aqueous  eosin  solution.  The  precipitate  which  comes  down  is 
washed  with  distilled  water  and,  having  been  dried,  is  dissolved  in  a 
water-bath  in  hot  absolute  alcohol.  The  solution  is  filtered,  and  to  every 
100  ccm.  2  ccm.  of  anilin  oil  are  added.  The  results  obtained  by 
staining  malaria  blood-films  are  said  to  be  very  striking.  It  is  best  to 
keep  the  pigment  dry  and  make  a  stock  solution  from  time  to  time. 
Then  about  0-2  grm.  is  dissolved  in  100  ccm.  C2HtiO  by  the  aid  of  heat 
and  2  ccm.  of  anilin  oil  added.  Of  this  st'>ck  solution  30  drops  are 
added  to  about  20  ccm.  of  distilled  water.  The  preparations  are  stained 
for  a  half  to  several  hours,  and  to  obtain  a  good  effect  the  films  should 
be  protected  against  aqueous  moisture.  Attention  is  drawn  to  the  fact 
that  the  solution  is  alkaline. 

Kresylecht  Violet.§ — R.  L.  Morse  recommends  kresylecht  violet  for 
general  staining  purposes,  and  prepares  the  solution  by  mixing  together 
•5  p.c.  aqueous  solution  of  phenol  80  cc.  and  95  p.c.  ethyl  alcohol  20  cc, 
and  then  adding  1  grm.  of  the  pigment.  After  all  the  stain  is  dissolved 
the  solution  is  filtered.  Stain  for  1-5  minutes.  Wash  in  distilled 
water.     Mop  up.     Anilin-xylol  (2-1).     Pure  xylol  balsam. 

Very  good  results  are  obtained  with  Gonococcus,  mucin,  amyloid, 
plasma-cells,  and  cancer  bodies. 

New  Fat-staining  Pigment. || — Dr.  L.  Michaelis  recommends  a  scar- 
let or  poppy-i*ed  pigment  for  staining  fat.  The  chemical  name  of  the 
new  dye  is  Azo-orthotuloazo  /?-naphthol ;  its  trade  name  Scharlach  R, 
or  Fettponceau.  The  pigment  is  insoluble  in  water,  soluble  with  diffi- 
culty in  alcohol,  but  easily  soluble  in  chloroform,  oils,  and  melted 
paraffin.  It  is  soluble  in  strong  H2S04,  the  solution  being  blue  ;  all 
other  solutions  are  red.     A  saturated  solution  of  Scarlet  R  in  60-70  p.c. 

*  Zeitscbr.  f.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1901)  pp.  170-3. 

t  Tom.  cit,  pp.  146-59  (9  figs.). 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  248-oG  (2  pis.).' 

§  Journ.  Applied  Microscopy,  iv.  (1901)  pp.  ' 

||  Vircbow's  Archiv.,  olxiv.  (1901)  pp.  263-'3 


1492-4. 

-70. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  113 

alcohol  is  made  and  the  preparations  treated  therewith  for  \  to  ^  hour. 
Even  the  smallest  drops  of  fat  are  stained  a  bright  red.  The  prepara- 
tions may  be  contrast-stained  with  Bohmer's  hematoxylin,  and  should 
be  mounted  in  glycerin  or  in  la3vulose  syrup. 

Staining  Woody  Tissue.  *  —  L.  Mangin  has  examined  the  selective 
staining  action  of  naphthylamin,  toluidiu,  benzidin,  tolidin  and  dianisi- 
din.  The  first  two  stain  the  ligneous  tissue  yellow,  while  benzidin  and 
dianisidin  impart  a  red-brown  hue.  Tolidin  gives  a  dull  brown.  He 
prefers  benzidin,  of  which  a  solution  is  prepared  by  dissolving  1  grm. 
together  with  1  grm.  of  acid  (citric,  tartaric,  or  lactic)  in  100  ccm.  of 
water.  After  boiling  the  mixture  is  filtered.  The  simple  solution  may 
be  used,  or  some  glycerin  added  to  the  filtrate. 

Demonstration  of  the  Cell-nucleus  of  Saccharomyces.  f  —  C.  Hoff- 
meister  recommends  the  following  solutions  for  fixing,  viz.  von  Path's 
and  Merkel's  solutions,  percbloride  and  iodo-potassic  iodide. 

The  best  staining  results  were  obtained  with  Bohmer's  haematoxylin 
and  with  Heidenhain's  iron-hsematoxylin.  The  procedure  adopted  was 
the  following : — The  yeast-cells  were  fixed  with  von  Bath's  mixture, 
and  after  washing  out  the  fixative,  films  were  made  on  cover-slips  from 
suspensions.  When  dry  the  slips  were  floated  on  2*5  p.c.  iron-alum 
solution  for  6-24  hours.  They  were  then  washed  again,  and  transferred 
to  0*5  p.c.  aqueous  hematoxylin  solution  for  at  least  24  hours,  after 
which  they  were  differentiated  in  J  p.c.  iron-alum  solution.  The  cyto- 
plasm is  decolorised,  the  nucleus  remaining  black,  violet,  or  dark  grey. 

Modifications  of  Weigert's  Method  of  Staining  Elastic  Tissue.^ — 
Dr.  B.  Minervini  has  obtained  satisfactory  results  from  the  following 
procedures : — (1)  Staining  in  bulk :  the  pieces  are  fixed  in  formalin 
alcohol  or  Mulder's  fluid.  Pieces  about  1  ccm.  are  immersed  in  the  stain- 
ing fluid  for  48  hours,  after  which  they  are  transferred  to  alcohol  with 
1  per  cent.  HC1  for  24  hours ;  next,  to  90  per  cent,  alcohol  for  a 
similar  period,  and  finally  to  absolute  alcohol,  turpentine,  or  xylol,  and 
imbedded  in  paraffin.  The  pigment  is  made  by  precipitating  an  aqueous 
solution  of  fuchsin  with  iron  chloride  and  dissolving  the  precipitate  in 
alcohol. 

(2)  An  aqueous  1  p.c.  solution  of  safranin  with  1  p.c.  resorcin  is 
made.  When  cool  it  is  filtered.  To  the  filtrate  a  quarter  of  its  bulk  of 
iron  chloride  is  added.  The  solution  is  heated  to  boiling,  and  the 
residue  after  filtering  is  washed,  dried,  and  dissolved  in  100  parts  of 
90  p.c.  alcohol  with  1  p.c.  HC1.  The  sections  are  stained  for  two  hours, 
decolorised  in  alcohol,  and  may  be  contrast-stained  with  hematoxylin 
or  methylen-blue.  This  pigment  is  quite  suitable  for  stainiug  tissue  in 
bulk,  especially  if  fixed  with  some  chromic  acid  6alt  solution.  Indeed, 
Weigert's  method  or  its  modification  is  always  improved  by  the  presence 
of  chromic  acid  or  one  of  its  salts. 

(3)  An  aqueous  1  p.c.  solution  Jwith  1  p.c.  resorcin  is  prepared  by 
the  aid  of  heat.     When  cold  it  is  filtered,  and  a  quarter  of  its  volume  of 

*  C.R.  Soc.  de  Biol.,  liii.  (1901)  pp.  837-9. 

t  SB.    Deutschen    naturwiss.-med.   Yereins   f.    Bohmen    "Lotos,"   xx.    (1900) 
pp.  251-63  (1  pi.).     See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxvii.  (1901)  pp.  129-30. 
J  Zeitechr.  f.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1901)  pp.  161-5  (1  pi.). 

Feb.  19th,  1902  I 


114  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

2  p.c.  chromic  acid  or  of  5  p.c.  potassium  bichromate  is  added.  The 
solution  is  heated  to  boiling,  and  when  cold  filtered.  The  residue  is 
dried  in  an  incubator  at  30°,  and  then  dissolved  in  90  p.c.  alcohol  (100 
parts).  After  acidulatiou  with  1  p.c.  HC1  it  is  filtered.  The  sections 
are  immersed  for  two  hours  and  then  transferred  to  90  p.c.  alcohol  fox- 
half  an  hour.     The  elastic  tissue  is  stained  a  dark  violet. 

Neutral  Red  for  Staining  Nucleated  Red  Blood-Corpuscles.  *  — 
Dr.  Bettmann  has  found  neutral  red  a  most  satisfactory  reagent  for  de- 
monstrating the  presence  of  nucleated  erythrocytes.  The  technique  is 
simple.  It  is  sufficient  to  mix  with  a  drop  of  blood  some  saturated  solu- 
tion of  neutral  red,  or  to  add  a  granule  of  the  solid  pigment.  But  by 
adopting  Arudd's  elderpith  method  (see  this  Journal,  1897,  p.  81)  still 
better  results  were  obtained.  The  nuclei  of  the  erythroblasts  show  up 
as  dark  brownish-red  masses  surrounded  by  the  pale  brown  cell-body. 

Demonstrating  the  Seminal  Tubules  of  the  Rat  by  means  of 
Renaut's  Fluid.f  —  C.  O.  Regaud  demonstrates  the  membrane  of  the 
seminal  tubules  of  the  rat  by  injecting  Renaut's  fluid  into  the  testicle. 
The  fluid  consists  of  saturated  aqueous  solution  of  picric  acid  80  vols., 
1  p.c.  osmic  acid  20  vols. ;  to  3  vols,  of  this  mixture  1  vol.  of  1  p.c. 
nitrate  of  silver  solution. 

New  Method  for  Staining  en  masse.} — A.  Spuler  describes  a  method 
for  staining  pieces  which  has  tho  advantages  of  imparting  a  regular 
staining  to  each  section,  and  of  affording  excellent  preparations  for 
demonstration  with  the  projection-apparatus.  The  fixed  pieces  are 
treated  with  cochineal  solution  prepared  by  boiling  finely  powdered 
cochineal  in  distilled  water,  filtering,  and  evaporating  down  almost  to 
dryness.  Distilled  water  is  again  added  and  the  mixture  filtered.  In 
this  solution  the  pieces  are  left  for  24  hours  or  more  on  the  top  of  a 
paraffin  oven.  After  having  been  washed  they  are  mordanted  in  a  thin 
solution  of  iron-alum.  This  converts  the  red  colour  to  black.  The 
mordanting  over,  the  pieces  are  thoroughly  washed  with  distilled  water 
and  then  imbedded  in  the  usual  way. 

New  Method  for  Staining  Nervous  Tissue.  §  —  Dr.  T.  Kodis  has 
devised  the  following  procedure,  in  which  hematoxylin  molybdate  is 
the  effective  ingredient : — Pieces  of  fresh  tissue  i-1  cm.  thick  are 
placed  in  saturated  aqueous  solution  of  mercury  cyanide  for  1-2  days, 
or  longer.  They  are  then  put  straight  away  without  washing  into 
10  p.c.  formalin  for  1-3  days.  Sections  are  made  by  a  freezing  micro- 
tome, and  stained  for  1-2  minutes  in  much-diluted  solution  of  the 
hematoxylin  molybdate  (hematoxylin  crystals  1 ;  molybdic  anhydride 
1*5  ;  aq.  destill.  100  ;  H20.,  0*5,  or  a  crystal  of  HgO :  the  solution  is 
ready  for  use  in  a  few  days).  The  stained  sections  are  washed  for  1-2 
minutes  in  water,  and  having  been  contrast-stained  with  alcoholic  solu- 
tion of  Lichtgrun,  are  mounted  in  balsam. 

*  Zeitschr.  f.  angew.  Mikr.,  vii.  (19(11)  pp.  177-S2. 
t  Arch.  Anat.  Microscop.,  iv.  (1901)  pp.  101-53  (2  pis.). 

X  Deutsch.  Med.  Wochenschr.,  xxvii.  (1901)  No.  14,  Yemnsbeilage,  p.  116.  Se3 
Zeitsch  f.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1901)  pp.  1S3-4. 

§  Arch.  f.  Mikr.  Anat.  u.  Kntwickl.,  lix.  (1901)  pp.  211-20  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  115 

The  author  also  mentions  that  the  foregoing  fixation  is  suitable  for 
iron-hfematoxylin  staining.  The  sections,  made  by  freezing  microtome, 
are  immersed  for  2-5  hours  in  2  p.c.  iron-alum  solution,  and  having 
been  washed  in  water,  are  placed  for  10-12  hours  iu  ^  p.c.  aqueous 
solution  of  hematoxylin.  They  are  next  differentiated  in  2  p.c.  iron- 
silum  solution  (from  1-3  hours).  The  medullary  sheath  of  the  nerves  is 
dark  blue,  the  rest  of  the  tissue  being  unstained.  The  sections  are  theu 
washed  very  thoroughly  (several  hours),  and  afterwards  mounted  in  the 
usual  way  in  balsam. 

(5)  Mounting-,  including-  Slides,  Preservative  Fluids,  &c. 

Examination  of  Hairs  for  Medico-legal  Purposes.* —  E.  S.  London 
states  that  hairs  intended  for  medico-legal  examination  should  be  mounted 
dry  in  balsam  without  any  preliminary  preparation  or  treatment,  as 
reagents  cause  them  to  lose  many  of  their  characteristic  features.  From 
many  thousand  examinations  of  hairs  of  man  and  of  animals  (39  species) 
he  comes  to  the  following  conclusions.  By  the  use  of  the  Microscope  it 
is  easy  to  distinguish  the  hair  of  man  and  of  animals  from  any  body  or 
substance  of  a  similar  appearance.  With  a  little  practice  it  becomes  easy 
to  discriminate  between  human  hair  and  that  of  the  lower  animals ; 
and  if  all  the  peculiarities  be  taken  into  consideration  the  original  site 
of  a  hair  may  be  diagnosed.  From  the  appearance  presented  by  the 
roots  it  is  possible,  if  several  specimens  be  available,  to  determine 
whether  the  hairs  have  fallen  out  naturally  or  have  been  plucked  out. 
By  means  of  the  polariscope  a  grey  hair  can  be  diagnosed  from  a  pale 
blond.  With  crossed  nicols  blond  hair  gives  a  golden  yellow  band  on  a 
black  ground,  while  grey  hair  gives  a  particoloured  band  (cordon),  the 
red-purple  predominating. 

In  arsenic  poisoning  the  metal  passes  into  the  hair.  This  was  shown 
by  injecting  arsenic  solution  into  animals  hypodermically  and  testing 
the  hair  by  the  usual  chemical  methods.  The  control  animals  gave  a 
negative  result. 

Substitute  for  Cover-slips.f — Dr.  V.  Pranter  recommends  gelatin- 
paper  as  a  substitute  for  the  more  expensive  glass  slips  of  large  size. 
The  paper  consists  of  pure  gelatin,  is  almost  colourless,  perfectly  trans- 
parent and  smooth.  It  can  be  used  with  advantage  for  all  preparations 
which  do  not  contain,  or  are  not  mounted  in  water  or  glycerin.  It 
allows  examination  under  oil  immersions.  Though  less  suitable  than 
glass  for  permanent  preparations,  the  specimens  will  keep  for  months 
without  deterioration  provided  they  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 
Dirt  or  grease  on  the  surface  is  easily  removed  by  means  of  xylol  or 
benzin. 

Preparation  and  Preservation  of  Urinary  Sediment.^  —  Gr.  Marp- 
niann  prepares  and  preserves  urinary  sediment  as  follows  : — Some  100  to 
200  ccm.  of  urine  are  placed  in  a  conical  vessel,  and  when  a  sediment 
of,  say,  20  ccm.  has  been  deposited  the  supernatant  fluid  is  decanted  off. 
To  the  sediment  1  ccm.  of  eosin  and  1  ccm.  of  methylcn-blue  in  aqueous 

*  Archiv.  Sci.  biolojaque  St.  Petersb.,  viii.  (1900)  pp.  136-57  (6  pis.), 
t  Zeitschr.  f.  wiss.  Mikr.,  x.viii.  (1901)  pp.  159-61. 
j  Zeitschr.  f.  angew.  Mikr.,  vii.  (1901)  pp.  182-4. 

i  2 


116 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 


solution  are  added.  In  about  twenty  minutes  1  ccm.  of  formalin  is  added, 
and  in  another  twenty  minutes  the  vessel  is  filled  up  with  water.  After 
standing  for  1-2  days  the  deposit,  about  1  com.,  is  removed  and  mixed 
with  10  parts  of  liquid  glycerin  jelly.  A  drop  of  this  is  placed  on  a 
slide  and  covered  with  a  cover-slip.  The  preparation  is  then  placed  in 
a  closed  glass  jar  containing  a  few  drops  of  formalin.  In  the  course  of 
a  few  days  the  external  layer  of  gelatin  becomes  set  by  the  action  of 
formalin,  so  that  a  ling  of  varnish  or  balsam  becomes  unnecessary. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Dropper  for  Sterile  Fluids.* — G.  Wesenberg  describes  a  dropping 
apparatus  (fig.  32)  which  is  of  simple  construction  and  of  especial  advan- 
tage in  disinfection  experiments 
for  washing  the  disinfectant  out 
of  the  object  to  be  tested.  It 
consists  of  a  caoutchouc  plugr 
which  is  inserted  into  a  test- 
tube  or  the  neck  of  a  flask.  The 
plug  has  two  perforations,  one 
for  a  bent  tube  a  through  which 
air  enters,  and  the  other  for  the 
bent  tube  b.  The  latter  is  nar- 
rowed at  c  so  that  it  can  be 
broken  off  or  sealed  up  in  the 
flame.  The  way  of  using  the  ap- 
paratus is  obvious.  If  the  fluid 
does  not  flow  freely  it  may  be 
forced  on  by  blowing  through  a, 
There  is  little  chance  of  air- 
infection  if  the  end  of  6  be  held 
close  to  a  flame  when  the  tube 
is  set  upright  after  using  it. 

Immersion  Oil  in  Collap- 
sible Tubes,  f— C.  W.  Dodge 
mentions  that  he  has  used  im- 
mersion oil  stored  in  metal  col- 
lapsible tubes  for  over  a  year, 
and  has  found  the  method  satis- 
factory and  without  signs  of  de- 
terioration in  the  oil. 

Raising  the  Melting-point 
of  Gelatin  by  means  of  For- 
malin.]:—  Dr.  J.  G.  C.  Vriens 
FIG.  32.  alludes   to   H.   J.   van't   Hoff's 

remarks  on  raising  the  melting- 
point  of  gelatin  by  means  of  formalin,  and  points  out  that  this  property 
was  employed  by  Brown,  in  1897,  for  hardening  the  gelatin  layer  of 

♦  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1*  AM,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  703-4:(l  fig.). 

t  Journ.  Applied  Microscopy,  iv.  (1901)  p.  1567. 

%  Centralbl.  liakt.,  1"  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  74-2.  [Cf.  tins  Journal.  1901,  p.  719. 


ZOOLOGY   AND. BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


117 


negatives  by  immersing  the  plates  in  a  formalin  bath  (4  ccm.  formalin 
and  30  ccm.  water.)  In  1898  Trillat  devised  a  method  for  the  estima- 
tion of  gelatin  in  gums  and  food-stufFs  which  was  based  on  this 
property  of  formalin.  A  4  per  cent,  solution  of  formalin  is  employed 
with  success  fur  preserving  and  hardening  microscopical  objects,  while 
in  the  bacteriological  laboratory  it  has  many  uses,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  that  of  inhibiting  the  growth  of  cultures.  The  vapour  of 
formalin  acts  very  detrimentally  on  the  pigment  of  chromogenic  bacteria 
and  on  the  fluorescence  of  micro-organisms.  It  would  be  of  great  value 
if  the  exact  strength  of  formalin,  which  was  harmless  to  the  growth  and 
development  of  microbes,  and  which  did  not  affect  the  good  properties 
of  gelatin,  could  be  determined. 

Useful  Caliper  Gauge. — This  convenient  little  out-and-in  caliper 
gauge  (fig.  33),  which  may  be  purchased  for  3s.  or  4s.  at  any  watch- 
makers' tool  shop,  is  a  very  cheap  and  handy  gauge 
for  a  microscopist's  outfit.  Among  other  uses  it  is 
convenient  for  measuring  the  thickness  of  cover- 
glasses.  It  reads  by  a  vernier  to  O'l  mm.  It  is 
graduated  both  ways,  and  the  points  A  and  B  form 
an  end  gauge.  For  low-power  work  the  scale  may 
be  placed  on  the  stage  of  a  Microscope,  and  the 
■constant  of  an  eye-piece  micrometer  found  by  com- 
parison with  the  mm.  divisions. 

Methods  for  Examining  Trypanosoma  Lewisi.* 
— A.  Laveran  and  F.  Mesnil  remark  that  observa- 
tions on  Trypanosoma  in  fresh  blood  are  quite  easy. 
The  blood  obtained  by  puncturing  the  tip  of  the 
tail  of  an  infected  rat  is  spread  on  a  slide  and 
covered  with  a  slip.  For  prolonged  observations 
the  hanging  drop  is  recommended.  The  blood  may 
be  mixed  with  physiological  salt  solution,  then 
defibrinated  with  citrate  solution  to  prevent  coagula- 
tion, or  mixed  with  rat  serum.  The  length  of  time 
T.  Lewisi  can  be  preserved  depends  greatly  on  the 
temperature  :  in  summer  rarely  beyond  four  days  ;  Fig.  33. 

in  winter  as  long  as  eighteen  days;  in  a  glaciarium 
■(5°  to  7°  C.  above  0°)  they  will  keep  for  four  to  seven  weeks.  For 
studying  the  structure  of  Trypanosoma  it  is  necessary  to  use  stained 
preparations,  and  the  following  procedure  gave  the  best  results.  A  thin 
film  of  blood  is  spread  on  a  slide,  dried  quickly,  and  fixed  in  absolute 
alcohol  (ten  to  fifteen  minutes).  For  staining,  three  solutions  are 
(necessary : — (1)  Borrel's  blue.  To  make  this,  place  some  crystals  of 
nitrate  of  silver  in  a  bottle  capable  of  holding  150  ccm.  and  50  to  GO  ccm. 
of  distilled  water.  When  the  crystals  are  dissolved  the  bottle  is  filled 
with  soda  solution.  The  black  oxide  of  silver  thus  formed  is  washed 
several  times  with  distilled  water  to  remove  the  soda.  Over  the  silver 
oxide  is  then  poured  a  saturated  aqueous  solution  of  methylen-blue 
(Hochst).  The  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand  for  fifteen  days,  being  shaken 
up  frequently  the  while.  (2)  A  one  per  thousand  aqueous  solution  of 
eosin.    (3)  A  5  per  cent,  solution  of  tannin. 

•  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xv.  (1001)  pp.  678-82  (2  pis.). 


118  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES:  . 

When  required  for  staining,  the  solution  is  prepared  by  mixing: 
together  4  ccm.  of  the  eosin  solution,  1  ccm.  of  the  Borrel's  blue  solu- 
tion, and  6  ccm.  of  distilled  water.  The  slide  with  the  fixed  film  is 
immersed  in  the  foregoing  for  20-30  minutes.  After  removal,  it  is 
washed  freely  with  water,  and  then  treated  with  the  tannin  solution  for 
10-15  minutes.  It  is  then  washed  again  with  tap  and  afterwards  with 
distilled  water,  and  then  dried. 

If  there  be  a  precipitate  on  the  film  this  may  be  removed  with  oil  of 
cloves  followed  by  xylol,  and  the  surface  wiped  with  a  cloth  dipped  in 
xylol. 

In  default  of  the  foregoing  stain,  Eomanowsky's  method  may  be 
adopted  or  the  preparation  may  be  stained  with  alcoholic  solution  of 
fuchsin  or  with  carbolate  of  thionin. 

Gage's  '  The  Microscope.'  *— The  eighth  edition  of  Prof.  S.  H.  Gage's 
well-known  and  much  appreciated  work  on  the  Microscope,  an  intro- 
duction to  microscopic  methods  and  to  histology,  has  recently  appeared. 
For  the  present  issue  the  work  has  been  revised  and  enlarged,  and  though 
preserving  the  same  general  features  as  its  predecessors  contains  new 
matter  of°some  importance.  In  re-writing  this  edition  the  author  has 
re-cast  the  work  and  has  added  new  figures  as  well  as  textual  matter. 
Chapters  on  Class  Demonstrations  in  Histology  and  Embryology  and  on 
the  Projection  Microscope  are  not  only  extremely  valuable  in  themselves 
but  also  indicate  one  of  the  paths  along  which  microscopical  science  is 
advancing,  and  the  pioneering  efforts  of  the  author  to  keep  his  work 
abreast  of  the  knowledge  of  the  time. 

Micro-chemical  Reactions  of  Wood  affected  with  Dry  Rot.f  — 
G.  Marpmann  mentions  that  wood  affected  with  dry  rot  gives  the  follow- 
ing micro-chemical  reactions :— (1)  Iodol  +  dilute  HC1  or  H2S04  turns 
the  diseased  parts  yellow,  or  brownish-yellow,  healthy  wood  staining  a 
carmine  red.  (2)  Chlor-zinc-iodin  or  iodine  +  H2S04  turns  the  at- 
tacked places  blue  in  about  £  hour,  the  healthy  wood  remaining  yellow. 
(3)  Nessler's  reagent  imparts  a  dark  brown  hue  to  the  diseased  parts, 
the  apparently  healthy  portions  being  yellowish-grey  or  grey. 

*  Comstock  Publishing  Company,  Ithaca,  New  York,  1901,  viii.  and  299  pp.  and 
230  figs.  t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1*  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  775-82. 


119 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W.,  December  18th,  1901. 
W.  Carruthers,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  20th  November  last  were  read  and 
confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  President. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society,  exclusive  of  exchanges  and 
reprints  received  since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of 
the  Society  were  voted  to  the  respective  donors. 

From 
Ward,  H.  Marshall,  Diseases  in  Plants.     (8vo,  London,  1901)         The  Publishers. 
Soderbaum,  H.  G.,  Jac.  Berzelius  Sjalf  biografiska  anteck-l    I! Acad.  R.  Suedoise 

ningar.     (8 vo,  Stockholm,  1901) )         des  Sciences. 

Cross  and  Bevan,  Researches  on  Cellulose,  1895-1900.     (8vo,l        „„     n  „.  , 

London,  1901) ..)       I^e  Publishers. 

Giesenhagen,  Dr.  K.,  Die  Farngattung  Niphobolus.     (8vo,\        „,,     „  77., 

Jena,  1901) J        l»e  Publisher. 


Mr.  C.  Beck  exhibited  and  described  a  new  Micrometer  Microscope 
in  which  the  body  was  made  to  traverse  across  a  long  stage  by  means  of 
the  rotation  of  a  fine  screw,  the  milled  head  of  which  was  graduated  so 
as  to  indicate  a  movement  of  T^  mm.  An  ingenious  arrangement 
enabled  the  body  to  be  placed  in  a  horizontal  position  so  that  it  could  be 
used  as  a  telescope  for  the  measurement  of  distant  objects. 

The  President  said  that  this  instrument  afforded  a  very  simple,  but 
very  efficient  means  of  measuring  large  objects  under  the  Microscope. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  voted  to  Mr.  Beck  for  showing  and 
explaining  this  instrument. 


The  President  said  they  had,  through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Watson 
Baker,  been  provided  with  an  exhibition  illustrating  the  structure  and 
development  of  the  eye,  and  asked  Mr.  Baker  if  he  wished  to  say  any- 
thing in  explanation  of  his  exhibit. 

Mr.  F.  W.  Watson  Baker  said  that  he  had  nothing  to  add  to  the 
descriptions  given  upon  the  cards  placed  by  each  Microscope.  His 
object  had  been  to  exhibit  the  most  perfect  specimens  which  could  be 
obtained,  and  for  this  purpose  most  of  the  best  preparers,  foreign  as 
•well  as  British,  had  been  applied  to. 

Mr.  Yezey  was  sure  that  the  Fellows  of  the  Society  who  were  present 
felt  very  much  obliged  to  Mr.  Watson  Baker  for  the  great  trouble  he 


120  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE   SOCILTY. 

had  taken  to  get  together  this  very  fine  collection,  and  for  affording  this 
opportunity  of  seeing  them.  Their  very  hearty  thanks  were  due  to  him 
for  having  done  so. 

The  President  said  that  the  applause  with  which  they  had  followed 
Mr.  Vezey's  remarks  expressed  gratitude  which  they  all  felt  to  Mr. 
Watson  Baker  for  this  instructive  exhibition. 


Dr.  Hebb  said  the  Fellows  would  regret  to  hear  that  Mr.  Nelson  was 
still  too  unwell  to  be  able  to  attend  the  Meeting,  but  he  had  sent  three 
short  notes,  the  first  of  which,  describing  an  old  form  of  Microscope,  had 
been  illustrated  by  drawings  which  Mr.  Karop  had  enlarged  upon  tho 
blackboard.  The  second  dealt  with  the  earliest  forms  of  achromatic 
objectives,  and  the  third  described  a  useful  ciliper  gauge,  also  illus- 
trated upon  the  board.     He  then  read  the  several  notes. 

The  President  said  he  was  gratified  that  Mr.  Nelson  had  placed 
before  them  the  great  services  rendered  to  Microscopy  by  Mr.  Lister, 
which  were  too  much  overlooked. 

A  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Nelson  for  his  communications  was  unani- 
mously passed. 

The  Chair  having  been  taken  pro  tern,  by  the  Hon.  Sir  Ford  North, 
the  President  gave  an  interesting  account  of  some  recent  investigations 
which  he  had  made  in  reference  to  a  disease  which  had  caused  great 
mischief  in  the  cherry  orchards  in  Kent. 

Prof.  Bennett  said  he  was  sure  the  Fellows  present  had  all  listened 
with  great  interest  to  the  very  lucid  account  which  the  President  had  given , 
them  of  this  important  fungus  disease,  and  he  should  like  to  take  the 
opportunity  of  calling  attention  to  the  small  amount  of  work  which  was 
being  done  in  this  country  towards  the  study  of  such  matters,  and  to  the 
very  little  encouragement  which  the  Government  gave  to  researches  of 
this  kind.  In  the  United  States  the  agricultural  department  undertook 
these  investigations  and  employed  experts  to  carry  them  out,  and  issued 
bulletins  describing  what  had  been  discovered,  and  advising  the  course 
to  be  taken.  Independently  of  this  almost  every  separate  State  had  its 
own  experimental  station  where  this  kind  of  work  was  done,  whereas  in 
this  country  work  of  this  kind  had  to  be  carried  out  by  private  means. 
Some  short  time  ago  they  had  a  paper  before  them  describing  the  para- 
sitic fungi  found  on  farm  seeds,  and  now  they  had  another  description 
of  a  similarly  destructive  disease,  but  in  both  cases  the  investigations 
were  entirely  private  work.  He  felt  they  were  very  much  indebted  to 
the  President  for  bringing  this  subject  before  them,  and  he  thought 
their  Society  was  doing  a  very  useful  work  in  publishing  the  information 
thus  communicated. 

The  Chairman  then  moved  that  the  thanks  of  the  Society  be  given 
to  the  President  for  his  very  interesting  and  instructive  address,  and  on 
putting  it  to  the  Meeting,  it  was  carried  by  acclamation. 

The  President  said  he  was  glad  that  Mr.  Bennett  had  called  atten- 
tion to  the  want  of  a  public  department  for  investigating  diseases  that1 
attack  farm  and  garden  plants.     It  was  not  cj editable  to  England  that 
no  such  institution  existed  here,  while  on  the  Continent,  and  especially 
in   the  United  States,   important  services   were   being  rendered  to  the 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIEIY.  1.21 

farmer  and  gardener  under  Government  direction  and  control.  For 
thirty  years,  as  Consulting  Botanist  to  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
be  had  been  assisting  the  members  of  the  Society  in  such  matters. 
But  the  importance  of  agriculture,  and  the  great  need  of  farmers  as 
a  class,  demand  the  establishment  of  a  fully  equipped  Government 
Laboratory  where  help  could  be  obtained  by  any  farmer  or  gardener 
throughout  the  kingdom. 


The  President  having  resumed  the  Chair,  reminded  tho  Fellows 
that  their  next  Meeting  would  be  the  Anniversary  Meeting  of  the  Society, 
and  it  would  therefore  be  necessary  to  have  nominations  for  Officers  and 
Council  made  on  the  present  occasion. 

The  following  nominations  by  the  Council  were  then  made : — 

President — Dr.  Henry  Woodward. 

Vice-Presidents — Dr.  Braithwaite,  Messrs.  Carruthers,  Karop,  and 
Sir  Ford  North. 

Treasurer — Mr.  Vezey. 

Secretaries — Rev.  Dr.  Dallinger  and  Dr.  Hebb. 

Council — Messrs.  Beck,  Bennett,  Browne,  Carr,  Disney,  Michael, 
Nelson,  Plimmer,  Powell,  Roueselet,  Radley,  and  Shore. 

Librarian — Mr.  Radley. 

Curator — Mr.  Rousselet. 

Auditor  on  behalf  cf  the  Council — Mr.  J.  M.  Allen. 

The  Fellows  having  been  requested  to  appoint  an  Auditor  on  behalf 
of  the  Society,  Mr.  G.  E.  Mainland  was  proposed  by  Mr.  C.  L.  Curties, 
seconded  by  Mr.  G.  H.  J.  Rogers,  and  unanimously  elected. 

It  was  announced  that  the  Rooms  of  the  Society  would  be  closed 
from  December  23rd  to  January  3rd. 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  &c,  were  exhibited : — 
Messrs.  R.  and  J.  Beck  :— A  new  Micrometer  Microscope. 
Mr.  F.  W.  Watson  Baker :— Microscope  Slides  illustrating  Eye 
Structure. — Development  of  Eye :  1,  Foetal  Rabbit,  Head  and  Eyes ; 
2,  Rabbit,  whole  Section  ;  3,  Tadpole  ;  4,  Young  Frog ;  5,  Frog,  whole 
Section.  Compound  Eyes,  Sections:  6,  Butterfly,  Vanessa;  7,  Crab; 
8,  Crayfish;  9,  Cockchafer,  Melolontha  ;  10,  Dronefly,  Eristalis  ;  11, 
Fly,  Volucella ;  12,  Water  Beetle,  Agabus.  Simple  Eyes,  Sections;  13, 
Carp  ;  14,  Spider  ;  15,  Snail.  Structure  :  Calf  Retina,  Fovea  centralis  : 
17,  Human  Retina,  Sections  at  different  points  ;  18,  Human  Retina, 
Fovea  centralis;  19,  Human  Endothelium,  Descemet's  Membrane;  20, 
Human,  Meibomian  Glands. 


New  Fellows  :— The  following  were    elected  Ordinary  Fellows: — 
Messrs.  Wm.  H.  Browne,  Geo.  Tilling,  Walter  Wesche,  Frank  Winter. 


122  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


ANNIVERSARY  MEETING 

Held   on  the  15th  of  January,  1902,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W. 
William  Carruthers,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  18th  December,  1901,  were  read  and 
confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  President. 


The  President  having  appointed  Messrs.  Rogers  and  Rheinberg  to 
act  as  Scrutineers,  the  Ballot  for  the  election  of  Officers  and  Council  for 
the  ensuing  year  was  proceeded  with. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society  received  since  the  last  Meeting,. 

exclusive  of  exchanges  and  reprints,  was  read,  and  the  thanks   of   the 

Society  were  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 

-n     ,  ,-,.         ~  ,  ,T  .   .  ,0       >T..  (    La  Societe  Provincial? 

Prodromus  Florae  Batavrc.     \ol.  i.  pt.  ..     (bvo,  Nijmegen,        deg  AHg  gt  ^^ 

ly01-> I  eiablie  a  Utrecht. 

Apathy,  S.,  Die  Mikroteehnik  <ler  Tbierischen  Morphologie.\  j,jte  pums]lf,r 

Zweite  Abtheilung.     (8vo,  Leipzig,  1901) j 

Index  Catalogue  of  the  Library  of  tbe  Surgeon- G enerals j  The  Surgeon. Genera , 

Office.   U.S.A.  Army.     Second  series,  vol.  vi.      (8vo,>  r/t;    i,.in„ 

Washington,  1901) )  u<a.  *rmy. 


The  President  said  they  had  a  very  interesting  exhibition  on  the- 
table  of  malaria  parasites,  prepared  by  Mr.  E.  A.  Parsons  of  the  School 
of  Tropical  Medicine,  and  shown  under  a  number  of  Microscopes  lent 
for  the  occasion  by  Messrs.  Baker. 

Mr.  Parsons  said  these  specimens  were  selected  to  show  the  malaria 
parasite  in  various  stages  as  seen  in  the  red  corpuscles  of  the  human 
blood. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Parsons- 
for  exhibiting  these  objects,  and  to  Messrs.  Baker  for  placing  the 
Microscopes  at  the  disposal  of  the  Society  for  the  purpose. 


The  Scrutineers    having   reported    the    result   of    the    ballot,  the 
President  then  declared  the  following  duly  elected. 

President— Henry  Woodward,  Esq.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  F.Z.S. 
Vice-Presidents— Eobert  Braithwaite,  Esq.,  M.D.,  M.R.C.S.,  F.L.S. ; 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY.  125 

William  Carruthers,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S. ;  George  C.  Karop,  Esq.r 
M.R.C.S. ;  The  Eight  Hon.  Sir  Ford  North,  P.O.,  F.R.S. 

Treasurer — J.  J.  Vezey.  Esq. 

Secretaries— Eev.  W.  H.  Dallinger,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. ;  R.  G.  Hebb,  Esq., 
M.A.,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P. 

Other  Members  of  Council — Conrad  Beck,  Esq. ;  Alfred  W.  Bennett, 
Esq.,  M.A.,  B.Sc.,  F.L.S.;  E.  T.  Browne,  Esq.;  Rev.  Edmund  Carr, 
M.A.,  F.R.Met.S. ;  A.  N.  Disney,  Esq.,  M.A.,  B.Sc.;  A.  D.  Michael, 
Esq.,  F.L.S. ;  E.  M.  Nelson,  Esq. ;  Henry  Geo.  Plimmer,  Esq.,  F.L.S.  \. 
Thomas  H.  Powell,  Esq. ;  Percy  E.  Radley,  Esq. ;  Charles  F.  Rousse- 
let,  Esq. ;  Thos.  W.  Shore,  Esq.,  M.D.,  B.Sc,  F.L.S. 

Librarian — Percy  E.  Radley,  Esq. 

Curator — Charles  F.  Rousselet,  Esq. 


The  Annual  Report  of  the  Council  was  then  read  by  Dr.  Hebb  as 
follows. 

REPORT   OF   THE   COUNCIL   FOR   1901. 

The  most  important  event  of  the  past  year  affecting  the  interests  of 
the  Society  is  the  renewal  of  the  Patronage  which  His  Majesty  accorded 
to  the  Society  as  Prince  of  Wales  in  1866. 

The  Council  feels  that  the  honour  cannot  fail  to  exercise  a  beneficial 
influence  on  the  affairs  of  the  Society. 

FELLOWS. 

Ordinary. — During  the  year  1901, 15  new  Fellows  have  been  elected, 
whilst  13  have  died,  17  have  resigned,  and  4  have  been  removed. 

Among  the  deaths  the  Council  records  with  regret  the  names  of 
G.  Shadbolt,  who  was  President  1856-7,  and  of  J.  Ware  Stephenson,. 
Treasurer  from  1872-81. 

Honorary. — The  election  of  Dr.  T.  C.  Hudson  to  be  an  Honorary 
Fellow  has  made  the  total  number  47. 

The  list  of  Fellows  now  contains  the  names  of  438  Ordinary,. 
1  Corresponding,  47  Honorary,  and  83  Ex-Officio  Fellows,  being  a  total 
of  569. 

FINANCES. 

The  total  amount  received  for  Subscriptions  during  the  year  is  less 
than  that  under  the  same  head  of  last  year ;  this  is  largely  due  to  the  fact 
that  there  were  less  arrears  to  collect,  the  diminution  being  in  the  years 
previous  to  1901. 

The  subscriptions  of  the  new  Fellows  elected  during  the  year  have 
not  been  sufficient  to  compensate  for  the  loss  by  deaths,  resignations, 
and  removals ;  it  is  necessary  therefore  to  urge  on  Fellows  the  desira- 
bility of  increasing  the  membership  of  the  Society  so  that  its  operations 
shall  not  be  curtailed. 

The  expenses  of  the  year  arc  rather  less  than  those  of  1900  ;  the 


124  PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE   SOCIETY. 

balance  in  hand  at  the  close  of  the  year  is  much  smaller  than  that  of 
the  previous  year,  but  the  amount  on  deposit  at  the  Bank  nearly  accounts 
for  the  difference. 

The  admission  fees  received  in  1900  and  the  compounding  fees  re- 
ceived during  the  present  year  have  been  invested,  in  accordance  with 
the  Rules,  in  India  3  per  cents.  The  admission  fees  for  1901  will  be 
invested  early  in  the  new  year. 

JOURNAL. 

The  original  papers  published  in  the  Journal  during  1901  have  been 
ten,  as  against  seven  last  year,  and  they  have  belonged  to  all  branches 
of  the  field  occupied  by  our  Society, — Zoology,  Botany,  the  construction 
of  the  Microscope,  and  Microscopic  Optics. 

The  Summary  of  Current  Researches  has  been  continued  as  before, 
with  the  addition,  mentioned  in  the  Report  last  year,  of  the  microscopy 
of  metallurgy ;  abstracts  have  been  given  of  many  interesting  and  im- 
portant papers  on  the  microstructure  of  metals  and  alloys. 

INSTRUMENTS    AND    APPARATUS. 

In  accordance  with  the  Council's  decision  of  last  year,  the  Instru- 
ments, object-glasses,  and  apparatus  in  the  Society's  collection  have  been 
•engraved  with  the  letters  R.M.S.  and  a  number,  so  that  every  piece  can 
now  be  readily  identified. 

The  instruments  have  been  rearranged  in  the  Cabinet,  and  the  whole 
are  in  good  condition. 

The  following  valuable  additions  have  been  made  to  the  collection 
during  the  past  year : — 

Jan.  1G,  1901. — An  old  Pocket  Field  Microscope  by  H.  Gilbertson. 
Presented  by  Mr.  H.  E.  Freeman. 

Feb.  20. — A  Double  Reflecting  Microscope  by  P.  and  I.  Dollond. 
Presented  by  Mr.  J.  J.  Kern. 

Two  old  Objectives :  2  in.  and  *  in.,  by  Andrew  Ross.  Presented  by 
Mr.  F.  R.  Dixon-Nuttall. 

Oct.  16. — An  old  Microscope  by  Cary.  Presented  by  Mr.  Chas. 
Lees-Curties. 

A  Patent  Graphic  Telescope  by  Cornelius  Varley.  Presented  by 
Mr.  Chas.  F.  Rousselet. 

Nov.  20. — A  Microscope  by  Plossl  &  Cie.  of  Vienna.  Presented  by 
Right  Hon.  Sir  Ford  North. 

An  old  Microscope  by  Cuff.     Presented  by  Mr.  Chas.  Lees-Curties. 

An  old  Microscope  by  Hugh  Powell.  Presented  by  Messrs.  W. 
Watson  and  Sons. 

A  Microscope  by  Powell  and  Lealand,  dated  1848.  Presented  by 
Rev.  Canon  Carr ;  J.  W.  Gifford  ;  Sydney  T.  Klein  ;  A.  D.  Michael ; 
E.  M.  Nelson. 

CABINET. 

Four  slides  of  mounted  Rotifers,  received  from  the  Hon.  Thos. 
Kirkman  of  Natal,  have  been  the  only  additions  to  the  Cabinet  in  the 
year  1901. 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  SOCIETY.  L25 


LIBRARY. 

The  rearrangement  of  the  Library  in  accordance  with  modern 
principles  and  the  requirements  of  the  Society,  and  the  compilation  of  a 
card  catalogue,  the  work  of  Mr.  P.  E.  Radley,  have  now  been  com- 
pleted. 

BY-LAWS. 

The  changes  made  in  the  By-laws  at  a  Special  Meeting  of  the 
Fellows  in  June  last  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  conducive  to  the  better 
working  of  the  Society.  The  chief  points  are: — (1)  The  mode  of  pay- 
ment of  the  admission  fee,  the  system  in  vogue  prior  to  1897  being 
reverted  to ;  (2)  The  formation  of  hybrid  Committees,  Ordinary  Fel- 
lows being  now  eligible  to  serve  on  Committees  of  Council;  (3)  The 
Treasurer  and  Secretaries  made  ex-officio  Members  of  all  Committees  ; 
and  (4)  The  formation  of  a  new  office,  that  of  Hon.  Librarian. 


Mr.  J.  J.  Vezey,  Treasurer,  then  read  the  Balance  Sheet  and  State- 
ment of  Accounts  for  the  past  year,  which  had  been  duly  certified  as 
correct  by  the  elected  Auditors. 

Mr.  Vezey  said  he  did  not  think  the  Accounts  called  for  any  further 
remark  from  him,  as  the  chief  points  had  been  adverted  to  in  the 
Eeport.  He  should  like,  however,  to  call  attention  to  the  large  amount 
which  was  expended  in  connection  with  the  Journal,  equal  to  the  whole 
of  the  income  from  subscriptions.  He  did  not  wish  it  to  be  inferred 
that  he  thought  this  was  not  well  spent,  but  he  hoped  the  Fellows 
would  realise  the  desire  of  the  Council  to  give  them  the  best  Journal 
possible,  and  would  do  their  best  to  obtain  new  Fellows,  so  that  the 
item  of  subscriptions  might  be  increased. 

It  was  then  moved  by  the  liev.  Canon  Carr,  "  That  the  Eeport  and 
Balance  Sheet  be  received  and  adopted,  and  that  they  be  printed  and 
circulated  in  the  usual  way." 

Mr.  Freshwater  having  seconded  the  motion,  it  was  put  from  the 
Chair  and  unanimously  carried. 


The  President  said  that  he  had  great  satisfaction  in  appearing  before 
the  Society  that  evening  at  the  end  of  another  year  of  office,  a  satis- 
faction which  was  increased  by  the  fact  that  they  had  elected  as  his 
successor  a  gentleman  with  whom  he  had  been  associated  for  nearly  half 
a  century  at  the  British  Museum,  where  he  had  made  a  very  marvellous 
collection  in  the  Geological  Department.  Dr.  Woodward  had  been 
President  of  the  Geological  Society,  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
and  had  occupied  other  positions  in  the  scientific  world,  and  he  was 
eminently  qualified  to  carry  out  the  duties  of  President  of  their 
Society.  Dr.  Woodward,  having  recently  retired  from  the  public  ser- 
vice, was  at  the  present  time  taking  a  well-earned  holiday  on  the 
Mediterranean  Coast,  so  that  it  would  not  be  possible  now  to  induct 
him,  but  it  was  expected  that  he  would  return  in  time  to  preside  at  their 


126 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY. 


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PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY.  127 

next  Meeting.  The  resume  of  the  year's  work  was  so  clearly  given  in 
the  Report  that  it  did  not  need  auy  further  reference  from  him,  and  ho 
was  sure  all  were  satisfied  that  the  Journal  had  heen  carried  on  with  an 
ability  that  made  them  feel  proud  of  it.  He  would  say  further  that  he 
was  extremely  glad  that  two  important  pieces  of  work  had  been  done 
during  his  period  of  office  as  President.  The  property  of  the  Society 
consisted  of  its  Library  and  its  instruments,  and  both  these  had  been 
carefully  examined,  arranged,  and  catalogued.  Hitherto  they  had  no 
proper  list  of  the  instruments  and  apparatus,  but  Mr.  Rousselet,  with 
the  assistance  of  Mr.  Nelson,  had  gone  carefully  over  the  entire  collec- 
tion, and  had  made  a  complete  catalogue,  whilst  every  piece  had  been 
engraved  with  the  initials  of  the  Society  and  a  consecutive  number  to 
facilitate  reference.  As  regarded  the  books,  they  were  extremely 
obliged  to  Mr.  Eadley,  who  had  taken  this  matter  in  hand,  and  with  the 
assistance  of  Members  of  the  Council,  had  gone  over  the  whole,  and 
got  rid  of  a  large  quantity  of  books  and  papers  which  were  of  no  value 
to  the  Society,  for  which  they  obtained  some  money.  The  Library  had 
been  arranged,  and  an  excellent  card  catalogue  made  of  the  entire  col- 
lection. He  thought  that  the  Library  was  not  made  so  much  use  of  by 
the  Fellows  as  it  might  be ;  it  contained  a  large  number  of  valuable 
works  of  reference  of  great  use  to  anyone  making  researches  on  subjects 
connected  with  the  early  history  of  scientific  work.  The  only  thing 
which  seemed  to  want  mending  was  their  annual  income.  Their  Journal 
had  continued  to  give  them  a  valuable  resume  of  all  the  most  important 
observations  and  discoveries  made  in  connection  with  the  Microscope 
both  here  in  this  country  and  abroad.  The  improvements  connected 
with  the  Microscope  were  brought  under  the  notice  of  the  Members  by 
the  London  makers,  who  were  amongst  the  most  able  makers  of  Micro- 
scopes in  the  world.  In  the  great  value  of  the  Journal,  as  well  as  the 
interesting  exhibitions  and  subjects  brought  before  their  meetings,  he 
thought  they  had  abundant  reason  for  inducing  persons  to  join  the 
Society.  He  then  gave,  as  his  Annual  Address,  a  very  interesting 
resume  of  the  scientific  work  of  Nehemiah  Grew,  1641-1712,  whom  he 
ably  defended  from  the  charges  of  plagiarism  which  had  been  brought 
against  him  in  respect  to  his  discoveries  as  to  plant  life  and  structure. 

Dr.  Braithwaite  rose  to  move,  "  That  the  best  thanks  of  the  Society 
be  given  to  the  President  for  his  address,  and  that  he  would  allow  it  to 
be  printed  in  the  Journal  in  the  usual  way."  It  had  been  a  great  plea- 
sure to  him  personally  to  hear  the  very  interesting  reference  which  had 
been  made  to  one  of  the  great  fathers  of  their  sciences,  and  he  thought 
there  were  many  things  to  be  found  in  their  writings  which  might  be 
taken  as  examples  by  those  who  were  now  carrying  on  the  work.  They 
might  remember  that  before  1750,  when  Linnaaus  invented  the  binomial 
nomenclature  for  animals  and  plants,  they  were  recognised  by  a  short 
descriptive  character,  and  a  contemporary  of  Grew — born  indeed  in 
the  same  year — John  Eay,  may  be  cited  for  the  apt  descriptions  of 
one  or  two  lines,  which  embodied  the  most  striking  features  of  each 
plant,  though  sadly  inconvenient  for  quotation.  He  was  sure  it  would 
be  of  great  service  to  students  to  have  their  attention  directed  to  the 
work  of  these  early  writers  who  had  laid  the  foundations  upon  which 
much  of  the  work  done  in  the  last  century  was  carried  on. 


128  PBOGEEDINGS    OF    THE    SOCIETY. 

Mr.  Karop  Laving  seconded  the  motion,  it  was  carried  by  acclama- 
tion. 

The  President  said  he  was  glad  to  find  that  the  subject  had  proved 
of  interest ;  it  was  one  which  had  interested  him  very  much,  and  he- 
had  taken  great  delight  in  making  the  researches  necessary  for  the 
account  of  Grew,  and  especially  in  having  the  opportunity  of  refuting 
the  charges  that  had  been  made  against  him. 

Votes  of  thanks  were  passed  to  the  Honorary  Officers  for  their 
services  during  the  past  year,  and  also  to  the  Auditors  and  Scrutineers 
for  the  duties  in  connection  with  the  present  Meeting. 


The  President  said  it  now  only  remained  for  him  to  express  his 
thanks  to  the  Officers  and  Fellows  of  the  Societv  for  the  forbearance  and 
help  which  had  been  extended  to  him  during  his  term  of  office.  He  felt 
that  a  great  honour  had  been  done  to  him  in  electing  him  to  the  position, 
and  he  felt  also  that  if  he  had  succeeded  in  any  way  in  carrying  out  the 
duties  this  was  largely  owing  to  the  help  which  he  had  received  from 
those  with  whom  he  had  been  associated  in  the  work  of  the  Society. 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  &c.,  were  exhibited : — 
,  Mr.  E.  A.  Parsons  : — The  following  slides  of  Malaria  Parasites  : — 
(1)  Benign  Tertian  Parasite,  full  grown.  (2)  Ditto,  about  12  hours 
old.  (3)  Malarial  Crescent.  (4)  Section  of  Brain  showing  Sporulating 
Malignant  Tertian  Parasite  in  Capillary.  (5)  Full-grown  Benign  Quartan 
Parasite.     (6)  Early  Form  of  Benign  Quartan. 

Messrs.  Boss : — Five  Students'  "  Standard  "  Microscopes,  two  being 
fitted  with  swing-out  substage.  Two  No.  2  "  Standard  "  Microscopes, 
one  fitted  with  substage.     A  new  Dark-ground  Illuminator. 


New  Fellows. — The  following  were  elected  Ordinary  Fellows: — 
Messrs.  Abraham  Flatters,  Joseph  Gibson,  Thos.  A.  O'Donohoe,  and 
Chas.  Jas.  Sharpe. 


JOUENAL 


OF    THE 


ROYAL  MICROSCOPICAL  SOCIETY. 

APRIL  1902. 


TRANSACTIONS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


I 


IV. — The  President's  Address:  On  the  Life  and  Work  of 

Nehemiah  Grew. 

By  William  Carruthers,  F.R.S. 

{Delivered  January  15th,  1902.) 

Nehemiah  Grew  was  born  in  1641.  At  his  birth  England  was  in 
the  throes  of  a  gigantic  and  unprecedented  revolution.  Charles,  after 
vainly  trying  to  govern  as  an  absolute  monarch,  had  been  forced  to 
summon  a  parliament,  which,  not  agreeing  to  his  wishes,  was  imme- 
diately dissolved.  Another  summons  brought  together  the  Long 
Parliament,  and  on  that  followed  the  Civil  War.  The  issues  of  the 
contending  parties  were  settled  on  the  battle-field,  and  the  Common- 
wealth held  its  ground  for  some  years.  Much  more  important  and 
more  enduring  in  its  issues  was  the  battle  waged  through  the  press. 
Every  subject  —  political,  ecclesiastical,  social — was  fought  out  there. 
The  two  decades  from  1641  were  years  of  extraordinary  mental 
activity.  Periodical  publications — daily,  weekly  or  monthly — were 
scarcely  known.  When  occasion  required  the  publication  of  some 
home  or  foreign  news,  a  sheet  folded  into  four  small  quarto  leaves 
was  brought  into  requisition.  In  our  days  the  regularly  published 
journals  supply  channels  for  ventilating  opinions.  But  in  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  each  man  who  had  anything  to  say  had 
to  issue  his  utterance  as  a  separate  publication.  The  showers  of 
pamphlets  that  were  thus  sent  out  from  the  press  were  immense. 
Some  idea  may  be  formed,  of  their  extent  from  the  collection  made 
by  Thomason,  a  London  bookseller,  which  is  preserved  intact  in  the 
Library  of  the  British  Museum.  It  consists  of  more  than  30,000 
items.  Natural  knowledge,  though  represented  by  only  a  fraction  of 
this  letterpress,  was  not  overlooked.  The  men  who  met  weekly  in 
London  from  1645,  to  read  and  consider  papers  on  natural  philosophy 
and  other  parts  of  human  learning,  continued  their  fellowship  until 
April  16th,  1902  .  k 


130  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

the  Restoration,  when  they  were  incorporated  by  charter  as  the  Royal 
Society  of  London  for  the  Promotion  of  Natural  Knowledge. 

The  vegetable  kingdom  had  been  up  to  this  time  studied  chiefly 
because  of  the  real  or  imaginary  virtues  which  the  plants  were  be- 
lieved to  possess.  The  first  English  botanical  work  was  published  in 
1516.  It  was  little  more  than  a  translation  of  the  '  Hortus  Sanitatis/' 
and  was  illustrated  with  many  rude  woodcuts  copied  on  a  smaller 
scale  from  the  illustrations  of  the  earlier  work.  This  volume  had  the 
title: — 'The  Grete  Herball,  whiche  giveth  knowledge  and  under- 
standing of  all  manner  of  Herbes  and  there  gracyous  virtues,'  o/c. 

William  Turner,  the  father  of  English  botany,  was  a  native  of 
Morpeth.  He  was  in  1538  a  student  of  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge. 
He  had  already  acquired  a  love  of  plants,  but  he  got  little  help  in 
Cambridge.  He  says,  "  I  could  learn  never  one  Greek,  neither  Latin, 
nor  English  name,  even  amongst  the  physicians,  of  any  herb  or  tree ; 
such  was  the  ignorance  at  that  time ;  and  as  yet  there  was  no  English 
Herbal,  but  one  all  full  of  unlearned  cacographies  and  false  naming 
of  herbs."  This,  no  doubt,  refers  to  '  The  Grete  Herball.'  At  the 
University  he  adopted  decided  Puritan  opinions,  and  these  being 
obnoxious  to  Bishop  Gardiner,  he  was  put  in  prison.  On  being 
liberated  he  went  to  the  Continent,  where  in  many  places  he  visited 
he  found  opportunities  for  studying  botany.  He  graduated  M.D.  at 
Ferrara.  He  lived  for  some  time  at  Cologne,  and  there  published  the 
first  part  of  his  great  Herbal  in  1551.     It  was  completed  in  1568. 

Thereafter  followed  three  famous  and  still  well-known  Herbals. 
John  Gerard  was  an  apothecary,  living  in  Holboru,  and  having  a 
Botanical  Garden  there.  His  '  Herball  or  Generall  Historie  of 
Plantes'  was  published  in  1597.  Thomas  Johnson,  also  an  apothe- 
cary, whose  shop  was  in  Snow  Hill,  issued  in  1633  a  new  and  greatly 
improved  edition  of  Gerard's  '  Herball.'  He  was  an  ardent  Royalist, 
and  joined  the  king's  army  at  Oxford,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel.  He  gained  for  himself,  on  this  account,  from  the  Royalist 
University,  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1643,  but  on  the  14th  September 
of  the  following  year  he  was  fatally  wounded  in  an  encounter  with 
the  enemy,  and  died  a  fortnight  thereafter.  He  was  an  exact  and 
learned  botanist.  John  Parkinson,  like  his  predecessors,  was  a 
London  apothecary.  His  first  work  was  specially  devoted  to  horti- 
culture ;  this  I  mention  because  of  its  title — '  Paradisi-in-Sole  Para- 
disus  terrestris,'  a  play  on  his  name  Park-in-son.  His  '  Theatrum 
Botanicum,  the  Theater  of  Plants,  or  a  Herball  of  a  large  extent,' 
was  published  in  1640.  It  is  a  more  learned  and  able  Herbal  than 
those  that  preceded  it. 

The  first  British  Flora  was  published  by  Dr.  William  How  in 
1650,  under  the  title  'Phytologia  Britannica.'  How  joined  the 
Royalist  army,  but  on  the  failure  of  the  king's  cause  he  settled  in 
Milk  Street,  London,  and  practised  medicine,  but  survived  the 
publication  of  his  Flora  only  six  years. 


The  President's  Address.     By  Wm.  Carruthers.  131 

This  short  narrative  indicates  the  stage  which  botanical  studies 
had  reached  in  England  and  elsewhere,  when  Grew  entered  upon  his 
investigations.  The  Microscope  had  not  been  used  for  botanical 
research.  Cornelius  Drebbel  is  said  to  have  brought  the  first  com- 
pound Microscope  to  England  from  Holland  in  161 9.  There  is  no 
record  of  any  scientific  use  being  made  of  it.  The  first  application 
of  the  Microscope  to  the  examination  of  the  minute  structure  of 
plants  was  made  by  Eobert  Hooke.  He  was  one  of  the  original 
Fellows  of  the  Eoyal  Society,  and  was  elected  Secretary  in  1677. 
Hooke  was  a  very  learned  and  ingenious  man.  He  constructed 
simple  Microscopes,  and  greatly  improved  the  compound  Microscope. 
His  methods  are  clearly  described  in  the  Preface  (p.  22,  &c),  to  his 
'  Micrographia.'  published  in  1667  ;  and  a  figure  of  the  Microscope 
which  he  as  well  as  Grew  used  in  their  investigations  is  given  in  the 
first  plate  of  that  work. 

Grew  was  born  at  Mancaster,  in  Warwickshire,  where  his  father 
Obadiah  Grew  was  schoolmaster.  His  father  afterwards  entered  the 
Church,  and  succeeded  the  famous  Puritan  clergyman  Richard  Vines, 
at  St.  Michael's,  Coventry,  in  which  city  Nehemiah  spent  his  youth 
and  received  his  early  education.  He  was  a  student  at  Pembroke  Hall, 
Cambridge,  taking  his  B.A.  in  1661.  The  illustrious  John  Kay,  who 
had  studied  at  St.  Catherine's  Hall  and  then  in  Trinity  College,  had 
been  from  1651  lecturer  in  that  College,  in  Greek,  Mathematics  aud 
Latin  successively.  In  1660  Eay  published  his  '  Catalogus  I'lan- 
tarum  circa  Cantabrigiam  nascentium,'  which  contained  a  list  of 
626  species  that  he  had  collected  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cam- 
bridge. We  may  indulge  the  supposition  that  Grew  during  the 
years  of  his  attendance  at  Pembroke  Hall,  may  have  been  known  to 
Eay  and  may  have  accompanied  him  in  some  of  his  "  simpliug  " 
walks.  Grew's  published  works  show  that  he  was  well  acquainted 
with  British  plants.  He  everywhere  writes  freely  about  them,  and 
in  his  '  Anatomy  of  Seeds  '  he  figures  with  singular  fidelity  the  seeds 
of  forty  of  our  native  plants. 

On  leaving  Cambridge  Grew  went  to  Leyden  to  study  medicine. 
After  receiving  his  M.D.  there  he  returned  in  1664,  and  settled  at 
Coventry  to  practise.  A  great  change  had  taken  place  while  he  was 
in  Holland,  consequent  on  the  Kestoration  in  1660.  His  father  re- 
mained vicar  of  St.  Michael's  till  August  1662,  when  the  Act  of 
Uniformity,  passed  in  the  previous  May,  was  enforced.  Obadiah 
Grew  was  one  of  the  two  thousand  clergy  who  were  unable  to 
accept  the  terms  of  the  oath  required  by  that  Act,  and  who  were  in 
consequence  ejected  from  their  livings.  He  suffered  much,  and  was 
in  prison  for  six  months,  because  he  was  found  living  in  Coventry  in 
contravention  of  the  Five  Mile  Act. 

The  circumstances  that  led  Grew  to  the  minute  study  of  plants 
are  thus  narrated  in  the  preface  to  his  'Anatomy  of  Plants,'  1682. 
He  says : — "  The  first  occasion  of  directing  my  thoughts  this  way 

e  2 


132  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

was  in  the  year  1664,  upon  reading  some  of  the  many  and  curious 
inventions  of  learned  men,  in  the  bodies  of  animals.  For,  con- 
sidering that  both  of  them  (plants  and  animals)  came  at  first  out  of 
the  same  Hand,  and  were,  therefore,  the  contrivances  of  the  same 
Wisdom,  1  thence  fully  assured  myself  that  it  could  not  be  a  vain 
design  to  seek  it  in  both.  And  being  then  newly  furnished  with  a 
good  stock  of  seeds,  in  order  to  make  a  nursery  of  plants,  I  resolved, 
besides  what  I  first  aimed  at,  to  make  the  utmost  use  of  them  for 
that  purpose,  that  so  I  might  put  somewhat  upon  that  side  the  leaf 
which  the  best  botanicks  had  left  bare  and  empty." 

He  watched  the  progress  of  germination  in  his  garden,  and  re- 
corded his  observations.  He  noticed  the  difference  between  the 
monocotyledonous  seed  of  wheat  and  the  dicotyledonous  seed  of  the 
bean,  though  he  did  not,  of  course,  realise  the  importance  of  his 
observation.  In  1668  he  showed  the  results  of  his  work  to  his  half- 
brother,  Dr.  Henry  Sampson,  who  approved  of  his  investigations, 
and  encouraged  him  to  proceed  with  them ;  and  having  completed 
the  manuscript  of  his  first  book, '  The  Anatomy  of  Vegetables  Begun,' 
lie  communicated,  in  1670,  a  part  of  it  to  Mr.  Oldenburg,  then 
Secretary  of  the  Royal  Society.  After  reading  the  manuscript, 
Oldenburg  delivered  it,  on  his  own  motion,  to  Dr.  John  Wilkins, 
Bishop  of  Chester,  who,  after  perusal,  produced  it  at  a  meeting  of  the 
Royal  Society.  The  Fellows  desired  to  see  the  remainder  of  the  work, 
which  being  presented  to  them,  was  perused  by  the  President,  Lord 
Brouncker.  On  the  11th  May,  1671,  the  Council  ordered  it  to  be 
printed  by  the  printer  of  the  Society.  The  formal  order  to  the 
printer  was  dated  9th  November,  1671,  and  on  the  30th  of  the  same 
month  Grew  was  admitted  a  Fellow  of  the  Society.  The  printed  book 
was  delivered  complete  at  the  meeting  of  the  Royal  Society  on  the 
7th  December,  1671.  '  The  Anatomy  of  Vegetables  Begun  '  is  a  small 
octavo  of  186  pages,  with  dedication,  preface,  and  contents  prefixed, 
and  the  explanation  of  the  plates  appended.  The  plates  are  three  in 
number,  with  twenty-nine  figures.  The  text  deals  with  the  germi- 
nating seed,  the  structure  of  the  root,  stem,  branch,  leaf,  flower,  fruit, 
and  the  formation  of  seed.  The  work  was  mainly  done  without  the  help 
of  the  Microscope.  In  his  preface  to  the  original  edition  of  his 
'  Anatomy  '  he  says : — "  What  we  have  performed  thus  far  lieth,  for 
the  most  part,  open  to  the  use  and  improvement  of  all  men.  Only 
in  some  places,  and  chiefly  in  the  third  chapter,  we  have  taken  in  the 
help  of  glasses ;  wherein  after  we  had  finished  the  whole  composure, 
some  observations  made  by  that  ingenious  and  learned  person,  Mr. 
Hooke,  a  worthy  member  of  the  Royal  Society,  my  much  honoured 
friend,  and  by  him  communicated  to  me,  were  super-added  :  as  likewise 
some  others  also  microscopical,  of  my  own,  which  his  [observations] 
gave  me  the  occasion  of  making."  In  the  third  chapter,  '  Of  the 
Trunk'  (page  71),  he  further  acknowledges  his  debt  to  Hooke,  espe- 
cially in  his  investigation  of  the  fibro- vascular  bundles,  which  he 


The  President's  Address.     By  Wm.  Carruthers.  133 

calls  the  fibres  of  the  "lignous  body."  The  only  figures  in  this 
little  book  for  which  the  Microscope  was  used  are  the  transverse 
sections  of  Burdock  (fig.  15)  and  Oak  (fig.  17). 

The  work  opened  up  an  untrodden  field  of  investigation  in 
botany.  Grew  had  nothing  to  guide  him  in  his  interpretations  of 
the  structures  he  observed,  He  started  with  the  conviction  that  he 
would  be  helped  by  analogies  in  the  structure  and  organisation  of 
animals.  This  became  a  constant  source  of  error  in  his  arguments 
and  generalisations.  The  instruments  he  used  in  investigating  the 
minute  structures  dealt  with  in  his  first  work  to  some  extent,  but 
more  extensively  in  his  subsequent  works,  were  very  imperfect.  He 
held  "  that  some  things  may  be  demonstrated  by  reason  and  the 
eye  jointly,  without  a  glass,  which  cannot  be  discovered  by  the  help 
of  the  glass  ;  or  else  the  discovery  is  so  dark  that  it  may  not  be 
safely  depended  upon."  A  dangerous  maxim,  and  happily  abandoned 
by  all  careful  observers  in  these  days. 

In  his  account  of  the  germinating  seed  Grew  gave  to  the  descend- 
ing axis  the  name  of  radicle,  and  the  ascending  axis  he  called  the 
plume.  He  distinguished  the  cotyledons,  and  determined  that  they 
were  leaves  from  observing  that  in  some  plants  they  spread  them- 
selves in  the  air.  The  "  seminal  roots  "  which,  from  animal  analogies 
and  the  exercise  of  his  "reason,"  he  found  in  the  cotyledons,  were, 
in  his  judgment,  the  essential  structures,  while  the  somewhat  acci- 
dental cellular  tissue  was  filled  in  around  these  organs.  He  called 
this  tissue  parenchyma,  because  it  was  "  the  part  through  which  the 
inner  body  is  disseminated." 

In  his  anatomy  of  the  root,  stem,  and  branches  he  distinguished 
two  different  elementary  tissues,  the  one  parenchymatous  found  in  the 
cortex,  medullary  rays  ("insertions  "  he  named  them),  and  the  pith  ; 
the  other  the  "  lignous,"  with  its  vessels  and  fibres  which  are  always 
elongated  in  the  direction  of  the  axis,  whereas  the  parenchyma  is 
"  extended  much  alike  both  in  the  length  and  breadth  "  of  the  axis. 
This  was  very  near  to  an  accurate  definition-  of  what  is  now  called 
parenchyma  and  prosenchyma.  He  quotes  with  approval  Hooke's 
observations.  "  Mr.  Hooke,"  he  says,  "  sheweth  us  that  the  pores  of 
the  pith,  particularly  of  elder-pith,  so  far  as  they  are  visible,  are  all 
alike  discontinuous  ;  and  that  the  pith  is  nothing  else  but  an  heap  of 
bubbles."  And  he  adds  that  this  observation  of  Hooke's  "  confirms 
what  in  the  second  chapter  we  have  said  of  the  pith  and  cortical 
body,  and  of  the  sameness  of  both  their  natures  with  the  parenchyma 
of  the  seed.  For,  upon  farther  enquiry  with  better  glasses,  1  find 
that  the  parenchyma  of  the  plume  and  radicle,  and  even  of  the  lobes 
(cotyledons)  themselves,  though  not  so  apparently,  is  nothing  but  a 
mass  of  bubbles."  To  Hooke  undoubtedly  belongs  the  discovery  of 
the  vegetable  cell,  and  Grew's  difficulty  in  fully  accepting  this  dis- 
covery arose  from  his  conviction  that  the  parenchyma  of  the  pith, 
medullary  rays,  and  bark  was  a  medium   of  circulation,  aud  the 


134  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

analogy  of  the  vessels  of  animals  required  the  parenchyma  to  be  open 
*'  pores,"  and  not  closed  cells.  His  further  use  of  the  Microscope 
compelled  Grew  to  surrender  the  demonstration  of  "reason"  to 
observation  of  sense,  and  in  his  later  writings  he  says,  "  the  pith 
consists  of  very  small  vesicles  or  bladders  as  the  bark." 

The  structure  of  the  leaf  is  clearly  described,  and  the  presence  of 
the  stomata  observed,  figured,  and  described.  He  says  :  "  The  skins 
of  at  least  many  plants  are  formed  with  several  orifices  or  passports, 
either  for  the  better  escape  of  superfluous  sap  or  the  admission  of 
air."  This  was  a  very  shrewd  prophecy,  and  his  works  abound  in 
such  suggestions.  But  the  general  functions  of  the  leaf  are  mis- 
understood, though  he  holds  that  they  imbibe  and  elaborate  the  sap. 
Little  more  could  be  ascertained  until  chemistry  was  established  on  a 
new  basis  by  Lavoisier,  after  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  investigations,  under  the  influence  of  the  new  chemistry,  by 
Ingenhaus,  Senebier,  and  Saussure  established  the  nature  of  the  plant- 
food,  the  sources  from  which  it  was  derived,  and  the  organs  through 
which  it  was  obtained. 

The  account  of  the  flower  is  least  satisfactory.  He  distinguishes 
the  calyx  (empalement),  corolla  (foliation),  and  stamens  (attire)  which 
consist  of  filament  (chive),  and  anther  (semet).  He  says  nothing  of  the 
pistil  in  ordinary  flowers.  He  deals  at  greater  length  with  the  com- 
posite flower  which  he  calls  the  florid  attire.  It  consists  of  three 
parts,  the  corolla  (floret),  the  stamens  (sheath),  and  the  stigma  (blade). 
He  does  not  recognise  that  the  sheath  is  his  attire  (stamens),  and  he 
supposes  that  the  pollen-grains  adhering  to  the  stigma  lay,  before  its 
opening,  "  enclosed  up  within  its  clefts,  and  are  of  the  same  nature 
with  those  of  the  semet  (anther),  though  not  so  copious."  In  his 
later  work  on  the  flower  (read  November  9th,  1676)  he  describes 
and  figures  the  pistil.  He  had  some  conversation  with  the  Savilian 
Professor,  Sir  Thomas  Millington,  as  to  sexes  in  plants.  The  Pro- 
fessor explained  his  views  as  to  the  stamens  and  pistil  being  sexual 
organs,  and  this  agreeing  with  the  opinions  he  had  been  forming,  he 
expressed  them  at  length  in  his  Memoir  published  in  1682. 

The  fruit  and  seed  have  their  forms  and  structure  clearly  set 
forth. 

The  more  complete  investigations  subsequently  published  were 
expansions  of  the  chapters  of  this  small  volume. 

On  the  day  on  which  Grew's  published  work  was  presented  to  the 
Koyal  Society  (7th  December,  1671)  Oldenburg,  Secretary  to  the 
Society,  received  through  the  Ambassador  to  St.  James's,  the  manu- 
script "of  the  'Anatomes  Plantarum  Idea,'  by  Malpighi,  which  is 
printed  on  pages  1-15  of  his  '  Anatome,'  and  on  the  same  day  laid  it 
before  the  Society.  A  week  after  (14th  December)  Oldenburg  wrote 
to  Malpighi  acknowledging  the  receipt  of  the  manuscript,  and  sent 
him  a  copy  of  Grew's  published  work,  by  the  hands  of  Bocconi, 
but  he  remained  so  long  in  Belgium  that  it  had  not  reached  Malpighi 


The  President's  Address.     By  Wm.  Carruthers.  135 

in  August  1674.  Malpighi's  '  Idea '  ia  a  clear  and  succinct  statement 
of  the  work  which  he  promised  to  submit  to  the  Society  in  detail  lor 
their  judgment.     No  illustrations  were  sent  with  the  '  Idea.' 

Having  begun  a  work  which  had  met  with  so  much  favour  from 
the  Society,  Grew  resolved  to  prosecute  it  further,  and  drew  up  a  de- 
tailed scheme  of  hi?  whole  design.  Hearing,  however,  from  London 
that  Malpighi  had  entered  on  the  same  work,  and  considering  that 
the  Society  had  the  prospect  of  a  memoir  from  so  illustrious  a  man,  he 
stayed  his  hand. 

So  important,  however,  did  Grew's  work  on  plants  appear  to  the 
Royal  Society,  that  on  the  18th  April,  1672,  on  the  recommendation 
of  Dr.  Wilkins,  he  was  appointed  the  Society's  Curator  of  the  Anatomy 
of  Plants  for  a  year,  for  which  he  was  to  receive  fifty  pounds,  to  be 
obtained  by  a  subscription  from  "  such  members  as  should  be  willing 
to  contribute  that  sum."  The  Bishop  of  Chester  agreed  to  take 
charge  of  the  subscriptions. 

When  his  friend  the  Bishop  of  Chester  informed  him  of  this,  and 
of  the  Society's  desire  that  he  should  proceed  with  his  researches,  he 
resolved  to  continue  his  work,  "  considering  that  it  would  be  no  dis- 
advantage to  the  credit  of  those  matters,  which  were  so  new  and 
strange,  to  be  offered  to  the  world  from  a  double  authority."  He 
removed  to  London,  and  established  himself  tbere  as  a  physician. 

He  again  took  up  the  scheme  of  work  he  had  set  aside,  and  on 
the  9th  and  15th  of  January,  1672-3,  he  submitted  to  the  Society 
his  '  Idea  of  a  Phytological  History  Propounded,'  and  continued  his 
researches  on  the  Anatomy  of  Plants  by  describing  in  detail  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  Root.  These  two  papers  were  ordered 
to  be  printed,  and  were  published  as  another  small  octavo  volume  in 
1673,  containing  144  pages  and  7  plates. 

The  purpose  of  the  '  Phytological  History '  was  very  different 
from  Malpighi's  'Idea.'  Grew  was  groping  after  a  philosophical 
basis  for  the  classification  of  plants.  He  considered  that  five  points 
should  be  kept  in  view  for  this  purpose  : — (1)  a  particular  and  com- 
parative survey  of  whatever  is  of  more  external  consideration ;  (2)  a 
similar  survey  of  the  anatomy  ;  (3)  of  the  contents  of  plants  ;  (4)  of 
the  principles  of  the  organised  parts ;  and  (5)  a  survey  of  those  bodies 
from  which  these  principles  are  derived.  If  we  look  at  these  sugges- 
tions from  the  point  of  view  of  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
we  see  that  Grew  had  advanced  views  of  what  had  to  be  considered  in 
constructing  a  scientific  classification  of  plants.  His  five  points  were 
the  environment  of  the  plants,  the  structure  of  all  their  ,parts,  their 
properties,  the  elements  of  which  they  are  composed,  and  the  sources 
from  which  these  elements  were  obtained.  His  own  estimate  of  his 
work  is  given  in  the  closing  sentences  of  the  '  Idea,'  which  I  may 
here  quote  : — "  This  is  the  design,"  he  says,  "  and  these  the  means  I 
propose  in  order  thereunto.  To  which,  I  suppose,  they  may  all 
appear  to  be  necessary.     For  what  we  obtain  of  Nature,  we  must  not 


136  Transaction*  of  the  Society. 

do  by  commanding  but  by  courting  her.  Wherever  men  will  go 
beyond  fancy  and  imagination,  depending  upon  the  conduct  of  Divine 
Wisdom,  they  must  labour,  hope,  and  persevere.  And  aa  the  means 
proposed  are  all  necessary,  they  may  in  some  measure  prove  effectual. 
How  far,  I  promise  not ;  the  way  is  long  and  dark  :  and  as  travellers 
sometimes  amongst  mountains,  by  gaining  the  top  of  one,  are  so  far 
from  their  journey's  end,  that  they  only  come  to  see  another  before 
them;  so  the  way  of  Nature  is  so  impervious,  and,  as  I  may  say,  so 
down-hill  and  up-hill,  that  how  far  soever  we  go,  yet  the  surmounting 
of  one  difficulty,  is  wont  still  to  give  us  the  prospect  of  another.  We 
may  therefore  believe  our  attainments  will  be  imperfect,  after  we  have 
done  all ;  but  because  we  cannot  attain  to  all,  that  therefore  we 
should  do  nothing,  is  an  inference  that  looks  so  much  away  from  the 
practical  sense  of  men,  that  it  ought  not  to  be  answered.  Nor  with 
better  reason  may  we  go  about  determining  what  may  be  done.  If 
but  a  little  should  be  effected,  yet  to  design  more  can  do  us  no  harm ; 
for  though  a  man  shall  never  be  able  to  hit  stars  by  shooting  at 
them,  yet  he  shall  come  much  nearer  to  them  than  another  that 
throws  at  apples." 

'  The  Anatomy  of  Vegetables  particularly  prosecuted  upon  Roots,' 
was  read  to  the  Royal  Society  in  1673,  and  published  the  same  year 
in  the  volume  mentioned  already,  together  with  his  '  Idea,'  and  was 
illustrated  by  seven  plates. 

In  a  letter  to  Malpighi  dated  5th  March,  1672-3,  Grew  says: — 
"  I  have  myself  benefited  from  your  writings,  and  am  truly  proud 
so  to  have  benefited."  This  can,  of  course,  only  refer  to  the  '  Idea.r 
He  names  one  point  for  which  he  is  indebted  to  Malpighi :  "  I 
learnt  first  from  your  works  the  spiral  formation  of  the  wide  tubes 
which  you  call  tracheae,  and  from  them  I  seized  the  opportunity 
of  adding  also  a  few  observations  on  the  conformation  of  the  said 
tubes."  In  this  same  letter  he  says  he  is  just  sending  to  the 
printer  (by  desire  of  the  Royal  Society)  his  anatomical  observations 
on  roots,  to  which  he  intends  to  prefix  the  '  Idea  of  Phytoloyical 
Science,'  which  he  says,  as  soon  as  it  is  published,  he  proposes  to 
submit  to  Malpighi's  learned  and  kind  perusal. 

'  The  Comparative  Anatomy  of  Trunks,  together  with  an  Account 
of  their  Vegetation  grounded  thereupon,'  was  presented  to  the  Royal 
Society  in  1673  and  1674,  and  read  in  February  1674,  and  June 
1675,  and  was  published  the  same  year  in  an  octavo  volume  of 
81  pages  and  18  plates. 

Malpighi  despatched  from  Bologna  to  London  the  first  part  of 
his  work  on  plant  anatomy  in  August  1674.  It  did  not  reach  the 
Secretary  of  the  Royal  Society  till  the  28th  January,  1675,  when  it  was 
immediately  exhibited  to  a  Meeting  of  the  Society  which  was  being 
held  that  day.  It  was  ordered  to  be  printed  as  soon  as  possible  in 
the  best  style.  The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  given  to  Malpighi, 
and  the  earnest  hope  was  sent  him  that  his  health  might  enable  him 


The  President's  Address.     By  Wm.  Carruthers.  137 

speedily  to  complete  the  work.  The  '  Anatome  Plantarum  '  was 
published  in  the  same  year,  with  the  President's  order  for  printing 
dated  24th  June,  1675.  It  is  a  folio  volume  of  84  pages  and  54 
plates,  and  contains  as  an  appendix  the  dissertation  '  De  Ovo  in- 
cubato,'   paged  separately,  and  consisting  of  '20  pages  and  7  plates. 

The  completion  of  the  work  was  received  later,  and  was  published 
in  1679  as  '  Anatomes  Plantarum  Pars  altera,'  forming  a  folio  volume 
of  93  pages  and  39  plates. 

Grew  continued  his  investigations  on  the  plant  as  set  out  in  his 
first  work,  and  communicated  the  separate  memoirs  to  the  Royal 
Society.  On  the  26th  October,  1676,  was  read,  'The  Anatomy  of 
Leaves,  prosecuted  with  the  bare  Eye,  and  with  the  Microscope.' 
On  the  9th  November  and.  6th  December,  1676,  was  read  'The 
Anatomy  of  Flowers,  prosecuted  with  the  bare  Eye,  and  with  the 
Microscope.' 

In  1677  'The  Anatomy  of  Fruits,  prosecuted  with  the  Eye,  and 
with  the  Microscope,'  was  read  to  the  Society.  Grew's  scheme  of  the 
anatomy  of  plants  was  completed  by  the  presentation  to  the  Society 
in  the  same  year  of  '  The  Anatomy  of  Seeds,  prosecuted  with  the  bare 
Eye,  and  with  the  Microscope.'  On  the  22ud  February,  1681-2,  the 
Council  of  the  Eoyal  Society  recorded  in  their  minutes  that, "  Dr.  Grew 
having  read  several  Lectures  of  the  Anatomy  of  Plants,  some  whereof 
have  been  already  printed  at  divers  times,  and  some  are  not  printed,, 
with  several  other  Lectures  of  their  Colours,  Odours,  Tastes  and 
Salts ;  as  also  of  the  Solution  of  Salts  in  Water ;  and  of  Mixture  ; 
all  of  them  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Society  ;  It  is  therefore  Ordered,. 
That  he  be  desired  to  cause  them  to  be  printed  together  in  one 
volume."  This  resolution  is  signed  by  Christopher  Wren,  President. 
The  folio  volume,  with  the  contents  specified,  was  published  in  1682,. 
containing  304  pages  and  83  plates.  The  memoirs  published  in 
octavo  (in  1671,  1673  and  1675)  were  carefully  revised,  and  the 
large  majority  of  the  plates  re-issued,  though  a  few  were  added  to  or 
re-engraved.  The  title  of  each  of  these  three  memoirs  bears  that 
it  was  "  The  Second  Edition."  The  lectures  on  the  Leaves,  Flowers, 
Fruits,  and  Seeds  were  here  published  for  the  first  time. 

I  have  to  crave  forbearance  for  setting  out  in  what  may  appear 
unnecessary  detail  the  separate  works  of  Grew.  I  am  anxious  that 
the  remarkable  labours  of  this  original  investigator  should  be  realised 
by  the  members  of  the  Society.  But  I  have  also  a  further  purpose 
in  view  in  submitting  these  details,  which  is  to  make  plain  how  erro- 
neous are  the  attempts  that  have  been  made  to  depreciate  the  work  of 
Grew  and  to  rob  him  of  the  credit  that  belongs  to  him  as  an  original 
worker. 

Schleiden  promulgated  these  charges  in  his  'Grundzuge'  1845. 
They  are  thus  expressed  by  Lankester  in  his  translation  of  Schleideu's 
work  published  in  London  1849,  under  the  title  of  '  Principles  of 
Scientific  Botany '  (pp.  37,  38). 


138  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

"  Marcellus  Malpighi,  professor  at  Bologna,  gave  a  more  accurate 
account  of  the  structure  of  plants  [than  Hooke].  He  sent  to  the 
Royal  Society  of  London  his  great  work  '  Anatome  Plantarum,'  in 
the  year  1670,  and  which  was  published  in  two  volumes,  folio,  at  the 
expense  of  the  Society,  in  1675.  This  work  claims  for  him  the  title 
of  the  creator  of  scientific  botany.  He  is  so  accurate,  and  pursues 
so  correct  a  method,  that  it  was  a  century  before  (i.e.  in  advance  of) 
the  time  at  which  he  wrote  it,  and  at  the  present  day  many  so-called 
botanists  do  not  know  so  much  of  plants  as  Malpighi.  He  not  only 
observed  the  cellular  structure  of  plants,  but  maintained  that  it  was 
composed  of  separate  cells,  which  he  called  Utriculi. 

"  Nehemiah  Grew  was  Secretary  to  the  Eoyal  Society  at  the  time 
Malpighi's  work  was  publishing.  He  published  his  '  Anatomy  of 
Plants'  in  1682;  is  much  indebted  to  Malpighi.  He  first  took  up 
Die  wrong  view  that  the  walls  of  the  cells  are  composed  of  fibres ; 
he  also,  by  comparing  the  cells  of  plants  to  the  froth  of  beer,  would 
appear  to  have  thought  that  they  were  mere  cavities  in  a  homo- 
geneous substance,  a  view  which  was  afterwards  supported  by  Wolff." 

The  assertions  of  Schleiden  are  based  upon  dates,  but  they  are 
erroneous  dates.  Malpighi's  preliminary  discourse  which  occupies 
the  first  fifteen  pages  of  his  '  Anatome,'  has  inscribed  on  the  last 
page,  "  Dabam  Bononiae  Calendis  Novemb.  1671."  It  could  not 
have  been  sent  to  the  Eoyal  Society  in  1670.  The  first  part  of  his 
'Anatome  Plantarum'  was  sent  by  Malpighi  in  August  1674,  but 
did  not  reach  the  Secretary  of  the  Koyal  Society  till  the  28th  January, 
1675  ;  it  was  published  the  same  year  in  one  volume.  Grew  was 
elected  Secretary  in  1677,  and  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  publica- 
tion of  this  earlier  part  of  Malpighi's  work.  The  second  part  of 
the  '  Anatome  Plantarum '  (the  second  of  Schleiden's  two  volumes) 
reached  the  Society  in  1679,  and  was  published  in  the  same  year. 
No  doubt  Grew,  who  was  still  Secretary,  took  care  of  it  through  the 
press.  But  this  part  deals  with  the  germination  of  seeds,  galls,  and 
roots  of  plants.  Grew  has  said  nothing  about  galls.  His  completed 
observations  on  germination  were  published  in  1672,  and  on  roots 
in  1673.  Grew  could  not  have  been  indebted  to  Malpighi  for  any 
help  in  these  subjects.  Schleiden  makes  his  position  apparently  strong 
by  asserting  that  Grew's  work  was  not  published  till  1682,  and  this  he 
does  in  face  of  the  fact  that  the  memoirs  which  occupy  140  pages  out 
-of  212  have  on  each  title-page  in  bold  letters  "  The  Second  Edition." 
And  still  further  Schleiden  blunders.  Grew  had  noticed  the  unrolling 
of  spiral  vessels,  and  figures  them  in  the  leaves,  and  naturally,  though 
erroneously,  interpreted  this  appearance  as  due  to  their  being  com- 
posed of  spiral  fibres :  but  this  is  very  different  from  the  statement, 
"  that  the  walls  of  the  cells  were  composed  of  fibres."  And  it  is 
difficult  to  understand  the  consistency  of  Schleiden  when  he  proceeds 
in  the  same  sentence  to  say,  "  he  also  by  comparing  the  cells  of  plants 
to  the  froth  of  beer  would  appear  to  have  thought  that  they  were 


The  President's  Address.     By  Wm.  Carruthers.  139 

mere  cavities  in  a  homogeneous  substance."  The  two  interpretations 
of  the  structure  of  the  vegetable  cell  could  not  be  entertained  by  any 
sane  man  ;  they  certainly  were  not  entertained  by  Grew. 

One  regrets  to  find  that  Sachs  in  his  '  History  of  Botany  '  (trans- 
lated by  Garnsay  and  Balfour,  1890),  repents  the  charges,  though  in 
a  somewhat  modified  form.  He  says,  "  As  to  which  of  the  two  [Mal- 
pighi  and  Grew]  the  priority  belongs  has  been  repeatedly  discussed, 
though  the  facts  to  be  considered  are  undoubted.  The  first  part  of 
Malpighi's  large  work,  the  '  Anatomes  Plantarum  Idea,'  which  ap- 
peared at  a  later  time,  is  dated  Bologna,  November  1,  1671  ;  and 
Grew,  who  from  1677  was  Secretary  to  the  Eoyal  Society,  informs  us 
in  the  preface  to  liis  anatomical  work  of  1682,  that  Malpighi  laid  his 
work  before  the  Society  on  December  7,  1671,  the  same  day  on 
which  Grew  presented  his  treatise,  '  The  Anatomy  of  Plants  Begun,' 
in  print,  having  already  tendered  it  in  manuscript  on  the  11th  May 
in  the  same  year.  But  it  must  be  observed  that  these  are  not  the 
dates  of  the  larger  works  of  these  two  men,  but  only  of  the  pre- 
liminary communications,  in  which  they  give  a  brief  summary  of  the 
researches  they  had  then  made ;'  the  fuller  and  more  complete 
treatises  appeared  afterwards  ;  the  preliminary  communications  formed 
the  first  part  of  the  later  works  and  to  some  extent  the  introduction 
to  them.  The  first  part  of  Malpighi's  longer  account  was  laid  before 
the  Society  in  1674,  while  Grew  produced  a  series  of  essays  on  differ- 
ent parts  of  vegetable  anatomy  between  1672  and  1682;  and  these 
appeared  together  with  his  first  communication  in  a  large  folio  volume 
under  the  title,  '  The  Anatomy  of  Plants,'  in  1682.  Thus  Grew  had 
opportunity  to  use  Malpighi's  ideas  in  his  later  compositions ;  he 
actually  did  so,  and  the  important  point  as  regards  the  question  of 
priority  is,  that  where  he  makes  use  of  Malpighi  he  distinctly  quotes 
from  him.  No  more  is  necessary  to  remove  the  serious  imputation 
which  Schleiden  has  made  against  Grew." 

Sachs'  modified  charge  is  also  based  on  erroneous  dates.  He  was 
unaware  that  the  larger  portion  of  Grew's  '  Anatomy  of  Plants  '  was 
published  in  1672,  1673,  and  1675,  the  latter  year  being  the  date  of 
the  reception  and  publication  of  Malpighi's  '  Anatome.'  I  have  been 
able  to  discover  only  a  single  reference  to  Malpighi  in  Grew's 
'  Anatomy  of  Plants,'  and  there  (p.  73)  he  quotes,  as  Sachs  says,  the 
words  of  the  '  Anatome,'  but  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  and  adding 
to  Malpighi's  statement. 

The  fact  is  that  Grew  and  Malpighi  were  original  investigators 
of  plant  anatomy.  A  comparison  of  their  published  works  on  this 
subject  shows  that  throughout  they  are  entirely  independent,  fre- 
quently differing  in  their  interpretations,  and  often  complementary 
to  each  other.  Grew  was  first  in  the  field.  Both  men  were  no  doubt 
moved  with  a  common  purpose  expressed  thus  by  Grew,  "  that  the 
same  subject,  being  prosecuted  by  two  hands,  would  be  the  more 
illustrated  by  the  different  examples  produced  by  both ;  and  that  the 


140  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

defects  of  both  would  mutually  be  supplied."  And  this  was  the 
opinion  of  the  men  of  that  day,  for  in  a  notice  of  Grew's  '  Anatomy 
of  Trunks ?  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  No.  120,  December  27, 
1675,  the  writer  says :  "  As  there  hath  been  a  very  happy  concurrence 
of  these  two  eminently  learned  persons,  Signor  Malpighi  and  our 
present  author  Dr.  Grew,  both  Fellows  of  the  Koyal  Society,  in 
making  and  exhibiting  their  ingenious  and  accurate  beginnings  con- 
cerning the  anatomy  of  plants,  and  thereby  giving  a  new  country  of 
philosophy  ;  so  they  have  both  been  very  industrious  in  pursuing  this 
subject,  in  many  things  confirming  one  another's  observations,  and  in 
some  few  ones  supplying  one  another's  defects."  It  is  abundantly 
evident  from  the  letters  of  Malpighi,  Oldenburg,  and  Grew  that  the 
most  cordial  relations  existed  between  Malpighi  and  Grew.  The 
following  letter  preserved  among  the  manuscripts  of  the  Royal 
Society,  which  has  not  been  published,  is  an  interesting  confirmation 
of  this,  as  well  as  a  specimen  of  the  quaint  courtesy  of  these  olden 
times. 

"London,  5th  March,  1672-3. 

Most  Illustrious  Sir, 

Since  you  have  given  me  manifold  occasion  for  writing  to  you, 
and  the  illustrious  Mr.  Oldenburg  has  shown  me  a  way  of  sending  a 
letter,  I  could  not  (without  sacrificing  all  good  manners)  any  longer 
restrain  my  pen.  And,  indeed,  I  did  not  consider  it  unsuitable  that 
you  should  learn  from  me  as  well  as  from  others  how  worthy  of  praise 
are  your  writings  dedicated  to  our  Koyal  Society ;  from  me,  I  say, 
who  have  myself  benefited  from  them,  and  am  truly  proud  so  to  have 
benefited.  Moreover,  it  is  not  at  all  fitting  to  recall  the  great 
candour  with  which  it  pleased  you  to  notice  my  work,  without  ex- 
pressing the  gratitude  and  honour  that  is  in  my  mind. 

I  find  that  all  your  observations  fully  agree  with  mine:  some, 
however,  on  the  flower,  the  fruit,  and  the  seed,  it  bas  pleased  you  to 
pass  over.  Of  the  wide  tubes,  which  you  call  tracheae,  I  first  learned 
the  spiral  formation  from  your  works,  from  which  I  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity of  adding  also  a  few  observations  on  the  conformation  of  the 
said  tubes. 

The  anatomical  observations  which  I  collected  concerning  roots  in 
the  year  just  closed,  together  with  the  figures,  some  the  natural  size 
of  the  roots,  others  microscopical,  I  shall  shortly  (by  the  advice  of  the 
Eoyal  Society)  send  to  the  printer.  To  these  I  have  added  the  func- 
tions of  the  parts,  and  in  individual  cases  the  methods  of  nutrition 
and  configuration ;  the  magnitude  of  the  whole  root,  the  causes  of 
the  figures,  movements,  ages,  contents,  briefly  elucidated.  To  which, 
also,  1  determined  to  prefix  the  '  Idea  of  Phytological  Science  '  as  it 
was  delineated  in  my  mind  ;  and  at  the  same  time  that  they  are 
published,  to  submit  them  to  your  learned  and  kind  perusal.  1  saw 
also  with  the  greatest  pleasure  yonr  descriptions  of  the  incubating 
ovum,  both  former  and  recent ;   the  rest  are  all  such  accurate  and 


The  President's  Address.     By  Wm.  Carruthers.  141 

graceful  specimens  of  the  same  skill,  learning  and  talent,  that  they 
piainly  declare  their  Malpighian  origin.  Proceed,  most  learned  Sir, 
in  the  things  you  have  so  excellently  begun,  and  strive  to  bind  us 
and  posterity  more  each  day  to  your  honourable  memory. 

Your  most  affectionate 

Nehemiah  Grew." 

Grew  was  a  man  of  extensive  knowledge  and  possessed  by  a  philo- 
sophic spirit,  with  a  keen  appreciation  of  the  affinities  of  plants  and 
animals,  though  frequently  led  astray  by  the  imperfect  knowledge  and 
fanciful  theories  of  his  day.  He  laid  the  foundations  of  vegetable 
histology  with  remarkable  intelligence  and  accuracy.  His  descriptions 
are  careful,  and  his  drawings  admirable,  though  sometimes  diagram- 
matic and  often  helped  by  "  reason  "  because  of  the  imperfections  of 
his  Microscope  and  its  adjuncts.  His  sections  of  woods,  his  details 
of  flowers,  fruits,  and  seeds  have  scarcely  been  surpassed. 

One  that  knew  him  well  says  that  "  he  was  grave  and  serious  in 
his  conversation,  yet  affable  and  courteous  with  an  obliging  civility 
without  nervousness,  at  the  same  time  inviting  your  acquaintance  and 
commanding  your  respect.  He  did  not  only  mind  his  own  things, 
but  was  truly  concerned  for  the  public."  He  was  much  beloved  as  a 
physician.  His  death  took  place  suddenly,  when  engaged  in  his  pro- 
fessional work,  on  the  25th  March,  1712. 


142  Transactions  of  the  Society. 


V. — New  Methods  in  Microscope   Work. 
By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

(Read  February  1st,  1902.) 

Polarizing  with  the  Microscope. 

Polarizing  work  with  the  Microscope  is  of  two  distinct  kinds : — 

1.  The  magnification  of  minute  objects  under  polarized  light. 

2.  The  investigation  of  phenomena  due  to  the  interference  of 
polarized  light  (known  as  "  rings  and  brushes  "). 

With  reference  to  the  first  kind  the  images  are  much  sharper, 
i.e.  more  critical,  if  a  pair  of  tourmalines  be  substituted  for  the  Nicol 
prisms  usually  supplied  by  the  opticians  for  this  purpose. 

One  tourmaline  should  be  selected  with  care ;  it  should  be  of  a 
smoky  tint  with  the  slightest  dash  of  pink,  free  from  veins  and  specks, 
and  not  less  than  £  in.  in  diameter.  It  should  be  mounted  in  a  cap 
to  fit  over  the  eye-piece. 

The  other  tourmaline  may  be  of  the  ordinary  yellow-green  variety, 
but  it  should  be  larger  than  the  first ;  a  rectangle  -^  by  ^  would 
be  a  convenient  size  and  shape.  This  tourmaline  should  be  mounted 
in  a  metal  screen,  say  2f  by  3|-,  with  an  aperture  in  it  of  such  a 
size  as  to  exclude  all  light  that  does  not  pass  through  the  tourmaline. 
This  screen  may  be  mounted  either  on  a  separate  stand,  or  on  an 
arm  attached  to  the  lamp,  as  the  position  it  is  intended  to  occupy  is 
in  front  of,  and  close  to  the  lamp  chimney. 

The  method  of  using  this  apparatus  in  the  first  kind  of  investi- 
gations needs  no  explanation.  The  Microscope  is  set  up  in  the  usual 
way ;  the  image  of  the  edge  of  the  lamp  flame  is  sharply  focussed  by 
the  substage  condenser  on  the  object ;  the  screen  holding  the  tourma- 
line is  placed  close  to  the  chimney  of  the  lamp.  The  object  is  then 
examined  and,  when  all  the  adjustments  (collar  correction,  tube 
length,  size  of  illuminating  cone,  &c),  are  completed,  the  second 
tourmaline,  in  the  cap  of  the  eye-piece,  is  applied,  and  the  eye-piece 
and  object  rotated  until  the  desired  effect  is  obtained.  If  the  sub- 
stage  condenser  were  an  achromatic  Abbe,  and  a  large  axial  illuminat- 
ing cone  was  required,  under  the  old  regime  a  very  large,  ond 
therefore  expensive,  Nicol  would  be  necessary,  because  the  Nicol 
would  have  to  be  large  enough  to  pass  a  beam  equal  to  the  size  of 
the  back  lens  of  the  Abbe  condenser ;  but  with  this  new  method  a 
tourmaline  large  enough  to  show  the  middle  portion  of  the  lamp 
flame  is  sufficient,  even  when  the  widest  angled  cones  are  employed 


New  Methods  in  Microscope  Work.     By  E.  M.  Nelso7i.     143 

with  any  kind  of  condenser.  The  images  obtained  by  this  new  method 
will  be  just  as  critical  as  those  in  a  Microscope  when  no  polariscope 
is  used. 

In  the  old  method  the  polarizing  prism  interfered  with  the  correct 
performance  of  the  substage  condenser;  the  analysing  prism  also, 
when  mounted  immediately  above  the  objective,  destroyed  the  sharp- 
ness of  the  image,  and  when  placed  over  the  eye-piece  removed  the 
eye  too  far  from  the  eye  point ;  it  also  caused  a  deterioration  of  the 
image,  but  not  to  the  same  extent  as  when  placed  above  the  objective. 
Mr.  Gordon  has  shown  that  the  Microscope  image  is  sharpened  up 
when  the  size  of  the  antipoints  is  reduced,  and  that  one  way  of  obtain- 
ing small  antipoints  is  by  using  large  axial  cones  of  illumination. 
The  importance  of  being  able  to  fill  the  back  lens  of  the  condenser  is 
therefore  manifest. 

An  apochromatic  condenser  should  not  be  used  in  polariscope 
work,  because  the  fluorite  of  which  it  is  composed  itself  polarizes. 

Rings  and  Brushes. 

1  have  previously  described  *  a  method  of  investigating  these  by 
the  apparatus  supplied  in  an  ordinary  microscopical  outfit,  and  there- 
fore will,  without  repetition,  merely  point  out  that  large  cones  of 
illumination  are  essential  for  the  demonstration  of  wide  angled' 
biaxial  crystals,  and  other  allied  phenomena.  The  substitution  of 
tourmalines  for  Nicols  is  of  much  advantage,  because  the  illuminating 
cones  may  be  made  as  large  as  possible,  and  the  size  of  the  back  lens 
of  the  objective  on  the  nose-piece  need  not  be  restricted  to  the  width 
of  an  analysing  prism.  The  tourmalines  are  used  in  the  same  position 
as  before,  viz.  one  close  to  the  chimney  of  the  lamp,  and  the  other 
in  the  cap  over  the  eye-piece.  The  Zeiss  large  a  *  objective  is  a 
convenient  lens  to  use  at  the  bottom  of  the  draw-tube. 

It  is  a  pity  that  these  interesting  and  very  beautiful  phenomena 
are  not  more  generally  studied.  One  meets  microscopists  who  own 
perhaps  more  than  one  Microscope,  with  polariscopes  fitted  and  all 
the  necessary  apparatus,  and  yet  who  have  never  seen  a  ring  and 
brush. 

The  Measurement  of  W.B.,  W.A.  and  N.A. 

While  on  the  subject  of  improved  methods  of  microscopical 
manipulation,  attention  might  be  directed  to  a  most  useful  piece  of 
apparatus,  which  hitherto  has  only  been  used  in  connection  with  a 
telescope.  I  allude  to  Bamsden's  Dynamometer,  two  examples  of 
which  are  shown  in  figs.  34  and  35. 

The  arrangement  of  the  micrometer  screw,  as  invented  in  1  639 
by  William  Gascoigne,   was  very  ingenious.     On   a   pinion,  which 

*  Journ.  R.M.S.,  1892,  p.  683,  fig.  81. 


144 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


terminated  in  a  drum-head,  two  threads  were  cut,  one  being  twice 
the  pitch  of  the  other ;  if,  for  example,  one  screw  gave  one  milli- 
metre the  other  would  give  half  a  millimetre  of  movement  for  each 
complete  revolution  of  the  drum-head.  There  were  two  separate 
sliding  plates,  one,  which  we  will  call  A,  carried  the  other  B,  with 
it.  ^  The  slow-speed  screw  was  connected  with  the  sliding  plate  A 
and  moved  it,  together  with  the  plate  B,  in  a  certain  direction,  at  the 
rate  of  half  a  millimetre  for  a  revolution,  but  the  other  screw  was 
attached  to  the  plate  B,  and  moved  it  in  an  opposite  direction  at 
double  the  speed;  the  resultant  of  these  motions  being  that  the 
plates  were  either  separated  from,  or  brought  to,  a  certain  point  at 
a  uniform  speed  of  half  a  millimetre  for  each  revolution  of  the  drum- 
head. 

A  similar  action  is  now  obtained  by  means  of  right  and  left- 
handed  screws,  but  as  such  things  were  quite  unknown  in  Gascoigne's 
time,  one  cannot  help  admiring  the  ingenuity  of  his  invention. 

Each  plate  carries  the  half  of  a  biconvex  lens,  and  by  this  simple 
-device  measurements  of  small  intervals  can  be  made  with  great 
accuracy ;  so  also  the  diameter  of  the  disc  of  light,  seen  in  front  of 


Fig.  34. 


Fig.  35. 


the  eye-piece  of  either  a  telescope  or  a  Microscope,  commonly  known 
as  the  Ramsden  disc,  can  be  readily  determined. 

This  ingenious  system  of  micrometry  by  means  of  a  divided  lens 
or  two  lenses  is  due  to  Savary  in  1743,  but  Dollond  in  1754  effected 
a  substantial  improvement  by  makiL  2;  the  bnses  move  in  the  line  of 
their  section. 

It  appears  then  that  Gascoigne  invented  the  screw  movement,  and 
Dollond  the  divided  lens,  so  it  is  not  easy  to  see  where  Ramsden 
comes  in  ;  but  he  may  have  been,  and  probably  was,  the  first  to  apply 
this  form  of  micrometer  to  the  measurement  of  the  diameter  of  the 
emergent  pencil  of  a  telescope,  for  the  purpose  of  finding  its  power  ; 
at  any  rate  he  made  micrometers  on  this  principle,  and  they  were 
known  as  "  Ramsden's  Dynameters."  These  instruments  are  still 
made  and  sold  by  opticians  who  keep  accessories  for  the  telescope,  but 
they  are  now  called  dynamometers. 

In  fig.  34  complete  revolutions  of  the  drum-head  are  indicated  on 


New  Methods  in  Microscope  Work.     By  E.  M.  Nelson.     145 

the  small  dial  seen  at  the  top  of  the  instrument  at  right  angles  to  the 
drum,  but  in  fig.  35  they  are  shown  on  the  engraved  plate  -which 
traverses  across  a  fixed  arrow-head. 

Having  described  the  instrument  we  will  now  pass  on  to  its 
application  for  microscopical  purposes.  In  the  Journal  for  1901, 
p.  243,  it  was  pointed  out  that  a  dynamometer  would  be  a  very  con- 
venient, if  costly,  instrument  for  the  determination  of  the  Working 
Ratio  or  Aperture,  and,  on  account  of  the  expense,  an  alternative 
device  was  recommended.  Experience  has  since  shown  that,  while 
this  alternative  apparatus  is  quite  suitable  for  the  determination  of 
the  Working  Ratio,  it  fails  to  measure  the  precise  diameter  of  the 
back  lens  of  the  objective,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  finding  the 
exact  point  when  the  back  lens  is  in  focus.  But,  by  measuring  with 
a  dynamometer  the  diameter  of  the  eye-discs,  representing  both  the 
full  aperture,  and  also  that  portion  of  it  which  is  illuminated,  not 
only  can  the  Working  Ratio  be  found,  but  the  N.A.  be  determined 
as  well. 

In  order  to  measure  any  interval  by  a  dynamometer  the  constant 
of  the  instrument  must  first  be  found  out :  in  other  words,  a  tenth  of 
an  inch,  or  one  millimetre,  on  a  well  divided  scale  must  be  measured, 
and  all  other  measurements  referred  by  proportion  to  this  standard ; 
thus,  in  one  of  the  instruments  in  fig.  34  one-tenth  of  an  inch  re- 

35 

quires  five  complete  revolutions  and  =-^-  of  a  revolution,  which  may 

be  written  as   5  ■  35 ;   then,  if  some  other  interval    measured  3 '  8 

3*8  *  O'l 
revolutions,  it  would  represent  —        - —  or  0"071  inch. 

o "  oo 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  these  instruments  are  supposed  to 
read  off  in  inches  directly,  but  although  several  have  been  examined 
only  a  single  one  gave  a  correct  reading  ;  they  mostly  read  too  high. 
For  instance,  the  drum-head  in  fig.  34  is  divided  into  twenty  primary 
divisions,  so  that  the  real  reading  in  the  observation  above  is  not 
5*35,  but  the  double  of  this,  or  10*70,  which  ought  to  have  been 
10  •  00,  if  the  instrument  indicated  correctly. 

By  far  the  better  plan  is  to  disregard  these  readings  altogether, 
and  to  find  the  constant  of  the  instrument  once  for  all,  and  apply  it 
in  the  manner  pointed  out  above.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  carrying 
out  this  idea,  the  drum-head  in  fig.  34  is  read  decimally,  and  not  as  it 
is  engraved;  thus  14  is  read  7,  16  read  8 ;  in  brief,  the  reading  on 
the  drum-head  is  halved,  and  the  complete  revolutions  left  as  they 
really  are.  The  drum-head  in  fig.  35  is  divided  decimally,  and  one- 
tenth  of  an  inch  reads  exactly  five  revolutions,  or  500.  The  reading 
of  these  instruments  is  affected  by  myopia  and  presbyopia,  therefore 
every  observer  should  find  out  his  own  constant  of  the  instrument. 

If  the  Working  Ratio  be  required  the  two  dynamometer  drum- 
bead  readings  need  not  be  converted  into  linear  measure,  as  their 

April  16th,  1902  l 


146  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

quotient  is  the  Working  Ratio ;  but  in  order  to  find  the  N.A.  it  is 

necessary  to  measure  both  the  diameter  of  the  eye-disc,  corresponding 

to  the  entire  back  lens,  in  linear  measure,  and  also  to  determine  the 

magnifying  power  of  the  entire  Microscope,  either  by  projection,  or 

by  means  of  some  convenient  camera,  the  distance  of  the  eye-disc  to 

the  paper,  or  screen,  being  10  in.     Then  if  B  be  the  diameter  of  the 

back  lens,*  and  e,  that  of  the  eye-disc  for  the  full  aperture,  <£  being 

the  focal  length  of  the  entire  Microscope,  and  /  that  of  the  object 

glass,  M  being  the  magnifying  power  of  the  entire  Microscope  at  a 

projection  distance  of  10  in.,  and  m  the  initial  magnifying  power  of 

the  objective.     The  following  relations  between  these  quantities  will 

subsist : 

10  10  e       <f>       m 

M  =  -;OT  =  7;andF=7  =  -; 

M"  p 
e  =  2  N.A.  <f>  ;  and  B  =  2  N.A./;  so  N.A.  =  =^. 

r  j  >  20 

The  optical  index  = =  50  B. 

m 

All  that  is  required,  then,  in  order  to  find  the  N.A.  is  to  multiply 
the  magnifying  power  of  the  complete  Microscope  by  the  diameter 
of  the  eye-disc,  corresponding  to  the  full  aperture,  and  divide  the 
product  by  20. 

When  the  measurement  of  the  eye-disc  is  made,  it  is  important 
that  the  back  lens  of  the  objective  be  either  filled  with  light  by  the 
substage  condenser  directly,  or  if,  on  account  of  insufficiency  of 
aperture  in  the  condenser,  that  cannot  be  done,  indirectly,  by  dispersed 
light  from  a  coarse  diatom,  or  other  suitable  object,  placed  on  the 
stage. 

It  therefore  becomes  a  question  of  practical  microscopy  whether 
to  purchase  an  Apertometer  or  a  Dynamometer.  As  an  Apertometer 
will  only  do  the  one  thing,  viz.  measure  the  aperture  of  an  object 
glass,  the  preference  will  probably  be  given  to  the  Dynamometer, 
which,  besides  measuring  the  N.A.,  will  measure  either  the  Working 
Ratio,  or  Working  Aperture,  and  also  is  useful  for  many  other 
purposes. 

The  Measurement  of  the  Focus  of  a  Lens. 

In  the  Journal  for  1901,  p.  126,  a  formula  is  given  for  finding 
the  true  focal  length  of  any  objective,  by  the  help  of  a  reciprocal 
table,  without  calculation,  the  magnifying  power,  at  a  projection  dis- 
tance of  100  in.  from  the  micrometer  to  the  screen,  being  known. 
Another  method  of  accomplishing  the  same  object  may  be  of  interest. 

*  In  this  article  "  Back  lens  "  means  of  course  the  optical,  and  not  the  actual 
back  lens ;  its  diameter  equals  the  Optical  Index  divided  by  50. 


New  Methods  in  Microscope  Work.     By  E.  M.  Nelson.     147 

Project  a  stage  micrometer  on  to  a  screen  at  any  convenient  dis- 
tance, measured  from  some  part  of  the  lens  mount ;  determine  the 
magnifying  power,  and  call  it  M.  Move  the  screen  nearer  the  lens, 
and  again  measure  its  distance  from  the  same  point  on  the  lens 
mount,  and  call  the  difference  between  these  distances  d ;  determine 
the  new  magnifying  power,  and  call  it  m ;  then,  the  focal  length  is 
given  by  the  formula 

/-       d 
J       M-w* 

During  the  operation  the  position  of  the  lens  must  on  no  account 
1)6  shifted.  The  distance  the  screen  has  been  moved  d,  may  with 
advantage  be  made  10  or  100,  and  then  the  result  can  be  found  in 
a  reciprocal  table,  without  calculation.  This  formula  is  a  very  con- 
venient one,  and  the  necessary  measurements  may  be  easily  made 
when  a  photomicrographic  outfit  is  available. 


l  2 


148  Transactions  of  the  Society. 


VI. — Third  List  of  New  Rotifers  since  1889. 
By  Charles  F.  Rousselet,  Curator  and  F.K.M.S. 

In  continuation  of  my  two  previous  lists  published  in  this  Journal 
in  August  1893  and  February  1897,  I  now  submit  a  third  list  of 
98  new  names  which  have  since  been  added  to  the  literature  of  the 
Rotifera,  and  which  brings  the  total  number  to  393  new  names 
of  Rotifers  since  Hudson  and  Gosse's  Monograph  was  completed  in 
1889.  I  say  new  names  advisedly,  which  does  not  mean  new  species, 
for  out  of  the  98  in  the  present  list  no  fewer  than  38  can  be 
identified  as  old  species,  and  some  of  the  others  will  ever  remain 
unrecognisable. 

It  seems  a  great  pity  that  authors  should  continue  to  burden 
science  with  so  much  dead  weight,  when  a  little  more  search  and  care 
in  the  identification  would  make  their  lists  and  work  so  much  more 
useful.  Mr.  H.  S.  Jennings  *  has  well  expressed  what  should  be 
the  guiding  idea  for  workers  in  this  department,  and  his  words 
deserve  to  be  repeated  here  for  the  benefit  of  all.  Mr.  Jennings 
writes  :  "  No  one  has  a  right  to  cumber  scientific  literature  with  the 
names  of  species  '  presumably  undescribed,'  as  a  recent  paper  naively 
puts  it,  without  recognising  the  fact  that  a  vast  volume  of  literature 
has  appeared  on  the  group  since  the  publication  of  Hudson  and  Gosse's 
Monograph,  including  descriptions  of  many  new  species.  The  recog- 
nition and  description  of  a  new  species  must  therefore  be  regarded  as 
a  most  laborious  piece  of  work,  involving  a  careful  examination  of 
large  numbers  of  papers  in  various  languages,  besides  a  consultation 
of  Hudson  and  Gosse.  There  is  no  excuse  for  omitting  such  a  study 
before  publishing  descriptions  of  species  as  new,  in  view  of  the  full 
lists  of  new  Rotifers  published  at  intervals  by  Mr.  C.  F.  Rousselet,  with 
the  titles  of  the  papers  in  which  the  descriptions  are  published.  If 
a  student  finds  himself  unable  to  see  a  large  share  of  these  papers,  it 
is  his  duty  to  recognise  the  fact  that  he  is  not  in  a  position  to  publish 
names  of  new  species.  If  he  wishes  to  publish  his  notes  and  draw- 
ings, these  may  be  of  great  use  to  other  workers  ;  but  if  he  proceeds 
to  append  new  names  to  his  descriptions,  increasing  the  already  heavy 
burden  of  synonymy,  his  work  becomes  a  positive  injury  to  science 
and  a  nuisance  to  all  careful  scientific  students. — The  publication  of 
new  species  without  a  figure,  which  has  been  practised  by  some 
American  authors,  as  well  as  by  some  of  those  of  Europe,  is  greatly 

*  Rotatoria  of  the  United  States  (108),  1900,  p.  70. 


List  of  New  Rotifers  since  1889.     By.C.  F.  Rousselet.     149 

to  be  deprecated.  Usually  the  figure  is  the  most  important  part  of 
the  account  of  a  rotifer,  and  a  description  could,  as  a  rule,  be  much 
better  dispensed  with  than  a  good  figure.  To  sum  up,  therefore,  any- 
one who  proposes  to  publish  a  description  of  a  rotifer  as  new  should 
fulfil  the  following  conditions  : — 

1.  Not  only  Hudson  and  Gosse's  Monograph,  but  all  subsequent 
papers  containing  descriptions  of  rotifers  in  any  way  related  to  the 
one  in  hand,  should  be  consulted. 

2.  New  species  should  not  be  described  as  a  result  of  the  dis- 
covery of  some  hitherto  unmentioned  anatomical  detail  in  an  otherwise 
known  species. 

3.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  describe  as  new  species 
mere  variations  of  an  old  species. 

4.  If  any  doubt  can  possibly  exist,  the  figures  and  descriptions 
should  be  submitted,  before  publishing,  to  some  expert  who  has  all 
the  literature  at  hand. 

5.  A  description  of  a  new  species  should  be  accompanied  by  a 
detailed  comparison  with  any  very  closely  related  species  that  may 
exist,  to  show  wherein  this  one  differs,  and  why  it  is  considered  new. 

6.  Every  description  of  a  new  species  should  be  accompanied  by 
a  good  figure  or  figures." 

An  excellent  model  of  how  the  work  of  recording  the  fauna  of  a 
lake  or  a  district  should  be  done  is  furnished  by  Dr.  E.  F.  Weber's 
'  Faune  Eotatorienne  du  Bassin  du  Leman,'  in  which  about  125 
species,  accurately  described  and  beautifully  figured,  are  recorded,  but 
only  one  new  species  is  named. 

The  time,  surely,  is  past  when  new  species  of  rotifers  can  be 
found  wholesale  in  any  lake,  and  with  the  publication  of  these  lists, 
together  with  the  titles  of  papers,  the  work  of  identification,  always 
laborious,  is  rendered  comparatively  easy.  I  may  add  that  I  shall 
always  be  glad  to  assist  in  identifying  sketches  and  descriptions  of 
rotifers,  or  still  better  preserved  specimens,  that  may  be  sent  to  me 
addressed  to  the  Eooms  of  this  Society  at  20  Hanover  Square, 
London,  W.,  a  task  which  is  facilitated  by  my  collection  of  slides  of 
preserved  Eotifera  containing  at  present  over  300  different  species. 

As  before,  the  numbers  behind  each  name  in  the  subjoined  list 
refer  to  the  Bibliography  at  the  end. 


Rhizota. 

Melicerta  fiocculosa  Kellicot  (109)  (  =  ?M.janus  Hudson). 

fimbriata  Shephard  and  Strickland  (122)  (  =  ?M.itubi- 
eolaria  Ehrbg.). 
Lacinularia  elliptiea  Shephard  (120). 
,,  striolata  Shephard  (121). 

Megalotrocha  binotata  Daday  (102)  {  =  M.  semi-bullata  Thorpe). 


150  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Limnias  nymphsese  Stenroos  (123). 

Conochilus  limneticus  Stenroos  (123)  (=(7.  unicornis  Rousselet). 

New  Genus. 
Pseudoecistes  rotifer  Stenroos  (123). 

Bdelloida. 

Philodina  (?)  emini  Collin  (101). 

„  parasitica  Marchoux  (115). 

Callidina  branchicola  Nemec  (117). 

„         brycei  Weber  (127). 

„         cataracta  Lord  (112). 

„         quadridens  Hilgendorf  (107). 

Ploima.     I.  Il-loricata. 

Asplanchna  papuana  Daday  (102)  (  =  Asplanchnopus  myrmeleo 
Ehrenbg.). 
„  brightivellii  var.  ceylonica  Daday  (103). 

Sacculus  orbicularis  Kellicot  (109)  (  =  Gastropus  stylifer  Imhof). 
Synchseta  neglecta  Zacharias  (130, 119)  (  =  S.  oblonga  Ehrenbg.). 
„         cecilia  Rousselet  (119). 
„         Jcitina  Rousselet  (119). 
„         vorax  Rousselet  (119). 
„         neapolitana  Rousselet  (119). 
Triarthra  brachiata  Rousselet  (118). 

Hydatina  monops  Hilgendorf  (107)  (  =  H.  senta  Ehrenbg.).* 
Notops  fennicus  Stenroos  (123)  (  =  Gastropus  minor  Rousselet). 
„      pelagicus  Jennings  (108). 
„      brachionus  var.  spinosus  Rousselet  (111). 
Taphrocampa  nitida  Lord  (112). 
Pleurotrocha  parasitica  Jennings  (108). 
Notommata  vorax  Stokes  (1*24)  (  =  N.  torulosa  Dujardin). 

„  monostylseformis  Stenroos  (123)  (  =  Monostyla  bifurca 

Bryce). 
„  pentophthahna  Hilgendorf  (107). 

Monommata  appendiculata  Stenroos  (123). 
Proales   hyalina   Stokes    (124)    (  =  Cyrtonia   tuba   Ehrenbg. 
Rousselet). 
„        algicola  Kellicot  (109). 
„        mirabilis  Stenroos  (123). 
Furcularia  trihamata  Stenroos  (123)  (  =  F.  forficula  Ehrenbg.). 
„  macrodactyla   Stenroos   (123)  (=  ?  Diaschiza  semi- 

aperta  Gosse). 
Eosphora  viridis  Stenroos  (123)  (  =  E.  aurita  Ehrenbg.). 
;       Biglena   contorta   Stokes   (124)    (=  ?    Notommata  for cipata 
Ehrenbg.). 


List  of  New  Rotifers  since  1889.     By  G.  F.  Rousselet.     151 

Diglena  rostrata  Dixon-Nuttall  and  Freeman  (105). 
Microcodides  abbreviatus  Stenroos  (123)  (  =  M.  robustus  Glas- 
cott). 

New  Genera. 

Diarthra  monostyla  Daday  (102). 

Planoventer  varicolor  (?)  Hilgendorf  (107). 

Postclausa  circularis   Hilgendorf  (107)  (  =  Gastropus  minor 

Bousselet). 
minuta  Hilgendorf  (107)    (  =  Gastropus  minor 

Bousselet). 


» 


» 


a 


Ploima.     II.  Loricata. 

Mastigocerca  spinifera  Stokes  (124)  (  =  M.  bicuspes  Pell). 

„  hamata  Zacharias  (128)  (  =  M.  setifera  Lauterborn). 

multicrinis  Kellicot  (109). 

grandis  Stenroos  (123)  (=  ?  M.  elongata  Gosse). 
unidens  Stenroos  (123)  (  =  ?  M.  scipio  Gosse). 
cuspidata  Stenroos  (123)  =  ?  M.  scipio  Gosse). 
rosea  Stenroos  (123)  (  =  M.  bicornis  Ehrenbg.). 
,,  flectocaudatus  Hilgendorf  (107)  ( =  Coelopus  tenuior 

Gosse). 
„  rectocaudatus  Hilgendorf  (107)  (  =  M. .  lophoessa 

Gosse)  (or  M.  mucosa). 
„  birostris  Minkiewicz    (116)   (  =  Rattulus   bicornis 

Western). 
s,  hamata  var.  bologo'ensis  Minkiewicz   (116)  (  =  M. 

setifera  Lauterborn). 
Coelopus  intermedius  Stenroos  (123). 

„        rousseleti  Yoigt  (126). 
Dinocharis  similis  Stenroos  (123). 

„  inornata  (?)  Hilgendorf  (107). 

Stephanops  tenellus  Bryce  (100). 
Diaschiza  taurocephalus  Hilgendorf  (107)  (  =  D.  tenuior  Gosse). 

„  ventripes  Dixon-Nuttall  (104). 

Salpina  macracantha  var.  ceylonica  Daday  (103). 
Diflax  ornata  Daday  (102). 

Biplois  sculpturata  Daday  (102)  (  =  Distyla  ludwigii  Eckstein). 
Euchlanis  longicaudata  Collin  (101). 
Gaihypna  scutaria  Stokes  (124). 
„         glandulosa  Stokes  (124). 
„        jiexilis  Stenroos  (123). 
„         braehydactyla  Stenroos  (123). 

magna  Stenroos  (123)  (  =  G.  ungulata  Gosse).  ' 
mdcrodactyla  Daday  (103)  (  =  0.  leontina  Turner). 
„         ligona  Dunlop  (106). 


152  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Distyla  oxycauda  Stenroos  (123)  (  =  D.  ludwigii  Eckstein). 
Monostyla  incisa  Daday  (102). 
„         bicornis  Daday  (102). 
„        pygmsea  Daday  (102). 
„         bicornis  Stenroos  (123). 

„         appendiculata   Skorikow   (125)    (  =  M .   lamellata 
Daday). 
Colurus  gracilis  Hilgendorf  (107). 
Metopidia  quadricarinata  Stenroos  (123). 
„         dactyliseta  Stenroos  (123). 
„         sulcata  Stenroos  (123). 
Pterodina  emarginula  Stenroos  (123)  (=  ?  Pt.  rejlexa  Gosse). 
Brachionus  tetr acanthus  Collin  (101)  (  =  Br.  angularis  Gosse). 
„  mirabilis  Daday  (102). 

„  papuanus  Daday  (102)  (  =  Br.  angularis  var.  Gosse). 

„  falcatus  Zacharias  (129). 

Ploesoma  mollis  Kellicot  (105). 
Noteus  stuhlmanni  Collin  (101). 

Anursea  cochlearis  var.  macracantha  Lauterborn  (113,  114). 
„  „  „    hispida  Lauterborn  (113,  114). 

„  „  „    irregularis  Lauterborn  (113,  114). 

„        aeuleata  var.  dumasi  Kichard  (131)  (  =  A.  aculeata  var. 
valga  Ehrenbg.). 
Notholca  regularis  Hilgendorf  (107)  (  =  ^7".  scapha  Gosse). 

New  Genus. 
Tetramastix  opoliensis  Zacbarias  (129). 

Bibliography. 

N.B. — The  works  here  enumerated  contain  the  descriptions  of  the  new  Eotifera 
in  preceding  list,  but  they  are  not,  and  do  not  pretend  to  be,  a  complete  list  of  paper* 
on  Eotifera  in  general  that  have  appeared  duriDg  the  period  covered  by  the  list. 

100.  Betoe,  David. — Contributions  to  the  Non-Marine  Fauna  of  Spits- 

bergen.    Part  II.  Report  on  the  Eotifera.     Proc.  of  the  Zool. 
Soc.  of  London,  June  1897,  pp.  793-799. 

101.  Collin.   Anton. — Rotatorien,   Gastrotrichen   und    Entozoen   Ost- 

Afrikas,  Berlin,  1897,  14  figs. 

102.  Daday,    Eug.    von. —  Rotatoria  Novae  Guineae.     Math.  Termesz- 

ettudomanyi  erteeito,   Budapest,  1897,  pp.  131-148,   12  figs, 
in  text. 

103.  Mikroskopische    Susswassertbiere    aus    Ceylon.      Budapest. 

1898,  pp.  1-123,  with  figs. 

104.  Dixon-Nuttall,  F.   R. — On  Diaschiza   ventripes,  a    new  Rotifer. 

Journ.   Quekett  Micr.  Cluh,  April  1901,  vol.   8,  pp.  25-28, 
pi.  2. 


List  of  New  Rotifers  since  1889.     By  C.  F.  Rousselet.     153 

105.  and  Eev.  E.  Freeman. — On  Diglena  rostrata,  a  new  Rotifer. 

Journ.  Quekett  Micr.   Club,  April  1902,    vol.  8,  pp.    215-6, 
pi.  9. 

106.  Dunlop,    M.    F. — On    a   new    Rotifer :    Cathypna   ligona.    Journ. 

Quekett  Micr.  Club,  April  1901,  vol.  8,  pp.  29-32,  pi.  2. 

107.  Hilgendorf,  F.  W. — A  Contribution  to  the  Study  of  the  Rotifera 

of  New  Zealand.     Transactions  New  Zealand  Institute,  vol.  31, 
1898,  pp.  107-134,  4  pis. 

108.  Jennings,  H.  S. — Rotatoria  of  the  United  States.     U.S.  Fish  Com- 

mission, Bulletin  for  1899,  pp.  67-104,  9  pis. 

109.  Kellicot,  D.  S. — The  Rotifera  of  Sandusky  Bay.     Transactions  of 

the  American  Micr.  Soc,  1896,  pp.  155-164. 

110.  The  Rotifera  of  Sandusky  Bay.  Second  Paper.  Trans- 
actions of  the  Amer.  Micr.  Soc,  1897,  pp.  43-54,  3  figs. 

111.  Kirkman,  Thos. — List  of  some  of  the  Rotifera  of  Natal,  with  & 

note   by  C.   F.  Rousselet.     Journ.   Royal   Micr.  Soc,    1901, 
pp.  229-241,  pi.  6. 

112.  Lord,  J.  E. — On  two  new  Rotifers.     Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club, 

Nov.  1898,  vol.  7,  pp.  75-80,  pi.  7. 

113.  LAtrTERBORN,   Robert. — Vorlaufige  Mittheilung  iiber  den    Varia- 

tionskreis  von  Anuria  cochlearis.     Zool.  Anz.,  No.  574,  1898, 
pp.  597-604. 

114.  Der  Formenkreis  von  Anuria  cochlearis.     I.  Theil.     Ver- 

handl.  des  Naturhist.-Medizin.  Yereins  zu   Heidelberg,  Bd.  6 
(1900)  pp.  412-448,  1  pi. 

115.  Marchottx,  E. — Note  sur  un  Rotifere  vivant  dans  le  tube  digestif 

de  larves    aquatiques  d'insectes.       Compte  Rendu  Soc.  Biol.,. 
1898,  tome  5,  pp.  749-750. 

116.  Minkiewioz,    R. — Petites    etudes    morphologiques   sur   le    limno- 

plancton.     Zool.  Anz.,  Bd.  23  (1900)  pp.  618-623,  3  figs. 

117.  NfiMEC,  B. — O  ectoparasitech  Ligidia.     Prag,  1895,  pp.  1-13,  1  pi. 

118.  Rousselet,  C.  F. — Triarihra  brachiata,  a  new  Species  of  Rotifer, 

&c     Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  Part  Nov.  1901,  vol.  8,  pp. 
143-5,  pi.  8. 

119.  A  monographic  Study  of  the  Genus  Synchseta  with  descrip- 
tions of  four  new  species.  Journ.  Roy.  Micr.  Soc,  1902 
(to  be  published  in  June-Aug.). 

120.  Shephard,  John. — A  new  Rotifer  :  Lacinularia  elliptica.    Victorian 

Naturalist,  Oct.  1897,  1  pi. 

121.  A  new  Rotifer  :  Lacinularia  striolata,  with  note  on  L.  pedun- 

culata.     Proc  Royal  Society  of  Victoria,  Aug.  1899,  vol.  12, 
pp.  20-35,  pis.  3  to  5. 

122.  and  W.  Strickland. — A   new  Rotifer  :   Melicerta  fimbriata. 

Victorian  Naturalist,   vol.  16,  No.  3,  July  1899,  pp.  38-40, 
1  pi. 

123.  Stenroos,  K.  E. — Das  Thierleben  im  Nurmijiirvi-See.    Acta  Socie- 

tatis  pro  Fauna  et  Flora  Fennica,  Helsingfors,  1898,  vol.  17, 
pp.  1-178,  pis.  1-4. 

124.  Stokes,  Dr.  A.  C. — Some  New  Forms  of  American  Rotifers.     II. 

Ann.   and   Mag.  of  Nat.   Hist.,  London,  June   1897,   vol.   19, 
pp.  628-633,  pi.  14. 


154  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

125.  Skobikow,  A. — Ein  neues  Kadertbier.     Zool.  Anzeiger,  Bd.  21, 

No.  571,  24  Oct.  1898,  1  tig. 

126.  Voigt,  Max. — Diagnosen  bisber  unbeschriebener  Organismen  aus 

Ploner  Gewassern.     Zool.  Anz.,  Bd.  25,  No.  660,  30  Dec.  1901, 
pp.  35-39. 

127.  Webeb,  Dr.  E.  F. — Faune   Kotatorienne   du   Bassin   du  Leman. 

Kevue  Suisse  de  Zoologie,  Geneve,  1898. 

128.  Zachabias,  Dr.  Otto. — Forscbungsberichte  aus  der  Biol.  Station 

zu  Plon,  Th.  5,  1897,  pp.  8-9,  1  fig. 

129.  Untersuchung     iiber     das    Plankton     der     Teichgewasser. 

Forscbungsberichte  aus  d.  Biol.  Station  zu  Plon,  Tb.  6,  1898, 
pp.  1-49,  pi.  4. 

130.  Ueber  die  im  Susswasserplankton  vorkommenden  Synchaeten. 

Biol.  Centralblatt,  Bd.  21,  1901,  pp.  381-383. 

131.  Kichabd,    Jules.  —  Sur   quelques    animaux   inferieurs   des   eaux 

douces  du  Tonkin.     Mem.  Soc.  Zool.  de  France,  tome  7,  1894, 
pp.  237-243. 


0 


A.    W.    BENNETT. 


155 


OBITUARY. 

A.  W.  Bennett, 
Biographical  Memoir  of,  by  J.  G.  Bakeb,  F.R.S. 


Alfred  William  Bennett  was  born  at  Clapham  on  the  24th  of 
June,  1833.  His  father,  "William  Bennett,  a  man  of  great  energy  and 
originality,  retired  from  business  as  a  wholesale  tea-dealer  at  an 
unusually  early  age.  He  was  a  friend  of  Edward  Newman  and  of 
Kdward  and  Henry  Doubleday,  and  was  much  interested  in  both 
botany  and  entomology,  so  that  his  children  were  brought  up  in  a 
natural  history  atmosphere.  His  mother  was  a  great  friend  of  Mary 
Howitt.  His  father  was  greatly  interested  in  education,  and  visited 
Switzerland  to  confer  with  Pestalozzi's  favourite  pupil  upon  the 
subject,  and  also  went  to  America  to  consult  Emerson.  During  the 
winter  of  1841-1842  the  whole  family  spent  several  months  at  a 
Pestalozzian  educational  establishment  in  Canton  Appenzell,  where 
Alfred  obtained  the  first  rudiments  of  that  knowledge  of  German 
which  he  afterwards  turned  to  such  good  account  as  a  translator  of 
'German  botanical  works.  With  this  exception,  his  early  education 
was  entirely  conducted  at  home.  In  1851  the  family  removed  to 
Brockham,  a  village  which  is  in  a  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  chalk 
■downs  midway  between  Keigate  and  Dorking.  Here  they  had  a  large 
garden,  and  William  Bennett  interested  himself  in  rearing  and 
breeding  emus,  which  he  kept  to  the  third  generation. 

From  1851-1854,  in  company  with  his  father  and  elder  brother, 
Edward  Trusted  Bennett,  he  made  several  long  walking  tours  in 
Wales  and  the  West  of  England.  The  observations  they  made  will 
be  found  in  various  notes  and  papers  scattered  through  the  earlier 
series  of  the  Phytologist,  written  sometimes  by  one  and  at  another 
time  by  others  of  the  trio.  They  principally  refer  to  Wales,  Cornwall, 
Hampshire,  and  Herefordshire.  In  one  of  them  will  be  found  a  list 
of  Welsh  ferns,  arranged  according  to  their  frequency ;  in  another, 
the  account  of  how  the  day  after  visiting  the  Sussex  locality  for 
Leersia  oryzoides,  which  had  just  been  added  to  the  British  flora  by 
Mr.  Borrer,  Alfred  walked  across  the  bridge  that  spans  the  river 
Mole  just  outside  the  garden,  and  saw  abundance  of  the  new  grass 
on  the  banks  of  the  stream  around  him.     On  a  trip,  a  few  years 


156  Obituary. 

earlier,  to  the  English  Lakes  they  called  on  the  poet  Wordsworth, 
who  took  them  a  walk  up  the  slope  of  Fairfield,  and  showed  them 
Silene  acaulis  in  flower.  Alfred  Bennett  attended  the  classes 
at  University  College,  London,  and  took  his  M.A.  degree  about 
1856,  and  his  B.Sc.  some  years  afterwards.  After  leaving  college  he 
acted  as  tutor  for  a  short  time  to  Gurney  Barclay,  the  banker,  and 
whilst  there  was  thrown  from  his  horse  and  sustained  injuries  which 
left  him  an  inheritance  of  insomnia  from  which  he  suffered  all  his 
life.  In  1858  he  married  Katharine,  the  daughter  of  Wm.  liichard- 
son,  of  Sunderland,  and  in  the  same  year  entered  into  business  as  a 
bookseller  and  publisher  in  Bishopsgate  Street,  E.C.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  publishers  who  used  photography  in  the  illustration  of 
books.  I  remember  specially  a  pretty  little  volume  on  the  Abbeys 
of  Yorkshire  with  photographic  views  of  each  of  them.  At  this 
period  he  was  both  proprietor  and  editor  of  the  Friend,  then  a 
monthly,  now  a  weekly  journal,  specially  devoted  to  matters  inter- 
esting to  the  Society  of  Friends,  of  which  he  was  through  life  a 
member.  He  published  the  early  poems  of  the  poet-botanist,  the 
Hon.  J.  Leicester  Warren,  afterwards  Lord  De  Tabley.  He  gave  up 
business  about  1868,  and  in  that  year  became  a  Fellow  of  the 
Linnean  Society.  Up  to  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  one  of  the 
most  regular  attenders  of  the  meetings  of  that  Society,  took  part 
frequently  in  the  discussions,  and  served  more  than  once  as  a  member 
of  the  council  and  vice-president.  He  took  great  interest  in  the 
higher  education  of  women,  and  in  1869  he  and  his  wife  opened  their 
house  in  Park  Village  East,  near  the  Gloucester  Gate  of  the  Regent's 
Park,  as  a  home  for  a  limited  number  of  ladies  who  came  up  to 
London  to  attend  classes  at  the  Bedford  College  and  elsewhere. 

From  18/1  to  1873  he  wrote  several  papers  on  flower- fertilisation 
and  kindred  subjects.  A  list  of  nineteen  papers  written  at  this  time 
will  be  found  in  the  second  series  of  the  catalogue  of  scientific  papers 
published  by  the  Royal  Society.  The  best  known  are  his  '  Observa- 
tions on  Protandry  and  Protogyny  in  British  Plants '  (Journal  of 
Botany,  vol.  viii.  p.  315),  and  his  paper  on  the  fertilisation  of 
Parnassia  in  the  Journal  of  the  Linnean  Society,  vol.  xi.  p.  24. 
These  papers  brought  him  the  acquaintance  of  Charles  Darwin,  who 
encouraged  him  with  characteristic  kindness.  About  1870  he  began 
his  studies  on  the  Polygalaceae,  of  which  he  contributed  a  synopsis  of 
the  Indian  species  to  Sir  J.  D.  Hooker's  'Flora  of  British  India,' 
and  of  the  far  more  numerous  Brasilian  species  to  the  great  '  Fl<  >ra 
Brasiliensis,'  published  at  the  expense  of  the  Brasilian  Government, 
and  edited  in  succession  by  Endlicher,  Von  Martius,  Eichler  and 
Urban.  In  1873  his  father  died.  About  1875  Alfred  Bennett  and 
the  writer  took  a  long  walking  tour  together  in  Switzerland.  We 
visited  Chamounis,  Zermatt,  and  the  Bernese  Oberland,  and  although 
it  was  rather  late  in  the  year,  we  identified  two  hundred  species  of 
Phanerogams  which  neither  of  us  had  seen  in  a  living  state  before. 


Obituary.  157 

In  1875,  with  the  effectual  aid  of  Mr.,  now  Sir  William  Thiselton- 
Dyer,  he  translated  into  English  for  the  Oxford  University  press 
Sachs'  great  '  Text-book  of  Botany.'  This  book  had  a  most  im- 
portant effect  on  the  teaching  of  botany  in  England,  turning  it 
away  from  lectures  on  organography  and  systematic  botany  illus- 
trated by  wall-diagrams  to  laboratory  courses  on  anatomy  and  phy- 
siology. In  1877  he  translated  and  annotated  a  smaller  German 
book,  Thome's  '  Structural  and  Physiological  Botany,'  of  which  a 
new  edition  was  called  for  in  1885.  In  1882  he  translated  Dalla 
Torre's  'Tourists'  Guide  to  the  Flora  of  the  Austrian  Alps,'  and 
between  1880  and  1882  edited,  for  Messrs.  Swan,  Sonnenschein  &  Co., 
an  English  edition  of  Seboth's  beautiful  coloured  figures  of  Alpine 
plants,  four  volumes,  with  100  plates  in  each.  About  this  time  he 
turned  his  attention  to  the  study  of  fresh-water  Algae,  on  which  his 
principal  publications  were  a  new  classification  of  the  genera,  pub- 
lished in  the  34th  volume  of  the  Journal  of  the  Linnean  Society,  and 
one  on  the  London  fresh-water  Algae  and  their  localities,  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Microscopical  Society.  In  1889  he  published,  in 
conjunction  with  Mr.  George  Murray,  F.K.S.,  a  '  Text-book  of 
Cryptogamic  Botany.'  This  is  probably  his  most  valuable  original 
work.  It  has  been  largely  used  by  teachers  and  advanced  students, 
both  in  England  and  America.  He  revised,  for  Dr.  Masters,  F.R.S., 
the  chapter  on  the  Cryptogamia  for  his  fourth  edition  of  Henfrey's 
*  Elementary  Course.'  In  1897  he  published  a  '  Flora  of  the  Alps,' 
in  two  volumes,  with  coloured  plates  of  the  genera  and  short  de- 
scriptions of  all  the  species.  For  many  years  he  held  the  office  of 
Lecturer  on  Botany  to  St.  Thomas's  Hospital  and  the  Bedford  Col- 
lege. He  was  an  excellent  and  painstaking  teacher,  and  a  careful 
■examiner.  For  about  four  years  he  acted  as  biological  sub-editor  of 
Nature,  under  Sir  J.  Norman  Lockyer,  and  from  the  beginning  of 
the  Academy  acted  as  its  botanical  reviewer  and  notice-writer. 
He  joined  the  Koyal  Microscopical  Society  in  1879,  and  from  that 
date  till  his  death,  wrote  the  summaries  of  botanical  papers  contained 
in  its  Journal.  For  many  years  he  served  on  the  Council,  was 
several  times  a  Vice-President,  and  from  1897  till  1902,  editor  of 
the  Journal  of  this  Society.  He  was  from  the  commencement  a 
member  of  the  Saville  Club,  and  frequently  spent  his  evenings  there. 
His  death  was  painfully  sudden.  He  was  riding  home  from  his  club 
on  the  top  of  an  omnibus,  and  when  the  omnibus  reached  Oxford 
Circus  he  fell  on  to  the  driver's  shoulders,  and  died  before  he  could 
be  lifted  down  to  the  ground.  A  post-mortem  examination  re- 
vealed extensive  disease  of  the  heart.  He  was  buried  on  Tuesday, 
January  28th,  1902,  in  the  Friends'  Cemetery  at  Isleworth.  His 
wife  died  a  few  years  ago,  and  they  had  no  children. 


158  Obituary. 


Thomas  Comber, 
Born  Nov.  14,  1837.     Died  Jan.  24,  1902. 

Thomas  Comber,  the  eldest  son  of  the  late  Edward  Comber,  of 
Myddleton  Hall,  Warrington,  Lancashire,  was  born  at  Pernambuco, 
Brazil,  and  was  educated  at  Whitchurch,  Salop.  Early  in  life  he 
entered  on  a  commercial  career  and  spent  several  years  in  India.  As 
a  merchant  in  Liverpool  and  Manchester  he  was  well  known  and 
much  respected,  and  was  a  director  of  several  public  companies.  A 
pamphlet  by  him  on  the  silver  question  created  considerable  sensation, 
and  was  generally  recognised  as  a  valuable  addition  to  the  literature 
of  that  subject.  He  resided  at  Leighton,  Parkgate,  near  Chester,  was 
a  staunch  Conservative  in  politics,  and  was  a  J. P.  for  the  counties 
of  Lancashire  and  Cheshire.  He  retired  from  business  about  two 
years  ago. 

Always  fond  of  scientific  pursuits,  Mr.  Comber  early  took  to  the 
study  of  Microscopy,  but  afterwards  abandoned  it  temporarily  for 
that  of  botany,  a  subject  on  which  he  wrote  many  interesting  papers. 
He  subsequently  resumed  his  microscopical  investigations,  devoting 
himself  more  particularly  to  the  study  of  the  DiatomaceBe,  on  which 
he  was  a  recognised  authority. 

Mr.  Comber  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Linnaean  and  Royal  Micro- 
scopical Societies.  This  Society  he  joined  in  1893,  and  for  some  years 
served  on  the  Council,  where  his  advice  was  much  appreciated. 
He  was  specially  consulted  in  reference  to  questions  arising  in  con- 
nection with  Diatomaceae,  not  only  by  the  Council  of  the  Society,  but 
also  by  the  authorities  of  the  British  Museum. — John  Comber. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  papers  by  the  late  Thomas  Comber, 
F.R.M.S.,  F.L.S.  :— 

On  the  Diatomaceae  of  the  neighbourhood  of  Liverpool.  Quarterly 
Journ.  Mic.  Sci.,  vol.  viii.  (1860)  p.  111.  Read  before  Historic  Society 
of  Lancashire  and  Cheshire  (Dec.  1858). 

On  a  simple  form  of  Heliostat.    J.R.M.S.,  1890,  p.  429,  figs.  47-9. 

Photomicrography.  J.R.M.S.,  1891,  p.  407.  Abstract  from  Journ. 
Liverpool  Mic.  Soc,  1891,  pp.  99-110. 

On  the  Unreliability  of  certain  Characters  generally  accepted  for 
Specific  Diagnosis  in  the  Diatomaceae.     J.R.M.S.,  1894,  p.  428. 

Development  of  the  Young  Valve  of  Trachyneis  aspera  Cleve. 
J.R.M.S.,  1895,  p.  400,  plate  VIII.  (photo). 

On  the  Occurrence  of  Endocysts  in  the  Genus  Thalassiosira. 
J.R.M.S.,  1896,  p.  489,  plate  IX.  (photo). 

The  Limits  of  Species  in  the  Diatomaceae.  J.R.M.S.,  1897, 
pp.  455-466. 


SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

RELATING    TO 

ZOOLOGY    AND     BOTANY 

(principally  invertebrata  and  cryptogamia), 

MICEOSCOPY     Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 

a.  Embryology,  f 

Monochorial  Twins.J — -A.  Rosner  discusses  the  numerous  theories  as 
to  the  origin  of  monochorial  twins  in  man,  and  comes  to  the  conclusion 
that  they  arise  from  a  bi-ovular  Graafian  follicle,  whose  two  ova,  liberated 
together  and  normally  fertilised,  are  borne  to  the  uterus  united  by  some 
cells  of  the  discus  proligerus,  and  become  surrounded  by  a  common 
caduca  (decidua  capsularis,  seu  reflexa).  The  chorionic  areas  which  are 
in  contact  and  form  the  partition  between  the  two  developing  ova  may 
disappear,  simply  because  they  are  not  in  immediate  touch  with  the 
nutritive  caduca.  In  other  words,  the  single  chorion  is  the  result  of  the 
coalescence  of  two  chorions  in  consequence  of  deficient  local  nutrition  in 
the  chorionic  areas  which  are  in  contact. 

It  occurred  to  Rosner  that  some  secure  basis  for  interpretation  might 
be  obtained  by  a  study  of  two  well-known  mammals,  which  habitually 
produce  monochorial  twin,  or  rather  multiple  foetuses.  These  are  two 
armadillos — Praopus  hybridus,§  studied  by  von  Ihering,  and  Dasypus 
novemcinctus,  §  studied  by  Kolliker,  Milne  Edwards,  Duges,  and  von 
Ihering.  The  first  has  usually  eight  foetuses,  always  of  the  same  sex, 
and  with  a  common  chorion ;  the  second  has  four  within  a  common 
chorion,  and  also,  according  to  von  Ihering,  of  similar  sex.  Now,  by 
sectioning  the  ovaries  of  Dasypus,  Rosner  found  that  many  of  the 
Graafian  follicles  are  pluri-ovular.  Out  of  52  follicles,  22  contained 
more  than  one  ovum ;  of  these,  11  had  2  ;  7  had  3  ;  2  had  4  ;  1  had  5 ; 
and  1  had  7.  The  two  most  developed  contained  four  each,  i.e.  the 
number  usually  found  within  one  chorion  in  the  pregnant  female. 

As  the  primordial  follicles  in  the  ovary  of  Dasypus,  whether  foetal 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they  do 
not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers  noted, 
nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of  this  part  of 
the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  published,  and  to 
describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus.  &c,  which  are  either  new  or  have 
aot  been  previouslv  described  in  this  country. 

t  This  section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so  called, 
hut  also  those  dealing  with  Evolution, Development,  Reproduction,  and  allied  subjects. 

X  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  No.  8,  Nov.  1901,  pp.  443-50  (1  pi.). 

§  We  keep  to  Bosner's  terminology. 


160     SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

or  adult,  contain  only  one  ovum,  the  question  naturally  arises,  how  do 
the  pluri-ovular  follicles  originate  ?  Kosner's  sections  suggest  the  answer, 
that  several  follicles  fuse  within  the  ovary.  The  whole  process  may  now 
be  summed  up, — several  primordial  follicles  fuse,  a  pluri-ovular  follicle 
results,  each  of  the  contained  ova  is  normally  fertilised,-  each  develops 
with  a  chorion  of  its  own,  but  within  the  investment  of  the  caduca  the 
chorionic  partitions  are  dissolved  till  only  one  chorion  is  left  surround- 
ing all  the  foetuses,  in  this  case  usually  four  in  number.  That  the 
monochorial  foetuses  should  always  be  of  the  same  sex  is  interpretable 
as  due  to  the  similarity  of  environing  conditions,  from  the  Graafian 
follicle  onwards. 

If  the  evidence  from  armadillo  to  man  be  admitted  as  cogent,  we 
may  venture  to  conclude  that  monochorial  human  twins  start  from  a 
bi-ovular  Graafian  follicle,  whose  two  ova,  normally  fertilised,  find  lodg- 
ment within  one  caduca-investment  and  develop  within  one  chorion 
formed  from  the  fusion  of  two. 

Origin  of  Blood-Vessels.*  —  Prof.  E.  S.  Bergh  outlines  a  theory  as 
to  the  phylogenetic  origin  of  the  blood-vessels  from  a  foundation  of  con- 
tractile cells.     The  full  argument  is  promised  at  an  early  date. 

A  study  of  the  vascular  system  of  Vertebrates  leads  one  to  give 
prominence  to  the  internal  epithelium  (so-called  endothelium),  which  is 
present  in  all  the  blood-vessels  and  in  the  heart,  is  the  sole  component 
of  the  capillaries,  and  appears  in  development  before  other  parts  of  the 
vessels.  Is  it  the  Urgewebe  ?  A  negative  answer  is  suggested  by  a 
study  of  Invertebrates,  where  endothelium  in  the  main  vessels  is  con- 
spicuous by  its  absence.  Only  in  the  small  vessels  is  a  true  internal 
epithelium  demonstrable. 

Bergh  supposes  that  canals  were  formed  in  the  primitive  body-cavity 
with  contractile  walls,  that  the  contractility  became  afterwards  localised 
to  definite  regions  of  the  canal  system,  and  that  in  the  parts  where  con- 
tractile elements  disappeared  a  new  tissue — the  endothelium — was  differ- 
entiated, especially  where  active  exchange  of  substances  between  the 
blood  and  the  tissues  occurred.  This  endothelium — regulating  exchange 
— was  at  first  perfected  peripherally,  and  its  centripetal  extension  was 
secondary. 

Influences  of  Injections  into  the  Albumen  of  Fowls'  Eggs,  f  — 
Prof.  W.  Schimkewitsch  gives  a  preliminary  account  of  the  strange 
changes  induced  by  injecting  solutions  of  sugar,  salt,  &c,  into  the 
albumen  of  the  developing  egg  of  the  hen.  The  list  includes  blasto- 
dermic discs  which  show  a  syncytium  of  cells  and  yolk-spherules,  unequal 
growth,  imperfect  development,  complete  inhibition  of  development,  de- 
formations, dwarfings,  local  enlargements,  asymmetry,  and  so  on.  But 
we  must  await  the  more  detailed  description  with  figures  and  interpre- 
tations which  the  author  promises  to  publish  shortly. 

Cell-division  and  Mitosis.J — Prof.  M.  Nussbaum  discusses  some  of  the 
debated  points  connected  with  the  division  of  cells  and  of  nuclei,  giving 
an  account  of  his  own  observations  on  the  segmentation  of  living  and 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  488-92.  f  Tom.  cit.  pp.  507-10. 

t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lix.  (1902)  pp.  647-84  (2  pis.  and  1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  161 

preserved  eggs  of  Rhabditis  nigrovenoea  and  Ascaris  megalocephala.  In 
the  first  place  he  discusses  the  form  of  nucleus  called  mulberry-shaped 
or  polymorphic,  and  shows  that  the  appearance  of  this  shape  may  precede 
either  mitotic  or  amitotic  division.  In  Ascaris  megalocephala,  again, 
the  nuclei  of  the  first  two  blastomeres,  as  shown  by  Boveri,  are  unlike. 
The  author  calls  one  of  these  blastomeres  the  primitive  somatic-cell,  and 
the  other  the  primitive  sex-cell,  from  the  structures  to  which  they  ulti- 
mately give  rise,  and  follows  in  detail  the  differences  between  their 
respective  nuclei  and  those  of  their  respective  daughter-cells.  The 
result  is  to  show  how  important  are  these  differences,  for  while  the  cells 
which  yield  the  future  body  contain  in  their  nuclei  numerous  small, 
rounded  chromosomes,  those  of  the  cells  yielding  the  future  gonads, 
retain  the  large  horse-shoe-shaped  chromosomes  of  the  egg.  In  other 
words,  there  is  a  diminution  in  the  amount  of  chromatin  in  the  somatic 
cells  as  compared  with  the  sex-cells. 

Germinal  Vesicle  of  Reptiles.* — Marie  Loyez  describes  some  of  the 
changes  in  the  nucleus  of  the  ovarian  ovum  of  Platydactylus  muralis, 
Lacerta  muralis  and  viridis,  and  Anguis  fragilis,  and  finds  that  while  the 
chromosomes  change  as  to  form,  number,  and  staining  reactions,  they 
never  disappear.  During  the  early  changes,  the  nucleoli  become  more 
and  more  conspicuous  as  the  chromosomes  become  less  dominant,  but 
there  was  no  evidence  of  nucleoli  being  transformed  into  chromosomes, 
or  vice  versa.  Indeed,  the  staining  reactions  of  chromosomes  and  nucleoli 
remained  distinct  throughout.  It  is  concluded  that  the  nucleoli  are  in 
some  way  essential  to  the  activity  of  the  germinal  vesicle  during  the 
period  of  vitellus-formation. 

Rheotactic  Properties  of  Spermatozoa.! — F.  Battelli,  by  means  of 
an  ingenious  little  piece  of  apparatus,  has  experimented  on  the  effect  of 
currents  on  spermatozoa.  He  employed  for  the  experiment  the  sperms 
of  the  guinea-pig  in  a  nutritive  solution,  and  with  the  spermatic  fluid  so 
produced  filled  a  glass  tube  with  an  internal  diameter  of  £  mm.  This 
tube  had  ampullsB  blown  on  it,  and  by  heating  the  air  in  these  the  author 
was  enabled  to  produce  currents  of  varying  intensity  in  the  fluid.  He 
found  that  active  spermatozoa  swim  against  and  not  with  a  current, 
directing  their  heads  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  in  which  the 
stream  is  moving.  This  is  important,  for  it  explains  how  they  are  able 
to  pass  up  the  oviducts  of  the  female  in  spite  of  the  downward  current 
which  the  cilia  of  the  latter  must  produce  ;  this  downward  current  pro- 
bably indeed  promotes  instead  of  hindering,  as  might  be  supposed,  the 
upward  movement. 

Function  of  Sertoli's  Cells.l — G-.  Loisel  has  been  led  to  conclude 
that  Sertoli's  cells  in  the  testes  are  derived  from  germinative  cells,  and 
that  their  role  is  to  secrete  periodically  a  substance  which  exerts  a  posi- 
tive chemotactic  influence  on  the  spermatozoa  in  process  of  development. 
Through  this  influence  the  spermatozoa  acquire  the  special  form  which 
is  so  well  adapted  to  their  function.  To  this  influence  is  due  the  dis- 
position of  the  spermatozoa  in  bundles  uniformly  arranged. 

*  Coaiptes  Eendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  1025-6. 

f  Arch.  Sci.  Phys.  Nat.  Geneve,  xii.  (1901)  pp.  650-2. 

X  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  895-7. 

April  16th,  1902  m 


162  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Movements  of  Spermatids  and  their  Parts.* — Dr.  IvarBroman  has 
especially  studied  the  spermatids  in  the  dogfish  and  in  man.  Not  only 
the  spermatids,  but  their  more  important  cellular  parts — to  wit  nucleus, 
central  corpuscle,  and  idiozom — exhibit  regular  movements,  probably  iu 
response  to  various  directive  stimuli.  Thus,  the  union  of  human  sperma- 
tids with  Sertoli's  cells  is  probably  trophotactic ;  the  immigration  of  the 
central  corpuscles  to  the  nucleus  is  a  positive  (perhaps  polar)  karyo- 
taxis  ;  the  central  corpuscle  exerts  an  attraction  on  the  nucleus  (positive 
microcentrotaxis  !)  ;  and  so  on.  But  the  whole  research  leads  one  into 
a  somewhat  rarefied  atmosphere,  in  which  tactic  and  tropic  pheno- 
mena are  abundant — so  abundant  that  the  intruding  reviewer  cannot  but 
gasp.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  author  discloses  an  intricacy  of 
vital  movement  more  complex  than  has  been  hitherto  recognised. 

Tetrads  in  Spermatogenesis.! — S.Prowazek  has  continued  by  means 
of  Astacus,  his  work  on  this  subject  done  previously  on  material  obtained 
from  Helix  and  the  rhinoceros  beetle.  As  his  new  results  complement 
his  previous  ones,  he  gives  figures  showing  the  homologous  stages  in 
the  three  types,  and  sums  up  his  conclusions  as  follows : — The  chromatin 
first  undergoes  a  division  into  fine  dust-like  particles,  but  this  stage  is 
absent  in  the  rhinoceros  beetle ;  it  then  forms  a  number  of  irregular 
islands,  from  which  the  double  chromosomes  then  develop  ;  from  these 
double  chromosomes  the  tetrads  are  formed.  In  Astacus  the  raito- 
chrondria  are  unusually  well-developed,  and  their  bel  aviour  shows  that 
they  belong  to  the  group  of  genetic  or  formative  granulations,  as  distinct 
from  ergastic  or  functional  granulations. 

Development  of  Teeth  in  Sus  domestica.!  —  Dr.  A.  Bild  finds  that 
the  deciduous  incisors  are  better  developed  in  pig-embryos  in  the  upper 
than  in  the  lower  jaw,  in  which  they  are  squeezed  together.  As  to 
prelacteal  rudiments  in  the  upper  jaw,  Idx  has  none,  Id2  has  one  which 
has  a  very  brief  existence,  early  fusing  with  the  tooth-rudiment,  while 
in  connection  with  Id3  in  the  same  jaw  there  is  a  fairly  well-developed 
prelacteal  epithelial-ridge  which  does  not  unite  with  the  tooth-germ. 
The  thickening  described  by  Adolf  as  a  germ  of  a  fourth  incisor  was 
very  plainly  seen,  and  is  due  to  the  fusion  of  a  prelacteal  epithelial- 
ridge  with  the  dental  ridge.  The  deciduous  canine  of  the  upper  jaw  has 
connected  with  it  a  very  well-marked  prelacteal  rudiment.  Iu  the  lower 
jaw  all  the  deciduous  incisors  and  the  canine  have  prelacteal  germs  con- 
nected with  them,  that  of  Id2  being  the  best  developed.  The  deciduous 
molars  have  also  prelacteal  germs  both  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  and 
these  fuse  with  the  lacteal  tooth-germs.  Behind  the  last  deciduous 
molar  both  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaw,  the  author  finds  a  prelacteal 
epithelial  ridge  which  fuses  with  the  tooth-ridge.  The  author  entirely 
contests  the  views  of  Wilson  and  Hill  that  this  epithelial  ridge  is  the 
rudiment  of  the  lip-furrow,  and  describes  the  development  of  the  lip- 
furrow  which  he  regards  as  independent  of  the  dental  ridge.  Further, 
he  believes  that  the  tooth  described  by  Wilson  and  Hill  as  the  first 
molar  is  really  the  last  pre-molar.     The  author  is  of  opinion  that  his 

*  Arch.  f.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lix.  (1901)  pp.  106-43  (59  figs.), 
t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1901)  pp.  27-9  (16  figs.). 
%  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  401-10  (12  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  1G3 

results  remove  the  concrescence  theory  from  the  region  of  hypothesis  to 
that  of  proved  fact. 

Chondrocranium  of  Cercopithecus  cynomolgus.* — Dr.  Eugen  Fischer 
describes  the  primordial  brain-case  in  an  embryo  of  this  monkey  of  25  mm. 
in  length,  and  points  out  the  close  general  resemblance  to  that  of  man. 
A  point  of  much  interest  is  the  fact  that  the  nasal  surface  is  of  con- 
spicuous breadth,  especially  at  the  root.  The  interest  of  this  fact  is  that 
it  confirms  the  hypothesis  of  Schwalbe,  that  man  and  the  monkeys  are 
both  descended  from  an  ancestor  with  a  broad  interorbital  septum,  and 
that  this  has  persisted  in  man,  and  undergone  reduction  in  the  monkeys, 
especially  in  the  Catarrhine  forms.  Now  the  monkey  investigated  has 
in  adult  life  a  singularly  narrow  interorbital  septum,  but  in  the  embryo 
it  is  as  wide  as  in  a  human  embryo,  so  that  tho  embryo  affords  a 
striking:  confirmation  of  Schwalbe's  view. 

Epithelium  of  Epididymis  in  Mammals.f — Albert  Aigner  has  ex- 
amined the  epididymis  from  recently  killed  animals  in  the  case  of  a 
number  of  common  mammals.  He  finds  that  in  the  ductuli  efferentes 
the  activity  of  the  cilia  is  so  great  as  to  produce  a  constant  current, 
driving  onwards  the  mass  of  sperms  contained  in  the  ducts  ;  the  sperms 
do  not  here  display  movements  of  their  own.  In  the  ductus  enididy- 
midis,  on  the  other  hand,  no  ciliary  movement  could  be  made  out ;  here 
the  sperms  are  themselves  actively  motile.  Histological  examination 
shows  in  both  cases  what  appear  to  be  cilia  on  the  cells,  but  in  the 
ductus  epididymidis  basal  swellings  are  absent  in  connection  with  the 
"  cilia,"  and  the  cells  show  a  tendency  to  replace  this  resting  tuft  of 
"  cilia "  by  a  structureless  process.  These  conditions  the  author  ex- 
plains as  follows: — In  the  ductuli  efferentes  both  ciliated  cells  and 
gland-cells  are  present,  but  in  the  ductus  epididymidis  only  gland-cells, 
and  the  so-called  cilia  of  these  cells  are  so  modified  by  the.  secretion 
poured  out  by  the  cells  that  they  become  irregular  processes,  incapable 
of  movement.  The  author  believes  that  the  "  cilia,"  so-called,  of  these 
cells  are  not  true  cilia  at  all,  but  are  analogous  to  the  cell-prolonga- 
tions described  elsewhere  in  gland-cells.  A  search  for  gland-cells 
shows  that  in  rabbit,  horse,  cat,  and  rat  certain  cells  of  the  ductuli 
efferentes  display  clear  signs  of  secretory  activity,  but  the  author  is 
unable  to  believe  that  these  same  cells  may  also  display  active  cilia. 
In  the  ductus  epididymidis  patches  of  secretory  cells  are  quite  distinct. 
The  general  result  is  thus  to  emphasise  the  difference  between  the 
ductuli  efferentes  and  the  ductus  epididymidis. 

Development  of  Ear  in  Man.}— Dr.  Aug.  Hammar  publishes  a  paper 
on  the  structures  which  develop  in  connection  with  the  first  visceral 
cleft,  as  the  first  of  a  series  upon  the  development  of  the  fore-gut,  and 
the  organs  connected  with  it.  He  finds  that  the  fossa  concha)  arises 
from  a  deepening  of  the  ventral  part  of  the  first  gill-cleft.  The  fossa 
then  becomes  divided  into  three  regions,  a  deep  median,  the  cavitas 
conchre,  a  lower,  the  incisura  intertragica,  and  a  superior,  the  cymba 
conchae.     The  primary  auditory  meatus  arises  in   the  later  part  of  the 

*  Anat.  Anzeig..  xx.  (1902)  pp.  410-7  (1  fig.). 

t   SB.  k.  Aka.f.  Wins.  Wien,  cix.  (1900)  pp.  555-81  (2  pis.). 

t  Arch,  Mikr.  Anat,  lix.  (1902)  pp.  471-628  (4  pis.). 

M  2 


164  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

second  month  as  a  hollow,  somewhat  funnel-shaped  tube  from  the 
future  cavitas  conchae.  From  this  primary  auditory  meatus  there  arises, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  third  mouth,  an  epithelial  plate,  the  lamina 
epithelialis  meatus.  This  becomes  differentiated  into  a  tympanic  and  a 
non-tympanic  part,  and  in  the  seventh  month  splits  into  two  layers. 
The  cavity  so  produced  forms  the  final  or  secondary  meatus,  the  primary 
one  corresponding  chiefly  to  the  cartilaginous  part  of  the  permanent 
structure.  The  bony  and  cartilaginous  parts  of  the  meatus  differ  from 
one  another  as  regards  their  epithelial  lining,  that  of  the  former  region 
being  without  hairs  and  glands,  while  the  latter  possesses  these.  From 
the  time  of  the  first  appearance  of  the  primary  auditory  meatus  its 
inner  end  is  evaginated  in  the  form  of  a  rounded  projection,  the  tuber- 
culum  membranae  tympani,  which  ultimately  forms  the  membrana  propria 
of  the  tympanic  membrane. 

Development  of  Iris  in  Man.* — A.  Szili  gives  a  preliminary  account 
of  his  researches  on  this  subject.  The  most  important  point  shown  by 
his  preparations  is  that  in  man  the  musculus  sphincter  iridis  is  an  epi- 
thelial muscle,  and  arises  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  month  out  of 
the  epithelial  cells  at  the  line  of  junction  of  the  outer  and  inner  layers 
of  cells  in  the  secondary  optic  vesicle. 

Alleged  Case  of  Transmission  of  Acquired  Characters.-]- — Prof.  W. 
Leche  describes  the  thick,  horny,  hairless  callosities  on  the  carpals  of 
Phacochcerus  africanus,  and  interprets  them  as  directly  induced  by  the 
way  in  which  these  hogs  rout  about  for  roots  and  tubers.  They  get 
down  on  their  knees  (carpal-joints)  and  press  forwards  as  they  dig  with 
their  upper  canines.  The  fact  that  the  callosities  are  distinctly  seen  in 
the  embryos  leads  the  author  to  conclude  that  we  have  here  to  do  with  a 
case  of  the  transmission  of  an  acquired  character.  [It  is,  however,  an 
unproved  assumption  that  the  callosities  were,  to  begin  with,  somatic 
modifications.]  Leche  also  refers  to  the  molars  of  the  dugong,  which 
have  tubercles  in  the  embryo  that  undergo  apical  absorption  and  become 
flat  before  any  chewing  has  begun. 

Copulation  of  Bats.J — G.  Salvi  describes  his  observations  on  the 
bats  inhabiting  the  "  grotta  dell'  Inferno,"  near  Sassari,  and  shows,  if 
we  rightly  understand  his  point,  that  copulation  often  occurs  in  spring, 
though  the  autumnal  pairing  is  undoubted.  Out  of  479  individuals, 
341  were  males  and  138  were  females,  and  there  seemed  clear  evidence 
of  vernal  sexual  union. 

Olfactory  Organ  in  Vertebrates.§ — Prof.  H.  Strasser,  following 
His,  points  out  how  much  the  characteristic  appearance  of  the  different 
vertebrates  depends  upon  the  degree  of  development  of  the  structures 
related  to  the  olfactory  organ,  and  discusses  the  significance  of  the 
great  development  of  these  parts  in  the  higher  vertebrates.  In  the 
first  place,  he  rejects  the  idea  that  the  complex  nature  of  the  skeleton 
of  the  nose  in  e.g.  mammals,  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  needs  of  the  olfac- 
tory organ  itself,  and  also  doubts  the  validity  of  the  suggestion  that  this 

*  Anat.  Anzeig..  xx.  (1902)  pp.  161-75  (6  fig3.). 

t  Biol.  Central^.,  xxii.  (1902)  pp.  79-82  (1  tig.). 

J  Atti  Soc.  Sri.  Nat.,  xiii.  (1902)  pp.  289-41. 

§  Arch.  Sci.  Phvs.  Nat.  Geneve,  xii.  (1901)  pp.  609-22. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  165 

complexity  is  due  to  the  necessity  for  providing  space  for  the  sinuses  and 
accessory  cavities.  He  does  not  regard  these  cavities  as  of  prime  im- 
portance, and  believes  that  they,  like  the  surrounding  hones,  owe  their 
form  in  the  first  instance  to  the  necessity  for  providing  adequate  space 
for  the  teeth,  the  muscles,  jaws,  eyes,  and  brain.  He  illustrates  and 
enforces  his  view  by  giving  some  account  of  the  development  of  the 
nasal  cavities. 

Development  of  Pancreas  in  Amniota.* —  Dr.  Yolker  has  studied 
this  in  Lacerta  agilis,  Spermoplrilus  citillux,  and  the  pig.  In  re.ard  to 
the  lizard,  he  corroborates  and  amplifies  the  observations  of  Janosik. 
The  pancreas  arises  as  a  simple  diverticulum  of  tbe  dorsal  enteric  wall 
more  distal  than  the  primordium  of  the  liver;  it  becomes  secondarily 
connected  with  the  rudimentary  ductus  choledochus;  from  this  pan- 
creatic duct  the  proximal  pancreas  arises,  and  the  connection  is  never 
lost;  the  diverticula  which  Brachet  described  in  Lacerta  muralis  as 
appearing  on  both  sides  of  the  ductus  choledochus,  between  the  opening 
of  the  ductus  hepato-entericus  and  the  ductus  cysticus,  which  he  re- 
garded as  pancreatic  primordia,  unite  in  Lacerta  agilis  with  the  hepatic 
tissue,  and  form  right  and  leit  ductus  choledochohepatici ;  these  canals 
take  the  place  of  the  ductus  hepato-entericus,  which  eventually  atrophies. 
It  remains  clear  that  in  the  lizard  the  whole  pancreas  is  iormed  from 
the  dorsal  primordium. 

In  Mammals,  likewise,  the  dorsal  pancreas  is  the  constant  structure. 
In  pig  embryos  there  is  added  to  this  another  portion  which  takes  its 
origin  from  the  ductus  choledochus,  but  this  fades  into  the  dorsal  pan- 
creas and  its  duct  atrophies,  though  there  may  be  occasional  instances 
of  persistence.  In  the  embryos  of  SpermopMlus  citillus,  the  only  part 
developed  is  the  dorsal  pancreas,  which  arises  directly  from  the  dorsal 
enteric  wall. 

Development  of  Mid-brain  in  Bony  Fish.f  —  D.  Pedaschenko  finds 
that  in  the  embryos  of  various  Teleosts  tiie  mid-brain  is  distinctly  seg- 
mented at  an  early  stage.  This  segmentation  is  most  distinct  in  Zoarces 
viviparv.8,  in  which  he  has  studied  it  in  detail.  The  segmentation  is 
only  obvious  on  the  inner  wall  of  the  roof  of  the  mid-brain,  and  the 
author  does  not  discuss  its  relation  to  the  segmentation  of  the  head. 
The  roof  of  the  mid-brain  at  an  early  stage  becomes  so  marked  with 
furrows  internally  as  to  produce  rows  of  polygonal  projections  or 
columns.  The  maximum  number  of  segments,  as  defined  by  the  cross- 
furrows,  appears  to  be  six,  and  as  each  row  contains  3-4  columns,  there 
are  20-24  of  these.  Later  the  columns  increase  enormously  in  number, 
and  become  smaller  in  size,  for  the  new  columns  arise  by  divisions  of 
the  old  ones.  The  subsequent  disappearance  of  the  columns  is  accom- 
panied by  the  formation  of  bundles  of  fibres  connecting  the  floor  and 
roof  of  the  mid-brain  together.  This  precedes  the  growing  together  of 
floor  and  roof,  and  the  consequent  obliteration  of  the  medullary  cavity, 
except  in  the  extreme  posterior  region  of  the  mid-brain.  The  author 
proposes  on  another  occasion  to  discuss  the  theoretical  significance  of 
these  facts. 

*  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat,  lix.  (1901)  pp.  02-93  (21  figs.). 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  295-314  (3  pis.  and  4  figs.). 


166  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Yolk-organ  of  Salmo  fario.* — Dr.  Siegmund  v.  Schumacher  points 
out  that  in  spite  of  the  numerous  researches  on  the  embryology  of  bony 
fish,  little  is  known  of  the  absorption  of  the  yolk-sac,  and  he  has  studied 
this  process  in  the  river  trout.  As  is  well  known,  in  the  trout  the 
communication  between  the  gut  and  the  yolk-sac  is  early  obliterated. 
At  the  time  of  hatching  the  yolk-sac  consists  of  the  following  parts : 
in  the  centre  an  almost  homogeneous  mass  of  yolk;  round  this  a  layer 
containing  yolk-spheres  and  prolongations  of  the  protoplasmic  sheath, 
which  surrounds  the  median  layer  on  its  outer  side ;  these  three  layers 
constitute  the  yolk.  Outside  the  yolk  is  an  endothelial  layer,  which  is 
the  splanchnopleure,  and  is  separated  hy  a  narrow  coelomic  cavity  from 
the  somatopleure  and  body-wall.  At  the  time  of  hatching  the  proto- 
plasmic layer  of  yolk  contains  oval  yolk-nuclei,  constituting  a  yolk 
syncytium ;  at  a  later  stage  these  have  disappeared,  and  their  place  is 
occupied  by  bodies  of  irregular  shape,  which  give  the  staining  reactions 
of  nuclei,  but  are  not  parablasts  or  merocyte  nuclei,  but  are  remnants  of 
degenerating  vitelline  vessels,  and  finally  break  down  and  disappear. 
The  author  ascribes  considerable  importance  to  the  protoplasmic  layer 
as  an  agent  in  yolk-absorption,  both  in  the  earlier  and  in  the  later 
stages,  but  believes  that  the  peritoneal  epithelium  of  the  yolk-sac  is  also 
of  importance  in  this  respect. 

Development  of  Galeus  antarcticusf — Edgar  E.  Waite  has  been 
able  to  make  some  observations  ou  embryos  of  this  fish.  As  was  shown 
by  the  late  Prof.  T.  J.  Parker,  the  embryos  lie  in  separate  compartments 
of  the  uterus,  enveloped  in  membranes  which,  though  of  maternal  and 
not  foetal  origin,  foreshadow  the  chorion  and  amnion  of  higher  forms. 
It  now  appears  that  these  membranes  are  produced  by  the  shell-gland, 
and  are  to  be  regarded  as  vestigial  shells.  The  shell-gland  itself  is  of 
somewhat  remarkable  shape.  In  the  young  foetus  the  yolk-sac  is  also 
highly  peculiar,  the  cord  being  very  long,  and  the  sac  itself  elongated. 
An  examination  of  the  chambers  of  the  uterus  shows  that  this  shape  is 
determined  by  the  space  at  the  disposal  of  the  foetus. 

Life-history  of  Clupea  sprattus.J — Guido  Schneider  remarks  that  it 
has  been  long  maintained  that  the  sprat  does  not  lay  eggs  in  the  eastern 
regions  of  the  Baltic,  but  migrates  westward  before  becoming  ripe.  So 
long  ago  as  1894  he  found  ripe  sprats  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  but  this 
did  not  prove  that  the  eggs  are  capable  of  fertilisation  and  development 
in  water  of  such  low  salinity  as  that  of  this  bay.  Later  the  author  found 
pelagic  Clupoid  eggs  which,  from  their  size,  he  hesitated  to  ascribe  to  the 
sprat.  Subsequent  captures  have,  however,  shown  that  the  developing 
etigs  in  this  region  differ  from  the  unfertilised  and  from  those  found  in  the 
North  Sea,  in  that  they  have  a  greatly  developed  perivitelline  space. 
This  increases  the  bulk  of  the  egg  and  lowers  the  specific  gravity,  so  that 
it  is  an  adaptation  to  life  in  water  of  low  salinity.  The  lame  have 
similarly  a  large  yolk-sac,  which  enables  them  to  float  in  water  in  which 
herring  larvse  would  sink. 

*  SB.  k.  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien,  cix.  (1900)  pp.  675-99  (1  pi.). 

t  Records  of  Australian  Museum.  Sydney,  iv.  (1902)  pp.  175-8  (1  fig.). 

J  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1901)  pp.  9-11. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  1G7 

Young  of  Montagu's  Blenny.*  —  L.  W.  Byrne  Las  notes  on  some 
young  forms  of  Blennius  galerita,  captured  on  the  north  coast  of  Corn- 
wall. Emery's  description  seems  the  only  previous  one.  They  were 
caught  in  sandy  pools,  surrounding  or  surrounded  by  rocks,  in  the  shelter 
of  which  they  seemed  to  be  fond  of  lying.  When  disturbed,  they  darted 
with  considerable  rapidity  from  place  to  place,  seemingly  assisted  by  the 
large  pectoral  fins  which  were  carried  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  body 
when  at  rest.  There  was  a  remarkable  amount  of  individual  variation. 
The  presence  of  the  interorbital  "  helmet  "  (a  single  broadish  leaf-like 
tentacle,  followed  by  several  smaller  ones),  taken  in  conjunction  with 
their  comparatively  small  size  and  radial  formula,  seems  to  be  diagnostic 
from  a  length  of  15 '5  mm.  (including  caudal  fin)  upwards. 

As  in  B.  pliolis  and  B.  ocellaris,  the  size  and.  dark  pigmentation  of 
the  pectoral  fins  increase  until  a  certain  stage  of  growth  is  reached,  after 
which  they  gradually  assume  the  form  and  coloration  of  the  adult.  It 
may  be  that  these  large  and  darkly  pigmented  accessory  organs  serve  to 
divert  the  attacks  of  enemies  from  a  defenceless  but  almost  transparent 
larval  fish  during  the  pelagic  stage  of  its  existence,  and  this  theory  is, 
to  a  certain  extent,  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  the  decrease  in  size  and 
loss  of  pigment  would  appear  in  Blennius  to  coincide  to  some  extent  with 
the  adoption  of  the  habits  and  colours  of  the  adult. 

Life-history  and  Young  Stages  of  the  "Fat-Fish"  of  Lake 
Baikal,  f — B.  Dybowski  gives  an  account  of  Comeplwrus  baicalensis, 
which  is  restricted  to  Lake  Baikal.  It  is,  according  to  the  author,  one 
of  the  Cottidas — adapted  to  abyssal  life.  It  is  delicate,  whitish,  fatty, 
translucent,  with  no  pelvic  fins,  with  protruding  eyes,  living  at  depths 
of  700-1500  metres.  The  specimens  found  near  the  coast  are  all 
females,  and  are  either  moribund  or  dead.  From  November  onwards 
the  females  seek  the  shores  to  liberate  their  young,  but  the  males  seem 
to  remain  in  the  depths. 

It  seems  as  if  all  the  females  died  after  reproducing,  and  Dybowski 
thinks  that  this  is  a  primitive  peculiarity,  seen  also  in  Gasterosteus 
chacliaha  (Kamtschatka),  Phoxinus  perenurus  Pall.  var.  jacuticus  Dyb. 
(Siberia),  Phoxinus  Isevis  (East  Galicia),  eels,  and  lampreys. 

In  some  uterine  ova  the  young  forms  were  already  apparent,  twisted 
in  a  spiral ;  and  the  author  was  on  one  occasion  fortunate  enough  to 
come  across  a  swarm  of  young  swimming  freely  near  the  surface.  The 
members  of  the  swarm  measured  17-18  mm. ;  they  were  reddish-white 
and  silvery,  the  eyes  were  black,  the  visceral  region  was  short,  the  caudal 
region  was  very  long,  and  the  pectorals  were  relatively  smaller  than  in 
the  adults. 

b.  Histology. 

So-called  Germinative  Cells  in  Medullary  Canal  of  Man.J— Dr.  E. 
Giglio-Tos  recalls  the  conclusion  of  His  that  two  kinds  of  cells  are 
found  in  early  stages  in  the  wall  of  the  medullary  canal,— (a)  epithelial 
cells  which  are  transformed  into  spongioblasts,  and  (b)  the  germinative 

*  Journ.  Mar.  Biol.  Ass.,  vi.  (1902)  pp.  383-6. 

t  Kosmos  (Lemberg),  xxvi.  (1901)  pp.  112-41  (Polish).  See  Zool.  Centralbl., 
viii.  (1901)  pp.  683-6  (3  figs.). 

X  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  472-80  (6  figs.). 


168  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

cells  (Keimzellen  of  His).     The  latter  divide  by  karyokinesis,  and  give 
origin  to  other  cells  which  are  transformed  into  neuroblasts. 

With  this  conclusion  Dr.  Giglio-Tos  cannot  agree.  In  early  stages 
in  man  only  one  kind  of  cell — epithelial — is  distinguishable.  These 
are  capable  of  dividing  by  karyokinesis,  and  in  so  doing  they  lose 
their  elongated  form  and  appear  like  the  Keimzellen  of  His. 

Efferent  Neurons  in  Electric  Lobes  of  Torpedo  occidentalis.  *  — 
Shinkishi  Hatai  finds  that  these  present  a  fibrillar  appearance  of  the 
ground -substance,  but  that  this  is  due  to  an  alteration  in  the  shape  of 
the  meshes  of  the  reticulum,  and,  therefore,  cannot  be  compared  with 
the  fibrils  described  by  Bethe,  Apathy,  and  others.  The  meshes  of  the 
reticulum,  which  the  author  regards  as  primitive,  are  altered  by  the 
growth  of  the  cell-body  where  the  processes,  both  axone  and  dendrite, 
arise.  In  these  branches  they  become  extremely  elongated.  In  con- 
firmation, the  author  describes,  in  the  spinal  ganglion-cells  of  the  white 
rat,  the  gradations  from  the  primitive  shape  of  the  meshes  to  the  altered 
form  which  appears  fibrillar. 

Nerve-Endings  in  Taste  Menisci.f — Dr.  Eugen  Botezat  has  studied 
these  end-organs  in  various  mammals,  and  finds  that  they  are  to  be 
regarded  as  telodendrites,  which  surround  epithelial  cells  from  one, 
several,  or  all  sides,  and  convert  the  cells  into  taste-cells.  The  menisci 
are  connected  with  each  other  by  means  of  primitive  fibres,  and  the 
telodendrites  often  give  off  fine  fibrils,  which  in  all  probability  have 
intracellular  terminations. 

Nerve-Endings  in  Peritoneum  of  Mammals.^ — Dr.  D.  A.  Timcfejew 
finds  that  the  peritoneum  of  mammals  is  usually  abundantly  furnished 
with  sensory  end-organs.  In  the  parietal  peritoneum  he  finds  the  fol- 
lowing types : — (1)  In  the  sub-serosa  numerous  free  end-organs  in  the 
form  of  end-tufts  ;  (2)  a  smaller  number  of  organs  of  peculiar  shape 
which  may  be  called  "  denticulated  end-plates " ;  (3)  in  the  deeper 
layers  of  the  sub-serosa  cylindrical  end-bulbs.  In  addition,  the  serous 
layer  contains  a  plexus  of  non-medullated  fibres  which  sends  out  fine 
branched  non-medullated  fibrils.  The  diaphragm  contains  also  the 
three  types  of  end-organs  mentioned  above.  In  the  centrum  tendineum 
there  are  flattened  or  leaf-like  end-organs,  and  also  cylindrical  end- 
bulbs.  In  the  muscular  regions  there  are  motor  end-organs  of  the  usual 
type.  All  the  forms  of  sensory  end-organs  mentioned  above  appear  to 
arise  from  medullated  fibres,  and  in  certain  cases,  e.g.  that  of  the  cylin- 
drical end-bulbs  of  the  diaphragm,  the  author  was  able  to  prove  that 
they  originate  from  the  phrenic  nerve.  He  therefore  believes  that  this 
nerve  is  to  be  regarded  not  only  as  the  motor  nerve  of  the  diaphragm, 
but  also  as  the  sensory. 

Innervation  of  Supra-orbital  Canal  in  Chimaera  monstrosa.  §  — 
11.  H.  Burne  comments  on  Cole's  discovery  that  two  organs  in  the  middle 
of  the  supra-orbital  canal  in  this  hsh  are  innervated  by  twigs  from  the 
ramus  ophthalmicus  profundus  of  the  Vth  cranial  nerve —apparently 
the  only  genuine  case  of  connection  between  the  nerves  of  the  lateral 

*  Journ.  Cincinnati  Soo.  Nat.  Hist.,  xx.  (1901)  pp.  1-12  (1  pi.), 

t  Ztitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxx.  (1901)  pp.  559-66  (1  pi.). 

t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lix.  (1902)  pp.  629-46  (1  pi.). 

§  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London,  1901,  pp.  184-7  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSCOPY,    ETC.  169 

line  and  the  trigeminal.  In  three  dissections  Burne  found  that  the 
branch  of  the  proiundus,  which  Cole  described  as  innervating  two 
organs  of  the  supra-orbital  canal,  was  joined,  after  leaving  the  orbit,  by- 
two  twigs  from  the  ramus  ophthalmicus  superficialis  of  the  facial.  The 
organs  in  question  probably  receive  their  nerves  from  the  superficialis, 
as  do  the  other  organs  of  that  canal,  and  in  their  mode  of  innervation 
show  a  close  similarity  to  those  in  front  of  them ;  for  in  both  cases  the 
actual  nerve-trunk  from  which  the  filaments  for  the  individual  sense- 
organs  arise  is  of  a  compound  nature  formed  by  an  intimate  blending  of 
the  superficialis  VII  with  the  profundus  V,  differing  only  in  the  fact 
that  in  the  case  of  these  two  sense-organs  the  union  occurs  between  the 
smaller  branches  of  the  nerves,  while  in  that  of  the  organs  in  front  it 
involves  their  main  trunks. 

Membranes  of  the  Spinal  Cord.* — Dr.  G.  Sterzi  gives  a  detailed 
account  of  the  structure  of  the  medullary  investments  from  the  lancelet 
to  man,  and  shows  the  gradually  increasing  complexity.  The  work  is  a 
model  of  thoroughness,  and  the  author  describes  the  state  of  affairs  in 
more  than  fifty  forms.  He  also  gives  an  account  of  the  development, 
and  a  theoretical  discussion  of  the  phylogenetic  evolution. 

Hsemolymph  Glands  in  Man  and  Mammals.f — E.  Morandi  and  P. 
Sisto  conclude  that  the  hsemolymph  glands  have  to  do,  not  only  with 
the  formation  of  the  -white  blood-corpuscles,  but  also  with  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  red.  They  refer  especially  to  three  facts  : — (1)  the  presence 
in  the  glands  of  globuliferous  and  pigmentiferous  cells  ;  (2)  the  great 
abundance  of  these  elements  in  cases  where  the  spleen  has  been  re- 
moved ;  and  (3)  the  increased  production  of  haemolytic  substance  in  such 
conditions. 

Lacteal  Secretion.  J  —  M.  Limon  has  made  observations  on  the 
guinea-pig,  and  has  reached  the  following  conclusions  : — The  mammary 
gland  functions  during  lactation  like  a  serous  gland.  The  nucleus 
shares  in  the  secretion,  its  structure  changes,  it  divides  amitotically, 
and  degenerates.  But  the  degeneration  is  little  more  than  the  expres- 
sion of  functional  exhaustion,  and  the  frequent  amitosis  does  not  imply 
the  death  of  the  cell.  It  is  the  cytoplasm  which  elaborates  the  secre- 
tion, with  the  co-operation  of  ergastoplasmic  filaments  in  the  basal 
region  of  the  cell. 

Circulation  in  the  Spleen.§ — Dr.  K.  Helly  has  studied  this  in  the 
new-born  infant,  and  in  kittens,  rabbits,  &c,  and  is  definitely  opposed  to 
the  view  that  the  circulation  is  not  a  closed  system.  The  blood  flows 
through  a  closed  capillary  network,  whose  walls  show  no  permanent 
gaps  for  the  exit  of  red  blood-corpuscles.  Where  these  pass  out  it  is 
by  true  diapedesis.  He  also  gives  evidence  to  show  that  leucocytes  pass 
through  the  closed  walls. 

Limiting  Membrane  in  Human  Serosa.||  —  Prof.  L.  Vincenzi  has 
studied  the  delicate  connective-tissue  membrane  which  Bizzozero  de- 
scribed in  1874,  directly  below  the  endothelium  in  pleural,  pericardial,. 

*  Atti  E.  1st.  Veneto,  lx.  (1901)  pp.  (x.)  and  1101-1361  (5  pis.). 
+  Atti  R.  Accad.  Sci.  Torino,  xxxvi.  (1901)  pp.  384-90  (1  pi.). 
t  Journ.  Anat.  Physiol.,  xxxviii.  (1902)  pp.  14-34  (1  pi.). 
§  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat,  lix.  (1901)  pp.  93-105  (1  pi.). 
'||  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  492-5  (2  figs.). 


170  I  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

and  peritoneal  linings.  According  to  Bizzozero,  it  was  non-cellular, 
but  Vincenzi  brings  forward  evidence  to  show  that  this  very  delicate 
membrane  always  includes  cellular  elements : — (a)  Elements  with  oval 
nucleus,  sparse  cytoplasm,  and  very  fine  prolongations  of  considerable 
length,  and  (6)  flat  elements,  finely  granular,  very  transparent,  and  very 
irregular  in  outline.  These  cells  are  not  numerous,  but  they  are  never 
absent.  They  form  the  most  superficial  stratum — an  extremely  delicate 
stratum — of  the  underlying  supporting  tissue. 

Filamentous  Tufts  of  Epithelial  Cells  in  Vas  epididymis  of  Man.* — 
Dr.  A.  Gurwitsch  describes  the  remarkable  Haarbilschel  which  vary  in 
form  according  to  the  condition  of  the  secretory  process.  The  fluid 
•or  semi-fluid  secretion  of  the  cells  is  got  rid  of  via  the  tufts,  and  the 
internal  ends  of  the  tuft-filaments,  which  go  deep  down  into  the  cell, 
have  to  do  with  the  accumulation  and  breaking  up  of  the  secretion. 

The  author  shows  that  the  plasmic  threads  which  project,  apparently 
without  sharp  boundary,  from  the  free  surface  of  the  cells,  which  one 
might  on  account  of  their  motor  changes  be  inclined  to  call  genuine 
pseudopodia  of  the  epithelial  cells,  retain  their  individuality  deep  within 
the  cell-substance,  and  form  a  structure  quite  distinct  from  the  surround- 
ing cytoplasm. 

The  "  diplosomes "  (Zimmermann)  associated  with  the  tufts  suggest 
centrosomes  in  several  respects,  but  as  no  direct  role  in  mitosis  has  been 
demonstrated,  the  identification  lacks  security.  If  they  are  equivalent 
to  centrosomes,  then  it  would  be  necessary  to  credit  centrosomes  with 
some  role  in  connection  with  the  form-changes  associated  with  the 
secretory  process. 

What  are  "Blood-plates"  ?f— Dr.  Ernst  Schwalbe  gives  a  critical 
account  of  the  different  positions  held  on  this  question,  and  on  the  basis 
of  his  own  researches  sums  up  as  follows : — There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
blood-plates  of  most  authors  are  derivatives  of  red  blood-corpuscles,  and 
to  a  smaller  extent  of  white  corpuscles.  They  stand  in  intimate  rela- 
tion to  the  phenomenon  of  coagulation,  and  bring  about  the  morpho- 
logical dependence  of  the  blood-corpuscles  and  the  clotting.  Among 
the  plates  are  some  with  and  some  without  haemoglobin,  often  there  is 
an  internal  body  which  can  be  differentiated  by  means  of  hematoxylin. 
Blood-plates  are  not  homologous  with  the  spindles  of  the  frog's  blood. 
It  is  possible  that  in  addition  to  the  kind  of  blood-plates  described  above, 
another  kind,  not  derived  from  degenerating  corpuscles  but  pre-existent, 
is  found  in  the  blood,  but  there  is  as  yet  no  positive  evidence  in  support 
of  such  a  view,  and  such  evidence  can  only  be  looked  for  by  a  study  of 
the  embryology  of  blood. 

c.  General. 

History  of  Medicine  and  Biology  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.! — 
Dr.  F.  C.  Muller  has  written  a  very  successful  historical  sketch  of  the 
progress  of  Anatomy,  Physiology,  Embryology,  Bacteriology,  Medicine, 

*  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lix.  (1901)  pp.  32-62  (1  pi.  and  1  fig.). 

t  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1901)  pp.  385-94. 

J  Gescliichte  der  organischen  Naturwissenschaften  im  neunzelmten  Jahrhundert. 
Medizin  und  deren  Hilfswissenschaften,  Zoologie  und  Botanik,  Berlin,  1902,  Svo,  xv. 
and  714  pp.  and  16  portraits. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  171 

Surgery,  Zoology,  Botany,  and  so  on,  throughout  the  nineteenth  century. 
Although  the  book  is  heavy,  the  contents  are  not ;  and  the  author  de- 
serves congratulation  on  his  achievement.  He  has  succeeded  in  avoiding 
platitudinarian  vagueness  on  the  one  hand  and  mere  cataloguing  on  the 
other,  and  his  work  should  find  a  place  in  the  libraries  of  those  interested 
in  the  historical  development  of  the  science  of  biology  and  the  art  of 
medicine.  Most  of  the  portraits,  which  include  Virchow,  Darwin, 
Pasteur,  Haeckel,  Lister,  Koch,  Sachs,  are  very  successful. 

Present  Position  of  the  Theory  of  Descent.* — Prof.  H.  E.  Ziegler 
has  made  a  separate  publication  of  his  lecture  on  this  subject  to  the 
1901  meeting  of  the  German  naturalists  and  physicians.  All  that 
Ziegler  says  is  worth  reading,  and  the  lecture  has  appended  to  it  biblio- 
graphic notes  and  appendices  on  Natural  Selection,  Neovitalism,  Brain 
and  Mind,  &c. 

Aid  to  the  Study  of  Zoology,  f  — G.  P.  Mudge  has  written  an  intro- 
duction to  the  study  of  zoology  on  what  may  be  called  the  comparative 
anatomy  method.  After  an  introduction  on  the  scope  of  biology  and 
the  characters  of  the  great  phyla,  he  discusses  (a)  the  comparative 
morphology  of  Vertebrates,  illustrated  by  Ampluoxus,  dogfish,  frog,  and 
rabbit ;  (b)  the  same  for  Invertebrates,  illustrated  by  crayfish,  cockroach, 
fresh-water  mussel,  and  earthworm ;  (c)  the  structure  of  Hydra,  illus- 
trating diploblastic  non-coelomate  animals  ;  (d)  Paramoecium  and  Amoeba, 
illustrating  the  Protozoa.  Then  follow  chapters — with  more  individu- 
ality—on development  and  reproduction,  heredity,  and  variation.  The 
book  is  a  model  of  terseness,  and,  while  we  do  not  think  that  it  can  be 
fairly  called  a  "  Text-book  of  Zoology,"  it  is  an  accurate  and  informa- 
tive introduction  to  comparative  morphology  and  to  certain  aspects  of 
Biology. 

Immunity.^ — Prof.  Elie  Metchnikoff  published  in  1883  a  now  well- 
known  work  on  the  comparative  physiology  of  inflammation,  in  which  he 
emphasised  the  importance  of  the  phagocytes.  He  has  now  given  us  a 
similar  treatise  on  immuoity  against  infectious  diseases,  in  which  he 
maintains,  against  the  conclusions  of  many  other  investigators,  that  the 
theory  of  phagocytosis  is  indispensable  in  the  interpretation  of  im- 
munity. 

Statistical  Study  of  Organisms.§ — Prof.  L.  Cameranohas  previously 
discussed  ||  the  determination  of  indices  of  variability,  variation,  fre- 
quency, &c. ;  and  he  deals  in  the  present  communication  with  the  index 
of  the  absence  of  a  given  character,  the  index  of  correlation,  and  the 
index  of  asymmetry.  We  cannot  summarise  the  paper,  but  the  reference 
may  be  useful  to  those  interested  in  statistical  study. 

Animals  in  Hot  Water.U—  E.  Issel  has  studied  the  fauna  of  hot 
springs  and  pools  in  Italy,  and  gives  a  list  of  110  species.    Many  flourish 

*  Jena,  8vo.     See  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1902)  p.  544. 

t  A  Text-book  of  Zoology,  London,  1901,  8vo,  viii.  and  41G  pp.,  100  figs.,  and 
1  col.  pis. 

+  L'inmiunite'  dans  les  maladies  infectieuses,  Paris,  1901,  8vo,  43  coloured  figs. 
See  Journ.  Anat.  Phvsiol.  norm,  path.,  xxxviii.  (1902)  p.  104. 

S  Atti  Ace.  Sci.  Torino,  xxxvi.  (1901)  pp.  371-6.         ||  Op.  cit.,  xxxv.  (1900). 

%  Boll.  Mus.  Zool.  Genova,  No.  100  (1900)  pp.  1-4;  No.  106  (1901)  pp.  1-15 
(2  pis.  and  4  figs.).     See  Zool.  Centralbl.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  38-9. 


172  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

in  water  up  to  40°  C,  between  40°  and  45°  the  number  of  species  de- 
creases, wbile  the  number  of  individuals  increases.  Even  in  water  of 
54*5°  he  found  Pelomyxa  villosa  thriving. 

Issel  recognises  five  categories  : — (1)  widely  distributed  forms 
common  in  cold  water,  e.g.  Philodina  roseola  and  Ghilodon  cucullus ; 
(2)  animals  which  ascend  periodically  from  the  sea  (Anguilla  vulgaris), 
or  which  have  recently  immigrated  into  fresh  water  {Palsemonetes 
varians) ;  (3)  forms  which  are  at  home  in  the  warm  water,  but  absent 
in  the  surrounding  basins  (e.g.  Hydroscaj)ha  gyrinoides) ;  (4)  forms  now 
restricted  to  the  thermal  waters,  but  found  elsewhere  as  fossils  {Mela- 
nosis etrusca);  (5)  typical  inhabitants  of  hot  mineral  springs  (Lacobius 
sellm).  In  his  second  paper  the  author  discusses  in  particular  the 
differences  between  thermal  forms  and  their  relatives  elsewhere. 

Okapia  johnstoni.* — Prof.  E.  Bay  Lankester  points  out  the  general 
resemblance  in  skull  and  dentition  between  this  new  mammal  from 
Central  Africa  and  the  giraffe.  Both  he  and  Gaudry  f  corroborate  the 
suggestion  of  the  discoverer,  Sir  Harry  Johnston,  that  Okapia  is  gene- 
tically related  to  the  extinct  Helladotherium. 

"Chestnuts"  of  Horse.J — E.  E.  Beddard  suggests  that  these  may  be 
profitably  compared  with  the  tactile  (?)  carpal  tufts  of  vibrissa?  which 
he  has  observed  in  numerous  mammals,  which  Bland  Sutton  first  noted 
in  Lemuroids.  In  Dasypus  villosus  the  carpal  tuft  of  vibrissas  is  present, 
but  instead  of  being  a  closely  compacted  tuft  of  about  six  hairs,  as  is 
usually  the  case,  the  hairs  in  the  armadillo  are  not  much  larger  than 
those  cf  the  skin  generally,  are  spread  over  a  thickened  patch  of  skin 
about  half  an  inch  in  length,  and  are  more  numerous.  In  Lemur  catta 
there  is  a  callous  tract  of  skin  close  to  which  is  a  tuft  of  vibrissa?.  If 
the  latter  were  lost  we  should  have  the  "chestnut"  of  the  horse,  which, 
on  the  fore-limb,  occupies  '•  the  right  position,"  a  little  above  the  wrist. 

Modifications  in  Alimentary  System  of  Birds  induced  by  Diet.§ — 
F.  Houssay  refers  to  previous  experiments  on  this  subject  (Hunter, 
Edmonstone,  Semper,  Holmgren,  and  Brandes),  and  gives  a  careful 
account  of  his  own,  which  relate  to  two  similar  sets  of  fowls  (three  in 
each  set).  The  members  of  the  one  set  were  fed  on  grain,  the  others  on 
flesh.  Precise  measurements  are  given.  In  those  fed  on  flesh  the  crop 
was  much  shorter  and  smaller;  the  intestine  and  caeca  were  also  much 
reduced  in  dimensions ;  there  was  also  a  considerable  reduction  in  the 
weight  of  the  gizzard.     But  there  is  need  for  a  larger  number  of  data. 

Vascularisation  of  Intestine  in  Vertebrates.  || — Henri  Neuville  has 
studied  the  vessels  of  the  alimentary  caual  in  Cyclostomes  and  Elasmo- 
branchs,  in  order  to  compare  the  physiology  of  absorption  in  the  higher 
and  lower  Vertebrates.  His  results  show  that,  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected, the  higher  show  considerable  division  of  labour  as  compared 
\\  ith  the  lower.  Neither  in  the  lamprey  nor  in  Elasmobranchs  is  there 
any  trace  of  the  complicated  chyliferous  system  of  mammals.  In  both 
cases  the  vessels  of  the  intestine  are  either  arteries  or  veins,  no  lymph- 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  857-8. 

+  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  858-9  (appended  note).  %  Nature,  lxv.  (1902)  p.  222. 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  1022-5. 

||   Ann.  Bci.  Nat.  Zool.,  xiii.  (1901)  pp.  1-116  (2  pis.  and  22  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  173 

atics  being  present,  and  absorption  is  entirely  carried  on  by  the  veins. 
In  the  lamprey  there  is  present  in  the  sub-mucosa  a  kind  of  cavernous 
tissue,  which  seems  to  play  the  part  in  absorption  taken  higher  up  by 
the  network  of  lymphatics.  Somewhat  similar  conditions  exist  in  Elas- 
mobraucbs,  but  here  the  arrangement  of  the  veins  has  undergone  certain 
complications. 

Origin  of  Colour  in  Animals.* — G.  E.  H.  Barrett-Hamilton  returns 
to  the  discussion  of  the  theory  previously  expressed  by  him,  that  in  the 
animal  kingdom  generally  the  splendour  of  the  nuptial  tints  in  many 
animals  may  be  ascribed,  in  origin  at  least,  to  pathological  changes 
brought  about  by  the  effort  to  produce  as  large  an  amount  as  possible  of 
tbe  genital  products.  In  its  first  statement  his  theory  was  based  chiefly 
on  the  colouring  of  the  Salmonoid  genus  Oncorhynchus.  In  the  present 
paper,  he  endeavours  to  show  that  the  Fishery  Board  Investigations  on 
the  life-history  of  Salmo  salar  also  support  his  theory,  and  reviews  these 
investigations  from  his  own  standpoint. 

Distribution  of  Siluroids.j — Franz  Poche  points  out  that  Boulenger's 
statement  that  the  genus  Pimelodus  has  no  African  representatives  is 
incorrect,  for  P.  guttatus  from  the  Cameroons  shows  that  this  South 
American  genus  does  occur  in  Africa.  He  also  emphasises  the  fact  that 
still  another  South  American  Siluroid  genus  is  represented  in  Africa, 
namely  Auchenipterus,  for  A.  (Laimumena)  horhonica  from  Madagascar 
and  Bourbon  (?)  is  closely  related  to  the  American  A.  nodosa.  This 
remarkable  affinity  between  the  fresh-water  fishes  of  the  Ethiopian  and 
Neotropical  regions  is  emphasised  by  the  occurrence  of  the  genus  Goty- 
lopus  (family  Gobiidae)  in  Madagascar,  Keuniou,  and  in  Central  and 
South  America,  but  nowhere  else.  In  the  same  connection  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  snake  genera  Boa  and  Corallus  should  be  noticed. 

Distribution  of  Anoplopterus  platychir.J  —  Franz  Poche  publishes 
a  note  on  the  distribution  of  this  remarkable  Siluroid  fish.  The  species 
was  erected  by  Giinther  for  a  specimen  labelled  Sierra  Leone,  but 
Boulenger,  having  found  that  two  Siluroids  from  northern  Nyassaland 
fall  into  this  species,  suggested  that  the  locality  Sierra  Leone  on 
Gunther's  specimens  was  an  error,  for  he  considered  it  very  unlikely 
that  so  highly  specialised  a  form  should  occur  in  two  such  distant 
regions  of  Africa.  But  Poche  points  out  that  whatever  the  locality  of 
Gunther's  specimens,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  species  does  occur 
in  West  Africa,  for  it  is  described  by  Eochebruue  as  tolerably  common 
in  Senegal  and  Senecjambia.  Poche  believes  that  it  will  be  found  to 
occur  across  the  whole  breadth  of  the  African  continent. 

Periodic  Growth  of  Fish-Scales. § —J.  Stuart  Thomson  points  out 
in  an  interesting  preliminary  note  on  this  subject,  that  in  Gadoid  and 
Pleuronectid  fishes  there  is  distinct  evidence  of  periods  of  growth.  The 
scale  growth  is  accelerated  during  the  warmer  season  of  the  year ;  but 
diminished  during  the  colder  season  in  such  a  methodic  manner  as  to 
cause  the  formation  of  annual  rings.  The  lines  of  growth  oq  the  scale 
surface  are  comparatively  widely  separated  in  that  portion  formed  during 

*  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  106-20. 

t  Zool.  Anzeig ,  xxiv.  1 1901)  pp.  569-71.        J  Op.  cit,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  121-2. 

§  Journ.  Mar.  Biol.  Ass.,  vi.  (1902)  pp.  373-5  (1  pi.). 


174  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

the  warmer  season  of  the  year ;  but  much  less  widely  separated  in  that 
part  built  up  during  the  colder  season.  Thus  the  annual  rings  enable 
one  to  infer  the  age  of  the  fish,  much  as  the  rings  in  the  wood  of  a  tree 
stem  inform  us  as  to  the  age  of  the  tree.  Hoffbauer  has  recently  (1899) 
reached  similar  conclusions  in  regard  to  the  scales  of  carp. 

Vascular  System  of  Bdellostoma  dombeyi.* — C.  M.  Jackson  gives 
a  careful  and  very  welcome  description  of  the  vascular  system  in  this 
Myxinoid.  We  cannot  within  our  space  follow  his  anatomical  account, 
but  we  cite  his  conclusions  as  to  the  primitive  and  the  secondarily 
acquired  characters. 

The  primitive  characters  are  : — persistent  pericardio-peritoneal  fora- 
men, simple  tubular  heart,  the  large  number  (up  to  14)  of  functional 
branchial  vessels,  the  origin  of  the  carotid  arteries  from  a  lateral  com- 
missural vessel  on  each  side  connecting  all  the  efferent  branchial  arteries,, 
the  complete  sub-chordal  aorta  (dorsal  aorta)  extending  forwards  into  the 
head  region,  the  segmental  arrangement  of  the  somatic  and  renal  arteries 
and  veins,  the  frequent  anastomosis  between  the  posterior  cardinal  veins, 
the  persistent  sub-intestinal  vein  which  does  not  join  the  portal  system, 
the  presence  of  an  inferior  jugular  vein,  and  the  well-developed  portal 
heart  which  occurs  nowhere  else  among  Vertebrates  except  in  the  closely 
related  Myxine. 

The  characters  secondarily  acquired  are : — the  asymmetry  of  the 
venous  system,  the  distribution  of  branchial  vessels  to  gill-slits  instead 
of  to  gill-arches,  the  extension  of  the  portal  system  into  the  territory  of 
the  right  anterior  cardinal  vein,  the  connection  of  the  caudal  vein  with 
the  posterior  cardinals,  and  the  valvular  character  of  the  portal  heart. 

Fauna  of  Exe  Estuary.f — Dr.  E.  J.  Allen  and  Mr.  R.  A.  Todd  give 
a  valuable  account  of  the  fauna  of  the  Exe  estuary,  similar  to  that  pre- 
viously given  for  the  Salcombe  estuary.  A  comparison  of  two  faunas  is 
interesting  in  many  respects.  That  of  the  Exe  estuary  is  much  more 
limited,  and  this  seems  to  a  large  extent  due  to  the  following  causes  : — 
The  banks  uncovered  in  the  Exmouth  estuary  are  left  dry  for  a  very  long 
time  between  the  two  tides,  and  in  most  parts  of  the  estuary  there  is 
little  difference  in  the  area  uncovered  by  the  spring  and  neap  tides  ; 
the  great  strength  of  the  tidal  stream  involves  a  scouring  of  the  banks  ; 
a  large  quantity  of  fresh  water  enters  the  estuary.  In  an  appended 
paper  J  R.  H.  Worth  reports  on  the  Foraminifera,  of  which  about  twenty 
species  are  common. 

INVERTEBRATA. 

Autotomy  in  Marine  Invertebrates.  §  —  Dr.  Emanuel  Riggenbach 
gives  a  preliminary  account  of  some  observations  on  self-mutilation 
made  on  common  marine  forms.  In  the  Echinoderm  Ophioderma  longi- 
cauda,  the  mere  removal  of  the  natural  element  is  sufficient  to  induce 
movements  of  the  arms,  so  vigorous  as  to  lead  to  separation  of  parts  of 
these.     Fragments  break  off  in  rapid  succession  from  the  extremities 

*  Journ.  Cincinnati  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  xx.  (1901)  pp.  13-47  (3  pis.  and  10  figs.). 

t  Journ.  Mar.  Biol.  Ass.,  vi.  (1902)  pp.  295-335  (1  map). 

j  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  33G-43.        §  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxiv.  (1901)  pp.  587-93  (6  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  175 

towards  the  centre,  until  soon  little  is  left  save  the  disc.  The  ease  and 
swiftness  with  which  the  autotomy  takes  place  is  very  remarkable.  Other 
more  or  less  familiar  cases  described  by  the  author  are  the  throwing-off 
of  the  marginal  tentacles  by  species  of  Lima,  of  papillae  by  Eolids,  and 
by  Tethys  leporina,  of  the  arms  by  Octopus  dcfilippii,  and  the  limbs  by 
various  Crustacea.  The  paper  is  entirely  descriptive,  no  suggestions  as 
to  the  use  of  the  habit  being  made  in  any  case. 

Additions  to  British  Fauna.* — Andrew  Scott  gives  a  list  of  new 
records,  including  many  fish-parasites  from  Liverpool  Bay.  Some  of 
the  forms  mentioned  have  not  hitherto  been  described  in  the  British 
area.  In  the  brain  of  a  specimen  of  Lophius  piscatorius  cysts  of  the 
Protozoon  Glugea  lopliii  were  found,  a  form  previously  known  only  from 
the  Mediterranean.  Among  the  parasitic  Copepoda,  a  new  species  of 
Galigus  (G.  brevicaudatus)  occurred,  while  C.  brevipedes  Basset  Smith 
was  found  in  abundance,  and  owing  to  the  structure  of  the  fourth  pair 
of  legs,  is  referred  by  the  author  to  a  new  genus,  Pseudocaligus. 

Homologies  of  Coelom.f — Joh.  Thiele  gives  a  summary  of  the  views 
on  this  question  which  he  intends  to  put  forward  in  a  forthcoming  work 
on  the  phylogeny  of  the  Mollusca.  The  Mollusca  in  the  general  case 
possess  only  a  ha3mocoele ;  a  secondary  body-cavity  is  not  a  universal 
characteristic  of  them  or  of  their  ancestors,  but  in  certain  isolated  cases 
the  primitive  ducts  of  the  gonads  have  become  greatly  enlarged,  and  so 
produced  cavities  which  resemble  a  secondary  body-cavity.  Such  are 
the  right  nephridia  of  Fissurellidaa  and  the  pericardium  of  Cephalopoda. 
The  author  believes  that  the  designation  ccelom  should  be  avoided  in 
both  these  cases,  but  if  it  is  used  then,  as  both  cavities  are  excretory,  the 
term  nephroccele  must  be  employed.  Quite  different  from  these  cavities 
is  the  body-cavity  of  Annelids,  which  the  author  regards  as  having  arisen 
as  a  lymph-space  by  the  absorption  of  parenchyma,  and  therefore  as 
comparable  to,  though  separate  from  the  htemoccele,  with  which  however 
it  may  become  secondarily  united.  This  Annelid  body-cavity  may  be- 
come secondarily  connected  with  the  sexual  organs,  a  process  in  regard 
to  which  the  following  series  of  stages  exists  : — In  Neomenia  there  is  a 
regular  series  of  segmentally  arranged  gonads  connected  with  a  longi- 
tudinal duct  which  opens  to  the  exterior  at  the  posterior  end  of  the 
body.  In  the  Gordiidae  the  gonads  have  the  same  relations,  but  the 
longitudinal  duct  is  not  able  to  carry  the  whole  of  the  generative  pro- 
ducts, which  burst  through  its  thin  wall  and  enter  the  body-cavity.  In 
Polygordius  there  is  no  longitudinal  duct,  and  the  generative  products 
fall  directly  into  the  body-cavity,  whence,  finding  no  exit,  they  burst 
through  the  body-wall.  In  certain  Polycluetes  the  primitively  excretory 
segmental  organs  become  enlarged  and  take  on  the  function  of  genital 
ducts.  Finally,  in  the  higher  Annelids,  the  gonads  become  limited  to 
the  anterior  region  of  the  body-cavity,  and  from  part  of  the  body-cavity 
there  arise  special  genital  ducts  not  homologous  with  the  excretory  seg- 
mental organs.  In  consequence  the  author  holds  that  the  gonoccele 
theory  is  not  true  for  the  Annelids,  for  in  them  the  cavities  of.  the 
gonads  and  their  ducts  have  degenerated,  and  there  is  no  homologue  of 

*  Proc.  and  Trans.  Liverpool  Biological  Soc,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  342-53  (3  pis.), 
t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  82-4. 


176  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

the  pericardium  and  nephridia  of  Mollusca,  for  these  are  certainly  deri- 
vatives of  the  primitive  genital  ducts.  Save  for  its  secondary  relation 
to  the  sexual  products,  the  coelom  of  Annelids  is  a  schizoccele. 

Mollusca. 

North  Atlantic  Molluscs.*  —  H.  Friele  and  J.  A.  Grieg  conclude 
their  report  on  the  Molluscs  of  the  Norwegian  North  Atlantic  Expedi- 
tion (1876-1878),  and  this  part  is  the  last  of  the  whole  series.  The 
first  volume  on  molluscs  treated  of  the  Buccinidse,  the  second  of  the 
genus  Bela  and  some  new  or  rare  forms,  the  concluding  volume  takes  a 
faunistic  survey  of  all  the  species  collected,  with  information  respecting 
their  horizontal  and  vertical  distribution.  The  list  includes  108  Bi- 
valves, 8  Scaphopods,  10  Placophora,  22  Nudibranchs,  5  Pteropods,  192 
other  Gastropods,  and  7  Cephalopods. 

Diverticulum  of  Duct  of  Spermotheca  in  Helix  aspersa.  f  —  Do- 
mingo Sanchez  gives  a  detailed  description  of  this  well-known  diver- 
ticulum. He  distinguishes  three  longitudinal  regions  and  two  distinct 
strata  in  its  wall. 

Papillee  of  Eolidse.| — Ernst  Krembzow  has  investigated  the  struc- 
ture and  development  of  the  dorsal  appendages  of  Eolis  exigua,  and  has 
checked  his  results  by  a  comparison  with  some  other  members  of  the 
same  family.  Much  of  the  interest  of  the  research  is  concentrated  in 
the  question  of  the  origin  of  the  "  cnidophore-sac  " — regarded  as  ecto- 
dermic  by  Herdman,  as  endodermic  by  Davenport.  The  author's 
results  confirm  those  of  Davenport.  He  finds  that  the  liver  contains 
undifferentiated  cells  of  embryonic  type,  which  form  the  future  cnido- 
blasts,  and  these  grow  out  into  the  ectodermic  iuvagination  which  forms 
the  first  rudiment  of  the  papilla.  Into  the  space  between  ectoderm  and 
endoderm  in  the  developing  papilla  mesenchyme  cells  find  their  way. 
As  the  endoderm  grows  out  into  the  papilla,  however,  it  is  seen  to  con- 
sist, not  only  of  the  embryonic  cells  mentioned  above,  but  also  of  a 
certain  number  of  true  liver-cells.  Between  the  distal  embryonic  cells 
— now  rapidly  undergoing  differentiation  into  cnidoblasts — and  the 
proximal  liver-cells  a  furrow  appears,  and  here  the  mesenchyme  cells 
form  the  sphincter  muscle.  The  cnidophore  sac  then  acquires  an 
opening  to  the  exterior,  and  the  cnidoblasts,  few  in  number  but  of  large 
size,  each  produce  numerous  stinging  capsules,  a  process  initiated  at  an 
earlier  stage.  Certain  cells  which  lie  between  ectoderm  and  endoderm, 
regarded  as  mucus-secreting  by  Herdman,  the  author  believes  to  have 
arisen  from  liver-cells.  In  Eolidiella  glauca  the  cnidoblasts  differ  in 
form,  number,  and  arrangement  from  those  of  Eolis  exigua.  They  are 
•more  numerous,  long  and  narrow  in  shape,  and  do  not  begin  to  form 
capsules  until  a  relatively  later  stage.  In  both  the  forms  mentioned 
nematocysts  are  produced  in  the  liver  as  well  as  in  the  papillae. 

Free  Intra-epithelial  Nerve-endings  in  Helix.  §  —  Dr.  H.  Smidt 
begins   his  communication  on  this  subject  by  noting  that   while    free 

*  Norske  Nordhavs  Exped.,  xxviii.  (1901)  xviii.  and  131  pp.,  2  figs.,  and  a  map. 
+  Boll.  Soc.  Espan.  Hist.  Nat,  i.  No.  10  (1901)  pp.  380-5  (1  fig.). 
t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lix.  (1901)  pp.  181-210  (2  pis.). 
§  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  495-506  (8  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  177 

intercellular  nerve-endings  are  well  known  in  the  epithelia  of  Verte- 
brates, the  records  for  Invertebrates  are  few.  He  sums  up  about  eight 
previously  described  cases  in  Plathelmintbes,  Annelids,  and  Molluscs. 
By  using  Sinirnow's  modification  of  Golgi's  method,  he  has  succeeded 
in  demonstrating  (in  the  suail)  free  nerve-endings  in  the  cutis,  in  the 
foot-gland,  in  the  oesophagus  and  buccal  cavity.  He  suggests  that  the 
free  nerve-endings  may  be  related  to  a  chemical  sense,  and  he  calls  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  interesting  fact  (which  Smirnow  also  noted)  that 
the  endings  come  into  close  association,  though  not  connection,  with 
sensory  cells. 

Hew  Genus  of  Stylommatophora.  *  —  Dr.  Heinrich  Simroth  de- 
scribes as  OstracoJethe  fruhstorfferi  g.  et  sp.  n.,  a  Pulmonate  Gasteropod 
from  Tonkin,  which  possesses  so  many  peculiarities  that  a  new  family 
must  be  created  for  its  reception.  The  chief  peculiarities  are  in  regard 
to  the  shell  and  the  relations  of  the  visceral  hump,  and  the  presence  of 
a  puzzling  organ  in  connection  with  the  reproductive  system.  The 
visceral  hump  is  very  prominent,  and  the  shell  internal,  covered  by  a 
tough,  but  thin,  mantle.  It  consists  of  an  anterior  calcareous  plate,  and 
a  large  cap-shaped  structure  of  conchiolin,  which  is  of  such  a  shape  that 
a  narrow  region  of  it  ["  ein  schlanker  Zipfel "]  protrudes  posteriorly 
from  the  mantle-pocket  through  a  cleft.  In  the  absence  of  a  figure  the 
exact  relations  of  shell,  mantle,  and  visceral  hump  are  not  altogether 
easy  to  make  out. 

In  regard  to  the  reproductive  system,  side  by  side  with  the  vas 
deferens,  which  opens  into  the  proximal  end  of  the  penis,  there  runs 
another  structure,  which  becomes  densely  muscular  below,  and  is  inserted 
into  the  distal  end  of  the  penis.  This  muscular  band  appears  to  contain 
a  fine  canal.  At  its  point  of  origin  there  are  within  the  muscular  band 
About  fourteen  cup-shaped  discs,  which  are  arranged  in  a  plate,  con- 
taining each  a  narrow  split-like  lumen,  and  consist  of  circular  and 
radial  muscle-fibres.  These  discs  are  possibly  comparable  to  the  mus- 
cular thickenings  sometimes  seen  in  the  penis  of  other  snails  ;  they  ma; 
have  some  function  in  connection  with  the  promotion  of  self-fertilisation, 
but  their  form  and  structure  make  them  quite  different  from  any  organs 
previously  described.  Only  one  specimen  of  the  new  mollusc  was  ob- 
tained. 

New  Cave  Gasteropod.  f — Dr.  K.  Sturnay  describes  the  shell  of  a 
new  Mollusc  obtained  from  a  cave  in  the  island  of  Curzola,  in  Dalmatia. 
The  6oft  parts  of  the  new  form  are  not  known,  but  the  shell  resembles 
that  of  Torquilla  in  general  shape,  while,  from  the  characters  of  the 
umbilicus,  it  recalls  the  species  of  Zospeum,  which  are  also  cave-dwellers. 
The  author  describes  it  as  Spelaeoconcha  paganettii  g.  et  sp.  n. 

•y.  Gastropoda. 

Fossil  Polyplacophora.t — E.  Ashby  and  Dr.  W.  G.  Torr  give  a 
systematic  account  of  the  valuable  collection  of  fossil  Polyplacophora 
made  by  the  late  Prof.  Ealph  Tate  and  Mr.  J.  Dennant,  and  now  de- 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1901)  pp.  62-4. 

t  Verhandl.  k.  k.  Zool.-bot.  Grsell.  Wien,  li.  (1901)  pp.  761-2  (1  fig.). 

t  Trans,  and  Proc.  R.  Soc.  S.  Australia,  xxv.  (1901)  pp.  136-44  (1  pi.). 

April  16  th,  1902  n 


178  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

posited  in  the  University  Museum,  Adelaide.  The  collection  comprises 
seventeen  or  eighteen  species  (in  seven  genera),  and  at  least  half  of  these 
species  are  new,  though  most  show  a  close  affinity  to  living  forms. 

5.  Lamellibranchiata. 

Spawning  Period  of  Mussels.* — A.  Scott  records  a  series  of  obser- 
vations on  this  subject  made  on  tank  specimens  of  Mytilus  edulis,  but 
constantly  checked  by  comparison  with  forms  living  under  natural  con- 
ditions. The  mussels  began  to  discharge  eggs  on  May  6th,  and  this 
continued  without  any  corresponding  discharge  of  sperms  until  June 
13th,  when  the  sperms  first  made  their  appearance.  Two  days  after 
the  first  appearance  of  sperms  another  discharge  occurred,  and  though 
sperms  were  not  again  observed,  all  the  subsequent  eggs  proved  fertile. 
Prior  to  June  13th  none  of  the  eggs  developed,  and  all  were  apparently 
unfertilised.  Fertilisation  is  apparently  effected  internally.  After 
being  shed  the  ova  fall  to  the  ground  near  the  parent,  and  here  remain 
for  eight  to  twelve  hours,  during  which  they  undergo  the  earlier  stages 
of  development.  They  then  rise  to  the  surface  and  enter  upon  the  free- 
swimming  stage,  which  lasts  about  four  days. 

Arthropods. 
a.  Insecta. 

Chitin-Formation,  Muscle-Insertion,  and  Cell-Connections  in  In- 
sects.f — Nils  Holmgren  has  studied  these  subjects  in  Sarcophaga  car- 
naria,  Musca  vomitoria,  and  Chironomus  larvae.  He  confirms  Tullberg'& 
conclusion  (1881)  that  chitin  usually  arises  from  a  direct  transformation 
of  the  distal  parts  of  epithelial  cells.  The  same  occurs  in  muscle-cells. 
Only  in  one  case  could  it  be  said  that  the  chitin  was  formed  as  a  secre- 
tion of  the  epithelium,  as  Biitschli,  referring  to  tho  egg-shell  of  the 
crayfish,  maintained  against  Tullberg. 

In  the  vagina  of  Sarcophaga  the  matrix-cells  form  parallel  lamella* 
of  chitin  ;  in  the  efferent  ducts  of  the  sperm-capsules  the  filar  substance 
of  the  cells  is  gradually  chitinised  distally,  but  into  pillars,  not  lamellae  ; 
in  the  median  oviduct  of  Musca  the  couical  matrix-cells  are  prolonged 
into  points  (chitinised  only  at  their  tips),  and  between  these  threads 
almost  structureless  chitin  is  formed — mainly  as  a  secreted  product. 

Holmgren  shows  that  before  a  muscle-cell  reaches  the  epithelium  it 
loses  its  striation.  Its  fibrils  enter  the  epithelial  cell,  traverse  its  whole 
length,  and  end  with  a  chitinised  portion  in  the  epithelial  chitin.  Besides 
the  connections  between  epithelial  cells  and  those  between  muscle-cells 
there  are  very  distinct  direct  connections  between  epithelial  cells  and 
muscle-cells. 

Spermatogenesis  in  Insects.ij:  —  Walter  S.  Sutton  has  studied  the 
spermatogonial  divisions  in  the  grasshopper  Brachystola  magna,  with 
special  reference  to  the  chromatin.  The  adult  testis  displays  sperma- 
tozoa near  the  collecting  duct,  spermatids  a  little  further  lip,  and  finally, 
in  some  cases,  primary  and  secondary  spermatogonia.     Preparatory  to 

*  Proc.  and  Trans.  Liverpool  Biol.  Soc,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  161-4. 

t  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  480-8  (6  figs.). 

%  Kansas  University  Quarterly,  ix.  (1900)  pp.  135-60  (4  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   LTC.  1791 

the  last  division,  the  chromatin  in  the  nucleus  of  the  primary  spermato- 
gonium becomes  diffused,  and  a  number  of  spiremes  are  formed,  these 
split  and  become  short  rods,  the  centrosomes  appear,  and  two  secondary 
spermatogonia  are  thus  produced.  Round  the  two  cells  a  membrane 
appears,  producing  a  two-cell  spermatocyst.  Each  chromosome  in  the 
new  cells  disintegrates,  and  at  the  same  time  reconstructs  its  share  of 
the  nuclear  membrane  as  a  closed  vessel  round  itself.  Later  these 
vesicles  become  intercommunicating  with  one  another,  except  for  one — 
that  of  the  accessory  chromosome — which  remains  apart  in  a  separate 
vesicle.  The  nuclear  chromatin  then  passes  through  a  spireme  stage,, 
splits,  and  breaks  up  as  before  to  form  chromosomes.  The  accessory 
chromosome  has  no  spireme  stage,  but  splits  up  like  the  others.  Divi- 
sion then  takes  place,  and  this  is  repeated  until  each  cyst  contains 
secondary  spermatogonia  of  the  seventh  or  eighth  generation,  when  the 
transformation  into  spermatocysts  occurs.  In  the  telophases  of  the  last 
ypermatogonial  division  the  sacculations  of  the  nucleus  disappear,  leav- 
ing a  smooth  vesicular  membrane  to  which  the  accessory  chromosome 
is  applied. 

Prof.  C.  E.  McClung*  has  studied  the  spermatocyte  divisions  in 
Hippiscus  plioenicopterus  and  other  members  of  the  iamily  Acrididaa. 
He  finds  that  at  the  end  of  the  last  spermatogonial  division,  the  daughter- 
cells  possess  the  somatic  number  of  chromosomes.  These  break  down 
to  form  the  spireme,  except  one  which  persists  as  the  accessory  chromo- 
some. The  thread  splits  longitudinally,  and  then  at  right  angles  to  this 
cleft,  to  form  quadrivalent  chromosomes.  When  separation  takes  place, 
it  occurs  along  the  plane  corresponding  to  the  original  longitudinal 
cleft,  without  divergence  of  the  constituent  chromatids.  Not  till  this 
separation  has  taken  place  do  the  dyad  chromatids  begin  to  diverge  from 
one  another,  and  form  V-shaped  structures.  There  is  no  rest-stage  either 
between  spermatogonium  and  spermatocyte,  or  between  first  and  second 
spermatocyte  division.  In  the  last-named  division  there  is  a  small 
spindle,  and  the  loosely  joined  chromatids  separate  easily  at  a  point 
which  marks  the  previous  cross-division.  The  author  believes  that  this 
sequence  of  longitudinal  and  cross-divisions  is  constant.  The  accessory 
chromosome,  after  the  appearance  of  the  mitotic  figure  of  the  first  sperma- 
tocyte, takes  its  place  with  the  other  chromatic  elements  and  divides. 
Henceforth  it  becomes  inconspicuous  till  the  spermatids  are  formed, 
when  it  again  becomes  distinct  and  conspicuous.  In  regard  to  its 
function  the  author  has  no  suggestion  to  make. 

Aquatic  Insects  in  the  Adirondacks.  f— Prof.  J.  G.  Needham  and 
Cornelius  Betten  publish  a  report  based  on  ten  weeks'  work  at  the 
Entomologic  Field  Station  at  Saranac  Inn,  New  York,  which  illustrates 
admirably  the  kind  of  work  which  can  be  done  at  such  stations.  The 
primary  object  of  the  investigation  was  economic,  in  relation  to  the 
food-supply  of  fishes,  and  the  ten  weeks'  visit  resulted  in  the  working- 
out  of  the  life-histories  of  about  100  species  of  insects,  the  discovery  of 
ten  new  species  and  two  new  genera,  and  the  accumulation  of  a  large 
amount  of  material  still  to  be  worked  out.     In  the  report  the  biological 

*  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  73-100  (3  pis.) 

t  New  York  State  Museum,  Bulletin  xlvii.  (1901)  pp.  383-012  (36  pis.  and 
42  figs.). 

N   2 


180  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

features  of  the  locality  are  clearly  presented,  and  the  relation  of  the 
different  forms  described  to  their  natural  surroundings  and  to  other 
species  formed  an  important  part  of  the  investigation.  While,  from  the 
nature  of  the  case,  an  abstract  is  impossible,  attention  should  be  called 
to  the  report  as  the  kind  of  work  so  much  needed  at  present. 

Hindering  Pupation.* — J.  Dewitz  finds  that  maggots  of  flies  ready 
to  pupate  may  be  inhibited  when  there  is  lack  of  air  (in  a  securely  closed 
glass  vessel) ;  some  pupate  immediately,  but  others  do  not.  After  four- 
teen days  the  maggots  which  had  not  pupated  but  had  remained  sluggish, 
were  still  alive.  On  the  entrance  of  air  they  recovered  activity  and 
began  to  pupate.  Similar  experiments  were  made  with  the  larvae  of 
Lucilia  csesar  and  Pieris  brnssicse.  The  Ichneumon-larvae  (Microgaster 
glomeratus)  in  the  caterpillars  were  hindered  from  pupating  by  an  atmo- 
sphere saturated  with  moisture. 

Coloration  of  British.  Beetles. f — Horace  St.  John  K.  Donisthorpe 
has  gone  through  a  collection  of  Coleoptera  with  a  view  to  the  discovery 
of  cases  of  protective  coloration,  mimicry,  and  so  on.  Few  of  the  cases 
adduced  are  convincing,  and  many  are  qualified  with  a  "  probably  "  or 
"  perhaps." 

Sexual  Dimorphism  in  Buprestis  sanguinea.  J  —  G.  C.  Champion 
studied  this  species  in  Aragon,  and  found  very  marked  dissimilarity  in 
the  colours  of  the  two  sexes.  It  seems  almost  certain  that  the  males 
correspond  to  B.  margaripicta  of  Marseul,  and  the  females  to  B.  san- 
guined Fabr.  =  levaillanti  Lucas.  This  is  the  first  record  of  sexual 
dimorphism  in  Buprestid  beetles. 

Life-history  of  Tephroclystia  virgaureata.§  —  Eudolf  Klos  notes  the 
interesting  discovery  that  in  this  butterfly  there  are  spring  and  summer 
broods  of  caterpillars,  feeding  on  entirely  different  plants.  At  the  end 
of  June  and  beginning  of  July  he  took  caterpillars  which  seemed  to 
him  to  generally  resemble  those  of  this  species,  on  hawthorn  and  Primus 
spinosa.  To  his  astonishment  the  butterflies — which  proved  to  be 
T.  virgaureata-  emerged  at  the  end  of  July  and  throughout  August, 
proving  that  the  caterpillars  were  a  second  brood.  The  imagines  were 
smaller  than  the  spring  form,  and  differed  in  colour.  The  spring  cater- 
pillars fed  only  on  species  of  Solidago  and  Senecio,  and  the  spring  broods 
of  butterflies  emerge  at  the  end  of  March  or  in  April. 

Stigmata  of  Sericaria  mori.||  — Dr.  L.  Petri  give3  an  intimate  de- 
scription of  the  tracheal  vestibule,  the  chitinous  armature,  and  the  three 
muscles  of  a  stigma,  and  shows  how  well  adapted  the  mechanism  is. 

Life-history  of  Hive  Bse.f  — Ferd.  Dickel  describes  in  deUil  a 
number  of  experiments  which  he  has  made  in  attempting  to  decide  the 
question  whether  it  is  true  that  the  fertilised  queen  can  "  voluntarily  *' 
withold  spermatozoa  from  certain  eggs,  and  that  such  eggs  give  rise  to 
the  drones,  which  have  thus  a  "  mother,  but  no  father."     He  grauts  that 

*  Arch.  Entwickmcch.,  xi.  (1901)  pp.  690-9  (1  fig.).  See  Zool.  Centralbl.,  viii. 
(1901)  pp.  863-4.  t  Trans.  Entomol.  Soc.  London,  1901,  pp.  345-77. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  379-84  (1  pi). 

§  Verhandl.  k.  k.  Zool.-bot.  Gesell.  Wien,  li.  (1901)  p.  785. 
||    Bull.  Soc.  Entom.  Ital.,  xxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  8J-101  (5  fig*,  and  1  pi.). 
If  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1901)  pp.  39-56. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY.   ETC.  181 

eggs  laid  by  unfertilised  queens  or  by  workers  do  invariably  give  rise 
to  drones,  but  maintains  that  such  drones  snow  well-marked  differences 
from  those  which  appear  in  a  colony  with  a  healthy  fertilised  queen  at 
its  head ;  he  considers  that  his  results  prove  that  such  a  queen  can  only 
lay  fertilised  eggs,  and  tbat  it  is  the  influence  of  tbe  workers  which 
determines  the  future  development  of  the  eggs.     He  believes,  further,, 
that  the  workers,  in  crawling  over  the  brood-cells  as  soon  as  eggs  have 
been  laid  in  them,  pour  out  a  secretion  which  penetrates  the  chorion 
and  reacbes  the  egg.     More  than  this,  the  wax  which  makes  the  cells  is 
kneaded  in  the  mouth,  and  during  this  process  be  believes  tbat  it  is 
impregnated  from  the  "  salivary  glands  "  with  the  secretion  character- 
istic of  drone,  of  worker,  or  of  queen-cells.    According  to  the  paiticular 
nature  of   the  secretion,  the  type  of   the  cell   is  determined,  and   the 
presence  of  the  particular  secretion  in  the  walls  of  tbe  cell  determines 
the  nature  of  the  additional  secretion  poured  into  the  cell  when  tbe  egg 
is  laid.      The  question  as  to  whether  each  worker  is  capable  of  pro- 
ducing tbe  three  types  of  secretion,  or  whether  three  kinds  of  worker 
exist,  is  left  undetermined.     The  author  believes  that  this  theory  will 
explain   in   a    satisfactory  way  all  tbe   anomalies  of   bee-development. 
Further,  be  compares  tbe  secretion  of  fluid  from  the  "  salivary  glands  " 
in  the  workers  to  a  sexual  act,  and  believes  that  it  produces  in  them  the 
same  emotions  as  those  usually  associated  with  sexual  union. 

In  another  paper,*  the  author  replies  to  Petrunkewitsch's  re-assertion 
of  the  traditional  position  in  regard  to  drone  eggs.  Petrunkewitsch 
believes  that  all  eggs  laid  by  the  queen  in  drone-cells  are  unfertilised, 
basing  his  belief  largely  on  the  fact  that  no  sperm  and  no  centrosome 
rays  have  been  observed  in  such  eggs.  Dickel,  however,  replies  that 
as  such  eggs  do  in  some  cases  give  rise  to  worker  bees,  Petruukewitsch 
proves  too  much  for  his  own  case.  On  other  grounds  also  Dickel  thinka 
the  microscopic  evidence  unreliable. 

Studies  on  Galls.f — Manuel  Fernandez  de  Gatta  discusses  the  galls 
of  Salicacese  (due  to  Nematus  versicolor,  N.  gallicola,  N.  vallisnierii,  &c.)  ; 
of  Ulmaceae  (due  to  Schizoneura  lanigera,  Sch.  ulmi,  &c.)  ;  of  Papilionacese 
(due  to  a  species  of  Diastrophus  and  to  Bacteria) ;  of  Terebinthaceae  (due 
to  Pemphigus  cornicularius,  P.  utricularius,  &c.)  ;  of  Kosaceae  (due  to 
species  of  Ehodites,  &c.)  ;  of  Oleacese  (due  to  Bacteria)  ;  and  so  on. 

Dragon  flies  of  Illinois.:}:—  Prof.  J.  G.  Needham  and  Mr.  C.  A.  Hart 
give  an  account  of  the  Petaluridae,  ^schnidae,  and  Gomphidse  of  Illinois 
(twenty-eight  species),  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  they  describe  the 
nymphs  of  twenty-four  species  (six  for  the  first  time).  The  authors 
give  an  interesting  account  of  the  habitats  and  food-relations,  and  useful 
diagnostic  tables. 

New  Collembola.§— Carl  Borner  describes  a  number  of  new  species 
of  Collembola,  and  discusses  tome  points  connected  with  the  nomencla- 
ture of  the  previously  known  species.  One  of  the  new  species  falls  into 
a  new  genus—  Micranurida,  which  resembles  Anurida  in  general  form, 

*  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  20-7. 

t  Boll.  Soc.  Eapan.  Hist.  Nat.,  i.  No.  10  (1901)  pp.  385-402. 
X  Bull.  Illinois  State  Lab.  Nat.  Hist,,  vi.  (1901)  pp.  1-94  (1  pi.). 
§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxiv.  (1901)  pp.  096-712  (10  figs.). 


182  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

but  differs  in  the  reduction  of  the  mouth-parts,  here  adapted  only  for 
piercing  and  sucking.  The  mandibles,  maxillae,  and  paraglossae  are 
mere  styles,  the  mandible  being  furnished  with  two  teeth  at  the  tip. 

Collembola  from  Franz- Josef  Land.* — Mr.  G.  H.  Carpenter  reports 
on  the  collection  of  Collembola  made  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Bruce  in  Franz- Josef 
Land.  Seven  species  are  represented  in  the  collection  from  this  new 
locality,  including  one  new  species — Isotoma  brevicauda.  The  distribu- 
tion of  northern  Collembola,  as  summed  up  by  Carpenter,  lends  support 
to  our  belief  in  a  Pliocene  or  Pleistocene  land-connection  to  the  north 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  a  belief  already  upheld  by  so  much  evidence, 
both  geological  and  zoological. 

j3.  Myriopoda. 

Luminosity  in  Centipedes.f  —  Rose  Haig  Thomas  records  an  inter- 
esting observation  on  Geophilw.  It  had  discharged  its  "  fluid "  on  a 
dozen  or  so  of  red  ants  which  were  pursuing  it,  so  that  a  curving  throad 
of  light  seemed  to  have  a  scattered  tail  of  brilliant  points.  When  the 
centipede  was  dropped  into  a  tumbler,  it  "  splashed  out  a  mass  of  light. 
Hurriedly  placing  my  hand  over  the  tumbler  to  prevent  the  insect  from 
escaping,  I  felt  suddenly  a  strange  prickly  sensation,  such  as  is  caused 
by  a  slight  contact  with  electricity,  so  that  I  hastily  removed  my  hand, 
calling  to  a  friend  who,  placing  her  hand  over  the  tumbler,  felt  the  same 
thing.  I  lit  another  match  and  watched  the  Geophilw  writhe  the  light 
out  of  its  body  in  blue-green  flashes.  It  soon  ceased  to  shine,  having 
probably  exhausted  all  the  luminosity  on  its  enemies."  Defence  seems 
certainly  to  be  one  of  the  uses  of  this  secretion. 

Spermatogenesis  of  Scolopendra.*  —  M.  W.  Blackman  has  made  a 
series  of  observations  on  the  spermatocytes  and  spermatids  of  an  unde- 
termined species  of  this  genus.     He  finds  that  the  spermatocytes,  at  the 
time  of  their  formation,  are  small  cells  with  very  little  cytoplasm.    The 
chromatin,  with   the  exception  of  that  of  the  accessory  chromosome, 
becomes  arranged  in  a  spireme  and  the  cytoplasm  increases  in  amount. 
Next  the   spireme  breaks  down,  and  forms  a  reticulum  which   stains 
feebly,  and  becomes  finer  and  finer  until  it  is  no  stronger  than  the  cyto- 
plasmic  reticulum ;    meanwhile    the    accessory   chromosome   increases 
enormously  in  size.     Later   the  chromatin  reappears   in   the   form  of 
diffuse  masses,  which  quickly  take  on  the  tetrad  shape ;  at  this  stage  the 
accessory  chromosome  has  decreased  in  size,  and  become  irregular  in 
outline ;  it  subsequently  recovers  its  spherical  shape,  and  persists  till 
the  disappearance  of  the  nuclear  plate  preparatory  to  division.     Soon 
after  the  tetrads  are  formed,  the  centrosome  appears,  divides  into  two, 
and  the  two  halves  as  usual  migrate  to  the  poles  of  the  nucleus.     After 
the  last  maturation  division,  a  portion  of  the  nucleus  is  budded  off,  and 
passing  through  the  cytoplasm,  is  extruded  from  the  cell ;  to  this  pro- 
truded portion  the  author  gives  the  name  of  itomere.     Its  formation  and 
protrusion  is  accompanied  by  the  formation  of  yolk-masses,  and  by  a 

*  Soi.  Proc.  R.  Dublin  Soc.  ix.  (1900)  pp.  271-8  (18  tigs.). 

+  Nature,  lxv.  (1902)  p.  223. 

X  Kansas  University  Quarterly,  x.  (1901)  pp.  61-76  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICKOSCOPY,    ETC.  183 

great  increase  in  the  size  of  the  cell.  The  pathway  taken  by  the  itomore 
through  the  cytoplasm  persists  and  grows  stronger ;  by  a  condensation 
of  the  cytoplasmic  reticulum  in  this  pathway  the  axial  filament  of  the 
spermatozoon  is  formed.  The  author  regards  the  accessory  chromosome 
as  a  reservoir  in  which  is  deposited  the  nuclear  chromatin. 

5.  Arachnida. 

New  Genera  of  Hydrachnids.* — Sig.  Thor  describes  as  Hjartdalia 
uncinata  g.  et  sp.  n.,  and  Mesobates  forcipates  g.  et  sp.  n.,  two  new  forms 
obtained  in  Norway.  The  first  named  genus  is  nearest  to  Aturus  Kramer, 
but  the  genital  cups  are  numerous,  small,  and  extend  in  a  broad  band  at 
either  side  from  the  extremity  of  the  ventral  surface  forwards  towards 
the  insertion  of  the  last  pair  of  legs.  In  a  note  on  two  specimens  of 
the  new  species  observed  in  copula,  the  author  gives  reasons  for  sup- 
posing that  the  fourth  pair  of  legs  act  as  carriers  of  the  spermatozoa. 
The  genus  Mesobates  occupies  an  intermediate  position  between  Megapus 
and  Hygrobates  ;  as  regards  the  maxillae  it  is  nearest  the  latter  genus,  as 
regards  other  structures  the  former.  The  paper  includes  descriptions 
of  two  other  new  species. 

New  Hydrachnids.  —  A.  Protz  t  describes  as  Aturus  crassipalpis 
sp.  n.  a  new  species  of  Hydrachnid  found  in  a  collection  from  Switzer- 
land. Swimming  bristles  are  absent  from  the  legs,  and  on  the  fifth  joint 
of  the  fourth  pair  there  is  a  hollow  from  which  springs  a  sabre-shaped 
bristle. 

E.  Piersig  J  describes  as  Aturus  protzi  a  new  species  which,  though 
closely  related  to  A.  intermedius,  from  the  nature  of  the  bristles  on  the 
fourth  pair  of  legs  merits  specific  distinction.  It  was  taken  in  the 
Bohemian- Bavarian  forests,  and  the  female  is  unknown. 

From  the  same  district  Piersig  §  describes  as  Aturellm  crassipalpis 
g.  et  sp.  n.  another  new  form,  which,  as  regards  the  structure  of  the 
fourth  pair  of  legs,  seems  at  least  in  part  to  resemble  Protz's  Aturus 
crassipalpis. 

South  American  Acarids.|| — A.  Berlese  and  G.  Leonardi  describo  a 
collection  of  Acarids  made  by  Dr.  Silvestri  Filippo,  many  of  which 
prove  to  be  new  species,  some  falling  into  new  genera.  The  new  genera 
are  Celsenogamasus,  which  is  closely  related  to  Gyrtolaelaps ;  Urozercon, 
with  one  species  from  termites'  nests  ;  and  Stereotydeus,  which  is  closely 
related  to  the  genera  Ereynites  and  Penthaleus. 

Myrmecophilous  Mites. ^[ — E.  Wasmann,  in  an  interesting  paper  on 
this  subject,  points  out  that  some  confusion  has  hitherto  existed  in 
regard  to  the  European  species  of  Antennophorus.  He  distinguishes  the 
following  three  species  : — A.  uhlmanni  Hall,  parasitic  on  Lasius  fuligi- 
nosus,  L.  mixtus  and  L.  umbratus,  A.  pubescens  Wasm.,  on  L.  fiavus,  and 
A.  foreli  sp.  n.,  on  L.  niger  and  L.  alienus.  According  to  his  observa- 
tions each  worker,  save  in  exceptional  circumstances,  does  not  bear  more 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxiv.  (1901)  pp.  673-80  (13  figs.). 

t  Op.  cit,  xxv.  (1901)  pp.  1-2  (2  tigs.).  \  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  33-5  (1  fig.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  18-20  (3  figs.).  ||  Tom.  cit..,  pp.  12-6. 

U  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  66-76. 


184  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

than  one  parasite,  this  almost  invariably  occurring  in  one  definite 
position  on  the  under  side  of  the  head  of  the  host.  Here  it  is  able  to 
exert  such  pressure  on  the  crop  of  the  host  as  to  cause  the  latter  to 
regurgitate  food-material  which  is  eagerly  licked  up.  In  the  feeding  of 
one  worker  by  another  also,  the  parasite  comes  in  for  its  share ;  but 
there  is  no  direct  connection  between  parasite  and  host.  Parasitised 
ants  are  very  shy,  concealing  themselves  more  quickly  than  others  if 
the  nest  be  exposed,  and  frequently  exhibit  an  uncertainty  of  gait.  The 
author  describes  in  detail  the  observations  which  lead  him  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  mites  are  not  guests,  but  are  what  he  describes  as 
parasitic  caricatures  of  guests.  His  experiments  show  that  transference 
from  one  nest  to  another  of  the  parasite  is  possible  if  the  inmates  of 
the  strange  nest  be  suitable  hosts.  An  interesting  experiment  was  the 
placing  of  an  infected  specimen  of  Lasius  fiavus  in  a  Formica  sanguinea 
nest ;  the  Lasius  was  bitten  to  death,  and  its  parasite  climbed  on  the 
body  of  one  of  the  attacking  forms,  but  it  was  unable  to  obtain  a  hold 
here,  the  larger  and  stronger  Formica  being  able  to  remove  the  small 
parasite  by  means  of  its  fore-legs,  an  operation  which  the  species  of 
Lasius  attempt,  but  are  unable  to  carry  out. 

The  paper  also  contains  an  account  of  the  two  known  American 
species  of  Antennophorus,  and  of  some  related  European  myrmecophilous 
mites  belonging  to  other  genera.  Further,  the  author  points  out  that 
the  resemblance  as  regards  mode  of  life  between  ants  and  termites,  is 
emphasised  by  the  similarity  of  their  guests  and  parasites.  Into  so 
much  detail  is  this  carried,  that  there  have  been  described  from  the 
nests  of  termites,  mites  which  in  all  probability  belong  to  the  genus 
Antennophorus. 

Breathing  Organs  of  Pseudoscorpionidae.* — J.  P.  Stschelkanovzeff 
has  made  some  observations  upon  these  organs  in  two  species  of  Chernes. 
He  finds  that  the  stigmata  resemble  those  of  insects  in  having  a  frame 
of  thickened  chitin  round  their  margin.  The  outer  opening  does  not 
lead  directly  into  the  trachea?  but  into  a  stigma-chamber,  in  whose 
walls  lies  the  opening  into  the  tracheal  stem.  The  closure  of  the  stig- 
mata is  provided  for  by  a  mechanism  consisting  of  a  chitinous  thickening 
of  the  wall  of  the  chamber,  and  of  two  muscles,  one  of  which  opens  and 
the  other  closes.  In  general  type  therefore,  the  closing  mechanism 
resembles  that  of  insects.  The  main  tracheal  stems  do  not  possess  a 
spiral  thread,  and  in  general  structure,  position,  and  significance  recall 
the  initial  tracheae  (trochees  d'origine  of  Strauss-Durckheim)  in  insects, 
and  the  stigmatic  pockets  of  the  trachea?  in  Diplopoda.  The  fasciculi 
of  fine  trachea?  do  not  arise  from  the  summit  of  the  main  stem,  but  from 
the  anterior  end  of  its  inner  wall,  so  that  all  the  little  tubes  of  the  fasci- 
culus are  united  at  one  spot  of  the  wall,  as  also  occurs  in  Diplopoda. 
At  this  spot  the  whole  of  the  inner  wall  is  covered  by  folds  ot  chitin, 
which  prevent  the  entrance  of  foreign  bodies  into  the  fine  tracheal  tubes. 

Arctic  Pantopoda.  f  —  G.  H.  Carpenter  reports  on  the  Pantopoda 
dredged  by  W.  S.  Bruce  in  1898  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  eight  species 
recorded  are  all  fully  described  and  figured  in  Sars1  monograph  (1891). 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  126-35  (5  figs.), 
t  Sci.  Proc.  E.  Dublin  Soc,  x.  (1900)  pp.  279-82. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  185 

e.  Crustacea. 

Observations  on  Homarus  europaeus.* — Dr.  Hans  Przibram  has  kept 
a  number  of  lobsters  iu  the  aquaria  of  the  Trieste  zoological  station,  for 
the  purpose  of  making  observations  on  regeneration,  and  gives  some 
notes  in  regard  to  habits.  As  was  observed  by  Herrick  in  the  case  of 
the  American  lobster,  the  animals  excavated  for  themselves  holes  in  the 
sand.  Much  difficulty  was  at  first  found  in  getting  the  lobsters  to  feed, 
eventually  they  were  supplied  with  Lamellibranchs  (Cardium,  Scrobicu- 
laria,  Mytilus)  which  they  took  greedily,  using  the  knobbed  cheliped  to 
crush  the  shells.  The  other — the  toothed — cheliped  was  employed  as  a 
grasping  organ,  and  appears  to  carry  sense-organs.  Tables  are  given 
of  the  variations  in  weight  of  the  captive  forms,  and  of  the  changes  in 
dimensions  which  follow  the  moult. 

Occurrence  of  Squilla  desmaresti  in  North  Sea. f— Prof.  F.  Jeffrey 
Bell  has  received  a  specimen  of  this  species  dredged  in  the  North  Sea. 
There  seems  no  previous  record  of  this  or  any  other  species  of  Squilla 
in  that  area. 

In  a  subsequent  note  J  Prof.  Bell  acknowledges  receipt  of  a  specimen 
of  this  Stomatopod  from  off  Selsea  Bay. 

New  Gammarus.§ — Dr.  A.  Garbini  describes  Gammarus  tetracanthus 
sp.  n.  from  Lake  Miiggel.  It  is  readily  defined  by  the  presence  of  a 
dorsal  spinous  prolongation  on  the  last  thoracic  and  first  three  abdominal 
segments.  Thus  there  is  the  appearance  of  a  dorsal  saw  with  four  teeth. 
The  author  writes  G.  tetrachantus,  but  tetracanthus  would  be  more  in 
accordance  with  usage. 

Copepods  of  Faroe  Channel  and  Shetlands.|| — Dr.  B.  N.  Wolfenden 
has  added  considerably  to  I.  C.  Thompson's  list  of  Dr.  Fowler's  collec- 
tion of  Copepods  from  these  waters.     Six  new  species  are  described. 

Structure  of  Lepeophtheirus  and  Lernaea.1T — Andrew  Scott  describes 
the  structure  and  life-history  of  these  two  fish  parasites,  as  types  of  the 
two  families  Caligidse  and  LernaBidae.  In  regard  to  the  first-named 
form,  he  finds  no  evidence  that  the  males  and  immature  females  inflict 
injury  upon  the  fish,  no  blood  being  usually  to  be  seen  in  the  alimentary 
canal.  On  the  other  hand,  the  mature  females,  which  live  on  or  under 
the  fins,  seem  to  cause  a  considerable  amount  of  laceration.  The  para- 
sites only  attack  healthy  fish,  and  leave  the  body  should  the  fish  become 
weak  and  emaciated.  In  Lernsea  branchialis  the  parasitic  habit  is  much 
more  firmly  established,  and  tbe  adults  are  incapable  of  life  if  separated 
from  their  host.     The  paper  is  illustrated  by  a  number  of  figures. 

Affinities  of  Uronectes.  **  —  Dr.  W.  J.  Caiman  replies  to  Prof. 
Fritsch's  rejection  of  the  view  that  this  fossil  Crustacean  genus  is  allied 
to  the  living  Tasmanian  genus  Anaspides.    Fritsch  rejects  the  view  solely 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  76-82  (1  fig.). 

t  Journ.  Mar.  Biol.  Ass.,  vi.  (1902;  pp.  387-8. 

%  Nature,  lxv.  (1902)  p.  366. 

§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  153-4  (1  pi.). 

II    Journ.  Mar.  Biol.  Ass.,  vi.  (1901)  pp.  361-72  (2  pis.  and  chart). 
%  Proc.  Trans.  Liverpool.  Biol.  Soc,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  181-241  (5  pis.). 
**  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  65-6. 


186  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

on  the  ground  that  the  thoracic  legs  of  Uronectes  are  destitute  of  exo- 
pods, but  Caiman  doubts  the  statement  that  the  absence  of  these  has 
been  definitely  proved,  and  regards  the  discovery  of  stalked  eyes,  both 
in  Gasocaris  and  in  Uronectes  as  confirmation  of  his  view.  He  thinks 
that  exopods  were  in  all  probability  absent  in  the  former  of  these  two 
genera,  but  were  present  in  Uronectes.  But  he  points  out  that  as  his 
original  contention  was  that  Gasocaris  and  Uronectes  are  related  to 
Anaspides — a  doubtful  Schizopod — the  presence  or  absence  of  exopods 
does  not  in  any  way  affect  the  question. 

Annelida. 

Life  of  Earthworms.  *  —  Dr.  K.  Bretscher  communicates  some  care- 
ful bionomical  observations  on  earthworms.  (1)  There  are  normal 
wanderings,  at  all  seasons  and  at  all  ages,  prompted  by  nutritive  and 
reproductive  needs.  (2)  All  the  local  species  (Zurich),  both  large  and 
small,  whether  young  or  old,  burrow  deeply ;  there  are  no  forms  which 
can  be  described  as  restricted  to  the  humus ;  and  there  is  no  particular 
relation  between  form  of  body  (flat  or  cylindrical)  and  the  burrowing 
power.  (3)  The  process  of  pairing,  in  spite  of  the  numerous  observa- 
tions which  the  author  partly  corroborates  and  partly  criticises,  remains 
in  various  respects  obscure. 

Hirudo  troctina  John.f — Marcelo  Bivas  Mateos  gives  a  diagnosis 
of  this  leech,  common  in  some  parts  of  Spain.  He  notes  its  variability, 
but  maintains  its  specific  distinctness. 

Notes  on  iEolosoma  tenebrarum.  X — V.  Janda  refers  to  Miss  Brace's 
work  §  on  this  worm,  and  points  out  that  it  is  in  great  part  a  corrobora- 
tion of  what  he  had  previously  described  ||  in  regard  to  the  nervous 
system  and  musculature.  The  authoress  has  also  overlooked  the  work 
of  P.  J.  Schmidt  on  the  same  subject. 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Priapulus.f  —  A.  S.  Skorikow  has 
several  notes  on  this  subject,  but  his  most  interesting  statement  is  that 
Pr.  caudatus  var.  avtarcticus,  which  was  formerly  regarded  as  wholly 
antarctic,  is  really  bipolar.  It  has  a  circumpolar  Arctic  distribution, 
and  it  seems  to  be  widely  distributed  in  the  south. 

Platyhelminthes. 

Platyhelmia,  Mesozoa,  and  Nemertini.  **  —  Prof.  W.  Blaxland 
Benham  discusses  these  in  the  fourth  part  of  the  '  Treatise  on  Zoology,' 
edited  by  Prof.  E.  Bay  Lankester.  His  careful  and  detailed  treatment 
of  forms  which  are  so  often  passed  over  summarily  in  zoological  text- 
books is  very  welcome,  and  will  form  a  valuable  work  of  reference  for 
those  interested  in  Turbellarians,  Trematodes,  Cestodes,  Nemertini,  and 
the  heterogeneous  Mesozoa. 


Jn^ 


*  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxi.  (1001)  pp.  538-50  (3  figs.). 

t  Boll.  Soc.  Espan.  Hist.  Nat.,  i.  No.  10  (1901)  pp.  375-7  (1  fig.). 

j  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  172-4. 

§  Journ.  Morphol.,  xviii.  (1901).  ||  SB.  k.  bohm.  Ges.  Wiss.,  1900. 

f  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  155-7  (1  fig.). 

•  *  A  Treatise  on  Zoology.  Edited  by  E.  Bay  Lankester.  Part  iv.  '  The  Platy- 
helmia, Mesozoa,  and  Nemertini,'  by  Prof.  W.  Blaxland  Benham,  London.  1902, 
3vo,  iv.  and  204  pp.  and  many  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  187 

Superficial  Secretion  of  Tapeworms.  *  —  P.  Mingazzini  concludes, 
after  careful  use  of  various  histological  methods,  that  the  whole  surface 
of  the  body  of  an  adult  Cestode  secretes  a  substance  which  has  a  notable 
physico-chemical  action  on  the  intestinal  contents  of  the  host.  What 
has  been  so  often  described  as  a  cuticle  is  a  complex  investment  forme  1 
by  the  intestinal  juice,  modified  by  the  action  of  the  secreted  substance, 
and  intimately  attached  to  a  delicate  chitinoid  stratum,  which  is  the  true 
cuticle  of  the  tapeworm. 

New  Species  of  Didymozoon.  f  —  S.  Kichiardi  describes  as  D. 
micropterygis  sp.  n.  what  seems  to  be  a  very  distinctively  new  species  of 
this  interesting  genus  of  Trematodes.  He  found  a  large  and  a  small 
specimen  beneath  the  skin  in  the  interparietal  region  of  Micropteryx 
dumerilii  Cuv. 

New  Species  of  Distomum  from  the  Duckmole.  J  —  S.  J.  Johnston 
describes  as  D.  ornithorhynchi  sp.  n.  a  Trematode  from  the  stomach, 
duodenum,  and  anterior  small  intestine  of  Ornithorhynchus  anatinm 
Shaw.  The  simple  nature  of  the  intestine,  the  absence  of  hooks  or  lobes 
from  the  oral  sucker,  the  almost  total  obliteration  of  the  oesophagus, 
and  the  absence  of  a  retractile  telescopic  tail-part,  place  the  species  in 
Dujardin's  sub-genus  Brachylaimus,  but  it  does  not  show  a  striking 
likeness  to  any  particular  species. 

Structure  of  Lineus  gesserensis.§  —  E.  C.  Punnett  gives  a  general 
account  of  the  anatomy,  histology,  and  development  of  this  worm,  illus- 
trated by  some  clear  figures.  The  paper  forms  one  of  the  Memoirs 
published  by  the  Liverpool  Marine  Biological  Committee. 

Incertee  Sedis. 

North  Atlantic  Brachiopods.  ||  —  H.  Friele  and  J.  A.  Grieg  include 
Brachiopods  in  their  report  on  North  Atlantic  Mollusca,  and  briefly 
discuss  eight  species. 

New  Species  of  Gastrotricha.^f  —  Max  Voigt  describes  from  the 
lakes  of  Plon  three  new  species  of  these  forms,  Ichthydium  forcipatum 
sp.  n.,  Chsetonotus  chuni  sp.  n.,  Dasydytes  stylifer  sp.  n.  The  first-named 
owes  its  name  to  the  long  forked  tail,  which  resembles  the  forceps  of  the 
earwig.  The  new  species  of  Chsetonotus  has  its  forked-tail  distinctly 
expanded,  the  edges  of  the  expansion  bearing  two  slight  depressions. 
The  third  form  is  characterised  by  the  nature  of  the  bristles  in  the 
posterior  region. 

Rotifera. 

New  Rotifer.**— Max  Voigt  gives  a  short  description  of  Coelopus 
rousseleti  sp.  n.,  which  he  has  found  in  the  lakes  near  Plon,  and  which 

•  Atti  R.  Accad.  Lincei  (Rend.),  ccxcviii.  (1901)  pp.  307-14. 

t  Atti  Soo.  Tosc.  Sci.  Nat.,  xiii.  (1902)  pp.  4-5. 

t  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.  Wales,  xxvi.  (1901)  pp.  334-8  (1  pi.). 

§  Proc.  and  Trans.  Liverpool  Biol.  Soc,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  242-78  (4  pis.). 

||   Norske  Nordhavs-Exped.,  xxviii.  (1901)  viii.  and  131  pp.,  2  figs,  and  a  map. 

«[[  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1901)  pp.  37-8.  ••  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  38-9. 


188  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

he  Las  named  after  the  Curator  of  the  Eoyal  Microscopical  Society. 
The  principal  distinctive  feature  is  that  the  short  and  slightly  curved 
lorica  is  deeply  serrated  in  front,  having  nine  large  teeth  on  the  anterior 
edge,  and  two  unequal  and  hut  slightly  curved  toes.  The  size  of  the 
body  is  95  /a.  A  further  description  with  figure  is  promised  in  the  next 
volume  of  the  Ploner  Forschungsberichte. 

Chas.  F.  Eousselet*  describes  Triarihra  brachiata  sp.  n.,  a  very  small 
species  allied  to  T.  brevispina,  but  with  larger  skipping  spines,  which 
are  quite  broad  and  arm-like  at  their  base.  A  good  figure  accompanies 
the  description.  The  author  adds  some  general  remarks  on  the  pro- 
tective use  of  spines  in  Triarihra. 

Ccelentera. 

An  Interesting"  Medusoid.f —  A.  Linko  describes,  from  a  collection 
off  the  Murman  Coast,  an  interesting  Medusoid  which  seemed  to  be 
nearly  allied  to  Sarsia  br achy g aster  Gronberg,  but  differed  from  it  in 
the  absence  of  ocelli  and  in  the  form  of  the  manubrium.  Sections 
showed  that  the  manubrium  bore  four  endodermic  inter-radial  longi- 
tudinal folds  from  the  stomach  to  near  the  mouth.  These  folds  suggested 
the  taeniolae  of  Acalephas,  but  they  seemed  to  be  wholly  digestive,  for 
the  gonads  were  located  in  the  ectoderm. 

Occurrence  of  Cladonema  in  the  Bahamas.:}: — H.  F.  Perkins  records 
the  finding  of  a  representative  of  this  genus,  hitherto  only  known  from 
Northern  Europe,  in  Nassau  Harbour,  where  it  was  taken  in  the  tow-net. 
The  distinctions  from  the  European  G.  radiatum  seem  in  themselves 
sufficient  to  warrant  the  erection  of  a  new  species,  but  this  view  is 
rendered  more  doubtful  by  the  fact  that  the  European  form  is  known  to 
be  exceedingly  variable,  and  meantime  the  author  reserves  judgment  on 
the  point.  The  living  medusa  possessed  the  power  of  attaching  itself 
by  means  of  its  tentacles,  and  then,  in  spite  of  its  minute  size,  required 
some  force  before  it  could  be  dislodged.  A  fully  illustrated  account  of 
the  structure  is  given. 

Development  of  Cordylophora  lacustris.§ — Paul  Morgenstern  sums 
up  his  investigations  on  this  subject  as  follows  : — The  female  sex-cells 
have  an  ectodermal  origin,  and  arise  in  the  embryonic  zone  of  the  stalk 
of  the  chief  hydranth.  Even  at  an  early  stage  a  distinction  into  egg- 
cells  and  nutritive-cells  is  obvious,  and  this  becomes  more  marked  in 
the  gonophore  where  the  eggs  ripen.  After  maturation  is  accomplished 
by  the  extrusion  of  two  polar  bodies,  the  ectoderm  and  endoderm  of  the 
gonophore  undergo  degeneration,  and  then  fertilisation  takes  place.  The 
formation  of  polar  bodies,  fertilisation,  and  the  formation  of  the  first 
segmentation  spindle,  all  occur  at  the  same  pole.  Segmentation  is  ap- 
proximately regular,  and  results  in  the  formation  of  a  large  segmentation 
cavity.  The  formation  of  endoderm  results  from  the  tangential  division 
of  the  blastomeres,  and  is  multipolar.  But  the  solid  cell-mass  which 
arises  in  this  way  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  the  result  of  segmentation  ; 

*  Journ.  Quek.  Micr.  Club,  viii.  (1901)  pp.  143-5  (1  pi.). 
t'Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  162-4  (2  figs.). 
J  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circ,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  25-7  (1  pi.). 
§  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxx.  (1901)  pp.  567-91  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  189 

it  constitutes  the  two-layered  embryo.  The  gastral  cavity  arises  by  the 
absorption  of  certain  of  the  endoderm-cells.  Then  follows  the  swarming 
period  during  which  no  sign  of  mouth  or  tentacles  is  apparent.  Fixation 
occurs  by  the  pole  which  is  anterior  in  the  planula  stage,  and  afterwards 
mouth  and  tentacles  arise  at  the  opposite  pole. 

Structure  of  Alcyonium  digitatum.*  —  Prof.  S.  J.  Hickson  con- 
tributes a  memoir  on  this  subject  to  the  series  in  process  of  publication 
by  the  Liverpool  Marine  Biological  Committee.  In  regard  to  reproduc- 
tion, Prof.  Hickson's  experience  is  that  at  Plymouth  spawning  takes 
place  only  during  the  last  fortnight  of  December  and  the  first  fortnight 
of  January.  In  the  Isle  of  Man  the  time  is  probably  later,  as  larvae 
apparently  of  this  species  have  been  found  in  spring  ("  Easter  ").  The 
memoir  is  based  upon  Prof.  Hickson's  previously  published  observations. 

Relationships  of  Rugose  Corals,  f  —  J.  E.  Duerden  has  been  able 
to  study  a  series  of  sections  of  the  fossil  Lophophyllum  proliferum  in  an 
unusually  fine  state  of  preservation,  and  to  make  out  the  order  of  suc- 
cession of  the  septa.  He  finds  that,  as  stated  by  Pourtales  thirty  years 
ago,  this  coral  is  primarily  hexameral,  not  tetrameral,  for  there  are  six 
primary  septa,  separated  by  six  intcrseptal  spaces.  Subsequent  septa 
only  appear  within  four  of  the  six  primary  interseptal  spaces,  and  of 
these  the  larger,  which  are  entosepta,  all  appear  before  the  smaller  or 
exosepta.  According  to  the  author,  the  Eugosa  must  therefore  be  re- 
garded as  nearer  to  the  Zoanthids  than  to  any  other  type  of  Anthozoa. 
He  suggests  the  following  arrangement  to  indicate  the  different  type6 
of  metacnemic  sequence  now  known  in  Actiniaria  and  Madreporaria, 
and  the  position  amongst  them  of  Rugosa :  — 

(1)  The  metacnemes  arise  as  unilateral  pairs  at  one,  three,  seven,  &c, 
regions  within  all  the  six  primary  exocoeles,  and  become  arranged  in 
one,  two,  three,  or  more  cycles — 

(a)  Non-skeletal.     Most  Actinians. 

(6)  Skeleton- forming.     Most  recent  Madreporarian  corals. 

(2)  The  metacnemes  arise  as  bilateral  pairs  at  only  one  region  within 
two  or  more  of  the  primary  exocceles — 

(a)  Non-skeletal.    Zoanthids. 

(b)  Skeleton-forming.    Lophophyllum,  and  probably  other  Rugosa. 

(3)  The  metacnemes  arise  as  bilateral  pairs  at  one  region  within  one 
or  both  of  the  axial  exocoeles  — 

(a)  Non-skeletal.     Cerianthids. 

(6)  Skeleton-forming.     Porites.     Madrepora. 

Position  of  Neostroma.  %  —  Prof.  A.  Tornquist  gives  an  account  of 
Neostroma  sumatraensis  sp.  n.,  and  shows  that  it  is  a  mesozoic  Stromato- 
poroid,  referable  to  the  family  Disjectoporidte.  The  three  families  of 
Stromatoporoids  (or  Lamellataezoa) — Stromatoporidaa,  Actinostromidffi, 
and  Disjectoporidse — extend  far  into  the  Mesozoic,  and  it  is  not  beyond 
the  limits  of  possibility  that  living  representatives  may  be  found.  Of 
their  relation  to  other  Hydrozoa  nothing  can  be  safely  said. 

*  Proc.  and  Trans.  Liverpool  Biol.  Boo.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  92-113  (2  pie.). 
t  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circ,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  19-25  (12  figs  ). 
J  SB.  Preuss.  Akad.,  1901,  pp.  1115-23  (5  figs.). 


190  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Porifera. 

Modifications  or  Metampy  in  Halichondria  panicea  and  in  Sube- 
rites  domuncula.  * — George  Bidder  contrasts  the  deep-water  H.  panicea 
of  Exmouth  with  the  surf  specimens  from  Plymouth,  and  the  dense 
S.  domuncula  from  the  back  of  a  hermit-crab  with  looser  (ripe  plum- 
like) specimens  found  growing  on  rock  in  the  deep  waters  of  Millbay 
Channel.  The  differences  are  referable  to  the  differences  in  the  con- 
ditions of  life  ;  they  are  not  due  to  germinal  variations.  It  appears 
useful,  in  instances  where  this  can  be  proved,  to  have  a  term  for 
such  observed  difference,  and  Mr.  Bidder  suggests  "  metamp "  (from 
fjuerafjure-^oixai  =  "  to  put  on  a  different  dress ").  But  would  not  the 
technical  use  of  the  word  "  modification,"  or  the  term  "  somatic  modifi- 
cation "  suffice  ?  The  author  believes  that  not  only  varieties,  but  many 
so-called  species  of  sponges,  are  merely  "  metamps  "  of  each  other. 

Sycon  compressum.f  —  George  Bidder  asks  whether  the  unique 
dermal  spicules  of  this  sponge  are  adaptive  to  peculiar  circumstances  in 
its  mode  of  life.  Though  apparently  fragile,  it  is  a  sponge  with  great 
endurance,  able  to  resist  evaporation  and  the  entrance  of  noxious  fluids. 
While  S.  compressum  and  S.  ciliatum  live  side  by  side  in  every  sheltered 
cranny,  on  the  working  tops  of  the  rocks  S.  compressum  is  alone — often 
with  little  even  of  seaweed  hardy  enough  to  bear  it  company — exposed 
for  hours  every  day  to  sun,  rain,  or  wind.  The  thick,  continuous  cortex, 
set  with  its  dense  mass  of  club-shaped  radial  spicules,  enables  the 
sponge  to  pursue  its  daring  existence,  clothing  it  with  a  deep  armour  of 
calcareous  mosaic,  through  which,  when  the  skin  is  contracted  on  its 
pores,  a  minimum  amount  of  permeation  and  evaporation  can  take  place. 
The  shillelagh-like  outer  ends  of  the  spicules  serve,  like  the  heads  of 
iron  nails  set  in  a  pile  at  sea,  to  cover  and  protect  the  surface  of  the 
substance  in  which  their  points  are  embedded.  The  flat  form,  whose 
sides  come  gradually  together  if  evaporation  occurs,  is  also  adaptive. 
No  bubble  is  ever  formed  in  the  cloaca.  Thus  "  the  most  definitely 
characterised  common  species  of  sponge  has  the  most  definite  use  for 
its  species  characters." 

Sponges  from  New  South  Wales.J — Thomas  Whitelegge  describes 
a  collection  of  six  hundred  and  thirty  sponges  from  the  coast  of  New 
South  Wales.  In  naming  the  sponges  from  the  type-collection  in  the 
Australian  Museum,  he  found  that  the  descriptions  in  Dr.  B.  von 
Lendenfeld's  '  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Sponges  in  the  Australian 
Museum '  do  not  agree  in  many  cases  with  the  characters  of  the  type 
specimens,  and  he  therefore  regards  the  Catalogue  as  unreliable  for  the 
determination  of  species,  and  rejects  many  of  von  Lendenfeld's  names. 
About  eight  species  and  varieties  of  the  sponges  in  the  collection  prove 

to  be  of  economic  value. 

Protozoa. 

"  Artificial  Protoplasm."  § — H.  S.  Jennings  gives  a  very  interesting 
account  of  a  series  of  experiments  desigued  to  illustrate  the  protoplasmic 

*  Journ.  Mar.  Biol.  Ass.,  vi.  (1902)  pp.  380-2.  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  376-80. 

J  Records  of  Australian  Museum,  Sydney,  iv.  (1901)  pp.  55-118  (15  pis.). 
§  Journ.  of  Applied  Microscopy  and  Laboratory  Methods,  Rochester,  N.Y.,  v. 
(1901)  pp.  1597-1602.  , 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  391 

activities  by  means  of  artificial  imitations  of  protoplasm.  A  drop  of 
clove  oil  in  a  mixture  of  three  parts  of  glycerin  and  one  part  of  96  p.c. 
alcohol  will  behave  like  an  amoeba,  putting  out  pseudopodial  processes, 
creeping  about,  and  even  dividing.  More  than  this,  by  adding  a  drop  of 
alcohol  to  the  drop  it  is  possible  to  cause  it  to  move  in  a  definite  direc- 
tion— towards  the  side  at  which  the  alcohol  was  introduced,  and  by 
heating  areas  of  the  medium,  it  is  possible  to  make  the  artificial  amoeba 
react  to  the  stimulus  of  heat  as  a  living  one  does.  Again,  if  an  artificial 
amoeba  be  made  with  a  drop  of  chloroform  floating  on  water,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  imitate  the  apparent  choice  of  food-substances  which  is  so 
striking  a  feature  of  the  living  organism.  In  brief,  the  chloroform  drop 
is  attracted  to  and  flows  round  such  substances  as  it  is  able  to  dissolve, 
just  as  an  amoeba  flows  round  particles  it  is  able  to  digest ;  both  amceba 
and  chloroform  drop  are  repelled  from  substances  they  cannot  dissolve. 
Very  striking  is  an  experiment  whereby  a  chloroform  drop  is  seen  to 
fold  up  and  enclose  a  thin  thread  of  shellac,  many  times  longer  than  the 
diameter  of  the  drop,  just  as  an  amoeba  folds  up  and  encloses  a  long 
thread  of  an  alga.  Again,  drops  of  chloroform  can  be  made  to  build  up 
shells  from  fine  particles  of  glass,  entirely  analogous  to  the  shells 
formed  naturally  by  Difflugia.  The  author  gives  such  details  as  to 
render  possible  the  repetition  of  his  experiments. 

Radiolarians  of  Faroe  Channel  and  Shetlands.*  —  Dr.  R.  N.  Wolf- 
enden  has  made  some  interesting  discoveries  in  his  plankton  investiga- 
tions round  the  Shetlands  and  in  the#  Faroe  Channel.  A  new  species  of 
Collozoum  (C.  brandtii)  occurred  in  great  swarms;  Thalassiosolen  atlan- 
ticus  is  a  new  genus  and  species  ;  the  singular  Challengerida  were  not  un- 
common, e.g.  Challengeron  walwini  sp.  n.  and  Challengeria  zetlandica  sp.  n. 

Changes  in  the  Geotaxis  of  Paramcecium  aurelia.f  — J.  Sosnowski 
points  out  that  this  infusorian  usually  exhibits  negative  geotaxis ;  it 
swims  to  the  top  of  an  upright  tube.  But  in  some  cultures,  after  the 
shaking  involved  in  transferring  the  individuals  to  the  upright  tube, 
there  is  in  some  cases  a  very  marked  temporary  positive  geotropism,  for 
the  individuals  swim  to  the  foot  of  the  tube.  A  rise  of  temperature, 
in  some  cases  to  24°  C,  in  other  cases  to  37°  C,  was  found  to  have  a 
similar  effect  in  changing  negative  to  positive  geotaxis.  The  investigator 
notes  that  chemical  changes  in  the  medium  have  a  similar  influence. 

Reactions  of  Infusorians  to  Carbonic  and  other  Acids.J  —  H.  S. 
Jennings  and  E.  M.  Moore  show  by  very  careful  experiments :  (1)  that 
.some  infusorians,  e.g.  Colpidium  colpoda,  Gyclidium  glaucoma,  and  Chilo- 
monas  paramcecium,  collect  in  solutions  of  carbonic  and  other  acids,  just 
as  Paramcecium  does,  so  that  the  spontaneous  collections  of  these  or- 
ganisms may  be  due  to  their  excretion  of  carbon  dioxide  ;  (2)  that  others, 
Loxocephalus  granulosus  and  Oxytricha  aeruginosa,  form  spontaneous  col- 
lections similar  to  those  of  Paramcecium,  but  do  not  gather  in  carbonic 
or  other  acids,  so  that  their  aggregations  must  be  due  to  other  causes  ; 
(3)  that  many,  e.g.  Oxytricha  fallax,  Euplotes  cliar on,  Stylome.tr a  pustulata, 

*  Joum.  Mar.  Biol.  Ass.,  vi.  (1902)  pp.  344-61  (2  pis.  and  1  chart). 
t  Verh.  Akad.  Wiss.  Krakaw,  xxxviii.     See  liot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxviii.  (1901) 
pp.  199-200.  %  Amer.  Joum.  Physiol.,  vi.  (1902)  pp.  233-50  (6  figs.).! 


192  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

neither  collect  in  carbonic  or  other  acids,  and  were  not  observed   to 
form  spontaneous  gatherings. 

Comparative  Morphology  of  Hypotrichosis  Infusoria.  *  —  Hans 
Wallengren  points  out  that,  although  it  is  well  known  that  the  cirri  in 
the  Hypotricha  are  very  different  in  the  newly  formed  daughter-cells 
and  in  the  adult,  and  undergo  a  series  of  changes  after  the  division,  yet 
these  changes  have  not  as  yet  been  worked  out  in  detail.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  Hypotricha  which  are  most  richly  ciliated  are  more 
primitive  than  those  in  which  the  cilia  are  reduced  in  number,  and  on 
the  basis  of  this  assumption  the  author  has  worked  out  the  changes 
undergone  during  and  after  division  by  a  series  of  forms,  choosing  both 
primitive  and  differentiated  types.  The  object  of  the  investigation  was 
to  determine  whether  or  not  homologies  exist  between  the  cirri  of  the 
different  forms.  Prior  to  division  the  old  cirri  are  absorbed,  and  six 
rows  of  cilia  appear,  whose  members  undergo  changes  of  position,  and 
become  ultimately  transformed  into  the  adult  cirri.  In  the  five  species 
•studied  these  six  rows  are  all  homologous,  and  it  is  possible  to  derive 
the  adult  condition  in  each  case  from  a  type  by  varying  degrees  of  re- 
duction, the  reduction  always  taking  place  after  a  precisely  similar 
fashion. 

New  Ciliata.  j  —  Max  Voigt  describes,  from  the  lakes  of  Plon, 
Didinium  cinctum  sp.  n.,  a  brown,  free-swimming  Protozoon  with  a  ring 
of  cilia  round  the  anterior  distended  part  of  the  body  and  six  longi- 
tudinal rows  passing  backwards  from  this.  The  mouth  is  at  the  anterior 
end,  and  the  contractile  vacuole  close  to  the  posterior  end  near  the  anus. 
On  Canthocamptus  staphylinm  the  author  also  took  a  new  stalked  Proto- 
zoon with  a  test  which  he  places  in  the  genus  Cothurniopsis  as  C.  longipes 
sp.  n.     The  stalk  is  very  long,  and  each  test  contains  two  individuals. 

New  Species  of  Peridinium.J — Dr.  A.  Garbini  describes  Peridinium 
alatum  sp.  n.,  a  new  member  of  the  plankton  of  the  Lake  of  Monate. 
It  closely  resembles  P.  tabulatum  in  general  appearance,  but  differs  in 
the  presence  of  three  rigid,  membranous  wing-like  structures.  Of  these, 
two  are  anterior  and  ear-like,  the  third  posterior,  and  resembling  a  caudal 
tfin.  All  are  transparent  and  delicately  undulated.  In  the  same  paper 
the  author  gives  a  list  of  the  commoner  members  of  the  plankton  of  the 
lake. 

Adaptability  of  Infusoria  to  Concentrated  Solutions.§  —  Eomuald 
Minkiewicz  states  that  Atsuschi  Yasuda,||  in  his  paper  bearing  the  above 
title,  has  greatly  minimised  the  value  of  his  observations  by  a  want  of 
■care  in  the  identification  of  the  species  employed  in  the  experiments. 
He  maintains  especially  that  the  form  described  by  Yasuda  as  Mallo- 
monas  plosslii  is  not  a  species  of  Mallomonas  at  all,  but  is  a  species  of 
Cyclidium,  and  is  shown  by  the  author's  own  figure  to  be  totally  devoid 
of  the  brown  chromatophore  characteristic  of  Mallomonas  as  of  other 
Chrysomonadina. 

*  Handl.  K.  Svensk.  Vet.-Akad.,  xxvi.  (1901)  pp.  1-31  (18  figs.). 
+  Zool.  Anzcig.,  xxv.  (1901)  p.  36. 

\  Tom.  cit..  pp.  123-4  (2  figs.).  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  124-5. 

||   Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Imp.  Tokyo,  xiii.  (1900)  pp.  101-40  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  19o 

Conjugation  in  Trypanosoma  of  Rat.  *  —  H.  Stassano  briefly  de- 
scribes wbat  he  interprets  as  conjugation-processes  in  the  Trypanosoma 
of  the  rat  (7-10  days  after  inoculation).  Individuals  were  seen  united, 
the  anterior  end  of  the  one  to  the  posterior  end  of  the  other,  and  tho 
author  made  some  observations  on  the  behaviour  of  the  nuclei.  But 
more  detailed  descriptions  and  figures  seem  desirable. 

Protozoon  Parasite  in  Plaice. | — James  Johnstone  describes  certain 
remarkable  appearances  noticed  in  the  gut  of  two  specimens  of  Pleuro- 
nectes  platessa,  apparently  due  to  the  presence  of  a  Sporozoon.  In  both 
cases  the  intestine,  from  the  pylorus  to  near  the  anus,  was  thickened  and 
granulated,  so  that  its  wall  resembled  the  ripe  ovary.  Sections  showed 
that  the  mucosa  had  disappeared,  and  the  sub-mucosa  was  crowded  with 
little  spherical  bodies  consisting  of  capsules  filled  with  minute  spore- 
like bodies. 

•  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  PariB,  liii.  (1901)  pp.  14-6.     See  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xxx.  (1901) 
p.  312. 

f  Proc.  and  Trans.  Liverpool  Biol.  Soc,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  184-7  CI  pi). 


April  16th,  1902  <> 


194  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 
Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including  Cell-Contents. 

On  Fibrillar  Structure  of  Protoplasm.*  —  G.  Haberlandt  confirms 
Nemec's  description  of  the  fibrillar  structure  of  protoplasmic  strands  in 
liviug  cells  from  the  plerome  layer  of  the  root-tip  of  the  onion,  and  also 
in  adventitious  roots  of  Aspidium  violascens.  He  points  out  that  refer- 
ence to  such  a  structure  has  previously  been  made  by  various  observers 
of  protoplasmic  movement.  His  preparations  as  the  result  of  fixing 
and  staining  were  also  identical  with  those  of  Neinec.  The  suggestion 
is  made  that  the  fibrillar  structure  is  associated  with  the  conduction  of 
plastic  food-stuffs. 

Refringent  Globules  in  the  Parenchyma  of  Leaves.f  —  L.  Petit 
calls  attention  to  the  fi  equent  occurrence,  in  the  chlorophyll  parenchyma 
of  leaves,  of  strongly  refringent  globules  (usually  single),  to  which  he 
applies  the  term  spherulin.  As  a  rule  their  presence  or  absence  is 
characteristic  of  the  greater  number  of  genera  in  a  family.  They  are 
most  frequent  in  the  Garnopetalse  with  inferior  or  superior  ovary,  and 
in  the  Polypetalae  with  inferior  ovary.  The  author  has  failed  to  find 
them  in  the  Apetalse,  or  in  the  Polypetalae  with  superior  ovary,  except 
in  the  Bosaceae. 

Structure  and  Development. 

Vegetative. 

On  the  Ksopo  or  Tanghin  de  Menabe  (Menabea  venenata  Baill.), 
a  Poison  Plant  of  the  Sakalaves.J — E.  Perrot  gives  an  account  of  the 
morphology  and  histology  of  this  member  of  the  Asclepiadaceae.  The 
latex  contains  a  virulent  poison,  which  resides  principally  in  the  root. 

Stem  of  Pteridophytes  and  Gymnosperms.§— Starting  from  the  con- 
ception that  Van  Tieghem's  polystelic  type  of  stem  does  not  originate 
by  the  repeated  bifurcation  of  the  epicotvledonary  central  cylinder,  but 
that  the  latter  becomes  at  first  a  concentric  fibrovascular  tube,  with  gaps 
for  the  branches  alone,  or  with  gaps  for  both  leaves  and  branches, — 
Dr.  E.  C.  Jeffrey  believes  he  has  found,  in  the  Osmundaceee,  evidence 
of  the  derivation  of  the  medullated  monostelic  and  astelic  types  from 
the  siphonostelic  condition  with  internal  phloem  by  the  degeneration  of 
the  latter.  He  is  of  opinion  that  there  are  two  great  primitive  stocks 
of  vascular  plants, — the  Lycopsida  and  the  Pteropsida.     The  former 

*  Eer.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xix.  (1902)  pp.  569-78  (1  pi.). 

t  Comptes  Rcndus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  1250-2. 

%  Op.  cit.,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  303-6. 

§  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  lxix.  (1901)  [.p.  119-20. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  195 

include  the  Lycopodiales  and  the  Equisetales,  and  are  palingenetically 
microphyllous  and  cladosiphonic ;  the  latter  include  the  Filicales  and 
Phanerogams,  which  are  primitively  megaphyllous  and  phyllosiphonic. 

Anatomical  Investigation  of  the  Leaf  and  of  the  Axis  in  the 
Liparieae  and  Bossiaese  (Tribe  Genisteae).* — A.  Schroeder  has  worked 
out  the  details  of  the  anatomy  of  the  leaf  and  stem  in  the  genera  in- 
cluded by  Bentham  and  Hooker  in  these  two  subtribes  of  the  tribe 
Geuistese.  These  genera  are  characterised  by  simple  leaves  associated 
with  a  marked  xerophilous  habit,  and  are  natives  of  South  Africa  and 
Australia.  Leathery  texture,  reduction  in  size  of  blade,  rolling  under 
of  the  margins,  hairiness,  and  appression  to  the  stem  are  notable 
characters,  while  in  the  species  of  Bossieea  and  Templetonia  the  leaves 
are  reduced  to  rudiments  and  the  axis  becomes  assimilatory.  The 
author  describes  in  detail  the  characters  of  the  epidermal  cells,  the 
distribution  of  the  stomata  on  the  upper  and  lower  leaf-surfaces,  and 
their  position  relatively  to  the  general  level  of  the  epidermis,  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  mesophyll,  which  may  be  bifacial  or  show  a  greater  or 
less  tendency  to  a  centric  development,  the  character  of  the  veins,  the 
form  of  the  calcium  oxalate  crystals,  and  the  structure  of  the  hairs. 

As  regards  the  stem  anatomy,  the  author  confirms  the  presence  of 
the  characters  previously  indicated  by  Solereder  for  the  Papilionaceee 
as  a  whole,  namely,  simple  perforation  of  the  vessels,  the  constitution 
of  the  ground-substance  of  the  wood  of  simple-pitted  wood-fibres,  and 
the  relation  between  the  pitting  of  the  vessels  and  parenchyma.  He 
also  notes  the  relative  small  lumen  of  the  vessels,  narrow  medullary 
rays  and  superficial  development  of  cork.  Presence  or  absence  of  spiral 
thickening  of  the  pitted  vessels,  and  the  character  of  the  pericycle, 
whether  composed  of  isolated  groups  of  bast-fibres,  or  forming  a  broken 
or  continuous  sckrenchyma  ring,  are  points  of  variation. 

The  South  Australian  genus  Goodia,  which  is  exceptional  in  having 
compound  leaves,  should,  the  author  suggests,  preferably  be  included  in 
the  tribe  Galegeae. 

Histology  of  the  Sieve-tubes  of  Pinus.t  —  A.  W.  Hill  has  made  a 
careful  investigation  of  the  sieve-tubes  of  Pinus  by  means  of  W.  Gar- 
diner's methods  for  demonstrating  cell-connections.  The  youngest 
sieve-plates  examined  showed  connecting  threads  like  those  in  paren- 
chymatous tissues.  In  the  "boundary  cells"  (youngest  thick-walled 
sieve-tubes)  the  threads  have  been  changed,  apparently  by  ferment 
action,  into  slime-strings,  around  which  are  formed  the  callus  rods,  while 
at  the  middle  lamella  the  median  nodule  encloses  the  nodes  of  the 
slime-strings.  The  author  describes  the  effect  of  ferment  action  on  the 
threads  in  the  endosperm-walls  of  germinating  seeds  of  Tamus,  and 
points  out  its  similarity  to  the  state  of  affairs  in  the  developing  sieve- 
plates  of  Pinus.  He  has  also  worked  out  the  development  of  the  plates 
between  the  albuminous  cells  of  the  medullary  ray  and  the  sieve-tubes, 
and  finds  that  the  portions  of  the  thread  on  the  sieve-tube  side  of  the 
middle  lamella  undergo  changes  precisely  similar  to  those  described  for 
the   sieve-plates,  whilst  the  shorter    portions  on   the  cell-side   of   the 

*  Beiheft  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  368-417. 
t  Ann.  Bot.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  575-611  (3  pis.). 

O  2 


196  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

lamella  retain  their  protoplasmic  character.  The  vexed  question  as  to 
the  origin  of  callus  is  discussed,  and  reasons  are  given  for  the  view,  pre- 
viously suggested  by  Rendle  in  the  case  of  the  callus-formation  in  the 
"  vesicular  vessels  "  of  the  onion,  namely,  that  it  may  be  formed  partly 
by  alteration  of  the  cell-wall,  partly  by  deposition  from  the  protoplasm. 
The  function  of  the  callus  rods  seems  to  be  the  regulation  of  the  size 
of  the  pores  of  the  active  sieve-plate,  while  the  further  development  of 
the  callus-cushions  finally  closes  them  entirely. 

Structure  of  the  Tuberous  Boots  of  Thrincia  tuberosa.* — A.  Maicre 
and  C.  L.  Gatin  find  an  interesting  and  peculiar  method  of  secon- 
dary thickening  in  the  roots  of  this  Composite  which  is  common  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Algiers.  At  the  base  of  the  stem  each  year 
are  formed  adventitious  roots  which  become  much  thickened  noar 
their  point  of  insertion.  The  primary  structure  is  normal,  but  whereas 
in  the  non-tuberous  upper  part  of  the  root  a  normal  cambium  layer 
is  produced,  in  the  tuberous  portions  this  is  replaced  by  a  number 
of  separate  layers.  Each  of  these  surrounds  a  bundle  of  primary  wood, 
and  produces  on  the  outside  secondary  parenchyma  in  which  are  formed 
islands  of  secreting  cells,  and  on  the  inside  radiating  threads  of  poly- 
hedral cells,  some  of  which  become  differentiated  into  wood-vessels. 
There  are  thus  formed  at  the  periphery  of  the  central  cylinder  a  number 
of  rounded  areas  of  secondary  tissue,  each  resembling  a  small  stele. 
The  cortical  layers  become  stretched  and  divided  tangentially  to  allow 
of  this  increase  in  bulk  of  the  central  tissues.  Inulin  is  secreted  in 
these  secondary  formations,  and  subsequently  used  by  the  plant  as  it  is 
not  found  in  the  withered  tubers. 

Sucker  of  Loranthus  aphyllus.f  —  Sir  W.  T.  Thiselton-Dyer  de- 
scribes the  external  appearance  of  the  haustorium  of  this  remarkable 
leafless  parasite  which  grows  on  the  leafless  spine-bearing  stems  of  the 
Chilian  Cereus  Quisco.  The  sucker  has  a  thalloid  appearance  and 
ramifies  widely  in  the  cortex  of  the  host,  sending  up  aerial  shoots  which 
always  emerge  on  the  upper  side  of  the  spine-tufts.  An  examination  of 
the  anatomy  of  the  structure  by  Mr.  L.  A.  Boodle  showed  that  the 
sucker  is  completely  covered  by  a  layer  of  periderm  formed  in  the 
enveloping  cortex  of  the  cactus. 

Bladders  of  Utricular ia.— H.  Meierhofer  |  has  studied  the  develop- 
ment of  the  bladders  in  several  species  of  Utricularia,  and  has  estab- 
lished that,  from  a  morphological  point  of  view,  they  are  leaves  or 
segments  of  leaves.  Though  they  unquestionably  act  as  floating  organs, 
they  are  not  indispensable  to  the  plant  in  this  respect.  While  the 
"  antennae  "  prevent  the  access  to  the  bladders  of  animals  of  any  con- 
siderable size,  he  attributes  importance  to  the  fact  that  the  ciliated 
Infusorians,  especially  Paramsecium  caudatum,  are  positively  chemo- 
tactic  to  weak  acid  solutions.  All  the  shoots,  even  the  smallest  (in 
U.  vulgaris)  form  winter-buds,  and  the  production  of  ripe  speeds  is  rare. 
All  the  glands,  both  the  2-armed  and  the  4-armed,  are  trichomic, 
originating  from  a  single  epidermal  cell.  The  nutritive  or  insectivorous 
function  of  the  bladders  was  fully  established. 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  302-3. 
t  Ann.  Bot,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  749-57  (1  pi.). 
X  Flora,  xc.  (1902)  pp.  84-113  (9  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  197 

Dr.  S.  Prowasck  *  also  describes  the  formation  of  both  the  2-armed 
and  the  4-amied  glands  of  Utricularia  vulgaris.  The  i-armed  glands 
possess  the  property  of  absorbing  ammonium  carbonate  and  nitrate,  as 
well  as  the  products  of  decaying  animal  substances ;  the  bacteria  which 
occur  in  the  bladder  play  but  an  unimportant  part  in  digestion. 

Green  Hemi-Parasites.f — H.  Heinricher  now  gives,  in  considerably 
greater  detail,  his  observations  on  the  germination  and  development  of 
Bartsia  (Bartschia  in  op.)  alpina,  and  Tozzia  alpina,  both  belonging  to 
the  Rhinantheae. 

In  Bartsia  alpina  haustoria  make  their  appearance  on  the  root  in  a 
very  early  stage  of  germination.  This  fact,  and  the  entire  absence  of 
root-hairs,  seem  to  prove  that  parasitism  is  absolutely  essential  for  this 
species  ;  and  this  was  confirmed  by  the  constant  failure  to  keep  autono- 
mous plants  alive  for  more  than  a  few  months.  It  appears  to  have  no 
exclusive  host;  the  haustoria  will  attach  themselves  to  roots  of  both 
Monocotyledons  and  Dicotyledons ;  like,  however,  most  Rhinantheaa, 
especially  Euphrasia  and  Alectorolophus,  this  species  has  retained  its 
power  of  assimilation.  The  parallel  is  further  drawn  between  Bartsia 
and  Lathrsea,  and  especially  between  B.  alpina  and  L.  clandestina. 

The  seed-vessel  of  Tozzia  is  not  a  capsule,  but  a  nucule.  The  seeds 
contain  a  very  small  embryo.  Unlike  all  other  green  Rhinantheae,  the 
cotyledons  are  developed  underground.  Again,  Tozzia  resembles  Oro- 
banclie  and  Lathrsea,  and  differs  from  all  other  Rhinantheae,  in  requiring 
the  chemical  irritation  of  the  root  of  the  host-plant  for  the  full  germi- 
nation of  its  seeds.  Tozzia  alpina  may  blossom  the  second  year  after 
germination,  while  Bartsia  alpina  requires  four  or  five  years.  After 
once  blossoming,  the  plant  perishes.  Artificially,  Tozzia  was  cultivated 
on  Alchemilla  vulgaris,  Bumex  alpinus,  and  Banunculus  lanuginosus ; 
doubtfully  on  a  grass,  and  on  Medicago  lupulina.  During  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  its  life  it  is  holoparasitic  ;  its  hemi-parasitic  life  lasts 
•nly  for  a  few  weeks.  Its  power  of  assimilating  is  much  less  than  that 
of  other  green  Rhinantheae. 

Some  further  anatomical  details  respecting  Tozzia  are  given,  and  the 
probable  genetic  connection  of  the  Rhinantheae  and  Lathreae  with  one 
another  and  with  non-parasitic  forms  is  discussed. 

Formation  of  New  Stems  from  Old  Willows.  J  —  Dr.  G.  Fischler 
describes  the  process  of  rejuvenescence  of  portions  of  the  stem  which 
occasionally  occurs  in  old  willows.  When  the  heart-wood  has  perished  we 
frequently  find  strips  of  the  splint-wood  also  dying  throughout  the 
whole  length  from  root  to  crown.  Between  these  dead  strips  there 
remain  strips  of  living  splint-wood  with  sound  bark.  By  the  activity 
of  the  cambium  on  the  living  strip  a  callus  is  formed  which  gradually 
grows  round  and  separates  the  living  from  the  dead  wood,  and  may  ulti- 
mately form  a  new  stem  distinct  from  the  old.  Figures  of  sections  of 
Salix  alba  are  given  in  illustration  of  the  process,  with  a  photograph  of 
an  old  tree  with  a  dead  main  stem  and  a  quite  distinct  and  vigorous 
regenerated  young  stem. 

*  Verhandl.  k.  k.  Zool.-bot.  Ges.  Wien,  li.  (1901)  pp.  648-51  (11  figs.). 
t  Prmgsheim's  Jahrb.  f.  wiss.  Bot.,  xxxvi.  (1901)  pp.  665-762  (2  pis.  and  7  tigs.). 
Cf.  this  Journal,  1900,  p.  607.  J  Flora,  xc.  (1902)  pp.  273-S. 


198  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Seeds  and  Seedlings  of  Arisaema  triphyllum  and  A.  Dracontium.* 
— R.  J.  Rennert  haB  made  a  comparative  study  of  the  seeds  and  seed- 
lings in  these  two  species.  The  seeds  are  similar,  as  also  are  the  first 
stages  in  germination,  but  a  marked  difference  obtains  in  the  manner  of 
development  of  the  corm.  In  A.  triphyllum  the  emergence  of  the  hypo- 
cotyl  is  followed  by  vigorous  growth  of  root  and  plumule,  and  it  is 
only  after  the  seedling  has  separated  from  the  seed  that  the  hypocutyl 
begins  to  enlarge  to  form  the  corm.  In  A.  Dracontium  on  the  other 
hand,  the  enlargement  of  the  hypocotyl  begins  immediately  on  its  emer- 
gence from  the  seed,  while  the  development  of  root  and  plumule  is 
retarded.  In  a  large  majority  of  cases  the  plumule  never  becomes  func- 
tional, the  first  assimilating  leaf  being  borne  on  the  corm  in  the  second 
season.  Thus,  whereas  in  A.  triphyllum  the  corm  is  the  product  of  the 
photosynthetic  activity  of  the  plumule,  in  A.  Dracontium  it  is  the  result 
of  the  transference  of  the  food-stuffs  stored  in  the  endosperm. 

Floral. 

Origin  of  the  Flower.f — L.  Nicotra  describes  the  mode  of  appear- 
ance and  the  development  of  the  sepals  and  petals,  and  essays  to  deduce 
therefrom  a  theory  of  anthogenesis.  He  regards  the  primitive  type  of 
flower  as  one  consisting  only  of  the  sexual  organs  necessary  for  repro- 
duction. The  absence  of  a  perianth  may  be  primitive  or  secondary, 
and  the  absence  or  presence  of  a  perianth  is  a  very  unsafe  ground  for 
classification,  since  this  may  occur  in  all  gradations  in  the  course  of 
development  of  a  single  family. 

Strengthening  and  Nourishing  System  in  Flowers.^  —  J.  Herzog 
has  studied  the  mechanical  relations  between  the  different  floral  whorls 
and  finds  that  in  actinomorphic  flowers  with  clawed  petals  a  diminution 
of  the  petal  limb  with  a  shortening  and  thickening  of  the  claw  is  corre- 
lated with  a  diminution  of  the  mechanical  system  in  the  calyx,  and  vice 
versa.  Also  that  a  corolla  of  free  clawed  petals  is  associated  with  a 
stronger  calyx  than  an  otherwise  similar  corolla  with  a  gamopetalous 
tube.  Similarly  the  strength  of  the  calyx  varies  with  the  diameter  and 
length  of  the  corolla-tube,  the  form  of  its  transverse  section,  and  the 
thickness  of  its  walls.  Flowers  of  Papilionaceae  showed  a  striking  re- 
lationship between  the  amount  of  mechanical  tissue  in  the  calyx  and 
that  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  remaining  floral  whorls,  the  amounts  vary- 
ing inversely  in  the  two  cases.  The  author  also  finds  an  increase  in 
the  tissues  by  which  the  plastic  food-stuffs  travel,  in  the  androecium  and 
gynaecium  as  compared  with  the  perianth  whorls. 

Staminode-like  Structures  in  Dentaria  bulbifera.§  —  J.  Klein  de- 
scribes staminode-like  structures  found,  under  certain  conditions,  in  the 
flower  of  this  crucifer,  often  followed  by  the  formation  of  peculiar 
structures  from  the  base  of  the  pistil  after  the  other  parts  of  the  flower 
have  fallen.  As  Dentaria  bulbffera  is  dependent  on  insects  for  cross- 
pollination,  and  as  this  does  not  take  place  in  damp  and  shady  situations, 
and  as  no  siliquae  were  formed  on  the  plants  which  bore  these  peculiar 

*  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  37-54. 
t  Atti  r.  Accad.  Sci.  Acireale,  x.  (1901)  pp.  2-30. 
j  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  564-9. 
§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  421-8  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  199 

structures,  the  theory  of  the  author  is  that  they  are  adventitious  organs, 
the  formation  of  which  uses  up  the  food-material  that  would  otherwise 
be  employed  in  the  production  of  pollen  and  ovules. 

Formation  of  the  Pollen  in  the  Asclepiadese.* — Prof.  E.  Straslmrger 
has  followed  the  formation  of  the  pollen  in  Asclepias  Cornuti,  and  Las 
found  it  to  be  much  more  closely  in  accordance  with  that  in  typical 
Angiosperms  than  has  hitherto  been  supposed.  He  does  not  confirm  the 
statement  of  Vines  that  in  Asclepias  ettch  pollen-niother-cell  develops 
directly  into  a  pollen-grain  without  division.  He  states,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  the  pollen-grains  of  which  the  pollinium  is  composed  are 
formed  in  fours  in  the  mother-cells,  corresponding  to  the  divisions  in 
the  embryo-sac  mother-cells ;  but  they  present  the  peculiarity  that  the 
two  divisions  take  place  in  the  same  direction,  so  that  the  four  daughter- 
cells  form  a  row  instead  of  an  ordinary  tetrad.  In  the  nucleus  of  the 
pollen-mother-cells  he  found  the  ordinary  number  of  chromosomes  to 
be  ten,  a  number  not  yet  recorded  in  the  reduction  phenomena  of  gene- 
rative cells.  The  chromosomes  are  very  small,  notwithstanding  the 
comparatively  large  size  of  the  resting  nucleus.  With  regard  to  the 
presence  of  centrosomes  in  the  division  of  the  pollen-mother-cells, 
Strasburgcr's  results  were  entirely  negative ;  he  was  unable  to  confirm 
the  statements  made  by  other  observers  of  their  presence  in  similar  con- 
ditions in  other  Angiosperms,  and  by  Raciborski  in  Asclepias.  Similar 
results  were  obtained  with  Cynanchum  Vincetoxicum. 

An  examination  by  T.  C.  Fryef  of  several  species  of  Asclepias  and 
Acerates  led  to  results  similar  to  those  obtained  by  Strasburger.  A  care- 
ful study  showed  that  in  the  species  examined  the  development  of  the 
microsporanges  is  the  same  in  general  as  in  other  plants  [Angiosperms]  ; 
while  there  are  no  indications  of  the  phylogenetic  history  of  the  reduc- 
tion in  number.  The  primary  sporogenous  cells  become  the  pollen- 
mother-cells  without  further  division.  The  latter  divide  each  into  four 
with  the  usual  phenomena  of  tetrad-division. 

Abnormal  Flowers  of  Forsythia  viridissima  Lindl.J — M.Velenovsky 
describes  abnormal  flowers  in  which  the  sepals  have  become  leaf-like, 
while  the  corolla  is  not  only  reduced  in  size,  but  also  in  number  of 
parts.  Some  flowers  showed  only  two  free  petals,  which  alternated  with 
the  inner  sepals  and  stamens,  making  a  regularly  dimerous  flower.  In 
others  the  two  petals  were  more  or  less  split  lengthwise,  showing,  there- 
fore, various  transition  stages  to  the  normal  whorl  of  four,  character- 
istic both  of  the  genus  and  family  to  which  it  belongs.  These  cases 
support  Eichler's  view  of  the  origin  of  the  typical  tetramerous  corolla  of 
Oleaceae  from  doubling  of  two  petals,  aud  may  be  compared,  from  this 
point  of  view,  with  Fraxinus  dipetala. 

Physiology. 
Reproduction  and  Embryology. 

Double  Fertilisation  in  the  Solanaceae  and  Gentianaceae.  §  —  In 
addition  to  the  Composite,  the  only  order  of  GaniopetalsB  in  which  the 

*  Eer.  Deufcch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  450-61  (1  pi.). 

t  Bot.  Gnzette,  xxxii.  (1901)  pp.  325-31  (1  pi.). 

I  Oeaterr.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  li.  (1901)  pp.  325-8. 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  1268-72.     Cf.  this  Journal,  1901,  p.  173. 


200  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

phenomenon  of  double  fertilisation  has  at  present  been  observed,  L. 
Guignard  now  describes  it  in  the  Solauacege  (Nicotiana  Tabacum,  Datura 
Isevis),  and  in  the  Gentiauaceae  (Gentiana  ciliata).  These  orders  pre- 
sent no  important  deviation  from  the  process  already  described.  With 
regard  to  the  formation  of  the  endosperm,  the  difference  in  the  time 
when  it  takes  place  in  these  two  orders  indicates  that  there  is  not  so 
close  a  relationship  as  has  been  supposed  by  some  between  the  septation 
of  the  embryo-sac  and  its  form  and  dimensions. 

In  JNicotiana  the  oosphere  is  well  distinguished  from  the  two 
synergids  by  its  greater  size.  The  two  male  gametes  are  formed  only 
during  the  passage  of  the  pollen-tube  down  the  conducting  tissue  of 
the  style ;  they  consist  of  little  besides  the  nucleus.  Their  fusion  with 
the  oosphere  and  the  polar  nuclei  respectively  takes  place  with  great 
rapidity. 

Hybridism  and  Xenia.  *  —  C.  Correns  has  studied  very  fully 
hybridism  and  xenia  in  the  various  races  of  Zea  Mays.  The  work  was 
begun  in  1894  for  the  purpose  of  studying  "  the  direct  action  of  the 
pollen  on  the  fruit "  (Xenia  of  Focke),  and  a  preliminary  account  was 
published  in  1899.  The  author  was  then  led  to  investigate  the  charac- 
ters of  the  various  hybrids  produced.  The  investigation  was  carried 
out  on  the  lines  of  Gregor  Mendel's  well-known  work  on  pea  hybrids, 
attention  being  paid  only  to  certain  selected  characters  in  which  the 
crossed  races  differ  from  one  another,  and  the  behaviour  of  these  charac- 
ters investigated  in  relation  to  xenia  and  the  hybrids.  The  observations 
show  clearly  that  on  crossing  there  is  produced  a  hybrid  endosperm  as 
well  as  a  hybrid  embryo,  a  result  which  was  at  first  very  surprising,  but 
can  now  be  clearly  understood  in  the  light  of  Nawaschin  and  Guignard's 
discovery  of  double  fertilisation.  Correns  discusses  critically  certain 
other  cases  where  the  influence  of  the  foreign  pollen  has  been  described 
as  extending  to  parts  of  the  fruit  other  than  the  endosperm,  and  con- 
cludes that  the  evidence  for  these  is  quite  untrustworthy,  and  often 
capable  of  another  explanation.  He  affirms  that  xenia  occurs  only  in 
connection  with  the  endosperm,  as  would  be  expected  from  the  newly 
discovered  morphological  features  of  fertilisation.  By  crossing  races 
which  differ  in  certain  pairs  of  characters  (such  as  sugary  and  starchy 
endosperm,  colour  of  aleurone  layer,  &c),  the  exact  behaviour  of  various 
characters  can  be  studied  in  the  hybrid.  He  points  out  that  the  charac- 
ters must  be  distinguished  as  independent  and  dependent,  and  in  the 
former  category  as  free  or  conjugate.  As  Mendel  showed,  there  are  two 
quite  distinct  stages  to  be  studied  in  the  behaviour  in  a  hybrid  of  a  pair 
of  characters  derived  each  from  a  different  race.  The  first  stage  is  that 
of  vegetative  development,  in  which  there  are  obviously  two  extreme 
cases:  (1)  one  character  only  is  developed,  so  that  the  hybrid  shows 
only  the  characters  of  one  parent,  the  other  being  latent ;  (2)  both 
characters  develop,  and  the  hybrid  shows  a  new  intermediate  character. 
Pairs  of  characters  which  behave  in  the  first  manner  Correns  calls  hetero- 
dynamic,  one  being  dominant  and  the  other  recessive,  in  Mendel's 
terminology.  Those  of  the  second  class  he  calls  homodynamic.  The 
other  stage  to  be  studied  is  that  of  the  relation  of  the  characters  to  ti.c 

*  Bibliotheca  Botanica,  Heft  53,  1901,  161  pp.  and  2  pis. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  201 

sexual  cells.  Here,  similarly,  two  cases  can  be  distinguished  :  (1)  where 
the  sexual  cells  of  the  hybrid  show  each  only  one  character,  hut  both 
occur,  and  in  equal  numbers,  i.e.  the  characters  obey  Mendel's  law; 
(2)  where  both  characters  occur  together  in  the  sexual  cells.  Pairs  of 
characters  which  behave  in  the  first  way  Correns  calls  schizoogonous 
(isogonous  of  De  Vries),  and  those  of  the  second  class  homoogonous 
(anisogonous  of  De  Vries).  If  attention  is  paid  only  to  extreme  cases, 
the  author  points  out  that  four  possible  combinations  in  the  behaviour 
of  any  pair  of  characters  can  obviously  be  distinguished  :  (1)  hetero- 
dynamic  and  schizoogonous;  (2)  heterodynamic  and  homoogonous  ;  (3) 
homodynamic  and  schizoogonous;  (4)  homodynamic  and  homoogonous. 
The  first  and  fourth  Correns  distinguishes  as  the  Pisum  and  Hieracium 
type  respectively,  for,  as  Mendel  showed,  most  of  the  characters  of  these 
two  forms  behave  on  hybridising  in  the  manner  indicated.  The  third 
Correns  characterises  as  the  Zea  type,  for  his  observations  show  that 
most  of  the  characters  of  Zea  Mays  hybrids  behave  in  this  special  way. 
The  second  type  is  not  yet  known  in  nature.  It  is  clearly  shown  in 
Zea  Mays  that  some  of  the  characters  can  behave  in  one  way  and  some 
in  another ;  thus,  all  the  characters  fully  studied  were  homodynamic 
with  the  exception  of  the  chemical  nature  of  the  endosperm,  which  was 
found  to  be  heterodynamic.  In  relation  to  sexual  cell-formation,  tbe 
characters  were  in  part  schizoogonous,  in  part  homoogonous.  Those 
taking  part  in  xenia  seemed  all  schizoogonous.  The  question  of  the 
usually  preponderating  effect  in  xenia  of  the  characters  derived  from 
the  female  side  is  to  be  partly  explained  by  the  fact  of  the  fusion  of 
itvo  polar  (female)  nuclei  with  one  generative  (male)  nucleus.  The  fact 
that  the  sexual  cells  bearing  the  heterodynamic  characters  occur  in 
equal  numbers  leads  Correns  to  believe  that  the  segregation  of  the 
characters  is  brought  about  by  a  nuclear  division  of  the  type  of  Weis- 
mann's  reducing  division.  The  question  of  the  stage  of  development 
at  which  the  separation  of  characters  takes  place  is  ably  discussed. 
C>rrens  concludes  that  in  the  pollen-grain  it  probably  takes  place  at 
the  time  of  separation  of  the  vegetative  nucleus  and  generative  mother- 
nucleus  ;  and  in  the  ovule  at  the  time  of  formation  of  the  embryo-sac 
mother-cell. 

Spermatogenesis  and  Fecundation  of  Zamia.* — H.  J.  Webber  gives 
a  full  account  of  his  investigations  on  this  subject.  The  pollen-grains 
are  carried  by  the  wind  to  the  female  cones,  and  finally  come  to  lie  in 
the  pollen-chamber  at  the  apex  of  the  nucellus.  There  seem  to  be  three 
prothallial  cells  cut  off  from  one  side  of  the  grain ;  the  first  is  resorbed, 
as  in  Gingho  and  Pinus.  In  the  development  of  stalk-cell  and  central  or 
generative-cell  Zamia  corresponds  closely  to  the  Coniferae.  The  ble- 
pliaroplasts  are  formed  de  novo  in  the  cytoplasm  of  the  central  cell  ;  they 
are  at  first  very  small  but  gradually  increase  in  size,  reaching  a  maximum 
at  the  prophase  stage  of  division  of  the  central  cell,  when  their  contents 
present  a  beautiful  regularly  vacuolate  structure  and  stain  red  with 
safranin.  As  the  division  approaches  the  equatorial-plate  stage  the 
blepharoplasts  begin  to  break  up,  the  contents  contracting  and  gradually 
disappearing  while  the  outer  membrane  begins  to  break  apart  here  and 

*  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agricult.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bull.  No.  2  (1901)  92  pp. 
and  7  pis. 


202  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

there  and  can  be  seen  to  be  made  up  of  very  numerous  granules.  In 
an  early  anaphase  the  staiuable  contents  have  quite  disappeared,  and 
finally  the  blepharoplasts  break  up  entirely  into  numerous  granules,  by 
which  time  the  two  daughter-nuclei  in  the  central  cell  have  been  fairly 
well  organised.  The  granules  fuse  to  form  a  band,  while  the  daughter- 
nuclei  reach  a  resting  condition  and  form  the  spermatid  cells,  each  of 
which  is  then  metamorphosed  directly  into  a  spermatozoid.  The  bands 
form  a  helicoid  spiral  around  the  spermatid,  and  in  a  very  early  stage 
protuberances  can  be  distinguished  in  its  outer  surface  which  ultimately 
grow  into  cilia. 

Meanwhile,  the  grain  ends  of  the  pollen-tubes  have  grown  dowrn  and 
come  to  hang  free  in  the  archegonial  chamber.  In  fertilisation  they 
push  against  the  neck-cells  and  finally  burst  and  discharge  the  spermato- 
zoids  over  the  archegonia.  The  fluid  in  which  the  sperraatozoids  swim 
is  certainly  derived  in  part  from  the  pollen-tube,  and  may  be  partially 
formed  by  extrusion  from  the  egg-cell.  The  mature  spermatozoids  are 
the  largest  known  to  occur  in  any  plant  or  animal,  and  are  visible  to 
the  naked  eye.  They  are  ovate  or  nearly  spherical ;  their  motion  is 
mainly  by  means  of  the  cilia,  but  they  have  also  a  sort  of  selective 
amoeboid  motion  of  the  spiral  end.  The  entire  spermatozoid  enters  the 
egg-cell,  swimming  in  between  the  ruptured  neck-cells;  the  cilia-bearing 
baud  remains  at  the  apex  of  the  cell  while  the  nucleus  passes  on  and 
fuses  with  the  egg-nucleus.  At  the  same  time  the  spermatozoid  cyto- 
plasm fuses  with  the  egg-cytoplasm.  The  first  division  of  the  egg- 
nucleus  was  not  observed,  but  the  second  and  later  divisions  were 
carefully  studied.  In  no  case  has  any  centrosome  been  noticed.  The 
cilia-bearing  band  has  certainly  no  function  in  tbe  formation  of  the  first 
cleavage  spindle,  or  the  spindles  in  any  of  the  divisions  immediately 
following,  as  it  remains  intact  at  the  apex  of  the  egg-cell  until  the  egg- 
nucleus  has  divided  into  very  many  small  nuclei  ;  it  disappears  later. 
It  appears  to  be  simply  a  mechanism  for  transference  of  the  functional 
male  cell,  and  not  comparable  with  centrosome  or  centrosphere,  as  it  is 
located  entirely  outside  of  the  spindle,  and  has  no  connection  with  the 
spiudle  formation.  It  is  moreover  limited  to  the  division  of  a  single 
cell,  no  similar  organ  appearing  in  any  other  stage  of  the  plant's  develop- 
ment. 

Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Development  of  Sauromatum  guttatum  Schott.  *  —  K.  Genau  de- 
scribes an  experiment  in  which  this  Himalayan  Aroid  was  grown  from 
the  tuber  up  to  complete  opening  of  the  flower  without  receiving  any 
external  supply  of  water.  Plants  were  grown  both  in  the  light  and 
dark  ;  in  the  former  case  the  plant  began  to  wither  after  about  five 
weeks,  having  lost  in  the  meantime  21  •  5  p.c.  of  its  weight.  In  the  dark 
the  plant  grew  for  six  weeks  before  beginning  to  wither  and  lost  only 
17  p.c.  of  its  weight.  The  tuber  contains  a  very  large  amount  of  water 
(over  84  p.c.  was  found  in  one  examined)  which  is  protected  from 
evaporation  by  a  thick  periderm  immediately  inside  which  is  a  layer  of 
parenchymatous  cells  rich  in  mucilage. 

*  Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  li.  (1901)  pp.  321-5. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSCOPY,    ETC.  203 

Nutrition  of  the  Seedling  at  the  Expense  of  its  Cotyledons.  *  — 
G.  Andre  tabulates  the  results  of  determinations  taken  at  different  periods 
after  germination,  of  the  relative  weight  of  the  seedling  (i.e.  of  the 
root,  stem,  and  leaves)  and  of  the  cotyledons,  in  the  case  of  Phasrolus 
multiflorus.  The  results  were  taken  at  five  intervals,  respectively  9,  11, 
13,  15,  and  17  days  after  the  commencement  of  germination.  At  the 
last  period  the  weight  of  the  ashes  of  the  cotyledons  was  not  more  than 
two-fifths  of  that  of  the  seed.  The  tables  show  the  relative  rapidity 
with  which  the  various  mineral  ingredients  were  withdrawn  from  the 
cotyledons  by  the  growing  seedling.  The  fatty  matters  disappear 
gradually  from  the  cotyledons,  while  the  soluble  carbohydrates  are 
absorbed  rapidly  during  the  early  stages  of  germination,  as  also  do 
those  which  are  converted  into  sugar  by  dilute  acids.  The  mineral 
matters  are  never  completely  absorbed. 

Necessity  of  Lime  for  Plants.f — L.  Ritter  v.  Portheim  disputes  the 
statement  of  previous  observers  that,  at  a  high  temperature,  lime  is  not 
necessary  for  the  germination  of  seedlings.  He  found  the  contrary  to 
be  the  case  with  the  species  experimented  on,  viz. : — Lepidium  sativum, 
Rumex  Acetosella,  Secale  cereale,  Hordeum,  Triticum,  Avena  sativa,  Larix 
europsea,  and  Pinus  sylvestris.  The  absence  of  lime  produces  all  the 
symptoms  of  poisoning  caused  by  the  great  accumulation  of  acid 
potassium  oxalate  when  no  calcium  salt  is  present. 

Influence  of  Mineral  Salts  on  the  Production  of  Root-tubercles  in 
Pisum. — As  the  result  of  a  series  of  experiments  on  growing  a  variety 
of  the  garden  pea  in  soils  of  different  compositions,  E.  Marcbal  J  finds 
a  confirmation  of  the  view  that  their  formation  is  dependent  on  a  defi- 
ciency of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  The  presence  of  alkaline  nitrates  to  the 
extent  of  0*01  p.c'  prevents  the  formation  of  the  tubercles;  salts  of 
ammonium,  in  the  proportion  of  0'05  p.c,  Lave  the  same  effect ;  as  also 
have  salts  of  potassium  to  the  amount  of  05  p.c,  and  of  sodium  to 
0  •  33  p.c.  On  the  other  hand,  salts  of  calcium  and  magnesium  promote 
the  formation  of  the  tubercles  ;  and  this  is  also  usually  the  case  with 
phosphoric  acid,  though  dependent  on  the  base  with  which  it  is  com- 
bined. 

Similar  results  were  obtained  by  E.  Laurent,  §  except  that,  in  the 
case  of  Faba,  nitrogenous  manures  were  found  to  promote,  instead  of  to 
hinder  the  production  of  tubercles. 

Action  of  Copper  on  the  Growth  of  Living  Cells. || — D.  Miani  has 
experimented  on  the  effect  produced  on  the  germination  of  pollen-grains 
and  fungus-spores  by  contact  with  the  water  in  which  they  germinate  of 
coins  or  some  other  form  of  metallic  copper.  If  the  cuprification  of 
the  water  is  only  very  slight,  the  effect  on  germination  is  a  decidedly 
favourable  one,  germination  taking  place  more  rapidly,  and  the  pollen- 
tubes  being  better  developed.  If  the  surrounding  air  is  saturated  with 
moisture,  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  copper  to  be  actually  in  contact 
with  the  hanging  drop  in  which  the  pollen-grains  germinate.  The 
pollen  experimented  on  belonged  to  a  number  of  different  species. 

*  Comptes  Kendus,  cxxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  1011-3,  1229-31. 

t  Sitzungsber.  k.  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien,  ex.  (1901).     Scl-  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxviii. 
(1901)  p.  282.  t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiii.  (19(H)  pp.  1032-3. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1241-3.        ||  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  461-4. 


204  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

Nitrates  and  the  Carbon-Assimilation  of  Algae.* — A.  E.  N.  Arber 
Las  continued  his  experiments  on  the  effect  of  salts  on  the  carbon- 
assimilation  of  TJlva  latissima  and  other  green  sea-weeds.  He  finds  that 
the  addition  of  a  nitrate  to  sea-water  causes  an  inhibition  of  the  carbon- 
assimilatioi:,  the  extent  of  which  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  base. 
Thus  the  presence  of  ammonium  nitrate  quickly  proves  fatal,  while 
potassium  nitrate  has  a  greater  effect  than  sodium  nitrate.  The  addition 
of  magnesium  nitrate,  which  is  normally  present  in  sea-water,  causes  the 
least  marked  inhibition.  He  also  finds  that  tiie  presence  of  an  appre- 
ciable quantity  of  potassium  jmosphate  causes  considerable  inhibition. 

Germinating  Power  of  the  Seeds  of  Cereals.j — Dr.  A.  Burgerstein 
has  made  a  further  observation  on  the  power  of  seeds  to  retain  their 
germinating  power  under  favourable  circumstances.  He  found  that 
grains  of  maize  lost  their  power  of  germinating  after  10,  those  of 
v.heat  after  15  years ;  while  after  this  latter  period  75  p.c.  of  grains 
of  barley  and  oat  germinated  and  produced  normal  plants. 

"Ageing"  of  the  Embryo  of  Grasses.^ — E.  Gain  has  continued  his 
observation  on  the  grains  of  a  variety  of  cereals  obtained  from  Egyptian 
mummies.  The  changes  which  take  place  during  long  periods  in  the 
embryo,  and  which  are  either  the  cause  or  the  result  of  its  loss  of 
vitality,  are  indicated  by  a  gradually  deepening  brown  tint ;  and  the 
depth  of  this  colour  is  a  rough  indication  of  the  age  of  the  grain. 

Irritability. 

Position  of  Flowers  with  respect  to  Light.§  —  Prof.  J.  Wiesner 
points  out  that  flowers  are  governed  by  the  same  laws  as  leaves  in 
respect  to  their  exposure  to  light.  The  formation  of  flowers  especially 
on  the  side  facing  the  light,  is  not  necessarily  the  result  of  heliotropism, 
but  may  be  a  phenomenon  of  phototrophy ,  i.e.  the  stronger  development 
of  organs  or  of  tissues  on  the  more  strongly  illuminated  side,  in  plants 
which  are  unequally  illuminated  on  different  sides.  Phototrophic  bowers 
are  hence  contrasted  with  photometric  ;  though  the  object  is  the  same 
in  both  cases,  viz.  to  render  the  flowers  as  accessible  as  possible  to  visit- 
ing insects.  Leaves  are  euphotometric,  i.e.  are  so  placed  as  to  receive 
the  greatest  possible  amount  of  light,  when  the  plane  of  the  blade  is 
vertical  to  the  direction  of  the  strongest  diffused  daylight ;  in  euphoto- 
metric flowers,  the  opening  of  the  flower  is  vertical  to  the  direction 
of  greatest  illumination.  A  good  example  is  furnished  by  Ipomsea 
purpurea. 

Resistance  of  Seeds  to  Low  Temperatures. ||  —  Experiments  by 
A.  D.  Selby  confirm  the  results  arrived  at  by  Thiselton-Dyer  and  others. 
With  the  seeds  of  a  number  of  different  plants,  immersed  for  periods 
varying  from  3  to  28  days  in  liquid  air  (—  190°  C),  some  suddenly, 
some  gradually,  it  was  not  apparent  that  any  marked  unfavourable  effect 
on  their  germination  could  be  traced  to  their  immersion. 

*  Ann.  Bot.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  669-81. 

t  Verhandl.  k.  k.  Zool.-bot.  Ges.  Wien,  li.  (1901)  pp.  645-7. 

X  Comptes  Rendus.  cxxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  1248-50.     Cf.  this  Journal,  1900,  p.  640. 

§  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxi.  (1901)  pp.  S01-14.     Cf.  this  Journal,  1899,  p.  599. 

||    Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxviii.  (1901)  pp.  675-9.    Cf.  this  Journal,  1900,  p.  84. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  205 

Chemical  Changes. 

Oxidising  Enzymes.* — C.  E.  Newton  suggests  the  use  of  suitable 
enzymes,  procured  from  other  plants,  to  aid  and  intensify  the  action  of 
the  enzyme,  thease,  already  existing  in  the  tea-leaf,  which  is  the 
principal  factor  in  the  fermentation  of  the  leaf.  The  author  states 
that  considerable  improvement  in  quality  has  taken  place  in  those  cases 
in  which  he  was  able  to  try  the  plan ;  and  believes  that  if  successful 
it  will  probably  have  greater  effects  on  the  tobacco  industry  than  on 
that  of  tea. 

Proteolytic  Enzyme  of  Nepenthes.f  —  Prof.  Vines  criticises  the 
results  of  experiments  in  vitro  by  the  late  Georges  Clautriau  who  con- 
cluded that  the  proteolytic  enzyme  present  in  the  pitchers  of  Nepenthes 
was  a  pepsin,  that  is,  an  enzyme  acting  on  the  higher  proteids  in  an 
acid  medium  giving  rise  to  peptoues,  but  incapable  of  decomposing 
proteids  into  non-proteid  substances,  such  as  leucin  and  tyrosin.  Clau- 
triau had  also  adversely  criticised  Vines's  statement  that  the  enzyme 
is  not  peptic,  but  tryptic  in  action.  In  his  present  paper  the  author 
adduces  the  tryptophan  reaction  in  support  of  his  view.  It  has  been 
shown  that  chlorine-water  when  added  to  the  liquid  resulting  from  a 
pancreatic  (tryptic)  digestion,  gives  after  acidification,  a  colour  varying, 
according  to  concentration,  from  pink  to  violet.  This  coloration  is  due 
to  the  presence  of  a  substance  (tryptophan)  which  together  with  leucin, 
tyrosin,  and  other  bodies,  is  a  product  of  tryptic,  as  distinguished  from 
peptic,  proteolysis.  Vines  obtains  this  colour  reaction  with  the  liquids 
resulting  from  the  digestion  in  pitchers  of  Nepenthes,  and  also  from  the 
digestion  of  fibrin  by  pine-apple  juice  and  papain.  He  therefore  con- 
cludes that  the  three  enzymes,  nepenthin,  bromelin,  and  papain,  have 
essentially  the  same  proteolytic  action — a  tryptic  one,  though  they  differ 
as  regards  the  media  in  which  they  act.  Nepenthin,  like  pepsin,  acts 
only  in  acid  liquids,  bromelin  and  papain  are  most  active  in  neutral 
liquids,  while  the  animal  ferment  trypsin  is  most  active  in  alkaline 
liquids.  These  results  strengthen  the  suggestion  that  all  known  proteo- 
lytic plant  enzymes  are  tryptic  in  action. 

Starch-formation  in  Hydrodictyon  utriculatum.J  —  H.  G.  Timber- 
lake  investigates  the  nature  of  the  relation  of  the  pyrenoid  to  the 
formation  of  starch.  Hydrodictyon  contains  no  differentiated  chromato- 
phore,  both  pyrenoids  and  nuclei  are  scattered  throughout  the  proto- 
plasmic layer,  often  in  immediate  juxtaposition.  The  whole  process  of 
starch-formation  can  be  traced  from  structural  changes  occurring  in  the 
body  of  the  pyrenoid,  the  first  indication  of  which  is  its  differentiation 
into  two  portions,  one  of  which  is  transformed  into  a  starch-grain,  while 
the  other  remains  unchanged.  The  starch-grain  when  formed  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  pyrenoid  and  appears  to  lie  in  a  vesicle  or  vacuole  in  the 
cytoplasm.  When  starch-formation  is  going  on  very  rapidly,  the  grains, 
as  they  are  formed,  are  continually  crowded  outward  by  the  later- 
formed  grains,  so  that  finally  they  are  densely  packed  through  nearly 
the  whole  protoplast. 

*  Indian  Gardening  and  Planting,  Nov.  28,  1901. 
t  Ann.  Bat,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  564-73.  J  Tom.  cit,  pp.  619-35  (1  pi.). 


206  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Transformation  of  Fatty  Matters  into  Sugars  in  Oily  Grains 
during  Germination.*  —  M.  P.  Maze  describes  some  experiments  with 
seeds  of  Arachis  which  indicate  that  the  digestion  of  fats  during 
germination  is  effected  by  a  progressive  fixation  of  oxygen  from  the  air, 
accompanied  probably  by  a  slight  loss  of  carbon  and  resulting,  ou 
ultimate  analysis,  in  production  of  sugars.  The  experiment  was  made 
with  cotyledons  from  seeds  which  had  begun  to  germinate ;  the  embryo 
having  been  removed  the  cotyledons  were  exposed  in  glass  vessels  to  a 
current  of  air,  and  the  carbonic  acid  gas  which  was  evolved  carefully 
collected  and  estimated.     The  experiments  lasted  seventeen  days. 

Contributions  to  the  Chemistry  of  Chlorophyll,  f  —  Dr.  Schunck 
finds  that  the  fseces  of  animals  supplied  with  green  vegetable  foods  only, 
contain  no  chlorophyll  but  substances  which  are  presumably  chlorophyll 
derivatives,  formed  by  the  action  of  acids  or  other  agency  on  the  chloro- 
phyll of  the  food.  One  of  these  substances  is  apjjarently  identical  with 
phylloxanthin ;  another  seems  to  be  a  new  body  nearly  resembling 
phyllocyanin.  It  is  characterised  by  a  fine  purplish-blue  colour  and  a 
brilliant  metallic  lustre. 

General. 

Distribution  of  Plants  in  the  Alps  and  Jura  Mountains.  $  —  Prof. 
P.  Jaccard  has  made  an  elaborate  comparative  examination  of  the  flora 
of  restricted  areas  at  different  altitudes  and  showing  a  variety  of  charac- 
teristics of  soil,  exposure,  &c.  By  means  of  tables  of  distribution  he 
works  out  a  coefficient  of  specific  and  generic  community  by  aid  of 
which  the  degree  of  resemblance  or  difference  between  the  floras  of  dif- 
ferent stations  can  be  estimated.  He  concludes  that  independently  of 
general  biologic  factors  (soil,  exposure,  climate,  &c.)  the  variations  in 
which  determine  the  broad  lines  of  plant  distribution,  there  exist  in 
every  limited  area  local  causes  of  variation  occasioning  a  true  elementary 
biologic  difference  which  finds  expression  in  a  parallel  floral  difference. 

CRYPTOGAMS. 

General. 

Homologies  in  the  Development  of  Male  and  Female  Sexual 
Organs.§ — Starting  from  the  agreement  in  structure  and  development  of 
the  male  and  female  sexual  organs  at  their  first  appearance  in  the  Algee, 
Prof.  Goebel  endeavours  to  show  that  the  homology  in  development  is 
retained,  both  in  the  higher  Algee  and  in  the  Archegoniatfe.  The 
antheridium  in  Characeee  is  a  remarkably  different  structure  from  the 
oogonium,  and  the  same  remark  applies  to  the  antheridia  and  archegonia 
of  the  Archegoniata3.  "Yet  the  assumption  that  these  organs,  like  the 
micro-  and  macro-sporangia  of  the  Pteridophytes,  have  developed  from 
a  similar  '  grouud  form'  is  an  obvious  one." 

The  author  has  previously  discussed  the  homology  in  development 
of  antheridia  and  oogonia  in  certain  algas,  e.g.  CEdogonium  and  Cutleria, 

*  Comptes  Kendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  309-11. 

t  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  lxix.  (1902)  pp.  307-12. 

X  Bull.  Soc.  Vaud.  Sei.  Nat.,  xxxvii.  (1901)  pp.  517-79. 

§  Flora,  xc.  (1902)  pp.  '/79-305  (figs,  iu  text). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  207 

and  has  shown  that  in  the  antheridia  the  spermatozoids  arise  through  a 
repeated  hipartition  of  the  nucleus,  i.e.  on  the  same  lines  as  the  egg-cell 
in  the  oogonium.  Divisions  occur  in  the  antheridium  which  are  sup- 
pressed in  the  oogonium. 

The  author  first  reviews  in  detail  the  course  of  division  resulting  in 
the  formation  of  the  oogonium  in  Char  a  and  Nitella,  with  special  reler- 
ence  to  the  work  of  A.  Braun,  and  more  recently  of  Gotz.  The  sterile 
cells  (the  Wendungszclle  of  A.  Braun)  are  not  to  be  considered,  as 
Gotz  suggests,  as  representing  a  rudimentary  archegonial-wall,  but 
their  homology  is  to  be  sought  in  the  cell-divisions  which  occur  in  the 
young  archegonium.  Braun's  term  Wendangszelle  implying  an  alte- 
ration in  the  direction  of  growth  is  misleading.  The  meaning  of  the 
sterile  cells  is  probably  nutritive. 

In  the  Bryophyta  the  author  compares  the  early  stages  in  develop- 
ment of  the  antheridium  of  the  Marchantiacese  and  the  Jungermanniacese 
with  that  of  the  typical  Liverwort  archegonium,  and  concludes  that  the 
latter  "  corresponds  to  a  half  antheridium,  or  in  other  words,  to  such  a 
one  in  which  one  longitudinal  half  is  become  sterile." 

For  the  agreement  in  the  plan  of  development  of  the  male  and  female 
organs  in  the  Pteridophyta,  the  author  refers  to  his  previously  published 
*  Organographie  der  Pflanzen.' 

Pteridophyta. 

Anatomy  of  the  Gleicheniacese.*  —  L.  A.  Boodle  has  examined  the 
anatomy  of  the  rhizome  and  petiole  in  various  species  of  Gleichenia 
and  in  Platyzoma  microphyllum.  In  Gleichenia,  with  the  exception  of 
G.  pectinata,  where  it  is  solenostelic,  the  stem-structure  is  protostelic. 
Platyzoma  has  a  medullate  stele  with  annular  xylem  and  internal  endo- 
dermis.  The  xylem  is  mesarch  with  distinct  groups  of  spiral  protoxylem. 
A  single  leaf-trace  enters  the  petiole  ;  the  xylem  is  usually  in  the  form 
of  an  arch  with  incurved  ends.  When  the  bundle  is  small  there  are  one 
median  and  two  lateral  protoxylem  groups  on  the  upper  side,  but  in 
larger  bundles  the  protoxylems  are  more  numerous.  In  several  species 
a  nodal  island  is  found  in  the  xylem  of  the  stele  ;  it  contains  phloem 
and  sclerenchyma,  the  latter  surrounded  by  an  endodermis.  Platyzoma 
has  a  collateial  leaf-trace,  but  apparently  a  concentric  petiolar  bundle. 
The  roots  are  mostly  tetrarch,  but  diarch  in  Platyzoma. 

Fibro  vascular  Chains  of  Filicinese.t — According  to  C.  E.  Bertraud 
and  F.  Cornaille,  the  broadening  of  a  fibrovascular  chain  is  effected  at 
first  by  the  extension  of  its  elementary  bundles,  their  number  remaining 
constant.  "When  the  broadening  is  very  great,  the  bundles  split  and 
the  chain  loses  its  continuity.  Under  other  circumstances,  when  a  chain 
widens,  it  either  forms  new  groups  of  tracheas  between  those  already 
existing,  or  the  old  groups  divide.  A  chain  may  become  broader  by  the 
addition  of  external  divergents  or  by  the  addition  of  other  chains.  The 
addition  may  take  place  in  the  chain,  or  at  one  of  the  extremities  if  the 
chain  is  open.  Examples  are  given ;  and  these  results  are  discussed  from 
a  mathematical  point  of  view. 

*  Ann.  Bot.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  703-47  (2  pis.). 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  1027-9,  1309-12. 


208  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

The  foliar  traces  of  the  Filicineaa  clearly  exhibit  their  special  cha- 
racters only  in  sufficiently  strong  leaves.  The  greatest  complication  of 
the  foliar  trace  is  found  in  the  petiole.  In  the  great  majority  of  living 
FilicinesB  the  fibrovascular  chains  of  the  foliar  trace  usually  form  a 
single  curve.  The  special  characteristics  of  the  foliar  trace  are  de- 
scribed in  Osmunda,  in  the  Cyatheaceae,  in  the  Ophioglossacese,  and  in 
some  genera  of  Polypodiaceaa.  By  means  of  the  foliar  trace  the  funda- 
mental tissue  of  the  petiole  may  be  seen  to  consist  of  an  external  funda- 
mental tissue  and  an  internal  fundamental  tissue,  which  is  well  defined 
when  the  trace  is  closed. 

Type-Specimens  of  Lyginodendron  Oldhammm.* — E.  A.  N.  Arber 
figures  and  gives  descriptions  of  some  of  the  original  sections  on  which 
Binney,  in  1866,  founded  his  account  of  the  fossil  plant  Dadoxylon 
Oldhamium,  subsequently  transferred  by  Williamson  to  Lyginodendron. 
Binney  did  not  figure  any  of  his  sections. 

Prothallium  of  Phylloglossum.  f  —  A.  P.  W.  Thomas,  of  Auck- 
land, finds  prothallia  growing  naturally  among  the  parent  plants  in 
three  localities  only,  suggesting  that  special  conditions  are  necessary 
for  the  germination  of  the  spores,  conditions  which  are  not  of  regular 
annual  occurrence  wherever  Phylloglossum  grows.  Perhaps  the  most 
important  is  the  presence  of  a  fungus,  with  which,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
prothallia  of  Lycopodium,  that  of  Phylloglossum  lives  symbiotically. 
The  prothallium  varies  much  in  external  form.  In  the  youngest  stage 
observed  it  consisted  of  an  oval  tuber  from  which  rises  a  simple  cylin- 
drical shaft  with  a  rounded  apex.  The  tuber,  which  is  of  constant 
occurrence,  doubtless  corresponds  with  the  primary  tubercle  in  the  pro- 
thallium of  Lycopodium  cernuum.  The  shaft  varies  considerably  in 
length  and  thickness,  and  may  be  straight  or  curved,  the  whole  pro- 
thallium varying  from  less  than  2  mm.  in  length  to  thrice  this.  Rhizoids 
are  numerous  on  the  lower  part,  especially  on  the  tubercle.  The  shaft 
expands  above  into  a  crown,  which  may  be  conical,  rounded,  or  project- 
ing to  one  side,  and  bears  the  sexual  organs.  The  whole  upper  part  of 
the  prothallium  is  green,  except  the  projecting  necks  of  the  archegonia ; 
the  green  colour  passes  away  as  the  shaft  enters  the  ground.  Sections 
show  little  internal  differentiation  of  the  prothallia ;  an  endophytic 
fungus  may  be  traced  in  the  cells  of  the  lower  half,  the  hyphae  ma*.-  be 
seen  passing  in  through  the  rhizoids.  The  fungus  forms  a  close  felt 
around  the  tubercle,  passing  below  it  into  a  root-like  strand.  The 
archegonia,  which  reach  from  ten  to  twenty  in  number,  appear  to  be 
formed  in  basipetal  succession,  the  neck  projects  as  a  hemisphere  of 
colourless  cells,  usually  in  two  tiers  of  four  cells  each.  The  venter, 
with  the  large  oosphere,  lies  at  a  little  depth  below  the  surface.  The 
antheridia  form  an  elongated  cavity  with  a  single  layer  of  cover- cells. 
The  sexual  organs  resemble  most  those  of  Lycopodium  cernuum ;  there 
are  no  paraphyses  as  in  L.  Selago  and  L.  PMegmaria. 

The  development  of  the  embryo  at  first  resembles  that  of  L.  cernuum. 
It  first  grows  obliquely  downwards  and  outwards;  the  part  near  the 
venter  is  the  foot ;  at  the  opposite  end  are  formed  the  stem-apex  and 

*  Proc.  Camb.  Phil.  Soc,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  281-5  (2  figs.), 
t  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  lxix.  (1902)  pp.  285-91. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  209 

leaf.  Immediately  on  escaping  from  the  prothallium  it  forms  a  proto- 
corm,  apparently  in  the  same  way  that  the  adult  plant  forms  its  annual 
tuber.  The  first  leaf  gmws  upwards,  attaining  a  height  of  2  to  5  mm. 
above  the  ground.  No  root  was  formed  during  the  first  year  of  growth  ; 
the  sporophyte  seemed  to  depend  largely  for  its  moisture  upon  the  pro- 
thallium.  Sometimes  rbizoids  are  formed  on  the  protocorm  and  its 
pedicel.  The  first  leaf  has  exactly  the  structure  of  a  small  leaf  as  pro- 
duced in  later  years.  Further  development  of  the  sporophyte  seems  to 
be  slow ;  in  many  cases  the  plant  comes  up  a  second  and  third  year  with 
only  one  leaf. 

On  the  whole  the  prothallium  of  Phylloglossum  probably  most  re- 
sembles one  of  the  Lycopodium  cernuum  type,  though  it  lacks  the  leaf-like 
assimilatory  lobes  of  the  latter.  It  may  perhaps  be  regarded  as  the 
simplest  known  type  of  the  isosporous  Lycopodinae. 

The  author  has  also  observed  an  occasional  branching  of  the  spike, 
and  frequently  the  production  of  two  tubers,  sometimes  on  opposite 
sides,  sometimes  close  together  on  the  same  side  of  the  plant.  He  re- 
iterates the  view  that  Phylloglossum  is  a  primitive,  and  not  a  reduced 
type. 

Muscine8e. 

Leaf-Movements  in  Polytrichum.*  —  K.  Giesenhagen  gives  au  ac- 
count of  the  late  F.  Stolz's  researches  into  the  movements  of  the  leavts 
of  Polytrichum  juniperinum,  as  controlled  by  moisture  or  drought. 
Starting  from  the  previous  determinations  of  Firtsch  and  of  Bastit  as  to 
the  actual  tissues  which  contract  or  expand  in  response  to  the  absence 
or  presence  of  water,  Stolz  demonstrated  the  important  part  played  by 
the  transverse  band  of  quadrate  cells  across  the  upper  surface  ot  the 
leaf  at  the  line  of  transition  from  leaf-sheath  to  lamina.  The  walls 
of  these  cells  imbibe  water ;  the  band  of  tissue  expands  and  bends  back 
the  lamina  of  the  leaf  until  it  stands  at  about  a  right  angle  with  the 
always  appressed  sheath. 

Structure  of  the  Peristome,  f —  After  a  long  interval,  H.  Philibert 
resumes  his  study  of  the  peristome  of  Mosses,  and  points  out  the 
great  variability  in  the  structure  of  this  organ  within  the  same  genus, 
Buxbaumia.  In  B.  indusiata  the  peristome  has  by  no  means  always,  or 
even  generally,  the  composite  structure  which  has  usually  been  ascribed 
to  it.  It  may  even  be  reduced  to  the  endostome,  and  this  endostome 
itself  does  not  always  consist  of  an  entire  cylindrical  tube,  but  may  be 
broken  up  into  a  confused  agglomeration  of  filaments.  In  this  state  it 
presents  a  close  resemblance  to  the  peristome  of  the  Dawsonieas ;  and 
there  can  be  little  doubt  of  the  close  affinity  of  the  two  families,  the 
Dawsonieae  being  the  older. 

Mosses  new  to  Britain. J — Messrs.  Jones  and  Horrell  describe  and 
figure  an  arctic  and  subarctic  species,  Tetraplodon  Wormskioldii  Liudb., 
which  they  discovered  fruiting  on  the  summit  of  Widdy  Bank  Feli, 
Durham,  last   August.      The    plant    is  common   in  all  high   northern 

*  Flora,  xc.  (1902)  pp.  305-15.  | 

t  Rev.  Bryol.,  xxviii.  (1901)  pp.  127-30.     Cf.  this  Journal,  1896,  p.  545. 
J  Journ.  Bot.,  1902,  pp.  49-53  (1  pi.). 
April  16th,  1902  p 


1 


210  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

latitudes,  but  has  hitherto  not  been  found  below  about  62°  N.  latitude 
(in  Scandinavia).     It  was  growing  at  an  altitude  of  about  1600  ft. 

J.  B,  Duncan  has  discovered  Octodiceras  julianum  Brid.,  an  aquatic 
moss  resembling  in  general  appearance  young  plants  of  Fontinalis, 
growing  on  submerged  timbers,  stones,  and  boulders  in  the  river  Severn, 
at  and  near  Bewdley  in  Worcestershire  and  Shropshire.  The  plant  was 
previously  known  throughout  Europe,  and  from  North  Africa  to  North 
America.  It  is  suggested  that  it  may  have  been  introduced  with  foreign 
timber. 

Kabenhorst's  Cryptogamic  Flora  of  Germany  (Musci).  —  The  36th 
part  of  this  work,  by  Dr.  K.  G.  Limpricht,  completes  the  account  of  the 
genus  Hylocomium,  and  of  the  Hypnaceae.  The  remainder  of  this  part 
and  the  whole  of  Part  37  are  occupied  by  additions  and  revisions  of  the 
descriptions  of  the  families,  genera,  and  species  in  the  preceding  parts. 

Lists  and  New  Species. — F.  Stephani  *  gives  a  list  of  187  species 
of  hepatics,  including  55  new  species,  gathered  in  the  rich  forests,  &c, 
of  West  Patagonia  and  South  Chile  by  P.  Dusen,  who  describes  in  an 
introduction  to  the  paper  his  travels  and  the  geographical  distribution 
of  the  more  interesting  species. 

The  same  authors  f  treat  the  hepatics  of  the  Magellan' s-Straits 
territory  in  similar  fashion.  136  species  are  recorded,  and  of  these  ten 
are  new. 

V.  F.  Brotherus  J  has  described  66  new  species  in  a  list  of  192 
mosses  gathered  in  Brazil  and  Paraguay,  by  C.  A.  M.  Lindman  during 
his  Eegnell  expedition. 

P.  Dusen  §  also  gives  a  list  of  24  vascular  plants  and  38  mosses, 
one  of  which  is  a  new  species,  collected  in  the  arctic  island  of  Jan 
Mayen  during  Nathorst's  expedition  to  the  east  coast  of  Greenland 
in  1899. 

Alg-ee. 

Remarks  on  (Edogonia  with.  Semicircular  Foot-cell.|| — A.  ScherfFel 
here  describes  the  germination  of  the  zoospores  of  (Edogonium  rufescens. 
This  may  take  place  in  one  of  two  different  ways,  according  to  whether 
they  become  fixed  to  some  substratum  or  remain  free  in  the  water.  In 
the  former  case  there  arises  directly  through  a  circular  opening  an 
(Edogonium  filament ;  while  in  the  case  of  those  spores  which  remain 
free  in  the  water,  the  cell-contents  break  up  into  swarm-spores,  which 
in  their  turn  escape.  The  zoospores  of  0.  Virceburgense  behave  in  the 
same  manner.  The  oospores  of  both  species  were  observed  by  the  author, 
but  no  antheridia.  The  attraction  possessed  by  the  oogonia  for  the 
Bwarm-spores  is  noticed,  and  this  may  be  attributed,  according  to  the 
author,  either  to  a  chemotactic  influence,  or,  which  is  less  likely,  to 
the  fact  that  the  oogonia  form  a  convenient  surface  attachment  for  the 
swarm-spores.  In  the  concluding  paragraph  is  described  an  interesting 
malformation  in  0.  Vircebergense. 

*  Bihang  k.  Svensk.  Vet.-Akad.  Handl.,  xxvi.  iii.  No.  6  (1900)  69  pp. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  No.  17  (1901)  36  pp.  %  Tom.  cit.,  No.  7  (1900)  65  pp. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  No.  13  (1900)  16  pp.  and  1  pi. 
||  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot  Gea.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  557-63  (I  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  211 

Sphacelariaceae.* — In  a  lengthy  paper  on  this  family  of  Phseospome, 
M.  C.  Sauvageau  makes  the  following  remarks  on  their  general  structure. 
He  agrees  with  Magnus  in  regarding  the  most  common  mode  of  branch- 
ing as  sympodial  rather  than  monopodial  as  stated  by  Pringsheim.  A 
character  which  distinguishes  the  Sphacelariaceae  from  the  most  nearly 
allied  order,  the  Ectocarpaceae,  is  the  black  coloration  of  the  thallus  by 
eau  de  Javelle,  due  to  the  presence  of  a  substance,  the  nature  of  which 
is  at  present  unknown,  and  apparently  not  identical  in  all  the  species. 
The  chromatophores  always  have  the  form  of  discs  or  grains,  never  of 
plates  or  bands.  Tannin  is  almost  invariably  present,  either  generally 
diffused  or  limited  to  special  cells.  The  hairs  are  of  endogenous  origin, 
differing  in  this  respect  from  those  of  the  Ectocarpaceae,  and  agreeing 
with  the  Myrionemaceae. 

M.  Sauvageau  has  no  doubt  about  the  existence  of  sexuality  in 
the  Sphacelariaceae  ;  there  are  (at  least  in  Sphacelaria  hystrix),  two 
kinds  of  plurilocular  organ,  one  of  which  certainly  consists  of  antheridia, 
the  other  probably  of  oogonia.  The  act  of  impregnation  has  not,  how- 
ever, been  actually  observed.  The  classification  of  the  species  into 
autonomous  and  parasitic  is  not  a  natural  one ;  the  parasitism,  where  it 
occurs,  is  not  obligatory. 

The  greater  part  of  the  paper  is  occupied  by  a  special  account  of 
the  following  species : — Battersia  mirabilis,  Sphacella  subtilissima,  Spha- 
celaria pulvinata,  S.  bracteata  (Sauv.  MS.),  S.  pygmsea,  S.  fsecunda 
(Sauv.  MS.),  S.  Borneti,  S.  sympodicarpa  (Sauv.  MS.),  S.  chorizocarpa 
(Sauv.  MS.),  S.  Beinkei  (Sauv.  MS.),  S.  spuria  (Sauv.  MS.),  S.  radi- 
cans,  S.  britannica  (Sauv.  MS.),  S.  olivacea,  S.  plumula,  S.  plumigera, 
S.  racemosa,  Chsetopteris  plumosa. 

Classification  of  Diatoms.]- — C.  Mereschkowsky  proposes  to  abolish 
the  accepted  classification  of  Diatoms  into  Raphideae,  Pseudoraphideae, 
and  Anaraphideae,  and  to  substitute  one  primarily  into  two  classes, 
Mobiles  and  Immobiles,  derived  from  the  presence  or  absence  of  move- 
ment, this  power  being  dependent  on  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  slit 
in  the  wall  of  the  frustule.  Whether  this  slit  be  placfd  at  the  centre 
of  the  valve  or  near  one  of  its  margins  is  of  secondary  importance. 
The  Mobiles  are  again  divided  into  two  families, — the  Raphideae,  char- 
acterised by  the  presence  of  nodules  and  the  usually  central  position 
of  the  raphe  (arranged  in  three  groups,  the  Heteroideae,  Naviculoideae, 
and  Tropidoideae),  and  the  CarinataB  (Surirelloideae  and  Nitzschioideae), 
characterised  by  the  absence  of  nodules  (except  Bhopalodia)  and  the 
lateral  position  of  the  slit  (except  some  species  of  Nitzschia).  The 
Immobiles  again  consist  of  two  families, — the  Bacilloideae  (Pseudo- 
raphideae, except  Carinatae,  marked  by  the  elongated  or  bacillar  form  of 
the  valves,  the  usual  presence  of  a  pseudoraphe,  and  the  usual  absence 
of  appendages  or  spines  (again  divided  into  the  FragilarioideaB  and 
Tabillarioideae,  according  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  internal  parti- 
tions ;  and  the  Anaraphideae  (Biddulphioideee  and  Discoideae).  In  the 
Anaraphideae  the  two  valves  of  the  same  frustule  do  not  generally  corre- 
spond with  respect  to  the  position  of  their  pattern  or  of  their  processes. 

*  Journ.  de  Bot.  (Morot),  xiv.  (1900)  pp.  213-34,  247-59,  304-22;  xv.  (1901) 
pp.  22-36,  50-62,  94-116,  137-49  (24  figs.). 

t  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  65-8  (4  fi^s.). 

p  2 


212  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Fresh-water  Diatoms  from  the  Island  of  Jan  Mayen  and  the  East 
Coast  of  Greenland.* — J.  Brun  gives  here  the  result  of  his  examination 
of  the  diatoms  collected  by  the  Swedish  expedition  in  1899.  The 
author  finds  that  three-fourths  of  the  Greenland  species  are  found 
living  in  the  Swiss  Alps,  and  he  also  notes  that  the  northern  forms  of 
diatoms  are  less  variable  in  size  and  striatum  than  those  of  the  high 
Alps.  This  comparative  stability  of  form  he  attributes  to  the  fact  that 
in  the  polar  circle  the  heat  and  light  of  summer  are  more  equable  during 
the  time  of  their  season,  whereas  in  the  glaciers  of  the  high  Alps  the 
growth  of  diatoms  is  necessarily  affected  by  the  rapid  daily  alternations 
of  frost  and  thaw. 

A  list  of  forms  follows  under  the  headings  of  the  various  localities. 

Capillary  Absorptive  Action  of  Diatom  Frustules.f— Prof.  E.  Hitch- 
cock describes  the  effect  of  diatomaceous  earth  in  removing  grease 
from  raw  wool,  which  he  suggests  is  due  to  the  capillary  absorptive 
action  of  the  frustules.  The  deposit  employed  consisted  mostly  of 
Pinnularia,  Stauroneis,  and  other  large  forms.  The  cleaning  was  done 
by  shaking  up  the  wool  with  the  earth  in  a  tin  box  after  application  of 
heat  sufficient  to  melt  the  fat. 

Perispermum,  a  new  Genus  of  Corallinaceae.  f  —  From  German 
New  Guinea  F.  Heydrich  describes  a  corallinaceous  alga,  belonging  to 
the  Melobesieae,  which  he  makes  the  type  of  a  new  genus,  Perispermum, 
with  the  following  diagnosis: — Calcareous  thallus  with  basal  disc,  at- 
tached to  the  host  by  rhizoids  which  do  not  penetrate  into  its  tissue, 
composed  of  several  layers  of  cells  and  not  segmented ;  tetrasporanges 
and  sexual  organs  in  conceptacles ;  carpogone  and  auxiliary  cell  super- 
posed terminally  on  a  filament ;  the  auxiliary  cell  becomes  a  gonimoblast 
with  one  or  more  spores ;  male  organs  surrounding  the  female  in  the 
same  conceptacle.  Special  descriptions  are  given  of  the  habit,  the 
thallus,  the  tetrasporanges,  the  germination  of  the  tetraspores,  and  the 
male  and  female  organs,  in  the  single  species  Perispermum  hermaphro- 
ditum.  In  the  hermaphrodite  conceptacles  the  male  greatly  outnumber 
the  female  organs. 

In  another  paper  §  Heydrich  describes  several  new  tropical  species 
of  LithothamniesQ  (Lithothamnion  and  Lithophyllum).  The  procarps  of 
these  species  were  not  seen. 

Contributions  to  the  Flora  of  Bear  Island.  || — Miss  Astrid  Cleve 
publishes  a  list  of  90  species  of  diatoms  from  Bear  Island,  which  shows 
an  increase  of  49  species  on  the  list  given  by  Lagerstedt  in  1873.  The 
Swedish  expedition  to  that  island  in  1899  brought  back  specimens  col- 
lected from  many  habitats,  and  though  the  actual  number  of  specimens 
was  not  great,  there  was  considerable  variety  of  specific  form.  Two 
new  species  are  described  and  figured,  Pinnularia  curta  and  Achnanthes 
nodosa,  and  two  new  varieties  of  other  species.     Short  critical  remarks 

J1  *  Bihang  k.  Svenak.  Vet.-Akad.  Handl.,  xxvi.  pt.  3,  No.  18,  22  pp. 
"  t  Journ.  New  York  Micr.  Soc,  xv.  (1900)  pp.  4-7. 

X  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  409-20  (3  figs.). 
1  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  403-9. 

||   Bihaug  k.  Svensk.  Vet.-Akad.  Handl,  xxvi.  pt.  3,  No.  10  (1900)  25  pp.,  and 
No.  11  (1900)  25  pp., 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  12  L 3 

follow  some  of  the  species-names,  and  general  comparisons  are  drawn 
between  the  diatom  floras  of  Bear  Island,  Spitzbergen,  and  Jan  May  en. 
A  second  contribution  to  tlic  flora  of  Bear  Island  follows  Miss 
Cleve's  paper,  the  subject  being  the  Vegetable  Plankton  of  the  Lakes, 
by  G.  Lagerheim.  The  organisms  in  question  were  obtained  from  Lake 
Ella  and  from  a  pond  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Russian  harbour. 
Each  locality  is  treated  separately,  each  species-name  being  followed  by 
remarks  on  its  geographical  distribution.  Only  six  species  are  recorded 
from  Lake  Ella  of  which  one,  Hormospora  subtilissima  is  new ;  while 
fifteen  species  were  found  in  the  pond  near  Russenhafen.  The  author 
finds  no  Peridineee  in  Bear  Island,  the  plankton  of  which  resembles  in 
this  respect  that  of  Lapland,  investigated  by  Prof.  Cleve ;  but  the 
similarity  between  the  two  regions  is  only  negative,  for  the  species 
recorded  from  eacb  locality  are  as  different  as  possible.  Remarks  on 
the  distribution  of  forms  found  in  Bear  Island  close  this  paper. 

Algae  from  the  Caroline  Islands.* — W.  Schmidlo  and  Major  Rein- 
bold  publish,  in  two  papers,  records  of  fresh-water  and  marine  algse 
respectively.  They  are  collected  principally  from  the  Island  of  Yap. 
Schmidle  records  twenty-four  fresh-water  species,  of  which  three  are 
new  :  Plectunema  VolJeensii,  Pithoplwra  variabile,  and  Cosmarium  Lindaui. 
A  new  variety  and  a  new  form  are  also  described.  Critical  notes,  vary- 
ing in  length,  are  appended  to  each  record,  and  two  of  the  new  species 
are  figured,  as  well  as  the  new  form  and  variety.  Major  Reinbold  re- 
cords twenty-four  marine  species. 

Fungi. 

Pyrrhosorus,  a  new  Marine  Fungus.f — This  new  genus  was  found 
by  H.  0.  Joel  on  a  decaying  alga,  Cystoclonium  purpurascens.  His 
attention  was  drawn  to  it  by  the  bright  yellow  appearance  of  the  alga. 
On  examination  he  found  that  some  of  the  cells  were  packed  with  a 
sorus  of  orange-coloured,  spherical,  naked  cells,  which  at  a  later  stage 
developed  zoospores  also  brightly  coloured.  A  detailed  investigation 
revealed  the  following  stages  in  the  life-history  of  the  fungus:  naked 
solitary  cells  which  succeed  the  zoospores,  and  of  which  one  or  more 
may  fuse  and  form  a  multinucleate  Plasmodium  large  enough  to  occupy 
more  than  one  cell  of  the  Cystoclonium,  and  becoming  more  amoeba-like 
in  form.  At  a  later  stage  the  plasmodium  divides  into  vegetative  cells, 
and  these  form  the  round  spore-mother-cells  about  8  fx  in  diameter. 
By  three  successive  divisions  these  come  to  lie  in  groups  of  eight, 
in  sori,  as  already  noted,  and  finally  develop  into  pear-shaped  zoospores 
provided  with  two  lateral  cilia.  The  author  places  Pyrrhosorus  in  the 
PhytomyxineaB  near  to  Tetramyxa.  The  different  stages  are  well  illus- 
trated by  drawings  and  by  microphotographs. 

Sexual  and  Non-sexual  Reproduction  in  the  Zygomycetes.  %  — 
Prof.  0.  Brefeld  points  out  that  in  the  Zygomycetes  the  complexity  of 
the  sexual  and  non-sexual  modes  of  reproduction  are,  as  a  general  rule, 

*  Hedwigia,  xl.  Heft  6  (1901)  pp.  343-51  (1  pi.). 

t  Bihang  k.  Svensk.  Vet.-Akad.  Handl.,  xxvi.  pt.  3,  No.  14,  16  pp.  and  1  pi. 
X  Jahresber.    Schles.    Ges.    Vaterl.    Cult.,   Dec.  13th,    1900,    14   pp.      See   Bot. 
Centralbl.,  lxxxviii.  (1901)  p.  289. 


214  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

in  inverse  proportion  to  one  another.  In  the  simplest  form  of  sexual 
reproduction  (Mucor  Mucedo,  Sporodinia  grandis)  there  is  only  one  kind 
of  sporangium.  Then  come  forms  with  two  kinds  of  sporangia,  either 
on  the  same  or  on  two  kinds  of  sporangiophore  (Thamnidiuni),  ordinary- 
sporangia  and  smaller  sporangioles,  the  latter  reverting  to  one-spored 
closed  sporangia  or  conidia.  In  Choanephora  both  kinds  of  sporangia 
occur  on  distinct  sporangiophores ;  in  Chsetocladium,  &c,  sporangioles 
only  are  formed.  The  conidia  can  also  take  up  an  oidium  form  by 
septation,  as  in  Piptocephalis.  A  further  complication  takes  place 
when  the  sporangiophores  are  produced  only  on  stolons. 

Among  the  very  numerous  forms  of  the  Zygomycetes  that  have  been 
investigated,  there  is  at  present  only  one  species  known,  Sporodinia 
grandis,  in  which  the  sexual  sporangiophores  and  the  zygotes  are  pro- 
duced with  the  same  frequency,  or  nearly  so,  as  the  non-sexual  sporangia. 
The  formation  of  one  or  the  other  kind  of  fructification  is  largely  de- 
pendent on  the  supply  of  water ;  and  the  same  was  found  to  be  true 
also  in  regard  to  other  Zygomycetes — Phycomyces,  species  of  Mucor  and 
Chlamydomucor,  Phizopus,  Thamnidium,  Chsetocladium,  Ac. 

The  author  regards  the  higher  non-sexual  families  of  Fungi,  such  as 
the  Basidiomycetes,  as  not  so  much  non-sexual  as  apogamous  forms,  in 
which  the  production  of  zygote  or  other  sexual  organs  has  gradually 
died  out.  This  view  has  been  obscured  by  the  mistaken  theory  that  the 
"  spermatia  "  of  the  LaboulbeniaceaB  and  other  families  are  degenerated 
male  sexual  organs  ;  they  are  simply  a  special  form  of  conidium. 

Cladochytrium  Alismatis.  *  —  A  detailed  study  of  this  fungus  has 
been  made  by  G.  P.  Clinton  on  material  collected  at  Cambridge,  Mass. 
It  has  been  found  in  various  parts  of  Europe  on  the  leaves,  &c,  of 
Alisma  Plantago,  but  this  is  its  first  record  for  America.  The  author 
succeeded  in  germinating  the  fungus  and  reinfecting  young  seedlings  of 
Alisma ;  he  was  thus  able  to  follow  every  stage  in  the  development  of 
the  Cladochytrium,  and  to  determine  the  existence  of  a  temporary 
sporangium.  The  different  stages  are  well  illustrated.  Mr.  Clinton  at 
the  same  time  obtained  Cladochytrium  Menyanthis,  and  germinated  its 
sporangia,  but  the  fungus  would  grow  neither  on  Alisma  nor  on  various 
algae,  and  as  plants  of  Menyanthes  were  not  available  for  infection, 
further  investigation  of  that  species  was  impossible. 

New  Genera  and  Species  of  Laboulbeniaceae.  f  —  Together  with  a 
number  of  new  species,  It.  Thaxter  now  describes  the  following  new 
genera  of  Laboulbeniaceae. 

Eumonoicomyces  g.  n.  (separated  from  Monoicomyces).  Receptacle 
consisting  of  a  basal  and  sub-basal  cell  ;  the  latter  producing  terminally 
a  sterile  appendage,  and  laterally  usually  one  fertile  branch,  the  axis 
of  which  is  coincident  with  that  of  the  receptacle,  from  which  it  is 
not  distinguished,  and  consists  of  a  series  of  superposed  cells,  which 
may  bear  a  sterile  appendage,  an  antherid,  or  an  antherid  and  a  peri- 
thece.  The  antherid  consists  of  a  single  stalk-cell  and  a  single,  often 
obscure,  basal    cell ;    the  body  of  the  antherid  consists  of  a  series  of 

*  Bot.  Gaz.,  xxxiii/(1902)  pp.  49-61. 

t  Proc.  Airier.  Acad.  Arts  and  Sci.,  xxxvii.  (1901)  pp.  21-45.  Cf.  thia  Journal, 
1901,  p.  565. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  215 

numerous  antheridial  cells,  iu  rows  which  extend  obliquely  inward  and 
upward,  emptying  into  a  common  cavity. 

Euhaplomyces  g.  n.  Receptacle  consisting  of  two  cells,  the  upper 
being  a  free  stalked  antherid  and  a  stalked  perithece.  Antherid  conical, 
consisting  of  a  single  stalk-cell,  followed  by  a  basal  cell,  from  which 
is  separated  a  group  of  smaller  cells,  some  of  which  extend  upward 
and  inward  to  form  antheridial  cells;  above  these  follow  three  external 
marginal  cells,  the  lowest  of  which  lies  beside  the  antheridial  cells ; 
the  uppermost  succeeded  by  a  conical  chamber  terminating  in  a  pore, 
and  extending  downwards  along  the  inner  sides  of  the  marginal  cells 
to  form  a  cavity  into  which  the  antheridial  cells  empty.  Perithece  re- 
sembling that  of  Haplomyces,  and  having  two  ascogenous  cells. 

Dioicomyces  g.  n.  Male  individual  consisting  of  four  superposed 
cells,  the  upper  of  which  is  a  simple  antherid  bearing  a  sub-terminal 
discharge-tube.  Receptacle  of  the  female  individual  ending  distally 
in  a  peculiarly  modified  sterile  cell  corresponding  to  the  upper  spore- 
segment  ;  the  sub-basal  cell  producing  a  single  perithece  laterally,  and 
separated  from  the  sterile  terminal  cell  by  a  second  small  cell.  Peri- 
thece tree-stalked,  the  ascogenous  cell  single ;  the  spores  more  or  less 
obliquely  once-septate,  and  of  two  kinds  corresponding  to  the  sexes. 

Acompsomyces  g.  n.  Receptacle  2-celled,  bearing  an  antheridial 
branch  terminally  and  a  single  perithece  laterally.  Antherid  consist- 
ing of  several  superposed  cells,  from  which  single  simple  antherids  are 
borne  directly.  Perithece  borne  on  a  stalk,  the  cavity  of  which  becomes 
continuous  with  that  of  the  ascogenous  cavity. 

Slichomyces  g.  n.  Receptacle  consisting  of  two  cells,  the  upper 
beariug  one  or  more  stalked  peritheces  laterally,  and  an  antheridial 
appendage  terminally.  The  appendage  consisting  of  several  superposed 
cells,  the  lowest  sterile,  or  having  one  or  two  opposite  lateral  peritheces, 
those  above  it  bearing  opposite  lateral  branchlets  distally,  the  series 
ending  in  a  terminal  sterile  branch.  Antherids  simple,  flask-shaped, 
free,  borne  in  small  groups  on  short  branchlets. 

Kainomyces  g.  n.  Receptacle  as  in  Zodiomyces,  broad  and  flattened, 
consisting  of  a  single  basal  cell  and  a  typical  foot,  above  which  the 
successive  cells  become  variously  divided  by  longitudinal  septa  into 
transverse  rows  or  tiers  of  cells  ;  the  distal  portion  more  or  less  definitely 
distinguished,  and  consisting  of  superposed  cells,  the  lowest  of  which 
alone  becomes  longitudinally  divided,  all  producing  laterally  anthe- 
ridial (?)  branches  ;  several  of  the  tiers  immediately  below  this  appen- 
diculate  portion  growing  out  laterally  at  right  angles  to  the  main  axis 
of  the  receptacle  on  one  or  both  sides  to  form  "  perithecial  branches  " 
consisting  of  superposed  cells,  and  terminated  by  solitary  peritheces. 
The  perithece  of  peculiar  form,  with  six  wall-cells  in  each  row  in  addi- 
tion to  the  lip-cells ;  the  base  of  the  trichogyne  persistent  in  the  form 
of  a  peculiarly  modified  unicellular  appendage. 

Contributions  to  the  Biology  of  the  Erysiphaceae.  *— In  this  paper 
F.  W.  Neger  makes  a  second  communication  on  the  Erysiphaceae.  It 
is  largely  devoted  to  a  study  of  the  form  genus  Oidium,  the  conidial 
form  of  the  fungus.  The  author  has  germinated  conidia  gathered 
from  a  great  variety  of  host-plants,  and  takes  special  note  of  the  posi- 

*  Flora,  xc.  (1902)  pp.  221-72. 


216  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

tion  of  the  germinating  tube,  whether  terminal  or  lateral ;  the  length 
of  the  hyphse;  their  iorm,  whether  simple  or  branched;  the  form  of 
the  haustoria  and  the  reaction  to  light  of  the  hyphse.  He  considers 
that  as  these  are  fairly  constant  phenomena,  they  ought  to  have  due 
weight  in  the  determination  of  species.  The  various  forms  of  germina- 
tion are  illustrated  in  the  text.  He  made  mauy  infection  experiments 
with  conidia,  and  the  results  are  given  in  a  carefully  tabulated  form. 
They  serve,  he  holds,  to  establish  the  conclusions  he  had  already  arrived 
at  from  his  observations  on  the  germination  of  the  conidia,  viz.  that  all 
stages  of  the  life-history  must  be  considered  in  the  diagnosis  of  species. 
On  many  plants  that  lie  watched  throughout  the  season  he  found  that 
conidia  only  were  produced,  and  the  question  arose  as  to  the  wintering 
of  the  fungus.  He  is  of  opinion  that  the  ascus  spores  have  a  wider 
range  of  capability  of  infection  than  have  the  conidia  ;  that  the  Oidium 
form  has  become  specialised  to  particular  busts.  The  same  ascus  fruit 
\\  ill  develop  on  various  plants,  but  the  resulting  conidia  will  not  trans- 
fer from  one  host  to  another.  He  contrasts  them  with  similar  infection 
results  in  the  Uredinese.  There  is  also  a  short  discussion  of  the 
haustoria  of  Sphserotheca  Eumuli ;  these  were  found  to  penetrate  only 
the  epidermis  cells  of  the  host. 

"Shot-hole"  Fungi.* — D.  M' Alpine  enumerates  and  describes  the 
so-called  "shot-hole"  Fungi  of  Australia,  which  attack  the  cultivated 
Amygdalese  and  Pomese,  producing  round  holes  in  the  leaves  as  it 
caused  by  shot.  A  callus  of  healing-tissue  is  formed  round  the  edge 
of  the  spot,  and  the  author  sees  no  evidence  that  the  destruction  is 
brought  about  by  the  excretion  of  a  poisonous  substance  by  the  mycele 
of  the  fungus.  There  are  over  20  species  known  in  Australia,  one  of 
the  most  frequent  being  Clasterosporium  Amygdalearum,  the  pyenidial 
stage  of  which  is  known  as  Phyllosticia  prunicola  ;  also  Gnomonia  circum- 
scissa,  belonging  to  the  Pyrenomycetes,  of  which  the  conidial  form  is 
'Ascochyta  chlorospora. 

An  Arctic-Alpine  Ehahdospora.j  —  Tycho  Vestergren  gives  a  list 
of  plants  belonging  to  fifteen  natural  orders  of  Dicotyledons  on  which 
he  has  found  Bliabdospora  cercosperma.  It  grows  also  on  Monocotyledons 
and  Vascular  Cryptogams,  and  is  very  frequently  met  with  in  northern 
Europe  and  in  Greenland.  The  author  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the 
developments  of  the  fungus  and  also  the  results  of  his  experiments  on 
the  germination  of  the  spores.  He  got  easily  a  growth  of  hyphse  and 
the  production  of  secondary  conidia,  but  was  unable  to  reproduce  the 
perithceium.  He  has  included  Septoria  caudata  in  the  species,  and  from 
his  observations  and  researches  he  concludes  that  the  ascomycetous 
form  of  the  fungus  will  be  found  in  Heterospltaeria ;  probably  H.  -  atella 
var.  alpestris. 

Sexuality  of  certain  Yeasts.  % —  A.  Guilliermond,  after  describing 
the  phenomena  of  conjugation  by  isogamy  occurring  in  certain  yeasts 
{Schizofaccharomyces  octoxporus  and  Sch.  pombe),  states  that  these  phe- 
nomena are  always  accompanied  by  nuclear  fusion.     That,  at  least,  is 

*  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  xxvi.  (1901)  pp.  221-32. 

t  Bihaiig  k.  Svensk.  Vet.-Akarl.  Hand!.,  xxvi.  pt.  3,  No.  12,  23  pp.  and  2  pis. 

%  Comptea  Ilendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  1252-4. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  217 

the  rule,  which,  however,  may  be  subject  to  certain  exceptions  due  to 
anomalous  development.  After  referring  to  the  observations  of  Hansen 
on  S.  Ludicigii  and  of  Barker  on  a  conjugating  yeast,*  the  author  re- 
marks on  the  importance  and  interest  of  the  phenomena,  urging  that, 
even  if  confined  to  a  small  group  of  yeasts,  they  are  none  the  less  in- 
structive and  convincing  as  to  the  value  of  the  ascus,  which  must  he 
regarded  as  a  higher  form  of  these  fungi  which  appear  to  be  definitely 
letained  among  the  Ascomycetes.  A  monograph  dealing  with  the  whole 
subject  is  promised  later. 

TJredinese. — Dr.  P.  Magnus  t  describes  a  species  growing  on  Aspidium 
spinulosum,  from  Saxon  Switzerland.  The  uredo  stage  of  the  fungus 
was  that  of  Uredo  Scolopendri,  but  the  subsequent  discovery  of  the  inter- 
cellular teleutospores  caused  him  to  place  it  unhesitatingly  in  the  genus 
Melampsorella  with  the  specific  name  Kriegeriana.  A  closer  examina- 
tion of  the  two  species  of  this  genus  also  growing  on  ferns  M.  Aspidiotus 
and  M.  polypodia  showed  him  that  their  uredospores  had  not  the  cha- 
racteristic germinating  pores  of  Melampsorella  ;  he  therefore  created  a 
new  genus  Eyalospora  for  the  inclusion  of  these  two  forms,  H.  Aspidiotus 
f '  mnd  on  Phegopteris  Dryopteris  and  H.  Polypodii  on  Cystopteris  fragilis. 
He  discusses  the  relationships  between  the  different  closely  allied  genera, 
find  places  Melampsorella  and  Eyalospora  very  near  to  Uredinopsis,  the 
species  of  which  grow  only  on  ferns. 

On  a  dried  specimen  of  Derris  uliginosa,  H.  and  P.  Sydow  J  find  a 
parasitic  fungus  belonging  to  the  Uredinere,  which  they  make  the  type 
of  a  new  genus  Hapalophragmium. 

J.  C.  Arthur,§  Purdue  University,  gives  us  an  account  of  his  method 
of  collecting  Eusts,  so  as  to  gain  in  the  field  a  knowledge  of  related 
forms.  He  keeps  a  careful  record  of  plants  and  localities  where  the 
rusts  are  to  be  found,  and  visits  the  places  marked  at  stated  intervals, 
so  as  to  catch  the  successive  stages  of  the  fungus.  Cultures  are  made 
to  verify  the  field  observations,  and  these  have  a  much  better  prospect 
of  success  when  all  possible  clues  to  identi6cation  have  been  followed. 
A  rust  on  a  species  of  Carex  was  thus  traced  to  an  Mci&iwm  on  Sambucus 
after  two  seasons'  work.  One  of  the  best  methods  is  to  watch  for  the 
earliest  appearance  of  Mcidia  and  then  to  examine  the  ground  in  the 
near  neighbourhood  for  any  rusted  grasses  or  sedges  that  may  have 
caused  the  infection. 

Binucleate  Cells  in  certain  Hymenomycetes.  ||  —  Prof.  Harper  of 
Madison  describes  another  of  his  interesting  studies  on  the  development 
of  the  higher  Fungi.  The  problem  he  set  himself  to  work  out  was 
the  equivalence,  if  any  existed,  of  the  nuclear  fusions  in  the  ascus  and 
basidium.  His  investigations  were  made  on  Hypochnus  subtilis,  one  of 
the  less  highly  organised  Hymenomycetes.  The  vegetative  part  of  the 
plants,  which  permeated  the  tissue  of  rotten  wood,  consisted  of  hypha? 
of  which  the  cells  are  all  binucleate.  These  hyphse  on  reaching  the 
surface  of  the  wood  branch  freely  in  a  shrubby  or  tree-like  manner, 

*  See  this  Journal,  1901,  p.  565. 

+  Ber.  Deutsoh.  Bot.  Ges.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  578-84. 

X  Htdwigia,  xl.  (1901)  Beibl.,  pp.  62-5  (1  fig.). 

§  Bot.  Gaz.,  xxxiii.  (1902)  pp.  62-6.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1-25. 


218  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

and  the  tip  of  each  branch  forms  a  basidium.  The  two  nuclei  of  the 
basidial  cell  increase  in  size  and  fuse  together  when  the  cell  has  readied 
about  one-half  or  two-thirds  of  its  ultimate  size.  The  fused  nucleus 
increases  still  further  with  the  growth  of  the  cell,  and  migrates  to  the 
apex.  There  are  8—12  chromosomes  in  the  nucleus  before  the  ana- 
phases begin.  Two  successive  divisions  follow  and  the  four  result- 
ant nuclei  travel  down  to  the  middle  of  the  cell,  which  elongates, 
and  the  sterigmata  bud  out  at  its  apex.  The  author  observed  occa- 
sionally fibres  extending  from  the  nuclei  to  the  developing  sterigmata, 
but  could  not  determine  their  origin ;  the  nuclei  are  drawn  up  into  the 
sterigmata  and  each  spore  is  uninucleate. 

There  are  no  multinucleate  cells  in  Hypochnus  such  as  have  been 
described  in  other  Basidiomycetes,  but  it  is  a  very  primitive  form  with- 
out any  carpophore,  and  Dr.  Harper  found  in  several  species  of  agarics 
that  while  the  cells  of  the  vegetative  body  were  multinucleate,  the  culls 
of  the  hymenium  and  the  basidia  were  always  binucleate. 

While  the  wide-spread  occurrence  of  the  binucleate  condition  in  the 
reproductive  series  of  cells,  the  Keimbahn,  strengthens  the  view  of  the 
close  relationship  between  the  cells  of  the  Basidiomycetes  and  the  bi- 
nucleated  cells  of  the  Uredineae,  it  forms  a  strong  piece  of  evidence 
against  any  connection  with  the  Ascomycetes.  Binucleate  cells  have 
not  been  found  in  the  latter  group  ;  and  any  resemblance  of  outer  form 
between  the  formation  of  basidiospores  and  the  development  of  conilia 
in  the  ABcomycetes  is  of  little  value  as  evidence  of  relationship.  The 
author  considers  it  highly  probable  that  the  fusing  nuclei  of  the 
basidium  and  of  the  teleutospore  are  of  widely  separated  ancestry. 

Lichens. — Dr.  A.  Zahlbruckner  *  of  Vienna  has  published  a  list  of 
the  Lichens  of  Dalmatia  largely  from  material  collected  by  J.  Bauiu- 
gartner.  He  has  also  made  use  of  all  previous  well-established  re- 
cords. He  notes  the  entire  absence  of  Caliciacese  and  the  poor  repre- 
sentation of  shrubby  and  leafy  forms,  which  is  partly  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  higher  ranges  of  hills  where  these  abound  have  not  yet  been 
tully  explored.  In  all  he  has  as  yet  established  only  209  species,  a 
smaller  number,  he  notes,  than  Steiner  has  recorded  for  the  Greek 
mainland. 

B.  P.  Longinos  Navas  f  gives  a  list  of  species  of  Parmelia  in  Spain. 
The  species  are  divided  into  two  sections  according  to  the  colouring  of 
the  plants.  The  enumeration  does  not  aim  at  completeness,  rather  is- 
it  a  gathering  together  of  records  from  the  scattered  lists  of  previous 
workers.     Six  of  the  recorded  plants  are  new  to  Spain. 

Haptera  of  Lich.en.s4 — B.  Sernauder  classifies  the  haptera  or  organs 
of  attachment  of  the  Fruticose  Lichens  under  six  heads,  viz. — the 
Cladonia  type,  the  Thamnolia  type,  the  Alectoria  type,  the  Cladina  type, 
the  Cetraria  type,  and  the  Physcia  ciliaria  type,  each  of  which  is  de- 
scribed in  detail.  The  haptera  appear  to  become  very  rapidly  attached 
to  any  substance  with  which  they  come  into  contact,  after  which  they 
increase  greatly  both  in  weight  and  thickness. 

*  Oest.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  li.  (1901)  pp.  273-85,  336-50. 
+  Bol.  Soc.  Esp.  Hist.  Nat.,  i.  (1901)  pp.  310-7. 

%  Bot.  Notis.,  1901,  Hefts  1  and  2,  19  pp.      See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxviii.  (1901} 
p.  293. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  219' 

Mycorhiza  in  the  Marchantiaceas.* — M.  Golenkin  has  studied  the 
occurrence  of  Mycorhiza  in  different  members  of  the  Hepaticse,  especially 
in  the  family  of  the  Marckantiacese.  He  finds  the  fungus  in  the  rhizoids, 
and  in  the  red-violet  cells,  but  the  hyphse  do  not  penetrate  the  chloro- 
phyll cells  of  the  thallus.  The  starch  disappears  from  the  cells  in- 
habited by  the  fungus,  but  there  must  be  some  sufficient  compensation 
afforded  by  the  fungus  as  the  Hepatic  does  not  suffer  but  rather  profits 
from  the  symbiosis.  It  has  not  been  possible  to  determine  the  species 
of  fungus  causing  the  Mycorhiza. 

Parasitic  Fungi.  —  A.  Trotter  f  finds,  on  Cotyledon  Umbilicus  the 
lecidium  stage  of  a  fungus  which  he  names  JEcidium  Umbilici  sp.  n. ; 
and  on  the  same  plant  also  the  teleutospore-form  which  he  believes  to  be 
genetically  connected  with  it,  viz.  Puccinia  Umbilici.  The  latter  must 
be  removed  from  the  subgenus  Leptopuccinia  to  Pucciniopsis. 

E.  Heinricher  J  records  the  occurrence  on  Tozzia  alpirui  of  a  para- 
sitic fungus  belonging  to  the  Ustilagineae  and  to  the  genus  Entyloma, 
which  he  regards  as  probably  a  new  species,  and  names  Entyloma  Tozziae. 

E.  Fischer  §  has  identified  JEcidium  elatinum,  which  produces  witch- 
broom  on  the  silver  fir,  with  Melampsora  Caryophyllacearum  DC.  (M. 
Cerastii  Pers.)  on  Stellaria  nemorum  as  its  uredoform. 

In  a  collection  of  Fungi  sent  by  Bornmiiller  from  Turkmehia,  P. 
Magnus  ||  finds,  on  Calligonum  comosum,  a  new  parasitic  fungus  which  he 
names  Leptothyrium  Bornmulleri.  To  what  genus  of  Ascomycetes  it 
belongs  is  at  present  undetermined. 

V.  Peglion  %  states  that  species  of  Botryosporium  are  saprophytic 
rather  than  parasitic  on  wheat,  being  found  only  in  tissues  which  have 
already  been  attacked  by  Tylenchus. 

Fungal  Diseases  of  Plants,  &c.** — Yon  Klebahn  has  discovered  the 
related  forms  of  a  number  of  heteroecious  rusts  of  which  he  gives  a. 
preliminary  list. 

An  anthracnose  of  clover  due  to  a  fungus  Glceosporium  Trifolii  has 
been  detected  by  Dr.  Mehner  near  Freiberg  in  Saxony.  From  25  to 
30  p.c.  of  the  plants  in  the  fields  attacked  were  destroyed.  The  fungus 
seizes  on  both  leaves  and  stem,  and  the  plant  succumbs  very  soon.  The 
disease  has  been  known  in  America  for  some  time,  and  it  is  suppoted 
that  it  has  been  brought  over  to  Europe  with  American  clover  seeds. 

Fritz  Noack  gives  an  account  of  various  diseases  to  which  the  coffee 
plant  is  liable  in  Brazil.  Cercospora  coffeicola  grows  on  the  leaves  and 
reduces  the  vitality  of  the  plant  so  that  the  beans  are  badly  developed. 

The  author  has  found  growing  along  with  Cercospora  a  pyrenomycete 
which  he  names  Mycosphserella  coffese ;  it  is  sporadic  in  its  occurrence 
and  does  not  do  much  damage.  Another  fungus,  also  a  new  species, 
Colletotrichum  coffeanum,  grows  along  with  Cercospora.  Noack  does  not 
consider  that  it  causes  much  harm  to  the  coffee  plants,  it  appears  only 
on  branches  already  weakened  by  some  other  cause. 

The  leaves  of  juniper  in  Smolensk  were  found  to  be  attacked  by  a 

•  Flora,  xc.  (1902)  pp.  209-20.  t  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  ItaL,  1901,  pp.  143-4. 

t  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  362-6  (2  figs.). 
§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  396-8.  ||    Tom.  cit.,  pp.  447-9  (1  pi.). 

^  Zeitschr.  f.  Pflanzenkrank.,  xi.  (1901)  pp.  89-92.    See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxviii 
(1901)  p.  314.        **  Zeitschr.  f.  Pflanzenkrank.,  xi.  (1901)  Hefts  4  and  5  (1  pi.). 


220  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

parasitic  fungus  described  by  Ellis  as  a  Coryneum.  A.  V.  Jaczewski 
bas  named  it  Exosporium  jumperinum.  It  destroys  tbe  needles,  and  iu 
a  year  or  two  tbe  tree  dies.  The  author  found  on  the  juniper  a  number 
of  microscopic  fungi,  Calia  juniperina,  in  close  connection  with  the 
Exosporium,''  and  Eendersonia  notha  which  occurred  on  the  withering 
needles. 

F.  W.  Neger  discusses  the  method  of  preventing  the  spread  of 
disease  caused  by  members  of  the  Erysiphaceae.  He  finds  that  many 
of  the  peritheciu  fall  from  the  leaves  before  they  are  fully  decayed,  and 
that  destruction  by  burning  ought  to  take  place  at  an  earlier  stage  than 
is  commonly  practised.  He  bases  this  opinion  on  a  prolonged  study  of 
the  organs  of  attachment  of  tbe  perithecia. 

A  note  on  Botrytis  cinerea  is  published  by  K.  Mohr-Laubenheim. 
The  fungus  has  proved  destructive  to  vine  twigs,  and  caused  much  loss 
to  the  cultivators. 

A.  P.  Anderson*  has  studied  a  disease  on  Abies  balsamea  which 
induced  canker  growths  and  swellings  on  the  stem,  and  which  he  finds 
-to  be  due  to    a    fungus    Dasyscypha    resinaria,  already  recorded    from 
Wales  and  from  Hungary  but    hitherto    unknown    in    America.     The 
smooth  bark  of  the  tree  becomes  rough  at  the  diseased  spot  and  there 
is  a  continuous  exudation  of  resin.     The  cambium  is  at  first  excited  to 
greater  activity  by  tbe  presence  of    tbe    fungus,  and  a  wider  ring  of 
wood  is  formed.     In  time  it  is  killed,  and  if  the  whole  zone  is.atfected 
the  branch  dies.     The  author  found  also  that  the  wood  of  the  affected 
tree  invariably  contained  pathogenic  resin-canals  in  the  region  of  the 
disease.     Such  canals    occur    only  when    the  wood    bas    been   injured 
mechanically  or  by  the  presence  of  mycelium.     The  fruiting  form  of 
the  fungus  does  not  form  until  the  stem  or  branch  has  been  killed  by 
the  action  of  the  mycelium,  and  then  the  ascomata  are  produced  one 
year  only.     Dasyscypha  resinaria  has  not  hitherto  been  regarded  as  a 
parasite,  but  the  author   has   no  doubt  of   the  identity  of   his  fungus 
with  this  species.     He  was  not  able  to  carry  out  infection  experiments, 
but  he  is  none  the  less  convinced   that    the    canker  is  caused  by  the 
Dasyscypha.     The  spores  gain  access  to  the  tree  through  wounds  caused 
by  insects  or  by  the  breaking  of  branches. 

The  same  author  f  publishes  a  note  on  the  rice  smut  ( Tilletia  horrida) 
of  South  Carolina,  which  he  finds  to  be  identical  with  the  smut  found  in 
Japan.  It  had  been  introduced  to  South  Carolina  along  with  seed-rice 
brought  from  Japan  in  1896. 

F.  Blumeutritt  }  cultivated  on  various  media  an  Aspergillus  (A. 
bronchialis  sp.  n.)  which  had  been  detected  in  a  bronchus  of  a  diabetic 
by  Prof.  H.  Chiari.  The  substrata  used  were  gelatin,  bread,  plum  and 
dung  decoctions,  Molisch's  medium  (H20  500  ;  cane-sugar  15 ;  am- 
monium chloride  3  ;  magnesium  sulphate  0  •  25 ;  potassium  monophos- 
phate 0-25  ;  a  trace  of  iron)  ;  and  5  p.c.  sugar  solution.  On  the  quality 
of  the  nutrient  medium  depended  the  quantity  of  fructification,  of  the 
mycelium,  and  the  colour  of  the  spore  masses.  The  Aspergillus  is 
strongly  aerobic,  its  optimum  temperature  is  32°  and  it  liquefied  gelatin. 
The  mycelium  is  at  first  white  and  afterwards  yellowish.     The  hyphie 

*  Bull.  Tor.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  21-34.  t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  35-6. 

X  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  442-6  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  221 

are  branched  and  septate  ;  they  vary  much  in  thickness  from  2-12  /x. 
The  conidiophores  are  erect,  simple,  rarely  septate,  and  almost  colour- 
less;  the  head  varies  from  12-19  /x  in  diameter,  and  their  length  from 
280-300  fx.  The  conidia  are  round,  smooth,  and  from  3-4*2  /x  in 
diameter:  in  colour  they  vary  from  grey,  through  green  to  brown. 

M.  Bouchard  *  describes  an  affection  of  the  hairs  of  the  moustache 
due  to  a  form  of  Trichosporium  which  he  found  to  be  identical  with  the 
jmrasite  of  chignons,  Trichosporium  Beigeli.  The  hairs  are  covered  with 
nodosities,  and  have  a  silvery  look.  The  parasite  was  successfully  culti- 
vated on  carrots,  and  produced  in  two  days  white,  somewhat  inclining  to 
yellowish,  growths  of  the  fungus. 

Mycology  in  France.-]" — A  lengthy  account  is  given  of  the  excursion 
of  the  members  of  the  Societe  Mycologique  to  the  Jura.  M.  Poirault 
describes  a  new  member  of  the  Chytridiacese,  Woroninopsis  radicicola, 
which  grows  on  the  roots  of  Azolla  filiculoides ;  also  a  new  species 
of  Endophyllum,  parasitic  on  Centranthus  ruber,  which  he  named  E.  Cen- 
tranthi  rubri.  M.  Patouillard  exhibited  Microstroma  album  on  oak  leaves. 
He  finds  that  instead  of  a  monosporous  conidiophore,  there  was  developed 
at  the  tips  a  swelling  bearing  six  conidia.  He  therefore  creates  a  new 
genus  for  the  parasite  which  is  henceforth  to  be  known  as  Hetero- 
stroma  album  Pat.  P.  Dumee  and  E.  Maire  present  a  note  on  Zaghouania 
Phyllyreee,  a  genus  of  Uredineae  found  in  Corsica  on  the  leaves  of 
Phyllyrea,  which  Patouillard  had  placed  in  the  family  Coleosporiacere. 
The  authors  conclude  that  the  genus  ought  to  form  a  distinct  family, 
which  they  name  Zaghouaniacese.  The  teleutospore  germinates  in  situ 
as  does  that  of  Coleosporium  ;  but  there  is  a  probasidium  in  Zaghouania 
though  only  partly  encysted,  and  on  germination  the  protobasidium  does 
not  entirely  leave  the  teleutospore.  M.  L.  Holland  laid  before  the 
Society  a  new  hymenomycete,  Tricholoma  bisontinum  Roll.,  gathered  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Besancon.  M.  Holland  also  described  to  the  Society 
his  methods  of  photographing  fungi.  Doctors  Victor  and  Xavier  Gillot 
publish  an  account  of  cases  of  poisoning  by  species  of  Amanita  and 
Bussula.  M.  Patouillard  describes  some  new  or  little  known  fungi 
from  Algeria  and  Tunis.  The  new  species  are  Gymnosporangium 
gracile  on  Juniperus  Oxycedrus,  Cintractia  algeriensis,  which  destroys  the 
flowers  of  Danthonia  Forskalii,  Cortinarius  Aurasiacus,  Coprinus  dr>jophilusy 
Melanopus  tunetanus,  Mydnum  chlorascens,  a  var.  lachmopoda  of  Helvella 
sulcata,  Phragmonsevia  Lauri  parasitic  on  the  leaves  of  Laurus  nobilis, 
Sphserella  Hertise,  and  a  new  genus  Helostroma  in  which  the  author  has 
placed  Fusisporium  album  of  Desmazieres.  It  is  a  parasite  on  oak  leaves. 
Prof.  Van  Bambeke  contributes  an  account  of  a  monstrous  form  of  Poly- 
porus  sulphureus  which  grew  in  the  gallery  of  a  mine. 

L.  Matruchot  and  C.  Dassonville  describe  a  new  pathological  fungus 
Trichophyton  caninum  which  causes  a  scurf  on  the  skin  of  dogs.  Iu 
cultures  the  fungus  produced  tufts  of  mycelium  with  intercalary  chlamv- 
dospores  and  lateral  spores  on  short  stalks. 

M.  Barbier  contributed  a  list  of  Hymenomycetes  from  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Dijon.     It  is  a  continuation  of  the  list  published  in  the  Bulletin 

*  Comptes  Reudus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  316-8. 
t  Bull.  Soc.  Myc.  de  France,  xviii.  (1902). 


222  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

for  1901.  M.  Barbier  gives  the  date  of  growth,  and  notes  the  species 
that  are  edible.  French  species  of  the  genus  Amanita  have  been  revised 
by  P.  Dumee. 

M.  Menier  and  Dr.  U.  Monnier  have  conducted  a  series  of  experi- 
mental researches  on  volvate  Agarics  (Amanita  and  Volvaria).  They 
find  that  Volvaria  glniocephala  is  innocuous,  that  Amanita  mappa  is 
poisonous  to  a  limited  extent  only,  and  they  confirm  the  deadly  poisonous 
nature  of  A.  muscarius  and  A.phalloides.  The  investigators  studied  the 
physiological  effect  of  the  poisons  on  the  dogs  that  died  from  eating  the 
fungi. 

Fr.  Helier  records  an  instance  of  poisoning  caused  by  eating  Ento- 
loma  lividum.  The  cases  did  not,  however,  prove  fatal.  He  also  gives 
an  account  of  the  fungi  which  grow  on  leather  and  help  to  bring  about 
its  decomposition. 

Fungus  Flora  of  Tyrol.* — Count  von  Sarnthein  gives  a  list  of  the 
larger  fungi  of  the  Tyrol  made  from  specimens  observed  by  himself  in 
September. 

South  American  Fungi. — P.  Hennings  f  gives  a  preliminary  list  of 
fungi  from  Brazil.  The  new  species  are  Puccinia  Ruberi,  growing  on 
the  leaves  of  Panicum  ovalifolium,  Meliola  paraensis,  on  leaves  of  Vitex, 
Claviceps pallida  var.  Orthocladse,  Oordiceps  olivaceo-virescens,  Phyllachora 
Huberi,  Auerswaldia  Guilielmse,  Leptosphseria  saccharicola,  Tryblidiella 
Loranthi,  Septoria  Spigelise,  and  Melasmia  Loranthi.  Many  of  the  species 
grew  in  the  botanical  gardens  at  Para. 

L.  Romell  J  gives  an  account  of  the  fungi  collected  on  the  Regnell 
expedition  to  Brazil  (1892-94),  by  C.  A.  M.  Lindman  and  G.  0.  Malme. 
They  belong  almost  entirely  to  the  more  durable  and  portable  forms  such 
as  Polyporus  and  Hydnum.  The  new  species  are  Lentinus  angustif alius, 
Chsetoporus  melleofulvus,  Hirneola  albida,  Fomes  subfomentarius,  Trametes 
fumosoavellanea,  Phseoporus  luteoumbrinus,  P.  ferrugineus,  Pelloporus 
hamatu8,  Polyporus  roseofuscus  and  Lenzites  distantifolia.  The  author 
lays  special  stress  on  the  size  of  the  pores  in  the  Polyporese  and  on  the 
form  and  dimensions  of  the  spores.  Many  of  the  species  are  illustrated 
by  reproductions  from  photographs. 

Blue  Colour  in  Fungi.§ — G.  Bertrand  has  investigated  the  nature  of 
"the  blue  colour  produced  by  the  exposure  to  the  air  of  certain  species  of 
Boletus,  but  which  rapidly  disappears.  It  is  extracted  by  alcohol  as  a 
yellow  liquid,  from  which  the  author  succeeded  in  crystallising  the 
chromogen,  to  which  he  gives  the  name  boletol.  It  has  the  properties  of 
a  phenol-acid,  and  is  turned  blue  on  exposure  to  the  air  by  the  addition 
of  laccase,  though  only  with  difficulty.  The  presence  of  manganese,  or 
of  a  compound  of  manganese,  appears  to  be  necessary  for  the  production 
of  the  blue  colour. 

On  the  Toxic  Properties  of  some  Copper  Compounds.  || — One  of  the 
most  universal  and  most  valuable  fungicides  is  known  as  Bordeaux  mix- 

*  Oest.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  li.  (1901)  pp.  473-80. 

+  Bol.  Mus.  Para.  Hist.  Nat.,  iii.  (1901)  pp.  231-7. 

%  Bin.  k.  Svensk.  Vet.-Akad.  Handl.,  xxvi.  pt.  iii.  No.  12. 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  1233-6. 

||   Bot.  Gaz.,  xxxiii.  (1902)  pp.  26-48  (7  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  223 

ture,  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate  and  lime  in  water.  Other  copper 
compounds  are  also  found  effective,  and  F.  Clark,  Cornell  University, 
has  made  a  large  series  of  experiments  with  fungus  spores  to  test  their 
effects  on  fungus  development.  He  grew  the  spores  on  a  decoction  of 
sugar-beet,  that  being  found  most  suitable  for  comparative  tests.  Copper 
salts  dissolved  in  pure  water  were  more  toxic  in  their  effect  than  in  any 
other  medium.  The  addition  of  potassium  sulphate  or  chloride  caused 
a  reduction  in  toxic  properties.  An  arnmoniacal  solution  of  copper  car- 
bonate was  more  deadly  in  its  effects  than  copper  sulphate,  but  as  in  the 
open  field  the  ammonia  exaporates  quickly  it  is  found  to  be  less  efficient 
than  Bordeaux  mixture.  The  author  deduced  from  his  experiments,  as 
already  suggested  by  Swingle,  that  the  spores  themselves  have  a  solvent 
action  on  the  copper  and  thus  bring  about  their  own  destruction.  Almost 
all  vegetable  decoctions  have  the  power  of  dissolving  copper.  If  a  too 
concentrated  solution  of  copper  is  used  for  spraying  peach  trees,  the 
leaves  of  which  have  a  delicate  cuticle,  the  epidermal  cells  dissolve 
enough  copper  to  seriously  injure  the  plant.  One  value  of  the  lime 
ingredients  in  the  Bordeaux  mixture  is  the  retarding  action  that  it 
exercises  on  the  solution  of  the  copper  by  the  ammonia,  and  by  the 
nitrites  and  nitrates  of  the  atmosphere ;  it  is  thus  rendered  effective 
as  a  fungicide  over  a  more  prolonged  period  of  time. 

Protophyta. 
Schizopliyceae. 

G-omontiella,  a  new  Genus  of  SchizophyceaB.*  —  In  bogs  in  Kou- 
mania  E.  G.  Teodoresco  finds  a  new  form,  in  which  the  edges  of  the 
elongated  frond  are  brought  nearly  close  together,  forming  a  nearly 
closed  cylinder,  with  only  a  narrow  longitudinal  fissure.  The  following 
is  the  diagnosis  of  the  new  genus  Gomontiella  : — Trichomata  libera, 
simplicia,  longitudinaliter  in  canaliculum  cylindricum  v.  modice  planum 
convoluta  ;  vaginas  firmse,  pertenues  :  cellulae  omnes  conformes  a  vertice 
(in  sectione  transversa)  visae  profunde  semilunataB  v.  in  annulum  con- 
tortae,  apices  versus  sensim  paululuinque  attenuatae  ;  cellula  apicalis 
calyptram  non  praebens.  Propagatio  divisione  transversali  filamen- 
torum. 

Schizomycetes. 

Bacterial  Disease  of  the  Potato.  |  —  G.  Delacroix  now  claims  the 
microbe  which  causes  the  wide-spread  diseise  of  the  potato  already 
described,  as  a  new  species,  and  names  it  Bacillus  solanicola.  It  also 
attacks  the  tomato,  but  not  so  virulently. 

Beggiatoa.  J  —  G.  Hinze  has  investigated  the  structure  of  the  re- 
markably large  cells  (the  largest  among  Schizomycetes)  of  Beggiatoa 
mirabilis.  He  finds  the  protoplasmic  contents  to  consist  of  a  parietal 
layer,  and  of  thick  bands  which  separate  the  vacuoles  from  one  another. 
There  is  no  sharply  differentiated  central  body  or  nucleus.  The 
strongly  refringent  granules  of  sulphur  occur  both  in  the  parietal  layer 

*  Verhaudl.  k.  k.  Zool.-bot.  Ges.  Wien,  li.  (1901)  pp.  757-60  (1  pi.). 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  1030-2.     Cf.  this  Journal,  1901,  p.  689. 

X  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  369-74  (1  pi.). 


224  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

and  in  tho  protoplasmic  bands.  The  cell-wall  is  composed  of  two 
layers  differing  from  one  another  in  their  property  of  swelling.  The 
only  mode  of  multiplication  is  by  intercalary  division. 

Decomposition  of  Nitrates  and  Nitrites  by  Bacteria.*— A.  Maassen 
found  that  potassium  nitrate  in  0'5  p.c.  solutions  containing  5  p.c, 
pepton  was  reduced  to  nitrite  by  85  of  the  109  varieties  of  microbes 
examined  ;  50  destroyed  nitrites  and  4  liberated  free  nitrogen.  Many 
bacteria  which  reduced  nitrites  without  liberation  of  oxygen,  had  little 
or  no  effect  on  nitrates.  The  presence  of  carbohydrates  is  favourable 
to  denitriiication,  whilst,  in  absence  of  organic  nitrogen,  nitrates  and 
nitrites  are  attacked  by  microbes  which  have  no  effect  when  proteids  are 
present.  The  so-called  denitrifying  organisms  destroy  nitrates  inde- 
pendently of  the  nature  of  the  nutritive  solutions,  whilst  others  act 
only  in  presence  of  certain  carbon  compounds.  The  action  of  both 
classes  of  microbes  is  retarded  by  the  presence  of  highly  oxygenated 
compounds,  such  as  chlorates,  without  injury  to  their  growth.  Some 
bacteria,  such  as  Bacterium  prsepollens,  act  on  nitrates  only  in  symbiosis 
with  other  varieties,  liberating  nitrogen,  and  producing  potassium  car- 
bonate. The  co-operating  bacteria  in  the  case  of  B.  prsepollens  are 
exclusively  those  which  reduce  nitrates  to. nitrites. 

Chlamydospores  of  Bacteria.  |  —  Prof.  A.  Meyer  expresses  the 
opinion  that  many  species  of  the  genus  Bacillus  are  capable  of  forming 
chlamydospores.  In  old  cultures  of  Bacillus  coheereus,  ellenbachensis, 
and  ruminatus  can  be  found  forms  which  are  extremely  like  the  chlamydo- 
spores of  fungi.  Such  forms  are  cells  rich  in  plasma,  often  vacuolated, 
and  always  invested  in  a  thick  membrane,  and  stain  well  with  fucksin, 
or  with  iodopotassic  iodide.  In  connection  with  this  question,  it  is  men- 
tioned that  the  cell-membranes  of  some  bacteria  stain  blue  with  iodine : 
thus  Bacterium  pasteurianum  and  Mtzingianum  Hansen  both  do  in 
mass,  as  Hansen  showed,  while  the  author  finds  that  it  is  the  internal 
lamina  of  the  membrane  which  becomes  blue  when  the  cell  is  treated 
with  iodopotassic  iodide,  which  renders  it  probable  that  the  bacterial 
mucus  is  formed  by  the  swelling  up  of  the  outer  lamina  of  the  mem- 
brane. 

Effect  of  the  Human  Gastric  Juice  on  Cholera  Vibrios.  J  —  Dr. 
Schultz-Schultzenstein  obtained  the  following  results.  _  When  the  cholera 
vibrio  is  suspended  in  pure  water  it  is  killed  in  6  minutes  by  the  addi- 
tion of  0  •  05  p.c.  of  acid.  Pepsin  plus  a  trace  of  acid  acts  inhibitively  on 
the  vibrios  and  causes  them  to  become  granular.  The  association^  of 
pepsin  and  hydrochloric  acid  is  fatal  to  the  vibrios  when  the  proportion 
of  acid  reaches  0-019  p.c.  600  c  cm.  of  water  removed,  after  a  stay  of 
12-15  minutes,  from  the  stomach,  was  found  in  75  p.c.  ( f  the  cases  to 
have  acquired  an  acidity  of  0-03  p.c,  and  such  water  was  able  to  kill 
cholera  vibrios  in  15  minutes.  In  25  p.c.  of  the  cases  the  quantity  of 
the  acid  was  less,  and  when  it  did  not  amount  to  more  than  0*0142  p.c. 
the  vibrios  were  not  killed  in  1£  hours. 

In  fluids  containing  albumen  or  pepton,  or  both,  a  much  greater 

•  Arb.  k.  Ges.-A.,  xviii.  (1901)  pp.  21-77.  See  Journ.  Chem.  Soc,  Abst.  ii.,  lxxxii. 
(1902)  p  39.  t  Ber.  Deutscli.  Bot.  Ges.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  423-31  (1  pi.). 

X  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  785-90. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.   ETC.  225 

quantity  of  acid  (0*  097-0*  217  p.c.)  is  necessary  than  in  pure  water  and 
an  action  of  1  hour's  duration. 

Intracellular  Constituents  of  the  Typhoid  Bacillus.* — Dr.  A.  Mac- 
fadyen  and  S.  Eowland  describe  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of 
studying  the  properties  of  intracellular  plasma.  In  the  present  com- 
munication they  describe  certain  methods  for  obtaining  the  intracellular 
substance  of  the  typhoid  bacillus.  One  of  these  was  to  triturate  the 
organisms  with  sand,  care  being  taken  to  keep  the  cylinder  cool. 
Animals  treated  with  the  juice  thus  obtained  developed  the  Widal  re- 
action very  promptly  and  also  became  immunised,  the  protection  lasting 
for  about  4  weeks.  Apparently  there  is  no  close  connection  between  the 
agglutinins  and  the  bacteriolysins,  for  an  animal  might  become  protected 
without  giving  evidence  of  the  Widal  reaction  and  might  give  a  strong 
reaction  though  having  lost  its  immunity. 

Another  method  was  to  triturate  at  the  temperature  of  liquid  air,  the 
brittleness  of  the  cells  at  this  low  temperature  permitting  disintegration 
without  admixture  of  sand  and  thus  affording  a  yield  of  chemically  un- 
altered cell-plasma. 

In  the  course  of  this  study  it  was  found  that  B.  typhosus  produces  a 
hemolysin  in  various  culture  media,  and  that  if  it  produce  a  soluble  toxin 
it  is  of  a  very  mild  character  or  the  culture  media  are  unsuitable  for  its 
proper  development.  The  principal  object  of  the  present  preliminary 
communication  is  intended  to  emphasise  the  importance  of  attacking  the 
question  of  immunity  from  an  intracellular  standpoint,  both  as  regards 
the  organism  and  the  soil  on  which  it  grows. 

Polymorphism  of  Bacillus  radicicola.t — Dr.  E.  Paratore  remarks 
fhat  the  root-tubercles  of  the  Leguminosae  are  altered  rootlets,  the 
change  being  due  to  the  pathogenic  action  of  bacteria.  These  bacteria 
after  an  active  life  are  metamorphosed  into  bacteroids.  The  stages  of 
this  change  were  observed  in  the  tubercles  of  Vicia  Faba  during  the 
period  of  fructification.  Sections  of  these  tubercles  showed,  besides 
normal  bacteria,  Y-shaped,  coralloid  and  dendritic  bacteroids.  The 
bacilli  become  modified  first  by  increasing  in  size ;  one  extremity  en- 
larges and  divides  dichotomously,  producing  a  Y-form.  By  repetition  of 
the  process  the  dendritic  appearances  arise.  The  internal  structure  of 
the  bacillus  also  undergoes  a  change.  The  protoplasm  becomes  granular 
and  finally  disintegrated,  and  in  this  last  condition  is  absorbed  partly  by 
the  plant  and  partly  by  the  still  living  bacteria. 

Avian  Diphtheria.  J — C.  Guerin  communicates  the  results  of  an  ex- 
perimental study  on  the  pathogenesis,  vaccination,  and  serotherapy  of 
avian  diphtheria.  The  characters  of  the  microbe  worked  with  were  as 
follows  : — A  coccobacillus  exhibiting  oscillatory  movements,  not  staining 
by  Gram's  method,  not  liquefying  gelatin,  not  coagulating  or  altering 
the  reaction  of  milk,  not  growing  on  naturally  acid  potato,  not  forming 
indol,  a  potential  aerobe  and  non-aerobe,  and  exhaling  a  characteristic 
odour  especially  from  old  cultures.  The  microbe  cannot  be  included  in 
the  Pasteurella  group  of  Lignieres  since  it  is  motile,  nor  in  that  of  the 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  I*  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  753-9. 
f  Malpighia,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  175-7  (1  fig.). 
X  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  941-52. 

April  16th,  1902  Q 


1^ 


1 


226  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

Salmonella  (hog-cholera  type),  as  it  does  not  grow  on  potato.  The 
best  medium  was  found  to  be  fresh  peptonised  bouillon  and  horse-serum 
in  the  proportion  of  8  of  bouillon  to  1  of  serum.  The  results  of  the 
investigation  were  as  follows.  The  pigeon,  of  all  the  domestic  fowls,  is 
the  most  sensitive  to  avian  diphtheria.  Experimental  transmission  of 
the  disease  is  easily  effected  in  the  pigeon,  both  by  inoculation,  by  feed- 
ing with  infected  food,  and  by  the  dejecta  of  sick  birds.  An  active  im- 
munity may  be  imparted  by  means  of  attenuated  virus  injected  into  the 
peritoneal  sac,  but  not  by  subcutaneous  inoculation.  From  horses  a 
powerful  preventive  anti-microbic  serum  may  be  obtained,  and  this  will 
impart  to  sensitive  animals  an  active  immunity  by  means  of  serum 
vaccination. 

Acid-resisting  Bacilli  in  Gangrene.* — Folli  found  in  3  out  of  6  cases 
of  gangrene,  acid-resisting  bacilli.  Such  pseudo-tuberculous  bacteria 
may  be  differentiated  from  true  tubercle  bacilli  by  means  of  tartaric 
acid  (1  in  20),  which  decolorises  the  former  in  5  minutes  while  the  real 
tubercle  bacilli  hold  out  for  20.  The  pseudo-bacilli  are  longer,  thinner, 
less  granular,  more  pointed,  and  more  often  in  clumps  or  chains.  The 
author  suggests  that  some  of  the  cases  of  cured  phthisis  were  possibly 
due  to  these  pseudo-tubercle  bacilli. 

Pseudo-diphtheria  Bacilli.f — Ch.  Lesieur  discusses  at  some  length 
the  numerous  points  in  connection  with  differentiating  the  Klebs-Loefner 
bacillus  from  the  pseudo-diphtheria  bacilli.  The  important  practical 
conclusions  are  that  the  Ernst-Neisser  stain  is  very  valuable,  and  that 
the  pseudo-diphtheria  bacilli  are  comparatively  rare.  In  the  doubtful 
cases  no  definite  diagnosis  can  be  arrived  at  without  a  long,  tedious 
examination  and  experiments  on  animals.  Hence  it  is  advisable  to 
assume  that  the  bacilli  are  diphtheritic  if  they  be  morphologically 
identical  with  any  of  the  three  accepted  varieties. 

Use  of  Tyrogen  in  Cheese-making.  J  —  Dr.  E.  von  Freudenreich 
records  some  experiments  made  with  tyrogen  (Bacillus  nobilis  Adametz). 
The  cheeses  made  with  tyrogen  turned  out  very  well  both  with  regard  to 
flavour  and  taste,  and  compared  very  favourably  with  those  made  with 
natural  rennet,  though  occasionally  they  were  a  little  bitter. 

Formation  of  Bacteroids  in  Artificial  Nutrient  Media.  §  —  A. 
Stutzer  records  the  results  of  cultivating  the  bacteroids  of  certain 
LeguminosaB  in  aqueous  extracts  of  the  seeds  of  this  particular  species, 
especially  with  reference  to  the  concentration  of  the  nutritive  fluid  and 
to  the  presence  of  certain  mineral  substances,  notably  phosphate  of 
potassium.  For  the  details,  which  are  too  numerous  for  collation,  the 
original  should  be  consulted. 

Capsule  and  Flagella  of  B.  anthracis.  ||  —  Dr.  Hinterberger  de- 
scribes the  capsule  and  flagella  of  the  anthrax  bacillus,  which,  he  states, 
can  be  demonstrated  by  applying  Van  Ermengen's  method  to  the  stain- 
ing of  film  preparations  from  agar  cultivations,  which  must  be  at  least 
24  hours  old  if  incubated  at  37°  C,  or  48  hours  if  grown  at  the  room 

*  Riforma  Med.,  Aug.  27,  1901.     See  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  1901,  Epit.  462. 
+  Journ.  Phys.  et  Path.  Ge'n.,  iii.  (1901)  pp.  961-76,  1000-15. 
+  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2"  Abt.,  vii.  (1901)  pp.  857-71.      §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  897-912. 
||  Op.  cit.,  1"  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  417-24  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  227 

temperature.  These  structures,  he  states,  cannot  be  seen  in  young  culti- 
vations. In  support  of  the  existence  of  flagella  he  gives  some  not 
very  convincing  photomicrographs. 

After  carefully  describing  the  form  and  shape  of  the  flagella  and  the 
"thread-network"  occasionally  formed  by  them,  Dr.  Hinterberger  per- 
tinently asks  whether  the  structures  which  he  has  described  are  really 
portions  of  the  bacilli  in  question,  or  whether  they  are  only  artificial 
products  due  to  faults  in  technique,  or  to  the  presence  in  his  films  of 
portions  of  the  nutrient  medium.  He  replies  to  these  questions  in  the 
negative,  but  admits  that  his  work  is  not  sufficiently  complete  for  him 
to  be  absolutely  certain. 

Formation  of  Agglutins.  *  — Prof.  Neisser  and  Dr.  Lubowski  care- 
fully investigated  certain  points  in  connection  with  the  formation  of 
agglutinating  substances  present  in  the  blood  of  animals,  such  as  whether 
the  injection  of  agglutinated  cultures  of  the  B.  typhosus  is  followed  by 
the  formation  of  agglutins,  and  also  whether  the  injection  of  similar 
cultures  tends  to  raise  the  agglutinative  power  previously  possessed  by 
the  serum  of  a  given  animal.  Their  experiments  lead  them  to  return  a 
negative  answer  to  these  questions.  If,  however,  non-agglutinated  culti- 
vations of  the  B.  typhosus  were  employed,  as  was  done  in  their  control 
experiments,  the  injections  were  followed  by  a  marked  rise  in  the  agglu- 
tination value  of  the  serum  in  each  group  of  experiments. 

Preparation  of  Spores  for  Testing  Methods  of  Disinfection,  &c.f — 
Dr.  E.  Weil  comments  upon  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  strains  of 
anthrax  bacilli  which  shall  form  spores  which  are  equally  resistant  to 
moist  heat,  to  act  as  test  objects  in  determining  the  relative  values  of  dis- 
infection apparatus  or  disinfection  methods.  The  most  suitable  spores 
for  the  purpose  are  such  as  will  resist  exposure  to  streaming  steam  at 
100°  C.  for  about  ten  minutes ;  but  unfortunately,  when  cultivated 
under  laboratory  conditions  the  anthrax  bacillus  rapidly  becomes  attenu- 
ated in  so  far  as  the  resistance  of  its  spores  to  moist  heat  is  concerned, 
though  it  may  still  retain  a  high  degree  of  virulence. 

After  trying  various  methods,  the  author  discarded  the  use  of  an- 
thrax spores  in  favour  of  those  of  the  B.  mesentericus  ruber.  These 
spores  possess  much  higher  resistance,  and  it  was  therefore  necessary  to 
devise  some  means  of  permanently  lessening  this  resistance.  Chemical 
antiseptics  being  inadmissible,  and  the  exposure  to  light  unreliable, 
Dr.  Weil  employed  a  water-bath  regulated  at  100°  C,  and  after  a  series 
of  experiments,  found  that  after  exposing  suspensions  of  the  spores  of 
different  strains  of  the  B.  mesentericus  ruber  to  the  action  of  streaming 
steam  for  from  55  to  65  minutes,  he  could  obtain  spores  which,  when 
dried  on  tbreads  by  a  few  hours'  stay  in  a  sulphuric  acid  desiccator  and 
tested  in  Professor  Dunbar's  steam  oven,  were  only  .capable  of  resisting 
the  action  of  streaming  steam  for  a  period  of  about  10  minutes. 

He  states  further  that  this  diminished  spore-resistance  is  a  character- 
istic that  is  transmitted  from  the  parent  spores  to  those  formed  in  the 
daughter  cultures,  thus  showing  that  Darwinian  principles  hold  good 
even  in  the  bacteriological  world. 

■  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)lpp.  483-91. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  500-4,  526-36  (1  fig.)- 

Q   2 


228  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Bio-chemical  Antagonisms.* — Emmerich  and  Loew,  after  referring 
to  the  selective  action  exercised  hy  some  fungi  for  optically  active  com- 
ponents (some  preferring  the  dextro-,  others  the  laevo-)  of  an  optically 
inactive  food-substance,  suggest  as  a  new  theory  of  immunity,  agglutina- 
tion and  hemolysis,  that  anti-bodies  formed  in  the  blood-serum  of 
animals  are  simply  the  optically  active  opposites  of  the  bodies  that 
stimulated  their  production,  and  by  combination  with  them  form  racemic 
compounds  which  are  inert  physiologically  as  well  as  optically. 

Interpretation  of  Agglutination  Reaction  Results,  f  —  The  many 
and  conflicting  opinions  held  by  different  observers  with  regard  to 
the  meaning  and  value  of  agglutination  reactions,  led  Dr.  Goldberg  to 
attempt  to  determine  the  time  at  which  the  reaction  first  became  appar- 
ent in  severe  infections,  and  also  to  estimate,  from  the  reaction,  the 
degree  of  immunity  artificially  conferred  upon  an  animal,  chiefly  with 
reference  to  infections  caused  by  the  B.  pyocyaneus  and  the  B.  typhosus. 
In  performing  the  reactions  he  employed  24-hour-old  broth  cultiva- 
tions of  these  organisms,  filtered  through  Swedish  filter-paper,  and 
blood  itself  diluted  with  normal  saline  solution,  and  examined  for 
half  an  hour  in  hanging-drop  preparation.  As  the  result  of  his  experi- 
ments Dr.  Goldberg  agrees  with  Chantemesse  that  the  toxins  formed 
by  the  bacteria  are  the  responsible  agents  in  provoking  the  formation  of 
agglutinins,  and  then  proceeds  to  formulate  the  following  conclusions  : — 

In  fatal  infections  the  agglutinative  value  remains  unaltered.  Non- 
fatal medium-sized  doses  usually,  but  not  invariably,  cause  an  increase 
in  the  agglutinative  value  of  the  blood.  This  agglutinative  value  under- 
goes a  progressive  increase,  reaches  a  maximum,  and  then  gradually 
subsides  to  normal. 

The  intensity  of  the  reaction  forms  no  criterion  of  the  degree  of 
immunity  possessed  by  the  animal  from  which  the  blood  was  obtained, 
although  the  increase  of  agglutinative  value  is  an  early  indication  of 
successful  self-protection  on  the  part  of  the  infected  animal. 

Agglutination  of  Vibrios. :f —  Dr.  Kohlbrugge  criticises  the  hypo- 
thesis of  Emmerich  and  Loew  (whose  experiments  he  had  unsuccessfully 
attempted  to  repeat),  who  assert  that  the  deposit  appearing  in  old 
bouillon  cultivations  of  the  B.  pyocyaneus  is  a  true  agglutination  due  to 
the  presence  in  the  medium  of  enzymes  elaborated,  by  the  organism 
itself,  and  contends  that  agglutination  should  not  be  inferred  simply 
from  the  naked-eye  appearances,  but  the  existence  of  the  phenomenon 
should  be  demonstrated  by  microscopical  examination  of  hanging-drop 
specimens. 

He  then  details  his  experiments  with  toxins  obtained  from  two 
pathogenic  water  vibrios,  iu  which  broth  cultivations  were  first  prepared 
from  the  various  organisms ;  incubated  for  about  48  hours  at  37°  C. ; 
sterilised  by  heat  (70°  C.  and  100°  C.  to  eliminate  the  possible  action 
of  enzymes),  or  by  first  heating  and  then  filtering  through  a  porcelain 
bougie  or  centrifugalising ;  and  then  used  as  media  in  which  to  culti- 
vate several  different  strains  of  cholera  vibrios,  including  both  virulent 
aud  non-pathogenic  varieties.     The  resulting  growth  was  found  in  every 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  I"  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  552-5. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  605-17.  J  Tom.  cit,  pp.  639-96. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  229 

case  to  consist  of  agglutinated  masses  and  of  shining  motionless  bodies, 
which  when  transferred  to  fresh  media  initiated  vigorous  growth  of 
typical  vibrios.  On  the  other  hand,  the  toxin  of  one  water  vibrio  was 
incapable  of  agglutinating  cultures  of  the  other. 

Gram-staining  Bacteria  in  the  Intestines  of  Infants.* — Dr.  Calm, 
following  on  the  lines  of  Tissier,  isolated  ix  number  of  organisms  from 
the  evacuations  of  breast-fed  and  hand-fed  (cow's  milk)  infants,  and 
studied  such  as  were  not  decolorised  when  stained  by  Gram's  method. 
The  B.  anaerobicus  was  not  met  with  in  the  course  of  these  experiments, 
but  the  acidophilus  was  invariably  present  (post-mortem)  in  the  organs 
of  infants  which  were  the  subjects  of  intestinal  catarrh,  &c.  An  ex- 
tremely sketchy  description  of  some  of  the  cultural  characteristics  of 
B.  bifidus,  acidophilus,  and  aerobius  ramificaius  is  included  in  the  com- 
munication. 

Enumeration  of  Water  Bacteria.|  —  As  the  result  of  a  series  of 
experiments  to  confirm  or  disprove  the  statement  made  by  Abba  at  the 
Congress  on  Hygiene  at  Como,  Walbaum  lays  down  the  following  data. 

In  bacteriological  examinations  of  water  for  the  purpose  of  deter- 
mining the  number  of  organisms  present,  the  examination  should  be 
carried  out  by  means  of  plate  cultivations  on  nutrient  agar,  and  only  in 
special  cases  should  gelatin  be  resorted  to,  e.g.  only  when  it  is  necessary 
to  identify  the  organisms.  The  plates  should  be  kept  at  a  constant 
temperature  of  20°  C,  and  the  result  expressed  as  the  number  of 
bacteria  per  cubic  centimetre  after  14  days'  incubation. 

The  reasons  which  led  him  to  formulate  these  conclusions  were  that 
in  the  first  place  gelatin  liquefies  so  rapidly  as  to  be  useless  after  a  few 
days'  incubation,  while  parallel  experiments  with  agar  plates  proved 
that  it  possessed  no  advantage  over  the  agar  in  point  of  number  of 
colonies  developing  after  incubation.  Secondly,  that  only  in  a  few 
cases  were  any  colonies  visible  after  24  hours'  incubation  ;  usually  from 
the  second  to  the  third  day's  incubation  the  number  of  colonies  re- 
mained stationary,  but  showed  a  definite  increase  from  the  fourth  up  to 
about  the  eighth  day,  after  which  no  alteration  in  numbers  took  place. 
The  daily  increase  in  the  number  of  colonies  was  so  irregular  that  it 
was  impossible  to  utilise  or  even  accept  Abba's  statement  that  "  at  the 
end  of  three  days  30  p.c.  of  the  bacteria  present  in  a  sample  of  water 
have  developed  colonies." 

Experiments  with  Deycke's  Media.:}:— Dr.  Bruno  Bosse  grew  fresh 
virulent  strains  of  the  Vibrio  cholerse,  V.  Kochi,  Bacillus  diphtherise, 
B.  typhi  abdominalis,  B.  coli  communis,  B.  pyocyaneus,  streptococci,  staphy- 
lococci, &c,  upon  the  various  Deycke's  media  and  compared  his  results 
with  those  obtained  from  control  plate  and  streak  cultivations  upon 
ordinary  agar  and  gelatin.  He  found  that  nutrient  medium  0  retarded 
the  growth  of  all  except  the  two  vibrios  ;  whilst  the  colour  production 
of  the  B.  pyocyaneus  was  markedly  affected. 

Nutrient  medium  I.  favoured  the  growth  of  the  colon,  typhoid,  and 
diphtheria  bacilli,  also  the  cholera  vibrio. 

Nutrient  medium  Ila  forms  a  good  selective  medium  for  the  Klebs- 

•  CeDtralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Alt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  721-6. 

t  Tom.  cit,  pp.  790-8.  %  Tom.  cit,  pp.  798-804. 


230      SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

Loftier  bacillus,  and  at  the  same  time  retards  the  growth  of  associated 
bacteria.  The  medium  being  transparent  permits  the  early  recognition 
of  the  diphtheria  colonies. 

Nutrient  medium  III.  inhibited  the  growth  of  all  tho  organisms 
experimented  with. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  leading  principle  of  Deycke's  medium 
0  is  the  conversion  of  the  albumen  in  the  meat,  used  in  preparing 
ordinary  gelatin  and  agar,  into  alkali-albumen  by  means  of  caustic 
soda.  In  nutrient  medium  L,  further  conversion  into  peptone  is  secured 
by  the  action  of  pepsin.  In  nutrient  media  Ila,  lib,  and  lie,  trypsin 
also  is  employed  and  albumoses  thereby  formed  as  the  result  of  artificial 
digestion  for  periods  of  6,  24,  or  48  hours  (i.e.  Ila,  116,  and  lie  re- 
spectively). In  nutrient  medium  III.  the  dissolved  alkali-albumen  is 
treated  with  pancreatin. 

Bibliography. 

Bdist,   J.    B. — Recent  Advances  in   our  knowledge  of  some  Pathogenic  Micro- 
organisms. Proc.  Scot.  Micr.  Soc,  III.  (1900-1)  pp.  57-72. 

Lafar,  F. — Technical  Mycology. 

Fischer,  Jena,  1901,  first  third  of  vol.  2,  with  68  figs. 

Miquel,  P.,  et  Cam  bier,   R. — Traite  de  Bacteriologie  pure  et  appliquee  a  la 

Medecine  et  a  l'Hygiene.  C.  Naud,  Paris,  1901,  1059  pp.  and  224  figs. 

Schmidt,  J.  u.  F.— Die  Bacterien.  Fischer,  Jena,  1902,410  pp.  and  205  figs. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


231 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.  Instruments,  Accessories,  &c* 
CD  Stands. 

Ross'  New  Microscope. — Messrs.  Ross  have  brought  out  a  new  Micro- 
scope which  follows  their  "  Standard  "  model  and  is  specially  intended 
for  the  use  of  medical  students  (figs.  36  and  37). 

Its  special  feature  is  a  new  patent  fine  adjustment  which,  instead  of 


Fig.  36 


Fig.  37. 


the  triangle  bar,  consists  of  a  parallel  slide  fitting,  firmly  fixed  to  the 
stage. 

The  moving  part  is  cast  on  the  limb  carrying  the  optical  tube,  and 
held  in  its  place  by  a  sleeve-piece  bolted  securely  at  the  back.  A  spiral 
spring,  which  is  placed  forward  to  compensate  for  the  overhanging  weight 
of  the  body,  raises  the  limb,  while  the  micrometer  screw,  with  its  point 
working  on  a  hardened  steel  surface,  depresses  it. 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives;  (3)  Illu- 
minating and  otber  Apparatus;  (4)  Photomicrography;  (5)  Microscopical  Optics 
and  Manipulation;  (6)  Miscellaneous. 


232 


SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Besides  the  ordinary  accessories,  the  instrument  can  be  supplied 
with  a  dust-proof  nose-piece,  and  a  swing-out  substage  for  a  condenser 
(figs.  38  and  39). 


Fig.  39. 


Fig.  38. 


Ashe's  Two-speed  Fine  Adjustments.! — A.  Ashe's  designs  are  in- 
tended to  produce  an  adjustment  which  should  combine  the  slowest  and 
smoothest  motion  possible  with  the  capability  of  giving  a  far  more  rapid 
motion  when  needed.     Fig.  40  shows  his  first  arrangement.     It  consisted 


Fig.  40. 


of  a  hollow  screw  of  comparatively  coarse  pitch  G,  to  which  the  lower 
milled  head    B  was  attached.     This  worked  in  the  cap  C  on  the  top 

*  Journ.  Quek.  Micr.  Club,  viii.  (1901)  pp.  131-G  (3  figs.).] 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


233 


of  tbe  pillar,  and  formed  the  rapid  movement.  The  slow  movement  was 
produced  by  a  differential  screw  D  passing  through  the  first  and  in- 
serted into  the  top  of  the  rod  E  actuating  the  lever.  The  rod  was 
prevented  from  rotating  by  a  slot  and  pin  F.  The  differential  screw 
was  rotated  by  the  upper  milled  head  A.  When  the  upper  head  wa& 
rotated  and  the  lower  untouched,  the  slow  motion  obtained  was  derived 
from  the  action  of  the  differential  screw.  If  both  were  turned  together, 
the  resulting  movement  would  be  derived  from  the  lower  head  only. 
This  form  of  fine  adjustment  was  designed  for  lever  instruments  in 
which  efficiency  is  the  chief  consideration.  Its  principal  drawback  is 
that  it  involves  the  use  of  a  differential  screw,  which  would  require  to 
be  very  accurately  made. 

For  many  instruments  with  direct-acting  fine  adjustments,  especially 


Fig.  41. 


instruments  of  the  Continental  type,  a  more  simple  plan  is  recommended. 
In  many  Microscopes  of  this  class  the  limb  of  the  instrument  is  attached 
to  a  sleeve,  C  in  fig.  41,  sliding  up  and  down  outside  a  prismatic  bar 
F,  which  is  a  fixed  part  of  the  stand.  A  micrometer  screw  D,  secured 
at  its  base  to  the  top  of  the  upright  bar,  is  carried  upwards  through  an 
aperture  in  the  cap,  and  the  milled  head  A  is  really  a  loose  nut  work- 
ing upon  this  screw,  whilst  the  cap,  limb,  tube,  &c.  are  forced  up  into 
contact  with  the  milled  head  by  the  action  of  a  spring  G.  This  very 
simple  adjustment  may,  by  a  single  addition,  be  converted  into  one 
having  two  rates  of  speed,  it  only  being  necessary  to  insert  under  the 
ordinary  head  A,  a  second  head  B  attached  to  the  hollow  screw  Er 
working  into  the  cap.  The  latter  screw  is  made  hollow,  so  that  it  may 
slide  freely  over  the  first  screw  D.  The  relative  action  of  the  two 
milled  heads  in  this  case  is  as  follows : — the  upper  head  when  turned  to 


234 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES. 


the  right  operates  downwards,  lowering  the  focus  by  depressing  the 
sleeve  C  carrying  the  body  of  the  Microscope,  and  compressing  the 
spring  G.  The  lower  head  B  has,  in  this  instance,  simply  the  action 
of  a  washer  placed  between  A  and  C.  A  left-handed  rotation  of  A,  like 
the  loosening  of  a  nut,  permits  the  expansion  of  the  spring  to  force  up- 
wards both  C  and  B,  until  stopped  by  A.  When,  on  the  contrary,  B  is 
turned  to  the  right  it  screws  itself  into  C,  thereby  tending  to  leave  a 
space  between  A  and  B.  But  this  space  is  at  once  taken  up  by  the 
expansion  of  the  spring,  thereby  raising  the  cap  C  together  with  B,  and 
consequently  the  focus.     Thus,  although  both  screws  are  right-handed, 

the  milled  heads  produce  opposite 
motions  in  the  adjustment.  Hence 
the  simultaneous  rotation  of  the 
two  heads  in  the  same  direction 
will  give  the  same  effect  as  a  dif- 
ferential screw,  provided  the 
screws  are  not  of  the  same  pitch. 

In  another  common  type  of  in- 
strument the  limb,  actuated  by  a 
lever,  moves  in  a  slot  cut  in  the 
pillar.  To  this  Microscope  the  ad- 
justment just  described  cannot  be 
applied,  and  as  the  differential 
screw  is  unnecessary  for  the  pur- 
pose, Mr.  Ashe  replaced  it  by  a  fine 
micrometer  screw,  leaving  the  rest 
intact  as  in  fig.  40.  Fig.  42  shows 
how  this  design  has  been  carried 
out  by  Messrs.  R.  and  J.  Beck,  who 
have  co-operated  with  the  author 
for  the  purpose.  A  strong,  quick- 
moving  screw  A.  in  the  centre  forms 
the  coarser  adjustment,  whilst,  in 
place  of  a  central  fine  micrometer  screw,  a  thread  is  cut  upon  the 
exterior  of  a  cylinder  of  large  diameter,  attached  to  the  nulled  head  B, 
thus  reducing  wear  and  tear  to  a  vanishing  point,  and  adding  greatly  to 
its  durability.  In  this  form  the  upper  milled  head  controls  the  quick 
screw,  which  in  practice  proves  to  be  a  more  convenient  arrangement 
than  does  the  converse.  Fig.  42  is  essentially  the  same  adjustment  as 
that  adopted  by  Reichert  in  one  of  his  latest  instruments,*  but  it  was 
worked  out  independently  and  was  completed  and  manufactured  before 
Keichert's  instrument  was  heard  of  in  England."]" 

Seibert's  Mineralogical  Stand.* — This  stand  (fig.  43)  is  the  most 
developed  member  of  a  set  of  four  "  Polarization-Microscopes,"  made  by 
the  Wetzlar  firm.  The  unusually  high  projection  of  the  arm  joining 
the  pillar  and  tube  permits  the  examination  of  very  thick  objects  with 
weak  magnification,  as  well  as  the  application  of  rotatory  apparatus  on 

*  See  The  Microscope  and  its  Revelations,  8th  edition,  pp.  210-1. 
t  The  idea  of  a  two-speed  fine  adjustment  is  not  new.     It  was  worked  out  by 
Anderson  in  1886.     See  this  Journal,  1886,  p.  325,  fig.  62.— Ed. 
I  Catalogue  No.  30,  pp.  28-36,  fig.  12. 


Fig.  42. 


■ 


.i    .■J,:i.iiill!i!!!i.ilii!l|l!3;WIEi"J 


Fig.  4i; 


236  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

the  object-stage.     The  stand  is  hinged  with  a  clamping  lever.      The 
coarse  adjustment  is  by   rack-and -pinion ;    the    fine   by   a  micrometer 
screw,  whose  head  is  divided  for  thickness  measurements  (1  division  = 
0*01   mm.).     The    draw-out    tube   has   millimetre    graduations.      The 
object-stage  is  circular  (diameter   105   mm.)  and   rotatory;  the  rim  is 
graduated  and  has  a  vernier.     Under  the  stage  is  a  screw  for  securing 
the  rotatory  plates.     For  orientating  the  object  two  radii  perpendicular 
to  one  another  are  scored  on  the  stage.     Centring  is  performed  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  tube  by  two  fine  screws.     The  illumination  is  effected 
by  concave  and   plane  mirrors  with  universal  movement.     There  are 
two  analysers.    One,  provided  with  graduations  and  verniers,  is  applied 
above   the  ocular ;    the   graduated   disc  belonging   to  it   being  placed 
close  to  the  ocular  end  of  the  draw-tube.     The  second  analyser  can  be 
pushed  in  and  out  of  the  tube  immediately  above  the  objective  without 
being  detached  from  the  tube.     The  change  in  the  focal  length  of  the 
objective  due  to  the  insertion  of  the  analyser  is  rectified  by  the  applica- 
tion of  a  lens  of  long  focus  over  the  prism,  so  that  after  the  insertion 
of  the  analyser  no   new   adjustment  of  the  object  is  necessary.     The 
inner  nicol  of  the  second  analyser  is  rotatory,  and  a  graduation  shows 
its  position.    The  prisms  of  the  analysers  have  right-angled  end-planes, 
and  give  a  maximum  field  of  view.     The  polarizer  is  placed  in  a  push- 
sleeve  under  the  object-stage ;  at  other  times  this  sleeve  may  contain 
diaphragm-holders;  it  is  provided  with  a  lever  arrangement  for  con- 
venient elevation  and  depression.     The  rotation  movement  of  the  nicol 
is  controlled  by  a  screw  working  in  a  slot.     Over  the  polarizer  a  double 
condenser  is  placed  for  axial  images.     The  polarizer  can  be  exchanged 
for  a  cylindrical  mounting  provided  with  three  diaphragms  of  various 
diameters.     A  Bertrand  lens  for  the  magnification  of  axial  images  can 
be  used  with  the  ocular,  and  is  slipped  into  the  tube  from  above  into 
the  position  of  the  diaphragm  of  the  draw-out  tube.     The  oculars  are 
all  provided  with  cross-threads,  and  specially  designed  for  polarizing 
work ;  a  screw  engages  in  a  notch  in  the  tube  and  so  fixes  the  direction 
of  the  cross-threads,  this  direction  being  rendered  visible  by  a  mark  on 
the  outer  rim  of  the  mount.     Other  marks  are  placed  on  the  side  of  the 
ocular  at  angles  of  45°   to   the  cross-threads  in  order  to  reveal  the 
direction  of  minimum  elasticity  in  the  application  of  the  gypsum  plate. 
The  illustration  shows  the  objective  and  condenser,  fitted  with  Wein- 
schenk's  pliers,  which  hold  the  lens  firmly  to  the  tube,  and  yet  allow  a 
rapid  and  easy  exchange. 

"Voinow,  D.  N. — Principii  de  Microscopic.       Bucaresci  (Gobi),  1901,  8vo,  271  pp. 

(2)    Eye-pieces  and  Objectives. 

Hastings  Apochromat.* — A.  A.  Adee,  after  testing  the  5  mm.  apo- 
chromatic  objective  designed  by  Prof.  Hastings  of  Yale  University, 
speaks  very  highly  of  its  performances  in  difficult  photomicrography. 
He  finds  it  superior  in  working  quality  to  any  apochromatic  lens  he 
has  yet  tried,  except  the  Zeiss  apochromat  of  4  mm. ;  and,  as  regards 
that,   the   Hastings    lens   holds  its    own    in   photomicrography.      The 

*  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  1901,  pp.  1442  and  3. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  237 

-correction  for  actinic  rays  is  surprisingly  good,  so  that  exquisite  defi- 
nition is  obtainable,  even  with  a  projection  ocular  No.  4.  Notwith- 
standing the  extremely  wide  aperture,  the  field  is  perfectly  flat,  so  that 
perfect  photographic  definition  is  obtained  at  the  edges  of  a  large  circle 
on  the  focussing  screen.  The  lens  can  take  an  unusual  quantity  of 
light,  and  the  condenser  and  diaphragm  can  be  opened  at  least  40  p.c. 
more  than  with  other  lenses,  and  excellent  photographic  results  still  bo 
obtained. 

Magnifiers.* — J.  Dearness,  of  London,  Canada,  finds  that  many 
students  are  incapable  of  getting  the  best  results  out  of  the  simple 
Microscope.  Instead  of  a  folding  lens  or  tripod  he  uses,  in  his  classes, 
a  watchmaker's  glass  with  two  lenses.  The  lens  on  the  tip  may  be 
removed,  thereby  rendering  the  remaining  lens  lighter  to  hold  in  the 
eye,  while  at  the  same  time  giving  sufficient  amplification  for  most  work. 
The  great  advantage  of  this  magnifier  is  that  both  hands  are  free ;  but 
the  objection  is  that  many  students  are  unable  to  retain  the  magnifier 
by  the  eyebrow.  He  has  therefore  had  a  detachable  heavy  watch-spring 
added  to  the  mounting.  This  spring  goes  round  the  head  and,  when 
properly  adjusted,  holds  the  lens  comfortably  in  a  suitable  position. 
Even  those  who  can  use  the  lens  in  the  ordinary  way,  find  the  necessary 
fatigue  minimised  by  this  device.  As  the  spring  is  detachable  the  glass 
can  be  carried  in  the  pocket,  and  used  for  simple  hand  magnification  if 
desired. 

Henocque. — Oculaire  spectroscopique  destine  aux  etudes  de  micro-speotroscopie. 

Compteg  Rend.  Soc.  de  Biol,  L1I.  (1901)  No.  37,  p.  1009. 

(3)  Illuminating1  and  other  Apparatus. 

Lens  for  Dark-Ground  Illumination. — Messrs.  Koss  have  added  to 
their  list  a  new  simple  lens  for  dark-ground  illumination.  It  consists 
of  a  meniscus  lens  bored  through  the  centre  to  receive  a  spot  turned 
out  of  vulcanite,  and  having  a  stem  to  drop  into  the  hole  in  the  centre 
of  the  lens.  A  most  perfect  dark  ground  with  the  object  brilliantly 
illuminated  is  obtained.     It  can  be  fitted  to  any  Microscope. 

Albrecht  s  Objective-Carriers.f — This  piece  of  auxiliary  apparatus 
is  adapted  for  receiving  any  desired  number  of  objectives,  which  it  sets 
rapidly  and  accurately  in  their  proper  optical  positions ;  it  also  effects 
any  easy  interchange  among  the  objectives,  and  securely  protects  them 
from  dust.  Fig.  44  gives  a  section,  and  fig.  45  a  plan  seen  from  above. 
The  apparatus  consists  essentially  of  a  broad  ring  a,  in  reality,  the  cir- 
cular section  of  a  hollow  cone,  and  by  means  of  a  collar  b,  with  bayonet 
clutch  c,  it  is  fastened  under  the  tube  d,  and  can  be  easily  removed. 
This  ring  a  is  immovable,  and  is  provided  under  d  with  an  opening 
which  forms  a  continuation  of  the  tube.  An  arm  f  of  the  collar  b  sup- 
ports the  ring  at  its  centre.  On  its  under  side  a  possesses  a  concentric 
dovetailed  groove  which  a  ring  g  engages  pushwise ;  this  ring  is  on  its 
inner  side  also  provided  with  a  dove-tailed  tenon.  The  hollow  part  of 
the  ring  a  is  provided,  at  the  proper  place,  for  receiving  an  objective 

■  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  1901,  pp.  1448-9. 

f  Central-Zeit.  f.  Opt.  u.  Mech.,  xxiii.  (1902)  p.  2  (2  figa.). 


238 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


with  two  cross-walls  forming  a  species  of  shaft  open  on  top.     In  the 
dovetailed  grooves  set  in  these  shafts  are  situated  the  special  objective- 


S 


Fig.  44. 


Fig.  45. 


carriers  /,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  space  between  the"  shafts  serves  as 
free  room  for  adjusting  the  carriers.     This  adjustment   is  conveniently 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


239 


done  by  a  set-screw  Jc,  on  the  one  side,  and  a  spring  I  on  the  other.  On 
the  under  side  the  carriers  j  form  bars  m,  of  the  breadth  of  the  ring  g, 
to  which  they  are  closely  applied  while,  sideways,  they  somewhat  pro- 
ject beyond  the  partitions  h,  so  that  no  dust  can  penetrate  into  the 
objectives  between  these  walls  and  the  carriers. 

In  use,  the  ring  g  is  pushed  round  until  the  desired  objective  is 
under  the  tube  d.  When  this  occurs,  a  spring  automatically  snaps  and 
holds  the  objective  rigidly  in  its  place.  Any  adjustment  required  is 
easily  done  by  the  set-screws  Jc,  Jc.  The  rotation  of  g  is  to  be  done  by 
means  of  the  little  handles  q,  in  order  to  avoid  any  possible  disturbance 
of  the  centring  of  the  objectives.  To  prevent  entrance  of  dust  during 
an  exchange  of  oculars,  the  ring  g  is  rotated  so  that  one  of  the  inter- 
shaft  spaces  comes  under  the  tube  d. 

Microscopist's  Electrical  Lamp.  *  —  Fig.  46  represents  this  lamp 
about  half  size,  as  devised   by  T.  Tammes.     The  light  source  is  an 


Fig.  46. 


almost  spherical  electric  incandescent  lamp  of  about  4  cm.  diameter. 
It  is  made  of  5  or  10  candle-power,  the  first  sufficing  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses. The  carbon  filament  is  wound  several  more  times  than  is  usual, 
and  when  in  use  the  planes  of  the  coils  should  be  perpendicular  to  the 
observer.  In  the  figure  the  thread  is  not  visible  as  the  glass  is  ground. 
The  frame  is  of  cast  iron,  and  of  such  a  height  as  to  just  fit  between 
the  foot  and  stage  of  an  ordinary  Microscope.  The  lamp  can  thus  be 
brought  close  to  the  mirror.  The  sides  so  enclose  it  that  an  operator 
is  confined  to  his  own  lamp,  and  not  affected  by. that  of  an  adjoining 
observer.  The  open  back  reduces  inconvenience  from  excess  of  heat. 
The  open  front  permits  of  the  insertion  from  above  of  coloured  screens. 

*  Zeitschr.  f.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1902)  pp.  280-5  (1  fig.). 


240 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Fig.  47. 


The  ground  glass  of  the  lamp  is  of  a  kind  not  to  absorb  much  light,  and 
yet  of  a  fine  grain.  The  5-candle  lamp  suffices  for  magnifications  of 
500    to    600    diameters ;  the    10-candle    for   immersion   systems.     The 

electromotive  force  recommended 
by  the  inventor  is  105  volts. 

Glass-rod  Substage.* — F.  W. 
Leggett  has  found  that  a  glass 
rod  gives  a  fine  illumination  with 
-}  objective  and  No.  3  eye-piece. 
The  rod  consists  of  Bohemian 
glass  i  in.  diameter,  3j  in.  long, 
bent  at  an  angle  and  polished  at 
both  ends ;  this  is  incased  in 
metal,  the  inner  surface  of  which 
is  polished.  Attached  to  the  end 
toward  the  light  there  is  a  funnel 
3^  in.  long,  expanding  from  \  in. 
to  If  in.  in  diameter  and  highly 
polished  in  its  interior.  At  the 
end  near  the  light  is  inserted  an 
ordinary  bull's-eye  lens,  so  placed 
that  the  rays  of  light  pass  through 
the  rod  to  the  object  on  the  stage  of  the  Microscope.  Should  the  light 
be  too  intense  for  low  powers,  it  can  be  modified  by  removing  the 
bull's-eye  condenser. 

(4)  Photomicrography. 

Photomicrography.  \  —  D.  W.  Dennis,  in  the  first  of  a  series  of 
articles  on  this  subject,  gives  in  the  following  words  his  opinion  regard- 
ing the  choice  of  apparatus. 

"  One  reason  why  photomicrography  has  not  hitherto  succeeded  better 
is  that  a  cheap  apparatus,  scraped  together  from  a  microscopic  and  a 
photographic  outfit,  has  been  recommended.  This  cheap  apparatus  was 
always  the  most  expensive  to  be  had,  for  the  reason  that  the  time  con- 
sumed in  getting  ready  for,  and  making,  a  successful  exposure  costs,  in 
the  end,  more  than  the  investment  for  a  correct  outfit.  In  the  second 
place  the  results,  for  reasons  above  given,  were  never  valuable  except  in 
the  case  of  slides  so  perfectly  prepared  that  they  had  to  be  the  best  of 
an  expert  microscopist's  work.  I,  again  and  again,  concluded,  while 
using  these  makeshifts,  that  histological  slides  could  not  be  successfully 
photographed.  I  thought  photomicrography  was  an  art,  the  usefulness 
of  which  was  confined  to  the  resolving  of  lines  on  diatoms,  and  reproduc- 
ing the  silhouettes  of  bacteria  so  prepared  that  the  contrast  was  sharp 
and  the  field  flat.  The  cheap  way  to  make  successful  photomicrographs 
is  to  have  a  complete  apparatus :  Microscope,  stand,  lenses,  camera,  and 
illuminating  appliances  dedicated  to  this  one  work,  mounted  to  stay, 
on  tables  adapted  to  the  purpose,  resting  on  a  floor  that  cannot  be  jarred, 
with  a  fully  equipped  dark  room  immediately  at  hand."  An  example 
of  Mr.  Dennis's  high-power  work  (x  1500)  is  given.     It  represents  the 

•  Journ.  New  York  Micr.  Soc,  xvi.  (1901)  pp.  16-7  (1  fig.), 
t  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  1901,  pp.  1399-1403  (6  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


241 


early  telophase  of  mitosis  ia  Ascaris  megalocephala  var.  bhalens  •  the 
polar  bodies  and  the  egg-cell  wall  are  seeu  ;  the  centrosome  is  divided 
j list  below  the  polar  bodies. 

A  Notable  Advance  in  Colour  Photography.*— "It  is  now  possible 
for  a  newspaper  correspondent  in  China  to  take  snap-shots  in  his 
ordmary  camera,  fitted  with  a  newly  perfected  screen,  to  send  the 
negative  to  New  York,  and  there  have  the  picture  reproduced  in  all  its 
original  colours,  the  printer  having  no  previous  knowledge  of  the 
colours  themselves." 

The  preceding  quotation  is  Messrs.  Brasseur  and  Sampolo's  own 
description  of  their  new  process  in  three-colour  work.  But,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  older  methods,  only  one  negative  is  required,  and  the 
exposure  is  not  more  than  one-tenth  to  one-sixtieth  of  a  second.  All 
makes  of  polychrome  screens  can  be  used  to  obtain  the  negatives,  but 


Fig.  48. 

Enlarged  53  times. 
Positive  on  glass  made 
from  original  negative ; 
successive  groups  of 
coloured  lines,  each 
colour  repeated  every 
third  line. 


3*«*554S000*S05^<0S550*0S5S!S!0«5 


»0»0fc<Z**0«?0««B000«S00!%^' 


wmmr///////////7///y>///////////^////. 


W//////////////AWV///////////////////A 


Fig.  49. 

Black  and  white  screen 
placed  over  positive  and 
showing  only  one  of  the 
positives. 


^sssmsffissm 


Fig.  50. 

Completed  negative 
of  one  of  the  images. 
Entire  surface  is  now 
occupied  by  image  which 
on  original  only  occu- 
pied one-third. 


the  best  are  those  ruled  in  groups  of  threes,  one  line  being  in  a  reddish - 
yellow,  one  in  a  yellowish-green,  and  the  other  in  a  blue-violet  colour. 
The  screens  made  by  Mr.  Brasseur  have  531  lines  per  inch,  with  no 
mistakes  in  any  inch  of  more  than  one  fifty-thousandth  of  that  space. 
When  the  negative  has  been  obtained  a  positive  on  glass  must  be  made. 
This  positive  apparently  does  not  differ  from  ordinary  positives  ;  but 
when  examined  under  the  Microscope  it  is  found  to  consist  of  three 
interwoven  images  corresponding  with  the  three  sets  of  lines  of  the 
taking  screen  (fig.  48).  Suitable  printing  plates  must  now  be  made 
from  each  one  of  these  interwoven  images.  This  is  done  by  placing 
over  the  positive  a  black  and  white  screen  ruled  in  such  a  way  that 
each  black  stripe  exactly  corresponds  to  two  adjacent  stripes,  and  each 

*  Annual   Report  of  Smithsonian  Institution,   1900,  pp.  523-6  (5  figs,  and   1 
coloured  plate ;  and  The  World's  Work,  Dec.  1900. 

April  16th,  1902  B 


242 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


white  stripe  to  one  stripe  of  fig.  48.  Thus  all  the  stripes  correspond- 
ing to  one  colour  of  fig.  48  are  exposed,  say  the  yellow  (fig.  49).  A 
half-tone  negative  is  made  of  this,  and  during  the  exposure  the  most 
important  step  occurs :  the  negative  plate  is  moved  continuously  until 
the  image  which  occupied  the  one-third  of  the  plate  occupies  the  entire 
surface  (fig.  50).  This  is  essential,  as  in  order  to  ohtain  the  proper 
colours  the  prints  must  be  superposed,  and  not  juxtaposed  as  in  the 
original  positive.  The  screen  is  now  shifted  the  width  of  one  line, 
covering  up  the  image  of  which  a  printing  plate  has  been  made,  and 
exposing  a  new  image,  say  the  red  one.  A  plate  is  made  of  this  one, 
and  the  operation  repeated  for  the  third  image,  theblue  one.  A  set  of 
photographs  of  a  tiger  are  given  to  illustrate  the  different  stages  of  the 
process.     The  final  result  is  very  lifelike. 

Dennis'  High-power  Photomicrography.*  —  Fig.   51   shows  D.  W. 
Dennis'  arrangement  of  the  1899  Zeiss  apparatus,  which  was  placed  on 


an  unshakable  stone  floor,  and  consisted  of  two  tables  supported  on 
adjustable  metal  legs,  the  combined  length  being  10^  feet.  One  table, 
4  ft.  long,  carries  the  arc  light  and  illuminating  accessories ;  the 
other  carries  the  Microscope  and  camera.  The  objectives  are  apo- 
chromatic,  from  70  mm.  to  2  mm.,  with  compensating  and  projecting 
eye-pieces.  The  fine  adjustment  screw  is  controlled  by  a  brass  rod, 
which  lies  on  the  bench  under  the  camera,  and  has  a  pulley  and  cord 
attachment  A,  with  the  milled  head  of  the  micrometer  screw.  The 
Microscope  is  so  supported  by  an  adjustable  brass  pillar  B,  that  this 
pulley  cannot  in  the  least  affect  it.  The  camera  is  carried  on  two 
nickeled  steel  tubes  C,  which  rest  on  adjustable  metal  supports,  and 
the  board  D,  on  which  the  Microscope  rests,  is  bound  also  by  clamps  to 
these  same  tubes.  Four  strong  adjustable  pillars  E  hold  the  board 
firmly  at  one  distance  from  the  table.  The  total  effect  of  these  arrange- 
ments is  to  make  the  Microscope  and  its  supports  immovable. 

*  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  Nov.  1901,  pp.  1525-7  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


243 


The  movable  stage  is  also  controlled  from  the  ground  glass  6  ft. 
away  by  brass  rods  with  milled  heads  and  cord  and  pulley  attachment, 
and  the  stage  is  supported  against  the  strain  of  these  by  an  adjustable 
brass  pillar  G.  The  stage  can  thus  easily  and  quickly  be  searched  over 
a  space  f-  in.  square.  The  coarse  adjustment  of  the  Microscope  is 
similarly  controlled. 

The  adjustable  pillar  B,  under  the  Microscope,  to  offset  the  pull  of 
the  cord  on  the  fine  adjustment  screw,  was  specially  added  by  Mr.  Dennis, 
and  seems  to  suggest  that  the  Zeiss  model  in  its  original  form  was  not 
sufficiently  steady  for  very  high  powers.  Mr.  Dennis  has  also  added 
the  controlling  arrangements  of  the  coarse  adjustment,  the  stage,  the 
adjustable  pillars  under  the  Microscope  bench,  and  the  adjustable  pillar 
under  the  stage.  He  has,  moreover,  placed  scales  on  both  the  camera 
table  and  the  optical  bench,  so  that  all  parts  of  the  apparatus  can  be 
■  quickly  brought  into  any  desired  relationship. 


Fig.  52. 


Colour  Photomicrography.*  —  F.  L.  Kichardson  makes  some  con- 
tributions to  our  knowledge  of  this  subject.  He  considers  that,  of  tho 
plates  now  in  use,  the  orthochromatic  approaches  most  nearly  the  ideal 
colour  plate,  but  that  this  is  not  perfectly  satisfactory,  as  it  does  not 
give  sufficient  contrast.  He  therefore  undertook  some  investigations  to 
determine  the  relative  merit  of  various  photographic  plates.  The 
apparatus,  as  illustrated  in  fig.  52,  consisted  of  a  direct  vision  spectro- 
scope, so  mounted  in  the  front  board  of  an  ordinary  camera  (with  lenses 
removed)  that  the  spectrum,  when  projected  on  the  plate,  would  come  in 
the  centre  horizontally  and  at  the  top  of  the  plate.  The  back  of  the 
camera  was  constructed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  allow  of  its  being  moved 


*  Joum.  Boston  Soc.  Med.  Sci., 
pp.  1489-92  (3  figs.). 


pp.  460-4;]  and  Joum.  App.  Micr.,  1901, 

E    2 


1>44 


SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


in  the  vertical  plane ;  thus  four  exposures  could  he  made  on  the  same 
plate,  and  therefore  an  accurate  comparison  was  possible  between  them. 
In  the  figure  A  is  the  spectroscope  ;  B  the  back  of  the  camera,  carrying 
screen  and  plate-holder ;  C,  supports  upon  which  the  back  B  may  be 
moved ;  D,  shutter  ;  E,  colour-screen  in  colour-screen-holder.  The 
plates  examined  were  grouped,  according  to  their  degree  of  perfection, 
as  follows : — 

Group  i. — Characterised  by  a  very  high  degree  of  sensitiveness,  a 
little  above  the  line  D,  falling  off  abruptly  on  either  end,  and  only 
slightly  sensitive  to  greens  and  blues. 

Group  ii. — Characterised  by  two  distinct  maxima,  one  a  little  above 
the  D  line,  and  the  other  in  the  blue-green.  Between  these  two  maxima 
the  sensitiveness  falls  very  considerably. 


A   BC 


Fig.  53. 1 


Group  iii. — Characterised  by  having  its  maximum  sensitiveness  in 
the  blue  (as  with  ordinary  plates),  with  lesser  bands  of  sensitiveness 
extending  below  the  D  line. 

Group  iv. — Characterised  by  bands  of  sensitiveness  extending  below 
line  D,  with  greatest  intensity  in  the  yellow-green,  and  falling  off  at 
the  violet  end  before  H2. 

Group  v. — This  group  most  nearly  approaches  perfection.  It  is 
characterised  by  a  sensitive  band  well  below  line  D,  and  somewhat 
below  the  red  end  of  Groups  iii.  and  iv.  This  plate  gives  an  almost 
uuiform  degree  of  sensitiveness  with  a  maximum  intensity  in  the  green. 

In  fig.  58  the  upper  curve  shows  the  visual  intensity  of  the  spec- 
trum (from  Fraunhofer).  Curves  i.-v.  represent  the  photographic  in- 
tensity of  the  spectrum  taken  on  plates  corresponding  to  the  groups  of 
the  same  number.    Group  i.,  Cramer  isochromatic  (slow)  ;  Group  ii.,  the 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


245 


standard  orthochromatic  (slow)  ;  Forbes  orthocbromatic  (slow)  ;  Carbutt 
ortkochromatic  (slow)  ;  Otto  Perutz  ;  Group  iii.,  Lovell  colour-differen- 
tiating ;  American  spectrum  plate.  Group  iv.,  Cadett  and  Neal  spec- 
trum plate  (slow)  ;  Group  v.,  International  "  Eretbro." 

If  sensitiveness  to  the  spectrum  were  tbe  only  feature  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  selection  of  a  plate  for  pbotomicrograpbic  work,  a  plate 
from  Group  v.  would  be  cbosen,  but  tbe  general  working  of  tbe  plate  as 
well  as  tbe  keeping  qualities  are  factors  tbat  must  be  considered.  For 
practical  work  and  keeping  qualities  tbe  autbor  found  the  Cadett  and 
Neal  special  slow  spectrum  plate  of  Group  iv.  most  satisfactory,  and 
used  it  in  the  preparation  of  the  spectrographs  illustrated  in  fig.  54, 
which  is  a  reproduction  of  spectrographs  analysis  of  some  of  the  common 


Electric  arc 

Picric  acid  . 
Aurantia    . 

Cresoidin  . 
Congo  red  . 
Eosin 

Carbol  fuchsin 

Hematoxylin 
Methylen  blue 

Green  glass 


Methyl  green 
Quinine  sulphate 


Methylen  blue 


Methyl  green 
Picric  acid 
Picric  acid 
Methylen  blue 
Carbol  fuchsin 


Fig.  54. 


stains.  Tbe  red  end  of  the  spectrum  is  on  the  left.  The  principal 
Fraunhofer's  lines  are  marked.  The  name  of  the  stain  is  on  the  left, 
while  on  the  right  is  tbe  name  of  the  proper  screen  for  increasing  the 
photographic  intensity.  To  decrease  the  contrast,  a  screen  of  the  same 
colour  should^be  used ;  to  increase  the  photographic  intensity  a  screen 
of  complementary  colour  should  be  used.  The  colour  screens  were 
made  by  soaking  a  cleared  lantern-slide  in  a  solution  of  the  desired 
stain  until  the  gelatin  was  saturated,  and  then  by  rinsing  and  removing 
the  surface  liquid  with  a  cotton  pad.  The  screen  was  then  dried  and 
covered  with  a  cover-glass,  as  in  mounting  a  lantern  slide.  The  depth 
of  colour  in  these  screens  is  dependent  upon  the  degree  of  concentration 
of  the  staining  solution  rather  than  upon  the  duration  of  soaking. 


246 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Fig.  55. 


Stringer's  Focussing-  Attachments  to  Photomicrographic  Cameras.* 
Among  the  various  methods  invented  for  making  an  effective  connec- 
tion between  the  Microscope  fine  adjustment  and  the  long  rod  from  the 
end  of  the  camera,  the  favourite  has  been  an  endless  band  passing  round 

the  milled  head  of  the  Microscope 
and  round  a  similar  head  attached 
to  the  camera-rod.  The  arrange- 
ment has,  however,  possessed  the 
drawback  of  not  being  readily- 
detached  from  the  Microscope. 
E.  B.  Stringer's  method  of  over- 
coming this  is  shown  in  fig.  55, 
which  shows  an  adjustable  roller 
to  keep  the  cord  taut.  The  usual 
milled  head  of  the  camera-rod, 
around  which  the  cord  is  passed, 
is  mounted  on  a  frame,  the  lower 
portion  of  which  fits  into  a  sleeve 
A,  and  permits  the  rod  on  which 
the  milled  head  is  carried  to  be 
tilted  forward,  when  the  band  is  to  encircle  the  fine  adjustment  head,  or 
to  be  removed ;  the  band  is  then  made  taut  by  setting  the  fitting  vertical 
again,  a  clamping  screw  B  being  provided  for  securing  it.  The  long 
camera-rod  then  engages  with  it. 

Simple  Means  of  Producing  Microphotographs  with  an  ordinary 
Camera.f — Mr.  W.  Forgan  describes  how,  with  a  simple  accessory 
to  an  ordinary  camera,  small  photographs  of  large  objects  may  be  ob- 
tained. The  camera  should  have  a  rigid  front,  and  that  portion  carrying 
the  dark  slide  should  be  capable  of  being  fixed  rigidly  in  the  position  it 
is  to  occupy  while  the  photograph  is  being  taken.  The  old  form  of  box 
camera  would  seem  the  very  best  for  the  purpose.  The  flange  in  the 
camera  front,  used  along  with  the  accessory  referred  to,  was  that  taking 
the  Boss  portable  Symmetrical  and  other  lenses  having  the  same  size  of 
screw.  Into  this  flange  there  was  screwed  a  thick  drawn  tube,  as  large 
as  the  aperture  would  allow,  and  on  its  outside  was  soldered  a  ring, 
screwed  to  take  the  screw  in  the  flange.  The  tube  entered  inside  the 
flange  about  2  in.  and  was  sprung  at  the  end  inside  with  cuts  re- 
sembling the  letter  T  placed  horizontally.  The  other  end  of  this  tube 
or  jacket  was  cut  with  an  inside  screw  of  50  threads  to  the  inch. 
Another  piece  of  telescope  drawn  tube  was  selected  about  6  in.  long 
and  made  to  slide  easily  in  this  jacket.  A  ring  about  £  in.  broad 
was  soldered  outside  within  an  inch  from  the  other  end  of  this 
last  tube,  and  was  also  cut  with  a  screw  of  50  threads  to  the  inch,  so 
that,  when  this  tube  was  placed  inside  the  jacket  and  turned  round, 
it  could  be  made  to  approach  or  recede  from  the  sensitive  plate  in  the 
dark  slide  by  a  very  minute  quantity.  To  enable  this  to  be  done  easily 
a  large  ring,  knurled  on  the  edge,  was  soldered  on  to  the  extreme  outer 
end  of  the  tube.  The  effect  of  the  whole  arrangement  was  that  the  tube 
could  be  rotated  without  the  least  apparent  movement  of  the  image  on 

*  Knowledge,  Dec.  1901,  p.  285  (1  fig.). 

t  Proc.  Scot.  Micr.  Soc,  iii.  (1901)  pp.  79-82. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  247 

the  screen  during  focussing.     The  inner  end  of  the  inside  tube  had  the 
universal  Microscope  screw  to  take  the  object-glasses  used,  which  were 
the  75  and  35  mm.  of  Zeiss.     A  single  dark  slide  was  employed,  and  a 
carrier  made  to  fit  it  having  an  aperture  in  the  centre  to  take  plates  the 
size  of  a  twelfth  of   a   quarter   plate.     One  of  these  small  plates  was 
emery  ground  on  one  side  and  used  for  rough  focussing.     Another  was- 
marginally  ground  leaving  a  clear  space  of  about  \  in.  square  in  the 
centre,  and  this  was  evenly  smeared  with  thin  virgin  wax.     This  was 
the    fine   focussing  screen.     The    negatives  to  be  copied  were  quarter 
plates,  illuminated    by    a    4-in.  condenser    placed   immediately  behind 
them,  and  in  almost  close  contact  with  them,  their  distance  from  the 
camera  being  regulated  by  the  size  of  the  microphotograph  desired  with 
each  object-glass  used.     An  ordinary  paraffin  lamp  was  the  source  of 
light.     It  will  be  seen  that  no  focussing  screen  on  a  separate  frame  was 
used,  the  focussing  glass  being  carried  in  the  dark  slide  itself,  and  re- 
moved each  time  the  sensitive  plate  was  put  in,  thus   preserving   the 
perfect  register  obtained. 

Hinterberger,  Hugo — TTeber  Mikrophotographie. 

[An  interesting  lecture  to  the  Vienna  Camera  Club.     Describes  the  various 
methods,  and  gives  several  good  examples  of  photomicrography.] 

Published  as  a  pamphlet  from  the  Wiener  Photo- 
graphische  Blatter,  8  pp.  and  6  figs. 
„  .,  Einiges  aus   der  mikrophotographischen  Praxis  mit 

Zeiss'  grossem  Instrumentarium. 

[A  pamphlet  of  6  pp.  and  1  fig.,  detailing  the  method  of  using  the  instru- 
ment— apparently  intended  mainly  for  his  laboratory  students.] 
,,  „  Eine  Notiz  iiber  mikrophotcgraphische  Aufnahnien  von 

Insektenpraparaten. 

[A  practical  pamphlet  of  4  pp.  and  4  pis.  on  the  proper  preparation  and 
treatment  of  insect  specimens  for  photomicrography.] 

Published  as  a  tract  from  the  Photograpliischen  Centralblalt 

(Callwey),  Miinchen. 
„  „  Versuch  der  farbenrichtigen  Reproduction  eines  doppel- 

farbigen  mikroskopischen  Praparates  nach  zwei  mit  den  gewohnlichen  Hilfs- 
mitt8ln  der  Mikrophotographie  bergestellten  Aufnabmen.  (Investigation  of  the 
reproduction  in  proper  colours  of  a  doubly  stained  microscopical  preparation 
with  the  ordinary  accessories  of  photomicrography  after  two  suitable  exposures.) 

Camera  Lucida,  1901,  8vo,  H.  24,  3  pp.  and  1  pi. 
Mittheilungen   aus  dem  photographischen  Privat-Laboratorium  des  Universitats- 
Lehrers  Hugo  Hinterberger  in  Wien. 

[A  Report  of  the  work  for  1901,  mainly  in  the  department  of  photomicro- 
graphy.] Wien,  January  1902. 
M'Clung,  C.  E. — Laboratory  Photography.     High-power  Photomicrography. 

Journ.  App.  Micr.,  IV.  (1901)  p.  305. 

„  „         Photomicrographio  Apparatus.  'Tom.  cit.,  p.  1199. 

Penny,  R.  G. — Photomicrographic  Apparatus.     Amer.  Mon.  Micr.  J.,  1900,  p.  310. 

(5)    Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Strehl,  Dr.  Karl. — Bericht  iiber  optische  Fortschritte.     (Review  of  progress  in 
Optics.)  Central-Zeit.  /.  Opt.  u.  Mech.,  XXIII.  (1902)  p.  1. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

The    New   Spectrum.*  —  Dr.   S.  P.  Langley  has   now  thoroughly 
mapped  out  the  infra-red  spectrum.     As  tar  back  as  1884  he  had  ascer- 

*  Annual  Report  of  Smithsonian  Institute,  1900,  pp.  683-92  (1  pi.). 


248  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES  RELATING   TO 

tained  that  this  invisible  part  of  the  solar  spectrum  extended  as  far  as  a 
wave-length  of  5-3  /x.  But  with  the  bolometer  then  in  use,  delicate 
though  it  was,  the  mapping  out  would  have  involved  a  labour  of  fifty 
years.  He  has  since  then  succeeded  in  increasing  the  sensibility  of 
the  instrument  from  the  detection  of  a  temperature  variation  of  one- 
thousandth  of  a  degree  Centigrade  to  that  of  one  hundred-millionth 
of  a  degree.  He  has  also  connected  it  with  a  self-recording  photo- 
graphic apparatus  of  extreme  precision.  By  these  methods  he  has  six 
series  of  observations  which  differ  inappreciably  from  their  mean,  aud 
the  spectrum  is  found  to  contain  over  700  lines. 

Tape  Measure  for  Adjustment  of  Projection  Oculars.* — Dr.  A. 
Kohler,  in  order  to  minimise  the  difficulties  connected  with  the  adjust- 
ment of  projection  eye-pieces,  has  devised  a  rearrangement  of  the  scale 
on  the  oculars.  If  the  index  stands  on  the  zero  then  the  front  focus  of 
the  projection  system  lies  in  the  plane  of  the  ocular  diaphragm  ;  if 
the  index  is  set  on  another  figure  then  the  focus  is  pushed  a  correspond- 
ing number  of  millimetres  behind  the  diaphragm  plane. 

In  order  to  conveniently  adjust  the  ocular  head  for  any  desired  pro- 
jection distance  (within  its  due  limits)  a  specially  marked  tape  measure 
is  used.  One  side  of  this  measure  is  blue  and  marked  with  the  figure 
P2 ;  it  is  intended  for  oculars  2  and  3.  The  other  side  is  red,  marked 
P4,  and  intended  for  oculars  4  and  6.  The  tape  is  divided  into  divisions 
corresponding  to  the  graduations  on  the  oculars.  In  using  the  tape  the 
operator  brings  the  first  graduation  into  the  plane  of  the  screen,  mea- 
sures towards  the  ocular,  and  discovers  at  what  interval  the  plane  of  the 
ocular-division  will  lie  ;  the  figure,  found  there,  gives  the  number  of 
millimetres  by  which  the  ocular  head  must  be  screwed  out  in  order  to 
tlirow,  at  the  required  distance,  an  image  of  the  diaphragm  on  the  screen. 

Details  are  given  of  the  method  by  which  the  calculation  of  the 
scales  on  the  tape  was  made. 

Some  Evidences  of  Unscientific  Conservatism  in  the  Construction 
of  Microscopes. f — The  Rev.  G.  C.  F.  Haas,  whilst  fully  admitting  the 
immense  improvements  of  the  last  half  century  in  the  construction  of 
Microscopes,  points  out  that  many  objectionable  features  seem  to  bo 
retained  in  various  types  of  instruments  simply  from  the  makers'  dis- 
inclination to  adopt  a  change.  He  thus  severely  criticises  the  horse- 
shoe foot,  the  want  of  an  inclination  joint,  small  stages,  stage-clips, 
immovable  mirror-bars,  non-parfocal  eye-pieces,  &c.  There  is  a  Society 
screw ;  why  then  not  one,  or  at  most  two,  diameters  of  tube  and  sub- 
stage  ring?  Why  have  we  a  dozen  or  more  different  tube-lengths 
instead  of  one  short  and  one  long  one ;  both  measured  in  the  same 
way  ?  When  shall  we  have  adjustable  objectives  marked  in  a  rational 
manner,  instead  of  being  engraved  with  a  series  of  numbers  that  have 
no  relation  whatsoever  to  thickness  of  cover-glass  or  to  tube-length,  and 
only  serve  as  a  continual  puzzle  to  the  memory  ? 

Images  of  Diatom  Structure.}  —  W.  Balfour  Stokes  discusses  the 
•"  white  dot "  and  "  black  dot "  images  and  concludes  that  Pleurosigma 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1902)  pp.  273-9  (3  fiejs.). 
t  New  York  Micr.  Soc,  xv.  (1900)  pp.  2-6.  ■ 
%  Journ.  Quek.  Micr.  Club,  1901,  pp.  109-12. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  249 

formosum,  in  which  with  an  axial  cone  the  black  dot  image  occurs 
above  the  white  dot  (the  reverse  of  the  usual  order),  is  structurally- 
peculiar.  He  suggests  that  the  minute  perforations  in  this  diatom  are 
silted  up  witli  silica,  and  that  what  has  been  taken  for  special  structure, 
as  seen  in  the  black  dot  image,  is  really  irregular  openings  in  the 
siliceous  material. 

Double-Image  Discs  and  Complementary  Interference  Colours.* — 
J.  Rheinberg,  by  placing  a  disc  above  the  objective,  obtains  two  images 
of  the  same  diatom  in  complementary  colours.  The  disc  is  prism- 
shaped,  but  a  circular  central  portion  has  plane  parallel  sides.  The 
effect  is  to  produce  a  direct  dioptric  image  and  a  diffraction  image  of 
the  first  order.  When  the  dioptric  image  of  a  diatom  shows  colour 
due  to  interference,  the  diffraction  image  shows  the  complementary 
colour. 

B.  Technique. t 
CD    Collecting:  Objects,  including;  Culture  Processes. 

New  Method  for  Isolating  the  Typhoid  Bacillus  from  Water.:}: — 
■G.  Vallet  takes  a  large  quantity  of  water  and  treats  it  with  lead  nitrate. 
The  precipitate  which  carries  down  the  bacteria  is  dissolved  in  sodium 
hyposulphite  and  is  then  submitted  to  bacteriological  examination. 
Another  method  is  to  precipitate  with  alum  or  with  barium  nitrate. 
For  example,  200  ccm.  of  water  to  be  tested  is  treated  with  25  ccm.  of 
either  precipitate.  In  1  to  2  hours  a  deposit  containing  the  bacteria  is 
formed. 

A  still  better  method  is  a  combination  of  mechanical  and  chemical 
precipitation:  centrifuge  tubes  of  20  ccm.  content  receive  4  drops  of 
saturated  sodium  hyposulphite  solution  and  4  drops  of  saturated  barium 
nitrate  solution,  both  sterilised.  After  centrifuging  for  3-4  minutes 
(3000  turns)  the  clear  fluid  is  decanted  off,  and  to  the  sediment  is  added, 
drop  by  drop,  hyposulphite  until  it  is  dissolved.  The  dissolved  pre- 
cipitate is  then  distributed  over  Eisner's  gelatin  plates.  After  3  or  4 
days  the  differentiation  may  be  begun,  and  for  this  litmus-lactose-agar 
is  recommended.  Instead  of  this,  lactose-bouillon  may  be  used.  The 
coagulation  or  non-coagulation  of  milk  should  be  tried  and  also  the 
agglutination  test. 

Cultivation  of  the  Leprosy  Bacillus.  §  —  W.  J.  Kedrowski  success- 
fully cultivated  the  microbe  of  leprosy  from  three  cases  ;  the  bacilli  thus 
obtained,  however,  were  less  resistant  to  acid  than  the  leorous  organ- 
isms  in  the  human  tissues.  The  nutrient  media  used  were  meat-pepton- 
bouillon  and  agar  mixed  with  aqueous  extract  of  human  placenta  filtered 
through  a  Chamberland  bougie.  The  media  were  inoculated  with  blood 
and  also  with  pieces  of  leprous  skin.  By  the  second  or  third  day  there 
was  a  luxuriant  growth  in  both  the  solid  and  liquid  media.     On  gelatin  the 

*  Journ.  Quek.  Micr.  Club,  1901,  pp.  151-2  (1  fig.). 

t  This   subdivision  contains   (1)    Collecting    Objects,  including    Culture    Pro 
cesses  ;  (2)  Preparing  Objects  ;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes  ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting;  (5)  Mounting,  including  slides,  preservative  fluids,  &c. ; 
(6)  Miscellaneous.  J  Arch.  Med.  expe'r.  et  d'Anat.  pathol.,  1901. 

§  Zeitschr.  f.  Hygiene  u.  Infekt.,  xxxvii.  p.  52.     See  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt., 
Kef.,  xxxi.  (1902)  p.  90. 


250 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


growth  was  scanty  and  the  medium  was  not  liquefied.  On  egg-yelk  and 
blood  the  growth  was  very  good,  but  the  bacilli  were  very  short  and  re- 
sembled diplococci.  On  other  media  the  bacilli  were  like  those  found 
in  the  living  body,  beiug  slightly  bent,  one  end  often  thicker  than  the 
other,  and  undoubtedly  motile. 

Medium  for  Isolating  Bacillus  Typhosus  in  presence  of  Bacillus 
coli  communis.* — E.  Cambier  uses  a  freshly  made  bouillon  prepared  by 
mixing  cold  50  ccm.  of  a  3  p.c.  pepton  solution,  4-6  ccm.  of  1  p.c.  soda,  and 
4-6  ccm.  of  sea  salt,  all  sterilised  at  115°.  With  this  nutrient  medium 
and  the  bougie  method  he  has  been  able  to  isolate  in  pure  culture  the 
typhoid  bacillus  from  a  liquid  consisting  of  equal  parts  of  coli  and 
typhoid  bouillon  cultures,  and  under  even  more  difficult  conditions. 
The  method  appears  to  be  specially  adapted  for  seeking  the  typhoid 
bacillus  in  stools. 


Fig.  56. 


Apparatus  for  Anaerobic  Cultures.f— E.Turro  claims  that  his  simple 
apparatus  is  an  improvement  on  its  predecessors  for  isolating  anaerobic 
bacteria.  It  consists  (fig.  56)  of  a  glass  pan  on  the  inside  of  which  are 
fixed  three  angular  pieces  of  glass.    These  serve  to  support  a  round  plate  or 

*  Comptes  Kendus,  exxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  1226-9. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  175-6  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


251 


disk.  On  this  disk  plates  of  air-freo  agar  or  gelatin  are  made  and  are 
then  inoculated  with  properly  diluted  cultures  or  fluids  containing 
b  icteria.  On  the  bottom  of  the  pan  are  placed  pyrogallic  acid  solution 
and  a  piece  of  caustic  alkali.  The  plate  is  then  turned  over  and  placed 
in  the  dish  so  that  it  rests  on  the  three  supports.  The  edge  of  the  disk 
is  then  made  air-tight  with  paraffin  or  wax.  The  apparatus  is  then 
placed  in  the  incuhator,  and  after  the  necessary  time  has  elapsed  the 
plate  is  removed  and  examined  in  the  usual  way. 

Another  apparatus  devised  by  the  author  obviates  two  difficulties,  viz. 
the  slow  withdrawal  of  the  air  and  the  difficulty  of  direct  observation 
of  the  culture.  It  consists  (fig.  57)  of  a  flask  into  the  bottom  of  which 
is  let  a  tube,  the  long  thin  neck  of  the  latter  projecting  into  the  broad 
neck  of  the  flask.  The  nutrient  me- 
dium is  placed  in  the  lower  tube, 
and  in  the  upper  caustic  alkali  and 
pyrogallic  acid.  The  neck  of  the 
flask  is  closed  with  a  rubber  plug  and 
rendered  air-tight  with  paraffin. 

Apparatus  for  Cultivating  An- 
aerobes.*— Bombicci  uses  an  appa- 
ratus for  cultivating  anaerobes,  which 
consists  of  a  flat  flask  drawn  out  at 
the  bottom  into  a  flat  tube  (fig.  58). 
This  receptacle  holds  about  10  ccm. 
of  nutrient  medium,  and  after  inocu- 
lation, a  caoutchouc  stopper  with  two 
tubes  bent  at  right  angles  is  inserted. 
Hydrogen  gas  is  passed  through  in 
the  usual  way  for  half  an  hour  and 
then  the  tubes  are  closed  with  seal- 
ing-wax, after  which  the  apparatus 
is  placed  in  the  incubator. 

(2)  Preparing  Objects. 

Demonstrating  the  Malaria  Para- 
site. |  —  Prof.  P.  Argutinsky  fixes 
the  films  in  sublimate  alcohol.  7  grin, 
of  sublimate  are  dissolved  in  100 
ccm.  of  hot  1  p.c.  aqueous  salt  solu-  Fig.  58. 

tion,  and  when  the  solution  is  suf- 
ficiently cool  100  ccm.  of  absolute  alcohol  are  added.  The  films  are 
immersed  in  the  foregoing  for  from  5-8  minutes  and  then  washed  in 
absolute  alcohol,  after  which  they  are  treated  with  iodine-alcohol.  The 
iodine-alcohol  is  prepared  by  mixing  100  ccm.  of  absolute  alcohol  and 
2  ccm.  of  1  p.c.  alcoholic  tincture  of  iodine.  In  this  they  remain  for 
10  minutes  and  are  then  transferred  to  absolute  alcohol  for  10  minutes, 
after  which  they  are  dried  with  blotting-paper  and  stained  at  once  or  on. 
some  following  day. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.  Ref.,  xxxi.  (1902)  p.  154. 

t  Arch.  f.  Mikr.  Anat.  u.  Eutwickl.,  lix.  (1901)  pp.  319-28  (4  pis.  and  107  figs.). 


252  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

For  staining  the  blood-film,  sock-methylen-blue  and  eosin  are  ex- 
clusively used.  The  author  uses  both  solutions,  freely  diluted,  with- 
out subsequent  differentiation  and  1  p.c.  solutions  of  soda-methylen-blue 
and  eosin  followed  by  differentiation.  The  former  procedure  gives  good 
results  for  clinical  observations,  while  the  latter  is  more  advantageous 
for  the  study  of  nuclear  changes. 

For  the  first  method  the  stock  solutions  consist  of  (1)  0*1  p.c.  eosin 
solution;  (2)  1  p.c.  inethylen-blue  solution,  to  every  100  ccm.  of  which 
are  added  6  ccm.  of  5  p.c.  soda  solution  ;  the  mixture  is  then  inoculated 
for  48  hours  at  55°-60°  C.  The  eosin  solution  may  be  added  immediately 
after  removal  of  the  metbylen-blue  solution  from  the  incubator  or  at  any 
subsequent  period.  When  required  for  staining  films  3  ccm.  of  the 
methylen-blue  solution  are  diluted  with  42  ccm.  of  distilled  water  and 
5  ccm.  of  the  eosin  solution  with  25  ccm.  of  distilled  water.  The  eosin 
is  poured  slowly  into  the  methylen-blue  solution,  and  the  mixture  kept 
stirred  the  while.  The  time  required  for  staining  is  about  15  minutes. 
On  removal  the  preparations  are  washed  with  water,  dried  with  blotting- 
paper,  and  mounted  in  balsam. 

In  the  second  method  or  that  followed  by  differentiation,  the  methylen- 
blue  solution  is  the  same,  but  the  eosin  is  a  1  p.c.  and  they  are  mixed 
in  the  proportion  of  5  of  the  former  to  2  of  the  latter.  The  staining 
takes  from  3-5  minutes.  The  overstained  films  are  decolorised  and 
differentiated  with  the  following  solution  : — 120  ccm.  of  95  p.c.  alcohol, 
4-5  drops  of  acetic  acid,  and  2  ccm.  of  aqueous  1  p.c.  eosin  solution. 
The  time  required  for  differentiating  is  from  5-15  seconds.  The  pre- 
parations are  then  washed  with  water  for  1—2  minutes,  and  having  been 
dried  in  the  usual  way,  are  mounted  in  balsam.  Judging  the  right 
moment  to  cease  differentiating  requires  a  little  practice  and  experience. 
The  coloured  illustrations  are  extremely  effective. 

Examining1  Blood-plates.  —  Dr.  Deetjen  *  used  films  of  agar,  to 
which  were  added  small  quantities  of  sodium  chloride,  metaphosphate 
of  soda,  and  potassium  biphosphate.  Some  blood  from  the  ringer  was 
placed  on  the  agar  film,  and  the  preparation  examined  at  once,  or  after 
fixation  with  osmic  acid  and  staining  with  hasmatoxylin-eosin.  By  this 
method  it  was  shown  that  blood-plates  of  mammalian  blood  are  nucleated 
masses  of  protoplasm,  exhibiting  amoeboid  movements. 

H.  Hirschfeldf  fixed  blood-films  by  heat  at  110°  for  5-30  minutes, 
and  afterwards  stained  them  with  eosin-methylen-blue,  and  also  with 
Dilafield's  haematoxylin.  By  this  method  it  was  demonstrated  that 
blood-plates  originated  from  red  corpuscles. 

M.  C.  Dekhuyzen  J  employed  the  following  methods  for  examining 
thrombocytes  or  blood-plates.  For  the  study  of  living  blood-cells  he 
used  physiological  salt  solutions  which  were,  as  far  as  possible,  isotonic 
with  the  blood  itself,  about  0*8  p.c. 

For  permanent  preparations  a  mixture  of  osmic  and  acetic  acids  and 
methylen-blue  was  used  for  fixing  and  staining.     This  mixture  (osmacet) 

*  Virchow's  Archiv,  clxiv.  (1901)  pp.  239-63  (1  pi.). 
t  Tom.  oii.,  pp.  195-211  (1  pi.). 

X  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  529-40.  See  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1902) 
pp.  539-41. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  252 

consisted  of  3  or  9  vols,  of  2  p.c.  osmic  acid  and  1  vol.  of  6  p.c.  acetic 
acid  and  0*125  p.c.  methylen-blue.  A  trace  of  acid  fuchsin  imparted 
some  advantage,  but  it  was  not  indispensable.  Tbe  9/1  osmacet  cooled 
witb  ice  is  suitable  for  tbe  demonstration  of  thrombocytes  or  blood- 
plates  in  mammalian  blood.  Tbe  finger,  or  ear  of  rabbit,  is  pricked 
tbrougb  the  cold  osmacet. 

F.  Kopscb,*  who  confirms  Deetjen's  observations,  recommends,  as 
well  as  tbe  other  fixatives  previously  alluded  to,  1-2  p.c.  osmic  acid,  or 
iodopotassic  iodide  solution. 

P.  Argutinsky  f  points  out  that  it  is  advantageous  to  use  the 
Romanowsky-Nocht  stain  for  malaria,  as  it  is  excellent  for  chromatin 
staining  in  blood  preparations.  The  films  should  be  fixed  in  sublimate 
alcohol,  and  then  stained  with  the  eosin- soda-methylen-blue  solution, 
which  gives  good  pictures  of  the  blood-plates  (thrombocytes). 

Method  of  Making  Microscopical  Preparations  for  Photographic 
Purposes.:}:  —  G.  von  Wendt  communicates  the  following  procedure  for 
making  preparations  suitable  for  photomicrography  : — (1)  Fixation  and 
hardening.  The  material  is  cut  up  into  blocks  not  exceeding  3  mm. 
thick,  and  fixed  in  3  p.c.  nitric  acid  for  12-20  hours.  Nitric  acid-alcohol 
and  picric  acid  are  also  good  fixatives.  From  the  fixative  the  blocks 
are  transferred  to  90  p.c.  alcohol  for  at  least  24  hours.  (2)  Before 
the  blocks  are  treated  with  the  first  mordant  they  are  immersed  in 
ammonia  1  part  and  75  p.c.  alcohol  10  parts  for  6-10  hours  at  a 
temperature  not  exceeding  15°  C,  and  afterwards  in  90  p.c.  alcohol 
for  about  24  hours.  From  this  they  are  transferred  for  4-6  hours 
to  a  mixture  of  75  p.c.  alcohol  12  parts,  hydrochloric  acid  1  part,  and 
then  again  to  90  p.c.  alcohol  for  24  hours,  after  which  to  water  for 
some  hours.  (3)  Mordant  A.  As  mordants,  are  used  5  p.c.  tungstate 
of  ammonium  or  ammonium  molybdate  solution.  The  process  lasts 
about  24  hours,  and  the  temperature  should  at  first  be  17°-20°  C, 
but  during  the  last  few  hours  should  not  exceed  12°-15°  C.  After 
this  mordanting  the  preparations  are  washed  in  cold  water,  and  then 
immersed  in  90  p.c.  alcohol.  (4)  The  blocks  are  imbedded  in  paraffin 
in  the  usual  way.  (5)  The  sections  must  be  smoothed  out  over  warm 
alcohol  and  stuck  on  with  Mayer's  albumen-glycerin,  and  then  passed 
through  xylol  to  water  in  the  usual  way.  (6)  Mordant  B.  After  the 
water  has  been  run  off  from  the  slide,  the  section  is  flooded  with  2  p.c. 
iron-alum  solution.  The  slide  is  then  placed  in  a  thermostat  at  55°  for 
2-7  minutes.  The  mordant  is  then  washed  off  with  cold  water.  (7) 
Staining.  The  stain  is  made  from  a  saturated  alcoholic  solution  of 
hematoxylin  by  dropping  this  into  distilled  water  until  the  mixture  is 
of  a  yellowish-brown  hue.  This  staining  fluid  must  stand  for  some 
time  before  it  can  be  employed  with  advantage.  It  is  used  by  flooding 
the  section,  and  then  incubating  the  preparation  for  10  minutes  at  55°. 
(8)  Differentiation.  The  stained  preparations  are  differentiated  in  cold 
iron-alum  solution.  (9)  After  which  they  are  washed  in  water  and 
mounted  in  balsam  in  the  usual  way. 

*  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  541-51.     See  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1902)  p.  541. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  552-4.     See  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1902)  p.  342. 
X  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1902)  pp.  293-5. 


254  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

(4)    Staining:  and  Injecting-. 

Staining  Dysenteric  Amoebae.* — Dr.  S.  Amberg  bases  tbe  diagnosis 
of  amoebic  dysentery  on  tbe  finding  of  motile  amoebae  containing  red 
corpuscles  in  tbe  stools.  A  suitable  piece  of  material  is  stained  with 
aqueous  solution  of  toluidin-blue,  or  witb  methylen-blue  and  neutral 
red.  Tbe  two  la^t  may  be  used  in  aqueous  solution  or  in  substance. 
Witb  neutral  red  tbe  erythrocytes  are  at  first  of  a  brassy  colour,  and 
finally  red.  The  results  with  methylen-blue  were  very  similar.  Tbe 
methods  are  only  successful  with  living  amoebae,  and  tbe  staining  fades 
out  in  a  few  hours.  Attempts  to  preserve  the  specimens  were  unsuccess- 
ful. The  presence  of  Charcot-Leyden  crystals  and  eosinophilous  cells 
in  the  faeces  was  almost  constant. 

Iron  Impregnation  of  Nerve  Fibrillae.  f —  Dr.  S.  Meyer  gives  the 
following  method  for  impregnating  nerve  fibrillae  with  iron.  Pieces  of 
moderate  size  are  fixed  for  24  hours  in  10  p.c.  formalin  solution.  They 
are  then  transferred  for  8-20  days  to  2^  p.c.  ferrocyanide  of  potassium, 
followed  by  10  p.p.  iron-alum  for  2-4  days,  after  which  they  are  washed 
for  some  hours.  The  subsequent  treatment  is  absolute  alcohol  2  days, 
xylol  2  hours,  paraffin  2-4  hours.  The  sections,  10-60  fi,  are  stuck  on 
with  alhumen-glycerin ;  xylol,  balsam.  By  this  the  fibrillae  are  better 
stained  than  by  other  procedures,  and  it  also  has  the  advantage  of  not 
depositing  a  granular  or  crystalline  precipitate  among  the  stained 
elements. 

Staining  Nerve-Fibrillae  of  Neurones  in  Electric  Lobes4 — Sbin- 
kiski  Hatai  fixed  the  material  in  10  p.c.  formalin.  Then  a  thin  piece 
was  cut  from  tbe  electric  lobe  of  Torpedo  occidentalis  and  immersed  in 
distilled  water  for  about  six  hours.  The  material  was  then  removed  to 
35  p.c.  alcohol  for  about  an  hour,  after  which  it  was  carried  through 
graded  alcohols  and  imbedded  in  paraffin.  Tbe  sections,  about  12  /x 
thick,  were  stained  with  saturated  aqueous  solution  of  toluidin-blue  and 
contrast-stained  with  alcoholic  solution  of  erytbrosin.  By  this  pro- 
cedure the  fibrillar  arrangement  of  tbe  cytoplasm  was  shown. 

New  Method  of  Examining  Sputum.§ — Dr.  U.  Quensel  mixes  the 
sputum  to  be  examined  with  an  equal  bulk  (or  more)  of  a  mixture  com- 
posed of  1  vol.  25  p.c.  formalin  and  1  vol.  95  p.c.  alcohol.  The 
mixture  is  shaken  up  vigorously  for  1  or  2  minutes,  and  is  then  allowed 
to  sediment  or  is  centril'uged.  A  small  drop  of  the  sediment  is  then 
squeezed  out  between  the  cover-glasses  and  the  films  dried  in  the  air. 
They  may  be  fixed  in  the  flame,  but  this  step  is  unnecessary. 

The  films  may  be  stained  witb  carbol-fuchsin,  thougb  tbe  author 
prefers  anilin-water  gentian-violet,  and  after  decolorising,  contrast-stains 
with  vesuvin  or  witb  an  aqueous  solution  of  auramin.  Instead  of  the 
gentian-violet  solution,  which  is  somewhat  unstable,  tbe  following  is 
recommended  as  it  keeps  better : — One  vol.  of  saturated  solution  of 
crystal  violet  in  70  p.c.  alcobol,  1  vol.  of  1  p.c.  solution  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  in  70  p.c.  alcobol,  and  2  vols,  anilin-oil-water. 

*  Johns  Hopkins  Hosp.  Bull.,  xii.  (1901)  pp.  355-63. 

t  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  535-43. 

j  Journ.  Cincinnati  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  xx.  (1901)  pp.  1-12  (1  pi.). 

§  Nord.  Med.  Arkiv,  Afd.  ii.  xxxiv.  (1901)  No.  22,  pp.  1-3. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSCOPY,   ETC.  255 

Should  it  be  desired  to  stain  both  tubercle  bacilli  and  elastic  fibres 
the  preparation  should  be  stained  with  the  anilin-gentian  solution,  de- 
colorised with  hydrochloric  acid-alcohol,  and  then  stained  with  Weigen's 
solution  for  20-30  minutes.  After  this  it  is  again  decolorised  in  hydro- 
chloric acid-alcohol  and  then  stained  with  auramin.  By  this  method 
the  tubercle  bacilli  are  blue  and  the  elastic  fibres  grey-blue,  both 
standing  out  sharply  against  the  yellow  background. 

Picro-carmin  Solutions.* — In  connection  with  radula  preparations 
K.  Diederichs  gives  the  following  list  of  picro-carmin  solutions,  all  of 
which  are  suitable  for  staining  raduhe. 

(1)  Eanvier's.  A  saturated  solution  of  picric  acid  and  a  saturated 
solution  of  ammoniacal  carmin  are  mixed  and  evaporated  in  a  water- 
bath  to  one-fifth  of  the  previous  volume.  The  carmin  precipitate  is 
filtered  off  when  cold.  On  further  evaporation  the  solid  picro-carmin 
is  obtained  as  a  yellowish-red  powder,  which  is  dissolved  in  distilled 
water  and  used  as  a  1  p.c.  solution. 

(2)  Bizzozero's  is  made  by  dissolving  0"5  grin,  of  carmin  in  3  ccm. 
of  ammonia  and  50  ccm.  of  water.  To  this  is  added,  stirring  constantly 
the  while,  a  solution  of  0*5  picric  acid  in  50  grm.  water.  The  fluid  is 
evaporated  to  half  its  bulk  (50  ccm.)  in  a  water-bath,  and  when  cold 
10  ccm.  alcohol  are  added. 

(3)  Friedlaender's.  To  1  part  of  ammoniacal  carmin,  1  part  of  am- 
monia, are  gradually  added  2-4  parts  of  a  saturated  solution  of  picric 
acid.  The  mixture  is  constantly  stirred  the  while,  and  the  picric  acid 
solution  is  added  until  it  ceases  to  be  dissolved.  After  filtration  a  few 
drops  of  phenol  for  every  100  ccm.  are  added.  Subsequent  cloudiness 
is  removed  by  addition  of  ammonia. 

(4)  Weigert's.  2  grm.  carmin  and  4  ccm.  of  ammonia  are  mixed, 
and  after  24  hours  200  ccm.  of  cold  saturated  aqueous  picric  acid  solu- 
tion are  added.  After  a  further  24  hours  acetic  acid  is  added  until  a 
precipitate  forms.  Then  the  solution  is  treated  with  ammonia  until  it 
becomes  clear.      . 

(5)  Hover's.  1  grm.  of  carmin  is  dissolved  in  1-2  ccm.  of  ammonia 
and  G-8  ccm.  of  water,  and  then  the  mixture  is  heated  in  a  sand-bath 
until  the  ammonia  is  driven  off.  When  cold  the  solution  is  filtered, 
and  then  4-6  times  its  bulk  of  alcohol  are  added.  The  precipitate 
which  forms  is  filtered  off,  washed  and  dried,  and  then  dissolved  in  a 
strong  solution  of  neutral  pier  ate  of  ammonia. 

(6)  Orth's  picrolithium-carmin.  Lithium-carmin  solution  1  part,  satu- 
rated aqueous  solution  of  picric  acid  2  parts. 

(7)  Blochmann's  Lyons-blue  borax-carmin.  Stain  first  with  borax- 
carmin  and  afterwards  with  aqueous  solution  of  bleu  de  Lyon  with 
10  p.c.  alcohol  (96°).  When  the  sections  look  blue  extract  with 
alcohol. 

(8)  Orange  G  alum-carmin.  Stain  for  24  hours  in  saturated  aqueous 
solution  of  orange  G,  then  in  Grenadier's  alum-carmin  for  10  minutes. 
Wash  and  treat  with  alcohol. 

(9)  Carmin-hgeniatoxylin  (Fritsch).  After  dissolving  carmin  in  am- 
monia the   latter  is  evaporated  off.     When  required  for  use,  a  small 

*  Zeitscbr.  angew.  Mikr.,  vii.  (1901)  pp.  30-3. 


256  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

quantity  of  the  foregoing  is  mixed  with  water  and  then  stirred  with  a 
glass  rod  dipped  in  acetic  acid.  The  solution  turns  bright  red.  The 
sections  are  immersed  therein  for  1  hour,  after  which  they  may  be  stained 
with  logwood. 

(10)  The  process  may  be  reversed  by  first  staining  with  Bohmer's 
hematoxylin  and  afterwards  with  neutral  carmin. 

Rapid  Method  of  Iron-Hsematoxylin  Staining.*  —  Dr.  A.  Gur- 
witsch  has  for  a  long  time  adopted  the  following  procedure  which  takes 
about  10  minutes  instead  of  the  usual  36  hours.  The  sections,  stuck 
on  by  the  water  or  albumen  method,  are,  after  the  paraffin  has  been  re- 
moved and  they  have  been  further  treated  with  alcohol  and  with  water, 
flooded  with  2*5  p.c.  iron  mordant  and  then  placed  in  the  steam  of 
an  open  water-bath.  In  this  they  remain  until  the  mordant  begins  to 
bubble  or  become  turbid,  when  they  are  washed  with  water,  after  which 
they  are  treated  in  a  similar  way  with  the  hematoxylin  solution. 
Although  the  sections  are  usually  stained  effectually  with  one  application 
a  repetition  of  the  stain  may  be  required.  Differentiation  is  carried 
out  at  ordinary  temperature. 

New  Method  of  Staining  Elastic  Tissue.!  —  Dr.  H.  F.  Harris  has 
discovered  that  haematein  solutions  have  an  affinity  for  elastic  tissue  when 
made  in  the  following  way : — hematoxylin  0  •  2  grra.,  aluminium  chloride 
0*1  grm,  50  p.c.  alcohol  100  ccm.  Dissolve  the  hsematoxylin  and 
aluminium  chloride  and  heat  to  boiling,  then  add  slowly  0  ■  6  grm.  mer- 
curic oxide.  As  soon  as  the  mixture  turns  purple  remove  from  the 
flame  and  cool  rapidly.  The  solution  is  filtered  and  one  drop  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  added.  The  solution  is  then  set  aside  for  some  weeks  in 
order  to  ripen.  When  ripe  the  stain  is  used  by  immersing  those  sections 
of  tissue  in  it  for  5-10  minutes,  then  washing  for  about  a  minute  in  a 
1  p.c.  solution  of  nitric  acid  in  alcohol,  after  which  the  sections  are 
cleared  and  mounted.  On  account  of  the  close  relationship  of  this  stain 
to  Mayer's  machaematein  the  name  of  elasthsematein  is  suggested.  In 
connection  with  the  present  notice  a  previous  paper  by  the  author  may 
be  consulted. | 

Differential  Staining  for  Tubercle  and  Smegma  Bacilli.§  —  L. 
Nencki  and  T.  Podczaski  state  that  smegma  and  tubercle  bacilli  may 
be  differentiated  by  treating  the  acid-decolorised  preparations  with 
alcohol  and  then  contrast-staining  with  methylen-blue.  The  smegma 
bacillus  is  much  less  resistant  to  alcohol  than  the  tubercle  bacillus. 

Platinum  Method  for  the  Central  Nervous  System. || — The  platinum 
method,  says  Dr.  W.  F.  Robertson,  consists  essentially  in  placing  small 
pieces  of  formalin-hardened  tissue  in  a  mixture  of  platinum  bichloride 
(h  p.c.)  and  formalin  (5-20  p.c.)  for  several  weeks  or  months.  Sections 
are  cut  by  the  dextrin  freezing  method,  and  mounted  in  balsam  in  the 
usual  way.  A  deposit  of  platinum-black  occurs  in  the  tissues,  tending 
specially  to  take  place  in  certain  elements. 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1902)  pp.  291-2.  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  290-1. 

%  Cf.  this  Journal,  1890,  p.  049. 

§  Gazeta  Lekarska,  1901,  No.  45.  See  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.  Ref.,  xxxi. 
(1902)  p.  90.  ||  Proc.  Scot.  Micr.  Soc,  iii.  (1900-1)  pp.  122-3  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  257 

New  Triple  Stain.*  —  Dr.  A.  Pappenheim  has  devised  a  new  tri- 
acid  stain,  the  basis  of  which  is  Unna's  polychrome  methylen-blue.  It 
is  apparently  useful  for  staining  blood-films.  It  gives  three  colours, 
red,  blue,  yellow,  in  various  shades,  and  hence  has  a  selective  action. 
The  stain  is  made  by  Grubler,  and  cau  be  obtained  in  aqueous  solution 
or  in  powder. 

Staining  the  Capsule  of  Anthrax.f — Kiibiger  treats  air-dried  films 
of  anthrax  with  a  solution  of  15-20  gentian-violet  to  150  formaldehyde, 
thus  simultaneously  fixing  and  staining  the  preparation.  The  time 
required  is  about  20  seconds,  after  which  the  preparation  is  washed  with 
water  and  examined. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Microtechnique  of  Animal  Morphology.! — The  second  portion  §  of 
Prof.  S.  Apathy's  work  on  the  microtechnique  of  animal  morphology 
has  recently  appeared.  It  contains  the  sections  E,  F,  G,  of  which  the 
first  deals  with  methods  for  more  closely  appreciating  the  microscopic 
pictures  of  living  objects,  their  measurement,  and  representation  by 
photomicrography.  The  second  treats  of  the  methods  of  illuminating 
preparations  by  non-polarised  light,  while  section  G  reviews  the  methods 
of  illumination  with  polarised  light  for  biological  purposes,  and  the 
methods  for  determining  the  refractivity  of  microscopic  objects.  The 
facts,  which  are  arranged  in  chronological  sequence,  are  positively 
astounding  in  number,  and  their  mere  enumeration  tells  of  the  extra- 
ordinary labour  which  the  author  has  bestowed  on  the  work,  and  the 
knowledge  of  the  subject  exhibited  therein. 

Distinguishing  between  Pleurosigma  angulatum  and  balticum 
under  Low  Powers. ||  — According  to  G.  Marpmann,  Pleurosigma  angii' 
latum  and  PI.  balticum  can  be  discriminated  by  low  powers  and  direct 
illumination,  the  former  being  greenish-yellow,  the  latter  yellowish- 
brown.  With  dark -ground  illumination  the  valves  of  PL  balticum  pass 
through  blue,  green,  yellow,  to  red  on  the  dark  blue  ground,  while  the 
colours  of  PL  angulatum  only  come  out  later.  Some  of  the  discoid 
species  exhibit  analogous  phenomena  when  examined  under  similar  con- 
ditions. 

Gelatin  as  a  Substitute  for  Glass.  If  —  G.  Schneider  mentions,  in 
connection  with  Pranter's  suggestion  of  gelatin  cover-slips,  that  gelatin 
capsules,  such  as  are  used  by  chemists,  are  very  convenient  for  keeping 
specimens  in,  and  for  sending  them  by  post,  &c.  The  tubes  are  filled 
with  a  solution  of  formalin,  or  with  70  p.c.  alcohol,  and  after  inserting 
the  specimen  along  with  a  ticket,  are  closed  with  another  gelatin  tube, 
which  is  slipped  over  it.  Several  of  these  tubes  may  be  placed,  for 
preservation  or  transport,  in  a  large  vessel  filled  with  formalin  solution 

*  Deutsch.  Med.  Wochenschr.,  No.  46.  See  Zeitschr.  angew.  Mikr.,  vii.  (1901) 
pp.  237-40. 

t  Zeitschr.  f.  Fleisch-  u.  Milchhyg.,  xi.  No.  3.  See  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt, 
xxx. (1901)  p.  937. 

%  Die  Mikrotechnik  der  thierischen  Morphologie,  2nd  part,  Leipzig,  1901, 
pp.  321-60.  §  See  this  Journal,  1896,  p.  690. 

||   Zeitschr.  angew.  Mikr.,  vii.  (1902)  pp.  253-4. 

«|  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1902)  pp.  288-90. 

April  16th,  1902  s 


258  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

or  70  p.c.  alcohol,  but  too  many  should  not  be  inserted,  as  overcrowding 
distorts  and  damages  the  tubes  and  their  contents. 

Use  of  Formaldehyde  for  Preventing  Liquefaction  in  Glycerin- 
jelly  Mounts.  *  —  Dr.  A.  Forti  states  that  the  chief  defects  inherent 
in  glycerin-jelly  may  be  obviated  by  the  use  of  formalin.  He  uses 
Kaiser's  gelatin ;  i.e.  to  1  part  of  gelatin  dissolved  in  6  parts  of 
water  are  added  6  parts  of  glycerin;  to  every  100  grm.  of  the  mix- 
ture add  £  grm.  of  carbolic  acid,  and  heat,  stirring  the  while,  until 
the  acid  is  thoroughly  incorporated.  The  formaldehyde  used  is  the 
ordinary  commercial  formalin  diluted  to  10  p.c.  if  fresh,  to  25  p.c.  if 
old.  A  piece  of  the  jelly  is  placed  on  the  slide  and  warmed,  and  then 
a  droplet  of  the  formalin  solution  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  it.  Then 
place  the  specimen  in  position,  and  wait  until  the  air-bubbles  have 
risen  to  the  top,  when  they  may  be  pricked  out  if  they  do  not  spon- 
taneously disappear,  after  which  put  on  a  warmed  cover-slip.  In  this 
way  permanent  preparations  may  be  obtained  free  of  air-bubbles,  and 
without  requiring  the  edges  to  be  luted  down  with  some  cement. 

New  Fluid  Medium  for  Preserving  Zoological  Objects,  f  —  G. 
Marpmann  recommends  a  solution  composed  of  glycerin  10,  chloral 
hydrate  5,  common  salt  5,  water  80.  After  the  animals  are  washed 
they  are  immersed  in  the  above  fluid,  which  in  about  a  week  is  replaced 
by  a  fresh  quantity.  The  old  fluid  can  be  used  for  the  preliminary 
treatment  of  other  preparations.  If  the  animals  be  soft,  or  the  speci- 
men contain  much  blood,  it  is  advisable  to  add  about  5  p.c.  of  formalin. 

Modification  of  Cornet's  Forceps.^ — Dr.  Leshure  devised  a  modifica- 
tion of  Cornet's  cover-glass  forceps,  which  has  the  advantage  of  being  able 
to  manipulate  a  slide  as  well  as  a  slip.  The  jaws  terminate  in  T-pieces 
which,  being  ground  on  their  opposing  surfaces,  grasp  a  slip  or  slide 
firmly  and  allow  of  no  sliding  motion,  the  effect  being  enhanced  by  extra 
stiffness  of  the  spring  handles. 

Preserving  Intestinal  Worms.§ — Barbagallo  recommends  a  2-3  p.c. 
solution  of  formalin  in  distilled  water  with  |  p.c.  common  salt  for  pre- 
serving worms  and  other  soft  animals.  The  parasites  do  not  shrink,  and 
keep  their  colour  well. 

Mounting  Fish  for  Museums.  || — S.  E.  Meek  describes  the  method 
adopted  in  museums  for  putting  up  fish.  The  procedure  consists  of 
3  parts  :  (1)  preparation  and  preservation ;  (2)  painting ;  (3)  setting  up  the 
glass  boxes.  The  animals  are  killed  with  10  p.c.  alcohol  and  are  after- 
wards preserved  in  strong  alcohol,  or  fixed  first  in  formalin  1-20  and 
afterwards  transferred  to  strong  spirit.  The  natural  colours  are  repre- 
sented by  means  of  water-ground  pigments  and  occasionally  some  marine 
blue.  Paints  containing  lead  or  chrome  yellow  are  unsuitable.  The 
fish  are  fastened  in  oblong  glass  boxes  by  means  of  gelatin.  For  the 
details  of  the  manipulation  the  original  may  be  consulted. 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital.,  1901,  pp.  224-6. 
t  Zeitschr.  angew.  Mikr.,  vii.  (1901)  p.  235. 
I  Med.  News  N.Y.,  lxxiv.  (1899)  p.  556. 

8  Berlin  Tierarztl.  Wochensclir..  1901,  No.  36.    See  Zeitschr.  angew.  Mikr.,  vii. 
(1901)  p.  241.  ||  Aiuer.  Naturalist,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  53-61  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


259 


New  Injection  Syringe  for  Bacteriological  Purposes.* — Dr.  F. 
Inghilleri  has  invented  a  syringe  (fig.  59)  which  consists  of  a  glass  tube 
divided  by  constrictions  into  thi"ee  portions  ABC.  B  is  the  receiver 
for  the  fluid  to  be  injected.  It  may  be  made  of  different  capacities,  is 
marked  with  a  scale,  and  ends  in  a  nozzle  on  which  the  trocar  fits.  The 
expansion  G  is  intended  to  provide  against  the  fluid  being  accidentally 
drawn  into  the  air  chamber  A,  the  lower  part  of  which  is  stuffed  with 
cotton-wool.     The  piston  D  works  in  A.     The  piston-rod  is  a  hollow 


'\ 


9 


Fig.  60 


Fig.  59. 


Fig.  61. 


tube  and  its  upper  end  carries  a  cap  over  which  the  thumb  is  pressed 
during  injection.  When  the  apparatus  is  to  be  sterilised  the  piston 
is  removed  and  the  trocar  inserted  in  A.  after  the  lower  end  has  been 
plugged  with  cotton-wool.  The  object  of  the  hollow  piston-rod  is  to 
allow  the  plunger  to  be  pushed  down  if  the  receiver  B  does  not  fill  suffi- 
ciently. 

Stand  for  Holding  Slides.f — K.  Holzapfel  describes  a  frame  or  stand 
for  holding  a  considerable  number  of  slides.  The  apparatus  is  intended 
for  the  treatment  of  paraffin  serial  sections.  It  is  made  of  glass  and  is  so 
constructed  that  it  fits  inside  a  glass  jar.  The  construction  and  the  way 
it  is  intended  to  be  used  are  easily  gathered  from  an  inspection  of  the 
accompanying  illustrations  (figs.  60  and  61). 


»  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1*  Abt.  Oiig  ,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  171-3  (2  figs.), 
t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.  u.  Entwickl.,  lix.  (1901)  pp.  457-9  (2  figs.). 

S  2 


260 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


New  Cover-glass  Forceps.* — T.  J.  Davis  has  invented  a  forceps  for 
holding  cover-glasses  whilst  staining  and  decolorising  in  bacteriological 
■work.     The  material,  which  is  an  alloy  used  by  dentists,  possesses  con- 


Fig.  G2. 


siderable  elasticity  and  is  not  damaged  by  dilute  acids.  The  shape  of 
the  instrument  is  shown  in  the  illustrations  (figs.  62  and  63),  and  from 
these  it  will  be  seen  that  when  A  and  B  are  compressed  C  and  D  open 
to  receive   the  cover-glass,  which  is   then  held  in  position   by  slight 


3*-raj 

■tot,     v' 

t^i^A^ 

- 

■  sT^53* 

Fig.  63. 

pressure  on  four  points  of  C  and  D.  From  the  construction  of  the 
instrument  it  is  evident  that  it  may  be  laid  down  without  fear  of  con- 
taminating the  film. 

Practical  Filtering  Apparatus,  f — Prof.  H.  Preisz  has  devised  an 
apparatus  for  filtering  diphtheria  serum  and  such  like  fluids.  It  consists 
of  two  parts,  the  upper  being  the  filter  proper  and  the  lower  the  re- 
ceptacle. The  filter  is  a  Nordtmeyer-Berkefeld  bougie,  the  lip  of 
which  (see  fig.  64,  one-third  natural  size)  is  clamped  to  that  of  the  re- 
ceptacle, caoutchouc  rings  intervening  to  render  the  joints  air-tight. 

*  Journ.  Quek.  Micr.  Club,  viii.  (1901)  pp.  155-6  (2  figs.). 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  173-4  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


261 


The  lower  portion  or  receptacle  has  a  funnel-shaped  upper  end,  the  tube 
of  which  passes  through  a  rubber  stopper  into  the  flask.  Into  the  main 
tube  is  let  a  secondary  tube  bent  at  right 
angles,  the  outlet  end  of  which  is  connected 
with  an  exhaust  apparatus.  The  method  of 
action  is  easily  understandable  from  the  ac- 
companying illustration. 

Results  of  Chilling  Copper-Tin  Alloys.* 
— Messrs.  Heycock  and  Neville  describe 
their  experiments.  Their  results,  which  do 
not  lend  themselves  to  abstraction,  are  il- 
lustrated by  a  series  of  photomicrographs 
showing  very  remarkable  changes  in  the 
metals  under  the  influence  of  the  treatment. 


Crystallisation  produced  in  Solid  Metal 
by  Pressure.f — W.  Campbell  describes  tho 
change  of  micro-structure  produced  by  ham- 
mering a  button  of  tin.  He  found  that  even 
the  slight  pressure  exerted  in  the  use  of  a 
file  affected  the  structure.  Lead,  cadmium, 
and  zinc  were  similarly  affected. 

Copper-Iron  Alloys.  J  —  After  quoting 
the  results  obtained  by  previous  investiga- 
tors in  the  formation  of  copper-iron  alloys, 
J.  E.  Stead  surmises  that  their  discordancies 
must  be  due  to  disregard  of  the  presence  or 
absence  of  carbon  in  their  irons.  He  there- 
fore first  describes  his  experiences  with  cop- 
per and  commercially  pure  iron,  and  con- 
cludes, as  the  result  of  very  many  experi- 
ments, that : — 

(1)  Copper  and  iron  alloy  in  every  pro- 
portion by  direct  fusion,  and  in  none  of  the 
alloys  is  there  any  tendency  for  the  metals 
to  separate  into  two  conjugate  liquid  layers. 

(2)  That  the  complete  series  of  alloys 
may  be  classed  into  three  distinct  sections  : — 

A.  Alloys  with  traces  to  2*73  p.c. 

iron  and  97*20  p.c.  copper. 

B.  Alloys   with    between   2*73    p.c. 

iron  and  97*20  p.c.  copper, 
and  92  *  00  p.c.  iron  and  about 
8  *  00  p.c.  copper. 

C.  Alloys  containing  between  8  *  0  p.c. 

and  traces  of  copper. 
In  his  experiments  with  a  carbon-iron  Fig.  64. 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  Ixviii. ;  Metallographist,  v.  (l'J02)  pp.  41-52  (7  figs.). 

t  Metallographist,  v.  (1902)  pp.  57-8  (3  figs.). 

J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  25-41  (6  figs.);  and  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  Sept.  1901. 


262  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

he  found  that  the  effect  of  the  carbon  was  to  limit  the  amount  of  the 
copper  which  could  be  alloyed  with  the  iron. 

Crystalline  Structure  of  Metals.  *  —  The  above  was  the  subject  of 
the  Bakerian  Lecture  by  Prof.  Ewing  and  Mr.  Kosenhain  before  the 
Eoyal  Society.  The  writers  dealt  with  a  hranch  of  the  subject  hitherto 
somewhat  overlooked,  viz.  the  effects  of  strain.  They  believe  that  they 
have  established  the  fact  that  the  structure  of  metals  is  crystalline,  even 
under  conditions  which  might  be  supposed  to  destroy  crystalline  struc- 
ture. They  found  that  ihe  plastic  yielding  of  metals  when  severely 
strained  occurs  in  such  a  manner  that  the  crystalline  structure  is  pre- 
served. The  distinction  which  is  often  drawn  between  crystalline  and 
non-crystalline  states  in  metals  appears  to  be  unfounded.  The  difficulty 
of  obtaining  a  good  surface  on  the  more  fusible  metals  (e.g.  lead,  zinc, 
and  tin)  by  polishing  was  avoided  by  pouring  the  molten  metal  upon 
glass  or  polished  steel,  in  contact  with  which  it  was  allowed  to  solidify. 
In  the  case  of  lead,  another  method  of  obtaining  a  good  surface  was  also 
used.  A  face  of  the  specimen  was  freshly  cut  to  remove  the  tarnish,  and 
was  then  pressed  against  a  smooth  surface  of  plate  glass.  Whenever  a 
sufficient  pressure  could  be  reached  without  breaking  the  glass,  a  very 
beautiful  surface  was  obtained.  In  some  specimens  a  quantity  of  air- 
bubbles  appeared  arising  from  the  imprisonmont  of  air  between  the 
metal  and  the  glass  surface,  or  arising  from  air  occluded  or  dissolved  in 
the  metal  itself.  These  bubbles  always  took  a  geometrical  form,  and 
they  were  of  great  assistance  in  elucidating  the  phenomena.  It  was 
found  that,  although  the  "  grains  "  (or  crystal  aggregates)  suffered  de- 
formation, the  individual  crystals  preserved  the  same  orientation.  The 
effect  of  strain  was  in  reality  to  cause  a  slipping  of  one  grain  in  whole 
or  in  part  over  another.  The  effects  of  such  movements  were  to  cause 
a  series,  or  several  series,  of  lines  in  the  microscopic  field,  and  their 
true  nature  was  recognised  by  oblique  illumination. 

In  their  second  paper  f  on  this  subject  the  authors  state  that  their 
object  was  to  study  the  phenomena  of  annealing.  It  is  well  known  that 
prolonged  annealing  tends  to  produce  large  crystals  in  iron  and  steel. 
But  even  short  exposure  at  a  suitable  temperature  produces  complete 
recrystallisation,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  these  changes  occur  at 
critical  points  corresponding  to  the  arrest-points  in  the  cooling  of  the 
metal.  These  arrest-points  indicate  evolutions  of  heat,  and  it  is  natural 
to  suppose  that  they  are  evidences  of  rearrangement  of  the  structure  of 
the  metal.  It  was  hoped  that  this  change  could  be  observed  under  the 
Microscope ;  but,  although  the  experimental  difficulties  of  keeping  a 
specimen  under  microscopic  observation  while  it  was  being  heated  were 
successfully  overcome,  the  attempt  to  watch  the  recrystallisation  of  iron 
failed.  It  was  found  that  it  could  not  be  expected  to  see  the  process  of 
recrystallisation  in  any  metal  where  etching,  staining,  or  relief  polishing 
is  needed  to  differentiate  the  constituents.  Attention  was  therefore 
turned  to  more  fusible  metals,  especially  lead.  With  this  metal  great 
success  was  obtained,  and  it  was  found  that  in  lead  which  has  been 
severely  strained  recrystallisation  goes  on  at  all  temperatures,  from  that 

*  Phil.  Trans.,  exciii.  (1899)  pp.  353-75  (14  pie.  of  51  microphotos). 
t  Op.  cit.,  exev.  (1900)  pp.  279-301  (13  pis.  of  38  microphotos). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  263 

of  an  ordinary  room  up  to  the  melting-point.  A  set  of  plates  illustrates 
the  results  obtained.  These  give  a  series  of  views  of  a  single  specimen 
of  crushed  lead  taken  at  intervals  during  six  months,  showing  the  growth 
of  crystals  at  the  air-temperature,  seen  under  oblique  light  and  magnified 
12  diameters.  The  metal  was  scored  in  unsymmetrical  shapes,  so  as  to 
facilitate  identification  of  the  same  crystals.  Great  pains  were  taken 
to  secure  a  constant  direction  of  the  oblique  light.  The  metal  was 
always  prepared  by  etching  a  piece  of  ordinary  plumbers'  lead  by  dilute 
nitric  acid,  and  by  viewing  when  wet.  The  large  size  of  the  crystals 
rendered  low  powers  and  oblique  light  very  suitable. 

■Gage,  Simon  H. — The  Microscope. 

[Includes  for  the  first  time  the  microscopical  examination  of  photomicro- 
graphy of  metallic  surfaces.] 

8th  ed.,  Comstock  Publishing  Co.,  Ithaca.  New  York. 
Henocque,  A. — La  spectroscopic  et  la  niicroscopie  en  anatoime  generale. 

Comptes   Rend.   13   Congr.  tnternat.  de  Med.  Sect. 
d'Hist.  et  d'Embryol,  Paris,  1900,  p.  145. 
Hows,  H.  M. — Metallurgical  Laboratory  Notes. 
[Gives  much  attention  to  metallography.] 

Published  by  Boston  Testing  Laboratories. 

Koenigsberger,   J. — Zur  optischen  Bestimmung  der  Erze.      (On  the  Optical 

Determination  of  Ores.)  Centralbl.  f.  Mineral.,  1901,  No.  7,  p.  195. 

L  angle y,  J.  N. — Practical  Histology.        London  (Macmillan),  1901,  8vo,  340  pp. 

Malcolm,  J. — Influence  of  Stain  Solvent  on  Protoplasmic  Staining. 

Proc.  Scot.  Micr.  Soc,  III.  (1900-1)  pp.  76-8. 
Masohke,    O. — Mikroskopische   Studien  iiber    die    Krystallisation    des    Gypses. 
(Microscopical  Studies  on  the  Crystallisation  of  Gypsum.) 

Zeit.  f.  Erystallogr.,  XXXIII.  (1900)  p.  57. 
Mil  ROY,  T.  H. — Protoplasmic  Staining. 

Proc.  Scot.  Micr.  Soc,  III.  (1900-1)  pp.  73-5. 
Richter,   O. — Mikrochemische   Nachweis   des   Kobalts  als  Ammonium-Kobalto- 
phosphat.     (Microcliemical  Determination  of  Cobalt  as  Ammonium  cobaltophos- 
phate.)  Tschermalc's  Mineral,  u.  Petrog.  Mittheil.,  XX.  (1901)  pp.  99-109. 

Schmorl,  G. — Die  pathologisch-histologischen  Untersuchungsmethoden.     (Patho- 
logical and  Histological  Investigation  Methods.) 

2nd  ed.,  Leipzig  (Vogel),  1901,  8vo,  263  pp. 
Smith,  Sydney,  W. — The  Microstructure  of  Metals  and  Alloys. 

[A  useful  practical  paper,  mainly  dealing  with  general  methods.] 

Journ.  Quek.  Micr.  Club,  Nov.  1901,  pp.  125-30  (1  pi.  of  6  figs.). 
Strehl,  K. — TJeber  Achromasie. 

[Explains  the  formulae  :  specially  with  reference  to  telescopes.] 

Central-Zeit.  f.  Opt.  u.  Mech.,  XXIII.  (Feb.  1902)  p.  21. 
Tedeschi,  A.,  &  A.  Bosselli — A  Self-regulating  Electric  Thermostat. 

Centralbl.  Bakt,  1"  Abt.,  XXX.  (1901)  pp.  969-76  (5  figs.). 
Williams,  J.  Leon — Use  and  Value  of  the  Microscope  in  Dentistry. 

Journ.  Brit.  Dental  Ass.,  XXIII.  (1902)  pp.  1-19  (13  figs.). 


264 


PKOCEEDINGS   OF  THE   SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  19th  of  February,  1902,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  "WV 
Wm.  Carruthers,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  Vice-President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  January  15th,  1902,  were  read  and 
confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  Chairman. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society,  exclusive  of  exchanges  and 
reprints,  received  since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of 
the  Society  were  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 
Calkins,  Gary  N.,  The  Protozoa.     (8 vo,  New  York,  1901)       ..         The  Publishers. 

Seward,  A.  C,  The  Jurassic  Flora.     Part  i.     (8vo,  London,]  ,,     ^  -t*^ wrS     „. 
1Q^..  '  {  the  British  Museum' 

1Vl)l) |  {Nat.  Hist.) 

The  Chairman  said,  that  if  the  Fellows  had  looked  at  the  interesting 
exhibits  on  the  tables,  by  Messrs.  Beck,  they  would  doubtless  have 
been  struck  by  the  very  clear  and  instructive  specimens  shown  of 
typical  bacteria.  So  clear  were  they  that  no  difficulty  need  in  future 
be  experienced  in  recognising  them  when  met  with.  The  Chairman  felt 
sure  that  it  was  the  wish  of  all  present  that  the  thanks  of  the  Society 
be  conveyed  to  Messrs.  Beck  for  their  extremely  interesting  exhibit. 


The  Secretary  read  a  paper  by  Mr.  Nelson  on  "  Polarising  with 
the  Microscope."  At  the  conclusion  of  the  paper  Dr.  Hebb  mentioned 
that  Mr.  Nelson,  who,  unfortunately,  was  unable  to  attend  that  evening, 
proposed  to  put  an  addendum  to  his  paper,  which  he  asked  the  Meeting 
to  take  as  read. 

Mr.  G.  C.  Karop  said  he  thought  it  would  be  a  great  advantage  if 
a  tourmaline  could  be  rendered  effective,  as  at  present  Nicol's  prisms 
were  so  expensive.  He  thought,  however,  that  a  sufficiently  large 
piece  of  flawless  tourmaline  would  be  as  expensive  as  a  Nicol's  prism. 

A  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Nelson  for  his  paper  was  passed  by  the 
Meeting. 

The  Chairman  said  he  had  to  announce  the  death  of  their  Editor, 
Mr.  Bennett,  so  long  a  Fellow  of  the  Society,  and  for  many  years 
Editor  of  their  Journal.  At  the  wish  of  the  Council,  he  had  been 
present  at  his  burial,  to  represent  the  Society.  They  had  obtained  a. 
short    biography  of  Mr.  Bennett    from  Mr.  Baker,  the    distinguished 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY.  265 

botanist,  and  his  old  and  intimate  friend.  This  would  be  published  in 
their  Journal.  Both  Mr.  Bennett  and  Mr.  Baker  were  members  of  the 
Society  of  Friends,  and  at  the  burial  of  the  former  it  had  been  interest- 
ing to  the  Chairman  to  see  that,  so  far  as  a  Friend's  burial  can  be 
said  to  be  conducted  by  anyone,  Mr.  Bennett's  had  been  conducted  by 
Mr.  Baker. 

The  Secretary  then  read  the  Biography  of  Mr.  A.  W.  Bennett. 

The  Chairman  said  he  felt  sure  that  they  were  much  indebted  to 
Mr.  Baker  for  this  detailed  account  of  Mr.  Bennett  and  his  work.  All 
present  who  knew  the  deceased  gentleman  would  appreciate  the  kindly 
and  loving  words  used  by  Mr.  Baker.  The  Council  had  already  re- 
corded their  thanks  to  Mr.  Baker  for  his  kindness,  and  doubtless  the 
Fellows  present  would  wish  to  do  the  same.  The  Biography  would  be 
accompanied  by  a  portrait  of  Mr.  Bennett  and  be  published  in  the  next 
number  of  their  Journal. 

The  Chairman  said  that  this  terminated  the  business  on  the  paper 
before  him.  He  had  only  to  announce  that  the  next  Meeting  would  be 
held  on  March  19th,  1902.  He  hoped  that  their  President  would  then 
be  present.  This  gentleman  was  now  having  a  holiday  in  the  Medi- 
terranean after  his  long  life  of  active  service.  He  had  over- exerted 
himself,  and  he  was,  in  consequence,  laid  up  for  a  time  ;  otherwise  he 
would  have  been  present  that  evening,  and  he  had  no  doubt  he  would  be 
present  at  their  next  Meeting. 


The  following  Objects  were  exhibited:— 

Mr.  Conrad  Beck  :  —  Pneumococcus  ;  Streptococcus  of  Erysipelas  ; 
Comma  Bacillus  of  Cholera;  Bacillus  of  Bubonic  Plague;  Bacillus: 
coli  communis,  showing  flagella ;  Bacillus  of  Glanders ;  Bacillus  of 
Leprosy ;  Bacillus  of  Skin  ;  Bacillus  of  Tetanus ;  Bacillus  typhosus, 
showing  flagella. 

New  Fellows:— The  following  were  elected  Ordinary  Fellows  : — 
Messrs.  Alexander  Eugen  Conrady,  David  Hughes  Davies,  Win.  Gardner, 
and  Rev.  Hy.  Aid  win  Soames. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  19th  of  Makoh,  1902,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W. 
Dr.  Henry  Woodward,  F.R.S.,  &c,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  W.  Carruthers,  F.R.S.,  late  President  of  the  Society,  addressing 
the  Fellows  from  the  dais,  said  it  was  usual  when  the  President  of  a 
Society  took  the  chair  for  the  first  time,  that  he  should  do  so  at  the 
Annual  Meeting  on  the  occasion  of  his  election  to  the  office.  It  hap- 
pened, however,  that  his  friend  and  late  fellow  officer  at  the  Natural 
History  Museum  was  in  a  foreign  land  at  the  time   of  their  Annual 


266  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

Meeting,  and  had  been,  in  consequence,  unable  to  be  present  then ;  but 
be  was  glad  to  say  be  was  witb  them  that  evening.  In  now  asking  bim 
to  take  the  Chair  as  their  President,  be  desired  very  cordially  to  com- 
mend bim  to  the  Fellows  as  one  who  would  be  found  in  every  way 
worthy  of  the  position  to  which  they  had  elected  bim.  Personally  be 
could  say  that  he  had  known  him  and  worked  witb  bim  for  many  years, 
and  the  longer  be  knew  Dr.  Henry  Woodward  the  better  did  be  esteem 
him.  He  was  very  glad  to  know  that  the  office  which  he  had  himself 
held — lie  feared  somewhat  inefficiently — during  the  last  two  years,  was 
now  to  be  filled  by  so  distinguished  a  naturalist  as  Dr.  Woodward. 

Dr.  Woodward — who  on  taking  the  Chair  was  received  witb  ap- 
plause— thanked  the  Fellows  of  the  Society  for  the  honour  which  they 
had  done  him  in  electing  him  as  their  President,  and  expressed  a  hope 
that  during  the  period  when  be  occupied  that  Chair  he  should  be  able 
faithfully  to  perform  his  duties  to  the  Society  ;  certainly  he  could  assure 
them  it  would  not  be  through  any  want  of  effort  on  his  part  if  he  failed 
to  do  so. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  19th  February,  1902,  were  read  and 
confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  President. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society,  exclusive  of  exchanges  and 
reprints  received  since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of 
the  Society  were  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 

{'hapman,  F.     The  Foramhrifera.     (8 vo,  London,  1902)    ..  Tlie  Publishers. 

Bolles  Lee  et  Henneguy.     Methodes  Techniques  de  l'Ana-"!         „,,      .    .. 

tomie  Microecopique.     (8vo,  Paris,  1902)      j        me  Authors. 

Recueil  de  lTnstitut  Botanique  (Universite  de  Bruxelles)}  The  Director  of 

Tome  v.     Bruxelles,  1902         I     Ulmtitut  Botanique. 


The  President  said  they  had  the  advantage  that  evening  of  an  ex- 
hibition of  Foraminifera  arranged  by  Mr.  Earland,  and  shown  under 
ahout  twenty  Microscopes  lent  by  Messrs.  Baker  and  other  friends  for 
the  occasion.  He  was  sure  it  would  be  their  pleasure  to  return  their 
thanks  to  Mr.  Earland  for  this  very  interesting  exhibition,  and  also  to 
those  who  bad  so  kindly  placed  Microscopes  at  bis  disposal  for  the 
purpose. 

A  vote  of  thanks  to  these  gentlemen  was  put  and  carried  by  acclama- 
tion. 

Mr.  C.  Seek  exhibited  and  described  Prof.  Huntingdon's  new  stage 
with  orientating  motions,  designed  specially  for  use  in  the  examination 
of  minerals.  He  also  exhibited  a  Microscope  fitted  with  an  observing 
prism  and  eye-piece  for  use  in  photomicrography,  by  means  of  which 
the  object  could  be  seen  and  focussed  accurately  without  disturbing^tbe 
camera — the  focus  as  seen  through  the  tube  being  exactly  the  same  as 
that  of  the  image  upon  the  ground  glass.  It  was  explained  that  the 
success  of  this   arrangement  depended  upon   the  accuracy  with  which 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY.  267 

the  right-angled  prism  was  figured  and  polished,  and  how  perfectly  this 
had  been  done  in  the  instrument  before  them  was  rendered  evident  by 
the  clear  resolution  of  a  slide  of  Amphipleura  pellucida  placed  on  the 
stage.  The  prism  is  carried  in  a  sliding  fitting,  and  may  be  placed  in 
or  out  of  use  without  interfering  with  any  adjustments  of  the  instru- 
ment. 

Mr.  F.  W.  Watson  Baker,  for  Messrs.  W.  Watson  and  Sons,  ex- 
hibited a  Microscope  fitted  with  a  new  two-speed  fine  adjustment.  The 
ordinary  single  micrometer-screw  carries  a  milled  stem  of  small  dia- 
meter, of  convenient  length,  above  the  usual  large  milled  head.  The 
former  may  be  rolled  rapidly  between  thumb  and  finger  to  obtain  a 
quick  fine  adjustment,  whilst  the  full-sized  milled  head  remains  available 
for  a  final  delicate  adjustment.  The  ratio  between  the  two  speeds  is 
obviously  that  of  the  diameters  of  the  milled  head  and  the  milled  stem 
respectively,  which  in  the  case  of  the  instrument  exhibited  was  about 
six  to  one,  but  the  speed  may  be  varied  to  suit  individual  requirements. 
He  also  showed  their  well-known  "  Fram  "  Microscope  fitted  with  a 
mechanical  stage,  as  in  the  "  H  "  Edinburgh  Student's  Microscope,  but 
without  the  revolving  top-plate. 

On  the  motion  of  the  President,  votes  of  thanks  were  passed  to 
Mr.  Beck  and  to  Mr.  Baker  for  their  exhibits  and  the  explanations  given. 


Dr.  Hebb  said  they  had  received  another  paper  from  Mr.  F.  W. 
Millett,  being  Part  13  of  his  series  of  communications  '  On  the  Fora- 
minifera  of  the  Malay  Archipelago.'  This  paper,  like  those  which  had 
preceded  it,  would  be  taken  as  read,  and  would  appear  in  due  course  in 
the  Journal. 

Mr.  C.  F-  Rousselet  presented  a  third  list  of  new  Eotifers  which 
•had  been  discovered  since  1889.  The  introduction  to  this  paper  only 
was  read,  in  which  it  was  stated  that  the  additions  now  recorded  were 
98  in  number,  making  in  all  393  new  species  since  the  time  of  Hudson 
and  Gosse.  Occasion  was  taken  to  protest  strongly  against  persons  who 
were  unacquainted  with  what  had  already  been  done,  giving  new  names 
to  old  species  which  they  themselves  had  found  for  the  first  time  ;  the 
value  of  careful  drawings  or- mounted  type  specimens  being  pointed  out 
as  a  means  of  preventing  this  cause  of  confusion. 

The  President  said  that  the  thanks  of  the  Meeting  had  already  been 
signified  by  the  way  in  which  this  paper  had  been  received.  He  hoped, 
however,  that  it  would  not  be  long  before  Mr.  Eousselet  would  be  able 
to  give  them  the  figures  as  well  as  the  descriptions  of  the  Eotifers 
referred  to. 

The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  &c,  were  exhibited: — 
Messrs.  E.  and  J.  Beck : — Prof.  Huntingdon's  Tilting  Stage.     Ob- 
serving Prism  for  use  in  Photomicrography. 

Messrs.  W.Watson  and  Sons: — A  new  Two-speed  Fine  Adjustment. 
The  "  Club  Fram  "  Microscope. 


268  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

Mr.  A.  Earland  :     The  following  Foraminifera  : — 

1.  Family  Miliolidae.  Peneroplis  pertusw  Forskal.  A  series  of 
specimens  illustrating  the  range  of  variation  between  the  extreme 
varieties  P.  planatus  F.  and  M.,  and  P.  Utuus  Gmelin. 

2.  Family  Astrorhizidse.  Technitella  legumen  Norman.  From 
Philippine  Islands,  120  fathoms,  and  Timor  Sea,  50  fathoms. 

3.  Family  Lituolidae.  Webbina  clavata  J.  and  P.  Normal  speci- 
mens, and  specimens  with  minute  primordial  chamber  and  prolonged 
stolon  tube.     Possibly  megalosplieric  and  microspheric  varieties. 

4.  Family  Textularidse.     Bulimina  pyrula  d'Orb. 

5.  Bolivina  beyrichi  Eeuss ;  and  variety  alata  Seguenza. 

6.  Family  Lagenidae.  A  type-slide  illustrating  sixty  varieties  of  the 
genus  Lagena. 

7.  Group  of  the  genus  Lagena,  illustrating  the  chief  forms  of  orna- 
ment developed. 

8.  Lagena  radiato-marginata  P.  and  J.  From  Challenger  Station, 
Kaine  Island,  Torres  Straits,  155  fathoms. 

9.  Family  Globigerinidse.  Globigerina  sequilateralis  Brady.  Spin- 
ous specimen  in  situ  in  globigerina  ooze,  from  a  sounding,  Bay  of 
Bengal,  1300  fathoms. 

10.  Orbulina  itniversa  d'Orb.  Specimens  cut  open  to  show  the  in- 
ternal globigerine  chambers  in  situ. 

11.  Family  Kotalidse.  Truncatulina  prsecincta  Karrer.  And  internal 
glauconitic  casts  of  the  sarcode  body. 

12.  Botalia  papulosa  Brady.  And  internal  glauconitic  casts  of  the 
sarcode  body  and  secondary  skeleton. 

13.  Calcarina  hispida  Brady.  And  internal  casts  of  the  sarcode 
body  and  secondary  skeleton. 

14.  Family  Numraulinidae.  Polystomella  craticulata  F.  and  M. 
And  internal  casts  showing  megalospheric  primordial  chamber,  retral 
processes  and  secondary  skeleton. 

15.  "  Plastogamy  "  in  Foraminifera.  Single  and  double  (twin)  speci- 
mens of — Textularia  folium  P.  and  J;  Verneuilina  spimtlosa  Keuss 
variety  ;  Patellina  corrugata  Williamson  ;  Discorbina  pileolus  d'Orb. 

16.  The  Arenaceous  Test.  Examples  of  neat  construction  and  finish, 
including — Haplophragmium folia ceum  Brady;  Trochammiva  trullissata 
Brady  ;  Meophax  spnculifera  Brady. 

17.  "Dimorphism"  in  Foraminifera.  Frondicularia  alata  d'Orb. 
From  Cuba.  Megalospheric  specimens  regularly  frond iculari an  ;  micro- 
spheric  specimens,  at  first  flabelline  then  frondicularian. 

18.  Group  of  Foraminifera,  from  Anchor  Mud,  Trondhjeim  Fjord, 
Norway.     Typical  Northern  forms. 

19.  Circle  slide,  including  most  of  the  known  British  species. 

20.  Typical  coral  mud  species,  from  Timor  Sea,  50  fathoms. 

21.  Circle  slide,  of  about  300  of  the  most  beautiful  species  from  all 
parts  of  the  world. 


West  o  Ht"h . 


iaebae 


JOUENAL 

OP    THB 

ROYAL  MICROSCOPICAL  SOCIETY. 

JUNE  1902. 


TRANSACTIONS   OF  THE   SOCIETY. 


VII. — The  Genus  Synchceta  : 
A  Monographic  Study,  with  Descriptions  of  Five  New  Species. 

By  Charles  F.  Bousselet,  Curator  and  F.R.M.S. 

(Read  June  18th,  1902.) 
Plates  III.  to  VIII. 

Some  of  the  members  of  this  genus  are  amongst  the  commonest 
Rotifers  inhabiting  fresh-water  lakes  and  ponds,  as  well  as  brackish 
tide  pools  and  the  open  sea.  Being  also  of  fair  size  they  will 
necessarily  have  been  amongst  the  Rotifers  observed  by  the  early 
investigators  with  the  Microscope.  Pastor  Eichhorn  (1761)  and 
F.  0.  Miiller  (1786)  are  probably  the  earliest  authors  who  have 
left  sketches  that  can  be  recognised  as  Rotifers  belonging  to  this 
genus,  but  the  species  cannot  be  determined.  Our  real  knowledge 
of  these  Rotifers  dates  from  about  1831  to  1834,  when  Prof. 
Ehrenberg  determined  four  species  of  Synchseta : — S.  pectinata, 
tremula,  oblonga,  and  baltica.  Up  to  1886,  when  Hudson  and 
Gosse's  monograph  was  published,  these  four  remained  the  only 
known  kinds,  and  in  the  Supplement  published  in  1889  only  two 
more  species,  S.  longipes  and  gyrina,  were  added  to  the  list.     At 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE   III. 

Fig.  1. — Synchseta  pectinate^  Ehrbg.  $      Dorsal  view,     x  250. 

?     Dorsal  view.     X  375. 


„    2 

n 

oblonga  Ebrb 

„    2a\ 
»     26/ 

»> 

»»            »> 

„    3 

tremula  Ebrb 

„     3a 

H 

ii            »i 

„     36 

»> 

»>            » 

June  18th, 

1902 

The  male,  dorsal  and  side  views,     x  400 

9     Dorsal  view.     X  300. 
The  male,  side  view,     x  450. 
One  uncus  of  the  jaws. 

T 


270  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

the  present  time  I  can   record   the   following  sixteen  species  of 
Synchaeta,  five  of  which  are  here  described  for  the  first  time  :— 


IN   FRESH 

WATER. 

1. 

Synchata  pectinata  Ehrbg. 

Greatest 

size  408  fi  (^  in.). 

2. 

n 

tremula  Ehrbg. 

» 

292  f,  (sV  m.)- 

3. 

» 

oblonga  Ehrbg. 

» 

225  fi  (T|^  in.). 

4. 

Jl 

grandis  Zach. 

>> 

505  fi  (Jq  m.). 

5. 

» 

stylata  Wierz. 

>> 

292  p  (J-  in.). 

6. 

» 

longipes  Gosse. 

>> 

204  p  (j^  in.).. 

7. 

» 

kitina  sp.  n.  Kouss.         „ 

136  /a  (y^  in.)>- 

IN  BRACKISH   WATER. 


8.  Synchceta  tavina  Hood.         Greatest  size    254  fi  (To^  in.). 

9.  „         littoralis  sp.  n.  Kouss.        „  238  /u,  (y£T  in.). 


MARINE. 


10.  Synchceta  haltica  Ehr.         Greatest  size    523  fi  (^  in.). 


11.  „  gyrina  Hood. 

12.  „  triophthalma  Laut. 
[13.  „  monopus  Plate. 

14.  ,,  cecilia  sp.  n.  Kouss. 

15.  „  vorax  sp.  n.  Kouss. 

16.  „  neapolitanas]).ii.  Kouss. 


326  fj.  (7V  in.). 
265  fj,  Q*  in.). 

254  /*  (to  a  in-)- 
142  ^  (Jfo  in). 
340  p  Ofe  in.). 

I63  /"(rk"1-)- 


Both  Prof.  Ehrenberg  and  Mr.  Gosse  have  associated  some 
marine  Synchaetae  with  the  luminosity  of  the  sea,  for  which,  how- 
ever, no  evidence  has  been  produced  other  than  the  fact  that  some 
Synchaetae  were  found  in  water  which  was  luminous  at  the  time. 
Their  own  experiments  showed,  moreover,  that  Synchaeta  was  not 
the  cause  of  the  luminosity,  and  the  sea-water  contained  other 
organisms  such  as  Noctiluca  and  Peridinia  which  are  known  to  be 
luminous. 

The  chief  characteristic  peculiarities  of  the  Synchaetae  are  their 
prominent,  rounded,  ciliated  auricles  situated  on  each  side  of  the 
head,  and  the  more  or  less  cone-shaped  body,  by  means  of  which 
they  can  at  once  be  distinguished  from  all  other  Kotifers.  Their 
internal  organization  also  presents  peculiarities  which  are  not 
found  in  other  families.  The  structure  of  the  large  heart-shaped 
mastax,  containing  a  Y-shaped  finely  striated  muscle,  and  forcipate 
jaws,  is  unique;  then  also  the  four  large,  stiff,  styliform  frontal 
setae,  which  Ehrenberg  thought  were  pincers  connected  with  the 
jaws,  are  very  characteristic  and  conspicuous. 

The  jaws  are  of  large  size,  but  the  parts  are  so  extremely  thin 
and  fine  that  they  will  hardly  sink  in  the  water  when  dissolved  out 
with  potash,  and  their  exact  shape  is  therefore  exceptionally  diffi- 


The  Genus  Synchceta.     By  C.  F.  Rousselet.  271 

cult  to  make  out.  After  considerable  trouble  I  have  obtained  a 
number  of  isolated  clean  jaws  and  have  mounted  them  separately. 
There  are  two  types  of  jaws  in  the  Syncheetse  which  may  be  desig- 
nated as  the  pectinata  and  tremula  types,  and  which  are  represented 
in  fig.  7,  pi.  IV.  and  fig.  10,  pi.  V.  The  main  difference  between 
these  two  types  is  that  in  the  pectinata  type  the  thin  triangular 
unci  have  no  teeth,  whilst  in  the  tremula  type  they  have  six  to 
seven  well  developed  teeth.  In  both  types  the  fulcrum  is  very 
long,  thin  in  front  view  and  wide  or  broad  from  the  side,  and  the 
narrow  manubria,  as  well  as  the  rami,  have  large  rounded,  but 
extremely  thin,  wing-like  lateral  prolongations  which  are  quite 
invisible  in  the  living  animal,  and  can  be  seen  only  when  the  jaws 
have  been  completely  dissolved  out  with  potash,  and  then  only 
satisfactorily  by  a  good  dark-ground  illumination.  When  all  the 
parts  are  in  position  the  jaws  form  a  nearly  globular  structure,  and 
therefore  no  single  view  can  give  a  good  idea  of  the  shape  and  form 
of  the  parts.  By  transmitted  light  only  the  outline  of  these  thin 
plates  is  perceived.  Fig.  7  shows  a  front  view  and  fig.  7a  a  side 
view  of  the  jaws  of  S.  pectinata,  and  fig.  10  a  front  view  of  those  of 
S.  ohlonga,  whilst  fig.  10a  represents  the  unci  and  fig.  105  a  separated 
manubrium  of  the  same.  The  unci  of  S,  tremula,  triophthalma, 
and  vorax  are  shown  in  figs.  3&,  14a,  and  196  respectively.  The 
jaws  as  a  whole  are  nearly  globular  in  shape,  and  therefore  any 
drawing  of  them,  showing  the  various  parts  in  position,  is  bound 
to  be  semi-diagrammatic.  The  unci  are  situated  immediately  below 
the  shield-shaped  mouth,  ready  to  seize  anything  that  may  enter, 
and  a  view  of  them  with  a  high  power  can  readily  be  obtained  in 
the  living  animal  by  adding  one  drop  of  2  p.c.  cocaine,  or  of  1  p.c. 
eucaine,  in  a  watch-glass  full  of  water  containing  the  Synchaata? 
and  then  transferring  some  to  a  compressor,  when  the  animals 
will  soon  fix  themselves  with  their  heads  to  the  cover-glass  and 
remain  there  for  a  long  time  almost  motionless,  except  the  move- 
ment of  cilia.  With  a  high  power  (I  use  a  fine  Zeiss  ^  apochro- 
matic  water-immersion)  this  affords  an  excellent  view  of  the  whole 
front  of  the  head,  which  it  is  otherwise  almost  impossible  to 
obtain. 

The  great  majority  of  Synchaetae  have  jaws  of  the  tremula  type. 
I  do  not  think  any  Synchaeta  can  project  its  jaws  through  the 
mouth,  for  the  unci  are  quite  twice  as  large  as  the  shield-shaped 
mouth-opening.  The  heart-shaped  mastax  contains  in  its  interior 
a  roughly  dumb-bell  shaped  cavity.  The  muscles  of  the  mastax 
can  expand  this  cavity  suddenly,  and  it  is  my  belief  that  by  this 
sucking  action  the  food-particles,  consisting  of  diatoms,  algae,  infu- 
soria, and  small  rotifers,  are  forced  into  the  mouth  when  they  are 
at  once  seized  by  the  unci. 

Figs.  11a  and  12a,  pi.  VI.,  represent  the  front  view  of  the  head 
of  S.  baltica  and  S.  monopus  respectively,  which  have  been  drawn 

T  2 


272  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

and  communicated  to  me  by  Dr.  K.  M.  Levander.  This  arrange- 
ment of  the  mouth,  auricles,  vibratile  cilia,  and  frontal  styles  is 
common  to  all  Synchaetae.  Another  peculiarity  of  all  species  of 
this  genus,  which  has  not  been  described  before,  is  the  single  row 
of  very  fine  short  setae  which  surround  the  shield-shaped  mouth, 
all  curving  over  the  opening  and  forming  a  dome-shaped  screen 
through  which  all  food-particles  must  pass  before  reaching  the 
mouth.  In  some  species  some  of  these  stiff  fine  hairs  can  just  be 
perceived  at  the  extreme  front  from  a  dorsal  view,  but  the  real 
shape  and  structure  of  this  screen  can  only  be  seen  well  from  a 
good  front  view  with  a  high  power. 

There  are  other  bundles  of  sense-hairs  on  the  front  of  the  head 
which  vary  in  different  species  and  are  described  in  their  respective 
places. 

Unlike  what  obtains  in  most  other  Eotifers,  it  appears  that  in 
no  Synchaeta  do  the  lateral  canals  and  flame-ceils  (vibratile  tags) 
extend  much  beyond  the  anterior  end  of  the  gastric  glands.  The 
lateral  canals  lie  close  to  the  walls  of  the  stomach  on  each  side,  if 
they  are  not  actually  fixed  to  them  by  connective  tissue  threads  ; 
near  the  gastric  glands  they  make  a  convolution  to  which  two 
flame-cells  are  usually  attached,  and  send  on  each  side  a  single 
short  branch  forward  which  is  attached  to  the  body-wall  by  a  fine 
thread,  and  terminates  in  one  or  two  flame-cells.  Two  more  flame- 
cells  are  situated  on  the  branch  lying  near  the  middle  of  the 
stomach  on  each  side.  In  no  case  have  I  observed  a  lateral  canal 
or  flame-cell  in  the  head  of  a  Synchaeta.  Posteriorly  the  lateral 
canals  usually  make  a  loop  in  the  wall  of  the  contractile  vesicle 
before  opening  into  it. 

In  all  Synchaetae  the  muscular  bands,  retractors  of  the  head  and 
foot,  are  very  narrow  and  finely  striated. 

The  brain-sac  is  large  and  usually  lobed,  very  transparent  and 
not  readily  seen ;  it  carries  the  cervical  eye,  which  is  a  spherical 
vesicle  filled  with  granules  which  may  be  all  red  or  partly  red  and 
partly  white.  In  the  first  case  the  eye  appears  spherical  as  in  S. 
pcctinata  and  stylata ;  in  the  other  cases,  as  in  S.  tremula,  oblonga, 
tavina,  &c,  it  appears  more  or  less  completely  divided  into  closely 
apposed  halves,  which  may  be  unequal  in  size.  In  two  species, 
i.e.  S.  triophthalma  and  littoralis,  there  is  a  very  fine  double  canal 
connecting  the  cervical  eye  with  two  red  eye-spots  in  the  front  part 
of  the  head ;  the  canals  are  filled  with  numerous  very  fine  red 
granules.  I  have  observed  similar  canals  containing  a  few  scat- 
tered red  granules  occasionally  in  S.  tremula  and  oblonga.  The 
colour  of  the  eyes  of  Synchaeta  is  usually  red,  sometimes  with  a 
tinge  towards  violet.  The  red  may  occasionally  be  so  deep  as  to 
appear  black  by  transmitted  light.  These  eyes  enable  the  Syn- 
chaetae to  perceive  light,  and  they  quickly  collect  to  the  light  side 
of  a  small  aquarium,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  they  can  see 


Ti 


The  Genus  Synchceta.     By  C.  F.  Rousselet.  27 

objects,  as  I  have  shown  to  be  the  case  with  some  other  rotifers, 
such  as  Pedalion  mirum*  They  never  collide  with  others,  how- 
ever, in  their  incessant  and  quick  movements  through  the  water. 

The  eggs  of  Synchaetae  are  clear  and  transparent,  nearly 
spherical,  or  slightly  oval  in  shape,  and  contain  usually  a  small 
cluster  of  golden  yellow  granules.  As  a  rule  the  eggs  are  laid  in 
the  water,  where  they  fall  to  the  bottom,  but  having  a  sticky 
surface  they  adhere  to  any  plant  or  object  which  they  may  touch. 
In  a  few  pelagic  marine  species,  i.e.  S.  baltica,  cecilia,  triophthalmay 
and  ncapolitana,  the  eggs  are  habitually  carried  about,  attached  to 
the  toes  till  hatched.  In  S.  oblonga  I  have  seen  the  extrusion  of 
an  egg :  it  remained  attached  to  the  toes  for  a  few  seconds  and 
then  fell  off.  S.  stylata  has  developed  an  egg  of  very  unusual 
character,  being  surrounded  by  very  fine,  long,  stiff  spines,  about 
three  times  as  long  as  the  diameter  of  the  egg,  which  prevents  it 
from  sinking,  and  the  egg  consequently  floats  in  the  water,  fig.  4a, 
pi.  IV.  All  these  are  summer  eggs  ;  thick-shelled  or  spiny  resting 
eggs  have  not  been  observed  in  any  species.  Dr.  Zacharias  has 
stated  that  in  the  lakes  of  the  north  of  Germany  S.  pectinata  and 
tremula  habitually  carry  their  eggs  attached  to  their  toes,  which 
they  certainly  never  do  in  this  country,  nor  am  I  aware  of  anyone 
else  having  observed  this  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 

The  males  of  Synchaetae  are  rather  rare ;  I  have  seen  those  of 
the  followiDg  species : — &  tremula,  oblonga,  tavina,  cecilia,  vorax, 
ncapolitana,  and  littoralis,  which  are  described  in  their  places  in  the 
following  pages.  Mr.  John  Hood  has  seen  that  of  S.  gyrina,  and 
has  also  reported  to  me  doubtfully  the  male  of  S.  pectinata.  lii 
every  case  the  males  are  very  small,  conical  in  shape,  with  cervical 
eye,  four  frontal  styles,  prominent  dorsal  and  lateral  antennae,  and 
devoid  of  mastax  and  intestine.  It  is  strange,  however,  that  no 
fertilised  resting  egg  has  ever  been  observed  in  any  Synchaeta, 
though  the  males  were  occasionally  present  in  great  numbers. 

The  Synchaetae,  particularly  pectinata  and  tremula,  are  not  in- 
frequently subject  to  both  external  and  internal  parasites.  The 
external  parasites  I  have  observed  consist  of  Infusoria :  a  species 
of  minute  vorticella  with  a  very  short  stalk,  which  attaches  itself 
singly  anywhere  on  the  integument,  and  also  Triclwdina  pedieulus 
the  parasite  of  Hydra,  which  I  have  once  seen  running  all  over  a 
S.  pectinata ;  the  connection,  however,  may  have  been  quite  acci- 
dental and  temporary.  The  internal  parasites  are  more  serious  and 
consist  of  numerous  spherical  bodies,  22  /*  (j^Sq  in.)  in  diameter, 
filled  with  clear  protoplasm  and  some  fine  refractive  granules,  and 
of  elongated  sausage-shaped  bladders  68  /.c  (^4  ]n-)  l°n£  D)r  3  3  •  6  /* 
( -Ya1^  in.)  wide.  At  first  these  latter  are  similar  in  structure  to 
the  spherical  bodies,  but  afterwards  the  whole   bladder  becomes 

•  On    the   Sense  of  "Visicn  in  Botifeis.      Jomn.   QueJ>ett  Blicr.  Club,  vol.  iv. 
pp.  371-3  and  376-7  (1892). 


274  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

filled  with  email  spherical  cells  of  uniform  size,  pi.  VI.  figs.  13  and 
13a.  The  spherical  bodies  are  probably  a  stage  in  the  development 
of  the  elongated  bodies.  The  real  nature  of  these  parasites,  which 
probably  belong  to  the  class  known  as  Sporozoa,  their  development 
and  mode  of  entry,  remain  obscure  ;  they  have  no  motion  of  their 
own,  but  float  in  the  fluid  of  the  body-cavity  on  which  they  live 
and  are  continuously  shifted  about  by  the  contraction  of  the  roti- 
fer's muscles.  The  Synchaetae  do  not  seem  to  be  much  incon- 
venienced by  the  parasites,  but  no  doubt  they  succumb  eventually. 
These  parasitic  protozoa  are  evidently  the  same  which  Dr.  Bertram 
has  described  as  '*  Parasitische  Schlauche  in  der  Leibeshohle  von 
Eotatorien,"*  and  which  he  found  in  some  Brachionus  pala.  They 
have  also  been  mentioned  by  Dr.  Zacharias  as  occurring  in  Syn- 
chaeta  and  named  by  him  Ascosporiduim  blochmanni ;  f  and  Prof. 
A.  Fritsch  has  described  similar  parasites  under  the  name  of 
Ghigea  asperospora.  \  The  parasites  lately  described  by  Mr.  A.  M. 
Przesmycki  §  as  occurring  in  Brachionus  are  of  a  different  nature  ; 
the  latter  are  very  much  smaller  unicellular  cells  which  render 
Brachionus  and  other  rotifers  quite  white  and  milky. 

The  Synchaetae  occur  both  in  fresh  and  brackish  water  and  in 
the  open  sea,  but  it  seems  to  me  that  they  keep  to  their  respective 
elements  and  that  the  fresh-water  species  are  never  found  in  salt 
water,  and  the  salt-water  species  never  in  fresh  water.  If  a  & 
pectinata  be  placed  in  brackish  or  sea  water  it  dies  in  a  few  minutes, 
and  if  the  marine  S.  triophthalma  be  placed  in  fresh  water  the  same 
thing  occurs.  It  cannot  be  supposed  that  salt  water  or  fresh  pond 
water  can  exert  a  poisonous  influence  on  these  species  respectively. 
The  inability  of  these  rotifers  to  live  in  an  element  to  which  they 
are  not  accustomed" is  due  to  the  mechanical  action  of  fluids  having 
different  densities  on  the  cell-contents  of  their  tissues  and  organs. 
The  specific  gravity  of  fresh  water  being  1,  that  of  sea  water  is 
1'027,  and  this  is  quite  sufficient  to  produce  strong  diffusion 
currents  by  osmosis  between  the  outside  fluid  and  that  contained 
in  the  body-cavity,  and  eventually  in  the  cells  of  the  various 
organs.  The  lighter  fluid  will  get  through  the  cell-walls  quicker 
than  the  denser  fluid  can  get  out  and  vice  versa,  with  the  result  that 
the  cells  and  the  whole  animal  will  either  swell  or  shrivel  up,  and 
this  wrill  injure  or  burst  the  delicate  cells  and  completely  stop  the 
functions  of  the  various  organs,  causing  the  death  of  the  animal. 

As  regards  their  appearance,  some  forms  such  as  S.  pectinata, 
tremula,  and  oblonga  can  be  found  all  the  year  round,  but  often 
appear  in  greatest  numbers  in  the  winter  months  or  very  early 

*  Zool.  Jalirbiicher,  Bd.  v.  1892,  pp.  596-600. 

t  Ploner  Forschungsbericbte,  Teil  6,  1898,  p.  48. 

%  Ueber  Parasiten  bei  Crustaceen  und  R'aderthieren  der  siissen  Gew'asser.  Bull. 
Intern,  de  l'Acad^niie  des  Sciences  de  l'Empereur  Frarjc.ois  Joseph  I.,  Prague,  1895. 

§  Ueber  Parasitische  Protozoen  aus  dem  Innern  der  Rotatorieu.  Bull,  de 
l'Acade'mie  des  Sciences  de  Cracovie,  1891. 


The   Genus  Synchceta.     By  G.  F.  Rousselet.  275 

spring ;  other  kinds  like  S.  littoralis,  tavina,  gyrina,  vorax,  cecilia, 
and  kitina  like  a  little  warmer  weather,  but  are  most  erratic  in 
their  sudden  appearance  and  disappearance.  S.  grandis,  stylata, 
and  longipes  I  have  found  only  in  the  summer  months,  July  to 
September,  whilst  the  pelagic  marine  species  S.  baltica,  monopus, 
triophthalma,  and  neapolitana  seem  to  come  to  the  surface  in  the 
summer  when  the  sea  has  been  calm  for  a  considerable  time. 

All  Synchsetse  can  be  prepared  easily  and  preserved  fully 
extended  by  the  method  I  have  described,  of  which  the  following 
are  the  main  stages : — Isolation  in  a  watch-glass  full  of  clean  water  ; 
narcotisation  with  one  or  two  drops  of  2  p.c.  cocaine  or  1  p.c. 
eucaine  for  about  half  an  hour;  killing  and  fixing  with  \  p.c. 
osmic  acid  or  Hermann's  platino-osmic  mixture,  washing  in  water 
(the  marine  species  in  sea  water),  preserving  in  2£  p.c.  formal- 
dehyde. Marine  species  die  fully  extended  when  placed  in  dis- 
tilled water.  I  possess  preserved  specimens  of  all  the  sixteen 
species,  and  they  are  here  under  Microscopes  for  your  inspection. 

I  am  very  greatly  indebted  to  my  friend  Mr.  F.  K.  Dixon- 
Nuttall,  J.P.,  of  St.  Helens,  for  the  excellent  drawings  of  the  various 
species  which  accompany  this  paper,  and  which  he  has  spared  no 
pains  to  make,  with  his  accustomed  skill,  from  the  living  animal 
whenever  possible,  or  from  preserved  specimens ;  it  would  indeed 
bave  been  impossible  for  me  to  have  made  such  life-like  represen- 
tations, which  so  very  greatly  increase  the  value  of  this  memoir,  and 
will  assist  in  the  identification  of  the  various  species.  My  thanks 
are  also  due  to  Mr.  John  Hood,  of  Dundee,  and  Mr.  H.  E.  Hurrell, 
of  Great  Yarmouth,  for  sending  me  living  specimens  of  the  various 
marine  species,  and  to  Dr.  K.  M.  Levander,  of  Helsingfors,  for 
preserved  specimens  of  the  species  living  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  and  for 
the  figures  of  S.  monopus  which  he  has  been  good  enough  to 
send  me. 

It  has  been  found  impracticable  to  draw  all  the  animals  on  a  uni- 
form scale,  as  was  at  first  intended,  because  if  that  had  been  done, 
either  the  smaller  Synchletae  would  have  been  drawn  too  small 
for  recognition,  or  else  the  larger  species  would  have  gone  beyond 
the  limit  of  the  plates.  The  figures  therefore  have  been  drawn 
of  convenient  dimension,  irrespective  of  their  size,  which  must  be 
ascertained  from  the  descriptions.  All  species  vary  considerably  in 
size,  as  the  newly  hatched  individuals  are  only  about  half  the  bulk 
*of  the  adult.  In  most  cases  the  largest  observed  proportions  have 
been  given.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  also,  in  comparing  the  figures 
with  the  living  animals,  that  the  shapes  also  vary  considerably, 
some  species  being  more  conical  when  young,  and  stouter  and 
rounder  occasionally  when  the  food-material  is  exceptionally 
abundant. 

It  has  not  been  the  object  of  this  paper  to  give  an  exhaustive 
description   of  the  minute   anatomy   of    the    various   organs   of 


276  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Synchsetse,  which  on  the  whole  are  much  the  same  as  in  other 
Rotifers,  and  moreover,  would  require  a  separate  volume.  My 
intention  rather  has  been  to  give  a  sufficiently  detailed  description 
and  good  figure  of  each  species,  so  as  to  clear  up  the  existing  un- 
certainty and  allow  any  one  of  the  species  to  be  readily  identified. 
I  trust  this  has  been  accomplished  in  this  memoir  on  which  I  have 
been  at  work  for  some  years  * 

Synehaeta  pectinata  Ehrenberg. 

PI.  III.  fig.  1,  and  PI.  IV.  fig.  7. 

Synonymy. 
Synchceta  mordax  Gosse. 
Synchosta  oblonga  Gosse. 

BIBLIOGBAPHY. 

Ehbenbebg,  G.  F. — Abhandl.  der  Akad.  d.  Wissensch.  zu  Berlin,  1831^ 

p.  135;  1833,  pp.  221,  335,  pi.  x.  fig.  3. 

Die  Infusionsthierchen.    Leipzig,  1838,  p.  437,  pi.  53,  fig.  4. 

Gosse,  P.  H.— Ann.  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,  1851,  p.  197. 

Leydig,  F. — Ueber  den  Bau  u.  Systemat.  Stellung  der  Kadertbiere.    Zeitsch. 

f.  w.  Zool.,  Bd.  vi.  1854,  p.  41. 
Hudson,  C.  T. — Synchaeta  mordax.    Mon.  Micr.  Journ.,  vol.  iv.  1870,  p.  26, 

pi.  56.  prs  . 

Hudson  &  Gosse.— The  Botifera.  London,  1886,  vol.  i.  p.  125,  pi.  13,  fig.  3. 
Webeb,  E.  F. — Faune  Botatorienne  du  bassin  du  Leman.    Bevue  Suisse  de 

Zool.,  Geneve,  1898,  vol.  v.  p.  392,  pi.  16,  fig.  15. 

Spec.  Char.  —  Body  sub-conical,  very  broad  and  convex  an- 
teriorly ;  auricles  large,  more  or  less  pendent ;  two  small  cylin- 
drical fleshy  prominences  bearing  a  broad  brush  of  setse  on  front 
of  head  ;  four  frontal  styles,  the  outer  pair  the  largest ;  eye  round,, 
dark  red  or  bluish-purple  in  colour ;  toes  two,  small,  acute.     Size 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  IV. 

Fig.  4.—  Synehxta  ttylata  Wierz.  9     Dorsal  view.     X  350. 
,.    4a  „  „  „         The  egg.     x  275. 

,,     5  „         longipes  Gosse  ?      Dorsal  view.     X  400. 

6  „         kitina  sp.  n.  Rouss.  ?      Dorsal  view.     X  500. 

„         pectinata  Ehrbg.     The  jaws.     X  275. 


»     7  \ 
„    7aJ 


*  Dr.  Wesenberg-Lund  of  Copenhagen,  in  a  paper  published  in  1900  (Biologisches 
Centralblatt,  Bd.  xx.  Nos.  18  and  19,  1900),  wished  to  recognise  only  two  fresh- 
water species  of  Synchj^ta,  namely  8.  pectinata  and  tremula,  considering  all  the 
other  described  species  as  merely  seasonal  varieties  of  these  main  forms.  I  am  not 
inclined  to  make  or  maintain  new  species  out  of  mere  variations  of  size  or  form,  but 
when  these  are  accompanied  by  constant  internal  and  external  anatomical  characters, 
males  aud  eggs  of  different  shape  and  structure  I  think  it  is  going  too  far  to  fuse 
them  all  into  one  or  two  species.  The  animal  Dr.  Wesenberg-Lund  calls  S.  pectinata 
minor  is  most  probably  S.  ohlonga,  which  may  occasionally  be  6een  carrying  an  egg 
for  a  short  time. 


The  Genus  Synchceta.     By  C.  F.  Rousselet.  277* 

up  to  408  n  (^  in.)  long  by  231  p,  (y^  in.)  wide  at  the  auricles. 
Egg  spherical,  98  ■  5  /*  (%%-g  in.)  in  diameter.     Lacustrine. 

This  handsome  rotifer,  one  of  the  most  common  and  widely 
distributed  species  in  England,  as  well  as  on  the  Continents  of 
Europe  and  America,  appears  to  have  first  been  recorded  by 
Ehrenberg  in  1831,  in  a  communication  to  the  Berlin  Academy 
of  Science,  and  afterwards  in  1838  in  his  great  work  on  the  In- 
fusoria. 

In  1870,  Dr.  C.  T.  Hudson  subjected  this  species,  under  the 
name  of  S.  mordax,  to  a  careful  study,  which  was  published  in 
the  Monthly  Microscopical  Journal,  vol.  iv.  pp.  26-32,  with  a 
plate  of  good  figures,  showing  its  various  aspects.  The  animal 
Mr.  Gosse  has  figured  as  S.  oblonga  in  The  Botifera  is  certainly 
a  S.  pectinata,  swollen  and  half  dead ;  the  two  frontal  processes 
are  sufficient  to  identify  it  as  such. 

Synchosta  pectinata  is  a  well  characterised  species,  which  cannot 
be  mistaken  when  once  seen.  Its  large  sized,  white,  very  trans- 
parent, more  or  less  conical  body,  and  large  prominent  auricles, 
make  it  a  conspicuous  object  even  with  the  naked  eye.  But  its 
special  character,  which  serves  best  to  distinguish  it  at  once  from 
its  congeners,  are  two  fleshy  setose  protuberances,  or  little  horns, 
on  the  front  of  the  head ;  no  other  species  of  Synchseta  has  these 
organs. 

The  shape  of  the  body  is  that  of  a  more  or  less  swollen  cone, 
very  broad  and  convex  anteriorly,  ending  in  a  short  stout  foot  and 
two  minute  conical  toes.  The  exact  shape  of  the  body  varies  a 
good  deal.  Young  animals  have  straighter  sides  than  represented 
in  fig.  1,  whilst  occasionally  extra  well  fed  specimens  are  met  with 
which  are  more  swollen  round  about  the  stomach. 

The  head  is  very  broad,  and,  with  the  auricles,  forms  a  wide 
semicircle  ;  dorso-ventrally  it  is  a  little  compressed,  rising  only  to  a 
prominence  on  the  dorsal  side  where  the  dorsal  antenna  protrudes. 
The  ciliary  wreath  consists  of  two  parts :  the  dorsal  part  is 
formed  by  a  nearly  straight  double  cushion  of  vibratile  cilia, 
interrupted  in  the  centre ;  the  ventral  part  forms  a  smaller  rounded 
double  cushion  of  cilia  below  and  at  the  sides  of  the  mouth,  and 
these  cilia  are  mainly  concerned  in  driving  food-particles  to  the 
mouth.  The  prominent  auricles  are  large,  semicircular,  slightly 
pendent,  and  furnished  with  long,  powerful  vibratile  cilia,  all 
iirising  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  auricles,  from  a  cushion  of 
dense  grey  protoplasmic  material.  The  auricles  are  supplied  with 
a  number  of  muscular  bands,  arising  from  the  integument  of  the 
head  and  body-cavity,  which  can  retract  and  also  alter  the  position 
of  these  organs,  and  thereby  vary  the  incidence  of  the  beat  of  the 
cilia.  This  explains  the  vigorous  turning  movement  and  gyrations 
which  the  animal  performs  with  such  rapidity. 


278  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Of  sense-organs  there  are  on  the  head,  first  of  all,  two  pairs  of 
styles,  which  are  really  clusters  of  long,  fine,  stiff  setae.  The 
outer  pair  are  the  largest  and  most  prominent,  arising  from  a 
small  triangular  fleshy  flap,  and  can  be  followed  for  some  distance 
within  a  muscular  sheath  in  the  head,  to  which  a  nerve-thread  is 
attached.  The  inner  pair  is  smaller,  more  dorsal  in  position,  and 
situated  immediately  below  the  ciliary  wreath.  On  the  ventral 
side  of  the  head,  on  each  side  of  the  mouth,  there  are  two  setigerous 
pimples,  each  bearing  two  short  styles.  These  are  not  seen  from 
a  dorsal  view.  Then,  right  in  the  middle  of  the  front  of  the  head, 
are  the  two  characteristic  fleshy  prominences  already  mentioned, 
surmounted  by  a  fan  of  short,  stiff  sense-hairs.  A  nerve-thread 
with  ganglionic  enlargement  can  be  seen  within  the  prominences. 
The  dorsal  antenna,  seated  on  an  eminence  just  above  the  eye,  is 
quite  large  and  prominent  when  seen  from  the  front  or  side,  but 
is  not  readily  observed  when  looked  at  from  a  dorsal  view;  it 
seems  to  be  a  double  organ  fused  into  one,  as  two  rocket-shaped 
nerve-threads  are  seen  to  converge  to  it.  The  lateral  antennae 
were  thought  to  be  absent  altogether  by  all  previous  observers. 
For  a  long  time  I  searched  for  them  in  vain  up  and  down  the  sides 
of  the  body,  and  could  not  understand  why  so  large  a  rotifer 
should  be  without  these  sense-organs,  so  characteristic  of  the  entire 
class.  About  two  years  ago  I  had  received  some  dried  pond  mud 
from  Australia,  and  placing  this  in  water,  in  a  few  days  a  solitary 
Synchceta  pectinata  made  its  appearance  from  some  dormant  egg, 
which  shows  at  the  same  time  how  rotifers  can  be  transported 
from  one  distant  continent  to  another.  On  examining  this  pale, 
very  transparent  individual  with  quite  a  low  power  under  dark- 
ground  illumination,  it  slowly  turned  round  on  its  longer  axis, 
when  suddenly  I  noticed  a  fine  brush  of  long  setae  protruding 
from  the  side  of  the  body  on  a  level  with  the  stomach.  On  further 
investigation  of  this  strange  appearance,  which  I  had  searched  for 
many  times  with  low  and  high  powers  and  with  the  very  best 
optical  means,  I  found  that  the  lateral  antennae  are  quite  obvious, 
but  situated  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  body,  and  therefore  are 
quite  invisible  from  a  dorsal  view,  the  position  in  which  I,  and  no 
doubt  everybody  else,  had  always  searched  for  them.  In  the 
figure  their  position  at  the  sides  is  indicated,  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  they  are  situated  just  round  the  corner  on  the 
ventral  side. 

The  mouth  is  not  oval,  as  has  been  stated,  but  shield-shaped, 
and  quite  straight  on  the  upper  side.  On  the  upper,  and  on  each 
lateral  side  there  is  a  cushion  of  grey  protoplasm,  from  which 
arise  a  single  row  of  very  fine,  short,  stiff  setae,  which  curve  over 
the  mouth,  meeting  in  the  centre,  and  thus  form  a  screen  through 
which  all  food-particles  must  pass.  This  very  fine  dome-shaped 
screen  is  seen  well  only  in  a  front  view  of  the  head  under  a  high 


Tlie  Genus  Synchceta.     By  C.  F.  Bousselet.  279 

power.  I  can  see  it  best  with  my  fine  Zeiss  apochromatic  Js  in. 
water-immersion. 

Dr.  Hudson  enlarges  upon  the  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  a 
frontal  view  of  Synchseta' s  head.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  he  did 
not  know  the  effect  of  a  drop  of  1  p.c.  cocaine  solution  added  to  a 
trough  full  of  water.  After  a  few  minutes  Synchseta,  which  Dr. 
Hudson  rightly  calls  "  perpetual  motion  itself,"  becomes  as  quiet 
as  a  dove,  the  body  fully  extended,  the  cilia  moving,  but  with 
gradually  decreasing  vigour  until  they  stop  altogether,  remaining 
thus  narcotised  and  nearly  motionless  for  more  than  an  hour  before 
the  animal  dies.  Moreover,  some  of  them  frequently  fix  their  heads 
to  the  cover-glass  of  the  compressor  and  remain  there  for  ten  or 
twenty  minutes  at  a  time,  the  cilia  beating  feebly  all  the  time. 
In  this  way  I  found  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  ideal  views  of  this 
and  other  Synchsetse,  usually  in  perpetual  motion. 

The  large  mastax  of  Synchceta  pectinata  has  a  peculiar  pear- 
shaped  form,  characteristic  of  the  genus,  containing  in  particular 
two  finely  striated  V-shaped  muscles  embracing  the  base  of  the 
long  fulcrum.  I  have  taken  great  pains  to  dissolve  out  the  jaws 
of  8.  pectinata,  which  has  proved  a  difficult  task  owing  to  the 
extreme  thinness  and  lightness  of  the  parts.  By  mounting  a 
number  of  these  separated  jaws  without  pressure  in  a  shallow  cell, 
I  think  I  have  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  correct  interpretation  of 
their  structure,  which  is  shown  in  figs.  7  and  7a,  front  and  side 
view.  The  fulcrum  a  is  a  long  narrow  rod ;  the  rami  b  b  are  thin 
elongated  blades,  ending  in  a  single  sharp  tooth,  with  very  thin, 
curved,  wing-like  plates  fixed  to  the  sides ;  the  malleus  consists  of 
a  narrow  curved  manubrium  c,  from  which  also  a  very  thin  plate 
of  chitine  projects,  and  a  small  triangular  plate  forming  the  uncus  d. 
The  edges  of  the  unci  are  quite  smooth,  and  there  are  no  teeth  as 
is  the  case  in  those  of  S.  tremula,  oblonga,  gyrina,  and  others. 
When  looking  at  the  unci  from  the  dorsal  or  ventral  side,  a  side 
view  is  obtained,  which  of  course  gives  the  appearance  of  a  single 
sharp  tooth.  The  shape  and  position  of  the  parts  will  best  be 
seen  from  the  figures.  The  snapping  motion  often  seen  in  Synchseta 
bears,  I  think,  a  different  interpretation  from  that  usually  given  to 
it.  Various  authors  have  thought  that  the  jaws  protrude  through 
the  mouth  and  seize  their  prey ;  this,  I  think,  is  not  the  case,  and 
the  snapping  motion  seen  is  due  to  a  sudden  opening  of  the  buccal 
funnel  and  cavity  of  the  mastax,  thus  producing  a  strong  sucking 
action,  just  as  in  Asplanchna,  which  draws  in  the  small  algse, 
infusoria,  &c,  forming  the  food  of  Synchseta.  I  have  seen  a  pair 
of  tubular  muscular  bands  attached  to  the  dorsal  side  of  the 
mastax,  just  by  the  side  of  the  spot  where  the  oesophagus  arises, 
which  may  produce  this  action.  The  thin  plates  of  the  unci  lie 
exactly  below  the  mouth,  so  that  everything  entering  the  mouth 
can  be  seized  by,  and  must  pass  between  them. 


280  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

A  small  rounded  opening  below  the  middle  of  the  dorsal  side- 
of  the  mastax  leads  to  a  long,  thin- walled  oesophagus,  which  is  not 
ciliated  internally,  and  empties  in  the  rounded  thick-walled 
stomach.  The  cells  of  the  stomach  are  large,  often  containing 
numerous  yellow  oil-globules,  and  ciliated  internally,  keeping  the 
food  in  continual  motion.  The  food-particles  are  usually  green  or 
l>rown,  and  occasionally  pink  in  colour.  The  intestine  is  quite 
inconspicuous ;  the  cloaca  is  situated  dorsally  at  the  root  of  the 
foot.  The  gastric  glands  attached  to  the  stomach  are  spherical  in 
shape,  and  contain  a  granular  centre  and  some  nuclei. 

The  ovary  is  rounded  and  more  or  less  compressed ;  usually  it 
is  of  the  same  size  as  the  stomach,  but  in  some  animals  I  found  it 
twice  as  large,  filling  the  greater  part  of  the  ventral  half  of  the 
body-cavity,  and  containing  eight  to  sixteen  nucleated  germ-cells. 
Maturing  eggs  containing  a  cluster  of  small,  spherical,  yellow 
granules  are  often  seen  by  the  side  of  the  ovary.  The  eggs,  when 
laid,  fall  off  immediately,  and  are  not  carried  about ;  they  are 
spherical  in  shape,  white,  transparent,  except  the  small  cluster  of 
deep  yellow  granules  mentioned  above  ;  their  size  is  98  •  5  /x 
(zk'g  i31-)  iQ  diameter.  The  surface  of  the  egg  is  covered  with 
minute  sparsely  scattered  dots.  It  is  worthy  of  mention  that 
Dr.  0.  Zacharias  has  stated  that  in  the  north  of  Germany  S.  pcctinata 
habitually  carries  its  eggs  about,  attached  to  the  toes.  This  is 
very  strange,  considering  that  here  in  England  I  have  never  once, 
during  the  many  hundreds  of  times  that  I  have  had  this  species 
under  observation,  seen  a  single  S.  jpectinata  do  anything  of  the 
kind. 

The  eye,  seated  on  the  granular  brain-sac,  is  fairly  large,, 
spherical  in  shape  and  bluish-purple  in  colour;  its  structure  is 
that  of  a  hyaline  vesicle  closely  packed  with  very  minute  purple 
granules.  There  is  no  sign  in  this  species  of  a  stream  of  red 
granules  forward  or  of  frontal  eyes. 

The  lateral  canals  and  flame-cells  are  of  normal  structure,  but 
reach  only  to  the  height  of  the  stomach  and  gastric  glands.  The 
contractile  vesicle  is  small,  situated  at  the  base  of  the  foot,  and  a 
tubule  cf  the  lateral  canals  can  clearly  be  seen  to  enter  it  on  each 
side,  after  making  a  loop  in  its  wall. 

The  muscular  system  is  well  developed,  particularly  in  the 
head,  where  there  is  a  complicated  system  of  narrow,  finely  striated 
muscular  bands  for  regulating  the  position  of  the  auricles  and  for 
the  retraction  of  the  head.  The  long  retractors  of  the  head  and 
foot  are  very  narrow  and  finely  striated.  The  transverse  muscular 
bands  are  more  numerous  and  more  closely  set  around  the  head 
and  neck  region. 

The  foot  is  stout  and  short,  contains  two  foot-glands  and  carries 
two  small,  acute  toes. 

Synchceta  pectinata  is  a  most  vigorous  swimmer,  and  its  course 


The  Genus  Synchoeta.     By  C.  F.  Eousselet.  281 

ds  usually  that  of  cork-screw  curves,  revolving  at  the  same  time  on 
its  longer  axis,  but  occasionally  turning  somersaults  in  rapid  suc- 
cession for  a  change.  More  rarely  it  is  seen  to  hover  over  one 
spot  with  all  its  cilia  in  rapid  motion,  producing  a  strong  current 
in  the  water.  It  does  not,  however,  anchor  itself  to  a  thread 
secreted  from  the  toes  as  S.  tremula  does  habitually.  Small  as  is 
the  body-cavity  of  this  rotifer  it  is  not  free  from  internal  parasites 
of  considerable  size.  I  have  often  observed  numerous  elongated 
sausage-shaped  bodies,  95  fi  (^Ij  in.)  in  length  by  14  fi  (i£0q  in.) 
thick,  and  also  spherical  bodies,  apparently  living  on  the  nutritive 
fluid  it  contains,  pi.  VI.  fig.  13.  These  bodies  are  not  ciliated,  have 
no  motion  of  their  own,  and  consist  of  a  transparent  membrane 
thickly  filled  with  spherical  smaller  vesicles ;  they  appear  to  do 
little  harm  to  the  organs  of  Synchseta,  and  the  individuals  con- 
taining them  seem  as  vigorous  as  the  others. 

I  am  greatly  indebted  to  my  friend  Mr.  F.  E.  Dixon-Nuttall 
for  the  very  fine  figure  of  this  species,  pi.  III.  fig.  1,  which  he  has 
drawn  for  me  from  life. 

The  male  I  have  not  yet  seen,  nor  have  I  ever  seen  any  in- 
dication of  fertilised  resting  eggs  which  would  indicate  the  presence 
of  the  male;  but  I  should  mention  that  Mr.  John  Hood  has 
doubtfully  reported  it  to  me. 

The  size  of  S.  pectinata  varies  between  340  /x  (^  in.)  and  408  /x 
•(g1^  in.),  but  very  young  animals  may  be  smaller. 


Synchseta  tremula  Ehrenberg. 
PI.  III.  fig.  3. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Ehbenberg,  G.  F. — Abhandl.  der  Akad.  d.  Wissensch.  zu  Berlin,  1831, 

pp.  135, 138;  1833,  p.  221. 

Die  Infusionsthierchen.    Leipzig,  1838,  p.  438,  pi.  54,  fig.  5. 

Gosse,  P.  H. — On  the  Structure,  &c,  of  the  Manducatory  Organs  in  the 

Eotifera.    Phil.  Trans,  of  the  Eoyal  Soc.  of  London,  1856,  p.  434, 

figs.  41,  42. 
On  the  Dicecions  Character  of  the  Eotifera.    Phil.  Trans,  of  the  Eoyal 

Soc.  of  London,  1858,  p.  321,  figs.  30,  31. 
Hudson  &  Gosse.— The  Eotifera.    London,  1886,  vol.  i.  p.  128,  pi.  13,  fig.  2. 
Webeb,  E.  F. — Faune  Eotatorienne  du  bassin  du  Leman.    Eevue  Suisse  de 

Zool.,  Geneve,  1898,  p.  394,  pi.  16,  fig.  17. 

Spec.  CJiar. — Body  top-shaped,  truncate  and  straight  in  front ; 
often  yellowish  in  colour ;  auricles  small,  in  line  with  front  of  the 
head  ;  four  frontal  styles ;  lateral  antennae  situated  at  extreme 
base  of  body ;  eye  red,  cervical ;  foot  short,  narrow ;  toes  two, 
small,  acute.  Size  from  212  fj,  (y|0-  in.)  to  292  p  (^7  in.)  in 
length  by  115  fi  (^0  m-)  to  149  fi  (p}0  in.)  wide  at  the  auricles. 
Male  conical,  110  /x  (■$£*  in.)  in  length ;  lacustrine. 


282  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

This  bright,  common,  and  widely  distributed  species  has  been 
figured  best  by  Dr.  Hudson  in  his  monograph,  fig.  2,  pi.  XIII.  It 
was  probably  seen  by  most  observers  in  the  early  days  of  Micro- 
scopy, but  Ehrenberg  was  the  first  to  figure  and  describe  it  with 
sufficient  accuracy  for  future  identification. 

In  the  early  spring,  it  is,  as  a  rule,  the  most  abundant  Eotifer 
in  nearly  all  lakes  and  pools ;  it  is  also  frequently  met  with 
throughout  the  summer  and  autumn,  and  even  in  winter  under 
the  ice  many  inches  thick.  Its  ubiquitous  habitat  is  made  evident 
by  its  presence  in  nearly  every  list  of  Eotifers  that  has  been  pub- 
lished in  England  as  well  as  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  in 
America,  Australia,  and  South  Africa.  I  cannot,  however,  help 
expressing  a  suspicion  that  one  or  two  other  species,  particularly 
S.  oblonga,  have  sometimes  been  mistaken  for  tremula. 

In  size  it  is  decidedly  smaller  than  8.  pectinata  with  which  it 
is  frequently  associated.  In  colour  it  often  has  a  slight  yellowish 
tinge  which  contrasts  with  the  white  transparency  of  S.  pectinata 
when  seen  together.  The  integument  is  thin,  white,  and  trans- 
parent, and  has  some  slight  longitudinal  folds  along  the  dorsal 
side. 

In  shape  the  body  of  S.  tremula  is  that  of  a  slender  cone,  quite- 
straight  and  flat  in  front,  the  small  rounded  auricles  forming  a 
lateral  prolongation  of  the  flat  frontal  surface.  In  young  animals 
the  sides  of  the  body  are  quite  straight  also,  but  in  well-fed  speci- 
mens the  sides  bulge  out  more  or  less.  The  foot  is  short,  less  wide 
in  girth  than  the  apex  of  the  body,  and  tapers  to  the  two  small 
acute  toes. 

The  front  of  the  head  bears  two  pairs  of  styles,  the  larger  outer 
pair  arise  from  very  small  triangular  fleshy  flaps.  Two  pairs  of 
setose  pimples  are,  as  usual,  situated  ventrally  on  each  side  of  the 
mouth,  each  bearing  two  or  three  stiff  divergent  hairs.  The  ciliary 
wreath  consists  of  a  nearly  straight  band  along  the  dorsal  border 
of  the  head,  which,  however,  is  interrupted  by  a  dorsal  gap  in  the 
middle,  and  ventrally  by  two  strongly  ciliated  cushions,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  mouth. 

The  auricles  are  thin,  small,  semicircular,  of  usual  structure, 
and  in  line  with  the  front  of  the  head. 

The  mouth  is  situated  on  the  ventral  half  of  the  head ;  it  is 
shield-shaped,  and  surrounded  by  the  usual  single  row  of  very 
small  stiff  hairs  curving  over  it  all  round. 

The  dorsal  antenna  protrudes  from  an  eminence  in  the  usual 
position  above  the  eye  and  is  connected  by  two  rocket-shaped  en- 
largements and  nerve-threads  with  the  brain.  The  lateral  antennae 
are  found  very  low  down  at  the  sides  of  the  body,  close  above 
the  foot. 

The  eye,  seated  on  a  granular  brain-sac,  is  deep  red,  rounded 
and  of  usual  structure ;  the  red  granules  do  not  always  fill  up  the 


The  Genus  Synchoeta.     By  0.  F.  Housselet.  283 

whole  eye-vesicle,  and  sometimes,  congregating  on  either  side  of 
it,  give  rise  to  an  appearance  of  a  double  eye.  From  the  eye  two 
narrow  divergent  tubules,  as  described  in  the  introduction,  advance 
to  the  front  of  the  head,  and  these  tubules  sometimes  contain  very 
minute  scattered  red  granules.  I  have  counted  ten  and  twelve  of 
these  on  each  side  on  a  recent  occasion. 

The  characteristic  mastax  is  somewhat  smaller  in  proportion 
than  in  S.  pectinata,  whilst  in  structure  it  is  very  much  like  that 
which  is  figured  for  S.  ohlonga,  pi.  V.  fig.  10.  The  unci  are  thin 
triangular  plates  with  five  or  six  teeth,  very  irregular  in  shape 
and  divided  in  two  sets  by  a  deep  incision  (fig.  3b) ;  the  first  tooth 
is  long  and  pointed  and  well  separated  from  the  rest,  which  is 
characteristic  of  this  type  ;  a  very  small  knob  of  chitin  at  the  back 
of  this  first  tooth  indicates  the  spot  where  the  manubrium  is  fixed. 
The  unci  lie  immediately  below  the  mouth,  and  can  readily  be  seen 
from  a  frontal  view  in  the  living  animal.  I  do  not  think  the  jaws 
can  be  projected  through  the  mouth  as  has  been  stated,  and  the 
action  of  the  mastax  is  the  same  as  I  have  described  in  the  case  of 
S.  pectinata.  The  oesophagus  is  of  moderate  length  and  opens  into 
a  saccate  thick-walled  stomach,  the  cells  of  which  usually  contain 
yellow  oil-globules.  A  small  and  densely  ciliated  intestine  opens 
on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  base  of  the  body.  The  usual  rounded, 
or  more  or  less  pointed,  gastric  glands  are  readily  seen.  The  ovary 
is  a  fairly  large  and  thick  rounded  plate  on  the  ventral  side,  filled 
with  nucleated  germ-cells.  The  lateral  canals  seem  to  be  attached 
to  the  wall  of  the  stomach  on  each  side,  where  they  form  some 
convolutions,  from  which  one  branch  runs  forward  and  is  attached 
to  the  body-wall  at  a  height  corresponding  to  the  middle  of  the 
oesophagus,  and  there  ending  in  two  flame-cells  on  each  side. 
Two  more  flame-cells  are  seen  lower  down  on  the  canal  running 
by  the  side  of  the  stomach.  No  canal  or  flame-cell  has  ever  been 
seen  in  or  near  the  head.  The  contractile  vesicle  is  fairly  large,  in 
its  usual  position  above  the  foot. 

The  longitudinal  muscles,  retractors  of  the  head  and  foot,  are 
narrow  and  finely  striated ;  six  to  eight  fine  transverse  muscular 
threads  run  close  together  round  the  integument  on  the  anterior 
part  of  the  body ;  lower  down  there  are  fewer  threads  and  they 
seem  to  be  confined  to  the  dorsal  side. 

The  male,  fig.  3a,  was  first  discovered  by  Mr.  Gosse ;  it  is  a 
small  conical  creature  with  a  bent  towards  the  ventral  side  close 
behind  the  head.  The  front  is  truncate,  with  four  styles.  The  red 
eye,  dorsal  antenna,  large  sperm-sac,  and  two  acute  toes  are  pro- 
minent. The  mastax  and  stomach  are  quite  absent,  and  replaced 
by  the  sperm-sac.  The  size  is  110  p,  (2£q  in.)  in  length.  I  found 
the  male  in  some  abundance  in  a  gathering  in  October  1900,  and 
it  is  not  very  rare. 

Synchoeta  tremula  is  a  vigorous  swimmer,  and  takes,  as  a  rule, 


■284  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

a  more  or  less  straight  course.  It  loves  also  to  spin  a  fine  thread 
from  its  toes,  and  attaching  it  to  any  convenient  object,  remains 
anchored,  spinning  round  and  round  on  its  longer  axis  for  a  long 
time  on  the  same  spot,  while  the  vigorous  action  of  the  frontal 
cilia,  instead  of  propelling  the  animal  forward,  produces  a  strong 
current  of  water  towards  the  head  which  brings  food  to  the  mouth. 
S.  pcctinata  and  oblonga  never  spin  round  in  this  way.  Contrary 
to  what  other  observers  have  reported,  I  have  never  seen  8.  tremula 
carry  its  eggs  about.  Dr.  Zacharias  has  stated  that  in  the  North 
of  Germany  this  species,  as  well  as  S.pectinata,  habitually  carry  their 
eggs,  which  seems  very  strange  if  there  be  no  error  as  to  species. 

I  have  never  seen  S.  tremula  in  salt  water,  and  have  little 
doubt  that  when  it  has  been  reported  as  occurring  in  the  sea  or  in 
brackish  tide  pools,  one  of  the  marine  species  must  have  been 
mistaken  for  it. 

Its  largest  size  when  full-grown  I  have  found  to  be  292  yx 
Q7  in.)  long  by  149  fj,  (t}q  in.)  wide  at  the  auricles.  Young 
animals  are,  of  course,  much  smaller,  and  an  average  size  would 
be  about  235  yu,  (TJg  in.)  long  by  124  jx  {^z  in.)  wide. 

Synchseta  oblonga  Ehrenberg. 
PI.  III.  fig.  2  and  PI.  V.  fig.  10. 

Synonymy. 
Synchccta  neglecta  Zacharias. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Ehrenberg,  C.  G. — Abhandlung  der  Akad.  d.  Wiss.  Berlin.  1831,  p.  135 : 

1833,  p.  221. 

Die  Infusionsthierchen.    Leipzig,  1838,  p.  438,  pi.  53,  fig.  4. 

Hudson  &  Gosse. — The  Botifera.    London,  1889,  vol.  i.  p.  127. 
Zacharias,  O.  —  Ueber  die  im  Siisswasserplankton  vorkommenden  Syn- 

chseten.    Biol.  Centralblatt,  Bd.  ii.  1901,  pp.  381-3. 

Spec.  Char. — Body  small,  cone-shaped,  somewhat  oblong  and 
more  or  less  swollen  at  sides,  rounded  in  front ;  auricles  small ; 
four  frontal  styles  ;  lateral  antennae  very  small,  situated  two-thirds 
down  the  sides  of  the  body;  eye  red,  cervical;  foot  short,  narrow; 


EXPLANATION    OF   PLATE  V. 

Fig.  8. — Syjuhssta  grandis  Zach.  $      D  orsal  view,     x  225. 

„    9  n        neapolitana  sp.  n.  R  ousa.   ?     Dorsal  view,     x  470. 

»    9«  n  »  „  The  toe  and  spur,     x  1175. 

95  * 

"    qc\       »  ii  .,  The  male,  dorsal  and  Bide  views.   x680. 

n  1°  »,         oblonga  Ehrbg.     The  jaws.     X  550. 

ii  10o  „  „  A  separated  manubrium,     x  550. 

„  106  „  „  The  unci,     x  875. 


J 


. 


The  Genus  Synchwta.     By  C.  F.  Eousselet.  285 

toes  two,  small,  acute,  well  separated.  Size  up  to  225  fz  (T{^  in.) 
in  length  by  115  fi  (^n  in.)  wide  at  the  auricles.  Male  102  /* 
(s^ff  m-)  m  lengtn-     Lacustrine. 

Although  a  very  common  species  everywhere  in  fresh-water 
ponds  and  lakes,  I  fear  this  animal  has  not  been  clearly  recognised 
until  quite  lately.  One  reason  possibly  is  that  Ehrenberg  gives  it 
a  size  equal  to  that  of  S.  peeUnata,  which  is  obviously  not  correct ; 
another  reason  is  that  Mr.  Gosse  has  figured  under  this  name  of 
oblong  a  an  animal  which  certainly  was  a  sick  pectinata,  the  two 
frontal  fleshy  little  horns  being  quite  sufficient  to  recognise  it 
as  such. 

Most  workers  will  have  taken  this  common  Synchseta  for  a 
small  S.  tremula,  whilst  I  have  for  a  considerable  time  past  sepa- 
rated it  from  tremula,  but  have  confounded  it  with  S.  gyrina  of 
Hood,  which  I  now  know  is  a  larger  and  exclusively  marine  and 
brackish  water  species.  In  the  lists  of  Eotifers,  therefore,  found 
at  the  Quekett  Club's  excursions  published  in  the  Quekett  Journal, 
wherever  S.  gyrina  is  mentioned,  this  name  should  be  altered  into 
oblonga.  Quite  recently  Dr.  Zacharias,  recognising  its  distinctive 
characters,  has  given  it  the  new  name  of  S.  neglccta,  while  it  ia 
represented  in  his  earlier  lists  under  the  name  of  S.  tremula. 

Prof.  Ehrenberg  in  his  great  work  describes  S.  oblonga  as  the 
commonest  Synchseta  occurring  in  his  time  near  Berlin,  and 
usually  associated  with  pectinata  and  tremula.  This  is  exactly 
what  I  find  to  be  the  case  here  near  London  at  the  present  time. 

At  first  sight,  and  when  observed  with  a  low  power,  it  has 
much  resemblance  in  shape  and  size  with  a  small  S.  tremula.  A 
closer  acquaintance,  however,  shows  a  number  of  differences  in 
shape,  structure,  and  habits,  which  can  always  be  readily  recog- 
nised. Perhaps  it  will  be  convenient  if  I  first  clearly  state  the 
differences  which  separate  these  two  species.  >Sy.  tremula  has  a 
top-shaped  body  with  the  front  of  the  head  quite  straight  and  flat, 
and  the  auricles  in  a  line  with  the  front.  S.  oblonga,  whilst  also 
more  or  less  cone-shaped,  is,  as  a  rule,  more  swollen  at  the  sides 
and  has  the  front  of  the  head  convex,  and  the  auricles  are  lower 
down  at  the  end  of  the  convex  frontal  curve.  The  lateral  antennae 
in  &  tremula  are  situated  low  down  near  the  base  of  the  foot ;  in 
oblonga  these  organs  are  much  higher  up  at  the  sides  of  the  body 
and  slightly  ventral  in  position.  On  the  extreme  front  of  the 
head,  when  seen  from  the  dorsal  side,  S.  oblonga  has  two  divergent 
tufts  of  very  fine  stiff  sense-hairs  which  are  absent  in  tremula. 
Finally,  &  tremula  is  a  little,  but  distinctly,  larger  in  size  and 
more  yellowish  in  colour  ;  it  also  likes  to  anchor  itself  on  a  thread 
from  the  toes  and  spin  round  and  round  on  its  longer  axis  on  the 
spot ;  this  habit  S.  oblonga  does  not  possess.  The  two  figs.  2 
and  3  on  pi.  III.,  drawn  from  life  by  Mr.  Dixon-Nuttall,  will  give 
clear  idea  of  these  differences. 

June  18th,  1902  u 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 

uhteta  oblonga  is  small  in  size,  and  the  shape  of  the  body 

is  that  of  an  oblong  cone,  more  or  less  swollen  at  the  sides  ;  it  is 

white    transparent,  and  the  head  is  distinctly  convex  in  front. 

The  exact  shape  of  the  body  varies  somewhat  according  to  the 

locality,  the  age  of  the  individuals,  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of 

1,  &'c.     The  integument  is  very  thin,  white,  transparent,  and 

shows  numerous  very  fine  longitudinal  folds  on  the  dorsal  side. 

The  foot  is  short  and  narrow  and  carries  two  small,  conical,  well 

arated  toes  ;  the  foot  is  usually  slightly  enlarged  at  the  base  of 

i  oes,  and  contains  two  foot-glands. 

The  front  of  the  head  bears  the  usual  two  pairs  of  styles,  the 
longer  outer  pair  arising  from  triangular  fleshy  flaps.  At  the 
reme  front  are  seen  two  divergent  bundles  of  very  fine  stiff 
.  which  arise  from  a  pimple  situated  immediately  above  the 
month,  and  which  are  not  present  in  S.  trcmula  or  gyrina.  The 
auricles  are  small,  slightly  pendent,  and  situated  at  the  ends  of  the 
frontal  curve  of  the  head.  The  mouth  is  in  the  usual  position  on 
the  ventral  side  of  the  front  of  the  head,  shield-shaped,  closely 
surrounded  by  a  single  row  of  very  fine,  stiff,  curved  hairs,  and 
with  four  larger  setigerous  pimples  a  little  further  off  at  the  four 
c  uiiers. 

The  dorsal  antenna  protrudes  in  the  usual  position  above  the 
eye  on  a  slight  eminence,  whilst  the  very  small  lateral  antennse  are 
situated  at  the  sides  of  the  body,  on  a  level  with  the  stomach,  and 
slightly  on  the  ventral  side ;  frequently  they  are  very  difficult  to 
lind. 

The  cervical  eye  is  deep  red  in  colour,  often  appearing  divided 
in  two  halves,  and  sometimes  in  this  species  two  more  or  less 
prominent  aggregations  of  red  granules  occur  on  the  front  of  the 
head,  and  two  streams  of  very  minute  red  granules  connect  these 
with  the  cervical  eye,  much  like  the  frontal  eyes  of  S.  triophthalma 
and  littoralis,  but  much  less  pronounced. 

I  have  taken  considerable   trouble  to   dissolve  out  the  very 
delicate  jaws  of  this  species,  and  believe  fig.  10,  pi.  V.  gives  a 
irrect  representation  of  their  structure,  which  is  a  type  different 
from  that  of  S.pectinata,  but  common  to  a  number  of  other  species. 
The  malleus  consists  of  a  long,  thin,  curved  manubrium,  having  a 
broad,  very  thin,  wing-like  flange  on  one  side,  and  a  triangular  pro- 
jection on  the  other ;  the  unci  are  thin  triangular  plates  armed 
with  one  large,  deeply-cut  tooth,  well  separated  from  the  rest,  and 
live  shorter  sharp  teeth,  rather  irregular  and  varying  in  shape. 
The  incus  consists  of  a  long,  narrow  but  deep  fulcrum,  and  very 
thin,  broadly  triangular  rami.     The  figs.  10,  10a,  and  106  will  give 
;i  better  idea  of  the  shape  and  position  of  these  organs  than  any 
amount  of  description. 

The  cesophagus,  arising  from  the  dorsal  side  of  the  mastax,  is 
of  moderate  length,  and  opens  in  a  thick-walled  stomach  of  usual 


The  Genus  Synchwta.     By  C.  F.  Rousselet.  287 

structure.  The  intestine  is  inconspicuous,  and  opens  dorsally 
above  the  base  of  the  foot.  The  gastric  glands  in  this  species  are 
more  or  less  divided  into  lobes.  The  ovary  is  large,  rounded  and 
.flattened,  filling  nearly  the  whole  of  the  ventral  side  of  the  body- 
cavity,  and  contains  usually  eight  nucleated  germ-cells,  and  often  a 
maturing  egg  lies  by  the  side  of  it.  The  egg  when  extruded  may 
sometimes  be  seen  attached  to  the  toes  for  a  very  short  time,  but 
soon  becomes  detached  and  falls  to  the  bottom ;  it  can  hardly  be 
said  that  S.  oblonga  carries  its  eggs,  though  occasionally  an  indi- 
vidual may  be  seen  with  an  egg  attached. 

The  lateral  canals  are  distinct  on  each  side  of  the  stomach,  and 
end  in  a  branch  with  two  flame-cells  near  the  top  of  this  organ  ; 
posteriorly,  they  open  into  the  small  contractile  vesicle. 

The  muscles  of  the  body  are  very  narrow,  striated,  and  arranged 
as  in  &  tremula. 

The  male  has  often  been  observed  by  me,  and  is  represented  in 
figs.  2a  and  2b.  It  is  small,  elongated,  curved  ventrally,  with  two 
toes  and  four  short  frontal  styles,  has  a  large  red  eye  and  large 
sperm-sac ;  its  greatest  length  is  102  fi  (2^q  in.). 

Synchceta  oblonga  is  a  moderate  swimmer  when  compared  with 
its  more  vigorous  cousins ;  it  swims  fairly  straight  forward  or  in 
graceful  curves,  and  has  not  the  habit  of  anchoring  itself  to  a  thread 
and  revolving  on  its  longer  axis,  which  is  such  a  conspicuous  habit 
of  S.  tremula. 

In  size  S.  oblonga  is  distinctly  smaller  than  tremula,  but  of 
course  young  specimens  of  tremula  may  be  smaller  than  adult 
oblonga.  The  usual  size  is  :  female  up  to  225  /x  (y^  in.)  by  115  fi 
(520  in*)  wi°^e  at tne  auricles. 


Synchseta  grandis  Zacharias. 
PI.  V.  fig.  8. 

BIBLIOGBAPHY. 

Zachabias,  Dr.  Otto. — Forscrmngsberickte  aus  der  Biolog.  Station  zu  Plon, 
Theil  1, 1893,  p.  23,  fig.  2. 

Spec.  Char.  —  Body  very  long  and  slender,  broadest  at  the 
auricles,  compressed  in  the  middle,  tapering  to  an  elongated  single- 
jointed  foot,  bifurcate  at  the  tip  ;  auricles  large,  pendent ;  frontal 
styles  four;  eye  spherical,  red,  cervical.  Size,  total  length  505  fi 
(^q  in.)  by  258  //.  (-^g-  in.)  wide  at  the  auricles.     Lacustrine. 

This  is  probably  the  largest  member  of  this  genus,  and  was 
first  found  by  Dr.  0.  Zacharias  in  1893  in  the  great  inland  lake  of 
Plon,  in  Holstein.  Five  years  ago  I  obtained  it  from  one  of  the 
large   reservoirs   of  the   East  London  Waterworks  Company  at 

u  2 


288  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Tottenham,  where  I  have  found  it  several  times  since,  always  in? 
the  month  of  July. 

The  very  clear,  white,  transparent  body  is  very  narrow  and 
elongate,  with  a  distinct  waist  in  the  middle,  then  tapering,  and 
terminating  in  a  fairly  long  foot,  bifurcate  at  the  tip,  which,  how- 
ever, does  not  seem  to  carry  proper  toes.  The  broadest  part  is  the 
head,  which  is  rounded  anteriorly,  with  a  projecting,  rounded 
point  at  the  extreme  front,  carrying  two  broad  bundles  of  very 
tine  stiff  setse.  This  frontal  tuft  of  sense-hairs  seems  to  have 
been  overlooked  by  Dr.  Zacharias,  as  he  makes  a  point  of  their 
absence.  The  four  frontal  styles  are  present  as  usual,  the  outer 
pair  emerging  from  broad  triangular  fleshy  flaps.  The  sheath  of 
the  large  styles  can  be  followed  for  some  distance  inside  the  head  to 
a  nervous  base  or  ganglion  cell,  from  which  two  nerve-threads  are 
seen  running  towards  the  brain,  and  a  third  thread  backwards.. 
On  either  side  of  the  extreme  front  of  the  head,  and  slightly 
towards  the  ventral  side,  are  two  hemispherical  projections,  one  on 
each  side,  which  bear  bundles  of  radiating,  fairly  long,  and  stiff 
3ense-hairs. 

The  ciliary  wreath  has  the  form  usual  in  other  Synchsetae,  the- 
two  ventral  cushions  on  each  side  of  the  mouth  having  excep- 
tionally long  and  powerful  vibratile  cilia.  The  auricles  are  very 
prominent,  broad,  rounded,  and  more  or  less  pendent. 

The  dorsal  antenna  is  not  very  prominent,  situated  in  its  usual 
position  over  the  eye;  the  lateral  antennae  are  low  down  in  the 
lumbar  region  and  quite  on  the  ventral  side. 

The  brain  is  large,  consisting  of  a  broad  sac  containing  greyish1 
granular  cells,  and  carries  the  spherical  deep  red  eye. 

The  mastax  is  very  large,  of  the  usual  Synchreta  pattern,  but  the 
presence  or  absence  of  teeth  in  the  unci  has  not  been  ascertained, 
unfortunately.  The  oesophagus  is  a  very  long,  contractile,  thin- 
walled  tube,  not  ciliated  internally,  leading  to  a  small  thick-walled 
stomach,  the  large  cells  of  which  often  contain  yellow  oil-globules. 
The  gastric  glands  are  rounded  and  small.  The  lateral  canals  are 
distinct,  ending  at  the  height  of  the  stomach  in  a  convolution,  to 
which  two  or  three  flame-cells  are  attached.  The  contractile 
vesicle,  of  fairly  large  size,  is  situated  at  the  extreme  base  of  the 
body-cavity.  The  ovary  is  rather  small  for  so  large  an  animal,, 
rounded,  and  containing  eight  to  sixteen  nucleated  germ-cells. 
By  the  side  of  the  ovary  a  large  egg  is  often  seen,  with  large 
nucleus  and  a  number  of  small,  deep  yellow  oil-globules.  The 
i  >gg8  are  not  carried. 

The  foot  is  long  and  stiff,  and  has  but  a  single  joint  containing 
two  narrow  elongated  foot-glands ;  at  the  end  it  bifurcates  more  or 
less,  but  does  not  carry  proper  toes. 

The  integument  of  the  body  is  very  thin,  white,  transparent, 
very  finely  folded  longitudinally  on  the  dorsal  side. 


The   Genus  Synchceta.     By  C.  F.  Rousselet.  289 

The  muscles,  retractors  of  the  head  and  foot,  are  normal,  very 
narrow  and  finely  striated ;  the  transverse  muscular  bands,  en- 
circling the  body  under  the  integument,  more  particularly  on  the 
dorsal  side,  are  numerous,  and  more  prominent  than  usual. 

In  swimming  this  fine  species  is  more  vigorous  and  rapid  than 
S.  pcctinata,  bending  and  turning  constantly;  it  is  more  pliable 
also  and  flexible  at  the  waist  than  any  other  species.  When  once 
seen  there  is  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  it  from  S.  pcctinata 
even  with  a  pocket  lens.  Its  food  seems  to  consist  mainly  of  the 
smaller  rotifers,  such  as  Polyarthra. 

The  accompanying  fine  drawing  (fig.  8)  has  been  made  by 
Mr.  Dixon-Nuttall  from  a  living  specimen  I  was  able  to  send  him. 

In  size  it  reaches  a  total  length  of  505  fi  (-^q  in.)  by  258  /x. 
(r^g-  in.)  wide  at  the  auricles  ;  the  body  a  little  below  the  auricles 
is  only  170  /j,  (jiv  ^n-)  wide.  Dr.  Zacharias  gives  the  greatest 
length  as  600  /*.     The  male  is  as  yet  unknown. 


Synchssta  stylata  Wierzejski. 
PL  IV.  fig.  4. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Wierzejski,  Prof.  Dr.  A. — Rotatoria  Galicyi,  Krakau,  1892,  p.  62,  pi.  iv.  fig.  5. 

Spec.  Char. — Body  large,  elongated,  conical,  tapering  both 
anteriorly  and  posteriorly ;  foot  long  and  styliform,  carrying  two 
very  small  toes.  Eye  single,  cervical,  dark  red.  Egg  spherical, 
covered  with  very  long  and  thin  spines,  floating  in  the  water. 
Habitat  fresh-water  lakes.  Size,  242  /u,  (T^5  in.)  to  292  /j,  (gJf  in.). 
Lacustrine. 

This  well  marked  and  fine  species  was  first  discovered  by 
Prof.  A.  Wierzejski  in  Galicia  in  1892,  and  figured  and  described 
by  him  in  his  Rotatoria  Galicyi.  I  have  met  with  it  repeatedly,  in 
the  summer  months,  in  canals  and  lakes  round  London :  Putney, 
Hanwell,  Willesden.  The  shape  of  the  body  is  that  of  an  elongated 
cone,  tapering  gradually  posteriorly  to  the  foot,  which  is  long,  and 
perfectly  round  and  styliform,  ending  in  two  very  minute,  but 
distinct  toes.  The  head  is  elongated,  and  also  tapers  anteriorly  to 
a  rounded  point,  which  bears  at  its  extreme  front  two  bundles  of 
very  fine,  divergent,  stiff  setre.  The  auricles  are  of  fair  size.  The 
head  carries  the  usual  two  pairs  of  styles  ;  the  outer  and  larger  pair 
arise  from  well  developed  triangular  fleshy  flaps,  and  are  continued 
inward  as  far  as  the  mastax.  The  mouth  is  situated  on  the  ventral 
side  of  the  head,  and  on  each  side  of  it  there  is  a  bunch  of  three  or 
four  long  stiff  setse,  arising  from  a  fleshy  knob.  The  ciliary  wreath 
is  situated  on  a  ridge  running  round  the  head  between  the  two  pairs 


290  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

of  styles,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  eye  is  cervical,  deep  red,, 
small,  single,  though  often  showing  a  line,  as  if  it  consisted  of  two' 
apposed  halves.  The  mastax  is  large,  of  the  usual  Synchseta  type, 
followed  by  a  long  oesophagus,  not  ciliated  internally,  which  leads 
into  a  stomach  of  the  usual  structure.  The  body-cavity,  being 
large  in  proportion  to  the  organs  contained  in  it,  looks  rather  empty. 
The  integument  is  thin,  and  often  shows  many  longitudinal  folds 
dorsally. 

The  dorsal  antenna  protrudes  on  an  eminence  in  the  usual 
position  ;  the  lateral  antennas  are  in  the  lumbar  region,  slightly  on 
the  ventral  side. 

The  egg  of  this  species  has  a  very  unusual  structure  (fig.  4a). 
It  is  spherical  or  slightly  oval  in  shape,  and  covered  all  over  with 
very  long  and  very  thin  spines,  by  means  of  which  it  floats  in  the 
water  instead  of  sinking  to  the  bottom.  I  found  these  floating  eggs 
in  my  tank  containing  this  species,  and  in  order  to  make  quite 
sure  that  they  were  the  eggs  of  S.  stylata,  I  isolated  a  number  of 
animals  in  perfectly  clean  water  and  left  them  over  night,  when 
next  day  these  spiny  eggs  were  again  there.  The  size  of  the  egg- 
shell is  75  fi  (3^3  in.),  and  the  total  size  to  the  extremity  of  the 
spines  136  /1  (y£g  in.).  I  am  not  aware  of  any  other  Synchreta,  or 
any  other  rotifer,  having  eggs  of  this  structure.  These  spiny  eggs- 
have  been  seen  also  by  Dr.  0.  Zacharias  and  Dr.  R.  Lauterborn, 
who  have  attributed  them  to  S.  pectinata,  which  is  evidently  a 
mistake,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out  recently  by  Herr  Max 
Voigt* 

The  only  Synchseta  with  which  this  well  characterised  species 
could  be  confounded  is  S.  pectinata,  from  which,  however,  it  is- 
readily  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  two  fleshy  horns  and 
the  structure  of  the  head  and  foot,  which  are  quite  unlike  those  of 
pectinata.  The  drawing  (fig.  4)  has  been  made  by  Mr.  F.  R.  Dixon- 
Xuttall  from  my  preserved  specimens,  and  it  shows  the  characteristic 
form  and  structure  very  well. 

The  male  has  not  yet  been  seen. 

*  Max    Voigt,    Beitrage    zur    Kenntnis    des    Planktons    pommerscher    Seen, 
Forachungslerichte  a.  d.  Biol.  Sta.  zu  Plon,  1902,  p.  25. 

(Continued  on  page  393.) 


29  L 


NOTE. 

Waddel's  Erecting  Microscope. 

By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

In  the  Journal  for  1900,  p.  115,  I  drew  attention  to  the  fact  that 
Ahrens'  device  for  erecting  the  Microscope  image  by  means  of 
Porro  prisms  had  been  figured  and  described  in  the  Journal  for 
1888,  p.  1020  ;  but  it  now  appears  that  priority  for  this  idea  must 
be  accorded  to  Mr.  Waddel,  of  Leith,  because  Brewster,  in  his 
Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia  (1830),  figures  and  describes  Waddel's 
method  of  erecting  the  image  by  two  right-angled  prisms,  one 
being  placed  in  front  of  the  objective,  and  the  other  in  front  of  the 
eye-lens  ;  and  what  is  more  remarkable,  there  is  also  a  figure  Of  a 
single  prism,  cut  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  the  same  effect,, 
thus  pre-dating  that  of  Messrs.  Zeiss. 

I  pointed  out  in  the  Journal  for  1898,  p.  382,  figs.  70  and  71, 
that  this  plan  of  erecting  the  image  by  reflection  in  two  planes, 
was  as  old  as  the  2nd  edition  of  Zahn's  Oculus  Artificialis  (1702)r 
but  evidently  since  then  it  has  been  re-invented  more  than  once. 
On  April  5th,  1811,  Cornelius  Varley  took  out  a  patent  for  a 
"  Graphic  Telescope."  This  consisted  of  an  astronomical  telescope, 
having  small  power  but  a  large  flat  field,  in  which  the  image  was 
erected  by  reflection  from  two  plane  metal  specula.  It  was  by 
one  of  these  instruments  that  the  sketch  of  London  was  made 
from  the  top  of  St.  Paul's  for  the  panorama  exhibited  at  the 
Colosseum,  which  probably  some  of  us  may  remember.  On 
December  4th,  1806,  Dr.  W.  H.  Wollaston  patented  his  Camera 
Lucida,  and  the  "  Graphic  Telescope "  may  be  considered  as  an 
effort  on  Varley's  part  to  improve  it. 

It  is  more  than  probable  that  the  original  publication  by  Zahn, 
in  1702,  of  the  method  of  erection  by  means  of  reflection  had 
long  been  forgotten,  and  it  was  Wollaston's  camera  which  caused 
the  re-invention  of  it  by  Varley  in  1811.  This  gave  Waddel  the 
idea  of  adapting  the  same  principle  to  the  Microscope,  and  to  the 
publication  of  Waddel's  method  in  1830,  by  Brewster,  in  a  fairly 
well-known  Encyclopaedia,  may  be  referred  subsequent  re-inven- 
tions, including  that  of  Porro. 


BUMMABI   OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 


HKLATIXO    TO 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY 

(PRINCIPALLY    INVKRTEBRATA   AND    CRYPTOGAMIA), 

MICEOSCOPY    Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 
a.  Embryology-  t 

Progeny  of  a  Tailless  Cat.}— Prof.  J.  Kennel  points  out  that  the 
distinction  between  congenital  deviations  due  to  germinal  variation  and 
those  due  to  influences  on  the  embryo  or  foetus  is  rather  theoretical  than 
actually  verifiable.  The  sporadic  occurrence  of  a  kitten  with  a  rudi- 
mentary tail  may  be  interpreted  as  due  to  foetal  amputation,  while  the 
repeated  birth  of  curtailed  forms  in  a  family  would  point  to  germinal 
variation.  The  occurrence  of  an  apparently  tailless  cat  may  be  due  to 
crossing  with  the  Japanese  or  Manx  race,  or  it  may  be  a  mutilation,  or 
it  may  be  an  expression  of  germinal  defect.  Kennel  points  out  that 
careful  observation  (e.g.  with  X-rays)  may  make  it  quite  plain  whether 
the  taillessness  of  a  parent  cat  is  congenital  or  acquired,  for  in  the 
latter  case  the  terminal  vertebree  will  show  the  normal  configuration  of 
those  at  the  base  of  the  tail. 

Kennel  discusses  a  particular  case  brought  under  his  notice  by  Dr. 
E.  Thomson,  in  Helenenhof,  Esthland.  The  mother,  caught  wild  in  the 
country,  had  a  rudimentary  tail,  with  a  scar-like,  hairless,  terminal 
piece.     The  record  of  six  litters  (by  normal  males)  was  as  follows  : — 


Litters. 

With  Tails. 

With  Rudi- 
mentary Tails. 

Tailless. 

1897.  Spring 
Autumn 

1898.  Spring 

Autumn 

1899.  Spring 

Autumn 

i 
2 
1 
1 

2 
2 

1 

i 

i 

2 
2 
3 
3 

2 

•  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "we,"  and  they  do 
not  bold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers  noted, 
nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of  this  part  o*' 
the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  published,  and  lo 
describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  &c,  which  are  either  new  or  have 
cot  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

t  This  section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so  called, 
but  alsnthoBc  dealing  with  Evolution, Development,  Reproduction,  and  allied  subjects. 

J  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  219-42. 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES.  293 

The  inheritance  in  this  case  was  largely  maternal  as  regards  the 
state  of  the  tail,  and  it  will  be  noted  that  the  number  of  kittens  which 
were  tailless  equals  that  of  those  with  tails,  and  exceeds  it  by  four  if 
those  with  rudimentary  tails  are  included.  There  is  a  strikingly  rapid 
and  cumulative  progressive  change  in  the  direction  of  tail-reduction. 

It  is,  unfortunately,  doubtful  whether  the  mother  owed  her  rudi- 
mentary tail  to  a  germinal  variation,  or  to  foetal  or  post-foetal  amputa- 
tion. Contact  with  a  specimen  of  the  Manx  or  Japanese  race  was  out 
of  the  question.  If  we  did  not  know  the  subsequent  history,  we  should 
conclude  in  favour  of  the  amputation  hypothesis,  for  the  occurrence  of 
reduction  of  the  tail  as  a  true  variation  is  rare  in  cats.  The  alleged 
scar-like  end,  the  two  vertebrae  (strong  enough  to  be  counted  as  two), 
the  reported  strong  musculature  of  the  stump,  favour  the  same  view, 
but  Kennel  does  not  press  the  point.  The  case  is  interesting  enough 
without  forcing  it  to  bear  evidence  in  favour  of  the  possible  hereditary 
transmission  of  the  results  of  mutilation.  For  it  points  to  remarkable 
maternal  prepotency,  and  to  a  possibly  rapid  origin  of  a  race  like  the 
Manx  cats.  It  gives  some  support  to  the  view  that  saltatory  or  tran- 
silient  variations  may  be  of  great  evolutionary  importance.  Prof. 
Kennel  concludes  his  very  interesting  paper  with  a  description  of  the 
structural  differences  between  a  rudimentary  tail  and  the  so-called  tail- 
less condition. 

Spermatogenesis  in  Sparrow.  *  —  G.  Loisel,  continuing  his  re- 
searches on  this  subject,  reaches  the  following  general  results.  The 
spermatozoa  appear  only  in  spring,  and  disappear  entirely  at  the  end  of 
summer.  During  the  winter,  the  epithelium  of  the  seminiparous  tubes 
is  formed  of  elements  similar  to  those  which  occur  before  sexual  maturity 
in  the  testis  of  all  Vertebrates.  These  are  primitive  germinative  cells, 
and,  derived  from  these,  there  are  oviform  spermatogonia.  These 
elements  elaborate  an  internal  secretion.  On  the  foundation  of  this 
glandular  epithelium  there  is  formed,  in  the  spring,  the  strictly  semini- 
ferous epithelium.  At  this  time  the  spermatogonia  expend  their  ingesta 
in  successive  kineses,  thus  forming  the  zone  of  proliferation,  from 
which  arise  continually  the  seminal  cells,  strictly  so-called.  The 
germinative  cells  continue  to  secrete,  but  their  cell-bodies,  influenced  by 
the  multiplication  of  seminal  cells,  lose  their  boundaries,  and  form  a 
vast  nucleated  syncytium.  Some — the  cells  of  Sertoli,  the  nutritive 
•cells,  the  vegetative  cells,  &c. — exaggerate  the  secretory  activity  seen  in 
winter,  and  produce  a  substance  which  acts  with  a  new  intensity,  first 
on  the  seminal  cells,  and  then  on  the  somatic  cells.  The  others — the 
reserve  spermatogonia,  the  spore-cells,  the  indifferent  cells,  &c. — remain 
during  the  summer  as  a  reserve  to  form  the  new  spermatogonia  of  the 
following  winter.  Loisel's  most  general  conclusion  is  that  in  all  Verte- 
brates the  6eminal  cells  are  derived  from  a  glandular  epithelium. 

Peculiar  Process  in  Seminal  Vesicles  of  Elk.  f  —  Dr.  E.  Kolster 
found  that  in  the  seminal  vesicles  of  a  specimen  of  Cervus  alces,  killed 
shortly  before  the  commencement  of  the  breeding  season,  there  was  a 

*  Comptes  Eendus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  853-5;  andJourn.de  l'Anat.  Physiol., 
xxxviii.  (1902)  pp.  112-77  (4  pis.  and  25  figs.). 

t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  Ix.  (1902)  pp.  100-11  (1  pi.). 


294  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

remarkable  histolytic  process.  Over  a  considerable  area  there  was  dis- 
solution and  degeneration  of  the  epithelial  cells,  which  formed  a  mass  of 
detritus  in  the  tubules.  The  fundus  portion  of  the  vesicle  showed  a 
double  stratum  of  epitbelial  cells,  which  is  regarded  as  the  normal 
lining;  towards  the  efferent  duct  there  was  a  single  layer  of  cubical 
cells,  apparently  the  result  of  regeneration ;  between  these  was  the  area 
of  dissolution.  It  is  evident  that  more  specimens  must  be  studied 
before  a  secure  statement  can  be  made,  but  there  was  no  sign  of  disease. 

Influence  of  Diet  on  Egg-laying  in  the  Fowl.*  —  F.  Houssay- 
found  that  two  bens  fed  with  grain  laid,  in  a  given  period,  127  -f  67 
eggs,  while  two  others  of  similar  races,  fed  with  raw  flesh,  laid  176  -f-  121. 
The  total  for  the  first  two  is  194,  for  the  other  two  297.  There  was 
also  a  superiority  as  to  weight  in  favour  of  the  eggs  laid  by  the  carni- 
vorous fowls,  their  average  being  58  grm.  as  against  55  grm.  for  the 
vegetarians. 

Early  Stages  in  Development  of  Duck  and  Tern.f  —  Prof.  P.. 
Mitrophanow  finds  that  these  resemble  in  general  the  corresponding 
stages  in  the  fowl.  The  beginning  of  morphological  differentiation  is  in 
the  formation  of  the  median  ectodermal  thickening,  which  in  the  above- 
named  aquatic  birds  is  shunted  distinctly  backwards.  The  very  distinot 
Primitivknoten — the  antecedent  of  the  primitive  streak — is  probably  a 
palingenetic  feature ;  it  occurs  as  a  very  rare  deviation  from  the  norm 
in  the  fowl.  From  the  middle  of  the  ectodermal  thickening,  or  from 
the  Primitivknoten,  the  primitive  streak  begins  to  grow  in  the  direction 
of  the  tail.  The  primitive  groove  follows  the  same  path.  The  anterior 
end  of  these  structures,  which  appears  first,  and  is  always  more  pro- 
nounced than  the  posterior  end,  corresponds  to  the  blastopore  of  reptiles,, 
and  sometimes  shows  a  similar  form. 

Maternal  Impression  in  a  Mare.| —  Le  Hello  notes  that  a  racing 
mare,  Mascarade,  by  Mask  and  Shepherd's  Bush,  hurt  the  left  side  of 
her  head  by  galloping  against  a  tree.  After  the  wound  healed  there  was 
left  a  marked  hollow  at  the  level  of  the  lachrymal,  and  a  certain  de- 
pression of  tbe  orbital  apophysis.  The  nutrition  of  the  eye  was  seriously 
affected,  and  the  globe  is  now  much  atrophied. 

More  than  a  month  before  the  accident,  Mascarade  had  been  success- 
fully served  by  Nicham  II.,  and  the  foal — La  Courtille — born  in  due 
course,  shows  on  the  left  side  of  her  head  lesions  closely  resembling 
those  of  the  mother.  The  lachrymal  depression  is  less  marked ;  the 
orbital  arcade  is  even  more  suppressed;  the  little  cavity  called  the 
salihe  is  virtually  absent,  and  the  eye  is  not  bigger  than  a  lentil.. 
JLe  Hello  regards  it  as  a  clear  case  of  maternal  impression. 

Heredity  Studied  in  Mice.§  —  Prof.  L.  Cuenot  has  verified  in  mice 
the  law  which  Gregor  Mendel  stated  in  1865  in  regard  to  peas.  If  a 
common  grey  mouse — male  or  female — be.  paired  with  a  white  mouse — 
female  or  male — the  result  is,  without  exception,  that  grey  mice  are 
produced.  The  pigmented  form  is,  as  regards  pigmentation,  invariably 
prepotent  over  the  unpigmented  form. 

*  Coroptes  Eendus,  oxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  432-3. 

t  Ztitschr.  f.  wisa.  Zool.,  lxxi.  (1902)  pp.  189-210  (2  pis.). 

%  Comptes  Eendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  201-2.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  779-81. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  29S 


b.  Histolog-y. 

On  the  Process  of  Hair  turning  White.  *  —  E.  Metchnikoff  finds 
that  this  is  due  to  the  intervention  of  phagocytes  of  the  hair.  These 
cells  have  a  single  nucleus  and  numerous  amoeboid  processes  ;  they  are 
derived  from  the  medullary  part  of  the  hair,  make  their  way  out  into  its 
cortical  layer,  absorb  pigment-granules,  and  retire  to  the  root.  The 
phagocytes  become  more  and  more  scarce  as  the  hair  whitens,  and  most 
frequently  disappear  entirely.  Hair  turning  white  in  a  single  night,  or 
in  a  few  days,  may  be  explained  as  due  to  unusual  activity  on  the  part 
of  the  phagocytes.  This  mechanism  of  the  whitening  of  the  hair  through, 
the  agency  of  phagocytes  allows  this  case  of  atrophy  to  be  classed  under 
the  general  laws  of  atrophy  of  the  solid  parts  of  the  organism. 

Accessory  Lobes  on  Spinal  Cord  of  Birds.f — P.  Lachi  refers  to  a 
communication  by  von  Kolliker,  J  on  aggregates  of  nerve-cells  on  the 
sides  of  the  spinal  cord  in  birds  (Hofmann-Kolliker  nuclei).  In  1889  § 
Lachi  gave  an  account  of  the  lumbar  and  sacral  region  of  the  spinal 
cord  in  goose,  fowl,  pigeon,  &c,  aud  stated  the  following  conclusions. 

The  lumbar  swelling  shows  5-8  pairs  of  metamerically  disposed 
"  accessory  lobes."  These  lobes  consist  of  nerve-cells  and  of  a  gelatinous 
stroma  analogous  to  the  gelatinous  substance  of  the  rhomboidal  sinus. 
They  are  derived  from  the  anterior  horns  and  become  distinct  about  the 
eighth  day  of  incubation.  They  have  counterparts  in  the  accessory  lobes 
of  some  bony  fishes  (Ussow)  and  others  observed  in  the  alligator,  and 
they  throw  some  light  on  somewhat  similar  aggregates  of  nerve-cells^ 
recognised  in  the  lumbar  expansion  in  man. 

Nutritive  Channels  within  the  Liver-Cells  communicating  with 
the  Lobular  Capillaries.  ||— Prof.  E.  A.  Schafer  describes  sections  from 
a  rabbit's  liver,  injected  with  carmine-gelatin  from  the  portal  vein,  which 
show  within  the  cytoplasm  of  the  cells — but  not  within  the  nucleus — a. 
network  of  fine  varicose  canaliculi  filled  with  the  red  injection  and  com- 
municating here  and  there  directly  with  the  lobular  capillaries,  which 
are  also  completely  injected.  The  preparations  unmistakably  demon- 
strate the  existence  of  what  Browicz  has  inferred,  namely,  the  existence 
within  the  liver-cells  of  canaliculi  communicating  directly  with  the  blood- 
vessels. This  is  important  in  regard  to  the  mechanism  of  nutrition  of 
the  liver-cells  and  in  regard  to  pathological  conditions.  The  specimens 
date  from  1886  (the  late  Prof.  Rutherford's  collection),  and  the  canals 
in  question  were  observed  by  Prof.  Carlier,  of  Birmingham,  who  showed 
them  to  Rutherford.  Unfortunately,  the  publication  of  the  observation 
was  not  then  accomplished. 

Nerve-Endings  in  Human  Muscle.1T — Dr.  Grabower  has  been  very 
successful  in  demonstrating  that  the  nerve-endings  in  human  muscle 
show  essentially  the  same  form  and  relations  as  have  been  described  in 
amphibians  and  reptiles  by  Kuhne,  Krause,  Bremer,  and  others.     The 

*  Proc.  Eoy.  Soc.  London,  Ixix.  (1901)  p.  156. 
t  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  7-8. 

t  SB.  Acad.  Sci.  Wien,  5th  Deo.  1901.  §   Atti  Soc.  Tosc.  Sci.  Nat.,  1889. 

||  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  18-20  (1  fig.). 
If  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lx.  (1902)  pp.  1-16  (3  pis.). 


296  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

result  of  his  investigation  is  in  the  main  to  confirm  in  regard  to  the 
particular  case  of  man  what  has  been  observed  elsewhere.  Attention  may 
be  directed,  however,  to  Grabower's  description  of  peculiar  oval  struc- 
tures, which  look  like  sensory  end-organs  and  in  any  case  do  not  at  all 
resemble  any  of  the  motor  endings. 

Supporting-Substances  of  the  Nervous  System.*  —  Dr.  H.  Joseph 
has  reached  the  following  chief  conclusions.  (1)  In  Annelids  and  in 
many  other  Invertebrates,  the  neuroglia  consists  of  peculiar  well-defined 
fibres,  the  neuroglial  fibres,  and  shows  a  remarkable  correspondence  with 
the  neuroglia  of  Vertebrates.  (2)  In  both  Vertebrates  and  Invertebrates, 
tbe  neuroglia  is  a  derivative  of  the  outer  germinal  layer,  the  fibres  are 
derivatives  of  cells  with  which  they  probably  always  retain  some  per- 
sistent connection.  (3)  Epithelial  fibres  and  neuroglial  fibres  show  a 
most  intimate  correspondence,  and  are  phylogenetically  related.  They 
are  functional  structures  in  the  clearest  sense  and  are  originally  related 
to  simple  requirements  and  functions  of  the  cells.  (4)  The  position  of 
the  glia  fibres  is  such  that  they  are  apposed  to  or  imbedded  in  only 
the  external  layer  of  the  cell-plasm.  They  do  not  pass  into  the  interior 
protoplasm,  as  Erik  Miiller  supposed. 

Matrix  of  Vitreous  Humour  in  the  Eye  of  Man  and  Animals.j — 
Dr.  C.  Addario  notes  that  almost  all  investigators  are  agreed  that  the 
Grnndsubstanz  of  the  vitreous  humour  includes  (a)  firm  fibrils  forming 
a  narrow-meshed  network,  and  (b)  a  fluid  interfibrillar  substance.  He 
has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  ciliary  epithelium  lying  directly  in 
front  of  the  ora  serrata  forms  and  adds  to  the  fibrillar  framework  of  the 
vitreous  humour  and  must  therefore  be  regarded  as  a  true  matrix,  by  the 
activity  of  which  a  slow,  but  persistent  growth  of  the  vitreous  humour  is 
effected. 

Skin-Pigment  in  Man  and  Monkey s.+ — Dr.  B.  Adachi  finds  in  the 
corium  two  kinds  of  connective-tissue  pigment-cells,  (a)  small,  incon- 
spicuous elements,  almost  always  the  more  external ;  and  (b)  much  larger, 
usually  deeper,  very  conspicuous  elements.  The  former  occur  in  man 
and  in  all  monkeys  ;  the  latter  are  sometimes  absent.  In  many  monkeys 
the  large  pigment-cells  occur  in  almost  every  part  of  the  body,  in  others 
they  are  quite  absent ;  in  man  (apart  from  the  choroid  and  meningial 
membranes)  they  are  transitory,  sometimes  occurring  before  and  after 
birth,  sometimes  only  after  birth,  rarely  in  adult  life,  most  abundant  in 
the  lumbar,  coccygeal,  and  gluteal  regions,  and  especially  in  coloured 
races.  In  many  coloured  races  they  may  form  blue  spots  on  the  regions 
indicated  ;  in  white  men  they  are  practically  microscopic.  They  cannot 
be  regarded  as  racial  peculiarities,  nor  can  it  be  concluded  that  those 
races  in  which  they  are  most  abundant  are  lower. 

"  Chromatophores  " — stellate  pigment-figures  within  the  epithelial 
limits— -are  often  clearly  seen  in  the  normal  white  skin  ;  they  are  much 
more  distinct  in  Hylobates ;  they  are  not  cells,  however,  but  cell-like 
figures  formed  mainly  by  intercellular  pigment-granules.  A  connective- 
tissue  pigment-cell,  whether  of  the  small  or  of  the  large  type,  never 
reaches  the  epithelial  boundary,  either  in  (healthy)  men  or  in  monkeys. 

*  Arb.  Zool.  Inst.  Wien,  xiii.  (1902)  pp.  335-400  (4  pis.  and  2  figs.). 
t  Anat.  Anseig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  9-12.  %  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  16-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  297 

e.  General. 

Distribution  of  Marine  Mammals.*— Prof.  J.  Palacky  thinks  that 
marine  mammals  represent  decadent  groups.  The  number  of  extinct 
forms  is  usually  large  in  proportion  to  tbat  of  the  extant ; — Sirenia, 
5:1;  Pinnipedia,  30  :  54  ;  Cetacea,  286  :  112.  In  Platanistidre  the 
numbers  are  72  :  3  ;  in  Physeteridse,  68  :  16  ;  in  Mystacoceti,  91 :  36  ; 
but  in  dolphins  the  fossils  are  in  the  minority  (18 :  63). 

The  older  distribution  was  more  uniform  than  that  of  to-day ;  human 
influence  has  been  very  disturbing.  Geological  facts  show  that  an 
arctic  origin  must  be  excluded,  but  three  distribution-centres  may  be 
recognised, — Argentina,  N.E.  America,  and  Mid-Europe.  It  was  after 
the  Glacial  Periods  that  the  northern  immigration  occurred,  and  the 
peopling  of  the  Antarctic  ocean  was  also  recent.  The  boundaries  of 
the  zoo-geographical  marine  regions  are  somewhat  arbitrary. 

Plankton  and  Abyssal  Fauna  around  Capri.f  —  Dr.  S.  Lo  Bianco 
gives  an  account — full  of  interesting  notes — of  the  animals  captured 
from  the  surface  and  from  the  deep  waters  in  the  vicinity  of  Capri. 
Tho  investigations  were  made  in  April  on  Herr  F.  A.  Krupp's  '  Maia.' 
They  re-emphasise  the  richness  and  variety  of  the  Mediterranean  fauna, 
and  the  discovery  of  27  new  species  near  an  area  which  has  been  rela- 
tively well  worked  is  in  itself  striking. 

New  Species  of  Atherine  in  Fresh  Water. J  —  Prof.  L.  Roule  de- 
scribes as  Atherina  riqueti  what  he  regards  as  a  new  species  of  recent 
origin,  to  all  appearance  a  fresh-water  derivative  of  the  marine  A.  boyeri, 
just  as  A.  lacustria  seems  to  be  derived  from  the  marine  A.  hejpsetus. 
The  new  form  was  found  in  the  Canal  du  Midi  which  connects  the  basin 
of  the  Garonne  with  the  Mediterranean. 

Molluscum  Contagiosum  in  Amphibians.§ — P.  Mingazzini  de- 
scribes a  case  of  this  skin  disease  in  Discoglos&us  pictus.  The  disease 
has  been  hitherto  known  only  in  warm-blooded  animals  (man,  sheep, 
pigeon,  fowl),  but  in  spite  of  differences  in  the  degree  of  infection  and 
in  the  dimensions  of  the  parasite,  there  seems  no  doubt  as  to  its  occur- 
rence in  the  amphibian  mentioned. 

Prodromus  of  Monograph  on  Cham£eleons.||  —Dr.  Fr.  "Werner  be- 
gins by  noticing  that  since  Boulenger's  "  classic  catalogue  "  (1887)  the 
number  of  known  species  of  chameleons  has  been  considerably  increased. 
Twenty-six  new  species  of  Ghamseleon,  four  of  Brookesia,  and  three  of 
Rhampholeon,  have  been  described.     The  total  is  now  82  species. 

The  first  section  deals  with  the  classification  of  the  species  of 
Chamseleon,  which  the  author  arranges  in  seven  groups.  The  diverse- 
snout  appendages — apparently  of  polyphyletic  origin — are  arranged  on 
four  distinct  lines.  Then  follows  a  discussion  of  the  markings,  of  which 
eight  different  sorts  are  distinguished.     The  geographical  distribution, 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  249-66.' 

t  MT.  Zool.  Stat.  Neapel,  xv.  (1901 )  pp.  413-S2  (1  map). 

X  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  2G2-7  (4  figs.). 

§  Atti  K.  Accad.  Lincei  (Rend.';,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  258-63. 

||  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  295-460  (13  pie.  and  2  figs.). 


"298  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

is  then  discussed,  and  illustrated  with  maps.  The  systematic  survey 
follows,  and  we  must  at  least  notice  the  excellence  of  the  numerous 
illustrations. 

Excretory  Organs  of  Amphioxus.* — E.  S.  Goodrich  finds  that  the 
Fadenzellen  described  by  Boveri  round  the  funnels  of  the  excretory 
tubules  of  Amphioxus,  are  in  reality  typical  solenocytes,  such  as  Goodrich 
has  described  in  the  Glyceridas,  Phyllodocidte,  Alciopidaa,  and  Neph- 
thyidae.  Hitherto  these  excretory  cells  have  been  known  only  at  the 
inner  end  of  nephridia  which  end  blindly,  having  no  direct  communica- 
tion with  the  coelom,  and  this  is  true  of  the  excretory  organ  of  an  adult 
Amphioxus.  It  is  more  or  less  branched,  and  the  branches  bear  in- 
numerable solenocytes  with  narrow  thread-like  tubes  of  remarkable 
length.  At  the  distal  end  of  each  tube  is  situated  the  cell-body  and 
nucleus,  and  inside  it  vibrates  a  flagellum  which  passes  into  the  lumen 
of  the  excretory  canal.  It  may  be  concluded  that,  in  their  function, 
segmental  arrangement,  and  detailed  histological  structure,  the  excretory 
organs  of  Amphioxus  are  essentially  identical  with  the  nephridia  of 
certain  Polychset  worms. 

Monstrosity  in  a  Trout.f — Prof.  E.  Yung  describes  a  malformation 
in  the  head  of  a  rainbow  trout  (Salmo  iridens),  which,  unlike  most 
monstrous  tfouts,  lived  a  considerable  time — 22  months,  feeding  solely 
on  Tubifex.  It  had  one  eye,  situated  on  the  left,  and  it  invariably 
moved  in  circles  around  an  imaginary  axis  on  its  left  side.  The  man- 
dible was  prolonged,  the  upper  jaw  greatly  reduced.  Great  abnormalities 
were  found  in  the  brain ;  the  first  and  third  vesicles  had  been  arrested 
in  development  and  had  thereafter  suffered  degeneration  of  the  nervous 
tissue  to  the  right  side  ;  the  second  vesicle  was  confluent  with  the  third 
and  was  also  very  degenerate. 

Questions  of  Nomenclature.! — Dr.  C.  W.  Stiles  discusses  certain 
questions  of  nomenclature  as  applied  to  parasites  and  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  work  of  Looss.  We  cannot  do  more  than  quote  the  headings 
of  a  few  sections  : — The  law  of  priority,  at  what  date  should  the  law  of 
priority  become  operative  ?  the  rule  of  homonyms,  is  there  any  disgrace 
connected  with  synonyms  ?  method  of  proposing  a  new  genus  or  species, 
are  patronymic  names  to  be  censured  ? 

Occurrence  of  Compounds  of  Phosphorus  in  Invertebrates.§  — 
Jean  Gautrelet  finds  that  in  Crustaceans  and  Molluscs — many  examples 
— the  blood  and  the  shell  both  contain  phosphorus  in  mineral  and  in 
organic  compounds.  In  the  crustacean  carapace  the  amount  of  mineral 
phosphatic  compounds  was  found  to  be  much  less  than  previous  investi- 
gators had  computed. 

Biological  Theory  of  Vision.||— Georges  Bohn refers  underthis  title 
to  his  speculations  in  regard  to  the  origin  of  pigment  and  the  role  of 
pigment  in  vision.  Arguing  against  Pizon,  he  maintains  that  the  light- 
waves are  translated  into  intra-molecular  movements  and  that  the  luminous 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Boo.,  lxix.  (1902)  pp.  350-1. 

t  Rev.  Suisse  Zool.,  ix.  (1901)  pp.  307-13  (3  fi>s.) 

X  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  157-208. 

§   Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  186-8.  ||  Tom.  cit,,  pp.  184-6. 


ZOOLOGY  AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  .  299 

•energy  is  transformed  into  chemical  energy  in  the  granules  by  the  pig- 
ment. Not  only  so,  but  the  formation  of  the  eye  is  "  a  chemical  phe- 
nomenon," in  which  pigmentary  and  hyaline  modifications  of  tissue  occur. 
In  Vertebrates,  it  is  noted,  the  eye  is  considered  as  a  metamorphosed 
branchial  cleft.     We  have  not  been  able  to  follow  the  argument. 


INVERTEBRATA. 

Mollusca. 
o.  Cephalopoda. 

Dichotomy  of  Arms  in  Cuttlefish.* — C.  Parona  describes  a  case  in 
•Octopus  vulgaris.  The  divided  arm  was  small  and  doubtless  in  process 
of  regeneration.  In  another  case  observed  in  Eledone  aldrovandi,  the 
dichotomy  was  not  obvious  as  such,  but  an  extra  arm  arose  between  the 
second  and  third  on  the  right  side,  closely  apposed  to  the  third.  Fisher- 
men report  the  not  infrequent  occurrence  of  specimens  of  Eledone  with 
nine  arms. 

Synopsis  of  (Egopsid  Cephalopods.f —  Dr.  G.  Pfeffer  has  made  a 
valuable  synopsis  of  all  the  known  cegopsid  cephalopods,  with  the  usual 
diagnoses  and  identification  tables.  It  has  especial  reference  to  the 
cephalopods  of  the  German  Plankton  Expedition — to  be  treated  of  in  a 
special  report. 

3.  Scaphopoda. 

"  Pseudogamy  "  in  Dentalium  Entalis.J — Dr.  V.  Ariola  has  followed 
Loeb's  methods  in  treating  the  ova  of  Dentalium  entalis  with  various 
solutions,  magnesium  chloride,  sodium  chloride,  Ac.  in  sea-watef  and  in 
distilled  water.  In  no  case  did  the  eggs  exhibit  osmotic  pseudogamy,  as 
the  author  calls  it.  There  was  no  beginning  of  segmentation.  But  a 
comparison  of  the  eggs  in  the  artificial  solutions  with  those  in  normal 
•sea-water  showed  that  the  ions  had  a  deleterious  effect. 

y.  Gasteropoda. 

Reactions  of  Limax  maximus.§ — P.  Frandsen  has  studied  the  loco- 
motor responses  of  this  slug  to  three  kinds  of  stimuli, — those  of  touch, 
gravity,  and  light.  (I.)  In  ordinary  circumstances  the  animal  is  nega- 
tively thigmotactic, — moving  away  from  the  agent  that  comes  in  contact 
with  it. 

(II.)  On  an  inclined  glass  plate,  all  slugs  give  a  geotactic  response, 
some  positively,  others  negatively ;  a  few  are  somewhat  indifferent. 
'There  is  little  variation  on  different  days  or  at  different  times  on  the 
same  day.  The  occasional  vagaries  in  the  responses  of  individual 
animals  are  to  some  extent  due  to  thigmotactic  and  phototactic  in- 
fluences. 

The  different  geotactic  response,  on  a  glass  plate,  of  different  in- 
dividuals is  due  mainly  to  two  factors :  (a)  the  quantity  and  quality  of 

*  Boll.  Mus.  Zool.  Univ.  Genova,  No.  96  (1900)  pp.  1-7  (1  pi.).  See  Zool.  Cen- 
tralbl.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  184-5. 

t  MT.  Nat.  Hist.  Museum  Hamburg,  xvii.  (1900)  pp.  147-98.  See  Zool.  Cen- 
tralbl.,  ix.  (1902)  p.  185. 

%  MT.  Zool.  Stat.  Neapel,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  408-12. 

§  Proc.  Amer.  Acad.  Sci.,  xxxvii.  (1901)  pp.  185-227  (22  figs.). 


300  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

the  slime  secreted ;  (b)  the  relative  proportions  of  the  length  of  the 
anterior  and  the  posterior  regions  of  the  animal's  body.  All  the  condi- 
tions being  the  same,  it  is  this  last  factor  which  determines  whether  the 
head  end  will  be  directed  up  or  down. 

If  the  ratio  of  length  of  the  anterior  region  (from  the  tip  of  the 
head  to  the  posterior  edge  of  the  mantle)  to  the  posterior  region  is  2  :  3, 
or  more,  and  if  the  mucus  is  of  good  quality  and  sufficient  quantity,  the 
slug  will  be  positively  geotactic.  If  the  ratio  is  3:5,  or  less,  the 
animal  will  usually  migrate  upward,  and  the  nearer  the  ratio  approaches 
1  :  2  the  more  apt  is  the  slug  to  respond  negatively.  In  a  small  number 
of  individuals,  in  which  the  ratio  lies  between  2  :  3  and  3  :  5,  the  re- 
sponse will  depend  largely  on  the  condition  of  the  mucus  and  co-opera- 
tion of  other  factors. 

All  sln^s  have  a  natural  tendency  to  move  towards  the  earth.  This 
tendency  is  masked  in  the  animals  which  are  negatively  geotactic  on  a 
glass  plate  by  the  greater  pull  of  gravity  on  the  disproportionately 
larger  and  heavier  posterior  region  of  the  animal.  The  general  down- 
ward tendency  may  vary  normally  at  different  times  of  the  day,  owing 
to  the  animals'  habit  of  remaining  in  concealment  in  the  daytime  and 
feeding  at  night. 

(III.)  The  slugs  are  markedly  phototactic,  but  with  individual  dif- 
ferences, as  in  geotaxis.  To  strong  light,  they  give,  on  the  average, 
a  strong  negative  response,  and  the  degree  of  response  gradually 
diminishes  with  the  reduction  in  the  strength  of  the  stimulus.  Thero 
is  a  certain  strength  of  light — neutral  stimulus — which  appears  neither 
to  repel  nor  to  attract,  and  reduction  of  the  intensity  beyond  this  neutral 
point  changes  the  phototaxis  from  negative  to  positive.  The  positive 
response  becomes  stronger  up  to  a  certain  degree  of  intensity ;  it  then 
gradually  diminishes  with  decreasing  intensity  until  absolute  darkness,, 
accompanied  by  no  response,  is  reached.  Slugs  are  responsive  to  light 
stimuli  covering  a  wide  range  of  intensities.  The  principal  organ  of 
response  is  probably  the  eye.  The  right  side  is  not  as  sensitive  to 
stimuli  as  the  left.  In  the  dark,  other  directive  stimuli  being  eliminated, 
the  slug  tends  to  travel  in  a  spiral  of  gradually  increasing  radius, 
though  almost  invariably  producing  one  or  more  loops.  There  is  a 
slightly  greater  tendency  to  right-hand  circling. 

"  These  responses  of  the  slug  to  touch,  gravity,  and  light-stimuli 
emphasise  the  fact  that  it  is  an  animal's  normal  environmental  condi- 
tions which  chiefly  determine  its  general  response  to  artificial  stimuli. 
The  variations  in  precision  and  character  of  this  general  response  are 
mainly  dependent  on  certain  internal  factors,  such  as  the  food  conditions 
of  the  animal,  its  fear  of  an  enemy,  and  desire  to  escape  captivity." 

Digestive  Gland  in  Molluscs.* — P.  Enriques  has  made  a  detailed, 
chiefly  microscopical,  study  of  the  digestive  gland  in  Aplysia  depilan* 
and  limacina,  in  comparison  with  Pleurobranchsea  meckelii,  the  common 
snail,  the  oyster,  and  various  Cephalopods.  His  results  include  some 
details  in  regard  to  the  structure  and  relations  of  the  digestive  gland,  an 
account  of  the  mechanism  of  trituration  and  digestion  in  Aplysia,  and  a 
description  of  the  microscopical  changes  exhibited  by  the  food-particles^ 

*  MT.  Zool.  Stat.  Neapel,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  281-107  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.   ETC.  301 

The  alcoholic  extract  of  the  liver  of  Aplysia  shows  the  spectrum  of  acid 
chlorophyll. 

In  Aplysia  there  are  four  kinds  of  hepatic  colls — which  are  described 
at  length — (1)  chlorophyllous  absorbing  cells,  (2)  secreting  cells  with 
small  drops,  (3)  secreting  cells  with  large  drops,  and  (4)  spherular  cells 
which  in  one  stage  are  characterised  by  numerous  non-calcareous  refrac- 
tive spheres.  In  Pleurobranchxa,  the  chloropbyllous  and  spherular  cells 
ar:  not  represented;  in  Helix,  there  are  absorbing,  secreting,  and  spheru- 
lar colls ;  in  Cephalopods  (Octopus,  Eledone,  Sepia)  there  are  secreting 
cells  with  drops  coloured  brown,  spherular  cells  like  those  of  Gastero- 
pods,  and  cells  with  red  granules  of  unknown  import ;  in  Ostrea  edulis 
there  are  only  secreting  cells  with  pigmented  drops  like  those  of 
Cephalopods.  In  none  of  the  forms  studied  was  there  evidence  of 
excretory  function  in  the  hepatic  cells.  The  epithelial  cells  of  the 
stomach  and  caacum  in  Cephalopods — though  characteiustically  ciliated 
— are  full  of  absorbed  fat-globules. 

Poisoning-  from  Conus.* — R.  G.  Corney  notes  that  doubt  has  been 
cast  on  tho  opinion  that  the  "  bite  "  of  certain  species  of  Conus  is  poison- 
ous, and  reports  a  case  from  Fiji  which  is  much  to  tho  point.  The 
patient,  a  European  subject,  was  extracting  tho  animal  (Conns  geogra- 
phicus)  from  its  shell,  and  received  a  puncture  which  was  soon  followed 
by  numbness,  loss  of  speech,  paralysis,  and  so  on,  with  recovery  in  two 
days.  The  condition  resembled  that  which  might  be  looked  for  after 
poisoning  with  curare. 

Arthropoda. 
o.  Insecta. 

Copulation  of  House-Fly.f— Prof.  A.  Berlese  gives  a  fine  illustration 
•of  the  careful  scientific  analysis  of  a  familiar  scene,  the  copulation  of 
Musca  domestica.  After  a  description  of  the  male  and  female  repro- 
ductive organs,  with  admirable  figures  of  the  complex  penis  and  ovi- 
positor, Berlese  discusses  the  copulatory  process,  in  regard  to  which 
the  most  remarkable  fact  is  perhaps  the  relatively  slight  activity  of  the 
external  organs  of  the  male  and  the  very  great  activity  of  those  of 
tho  female.  Apart  from  preliminaries  and  the  actual  mounting  on  the 
female,  the  male  is  relatively  passive  in  the  act.  For  it  is  the  female 
that  introduces  her  ovipositor  into  the  genital  atrium  of  the  male. 

Development  of  Nerve-Cord.} —Dr.  K.  Escherich  concludes  from 
his  study  of  tho  embryos  of  Lucilia,  that  the  ventral  nerve-cord  arises 
from  two  genetically  distinct  systems — the  paired  lateral  cords  and  the 
impaired  median  strand.  In  Lucilia  and  in  Muscidse  generally  the  two 
systems  become  intimately  combined,  but  in  the  larval  and  imaginal 
stages  of  most  other  insects  the  distinctness  of  the  median  strand  is 
evident,  as  Leydig  and  others  have  pointed  out. 

Note3  on  Galls. § — D.  Manuel  Fernandez  de  Gatta  discusses  the 
Levantine   galls  on   Quercus    infectoria   produced    by    Diplolepis   gallse 

*  Nature,  Ixv.  (1902)  p.  193. 

t  Kev.  P.itol.  Vegetale,  ix.  (1900-1901,  published  1902)  pp.  345-5G  (12  fi>*s) 
X  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxii.  ((1902)  pp.  179-81  (4  figs.). 
§  Boll.  Soc.  Espan.  Hist.  Nat.,  ii.  (1902)  pp.  81-0. 
June  18th,  1902  x 


o 


02  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


tinctorise  Wild  and  by  Cynips  pohjcera  Giraud ;  and  also  the  galls 
produced  on  Rhus  semialata  in  China  and  Japan  by  Aphis  chinensis  Bell. 
Notes  on  South  American  Termites  and  their  Termitophilous 
Associates.* — Dr.  F.  Silvestri  communicates  descriptive  notes  on  a 
large  collection.  The  termitophilous  forms  include  Acari,  Diplopoda, 
Thysanura,  Hemiptera,  Diptera,  Hymenoptera,  and  Coleoptera,  which 
may  be  arranged  according  to  habit  in  seven  groups  proposed  by  Janet 
for  myrmecophilous  forms.  The  terms  are  repellent :  —  alloicoxeni, 
parassitoxeni,  phoresoxeni,  cleptoxeni,  syneccroxeni,  synoicoxeni,  and 
euxeni. 

Colours  of  Butterflies  not  due  to  Diffraction.f — W.  B.  Croft 
points  out  that  while  all  scales  have  fine  diffraction  rulings,  consisting 
of  rows  of  small  points,  it  is  a  mistake  to  attribute  the  colours  to  diffrac- 
tion, such  as  is  familiar  on  the  finely  marked  feathers  of  a  humming- 
bird. True  diffraction  colours  are  many-coloured  iridescent  lights  vary- 
ing as  they  glance  off  at  different  angles,  but  no  illustration  of  this  was 
found  in  a  collection  of  British  Lepidoptera.  No  doubt  some  insects 
show  interference  colours,  but  these  seem  usually  to  arise  from  the 
2>henonienon  caused  by  thin  plates. 

Odoriferous  Organ  of  the  Male  Hepialus  hectus.  %  —  Dr.  P. 
Deegener  gives  a  careful  account  of  this  highly  developed  scent-gland 
which  lies  in  the  swollen  tibia.  The  excessive  development  of  the  tibia 
has  been  associated  with  the  great  reduction  of  the  tarsus,  but  it  is 
present  in  rudimentary  form.  Each  glandular  cell  has  two  large  nuclei 
rich  in  chromatin.  The  secretion  probably  diffuses  out  in  gaseous  form 
through  the  delicate  walls  of  the  scales  which  become  tense  and  are 
erected  by  internal  pressure.  It  seems  likely  that  the  secretion  was 
originally  a  sexual  excitant,  and  that  it  now  helps  the  females  to  find 
the  males.  We  cannot  do  more  than  indicate  the  general  scope  of  the 
memoir. 

Dermaptera  and  the  Microthorax.§ — Dr.  K.  W.  Verhoeff  proposes 
a  new  and  natural  system  of  the  Dermaptera,  suggests  a  phylogenetic 
scheme  of  the  families,  and  describes  twelve  new  genera.  He  also 
devotes  particular  attention  to  the  microthorax  or  neck-segment,  which 
he  regards  as  a  trace  of  Chilopod  ancestry,  more  and  more  comjdetely 
suppressed  in  Insecta.  It  is  still  well  developed  in  Dermaptera,  and 
fairly  distinct  in  the  lower  Orthoptera.  In  Neuroptera  it  is  strongest 
on  the  dorsal  surface,  in  Hymenoptera  and  Coleoptera  on  the  pleural 
surfaces. 

Structure  and  Classification  of  Collembola.  ||  —  Carl  Bonier  has 
investigated  in  considerable  detail  the  antennal  sense-organs  of  Collem- 
bola. As  in  other  Insects,  these  consist  essentially  of  pore-canals  in  the 
cuticle,  the  orifice  being  closed  externally  by  a  sensory  appendage  of 
some  kind.  There  is  much  variation  as  regards  the  number  and  cha- 
racter of  these  sensory  appendages,  and  the  author  has  studied  those 
especially  of  "  antennal  organ  iii."  in  a  number  of  forms.    In  Collembola 

*  Boll.  Mus.  Zool.  Univ.  Torino,  xvii.  No.  419  (1902)  29  pp. 

+  Nature,  lxv.  (1902)  p.  198. 

t  Zeitschr.  f.  wisa.  Zool.,  lxxi.  (1902)  pp.  27G-93  (1  pi.). 

^  Zool.  Anzeip;.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  181-20S. 

|[  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  92-116  (18  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


30:5 


generally  they  are  confined  to  the  ultimate  and  penultimate  segments  of 
the  antennas,  and  are  such  that  it  is  easy  to  trace  a  transition  from  the 
ordinary  pointed  hairs  to  the  diiferentiated  sense-papillse.  In  addition 
to  these  hairs  and  papillae  derived  from  hairs,  there  are  also  integu- 
mentary tubercles,  non-articulated,  but  of  similar  sensory  nature  to  the 
hair-like  structures.  The  main  facts  in  regard  to  the  components  of 
the  antennal  sense-organs  may  be  summed  up  in  the  following  table : — 

Pore-canals 


Taste-hairs 
[on  different) 
parts  of     > 
[    the  body   ) 


Normal  pointed 
hairs 


Undifferentiated 
sensory  hairs 


Sensory  papillae 
(     scattered  in     1 

antennal organs > 
[      iii.  and  iv.      j 


Tubercles 


Tapilloa  or  Clubs 


Sensory  rods 
/Antennal) 
(organ  iii./ 


Sensory  cones 
JAntennal) 
(organ  iii.) 


Antennal 
orsan  iii. 


In  all 
Collenibola 


In  all 
Onychiuriuaj 


Antennal 
organ  iii. 


Antennal 
onran  iv. 


In  most       In  Dicyrtoma 

Onychiurinse 


In 

numerous 

Collenibola 

except  the 

higher 

Entomobryidas 

The  author  describes  and  figures  antennal  sense-organ  iii.  in  each  of 
the  sub-families.  The  remainder  of  the  paper  is  occupied  with  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  systematic  position  of  the  genera  Tetracanthella  Schott, 
and  Actaletes  Giard.  He  finds  that  the  former  is  most  nearly  related  to 
the  genera  Anuropliorus  and  Uzelia,  and  should  be  united  with  them  to 
constitute  the  sub-family  Anurophorinae,  which  is  to  be  regarded  as  in- 
cluding the  most  primitive  members  of  the  family  Entomobryidie.  The 
genus  Actaletes  is  placed  in  a  new  sub-family — Actaletinae — of  the 
Entomobryidse. 

Life-History  of  Clythra  quadri-punctata.*  —  Horace  St.  John  K. 
Donisthorpe  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  life-history  of  this 
beetle,  whose  larvse  are  found  in  spring  in  ants'  nests  (Formica  ruj'a). 
When  the  beetle  has  emerged  from  the  pupa  in  the  nest,  it  escapes  with 

*  Trans.  Entom.  Soc.  London,  1902,  pp.  11-24  (1  pi.). 

x  2 


304  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

caution,  "  feigning  death,"  and  holding  on  to  twigs,  when  attacked  by 
the  ants.  It  seeks  a  mate  and  copulation  occurs.  The  beetles  frequent 
birch  shrubs,  eating  the  young  shoots  and  leaves.  The  female  seeks  a 
tree  or  shrub  above  or  close  to  a  nest  of  F.  rufa,  and  drops  the  eggs  on 
the  ground  beneath.  The  eggs  are  covered  by  an  oxcrementitious  case 
or  capsule,  each  like  the  end  of  a  birch  catkin.  The  ants  carry  the 
covered  eggs  to  the  nest,  probably  mistaking  them  for  vegetable  refuse. 
The  young  larva,  which  hatches  in  about  twenty-one  days,  uses  the  egg- 
case  as  a  nucleus  on  which  to  build  the  larval  case, — made  of  the  larval 
excrement  mixed  with  earth.  To  enlarge  the  case  the  larva  removes 
particles  from  the  inside  and  plasters  them  on  the  outside.  The  larva 
feeds  on  vegetable  refuse  in  the  nest  and  may  possibly  be  of  some 
service  to  the  ants  in  removing  useless  or  decaying  stuff.  The  beetle 
looks  like  a  mimic  of  Coccinella  distincta,  which  also  lives  in  nests  of 
Formica  rufa,  and  it  is  distasteful  on  its  own  account,  thus  affording  an 
example  of  Miillerian  mimicry. 

B.  Myriopoda. 

Spermatogenesis  and  Oogenesis  in  Lithobius  forficatus.*  —  Carl 
Tonniges  has  reached  the  following  conclusions.  (I.)  As  to  spermato- 
genesis: — In  the  young  male  gonads  numerous  elements  unite  to  form 
a  syncytium ;  this  is  due  to  emigration  of  indifferent  cells  from  the 
germinal  epithelium  which  furnishes  the  specific  spermatogonia ;  most 
of  the  syncytium  is  used  as  nutrition  for  the  primitive  sperm-cells,  but 
some  of  the  spermatogonia  are  utilised  by  their  neighbours.  The 
nutritive  cells  of  the  Lithobius  testes  are  really  abortive  germ-cells. 

The  spermatogonia  proliferate  as  cell-complexes  into  the  syncytium 
of  the  testis.  They  form  long  cell-strands  with  nuclei  disposed  one 
behind  the  other.  As  the  elongation  goes  on,  these  nuclei  acquire  cell- 
boundaries.     All  the  nutritive  cells  are  absorbed. 

The  cell-lineage  is  as  follows : — 


"B* 


Indifferent  cells  of  the  germinal  epithelium 


Geim-cells  Indifferent  nutritive 

(syncytium)  cells 


Spermatogonia        Abortive  spermatogonia 
(nutritive  cells) 

(II.)  As  to  tho  oogenesis,  the  general  results  are  as  follows : — In  the 
young  female  gonads,  as  in  the  terminal  chamber  of  the  insect's  ovarian 
tubes,  all  the  cell-elements  form  a  syncytium.  This  syncytium  is  in 
greater  part  utilised  as  nutritive  matorial  by  the  ova  which  grow  over 
it  like  parasites.  The  origin  of  the  syncytium  is  due  to  the  emigration 
and  separation  of  indifferent  cells  from  the  germinal  epithelium.  From 
this  indifferent  cell-material  there  arise  germ-cells,  which  become  ova 
and  nutritive  cells.    Besides  these  it  gives  rise  to  follicle-cells.    Typical 

*  Zeitschr.  f.  wiss.  Zocl,  Ixxi.  (1902)  pp.  328-58  (2  pis.  and  3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,  ETC.  305 

ova  are  frequently  used  up  as  nutritive  material  by  their  neighbours, 
so  that  the  nutritive  cells  of  the  Lithobius-ovary  must  bs  regarded  as 
abortive  or  unsuccessful  ova. 

The  cell-lineage  is  as  follows  : — 

Indifferent  cells  of  the  germinal  epithelium 


Germ-cells  Follicle-cells 


Ova  Nutritive  cells 


Successful  ova  Nutritive  (abortive)  ova 

The  general  result,  it  will  be  observed,  is  to  corroborate  completely 
in  reference  to  Lithobius,  the  conclusions  which  were  established  by 
Heymons  from  his  study  of  Scolopendra. 

Comparative  Morphology  of  Chilopoda.*  —  Dr.  Karl  W.  Verhoeff 
discusises  some  of  the  results  obtained  by  Heymons  in  his  recent  study 
of  the  embryology  of  Scolopendra.^  First,  in  regard  to  the  appendages 
of  the  head,  he  points  out  the  differences  between  Heymons'  nomenclature 
and  his  own,  and  adduces  reasons  for  believing  that  Heymons'  conclu- 
sions suffer  from  the  fact  that  he  has  confined  his  observations  too  ex- 
clusively to  the  early  stages  of  development.  Again,  in  regard  to  the 
number  of  segments  in  the  legs,  whilst  most  authors  give  seven  as  the 
typical  number,  VerhoetF  finds  six  only,  and  Heymons  eight.  But 
Heymons  includes  the  claw  as  a  distinct  segment,  although  in  post- 
embryonic  life  it  does  not  contain  a  cavity,  and  the  other  segment  is  the 
trochanter  which  is  only  present  in  rudiment  in  the  posterior  legs  of 
Scolopendra,  but  is  distinct  in  the  anterior.  Heymons'  results  convince 
Verhoeff  that  while  in  Lithobius  the  six-jointed  condition  is  the  primary 
one,  in  Scolopendra  it  is  secondary.  Further,  he  does  not  agree  with 
Heymons'  nomenclature  for  the  newly  discovered  small  segment  behind 
the  genital  segment.  He  considers  that  the  name  genital  segment  must 
be  retained  for  the  segment  to  which  it  has  hitherto  been  applied,  and 
the  name  post-genital  segment  be  given  to  Heymons'  newly  discovered 
segment. 

Resistance  of  Myriopods  to  Asphyxiation.^  —  Dr.  G.  Eossi  has 
made  a  number  of  experiments.  It  seems  that  millipedes  (lulus)  sur- 
vive prolonged  immersion,  exhibit  no  sign  of  discomfort,  and  retain  for 
a  long  time  their  wonted  vigour.  Centipedes  (Scolopendra,  Lithobius, 
Scutigera,  &c.),  on  the  other  hand,  show  plain  signs  of  discomfort  when 
thrown  into  water,  they  soon  become  rigid,  and  never  survive  more  than 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  118-20.  t  Cf.  this  Journal,  ante,  p.  41. 

'     X  Ex  Bull.  Soc.  Entomol.  Ital.,  xxxiii.  (1901)  31  pp. 


306  SUMMAEY   OF   CURRENT   RESEAECHES   RELATING   TO 

three  or  four  hours.  The  author  advances  a  number  of  facts  suggesting 
that  there  is  active  cutaneous  respiration  in  Millipedes,  but  none  in 
Centipedes.  He  also  directed  attention  to  the  accumulation  of  gas 
[C02?]  beneath  the  cuticle  of  submerged  millipedes.  Furthermore  he 
maintains  that  the  respiratory  process  in  Diplopoda  is  very  slow  when 
compared  with  that  in  Chilopoda.  This  is  borne  out  by  experiments 
showing  how  successfully  lulus  resists  immersion  in  inert  and  even 
deleterious  gases,  which  are  rapidly  fatal  to  Chilopoda. 

Notes  Oil  Myriopods.* — Dr.  F.  Silvestri  criticises  the  identifications 
in  a  recent  memoir  by  Prof.  G.  Rossi,  and  various  statements  as  to  the 
development  and  the  hypodermis  of  lulus.  Nor  does  he  agree  with  what 
Rossi  says  as  to  the  possibility  of  submerged  Diplopoda  absorbing  air 
through  the  cuticular  pores.  In  the  second  part  of  his  paper,  Silvestri 
gives  a  short  account  of  the  integumentary  skeleton  of  Glomeridesmus, 
and  of  the  repugnatory  and  sericiparous  glands.  He  has  also  notes  on 
the  dorsal  glands  of  Glomeris. 

y.  Prototracheata. 

Oviparous  Species  of  Onychophora.f  —  Prof.  A.  Dendy  gives  the 
following  summary  of  the  principal  conclusions  arrived  at  in  his 
memoir. 

The  genus  Ooperipatus  includes  a  number  of  oviparous  Onychophora 
characteristic  of  Eastern  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand ;  dis- 
tinguished by  laying  large,  heavily  yolked  eggs  with  a  thick  sculptured 
chorion,  and  by  the  presence  in  the  female  of  a  conspicuous  muscular 
ovipositor.  The  egg  at  the  time  of  laying  contains  no  recognisably 
developed  embryo,  and  development  takes  place  afterwards  with  extreme 
slowness.  The  oviparous  habit  is  very  ancient,  dating  back  at  least  to 
the  Cretaceous  epoch,  as  indicated  by  the  geographical  distribution  of 
the  species.  The  conclusions  of  Sedgwick  and  Sclater  as  to  the  loss 
of  yolk  in  the  eggs  of  certain  viviparous  species  are  thereby  supported. 

Three  species  are  at  present  known,  0.  oviparm,  0.  viridimaculatus, 
and  0.  insignis.  In  the  last  the  eggs  have  not  yet  been  observed,  but 
the  females  have  the  conspicuous  ovipositor.  The  genus  is  very  closely 
related  to  Pocock's  Peripatoides,  and  may  be  regarded  as  representing 
an  ancestral  form  from  which  the  viviparous  Australasian  species  are 
descended. 

Except  as  regards  the  egg-laying  habit  and  structures  associated 
therewith,  the  geuus  Ooperipatus  is,  according  to  the  views  of  Bouvier, 
very  far  from  primitive  in  its  characters,  the  number  of  walking  legs 
being  reduced  to  fifteen  or  fourteen,  the  spinous  pads  being  only  three 
m  number,  and  the  transverse  ridges  of  the  integument  being  interrupted 
in  the  mid-dorsal  line  by  a  narrow  unpigmented  groove. 

There  is  no  sufficient  reason  for  supposing  that  Ooperipatus  insignis 
Dendy  is  identical  with  Peripatus  leuclcartii  Sanger,  which  last  name 
must  be  retained  for  the  common  viviparous  form  of  New  South  Wales. 

Papillae  of  Onychophora.:}:— E.  L.  Bouvier  finds  in  a  study  of  the 
pedal  papillae  some  useful  hints  as  to  the  phylogeny  of  the  Peripatidae. 

*  Eev.  Patol.  Veg.,  x.  (1902)  pp.  179-84. 

t  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Soi.,  xlv.  (1902)  pp.  365-415  (4  pis.). 

;  Coniptes  Kendus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  55-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  307 

The  number  of  pedal  papilhc  is  often  more  than  three,  and  may  rise  to 
six  (Peripatm  ecuadorensis).  There  is  a  correlation  between  the  number 
of  papillte  and  the  number  of  appendages  ;  and  tho  forms  with  the 
largest  number  are  the  more  primitive.  The  abnormally  situated 
urinary  papillae  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  appendages  are  regarded  as 
representing  "the  excretory  pores  of  the  sexual  nephridia  of  the  aquatic 
ancestor  of  the  group."  Viviparity  followed  as  an  adaptation  to  terres- 
trial life,  and  resulted  in  the  displacement  of  the  genital  function  to  the 
penultimate  appendages,  leaving  the  nephridia  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  to 
reassume  their  urinary  functions.  After  a  long  period  of  viviparity 
there  was  a  return  to  oviparity  with  very  large  eggs. 

5.  Arachnoidea. 

Discoarachne  brevipes  Hoek.*  —  Leon  J.  Cole  amplifies  Hoek"s 
description  of  this  Pycnogonid  from  Sea  Point,  Cape  Town,  where  a 
female  specimen  was  collected  during  the  cruise  of  the  '  Challenger.'  Mr. 
Cole  received  11  specimens  from  iJr.  W.  F.  Purcell,  of  the  South  African 
Museum, — 6  females,  3  males,  and  2  immature.  He  notes  some  secondary 
adaptations  on  the  ovigerous  legs  of  the  males  to  hold  the  egg-masses. 
One  of  the  males  bore  8  closely  crowded  balls  of  eggs  in  the  same  stage 
of  development  (the  number  8  corresponding  to  the  genital  openings  of 
the  female),  and  besides  these  another  set  of  eggs  mostly  hatched.  This 
shows  that  the  male  had  taken  eggs  from  a  second  female  while  still 
carrying  eggs  he  had  previously  received  from  another.  The  "  oviger- 
ous "  legs  in  the  female  are  even  larger  than  in  the  male,  and  Cole 
suggests  that  they  may  help  in  the  transfer  of  the  eggs  to  the  male. 

Hydrachnids  of  Central  Russia,  f  —  A.  Croneberg  gives  a  list  of 
the  water-mites  which  he  collected  in  the  Gouvernement  of  Tambow, 
thirty-three  species  in  all,  including  Arrenurus  Isevis  sp.  n.,  and  Eylais 
unisinuata  sp.  n. 

e.  Crustacea. 

Notes  on  Fauna  of  Neuenburgersee.  %  —  Dr.  Th.  Stingelin  has 
studied  the  littoral  fauna  at  the  south-west  end  of  this  lake,  which  he 
found  to  include  20  Cladocera,  7  Copepods,  and  3  Ostracods.  He 
devotes  particular  attention  to  two  rare  and  bizarre  forms — Alonafalcala 
Sars  and  Monospilus  dispar  G.  0.  Sars,  the  latter  new  to  Switzerland. 
He  has  also  notes  on  the  limnetic  fauna  of  the  north  end  of  the  same 
lake. 

Annulata. 

Stolonial  Growth  in  Syllidse.§— G.  Pruvot  has  made  some  careful 
measurements  as  to  stolonial  budding  in  various  Syllids,  and  thinks  the 
following  law  may  be  stated.  The  rapidity  and  activity  of  the  budding, 
whether  cephalogenic  or  urogenic,  is  in  proportion  to  the  relative  size  of 
the  area  which  exhibits  it.  The  development  of  cephalic  and  caudal  new 
formations  is  thus  in  inverse  ratio  in  the  same  animal.  More  generally, 
he  maintains  that  the  activity  of  regenerative  histogenesis  (here  and 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  243-8  (1  pi.). 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Imp.  Nat.  Moscow,  1902,  pp.  90-101  (1  pi.). 

j  Rev.  Suisse  Zool.,  ix.  (1901)  pp.  315-23  (1  pi.). 

§  Comptes  Ecndus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  433-6. 


308  SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT   RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

elsewhere)  is  in  proportion  to  the  relation  between  the  total  surface  of 
tho  body  in  contact  with  the  external  medium  and  the  volume  of  the 

body. 

Prof.  E.  Perrier  *  criticises  some  of  Fruvot's  interpretations  involved 
in  the  paper  above  referred  to.  Pruvot  traces  back  stolonisation  in 
Syllids  to  the  phenomena  of  epigamy  or  epitoky  ;  Perrier  points,  how- 
ever, to  the  fresh-water  Naidcinorpha  where  stolonisation  is  conspicuous 
without  any  trace  of  epigamy.  Moreover,  stolonisation  is  associated 
with  the  non-sexual  periods  in  Nais,  Dero,  &c.  It  should  be  traced 
back  to  tho  posterior  budding  which  is  the  characteristic  mode  of  growth 
in  Annelids. 

Pruvot  regarded  stolonial  reproduction  as  a  recent  acquisition, 
mainly  because  of  the  diversity  in  its  modes  of  occurrence  even  within 
one  genus ;  Perrier  argues  that  the  more  legitimate  inference  is  that 
stolonisation  is  a  survival  of  primitive  conditions.  Perrier  also  refuses 
to  accept  Pruvot's  "  laws,"  which  do  not  agree  with  what  may  be  observed 
in  Myrianida  for  instance.  Sounder  generalisations  are  to  be  found  in 
Geofi'roy  Saint-Hilaire's  "  balancing  of  organs,"  and  in  Perrier's  general 
theory  of  the  formation  of  the  Annelid  body  by  posterior  budding  (Les 
Colonies  Animates,  1881). 

Alimentary  Canal  of  Lagis  koreni.f — L.  Brasil  describes  the  general 
structure  of  the  gut  in  this  Pectinarian  and  discusses  the  regeneration  of 
tho  intestinal  epithelium.  Nuclei  migrate  towards  the  surface,  exhibit 
mitoses,  and  then  migrate  back  towards  the  base.  The  same  was  seen 
in  three  other  Polychsets  and  has  been  described  by  Heymons  in  the 
embryo  of  Scolopendra. 

Nematohelminth.es. 

Cystoopsis  acipenseri4 — W.  Zykoff  confirms  Wagner's  description 
of  this  interesting  nematode  which  occurs  beneath  the  skin  of  Acipenser 
ruthenus  in  guinea-worm  fashion.  The  minute  male  is  found  along  with 
the  female  in  the  same  tubercle.  This  opens  eventually  like  a  boil,  and 
the  thread-like  uterus  full  of  embryos  is  extruded  into  the  water.  Zykoff 
gives  some  reasons  for  supposing  that  the  intermediate  host  is  Simulia 
rcptans,  on  wbich  the  sterlet  is  wont  to  feed. 

Platyhelminthes. 

Distribution  of  Planarians  as  affected  by  Temperature.§  —  Prof. 
W.  Voigt  has  made,  as  formerly  reported,  a  detailed  study  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  Planarians  in  Alpine  streams.  He  now  corsiders  tho  causes 
of  the  cdimination  of  Planar ia  alpha  in  the  "  Hundruckgebirge"  and  of 
Polycelis  cornuta.  His  argument  rests  on  the  results  of  laborious  collect- 
ing and  temperature-observations,  and  does  not  admit  of  brief  summary, 
but  the  outcome  shows  that  Planaria  alpina,  PL  gonocepliala,  and  Pol. 
cornuta  are  very  sensitive  to  temperature-changes,  such  as  those  which 
ensue  in  tho  streams  as  the  result  of  de-foresting. 

New  Trematodes  from  Crocodile.||— Th.  Odhner  found  in  the  intes- 
tine of  the  Nile  crocodile  a  new  species  of  tho  interesting  Holostomid 

*  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  453-6. 

t  Arch.  Zool.  Expe'r..  x.  (1901)  Notes  et  Revue,  pp.  i.-iv.  (6  figs.). 
t  Biol.  (  enfiulbl.,  xxii.  (19(12)  pp.  229-33  (2  fi»s.). 

§  Verb.  Nat.  Ver.  Rheinland,  lviii.  (1901)  pp.  225-46,  1  pi.  (map),  2  figs.  (maps). 
||  Ofvertigt  k.  Vetensk.  Akad.  Forl.andl..  lix.  (1902)  pp.  19-45  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  309 

genus  Cyatliocotyle  Miihl  (C.  fraterna),  a  new  genus  allied  to  Ecliino- 
ftovnim  (Sleplianoprora  orimta  g.  et  sp.  n.,  also  Ech.  ambonatum  sp.  n.,  two 
new  species  of  Acanthochasmus,  Oistosomum  caduceus  g.  et  sp.  n..  apparently 
nearest  to  Slypldodora,  Neplirocephalus  g.  et  sp.  n.,  apparently  nearest  to 
Clinostomum.  He  also  describes  Telorcliis  solivagus  sp.  n.  from  Clemmys 
caspica,  Cotylotretus  rugosus  g.  et  sp.  n.  from  Coluber  (Spilotcs)  pullatus. 
A  discussion  of  some  of  tho  much  debated  questions  concerning  the 
classification  of  Trematoda  concludes  the  paper. 

Zygeupolia  litoralis,  a  new  Heteronemertean.*  —  Dr.  Caroline  B. 
Thompson  gives  a  full  account  of  this  new  form  from  "Wood's  Holl.  Its 
habitat,  habits,  and  parasites  arc  discussed,  but  the  bulk  of  the  paper  is 
anatomical.  It  is  a  primitive  form,  having  affinities  with  both  Proto- 
and  Heteronemerteans.  The  j>osition  of  the  lateral  nerves,  outside  the 
circular  muscle-layer ;  the  presence  of  the  cutis  and  outer  longitudinal 
muscle-layer;  the  situation  of  the  mouth  behind  the  brain  ;  the  absence 
of  stilets  in  the  proboscis,  and  of  a  blind  intestine,  are  among  the  many 
characters  which  entitle  Zygeupolia  to  a  place  among  Heteronemerteans. 
The  affinities  with  the  Protonemerteans — and  certain  Heteronemerteans 
• — are  in  the  absence  of  lateral  slits,  in  the  presence  of  an  inner  circular 
muscle-layer,  and  of  crosses  between  this  layer  and  the  outer  circular, 
and  in  the  lateral  grooves,  of  sense-organs.  In  fact,  it  connects  the 
Heteronemertea  more  closely  with  the  Protonemerteans.  In  general 
structure  Zygeupolia  has  some  affinities  with  Eupoliidaa,  but  comes 
nearest  to  the  Micruran  LineidaB,  e.g.  Micrura  eseca,  which  is  hardly  dis- 
tinguishable from  it  externally  except  by  the  presence  of  lateral  slits. 

The  general  view  of  the  authoress  as  to  the  relationships  of  the 
different  orders  of  Nemerteans  is,  that  "the  Heteronemerteans  are  very 
closely  related  to  the  Protonemerteans,  the  Lineidre  being  connected  by 
forms  like  Zygeupolia,  the  Eupoliida?,  and  Hubrechtia,  'and  that  the 
Metanemerteans  and  the  Mesonemertean  Ceplialothrix  arc  widely  diver- 
gent forms." 

Notes  on  Carinoma  armandi.j:  —  D.  Bergendal  confirms  his  pre- 
vious conclusion,  that  this  is  a  I'alavonemertine,  with  very  slight  diver- 
gence in  the  direction  of  Metanemertines,  and  with  so  little  resemblance 
to  Ceplialothrix  that  it  seems  impossible  to  have  them  in  the  same  family. 
He  describes  in  particular  the  remarkable  peculiarities  in  the  muscula- 
ture of  the  anterior  region. 

Incertse  Sedis. 

Central  Nervous  System  of  Sipunculus  nudus  L.  +  —  H.  von  Mack 
has  added  precision  to  our  knowledge  of  tlie  minute  structure  of  the 
ventral  nerve-strand  of  this  worm, — a  difficult  subject  for  modern  neuro- 
histological  methods.  Special  attention  is  given  to  the  terminal  swel- 
ling (Leydig's  tail-ganglion),  the  envelope  or  peridym  of  the  cord  with 
its  three  layers,  the  fibres  of  the  cord  and  the  supporting  glia,  and  the 
autochthonous  pigment  which    seems  to  be  deposited — apart  from  any 

*  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1901,  pp.  657-739  (5  pis.  and  7  figs.). 

t  Ofversigt  k.  Vetensk.  Akad.  Forhandl..  lix.  (1902)  pp.  13-8. 

X  Arb.  Zool.  Inst.  Wieu,  xiii.  (1902;  pp.  237-334  (5  pis.  and  17  figs.). 


310  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

specific  pigment-cells — as  a  by-product  of  metabolism,  possibly  of 
some  respiratory  significance.  The  paper  abounds  in  interesting  histo- 
logical  details. 

f  Genera  of  Enteropneusta.*  —  Prof.  J.  W.  Spengel  discusses  tbe 
terminology  of  tbe  genera,  and  gives  a  useful  systematic  list  of  tbe 
known  forms. 

1.  Harrimaniidse  n.f.,   including     Harrimania 

Dolichoglossus 
Stereobalanus 

2.  Glandicipitidte      1    .     ,    ,.  ,-,,      ■>• 

o   l        t-,     >  including      Glandiceps 
syn.  fepengelid*/  Spengelia  _ 

Schizoeardium 

3.  Pcychoderida?,  including     Glossobalanus 

Balanoglossus 
Ptychodera 

Plumatella  and  Vivipara.f  —  W.  Zykoff  refers  to  Kraepelin's  de- 
scription of  a  "  symbiosis "  between  Plumatella  princeps  Kraep.  var. 
S.  spongiosa  and  Vivipara  fasciata  Mull.  Zykoff  found  the  same  in 
the  Volga ;  in  tbe  majority  of  cases  tbe  mollusc  was  covered  all  over 
witb  a  thick  colony  of  Plumatella,  and  the  mass  was  sometimes  as  large 
as  a  fist.     Tbe  fishermen  regard  them  as  fresh-water  sponges. 

Ccelentera. 

Post-Embryonic  Development  of  Aurelia  aurita.lj:— 0.  Friedemann 
sums  up  bis  results  in  the  following  terms : — The  stages  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  tentacles  are  expressed  by  the  numbers — 4,  8,  16,  24 ;  the 
12-  and  20-stages  are  intermediate.  At  the  foot  of  the  larva  there  are 
glandular  cells  with  pseudopodia.  In  tho  stinging-knobs  of  the  tentacles 
the  ectoderm  appears  at  places  two-layered  ;  the  cnidoblasts  send  pro- 
cesses into  tbe  supporting  lamella  and  there  enter  into  connection  witb 
ganglion-cells  ;  the  fully  formed  nematocysts  occur  in  two  sizes. 

There  is  no  "  septal  funnel "  in  Goette's  sense,  but  in  the  older 
Scyphistomas  an  inter-radial  "  peristom-funnel  "  arises  as  a  new  invagi- 
nation— a  transitory  ectodermal  proliferation  into  the  tamiola.  Nor  is 
there  an  ectodermic  gullet. 

The  endoderm  cells  of  the  gastral  cavity  show  both  extra-  and  intra- 
cellular digestion.  In  young  Scyphistomas  the  tajnioke  do  not  extend 
down  more  than  a  third  of  the  central  stomach, — in  older  forms  not  more 
than  a  half.  The  cell-multiplication  on  the  outermost  margin  of  the 
tamiolse  is  altogether  a  local  differentiation  of  the  endoderm  ;  a  growing 
down  of  the  ectoderm  from  the  mouth  does  not  occur. 

In  quite  early  stages  there  are  no  stomach-pouches  in  Goette's  sense, 
but  simply  grooves  due  to  the  tamiola?.  In  the  eight-armed  scypbistoma, 
four  distinct  stomach-pouches  make  their  first  appearance,  clothed  inter- 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  209-18. 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  p.  181. 

It  Zeitschr.  f.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxi.  (1902)  pp.  227-G7  (2  pis.  and  3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  311 

nally  with  true  endoderm.  As  soon  as  the  septal-ostia  are  established, 
the  eight  Lappentaschen  are  formed. 

The  ectoderm  of  the  tentacles  has  stronjz  longitudinal  muscle-fibrils, 
the  endoderm  has  fine  circular  fibrils  which  are  sometimes  branched ; 
both  are  cross-striped. 

In  the  eight- armed  stage  mesenchyme  cells  make  their  appearance 
in  the  supporting  substance ;  as  the  development  of  the  larva  proceeds 
they  become  more  and  more  abundant,  and  a  typical  fibrous  connective- 
tissue  results.  The  cells  in  question  arise  from  both  ectoderm  and 
endoderm. 

The  degeneration  of  the  tentacles  is  due  partly  to  basal  constriction 
and  detachment,  partly  to  atrophy  and  shrivelling,  helped  by  phagocytes. 
The  sense-organs  are  not  the  modified  basal  portions  of  the  tentacles, 
they  arise  by  evagination  from  the  sub-umbrellar  margin  of  the  eight 
Lappentascken,  central  to  the  per-radial  and  inter-radial  tentacles.  In 
the  free  ephyra  a  connection  between  optic  cells  and  ganglion-cells  may 
be  seen. 

Historical  Study  of  the  Zoological  Investigation  of  Hydroids.* — 
M.  Bedot  gives  a  list  of  the  works  dealing  with  hydroids  up  to  1821. 
He  chronicles  the  chief  classifications  proposed,  and  gives  a  bibliographic 
index  of  the  genera  and  species. 

Development  of  G-onothyraea  loveni.f  —  J.  Wulfert  has  published 
the  full  account  of  his  investigations  on  the  development  of  this  hydroid, 
very  common  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  The  wandering  primitive 
sex-cells  are  recognisable  soon  after  the  fixing  of  the  planula.  They 
arise  from  the  interstitial  cells  of  the  ectoderm,  soon  pass  into  the  endo- 
derm of  the  young  stem  and  hydranths,  and  afterwards  migrate  into  the 
ectodermal  nucleus  of  the  medusoid  bud.  In  older  colonies  there  is  a 
continual  process  of  new  formation  in  the  portions  of  the  stem  below  a 
gonangium,  and  a  continued  migration  of  primitive  sex-cells. 

The  form  and  position  of  the  ovum  in  the  gonophore  are  variable ; 
during  its  development  the  egg  has  no  definite  orientation.  Maturation 
is  typical.  Fertilisation  may  occur  by  simple  apposition  of  male  and 
female  pronuclei,  or  by  a  penetration  of  the  compact  male  chromatin- 
body  into  the  female  pronucleus. 

Two  types  of  segmentation  occur,  connected  by  transitional  modes. 
In  the  one  case,  a  multicellular  cceloblastula  results,  and  the  endoderm 
arises  by  multipolar  immigration  of  blastoderm  cells.  In  the  other  case, 
blastoderm  cells  begin  to  pass  into  the  interior  at  the  24-cell  stage ;  thus 
segmentation  and  endoderm-formation  are  not  rigidly  separable. 

Sooner  or  later  the  segmentation-cavity  is  filled  up  with  endoderm 
cells,  and  the  result  is  a  multicellular  solid  embryo,  which  was  formerly 
misnamed  a  morula.  Both  ectoderm  and  endoderm  include  indifferent 
interstitial  cells. 

The  free-swimming  planula  fixes  itself,  and  becomes  a  flat  disc,  from 
the  centre  of  which  the  hydrocaulus  arises.  When  this  is  several  milli- 
metres in  height  it  shows  at  its  tip  the  primordium  of  the  first  hydrauth. 

*  Rev.  Suisse  Zool.,  is.  (1901)  pp.  379-51"). 

t  Zeitschr.  f.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxi.  (1902)  pp.  29G-327  (3  pis.). 


312  SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT   RESEARCHES  RELATING   TO 

Porifera. 

New  Calcareous  Sponge.*  —  F.  Urban  describes  a  new  member  of 
the  heteroccelous  calcareous  sponges — Hhabdodermella  nuttingi  g.  et  sp.  n., 
from  Monterey  Bay,  California.  As  its  elongated  flagellate  chambers 
do  not  open  directly  into  tho  oscular  tube,  but  communicate  with  it  by 
efferent  canal,  the  new  sponge  belongs  to  the  family  Sylleibidee,  beside 
the  two  genera — Polejna  Ldf.  and  Vosmaeria  Ldf.,  from  both  of  which 
it  differs  a  little  in  the  nature  of  its  spicules.  The  skeleton  consists 
of  triactine  and  tetractine  megascleres  and  rhabdon  microscleres ;  the 
needles  are  dermal  and  gastral,  not  parenchymal,  recalling  an  Am- 
phoriscus-likc  arrangement. 

Protozoa. 

Significance  of  Ionisation  in  Acclimatisation.f — Dr.  E.  Florentin 
considers  that  tho  part  played  by  ionisation  in  the  acclimatisation- of 
fresh-water  organisms  to  a  saline  medium  has  not  been  sufficiently  em- 
phasised. If  an  Infusorian  be  placed  in  a  solution  of  common  salt,  the 
regulation  of  the  pressure  between  the  surrounding  fluid  and  that  con- 
tained within  tho  cell  does  not  take  place  by  simple  osmosis.  The 
internal  pressure  is  due  to  the  ions  and  to  the  different  molecules  of  the 
cytoplasmic  medium.  If  a  certain  number  of  saline  molecules  are  in- 
troduced into  the  cell  the  osmotic  pressure  increases,  but  at  the  same 
time  the  disassociation  of  the  saline  molecules  of  the  same  kind,  which 
are  already  present  in  the  Infusorian,  diminishes,  because  it  is  known 
that  the  proportion  of  ionised  molecules  in  a  solution  becomes  less  as 
the  solution  becomes  more  concentrated.  In  other  words,  the  numerical 
augmentation  of  the  particles  introduced  is  compensated  in  whole  or  in 
part  by  a  regression  of  the  ionisation,  with  the  final  result  that  the 
internal  osmotic  pressure  varies  very  little.  In  consequence  the  internal 
and  external  pressures  are  not  equal,  and  in  order  to  produce  equili- 
brium capillary  pressure  intervenes  and,  according  as  it  is  greater  or 
less  than  the  elasticity  of  the  cell-membrane,  we  have  or  have  not 
changes  in  the  form  of  the  cell.  The  diminution  of  ionisation  within 
the  interior  of  the  cell  when  placed  in  a  saline  medium,  explains  Bal- 
biani's  experiments  with  Paramcecium.  Balbiani  found  that  specimens, 
removed  from  a  solution  of  common  salt  to  an  isotonic  solution  of 
potassium  chloride,  survived  much  longer  than  those  removed  from 
fresh  water  or  placed  in  the  potassium  chloride.  The  explanation  is, 
that  in  the  first  case  the  presence  in  the  interior  of  the  cell  of  CI  ions 
produced  by  the  disassociation  of  the  NaCl  molecules,  diminishes  the 
number  of  CI  ions  produced  by  tho  disassociation  of  the  KC1  molecules, 
and  therefore  diminishes  the  number  of  K  ions  as  compared  with  the 
number  in  the  second  case  where  CI  ions  did  not  previously  exist,  and 
it  is  the  K  ions  which  are  so  harmful.  The  same  fact  explains  how  it 
is  that  organisms  can  be  gradually  acclimatised  to  media  of  progressive 
salinity. 

Heliozoa  around  Geneva.} — E.  Penard  has  descriptive  notes  on  a 
number  of  forms,  including  Actinophrys  vesiculata  sp.  n.,  Actinosphserium 

*  Zeitachr.  f.  wiss.  Zool.,  Ixxi.  (1902)  pp.  2G8-75  (1  pi.  and  1  fig.).] 
t  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  (Zool.),  xiii.  (1901)  pp.  305-10. 
J  Rev.  Suisse  Zool.,  ix.  (1901)  pp.  279-305  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  313 

eichhorni  var.  viride,  Raphidiophrys  glomerata  sp.  n.,  Acanthocystis  longi- 
scta  sp.  n.  and  A.  hulibunda  sp.  n. 

Multiplication  of  Herpetomonas.* — Louis  Leger  finds  that  H.jacu- 
lum  sp.  n.,  an  abundant  flagellate  parasite  in  the  midgut  of  Nepa  cinerea, 
occurs  in  two  forms  conuected  by  intermediate  stages.  Most  abundant 
are  the  monad-like  forms,  with  a  loug  flagellum,  and  very  mobile,  multi- 
plying by  longitudinal  fission.  But  there  are  also  gregarine-like  forms 
of  larger  size,  which  occur  fixed  in  rows  to  the  epithelial  cells,  and  also 
multiplying  by  longitudinal  fission.  The  existence  of  gregarino-liko 
forms  in  a  typical  Flagellate  seems  to  the  author  a  strong  argument  in 
favour  of  the  origin  of  Sporozoa  from  a  Flagellate  stock. 

New  Sporozoon.f — L.  Brasil  gives  a  preliminary  account  of  Joyeux- 
ella  toxoides  g.  et  sp.  n.  from  the  intestinal  epithelium  of  the  Pecti- 
narian  Lagis  Jcoreni  Malmgren.  It  shows  certain  resemblances  to  other 
Sporozoon  parasites  of  Annelids,  especially  to  Gonospora  longissima, 
Toxosporidium,  and  Selenidium  ;  it  is  however  distinct,  and  must  remain 
at  present  unattached. 

Action  of  Human  Serum  on  Trypanosoma  Brucei.J — A.  Laveran 
has  found  that  human  serum  injected  into  rats  and  mice  infected  with 
Nagana  or  Tsetse-fly  disease  destroys  the  parasites  (Trypanosoma  brucei) 
in  the  blood.  But  there  are  evidently  corners  of  the  organism  where  the 
parasites  are  able  to  resist  with  success  the  microbicidal  influence  of  the 
serum.  Thence  they  reappear  with  disappointing  persistence.  The 
serum  seems  also  to  be  in  a  feeble  degree  preventive,  and  Laveran  pro- 
poses to  pursue  the  inquiry  as  to  possible  immunisation  of  animals.  It 
is  probable  that  the  influence  of  human  serum  on  Trypanosoma  brucei  is 
associated  with  the  immunity  of  man  to  Tsetse-fly  disease,  but  this  in- 
terpretation remains  incomplete  until  there  is  some  understanding  of  the 
defensive  process  in  the  human  body  against  this  formidable  parasite. 

Protozoa  of  the  Volga-Plankton.§  —  W.  Zykoff  records  about  75 
species  of  Protozoa  from  the  Volga  at  Saratow,  including  Tetraedrophrya 
planctonica  g.  et  sp.  n.,  a  new  suctorial  form.  As  autopotamic  Pinacio- 
phora  fluviatilis  may  be  reckoned  ;  various  species  of  Difflugia  (except 
D.  planctonica),  Vorticella,  Suctoria,  and  Amoebidaa  may  be  regarded  as 
tychopotamic,  and  characteristic  of  the  potamo-plankton  of  the  Volga  is 
the  occurrence  of  Heliozoa  in  considerable  numbers,  e.g.  Actinophrys  sol, 
Actinosphserium  eichhornii,  Acanthocystis  myriospina,  and  Bhaphidiophrys 
elegans. 

*  Comptps  Kendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  781-4  (7  figs.). 

t  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  x.  (1901)  Notes  et  Revue,  pp.  v.-vii.  (13  figs.). 

X  Oomptes  Rendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  735-9. 

§  Zool.  Anzeig ,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  177-80. 


•**«§**• 


314  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 
Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including  Cell-Contents. 

Protoplasmic  Continuity  in  Cryptogams.*  —  Kienitz-Gerloff  has 
examined  a  number  of  the  lower  plants  in  relation  to  this  question. 
The  method  followed  was  that  of  Arthur  Meyer.  Amongst  Liverworts 
connecting-threads  were  sought  for  in  vain  in  Fegatella,  Marchantia, 
Biccia,  and  Anthoceros,  but  Beboulia,  Metzgeria,  Lepidozia,  and  Junger- 
mannia  bicuspidata  were  found  to  be  suitable  objects.  In  the  leaf  of 
the  last-named  form  the  threads  (Plasmodesmen)  were  particularly 
striking.  In  Lepidozia  the  continuity  was  observed  in  the  tissue  of  the 
sporophyte  (seta).  Among  mosses  the  threads  were  found  in  a  number 
of  genera,  but  in  Pohjtrichim  formosum  they  were  very  striking  in  the 
stem  and  seta,  and  are  described  as  the  finest  yet  observed  in  plants. 
The  author  considers  that  in  the  filamentous  algaa  the  cells  are  probably 
quite  separate  from  one  another ;  but  though  protoplasmic  continuity 
probably  exists  in  the  rest  of  the  algfe,  he  was  unable  to  observe  it  in 
Fueus,  in  which  it  has  been  described  by  Kohl.  In  the  case  of  the 
FlorideaB  he  was  unable  to  determine  that  in  Batracliospermum  and 
Polysiphonia  connecting-threads  existed  in  the  well-marked  pit-closing 
membranes.  Various  cases  in  which  the  Plasmodesmen  have  been 
observed  in  Fungi  and  Lichens  are  quoted,  and  the  author  has  also  made 
observation  himself;  the  most  striking  connection  in  the  latter  group 
was  observed  in  the  hypothecium  of  Peltigera  carina  and  P.  polydadyla. 

The  question  is  discussed  as  to  the  part  the  protoplasmic  threads 
play  in  the  conduction  of  stimuli  and  the  translocation  of  food-material 
from  cell  to  cell,  and  also  as  to  the  passage  of  the  protoplasmic  contents 
from  one  cell  to  another,  which  has  been  described  in  the  fungi. 

Protoplasmic  Streaming  in  Plants.f — A.  J.  Ewart  gives  an  abstract 
of  results  of  observation  on  this  phenomenon.  The  energy  of  movement 
is  generated  in  the  moving  layers,  which  are  retarded  by  friction  against 
the  non-moving  ectoplasm,  and  to  a  much  less  extent  by  friction  against 
the  cell-sap  which  is  passively  carried  with  the  stream.  The  velocity 
depends  largely  on  the  viscosity  of  the  protoplasm.  Gravity  exercises 
little  or  no  influence  upon  streaming  in  small  cells,  and  only  a  very 
slight  action  in  the  case  of  large  ones.  As  temperature  rises  the  viscosity 
of  the  plasma  decreases.  The  author  discusses  the  physics  of  the  move- 
ment, and  also  its  relation  to  external  stimuli,  such  as  temperature,  li^ht,. 
and  mechanical,  chemical,  and  electrical  stimuli. 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  93-117  (1  pi ) 
t  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  lxix.  (1902)  pp.  4G6-70. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  315 

Scutellarin.* — H.  Molisch  finds,  as  a  result  of  heating  leaves  of 
Scutellaria  altissima  L.  in  1  p.c.  hydrochloric  acid  for  a  short  time,  a 
formation  of  dendritically  hranched  or  needle-like  white  crystals  on  the 
under  leaf-surface ;  and  that  after  longer  action  of  5  p.c.  acid  on  entire 
shoots  yellow  sphnsrocrystals  are  deposited  in  the  epidermis  cells.  He 
calls  these  bodies  Scutellarin.  The  substance  can  be  extracted  from  fresh 
plucked  leaves  by  1-2  p.c.  hydrochloric  acid  solution,  is  easily  soluble 
in  alkalies,  and  can  be  precipitated  from  the  yellow  ammoniacal  solution 
by  hydrochloric  acid.  The  author  finds  the  substance  in  several  species 
of  Scutellaria,  and  also  in  Galeopsis  Telrahit  and  Teucrium  Chamsedrys, 
but  fails  to  find  it  in  a  large  number  of  common  Labiates.  G.  Gold- 
schmiedt  has  analysed  the  substance  and  suggests  a  formula,  C21H.J0O12. 

Structure  and  Development. 
Vegetative. 

The  Old  Wood  and  the  New.  f  —  D.  H.  Scott,  by  a  series  of  ex- 
amples of  fossil  genera  including  Heterangium,  Megaloxylon,  Lygino- 
dendron,  Calamopitys,  Poroxylon,  and  Cordaites,  traces  the  gradual  loss 
of  the  old  centripetal ly  developed  wood,  the  cryptogamic  wood  of  the 
French  palreobotanists.  The  centrifugal  or  phanerogamic  wood,  with 
its  unlimited  possibilities  of  secondary  growth,  which  is  insignificant  in 
Heterangium,  includes  everything  except  the  leaf-trace  system  in  Lygino- 
dendron.  In  the  leaf  where  there  was  not  much  demand  for  secondary 
tissue,  the  old  wood  was  long  able  to  hold  its  own,  and  has  persisted  to 
the  present  day  in  Cycads  and  perhaps,  in  the  form  of  transfusion- 
tissue,  in  the  Conifers,  where  it  has  survived  by  the  help  of  a  change  of 
function. 

Development  of  Stomata  in  Conifers.^ — E.  Schwabach  finds  that 
the  development  can  only  be  followed  for  a  short  time  in  the  spring,  as 
in  a  few  weeks  after  the  first  indications  can  be  observed  the  process  is 
complete,  and  the  stoma-apparatus  appears  exactly  similar  to  that  of  a 
one  or  several  years  old  leaf.  The  first  indication  is  found  in  needles 
which  are  still  quite  enclosed  in  the  bud.  The  development  was  followed 
in  transverse  sections  of  Picea,  Abies,  Juniperus,  Larix,  and  Pinus ;  that 
in  Picea  is  described  in  full ;  a  similar  development  occurs  in  the  other 
leaves  which  were  studied.  The  division  lengthwise  of  the  mother- 
cell  of  the  guard-cells,  its  gradual  sinking  below  the  level  of  the  neigh- 
bouring epidermal  cells,  the  thickening  of  the  walls,  and  the  gradual 
twisting  of  the  young  guard-cells  through  903  resulting  in  the  formation 
of  the  pit  above  and  the  upper  part  of  the  air-cavity  below,  are  followed 
in  detail  and  the  stages  illustrated  by  figures.  Pine-needles  afford  a 
very  good  object  for  study  on  account  of  their  relatively  large  guard- 
cells,  and  also  from  the  fact  that  in  one  and  the  same  leaf  all  develop- 
mental stages  can  be  followed.  The  earliest  stages  are  found  at  the 
base  of  the  leaf,  the  latest  at  its  apex.  The  author  was  unable  to  throw 
any  light  on  the  mechanism  of  opening  of  the  guard-cells  as  he  found 

*  Sitzungsb.  k.  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien,  niath.-naturw.  CI.,  ex.  Abth.  1  (June  1901). 
See  also  Verhandl.  k.  k.  zoolog.-botan.  Ges.  Wien,  lii.  (1902)  pp.  67-8. 
t  New  Phytologist,  i.  (1902)  pp.  25-BO. 
X  Bot.  Zeit.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  1-7  (1  pi.). 


316  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

none  open,  although  in  two  successive  summers  he  investigated  young 
needles.  The  thickening  on  the  cells  of  the  stomatal  apparatus  in  old 
needles  is  such  that  any  movement  is  improbable. 

Secondary  Growth  in  Thickness  in  Palms.*  —  M.  Barsickow  has 
investigated  this  subject  in  Phoenix  reclinata,  Phoenicophorium  Seychella- 
rum,  Oreodoxa  regia,  and  the  Coco-nut.  He  confirms  Eichler's  view, 
from  all  four  example-!,  that  the  subsequent  thickening  is  caused 
by  enlargement  of  the  cells  of  the  wood-parenchyma.  In  Phoenix  the 
increase  is  due  almost  entirely  to  this,  as  both  here  and  in  Oreodoxa  and 
Phoenicophorium  the  sclerenchyma  strands  accompanying  the  bundles 
increase  only  slightly  in  diameter.  In  the  two  latter,  however,  the 
appearance  of  new  intercellular  spaces  and  the  broadening  of  thoso 
already  present  is  an  important  factor.  In  coco-nut  there  is  also  a 
considerable  broadening  of  the  bundle-sclerenchyma.  This,  however, 
is  due,  not  as  Eichler  thought,  exclusively  to  a  broadening  and  thicken- 
ing of  the  fibres,  but  to  a  sliding  growth  caused  by  their  growth  in  length. 
Thus  the  lengths  of  fibres  isolated  by  maceration  from  sections  taken 
at  various  heights  above  the  root  increased  from  1*015  mm.  at  14*5 
inches  above  the  root  to  1*413  at  12  metres  and  2*232  at  40  cm.  above 
the  root,  while  their  breadth  at  the  same  heights  was  '035,  -037,  and 
•047  mm.  respectively. 

Origin  of  the  Peripheral  Stem-Structure.f — F.  Tobler  concludes 
that  there  is  no  satisfactory  evidence  that  the  peripheral  layers  of  the 
stem  are  derived  from  the  leaf,  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  in  Elodea  and 
other  objects  the  cortex  can  be  demonstrated  to  be  an  original  stem- 
structure.  He  maintains  that  arguments  deduced  from  Conifers  with 
decurrent  leaf-bases,  in  support  of  a  leaf  origin  of  the  cortex  are  untrust- 
worthy. In  the  Mosses  and  also  in  Equisctum  the  arrangement  of  the 
cell-division  at  the  growing-point  favours  the  idea  of  an  independent 
origin.  The  author  also  shows  that  in  Cirsium,  and  in  Genista  sagittalis 
the  wing  on  the  stem  has  no  genetic  connection  with  the  leaf. 

Origin  and  Differentiation  of  Vascular  Meristems  in  the  Leaf- 
Stalk.:]: — M.  Bouygues,  as  the  result  of  investigations  on  a  large  series 
of  plants  representing  twenty  families,  concludes  that  in  the  majority  of 
leaves  there  are  two  sets  of  meristem  which  differ  in  time  and  place  of 
origin  as  well  as  in  development.  The  first,  which  alone  is  constant, 
forms  an  arc  with  concave  side  upwards.  The  differentiation  of  pro- 
cambium  strands  and  subsequently  vascular  bundles  is  always  effected 
there,  and  often  there  alone,  but  always  before  any  such  development 
occurs  in  the  other  meristem.  The  bilateral  structure  of  the  leaf  is 
therefore  primitive  and  fundamental.  The  second  meristem  is  a  cortical 
one,  situated  above  the  former.  The  formation  of  vascular  tissue  in  it 
is  not  general;  it  fails  at  the  base  and  apex  of  the  leaf,  and  is  absent 
altogether  in  a  large  number  of  leaves.  It  frequently  forms  a  plate 
completing  the  vascular  arc  and  transforming  it  into  a  closed  circle 
resembling  that  of  the  stem. 

*  Verhandl.  physik.-medic.  Ges.  Wiirzburg,  N.F.  xxxiv.  No.  8  (1901)  pp.  213-15 
(1  fig.).  t  Pringsh.  Jahrb.,  xxxvii.  (1901)  pp.  1)0-136  (13  figa.  in  text). 

;  Compt.  Rend.,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  438-41. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  317 

Primary  Vascular  Elements  in  Roots  of  Monocotyledons.*  —  R. 
Pirotta  publishes  an  abstract  of  bis  paper,  which  will  soon  be  printed 
in  full  with  plates  in  the  Annuario  del  R.  Istituto  Botanico  di  Roma, 
on  the  origin  and  differentiation  of  the  primary  vascular  elements  in 
the  root  of  Monocotyledons.  Nageli  and  others  have  stated  that  the 
formation  of  the  vessels  and  their  lignification  is  centripetal ;  but  they 
do  not  agree  as  to  the  mode  of  origin  of  the  vascular  elements.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  vessels,  distinct  in  origin  and  structure :  the  vascular 
rays  and  the  central  vessel  or  vessels.  Several  authors  have  admitted 
the  centripetal  origin  of  the  vascular  rays.  Russow  found  that  from 
the  plerome  are  formed  a  peripheral  pericambium,  which  yields  the 
vascular  rays  and  sieve-tubes,  and  a  medullary  parenchyma.  Van 
Tieghem  at  first  regarded  the  central  vessels  as  belonging  to  the  vascular 
rays,  but  more  lately  has  admitted  that  in  some  cases  they  may  be  of 
medullary  origin.  Cerulli-Irelli  and  Chauveaud  have  established  that 
the  central  vessels  have  no  connection  with  the  vascular  rays.  Nicolai 
found  that  in  some  Gramineae  the  central  vessels  appear  before  the  rays, 
but  are  the  last  to  lignify.  The  author  now  states  that  the  apical 
plerome  differentiates  into  three  histogens  : — the  pericambium,  the  pro- 
cambial  parenchyma,  and  the  central  parenchyma.  In  the  second  of 
these  the  vascular  rays  are  developed  in  regular  order  alternating  with 
the  sieve-tubes.  In  the  central  parenchyma  arise  the  central  vessels, 
one,  a  few,  or  several,  without  relation  to  the  vascular  rays.  They  are 
the  first  to  appear,  and  develop  close  to  the  apex  of  the  plerome,  and 
in  a  centrifugal  order  if  they  be  several  in  number.  The  vascular  rays 
develop  more  slowly  (and  always  after  the  sieve-tubes)  and  centri- 
fugally,  the  largest  inside  and  the  smallest  outside.  But  lignification 
takes  place  centripetally — first  the  small,  then  the  large  vessels  of  the 
vascular  rays,  and  finally  the  central  vessels.  This  is  the  general 
rule. 

Tubercle  of  Tamus  communis. f  —  L.  du  Sablon  supplements  in  a 
short  paper  the  previous  work  of  Bucherer  on  the  morphology  of  the 
tuber  of  black  bryony.  The  young  tuber  has  at  its  base  a  growing 
point  and  grows  vertically  downwards  with  strong  positive  geotropism. 
The  tubercle  of  the  seedling  has  below  the  epidermis  a  few  cortical 
layers,  the  cells  of  which  divide  radially  and  not  tangentially,  and  a 
central  cylinder  in  which  cell-division  takes  place  in  all  directions.  A 
cork  cambium  is  formed  at  an  early  stage  in  the  sub-epidermal  layer, 
and  in  the  pericycle  a  meristematic  ring  by  which  growth  in  thickness  is 
provided  for  exactly  as  in  Dracaena.  The  direction  of  the  vascular 
bundles  is  very  variable.  The  cork  cambium  goes  over  the  growing 
point  which  becomes  therefore  covered  with  a  cork  layer ;  but  in  the 
meristematic  ring,  as  we  approach  the  growing  point,  cell-division  be- 
comes very  irregular,  and  at  the  growing  point  itself  occurs  in  all  direc- 
tions as  in  the  apical  meristem  of  a  stem.  In  its  exogenous  origin,  and 
internal  structure  the  tuber  suggests  a  stem,  though  the  absence  of 
leaves  and  vertical  downward  growth  are  root-characters. 

*  Atti  dclla  E.  Accad.  dei  Lincei,  Eendiconti,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  49-52.' 
t  Revue  Gen.  Botan.,  xiv.  pp.  145-50  (9  figs.). 

June  18th,  1902  Y 


318  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Study  of  the  Family  Ochnacese,  especially  of  Malayan  Species.* — 
Y.  Bartelletti  gives  au  account  of  the  external  form  and  internal  ana- 
tomy, especially  of  the  vegetative  organs,  of  members  of  the  family 
Ochnacese.  He  also  describes  a  number  of  new  species  from  Prof. 
Beccari's  collection,  with  notes  on  other  Malayan  forms. 

Bast-Fibres  of  Japanese  Fibre-Plants.f —  K.  Saito  has  made  an 
elaborate  investigation  of  the  structure,  arrangement,  and  physical  and 
chemical  properties  of  the  bast-fibres  in  nearly  thirty  fibre-plants,  native 
or  cultivated  in  Japan.  The  species  investigated  represent  five  orders 
of  monocotyledons  and  eleven  of  dicotyledons.  The  range  of  variation 
in  length  and  diameter  of  the  fibre  is  given  in  each  case,  and  the  author 
has  also  elaborated  a  table  by  means  of  which  the  species  of  the  plant 
can  be  diagnosed  from  the  measurement  and  other  characters  of  the 
fibre.     A  copious  bibliography  forms  an  appendix. 

Secreting-  Apparatus  of  Daniellia.J — L.  Guignard  describes  an  ex- 
tensive system  of  anastomosing  secreting  canals  in  the  wood  of  this 
genus ;  they  arise  schizogenously  in  the  cambium.  The  foliar  organs 
also  contain  rounded  secreting  areas,  also  of  schizogenous  origin.  In 
the  main  the  secretory  system  of  Daniellla  resembles  that  of  Copaifera, 
and  probably  also  that  of  Eperua.  These  three  genera  belong  to  the 
same  tribe  (Arnherstiea?)  of  Leguminosaj,  and  are  the  only  members  of 
the  order  in  which,  to  the  author's  knowledge,  secretory  canals  have 
been  observed. 

Anatomical  Systematic  Investigation  of  Leaf  and  Axis  in  the 
Hippocrateacese.§ — F.  E.  Fritsch  has  studied  the  occurrence  of  caout- 
chouc in  this  family,  and  at  the  same  time  made  a  comparative  investi- 
gation of  the  anatomy  of  the  leaf  and  axis.  The  caoutchouc  occurs  in 
unsegmented,  much  elongated,  often  branched  cells  recalling  the  latici- 
ferous  elements  of  Euphorbia,  and  like  these  already  laid  down  in  the 
embryo  and  continuing  to  grow  with  the  growth  of  the  plant.  They 
occur  not  only  in  the  vegetative  organs  but  also  in  the  flower,  fruit, 
and  seed.  In  the  axis  the  sacs  are  found  both  within  the  phloem  and 
outside  the  latter  in  the  primary  cortex,  and  often  in  the  secondary 
cortex  at  the  limit  of  the  primary.  They  never  occur  in  the  pith.  In 
the  leaf-stalk  a  similar  distribution  obtains.  The  sacs  were  not  observed 
to  anastomose. 

;  Reproductive. 

Morphology  of  the  Pine-Cone.||—  C.  E.  Bessey,  as  a  result  of  many 
years'  study  cf  the  young  cones  of  the  pines,  has  been  impressed  with  the 
essential  identity  of  the  cones  bearing  stamens  and  ovules  respectively, 
and  suggests  a  corresponding  explanation  of  the  much  debated  ovuli- 
ferous  scale.  The  megasporangia  first  appear  as  rounded  cell-masses 
pushing  up  from  the  axillary  region  at  the  base  of  the  bract  of  the  young 
cone ;  later  this  differentiates  into  scale  and  ovule,  but  there  is  never 

*  Malpighia,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  105-74  (7  pis.). 

t  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Imp.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xv.  pt.  iii.  (1901)  pp.  395-450  (2  pis.). 

J  .Jonrn.  de  Botan.,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  (39-97  (19  figs.). 

§  Beiheft.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xi.  (1901)  pp.  SO  (1  pi.). 

||  Bot.  Gaz..  xxxiii.  (1902)  pp.  157-9  (I  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  319 

any  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two,  the  tissues  arc  continuous  and 
pass  insensibly  from  one  to  the  other.  These  facts  suggested  that  the 
scale  in  the  pine-cone  is  a  backward  extension  of  the  chalazal  tissue  of 
the  ovules.  The  cones  in  the  Cupressinefe  and  Taxodineae  are  normal, 
i.e.  the  inegasporangia  are  borne  by  the  bracts  or  carpels  which  later 
become  enlarged.  In  the  Araucariese  there  is  a  slight  backward  ovular 
growth,  but  the  bract  is  still  so  large  as  to  greatly  overshadow  it.  In 
the  Abietinefe  the  ovules,  which  at  first  are  secondary  to  the  bracts, 
soon  make  so  great  a  backward  (or  chalazal)  growth  as  to  greatly  over- 
shadow the  bracts.  A  decreased  development  of  the  bract  is  associated 
with  the  enlargement  of  the  ovular  tissue,  which  has  assumed  more  and 
more  the  functions  elsewhere  discharged  by  the  bract.  On  this  view  the 
male  and  female  cones  are  strictly  homologous  ;  and  in  the  latter  the 
sporophyll  enlarges  or  remains  small  just  as  the  chalazal  development 
of  the  megasporangium  into  a  scale  is  more  or  less  pronounced. 

Gametophytes  and  Embryo  of  Podocarpus.* — W.  C.  Coker  obtains 
the  following  results.  The  pollen-grain  contains  two  prothallial  cells,  as 
in  the  Abietete  ;  and  in  all  essential  points  the  pollen-grains  are  similar 
in  the  two  cases.  The  second  prothallial  nucleus  persists,  and  is  found 
later  in  the  tip  of  the  pollen-tube ;  a  behaviour  which  is  unknown  in 
other  Conifers  and  for  which  a  parallel  must  be  sought  in  GingJco  and  the 
Cycads.  The  pollen-tube  reaches  the  prothallium  before  the  arche- 
gonium  initials  can  be  distinguished  ;  only  two  cases  were  found  showing 
the  male  cells,  but  these  leave  no  doubt  that  there  is  only  one  functional 
male  cell  formed  as  in  Taxus.  The  macrospore  arises  deep  in  the  nucellus, 
and  is  not  surrounded  by  "  spongy "  tissue  such  as  is  general  in  the 
Coniferte,  and  has  often  been  erroneously  described  as  of  sporogenous 
character.  The  outer  layer  of  the  prothallium  is  composed  of  very  small 
regular  epidermis-like  cells  with  dense  protoplasm,  but  almost  free  from 
the  starch-grains  which  are  abundant  in  other  parts.  The  author  re- 
gards these  surface  cells  as  specially  modified  for  secretion;  no  such 
definite  layer  seems  to  have  been  described  for  other  gymnosperms.  In 
one  case  two  prothallia  were  found  in  one  ovule  ;  neither  had  formed 
archegonia,  although  the  seed  had  reached  its  full  size.  One  of  them 
contained  a  few  tracheids  ;  a  fact  recalling  the  formation  of  tracheids  in 
apogamous  fern  prothallia. 

The  number  of  archegonia  was  from  six  to  ten.  The  neck  varies 
greatly  both  in  shape  and  the  number  of  the  cells ;  in  one  case  more 
than  twenty-five  were  counted,  and  sometimes  there  were  only  two. 
The  jacket  cells  are  less  dense  than  in  many  other  conifers,  and  their 
nuclei  do  not  go  to  pieces  when  the  archegonium  is  mature.  The 
position  and  behaviour  of  the  ventral  canal  nucleus  agrees  closely  with 
that  in  Taxodium.  It  is  not  separated  from  the  protoplasm  of  the  egg 
by  a  membrane  ;  it  persists  for  some  time  after  fertilisation  and  probably 
assists  in  nourishing  the  embryo.  The  pollen-tube  penetrates  for  some 
distance  into  the   archegonium   and  discharges   its   contents   into  the 

Fertilisation  stages  were  not  found,  but  the  author  thinks  it  probable 
that  the  fusion-nucleus  moves  to  the  base  of  the  archegonium  before 


^O  ' 


*  Bot.  Gaz.,  xsxiii.  (1902)  pp.  89-107  (3  pis.). 


Y   2 


320  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

dividing.  Four  divisions  occur  before  cell-walls  arc  formed.  The  pro- 
embryo  consists  of  tbree  tiers  of  cells,  the  upper  two  of  fourteen  each,, 
the  lower  of  one  cell  containing  two  nuclei.  A  thick  plug  of  cellulose 
is  formed  between  tbo  cells  of  the  upper  tier  (rosette-cells)  and  those  of 
the  middle  tier  (suspensors).  The  suspensors  may  separate  and  several 
embryos  develop  from  one  archegonium.  As  a  general  conclusion  the 
Podocarporo  are  considered  to  be  the  nearest  living  relatives  of  the 
Abieteae. 

Vascular  Structure  of  the  Flowers  of  Gnetacese.*  —  W.  C. 
"Worsdell  finds  traces  of  the  more  primitive  structure  of  the  older  types 
of  Coniferre  and  of  the  Cycads  in  the  floral  axes  and  bracts  of  some 
members  of  Gnetaceas.  In  the  bract  of  the  female  inflorescence  of 
Ephedra  dietachya  a  tract  of  centripetal  xylem  was  seen  on  the  ventral 
side  of  the  collateral  bundle.  In  the  peduncle  and  axis  of  tho  female 
cone  of  Welwitschia  the  bundles  of  the  central  cylinder  frequently  have 
an  inverted  strand  attached  to  their  dorsal  side,  an  occurrence  previously 
noted  by  the  author  in  the  peduncle  of  some  Cycadean  cones  ;  the  inverted 
.strand  may  be  fused  with  the  main  strand  to  form  a  concentric  structure 
of  which  the  phloem  is  the  centre.  There  were  also  a  number  of  strands 
showing  a  more  or  less  complete  concentric  structure  forming  a  second 
vascular  cylinder  outside  the  first.  The  author  also  suggests  that  the 
very  small  lignified  elements  frequently  found  opposite  the  protoxylem 
of  the  bundles  of  the  central  cylinder  may  represent  centripetal  xylem, 
although  their  structuro  is  rather  that  of  ordinary  sclerotic  cells. 

Anatomy  and  Morphology  of  the  Flower  of  Cruciferse,  &c.  t  — 
E.  Martel  gives  a  comparative  account  of  the  floral  structure  of  Cruciferaa, 
and  of  representatives  of  the  allied  orders  Fumariaceae  and  Cappari- 
daceae.  The  paper  is  accompanied  by  numerous  figures  illustrating  the 
arrangement  of  the  bundles  supplying  the  members  of  the  various  floral 
whorls. 

Development  of  Pollinium  and  Sperm-Cells  in  Asclepias  Cor- 
nuti.+ — C.  S.  Gager  claims  to  have  settled  the  question  of  tho  identity 
of  the  pollen-grain  and  its  ontogeuy  in  Asclejrias.  The  individual  cells 
of  the  pollinium  are  true  pollen-grains  which  never  become  free.  Nu- 
merical reduction  of  the  chromosomes  takes  place  in  the  primary  pol- 
linium cell,  the  divisions  of  which  are  successive,  giving  rise  to  a  row  of 
four  pollen-grains  radially  arranged.  This  arrangement  of  the  individual 
grains  is  the  chief  peculiarity  in  the  division.  Otherwise  the  whole 
course  of  development  is  precisely  what  occurs  in  other  plants  that  form 
pollen-grains.  The  outer  membrane  of  each  pollen-grain  is  composed 
of  the  wall  of  the  mother-cell,  which  docs  not  dissolve,  plus  the  cross- 
walls  formed  by  the  two  divisions  of  the  mother-cells.  In  addition  each 
grain  has  an  inner  membraue  which  it  develops  about  itself. 

The  generative  cell  divides,  before  the  formation  of  tho  pollen-tube, 
into  two  sperm-cells,  each  of  which  travels  down  the  pollen-tube,  passing 
the  vegetative  nucleus  on  the  way. 

*  Ann.  Bot.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  766-72  (1  fig.)- 

+  Mem.  R.  Accad.  Sci.  Turin,  ser.  2,  t.  li.  (1S02)  pp.  241-66  (3  pis.). 

X  Ann.  Hot.,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  123-18  (1  pi.).     Cf.  this  Journal,  1902,  p.  199. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  321 

Influence  of  Pollination  on  the  Development  of  the  Pericarp.* — 
E.  Tschermak  gives  an  account  of  experiments  on  the  wallflower.  He 
finds  that  by  use  of  pollen  from  another  individual  of  the  same  form  or 
the  same  variety,  the  pods  were  almost  twice  as  long  and  proportionately 
broader  than  when  pollination  was  effected  by  means  of  the  same  flower 
or  another  flower  of  the  same  plant.  The  large  pods  also  contained 
more  than  a  third  more  seeds,  and  the  seeds  were  70  p.c.  heavier  than  in 
the  smaller.  The  stigmas  also  behaved  somewhat  differently  in  the  two 
cases.  The  author  explains  the  stronger  development  of  the  fruit  partly 
by  the  increased  seed-production,  but  considers  it  duo  in  part  to  the 
direct  vegetative  influence  of  pollination. 

The  same  author  f  describes  some  experiments  with  pea  hybrids  on 
the  correlation  between  vegetativo  and  sexual  characters.  He  crossed 
some  red-flowered  kinds  of  Pisum  arvense  having  wrinkled  cotyledons 
with  white-flowered  smooth-seeded  kinds  of  P.  sativum,  but  never  found 
any  alteration  of  the  cotyledon  form  in  the  seeds  of  the  mother-plant. 
The  hybrids  were  all  red-flowered  with  wrinkled  seeds.  The  second 
generation  of  hybrids  produced  one  white-flowered  to  three  red-flowered 
individuals ;  the  latter  bore  exclusively  wrinkled,  the  former  only 
smooth  seeds.  This  behaviour  is  directly  opposed  to  rosults  previously 
obtained  in  crossing  wrinkled  and  smooth-seeded  forms  of  P.  sativum, 
where  the  smooth-seed  form  dominated  the  wrinkled. 

Microscopic  Characters  of  the  Fruit-Envelopes  in  the  Acorn.J— 
With  a  view  to  their  recognition  as  an  adulterant  in  acorn  coffee,  W. 
Mitlacher  describes  the  minute  structure  of  the  cupule  and  pericarp  of 
Quercus  sessiliflora.  The  former  consists  mainly  of  parenchyma  bearing 
numerous  nests  of  stone-cells  of  very  different  form,  and  containing  some- 
times crystals ;  the  outer  epidermis  is  of  polygonal  cells,  and  bears  very 
numerous  one-celled  hairs.  The  pericarp  has  below  the  smooth  outer 
epidermis,  in  succession,  a  layer  of  crystal-bearing  cells,  a  layer  con- 
sisting of  several  rows  of  radially  elongated  stone-cells,  a  partly  col- 
lapsed median  layer  with  solitary  crystal  sacs,  an  internal  layer  of  soft 
parenchyma,  and,  in  the  interior,  an  epidermis  bearing  numerous  one- 
celled  thin-walled  hairs. 

Development  of  the  Seed  in  SapindaceseJ — P.  Guerin  has  studied 
the  development  of  the  seed-coats  and  endosperm  in  species  representing 
a  number  of  genera  of  this  family.  The  ovule  has  always  two  integu- 
ments, the  outer  of  which  generally  forms  the  bulk  of  the  seed-coat,  as 
in  Cardiospermum,  JEsculus,  and  others.  In  Staphylea  the  inner  integu- 
ment plays  a  somewhat  more  important  part,  while  in  Acer  it  is  equal 
in  importance  to  the  outer.  Endosperm  is  copious  in  Staphylea  and 
Melianfhus,  but  in  Koelreuteria  and  Xanthoceras  is  reduced  to  a  single 
layer  (Guignard's  "  proteid  layer  ").  In  Cardiospermum  it  occurs  only 
as  isolated  cells,  especially  near  the  radicle,  as  Guiguard  has  previously 
shown  to  be  the  case  in  Geraniacese.  In  JEsculus  and  Acer  it  is  quite 
absent,  the  nuclei  never  becoming  organised  into  a  tissue  within  the 
embryo-sac. 

*  Bot.  Zeit.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  7-16  (1  pi.).  +  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  16-21. 

X  Zeitschr.  allgem.  osterr.  Apothek.-Verein,  1901,  Nos.  1  and  2 ;  and  in  Verhandl. 
zoolog.-botan.  Ges.  Wien,  hi.  (1902)  pp.  136-7. 
§  Journ.  de  Botan.,  1901,  pp.  326-62  (24  figs.). 


322  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

Germination  of  Onguekoa  and  Strombosia.* — E.  Heckel,  continuing 
his  studies  on  the  seedlings  of  Olaeaceae,  finds  that  similar  methods  are 
followed  in  the  West  African  genus  Ongnel-oa,  and  in  some  species  of  the 
Malayan  Strombosia,  to  that  previously  described  in  Ximenia  americana. 
The  cotyledons  remain  included  in  the  seed  in  all  three  genera.  In 
Onguelcoa  and  species  of  Strombosia  there  is  a  great  elongation  of  the 
hypocotyl,  and  the  seed  is  carried  far  above  the  ground ;  in  the  African 
genus,  and  in  Strombosia  javanica,  the  cotyledons  become  separated  from 
the  aerial  axis  at  their  points  of  insertion,  and  fall  to  the  ground  with 
the  seed. 

Cockscomb  Fasciation  of  Pine-apples,  f  —  J.  W.  Harshberger  de- 
scribes some  striking  cases  of  fasciation  in  this  fruit,  the  larger  of  which 
were  apparently  composed  of  a  dozen  or  more  individuals.  A  photo- 
graphic reproduction  is  given  of  one  of  the  largest  specimens. 

Physiology. 
Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Theory  of  the  Shifting  of  Lateral  Organs  through  Mutual  Pres- 
sure. J — L.  Jost  maintains  that  Schwendener's  theory  of  "shifting"  of 
organs  during  growth,  and  of  stem-torsion,  will  not  explain  such  altera- 
tions in  arrangement  as  he  himself  now  describes  in  the  case  of  leaves 
of  conifers  and  florets  of  the  sunflower.  Actual  shifting,  in  the  sense 
that  in  the  young  condition  of  a  plant  other  organs  are  in  lateral  contact 
than  in  an  older  condition,  was  never  observed,  and  the  author  main- 
tains that  there  are  to-day  in  the  province  of  botany  no  facts  known 
which  render  necessary  the  assumption  of  a  subsequent  shifting,  in 
Schwendener's  sense,  of  organs  whose  position  has  once  been  defined. 

Influence  of  Tension  and  Pressure  on  the  Direction  of  the  Cell- 
wall. § — L.  Kny  draws  the  following  conclusions  from  his  investigations 
on  the  growth  of  various  members  of  different  plants.  The  tensions  set 
up  in  parts  of  plants  which  are  still  capable  of  growth,  and  exercising 
either  a  pull  or  a  pressure  on  the  individual  cells,  are  responsible  for 
the  direction  of  the  prevailing  cell-growth  and  for  the  position  of  the 
division-walls.  Growth  takes  place,  in  so  far  as  other  forces  do  not 
prevent,  in  the  direction  of  the  pull  and  at  right  angles  to  the  pressure. 
"When  cell-division  occurs  the  dividing  walls  tend  to  lie  in  the  direction 
of  the  pressure  and  at  right  angles  to  the  pull.  Opposing  forces  may  be 
external  or  internal.  The  most  important  external  forces  are  represented 
by  mechanical  obstacles  with  which  certain  tissues  and  plant  organs  (e.g. 
stems  of  lianes,  roots,  &c.)  have  to  contend.  Light  may,  as  in  the  case 
of  germinating  spores  of  Equisetum,  have  an  important  influence  on  the 
position  of  the  dividing  wall.  The  author  regards  as  an  internal  force 
the  course  of  development  prescribed  by  heredity  for  the  species  in 
question.  An  example  of  the  overpowering  of  the  action  of  pull  and 
pressure  by  such  internal  forces  is  found  in  the  early  stages  of  periderm 

*  Compt.  Rend.,  exxxiv.  (1002)  pp.  4S9-90. 

+  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sri.  Philadelphia,  1901,  pp.  G09-11. 

$  Bot.  Zeit.,  lx.  (1902)  pp.  21-43. 

§  Pringsh.  Jahrb.,  xxxvii.  (1901)  pp.  55-9S  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  323 

formation,  where  the  first  divisions  in  the  initial  layer  are  pcricliual  in 
spite  of  the  considerable  radial  pressure  which  is  exercised  in  the 
phellogen  cells  as  a  result  of  increase  in  thickness  in  the  interior  of  the 
stem.  The  same  applies  to  the  periclinal  divisions  in  the  cambium  of 
the  higher  plants.  Another  instance  of  the  influence  of  heredity  is  found 
in  the  medullary  rays  iu  the  wood  of  Salix  and  JEsculus,  which  generally 
remain  only  a  single  layer  in  width  in  spite  of  the  numerous  anticlinal 
divisions  occurring  in  the  cambium  cells  as  a  result  of  radial  pressure. 

Suckers  of  the  Green  Rhinanthaceae.*  —  A.  Sperlich  has  studied 
the  development,  structure,  and  cell-contents  of  the  haustoria  in  Melam- 
pyrum,  Alectoroloplius,  Pedicularis,  Tozzia,  and  other  genera  of  this 
semi-dependent  group  of  Scrophularinese.  He  finds  that  Melampyrum 
pratense,  silvaticum,  and  nemorosum  live  not  only  saprophytically  but  also 
parasitically,  the  two  methods  being  combined  in  the  nourishment  of  the 
same  individual.  The  haustoria  attach  themselves  to  living  as  well  as  to 
dead  nutritive  objects,  and  differ  in  this  respect  from  M.  arvense  and  the 
other  Rhinanthaceaa.  The  hyaline  tissue  which  forms  the  central  mass 
of  the  sucker  originates  through  growth  in  the  pericambium  and  endo- 
dermis  on  the  side  towards  the  nutritive  object ;  it  is  limited,  except  at 
the  place  where  the  haustorial  process  will  be  formed,  by  a  row  of  cells, 
the  membrane  of  which  gives,  to  a  large  extent,  the  reaction  of  an  endo- 
dermal  membrane.  Tracheides  are  not  formed  in  all  the  suckers  ;  their 
appearances  seem  governed  by  exigencies  of  conduction.  The  suckers  of 
Melampyrum  produce,  when  attached  to  suitable  objects,  a  wedge-like 
process,  the  terminal-cells  of  which  elongate  often  in  a  hyphal  manner 
and  penetrate  fungus-like  the  nutritive  object. 

Proteid  crystalloids  were  found  in  the  nuclei  of  the  cortical  paren- 
chyma and  hyaline  tissue  in  Melampyrum.  The  resemblance  previously 
pointed  out  by  Koch  of  certain  structures  found  in  the  cell-plasm  of  the 
hyaline  tissue,  to  the  bacteroids  of  Leguminous  tubercles,  was  confirmed 
by  the  similar  behaviour  to  a  series  of  reagents  in  both  cases.  The 
hyaline  tissue  is  rich  in  proteid  ;  starch  is  also  common,  and  in  young 
stages  amylodextrin.  The  presence  of  glycogen  (or  a  nearly  allied  body), 
rhinanthin,  phosphoric  acid,  and  nitrates  was  also  demonstrated.  Similar 
contents  were  found  in  the  other  genera  investigated. 

The  author  concludes  that  this  tissue  of  hyaline  cells  is  a  centre  for 
the  anabolic  processes  involved  in  the  supply  of  material  for  the  growth 
of  the  plant.  After  ripening  of  the  fruit  this  function  ceases,  and  it 
serves  henceforth  as  a  place  for  deposition  of  reserve-materials. 

Assimilation  of  Carbon  by  a   Green   Alga.f  —  P.  G.  Charpentier  Is 

cultivated  Cystococcus  humicola  in  a  nutrient  solution  containing  sul- 
phate of  magnesium,  bi-potassic  phosphate,  nitrates  of  potassium  and 
calcium,  with  traces  of  ferrous  sulphate,  and  10  grin,  glucose  to  1000 
grm.  water.  The  plant  grew  well,  quite  independently  of  the  car- 
bonic acid  of  the  air,  at  the  expense  of  the  sugar  contained  in  the 
solution.  Like  other  lower  Algae  it  retained  its  green  colour,  due  to> 
chlorophyll,  in  darkness,  but  light  was  proved  to  be  very  beneficial  to 
the  plant ;  a  culture  made  in  the  light  yielding  330  mgrm.,  while  one 

*  Beiheft.  Bot.  Oentralbl.,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  437-S5  (1  pi.). 
t  Compt.  Rend.,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  671-3. 


324  SUMMARY.  OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

otherwise  precisely  similar,  but  in  darkness,  gave  only  27  mgrm.  In 
light  the  cells  are  small,  in  a  state  of  active  multiplication,  and  con- 
tain no  starch-grains.  "When  living  in  the  dark  they  are  large,  with 
thick  walls,  and  evidently  sluggish  ;  they  were,  moreover,  crowded  with 
starch.  The  absence  of  starch-grains  in  the  light  is  explained  by  the 
fact  that  starch  being  a  temporary  reserve,  the  plant  was  growing  too 
rapidly  to  be  able  to  store  any  carbohydrate. 

Chemauxism  of  Copper  Salts  on  Penicillium  glaucum.* — Dr. 
Le  Eenard  describes  the  influence  exerted  by  soluble  copper  salts  on 
the  growth  of  Penicillium  in  the  presence  of  carbohydrates.  The  writer 
finds,  as  did  Nageli  in  his  study  of  oligodynamics,  that  the  presence  of 
copper  salts  in  infinitesimal  quantities  in  the  culture  medium  is  fatal  to 
the  organism.  A  more  concentrated  solution  excites  the  growth  which 
increases  by  leaps  up  to  a  certain  strength  ;  after  the  maximum  is  reached 
the  copper  again  becomes  harmful  to  the  growth  of  the  plant. 

Resistance  to  Salt  Solution.-]" — F.  Cavara  publishes  his  investiga- 
tions of  the  extraordinary  physiological  resistance  offered  by  Mierocoleus 
ehtonoplastes  Thur.  to  salt  water  of  varying  degrees  of  concentration. 
The  plant  is  a  cyanophyceous  alga,  and  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
separation  of  pure  salt  from  sea-water.  The  author  gives  an  account  of 
the  process  adopted  in  the  evaporation  tanks  and  of  the  benefits  derived 
from  the  presence  of  the  alga,  which  greatly  assists  in  the  purification  of 
the  brine.  He  describes  the  experiments  he  made  for  determining  the 
maximum  and  minimum  strengths  of  solution  in  which  the  alga  can 
f^row,  and  his  microscopical  observation  of  the  changes  which  result  in 
the  filaments  and  cells.  He  finds  that  the  plant  can  even  maintain  life 
for  a  year  or  two  in  the  heaps  of  extracted  salt. 

Irritability. 

Action  of  Temperature  on  the  Absorption  of  Minerals  in  Etio- 
lated Plants.^ — Gr-  Andre  experimented  with  etiolated  plants  of  maize 
and  haricot  growing  at  temperatures  of  15°  C.  and  30°  C.  He  finds  a 
remarkable  increase  in  the  proportion  of  silica  in  the  dry  weight  at  the 
higher  temperature.  Calcium  carbonate,  on  the  contrary,  was  absorbed 
in  less  quantity,  and  the  amount  of  potash  was  not  increased.  The  pro- 
portion of  phosphoric  acid  was  unchanged.  The  amount  of  nitrogen 
was  only  feebly  influenced  by  the  rise  in  temperature.  Among  hydro- 
carbons, vasculoso  was  present  in  considerably  larger  proportions  at 
30°  C.  than  at  15°  C. 

Light  and  Spore-Germination. § — N.  Schulz  treats  of  the  germina- 
tion of  the  spores  of  Mosses,  Ferns,  and  Equisetacese,  and  shows  that  in 
all  but  a  few  cases  light  is  indispensable  for  promoting  the  assimilation 
of  the  food  stored  in  the  spores  of  Mosses  and  Ferns.  The  spores  of 
Equisetaceae  contain  no  food-stores  and  can  only  obtain  nourishment 
from  carbonic  acid  in  the  presence  of  light. 

*  Journ.  de  Bot.,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  97-107. 

t  Nuov.  Giorn.  Bot.  Ital.,  nuov.  ser.  ix.  (1902)  pp.  59-80  (t.  2). 

X  Compt.  Rend.,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  668-71. 

§  Beiheft.  Bctan.  Centralblatt,  xi.  (1901)  pp.  81-97  (8  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  325 

Chemical  Changes. 

Enzyme  Action. — A.  J.  Brown*  shows  that  the  enzyme  action 
involved  in  the  alcoholic  fermentation  of  yeast  follows  approximately 
the  same  order  of  progression  as  that  of  inversion  of  cane  sugar.  When 
invertase  acts  in  solutions  of  cane  sugar  of  varying  concentrations,  an 
approximately  constant  weight  of  sugar  is  inverted  in  unit  time,  and  the 
yeast-cell  under  similar  conditions,  ferments  an  approximately  constant 
weight  of  sugar.  This  apparent  independence  of  mass-action  may  be  due 
to  the  existence  of  a  time  factor.  If  the  enzyme,  as  there  is  reason  to 
believe,  combines  with  the  reacting  substance,  the  compound  molecule 
may  exist  for  an  interval  of  time  before  disruption  and  change  super- 
vene. This  will  set  a  limit  to  the  number  of  changes  which  a  given 
molecule  of  the  enzyme  can  effect  in  unit  time.  Hence,  provided  that  tho 
quantity  of  reacting  substance  present  ensures  a  greater  number  of 
molecular  collisions  in  unit  time  than  the  possible  number  of  molecular 
changes,  then  a  constant  weight  of  substance  may  be  changed  in  unit 
time  in  all  the  actions.  The  author  brings  forward  experimental  evi- 
dence in  support  of  this  theory. 

Horace  T.  Brown  and  T.  A.  Glendinning  f  find  the  results  of  their 
experiments  on  starch  hydrolysis  by  diastase  to  agree  with  the  observa- 
tions of  Adrian  Brown  and  V.  Henri  on  cane-sugar  hydrolysis,  and 
suggest  that  one  fundamental  law  may  be  found  to  express  the  rate  of 
change  in  all  enzyme  actions  which  can  be  quantitively  studied  with 
sufficient  accuracy. 

Tryptophane  in  Proteolysis.  :£  —  S.  H.  Vines  describes  further 
experiments  on  the  subject  of  proteolysis.  These  bear  out  his  pre- 
viously expressed  opinion  that  the  proteolytic  enzymes  of  plants  in 
general  are  essentially  "  tryptic."  The  question  arises,  in  view  of  the 
accumulating  evidence  that  pepsin  itself  can  effect  tryptic  proteolysis,  as 
to  whether  such  a  thing  as  a  peptic  enzyme  exists  at  all ;  an  enzyme, 
that  is,  which  only  hydrolyses  the  higher  proteids  to  peptones  and  does 
not  decompose  the  proteid  molecule.  The  author  suggests  the  following 
provisional  arrangement  of  plant  enzymes  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
reaction  of  the  medium  in  which  they  act. 

I.  Active  in  acid  liquids. 

1.  Active  only  in  acid  liquid. 

a.  Most  active  with  HC'l — Pepsin. 

b.  Active  with  HC1  or  natural  acid — Nepenthin. 

2.  More  active  in  acid  thau  in  neutral  or  alkaline  liquid. 

a.  Equally  active  with    HC1    or   natural  acid — Bromelin, 

Coco. 

b.  More    active    with    natural    or    qrganic   acid — Papain, 

Cradein,  Peptase  of  barley. 
II.  Active  in  neutral  or  acid  liquid — enzyme  of  yeast. 
III.  Active  in  neutral  or  alkaline  liquid. 

a.  Active   in    either — enzyme    of    Bean  (?) ;    putrefactive 

bacteria. 

b.  More  active  in  alkaline — Trypsin. 

"  Joum.  Cheni.  So?.,  Ixxxi.  (1902)  pp.  373-88.        t  Tom.  cit,  pp.  388-400. 
J  Ann.  Bot,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  1-22.     Cf.  this  Journal,  1902,  p.  205. 


326  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

The  author  also  suggests  that  hydrocyanic  acid,  which  is  present  in 
many  germinating  seeds,  may  be  of  importance  in  facilitating  the 
proteolysis  of  the  reserve-materials  of  the  seed. 

Cane-Sugar  in  the  Reserve  Food-Stuffs  of  Phanerogams.*  —  E. 
Bourquelot,  as  a  result  of  the  chemical  examination  of  the  roots,  rhizomes, 
bulbs,  seeds,  and  other  deposits  of  reserve  food  in  a  number  of  plants,  in 
almost  all  of  which  he  is  able  to  demonstrate  the  presence  of  cane- 
sugar,  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  this  carbohydrate  is  a  sort  of  prin- 
ciple necessary  to  nutritive  changes  in  all  phanerogamic  plants.  The 
occasional  failure  to  demonstrate  its  presence  is  probably  due,  not  to 
its  absence,  but  to  the  fact  that  the  action  of  invertine,  by  means  of 
which  it  was  recognised,  was  masked  by  the  existence  of  another 
principle. 

Conversion  of  Carbohydrate  in  the  Germination  of  the  Date.f — 
J.  Griiss  finds  the  hydrolysation  products  of  an  enzyme  action  on  the 
reserve-cellulose  in  the  date  endosperm  to  be  mannose,  galactose,  dex- 
trose, and  fructose.  This  carbohydrate  nourishment  is  supplied  to 
the  embryo  in  the  form  of  cane-sugar  which  constitutes  44  p.c.  of  the 
dry  weight  of  the  cotyledonary  sucker.  There  is  no  conversion  into 
transitory  starch  on  its  passage  to  the  shoot.  The  author  demonstrates 
a  striking  agreement  in  the  action  of  the  enzyme  of  date-endosperm  and 
of  malt-diastase  respectively.  Both  convert  a-mannan  first  into  mannin 
and  finally  into  mannose,  and  galactan  into  galactin  and  finally  galactose, 
and  both  act  on  starch,  though  malt-diastase  is  the  more  energetic  agent. 
Finally,  both  work  the  same  corrosive  action  on  reserve-cellulose. 

General. 

Quantitative  Study  of  Variation  in  the  Bracts,  Rays,  and  Disk- 
florets  of  Species  of  Aster.}  —  G.  H.  Shull  has  studied  the  varia- 
tion in  the  organs  mentioned  in  four  species  of  Aster  from  Yellow 
Springs,  Ohio.  After  describing  his  method  of  work  he  gives  an  ex- 
haustive account  of  his  results,  which  are  illustrated  by  numerous  dia- 
grams and  tables.  A  close  correlation  was  found  between  bracts  and 
rays,  which  is  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  rays  are  axillary  to  the 
bracts ;  and  the  degree  of  imbrication  of  the  bracts  was  observed  to 
bear  a  relation  to  the  number  of  empty  bracts.  Curves  and  "constants" 
were  determined  ;  constants  for  several  individuals  of  A.  jpuniceus  grow- 
ing in  identical  surroundings  showed  great  variation  in  the  variability 
"  constants."  The  number  of  bracts,  rays,  and  disk-florets  (in  A.  pre- 
nanthoides)  was  found  to  decrease  continuously  from  the  beginning  to 
the  ©nd  of  the  flowering  season.  The  author  finds  that  the  suggestion 
that  statistical  methods  will  prove  valuable  in  taxonomic  work  is  not 
sustained  by  his  results ;  and  also  emphasises  the  importance  of  an 
intelligent  selection  of  material  for  work  on  variation. 

Passage  from  a  Bisexual  to  a  Unisexual  Condition  by  Uni- 
lateral Parasitic  Castration. § — A.  Giard  reviews  some  recent  work  by 
Meehan  on  the  action  of  certain  fungi  which  inhabiting  the  root  of 
species  of  Vcmonia  caused  remarkable  changes  in  the  general  habit  of 

*  Compt.  Rend.,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  71S-20. 
t  liot.  Zeit.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  30-44. 
t  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  111-52  (40  figs.). 
§  Compt.  Rend.,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  14G-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  327 

the  plant,  and  also  a  destruction  of  the  pollen  in  tlio  anthers.  The 
result  was  tbe  formation  of  a  hybrid  as  cross-fertilisation  was  impera- 
tive. M.  Giard  cites  a  comparable  instance  of  morphological  modifica- 
tion by  a  root-inhabiting  cryptogamic  parasite,  in  abnormal  specimens 
of  Pulicaria  dysenterica,  and  suggests  that  there  probably  exist  among 
Composite  plants,  and  even  in  individual  species,  parasitic  root-inhabit- 
ing fungi  of  different  kinds,  exercising  a  different  morphological  action 
on  their  host.  The  influence  of  these  parasites  on  the  conditions  of 
sexuality  of  their  hosts  is  equally  variable  and  of  great  interest  in 
general  biology. 

Topographical  Botany.*  —  N.  Boulay  has  drawn  up  a  careful  and 
detailed  report  on  the  geography  and  botany  of  the  Saut-du-Bouchot, 
a  cascade  in  the  Department  of  tho  Vosges,  one  of  the  highest  feeders 
of  the  Biver  Moselle.  It  is  the  result  of  observations  extending  over 
the  past  40  years,  and  it  is  intended  as  a  record  which  can  be  referred 
to  in  years  to  come,  when  possible  changes  in  the  factors  which  deter- 
mine the  nature  of  the  present  flora  may  have  arisen.  The  cascade  is 
some  1400  ft.  above  sea-level  and  has  been  selected  as  a  typical  one  and 
as  not  likely  to  be  interfered  with  by  the  hand  of  man.  A  map  of  the 
neighbourhood,  a  geological  section,  and  three  photographic  views  of 
the  cascade  are  given.  First  the  topography  is  explained  with  care, 
and  the  measurements  of  tho  cascade  are  set  out.  Then  the  vegetation 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  is  described,  special  attention  being  devoted 
to  the  mosses  and  hcpatics  since  they  would  be  the  first  to  respond  to 
changes  of  humidity  or  climate.  Lists  of  these  plants,  as  they  occur 
in  the  ravine,  on  submerged  rocks,  on  trees,  &c.  are  supplied.  The 
flora  is  silicicolous  without  any  calcicolous  constituents. 

Phyllospadix  as  a  Beach-builder.t  —  B.  E.  Gibbs  describes  the 
formation  from  the  fruit  of  this  marine  monocotyledonous  plant  of  a  very 
effective  anchoring  apparatus.  This  is  brought  about  by  the  persistence 
of  tough  fibres  permeating  the  softer  substance  of  the  pericarp,  after 
the  decay  of  these  softer  portions,  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  by  which 
the  grapplers  of  the  water-chestnut  are  formed.  The  hard  persistent 
endocarp  forms  a  pair  of  curving  arms  lined  on  the  inside  by  a  row  of 
stiff  down-curved  fibres.  These  barbed  arms  are  frequently  found 
grasping  one  or  a  pair  of  the  nodose  stems  of  a  coralline  sea-weed 
(Amjyhiroa),  and  in  this  position  germination  takes  place.  The  stem 
grows  downward  till  it  reaches  the  rock  to  which  it  becomes  tightly 
fixed  by  numerous  adventitious  roots,  and  by  repeated  branching  soon 
covers  the  surface  with  a  mat  of  eel-grass.  The  author  insists  on  the 
importance  of  this  growth  as  a  beach-protector  and  builder. 


CRYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 

Prothalli  of  Ophioglossum  and  Helminthostachys.j — W.  H.  Lang 
gives  a  detailed  account   of  the  prothalli  of  Ophioglossum  jpendulinum 

*  Eev.  Bryol.,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  37-55  (3  pis.  and  2  figs.). 

t  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  101-9. 

;  Ann.  Bot.,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  23-56  (3  pis.).     Cf.  this  Journal,  1902,  p.  77. 


328  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

and  Helminfhosiachys  zeylanica,  a  preliminary  account  of  which  has 
already  been  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society.  He 
also  describes  the  morphology  and  anatomy  of  the  young  sporophyte 
of  the  latter.  The  young  plant  remains  attached  to  the  prothallus 
until  several  leaves  are  formed  ;  the  first  leaf  has  a  ternate  lamina  and 
reaches  the  light.  For  a  time  a  single  root  is  developed  below  each 
leaf.  The  first  root  is  triarch  ;  succeeding  ones  tetrarch.  A  mycorhizal 
fungus  is  present  in  a  medio-cortical  zone  of  the  first  few  roots.  The 
stele  of  the  stem  is  at  first  oularch  and  may  be  solid  or  have  a  small 
pith ;  it  is  surrounded  by  a  well-marked  endodermis.  The  first  leaf- 
traces  are  endarch  or  mesarch,  and  do  not  leave  definite  leaf-gap?. 

The  author  also  discusses  the  affinity  of  the  OphioglossacesB.  The 
form  of  the  prothallus,  structure  of  the  sexual  organs  and  embryogeny 
are  such  as  might  be  expected  in  saprophytic  forms  derived  from  pro- 
thalli  of  the  general  type  found  in  the  Filicales.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  little  to  suggest  any  close  affinity  between  Ophioglossacege  and 
the  Equisetales.  The  evidence  available  points  to  the  origin  of  the 
type  of  prothallus  from  forms  not  unlike  the  garnetophyte  of  existing 
Marattiaccse,  though  possibly  belonging  to  a  more  primitive  group. 
This  is  little  or  nothing  to  indicate  an  origin  from  the  type  of  prothallus 
found  in  the  homosporous  Lycopodiales. 

Classification  of  Ferns.*  — •  L.  M.  Underwood,  in  continuing  his 
notices  of  American  Ferns,  discusses  the  Aspidieaa,  and  blames  the  dif- 
ferent schools  of  systematists  for  insisting  exclusively  on  this  or  that  set 
of  characters  as  of  primary  importance  in  the  classification  of  groups  of 
ferns.  He  classes  the  values  of  the  plant-characters  of  the  Aspidieae 
in  the  following  order  : — (1)  venation  ;  (2)  habit,  and  growth-characters 
of  stem ;  (3)  position  of  sori  in  relation  to  veins ;  (4)  character  of  in- 
dusium.  He  devotes  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  paper  to  a  rigorous 
examination  of  the  validity  of  the  generic  names  in  the  light  of  modern 
rules  of  nomenclature.  In  classing  the  Aspidioid  genera  according  to 
our  present  knowledge,  he  is  compelled  to  reduce  to  synonymy  two  such 
well-known  names  as  Neplirodium  and  Aspidium,  and  to  replace  them  by 
the  older  names  Dryopteris  and  Tectaria,  and  he  exposes  the  careless- 
ness and  the  bias  which  have  led  authors  to  muddle  the  nomenclature  of 
the  group  so  much  in  the  past.     He  gives  a  key  to  twenty  genera. 

Anatomy  of  Ceratopteris  thalictroides.  f  —  S.  O.  Ford  describes 
the  anatomy  of  this  fern,  which  is  an  annual  aquatic  plant,  rooting  in 
the  mud,  or  floating  freely  in  deeper  water.  It  is  widely  distributed 
through  the  tropics.  The  much  reduced  stem  bears  both  fertile  and 
sterile  leaves.  At  the  apex  of  the  stem  is  a  three-sided  apical  cell. 
The  young  stem  is  monostelic  ;  at  a  later  stage  there  are  two  steles,  and 
further  division  gives  rise  to  the  polystelic  condition  of  the  mature  stem. 
The  steles  in  both  stem  and  leaves  are  bi-collateral ;  the  former  con- 
tains an  outer  circle  of  large  steles,  within  which  small,  feebly  developed 
steles  are  scattered  irregularly.  Vegetative  buds  are  formed  in  large 
numbers;  they  arise  at  the  angle  of  a  leaf,  and  grow  by  a  three-sided 
apical  cell ;  they  are  borne  by  both  sterile  and  fertile  leaves.     The 

*  Bulk  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  121-36. 
t  Ann.  Bot.,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  95-121  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  329 

large  sporangia,  which  arise  from  a  single  cell,  are  scattered  irregularly 
over  the  leaves  ;  the  annulus  may  be  much  reduced. 

The  position  of  Ceratopteris  amongst  leptosporangiato  ferns  is  not 
clear;  it  shows  stronger  affinities  with  the  Polypodiaccse  than  with  any 
other  group,  but  has  also  well-marked  affinities  with  the  Marsiliaceje, 
and  may  possibly  be  intermediate  in  position  between  these  two  orders. 

New  Type  of  Fern-Stele.* — A.  G.  Tansley  and  R.  B.  Lulham  de- 
scribe a  new  type  of  fern-stele  in  the  creeping  rhizomes  of  species  of 
Lindsaya,  and  in  Davallia  repens.  It  is  a  monostele,  showing,  in  cross- 
section,  a  central  mass  of  xylem,  consisting  of  scalariform  tracheids 
intermingled  with  parenchyma  and  surrounded  by  a  complete  ring  of 
phloem,  pericycle,  and  endodermis,  as  in  Gleichenia  and  Lygodium,  but 
differing  by  having,  in  addition  to  the  external  phloem-mantle,  a  strand 
of  phloem  completely  imbedded  in  the  xylem  near  the  dorsal  surface  of 
the  latter.  This  internal  phloem-strand  consists  of  typical  sieve-tubes 
mixed  with  parenchyma  and  separated  by  a  layer  of  similar  parenchyma 
from  the  surrounding  xylem.  This  type  of  stele  corresponds  with  the 
condition  found  by  L.  du  Sablon  in  the  young  stem  of  Pteris  aquilina, 
and  a  few  other  cases.  Its  great  interest  is,  that  it  appears  to  furnish 
a  phylogenetic  link,  hitherto  wanting  in  a  mature  stem,  between  the 
protostelic  and  the  solenostelic  structure. 

Alga-like  Fern-Prothallus.f—  A.  P.  W.  Thomas  describes  the  pro- 
thallus  of  an  Australasian  fern,  Scliizsea  bifida,  which  is  quite  unlike 
the  ordinary  types  of  fern-prothalli,  and  strongly  suggestive  of  an 
Alga.  It  is  composed  of  branched  filaments  forming  a  green  cushion 
which  may  reach  £  in.  to  A-  in.  in  diameter.  It  differs  from  the  fila- 
mentous prothalli  known  in  Trichomanes,  since  the  latter  are  incom- 
pletely filamentous,  the  archegonia  being  borne  on  archegoniophores 
which  are  masses  of  meristematic  cells ;  whereas  the  prothalli  of 
Scliizsea  are  completely  filamentous  archegonia,  as  well  as  antheridia, 
being  produced  on  filaments.  The  prothalli  are  monoecious,  but  male 
and  female  organs  occur  on  distinct  branches.  The  archegonium  is 
remarkable  in  having  a  free  venter,  resembling  in  this  respect  the  arche- 
gonia of  typical  bryophytcs  ;  the  neck,  however,  is  short.  The  question 
arises  as  to  whether  this  remarkable  alga-like  prothallus  represents  a 
primitive  or  secondary  form.  The  author  prefers  Goebel's  explana- 
tion advanced  for  Trichomanes,  namely  that  Schizsea  represents  even  more 
than  the  latter  a  primitive  state. 

Affinities  of  Tmesipteris.'j:  —  The  same  author  as  a  result  of  the 
study  of  the  variations  of  the  synangium-bearing  structure  in  this 
genus,  develops  the  idea,  previously  suggested  by  Scott,  of  an  affinity 
between  the  Psilotaceee  and  the  extinct  group  Sphenophyllales.  He 
also  brings  evidence  to  show  that  while  the  whole  fertile  structure  repre- 
sents a  single  leaf,  or  sporophyll,  the  synangium,  with  its  axis,  corre- 
sponds to  a  ventral  sporangiophore  (Scott).  The  variations  noted  are 
of  three  kinds : — (1)  Sporophylls  with  repeated  dichotomy  and  two  or 
three  synangia;  (2)  Sporophylls  in  which  the  synangium  is  raised  on 
a  stalk  or  pedicel ;  (3)  Sporophylls  in  which  the  synangium  is  replaced 

*  Ann.  Bot.,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  157-64  (10  figs.).         t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  165-70. 
X  Proc.  Koy.Soc,  lxix.  (1902)  pp.  343-50. 


330  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

by  a  leaf-lobe  of  normal  appearance.  The  first  is  a  common  variation ; 
the  sporophylls  are  of  healthy  appearance,  and  occur  in  the  most 
vigorous  parts  of  the  hest  shoots.  A  comparison  with  the  Spheno- 
phyllalcs  seems  the  most  promising  way  of  considering  these  variations. 
The  leaves  of  Splienopliyllnm  weie  often  heteromorphic,  and  among 
great  variety  in  form  we  find  those  with  a  dichotomously  branched 
blade,  and  in  some  forms  the  bracts  were  forked.  In  S.  tricliomatosum 
the  sporophylls  were  not  arranged  in  sharply  delimited  cones.  The 
second  group  of  variations  recalls  the  case  of  JBoicmanites,  where  the 
bracts  bore  sporangiophores,  each  with  two  sporangia.  Trilocular 
synangia  may  occur  in  Tmesipteris,  and  this  suggests  comparison  with 
the  elaborate  palmately  tripartite  sporangiophore  of  Cheirostrobus.  The 
third  class  of  variation  supports  the  comparison  of  the  synangium  with 
a  ventral  leaf-lobe. 

The  author  suggests  a  parallel  botween  Tmesipteris  and  the  Spheno- 
phyllales  on  the  one  hand,  and  a  simple  Lycopodium  such  as  L.  Sehujo 
and  Lepidodendron  on  the  other.  The  contrast  in  the  leaf-arrangement, 
whorled  in  Sphenophyllales  and  scattered  in  the  Psilotese,  is  marked, 
but  can  hardly  outweigh  the  evidence  derived  from  sporangial  cha- 
racters. In  Psilotum  also  instances  were  found  of  dichotomy  of  one  or 
both  forks  of  the  sporophyll,  with  corresponding  increase  in  number  of 
the  synangia. 

So-called  Phloem  of  Lepidodendron.* — A.  C.  Seward  reiterates 
his  opinion  as  to  the  absence  of  any  true  secondary  phloem  in  Lepido- 
dendroid  stems.  He  maintains  that  his  "  secretory  zone,"  while  pro- 
bably having  phloem  functions,  does  not,  as  Weiss  has  recently  de- 
scribed, show  phloem  structure,  and  we  cannot  therefore,  as  suggested 
by  Scott,  regard  the  phloem  of  Lepidodendron  as  fundamentally  similar 
to  that  of  the  recent  allies  of  the  genus.  The  author  also  shows  that 
the  tissue  immediately  beyond  the  secondary  wood,  which  Scott  regards 
as  phloem,  can,  by  comparison  of  transverse  with  longitudinal  sections 
(of  which  he  gives  figures),  be  shown  to  form  a  homogeneous  band  of 
short  thin-walled  cells,  in  which  the  formation  of  new  cell-walls  was  in 
active  progress  when  the  plant  was  killed.  Its  structure  is  essentially 
distinct  from  that  of  typical  phloem,  and  there  are  no  elements  which 
can  be  compared  with  sieve-tubes.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  broad,  meristematic 
zone  of  quite  a  different  type  from  the  cambium  of  recent  plants. 

Mosses. 

Spore  Distribution,  f  —  A.  J.  M.  Garjeanne  discusses  the  spore- 
distribution  as  it  occurs  in  a  few  mosses.  In  Pottia  Heimii  the  opercu- 
lum splits  off  from  the  gymnostomous  theca  in  the  presence  of  moisture 
after  dry  weather,  but  remains  attached  to  the  columella ;  and  the  spores 
are  spread  by  the  slightest  currents  of  air,  or  by  the  movements  of 
insects.  In  P.  truncata  and  Physcomifrium  pyriforme,  both  gymno- 
stomous, the  operculum  is  completely  detached  in  the  former,  and 
partially  split  off  in  the  latter ;  aud  in  the  latter  the  spores  of  different 
individuals  differ  in  their  capacity  for  germination.     The  distribution 

*  New  Phytologist,  i.  pp.  3S-5G  (2  figs.). 

t  Beiheft.  Botan.  CentralbL,  xi.  (1901)  pp.  53-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  331 

of  the  spores  of  certain  species  of  Orthotrichum  which  grow  on  trees  is 
dealt  with ;  and  it  is  found  that  they  require  bark  or  woody  humus  for 
their  germination. 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Mosses.*  —  J.  Palacky  continues  his 
studies  on  the  distribution  of  the  mosses.  He  divides  the  Acrocarpous 
mosses  into  23  families,  and  discusses  the  geographical  distribution  of 
the  genera  of  each  in  turn. 

Peristome  of  Mosses.f  —  H.  Philibert  concludes  the  tenth  article 
of  his  studies  on  the  peristome  of  mosses  by  discussing  the  remarkable 
structures  that  occur  in  Daicsonia  and  Buxbaumia. 

Abnormalities.  —  W.  Monkemeyer  $  describes  and  figures  the  leaf- 
buds  on  a  species  of  Harpidium  gathered  in  a  pool  on  the  crest  of  the 
Piiesengcbirge.  The  buds  were  swollen  into  galls  and  infested  by 
colonies  of  Anguillula.  The  leaves  were  much  broadened  and  hollowed 
out,  and  the  character  of  their  areolation  was  entirely  altered. 

F.  Tobler  §  gives  figures  and  a  description  of  a  singular  instance  of  a 
plant  of  Polytrichum  gracile  Menz.  bearing  two  setas  capped  by  one 
Galyptra,  the  longer  one  laxly  coiled  three  times  round  the  shorter. 
Each  arose  from  a  separate  vaginula ;  the  calyptra  was  the  product  of 
the  coalescence  of  two  archegonia. 

Lists  and  New  Species.  —  S.  M.  Macvicar  ||  records  and  discusses 
five  hepatics  found  in  Scotland  and  new  to  the  British  Isles. 

Th.  Herzog  %  calls  attention  to  the  rich  and  interesting  moss-flora  of 
the  St.  Wilhelm  and  Oberried  valleys  of  the  Black  Forest  of  Baden, 
where  amongst  other  rarities  is  found  Hi/jmum  micans.  He  discusses 
the  distribution  and  affinities  of  this  puzzling  moss. 

F.  Matouschek  **  gives  a  list  of  the  hepatics  and  mosses  hitherto 
discovered  in  Moravia  and  Eastern  Silesia,  together  with  the  localities 
in  which  they  occur.  In  an  introductory  note  he  records  the  work  of 
previous  collectors  in  the  two  districts. 

Dr.  E.  Jadcrholm  ff  gives  a  list  of  31  mosses  gathered  in  the  Trans- 
caucasian  districts  of  Lenkoran  and  Baku  by  J.  Mikutowicz.  Six  of 
these  are  new  to  the  region  ;  and  no  previous  moss-flora  of  Baku  appears 
to  have  been  published. 

Monkemeyer  J  J  describes  and  figures  Pleuridium  nitidum  Babenh.  var. 
anomalum  var.  nov.,  a  curious  and  luxuriant  variety  found  growing  with 
the  type  near  Mittweida. 

F.  Camus  §§  publishes  a  preliminary  note  npon  the  Muscineae  gathered 
by  him  in  Corsica  during  a  month's  tour  in  May  and  June  1901.  Owing 
to  the  snow-bound  state  of  the  Alpine  region  and  the  dried-up  condition 
of  the  coastal  region,  he  was  unable  to  form  a  just  estimate  of  their 
flora  ;  but  he  intends  to  return  to  the  island  in  the  full  summer,  and  in 
the  winter  to  examine  them  under  the  best  conditions.     His  attention 

*  Sitzunssb.  k.  Bohm.  Gesellscli.  Wiss.,  1901,  pt.  iv.  p.  29. 

+  Kev.  Bryol.,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  10-3. 

t  Hedwigia,  xli.  (1902)  Beibl.,  pp.  22-3.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  56-8. 

.     ||   Journ.  Bot,  xl.  (1902)  pp.  157-9. 

«|  Beiheft.  Botan.  Centralbl.,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  546-51. 
**  Verli.  naturforsch.  Verein.  in  Briinn,  xxxix.  (1901)  pp.  19-64. 
tt  Hedwigia,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  84-88.  J+  Tom.  cit.,  Beibl.,  pp.  853-4. 

§§  Rev.  Bryol.,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  17-26. 


332  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

was  mainly  directed  to  the  mosses  and  hepatics  of  the  intermediate  or 
forest  zone  ;  and  his  gatherings  have  resulted  in  the  addition  of  more  than 
a  quarter  to  the  previously  recorded  totals  of  species.  He  now  gives 
them  as  282  mosses,  5  sphagna,  82  hepatics.  He  adds  a  freely  annotated 
list  of  the  novelties,  and  another  of  the  more  interesting  species  which 
had  heen  recorded  previously,  hut  usually  without  any  clue  to  the  locality 
or  altitude  at  which  they  had  heen  found. 

The  same  writer  *  calls  attention  to  a  hepatic  new  to  France  and  to 
two  rare  mosses,  also  French,  which  have  lately  been  determined  by 
him. 

W.  Monkemeyer  f  publishes  a  list  of  the  rarer  mosses — 83  in  num- 
ber— gathered  by  A.  Berger  in  the  vicinity  of  La  Mortola,  near  Venti- 
miclia  in  the  Eiviera.  It  appears  to  be  the  first  published  list  for  the 
district. 

W.  Arnell  *  describes  and  figures  three  new  hepatics  —  Kantia 
sphagnicola,  K.  suecica,  and  K.  suhmersa — which  have  been  discovered  in 
Sweden,  and  points  out  how  they  may  be  distinguished  from  the  well- 
known  K.  trichomani8. 

J.  Douin  §  publishes  notes  on  seven  hepatics  that  occur  in  the  Mont- 
Dore  district  of  France. 

B.  Kaalaas  |]  describes  two  new  hepatics  of  the  genus  Cephalozia 
gathered  in  Norway. 

J.  Douin  %  notes  the  occurrence  of  the  minute  and  fugacious  moss 
Ephemerum  tenerum  C.  Muell.  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  and  expresses  his 
belief  that  other  members  of  the  genus  are  likely  to  be  found  there. 
He  calls  attention  to  the  ease  with  which  dehiscence  of  the  capsule 
takes  place  when  the  fresh  ripe  fruit  is  subjected  to  pressure,  and  alludes 
to  the  doubts  which  have  been  felt  about  the  dehiscence  of  Sysfegium 
crispum  by  authors  who  have  not  examined  the  plant  in  the  fresh  state. 

General  Paris  **  continues  his  lists  of  mosses  and  hepatics  from 
various  districts  of  Madagascar,  and  describes  eight  new  species. 

K.  Mueller  ft  records  six  species  of  hepatics  of  the  genus  Scapania 
gathered  in  Sikkim  and  other  parts  of  India.  Three  of  the  species  and 
one  variety  are  new. 

A.  W.  Evans  %%  has  monographed  the  Lejeuneee  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  and  recorded  23  of  the  species  of  this  subtribe  of  hepatics 
as  native,  4  being  new  species  and  6  new  records  for  the  continent.  He 
describes  the  confusion  caused  by  the  carelessness  of  previous  investi- 
gators and  the  difficulties  he  has  had  in  unravelling  it.  Each  species 
is  fully  discussed,  and  15  are  illustrated. 

E.  S.  Williams  §§  describes  and  figures  Eurliynclnum  Taylorse  sp.  nov. 
frorn  Idaho  and  Brachytliecium  Pringlei  sp.  nov.  from  Arizona. 

E.  Bescherelle  ||||  gives  a  list  of  42  mosses  and  25  hepatics  gathered  in 
Mexico  by  Maury  twelve  years  ago,  and  describes  four  of  the  former  as 
new  species. 

*  Tom.  cit.,  p.  26.  +  Hedwigia,  xli.  (1902)  Beibl.,  pp.  11-4. 

X  Rev.  Bryol.,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  2G-32  (figs,  in  text).       §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  32-4. 

||   Tom.  cit..  pp.  8-10.         t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  55,  56.         *•  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1-8. 
tt  Beiheft.  Botan.  Centralbl.,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  542-5. 
It  Mem.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  113-83  (7  pis.), 
§i)  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  66-8  (2  pis.). 
Ill  Journ.  de  Uotan.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  380-S. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  333 

He  also  *  describes  eleven  new  species  of  mosses  collected  in 
Guadeloupe  and  Martinique  by  Prof.  P.  Duss. 

AlgSB. 

New  Mougeotia.t  —  W.  West  describes  Mougeotia  immersa,  a  new- 
species  collected  at  Pokbaria,  Cbota  Nagpur,  by  the  Eev.  A.  Campbell. 
The  zygospores  vary  in  size  from  30  /x.  to  occasionally  48  /x,  and  the 
cells  of  the  thallus  are  20-24  /x  across. 

Sexuality  in  Spirogyra.J  —  E.  B.  Copeland  describes  the  various 
degrees  of  sexuality  to  be  met  with  in  the  different  species  of  Spirogyra. 
He  gives  an  account  of  the  conjugation  of  S.  crassa,  a  dioicous  species, 
and  calls  attention  to  the  effect  produced  in  a  cell  that  attempts  to  con- 
jugate but  fails.  The  nucleus  was  found  against  the  wall  opposite,  but 
remote  from,  the  conjugating  tube.  The  cell-contents  lose  their  trans- 
parency and  become  slightly  granular  with  what  may  be  oil-globules. 

Cladophora  JUgagropilaJ — A  morphological  and  systematic  account 
of  the  iEgagropila  group  of  Cladophora  is  given  by  F.  Brand,  who  has 
made  a  study  of  this  genus  for  many  years.  The  material,  on  which 
his  investigations  were  made,  was  plentiful,  and  the  species  were  culti- 
vated by  him  both  at  home  and  in  the  open,  thus  allowing  careful  ob- 
servations to  be  made  under  various  conditions  and  in  different  stages 
of  growth.  His  results  are  described  clearly  under  the  following 
headings: — Structure  and  growth  of  the  vegetative  filaments;  Reversal 
or  mutability  of  polarity ;  Organs  of  attachment  (Rhizoids  and  Cir- 
rhoids)  ;  Neutral  shoots  and  "  stolonids "  ;  Maintenance  and  propaga- 
tion ;  Conditions  of  life ;  Aggregated  forms.  Dnder  these  headings 
many  points  of  interest  are  brought  out,  the  chief  of  these  being  perhaps 
the  following,  which  have  been  specially  emphasised  by  the  author. 
(1)  The  hydrophilous  iEgagropila  forms  are  typically  rootless  plants, 
without  polar  division  into  a  cauloidal  and  rhizoidal  portion.  (2)  Their 
accessory  rhizoids  can  be  developed  from  any  portion  of  the  plant  and 
in  any  direction.  (3)  Each  species  has  a  more  or  less  constant  limit 
as  to  size,  beyond  which  any  increase  is  balanced  by  gradual  dying-off 
below.  (4)  By  means  of  this  regular  withering  of  the  oldest  cells,  the 
lowest  branches  become  regularly  free  in  acropetal  order.  This  may 
also  occur  irregularly  in  all  parts  of  the  plant.  (5)  The  iEgagropila? 
have  an  extraordinarily  slow  growth  and — like  the  Sphagna — an  un- 
limited period  of  life.  (6)  They  require  comparatively  little  light. 
(7)  The  weak  shoots, rather  poor  in  chlorophyll, are  not  always  rhizoids; 
the  character  of  such  "  neutral  shoots  "  is  at  first  doubtful  and  their 
function  is  only  determined  by  external  circumstances.  They  may  be- 
come organs  of  attachment,  or  they  may  return  to  a  vegetative  condition. 
The  latter  alternative  may  take  place  directly,  or  indirectly  by  the 
formation  of  "  stolonids." 

The  morphological  part  of  this  paper  is  followed  by  a  systematic 
treatment  of  this  group  of  Cladophora.  The  characteristic  features  of 
the  group  as  a  whole  are  detailed,  and  it  is  then  divided  into  two  sub- 

*  Journ.  cit.,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  6-11.  t  Jcrorn.  Bot.,  xl.  (1902)  p.  144. 

%  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  161-3. 
§  Hedwigia,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  34-71  (1  pi.). 

June  18th,  1902  z 


334  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

divisions,  Eusegagropila  and  Cornuta.  A  diagnosis  of  each  subdivision 
is  followed  by  the  respective  key  to  the  species  in  each  group : — Eueega 
gropila  containing  six  species,  C.  Linnaei,  C.  Martensii,  C.  profunda, 
C.  holsatica,  C.  armeniaca,  and  G.  Sauteri ;  Cornuta  contains  as  yet  only 
G.  cornuta.  Each  species  is  then  discussed  separately,  and  two  new 
varieties  are  described :  C.  profunda  var.  Nordstedtiana,  and  G.  Sauteri 
var.  Borgeana.  Finally  lists  follow  of  insufficiently  known  forms, 
among  which  is  a  new  species,  C.  Dusenii,  and  of  species  removed  from 
the  section.  C.  muscoides  Menegh.  is  shown  to  be  a  species  founded  on 
insufficient  grounds,  and  is  therefore  struck  out  altogether. 

Spiral  Arrangement  in  the  Rhodomelacese.* — Dr.  Kolderup  Rosen- 
vinge  here  enters  into  a  full  discussion  of  the  views  on  this  subject 
held  by  Prof.  Schwendener  and  his  pupil  H.  Seckt,  which  he  pronounces 
incorrect.  Dr.  Rosenvinge  holds  that  the  spiral  position  of  the  "  leaves  " 
{as  he  calls  them)  in  the  Rhodomeleae  is  not  dependent  upon  any  out- 
side influence,  but  that  the  cause  must  be  sought  in  the  interior  of  the 
plant.  The  author  thinks  that  the  position  of  each  new  "leaf"  is 
determined  by  the  position  of  the  last  preceding  one,  possibly  by  means 
of  an  impulse  conveyed  through  the  protoplasm  which  connects  the 
cells.  He  notes  the  correlation  between  the  position  of  the  "  side- 
organs  "  and  that  of  the  first-formed  pericentral  cell ;  and  he  denies 
any  correlation  between  the  direction  of  the  leaf-spiral  and  the  asym- 
metrical branching  of  the  leaves.  The  direction  of  the  spiral  is  usually 
to  the  left,  and  a  change  of  spiral  on  any  single  shoot  is  extremely  rare. 
The  divergence  is  not  absolutely  regular,  but  varies  between  i  and  f. 

Development  of  the  Cystocarp  in  some  Floridese.f —  A  detailed 
account  of  the  development  of  the  fruit  in  two  red  algae,  Heuretella 
Scliousboei,  and  Chylocladia  Jcaliformis,  is  given  by  A.  Hassenkamp,  illus- 
trated by  beautiful  figures.  The  author  shows  that  Prof.  Oltmanns'  con- 
clusions concerning  the  absence  of  double  fertilisation  in  the  Florideae 
hold  good  in  these  two  species,  and  infers  that  similar  results  would  be 
obtained  from  an  examination  of  other  Florideae.  Both  this  author  and 
Oltmanns  find  that  the  spores  arise  from  division  of  purely  sporogenous 
nuclei,  and  that  the  auxiliary  cell  simply  serves  to  nourish  the  sporo- 
genous cells.  The  sporogenous  nucleus  never  fuses  with  the  nucleus 
of  the  auxiliary  cell,  and  thus  the  second  fertilisation,  which  was  be- 
lieved to  take  place  in  the  auxiliary  cell,  is  fictitious.  The  author 
regards  this  stage  of  development  as  a  parasitism  of  the  sporogenous 
cell  on  the  auxiliary  cell,  and  likens  it  to  the  development  of  the  sporo- 
gonium  of  a  moss  on  the  sexual  generation.  He  regards  the  antheridia 
and  the  carpogone-bearing  plant  as  the  gametophyte,  while  the  sporo- 
phyte  is  represented  by  the  sporogenous  cells  and  filaments  and  by  the 
spores.  In  the  same  way  that  the  sporogonium  of  a  moss  is  nourished 
by  the  sexual  generation,  so  is  the  sporogenous  cell  nourished  by  means 
of  fusion  with  the  auxiliary  cell,  since  the  egg-cell  does  not  contain 
sufficient  food-material  for  the  purpose. 

The  author  also  criticises  certain  statements  on  the  development  of 

*  Pringsh.  Jahrb.,  xxxvii.  (1902)  pp.  338-64  (1  pi.). 

t  But.  Zeit,  lx.  (1902)  pp.  67-86  (1  pi.  and  12  figs,  in  text). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  335 

cystocarps,  made  by  Hauptfleisch  ;  and  draws  comparisons  between  bis 
own  results  and  those  of  Phillips  on  other  species. 

Algae  of  Verona.*  —  Achille  Forti  gives  a  short  account  of  the 
work  published  by  various  authors  on  the  algas  of  Verona  and  the  neigh- 
bourhood, and  this  is  followed  by  a  list  of  173  species  of  Florideae, 
Characeae,  and  Chlorophyceae.     The  list  is  to  be  continued. 

Algae  of  Jamaica. f  —  F.  S.  Collins  publishes  a  list  of  algae,  in- 
cluding a  few  fresh- water  species,  from  Jamaica,  mainly  founded  on 
collections  made  by  Mrs.  Pease  and  Miss  Butler,  Dr.  J.  E.  Humphrey 
and  Dr.  Duerden.  The  new  species  here  described  are : — Scytonema 
conch  opJiilum  Humphrey,  a  shell-boring  species,  Diplochsete  solitaria 
representing  a  new  genus  of  Chaetophoraceae,  Cladophora  intertexta, 
Dictyerpa  jamaicensis,  a  new  genus  of  the  Dictyotaceae,  Goniotrichum 
Humphreyi,  Cordylecladia  Peasise,  and  Antilhamnion  Butlerise ;  the  new 
varieties  are : — Oscillatoria  princeps  forma  purpurea,  Sargassum  vulgar e 
forma  ovata,  and  Callithamnion  byssoideum  var.  jamaicensis.  Tables  are 
given,  comparing  the  marine  flora  of  Jamaica  with  the  floras  of  New 
England,  Great  Britain,  the  northern  coast  of  Spain,  the  coast  of 
Morocco,  the  Canary  Islands,  and  Puerto  Eico.  A  graphic  account  is 
given  from  notes  by  Mrs.  Pease,  of  the  manner  of  collecting  and  the 
appearauce  of  certain  algae  when  growing.  Notes  by  the  same  collector 
are  also  inserted  occasionally  under  the  species  names  in  the  list  and 
add  to  the  general  interest  of  this  paper. 

Fungi. 

Coprophilous  Fungi  II. t  —  G.  Massee  and  E.  S.  Salmon  describe 
experiments  which  prove  that  the  various  species  of  Fungi  occurring 
on  dung  originate  from  spores  swallowed  by  the  animal  along  with  its 
food.  The  enumeration  of  species,  which  is  arranged  systematically, 
includes  several  that  have  occurred  on  the  dung  of  exotic  animals,  ob- 
tained from  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens.  Two  new  genera  are 
described:  Araclmomyces  (Perisporiaceae),  with  two  species;  and  Gym- 
nodochium,  related  to  Berkeley's  Endodesmia  (Tubercularieae).  New 
species  have  been  found  in  the  following  genera  of  Ascomycetes : — Asco- 
desmis,  Arachniotus,  Myxotrichum,  Chsetomium,  and  Nectria,  and  of  Hypho- 
mycetes  in  Ceplialosporium,  Acremonium,  Sepedonium,  CEdocephalum, 
Trichothecium,  Trichosporium,  Chvetostroma,  and  Graphium.  A  large 
number  of  species  new  to  the  British  Flora  were  also  recorded. 

Fertilisation  of  Pythium  de  Baryanum.§  —  This  fungus,  which 
causes  the  damping-off  of  seedlings,  has  been  investigated  by  Kiichi 
Miyake  at  Cornell  University.  He  gives  a  historical  sketch  of  previous 
researches  on  the  fertilisation  process  in  Pythium.  The  improved 
methods  of  the  present  day  have  enabled  him  to  arrive  at  more  definite 
results  than  was  possible  to  older  workers.  Nuclear  division  in  the 
sexual  organs  he  finds  is  similar  to  that  which  takes  place  in  Cystopus 
.and  Peronospora.   Of  the  many  nuclei  in  the  oogonium  and  antheridium, 

*  Nuov.  Notaris.,  xvii.  (1902)  pp.  49-68. 

t  Proc.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts  and  Sciences,  xxxvii.  (1901)  pp.  231-70. 
t  Ann.  Bot.,  xvi.  pp.  57-93  (2  pis.).     Cf.  this  Journal,  1901,  p.  680. 
§  Ann.  Bot.,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  653-67  (1  pi.). 

z  2 


336  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

one  only  in  each  is  functional,  and  their  fusion  forms  the  nucleus  of  the- 
oospore.  The  author  is  inclined,  as  a  result  of  his  study,  to  place 
Pythium  in  the  Peronosporefe  rather  than  in  the  Saprolegnieae,  although 
it  occupies  somewhat  of  an  intermediate  position  between  the  two. 

Bovista  ammophila.* — This  fungus  was  originally  described  and 
figured  by  Leveille.  According  to  N.  Patouillard  and  P.  Hariot,  the 
specimen  in  the  Paris  Museum  is  still  the  only  one  that  is  authentic. 
They  have  redescribed  it,  and  on  account  of  the  sterile  base  and  the 
form  of  the  capillitium  they  have  placed  it  in  the  genus  Bovistella  which 
now  includes  three  species  B.  radicata,  B.  paludosa,  and  B.  ammophila. 
The  plant  accepted  in  this  country  and  in  America  as  B.  ammophila 
must,  the  authors  declare,  belong  to  another  species.  They  add  some 
notes  on  several  little  known  species  of  Bovista. 

Mycorhiza.j — J.  Beauverie  gives  an  account  of  the  occurrence  of  a 
filamentous  fungus  in  the  thallus  of  a  hepatic,  Fegatella  conica.  The 
fungus  attacked  and  entered  the  rhizoids  and  spread  to  the  cells  of  the 
thallus  with  which  they  lived  in  symbiosis.  The  plants  devoid  of  fungi 
were  found  to  be  less  vigorous  and  less  highly  coloured  along  the  nerve. 
The  fungus  itself  depended  on  the  presence  of  humus  in  the  soil. 
M.  Beauverie  found  by  experiment  that  when  there  was  much  mycelium 
present,  the  chlorophyll  was  extremely  inactive,  the  plant  seemingly 
drawing  some  of  its  carbohydrates  from  the  humus  by  means  of  the 
fungus.  The  fungus  was  found  to  be  a  species  of  Fusarium,  spores 
being  produced  both  in  the  cells  of  the  host-plant  and  also  in  artificial 
cultures. 

Underground  Species  of  Urophlyctis.J — While  describing  this  new 
fungus,  P.  Magnus  takes  occasion  to  discuss  the  systematic  position  of 
the  genus  in  relation  to  Cladochytrium  and  Physoderma.  There  are  only 
a  few  species  of  Urophlyctis,  all  of  them  parasites,  either  on  the  roots  or 
on  the  aerial  parts  of  the  plants  attacked.  The  new  species  U.  Bub- 
saameni  formed  large  galls  on  the  roots  of  Bumex  scutatus.  On  exami- 
nation the  galls  were  found  to  be  full  of  the  brown  resting-spores  of 
the  fungus.  It  was  collected  by  E.  H.  Eiibsaamen  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  St.  Goar. 

Decomposition  of  Butter-Fat.  § — 0.  Laxa  notes,  as  the  most  active 
agents  in  this  process,  several  varieties  of  moulds — Penicillium  glaucum, 
a  Mucor,  and  Oidium  lactis.  Some  yeasts  and  bacteria,  although  active 
peptonisers  of  casein,  exerted  but  slight  action  on  butter-fat,  and  several 
varieties  of  lactic  acid  bacteria  and  of  Tyrothrix  were  inactive. 

By  first  triturating  Penicillium  and  Mucor  with  glass  powder,  the 
author  was  able  to  obtain  a  sterile  solution  containing  an  enzyme  which 
decomposed  monobutyrin  and  butter-fat  in  a  characteristic  manner.  The 
glycerides  of  the  insoluble  acids  were  the  first  to  be  decomposed,  but 
those  of  the  soluble  acids  were  most  extensively  affected. 

Duclaux  suggested  that  the  decomposition  of  butter-fat  was  due  to 

*  Journ.  de  Bot.,  xvi.  (1902)  p.  11-4. 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  616-8. 
X  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xix.  (1902)  pp.  145-53  (1  pi.). 

§  Arch.  Hygiene,  xli.  (1901)  pp.  119-51.  See  also  Journ.  Chem.  Soc,  Feb.  1902, 
Abstr.  ii.  p.  97. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  337 

the  action  of  ammonia  (produced  from  nitrogenous  matter  by  the  life 
and  growth  of  the  organisms),  but  the  author  considers  this  is  not  so,  as 
solutions  of  ammonia  do  not  act  on  the  fatty  glycerides  at  the  ordinary 
temperature. 

Alcoholic  Fermentation  of  Indian  Fig-Must.* — Ulpiani  and  Sarcoli 
studied  the  morphological  and  biological  characters  of  the  Saccharomyces 
Opuntise,  to  the  action  of  which  the  spontaneous  fermentation  of  the 
Indian  ng-inu6t  in  Southern  Italy  is  due.  This  yeast  does  not  liquefy 
gelatin  or  6tarch  paste,  and  is  non-chromogenic.  It  ferments  dextrose 
and  leviilose,  but  has  no  action  on  sucrose,  maltose,  lactose,  iaffinose, 
galactose,  manitol,  or  dulcitol. 

Comparative  experiments  on  the  fermentation  of  must  by  S.  Opuntise 
and  S.  Pastorianus  II.  show  a  much  greater  yield  of  alcohol  as  the  result 
of  the  action  of  the  latter,  but  if  unsterilised  must  is  inoculated  with 
the  S.  Pastorianus  II,  the  growth  and  action  of  the  yeast  is  quickly 
checked  by  the  rapid  multiplication  of  the  S.  Opuntise  already  present. 

Puccinia.j  —  Franz  Bubak  gives  the  results  of  his  investigations 
on  the  systematic  position  of  several  closely  allied  forms  of  Puccinia. 
The  species  described  by  Schweinitz  and  named  by  him  P.  Anemonis 
Virginianse,  is  confined  to  North  America ;  it  is  a  Leptopuccinia,  pro- 
ducing only  teleutospores.  Under  P.  De  Baryana  the  author  distin- 
guishes four  varieties  which  grow  on  various  species  of  Pulsatilla  in 
Europe  and  North  America.  Teleutospores  only  are  produced,  but  of 
the  Micropuccinia  type.  A  form  found  on  Anemone  patens  in  North 
America  he  names  P.  gigantispora ;  it  bolongs  'to  Pueciniopsis.  The 
teleutospores  somewhat  resemble  those  of  P.  De  Baryana,  but  the  occur- 
rence of  aecidia  differentiates  it  from  that  species.  Outline  drawings  of 
the  teleutospores  are  given. 

Pure  Cultures  of  a  Uredine.J  —  Marshall  Ward  has  been  engaged 
in  a  long  series  of  infection  experiments  on  Brome  grasses  with 
the  uredospores  of  Puccinia  dispersa.  This  Uredine  grows  on  the 
d liferent  species  of  Bromus  and  is,  in  all  cases,  morphologically  the 
same.  It  was  found,  however,  that  it  was  not  always  possible  to  infect 
from  one  host  to  another;  thus  the  spores  of  Bromus  mollis  would  infect 
B.  mollis,  B.  sterilis,  B.  secalinus,  and  B.  arvensis,  but  not  B.  inermis. 
Spores  taken  from  B.  sterilis  only  infected  B.  secalinus  and  B.  arvensis. 
Every  care  was  taken  to  obtain  pure  cultures  of  both  hosts  and  parasite. 
Seeds  from  rusted  Bromes  purified  from  external  infection,  developed 
healthy  plants,  proving  that  no  mycelium  lurked  in  the  embryo.  Seeds 
were  treated  antiseptically  and  grown  in  tubes  successfully  for  weeks 
on  cotton-wool  well  charged  with  a  mineral  solution  used  in  water  cul- 
tures. The  plants  that  developed  from  these  seeds  were  infected  with 
the  uredospores,  and  an  absolutely  clean  and  pure  culture  of  the  Puccinia 
was  obtained.  Further  experiments  were  instituted  to  determine  the 
influence  on  the  growth  of  the  parasite  of  different  mineral  ingredients. 
The  results  have  not  yet  been  decisive,  though  they  indicate  that  if  the 

*  Gazettu,  xxxi.  (1901)  2,  pp.  395-413.     See  alsu  Journ.  Ckeni.  Soc,  March  1902, 
Abstr.  ii.  p.  164. 

t  Sitzungsb.  k.  Bohm.  Gesellsch.  Wissensch.,  1901  (1902)  Botanika,  pp.  1-11. 
X  Proc.  Roy.  iSoc,  Ixix.  (1902)  pp.  451-60. 


338  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

host-plant  is  starved,  the  germ-tube  is  unable  to  establish  itself.  What- 
ever affects  the  host  affects  the  parasite  also.  When  plants  were  deprived 
of  some  constituent  necessary  to  healthy  growth,  infection  spots  showed 
corrosion  and  collapse  instead  of  normal  rust-flecks.  The  paper  is 
enriched  by  tabulated  results  of  experiments  and  by  figures  of  the  tubes 
used  in  growing  the  grasses. 

Rust  of  Cereals.* — Jakob  Eriksson  has  completed  the  publication  of 
his  studies  on  rusts.  In  the  first  part  of  the  work  he  gave  an  account 
of  the  disease  itself  and  the  results  of  his  many  culture  experiments,, 
carried  on  during  several  years,  with  the  purpose  of  determining 
the  source  of  infection.  All  attempts  have  failed,  he  considers,  to 
explain  the  origin  of  rust  by  infection  from  fungus  spores  that  have 
survived  the  winter ;  nor  can  it  be  traced  to  spores  or  mycelium  in  the 
grain.  He  finds  in  the  tissue  of  the  host-plants,  in  the  cells  bordering 
on  the  rust-pustules,  special  corpuscles,  irregular  in  form,  somewhat 
bent,  and  simple  or  branched.  These  have  arisen,  he  says,  from  a 
mycoplasma  in  the  cell,  and  they  produce  the  mycelium  of  the  fungus. 
He  considers  the  presence  of  the  mycoplasma  in  the  plants,  from  the 
seed  onwards,  as  a  case  of  symbiosis  which  may  not  always  be  hurtiul 
to  the  development  of  the  host. 

]n  a  third  part  he  discusses  the  papers  that  have  been  published 
since  first  he  announced  his  mycoplasma  theory  in  1897.  The  final 
part  of  his  paper  deals  with  the  best  methods  of  combating  the  disease. 
He  strongly  recommends  experimental  stations  in  the  countries  that  are 
affected  by  the  rust-disease,  that  the  different  factors  concerned  in  the 
propagation  of  tbe  fungus  may  be  discovered,  and  that  information  on 
such  points  as  soils,  manures,  &c.  may  be  imparted  to  the  growers ;  also 
that  experiments  should  be  carried  out  to  test  which  varieties  of  grain 
are  likely  to  be  less  affected  by  disease  than  others. 

Diplodia  cacaoicola.f —  This  fungus,  parasitic  on  sugar-cane  and 
cacao  in  the  West  Indies,  has  been  thoroughly  worked  out  by  A.  Howard. 
It  is  a  rind-fungus  and  forms  colonies  of  pycnidia  containing  two-celled, 
brown  spores  just  under  the  bark,  which  it  finally  ruptures.  The  author 
was  able  to  grow  the  fungus  saprophytically  from  spore  to  pycnidium, 
and  to  reinfect  young  plants  with  material  produced  in  his  cultures  in 
the  laboratory.  By  comparison  and  experiment  he  proved  the  morpho- 
logical identity  of  the  fungi  causing  the  rind-disease  on  sugar-cane  and 
cacao ;  and  by  infection  experiments  from  one  host-plant  to  the  other, 
he  was  able  to  establish  that  they  were  identical  biologically.  He 
advises  planters  as  to  the  best  method  of  combating  the  disease. 

Canker  of  the  Oak.  J — M.  C.  Potter  has  found  many  cankered  oaks- 
in  the  north  of  England  and  has  traced  the  injury  to  the  presence  of  a 
fungus  belonging  to  the  genus  Stereum.  Pure  cultures  were  made  of 
the  suspected  fungus,  and  these  were  used  to  infect  successfully  oak 
branches.  Miniature  cankers  were  produced,  resembling  those  found 
on  the  diseased  oaks.     The   author  discusses  the   different  species  of 

*  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  ser.  8,  xv.  pp.  1-155  (5  pis.). 

t  Ann.  JBot,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  683-701  (1  pi.). 

t  Trans.  Eng.  Arb.  Soc,  1901-1902,  reprints,  8  pp.  and  4  figs. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  339 

Stereum  and  makes  a  new  species,  St.  quercinum,  for  the  fungus  causing 
the  canker. 

Spore-Distribution  in  a  Lichen.*— M.  Miyoshi  describes  the  method 
of  spore-distribution  in  a  tree-inhabiting  lichen,  discovered  and  named 
by  himself  Sagedia  macrcspora.  The  fruits  are  small,  lonnd,  closed 
perithecia,  which,  as  they  ripen,  become  detached  from  the  parent  plant, 
and  are  carried  away  by  some  mechanical  agent,  such  as  wind.  Next 
comes  the  action  of  water,  which  causes  the  perithecium  to  swell,  the 
walls  are  burst  open,  the  paraphyses  are  spread  out,  and  the  spores  are 
ejected  from  the  asci. 

In  the  same  journal  T.  Inui  f  has  published  an  account  of  the 
manufacture  of  "  Awamori,1'  a  kind  of  whisky,  and  a  description  of  the 
fungi  that  induce  the  fermentation.  Only  one  6pecies,  he  finds,  is 
necessary  or  desirable  in  the  first  part  of  the  process,  a  form  of  Asper- 
gillus with  dark  spores,  that  he  has  Darned  A.  luchuensis.  It  can  be 
replaced  by  A.  perniciosus,  also  a  new  species,  of  a  lighter  colour  than 
the  other,  which  is  not  nearly  so  effective.  A  form  of  Monilia  also 
occurs.  The  yeast-fungus  of  the  fermentation  he  has  described  as 
Saccharomyce8  Awamori,  and  the  peculiar  aroma  of  the  spirit  is  due  to 
another  species  of  yeast.  S.  anomalus.  Awamori  has  been  manufactured 
in  the  Island  of  Luchu  for  about  500  years. 

British  Mycology.  J  —  The  concluding  part  of  vol.  i.  of  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  British  Mycological  Society  contains  an  account  of  the 
annual  fungus  foray,  held  at  Exeter,  and  resulting  in  a  list  of  over 
4C0  specimens,  two  of  which  were  new  to  Britain — Femsjonia  luteo- 
alba  and  Eelminthosporium  obclavmtum.  Marshall  Ward  describes  the 
best  means  of  preserving  and  examining  fungi.  Various  hardening  and 
fixing  fluids  are  recommended,  and  section-cutting  and  staining  methods 
are  carefully  explained.  He  advises  the  student  how  to  obtain  pure 
cultures  of  fuugi,  and  also  how  to  grow  the  host-plant  free  from  infection 
of  any  but  the  desired  parasite. 

C.  B,  Plowright  contributes  a  note  on  Ozonium  auricomum,  which  he 
found  associated  with  Coprinus  domesticus,  and  of  which  he  considers 
it  to  be  the  vegetative  form. 

B.  T.  P.  Barker  publishes  a  paper  on  '  Spore-formation  in  Sac- 
charomyceies?  He  conducted  a  series  of  experiments  to  test  (1)  the 
effect  of  external  conditions  on  the  spores  ;  (2)  the  conditions  of  the 
cells  themselves,  i.e.  internal  conditions.  He  finds  that  good  aeration 
is  necessary  for  spore-formation,  and  that  the  cells  must  be  in  a  vigorous 
state  of  growth. 

A  list  of  the  fungi  added  to  the  British  flora  during  the  year  is 
given  ;  many  of  the  species  are  new  to  science.  Three  new  genera  of 
microscopic  fungi  are  recorded. 

The  Gasteromycetes.§  — C.  G.  Lloyd  has  issued  a  short  introduction 
to  the  genera  of  this  group.    He  gives  an  account  of  their  minute  struc- 

*  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Imp.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xv.  pt.  iii.  (1901)  pp.  3G9-70  (1  pi.). 
t  Tom.  cit,  pp.  405-76  (1  pi.). 

X  Trans.  Brit.  Myc  i^oc,  1900-1901,  pp.  159-217  (1  pi.)- 

§  The  Genera  ot  Gasteromycetes,  by  C  G.Lloyd,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  U.S.A.,  1902, 
24  pp.  and  49  figs. 


340  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

ture,  a  classified  table  of  the  genera,  and  photographic  figures  illustrating 
each  genus. 

Fungus  Flora.  *  —  F.  Bataille  has  drawn  up  a  list  of  the  genera 
Amanita  and  Lepiota,  which  forms  the  first  part  of  a  contemplated 
Flora  of  the  larger  Fungi  of  France.  The  author  has  invented  a 
series  of  new  terms :  he  substitutes  Basic! Oospores  and  Ascospores  for 
Basidiomycetes  and  Ascomycetes.  The  Basidiospores  he  subdivides  into 
Gymnobanidies  and  Avgiobasidies.  The  Gymnobasidies,  which  are  exactly 
synonymous  witli  Hymenomycetes,  comprise  six  families:  Polyphylles, 
Ermaces,  Clavaries,  Auricularies,  and  Tremellines.  The  Amanitas  and 
Lepiotas,  along  with  the  other  sub-genera  of  Agaricus,  fall  under  the 
Polyphylles.  The  author  discusses  the  habit  and  economic  value  of  the 
fungi,  and  gives  an  analytical  table  of  species.  M.  Luuien  Quelet, 
since  deceased,  has  furnished  a  preface. 

Fungi  of  the  Netherlands.!— C.  A.  J.  A.  Oudemans  describes  75 
new  species  of  Fungi.  The  first  13  belong  to  the  Basidiomycetes, 
Ascomycetes,  and  Pliycomycetes.  The  others  are  all  in  the  group  of  Fungi 
Imperfecta  One  species,  Phyllosticta  Typhse,  had  been  already  published 
under  Phoma  Typhse.  A  large  number  of  the  species  belong  to  the 
Sphseropsideae,  and  grow  on  branches  and  leaves  of  various  trees. 

Vegetable  Pathology.  $ — H.  von  Schrenk  contributes  a  paper  on 
the  teaching  of  vegetable  pathology.  He  would  divide  the  subject,  as 
in  animal  pathology,  into  three  groups:  (1)  Diagnosis;  (2)  Etiology; 
(3)  Therapeutics.  The  great  advantage  of  vegetable  pathology  is  the 
possibility  of  making  the  study  one  of  continual  experimentation  on 
living  plants.  The  author  requires  in  his  students  a  thorough  know- 
ledge of  physiology,  in  order  that  they  may  appreciate  the  changes  in 
the  organism  induced  by  disease. 

Lists  and  New  Species  of  Fungi. — C.  H.  Peck§  describes  14  new 
species  of  the  larger  fungi  from  various  States.  Of  one  of  these, 
Agaricus  Sterlingii,  he  remarks  that  it  is  edible,  and  richer  in  flavour 
than  the  common  mushroom. 

W.  H.  Long  ||  has  described  seven  new  species  of  Puccinia  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  Austin,  Texas.  In  P.  Cooperise  and  P.  similis  he  has 
found  all  three  stages  of  the  fungus  on  the  same  host.  In  the  case  of 
the  other  species  he  records  only  the  uredo-  and  teleutospores.  He  gives 
drawings  of  the  spores. 

P.  Hennings  ^  has  described  the  fungi  collected  in  Para  by  Dr.  J. 
Huber,  There  are  three  new  species  of  Uredinese,  four  new  Ascomycetes, 
and  four  species  not  hitherto  det-enbed  in  the  Deuteromycetes. 

He**  also  publishes  a  list  of  new  Japanese  rusts,  andff  a  second 
list  of  fungi  collected  in  South  Brazil  by  A.  Moller.  Those  already 
€nnmerated  belonged  to  the  Ustilaginese  and  Uredineae  ;  these  are  all 
Ascomycetes,  a  group  in  which  South  Brazil  is  especially  rich,  and 
many  new  forms  have  been  discovered.     A  large  number  had  already 

*  Flore  monographique  des  Amanites  et  des  Le'piotcs,  Paris,  1902,  88  pp. 
t  Beiheft.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  523-41. 

J  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  57-65.        §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  69-74. 
II  Tom.  cit.,, pp.  110-6.  f  Hedwigia,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  15-8. 

*'  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  18-21.  ft  Tom.  cit ,  pp.  1-33. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  341 

been  published,  but  the  list  includes  many  plants  not  before  described. 
The  new  genera  are  all  monotypic  ;  they  are : — 

Aschersoniopsis,  the  conidial  condition  of  some  Hypocrella.  The 
conidiophores  rise  from  a  flat,  horny  stroma,  and  bear  lateral,  spicate 
conidia,  which  are  subglobose  and  colourless.    It  giowson  bamboo  leaves. 

Moelleroclavus,  a  member  of  the  Xylariaceae,  has  only  the  conidial 
condition  fully  developed ;  the  ascophorous  stroma  is  subclavate  and 
dark-coloured,  with  immersed  perithecia,  which  are  immature. 

Stilbohypoxylon,  a  neighbouring  genus,  has  a  dark-coloured,  sub- 
globose  stroma,  the  perithecia  are  immature.  Conidia  are  acrogenous, 
subglobose,  brownish. 

Midotiopsis,  placed  among  the  Dermatiacere,  has  erumpent,  less  or 
more  stalked  ascomata  ;  the  exterior  is  slightly  tomentose,  the  spores 
are  globose  and  colourless. 

Bulgariopsis  has  elongate,  continuous,  colourless  spores  ;  the  ascomata 
resemble  those  of  Bulgaria  polymorpha. 

Moellerodiscus  is  allied  to  Cudoniella.  The  spores  are  sub  fusiform, 
colourless,  continuous. 

Sylloge  Fungorum.*— The  sixteenth  volume  of  Saccardo's  Sylloge, 
which  forms  part  v.  of  the  Supplement,  is  issued  under  the  joint  editor- 
ship of  P.  A.  Saccardo  and  P.  Sydow.  The  book  may  be  divided  into 
three  divisions  :  the  first,  of  382  pages,  is  occupied  by  the  Basidiomycetes 
including  the  Uredinaceae.  To  the  Ascomycetes  are  allotted  about  400 
pages.  The  last  great  group  of  Fungi  Imperfecti  extends  over  nearly 
300  pages.  Both  the  Sphaeropsideee  and  the  Hyphomycetes  are  included 
under  one  term  the  Deuteromycetae.  There  are  32  new  species  of  Fungi 
in  the  volume  that  have  not  been  published  elsewhere.  A  list  of  these 
is  given  at  the  beginning.  The  authors  promise  at  an  early  date  a  uni- 
versal index  with  the  names  correctly  accentuated. 

Protophyta. 
Sehizophyceee. 


^ 


Oscillaria  prolifica.f  —  Isabel  F.  Hyams  and  Ellen  H.  Bichards 
describe  the  life-history  of  Oscillaria  prolifica,  as  seen  and  studied 
in  Jamaica  Pond,  near  Boston.  The  authors  have  kept  records  of 
its  occurrence  and  condition  during  thirteen  years,  and  they  find  that 
a  certain  regularity  is  observed  with  regard  to  its  seasonal  appearance. 
A  table  of  dates  is  given,  taken  from  notes  made  in  1901.  The  various 
stages  of  development  in  the  alga  are  shown  in  figures,  and  reproductions 
of  photographs  show  the  masses  of  Oscillaria  floating  on  the  surface  of 
the  pond.  A  further  contribution  to  the  subject  is  promised,  which 
will  deal  with  chemical  considerations  in  connection  with  the  food  of  the 
plant. 

Schizomycetes. 

Nitrogen- Assimilating  Bacteria    in  Soils.J  —  Neumann   prepared  l^ 
extracts  of  the  roots,  stems,  and  leaves  of  Vicia  fdba,  and  of  peaty  soil, 

*  Sylloge  Fungorum,  Supp.  Univ.,  pars  v.  (1902)  1291  pp. 
t  Technology  Quarterly  (Boston),  xiv.  (1901)  pp.  302-10  (8  figs.). 
X  Landw.  Vemuchs-Stat.,  lvi.  (1901)  pp.  203-6.      See  Journ.  Cheni.  Soc,  1902, 
Alittr.  ii.  p.  163. 


342  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

and  inoculated  them  with  extract  of  beau-roots,  of  nodules,  and  of  the 
adhering  soil,  and  carried  on  observations  over  a  period  of  two  weeks. 
Assimilation  took  place  in  each  case,  and  the  results  were  very  similar. 
The  greatest  assimilation  was  noted  in  the  extract  of  stems  and  leaves,, 
and  the  least  in  the  peat  extract. 

Alinit-Bacillus  Beta.* — Fr.  Bayer  describes  a  new  bacillus,  Alinit- 
bacillus  Beta,  which  is  found  associated  with  the  ordinary  Alinit  bacillus 
{Alpha)  in  all  humous  soils  that  have  responded  to  the  application  of 
alinit.  The  new  bacillus  does  not  by  itself  assimilate  free  nitrogen,  but 
it  increases  the  assimilating  power  of  the  A-bacillus,  and  the  simul- 
taneous action  of  the  two  benefits  all  crops.  The  author  notes  the  desira- 
bility of  adding  a  certain  amount  of  carbohydrate  (e.g.  solution  of 
molasses)  to  the  soil  when  applying  alinit. 

Luminous  Bacteria.! — Barnard  gives  a  short  resume  of  the  group  of 
photogenic  bacteria,  twenty-five  species  of  which  have  been  isolated  up 
to  the  present  time  from  sea- water.  He  supports  the  opinion  that  the 
emission  of  light  by  these  organisms  is  merely  the  result  of  cell-meta- 
bolism comparable  to  the  production  of  heat  by  other  forms  of  life. 
The  most  suitable  medium  for  the  cultivation  of  these  bacteria  is  prepared 
by  adding  2  •  6  p.c.  sodium  chloride,  0  *  75  p.c.  magnesium  chloride,  and 
0  •  3  p.c.  potassium  chloride  to  ordinary  meat-peptone  broth.  Free  oxygen 
should  be  bubbled  through  the  medium  during  the  growth  of  the  organ- 
isms, or  frequent  agitation  resorted  to,  in  order  to  obtain  the  maximum 
luminosity.  The  optimum  temperature  of  photogenic  bacteria  occurring 
in  the  northern  latitudes  is  about  15°  C,  although  they  are  able  to  grow 
and  remain  luminous  at  0°  C.  Those  found  in  the  tropics  grow  at  a 
somewhat  higher  temperature,  but  none  require  blood-heat  for  their 
optimum  temperature.  The  spectrum  of  luminous  bacteria  gives  a 
bright  band  between  F  and  G.  The  author  includes  some  striking 
illustrations  of  cultivations  of  photogenic  bacteria,  which  have  been 
photographed  entirely  by  their  own  light. 

Variability  of  Micro-Organisms.|  —  Ruzicka  compared  and  con- 
trasted B.  pyocyaneus  and  B.  fluoresceins  liquefaciens,  bacilli  which  he 
considers  are  very  closely  allied.  Failing  in  his  endeavours  to  place 
the  B.  fluorescens  liquefaciens  under  the  conditions  in  which  the  B.  pyo- 
cyaneus exists  in  nature,  he  restricted  his  observations  to  pure  cultiva- 
tions incubated  in  the  laboratory  for  long  periods,  under  such  conditions 
with  respect  to  temperature  and  moisture  as  would  obtain  in  wound 
infections.  After  this  treatment,  some  of  the  cultural  reactions  resembled 
those  of  the  original  strain  ;  others,  however,  became  modified  and  re- 
sembled those  of  the  B.  pyocyaneus  in  forming  more  pigment  than  at  the 
room  temperature,  and  growing  sparingly  on  glycerin-agar.  These 
new  characters  wero  retained  for  months. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  typical  strain  of  the  B.  pyocyaneus  was  kept  in 
water,  and  the  conditions  varied  by  exposing  the  cultivations  to,  and 
protecting  them  from  light  and  air,  without  the  cultural  characters 
undergoing  any  important  change.     Those  freely  supplied  with  air  were 

*  Bied.  Centr.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  12-4.     See  Jnurn.  Chem.  Soc,  1902,  Abstr.  ii. 
p.  164.  t  Nature,  lxv.  (1902)  pp.  536-8. 

%  Arch.  f.  Hygiene,  xxxvii.  p.  1.     See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxviii.  (1901)  p.  122. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  343 

enfeebled  so  far  as  concerned  their  capacity  for  growth  at  higher  tem- 
peratures and  their  colour  production. 

Although  the  main  results  could  be  confirmed,  Ruzicka  found  great 
difficulty  in  repeating  any  particular  experiment,  even  when  the  self- 
same strain  of  bacillus  was  employed. 

Detection  of  Tubercle  Bacilli  in  Milk.*  —  Sartori  examined  255 
samples  of  milk,  obtained  from  different  sources,  for  tubercle  bacilli. 
Microscopical  examination  demonstrated  the  presence  of  acid-fast  bacilli 
in  217  (85  p.c.)  :  of  these  6  p.c.  when  inoculated  into  animals,  gave  rise 
to  tuberculous  lesions. 

The  other  acid-fast  bacilli,  which  Sartori  considered  identical  with 
the  dung  bacillus,  are  much  more  easily  found  in  the  centrifugalised 
deposit  than  in  the  cream  layer  of  the  milk  sample.  He  also  mentions 
the  frequent  occurrence  of  B.  coli  and  Streptococcus  in  milk. 

He  states  that  in  his  opinion  the  presence  of  tubercle  bacilli  in  milk 
samples  can  only  be  demonstrated  conclusively  by  means  of  animal 
inoculations. 

New  Capsulated  Bacillus.f  —  Dr.  Fasching  describes  a  bacillus 
which  he  isolated  from  the  nasal  discharge  of  cases  occurring  during 
the  influenza  epidemic  at  Graz  during  the  winter  months  of  1889-90,. 
and  to  which  he  gives  the  name  of  B.  capsulatus  mucosus.  He  describes 
the  bacillus  as  a  short,  thick,  non-motile  rod,  a  non-sporing  facultative 
anaerobe,  staining  well  with  the  ordinary  anilin  dyes  but  not  by  Gram's 
method,  having  an  optimum  temperature  of  from  18°  to  30°  C,  a  maxi- 
mum of  35°  C,  and  a  minimum  of  14°  C.  The  growth  in  gelatin,  stab 
and  streak,  and  upon  agar  appears  identical  with  that  of  the  Pneumo- 
bacillus  of  Friedlander.  Upon  potato  it  forms  an  almost  invisible 
growth  and  produces  no  gas.  In  sugar-gelatin  it  produces  gas  and  acid, 
and  in  litmus-whey  it  produces  first  acid,  but  subsequently  the  reaction 
becomes  alkaline. 

The  bacillus  is  pathogenic  for  mice,  and  when  inoculated  subcuta- 
neously  at  the  root  of  the  tail  causes  death  in  36  to  48  hours  from  a 
general  septicaemia.  The  bacillus,  3-4  //.  long  by  0*75-1  /a  thick,  being 
beautifully  capsulated,  is  easily  demonstrated  in  the  blood,  where  it 
occurs  singly,  in  pairs,  or  in  short  chains  of  about  four  elements,  liver, 
spleen,  and  other  organs. 

The  author  differentiates  it  from  the  Pneumo-bacillus  of  Friedlander 
by  reason  of  its  smaller  size  and  the  fact  that  it  does  not  produce  that 
browning  of  the  gelatin  noticeable  in  old  cultures  of  Friedlander's 
bacillus. 

Micro-Organisms  of  Egyptian  "  Leben  Raib."  % — Eist  and  Khoury 
describe  the  results  of  their  examination  of  Egyptian  "  Leben,"  a 
milk  food  of  pleasant  taste  and  peculiar  odour,  somewhat  similar  to 
kephir.  It  is  prepared  by  boiling  milk,  pouring  it  out  into  pans  to  cool, 
and  when  the  temperature  has  fallen  to  about  40°  C.  adding  a  small 
quantity  of  the  previous  day's  Leben  preserved  for  the  purpose,  and 
allowing  it  to  stand  for  about  six  hours  for  fermentation  to  take  place. 

*  Ann.  d'Igiene  Sperim.,  x.  (1900)  p.  301.     See  Bot.  Centralbl..  Ixxxviii.  (1901) 
p.  396.  t  Zeitachr.  angew.  Mikr.,  vii.  (1902)  pp.  281-94. 

%  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  65-84. 


344  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Chemical  analysis  of  numerous  samples  show  that  its  sharp  taste  is 
due  to  the  presence  of  hictic  acid,  whilst  small  quantities  of  alcohol  were 
also  noted.  Five  varieties  of  micro-organisms,  and  no  more,  were  invari- 
ably detected  in  the  fresh  Lehen.  viz.a  stout  bacillus  arranged  in  chains 
of  5  to  10  elements,  Streptobacillus  lebenis ;  a  slender  bacillus  always 
occurring  singly,  Bacillus  lebenis  ;  a  diplococcus  resembling  the  gono- 
coccus  in  morphology,  Diplococcus  lebenii ;  an  ovoid-celled  yeast,  Sac- 
charomyces  lebenis ;  and  another  yeast  with  elongated  cells,  Mycoderma 
lebenis.  All  these  organisms  stain  by  Gram's  method.  The  yeasts  were 
readily  isolated  by  means  of  serial  cultivations  on  agar,  hut  on  account 
of  their  luxuriant  growth  the  bacilli  and  the  coccus  could  not  at  first  be 
obtained  in  pure  culture ;  but  by  planting  fresh  Lehen  in  freshly 
sterilised  milk  and  incubating  anaerobically  in  Pasteur's  tubes  at  37°  C. 
f.»r  24  hours  through  several  generations  the  yeasts,  being  strict  aerobes, 
were  completely  destroyed,  and  the  bacilli  were  then  readily  isolated  by 
means  of  aerobic  cultivations  upon  glucose  agar,  and  the  diplococcus 
\ipon  2  p.c.  lactose  agar. 

These  five  organisms  were  then  studied  in  detail  and  their  morpho- 
logical and  biological  characters  determined,  the  characteristic  features 
of  the  bacilli  and  the  coccus,  all  facultative  anaerobes,  heing  their  selec- 
tive preference  for  sugar  media, — glucose  or  lactose  heing  essential  to 
their  growth. 

Finally,  by  planting  these  five  organisms  in  freshly  sterilised  milk, 
in  the  following  order,  first  the  two  blastomycetes  together  with  the  B. 
lebenis,  and  after  a  short  interval  to  allow  of  their  development,  adding 
the  streptobacillus  and  the  diplococcus,  the  authors  were  able  to  produce 
a  preparation  of  milk  which  was  identical  in  appearance,  taste,  and 
chemical  composition  with  true  Egyptian  Leben. 

Ri6t  and  Khoury  conclude  that  the  method  of  action  of  these  organ- 
isms is  as  follows.  The  streptobacillus  and  the  diplococcus  coagulate 
the  milk  by  the  combined  action  of  the  lactic  acid  and  the  rennet  that 
they  produce,  whilst  the  streptobacillus  renders  the  milk  fermentable 
and  enables  the  two  blastomycetes  to  elaborate  the  alcohol  and  also  some 
ill-defined  aromatic  compounds.  The  B.  lebenis,  although  probably 
aiding  the  streptobacillus  and  the  diplococcus  in  their  work,  does  not 
appear  to  be  absolutely  essential  to  the  process. 

Acid-fast  Bacilli.*— Dr.  A.  Mocller  emphasises  the  fact  that  all 
acid-fast  bacilli  are  not  necessarily  tubercle  bacilli,  and  describes  and 
compares  the  various  "  named  "  species  of  acid-fast  organisms. 

The  Leprosy  bacillus,  first  described  in  1877  hy  Hansen,  closely 
resembles  the  tubercle  bacillus  in  its  staining  reactions  and  also  in 
morphology,  but  individual  bacilli  are  slightly  shorter,  while  cultivations 
of  the  bacillus  upon  artificial  media  have  not  yet  been  obtained. 

The  Smegma  bacillus,  found  hy  Tavel  and  Alvarez  in  1885  in  normal 
preputial  secretion,  &c,  resembles  the  tubercle  bacillus  in  that  it  is  acid- 
fast,  but  differs  in  being,  usually,  less  alcohol-fast:  still,  it  is  quite 
possible  to  confuse  the  two  organisms  in  a  secretion  such  as  urine. 
Morphologically  it  often  resembles  a  diphtheria-like  hacillus  found  in 
smegma,  but  which  is  not  acid-fast.     No  cultivations  of  the  Smegma 

•  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  V  Abt,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  513-23. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  345 

bacillus  have  been  obtained,  but  from  injections  of  material  containing 
enormous  numbers  of  the  bacilli,  it  appears  to  be  non-pathogenic. 

The  well-known  bacillus  of  avian  tubercle  is  probably  the  B.  tuber- 
culosis modified  by  its  environment,  for  the  only  essential  difference  it 
presents  is  with  regard  to  its  pathogenicity  :  similarly  it  is  highly  pro- 
bable that  tuberculosis  in  cold-blooded  animals  is  due  to  tubercle 
bacillus  modified  somewhat  by  the  conditions  of  its  habitat.  Lubarsch, 
Dubard,  and  others,  by  means  of  passages  through  frogs  and  fish,  have 
succeeded  in  modifying  the  characteristics  of  the  mammalian  tubercle 
bacillus  to  a  marked  extent,  whilst  Moeller  himself,  by  passing  it  through 
the  slow-worm,  effected  such  changes  that  the  tubercle  bacillus  would 
no  longer  grow  at  a  higher  temperature  than  30°  C,  and  this  character 
persisted  even  after  subsequent  passage  through  warm-blooded  animals, 
whilst  the  cultural  appearances  closely  resembled  those  of  the  bacillus 
of  avian  tubercle. 

Moeller  also  refers  to  other  acid-fast  bacilli, — the  Petri-Rabinowitsch 
butter  bacillus,  the  Timothy  grass  bacillus  (B.  phlei),  and  the  grass 
bacillus  ii.,  the  dung  bacillus,  &c,  all  of  which  closely  resemble  the 
tubercle  bacillus  in  morphology  (though  individual  rods  may  be  some- 
what thicker),  and  when  injected  into  animals  produce  lesions  which  to 
the  naked  eye  simulate  true  tuberculosis.  The  author  considers  that 
B.  tuberculosis,  like  all  acid-fast  bacilli,  belongs  to  the  Streptotrichiae. 

Fat  Substance  of  the  Tubercle  Bacillus.*  —  K.  Kresling  prefaces 
a  communication  on  the  fat  substance  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  with  a 
short  historical  account  of  the  work  previously  done  on  this  subject. 

In  his  own  investigations  the  tubercle  bacillus  was  cultivated  for 
4  to  5  months  at  37°  C.  in  small  broad-bottomed  Erlenmeyer  flasks,  con- 
taining 5  p.c.  glycerin-broth.     The  medium  when  finished,  reacted  acid 

n 
to  phenolphthalein  to  the  extent  of  0*1  to  0*4  ccm.  —  NaOH  per 

100  ccm.  The  resulting  growth  was  killed  in  the  autoclave  at  110°  C, 
collected  on  filter  paper,  washed  with  hot  distilled  water  to  free  it  from 
glycerin,  &c,  spread  upon  porous  earthen  plates,  and  finally  dried  at 
about  40°  C.  The  result  was  a  yellowish  spongy  mass,  which  could 
easily  be  pulverised,  and  which,  if  exposed  to  the  air,  took  on  a  reddish 
tinge. 

The  result  of  Kresling's  analyses  may  be  summarised  as  follows:  — 

(1)  Composition  of  the  Dried  Tubercle  Bacillus.  Moisture  (dried 
at  100°-110°  C),  3-9375  p.c.  (after  drying  in  the  H2S04  desiccator, 
3 '08  p.c);  ash,  2*55  p.c. ;  nitrogen,  8*575  p.c. ;  nitrogenous  substance, 
— albumen — excluding  the  nitrogen  of  the  lecithins,  and  other  sub- 
stances soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  and  benzol,  53 "59  p.c; 
fatty  substances,  38*95  p.c;  N-freo  substances,  0*9725  p.c. 

(2)  Fatty  Substance  obtained  by  extraction  with  CHCl3  presented  the 
following  characters : — Melting-point,  46°  C. ;  acidity,  23*08;  saponi- 
fication value,  60*70.  And  had  the  following  composition: — Free  fatty 
acid,  14*38  p.c. ;  neutral  fat  and  residual  fatty  acids,  77*25  p.c. ;  fatty 
acids  in  general  (with  a  melting-point  of  53*5°  C,  not  estimated; 
leci thine,  0*16    p.c;     cholestrin,   not    estimated;    substances    directly 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  !*•  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  897-909. 


1 


34G  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

soluble  in  water,  0*73  p.c. ;  water-soluble  substances,  formed  by  tbe 
■complete  saponification  of  tbe  fatty  substances,  25  ■  761  p.c. 

Lactic  Ferments  in  the  Arts.*— Martinus  Beyerinck  describes  tbe 
ferments  employed  in  the  industrial  production  of  lactic  acid,  as  initiat- 
ing a  true  catabolic  process  and  not  merely  an  enzymic  action.  The 
best  results  are  obtained  with  pure  cultivations  of  the  Lactobacillus 
fermentum,  which  when  grown  at  its  optimum  temperature  of  41-42°  0. 
(maximum  being  50°  C.  and  minimum  25°  C.)  and  freely  supplied  with 
air,  gives  lactic  acid  only  and  produces  no  volatile  acids.  The  L.  fer- 
mentum, according  to  the  author,  can  be  transformed  into  the  L.  delbriichi, 
by  cultivating  at  a  temperature  above  the  optimum ;  and  the  L.  delbriichi 
if  grown  aerobically  at  the  ordinary  temperature  becomes  the  L.  fer- 
mentum. 

Presence  of  a  Parasite  in  the  Blood  of  Epileptics.f— M.  Bra,  as 
the  result  of  the  examination  of  fresh  specimens  from  70  patients 
suffering  from  epilepsy,  states  that  a  feebly  staining  motile  coccus, 
occurring  singly,  in  pairs,  or  in  chains  of  six  to  eight  individuals,  is 
-constantly  present  in  the  blood  during  the  attack  and  immediately  after 
it,  but  is  absent  during  the  interparoxysmal  stage. 

With  the  assistance  of  M.  Chausse,  the  coccus  was  isolated  80  times 
out  of  a  total  of  100  attempts,  by  receiving  the  blood  into  tubes  of 
bouillon  and  incubating  at  34°  C.  for  48  hours.  The  coccus  thus  iso- 
lated measured  from  0'6  /x.  to  1  fx ;  in  cultivations  it  grew  as  a  strepto- 
coccus, forming  flocculi  in  bouillon,  produced  acid,  did  not  liquefy 
gelatin,  and  gave  an  "invisible"  growth  on  potato,  &o.  It  stained 
better  with  acid  than  with  basic  anilin  dyes,  and  was  decolorised  by 
Oram's  method. 

Injected  intravenously  into  the  rabbit,  it  gave  rise  to  appearances 
similar  to  those  noted  in  the  blood  of  the  epileptics. 

Streptococcus  Hsemolysin.t  —  Dr-  Besredka,  in  endeavouring  to 
isolate  the  hemolysin  of  the  streptococcus,  first  grew  the  organism  in 
Marmorek's  ascitic-broth  at  37°  0.  for  24  hours,  and  then  filtered  the 
cultivation  through  a  porcelain  filter,  but  the  filtrate  proved  to  be  desti- 
tute of  hemolytic  powers.  Experiments  with  cultivations  in  other 
media  gave  similar  negative  results. 

Further  experiments,  however,  using  as  a  medium  serum  from  the 
rabbit,  man,  or  the  sheep  (arranged  in  the  order  of  value),  previously 
heated  to  55°  C.  for  half-an-hour,  gave  highly  satisfactory  results. 
Such  media  were  inoculated  with  a  streptococcus  taken  direct  at  the 
autopsy  from  a  rabbit  whose  blood  was  haernolysed;  a  few  drops  of 
normal  defibrinated  blood  were  added  to  the  culture,  which  was  then 
incubated  at  37°  C.  for  about  18  hours.  Before  filtration  the  cultivation 
was  diluted  with  an  equal  bulk  of  physiological  salt  solution,  and  it 
was  noted  that  when  the  cultivation  passed  rapidly  through  the  filter 
the  hemolytic  value  of  the  filtrate  was  high,  and  vice  versa.  It  was 
also  observed  that  if  about  25  p.c.  rabbits'  serum  was  added  to  sheep,  ox, 

*  Archiv.  Neer.  Sci.  Exact.  Nat.,  vi.  (1901)  pp.  212-43.     See  Journ.  Chem.  Soc, 
1902,  Abstr.  ii  p.  97.  t  Comptes  Rend.,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  50-2. 

%  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  880-93. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  347 

•  or  horse-serum,  the  mixture  formed  a  medium  almost  equal  in  value  to 
the  rabbit-serum  when  alone. 

Streptocolysine  thus  obtained  is  extremely  active,  but  is  in  no  sense 
specific;  it  dissolves,  though  at  somewhat  different  rates,  the  red  discs 
of  man,  rabbit,  guinea-pig,  sheep,  ox,  horse,  and  dog  ;  it  resists  a  tem- 
perature of  55-56°  C.  for  half-an-hour,  exposure  to  70°  C.  for  two  hours 
being  necessary  to  destroy  its  hemolytic  properties.  Prolonged  ex- 
posure to  low  temperatures,  e.g.  37°  C,  for  some  days,  or  even  15-17°  C. 
for  20  days,  will  produce  the  same  effect.  Having  once  lost  its  haemo- 
lytic  power,  the  streptocolysine  cannot  be  reactivated  by  the  addition 
either  of  new  serum  or  of  new  streptocolysine.  Curiously  enough,  its 
haemolytic  action  is  feeble  at  the  room  temperature,  and  is  most  active 
at  37°  C.     Streptocolysine  is  not  toxic  for  animals. 

Normal  Serum  in  Pneumo-Enteritis.  *  —  Voges  stated  that  0  •  01 
mgrm.  of  a  cultivation  of  the  bacillus  of  pneumo-enteritis  of  swine 
(Schweinseuclie)  was  the  minimal  fatal  dose  for  the  guinea-pig,  whether 
inoculated  subcutaneously  or  intraperitoneally,  and  further  that  the 
simultaneous  injection  (subcutaneously)  of  O'l  ccm.  of  normal  guinea- 
pig  serum  would  protect  another  guinea-pig  against  the  subcutaneous 
injection  of  1000  times  the  minimal  fatal  dose,  or  the  intraperitoneal 
injection  of  50  times  the  minimal  fatal  dose. 

Satykow,  who  attempted  to  repeat  these  experiments,  obtained  dia- 
metrically opposite  results.  Using  a  cultivation  which  had  been  exalted 
to  the  same  degree  of  virulence  as  that  employed  by  Voges,  this  ob- 
server found  that  the  subcutaneous  minimal  fatal  dose  was  200  times 
as  great  as  the  intraperitoneal  minimal  fatal  dose  ;  while  those  animals 
injected  simultaneously  with  cultivation  and  normal  serum  died  as  soon 
as,  and  sometimes  earlier  than,  the  control  guinea-pigs.  He  therefore 
concludes  that  the  results  obtained  by  Voges  depended  upon  some  in- 
dividual and  accidental  peculiarity  of  the  serum  employed. 

Resorption  of  Bacteria  from  the  Intestines,  f  —  Eogozinski  ques- 
tions the  work  of  Meissner,  Hauser,  Neisser,  Opitz,  and  others  who 
maintain  that  the  tissues  of  normal  animals  are  sterile,  and  details  two 
series  of  experiments  in  support  of  his  views.  The  first  series  included 
27  dogs  and  3  cats,  the  chyle  or  mesenteric  glands,  or  both,  being 
examined  microscopically  and  by  means  of  cultivations,  the  result 
being  negative  so  far  as  concerned  the  chyle,  but  positive  in  the  case 
of  the  glands,  as  out  of  26  animals  from  which  samples  of  gland- 
substance  were  removed  21  gave  evidence  of  infection,  18  of  them 
yielding  cultivations  of  bacilli  belonging  to  the  Coli  group.  Six  strains 
of  cocci  (species  not  specified),  two  of  Proteus  vulgaris,  one  of  B.  subtilis, 
and  one  of  B.  mesentericus  vulgatus,  were  also  observed.  The  varieties 
of  B.  coli,  35  in  all,  were  carefully  studied  on  all  different  media,  com- 
pared with  control  cultivations,  and  their  identity  established. 

In  the  second  series  (seven  dogs)  the  blood  and  mesenteric  glands 
were  examined  bacteriologically,  after  feeding  three  animals  with  culti- 
vations of  B.  prodigiosus,  two  with  B.  Jciliensis,  and  two  with  B.  rnycoides, 
.at  each   meal  for  three  to  five  days.     The  results  were  positive,  the 

*  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  94-6. 

t  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1902,  pp.  96-112. 


348  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

organisms  thus  introduced  into  the  alimentary  tract  being  subsequently 
recovered  from  the  mesenteric  glands,  and  occasionally  found  associated 
with  tbe  B.  coli  communis. 

The  author  lays  great  stress  on  the  strictly  aseptic  conditions  under 
which  the  material  for  examination  was  collected  :  the  portions  of  tissue 
were  removed  by  means  of  sterile  instruments  after  searing  the  surface 
and  surrounding  tissues  and  organs  with  a  red-hot  cautery  iron. 
Rogozinski  mentions  that  in  seven  of  his  early  experiments  he  em- 
ployed the  Paquelin's  thermo-cautery,  but  as  he  invariably  failed  to 
obtain  a  positive  result,  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  heat  gene- 
rated was  too  great,  and  consequently  caused  the  death  of  the  organisms 
in  the  interior  of  the  glands ;  he  therefore  discontinued  its  use. 

In  microscopical  sections  of  the  fresh  glands  the  author  was  unable 
to  demonstrate  the  presence  of  micro-organisms.  He  therefore  adopted 
the  method  of  transferring  portions  of  gland -substance  directly  from 
the  animal  to  tubes  of  nutrient  broth,  and  allowing  them  to  incubate  at 
37°  C.  for  from  4  to  24  hours.  Occasionally  the  broth  remained  clear 
throughout,  but  often  showed  evidence  of  growth.  Microscopical  sec- 
tions of  the  gland-substance  treated  in  this  manner  invariably  showed 
the  presence  of  bacteria. 

Micro-organisms  in  the  Systemic  Circulation.  *  —  Fiitterer  re- 
marks that  although  it  is  quite  proved  that  micro-organisms  which  have 
penetrated  to  the  portal  vein  pass  into  the  systemic  circulation  within 
less  than  a  minute,  and  after  the  lapse  of  a  very  few  minutes  the  liver 
and  kidneys,  especially  the  former  orgau,  have  commenced  their  separa- 
tion and  elimination,  this  fact  so  far  has  not  been  sufficiently  considered. 

Plasmoptysis.f  —  Fischer  describes  the  processes  which  accompany 
and  precede  the  granular  disintegration  of  bacteria  in  serum,  chiefly  in 
connection  with  the  V.  cholerse.  First,  a  distinct  but  irregular  swelling- 
up  of  the  cell  takes  place,  followed  by  the  extrusion  of  a  small  refractile 
globule  of  protoplasm  from  one  pole  of  the  cell — usually  that  bearing 
the  flagellum — and  only  rarely  from  the  side.  He  explains  this  method 
of  extrusion  on  the  assumption  that  the  swollen  protoplasm  leaves  the 
cell  membrane  by  means  of  the  pore  through  which  the  flagellum  passes. 
Fischer  terms  this  process  Plasmoptysis,  and  states  that  bacteria  undergo 
the  process  in  the  serum  of  the  rat,  the  ox,  and  the  pig  ;  and  it  may  aUo 
usually  be  observed  whenever  bacteria  are  transferred  from  a  dilute  to  a 
more  concentrated  solution,  as,  for  instance,  from  0*75  p.c.  to  2  p.c.  or 
2  •  5  p.c.  salt  solution. 

Agglutination  of  the  Tubercle  Bacillus.J — Beck  and  Eabinowitsch 
repeated  the  experiments  of  Arloing  and  Courmont,  who  as  far  back  as 
1898  had  stated  that  the  agglutination  of  cultivations  of  the  B.  tuber- 
culosis (grown  in  6  p.c.  glycerin-broth)  by  means  of  the  blood-serum 
of  the  patient,  afforded  a  means  of  early  diagnosis  of  tuberculous 
lesions. 

*  Berlin.  Klin.  Wochenschr.,  xxxviii.  pp.  58-9.  See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxviii. 
(1901)  p.  396. 

t  Zeitbchr.  f.  Hygiene  u.  Infekt.,  xxxv.  (1900).  See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lxxxviii. 
(1901)  pp.  394-5. 

♦  Zeitschr.  f.  Hvgiene  u.  Infekt.,  xxxvii.  (1901)  p.  203.  See  Bot.  Centralbl., 
lxxxviii.  (1901)  p.  312. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  349 

They  applied  the  test  to  different  strains  of  the  tubercle  bacillus, 
one  isolated  by  themselves  from  the  sputum  of  a  phthisical  patient,  and 
another  obtained  from  Courmont,  which  had  been  cultivated  for  a  long 
period  upon  artificial  media.  This  latter  they  found  had  become  practi- 
cally non-pathogenic  for  the  guinea-pig. 

The  authors  tested  the  serum  from  73  subjects,  41  of  whom  were 
suffering  from  some  form  of  tuberculosis,  29  from  diseases  other  than 
tuberculosis,  and  3  normal  individuals.  The  results  were  so  contra- 
dictory and  unreliable  that  the  authors  do  not  consider  the  test  of  any 
value  in  the  early  diagnosis  of  tuberculosis. 

Miquel  and  Cambier's  Bacteriology.*— P.  Miquel  and  E.  Cambier 
have  combined  to  produce  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  Bacteriology,  some- 
what similar  in  its  arrangement  to  that  manual  by  Sternberg  which  has 
long  been  a  standard  work  in  all  English-speaking  countries.  The 
volume  is  divided  into  four  parts,  of  which  the  first,  consisting  of 
238  pages,  is  devoted  to  the  morphology  and  biology  of  bacteria  and 
methods  of  investigation  and  technique  in  general.  The  second  part 
contains  a  systematic  description  of  pathogenic  bacteria  in  about  330 
pages,  whilst  the  third,  of  equal  size,  describes  the  saprophytic  bacteria. 
The  final  section  is  concerned  with  bacterioscopic  analyses  and  the 
application  of  bacteriology  to  hygiene,  and  is  limited  to  150  pages. 

The  classification  of  bacteria  which  the  authors  have  adopted  is  a 
good  working  one,  viz.  that  of  Cohn,  although  we  note  with  regret  that 
the  term  Leptothrix  is  retained  to  designate  such  of  the  bacilli  as  occur 
in  long  non-motile  threads,  a  connection  in  which  we  hoped  the  word 
had  become  obsolete,  instead  of  restricting  it  as  a  generic  term  for  a 
definite  group  of  the  higher  bacteria ;  again,  Prodigiosus  is  spoken  of 
as  a  Micrococcus,  although  most  workers  now  prefer  to  class  this  micro- 
organism as  a  bacillus.  The  details  of  the  technique  adopted  in  the 
study  of  the  structure  and  functions  of  bacteria  in  geueral  are  precise 
and  the  methods  themselves  for  the  most  part  effective,  though  fewer 
are  mentioned  than  we  should  have  anticipated  in  a  work  of  this  magni- 
tude, and  some  apparently  can  only  be  carried  out  by  the  aid  of  expen- 
sive and  cumbersome  apparatus. 

In  view  of  the  increasing  importance  that  is  attached,  and  rightly  so, 
to  the  preparation  of  nutrient  media,  it  is  somewhat  startling  to  find  it 
stated  that  nutrient  broth  should  be  neutralised  with  a  solution  of  caustic 
soda  or  carbonate  of  soda  until  it  gives  a  faintly  alkaline  reaction,  no 
advice  whatever  being  given  as  to  the  most  convenient  strength  of  the 
neutralising  solution  to  employ,  nor  is  the  indicator  even  mentioned. 
Further,  we  are  told  that  the  sterilisation  of  nutrient  media,  such  as 
gelatin  and  agar,  by  the  discontinuous  method  (of  Tyndall),  although 
"  seductive  in  theory,"  is  unsafe  in  practice  and  should  be  replaced  by 
steaming  in  the  autoclave,  under  pressure,  at  a  temperature  of  105°  to 
110°  C. 

In  the  second  and  third  parts  the  descriptions  of  the  various  patho- 
genic and  saprophytic  bacteria  are  accurate  and  sound  so  far  as  they  go, 
but  we  are  surprised  to  find  that  notes  of  the  cultural  characteristics 

*  Traite  de  Bacte'riologie,  pure  et  appliquee  a  la  Me'decine  et  a  l'Hygiene' 
P.  Miquel  et  R.  Cambier,  Paris  (C.  Naud),  1902,  crown  4to,  1059  pp.  and  224  figs,  in 
the  text. 

June  18th,  1902  2  a 


350  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

upon  agar,  gelatin,  potato,  and  in  broth,  and  occasionally  in  milk,  aie 
considered  sufficient  for  purposes  of  identification,  especially  as  we  are 
told  in  the  preface  that  the  book  is  written  in  the  hope  that  it  "  may 
prove  useful  to  those  who,  having  a  general  knowledge  of  bacteriology, 
seek  precise  details."  The  illustrations  in  this  section,  the  majority 
of  which  are  in  colours,  are  all  good,  and  a  certain  novelty  is  hers 
introduced  in  that  most  of  the  cultivations  are  represented  in  Freu- 
denreich's  flasks,  instead  of  the  test-tubes  we  are  accustomed  to  see. 

The  fourth  section  is  devoted  ta  the  applications  of  bacteriology  to 
practical  hygiene,  and  in  the  first  chapter,  which  deals  with  the  bacterial 
flora  of  the  air  analytically  and  statistically,  the  information  is  full  and 
satisfying ;  on  the  other  hand,  those  portions  dealing  with  the  bacterio- 
logical examination  of  water  and  soil  are  inadequate  and  insufficient. 
But  one  method,  and  that  an  unsatisfactory  and  unreliable  one,  is  de- 
scribed for  the  isolation  of  the  B.  coli  and  B.  typhosus  from  drinking- 
water,  whilst  the  method  of  enumerating  the  micro-organisms  present 
per  cubic  centimetre  of  a  water  sample  appears  to  us  as  needlessly 
complicated  and  moreover  open  to  numerous  fallacies.  Food-stuffs 
generally  are  not  even  touched  upon,  and  no  methods  whatever  are 
described  for  the  bacteriological  examination  of  milk  and  milk  products. 

The  most  valuable  feature  of  the  book  is  undoubtedly  the  excellent 
and  extensive  bibliography  which  is  arranged  in  footnotes  throughout 
the  volume.  The  type  and  paper  are  good,  and  a  well-arranged  index 
renders  the  work  of  reference  easy. 

Bibliography. 

Chester,  F.  D. — A  Manual  of  Determinative  Bacteriology. 

Macmillan,  London  and.  New  York,  1901,  vi.  and  401  pp. 


*  i  «g»)  » 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  351 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.  Instruments,  Accessories,  &c* 
Q)  Stands. 

Two  Early  Microscopes  by  Andrew  Ross  (?) — Mr.  E.  M.  Nelson 
has  sent  the  following  account  of  the  two  old  Microscopes  which  Mr.  J.  C. 
Webb  kindly  exhibited  at  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Society. 

The  Microscope  shown  in  fig.  65  is  not  signed,  but  we  may  conclude 
from  the  style  and  finish  of  the  workmanship  that  it  was  made  by 
Andrew  Ross.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  peculiarly  shaped  flat  tripod 
foot  is  precisely  similar  to  that  figured  by  Andrew  Pritchard  in  his 
Microscopic  Illustrations  (1838),  but  we  know  that  Microscopes  sold  by 
Andrew  Pritchard  were  made  by  Ross  and  Powell,  both  of  whom  at  that 
time  worked  for  the  trade.  To  this  tripod  foot  is  fixed  a  tubular  pillar 
holding  an  extension-rod  which  can  be  clamped  in  any  position  by  an 
ordinary  screw-ring ;  at  the  top  of  the  rod  is  a  compass-joint  to  which 
the  limb  of  the  Microscope  is  attached. 

The  limb  is,  in  section,  an  equilateral  triangle,  the  front  angle  being 
cut  with  teeth  for  stage  focussing  rackwork ;  below  the  stage  is  a  con- 
cave mirror.  The  body  is  attached  to  the  arm  by  a  screw-clamp,  and 
when  a  "  single  "  Microscope  is  required  the  arm  can  be  turned  aside 
and  another  arm  to  hold  Wollaston's  doublets  used  in  its  stead.  A 
fine  adjustment  is  obtained  by  a  direct-acting  screw  operating  on  a  nose- 
piece,  but  without  the  usual  spring;  below  this  nose-piece  there  is 
another  sprung  nose-piece,  which  is  simply  a  safety  device.  This 
separation  of  the  sprung  nose-piece  from  the  fine-adjustment  screw  is 
a  rare  form,  and  at  the  same  time,  a  very  crude  idea. 

There  are  two  objectives,  one  a  single  non-achromatic  of  the  same 
date  as  the  instrument,  the  other  a  French  button  combination  of  later 
date.  The  eye-piece  is  Huyghenian  with  a  double  eye-lens,  a  form 
first  introduced  by  Benjamin  Martin  and  subsequently  employed  by 
Coddington.  In  design  this  Microscope  looks  older  than  it  really  is, 
but  we  know  that  this  kind  of  solid  tripod  foot  was  introduced  in  1837, 
and  this  probably  is  the  date  of  the  instrument. 

The  second  Microscope  (fig.  66),  which  is  smaller,  although  signed 
"  Carpenter  and  Westley,  Regent  Street,"  was  probably  made  by  the 
same  hand  and  about  the  same  time  as  the  first.  The  foot,  which  is  a 
little  different  in  shape,  has  the  same  peculiar  cut  to  the  front  toes  ;  but 
the  instrument  differs  from  the  other  in  having  no  pillar,  the  lower  end 
of  the  limb  being  attached  to  the  foot  by  a  compass-joint.     It,  like  the 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives;  (3)  Illu- 
minating and  other  Apparatus;  (4)  Photomicrography ;  (5)  Microscopical  Optics 
and  Manipulation;  (6)  Miscellaneous. 

2  a  2 


352  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Fig.  65 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


353 


f  ormer,  is  a  stage  focusser,  and  has  a  concave  mirror, 
and  the  eye-piece  are  of  a  much  later  date. 


Both  the  objective 


Fig.  66. 

Pillischer's  "  Lenticular  Microscope." — Mr.  J.  Pillischer,  of  Bona 
Street,  has  most  kindly  presented  this  very  interesting  portable,  really 
pocket,  Microscope  to  the  Society's  Cabinet.  It  was  designed  by  the  late 
Mr.  M.  Pillischer,  the  donor's  uncle. 

The  instrument  is  figured  and  described  in  Urinary  Deposits  by 
Golding  Bird  (p.  29,  fig.  13,  1857,  5th  ed.),  but  it  will  be  noticed  that 
the  figure  differs  slightly  from  the  original,  inasmuch  as  a  second  spring 
to  hold  the  slide  has  been  added,  and  a  semicircular  segment  cut  out  at 
both  ends  instead  of  at  one  end  of  the  base-plate  as  there  shown. 

The  design  of  this  instrument  (fig.  67)  is  most  ingenious :  there  is 
neither  stand  nor  limb,  the  main  basis  of  the  instrument  being  the  slide- 
holder,  at  one  angle  of  which  is  a  short  pillar  containing  a  direct-acting 
screw  fine  adjustment,  which  acts  upon  a  swinging  arm  carrying  the  lens. 
Below  the  stage  is  a  mirror  attached  to  a  jointed  arm,  and  a  wheel  of 
diaphragms.  The  lenses,  three  in  number,  are  Coddingtons  of  \,  *£$,  and 
Jg-in.  foci. 


354 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


It  may  be  pointed  out,  says  E.  M.  Nelson,  that  an  instrument  "of 
this  kind,  fitted  with  achromatic  loups,  would  be  very  serviceable  to* a 
microscopist  for  field  work. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  three  of  Dr.  Gairdner's  Microscopes, 
made  by  Bryson  of  Edinburgh,  were  exhibited,  figured,  and  described 
in  the  journal  for  1899,  p.  643,  fig.  149. 


Fig.  67. 


These  had  Coddington  lenses,  each  power  having  a  separate  Micro- 
scope to  itself.  Gairdner's  Microscope  was  described  in  the  first  edition 
of  Carpenter  on  the  Microscope,  1866,  p.  74,  fig.  15,  and  there  it  is  said 
to  be  of  use  in  bed-side  investigations  of  urinary  deposits. 

In  design,  Gairdner's  Microscope  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  Pillischer's, 
inasmuch  as  there  is  no  possibility  of  either  moving  the  slide  under  the 
lens,  or  the  lens  over  the  slide,  so  nothing  can  be  seen  except  the  single 
point  in  the  axis  of  the  lens. 

Seibert's  Large  Model  Microscope  No.  2.  —  This  stand  (fig.  68) 
closely  corresponds  to  Zeiss'  Model  1a  ;  but  is  sold  at  a  much  less 
price.  The  fine  adjustment,  unlike  Seibert's  largest  model,  is  by  a 
jjrismatic  bar,  the  micrometer  screw  being  placed  on  the  prism  collar. 
When  inclined  the  Microscope  can  be  clamped  by  a  lever.  The  stage 
is  circular,  graduated  on  rim,  rotatory,  and  provided  with  centring 
screws.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  horse-shoe  foot  is  replaced  by 
a  flat  tripod. 

Watson's  New  "Holos  Fram"  Microscope.  —  This  instrument 
(fig.  69)  is  Messrs.  Watson  and  Sons'  "  Fram  "  Microscope,  fitted  with 
a  rigid  mechanical  stage,  and  centring  rackwork  substage. 

New  Two-speed  Fine  Adjustment. — Messrs.  W.  Watson  and  Sons' 
new  two-speed  fine  adjustment  (fig.  70)  is  an  ordinary  single  micrometer 
screw,  having  the  usual  larged  milled  head,  and  a  projecting  spindle- 
head,  also  milled,  and  of  convenient  length.     When  the  latter  is  made 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


355 


Fig.  GS. 


356  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Fig.  69. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


357 


to  revolve  rapidly  a  quick  adjustment,  suitable  for  low  powers,  is  ob- 
tained, while  the  large  milled  head  is  available  for  delicate  adjustment 
and  high  powers. 

Beck's  Micrometer  Microscope. — This  instrument 
(fig.  71)  is  intended  for  the  accurate  measurement  of 
either  opaque  or  transparent  objects.  The  eye-piece 
has  cross  lines,  and  the  whole  Microscope  is  traversed 
across  the  object  by  means  of  a  fine  micrometer  screw. 
On  the  upper  portion  of  the  stand  is  a  scale  repre- 
senting the  number  of  turns  of  the  screw,  whilst  the 
drum  of  the  milled  head  records  to  T^th  of  a  milli- 
metre. The  Microscope  has  a  rack-and-pinion  focus- 
sing motion,  a  graduated  draw-tube,  and  carries  the 
standard  Royal  Microscopical  Society  screw. 

The  stand  is  so  made  that  the  entire  portion  carrying  the  Microscope 
and  micrometer  screw  may  be  removed,  and  attached  in  a  horizontal 
position.     A  telescope  object-glass  may  then  be  used  in  place  of  the 


Fig.  70. 


Fig.  71. 


358  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Microscope  object-glass,  and  focussecl  by  means  of  tbe  draw-tube.     In 
this  way  the  instrument  may  be  used  for  readings  at  a  distance. 

Albrecht's  Microscope  for  Measuring  Plant-Growth.*— The  modern 
form  of  this  instrument  is  shown  in  fig.  72.  The  tripod  base  is  carried 
on  levelling  screws  s,  and  the  adjustment  of  the  Microscope-tube  is 
controlled  by  the  level  L.  The  sleeve  H  forms  a  part  of  the  heavy 
base  and  contains  a  pillar  S,  which  is  raised  or  depressed  by  the  screw 


Fig.  72. 

v,  which  thus  acts  as  a  coarse  adjustment.  The  finer  vertical  adjustment 
is  effected  by  the  micrometer  screw  M,  an  indicator  Z  serving,  in  con- 
junction with  the  graduated  plate  P,  to  read  off  the  movement.  The 
screw  6  regulates  the  motion  and  the  direction  of  the  tube-length,  and 
another  screw  c  imparts  a  slight  lateral  movement  of  the  entire  upper 
part.  Dr.  Zimmermann  considers  that  an  arrangement  for  adding  rota- 
tion about  a  horizontal  axis  would  be  a  desirable  addition.  The  optical 
parts  are  made  by  Seibert,  of  Wetzlar. 

Pye's  Reading  Microscope.— Messrs.  W.  G.  Pye  and  Co.'s  reading 
Microscope  (fig.  73)  is  designed  on  the  geometric  slide  principle.  A 
steel  cylinder,  to  which  is  clamped,  in  any  position,  the  Microscope 
arm,  and  forms  the  carriage,  works  in  a  pair  of  V's  cut  in  the  uprights 
of  tbe  base.     These  V's  are  parallel  to  the  top  plane  edge  of  the  base, 

*  Zimmermann,  Das  Mikroskop,  1895,  p.  106,  fig.  77. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


359 


on  which  rests  a  steel  pin  fixed  to  the  under  side  of  the  arm,  thus  form- 
ing a  perfect-fitting  slide. 

The  carriage  is  actuated  by  a  micrometer  screw  working  against  one 


^m?v 


Fig.  73. 


end  of  the  steel  cylinder,  the  latter  being  kept  in  contact  by  pressure 
with  the  finger  on  the  other  end.     The  screw  is  of  0*5  mm.  pitch,  with 
m  head  divided  into  100  parts,  and  a  traverse  of 
30  mm. 

The  instrument  is  also  made  without  the 
micrometer  screw,  in  which  case  a  millimetre 
scale  is  fixed  to  the  top  edge  of  the  base,  the  car- 
riage being  furnished  with  a  vernier  reading  to 
0*05  mm.  The  Microscope  is  provided  with  a 
Ramsden  eye-piece  with  cross  wires.  It  is  held 
in  position  against  four  points  by  a  flexible  steel 
spring,  and  the  vertical  cradle  that  supports  it 
will  receive  any  other  Microscope-tube  in  place 
of  the  one  supplied. 

Short  Table  Cathetometer.  —  This  instru- 
ment (fig.  74),  made  by  Messrs.  W.  G.  Pye  and 
Co.,  is  constructed  on  the  geometric  slide  prin- 
ciple. The  base,  provided  with  three  levelling 
screws,  carries  a  steel  rod  \  in.  in  diameter,  with 
a  millimetre  scale  divided  on  it,  which  can  be 
read  when  the  telescope  is  in  auy  position.  A 
brass  ring  with  V  bearings,  carrying-the  telescope 
cradle  and  micrometer,  fits  on  the  column,  and  is 
capable  of  being  revolved  without  altering  its 
height.  The  V's  in  this  annular  ring  are  kept 
against  the  column  by  a  spring  on  the  opposite 
side. 

The  micrometer  slide  consists  of  two  steel  rods  carried  by  the  ring. 
Against  one,  which  is  fixed  to  the  ring,  one  point  of  the  telescope  cradle 
is  pressed  by  a  spring.  The  other  is  fixed  to  the  telescope  cradle,  and 
works  in  two  V's  cut  in  the  annular  ring.     One  end  of  the  latter  rod 


Fig.  74. 


360  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

rests  on  the  point  of  the  micrometer  screw,  by  means  of  which  it  is 
actuated.  The  screw  has  a  pitch  of  1  mm.,  and  its  head  is  divided  into 
10  parts. 

The  telescope  rests  in  V's,  and  is  reversible.  It  has  a  Kamsden 
eye-piece,  adjustable  diaphragm  with  cross  wires,  and  a  movable  object- 
glass  for  focussing.  Two  spirit  levels  are  supplied  on  the  base  and  one 
on  the  telescope. 

An  Old  Rackwork  Draw-tube.  —  Mr.  Nelson  writes  to  say  that 
he  was  shown  an  old  monocular  Microscope  fitted  with  a  rackwork 
draw-tube  ;  the  tube  was  graduated  in  inches  and  tenths.  The  milled 
head  on  the  pinion,  which  was  geared  to  the  rack,  was  divided  into  five 
or  six  equal  portions  by  small  countersunk  holes,  into  which  a  spring- 
catch  pressed.  When  the  milled  head  was  revolved,  so  that  the  spring- 
catch  passed  out  of  one  countersunk  hole  into  the  next,  the  draw-tube 
was  moved  exactly  one-tonth  of  an  inch.  Therefore  by  feeling  or  hear- 
ing the  spring  click  the  amount  of  movement  given  to  the  draw-tube 
would  be  known,  without  the  necessity  of  removing  the  eye  from  the 
eye-piece  for  the  purpose  of  reading  the  graduated  scale. 

The  legend  engraved  on  the  Microscope  was  "  M.  Pillischer,  398 
Oxford  Street,  London.     167."     Its  date  is  1847-48. 

(2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives. 

Beck-Steinheil  Orthostigmats.— These  lenses  (fig.  75)  were  primarily 
introduced  for  photography  pure  and  simple,  but  owing  to  their  excep- 
tional qualities  as  to  their  corrections  both  for  colour  values  (severely 
tested  in  connection  with  the  photo-mechanical  three-colour  work)  and 

also  for  spherical  and  astigmatic  errors,  Messrs. 
ibii=w3t«mI  Beck  have  introduced  a  number  of  shorter  foci 
i  '  'Tii^afP  lenses  specially  for  the  most  difficult  photo- 
mi  crographical  research.  Each  surface  is 
l^fJII  polished  and  figured  on  the  principle  adopted 
-    — ,i  for  the  manufacture  of  large  astronomical  tele- 

scope  objectives,  and  the  accuracy  of  the  test 
Fig.  75.  employed  is  such  that  a  surface  error  not  ex- 

ceeding a  fraction  of  a  wave-length  may  be 
detected.  No  mechanical  measuring  machine  has  ever  been  constructed 
which  will  measure  the  errors  of  curvature  with  a  tithe  of  the  accuracy 
of  the  method  adopted.  The  series  at  present  includes  three  members, 
whose  focal  lengths  are  respectively  1,  2,  3£  in. ;  their  corresponding 
apertures  being  ^,  ^,  T9^-  in. 

Leitz'  Spherically,  Chromatically,  and  Astigmatically  corrected 
Objective.* — E.  Leitz,  of  Wetzlar,  has  taken  out  a  German  patent  f  for 
the  above,  and  the  spherical  and  astigmatic  corrections  are  accomplished 
by  a  pair  of  reversed  combinations  separated  from  one  another  by  a 
film  of  air  (fig.  76).  The  outer  members  form  a  biconvex  lens  A,  and 
the  inner  consist  of  a  pair  of  plano-concave  lenses  B,  and  two  positive 
menisci  C.  The  biconvex  A  is  made  out  of  a  highly  refractive  crown 
glass  and  serves  for  the  rectification  of  the  astigmatism.     The  spherical 

£  *  Deutsche  Mechaniker-Zeitung,  No.  2  (Jnu.  1902)  p.  19  (1  fig.). 

!    f  No.  118433, jCI.  42,  16.7.1899. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


361 


correction    depends,  as  with    aplanatics,   on  the  inner  surface   of  the 
cemented  double  lens,  of   which  one  lens  B  is  made  from  a  negative 
flint  glass  lens,  and  the  other  is  a  positive  me- 
niscus C  of  weakly  refractive  crown  glass;  the  jr 
resultant  focal  length  of  the  double  leus   being     j^ 
negative. 

(3)  Illuminating-  and  other  Apparatus. 

Winkel's  Drawing  Apparatus  for  Weak 
Magnifications.* — A  horse-shoe  foot  supports  a 
pillar  8  which  carries,  by  means  of  the  screw  A, 
the  object-table  T  and  the  mirror  E  (fig.  77). 
The  screw  B  serves  as  a  clamp.  The  large  per- 
foration of  the  object-table  renders  the  instru-  Fig.  76. 
ment  applicable  to  large  preparations,   and  the 

carrier  T  permits  the  insertion  of  a  disc  of  ground  glass  for  uniform 
illumination  of  the  field.     The  optical  portion  is  placed  at  the  upper 


Fig.  77. 

*  Zimmermann,  Das  Mikroskop,  pp.  138,  9;  and  Zeitscbr.  wies.  Mikr.,  x.  (1893) 
p.  289. 


362 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


end  and  is  fixed  by  a  dovetailed  slide  c,  and  clamped  by  a  screw  K  ; 
tbis  part  is  rotatory  about  tbe  pillar.  Simple  loups  are  placed  in  tbe 
rotatory  disc  G,  revolver  fashion,  of  magnifying  power  1*7  to  10.  For 
bigber  magnifications  tbe  Microscope-tube  H  with  tbe  help  of  tbe  plug  a 
is  inserted,  and  bears  at  its  lower  end  six  objective  systems  of  magnifying 
powers  12  to  38.  Tbe  drawing  is  effected  by  tbe  arrangement  sbown, 
wbich  was  fully  described  in  a  previous  number  of  tbe  Journal  * 


?  ,   ,   ,   ,so  ioo         isoTnM. 

■M  '  I  '  I  '  I  '  I   '  '  ■  '   i  I  ■   I  '  ''»  I  »  1  )  1 


Fig.  78. 

Moll's  Apparatus   for   the  Adjustment  of  a  Projection   Micro- 
scope.f— The  object  of  tbis  apparatus  is  to  enable  tbe  lecturer,  who 

*  Journal  R.M.S.,  1892,  p.  264. 

t  Zeitechr.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1901)  pp.  129-37  (2  figs  ). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


363 


prefers  to  stand  near  the  screen,  to  have  control  over  the  fine  adjustment 
of  the  ocular  so  that  he  may  arrange  a  sharp  definition  of  any  desiiv.l 
part  of  the  image.  It  is  in  actual  operation  at  the  Botanical  Laboratory, 
Groningen.  Dr.  Moll  has  designed  a  sort  of  wheel-and-axlo  arrange- 
ment (fig.  78)  consisting  of  two  grooved  discs  of  radii  2*1  and  10*5  cm., 
rotatory  about  a  horizontal  axis  and  firmly  fastened  together.  They  are 
enclosed  in  a  metal  frame  which  is  secured  to  a  convenient  beam  in  the 
ceiling.  The  cord  b  is  fastened  at  one  end  to  the  small  disc,  and,  at 
the  other,  to  the  ocular  mount.  To  the  larger  disc  is  fastened  the 
vertical  cord  terminating  in  a  handle  c,  whicli  is  gripped  by  the  lecturer. 
The  size  of  this  larger  disc  is  important  as  it  increases  the  delicacy  of 


Fig.  79. 


the  ocular  fine  adjustment.  The  range  of  this  latter  is  5-5  cm. ;  but 
the  corresponding  stroke  of  the  lecturer's  handle  is  about  26  cm.,  and 
the  precision  attainable  in  image  definition  is  proportionately  increased. 
In  many  cases,  and  especially  at  the  beginning  of  a  demonstration,  a 
medium  position  would  be  convenient :  this  is  attained  by  making  the 
handle  terminate  in  a  ring  d,  which  may  be  then  secured  to  a  nail  e i  in 
the  wall.  For  better  attainment  of  this  medium  position  an  adjustable 
rod  /  is  contrived  in  the  hollow  handle,  and  its  suitable  length  deter- 
mined by  a  screw  g.  ... 

To  the  ocular  mount  itself   (fig.  79)  strong   spiral  springs  s  are 
attached.     These  work  in  a  frame  at  whose  extremity  are  a  pair  of 


364 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


pulleys  w  under  which  pass  the  limbs  of  the  cord-loop.  The  ocular 
part  of  the  Microscope-tube  is  mounted  on  a  strong  metal  base-plate 
which,  by  means  of  a  dovetailed  groove,  rests  on  a  cast-iron  bar  sup- 
ported by  the  upright  beams  m  of  the  projection  chamber.  At  the 
left-hand  end  of  this  bar  is  a  hinge  (not  visible  in  figure)  so  that  the 
bar  and  instrument  can  be  raised,  and  by  means  of  the  hook  n  kept 
in  an  oblique  position  if  projection  apparatus  of  another  kind  should 
be  required.  At  the  right-hand  end  a  strong  spring  o  suffices  to  keep 
the  bar  in  its  place.  The  lantern  is  one  of  Newton's  "  patent  electric 
lantern  Microscope  and  micropolariscopes." 

(4)  Photomicrography. 

Study    of    Growing    Crystals    by    Instantaneous    Photomicro- 
graphy.*— Messrs.  Eichards  and  Archibald  in  their  experiments  used 


Fig.  80. 


Bausch    and    Lomb's    ordinary  pbotomicrographic    apparatus    with    a 
vertical  camera.     Between  the  Microscope  F  (fig.  80)  and  the  camera 
in  a  suitable  light-tight  box  B,  was  placed  a  revolving  shutter,  which 

•  Amer.  Chem.  Journ.,  xxvi.  (1901)  pp.  61-74  (16  figs,  and  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  365 

allowed  an  exposure  equal  to  one-fifth  of  the  time  of  its  revolution. 
Thus,  when  the  shutter  made  two  revolutions  in  a  second,  the  exposure 
was  one-tenth  of  a  second.  A  Henrici  hot-air  motor,  combined  with 
speed-reducing  double  pulleys,  enabled  the  experimenter  to  use  any 
rate  of  revolution  desired  ;  the  power  was  communicated  by  the  pulley 
C.  The  rate  was  reasonably  constant,  but  no  attempt  was  made  to 
make  it  absolutely  so.  Tbe  sensitive  plate  or  gelatin  film  was  held 
above  in  a  suitable  holder  A,  which  was  put  in  the  place  of  the  ground- 
glass  plate  used  for  focussing  just  before  each  series  of  exposures.  In 
a  first  series  of  experiments  it  was  arranged  so  that  the  image  should 
be  bright  on  a  dark  ground,  and  for  this  purpose  it  was  found  more 
convenient  to  move  the  crystallising  solution  than  to  move  the  photo- 
graphic plate.  For  effecting  this  the  slide  G  bearing  the  drop  of  liquid 
was  attached  by  a  wire  to  a  point  just  below  the  centre  of  a  segment 
provided  above  with  saw-teeth  E.  The  segment  was  moved  gradually 
by  the  oscillating  motion  of  a  connecting-rod  D,  fastened  by  a  crank 
to  the  revolving  shutter  at  one  end  and  playing  into  the  saw-teeth  on 
the  other.  In  order  to  make  the  motion  certain,  the  stroke  of  the 
connecting-rod  slightly  exceeded  the  distance  between  the  saw-teeth. 
The  segment  was  suspended  in  such  a  way  that  its  centre  of  gravity 
coincided  with  its  point  of  support,  and  the  friction  of  its  bearings  was 
so  adjusted  that  it  would  move  easily,  and  yet  remain  stationary  during 
the  return  stroke.  I  is  a  weight  for  balancing  the  segment.  The  dis- 
tance through  which  the  observed  object  was  moved  was  easily  varied 
by  altering  the  relative  lengths  of  the  lever  arms  :  holes  H  bored  at 
distances  varying  from  one-tenth  to  one-fiftieth  mm.  were  generally  used. 
The  shutter  was  so  arranged  that  during  the  exposure  the  segment  and 
slide  were  at  rest,  the  shift  in  position  being  effected  during  the  four- 
fifths  of  the  revolution  through  which  the  shutter  was  closed.  Fig.  80 
represents  the  apparatus  an  instant  before  an  exposure  begins.  J  is  a 
horizontal  projection  of  the  revolving  shutter  in  detail.  The  best  light- 
source  was  found  to  be  sunlight  directed  by  a  suitably  arranged  mirror 
and  condensed  by  reflectors  and  lenses.  The  chief,  though  not  serious, 
difficulty  of  this  arrangement  was  the  great  heat  caused  by  the  con- 
verging rays,  a  difficulty  which  was  obviated  partially  by  an  absorbent 
screen.  The  first  trials  were  taken  by  reflected  light,  but  were  less 
satisfactory  than  those  obtained  by  polarised  light.  The  images  were 
now  much  more  clearly  defined,  but  the  magnification  (30  diameters) 
was  too  low  to  warrant  conclusions  about  the  genesis  of  crystals. 
Among  other  substances,  sodic  nitrate,  boric  chloride,  cupric  sulphate, 
and  ferrous  ammonic  sulphate  were  found  to  give  satisfactory  images. 
A  photomicrograph  shows  the  crystals  of  sodic  nitrate  obtained  under 
a  higher  magnification  of  110  diameters  with  an  exposure  of  *12  second. 
Light-ground  illumination  was  now  tried,  as  it  was  considered  that  an 
initial  globular  condition,  if  it  ever  existed,  would  probably  not  be 
visible  through  the  nicols.  The  slide  and  crystallising  solution  were 
allowed  to  remain  stationary,  and  a  2 '5  in.  Eastman  cartridge  gelatin 
film  was  moved  as  in  the  common  film-carriers.  At  first  a  power  of 
100  diameters  was  employed,  and  very  satisfactory  pictures  of  the  growth 
of  crystals  of  potassic  iodide  were  obtained.  They  do  not,  however, 
reveal  anything  new.     Higher  powers  of  magnification  were  used  and 

Jan  el8th,  1902  2  B 


366 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


the  utmost  intensification  of  light  ohtained,  but  none  of  the  results 
favoured  the  theory  that  crystals  develop  from  a  transitory  liquid 
phase. 

Stereo-Photomicrography.* — F.  M.  Duncan  points  out  that  as  stereo- 
photomicrography  comes  under  the  head  of  low-])ower  work  the  Micro- 
scope itself  is  notjrequired  ;  the  Stephenson's  prisms  and  objective  being 
attached  directly  on  to  the  front  of  the  camera.     These  prisms  obviate 


X 


\":]W:'  \.N££: 


S 


3° 


i&V.^^v,,^ 


a. 


1 


-•*■  ■*■■■"> . 


Fig.  81. 


the  necessity  of  cutting  and  transposing  the  photographs  as  in  the  case 
of  ordinary  stereoscopic  work.  The  camera  should  be  mounted  on  a 
travelling  stage  of  sufficient  length  and  breadth  to  afford  a  firm  support 
to  the  camera  when  its  bellows  are  racked  out  to  their  fullest  extension. 
To  the  base  of  this  camera-stage  two  grooved  blocks  of  wood  should  be 


r^y 


Fig.  82. 

firmly  attached,  the  grooves  corresponding  in  angle  to  the  two  V-shaped 
rails  which  run  the  whole  length  of  the  baseboard.  The  baseboard  to 
carry  the  camera,  object-holder,  &c.  should  be  made  of  well-seasoned 
pine,  10  in.  wide,  5  ft.  long,  and  1  in.  thick.  Fastened  on  the  edge  and 
running  the  entire  length  of  the  baseboard,  there  should  be  two  V-shaped 
rails,  on  which  the  camera,  &c.  can  be  moved  into  the  required  position. 
The  object-holder  must  be  so  constructed  as   to  bring   the  specimen 


*  English  Mech.  and  World  of  Science,  lxxiv.  (1901)  pp.  354,  5  (2  figs.);   and 
Briliah  Journal  of  Photography  (loc.  non  cit.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  367 

exactly  in  front  of  the  lens,  and  in  a  central  position.  A  small  well- 
made  bos  must  be  carefully  constructed  to  carry  the  prisms  and  objec- 
tive ;  or  better  still,  a  short  wooden  cylinder.  In  either  cape  the  interior 
must  be  perfectly  smooth  and  painted  a  dead  black,  and  at  one  end  must 
be  fastened  a  lens-flange  for  attaching  tbe  box  or  cylinder  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  be  immediately  behind  tbe  objective  and  as  near  to  its 
back  lens  as  possible.  Tbe  prisms  should  be  fitted  witb  two  adjusting 
s  :rews  capable  of  being  manipulated  from  the  sides  of  the  box  or 
cylinder,  so  that  the  angle  at  which  the  prisms  are  inclined  to  one  another 
may  be  altered  if  necessary.  Fig.  81  sbows  the  apparatus  in  position: 
S  is  the  adjusting  screw  of  prism ;  0  the  micro-objective ;  and  H  the 
stage  for  carrying  specimen.  Fig.  82  shows  the  apparatus  in  place. 
A  telescopic  partition  must  be  constructed  to  run  through  the  length 
of  the  camera  in  an  exactly  central  position.  To  obtain  the  best  results 
a  full  exposure  should  be  given,  so  as  to  obtain  vigorous  negatives  full 
of  detail  with  good  contrasts.* 

Panoramic  View  Camera. — In  1850  Andrew  Pritchard,  on  p.  83  of 
his  Appendix  to  Optical  Instruments,  in  Natural  Philosophy,  Library  of 
Useful  Knowledge  (1832),  says,  "  In  taking  panoramic  views  M. 
Lerabours  has  ingeniously  constructed  a  camera,  the  lens  of  which  re- 
volves about  a  vertical  axis ;  the  plate  is  curved,  and  a  screen  is  inter- 
posed, which  revolves  with  the  lens ;  this  screen  has  a  slit  opposite  the 
centre  of  the  lens,  so  that  only  a  small  part  of  the  image  impinges  upon 
the  plate  at  one  time.  By  properly  regulating  the  time  and  motion,  to 
suit  the  varied  brilliancy  of  the  different  parts  of  the  landscape,  and  also 
by  making  the  slit  opposite  the  sky  narrowest,  a  very  j>erfect  panoramic 
view  is  obtained." 

It  is  needless,  says  E.  M.  Nelson,  to  point  out  to  photographers  that 
this  description,  now  fifty  years  old,  is  precisely  applicable  to  one  of  the 
latest  forms  of  cameras,  thereby  proving  that  "  there  is  nothing  new 
under  the  sun." 

If  a  similar  adaptation  were  to  be  made  to  a  microscopic  camera,  the 
object  would  have  to  be  mounted  upon  a  curved  slide,  while  the  negative 
plate  remained  a  plane  surface.  This  might  be  useful  in  taking  low- 
power  instantaneous  photomicrographs  of  long  and  narrow  objects  such 
as  living  worms. 

(5)  Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

The  Black  and  White  Dot  Phenomenon.! — J.  Rheinberg  suggests 
that  the  origin  of  the  black  and  white  dot  phenomenon  in  diatoms  arises 
primarily  from  the  fact  that  the  perforations  in  a  diatom  form  approxi- 
mately vertical  partitions  between  two  media  differing  in  refractive 
index.  A  certain  portion  of  the  light  which  impinges  from  below  on 
the  partition  from  the  side  of  the  denser  medium,  is  reflected  as  at  the 
surface  of  an  ordinary  mirror.  Such  reflected  light  is  that  which  reaches 
the  plane  of  partition  beyond  the  critical  angle.  In  consequence  dark- 
ness is  brought  about  on  the  less  dense  side  of  the  partition  in  the  space 

*  This  method  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  described  by  E.  It.  Turner,  Illus- 
t'ated  Ann.  Microscopy,  1930,  p.  52. 

t  Journ.  Quvk.  Mini-.  Club,  viii.  (Nov.  1901;  pp.  113-8  (6  figs.). 

2  b  2 


368 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


where  the  light  has  been  unable  to  get  through  from  the  side  of  greater 
density ;  and  darkness  is  also  brought  about  on  the  denser  side  of  the 
partition  because  throughout  the  whole  of  a  certain  solid  space  a  direct 
and  a  reflected  wave-stream,  emanating  from  the  same  points  of  the  light- 
source,  meet  in  opposite  phase.  Figs.  83-85  represent  a  diatom  denser 
than  the  imbedding  medium  ;  in  figs.  86-88  the  imbedding  material  has 
the  higher  refractive  index.  In  figs.  83  and  86  the  light  impinges  at  an 
angle  greater  than  the  critical  angle  ;  in  figs.  84  and  87  at  the  critical 
angle  ;  in  figs.  85  and  88  at  an  angle  less  than  the  critical  angle.  The 
closely  shaded  portions  (when  uncrossed  by  other  lines)  show  where  no 
light  has  been  able  to  get  through  ;  and  it  will  be  seen  that  no  light 
reaches  a  space  in  the  upper  surface  plane  of  the  diatom  just  at  or  near 
one  of  the  edges  of  the  vertical  walls  forming  the  partition. 


Fig.  83. 


Fig.  84. 


Fig.  85. 


Fig.  86. 


Fig.  87. 


Fig.  88. 


It  will  further  be  observed  in  figs.  83  and  84  and  also  in  figs.  86  and 
87,  that  the  rays  which  impinge  on  to  one  of  the  vertical  partitions  are 
thrown  back  on  themselves.  A  change  of  phase  occurs  where  they  are 
then  reflected,  and,  if  we  take  any  point  where  one  of  these  rays  meets 
one  of  the  unreflected  rays,  we  find  the  two  have  travelled  the  same 
length  of  path  and,  being  now  in  opposite  phase,  they  cancel  one  another 
and  produce  darkness.  Thus  darkness  is  formed  in  the  surface  plane  of 
the  diatom  both  sides  of  the  partition,  though  due  to  different  causes  in 
the  two  cases.  There  are,  in  fact,  two  bands  of  darkness  which  issue 
upwards  from  an  angle  to  each  other  from  the  horizontal  plane  in  which 
the  top  of  the  vertical  partition  lies,  in  the  case  of  a  diatom  which  is 
studded  with  perforations — in  other  words,  with  vertical  positions — there 
is  an  immense  number  of  the  bands  parallel  to  each  other  in  each  of  the 
two  directions  forming  a  sort  of  trellis-work  of  light  and  darkness. 
And,  as  sections  of  trellis-work  taken  one  below  the  other  would  show 


ZOOLOGY  AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  369 

alternately  light  and  dark  spaces,  so  do  the  diatoms  when  the  focus  is 
adjusted  to  different  planes.  Mr.  Rheinberg  prefers  the  black  dot 
image,  and  gives  full  reasons  for  bis  preference,  and  states  also  that  dif- 
ferent effects  will  be  produced,  according  to  the  different  media  in  which 
the  objects  are  mounted ;  and  that  the  positions  which  the  black  and 
white  dots  take  up  are  not  the  same,  because  careful  examination  will 
show  that  the  rows  of  white  dots  occupy  intermediate  positions  to  those 
which  the  black  dots  previously  occupied. 

E.  M.  Nelson,*  in  discussing  this  subject,  applied  the  same  lens  and 
illumination  to  diatoms  marked  with  various  degrees  of  fineness.  He 
considers  that  Mr.  Stokes  is  right  in  assigning  to  spherical  aberration 
an  important  function,  for  in  those  cases  where  there  is  a  white  dot  both 
above  and  below  the  black  dot,  the  upper  or  lower  white  dot  can  be 
made  the  stronger  or  weaker,  or  both  made  alike,  by  means  of  screw- 
collar  or  tube-length  adjustments.  He  has  also  reason  for  thinking  that 
the  upper  black  dots  observed  by  Mr.  Stokes  with  annular  illumination 
must  have  been  images  of  the  stop  at  the  back  of  the  condenser.  The 
examination  of  a  considerable  number  of  specimens  has  shown  that  there 
is  more  variety  in  the  association  of  the  blackness  and  whiteness  than  is 
commonly  supposed.  Thus  a  balsam-mounted  Pleurosigma  formosum 
generally  has  the  white  dot  below;  but  Mr.  Nelson  has  met  with  a 
reverse  example.  He  finds,  so  far  as  he  can  measure  it  accurately,  that 
the  distance  between  the  two  dots  is  fairly  constant  at  3  A. 

With  regard  to  Mr.  Rheinberg's  papers,  Mr.  Nelson  is  of  opinion, 
after  many  careful  observations,  that  the  white  and  black  dots  are  exactly 
superimposed.  This  seems  to  be  a  fatal  objection  to  the  trellis- work 
theory,  notwithstanding  its  interest  and  ingenuity. 

In  a  paper  read  before  the  Quekett  last  March,  Mr.  Rheinberg 
returns  to  the  study  of  the  subject  and  admits  that  the  two  dots  are 
superimposed.     He  then  sums  up  the  possible  theories  as  four,  viz. : — 

(1)  Spherical  aberration  by  reason  of  the  objective  acting  in  zones, 
each  zone  having  its  own  focus  within  certain  limits. 

(2)  A  pinhole  effect. 

(3)  Crossing  of  bands  arising  from  diffraction. 

(4)  Crossing  of  bands  (or  rather  cones)  formed  by  reason  of  the 
difference  of  refractive  indices  of  the  media,  in  accordance  with  the 
ordinary  laws  of  total  reflection  beyond  the  critical  angle. 

He  gives  his  reasons  why  the  last  should  be  preferred,  and  also 
suggests  that  "  critical  angle  "  rather  than  "  trellis-work  "  theory  is  the 
more  suitable  short  title.    It  has  the  following  six  points  in  its  favour:  — 

(a)  It  will  explain  the  appearances  without  recourse  to  other  than 
the  most  ordinary  and  generally  established  optical  laws. 

(b)  It  accounts  for  the  fact  that  wide-angled  objectives  will  show  the 
results  better  than  narrow-angled  ones ;  similarly  it  shows  why  wide 
cones  are  more  favourable  than  narrow  ones  for  the  production  of  the 
appearances. 

(c)  It  allows  for  the  alteration  of  appearances  due  to  spherical 
aberration,  tube-length,  &c.  It  can  also  be  shown  to  harmonise  with 
those  changes  at  different  foci  caused  by  diffraction. 

*  Tom.  cit.  (April  1902)  pp.  261-5  (5  figs.). 


370  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

(d)  It  accounts  for  the  appearances  of  edges  of  a  transparent  object,, 
and  of  transparent  isolated  objects,  as  bacilli,  &c. 

(e)  The  dimensions  of  the  perforations,  particularly  the  relation  of 
depth  to  width,  account  in  the  simplest  way  for  the  fact  that  sometimes 
the  white  dot  is  seen  above  and  the  black  below,  sometimes  vice  versa. 
It  is  simply  a  matter  of  an  extra  reflection  at  the  wall. 

(/)  Different  dimensions  of  the  perforations  explain  the  varying 
vertical  distances  between  the  black  aud  white  dots  seen  in  different 
diatoms  on  the  same  slide. 

(g)  Lastly,  the  existence  of  patches  on  a  diatom  showing  reverse 
order  of  the  black  and  white  dots  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  difference 
of  refractive  index  of  the  gum  or  other  medium  in  which  that  portion 
of  the  dir.toin  forming  the  patch  is  immersed. 

B.  Technique."" 
CD   Collecting-  Objects,  including-  Culture  Processes. 

Cultivation  of  Anaerobic  Bacteria,  j — Dr.  Hammerl  has  elaborated 
a  method  for  completely  eliminating  oxygen  from  anaerobic  cultivations, 
and  of  obtaining  oxygen-free  nutrient  media.  Taking  advantage  of  the 
fact  that  solutions  of  methylen-blue  are  colourless  if  every  trace  of 
oxygen  is  removed  therefrom,  he  used  this  substance  as  an  indicator, 
and  added  small  quantities  to  his  glucose-formate  nutrient  media.  By 
prolonged  heating  in  a  water-bath  or  steamer  he  found  he  was  able  to 
drive  off  the  dissolved  oxygen  from  the  depths  of  the  medium  in  the 
tubes,  although  a  coloured  ring,  some  1*5  cm.  broad,  at  the  upper  part 
indicated  the  presence  of  oxygen  at  the  surface. 

On  testing  the  various  methods  in  general  use  for  the  production  of 
a  condition  of  anaerobiosis  by  means  of  the  methylen-blue,  all  were 
found  to  be  defective,  traces  at  least  of  oxygen  always  being  present  in 
the  media.  He  then  employed  fresh  solutions  of  ammonium  sulphate 
as  the  deoxidising  agent.  This  substance  does  not  inhibit  the  growth 
of  bacteria,  and  if  freshly  prepared  in  the  manner  described  by  the 
author,  gives  highly  satisfactory  and  concordant  results. 

The  method  described  for  preparing  the  fresh  ammonium  sulphate 
is  as  follows  : — Fill  100  to  150  ccm.  distilled  water  into  a  stoppered 
measuring  cylinder,  replace  the  stopper  by  a  cotton- wool  plug,  and 
sterilise  in  the  steamer  together  with  a  piece  of  glass  tubing  long  enough 
to  reach  to  the  bottom  of  the  measure,  and  some  rubber  tubing.  When 
cool  connect  the  glass  tube  to  a  reservoir  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas 
by  means  of  the  rubber  tubing,  and  pass  the  gas  through  the  sterile 
water  in  the  measuring  cylinder  for  five  or  six  minutes.  Now  fill  exactly 
10  ccm.  of  the  H.,S  water  into  each  of  several  test-tubes  (6  or  8),  and 
add  to  the  first  tube  2  drops  of  a  1  p.c.  solution  of  ammonia,  to  the 
second  4  drops,  and  so  on,  shaking  each  thoroughly  to  mix  the  contents. 
Finally  add  3  drops  of  a  concentrated  alcoholic  solution  of  methylen- 
blue  to  each  tube,  and  note  the  length  of  time  required  to  decolorise  the 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Pro- 
cesses ;  (2)  Preparing  Objects  ;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes  ; 
C-t)  Staining  and  Injecting  ;  (5)  Mounting,  including  slides,  preservative  fluids,  &c. ; 
(6)  Miscellaneous.   *       f  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  658-61. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY/,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  371 

mixture.  That  number  of  drops  of  ammonia  (probably  between  4  and 
8)  whicb  decolorises  the  metbylen-blue  in  from  £  to  1  minute  is  taken 
as  the  standard,  and  the  necessary  quantity  calculated  on  this  basis  is 
added  to  the  remainder  of  the  sterile  H2S  water  in  the  measuring 
cylinder.  After  thoroughly  mixing,  this  NH4HS  solution  is  added  to 
each  of  the  tubes  of  nutrient  media  iu  the  proportion  of  1  :  10. 

Isolation  of  the  Typhoid  Bacillus.* — Dr.  A.  Moore  recommends  a 
modified  Eisner  agar  medium  for  isolating  the  typhoid  bacillus.  500 
grm.  of  potato  are  scraped  on  a  grater,  and  then  macerated  in  a  litre  of 
water  for  3  or  4  hours,  strained  and  allowed  to  stand  overnight.  Next 
morning  the  supernatant  fluid  is  decanted  off  and  the  volume  made  up  to 
1000  ccm.  The  liquid  is  then  rendered  distinctly  alkaline  and  20  grm. 
of  agar  added.  The  process  is  then  continued  as  for  ordinary  agar. 
When  sterile  the  medium  is  distributed  into  test-tubes,  10  ccm.  in  each, 
and  immediately  before  use  0*5  of  the  following  solution  is  added  to 
each  tube: — Potassium  iodide  10  grm.,  water  50  ccm.  The  agar  tubes 
thus  contain  1  p.c.  of  potassium  iodide.  Plates  made  with  this  medium 
were  sown  with  mixed  cultures  of  the  typhoid  and  coli  bacilli  and  incu- 
bated for  24  hours  at  37°.  After  this  interval  examination  under  a  low 
power  showed  that  the  typhoid  colonies  were  clear,  transparent,  with 
irregular  clean-cut  margins,  while  the  coli  colonies  were  larger,  rounded, 
and  opaque.  By  this  procedure  typhoid  bacilli  were  isolated  in  pure 
culture  from  numerous  artificial  mixtures,  from  old  typhoid  dejecta,  and 
from  cockles  suspected  of  causing  an  outbreak  of  typhoid  fever. 

The  author  also  describes  experiments  with  W-shaped  tubes  contain- 
ing Parietti's  serum-gelatin.  Though  successful  for  isolating  any  given 
strain  of  colon  bacillus  the  method  failed  when  applied  to  mixtures  of 
different  strains,  and  though  possessing  a  certain  value,  was  abandoned 
for  the  method  given  above. 

Medium  for  Isolating1  Typhoid  Bacilli,  f  —  V.  Drigalski  and  H. 
Conradi  have  constructed  the  following  medium  for  isolating  typhoid 
bacilli.  (1)  3  lb.  of  beef  are  macerated  in  two  litres  of  water  for  24 
hours.  The  beef  extract  is  then  boiled  for  an  hour,  and  after  having 
been  filtered,  20  grm.  pepton,  20  grm.  nutrose,  and  10  grm.  salt  are  added. 
The  mixture  is  then  boiled  for  an  hour,  and  after  filtration  20  grm.  of 
the  best  agar  are  added.  After  boiling  for  3  hours  the  solution  is 
rendered  alkaline,  filtered,  and  boiled  for  h  hour. 

(2)  260  ccm.  of  litmus  solution  (Kubel-Tiemann)  are  boiled  for  10 
minutes,  and  then  30  grm.  of  chemically  pure  lactic  acid  are  added.  This 
mixture  is  boiled  for  15  minutes. 

(3)  The  two  foregoing  solutions,  while  still  quite  hot,  are  mixed 
together,  and  having  been  well  shaken,  4  ccm.  of  a  hot  sterile  solution  of 
10  per.  cent,  crystalline  soda  and  20  ccm.  of  a  freshly  prepared  solution 
of  0-1  grm.  crystal  violet  B.  Hochst,  in  100  ccm.  of  warm  distilled 
water,  are  added.     Plates  are  then  made  in  the  usual  way. 

The  authors  claim  that  a  diagnosis  of  typhoid  can  be  made  by  means 
of  this  medium  always  within  24  hours,  the  typhoid  colonies  being  blue 
and  quite  transparent  while  the  coli  colonies  are  red  and  opaque. 

*  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  1902,  i.  pp.  703-4  (1  fig.). 

t  Zeitachr.  Hyg.  u.  Iufekt.,  sxxix.  (1902)  pp.  283-300  (1  flg.)- 


372  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Adhesion-Cultures.* — P.  Lindner  describes  the  following  method  for 
examining  mixed  vegetations  in  artificial  or  natural  media.  A  thin  layer 
of  the  cultivation  fluid  is  spread  all  over  the  under  side  of  the  cover- 
glass.  The  slip  is  then  placed  over  the  hollow  of  a  grouncl-out  slide 
and  ringed  round  with  vaselin. 

Should  it  be  desired  to  cut  off  or  diminish  the  air-supply  to  this 
culture,  another  cover-slip  of  slightly  less  size  is  put  over  the  film  so 
that  the  medium  is  shut  in  between  two  glass  surfaces.  Over  the  drop 
culture  this  method  has  the  special  advantage  of  causing  the  vegetation 
to  spread  out  in  one  plane  so  that  the  growth  can  be  readily  inspected 
and  photographed. 

(2)  Preparing  Objects. 

Fixing  and  Staining  Trypanosoma.!— J.  R.  Bradford  and  H.  G. 
Plimmer  made  films  by  placing  a  small  drop  of  the  infected  blood  in  one 
corner  of  a  slide  or  of  a  slip,  spreading  it  with  a  piece  of  goldbeater's 
skin,  held  in  a  pair  of  forceps.  The  edge  should  be  quite  straight  and 
the  width  a  little  less  than  that  of  the  slip.  The  best  fixative  results 
were  obtained  from  the  vapour  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  2  p.c.  osmic 
acid  and  glacial  acetic  acid,  though  10  parts  formalin  with  90  parts 
absolute  alcohol  give  very  good  results.  Fixation  by  this  latter  mixture 
takes  5-10  minutes,  after  which  the  film  must  be  well  washed  and  then 
dried.  The  stains  used  were  methylen-blue  and  erythrosin.  The 
methylen-blue  was  a  1  p.c.  M.B.  med.  pur.  (Hochst)  to  which  0*5  p.c. 
potassium  carbonate  was  added  and  the  mixture  incubated  at  87°  for  48 
hours.  When  cold  it  is  filtered  and  is  then  ready  for  use.  The  ery- 
throsin (tetraiodide  of  fluorescein)  was  used  in  0*001  p.c.  solution  with 
0*25  p.c.  formalin  to  prevent  growth  of  moulds.  When  required  for 
use,  20  ccm.  of  distilled  water  are  put  into  each  of  two  beakers,  to  one  of 
which  are  added  20  drops  of  the  erythrosin  solution,  and  to  the  other  6 
to  8  drops  of  the  methylen-blue  solution.  The  solutions  are  then  mixed 
and  poured  into  a  flat  dish  in  which  the  slides  or  slips  to  be  stained  have 
been  already  placed.  In  about  20  minutes  the  preparations  are  washed 
in  distilled  water  till  no  more  colour  comes  away,  and  are  then  allowed 
to  dry  in  the  air.  No  heat  must  be  used  for  drying,  otherwise  the  red 
colour  will  entirely  disappear.  They  are  then  mounted,  preferably  in 
turpentine  colophonium. 

Method  for  Fixing  Blood-Preparations.  J — Lenoble  and  Dominici 
expose  the  films  to  the  vapour  disengaged  from  a  solution  composed  of 
perchloride  of  mercury  and  iodine,  and  stain  with  the  Ehrlich  triacid 
mixture.  The  fixative  maybe  used  in  two  strengths:  —  (1)  Saturated 
solution  of  sublimate  in  40  grm.  of  alcohol  to  which  6  grm.  of  tincture 
of  iodine  are  added.  (2)  Saturated  solution  of  sublimate  in  35  grm.  of 
alcohol  and  15  grm.  of  tincture  of  iodine. 

Method  for  Fixing  and  Staining  Haematopoietic  Tissue.  §  — 
Dominici  fixes  the  material  in  a  medium  which  has  for  its  basis  a  mix- 
ture of  alcoholic  solution  of  iodine  and  aqueous  solution  of  sublimate. 

*  Wochenschr.  f.  Brauerei,  xviii.  pp.  512-4.  See  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2t0  Abt.,  viii. 
(1902)  p.  2S6.  t  Quart,  Jouvn.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlv.  pp.  449-71  (2  pis.). 

%  C.R.  Soe.  Biol,  de  Paris,  liv.  (1902)  pp.  223-5.  §  Tom.  cat.,  pp.  221-3. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  373 

To  this  stock-fluid  may  be  added  formalin,  chromic  acid,  Fleniming's 
fluid,  osmic  acid,  &c. 

The  stains  used  are  eosin  and  orange  G,  1  grm.  each  to  200  of 
distilled  water.  The  preparations  are  washed  in  60  p.c.  alcohol,  after 
which  they  are  stained  in  toluidin-blue,  1  grm.  to  200  of  water.  After 
decolorising  in  60  p.c.  alcohol  and  dehydrating  in  absolute  alcohol,  the 
preparations  are  mounted  in  xylol-balsam. 

Fixation  of  Polychseta  Embryos.* — A.  Soulier  when  studying  the 
early  phases  of  the  embryology  of  Serpida,  fixed  artificially  fecundated 
ova  at  various  stages  of  maturation  with  various  fluids.  Of  those  which 
contain  osmic  acid,  Flemming,  Fol's,  and  Cori's  proved  to  give  only 
moderately  successful  results.  Much  more  satisfactory  were  the  mix- 
tures known  as  Gilson's,  Roule's,  and  Eipart  et  Petit's,  Gilson's  fluid 
is  composed  of  nitric  acid  78  ccm.,  glacial  acetic  acid  22  ccm.,  sublimate 
100  grm.,  alcohol  60  p.c.  500  ccm.,  distilled  water  4400  ccm.  Roule's 
fluid  is  a  mixture  of  saturated  solution  of  sublimate  80  ccm.,  and  glacial 
acetic  acid  20  ccm.  Eipart  et  Petit's  fluid  contains  chloride  of  copper 
0*3  grm.,  acetate  of  copper  0*8  grm.,  glacial  acetic  acid  1  grm.,  dis- 
tilled water  150  grm.  One  volume  of  any  of  these  fixatives  is  mixed 
with  three  volumes  of  sea-water  containing  the  ova.  Their  use  does 
not  necessitate  a  prolonged  washing,  and  they  do  not  interfere  with  the 
action  of  staining  solutions. 

Examining  Nervous  System  of  Sipunculus  nudus.f — For  examin- 
ing Sipunculus  nudus  in  the  fresh  condition  H.  von  Mack  obtained  un- 
contracted  specimens  by  adding  at  intervals  75  p.c.  alcohol  to  the  sea- 
water  in  which  the  animals  were  kept.  1  p.c.  cocain  solution  was  also 
very  effective.  For  teasing-out  or  maceration-preparations  Muller's 
fluid  and  nitric  acid  were  used.  Treatment  with  the  former  required 
several  weeks,  the  tissue  being  afterwards  stained  with  haematoxylin  ; 
with  the  latter  in  20  p.c.  solution  24  hours  were  sufficient,  the  pieces 
being  afterwards  washed  with  distilled  water  for  24  hours  and  then, 
having  been  mordanted  with  alum,  stained  with  haematoxylin. 

For  sectioning  pieces  of  tissue  1  cm.  long,  several  fixatives  were 
used,  e.g.  saturated  solution  of  sublimate  in  0*5-0*7  p.c.  salt  solution 
(15-20  hours),  or  Apathy's  sublimate-alcohol  (16-24  hours).  After 
either  of  these,  washing  in  water,  then  graded  alcohols  (30  p.c,  50  p.c, 
70  p.c),  and  Apathy's  alcoholic  iodopotassic  iodide  to  96  p.c.  alcohol. 
This  avoids  the  red  precipitate  of  iodide  of  mercury  which  is  deposited 
when  the  aqueous  iodopotassic  iodide  is  employed.  Other  fixatives 
used  were  equal  volumes  of  1  p.c.  osmic  acid  and  the  salt-sublimate 
solution;  \  p.c.  osmic  acid  in  sea-water;  Flemming's  mixture  and 
Tellyesnicky's  fluid  (acetic  acid  and  bichromate  of  potassium). 

The  material  was  stained  en  masse  in  very  dilute  Delafield's  haema- 
toxylin, in  Apathy's  haematein  solution  I. A.,  and  by  a  combination  of 
the  two  fluids.  The  first  of  these  was  TV_5V  0I  the  aqueous  or  alcoholic 
(30  p.c.)  solution  of  Delafield's  haematoxylin.  Duration  6-8  days,  after 
which  distilled  water  and  then  dehydration  in  absolute  alcohol.  The 
Apathy's  solution  took  5  days ;  the  pieces  being  afterwards  washed  in 

*  Mem.  Acad.  Sci.  et  Lett.  Montpelier,  iii.  (1901)  pp.  1-7  (4  pis.), 
t  Arb.  Zool.  Inst.  Wien,  xiii.  (1902)  pp.  237-33i  (5  pis.). 


374  SUMMAEY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

distilled  water  and  then  dehydrated  as  quickly  as  possible  in  absolute 
alcohol,  as  this  extracts  the  colour.  The  third  procedure  was  to  stain 
first  for  a  few  days  with  Delafield  and  follow  this  with  Apathy's  haema- 
tein.  The  sections  were  differentiated  in  1  per  thousand  hydrochloric 
acid-alcohol.  The  plasma  stains  used  were  acid  rubin,  differentiated 
or  not  with  acetic  acid-alcohol  or  with  picric  acid.  For  double  staining, 
borax-carmine  and  bleu  de  Lyon.  After  fixation  with  osmic  acid  the 
sections  are  examinable  without  staining,  though  safranin  was  employed 
in  some  cases.  For  differentiating  nerve-fibrils  Apathy's  gilding  method 
was  used. 

Preparation  of  Radulse.* — K.  Diederichs  remarks  that  snails  are 
best  killed  with  boiling  water,  and  after  removal  of  superfluous  parts, 
the  head  should  be  boiled  in  caustic  potash  solution  until  the  soft  tissues 
can  be  easily  removed  from  the  radula.  When  thoroughly  clean  the 
preparation  may  be  mounted  in  glycerin  or  in  isinglass  jelly.  If 
mounted  in  balsam  the  preparation  should  be  stained  with  some  picro- 
carmin  solution,  for  which  the  formulae  given  in  the  April  number  are 
suitable.f 

Fixing  and  Staining  Phycochromacese.J  —  R-  Hegler  fixed  the 
material  with  saturated  aqueous  sulphurous  acid  7  parts ;  94  p.c. 
alcohol  93  parts,  and  after  12-14  hours  washed  it  in  alcohol.  If  there 
were  much  lime,  he  washed  in  running  water  or  even  fixed  with  5  p.c. 
saturated  ^02  solution,  95  p.c.  distilled  water. 

Formalin-alcohol  (40  p.c.  formalin  5  p.c.  and  94  p.c.  alcohol  95  p.c), 
afterwards  washing  with  50  p.c.  alcohol,  sometimes  gave  good  results. 

The  fixed  material  was  imbedded  in  paraffin  and  sections  made,  or 
a  small  piece  was  squeezed  flat  between  two  cover-glasses.  These 
preparations  were  placed  in  50,  75,  and  94  p.c.  alcohol,  and  then  after 
some  days  the  cover-glasses  were  separated  and  placed  in  a  mixture  of 
2  parts  absolute  alcohol,  1  part  glycerin,  and  1  part  water.  A  third 
method  was  to  make  cover-glass  films  and  preserve  in  the  above- 
mentioned  mixture. 

The  following  methods  gave  the  sharper  staining  of  the  central 
body  : — Dissolve  ammonia-alum  75  in  water  750,  and  add  glycerin  125, 
alcohol  100,  saturated  alcoholic  solution  of  hematoxylin  25.  Expose 
to  light  for  several  weeks  and  stain  with  10  vols,  to  100  vols.  1  p.c. 
formalin  for  24  hours.  Wash  for  24  hours  in  running  water,  and 
differentiate  in  saturated  alcoholic  solution  of  picric  acid  1  vol.,  water 
1  vol.,  alcohol  (94  p.c.)  2  vols,  for  a  few  seconds,  wash  in  75  p.c.  alcohol 
and  examine  under  Microscope.  Instead  of  picric  acid,  1  per  thousand 
hydrochloric  acid  in  60  p.c.  alcohol  may  be  used.  After  differentiation 
the  preparations  are  washed  till  they  become  blue,  after  which  alcohol, 
toluol,  dammar. 

Another  method  is  to  fix  in  S02  alcohol,  immerse  for  2-4  hours  in 
1  •  5  p.c.  iron-alum  solution,  and  then,  without  rinsing  in  water,  to  treat 
with  the  following  for  at  least  24  hours: — 1  grm.  hematoxylin,  200 
water,  4  ccm.  formalin  (shake  and  filter).     The  preparations  are  next 

*  Zeitschr.  angew.  Mikr.,  vii.  (1901)  pp.  29-30  (1  pi.). 

t  See  ante,  p.  255. 

%  Jahrb.  wiss.  Bot.,  xxxvi.  (1901)  pp.  319-25  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


375 


washed  in  running  water  for  an  hour.  Any  surface  deposit  is  removed 
bv  means  of  1  per  thousand  HOI  alcohol.  Differentiation  with  0*5  p.c. 
iron-ammonia-alum  solution  or  with  hydrochloric  and  alcohol  or  picric 
and  alcohol.     Next  frequent  washing,  and  mouuting  as  hefore. 

Preparing  Liver  of  Mollusca.*  —  P.  Enriques  experienced  much 
difficulty  in  fixing  tho  liver  of  Mollusca,  especially  in  warm  weather. 
Most  of  the  ordinary  fixatives  have  a  solvent  action  on  these  organs, 
so  that  the  cells  disappear  and  the  hepatic  framework  only  remains. 
The  most  satisfactory  fixatives  appear  to  have  been,  saturated  aqueous 
solution  of  sublimate  in  0  ■  5-1  p.c.  NaCl  and  in  5  p.c.  acetic  acid  ; 
chrom-osmic-acetic  acid  and  Miiller's  fluid.  By  partially  drying  in  the 
air  fresh  tissue,  and  then  imbedding  in  gum  and  glycerin  or  in  syrup 
and  glycerin,  decent  sections  were  obtained.  If  these  sections  had  to 
be  treated  with  aqueous  fluids  they  were  stuck  on  the  slide  with  a 
solution  of  gelatin  at  50°-60°.  The  best  staining  results  were  given  by 
haemalum  and  thionin. 


(3)  Cutting-,  including-  Imbedding  and  Microtomes. 

Standing's  Imbedding  Microtome.  —  This  microtome  (fig.  89), 
made  by  Messrs.  E.  and  J.  Beck,  consists  of  a  ball  of  wood  surmounted 
by  a  tube,  in  the  interior  of  which 
the  object  to  be  cut  is  imbedded. 
Over  the  tube  is  screwed  a  small 
table  which  is  lowered  to  the  requisite 
amount  to  cut  the  section.  In  the 
centre  of  the  ball  is  a  plug,  by  means 
of  which  the  specimen  is  located  in 
a  convenient  position  preparatory  to 
cutting.  The  whole  of  the  upper 
portion  being  removable,  the  imbed- 
ding can  be  filled  in  from  below. 

Slide-Brake  of  Jung's  Micro- 
tome, t  —  This  is  an  accessory  in- 
vented by  the  Heidelberg  firm,  with 
the  assistance  of  Prof.  Heidenhain, 
for  increasing  the  stability  of  the 
It  had  been  found  that, 
to  the  thickness  of  the  oil- 
layer  or  in  the  case  of  sections  of 
unusual  size  or  hardness,  the  section 
thicknesses  were  not  perfectly  uni- 
form and  sometimes  exhibited  varia-  Fig.  89. 
tions  of  0 '  5  fx.     The  contrivance  for 

rectifying  this  is  called  the  slide-brake  (Schlitlenbremse)  and  will  be 
understood  from  the  following  description : — On  each  slide-track  there 
is  now  attached  a  bar  (a,  fig.  90),  and  the  slide  c  runs  along  and 
presses  upon  this  by  the  into  position  of  a  reel,  or  roller,  b.  This  roller 
is  fastened  to  the  slide,  not  directly,  but  in  the  following  way  (fig.  91). 

*  Mittheil.  Zool.  Stat.  Neapel,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  281-407  (3  pis.). 
t  Xeitschr.  f.  wis*.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1901)  pp.  138-40  (2  figs.). 


slide-gea 


owing 


376  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Fig.  90. 


Fig.  91. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  377 

A  two-armed  lever  d  e  is  secured  to  the  underside  of  the  slide,  and  to 
one  end  of  the  lever  the  roller  is  applied  ;  on  the  other  end  (fig.  90) 
acts,  by  means  of  a  bolt  /,  a  strong  spiral  spring  g,  which  can  be 
tightened  or  relaxed  by  a  screw  (h,  figs.  90  and  91).  Screw,  spring, 
and  bolt  lie  in  a  perforated  canal  in  the  lower  massive  part  of  the  slide. 
When  the  spring  is  tightened  by  the  screw,  the  roller  can  therefore  be 
raised  and  pressed  as  tightly  as  desired  against  the  bar.  The  effect  is 
to  totally  deprive  the  slide  of  anything  like  loose  play.  The  spring 
pressure  can  obviously  be  varied  at  pleasure,  and  the  slide  can  therefore 
be  regulated  as  circumstances  require.  A  secondary  result  is  an  in- 
creased pressure  on  the  micrometer  screw,  which  has  therefore  needed 
some  strengthening.  This  slide-brake  can  be  applied  to  existing 
microtomes  of  the  Jung  type. 

Apparatus  for  Imbedding  in  Paraffin.* — Dr.  P.  Meissner  describes 
a  useful  apparatus  for  imbedding  objects  in  paraffin.  It  consists  of  a 
tank  made  of  copper  with  a  well  sunk  in  at  the  top.  The  well  is  for 
the  reception  of  a  rectangular  bath,  and  into  the  latter  fits  a  wire  cage 
in  which  the  paper  moulds  are  placed.  Level  with  the  bottom  of  the 
well  is  a  pipe  which  connects  by  means  of  rubber  tubing  with  a  tank 
containing  cold  water.  After  the  specimens  have  been  satisfactorily 
oriented  the  paraffin  is  made  to  set  by  letting  the  cold  water  flow  into 
the  well.  This  device  prevents  the  formation  of  air-bubbles.  The 
pan  or  paraffin  bath  is  then  lifted  out  of  the  well  and  hung  up  outside 
the  bath  on  the  arms  of  two  supports  fixed  to  the  top  of  the  tank  until 
the  paraffin  is  completely  set. 

Rapid  Method  of  making  Permanent  Preparations  of  Frozen  Sec- 
tions. |  —  J.  H.  Wright  makes  preparations  fully  equal  to  paraffin  or 
celloidin  sections  by  the  following  procedure  : — A  piece  of  tissue  not 
exceeding  5  mm.  in  thickness  is  placed  for  2  hours  or  more  in  10  p.c. 
formalin,  or  may  be  boiled  therein  for  2  or  3  minutes.  The  sections 
made  with  a  freezing  microtome  are  floated  on  to  a  slide,  and  after  the 
superfluous  water  has  been  run  off  are  covered  with  a  piece  of  cigarette 
paper.  On  this  is  placed  a  pad  of  filter  paper,  moistened  with  95  p.c. 
alcohol,  and  after  pressure  has  been  applied  the  pad  and  cigarette  paper 
are  removed.  The  section  is  then  flooded  with  absolute  alcohol,  and 
after  this  has  been  drained  off  a  very  thin  solution  of  celloidin  is 
allowed  to  run  over  the  surface  of  the  section  to  adjacent  parts  of  the 
slide.  After  draining  off  any  superfluous  celloidin  solution,  the  slide 
is  flooded  with  95  p.c.  alcohol,  and  then  at  once  plunged  in  water  for 
10  seconds.  The  section  may  now  be  stained  by  any  method.  It  is 
then  dehydrated  in  95  p.c.  alcohol,  followed  by  a  little  absolute  alcohol, 
after  which  it  is  cleared  with  oil  of  origanum  and  mounted  in  balsam. 
Alcohol  or  Zenker's  fluid  may  be  used  for  fixing  instead  of  formalin, 
but  then  the  piece  of  tissue  must  be  thoroughly  washed  in  water  to 
remove  the  fixative. 

This  method  not  only  prevents  distortion  of  the  section  by  de- 
hydrating and  clearing  agents,  but  it  also  saves  much  time,  and  a  dia- 
gnosis may  be  made  within  a  few  minutes  after  the  specimen  is  received. 

*  Zeitschr.  wise.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1902)  pp.  2S6-8  (1  fig.). 

f  Mallory  and  Wright,  Pathological  Technique,  Philadelphia,  1901,  p.  417.  See 
Journ.  App.  Microscopy,  v.  (1902)  pp.  1670-1. 


378  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

(4)  Staining  and  Injecting. 

Staining  Malaria  Parasites.* — G.  Giemsa  contends  that  methylen- 
azur  is  the  effective  agent  in  the  solutions  used  for  staining  malaria 
parasites,  and  that  the  part  played  by  the  eosin  salts  of  methylen-blue 
and  metbylcn-violet  has  been  much  overrated.  He  mixes  together 
19  ccrn.  of  0*005  p.c.  eosin  (Hochst)  solution  and  1  ccm.  of  0*08  p.c. 
solution  of  agar.  The  staining  takes  only  a  few  minutes,  and  the  pre- 
parations only  require  to  be  washed  in  water. 

Method  for  Washing,  Staining,  and  Dehydrating  Small  Speci- 
mens. "]■  —  The  apparatus  used  by  J.  E.  Slonaker  for  dehydrating, 
washing,  or  staining  small  objects  consists  of  a  circular  board  about 
12  in.  in  diameter,  on  the  radii  of  which  are  fastened  a  number  of 
trough-like  tin  pieces  for  holding  suitable  sized  vials  securely.  The 
wheel  is  made  to  revolve  slowly  (about  once  or  twice  a  minute)  in  a 
vertical  plane  by  any  desired  method,  the  writer  making  use  of  a  water 
motor  for  the  power,  and  an  old  clock  gear  to  reduce  the  speed. 

Intra  vitam  Staining  of  Fungi4 — J.  Plato  and  H.  Guth  record  the 
appearances  observed  from  intra  vitam  staining  of  Penicillium  brevi- 
caule  and  some  Trichophyta.  The  staining  solution  consisted  of  neutral 
red  1  to  50,000 — 10C,000  physiological  salt  solution  ;  when  used  so 
much  KHO  was  added  as  to  impart  to  the  neutral  red  solution  an  orange- 
yellow  hue.  Pieces  cut  out  of  the  margin  of  a  3  to  4  days'  old  culture 
were  placed  in  flat  capsules  containing  some  of  the  staining  solution. 
The  piece  was  examined  under  a  low  power  from  time  to  time,  and 
when  the  ends  of  the  filaments  were  found  to  be  stained  (10  minutes  to 
1  hour)  the  piece  of  culture  was  placed  on  a  slide  and  then  a  cover-glass 
applied,  some  distilled  water  being  run  under  to  prevent  the  preparation 
from  drying. 

New  Method  for  Staining  in  Bulk.§  —  A.  Spuler  uses  finely 
powdered  cochineal  boiled  in  distilled  water,  and  after  filtering  evapo- 
rates nearly  to  dryness.  The  mass  is  then  treated  with  alcohol,  filtered 
and  evaporated,  after  which  it  is  dissolved  in  distilled  water.  In  this 
solution  the  pieces  are  incubated  for  24  hours  or  longer.  They  are  then 
washed,  and  mordanted  in  a  dilute  iron-alum  bath  by  which  the  colour  is 
changed  from  red  to  black.  After  having  been  thoroughly  washed  the 
pieces  are  imbedded  and  sectioned. 

For  projection  purposes  this  procedure  is  extremely  suitable  as  the 
outlines  are  well  defined  and  the  colour  black. 

(51    Mounting,  including  Slides,  Preservative  Fluids,  &c. 

Preserving  and  Mounting  Rotifera.|| — C.  F.  R,ousselet  first  isolates 
the  rotifers,  picking  them  up  under  a  dissecting  Microscope  with  a  fine 
teat-pipette  and  then  placing  them  in  a  watch-glass  half  full  of  perfectly 

*  Centralis.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  429-30. 
t  Journ.  App.  Micr..  v.  (1902)  pp.  1645-6  (1  fig.). 

t  Zeitschr.  f.  Hygiene  u.  Infekt.,  xxxviii.  (1901)  p.  319.     See  Centralbl.  Bakt., 
lte  Abt,  xxxi.  (1902*)  p.  190. 

§  Deutsche  Med.  Wochenschr.,  xxvii.  (1901)  ver.-beil.,  p.  116. 
1|  Knowledge,  xxr.  (1902)  pp.  68  and  91. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  379 

clean  water.  The  animals  are  now  narcotised  with  (1)  2  p.c.  solution  of 
hydiochlorate  of  coeain  3  parts,  alcohol  1  part,  water  6  parts ;  or  (2) 
1  p.c.  aqueous  solution  of  hydrochloride  of  eucain.  The  narcotic  is 
added  drop  by  drop  until  the  movements  slacken  or  almost  cease,  the 
time  varying  from  15  minutes  to  several  hours,  according  to  the  species. 
The  animals  are  next  killed  and  fixed  with  ^  p.c.  osmic  acid,  with 
Flemming's  chrom-aceto-osmic  fluid,  or  with  Hermann's  platino-aceto- 
osmic  mixture,  the  preference  heiug  given  to  the  last.  One  drop  of  the 
fixative  is  sufficient.  After  a  few  minutes  the  animals  are  washed 
ssveral  times  in  clean  water,  for  marine  rotifers  sea-water  heing  used. 
The  rotifers  are  then  removed  to  2h  p.c.  formalin,  made  by  mixing 
2-5  ccm.  of  commercial  formaldehyde  with  37*5  ccm.  of  water.  In  this 
fluid  they  may  he  kept,  or  mounted  therein  in  ground-out  cells  or  in 
shallow  built-up  cells.  When  mounting,  place  a  drop  of  the  formalin 
solution  in  the  cell  and  transfer  the  rotifers.  Place  another  drop  of 
formalin  by  the  side  of  the  cell,  lower  the  cover-slip  on  this  drop,  and 
then  push  the  slip  cautiously  and  gradually  over  the  cell.  The  super- 
fluous fluid  is  removed  with  blotting-paper  and  the  cell  closed  with 
dammar  gold-size  cement.  To  do  this,  first  run  round  a  varnish  consist- 
ing of  two-thirds  dammar  in  benzol  and  one-third  gold-size,  then  two 
coats  of  pure  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol,  and  finally  4  or  5  coats  of 
pure  gold-size,  with  an  interval  of  24  hours  for  each  coat.. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Method  of  Preserving  Museum  Specimens.*  —  H.  Gait  has  found 
the  following  solution  to  give  hetter  results  than  the  Kaiserliug  fluid  for 
preserving  museum  specimens : — Common  salt  5  oz.,  potassium  nitrate 
1  oz.,  chloral  hydrate  1  oz.,  water  100  oz.  The  preliminary  treatment 
consists  in  washing  the  specimen  in  water,  and  after  properly  trimming 
it  immersing  it  in  methylated  spirits  for  a  time  corresponding  to  its 
size.     0*5  p.c.  formalin  may  be  added  to  the  spirit. 

Method  for  Demonstrating  the  Framework  of  Organs,  f  —  Dr. 
J.  M.  Flint  describes  an  extension  of  Spalteholz's  method  of  demon- 
strating the  framework  of  organs.  The  pieces  should  not  exceed  3  mm. 
in  thickness,  the  other  dimensions  being  immaterial.  The  tissue  from 
which  the  piece  is  taken  is  first  fixed  with  Van  Gehuchten's  fluid 
{glacial  acetic  acid  10  parts,  chloroform  30  parts,  ahsolute  alcohol 
60  parts),  or  with  graded  alcohols.  After  fixation,  the  tissue  is  dehy- 
drated and  then  transferred  to  ether,  and  the  fat  extracted  in  a  Soxhlet 
apparatus.  When  all  the  free  fat  has  been  removed,  the  tissue  is 
dehydrated  in  graded  alcohols,  and  then  having  been  again  washed  with 
water,  is  treated  with  pancreatin.  The  process  of  digestion  is  watched 
from  time  to  time  under  the  Microscope,  and  when  digestion  is  complete 
nothing  but  the  framework  remains.  When  this  stage  is  reached,  the 
tissue  is  washed  in  distilled  water  and  cleared  with  glycerin.  The 
framework  can  then  be  studied  with  the  stereoscopic  Microscope. 

After  a  study  of  the  framework  in  the  three  dimensions,  the  piece 
may  be  cut  up  for  permanent  preparations.     The  glycerin  is  washed 

*  Lancet,  1901,  ii.  pp.  1334-5. 

f  Johns  Hopkins  Hosp.  Bull.,  xiii.  (1902)  pp.  48-52  (1  fig.). 


380 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


out,  and  after  imbedding  in   paraffin    or  celloidin,  sections  are   made. 
These  sections  may  be  stained  and  mounted  in  various  ways. 

Burette  for  Removing-  Definite  Quantities  of  Sterile  Fluids.* — 
Dr.  St.  Epstein  describes  an  apparatus  for  removing  measured  quantities 
of  sterile  fluids.  It  consists  of  a  flask  A  (fig.  92),  fitted  with  a  cap  C. 
In  the  cap  are  two  openings,  one  for  a  side  tube  R  plugged  at  Z  with 
cotton-wool,  the  other  D,  melted  into  the  cap,  carries  a  burette  B,  the 
lower  end  of  which  can  be  closed  at  N  by  means  of  the  rod  K.  The 
lower  end  of  the  burette  is  protected  by  the  guard  M,  and  its  upper  end 


Fig.  92. 


is  plugged  with  cotton-wool  E.  The  apparatus  may  be  sterilised  with 
or  without  fluid.  By  blowing  down  tbe  tube  R  the  sterile  liquid  in  A  is 
driven  up  into  the  burette  B,  from  which  any  desired  quantity  can  be 
removed  by  raising  or  turning  the  rod  K.  After  use  the  cup-guard  M 
is  replaced  and  pressed  against  the  end  of  the  burette  which  is  vaselined. 
In  M  is  a  minute  hole  o  to  let  the  air  escape. 

"Hanging-Block"  Preparation  for  observing  developing  Bacteria.f 
— A.  W.  Hill  cuts  a  cube  of  agar  from  a  Petri  dish  of  solidified  jelly. 
The  organism  to  be  examined — taken  from  emulsions,  from  solid  cul- 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  l,e  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  335-6  (1  fig.). 

t  Proc.  Anier.  Soc.  Bacterid.     See  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  v.  (1902)  p.  1713. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


:;xi 


tures,  or  from  a  liquid  culture— is  smeared  over  the  surface  of  the  agar. 
After  drying  the  cube  at  37°  for  10  minutes,  a  cover-glass  is  applied  to 
the  inoculated  surface  and  sealed  in  place  by  running  a  little  melted 
agar  round  the  edges.  The  block  and  cover-glass  are  then  placed  over 
the  opening  in  a  moist  chamber,  the  block  lowermost,  and  the  Microscope 
focussed  upon  the  bacteria. 

Ink  for  Writing  on  Glass.* — W.  E.  Hubbert  states  that  the  ink 
used  at  the  University  of  Berne  for  writing  on  glass  is  very  satisfactory. 
It  consists  of  a  mixture  of  3  parts  of  a  13  p.c.  solution  of  shellac  in 
alcohol  in  the  cold  and  5  parts  of  the  same  strength  solution  of  borax 
in  distilled  water.  The  solutions  are  mixed  a  drop  at  a  time,  and  if 
a  precipitate  form  the  mixture  is  heated  until  clear.  Methylen-blue  is 
added  to  colour  it  a  deep  blue. 

New  Reversible  Live-Box.  —  The  live-box  (fig.  93)  exhibited  by 
Mr.  T.  D.  Ersser  at  the  Meeting  on  April  16th,  is  specially  intended 
for  showing  under  the  Microscope  spiders  building  their  webs  ;  it  is 
also  adapted  for  a  lantern-slide,  the  images  being  clearly  defined  when 
thrown  on  the  screen. 

The    apparatus    consists  of  two  brass  plates  with   a   circular   box 


Fig.  93. 


attachment  to  each,  the  one  fitting  over  the  other.  A  screw  S,  tapped 
into  the  inner  box,  passes  through  a  slot  cut  in  the  outer  one,  thus 
keeping  the  two  rings  taut  and  in  position.  The  box  attachments 
when  closed  in  with  thin  glass  form  a  cell,  the  diameter  of  which  is 
1^  in.  and  the  depth  §  in.  They  can  bs  unscrewed  for  the  purpose  of 
replacing  the  cover-glass  Cg. 

Cattle  Plague.f  —  M.  Nicolle  and  Adil-Bey,  continuing  their  re- 
searches on  rinderpest,  offer  some  general  observations  on  the  factors 
concerned  in  the  filtration  of  fluids  containing  bacteria,  such  as  the 
thickness  and  porosity  of  the  filter  bougie,  the  temperature  and  pressure 
at  Avhich  the  operation  is  conducted,  the  medium  in  which  the  organisms 
are  suspended  and  the  degree  of  concentration,  and  also  the  biological 
characters  of  the  organisms  with  respect  to  size  and  motility.  Under 
the  terra  Plasmisation  the  authors  describe  an  ingenious  method  of 
clearing  turbid  fluid  as  a  preliminary  to  filtration.  Plasmisation  con- 
sists of  the  addition  to  any  turbid  fluid  of  one-tenth  of  its  volume  of 
horse's  plasma  (obtained  by  refrigerating  the  blood),  mixing  the  fluids 


*  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  v.  (1902)  p.  1680. 

f  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  56-64. 


June  18th,  1902 


2  c 


382 


SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


intimately,  and  allowing  coagulation  to  take  place ;  the  resulting  clot 
carries  clown  the  suspended  particles  and  allows  the  clear  fluid  to  be 
decanted  off. 

As  the  result  of  their  numerous  experiments  with  the  filtrates  of 
various  infective  materials,  e.g.  brain  emulsion,  peritoneal  fluid,  faeces, 
&c,  the  authors  conclude  that  the  specific  micro-organism  of  rinderpest 
is  "  invisible  " — that  it  is  too  minute  to  be  detected  with  any  of  the 
present  combinations  of  microscopical  lenses,  or  to  be  demonstrated  by 
any  known  method  of  staining  ;  and  further,  that  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions the  walls  of  the  porcelain  filter  candle,  Berkfeld 
,  or   Chamberland,    do    not    offer   any   resistance    to    its 

./  \  passage. 

\  The    authors   further    suggest    that    this   organism 

/     i  habitually  occurs  within  the  bodies  of  the  leucocytes, 

!  <*  and  cite  the  observations  of  Kolle,  who  centrifugalised 

defibrinated  virulent  blood,  and  proved  that  whilst  the 
serum  thus  obtained  was  inactive,  the  deposit  remained 
virulent. 

Trocar  for  the  Aseptic  Collection  of  Portions  of 
Tumours.* — Dr.  Cohn  has  devised  what  appears  to  be 
an  extremely  useful  instrument  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
moving portions  of  tumours,  &c.  for  bacteriological 
examination. 

It  consists  of  a  metal  trocar  and  cannula  (see  fig.  94), 
the  former  having  a  small  cavity  a  with  cutting  edges, 
excavated  from  the  metal  just  above  its  point,  the  cavity 
being  concealed  in  the  cannula  e,  which  in  turn  carries 
a  movable  disc  b.  The  latter  is  clamped  by  the  screw  c, 
to  regulate  the  depth  of  penetration  of  the  point  of  the 
instrument.  Sterilisation  is  easily  effected  either  by 
boiling  or  by  hot  air.  In  using  the  instrument  the 
point  is  plunged  into  the  tumour,  a  half-turn  of  the 
handle  releases  a  small  bayonet-catch  d,  running  in  a 
slot  in  the  cannula,  and  allows  the  point  of  the  instru- 
ment to  be  protruded  beyond  the  end  of  the  cannula 
sufficiently  to  expose  the  cavity  (as  indicated  by  the 
dotted  lines),  into  which  some  of  the  tissue  naturally 
finds  its  way.  Drawing  back  the  handle  of  the  instru- 
Fig.  94.  ment  and  returning  the  knob  to  its  original   position 

cuts  off  the  enclosed  piece  of  tissue,  and  at  the  same 
time  protects  it  from  accidental  contamination  when  the  instrument  is 
finally  removed  from  the  tumour. 

Properties  of  Steel  Castings.f  —  J.  O.Arnold  has  undertaken  re- 
searches to  ascertain  the  best  standard  composition  for  steel  castings, 
and  gives,  by  way  of  instalment,  the  results  of  his  examination  of 
nearly  pure  carbon-irons.  Many  specimens  of  such  steels,  as  cast  and 
as  annealed,  were  tested.  He  concludes  that  pure  iron  and  carbon  steel 
is  not  a  suitable  material  for  fulfilling  the  modern  specifications  drafted 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  625-6. 
t  Metallographist,  v.  (1902)  pp.  2-24  (13  figs.). 


Cow*5 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  383 

by  engineers  for  steel  castings.  With  iron  and  carbon  castings  the 
ductility  demanded  can  be  ensured  with  ease,  but  with  such  ductility 
it  is  impossible  to  correlate  the  required  tenacity.  The  latter  property, 
it  is  true,  can  be  obtained  from  iron  and  carbon  castings,  but  at  the 
expense  of  an  almost  complete  loss  of  ductility. 

Alloys  of  Copper  and  Tin.* — W.  Campbell,  in  a  paper  read  before 
the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  f  divides  these  alloys  into 
seven  classes  according  to  their  percentage  of  copper.  The  paper  is 
illustrated  by  an  excellent  series  of  photographs,  from  which  it  appears 
that  the  branch  e  in  the  Roberts-Austen  freezing-point  curve  of  copper- 
tin  alloys  must  be  one  of  change  in  the  solid.  When  the  many  and 
distinct  different  structures  in  the  series,  produced  by  quenching  at 
different  temperatures,  and  by  reheating  and  then  quenching,  are  con- 
sidered, it  is  quite  evident  that  the  changes  which  take  place  during  the 
cooling  of  a  copper-tin  alloy,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
second  eutectic,  are  even  more  numerous  than  those  of  the  carbon- 
irons. 

Bibliography. 

Grijns,  G. — Eine  einfache  Vorrichtung,  tim  zu  verhindern,  dass  beim  Gebrauch 
des  Briitapparates  fur  konstante  niedrige  Temperatur,  System  Lautenschlager, 
wenn  das  Eis  im  Behalter  ausgeht,  das  ungektihlte  Wasser  in  den  kalten 
Schrank  fliesst. 

CentraTbl.  Bald.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  XXXI.  (1902)  pp.  430-2  (3  figs.). 

Hunziker,  O.  F. — Review  of  existing  Methods  for  Cultivating  Anaerobic  Bacteria. 

Journ.  App.  Micr.,  V.  (1902)  pp.  1(594-7,  1741-58,  1800-13  (54  figs.). 

Kaiser,  W. — Die  Technik  des  modernen  Mikroskopes.     2.  ganzlich  umgearbeitete 

Auflage,  8vo,  mit  vielen  Abbildungen.     (Technique  of  the  Modern  Microscope. 

Second  and  completely  revised  edition,  with  numerous  illustrations.) 

Vienna,  Pertes,  1901. 

Weissenberg,  H. — Ein  registrierender  Bakterien-Spirometer.  (An  apparatus  for 
registering  the  evolution  of  nitrogen  by  denitrifying  bacteria.) 

CentralblBald.,  2te  Abt.,  VIII.  (1902)  pp.  370-7  (2  figs). 

*  Nature,  No.  1685,  pp.  354-6  (10  figs.).  f  December  20,  1901. 


l2   0  'I 


384 


PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE   SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held   on    the    16th   of   April,   1902,   at   20   Hanover   Square,   W. 
Dr.  Henry  Woodward,  F.E.S.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  19th  of  March,  1902,  were  read  and 
confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  President. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society,  exclusive  of  exchanges  and 
reprints,  received  since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of 
the  Society  were  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 
Miquel  &  Cambier,  Traite  de  Bacteriologie.   (8vo,  Paris,  1902)..  The  Publisher. 

Parkinson,  S.,  A  Treatise  on  Optics.    (8vo,  London,  1859)         ..      Mr.  E.  M.  Nelson. 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Science  and  Transactions  of\    -,T     v   -,  ,r  , 

the  Microscopical  Society.    Vol.  iii.    (8vo,  London,  1855)  ../    Mr.  jl.  m.  xeUon. 
Bird,  Dr.  Golding,  Urinary  Deposits.     (8vo,  London,  1857)      ..         The  Publishers. 
A  "  Lenticular  Microscope  " Mr.  J.  Pillischer. 

The  President,  in  reference  to  the  old  Microscope  by  Pillischer 
presented  to  the  Society,  regretted  the  absence  of  Mr.  Nelson,  who  had 
intended  to  say  something  about  it.  It  appeared  to  be  a  most  compact 
little  instrument,  and  most  complete,  in  its  way,  for  the  examination  of 
urinary  deposits,  &c.  by  a  medical  man. 

Dr.  Golding  Bird's  description  of  it  was  then  read  by  Dr.  Hebb,  as 
follows  :  — 

"  It  has  often  been  a  matter  of  regret  that  a  very  portable  Micro- 
scope has  not  hitherto  been  contrived,  sufficiently  small  to  be  easilv 
carried  in  the  pocket,  and  sufficiently  economical  to  be  within  the  reach 
of  all.  Very  recently  Mr.  Pillischer  has  constructed  one,  which  he 
terms  the  "  Lenticular  Microscope,"  which  seems  to  me  to  fulfil  this 
condition  entirely,  and  I  cannot  too  strongly  recommend  it  to  the  notice 
of  the  profession.  In  the  coustruction  of  this  beautiful  little  instru- 
ment he  has  made  use  of  the  excellent  and  well-known  Coddington  lens, 
which  consists  of  a  very  thick  double-convex  lens,  excavated  at  the  sides 
into  a  kind  of  dumb-bell  shape,  by  which  the  extreme  lateral  rays  are 
cut  off,  and  a  very  perfect  image  obtained. 

"  It  consists  of  a  rectangular  piece  of  brass,  excavated  at  one  end, 
furnished  with  raised  sides.  To  the  inner  surface  of  the  side  a  steel 
spring  is  fixed,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  piece  of  glass  on  which 
the  object  is  placed  quite  steady.  At  the  under  surface  a  brass  arm  is 
fixed  bearing  a  small  concave  mirror.  A  perforated  diaphragm  is  fixed 
to  a  pin  beneath  an  aperture  in  the  plate,  so  that  by  moving  it  the 
pencil  of  rays  reflected  from  the  mirror  may  be  lessened,  and  a  clearer 
definition  obtained.  A  strong  arm  of  brass  is  capable  of  being  moved 
horizontally  over  the  aperture  in  the  plate,  whilst  a  fine  screw  movement 
enables  it  to  be  raised  vertically.     The  lenses,  having  respectively  a 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY.  385 

focal  length  of  about  ^,  -^\,  and  -^  of  an  inch  each,  are  placed  in  a 
split  cylinder  at  the  end  of  the  arm.  When  not  in  use  the  arm  to  which 
the  mirror  is  attached  is  folded  up  flat  against  the  under  surface  of  the 
plate,  and  thus  the  whole  apparatus  can  be  carried  in  the  waistcoat- 
pocket.  To  use  this  instrument,  a  drop  of  urine  containing  a  deposit  is 
placed  on  a  slip  of  glass,  and  covered  with  a  piece  of  mica  or  tliiu  glass. 
It  is  theu  placed  on  the  plate,  on  which  the  spring  firmly  retains  it. 
One  of  the  lenses  being  then  placed  in  the  cylinder,  the  object  is  brought 
into  focus  by  means  of  the  screw,  illumination  being  effected  by  holding 
up  the  instrument  to  the  light  of  the  clouds  or  a  candle,  or,  still  better, 
by  reflecting  a  ray  of  light  through  the  object  by  means  of  the  mirror. 
If  the  object  is  very  translucent,  especially  when  epithelial  cells  are 
searched  for,  the  amount  of  transmitted  light  should  be  diminished  by 
means  of  the  diaphragm.  Should  the  deposit  consist  of  large  coarse 
crystals,  it  is  better  placed  in  a  little  cavity  ground  in  a  plate  of  glass 
(which  accompanies  the  instrument),  as  they  will  thus  escape  injury 
when  covered  with  the  piece  of  thin  glass  for  examination." 

Also  the  following  note  by  Mr.  E.  M.  Nelson  : — 

li  It  seems  an  excellent  idea,  and  would,  when  fitted  with  achromatic 
lenses  in  place  of  the  Coddingtons,  be  most  useful  to  diatom  gatherers 
and  other  searchers  after  small  forms." 

The  President  said  their  thanks  were  due  to  Mr.  Pillischer  for  the 
gift  of  this  Microscope,  which  would  be  a  valuable  addition  to  their 
historical  collection,  and  no  doubt  would  be  of  great  interest  to  those 
who  had  given  their  attention  to  the  history  of  the  Microscope. 


Mr.  C.  Beck  exhibited  and  described  "  Standing's  Imbedding  Micro- 
tome." He  also  called  attention  to  some  gratings  ruled  by  Mr.  Grayson 
of  Melbourne,  which  had  been  brought  from  Australia  by  Mr.  Wedeles, 
and  were  exhibited  in  the  room  that  evening.  He  thought  those  who 
examined  them  would  agree  with  him  that  they  were  at  least  equal  to 
anything  which  had  yet  been  produced.  The  distinctness  with  which 
they  could  be  seen  was  largely  due  to  the  way  in  which  they  were 
mounted,  the  medium  employed  being  realgar  having  a  refractive  index 
of  2*5.  He  thought  it  would  be  remembered  that  Mr.  Nelson  had 
referred  to  these  at  their  meeting  in  June  1898,*  and  also  in  his 
Presidential  Address  in  1899,f  as  being  the  finest  he  had  ever  seen. 

Mr.  Wedeles,  in  reply  to  the  President,  said  that  these  rulings  had 
been  so  fully  described  by  Mr.  Nelson  that  no  further  explanation 
seemed  to  be  necessary.  He  might,  however,  mention  that  the  bands 
were  spaced  -^oVo"  an<^  *na*  *he  finest  ruling  was  120,000  to  the  inch. 
Mr.  Grayson  had  been  very  much  engaged  lately  at  the  Melbourne 
University,  but  had  recently  made  a  new  machine  with  which  he  hoped 
to  do  something  still  better.  The  great  difficulty  in  the  matter  was  to 
get  a  suitable  piece  of  diamond  for  the  purpose.  The  slides  which  had 
hitherto  been  ruled  had  not  been  made  with  any  idea  of  commercial 
profit,  but  entirely  from  scientific  interest.  Mr.  Grayson  had  spent  any 
amount  of  time  and  money  on  this  work  and  was  now  hoping  to  be  able 
to  give  some  further  attention  to  it. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Beck  and 
to  Mr.  Wedeles. 

•  This  Journal,  1898,  pp.  690-1.  t  Op.  cit.,  1899,  p.  123. 


386  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

Mr.  J.  C.  Webb,  F.E.S.,  exhibited  an  old  Microscope  by  Pritchard, 
whicb  he  had  purchased  from  a  friend,  in  whose  possession  it  had  been 
for  forty  years.  Mr.  Nelson  said  he  had  not  seen  one  like  it  before,  and 
asked  him  to  bring  it  down  for  exhibition.  There  was  nothing  about 
it  to  indicate  the  date,  but  so  far  as  he  could  judge  it  was  made  by 
Pritchard  prior  to  the  date  of  his  Engiscope  which  was  brought  out  in 
1832.  Amongst  other  things  it  possessed  an  arrangement  for  protecting 
the  objective  from  injury  ;  the  eye-piece  was  triple  and  gave  very  good 
definition  ;  there  was  a  fine  adjustment,  and  the  body  could  be  removed 
so  as  to  use  the  instrument  as  a  dissecting  Microscope.  The  lenses  were 
not  achromatic,  but  they  were  fairly  good.  Taken  as  a  whole  the  instru- 
ment was  a  fine  specimen  of  mechanical  skill,  for  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  machine  tools  were  almost  unknown  at  the  time  it  was  made. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  voted  to  Mr.  Webb  for  his  interesting 
exhibit. 


Mr.  Ersser  exhibited  a  reversible  live-box  which  was  intended  to 
facilitate  observations  on  large  living  objects,  such  as  spiders  whilst 
spinning  their  webs, 

The  President  thought  this  seemed  likely  to  be  very  useful  in  the 
examination  of  live  insects  of  considerable  size,  which  could  not  be  put 
into  the  ordinary  live-boxes  in  common  use. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were,  on  the  motion  of  the  President, 
voted  to  Mr.  Ersser  for  this  exhibit. 


Mr.  T.  Powell,  in  replying  to  an  inquiry  from  the  President,  said 
that  he  was  exhibiting  on  a  Microscope  in  the  room  one  of  his  new 
semi-apochromatic  objectives  of  yW-in.  focus  and  numerical  aperture  of 
1  •  4.  One  feature  of  this  series  was  that  they  were  made  of  glass  which 
would  stand  any  climate  without  deterioration,  and  they  were  also  com- 
paratively inexpensive,  the  price  of  the  one  on  the  table  being  51. 


The  President  said  they  had  no  papers  to  be  read  that  evening,  but 
they  would  find  plenty  of  interest  in  the  very  splendid  exhibition  of  pond 
life,  for  which  they  were  indebted  to  some  of  the  Fellows  of  the  Society 
and  to  the  Members  of  the  Quekett  Microscopical  Club,  to  whom  he  was 
sure  all  who  were  present  would  be  glad  to  express  their  thanks.  It  was 
a  matter  of  no  small  trouble — not  only  to  bring  Microscopes  there  and 
to  arrange  them,  but  also  to  collect  and  prepare  these  living  objects, 
especially  so  fine  a  series  as  they  had  in  the  room  that  night.  The  ex- 
hibition of  live  objects  from  a  pond  took  him  back  to  the  time  when  a 
past  President  of  their  Societv,  the  late  Mr.  H.  J.  Slack,  brought  out  his 
book  The  Marvels  of  Pond  Life,  and  now,  after  the  lapse  of  forty-one 
years,  they  could  still  turn  with  interest  to  the  same  pursuit,  for  there 
was  no  subject  which  excited  more  general  interest,  either  at  their  own 
Society  or  at  the  Quekett  Microscopical  Club.  He  was  reminded,  also,  of 
a  review  of  Mr.  Slack's  book  by  Dr.  S.  P.  Woodward,  in  which  he  pointed 
out  how  easy  it  was  to  visit  the  suburbs  of  London  and  to  find  in  a  pond 
which  in  itself  did  not  look  at  all  attractive,  living  objects  of  the  greatest 
beauty.  In  those  days  one  need  not  go  very  far  away  for  this  purpose — 
to  Copenhagen  Fields,  for  instance,  where  the  Cattle  Market  now  stood, 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE   SOCIETY.  387 

to  Blackheath  Common,  Highgate,  or  Hampstead,  or  to  many  other  places 
equally  near,  which  had  long  since  fallen  a  prey  to  the  speculative 
builder.  At  the  present  day  they  must  go  farther  afield  to  find  the  ponds, 
but  wherever  they  were  found,  they  could  still  obtain  an  abundance  of 
beautiful  objects.  He  would  now  ask  those  present  to  examine  the 
exhibits  on  the  tables  before  them,  and  he  felt  sure  they  would  find  there 
was  enough  of  beauty  to  justify  his  eulogium. 


The  Secretary  read  a  letter  from  the  Society  of  Marine  Engineers, 
inviting  the  Fellows  of  the  Society  to  a  lecture  by  Mr.  Houghton  on 
"  The  Microscopic  Structure  of  Iron  and  Steel." 


New  Fellow : — Mr.  Charles  B.  Chichester  was  elected  an  Ordinary 
Fellow  of  the  Society. 

The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  &c,  were  exhibited : — 

Messrs.  B.  and  J.  Beck  : — Standing's  Imbedding  Microtome.  Gray- 
son's Eulings :  1,  Test-plate  of  10  bands,  the  rulings  ranging  from 
1000  to  10,000  lines  per  inch  ;  2,  Micrometer,  divided  into  Troths  and 
^^.yths  of  an  inch,  and  into  ^ths,  T\jths,  and  j-J^ths  of  a  millimetre ; 
3,  Test-plate  of  12  bauds,  the  rulings  ranging  from  5000  to  60,000 
lines  per  inch. 

Mr.  T.  D.  Ersser  : — A  Eeversible  Live-box,  and  a  similar  box  with 
Web  of  Spider  spun  in  it. 

Messrs.  Powell  and  Lealand  : — A  new  Semi-Apochromatic  Homo- 
geneous-Immersion TV  in.  Objective  of  1*4  N.A. 

Mr.  J.  C.  Webb: — An  old  Microscope  by  Andrew  Pritchard. 

Mr.  E.  Bartlett : — Ghara  vulgaris,  showing  cyclosis. 

Mr.  A.  Dennis  : — Limnias  annulatus. 

Mr.  A.  J.  French  : — Larva  of  May-Fly. 

Mr.  G.  T.  Harris: — Cyclosis  in  Closterium. 

Mr.  A.  Hilton: — Stentors. 

Mr.  E.  Hinton  : — Batrachospermum  vagum. 

Mr.  J.  Hood: — Stephanoceros  Eichhorni ;  Melicerta  ring  ens  \  Limnias 
Ceratophylli ;  Plumatella  repens,  emerging  from  Statoblast. 

Mr.  K.  J.  Marks  : — Philodina  megalotrocha. 

Mr.  M.  Poser : — Lophopus  crystallinus. 

Mr.  G.  H.  J.  Eogers : — Cristatella  mucedo,  young  colony. 

Mr.  C.  F.  Eonsselet : — Brachionus,  Synchseta,  Anuraea,  &c. 

Mr.  D.  J.  Scourfield : — Acroperus  harpee. 

Mr.  C.  J.  H.  Sidwell :— Olfactory  Setaa  on  Antennule  of  Acroperus 
harpae  x  400. 

Mr.  C.  D.  Soar : — Atax  ypsilophorus. 

Mr.  H.  Taverner : — Atax  ypsilophorus,  ventral  view. 

Mr.  W.  E.  Traviss  : — Phantom  Larva. 

Mr.  A.  Yerinder : — Stephanoceros  Eichhorni. 

Mr.  W.  Wesche  : — Brachionus  quadratus. 


388 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY. 


MEETING 


Held  on   the   21st  of  May,  1902,  at   20    Hanover  Square,   W., 
Dr.  Henry  Woodward,  F.R.S.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  16th  of  April,  1902,  were  read 
and  confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  President. 


The  Executors 

of  the  late 

A.    W.  Bennett. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society  (exclusive  of  exchanges  and 
reprints),  received  since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of 
the  Society  were  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 

Gerard,  John,  Herbal  (4to,  London,  1G33) ■ 

Curtis,  Wm.,  Flora  Londinensis  (2  vols,  folio,  London, 

1777-98)  

Sprengel,  C.  K.,  Das  entdeckte  Gebeimniss  der  Natur 

(4to,  Berlin,  1793) 

Cooke,  M.  C,  Handbook  of  British    Hepaticje    (Svo, 

London, 1894)      

„         „        Introduction  to  the  Studv  of  Fungi  (Svo, 

London, 1895)     

Darwin,  Chas.,  Cross-  and  Self-Fertilisation  of  Plants 

•  (Svo,  London,  1S76) 

„        ,,  Forms  of  Flowers  (.Svo,  London,  1875) 

„        „  Insectivorous     Plmts    (Svo,    London, 

1877)     

Darwin,  C.  and  F.,  The  Movements   of  Plants  (Svo, 

London,  1SS0) 

Harvey,  W.  H.,  A  Manual  of  thu  British  Marine  Alp;* 

(Svo,  London, 1849)        

Massee,  G.,  British  Fungus  Flora  (4  vols.  Svo,  London, 

1892-5)       

„       „       Text-Book  of  Plant  Diseases  (Svo,  London, 

1S99)  

Smith,  W.  G.,  Diseases  of  Field  and  Garden  Crops  (Svo, 

London,  1884) 

Tuoeuf  and   Smith,  Diseases   of   Plants    induced  by 

Cryptogamic  Parasites  (Svo,  London,  1897) 
Wolle,   F.,   Freshwater  Algse    of   the   Unite  1   States 
(2  vols.  Svo,  Bethlehem,  Pa.  U.S.A.,  18S7)        ..      .. 
Chase,   Dr.  H.  H.,  Index  Diatomacearum  (4to,  T-'W.l    r.      ,,  «    .  ,    ,,      ..    v 
Linden,  Mich.  U.S.A.,  1894)         . .      . .       . .      . .      . .  }  Donald  S'  A^thnutt,  Esq 

Photographic  Portrait  of  the  late  R.  Macer I 

Two  Pieces  of  Apparatus  designed  by  the  late  R.  Macer  > 

lor  exhibiting  Flies,  &c.  feeding..'      ) 

Photomicrograph  of  Pleurosigma  angulatum 
Cornelius  Varley's  Patent  Graphic  Telescope 

Cretaceous  Deposit  from  Zululand 

Braithwaite,   R.,   British   Moss  Flora,   pt.   xxi.    (4to,l 
London,  1902)         J 


Mrs.  Macer. 

Mr.  F.  E.  Ives. 
Mr.  E.  M.  Nelson. 
Mr.  A.  W.  Cooper. 

The  Author. 


Dr.  Hebb  called  attention  to  several  of  the  donations,  particularly 
to  a  bequest  of  20  volumes  left  to  the  Society  by  the  late  Mr.  A.  W. 
Bennett,  which  included  a  copy  of  Gerard's  Herbal,  1633,  and  William 
Curtis's  Flora  Londinensis,  1777  to  1798.     There  was  also  an  elaborate 


PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    SOCIETY.  389 

type-written  volume,  Index  Diatomacearum,  presented  by  Mr.  D.  S. 
Arbuthnott.  Witb  the  photograph  of  the  late  Mr.  Macer,  there  were 
also  two  small  pieces  of  apparatus  with  which  he  used  to  exhibit  the 
action  of  the  proboscis  of  a  fly  when  feeding. 

The  photograph  of  Pleurosigma  angulatum  was  considered  by  Mr. 
Nelson  to  be  a  most  perfect  representation  of  what  was  to  be  seen  in 
that  diatom.  Varley's  Graphic  Telescope,  presented  by  Mr.  Nelson, 
would  also  be  an  interesting  addition  to  their  collection.  A  quantity 
of  cretaceous  deposit  from  Zululand  had  been  sent  to  the  Society  for 
distribution,  samples  of  which  could  be  obtained  on  application  to  the 
Assistant  Secretary. 

Messrs.  W.  G.  Pye  and  Co.  sent  for  exhibition  a  table  cathetometer 
for  observing  the  torsion  of  mineral  fibres,  growth  of  plants,  &c.  They 
also  sent  two  new  pattern  reading  Microscopes,  one  right  and  one  left 
hand,  each  having  a  traverse  of  30  mm.,  and  a  vernier  reading  to 
0-05  mm.  ; 

Mr.  J.  C.  Webb  exhibited  an  old  Microscope  bearing  the  name  of 
"  Carpenter  and  Westley,  Regent  Street,  London,"  which,  he  stated,  he 
bad  recently  been  fortunate  to  rescue  from  oblivion.  The  Microscope 
somewhat  resembled  the  "  Pritchard "  Microscope  which  he  exhibited 
at  the  last  meeting  of  the  Society,  inasmuch  as  the  stage  was  made  to 
rack  up  to  the  body  instead  of  the  body  racking  down  to  the  stage, 
whilst  the  stand  was  capable  of  being  converted  into  a  simple  dissecting 
Microscope  by  unscrewing  the  body  and  inserting  a  simple  lens  in  its 
place.  The  instrument  was  furnished  with  one  ordinary  eye-piece  and 
a  dividing  objective  capable  of  conversion  into  1  in.,  ^  in.,  and  \  in. 
powers.  Mr.  Webb  further  stated  that  he  had  seen  the  present  repre- 
sentative of  the  firm  of  Carpenter  and  Westley  on  the  matter,  and  was 
informed  by  him  that  the  Microscope  was  one  of  those  sold  by  the  firm 
between  1832  and  1840,  and  was  probably  made  for  them  by  Powell  or 
Ross. 

The  President.,  in  thanking  Mr.  Webb  for  his  exhibit,  thought  that 
if  this  Microscope  was  made  in  1832,  it  must  have  been  considerably  in 
advance  of  those  of  that  period.  He  recalled  the  fact  that  the  Society 
of  Arts  had  offered  a  prize  for  the  best  Microscope  to  be  produced  at 
the  lowest  possible  price,  and  that  this  was  awarded  to  Field,  of 
Birmingham,  in  or  about  the  year  1858.  He  was  asked  at  the  time  to 
write  a  short  description  of  this  instrument  to  accompany  it  as  a  hand- 
book. The  instrument  exhibited  by  Mr.  Webb  reminded  him  of  Field's 
small  prize  Microscope. 


Mr.  T.  D.  Ersser  brought  for  exhibition  a  new  acetylene  illuminator 
for  the  lantern,  which  he  claimed  would  give  a  light  of  300  candle- 
power  for  3  hours  at  a  cost  of  9d.  Unfortunately  the  demonstration  of 
its  utility  for  the  purpose  was  not  successful,  owing  to  some  difficulty 
in  manipulating  the  lantern. 

Mr.  J.  J.  Vezey  said  there  waa  nothing  new  in  the  use  of  acetylene 
light   for  lantern  work,   but  he  understood  Mr.  Ersser  to  say  that  he 


390  PEOCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

burnt  it  in  an  argand  burner ;  if  this  was  correct,  he  should  be  sorry  to 
be  in  the  room  while  the  light  was  going.  Most  people  knew  what  an 
unpleasant  smell  and  smoke  were  given  out  when  a  burner  was  not 
properly  adapted  for  the  consumption  of  acetylene. 

The  President  said  that  in  giving  a  lecture  some  years  ago  at 
Peterborough,  acetylene  was  used  for  the  lantern.  The  light  was  very 
excellent,  but  the  heat  was  so  intense  that  it  cracked  the  cold  lens  of 
the  lantern,  and  after  this  his  slides  appeared  with  a  black  flaw  across 
the  object.  When  staying  this  year  at  an  hotel  in  Italy,  where  acetylene 
was  used,  the  gas  gave  an  excellent  light,  but  it  needed  great  attention, 
a  man  having  to  clear  out  tho  burners  almost  nightly,  the  acetylene 
frequently  emitting  a  quantity  of  black  smoke  from  imperfect  com- 
bustion. He  believed,  also,  that  great  complaints  had  lately  been  made 
about  its  use  by  the  drivers  of  the  London  General  Omnibus  Company, 
on  account  of  the  powerful  odour  of  garlic  emitted  from  the  lamps. 


Mr.  D.  J.  Scourfield,  being  called  upon  by  the  President  to  give 
some  explanation  of  the  exhibition  of  Fresh-water  Entomostraca  which 
he  had  arranged  in  the  room,  said  that  he  had  not  attempted  to  make 
this  an  exhibition  of  all  the  orders  of  the  Entomostraca,  neither  had  he 
followed  a  scientific  classification  in  the  arrangement  of  the  specimens, 
but  had  confined  himself  to  the  Cladocera,  and  to  the  illustration  of  the 
various  habits  of  life  and  powers  of  movement  shown  by  these  animals, 
ranging  from  the  free-swimming  forms  found  in  lakes  to  those  which 
simply  crawled  about  in  or  on  the  mud.  In  addition  to  their  trans- 
parency the  characteristics  of  the  lake  or  "  plankton  "  forms  were  :  great 
development  of  the  swimming  organs  (Leptodora  hyalina  *),  or  the  pos- 
session of  long  spines  and  other  outgrowths  (Daphnia  Jcahlbergensis, 
Bosmina  longirostris,  Bythotrepnes  longimanus),  or  the  production  of  a 
mass  of  jelly  serving  probably  as  a  float  (Holopedium  gibberum).  Next 
to  these  came  the  species  which  might  best  be  described  as  the  continu- 
ally hopping  forms.  They  could  not  cling  to  weeds  and  yet  were  not 
adapted  for  life  in  the  open  water  of  lakes.  They  had  to  maintain 
themselves  in  the  water  by  constant  and  laborious  movements  of  their 
comparatively  weak  swimming  antennae  (Daphnia  pulex,  D.  magna). 
Then  followed  the  species  which  did  not  swim  unless  they  were  obliged 
to,  for  they  possessed  the  means  of  attaching  themselves  to  weeds,  &c, 
and  made  full  use  of  their  powers.  The  attachment  was  brought  about 
in  various  ways.  In  some  cases  (Simocephalus  vetulus)  minute  hooks  on 
two  of  the  antennal  setsfi  enabled  the  animals  to  cling  to  solid  objects  in 
the  water;  in  others  (Oamptocercus  rectirostris,  Pleuroxus  aduncus,  Chy- 
dorus  sphsericus),  the  clinging  was  brought  about  by  hooked  set®  on  the 
feet;  and  in  yet  other  cases  (Graptoleberis  testudinaria')  the  attachment 
was  made  apparently  by  the  setae  on  the  ventral  margin  of  the  shell. 
There  was  one  of  these  clinging  species  (Seapholeberis  mucronata),  which 
had  even  discovered  how  to  make  use  of  the  surface  film  of  water  for 
support.  Lastly,  there  were  the  bottom  and  mud-loving  species,  some 
of  which  could  indeed    swim    when    necessary    (Macrothrix  laticornis, 

*  The  species  mentioned  are  those  included  in  the  exhibition;    they  are  of 
course,  as  a  rule,  only  representatives  of  their  respective  groups. 


PEOCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY.  391 

Leydigia  quadran  gidaris),  but  others  had  lost  all  power  of  swimming 
(Hyocryptus  sordidus)  and  only  used  their  large  antennae  and  post- 
abdomen  for  pushing  themselves  about  in  the  mud.  Mr.  Scourfield  said 
he  feared  the  exhibition  was  not  a  very  good  one  from  the  "  pretty 
object"  point  of  view,  but  thought  it  would  be  found  fairly  repre- 
sentative of  the  various  habits  of  life  of  the  different  animals  included 
in  the  order  Cladocera.  Most  of  the  living  specimens  were  exhibited  in 
Eousselet  live-boxes,  but  he  had  also  shown  a  specimen  (Daphnia  magna} 
in  another  way  to  illustrate  a  method  of  examining  the  swimming  move- 
ments of  Entomostraca.  In  this  arrangement  the  head  of  the  animal 
was  attached  to  a  pin  by  means  of  a  small  drop  of  sealing-wax  varnish, 
and  it  would  be  seen  that  the  creature  could  carry  on  all  its  movements 
quite  freely  without  being  able  to  get  out  of  the  field  of  view.  He 
should  be  very  glad  if  the  result  of  an  exhibition  of  this  kind  were  to 
excite  more  interest  in  this  class  of  creature,  and  to  induce  other  micro- 
scopists  to  take  up  their  study. 

The  President  thought  it  would  be  hardly  necessary  to  ask  the 
Fellows  to  vote  their  thanks  to  Mr.  Scourfield  for  this  very  interesting 
exhibition  which  he  had  taken  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  arrange  for 
their  inspection. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  then  unanimously  voted  to  Mr. 
Scourfield. 

Dr.  Hebb  said  he  had  much  pleasure  in  announcing  that  the  Hon. 
Walter  Rothschild  had  most  kindly  invited  the  Fellows  of  the  Society 
to  visit  hi6  Museum  at  Tring,  on  Saturday,  June  21.  Those  who  de- 
sired to  go  should  send  in  their  names,  on  or  before  May  31,  to  the 
Assistant  Secretary,  from  whom  further  information  relative  to  the 
excursion  could  be  obtained.  The  number  of  the  party  was  limited  to 
50,  and  if  more  than  that  number  of  applications  were  received  a  ballot 
would  be  taken  to  decide  who  should  receive  cards  of  invitation. 
Another  excursion,  limited  to  about  30,  had  also  been  arranged  for 
Saturday,  July  5,  to  the  Zoological  Gardens.  He  should  like  to  add 
that  these  invitations  were  entirely  due  to  the  initiative  of  the  President, 
and  also  that  Mr.  Eothschild  had  promised  to  provide  vehicles  for  the 
conveyance  of  the  party  to  and  from  the  station. 

The  President  said  he  was  sorry  they  could  not  go  down  to  Tring 
100  or  200  strong,  but  it  was  obvious  that  many  might  not  care  about 
taking  part  in  such  a  large  gathering,  which  would  also  be  very  difficult 
to  arrange  for.  He  thought  it  probable  that  Mr.  Charles  Eothschild, 
if  he  had  returned  home  from  America  by  the  date  named,  might  be 
willing  to  exhibit  some  of  his  microscopical  collections. 

As  regarded  Dr.  Sclater's  invitation  to  visit  the  Zoological  Society's 
Gardens,  there  was  no  reason  why,  although  a  Microscopical  Society, 
they  should  not  sometimes  indulge  in  macroscopic  studies,  and  that  the 
idea  of  providing  some  out-of-door  form  of  recreation  for  the  Fellows 
would  not  be  considered  too  frivolous.  On  some  future  occasion  they 
might  arrange  a  series  of  afternoon  visits  to  the  Natural  History 
Museum,  when  their  late  President,  Mr.  Carruthers,  would  no  doubt  be 
happy  to  conduct  them  through  the  Botanical  department,  whilst  he 
himself  would  gladly  do  the  same  in  the  Geological  galleries,  where 


392  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

they  might  see  that  the  Entoinostraca  of  to-day  were  the  survivors  of  a 
very  ancient  race,  as  shown  by  their  fossil  remains  in  the  rocks,  where 
bivalvecl  forms  were  abundantly  represented,  some  being  of  gigantic 
size.  Such  visits  to  the  Museum  would  be  found  both  interesting  and 
instructive,  and  the  place  itself  a  very  diiferent  one  from  what  it  was 
to  people  who,  wandering  aimlessly  through  the  building,  seemed  only 
to  be  trying  how  many  miles  they  could  cover  in  the  course  of  an  after- 
noon. The  late  Prince  Consort  always  insisted  upon  a  systematic  way 
of  visiting  the  Museum,  and  would  not  allow  the  Royal  family  to  roam 
about  the  galleries,  but  invariably  arranged  beforehand  what  they  were 
to  be  shown,  and  they  were  at  once  taken  to  that  particular  part  of  the 
collection,  and  after  having  seen  it,  and  had  it  explained  to  them,  the 
visit  ended.     Museum  headaches  and  boredom  are  thus  avoided. 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  &c,  were  exhibited  : — 

Mr.  T.  D.  Ersser : — Acetylene  Gas  as  an  Illuminant  for  the  Lantern, 
with  Illustrations  thrown  on  the  Screen. 

Messrs.  W.  W.  G.  Pye  and  Co.  : — A  pair  of  New  Pattern  Reading 
Microscopes,  and  a  Short  Table  Cathetometer. 

Mr.  J.  C.  Webb  : — An  Old  Microscope  by  Carpenter  and  Westley. 

Mr.  D.  J.  Scourfield: — Bytlwtrephes  longimanus  (preserved  in  forma- 
lin); Leptodora  hyalina  (preserved  in  formalin) :  Leydigia  quadrangularis 
(living);  Daphnia  magna  (ephippial  female);  Camptocercus  rectirosiris 
(living)  ;  Chydorus  sphsericus  (living);  Graptoieberis  testudinaria  (living)  ; 
Pleuroxis  aduncus  (living)  ;  Scapholeberis  mucronaia  (preserved  in  al- 
cohol) ;  Simocephalus  vetulus  (living) ;  Uyocryptus  sordidus  (living) ; 
Macrothrix  laticornis  (living). 


New  Fellows  : — Mr.  John  Edward  Lord  ;  Mr.  Max  Poser. 


Bk  ; 


Hfe 


■ 


Wes 


JOUENAL 


OF    THE 


ROYAL  MICROSCOPICAL  SOCIETY. 

AUGUST  1902. 


TRANSACTIONS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


VII.  (continued). —  The  Genus  Synchazta: 
A  Monographic  Study,  with  Descriptions  of  Five  Nevj  Species. 

By  Charles  F.  Bousselet,  Curator  and  F.R.M.S. 

(Read  June  18th,  1902.) 

Synchseta  longipes  Gosse. 
PL  IV.  fig.  5. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Gosse,  P.  H. — Twenty-four  new  Species  of  Kotifera.    Journ.  Eoy.  Micr.  Soc, 

1887,  p.  5,  pi.  II.  fig.  15. 
Hood,  John — Chats  about  Eotifers.    Science  Gossip,  1887,  p.  220. 
Hudson  &  Gosse. — The  Kotifera.    Supplement.    London,  1889,  p.  17,  pi.  31, 

fig.  4. 


lo- 


Spec.  Char. — Body  wide  and  triangular  in  front ;  rounded, 
almost  globular  posteriorly,  possessing  a  long  foot  carrying  two 
acute  toes;  four  frontal  styles;  broad  pendent  auricles;  eye  red, 
cervical.  Largest  size  204  fi  (y|3  in.)  long  by  95  fi  (^f  in.)  wide 
at  the  auricles.     Lacustrine. 

First  found  by  Mr.  John  Hood  near  Dundee,  this  well  marked 
species  was  described  by  Mr.  P.  H.  Gosse  in  one  of  the  last  papers 
he  wrote.  The  figure  accompanying  the  description  must  unfor- 
tunately have  been  made  from  a  very  abnormal  specimen,  and  it 


EXPLANATION   OF   PLATE   VI. 

Fig.  11. — Synchmta  baltica  Ehrbg.  ?      Dorsal  view,     x  180. 
„     11a  „  „  „         Front  view  of  head,     x  180. 

,.12  „        monopus  Plate  ?      Dorsal  view,     x  350. 

„     12a  „  „  „  Front  of  head.     X  350. 

„     13  and  13a. — Parasites  from  body  cavity  of  S.  pectinata.     x  650. 
August  20th,  1902  2  d 


394  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

does  not  give  a  good  idea  of  the  creature.  I  have  met  with  it 
three  or  four  times  in  the  middle  of  the  summer  round  London, 
at  Hanwell,  Woking,  and  near  St.  Helens  in  Lancashire,  and  from 
these  Mr.  Dixon-Nuttall  has  made  the  accompanying  excellent 
drawing,  but  it  is  rather  a  rare  species  not  often  seen. 

The  body  is  very  rounded  and  globular  behind,  not  unlike  a 
wine-glass  in  shape,  the  stem  of  which  is  represented  by  the  long 
foot.  The  head  is  abnormally  large,  slightly  compressed  dorso- 
ventrally  and  broad  at  the  auricles,  advancing  to  a  regular  point 
in  front,  and  thus  giving  it  almost  the  shape  of  an  equilateral 
triangle.  The  front  of  the  head  bears  the  usual  four  styles,  the 
outer  pair  being  much  the  larger  and  protruding  from  large  tri- 
angular fleshy  flaps.  Two  more  pairs  of  setose  pimples  are 
situated  in  front  and  around  the  mouth  as  usual,  and  the  extreme 
pointed  front  is  furnished  with  a  fine  and  broad  brush  of  sense- 
hairs. 

The  ciliary  wreath  is  of  the  usual  Synchseta  type,  the  wide 
auricles  being  more  or  less  pendent  and  further  back  in  position 
than  in  trcmula  and  oblonga.  Immediately  behind  the  auricles  the 
body  is  considerably  constricted  and  then  swells  out  again  to  a 
width  equal  to  that  of  the  head. 

The  foot  is  very  narrow,  elongated,  about  one-quarter  the  size 
of  the  body,  terminating  in  two  small  acute  toes.  It  may  be 
swollen  a  little  occasionally,  but  it  can  hardly  be  called  "  rhom- 
boidal "  in  outline.  The  foot  is  moved  about  and  lashed  in  all 
directions  like  a  tail. 

The  dorsal  antenna  is  in  the  usual  position  on  an  eminence 
above  the  eye,  and  the  lateral  antenna?  issue  two- thirds  down  the 
sides  of  the  body,  slightly  on  the  ventral  side.  The  mastax  is 
large,  of  usual  Synchceta  type,  but,  I  regret  to  say,  I  have  omitted 
to  look  at  the  teeth  of  the  unci,  and  having  been  unable  to  find 
this  creature  recently,  do  not  know  their  presence  or  their  number. 
The  oesophagus  is  short,  leading  to  a  stomach  of  the  usual  structure 
with  rounded  gastric  glands.  The  lateral  canals,  contractile  vesicle 
as  well  as  the  foot-glands,  ovary,  and  muscular  system,  are  all  quite 
normal.  The  red  eye  is  rounded,  not  particularly  large,  and  of 
normal  structure. 

In  the  projecting  triangular  head  and  narrow  foot  this  species 
has  some  superficial  resemblance  with  S.  stylata,  from  which  it  is 
however  quite  different  in  shape,  structure,  and  size. 

Sijnchwta  longipes  does  not  carry  its  eggs.  It  is  a  powerful 
swimmer,  very  voracious,  and  catches  its  prey,  consisting  of 
Polyarthra  and  other  similar  rotifers,  and  devours  them  whilst 
swimming  at  full  speed.     The  male  has  not  yet  been  discovered. 

Its  greatest  total  size  is  204  /j,  (T^  in.),  one-fifth  of  which  is 
represented  by  the  foot  and  toes.  Smaller  young  animals  are 
always  present  also. 


The  Genus  Synchccta.    By   C.  F.  Rousselet.  395 

Synchseta   kitina  sp.  n. 

PI.  IV.  fig.  6. 

Spec.  Char. — Body  very  small,  cup-shaped,  truncate  anteriorly, 
much  contracted  posteriorly,  head  flat  or  slightly  rounded  in  front, 
foot  short  and  tapering,  carrying  two  small  conical  toes.  Eye 
cervical,  red,  appearing  double,  imbedded  in  semi-opaque  granules. 
Size,  up  to  136  /u,  (r|-  in.)  in  length  by  102  /a  (^q  in.)  wide. 
Lacustrine. 

In  a  tube  of  some  water  from  the  reservoirs  supplying  Dundee 
with  water,  containing  Notholca  longispina  and  other  rotifers,  which 
Mr.  John  Hood  sent  me  in  July  1898,  I  found  a  very  small  Syn- 
chseta  which  proved  to  be  new  and  to  which  I  have  given  this  name 
in  honour  of  an  enthusiastic  friend  greatly  interested  in  these 
minute  sparks  of  life.  After  having  had  his  attention  called  to  it, 
Mr.  Hood  was  able  to  send  it  me  again  several  times,  but  it  has  so 
far  not  been  obtained  in  any  other  locality  than  the  neighbourhood 
of  Dundee,  where  it  makes  its  appearance  at  the  end  of  May  and 
usually  remains  until  the  beginning  of  September,  associated  with 
Notholca  longispina,  Anurma  cochlcaris,  and  Gastropus  stylifer.  Its 
unusual  shape,  very  small  size,  and  mode  of  swimming  at  once 
arrest  the  attention  of  anyone  familiar  with  the  commoner  species 
of  Synchpeta,  but  being  so  small  it  requires  a  fairly  high  power  for 
observation  and  identification. 

The  general  shape  of  the  body  is  that  of  a  cup  or  wine-glass 
with  somewhat  stout  stem.  The  posterior  cylindrical  and  con- 
stricted part  of  the  body  widens  again  slightly  and  then  terminates ; 
the  foot  is  short,  broad  at  the  base  and  tapering,  carrying  two  small 
toes  at  the  end.  The  foot  can  be  retracted  within  the  body  so  that 
only  the  toes  protrude.  The  auricles  are  comparatively  large,  broad 
and  semicircular  in  shape,  and  are  carried  on  a  level  with  the  front 
of  the  head ;  when  contracting  the  auricles  fold  over  the  head. 
The  head  is  very  broad  and  almost  fiat  in  front.  Two  pairs  of 
tactile  styles  arise  from  the  front,  the  larger  outer  pair  from 
fleshy  triangular  flaps  and  the  inner  pair  from  the  dorsal  edge  as 
usual.  Four  more  groups  of  two  or  three  shorter  tactile  hairs  are 
placed  around  the  mouth.  The  vibratile  cilia  are  confined  to  four 
regions  or  patches  on  the  frontal  part  of  the  head  as  usual,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  long  cilia  on  the  auricles.  The  mouth  is  situated  in 
front  near  the  centre  of  the  head,  but  slightly  ventral,  surrounded 
by  the  projecting  circlet  of  very  fine  stiff  hairs,  part  of  which  are 
visible  from  a  dorsal  view.  The  eye  is  cervical,  situated  in  the 
usual  position,  and  consists  apparently  of  two  dark  red  corpuscles, 
closely  apposed  and  imbedded  in  a  small  mass  of  semi-opaque 
granules.     The  mastax  is  large,  filling  the  anterior  part  of  the  body- 

1'   d  2 


396  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

cavity  ;  the  jaws  are  of  usual  Synchseta  type,  but  extremely  deli- 
cate ;  the  unci  have  five  or  six  teeth. 

The  stomach  is  small,  carrying  two  pointed  gastric  glands,  and 
the  rounded  ovary,  lateral  canals,  and  contractile  vesicle  are  present 
as  usual. 

The  dorsal  antenna  projects  from  a  dorsal  eminence  a  little 
below  the  eye,  while  the  lateral  antennae  protrude  at  the  extreme 
posterior  and  narrow  part  of  the  body,  as  in  S.  tremula. 

The  integument  is  very  soft,  showing  more  or  less  distinct  fine 
longitudinal  folds.  When  held  fast  in  the  compressor  the  animal 
is  very  restless,  contracts  and  contorts  its  body  in  all  manner  of 
shapes,  so  that  it  can  hardly  be  recognised  under  these  conditions. 

In  swimming  the  motion  is  slow  and  steady,  the  animal  re- 
volving on  its  longer  axis  as  it  proceeds,  and  now  and  again 
suddenly  changing  its  direction  at  right  angles  to  its  former  course. 
S.  hitina  does  not  anchor  itself  to  a  thread  and  revolve  on  the  same 
spot  as  does  &  tremula. 

The  pretty  sketch,  fig.  6,  has  been  drawn  by  Mr.  F.  E.  Dixon- 
Nuttall  from  life,  and  gives  a  good  idea  of  its  usual  shape. 

In  size,  this  is  one  of  the  smallest  Synchaetse  known,  being 
only  136  //,  {Y\5  in.)  in  total  length  by  102  /j,  (^q  in.)  wide  at 
the  auricles,  whilst  smaller  individuals  are  always  present  also. 


Synchseta  tavina  (Hood). 
PL  VIII.  fig.  18. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Hood,  John. — Synchceta  tavinn.     Inter.  Journ.  of  Microscopy  and    Nat. 
Science,  1893,  pp.  382-3  (1  pi.). 

Spec.  Char. — Body  markedly  cylindrical  in  shape,  truncate  in 
front;  auricles  small;  foot  short,  carrying  two  small,  separated 
toes ;  eye  cervical,  usually  appearing  double ;  the  lateral  antennae 
situated  in  the  lumbar  regions.  Size  254  ft  (T^  in.)  by  95  fi 
(^L_  in.)  wide  at  the  auricles.     In  brackish  water. 

Mr.  John  Hood  also  discovered  this  species  in  the  tide  pools  of 
the  Tay  in  the  early  spring  of  1893,  and  published  an  account 
of  it  in  the  International  Journal  of  Microscopy  and  Natural 
Science  for  October  of  that  year. 

The  shape  of  the  body  is  conspicuously  cylindric,  being  scarcely 
wider  in  front  than  at  the  side  and  somewhat  compressed  laterally, 
then  tapering  gradually  to  the  short  foot  and  toes.  The  foot  is  in 
a  line  with  the  ventral  side  of  the  body,  and  the  toes  are  generally 
carried  turned  upwards.  At  first  sight  it  is  hardly  recognised  as 
belonging  to  the  genus  Synchceta,  so  unlike  is  it  to  the  char- 
acteristic cone-shape  of  nearly  all  the  other  species  of  this  genus. 


The  Genus  Synchceta.     By  C.  F.  llousselct.  397 

Mr.  Dixon-Nuttall's  sketch  very  well  represents  its  usual  shape, 
which  of  course  varies  slightly  according  as  it  is  filled  with  food 
or  empty.  The  integument  is  thin,  white,  transparent,  and  shows 
a  number  of  fine  longitudinal  folds  on  the  dorsal  side.  The 
auricles  are  small,  and  in  retraction  are  folded  over  the  head  by  a 
muscular  band  running  from  the  auricle  to  near  the  centre  of  the 
head.  The  front  of  the  head  is  truncate  and  slightly  rounded, 
carrying  the  usual  two  pairs  of  styles,  the  outer  pair  arising  from 
well-marked  triangular  fleshy  flaps.  On  the  extreme  raised  front 
of  the  head  are  two  bundles  of  very  fine  diverging  stiff  setae, 
similar  to  those  found  in  S.  ohlonga.  The  mouth  is  nearly  central 
in  position,  screened  as  usual  by  a  row  of  fine,  overhanging  setse, 
which  can  be  seen  from  a  dorsal  view  in  this  species.  At  some 
little  distance  from  and  around  the  mouth  are  the  usual  four 
bundles  of  three  or  four  larger  setae  which  are  rather  conspicuous. 
The  vibratile  cilia  are  arranged  on  four  ridges  or  cushions  on  the 
front  of  the  head,  as  is  the  case  with  all  other  species.  The 
cervical  eye  consists  of  a  clear  vesicle  partly  filled  with  white 
opaque  and  red  granules,  the  latter  often  separated  into  two 
groups,  and  thus  giving  the  appearance  of  a  double  eye. 

The  mastax  is  large  and  of  the  usual  Synchaeta  type ;  the  jaws 
are  very  delicate  and  difficult  to  make  out ;  they  are  of  the  same 
type  as  those  of  S.  trcmula,  the  unci  are  curved,  and  have  four  or 
five  teeth. 

The  oesophagus  arises  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  mastax  and 
leads  into  an  ample  stomach  which  is  thick- walled  anteriorly  and 
thin-walled  posteriorly,  and  to  which  two  elongated  gastric  glands 
are  attached.  The  ovary  is  large,  flat,  oval  or  nearly  circular  in 
shape  and  contains  large  germ-cells. 

The  lateral  canals  and  contractile  vesicles  are  of  normal 
structure. 

The  dorsal  antenna  is  situated  on  a  raised  prominence  in  the 
usual  position,  and  the  lateral  antennae  are  readily  seen  in  the 
lumbar  region.  The  foot  is  stout  and  the  two  broad  and  pointed 
toes  are  usually  carried  turned  upwards. 

I  have  found  the  male  of  this  species  in  March  1895  aud 
several  times  since.  It  is  a  small,  soft,  conical  animal  with  two 
miuute  toes,  large  sperm-sac,  long  brain  with  opaque  granules  at 
the  tip  of  which  red  granules  forming  a  double  eye  are  imbedded. 
It  is  usually  detected  by  its  more  rapid  movements  among  the 
females. 

Synchceta  tavincc  swims  vigorously  and  steadily  in  spiral  curves 
and  is  rarely  anchored  to  a  thread,  nor  does  it  carry  its  eggs.  Its 
habitat  is  brackish  water,  and  I  have  obtained  it  many  times  from 
Mr.  John  Hood  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tay  near  Dundee,  and  also 
from  Great  Yarmouth  in  water  sent  by  Mr.  H.  E.  Hurrell,  generally 
in  the  early  spring,  March  and  April.     In  size  it  reaches  up  to 

254  /*  (to(7  ">•)• 


398  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Synchseta  littoralis  sp.  n. 

PL  VII.  fig.  15. 

Spec.  Char. — Body  cone-shaped,  convex  anteriorly,  usually 
cylindrical  in  the  middle,  tapering  to  a  stout  foot  and  well  sepa- 
rated acute  toes  ;  auricles  small ;  four  frontal  styles.  Eyes  three, 
one  cervical,  large,  red,  connected  by  two  streams  of  red  granules 
with  two  frontal  eye-spots ;  lateral  antennae  prominent  in  lumbar 
region.  Size  up  to  238  /x  (j^j  in.)  long  by  109  /x  {^2  in>)  wide 
at  the  auricles.     In  brackish  water. 

For  some  years  past  I  have  received  this  distinctive  species 
from  Dundee,  Margate,  Great  Yarmouth,  and  various  places  near 
the  sea  coast,  always  in  water  that  was  slightly  brackish  In 
general  appearance  and  structure  it  comes  nearest  to  S.  oblonga, 
from  which  it  can,  however,  be  readily  distinguished  by  a  much 
stouter  foot,  by  its  three  eyes,  and  a  prominent  stream  of  red 
granules  running  forward  from  the  cervical  eye,  which  is  unusually 
large,  to  the  two  frontal  eye-spots,  very  much  resembling  S.  tri- 
o-phtlialma,  in  this  respect. 

The  front  of  the  head  is  convex,  and  the  shape  of  the  body 
more  or  less  cylindrical,  merging  posteriorly  into  a  conspicuously 
stout  foot  with  two  fairly  thick  acute  toes,  which  are  always 
carried  well  apart.  The  outer  styles  emerge  from  fairly  large  tri- 
angular fleshy  flaps,  and  at  the  extreme  front  of  the  head  are  two 
bundles  of  very  fine  diverging  sense-hairs.  The  dorsal  antenna  is 
situated  in  its  usual  position,  and  the  lateral  antennas,  which  are 
readily  visible,  protrude  from  the  sides  in  the  lumbar  region  and  a 
little  on  the  ventral  side. 

The  integument  is  white,  transparent,  folded  longitudinally  on 
the  dorsal  side.  The  mastax  is  large,  of  usual  shape  and  structure, 
and  the  unci  have  five  or  six  teeth.  The  thick-walled  stomach  is 
surmounted  by  two  rounded  gastric  glands. 

The  remainder  of  the  anatomy  follows  that  of  other  Synchaetse  ; 
the  eggs  are  not  carried. 

The  male  has  been  seen  several  times,  and  has  much  analogy 
with  that  of  S.  oblong  a. 

The  accompanying  fig.  15  has  been  drawn  by  Mr.  Dixon - 
Nuttall,  and  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  animal. 


EXPLANATION   OF   PLATE  VII. 

Fig.  14. — Synchseta  triophthalma  Laut.  ?     Dorsal  view,     x  400. 
„     14a  ,,  „  „        One  uncus  of  the  jaws. 

„     15  „         littoralis  sp.  n.  Kouss.  ?      Dorsal  view,     x  375. 

,.     16  .,         cecilia  sp.  n.  Rouss.  $      Dorsal  view,     x  500. 

„     16a  „  „  „  Side  view  of  toe.     x  750. 

„     166  „  „  „  The  male.     X  500. 


JOT  .VII 


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The  Genus  Synchceta.     By  C.  F.  Rousselet.  399 

Synchseta  baltica  Ehrenberg. 
PL  VI.  fig.  11, 

Synonymy. 
Synchwta  apus  Plate. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Ehrenberg,  C.   G. — Das  Leuchten  cles  Meeres.     Abhandl.  der  Akad.  d. 

Wissenscli.  Berlin,  1834,  p.  572,  pi.  1,  fig.  2. 
—  Die  Infusionsthierchen.     Leipzig,  1838,  p.  437,  pi.  53,  fig.  5. 
Hudson  &  Gosse.—  The  Botifera.     London,  1889,  vol.  i.  p.  126,  pi.  13,  fig.  1. 
Plate,  L.  H. — Ueber  die  Botatorienfauna  des  bottnischen  Meerbusens,  etc. 

Zeitschr.  f.  wiss.  Zool.,  Bd.  49,  1890,  pp.  1-4. 
Levander,  K.  M. — Zur  Kenntniss  der  Wasserfauna  in  der  Umgebnng  von 

Helsingfors.     Acta  Societatis  pro  Fauna  et  Flora  Fennica,  Helsing- 

fors,  vol.  xii.  No.  3,  1894,  p.  18,  pi.  1,  fig.  4. 

Spec.  Char. — Body  very  large,  bell-shaped,  rounded  in  front, 
constricted  below  the  auricles,  tapering  to  a  stout  foot  and  thick 
obtuse  toes ;  four  frontal  styles  ;  wide  front,  and  large,  broad 
auricles ;  eye  red,  cervical,  with  a  tendency  to  be  cleft  in  two 
halves.  Size  455  fi  (^  in.)  to  523  /i  (Jg.  in.)  long  by  245  fj, 
(r£?  in.)  to  270  ft  (2^5  in.)  wide  at  the  auricles.  Marine,  pelagic 
in  the  Baltic. 

The  species  to  which  Ehrenberg  gave  this  name  appears  to 
have  been  first  found  by  a  Dr.  Michaelis  in  Kiel  harbour  in  1830. 
It  was  early  associated  with  the  luminosity  of  the  sea.  because  it 
was  found  in  sea  water  that  was  luminous,  but  according  to 
Ehrenberg's  own  account,  his  experiments  to  prove  its  luminosity 
were  entirely  negative,  as  Synchreta  did  not  shine  when  isolated, 
whilst  the  water  contained  other  marine  organisms,  such  as  Peri- 
dinia,  which  undoubtedly  were  luminous.  There  is,  therefore,  no 
valid  reason  for  the  statement  that  this  Synchreta,  or  any  other 
rotifer,  is  connected  with  the  luminosity  of  the  sea. 

Ehrenberg  obtained  his  specimen  from  Dr.  Michaelis,  and  com- 
municated his  first  account  and  drawings  of  this  species  to  the 
Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1834,  the  description  and  figures 
being  afterwards  reproduced  in  his  great  work  on  the  Infusoria  in 
1838. 

Until  quite  recently  the  real  S.  baltica  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  again  met  with,  or  to  have  been  searched  for  in  its  particular 
haunts,  the  Baltic  Sea.  Mr.  Gosse,  in  his  early  writings,  mentions 
a  marine  Synchseta  which  he  often  found  and  supposed  was  Ehren- 
berg's S.  baltica,  and  figured  it  in  his  Tenby.  This,  however,  is 
the  animal  now  known  as  Synchceta  gyrina  of  Hood.  Later  Crosse 
received  another,  smaller  and  different  marine  species  from  Mr. 
John  Hood  of  Dundee,  which  he  figured  in  The  Eotifera,  pi.  xiii. 
fig.  1,  under  the  name  of  S.  baltica.  It  is,  however,  quite  clear 
now  that  none  of  these  are  identical  with  Ehrenberg's  species,  and 


400  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

I  have  it  from  Mr.  John  Hood  that  the  small  marine  species  he 
sent  to  Mr.  Gosse  in  1888  is  the  one  which  is  now  described  in 
this  paper  under  the  name  of  S.  cecilia. 

Ehrenberg's  figure  shows  a  large  Synch  seta,  with  very  large  and 
broad  auricles,  and  it  was  not  until  1894  that  it  was  again  certainly 
identified  by  Dr.  Levander,  who  found  it  in  abundance  in  the  open 
sea  and  at  various  places  round  the  coast  of  Finland,  and  has  given 
a  better  drawing  of  it  in  his  memoir.  A  few  years  previously 
Dr.  L.  Plate  received  some  spirit  material  collected  by  Dr.  Nord- 
qvist  in  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
Baltic.  In  this  material  he  found  a  large  Synchoeta  fully  con- 
tracted into  a  ball,  showing  no  foot  at  all.  This  Dr.  Plate  named 
Synchceta  apus,  and  described  as  a  new  species.  Dr.  Levander, 
however,  has  proved  quite  satisfactorily  tha,t  it  is  no  other  than 
S.  baltica. 

I  have  considered  it  necessary  to  give  this  short  historical  sketch 
of  S.  baltica  in  order  to  clear  up  its  identity  and  separate  it  from  the 
various  species  to  which  this  name  has  been  wrongly  applied. 

Dr.  Levander  has  been  good  enough  to  send  me  some  fairly 
well  preserved  specimens  of  Synchceta  baltica,  yet  they  are  not  so 
perfect  and  fully  extended  as  one  could  wish.  Fig.  11,  pi.  VI.  has 
been  drawn  by  Mr.  Dixon-Nuttall  from  one  of  these,  and  is  suffi- 
ciently characteristic,  but  should  be  compared  with  Dr.  Levander's 
sketch  of  the  living  animal.  Fig.  11a  represents  a  front  view  of 
the  head,  which  has  been  kindly  sent  me  by  Dr.  Levander. 

The  shape  of  the  living  S.  baltica,  according  to  Dr.  Levander's 
description,  is  bell-shaped,  rounded  in  front,  constricted  below  the 
auricles,  then  widening  again  considerably  in  the  middle  of  the 
body,  whence  it  tapers  gradually  to  the  thick  foot.  In  the  pre- 
served specimens  the  posterior  end  of  the  body  shows  a  ring-like 
thickening  of  the  integument  from  which  the  foot  emerges  ;  it  may 
be,  however,  that  this  is  due  to  the  partly  retracted  foot,  and  that 
in  the  living  animal  the  body  merges  gradually  into  the  foot,  as 
shown  in  Dr.  Levander's  drawing.  The  foot  is  stout,  of  consider- 
able size,  and  carries  two  thick  obtuse  toes,  well  separated,  in  which 
the  fine  canals  of  the  foot-glands  can  be  readily  seen.  The  toes  are 
not  pointed,  but  distinctly  cut  off,  or  truncate  and  flat  at  the  tip. 

The  ciliary  wreath  is  of  the  usual  type,  but  the  auricles  are 
particularly  large  and  very  broad  and  clothed  with  long  vibratile 
cilia  as  is  well  represented  in  Mr.  Dixon-Nuttall's  figure.  Four 
frontal  styles  nre  present  as  usual,  the  outer  pair  emerging  from 
triangular  fleshy  flaps  of  skin.  On  each  side  of  the  extreme  front 
is  a  tuft  of  fine  radiating  sense-hairs ;  around  the  mouth  on  the 
ventral  side  are  the  usual  four  setose  pimples  carrying  each  two  or 
three  stiff  hairs. 

The  dorsal  antenna  is  situated  on  an  eminence  in  its  usual 
position  above  the  eye,  and  the  lateral  antennas  emerge  low  down 
in  the  lumbar  regions  and  a  little  on  the  ventral  side. 


The  Genus  Synchceta.     Btj  C.  F.  Roussclct.  401 

The  eye  is  large,  red,  usually  cleft  in  two  halves,  and  seated  on 
the  rounded  brain  mass. 

The  mouth  is  shield-shaped  and  guarded  all  round  by  a  single 
row  of  very  small  stiff  converging  hairs.  The  mastax  is  large,  of  the 
usual  Synchreta  shape  and  type ;  the  fulcrum  seems  to  be  particu- 
larly long  ;  the  unci  have  each  five  pointed  teeth.  The  thin-walled 
oesophagus  arises  in  the  middle  of  the  dorsal  side  of  the  mastax,  is 
fairly  long  and  not  ciliated  in  its  interior.  The  stomach  is  thick- 
walled,  consisting  of  large  rounded  granular  cells,  and  carrying  the 
usual  gastric  glands  ;  the  intestine  is  not  very  well  marked  off. 
The  lateral  canals  appear  to  be  attached  to  the  walls  of  the  stomach 
and  reach  forward  as  far  as  the  gastric  glands  only.  According  to 
Dr.  Levander  each  canal  forms  here  a  convoluted  knot  from  which 
two  branches  are  sent  off.  One  branch  goes  forward  a  short  distance 
in  the  body-cavity,  is  held  in  position  by  a  fine  thread  fixed  to  the 
body-wall,  and  ends  in  a  single  flame-cell.  The  contractile  vesicle 
is  large,  situated  at  the  base  of  the  foot  on  the  ventral  side ;  the 
lateral  canals  make  several  turns  in  its  walls  before  opening  into  it. 

The  ovary  is  oval,  of  usual  structure,  and  lies  across  the  body- 
cavity  on  the  ventral  side.  Two  foot-glands  are  very  prominent 
in  the  stout  foot. 

The  eggs  are  slightly  oval  in  shape  and  generally  carried  about. 
I  found  several  eggs  still  attached  to  the  toes  by  a  fine  thread  in 
the  preserved  specimens  ;  their  size  is  109  /j,  (233  in.)  long  by  88  fx 

<2  8  9  in-)  broad- 

As  far  as  is  at  present  known  S.  baltica  is  found  only  in  the 

Baltic,  where  it  is  truly  pelagic,  occurring  in  great  abundance  in 

the  open  sea  as  well  as  in  all  the»large  and  small  bays.     It  is  well 

known  that  the  salinity  of  the  water  of  the  Baltic  is  much  less  than 

that  of  the  North  Sea,  due  to  its  enclosed  position,  to  the  absence 

of  tides,  and  to  the  great  volume  of  fresh  wTater  that  is  constantly 

poured  into  it  by  numerous  rivers. 

According  to  Dr.  Levander  the  greatest  total  length  of  S.  baltica 
is  523  /j.  (^  in.)  The  largest  preserved  specimen  I  have  received 
measured  455  /x  (^  in.)  long  by  245  fi  (y^j  in.)  wide  at  the  auricles. 

The  male  has  not  yet  been  observed. 

Synchaeta  gyrina  Hood. 
PL  VIII.  fig.  17. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Hood,  John. — Chats  about  Eotifers:  Synchceta  gyrina.    Science  Gossip,  1887, 

p.  149,  2  figs. 
Hudson  &  Gosse—  The  Eotifera.    Supplement.    London,  1889,  p.  18. 

Spec.  Char. — Body  large,  barrel-shaped,  not  much  wider  in 
front,  and  tapering  gradually  posteriorly  to  the  short  foot  and 
toes ;    eye   cervical,    appearing    double ;    auricles    comparatively 


402  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

small  but  powerful ;  four  anterior  styles.  Largest  size  of  female 
32G  ft  (yF  in.)  long  by  145  /*  (y^g  in.)  wide  across  the  auricles. 
Marine  and  in  brackish  water. 

Mr.  John  Hood,  of  Dundee,  first  discovered  this  marine  and 
brackish  water  species  in  the  spring  of  1886,  in  tide  pools  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Tay,  and  gave  a  description  and  rough  sketch  of  it 
in  the  July  number  of  Science  Gossip  of  1887. 

In  the  autumn  of  last  year  1  obtained  specimens  from  Great 
Yarmouth,  and  subsequently  also  from  brackish  water  pools  near 
Exmouth  and  Worthing,  which  have  enabled  me  to  make  this 
description  and  Mr.  Dixon-Nuttall  the  accompanying  excellent 
drawing,  fig.  17.  Both  the  drawing  and  the  well  preserved  and 
mounted  animals  were  identified  by  Mr.  Hood,  which  was  neces- 
sary, as  his  rough  sketch  is  deficient  in  accuracy. 

The  budy  is  stout,  cylindrical  or  barrel-shaped,  widest  in  the 
middle,  tapering  gradually  posteriorly  ;  the  foot  is  distinct,  short, 
tapering,  and  carrying  two  distinct  broad  and  acute  toes,  slightly 
shouldered  on  the  outer  side  ;  two  distinct  foot-glands  are  contained 
in  the  foot.  The  head  also  is  cylindrical,  hardly  wider  than  the 
widest  part  of  the  budy.  The  auricles  are  comparatively  small  but 
powerful;  the  head  is  truncate  in  front  without  any  conspicuous 
prominences.  Two  pairs  of  styles  arise  in  front,  the  outer  pair 
from  very  small  fleshy  eminences.  The  vibratile  cilia  in  front 
have  the  usual  arrangement  in  four  regions.  The  mouth  is  ventral 
in  position,  surrounded  by  the  usual  tactile  tufts  of  seta*  and  circlet 
of  short  stiff  hairs.  The  eye  is  large,  cervical,  and  consists  of  two 
dark  red  closely  apposed  bodies  or  clusters  of  red  granules.  The 
mastax  is  large,  of  usual  Synchaeta  shape  and  structure,  and  of 
S.  oolong  a  type  with  six  broad,  lancet-shaped  teeth  in  each  uncus. 
The  dorsal  antenna  protrudes  on  a  dorsal  eminence  above  the  eye„ 
and  the  lateral  antennae  are  situated  at  the  sides,  slightly  below 
the  middle  of  the  body. 

The  stomach  is  large,  of  usual  shape,  as  well  as  the  gastric 
glands,  ovary,  lateral  canals  and  contractile  vesicle,  all  of  which 
are  clearly  indicated  in  Mr.  Dixon-Nuttall's  excellent  figure.  The 
integument  is  fairly  firm,  showing  more  or  less  prominent  trans- 
verse and  longitudinal  folds,  particularly  on  the  dorsal  side. 

In  swimming,  this  Synchaeta  moves  rapidly,  almost  rolling  in 
the  water  like  a  barrel,  without  apparent  aim  ;  it  also  spins  a 
thread  from  the  toes  to  which  it  attaches  itself  occasionally. 

The  eggs  are  nearly  spherical,  coloured  slightly  brown,  and 
78  fi  (g^g  in.)  in  diameter ;  when  laid  they  fall  off  at  once,  and  are 
not  carried  about. 

The  male  has  been  seen  by  Mr.  Hood,  who  describes  it  as  a 
conical  slender  creature,  85  fi  (300  in-)  m  length. 

Habitat :  in  sea- water  and  brackish  tide  pools,  near  Dundee, 
Great  Yarmouth,  Exmouth,  Worthing,  and  probably  all  round  the 
coast. 


The  Genus  Synchceta.     By  C.  F.  Rousselet.  403 


Synchseta  triophthalma  Lauterborn. 
PL  VII.  fig.  14. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Lauterborn,    Kobert. — Wissensch.  Meeresuntersuchungen  aus  der   BioL 
Anstalt  auf  Helgoland,  1894,  i.  pp.  207-13, 1  fig. 

Spec.  Char. — Body  cone-shaped,  very  wide  and  rounded  in 
front ;  foot  indistinct ;  toe  thin,  style-shaped,  apparently  single ; 
eyes  three,  one  large  cervical,  and  two  frontal  eyes.  Lateral 
antenna  asymmetrical,  large,  single,  situated  on  left  side  of  body. 
Size  181  fj,  to  265  /x  (-j-4^  to  ^  in.).     Marine,  pelagic. 

In  June  1898  Mr.  John  Hood  found  this  peculiar  Synchseta 
in  the  sea  near  Dundee,  and  sent  me  some  living  specimens  for 
identification.  I  recognised  it  at  once  as  the  animal  Dr.  Robert 
Lauterborn  had  discovered  off  the  coast  of  Helgoland  in  August 
1893,  and  of  which  he  had  given  a  rough  figure  and  short  descrip- 
tion in  his  Bcitrdgc  zur  Mecresfauna  von  Helgoland.  Since  his 
first  capture,  Mr.  Hood  has  found  it  repeatedly  and  has  sent  it  to 
his  correspondents,  and  I  have  no  doubt  it  could  be  obtained 
at  other  points  along  the  coast  during  the  summer  months. 
Mr.  Dixon-Nuttall  has  made  a  fine  and  accurate  portrait  of  it 
(fig.  14)  which  gives  a  better  idea  of  its  appearance  than  any 
amount  of  description.  The  general  outline  of  this  species  is  cone- 
or  top-shaped,  very  broad  anteriorly  and  very  slender  posteriorly, 
ending  in  a  thin,  pointed,  style-like  toe,  which  appears  to  be  single. 
The  auricles  are  very  large,  and  the  front  of  the  head  is  rounded, 
and  so  wide  as  to  be,  with  the  auricles,  very  nearly  as  broad  as 
the  animal  is  long.  The  usual  pair  of  large  outer  frontal  styles 
project  from  large  triangular  fleshy  flaps,  and  the  two  smaller 
styles  are  situated  on  the  dorsal  edge  just  above  the  frontal  eyes. 
A  peculiarity  of  this  species  is  that  it  has  three  deep  red  eyes  :  a 
cervical  eye  which  is  double,  in  the  usual  position,  and  two  frontal 
eyes  situated  in  front,  a  short  distance  below  the  dorso-frontal 
edge  of  the  head.  Two  streams  of  minute  red  granules  usually 
connect  the  dorsal  eye  with  the  frontal  eyes,  as  if  the  latter  were 
connected  with  the  cervical  eye  by  means  of  very  fine  tubules. 
I  have  noticed  a  similar  tendency  in  several  other  species  such  as 
S.  oblong  a,  and  more  rarely  in  &  tremula,  but  only  in  S.  littomlis 
are  the  frontal  eyes  so  constant  and  so  prominent  as  in  S.  trioph- 
thalma. The  dorsal  antenna  is  present  in  its  usual  position,  but  the 
main  and  unique  feature  of  this  Synchreta  is  that  it  has  a  single, 
very  large  and  asymmetric  lateral  antenna,  protruding  from  a 
fleshy  prominence  low  down  on  the  left  side  of  the  body  near  the 
toe.     There  is  no  trace  of  a  lateral  antenna  on  the  right  side.     The 


404  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

foot  is  not  well  marked  off,  and  body,  foot,  and  toe  follow  each  other 
without  much  distinctness.  The  foot-gland  is  elongated  and  club- 
shaped  and  apparently  single. 

The  mouth  is  situated  in  the  usual  position  on  the  ventral  halt 
of  the  front  of  the  head  ;  around  the  mouth  are  four  groups  of  five 
or  six  fairly  long  stiff  sense-hairs,  and  outside  these  there  are  the 
usual  four  patches  of  vibratile  cilia.  The  mouth  is  oval  in  shape, 
and  guarded  by  a  wreath  of  short,  closely-set,  overhanging,  stiff 
hairs.  The  mastax,  oesophagus,  stomach,  ovary,  lateral  canals,  and 
rest  of  the  anatomy  are  quite  normal  of  Synchseta  type.  One 
uncus  of  the  jaws  is  represented  in  fig.  14a.  The*  egg,  when  ex- 
truded, is  carried  about  for  a  time,  attached  by  a  thread,  but  often 
becomes  detached.  I  have  observed  an  individual  carrying  two 
eggs.  It  is  oval  in  shape,  75  /u,  (g^  in.)  long  by  58  //,  (^-0  in.) 
broad. 

In  swimming  this  Synchreta  sails  in  long  graceful  curves, 
without  undue  haste,  and  reminds  one  of  the  flight  of  the  swallow 
through  the  air.  When  once  seen  this  species  can  be  recognised 
by  this  mode  of  swimming,  which  is  very  different  from  that  of 
the  other  species. 

The  male  has  not  yet  been  observed. 

I  have  been  very  successful  in  preserving  and  mounting  this 
animal  fully  extended,  and  showing  all  its  characteristic  pecu- 
liarities. 

The  size  varies  a  good  deal  according  as  the  animal  is1  young  or 
full  grown,  from  181  p  to  265  fi  (y^  in.  to  ^s  in.).  The  width 
across  the  auricles  is  very  nearly  the  same. 

Its  habitat,  as  far  as  known,  is  the  open  sea  round  Helgoland, 
near  Dundee,  and  the  Bay  of  Naples,  appearing  in  the  summer 
months  from  May. 


Synchaeta  monopus  Plate. 
PI.  VI.  fig.  12. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Plate,  L.  H. — Ueber  die  Rotatorienfauna  des  bottnischen  Meerbusens,  etc. 

Zeitschr.  f.  wiss.  Zool.,  Band  49,  1890,  pp.  1-42. 
Levander,  K.  M. — Wasserfauna  in  der  Unigelrang  von  Helsingfors.     Acta 

Soc.  pro  Fauna  et  Flora  Fennica,  Helsingfors,  1894,  pp.  1-72,  2  pis. 

Spec.  Char. — Body  a  greatly  swollen  bag,  very  thin-walled  and 
extremely  transparent,  terminating  in  a  very  small  foot  with  single 
toe.  Head  small,  with  four  frontal  styles  and  small  auricles. 
Eye  red,  cervical.  Size  254  //,  (To-q  in.)  long  by  164  /jl  (t£3  in.) 
broad.     Marine,  pelagic  in  the  Baltic. 

This  remarkable  pelagic   marine  species  was  named   by  Dr. 


The  Genus  Synchceta.     By  C.  F.  Eousselet.  405 

L.  H.  Plate  from  material  collected  by  Dr.  0.  Nordqvist  in  the 
Bay  of  Bothnia.  The  specimens  having  been  killed  and  preserved 
in  spirit,  were  all  fully  contracted,  so  that  only  a  very  imperfect 
description  could  be  given.  Dr.  Levander  has,  however,  found  this 
form  again  in  great  abundance  in  the  open  sea  near  Helsingfors, 
and  has  given  a  better  account  of  it  with  a  drawing.  He  has 
also  been  good  enough  to  send  me  some  fairly  well  preserved 
specimens  and  two  sketches  of  the  dorsal  side  and  front  view  of 
the  head,  which  are  here  reproduced  (figs.  12  and  12a),  so  that  I 
owe  my  acquaintance  with  this  peculiar  Synchaeta  to  these.  Not 
having  seen  it  in  the  living  state,  however,  my  account  of  it  must 
be  largely  taken  from  Dr.  Levander's  description. 

The  shape  of  the  body  is  quite  unlike  that  of  any  other 
Synchfeta,  and  instead  of  the  usual  cone  it  presents  an  extremely 
thin-walled,  very  transparent,  bag-like,  rounded  vesicle,  constricted 
anteriorly,  with  a  very  small  head,  which,  however,  has  the  usual 
characteristic  Synchseta  structure.  The  body  terminates  in  a  very 
small  swollen  foot  carrying  a  single  toe. 

The  whole  structure  of  all  the  organs  is  so  fine  and  delicate 
that  it  appears  evident  the  whole  organism,  in  acquiring  these 
characters,  has  been  evolved  with  a  view  to  render  itself  as  trans- 
parent, and  therefore  as  invisible  as  possible,  which  is  characteristic 
of  many  pelagic  animals. 

The  small  head,  as  will  be  seen  from  fig. -12a,  which  represents 
a  front  view,  carries  a  normal  ciliary  wreath  in  two  interrupted 
regions,  four  frontal  styles,  and  two  small  but  distinct  auricles. 

The  cervical  eye  is  red,  seated  on  the  oval  brain  mass.  The 
dorsal  antenna  is  slightly  raised  above  the  eye,  while  the  ventral 
antennas  emerge  very  low  down  close  to  the  foot,  somewhat  on  the 
ventral  side.  The  mouth  is  shield -shaped  and  guarded  by  the 
usual  screen  of  fine  hairs.  The  mastax  is  also  small,  of  Synchseta 
structure,  and  the  unci  have  five  strong  teeth,  which  I  was  able  to 
see  in  some  swollen  specimens  where  the  unci  had  been  forced 
through  the  mouth. 

The  oesophagus  is  a  very  thin,  long  tube,  not  ciliated  internally, 
leading  to  a  small  thick-walled  stomach,  to  which  very  small  and 
rounded  gastric  glands  are  attached. 

The  ovary  is  very  small,  oval,  containing  about  eight  germ- 
cells. 

The  muscular  system  is  of  normal  character ;  a  dorsal  and 
ventral  pair  of  extremely  thin  and  narrow  muscular  threads 
originate  both  in  the  head  and  in  the  foot,  and  are  inserted  a  little 
below  the  middle  to  the  body-walls. 

The  excretory  system  is  represented  by  lateral  canals,  which 
are  attached,  on  either  side,  to  the  wall  of  the  stomach,  whence 
they  continue  forward  for  a  short  distance,  being  suspended  quite 
freely  in  the  body-cavity  by  a  very  fine  thread  attached  to  the  side 


406  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

of  the  body;  each  canal  ends  in  a  single  flame-cell.  The  con- 
tractile vesicle  is  fairly  large,  and  situated  below  the  stomach. 

The  whole  of  the  internal  organs,  digestive  system,  ovary,  &c, 
take  up  only  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  comparatively  large 
body-cavity,  so  that  this  Synchceta  at  first  sight  looks  much  more 
like  a  small  Asplanchna  priodonta  than  anything  else.  The  dorsal 
half  of  the  body-cavity  is  smaller  than  the  ventral  half,  and  some- 
times the  ventral  wall  is  swollen  out  to  such  a  decree  as  to  extend 
much  beyond  the  foot. 

Synchceta  monopus  has  not  the  appearance  of  'toeing  so  vigorous 
a  swimmer  as  its  near  relatives.  Dr.  Levander  states  that  it  occurs 
in  great  abundance,  associated  with  S.  baltica,  from  the  middle  of 
June  to  October,  in  the  bays  and  open  sea  near  Helsingfors,  and  it 
is  evidently  also  found  in  other  parts  of  the  Baltic.  It  has  not 
yet  been  found  on  the  English  coast,  or  in  any  other  seas.  It  does 
not  carry  its  eggs. 

Its  size  is  254  fi  (t£q  in.)  long  by  164  fi  (yjg  in.)  wide.  The 
male  is  not  known. 


Synehseta  cecilia  sp.  n. 

PL  VII.  fig.  16. 

Spec.  Char. — Body  small,  pear-shaped  in  form,  rounded  in 
front ;  four  frontal  styles ;  foot  distinct,  conical,  carrying  apparently 
a  single  toe.  Lateral  antenna?  situated  at  extreme  base  of  body. 
Eye  cervical,  red,  with  a  tendency  to  separate  in  two  halves ; 
carries  one  or  more  eggs  about  attached  by  a.  thread  to  the  toe. 
Greatest  size  142  fx,  (T^  in.) ;  width  at  auricles  82  /m  (^^m.); 
male  78  fi  (si's  m*)  l°ng-     Marine. 

In  November  1895  I  first  obtained  this  small  and  attractive 
marine  species  from  Mr.  E.  Daunou,  who  had  found  it  in  a 
tide  pool  close  to  the  sea  at  Margate.  Since  then  I  have  re- 
ceived it  repeatedly,  sometimes  in  large  numbers,  from  Mr.  John 
Hood,  of  Dundee,  and  from  Mr.  Hurrell,  of  Great  Yarmouth.  A 
great  peculiarity,  which  at  once  attracts  attention,  is  that  it 
habitually  carries  about  its  eggs,  one,  two,  or  sometimes  three  in  a 
string,  in  its  restless  gyrations. 

In  size  it  is  one  of  the  smallest  Synchretse,  and  in  shape  it 
is  cylindric,  somewhat  pear-shaped,  convexly  rounded  in  front, 
rounded  behind,  with  a  distinctly  marked-off  foot  of  fair  size, 
bearing  a  small  conical,  apparently  single,  toe.  The  foot  and  toe 
are  often  bent  dorsal-wards.  The  auricular  lobes  are  small.  In 
front  the  head  bears  the  usual  prominent  four  styliform  bundles  of 
stiff  sense-hairs,  the  outer  pair  emerging  from  triangular  fleshy 
flaps.     On  each  side  of  the  shield-shaped  mouth  there   are  the 


The  Genus  Synchceta.     By   C.  F.  Eousselet.  407 

usual  four  tufts  of  sense-hairs,  but  only  two  of  these  tufts  can  be 
seen  from  a  dorsal  view.  The  crimson  eye  is  in  the  usual  position, 
and  consists  of  two  apposed  red  bodies.  The  dorsal  antenna  pro- 
trudes from  a  conical  elevation  in  the  usual  situation.  The  lateral 
antennae  are  situated  at  the  extreme  base  of  the  body,  where  the 
foot  begins.  The  mastax  is  fairly  large,  of  normal  structure,  and 
of  S.  kremula  type,  with  six  teeth  in  the  thin,  flat,  and  broad  unci, 
the  first  tooth  being  longer  than  the  others.  A  short,  thin-walled 
oesophagus  leads  to  a  thick-walled,  rounded,  yellow  stomach,  the 
anterior  part  of  which  is  thin-walled,  and  having  large  cells  in  its 
wall,  and  densely  ciliated  inside.  The  stomach  carries  ample 
gastric  glands  of  irregular  shape.  The  lateral  canals,  contractile 
vesicle,  and  muscular  system  are  distinct  and  normal.  The  integu- 
ment is  fine  and  soft,  and  with  a  high  power  numerous  very  fine 
longitudinal  folds  can  be  observed  in  it.  The  ovary  is  flat  and 
rounded,  and  contains  a  number  of  large  nucleated  germ-cells.  The 
e<w  is  large,  being  estimated  at  about  one-fifth  of  the  total  bulk  of 

Do  O     *  O 

the  animal,  and  oval  in  shape ;  it  is  attached  to  the  toe  by  means 
of  a  fine  mucous  thread,  which  is  sometimes  lengthened,  and  the 
egg  then  follows  the  animal  at  some  distance  behind.  I  have  seen 
two  and  three  eggs  attached  side  by  side  or  one  behind  the  other 
in  a  string — a  peculiar  sight.  This  habit  of  carrying  its  eggs  is 
quite  uncommon  in  Synchsetse,  but  with  this  species  it  appears  to 
be  habitual,  and  dozens  of  individuals  can  be  seen  with  eggs  in  a 
fresh  gathering,  while  of  course  there  are  also  always  some  without 
them.  Mr.  F.  E.  Dixon-Nuttall  has  made  the  attractive  drawing, 
fig.  16,  and  also  fig.  16a,  which  shows  a  side  view  of  the  single  toe 
with  a  small  knob,  looking  like  a  rudiment  of  a  second  toe. 

On  comparing  this  new  species  with  the  described  forms  it 
seemed  to  me  that  it  had  some  resemblance  with  the  marine 
Synchaeta  Mr.  Gosse  has  figured  and  described  in  the  Monograph, 
p.  126,  as  Ehrenberg's  S.  tallica,  though  there  are  some  discrepan- 
cies in  the  description,  and  he  does  not  mention  that  it  carries  its 
eggs.  1  therefore  applied  to  Mr.  John  Hood  and  inquired  w7hat 
animal  it  was  he  sent  to  Mr.  Gosse,  from  which  he  made  the 
drawing  on  pi.  xiii.  fig.  1,  as  mentioned  in  the  text,  and  Mr.  Hood 
informs  me  that  it  was  this  Synchaeta  to  which  I  have  now  given 
the  name  of  S.  cecilia.  Mr.  Gosse  has  never  seen  the  real  S.  tallica 
of  Ehrenberg,  which,  as  far  as  is  known,  is  confined  to  the  Baltic, 
and  hence  his  mistake. 

The  male. — At  the  end  of  October  last  Mr.  Hurrell  sent  me  some 
sea  water  in  which  this  species  was  very  abundant,  and  amongst 
them  I  noticed  some  carrying  bundles  of  two  to  four  small  male 
eggs.  By  isolating  these  I  soon  obtained  the  male,  which  is  repre- 
sented in  fig.  166.  It  is  a  small  cylindrical  creature  78  /a  (3|^  in.) 
in  length,  with  a  foot  and  toe  turned  ventral- wards.  The  front  of 
the  head  is  conical  and  carries  four  styles ;  the  base  of  the  cone 


408  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

bears  a  nearly  circular  wreath  of  vibratile  cilia.  The  brain-sac 
carries  a  red  eye  imbedded  in  grey  granules,  and  just  above  it  the 
large  dorsal  antenna  is  seen  to  emerge,  slanting  backwards.  The 
lateral  antennae  are  also  conspicuous  by  their  size,  protruding 
low  down  at  the  sides  of  the  body.  A  mouth,  jaws,  and  digestive 
tract  are  absent ;  a  large  sperm-sac  fills  the  greater  part  of  the  body- 
cavity.  The  male  was  seen  to  attach  itself  invariably  to  the  side 
of  the  female.  Although  the  males  became  abundant  in  the  water 
I  never  observed  an  egg  with  thicker  walls  that  could  be  recognised 
as  a  fertilised  resting  egg,  and  such  eggs  are  sb  far  quite  unknown 
in  any  Synchseta. 

Size  of  female  :  142  ui  {j^-q  in.)  in  length  by  82  //,  (3  \Q  in.)  wide 
at  the  auricles ;  young  and  smaller  animals  are  always  present  also. 
The  male  :  78  /u,  (g1^  in.)  in  length ;  the  eggs  are  slightly  oval  in 
shape.  Female  eggs,  61  ll  (^-j-g  in.)  by  47  •  5  p  (g-33  in.)  ;  male  eggs, 
42  •  5  /*  (eh  in-)  by  35  •  7  /*  (t\q  in.). 


Synchseta  vorax  sp.  n. 
PL  VIII.  fig.  19. 

Spec.  Char. — Body  stout,  more  cylindrical  in  shape  rather  than 
conical,  pointed  anteriorly,  with  a  well-marked,  narrow,  fairly  long, 
and  flexible  foot,  carrying  two  distinct  toes.  Frontal  styles  four  ; 
in  addition  to  usual  dorsal  and  lateral  antennae  it  has  a  unique 
tubular  frontal  antenna.  Cervical  eye  large,  red,  appearing  double. 
Size  of  female,  average  272  /x  (^3  in.)  long  by  136  ll  (T|-g  in.) 
broad  across  the  auricles.  One  large  specimen  measured  340  ll 
(7*5-  in.)  long  by  149  ll  (^q  in.)  broad.  Male  with  three  tubular 
frontal  antennae  and  two  movable,  setose,  fleshy  processes  in  front 
of  head  ;  149  ll  (Tf  q  in.)  long.     Marine. 

In  June  1898,  in  sea  water  from  the  harbour  of  Dundee  sent 
by  Mr.  John  Hood,  I  first  discovered  a  few  specimens  of  this  new 
and  savage  species  in  company  with  S.  triophthalma,  and  then 
again  in  June  1899  Mr.  Hood  obtained  it  in  the  same  spot  in 
larger  numbers,  which  I  was  able  to  preserve  and  mount  most 
perfectly.  It  has  not  been  met  with  at  any  other  season  or  place, 
and  seems  to  be  a  summer  form. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE   VIII. 

Fig.  17. — Synchxta  gyrina  Hood  9      Dorsal  view,     x  300. 
„     18  „         tavina  Hood  ?      Dorsal  view,     x  325. 

„     19  „         vorax  sp.  n.  Rousa.  ?     Dorsal  view,     x  275. 

„     19a  „  „  .,  The  male,  dorsal  view,     x  300. 

„     19b  „  „  „  One  uncus  of  the  jaws. 

„     19c  „  „  „  One  ramus  and  fulcrum  of  the  jaws. 


ZJ 


^ 


-?■■ 


The  Genus  Synchaeta.     By  C.  F.  Rousselet.  409 

The  body  is  more  cylindrical  in  shape  than  the  other  species 
of  the  genus,  rounding  off  towards  the  foot,  which  is  very  flexible 
and  distinctly  marked  off,  narrow,  fairly  long,  and  terminated  by 
two  small  pointed  toes  always  carried  well  apart.  The  auricles  are 
powerful,  but  less  broad  than  in  some  other  species  ;  the  head  is 
prominently  pointed  in  front,  and  carries  the  usual  pair  of  style- 
like antenna?  issuing  out  of  a  triangular  flap  of  the  integument, 
and  two  small  styles  on  the  dorsal  frontal  edge  of  the  head. 
Below  the  frontal  eye,  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  front  and 
above  the  mouth,  this  species  has  a  large  tubular  antenna  of 
peculiar  structure,  not  known,  so  far,  in  any  other  species  of  Syn- 
chaeta. It  consists  of  a  bundle  of  fine  setae  protruding  out  of  a 
fairly  long,  fleshy  tubule  pointing  straight  forward.  The  usual 
median  dorsal  antenna  above  the  eye  is  also  present.  The  mouth 
is  situated  immediately  below  the  pointed  front,  is  surrounded  by 
the  usual  four  tufts  of  stiff  setae  and  four  patches  of  vibratile  cilia. 
The  mouth-opening  itself  is  V-shaped  and,  as  in  all  other  species, 
is  guarded  by  a  single  row  all  round  of  closely  set,  short,  stiff  hairs, 
all  converging  over  its  centre.  The  lateral  antennae  are  very  small, 
and  situated  in  the  lumbar  region,  about  two-thirds  down  the  side 
of  the  body,  and  slightly  on  the  ventral  side.  The  median  eye  is 
large,  deep  red  in  colour,  looking  like  two  eyes  closely  apposed. 
The  mastax  is  large  and  of  usual  Synchceta  tremula  type  with  some 
variation  in  the  shape  of  the  rami  (fig.  19c)  ;  the  unci  have  one 
large  tooth  and  four  or  five  very  small  teeth,  mere  serrations 
(fig.  196).  The  large  stomach,  intestine,  lateral  canals,  and  con- 
tractile vesicle  are  of  usual  structure  and  call  for  no  particular 
remark.  The  ovary  is  large  and  roughly  oval  in  shape.  The  eggs 
are  not  carried  about,  and  I  have  seen  an  egg  lying  beside  the  ovary 
with  a  rather  stout,  smooth  shell,  measuring  11*5  ^  by  9*5  jx. 

This  species  swims  with  such  impetuosity  through  the  water 
that  its  rush  cannot  be  described  otherwise  than  furious ;  its  course 
is  straight  forward,  then  it  dashes  suddenly  round  in  another  direc- 
tion, lashing  its  foot  up  and  down  and  right  and  left,  attacking  any 
other  Synchaeta  that  may  come  in  its  way,  and  not  at  all  particular 
as  to  species.  I  have  seen  it  seize  an  unfortunate  S.  triophthalma 
with  its  jaws,  carry  it  in  its  mouth  and  devour  it  without  a  moment's 
stop  in  its  furious  career. 

No  other  Synchaeta  of  my  acquaintance  is  so  fast  in  motion 
and  so  fierce  of  temper.  In  this  respect  it  can  only  be  compared 
with  Plocsoma  hudsoni,  which  is  equally  wild  and  fierce. 

In  retraction  the  auricles  are  turned  in  over  the  head,  and  a 
fold  of  the  skin  closes  over  them,  while  the  foot  is  completely  re- 
tracted within  the  body. 

The  male.  The  Synchaeta  males  are  rare,  but  I  observed  the 
male  of  this  species  attached  to  the  posterior  part  of  a  large 
female,  while  at  the  same  time  the  latter  was  rushing  through 

August  20th,  1902  2  e 


I 

410  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

the  water  at  express  speed  with  a  S.  triophthaima  in  its  jaws, 
which  it  was  devouring.  Seizing  the  opportunity,  I  secured 
and  mounted  all  three  in  a  slide.  The  male  is  small,  conical 
in  shape,  has  no  mouth,  mastax,  stomach,  or  intestine  ;  a  small 
rounded  sperm-sac  takes  the  place  of  the  stomach.  The 
front  of  the  head  carries  the  usual  four  styles.  The  median 
frontal  tubular  antenna,  which  is  so  prominent  and  characteristic 
in  the  female,  is  also  present,  but  of  small  size  ;  in  addition  to 
this,  the  male  has  on  the  front  two  small  tubular  antennae,  one  on 
each  side,  which  is  very  strange.  Further,  it  has  at  the  extreme 
front  of  the  head,  but  slightly  ventral  in  position,  two  stout,  fleshy, 
freely  movable  processes,  surmounted  by  a  broad  brush  of  long  stiff 
hairs.     In  no  other  male  have  I  seen  such  organs. 

A  deep  red  eye,  usually  imbedded  in  a  mass  of  semi-opaque 
granules,  is  present.     Size  of  male  149  /x  (Tf  q  in.). 

Mr.  Dixon-Nuttall  has  made  excellent  drawings  of  the  male 
and  female  from  living  specimens  (figs.  19  and  19a),  by  means  of 
which  this  species  will  be  readily  identified. 


Syncheeta  neapolitana  sp.  n 
PL  V.  fig.  9. 

Spec.  Char. — Body  small,  top-shaped,  sometimes  swollen  at 
sides ;  head  broad,  and  rounded  in  front ;  four  frontal  styles  ; 
auricles  fairly  large  ;  lateral  antennae  very  small,  situated  two- 
thirds  down  the  sides  of  the  body ;  eye  red,  cervical ;  foot  with 
two  distinct  joints,  the  last  joint  bearing  a  blunt  spur,  and 
carrying  a  single  pointed  toe.  Size:  female  up  to  163  /j,  (y^^  in.) 
long  by  108  /a  (^5  in.)  wide  at  the  auricles ;  male  75  //.  (g^n  in.) 
long.     Marine. 

In  June  1897,  Mr.  H.  S.  Jennings  of  U.  S.  America  sent  me, 
from  the  Zoological  Station  at  Naples,  a  rough  sketch  of  a 
Synchseta  which  had  just  been  collected  in  very  large  numbers  in 
the  open  sea  in  the  Bay  of  Naples,  showing  a  spur-like  projection 
■on  the  foot  as  its  most  distinctive  feature.  At  that  time  I  was 
unable  to  recognise  or  diagnose  this  animal,  but  having  since  made 
a  careful  study  of,  and  become  personally  acquainted  with,  all  the 
known  species  of  Synchpetre,  and  having  also  received  some  pre- 
served specimens  from  Mr.  Jennings,  I  can  now  say  that  it  is  un- 
doubtedly a  new  species,  which  I  have  named  S.  neapolitana. 

A  very  few  specimens  of  the  somewhat  larger  S.  triophthaima 
I  discovered  in  the  same  material. 

From  the  Director  of  the  Naples  Zoological  Station  I  learn 
that  this  new  Synchceta  neapolitana  appears  in  the  bay  occasionally 


The  Genus  Synchceta.     By  C.  F.  Rousselet.  411 

in  June  in  immense  swarms,  when  the  sea  has  been  very  calm  for 
a  long  time,  but  not  every  year.  Mr.  Jennings'  preserved  material, 
prepared  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  segmentation  and  develop- 
ment in  the  egg,  is  not  very  good  as  regards  the  adult  Synchreta, 
the  great  majority  of  the  animals  being  badly  contracted,  but  by 
searching  some  fairly  extended  specimens  have  been  secured,  of 
which  the  following  is  a  description  : — 

The  body  is  top  or  cone-shaped,  either  straight  or  slightly 
swollen  at  the  sides.  The  front  part  of  the  head  is  broad  and 
rounded,  and  bears  four  styles,  the  outer  pair  arising  from 
triangular  fleshy  flaps,  and  auricles  of  fairly  large  size.  The 
foot  has  two  distinct  joints,  and  carries  a  spur-like  process  at  its 
dorsal  end.  It  ^is  somewhat  difficult  to  decide  whether  this  pro- 
cess is  a  true  spur,  an  organ  otherwise  unknown  in  this  genus,  or 
a  second  toe  turned  upwards,  and  to  some  extent  gone  out  of  use. 
The  process  is  situated  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  second  joint  of 
the  foot,  but  to  the  left  of  the  median  line,  and  originates  a  little 
higher  than  the  base  of  the  true  toe,  which  seems  to  be  the  only 
exit  for  the  secretion  of  the  large  and  apparently  single  foot-gland. 
Whatever  its  true  meaning,  this  structure  forms  the  most  pro- 
minent distinctive  character  of  this  species,  and  fig.  9a  gives  an 
enlarged  view  of  the  foot  and  spur-like  structure. 

The  mastax  is  of  usual  Synchseta  shape  and  structure,  the  unci 
have  teeth  similar  to  those  of  S.  oblong  a,  but  their  exact  number 
could  not  be  ascertained  in  the  preserved  specimen.  The  stomach 
is  not  large,  of  usual  structure,  and  carries  two  rounded  gastric 
glands.  A  rounded  ovary,  contractile  vesicle,  and  lateral  canals 
are  present.  The  cervical  eye  is  single,  with  occasionally  a  slight 
appearance  of  splitting  in  two  halves,  but  I  could  see  no  trace  of 
frontal  eyes  .such  as  S.  triophthalma  possesses.  The  dorsal  antenna 
is  situated  on  a  fleshy  projection  above  the  eye,  and  the  lateral 
antennae  are  very  small  and  protrude  at  a  point  about  two-thirds 
down  the  side  of  the  body  and  slightly  on  the  ventral  side. 

In  life  the  eggs  are  carried  about  attached  to  the  toes.  I  found 
a  large  number  of  both  male  and  female  eggs  in  the  preserved 
material,  and  also  the  male,  which  is  of  usual  structure  and  repre- 
sented in  figs.  95  and  9c,  dorsal  and  lateral  view. 

Mr.  F.  R  Dixon-Nuttall  has  made  a  good  drawing  of  both 
male  and  female,  figs.  9a,  b,  and  c,  after  looking  at  and  comparing 
a  number  of  specimens  which  were  not  too  well  preserved. 

The  size  of  the  female  varies  considerably,  as  usual,  from  109  p, 

(dr  in-) t0  163  /*  (ts5  ™0  lonS  °y  75  f-  (sh  in-)  t0  108  H>  (sh  in-) 
wide  at  the  auricles.     The  Male  is  75  /a  (g^  in.)  long.     The  eggs 

are  oval  in  shape  and  measure  : — female  eggs,  61  ^  (^\^  in.)  long 

by  51  fi  (5J0  in.)  broad;  male  eggs,  44  fi  (5)3  in.)  long  by  34  /a 

(jIq  in.)  broad. 

2  e  2 


412  Transactions  of  the  Society. 


VIII. —  Undescribcd  Palpi  on  the  Proboscis  of  some  Dipterous  Flies, 
with  Remarks  on  the  Mouth-parts  in  several  Fo,milies. 

By  Walter  Wesche. 

(Read  June  18th,  1902.)  ' 
Plates  IX.  and  X. 

Before  describing  what  perhaps  in  our  present  knowledge  may 
be  considered  an  abnormality,  I  propose  to  give  a  short  account 
of  some  more  or  less  well  known  forms,  graduating  from  those 
which  have  nearly  all  the  parts  of  the  typical  insect  mouth,  to 
those  in  which  many  parts  are  absent,  or  apparently  absent. 

Tabanus  and  Culex  have  all  the  mouth-parts  present,  with  the 
exception  of  what  are  usually  called  the  labial  palpi.  But  there 
is  a  striking  difference  between  the  two,  in  the  structure  of  the 
labium. 

In  the  Gnat  it  is  simply  a  horny  sheath  for  the  lancets,  with 
valves  at  the  extremity,  and  covered  with  the  scales  characteristic 
of  the  insect,  fig.  1. 

In  the  Breeze  Fly  it  is  membranous ;  the  tip  is  tracheated,  and 
the  organ  has  many  points  of  resemblance  to  the  labium  in  the 
Muscidae,  generally  considered  typical  of  the  order,  fig.  2.  I  have 
said  that  with  the  exception  of  the  labial  palpi  (the  usual  nomen- 
clature), all  the  parts  of  the  typical  insect  mouth  are  present : 
the  labrum,  mandibles,  maxillae  with  palpi,  and  the  labium.     In 


EXPLANATION   OF  PLATES   IX.   and   X. 

The  drawings  were  made  from  slides  in  the  author's  possession,  the  insects 
having  been  cleared  in  caustic  potash  and  mounted  under  pressure.  Fig.  8  was 
roughly  sketched  from  a  recently  killed  insect. 

Fig.  1. — Mouth-parts  of  Culex  pipiens  9  (lateral  view). 

(2.     Mouth-parts  of  Hxmatopota  pluvialis  9  (lateral  view). 
lb.  Diagram  of  the  same,  ventral  view  with  labium  removed. 
3.     Mouth-parts  of  Empis  chioptera  6  (lateral  view). 
■i.     Mouth-parts  of  Syritta  pipiens  <J  (lateral  view). 

5.  Mouth-parts  of  Musca  domestica  9  (dorsal  view). 

6.  Mouth-parts  of  Spilogaster  flagripes  9  (lateral  view). 

7.  Portion  of  mouth-parts  of  Hyetodesia  basalis  9  (lateral  view). 

8.  Sketch  of  mouth-parts  of  Hyetodesia  perdita  9  seen  as  an  opaque  object. 

9.  Mouth-parts  of  Dilophus  albipennis  £  (ventral  view). 

The  letters  apply  to  all  the  figures,  a,  antennae.  Ir,  labrum.  h,  hypopharynx. 
md,  mandibles,  m,  maxillae.  I,  labium,  p,  palpi.  Ip,  labial  palpi,  mp,  maxillary 
palpi,     r,  rudiment. 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.  SOC.  1902.  PI.  IX. 


md.  m.klr.  in.  ini 


;; 


h. 


m. 


m 


d. 


.  p 


I 


-1 t_U    I 


W.WeschiS.del. 


London  Etching  Co    en 


MOUTH-PARTS   OF    DIPTERA. 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.SOC.1902.P1.  X. 


4. 


5. 


m. 


-,i 


9 


IP- 


'Mm ' 

'       lr.  1 


<¥ 


1. 


1 


P- 


m 


lr.    h. 


1 


7. 


W.Wesch^,  ill  I. 


I  ondi  ii  Etching  Co.,<  ng. 


MOUTH-PARTS    OF    DIPTERA. 


Undescribed  Palpi,  &c.     By  Walter  Wesche,  413 

addition,  immediately  below  the  labrum  a  hollow  lancet  is  always 
found,  the  hypopharynx. 

In  Empis,  fewer  parts  are  present,  the  mandibles  being  absent. 
The  labium  has  trachea?,  and  there  are  traces  of  rod-like  chitinous 
structures  on  the  dorsal  side,  which  are  not  seen  in  Kcemaiopota 
pluvialis,  fig.  3. 

In  Syrphus,  are  identical  parts.  In  the  genus  Syritta,  the 
maxilla?  are  ciliated  at  the  tips  with  fine  hairs,  while  the  chitinous 
rods  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  labium  are  strongly  marked,  fig.  4. 
In  both  these  families,  as  far  as  my  observations  go,  the  palpi  are 
attenuate,  and  situated  lower  down  the  proboscis  than  in  the 
Muscidae,  well  on  the  bases  of  the  maxilla?. 

In  Musca,  still  fewer  parts  are  seen,  both  mandibles  and 
maxilla?  having  apparently  disappeared.  If  we  now  compare 
those  labia  which  are  tracheated  with  each  other,  after  the  soft 
parts  have  been  dissolved  in  caustic  potash,  we  may  formulate 
the  three  following  simple  rules  : — 

(1)  In  flies  which  have  all  the  armature,  with  the  exception  of 
the  palpi,  present,  the  labium  has  little  or  no  chitinous  structure 
on  the  dorsal  side. 

(2)  In  flies  which  have  only  the  maxilla?  present,  chitinous 
structures  are  visible  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  labium. 

(3)  In  flies  which  have  both  mandibles  and  maxilla?  aborted, 
the  chitinous  structure  is  equally,  if  not  more  marked  than  in  the 
second  case. 

From  these  facts  and  by  this  "  rough-and-ready  "  method  we 
may  infer : — (1)  That  in  the  Muscida?,  the  mandibles  and  maxilla? 
are  soldered  into  the  labium,  and  their  rudiments  may  be  seen  as 
the  chitinous  framework  on  the  dorsal  side.  (2)  That  the  maxillary 
palpi  are  rudimentary  or  have  disappeared,  and  that  the  palpi 
always  present  and  generally  regarded  as  maxillary,  are  labial. 
(3)  That  the  proboscis  is  the  true  labium  or  lower  lip,  and  that 
the  chitinous  shield  on  the  ventral  side,  the  lower  labial  plate  of 
Kraepelin,  is  the  mentum. 

In  support  of  this  nomenclature  of  the  palpi,  I  give  a  figure 
of  the  mouth-parts  of  Dilophus  albipennis,  which  has  the  palpi 
right  down  on  the  labella,  and  which  seem  undoubtedly  labial, 
fig.  9.  This  traverses  the  accepted  dogma,  that  the  labial  palpi 
are  absent  in  Diptera.  But  a  more  convincing  argument  can  be 
found,  in  the  discovery  of  several  species  with  well  marked  palpi 
on  the  levers  that  work  the  labrum  and  hypopharynx,  and  imme- 
diately on  the  bases  of  the  chitinous  structures  on  the  dorsal  side 
of  the  labium,  in  addition  to  the  two  always  present.  These  must 
be  the  maxillary  palpi,  and  the  higher  palpi  which  spring  from  a 
membrane  and  have  no  chitinous  foundation,  the  labial. 

It  may  be  argued,  that  if  these  were  labial  palpi,  that  is  to 
say,  palpi  on  the  lower  lip,  they  would  not  be  situated  on  the 


414  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

dorsal  or  upper  part  of  the  proboscis.  This  is  explained  by  the 
assumption,  that  palpi  situated  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  pro- 
boscis, would  in  the  process  of  evolution  work  round  to  the  upper, 
if  advantage  were  gained  by  doing  so.  A  parallel  case  is  the  well 
known  one  of  the  eye  in  the  flat  fishes,  which  works  round  from 
a  symmetrical  to  an  asymmetrical  position  on  the  ur»per  side, 
during  the  transition  from  the  young  to  the  adult  stage.* 

It  remains  to  describe  these  mouth-parts  of  Muscidse  that  are 
provided  with  two  palpi  in  addition  to  those  always  present  and 
generally  called  maxillary. 

In  several  species  of  the  Anthomyia  family,  in  the  genera 
Hyetodesia,  Spilogaster,  and  Hydrotea,  are  to  be  found  at  the  base 
of  the  labrum  and  hypopharynx,  and  connected  with  the  apodemes 
or  levers  that  work  those  parts,  two  hairy  processes,  one  on  each 
apodeme.t  These  are  jointless,  chitinous  in  structure,  thickly 
haired,  and  have  much  the  appearance  of  ordinary  palpi,  fig.  6. 

In  Hyetodesia  basalis  9  they  are  very  well  marked,  but  are 
shorter  in  proportion  to  their  breadth  than  in  Spilogaster  dupli- 
cata  9  and  S.  flagripes  ?   (?),  fig.  7. 

In  H  basalis  they  measure  ^-^  in.  in  length  C  •  084667  mm.), 
while  in  Spilogaster  duplicata,  which  is  a  smaller  fly,  they  are  the 
same  length  and  about  half  the  breadth. 

Even  in  these  insects,  the  organs  may  be  considered  rudi- 
mentary, but  there  are  many  species  where  only  a  few  hairs  on  a 
minute  tubercle  remain.  Such  rudiments  may  be  found  on  Lasiops 
ctenoctema  i  9 ,  Anthomyia  radicum  6  9 ,  Phorbia  jloccosa  s  (very 
small),  Pegomyia  bicolor  $  ?,  Homalomyia  canicularis  S  9  (very 
small),  Hylemyia  strigosa  6 ,  and  Azelea  macquarti  s . 

In  the  Sarcophagidse  rudiments  may  be  found  in  Myiocera 
carinifrons,  and  in  Musca  corvina  and  M.  domcstica  of  the  Muscidse, 
so  the  rudimentary  palpi  are  not  restricted  to  the  Anthomyia 
section  of  the  Muscidae,  fig.  5. 

I  first  noticed  these  organs  on  a  slide  of  Spilogaster  duplicata, 
cleared,  mounted  under  pressure,  and  with  a  magnification  of  over 
300  diameters.  I  have  also  seen  them  with  an  ordinary  simple 
lens  on  the  proboscis  of  Hyetodesia  perdita,  a  rather  large  fly, 
about  10  mm.  long,  fig.  8.  If  a  newly  killed  fly  of  this  species 
be  procured,  the  proboscis  taken  hold  of  by  a  fine  pair  of  forceps, 
drawn  out  to  its  fullest  length,  and  examined  with  a  magnification 
of  10  or  15  diameters,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  labrum  and  hypo- 
pharynx  are  lying  flat,  in  the  cavity  of  the  labium  hollowed  out 
for  their  reception,  but  the  rudimentary  palpi  are  not  visible. 

It  is  obvious  that  if  the  hypopharynx  is  to  be  used,  it  must 
rise  from  the  cavity  in  the  labium  at  a  more  or  less  acute  angle 

*  Darwin,  Origin  of  Snecies,  chap.  vii. 

t  The  palpi  have  also  been  found  in  species  in  the  families  Sepsidse,  Opomyzidse, 
and  Borboridse. 


Undescribed  Palpi,  &c     By  Walter  Wesche.  415 

from  its  base.     I  have  seen   this  in  Scatophaga,  when  the  insect 
has  used  its  lancet  on  prey. 

It  is  also  obvious  that  if  these  palpi  are  feeling  organs,  that 
they  would  come  into  play  when  the  lancet  was  ready  for  action. 
This  was  very  clearly  demonstrated  when  the  labium  and  hypo- 
pharynx  were  raised  with  a  fine  needle,  for  then  the  palpi  also  rose 
at  the  base,  and  being  of  a  darker  colour  than  the  labium,  were 
easily  seen,  fig.  8. 

The  discovery  of  these  palpi  settles  the  question  as  to  the 
larger  palpi  being  labial  or  not,  at  least  in  the  Muscidae,  and  also 
proves  that  the  proboscis  is  not  formed  by  a  fusion  of  the  labial 
palpi  in  the  median  line.  These  points  have  been  debated  at  very 
considerable  length  between  morphologists,  as  the  ordinary  nomen- 
clature agreed  with,  or  differed  from  their  schemes  of  homologies ; 
but  hitherto  no  convincing  proof  has  been  advanced  by  either 
side.  Several  writers  have  rejected  the  idea  that  the  labium  is 
homologous  with  the  proboscis,  deriving  it,  especially  the  labella, 
from  the  labial  palpi,  fused  with  the  maxillae  and  mandibles.* 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  conceded  that  the  palpi  present 
in  Syrphus  and  Empis.  from  their  situation  at  the  base  of  the 
maxilla?,  are  maxillary,  and  that  the  labial  have  aborted.! 

How  much  the  presence  of  the  four  palpi  on  the  proboscis  of 
a  Muscid  upsets  received  ideas,  may  be  gathered  from  the  following 
extracts. 

The  late  Prof.  Westwood  in  his  Modern  Classification  of  Insects, 
gives  as  the  description  of  the  mouth-parts  of  the  order  Diptera, 
"  Mouth  antliate,  with  a  fleshy  proboscis  (labium),  forming  a  canal 
and  enclosing  several  lancet-like  organs  varying  in  number  but 
always  destitute  of  labial  palpi." 

Prof.  Packard  in  describing  the  house  fly  {Musca  domcstica) 
says,  "  The  mandibles  and  maxilla?  so  well  developed  in  the 
mosquito  and  other  piercing  or  biting  flies,  are  aborted,  though 
the  maxillary  palpi  are  present." 

Mr.  B.  F.  Lowne  (The  Blow-Fly,  p.  130)  says,  "  Kobineau- 
Desvoidy  is  the  only  author  who,  so  far  as  I  know,  arrived  at 
conclusions  which  my  researches  enable  me  to  endorse,  but  unfor- 
tunately he  gives  no  reasons  for  his  statements,  which  have 
received  little  attention.  He  says,  '  The  proboscis  of  the  Diptera, 
in  my  opinion,  is  not  formed  by  the  lower  lip  as  in  the  Hymeno- 
ptera,  but  by  the  maxilla;.  In  the  Muscidse  it  is  usually  mem- 
branous, sometimes   solid   and   triarticulate.      The  more  or   less 

*  Chatin,  I..  'La  machoire  des  Insectes,'  Paris,  1897. 

Wedde,  H  ,  '  Beitriige  zur  Kenntniss  des  Rhynchotenriissels,'  Berlin,  1885. 

Krapelin,  K..  •'  Uber  die  systematische  Stellung  der  Puliciden,'  1884;  'Zur 
Anatomie  und  Physiologie  des  Riissels  von  Musca,'  1883. 

f  This  can  be  demonstrated  by  dissection  of  the  larger  species  in  Syrphus.  In 
Helophilus  the  palpi  are  attached  to  the  maxillae. 


416  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

solid  piece  which  covers  the  groove  on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the 
proboscis  is  the  labrum  or  upper  lip.'  Desvoidy,  however,  says  in 
the  same  paragraph,  '  Its  base  is  enveloped  by  the  base  of  the 
labium  of  which  the  palpi  are  always  present.'  He  regards  the 
palpi  of  the  Diptera  as  labial,  and  not  as  maxillary,  a  conclusion 
which  appears  to  me  unwarranted.  They  are  without  the  slightest 
doubt,  maxillary  palpi." 


4.1.7 


OBITUARY. 

William  Miller  Ord,  M.D.  F.R.C.P. 
1834-1902. 


Dr.  Ord  was  the  son  of  a  medical  man  residing  at  Streatham,  and 
received  his  professional  education  at  St.  Thomas's  Hospital,  to  the 
staff  of  which  institution  he  was  elected  in  1871.  From  this  date 
till  1898,  when  he  retired  with  the  honorary  title  of  Consulting 
Physician  to  the  Hospital,  his  time  was  actively  employed  in 
teaching  medicine,  in  clinical  observation,  and  in  scientific  re- 
searches. In  the  medical  profession  his  name  will  be  remembered 
in  connection  with  Myxcedema,  on  which  morbid  condition  he  was 
an  authority.  To  the  Pathological  Society  he  made  numerous 
communications,  especially  on  calculi,  that  on  an  '  Indigo  Calculus 
from  the  kidney '  being  a  pioneering  observation.  His  claim  to 
scientific  originality  is  perhaps  best  supported  by  his  work  on 
'  The  Influence  of  Colloids  upon  Crystalline  Form  and  Cohesion,' 
in  which  he  showed  that  the  shape  of  urinary  crystals  was  in  a 
measure  dependent  on  the  presence  of  albumen  and  mucus  in  the 
urine. 

Dr.  Ord  joined  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society  in  1879,  and 
some  twenty  years  ago  was  a  frequent  attendant  at  the  meetings. 
To  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  he  contributed  the  following 
papers  :  —  (1)  Studies  on  the  Natural  History  of  the  Urates, 
Monthly  Microscopical  Journal,  1875,  p.  108,  1  pi. ;  (2)  On  Some 
Causes  of  Brownian  Movements,  Journ.  Roy.  Microscop.  Soc,  1879, 
p.  656,  2  figs. ;  (3)  On  Erosion  of  the  Surface  of  Glass  when  ex- 
posed to  the  joint  action  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  colloids,"  Journ. 
Roy.  Microscop.  Soc,  1885,  p.  761. 


SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

RELATING    TO 

ZOOLOGY    AND     BOTANY 

(principally  invertebrata  and  cryptogamia), 

MICROSCOPY     Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 
a.  Embryolog-y.  t 

Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in  Arbacia  induced  by  the  Use  of 
Sea-water  concentrated  by  Evaporation.}  —  S.  J.  Hunter  finds  that 
sea-water  condensed  until  it  is  isotonic  with  Loeb's  10  p.c.  to  15  p.c. 
2^  n  scdium  chloride  solution  will  induce  artificial  parthenogenesis  in 
the  ova  of  the  sea-urchin  Arbacia.  Sea-water  with  osmotic  pressure- 
perceptibly  less  or  greater  than  the  10  to  15  p.c.  solution  of  2.^  n 
sodium  chloride  will  not  produce  artificial  parthenogenesis.  Further- 
more, it  is  evident  that  a  certain  osmotic  index  or  degree  of  pressure- 
is  essential  for  artificial  parthenogenesis.  These  observations  obviously 
supply  an  interesting  confirmation  of  Loeb's  osmotic  theory  of  artificial 
parthenogenesis. 

Problem  of  Fertilisation^ — Th.  Boveri  has  published  a  terse  up- 
to-date  exposition  of  the  processes  of  fertilisation,  with  a  critical  dis- 
cussion of  the  meaning  of  the  various  steps.  Perhaps  the  most 
significant  part  of  the  lecture  is  that  in  which  he  suggests  some  modi- 
fication of  the  view  that  one  of  the  chief  functions  of  the  spermatozoon 
is  to  import  a  centrosome  into  the  inert  ovum.  Morgan  and  others- 
showed  that  alterations  in  the  saline  composition  of  the  sea- water 
resulted  in  the  appearance  of  bodies  like  centrospheres  in  the  ova  of 
sea-urchins,  &c. ;  Loeb  showed  that  in  similar  conditions  (already  sum- 
marised) artificial  parthenogenesis  resulted  ;  Wilson  noticed  that  in 
Loeb's  experiments  bodies  like  centrospheres  appeared  in  the  unfertilised 
ova  and  seemed  to  initiate  the  segmentation ;  Boveri  now  suggests  "  that 
it  is  not  a  centrosome  as  an  organised  structure  which  is  introduced  into 
the  egg,  and  which  there  starts  the  segmentation  processes,  but  rather 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they  do 
aot  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers  noted, 
aor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of  this  part  of 
the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  published,  and  to 
describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  &c,  which  are  either  new  or  hav& 
cot  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

+  This  section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so  called, 
but  also  those  dealing  with  Evolution, Development,  Reproduction,  and  allied  subjects,. 

t  Amer.  Journ.  Physiol.,  vi.  (1901)  pp.  177-80. 

§  Das  Problem  der  Befruchtung,  Jena,  1902,  8vo,  48  pp. 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES.  419 

a  chemical  substance  which,  in  combination  with  the  ovian  cytoplasm, 
produces  the  body  in  question."  "  Such  a  view,"  Prof.  Farmer  says,* 
"  would  reconcile  much  that  has  hitherto  been  difficult  of  explanation 
in  connection  with  the  diverse  behaviour  of  centroaomes  in  different 
organisms,  and  even  in  different  cells  and  tissues  of  the  same  indi- 
vidual." 

Nature  of  Fertilisation.-]-— E.  Hertwig  has  made  numerous  cultures 
of  Adinosphserium  in  order  to  get  more  secure  data  in  regard  to  "  plasto- 
gamy"or  fusion  of  cytoplasm  apart  from  fusion  of  nuclei  ("  Karyo- 
gamy"). 

In  Actinosphserium  the  process  occurs  in  quite  definite  conditions, — 
at  the  close  of  intense  nutritive  periods  and  also  at  times  when  the 
power  of  assimilation  has  ceased.  It  occurs  when  there  is  disproportion 
between  nucleoplasm  and  cytoplasm.  Forms  appear  which  are  the 
results  of  the  plastogamy  of  perhaps  a  hundred  units,  and  may  be  re- 
cognised, apart  from  their  large  size,  by  the  fact  that  the  different 
regions  of  the  giant  show  different  phases  of  nuclear  change. 

There  is  a  causal  relation  between  the  ordinary  vital  functions  and 
the  occurrence  of  natural  death.  In  opposition  to  Weistnann,  it  is 
maintained  that  natural  death  is  the  necessary  consequence  of  life.  The 
Protozoa  must  come  to  an  end  like  the  Metazna,  but  there  are  processes 
which  counteract  the  injurious  influences  of  long-continued  life.  The 
most  effective  counteractive  is  fertilisation,  "  a  process  in  which,  from 
the  material  of  two  units  gradually  verging  towards  destruction,  a  new 
vitally  energetic  individual  is  formed." 

Grand-parental  Inheritance.! — N.  Blanchard  contributes  an  article 
on  grand-parental  inheritance,  collecting  all  known  data  and  supple- 
menting them  by  the  coefficients  for  grandsires  in  the  case  of  coat- 
colour  for  thoroughbred  horses.  He  emphasises  the  need  for  further 
work  on  " blending,"  as  distinguished  from  "alternative"  inheritance, 
and  suggests  the  need  for  experiments  on  the  grand-parental  relation 
in  small  mammals  or  insects. 

Numerical  Law  of  the  Germ-Cells.§ — J.  Beard  states  in  particular 
reference  to  his  studies  on  the  early  development  of  skate-embryos 
(Raja  batis)  and  dog-fish  embryos  (Scyllium  canicula),  the  following 
law:  —  "The  number  of  primary  germ-cells  in  any  given  Metazoan 
development  is  2",  but  with  the  sacrifice,  entailed  by  the  development 
of  one  primary  germ-cell  to  form  an  embryo  for  the  reception  of  the 
rest,  the  greatest  actual  number  of  primary  germ-cells  in  any  embryo 
will  be  2"  —  1 .  "  One  would  need  to  be  very  sure  of  one's  methods  to 
contradict  this  1 

Spermatogenesis  in  Phalangista  vulpina.||  —  K.  von  Korff  de- 
scribes the  four  periods  in  the  development  of  the  spermatozoa  of  this 
Marsupial. 

The  sperm-nucleus  is  flattened  into  an  oval  body  lying  transverse 

*  Nature,  lxvi.  (1902)  p.  74. 

t  SB.  Ak.  AViss.  Munchen  (Math.-Phys.  Classe),  1902,  Heft  i.  pp.  57-73. 

J  Biometrika,  i.  (1902)  pa  361-4. 

§  Anut.  Anzeig..  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  189-200. 

||   Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lx.  (1902)  pp.  232-60  (2  pis.  and  4  figs.). 


420  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

to  the  axial  filament,  but  the  head  undergoes  three  torsions  in  the  course 
of  development  which  result  in  a  variety  of  appearances.  The  intricate 
changes  of  the  two  central  corpuscles  are  minutely  described.  A  head- 
cap,  formed  from  a  vesicle  of  the  idiozome,  is  a  transitory  structure 
thrown  off  when  the  head  takes  its  final  form. 

Morphology  of  Teleostean  Head  Skeleton.*  —  H.  H.  Swinnerton 
has  made  a  study  of  the  developing  skull  of  the  three-spined  stickle- 
back (Gasterostem  aculealus). 

The  cranial  flexure,  together  with  other  features  in  the  shape  of  the 
embryonic  head  skeleton  in  Teleosts,  is  probably  a  mechanical  effect 
due  to  differences  in  the  degree  of  distensibility  between  the  dorsal 
and  ventral  surfaces  of  the  brain,  and  to  the  presence  of  skeletal  struc- 
tures in  close  association  with  the  latter. 

The  presence  of  an  epiphysial  bar,  with  consequent  division  of  the 
large  dorsal  cranial  fontanelle  into  two,  is  a  common  feature  in  develop- 
ing Teleosts.  The  Ostariophysi  differ  from  others  in  retaining  this 
early  condition  of  the  cranial  roof  in  the  adult. 

The  intra-cranial  notochord,  so  far  from  undergoing  reduction,  never 
at  any  stage  ceases  to  grow. 

In  Gasterosteus  the  elements  concerned  in  the  support  of  the  jaws 
and  operculum,  and  in  the  attachment  of  the  associated  muscles,  seem 
to  undergo  a  considerable  acceleration  in  development  compared  with 
the  rest  of  the  head  skeleton. 

Three  types  of  palato-ethmoidal  relationship  exist  in  Teleosts  and 
the  immediately  related  Ganoids.  The  study  of  the  structure  and  de- 
velopment of  the  head  seems  to  point  to  a  common  ancestral  stock  for 
Elasmobranchs  and  Teleosts.  The  manner  of  mandibular  suspension 
in  Teleosts  is  insufficiently  described  by  the  term  hyostylic. 

The  Lophobranchii  and  Hemibranchii  together  constitute  a  natural 
group  (Thoracostei).  To  these,  through  the  Gasterosteoidei,  the  Scom- 
beiesoces  approach  more  closely  than  do  any  other  living  Physoclysti. 
As  judged  by  the  study  of  the  ethmoid  and  suspensorial  regions,  the 
Zanclidas  and  AcrouuridaB  are  closely  allied  to  the  Plectognathi,  but 
the  affinities  of  these  forms  must  not  be  sought  amongst  living  Physo- 
elysti. 

Development  of  Inner  Ear  in  Bat.  f  —  P-  Denis  has  made,  with 
particular  reference  to  Vespertilio  murinus,  a  detailed  study  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  external  forms  of  the  labyrinth  and  especially  of  the 
changes  exhibited  by  the  epithelium  at  various  stages.  The  successive 
forms  of  the  inner  ear  are  made  evident  by  photographs  of  twenty-one 
models  constructed  on  Bora's  method. 

Migration  of  Eye  of  Flat-Fish.J— S.  B.  Williams  has  studied  the 
changes  accompanying  the  migration  of  the  eye  in  Pseudopleuronectes 
americanus,  and  has  made  a  number  of  observations  on  the  tractus 
opticus  and  the  tectum  opticum.  The  first  step  in  preparation  for 
metamorphosis  is  the  rapid  resorption  of  the  part  of  the  supraorbital 
cartilage  bar  which  lies  in  the  path  of  the  eye.     This  is  probably  due 

*  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlv.  (1902)  pp.  503-93  (4  pis.  and  5  figs.). 

t  Arch.  Biol.,  xviii.  (19U2)  pp.  377-493  (7  pis.). 

X  Bull.  Mus.  Zool.  Harvard,  xl.  (1902)  pp.  1-57  (5  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  421 

to  pressure  from  the  migrating  eye.  Correlated  with  this  is  an  increase 
in  the  distance  between  the  eyes  and  the  brain,  caused  by  the  growth 
of  the  facial  cartilages.  The  migrating  eye  moves  through  an  arc  of 
about  120  degrees  in  about  three  days.  The  skeletal  and  nervous 
changes  are  carefully  described.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  only  well- 
marked  asymmetry  in  the  adult  brain  is  due  to  the  much  larger  size  of 
the  olfactory  nerve  and  lobe  of  the  ocular  side. 

Thyroid  of  Lamprey.* — A.  M.  Eeese  gives  an  account  of  the  struc- 
ture and  development  of  the  thyroid  gland  in  Petromyzon  (two  or  three 
species),  from  the  stage  when  it  appears  as  a  simple  pit  or  groove  of 
the  pharynx  on  to  the  adult  condition.  The  adult  has  a  paired  basilar 
or  salivary  gland  of  which  no  trace  was  seen  in  even  the  oldest  larva, 
but  it  seems  possible  that  this  is  developed  from  the  anterior  part  of 
the  larval  thyroid,  or  from  the  pair  of  deep  ciliated  grooves  which  run 
forward  from  the  opening  of  the  thyroid  in  the  larva,  and  are  not  pre- 
sent, as  such,  in  the  adult  condition.  The  similarity  in  the  secretion 
of  the  larval  thyroid  to  the  secretion  and  function  of  a  salivary  gland 
seems  to  support  this  view,  but  the  author  hopes  soon  to  find  evidence 
of  the  existence  or  absence  of  this  relation. 

Reproduction  of  Gerardinus  decemmaculatus.f — N.  Zolotnisky  has 
made  some  observations  on  this  viviparous  South  American  Cyprinodont. 
It  seems  that  the  ventral  fin  is  used  as  a  penis  ;  reproduction  may  occur 
four  times  a  year,  at  irregular  intervals ;  the  female  excitement  before 
parturition  is  great ;  there  is  a  pause  of  10-15  minutes  between  the 
liberation  of  each  pair  of  larvae ;  the  male  seems  to  act  as  a  sort  of 
accoucheur.  The  author's  most  remarkable  report  is  that  the  female 
can  bring  forth  two  sets  of  young  in  the  absence  of  the  male;  he 
urges  experts  to  look  into  the  matter. 

Development  of  Excretory  Organs  in  Gymnophiona4 — A.  Brauer, 
in  his  third  memoir  on  Gymnophiona,  describes  the  development  of  the 
pronephros  and  mesonephros  in  Hypogeoplm  rostratus,  and  discusses  the 
difficult  morphological  questions  involved. 

Hermaphroditism  in  the  Herring.  §  —  T.  Southwell  notes  this 
rather  rare  occurrence.  The  ovary  had  two  lobes,  and  was  anterior 
in  position  ;  the  testis  was  a  single  mass,  posterior  in  position.  Both 
bodies  were  fully  matured,  and  had  a  healthy  appearance. 

Argument  for  the  Use-Inheritance  Interpretation.  ||  —  W.  Kidd 
believes  that  "  certain  inherited  characters  of  animals  can  only  be  in- 
terpreted by  considering  them  to  have  arisen  in  ancestors  of  those 
animals  by  use  or  habit."  His  argument  has  reference  to  the  disposition 
of  hair  in  mammals,  which  he  regards  as  more  adequately  interpreted 
on  a  dynamical  theory  of  use-inheritance  than  by  the  selectionist 
formula. 

*  Proc.  Acad.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1902,  pp.  85-112  (4  pis.), 
t  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  ix.  (1901)  Notes  et  Revue,  pp.  lxv.-lxxi.  CI  fig.)- 
J  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  1-176  (20  pis.  and  85  figs.). 
§  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  li.  (1902)  pp.  195-6. 

||  Use-Inheritance.  Illustrated  by  the  direction  of  Hair  on  the  bodies  of  animals. 
London,  1901,  8vo,  47  pp.  and  16  figs. 


422  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

b.  Histolog-y. 

Intracellular  Canals  in  Hepatic  Cells.*  —  M.  T.  Browicz  directs 
attention  to  his  own  work,  and  to  that  of  others,  in  demonstrating  the 
existence  of  intracellular  canals  traversing  both  cytoplasm  and  karyo- 
plasm  in  the  cells  of  the  liver. 

Brown  Fat  in  Rodents  and  Insectivores.f — M.  Auerbach  finds  that 
brown  fat  occurs  in  all  the  typical  parts  of  the  body  in  rats,  mice,  voles, 
hares,  hedgehogs,  moles,  &c.  and  in  some  of  the  typical  regions  in 
scpiirrel,  rabbit,  and  guinea-pig.  None  was  found  in  badger  or  cat.  It 
appears  that  the  occurrence  of  brown  fat  has  no  special  relation  to 
hibernation ;  it  is  absent  from  some  hibernators,  and  it  is  present  in 
many  forms  which  do  not  hibernate.  It  is  not  reduced  to  some  fibrous 
strands  after  hibernation,  as  Carlier  reported,  but  may  persist  to  a  great 
extent.  In  Myoxus  muscardinus,  Arctomys  marmota,  and  Mus  rattus 
there  is  a  distinct  transition  from  brown  to  white  fat.  In  hedgehog, 
marmot,  and  Myoxus  nitela  it  is  not  an  absolute  necessity  that  there 
should  be  some  feeding  during  the  hibernating  period.  The  sinking  of 
the  body -temperature,  the  diminution  of  heart-beats  and  inspirations, 
and  the  lowering  of  sensory  acuteness,  were  verified  in  the  marmot. 
The  primordium  of  a  fat-organ  was  found  in  embryos  of  rat,  mole, 
rabbit,  and  cat. 

Evolution  of  Pyramidal  Cells  of  the  Cerebrum.  \—  P.  Bamon  y 
Cajul  has  an  important  short  paper — which  should  be  translated — on 
the  phylogenetic  changes  in  the  pyramidal  corpuscles  of  the  cerebrum. 
He  notes  that  the  idea  of  the  supposed  progressive  evolution  of  these 
elements,  based  on  their  diverse  appearances  throughout  the  Vertebrate 
series,  must  be  corrected  by  the  fact  that  the  plastic  protoplasm  relates 
itself  to  the  changing  plan  of  cortical  cerebral ^structure.  But  he  has 
much  more  to  say,  which  we  would  summarise  if  we  were  more  familiar 
with  his  language. 

Cerebral  Degenerations.§ — K.  Kosaka  describes,  in  reference  to  dog 
and  monkey,  the  secondary  degenerations  which  ensue  in  the  mid-brain, 
pons,  and  medulla  oblongata,  after  the  destruction  of  the  cerebrum,  and 
especially  of  the  motor  cortical  centre. 

Arterio-Venous  Anastomoses  in  Man  and  Mammals.  ||— 0.  Grosser 
has  made  a  detailed  study  of  the  anastomoses  of  arteries  and  veins  at 
the  end  of  the  extremities  in  bats,  rabbit,  rat,  mouse,  cat,  and  man. 
The  histological  relations  are  noted,  and  the  possible  physiological 
interpretations  are  discussed. 

Lympho-myeloid  Connective  Stroma  in  Testes  of  Young  Rays.f — 
A.  Pollicard  notes  that  the  immature  testis  has  in  great  part  a  lympho- 
myeloid  structure.  This  connective  stroma  is  probably  the  seat  of 
Jeucocvte-formation,  and  it  probably  has  a  nutritive  function  in  relation 

*  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1902,  pp.  130-6. 

+  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lx.  (1902)  pp.  291-338  (2  pis.). 

%  Boll.  Soc.  Espan.  Hist.  Nat.,  ii.  (1902)  pp.  179-bO  (2  figs.). 

§  MT.  Med.  Fac.  Univ.  Tokio,  v.  (1901)  pp.  77-160  (4  pis.). 

||    Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lx.  (1902)  pp.  191-216  (2  pis.  and  2  bgs.). 

4  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  297-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.   ETC.  423 

to  the  spermatic  ampullae.     It  does  not  seem  to  have  any  haematopoietic 
significance. 

Interstitial  Cells  of  the  Testis.* — P.  Stephan  agrees  with  Loisel 
that  these  elements  are  sister-cells  of  the  germinative  elements,  but  he 
differs  from  Loisel  in  regarding  their  secretory  or  nutritive  role  as 
entirely  secondary, — a  falling  away  from  the  primary  germinative  path. 

Nerves  of  Lorenzini's  Ampullae.!, — A.  Coggi  has  studied  the  de- 
velopment of  these  ampullae  in  Torpedo,  Pristiurus,  Mustelus,  and  Raja, 
and  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  mode  of  development  and  the 
details  of  structure  show  that  the  ampullary  nerves  are  in  their  nature 
somewhat  different  from  those  of  the  lateral  organs.  They  seem  to  be 
sensory  nerves  of  a  more  general  character. 

In  another  paper  \  Coggi  discusses  the  number  and  arrangement  of 
the  ampullae,  the  time  and  place  of  their  formation,  and  the  various 
stages  in  their  development. 

Spines  of  Spinax.  §  — H.  Koppen  has  made  a  study  of  the  minute 
structure  and  the  development  of  the  fin-spines  in  Spinax  niger,  with 
especial  reference  to  the  epithelial  cells  in  the  protective  cap  of  the 
spine,  which  are  arranged  in  a  network.  This  is  compared  to  the  cells 
in  the  enamel-pulp  in  mammalian  teeth,  and  to  similar  tissue  beneath 
the  horny  teeth  of  Myxine,  and  elsewhere. 

c.  General. 

Chemical  Organisation  of  the  Cell.||  —  F.  Hofmeister  seeks  to  ex- 
plain what  must  be  the  organisation  of  the  living  cell  in  order  that 
protoplasm — the  functions  of  which  are  chemical — may  do  its  work. 
The  manifold  activities  of  liver-cells  are  discussed  in  illustration. 
Hydrations,  oxidations,  reductions,  condensations, — all  are  accomplished 
through  the  activity  of  catalytic  agents,  colloidal  in  nature,  which  are 
the  important  agents  in  the  chemical  transformations  of  the  cell.  There 
is  no  necessity  for  calling  upon  other  than  well-known  forces  for  an 
explanation  of  the  work  done. 

Practical  Course  of  Zoology.^ — W.  Kiikenthal  has  published  a 
second  edition  of  his  useful  outlines  of  a  practical  course  in  Zoology. 
Some  additions,  e.g.  as  to  parasites,  have  been  made,  and  new  illustra- 
trations  have  been  added  or  substituted. 

Story  of  Animal  Life.** — B.  Lindsay  has  written  a  terse  and  yet 
interesting  introduction  to  the  study  of  animals.  It  might  be  described 
as  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  animal  kingdom,  supplemented  by  more 
detailed  pictures  of  particular  corners,  e.g.  of  sea-shore  life.  Most  of 
the  booklet  is  devoted    to    an    illustrated    survey  and  classification  of 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  299-302. 

t  Atti  (Rend.)  R.  Accad.  Lincei,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  33S-40. 

J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  289-97. 

§  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xiv.  (1901)  pp.  477-522  (3  pis.  and  1  fig.). 

||  Die  Chemische  Organisation  der  Zelle,  Braunschweig,  1901,  8vo,  29  pp.  See 
Review  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  xiii.  (1902)  pp.  241-2. 

%  Jena,  1902,  8vo,  304  pp.  and  169  figs. 

**  The  Story  of  Animal  Life  (Newnes'  Library  of  Useful  Stories),  London,  1902, 
viii.  and  208  pp.  and  47  figs. 


424  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

animals,  and  there  are  special  chapters  on  adaptation  to  circumstances, 
man,  and  zoological  work.  For  a  little  book  of  this  sort  there  seem  to 
us  to  be  too  many  technicalities,  but  the  authoress  has  not  taken  her 
work  lightly  and  deserves  congratulation  for  successfully  avoiding  the 
misleading  suggestion  of  false  simplicity.  The  illustrations  are  not  up 
to  the  level  of  the  text. 

Variations  in  Vascular  System  of  Rana  temporaria.*— E.  Warren 
has  noticed  in  four  years  five  cases  (out  of  about  200)  in  which  a  blood- 
vessel connected  the  apex  of  one  of  the  lungs  with  the  rectal  vein  of  the 
hepatic  portal.  He  refers  to  other  striking  abnormalities,  and  asks 
Continental  workers  to  notice  if  similar  variations  occur  in  Rana 
escalenta. 

Variations  in  Human  Vertebral  Column.f  —  P.  Ancel  and  L. 
Sencert  discuss  the  numerical  variations  in  the  human  vertebral  column, 
propose  four  categories  embracing  the  recorded  variations,  and  discuss 
the  possible  interpretations. 

The  most  frequent  variations  are  of  a  compensatory  character,  due 
to  accommodation,  others  are  referable  to  difficulties  connected  with  the 
movements  of  the  pelvis ;  a  few,  notably  cervical,  imply  some  change  in 
the  primitive  segmentation. 

There  is  an  evident  relation  between  the  appearance  of  cervical  ribs 
and  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  pre-sacral  vertebrae ;  but  which 
change  is  primary  remains  obscure. 

Variation  in  Snakes.}  —  E.  C.  Eckel,  in  a  systematic  catalogue  of 
the  snakes  of  the  north-eastern  United  States,  Las  a  few  notes  on  varia- 
tion. Notable  examples  are  the  common  garter  snake  (JEutsenia  sirtalia) 
and  the  milk  snake  (Osceola  doliata).  In  regard  to  melanism,  it  is  noted 
that  in  Heterodon  platyrhinus  the  black  coloration  Las  no  systematic  im- 
portance, while  in  Natrix  fasciata  sipedon  it  seems  that  the  darker  color- 
ation in  New  York  and  New  England  specimens  is  general  and  not 
merely  individual  in  its  occurrence. 

Teeth  of  Hag  and  Lamprey.§  —  E.  Warren  has  made  sections 
through  young  forms,  and  does  not  confirm  the  conclusion  of  Dr.  Beard 
that  the  teeth  show  odontoblasts.  The  cone  of  "  odontoblasts  "  is  purely 
epidermal  in  origin,  and  is,  in  fact,  a  successional  tooth  developing 
beneath  the  functional  tooth. 

The  structure  of  the  teeth  does  not  lend  support  to  the  idea  that  they 
are  degenerate  derivatives  of  calcified  teeth.  If  they  actually  are 
degenerate  they  must  be  regarded  as  having  reverted  to  a  condition  that 
probably  preceded  the  placoid  scale  of  an  Elasmobranch — a  horny  wart 
with  a  pulp-cavity 

Excretory  Organs  of  Amphioxus.|| — E.  S.  Goodrich  adds  a  little  to 
the  preliminary  paper  in  which  he  pointed  out  that  in  their  segmental 
arrangement,  in  their  function,  and  in  their  histological  structure,  the 
excretory  organs  of  Amphioxus  and  the  nephridia  of  Phyllodoce  are  in  all 
essentials  identical. 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  221-2. 

t  Joum.  de  l'Anat.  Physiol.,  xxxviii.  (1902)  pp.  217-58  (2  pis.). 

X  Bull.  New  York  State  Museum,  li.  (1902)  pp.  356-88  (24  figs.). 

§  Quart.  Joum.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlv.  (1902)  pp.  631-6  (1  pi.). 

||   Tom.  cit.,  pp.  493-501  (1  pi.  and  1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICKOSCOPY,   ETC.  425 

Amount  of  Dissolved  Oxygen  in  Water  required  by  Young 
Salmonidse.* — D.  NoelPaton  fiuds  that  a  fall  in  the  amount  of  dissolved 
oxygen  in  water  to  below  one-third  of  the  normal  amount,  2  ccm.  per 
litre,  is  prejudicial  and  generally  fatal  to  young  Salmonoids.  Wheu 
the  surface  of  the  deoxygenated  water  is  exposed  to  an  atmosphere  con- 
taining oxygen,  the  fish  frequently  seem  able  to  live  by  constantly 
coming  to  the  thin  layer  of  more  oxygenated  water  at  the  surface. 
Some  individuals  ate  able  to  sustain  life  for  very  prolonged  periods  in 
water  containing  only  minimal  traces  of  dissolved  oxygen.  Such  fish 
are  seen  to  lie  very  quietly  at  the  bottom  of  the  bottle. 

Action  of  Spurge  on  Salmonoid  Fishes.f — H.M.Kyle  has  studied 
the  fatal  effect  of  Euphorbia  hiberna  on  fishes — an  effect  well  known  to 
the  Irish  peasantry.  The  plant  cut  into  small  pieces  and  pounded  with 
stones,  or  simply  trampled  upon  at  some  convenient  spot  on  a  river, 
forms  an  emulsion  in  the  water  which,  being  swept  downward  into  the 
pools,  carries  death  to  all  fishes  in  its  course.  Even  in  small  quantities 
the  spurge  extract  is  almost  as  fatal  as  corrosive  sublimate. 

Chemical  analysis  of  the  extract  shows  tannic  acid,  about  1  p.c.  it 
has  been  calculated,  but  on  this  estimation  the  spurge  extract  is  fatal 
within  a  shorter  time  than  a  corresponding  quantity  of  tannic  acid. 
Hence  the  percentage  of  tannic  acid  has  been  under-estimated,  or  some 
other  substance  or  substances  in  the  extract  also  aid  in  producing  fatal 
effects.  20  p.c.  of  the  fresh  extract  is  fatal  within  5  minutes,  whilst 
0-l  p.c.  takes  4-6  hours,  and  seems  to  be  the  smallest  percentage  that 
has  fatal  results.  In  the  case  of  fishes  death  is  considered  to  ensue 
from  the  inflammation  of  the  gills  and  consequent  stasis  of  the  circu- 
lation. 

Electrical  Properties  of  Nerves.J  — V.  Grandis  communicates  the 
results  of  150  experiments,  which  go  to  show,  if  we  understand  aright, 
that  a  nerve  is  to  be  regarded  rather  as  a  dielectric  than  as  a  conductor. 

Function  of  the  Thyroid  Gland.§  —  E.  Koos  tries  to  combine  the 
two  views,  (a)  that  the  thyroid  produces  and  exudes  a  special  substance, 
and  (b)  that  the  thyroid  acts  as  a  neutraliser  of  auto-toxins. 

By  its  iodothyrin,  the  thyroid  increases  the  renal  elimination  of  solid 
uric-substances,  which  accumulate  in  myxcedema  when  the  thyroid  has 
degenerated.  Tetanus,  after  extirpation  of  the  thyroid,  is  due  to  a 
retention  of  these  uric  substances.  Tetanic  convulsions  correspond  to 
ursemic  cramps.  Normally,  the  thyroid  secretion  antagonises  the  uric 
poisons.     But  this  is  only  a  hint  of  a  learned  lecture. 

European  Wild  Cattle. || — B.  Lydekker  sums  up  an  interesting  dis- 
cussion by  noting  that  the  aurochs  and  the  Pembroke  and  park  cattle 
belong  to  one  and  the  same  species,  and  since  the  latter  do  not  appear 
specifically  separable  from  the  domesticated  cattle  of  Scandinavia,  which 
probably  formed  the  type  of  the  Bos  taurus  of  Linnaeus,  it  is  clear  that 
the  aurochs  has  no  right  to  a  distinct  species  name.  Instead  of  Bos 
primigenius,  it  should  be  called  Bos  taurus  primigenius. 

*  Proc,  R.  Soc.  Edin.,  xxiv.  (1902)  pp.  145-50. 
t  Proc.  K.  Soc.  London,  Ixx.  (1902)  pp.  48-66. 
j  Atti  Accad.  Sci.  Torino,  xxxvii.  (1902)  pp.  341-6. 
§  Ber.  Nat.  Ges.  Freiburg,  xii.  (1902)  pp.  119-33. 
i|    Knowledge,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  100-2. 
August  20th,  1902  2  w 


426  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Biogeographical  Regions.*  —  A.  Jacobi  has  made  an  important 
contribution  to  biogeograpby.  He  accepts  the -fundamental  idea  that 
tbe  present  distribution  does  not  correspoDd,  in  many  cases,  to  the 
present  conditions  of  life,  but  bas  often  its  origin  in  the  past,  and 
indicates  conditions  prevailing  in  former  geological  periods. 

He  finds  in  Lydekker's  Arctogaea,  Neogsea,  and  Notogasa,  the  most 
appropriate  division  applicable  to  tbe  distribution  of  mammals  and  birds 
since  the  beginning  of  Tertiary  times. 

But  there  are  numerous  facts  which  show  in  certain  parts  of  the 
earth  a  faunal  and  floral  distribution  which  is  inexplicable  by  the 
present  conditions.  Thus  Jacobi  distinguishes  fifteen  "  areas  of  dis- 
persal "  (Ausbreilungsgebiete),  which  demand  a  former  land-connection 
between  areas  now  more  or  less  separated. 

"  In  the  demonstration  that  such  conditions  must  have  existed  in 
former  times,  and  in  the  collection  of  known  facts  as  well  as  in  the  intro- 
duction of  new  ones,  which  tend  to  support  this  assumption,  lies  tbe 
chief  value  of  Jacobi's  paper,  which  will  be  of  great  use  to  any  one  who 
proposes  to  study  these  highly  interesting  zoogeographical  questions." 

Plankton  of  the  Lake  of  Maria-Laach.t— 0.  Zacharias  reports  on 
the  Algae,  Flagellata,  Rotatoria,  Crustacea,  and  Hydrachnida  of  this  lake 
in  the  Coblenz  district.  The  most  interesting  fact  is,  that  some  Crustacea, 
e.g.  Dioptomus  cseruleus  and  Hydrachnids,  e.g.  Atax  crassipes,  showed 
degeneracy  as  regards  size — which  may  be  reasonably  correlated  with 
tbe  continual  ascent  of  bubbles  of  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  floor.  No 
effect  on  Rotifers  was  noticed,  but  Diatoma  tenue  was  more  slender  and 
delicate  than  in  any  other  water-basin  investigated. 

Tunicata. 
New  Giant  Pyrosoma-I — J'  Bonnier  and  C.  Perez  observed  in  the 
Indian  Ocean  an  immense  shoal  of  gigantic  specimens  of  Pyrosoma 
indicum  sp.  n.,  all  swimming  in  the  same  direction  but  at  different 
depths.  The  smallest,  40-50  cm.  in  length,  were  almost  on  the  surface  ; 
the  largest,  2*50  m.in  length,  with  a  diameter  of  20-30  cm.,  were  swim- 
ming about  2  m.  from  the  surface.  The  ascidiozoids  were  bright  red, 
with  remarkable  development  of  a  powerful  spindle-shaped  lateral 
muscular  band  (200  /i  broad  by  1500  p.  long).  The  gut  contained  a 
monocystic  Gregarine,  doubtless  allied  to  Lankesteria ;  the  cavity  of 
the  colony  included  commensal  iishes  and  a  Peuasid. 

INVERTEBBATA. 

Mollusca. 
■y.  Gasteropoda. 

New  Parasitic  Gasteropod  in  Holothurian.§  —  Kristine  Bonnevie 
describes  a  very  interesting  new  form — Enteroxenos  ostergreni  g.  et  sp.  n. 

found    by   Hjalmar   Ostergren    in   1896,   as  a   parasite   in   Stichopus 

tremulus. 

*  Zeitschr.  Ges.  Erdkunde  Berlin,  xxxv.  (1900)  pp.  147-238  (2  pis.).    Review  by 
A.  E.  Ortmann,  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  157-9. 
t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  395-6. 
X  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  1238-40. 
§  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  731-92  (5  pis.  and  6  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  427 

-  It  occurs  on  the  outside  of  the  gut,  ensheathed  in  layers  of  endo- 
thelium and  connective  tissue  formed  by  its  host.  Occasionally  one 
was  found  free  in  the  ccelom.  Apart  from  the  epithelium  and  muscula- 
ture of  its  body-wall,  the  parasite  has  no  organs  except  the  gonads. 
These  occupy  the  central  cavity  which  has  a  "  ciliated  canal "  as  its 
only  communication  with  the  exterior. 

The  development  occurs  within  the  mother,  and  the  segmentation 
and  larvae  are  Gasteropod-like.  The  larva  has  velum,  otoliths,  foot- 
glands,  a  shell,  an  operculum,  &c.  The  post-embryonic  development 
occurs  within  the  connective  tissue  of  the  wall  of  the  gut,  and  there  is 
a  gradual  protrusion  into  the  coelom. 

What  intervenes  between  the  stage  when  the  minute  larva  is  within 
its  parent  and  the  stage  when  it  occurs  in  the  wall  of  the  gut,  is  un- 
certain. There  are  some  reasons  for  believing  that  the  larva  must  be 
liberated  from  its  first  host  before  the  post-larval  changes  occur. 

The  new  parasite  is  compared  in  detail  with  Entoconcha  mirabilis 
and  Entocolax  ludwigi. 

Crystalline  Style  and  Style-Sac  in  Turritella  communis.*  — 
W.  B.  Randies  finds  that  the  stomach  of  this  gasteropod  contains  a 
crystalline  style  and  style-sac,  and  has  on  the  inner  wall  of  the  posterior 
chamber  a  short  crescentic  groove  somewhat  similar  to  that  in  Trochus, 
and  probably  representing  a  vestigial  spiral  caecum.  If  so,  it  indicates 
the  retention  of  a  very  primitive  character  in  this  genus. 

Paryphanta  hochstetteri  Pfr.f — B.  Beutler  gives  an  account  of  the 
structure  of  this  rare  New  Zealand  snail,  which  does  not  however  show 
any  remarkable  peculiarity.  Its  affinities  are  with  Testacella  which  in 
many  ways  it  closely  resembles  ;  as  it  has  a  relatively  large  shell  it  is 
probably  ancestral  to  the  Testacellids  where  the  shell  becomes  rudi- 
mentary. 

'  Talisman '  Opisthobranchs.ij: — A.  Vayssiere  reports  on  the  small 
collection  made  by  the  'Talisman'  in  1883.  As  Opisthobranchs  are 
notably  littoral,  it  was  not  surprising  that  only  seven  forms  were  ob- 
tained in  the  deep  dredgings.  Although  they  had  lain  many  years  in 
spirit,  they  admitted  of  dissection,  and  the  author  has  obtained  some 
interesting  results.  In  this  preliminary  note  he  directs  particular 
attention  to  Phyllidiopsis  berghi  sp.  n. 

Arthxopoda. 

Last  Joint  of  the  Limbs  in  Arthropods.§  —  J.  C.  H.  de  Meijere 
has  made  a  detailed  comparative  study  of  the  terminal  joint  in  the 
appendages  of  insects,  Crustaceans,  Arachnoids,  Pycnogonids,  Limulus, 
Peripatus,  &c.  From  the  nature  of  the  subject  it  is  not  easy  to  make 
an  intelligible  summary. 

Ventral  Integument  of  Trilobites.|| — C.  E.  Beecher  has  especially 
studied    Triarthus    becJci  Green,  but  refers  also  to   AsapJius   megistus 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  200-3  (3  figs.). 
+  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xiv.  (1901)  pp.  369-416  (4  pis.). 
I  Comptes  Kendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  296-7. 
§  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xiv.  (1901)  pp.  417-76  (8  pis.). 
i   Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  xiii.  (1902)  pp.  165-74  (4  pis.). 

2  F  2 


428  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Locke  and  Ptychoparia  striata  Emmr.  The  ventral  integument  is  a 
thin  uncalcified  membrane,  which  may  be  divided  into  pleurosternites 
and  mesosternites,  corresponding  to  the  mesotergites  and  pleurotergites 
of  the  dorsal  test,  and  like  them  connected  segnientally  by  an  inter- 
articular  membrane.  The  mesosternites  are  usually  marked  by  five 
longitudinal  ridges,  or  buttresses,  representing  thickenings  of  the  mem- 
brane, which  may  be  homologised  with  apodemal  structures  in  (other) 
crustaceans,  and  not  with  the  appendicular  system.  These  buttresses, 
or  apodemes,  include  a  single  median  one  for  each  mesosternite,  with 
two  others  on  each  side  extending  forward  and  obliquely  inward,  and 
enclosing  subtriangular  or  rhombic  spaces.  The  presence  and  disposi- 
tion of  these  buttresses  apparently  afford  information  regarding  the 
ventral  musculature  of  the  Trilobites.  A  pair  of  flexors  is  indicated, 
together  with  lateral  strands  attached  to  each  mesosternite  and  extend- 
ing forward  and  inward  to  their  union  with  the  main  bundles  within 
the  cavity  of  the  next  anterior  somite. 

a.  Insecta. 

Artificial  Parthenogenesis  of  Silk-Moth  Ova.*  —  A.  Tichomirow 
refers  to  his  experiments  in  1885  in  which  he  showed  that  unfertilised 
ova  of  the  silk-moth  (Bomhyx  mori)  dipped  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid 
exhibited  parthenogenetic  development  in  response  to  the  extraordinary 
stimulus.  He  has  since  experimented  with  similar  results  with  dilute 
sulphuric  and  hydrochloric  acid.  His  conviction  is  that  the  induced 
development  is  very  different  from  the  normal.  The  embryos  have 
little  vitality,  the  cells  have  exceedingly  little  coherence,  the  relations 
of  the  germ-layers  is  abnormal,  and  so  on.  In  short,  the  artificial 
parthenogenetic  development  is  a  Kruppelentwicklung. 

Prothoracic  Respiratory  Apparatus  in  Dipterous  Pupae.f —  J-  C. 
H.  do  Meijere  finds  that,  except  in  Chironomus,  this  apparatus  is  a 
modification  of  the  Tilpfelstigmen  which  are  of  wide  occurrence  in 
simpler  form  in  Dipterous  larvae  and  on  the  abdomen  of  pupje.  He 
discusses  the  development  and  the  possible  homologies  and  the  many 
different  forms. 

Some  British  Hemiptera4 — E.  A.  Butler  writes  a  useful  popular 
paper  on  what  he  calls  "  stilt-walkers  " — Metatropic  rufescens  from  the 
Enchanter's  Nightshade,  Metacanihus  punctipes  from  the  rest-harrow, 
Neides  tipularius,  Ploiaria  vagabunda,  Hydrometra  stagnarum,  and 
Banatra  linearis. 

Index  to  North  American  Orthoptera.§ — S.  H.  Scudder  has  com- 
pleted an  index,  which  has  been  forty  years  in  the  making,  of  all  known 
definite  references  to  the  Orthoptera  of  North  America  and  the  West 
Indies  from  the  time  of  Linne  to  the  close  of  the  last  century.  The 
list  of  literature  cited  is  practically  a  complete  bibliography  of  North 
American  Orthoptera. 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  3S6-91  (3  figs.). 

t  Zool.  Jahib.,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  K23-92  (4  pis.). 

X  Knowledge,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  97-100  (6  figs.). 

§  Occasional  Papers  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  vi.  (1901)  vi.  and  436  pp. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  429 

Monograph  on  Coccidae  occurring  in  Britain.*  —  Robert  Newstead 
has  completed  the  first  volume  of  an  important  monograph  on  the 
Coccidae  which  are  found  living  in  Britain.  It  deals  with  the  sub- 
family Diaspime,  and  includes  a  very  valuable  general  introduction. 
The  author's  illustrations  are  worthy  of  the  series,  and  the  text  is  the 
outcome  of  many  years  of  work  well  known  for  its  thoroughness. 

Studies  on  Thysanura.f  —  F.  Silvestri  discusses,  in  the  first  place, 
some  of  the  characters  of  Projapyx,  e.g.  two  glands  which  he  has  dis- 
covered opening  at  the  ends  of  the  cerci.  In  the  second  place,  he 
describes  13  species  of  Japyx  in  his  collection  of  which  eight  are  new. 
He  then  describes  three  new  species  of  Nicoletia  and  one  of  Lepisma. 
His  communication  ends  with  a  brief  account  of  South  American 
Thysanura,  of  which  29  species  are  now  known.  Of  the  ten  genera, 
Eutrichocampa  and  Trinemophora  are  probably  characteristic  of  the 
neotropical  region.  The  genera  Japyx,  Campodea,  Lepisma,  Graseiella, 
Machilis,  and  Nicoletia  seem  to  be  cosmopolitan ;  Lepidocampa  is  also 
represented  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  Projapyx  in  East  Africa. 

New  Agricultural  Ant  from  Texas.}  —  W.  M.  Wheeler  describes 
Pogonomyrmex  imberbiculus  sp.  n.,  a  small  and  inconspicuous  form,  of  a 
timid  disposition,  living  under  stones.  It  collects  grass-seeds,  which  it 
shells  and  treats  in  some  singular  manner,  so  that  they  have  all 
a  glistening  yellow  colour  like  the  animal  itself.  The  myth  that 
Pogonomyrmex  molifaciens  sows,  guards,  and  weeds  the  "  ant-rice " 
(Aristida  oligantha)  is  regarded  as  a  joke  even  by  the  Texan  schoolboy. 
The  seeds  which  have  sprouted  too  far  to  be  fit  for  food  are  carried  out, 
but  there  is  neither  sowing  nor  weeding.  The  special  ring  of  grass 
about  the  nest  is  an  unintentional  and  inconstant  by-product  of  the 
activities  of  the  colony.     A  key  to  the  species  is  appended. 

New  !Moravian  Cave-Insect.§ — C.  Absolon  describes  a  new  member 
of  the  Collembola,  Heteromurus  hirsutus  sp.  n.,  from  Moravian  caves, 
and  discusses  the  other  species  of  the  interesting  genus. 

Insects  Injurious  to  Elm-Trees.||  —  E.  P.  Felt  describes  the  elm- 
leaf  beetle  (Galerucella  luteola),  the  bag  or  basket- worm  (Thyridopteryx 
ephemerseformis),  the  fall  web-worm  (Hyphantria  cunea),  the  spiny 
elm  caterpillar  (Euvanessa  antiopa),  the  elm-borer  (Saperda  tridentataj, 
the  elm  snout  beetles  (Magdalis),  and  the  elm-bark  louse  (Gossyparia 
ulmi).     The  coloured  plates  of  these  insects  have  unusual  excellence. 

Honey  of  Bees.^f  —  H.  Jimero  has  made  a  number  of  saccharometric 

and  polarimetric  observations  on  different  kinds  of  honey  from  various 

parts  of  Spain. 

B.  Myriopoda. 

Annectant  Type  of  Chilopod.**—  R.  I.  Pocock  has  had  the  pleasure 
of  receiving,  through  G.  M.  Thomson,  of  Dunedin,  a  consignment  of 

*  Kay  Society,  1901,  xii.  and  220  pp.  and  39  pis. 
t  Bull.  Soo.  Entomol.  Ital.,  xxxiii.  (1901)  pp.  204-49  (48  figs.). 
t  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  85-100  (8  figs.). 
§  Verh.  Nat.  Ver.  Briimi,  1901,  pp.  6-14  (1  pi.).  .    . 

II   Keprint  from  5th  Ann.  Rep.  Fisheries,  Game,  Forest  Commission,  btate  ot 
New  York,  1902,  pp.  352-79  (3  pis.  and  7  tigs.). 

1  Boll.  Soc.  E»pan.  Hist.  Nat.,  ii.  (1902)  pp.  98-102. 
**  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlv.  (1902)  pp.  417-48  (1  pi.  and  I  fig.). 


430  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

Myriopods  from  the  summit  of  Mount  Euraney,  Hobart,  Tasmania, 
"  which  completely  falsified  the  opinion  that  the  Antipodes  hold  nothing: 
peculiar  or  primitive  in  tbe  way  of  centipede-life,  and  are  wholly  given 
over  to  the  occupation  of  widely  distributed  and  well-known  forms. 
The  collection  in  question  contained  a  couple  of  centipedes  representing 
a  species  which  proves  to  be  comparable  in  interest,  from  a  morphological 
standpoint,  to  either  of  its  compatriots,  Ceratodus  or  Ornithorhynchus, 
inasmuch  as  it  unmistakably  represents  an  archaic  type  which  has  sur- 
vived in  this  isolated  corner  of  the  world — a  type  which  possesses  the 
twofold  interest  of  exhibiting  certain  unique  structural  peculiarities  of 
its  own,  coupled  with  others  that  serve  to  link  together  three  of  the 
best-known  and  most  diversified  sections  of  the  class;  and  also  of 
showing  the  true,  but  previously  unknown  and  unsuspected,  nature  of 
the  connection  between  the  metamerism  of  the  Scolopendromorpha  and 
that  of  the  Lithobiomorpha." 

After  describing  the  new  Centipede — Craterostigmus  g.  n. — and  com- 
paring it  with  existing  orders,  Mr.  Pocock  explains  its  significance  in 
testifying  to  the  transformation  of  the  Scolopendroid  into  the  Lithobioid 
type.  "  It  may  be  stated  with  confidence,  and  without  fear  of  contra- 
diction, that  the  true  nature  of  the  connection  between  the  metamerism 
of  the  Lithobioid  and  Scolopendroid  types  would  never  have  been 
guessed  had  it  not  been  for  the  fortunate  survival  of  this  intermediate 
form,  with  the  six  additional  somites  of  the  last-named  type  in  process 
of  excalation." 

The  interesting  and  important  essay  concludes  with  a  discussion  of 
the  general  characters  and  classification  of  the  Chilopoda.  The  classifi- 
cation may  be  summed  up  : — 

Sub-class  Pleurostigma 

Order  1.  (ieophilomorpha 

Geophilidae,  Oryidae,  &c. 
Order  2.  Scolopendromorpha 

Scolopendriidae,  Newportiidre,  &c. 
Order  3.  Craterostigmorpha 

Craterostigmus 
Order  4.  Lithobiomorpha 

Lithobiidae,  Hemiopidae,  and 
Cermatobiidae 
Sub-class  Notostigma 

Order  Scutigeromorpha 

One  family  ScutigeridaB. 

5.  Arachnida. 

Development  of  Admetus  pumilio  Koch.* — L.  H.  Gough  has  been 
able  to  study  some  stages  in  the  development  of  this  Pedipalp.  On 
the  whole  the  development  of  the  Pedipalps  follows  the  types  seen 
among  other  Arachnids,  sometimes  leaning  towards  one,  sometimes 
more  towards  another. 

It  resembles  that  of  spiders — in  the  first  cleavages  (probably),  in 
the  egg-envelopes,  in  the  general  build  of  the  blastoderm,  in  the  de- 

*  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlv.  (1902)  pp.  595-630  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  431 

veloprnent  outside  the  mother,  and  in  the  development  of  the  lungs, 
heart,  alimentary  canal,  and  coxal  gland.  It  resembles  that  of  Sol- 
pugidae  and  Pseudoscorpionidse  in  the  development  of  the  lateral  organ, 
and  that  of  scorpions  as  regards  central  nervous  system,  accessory  brain, 
median  and  lateral  eyes,  and  also  as  to  lungs,  heart,  coxal  gland,  and 
parts  of  the  alimentary  canal  and  Malpighian  tubes. 

Hibernating'  Cyst  of  a  Mite.*  —  A.  0.  Oudemans  describes  a 
peculiar  scale-like  cyst,  with  anterior  and  posterior  hairs  or  hair-like 
processes,  which  contained  a  fully  formed  Erythreeus  (  =  Bhyncholophus) 
with  its  food-canal  filled  with  black  particles.  He  finds  it  impossible 
to  explain  the  process  (of  ecdysis  and  encystation  ?)  whereby  the  de- 
scribed structure  arose. 

British  Tyroglyphidae.f  —  A.  D.  Michael  has  increased  the  debt 
which  zoology  already  owes  him  by  adding  to  his  monograph  on  British 
Oribatidaa  the  first  part  of  a  companion  work  on  Tyroglyphidse.  After 
discussing  general  characters,  practioal  importance  to  man,  parasitism  and 
mutualism,  &c,  he  gives  a  history  of  the  literature,  and  a  discussion  of 
the  classifications  proposed.  Then  follow  two  important  chapters  on 
struoture  and  development.  The  rest  of  volume  i.  is  systematic.  The 
whole  will  be  an  achievement  to  be  proud  of. 

Arctic  Halacaridae4 — E.  Trouessart  makes  a  preliminary  report  on 
the  Acarina  of  Arctic  seas,  collected  by  the  Prince  of  Monaco.  He 
raises  the  number  of  known  Arctic  species  from  three  to  nine,  and  four 
of  the  additions  are  new  species.  Two  of  these  Halacarus  alberti  and 
H.  princeps  are  remarkable  for  their  large  size. 

e.  Crustacea. 

Regeneration  in  Hermit  Crab  and  Crayfish.§ — T.  H.  Morgan 
shows  that  regeneration  of  the  leg  of  the  hermit  crab  can  take  place  at 
a  number  of  different  regions  lying  outside  of  the  breaking-joint,  and 
presumably,  therefore,  at  all  levels.  It  is  thence  argued  that  there  can 
be  no  connection  between  regeneration  and  liability  to  injury,  for  the 
legs  can  rarely  or  never  be  broken  off  outside  of  the  breaking-joint 
under  natural  conditions  without  the  leg  being  thrown  off  at  the  base. 

The  author  gives  five  cases  showing  that  the  crayfish  has  the  same 
power  as  the  hermit  crab  and  can  regenerate  the  distal  portions  of  its 
legs  when  they  are  cut  off  outside  of  the  breaking-joint.  The  crayfish 
can  also  regenerate  a  new  leg  when  the  old  one  has  been  cut  off  inside 
of  the  breaking-joint.  There  is  no  necessary  connection  between  the 
process  of  autotorny  and  the  power  of  regeneration. 

Larval  Stages  of  the  Shrimp.||— H.  C.  Williamson  confirms  Ehren- 
baum's  arrangement  of  the  larval  forms  of  Crangon  vulgaris  in  five 
stages,  which  form  a  complete  series  all  connected  by  observed  moults. 
He  traces  and  very  carefully  figures  the  development  of  the  nine  pairs 
of  appendages  from  stage  to  stage.     The  gills,  it  is  noted,  are  in  all 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  218-9. 

t  Kay  Societv,  1901,  xiii.  and  290  pp.  and  22  pis. 

X  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.,  xxvii.  (1902)  pp.  66-70. 

§  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  598-605  (17  figs.). 

||    19th  Ann.  Rep.  Fishery  Board  Scotland,  1901,  pp.  92-119  (6  pis.). 


432  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

cases  originally  appendages  of  the  limb,  and  pass  from  being  podo- 
branchs  to  become  arthrobranchs  and  pleurobranchs. 

Relict  Crustaceans  in  North  German  Lakes.  *  —  M.  Samter  and 
W.  Weltner  have  studied  the  distribution  of  Mysis  relicta,  Pallasiella 
quadrispinosa,  and  Pontoporeia  affinis,  and  furnish  a  list  of  numerous 
North  German  lakes  in  which  the  "  relicts "  are  at  home.  They  are 
now  distributed  over  a  wide  area  of  the  northern  plain,  which  was  land 
and  not  sea  during  the  Glacial  Period.  Loven's  interpretation  that 
these  relicts  in  South  Swedish  lakes  are  referable  to  an  ancient  extension 
of  the  sea  will  not  serve  for  North  Germany. 

Observations  on  Young  Stages  of  Balanus  improvisus.f —  E. 
Filatowa  notes,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  nauplii  and  later  stages  of 
this  acorn-shell  swim  about  without  indications  of  heliotropism,  but 
they  seek  shady  nooks  to  rest  in. 

Secondly,  the  author  maintains  on  the  basis  of  experiments  with 
pigments,  that  the  large  cells,  with  large  nuclei  and  granular  cytoplasm, 
on  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  stomach  of  the  nauplius  and  metanauplius, 
have  an  excretory  function.     Other  excretory  structures  are  unknown. 

Thirdly,  he  gives  his  reasons  for  believing  that  the  larval  nervous 
system  is  simply  represented  in  the  nauplius  by  the  ectodermic  cells. 
After  noticing  what  he  calls  "acid  cells,"  the  author  briefly  describes 
a  pair  of  glandular  organs  in  the  basal  segments  of  the  second  pair  of 
antennae. 

Decapods  of  Celebes.J — E-  Schenkel  reports  on  the  collection  made 
by  the  brothers  Sarasin,  which  included  fourteen  new  species  mostly  be- 
longing to  the  genera  Potamon,  Sesarma,  Palsemon,  and  Caridina,  so 
characteristic  of  the  Indo-Pacific  fresh  waters.  The  author  briefly  alludes 
to  some  of  the  zoogeographical  riddles  which  the  new  facts  seem  rather 
to  accent  than  to  solve. 

New  Genus  of  Blind  Isopods.§— O.  A.  Sayce  describes  Eypimetopus 
intrusor  g.  et  sp.  n.,  a  new  blind  Isopod  belonging  to  the  interesting  and 
peculiarly  Australian  family  Phreatoicidae.  The  new  form  was  found 
in  Tasmania  in  the  burrows  of  the  land  crayfish,  Engseus  cunicularim. 
In  all  fundamental  characters  it  agrees  with  the  genus  Phreatoicus, 
but  is  a  quite  distinct  representative  of  the  very  ancient  family  of 
Phreatoicidae. 

New  and  little-known  Victorian  Decapods.  |]  —  S.  W.  Fulton  and 
F.  E.  Grant  describe — Platydromia  thomsoni  g.  et  sp.  n.,  a  new  crab  of 
tbe  family  Dromiidae,  and  two  little-known  species — Axius  plectro- 
rhynchus  Strahl,  and  Upogebia  simsoni  Thomson.  They  also  record  the 
occurrence  at  Port  Philip  of  the  common  European  shore-crab,  Carcinus 
msenas, — probably  introduced  in  the  shipping. 

Reproduction  of  Limnetic  Crustacea.^ — V.  Haecker  has  studied  in 
the  Titi  lake  near  Stuttgart  the  reproductive  phases  of  Heterocope 
saliens,  Diajjtomus  denticornis,  D.  laciniatus,  and  Cyclops  strenuus. 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  222-4.  +  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  379-S5  (6  figs.). 

t  Verh.  Nat.  Ges.  Pasel,  xiii.  (1902)  pp.  485-585  (7  pis.). 

§  Proc.  R.  Soc.  Victoria,  xiv.  (1902)  pp.  218-24  (2  pis.). 

||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  55-64  (1  pi.). 

i  Ber.  Nat.  Ges.  Freiburg,  xii.  (1902)  pp.  1-33  (C  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  433 

The  species  of  Diaptomus  show  monocyclic  reproduction,  the  others 
show  alternation  of  reproductive  periods.  While  D.  laciniatus  shows  a 
continuous  development  and  winters  in  a  differentiated  stage,  the  other 
species  (D.  denticornis)  probably  winters  in  an  embryonic  stage. 

The  females  seem  to  be  more  uniformly  distributed  than  the  males 
— which  are  more  sensitive  to  changes  in  light  and  heat,  and  alter  their 
vertical  distribution  more  markedly. 

Lateral  Hermaphroditism  in  Palinurus  frontalis.*  —  O.  Burger 
describes  an  interesting  asymmetrical  specimen  of  this  lobster,  which  in 
its  appendages  and  other  hard  parts  was  distinctly  female-like  on  the 
loft  side  and  male-like  on  the  right. 

Annulata. 

Regeneration  in  EnchytraeidaB.f — J.  Nusbaum  has  studied  regenera- 
tion-processes in  Fridericia  ratzelii  Etsen  and  Enchytrseus  buchholzii 
Vejd.  Some  of  the  processes,  e.g.  formation  of  the  proctodeum,  follow 
the  ontogenetic  mode  ;  others,  e.g.  the  ectodermal  renewal  of  the  muscu- 
lature, especially  the  circular  musculature,  follow  a  simplified,  more 
primitive  plan. 

Circulation  in  Lumbricus.J — J.  B.  Johnston  and  Sarah  W.  Johnsou 
find  that  the  circulation  in  each  segment  behind  the  hearts  of  the  earth- 
worm is  as  follows  : — the  branches  of  the  lateral  neurals  and  parietals 
collect  blood  from  the  body-wall ;  the  parietals  take  blood  to  the  dorsal 
from  the  sub-neural  body-wall  and  nephridia  ;  the  dorso-intestinals  give 
blood  to  the  dorsal  from  the  intestine  ;  all  of  this  blood  goes  forward  in 
the  dorsal  to  the  hearts ;  through  them  nearly  all  of  it  is  given  to  the 
ventral  vessel,  which  sends  it  to  the  intestine  through  the  ventro- 
intestinals  and  to  the  body-wall  through  the  ventro-tegumentaries. 
The  head-region  is  supplied  with  blood  by  the  dorsal  and  ventral 
vessels,  while  the  neurals  and  laterals  carry  blood  from  it.  The  dorsal 
and  ventral  vessels  carry  mixed  blood  :  the  neurals  carry  oxygenated 
blood  only ;  the  laterals  carry  backward  mixed  blood. 

Two  new  Earthworms.§  —  F.  E.  Beddard  describes  Octochsetm 
beatrlx  sp.  n.  and  Benhamia  tanganyikse  sp.  n.,  Acanthodriloid  earth- 
worms of  the  family  Megascolicidae. 

Peritoneal  Elements  of  Phascolosoma  vulgare.||  —  M.  A.  Herubel 
describes  the  chloragogen  elements  and  the  ciliated  urns  in  the  ascending 
coil  of  the  intestine  of  this  worm.  He  discusses  the  relation  of  the 
urns  to  the  chloragogen  cells  which  they  always  have  as  their  neigh- 
bours ;  and  he  also  points  out  that  there  are  never  urns  apart  from 
membranous  connective  tissue.  The  urns  rapidly  remove  injurious  solid 
bodies  from  the  cavity  of  the  gut ;  the  chloragogen  cells  act  more  slowly 
as  "  microphagous  "  peritoneal  cells.  The  urns  seem  to  digest,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  bodies  which  they  capture. 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  Ixxi.  (1902)  pp.  702-7  (4  figs.). 

t  Biol.  Centralbl..  xxii.  (1902)  pp.  292-8. 

t  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  317-28  (3  figs.). 

§  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  456-63. 

||  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxvii.  (1902)  pp.  105-14  (4  figs.). 


434  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Nematohelminth.es. 

New  Nematodes.*  —  0.  von  Linstow  describes  new  species  of  Ascarisr 
Heterahis,  Physaloptera,  Spiroptera,  Filaria,  Agamonema,  Gordius,  and 
EcMnorltynchus  •  and  also  furnishes  notes  on  a  number  of  previously- 
recorded  forms. 

Platyhelminth.es. 

New  Rhabdocffll.t  —  F.  F.  Laidlaw  describes  Typhlorhynchus  nanus 
g.  et  sp.  n.  living  on  the  body  of  the  Polychset  Nephlhys  scolopendroid.es. 
Its  affinities  are  with  the  Mesostomidae  and  Proboscidae ;  perhaps  it  may 
be  ranked  most  conveniently  among  the  latter  and  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Pseudorhynchus.  It  is  the  only  member  of  either  of  the  related  families 
that  has  adopted  an  epizoic  habit.  The  character  of  the  parenchyma 
should  be  specially  marked,  for  in  the  way  it  merges  into  the  endoderm 
it  shows  a  distinct  approach  to  the  condition  found  in  the  Alloiocoela. 

Notes  on  a  Planarian.*  —  X.  Raspail  has  made  some  interesting 
observations  on  an  undetermined  species  of  Planaria,  whose  generations 
he  has  watched  since  1892,  in  a  vessel  holding  about  two  litres.  He 
notes  their  changes  of  colour  —  often  harmonising  with  that  of  the 
objects  on  which  they  live,  and  due  to  the  fluid  in  the  gastric  ramifica- 
tions. They  fed  greedily  on  flies  which  got  entangled  on  the  surface  of 
the  water,  and  on  the  common  earthworm  whose  presence  in  the  vessel 
they  noticed  with  extraordinary  rapidity,  while  the  introduction  of 
Lumbricu8  foztidus  passed  unnoticed.  They  were  also  seen  devouring 
Gammarus  puteanus. 

Distomum  duplicatum  in  Fresh-water  Mussels.  § —  H.  Reuss  de- 
scribes the  abundant  occurrence  of  sporocysts  and  cercariae  of  this  Trema- 
tode  inside  Anodonta  mutabilis  CI  ess.  var.  cellensis.  The  sporocysts  filled 
up  the  space  between  the  coils  of  the  gut  and  the  gonads  ;  they  were  seen  as 
shining  white  spots  through  the  epidermis  of  the  foot ;  some  occurred  on 
the  mantle  and  in  the  pericardium.  The  liberation  of  the  cercariae  from 
the  exbalant  aperture  and  the  changes  which  followed  in  the  water  are 
described,  but  the  life-history  was  not  discovered. 

Maturation  and  Fertilisation  in  Distomum  hepaticum.|[  —  L.  F. 
Henneguy  briefly  describes  the  appearance  of  the  immature  ovum  and 
the  vitelline  cells  which  surround  it.  He  notes  the  interesting  fact  that 
many  spermatozoa  are  absorbed,  and  probably  digested,  by  the  vitelline 
cells. 

After  the  entrance  of  the  spermatozoon,  and  before  its  transforma- 
tion into  a  male  pronucleus,  the  seminal  vesicle  loses  its  contour ;  in 
its  place  there  appears  a  maturation  spindle  with  two  punctiform 
centroeomes  at  each  end ;  the  chromosomes — few  in  number  and  very 
unequal  in  size — are  irregularly  distributed  in  the  equatorial  region. 

Two  bodies  like  polar  bodies  were  seen,  but  their  actual  expulsion 
was  not  observed.  The  oocyte  remains  with  male  and  female  pronuclei 
quiescent  and  independent  until  the  liberation  of  the  egg. 

*  Arch.  Mikr.  Anal,  lx.  (1902)  pp.  217-32  (1  pi.). 

t  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlv.  (1902)  pp.  637-52  (1  pi.). 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  Fiance,  xxvii.  (1902)  pp.  119-23. 

§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  375-9. 

||  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  J  235-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  435' 

Incertee  Sedis. 

Development  of  Phoronis.*  —  M.  de  Selys  Longchamps  gives  a 
full  account  of  his  investigations  on  material  from  Helgoland  and  from 
Naples.  Total  almost  equal  segmentation  results  in  a  blastula,  ciliated 
in  the  Helgoland  form ;  the  gastrulation  is  by  embole,  a  typical  in- 
vagination in  the  Helgoland  form,  by  a  modified  "  incurving  process  " 
in  the  other  species ;  the  circular  blastopore,  which  is  very  large,  closes 
from  behind  forwards,  leaving  an  anterior  entrance  to  the  arcbenteron. 
At  the  posterior  end,  on  the  ventral  surface,  a  median  ectodermic  diver- 
ticulum insinuates  itself  into  the  blastocoel  between  the  ventral  surface 
of  the  arcbenteron  and  the  ectoderm.  The  mesoblast  arises  from  endo- 
derm  cells,  liberated  from  the  archenteric  wall,  but  most  actively  from 
the  anterior  region  surrounding  the  persisting  portion  of  the  blastopore. 

Larval  characters  begin  to  appear ;  the  stomodaBum  is  formed,  the 
pre-oral  lobe  is  transformed  into  a  cephalic  hood  with  the  central 
ganglion  at  its  summit,  the  tentacles  originate,  the  anal  papilla  becomes 
distinct.  Within  this  great  internal  changes  go  on,  the  posterior  part 
of  the  archenteron  becomes  the  intestine,  an  anus  is  formed  without  a 
proctodaeum,  the  ectodermic  diverticulum  seems  to  form  the  posterior 
cavity  of  the  body  (ccelomic  ?),  while  the  anterior  cavity  is  blastocoelic. 
But  the  history  of  this  diverticulum  aud  the  excretory  structures  re- 
mains very  vague.  In  a  second  part  of  his  memoir  the  author  describes 
the  actinotrocha,  and  his  results  are  closely  similar  to  those  of  Ikeda, 
which  he  did  not  know  of  until  after  his  work  was  done. 

Notes  on  Actinotrocha.f  —  K.  E.  Menon  describes  this  larva  with 
particular  reference  to  the  epistome  (a  new  structure,  an  outgrowth  of 
the  collar  region,  and  not  a  remnant  of  the  pre-oral  lobe),  the  body- 
cavities,  the  nephridia,  the  "  notochords,"  the  sub-neural  gland,  the 
tubular  nerve-ganglion,  and  the  sense-organ  in  front  of  the  ganglion. 

"  If  Actinotrocha  is  related  to  the  Chordata  at  all,  as  the  presence  of 
three  divisions  of  the  body  with  their  corresponding  cavities,  of  collar 
nephridia,  of  a  dorsal  diverticulum  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  gut,  and 
of  a  dorsal  tubular  nerve-ganglion  renders  probable,  the  absence  of  such 
important  structures  as  the  gill-slits,  and  of  the  proboscis  pores,  shows 
that  the  relationship  is  to  be  traced  through  a  form  like  Rhabdopleura." 

A.  T.  Mastermann  J  reviews  Iwaji  Ikeda's  §  observations  on  the  de- 
velopment, structure,  and  metamorphoses  of  Actinotrocha.  He  notes 
their  confirmatory  value  in  reference  to  his  own  work,  and  points  out 
that  the  discrepancies  are  mostly  due  (a)  to  differences  of  interpreta- 
tion ;  (b)  to  specific  variation  ;  and  (c)  to  unintentional  misunderstanding 
of  his  (Mastermau's)  statements. 

Rotifera. 

New  Rotifers.  —  F.  E.  Dixon-Nuttall  and  E.  Freeman  ||  describe 
Diglena  rostrata  sp.  n.,  which  they  have  found  in  the  large  lake   of 

*  Arch.  Biol.,  xviii.  (1901)  pp.  495-597  (3  pis.). 

t  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlv.  (1902)  pp.  473-81  (1  pi.). 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  485-92. 

§  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Tokyo,  xiii.  (1901)  pt.  4. 

||  Journ.  Quek.  Micr.  Club,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  215-6  (1  pi.). 


436  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Knowsley  Park,  Lanes.  The  body  is  elongated  and  narrow ;  the  face 
long  and  prone,  and  has  a  projecting  hook  anteriorly  with  two  red 
frontal  eyes ;  the  toes  are  long  and  blade-shaped.  Two  very  good 
figures  accompany  the  text.     Size  240  fi. 

A.  Seligo  *  describes  Tubicolaria  natans  sp.  n.,  which  is  really  a 
Conochilus,  resembling  G.  dossuarius  in  its  habits.  It  was  found  in  the 
lakes  of  Stuhm  in  East  Prussia,  is  free  swimming,  without  tube,  occurs 
singly,  and  does  not  form  colonies,  but  carries  1-3  eggs  attached  to 
the  posterior  end.  It  has  two  long  ventral  antennaB,  which  are  separate 
to  their  base.     Size  140-200  /a. 

Max  Voigt  f  describes  Anursea  aculeata  var.  divergens,  a  new  variety 
with  rather  long  anterior  and  posterior  spines. 

Echinoderma. 

Calcareous  Plates  of  Synapta  and  Ankyroderma.+ — Ed.  Herouard 
expounds  the  theory  that  the  anchor-plate  of  Synapta  is  derived  from  a 
theoretical  hexagonal  honeycomb.  Some  interesting  abnormalities  are 
figured  in  support  of  the  theory.  The  law  is  stated  that  the  meshes  in 
the  calcareous  plates  decrease  in  size  in  precise  relation  to  the  order  of 
their  formation.  The  homology  between  the  plates  in  Anhyroderma  and 
in  Synapta  is  pointed  out. 

Minute  Structure  of  Cuvierian  Organs.§ — Ph.  Barthels  returns 
to  a  subject  which  he  discussed  in  1896,  and  points  out,  in  criticism  of 
Russo,  that  in  Molothuria  helleri,  &c.  the  wall  of  the  Cuvierian  organs 
always  shows  the  following  layers : — internal  epithelium,  internal  con- 
nective tissue,  circular  and  longitudinal  musculature,  external  connective 
tissue,  and  external  epithelium. 

New  Holothurian  from  New  Zealand.  || — A.  Reiffen  describes  Lud- 
wigia  ocnoides  g.  n.  (  =  Colochirus  ocnoides  Dendy).  The  body  is  elon- 
gated and  curved,  without  a  ventral  sole,  with  ten  tentacles  of  which 
the  two  ventral  ones  are  smaller  than  the  others.  There  are  well- 
developed  tube-feet,  with  distinct  suctorial  discs  dorsally  as  well  as 
ventrally  on  the  radii, — but  rudimentary  towards  both  ends  of  the  body  ; 
the  calcareous  bodies  (plates,  rods,  &c.)  differ  considerably  in  different 
regions  of  the  body ;  retractors  and  longitudinal  muscles  are  undivided, 
except  where  the  latter  adjoin  the  pharynx  ;  the  radialia  of  the  calcare- 
ous ring  consist  of  one  piece,  narrow,  thin,  and  brittle ;  the  interradialia 
are  short  and  thick  ;  the  elastic  membrane  of  the  water  vascular  system 
is  distinctly  recognisable  ;  the  cloaca  occupies  the  whole  of  the  posterior 
third  of  the  body  ;  the  respiratory  trees  open  separately  into  the  cloaca  ; 
to  right  and  left  there  is  a  tuft  of  unbranched  genital  tubules,  and  the 
opening  is  on  a  minute  papilla  between  the  two  dorsal  feelers. 

An  abnormal  six-rayed  specimen  is  described.  A  sixth  radius  and 
interradius  have  been  interpolated  between  the  right  dorsal  and  right 
ventral  radius,  that  is,  on  the  right  dorsal  interradius. 

*  Untersuchungen  in  den  Stuhmer  Seen,  Danzig,  1900,  pp.  1-60  (1  fig.). 
t  Beitr.  zur  Kenntniss  des  Planktons  pomm.  Seen,  Forschungsberichte  Plon, 
Teil  9  (1902)  pp.  72-86  (2  figs.). 

J  Bull.  Zool.  Soc.  France,  xxvii.  (1902)  pp.  46-51  (8  figs.). 

§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  392-5. 

||  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zoo].,  lxix.  (1901)  pp.  598-621  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  437 

The  probable  systematic  position  of  the  genus  is  interesting  ;  it 
represents  in  certain  respects  a  transition  from  the  Dendrochirota  to  the 
Molpadiidae. 

Maturation  in  Asterias  glacialis.*  —  M.  Hartmann  finds  that  in 
the  growing  period  of  the  ovarian  egg,  there  are  "  vegetative  nuclear 
changes,"  consisting  in  the  distribution  of  the  chromatin  in  the  nucleus 
and  its  accumulation  in  the  nucleolus.  ♦*>«( 

At  the  end  of  this  period  all  the  chromatin  and  plastin  is  united  in 
the  nucleolus,  from  which  after  liberation  into  the  water  and  after  the 
radiation  and  dissolution  of  the  germinal  vesicle  there  arise  the  chromo- 
somes of  the  first  directive-division. 

This  is  confirmatory  of  the  work  of  0.  Hertwig  (1878)  and  of  what 
Carnoy  and  Lebrun  observed  in  Urodela.  It  cannot  be  readily  har- 
monised with  the  assumption  of  the  individuality  and  qualitative 
diversity  of  the  chromosomes. 

Echinoderms  from  Puget  Sound. j — H.  L.  Clark  reports  on  collec- 
tions which  include  some  interesting  new  species : — Pteraster  multi- 
soinosus,  Cribrella  spiculifera,  Psolus  chitonoides,  and  Cucumaria  lubrica. 

Function  of  Sphaeridia  in  Sea-Urchins.J — Yves  Delage  has  made 
a  number  of  experiments  to  test  the  theory  that  the  sphaeridia  are  equili- 
brating organs.  He  experimented  with  Strongylocentrotus  lividus  and 
Echinus  esculentus,  watching  the  behaviour  of  the  animals  after  the  re- 
moval of  the  sphaeridia.  His  results  were  negative,  for  the  urchins 
operated  on  moved  and  turned  themselves  and  climbed  up  vertical  sur- 
faces almost  as  effectively  as  uninjured  specimens.  They  were  slow 
and  hesitating  in  righting  themselves  when  inverted,  but  they  did  it. 
Delage  concludes  cautiously  that  the  sphaeridia  are  not  the  exclusive 
organs  of  orientation. 

Genital  Pores  of  Male  Antedon  rosacea.§  —  W.  S.  Marshall  de- 
scribes pores  penetrating  nearly  through  the  wall  of  the  pinnules.  As 
many  as  four  pores  were  found  on  a  single  pinnule,  with  no  very  definite 
position  other  than  being  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sacculi.  Many 
were  full  of  spermatozoa  and  in  one  specimen  the  pore  was  ruptured. 

New  Crinoid.||  —  0.  Follmann  describes  a  new  form  Hystricrinus 
schwerdii  from  lower  Devonian  strata  near  Coblenz.  It  is  related  to 
those  Hexacrinids  which  have  a  tripartite  basis  (Hexacrinus  Aust.  and 
Arthracantha  Williams  =  Hystricrinus  Hinde),  but  is  distinguished  by 
the  cirri  on  the  stalk,  the  three  different  kinds  of  joints  occurring  in 
the  stalk,  the  numerous  small  polygonal  plates  composing  the  calyx  lip, 
and  so  on. 

Ccelentera. 

Relationships  of  the  Rugosa  to  Living  Zoantheae.l  —  J.  E.  Duerden 
finds  from  a  study  of  sections  of  Lophophyllum  proliferum  that  the  tip 

*  Zool.  Jakrb.,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  792-812  (2  pis.). 
t  Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  xxix.  (1901)  pp.  323-37  (4  pis.). 
X  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  1030-3. 
§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  209-11  (2  figs.). 
||  Verh.  Nat.  Ver.  Preuss.  Kheinl.,  lviii.  (1901)  pp.  66-76  (1  pi.), 
t  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Ciro.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  19-25  (12  figs.);   Ann.  Nat.  Hist., 
x.  (1902)  pp.  381-98  (12  figs.). 


438  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

of  the  corallum  displays  the  median  dark  lines  of  six  primary  septa, 
separated  by  six  interseptal  spaces.  There  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  primary 
hexameral  character. 

"  So  far  as  Lophophyllum  can  be  taken  as  a  representative,  the 
peculiar  septal  plan  of  the  Rugosa  introduces  no  new  conception  into 
Anthozoan  studies,  and  any  other  peculiar  features  which  the  order 
possesses,  such  as  tabulas  and  vesicular  endotheca,  are  of  very  sub- 
ordinate morphological  importance  compared  with  the  septal  scheme." 

If  the  manner  of  mesenterial  development  be  taken  as  the  index  of 
natural  relationships,  the  bilateral  Zoanthids,  primarily  hexameral,  but 
with  their  metacnemic  development  restricted  to  two  exocoelic  regions, 
are,  more  than  any  other  Anthozoan  type,  the  modern  representatives  of 
the  Rugosa. 

The  following  arrangement  indicates  the  different  fundamental  types 
of  metacnemic  sequence  now  known  within  the  Actiniaria  and  Madre- 
poraria,  and  the  position  amongst  them  of  the  Eugosa.  With  the 
•exception  of  the  Cerianthea?  all  possess  a  primary  hexameral  stage, 
consisting  of  six  pairs  of  mesenteries  with  six  primary  entocoelic 
chambers  and  six  primary  exocoelic  chambers.  Calcareous  septa  may 
appear  within  only  one  or  in  both  series  of  chambers.  It  is  in  the  suc- 
cession of  the  later  mesenteries  and  septa — metacnemes  and  metasepta — 
that  the  divergences  are  introduced. 

I.  The  metacnemes  arise  as  unilateral  pairs  at  one,  three,  seven,  &c. 
regions  within  all  the  six  primary  exocceles,  and  become  arranged  in 
one,  two,  three,  or  more  cycles  : — 

(a)  Non-skeletal.  (b)  Skeleton-forming. 

Most  Actinians.  Most      recent      Madre- 

porarian  corals. 

II.  The  metacnemes  arise  as  bilateral  pairs  at  only  one  region  with- 
in two  or  more  of  the  primary  exocceles  : — 

(a)  Non-skeletal.  (fc)  Skeleton-forming. 

Zoanthids.  Lophophyllum  and  pro- 

bably other  Kugosa. 

III.  The  metacnemes  arise  as  bilateral  pairs  at  one  region  within 
one  or  both  of  the  axial  entocceles  : — 

(a)  Non-skeletal.  (6)  Skeleton-forming. 

Cerianthids.  Porites,  Madrepora. 

Protozoa. 

Conjugation  of  Dendrocometes  paradoxus.* — S.  J.  Hickson,  assisted 
by  J.  T.  Wadsworth,  has  made  a  study  of  conjugation  of  this  Acinetarian 
which  commonly  oocurs  on  the  gills  of  Gammarus  pulex.  The  phenomena 
may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows : — Two  individuals  in  proximity  on  a 
gill  of  Gammarus  send  out  simultaneously  blunt  lobe-like  processes, 
which  may  be  called  the  conjugative  processes.  These  meet  but  do  not 
completely  fuse,  a  distinct  membrane  delimiting  the  process  of  each 
individual  throughout  the  conjugation.  This  membrane  does  not  pre- 
vent the  fusion  of  the  meganuclei  nor  of  the  conjugative  micronuclei  in 

*  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlv.  (1902)  pp.  325-62  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  439 

the  later  stages,  nor  does  it  prevent  a  certain  amount  of  mixture  of  the 
cytoplasm  of  the  conjugating  individuals. 

In  contrast  to  ciliate  Infusorians,  the  difference  between  the  migra- 
tory or  male  germ-nucleus  and  the  stationary  or  female  germ-nucleus  is 
in  Dendrocnmetes  reduced  to  a  minimum.  It  is  possible  that  in  all  cases 
one  germ-nucleus  traverses  the  membrane  and  the  other  does  not,  so 
that  the  distinction  remains,  but  the  two  nuclei  are  as  nearly  neuters  as 
can  be.  Moreover,  the  fusion  of  the  germ-nuclei  takes  place  during  a 
resting  and  not  in  a  mitotic  state.  The  ordinary  vital  processes  are  not 
affected  by  the  conjugating  act. 

Plate's  observation  of  the  occasional  occurrence  of  a  conjugation  of 
three  individuals  is  confirmed.  The  mixing  of  the  cytoplasm  in  the 
conjugative  process  is  also  confirmed.  It  seems  probable  that  the  sexual 
stimulus  affects  the  two  individuals  simultaneously  and  that  there  is  no 
differentiation  of  sex. 

Hickson  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  two  or  more,  usually  three, 
micronuclei  and  their  mitosis. 

Whatever  difficulties  there  may  be  in  finding  an  explanation  of  the 
fact,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  meganuclei  do,  during  conjugation, 
meet  aud  become  continuous.  The  junction  lasts  a  very  short  time  and 
it  is  probably  followed  immediately  by  disintegration.  The  new  mega- 
nucleus  is  formed  from  one  of  the  four  nuclei  produced  by  the  second 
division  of  the  germ-nucleus.  In  this  formation  there  are  remarkable 
processes  of  elimination  and  recovery  of  chromatin. 

The  paper  concludes  with  an  interesting  chapter  of  general  con- 
siderations, leading  on  to  the  conclusion  that  the  body  of  Dendrocometes 
is  no  more  a  single  independent  cell  than  is  the  embryo-sac  of  an 
angiosperm. 

Osmotic  Phenomena  in  Infusorians.*  —  P.  Enriques  has  experi- 
mented with  Opalina  ranarum,  Vorticella  nebulifera,  Halteria,  Ghilodon, 
and  Gastrostyla  steinii,  and  finds  that  when  these  Infusorians  are  trans- 
ferred from  one  medium  to  another  of  different  tonicity,  they  exhibit  at 
first  a  change  of  volume  due  to  the  passage  of  water  through  their  cell- 
wall,  osmotically  impermeable  to  salts  ;  and  then  a  change  in  the  opposite 
direction  due  to  the  non-osmotic  reception  of  water  and  salts  (absorbed 
or  excreted)  which  may  temporarily  more  than  counteract  the  initial 
changes.  Infusorians  without  mouth  and  gullet,  e.g.  Opalina,  are 
impermeable  by  endosmosis  to  sodium  chloride  dissolved  in  the  water. 

Foraminifera.f — F.  Chapman  has  made  students  of  zoology  his  grate- 
ful debtors  by  this  excellent  account  of  the  Foraminifera — well  illustrated 
and  printed,  and  reasonably  cheap.  After  some  introductory  chapters 
on  the  position,  structure,  reproduction,  and  classification  of  Forami- 
nifera, the  author  gives  a  systematic  survey  of  the  ten  well-established 
families.  Then  follow  chapters  on  geological  range  and  geographical 
distribution,  on  collecting  and  mounting.  The  book  ends  with  a  biblio- 
graphy. We  have  had  the  pleasure  of  using  the  book  in  the  laboratory, 
and  can  testify  to  its  convenient  utility  and  clearness. 

*  Atti  (Rend.)  R.  Accad.  Lincei,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  340-7. 

+  The  Foraminifera:  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Protozoa,  London, 
3902,  8vo,  xv.  and  354  pp.,  14  pis.  and  frontispiece,  and  42  figs. 


440 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 


Trypanosoma  brucei.*— J.  R.  Bradford  and  H.  G.  Plimmer  describe 
the  adult  form  of  this  organism  found  in  Nagana  or  Tse-tse  fly  disease,  its 
multiplication  by  longitudinal  division  and  from  a  plasmodial  mass  by 
detachment  of  buds,  its  conjugation,  its  "  amoeboid  "  and  "  plasmodial  " 
forms,  and  its  "  micronucleus  "  ("  blepharoplast,"  "  nucleolus,"  "  centro- 
some,"  &c.  of  other  authors)  which  seems  to  come  off  from  the  macro- 
nucleus  and  which  fuses  with  the  corresponding  body  in  another 
individual.  The  "  micronucleus "  has  tbis  in  favour  of  its  beins  a 
centrosome  that  it  nearly  always  divides  before  the  macronucleus  does 
in  the  longitudinal  division. 

The  authors  also  discuss  the  distribution  of  the  parasite,  its  variations 
in  different  animals,  and  their  resistance  to  it.  The  noticeable  differences 
between  it  and  the  Trypanosoma  lewisi  found  in  sewer  rats  are  noted. 

The  probable  sequence  of  tbe  life-history  is: — (1)  longitudinal 
division,  which  is  very  common,  seen  more  or  less  in  the  blood  of  all 
the  organisms  examined ;  (2)  conjugation,  the  essential  of  which  is  the 
fusion  of  the  micronuclei  of  the  conjugates,  and  (3)  the  fusion  of  the 
adult  forms  in  "  tangles  "  or  plasmodia  which  give  off  flagellated  amoeboid 
forms  from  the  margin. 

New  Trypanosoma.!  —  A.  Laveran  discusses  Trypanosoma  theileri 
sp.  n.,  called  after  its  discoverer  Theiler, — a  veterinarian  in  Pretoria. 
It  seems  a  specific  parasite  of  cattle,  and  injections  into  horse,  dog, 
rabbit,  &c.  proved  ineffective  The  disease  induced  in  cattle  is  a  per- 
nicious anaemia  with  or  without  fever,  and  with  some  striking  features, 
such  as  the  rapid  destruction  of  red  blood-corpuscles.  Laveran  points 
out  that  the  number  of  species  of  Trypanosoma  is  rapidly  mounting  up. 

Terminology  for  Various  Stages  of  the  Malaria  Parasite.! — 
E.  Ray  Lankester  proposes  a  clearer  terminology  than  that  in  vogue  for 
describing  the  stages  in  the  life-history  of  the  malaria  parasite  and 
similar  forms.  The  life-cycle  may  be  written  as  below,  the  sign  x 
being  used  to  indicate  fissile  multiplication,  -f-  to  indicate  fusion,  and 
>-  to  indicate  merely  continuity. 


Exotospores 
X   and  spore  residues 
in  cyst 


Free 

->  exotospore 


Amoebula 


Spore-mother-cells 


Spore-cyst 


_Egg- 
cell 


Female 
crescent 


Eiihsemospores 


Amcebulae 


Vermicide 


Embryo-cell 
(zygote) 


+ 


Spermatozoa    x 

and  sperm 
residual  sphere 


Male  crescent 


*  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlv.  (1902)  pp.  449-~l  (2  pis.), 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  512-4. 
X  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  London,  lxx.  (1902)  pp.  74-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  441 

Life-History  of  Lankesterella  minima.*— E.  Hintze  has  investi- 
gated this  haemospore  parasite  of  the  frog's  blood,  perhaps  better  known 
as  Drepanidium.  He  describes  the  structure,  mode  of  life,  the  schizogony, 
the  sporogony,  the  formation  of  micro-  and  macro-gametes,  the  matura- 
tion of  the  latter  and  their  fertilisation  by  the  former.  He  also  discusses 
the  mode  of  infection  and  the  different  species.  Many  gaps  in  our 
knowledge  of  this  common  form  are  removed  by  this  research. 

Progressive  Movement  of  Gregarines.f — H.  Crawley  has  studied 
the  gliding  movements  of  Stenophora  juli  and  Echinomera  hispida.  One 
kind  of  movement,  which  consists  of  contractions  of  the  body,  is  readily 
explained  by  the  existence  of  "  the  muscular  layer,"  but  the  other  kind, 
of  movement,  in  which  the  animal  glides  along,  usually,  it  is  said,  "  with- 
out the  slightest  bodily  movement,"  has  been  for  many  years  a  riddle. 

In  1894  iSchewiakoff  advanced  the  theory,  supported  by  careful 
studies,  that  Gregarines  progress  by  means  of  the  extrusion  of  gelatinous 
fibres,  derived  from  a  layer  between  the  cuticle  and  the  ectoplasm.  He 
supposed  that  they  form  a  hollow  cylinder  behind  the  animal  and  ac- 
quire a  certain  amount  of  rigidity,  that  the  posterior  end  of  this  cylinder 
impinging  upon  some  resistant  hody,  becomes  fixed,  and  that  the  Grega- 
rine  is  pushed  passively  forward  as  the  extrusion  continues  and  the 
cylinder  lengthens. 

Crawley  cannot  accept  Schewiakoff 's  theory.  The  progression  of 
Gregarines  is  effected  in  a  manner  somewhat  as  follows  : — The  muscular 
impulse,  starting  backward  from  the  region  of  the  septum,  necessarily 
causes  the  contact  of  the  Gregarine  (with  the  cover-  glass)  to  be  different 
in  this  region  from  what  it  is  in  the  more  posterior  parts.  Further, 
since  the  transverse  movement  takes  place  at  the  same  time  as  the  back- 
ward movement,  that  part  of  the  Gregarine's  surface  where  the  contact 
relations  are  temporarily  different  moves  not  only  backward,  but  from 
side  to  side  as  well.  It  is  not  difficult  to  see  how  movements  of  this 
sort  may  produce  locomotion,  when  it  is  recollected  that  Gregarines  are 
sticky. 

This  explanation  is  based  on  the  fact  that  Gregarines  possess  a  well- 
developed  muscular  system,  while  the  theory  of  a  passive  locomotion 
by  means  of  the  extrusion  of  gelatinous  threads  is  without  parallel  in 
the  animal  kingdom. 

Cabbage  and  Cancer.  :J  —  L.  Feinberg  describes  the  peculiarities 
especially  as  regards  nucleus,  of  the  amoeboid  organism — Plasmodio- 
phora  brassicse — causing  cabbage-hernia ;  and  hints  at  the  possible 
•occurrence  of  a  similar  organism  at  work  in  human  carcinomata. 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  693-730  (1  pi.). 

t  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1902,  pp.  4-20  (2  pis.). 

X  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xix.  (1901)  pp.  533-6. 


*  I  t^»  t  m 


August  20th,  1902  2  g 


442  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including:  Cell-Contents. 

Permeability   of   Protoplasm.  *  —  Van   Rysselberghe,  working  in 
Pfeffer's  laboratory,  bas  made  observations  on  the  influence  of  tempera- 
ture on  the  permeability  of  living  protoplasm  ;  a  field  of  work  almost 
untouched  except  for  the  observations  of  Krabbe  in  1896.     The  chief 
methods  of  observation  were  the  study  of  the  contraction  and  expansion  of 
living  elder  pith  under  various  conditions,  and  the  direct  observation 
under  the  microscope  of  cells  of  the  epidermis  of  Trade scantia.     The 
author  shows,  as  Krabbe  found,  that  the  permeability  increases  with  the 
rise  of  temperature  (at  30°  C.  the  protoplasm  being  eight  times  more 
permeable  than  at  0°  C.)  ;  the  increase  of  permeability  is  different  from 
that  found  in  a  precipitated  membrane  of  copper  ferrocyanide,  but  it  is 
shown  that  this  is  no  reason  for  believing  with  Krabbe,  that  this  change 
is  due  to  a  vital  action  of  the  protoplasm.     Contrary  to  the  general 
opinion  the  permeability  was  found  to  be  only  reduced,  not  in  complete 
abeyance,  at  0°  C,  and  this  applied  not  only  to  the  passage  of  water  but 
also  to  that  of  dissolved  substances.     The  passage  of  water  was  found 
to  take  place  under  very  reduced  osmotic  pressures  (probably  at  0-0023 
of  an  atmosphere)  so  that  probably  there  is  no  minimum  force  of  filtra- 
tion, as  Krabbe  believed,  below  which  no  passage  of  water  takes  place. 
It  was  further  found  that  a  cell,  the  cell-sap  of  which  is  isotonic  with  a 
certain  solution   at   one   temperature,   Temains  isotonic  with   the  same 
solution  at  all  temperatures,  provided  that  changes  in  the  cell-sap  have 
not  had  time  to  take  place    by  adaptation.     It  is  thus  clear  that  the 
changes  in   the  osmotic  pressure  in  the  cell  is  the  same  as  that  in  a 
solution,  namely,  -^X^  for  every  degree  of  temperature. 

Aleurone-Grains  in  Oily  Seeds.f  —  Bille  Gram  has  examined  tbe 
character  and  reactions  of  all  the  elements  of  the  grain  —  tegument, 
fundamental  mass,  globoid,  crystal,  and  crystalloid.  He  confirms  the 
refractory  character  of  the  coat,  manifested  in  its  insolubility  in  5  p.c. 
solution  of  caustic  potash.  The  fundamental  mass  consists  mainly  of 
albuminoids,  which  in  different  grains  show  different  degrees  of  solu- 
bility in  dilute  caustic  potash  ;  various  other  substances  are  present. 
He  finds  in  the  globoid  not  only  the  acid  phosphates  of  calcium  and 
magnesium  signalised  by  Pfeffer  but  also  succinic  acid.  From  their 
behaviour  with    solvents    globoids    would    appear    to    have,  generally 

*  Recueil  de  l'lnetitut  Botanique  University  de  Bruxelles,  v.  (1902)  pp.  209-49 

(6  pis.). 

+  Mem.  Acad.  Roy.  Sci.  &c.  Danemark,  se'r.  6  (Section  d.  Sciences)  ix.  (1901) 

pp.  303-36  (4  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  443 

speaking,  a  uniform  composition.  As  to  the  presence  in  them  of  alka- 
loids, as  Tschirch  and  Kritzel  maintained,  the  author's  researches  gave  no 
certain  indication.  From  the  crystals  he  ohtains  succinic  acid,  oxalic 
acid,  and  the  metals  magnesium,  calcium,  and  potassium.  The  greater 
or  less  resistance  of  the  crystalloids  to  different  reagents  is  due  to 
differences  in  chemical  composition,  which  probably  find  expression  in 
the  differences  in  form.  The  form  of  the  crystalloid  is  of  great  import- 
ance for  determination  of  the  grain  and  can  be  studied  in  the  pulverised 
grain  better  than  in  sections.  The  author  concludes  that  crystalloids 
are  in  a  great  number  of  cases  complex  bodies.  He  recommends  a 
solution  of  potassium  borotartrate  for  clearing  the  grain  and  manifesting 
the  form  of  the  crystalloid.  This  solution  generally  dissolves  the 
fundamental  mass  entirely  and  also  the  globoid.  On  placing  the 
powdered  grain,  from  which  the  fat  has  been  removed  by  ether,  into  this 
solution,  the  crystalloid  generally  appears  standing  alone  and  surrounded 
by  the  tegument. 

Constitution  of  Hematoxylin.*  —  W.  H.  Perkin  jun.  and  J.  Yates 
have  carried  out  a  number  of  experiments  on  the  colouring  matter  of 
the  heart-wood  of  Hsematoxylon  campechianum,  the  well-known  logwood, 
the  results  of  which  indicate  its  close  relationship  with  brazilin  and  also 
enable  the  authors  to  assign  a  formula  to  hematoxylin. 

Colouring  Matters  of  Green  Ebony .f  —  A.  G.  Perkin  and  S.  H.  C. 
Briggs  have  investigated  the  colouring  matters  of  a  sample  of  green 
ebony,  a  yellow  dye-wood  formerly  employed  to  some  extent  in  this 
country,  and  a  native  of  Jamaica  or  the  West  Indies.  They  isolated 
crystals  of  two  distinct  colouring  matters  which  they  name  exccecarin 
and  jacarandin  respectively.  The  former  has  the  composition  C13H1205 
and  crystallises  in  glistening  lemon-yellow  needles,  sparingly  soluble 
in  cold  alcohol  or  ether  and  insoluble  in  benzene  or  chloroform.  The 
latter  is  represented  by  the  formula  C14H1205  and  forms  glistening 
yellow  plates  or  leaflets  sparingly  soluble  in  alcohol  and  the  usual 
solvents  to  form  pale  yellow  liquids  having  a  green  fluorescence.  The 
former  does  cot  dye  calico  with  or  without  mordants,  but  the  latter  gives 
good  full  shades  of  yellow,  brown,  or  olive  varying  with  the  mordant. 
The  chemical  and  physical  properties  of  the  substances  are  fully  dis- 
cussed. The  dye-wood  is  obtained  from  Exccecaria  glandulosa  or 
Jacaranda  ovalifolia,  but  the  name  of  the  specimen  used  was  not  deter- 
mined. 

Colouring  Matter  from  Flowers  of  Delphinium  consolida.J  — 
A.  G.  Perkin  and  E.  J.  Wilkinson  have  extracted  from  the  blue  flowers 
of  this  plant  a  yellow  colouring  matter  differing  in  composition  from 
that  present  in  Deljrfiinium  Zalil.  It  consists  of  pale  yellow  needles 
resembling  quercetin  in  appearance,  melting  at  276°-277°,  readily 
soluble  in  boiling  alcohol  and  also  in  alkaline  solution  to  which  it  gave 
a  pale  yellow  colour.  It  is  represented  by  the  formula  Ci5H10O6.  Its 
reactions  agree  closely  with  those  of  kampherol  prepared  by  Gordin 
from  the  monomethyl  ether,  kampheride,  contained  in  galanga  root. 

•  Journ.  Chem.  Soc,  lxxxi.  (1902)  pp.  235-46. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  210-20.  X  Tom.  cii,  pp.  585-91. 

2    G   2 


444  SUMMAKY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Structure  and  Development. 
Vegetative. 

Anatomy  of  Ranunculaceae.* — H.  Lonay  has  studied  the  anatomical 
structure  of  the  pericarp  and  seed-coat  in  a  large  number  of  genera  and 
species  of  this  family.  In  the  first  part  of  his  paper  he  describes  the 
detailed  structure  of  the  walls  of  the  carpels,  ovules,  and  seeds,  and  the 
character  of  the  albumen,  at  various  stages  of  development  in  six  types, 
namely  Ranunculus  arvensis,  Thalictrum  Jlavum,  Clematis  Vitalba, 
Helleborus  fcetidus,  Delphinium  Ajacis,  and  Paeonia  officinalis.  These 
represent  types  of  organisation  about  which  it  is  possible  to  group  the 
species  of  Ranunculaceae. 

In  the  second  part  he  gives  a  general  account  of  the  structure  of 
ovary  wall,  pericarp,  and  seed-coat,  in  these  and  other  genera ;  as  many 
species  as  could  be  obtained  were  examined.  An  anatomical  diagnosis 
of  the  genera  follows.  The  author  then  criticises  previous  tribal 
divisions  of  the  order  and  suggests  six  tribes,  as  follows,  giving  the 
anatomical  characters  of  the  ovary,  &c.  as  based  on  his  work. 

(1)  EanunculeaB,  including  Ranunculus,  Ceratocephalus,  Ficaria, 
Oxygraphis,  and  Myosurus. 

(2)  Thalictreae,  including  Thalictrum  and  Adonis. 

(3)  Anemoneaa,  including  Knowltonia,  Anemone,  Hepatica,  and 
Clematis. 

(4)  Helleboreae,  including  Helleborus,  Trollius,  Caltha,  Eranthis,  and 
Aquilegia. 

(5)  Delphiniese,  including  Isopyrum,  Garidella,  Nigella,  Aconitum,  and 
Delphinium. 

(6)  Pasoniese,  including  Actsea,  Cimicifuga,  and  Paeonia. 

The  author  concludes  by  giving  a  clavis  for  the  determination  of 
genera  and  one  for  the  determination  of  the  species  which  he  has 
studied. 

Anatomy  of  the  Leaves  in  the  Ranunculaceae.f — J.  Goffart  arrives 
at  the  following  conclusions  from  the  study  of  the  development  and 
structure  of  the  leaf  (including  bracts  and  bud-scales)  in  a  large  series 
of  species.  The  genera  are  characterised  not  only  by  their  floral,  but 
also  by  their  vegetative  organs,  especially  by  the  leaves.  Some  genera 
resist  more  than  others  the  influence  of  their  present  environment,  and 
it  is  these  genera  that  present  fewer  intermediate  forms,  and  are  conse- 
quently best  characterised  by  vegetative  organs.  Study  of  the  leaf- 
anatomy  supplies  additional  material  for  deciding  on  the  suppression  or 
maintenance  of  disputed  genera.  For  instance,  Hepatica  is  not  suffi- 
ciently characterised  by  its  vegetative  organs  to  justify  a  separation  from 
Anemone,  and  the  same  holds  for  Nigella  and  Garidella,  Actsea  and 
Cimicifuga,  and  Ficaria,  Oxygraphis,  and  Ranunculus.  Tho  study  of 
anatomical  characters  confirms  generally  recognised  systems  of  classi- 
fication. In  most  of  the  genera  anatomy  is  a  help  to  the  arrangement 
and  determination  of  species. 

*  Archiv.  de  lTnstit.  Bot.  de  l'Univ.  de  Liege,  iii.  (1901)  pp.  164  (21  pis.). 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  190  (14  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  445 

Anatomy  of  the  Euphorbiacese.* — L.  Gaucher  has  investigated 
375  species,  representing  126  genera  and  all  the  tribes  except  Kicino- 
dendrinese.  He  concludes  that  there  is,  in  spite  of  the  extent  of  the 
family,  its  wide  distribution,  and  its  polymorphism,  an  aggregate  of 
anatomical  characters  sufficiently  constant  to  define  the  Euphorbiaceous 
type.  They  are  as  follows  : — In  the  stem  the  phellogen  is  sub-epi- 
dermal, the  pericycle  forms  in  front  of  the  vascular  bundles  fibrous 
islands  or  masses  of  fibres,  intermingled  with  sclerotic  cells,  the  vascular 
system  forms  a  ring  scarcely  interrupted  by  medullary  rays  which  are 
composed  of  a  single  row  of  cells ;  these  cells  are  sclerotic  in  the  region 
of  the  wood ;  the  pith  is  also  often  sclerotic.  Tannin  sacs  and  calcium 
oxalate  (except  in  Euphorbia)  occur  in  the  stem,  in  cortex,  pericycle, 
phloem,  and  pith  ;  they  are  especially  abundant  in  the  bast  rays,  where 
they  mark  very  sharply  the  limit  of  the  bundles.  In  the  leaf  the  epi- 
dermal cells  have  a  very  uniform  structure.  The  cuticle  is  generally 
quite  plain,  and  the  stomata  are  always  ou  a  level  with  the  epidermis, 
and  very  rarely  surrounded  by  subsidiary  cells.  As  regards  the  sub- 
division of  the  order,  anatomical  characters  bear  out  the  generally 
recognised  grouping.  The  PhyllanthoideaB  are  remarkable  for  the 
presence  of  water-reservoirs  formed  by  epidermal  cells  or  cells  imme- 
diately below  the  epidermis.  Laticiferous  tissue  and  internal  phloem 
are  absent.  The  Crotonoideae  have  no  water-reservoirs,  but  often  show 
a  well-developed  hairiness.  They  have  also  laticiferous  tissue  and  in- 
ternal phloem.  The  Stenolobeze  have  laticiferous  tissue,  but  no  internal 
phloem ;  they  approach  the  two  other  tribes  in  that  some  have  a  water- 
storing  apparatus,  while  others  are  hairy. 

The  internal  bast  of  the  Crotonoideae  occurs  in  four  principal  forms. 
In  the  Euphorbia  typo  it  forms  a  narrow  zone  around  the  pith,  and 
consists  of  elongated  cells  with  brightly  shining  walls,  but  with  no 
trace  of  sieves.  In  the  Tragia  type  it  forms  islands  opposite  the  vascular 
bundles.  The  cells  resemble  those  of  the  Euphorbia  type,  but  some  of 
the  transverse  walls,  thicker  and  more  refractive  than  others,  are  per- 
forated in  places.  In  the  Groton  type  the  phloem  islands  are  more 
extensive,  and  have  true  sieve-tubes.  The  type  of  Lepidoturus  is 
characterised  by  a  girdle  of  sclerenchyma  in  addition  to  the  phloem. 

The  latex  receptacles  are  unicellular  or  multicellular,  and  never 
anastomose.  The  unicellular  are  sometimes  surrounded  by  a  sheath  of 
parenchymatous  cells  (reserve  tissue),  giving  the  appearance  of  a  secre- 
tory canal.  The  multicellular  comprise  two  well-defined  types.  In 
one  a  number  of  elongated  cells  is  placed  in  series,  which  is  more  or 
less  regular  according  to  the  persistence  or  absorption  of  the  transverse 
cell- walls.  In  the  second  type  a  number  of  cells  irregularly  arranged 
form  by  their  union  the  latex-carrying  tissue.  Latex-carriers  of  very 
different  form  occur  in  different  parts  of  the  same  organ.  The  author 
gives  a  table  showing  the  distribution  of  the  various  forms  in  the 
family. 

The  latex-carriers  pass  from  the  stem  into  the  leaf,  where  they 
spread  through  the  mesophyll  and  surround  closely  the  assimilatory 
tissue.  The  latex  is  for  the  most  part  composed  of  substances  of  a 
high  nutritive  value,  of  the  same  nature  as  the  contents  of  the  reserve 

*  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  ser.  8.  xv.  (1902)  pp.  161-309  (81  figs.). 


446  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

parenchyma ;  these  substances  also  occur  in  the  assimilatory  tissue  of 
the  leaf.  An  exchange  of  material  seems  to  occur  between  the  reserve 
parenchyma  and  the  latex-carriers  on  the  one  hand,  and  between  the 
latter  and  the  assimilatory  tissue  on  the  other.  The  latex  tissue  of  the 
Euphorbiaceae,  which  is  generally  regarded  as  purely  excretory,  should, 
in  the  author's  opinion,  be  regarded  rather  as  a  conducting  system  for 
the  transport  of  a  part  at  least  of  the  material  elaborated  in  the  leaves. 
Many  of  the  Euphorbiaceae  have  tannin-carriers  composed  of  equal 
cell-elements,  which,  like  the  latex-carriers,  are  continued  from  the 
stem  into  the  leaf.  By  absorption  of  their  transverse  walls  they  may 
be  transformed  into  tubes  often  of  considerable  length.  Their  develop- 
ment is  most  marked  in  the  Phyllanthoideas. 

Morphology  and  Anatomy  of  Azorella  Selago.* — C.  Ternetz  gives 
an  exhaustive  account  of  this  interesting  little  Umbellifer,  which  forms 
a  characteristic  feature  of  the  flora  of  Kerguelen's  Land  and  other 
islands  of  the  Southern  Ocean,  where  it  forms  dense  low-growing 
cushions.  In  growth  and  structure  it  is  a  well-marked  xerophyte. 
The  climate  is  remarkably  damp,  but  owing  to  the  constant  low  tem- 
perature, absorption  of  water  from  the  soil  is  checked,  while  owing  to 
the  almost  uninterrupted  strong  winds,  rapid  transpiration  is  favoured. 
In  its  stem-structure  it  differs  remarkably  from  the  description  given 
by  Drude  for  the  genus  in  that  it  possesses  a  cambial  secondary  growth 
(which  in  the  older  plants  is  anomalous),  while  the  vascular  system 
forms  a  loose  ring,  not  limited  by  a  phloaoterma  ;  moreover  crystal-sacs 
are  absent  from  the  pith,  and  there  are  no  woody  hard-bast  strands  in 
the  cortex. 

Air-roots  of  Avicennia  tomentosa.f  —  W.  Brenner  has  studied  in 
detail  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  vertical  air-roots  of  this  mangrove 
in  material  from  West  Africa.  The  structure  demonstrates  to  the  full 
their  respiratory  function,  and  the  alteration  with  increased  age  and 
size  of  the  roots  represents  the  response  of  the  plant  to  increased  need 
for  gaseous  interchange.  For  instance,  while  the  young  roots  have  a 
smooth  exterior  and  show  but  little  phellogen  development,  the  older 
show  this  in  a  marked  degree,  and  their  surface  is  rendered  uneven  by 
the  formation  of  numerous  lenticels. 

Origin  of  the  Seed-leaf  in  Monocotyledons.!  —  E.  Sargant  has 
examined  the  course  of  the  vascular  bundles  in  a  number  of  seedlings 
representing  a  series  of  typical  Liliaceous  genera,  and  concludes  that 
the  most  primitive  form  is  that  represented  in  Anemarrhena.  The 
arrangement  is  a  symmetrical  one.  The  bundles  run  the  whole  length 
of  the  cotyledon,  and  are  placed  approximately  at  the  foci  of  the 
elliptical  transverse  section  of  the  organ.  The  transition  stage  in  the 
short  hypocotyl  is  also  a  perfectly  symmetrical  one.  Each  xylem  group 
gives  off  three  branches  of  protoxylem,  and  each  phloem  group  divides 
into  two.  The  four  lateral  branches  of  protoxylem  fuse  in  pairs,  to 
form  the  regular  tetrarch  stele  of  the  root.  If  this  be  compared  with 
Eranthis,  a  genus  of  Ranunculaceae,  the  resemblance  of  the  ground  plan 

*  Bot.  Zeit.,  lxx.  (1902)  pp.  1-20  (1  pi.  and  8  figs.). 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  175-95  (3  ph.). 
%  New  Phytol.,  i.  (1902)  pp.  107-13  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  447 

of  structure  is  very  "striking.  The  blades  of  the  two  cotyledons  of 
Eranthis  are  distinct,  but  the  long  petioles  are  united  to  form  a  slender 
cylinder,  a  transverse  section  of  which  shows  two  bundles  in  exactly 
the  same  position  as  in  Anemarrhena.  The  arrangement  in  the 
thickened  hypocotyl  is  also  comparable  with  that  in  the  mono- 
cotyiedonous  genus.  The  author  concludes  that  in  Eranthis  we  have  a 
plant  which  is  in  the  way  to  become  a  monocotyledon  ;  we  have  only 
to  imagine  the  blades  of  the  cotyledons  united  to  complete  the  resem- 
blance. The  complete  union  of  the  cotyledons  in  Monocotyledons  may 
be  due  to  their  common  specialisation  as  a  sucking  organ.  The  fact 
that  the  apex  of  the  cotyledon  in  this  group  often  remains  within  the 
endosperm  throughout  its  existence  might  lead  in  course  of  time  to  the 
fusion  of  the  cotyledons  within  the  seed.  On  this  view  the  Mono- 
cotyledons are  the  more  recent  group. 

Stipular  Structures  of  Monocotyledons.*  —  H.  Gliick  shows  that 
true  paired  stipules  (stipulse  laterales)  occur  in  Hydrocharis,  Naias, 
Potamogeton,  Rujppia,  Althenia,  Pothos,  and  Smilax  otigera,  and  that  these 
structures  are  not  so  rare  in  Monocotyledons  as  has  been  supposed.  Of 
special  interest  are  those  of  certain  species  of  Potamogeton,  where  only 
the  leaves  immediately  succeeding  the  cotyledon  have  typical  lateral 
stipules.  In  the  following  leaves  the  stipules  gradually  pass  into  a 
sheath-like  appendage  united  with  the  leaf-base  (stipula  adnata)  and 
ending  in  a  ligule,  and  then  by  gradual  shortening  of  the  sheath-like 
portion  into  an  apparently  axillary  ligule  (stipula  axillaris).  The 
author  regards  this  series  as  of  phylogenic  importance.  The  stipules 
laterales  represent  the  oldest  type  (I.)  from  which  have  developed  in 
succession  the  stipules  adnatae  (II.)  and  the  stipulse  axillares  (III.). 
The  ligule-beanng  leaf-sheath  of  the  grasses  belongs  to  the  second  type, 
as  also  do  similar  structures  in  Potamogeton,  Calla  palmtris,  Zingiber, 
and  others.  To  types  II.  and  111.  belong  also  all  those  appendages 
in  which  the  stipular  sheath  is  a  closed  tube,  like  the  tubular  liguled 
leaf-sheath  in  Allium  Ampeloprasum,  Pontederia,  Ac.  The  simple  leaf- 
sheaths  in  grasses  and  orchids  are  regarded  as  further  reduced  stipular 
structures. 

In  the  second  part  of  the  paper,  the  author  discusses  the  biological 
iunction  of  the  stipules  which  may  act  exclusively  for  the  protection 
of  young  undeveloped  members,  or  in  addition  as  assimilating  organs. 
In  some  cases  the  stipules  serve  mainly  as  protective  organs  for  winter 
buds,  in  others  they  protect  inflorescences  or  flowers,  in  others  they 
serve  mainly  as  stores  of  reserve  material. 

Subterranean  Plants  of  Epiphegus.f  —  E.  G.  Leavitt  describes 
dwarf  specimens  of  Epiphegus  virginiana  completely  buried  1  or  2  in. 
deep  in  the  soil  and  bearing  several  fruits  with  good  seed. 

Regeneration  of  Leaf-Blade  in  Cyclamen.} — H.  Winkler  confirms 
Hildebrand's  statement  that  on  removal  of  the  leaf-blade  from  the 
primary  leaf  of  Cyclamen  persicum  and  africanum  new  growths  appear 

*  Verb,  naturhist.-med.  Ver.  Heidelberg,  N.F.  vii.  Heft  1,  pp.  96  (5  pis.).  See 
Botan.  Zeit.,  lx.  (1902)  p.  43. 

t  Bot.  Gaz.,  xxxiii.  (1902)  p.  376  (1  fig.). 

j  Ber.  Deutech.  Bot.  Ges.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  81-7. 


448  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

laterally  upon  the  leaf-stalks,  resembling  in  colour  and  structure  the 
original  leaf  and  performing  its  functions.  Winkler  finds  that  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  if  the  blade  be  removed,  two,  more  rarely  one  and  still  more 
rarely  several,  lateral  outgrowths  arise  from  the  wing-like  edge  of  the 
stalk  and  form  as  many  new  leaf-blades.  The  new  development  appears 
usually  5-6  days  after  the  operation  and  directly  below  the  cut  end  of 
the  stalk,  wherever  the  cut  has  been  made.  The  new  blade  arises 
chiefly  from  the  epidermal  and  subepidermal  layer  of  the  petiole ;  sub- 
sequently a  procambial  strand  is  formed  connecting  with  the  vascular 
bundle  system  of  the  stalk,  and  forming  the  conducting  tissue  of  the 
new  leaf-structure.  The  author  finds  that  similar  blade-regeneration 
ensues  in  the  case  of  any  of  the  other  leaves  of  the  first  vegetative 
period. 

Cork-formation  in  the  Interior  of  the  Leaf-stalk  of  Nuphar 
luteum.* — O.  Amberg  describes  the  formation  of  a  protective  layer  of 
cork  in  the  parenchymatous  cells  of  the  leaf-stalk  of  this  water  lily 
as  a  result  of  the  destruction  of  tissue  by  an  insect,  which  had  eaten 
out  a  great  part  of  the  internal  tissue,  forming  hollow  chambers  com- 
municating with  the  outside  air  by  narrow  openings. 

Union  of  Branch  and  Stem  of  the  same  Tree.f — O.  Lenecek  de- 
scribes such  a  union  in  a  pine  of  about  50  years  of  age  and  20  metres 
high.  The  branch  springs  from  just  above  the  base  of  the  main  axis 
and  makes  rather  more  than  one  complete  turn  round  it ;  in  the  lower 
part  the  branch  is  closely  flattened  to  the  stem  but  not  coherent  with  it, 
but  for  about  2  metres  of  its  length  the  two  are  closely  coherent,  the 
branch  being  imbedded  in  the  cortex  of  the  stem.  The  free  end  of  the 
branch  was  dead.  The  occurrence  is  explained  by  the  death  of  the 
terminal  bud  of  the  young  plant,  when  its  place  was  taken  by  two 
lateral  branches  one  of  which  grew  more  strongly  to  form  the  main  axis 
while  the  other  formed  the  branch  which  has  become  in  part  coherent 
with  the  main  axis.  The  lower  portion  of  the  branch  showed  growth  in 
thickness,  which  however  ceased  in  the  portion  united  with  the  stem. 

Reproductive. 

Notes  on  Living  Cycads— The  Zamias  of  Florida.^ — G.  E.  Wie- 
land  has  examined  a  number  of  specimens  from  the  Miami  region.  One 
is  figured,  and  shows  remarkably  the  disproportion  in  size  between  the 
ovulate  cone  and  the  plant  on  which  it  is  borne,  the  cone  being  often 
much  larger  than  the  underground  stem  on  which  it  is  produced.  The 
free  branching  is  al?o  well  shown ;  a  male  plant  is  reported  with  as 
many  as  39  cones  ;  and  when  a  trunk  is  cut  off  below  the  crown  of 
leaves  several  new  crowns  may  form.  In  one  of  the  female  cones  a 
pinnule  of  normal  structure  had  grown  out  from  beneath  the  tip  of  one 
of  the  upper  abortive  sporophylls.  This  recalls  the  much  more  striking 
case  of  reversion  described  by  Thiselton-Dyer  in  Encephalartos  villosus  § 
and  emphasises  the  statement  that  the  carpophyll  is  merely  a  trans- 
formed foliage  leaf  and  capable  of  being  replaced  by  it. 

*  Vierteljahrsschr.  Naturforscli.  Ges.  Zurich,  xlvi.  (1902)  pp.  326-30  (1  pi.). 
+  Verh.  zool.-bnt.  Gen.  Wien.  Hi.  (1902)  pp.  165-8  (1  fig.). 
t  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  xiii.  (1902)  pp.  331-8  (5  figs.). 
5  See  this  Journal,  ante,  p.  65. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  449 

Development  of  Pollen  in  Zostera.*  —  0.  Rosenberg  finds  that  in 
quite  young  anther  rudiments  the  archesporial  cells  are  very  elongated^ 
lying  obliquely  to  the  anther  wall  and  stretching  from  one  wall  to  the 
other.  From  both  ends  of  the  archesporial  cells  isodiametric  tapetal 
cells  are  cut  off,  which  divide  several  times  and  are  finally  dissolved. 
The  inner  cells  continue  to  elongate  and  divide  longitudinally  to  form 
numerous  long  cells,  the  pollen-mother-cells,  which  pass  through  a 
long  resting  period.  Other  cells  divide  transversely  to  form  the  sterile 
cells  of  the  archesporium,  which  become  crushed  by  the  pollen-mother- 
cells  and  gradually  disorganised.  The  nuclei  which  are  found  later 
between  the  pollen-cells  are  derived  mainly  from  these  sterile  cells,  but 
in  part  from  the  dissolved  tapetal  cells.  A  long  period  of  development 
is  passed  before  the  pollen-mother-cells  form  tetrads,  at  this  period  the 
proportion  between  length  and  breadth  is  60  :  1,  and  the  number  of  the 
chromosomes  is  reduced  to  six.  The  first  spindle  is  often  sickle-  or  S- 
shaped  ;  the  nuclear  membrane  persists  to  the  time  when  the  daughter 
chromosomes  have  reached  the  poles,  a  phenomenon  which  recurs  in  the 
nuclear  divisions  in  the  root-apex  of  the  same  plant.  The  spindle  and 
also  the  cell-plate  stand  obliquely  to  the  long  axis  of  the  pnllen-mother- 
cell ;  the  cell-plate  becoming  more  and  more  parallel  with  the  latter. 
The  second  cell-division  is  also  longitudinal,  as  might  be  expected  from 
the  characteristic  packet  of  four  thread-like  cells. 

Finally  the  author  discusses  previously  described  instances  of  sterile 
cells  in  archesporia  ;  he  suggests  that  herein  may  lie  the  explanation 
of  differences  in  form  of  the  pollen-grains  in  one  and  the  same  anther- 
chamber. 

Embryology  of  Zostera  marina.f — The  same  author  finds  that  the 
origin  and  development  of  the  embryo-sac  follow  the  course  typical 
for  most  angiosperms.  From  the  embryo-sac  mother-cell  is  formed  a 
series  of  four  cells  the  lowest  of  which  becomes  the  embryo-sac.  The 
embryo  lies  usually  near  the  micropyle,  rarely  near  the  middle  of  the 
embryo-sac.  It  is  borne  as  a  remarkably  large  one-celled  pear-shaped 
suspensor  which  contains  a  very  large  nucleus.  The  nucleus  increases 
in  size  until  it  almost  fills  the  cell ;  its  appearance  suggests  an  active 
nutritive  function.  In  formation  of  endosperm  the  nuclei  lie  free  in 
the  parietal  cytoplasm. 

The  author  also  discusses  the  structure  of  the  root,  especially  the 
epidermis  which  shows  well  the  arrangement  into  long  and  short  cells. 
From  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  nucleus  of  the  short  cells,  which  re- 
calls that  of  the  nuclei  of  nutritive  cells,  the  author  concludes  that  these 
«hort  elements  are  passage  cells,  whereas  owing  to  their  richness  in 
tannin  the  long  cells  probably  cannot  subserve  this  function. 

Development  of  Embryo-sac  and  Embryo  in  Castalia  and  Nym- 
phaBa.J — M.  T.  Cook  has  investigated  Castalia  odorata  and  Nymphsea 
advena  with  a  view  to   reaching   some  satisfactory  conclusion   on   the 

•  Meddel.  fr.  Stockholms  Hogskola  Bot.  Inst.,  1901,  pp.  21  (9  figs.).  See  Bot. 
Zeit.,  Ix.  2  (1902)  pp.  132-3. 

t  Op.  tit;  Nr.  211  (1901)  pp.  24  (2  pla.  and  6  text  figs.).  See  Bot.  Zeit.,  1.  c> 
pp.  131-2. 

:  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  211-20  (2  pis.  and  2  figs.). 


450  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

debated  systematic  position  of  the  Nymjyhaeacese.     He  finds  nothing  un- 
usual in  the  formation  of  the  megaspore — the  archesporium  is  a  single 
hypodermal  cell,  and  the  tapetal  cells  are  irregularly  formed.     In  one 
case  two  functional  megaspores  were  observed  side  by  side.     The  em- 
bryo-sac contains  abundance  of  starch  when  in  the  two-  and  four-celled 
stages.    Tho  antipodal  cells  are  very  small  and  disappear  about  the  timo 
of  the  conjugation  of  the  polar  nuclei.     One  of  the  synergids  persists  for 
a  very  long  time.     Shortly  after  the  conjugation  of  the  polar  nuclei  and 
fertilisation  of  the  egg  the  endosperm  nucleus  divides  and  a  very  deli- 
cate wall  is  formed  across  the  sac  similar  to  that  described  by  Schaffner 
for  Sagittaria.     The  upper  nucleus  forms  the  endosperm  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  sac  ;  the  endosperm  persists  until  the  embryo  is  fully  formed. 
From  the  lower  cell  is  formed  a  long  tube  which  grows  towards  the 
chalazal  end  of  the  ovule,  forming  a  passage  by  the  absorption  of  the 
nucellus.    The  author  compares  this  nutritive  function  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  embryo-sac  with  the  presumed  similar  physiological  significance 
of  the  antipodal  cells  in  those  plants  (e.g.  Ranunculaceae,  Sparganium, 
kVc)  in  which  they  are  prominent.     The  embryo  is  at  first  spherical  and 
later  forms  a  single  cotyledon  which  was  not  observed  to  bifurcate  as 
Lyon  describes  for  Nelumbo.     The  suspensor  is  late  in  forming  and  ap- 
parently without  function.     The  formation  of  the  plumule  and  primary 
root   agree  with  the  processes  described  by  Lyon  for  Nelumbo.     The 
embryo  shows  no  marked  resemblance  in  its  development  to  any  of  the 
monocotyledonous  plants  of  the  Helobieae  series  ;  but  the  development 
of  the  embryo-sac  and  the  formation  of  tapetal  cells  and  megaspores 
are  very  similar  to  what  obtains  in  Potamogeton  and  Naias,  while  the 
formation    of    the    wall    across    the    sac   recalls   the    same   process    in 
Sagittaria.     Hence  the  author  agrees  with  Lyon  in  placing  Nymphaea- 
ceae  in  or  near  the  series  Helobieaa  (Naiadales). 

Embryogeny  of  Araliaceae.*— L.  Ducamp  describes  the  formation 
of  the  ovule  and  of  the  embryo-sac  and  the  development  of  the  embryo 
in  this  family.  Of  the  two  ovules  which  begin  to  be  formed  in  each 
carpel,  one,  the  ascending,  becomes  aborted,  while  an  embryo-sac  is  pro- 
duced only  in  the  other,  descending  ovule.  The  embryo-sac  is  generally 
the  lowest  of  a  row  of  three  cells  formed  by  transverse  division  of  a  spore- 
mother-cell.  Frequently  four  daughter-cells  were  formed  by  successive 
transverse  divisions  of  the  mother-cell — this  is  regarded  as  a  primitive 
condition. 

The  course  of  division  in  the  embryo-sac  follows  the  general 
plan  as  described  by  Strasburger.  The  nucellus  becomes  absorbed 
except  beneath  the  embryo-sac,  and  the  internal  epidermis  of  the  integu- 
ment forms  a  digestive  layer,  the  cells  of  which  are  cutinised  on  tbe 
surface.  The  cells  of  the  integument  become  disorganised,  and  finally 
the  epithelial  layer  disappears,  its  place  being  taken  by  the  superficial 
layer  of  endosperm  which  becomes  differentiated  as  a  digestive  sac.  The 
seed-coat  is  a  membranous  layer  formed  from  the  persistent  outer  epi- 
dermis of  the  integument,  outside  which  the  endocarp  forms  a  layer  of 
sclerotic  elements. 

In  the  formation   of   the    embryo   the    initial  cells  of  the   central 

*  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  ser.  8.  xv.  (1902)  pp.  312-402  (8  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  451 

cylinder  in  the  radicle  mark  the  limit  of  suspensor  and  embryo,  the 
lower  cortex  and  root-cap  are  derived  from  the  suspensor.  In  the  Ivy 
secretory  canals  are  found  in  the  pericycle,  appearing  first  in  tlio  hypo- 
cotyl,  while  tracheids  arise  only  in  the  cotyledons.  The  embryos  of 
other  members  of  this  order  show  neither  canals  nor  tracheids. 

Parthenogenesis  in  Thalictrum  purpurascens.*  —  J.  B.  Overton 
describes  this  phenomenon  and  discusses  parthenogenesis  in  seed-plants 
generally. 

He  finds  the  development  and  germination  of  the  megaspore  in 
Thalictrum  to  be  that  usual  among  angiosperms.  The  antipodal  cells 
are  remarkably  large,  and  their  nuclei  multiply  by  fragmentation. 
Fusion  of  the  polar  nuclei  occurs  before  fertilisation  in  normal  material, 
and  before  the  division  of  the  egg  in  parthenogenetic  material ;  the 
definitive  nucleus  is  remarkably  large.  Fertilisation  is  not  necessary 
either  for  embryo  or  endosperm  development.  Embryos  were  produced 
parthenogenetically  under  all  conditions.  Parthenogenesis  is  very 
general ;  the  development  of  the  embryo  is  the  same  as  in  the  case  of 
embryos  formed  from  a  fertilised  egg.  Loeb's  work  on  eggs  of  echino- 
derms  showing  that  unfertilised  eggs  may  be  made  to  develop  into 
normal  embryonic  forms  through  increase  in  osmotic  pressure,  suggested 
an  explanation  of  the  present  case.  The  egg  is  invested  in  early  stages 
by  a  dense  sheath  of  cytoplasm,  and  later  becomes  surrounded  by  an 
area  much  resembling  a  vacuole,  which  may  affect  the  osmotic  pressure 
and  indicate  a  withdrawal  of  water  causing  the  oosphere  to  divide.  The 
author  discusses  previously  described  cases  of  parthenogenesis  in  angio- 
sperms and  suggests  that  it  is  of  more  common  occurrence  than  at 
present  supposed. 

Physiology. 
Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Green  Hemiparasites.|  —  E.  Heinricher  supplements  his  previous 
observations  on  Euphrasia,  Odontites,  and  Alectorolophus.  He  describes 
culture  experiments  made  with  Euphrasia  with  a  view  of  ascertaining 
whether  the  chemical  properties  of  the  cell-sap  were  prejudicial  to  a 
plant  serving  as  a  host.  He  finds  that  species  of  Euphorbia  and  Oxalis 
served  admirably  as  host  plants  in  spite  of  the  peculiar  chemical 
qualities  of  their  cell-sap.  The  culture  of  Euphrasia  minima  confirmed 
the  previous  suggestion  that  this  plant  was  relatively  independent — 
many  of  the  specimens  reached  the  flowering  stage  without  becoming 
parasitic. 

With  regard  to  Alectorolophus,  he  shows  that  Koch's  statement,  that 
monocotyledons  exclusively  could  serve  as  host  plants,  is  wrong  since,  as 
in  Euphrasia,  dicotyledons  also  will  serve.  He  cultivated  three  species 
of  the  parasite  on  widely  different  hosts,  such  as  Origanum  vulgare,  Poly- 
gonum aviculare,  Veronica,  Lotus,  Stellaria  media,  &c,  obtaining  perfect 
development  in  each  case.  He  also  shows  that  with  Alectorolophus,  as  in 
the  case  of  Euphrasia,  the  same  individual  may  attach  itself  at  the  same 
time  to  the  roots  of  very  different  hosts.     A  series  of  cultures  was  also 

*  Bot.  Gaz.,  xxxiii.  (1902)  pp.  363-75  (2  pis.). 

t  Pringsh.  Jalirb.  Bot.,  xxxvii.  (1902)  pp.  2G4-337  (2  pis.). 


452  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

made  with  species  of  the  same  genus  to  investigate  the  relation  of  nutrition 
to  the  general  habit  of  the  plant.  Investigations  with  Odontites  verna,. 
undertaken  to  decide  the  question  as  to  how  far  parasitism  was  replace- 
able by  saprophytism,  showed  that  while  a  proportion  of  plants  grown  in 
river  sand  (4  out  of  7)  came  to  flower,  a  much  larger  proportion  (11  out 
of  12)  reached  the  same  stage  in  humus  cultures.  The  tendeucy  to  form 
haustoria  for  humus-feeding  was  a  very  slight  one. 

Germination  of  Potato  Tubers.*  —  H.  Vochting  finds  that  the 
manner  of  development  of  shoots  on  a  tuber  is  closely  related  to  tem- 
perature. At  a  temperature  which  only  slightly  exceeded  the  lower 
limit  at  which  germination  begins,  only  tuber-bearing  shoots  were 
produced,  while  at  the  optimum  temperature  leaf-shoots  were  exclusively 
developed  ;  in  the  former  case  the  root-development  was  small,  in  the 
latter  copious.  The  amount  of  water  in  the  soil  is  also  closely  related 
to  the  mode  of  growth.  If  little  or  no  water  be  added  then  almost  no 
roots  and  no  leaf-shoots  are  formed,  but  only  tubers.  On  the  other  hand, 
with  a  plentiful  supply  of  water,  numerous  roots  and  subsequently  leaf- 
shoots,  but  no  tubers,  appear.  The  amount  of  water  in  the  atmosphere 
is  also  of  importance.  If  insufficient,  the  shoots,  whether  etiolated  or 
arising  under  the  influence  of  light,  creep  on  the  damp  soil ;  they  are 
hydrotropic.  An  increase  in  the  supply  of  moisture  in  the  air  also 
favours  the  development  of  leaves  on  the  shoots,  with  insufficient  moisture 
only  scales  are  formed.  Variations  in  the  amount  of  oxygen  in  the  atmo- 
sphere, on  the  contrary,  exert  no  such  formative  influence  on  the  course 
of  germination.  The  place  at  which  a  bud  will  develop  can  be  deter- 
mined by  incidence  of  light  rays.  Finally  the  author  theorises  on  the 
mode  of  action  of  the  various  factors. 

Cultivation  of  Beet-root.j — P.  P.  Deherain  and  C.  Dupont  report 
on  the  experiments  on  beet-root  cultivation  at  Grignon  in  the  years 
1900  and  1901.  Suggestions  are  made  as  to  the  variety  most  suited 
to  the  soil,  and  the  best  distances  apart  for  planting  the  roots.  The 
results  also  show  that  a  permeable  soil  attains  a  high  state  of  fertility 
when  it  is  kept  damp  either  by  summer  rains  or  by  watering  ;  under 
these  conditions  a  high  ferment  activity  is  reached  and  a  very  consider- 
able quantity  of  nitrogen  is  converted  into  nitrates  capable  of  being 
assimilated. 

Leucine  and  Tyrosine  as  Food-stuffs.:}:— E.Schulze  concludes  from 
the  fact  that  they  disappear  during  growth,  that  both  of  these  substances 
are  assimilated  by  seed-plants.  Loew  and  Bokorny  had  previously  shown 
that  algae  can  utilise  leucine. 

/'  Yield  of  Leguminous  Plants.  §  —  O.  Pitsch  has  ascertained  the 
amounts  of  total  crop  and  of  nitrogen  yielded  by  various  leguminous 
plants.  Vetches  and  peas  gave  greater  yields  than  blue  lupins,  but  the 
roots  of  the  latter  penetrato  the  soil  to  a  greater  depth  and  thus  prepare 
the  subsoil  for  future  crops. 

*  Bot.  Zeit.,  lx.  1  (1902)  pp.  87-114  (2  pla.). 
t  Comptes  Kendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  953-8. 

X  Landw.  Versuchs-Stat,  M.  (1901)  pp.  97-106.    See  Journ.  Chem.  Soc.,  lxxxii. 
(1902)  ii.  p.  165. 

§  Ann.  Agron.,  xxviii.  (1902)  pp.  59-61.     See  Journ.  Chem.  Soc,  1.  c,  p.  286. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   LTC.  453 

Influence  of  Nitrogenous  Manures  on  the  Form  of  Cereals.  *  — 
H.  Clausen  finds  that  nitrogenous  manures  tend  to  increase  the  length  of 
the  lower  portions  of  the  stems  of  cereals,  whilst  the  upper  portions  are 
relatively  shortened.  Nitrates  have  much  more  effect  than  ammonium 
salts.  The  elongation  of  the  lower  internodes  renders  the  stems  weaker, 
hence,  although  more  grain  is  produced  when  ammonium  salts  are  used, 
the  crop  is  less  liable  to  be  laid  than  when  nitrates  are  employed. 

Soils  suitable  for  Chestnuts.f — L.  Piccioli  concludes  from  exami- 
nation of  the  soils  and  subsoils  of  Italian  chestnut  forests,  that  the  trees 
require  a  moderate  amount  of  lime,  but  that  as  much  as  8  p.c.  is  very 
injurious.  The  injurious  action  may  to  some  extent  be  neutralised  by 
application  of  potash.  The  author  recommends  a  manure  suitable  for 
chestnut  forests. 

Nutrition  of  Hops.i — T.  Eemy  and  O.  Englisch  find  the  maximum 
growth  to  occur  during  flower  and  fruit  production.  In  the  spring  the 
perennial  portions  of  the  plants  contain  30  to  40  p.c.  of  the  total  nitrogen, 
potassium,  and  phosphoric  acid  required  ;  assimilation  from  the  soil  is 
at  first  slow  but  afterwards  increases,  reaching  a  maximum  when  the  fruit 
develops  ;  when  the  hops  are  ripe  assimilation  ceases.  The  assimilation 
of  calcium  and  magnesium  seems  to  continue  after  the  ripening  period. 
The  hop  requires  very  considerable  amounts  of  these  two  minerals,  more 
even  than  red  clover ;  large  amounts  of  potassium  are  also  necessary. 
Nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phosphoric  acid  migrate  from  the  stems  and 
leaves  before  their  death  to  the  fruit ;  but  there  is  at  the  same  time  a 
gain  of  calcium  and  magnesium  in  the  leaves.  The  roots  also  acquire 
more  nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phosphoric  acid. 

Value  of  Green  Manures.§ — F.  Hanusch  made  plot  experiments  on 
a  large  scale  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  the  crop.  The  nitrogen 
and  ash  content,  both  in  the  portions  above  ground  and  in  the  roots,  were 
determined.  The  most  remunerative  crop  was  found  to  be  white  clover, 
followed  in  order  of  diminishing  value  by  vetches,  horse-beans,  and 
field-peas. 

Value  of  Kainite.  || — M.  Gerlach  finds,  experimenting  with  barley 
in  soil  poor  in  potassium,  that  kainite  produced  far  better  results  than 
high  per  cent.  "  potassium  salts  "  containing  the  same  amount  of  potas- 
sium. This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  kainite  contained  twice  as  much 
sodium  chloride  as  the  "  potassium  salts,"  and  the  author  agrees  with 
Wagner,  that  sodium  economises  potassium  partly  by  liberating  the 
latter  from  the  soil  and  partly  by  satisfying  the  mineral  requirements 
of  the  crop.  In  the  case  of  potatoes,  "  potassium  salts  "  have  the  advan- 
tage, as  compared  with  kainite,  that  they  contain  less  chlorides. 

Shifting  in  Heads  of  Sunflower  during  Development  from 
Flowering  to  Ripening.il — B.  Leisering  states  that  the  alterations  in 

*  Journ.  Landw.,  xlix.  (1902)  pp.  365-88.     See  Journ.  Chem.  Boa,  1.  a,  p.  283. 

t  Bied.  Centr.,  xxxi.  (1&02)  pp.  75-6.     See  Journ.  Chem.  Soc ,  1.  c,  p.  285. 

X  Bl.  Gersten-,  Hopfen-  u.  Kartoffelbau,  1900,  p.  457.  See  Journ.  Chem.  Soc., 
1.  c,  p  168. 

§  Zeit.  Landw.  Versuchswes.  Oesterr.,  1901,  p.  772.  See  Journ.  Chem.  Soc, 
1.  c.,  p.  169. 

||   Fuhling's  landw.  Zeit.,  1901.  pp.  11,  12.     See  Journ.  Cbetn.  Soc.,  1.  c,  p.  170. 

«j[  Flora,  xc.  (1902)  pp.  378-432  (3  pis.). 


454  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

relative  position  of  the  florets,  the  existence  of  which  has  been  denied 
by  C.  de  Candolle,  Schumann,  and  Jost,  do  actually  exist.  By  aid  of 
photography  he  has  been  able  to  demonstrate  in  a  given  flower-head, 
between  times  of  flowering  and  ripening,  an  alteration  in  the  angle  of 
imbrication  amounting  to  34°.  The  angle  at  first  decreases,  the  organs 
becoming  pushed  in  towards  the  centre,  causing  the  head  to  be  bent  in 
a  convex  manner  at  the  beginning  of  the  flowering  period ;  later  the 
angle  increases  again,  and  the  head  gradually  reassumes  its  flat  form. 
Evident  alterations  in  divergence  accompany  these  changes,  which  may 
even  cause  contact  alterations  in  the  florets.  Such  photographic  results 
set  beyond  dispute  the  truth  of  Schwendener's  theory  of  "  shifting." 

On  the  Separation  of  Characters  in  Hybrids  of  the  Pea  Type.* — 
C.  Correns  discusses  the  highly  theoretical  question  of  the  method  and 
time  of  separation  of  the  "  Anlagen  "  of  characters  which  obey  Mendel's 
law  (of  which  the  best  known  case  is  that  of  pea-hybrids),  especially 
in  relation  to  the  criticism  passed  on  his  views  by  Strasburger.  Correns 
believes  that  the  separation  of  characters  in  the  gametes  of  the  hybrids 
is  brought  about  by  a  nuclear  division,  physiologically  of  the  nature  of 
Weismann's  reducing  division,  though  not  necessarily  by  a  cross  division 
of  the  chromosomes.  This,  in  the  case  of  the  female  gametes,  is  the 
first  division  of  the  embryo-sac  mother-cell,  and  in  the  case  of  the  male 
gametes,  probably  the  division  which  gives  origin  to  the  vegetative  and 
generative  nuclei. 

Irritability. 

Rheotropism  of  Roots.f  —  F.  C.  Newcombe  has  experimented  with 
thirty-two  species  of  plants  belonging  to  widely  different  families ; 
twenty  have  proved  positively  rheotropic,  and  fourteen  were  insensitive. 
Rheotropism  cannot  therefore  be  regarded  as  a  general  phenomenon. 
Sensitive  species  differ  greatly  in  degree  of  sensitiveness  to  a  stimu- 
lating water  current.  The  fourteen  insensitive  species  are  distributed 
through  nine  families,  and  the  twenty  sensitive  through  six ;  there  is 
an  indication  that  the  roots  of  genetically  related  plants  behave  alike 
toward  a  water  current.  The  watercress,  and  four  other  aquatic  plants 
tested,  were  not  sensitive  ;  hence  it  is  improbable  that  rheotropism  stands 
in  any  biological  relation  to  water-plants.  As  regards  the  effect  of 
velocity  of  water-current  on  the  response,  the  author  finds  that  velocities 
above  1000  cm.  per  minute  give  general  negative  (mechanical)  curves, 
that  the  optimum  velocity  lies  between  100  cm.  and  500  cm.  per  minute, 
and  that  velocities  below  50  cm.  bring  fewer  and  slower  responses  with 
smaller  angles.  As  regards  latent  period,  species  differ  greatly  in  time 
of  response,  though  the  latent  period  in  every  case  is  relatively  long 
as  compared  with  that  for  geotropism.  In  the  competition  between 
geotropism  and  rheotropism  some  roots  attain  only  a  small  deviation 
from  the  vertical,  some  reach  45°,  and  some  90°,  the  last  seeming  to 
overcome  entirely  their  geotropism.  The  author  finds  that  the  rheotropic 
sensitiveness  occurs  over  at  least  15  mm.  of  the  length  of  the  root-apex, 
and  also  that  the  extreme  apex  is  rheotropic.  Rheotropism  is  not  confined 

*  Bot.  Zeit.,  lx.  (1902)  pp.  65-82. 

t  Bot.  Gaz.,  xxxiii.  (1902)  pp.  177-98,  263-83,  341-62  (15  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  455 

to  the  primary  root,  and  the  author  concludes  that  the  secondary  roots 
behave  in  a  corresponding  manner  to  the  primary.  As  far  as  his  experi- 
ments go,  he  finds  that  rheotropism  is  neither  gained  nor  lost  in  the 
development  of  a  plant  from  seedling  to  near  maturity. 

Influence  of  X-Rays  on  the  Plant  Organism.*  —  H.  Seckt  has  in- 
vestigated the  action  of  these  rays  on  the  streaming  movement  of  proto- 
plasm, and  on  leaf-movements  of  Mimosa  and  Oxalis.  For  the  former 
purpose  he  used  objects  such  as  staminal  hairs  of  Tradescantia,  in 
which,  under  normal  conditions,  there  is  a  well-marked  circulation.  He 
finds  that  exposure  to  the  rays  distinctly  favours  the  movement,  a  result 
previously  attained  by  Lopriore.  Movement  which  had  been  slow,  or 
even  non-existent,  before  exposure  became  rapid  after  ^  to  f  of  an  hour's 
exposure  to  the  rays.  The  radiation  also  exerted  a  favourable  influence 
on  the  duration  of  the  movement,  which  often  persisted  with  un- 
diminished activity  for  2  to  3  hours.  When  the  tube  of  the  apparatus 
was  placed  too  close  to  the  object  a  greater  or  less  tendency  to  plasnio- 
lysis  appeared.  This,  the  author  suggests,  may  be  due  to  the  harmful 
action  of  other  electric  waves,  a  supposition  which  was  strengthened  by 
the  behaviour  of  Spirogyra,  which  shows  great  susceptibility  to  electric 
currents,  and  in  which  plasmolysis  rapidly  appeared  (in  5  to  10  minutes) 
when  the  tube  was  placed  10  to  20  cm.  from  the  specimen). 

In  experiments  with  Mimosa  and  Oxalis  corniculata  the  distance  of 
the  tube  from  the  object  was  not  an  essential  factor ;  generally  the  dis- 
tance was  from  £  to  h  metre.  The  influence  of  the  rays  was  generally 
remarked  after  20  to  30  minutes,  when  in  the  case  of  Mimosa  the  leat 
had  assumed  the  position  as  usual  after  stimulus.  In  20  to  25  minutes 
more  the  normal  position  was  resumed. 

Chemical  Changes. 

Reaction  and  Nature  of  Oxidising  Ferments.f— J.  H.  Kastle  and 
O.  M.  Shedd  suggest  that  phenolphthaliu,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  readily 
oxidised  to  phenolphthalein,  a  substance  readily  lending  itself  to  colori- 
metric  measurements,  might  prove  a  valuable  reagent  in  the  study  of 
the  oxidising  ferments.  They  have  investigated  its  action  on  the 
oxidising  ferment  of  the  potato,  and  find  that  it  operates  in  a  manner 
similar  to  tincture  of  guaiacum.  They  also  show  that  extract  of  potato, 
on  standing  at  ordinary  temperature,  rapidly  loses  its  power  to  oxidise 
either  phenolphthalin  or  guaiacum,  owing  to  the  instability  of  the 
oxidase  in  aqueous  solutions.  They  find  that  the  oxidase  is  distributed 
throughout  the  substance  of  the  potato,  occurring  in  small  quantities 
even  in  the  skin.  The  oxidation  of  the  phthalin  proceeds  much  more 
slowly  than  that  of  guaiacum,  and  it  has  one  advantage  over  many  of 
the  reagents  hitherto  proposed  from  the  fact  that  the  rate  of  oxidation 
can  be  easily  and  accurately  determined  by  colorimetric  comparisons 
with  alkaline  solutions  of  phenolphthalein  of  known  strength;  the 
amount  oxidised  is  found  to  be  proportional  to  the  time  of  its  remaining 
in  contact  with  the  oxidase.  The  colour  ranges  from  light  pink  to 
dark  red.     The  authors  find  the  same  or  a  similar  oxidase  present  in  a 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  87-93. 
t  Amer.  Chem.  Jouru.,  xxvi.  (1901)  pp.  526-39. 


456  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

number  of  other  plant  structures,  such  as  sweet  potato,  pulp  of  banana, 
cherry-tree  and  other  gums. 

J.  H.  Kastle  and  A.  S.  Loevenhart  *  have  also  investigated  the  nature 
of  the  oxidising  ferment,  and  arrive  at  the  following  conclusions : — 
Oxygen  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  production  of  the  guaiacum-bluing 
ferment  of  the  potato,  and  this  so-called  oxidising  ferment  is  in  all 
probability  not  a  free  soluble  ferment,  but  an  organic  peroxide.  They 
suggest  that  the  oxidation  phenomena  occurring  in  the  plant,  and  pro- 
bably in  the  animal  organism  also,  can  be  satisfactorily  explained  upon 
the  supposition  that  the  readily  autoxidisable  substances  which  they 
contain  are  oxidised  to  the  peroxide  condition  by  molecular  oxygen, 
and  that  the  peroxides  thus  formed  in  turn  give  up  part  of  their  oxygen 
to  other  less  oxidisable  substances  present  in  the  cell. 

Action  of  Sunlight  on  Enzymes.f — 0.  Emmerling  has  studied  the 
action  of  sunlight  on  1  per  cent,  solutions  of  invertase,  yeast-maltase, 
maize-glucase,  lactase,  emulsin,  and  diastase.  The  solutions  were  ex- 
posed for  six  hours,  and  their  fermenting  properties  then  tested,  when 
it  was  found  that,  with  the  exception  of  yeast-maltase,  the  enzymes  had 
suffered  but  very  little  deterioration.  Toxins,  on  the  contrary,  appear 
to  be  very  susceptible  to  light. 

Transformation  of  Proteids  during  Germination.}— G.  Andre  has 
studied  the  nitrogenous  metabolism  in  the  haricot  beau,  comparing  the 
total  amount  of  nitrogen,  and  of  nitrogenous  substances  in  the  dry  seed, 
and  at  various  stages  in  the  young  seedling,  up  to  the  time  when  the  dry 
weight  of  the  latter  equals  that  of  the  dry  seed.  Of  the  proteids,  the 
albumin,  which  in  the  seeds  used  represents  only  2*5  p.c.  of  the 
total  weight,  disappears  most  rapidly,  in  fact  directly  germination  and 
loss  of  dry  weight  begin.  Legumin,  which  represents  one-fourth  of  the 
total  nitrogen  of  the  resting  seed,  also  diminishes  rapidly,  but  without 
completely  disappearing.  The  amide  nitrogen  (asparagin  and  allied 
bodies)  which  remains  in  solution  after  separation  of  the  albumin  and 
legumin,  increases  considerably  as  germination  proceeds>  from  4.' 2  p.c. 
in  the  resting  seed  to  55*5  p.c.  of  the  total  nitrogen,  but  rapidly 
diminishes  in  the  later  stages. 

The  nitrogen  of  the  proteids  insoluble  in  water,  consisting  chiefly 
of  the  substance  called  by  Eitthausen  conglutin,  diminishes  at  first 
continuously  during  germination,  but  shows  a  marked  increase  when 
the  plant  begins  to  take  in  nitrogen  from  the  soil.  This  period  is 
characterised  by  the  formation  of  new  albuminoids,  derived  partly  from 
the  transformation  of  nitrogen  taken  from  the  soil,  but  especially  from 
the  conversion  of  the  soluble  amides  into  albuminoids. 

Changes  in  Nitrogenous  Substances  in  Ripening  of  Cereals.  § — 
N.  K.  Nedokutschaeff  has  estimated  the  total  nitrogen,  and  the  nitrogen 
in  the  form  of  proteids,  asparagin  and  amides,  in  grains  of  rye,  wheat, 
barley,  and  oats,  at  different  periods  in  the  course  of  ripening  of  the 

*  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  539-64. 

t  Ber.  Deutsch.  Chem.  Ges.,  xxxiv.  (1901)  pp.  3811-4.  See  Journ.  Chem.  Soc. 
lxxxii.  (1902)  i.  p.  195. 

X  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  995-8. 

§  Landw.  Versuchs-Stat.,  lvi.  (1902)  pp.  303-10.  See  Journ.  Chem.  Soc,  lxxxii. 
(1902)  ii.  p.  281. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  457 

grain.  He  finds  that  the  percentage  of  proteid  nitrogen  increases  as 
ripening  proceeds,  but  that  nitrogeu  in  other  forms,  especially  aspara- 
gin,  diminishes.  In  wheat  and  rye  the  percentage  of  total  nitrogen 
diminishes,  but  increases  in  oats  and  barley. 

Changes  during  Ripening  of  Apples.* — R.  Otto  finds  that  the  per- 
centage of  water  increases  during  ripening.  The  starch  diminished 
from  about  4  p.c.  (Sept.  7)  to  1*6  (Oct.  5),  and  disappeared  entirely 
when  the  fruit  was  stored  ;  the  ash  decreased,  whilst  the  cellulose  re- 
mained constant.  There  was  an  increase  in  nitrogen  during  ripening 
on  the  trees,  but  afterwards  a  decrease. 

Composition  of  Proteids  and  Cell-Membranes  in  Bacteria  and 
Fungi.f  —  K.  S.  Iwanoff  finds  tbe  proteids  to  be  nuclei-proteids  con- 
taining in  bacteria  16  -3  p.c.  nitrogen  and  1*8-2-2  p.c.  phosphorus,  in 
fungi  15*  1—16  ■  2  p.c.  nitrogen  and  0*7-1  p.c.  phosphorus.  Tbe  autlmr 
also  confirms  the  existence  in  the  cell-membranes  of  cbitin  apparently 
identical  with  animal  chitin. 

Proteid  Formation  in  Plants.} — F.  Czapek  emphasises  the  import- 
ance of  amino-compounds  in  the  synthesis  of  proteids  in  plants. 

General. 

Colours  of  Northern  Polypetalous  Flowers.§  —  J.  H.  Lovell  con- 
tinues his  studies  on  the  colours  of  flowers.  He  finds  that  throughout 
the  Choripetalae  conspicuousness  is  generally  correlated  with  insect 
fertilisation.  In  many  genera  tbe  species  can  be  arranged  in  a  pro- 
gressive series  showing  an  advance  from  inconspicuoueness,  few  visitors, 
and  self-fertilisation  to  many  visitors,  great  conspicuousness,  and  loss  of 
power  of  self-fertilisation.  While  green  flowers  are  small  and  frequently 
apetalous,  white  and  yellow  vary  from  small  to  large,  are  most  common, 
and  contrast  more  strongly  with  the  foliage  than  purple  or  blue.  Of  the 
71  polypetalous  families,  43  contain  white,  41  yellow  and  29  both  kinds 
of  flowers.  White  flowers  are  most  common  in  families  or  genera  con- 
taining shrubs  and  trees,  in  tbe  case  of  small  flowers  aggregated  in  a 
dense  inflorescence  and  in  nocturnal  flowers.  Yellow  flowers  are  more 
commonly  associated  with  a  herbaceous  habit,  and  are  most  abundant  in 
the  same  families  as  white  flowers,  unless  the  species  are  shrubs  or  trees. 

There  is  no  evidence  of  the  preference  of  beetles  for  flowers  of  any 
particular  colour.  They  are  most  common  in  connection  with  small 
white  clustered  flowers  with  easily  accessible  pollen  and  honey.  Diptera 
visit  most  frequently  white  and  yellow  flowers,  but  as  they  become  more 
specialised  and  restrict  themselves  to  flowers  the  percentage  of  visits  to 
red  and  blue  flowers  increases.  They  appear  to  find  a  particoloured  or 
dotted  inflorescence,  as  in  Cruciferae  and  Saxifragaceae,  attractive.  Car- 
rion flies  prefer  maladorous,  lurid  purple  or  flesh-coloured  flowers.  The 
changes  of  colour  and  their  sequence  in  individual  flowers  are  note- 
worthy. Green  changes  to  white,  yellow,  red,  purple,  or  violet ;  white 
to  green,  yellow,  red,  or  blue;  yellow  to  white,  red,  or  blue;  red  to  blue. 

*  Bied.  Centr.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  107-8.    See  Jouru.  Chem.  Soc,  I.e. 
t  Beitr.  Chem.  Physiol.  Path.,  1902,  pp.  524-37.    See  Journ.  Chem.  Soc.,  1.  c. 
p.  279.  X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  538-00. 

§  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  203-42. 
August   20th,  1902  2  h 


458  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

The  tendency  of  green,  white,  and  yellow  to  change  to  red  or  blue  is 
much  stronger  than  the  reverse.  The  floral  colours  are  often  correlated 
with  that  of  the  stem  and  leaves,  as  in  Sedum.  The  foliage  of  plants 
with  white  flowers  is  as  a  rule  paler  than  when  the  flowers  are  coloured. 
The  development  of  bright  colours  in  autumn  leaves  presents  a  series  of 
colour  changes  which  are  in  part  parallel  to  those  which  occur  in 
flowers. 

The  formation  of  pigments  is  affected  by  the  chemical  composition 
of  the  soil,  by  altitude,  or  the  intensity  of  light,  by  latitude,  and  by 
absence  or  presence  of  moisture,  as  well  as  other  ©ecological  factors. 

Anchoring  of  Plantain-Seed.  *  —  D.  Griffiths  discusses  the  process 
of  burying  which  is  effected  by  a  drying  and  contraction  of  the  mucila- 
ginous layers  in  the  seeds  of  Plantago  fastigiata.  This  plant  grows 
profusely  in  the  deserts  of  southern  Arizona.  As  in  other  species,  the 
seeds  have  a  compact  glossy  or  white  coating  which  absorbs  water,  ex- 
panding and  becoming  mucilaginous  when  an  opportunity  offers.  After 
a  shower  of  rain,  when  the  surface  of  the  ground  had  dried,  isolated 
seeds  were  plentifully  found,  each  sunken  in  a  little  pit  in  the  ground, 
the  walls  and  bottom  of  which  were  made  rigid  by  the  hardened  mucilage! 
In  the  succeeding  dry  months  it  would  become  buried  by  the  natural 
abrasion  of  the  soil. 

Burmanniaceae  from  Brazil.f  —  Eug.  Warming  describes  two  new 
genera  of  saprophytes,  Glaziocharis  and  Triscyphus,  belonging  to  this 
interesting  little  group  of  monocotyledons.  They  were  collected  by 
P.  Glaziou  in  the  dark,  damp,  humus  rich  virgin  forests  of  the  State  of 
Eio  Janeiro,  especially  in  the  region,  Alto  Macahe,  from  which  Miers 
described  a  number  of  saprophytic  Burmanniaceae.  The  author  also 
describes  a  new  species  of  Tliismia  and  offers  remarks  on  the  floral 
biology  of  several  species  previously  described  by  Miers,  belonging  to 
the  genera  Dictyostegia  and  Apteria. 

Vegetation  of  the  Mountainous  Districts  North  of  Lake  Nyasa.i— 
A.  Engler  describes  the  character  of  the  vegetation  of  North  Nyasaland  as 
shown  by  the  collections  made  by  a  recent  expedition.  The  mountains 
reach  nearly  3000  metres  in  height.  The  botanical  features  of  the 
following  plant  zones  are  successively  described— the  alluvial  land, 
the  wet  mountain  forests,  the  steppe  formations  of  the  lowlands,  the 
xerophilous  highland  formation,  the  mountain  steppes,  the  high  woods, 
the  high-lying^  meadows,  and  the  alpine  vegetation.  In  spite  of  their 
southern  position  there  are  numerous  points  of  relationship  with  the 
Abyssinian  flora,  while  on  the  other  hand  several  well  marked  South 
African  types  occur. 

History  and  Development  of  Applied  Botany.§  —  A  report  of  an 
address  by  O.  Warburg  to  the  botanical  section  of  the  German  "  Natur- 
forscher-Versammlung,"  in  September  1901. 

*  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  164-9. 

t  Oversigt  k.  Dauske  Videnskab.  Selsk.  Forhandl.,  1901,  No.  6  (1902)  pp.  173-88 
(2  pis.  and  6  figs.). 

%  Sitzungsb.  k.  Preuss.  Akad.  Wiss.  Berlin,  xii.  (1902)  pp.  215-36. 

§  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xix.  (1902)  Generalversammlungs-heft,  pp.  153-83. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  459 


CRYPTOGAMS. 
Pteridophyta. 

Vegetative  Propagation  in  Angiopteris  evecta.*  —  M.  Eaciborski 
describes  a  very  effective  method  of  vegetative  propagation  in  this 
Marattiaceous  fern.  The  leaves,  as  in  other  members  of  the  order,  are 
differentiated  into  leaf-base  and  upper  leaf.  The  former  forms  a  cushion 
rhombic  in  section,  reaching  2  dcm.  in  length  and. bearing  on  its  flanks 
the  fleshy  lobes  of  the  stipules.  The  upper  leaf,  consisting  of  leaf-stalk 
and  blade,  usually  lives  for  2-3  years,  and  then  withers  and  falls  after  a 
separating  cork  layer  has  been  developed  between  it  and  the  leaf-base. 
The  old  leaf-stalks  remain  many  years,  ten  or  more,  on  the  stock.  They 
are  covered  with  a  thick  brown  layer ;  the  stipules  slowly  perish,  while 
the  internal  parenchymatous  tissue  functions  as  a  water  reservoir,  and 
contains  the  numerous  gum  or  mucilage  passages  characteristic  of 
Marattiaceae.  Ultimately  the  leaf-cushion  becomes  separated  from  the 
stem.  These  separated  leaf-cushions,  often  partially  decomposed,  are 
found  in  considerable  quantities  rolled  about  on  the  steep  slopes  of  the 
wooded  volcanic  mountains  in  Java.  They  bear  strong  adventitious  buds 
on  their  flanks  which  rapidly  take  root  and  thus  form  an  efficacious 
means  of  plant  distribution. 

Spore-casting  Mechanism  of  Selaginella  Sporangia.f  —  C.  Stein- 
brinck,  following  Goebel's  work,  has  investigated  the  structural  details 
associated  with  the  opening  of  the  macro-  and  micro-sporangia  and  the 
ejection  of  the  spores.  Goebel  suggested  that  the  mechanism  was  sup- 
plied either  by  a  shrinking  or  was  of  the  nature  of  a  cohesion  mechanism. 
The  author  finds  that  a  cohesion  mechanism  is  not  only  a  plausible 
explanation,  but  also  the  only  one  possible. 

Mosses. 

Irish  Mosses. !  —  J.  Hunter  publishes  a  large  annotated  list  of  the 
mosses  gathered  by  him  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Londonderry  and 
Lough  Swilly.  Some  of  the  localities  in  this  region  appear  to  be 
particularly  adapted  for  a  rich  growth  of  these  plants. 

E.  Armitage  §  gives  a  list  of  107  mosses  collected  in  July  and 
August  of  last  year  in  the  northern  part  of  County  Limerick. 

British  Moss-Flora. ||  —  E.  Braithwaite  publishes  part  xxi.  of  his 
moss-flora,  of  which  only  two  more  parts  remain  to  be  issued.  He 
figures  thirty  species,  and  describes  some  thirty-four  species  in  the  text. 
The  genera  included  are  Helicodontium  and  Habrodon  of  the  subfamily 
Hypnese,  and  nine  others  belonging  to  the  subfamily  Stereodonteae,  viz. 
Myurella,  Heterocladium,  Hylocomium,  Campylium,  Ctenidium,  Hyocomium, 
Ptilium,  Sematophyllum,  and  Stereodon. 

Notes  on  American  Hepaticae.f — M.  A.  Howe  contributes  critical 
notes  on   several  North  American  hepatics.     Cephalozia  connivens  has 

*  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1902,  pp.  48-51. 
t  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  117-28  (3  figs.). 
X  Journ.  Bot.,  xl.  (1902)  pp.  191-6.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  226-8. 

||  R.  Braithwaite,  The  British  Moss-Florn,  part  xxi.  April  1902,  pp.  129-68 
(pis.  cix.-cxiv.).  If  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  281-9.    • 

2   H   2 


460  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

been  much  confused  with  the  nearly  allied  C.  hmulsefolia,  and  the 
synonymy  was  also  obscure.  Telaranea  Spruce,  a  small  genus  nearly 
allied  to  Lepidozia  and  others.  A  synopsis  of  species  and  varieties  is 
given.  The  author  also  notes  the  close  resemblance,  which  exists  be- 
tween the  Californian  Riccia  Campbelliana  and  the  Mediterranean  JR. 
macrocarpa,  but  maintains  tbeir  specific  distinction. 

Mosses  of  South-western  Switzerland.*  —  VV.  E.  Nicholson  publishes 
notes  on  the  more  interesting  of  the  mosses  gathered  by  him  in  July 
1901  in  the  alpine  zone  above  Zermatt,  the  sub-alpine  zone  about  Gliou 
and  Diablerets,  and  down  near  the  Lake  of  Geneva  where  certain 
species  of  the  Mediterranean  type  occur.  In  all  more  than  200  species 
were  gathered.     The  paper  is  in  English. 

Mosses  of  West  Tropical  Africa.f  —  General  Paris,  with  the  co- 
operation of  some  other  experts,  describes  sixteen  new  species  of  mosses 
from  Senegal,  Fouta  Djallon,  the  Ivory  Coast,  and  Dahomey,  and  adds 
the  names  and  localities  of  several  other  species  of  mosses  and  hepatics 
gathered  in  the  same  territories  but  already  described. 

Algee. 

Structure  and  Division  of  Polytoma4 — Dr.  S.  Prowazek  dissents 
from  the  view  put  forward  by  Dangeard  that  in  Polytoma  the  flagellum 
is  connected  by  means  of  a  fibrillar  structure,  the  "  rhizoplast,"  with  a 
granular  structure  in  connection  with  the  nucleus  which  he  calls  the 
"  condyle."  On  this  view  Dangeard  draws  a  comparison  between  the 
structure  of  Polytoma  and  that  of  the  spermatozoid  of  such  a  form  as 
Helix.  The  author's  view  is  that  the  "rhizoplast  "  stops  short  at  some 
distance  from  the  apex  and  that  the  structure,  of  doubtful  nature,  which 
has  been  called  the  "  condyle  "  lies  just  inside  the  nuclear  wall,  on  the 
side  which  is  directed  away  from  the  rhizoplast,  and  seems  to  have  no 
connection  with  it.  He  confirms  Dangeard's  statement  that  eight 
chromosomes  are  present  at  the  nuclear  division  of  this  form. 

Atlas  of  Diatoms. § — The  latest  part  of  this  publication,  for  which 
Dr.  F.  Fricke  is  responsible,  contains  notes  and  figures  of  various  genera 
and  species,  including  a  new  species  Stephanodiscus  Pontocsehi. 

Growth  of  Cladophora  cornea  in  the  Form  of  Balls.||  —  Leder- 
bauer  describes  plants  of  this  species,  which  he  dredged  up  at  Eovigno, 
forming  balls  as  in  C.  Sauteri.  He  attributes  this  occurrence  to  their 
position  on  a  gently  sloping  shore,  on  which  they  would  be  constantly 
rolled  about  by  waves.  The  centre  of  the  ball  consists  of  a  fragment 
of  Lithothamnion  or  large  grains  of  coral  sand,  to  which  the  alga  clings 
by  means  of  short  branches  or  holdfasts.     These  are  of  three  kinds : — 

(1)  Outgrowths   from    the  basal    cell  forming  rhizoidal    attachments; 

(2)  holdfasts  arising  from  the  side  of  a  cell ;  and  (3)  those  which  arise 
at  the  end  of  the  branches. 

*  Rev.  Bryol.,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  57-62.  f  T°m.  °it.,  PP-  63-72. 

X  Oeterreich.  Botan.  Zeitschr.,  li.  (1901)  p.  400  (2  figs.). 

§  Adolf  Schmidt,  Atlas  der  Diatomaceen-kunde,  Heft  58  (ser.  v.  tt.  229-32) 
Reisland,  Leipzig. 

||   Verliandl.  k.  k.  zool.-bot.  Ges.  Wien,  Hi.  (1902)  pp.  155-9  (4  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSCOPY,    ETC.  461 

The  first  are  much-branched  outgrowths  from  the  basal  cell,  from 
which  they  are  not  cut  olf  by  any  cell-wall.  They  become  closely 
adherent  to  the  substratum  and  do  not  penetrate  in  any  way.  They  are 
poor  in  chlorophyll  and  very  thick-walled. 

The  second  kind  of  holdfasts  arise  sideways  from  a  plant,  at  the 
base  of  a  cell,  not,  as  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary  branch,  from  its  upper 
end.  A  thin  branch  cell  grows  out  hearing  at  its  end  the  holdfasts 
which  are  much  branched  and  poor  in  chlorophyll. 

The  third  kind  is  formed  on  the  ends  of  thin,  many-celled  branches  ; 
and  they  have  the  appearance  of  helicoid  tendrils.     These  are  rare. 

Although  no  description  of  these  holdfasts  is  given  for  C.  cornea, 
the  author  places  his  ball-like  plant  temporarily  under  that  species  until 
such  time  as  he  can  further  examine  material  of  his  plant  and  settle  on 
its  position  in  the  genus.  The  manner  of  ball-formation  is  the  same 
in  C.  cornea  as  in  C.  Sauteri,  but  the  centre  of  the  former  is  solid,  while 
the  centre  of  C.  Sauteri  is  hollow. 

Variation  in  Fragilaria  crotonensis.* — C.  Schroter  and  P.  Vogler 
give  statistics  as  to  the  variation  of  this  diatom,  dredged  in  the  Lake  of 
Zurich  at  the  rate  of  once  or  twice  a  month  continuously  from  1896— 
1901.  They  describe  the  methods  of  examination  and  give  tables  of 
their  results.  Four  distinct  forms  of  the  species  are  recognised  and 
described.     Their  occurrence  in  the  lake  is  variable. 

Fresh-water  Algse  of  Switzerland.!  —  P.  Chodat  publishes  a  con- 
siderable contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  fresh-water  algse  and  of  the 
cryptogamic  flora  of  Switzerland.  It  is  mainlv  the  result  of  much 
personal  experience  and  study  of  the  polymorphism  of  this  group  of 
plants.  The  book  is  divided  into  four  parts: — (A)  Collection  and  pre- 
servation of  fresh-water  algae.  (B)  Morphology,  in  which  the  author 
treats  under  separate  headings  of: — Protoplasm,  Vacuoles,  Flagella, 
Stigma,  Cbromatophores,  Pyrenoid,  Nucleus,  Membrane,  Pluricellular 
thallus,  Hairs  and  bristles,  Rhizoids  and  organs  of  attachment,  Organs 
of  multiplication.  (C)  Biology,  under  the  headings  of  Light,  Tempera- 
ture, Nutrition,  Tropism,  Classification  according  to  biology,  Parasitism, 
Symbiosis,  Holophytes,  Aquatic  limnophils,  Plankton,  Cryoplankton, 
Dispersal.  (D)  Classification.  This  last  part  occupies  264  pages  of 
the  book  and  deals  with  the  Pleurococcoidese,  including  the  Schizo- 
gonioideae,  and  with  the  Chroolepoideae.  The  families  Palmellacese, 
Volvocineae,  Protococcoidea?,  and  Pleurococcaceae  are  treated  with  the 
completeness  of  monographs,  and  throughout  the  classificatory  part  of 
the  book  the  descriptions,  the  very  full  notes,  and  the  keys  are  of  great 
value. 

Marine  Algae  of  Iceland.} — Helgi  Jonsson  publishes  a  list  of  the 
marine  algse  of  Iceland,  founded  on  collections  made  by  himself  and 
others,  and  preserved  for  the  most  part  in  the  Copenhagen  Museum. 
Seventy-one  species  are  recorded  with  certainty,  of  which  Ghantransia 
Alarise  and  Rhodocorton  repens  are  new  species.     Both  are  figured  and 

*  Vierteljahrschr.  Naturforsch.  Ges.  Zurich,  xlvi.  (1902)  pp.  185-206  (5  figs.). 
t  Alguee  vertes  de  la  Suisse.    Pleurococco'ides-Chroolepoides.     Beitrage  z.  krypt. 
Fl.  Schweiz,  i.  (1902)  pp.  373  (264  figs.). 

X  Botan.  Tidsskrifr,  xxiv.  (1901)  pp.  127-55. 


462  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

described ;  and  both  occur  on  Alaria  esculenta.  Many  of  the  species- 
names  are  followed  by  critical  notes  and  remarks. 

! *  Flora  of  Koh  Chang.*— The  Messrs.  West  publish  a  list  of  124 

fresh-water  algae  from  this  island,  of  which  nine  species  and  seven 
varieties  are  new.  A  complete  description  is  also  given  here  for  the 
first  time  of  Micrasterias  Mobii  West  and  G.  S.  West.  The  paper  is 
illustrated  by  three  plates. 

Major  Eeinbold  gives  a  list  of  62  marine  algse  other  than  Ooralli- 
nacea?,  for  this  district.  The  new  species  described  are  :  Boodlea  (coacta 
var.  ?)  siamensis  and  Rhabdonia  Schmidtii ;  a  new  forma  major  of  Aspero- 
coccus  fastigiatus  is  described,  and  a  forma  prolificans  of  Gracilaria  dura. 
A  plate  is  given  of  Bhabdonia  Schmidtii. 

Mons.  Gomont  records  27  species  of  Myxophyceae,  of  which  Scytonema 
Schmidtii  and  Brachytrichia  maculans  are  new.  Both  are  figured  on 
one  plate. 

The  number  of  Peridiniales  recorded  by  J.  Schmidt  is  44,  con- 
taining the  description  of  a  new  genus  Ostreopsis,  represented  by  the 
species  O.  siamensis,  and  a  new  form  and  a  new  variety  of  other  species. 
The  paper  includes  eight  figures  in  the  text. 

Mycetozoa  and  Fungi. 

Notes  on  Mycetozoa.f— Arthur  Lister  and  G.  Lister  have  established 
a  new  species  Chondrioderma  asteroides  from  a  specimen  collected  by 
Miss  A.  Fry  at  Ventimiglia.  The  outer  dark-coloured  wall  of  the 
sporangium,  which  is  marked  by  dark  lines  or  furrows,  dehisces  in  a 
stellate  manner  into  about  eight  to  twelve  reflexed  lobes,  which  are 
snow-white  on  the  inner  side.  The  subglobose  columella  is  also  white 
or  pale  cream-coloured.  The  spores  are  purple  brown.  The  authors 
consider  it  to  be  most  nearly  allied  to  C.  radiatum  Eost.,  but  quite 
sufficiently  distinct  to  be  worthy  of  specific  rank.  A  note  is  given  on 
Physarum  gyrosum  Eost.  The  original  specimen  grew  in  a  hot-house 
in  Berlin,  and  the  writers  held  it  at  one  time  to  be  identical  with 
Fuligo  septica.  An  interesting  series  of  specimens  sent  by  Dr.  Jahn 
from  South  America  have  led  them  to  the  conclusion  that  P.  gyrosum 
is  a  distinct  species. 

A  careful  study  of  Dr.  Ladislav  Celakovsky's  Die  Myxomyceten 
Bdhmcns,  and  a  comparison  of  his  specimens  with  types  in  their  posses- 
sion, have  enabled  them  to  make  a  number  of  corrections  with  which 
Dr.  Celakovsky  fully  agrees.  A  number  of  new  species  were  found  to 
be  merely  variations  of  forms  already  described.  They  now  publish 
the  result  of  this  examination. 

The  Acrasieae.t — A  monograph  of  this  group  is  in  preparation  by 
Edgar  W.  Olive,  and  in  the  meantime  he  has  published  a  preliminary 
enumeration  of  the  Acrasieae  and  their  allies  under  the  general  term 
Sorophorese.  The  author  has  discovered  a  new  genus  Guttulinopsis  with 
three  species.  The  genus  is  characterised  by  the  lobose  pseudopodia  of 
the  myxamosbae;     the  fructifications   of  all  the  species   are  yellowish 

*  Botan.  Tidsskrift,  xxiv.  (1901)  pp.  157-221. 

t  Journ.  Bot.,  xl.  (1902)  pp.  209-13  (1  pi.). 

%  Proo.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts  and  Sci.,  xxxvi.  (1901)  pp.  333-44. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  463 

white.  He  has  added  three  new  species  to  the  genus  Dictyostelium: 
D.  brevicaule,  which  has  a  persistently  short  stalk  and  a  large  sorus,  and 
D.  purpureum  aud  D.  aureum,  which  are  distinguished  hy  their  bright 
coloration.  Polysphondylium  pallidum  and  P.  album  are  also  additions 
to  the  llora  of  the  Acrasieae.  Only  one  member  had  been  reported  from 
America  before  Mr.  Olive  began  his  study  of  the  group.  The  paper  is 
a  contribution  from  the  Cryptogamic  Laboratory  of  Harvard  University. 

Genus  Mucor.* — W.  Schostakowitsch  has  added  seven  new  species 
to  the  genus  Mucor  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Irkutsk.  M.  proliferus, 
which  is  very  common  round  Irkutsk,  has  two  kinds  of  sporangia  ;  one 
large  and  strongly  incrusted,  which  terminates  the  main  hyphae  ;  the 
other,  smaller  and  smooth,  is  borne  at  the  tops  of  the  branches.  In  old 
cultures  one  or  more  processes  grow  out  of  the  columella  and  develop 
a  branched  mycelium,  which  bears  the  smaller  type  of  sporangium, 
M.  irkutensis  has  but  one  type  of  sporangium,  which  is  globose,  and 
attains  to  the  large  size  of  1  mm.  in  diameter.  The  spores  are  also 
rather  large,  28  /x  by  10"  5  /a.  M.  cinereus  has  somewhat  grey  globose 
sporangia  on  strong  stalks  30-40  /x  in  width  and  1-4  cm.  long.  M. 
agglomerates  is  characterised  by  a  racemose  branching  of  the  ordinary 
type,  and  further  by  cushion-like  swellings  on  the  main  stem  and 
branches,  from  which  arise  a  number  of  sporangiophores  (5-20)  bearing 
very  small  sporangia.  In  M.  angarensis  the  hyphae  are  much  branched 
and  circinate  at  the  tops.  The  sporangia  are  globose  and  black.  The 
columella  and  spores  when  massed  are  slate-blue  in  colour.  M.  de 
Baryanus  forms  dark  coloured  masses.  .After  ripening,  the  sporangia 
bend  down  towards  the  substratum  and  form  from  the  stalk  beneath 
the  columella  a  series  of  outgrowths  which  grow  into  a  branching 
mycelium  and  give  rise  to  new  sporangiophores.  Gemmae  are  abundant 
as  in  M.  racemosus.  M.  heterosporus  sibiricus  becomes  brown  when  mature. 
The  hyphae  are  richly  branched,  the  sporangia  globose  and  rather  small. 
Gemmae  are  produced  in  great  numbers  on  the  hyphae.  In  none  of  the 
species  have  zygospores  been  observed. 

The  same  author  "j*  has  described  a  new  species  of  Mucor  from 
Siberia.  It  was  found  growing  on  cooked  rice.  The  sporangiophores 
are  usually  unbranched,  and  reach  a  height  of  10-12  cm. ;  the  sporangia 
are  0*5  mm.  in  diameter.  In  old  cultures,  the  sporangiophores  that  have 
remained  sterile  swell  out  near  the  tops,  and  from  this  portion  arise  a 
series  of  unbranched  sporangiophores  with  somewhat  smaller  sporangia. 
These  and  other  peculiarities  serve  to  differentiate  this  species. 

He  also  describes  the  changes  induced  in  Mucor  proliferus  by 
bacteria.  So  great  was  the  influence  of  the  bacteria  on  the  form  of 
the  Mucor  that  another  species  seemed  to  have  been  formed.  The 
sporangiophores  were  differently  branched  and  prostrate,  the  sporangia 
much  smaller,  most  of  them  sessile  and  without  spores,  the  columella 
from  conical  or  pear-shaped  had  become  globose,  the  spores  more  round 
in  shape  and  olive-green  instead  of  colourless. 

Parasitic  Fungi  of  the  Diatomaceae.J  — Under  the  general  title 
Archimyceten  Marpmann  has  described  the  one-celled  fungi  that  infest 

*  Zeitschr.  f.  angew.  Mikr.,  vii.  (1902)  pp.  311-5. 

t  Op.  cit.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  5-10.  \  Tom.  cit.  pp.  1-5  (1  pi.). 


464  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Diatoms  and  other  Algae.  He  divides  them  into  two  groups :  (I.)  The 
Myxochytridinae  with  two  families,  the  Monolpidiaceae  (Olpidiacese)  and 
Merolpidiaceae  (SynchytriaceaB).  (II.)  The  Mycochytridineae  also  with 
two  families,  the  HolochytriaceaB  (Ancylistaceae)  and  the  Sporochy- 
triaceae  (Ehizidiaceee  or  Polyphegaceae).  The  writer  gives  a  general 
description  of  the  fungi  and  the  methods  found  to  be  most  serviceable 
for  examining  them.  He  also  gives  a  more  particular  account  of  those 
found  on  Diatoms. 

Coemansiella  alabastrina.*  —  This  microscopic  fungus  was  dis- 
covered in  Belgium  in  1862  by  Coemans.  Van  Tieghem  and  Le 
Monnier  met  with  it  again  in  France  in  1873,  and  now  it  has  been 
discovered  in  this  country  by  Rudolf  Beer  who  found  it  on  horse-dung 
in  Kent.  Mr.  Beer  cultivated  the  fungus  with  success  and  was  able  to 
follow  all  the  stages  described  by  the  French  writers.  Tlie  conidio- 
phore  of  the  fungus  bears  at  the  tip  a  verticil  of  converging  hyphse 
forked  at  the  tips.  The  upper  surfaces  of  these  branches  except  the 
tips  are  studded  with  the  conidia.  Mr.  Beer  found  in  his  cultures  that 
some  of  the  byphse  formed  chlamydospores,  but  he  was  not  able  to 
establish  absolutely  the  connection  between  these  hyphae  and  the  conidio- 
phores  of  Coemansiella.  He  was  also  unable  to  find  any  connection  with 
a  higher  form  of  fructification. 

Rabenhorst's  Cryptogamic  Flora  of  Germany,  &c.  (Fungi  Im- 
perfecti).f — Parts  82  and  83  of  this  important  work  have  just  been 
issued  by  Andreas  Allescher.  The  genus  Glozosporium  occupies  almost 
the  whole  of  the  first  part.  It  is  a  parasitic  fungus,  the  perithecia 
occurring  on  discoloured  spots  of  the  leaves  of  the  host-plants.  There 
are  149  species  recorded  from  Germany  and  Western  Europe.  The 
genus  Myxosporium  follows  next.  It  is  very  similar  to  Gloeosporium ; 
but  it  is  always  found  on  branches.  Melanostroma,  Nsemospora,  Hypo- 
dermium,  Myxosporella,  Blennoria,  Agyriella,  Trullula,  Myxormia,  Bloxa- 
mia,  Colletotrichum,  and  Pestaloziella  are  all  fully  described.  These 
all  belong  to  the  group  of  Melanconieae  with  colourless  spores.  A 
second  division  is  commenced  of  forms  with  brown  spores  beginning 
with  the  large  genus  Melanconium.  The  author  tabulates  his  species 
under  an  alphabetical  arrangement  of  the  plants  on  which  they  are 
habitually  to  be  found.     There  are  numerous  figures  in  the  text. 

New  Gymnoascus.} —  Alb.  Klocker  found  the  new  species  of 
Gymnoascus  which  he  describes  on  the  body  of  a  fly.  He  made  suc- 
cessful cultures  of  the  fungus  and  was  able  to  wateh  the  growth  both 
of  the  conidial  and  the  ascus  form.  He  has  named  it  G.  flavus  on 
account  of  the  yellow  colour  of  the  hyphaa.  In  a  nutrient  solution  the 
ascospores  produced  branching  hyphae  with  chains  of  small  oval-shaped 
conidia  ;  these  were  never  formed  in  the  air.  The  author  describes  the 
conidial  forms  of  Gymnoascus  that  have  already  been  observed. 

Studies  on  Urnula  and  Geopyxis.§ — In  order  to  clear  up  the  con- 
fusion which  existed  as  to  the  systematic  position  of  the  genus  Urnula, 

*  Journ.  Bot.,  xl.  (1902)  pp.  169-72  (1  pi). 

t  Leipzig,  1902,  pp.  449-576.  %  Hedw.,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  80-3  (1  pi.). 

§  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  137-44  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  465 

Elsie  M.  Kupfer  has  made  a  careful  anatomical  study  of  three  species 
of  the  genus,  U.  craterium  Fr.,  U.  terrestris  Sacc,  and  U.  Geaster  Peck. 
The  first  which  was  the  original  type  of  the  genus  had  been  transferred 
by  Kehm  to  the  genus  Geopijxis.  Miss  Kupfer  proves  that  it  is  quite 
distinct  troin  Geopyxis  and  should  probably  be  placed  in  the  Cenaugiacea?. 
The  structure  of  the  excipulum  is  prosenchymatous.  U.  terrestris  Sacc. 
has  a  parenchymatous  excipulum  which  differentiates  it  entirely  from 
Umula.  Following  Schroter  the  writer  calls  it  Podophacidium  xantho- 
melan.  The  remaining  species  has  been  made  the  type  of  a  new  genus 
Choriuactis.  It  is  a  large  leathery  fungus  narrowed  to  a  stem  about 
3  cm.  long  ;  both  disc  and  stem  are  covered  with  a  dense  tomentum  of 
soft  brown  hairs.  The  parenchymatous  nature  of  the  tissue  places  it 
among  the  Pezizacese  near  Plectania  and  Sarcoscypha.  The  author 
retains  the  specific  name  Geaster  given  by  Peck. 

Notes  on  the  Erysiphacese.*  —  E.  S.  Salmon  has  followed  up  his 
monograph  of  the  Erysiphaceaa  by  a  series  of  important  notes.  He 
reviews  the  additions  to  the  genera  made  by  P.  Hennings  in  his  Fungi 
Javanici  and  also  the  new  species  described  by  Neger  from  the  Argen- 
tine Eepublic,  all  of  which  he  considers  may  be  referred,  for  morpho- 
logical reasons,  to  previously  known  plants.  He  further  discusses 
Neger's  recent  articles  on  Erysiphaceae  and  criticises  adversely  some  of 
his  conclusions. 

In  a  further  contribution,!  he  adds  fuller  details  of  habit  and  occur- 
rence to  many  of  the  species  already  described  in  the  monograph,  and 
gives  important  economic  information  as  to  the  ravages  of  the  disease 
caused  by  the  parasites.  He  gives  counsel  as  to  the  best  methods  of 
spraying,  &c.  He  adds  a  special  note  on  the  American  gooseberry 
mildew  Spheerotheca  mors-uvse,  recently  introduced  into  Ireland,  and 
which  reappeared  a  second  year  in  the  same  garden  still  more  exten- 
sively.    He  warns  fruit-growers  against  allowing  the  fungus  to  spread. 

In  a  continued  series  of  notes  J  on  several  species,  Erysipihe  Polygoni, 
E.  Cichoracearum,  E.  Galeopsidis,  &c,  Mr.  Salmon  gives  many  new  hosts 
and  localities  for  the  fungi  in  addition  to  those  already  published  by 
him.  He  again  discusses  several  new  species  and  refers  them  to  exist- 
ing types.  Under  E.  graminis  he  describes  the  conidial  form  Oidium 
monilioides  Link.,  and  its  synonyms  Torula  bulbigera  Bon.  and  T.  rubella 
Bon  A  lengthy  account  of  the  penicillate  cells  of  the  perithecium  is 
given  under  Phyllactinia  corylea.  These  cells,  which  are  outgrowths 
from  the  cells  at  the  apex  of  the  perithecium,  become  mucilaginous. 
When  the  perithecium  is  ripe  it  becomes  detached  from  the  leaf  and  is 
conveyed  by  the  wind  to  some  new  habitat.  The  mucilage  of  the 
penicillate  cells  causes  it  to  adhere  firmly  to  the  new  substratum  in  a 
reversed  position.  Many  hosts  have  been  thus  erroneously  recorded 
for  this  fungus,  and  they  are  oiten  found  fastened  firmly  to  the  upper 
surface  of  leaves,  though  originally  they  always  grow  on  the  under 
surface. 

The  same  author  §  considers  that  the  name  Erysiphe  album  Fries, 
must  be  allowed  to  drop.     There  are  no  specimens  of  the  fungus  and 

*  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  1-22.  t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  81-109. 

X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  181-210  (3  pis.).  $  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  302-16. 


466  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

the  description  is  too  imperfect  to  allow  of  identification.  E.  Lalhyri 
Merat,  G.  Saxifrages  sibericse  Merat,  E.  Lilix  Herat  are  not  fungi  but 
the  work  of  some  insect.  Several  other  species  are  dealt  with,  and 
reasons  given  why  they  should  not  be  included  in  the  flora.  A  copious 
bibliography,  a  host-index,  and  a  species-index  of  the  whole  group  are 
printed  at  the  end  of  the  notes. 

New  Species  of  Venturia.*  —  By  observation  and  culture  experi- 
ments, E.  Aderhold  finds  the  species  Venturia  Cratsegi  to  be  distinct 
from  V.  chlorospora  in  which  it  was  formerly  iccluded.  The  conidial 
form  belongs  to  the  genus  Fusicladium,  and  to  it  he  has  also  given  the 
specific  name  Cratsegi.  The  perithecia  of  Venturia  are  to  be  found  in 
groups  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves  of  Crataegus  Oxyacantha,  and  ripen 
in  winter  or  during  the  early  spring  months.  Fusicladium  appears  on 
the  fruits  of  the  hawthorn  where  it  produces  abundant  conidia  and 
may  outlive  the  winter.  The  fruit  is  filled  with  fungus  hyphae  and 
dark  crusty  specks  are  formed  on  the  exterior.  In  suitable  conditions 
of  moisture,  &c.  these  produce  crops  of  spores  in  autumn  and  spring  and 
possibly  also  in  summer. 

"Benikoji"  Fungus.t — Y.  Uyeda  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the 
fungus  used  in  the  making  of  "  Anchu,"  a  Chinese  fermented  drink  pre- 
pared from  rice  in  Formosa.  Several  fungi  take  part  in  the  process, 
but  the  chief  agent  of  fermentation  is  a  species  of  Honascus.  In  culti- 
vation the  fungus  produces  sporangia  or  asci,  which  become  reddish  in 
colour,  and  which  are  surrounded  by  an  envelope  of  loose  hyphae.  The 
spores  are  elliptical  or  oval,  and  number  from  20  to  40. 

Two  types  of  conidia  are  also  produced :  macroconidia,  which  are 
formed  singly  or  in  short  chains  on  the  ends  of  the  hyphae :  and  micro- 
conidia,  which  are  much  smaller  and  grow  in  chains.  Intercalary  gemmae 
are  also  formed.  The  "  Benikoji  "  is  of  a  dark  red  colour,  becoming 
purple  with  age.  Besides  the  Monascus  fungus  there  are  two  kinds 
of  yeast  formed.  The  one  that  most  frequently  occurs  is  produced  by 
the  budding  of  the  microconidia,  and  is  near  akin  to  Saccharomyces 
rosaceus.  The  author  considers  that  the  "  Benikoji  "  fungus  is  identical 
with  Monascus  purpureas  described  by  Went. 

New  Uredinese.J  —  J.  C.  Arthur,  of  the  Lafayette  University,  has 
described  several  new  rusts,  all  with  one  exception  from  the  United 
States.  In  one  species,  Uromyces  Richer  ianus,  he  found  both  the  aecidia 
and  the  teleutospores.  In  the  others  he  found  only  the  puccinia  or 
uredo  forms.  One  species,  Puccinia  aspera,  was  described  by  Dietel  and 
Hoi  way,  and  is  published  here  for  the  first  time.  Uromyces  Rottbcellise 
was  detected  on  herbarium  specimens  of  Rottboellia  speciosa  collected  in 
India.     It  was  found  to  possess  amphispores  and  teleutospores. 

Uredinese  Cultures.  § — H.  Klebahn  gives  the  results  of  his  experi- 
ments on  rusts,  carried  on  in  the  Hamburg  Botanical  Gardens.  He  has 
proved  the  relationship  between  three  Melampsora  species  on  willows 
and  poplars  and   the  Cseoma  species  on  Allium.     With  the   spores  of 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  195-200. 

f  Bot.  Mag.  Tokyo,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  160-3;  and  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  7-9  (1  pi.). 

I  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  227-31. 

§  Hedw.,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  17-44. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  467 

Melampsora  Allii-fragilis  collected  on  Salix  fragilis  he  infected  Allium 
vineale,  A.  ursinum,  and  others,  and  got  an  abundant  growth  of  the 
Cseoma  form.  Melampsora  Allii-Salicis  nov.  nom.  (syn.  M.  Salicis  albse) 
was  also  transferred  to  similar  species  of  Allium  with  a  like  result. 
Melampsora  Allii-populina  sp.  n.  produced  Cseoma  spores  on  Allium 
ascalonicum. 

A  second  series  of  experiments  was  made  with  the  species  of  Melam- 
psora of  willows  which  form  Gseoma  spores  on  species  of  Bibes.  Many 
experiments  were  also  successfully  made  with  the  Melampsora  of  the 
larch,  the  uredo-forms  of  which  are  to  be  found  on  species  of  Salix  or 
Populus.  The  Cseoma  spores  of  Mercurialis  perennis  produced  a  rich 
growth  of  Melampsora  on  Populus  tremula,  with  a  slighter  growth  on 
other  species  of  Populus.  Klebahn  concludes  that  though  fungi  can  be 
induced  to  grow  on  allied  species  of  the  host-plant,  their  continuance 
depends  always  on  the  chief  host-plant.  The  paper  is  illustrated  by 
some  figures  in  the  text. 

West  American  Fungi.* — The  fungi  described  by  David  Griffiths 
belong  with  one  exception  (a  species  of  Claviceps)  to  the  Ustilaginese 
and  Uredineae.  The  paper  is  intended  to  supply  additional  information 
to  that  contained  on  the  labels  distributed  with  the  specimens.  The 
species  described  are  mostly  new.  Ustilago  Mulfordiana  and  Tilletia 
fusca  are  rare  in  herbaria ;  they  are  constantly  found  together  on  the 
same  host,  Festuca  ociojlora.  The  paper  is  illustrated  by  figures  in  the 
text. 

Paraphyses  of  the  Uredinese.  |  —  The  biological  significance  of 
these  paraphyses  has  been  studied  by  P.  Dietel.  In  form  they  are  fre- 
quently globose  or  club-shaped  at  the  tips,  and  capable  of  retaining 
moisture  for  some  time.  They  thus  act  as  a  protecting  covering  for  the 
developing  spores.     The  paper  is  illustrated  by  figures  in  the  text. 

The  Nidulariacese  of  North  America.:}: — V.  S.  White  has  examined 
a  large  amount  of  material  of  this  group,  and  has  revised  the  species  so 
far  as  they  occur  in  North  America.  There  are  four  genera — Cyathia, 
Crucibulum,  Nidula,  and  Granularia.  He  describes  one  new  species  of 
Cyathia,  which  he  has  called  C.  dura,  from  the  hard  and  brittle  peri- 
dium.  The  genus  Crucibulum  contains  one  species,  the  well-known 
C.  vulgare,  which  White  records  under  an  older  specific  name,  C.  cruci- 
buliforme.  Nidula  is  a  new  genus  with  two  species,  N.  Candida  and 
N.  microcarpa  Peck  sp.  n.  Granularia  contains  three  species,  two  of 
them,  G.  castanea  and  G.  rudis,  being  new  to  science.  A  very  full  de- 
scription is  given  of  each  plant,  and  there  is  a  table  of  the  distribution 
in  Canada,  the  States,  and  West  Indies.     The  paper  is  fully  illustrated. 

Lichens. — Lichens  of  Minnesota.  § — Bruce  Fink  has  studied  the  lichen 
flora  over  a  legion  in  Minnesota,  including  a  great  variety  of  substrata,  and 
varying  greatly  in  moisture  and  other  conditions.  He  gives  a  sketch  of 
the  different  hunting  grounds,  and  divides  the  lichens  into  groups 
according  to  their  habitat.      He  notes  the  increase  of  lichens  on  the 

*  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  290-301. 

t  Hedw.,  Beibl.,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  58-61. 

t  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club.  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  251-80  (5  pis.). 

§  Minn.  Bot.  Studies,  ii.  (1902)  pp.  657-709. 


468  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

rocks  as  the  country  becomes  more  settled,  and  fires  are  less  frequent. 
Another  note  he  makes  is  that  in  areas  that  are  poor  as  regards  the 
number  of  lichens  to  be  found  in  them,  the  rarer  plants  are  altogether 
wanting,  these  being  found  in  neighbourhoods  with  a  richer  flora.  He 
found  a  large  number  of  species  of  Calicium,  a  genus  that  was  once 
thought  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Atlantic  region  ;  his  opinion  is  that  the 
Calicium  follows  the  conifers  regardless  of  slight  climatic  changes.  He 
concludes  with  a  systematic  list  of  the  genera  and  species  of  the  region. 
There  are  a  few  species  new  to  science  or  new  to  North  America. 

M.  H.  Olivier  *  gives  a  further  account  of  rocks  bearing  lichens  col- 
lected by  the  late  T)r.  Goulard  in  the  Pyrenees-Orientales.  He  gives 
detailed  notes  of  some  of  the  species  of  Dirina,  Bacidia,  Biatorella,  and 
Lecidea. 

E.  Monguillon  f  continues  his  list  of  lichens  collected  in  the  depart- 
ments of  the  Sarthe.  The  lists  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  key  to  the 
different  species.  He  deals  with  the  genera  from  Cladonia  to  Leptogium 
— altogether  50  genera.  He  gives  no  authorities  and  no  extended  de- 
scription of  genera  or  species. 

A.  Zahlbruckner  J  publishes  his  sixth  list  of  the  lichens  of  the 
Netherlands.  The  new  species  are  Lecidea  Baumgartneri  found  on 
gneiss  and  Thelocarpon  Strasseri  on  pine  wood.  The  author  has  appended 
critical  notes  to  many  of  the  species  described. 

Servian  Fungus  Flora.§ — A  first  contribution  to  the  fungus  flora 
of  Servia  is  published  by  N.  Eanojevie.  Most  of  the  specimens  he  col- 
lected himself,  and  many  of  the  parasitic  forms  he  records  from  new 
hosts.  With  the  exception  of  the  Peronosporeaa  the  list  includes  as  yet 
only  members  of  the  Basidiomycetes. 

Spanish  Fungi. || — D.  B.  Lazaro  has  published  a  short  list  of  fungi 
new  to  Spain.  The  writer  has  described  two  new  species  of  Dictyolus,  a 
genus  formerly  included  under  Cantlierellus,  and  one  new  species  of 
Scleroderma  very  near  to  vulgare,  S.  hemisphsericum,  so  called  from  the 
shape  of  the  sporiferous  part  of  the  fungus. 

Fungi  from  Java.1T —  0.  Penzig  and  P.  A.  Saccardo  publish  a  third 
series  of  Javanese  fungi.  They  nearly  all  belong  to  two  groups,  the 
Ascomycetes  and  the  Deuteromycetes.  More  than  100  of  the  species  are 
new.  There  are  4  new  genera  of  Discomycetes,  Arensea  with  2  species 
is  near  to  Pirottsea,  Davincia  also  has  2  species,  the  ascospores  aie  2— 
many  septate,  otherwise  the  genus  resembles  Cyathicula.  Delpontia  is 
a  new  genus  of  Stictidiacea?;  the  spores  are  hyaline,  multi-septate,  and 
muriform.  Moutoniella  belongs  to  the  Phacidiaceae  ;  it  is  near  to  Stegia 
but  with  filiform  spores.  In  the  Pyrenomycetes  the  authors  describe 
two  new  genera.  Binia,  a  member  of  the  Sphseriaceas,  has  elliptical  one- 
celled  colourless  spores,  the  ostiole  of  the  perithicium  is  large  and 
stellate.  Fleischeria  forms  a  stroma  on  living  branches,  the  spores  are 
filiform  and  colourless;    it  is  one  of  the  Hypocreaceaa.     The   authors 

*  Bull.  Acad.  Intern.  Geog.  Bot.,  1902,  pp.  55-6. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  33-40,  113-28. 

I  Verhaudl.  k.  k.  Zool.-bot.  Gesellsch.  Wien,  lii.  (1902)  pp.  257-70. 
§  Hedw.,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  89-96. 

II  Bol.  Soc.  Eap.  Hist.  Nat.,  1902.  pp.  117-9  and  152  (2  pis.). 
If  Malpighia,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  201-60. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  469 

record  many  new  species  but  no  new  genera  among  the  Sphaeropsideae. 
Among  the  Hyphomycetes  there  are  7  described.  Xenopus,  one  of  the 
Mucedineae,  is  near  to  Bhinotrichum,  but  the  hyphae  are  entirely  verru- 
cosa Trichobotrys  is  one  of  the  Dematiaceae,  it  somewhat  resembles  a 
conidial  form  of  Ascotrichum  or  Ghsetomium.  Neomichelia  has  brightly 
coloured  hyphae  and  dark-coloured  spores  which  are  multi-septate  and 
borne  on  toothed. projections  on  the  hyphse.  The  spores  of  Xenosporium 
are  borne  on  short  sporophores  ;  they  are  large,  erect,  and  subreniform,  of 
a  dark  shining  colour  and  septate-muriform.  Volutina  resembles  the 
genus  Volutella,  but  the  spores  are  catenulate ;  Listeromyces  (named  for 
our  English  botanist  Mr.  Arthur  Lister),  is  somewhat  near  Exosporium ; 
the  sporodochia  are  erect  and  cylindrical,  the  spores  are  ovoid,  septate, 
and  dark  coloured.  Bonordoniella  is  also  a  member  of  the  Tuberculariae, 
with  catenulate  brown  spores. 

Some  new  Fungi.*  —  P.  Hennings  publishes  a  list  of  fungi  from 
various  localities  from  Norway,  South  America,  Japan,  New  Guinea,  &c. 
All  of  them  are  microscopic  and  belong  mostly  to  the  Uredineae  and  the 
Ascomycetes  with  a  few  Hyphomycetes. 

The  same  author  f  has  published  the  list  of  Fungi  japonici  III. 
They  include  species  belonging  to  a  large  number  of  genera  of  the 
Peronosporeae,  Protomyceteae,  Ustilaginea3,Uredinea3,  Basidiomycetes,  and 
Ascomycetes  with  a  small  number  of  Sphaeropsideae  aud  Hyphomycetes. 
The  collection  was  made  in  Japan  by  some  of  the  Professors  in  Tokyo. 
The  larger  Agarics  and  Pezizas  had  been  carefully  prepared  and  pre- 
served, and  were  accompanied  in  many  cases  by  coloured  drawings  and 
photographs. 

P.  Dietel  %  gives  a  list  of  Japanese  Uredineae.  There  are  a  con- 
siderable number  of  new  species,  but  no  genera  new  to  science. 

Tycho  Vestergren  §  has  issued  a  series  of  critical  notes  and  diagnoses 
to  accompany  his  exsiccata  of  Micromycetes.  The  fungi  dealt  with  are 
all  microscopic.  Some  of  them  are  new  species,  others  were  found  on 
hitherto  unrecorded  host  plants.  He  records  under  Ceeoma  Alliorum 
that  the  fungus  was  the  product  of  a  culture  obtained  from  the  spores  of 
Melampsora  populina  on  Allium  oleraceum  and  A.  vineale. 

Plant  Diseases.  Black  Rot  of  the  Vine. — M.  A.  Prunet  ||  publishes 
a  note  on  the  development  of  the  fungus  Guignardia  Bidwellii,  which 
causes  this  disease.  A  stroma  is  formed  on  the  grapes,  which  persists 
through  the  winter.  In  the  early  spring  pycnidia  are  formed  in  the 
stroma,  the  spores  of  which  reinfect  the  young  shoots  of  the  vine. 
Pycnidia  are  again  formed  on  the  vine-shoots,  and  the  spores  which  they 
produce  originate  a  second  infection ;  this  M.  Prunet  calls  the  secondary 
invasion.  The  development  of  the  parasite  depends  largely  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  atmosphere.  A  continuous  rain  and  high  temperature  are 
the  most  favourable  conditions  for  the  germination  and  growth  of  the 
spores.  A  period  of  drought  or  too  cold  a  season  may  stop  altogether 
the  formation  of  the  pycnidia. 

*  Hedw.  Beibl.,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  61-fi. 

t  Enter's  Bot.  Jahrb.,  xxxii.  (1902)  pp.  35-46. 

X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  47-52.  §  Botan.  Notis.,  1902,  pp.  113-28. 

il  Comptes  Reudus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  1072-5. 


470  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

N.  N.  von  Speschnew  *  (Tiflis)  has  examined  grapes  affected  with 
Black  Rot,  from  Trans-Caucasia.  He  finds  not  only  the  fungi  Guignardia 
reniformis  and  G.  Bidwellii  on  the  fruit,  but  also  the  perithecia  of  Dip- 
lodia  uvicola. 

A  disease  of  clover  is  caused  also  by  a  member  of  the  Sphseropsidia3, 
Glceosporium.  It  has  been  examined  by  0.  Kirchner.f  The  seat  of  the 
malady  is  on  the  stalk  where  there  occur  elongate  brown  spots.  The 
spots  are  studded  with  the  perithecia  of  the  fungus,  which  has  hitherto 
been  considered  identical  with  G.  Trifolii  Peck.  The  author  finds, 
however,  that  this  stem  fungus  varies  somewhat  from  G.  Trifolii,  which 
always  attacks  the  leaves,  and  he  considers  it  to  be  a  new  species.  He 
has  named  it  G.  caulivorum.  The  parts  of  the  plant  above  the  point  of 
attack  all  die  off. 

P.  Hennings  J  records  two  new  parasitic  leaf-fungi  from  Brandenburg. 
Septoria  Caraganse  sp.  n.,  the  perithecia  of  which  are  scattered  over  the 
under  side  of  the  leaf  of  Caragana  arborescens,  the  Siberian  Pea-tree, 
causing  somewhat  yellowish  spots.  The  other,  which  grew  on  the  leaves 
of  Bobinia  Pseudo- Acacia,  was  named  by  him  Fusarium  Vogelii.  It  forms 
roundish  dark-brown  spots  on  the  leaves  and  kills  the  tissue  so  that  the 
leaves  look  as  if  eaten  by  caterpillars. 

The  same  author  §  contributes  a  note  on  the  American  Gooseberry 
mildew,  Sphaerotheca  mors-uvse.  He  found  the  fungus  on  some  goose- 
berry leaves  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Moscow.  He  considers  it  to  be 
indigenous  in  Russia  and  almost  certainly  identical  with  Spliserotheca 
tomentosa,  which  is  very  common  on  species  of  Euphorbia.  The  latter 
fungus  is  morphologically  very  similar  to  the  gooseberry  mildew.  This 
disease  appeared  in  Ireland  in  1900.  E.  Salmon,  j|  who  first  noted  the 
fungus  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  gives  notes  of  the  further  progress 
of  the  disease.  He  warns  gardeners  against  allowing  the  fungus  to 
spread,  and  recommends  spraying  the  plants  attacked. 

A  resume  is  given  of  six  lectures  on  fungal  diseases  of  plants  by 
G.  Massee.^f  A  discussion  of  the  conditions  favouring  disease  is  followed 
by  a  detailed  account  of  several  specific  casep  of  attack.  The  history  of 
Botrytis  cinerea  on  snowdrop  is  given,  and  the  disease  of  tomatoes  caused 
by  Cladosporium  fulvum  is  described.  Some  injuries  to  fruit  and  other 
trees  caused  by  members  of  the  higher  groups  of  fungi  are  explained. 
Advice  is  given  as  to  methods  of  watering,  spraying,  mulching,  and 
planting,  and  in  a  summary  at  the  close  the  lecturer  has  given  an 
account  of  the  dissemination  of  fungus  spores  and  the  best  way  for 
the  planter  to  prevent  the  further  spread  of  the  parasites.  The  lectures 
are  illustrated  by  figures  in  the  text. 

Disease  of  Maize.** — V.  Peglion  has  described  the  injury  induced 
in  grasses  by  the  attack  of  the  false  mildew  of  maize  Sclerospora  grami- 
nicola.  In  the  plants  attacked  a  proliferation  of  the  vegetative  axis 
takes  place,  with  a  thickening  of  the  stalk  and  the  leaves  lose  colour. 

*  Zeitschr.  f.  Pflanzenkr.,  xii.  (1902)  p.  10.  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  10-4. 

I  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  14-6.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  16-7. 

||   Journ.  Roy.  Hort.  Soc,  xxvi.  (1902)  pp.  778-9. 
%  Tom.  cit..   pp.  724-44. 

**  Le  Stazioni  sperimentali  agrarie  italiane,  xxxiv.  (1901)  pp.  506-32  (3  pla.). 
See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  652-3. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  471 

If  infection  takes  place  at  a  later  stage  when  the  grass  is  coming  into 
bloom,  hypertrophy  and  abnormal  developments  of  the  various  parts 
occur,  and  the  flowering  is  much  delayed.  The  action  of  the  disease 
is  described  in  grasses  of  the  genera  Triticum,  Avena,  Agropyrum, 
Glyceria,  Phalaris,  Lolium,  Agrostis,  Holcus,  and  Phragmites.  The 
author  recommends  the  burning  of  all  diseased  grasses  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  infection. 

Fungus  Pests  of  the  Carnations.* — M.  C.  Corbie  gives  an  account 
of  fungal  diseases  of  carnations.  Leaf-spotting  is  due  to  the  attacks  of 
various  species  of  Sphaeropsideae  belonging  to  the  genera  Ascochyta,  Sep- 
toria,  Gloeosporium,  Marsonia,  and  Cylindrosporium.  These  render  the  plant 
unsightly  and  weaken  the  development.  Gathering  and  destroying  all 
spotted  leaves  would  stop  the  spread  of  the  fungi.  Two  species  of 
Peronospora  have  also  attacked  the  leaves  of  P.  Dianthi  (not  yet  recorded 
in  Britain)  and  P.  Arenarise.  A  Hyphomycete,  Ramularia  lychnicola,  has 
appeared  on  wild  Lychnis.  Heterosporium  echinulatum,  a  black  mould, 
is  very  destructive  to  carnations.  Macrosporium  nobile,  a  nearly  allied 
mould,  has  been  noted  in  the  West  of  England,  but  is  comparatively 
rare.  Ustilagineaa  and  Uredineaa  are  also  frequent  pests,  and  a  form  of 
disease  is  caused  by  Bacteria.  It  is  as  yet  confined  to  the  United  States. 
The  author  gives  a  list  of  the  fungal  parasites. 

Coprophilous  Fungi.f — George  Massee  has  chosen  for  the  subject 
of  bis  presidential  address  to  the  members  of  the  Quekett  Club  the 
fungi  that  are  to  be  found  growing  on  dung.  He  considers  the  habitat 
to  be  adaptive,  as  the  fungi  existed  before  the  animals,  though  now 
many  of  the  species  are  never  found  on  any  other  substratum.  A  general 
sketch  is  given  of  the  groups  likely  to  occur  on  dung,  and  figures  in 
the  text  illustrate  a  number  of  the  more  interesting  forms. 


o 


Influence  of  Irritation  on  the  Growth  of  Unicellular  Plants.]:  — 
M.  J.  Trzebinski  has  carried  out  a  series  of  experiments  and  observa- 
tions on  the  growth  of  Phycomyces  nitens  under  the  influence  of  various 
irritants.  Mechanical  injury,  such  as  cutting  the  growing  filaments, 
lowered  the  turgescence  of  the  hypha3,  and  markedly  retarded  growth. 
A  very  slight  injury  was  found  to  act  injuriously.  Irritation  of  the 
sporangium  by  means  of  slender  glass  rods  or  some  similar  agent  causes 
increased  growth  of  the  stalk.  Ether  vapour  introduced  in  an  open 
vessel  into  the  culture-chamber  also  induced  more  rapid  growth.  If  the 
vapour  were  too  condensed,  growth  was  entirely  stopped.  The  experi- 
ments were  held  to  show  that  between  the  higher  plants  and  unicellular 
plants  of  the  type  of  Phycomyces  there  is  a  great  similarity  in  the  re- 
sponse to  irritation. 

Resistance  to  Temperature  of  Fungi.§ — Abigail  O'Brien  has  tested 
the  comparative  resistance  to  high  temperature  of  the  spores  and  my- 
celium of  delicate  fungi.  She  finds  that  the  mycelium  resists  heat 
equally  with  the  spores.  The  fungus  was  placed  in  beet  decoction  and 
heated  in  a  boiler  to  the  desired  temperature,  and  then  grown  in  drop- 

*  Journ.  Roy.  Hort.  Soc,  xxvi.  (1902)  pp.  649-56  (2  pis.). 
t  Journ.  Quek.  Micr.  Club,  1902,  pp.  253-60. 
X  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1902.  pp.  112-30. 
§  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  170-2. 


472  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

cultures.     The  spores  and  mycelium  of  Penicillium  both  grew  after  ex- 
posure to  60°  C.     The  mycelium  alone  grew  after  exposure  to  65°  C. 

Resistance  of  some  Moulds  to  Metal  Poisoning.*  —  In  order  to 
test  the  influence  of  metal  poisons  on  the  development  of  fungi,  Carl 
Pulst  made  use  of  cultures  of  four  common  moulds,  Mucor  mucedo, 
Aspergillus  niger,  Botrytis  cinerea,  and  Penicillium  glaucum.  He  em- 
ployed various  mineral  salts,  as  for  instance,  the  sulphates  of  copper, 
zinc,  iron,  &c,  which  he  mixed  with  the  substratum,  and  graded  his 
solutions  so  that  the  organisms  should  not  be  killed,  but  only  retarded 
in  growth.  Both  microscopic  and  macroscopic  methods  were  used  to 
measure  the  rate  of  increase  of  the  plants.  The  results  showed  that 
Penicillium  glaucum  possessed  the  greatest  power  of  resistance ;  that 
the  other  three  moulds  were  extremely  sensitive  to  the  influence  of  the 
poisons  ;  that  moulds,  especially  Penicillium,  have  a  power  of  accom- 
modating themselves  to  the  medium  in  which  they  are  grown,  and  the 
limit  of  resistance  is  therefore  not  fixed,  but  rises  with  each  generation 
of  the  fungus.  The  paper  is  accompanied  by  a  series  of  tables  giving 
the  effect  of  the  different  salts  on  the  growth  of  the  moulds. 

Germicides.f — G-  Wesenburg  has  conducted  a  series  of  experiments 
with  a  variety  of  substances  manufactured  and  offered  for  sale  as  disin- 
fecting media.  Antigermin  is  a  copper  salt  combined  with  a  weak  organic 
acid.  It  is  an  odourless,  greenish,  somewhat  treacle-like  substance,  re- 
quiring 200  parts  of  hot  water  to  effect  complete  solution.  Mikrosol  is 
a  greenish  paste,  also  a  compound  of  copper.  It  has  a  very  strong  odour. 
Afral,  an  organic  compound,  a  nitro-product  of  phenol.  The  two  latter 
are  more  easily  soluble.  Mycelicid  is  somewhat  akin  to  Afral.  Anti- 
formin  is  a  chlorine  compound  similar  to  eau  de  Javelle. 

The  effect  of  the  mixtures  was  tested  on  various  fungi :  Saccharo- 
myces,  Oidium  lactis,  Penicillium  glaucum,  dry-rot  of  wood,  <fcc,  as  also 
on  the  eel-worms  of  vinegar.  Autigermin  was  found  to  be  the  best  pre- 
servative against  attacks  of  dry-rot.  Antigermin  and  Mikrosol  are  almost 
equally  effective  in  killing  yeasts.  The  action  of  Afral  and  Mycelicid 
was  found  to  be  much  slower. 

Spore-Germination  in  the  Higher  Fungi.}  —  M.  A.  de  Gomont  de 
Lesparre  gives  first  a  resume  of  reasons  for  and  against  the  sexual  de- 
velopment of  the  higher  fungi.  A  historical  account  of  the  truffle 
follows,  and  an  account  of  the  various  speculations  of  scientists  and 
authors,  from  380  B.C.  to  the  present  day,  as  to  the  origin  and  nature  of 
the  organism.  The  question  of  the  parasitism  of  truffles  on  the  roots 
of  trees  comes  under  discussion,  and  the  author's  final  word  on  the 
matter  is,  that  though  the  truffles  may  sometimes  live  as  parasites  on 
the  roots  of  trees,  yet  that  is  not  necessary,  and  they  grow  frequently 
as  saprophytes  in  the  soil. 

Then  follows  a  detailed  anatomical  account  of  the  fungus,  and  of 
the  asci  and  spores.  The  writer  finds  that  the  spores  germinate  on  the 
leaves  of  trees,  on  Oaks,  Walnuts,  Conifers,  &c,  and  usually  near  the 
central  nerve  of  the  leaf.     They  are  transported  to  the  leaves  by  insects 

•  Jahrb.  Wiss.  Bot.,  xxxvii.  (1902)  pp.  205-63. 
t  Cenlralbl.  Bakt.,  viii.  (ly02)  pD.  627-38. 

X  Etude  sur  la  reproduction  sexuelle  de  quelques  champignons  supe'rieurs,  Paris* 
Paul  Klinksieck,  1902,  xx.  and  61  pp.,  3  pis.  and  16  figs. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  473 

or  by  some  mechanical  agent  such  as  wind.  The  most  favourable  time 
for  germination  is  December,  and  the  leaves  may  bo  fresh  and  green  and 
still  on  the  tree,  or  they  may  lie  withering  on  the  ground. 

He  discusses  at  great  length  the  germination  and  sexuality  of  the 
spores,  and  gives  the  results  of  his  experiments  with  the  spores  of 
Goprinus  and  other  Hymenomycetes.  The  paper  is  enriched  by  coloured 
plates  of  the  germinating  spores  and  by  many  figures  in  the  text. 

Predisposition  and  Immunity  in  Plants.*  —  Marshall  Ward  dis- 
cusses this  question  in  the  light  of  his  experience  gained  in  the  culture 
of  Eusts  on  Brome  grasses.  He  rehearses  the  present  position  of  our 
knowledge  of  Uredineae,  which  as  yet  is  one  of  great  perplexity,  and  he 
then  gives  a  series  of  tables  which  record  the  results  of  his  experi- 
ments in  infection.  He  was  dealing  with  only  one  form  of  Eust,  the 
uredcspores  of  Puccinia  dispersa.  The  results  led  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  source  from  which  the  spores  are  taken  and  the  specific  pecu- 
liarities of  the  grass  inoculated  have  both  to  be  taken  into  account  if 
infection  was  to  be  successful.  Certain  Bromes  were  readily  infected 
by  spores  taken  from  individuals  of  the  same  species,  but  were  immune 
to  those  of  other  Bromes  in  an  increasing  degree  as  the  species  was 
further  removed  systematically.  It  was  not  easy  to  inoculate  from  one 
specific  group  to  another.  The  author  made  a  careful  examination  of 
the  grasses  to  determine  where  the  difference  lay.  The  number  and 
size  of  the  stomata  and  hairs  were  calculated,  the  thickness  of  the 
leaves,  &c.  He  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  capacity  for  infection 
is  independent  of  the  anatomical  structure.  The  reason  must  be  found 
in  some  unknown  biological  distinction. 

Technical  Mycology.t — Franz  Lafar  has  published  a  second  instal- 
ment of  his  great  work.  The  first  volume  dealt  with  Bacteria.  The 
newly  issued  part,  which  is  to  form  the  first  third-part  of  the  second 
volume,  deals  with  the  general  Morphology  and  Physiology  of  fungi. 
Under  Morphology  he  gives  only  the  data  necessary  to  the  understanding 
of  the  succeeding  chapters.  Special  attention  is  devoted  to  the  work 
on  Physiology  and  Biology  that  has  been  done  within  the  last  ten  years 
on  fungi  :  as  for  instance,  the  chemistrv  of  the  cell-wall,  the  necessity 
for  mineral  food,  the  reaction  to  light,  &c.  A  chapter  is  devoted  to  the 
fermentation  process  induced  by  Zygomycetes,  with  an  account  of  the 
Mucorini.  A  necessarily  large  amount  of  attention  is  devoted  to  the 
yeasts,  especially  to  the  Saccharomycetes ;  to  the  form  and  chemistry  of 
the  yeast-cell ;  the  morphology  and  development  of  yeasts  ;  the  anatomy 
and  chemistry  of  the  cells;  their  nourishment  and  reproduction,  and 
finally  their  requirement  of  organic  and  inorganic  material,  and  their 
need  of  oxygen.  Emil  Chr.  Hansen  writes  a  preface  to  the  work.  The 
part  is  illustrated  by  68  figures  in  the  text  and  one  plate. 

Schizophyta. 

Structure  and  Affinities  of  the  Schizophyta.  J — J.  Massart  has  taken 
up  again  the  question  of  the  presence  of  a  nucleus  in  the  Bacteria  and 

*  Proc.  Camb.  Phil.  Soc,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  307-28. 

t  Technische  Mykologie,  ii.,  Jena  (tfustav  Fischer)  1901.  See  Centralbl.  Bakt.. 
viii.  (1902)  pp.  64S-9. 

%  Eecueil  de  l'Inat.  Bot.  Univ.  de  Bruxelles,  v.  (1902)  pp.  251-82. 
August  20th,  1902  2  i 


474  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Schizophyceee.  His  observations  were  chiefly  made  on  living  material 
stained  with  very  dilute  methylen-blue.  A  large  number  of  different  forms 
were  investigated,  with  the  conclusion  that  there  are  present  a  number 
of  stainable  granules  in  many  Bacteria  and  in  Schizophycese  a  peripheral 
pigmented  layer  and  a  colourless  central  body.  The  author  believes, 
however,  that,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  Biitschli,  there  is  not  the  least 
evidence  that  the  granules  of  bacteria  have  any  connection  with  a 
nucleus ;  they  are  of  varying  number,  can  be  seen  to  arise  in  the  proto- 
plasm, and  never  divide.  The  pigmented  layer,  he  concludes,  cannot  be 
considered  as  a  true  plastid  on  account  of  its  indefinite  limits  towards 
the  inside,  and  the  fact  that  it  may  contain  both  gas  and  liquid  vacuoles  ; 
there  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  it  functions  as  a  plastid.  Massart 
further  considers  that  there  is  no  reason  to  consider  the  central  body, 
in  which  he  has  never  seen  any  trace  of  karyokineses,  as  of  nuclear 
nature.  The  fact  that  it  has  no  definite  outline,  is  sometimes  vacuo- 
lated, and  that  it  becomes  greatly  increased  in  size  when  the  cell  becomes 
a  spore,  all  militate  against  the  view  that  it  is  a  nucleus.  The  author 
believes  that  there  are  two  types  of  cells,  those  with  cytoplasm  and  a 
nucleus,  and  simple  cells  such  as  are  found  in  the  Schizophyta.  The 
paper  concludes  with  a  discussion  of  the  relation  of  the  various  groups 
of  the  Schizophycero  and  the  relation  of  the  Schizophyta  to  other  low 
forms  of  life.  The  conclusion  is  reached  that  the  latter  forms  must  be 
considered  as  an  isolated  group  of  doubtful  origin  and  with  no  known 
affinities. 

Schizomycetes. 

Experimental  Production  of  Parasitic  Races  of  Bacteria.  *  — 
Lepontre  attempted  to  show  that  the  micro-organisms  responsible  for 
bacterial  diseases  in  plants  need  not  necessarily  be  "  specific,"  but  that 
ordinary  saprophytic  bacteria  might  acquire  parasitic  properties.  In 
the  course  of  this  work  he  endeavoured  to  so  modify  the  B.  fluoresceins 
liquefaciens,  B.  mycoides,  and  B.  mesentericus  vulgatus,  as  to  enable  ttiem 
to  lead  a  parasitic  existence  in  various  vegetable  tissues.  An  experi- 
mental field,  (the  same  one  Laurent  employed  in  1898  when  working  at 
the  same  subject)  used  for  growing  carrots,  potatoes,  turnips,  &c.,  was 
divided  into  five  plots  numbered  1.  to  V.,  and  each  year  plot  I.  was 
treated  with  an  excessive  dose  of  nitrogenised  manure ;  plot  II.  with 
potash  manure;  plot  III.  with  superphosphates;  plot  IV.  with  lime; 
and  plot  V.  with  chloride  of  sodium. 

Discs  from  carrots  grown  in  each  of  these  five  plots  were  inoculated 
with  pure  cultures  of  each  of  the  bacilli  and  incubated  at  30°  C.  Those 
obtained  from  plots  I.  and  IV.  gave  the  most  luxuriant  growth,  those 
from  III.  the  most  scanty.  Successive  passages  of  the  bacilli,  from 
carrot  to  carrot,  resulted  in  increased  ease  and  luxuriance  of  growth, 
and  finally  the  carrots  from  plot  III.  were  attacked  as  readily  as  those 
from  the  other  plots ;  the  growth  of  the  B.  fluorescens  in  about  24 
hours  converting  the  vegetable  tissue  to  the  depth  of  5  mm.  into  a 
brownish  alkaline  fluid.  The  organisms  were  now  transferred  from 
carrots  to  turnips  with  analogous  results.      Of  artichokes  inoculated 

*  Coniptes  Kendus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  927-9.     See  also  Ann.  lust.  Pasteur,  xvi. 
(1902)  pp.  301-12. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  475 

■with  the  B.  flaorescens,  only  those  from  plot  IV.  were  attacked,  and 
those  but  feebly,  and  further  passages  did  not  appear  to  increase  the 
virulence  of  the  bacilli,  whilst  the  beetroot  appears  to  be  quite  immune. 
In  default  of  potatoes  from  the  experimental  plots,  some  grown  in 
neighbouring  fields  were  next  used,  but  no  growth  could  at  first  be 
obtained  upon  them.  If,  however,  the  resistance  of  the  potatoes  was 
previously  reduced  by  soaking  in  soda  solution  (1  in  1000)  for  60  minutes, 
growth,  especially  marked  in  the  case  of  the  B.  fluorescens  liquefaciens, 
was  obtained,  and  destruction  of  the  potato  tissue  to  a  depth  of  8-15  mm. 
resulted  in  two  days.  Successive  passages  again  exalted  the  virulence 
of  these  organisms,  so  that  finally  they  would  attack  all  varieties  of 
potato. 

Microscopically,  the  tissues  of  the  potatoes  infected  with  the 
B.  fluorescens,  which,  it  should  be  noted,  was  isolated  in  the  first  in- 
stance from  a  rotten  potato  and  possessed  an  appreciable  initial  viru- 
lence, showed  disintegration  of  the  parenchyma  and  coagulation  of  the 
internal  protoplasm  associated  with  the  production  of  an  alkaline 
reaction.  The  juice  expressed  from  potato  and  turnip  cultivations  and 
filtered  contained  a  diastase  pectinase,  which  dissolved  pectose :  this 
enzyme  is  destroyed  at  62°  C.  The  substance  which  coagulates  the 
protoplasm  appears  to  be  a  mixture  of  acetic  and  lactic  acids  and  resists 
exposure  to  a  temperature  of  100°  C. 

The  author  concludes  from  his  experiments  that  an  excess  of  nitro- 
genised  manure  or  of  lime  predisposes  the  tubercles  to  bacterial  invasion, 
while  phosphates  tend  to  increase  the  natural  resistance  of  carrots  and 
turnips. 

Bacterial  Flora  of  Mont  Blanc*  —  Binot  undertook  a  study  of  the 
bacterial  flora  of  (1)  the  glaciers;  (2)  water;  and  (3)  air,  at  several 
points  on  Mont  Blanc  during  the  months  of  August  and  September 
1900.  He  found  that  organisms  were  chiefly  limited  to  the  surface  of 
the  glaciers,  1  or  2  per  ccm.,  chiefly  orgauisms  of  slight  resistance  ; 
in  the  depths  were  found  sporing  bacteria,  streptotricheas,  and  sporing 
moulds.  The  author  states  that  he  isolated  a  virulent  race  of  the 
B.  pyocyaneus  from  the  ice  of  the  summit.  At  the  foot  of  the  glacier 
the  number  of  surface  bacteria  is  larger,  e.g.  Mer  de  Glace,  6-65  per  ccm. 
The  numbers  were  distinctly  smaller  on  surfaces  exposed  to  the  sun's 
rays  than  in  situations  protected  from  the  sun.  Fresh  snow  is  practically 
sterile,  as  much  as  8  ccm.  of  material  failing  to  yield  a  single  colony. 

The  waters  from  the  glaciers  contained  extremely  few  bacteria,  some 
only  3-8  per  ccm.  The  air  also  contains  but  few  micro-organisms,  the 
numbers  per  cubic  metre  diminishing  progressively  as  the  valleys  are  left 
behind,  and  average  6  on  the  Grand  Plateau.  One  experiment  at  least 
failed  to  demonstrate  a  single  germ  in  that  volume  of  air. 

As  a  result  of  this  research, -the  author  isolated  about  300  either  new 
or  undetermined  species  of  bacteria,  of  which  he  has  already  worked  out 
about  one-third. 

Retting  of  Flax.f —  Hauman  communicates  a  preliminary  note  on 
the  bacteriological  study  of  the  factors  concerned  in  the  aerobic  retting 
of  flax.     His  observations  lead  him  to  conclude  that  the  air  retting  (dew 

*  Comptes  Eendus,  csxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  673-6.  t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  11G3-6. 

2   I   2 


476     SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

retting)  of  flax  is  a  purely  biological  process  accomplished  by  tbe  action 
of  tbe  common  saprophytic  bacteria  and  moulds  of  the  air.  Ordinary 
methods  of  isolation  demonstrated  the  presence  of  the  following  organisms 
upon  the  flax  stalks  retted  in  the  open  air  : — B.  coli  communis,  B.  mesen- 
tericus  fuscus,  B.  fluoresceins  liquefaciens,  B.  mycoides,  B.  subtilis,  Micro- 
coccus roseus,  Streptothrix  Forsteri,  Penicillium  glaucum,  Mucor  mucedo, 
Cladosporium  herbarum.  Of  these  organisms  the  B.  coli,  B.  mesentericus, 
and  the  Cladosporium  herbarum  are  the  most  numerous  and  most  active 
in  the  process  of  retting.  The  author  placed  stalks  of  flax  in  large  glass 
tubes  (50  cm.  long"),  together  with  a  few  centimetres  of  dilute  broth  or 
beer  wort,  sterilised  tubes  and  contents  by  repeated  heatings  at  110°  C> 
and  inoculated  with  pure  cultivations  of  these  different  organisms  (a 
higher  temperature  than  110°  C.  was  found  to  produce  a  partial  dis- 
sociation of  the  flax  fibres).  At  the  end  of  about  twelve  days  retting 
was  complete,  but  Hauman  found  that  in  general  the  moulds  were  much 
more  energetic  in  their  action  than  the  bacteria,  attacking  the  cellulose 
of  the  fibres  and  destroying  their  solidity. 

That  the  process  of  retting  is  due  to  microbial  activity  was  shown 
by  exposing  two  handfuls  of  flax,  side  by  side,  to  atmospheric  influences 
for  about  a  month.  The  one  was  not  interfered  with,  the  other  was 
placed  in  an  atmosphere  of  formaldehyde  every  two  or  three  days  to 
destroy  bacterial  life.  At  the  end  of  the  experiment  the  first  bundle 
was  completely  retted,  whilst  the  process  had  not  even  started  in  the 
second. 

Source  of  Acid  Organisms  of  Milk.* — E.  Burr  details  the  investi- 
gations he  pursued  in  order  to  determine  whether  the  acid  organisms 
lound  in  milk  exist  in  the  cow's  udder,  or  are  present  in  the  dust  and 
air  and  only  contaminate  the  milk  during  or  after  milking. 

The  technique  adopted  was  to  draw  small  quantities  of  milk  from 
a  single  cow  into  sterile  10  ccm.  tubes  at  the  beginning  and  close  of 
milking,  taking  every  precaution  against  air-borne  contamination,  at  the 
same  time  filling  a  sterilised  litre  jar  with  the  same  milk  but  without 
observing  such  precautions.  He  then  plated  the  milk  samples,  using 
plain  gelatin  with  3  p.c.  lactose  and  coloured  with  litmus,  that  being 
the  most  suitable  medium.  The  milk  in  the  sterile  tubes  contained 
500  micro-organisms  per  ccm.,  and  did  not  include  the  B.  acidi  lactici ; 
it  did  not  curdle  for  8  or  10  days.  Unripened  cream  from  the  milk 
drawn  in  the  sterile  pail  contained  about  161  million  organisms,  and 
when  ripened,  about  268  millions,  including  the  B.  acidi  lactici  I.,  the 
B.  acidi  lactici  II.,  and  B.  lactis  aerogenes. 

In  a  second  series  of  experiments,  specimens  of  milk  were  collected 
as  in  the  previous  experiments,  and  in  addition  gelatin  plates  were 
exposed  under  the  cow  for  varying  short  periods  during  the  process  of 
milking.  All  the  plates  contained  the  B.  acidi  lactici  and  B.  lactis 
aerogenes,  showing  that  the  acid  organisms  are  probably  an  outside 
contamination. 

Further  experiments  comprised  the  collection  of  samples  of  milk  on 
three  successive  days  from  seventy  different  cows  under  conditions  cal- 
culated to  prevent  accidental  contamination,  the  results  similarly  point- 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2U  Abt.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  236-41. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  477 

ing  to  the  conclusion  that  acid  organisms  are  not  in  the  milk  when 
freshly  drawn,  but  are  a  contamination  from  without. 

The  author  further  examined  bactcriologically  the  udders  of  two 
cows,  both  derived  from  animals  which  had  been  condemned  on  the 
result  of  the  tuberculin  test :  neither  cow  was  milked  for  some  hours 
previous  to  slaughter,  a  process  which  might  have  washed  out  micro- 
organisms from  the  lacteal  ducts.  Inoculations  were  made  into  sterile 
milk,  on  to  serum,  agar-agar,  and  gelatin  tinted  with  litmus,  from  three 
separate  situations, — the  upper  glandular  portion  of  the  udder,  the 
milk  cistern,  and  the  beginning  of  the  teat.  In  no  case  were  either  of 
the  three  chief  lactic  bacteria  found :  an  organism  probably  identical 
with  Conn's  Micrococcus  varians  lactis,  which  does  not  appear  to  play 
an  important  role  in  the  souring  of  milk,  was,  however,  isolated. 

Bacillus  caseolylicus.* — Lochmann  isolated  a  previously  undescribed 
bacillus  belonging  to  the  Coli  group  from  the  organs  of  a  guinea-pig 
which  had  succumbed  to  general  tuberculosis  after  injection  with  a 
cultivation  of  the  B.  tuberculosis.  This  organism,  which  he  designates 
B.  caseolyticus,  appears  as  small  actively  motile  rods  with  rounded  ends, 
resembling  the  B.  typhi  abdominalis,  and  provided  with  4-8  peri- 
trichous  flagella.  It  stains  readily  with  the  usual  anilin  dyes  but  does 
not  retain  the  colour  when  treated  by  Gram's  method.  In  artificial 
cultivations  it  is  pleomorphic,  sometimes  grows  out  into  long  threads, 
and  is  frequently  vacuolated  when  old.  It  is  a  facultative  anaerobe, 
growing  well  at  the  room  temperature,  but  better  at  37°  C,  on  all  the 
ordinary  media.  The  bacillus  is  killed  by  exposure  to  70°  C.  for  five 
minutes.  Gelatin  is  not  liquefied  by  its  growth,  which  in  stab  culture 
assumes  the  form  of  a  nail  with  a  flat  head.  Cultivations  in  broth 
become  uniformly  turbid  in  a  few  hours,  and  after  some  days  a  deposit 
is  thrown  down,  whilst  occasionally  there  is  a  suggestion  of  pellicle 
formation.  Indol  is  not  formed.  On  potato  a  thick  heaped-up  layer 
forms,  which  later  becomes  brownish  in  colour  and  spreads  out  laterally. 
Milk  is  not  coagulated  by  its  growth,  tut  a  large  amount  of  alkali  is 
formed,  and  after  about  four  weeks  the  milk  appears  to  be  peptonised, 
although  no  peptones  can  be  demonstrated  by  chemical  tests.  Gas  pro- 
duction is  observed  in  media  containing  2  p.c.  of  grape  or  cane-sugar 
or  lactose,  and  occasionally  in  media  to  which  no  sugar  has  been  added. 

Forty-eight  hour  old  broth  cultivations  of  the  bacillus  are  patho- 
genic for  mice  and  guinea-pigs  in  from  20  hours  to  5  days  when  injected 
subcutaneously,  and  in  4—5  days  when  introduced  into  the  alimentary 
canal  [by  feeding.  Introduction  of  the  bacillus  into  the  healthy  con- 
junctival sac  produces  no  pathogenic  effect.  In  rabbits  subcutaneous 
inoculation  merely  provokes  local  suppuration  not  followed  by  general 
infection.  The  author  was  unable  to  demonstrate  the  formation  of  any 
soluble  toxin.  He  differentiates  the  B.  caseolyticus  from  the  B.  enteri- 
tidis  Gartner  by  the  absence  of  toxin  formation  and  the  luxuriant 
anaerobic  growth. 

Efficiency  of  Pasteurisation.f — Eussell  and  Hastings  studied  the 
destruction  of  bacteria  in  milk  by  means  of  heat,  employing  in  their 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  l^Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  385-8. 
t  Op._cit,  2"  Abt.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  462-9. 


478  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   EESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

experiments  milk  inoculated  with  a  coccus  which  possessed  the  unique- 
property  of  retaining  its  vitality  at  temperatures  considerably  above 
60°  C,  and  concluded  that  the  efficacy  of  the  method  depends  upon  the 
conditions  under  which  the  exposure  is  made :  if  pasteurisation  at 
80°  C.  is  carried  on  whilst  the  milk  is  exposed  to  the  air,  a  "  scalded 
layer  "  pellicle  formation  occurs,  and  the  organisms  caught  up  in  this 
layer  acquire  greater  powers  of  resistance  than  such  organisms  as  re- 
main suspended  in  the  milk  below,  a  result  partly  due  to  the  lower 
temperature  existing  at  tho  surface,  but  depending  chiefly  upon  the 
nature  of  the  enclosing  membrane.  An  interesting  fact  observed  in 
the  course  of  these  experiments  was  that  if  the  membrane  was  removed 
from  the  milk  after  an  interval  of  about  10  minutes  after  formation,, 
a  second  membrane  then  formed,  which  proved  to  be  perfectly  sterile,, 
although  the  first  membrane  contained  living  organisms  at  the  time  of 
removal. 

Decomposition  of  Lactose  by  Bacillus  acidi  lactici.* — P.  Haacke 
states  that  when  milk-sugar  is  decomposed  by  the  B.  acidi  lactici,  the 
resulting  products  consist  of  lactic  acid,  acetic  acid,  and  alcohol,  together 
with  a  gas  which  was  not  analysed.  The  amount  of  sugar  decomposed 
by  1000  bacilli  varies  according  to  the  conditions  from  0*008  mg.  to 
0-00001  mg.  The  quantity  of  lactic  acid  obtained  never  exceeds  one- 
third  of  the  sugar  decomposed,  whilst  the  amount  present  at  any  given 
moment  is  not  strictly  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  sugar  decom- 
posed, as  a  portion  of  the  acid  is  probably  acted  upon  still  further. 

Bacillus  tuberculosis  in  Cheese.f — Harrison  carried  out  a  careful 
series  of  experiments  to  determine  the  length  of  time  the  B.  tuberculosis 
would  remain  alive  and  virulent  in  Cheddar  cheese  manufactured  from 
infected  milk.  In  all  twenty-seven  guinea-pigs  were  inoculated  with  curd 
or  cheese  at  intervals  of  about  one  week: up  to  the  112th  day  after  the 
commencement  of  the  experiment,  with  the  result  that  the  presence  of 
the  B.  tuberculosis  could  not  be  demonstrated  after  62-70  days.  As  com- 
pared with  similar  experiments  carried  out  in  1900  at  Berne  with  Swiss 
Cheddar,  this  shows  a  difference  of  about  34  days  in  favour  of  Canadian 
Cheddar ;  and  Harrison  suggests  that  the  difference  may  be  due  to  the 
higher  acidity,  the  intimate  admixture  with  salt,  and  the  closer  texture 
of  the  Canadian  cheese. 

Bacillus  tuberculosis  in  Buda-Pesth  Butter.  $ — Anjeszky  examined 
twenty  samples  of  butter  obtained  from  different  sources,  in  order  to 
determine  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  tubercle  bacillus.  Three  or 
four  healthy  guinea-pigs  of  850-450  grm.  weight  were  injected  intra- 
peritoneally  with  0*5  to  2  ccm.  of  the  fat-free  centrifugalised  deposit 
from  each  sample.  The  animals  inoculated  with  three  of  the  samples 
died  within  a  few  days  from  infection  by  the  Streptococcus  pyogenes, 
Staphylococcus  aureus,  and  the  B.  coli  communis  respectively.  Of  tho 
remainder,  three  only  (17-6  p.c.)  developed  general  tuberculosis,  to 
which  they  succumbed  in  from  35-80  days.  Some  of  the  animals 
inoculated  from  each  of  the  other  fourteen  samples  of  butter  were  killed 
4  or  (5  weeks  after  inoculation  and  carefully  examined,  but  with  negative 

*  Arch.  Hygiene,  xlii.  (1902)  pp.  16-47. 
t  Centralbl.  Bakt,  lt0  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  250-1.        X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  132-4. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  479 

results.  The  others  were  observed  up  to  the  end  of  about  three  months 
without  any  signs  of  tuberculosis  being  observed.  The  author  remarks 
on  the  fact  that  he  did  not  succeed  in  demonstrating  the  presence  of 
acid-fast  bacilli  other  than  the  tubercle  bacilli  in  the  organs  of  any  of 
the  animals  examined  post-mortem,  and  he  attributes  this  fact  to  the 
freedom  of  the  inoculated  material  from  fat. 

Tuberculosis  in  Cold-blooded  Animals.*  —  Herzog  investigating 
experimental  tuberculosis  in  cold-blooded  animals,  showed  that  the 
pathological  manifestations  produced  in  the  body  of  the  frog  as  the 
result  of  infection  by  the  bacillus  of  mammalian  tuberculosis  were  iden- 
tical, both  naked-eye  and  microscopically,  with  those  initiated  by  the 
bacillus  of  fish  tuberculosis,  the  seat  of  inoculation  usually  employed 
being  one  of  the  lymph-sacs  or  the  peritoneal  cavity.  Microscopical 
sections  of  tuberculous  nodules  from  the  frog's  kidney  demonstrate  this 
point  in  a  most  striking  manner.  He  further  states  that  the  bacilli 
introduced  soon  disappear  from  the  seat  of  inoculation,  and  may  finally 
be  demonstrated  in  all  the  internal  organs.  The  bacillus  of  mammalian 
tuberculosis  after  passage  through  cold-blooded  animals  loses  its  viru- 
lence for  warm-blooded  animals,  so  that  fatal  infection  of  guinea-pigs 
can  no  longer  be  produced  even  when  large  doses  are  employed.  A  list 
of  the  literature  of  the  subject  is  appended  to  the  paper. 

Pseudo-Tuberculosis  (Streptobacillary)  of  the  Grey  Rat.j  —  At 
the  post-mortem  of  an  experimental  rat,  killed  by  the  administration  of 
terebinthine,  Sabrazes  observed  suppurative  lesions  limited  to  the  liver 
and  lungs.  In  the  liver  these  consisted  of  a  lenticular  granulation  filled 
with  greyish  pus,  and  in  the  lungs  and  pleurae  of  small  tubercles  filled 
with  greenish-yellow  pus.  The  pus  contained  numerous  rods  (8-11  ju- 
by  0*35  /a)  arranged  end  to  end,  slightly  curved,  not  branched,  non- 
motile,  staining  well  with  the  ordinary  anilin  dyes,  but  decolorised  when 
treated  by  either  the  Ziehl-Neelsen  or  Gram's  methods.  Planted  on 
agar  at  37°  C,  the  pus  gave  a  pure  culture  of  this  streptobacillus,  which 
in  plates  formed  circular  colonies,  yellowish  by  transmitted  light,  at- 
taining a  maximum  diameter  of  1  mm.  Agar  streak,  a  slightly  raised 
transparent  streak  of  the  colour  of  the  medium,  with  sinuous  borders 
showing  a  more  or  less  well-marked  double  contour.  Inspissated  blood- 
serum  and  glycerin-agar  show  similar  appearances.  Broth  becomes 
uniformly  turbid,  reaction  unchanged ;  later  a  light  pellicle  is  formed, 
which  eventually  breaks  up  and  sinks  with  the  rest  of  the  growth  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  the  bulk  of  the  medium  again  becoming  clear. 
Milk  is  not  coagulated.  Upon  potato  a  scanty  growth  consisting  of  a 
greyish-white  layer  takes  place.  On  gelatin  at  the  room  temperature 
there  is  no  liquefaction  of  the  medium.  The  bacillus  does  not  ferment 
sugar,  form  indol  or  spores,  or  possess  nagella ;  its  virulence  is  lost  and 
its  vitality  is  slight,  subcultivation  is  necessary  about  every  eighth  day 
to  ensure  growth ;  it  does  not  grow  well  anaerobically.  In  culture  it 
forms  filaments  from  5-60  /x  in  length,  composed  of  unequal  rods  or 
even  cocco-bacillary  forms.  In  old  cultures  granular  and  swollen 
involution  forms  appear. 

*  Ceutralbl.  Bakt.,  I'9  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  78-85. 
t  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  97-105. 


480  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

The  streptobacillus  is  pathogenic  for  the  white  mouse  and  the  rat, 
death  taking  place  in  the  case  of  the  former  in  a  few  days,  in  the  latter 
in  about  three  weeks,  from  a  general  infection.  Babbits  and  guinea- 
pigs  only  give  a  slight  local  reaction  and  a  transitory  adenitis. 

The  author  points  out  several  points  of  similarity  possessed  by  this 
organism  and  that  described  by  Kutscher. 

Lesions  produced  by  Acid-resisting  Bacilli.* — Abbott  and  Gilder- 
sleeve  communicate  some  observations  which  they  believe  constitute 
additional  evidence  that  the  members  of  the  acid-fast  group  are  closely 
allied  botanically  to  members  of  the  Actinomyces  family.  They  observed 
that  when  rabbits  were  injected  intravenously  with  cultivations  of  the 
jB.  phlei,  Grass  bacillus  II.,  and  Butter  bacillus,  certain  peculiar  struc- 
tures were  occasionally  present  in  the  resulting  lesions.  The  animals 
were  killed  in  from  1'2  to  15  days  after  inoculation,  and  at  the  post- 
mortem a  variable  number  of  yellowish-grey  spherical  nodules  were 
detected  in  the  kidneys,  not  elevated  above  the  surface,  but  intimately 
connected  with  the  capsule,  and  only  rarely  extending  from  the  surface 
of  the  kidney  into  its  cortex.  Occasionally  nodules  were  found  in  the 
lungs  almost  indistinguishable  from  genuine  miliary  tubercles.  Micro- 
scopically ihey  were  indistinctly  rosette-shaped,  and  had  a  structure 
suggestive  of  mycelium.  Stained  by  Gram's  method  or  with  hot  carbol- 
fuchsin,  and  subsequently  decolorised  with  alcohol  containing  5  p.c. 
acetic  acid,  preparations  were  obtained  showing  mycelium  similar  to 
that  produced  by  Actinomyces.  Occasionally  areas  were  encountered 
containing  longer  and  shorter  beaded  threads  matted  together,  which 
more  nearly  approached  the  appearance  of  B.  tuberculosis  in  artificial 
culture,  and  the  authors  state  that  this  mycelial  development  is  a  con- 
stant accompaniment  of  the  growth  of  the  organism  in  tissues,  and  they 
consider  the  short  beaded  rods  to  be  usually  merely  fragments  of  the 
longer,  convoluted,  clubbed,  mycelial  threads.  Occasionally  they  ob- 
served mycelium  in  which  only  a  very  few  hyphae  could  be  stained.  In 
this  connection  the  authors  cannot  say  with  certainty  that  branching 
forms  have  yet  been  observed. 

Etiology  of  Acute  Dysentery.f  —  Vedder  and  Duval  investigated 
several  outbreaks  of  dysentery  occurring  in  the  Eastern  States  of 
America  in  asylums  and  almshouses.  From  all  their  cases  they  isolated 
a  non-motile  bacillus,  which  was  indistinguishable  from  the  Shiga- 
Kruse-Flexner  bacillus.  They  further  note  that  the  B.  dysenterise  does 
not  develop  so  rapidly  in  plate  cultivations  as  the  B.  coli  communis.  In 
making  agglutination  tests  the  authors  find  that  positive  reactions  are 
not  obtained  simultaneously  with  the  appearance  of  clinical  symptoms ; 
again,  after  having  been  demonstrated,  agglutinins  sometimes  disappear 
from  the  blood  with  startling  rapidity.  They  conclude  that  sporadic 
and  institutional  dysentery  are  both  due  to  the  same  organism,  which 
is  itself  identical  with  that  responsible  for  the  production  of  acute 
epidemic  dysentery —  the  B.  dysenterise  of  Shiga. 

Resistance  of  the  Bacillus  dysenterise  to  Cold.J — G.  Schmidt,  in 
an  attempt  to  explain  the  recrudescence  of  epidemics  of  dysentery  in  con- 

•  Centralbl.  Bakt,  lte  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  547-50. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  134-5.  J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  522-4. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  481 

secutive  summers,  investigated  the  resisting  powers  of  the  Skiga-Flexner 
dysentery  bacillus  against  winter  frost.  The  method  he  adopted  was  to 
inoculate  samples  of  garden  earth  mixed  with  urine  and  faeces,  slices  of 
potato,  tap  water,  sterile  water,  coffee,  coffee  with  milk,  coffee  with 
sugar,  &c,  with  pure  cultures  of  the  B.  dysenteries,  and  to  expose  this 
infected  material,  together  with  pure  cultivations  on  agar  and  in  broth, 
in  an  open  wooden  box  in  the  open  air  every  frosty  uight  from  Dec.  19, 
1901,  to  Feb.  24,  1902.  Control  series  of  cultures  were  maintained 
during  this  period  at  the  ordinary  room  temperature. 

Exhaustive  observations  were  carried  out  on  Dec.  29,  and  on  the 
27th  of  the  following  February,  with  the  result  that  from  the  agar  and 
broth  cultures  and  from  the  infected  coffee  and  milk,  whether  exposed 
to  the  cold  or  kept  at  the  room  temperature,  pure  cultivations  of  typical 
dysentery  bacilli  were  recovered,  and  their  identity  carefully  confirmed 
by  subcultivation  on  the  various  media.  In  the  garden  earth,  potato 
slices,  and  various  coffee  preparations,  the  B.  dysenterise  was,  however, 
so  overgrown  by  the  multiplication  of  ordinary  saprophytic  bacteria, 
oven  at  the  first  observation  (Dec.  29),  that  it  could  not  be  detected,  and 
was  considered  to  have  already  died  out. 

Diphtheria  Toxins  in  Serum  Media.* — C.  Wood,  by  cultivating  the 
B.  dijjhtlierise  in  natural  unchanged  albumen  (e.g.  blood-serum)  derived 
from  the  horse  (homeoplasma),  prepares  a  toxin  which,  when  injected 
into  horses,  provokes  a  rapid  rise  in  the  antitoxic  value  of  their  serum. 
In  the  author's  method  of  preparing  the  toxin  he  inoculates  ordinary 
alkaline  peptone  broth  with  a  virulent  B.  diphtherise  and  incubates  at 
37°  C.  for  a  week  or  more ;  then  adds  15  to  30  p.c.  of  its  bulk  of  sterile 
horse-serum,  and  again  incubates  at  37°  C.  for  a  month  or  six  weeks  ; 
then  raises  the  temperature  of  the  cultivation  to,  and  maintains  it  at, 
65°  C.  for  one  hour,  and  finally  filters  it  through  a  Chamberland  filter 
candle.  If,  however,  the  serum  from  some  other  species  of  animtl 
(heteroplasma),  such  as  the  sheep,  ox,  or  man,  is  employed  in  the  culture 
medium,  no  such  rise  in  antitoxic  value  takes  place. 

The  author  next  extended  his  experiments  to  the  ordinary  laboratory 
animals — rabbits,  guinea-pigs,  and  pigeons — and  found  that  preliminary 
injections  of  rabbits  and  pigeons  with  toxines  obtained  from  media  con- 
taining guinea-pig's  serum,  so  far  from  protecting  the  animals  against  a 
lethal  dose  of  toxin,  appeared  to  render  them  more  susceptible ;  but 
guinea-pigs  were  rendered  more  resistant  or  entirely  protected.  When 
rabbit  serum  toxin  was  used,  only  the  rabbit  was  rendered  more  re- 
sistant. On  the  other  hand,  pigeon  serum  toxin  appeared  to  increase 
the  resistance  of  rabbits  and  guinea-pigs  as  well  as  pigeons,  although 
this  anomaly  might  be  explained  as  a  matter  of  dosage. 

Bacillus  diphtherise  in  Simple  Rhinitis.! — Neumann,  from  a  study 
of  five  cases  of  what  proved  to  be  nasal  diphtheria,  concludes  that  the 
occurrence  of  virulent  diphtheria  bacillus  in  cases  of  apparently  simple 
rhinitis  is  much  more  common  than  is  generally  supposed.  The  fact 
that  t  these  cases  are  so  frequently  overlooked  is  due  to  the  want  of 
uniformity  of  the  symptoms  and  the  mildness,  as  a  rule,  of  the  attack. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1*  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  241-5. 
t  Tom.  cit.,   pp.  34-41. 


482  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Etiologically,  however,  these  cases  are  identical  with  those  of  rhinitis- 
fibrosa — both  varieties,  in  the  opinion  of  the  author,  should  be  called 
nasal  diphtheria,  and  should  be  differentiated  only  by  the  addition  of 
the  words  "with  membrane  formation"  or  "without."  Both  are  active 
sources  of  infection,  consequently  all  doubtful  cases  of  rhinitis,  especially 
those  which  under  treatment  prove  refractory,  should  be  examined  bac- 
teriologically  as  to  the  presence  of  the  JB.  diphtherise,  in  order  that 
therapeutic  injections  of  serum  may  be  administered  at  an  early  stage^ 
In  many  of  the  cases  the  "  pseudo-bacillus  "  was  associated  with  the  true 
B.  diphtherise,  without,  however,  exercising  any  influence  on  the  disease. 
Indeed,  Neumann  states  as  his  opinion  that  the  pseudo-diphtheria  bacillus 
is  a  harmless  saprophyte. 


m  I  e$>+- 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


483 


MICROSCOPY. 
A.  Instruments,  Accessories,  &c* 
CD  Stands. 

Zeiss'  Stand  for  Brain  Sections.f — This  stand  is  shown  in  fig.  95. 
The  upper  part  is  fitted  with  Berger's  micrometer  movement  and  with  a 
very  wide  external  tube.  The  draw-out  tube  is  worked  by  hand  motion, 
and  has  a  collar  which  serves  as  a  handle.     The  crane-like  tube-carrier 


Fig.  95. 


*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands ;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives ;  (3)  Illu- 
minating and  other  Apparatus;  (4)  Photomicrography;  (5)  Microscopical  Optics 
and  Manipulation;  (6)  Miscellaneous. 

t  Zeiss'  Catalogue,  1902,  No.  70,  fig.  26,  p.  56. 


484 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


is  unusually  deeply  cut  out,  so  that  the  optical  axis  of  the  tube  can  lie 
over  the  centre  of  a  250  by  250  mm.  object-stage.  The  form  of  stand 
especially  adapts  it  for  the  examination  of  brain  sections  or  other  such 
extensive  preparations. 

Czapski's  Cornea-Microscope.*— Fig.  96  shows  this  instrument  with 
its  base-plate  and  Everbusch  chindjolder.     The  Greenhough  binocular 


Fig.  96. 


is,  in  this  case,  provided  over  the  centre  line  between  the  double  tubes, 
with  an  illuminating  tube,  whose  axes  converge  to  the  same  point  as 
the  axes  of  the  two  Microscopes.  In  this  tube  is  an  incandescent  electric 
lamp  with  a  two-strand  illuminating  system  so  that  the  most  favourable 
light  for  the  examination  of  the  patient's  eye  can  be  found.  The  whole 
of  the  upper  part  can  rotate  and  be  clamped  in  a  vertical  plane  about  a 

*  Zeiss'  Catalogue,  1902,  No.  98,  fig.  37,  p.  76. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


485 


horizontal  axis  formed  by  a  hinge.  The  instrument  is  also  rotatory 
about  a  vertical  axis.  A  rack-and-pinion  adjusts  the  height  and  a 
second  rack-and-pinion  the  horizontal  distance  from  the  object.  The 
base-plate,  on  which  the  whole  is  mounted,  can  also  be  moved  in  two 
horizontal  directions  mutually  perpendicular.  The  movement  from 
front  to  rear  is  freehand  and  from  left  to  right  by  the  milled  head  T. 

Zeiss'   Preparation   Stand   and    Drawing   Apparatus   for   Weak 
Magnifications.*  —  This  apparatus  (rig.  97)  not  only  satisfies  all  the 


Fig.  97. 


requirements  of  a  preparation  Microscope,  but  also  serves  for  the  draw- 
in"  of  objects  within  increased  limits  of  scale-selectiou.  Two  horizontal 
arms  are  movable  up  and  down  on  the  strong  brass  pillar  to  the  left. 
The  upper  one  bears  at  its  extremity  a  perforation  for  receiving  the 
various  holders  for  loups,  spectacle-glasses,  or  an  erecting  Microscope. 
The  lower  arm  is  a  frame-shaped  object-table  for  receiving  a  plate  of 
glass,  metal,  or  wood.     Illumination  is  obtained  by  transmitted  light 

*  Zeiss'  Catalogue.  1902,  No.  102,  fig.  39,  p.  7  J. 


486 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


from  a  mirror  set  in  a  universal  joint  in  the  base-plate.  The  drawing- 
board  is  pushed  up  and  down  on  a  desk-shaped  staud  at  an  angle  of  25°. 
This  frame  can  be  slid  backwards  and  forwards  in  a  groove  of  the 
base-plate.  Scales  are  set  on  both  sides  of  the  object-table,  and,  in  con- 
nection with  the  scale  on  the  base-plate,  have  the  effect  of  preserving 
the  same  magnification  in  a  drawing  of  any  part  of  a  large  preparation. 
It  is  also  possible  to  draw  in  reduced  measure,  if  the  preparation  is  set 
on  the  drawing-board  and  the  paper  on  the  object-table. 

Photo-measuring    Micrometer.  —  A.   Hilger's     photo  -  measuring 
micrometer  (fig.  98),  though  specially  designed  for  accurate  and  rapid 


Fig.  98. 

measurements  of  spectrum  photographs,  is  adapted  for  general  labora- 
tory work.  The  accuracy  of  the  instrument  is  attained  by  the  careful 
manufacture  of  the  steel  screw,  its  nut,  and  the  gun-metal  Microscope- 
slide.  Its  durability  is  ensured  by  simplicity  of  design,  by  the  pro- 
vision of  adequate  surface-bearings  on  the  screw  and  on  the  Microscope- 
slide,  and  by  the  deep  thread  of  the  screw  and  its  substantial  diameter 
of  ^  in.  As  the  pitch  of  the  screw  is  1  mm.,  and  there  is  a  large  divided 
drum-head,  the  whole  traverse  of  6  in.  can  be  rapidly  worked  over  and 
exceedingly  accurate  measurements  taken.  The  base  of  the  instrument 
is  of  cast  iron,  a'nd  the  Microscope-slide  is  mounted  on  two  cast  iron 
standaids. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


487 


(2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives. 

Zeiss'  Objectives.* — The  Zeiss  firm  guarantee  that  their  achromats 
ami  apochroiuats  may  now  be  classed  among  durable  objectives,  and 
may,  without  hesitation,  be  used  even  under  such  unfavourable  climatic 
conditions  as  obtain  in  maritime  and  tropical  districts. 

In  the  achromats  E  and  F  the  guaranteed  minimum  value  of  the 
numerical  aperture  has  been  raised  from  0-85  to  0*90,  and  in  the  case 
of  the  TV~im  homogeneous-immersion  from  1  *  25  to  1  *  30. 

Demonstration  Eye-piece.f  —  L.  Murbach  thinks  that  the  well- 
known  difficulty  of  leading  a  pupil  to  identify  objects  (especially  when 
moving)  under  the  Microscope  may  be  got  over  by  some  kind  of  demon- 
stration eye-piece,  whereby  both  teacher  and  pupil  may  view  the  object 
at  the  same  time.     The  principle  of  his  idea  is  shown  in  fig.  99.     The 


;~? 


33 


Fig.  99. 


device  consists  of  an  ordinary  eye-piece  with  cross-hairs  for  pointing 
out  the  object.  A  prism  above  the  eye-piece  is  so  placed  as  to  reflect 
the  image  through  a  tube  at  right  angles  to  the  eye-piece  to  another 
prism  at  the  end  of  the  tube.  This  prism  will  reflect  the  image  upward 
into  the  eye. 

Oculars  for  General  Laboratory  Work.J — J.  H.  Schaffher  says  that 
Microscopes  intended  for  general  laboratory  work,  as  for  example,  the 
Bausch  and  Lomb  BB4,  are  usually  fitted  with  the  2-inch  and  1-inch 
eye-pieces ;  but  he  recommends  that  the  inch  should  be  replaced  by  a 
|-inch,  the  2-inch  being  retained. 

Pulfeich,   C. — TJeber  neuere  Anwendungen  der  Stereoskopie  und  iiber  einen 
hierfiir  bestimmten  Stereo-Komparator. 

[Discusses,  inter  alia,  the  principles  of  the  Microscope-Stereoscope.] 

Ze.it.  f.  Imtrumenkunde,  XXII.  (1902)  pp.  (35-81  (4  figs.). 
Stkehl,  K. — TJeber  die  Gauss-Bedingung  bei  Mikroskopobjektiven. 

[Explains  the  principles  on  which  apochroniatic  lenses  are  made,  and  how 
the  conditions  for  colour-correction  are  determined.] 

Central-Zeit.  /.  Opt.  u.  Mech.,  XXIII.  (1902)  pp.  76-7. 

*  Zeiss'  Catalogue,  1902,  and  special  circular, 
t  Journ.  App.  Mior.,  v.  (1902)  p.  1648  (1  fig.).  %  Tom.  cit.,  p.  1646. 


488 


SUMMAEY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


(3)  Illuminating-  and  other  Apparatus. 


Giltsch's  Drawing  Stand.* — This  simple  apparatus  (fig.  100)  is 
intended  for  use  with  a  drawing-prism  (camera  lucida)  or  the  large 
Abbe  drawing  apparatus.  Ordinary  pocket-loups  or  spectacle-glasses 
may  be  used. 


Fig.  100. 


The  Apertometer  and  its  Use.f — H.  F.  Angus  argues  against  the 
neglect  of  the  apertometer  and  its  supposed  limited  range  of  usefulness. 
He  also  points  out  that  the  objection  on  the  score  of  expense  vanishes  if 
either  of  the  two  following  simple  forms  be  used,  and  that,  except  for 
immersion  lenses,  these  simple  instruments  are  amply  sufficient. 

*  Zeiss'  Catalogue,  1902,  No   116,  fig.  50,  p.  91. 

t  Journ.  Quek.  Micr.  Club,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  209-15  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


489 


The  first,  which  he  calls  the  protractor  apertometer  (fig.  101),  con- 
sists essentially  of  an  ordinary  semicircular  protractor  mounted  on  a 
base  and  supplied  with  two  pointers,  easily  adjustable  to  indicate  any 
angle,  and  an  object  placed  at  the  centre  on  which  to  focus  the  objective 
under  examination.  In  practice,  a  silvered  cover-glass  mounted  on  a 
piece  of  glass  of  the  thickness  of  an  ordinary  slip,  with  an  aperture  of 
about  1  mm.,  is  found  the  best  object  on  which  to  focus.  The  objective 
is  focussed  in  the  usual  manner  on  the  edge  of  the  aperture  in  the 
silvered  surface ;  the  protractor  is  then  moved  slightly,  so  that  the  edge 


Fig.  101. 


on  which  the  focus  was  obtained  moves  out  of  the  field,  and  the  centre  of 
aperture  in  the  silver  film  becomes  coincident  with  the  optic  axis  of  the 
Microscope  ;  then,  on  removing  the  eye-piece  and  looking  down  the  tube, 
the  whole  of  that  part  of  the  protractor  which  the  objective  takes  in  will 
be  found  to  be  visible,  and  the  pointers  can  be  adjusted  so  as  to  touch  the 
opposite  edges  of  the  field,  the  reading  indicating  the  angular  aperture. 
Except  with  very  low  powers,  however,  the  image  of  the  protractor  as 
seen  when  looking  down  the  tube  is  so  small  that  some  difficulty  will 
be  experienced  in  adjusting  the  pointers.  To  obviate  this  the  draw- 
tube  can  be  converted  into  an  auxiliary  Microscope,  thus  magnifying  the 
original  image.  This  is  effected  by  replacing  the  eye-piece  and  screw- 
ing into  the  lower  end  of  the  draw-tube  a  very  low-power  objective,  such 
as  the  posterior  half  of  a  2-in.  objective.  Having  thus  obtained  a  read- 
ing of  the  actual  angle  embraced  by  the  objective,  it  can  be  converted 
to  N.A.  by  reference  to  some  such  table  as  that  in  L>allinger's  Carpenter. 
The  second  simple  form  is  the  substage-scaJe  apertometer,  which  was 
August  20th,  1902  2  k 


490  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

suggested  to  the  author  by  F.  T.  Cheshire,  of  the  Birkbeck  Institute. 
It  consists  essentially  of  a  glass  disc  of  such  diameter  that  it  can  be 
dropped  into  the  stop-carrier  of  the  condenser  with  which  it  is  used, 
ruled  with  equidistant  lines  (a  millimetre  scale  will  be  found  as  suit- 
able as  any).  To  use  this  piece  of  apparatus  it  is  first  necessary  to 
find  the  value  of  the  scale  when  used  with  any  given  condenser.  This 
is  effected  by  means  of  an  objective  of  known  aperture  in  the  following 
manner : — The  condenser  and  objective  having  been  focussed  on  an 
object,  the  disc  is  inserted  below  the  condenser,  the  eye-piece  removed, 
and  the  number  of  divisions  of  the  scale  visible  in  the  field  duly  noted. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  protractor  apertometer,  it  will  usually  be  necessary 
to  magnify  the  image  so  obtained  in  order  to  read  the  scale  with  accu- 
racy. When  set  up  in  this  manner  the  scale  will  appear  sharply  defined 
right  up  to  the  edge  of  the  field,  provided  that  the  aperture  of  the  lens 
measured  does  not  exceed  the  aplanatic  aperture  of  the  condenser.  Thus, 
suppose  the  objective  of  known  aperture  to  be  a  ^-in.  of  N.A.  0*34, 
and  the  condenser  to  be  the  Abbe  chromatic  pattern  N.A.  1*20  (this  is 
the  total  aperture,  the  aplanatic  aperture  is,  of  course,  very  much  less, 
approximately  N.A.  0*50),  then,  proceeding  as  above,  it  will  be  found 
that  8£  divisions  are  visible  in  the  field,  and  that  consequently  1  mm. 
of  the  scale  with  this  condenser  has  a  value  of  N.A.    0'04.      If  now 

■ 

another  objective,  say  a  £-in.,  be  taken  and  5  divisions  be  found  visible, 
then  the  aperture  will  be  N.A.  0  ■  20. 

The  author  gives  a  number  of  examples  in  which  the  apertometer  is 
used  to  obtain  the  conditions  for  good  dark-ground  illumination. 

Acetylene  Gas  for  the  Lantern. — T.  D.  Ersser  states  that  he  has 
used  acetylene  gas  for  lantern  purposes  for  the  past  two  years.  He 
finds  that  the  best  apparatus  is  the  Imperial  cold  generator  which  when 
worked  on  the  gasometer  principle  is  perfectly  safe.  With  20  oz.  of 
the  best  calcium  carbide  and  an  argand  burner,  a  light  of  over  300 
candle-power,  free  from  smoke  and  smell,  and  lasting  for  two  hours,  can 
be  obtained  at  a  cost  of  ninepence. 

(4)    Photomicrography. 

New  Method  of  Focussing  in  Photomicrography.* — Katharine 
Foot  and  Ella  C.  Strobell  use  a  very  simple  form  of  vertical  camera. 
The  Microscope  (an  ordinary  Continental  model  with  a  direct-acting 
screw  fine  adjustment)  stands  upon  a  base-board,  12  by  12  by  £  in. 
thick,  to  which  wooden  uprights,  which  hold  a  bellows  camera,  are 
attached. 

In  the  new  focussing  method  all  need  for  a  focussing  rod,  or  other 
appliance,  to  carry  the  movement  of  the  fine  adjustment  screw  to  the 
sensitive  plate  end  of  the  camera  is  obviated,  neither  is  it  necessary  to 
project  the  image  on  to  the  ground-glass  screen,  for  the  correct  focus  is 
obtained  even  before  the  camera  is  applied  to  the  Microscope  by  the 
simple  expedient  of  using  a  spectacle  lens  of  a  certain  negative  strength 
when  focussing  the  instrument. 

The  powers  of  the  sjtectacle  lenses  suitable  for  given  extensions 
of  camera,  and  other  conditions,  were  experimentally  determined  and 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii.  (1902)  pp.  421-6  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  491 

recorded.  Thus  a  Zeiss  2  mm.  objective,~with  projection  ocular  4,  and 
a  camera  length  of  29|  in.,  measured  from  the  Microscope  stage  to  the 
sensitive  plate,  required  a  —  5  D  lens. 

Different  planes  in  a  thick  object  are  photographed  by  focussin"  the 
Microscope  upon  the  same  point  in  the  object,  and  employing  spectacles 
of  various  negative  strengths. 

In  illustration  of  the  paper,  there  is  a  plate  containing  nine  photo- 
micrographs of  one  section  of  an  egg  of  Allolobophora  foetida,  showing 
the  lower  pole  of  the  first  maturation  spindle,  and  two  and  a  half  of 
the  eleven  chromosomes. 

The  following  passage,  which  is  extracted  verbatim,  throws  a  curious 
side  light  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  Continental  model  Microscope, 
with  its  direct-acting  screw  fine  adjustment,  when  used  for  rough  and 
ready  cytological  photomicrographic  work. 

"  It  is  a  waste  of  time  to  expose  the  plate  unless  the  stability  of  the 
focus  is  assured,  for  the  slightest  change  of  focus  during  exposure  de- 
stroys the  sharp  outlines  of  the  image,  giving  that  blurred  effect  so 
familiar  in  many  photomicrographs.  This  slipping  of  the  focus  we 
have  found  the  most  troublesome  factor  in  photography,  and  this  danger 
must  exist  whether  the  vertical  or  horizontal  camera  is  used,  or  with 
any  method  of  focussing. 

"  A  worn  or  an  imperfect  micrometer  screw  is  not  the  sole  cause  of 
this  trouble,  for  we  have  tested  a  new  Zeiss  Microscope  and  we  found 
the  focus  changed  so  radically  that  after  a  half  hour's  wait,  the  centro- 
some  (on  which  the  test  was  made)  was  completely  lost  sight  of.  We 
are  inclined  to  think  that  changing  of  the  focus  is  due  rather  to  varia- 
tions of  temperature  to  which  the  Microscope  may  be  subjected,  for 
example,  in  bringing  it  from  a  warm  part  of  the  laboratory  and  placing 
it  close  to  a  window,  though  this  would  seem  hardly  adequate  to  account 
for  all  the  vagaries  of  a  changing  focus.  Sometimes  a  wait  of  an  hour 
or  more  is  needed  to  ensure  a  stable  focus,  but  fortunately  these  are  rare 
occasions,  as  a  rule  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  test  is  all  that  is  needed." 

Photomicrographic  Device.*  —  F.  E.  Ives  describes  a  simple  home- 
made arrangement  for  securing  a  photograph  of  the  microscopic  image 
without  any  readjustment  and  even  without  interfering  with  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  instrument, 

A  half-inch  mahogany  box-lid  10  in.  wide  and  12  in.  long  served  as 
a  base  for  the  Microscope,  which  was  held  securely  in  place  by  means 
of  stops  against  which  it  was  pressed.  A  small  shelf-bracket  was  fixed 
on  each  side  of  the  Microscope  so  that  one  of  the  screw-holes  in  the 
bracket  came  exactly  opposite  the  centre  of  the  Microscope  joint.  The 
brackets  were  so  separated  as  to  just  sufficiently  clear  all  the  working 
parts  of  the  Microscope.  The  screw-holes  are  the  points  of  attachment 
for  the  camera  device  and  must  occupy  such  a  position  in  order  that  the 
camera  may  swing  from  the  same  centre  as  the  Microscope  body,  and 
thus  be  adjustable  by  a  single  movement  for  any  desired  inclination. 
On  a  double-pillar  Microscope  the  camera  attachment  could  be  adapted 
to  swing  from  the  centres  on  the  Microscope  itself,  and  the  brackets 
could  be  therefore  dispensed  with.  The  camera  was  a  simple  box  with 
a  lens  at  one  end  and  a  plate-holder  at  the  other — the  lens  of  10-in. 

*  Journ.  Franklin  Institute,  cliii.  (1902)  pp.  371-6  (2  figs.). 

2   K   2 


492 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 


focus  and  the  distance]from  |lens  to  plate  10  in.  Monochromatic  light 
is  recommended.  The  camera  has  rack-and-pinion  movement  on  a  base- 
board having  two  rigidly  attached  arms  extending  forward  and  carrying 
pins  to  engage  in  the  screw-holes  of  the  brackets.  Slots  were  cut  into 
the  screw-holes  so  that  the  pins  dropped  into  place  and  an  automatic 
lock  prevented  the  pins  from  being  lifted  out  except  when  the  camera 
was  swung  below  the  horizontal  plane.     An  adjustable  telescopic  strut 


Fig.  102. 

and  detachable  extension  to  the  base-board  supported  the  camera  and 
fixed  it  at  any  desired  inclination.  Fig.  102  shows  the  device  as  fitted 
to  a  Swift  folding  Microscope,  and  the  author  seems  to  have  been  very 
well  pleased  with  his  results. 

Photomicrography  with  Simple  Apparatus.* — Katherine  E.  Golden 
obtains  good  results  with  the  following  "  home-made  "  apparatus  (fig.  103). 
An  inch  board  about  40  in.  long  and  12  in.  wide  carries  near  the  lower 

*  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  v.  (1902)  pp.  1681-3  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


493 


end  a  shelf  for  supporting  the  Microscope.  Near  the  upper  end  is  a 
sliding-piece  to  which  is  attached  the  box  or  bellows  of  an  ordinary 
camera.  Under  the  shelf  another  piece  of  board  is  fastened  to  the 
first  at  right  angles :  this  assists  in  supporting  the  shelf  and  also  serves 
as  a  leg  to  help  keep  the  apparatus  in  an  upright  position.  The  lens 
of  the  camera  is  removed  and  a  washer  of  felt  is  glued  to  the  edge  of 
the  collar,  so  as  to  make  a  light-tight  connection  with  the  eye-piece  of 
the  Microscope.  A  slit  is  made  in 
the  side  of  the  collar,  and  through 
this  slit  is  fitted  an  elliptic-shaped 
piece  of  metal  having  a  round  open- 
ing in  one  side,  the  other  side  being 
left  entire,  and  also  having  a  piece  of 
the  metal  projecting  on  one  side  of  the 
ellipse  to  be  used  as  a  handle.  The 
elliptic  piece  is  the  shutter  for  ad- 
mitting or  cutting  off  the  light,  and  is 
manipulated  by  the  projecting  handle. 
Specimens  of  the  results  obtained  are 
given. 


Photomicrographs  on  G-elatino- 
bromide  Films.*  —  W.  Forgan,  in  a 
lecture  before  the  Edinburgh  Photo- 
graphic Society,  narrates  how  he 
cleared  up  the  doubt  as  to  the  suit- 
ability of  collodion  or  gelatino-bro- 
mide  plates  for  photographing  eclipses. 
Microscopical  examination  showed 
that  the  grains  of  silver  in  the  two 
plates  were  of  practically  equal  size, 
viz.  about  xy^joth  of  an  inch  in  dia- 
meter. The  method  of  preparation, 
however,  of  a  collodion  plate  has  the 

effect  of  covering  only  the  surface  with  a  film  of  silver  ;  whereas,  in  the 
other  plate,  the  silver  is  thoroughly  dispersed  throughout  the  whole 
medium.  This  fact  seems  to  account  for  the  superior  rapidity  of  the 
gelatino-bromide.  But  the  more  rapid  the  action  of  the  plate,  the 
coarser  was  the  granulation.  In  the  ordinary  plates  the  silver  grains  are 
in  a  more  scattered  form,  and  the  granulation,  therefore,  finer.  Hence, 
the  maker's  advice  to  use  ordinary  plates  wherever  possible,  is  based  on 
sound  principles.  For  astronomical  photography,  especially  for  nega- 
tives where  delicate  measurements  afterwards  require  to  be  made,  a  slow 
ordinary  plate  is  an  essential  requisite. 


Fig.  103. 


(5)    Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Prisms  and  Plates  for  showing  Dichromatism.f  —  R.  W.  Wood 
describes  how  to  observe  the  property  of  dichromatism,  i.e.  the  change 
of  colour  of  an  absorbing  medium  with  increase  of  thickness.     Thus  thin 

*  Eng.  Mech./lxxv.  (April  18,  1902)  p.  203. 
t  Nature,  lxvi!  (1902)  p.  31. 


494  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

layers  of  such  a  medium  might  be  bright  green  and  thick  layers  blood- 
red.  The  principle  is  that  the  medium  should  transmit  two  distinct 
regions  of  the  spectrum,  the  absorption  coefficient  for  one  being  greater 
than  for  the  other.  Mr.  Wood's  method  is  to  boil  a  quantity  of  Canada 
balsam  in  an  evaporating  dish  until  a  drop  placed  on  a  cold  surface 
becomes  quite  hard.  A  dye  is  made  of  commercial  "  brilliant  green  " 
but  must  not  be  added  until  the  balsam  has  cooled  almost  to  the  point 
of  becoming  thick,  otherwise  it  will  be  decomposed  and  produce  a  very 
muddy  green.  Enough  brilliant  green  must  be  dissolved  in  the  balsam 
to  make  it  appear  deep  red  in  layers  1  •  5  cm.  thick.  This  layer  will  be 
found  to  be  blue.  It  is  desirable  to  add  some  naphthol  yellow  in 
quantity  sufficient  to  change  the  tint  of  thin  layers  from  blue  to  green. 
A  hollow  prism  is  now  made  by  fastening  two  pieces  of  thin  plate  glass 
between  two  grooved  strips  of  wood.  The  base  of  the  prism  should  be 
about  2  cm.  thick  if  the  strips  are  4  cm.  long.  The  plates  are  warmed 
with  a  flame  and  the  coloured  balsam  poured  between  them.  After  the 
balsam  has  cooled  it  is  a  good  plan  to  run  a  quantity  of  melted  sealing- 
wax  upon  the  top  of  it,  which  strengthens  tbe  prism.  An  incandescent 
lamp  or  gas  flame  viewed  through  the  prism  is  seen  divided  into  a  green 
and  a  red  image,  the  former  gradually  fading  away  as  the  eye  is  moved 
towards  the  base  of  the  prism.  If  a  larger  amount  of  the  colouring 
matter  be  added  to  the  balsam  and  the  fluid  be  pressed  out  between 
pieces  of  plate  glass,  screens  can  be  made  which  transmit  a  very  good 
secondary  yellow.  Through  these  screens  a  sodium  flame  is  absolutely 
invisible,  though  a  gas  flame  appears  of  a  colour  very  closely  resembling 
the  soda  flame.  The  colour  of  the  transmitted  light  depends  also  on  the 
original  composition  of  the  light.  By  a  suitable  adjustment  of  the  dyes 
a  screen  can  be  made  which  appears  red  by  lamplight  and  green  by 
daylight,  illustrating  very  well  the  peculiarity  of  the  alexandrite 
crystals. 

Stopping  Down  the  Lens  of  the  Human  Eye.*  —  W.  Andrews- 
suggests  that  the  optical  properties  of  the  human  eye  may  be  improved 
by  using  a  metal  plate  with  a  perforation  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  This  acts  like  a  stop  in  a  compound  lens  and  renders  un- 
necessary the  use  of  spectacles. 

Gerald  Molloy  points  out  that  a  pair  of  spectacles  on  the  above 
principle  was  made  and  used  by  the  late  Lord  Sherbrooke,  who  was  an 
albino,  and  had  no  pigment  in  his  iris.  These  spectacles  consisted  of 
two  convex  metal  cups  closely  resembling  in  size  and  shape  the  bowl  of 
an  ordinary  tea-spoon.  In  the  centre  of  each  was  a  small  pin-hole  which 
was  the  only  aperture  through  which  light  could  enter. 

Merlin,  A. — On  the  Critical  Employment  of  the  Microscope  for  Ordinary  Working 
Purposes. 

[A  very  useful  paper,  full  of  practical  and  valuable  hints.] 

Journ.  Quek.  Micr.  Club,  VIII.  (1902)  pp.  195-209. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Holder  for  Metallurgical  Work.— This  apparatus  (Fig.  104),  made 
by  W.  Watson  &  Sons,  consists  of  two  rotating  jaws  attached  to  the  end 

*  Nature,  lxvi.  (1902)  pp.  31  and  56. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  495 

of  screws  which  work  through  arms  mounted  on  a  base,  so  as  to  raise 
them  above  the  surface  of  the  stage. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  metal  substauce  which  is  to  be  examined 
can  be  set  at  any  desired  angle  to  the  objective  and  also  rotated,  thus 
obviating  the  necessity  of  mounting  specimens  on  glass  slips,  and 
rendering  unnecessary  the  use  of  a  levelling  surface  to  the  stage. 

The  apparatus  shown  in  the  illustration  is  intended  to  be  used  with 
a  Microscope  having  a  large  central  aperture,  but  another  design  is  in 
use  for  square  stages,  the  outer  edges  of  which  are  gripped  by  a  frame 
carrying  the  screws  and  jaws. 


Fig.  104. 

Certain  Minute  Structure  observed  in  some  forms  of  Tricera- 
tium.* — A.  A.  Merlin  notes  that  a  variety  of  Triceratium  parallelum 
from  the  Oarnaru  deposit,  resembling  the  ordinary  form  in  size,  shape, 
and  general  appearance,  but  not  identical  in  detail,  has  been  found  to 
possess  a  delicate  lace  work  structure  apparently  covering  the  whole  of 
the  silex  composing  the  upper  surface  of  the  valve,  and  extending  to  aud 
closely  surrounding  the  primaries.  Subsequently  a  similar  but  even 
finer  network  was  observed  on  the  outer  surface  of  a  typical  T.  paral- 
lelum. This  is  an  excessively  faint  and  difficult  object  and  is  close  to 
the  limit  of  visibility  with  a  fine  Zeiss  3  mm.  apochromat  of  N.A.  1*426. 
illuminated  by  the  full  cone  of  Powell's  dry  adjustable  apochromatic 
condenser.  The  existence  of  an  identical  network  has  also  been  noticed 
on  a  T.  glandiferum  (Grun),  which  could  only  be  resolved  and  held  for 
brief  intervals,  after  long  rests  to  the  eyes  in  the  dark,  by  the  employ- 
ment of  the  above  objective  and  a  solid  axial  cone  of  about  N.A.  1  ■  3 
from  Watson's  oil-immersion  condenser.  All  the  specimens  were 
mounted  in  styrax,  and  the  author  believes  the  appearances  really 
existent  and  not  ghostly  diffraction  effects. 

Opto-Technics.j — In  a  paper  read  before  the  Socioty  of  Arts,  Prof. 
Silvanus  Thompson  eloquently  pleads  for  the  better  organisation  of 
optical  instruction  in  all  its  branches  in  London.  He  deprecates  the 
establishment  of  poZy-technics,  believing  that  mowo-technics  would  be  of 
greater  industrial  service.  Institutions  devoted  to  the  cu  lture  of  special 
subjects  should  be  developed.  Dr.  Thompson  considers  that  the  Bolt 
Court  Institute,  which  is  exclusively  devoted  to  the  technology  of  the 
printing  trades,  is  the  most  successful  centre  of  technical    education  in 

*  Journ.  Quek.  Micr.  Club,  viii.  (1902)  p.  267. 
t  Journ.  Soc.  Arts,  1.  (1902)  pp.  518-30. 


496  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

London.  In  a  similar  manner  an  Optotechnical  Institute,  either  at  the 
Northampton  Polytechnic  in  Clerkenwell  or  elsewhere,  should  be  or- 
ganised. He  sketches  a  scheme  of  studies,  and  dwells  upon  the 
importance  of  the  project. 

B.  Technique.* 
CD    Collecting1  Objects.iincluding-  Culture  Processes. 

Media  for  distinguishing  B.  coli,  B.  typhosus,  and  related 
Species. f — A.  S.  Griinbaum  and  E.  H.  Hume  have  found  that  for  ordi- 
nary working  purposes  MacUonkey's  medium  with  neutral  red  gives  the 
best  results,  but  for  demonstration  purposes  a  medium  containing  both 
neutral  red  and  crystal  violet  gives  very  striking  and  instructive  pic- 
tures. The  medium  recommended  has  the  following  composition : — agar 
2  grm. ;  peptone  2  grin. ;  water  100  ccm. ;  made  alkaline  to  the  extent 
of  0*4  ccm.  normal  NaOH  beyond  the  neutral  (litmus)  point.  To  this, 
when  filtered  and  sterilised,  are  added,  sod.  taurocholate  0*5  grm.; 
lactose  1  grm. ;  ^  p.c.  neutral  red  solution  1  ccm.  The  whole  is  steri- 
lised for  15  minutes.  In  this  medium  B.  coli  and  other  lactose  fermenters 
grow  as  red  colonies  ;  all  other  similar  forms  (B.  typhosus,  B.  paracolon) 
are  white,  and  impart  to  the  surrounding  medium  an  amber  or  orange 
tint.  The  authors  also  find  that  on  lactose-agar  to  which  both  neutral 
red  and  crystal  violet  (1-100,000)  have  been  added  B.  coli  is  red  and 
B.  typhosus  blue  to  purple. 

Method  for  the  Detection  of  the  Typhoid  Bacillus  in  the  Blood. £ 
— A.  Castellani  advocates  the  use  of  large  quantities  of  nutrient  broth 
for  isolating  the  typhoid  bacillus  from  blood,  on  the  ground  that  not  only 
the  blood,  but  also  the  agglutinins  it  contained,  would  be  greatly  diluted, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  bactericidal  properties  of  the  blood-serum 
would  be  weakened.  The  technique  merely  consists  in  obtaining  asepti- 
cally  a  few  cubic  centimetres  of  blood  and  at  once  transferring  to 
large  flasks  (five  or  six)  each  containing  at  least  300  ccm.  of  faintly 
alkaline  beef-broth.  The  flasks  are  then  incubated  at  blood  heat.  In 
practice  this  method  has  been  found  to  be  very  successful,  not  only  by 
the  author,  but  by  several  other  investigators. 

Polythermostats.§  —  G.  Gabritchewsky  advocates  the  adoption  of 
combining  in  one  apparatus  several  thermostatic  chambers  heated  to 
different  temperatures  by  one  and  the  same  source  of  heat.  The  idea  is 
ingenious,  and  has  been  successfully  carried  out  in  Moscow,  Berlin,  and 
Paris. 

Hanging-drop  Cultivation.|| — G.  C.  Karop  describes  the  following 
convenient  method  for  making  hanging-drop  cultures.  The  materials 
required  are  millboard,  slides,  1  in.  square  covers,  a  soup-plate  and  bell- 
glass  to  fit  it,  white  blotting-paper,  and  a  strip  or  two  of  perforated  zinc. 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Pro- 
cesses ;  (2)  Preparing  Objects  ;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting  ;  (5)  Mounting,  including  slides,  preservative  fluids,  &c.  ; 
(6)  Miscellaneous.  t  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  1902,  i.  pp.  1473-4  (1  fig.). 

X  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lta  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  477-9.       §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  814-6. 

||   Journ.  Quek.  Micr.  Club,  viii.  (1902")  pp.  2G5-7. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


497 


B 


Cut  the  millboard  into  pieces  1  in.  square,  and  punch  out  the  centres 
with  a  |  or  f  gun-wad  punch.  Take  a  strip  of  perforated  zinc  6  in.  by 
2£  in.,  and  bend  down  1  in.  of  the  ends  to  a  right  angle  to  make  rests 
for  the  slides  while  in  the  moist  chamber.  When  required  for  studying, 
say,  the  spores  of  a  coprophilous  fungus,  place  one  or  more  of  the 
punched-out  squares  of  millboard  between  two  pieces  of  glass,  with  a 
weight  on  top,  and  soak  in  water  for  some  hours.  According  to  the  size 
of  the  drop  required  take  one  or  more  of 
the  squares,  and  after  squeezing  out  the 
excess  of  water  place  in  the  centre  of  a 
slide.  Then  take  a  cover  and  ring  a  very 
thin  smear  of  soft  paraffin  or  vaselin  just 
a  shade  smaller  than  the  aperture  in  the 
millboard.  In  a  clean  capsule  put  a  little 
of  the  nutrient  medium  and  mix  therein 
the  spores ;  from  this  remove  with  a  glass 
rod  or  dropper  sufficient  to  form  a  drop 
and  place  in  the  centre  of  the  ring,  and 
then  invert  over  the  perforation  in  the 
millboard.  Next  place  three  or  four 
layers  of  blotting-paper  on  the  bottom 
of  the  soup-plate  with  sufficient  water  to 
saturate  them,  on  these  the  zinc  support, 
on  the  latter  the  slide  with  the  hanging- 
drop,  and  over  all  the  bell-jar.  The  fore- 
going procedure  affords  a  satisfactory  and 
easy  method  for  studying  the  growth  aDd 
development  of  the  lower  organisms,  more 
particularly  algae  and  fungi. 

Simple  Apparatus  for  Cultivating 
Anaerobes  in  Test-tubes.*  —  W.  Omeli- 
anski  has  devised  a  simple  and  handy 
apparatus  for  anaerobic  tube-cultures.  It 
eonsists  of  two  parts  (fig.  105),  a  cylin- 
driform  vessel  A  and  a  cap  B.  The  upper 
end  of  A  is  choke-bored,  and  its  base  ex- 
panded to  ensure  stability.  The  height  of 
the  whole  apparatus  is  20  cm. ;  the  dia- 
meter of  A  in  the  middle  is  1*8  cm.,  and 
at  the  base  8  cm.     The  cap  B  is  ground  Fig.  105. 

so  as  to  fit  accurately  over  the  narrowed 

upper  end  of  A.  The  upturned  collar  with  everted  rim  C  C,  which  forms 
a  sort  of  cup  or  receptacle  for  mercury,  has  a  diameter  of  5  ■  5  cm.  When 
required  for  use,  the  ground  surface  of  the  cap  is  smeared  with  a  mix- 
ture of  1  part  wax  and  2  parts  vaselin,  and  then  a  mixture  of  10  ccm. 
of  12-5  p.c.  caustic  potash  and  10  ccm.  of  5  p.c.  pyrogallol  solution 
is  poured  into  the  bottle.  The  test-tube  (diameter  16  mm.,  length 
16  cm.)  containing  the  culture  is  then  inserted,  and  the  cap  put  firmly 
on.     The  cup  0  is  then  filled  with  mercury  in  quantity  sufficient  to 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2"  Abt.,  viii.  CI 902)  pp.  711-3  (1  fig.). 


498  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

cover  the  lower  end  of  B.  The  oxygen  is  completely  absorbed  in  from 
1£  to  2  hours.  When  the  cultivation  is  finished  and  it  is  required  to 
take  out  the  tube,  the  mercury  must  be  poured  off  before  the  cap  is 
removed. 

Method  for  examining  Nutrient  Media.* — S.  Weissbein  examined 
ten  different  substances  with  nutrient  properties  (plasmon,  galactogeu, 
Heyden's  medium,  and  others)  by  the  aid  of  Pappenheim's  panoptic  tri- 
acid  solution.  Some  of  the  powdered  medium  was  mixed  with  distilled 
water,  to  which  ten  drops  of  the  staining  solution  were  added.  This 
mixture  was  then  centrifuged  for  about  two  minutes  and  then  the  stained 
sediment  was  examined  under  the  Microscope.  To  estimate  the  amount 
of  starch,  about  two  drops  of  tincture  of  iodine  were  added  to  the  sedi- 
ment, and  this  again  centrifuged.  Owing  to  the  selective  action  of  the 
components  and  constituenta  of  the  media,  different  stainings  of  the 
powdered  substances  were  obtained.  As  the  different  colourings  indicate 
different  chemical  constitution,  the  method  adopted  gives  much  infor- 
mation as  to  the  nature  of  a  nutrient  substance  and  its  value  as  an 
artificial  medium. 

(2)  Preparing  Objects. 

Simple  Method  of  Fixing  Bacteria  to  the  Slide  or  Cover-Slip 
without  Drying.f — G.  von  Wendt  takes  a  loopful  of  a  bacterial  culture 
and  mixes  it  with  a  drop  of  water  in  a  watch-glass.  If  desired,  the 
bacteria  may  be  fixed  by  using  1-3  p.c.  nitric  acid  or  ^-3  p.c.  sublimate, 
&c.  instead  of  pure  water.  A  very  thin  layer  of  Meyer's  albumen- 
glycerin  is  smeared  on  slides  or  slips,  and  the  films  moistened  with  a 
few  drops  of  water.  A  loopful  of  the  bacterial  suspension  is  then  de- 
posited in  the  water  lying  on  the  films.  The  slide  or  slip  is  then 
covered  with  a  sufficiently  large  watch-glass.  In  20-30  minutes  the 
bacteria  will  have  settled  down,  and  then  the  covering  watch-glass  is 
removed  to  allow  a  few  drops  of  water  to  be  deposited  on  the  film. 
The  watch-glass  is  then  replaced,  and  the  whole  is  placed  in  an  in- 
cubator at  75°  for  8-10  minutes.  In  this  way  the  albumen  is  coagulated 
and  the  bacteria  fixed  to  the  slide  or  slip.  The  watch-glass  must  fit 
tight  over  the  slide  to  prevent  evaporation,  and  must  not  be  removed 
until  the  preparation  is  cooled  down  sufficiently,  after  which  the  films 
may  be  stained,  passed  through  graded  alcohols,  and  mounted  in  balsam. 

(3)  Cutting-,  including-  Imbedding-  and  Microtomes. 

Simple  Method  for  Making  Bone  Sections.^ — J.  P.  Burkholder  cuts 
transverse  slices  of  bone  2-3  mm.  thick  with  a  fine  saw.  One  surface 
is  polished  on  a  dry  whetstone  and  then  gummed  on  to  a  smooth  piece 
of  wood  1  by  1  by  2  cm.  in  size.  When  thoroughly  dry  most  of  the 
slice  may  be  sawn  off,  and  the  rest  rubbed  down  on  the  wetted  whetstone 
until  it  is  so  thin  that  the  grain  of  the  wood  can  be  clearly  seen  through 
it.  By  the  aid  of  a  little  hot  water  the  bone  is  easily  separated  from 
the  wood  block.     Then  place  the  section  on  the  wetted  whetstone  and 

*  Deutsch.  Med.  Wochenschr.,  xxviii.  (1902)  pp.  24-6. 
t  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Orig.,  1"  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  671-2. 
X  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  v.  (1902)  p.  1781. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  499 

rub  to  and  fro  with  the  ball  of  the  finger  until  the  papillae  are  distinctly 
visible.  Then  after  drying  and  cleaning  by  rubbing  between  the  fingers, 
mount  in  balsam.  Put  some  very  thick  balsam  on  the  centre  of  the 
slide,  and  also  on  the  cover-slip,  then  place  the  section  on  the  slide  and 
press  the  slip  firmly  down. 

Improved  Method  of  Sectioning"  Carbonised  Wood.* — L.  Wittmack 
and  J.  Buchwald  saturated  the  material  with  Canada  balsam  or  with 
paraffin,  and  then  made  sections  of  the  prepared  mass.  Some  of  the 
sections  were  incinerated  on  platinum  foil  and  the  ash  transferred  to 
xylol  or  balsam.  Their  best  results  were  obtained  by  first  incinerating 
the  wood  and  then  working  up  the  ash  into  microscopical  sections.  A 
piece  of  carbonised  wood  of  suitable  size  was  incinerated,  and  the  residue 
amalgamated  with  hot  liquid  paraffin.  The  blocks  thus  obtained  were 
sectioned.  The  sections,  after  having  been  straightened  on  the  slide, 
were  treated  with  xylol  and  mounted  in  balsam. 

(4)  Staining'  and  Injecting. 

Influence  of  High  Temperatures  on  the  Stainability  of  Bacteria.f 
— G.  Gabritschewsky  records  some  interesting  observations  on  the  be- 
haviour of  bacterial  films  to  staining  solutions  at  different  high  tem- 
peratures. The  first  series  relates  to  acid-fast  bacteria.  After  staining 
for  5  minutes  with  carbol  fuchsin,  these  bacteria,  B.  tuberculosis  Iwminis, 
avium,  piscium,  B.  moller  it.  (grass),  B.  horn  (butter),  B.  marpmann 
(urine),  were  decolorised  by  5  p.c.  sulphuric  acid  if  the  preparations 
had  been  previously  heated  to  180°  C.  They  still  retained  the  Gram 
staining,  but  lost  it  at  lUO0,  though  up  to  200°  they  would  stain  by 
simple  solutions.  In  the  second  series  were  B.  anthracis,  B.  subtilisy 
and  B.  pseudo-anthracis.  Up  to  160°  B.  anthracis  with  spores  stained 
well  witb  carbol-fuchsin.  By  Gram's  method  both  bacilli  and  spores 
stained  up  to  180°,  but  at  190°  the  spores  only  retained  the  dye.  In  the 
third  series  cultures  of  diphtheria  and  pseudo-diphtheria  showed  the 
Ernst-Neisser  granules  up  to  170°.  By  Gram's  method  diphtheria 
bacilli  did  not  stain  at  180°,  while  the  pseudo-diphtheria  retained  it  up 
to  19C°. 

New  Method  of  Staining  Neuroglia.:}: — D.  Anglade  and  C.  Morel 
state  that  the  following  method  gives  sharper  details,  and  is  more  easily 
managed,  than  the  ordinary  procedures.  The  material  is  hardened  in  a 
mixture  composed  of  Fol's  fluid  3  parts,  and  sublimate  solution  7  p.c. 
1  part.  The  preparations  are  placed  in  an  autoclave  at  37°  for  45  hours. 
On  removal  they  are  washed,  and  then  dehydrated  in  alcohol.  After  satu- 
rating in  aceton  (24  hours)  the  material  is  imbedded  in  paraffin  (3  hours). 
The  sections  are  stained  in  warm  saturated  aqueous  solution  of  Griibler's 
Victoria-blue  and  heated  until  it  vaporises.  They  are  next  treated  with 
Gram's  solution,  and  afterwards  with  a  mixture  of  xylol  1  part,  anilin 
oil  2  parts,  after  which  they  are  imbedded  in  balsam,  or  better  still,  in 
amber-lac. 

*  Ber.  Deutseh.  Bot.  Ges.,  xx.  (1902)  p.  21.  See  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xviii. 
(1902)  p.  508.  f  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  813-i. 

%  Rev.  Neurol.,  ix.  (1901)  pp.  157-8. 


500  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Staining  the  Grey  Matter  of  Spinal  Cord  after  Mordanting  with 
Metallic  Salts.* — Kadyi  states  that  after  hardening  in  formalin  and 
mordanting  with  the  acetates  of  uranium,  lead  or  copper,  staining  with 
carmin  is  very  successful.  Four  variants  of  the  method  are  given.  In 
the  first  the  grey  matter  only  is  stained,  the  white  remaining  unstained. 
After  removal  from  the  formalin  the  pieces  are  washed  and  then  trans- 
ferred to  a  mixture  of  uranium  acetate  1  p.c.  and  acetic  acid  1  p.c, 
wherein  they  remain  for  a  few  hours  to  a  few  days  according  to  their 
size.  The  sections  are  stained  in  0*2-0-5  p.c.  solution  of  carminate 
of  soda  or  in  ammoniacal  carmin.  The  second  procedure  imparts  stain- 
ing to  the  neuroglia.  The  sections  after  having  been  mordanted  in 
uranium  acetate  are  transferred  to  a  solution  of  potassium  nitrate.  By 
the  third  method  a  deep  staining  of  the  white  matter  is  obtained,  the 
grey  remaining  almost  colourless.  In  this  case  the  sections  are  treated 
with  potassium  nitrate  before  they  are  mordanted.  The  fourth  imparts 
a  stain  to  the  axis-cylinders  only.  For  this  the  pieces  of  spinal  cord 
are  hardened  in  neutral  or  alkaline  formalin  solution  (distilled  water 
100  ;  bicarbonate  of  soda  2 ;  formalin  5).  The  1  p.c.  copper  acetate 
mordant  must  not  contain  any  free  acetic  acid.  After  the  sections  have 
been  mordanted  they  are  washed  in  2  p.c.  potassium  nitrate,  and  after 
having  been  stained  are  differentiated  in  a  solution  composed  of  dis- 
tilled water  100  parts;  carminate  of  soda  1  part;  potassium  nitrate 
2  parts.  When  sufficiently  decolorised,  the  sections  are  washed  in 
2  p.c.  potassium  nitrate  until  the  pigment  is  no  longer  given  off,  after 
which  they  are  treated  with  absolute  alcohol  and  chloroform  and  then 
mounted  in  balsam. 

Staining  the  Medullary  Sheath  of  Nerve-Fibres.f — W.  H.  Wynn 
fixes  and  hardens  the  material  in  5  p.c.  formalin,  and  sections  it  on  a 
freezing  microtome,  using  no  gum.  The  sections  are  mordanted  for 
24  hours  in  the  cold  in  2  p.c.  ammonium  molybdate,  iron-alum  or 
uranium  acetate  or  they  may  be  incubated  at  40°  C.  for  a  few  hours. 
After  washing,  they  are  stained  for  some  hours  in  acid  hematoxylin, 
or  for  two  hours  in  the  incubator.  They  are  again  washed  and  after- 
wards differentiated  by  Pal's  method  :  the  sections  are  first  placed  in 
potassium  permanganate  solution  and  next  in  Pal's  solution,  the  baths 
being  alternated  until  the  required  differentiation  is  obtained.  They 
are  again  washed,  after  which  they  are  mopped  up  and  then  transferred 
to  absolute  alcohol.  After  draining  off  the  alcohol  they  are  passed 
through  chloroform  and  xylol  successively  and  mounted  in  balsam. 

Instead  of  Pal's  solution,  Bolton's  method  may  be  used  for  dif- 
ferentiating. This  consists  in  immersing  the  sections  in  a  moderately 
dilute  solution  of  ammonia  by  which  the  unattached  lake  is  quickly 
dissolved  out,  leaving  differentiation  complete. 

Staining  the  Neuro-fibrils  in  the  Ganglion-cells  of  the  Cerebral 
Cortex.! — S.  Paton  immerses  the  material  for  24  hours  in  a  saturated 
solution  of  sublimate  containing  5  p.c.  acetic  acid.  It  is  then  trans- 
ferred to  95  p.c.  alcohol  which  should  be  changed  at  least  once  a  day 

*  Neurol.  Centralbl.,  xx.  (1901)  pp.  6S7-8. 

t  Journ.  Anat.  Physiol.,  xiv.  (1900)  pp.  3S1-97  (2  pis.). 

X  Journ.  Exp.  Med.,  v.  (1900-1901)  pp.  21-5  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  501 

during  the  first  week  and  afterwards  once  a  week.  It  is  better  to 
remove  the  sublimate  in  this  way  tban  to  use  iodine.  The  material  is 
then  imbedded  in  paraffin  or  in  celloidin.  If  paraffin  be  selected,  chloro- 
form must  be  used  as  a  solvent.  When  fixed  to  the  slide  the  sections 
are  treated  with  tiuctura  ferri  Eademacheri  for  1  or  2  hours.  The  pre- 
parations are  then  washed  and  stained  in  Apathy's  hsematin  solution  for 
24  hours.  For  differentiation  a  mixture  of  anilin  oil  1  part  and  70  p.c. 
alcohol  9  parts  is  used.  After  having  been  washed  the  sections  are 
dehydrated  and  mounted  in  chloroform-balsam. 

Methods  of  rendering  Golgi-Sublimate  Preparations  permanent 
by  Platinum  Substitution.*  —  W.  P.  Eobertson  and  J.  H.  Macdonald 
each  worked  out  a  separate  process  for  replacing  the  mercurial  deposit 
in  Cox-preparations  by  platinum. 

Eobertson's  method. — (1)  Place  the  sections  in  a  saturated  solution 
of  lithium  carbonate  for  15  minutes.  (2)  Wash  in  water.  (3)  Place  in 
equal  parts  of  1  p.c.  chloroplatinate  of  potassium  and  10  p.c.  citric  acid 
for  1-2  days :  keep  in  the  dark.  (4)  Wash  for  1  or  2  hours.  (5)  Place 
in  equal  parts  of  («)  saturated  solution  of  iodine  in  1  p.c.  potassium 
iodide,  and  (b)  water,  for  5  minutes.  (6)  Wash.  (7)  Place  for  5  minutes 
in  a  bowl  of  water  to  which  2  or  3  drops  of  strong  ammonia  have  been 
added.  (8)  Wash.  (9)  Dehydrate  in  absolute  alcohol.  (10)  Clear  in 
benzol.     (11)  Mount  in  benzol-balsam. 

Macdonald's  method. — Wash  the  tissue  which  has  previously  been 
treated  by  Cox's  method  in  a  large  quantity  of  water,  overnight. 
Transfer  to  rectified  spirit  for  half  an  hour.  Cut  on  a  Cathcart's  micro- 
tome by  Coat's  method.  Transfer  the  sections  to  rectified  spirit,  and 
when  a  sufficient  number  have  been  obtained  proceed  as  follows : — 
(1)  Transfer  to  distilled  water  for  a  few  minutes.  (2)  Place  for  24  hours 
in  (?  mixture  of)  solution  i.  it;  120  ;  solution  ii.  n\  30,  Solution  i.  is 
1  p.c.  chloroplatinate  of  potassium.  Solution  ii.  consists  of  sodium  hypo- 
phosphite  lJr  oz. ;  sodium  sulphite  f  oz. ;  sodium  chloride  £  oz. ;  water 
10  oz..  (3)  Transfer  to  one  in  eighty  hydrochloric  acid  for  2  minutes 
and  repeat  the  bath  twice.     (4)   Transfer  to  solution  ii.  for  10  minutes. 

(5)  Then  to  equal  parts  of  (a)  1  p.c.  iodine  in  rectified  spirit;  (b)  dis- 
tilled water,  until  the  sections  are  of  the  same  colour  as  the  solution. 

(6)  Clear,  and  fix  in  solution  ii.  for  10  minutes.     (7)  Wash  for  2  hours. 
(8)  Dehydrate  and  then  clear  in  benzol  and  mount  in  benzol-balsam. 

The  sections  must  be  manipulated  with  a  brush  or  quill  as  metal 
lifters  and  needles  are  inadmissible.  For  washing  the  sections  and 
making  the  solutions  distilled  water  must  always  be  used. 

Acid-fuchsin  Staining  for  Degenerated  Nerve-Fibres.f — E.  Kolster 
who  has  made  careful  investigation  as  to  the  value  of  acid-fuchsin  for 
staining  degenerated  nerve-fibres,  a  method  invented  by  Hoven  of  Copen- 
hagen in  1884,  remarks  that  to  obtain  good  results  the  material  must 
be  exposed  to  the  influence  of  chromic  acid  solutions  for  a  long  time, 
e.g.  five  months  in  Muller's  fluid.  The  after-hardening  in  alcohol  should 
not  take  more  than  about  two  weeks.  After  this  the  material  is  im- 
bedded in  celloidin  and  the  sections  stained  with  saturated  aqueous 

*  Journ.  Mental  Sci.,  xlvii.  (1901)  pp.  327-30. 

t  Deutsche  Zeitschr.  f.  Nervenheilk.,  xx.  (1901)  pp.  29-31  (1  pi.). 


502  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

solution  of  acid-fuchsin  (Weigert's)  for  1-24  hours.  After  washing 
in  water  they  are  differentiated  in  alcoholic  solution  of  caustic  potash. 
The  decoloration  is  continued  until  the  grey  substance  becomes  clearly 
visible,  after  which  the  sections  are  washed  in  water,  dehydrated,  cleared 
in  xylol,  and  mounted  in  balsam.  The  axis-cylinders  of  the  degenerated 
fibres  are  clearly  traceable  by  their  dark  red  colour,  while  the  healthy 
fibres  are  almost  unstained. 

The  author's  results  differ  somewhat  from  those  obtained  by  Hoven, 
possibly  owing  to  slight  differences  in  the  composition  of  the  pigments 
employed. 

New  Method  of  Flagella  Staining.*  —  A.  J.  Kendall  describes  the 
following  procedure  for  staining  flagella.  The  bacteria  are  properly 
diluted  on  the  cover-glass  by  adding  to  a  tube  containing  5  ccm.  of  sterile 
water  enough  of  an  18-24  hours  agar  culture  to  produce  a  faint  tur- 
bidity in  the  upper  half  of  the  water.  The  tube  is  then  placed  in  an 
incubator  run  at  the  optimum  temperature  for  the  particular  species  for 
one  hour.  Two  or  three  drops  are  then  placed  on  a  cover-glass  and 
allowed  to  dry  spontaneously  at  the  temperature  of  incubator.  The  film 
is  fixed  in  the  flame  and  stained  by  Pitfield's  method.  Pitfield's  mordant 
consists  of  10  p.c.  aqueous  solution  of  tannic  acid  10  ccm.,  saturated 
aqueous  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  5  ccm.,  saturated  aqueous  solution 
of  alum  5  ccm.,  carbol  fuchsin  5  ccm.  The  stain  is  composed  of  satu- 
rated aqueous  solution  of  alum  10  ccm.,  saturated  aqueous  solution  of 
gentian-violet  2  ccm.  The  film  is  hot-mordanted  for  about  a  minute, 
after  which  it  is  washed,  then  hot-stained,  dried,  and  mounted. 

Staining  Mast-Cells  and  the  Chromatin  of  Malaria  Parasites.f 
— L.  B.  Goldhorn  gives  three  methods  for  staining  mast-cells.  (1) 
Saturate  wood-alcohol  with  dahlia  or  methylen-blue  and  pour  the 
solution  on  a  freshly  made  blood-smear  without  previous  fixation.  (2) 
Methylen-blue  is  rendered  polychrome  and  then  acidulated  with  glacial 
acetic  acid.  The  polychrome  solution  is  made  by  dissolving  4  grm.  of 
the  pigment  and  4  grm.  of  lithium  carbonate  in  300  ccm.  of  warm  water 
and  heating  for  15  minutes  in  a  water-bath.  The  solution  is  poured  into 
a  bottle  and  after  a  lapse  of  several  days  is  rendered  faintly  alkaline  by 
adding  some  4-5  p.c.  acetic  acid.  Next  add  5  p.c.  eosin  solution,  and 
then  filter.  Dry  the  mass  on  filter  in  a  hot-air  oven,  and  then  dissolve  in 
wood-alcohol.  (3)  Saturate  wood-alcohol  with  methylen-blue,  and  stain 
the  film  for  about  15  seconds.  Wash  in  water,  and  stain  in  0*1  p.c. 
aqueous  eosin  for  from  15  to  30  seconds. 

The  author  also  gives  a  method  for  staining  the  malaria  parasite. 
Dry  the  films  and  fix  m  methyl-alcohol  for  15  seconds,  wash.  Stain  in 
0*1-0 -2  p.c.  aqueous  solution  of  eosin  for  7-30  seconds,  wash.  Stain  in 
polychrome  methylen-blue  solution  for  30  seconds  to  2  minutes,  wash 
thoroughly.     Dry  in  air. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Improved  Method  of  Making  Collodion  Sacs.J — N.  M.  Harris  de- 
scribes a  method  of  making  collodion  sacs  which  is  an  improvement  on 

*  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  v.  (1902)  p.  183G.        t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1635  and  1S67. 
X  Bull.  Johns  Hopkins  He  sp.,  xiii.  (1902)  pp.  112-5  (3  tigs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


503 


those  of  Trudeau  and  McCrae.  The  materials  employed  are  empty 
gelatin  capsules,  glass  tubing,  celloidin  or  collodion  solution,  a  drying 
rack,  blow-pipe  flame,  and  a  small  file. 

The  end  of  the  glass  tubing  is  heated  in  the  burner  and  while  still 
hot  is  passed  through  the  lid  of  the  capsule.  When  cool  the  capsule  is 
plunged  in  the  celloidin  solution  and  afterwards  placed  on  the  rack  to 
dry.  The  coated  capsule  is  then  filled  with  broth  by  means  of  a  Pasteur 
pipette  and  then  immersed,  glass  tube  end  downwards,  in  a  broth  culture 
tube  and  autoclaved  at  1  atmosphere  for  5  minutes  at  120°.  By  this 
procedure  the  gelatin  becomes  dissolved  in 
the  broth.     The  gelatin  may,  however,  be  n 

removed  by  washing  out  the  sac  with  hot 
water. 

After  inoculating  the  medium  in  the 
sac  by  the  aid  of  a  Pasteur  pipette  the 
glass  tube  is  sealed  up,  a  procedure  re- 
quiring considerable  care  and  skill. 

Method  for  Cleaning  Slides.*  —  L. 
Jones  recommends  a  washing  powder 
known  as  "  Gold  Dust "  for  cleaning  old 
and  dirty  slides.  A  strong  solution  is 
heated  to  boiling  and  then  removed  from 
the  fire.  As  many  slides  as  the  vessel  will 
hold  are  at  once  dumped  in  and  left  there 
for  half  an  hour  or  so,  but  should  be  moved 
about  occasionally.  On  removing  the  slides 
they  should  be  washed  in  water  and  then 
dried  or  passed  through  alcohol  and  then 
wiped.  Usually  one  bath  is  quite  sufficient. 

Bottle  for  Cedar- Wood  Oil.— F.  Ties- 
sen,  of  Breslau,  makes  a  bottle  for  cedar- 
wood  oil,  which  has  some  useful  features. 
An  ordinary  glass  phial  (fig.  106)  is  fixed 
to  a  circular   leaden    base:    this  ensures  Fig.  106. 

stability.     The  stopper  is  a  sphere  of  hard 

rubber  or  vulcanite.  This  ball  is  perforated  to  allow  the  passage  of  a 
long  stem,  the  upper  end  of  which  serves  as  a  handle  and  the  lower  end 
as  the  dropper.  As  the  stem  is  not  fixed  in  the  ball  it  can  be  pushed 
up  and  down  so  as  to  regulate  the  length  for  the  quantity  of  oil  in  the 
bottle. 

Germ-  and  Water-tight  Stopper  foriPlasks-f— Dr.  H.  Schottmiiller 
describes  a  stopper  which  is  air-  and  water-tight  and  also  prevents  the 
entrance  of  germs.  The  stopper  proper  is  fixed  to  the  inside  of  a  cap 
which  goes  over  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  The  outer  surface  of  the  stopper 
and  the  inner  surface  of  the  neck  are  ground  to  fit  accurately.  The  neck 
of  the  bottle  has  a  double  lip  to  prevent  the  layer  of  cotton-wool  which 
is  wound  round  the  neck  from  getting  wetted  when  fluid  is  poured  out. 

*  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  v.  (1902)  p.  1781. 

t  Cbiitralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.,  xxx.  (1901)  pp.  875-7  (3  figs.). 


504 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT  RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


The  layer  of  cotton-wool  prevents  the  entry  of  germs  from  without. 
The  apparatus  is  sterilised  in  the  usual  way  (figs.  107-109). 


Fig.  108. 


Fig.  107. 


Fig.  109. 


Micro-Crystalline  Structure  of  Platinum.* — T.  Andrews  obtained 
a  satisfactorily  developed  crystalline  structure  of  a  polished  platinum 
ingot  after  boiling  it  for  45  seconds  in  aqua  regia  composed  of  4  parts 
of  hydrochloric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1*2)  to  1  part  of  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1*42). 
The  general  micro-crystalline  structure  was  observed  to  be  allotrio- 
morphic  in  character,  and  derived  from  a  system  of  interfering  cubes 
and  octahedra,  the  cubic  and  hexagonal  forms  being  frequently  notice- 
able. The  size  of  the  large  crystal  grains  varied  from  0*002  in.  to 
0*04  in.  in  size,  and  the  smaller  crystals  ranged  from  about  0*0002  in. 
to  about  0  *  007  in.     There  were  indications  that  the  smaller  crystals 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  lxix.  (1902)  pp.  433-5  (1  pi.  of  6  photos). 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  505 

were  each  built  up  of  even  more  minute  crystalline  ramifications.  The 
crystalline  structure  of  platinum  appears  to  generally  resemble  that  of 
gold  and  silver. 

Houghton,  S.  A. — The  Microscopic  Structure  of  Metals. 

[Two  interesting  lectures  before  the  Institute  of  Marine  Engineers.] 

Shipping  Gazette  and  Lloyd's  List,  March  6  and  13,  1902, 
„  „  The  Internal  Structure  of  Iron  and  Steel,  with  special  reference 

to  defective  material. 

[A  lecture  before  the  Institute  of  Marine  Engineers,  April  21,  1902.  The 
author  gives  a  very  complete  resume  of  our  present  knowledge  on  this 
subject,  but  avoids  the  discussion  of  controversial  points.  More  than 
thirty  of  the  photographs  are  original,  and  deal  with  cases  of  failure  in 
metalwork.] 

Shipping  Gazette  and  Lloyd's  List,  April  24,  1902 ; 
also  as  a  pamphlet  issued  by  the  Institute  of  Marine  Engineers. 
Stead,  J.  E. — Metallic  Alloys. 

[A  lecture  before  the  Cleveland  Institution  of  Engineers,  Dec.  10,  1900.  A 
full  investigation  cf  the  subject.] 

Metallographist,  v.  (1902)  pp.  110-44  (19  figs.). 
Nomenclature  of  Metallography. 

[A  preliminary  glossary  of  technical  terms,  with  their  French  and  German 
equivalents,  has  been  drawn  up  for  the  consideration  of  the  International 
Committee  of  Metallurgists,  which  has  been  appointed  to  consider  this 
question.]  Metallographist,  v.  (1902)  pp.  145-65.. 


August  20th,  1902 


506 


PKOCEEDINGS   OF  THE   SOCIETY. 

«o» 

MEETING 

Held    on    the    18th    of   Jdne,  1902,   at   20  Hanover   Square,   W. 
Dr.  Henry  Woodward,  F.R.S.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  21st  of  May,  1902,  were  read  and 
confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  President. 

The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society  (exclusive  of  exchanges  and 
reprints)  received  since  the  last  Meeting  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of 
the  Society  were  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 
Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers,  1800-1883.     Vol.  xii.     (4to,"l    m,     t>      i  ■>    •  * 

London,  1902)    ..      ..      .. ^      >)    The  Royal  society. 

Duncan.  Martin  F.,  First  Steps  in  Photomicrography.     (8vo,j       The  P  hlisih 

London,  1902) J 

Petit   et    Borne,  Manuel    pratique   de    Bacte'riologie.      (Svo.l        Tl  e  Publisl  e 

Paris,  1902)        / 

Records  of  the  Egyptian  Government  School  of  Medicine.   (4to, \   The  Director  of  the 

Cairo,  1901)        /  School  of  Medicine. 

Zoological  Record.    Vols,  xxii ,  xxiii.,  and  xxiv\    (8 vo,  London,}     m    p   e  Raflle 

1895,  6,  and  7 J       r'     '     '     a      "' 

The  Secretary  read  a  note  from  Mr.  Nelson  on  some  high-power 
photomicrographs  taken  by  Mr.  F.  E.  Ives,  three  examples  of  which 
were  shown  upon  the  screen  by  Mr.  Poser. 

Mr.  Hilger  exhibited  a  new  photo-measuring  micrometer  attached  to 
a  Microscope  with  an  objective  giving  a  magnifying  power  of  x  55 
and  designed  specially  for  accurately  measuring  the  distances  between 
the  lines  of  the  spectrum. 

Mr.  Watson  Baker  described  a  new  two-speed  fine  adjustment  sent 
for  exhibition  by  Messrs.  Watson  and  Sons.  The  adjustment  was  shown 
fitted  to  a  Microscope,  and  its  construction  was  further  illustrated  by  a 
working  sectional  model  and  detail  drawings. 

The  same  firm  exhibited  also  a  Microscope  fitted  with  a  new  arrange- 
ment for  holding  pieces  of  metal  whilst  under  examination,  by  means 
of  which  the  specimen  could  be  gripped  firmly  and  held  in  any  required 
position  or  plane. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  voted  to  Mr.  Hilger  and  Mr.  Baker 
for  their  exhibits. 

Mr.  Max  Poser  exhibited  for  Messrs.  Zeiss  their  Epidiascope,  an 
elaborate  form  of  projection  apparatus,  by  means  of  which  large  pictures 
of  opaque  and  transparent  objects  can  be  shown  on  the  screen. 

Not  only  lantern  slides  of  any  size  up  to  9  in.  square,  but  solid 
objects  such  as  photographs,  drawings,  description  on  a  page  of  a  book, 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY.  507 

bones,  butterflies,  &c,  can  be  thrown  on  the  screen  in  their  natural 
colours  by  simply  placing  them  on  the  table  inside  the  apparatus.  A 
simplified  Microscope  is  also  attached  to  the  epidiascope  so  that  the 
microscopic  preparations  (ordinary  micro-slides,  &c.)  can  be  projected. 

The  details  of  construction  were  explained  by  sectional  drawings 
shown  on  the  screen,  and  a  variety  of  objects,  such  as  bones,  medals, 
butterflies,  &c.  were  projected  in  illustration  of  the  instrument's  capa- 
bilities. The  illuminant  is  a  remarkably  steady  and  silent  electric 
search-light  of  3000  candle-power,  and  microscopic  slides  were  shown 
under  high  magnifying  powers  giving  pictures  of  about  5  ft.  diameter 
with  great  brilliancy  and  sharpness  of  definition.  At  the  close  of  the 
Meeting  a  further  demonstration  was  given,  when  a  large  number  of 
miscellaneous  objects,  including  some  live  tadpoles,  entomostraca,  &c. 
were  projected  on  the  screen  with  excellent  effect. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  cordially  voted  to  Messrs.  Zeiss  for 
their  exhibit.  

Prof.  Marcus  Hartog  gave  a  short  account  of  the  structure  of 
Acinetines  from  observations  on  a  species  (Choanophrya  infundibulifera) 
epizoic  on  Cyclops :  he  demonstrated  (1)  that  the  spiral  marking  of  the 
tentacles  was  due  to  a  double- threaded  constriction  ;  (2)  that  in  pro- 
trusion and  retraction  there  was  no  torsion,  but  only  an  opening  and 
closing  of  the  spiral  ;  and  (3)  that  the  tentacles  were  continued  deep 
into  the  endosarc  of  the  creature.  He  illustrated  his  remarks  by 
drawings  on  the  board,  and  by  the  exhibition  of  living  specimens  and 
sections  under  Microscopes,  and  thought  the  observations  afforded  an 
explanation  of  the  process  of  absorption  carried  out  in  the  Suctorial 
Infusoria.  He  mentioned  that  this  species,  though  apparently  seen  only 
by  Zenker  in  1866  and  himself,  was  very  common,  as  it  was  to  be  found 
adherent  to  adults  of  species  of  Cyclops,  but  must  be  looked  for  upon 
the  ventral  surface  among  and  on  the  circum-oral  appendages. 

The  President  expressed  the  thanks  of  the  Society  to  Prof.  Hartog 
for  his  kindness  in  bringing  these  objects  to  the  Meeting,  and  for  the 
very  interesting  remarks  made  concerning  them. 


Mr.  C.  F.  Rousselet  read  a  paper  "  On  the  genus  Syncliseta,  with  a 
description  of  five  new  species,"  the  subject  being  well  illustrated  by 
drawings  shown  on  the  screen  by  means  of  Zeiss's  Epidiascope,  and  by 
numerous  preserved  and  mounted  specimens  under  Microscopes  kindly 
lent  for  the  occasion  by  Mr.  Pillischer. 

The  President  and  Secretary  being  obliged  to  leave  early,  then- 
places  were  occupied  respectively  by  Dr.  Braithwaite  and  Mr.  Karop. 

Dr.  Braithwaite  felt  sure  that  all  who  had  heard  this  paper  would 
heartily  join  in  thanking  Mr.  Rousselet  for  it.  It  could  not  fail  to  be 
regarded  as  a  valuable  contribution  to  their  knowledge  of  this  genus, 
and  it  showed  also  what  could  be  done  by  a  person  who,  like  Mr. 
Rousselet,  persistently  followed  up  the  same  subject  instead  of  deviating 
into  a  variety  of  orders  and  adding  but  little  to  our  knowledge  of  them. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were,  on  the  motion  of  the  Chairman, 
unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Rousselet  for  his  paper. 


508  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

Mr.  W.  Wesche"  gave  a  brief  resume  of  his  paper  on  "  Undescribed 
palpi  on  the  mouth-parts  of  Diptera."  Drawings  in  illustration  of  the 
subject  were  shown  upon  the  screen  by  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Poser. 
Specimens,  showing  the  palpi  on  several  species,  and  in  a  more  rudi- 
mentary state  in  other  species,  were  exhibited  under  Microscopes  in  the 
room. 

The  Chairman  regretted  that  owing  to  the  lateness  of  the  hour  Mr. 
Wesche  had  been  unable  to  read  his  paper  in  extenso,  but  the  thanks  of 
the  Society  were  due  to  him  for  bringing  this  new  observation  before 
them,  and  his  communication  would  no  doubt  be  read  with  much  interest 
when  it  appeared  in  the  Journal. 


Mr.  Karop  thought,  that  in  addition  to  thanking  the  authors  of  the 
several  communications  which  had  been  brought  before  the  Meeting,  the 
Fellows  would  desire  to  express  their  thanks  to  Mr.  Poser  for  his  most 
effective  manipulation  of  the  instrument  by  which  the  illustrative  figures 
were  thrown  on  the  screen,  and  also  to  Mr.  Pillischer  for  the  loan  of  the 
Microscopes  under  which  Mr.  Eousselet's  rotifers  were  being  exhibited. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  these  gentlemen  by 
acclamation. 


Mr.  Karop  announced  that  the  Eooms  of  the  Society  would  be  closed 
on  August  16th  and  reopened  on  September  15th,  and  that  the  next 
Meeting  of  the  Society  would  take  place  on  Wednesday,  October  15th. 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  &c,  were  exhibited : — 

Prof.  Marcus  Hartog  : — Choanophrya  (g.n.)  infundibulifera  on  Cyclops 
brevicornis  (^  in.  objective),  showing  funnel-bearing  tentacles.  Choano- 
phrya  infundibulifera  (^  in.  objective)  on  Cyclops,  oblique  section  in  situ. 

Mr.  A.  Hilger : — New  Photo-measuring  Micrometer. 

Mr.  F.  E.  Ives: — Lantern  slides  of  Pleurosigma  angulatum,  Surirella 
gemma,  and  Coscinodiscus  asteromphalus. 

Mr.  C.  F.  Rousselet : — Synchseta  tremula,  S.  triophthalma,  and  S.  vorax 
(alive),  and  mounted  specimens  of  S.  pectinata,  S.  tremula,  S.  oblonga,  S. 
grandis,  S.  slylata,  S.  longipes,  S.  hitina,  S.  tavina,  S.  liUoralis,  S.  baltica, 
S.  gyrina,  S.  triophthalma,  S.  monopus,  S.  cecilia,  S.  vorax,  S.neapolitana, 
also  jaws  of  S.  pectinata  and  eggs  of  S.  stylata. 

Messrs.  Wm.  Watson  and  Sons  : — New  Two-speed  Fine-adjustment. 
Holder  for  Metallurgical  Specimens. 

Mr.  Walter  Wesche : — Maxillary  Palpi  on  proboscis  of  Eyetodesia 
basalts  $  ;  Maxillary  and  Labial  Palpi  on  the  proboscis  of  Hydrotsea 
occulta  £  ;  Fly,  from  which  the  proboscis,  shown  mounted,  has  been 
cut  (Hyetodesia  perdita  $  ). 

Messrs.  Zeiss  : — The  Epidiascope. 


New   Fellow.  —  The  following  was  elected  an  Ordinary   Fellow : 
Mr.  James  Alexander  Martin. 


Journ."R.Mcro.5oc.l902 


PI. II. 


F.W.  Millettdel.ad.nat. 


Hanhart  lith&imp. 


ForaTnimfera  of  Malay  Archipelago 


JOURNAL 


OF    THE 


ROYAL  MICROSCOPICAL  SOCIETY. 

OCTOBER  1902. 


TEANS ACTIONS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


IX. — Report  on  the  Recent  Foraminifera  of  the  Malay  Archipelago 
collected  by  Mr.  A.  Durrand,  F.R.M.S.—Part  XIII. 

By  Fortescue  William  Millett,  F.E.M.S. 

(Bead  March  19th,  1902.) 
Plate  XI. 

Sub-Family  Nodosarinae. 

Nodosaria  Lamarck. 

Nodosaria  (Glandulina)  laevigata  d'Orbigny,  plate  XL  fig.  1. 

"  Cornu  Hammonis  erectum  globosius,"  Plancus,  1739,  Conch. 
Min.,  p.  16,  pi.  ii.  fig.  3.  Nodosaria  (Glandulina)  laevigata  d'Or- 
bigny, 1826,  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  vol.  vii.  p.  252,  pi.  x.  figs.  1-3.    Glan- 


EXPLANATION   OF   PLATE   XI. 

Fig.  1. — Nodosaria  (Gl.)  laevigata  d'Orbigny.    X  90.    a, lateral  aspect;  6, oral  aspect. 
„     2.  „  .,     comata  Batsch  sp.     X  90. 

„     3.  „  „     sequalis  Reuss.     X  90. 

„     4.  .,  „    echinata  sp.  n.     x  65.     a,  lateral  aspect ;  b,  oral  aspect. 

„     5. —  Nodosaria  semirugosa  d'Orbigny.     X  60. 
capitata  Boll,     x  65. 
,  limbata  d'Orbigny.     x  90. 

,         bicamerata  F.  W.  O.  R.  Jones  sp.      x   90.      a,  lateral  aspect 

b,  aboral  aspect. 
,  proxima  O.  Silvestri.     x  90. 

scalar  is  Batsch  sp.  var.     x  75. 
,  „  „  var.  separans  Brady,     x  60. 

,         (?)  obscura  Reuss.     Fig.  13  x  65;  fig.  14  x  90. 
„   15. — Ling'dina  limbata  sp.  n.     x  100. 
„  16,17.       ,,         pagoda  sp.  n.     x  75.     a,  lateral  aspect ;  b,  peripheral  aspect. 
„  18  „         sp.  indet.     X  100.     a,  lateral  aspect ;  b,  aboral  a6pect. 

„  lit. — Frond icularia  nitida  Terquem.  x  80. 
„  20. — Marginulina  coftata  Batsch  sp.  X  60. 
„  21. —  Vaginulina  legumen  Linne  sp.  var.      X  75.     a,  lateral  aspect ;  b,  peripheral 

aspect. 
,.  22.  „  formosa  Bp.n.     X  90.     a,  lateral  aspect ;  b,  horizontal  section. 

October  15th,  1902  2  M 


55 
55 

7. 

59 

8. 

59 

9. 

99 

10. 

11,12. 

9* 

13, 14. 

510  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

dulina  laevigata  var.  injlata  (Born.)  Andreae,  1884,  Abhandl.  geol. 
Special  Karte  Elsass-Loth.,  vol.  ii.  p.  206,  pi.  vii.  fig.  12  ;  and  var. 
elliptica  (Reuss),  p.  206,  pi.  x.  fig.  22.  G.  laevigata  (d'Orb.)  Gumbel, 
1885,  Geol.  Bayern,  p.  422,  fig.  266,  4.  Nodosaria  (Glandulina) 
abbreviata  (Neug.)  Sherborn  and  Chapman,  1886,  Journ.  E.  Micr. 
Soc,  p.  746,  pi.  xiv.  fig.  20.  G.  laevigata  Haeusler,  1887,  Neues 
Jahrb.  fur  Min.,  p.  189,  pi.  v.  fig.  29.  Nodosaria  (Gland.)  laevigata 
(d'Orb.)  Burrows,  Sherborn,  and  Bailey,  1890,  Journ.  E.  Micr.  Soc, 
p.  556,  pi.  ix.  figs.  14,  15.  G.  laevigata  (d'Orb.)  Haeusler,  1890, 
Abhandl.  schweiz.  Pal.  Gesell.,  vol.  xvii.  p.  91,  pi.  xiii.  figs.  61-63 ; 
and  pi.  xiv.  fig.  2.  G.  laevigata  (d'Orb.)  Crick  and  Sherborn,  1891, 
Journ.  Northamp.  Nat.  Hist.  Soc,  vol.  vi.  p.  209,  pi.  vi.  fig.  4. 
G.  laevigata  (d'Orb.)  Beissel  (Holzapfel),  1891,  Abhandl.  k.  Preuss. 
geol.  Laudesanst.,  N.F.,  Heft  3,  p.  29,  pi.  vi.  figs.  7-9.  G.  laevigata 
(d'Orb.)  Hosius,  1892,  Verhandl.  Nat.  Ver.  Preuss.  Eheinlands 
Westphal.,  Jahrg.  xlix.  p.  152,  pi.  ii.  figs.  1,  2.  G.  laevigata  (d'Orb.) 
Egger,  1893,  Abhandl.  k.  bayer.  Akad.  Wiss.,  CI.  II.  vol.  xviii. 
pp.  336  and  339,  pi.  xi.  fig.  31.  Nodosaria  laevigata  (d'Orb.)  Der- 
vieux,  1893,  Boll.  Soc.  Geol.  Italia,  vol.  xii.  p.  597,  pi.  v.  figs.  1,  2. 
Nodosaria  laevigata  (d'Orb.)  Goes,  1894,  K.  Svenska  Yet.- Akad. 
Handl.,  vol.  xxv.  p.' 71,  pi.  xiii.  figs.  702,  703,  706,'  707,  709.  G. 
cuspidata  Franzenau,  1894,  Glasnik  Hrv.  Nar.  Druztva,  p.  259, 
pi.  v.  fig.  5.  G.  laevigata  (d'Orb.)  Jones,  1895,  Palreont.  Soc,  p.  207. 
G.  laevigata  var.  chilostoma  Ezehak,  1895,  Ann.  k.  k.  Naturh.  Hoi- 
museums,  vol.  x.  part  2,  p.  219,  pi.  vii.  fig.  6.  Nodosaria  laevigata 
(d'Orb.)  Silvestri,  1 896,  Mem.  Pontif.  Acad.  Nuovi  Lincei,  vol.  xii. 
p.  122,  pi.  iii.  fig.  11  (anomalous).  Nodosaria  laevigata  (d'Orb.) 
Flint,  1899,  Eep.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.  for  1897  (1899)  p.  308,  pi.  lv. 
fig.  3.  G.  laevigata  (d'Orb.)  Egger,  1899,  Abhandl.  k.  bayer.  Akad. 
Wiss.,  CI.  II.  vol.  xxi.  p.  81,  pi.  v.  fig.  31.  G.  laevigata  (d'Orb.) 
Silvestri,  1900,  Mem.  Pontif.  Acad.  Nuovi  Lincei,  vol.  xvii.  p.  248, 
pi.  vi.  figs.  41,  49.  Idem,  1900,  Atti  e  Rendic  Acad.  Sci.  Lett,  e 
Arti  dei  Zelanti  e  P.P.  dello  Studio  di  Acireale,  vol.  x.  p.  (1)  pi. 
figs.  1-5,  9,  16.  G.  laevigata  (d'Orb.)  var.  subomata  Fornasini, 
1901,  Mem.  E,  Acad.  Sci.  1st.  Bologna,  ser.  5,  vol.  ix.  p.  56,  fig.  9. 

This  form  is  very  abundant  and  exhibits  the  usual  variations, 
the  chambers  sometimes  being  almost  entirely  exposed  ;  at  other 
times  nearly  concealed  by  the  embracing  latest  chamber.  The 
sutures  are  of  various  degrees  of  obliquity,  and  the  aperture  is 
frequently  entosolenian. 

It  is  found  at  most  of  the  Stations  in  both  Areas,  and  is  very 
evenly  distributed. 

Nodosaria  (Glandidina)  rotundata  Eeuss. 

Glandidina  rotundata  Eeuss,  1849,  Denkschr.  K.  Akad.  Wiss. 
Wien,  vol.  i.  p.  366,  pi.  xlvi.  fig.  2.  Nodosaria  (Gl.)  obtusissima 
(Eeuss)  Sherborn  and  Chapman,  1886,  Journ.  E.  Micr.  Soc,  ser.  2, 


Report  on  Foraminifera.     By  F.  W.  Millet/.  511 

vol.  vi.  p.  746,  pi.  xiv.  fig.  21.  Nodosaria  (Gl.)  obtusissima  (Reuss) 
Burrows,  Sherborn,  and  Bailey,  1890,  Journ.  R.  Micr.  Soc,  p.  55G, 
pi.  ix.  fig.  16.  G.  rotundata  (Eeuss)  Foruasini,  1896,  Rivista  Ital. 
di  Paleont.,  fig.  1.  Nodosaria  rotundata  (Reuss)  Flint,  1899,  Rep. 
U.S.  Nat.  Mus.  for  1897  (1899)  p.  308,  pi.  liv.  fig.  6.  G.  laevigata 
A  (d'Orb.)  (rotundata)  Silvestri,  1899,  1900,  Atti  e  Rendic.  Accad. 
Sci.  Lett,  e  Arti  dei  Zelanti  e  P.P.  dello  Studio  di  Acireale,  vol.  x. 
pi.  figs.  7,  8,  10-15. 

This  variety  with  the  rounded  base  is  almost  as  abundant  as 
the  foregoing,  and  is  just  as  evenly  distributed.  The  aperture 
likewise  is  often  entosolenian,  but  there  is  not  quite  so  much 
variation  in  the  form  of  the  test. 

In  treating  of  the  fauna  of  an  extensive  region  it  is  hardly 
desirable  to  enter  into  the  controversy  with  regard  to  the  dual 
forms,  and  it  must  be  left  to  other  investigators  to  determine  if 
G.  laevigata  and  G.  rotundata  are  respectively  the  microspheric  and 
megalospheric  states  of  the  same  species,  but  it  may  be  pointed 
out  that  their  almost  equal  abundance  in  the  Malay  Archipelago 
is  rather  against  the  theory. 

Nodosaria  (Glandidina)  echinata  sp.  n.,  plate  XL  fig.  4. 

Test  subovate ;  broadest  near  the  centre  and  tapering  towards 
each  end,  the  base  being  either  acute  or  rounded.  Sutures  indis- 
tinct. Aperture  situated  in  a  short  neck  with  an  everted  lip. 
Surface  of  the  shell  beset  with  minute  spines  which  are  longest  at 
the  primordial  end  of  the  test.     Length  0  ■  38  mm. 

This  may  be  described  as  a  spinous  variety  of  both  N.  laevigata 
and  N  rotundata.  In  the  present  state  of  uncertainty  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  relations  between  the  Nodosaria?  differing  in  character 
only  in  having  the  base  either  acute  or  rounded,  it  is  here  con- 
sidered inadvisable  to  follow  the  hitherto  accepted  rule  of  treating 
the  two  forms  as  representing  different  species,  and  giving  them 
distinctive  names,  consequently  the  more  simple  course  has  been 
adopted  of  associating  them  under  one  heading. 

Their  intimate  relationship  is  shown  by  their  both  possessing 
the  phialine  aperture,  which  is  an  unusual  feature  in  Glanduliim . 

There  are  numerous  examples  of  a  variety  of  N.  laevigata,  in 
which  the  spines  are  confined  to  the  base.  This  form  has  the 
aperture  invariably  mammillate  with  radiating  stripe  ;  and  the  base 
is  always  acute  or  apiculate. 

The  three  spinous  varieties  here  described  are  by  no  means 
uncommon  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  being  found  at  several 
Stations  in  both  Areas  and  are  about  equal  in  number. 

Nodosaria  (Glandidina)  osqualis  Reuss,  plate  XL  fig.  3. 

Glandidina  aiaualis  Reuss,  1863,  Sitzungsber.  k.  Akad.  Wiss 
Wien,  vol.  xlviii.  p.  48,  pi.  iii.  fig.  28.     G.  cequalis  (Reuss)  Forna- 

2  M  2 


512  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

sini,  1886,  Boll.  Soc.  Geol.  Italia,  vol.  v.  p.  337,  pi.  vii.  figs.  1-12. 
Nodosaria  candela  (Egger)  Burrows,  Sherborn,  and  Bailey,  1890, 
Journ.  Pi.  Micr.  Soc,  p.  556,  pi.  ix.  fig.  18.  Nodosaria  cequalis 
(Reuss)  Foruasini,  1894,  Mem.  R,  Accad.  Sci.  1st.  Bologna,  ser.  5, 
vol.  iv.  p.  202,  pi.  i.  fig.  1.  Nodosaria  cequalis  (Reuss)  Goes,  1894, 
K.  Svenska  Vet.-Akad.  Handl.,  vol.  xxv.  p.  72,  pi.  xiii.  figs.  704, 
705,  708,  710,  711.  G.  cequalis  (Reuss)  Egger,  1899,  Abhandl.  k. 
bayer.  Akad.  Wiss.,  CI.  II.  vol.  xxi.  p.  84,  pi.  v.  fig.  22.  G. 
cequalis  (Reuss)  Silvestri,  1900,  Mem.  Pontif.  Accad.  Nuovi  Lincei, 
vol.  xvii.  p.  249,  pi.  vi.  figs.  58,  59. 

This  cylindrical  variety  is  rounded  at  the  base  typically,  and 
in  that  condition  may  he  regarded  as  an  elongate  form  of  N.  rotun- 
clata.  In  the  Malay  Archipelago  the  examples  are  invariably 
acutely  pointed  at  the  primordial  end,  thus  indicating  an  affinity 
with  N  laevigata.  For  the  reasons  given  in  treating  of  N.  echinata 
the  two  forms  are  again  associated. 

It  is  very  rare  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  occurs  only  in 
Area  1. 

Nodosaria  (Glandulina)  comata  Batsch  sp.,  plate  XI.  fig.  2. 

Nautilus  (Orthoccrus)  comatus  Batsch,  1791,  Conch.  Seesands, 
p.  2,  pi.  i.  fig.  2  a-d.  Nodosaria  (Glandulina)  glans  d'Orbigny, 
1826,  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  vol.  vii.  p.  252,  No.  2  ;  and  Modele  No.  51. 
N.  (Gland.)  glans  (d'Orb.)  Jones  and  Parker,  1860,  Quart.  Journ. 
Geol.  Soc,  vol.  xvi.  p.  453,  pi.  xix.  fig.  7.  ?  Glandulina  glans 
(d'Orb.)  Fornasini,  1883,  Boll.  Soc.  Geol.  Italia,  vol.  ii.  pi.  ii.  fig.  6. 
Nodosaria  comata  (Batsch  sp.)  Fornasini,  1891,  Foram.  Plioc  del 
Ponticello  di  Savena,  pi.  ii.  fig.  18.  Nodosaria  comuta  (sic) 
(Batsch  sp.)  Grzybowski,  1895,  Rozprawy  Wydz.  mat.-Przyr. 
Akad.  Umiej-Krakowie,  vol.  xxx.  p.  293,  pi.  x.  fig.  8.  Nodosaria 
comata  (Batsch  sp.)  Flint,  1899,  Rep.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.  for  1897 
(1899)  p.  311,  pi.  lvii.  fig.  3.  Glandulina  comata  (Batsch  sp.) 
Fornasini,  1900,  Mem.  R.  Accad.  Sci.  1st.  Bologna,  ser.  5,  vol.  viii. 
p.  380,  fig.  29. 

This,  in  its  more  compact  form,  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than 
a  typical  Glandulina  laevigata,  having  its  surface  covered  with 
delicate  stria3,  and  has  been  well  represented  by  d'Orbigny  under 
the  name  of  Glandulina  glans.  Amongst  a  multitude  of  specimens 
from  the  Malay  Archipelago,  passage,  forms  are  to  be  found  in 
abundance  leading  gradually  and  insensibly  from  this  Glanduline 
to  the  elongated  Nodosarian  form,  which  may  be  considered  to 
represent  Nodosaria  radicida  with  a  striated  surface. 

In  his  '  Challenger '  Report,*  Brady  has  so  thoroughly  dealt 

*  Brady,  Chall.  Kept.,  1884,  p.  509. 


Report  on  Foraminifera.     By  F.  W.  Millett.  513 

with  the  subject  and  so  well  explained  the  affinity  of  the  apparently 
dissimilar  forms  figured  by  Batsch,  that  to  attempt  to  add  anything 
to  his  statement  would  be  a  mere  waste  of  time. 

As  a  recent  form,  it  has  been  recorded  from  only  a  very  few 
Stations,  but  these  are  wide  apart,  extending  from  the  West  Indies 
to  Mauritius,  at  depths  not  exceeding  450  fathoms. 

In  the  Malay  Archipelago,  it  occurs  in  great  abundance  all  over 
the  region. 

Nodosaria  radicula  Linne  sp. 

Cornu  Hammonis  erectum"  Plancus,  1739,  Conch.  Min.,  p.  14, 
pi.  i.  fig.  5,  A,  B,  c.  Nautilus  radicula  Linne,  1767,  Syst.  Nat., 
p.  1164.  Nodosaria  radicula  (Linn.)  Sherborn  and  Chapman,  1886, 
Journ.  E.  Micr.  Soc,  ser.  2,  vol.  vi.  p.  746,  pi.  xiv.  fig.  24.  N. 
radicula  (Linn.)  Malagoli,  1887,  Boll.  Soc.  Geol.  Italia,  vol.  vi. 
p.  520,  pi.  xiii.  fig.  4.  N.  radicula  (L)  Idem,  1887,  Atti  Soc.  Nat. 
Modena,  ser.  3,  vol.  iii.  p.  109,  pi.  i.  fig.  8.  '  N.  radicula  Mariani, 
1889,  Boll.  Soc,  Geol.  Italia,  vol.  vii.  p.  286,  pi.  x.  fig.  7.  N  radi- 
cula (Linn.)  Haeusler,  1890,  Abhandl.  schweiz.  pal.  Gesell.,  vol. 
xvii.  p.  92,  pi.  xiii.  figs.  41-45,  47,  48,  50,  53.  N.  radicula  (Linn.) 
Crick  and  Sherborn,  1891,  Journ.  Northamp.  Nat.  Hist.  Soc,  vol. 
vi.  pi.  i.  fig.  5.  N.  radicula  (Linn.)  Terrigi,  1891,  Mem.  B.  Com. 
Geol.  Italia,  vol.  iv.  p.  78,  pi.  ii.  fig.  4.  N.  radicula  (Linn.)  Haeusler, 
1893,  Abhandl.  schweiz.  pal.  Gesell.,  vol.  xx.  p.  23,  pi.  ii.  figs.  36-46. 
N.  radicula  (Linn.)  Grzybowski,  1897,  Bozprawy  Wydz.  Przyr. 
Akad.  Umiej-Krakowie,  vol.  xxxiii.  p.  296,  pi.  xii.  fig.  18.  N. 
radicula  (Linn.)  Flint,  1899,  Rep.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.  for  1897  (1899) 
p.  309,  pi.  Iv.  fig.  1.  N.  radicula  (Linn.)  Egger,  1899,  Abhandl. 
k.  bayer.  Akad.  Wiss.,  CI.  II.,  vol.  xxi.  p.  67,  pi.  v.  fig.  40. 

This  is  a  widely  distributed  form,  but  Brady  states  that  it  has 
not  been  found  in  the  North  Pacific. 

Nodosaria  calomorpha  Beuss. 

Nodosaria  calomorpha  Beuss,  1865,  Denkschr.  k.  Akad.  Wiss. 
Wien,  vol.  xxv.  p.  129,  pi.  i.  figs.  15-19.  N.  bistegia  Dunikowski, 
1879,  Kosmos  (Lemberg)  vol.  iv.  p.  106,  pi.,  fig.  4.  N  calomorpha 
•(Beuss)  Brady,  Parker,  and  Jones,  1888,  Trans.  Zool.  Soc,  vol.  xii. 
p.  223,  pi.  xliv.  figs.  1,  4.  N  calomorpha  (Beuss)  Haeusler,  1890, 
Abhandl.  schweizer  Pal.  Gesell.,  vol.  xvii.  p.  95,  pi.  xiii.  figs.  35-37. 
N.  calomorpha  (Beuss)  Burrows,  Sherborn,  and  Bailey,  1890, 
Journ.  B.  Micr.  Soc,  p.  566,  pi.  ix.  fig.  21.  N.  calomorpha  (Beuss) 
Terrigi,  1891,  Mem.  B.  Com.  Geol.  Italia,  vol.  iv.  p.  78,  pi.  ii.  fig.  5. 
N.  ccdomoipha  (Beuss)  Chaster,  1892,  First  Bept.  of  the  Southport 
Soc.  of  Nat.  Sci.,  1890-1891  (1892)  p.  63,  pi.  i.  fig.  12.  N.  calo- 
morpha (Beuss)  Haeusler,  1893,  Abhandl.  schweizer  Pal.  Gesell., 


514  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

vol.  xx.  p.  27,  pi.  i.  fig.  73 ;  pi.  iii.  fig.  47.  N.  calomorpha  (Eeuss) 
Egger,  1893,  Abhandl.  k.  bayer.  Akad.  Wiss.,  CI.  II.  vol.  xviii. 
p.  340,  pi.  xi.  figs.  21,  26.  N.  calomorpha  (Eeuss)  Goes,  1894, 
K.  Svenska  Vet.- Akad.  Handl.,  vol.  xxv.  p.  72,  pi.  xiii.  figs.  712,  713. 
N.  calomorpha  (Eeuss)  Grzybowski,  1895,  Eozprawy  Wydz.  mat.- 
Przyr.  Akad.  Umiej-Krakowie,  vol.  xxx.  p.  293,  pi.  x.  fig.  31. 
N.  calomorpha  (Eeuss)  Morton,  1897,  Proc.  Portland  Soc°  Nat. 
Hist.,  vol.  ii.  p.  118,  pi.  i.  fig.  6. 

This  delicate  little  Nodosaria,  with  its  thin  transparent  cham- 
bers resembling  a  string  of  bubbles,  is  common  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  and  widely  distributed  in  both  Areas.  Usually  the 
test  consists  of  two  or  three  segments  only,  and  these,  from  the 
formation  of  the  last  added  chamber,  appear  to  be  complete  in 
themselves,  but  there  are  examples  which  possess  four  and  even 
five  segments.  Some  of  the  two-chambered  specimens  differ  from 
N  simplex  Silvestri  only  in  wanting  the  mucro  at  the  base  of  the 
initial  chamber.  Goes  suggests  that  N.  calomorpha  may  be  the 
megaspheric  form  of  N  radicula  or  A.  paupcrata. 

The  area  of  distribution  of  the  species  is  very  wide;  whilst 
bathymetrically  its  range  according  to  Brady  is  from  6  fathoms  to 
2200  fathoms,  and  it  is  recorded  by  Dr.  Egger  from  depths  of  17  to 
677  metres. 

Nodosaria  pyrula  d'Orbigny. 

Nodosaria  pyrula  d'Orbigny,  1826,  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  vol.  vii. 
p.  253,  No.  13.  Lagena  Iccvis  (W.  and  J.)  Clarke,  1849,  Ann.  and 
Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  2,  vol.  iii.  p.  382,  fig.  Nodosaria  pyrula, 
(d'Orb.)  Williamson,  1858,  Kec.  Foram.  Gt.  Britain,  p.  17,  pi.  ii. 
fig.  39.  N.  pyrula  (d'Orb.)  Balkwill  and  Wright,  1885,  Trans. 
E.  Irish  Acad.,  vol.  xxviii.  (Sci.)  p.  343,  pi.  xii.  fig.  23.  N.  pyrula 
(d'Orb.)  Brady,  Parker,  and  Jones,  1888,  Trans.  Zool.  Soc,  vol.  xii. 
p.  223,  pi.  xliv.  fig.  2.  N.  pxjrula  (d'Orb.)  Eornasini,  1890,  Mem. 
E.  Accad.  Sci.  1st.  Bologna,  ser.  4,  vol.  x.  p.  468,  pi.  fig.  11.  N. 
pyrula  (d'Orb.)  Terrigi,  1891,  Mem.  E.  Com.  Geol.  Italia,  vol.  iv. 
part  1,  p.  89,  pi.  ii.  fig.  29.  N  pyrula  (d'Orb.)  Haeusler,  1893, 
Abhandl.  schweizer  Pal.  Gesell.,  vol.  xx.  p.  28,  pi.  v.  figs.  25,  26. 
N  pyrula  (d'Orb.)  Egger,  1893,  Abhandl.  k.  bayer.  Akad.  Wiss. 
Cl.  II.  vol.  xviii.  p.  345,  pi.  xi.  figs.  14,  15.  N  pyrula  (d'Orb.) 
Dervieux,  1893,  Boll.  Soc.  Geol.  Italia,  vol.  xii.  fasc.  4,  p.  603,  pi.  v. 
fig.  15.  N.pynda  (d'Orb.)  Silvestri,  1896, Mem.  Pontif.  Accad.  Nuovi 
Lincei,  vol.  xii.  p.  134,  pi.  iii.  fig.  21.  N  pyrula  (d'Orb.)  Flint, 
1899,  Eep.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.  for  1897  (1899)  p.  309,  pi.  Iv.  fig.  4. 

This  fragile  variety  is  represented  by  both  the  straight  and  the 
curved  form  D.  guttifera  d'Orbigny.  At  no  Station  is  it  abundant, 
but  it  occurs  in  both  Areas. 


Report  on  Foraminifera.     By  F.  W.  Millett.  515 

Nodosaria  hispida  d'Orbigny. 

"  Orthoceratia  quasi  hispida  "  Soldani,  1798,  Testaceographia, 
vol.  ii.  p.  15,  pi.  ii.  fig.  p.  Nodosaria  hispida  d'Orbigny,  1846, 
For.  Foss.  Vienne,  p.  35,  pi.  i.  figs.  24,  25.  N.  hispida  (d'Orb.) 
Balkwill  and  Wright,  1885,  Trans.  E.  Irish  Acad.,  vol.  xxviii.  (Sci.) 
p.  343,  pi.  xii.  fig.  31.  N.  hispida  (d'Orb.)  Sherborn  and  Chapman, 
1886,  Journ.  R.  Micr.  Soc,  ser.  2,  vol.  vi.  p.  748,  pi.  xiv.  fig.  32. 
X.  hispida  (d'Orb.)  Brady,  Parker,  and  Jones,  1888,  Trans.  Zool. 
S  ic,  vol.  xii.  p.  223,  pi.  xliv.  figs.  3,  5.  N.  hispida  (d'Orb.) 
Mariani,  1889,  Boll.  Soc.  Geol.  Italia,  vol.  vii.  p.  286,  pi.  x.  fig.  6. 
N.  hispida  (d'Orb.)  Terrigi,  1891,  Mem.  R.  Com.  Geol.  Italia, 
vol.  iv.  p.  81,  pi.  ii.  fig.  13.  N.  hispida  (d'Orb.)  Egger,  1893, 
Abhandl.  k.  bayer.  Akad.  Wiss.,  CI.  II.  vol.  xviii.  p.  343,  pi.  xi. 
fig.  16.  N.  hispida  (d'Orb.)  Chapman,  1893,  Journ.  B,  Micr.  Soc, 
p.  591,  pi.  ix.  fig.  5.  N.  hispida  (d'Orb.)  Silvestri,  1893,  Atti  e 
Kendic.  Accad.  Sci.  Lett,  e  Arti  dei  Zelanti  e  P.P.  dello  Studio 
di  Acireale,  vol.  v.  p.  13,  pi.  ii.  figs.  8-11.  N  hispida  (d'Orb.) 
Fornasini,  1894,  Mem.  E.  Accad.  Sci.  1st.  Bologna,  ser.  5,  vol.  iv. 
p.  208,  pi.  i.  figs.  16-18.  N.  hispida  (d'Orb.)  Ehumbler,  1895, 
Zool.  Anzeiger,  No.  474,  fig.  6.  N  hispida  (d'Orb.)  Perner,  1897, 
Ceska  Akad.  Cisafe  Frantiska  Josefa  (Palreont.  Bohemias  No.  4) 
p.  24,  pi.  iii.  fig.  31.  N.  hispida  (d'Orb.)  Fornasini,  1897-98, 
Rendic.  R.  Accad.  Sci.  1st.  Bologna,  n.s.  vol.  ii.  p.  4,  pi.  i.  fig.  1. 
N.  hispida  (d'Orb.)  Egger,  1899,  Abhandl.  k.  bayer.  Akad.  Wiss., 
CI.  II.  vol.  xxi.  p.  79^  pi.  ix.  figs.  23,  24.  '  N  hispida  (d'Orb.) 
Flint,  1899,  Rep.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.  for  1897  (1899)  p.  311,  pi.  lvii. 
fig.  1.  N.  hispida  (d'Orb.)  Fornasini,  1901,  Mem.  R.  Accad.  Sci. 
1st.  Bologna,  ser.  5,  vol.  ix.  p.  53,  fig.  6. 

N  hispida  in  its  typical  form  may  be  regarded  as  a  variety  of 
N.  pyrula  with  its  surface  beset  with  spines.  There  is  great  diver- 
sity in  the  form  as  well  as  in  the  disposition  of  the  chambers ; 
usually  these  are  connected  by  a  long  stoloniferous  tube,  but  fre- 
quently this  is  wanting,  and  the  test,  composed  of  sessile  chambers, 
differs  only  from  N  radicida  or  N.  scalaris  in  having  the  surface 
hispid.  Sometimes  both  forms  appear  in  one  test,  the  later 
chambers  only  having  the  stoloniferous  tubes. 

It  is  found  at  several  Stations  in  both  Areas,  but  is  by  no 
means  common,  and  the  examples  are  small. 

Nodosaria  semirugosa  d'Orbigny,  plate  XI.  fig.  5. 

Nodosaria  semirugosa  d'Orbigny,  1846,  For.  Foss.  Vienne,  p.  34, 
pi.  i.  figs.  20-23.  Nodosaria  No.  35,  Von  Schlicht,  1870,  Foram. 
Septarienthones  von  Pietzpuhl,  p.  24,  pi.  vii.  fig.  20.  N  stipitata 
var.  costulata  Reuss,  1870,  Sitzungsber.  k.  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien, 
vol.  lxii.  Abth.  i.  p.  471.  N.  coshdata  (Reuss)  Brady,  1884,  Chall. 
Eept.,  p.  515,  pi.  lxiii.  figs.  23-27.     N.  (cf.)  semirugosa  (d'Orb.) 


516  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Hosius,  1892,  Yerhandl.  Nat.  Ver.  Preuss.  Rheini  Westphal., 
Jahrg.  xlix.  p.  156,  pi.  ii.  fig.  -3.  X.  costdlata  (Eeuss)  Perner, 
is:  17,  Ceska  Akad.  Cisafe  Frantiska  Josefa  (Pakeont,  Bohemian 
No.  4)  p.  29,  pi.  iii.  fig.  18.  N.  costulata  (Eeuss)  Flint,  1899,  Rep. 
U.S.  Nat.  Mus.  for  1897  (1899)  p.  312,  pi.  lviii.  fig.  1. 

This  variety  of  the  X.  pyvv.la  group  differs  from  the  last  de- 
scribed only  in  having  the  base  of  the  chambers  marked  by  short 
costae.  The  remarks  on  the  diversity  of  shapes  in  the  hispid  variety 
apply  equally  to  the  partially  costate  form,  and  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago  the  distribution  is  similar. 

It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  Pieuss  should  have  failed  to 
identify  Von  Schlicht's  figure  with  d'Orbigny's  N.  semirugosa,  and 
why  Brady,  on  the  faith  of  Eeuss,  should  have  accepted  it  as  a 
new  variety.  D'Orbigny  states  that  X.  semirugosa  differs  from 
N.  pgrula  only  in  the  partially  costate  condition  of  the  base  of  the 
chambers ;  whilst  Brady  gives  as  the  differences  between  the  two 
forms  that  "the  walls  are  thick  and  the  basal  aspect  of  each 
chamber  is  decorated  externally  with  raised  costse." 

Elsewhere  it  is  by  no  means  so  common  nor  so  widely  distri- 
buted as  X.  hispida.  'The  'Challenger'  Stations  are  three  in  the 
North  Atlantic  and  one  near  the  Philippine  Islands,  at  depths 
ranging  from  95  to  450  fathoms.  Flint  records  two  '  Albatross ' 
Stations,  both  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  210  and  227  fathoms 
respectively. 

Xodosaria  (Dcntalina)  soluta  Eeuss. 

Dcntalina  soluta  Eeuss,  1851,  Zeitschr.  deutsch.  geol.  Gesell., 
vol.  iii.  p.  63,  pi.  iii.  fig.  4.  Xodosaria  soluta  (Eeuss)  Andreae, 
1884,  Abhandl.  geol.  Special  Karte  Elsass-Loth.,  vol.  ii.  p.  201, 
pi.  x.  fig.  8.  N.  soluta  (Eeuss)  Sherborn  and  Chapman,  1886, 
Journ.  E.  Micr.  Soc,  ser.  2,  vol.  vi.  p.  746,  pi.  xiv.  figs.  25,  26. 
N.  (D.)  soluta  (Eeuss)  Burrows,  Sherborn,  and  Bailey,  1890,  Journ. 
E.  Micr.  Soc,  p.  557,  pi.  ix.  fig.  26.  Dentalina  soluta  (Eeuss) 
Wisniowski,  1890,  Pamietnik  Wydz.  iii.  Ak.  Umiej-Krakowie, 
vol.  xvii.  p.  20,  pi.  viii.  figs.  37,  38.  N.  soluta  (Eeuss)  Fornasini, 
1890,  Mem.  R.  Accad.  Sci.  1st.  Bologna,  ser.  4,  vol.  x.  p.  469,  pi. 
fig.  8.  iV.  soluta  (Eeuss)  Fornasini,  1891,  Foraminiferi  Pliocenici 
del  Ponticello  di  Savena,  pi.  ii.  figs.  14,  15.  X.  soluta  (Eeuss) 
Terrigi,  1891,  Mem.  R.  Com.  Geol.  Italia,  vol.  iv.  p.  80,  pi.  ii. 
fig.  10.  X.  (D.)  soluta  (Eeuss)  Chapman,  1893,  Journ.  E.  Micr. 
Soc,  p.  587,  pi.  viii.  fig.  26.  X.  soluta  (Eeuss)  Goes,  1894, 
K.  Svenska  Vet.-Akad.  Handl.,  vol.  xxv.  p.  70,  pi.  xii.  fig.  690. 
N.  soluta  (Eeuss)  Egger,  1895,  Naturh.  Ver.  Passau,  Jahresber., 
xvi.  p.  21,  pi.  ii.  figs.  6,  15,  16.  X.  soluta  (Eeuss)  Perner,  1897, 
Ceska  Akad.  Cisafe  Frantiska  Josefa '  (Palaeont.  Bohemias  No.  4). 
p.  26,  pi.  iii.  fig.   10.     X.  soluta  (Eeuss)  Egger,  1899,  Abhandl. 


Report  on  Foraminifera.     By  F.  W.  Millctt.  517 

k.  bayer.  Akad.  Wiss.,  CI.  II.  vol.  xxi.  p.  59,  pi.  vi.  fig.  23,  and 
pi.  vii.  fig.  iii.  N.  soluta  (Reuss)  Flint,  1899,  Rep.  U.S.  Nat.  xWus. 
for  1897  (1899)  p.  310,  pi.  lvi.  fig.  3.  N.  soluta  (Reuss)  Chapman, 
1900.  Proc.  California  Acad,  of  Sci.,  ?er.  3,  Geo].,  vol.  i.  p.  248, 
pi.  xxix.  fig.  14  N.  soluta  (Reuss)  Silvestri,  1900,  Mem.  Pontif. 
Accad.  Xuovi  Lincei,  vol.  xvii.  p.  252,  pi.  vi.  figs.  67,  68. 

The  difference  between  the  slender  N.  pyrida  and  the  more 
compact  N.  soluta,  is  only  one  of  degree,  and  that  chiefly  in  the 
length  and  thickness  of  the  stoloniferous  tubes.  In  the  original 
figures  by  Reuss  these  are  almost  as  long  and  as  slender  as  in 
N.  pyrula,  and  one  of  the  examples  figured  has  the  later  chambers 
only  connected  by  the  tube,  which,  as  before  mentioned,  is  a 
common  feature  in  N.  hispida. 

In  the  Malay  Archipelago  i\T.  soluta  is  of  great  rarity  and  has 
been  observed  only  in  Area  1. 

Nodosaria  capitata  Boll,  plate  XI.  fig.  6. 

Nodosaria  capitata  Boll,  1846,  Geogn.  deutsch.  Ostseelandt-r, 
p.  177,  pi.  ii.  fig.  13.  Dentalina  antennula  d'Orbigny,  1846,  Fur. 
Foss.  Vienne,  p.  53,  pi.  ii.  figs.  29,  30  ;  and  D.  semicostata,  p.  53, 
pi.  ii.  figs.  26,  28.  I).  Bueki  Reuss,  1851,  Zeitschr.  deutsch.  geol. 
Gesell.,  vol.  iii.  p.  60,  pi.  iii.  fig.  6 ;  and  D.  Philippi,  p.  60,  pi.  iii. 
fig.  5.  D.  capitata  (Boll)  Reuss,  1855,  Sitzungsber.  k.  Akad. 
Wiss.  Wien,  vol.  xviii.  p.  223,  pi.  i.  fig.  4 ;  and  1864  (1865)  vol.  1. 
p.  454,  pi.  i.  figs.  8-10.  Nodosaria  tholigera  Schwager,  1866, 
Novara-Exped.,  Geol.  Theil,  vol.  ii.  p.  218,  pi.  v.  fig.  41. 
Dentalina  Xos.  149  and  150  Von  Schlicht,  1870,  Foram.  Sep- 
tarienthones  von  Pietzpuhl,  p.  27,  pi.  viii.  figs.  9,  11.  D.  capitata 
(Boll)  Hantken,  1875  (1876),  A  magy.  kir.  foldt.  int.  evkon\  ve, 
vol.  iv.  p.  29,  pi.  iii.  fig.  16.  Nodosaria  acimlata  (d'Orb.)Fornasini, 
1891,  Foraminiferi  Pliocenici  del  Ponticello  di  Savena,  pi.  ii.  fig.  17. 
JY.  soluta  (Reuss)  Silvestri,  1893,  Atti  e  Rendic.  Accad.  Sci.  Lett, 
e  Arti  dei  Zelanti  e  P.P.  dello  Studio  di  Acireale,  vol.  v.  p.  13, 
pi.  iii.  figs.  16,  17.  N.  plicosuturata  Dervieux,  1894,  Boll.  Soo.. 
Geol.  Italia,  vol.  xii.  fasc.  4,  p.  613,  pi.  v.  fig.  43. 

N.  capitata,  as  interpreted  by  Reuss  and  other  authors,  seems 
to  be  nothing  more  nor  less  than  N.  soluta  with  the  sutures  or 
base  of  the  chambers  costate  or  plicate.  N.  capitata,  when  so 
named,  is  always  figured  as  a  test  with  few  chambers,  the  initial 
one  being  larger  than  those  which  immediately  succeed  it ;  but 
there  is  another  form  composed  of  numerous  chambers  ami 
tapering  almost  to  a  point  at  the  base.  This  is  well  represented 
by  one  of  Soldani's  figures,  to  which  d'Orbigny  has  given  the 
name   of  Dentalina   acimlata*       This   form  also  has  the   con- 

*  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  vol.  vii.  1826,  p.  255,  No.  II. 


-    in&ietions 

-  between  the- chambers       state,  and  may  on- 

reprcsent   the   :..:::   3]  edition   of  the  spe>-    - 

this    -  tter  form  may  be  i  ss  _ 

~ia    interi  Eoem bi   \   Denial  *  mi~ 

-"         d         _    ■  ■    :    Kodosar  L'Qrt       Fornasini    \ 

and  Xod  Franxen 

rd  of  this  form  in  the  living  on, 

and  the  only  example  from  the  Malay  Archipel  go  is  tfa    Bras 
liiirui     I     tl  is  15  6   :..  Si  tti    .  2 1   in  ...       1 


-  "  limb?-     ".     rbigny.     late  XX  fig.  7. 

Km  ~  "   -        "'  I  sch,  1791,  Conch.  S     sands, 

pi.  iii.  ::    l(        iVi      -?ria   I.  :.'■■'       _         184      BJ  m    S 

Fi  nee,  aea    1.  vol.  iv.  p.  12,  pi  L  fig.   1.     JV. 
1  -    -.  N       ra-Ex]  Seel    7 ..-.-:..  vol.  i.  p.  1.-.  |  1.  xxii. 

fig.    19  :    and   D  oomuligera,   r.     _    -.    pi.    xxii.    fig     31. 

Dental  i       ted      Terqnem)  nd  Blake.  187   .  ¥  .-hire  Li 

p.  159.  pi.  :  fig    _"       .  bat  Burrows.   S  rn, 

and  Bailev.  ;-  urn.  R.  Mier.    -      .         ~~~.   pi      :.    :.     _ 

:     :       >'.__  Abhandl.  k.     lyei    A k 

CI.  II.  _      1.  xxr    fig  41. 

In  thk  form  the  stolons:   us   :  ibes  of  K.pyntla  are  red-: 
to  a  mere  collar  or  band,  but  the  propria       F  pla  :ing  them  in  the 
v  gr    :p  can  hardly  be  questioned. 

:    igny  restri    -  the  number  of  chamber-  *    three 
or  four,  there  arc  nHj  r.ve  in  the  straight  specimens,  an 

still  larger  number  in  the  curved  exanij  I  - 

ran  -  re]  resented  by  but  one  example  fiom  the  Malay 
Ai  hipel  .  and  this  es  from  Station  5  in  Area  1.  This,  with 
Bat-  -ns  from  an  unknown  locality,  are  the  only  : 

of  the  s\        -in  the  living      ulition. 

t    dosaria  bieamerata  F.  W.  0.  R.  Jon  .        XX  fig   8. 

I  Will     var.   bieam  F.  W.  O.   R.  J 

is.  I     .    Soc*,  vol.  xsx.  p.  65.  plate  xix  figs.      -  _ 

Under  this  name  Bymer   '  :. as   .  :   _  : iter  —   -:  ::..s 

.  :h  appear  to  have  nothing  in  common  beyond  being  comp 
vo  chambers.     He  lescribes  1         .  rnordial  chamber  as  "'be:    s 
more  or  less   _'.  bular  and  sometimes  compre--  and  in  some 

•  -  ,..       i .■:     178  I    "    -      "    :.-  41  T. 
-  Seines  Jshi            -  -2.pl.  iii  -_-.  . 

I  For.  FuaB.  Yieme.  I   M    :   53.pl.:  -38 

*  Farm  Pfioc  del  I  -  -1.  pi.  ii  £  z.  17. 

GLisnik  Hnatakv  Xaravrslov  Draito  :.  18»i,  p.  »3,  pi         Ig.  4S 


port  on  Foraminifera.     By  F.    W.  M 

inst&n :  I  chambers  ar-  .  ha  marginal 

A. 
In  tne  Malay  Archipelago  examples  the  -      portion  of  the 

primordial  rical ;  i:  is  ;:udded  with  minute 

tubercles,  and  bears  a  small  mucro.     The   :~rminal  char. 

-  r-sli aped  and  ornam  i  from  nine  :    eleven  1   ogil      mal 

stae.      The  neck  of  this  chain!  -.-:      ears  a  delicate 
whilst  the  surfa;       :   the  icluding  -_.         -•    .  :- minu: 

aculeated  and  perforated.     In  Eymer  Tone-  5  fig      _.  which  n.  st 
nearly  resembles  the  Mai  -     the  number  of  cost 

stated  to  be  fourteen. 

Probably  some  of  the  -  y  Eymer  -  are 

Uy  double-celled  I  as  the  individual  chambers  have  the 

iters     :  known  species     :  th  I   genus   i  hich  they  are 

ss  ciated  in  the  same  locality:    but  in  the   Malay  Arc!.: 

re  have  been  found  n    I  having  sails  identi:         "     "      :r 

of  the  form  here  deseri  nenee  it  may  be  tr  .is  a  true 

In  the  Malay  Aichipel  .      _  ay  rare,  and  has  t«een  ob- 

served only  at  Si  in  Area  1. 

By.  Jones'?   specimens   ~r:r    obtained   from  nding   ten 

les  south  of  S  adalwood  Island  in  the  Jaw.  S  sat  .depth  of 
1    -  '  fathoms. 


3"      •  Silvestri     late  XI.  fig 

iriapr  0.  SQvestri   1872    At4    .  eni    S  i 

Nat.,   ils.  vol.  vii.  -  pL  vi   figs.    138-147         A. 

Silvestri    Terrigi.  1891,  Mem.  R  Com.  GeoL  Italia,  voh  iv.  p.  -_ 
pi  ii  fij.  17.     A.  m   fabilis    Terquem)  Crick  and  Shea     m    18    I, 
orn.  Nbi&amp.  Nat.  Hist   Soc    voL  vi    p.   214  pL  vi  figs.  7    - 
A.  pro,  ima  (Silvestri    Fornasini,  18  -    Mem.  B    Ac  cad.  Sci  Is:. 
Bolo£  "         L   iv.   p.   206,  pL  i.  Ggs        -    "       N      ^•xima 

Silvestri)  -Tones.  1896,  Palae •::  it    -        p.  21       pi.  vii.  fig.  15  and 
pi.  iv.  fig.  S.     A  -  Baiseh)  var.  Silv     A. 

Silvestri.  1896,  Mem.  Pontif.  Acad.  Nn  vi  Lincei,  voL  xii  p.  I  a    . 
pi.  iv.  figs.  12—15 

The  specimens    :  :his  va:  re  all  bilocolar  and  the  in. 

:nber  is  always  larger  than  I  hich  foil      -         n  this  :    - 

being  exactly  the  reverse  of  ::.-  r  form  of  A".  -  The 

imples  of  A7!  differ  from  onp  another  in  little  more  than 

the  character   ::  the  ornamen".  ::  n   the  oostae  of  •  -  few 

I  strong,  as  in  Logout   s    U    to,  whilst  in  others  I 

ttf     s  in  L.  SL 
It  is  not  uncommon  in  tbe  M  d  ty  Archipej  _        eingfom 
several  St   J     s  in  both  art  - 


520  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Nodosaria  scalaris  Bcatsch  sp.  var.,  plate  XI.  fig.  10. 

Nautilus  (Orthoceras)  scalaris  Batsch,  1791,  Conch.  Seesands, 
No.  4,  pi.  ii.  tig.  4  Nodosaria  longicavda  d'Orbigny,  182G,  Ann. 
Sci.  Nat,,  vol.  vii.  p.  254,  No.  28.  N.  intersita  Franzenau,  1888, 
Foldt.  Kozlony,  vol.  xviii.  p.  172,  pi.  ii.  figs.  1,  2.  A.  scalaris 
(Batsch)  Brady,  Parker,  and  Jones,  1888,  Trans.  Zool.  Soc., 
vol.  xii.  p.  223,  pi.  xliv.  figs.  6,  19.  N  scalaris  (Batsch)  Fornasini 
1889,  Minute  forme  Bizopod.  Betic,  pi.  fig.  24.  N.  scalaris 
(Batsch)  Terrigi,  1891,  Mem.  B.  Com.  Geol.  Italia,  vol.  iv.  p.  82, 
pi.  2,  fig.  15  ;  and  N.  raphanus  (Linne)  p.  82,  pi.  ii.  fig.  16.  N. 
scalaris  (Batsch)  Egger,  1893,  Abhandl.  k.  bayer.  Akad.  Wiss., 
CI.  II.  vol.  xviii.  p.  344,  pi.  xi.  figs.  40,  41.  N.  scalaris  (Batsch) 
A.  Silvestri,  1893,  Mem.  Pontif.  Accad.  Nuovi  Lincei,  vol.  ix. 
p.  203,  pi.  v.  fig.  4.  N.  scalaris  (Batsch)  Goes,  1894.  K.  Svenska 
Vet.-Akad.  Handl.,  vol.  xxv.  p.  73,  pi.  xiii.  figs.  716-718.  N 
scalaris  (Batsch)  A.  Silvestri,  1896,  Mem.  Pontif.  Accad.  Nuovi 
Lincei,  vol.  xii.  p.  156,  pi.  iv.  figs.  5-11  ;  pi.  v.  fig.  1.  N.  scalaris 
(Batsch)  Fornasini,  1902,  Mem.  E.  Accad.  Sci.  1st.  Bologna,  ser.  5a, 
vol.  x.  p.  34,  figs.  27,  28. 

Bilocular  examples  of  this  species  are  common  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  and  on  some  of  these  the  costse  are  very  faint  whilst 
on  others  they  are  entirely  wanting ;  in  this  state  the  form  is  not 
to  be  distinguished  from  N.  simplex  Silvestri,  and  this  latter  may 
well  be  regarded  as  the  smooth  condition  of  N  scalaris. 

As  before  mentioned,  the  embryonal  chamber  of  these  bilocular 
forms  of  N.  scalaris  is  always  the  smaller,  as  opposed  to  the 
arrangement  characteristic  of  N.  proxima  ;  but  this  distinction 
may  after  all  be  purely  artificial,  for  taking  these  bilocular  forms, 
they  are  assigned  to  one  or  other  of  the  species  according  as  one  or 
other  of  the  chambers  is  the  larger,  whilst  both  forms  are  to  be 
found  embodied  in  the  multilocular  N.  scalaris  in  which  the  second 
chamber  is  usually  larger  than  the  embryonal,  but  is  often  smaller 
as  in  N.  proxima. 

It  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  the  Nodosaria  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago  and  is  found  at  several  Stations  in  both  Areas. 

Nodosaria  scalaris  Batsch  sp.  var.  scparans  Brady, 
plate  XI.  figs.  11,  12. 

Nodosaria  scparans  Batsch  sp.  var.  scparans  Brady,  1884,  Chall. 
Ptept.,  p.  511,  pi.  lxiv.  figs.  16-19.  N.  scalaris  var.  scparans 
(Brady)  A.  Silvestri,  1893,  Mem.  PoDtif.  Accad.  Nuovi  Lincei, 
vol.  ix.  p.  203,  pi.  iv.  fig.  4. 

In  N.  scalaris  as  in  N  hispida  there  is  a  tendency  to  have  some 
of  the  chambers  separated  by  a  stoloniferous  tube. 

This  variety  appears  to  be  very  local.     It  was  found  only  in  one 


Report  on  Foraminifcra.     By  F.  W.  Millett.  521 

'  Challenger '  sounding,  off  the  west  coast  of  New  Zealand,  275 
fathoms ;  and  Brady  says  that  good  examples  have  been  dredged 
on  the  coast  of  Kerry.  It  has  been  recorded  by  Joseph  Wright  at 
three  stations  off  the  south  west  of  Ireland  at  depths  of  from  110  to 
120  fathoms  and  is  stated  by  him  to  be  common  at  one  of  these 
Stations.  Silvestri's  examples  were  dredged  off  the  east  coast  of 
Sicily,  22  to  700  metres. 

In  the  Malay  Archipelago  it  is  represented  by  a  few  samples 
from  Station  6  m  Area  1  and  from  Station  25  in  area  2. 


Nodosaria  obscura  (?)  Eeuss,  plate  XL  figs.  13,  14. 

Nodosaria  obscura  Eeuss,  1845,  Verstein.  bohm.  Kreide,  part  1, 
p.  26,  pi.  xiii.  fig.  7.  N.  obscura  (Eeuss)  Eeuss,  1874,  Palreonto- 
graphica,  vol.  xx.  part  2,  p.  81,  pi.  xx,  figs.  1-4.  N.  obscura 
(Eeuss)  Berthelin,  1880,  Mem.  Soc.  Geol.  France,  ser.  3,  vol.  i. 
p.  31,  pi.  xxiv.  fig.  17. 

Here  are  two  somewhat  anomalous  specimens  which  appear  to 
be  related  to  N.  scalaris.  Under  the  name  of  N  obscura  Eeuss  has 
described  and  figured  a  variable  form  which  in  some  examples 
shows  no  constriction  at  the  sutures  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
growth,  whilst  in  other  instances  the  septation  of  the  earlier 
chambers  is  indistinct  although  in  the  succeeding  ones  the  sutures 
are  deeply  sunk.  An  exaggerated  example  of  this  latter  form  is 
shown  in  one  of  the  Malay  specimens,  fig.  14. 

It  is  with  some  hesitation  that  these  examples  are  ascribed  to 
N.  obscura,  but  whatever  they  may  be  they  are  interesting  forms, 
and  therefore  worthy  of  being  recorded. 

The  only  Malay  Archipelago  Station  is  No.  22  in  Area  2. 


Nodosaria  raphanus  Linne  sp. 

"  Cornu  Hammonis  erectum  striatum  "  Plancus,  1739,  Conch. 
Min.,  p.  15,  pi.  i.  fig.  6.  Nautilus  raphanus  Linne,  1767,  Syst. 
Nat.,  12th  ed.  p.  1164,  No.  283.  Nodosaria  raphanus  (Linne), 
Parker  and  Jones,  1859,  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  3,  vol.  iii. 
p.  477.  N.  raphanus  (Linne)  Balkwill  and  Wright,  1885,  Trans. 
E.  Irish  Acad.,  vol.  xxviii.  (Sci.)  p.  342,  pi.  xii.  fig.  26.  N 
raphanus  (Linne)  Sherborn  and  Chapman,  1886,  Journ.  E.  Micr. 
Soc,  ser.  2,  vol.  vi.  p.  749,  pi.  xiv.  figs.  36,  37.  N  raphanus 
(Linne)  Fornasini,  1890,  Mem.  E.  Accad.  Sci.  1st.  Bologna,  ser.  4, 
vol.  x.  p.  470,  pi.  figs.  24,  25.  N.  sccdaris  (Batsch)  Haeusler, 
1890,  Abhandl.  schweiz.  pal.  Gesell.,  vol.  xvii.  p.  101,  pi.  xiii. 
fig.  91 ;  and  N.  multicostata  (d'Orb.)  p.  102,  pi.  xiii.  fig.  92.  N 
ra-phanus  (Linne)  Crick  and   Sherborne,  1891,  Journ.  Northamp. 


522  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Nat.  Hist.  Soc,  vol.  vi.  p.  205,  pi.  i.  fig.  11.  N.  raphanus  (Linnd) 
Silvestri,  1893,  Atti  e  Eendic.  Accad.  Sci.  Lett,  e  Arti  dei  Zelanti 
e  P.P.  dello  Studio  di,  Acireale,  vol.  v.  p.  13,  pi.  ii.  figs.  4-7.  N. 
raphanus  (Linne)  Fornasini,  1894,  Mem.  R.  Accad.  Sci.  1st. 
Bologna,  ser.  5,  vol.  iv.  p.  204,  pi.  i.  figs.  41-45.  N.  raphanus 
(Linne)  Jones,  1890,  Palaeont.  Soc,  p.  213,  pi.  vi.  figs.  9,  10.  X. 
raphanus  (Linne)  Burrows  and  Holland,  1897,  Proc.  Geol.  Assoc, 
vol.  xv.  p.  35.  pi.  ii.  fig.  8.  N.  raphanus  (Linne)  Perner,  1897, 
Ceska  Akad.  Cisare  Frantiska  Josefa  (Palaeont.  Bohemias  No.  4) 
p.  27,  pi.  ii.  fig.  19. 

The  Malay  examples  of  this  form  show  little  variation.  It  is 
common  at  Station  13  in  Area  1,  and  occurs  at  a  few  other  Stations 
in  both  Areas. 


Nodosaria  (D.)  communis  d'Orbigny. 

Nodosaria  (Dcntalina)  communis  d'Orbigny,  1820,  Ann.  Sci. 
Nat.,  vol.  vii.  p.  254,  No.  35.  Dcntalina  communis  d'Orbigny, 
1840,  Mem.  Soc.  Geol.  France,  ser.  1,  vol.  iv.  p.  13,  pi.  i.  fig.  4. 
Nodosaria  (D.)  communis  (d'Orb.)  Burrows,  Sherborn,  and  Bailey, 
1890,  Journ.  R.  Micr.  Soc,  p.  557,  pi.  ix.  fig.  27.  N.  communis 
(d'Orb.)  Fornasini,  1890,  Mem.  R.  Accad.  Sci.  1st.  Bologna,  ser.  4, 
vol.  x.  p.  469,  pi.  figs.  14-16,  19,  21.  N.  (D.)  communis  (d'Orb.) 
Haeusler,  1890,  Abhandl.  schweiz.  pal.  Gesell.,  vol.  xvii.  p.  99, 
pi.  xiii.  figs.  97,  100,  108.  D.  communis  (d'Orb.)  Crick  and 
Sherborn,  1891,  Journ.  Northam.  Nat.  Hist.  Soc,  vol.  vi.  p.  4,  pi.  i. 
fig.  13.  N.  {D.)  communis  (d'Orb.)  Chapman,  1893,  Journ.  R.  Micr. 
Soc,  p.  590,  pi.  ix.  fig.  1.  N.  (D.)  communis  (d'Orb.)  Egger,  1893, 
Abhandl.  k.  bayer.  Akad.  Wiss.,  Cl.  II.  vol.  xviii.  p.  342,  pi.  xi. 
figs.  22-24.  N.  communis  (d'Orb.)  Goes,  1894.  K.  Svenska  Vet.- 
Akad.  Handl.,  vol.  xxv.  p.  67,  pi.  xii.  figs.  667-671.  N.  communis 
(d'Orb.)  Fornasini,  1894,  Mem.  R.  Accad.  Sci.  1st.  Bologna,  ser.  5, 
vol.  iv.  p.  211,  pi.  i.  figs.  8,  9  ;  and  p.  214,  pi.  ii.  fig.  2.  D.  legumcn 
(Tleuss)  =  communis  (d'Orb.)  Perner,  1897,  Ceska  Akad.  Cisare 
Frantiska  Josefa  (Palaeont.  Bohemias  No.  4)  p.  35,  pi.  iii.  fig.  5. 
N.  communis  (d'Orb.)  Fornasini,  1898,  Mem.  R.  Accad.  Sci.  1st. 
Bologna  ser.  5,  vol.  vii.  p.  209,  pi.  figs.  11,  13,  14.  N  communis 
(d'Orb.)  Egger,  1899,  Abhandl.  k.  bayer.  Akad.  Wiss.,  Cl.  II. 
vol.  xxi.  p.  65,  pi.  vi.  fie:.  4.  N.  communis  (d'Orb.)  Flint,  1899, 
Rep.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.  for  1897  (1899)  p.  310,  pi.  lvi.  fig.  2. 

This  species  occurs  in  various  forms,  those  with  oblique  sutures 
predominating  and  partaking  of  the  characters  of  N.  Boemcri  and 
N.  mucronata. 

It  is  moderately  common  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  pretty 
evenly  distributed  over  the  whole  of  the  region. 


Report  on  Foraminifera.     By  F.  W.  Millett.  523 

Nodosaria  (Z>.)  farcimen  Soldani  sp. 

"  Orthoceras  farcimen  "  Soldani,  1791,  Testaceographia,  vol.  i. 
part  2,  p.  98,  pi.  cv.  fig.  o.  Dcntalina  farcimen  (Sold.)  Reuss, 
1863,  Bull.  Acad.  Eoy.  Belg.,  ser  2,  vol.  xv.  p.  146,  pi.  i.  fig.  18. 
Nodosaria  (D.)  farcimen  (Sold.)  Howchin,  1888,  Journ.  R.  Micr.  Soc, 
p.  543,  pi.  ix.  fig.  21.  N.  (D.)  farcimen  (Sold.)  Haeusler,  1890, 
Abhandl.  schweiz.  pal.  Gesell.,  vol.  xvii.  p.  100,  pi.  xiii.  fig.  109  ; 
pi.  xiv.  figs.  24,  25.  N  farcimen  (Sold.)  Fornasini,  1890,  Mem. 
R  Accad.  Sci.  1st.  Bologna,  ser.  4,  vol.  x.  p.  463,  pi.  fig.  13. 
N.  farcimen  (Sold.)  Mariani,  1891,  Boll.  Soc.  Geol.  Italia,  vol.  x. 
fasc.  2,  p.  173,  pi.  vi.  fig.  5.  Dcntalina  monile  (Hag.)  Beissel 
(Holzapfel)  1891,  Abhandl.  k.  preuss.  geol.  Landesanst.,  N.F. 
Heft  3,  p.  31,  pi.  vi.  fig.  31.  N  (D.)  farcimen  (Sold.)  Haeussler, 
1893,  Abhandl.  schweiz.  pal.  Gesell.,  vol.  xx.  p.  31,  pi.  iv.  figs.  17-21. 
N.  farcimen  (Sold.)  Fornasini,  1894,  Mem.  E.  Accad.  Sci.  1st. 
Bologna,  ser.  5,  vol.  iv.  p.  211,  pi.  i.  figs.  6,  7.  N.  farcimen  (Sold.) 
Flint,  1899,  Rep.  U.S.  Nat,  Mus.  forl897  (1899),  p.  309,  pi.  Iv. 
fig.  5. 

This  form  occurs  in  both  Areas,  but  is  very  rare ;  the  speci- 
mens are  typical  and  well  developed. 

Nodosaria  (D .)  filiformis  d'Orbigny. 

•"  Orthoceratia  filiformia  aut  capillaria  "  Soldani,  1798,  Testaceo- 
graphia,  vol.  ii.  p.  35,  pi.  x.  fig.  e.  Nodosaria  filiformis  d'Orbigny, 
1826,  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  vol.  vii.  p.  253,  No.  14.  Dentalina  sp. 
de  Folin,  1887,  Le  Naturaliste,  vol.  ix.  p.  140,  fig.  20  a.  N.  fili- 
formis (d'Orb.)  Fornasini,  1889,  Foram.  Mioc.  di  San  '  Rufillo, 
pi.  i.  fig.  14.  N  {D.)  filiformis  (d'Orb.)  Haeusler,  1890,  Abhandl. 
schweiz.  pal.  Gesell.,  vol.  xvii.  p.  97,  pi.  xiii.  figs.  105,  107. 
N.  (D.)  filiformis  (d'Orb.)  Terrigi,  1891,  Mem.  R.  Com.  Geol. 
Italia,  vol.  iv.  p.  79,  pi.  ii.  fig.  7.  N.  filiformis  (d'Orb.)  Flint, 
1899,  Rep.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.  for  1897  (1899)  p.  310,  pi.  Iv.  fig.  6. 

This  also  is  a  very  rare  form  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  is 
represented  mainly  by  fragments.      The  majority  of  the  examples 
have  oblique   sutures,  resembling  plate    Ixiii.  fig.    4  of   Brady's  ' 
'  Challenger '  Report. 

Lingulina  d'Orbigny. 
Lingidina  limbata  sp.  n.,  plate  XI.  fig.  15. 

Primordial  chamber  oval,  surmounted  by  an  expanding  neck ; 
surface  smooth.  Succeeding  chamber  triangular,  compressed,  base 
limbate  with  a  short  process  on  either  margin.  Aperture  oval,  in 
a  phialine  neck.     Length  0*20  mm. 


524  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

This  is  one  of  an  aberrant  group  of  Lingulinos  in  which  the 
chambers,  in  place  of  being  equitant  as  in  the  type,  are  connected 
by  stoloniferous  tubes  of  more  or  less  slenderness.  The  test  is 
composed  of  two  or  more  lageniform  chambers  arranged  in  a  linear 
series,  the  primordial  chamber  being  of  a  character  different  from 
the  others. 

One  of  this  group  was  described  and  figured  by  Dr.  Chester 
under  the  name  of  L.  licrclmani*  This  was  a  solitary  specimen 
from  shore  mud  at  Southport. 

In  one  of  the  examples  of  L.  carinata  figured  by  Brady  f  the 
primordial  chamber  is  armed  with  a  pair  of  marginal  spines  at  the 
oral  end. 

Amongst  the  abnormal  forms  of  Nodosaria  radicula  figured  by 
Haeusler,  two  bear  a  resemblance  to  this  group  of  Lingulina.% 

From  my  friend  Mr.  H.  Sidebottom,  of  Cheadle  Hulme,  I  have 
specimens  and  drawings  of  a  form  closely  allied  to  L.  limbata,  but 
not  identical.  Of  this  he  writes,  "About  150  specimens  were 
found  in  the  material  from  off  the  coast  of  the  Island  of  Delos 
(Grecian  Archipelago),  depth  8  to  14  fathoms,  by  my  brother- 
in-law  Mr.  C.  H.  Nevill  and  myself.  In  six  cases  there  is  a 
third  chamber  similar  to  the  second,  only  rather  larger.  The 
species  occurs  at  other  parts  of  the  Mediterranean  very  rarely, 
also  from  the  Seychelles  Islands." 

L.  limbata  is  very  rare  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  has  been 
found  only  at  Station  6  in  Area  1. 


Lingulina  pagoda  sp.  n.,  plate  XI.  figs.  16,  17. 

Test  linear.  Primordial  chamber  flask-shaped  with  longi- 
tudinal costse.  Succeeding  chambers  pyriform,  compressed,  broad 
at  the  base,  which  is  encircled  by  a  tubuliferous  fringe.  Aperture 
oval,  in  a  phialine  neck.     Length  0  ■  50  mm. 

This  curious  form  may  be  said  to  be  compounded  of  an  initial 
cell  resembling  Lagena  sulcata,  from  which  proceeds  a  series  of 
cells  each  of  which  has  somewhat  of  the  characters  of  L.  Jtmbriata, 
the  base  of  each  being  attached  to  the  phialine  neck  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  each  successive  chamber  increasing  slightly  in  size. 

This  form  also  is  very  rare  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  has 
been  observed  only  at  Station  6  in  Area  1. 

Fig.  18  represents  a  detached  chamber  found  at  Station  30  in 
Area  2,  which  indicates  a  species  distinct  from  those  described. 
The  length  of  the  chamber  is  0-15  mm. 

*  First  Rept.  of  the  Southport  Soc.  of  Nat.  Sci.,  1890-91  (1892)  p.  63,  pi.  i.  fig  9. 

t  Lhall.  Rept,,  1884,  p.  517,  pi.  lxv.  fig.  17. 

X  Abbandl.  scbweiz.  pal.  Gesell.,  vol.  xvii.  1890,  p.  92,  pi.  xiii.  figs.  56-59. 


Report  on  Foraminifera.     By  F.  W.  Millett.  525 

Frondicularia  Defrance. 
Frondicularia  nitida  Terquem,  plate  XI.  fig.  19. 

Frondicularia  nitida  Terquem,  1858,  Mem.  Acad.  Imp.  de 
Metz,  vol.  xxxix.  p.  592,  pi.  i.  fig.  9.  F.  cf.  nitida  (Terq.)  Uhlig, 
1883,  Jahrb.  k.  k.  geol.  Eeichs.,  vol.  xxxiii.  p.  756,  pi.  ix.  fig.  19. 
F.  nitida  (Terq.)  Burbach,  1886,  Zeitschr.  Naturw.  Halle,  vol.  lix. 
p.  45,  pi.  i.  fig.  7.  F.  spathulata  (Brady)  Egger,  1893,  Abhandl. 
k.  bayer.  Akad.  Wiss.,  CI.  II.  vol.  xviii.  p.  346,  pi.  xi.  fig.  32. 

Of  this  almost  extinct  genus  Mr.  Durrand's  collection  yields 
but  a  single  individual ;  this  is  from  Station  '30  in  Area  2. 

This  form,  with  slight  variations,  is  common  in  the  lias,  and 
has  received  a  variety  of  names.  Its  nearest  living  representative 
appears  to  be  the  F.  spathulata  of  Brady.*  The  solitary 
specimen  found  by  Dr.  Egger  in  the  '  Gazelle '  Soundings,  and 
attributed  by  him  to  F.  spathidata,  seems  to  correspond  in  all 
respects  with  the  Malay  Archipelago  example. 

RhaMogonium  Reuss. 
Rhabdogo ilium  tricarinatum  d'Orbigny  sp. 

Vaginulina  tricarinata  d'Orbigny,  1826,  Ann.  Sci.  Nat., 
vol.  vii.  p.  258,  No.  4 ;  Modele,  No.  4.  RhaMogonium  tricarinatum 
(d'Orb.)  Brady,  1884,  Chall.  Kept.,  p.  525,  pi.  lxvii.  figs.  1-3.  R. 
tricarinatum  (d'Orb.)  Sherborn  and  Chapman,  1886,  Journ.  E. 
Micr.  Soc,  ser.  2,  vol.  vi.  p.  752,  pi.  xv.  fig.  16.  R.  tricarinatum 
(d'Orb.)  Brady,  Parker,  and  Jones,  1888,  Trans.  Zool.  Soc,  vol.  xii. 
]».  223,  pi.  xlv.  fig.  3.  R.  tricarinatum  (d'Orb.)  Schrodt,  1890, 
Zeitschr.  deutsch.  geol.  Gesell.,  vol.  xlii.  p.  411,  pi.  xxii.  fig.  2.  R. 
tricarinatum  (d'Orb.)  Burrows,  Sherborn,  and  Bailey,  1890,  Journ. 
R.  Micr.  Soc,  p.  558,  pi.  x.  fig.  7.  R.  tricarinatum  (d'Orb.)  Egger, 
1893,  Abhandl.  k.  bayer.  Akad.  Wiss.,  CI.  II.  vol.  xviii.  p.  355, 
pi.  xi.  figs.  49,  50  ;  pi.  xii.  figs.  36-38.  R.  tricarinatum  (d'Orb.) 
Jones,  1895,  Palaeont.  Soc,  p.  232,  pi.  vii.  fig.  16.  R.  tricarinatum 
(d'Orb.)  Egger,  1895,  Naturhist.  Ver.  Passau,  Jahresber.  xvi.  p.  23, 
pi.  ii.  figs.  18, 19.  R.  tricarinatum  (d'Orb.)  Silvestri,  1896,  Mem. 
Pontif.  Accad.  Nuovi  Lincei,  vol.  xii.  p.  194,  pi.  i.  fig.  8  (vol.  xv 
1899). 

This  form  occurs  sparingly  at  a  few  Stations  in  both  areas. 
All  the  examples  are  twisted  and  have  a  produced  neck. 

Brady  states  that  it  has  not  been  noticed  at  any  point  in  the 
North  Pacific. 

*  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  n.s.  vol.  xix.  1879,  p.  270.  pi.  viii.  fig.  5. 
October  15th,  1902  2  n 


526  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Marginulina  d'Orbigny. 

Marginulina  glabra  d'Orbigny. 

Marginulina  glabra  d'Orbigny,  1826,  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  vol.  vii. 
p.  259,  No.  6 ;  Modele,  No.  55.  M.  attenuata  (Neug.)  Sherborn 
and  Chapman,  1889,  Journ.  R.  Micr.  Soc,  p.  487,  pi.  xi.  fig.  27. 
M.  glabra  (d'Orb.)  Burrows,  Sherborn,  and  Bailey,  1890,  Journ. 
K.  Micr.  Soc,  p.  558,  pi.  x.  fig.  1.  M.  glabra  (d'Orb.)  Haeusler, 
1890,  Abhandl.  schweiz.  pal.  Gesell.,  vol.  xvii.  p.  106,  pi.  xiv.  figs. 
35-40,  42,  43.  M.  glabra  (d'Orb.)  Fornasini,  1890,  Mem.  B.  Accad. 
Sci.  1st.  Bologna,  ser.  4,  vol.  x.  p.  470,  pi.  figs.  20,  26-30.  M. 
glabra  (d'Orb.)  Mariani,  1891,  Boll.  Soc.  Geol.  Italia,  vol.  x.  p.  173, 
pi.  vi.  fig.  6.  M.  elongata  (d'Orb.)  Perner,  1892,  Caska  Akad. 
Cisafe  Frantiska  Josefa  (Paleeont.  Bohemia?  No.  1)  p.  61,  pi.  v.  figs. 
13,  14.  M.  glabra  (d'Orb.)  Egger,  1893,  Abhandl.  k.  bayer.  Akad. 
Wiss.,  CI.  II.  vol.  xviii.  p.  346,  pi.  xi.  figs.  28,  29.  M.  glabra 
(d'Orb.)  Chapman,  1894,  Journ.  B.  Micr.  Soc,  p.  160,  pi.  iv. 
fig.  11.  Vaginulina  glabra  (d'Orb.)  Goes,  1894,  K.  Svenska  Vet.- 
Akad.  Handl.,  vol.  xxv.  pi.  xi.  figs.  659-661.  M.  glabra  (d'Orb.) 
Jones,  1896,  Paleeont.  Soc,  p.  233,  pi.  i.  fig.  26  (1866).  M.  glabra 
(d'Orb.)  Flint,  1899,  Bep.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.  for  1897  (1899),  p.  313, 
pi.  lx.  fig.  1. 

This  form  is  moderately  common  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  and 
appears  at  several  Stations  in  both  Areas.  The  examples  are  short 
and  inflated,  and  in  most  cases  have  but  two  chambers. 

Marginulina  costata  Batsch  sp.,  plate  XI.  fig.  20. 

Nautilus  (Orthoceras)  costatus  Batsch,  1791,  Conch.  Seesands, 
pi.-  i.  fig.  1.  Marginulina  raphanus  (Linnet)  d'Orbigny,  1826,  Ann. 
Sci.  Nat.,  vol.  vii.  p.  258,  No.  1,  pi.  x.  figs.  7,  8  ;  Modele,  No.  6. 
M.  costata  (Batsch)  Terrigi,  1891,  Mem.  R.  Com.  Geol.  Italia,  vol. 
iv.  p.  92,  pi.  iii.  fig.  4.  Grislellaria  {Marginulina)  costata  Hosius, 
1892,  Verhandl.  Nat.  Ver.  Preuss.  Bheinl.  Westph.,  Jahrg.  xlix. 
p.  184,  pi.  ii.  fig.  22 ;  and  raricosta,  p.  124,  pi.  ii.  fig.  23.  M. 
costata  (Batsch)  Fornasini,  1893,  Mem.  B.  Accad.  Sci.  1st.  Bologna, 
ser.  5,  vol.  iii.  p.  434,  pi.  ii.  fig.  6  ;  and  1894,  ser.  5,  vol.  iv.  pp. 
213,  214,  217,  pi.  ii.  figs.  18-21.  Nodosaria  raphanus  (Linne) 
Dervieux,  1893,  Boll.  Soc  Geol.  Italia,  vol.  xii.  p.  621,  pi.  v.  figs. 
56,  57.  M.  costata  (Batsch)  Egger,  1895,  Naturhist.  Ver.  Passau, 
Jahresber.  xvi.  p.  23,  pi.  ii.  fig.  17.  M.  costata  (Batsch)  Jones, 
1896,  Palreont.  Soc,  p.  235,  pi.  i.  fig.  21  (1866,  M.  raphanus) 
(d'Orb.).  M.  costata  (Batsch)  Silvestri,  1896,  Mem.  Pontif.  Accad. 
Nuovi  Lincei,  vol.  xii.  p.  200,  pi.  i.  fig.  9.  M.  costata  (Batsch) 
Fornasini,  1897-98,  Bendic  B.  Accad.  Sci.  1st.  Bologna,  n.s.  vol. 


Report  On  Foraminifera.     By  F.   W.  Millett.  527 

ii.  p.  5,  pi.  i.  fig.  3.     M.  costata  (Batsch)  Silvestri,  1900,  Mem. 
Pontif.  Accad.  Nuovi  Lincei,  vol.  xvii.  p.  273,  pi.  vi.  fig.  22. 

This  species  occurs  in  two  forms,  one  short  and  inflated  with  a 
few  strong  ribs  ;  the  other  elongate  with  numerous  and  delicate 
costae  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

It  is  moderately  common  at  Station  30  in  Area  2,  and  appears 
at  a  few  stations  in  Area  1. 

Brady  states  that  with  the  exception  of  a  few  small  examples 
from  off  the  coast  of  New  Zealand,  it  has  not  been  observed  in 
either  the  North  or  South  Pacific,  the  Southern  Ocean,  or  the  Eed 
Sea 

Vaginulina  d'Orbigny. 

Vaginulina  legumcn  Linne  sp.  var.,  plate  XI.  fig.  21. 

Nautilus  legumew  Linne,  1767,  Syst.  Nat.,  12th  ed.  p.  1164, 
No.  288.  Vaginulina  legumcn  (Linne)  d'Orbigny,  1826,  Ann.  Sci. 
Nat.,  vol.  vii.  p.  257,  No.  2.  V.  legumcn  var.  laevigata  (Pom.)  Jones, 
1884,  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  vol.  xl.  p.  769,  pi.  xxxiv.  fig.  5. 
V.  legumcn  (Linne)  Sherborn  and  Chapman,  1886,  Journ.  P.  Micr. 
Soc,  ser.  2,  vol.  vi.  p.  753,  pi.  xv.  fig.  19  ;  and  Ibid.,  1889,  p.  487, 
pi.  xi.  fig.  25.     V.  legumcn  (Linne)  Burrows,  Sherborn,  and  Bailey, 

1890,  Journ.  P,  Micr.  Soc,  p.  559,  pi.  x.  fig.  16.  V.  legumcn 
(Linne)  Haeusler,  1890,  Abhandl.  schweiz.  pal.  Gesell.,  vol.  xvii. 
p.  107,  pi.  xiv.  fig.  49.      V.  legumcn  (Linne)  Crick  and  Sherborn, 

1891,  Journ.  Northamp.  Nat.  Hist.  Soc,  vol.  vi.  p.  4,  pi.  vi.  fig.  15. 
V.  legumcn  (Linne)  Terrigi,  1891,  Mem.  B.  Com.  Geol.  Italia,  vol. 
iv.  p.  94,  pi.  iii.  fig.  6.  V.  laevigata  (Pom.)  Goes,  1894,  K.  Svenska 
Vet.-Akad.  Handl,  vol.  xxv.  p.  65,  pi.  xi.  figs.  648-655.  V. 
laevigata  (Pom.)  Jones,  1896,  Palseont.  Soc,  p.  227,  pi.  v.  fig.  8. 
V  legumcn  (Linne)  Bagg,  1898,  Bull.  U.S.  Geol.  Survey,  No.  88, 
p.  53,  pi.  iv.  fig.  4.  V  legumen  (Linne)  Flint,  1899,  Pep.  U.S. 
Nat.  Mus.  for  1897  (1899),  p.  314,  pi.  lx.  fig.  2.  V.  legumcn 
(Linne)  Egger,  1899,  Abhandl.  k.  bayer.  Akad.  Wiss.,  CI.  II. 
vol.  xxi.  p.  98,  pi.  ix.  figs.  29,  30  ;  and  V.  clenudata  (Eeuss)  p.  100, 
pi.  ix.  figs.  ^9,  30. 

A  very  rare  form  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  has  been  found 
only  in  Area  2. 

Most  of  the  examples  are  normal,  but  the  variety  figured 
approaches  Cristellaria  crepidula,  whilst  the  inflated  terminal 
chamber  suggests  an  affinity  with  the  dimorphous  genus  Amphi- 
corgne. 

Vaginulina  formosa  sp.  n.,  plate  xi.  fig.  22. 

Test  oblong,  tapering  towards  the  apertural  end ;  aboral  end 
broad  and  rounded;    dorsal   margin    thin  and  carinate;    ventral 

2  n  2 


528  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

margin  broad  and  inflated ;  chambers  few  in  number,  triangular, 
radiating  from  a  point  at  the  aboral  extremity  of  the  test.  Sutures 
obscure ;  surface  covered  with  costas  parallel  with  the  sutures. 
Aperture  in  a  produced  neck.     Length  0*47  mm. 

This  is  a  passage  form  from  Vaginulina  to  Cristellaria  and  is 
interesting  as  being  a  survival  from  the  mesozoic  period.  In  the 
lias  and  more  especially  in  the  oolite,  types  similar  in  character 
were  extremely  abundant,  and  a  multitude  of  them  has  been 
figured  by  Terquem  in  his  various  works  on  the  foraminifera  of 
those  formations. 

There  is  but  a  single  specimen  from  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
and  this  is  from  Station  25  in  Area  2. 


Journ.   R.   Micr.  Soc.   1902,   PI.  XII. 


SK* 


""••»<. 
.•/••••. 


•  •  •  •  •>«? 

♦V  *  *  * 

•  •  •  •*» 


•  •••». 
■  •  • ... 

■ » • « ». 
.  • » - 


• • • . .m 


'.•••••• 


*  *  • . .. 

.  •  •  .  .  .  .  .  .  • 

•  ...».... — 


•WJTIOOo/ 

rA\x>,JI'"" 


F.  E.  Ives,  Photo. 


PLEUROSIGMA       ANGULATUM. 


529 


NOTE. 

Photograph  of  Pleurodynia  angulatum  by  F.  E.  Ives. 

Plate  XII. 

At  the  June  Meeting  were  exhibited  a  photograph  of  Pleurosigma 
angulatum  and  lantern  slides  of  Coscinodiscus  aster  omphalus, 
Surirella  gemma,  and  Pleurosigma  angulatum.  With  regard  to 
these  exhibits,  which  are  not  only  beautiful  in  themselves,  but 
important  from  an  optical  point  of  view,  Mr.  Ives  writes  as 
follows  : — "  This  negative  (referring  to  Pleurosigma  angulatum) 
is  an  enlargement  from  a  smaller  one  made  direct.  The  original 
negative  was  made  on  a  lantern  slide  plate,  with  Zeiss  3  mm. 
apochromatic  objective,  N.A.  1*30,  18  compensation  eye-piece, 
Abbe  achromatic  condenser,  on  a  Swift  portable  histological  stand, 
Welsbach  light  in  ground-glass  chimney,  and  the  camera  described 
on  pp.  371-8  of  the  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  May  1902. 
The  mount  is  one  of  Moller's,  dry,  the  valve  in  cover-glass  con- 
tact. Illumination,  cone  of  about  *80  or  -90  1ST.  A.,  very  carefully 
centered.  Tube-length  adjusted  with  great  care.  The  objective 
is  marked  for  a  tube-length  of  160  mm.,  but  when  adjusted  most 
•carefully  by  the  eye,  on  objects  mounted  in  cover-glass  contact  or 
in  balsam,  always  stands  within  2  mm.  of  150.  Quite  incapable 
of  giving  the  result  shown  in  this  photograph  with  a  160  mm. 
<tube. 

Direct  amplification  x  1320  ;  enlargement  to  X  2375. 

With  first-class  achromatics,  and  with  valves  mounted  in  styrax 
■or  monobromide,  Pleurosigma  angulation  presents  to  my  eye  the 
appearance  shown  in  this  photograph,  and  is  so  reproduced  by 
photography,  though  not  quite  so  perfectly  and  brilliantly  as  with 
the  dry  mount  and  apochromatic  objective. 

The  lantern  slides  of  Coscinodiscus,  Aster  omplialus,  and 
■Surirella  gemma  are  contact  prints  from  negatives  made  under 
the  same  kind  of  conditions,  from  valves  mounted  in  liquid- 
amber.  The  Surirella  shows,  on  one  part,  a  suggestion  of  the 
white  dot  growing  up  within  the  black  dot,  which  is  so  well  shown 
in  the  photograph  of  Pleurosigma  angulatum!' 


530 


OBITUARY. 

» 

Richard  Leach  Maddox. 
1816-1902. 

Richard  Leach  Maddox  was  born  at  Bath  on  August  4,  1816. 
He  received  his  early  education  at  a  public  school  in  Somerset- 
shire, and  in  1837  entered  University  College,  London,  to  study 
medicine.  While  still  a  student  he  took  a  voyage  round  the 
world  for  the  sake  of  his  health,  leaving  England  in  1839  and 
returning  in  1840.  In  1842  he  obtained  the  diploma  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons,  and  in  the  following  year  the  Licence  of  the 
Apothecaries'  Society.  In  1844  he  went  over  to  Paris  to  pursue 
his  medical  studies  at  the  Hopital  de  la  Charitd  In  1847  he 
visited  Smyrna,  proceeding  thence  to  Constantinople  where  he 
practised  his  profession  until  1850  when  he  returned  to  England. 
In  1851  he  took  his  M.D.  degree  at  Aberdeen.  In  the  following 
year  he  went  back  to  Constantinople  where  he  again  set  up  in 
practice,  and  during  the  latter  part  of  the  Crimean  war  held  an 
appointment  as  Civil  Surgeon  at  the  Hospital  at  Scutari. 

Compelled  to  return  to  England  on  account  of  his  health T 
Maddox  set  up  in  private  practice  for  a  time  at  Islington,  after- 
wards at  Ryde,  Isle  of  Wight,  eventually  settling  at  Woolston,  near 
Southampton,  in  1859.  Here  he  remained  till  1874,  and  it  was 
during  this  period  that  he  did  so  much  of  the  work  which  was 
to  render  his  name  conspicuous.  In  1875  he  again  went  abroad, 
proceeding  first  to  Ajaccio  and  afterwards  to  Bordighera  and  Cor- 
nigliano,  at  which  places  he  practised  medicine  among  the  English 
residents.  He  was  also  at  different  times  resident  physician  to 
the  Duke  of  Montrose,  Sir  Watkin  Williams  Wynn,  and  Lady 
Katharine  Bannerman. 

Still  later,  Maddox  lived  for  some  years  at  Gunnersbury,  but 
from  1887  onwards  resided  at  Greenbank,  Portswood,  Southampton,. 
till  his  death  on  May  11th. 

Dr.  Maddox  was  twice  married,  and  left  two  sons  and  a 
daughter. 

For  a  great  part  of  his  life  Maddox  was  subject  to  periodical 
attacks  of  ill-health  which  sometimes  caused  him  to  leave  England 
for  a  more  congenial  climate,  and  which  frequently  prevented  him 
from  pursuing  those  avocations  to  which  he  was  inclined.  These 
break-downs  were  attributable  to  overwork,  for  he  never  spared 
himself,  and  also  to  the  vitiated  atmosphere,  tainted  with  ether 
vapour,  in  which  he  was  accustomed  to  work.     Yet  it  was  the 


Obituary.  531 

supposition  that  the  deterioration  of  his  health  was  due  to  the 
poisonous  influence  of  ether  vapour  which  induced  him  to  try  for 
a  substitute  for  the  wet  collodion,  and  led  to  the  invention  of  the 
gelatino-bromide  dry-plate  method. 

Throughout  his  life  he  was  devoted  to  scientific  pursuits,  and 
in  the  early  part  of  his  career  was  much  occupied  with  electricity, 
but  afterwards  abandoned  this  for  photography,  and  still  later 
became  much  interested  in  the  rising  fortunes  of  bacteriology. 

In  connection  with  the  gelatino-bromide  method  he  justly 
gained  a  great  reputation,  for  he  was  the  principal  pioneer  of  this 
procedure  which  has  done  so  much  to  advance  the  technique  of 
photography.  Of  photomicrography  he  was  always  much  ena- 
moured and  was  one  of  the  first  to  grasp  its  potentialities  for  re- 
producing pictures  of  microscopical  preparations.  Even  as  far  back 
as  1865  Lionel  Beale  published  some  of  his  photomicrographs  as  the 
frontispiece  to  How  to  Work  with  the  Microscope.  His  photomicro- 
graphs are  too  well  known  to  need  more  than  this  passing  reference. 

This  Society  has  the  credit  of  being  the  first  prominent  body 
to  recognise  the  scientific  claims  of  Maddox,  for  in  1871  he  was 
elected  Hon.  F.E.M.S.,  on  account  of  his  eminence  in  science  and 
for  his  valuable  contributions  to  the  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Later,  however,  he  became  the  recipient  of  numerous  distinc- 
tions, the  most  important  being,  the  Gold  Medal  at  the  Inventions 
Exhibition,  Dublin,  1885  ;  the  John  Scott  Legacy  Medal  and 
Premium  from  the  Franklin  Institute,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A.,  1889  ; 
the  Progress  Medal  of  the  Eoyal  Photographic  Society,  1901. 
The  John  Scott  Medal  was  awarded  on  the  recommendation  of  a 
committee,  among  the  members  of  which  were  J.  Carbutt  and 
F.  E.  Ives.  Their  advisory  report,  quoted  below,  sums  up  most 
aptly  the  exact  position  of  Maddox  to  the  "  invention  which  has 
revolutionised  the  whole  science  and  practice  of  photography." 

The  committee  report  that  they  "  have  carefully  considered  the 
subject  and  examined  into  the  merits  of  the  invention  claimed  by 
Dr.  Maddox.  They  find  that  although  gelatin  had  been  employed 
photographically  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  although  silver  haloid 
salts  had  been  emulsified  successfully  with  collodion  in  photo- 
graphic practice  prior  to  the  publication  by  Dr.  Maddox  of  his 
gelatino-bromide  process,  nevertheless  the  successful  emulsification 
by  him  of  silver  haloids  witli  gelatin,  and  the  perfecting  of  a 
working  process  founded  upon  it,  involved  so  much  painstaking 
experimentation  and  investigation,  and  was  such  a  departure  from 
old  methods,  that  it  merits  recognition  on  account  of  its  marked 
influence  on  the  progress  of  photography,  on  the  enlargement  of 
its  practice,  and  the  multiplication  of  its  applications  in  technical 
and  purely  scientific  directions.  The  process,  though  affording 
negatives  of  good  quality,  was  soon  improved  in  regard  to  the 
quality  and  sensitiveness  of  the  plates  by  different  individuals,  by 


532  Obituary. 

the  removal  of  the  soluble  salts,  by  heating  to  higher  temperatures, 
by  prolonged  digestion,  by  the  addition  of  ammonia,  and  by  changes 
in  minor  details.  In  consideration,  therefore,  of  the  novelty  of 
the  process  and  its  value,  and  of  the  publication  of  it  without  any 
reservation  of  rights,  your  committee  recommend  the  award  of  the 
Scott  Legacy  medal  and  premium  to  Dr.  Bichard  Leach  Maddox 
for  the  substitution  of  gelatin  for  collodion  in  photography  as 
accomplished  by  him." 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  more  important  papers  by  the 
late  R.  L.  Maddox,  Hon.  F.E.M.S. 

An  Experiment  with  Gelatino-Bromide.  British  Journal  of 
Photography,  Sept.  8,  1871. 

On  the  Apparent  Eelation  of  the  Nerves  to  the  Muscular 
Structures  in  the  Aquatic  Larva  of  Tipula  crystallina  of  De  Geer. 
Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  xvi.  1868. 

On  the  Photographic  Delineation  of  Microscopic  Objects.  Trans. 
Microscop.  Soc,  1863,  pp.  9-12. 

A  Contribution  to  the  Minute  Anatomy  of  the  Fungiform 
Papillae,  and  Terminal  Arrangement  of  Nerve  to  Striped  Muscular 
Tissue  in  the  Tongue  of  the  Common  Prog  (Eana  temporaria) ; 
with  Drawings  and  Photomicrographs.  Monthly  Microscop.  Journ., 
i.  1869,  pp.  1-14,  1  pi. 

Heliostat  for  Photomicrography.  Monthly  Microscop.  Journ., 
i.  1869,  pp.  27-29,  1  pi. 

Observations  on  Mucor  Mucedo.  Monthly  Microscop.  Journ., 
ii.  1869,  pp.  140-147,  1  pi. 

Cultivation,  &c.  of  Microscopic  Fungi.  Monthly  Microscop. 
Journ.,  iii.  1870,  pp.  14-24,  1  pi. 

Experiments  on  Feeding  some  Insects  with  the  Curved  or 
"  Comma  "  Bacillus,  and  also  with  another  Bacillus  (B.  subtilis  ?). 
J.R.M.S.,  1885,  pp.  602-7  and  pp  941-52. 

And  many  others  in  various  scientific  periodicals,  Transactions 
of  Societies,  &c. 


SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

RELATING    TO 

ZOOLOGY    AND     BOTANY 

(principally  invertebrata  and  cryptogamia), 

MICBOSCOPY,    Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 


VERTEBRATA. 

a.  Embryology. f 

Variation :  Germinal  and  Environmental.^ — J-  Cossar  Ewart  uses 
the  phrase  germinal  variation  for  the  variation  which  inevitably  flows 
from  the  blending  of  two  highly  specialised  germ-cells  ;  all  the  varia- 
tions in  the  germ-cells  up  to  the  moment  of  conjugation,  together  with 
the  variations  during  development  and  growth,  are  referred  to  as  en- 
vironmental variations. 

Environmental  variation  is  considered  under  several  heads.  (I.) 
There  are  those  environmental  variations  which  occur  during  develop- 
ment, e.g.  dwarfing  and  arrestments ;  and  it  is  pointed  out  that  many 
are  "  congenital,"  but  neither  inherited  nor  transmitted.  (H-)  There 
are  environmentally  produced  changes  occurring  from  the  end  of  de- 
velopment to  the  end  of  the  reproductive  period,  including  changes  in 
the  germ-cells  during  their  growth  and  maturation,  (a)  None  of  his 
results  favour  belief  in  the  transmission  of  acquired  somatic  variations  ; 
on  the  contrary,  some  of  them  indicate  that  such  transmission  is  highly 
improbable.  (b)  There  is  evidence  of  the  influence  of  nutrition  and 
somatic  well-being  on  the  germ-cells,  (c)  There  is  some  evidence  that 
age,  seasonal  condition  of  parents,  &c.  influence  the  progeny  :  thu=,  as 
a  female  increases  in  age  and  vigour  her  germ-cells  may  increase  in 
prepotency,  (d)  The  influence  of  the  age  of  the  parents,  and  of  the 
ripeness  of  the  germ-cells,  is  then  illustrated.  Some  interesting  evidence 
is  adduced  to  show  that  inter-breeding  is  a  cause  of  variation.  Mating 
before  and  after  the  normal  time  is  also  provocative  of  changes,  some  of 
which  (in  rabbits,  &c.)  seem  to  occur  with  some  degree  of  definiteness. 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "we,"  and  they  do 
not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers  noted, 
nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  ol  this  part  of 
the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  published,  and  to 
describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  &c,  which  are  either  new  or  have 
not  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

+  This  section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so  called, 
but  also  those  dealing:  with  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  and  allied  subject?. 

X  Scient.  Trans.  R.  Dublin  Soc,  vii.  (1901)  pp.  353-78. 


534  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

In  interpreting  germinal  variation,  the  author  agrees  in  the  main 
with  Weismann,  and  accepts  the  idea  of  germinal  selection. 

The  combined  results  of  germinal  and  environmental  variation  are 
then  illustrated  by  giving  the  results  of  a  number  of  inter- crossing  and 
inter-breeding  experiments,  which  are  of  great  interest  and  value. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  more  striking  results  of  inter- 
crossing :  — 

(1)  The  offspring  may,  down  to  the  remotest  details,  be  all  but 
intermediate  between  tbe  two  parents,  but  this  is  not  very  common. 

(2)  The  offspring  often  resembles  one  of  the  parents — the  pre- 
potent one. 

(3)  Somo  of  the  offspring  may  resemble  one  of  the  parents,  some 
the  other.  Thus,  in  a  litter  of  four  kittens,  two  may  be  pure  white  like 
the  sire,  and  two  tabby  like  the  mother. 

(4)  The  offspring  may  combine,  almost  unimpaired,  the  nvre  striking 
characters  of  both  breeds.  Though  the  engrafting  of  the  characters  of 
one  breed  on  another  may  not  be  common,  it  certainly  occurs. 

(5)  Sometimes  new,  or  at  least  unexpected,  characters  appear  in  the 
offspring,  e.g.  a  grey  tailless  rabbit,  "spinning"  rabbits,  reddish-brown 
or  chestnut  rooks. 

(6)  The  offspring  of  half-breeds  are,  as  a  rule,  extremely  variable — 
a  fact  long  recognised  by  breeders,  fanciers,  and  horticulturists. 

(7)  Sometimes  the  offspring,  instead  of  resembling  the  immediate 
ancestors,  i.e.  the  parents,  resemble  former  ancestors. 

We  have  not  been  able  to  do  more  than  outline  the  plan  of  a  very 
interesting  paper,  full  of  concrete  detail  of  gieat  value. 

Determination  of  Sex  in  Animal  Development.*  —  J.  Beard  has 
been  led  by  certain  discoveries  to  a  theory  of  the  determination  of  sex. 
Enumerations  showed  him  that  the  primary  germ-cells  of  Raja  batis 
approximated  to  256  or  512  ;  "from  evidences  to  be  given  elsewhere,  it 
was  established  that  the  larger  number  of  primary  germ-cells  related  to 
the  future  female  embryos,  the  smaller  to  potential  males ;  "  it  was  found 
that  during  the  cleavage  there  are  germinal  discs  of  two  sizes. 

Beard  suggests  that  the  "  sterilised  metazoau  person  "  which  we  call 
a  female  produces  two  kinds  of  functional  gametes,  viz.  eggs  which  may 
develop  into  males,  and  eggs  which  may  develop  into  females.  Similarly, 
the  male  typically  bears  two  forms  of  spermatozoa,  one  of  which  is 
never  of  functional  value,  and  may  be  never  more  than  initiated.  In 
more  than  three  dozen  species  two  kinds  of  sperms  are  known. 

Since  it  is  the  egg  that  develops,  and  not  the  sperm,  the  burden  of 
providing  for  the  continuance  of  the  race  is  borne  by  the  female 
metazoou,  or  rather,  by  the  germ-cells  of  which  it  is  the  host.  They 
make  provision  not  only  for  a  new  batch  of  "  female-eggs,"  but  also  for 
one  of  "male-eggs."  "  The  determination  of  sex  for  the  next  generation 
thus  lies  with  the  germ-cells  of  the  female  metazoan  organism," 

In  all  d  cecious  Metazoa  there  are  thus  three  kinds  of  functional 
gametes,  two  in  the  female,  one  in  the  male.  '•  The  faculty  of  becoming 
hermaphrcdite  is  confined  to  the  female."  From  "  male-eggs  "  she  is 
able  on  occasion,  by  anticipation,  to  form  spermatozoa.  Hermaphroditism 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  556-G1. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  535 

is  associated  with  the  partial  or  complete  suppression  of  one  form  of 
gamete,  the  male  eg.;.  Parthenogenesis,  on  the  other  hand,  entails  the 
occasional,  or  the  cyclical,  arrestment  of  one  or  other  of  the  two  gametes 
of  the  female.  If  it  hecome  acyclical  (Weismann)  with  the  consequent 
disappearance  of  the  males,  with  these  there  vanish  the  male-eggs  which 
produce  them,  and  the  spermatozoa.  In  such  instances  the  only  form  of 
gamete  left  is  the  female-egg,  which,  as  is  well  known,  undergoes  an 
isogamous  union  with  a  rudimentary  sister,  the  polar  body. 

The  problems  of  the  origin,  the  determination,  and  the  regulation 
of  sex  should  be  more  carefully  distinguished.  "  Of  its  origin  no  abso- 
lutely certain  knowledge  is  possible."  "  The  actual  determination  is 
initiated  at  the  division  of  the  primary  germ-cells  into  secondary  ones  ; 
it  is  completed  at  the  formation  of  the  oocytes  and  spermatocytes,  and 
its  manifestation  is  accomplished  by  the  numerical  reduction  of  the 
chromosomes  in  these." 

The  experiments  of  Yung,  Born,  &c.  were  really  experiments  in  the 
regulation  of  sex,  and  only  prove  what  percentage  of  either  sex  will 
survive  under  given,  usually  utterly  abnormal,  conditions.  The  so-called 
self-regulation  of  the  proportions  of  the  sexes  is  mainly  due  to  the  pre- 
ponderance of  the  males  in  the  earlier,  and  of  the  females  in  the  later 
offspring.  An  incremert  in  the  race  is  effected  by  increasing  the  number 
of  offspring,  and  with  these  the  number  of  females.  The  adjustment 
begins  to  manifest  itself  in  the  third  generation. 

Determination  of  Sex.*  —  A.  Van  Lint  expounds  a  new  theory  of 
the  determination  of  sax,  whicli  seems  to  be  in  part  a  rejuvenescence  of 
Starkweather's.  The  theory  is  that  the  offspring  has  the  sex  of  the 
weaker  parent,  but  the  weaker  parent  comes  to  mean  the  parent  whose 
sex-cells  were  relatively  less  vigorous  at  the  time,  and  this,  unfortunately, 
cannot  be  readily  tested. 

In  the  first  part  of  the  little  book,  Van  Lint  frankly  and  lucidly  ex- 
pounds the  five  hypotheses  involved  in  his  theory  :  — (1)  The  ovum  and 
spermatozoon  are  antithetic,  they  express  opposite  extremes  of  cellular 
ditferentiation,  or  it  may  be  that  they  differ  like  right-handed  and  left- 
handed  crystals.  (2)  There  is  also  a  somatic  antithesis  between  the 
ma«culine  body  and  the  feminine  body,  often  conspicuous  in  secondary 
sexual  characters,  often  inconspicuously  expressed  in  minute  contrasts 
throughout  the  soma.  (3)  There  is  also  a  contrast  between  the  germ- 
cells  produced  by  an  individual  organism  and  the  soma  of  that  organism; 
they  are  complementary  expressions  of  an  original  hermaphroditic 
unity ;  the  characters  of  the  sex  suppressed  in  the  development  of  the 
gonads  are  reflected,  as  it  were,  in  saturating  influence  on  the  soma. 
(4)  So  strong  is  this  contrast  that  the  male's  somatic  cells — which  the 
author  calls  parova — may  be  regarded  as  sexually  equivalent  to  ova, 
while  the  female's  somatic  cells — which  the  author  calls  paraspermato- 
zoids — may  be  regarded  as  sexually  equivalent  to  spertmtoz  ia.  (5)  The 
properties  of  the  somatic  cells  may  modify  the  properties  of  the  sex- 
cells  in  embryonic  as  well  as  in  adult  life,  and  this  in  such  a  precise 
way  that  they  determine  the  sex  of  fie  offspring  into  which  the  germ- 
cells  will  develop. 

*  QuVst-C2  qui  determine  le  soxe?  Paris,  1902,  77  pp. 


536  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

From  what  has  been  paid  it  will  be  plain  tbat  Van  Lint  believes  in 
the  origin  of  the  unisexual  state  from  a  primitive  hermaphrodite  one, 
traces  of  which  persist  ;  that  ho  attaches  great  importance  to  the  de- 
pendence of  the  soma  on  the  gonads,  and  to  the  dependence  of  the 
sex-cells  on  the  state  of  the  soma ;  aud  that  he  does  not  believe  in 
the  germ-plasm  concept. 

The  theory,  which  is  a  co-ordination  of  the  five  hypotheses  above 
summarised,  may  be  made  quite  clear  by  taking  a  particular  case.  If  a 
relatively  feeble  ovum  is  fertilised  by  a  relatively  vigorous  spermato- 
zoon, tho  rtsult  will  be  a  female  offspring.  "What  are  the  steps  that 
lead  to  this  remarkable  conclusion  ?  The  fertilised  ovum  in  question 
will  have  the  spermatozoon's  qualities  dominant  ;  the  embryo  will 
therefore  have  a  masculine  soma  (of  paraspeunatozoul  cells)  ;  to  balance 
this  dominant  masculinity  the  gonad  must  be  female. 

The  author  proceeds  to  explain  what  is  meant  by  the  relative  vigour 
of  a  cell,  and  the  vital  force  of  an  organism  (which  involves  a  complete 
medical  examination  under  six  heads),  but  he  explains  that  the  certain 
sign  of  a  man's  being  more  vigorous  than  his  wife  is  his  having  a 
daughter.     "  Le  sexe  de  l'enfant  tranchera  la  question." 

It  is  next  pointed  out  that  "  crossed  inheritance  " — the  son  taking 
after  his  mother,  the  daughter  after  her  father — is  readily  interpreted 
by  the  theory  expounded.  The  son  is  the  result  of  a  more  vigorous 
ovum  fertilised  by  a  less  vigorous  spermatozoon,  the  somatic  cells  must 
balance  the  gonads,  therefore  they  must  be  feminine,  and  therefore  the 
boy  is  his  mother's  image. 

In  the  eighth  chapter  the  author  seeks  to  show  that  the  available 
statistical  and  experimental  results,  many  of  which  are  summed  up  in 
Tlie  Evolution  of  Sex  by  Geddes  and  Thomson  (4th  edition,  1901), 
are  in  harmony  with  his  theory,  or  may  be  harmonised  with  it.  He 
concludes  by  showing  that  the  so-called  auto-regulation  of  the  propor- 
tions of  the  sexes  is  readily  explicable  on  his  theory,  for  it  is  the  more 
feeble  which  nature  insists  on  replacing. 

External  Phenomena  of  Fertilisation.*  —  A.  H.  E.  Buller  has  par- 
ticularly studied  Echinoid  ova  and  spermatozoa.  His  chief  results  are 
the  following.  The  meeting  of  the  spermatozoa  with  the  outer  surface 
of  the  gelatinous  coat  (zona  pellucida)  is  a  matter  of  chance,  and  not 
due  to  chemotaxis.  In  passing  through  the  gelatinous  coat  the 
spermatozoa  follow  a  more  or  less  radial  directiou,  but  this  is  not  due 
to  any  chemotactic  substance  being  excreted  from  the  egg  ;  it  is  possibly 
due  to  stereotaxis,  but  a  purely  mechanical  explanation  seems  to  the 
author  more  probable.  The  spermatozoa  do  not  respond  to  tonotactic 
or  heliotactic  stimuli,  and  are  probably  not  chemotactically  sensitive. 

On  coming  in  contact  with  a  surface  bounding  their  medium,  the 
spermatozoa  cling  to  it,  and  usually  continue  for  a  time  to  revolve  upon 
it  in  (from  their  point  of  view)  a  counter-clockwise  direction.  This 
statement  applies  to  all  the  groups  of  Echinoderma.  The  spermatozoa 
easily  become  attached  to  glass  and  other  surfaces  by  the  tips  of  their 
conical  heads.  This  phenomenon  doubtless  plays  a  role  in  causing  the 
spermatozoa  to  bore  through  the  gelatinous  coat  after  having  come  in 

*  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlvi.  (1902)  pp.  145-76  (4  figs.)- 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  537 

contact  with  its  outer  surface,  and  also  in  their  becoming  attached  to 
the  living  egg. 

The  vast  number  of  eggs,  and  the  still  vaster  number  of  spermatozoa 
produced,  together  with  the  motility  of  the  latter  and  the  action  of  saa- 
currents,  quite  suffices  to  bring  the  male  sexual  cells  into  contact  with 
the  zona  pellucida. 

Many  writers  have  supposed  that  chemotaxis  is  a  constant  factor  in 
the  fertilisation  of  animal  eggs.  This  generalisation,  which  has  been 
made  by  arguing  from  the  attraction  of  the  spermatozoa  to  the  eggs  of 
certain  plants,  is  as  yet  entirely  without  experimental  justification.  The 
author's  results  in  regard  to  Echinoids,  which  are  in  accordance  with 
those  obtained  by  Mus-iart  in  the  case  of  the  frog,  and  with  the  work  of 
Dewitz  on  the  fertilisation  of  the  eggs  of  certain  insects,  lead  him  to 
suppose  that  chemotaxis,  at  least  for  a  great  number  of  animal  species, 
plays  no  role  wh  itever  in  bringing  the  sexual  elements  together. 

Dispensability  of  Gravity  in  Development  of  Toad's  Egg1.  *  — 
T.  H.  Morgan  has  subjected  the  toad's  eggs  to  rotation  in  water  from 
the  moment  of  their  removal  from  the  animal,  and  before  fertilisation. 

The  cleavage  of  the  rotating  eggs  progressed  normally,  as  was  de- 
termined by  removing  a  few  of  the  eggs  at  intervals.  Those  removed 
at  the  2-cell  stage  (after  5  hours)  and  kept  outside  developed  normally. 
Eggs  removed  after  25  and  36  hours  also  produced  normal  embryos. 
After  48  hours  the  eggs  that  were  still  rotating  also  showed  the  dorsal 
lip  of  the  blastopore.  The  eggs  were  kept  rotating  for  se/eral  days 
longer,  and  produced  normal  embryo?. 

The  results  show  that  gravity  need  not  be  a  determining  factor  in 
the  development  of  a  bilateral  plane  in  the  apparently  radially  sym- 
metrical egg. 

The  critical  points  that  now  remain  to  be  determined  are:— (1)  does 
the  point  of  entrance  of  the  spermatozoon  determine  the  bilaterality  of 
the  egg  ?  (2)  does  the  grey  crescent;  develop  in  a  pre-organised  part  of 
the  egg,  and  if  so,  does  the  egg  rotate  after  fertilisation  so  that  this 
part  turns  uppermost  ?  or  (3)  does  the  grey  crescent  appear  at  any  point 
on  the  egg  that  happens  to  lie  uppermost  ?  But  the  results  of  the  ex- 
periments on  the  toad's  eggs  show  conclusively  that  when  gravity  is 
excluded  as  a  factor  acting  in  a  constant  relation  to  the  egg,  a  bilateral 
plane  still  appears  in  the  egg. 

Early  Stages  in  Oogenesis  and  the  Synaptic  Phases.f — A.  Giardina 
has  studied  these  in  Di/fiscus,  Mantis,  Helix,  &c.  During  the  growth  of 
the  oocytes  there  is  a  twice  repeated  characteristic  stage  of  repose,  with 
a  reticular  nucleus,  and  between  these  a  synaptic  phase  is  interposed. 
But  it  seems  necessary  to  distinguish  the  synapsis  of  growth  from  a 
synapsis  of  differentiation,  which  also  occurs  in  the  course  of  oogenesis. 

Experimental  Parthenogenesis  in  Amphibian  s.J  —  E.  Bataillon 
finds  that  the  unfertilised  ova  of  Rana  fusca  and  B.  esculenta  are  made 
active  by  heat  as  well  as  by  plasmolytic  solutions,  an  1  that  the  two 
stimuli  may  be  advantageously  combined.     In  these  conditions  the  eggs 

*  Auat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  313-6. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  293-308  (21  tigs.). 

%  Comptes  Renrlus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  01S-20. 


538     SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

show  nucleated  blastomeres  and  cytoblastomeres.  In  the  areas  of  full 
activity  there  are  normal  or  abnormal  karyokineses,  cytasters,  and 
divisions  of  cytasters.  Apart  from  the  absence  of  denned  centrosomes 
in  the  aster?,  and  the  origin  and  number  of  the  chromosome15,  the 
essential  phenomena  agree  with  those  descriled  by  Wilson  in  the  un- 
fertilised ova  of  Toxopneustes. 

Disruptive  Processes  in  Ovarian  Ova  of  Lacerta  agilis.  *  —  J.  A. 
Meyer  finds  that  appearances  suggestive  of  cleavage  are  really  disrup- 
tive. Tbe  plasmic  masses  are  irregular ;  they  are  without  nuclei ;  the 
germinal  vesicle  disappears  ;  the  yolk  becomes  fluid  ;  leucocytes  wander 
into  the  egg  ;  the  follicular  epithelium  first  proliferates  and  then  breaks 
up. 

;  Internal  Secretion  of  Testis.f— G.  Loisel  has  studied  the  testes  of 
birds  and  mammals  in  embryonic  and  adult  life,  and  distinguishes  what 
he  calls  a  primary,  chemical,  internal  secietion  from  the  secondary, 
morphological,  external  secretion  (that  of  spermatogenesis).  In  its 
internal  secretion  the  testis  is  a  great  destructor  of  fat ;  hence  the 
frequently  greater  thinness  of  males,  their  emaciation  during  the 
breeding  period,  and  the  fattening  of  castrated  individuals. 

Spermatogenesis  in  Newt.'j —  J.  A.  Janssens  describes  the  various 
stages,  and  emphasises  some  new  points.  Of  especial  importance  is  the 
comparison  between  the  phenomena  of  spermatogenesis  and  those  of 
oogenesis,  and  the  theory  that  the  successive  "  resolutions "  of  the 
nucleoli  in  the  ova  may  correspond  to  the  successive  divisions  of 
the  spermatogonia.  The  author  also  makes  a  point  of  insisting  on  the 
intimate  relations  between  the  chemical  processes  of  metabolism  and 
nutrition  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  physical  processes  of  cell-division 
on  the  other. 

Spermatozoon  of  Rat.§ — A.  A.  Merlin  has  made  a  detailed  examina- 
tion of  a  fine  preparation  of  rat  spermatozoa,  and  describes  the  appa- 
rently somewhat  complex  minute  organisation  of  the  "  head.'' 

Two-tailed  Spermatozoa.  || — E.  Ballowitz  refers  to  Bromann's  recent 
description  of  two-tailed  spermatozoa  in  the  normal  spermatic  fluid  of 
man,  salamander,  and  dog-tisb,  but  recalls  his  own  paper  of  1891,  in 
which  the  occurrence  of  similar  forms  was  carefully  noted. 

Alleged  Peritubular  Lymphatic  Tubes  of  the  Testis.f  —  M.  A. 
Capurro  believes  that  the  free  peritubular  spaces  seen  on  section  of  the 
testes  and  often  described,  are  really  artefacts,  due  to  the  effect  of  the 
mode  of  preparation  on  the  glandular  material. 

Development  of  Layers  of  Retina.**  —  J.  Cameron  notes  that  the 
inner  wall  of  the  retinal  cup  in  a  fourth-day  chick  has  exactly  the  same 
structure  as  the  wall  of  the  embryonic  cerebral  vesicles  or  spinal  cord 

*  Anat.  Hefte  (Merkel  and  Bonnet),  1901.  pp.  71-96  (4  pis.).  See  Zool.  Cen- 
tralbl.,  ix.  (1902)  p.  153. 

t  Comptes  Rendus.  exxxv.  (1902)  pp.  250-2. 
X  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  129-38  (15  figs.). 
§  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  189-94  (2  figs.). 
||   Anat.  Anzeig.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  561-3.  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  563-9  (4  figs). 

*•  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  London,  Ixx.  (1902)  pp.  84-6. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  539 

at  the  same  stage  of  development.  Thus  all  the  structures  which  His 
has  described  in  the  wall  of  the  embryouic  spinal  cord  can  also  be 
recognised  in  the  inner  wall  of  the  retinal  cup,  and  may  therefore 
receive  similar  names.  He  goes  on  to  describe  the  differentiation  of 
the  myelospongial  netwoik,  &c,  and  the  progress  from  day  to  day. 

Hofmann's  Nuclei  (Kblliker)  in  Spinal  Cord  of  Chick.* — K. 
Berliner  proved  independently  of  Kolliker  and  at  the  same  time  the 
occurrence  of  segmentally  arranged  nerve-cell  nuclei,  appearing  in  the 
■earliest  stages  of  development  in  organic  connection  with  the  spinal 
cord  of  the  chick,  and  retaining  this  connection  throughout  life. 

Branchial  Clefts  in  Ophidia.f — A.  Prenant  and  G.  Saint-Eemy 
find  that  three  kinds  of  structures  arise  from  the  branchial  clefts  of 
Cohiher  sesculapii  and  Tropidonotus  natrix. 

(1)  There  are  solid  buds  produced  bv  a  thickening  of  the  wall  of 
a  dorsal  evagination,  appearing  transitorily  in  connection  with  clefts  I., 
II.,  and  III.,  and  possibly  related  to  thymus  elements. 

(2)  There  are  hollow  primordia  produced  by  a  development  of  the 
whole  nail  of  the  cul-de-sac  forming  the  base  of  the  branchial  pouch, 
which  in  IV.  and  V.  form  a  thymus  properly  so-called,  while  in  III. 
they  form  a  homologous  gland,  quite  different  in  structure  from  the 
thymus. 

(3)  There  are  hollow  primordia  arising  from  a  email  segment  of  the 
median  region  of  the  fourth  branchial  p;>uch,  forming  little  glands. 
They  are  represented  in  rudimentary  form  in  connection  with  pouch  V. 

Pseudothyroid  of  Frog.}  —  H.  N.  Norris  finds  that  the  so-called 
"  ventraler  Kiemenrest "  of  Maurer  in  the  frog  is  not  derived  from  any 
part  of  the  wall  of  the  branchial  chamber.  It  may  be  appropriately 
described  as  "  Pseuduthyreoidea  "  (Mayer).  This  pseudothyreoidea  and 
the  corpus  propericardiale  have  essentially  the  same  structure,  and 
develop  simultaneously.  The  arterial  supply  of  the  two  is  from  the 
same  branch  of  the  external  carotid  artery,  the  ramus  musculo- glandu- 
laris ;  their  chief  venous  outlet  is  the  vena  pseudothyreoidea.  Both 
originate  in  regions  previously  occupied  by  portions  of  the  basihyo- 
branchialis  muscle  of  the  tadpole. 

Eye-Muscles  of  Acanthias.§ — A.  B.  Lamb  shows  that  the  necessary 
mechanical  relations  between  eyeball  and  muscles  are  secured  : — (1)  by 
a  forward  growth  of  processes  from  the  second  and  third  somites,  and 
the  development  of  musch -fibres  in  them  ;  (2)  by  a  spreading  out  of 
the  first  somite  around  the  eyeball  and  the  development  of  muscles  in 
its  distal  portions. 

Evidence  is  adduced  to  show  that  the  original  direction  of  all  the 
eye-muscles  is  longitudinal,  which  seems  to  represent  an  originally 
flexible  condition  of  the  head  and  to  be  an  additional  support  for  a 
belief  in  the  homology  of  head  and  trunk  somites. 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  273-8  (1  pi.). 
t  Coniptes  Rendus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  614-6. 
X  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  434-42  (7  figs.). 

§  Tufts  College  Studies,  No.  7  (1902)  pp.  275-92  (9  figs.). ;  Amer.  Journ.  Nat., 
i.  pp.  185-202. 


540  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

The  author  uses  three  arguments  showing  that  it  is  improbable  that 
the  present  musculature  of  the  eye  in  Acanthias  is  the  primitive  one. 
Two  stages  in  the  phylogenetic  evolution  are  hinted  at  by  the  ontogeny,. 
■ — (1)  a  stage  where  if  any  eye  musculature  existed  it  was  furnished  by 
the  anterior  somite,  and  (2)  a  stage  at  which  four  radially  arranged 
muscles  moved  the  eye. 

Notes  on  Development  of  Liver.* — G.  Hunter  gives  the  results  of 
a  number  of  observations  on  the  development  of  the  liver  in  Urodela, 
chick,  hare,  man,  &c.  He  considers  the  origin  and  morphology  of  the 
primary  hepatic  cylinders,  of  the  bile  capillaries  and  ducts,  and  of  the 
blood-corpuscles  -  and  the  vascular  channels.  From  the  numerous 
erythroblasts  seen  in  the  sections  at  all  stages  of  development,  it  is 
impossible  to  come  to  any  other  conclusion  than  that  the  liver  is  the 
chief  seat  of  blood  formation  during  embryonic  life,  and  perhaps  also 
for  some  time  after  birth. 

Development  of  Ventral  Pancreas  in  Lacerta  muralis.  f  —  Ch. 
Tecqmenne  finds  that  the  pancreas  in  this  lizard  arises  from  two  dis- 
tinct lobes,  one  distal,  the  other  proximal.  The  former  is  in  relation 
with  the  spleen  and  may  be  called  juxta-splenic ;  it  is  ontogenetically 
older,  and  is  wholly  a  dorsal  pancreas.  The  proximal  mass  may  be 
called  juxta-choledochus,  for  it  has  a  mixed  origin,  partly  from  the 
dorsal  pancreatic  outgrowth  and  partly  from  a  ventral  outgrowth.  Be- 
tween the  two  portions  and  uniting  them,  but  free  from  all  pancreatic 
tissue,  there  extends  a  long  portion  of  the  duct  of  the  dorsal  pancreas. 
Thus,  in  general,  the  development  of  the  pancreas  in  Lacerta  muralis 
is  similar  to  that  described  in  other  reptiles  by  Gianelli,  Glas,  Choron- 
shitzky,  and  Laguesse. 

Comparative  Anatomy  and  Embryology  of  the  Malpig'hian 
Bodies.^ — P.  T.  Herring  sums  up  a  useful  general  discussion  of  this 
theme  in  the  following  general  conclusions.  There  is  an  analogy  be- 
tween the  organs  of  excretion  of  Craniata.  We  observe  that  the  author 
does  not,  even  with  his  data,  say  that  there  is  a  homology.  The  simplest 
form  of  Malpighian  body  is  found  in  the  pronephros  during  embryonic 
life.  It  is  at  first  part  of  the  peritoneal  cavity,  and  the  pronephros  at 
that  stage  shows  a  close  resemblance  to  the  organs  of  excretion  of 
Amphioxus.  Later  on,  the  glomerulus  appears  in  a  specially  formed 
part  of  the  peritoneal  cavity.  In  the  mesonephros,  a  peritoneal  con- 
nection is  usually  present  at  first,  but  becomes  imperfect.  In  the  rueta- 
nephros,  according  to  the  author,  the  cavity  ot  Bowman's  capsule  may 
be  considered  to  correspond  to  part  of  the  body-cavity  specially  dif- 
ferentiated for  purposes  of  excretion.  The  development  of  the  Mal- 
pighian body  lends  support  to  this  view,  especially  if  we  are  to  consider 
it,  as  Braun  does,  as  formed  from  the  peritoneal  epithelium.  The  layer 
of  endothelial  cells  lining  Bowman's  capsule  corresponds  to  the  lining 
cells  of  the  general  peritoneal  cavity,  and  helps  to  complete  the  re- 
semblance. 

*  Proc.  Scot.  Micr.  Soc,  iii.  (1901)  pp.  114-21  (4  pis.). 
+  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  278-92  (3  figs.). 
X  Proc.  Scot.  Micr.  Soc,  iii.  (1901)  pp.  109-13. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  541 

Precocious  Sexual  Development.*  —  W.  Roger  Williams  has  pub- 
lished a  careful  essay  on  developmental  anomalies  of  this  kind,  with 
abstracts  of  over  one  hundred  authentic  cases.  His  classification  for 
females  runs : — I.  Precocious  sexual  development,  (a)  at  birth  or  there- 
abouts, (fe)  birth  to  the  sixth  month,  (c)  sixth  month  to  one  year,  (d) 
one  to  two  years,  (e)  two  to  three  years,  (/)  three  to  four  years,  and  so 
on  to  seven  years — altogether  59  cases;  II.  Precocious  sexual  develop- 
ment with  concomitant  intra-abdominal  tumour  (13  cases);  III.  Pre- 
cocious pregnancy,  15  cases,  at  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13  years.  Then  follow 
20  cases  of  precocious  sexual  development  in  males,  e.g.  of  boys  who 
were  parents  at  13  years  and  3  months  and  at  14  years,  "  believed  to  be 
the  earliest  examples  of  precocious  paternity  extant." 

Recent  Teratological  Work.f —  B.  C.  A.  W  indie  has  issued  the 
twelfth  of  his  valuable  reports  on  recent  teratological  investigations, 
arranged  under  the  heads, — (1)  experimental,  (2)  general,  (3)  duplicity, 
(4)  various  parts  of  the  body. 

b.  Histology. 

Studies  on  the  Retina.!  —  H.  M.  Bernard  discusses  in  the  third 
part  of  his  studies  on  the  retina  the  migration  of  the  retinal  nuclei. 
The  fourth  part  is  devoted  to  the  vesicular  swellings  at  the  tips  of  the 
"  cones,"  and  some  earlier  form-phases  in  rod-production  in  the  Am- 
phibians. The  fifth  part  discusses  the  removal  of  the  absorbed  pig- 
mentary matter  from  the  rods, — an  explanation  of  "  Midler's  fibres." 

The  conclusion  which  of  all  others  now  arrived  at  is  of  widest 
significance  from  a  general  poiut  of  view,  is  that  the  retina  can  no 
longer  be  regarded  as  built  up  of  so  many  separate  "  cells,"  each  with 
some  definite  and  permanent  morphological  value.  The  functional 
retina  is  really  a  continuous  cytoplasmic  reticulum  in  which  nuclei  are 
suspended,  and  these  nuclei  are  not  stationary.  With  reference  to  the 
retina  itself  as  the  specific  organ  of  vision,  by  far  the  most  important 
result  obtained  by  the  author  is  the  discovery  of  some  new  details 
relating  to  the  origin  and  structure  of  the  rods,  that  is,  of  those  struc- 
tures which  are  peculiar  to  the  retina  as  the  visual  organ.  The  parallel 
between  the  rods  and  cuticular  formations  does  not  work  o.ut ;  the 
"cones"  are  not  always  analogous  structmes  ;  the  striation  of  the  rods 
is  due  to  strands  in  the  walls  of  the  rod-vesicles;  the  refractive  matter 
which  fills  the  outer  limbs  of  the  rods  is^absorbed  pigment,  which  is 
usually,  but  not  always,  clarified  during  the  process  of  absorption  ; 
Miiller's  fibres  are  merely  streams  of  the  pigment  matter  which  have 
been  absorbed  by  the  rods,  and  which  pass  inwards  through  the  retina, 
eventually  to  join  the  vitreous  humour. 

Retina  of  Hatteria.§ — Hs.  Virchow  has  been  able  to  make  a  satis- 
factory study  of  well-preserved  retinae,  and  although  he  has  found 
nothing  essentially  different  from  what  occurs  in  the  retinse  of  other 
Reptiles,  there  is  interesting  evidence  of  detailed  differentiating  pecu- 
liarities. 

*  Brit.  Gynaecol.  Journ.,  Mav  1902,  pp.  85-114. 

t  Journ.  Anat.  Physiol.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  296-308. 

J  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlvi.  (1902)  pp.  27-75  (3  pis  ). 

§  SB  Ges.  Nat.  Freunde  Berlin,  1901,  pp.  42-62. 

October  loth,  1902  2  o 


542      SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

Neurofibrillar  Theory.*  — C.  K.  .Mills  Lokls  that  the  elementary 
fibrils  in  which  is  stored  neural  energy  not  only  conduct  or  transmit 
nervous  impulses,  but  by  means  of  the  special  manner  in  which  they 
are  arrange  1  in  the  nerve-centres  as  well  as  in  the  periphery,  determine 
the  intensity  and  character  of  the  discharge.  The  fibrillar  coils  and 
bundles  are  regarded  as  representing  a  complicated  induction  apparatus. 
Localisation  of  function  is  brought  about  by  means  of  special  arrange- 
ments of  intracellular  and  intercellular  neurofibrillary  coils  and  plexuses 
in  the  particular  regions  called  centres.  As  only  an  abstract  of  the 
paper  is  before  us,  we  have  no  means  of  appreciating  the  evidence  on 
which  these  conclusions  are  based. 

Minute  Structure  of  the  Muscle-Fibril. t—E.  A.  Schafer  refers  to 
previous  investigations  in  which  he  showed  that  the  sarcous  elements 
or  principal  discs  of  the  fibrils  of  the  wing-muscles  of  insects  are  tra- 
versed by  longitudinal  pores.  He  brought  forward  evidence  that  the 
process  of  contraction  of  the  fibril  is  accompanied  by  a  transference  of 
(fluid?)  isotropous  substance  into  the  anisotropous  disc  or  tarcous 
element  He  has  recently  found  in  a  leg-muscle  fibre  of  Harpalus 
runeortus  a  good  object  for  demonstrating  the  porous  structure  of  the 
sarcous  elements,  and  he  re-affirms  his  conviction  as  to  the  existence  of 
fine  longitudinal  pores  in  the  anisotropous  substance,  into  which  the 
isotropous  fluid  may  pass  during  contraction. 

Muscularisation  of  Capillary  Vessels.^:  —  S.  Mayer  gives  in  an 
interesting  paper  a  statement  of  the  evidence  which  has  led  him  to 
the  conclusion  that  there  are  smooth  muscle-cells  on  the  walls  of  the 
capillary  vessels. 

Caeca  of  Birds. §  —  C.  Calleja  gives  a  preliminary  account  of  his 
researches  on  the  structure  of  the  cascal  appendages  in  birds.  He 
describes  four  layers. — connective,  muscular,  lymphatic,  and  epithelial. 

c.  General. 

Concept  of  Species.f! — K.  Mobius  says  that  we  are  bound  to  a  double 
outlook  on  Nature,  (a)  when  we  perceive  its  infinitely  rich  varietv  and 
heterogeneity,  (b)  when  we  perceive  it  as  a  harmonious  universe.  *  The 
second  outlook  lea<ls  the  naturalist  to  group  organisms,  to  detect  re- 
current characters  transmitted  from  parents  to  offspring,  and  the  concept 
of  species  results. 

Our  concepts  of  species  are  necessarily  imperfect  inductions  ;  no  one 
can  verify  them  exhaustively.  They  are  necessarily  affected  by  the 
naturalist's  personal  equation ;  what  are  true  species  to  one  may  not 
appear  so  to  another.  Nature  has  no  ill-defined  and  well-defined  species, 
but  naturalists  have. 

Species  are  only  logical  unities,  quite  abstract ;  they  do  not  chai  ge 
or  adapt  themselves  ;  only  the  individuals  do  so.  Indeed,  the  formation 
of  species-concepts  is  quite  independent  of  questions  as  to  the  origin  of 
the  real  organisms. 

*  Pr<  c.  Nat  Sci.  Philad..  1902,  p.  113. 

t  Anat.  Anzeig..  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  474-7  (4  figs.).  J  Tom.  cit .  pp.  442-55. 

§  Boll.  Soc.  Espan.  Hist.  Nat.,  ii.  (1902)  pp.  250-2  (I  fig.). 
<B.  Ges.  Nat.  Freun.Je  Berlin.  1901,  pp.  267-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ET  543 

Pathogenic  and  Teratogenic  Agents.* — E.  Eabaud  seeks  to  give 
precision  to  this  contrast.  A  teratogenic  agent  induces  modifications 
such  that  the  living  matter  loses  none  of  its  essential  qualities  ;  tbere  is 
a  novel  distribution  of  histological  differentiations,  and  there  is  load 
variation  in  the  rapidity  of  growth.  A  pathogenic  agent  induces  de- 
structive processes  ;  there  is  at  leaat  a  tendency  to  total  or  partial 
destruction  of  certain  protoplasmic  elements,  or  to  their  transformation 
into  inert  substances.  The  vital  processes  are  hindered  or  bereft  of 
their  completeness. 

Growth  and  Auto-Intoxication,  f  —  F.  Houssay  has  plotted  out  the 
progressive  changes  in  the  weights  of  a  brood  of  chickens,  and  com- 
pared the  curves  with  those  of  Deschamps  expressing  the  growth  of 
Protozoa  limited  by  inanition  or  auto-intoxication.  As  inanition  could 
hardly  be  supposed  in  the  conditions  observe  1,  Houssay  thinks  that  it 
is  auto-intoxication  which  restricts  the  rate  of  growth.  He  maintains 
that  auto-intoxication  is  a  constantly  present  check  on  the  growth  of 
Metazoa. 

Biological  Test  for  Blood.  —  G.  H.  F.  Xuttall  has  described  the 
preparation  of  so-called  specihc  anti-sera. i  To  obtain  an  anti-serum 
for  human  blood,  the  blood  is  injected  intraperitoneally  into  rabbits. 
After  about  five  injections,  given  at  intervals  of  three  or  more  days,  the 
rabbit  is  bled  to  death,  and  its  blood-serum  is  collected.  This  serum 
has  acquired  the  remarkable  property  of  producing  a  precipitation  im- 
mediately on  its  being  added  in  small  quantity  to  human  blood-serum. 

Xuttall  has  discovered  the  interesting  fact  §  that  the  anti-seium 
above  described  has  no  effect  upon  the  blood  of  other  mammals  and 
other  vertebrates  (230  different  kinds),  with  the  single  exception  of 
monkey  bloods.  Similarly,  if  labbits  are  treated  with  the  blood  of  the 
horse,  dog,  ox,  sheep,  &c,  anti-sera  are  formed  which  produce  precipita- 
tions only  in  the  bloods  of  the  animals  whose  blcod  was  used  for 
treatment,  or,  to  a  less  extent,  in  the  bloods  of  nearly  allied  animals. 

Thus  the  blood-test  comes  to  be  a  physiological  criterion  of  relation- 
ship. The  new  world  monkeys  give  a  less  marked  reaction  with  the 
anti-serum  for  human  blood  than  do  the  old  world  monkeys ;  and  the 
test  gave  a  negative  result  when  applied  to  the  blood  of  two  species  of 
Ltiiutr. 

In  a  subsequent  paper  ||  Xuttall  notes  that  anti-dog  serum  yielded 
positive  results  only  with  bloods  of  other  Canidae  ;  anti-horse  serum  only 
produced  a  reaction  with  the  blood  of  horse  and  donkey ;  the  bloods  of 
Tragulidfe  and  Camelidse  gave  no  indication  of  relationship  with  the 
true  ruminants,  and  so  on. 

Anti-pig  serum  pr<  duced  marked  clouding  (remote  relationship?)  in 
A  number  of  mammalian  bloods,  but  only  once  a  (very  slight)  clouding 
in  a  non-mammalian  blood  (experimental  error?). 

*  Couiptes  Rendus.  csxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  915-7. 
t  Tom.  cat,  pp.  1233-5  (1  fig.). 

%  Brit.  Med.  JourD.,  11th  May,  1901,  p.  1141;   14th  September.  1901,  p.  669  ; 
Journ.  of  Hvgitne.  1st  July.  1901,  pp.  367-  87. 

§  Proc.  Boy.  S<  c.  London,  lxis.  (1901)  pp.  150-3. 
|  Proc.  Cambridge  Phil.  Soc.,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  334-6. 

2  o  2 


544  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Anti-fowl  serum  produced  a  reaction  in  bloods  of  widely  divergent 
birds,  but  only  once  in  mammalian  blood  (experimental  error  r). 

Anti-lobster  serum  reacted  with  lobster  serum  dilutions ;  produced 
slight  reactions  or  marked  clouding  with  blood  dilutions  of  five  kinds  of 
crabs ;  produced  marked  clouding  with  blood  of  crayfish  ;  but  exerted 
no  effect  whatever  on  any  of  the  250  non-crustacean  bloods  examined. 

Minute  Traces  of  Arsenic  in  Animals.*  —  A.  Gautier  re-expounds 
the  delicate  method  which  enabled  him  (1899)  to  demonstrate  the 
normal  presence  of  arsenic  in  minute  quantities  in  some  organs  of 
animals, — the  skin,  the  thyroid,  the  thymus,  the  bones,  &c.  Those  who 
have  not  been  able  to  confirm  this  have  not  been  careful  enough.  There 
are,  however,  some  confirmations,  e.g.  the  observations  of  G.  Bertrand. 
Gautier  finds  that  at  certain  times  the  arsenic  seems  to  pass  from  the 
infernal  organs  to  epidermic  structures,  such  as  the  hair. 

Experiments  on  Pigeons  in  relation  to  the  Semicircular  Canals.| 
— L.  Boutan  refers  to  the  fact  that  when  the  semicircular  canals  of  a 
pigeon  or  other  bird  are  cut,  there  is  a  constant  bending  of  the  head 
towards  the  injured  side.  This  phenomenon  has  been  interpreted  by 
E.  de  Cyon  and  by  Laborde  as  a  direct  consequence  of  the  lesion  of  the 
semicircular  canals.  By  means  of  a  delicate  operation,  Boutan  has  been 
able  to  show  that  the  lesion  of  the  semicircular  canals  is  not  the  real 
cause  of  the  phenomenon, — from  which,  it  may  be  noted,  the  pigeon 
may  react  to  vital  normality. 

Reactions  to  Anisotonic  Solutions.  J  —  P.  Enriques  has  studied 
the  processes  of  osmosis  and  absorption  in  the  reactions  of  Protozoa 
(Oikomonas,  &c),  and  of  Limnsea  siagnalis  to  anisotonic  solutions. 
The  problem  is  rather  a  difficult  one,  but,  so  far  as  we  understand,  the 
author  seems  to  have  shown  that  the  passage  by  osmosis  and  the  passage 
by  absorption  are  completely  independent  processes. 

Hgemolytic  Action  of  Cobra  Poison.  §  —  A.  Calmette  discusses  the 
remarkably  strong  dissolving  effect  of  cobra  prison  on  the  red  blood- 
corpuscles  of  horse,  dog,  rabbit,  guinea-pig,  and  rat.  The  corpuscles  of 
ox,  fowl,  pigeon,  and  frog  are  more  resistant. 

But  the  subject  is  somewhat  complicated,  for  Calmette  finds  that  the 
red  blood-corpuscles  of  an  animal  hyper- vaccinated  against  cobra  poison ,, 
and  furnishing  a  strongly  anti-toxic  and  anti-hasmolytic  serum,  are  still 
perfectly  haemolysable  when,  after  being  separated  from  the  serum  by  a 
series  of  washings  and  centrifugal  operations,  they  are  put  in  contact 
with  feeble  doses  of  cobra-venom,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  normal 
serum  heated  to  62°. 

Calmette  asks  biologists  interested  in  the  problem  of  cellular  im- 
munity to  correlate  his  results  with  those  noted  by  Wassermann  and 
Takaki  in  regard  to  the  fixation  of  tetanic  toxin  by  nerve-cells,  and 
those  noted  by  Roux  and  Borrel  in  regard  to  cerebral  tetanus  in  vacci- 
nated animals. 

Hsemolytic  Effect  of  Viper's  Venom.||— C.  Phisalix  finds  that  the 
effects  on  the  dog  are  very  different  from  those  on  the  rabbit.     In  the 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  1394-9.  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1417-9. 

%  Atti  R.  Accad.  Lincei  (Rend.),  xi.  (1902)  pp.  495-9. 
§  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  1446-7. 
||   Op.  cit.,   exxxv.  (1902)  pp.  257-9. 


ZOOLOGY   ANDJ30TANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  545 

rabbit  the  red  blood-corpuscles  are  more  resistant  than  the  white  cor- 
puscles, and  the  serum  contains  in  excess  a  very  active  anti-hsemoljtic 
agent.  The  red  blood-corpuscles  of  the  dog  are  less  resistant  than  the 
white  corpuscles,  and  more  fragile  than  those  of  the  rabbit.  In  the 
serum  the  "  sensibilatrice  "  predominates  over  the  "  antihemolysine." 
The  transformation  of  the  haemoglobin  into  methasmoglobin  is  due  to 
the  oxidising  action  of  the  echidnase  in  the  venom. 

Long-  Fast  of  Python.* — J.  Pellegrin  recalls  some  cases  of  pro- 
longed fasts  in  snakes, — 49  months  in  Pelophilus,  29  months  in  Python 
sebse, — and  records  a  new  cas  ».  On  the  17th  November,  1899,  the 
collection  of  reptiles  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  in  Paris  re- 
ceived a  superb  specimen  of  Python  reticulaius,  measuring  6*45  metres, 
and  weighing  75  kilogrammes.  It  refused  all  food,  remained  almost 
quite  inert,  slowly  lost  in  weight,  and  after  prolonged  local  death  suc- 
cumbed on  the  20th  April,  1902,  after  a  fast  of  2  years  5  months  and 
H  days.  It  had  lost  about  two-thirds  (48  kilogrammes)  of  its  original 
weight. 

Ciliated  Grooves  in  Brain  of  Ammocoete.f  —  A.  Dendy  has  found 
in  the  New  Zealand  lamprey  (Geotria  australis)  and  in  Petromyzon  a 
pair  of  conspicuous  ciliated  grooves  lying  in  the  roof  of  the  brain  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  posterior  commissure,  extending  from  the 
recessus  sub-pinealis  to  the  hinder  margin  of  the  posterior  commissure. 
They  are  most  conspicuous  beneath  the  commissure  itself,  in  which 
region  they  are  line  1  by  a  sharply  defined  epithelium  of  very  long 
■columnar  cells,  totally  different  in  appearance  from  the  epithelium 
which  lines  the  remainder  of  the  brain-cavity.  Their  function  is 
probably  to  promote  the  circulation  of  the  brain-fluid. 

Cranial  Nerves  of  Amphiuma.J — J-  S.  Kingsley  has  made  a  study 
of  the  topographical  relations  of  the  cranial  nerves  in  this  Amphibian. 

Systematic  Position  of  Caecilians  § — J.  S.  Kingsley  discusses  the 
whole  question,  comparing  the  different  suggestions  that  have  been 
made  by  various  authorises.  He  thinks  the  facts  justify  us  in  accepting 
Huxley's  conclusion,  as  true  to-clay  as  when  it  was  published  in  1878, 
that  none  of  the  Gymnophiona  present  the  slightest  indication  of  an 
approximation  towards  the  Anura  or  the  Urodela. 

It  is  admitted  that  there  are  certain  superficial  resemblances  to 
Amphiiima,  but  the  Gymnophiona  are  certainly  not  Urodela,  and  Am- 
phiuma  is  not  a  neotaenic  Casciliau.  The  Gymnophiona  form  a  distinct 
order,  and  the  only  point  of  union  between  them  and  the  others  must 
be  sought,  where  VViedersheim  looked  for  it  in  1879,  in  the  extinct 
group  of  Stegocephali. 

All  evidence  of  structure,  as  well  as  the  significant  fact  of  discon- 
tinuous distribution,  tends  to  show  that  the  Gymnophiona  are  an  ex- 
tremely old  group,  though  no  fossil  forms  are  known.  They  are  the 
most  stegocephaline  of  existing  Amphibians,  and  deserve  far  more  study 
than  has  as  yet  been  given  to  them. 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xvii.  (1902)  pp.  164-0. 

i  Proe.  Loy.  Soc.  London,  lxix.  (1902)  pp.  -185-94  (6  figs.). 

X  Tufts  College  Studies,  1902,  pp.  293-321  (3  pis.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  323-44  (1  fig.). 


546  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Homology  of  Selachian  Ampullae.* — J.  B.  Johnston  differs  entirely 
from  the  argument  of  Allis  that  the  nerve-sacs  of  Ganoids  and  the 
ampulla?  of  Selachians  are  the  homologues  of  the  end-buds  of  Teleosts, 
rather  than  of  the  lateral  line  or  pit-organs.  He  criticises  the  bases  of 
the  arguments  which  Allis  advanced,  and  emphasises  the  constancy 
of  the  cLief  divisions  of  the  nervous  system,  and  the  inseparable  and 
unchangeable  unity  of  the  central  and  peripheral  elements  of  each 
functional  division. 

Homologue  of  Infundibular  Organ  in  Amphioxus.f  —  J.  Boeke 
finds  on  the  ventral  wall  of  the  cerebral  ventricle  of  the  larval  lancelet 
(l'5-4"8  cm.  in  length),  at  a  definite  spot,  a  well-defined  organ-like 
differentiated  portion  of  the  ventricle-epithelium,  which  he  regards  as 
the  homologue  of  the  infundibular  organ  in  higher  Chordates.  The 
infundibular  organ  would  thus  be  older  than  the  infundibular  evagina- 
tion,  which  appears  contemporaneously  with  the  brain-curvatures. 

Note   on  Additions   to  Fresh-water  Fauna.}  —  C.  Vaney  and  A 
Conte  report  the   appearance   in    the    fresh   water  of  Lyons  of  Emea 
lacustris  or  Tetrastemma  lacustre, — a  Nemerteau  discovered  by  du  Plessis 
on  the  Savoy  side  of  Lake  Geneva.     It  exhibits  a  natural  scissiparity. 

Another  recent  addition  to  the  Lyons  fauna  is  Blennius  atycstris, 
first  found  by  Blanchard  in  the  Lake  of  Buurget.  Like  Emea,  it  has 
probably  reached  Lyons  via  the  Khone. 

The  authors  go  on  to  discuss  the  adaptability  of  various  fishes  to 
change  of  habitat ;  thus  Blennius  pavo  and  Gobius  niger  can  stand  abrupt 
change  to  fresh  water,  sticklebacks  require  more  gradual  transition,, 
while  Crenilabrus  masso  is  at  once  killed  if  taken  from  the  shore  and 
put  into  fresh  water.  There  seems  no  doubt  that  Blennius  alpestris  is 
a  variety  of  Bl.  cagnota,  adapted  long  ago  to  a  fresh-water  habitat. 

Fossil  Faunas  and  Geological  Formations. §  —  H.  S.  Williams- 
submits  a  series  of  statistics  from  which  he  deduces  the  following 
"  laws." 

A  geological  fauna  may  be  defined  as  an  aggregation  of  species 
living  together,  the  several  species  of  which  hold  a  definite  value  in 
relation  to  each  other. 

The  relative  value  of  the  constituent  species  is  expressed  in  terms, 
of  the  abundance  or  rarity  of  the  individuals  of  each  faunal  ("  faunule  ") 
sample,  viz.  bionic  value. 

The  purity  or  integrity  of  the  fauna  may  be  recognised  by  the  list 
of  its  dominant  species.  The  geographical  distribution  of  the  fauna  may 
be  recognised  by  the  presence  of  the  dominant  species  and  their  holding, 
their  standard  dominance  in  the  list  of  species  with  which  they  are  asso- 
ciated in  the  "  faunule."  The  region,  over  which  the  bionic  equilibrium 
of  the  faui  a  is  expressed  by  occurrence  of  the  same  dominant  species,, 
is  the  metropolis  of  the  fauna.  The  geological  range  of  a  fauna  is 
recognised  by  the  persistence  of  the  bionic  equilibrium  of  the  species. 

Two  faunas  may  coexist  in  time  in  distinct  geographical  areas ;  but 
in  the  same  area,  the  two  faunas  can  appear  in  their  integrity  only  by 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  308-13.         t  Tom.  cit,   pp.  411-4  (3.  figs.). 
%  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  115-7. 
§  Ainer.  Journ.  Sci ,  xiii.  (1902)  pp.  417-32. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  547 

displacement  by  which  the  bionic  equilibrium  will  be  disturbed.  Hence 
two  faunas  in  their  purity  will  always  appear  in  succession  in  any  single 
section. 

As  the  geological  chances  are,  in  general,  in  one  direction  for  any 
particular  region,  the  shifting  of  faunas  is  likely  to  be  in  the  same 
direction  for  long  periods  of  time,  and  thus  the  recurrence  of  two  dis- 
tinct faunas  is  rare.  Occasionally,  oscillation  of  two  faunas  can  bo 
recognised  in  a  single  section  ;  this  fact  may  be  interpreted  as  migration 
back  and  forwards  over  the  same  region.  The  occurrence  of  two  faunas 
each  occupying  a  distinct  metropolis  will  thus  rarely  ever  show  itself 
in  lapping  of  the  faunas ;  but  occasionally  evidence  of  the  coexistence 
of  the  faunas  will  be  seen  in  the  intercalation  of  a  colony  of  one  of  the 
faunas  in  the  midst  of  the  other.  The  lapping  of  faunas,  stratigraphi- 
cally,  is  the  necessary  interpretation  of  the  coexistence  of  two  faunas 
at  the  same  period  of  time. 

Dolphin  Carp.* — M.  Jaquet  has  made  a  careful  analysis  of  that 
strange  malformation  of  the  carp's  head  which  is  known  as  "  carpe 
dauphin  "  or  "  Mops  Karpf."  The  most  deformed  parts  aro  the  ethmoid, 
the  vomer,  the  prefrontal,  and  the  upper  jaw.  There  is  a  reduction  in 
the  number  of  bones  in  the  periorbital  chain,  and  the  superior  maxillary 
is  formed  of  two  pieces  instead  of  only  one  as  in  the  normal  carp. 

Carboniferous  Cestracionts  and  Acanthodians.t  —  C.  E.  Eastman 
notes  that  coincident  with  the  mavked  increase  of  Pelmatozoa  and 
certain  families  of  Brachiopods  during  the  Lower  Carboniferous  all  over 
the  world,  a  race  of  sharks  armed  with  crushing  teeth  suddenly  acquired 
dominance,  became  exceedingly  diversified,  and  finally  all  but  passed 
away  towards  the  close  of  the  Palaeozoic.  Of  the  very  extensive  group 
represented  by  the  Cochliodonts  and  Cestraciodonts,  which  is  at  least 
as  ancient  as  the  Devonian,  only  one  genus,  the  so-called  Port  Jackson 
shark,  survives  at  the  present  day.  With  this  all  the  fossil  forms  agree 
in  having  similar  but  more  or  less  specialised  dentition,  so  that  this 
creature  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  host  of  Carboniferous  sharks 
with  crushing  teeth  thnt  Nautilus  does  to  fossil  Cephalopods.  He  goes 
on  to  discuss  Edestus  and  Campyloprion,  Ctenacanthus  and  Acanthodes. 

Lamarck,  Life  and  Work.} — A.  S.  Packard  has  executed  a  labour 
of  love  in  this  study  of  Lamarck's  life  and  work.  In  spite  of  the 
meagre  materials,  the  author  has  constructed  an  interesting  biography. 
This  is  followed  by  an  estimate  of  Lamarck's  many  labours,  a  discussion 
of  the  appreciation  and  depreciation  of  these,  a  history  of  evolution- 
theory,  and  a  chapter  on  neo-Lamarckism.  No  small  part  of  the  value 
of  this  interesting  work  lies  in  the  translation  of  carefully  selected 
passages  from  Lamarck's  works. 

Introductory  Text-book  of  Zoology.§ — D.  S.  Jordan  and  H.  Heath  , 
have  added  another  to  many  introductory  text-books  of  zoology.     After 
briefly  discussing  the  characteristic?  of  living  things,  and  of  animals  as 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Sci.  Bucarest,  x.  (1902)  pp.  542-7  (2  pis.). 

t  Bull  Mus.  Co  i.p.  Zool.  Harvard,  xxxix.  (1902)  pn.  55-99  (7  pis.  and  14  figs.). 
X  Lamarck,  the  Founder  of  Evolution,  his  Life  and  Work,  New  York,  1901.  8vo, 
xii.  and  451  pp.  and  10  pis. 

§  Animal  Forms,  London,  1902,  8vo,  vi  and  258  pp.  an  1  140  figs. 


548  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

contrasted  with  plants,  and  giving  a  short  account  of  protoplasm  and 
the  cell,  the  authors  take  a  wide  and  interesting  survey  of  the  chief 
classes  of  animals.  The  structural  aspect  predominates,  but  considerable 
attention  is  paid  to  habits  and  life-history,  and  the  particular  feature  of 
the  book  is  the  great  excellence  of  the  half-tone  illustrations,  many  of 
which  are  from  photographs  of  the  real  animals. 

Tunicata. 

Ovum  within  Testes  of  Fragarium  elegans.*  —  W.  Bedikorzew 
found  inside  some  of  the  vesicles  which  compose  the  male  gonad  of  this 
(of  course,  hermaphrodite)  composite  Ascidian,  a  large  cell, — unmis- 
takably an  ovum.  He  recalls  cases  of  an  ovum  within  the  testis  of 
unisexual  animals,  —  lobster  (G.  Hermann),  crayfish  (von  la  Valette  St. 
George),  and  cockroach  (Heymons). 

Heart  of  Molgula  manhattensis.f  —  Gr.  W.  Hunter,  jun.,  finds  that 
the  heart  proper  of  Molgula  is  made  up  of  three  different  elements,  so 
far  as  the  selective  agency  of  methylen-blue  shows :  first,  cross-striped 
muscle-cells  which  do  not  take  the  stain  ;  second,  connective  tissue 
elements  which  are  closely  applied  to  the  heart  musculature  in  a  some- 
what regular  manner ;  and  third,  nerve-cells  and  fibres.  In  the  pre- 
served material  an  extremely  delicate  pavement  epithelium  seems  to 
form  the  endothelial  lining. 

Ascidians  of  Bermudas.  J — W.  G.  Van  Name  gives  a  monographic 
account  of  the  Bermudian  Ascidians,  which  have  hitherto  received  but 
little  attention.  Four  new  genera  are  described,  and  21  new  species, 
out  of  a  total  of  about  46. 

INVERTEBRATA. 

Fauna  of  a  Mountain  Stream.  § — F.  Zschokke  gives  an  account  of 
the  characteristic  fauna  of  a  rocky  torrential  stream  near  Sackingen.  It 
exhibits  a  marked  resemblance  to  the  fauna  of  high  Alpine  streams. 
Very  typical  are  the  larvae  and  pupae  of  the  Diptera —  Liponeura 
brevirostris,  Simulia,  and  Chironomus,  the  young  stages  of  Ephemerids 
(Epeorus,  Baetis,  and  Ecdyurus),  certain  Phryganidae,  besides  Perla 
bipunctata  Pictet  and  Nemura  nitida  Pictet.  Among  the  submerged 
moss  there  are  minute  Hydrachnids  unable  to  swim,  various  forms  of 
Aturus,  Feltria,  Sperclionopsis,  Hygrobates,  and  Atractides.  The  list 
also  includes  Gammarus  pult'X,  Litnnsea  truncatula,  Ancylastrum  jluviatile, 
and  the  three  stream  Turbellarians — Planaria  gonocephala,  Polycelis 
cornuta,  and  Planaria  alpina,  which  succeed  one  another  in  that  order 
upstream,  as  Voigt  has  described  elsewhere. 

Mollusca. 

Fauna  of  the  Gulf  of  Triest.}] — E.  Graeffe  continues  his  admirable 
faunistic  account  of  the  Gulf   of   Triest,  the  last  published  portion 

*  Zool.  Arizeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  484-6  (1  fig.), 
t  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  241-6  (3  figs.). 
I  Trans.  Conn.  Acad.  Sci.,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  325-411  (19  pis.). 
§  MT.  Bad.  Zool.  Ver.,  No.  11-2  (1902)  pp.  27-41.     See  Zool.  Centralbl..  ix. 
1902)  pp.  42-3. 

||   Arbeit.  Zool.  Inst.  Univ.  Wien,  xiv.  (1902)  pp.  89-136. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  549 

dealing  with  the  Molluscs.  We  record  it  particularly  Lecause  of  the 
notes  on  the  occurrence,  mode  of  life,  and  breeding  season  of  the  forms 
catalogued. 

y.  Gasteropoda. 

Classification  of  Neomenians.*—  G.  Pruvot  divides  the  Neomenians 
into  four  families,  of  which  he  gives  diagnoses: — (1)  Lepidomenidaa, 
the  most  primitive  family,  represented  by  the  genera  Lepidomenia, 
Ismenia,  Stylomenia,  Dondersia,Nematomenia,  Myzomenia;  (2)  Neomenidae, 
represented  by  the  single  genus  Neomenia  ;  (3)  Proneomenidaa,  repre- 
sented by  Proneomenia,  Amphimenia,  Eehinomenia  (3),  Notomenia,  Stropho- 
menia,  Rhopalomenia,  and  Pruvotia  ;  (4)  Paramenidae,  represented  by 
Marcellomenia,  Paramenia,  and  Pararhopalia,  three  genera  which  re- 
spectively connect  this  family  with  the  three  cither  families  in  the  order 
given  above. 

The  (Ji  aetoderrnidae  are  regarded  as  derived  from  a  Neomenian  stock 
which  Proneomenia  and  Notomenia  most  nearly  represent.  Perhaps  the 
Neomenians  and  the  Annelids  both  diverged  from  a  Turbellarian  stock. 
The  Neomeniaus  and  the  Solenogastres,  as  a  whole,,  convey  the  impres- 
sion of  being  a  debilitated  race,  perhaps  handicapped  by  the  close  and 
inhibiting  structural  relations  between  the  heart  and  the  genital 
apparatus.  The  Placophora,  freed  from  this  imperfection — "  une  tare 
originelle  " — have  progressed,  but  the  Solenogastres  represent  a  cul-de- 
sac  in  evolution. 

Development  of  Paludina  vivipara.f — Isabella  M.  Drummond  has 
studied  this  subject  with  special  reference  to  the  urinogenital  organs, 
and  to  the  theories  of  Gasteropod  torsion. 

'1  he  functional  kidney  of  the  adult  belongs  morphologically  to  the 
definitive  left  side  of  the  body,  as  von  Erlanger  has  pointed  out ;  but 
the  definitive  right  kidney  is  not  lost,  as  that  authority  described  ;  it 
persists  as  the  genital  duct. 

An  indication  of  the  original  coelomic  connection  between  gonad  and 
kidney  is  found  in  the  course  of  development  as  a  thickened  ridge  of 
pericardial  epithelium,  which  finally  becomes  indistinguishable  from  the 
f.'onad,  and,  after  it  has  acquired  a  lumen,  communicates  with  the  de- 
finitive left  kidney  close  to  the  reno-pericardial  aperture.  The  gonad 
arises  as  a  solid  proliferation  of  the  morphologically  dorsal  wall  of  the 
pericardium.  It  arises  from  the  original  left  side  only,  and  shows  no 
sign  of  a  paired  origin. 

Theories  of  Gusteroi  od  torsion  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  :  — 
(a)  Those  which  view  the  present  position  of  the  pallial  complex  as  due 
to  a  forward  movement  along  the  right  side  of  the  body,  which  resulted 
from  greater  growth  of  the  left  side  of  the  body  than  of  the  right ;  and 
{{/)  Those  which  view  the  present  position  of  the  pallial  complex  as  due 
to  a  ventral  flexion  followed  by  a  vertical  rotation  of  the  whole  visceral 
hump  upon  tho  head. 

The  evidence  for  the  second  of  these  views  seems  greater  than  that 
for  the  first,  in  that — 

(1)  A  vertical  displacement  through  180°  of  all  the  organs  con- 
tained in  the  visceral  hump  takes  place  in  the  course  of  ontogeny  ; 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Expe'r.,  x.  (1902)  Notes  et  Revue,  pp.  xvii.-xxvii. 
t  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlvi.  (,1902)  pp.  97-143  (3  pis.). 


550  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

(2)  There  is  some  evidence,  both  from  comparative  anatomy  and 
embryology,  for  believing  that  the  oesophagus  has  undergone  an  actual 
twist ; 

(3)  Monstrosities  which  retain  the  pallial  complex  in  a  ventral 
position  shoAf  a  tendency  to  form  an  exogastric  coil. 

The  innervation  of  the  mantle  is  shown  to  be  equally  difficult  to 
interpret  on  either  hypothesis.  Against  the  first  view  is  also  urged  the 
insufficiency  of  the  evidence  upon  which  Biitschli  bases  his  conclusions 
with  regard  to  zones  of  unequal  growth. 

With  regard  to  the  phylogenetic  cause  of  the  vertical  twist,  em- 
bryology can  only  give  negative  evidence ;  while  in  considering  the 
ontogenetic  cause  we  are  thrown  back  upon  unsolved  problems  of 
heredity,  and  must  confess  our  ignorance. 

Relations  of  Kidney  in  Haliotis.* — H.  J.  Fleure  finds  that  Baliotis 
luberculata  has  two  separate  kidueys  right  and  left  of  the  pericardium, 
opening  externally  by  separate  apertures ;  that  the  gonaduct  opens  into 
the  right  kidney,  which  is  the  functional  excretory  organ,  while  the  left 
kidney  is  partly  degenerating  into  lymphatic  tissue,  and  is  becoming 
connected  with  the  efferent  branchial  vein  by  direct  blood-channels  ; 
and  that  the  right  or  functional  kidney  communicates  with  the  peri- 
cardium, while  the  left  one  does  not.  The  author  discusses  generally 
the  difficult  question  oi  the  kidney  homologies  in  Vertebrates,  and  sup- 
ports the  view  that  the  kidney  which  is  reduced  is  that  of  the  pre- 
torsional  right  (post-torsional  left)  side. 

Purple  of  Purpura  lapillus.j — A.  Letellhr  refers  to  the  conclusion 
of  Dubois  in  regard  to  the  purple  of  Murex  brandaris, — that  the  chromo- 
genic  substances  produced  the  purple  colour  only  under  the  combined 
influence  of  light  and  a  ferment.  Letellier  has  made  careful  experi- 
ments, but  finds  no  evidence  of  a  ferment  in  the  case  of  the  dug- whelk. 
The  chromogenic  substance  becomes  purple  under  the  actjBn  of  light 
only.  A  similar  transformation  is  kuown  in  other  cases,  whereas  we 
have  no  knowledge  of  a  ferment  which  acts  in  presence  of  absolute 
alcohol,  and  is  not  sterilised  in  the  heating  chamber  at  120°.  The 
author  concludes  that  if  Dubois  is  right  in  regard  to  Murex,  his  results 
do  not  apply  to  Purpura. 

Structure  of  Limnsea  emarginata.  +  —  F.  C.  Baker  has  made  a 
careful  study  of  this  species  (var.  mighehi),  comparing  his  results  with 
those  reached  in  regard  to  the  few  others  that  have  been  studied 
anatomically.  The  extraordinary  variability  of  the  shell  is  well  illus- 
trated ;  the  animals  themselves  are  wonderfully  uuiform. 

Bivalves  with  Red  Blood-Corpuscles.§ — L.  Cueuot  notes  that  in  a 
number  of  Lamellibranchs  there  are  numerous  corpuscles  with  haemo- 
globin. This  has  been  recorded  for  Area  tetragona,  A.  (Argina)  pexata, 
A.  trapezia,  and  two  undetermined  species  of  Area,  for  Pectunculus 
gli/cimeris,  Tellina  (Gastrana)  fragilis,  Tellina  planata  (doubtfully),  and 
for  Solen  (Pltarus)  legumen.     Cuenot  tested  Pectunculus  gli/cimeris  from 

*  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlvi.  (1902)  pp.  77-90  (1  pi.). 

t  Arch.  Zoo!.  Exper.,  x.  (1902)  Notes  et  Revue,  pp.  xxxiii.-xxxvi. 

X  Bull.  Chicago  Ac.  Sci ,  ii.  (1900,  received  1902)  pp.  191-211  (6  pis.). 

§  Z'.ol.  Anzei-.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  543-4. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  551 

Roscoff  and  Arcachou  without  any  success,  but  found  the  red  corpuscles 
in  specimens  from  Naples.  It  turns  out  that  the  species  so  named  at 
Naples  is  really  Pectmiculus  violascens  Lam. 

Arthropoda. 

Epithelial  Regeneration  in  Mid-gut  of  Arthropods.  *  —  L.  Leger 
and  0.  Duboscq  have  studied  the  mitotic  regeneration  of  the  epithelium 
in  Decapod  Crustaceans,  in  Lithobius,  and  in  various  insects.  In  general 
their  results  confirm  the  theory  of  Ziegler  and  Vom  Rath  of  variously 
distributed  loci  of  regeneration  where  mitosis  occurs. 

Collection  of  Microscopic  Marine  Arthropods,  f  —  E.  Trouessart 
gives  directions  in  fourteen  paragraphs  in  regard  to  the  collecting  of 
minute  Halacaridae,  Crustacea,  &c.  iu  marine  exploration.  We  cannot 
condense  them,  but  the  reference  may  be  of  service  to  explorers  inte- 
rested in  having  a  complete  survey. 

o.  Insecta. 

General  Course  of  Entomology.!— J.  H.  Comstock  and  V.  L.  Eellogg 
have  published  a  new  edition  of  a  work  that  "  represents  the  fundamental 
laboratory  course  in  the  chief  centre  of  entomological  instruction  in 
America."  J.  G.  Needham,  in  reviewiug  it,  says  :  "  For  a  simple, 
straightforward,  condensed  guide  to  the  laboratory  study  of  elementary 
insect  anatomy,  there  is  no  such  book  elsewhere." 

Habits  of  Larvae  of  Sciara  medullaris.§  —A.  Giard  has  studied  the 
habits  of  these  larvae,  which  are  very  common  on  the  dried  stems  of 
Senecio  jacobsea  at  Wimereux.  They  feed  on  the  pith  of  the  ragwort, 
and  there  was  no  evidence  of  a  diet  of  animal  matter,  as  is  sometimes 
described.  Like  some  other  Dipterous  larvae  (Syrphidae),  they  have  a 
marked  power  of  surviving  desiccation.  If  a  piece  of  stem  containing 
them  be  dried  in  a  warm  chamber,  the  larvae  become  inert,  and  develop- 
ment stops ;  when  the  stem  is  rejilaced  in  a  moist  chamber,  after  three 
weeks  or  more  the  larvae  return  to  their  normal  activity.  They  are 
positively  hydrotropic,  but  at  the  approach  of  pupation  the  hydro- 
tropism becomes  negative.  The  gregarious  instinet,  more  marked  in  the 
army-worm,  Sciara  militaris,  is  briefly  discussed,  and  further  evidence 
is  given  of  the  extent  to  which  the  habits  are  dominated  by  the  con- 
ditions of  humidity. 

Expulsion  of  Spermatozoa  in  Sciara.||— A.  Giard  has  a  remarkable 
story  to  tell  of  the  genesis,  liberation,  and  behaviour  of  the  spermatozoa 
in  this  Dipterous  iusect.  The  phenomena  of  emission  are  as  compli- 
cated as  in  Hirudinea  and  Cephalopoda,  though  there  is  not,  in  the 
strict  sense,  any  spermatophore.  The  "  synandry"  or  aggregation  of 
the  spermatozoa,  is  especially  remarkable. 

Studies  on  Ants.f — Adele  M.  Fielde  continues  her  study  of  ants, 
and  finds  that  Stenamma  fulvum  piceum  is  the  bearer   of  three  distinct 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Expe'r.,  x.  (1902)  Notes  et  Revue,  pp.  xxxvi.-xlii. 
t  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  Fiance,  xxvii.  (1902)  pp.  23-7. 

X  The  Elements  of  Insect  Anatom)-,  Ithaca,  1901,  8vo,  145  pp.  and  11  figs.  See 
Amer.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp  500-1. 

§  Conaptes  Rendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  1179  85.  .        ||  Tom.  cit.,   pp.  1124-7. 
i  Froc  Acad.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1901,  pp.  521-44  (2  figs.). 


552  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES  RELATING   TO 

odours,  perceived  through  the  three  distal  segments  of  her  antennae : — 
(a)  There  is  a  scent  deposited  by  her  feet,  forming  an  individual  trail, 
whereby  she  traces  her  own  steps,  discerned  through  her  tenth  seg- 
ment, (b)  There  is  an  inherent  and  inherited  odour,  manifested  over 
her  whole  body,  identical  in  quality  for  queens  and  workers  of  the 
same  lineage.  It  forms  a  means  for  the  recognition  of  blood-relations, 
and  is  discerned  by  contact  of  the  eleventh  segment,  (c)  There  is  a 
nest-smell,  consisting  of  the  commingled  odours  of  all  animate  members 
of  the  colony,  diffused  by  them  in  air  or  ether,  constituting  an  aura 
whereby  they  distinguish  their  nest  from  those  of  aliens.  Jt  is  dis- 
•cerned  through  the  twelfth,  the  distal,  segment. 

The  behaviour  of  the  ant  is  influenced  by  a  sensory  memory.  With- 
out experience  or  instruction,  she  capably  constructs  the  dwellings  of 
her  species  and  tends  the  young.  Her  criterion  of  a  nest-aura  is  estab- 
lished solely  by  association,  and  may  be  changed  many  times  during  her 
life.  Her  care  of  the  young  is  a  reflex  from  the  eighth  and  ninth  seg- 
ments of  ber  antennae,  and  she  receives  an  immediate  reward  for  her 
labour  in  the  sustenance  thereby  obtained.  The  gregarious  habit  of 
the  ant  is  the  ennjoint  result  of  the  reflexes  from  the  five  distal  seg- 
ments of  the  antennae. 

Sense  of  Taste  in  an  Ant.*  —  K.  Oobelli  has  experimented  with 
specimens  of  Lasius  emarginatus  Oliv.,  and  finds  the  sense  of  taste 
slightly  developed.  The  ants  refused  solutions  of  bisulphate  of  quinine 
and  sulphuric  acid,  whether  by  themselves  or  when  mixed  with  equal 
parts  of  honey.  On  the  other  hand,  they  partook  indifferently  of  pure 
lioney,  and  of  honey  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  sulphate  of  magnesia, 
tincture  of  gentian,  quassia,  salt,  naphthaline,  &c.  &c.  These  substances 
were  refused  by  themselves  when  not  disguised  by  honey. 

Morphology  of  Labial  Parts  in  Hydrocoridse.  f  —  N.  Leon  dis- 
tinguishes two  types  of  labium,  one  with  three  joints  (e.g.  Appasus), 
the  other  with  four  joints,  e.g.  Halobates,  and  discusses  the  morpho- 
logical significance  of  the  parts. 

Life-History  of  Ulula  hyalina  Latreille.J  —  J'  F.  McClendon  has 
had  an  opportunity  of  observing  the  life-history  of  this  interesting 
member  of  the  family  Ascalaphidae.  The  eggs  hatch  after  nine  to  ten 
days  ;  the  young  larva  remains  quiet  for  a  day  or  two,  after  which  it 
seeks  the  ground  and  behaves  very  much  like  an  ant-lion.  The  larval 
life  lasts  about  62  days,  with  two  moults.  There  is  a  third  moult 
inside  of  the  cocoon,  when  the  larva  changes  to  the  pupa.  When  full 
grown,  the  larva  seeks  some  hidden  place  where  it  spins  a  web,  covering 
it  with  sand  and  other  small  objects.  It  then  gets  inside  the  web  and 
spins  a  cocoon  during  three  successive  nights.  McClendon  describes 
the  eggs  which  are  fixed  in  tiers  on  a  branch,  the  "repagula"  (abortive 
eggs  placed  in  circles  below  the  tiers  of  eggs),  the  larva,  the  pupa,  and 
the  cocoon.  In  an  interesting  paragraph  he  compares  the  habits  of 
Ulula-l&rva,  with  those  of  the  not  very  remotely  related  ant-lions 
(  Myrmeleonidae). 

*  Verb.  Zool.-Bot.  Ges.  Wien,  Hi.  (1902)  pp.  254-7. 

t  Jassy,  1901,  13  pp.  and  4  figs, 

J  Amur.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  421-9  (15  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  553 

Sets  on  the  Legs  of  Flies.*  —  W.  Wesche  gives  illustrations  of 
the  various  uses  of  setae  on  the  legs  of  Diptera  :  —  (1)  as  brushes  to 
clean  the  antennae,  &u.  (fore  tu-si  of  Hfusca  domestica)  ;  (2)  as  adhesive 
pads  for  holding  the  female  (tarsi  and  tibiee  of  Plafychirus)  ;  (3)  as 
floats,  e.g.  in  Dolichopus,  where  the  tomentum  or  down  on  the  tarsi  is 
so  fine  that  it  holds  tiie  air  and  enables  the  insect  to  glide  on  the  sur- 
face-film of  water ;  and  (4)  as  arrangements  for  grasping  prey,  as  in 
Tachydromia  arrogans.  His  general  thesis  is  one  which  is  being  por- 
sistently  corroborated,  that  even  minute  details  of  structure,  such  as  the 
disposition  of  setae,  have  adaptive  significance.  This  becomjs  more 
and  more  evident  as  our  knowledge  of  habits  becomes  more  intimite. 

Hermaphroditism  in  Species  of  Chermes.f — N.  Cholodkovsky  finds 
that  in  Ch.  sfrobilobius  at  least  there  is  a  frequent  occurrence  of  females 
with  two  oviducts  which  are  all  hermaphrodites. 

Scale-Insects  of  Japan.| —  S.  I.  Kuwana  has  collected  no  fewer 
than  76  species  of  Japanese  scale-insects,  twenty  of  which  are  de- 
scribed as  new.     The  total  list  for  Japan  is  now  116  species. 

B.  Myriopoda. 

Anterior  or  Cephalic  Glands  of  Diplopoda.§  —  F.  Silvestri  has 
discovered  in  Pachyiulus  communis  anterior  or  cephalic  glands  certainly 
homologous  with  the  buccal,  mandibular,  and  maxillary  glandsj  of 
Chilopoda. 

Locomotion  of  Myriopods.||  —  G.  Eossi  discusses  three  problems, — 
(1)  the  order  in  which  the  appendages  move  in  progression,  (2)  the 
rapidity  of  movement,  and  (3)  the  movement  on  a  vertical  surface. 
Both  in  order  of  movement  and  in  rate,  the  appendages  of  Diplopoda 
work  rather  differently  from  those  of  Chilopoda,  but  we  must  refer  to 
the  paper  for  a  statement  of  the  differences.  Progression  on  a  vertical 
surface  is  possible  only  when  there  are  slight  roughnesses  which  can 
be  gripped  by  the  setae  and  claws. 

Alimentary  Tract  of  Julus  communis.^ — G.  Rossi  has  descriptive 
notes  on  the  buccal  dilatation,  the  relatively  delicate  ectodermic  oeso- 
phagus, the  anterior  glands,  the  peri-oesophageal  "  adipose  tissue "  so- 
called,  the  peri-intestinal  reticular  tissue,  and  the  four  Malpighian 
tubules. 

8.   Arachnida. 

Peculiar  Phytoptid  Galls.** — C.  Eechinger  describes  the  work  of 
a  species  of  Phytoptus  parasitic  on  Artemisia  campestris  which  gives  its 
host  a  most  deceptive  resemblance  to  Filago  arvensis.  This,  he  thinks, 
may  have  some  adaptive  significance,  perhaps  protecting  the  Phytoptid 
galls. 

*  Joura  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  1902,  pp.  24.5-50  (2  pis.). 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902;  pp.  521-2  (3  figs.). 

\  Proc.  California  Ac.  Sci.,  iii.  pp.  43-98  (7  pis.). 

§  Lab.  Zool.  Scuola  Sup.  Agric.  Portici,  June  19)2,  2  pp. 

||  Ex  Att   Soc.  Ligustica,  xii  (1901)  17  pp. 

\  Ex  Bull.  Soc.  Entomol.  Ital.,  xxxiv.  (1902)  7  pp.  (1  pi.). 

**  Verb.  Zool.-bot.  Oes.  Wien,  lii.  (1902)  pp.  152-3. 


•554  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

New  Uropodinae.* — E.  Trouessart  discusses  the  family  Uropodiuae, 
and  describes  (1)  four  new  species  of  Uropoda,  (2)  Uropoda  (Glyphoj.sis) 
riccardiana,  as  a  representative  of  the  sub-genus  Glyphopsis  Berlese, 
and  (3)  three  new  species  of  Discopoma. 

New  British  Hydrachnid.f  —  C.  D.  Soar  describes  Ecpolus  papil- 
lo8us  sp.  n.,  an  unrecorded  Hydraclmid  found  in  Britain.  The  speci- 
men (a  female)  was  discovered  by  Taveruer  in  the  New  River.  Its 
nearest  relative  seems  to  be  Koenike's  Ecpolus  tuberatus,  described  and 
figured  in  his  Hydrachnidae  of  Madagascar  and  Nossi  Be. J  Koenike 
reports  that  the  animal  is  new  to  him,  but  thinks  that  it  belongs  to  the 
genus  Ecpolus. 

Arrangement  of  a  Spider  Collection^  —  Fr.  Dahl  utilises  three 
methods  : — (a)  preservation  of  the  entire  animals  in  alcohol,  &c. ;  (&)  ex- 
hibition of  dried  specimens ;  and  (V)  permanent  preparations  of  the 
important  diagnostic  parts.  The  paper  includes  many  practical  hints 
of  value  to  museum  workers. 

Classification  of  Spiders.||  —  Fr.  Dahl  discusses  the  value  of  the 
cribellum  and  calamistrum  in  the  classification  of  spiders,  and  takes  a 
systematic  survey  of  the  Zoropsidae  in  particular.  The  new  genus 
Calamistrula  is  described. 

e.  Crustacea. 

Ephippia  of  the  Lynceid  Entomostraca.lf — D.  J.  Scourfield  has 
made  a  detailed  study  of  many  of  these,  and  submits  a  number  of 
general  conclusions. 

The  ephippium  is  usually  composed  of  a  large  portion  of  the  original 
shell,  in  the  majority  about  three-fourths,  and  in  Alona  tenuicaudis  the 
whole.  The  dorsal  margin  of  the  ephippium  is  always  specially 
strengthened  by  a  more  or  less  copious  deposit  of  chitin.  The  anterior 
margin  is  formed  by  the  ordinary  line  of  junction  between  the  head- 
shield  and  the  valves. 

The  line  of  separation  between  the  ventral  portions  of  the  valves 
to  be  detached  and  the  ephippium  is  traced  out,  at  least  anteriorly, 
before  the  ephippium  is  thrown  off,  and  it  appears  to  be  always  due  to 
the  special  formation  of  a  row  or  rows  of  easily  separated  pieces  of 
chitin,  of  variable  but  usually  minute  size. 

The  chitin  of  the  valves  of  the  ephippium  is  always  more  or  less 
darkened  and  probably  thickened,  but  it  is  not  usually  much  modified, 
except  that  the  ordinary  shell  sculpture  becomes  at  times  intensified, 
and  a  minutely  pitted  structure  is  often  developed.  Between  the  outer 
valves  of  the  ephippium  and  the  egg  there  are  always  certain  membranes 
or  pieces  of  tissue,  probably  forming  in  most  cases  a  perfectly  closed 
inner  envelope  for  the  egg.  The  ephippium  contains  but  one  resting 
egg,  except  in  the  genus  Eurycercus,  where  numerous  eggs  occur,  and 
in  Weismann's  case  of  Camptocercus  macrurus,  which  has  sometimes,  but 
not  always,  two  eggs. 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxvii.  (1902)  pp.  29-45  (3  figs.). 

t  Journ.  Quekett  Mior.  Club,  1902,  pp.  251-2  (1  pi.1). 

j  Abb.  Senckenberg  Nat  Ges.,  xxi.  p.  308  figs.  73-9. 

§  SB.  Gcs.  Nat.  Freunde  Berlin,  1901,  pp.  1-8. 

||   Tom.  cit.,  pp.  177-99  ((J  figs.). 

f  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  1902,  pp.  217-44  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  555 

New  Rhizocephalid  Type.* — H.  Coutiere  found  under  the  abdomen 
■of  three  species  of  Alpheus  a  new  Rhizocephalid  parasite,  remarkahle 
in  being  gregarious.  A  hundred  or  more  occurred  together,  forming  a 
mass  like  a  bunch  of  eggs.  The  new  form,  for  which  the  name  Thyla- 
^oplethus  is  proposed,  approaches  Thompsonia  globosa  Kossmann.  It 
seems  certain  that  the  larvae  fasten  themselves  directly  on  the  place 
where  the  adults  are  found. 

Structure  of  Thylacoplethus.f — H.  Coutiere  describes  some  of  the 
remarkable  features  in  the  internal  structure  of  this  new  Rhizo- 
cephalous  parasite  which  infests  species  of  Alpheus, —  T.  haddoni  on 
A.  avarus,  T.  edwardsi  on  A.  edwardsi,  and  T.  heurteli  on  A.  macrochirus. 
In  its  mode  of  fixation,  in  its  simple  structure,  in  its  gregarious  cha- 
racter, the  genus  Thylaeoplethus  may  be  taken  as  representing  a  very 
primitive  type,  one  of  the  first  essays  in  parasitism  on  the  part  of  these 
Crustaceans. 

Scottish  Crustacea. t — T.  Scott  describes  the  Is<pod  Pleurocrypta 
longibrancMata  obtained  on  a  species  of  Qalathea  from  the  Clyde,  and 
PI.  patiencei  sp.  n.  from  a  specimen  of  Caridion  gordoni.  The  new  form 
is  called  after  Alexander  Patience  who  has  done  much  good  work  in 
collecting  Clyde  Crustaceans  and  who  sent  the  author  a  new  Bopyrid, 
Pleurocrypta  cluthse  sp.  n.  The  communication  includes  a  note  on  Try- 
phana  malmii  Boeck,  a  somewhat  rare  Amphipod  obtained  on  the  deep 
water  about  nine  or  ten  miles  off  Aberdeen. 

Commensal  Schizopod.§ — J.  Bonnier  and  C.  Perez  describe  Gnatho- 
mysis  gerlachei  g.  et  sp.  n.,  type  of  a  new  family  of  Schizopods,  found  at 
Massaouah  on  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  perhaps  more  remarkable  in  habit  than 
in  structure,  for  it  occurred  (four  specimens)  within  the  topmos-t  turn  of 
the  spire  of  gastropod  shells  inhabited  by  Pagurus  brevipes. 

Early  Development  of  Lepas  |j — M.  A.  Bigelow  discusses  the  matu- 
rationv  fertilisation,  cleavage,  and  germ-layer  formation.  His  research 
is  mainly  a  study  in  cell-lineage  on  to  the  62 -cell  stage. 

Lepas  resembles  most  other  Crustacea  (a)  in  respect  to  the  position 
of  the  blastopore,  which  is  ventral  and  posterior  ;  (b)  in  the  extension  of 
the  entoblast  and  mesoblast  from  the  blastopore  as  a  starting-point  ; 
and  (c)  in  the  mode  of  formation  of  the  organs  of  the  larva. 

In  Lepas,  as  in  most  other  Crustacea,  the  mesoblast  and  entoblast 
originate  in  the  region  of  the  blastopore  from  cells  which,  speaking  in 
general  terms,  at  first  lie  in  the  blastoderm  and  later  migrate  into  the 
cleavage-cavity. 

Among  the  migrating  mes-entoblastic  cells  one  can  distinguish  in 
Lepas  the  individual  cells  of  the  entoblast  and  of  two  varieties  of  meso- 
blast. Representatives,  if  not  precise  homologues,  of  these  kinds  of 
cells  are  probably  present  both  in  other  Entomostraca  and  in  the  higher 
Crustacea. 

The  origin,  relative  position,  and  fate  of  all  the  cells  of  all  the  cleav- 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  913-5.        f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1452-3. 

%  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  x.  (1902)  pp.  1-5  (1  pi.). 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  117-9. 

||  Bull.  Mus.  Zool.  Harvard,  xl.  (1902)  pp.  01-141  (12  pis.). 


556  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

age  stages  are  shown  to  be  constant,  definite,  and  "  determinate,"  so  far  as 
the  formation  of  germ-layers  is  concerned.  In  later  stages  specific  areas 
of  cells,  known  to  be  of  definite  origin,  enter  into  the  formation  of  par- 
ticular organs.  It  is  therefore  prohable  that  the  cells  in  cleavage  stages 
bear  a  definite  and  constant  relation  to  future  organs.  A  clear  table  of 
the  lineage  is  given.  In  an  addendum,  E.  L.  Mark  and  W.  E.  Castle 
maintain  that  Lepas  is  a  good  example  of  modified  "  quartet "  cleavage. 

So-called  Hepatico-Pancreatic  Glands  of  Isopods.* — L.  H.  Huie 
has  made  some  observations  on  the  changes  which  these  cells  (in  Oniscus 
and  Porcellio)  undergo  owing  to  functional  activity.  Their  size  renders 
them  a  favourable  subject  for  physiological  investigations.  The  livers 
are  tubular  glands  composed  of  two  kinds  of  cells  in  a  single  layer  : — 
(a)  large  cone-shaped  cells  projecting  conspicuously  into  the  lumen  in 
transverse  sections  of  the  glands  ;  and  (b)  small,  more  or  less  stellate 
cells,  inconspicuous  in  transverse  sections.  Both  usually  contain  two 
nuclei.  The  large  cells  contain  a  great  quantity  of  yellow  oil,  and  the 
small  cells  are  normally  filled  by  minute  brownish-yellow  globules. 
Fasting  for  not  less  than  five  days  causes  a  diminution  of  the  oil  in  the 
large  cells  and  the  granules  in  the  small  ones,  and  finally  the  total  or 
almost  total  disappearance  of  both.  The  cells  and  nuclei  shrink,  the 
oil-cavities  are  obliterated,  and  the  plasm  stains  deeply  all  over,  but 
especially  towards  the  periphery  of  the  cell  bordering  the  lumen.  Tho 
lumen  of  the  livers  of  Oniscus  is  very  generally  infested  with  bacteria. 

Mysis  in  the  Volga.t—  W.  Zykoff  reports  finding  in  the  Volga  at 
Saratow  both  males  and  females  of  Mesomysis  ullskyi  Czern.  This 
seems  to  be  the  third  case  in  Europe  of  a  representative  of  the  Mysidse 
occurring  in  rivers.  In  1828  Vaughan  Thompson  recorded  Mysis 
chamseleon  and  M.  vulgaris  from  the  Lee  in  England  ;  in  1875  Pengo 
found  Potamomysis  pengoi  Czern.  in  the  river  Udy  at  Charkow.  Zykoff 
has  had  the  good  fortune  to  add  a  third  case,  and  he  has  for  the  first 
time  seen  the  male  of  this  species.  He  regards  the  form  as  a  relict  from 
the  Aralo-Caspian  basin. 

Annulata. 

Vascular  System  of  Hirudinea.J — A.  Oka  maintains  that  a  body- 
cavity  occurs  in  all  Hirudinea.  It  is  much  more  distinct  in  Glossi- 
phonidfle  and  Ichthyobdellidae  than  inGnathobdellidaa  and  Herpobdellidse. 
In  the  two  last-named  families  it  is  much  restricted  by  proliferation  of 
connective-tissue,  &c. 

A  true  blood-vascular  system  is  represented  only  in  the  Glossi- 
phonidse  and  Ichthyobdeliidas.  It  is  quite  closed,  and  is  in  general 
features  comparable  to  that  of  Chaetopods.  What  are  called  blood- 
vessels in  Gnathobdellidre  and  Herpobdellidee  are  simple  vessel-like 
channels  of  the  body-cavity. 

The  IchtbyobdellidaB  represent  to  some  extent  a  transition  between 
the  Glossiphonidse  and  the  Gnathobdellidre,  for  they  exhibit,  besides 
a  true  blood-vascular  system,  vessel-like  lateral  channels. 

*  Proc.  Scot.  Micr.  Boo.,  iii.  (1901)  pp.  85-8  (2  pis.). 

t  Zool.  Anzeie;.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  275-6. 

J  Aimot.  Zool.  Japon.,  iv.  (1902)  pp.  49-60  (5  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  557 

Early  Development  of  Mesoblast  in  Thalassema.*— J.  C.  Torrey 
notes  that  the  mesoblast  in  Thalassema  mellita  has  a  twofold  origin,  as 
entomesoblast — derived  from  the  posterior  member  of  the  fourth  quartet, 
and  as  ectomesablast — derived  from  all  of  the  first  three  quartets  of  ecto- 
meres,  instead  of  from  one  alone  as  has  hitherto  been  described  to  be  the 
case.  A  considerable  number  of  these  cells,  however,  are  rudimentary, 
and  quickly  disappear.  It  is,  however,  very  difficult  to  make  the  lineage 
at  all  clear  without  the  author's  figures. 

Nematohelminth.es. 

Fermentation  of  Glycogen  in  Ascaris.f  —  E.  Weinland  notes  that 
Ascarids  kept  without  food  or  oxygen  for  5-7  days  in  1  p.c.  salt  solution 
at  the  temperature  of  their  host,  show  a  marked  diminution  in  their  rich 
store  of  glycogen.  This  is  not  due  to  a  combustion,  but  to  a  fermen- 
tation, resulting  in  carbonic  acid  gas  and  valerianic  acid. 

New  Nematodes.^ — 0-  von  Linstow  describes  two  new  parasites  from 
the  iguana,  Metopoceros  cornutus,  the  one  a  species  of  Atractis  (A.  cruciata 
sp.  n.),  the  other  Oxyuris  monhyitera  sp.  n. 

Platyhe  lminth.es. 

Fertilisation  in  Cestodes.  §  —  0.  Fuhrmann  discusses  the  various 
modes  of  fecundation  in  Cestodes.  In  Dioicocestus  Fuhrmann,  where  the 
sexes  are  separate,  there  is  ordinary  copulation.  In  tapeworms  with 
well-developed  penis,  which  occur  in  numbers  together,  e.g.  Taenia  inflata 
and  T.  cirrhosa,  there  is  cross-fertilisation,  or  at  least  fertilisation  between 
different  proglottides  of  one  strobila.  Where  the  cirrus  is  relatively  ill- 
developed  or  very  short,  as  in  Davainea  and  Acoleinae,  auto-copulation 
occurs,  though  cross-fertilisation  is  still  possible.  In  Aporina  g.  n. 
(Aporina  alba  from  Pyrrhua)  cross-fertilisation  is  quite  impossible,  for 
the  vagina  and  the  cirrus  do  not  open  to  the  exterior,  but  are  connected 
in  the  internal  parenchyma. 

New  Species  of  Caryophyllaeus  || — G.  Schneider  found  in  29  speci- 
mens of  Leuciscus  crythrophthalmus  three  cases  of  abundant  infestation 
with  Caryophyllaeus  fennicus  sp.  n.,  a  new  example  of  an  interesting  genus. 
Somewhat  notable  is  its  firmness  of  fixation  in  spite  of  a  very  simple 
attaching  apparatus,  apparently  a  mere  depression  of  the  anterior  end. 
But  this  anterior  end  bears  fine  stiff  "Hiirchen,"  is  very  mobile,  and 
strongly  innervated.  The  new  parasite  is  intermediate  between  C.  muta- 
bilis  and  C.  tuba  ;  it  has  no  proper  cirrus,  but  a  large  pyriform  seminal 
vesicle.  Like  C.  mutabilis,  it  probably  has  some  limicolous  Oligochset 
as  its  intermediate  host. 

Schneider  also  describes  Bothrimonus  nylandicus  sp.  n.  from  the 
flounder  (Pleuronectes  flesus).  In  its  contracted  state  especially,  this 
Cestode  has  a  very  marked  resemblance  to  Diplocotyle,  and  this  genus 

'  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  247-56  (3  figs.). 

t  Zeitschr.  Biol.,  xlii.  (1901)  pp.  55-90.  See  Zool.  Centralbl.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  451-2. 
t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  2S-32  (1  pi.). 
§  CR.  Soe.  Neucliatel  Sci.  Nat.  in  Arch.  Sci.  Nat.,  xiii.  (1902)  pp.  516-7. 
||   Arch.  Naturges.,  lxviii.  pp.  05-78  (1  pi.  and  3  rigs.).     See  Centralbl.  Bakt., 
1"  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  720-1. 

October  loth,  1902  2  p 


558  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

should  be  absorbed  in  Bothrimonus.  The  author  indicates  that  Bothri- 
monus  leads  from  the  Cestodaria,  on  the  one  hand  to  the  Bothriocepha- 
loidse,  on  the  other  hand  to  the  Cyathocephalidae. 

Unusual  Human  Parasite.* — F.  Zschokke  substantiates  the  occur- 
rence of  Hymenolepis  (Drepanidotsenia)  lanceolata  Bloch  as  a  parasite 
in  man.  Two  specimens  from  a  boy  of  twelve  years  of  age  were 
transmitted  by  Kiikenthal,  from  Breslau.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  this  parasite  is  widely  distributed  in  aquatic  birds,  e.g.  in  dueks 
and  geese,  and  that  it  is  believed  to  cause  epidemics  among  them. 
The  young  stages  occur  in  common  Copepods — Cyclops  scrrulatus  and 
Diaptomus  spinosus,  and  might  thus  readily  infect  man  from  unsuitable 
drinking-water.  The  author  notes  that  Davainea  madagascariensis 
Lkt.,  a  representative  of  another  characteristically  avian  genus,  also 
occurs  in  man. 

New  Distomids."f" — Th.  Odhner  gives  a  diagnosis  of  a  proposed  new 
sub-family,  Zoogoninae,  including  the  genera  Zoogonus  Lss.  and  Zoo- 
gonoides  g.  n.  To  the  former  the  author  adds  the  species  Zoogonus 
rubellus  from  Labrus  berggylta ;  the  new  genus  is  represented  by 
Zoogonoides  viviparus  from  numerous  flat-fishes. 

The  second  part  of  the  paper  discusses  the  flukes  found  in  the 
urinary  bladder  of  fishes ;  four  new  species  of  Phyllodistomum  are  de- 
scribed, and  a  new  genus  and  species  is  established  for  Lepidopliyllum 
stcenstrupi  from  the  cat-fish. 

Fasciolid  Parasites  of  Birds.J — M.  Braun  has  published  a  valuable 
account  of  the  flukes  which  occur  in  birds.  It  includes  a  description  of 
72  species,  many  of  which  are  new. 

Fecampia.§ — M.  Caullery  and  F.  Mesnil  describe  F.  erythrocephala, 
which  Giard  discovered  in  1886, — a  Bhabdoccel  parasitic  in  crabs  and 
hermit-crabs.  They  have  found  another  species,  F.  xanthocephala,  in 
small  specimens  of  Carcinns  msenas  and  in  Idotea  neglecta.  It  may  be 
said  that  Fecampia  represents  the  most  degenerate  type  of  Turbellarian ; 
there  is  no  mouth,  no  pharynx,  no  functional  digestive  apparatus,  no 
excretory  system ;  the  gonads  and  their  ducts  exhibit  the  maximum 
simplicity.  When  adult,  the  parasite  leaves  its  host,  secretes  a  cocoon, 
and  is  sacrificed  in  the  production  of  embryos,  as  Giard  described.  The 
development,  which  is  outlined,  is  not  remarkably  different  from  that 
observed  by  Metchnikoff,  Hallez,  Ijima,  and  others,  in  various  Triclads 
and  Rhabdoccels.  After  some  free  life,  the  larvsB  penetrate  into  their 
crustacean  hosts,  losing  eye-spots,  mouth,  pharynx,  &c,  and  exhibiting 
an  active  proliferation  of  the  mesenchyme. 

Nemertean  Parasites  of  Crabs. || — W.  B.  Coe  gives  a  diagnosis  of  a 
new  genus  Carcinonemertes,  and  describes  in  particular  G.  epialti  sp.  n. 
His  observations  lead  on  to  the  following  general  conclusions  : — That 
the  nemerteans  infesting  crabs  are  distributed  throughout  the    North 

•  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  337-8. 

t  Cenlralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  5S-69  (3  figs.). 

%  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  1-102  (8  pis.). 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiv!  (1902)  pp.  911-3. 

[I   Amer.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  431-50  (9  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  559 

Atlantic  and  into  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  that  the  New  England  form  is 
identical  with  the  long-known  European  species  (C.  carcinophila) ;  that 
all  the  species  recorded  are  closely  related,  and  the  several  European 
forms  are  perhaps  the  same  species  ;  that  the  worms  are  true  parasites, 
spending  practically  their  whole  existence  on  the  crab— in  the  gills 
when  young,  on  the  egg-masses  when  mature ;  that  in  ditferent  regions 
the  same  species  may  occur  on  different  crab  hosts ;  that  they  crawl 
about  on  the  bodies  of  the  crabs,  and  are  thus  easily  transferred  from 
host  to  host ;  and  that  by  means  of  the  free-swimming  embryos  the 
species  may  be  distributed  widely,  although  the  young  usually  remain 
among  the  egg-masses  until  they  are  past  the  free-swimming  stage. 

Incertae  Sedis. 

Habits  of  Lingula.* — Naohide  Yatsu  supplies  some  interesting  in- 
formation in  regard  to  the  habits  of  this  Brachiopod.  It  occurs  in 
every  suitable  mud-flat  along  the  coast  of  southern  Japan,  never  in  deep 
water.  It  is  sometimes  abundant  enough  to  be  sold  by  the  peck  for 
food.  It  lives  fixed  to  the  hard  sandy  mud,  not  to  rock  or  stone ;  it 
retires  deep  into  its  burrow  at  low  tide,  so  that  no  trace  can  be  seen 
from  the  surface. 

In  making  the  burrow  the  water  is  at  first  forcibly  gushed  out  of  the 
central  funnel  formed  by  the  mantle-edge  and  the  setse.  By  the  above 
action,  coupled  with  the  sliding  lateral  motion  of  the  shell,  the  burrow 
is  soon  formed,  and  its  walls  are  made  smooth  by  the  secretion  of  the 
gland-ridge  (>£  Drusenwall "),  and  by  the  up-and-down  gliding  of  the 
valves.  The  contractility  and  regenerative  power  of  the  stalk  is  re- 
markable. Only  the  comb-like  row  of  cirri  of  the  largest  whorl  of  the 
arm  can  be  protruded  out  of  the  shell,  and  the  tip  of  the  arm-apparatus 
is  always  kept  within  the  mantle-cavity. 

It  seems  probable  that  at  Misaki  Lingula  lives  for  five  years  or  more 
on  an  average.  They  have  extraordinarily  great  powers  of  surviving 
disadvantageous  conditions,  as  is  illustrated  circumstantially  in  the 
paper. 

The  author  refers  to  the  fact  that  Morse  took  living  specimens  to 
America,  and  had  the  satisfaction  of  placing  them  upon  a  ledge  of 
Cambrian  limestone  among  the  primeval,  but  hardly  different,  shells  of 
their  ancestors.  "  Lingula  had  already  acquired,  as  long  ago  as  the 
Cambrian  period,  an  organisation  most  favourable  for  facing  all  the 
ambient  conditions,  physical  as  well  as  chemical,  that  have  taken  place 
gince  that  time,  and  there  seems  to  have  been  no  necessity  for  improving 
their  adaptations  to  the  enviroment." 

New  Enteropneust.  f  —  Hisato  Kuwano  describes  Balanoglossus 
misalciensis  sp.  n.,  a  new  Japanese  Enteropneust,  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
Misaki. 

It  is  distinguished  by  the  following  features: — (1)  definite  arrange- 
ment of  the  longitudinal  stems  of  the  dermal  capillaries  in  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  proboscis  wall ;  (2)  occurrence  of  an  alveolar  structure 
in  the  connective  tissue   of   the  proboscis   ccelom ;  (3)  occurrence  of 

*  Annot.  Zool.  Japon.,  iv.  (1902)  pp.  6W7  (2  figs.). 
t  Tom.  cit,  pp.  77-84  (6  tigs.). 

2  p  2 


560  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

another  circular  vessel  at  the  anterior  portion  of  the  trunk,  immediately 
behind  that  which  lies  between  the  collar  and  the  trunk ;  (4)  confluence 
of  the  four  most  anterior  pairs  of  gill-pouches  into  a  common  cavity  on 
each  side,  discharging  to  the  exterior  through  a  common  gill-pore,  with 
the  collar-pores  distinct  at  the  anterior  wall  of  the  common  cavities ; 
(5)  communication  of  the  lateral  vessels  with  the  dorsal  vessel  imme- 
diately behind  the  last  gill-slits  ;  (6)  occurrence  of  circular  muscle- 
fibres  at  the  anal  region,  just  external  to  the  longitudinal  muscle-fibres 
upon  the  gut-wall ;  (7)  dorso-terminal  position  of  the  anus. 

Though  the  species  is  to  be  ranked,  from  its  general  structure,  under 
the  genus  Balanoglossus  Delle  Chiaje  among  the  Ptychoderid®,  it  has 
some  features  characteristic  of  other  groups  of  the  Enteropneusta. 

Variation  in  Platystrophia  Lynx.*  —  E.  E.  Cumings  and  A.  V. 
Mauck  have  made  a  quantitative  study  of  variation  in  this  fossil 
Brachiopod.  The  species  is  extremely  variable,  exceptionally  abundant 
and  well-preserved,  and  thus  well  suited  for  quantitative  study.  Such 
an  investigation  is  more  warranted  because  of  the  different  opinions 
current  as  to  the  taxonomic  importance  of  several  of  the  forms  under 
which  Platystrophia  presents  itself. 

Echinoderma. 

Extraordinary  Animal. f  —  H.  L.  Clark  reports,  under  the  above 
title,  on  a  strange  specimen  dredged  by  the  "  Albatross "  in  1588 
fathoms  off  the  Queen  Charlotte  Islands.  It  is  probably  a  monstrosity, 
but  of  what  ?  It  has  a  firm  external  skeleton,  which  completely  en- 
closes it,  and  two  parts  with  no  internal  communication.  The  smaller 
upper  part  is  nearly  cylindrical,  bounded  by  a  calcified  membrane, 
strengthened  by  seven  transverse  rib-  or  hoop-like  thickenings,  which 
are  lighter  in  colour  than  the  membrane.  At  the  posterior  end  are  two 
very  short  longitudinal  ribs  of  similar  appearance.  The  skeleton  of  the 
lower  part  is  made  up  of  numerous  small,  closely  united  plates  of  unequal 
size,  and  of  no  definite  arrangement,  each  bearing  a  blunt  spine  about 
1  mm.  in  length.  Similar  spines  occur  on  the  upper  part  of  the  auimal, 
like  Echinoid  spines  microscopically,  but  not  jointed  to  the  skeleton. 
Apart  from  the  spines,  the  whole  external  appearance  of  the  lower  part 
is  like  the  Holothurian,  Sphaerothuria  or  Echinocucumis. 

The  upper  chamber  containtd  a  much-branched  gland,  resembling 
the  gonad  of  a  Holothurian.  The  lower  chamber  is  almost  wholly  filled 
with  what  appears  to  be  part  of  a  digestive-tube  with  a  large  lumen. 
There  is  no  evidence  of  mouth,  anus,  locomotor  organs,  water-vascular 
system,  nerves,  or  sense-organs,  so  far  as  macroscopic  observations  show. 
The  specimen,  light  brown  in  colour,  is  about  15  mm.  in  length,  and 
the  greatest  height  is  about  the  same.  Such  an  extraordinary  animal 
gives  one  pause,  and  makes  one  feel  as  if  there  were  something  wrong 
in  Nature  or  in  man's  device.  The  author  is  inclined  to  call  it  a 
monstrous  Holothurian,  allied  to  Sphaerothuria. 

Body-Wall  and  Gut-Wall  in  Echinoderms.^  —  E.  Herouard  gives 
an  account  of  the  body-wall  in  Holothuroids,  and  compares  it  with  that 

*  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  xiv.  (1902)  pp.  9-16  (3  pis.). 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  509-11  (1  fig.). 

\  Bull.  Soc  Zool.  France,  xxvii.  (1902)  pp.  131-8  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  561 

in  other  Echinoderms.  The  wall  of  the  body  and  the  wall  of  the  gut 
in  Echinoderms  is  formed  of  three  layers,  of  which  the  median  one 
represents  the  schizocoel  and  is  composed  of  lacunar  tissue ;  calcareous 
formations  are  confined  to  the  other  two.  The  haemal  system  is  not  a 
closed  system  apart  from  the  schizocoel,  but  remains  freely  in  communi- 
cation with  it. 

Coelentera. 

Free-Swimming  Hydroid.  * —  A.  Dendy  found  on  the  beach  near 
Christchurch  a  living  specimen  of  what  must  be  called  a  free-swimming 
hydroid, — perhaps  an  aberrant  Tubularian,  related  to  Corymorjiha  and 
its  allies.  Dendy  calls  his  prize  Pelagohydra  mirabilis  g.  et  sp.  n.,  and 
gives  this  diagnosis: — Hydroid  solitary,  free-swimming ;  the  proximal 
part  of  the  body  modified  to  form  a  float,  supported  internally  by  a 
system  of  radiating  membranes  of  endodermal  origin  ;  the  distal  portion 
forming  a  flexible  proboscis,  with  the  mouth  at  its  extremity.  Gastral 
cavity  continued  from  the  proboscis  into  the  float  in  the  form  of  endo- 
dermal canals,  from  which  arise  branching  stolons.  Tentacles  filiform, 
scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  float  and  in  whorls  around  the  mouth. 
Medusae  developed  on  stolons  between  the  tentacles  of  the  float ;  quadri- 
radiate,  symmetrical,  probably  with  gonads  in  the  wall  of  the  simple 
manubrium  ;  tentacles  in  four  per-radial  groups  of  five  (possibly  more 
in  the  adult). 

The  adaptation  of  a  hydroid  type  to  free-swimming  life,  such  re- 
markable structural  features  as  the  endodermal  canals  from  the  gastral 
cavity  and  the  float  with  its  extraordinary  supporting  membranes,  and 
the  high  degree  of  histological  differentiation,  make  Pelagohydra  a  re- 
markably interesting  organism. 

Budding  in  Larvae  of  Gonionema  murbachii.f  —  H.  F.  Perkins 
describes  a  very  interesting  and  quite  unique  case — a  process  of  non- 
sexual multiplication  by  budding  in  the  solitary  larvae  of  a  Hydro- 
medusan.  The  buds  are  produced  singly  and  become  detached  as 
planulae.  From  the  planula  stage  onward,  the  asexually  produced  larvae 
repeat  the  ontogeny  of  the  sexually  produced  forms.  The  author  also 
reports  an  instance  of  apparent  transverse  fission,  in  which  the  ccelen- 
teron  had  undergone  complete  division. 

Aggregated  Colonies  in  Madreporarian  Corals.}  —  J.  E.  Duerden 
discusses  the  occurrence  of  colonies,  which  von  Koch  called  "  aggre- 
gated," formed  through  the  secondary  fusion  of  individuals  which  were 
originally  distinct,  as  apart  from  most  Anthozoan  colonies  which  are 
produced  by  the  budding  or  fission  of  a  single  individual.  Von  Koch's 
example  was  found  in  specimens  of  Balanophyllia  verrucaria,  a  Medi- 
terranean coral  which  usually  retains  a  simple  habit ;  Lacaze-Duthiers 
described  and  figured  a  similar  aggregated  state  in  Caryophyllia  ;  certain 
forms  of  the  rugose  coral  Streptelasma  (Palseophyllum)  divarkans 
Nicholson  seem  also  to  be  aggregated  colonies.  Duerden  has  found  in 
the  common  West  Indian  coral,  Siderastrsea  radians  Pallas,  actual 
instances  of  colony  formation  by  the  fusion  of  originally  free,  distinct 

*  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlvi.  (1902)  pp.  1-24  (2  pie.). 
t  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circ,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  87-9  (11  figs.) 
X  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  4G1-71  (3  figs.). 


562  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

larvae.  The  process  of  growth  was  followed  from  the  time  of  fixation 
of  the  free-swimming  individuals  as  far  as  the  production  of  the  early 
skeleton. 

Actinians  of  Porto  Rico.* — J.  E.  Duerden  describes  the  structure 
of  a  collection  of  (13)  Actinians  from  Porto  Rico,  including  a  new 
species  Bunadosoma  splierulata. 

Dispersal  of  Sagartia  lucise.f — G- H.  Parker  makes  a  report  on 
the  multiplication  and  dispersal  of  this  New  England  sea-anemone, 
which  seems  to  have  migrated  eastward  from  New  Haven  and  northward 
to  Salem  with  relatively  great  rapidity.  It  has  probably  covered  the 
distance  between  these  extremes  in  ten  years.  Like  the  introduced  peri- 
winkle, Littorina  littorea,  this  species  will  probably  gain  an  extended 
distribution  both  north  and  south  of  Cape  Cod,  though  in  this  instance 
the  invasion  comes  from  the  south  instead  of  from  the  north,  as  with 
the  periwinkle. 

Porifera. 

Asexual  Origin  of  the  Ciliated  Sponge  Larva. I  —  H.  V.  Wilson 
has  previously  published  certain  observations  which  led  him  to  believe 
that  in  monaxonid  sponges,  e.g.  Esperella  fibrexilis,  free-swimming  larvas 
identical  in  structure  with  those  developing  from  eggs  are  sometimes 
produced  asexually.  He  still  holds  to  this  interpretation  of  what  he 
observed,  answers  some  criticisms  of  Maas,  and  finds  confirmation  in 
Lima's  description  of  the  congeries  or  groups  of  "  archseocytes  "  (un- 
differentiated cells)  which  occur  in  Hexactinellids.  After  recalling 
Wilson's  observations,  Ijima  says :  "  I  conceive  the  mode  of  origin 
and  growth  of  the  archasocyte  congeries  in  the  Hexactinellida  to  be 
just  the  same,  and  it  seems  to  me  not  impossible  that  in  the  hexactinellid 
larvae  which  I  have  seen  we  have  simply  a  new  case  of  the  '  gemmule- 
larva  '  or  bud  embryo." 

Algerian  Sponges.§  —  E.  Topsent  gives  a  faunistic  account  of  the 
sponges  (62  in  number)  of  the  Algerian  coasts  (La  Calle),  and  compares 
them  with  those  of  the  Erench  and  Italian  coasts. 

Protozoa. 

Yeast-eating  Amoeboid  Organism.  || — T.  Ciirzaszcz  gives  a  graphic 
description  of  the  powers  possessed  by  Phywrum  leucophseum  ferox  in 
devouring  yeast-cells  (Mycoderma  cerevisise,  Saccharomyces  apiculatus, 
&c.)  and  digesting  them.  A  struggle  with  the  bacteria  of  acetic  acid 
was  also  witnessed  ;  the  microbes  were  ingulfed,  "  jedocli  nicht  gerne," 
and  they  were  soon  expelled  again.  The  amoeboid  organism  in  question 
is  a  myxomycete,  closely  allied  to  Physarum  leucophseum. 

Digestion  in  Amoebae. 1  —  H.  Mouton  has  carefully  isolated  an 
amoeba  and  studied  its  multiplication,  encystation,  and  digestive  pro- 

*  Bull.  U.S.  Fish  Commission  for  1900,  pp.  323-74  (13  pis.). 

t  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  491-3.  %  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  451-9. 

§  Arch.  Zool.  Expe>.,  ix.  (1901)  pp.  327-70  (2  pis.). 

II  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2"  Abt,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  431-41  (1  pi.). 

f  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  457-509  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  563 

cesses.  He  kept  his  species  in  company  with  Bacterium  coli,  on  which 
it  feeds.  By  means  of  the  secretion  of  its  contractile  vacuole  it  agglu- 
tinates the  microbes  ami  ingests  them.  Their  changes  within  the 
Amoeba  are  described. 

From  the  cultures  of  amoebae  the  author  obtained  a  proteolytic 
ferment,  approaching  trypsin,  and  this  seems  to  be  the  digestive  agent 
within  the  food -vacuoles. 

Parasites  of  Rotifers.*  —  A.  M.  Przesmycki  divides  the  parasitic 
organisms  found  inside  Rotifers  into  two  groups.  The  first  group  in- 
cludes forms  which  attack  living  Rotifers  and  gradually  kill  them ; 
their  nature  remains  obscure,  but  they  seem  to  correspond  to  the 
*'  parasitic  vesicles "  described  by  Bertram  and  compared  by  him  to 
Chytridiaceae. 

The  second  group  includes  forms  which  find  entrance  only  into 
moribund  Rotifers.  Thus  the  author  describes  (1)  Endoplirys  roLi- 
toriorum  g.  et  sp.  n. — a  Heliozoon — nor  unlike  Nuclearia  ;  (2)  Dimcerium 
hyalinum  g.  et  sp.  n.,  a  plastic  form,  occurring  in  flagellate,  amoeboid, 
and  encysted  phases.  These  two  new  forms  and  a  third  less  fully 
discussed  are  facultative  parasites,  and  are  not  peculiar  to  dying 
Rotifers. 

New  Parasitic  Infusorian.f — M.  Siedlecki  describes  Herpetophrya 
astoma  g.  et  sp.  n.  found  as  a  parasite  in  the  body-cavity  fluid  of 
Polymnia  nebulosa.  The  structure,  movements,  and  transverse  fission 
are  described.  The  position  of  the  new  form  is  in  the  family  Opalinidae, 
near  Anoplophrya  Stein  and  Monodontophrya  Vejdovsky. 

Two  new  Dinoflagellata.$ — 0.  Zacharias  describes  two  new  repre- 
sentatives of  the  genus  Glenodinium — Gl.  apiculatum  sp.  n.  from  the 
Eckbergsee  near  Plon,  and  Gl.  lemmermanni  —  commemorating  the  work 
of  a  most  industrious  algologist — from  the  great  lake  of  Plon. 

Action  of  Blood-Serum  on  Paramoecium.§  —  Ledoux-Lebard  has 
made  numerous  experiments  on  the  effect  of  the  blood-serum  of  various 
animals  on  Paramoecium.  The  movements  of  the  Infusorians  are 
weakened,  and  they  soon  cease  alt  )gether.  The  individuals  give  off 
faecal  particles  which  adhere  together  and  to  their  producers,  which 
then  become  agglutinated  in  radiating  or  irregular  aggregates. 

Marine  Phosphorescence.|]—  Fr.  Weitlauer  gives  a  graphic  descrip- 
tion of  five  different  types  of  marine  illumination— mainly  due  to 
Noctiluca. 

Observations  on  Protozoal— J.  Y.  Simpson  has  made  a  number  of 
observations  on  the  ultimate  structure  of  Protozoa,  e.  g.  of  the  macro- 
nucleus  of  Ciliata,  as  exhibited  by  intravital  staining.  He  also  discusses 
protective  encystment  in  the  case  of  the  Ciliata,  and  has  obtained  the 
cysts  of  Paramoecium  and  Spirostomum  which  were  not  previously  known 
to  encyst.     His  opinion  is  that  all  the  Ciliata  would  be  found  to  possess 

*  Bull.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1901,  pp.  358-408  (3  pis.). 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  356-32  (1  pi.). 

X  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxiv.  (1901)  pp.  307-8. 

§  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  510-21. 

II   Verb.  Zool.-bot.  Ges.  Wien,  lii.  (1902)  pp.  270-7. 

t  Proc.  Scot.  Micr.  Soc,  iii.  (1901)  pp.  90-108  (2  pis.). 


1 


5G4  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

the  faculty   of  protective  encystinent,  if   only  the  suitable  conditions 
could  be  discovered. 

A  precise  account  is  given  of  the  process  of  encystment  in  Paramce- 
cium  and  Spirostomum  ambiguum ;  and  there  are  many  other  detailed 
observations  of  interest. 

New  Trypanosoma.*— D.  Bruce  describes  T.  thcileri  sp.  n.  discovered 
by  A.  Theiler  in  blood  taken  from  a  young  ox  which  had  just  recovered 
from  rinderpest.  It  is  nearly  twice  as  large  as  the  Trypanosoma  of 
Surra,  Tse-tse  fly  disease,  or  of  rat,  but  agrees  with  them  in  its  oval 
protoplasmic  body,  longitudinal  fin-like  membrane,  and  single  flagel- 
lum. 

It  only  infects  cattle ;  horses,  dogs,  goats,  rabbits,  and  guinea-pigs 
are  all  immune.  "When  inoculated  into  calves  it  causes  an  acute  perni- 
cious anaemia  with  grave  blood  changes ;  or  a  general  anaemia  without 
deformation  of  the  elements  of  the  blood ;  or,  lastly,  only  a  slight  fever, 
but  there  is  a  relative  natural  immunity  in  cattle  against  it.  The  disease 
is  probably  that  which  Kolle  described  as  bovine  malaria. 

Multiplication  of  Trypanosoma  in  Fishes,  f  —  A.  Laveran  and 
F.  Mesnil  describe  the  binary  fission  (equal  or  sub-equal)  of  Trypano- 
soma remaki  and  Trypanoplasma  borreli  in  the  blood  ot  fishes,  where  the 
presence  of  these  parasites  seems  only  slightly,  if  at  all,  pathogenic. 
They  have  also  shown  that  these  parasites  may  be  readily  inoculated 
from  one  fish  to  another  of  the  same  species. 

Sexual  Phenomena  in  Pterocephalus.J— L.  Leger  and  O.  Duboscq 
find  that  in  the  Gregarine,  Pterocephalus  nobilis  A.  Schn.,  parasitic  in 
Scolopendra,  there  are  sexual  elements,  as  in  the  Stylorhynchids,  differen- 
tiated as  ova  and  spermatozoa. 

The  so-called  conjugation  is  anisogamous  in  a  high  degree.  But, 
while  in  Stylorhynchus  the  very  large  spermatozoa  bear  with  them  the 
larger  portion  of  nutritive  reserve,  those  of  Pterocephalus  are  very  minute, 
and  the  nutritive  vitellus  is  in  the  ova. 

Sarcocystis  tenella  in  Man.§ — P.  Vuillemin  has  found  in  prepa- 
rations made  by  Hoche  conclusive  evidence  that  Sarcocystis  tenella, 
common  in  the  sheep,  occurs  in  man's  muscles.  He  notes  that  the 
membrane  surrounding  the  parasite  is  two  layers  thick.  The  external 
layer  is  composed  of  an  achromatic,  flexible,  compressible  "  fundamental 
substance,"  and  a  stainable  substance,  disposed  in  irregular  prisms,. 
simulating  a  ciliary  covering  when  the  fundamental  substance  is  de- 
stroyed. The  units,  which  are  at  first  quite  uniform,  become  differen- 
tiated into  fertile  and  sterile  forms. 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  London,  lxix.  (1902)  p.  496. 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  1405-9. 

%  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1148-9.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1152-4. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  565 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants." 

Cytology, 
including1  Cell-Contents. 

Nature  and  Function  of  the  Nucleolus.  *  —  E.  Paratore  pub- 
lishes some  further  researches  upon  the  radical  tubercles  of  the 
Leguminosse,  with  regard  to  the  structure  and  alteration  of  the  nucleus 
of  the  tubercular  cell  iu  Yicia  Faba.  By  the  use  of  new  reagents  he 
has  confirmed  his  results  of  last  year  and  has  arrived  at  some  new  ideas 
about  the  nature  and  function  of  the  nucleolus.  He  quotes  the  views  of 
Cavara  and  of  Buscalioni  and  others,  and  calls  attention  to  the  frequent 
difficulty  of  distinguishing  nucleoli  from  macrosomes,  to  the  inconstancy 
of  the  reaction  of  nucleoli  and  chromatin  to  differential  stains,  to  the 
identity  of  coloration  of  both  in  various  physiological  and  pathological 
conditions,  and  to  the  appearance  of  many  granules  more  or  less  easily 
identifiable  with  the  nucleolus.  He  thinks  that  the  nucleolus  may  be 
a  hypertrophic  and  differentiated  chromosome,  and  that  it  may  be  a 
metabolic  centre  of  the  nucleus  and  especially  of  the  chromatin,  an 
element  of  nutrition  and  of  respiration. 

Cytological  Changes  accompanying  the  Secretion  of  Diastases — 
J.  C.  Torrey  has  studied  the  place,  mode,  and  time  of  origin  of  the 
diastatic  enzyme  in  seeds  of  maize  and  barley.  He  finds  that  the  enzyme 
arises  in  the  nuclei  of  the  columnar  epithelium  of  the  scutellum,  in 
the  form  of  dark  staining  granules  which  exude  in  small  streams  through 
breaks  in  the  membrane  and  collect  at  the  end  of  the  cell  next  to  the 
endosperm,  where  they  are  ultimately  dissolved.  Immediately  after  their 
disappearance  the  first  signs  are  observed  of  the  destructive  action  of 
a  ferment  on  the  cells  of  the  endosperm,  and  starch-grains  soon  appear 
in  greater  abundance  on  the  cells  of  the  scutellum.  The  formation  of 
the  ferment  begins  in  the  nuclei  before  the  commencement  of  the  resting 
period.  The  process  of  secretion  is  at  first  intermittent,  but  after  the 
third  day  of  germination  until  the  final  exhaustion  of  the  cells  the  secre- 
tion is  more  continuous. 

Crystals  of  Calcium  Oxalate  in  Seedlings  of  Alsike.J— J.  Percival 
describes  the  distribution  and  first  appearance  of  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate  in  Trifolium  hybridum  in  plants  grown  under  various  conditions. 
Plants  grown  in  distilled  water  in  paraffin-lined  flasks  show  development 
of  crystals,  first  in  the  petioles  of  the  cotyledons,  and  then  near  the  tips 
of  the  vascular  bundles  in  the  primary  leaf.  They  very  rarely  occur  in 
the  hypocotyl  or  root.     Similar  development  along  the  track  of  the  vas- 

*  Malpighia,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  178-87. 

+  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  421-35  (1  pi). 

X  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  (Bot.),  xxxv.  (1902)  pp.  396-402  (6  figs.). 


566  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

cular  bundles  of  the  petiole  and  primary  leaf-blades  occurs  in  plants 
grown  with  free  supply  of  calcium  in  the  dark,  and  in  an  atmosphere 
free  from  carbonic  acid  gas.  When  transpiration  is  reduced  fewer 
crystals  appear,  and  when  allowed  to  grow  in  a  crowded  state  on  filter- 
paper  in  covered  Petri  dishes,  crystals  do  not  form  for  a  long  while. 
The  crystals  are  attached  to  or  imbedded  in  a  matrix  of  some  pectic 
substance,  and  occur  in  the  first  row  of  parenchymatous  cells  next  to 
the  fibres  in  the  bundles  of  the  leaf-blades  and  petioles.  They  are  always 
on  the  side  next  to  the  wall  of  the  fibre  and  not  in  the  middle  of  the 
colls.  Where  few  fibres  are  present, -or  where  they  are  poorly  developed, 
as  in  plants  grown  in  the  dark  and  under  reduced  transpiration,  crystals 
are  correspondingly  diminished  in  number.  They  also  decrease  in  num- 
ber when  the  petioles  are  subjected  to  gradually  increasing  tension. 

Cyanogenesis  in  Plants.* — W.  Pi.  Dunstan  and  T.  A.  Henry  have 
investigated  the  nature  of  the  poison  contained  in  young  plants  of  the 
guinea  corn  (Sorghum  vulgare),  an  important  food-grain  of  the  tropics. 
The  authors  find  that  the  young  plant,  but  not  the  seeds  or  old  plants, 
when  crushed  with  water  yields  prussic  acid  (about  0  ■  2  p.c.  of  the  dried 
plant).  The  acid  is  not  present  in  the  free  state  but  is  due  to  the  action 
of  a  hydrolytic  enzyme,  apparently  identical  with  the  emulsin  of  bitter 
almonds,  on  a  cyanogenetic  glucoside  which  has  been  named  dhurrin 
from  dhurra,  the  Arabic  name  for  the  plant.  A  formula  is  given  for  the 
glucoside  which  differs  from  the  other  two  known  cyanogenetic  gluco- 
sides,  the  amygdalin  of  bitter  almonds  and  the  lotusin  found  by  the 
authors  in  Lotus  arabicus,  in  being  derived  from  dextrose  and  not  from 
maltose. 

Composition  of  Orchid  Tubers.f — K.  Eammelberg  finds  invert  sugar, 
sucrose,  amylose,  and  cellulose  in  young  and  old  tubers  of  eleven  different 
orchids.  The  old  tubers  contained  the  most  cellulose,  but  generally  less 
invert  sugar,  sucrose,  and  amylose  than  the  young  tubers.  The  predomi- 
nating constituent  is  amylose. 

Composition  of  Bananas.:}: — E.  Leuscher  publishes  analyses  of  the 
green  and  ripe  husks,  the  unripe  and  ripe  fruit  without  the  husk,  the 
preserved  fruit  and  the  banana  meal.  The  meal  contains  6*98  p.c.  of 
crude  protein. 

Chemical  Demonstration  of  Nectaries  in  Pollen  Flowers  and 
Anemophilous  Flowers.§  — K.  Stager  has  employed  the  chemical  method 
suggested  and  used  by  Paul  Knuth,  namely,  use  of  Fehling's  solution, 
to  determine  presence  of  sugar-containing  tissue  in  various  flowers. 
The  flower  was  laid  intact  in  the  reagent  for  about  24  hours,  the 
solution  with  the  flower  was  then  boiled,  and  the  flower  washed  with 
cold  water.  Presence  of  sugar  is  indicated  by  a  reddish  precipitate  of 
cuprous  oxide.  By  these  means  the  author  has  demonstrated  the  presence 
of  nectar  or  a  sugar- containing  tissue,  in  some  so-called  pollen  flowers, 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  lxx.  (1902)  pp.  153-4. 

+  Bied.  Ceutr.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  256-7.  See  also  Journ.  Chem.  Soc.,  lxxxii. 
(1902)  ii.  p.  420. 

X  Zeit.  offuntl.  Chem.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  125-34.  See  also  Journ.  Chem.  Soc.,  lxxxii. 
(1902)  ii.  p.  421. 

§  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xii.  (1902)  pp.  34-43. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  567 

that  is,  flowers  visited  for  sake  of  their  pollen,  as  well  as  in  certain 
aneniophilous  flowers.  Among  the  former  are  Helianthemum  vulgare, 
Hypericum  perforatum,  and  Papaver  Bhoens,  while  in  others,  e.g.  Solanum 
nigrum,  no  trace  of  sugar  was  found.  Chenopodium  album  and  Plantago 
lanceolata  were  also  examine!  as  examples  of  plants  affording  a  transition 
between  pollen  flowers  and  wind  flowers.  In  both  cases  sugar  was  in- 
dicated by  the  cuprous  precipitate.  Of  well-marked  wind  flowers,  the 
hop  showed  no  trace  of  sugar ;  but  sugar  was  found  in  the  anthers  of  the 
male  flowers  of  the  nettle,  the  female  were  not  investigated.  The  stigmas 
and  anthers  of  several  common  grasses  also  showed  a  well-marked  red 
coloring  when  heated  with  the  reagent  indicating  presence  of  sugar, 
and  the  author  is  convinced  that  insects  play  a  more  important  part  than 
generally  supposed  in  the  pollination  of  grass  flowers. 

Sugars  and  Organic  Acids  in  certain  Fruits.  *  —  A.  Borntraeger 
has  estimated  the  invert  sugar,  sucrose,  and  acidity  in  a  number  of 
generally  cultivated  fruits  including  species  of  Diospyros,  the  banana, 
medlar,  Eriobotrya,  and  others.  All  contained  invert  sugar,  varying  in 
amount  in  the  ripe  fruit  from  4*7  to  16*2  p.c.  Sucrose  occurred  only 
in  unripe  fruit  of  Arbutus  Unedo  (7*34  p.c),  in  ripe  banana  (7*24  p.c), 
and  in  both  ripe  and  unripe  fruit  of  Eriobotrya  japonica  (from  2*47  to 
4  •  9  p.c).  Malic  acid  was  universally  present,  but  other  organic  acids 
such  as  oxalic,  tartaric,  and  citric  were  not  found  except  in  Eriobotrya, 
the  juice  from  the  unripe  fruit  of  which  contained  on  the  average  1  ■  24  p.c. 
of  citric  acid.     Tannin  occurred  in  Diospyros  Kaki  and  D.  Lotus. 

Two  new  Sugars  extracted  from  Manna,  f  —  C.  Tauret  has  iso- 
lated two  new  sugars  from  manna.  One,  manneotetrose,  has  the  formula 
C24H42021 ,  forms  minute  clinorhombic  crystals  in  aqueous  solution,  and 
does  not  reduce  Fehling's  solution.  It,  however,  takes  up  water  readily 
and  then  becomes  a  reducing  agent.  It  undergoes  partial  fermentation 
by  yeast.  The  other,  manninotriose,  has  the  composition  represented  by 
the  formula  C18H3201G ;  is  deposited  from  boiling  absolute  alcohol  in 
the  form  of  slightly  birefractive  globules ;  it  has  not  been  obtained  in 
crystalline  form. 

Constituents  of  Pith  of  Maize  and  Elder.}  —  C.  A.  Browne,  jun. 
and  B.  Tollens  find  pentose  to  be  present  in  the  pith  of  both  maize  and 
elder,  and  there  was  also  evidence  of  a  sugar  resembling  dextrose  in 
maize-pith.  Xylose  and  arabinose  were  also  prepared  from  the  pith  of 
both  plants  by  hydrolysis  with  sulphuric  acid. 

Colouring  Matters  obtainable  from  Isatis  tinctoria.§ — L.  March- 
lewski  describes  the  action  of  isatin  on  extract  of  woad  prepared 
in  different  ways,  and  shows  that  the  chemical  compositions  of  dried 
and  fresh  leaves  of  the  plant  vary  very  considerably,  thus  explaining 
the  cause  of  the  differences  in  the  results  obtained  by  Schunk  on  the  one 
hand  and  Beijerinck  on  the  other. 

*  Zeit.  Nahr.-Genussm.,  v.  (1902)  pp.  145-55.  See  also  Journ.  Chem.  Soc, 
lxxxii.  (1902)  ii.  p.  347. 

t  Comptes  Eendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  158G-9. 

X  Ber.  DLutsch.  Chem.  Ges.,  xxxv.  (1902)  pp.  1457-67.  See  also  Journ.  Chem. 
Soc,  lxxxii.  (1902)  ii.  p.  420. 

§  Bull.  Internet.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracov.  CI,  Sci.  Math,  et  Nat.,  1902,  pp.  227-30. 


568  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Constituents  of  Acacia  and  Gambier  Catechus.  *  —  A.  G.  Perkin 
and  E.  Yoshitake  report  the  results  of  analysis  and  study  of  the  catechus 
extracted  from  Acacia  Catechu  and  Uncaria  Gambier.  They  prove  the 
existence  of  at  least  three  catechins  with  melting-points  30  degrees 
apart  from  each  other. 

Lecithin  in  Plants.! — M.  Schlagdenhauffen  and  Reeb  describe  their 
method  of  estimating  lecithin  in  terms  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  the 
amounts  obtained  in  the  various  plants  with  which  they  experimented. 

Saponarin.  J  —  G.  Barger  has  prepared  this  new  glucoside  from 
Saponaria,  and  describes  its  properties.  It  resembles  scutellarin,  which 
has  recently  been  prepared  from  Scutellaria.^ 

Taxine.||  — T.  E.  Thorpe  and  G.  Stubbs  have  investigated  the  alkaloid 
of  yew,  extracted  from  autumn-gathered  leaves  of  male  and  female  trees, 
by  digesting  with  1  p.c.  sulphuric  acid  for  5  or  6  days.  The  acid  liquid 
was  strained  and  pressed  from  the  leaves,  rendered  alkaline  and  ex- 
tracted with  ether.  Taxine  was  obtained  in  the  form  of  very  fine 
glistening  particles,  by  crushing  down  the  residue  from  the  ether  ex- 
tract ;  it  is  very  susceptible  to  change.  Several  salts  were  prepared  and 
analysed,  and  the  figures  deduced  are  in  substantial  agreement  with  the 
formula  C37H52NO10,  given  by  Hilger  and  Brande.  The  authors,  how- 
ever, are  not  of  opinion  that  this  formula  is  definitely  established. 

Structure  and  Development. 
Vegetative. 

Leaf-Anatomy  of  Rutaceae.lf  —  H.  Schulze  has  studied  the  leaf- 
anatomy  of  a  number  of  species,  representing  34  genera  of  this  family. 
He  finds  as  great  a  variety  in  internal  structure  as  in  external  form,  so 
that  it  is  impossible  to  define  any  general  type.  The  presence  of 
secretory  spaces  affords  a  constant  character,  an  exception  occurring 
only  in  Fagara  Pterota,  which  has  oil-cells.  Considerable  agreement 
is  found  between  the  members  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  order,  especially 
in  the  Diosrneas.  Leaf-structure  is  in  the  great  majority  dorsiventral, 
but  sometimes  isobilateral,  more  rarely  almost  centric.  The  cells  of 
the  epidermis  vary  very  much  in  size,  the  radial  walls  are  straight,  so 
the  cells  appear  polygonal  in  surface  view.  The  occurrence  of  an 
epidermal  mucilage  is  very  frequent,  and  specially  characterises  the 
Diosmeae,  in  which  it  was  found  in  40  out  of  41  species.  It  was  also 
observed  in  the  Xanthoxyleae,  Flindersieae,  and  Toddalieae.  Stomata 
in  the  dorsiventral  leaves  are  found  mostly  only  on  the  under  face ;  in 
some  Diosmeae  they  are  limited  to  two  narrow  zones  on  the  under  face  ; 
they  belong  to  no  definite  type,  and  generally  show  no  subsidiary  cells. 
Hairs  are  generally  present ;  they  vary  in  form,  but  one-celled,  often  very 
short,  hairs  are  common.      In  the  dorsiventral  leaf  the  mesophyll  is 

*  Journ.  Chem.  Soc,  lxxxi.  (1902)  pp.  1160-73. 
t  Comptcs  Rendus,  cxxxv.  (1902)  pD.  205-8. 

X  Ber.  Deutseh.  Chem.  Ges.,  xxxv.  (1902)  pp.  1296-8.  See  also  Journ.  Chem 
Soc,  lxxxii.  (1902)  i.  p.  387. 

§  See  this  Journal,  ante,  p.  315. 
II  Proc.  Chem.  Soc.,  xviii.  (1902)  pp.  123-5. 
f  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xii  (1902)  pp.  55-98  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  569 

generally  sharply  distinguished  into  palisade  and  spongy  layers,  the 
former  often  one  layer  thick.  Calcium  oxalate  was  generally  present ; 
hesperidin  was  frequently  observed  in  the  epidermis. 

The  author  does  not  consider  that  a  sufficient  number  of  genera  was 
investigated  in  the  subdivisions  of  the  order  to  draw  definite  con- 
clusions as  to  the  systematic  value  of  the  anatomical  characters.  He, 
however,  indicates  the  following  points  of  interest : — The  almost  con- 
stant occurrence  of  mucilage  in  the  epidermis  of  the  Diosmeae.  In 
other  groups  it  was  less  constant  or  not  observed  in  the  genera  in- 
vestigated. The  structure  of  the  palisade  parenchyma  showed  some 
agreement  in  individual  groups.  In  the  Toddalieaa  it  was  always  one- 
layered,  as  also  in  the  Boronie®,  except  in  Boronia  (two-layered),  in  the 
Aurantiese  always  several-layered,  and  of  almost  cubical  cells.  In  other 
tribes  the  number  of  layers  was  variable. 

Dischidia  with  Double  Pitchers.  *  —  H.  H.  W.  Pearson  describes 
the  occurrence  of  double  pitchers  in  four  species  of  Dischidia,  from  the 
Philippines  and  Borneo.  The  second  or  inner  pitcher  is  formed  by 
the  involution  of  the  leaf-apex,  which,  in  the  simple  pitcher  of  D. 
Bafflesianum,  hangs  free  in  the  pitcher.  The  outer  pitcher  contains  solid 
matter  and  roots  ;  in  two  cases  ants  were  found.  The  opening  into  the 
outer  pitcher  being  only  2  mm.  in  diameter,  is  not  large  enough  to  allow 
of  the  washing  in  of  solid  matters  by  rain ;  and  the  author  suggests, 
therefore,  that  the  material  is  carried  in  by  the  ants,  indicating  a  degree 
of  myrmecophily  which  is  an  advance  upon  that  shown  by  D.  Bafflesianum. 
There  were  no  roots  in  the  inner  pitcher.  In  one  species,  D.  pectinoides, 
a  large  number  of  small,  irregular-shaped  sweet  masses  were  found  in 
the  inner  pitcher  ;  these  arise  from  gummosis  of  the  tissue  above  the 
opening  of  the  inner  pitcher.  On  the  surface  of  the  inner  wall  of  the 
outer  pitcher  a  fungus  mycelium  was  present,  the  hyphae  of  which 
abstrict  gemmaa,  which  perhaps  serve  as  food  for  the  ants. 

Precursors  of  Sieve-tubes  in  Gymnosperms.f — G.  Chauveaud  de- 
scribes elements  which  precede  the  sieve-tubes  in  order  of  development, 
and  are  in  their  position  and  character  intermediate  between  the  cells 
of  the  pericycle  and  the  first-formed  sieve-tubes.  The  first  are  tubular 
in  form,  with  a  thin  wall,  and  no  appreciable  modification.  These  are 
followed,  by  elements,  tubular  like  the  first,  but  also  provided  at  certain 
points  in  their  walls  with  a  little  sieve-area.  Other  elements  show  a 
still  higher  degree  of  differentiation.  The  limit  between  pericycle  and 
bast  is  not  therefore  abrupt,  as  in  the  angiosperms ;  we  pass  from  the 
cells  of  the  pericycle  to  the  first  sieve-tubes  through  a  series  of  forms 
showing  increasing  differentiation.  These  intermediate  forms,  which 
are  transitory,  give  a  primitive  character  to  the  bast  which  corresponds 
with  the  ancient  origin  of  the  group.  These  precursory  elements  are 
best  seen  in  the  seedling  before  the  cotyledons  have  completely  spread. 
Their  differentiation  can  be  followed  from  the  radicle  into  the  cotyledons, 
and  they  can  be  found  also  at  the  origin  of  each  young  rootlet. 

Botanical  Origin  of  Kinkeliba.  %  —  E.  Perrot  and  G.  Lefevre  have 
investigated  the  histology  and  external   morphology  of  this    tropical 


*  Journ.  Soe.  (Bot.)  Linn.,  xxxr.  (1902)  pp.  375-89  (1  pi.). 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  c.:xxiv.  (1902)  pp.  1605-0.         %  'Join. 


cit.,  pp.  1154-6. 


570  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

African  plant,  the  leaves  of  which  have  febrifuge  properties.  They 
find,  as  previously  suggested  by  Engler,  tbat  the  source  of  the  dru» 
is  Combretum  altum  Oiuill.  and  Perrot  (=  C.  micranthum  Don).  The 
divergence  of  views  held  by  systeniatists  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
plant  is  explained  by  its  polymorphism.  It  may  be  a  liane  almost  de- 
prived of  leaves  or  a  densely  leaved  bush.  In  anatomical  character, 
the  absence  of  phloem  islands  in  the  wood,  it  agrees  with  Combretum 
micranthum,  but  differs  from  C.  gluiinosum  in  which  this  tissue  occurs. 
This  is  an  important  point,  as  Heckel,  working  with  inadequate  ma- 
terial, has  described  the  plant  as  a  new  species,  C.  Raimbaulti,  allied 
to  C.  glutinosum. 

Reproductive. 

Development  of  Hamamelis  virginiana.  * —  D.  N.  Shoemaker  de- 
scribes the  development  of  the  flower,  the  course  of  pollination,  and 
the  embryology  in  this  species.  He  finds  the  floral  development  to  bo 
as  described  by  Baillon,  except  that  only  in  one  instance  were  there  two 
ovules  in  a  carpel.  At  the  time  of  flowering  the  ovule  is  small  and  in- 
complete, and  the  maerospore  indifferentiated.  The  pollen-grains  show 
great  resistance  to  low  temperature.  Fertilisation  takes  place  about  the 
middle  of  May,  that  is,  from  £  to  7  months  after  pollination.  The 
mature  embryo-sac  is  typical.  The  endosperm  uses  up  all  the  nucellus 
except  the  epidermal  layer.  The  embryo  has  a  suspensor,  and  at 
maturity  has  used  up  about  one-third  of  the  endosperm,  when  it  lies 
straight  in  the  axis  of  the  seed. 

Development  of  the  Embryo-sac  in  Piper  and  Heckeria.f  —  D. 
S.  Johnson  has  studied  the  development  and  germination  of  the  mega- 
spore  in  two  species  of  each  of  the  above  genera.  The  megaspore  is 
directly  derived  from  the  lower  half  of  a  hypodermal  cell,  and  the 
whole  course  of  development  is  like  that  of  typical  angiosperms. 

Embryology  of  Limnocharis4 — J-  G.  Hall  has  studied  the  embryo- 
logy of  the  South  American  species,  Limnocharis  emarginata.  He  finds 
that  the  development  of  the  ovules  closely  follows  that  in  Butomus  um- 
bellatus  as  described  by  Ward.  They  arise  as  emergences  from  the 
walls  of  the  carpels  without  definite  placental  arrangement.  Except 
in  the  history  of  the  embryo-sac  the  subsequent  development  is  of  the 
usual  angiospermous  type.  The  hypodermal  cell  which  forms  the  arche- 
sporium  is  very  early  distinguishable  ;  a  tapetal  cell  is  cut  off  from  it 
but  has  no  wall  and  is  pushed  towards  the  apex  of  the  sac  where  it 
subsequently  disappears.  The  remaining  large  cell  becomes  the  embryo- 
sac  without  further  division.  The  subsequent  history  of  the  nuclear 
changes  differs  considerably  from  the  usual  course.  The  megaspore 
nucleus  forms  two  daughter  nuclei,  one  of  which  passes  to  the  micro- 
pylar  end  of  the  sac  and  forms  the  egg-apparatus  and  upper  polar 
nucleus,  while  the  other  goes  to  the  antipodal  end  and  remains  un- 
divided. The  upper  polar  nucleus  migrates  towards  the  antipodal  end 
of  the  sac  where  it  divides  transversely.  The  lower  daughter  nucleus 
remains  in  position,  being  cut  off  by  a  wall  across  the  sac,  and  forming 

*  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circulars,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  86-7. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  85-G. 

X  Bot.  Gaz.,  xxxiii.  (1902)  pp.  214-9  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  571 

a  large  cell  which  does  not  divide  further,  but  finally  disappears  through 
the  encroachment  of  the  endosperm.  The  upper  daughter  nucleus 
travels  back  toward  the  egg-apparatus  and  by  further  division  forms 
the  endosperm,  which  at  an  early  stage  consists  of  only  a  single  layer 
of  granular  protoplasm  lining  the  sac,  in  which  are  imbedded  free 
nuclei,  but  later  walls  are  formed  although  not  easily  distinguishable. 

Fertilisation  occurs  before  the  first  division  of  the  polar  nucleus  ; 
actual  fusion  of  sperm-cell  and  oosphere  was  not  observed.     The  first 
division  of  the  egg  is  into  suspensor  and  embryo-cell.     The  original 
suspensor  cell  increases  much  in  size  but  never  divides  except  in  cases 
of  polyembryony,  when  an  embryogenic   mass  is  formed  from  which 
several  embryos  bud  out  somewhat  as  in  Erythronium  amtrieanum  and 
Tulipa  Gcsneri.     In  the  older  embryo  the  suspensor  consists  in  addition 
of  some  of  the  cells  derived  from  the  first  terminal  segment,  and  may 
comprise  four  to  five  cells.     The  first  division  of  the  embryo-cell  is 
always  transverse,  but  the  next  may  be  vertical,  transverse,  or  oblique. 
When  vertical  or  oblique  the  growing  point  of  the  stem  and  the  coty- 
ledon both  arise  from  terminal  segments,  thus  agreeing  with  Zannichcllia 
but  differing  from  Naias.    The  author  concludes  that  there  is  no  regular 
order  of  division  in  the  formation  of  the  young  embryo  after  the  first 
two  walls  are  formed.     In  the  older  stages  of  the  embryo  the  growing 
point  was  apparently  always  of  lateral  origin. 

Structure  of  Achenes.* — E.  Villari  calls  attention  to  the  confusion 
arising  from  the  terms  employed  in  systematic  botany  to  denote  various 
kinds  of  fruits,  one  and  the  same  term  being  used  to  include  a  diversity 
of  fruits  which  in  their  morphological  origin  have  but  little  in  common 
with  one  another.  In  order  to  contribute  towards  a  better  classification, 
he  has  studied  the  structure  of  the  achenes  of  Anemone  hortensis,  Banun- 
culus  muricatus,  Delphinium  haltcratum,  Daucus  Carota,  Senecio  vulgaris, 
Sonchus  tenerrimw,  S.  oleraceus,  Tolpis  quadriaristata,  Carthamus  lana- 
tus,  Helianthus  annuus,  Bumex  glomeratus,  Mirabilis  Jalapa,  Oxybaphus 
viscosus,  and  Parietaria  lusitanica.  He  often  found  it  impossible  to  make 
out  in  the  mature  fruit  the  number  of  carpels  of  which  it  was  composed. 
At  other  times  the  sutures  were  quite  apparent.  He  considers  that  not 
only  the  number  of  the  carpels,  but  also  the  superior  or  inferior  position 
of  the  ovaries,  ought  to  be  taken  into  account,  and  that  epiachenes  (in- 
cluding periachenes)  should  be  distinguished  from  hypoachenes.  The 
distinction  of  achene  from  caryopsis  is  of  slight  importance,  as  in 
Urticacese,  Nyctagineae,  and  Ranunculaceae,  he  has  found  achenes  with 
the  pericarp  more  or  less  adherent  to  the  seed. 

Germination  in  Piperaceae.-f— D.  S.  Johnson  has  studied  the  ger- 
mination of  the  seeds  of  Peperomia  pellucida.  The  bulk  of  the  ripe  seed 
is  made  up  of  perisperm  rich  in  starch ;  a  thin  layer  of  endosperm  sur- 
rounds the  globular  embryo.  The  seed-coat  is  burst  by  increase  in 
size  of  embryo  and  endosperm.  The  endosperm  pushes  out  of  the  seed 
continuing  to  surround  the  embryo  until  the  radicle  and  cotyledons  are 
well  formed.  The  radicle  and  later  the  bases  of  the  cotyledons  push 
out  through  the  sac  of  the  endosperm,  which  remains  as  a  cap  tightly 

*  Malpiglna,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  1SS-99. 

f  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circulars,  xxi.  (1902)  p.  86. 


572  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

covering  the  tips  of  the  cotyledons  and  surrounded  by  the  perisperm. 
The  seed  is  raised  by  the  elongating  hypocotyl  and  clings  to  the  tips 
of  the  cotyledons  till  all  the  food  is  absorbed.  The  endosperm,  which 
is  never  more  than  one  or  two  layers  thick,  never  contaius  any  appre- 
ciable amount  of  starch.  In  the  ripe  seed  it  is  full  of  aleurone-grains 
which  gradually  disappear  as  germination  proceeds,  the  starch  in  the 
perisperm  disappearing  at  %the  same  time  from  the  endosperm  outwards. 
It  is  suggested  that  the  function  of  the  endosperm  is  to  digest  the 
starch  stored  in  the  perisperm,  by  the  aid  probably  of  a  ferment  pre- 
pared from  the  proteid  granules,  and  then  to  absoib  and  pass  on  the 
digested  material  to  the  embryo.  In  Heckeria  umbellata  the  process 
is  almost  identical  with  that  found  in  Peperomia.  In  Canna,  Dianthus 
and  Cerastium,  Polygonum  and  other  cases,  the  thin  layer  of  endosperm 
about  the  cotyledons  apparently  serves  the  same  purpose  as  in  Peperomia. 
The  author  believes  that  the  sporophyte  of  the  second  generation  is 
nourished  by  that  of  the  first  generation  always  through  the  inter- 
mediate gametophyte. 

Germination  of  Seeds  of  Carapa  guianensis.* — J.  W.  Harshberger 
has  studied  the  germination  of  the  seeds  of  this  tropical  forest  tree 
(natural  order  Meliaceae).  The  capsule  is  about  the  size  and  shape  of 
a  coco-nut,  and  is  filled  with  angular  seeds,  ten  to  twelve  of  which  are 
packed  within  the  woody  pericarp.  Germination  begins  before  the 
seeds  leave  the  capsule ;  they  are  held  in  place  by  the  interwoven  mass 
of  secondary  roots.  The  stem  elongates  some  4  to  6  in.  and  emerges 
from  the  interior  of  the  partially  opened  seed-vessel.  The  seeds  lose 
their  vitality  if  allowed  to  remain  for  some  time  iu  a  dry  place.  They 
are  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  with  woody  coats ;  the 
interior  is  tilled  with  the  fleshy  conferruminate  cotyledons.  The  coty- 
ledons contain  no  starch,  the  reserve  material  consisting  of  oil  and 
proteid  bodies.  In  germination  the  hard  coat  cracks,  the  radicle  first 
protrudes  and  develops  numerous  secondary  roots;  the  plumule  follows. 
The  rapidly  elongating  stem  bears  at  first  closely  appressed  scale-leaves  ; 
after  a  time  there  arises  a  pair  of  opposite  abruptly  pinnate  bijugate 
leaves.  Carapa  guianensis,  which  is  a  land  plant,  differs  from  G.  moluc- 
censis,  which  is  a  mangrove  plant,  in  not  having  the  tuber-like  radicle 
and  the  pneumatodes  which  characterise  the  latter. 

Physiology. 
Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Observations  on  Transpiration.f — C.C.Curtis  describes  the  results 
of  numerous  experiments  on  the  apparently  irregular  variations  in  the 
rate  of  transpiration.  He  finds  that  on  dull  days  when  the  intensity 
of  the  light  is  uniform  or  at  least  not  in  keeping  with  the  time  of  day, 
the  transpiration  curve  shows  a  pronounced  maximum  near  midday  and 
is  also  characterised  by  minor  fluctuations  which  occur  independently 
of  climatic  changes.  Illumination  by  an  electric  light  of  900  candle- 
power  under  uniform  external  conditions  showed  a  periodicity  in  the 
transpiration  of  several  plants  corresponding  in  the  main  with  the  curves 

*  Froc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelph.,  1902,  pp.  122-5. 
t  Full.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  359-73. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  573 

determined  on  cloudy  days.  The  harmonising  of  the  rhythms  of  ab- 
sorption, exudation  and  tension  of  fluids,  and  the  rate  of  growth  is 
suggestive  of  the  vital  character  of  transpiration.  Variations  of  a  few 
per  cent,  in  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  produced  no  sensible 
change  in  the  amount  of  transpiration,  but  an  increase  of  8  per  cent, 
resulted  in  a  marked  drop  in  the  rate.  The  curve  in  the  dark  was 
sometimes  in  keeping  with  the  rhythm  found  under  constant  illumina- 
tion, but  was  more  frequently  characterised  by  variations  quite  out  of 
keeping  with  the  periodicity  of  light.  There  is  evidently  a  cessation 
of  the  vital  action  of  the  plant,  and  the  retardation  of  the  rate  and  its 
greater  regularity  accords  with  the  loss  of  tone  manifest  in  the  plant. 
The  considerable  volume  transpired  in  the  dark  indicates  that  the 
stomata  may  be  sufficiently  open  to  allow  the  escape  of  vapour.  Only 
in  the  case  of  Cycas  revoluta  was  the  amount  of  transpiration  in  keeping 
with  the  ratios  determined  for  cuticular  transpiration.  The  physio- 
logical character  of  transpiration  is  also  indicated  by  the  periodicity  of 
the  opening  and  closing  of  the  stomata.  They  are  more  responsive  to 
the  stimulus  of  light  in  the  morning  than  in  the  afternoon. 

Transpiration  of  Evergreen  Trees  in  Winter.* — Shunsuke  Kusano 
gives  an  account  of  a  large  series  of  experiments  on  the  transpiration 
of  evergreen  plants  at  the  latitude  of  Tokyo,  during  winter.  Details 
of  the  experiments  which  were  made  under  various  external  conditions 
of  temperature,  light,  time  of  day,  &c.  are  tabulated.  The  author 
shows  that  not  only  is  transpiration  continued,  but  also  that  photo- 
synthesis takes  place  without  intermission  in  winter,  though  much 
feebler  than  in  summer.  The  time  of  minimum  transpiration  coincides 
with  that  of  minimum  temperature  (end  of  January).  The  amount  of 
water  trauspired  by  foliage  evergreen  trees  was  in  average  cases  one 
and  a  half  to  twice  as  great  as  that  transpired  by  conifers.  The  author 
concludes  that  many  of  the  evergreen  trees  in  Japan  have  their  stomata 
more  or  less  open  even  in  the  depth  of  winter ;  a  condition  which  is 
probably  the  most  important  factor  in  winter  transpiration. 

Relations  of  Calcium  and  Magnesium  to  Plant-Growth.f  —  W. 
May  experimented  with  various  plants  grown  in  water,  sand,  and 
ordinary  soil,  and  manured  with  calcium  and  magnesium  as  sulphates, 
nitrates,  and  carbonates.  A  great  excess  of  magnesium  was  found  to 
be  very  injurious,  while  excessive  amounts  of  calcium  check  the  growth. 
The  best  relations  of  calcium  to  magnesium  are  7  :  4. 

Accumulation  of  Mineral  and  Organic  Matter  in  Woody  Plants.f 
— G.  Andre  has  studied  the  variation  in  the  amount  of  mineral  and 
organic  matter  in  the  branches  of  the  current  year  in  the  horse-chest- 
nut, starting  from  the  time  when  the  branch  has  finished  its  elongation 
to  the  fall  of  its  leaves.  The  nutritive  materials  accumulated  serve  to 
nourish  the  terminal  bud  which  will  develop  next  year.  He  finds  a 
gradual  increase  through  the  period  of  experimentation  (from  July  29 
to  November  16)  in  the  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  nitrogen.  The 
amounts  of  carbohydrate  saccharifiable  by  dilute  acids,  and  the  cellulose 

*  Journ.  Coll.  Scl.  Imp.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xv.  pt.  3  (1901)  pp.  313-6G  (I  pi.). 
t  U.S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bull.,  1901,  No.  1,  pp.  37-53.     See  also  Journ.  Chcm.  Soc, 
Ixxxii.  (1902)  ii.  p.  347.  t  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  1514-7. 

October  loth,  1902  2  q 


574  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

increase  from  July  to  September  ;  from  this  time,  when  the  weight  of 
dry  matter  remains  constant,  the  former  regularly  diminish  and  are 
replaced  almost  exactly  by  cellulose. 

Irritability. 

Effect  of  Sunshine  on  Plants.* — N.  Passerini  publishes  some  ob- 
servations upon  the  results  of  growing  thirteen  different  species  of 
plants  in  direct  sunshine  and  in  diffused  lifrht  respectively.  By  analysis 
he  determined  the  relative  percentages  of  water,  organic  matter,  and 
mineral  ash  of  the  two  sets  of  plants.  The  highest  gain  was  found  in 
Cncurbita  Pejio,  where  the  plant  grown  in  sunshine  was  twenty-seven 
times  as  heavy  as  the  shaded  plant ;  and  the  next  were  Hordeum  vulgare 
and  Zea  Mays  where  the  gain  was  about  nine  times.  As  to  gain  in 
organic  substance,  the  greatest  gains  were  shown  by  Brassiea  Bapa, 
Hordeum  vulgare,  and  Anagallis  arvensis.  The  conclusions  drawn  by 
the  author  are  that  in  every  case  the  plant  exposed  to  direct  sunlight 
is  heavier  tban  the  shaded  plant ;  that  the  failure  of  direct  radiation 
limits  the  growth  of  the  plant,  and  retards  the  vegetative  phases, 
especially  the  inflorescence  and  the  complete  development  of  the  fruit ; 
that  the  sun-grown  plants  are  much  greener  than  the  shaded ;  that  the 
shaded  plants  have  a  larger  proportion  of  water  and  less  of  solid  sub- 
stance ;  that  the  higher  percentage  of  solid  substance  in  the  sun-grown 
plants  is  chiefly  due  to  organic  matter ;  and  that  the  difference  in  the 
proportion  of  mineral  matter  is  less  notable. 

Electrical  Phenomena  in  Plants.f — A.  Tompa  has  studied  electro 
motive  effects  in  dead  and  living  seeds.  He  finds  that  there  is  no 
essential  difference  of  intensity  in  manifestation  of  electric  polarisation 
in  living  and  in  dead  seeds  respectively.  The  polarisation  currents  in 
both  living  and  dead  seeds  may  reach  considerable  intensity,  but  are  of 
small  tension.  The  amount  of  intensity  and  the  direction  of  the  current 
vary  according  to  variations  in  the  internal  resistance  of  the  seeds.  A 
criterion  of  the  life  of  the  seed  is  supplied  by  the  "  lesion  "-current ; 
in  the  case  of  living  seeds,  as  a  result  of  superficial  injury  on  one  side, 
an  electromotive  force  with  a  potential  exceeding  0-005  volt  is  expe- 
rienced, while  dead  seeds  show  no  potential,  or  at  any  rate  one  of  less 
than  0  •  005  volt.  Hence  a  lesion-current  whose  potential  exceeds  0  ■  005 
volt  may  be  considered  a  criterion  of  life  in  a  seed. 

Electric  Response  in  Plants  under  Mechanical  Stimulus.* — J-  C. 
Bose  describes  apparatus  and  experiments  on  numerous  plants,  which 
prove  that  plants  and  their  different  organs  give  precisely  the  same 
electric  responses  to  stimuli  as  does  animal  tissue,  indicating  that  vital 
phenomena  are  identical  in  the  animal  and  plant  kingdoms.  That  the 
responses  are  physiological,  and  not  merely  mechanical,  in  character  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  whatever  tends  to  exalt  or  depress  the  physio- 
logical activity,  tends  also  to  increase  or  diminish  the  electric  response. 
The  effect  of  anaesthetics  and  poisons,  organic  variations,  fatigue,  modifi- 
cation by  liigh  and  low  temperatures,   corresponds  strictly  to   similar 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital.,  1902,  pp.  13-24. 

t  Bcih  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xii.  (1902)  pp.  99-136  (3  figs.). 

t  Joiu-n.  Linn.  Soc.  (Bot.),  xxxv.  (1902)  pp.  275-30-i  (25  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  575 

phenomena  in  muscle  and  nerve.  The  author  emphasises  the  importance 
of  this  unity  between  plants  and  animals,  as  owing  to  the  simpler  con- 
ditions which  obtain  in  plant  life,  the  electro-physiological  investigation 
in  plants  may  be  found  to  throw  much  light  on  the  subject  generally. 
There  is  no  longer  any  room  for  the  explanation  that  the  response  in 
plants  is  due  to  movement  of  water,  as  suggested  by  Kunkel.  In  a 
work  to  be  shortly  published,  entitled  Response  in  the  Living  and  Non- 
living, the  author  will  treat  fully  of  the  subject  of  irritability  and 
response. 

Method  of  Investigating  the  Gravitational  Sensitiveness  of  the 
Root-tip.* — F.  Darwin  describes  a  method  giving  additional  confirma- 
tion of  the  truth  of  the  theory  that  sensitiveuess  to  the  stimulus  of 
gravity  is  confiued  to  the  root- tip.  A  piece  of  apparatus  was  devised 
by  means  of  which  the  weight  of  the  heavy  cotyledons  of  leguminous 
plants  (which  are  especially  suitable  for  experiment)  could  be  supported, 
but  at  the  same  time  allowed  to  move  freely,  the  tip  of  the  root  being 
inserted  in  a  tube.  Besides  glass  tubes,  straws  and  quills  were  used, 
and  also  nectaries  of  Tropseolum,  corolla-tubes  of  various  flowers,  and 
the  hollow  scape  of  the  dandelion. 

Action  of  Alcohol  on  Germination  of  some  Seeds.f — L.  Sukatsckeff 
finds,  in  agreement  with  Dixon,  that  seeds  of  lupine  and  pea  can  re- 
main some  time  in  alcohol  of  various  strengths  without  losing  capacity 
for  germination.  On  the  other  hand,  he  concludes  from  experiments 
with  Lupinus  luteus  and  Lepidium  sativum,  that  wounding  of  the  seed, 
or. removal  of  the  testa,  does  not  lead  to  so  rapid  a  loss  of  germination 
capacity  as  the  results  of  Dixon  and  Schmid  tend  to  show. 

Chemical  Changes. 

Chemical  Studies  of  the  Coco-nut.J  —  J.  E.  Kirk  wood  and  W.  J. 
Gies  have  studied  the  chemical  composition  of  the  coco-nut,  and  the 
changes  which  occur  during  germination.  In  the  case  of  the  ungermi- 
nated  nut  the  composition  of  the  milk  and  of  the  endosperm  is  considered 
in  detail.  The  fresh  endosperm  contains  46  p.c.  water  to  54  p.c.  solids, 
the  latter  consisting,  except  for  1  p.c,  of  organic  matter.  The  organic 
matter  comprises  37  p.c.  fat,  3 -4  p.c.  cellulose,  4  p.c.  proteid.  Water, 
salt-solution,  and  glycerin  all  failed  to  extract  appreciable  quantities  of 
either  proteolytic  or  adipolytic  enzymes  from  the  endosperm,  though 
an  active  amylolytic  ferment  was  extracted  in  every  case.  The  morpho- 
logical changes  accompanying  germination  are  described,  and  the  general 
composition  of  the  parts  of  the  seedling  and  germinated  nut. 

Investigation  and  Presence  of  Rennet-ferment  in  Plants.  §  — 
M.  Javillier  describes  the  extraction  and  experiments  on  the  action  of 
the  rennet  ferment  obtained  from  the  tare,  under  rigorous  aseptic  con- 
ditions, which  have  not  been  observed  by  previous  workers.  He  finds 
the  ferment  to  be  widespread  in  plants,  occurring  chiefly  in  the  leaves. 

*  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  (Bot.),  xxxv.  (1902)  pp.  266-74  (10  figs.). 

t  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xii.  (1002)  pp.  137-8. 

X  Bull.  Torr.  Bot,  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  321-59  (1  pi.  and  a  ng8  in  text). 

$  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  13-3-4. 

2  Q  2 


576  SUMMAEY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Action  of  Ungerminated  Barley  Diastase  on  Starch.* — J.  L.  Baker 
finds  that  when  the  diastase  is  allowed  to  act  at  50°  on  a  solution  of 
soluble  starch,  hydrolysis  proceeds  for  an  hour  to  an  hour  and  a  half, 
when  a  stage  is  reached  beyond  which  the  reaction  is  comparatively 
slow.  After  1^  to  2  hours  dextrin  and  maltose  were  the  sole  products ; 
after  24  hours  evidence  of  the  presence  of  glucose  was  obtained,  the 
amount  of  this  sugar  apparently  increasing  in  proportion  to  the  time 
of  conversion.  Since  barley  diastase  is  without  action  on  maltose,  the 
glucose  which  occurs  at  the  later  stage  must  be  derived  from  the  dextrin. 
This  dextrin  differs  markedly  from  Nageli's  amylodextrin,  and  in  con- 
sideration of  its  general  behaviour  and  close  relation  to  the  parent 
starch,  the  author  proposes  to  call  it  a-amylodextrin. 

Mosaic  Disease  of  Tobacco,  f  —  A.  F.  Woods  gives  an  historical 
summary  of  the  facts  relating  to  this  disease,  and  an  account  of  the 
results  of  his  own  investigations.  The  leaves  of  plants  attacked  by 
the  disease  show  a  more  or  less  sharply  defined  differentiation  into 
light  and  dark  green  areas,  giving  a  mosaic  appearance.  The  light 
green  areas  are,  as  a  rule,  between  the  larger  vascular  bundles,  the 
darker  green  portions  forming  a  border  along  the  larger  bundles. 
Occasionally,  however,  the  dark  and  light  green  patches  occur  indis- 
criminately. Where  the  contrast  is  more  marked  the  light-coloured 
areas  grow  slowly,  while  the  dark  green  grow  more  rapidly,  and  thus 
the  leaf  becomes  badly  distorted.  The  disease  is  not  due  to  parasites 
of  any  kind,  but  results  from  the  defective  nutrition  of  the  young 
dividing  and  rapidly  growing  cells,  due  to  a  lack  of  elaborated  nitro- 
genous reserve  food,  accompanied  by  an  abnormal  increase  in  activity 
of  oxidising  enzyms  in  the  diseased  cells.  The  unusual  activity  of 
enzym  prevents  the  proper  elaboration  of  reserve  food,  so  that  a  plant 
once  diseased  seldom  recovers.  On  the  decay  of  the  plant  the  enzym 
is  set  free,  and  remains  active  in  the  soil.  It  is  very  soluble  in  water, 
and  appears  to  pass  readily  through  plant-membranes.  If  young  plants 
take  it  up  in  sufficient  quantity  to  reach  the  terminal  bud,  they  become 
diseased  in  the  characteristic  way.  Under  field  conditions  there  is 
little  danger  from  infection  in  this  way,  but  in  the  seed-bed  the  danger 
is  much  greater  owing  to  the  greater  susceptibility  of  the  young  plants 
to  disease,  and  the  greater  amount  of  free-oxidising  enzyms  likely  to 
be  in  the  soil  due  to  the  decay  of  roots  and  plants.  New  or  steam- 
sterilised  soil  should  therefore  be  used  for  the  seed-bed.  There  is 
evidence  that  rapid  growth,  caused  by  too  much  nitrogenous  manure  or 
too  high  temperature,  is  favourable  to  the  disease. 

Action  of  Hydrogen  peroxide  on  Carbohydrates  in  presence  of 
Ferrous  Sulphate.J — R  S.  Morrell  and  J.  S.  Crofts  have  continued  the 
investigations  of  Cross  and  others,  and  have  shown  that  dextrose, 
laevulose,  arabinose,  and  rhamnose  are  transformed  by  hydrogen 
peroxide  in  presence  of  the  iron  salt  into  osones. 

General. 
Phyllobiologic  Types  in   some  Orders   of  Seed-Plants.  §  —  Prof. 
Hansgirg,  who  has  already  published  an  account  of  his  investigations 

*  Proc.  Cbew.  Soc,  xviii.  (1902)  pp.  134-6. 

t  U.S.  Dept.  Agric.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bull.  No.  8  (1902)  pp.  1-24 
(6  pis.).  t  Journ.  Chem.  Soc„  Ixxxi.  (1902)  pp.  666-75. 

§  S.B.  k.  biihm.  Ges.  Wiss.  Math.-naturw.  CI.,  1901,  No.  24,  pp.  38. 


ZOOLOGY'    A.ND   BOTA.NY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  577 

on  the  relation  between  the  form,  texture,  and  structure  of  the  loaf  and 
its  environment,  now  gives  a  systematic  review  of  tho  various  climato- 
cecological  types  of  leaves  found  in  a  number  of  natural  orders  of 
dicotyledons  and  monocotyledons. 

Study  of  the  Genus  Serapias.*— G.  Zodda  describes  a  new  variety 
metadata  of  Serapias  lingua  from  Messina,  and  adds  remarks  on  the 
floral  structure  of  this  and  the  other  species  of  the  genus.  He  also 
discusses  their  phylogeny. 

Malformations  of  the  Flower  of  Orchids.  +  —  Gustav  Stenzel,  of 
Breslau,  gives  a  detailed  and  classified  description  of  the  abnormalities 
which  he  himself  has  noticed  and  which  have  been  recorded  by  other 
workers,  in  endemic  species  of  orchids.  In  an  introductory  chapter  he 
discusses  the  value,  from  a  general  morphological  point  of  view,  of  the 
phenomena  presented  by  teratology.  He  regards  them  as  a  useful  aid 
to  the  solution  of  problems  in  morphology.  He  then  reviews  the  cases, 
noted  by  himself  and  others,  of  abnormal  female  cones  in  Abietinese,  by 
study  of  which  Alexander  Braun  was  led  to  suggest  the  view  now 
generally  accepted  of  the  morphology  of  the  ovule-bearing  structures. 

In  the  case  of  orchids  only  those  cases  are  included  which  were  found 
on  plants  growing  under  natural  conditions.  The  majority  are  tho 
result  of  an  alteration  in  the  number  of  the  parts  of  the  flower;  a 
smaller  division  contains  those  caused  by  replacement  of  an  organ  by 
one  of  a  different  character,  such  as  lip  by  normal  petal,  or  lateral  petals 
by  lip-like  structures,  in  fact,  mainly  cases  of  peloria.  The  observations 
afford  an  excellent  example  of  teratological  variety  in  one  type  of  flower, 
but  do  not  throw  any  new  light  on  its  morphology. 

North  American  Carices.ij: — Theo.  Holm  contributes  another  article 
to  his  series,  entitled  Studies  in  the  Cyperacese.  He  discusses  the  small 
section  Physocephalre  of  L.  H.  Bailey,  to  which  a  few  species  with  an 
inflated  utricle  have  been  referred.  As  a  result  of  a  morphological  and 
anatomical  examination  of  the  species  he  concludes  that  the  section  is 
an  unnatural  one  and  cannot  stand.  The  well-marked  Gar  ex  Fraseri 
he  places  in  a  new  section  of  its  own  which  he  calls  Leucocephalaj. 

Tertiary  Plants  from  the  Himmelsberg.§— H.  Engelhardt  gives  a 
descriptive  list  of  fossil  plants  from  this  locality  in  central  Germany. 
He  enumerates  more  than  one  hundred  species  belonging  to  46  families 
and  69  genera  ;  they  include  four  new  leaf-fungi.  The  flora  of  the 
Himmelsberg,  like  other  tertiary  European  floras,  contains  a  large  pro- 
portion of  plant-types  which  are  not  included  in  the  recent  flora.  In 
the  present  case,  American  types  are  most  strongly  represented,  being 
twice  as  many  as  the  Asiatic,  three  times  as  many  as  the  European,  and 
seven  times  as  many  as  the  Australian  and  African. 

Botany  of  Tasmania.||  —  L.  Eodway  gives  a  short  general  review  of 
the  botany  (flowering  plants  and  ferns)  of  Tasmania,  and  also  f  records 
a  few  additions  to  the  flora  of  the  island. 

*  Nuovo  Giorn.  Botan.  Itai,  nuov.  ser.  ix.  (1902)  pp.  173-89. 

t  Bibliotheca  Botanica,  Heft  55  (19<>2)  pp.  136  (6  pis.). 

t  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  ser.  4,  xiv.  (1902)  pp.  57-63  (1  piA 

$  Abhandl.  Senckenb.  Natu.f.  Geaell.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  251-306  («';!?•)■ 

||   Papers  and  Proc.  Boy.  Soc.  Tasmania,  1900-1901  (1902)  pp.  85&W-9. 

f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  107-8. 


578  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

(Ecological  Sketch  of  the  Flora  of  Santo  Domingo.*  —  J.  W. 
Harshberger  gives  a  short  account  of  the  topography,  climate,  and 
vegetation  of  this  island  which  he  describes  as  the  geographic  centre  of 
the  Greater  Antilles.  The  vegetation  is  rich  and  most  luxuriant,  and  the 
writer  describes  its  characteristic  features  under  cecological  headings  :  — 
Hydrophytes,  mesopbytes,  forest  vegetation,  savanna  vegetation,  epi- 
phytes, parasites,  and  xerophytes.  On  the  slopes  of  the  higher  mountains 
inland  the  native  flora  has  been  undisturbed. 

CRYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 

"Analytical  Key  for  the  Ferns  of  the  North-eastern  States,  based 
on  the  Stipes.t — C.  E.  Waters  has  revised  and  enlarged  his  previously 
published  key,  which  is  designed  as  an  aid  to  identifying  ferns  when  they 
cannot  be  obtained  in  fruit.  It  includes  59  species  which  are  arranged 
primarily  according  to  the  number  of  the  bundles  in  the  leaf-stalk,  and 
secondarily  according  to  the  shape,  regular  or  irregular  arrangement,  and 
relative  size  of  the  bundles.  A  description  of  the  leaf  is  also  given  under 
each  species. 

Filmy  Ferns  of  South  America.!— E.  G.  Britton  discusses  the  so- 
called  Trichomanes  radicans  of  the  southern  United  States,  and  is  of 
opinion  that  the  plant  is  quite  distinct  from  that  species  and  should  be 
called  T.  Boschianum  Sturm.  She  claims  that  the  Linnsean  type  of 
T.  radicans  requires  re-examination,  and  that  its  synonymy  ought  to  be 
revised ;  that  the  type  of  T.  scandens  ought  also  to  be  re-studied  ;  and 
finally  that  diligent  search  should  be  made  in  Florida  for  T.  Petersii, 
the  specimens  of  which  are  lost  and  its  locality  doubtful. 

New  Species  of  Selaginella.  §  —  G.  Hieronymus  makes  a  second 
contribution  to  his  descriptions  of  new  or  insufficiently  known  species 
of  Selaginella,  the  names  of  most  of  which  he  has  already  published  in 
Engler  and  Prantl's  Pflanzenfamilien.  In  the  present  paper  he  confines 
himself  to  the  subgenus  Heteropliyllum,  describing  20  species  and  adding 
critical  remarks. 

Bryophyta. 

Forcible  Discharge  of  Antherozoids  in  Asterella  californica.|| — 
G.  J.  Pierce  describes  the  forcible  ejection  of  the  antherozoids  in  this 
liverwort,  better  known  as  Fimbriaria  californica.  The  antherozoids 
are  discharged  while  enclosed  in  mucilage,  the  main  mass  of  which 
breaks  up  during  its  flight  into  smaller  masses,  so  that  finally  the  male 
cells  fall  to  the  ground  in  little  groups,  the  enveloping  mucilage  then 
dissolves  in  the  dew  or  rain,  thus  liberating  the  antherozoids  which  are 
then  free  to  swim  off.  The  mechanism  of  ejection  consists  of  two  parts : 
(1)  the  water-absorbing  matrix  consisting  of  gelatinised  mother-cells 
and  thin  walls,  in  which   the  antherozoids  lie,  and  which  distends  the 

*  Proc.  Acad.  Nat,  Sci.  Philadelph.,  liii.  (1902)  pp.  554-61. 

t  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circular,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  83-5. 

%  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  475-7. 

§  Hedwigia,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  170-202. 

||   Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  374-82  (6  figs,  in  text). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  579 

ripe  antberidium ;  and  (2)  tbe  thin-walled  and  large-celled  water- 
absorbing  tissue  composing  tbe  cusbion  on  tbe  tballus,  in  chambers  of 
which  the  antheridia  develop.  The  expansions  of  the  tissue  aud  the 
mucilage  as  they  absorb  water  tend  respectively  to  decrease  and  increase 
the  size  of  the  antberidial  chambers.  As  tbe  chambers  are  open  above 
the  distending  and  compressing  strains  result  in  the  rupturo  of  the 
antberidium  and  the  discbarge  of  its  contents  through  tbe  mouth  of  the 
chamber. 

Red-coloured  Hepatics.* — A.  Casares  Gil  records  a  few  observations 
as  to  the  reddish  coloratiou  of  certain  hepatics.  He  inclines  to  tbe 
opinion  that  its  purpose  is  not  to  absorb  a  greater  amount  of  light  or 
heat  but  to  act  as  a  shield  to  regulate  the  intensity  of  the  more  re- 
frangible rays  that  penetrate  tbe  plant.  Some  frondose  hepatics  such 
as  Targionia  hypophylla  and  Grimaldia  didiotoma  are  deeply  coloured 
on  the  under  surface  and  grow  in  dry  sunny  spots.  In  the  early  morning 
they  remain  expanded  while  tbe  dew  is  on  them,  and  then  fold  in  their 
coloured  margins  so  as  to  cover  and  protect  the  green  upper  surface. 
In  Beboulia  hemisphserica  the  distribution  and  depth  of  the  red  colour 
of  the  lower  surface  is  projjortional  to  the  intensity  of  light  which  the 
plant  has  to  live  in.  Tbe  red  antheridia  of  some  genera  and  the  reddisb- 
violet  root-hairs  of  others  have  yet  to  be  explained. 

Genus  Thamnium.f  —  N.  C.  Kindberg  begins  a  monograph  of  tbe 
genus  Thamnium,  as  emended  by  himself,  importing  into  it  tbe  whole 
of  Porotrichum  and  a  large  number  of  species  from  various  other  genera. 
In  all,  he  includes  96  species  and  treats  of  20  in  the  present  contribu- 
tion. Many  so-called  species  he  reduces  to  mere  synonyms.  In  the 
introduction  he  supplies  lists  of  characteristics  which  he  finds  to  be,  or 
not  to  be,  trustworthy  for  discriminating  the  species.  He  also  adds  a 
bibliography.  He  divides  tbe  genus  into  Eu-Thamnium,  Porotrichum, 
Camptolepns,  and  Lembophyllum ;  and  subdivides  the  first  three  of  these 
sections  into  Leiophylla  and  TrachyphyUa  ;  and  by  further  manipula- 
tions he  reduces  the  ultimate  groups  of  species  to  conveniently  small 
dimensions. 

French  Muscinese.— E.  Levier  J  describes  Biccia  Crozalsii,  a  new 
species  belonging  to  the  ciliate  section  of  tbe  genus  ;  and  shows  how  it 
may  be  readily  distinguished  from  its  allies.  It  was  found  in  tbe  south 
of  France  near  Montpellier,  by  A.  Crozals,  who  has  also  discovered 
fertile  plants  of  three  other  species,— B.  macrocarpa  Levier,  B.  papillosa 
Moris,  and  B.  Gougetiana  Mont.— which  are  additions  to  the  French 
flora. 

G.  Dismier  §  publishes  a  note  on  some  mosses  and  hepatics  new  to 
the  French  Ardennes,  or  at  least  rare,  whicli  be  gathered  during  a  trip 
in  that  district  last  Whitsuntide.  To  his  surprise  he  found  the  exclu- 
sively calcicolous  moss  Eucladium  verticillatum  growing  on  a  slaty 
rock,  and  supposes  it  to  have  derived  sufficient  carbonate  of  lime  for  its 
-existence  from  the  water  percolating  down  from  some  houses  situated 
overhead. 

*  Bolet.  Soc.  Espafl.  Hist.  Nat ,  ii.  (1902)  pp.  2 17-220. 
t  Hedwigia,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  203-24. 
t  Rev.  Bryolog,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  73-6  (figs,  in  text). 
§  Tom.  cit..  pp.  89-90. 


580  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

The  same  author  *  records  the  discovery  of  Ccphalozia  catenulata  at 
Cherbourg  by  A.  Martin,  the  chief  interest  being  that  this  hepatic, 
which  is  very  rare  in  France  and  had  been  found  only  in  high  mountain 
forests  in  the  Vosges,  Jura,  Pyrenees,  and  Auvergne,  gains  at  Cherbourg 
a  connecting  link  with  the  distribution  of  the  species  in  the  British 
Isles,  where  it  occurs  as  far  south  as  Tunbridge  Wells.  The  author 
draws  up  in  tabular  form  the  characters  by  which  the  species  is  dis- 
tinguished from  its  two  nearest  allies,  C.  lunulsefolia  and  C.  connivens. 

Mosses  of  Central  Europe.f — W.  Migula  publishes  part  v.  of  his 
Kryptogamen-Flora,  a  continuation  of  Thome's  Flora  von  Deutschland, 
Osterreich  und  der  Schweiz.  Each  part  contains  thirty- two  pages  of 
test  and  six  plates  of  figures,  in  black  and  white  and  in  colours.  Key 
to  the  species,  &c.  are  provided,  and  the  descriptions  are  sufficiently 
short.  The  present  part  deals  with  the  Grimmiaceae  and  Orthotrichaceae. 
The  work  is  in  German  and  the  instalments  appear  at  intervals  of  about 
one  month. 

Bohemian  Species  of  Bryum.J —  J.  Podpera  writes  on  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  and  natural  grouping  of  the  species  of  the  genus 
Bryum  which  occur  in  Bohemia,  adding  critical  remarks  on  the  com- 
parative distribution  and  development  of  the  same  groups  throughout 
the  whole  of  Europe.  The  two  great  subgenera,  Cladodium  and  Eu- 
hryum,  are  mainly  northern  and  southern  in  their  distribution,  attaining 
their  greatest  variability  in  the  Baltic  and  Mediterranean  regions  re- 
spectively. Nearly  four-fifths  of  the  species  of  Cladodium  (50  in 
number)  are  exclusively  northern,  and  nine  are  confined  to  the  Alps. 
Only  five  are  found  in  Bohemia.  On  the  other  hand  Eubryum  is  richly 
represented  in  Bohemia.  Nearly  72  of  its  species  occur  in  Europe, 
and  half  of  these  reach  their  highest  development  in  the  Mediterranean 
region,  while  only  twelve  are  purely  northern.  The  author  groups  the 
species  in  a  synoptical  table  according  to  their  natural  affinities,  adds 
an  artificial  key,  and  deals  with  the  individual  species  in  detail,  dis- 
cussing their  variability  and  distribution. 

Mosses  of  Madagascar. §  —  E.  G.  Paris  publishes  a  third  contribu- 
tion to  the  moss-flora  of  Madagascar  in  collaboration  with  Renauld  and 
Cardot.  The  list  contains  35  mosses,  including  13  new  species  and 
4  new  varieties  ;  also  five  hepatics,  three  of  which  are  new,  determined 
by  Stephani.  The  plants  were  gathered  in  the  following  districts, — 
Sakalave,  Ankazobe,  Betafo,  and  Moramanga.     Critical  notes  are  added. 

Australian  Mosses.  || — K.  Midler's  third  and  last  posthumous  con- 
tribution to  the  biology  of  Australasia  consists  of  39  descriptions  of 
new  species,  gathered  for  the  most  part  in  Victoria  and  New  Zealand, 
and  for  the  rest  in  Tasmania,  New  South  Wales,  Queensland,  and  New 
Guinea,  by  various  collectors. 

Bryological  Notes.^I — E.  S.  Salmon  continues  his  bryological  notes, 
his  chief  point  being  that  the  Burmese  genus  Thiemea  cannot  be  main- 

*  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  86-8. 

t  Thome's  Flora  von  Deutschland,  [v.  Lfg.  5  (July  1902)  Gera,  Keuss  j.  L. 
(F.  von  Zezschwitz).  J  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xii.  (1902)  pp.  1-33. 

§  Rev.  Bryolot?.,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  76-86. 
||  Hedwigia,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  119-34. 
f  Jouru.  Eot.,  xl.  (1902)  pp.  273-9  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  581 

tained  as  distinct,  but  must  be  merged  in  Wilsoniella,  its  one  species 
becoming  W.  Hampeana.  The  genus  Wilsoniella  he  thinks  should  be 
removed  from  the  Bryaceas  into  the  Dicranaceaj  or  Tortulacese.  For  the 
rest,  he  shows  that  a  var.  Maclellandii  can  be  separated  from  the  type 
of  Syrrhopodon  Gardneri;  and  re-describes  the  little-known  Indian  moss 
Pogonatum  nudiusculnm. 

British  and  Irish  Mosses. — G.  B.  Savery*  gives  a  list  of  144  mosses 
collected  near  Pool,  in  the  Wharf e  Valley,  &c,  on  the  Millstone  Grit 
in  a  district  polluted  by  smoke. 

T.  Barker  f  states  his  reasons  for  believing  that  Hypnum  Sendtneri 
Schimp.  and  Trichostornum  inclinatum  Dixon  have  been  wrongly  recorded 
as  occurring  in  Derbyshire.  He  also  calls  attention  to  Correns's  studies 
of  the  variability  of  the  bulbils  of  Webera  annotina,  which  led  Correns  to 
distinguish  four  forms  of  the  plant.  All  four  forms  occur  near  Whaley 
Bridge ;  and  Prof.  Barker  calls  upon  bryologists  to  search  for  them  in 
other  parts  of  the  country. 

E.  Armitage  J  supplies  a  list  of  mosses  gathered  in  Co.  Limerick  in 
July  and  August  1901. 

H.  W.  Lett  §  claims  Dicranella  curvata  Schimp.  and  Hypnum  um- 
bratum  Ehrh.,  found  in  Co.  Mayo,  as  new  to  Ireland. 

Algse. 

Plankton.||  —  P.  T.  Cleve  publishes  the  result  of  his  examination  of 
various  collections  from  the  Indian  Ocean  and  Malay  Archipelago. 
Except  the  Malay  specimens  all  the  organisms  were  collected  in  winter. 
Silicoflagellata  are  represented  by  2  species,  Chlorophycese  by  1,  Cyano- 
phycese  by  2,  Muracytse  and  Cysta3  by  6,  Peridiniales  by  64,  and  Diato- 
maceje  by  121.  Among  the  "  systematic  notes  "  which  follow,  are  de- 
scriptions of  new  species  of  plaukton  : — Chsetoceras  Aurivillii,  C.  calvus, 
Fragilaria  Aurivillii,  Streptotheca  maxima,  Thalassiosira  Aurivillii ;  from 
the  coast  collections  Fragilaria  (?)  rhombica,  Licmophora  Aurivillii,  and 
Sceptroneis  Aurivillii. 

The  same  author  %  also  publishes  some  notes  on  Atlantic  plankton 
organisms,  based  on  collections  received  after  his  former  work  had  gone 
to  press.  Amoug  Peridiniales,  a  new  species  is  described  Dinophysis 
intermedia  ;  Peridinium  spinulosum  Murr.  et  Whitt.  is  shown  to  beProto- 
ceratium  reticulatum  Schutt,  and  Protoceratium  reliculatum  (Clap,  and 
Lach.  =  P.  aceros  Bergh)  is  a  distinct  and  more  northern  form. 

The  report  **  on  the  plankton  of  the  North  Sea  and  Skagerak  in  1900 
by  the  same  author  has  also  appeared.  The  occurrence  of  certain  forms 
at  certain  seasons  and  the  variation  in  distribution  both  as  to  form  and 
abundance  are  dealt  with.  The  specimens  were  collected  at  two  stations 
on  the  west  coast  of  Sweden,  in  the  North  Sea  by  various  steamers,  in 
the  Skagerak  by  steamer,  and  in  the  Shetlands. 

*  The  Naturalist,  1902,  pp.  229-34.  t  Tom.  cit,  pp.  234-6. 

t  Journ.  Bot..  xl.  (1902)  pp.  226-8.  §  Irish  Naturalist,  xi.  (1902)  p.  119. 

||  Handl.  K.  Svensk.  Vet.-Akad.,  xxxv.  (1902)  No.  5,  58  pp.  (8  pis.).  See  Bot. 
Centralbl..  lxxxix.  (1902)  p.  685. 

If  Gothenburg,  1902,  51  pp.     See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  torn,  cit.,  p.  68b. 
**  Handl.  K.  Svensk.  Vet.-Akad.,  torn,  cit.,  No.  7,  4'.'  pp.     See  But.  Centralbl., 
torn,  cit.,  p.  715. 


582  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

(Edogonium.* — F.  E.  Fritsch  describes  the  germination  of  the  zoo- 
spores in  0.  capillure  Kiitz.,  and  his  observations  do  not  altogether 
agree  with  those  of  Kiitzing  or  of  Poulsen.  He  finds  that  the  first  can 
is  not  thrown  off  in  O.eajjillare,  nor  in  other  undetermined  species  which 
he  has  examined. 

Ida  A.  Keller  t  describes  and  figures  a  peculiar  condition  of  a  species 
of  CEdogonium,  which  was  kept  in  a  jar  of  water  at  a  window  from  autumn 
to  early  summer.  The  alga,  which  at  first  was  green  and  luxuriant,  was 
found  in  May  to  have  lost  its  chlorophyll,  and  many  of  the  cells  were 
closely  packed  with  starch  ;  the  plants  were,  however,  perfectly  healthy 
and  had  remained  rooted  to  pieces  of  rock.  Since  no  oogonia  had  been 
formed  duriDg  the  previous  autumn,  it  is  probable  that  the  food-material 
stored  up  for  their  formation  had  remained  in  the  cells  in  the  form  of 
starch. 

Characeae  from  Co.  Monaghan.J  —  G.  E.  Bullock- Webster  describes 
his  researches  among  the  numerous  pools  and  lakes  of  Co.  Monaghan  in 
August  1901.  His  most  interesting  finds  were  the  following  (both  new 
to  Ireland) :  Nitella  mucronata  Kuetz.  in  plenty  near  Carrickmacross, 
and  N.  flexilis  var.  nidifica  Wallm.  in  Co.  Cavan.  He  points  out  the 
similarity  of  the  black  'peat  and  shell-marl  in  Ireland  with  those  found 
in  the  fens  of  Cambridgeshire,  and  quotes  a  theory  that  this  shell-marl 
may  be  due  largely  to  the  decay  of  Characeae. 

Observations  on  Pterygophora  californica.§  —  Conway  McMillan 
describes  this  alga  as  being  larger  than  has  hitherto  been  supposed  and 
attaining  a  length  of  10  ft.  with  trunks  of  3  in.  in  diameter.  He  places 
it,  as  regards  systematic  position,  between  Laminariese  and  Alariideae. 
The  holdfasts  show  distinct  rings  of  growth  due  to  differences  in  the 
cell-contents,  produced  by  the  varying  amount  of  polysaccharids,  allied 
to  mucine.  Eings  of  growth  are  also  visible  in  the  stipe,  produced  in 
some  cases  by  the  same  condition  as  that  described  for  the  holdfast,  ami 
in  others  by  the  larger  or  smaller  lamina  of  the  cells.  Polysaccharid 
idioblasts  are  abundant  in  the  cortex  of  the  lamina,  and  these  often 
become  exhausted  during  the  formation  of  sori.  The  son,  which  are 
here  described  for  the  first  time,  are  formed  in  December  in  irregular 
patches  towards  the  base  of  the  pinnae  ;  the  paraphyses  resemble  those  of 
Lessonia  in  the  disposition  of  the  cuticular  caps. 

Recent  Publications  on  Diatoms.||  —  P.  T.  Cleve  makes  critical 
remarks  upon  Karsten's  Die  Diatomen  der  Kieler  Bucht  (1899)  ami 
corrects  some  of  the  specific  determinations,  while  C.  Mereschkowsky 
criticises  the  information  about  the  cell-contents.  Cleve  also  corrects 
several  of  the  species  names  in  Mereschkowsky's  Etudes  sur  VEndo- 
chrome  des  Diatomees  (1901)  ;  Heid en-Rostock's  Ih'rt*o?zieen  des  Converter 
Sees  bei  Doberan  (1900)  ;  Schiitt:s  Certrifugale  und  simultane  Membran- 
verdickungen  (1900);  Schroder's  Das  Phytoplankton  des  Golfes  von 
Neapel. 

*  Aim.  Bot.,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  412-7  (fig.  in  text).  _ 

+  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  liii.  (1901)  pp.  598-601  (figs,  in  text). 

%  Irish  Naturalist,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  141-6. 

§  Minnesota  Bot.  Stud.,  ser.  ii.  xli.  (1902)  pp.  723-41  (G  pis.). 

||    Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  x.  (1902)  pp.  27-3S. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  583 

S.  C.  Stow  *  supplies  a  list  of  twenty-one  diatoms  collected  at  Clee 
in  March  1902. 

F.  E.  Burbury  t  gives  a  list  of  ninety-one  species  of  diatoms  found 
in  Tasmania,  including  Eunotia  transylvanica,  Hyalosira  lohampoensis, 
and  Nitschia  Clevei. 

Development  of  Tetrasporangium  in  Florideas-I  —  F.  Heydrich 
continues  his  observations  on  this  subject  and  draws  an  analogy  between 
the  development  of  the  tetrasporangium  and  the  fertilised  carpogonium. 
In  the  case  of  the  carpogonium  the  sporogeuous  euergid  penetrates 
into  the  auxiliary  cell,  and  drives  the  nucleus  of  that  cell  into  a  remote 
corner,  where  it  perishes.  As  the  result  of  this  usurpation,  the  produc- 
tion of  carpospores  becomes  possible. 

Heydrich  here  describes  a  similar  process  in  the  tetrasporangium  of 
Polysiphonia  variegata.  Two  cells  are  given  off  from  a  pericentral  cell, 
the  lower  one  being  designated  the  stalk-cell  or  karyoplastic-cell,  the 
upper  one  the  protospore-cell.  The  karyoplastic-cell  puts  forth  a  small 
tube  towards  the  protospore-cell,  and  as  soon  as  a  connection  is  estab- 
lished between  them,  the  nucleus  of  the  lower  cell  divides  into  two  and 
the  upper  one  of  the  daughter  nuclei  passes  into  the  protospore-cell. 
The  nucleus  of  the  protospore-cell  retires  upwards  and  eventually 
perishes,  and  the  protospore-cell  becomes  the  tetrasporangium  mot'.ier- 
cell.     The  analogy  between  the  two  processes  is  obvious. 

The  author  describes  the  development  of  the  tetrasporangium  in 
Fauchea  repens,  Callithamnion,  Ceramoihamnion,  Hypnea,  Dudresnaya, 
and  others. 

Structure  and  Development  of  the  DesmarestifB.§  —  Although  so 
much  attention  has  been  given  to  Desmarestia  aculeata,  there  yet  re- 
mained certain  points  of  interest  in  the  genus  to  be  worked  out,  and  this 
has  been  done  by  B.  Jonsson.  He  has  watched  the  different  stages  of 
growth  in  D.  aculeata  and  their  duration,  and  gives  an  account  of  the 
manner  of  development  of  the  branches.  The  differentiation  of  the  tissue 
and  the  formation  of  secondary  "  central  cylinders  "  is  described,  and 
the  functions  of  the  various  tissues  are  deduced  from  tlie  cell-structure. 
The  other  species  of  Desmarestia  are  dealt  with  shortly,  the  principal 
work  having  been  done  on  D.  aculeata. 

The  Rhodomelace8e.||— K.  Falkenberg  gives  in  this  quarto  book  uf 
svi.  and  754  pages  the  results  of  many  years  of  study  on  this  group  nf 
Florideaj.  It  is  published  as  one  of  the  monographs  of  the  Zoological 
Station  at  Naples,  and  though  the  species  found  in  that  region  are  treated 
with  special  detail,  the  work  embraces  the  whole  Order.  The  anatomical 
development  of  the  thallus,  the  morphology  of  the_  vegetative  organs 
and  the  reproductive  organs  are  treated  at  length  in  a  section  of  1C9 
pages.  In  the  special  part,  consisting  of  588  pages,  detailed  studies 
of  many  species  are  given.     Then  follows  '  Systematic  Results,'  dealing 

*  The  Naturalist,  London,  July  1902,  p.  236. 
t  Papers  and  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Tasmania,  1902,  pp.  4-8. 
I  Bibliotheca  BotamYa,  Heft  57  (1902)  pp.  1-9  (1  pi.). 
§  Kon-1.  Fysio-iaf.  Siillskap.  Handling.,  Bd.  12,  No.  G,  pp.  1-42  (3  pis.). 
|   Flora  und  Flora  (ies  GolfeB  von  Neapel.     26.   Die  Rhodomelaoeen.     Berlin, 
1901.  xvi.  and  754  pp.,  24  pis.     Sec  also  Amer.  Naturalist,  xxxvi.  (1902). 


584  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

with  the  relationship  between  Rhodonielacese  and  other  Orders,  and  con- 
taining a  synoptical  view  of  the  genera,  as  well  as  notes  on  many  points 
of  interest.  The  general  outline  of  the  systematic  treatment  is  the 
same  as  that  in  Eugler  and  Prantl's  Natiirlichen  Pflanzenfamili en,  which 
was  drawn  up  by  Falkenberg,  but  in  this  work  we  have  the  details  of 
the  system  which  till  now  has  been  only  treated  generally.  The  new 
genera  are  founded  as  the  result  of  definite  views  regarding  the  im- 
portance of  certain  characters  throughout  the  Order,  occurring  mainly 
in  the  vegetative  parts  of  the  thallus.  Since  the  classification  of  the 
present  work  is  based  more  on  developmental  characters  than  on  mature 
structure,  it  differs  considerably  from  the  Agardhian  classification,  and 
is  at  variance  with  the  conclusions  of  various  other  authors. 

Corallinae  from  Port  Renfrew,  Vancouver.*  —  A  critical  list  by 
K.  Yendo,  of  nine  species  of  Amphiroa,  Cheilosporum,  and  Corallina, 
with  a  synoptical  key.  Amphiroa  tasmanica  Sond.  is  reduced  to  a  form 
of  A.  cretacea  Endl. ;  the  diagnosis  of  Amphiroa  californica  Decne  is 
considerably  amplified  and  the  species  transferred  to  Cheilosporum  ;. 
Corallina  frondescens  Post,  et  Kupr.  is  also  transferred  to  Cheilosporum, 
and  three  new  forms  of  it  are  described.  Amplified  diagnoses  are  also 
given  of  Corallina  planiuscula  Kiitz.  and  C.  officinalis  var.  chilensis 
Kiitz.,  the  former  species  being  transferred  to  Cheilosporum.  Three 
new  species  are  described,—  Cheilosporum  MacMillani,  Corallina  vancou- 
veriensis  in  two  forms,  and  C.  aculeata.  Details  are  given  concerning 
the  habitat  of  all  these  plants  at  Port  Renfrew,  and  the  whole  paper  is 
fully  illustrated,  in  part  by  photographs. 

Japanese  Corallinae.t— K.  Yendo  publishes  a  critical  list  of  thirty- 
two  species  of  Corallinee  from  the  coasts  of  northern  and  middle  Japan. 
Of  these  twenty  are  new,  consisting  of  eight  species  of  Amphiroa,  three 
of  Cheilosporum,  and  nine  of  Corallina.  Four  new  varieties  are  also  de- 
scribed, two  of  these  being  of  already  existing  species.  They  are  well 
figured  on  seven  plates,  of  which  four  are  reproductions  of  photographs. 

Notes  on  some  Fresh-water  Algae. J — W.  Schmidle  here  publishes 
corrections  of  what  he  considers  errors  of  nomenclature  in  works  of 
Chodat  and  others.  He  also  describes  several  new  species  :  Stipitococcus 
Lauterbornei,  Ashenasyella  chlamydopus  new  genus  and  species,  Cepha- 
leuros  Henningsii,  Schizothrix  guadeloupeana,  and  Oodesmus  Doederleinii 
new  genus  and  species.  Ashenasyella  chlamydopus  had  been  already 
seen  and  figured  by  Hermann,  as  Schmidle  adds  in  a  final  note.  A 
diagnosis  is  given  of  Lemmermann's  genus  Tetrasporopsis,  till  now  a 
nomen  nudum. 

Fresh-water  Alg33  of  Ceylon.§— William  West  and  George  S.  West 
publish  a  list  of  395  fresh-water  algae,  including  49  diatoms,  collected 
in  Ceylon  by  Mr.  Freeman.  Other  species  than  those  recorded  were 
also  observed,  but  the  specimens  were  too  fragmentary  to  identify.  A  new 
genus,  Desmatractum,  is  described,  to  receive  one  species  founded  on  a 
single  specimen.     It  is  most  nearly  allied  to  Bhaphidium  in  the  family 

*  Minnesota  Bot.  Stud.,  ser.  ii.  xl.  (1902)  pp.  711-22  (6  pis.). 

+  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Imp.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xii.  part  2,  article  3  (1902)  38  pp.  (7  pis.). 

%  Hedwigia,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  150-63  (2  figs,  in  text). 

§  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.,  2nd  ser.  (Rot.),  vi.  (1902)  pp.  123-215  (6  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  585 

Palmellacefe.  Including  Desmatractum  plicafum,  the  authors  describe 
€5  now  species  and  a  considerable  number  of  new  varieties  of  already 
existing  species.  A  relatively  large  number  of  the  same  species  occur 
in  Ceylon  and  Madagascar,  and  a  great  resemblance  is  also  found 
between  the  fresh-water  algae  of  Ceylon  and  that  of  North  Queensland. 
Plnjmatodocis  irregulare  Schmidle,  which  has  hitherto  only  been  found 
in  East  Africa,  is  here  recorded  from  Ceylon.  The  paper  is  illustrated 
with  six  quarto  plates,  containing  numerous  figures. 

British  Marine  Algse.* —  E.  A.  L.  Batters  is  publishing  a  list  of 
British  Marine  Algse,  including  the  latest  records  and  the  result  of  his 
own  examination  of  the  national  and  other  herbaria.  He  gives  the  dis- 
tribution of  each  species,  and  a  note  as  to  the  rarity  or  otherwise  of 
their  occurrence.  Only  such  synonymy  is  given  as  is  necessary  for  the 
recognition  of  a  species  or  variety.  Up  to  the  present  time  the  Orders 
Myxophyceae,  Chlorospermeae,  and  part  of  Fucoideae  have  appeared. 

Marine  Flora  of  the  Gulf  of  Naples.f — A.'Mazza  publishes  a  list 
of  99  marine  algae,  collected  at  various  points  in  the  Gulf  of  Naples. 
Critical  notes  are  given  on  many  of  the  species,  and  the  list  shows 
several  additions  to  the  record  of  Falkenberg  and  Berthold. 

Algse  of  the  Verona  District.^— AchilleForti  makes  a  fourth  con- 
tribution to  his  list  of  the  Verona  algae,  including  176  Bacillarieae, 
6  Peridinieae,  16  Flagellata,  and  71  Myxophyceae. 

Algse  of  the  Harriman  Alaska  Expedition^ — De  Alton  Saunders 
publishes  a  list  of  380  species  collected  during  this  expedition,  giving 
the  locality  of  each  species,  and  in  many  cases  critical  notes.  Nine  new 
species  are  described : — Streblonema  minutissima,  S.  pacifica,  S.  irregu- 
laris, Homeostroma  lobata,  Coiiodesme  linearis,  Myelophycus  intestinalis, 
Mesogloia  simplex,  Maria  fragilis,  and  Pleurophycus  Gardneri. 

Mycetozoa  and  Fungi. 

Studies  in  Myxomycetes.il  —  A  descriptive  list  of  species  from 
Brazil  has  been  published  by  E.  Jahn  on  material  collected  by  Alfred 
Moller  during  his  stay  in  Blumenau.  Tropical  forms  had  already  been 
recorded  from  the  Old  World  by  Baciborski,  Penzig  had  described 
species  from  Java,  Lister  from  Antigua  and  Domenica,  and  Macbride 
had  included  the  species  of  Central  America  in  his  North  American 
Slime-moulds.  M oiler's  collections  are  the  first  gatherings  of  Myxo- 
mycetes  from  Brazil.  Jahn  has  distinguished  37  different  species. 
Many  of  them  were  already  known  from  the  tropics  of  Asia  and  from 
North  America.  They  are  either  absent  from  Europe,  or  occur  there 
only  rarely.  Climatic  reasons  scarcely  account  for  such  a  distribution, 
as  they  are  found  far  to  the  north  in  America.  He  considers  that  the 
wide  dissemination  of  species  is  practically  unhindered  over  the  whole 
Western  continents,  while  in  the  Eastern  hemisphere  the  broad  steppes 

*  Journ.  Boi,  xl.  (1902)  Supplement. 

t  Nuova  Notarisia,  ser.  xiii.  (June  -1902)  pp.  125-52. 

X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  97-124. 

§  Proc.  Washington  Acad.  Sci.,  iii.  (1901)  pp.  391-486  (20  pla.). 

II   Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xx.  (1002)  pp.  268-79  (1  pi.). 


586  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

of  Asia  and  Kussia  and  the  Sahara  desert  in  Africa  form  a  natural  and 
efficient  barrier  between  the  warm  countries  and  the  forests  of  Europe. 
The  writer  has  followed  Lister's  Monograph  of  the  Mycetozoa  in  his 
classification.  There  is  one  new  species  recorded,  Didymium  excelsum, 
determined  by  Lister. 

Plasmodiophora  Brassicse.*  —  Feinberg  has  studied  the  origin  of 
"  finger  and  toe,"  the  diseased  outgrowths  on  the  roots  of  members  of 
the  genus  Brassica,  in  order  to  throw  light  on  the  cause  of  tumours  in 
the  animal  kingdom.  In  sections  cut  from  a  diseased  cabbage-root  he 
found  cells  full  of  masses  of  spores,  others  with  the  amcebaa,  and  in  some 
cases  the  plasmodium  developing  into  spores.  The  spores  were  small 
round  bodies,  rather  larger  than  the  nucleoli  of  the  host-cell.  They 
were  surrounded  by  a  doable  membrane.  The  amoebae  presented  a  fine 
protoplasm,  with  a  more  or  less  characteristic  nucleus,  which  was  formed 
of  a  nucleolus  surrounded  by  a  sharp  clear  zone  resembling,  according 
to  v.  Leyden,  the  eye  of  a  bird.  Feinberg  found  these  nuclei  also  in 
malaria  parasites,  and  considers  them  characteristic  of  one-celled  animal 
organisms.  He  did  not  find  the  parasites  nor  the  spores  in  tumours  from 
the  human  body. 

Streptothrix  farcinica.t — Carl  Feistmantel  has  communicated  the 
results  of  his  observations  after  a  long  series  of  experiments  on  the 
staining  properties  of  various  species  of  the  lower  fungi.  He  discusses 
the  causes  that  enable  stained  specimens  to  resist  discoloration  by  acids 
and  alcohol,  and  the  systematic  value  of  this  property.  He  finds  that 
S.  farcinica  occupies  a  position  midway  between  the  Actinomycetes 
(the  Streptotrichaceas)  and  the  fungi  that  resist  decoloration  by  acids. 
He  would,  however,  use  the  term  Streptothrix  for  the  whole  group.  - 

Urophlyctis.  —  In  a  recently  published  paper,  P.  Magnus  gave  a 
sketch  of  the  genus  and  species  of  Urophlyctis.  He  describes  in  the 
present  paper  |  a  disease  causing  galls  on  the  roots  of  lucerne,  ascribed 
by  Lagerheim  to  Cladochytrium  Alfalfse,  but  which  Magnus  considers 
to  belong  also  to  the  genus  Urophlyctis.  The  galls  occur  as  small  ex- 
crescences on  the  main  roots  of  Medicago  saliva.  The  interior  is  divided 
into  irregular  chambers,  which  are  filled  with  the  resting-spores  of  the 
fungus.  The  disease  occurs  only  in  damp  soil,  and  is  fatal  to  lucerne 
plants.  It  was  first  described  by  Lagerheim  from  Ecuador.  It  has  also 
been  found  frequently  in  Alsace,  into  which  country  it  has  been 
imported  from  the  former  region. 

Fr.  Bubak  §  has  discovered  in  Bohemia  Urophlyctis  bohemica,  a  new 
fungus  on  plants  of  Trifolium  montanum.  The  plants  attacked  fail  to 
flower,  and  the  leaves  and  petioles  become  covered  with  yellow  spots  and 
warts  caused  by  the  parasite.  On  the  petioles  the  warts  are  math 
larger  than  on  the  lamina  of  the  leaf,  attaining  a  diameter  of  1  mm. 
The  resting  spores  are  found  in  the  abnormally  large  parenchyma  cells, 
the  walls  of  which  disappear  as  the  fungus  ripens.  As  many  as  200 
re.sting-spores   may   be   contained   in   each    wart.      They  are    convex- 

*  Deutsche  Med.  Wochenschr.,  No.  3  (1902). 
t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  l,e  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  433-44. 
%  Ber.  Deutscli.  Bot.  Ges.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  291-6  (1  pi.). 
§  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  817-21 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  587 

concave,  almost  boat-shaped,  arid  are  of  an  intense  yellow-brown  colour. 
No  other  spore  form  was  found.  The  paper  is  illustrated  by  photo- 
grapbs  of  the  diseased  plants  and  of  a  microscopic  section  through  one 
of  the  warts,  showing  the  resting  spores  in  position. 

Energy  of  Assimilation  in  Fungi.  *  —  T.  Bokorny  finds  that  the 
assimilation  energy  measured  by  the  relative  increase  in  weight  per  unit 
of  time,  is  much  greater  for  moulds  and  yeasts  than  for  green  plants. 
A  mould  nourished  with  glycerol  and  ammonium  sulphate  increased  in 
weight  one  thousand  times  in  tweuty-eight  days.  Yeast  yields  the 
largest  crop  in  presence  of  cane-sugar  when  its  nitrogenous  food  is 
peptone,  asparagine  is  less  favourable,  and  ammonium  sulphate  is  least 
of  all.  Spirogyra  can  assimilate  its  carbon  from  sodium  formaldehyde 
sulphonate  in  absence  of  carbon  dioxide,  starch  being  formed  in  the 
cells ;  0-07  grm.  of  the  dried  alga  gave  about  0*11  grm.  in  5  days. 

Zymase  in  Fungal  Hyphee.j — M.  Maze  has  experimented  with  the 
hyphae  of  Eurotiojms  Gayoni,  in  order  to  decide  the  prt  sence  of  zymase 
in  the  cells  that  are  largely  exposed  to  the  air,  and  to  prove  that  the 
quantity  of  this  substance  in  a  given  weight  of  mycelium  diminishes 
with  the  age  of  the  fungus.  His  method  was,  by  the  employment  of 
ether  and  alcohol,  to  kill  the  mycelium  while  at  the  same  time  he  fixed 
the  diastase.  He  then  pounded  the  mycelium  and  tested  it  in  a  solution 
of  glucose.  He  found  that  aerobic  life  was  necessary  for  the  production 
of  zymase  and  that  it  is  rapidly  destroyed  as  the  filaments  become  old. 

Pleomorphism  and  Chlamydospore  Formation  among  Filamentous 
Fungi. I — 0.  Brefeld  discusses  at  some  length   the  evolution  of   the 
higher  fungi  from  the  [lower.     He  traces  the  development  of  conidia 
and  sporangia,  the  latter  through  the  Hemiasci  to  the  fully  developed 
Ascomycetes,   the  former    to    the    Basidiomycetes.      He  describes  the 
growth  of  a  new  form  of  Chlamydomacor  which  appeared  in  a  culture  of 
Ptychogaster  spores.     After  a  period  of  luxuriant  growth  the  contents 
of  the  filaments  centred  in  definite  small  areas,  which  were  cut  off  by 
cell-walls  from  the  rest  of  the  mycelium.      These  enriched  portions 
acted  as  resting-spores  and  after  a  quiescent  period  of  four  to  six  weeks 
they  produced  sporangiophores  ami   sporangia,  or,  if  they  were   very 
small,  a  new  vegetative  growth.     Brefeld   compares  this  type  of  de- 
velopment with  the  well-known  Mucor  racemosus  and  classes  them  both 
in    Chlamydomucor.     He   claims  also  that  he  finds  an  exactly  similar 
chlamydospore  formation   among  the  higher  fungi.     He  reiterate,   his 
frequently  expressed  opinion  that  sexuality  exists  only  among  the  lower 
al^a-like  fungi,  that  the  higher  are  derived  from  the  non-sexual  conidia 
and  sporangia  of  the  lower  fungi,  and  that  sexuality  is  therefore  not  to 
be  found  in  such.     He  refuses  to  recognise  any  connection  between  them 
and  the  Floridese. 

The  Saprolegnieae.§— M.  V.  Minden  publishes  a  general  account  of 
this  family.  He  compares  them  with  the  nearly  related  groups  of  algae, 
and  notes  the  points  of  resemblance,  as,  for  instance,  between  Mono- 

*  Pfliiger's  Arehiv,  lxxxix.  (1902)  pp.  454-74.     See  also  Journ.  L'hem.   Soc., 
lxxxii.  i:.  p.  345.  t  Oomptes  Bendus,  exxxv.  (1902)  pp.  L13-6. 

%  Jahresber.  Schles.  Ges.,  lxxix.  II.  Abt.,  pp.  4-22. 
§  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2,e  Abt..  viii.  (1902)  pp.  805-10. 


588  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

blepharis  and  CEdotjonium.  A  somewhat  full  description  is  given  of  the 
genus  Bhipidium.  Many  of  the  forms  have  been  found  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Breslau. 

In  a  further  instalment,  *  the  same  author  gives  an  account  of 
Araio&pora,  under  which  genus  Thaxter  has  placed  Bhipidium  spinosum. 
Araiospora  possesses  two  kinds  of  sporangia,  one  simple,  procumbent, 
ovate ;  the  other  strongly  built  and  provided  witli  a  varying  number  of 
stiff  horn-like  processes  round  the  opening,  which  are  spreading,  upright, 
or  bent-back,  and  are  probably  protective  against  different  animals.  The 
oospores  of  Araiospora  have  been  rarely  found,  in  this  respect  differing 
from  Bhipidium  in  whicb  the  sexual  generation  is  easily  cultivated. 
V.  Minden  also  discusses  the  systematic  position  of  Blastocladia.  It  is 
still  imperfectly  known,  as  no  one  has  succeeded  in  finding  the  sexual 
spores.  He  records  a  new  genus  Macrochytrium  with  one  species  botry- 
dioides.  It  has  a  large,  broadly  elliptical  or  globose  sporangium,  in 
which  are  developed  innumerable  uniciliate  spores  resembling  those  of 
Ghytridium.  The  sporangium  opens  by  a  lid  which  remains  attached  as 
by  a  hinge  on  one  side.  The  genus  differs  from  Ghytridium  in  its  abun- 
dant mycelium  and  well-developed  rhizoids.  The  author  places  it  under 
the  "roup  Hypochytriaceas  near  Tetr achy tr turn  triceps.  These  fungi  are 
all  rather  rare,  but  this  is  largely  due  to  oversight  on  the  part  of  fungo- 
logists. 

Sporodinia  grandis.  j — Georg  Klebs  recapitulates  the  work  he  has 
done  on  zygospore  formation  in  Sporodinia  in  answer  to  Falck  and 
Brefeld,  who  have  denied  the  correctness  of  his  statements  as  to  the 
factors  influencing  the  production  of  zygospores.  These  two  writers  lay 
special  stress  on  nutriment  as  the  determining  cause.  Klebs'  contention 
is  that  other  influences  come  into  play  such  as  atmosphere  (the  amount 
of  moisture  and  of  oxygen),  quality  and  quantity  of  nutriment,  light 
and  temperature.  The  presence  of  moisture  in  the  air  and  the  absence 
of  light  were  found  by  him  to  be  very  powerful  agents  in  inducing  the 
formation  of  zygospores.  He  made  a  new  series  of  experiments,  the 
results  of  which  he  gives  in  two  tables.  A  number  of  cultures  of 
the  fungus  were  started  in  a  mixture  of  grape-sugar  and  gelatin.  Some 
of  these  were  grown  in  a  dry  atmosphere,  exposed  to  a  clear  northern 
light,  and  produced  only  sporangia ;  others  were  kept  in  a  moist  cham- 
ber in  the  dark  and  zygospores  alone  were  formed.  The  whole  matter 
is  discussed  at  length,  and  further  proofs  are  given  by  Klebs  in  support 
of  his  theories. 

Mucor  as  an  Alcohol  Yeast.J — W.  Winkler  discusses  the  opinions 
of  various  f  ungologists  as  to  the  autonomy  of  the  yeast  fungus,  Saccharo- 
myces.  Pasteur's  idea  that  alcohol  yeast  was  a  form  of  some  Hypho- 
mycete  has,  he  thinks,  much  to  recommend  it.  He  himself  has  proved 
the  connection  between  Torula  and  one  form  of  Saccharomyces.  In 
order  to  throw  more  light  on  the  question  he  cultivated  several  typical 
yeasts  in  various  media,  to  induce,  if  possible,  an  advance  in  growth  or 
a  reversion  to  some  other  form.     At  the  same  time  he  selected  several 

*  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  821-5. 

t  But.  Zeit.,  lx.  (1902)  pp.  177-99. 

%  Centralbl.  Bakt,  2te  Abt.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  721  S  and  753-00  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  589 

•species  of  Mucor  which  he  cultivated  with  a  view  to  their  ultimately 
forming  yeasts.  The  first  of  these  methods  has  given  as  yet  no  certain 
results.  With  the  cultivation  of  Mucor  he  has  been  moro  successful. 
By  growing  the  fungus  in  successive  liquid  cultures  he  produced  an 
Oidiurn  from  the  hyphae,  and  from  the  Oidium  he  obtained  yeast-cells 
which  grew  plentifully,  and  induced  considerable  fermentation.  Winkler 
found  that  a  solution  containing  honey  was  best  adapted  for  the  final 
growth  of  the  yeast-cells.  Ho  did  not,  however,  succeed  with  all  the 
species  of  Mucor  that  he  experimented  with.  He  concludes  with  a  com- 
parison of  the  3Iucor-oidium  spores  and  the  resting  spores  of  yeast, 
whicli  he  considers  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  each  other. 

Actinomucor  repens.*  —  Wl.  Schostakowitsck  has  discovered  and 
described  this  new  fungus,  a  genus  of  the  Mucoracese.  It  is  charac- 
terised by  "  runners,"  which  resemble  somewhat  those  of  Bhizopus  and 
Alsidia,  but  it  differs  from  these  genera  in  the  formation  of  the  columella 
and  sporangiophore.  At  the  end  of  the  runners  there  rise  groups  of 
sporangiophores ;  these  branch  usually  twice  in  a  verticillate  manner, 
each  branchlet  terminating  in  a  sporangium.  In  addition  there  are 
formed  occasionally  sporangiophores  on  the  "  runners,"  which  are  single, 
or  terminate  in  a  crown  of  short  branches.  The  sporangia  terminating 
the  main  branches  are  larger  than  the  others ;  the  columella  is-  conical, 
that  of  the  smaller  sporangia  is  almost  round.  The  spores  are  globose, 
about  7  fL  in  diameter.  They  are  colourless,  but  appear  black  in  the 
mass.  The  fungus  was  found  on  pigeon's  dung.  Its  form  varies  some- 
what on  different  substrata. 

Clasterosporium  carpophilum  (Lev.)  Aderh.  t  —  R.  Aderhold 
publishes  the  results  of  his  studies  and  researches  on  the  fungi  that 
cause  gummosis  of  trees  with  stone-fruit.  He  finds  that  the  various 
species  of  Clasterosporium  found  on  these  trees  are  identical.  Cultures 
were  made  of  the  fungus,  and  every  means  tried  to  find  some  higher 
form  of  development,  but  in  vain.  The  parasite  evidently  passes  the 
winter  in  the  wounds  caused  by  gummosis,  and  on  the  young^twigs. 
The  writer  considers  it  to  be  identical  with  Coryneum  Beijerinclcii.  He 
discusses  the  probability  of  Clasterosporium  being  the  cause  of  gummosis. 
The  malady  was  always  induced  by  infection  with  the  spores  of  the 
fungus,  though  other  causes  might  also  be  at  work.  After  infection  the 
cambium-cells  were  excited  to  abnormal  growth.  Aderhold  concludes 
that  the  fungus  secretes  a  ferment  which  acts  on  the  cells  of  the  host- 
plant,  thereby  inducing  unnatural  activity.  The  fungus  was  rarely 
found  in  the  swollen  tissue  or  in  the  cambium. 

Erysiphe  Grraminis.t — Em.  Marchal  gives  the  results  of  his  experi- 
ments on  the  spores  of  this  fungus.  He  desired  to  find  out  if  the 
spores  collected  from  one  host  would  infect  indiscriminately  any  of  the 
other  plants  on  which  that  species  is  recorded.  He  selected  plants  of 
wheat,  and  on  these  he  planted  Oidium  spores  of  E.  graminis,  taken 
respectively  from  plants  of  wheat,  barley,  rye,  and  oats.     The  first  only 

*  Zeitschr.  angew.  Mikr.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  35-8. 

t  Arb.  ;ms  der  biolog.  Abt.  fur  Land-u.  Forstwirtlisch.  am  Kaiserl.  Gcsundbeits., 
ii.  (1902)  p.  515  (2  pis.).     See  also  Bot.  ZeiU  lx.  (1902)  p.  2 
%  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxv.  (1902)  pp.  210-2. 

October  loth,  1902  2  R 


590  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

of  the  series  was  successful,  those  collected  from  wheat  and  transferred 
to  other  wheat  plants.  The  others  gave  only  negative  results.  He 
made  a  further  series  of  experiments  with  wild  grasses.  He  took  the 
Oidium  spores  from  barley  and  infected  a  large  series  of  pasture  and 
other  grasses.  The  spores  grew  on  the  species  of  wild  barley,  but 
failed  entirely  on  all  the  other  genera  selected.  There  is  no  morpho- 
logical difference  in  Eryxiplie  graminis  from  these  different  hosts,  but  he 
concludes  that  there  are  distinct  physiological  or  biological  races  evolved 
within  the  genus  by  gradual  sj:>ecialisation  on  the  various  hosts.  He 
hopes  in  future  to  make  further  experiments  with  the  ascospores. 

Parasitism  of  Botrytis  cinerea.* — Ealph  E.  Smith  gives  an  account 
of  this  fuugus,  usually  a  saprophyte,  but  also  very  frequently  a  mis- 
chievous parasite.  Instances  are  given  of  the  direct  infection  of  a  living 
leaf  by  the  Botrytis  conidia;  but  the  writer  considers  that  they  grow 
more  readily  when  saprophytic  nourishment  is  first  supplied.  After 
infection,  the  neighbouring  tissue  is  found  to  have  been  killed  by  the 
action  of  the  fungus,  which  then  feeds  on  the  dead  cells.  Smith  con- 
siders that  there  are  two  effects  to  be  distinguished :  first,  the  killing  of 
the  tissue  by  some  poisonous  substance  secreted  by  the  fungus ;  and 
secondly,  the  disintegration  of  the  cells  by  a  variety  of  enzymes. 
Botrytis  was  grown  on  a  very  large  variety  of  substances.  It  was  found 
to  grow  well  on  sugars  in  general,  on  dextrin,  cellulose,  glycerin,  gum 
arabic,  vegetable  oils,  tartaric  and  malic  acids,  asparagin  and  several 
glucosides.  An  account  is  given  of  the  changes  induced  in  several  of 
these  media  by  the  growth  of  the  fungus.  The  writer  concludes  that 
the  poison  given  off  by  the  Botrytis  is  oxalic  acid  formed  by  the  fungus 
as  a  by-product  of  its  metabolism.  The  conidia  require  saprophytic 
nourishment  to  start  them  on  their  career  as  parasites,  because  they  are 
thus  enabled  to  form  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oxalic  acid  to  attack  the 
host- tissue.  It  is  pointed  out  that  where  infection  has  taken  place  from 
conidia  alone,  these  are  always  unusually  large. 

Some  North  American  Discomycetes.f — Elias  J.  Durand  has  found 
a  number  of  species  hitherto  only  recorded  from  Europe.  He  gives  full 
descriptions  from  the  fresh  material.  He  has  discovered  two  species 
new  to  science.  One  of  these,  Ciboria  americana,  grows  on  the  inside 
of  decaying  husks  of  Horse-chestnuts.  It  is  very  like  the  European 
G.  echinophila,  and  may  prove  to  be  the  American  form  of  that  species. 
The  other,  Sclerotinia  Smilacinse,  resembles  S.  tuberosa.  It  grows  from 
small  sclerotia  which  are  attached  to  the  decaying  rhizomes  of  Smilacina 
racemosa. 

Kryptogamen-Flora.J  —  The  latest  issue  of  this  work,  under  the 
editorship  of  Andreas  Allescher,  continues  the  account  of  the  genus 
Melanconium.  It  also  includes  the  genera  Cryptomela,  Thyrsiclium,  and 
Basiascum,  all  with  one-celled  spores.  The  Hyalodidyinse  come  next 
in  order  with  the  genera  Marsonia,  Septomyxa,  and  Glceosporiella.  The 
PLasodidyrnae  are  represented  by  Didymosporium  and  Bullaria,  the  latter 
with    only   one   species.       Bhopalidium,   also    monotypic,    Septoglceum, 

*  Bot.  Gaz.,  xxxiii.  (1902)  pp.  421-36  (2  figs.). 

t  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  458-65. 

J  Kabeiiliorst's  Krypt.  Flora,  i.  Abt.  vii.  Leipzig  (1902)  pp.  577-640. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  591 

Prostemiella,  Psammina,  and  Pcstalozzina  belong  to  the  Hyalophragmise. 
A  beginning  has  also  been  made  with  the  Phseophraginiae.  The  genus 
StiJbospora  is  completed,  and  a  few  of  the  species  of  Coryneum.  The 
genera  are  well  illustrated.  In  the  small  genus  Thyrsidium  there  are 
drawings  of  no  fewer  than  four  species. 

Yeasts.* —  G.  Marpmann  confirms  Wager's  results  as  to  the  pre- 
sence of  nuclei  in  the  cells  of  yeast.  He  gives  a  careful  account  of  his 
methods  of  fixing  and  staining  for  determining  the  presence  of  nuclei. 
He  has  applied  the  same  treatment  to  the  larger  bacteria  and  has  proved 
the  existence  of  nuclei  in  their  cells  also.  He  gives,  further,  an 
account  of  his  prolonged  cultures  of  yeasts,  and  recommends  nuclei- 
staining  as  a  help  to  diagnosing  the  different  species.  Wild  yeasts,  he 
finds,  grow  at  a  lower  temperature  than  the  forms  under  cultivation,  but 
in  time  they  develop  into  culture  yeasts.  As  yeasts  differ  in  form, 
contents,  nuclei,  &c,  so  do  they  differ  probably  in  the  results  they 
produce  in  the  fermentation  process.  He  gives  a  list  of  the  Saccharo- 
myces  species  he  has  studied.  The  different  forms  are  classified  as 
white,  grey,  yellow-brown,  yellow,  red,  and  black  yeasts.  The  writer 
gives  also  some  account  of  his  work  on  Schizcsaccharomyces. 

Observations  on  the  Vitality  of  the  Yeast  Plant.f —  H.  Will  has 
found  that  after  15  years  and  2  months  yeast-cells  developed  from  the 
charcoal  and  asbestos  used  in  connection  with  brewing.  Cells  of  wild 
yeast  were  also  frequently  found,  especially  in  the  asbestos.  The  vitality 
of  wild  yeast  is  very  great  when  unfavourable  conditions  such  as  high 
temperature,  &c.  are  excluded,  and  the  experiments  made  prove  the 
great  risk  of  infection  from  that  plant  in  the  brewing  process. 

Smut  of  Cereals.  J  — Tubeuf  gives  the  results  of  many  experiments 
undertaken  with  a  view  to  further  our  knowledge  of  the  fungus 
causing  smut  and  the  best  means  of  combating  the  disease.  As  a 
method  of  prevention  he  recommends  treating  the  seed  with  Bordeaux 
mixture.  In  order  to  test  predisposition  to  disease,  eight  varieties  of 
maize  seed  were  dusted  with  smut  spores  before  being  planted.  The 
results  as  to  infection  were  very  varied,  and  the  experiment  is  still 
being  carried  on. 

The  writer  states,  among  other  interesting  results,  that  infection  does 
not  take  place  through  wind-borne  spores.  He  finds  also  that  the  spores 
of  Tilletia  cannot  persist  during  winter  in  the  soil  and  that  they  are 
harmless  for  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigeons.  Low  temperatures  are 
unfavourable  to  the  development  of  the  fungus,  so  that  to  delay  sowing 
corn  until  the  season  is  advanced  is  to  increase  the  risk  of  disease. 

Biological  Phenomena  in  the  Cultivation  of  Ustilago  Maydis.§  — 
When  spore-formation  takes  place  in  Ustilagn  Maydis,  the  spore-forming 
hyphre  become  mucilaginous.  J.  Griiss  has  investigated  this  in  order 
to  determine  the  possible  presence  of  an  enzyme.     He  finds,  after  long 

*  Zeitschr.  angew.  Mikr.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  57-62. 

t  Zeitschr.  ges.  Brauerw.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  49-50.  See  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2  Abt., 
ix.  (1902)  p.  69.  _  .     _         .,    ..       .. 

t  Arb.  aus  biolog.  Abt.  fur  Land-  u.  Forstwirtlisch.  am  Kais.  Gesundheits  ,  11. 
(1902)  pp  179-349  ( 1  pi.  and  19  figs.).     See  also  Bnt.  Zeit,  lx.  (1902)  pp.  204-5. 

§  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  212-20  (1  pi.). 


592  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

experimentation,  that  an  aminoxydase  is  present  in  the  fungus  similar 
to  that  found  in  the  yeast  of  beer,  and  is  located,  as  in  yeasts,  in  the 
vacuoles  of  the  cell.  As  soon  as  the  formation  of  mucilage  begins  in 
Ustilago,  the  production  of  the  oxydase  ceases.  The  enzyme  is  most 
active  when  there  is  a  maximum  of  metabolism  in  the  cell,  and  the 
resting  stage  of  the  fungus  follows  the  period  of  mucilaginous  forma- 
tion. The  author  states  various  theories  as  to  the  function  of  the 
mucilage.  He  concludes  with  an  account  of  spore-germination  in  this 
fungus. 

Rust  of  Andropogon  Sorghum.* — Walter  Busse  has  studied  the 
occurrence  of  this  fungus  in  German  East  Africa  where  it  sometimes 
causes  very  great  loss  in  the  crops  of  millet.  He  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  it  was  the  same  fungus  as  that  described  by  Cooke  about 
25  years  ago  as  Puccinia  purpurea.  The  aecidium  form  is  unknown. 
Uredospores  and  teleutospores  are  to  be  found  simultaneously  in  the 
same  sorus,  usually  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaf  parallel  with 
the  leaf-nerves.  The  spore-bed  is  surrounded  by  paraphyses ;  they  are 
somewhat  club-shaped  and  are  brownish-yellow  or  of  a  deep  red  colour 
at  the  tips.  The  writer  considers  that  this  Uredine  is,  the  same  as 
that  described  by  Barclay  as  a  sorghum  rust  in  India  and  named 
by  him  P.  Penniseti.  It  is  said  to  be  "  the  peculiar  indigenous  rust  of 
Indian  cereals,"  and  is  found  on  a  great  number  of  the  native  grasses. 

Witch's  Brooms  on  the  Barberry.f  —  Jakob  Eriksson  has  proved 
by  experiment  that  the  abnormal  branch  development  of  the  barberry 
is  due  to  JEcidium  graveolens  of  which  the  Puccinia  form  is  produced 
on  Avena  elatior.  The  region  of  attack  is  the  central  bud  of  the  tender 
rosettes  of  leaves,  although  an  unfolded  leaf  is  also  liable  to  infection 
by  the  Puccinia.  According  to  Eriksson  the  tissue  entered  by  the 
fungus  is  not  suppressed,  but  rather  it  is  excited  to  a  quick  and  strong 
branch  development.  Later  arrives  a  condition  of  weakness  which 
renders  the  abnormal  branches  unfit  to  resist  the  cold  of  winter,  and 
these  parts  are  liable  to  be  killed.  The  photographic  reproductions 
show  a  barberry  branch  with  a  broom  in  three  stages  of  growth  induced 
by  artificial  infection  of  teleutospores  from  the  Avena  host. 

Rust  of  Timothy  G-rass.J — The  same  author  has  arrived  at  the  con- 
clusion that  the  rust  found  on  Phleum  pratense  is  a  separate  and  distinct 
species.  It  has  been  named  Puccinia  Phlei-pratensis  Er.  and  Hen. 
Many  infection  experiments  were  tried  by  the  author  to  trace  the  com- 
plete life-history  of  the  fungus.  Once  he  succeeded  in  inducing  ger- 
mination on  the  barberry,  spermogonia  and  secidia  being  sparely 
produced,  after  a  considerable  delay.  Somewhat  similar  results  were 
obtained  in  the  attempts  to  grow  the  fungus  on  rye,  wheat,  oats,  and 
barley.  Only  in  one  case,  on  oats,  did  any  growth  take  place.  It  was 
found  that  the  uredospores  germinated  and  grew  on  Festuca  elatior, 
many  of  the  experiments  yielding  positive  results.  Eriksson  is  of 
opinion  that  P.  Phlei-pratensis  was  originally  identical  with  P.  gram  hits, 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  2S1-91  (1  pi.). 

+  Colin's  Beitrage  zur  Biologic  der  Pflanzen,  viii.  pp.  3-127  (3  pis.).  See  also 
Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  75-6. 

J  Ofvers.  af  Kongl.  Vet.-Akad.  Forh.,  lix.  (1902)  pp.  189-98. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  593 

but  that  it  has  become  specialised  ou  timothy,  and  can  only  rarely  be 
induced  to  grow  on  oats  and  rye,  and  also  that  it  has  quite  lost  the 
cBcidium  form. 

Relation    between    Host    and    Parasite.*  —  Marshall  Ward  has 
worked  out  this  problem  in  connection  with  the  brome  grasses  and  the 
Rust  Puccinia  dispersa  that  grows  freely  on  all  bronies.     The  paper  is 
divided  into  sections  each  dealing  with  some  special  aspect  of  the  case. 
After  a  general  introduction,  he  discusses  the  different  Rusts  that  have 
been  found  on  bromes.     He  then  passes  on  to  a  description  of  the  dif- 
ferent species  of  the  host  plants  used  in  this  research,  with  an  account 
of  the  sterilisation  and  germination  of  the  seeds  in  order  to  secure  a 
plant  free  from  all  trace  of  previous  rust  infection.     Tests  were  made 
as  to  the  temperature  of  the  leaves  and  the  conditions  generally  affecting 
the  germination  of  uredospores.     Methods  of  infection  and  the  progress 
of  the  various  experiments  are  given  in  careful  detail.     Pot-plants  were 
used  and  the  results  wore  found  to  be  very  different  for  different  species 
of  brome.     The  spores  taken  from  one  species  would  not  infect  others 
unless  they  were  closely  allied  forms.     In  discussing  these  phenomena 
the  writer  takes  into  account  the  varying  conditions  of  the   different 
hosts.     He  describes  the  leaf  anatomy,  the  number  of  the  stomata,  the 
leaf-hairs,  &c.      He  draws  a  comparison  between  the   germination  of 
uredospores  and  that  of  pollen-grains  as  observed  in  attempts  at  cross- 
breeding, and  he  considers  that  it  might  be  possible  to  grow  species  of 
grasses  immune  from  rust  infection. 

Monograph,  of  the  Uredinese.t— P.  and  H.  Sydow  have  issued  the 
first  part  of  their  important  work  on  the  Uredines.  The  whole  of  the 
first  volume  will  iuclude  only  the  genus  Puccinia.  The  authors  have 
not  followed  the  usual  division  into  sub-genera,  such  as  Eupuccinia, 
Heteropuccinia,  &c.  They  consider  that  in  the  present  condition  of 
defective  knowledge  as  regards  exotic  species,  it  is  impossible  to  so 
classify  the  specimens.  In  order  to  lighten  the  labour  of  finding- 
species  in  their  book,  they  have  followed  an  alphabetical  arrangement 
of  host-plants.  They  begin  with  the  natural  order  Composite,  and  the 
first  host  cited  is  Achillea ;  the  last  is  Zoeyea,  on  which  are  recorded 
species  from  Persia  and  Brazil.  This  first  part  is  almost  entirely  occu- 
pied with  the  one  natural  order.  Two  pages  only  at  the  end  are  devoted 
to  Calyceraceee. 

Rare  or  little  known  species  are  illustrated  by  outline  drawings  of 
the  spores.  The  diagnoses,  where  possible,  have  been  made  from  original 
material. 

Geastrae.J  —  C.  G.  Lloyd  has  recently  issued  in  pamphlet  form  a 
monograph  of  this  family  of  Gasteromycetes.  He  includes  the  two  genera 
Geaster  and  Myriostoma.  The  latter  is  monotypic,  and  has  been  usually 
included  as  a  sub-genus  of  Geaster.  It  is  distinguished  by  having 
several  orifices  and  several  pedicels  to  the  fruiting  body. 

There  are  22  American  species  of  Geaster.  Those  exclusively 
American  are  G.  Moryanii  Lloyd,   G.  deZtca/iw,  Morg.,  aud  G-  radtcans 

»  Ann.  Bot..  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  233-315. 

t  Leipzig,  Borntraeger,  1902,  vol.  i.  faac.  1,  192  pp.  and  172 !  hga. 

X  The  Geastras,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  U.S.A.,  1902,  43  pp.  and  80  tigs. 


594  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Kad.  Lloyd  has  found  in  the  States  and  in  Samoa  tbo  plant  that  was 
figured  and  described  by  W.  G.  Smith  under  G.  slriatus  D.C.  After 
examining  and  comparing  the  different  specimens,  he  concludes  that  it 
is  altogether  different  from  the  typical  G.  striatus,  and  he  has  re-named 
it  G.  Smithii.     The  species  arc  all  illustrated  by  photographs. 

European  Agarics.*—  G.  Massee  has  just  published  a  classified  list 
of  these  fungi,  with  a  short  description  of  each  species.  It  is  a  handy 
compilation,  and  is  intended  to  widen  the  outlook  of  home  systematists, 
and  give  them  a  better  grasp  of  species  as  a  whole.  The  work  includes 
descriptions  of  2750  species,  of  which  1553  are  British.  The  species 
not  yet  recorded  for  Britain  are  indicated  by  brackets.  A  scanty  biblio- 
graphy is  given  at  the  end  of  the  book. 

Rhizomorpha. f — Jules  Goffart  has  studied  the  form  and  development 
of  the  rhizomorpha  of  Armillaria  mellea.  It  grows  usually  in  long 
strands  under  the  bark  of  dying  trees,  and  passes  out  into  the  soil  to  a 
considerable  distance.  A  strand  that  had  grown  into  a  stream  was  also 
examined  and  compared  with  those  that  grow  in  the  ground.  He  finds 
in  the  rhizomorpha  a  medulla  of  primary  hypbaa,  along  with  secondary 
hyphae.  This  central  portion  increases  in  diameter,  and  the  hyphaa  grow 
outwards  and  form  the  cortex,  which  is  thus  continually  renewed  from 
the  interior.  The  author  finds  in  the  structure  reserve  hyphae  and  vas- 
cular hyphae.  These  latter  were  fewer  in  number  in  the  aquatic 
specimen. 

American  Mycology.  —  After  an  interval  of  several  years,  the 
Journal  of  Mycology  \  is  now  being  reissued  under  the  editorship  of 
W.  A.  Kellerman,  of  the  Ohio  State  University.  The  contents  of  the 
June  number  include  a  paper  on  the  Morchellae,  by  A.  P.  Morgan.  He 
groups  all  the  specimens  he  has  found  under  two  species,  Morchella 
esculenia  and  M.  patula.  The  editor  publishes  a  new  species,  ffltytisma 
concavum,  found  growing  on  leaves  of  Ilex  verticillata,  and  characterised 
by  the  concavity  of  the  stroma  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf.  J.  C. 
Arthur  gives  a  further  instalment  of  his  work  on  the  cultures  of 
Uredineae.  He  has  been  dealing  with  Carex  rusts,  and  for  three  of  them 
he  proposes  new  names.  The  aecidia  grow  on  various  Dicotyledons. 
Kellerman  gives  a  list  of  the  plants  included  in  Fascicle  IV.  of  his 
Ohio  Fungi,  with  a  descriptive  note  appended  to  each  species.  J.  B.  Ellis 
and  B.  M.  Everhart  publish  a  long  list  of  new  Alabama  fungi,  col- 
lected by  George  W.  Carver.  They  are  all  small  fungi,  and  belong  to 
the  Sphaeropsideae,  the  Pyrenomycetes,  Hysteriaceae,  Discomyces,  and 
Hyphomycetes.  A  considerable  part  of  the  number  is  occupied  by  an 
alphabetical  list  of  articles,  authors,  subjects,  new  species,  and  hosts,  all 
pertaining  to  the  subject  of  Mycology.  The  frontispiece  to  the  number 
is  a  portrait  of  J.  B.  Ellis. 

C.  L.  Shear  §  publishes  comments  on  various  American  species  of 
fungi,  and  a   considerable  number  of  new  species  belonging  to  niiiny 

*  European  Fungus-Flora :  Agaricacere,  London,  1902,  vi.  and  274  pp. 

+  Bull.  Classe  Sci.  Acad.  Itoy.  Belg.  No.  5  (1902)  pp.  313-5. 

X  Joura.  Myc,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  45-104. 

§  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  449-57. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  '.Dfi 

'different  genera.  Pohjporus  vohatus  Peck  is  made  the  type  of  a  new- 
genus  Cryptoporus.  In  this  plant  a  "  thick  volva-like  extension  of  the 
margin  of  the  pileus  covers  the  pores,  with  the  exception  of  a  small 
■circular  aperture."  The  author  records  a  new  genus  of  Hyphomycetes, 
Plectrothriz,  near  to  Monosporium.  The  spores  are  borne  on  spinose 
branches  near  the  tops  of  the  fertile  hyphse.  They  grew  on  leaves  of 
Vaccinium  macrocarpon  which  were  kept  in  a  moist  chamber,  and  which 
had  previously  developed  Pestalozzia  Gupini. 

Vegetable  Pathology.* — F.  P.  Brzezinski  publishes  the  result  of  his 
research  on  fruit-trees  injured  by  canker  and  gummosis.  The  canker  of 
apple-trees  has  been  hitherto  ascribed  to  the  action  of  a  fungus,  Nectria 
ditissima.  The  writer  has  conducted  a  long  series  of  experiments,  and 
has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  nectria  is  merely  saprophytic  on  the 
damaged  tissue,  and  that  the  canker  is  primarily  due  to  the  action  of 
bacteria.  He  invariably  found  microbes  in  the  diseased  parts,  and  with 
these  he  inoculated  healthy  trees  and  reproduced  the  canker.  Brzezinski 
considers  canker  to  be  a  contagious  malady,  and  one  which  may  be  latent 
for  years  in  a  seemingly  healthy  tree.  So  long  as  the  surroundings  are 
■conducive  to  healthy  growth  the  tree  shows  no  sign  of  canker,  but  if 
unfavourable  conditions  occur,  or  if  the  tree  is  old,  the  disease  at  once 
becomes  manifest.  The  canker  bacterium  has  the  form  of  short  rods 
divided  in  two  twin  globules.  It  is  easily  cultivated  on  nutritive  media. 
High  temperatures  are  fatal  to  it,  but  it  thrives  and  multiplies  in  the 
cold  down  to  0°  C. 

The  bacterium  of  Pear  canker  cannot  be  distinguished  from  that 
of  the  Apple,  though  in  artificial  cultures  there  is  a  slight  difference. 
Gummosis  of  the  Peach,  Apricot,  Plum,  and  Cherry  has  much  analogy 
with  canker ;  it  also  is  due  to  the  action  of  bacteria.  The  writer  is  of 
opinion  that  the  Cherry  bacterium  differs  from  that  of  the  other  fruit- 
trees  ;  it  is  similar  in  form,  but  quite  distinct  in  artificial  cultures. 
Oummosis  commences  with  discoloured  streaks  in  the  tissue  penetrating 
the  wood  of  the  branches,  which  soon  thereafter  begin  to  secrete  gum 
from  open  wounds.  The  young  twigs  and  the  fruits  are  also  liable  to 
the  disease. 

Fungi  on  Andromeda  polifolia.f — P.  Hennings  has  described  a  new 
species,  Godronia  Andromedse,  which  he  found  growing  on  Andromeda. 
It  is  closely  related  to  G.  urceoliformis  and  G.  Ledi,  which  grow  on 
Vaccinium  Myrtillus.  He  also  found,  growing  along  with  Godronia,  a 
new  species  of  the  Melanconiae,  Seplomyxa  Andromedse.  He  is  of 
opinion  that  the  latter  is  the  pycnidial  form  of  Godronia.  Several 
i  ither  pycnidial  forms  have  been  observed  in  association  with  species  of 
Godronia.  Schroter  found  Sphserocista  schizothecioides  Preuss.  growing 
with  Godronia  Ericse.  Dothichiza  Viburni  Karst.  and  Sphseronema  Viburni 
Fusk.  are  associated  with  Godronia  Viburni,  and  Brefeld  noted  in  his 
cultures  a  series  of  conidial  forms  pertaining  to  G.  urceolus.  Hennings 
found  also  on  Andromeda  specimens  of  Mollisia  cinerea  var.  nov.  Andro- 
medse and  of  Lachnum  virgineum. 

*  Comptes  Bendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  1170-3. 

t  Verb.  Bot.  Prov.  Brandenb.,  xliii.  (1902)  pp.  102-4.    See  also  CentralbL  Bakt. 
2te  Abt,  viii.  (1902)  p.  813. 


596  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Fungal  Parasites  of  Tropical  Cultivated  Plants.* — A.  Zimmerman? 
gives  a  further  list  of  injurious  fungi  on  the  plants  of  our  greenhouses,. 
&c.  There  is  one  member  of  the  Hymenonrycetes,  Corticium  javanicum 
Zim.  The  others  are  all  microscopic,  mostly  found  on  the  leaves  or 
twigs  of  the  host-plant. 

Black  Rot  of  Orang-es.f — N.  B.  Pierce  describes  as  a  new  species 
Alternaria  Citri,  a  fungous  disease  of  navel  oranges  which  has  attracted 
attention  in  the  orange-growing  districts  of  California  for  some  years 
past.  The  fungus  hyphge  enter  through  cracks  in  the  peel,  and  destroy 
the  cells  of  the  pulp-sacs,  which  become  black  and  bitter.  Conidia  are 
formed  upon  the  surface  of  affected  tissues. 

Disease  of  Cultivated  Chrysanthemums.!— P.  Voglino  has  made 
an  extended  study  of  the  fungus  causing  this  disease.  It  appeared  first 
in  July,  and  several  plants  were  entirely  killed.  In  August  and 
Septemher  there  was  not  much  spread  of  the  disease,  but  in  the  two 
following  months  it  increased  with  great  rapidity.  The  leaves  were 
disfigured  by  irregular  brown  spots  which  gradually  extended  over  the 
whole  lamina.  On  these  spots  small  pycnidia  of  a  Phoma  were  formed, 
called  by  Voglino  P.  Chrysanthemi.  Examples  of  Phyllosticta  leucan- 
tliemi  were  also  formed  occasionally  on  greyish  spots.  At  a  later  stage 
the  Phoma  was  replaced  by  Septoria  Chrysanthemi,  which  continued  to 
develop  and  was,  during  the  remainder  of  the  season,  the  chief  form  of 
the  disease.  By  culture  and  infection  experiments  the  writer  proved 
that  the  Phoma  and  Septoria  were  successive  stages  of  the  same  fungus, 
and  that  while  the  spores  of  Phoma  had  only  a  short  existence,  the 
Septoria  spores  germinated  after  long  intervals,  and  were  able  to  resist 
low  temperatures. 

Black  Rot.§— A.  Prunet  has  published  a  note  giving  the  result  of 
his  treatment  of  Black  Rot,  a  disease  of  the  vine.  The  spores  are 
formed  in  pycnidia  and  are  liberated  by  the  action  of  water.  The  first 
formation  of  these  should  be  watched  and  the  vines  protected  from  the 
first  invasion  of  spores.  He  considers  that  they  should  be  sprayed,  say 
ten  days  from  the  first  unfolding  of  the  leaves  until  the  tree  has  bloomed. 
It  is  not  a  wide-spread  malady  like  mildew,  and  treatment  need  be  applied 
only  where  the  disease  has  actually  broken  out. 

Some  Fungus  Cultures. ||  —  Karl  Holborn  has  been  successful  in 
cultivating  some  of  the  fungi  that  cause  diseases  on  hairs.  His  aim  was 
to  transfer  the  parasite  to  other  hairs.  In  a  case  of  Trichorrhexis  nodosa 
that  occurred  in  the  hairs  of  a  man's  beard,  he  made  a  pure  culture  of 
the  fungus  and  developed  a  Mucor  with  its  sporangia.  From  the  culture 
he  induced  a  typical  growth  of  the  Trichorrhexis  on  hairs  from  a  horse's 
tail ;  and  from  these  hairs  he  again  grew  the  Mucor. 

He  applied  the  same  methods  to  the  culture  of  some  of  the  Urcdineee. 
He  failed  to  make  a  growth  from  spores  on  artificial  media,  but  he  was- 
more  successful  with  the  mycelium  of  the  same  fungi.     He  was  prevented 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2"  Abt.,  viii  (1902)  pp.  803-5. 

t  Bot.  Gaz.,  xxxiii.  (1902)  pp.  234-5. 

X  Malpighia,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  329-41  (1  pi.). 

§  Comptes  Reudus,  exxxv.  (1902)  pp.  120-3.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  479-SO. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  597 

from  pursuing  the  research  further  and  could  not  attempt  the  infection 
of  plants  from  his  cultivated  mycelium,  as  he  had  intended. 

Schizophyta. 
Schizophycese. 

Flora  of  Hot  Springs.*— G.  S.  West  publishes  a  list  of  56  species 
and  varieties  collected  in  hot  springs  in  Iceland.  Aulosira  thermalis  is 
a  new  species,  and  Galothrix  parietina  has  a  new  variety  thermalis. 
Oseillatoria  proboscidea  and  0.  numidica  occur  there.  Three  species  are 
also  recorded  from  a  hot  spring  in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  two  of  which, 
Simploca  Yappii  and  Phormidium  orientate,  are  new. 

Observations  on  Aphanochsete.f — F.  E.  Fritsch  gives  the  results  of 
observations  on  A.  pohjehsete  Fritsch,  taken  at  intervals  for  a  period  of 
over  sixmonths.  He  describes  and  figures  various  stages  in  its  life-historv, 
but  can  give  no  details  as  to  its  reproduction.  He  considers  his  plant 
identical  with  Herposteiron  polyclveete  Hansg.,  and  transfers  it,  together 
with  H.  confervicola  Nag.,  to  the  genus  Aphanoeltsete.  The  genus  Herpo- 
steiron should  be  dropped,  according  to  this  author,  who  finds  that  the 
septate  hairs  described  for  this  genus  do  not  really  occur ;  neither  do  the 
hairs  have  a  sheath  at  their  base.  An  accouut  of  work  already  published 
on  Aplianoclisete  and  the  neighbouring  genera  is  given,  and  a  scheme  of 
classification,  based  on  the  author's  own  observations.  The  frequent 
occurrence  of  cells  with  red  granular  contents  is  described  in  connection 
with  A.  polychsete,  but  as  yet  no  clue  has  been  found  to  the  part  they 
play  in  the  life-history  of  the  alga.  The  author  has  found  similar  cells 
while  examining  young  plants  of  Stigeoclonium. 

Schizomycetes. 

Fermentation  of  Cellulose.! — V.  Omelianski  finds  two  species  of 
bacilli  which  effect  fermentation  of  cellulose,  and  are  widely  distributed 
in  soil,  manure,  sewage  deposits,  river  mud,  &c.  One  species  effects  a 
hydrogen  fermentation  of  cellulose,  yielding  hydrogen,  carbon  dioxide, 
and  butyric  and  acetic  acids.  The  other  effects  methane  fermentation, 
yielding  methane,  carbon  dioxide,  and  the  same  fatty  acids.  Neither  of 
the  species  is  identical  with  Bacillus  amylobacter,  which,  according  to 
van  Tieahem,  is  the  chief  organism  which  attacks  cellulose. 

Parasitism  of  Pseudomonas  destructans.§— M.  C.  Potter  describes 
the  action  of  this  bacterium  on  living  cells  of  the  turnip.  The  cells  were 
rapidly  killed  by  the  toxin  secreted  by  the  parasite,  which  then  pene- 
trated the  walls  and  entered  the  cell-cavities.  The  bacterium  had  no 
power  of  penetrating  or  destroying  the  fully  developed  cuticle  of  the 
epidermis,  but  can  readily  effect  an  entrance  through  the  young  unde- 
veloped epidermis. 

Infection  by  Paracolon  Bacillus.||  —  Strong  describes  a  case  of 
infection  occurring  at  Santa  Cruz,  simulating  and  diagnosed  as  typhoid 

*  Journ.  Bot.,  xl.  (1902)  pp.  241-8  (1  pi.). 

t  Ann.  Bot.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  403-12  (7  figs.). 

J  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2"  Abt.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  193-201,  225-31,  257-63,  289-91, 
321-6,  353-61,  385-91  (1  pi.  and  1  fig.). 

§  Proc.  Boy.  Soc,  lxx.  (1902)  pp.  392-7  (2  figs.).  ...... 

||  Bep.  Surg.-Gc-n.  on  Prevalent  Diseases  among  Troops  in  the  Philippines,  1901. 
See  Bull.  Johns  Hopkins  Hosp.,  xiii.  (1902)  pp.  107-8, 


598  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

fever.  At  the  autopsy  a  paracolon  bacillus  only  was  isolated  from  the 
spleen,  and  no  lesions  such  as  are  usually  associated  with  infection  by 
the  B.  typhosus  could  be  demonstrated.  The  bacillus  presented  the 
following  characteristics  : — motile,  decolorised  by  Gram ;  surface  colonies 
on  gelatin  plates  resembled  those  of  the  B.  typhosus  or  delicate  colon 
colonies ;  agar  streak,  moderately  heavy  growth  ;  broth,  uniform  tur- 
bidity at  first,  later  a  sediment  is  deposited  and  sometimes  pellicle 
formation  is  observed,  no  indol  is  formed ;  litmus  milk  after  14-24 
hours  becomes  reddened,  after  48  hours  has  again  become  blue,  and 
later  still  the  colour  of  the  litmus  may  be  completely  discharged. 
Glucose  and  saccharose  are  fermented  by  the  bacillus  in  the  course  of 
its  growth,  but  not  lactose.  Unfortunately  no  blood  was  collected  at, 
the  autopsy,  so  there  was  no  opportunity  of  testing  for  the  presence  of 
agglutinins.  The  bacillus  was  pathogenic  for  mice  in  doses  of  0-5  ccm. 
■(  ?  broth  culture)  and  was  recovered  post-mortem  from  the  blood  and 
organs.  This  makes  the  fourth  recorded  case  of  primary  infection  by 
paracolon  bacilli. 

Differential  Diagnosis  of  Coli  and  Typhoid.* — Wolff  eulogises  the 
neutral  red  method  of  differentiating  the  B.  typhosus  from  the  B.  coli 
■communis,  and  definitely  states  that  it  never  fails.  He  points  out  that 
when  grown  in  neutral-red  agar  plate  cultivations,  the  colonies  of  the 
typhoid  and  colon  bacillus  become  coloured,  due  to  vital  staining  of  the 
individuals  of  which  they  are  composed.  If  such  bacilli  are  examined 
in  water  they  are  seen  to  be  motile,  but  the  stain  is  quickly  washed  out, 
but  if  examined  in  weak  neutral-red  solution  the  preparation  appears  to 
consist  of  cocci,  not  bacilli,  owing  to  the  presence  of  one  or  two  neutral- 
red  spots  visible  in  each  bacillus,  although  the  motility  is  not  affected. 

The  author  also  discusses  whether  or  no  the  B.  typhi  abdominalis  can 
assume  a  pyogenic  role,  and  whilst  not  giving  a  decided  opinion  inclines 
to  the  belief  that  under  certain  conditions  it  may  do  so. 

Unity  of  Pathogenic  Streptococci.!  —  Marmorek,  after  critically 
studying  42  strains,  maintains  the  unity  of  streptococci  pathogenic  to 
man,  and  disregarding  minor  morphological  differences — referable  to 
variations  in  environment  or  the  composition  of  nutrient  media,  symbi- 
otic life  or  the  like — points  out  that  several  vital  characteristics  are 
common  to  all,  no  matter  what  their  source. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  power  possessed  by  the  virulent  strepto- 
coccus of  hasmolysing  the  blood  of  the  rabbit  in  vivo,  a  character  which 
constitutes  a  direct  index  of  the  virulence  of  the  streptococcus ;  the 
second,  its  inability  to  grow  in  filtered  cultivations  of  the  same  or  other 
virulent  streptococci ;  and  finally,  all  pathogenic  streptococci  from  what- 
ever source  agree  in  that  they  are  capable  of  being  exalted  in  virulence 
to  a  definite  fixed  standard. 

The  author  further  states  that  the  streptococci  isolated  from  scarle; 
fever  anginas  possess  but  slight  hemolytic  powers,  which,  moreover,  are 
not  increased  by  exalting  the  virulence  of  the  organism,  and  are  als  > 
able  to  develop  to  a  certain  extent  in  filtered  cultures.  These,  however, 
are  merely  differences  of  degree  aud  not  of  kind. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt..  lte  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  69-72. 
t  Ann.  lust.  Pasteur,  xvi.  (19i>2j  pp.  172  8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  599 

Actinomyces  asteroides.* — MacCalluni  defends  the  generic  name  of 
Actinomyces  for  the  group  of  organisms  to  which  the  Actinomyces 
asteroides  belongs,  and  points  out  that  it  is  the  only  appropriate  title, 
and  that  with  the  exception  of  the  term  Streptoihrix  (which  had  already 
been  applied  to  a  genus  of  the  Hyphomycetes  group),  it  has  the  additional 
claim  of  pi'iority.  The  organism  the  author  describes  was  isolated  in 
pure  culture,  post-mortem,  from  some  caseous  masses  in  the  peritoneum 
of  a  negro  child,  and  was  identical  with  that  described  by  Eppinger  as 
Cladothrix  asteroides.  The  organism,  which  was  definitely  branched, 
was  easily  cultivated  ;  on  agar  plates  it  forms  discrete,  round,  opaque, 
shaggy  colonies,  which  are  firm  and  hard  and  of  a  yellow  colour,  with 
moist,  dull,  roughened  surface  raised  and  sometimes  umbilicated,  some- 
times attaining  a  diameter  of  3-4  mm.  On  gelatin  and  on  inspissated 
blood-serum  similar  colonies  are  produced  ;  the  medium  is  not  liquefied 
in  either  case.  In  broth  a  thin  pellicle,  resembling  dust  scattered  over 
the  surface,  appears  in  24  hours,  and  a  deposit  forms  consisting  of  a 
coherent  filamentous  mass  entangling  minute  opaque  yellowish- white 
balls.  The  bulk  of  the  medium  remains  clear.  In  litmus  milk  a 
yellowish  granular  sediment  forms,  accompanied  by  the  production  of  a 
marked  alkaline  reaction  ;  no  peptonisation  of  the  medium  occurs.  On 
potato  a  dull  greyish-red  film  appears  after  24  hours,  which  becomes 
thicker  and  more  nodular  in  appearance,  and  after  a  time  on  the  upper 
drier  portions  of  the  potato  a  chalky-white  bloom  appears  on  the  elevated 
points  of  the  cultivation  which  may  ultimately  extend  over  the  whole 
surface.  The  organisms  stained  by  Gram's  method  and  showed  distinct 
granules  when  treated  by  Neisser's  method.  Filamentous  growth  with 
distinct  branching,  also  clubbed  and  coccus  forms  were  noted,  but  no 
evidence  of  spore  formation  could  be  obtained  by  staining  methods. 
This  Actinomyces  is  a  strict  aerobe,  does  not  produce  gas,  optimum 
temperature  appears  to  be  about  37°  C,  thermal  death-point  for  coccus 
forms  65°  C.  for  10  minutes,  and  for  the  thread-forms  70°  C.  for  a  similar 
period. 

Eabbits  and  guinea-pigs  are  susceptible  to  intravenous,  intraperi- 
toneal, or  subcutaneous  inoculation  of  this  actinomyces,  dying  in  from 
a  few  hours  to  10  days.  Dogs  and  mice  are  also  susceptible.  The 
pathogenic  effects  of  the  organism  were  studied  most  fully  on  the  rabbit, 
in  which  animal  it  produces  widely  disseminated  focal  lesions  containing 
characteristic  ray-fungus  forms,  consisting  of  elongated  cylindrical  struc- 
tures with  laterally  radiating  clubs  which  are  probably  degenerating 
forms. 

The  metastatic  abscesses  begin  with  a  focal  degeneration  and  necrosis 
of  tissue,  associated  with  an  extensive  accumulation  of  leucocytes,  all  ot 
which  in  turn  undergo  necrosis  and  are  walled  off  by  a  capsule  of 
vascular  granulation  tissue  in  which  giant-cells  olten  occur. 

Botryomycosis-t  —  Oalli  Valerio  reviews  the  work  of  previous 
observers  on  the  subject  of  botryomycosis,  and  describes  a  recent  case 
(which  came  under  his  own  observation)  occurring  in  a  farm  labourer,  in 
the  form  of  a  pedunculated  tumour  some  2-5  cm.  in  diameter,  situated 
on  and  involving  the  skin  of  the  right  forearm. 

•  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  529-47.      i  Tom.  eit.,  pp.  508-21. 


600  STJMMAKY    OF   CURRENT   RESEAKCHES   RELATING   TO 

Cultivations  from  the  depths  of  the  tumour  gave  rise  to  cultivations 
of  a  non-motile  coccus  occurring  in  pairs  and  in  staphylococcus-!.^ e 
masses,  individual  elements  measuring  from  0*6  to  0  •  8  /x.  Occasionally 
zoogloea  formation  is  noticed.  The  coccus  stains  well  with  anilin  dyes 
and  al*o  by  Gram.  In  gelatin  plates  at  20°  C.  yellowish-orange  colonies 
appear  in  24  hours  which  liquefy  the  gelatin  ;  in  gelatin  stabs  growth 
takes  place  on  the  surface  and  in  the  depths,  liquefaction  proceeds  in 
the  shape  of  a  cone,  and  the  entire  contents  of  the  tube  are  liquefied  in 
about  17  days.  It  grows  well  upon  agar  at  37°  C,  and  on  inspissated 
ox-serum  without  liquefying  the  medium.  A  golden-coloured  layer 
appears  upon  potato,  and  in  broth  at  37°  C.  pellicle  formation  is  ob- 
served in  24  to  48  hours,  with  universal  turbidity  and  considerable 
yellowish  deposit  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube  after  3  days.  No  indol 
formation  occurs  :  milk  is  coagulated  in  4  days. 

Of  two  guinea-pigs  inoculated  subcutaueously  with  broth  cultiva- 
tions, one  died  in  less  than  48  hours ;  in  this  case  the  post-mortem 
appearances  resembled  those  produced  by  inoculation  with  the  B. 
a  attracts,  with  the  exception  that  the  staphylococcus  was  recovered  from 
the  heart  blood.  The  other  guinea-pig  suffered  from  a  local  abscess,  the 
pus  being  crowded  with  the  cocci,  but  the  author  does  not  state  that  the 
animal  succumbed.  A  grey  rat  inoculated  subcutaueously  died  in  48 
hours  with  sero-haunorrhagic  exudation  at  the  site  of  inoculation,  the 
cocci  being  present  in  its  heart  blood.  Inoculations  of  rabbits  and 
guinea-pigs  with  portions  of  the  excised  tumour  provoked  local  suppu- 
ration which  apparently  did  not  produce  death.  In  summarising  his 
observations  the  author  states  that  there  exists  among  animals  and  in 
man  an  affection  known  by  the  name  of  botryomycosis,  in  which  is  found 
a  micrococcus  that  occasionally  presents  slight  differences  from  the  typical 
form  of  the  Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus. 

Bacterium  phasianicida.*  —  E.  Klein  describes  a  new  species 
belonging  to  the  hemorrhagic  septicasinia  group,  which  he  considers 
responsible  for  a  severe  and  fatal  epidemic  among  the  pheasants  on  an 
English  game-farm.  He  describes  the  lesions  observed  in  the  birds 
post-mortem. 

Post-mortem  examination  of  the  bodies  of  the  birds  shows  injected 
intestines,  enlarged  dark  red  spleen,  engorged  liver,  with  haemorrhage 
in  the  capsule  and  on  the  surface,  the  heart-cavities  filled  with  coagu- 
lated blood.  Smear  preparations  of  the  blood  show  small  numbers  of 
short  oval  bacilli ;  preparations  from  the  spleen,  however,  are  found  to 
be  crowded  with  the  bacilli.  They  correspond  in  size  to  those  of 
chicken  cholera,  and  resemble  them  further  in  taking  up  the  ordinary 
anilin  dyes  most  deeply  at  the  poles,  and  in  not  retaining  the  stain 
when  treated  by  Gram's  method.  Surface  colonies  on  plates  resemble 
those  of  members  of  the  Coli  group.  On  gelatin  it  grows  more  quickly 
than  the  bacillus  of  fowl  cholera ;  it  produces  a  thin  colourless  layer 
on  potato  ;  the  bacillus  does  not  liquefy  gelatin,  form  acid,  produce 
indol  or  gas,  and  does  not  coagulate  milk. 

Inoculation  experiments  show  that  the  chicken  and  the  guinea-pig 
are  insusceptible  to  infection  by  the  bacillus.    Rabbits  die  about  48  hours 

*  Ccntralbl.  Bakt.,  lt0  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902;  pp.  76-7. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  601 

after  subcutaneous  inoculation.     Pigeons  are  readily  infected,  and  show- 
post-mortem  lesions  identical  with  those  found  in  the  pheasant. 

Cultivations  of  Gonococcus.* — Wildbolz,  in  a  preliminary  communi- 
cation, comments  upon  the  unanimity  of  observers  who  record  their 
failure  to  obtain  a  growth  of  the  gonococcus  on  ordinary  nutrient  media, 
and  states  that  in  only  four  strains  out  of  twenty  did  be  fail  t  >  obtain  a 
growth  on  ordinary  agar  and  in  broth.  He  attained  this  result  by 
cultivating  the  gonococcus,  isolated  from  early  acute  cases  of  gonorrhoea! 
urethritis,  through  a  number  of  generations  upon  serum-agar,  and  at 
each  generation  inoculating  tubes  of  ordinary  agar ;  he  then  found  that 
although  he  seldom  obtained  a  growth  from  the  second  or  third  genera- 
tion, he  was  usually  successful  after  the  fourth  or  fifth.  In  one  instance 
he  only  obtained  a  growth  on  ordinary  agar  after  sixty -two  generations 
on  serum-agar. 

The  growth  from  early  generations  was  always  scanty,  but  became 
better  after  ten  to  twenty,  and  he  was  then  usually  able  to  cultivate  the 
coccus  on  ordinary  agar  through  15-20  generations.  With  increased 
capacity  for  saprophytic  growth  the  vitality  increased,  and  sub-cultures 
could  be  obtained  from  four-week-old  cultivations.  The  virulence 
under  these  conditions  was  not  tested.  The  author  further  remarks 
that  all  batches  of  agar,  although  prepared  in  the  same  manner  (watery 
extract  of  beef  plus  1  p.c.  peptone,  0  ■  5  p.c.  salt,  and  1  ■  5  p.c.  agar, 
rendered  feebly  alkaline  in  reaction),  were  not  equally  suitable  for  the 
growth  of  the  gonococcus,  but  that  he  has  not  yet  determined  the  factors 
concerned  in  the  production  of  this  difference. 

New  Pyogenic  BacillllS.f — Stefansky  describes  a  new  pus-producing 
bacillus  which  he  isolated  from  the  pus  aspirated  from  an  abscess  of  the 
leg.  Microscopically  numerous  organisms,  apparently  cocci,  were  ob- 
served, many  being  contained  in  the  pus-cells.  Cultures  on  agar,  after 
24  hours,  showed  a  pure  growth  of  a  short,  fairly  thick  rod,  with 
rounded  or  pointed  ends.  The  organism  was  extremely  pleomorphic, 
short  rods,  globular  and  flask-shaped  forms,  also  short  and  long  threads 
showing  irregular  swellings,  together  with  branched  and  Y-shaped 
forms,  being  frequently  met  with  in  artificial  cultures  of  all  ages  from 
24  hours  onwards.  It  stains  well  with  ordinary  dyes,  but  not  by  Gram  ; 
is  a  facultative  anaerobe,  optimum  temperature  37°  C. ;  thermal  death- 
point  70°  C.  after  exposure  for  30  minutes.  It  grows  well  upon  all 
ordinary  media,  whether  acid  or  alkaline,  even  at  10°  C,  and  retains 
its  vitality  for  at  least  six  months ;  produces  indol,  ferments  grape, 
cane,  and  milk  sugars  ;  does  not  liquefy  gelatin  ;  produces  acid  in  milk, 
but  does  not  coagulate  the  medium.  When  injected  subcutaneously  into 
guinea-pigs,  rabbits,  cats,  and  dogs,  produces  local  suppuration,  not 
followed,  however,  by  generalised  infection.  It  is  extremely  pathogenic 
to  pigeons,  producing  death  after  intramuscular  injection  in  20-40 
hours,  the  bacillus  being  recovered  in  pure  culture  from  the  blood. 
Toxines  obtained  from  week-old  broth  were  also  fatal  to  the  pigeon  in 
doses  of  1-2  ccm.  in  5-6  days. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt..  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  ]28-:!2. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  8G-92. 


602  SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

The  author  designates  this  bacillus  Bacterium  pyogenes  ramosum,. 
and  considers  it  as  belonging  to  the  Proteus  group. 

Bacillus  Pathogenic  to  Rats.* — Issatschenko  records  some  further 
experiments  with  a  bacillus  pathogenic  to  the  grey  rat,  previously  de- 
scribed by  him.j  This  organism  was  fatal  in  431  out  of  a  total  of 
443  rats  experimented  upon, —  when  injected  in  pure  culture  death 
usually  taking  place  from  the  seventh  to  the  tenth  day  after  infection. 
Domestic  animals  appear  to  be  totally  insusceptible  to  the  bacillus. 
The  author  fed  2  cats,  1  dog,  2  hens,  and  4  pigeons  with  highly  virulent 
cultivations  of  the  bacillus  in  doses  varying  from  20  ccm.  to  200  ccm. 
No  ill  effects  followed,  whilst  control  rats  provided  with  infected  food 
died  7,  8,  10,  and  11  days  after  feeding.  The  author  also  quotes 
Feoktistoff's  experiments,  in  which  the  horse,  ox,  pig,  sheep,  dog,  cat, 
turkey,  hen,  goose,  and  duck  were  fed  with  varying  doses,  ranging  from 
500  ccm.  in  the  case  of  the  horse  down  to  20  ccm.  for  the  duck,  without  a 
fatal  result  being  produced  in  any  of  the  experimental  animals.  The 
author  also  states  that  large  quantities  of  broth  cultivations  have  been 
sent  out  from  his  laboratory  to  be  employed  for  the  purpose  of  destroying 
rats  on  farms,  and  in  granaries  and  dwelling-houses,  and  the  reports  of 
its  action  testify  to  its  value. 

Heat-resisting  Micrococcus.^  —  Russell  and  Hastings  describe  a 
micrococcus  which  is  capable  of  retaining  its  vitality  in  milk  heated  to 
60°  C,  and  which  they  isolated  in  large  numbers  from  samples  of 
pasteurised  milk.  The  organism  occurs  usually  in  pairs  or  bunches  of 
four,  individual  elements  having  their  adjacent  sides  flattened,  and 
showing  a  clear  bright  line  between.  The  coccus  stains  easily  with 
anilin  dyes,  and  is  not  decolorised  when  treated  by  Gram's  method. 
Its  optimum  temperature  is  from  20°  C.  to  25°  C,  growth  at  38°  C. 
being  but  very  scanty.  It  grows  well  on  all  ordinary  media ;  on  agar 
it  produces  a  dull  lemon-yellow  coloured  layer,  confined  to  the  needle- 
track.  In  broth  growth  begins  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  ai^d  creeps  up 
the  side,  old  cultures  showing  a  thin  pellicle.  In  milk  no  change  is 
observed,  the  bright  yellow  growth  being  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tube.  Gelatin  is  not  liquefied.  The  organism  does  not  ferment  dex- 
trose, lactose,  or  saccharose.  In  thermal  death-point  determinations, 
48-hour  cultures  in  standard  nutrient  broth  were  exposed  at  various 
temperatures  in  thin-walled  tubes  of  6  mm.  diameter,  the  results  showing 
tbat  although  many  individuals  are  killed  at  72°  C,  exposure  to  76°  C. 
for  fully  10  minutes  is  necessary  to  ensure  the  death  of  all. 

Association  of  Amylomyces  and  a  Micrococcus. §  —  Vuillemin  in 
cultivating  Mucor  Bouxianus  upon  potato  in  association  with  an  un- 
named micrococcus,  found  that  the  coccus  developed  at  the  expense  of 
the  sugar  produced  from  the  potato  starch  by  the  fungus.  Further, 
that,  the  large  amount  of  yellowish-orange  pigment  elaborated  by  the 
Mucor  is  due  to  the  consumption  of  maltose  by  the  micrococcus. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lt8  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  26-8. 
t  Cf.  this  Journal,  1898,  p.  467. 
t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2t0  Abt.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  339-42. 

§  Compies  Rendus,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  366-8.  Si  e  Jonrn.  Chem.  Soc,  Abstr.  ii. 
lxxxii.  (1902)  p.  343. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  603 

Alinit.* — C.  Sclmlze  states  that  the  alinit  bacillus  requires  organic 
nitrogenous  matter  for  its  growth,  and  fails  to  devolop  in  non-nitro- 
genous solutions.     Wheat  was  grown  in  pots  containing  a  mixture  of 
(a)  Ellenbach  soil  and  ground  sandstone,  (&)  sandstone  and  dextrose 
Three  sets  of  pots  were  used  for  each  experiment  which  had  been :  — 

(1)  Sterilised  and  inoculated  with  a  pure  culture  of  the  alinit  bacillut.. 

(2)  Sterilised  but  not  inoculated. 

(3)  Neither  sterilised  nor  inoculated. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  experiments  it  was  found  that  although  all 
the  pots  contained  moulds  and  extraneous  bacteria,  the  alinit  bacillus 
predominated.  No  fixation  of  free  nitrogen  had  taken  place  and  there 
was  a  distinct  loss  of  nitrogen.  Similar  results  were  obtained  in  pots 
exposed  to  air.  Negative  results  were  also  obtained  in  a  second  set  of 
experiments  to  determine  the  effects  of  carbohydrates,  and  in  field  ex- 
periments with  barley  and  oats. 

Gas  Vacuoles  in  Thiothrix  j  —  Wille  after  rewring  to  Wino- 
gradsky's  definitions  of  the  groups  Beggiatoa  and  Thiothrix,  describes 
his  own  observations  on  the  Thiothrix  tenuis  Winogr.  which  he  ob- 
tained in  September  1901,  associated  with  a  felted  mass  of  Vaucheria. 
In  this  Thiothrix  he  observed  that  the  bodies  usually  described  as 
sulphur  granules  had  all  the  optical  appearances  of  bubbles  of  air  or 
gas,  e.g.  they  possessed  dark  edges  and  the  central  portions  were  reddish 
in  tint, — appearances  totally  unlike  those  produced  by  the  refraction  of 
light  from  solid  particles :  furthermore,  on  warming  the  preparation 
these  bodies  disappeared  at  a  temperature  much  below  the  melting- 
point  of  sulphur.  On  running  in  caustic  potash  under  the  cover-glass 
of  this  preparation,  the  walls  of  the  Thiothrix  became  more  transparent 
and  the  enclosed  vacuoles  stood  out  more  sharply,  and  in  some  situations 
two  or  more  coalesced,  showing  that  the  vacuoles  did  not  contain  CO.,, 
which  would  have  been  absorbed  by  the  caustic.  The  application  of  a 
solution  of  picric  acid  to  the  Thiothrix  did  not  cause  the  formation  of 
sulphur  crystals,  but  a  few  of  the  vacuoles  ran  together  and  coalesced, 
although  not  to  the  same  extent  as  occurred  on  the  addition  of  potash. 
Lead  acetate  did  not  yield  a  precipitate  of  lead  sulphide,  nor  did  the 
vacuoles  disappear.  Iodine  and  iodide  of  potash  solution  had  no  effect; 
on  the  addition,  however,  of  iodine  and  alcohol  or  alcohol  alone,  the 
gas  vacuoles  disappeared  very  quickly  and  completely  and  the  threads 
of  the  Thiothrix  became  smaller  in  diameter.  At  this  point  unfor- 
tunately the  Thiothrix  was  lost  as  a  result  of  an  accident  to  the  glass 
containing  the  mixed  Vaucheria  and  Thiothrix. 

Handbook  of  Bacteriology  and  Pathology.}  —  This  little  book  is 
intended  for  the  use  of  students  preparing  for  the  practical  part  of  the 
third  examination  for  the  Doctorate  of  Medicine.  It  is  obvious,  hoaever, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  do  more  than  give  the  salient  points  of  each 
subject  in  a  small  book  which  only  occupies  235  pages  in  summarising 

*  Bied.  Centralbl.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  145-7.  See  Journ.  Chem.  Soc,  Abstr.  ii. 
lxxxii.  (1902)  p.  344. 

t  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxii.  (1902)  pp.  257-62. 

t  Petit  et  Borne,  Manuel  pratique  de  Bacteriologie,  Parasitologic  Lrolo.^ie  et 
Anatomie  Pathologirpie,  Paris,  O.  Naud,  1902,  crown  Svo,  235  pp.  and  47  figs. 


604      SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

the  present-day  knowledge  of  the  pathogenic  bacteria  and  the  methods 
of  demonstrating  their  presence  in  various  lesions  ;  serum  therapy;  the 
animal  and  vegetable  parasites  of  man  ;  the  microscopical  examination 
and  chemical  analysis  of  urine ;  the  methods  of  examining  sputum, 
blood,  and  gastric  secretion ;  performing  autopsies ;  together  with  a 
resume  of  the  naked-eye  and  microscopical  appearances  of  the  lesious 
most  frequently  shown  the  candidates  at  this  examination.  The  notes 
are  as  far  as  possible  arranged  in  tabular  fashion,  a  method  which,  in 
conjunction  with  a  good  index,  renders  it  an  easy  matter  to  refer  to 
any  given  section ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  mass  of  material  to  be 
dealt  with,  the  details  concerning  each  subject  are  few.  Owing  to  this 
undesirable  brevity  much  valuable  information  has  been  omitted,  thus 
for  example,  under  the  heading  of  urogenital  tuberculosis  no  hint  is 
given  of  the  existence  of  the  Smegma  bacillus,  which  has  so  often  been 
confused  with  the  B.  tuberculosis.  But  notwithstanding  its  deficiencies 
the  work  is  well  arranged  and  accurate  in  all  its  details-1— so  far  as  it 
goes. 


-4-c^s-t- 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


005 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.  Instruments,  Accessories,  &c* 
(1)  Stands. 

Zeiss'  Smaller  Mechanical  Stage.f— In  this  apparatus,  the  leading 
idea  of  which  was  first  worked  out  by  a  Fellow  of  the  Society,  the  late 


Fig.  110. 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives;  (3)  Illu- 
minating and  other  Apparatus;  (4)  Photo nicrography ;  (5)  Microscopical  Optics 
and  Manipulation;  (6)  Miscellaneous.  f  Zeiss'  Cat.,  1902,  No.  17,  fig.  18. 

October  15th,  1902  2  s 


COG  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 


Fig   111. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


007 


Mr.  J.  Mayall,  jun.,*  some  improvements  have  been  recently  introduced. 
The  milled  heads  for  the  movements  of  the  two  slides  are  set  co-axially, 
and  preserve  their  position  during  rotation.  The  horizontal  movement 
can  be  effected  by  either  the  right  or  the  left  hand.  The  range  of  the 
movements  has  been  slightly  increased  and  now  extends  to  60  by  30  mm. 
An  accurately  gauged  centring  glass,  on  which  are  engraved  the  distances 
of  the  cross-strokes  from  two  edges  of  the  object-carrier,  is  supplied  with 
each  stage.     Fig.  110  shows  the  stage  as  applied  to  Stand  IV a. 

G-reenough's  Binocular.f — The  Zeiss  firm  now  make  the  upper  part 
of  this  instrument  with  the  doublo  tube  removable  ;  after  the  removal  of 
this  upper  portion  the  stand  can  be  replaced  by  a  vulcanite  fork  to  which 
the  tube-carrier  is  screwed  (fig.  111).  Thus  a  portable  instrument  is 
formed  which  can  be  applied  to  the  examination  of  objects  of  any  kind  : 
it  may,  for  instance,  be  used  as  a  dermatoscope  for  skin  investigations. 


Docket 


r.!LLEUM£.\D 


f-'wNOi-E 

-  <v>  lono  &6  rcQaired. 


Fig.  112. 


Microscope  Adjustment.! — A  correspondent,  "Treadle,"  to  the 
English  Mechanic,  after  noticing  the  tendency  of  Microscope  makers  to 
reduce  cost  by  omitting  the  fine  and  by  improving  the  coarse  adjust- 
ment, suggests  a  revival  of  the  following  old  device  (fig.  112)  in  use 
some  forty  years  ago,  but  now  apparently  forgotten.  It  consists  of  a 
sleeve  fitting  loosely  on  the  shank  of  either  of  the  coarse-adjustment 
milled  heads,  with  a  socket  attached  into  which  can  be  fitted*  a  handle  of 


*  This  Journal,  1885,  p.  122. 

+  Zeiss'  Catalogue,  1902,  No.  95,  fig.  356,  p.  73. 

%  Eng.  Mech.,  lxxv.  (1902)  pp.  207-8  (1  fig.). 


2  s  2 


608  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Fig.  113 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


609 


any  convenient  length.  By  moving  the  handle  sideways  the  sleeve  is 
made  to  seize  upon  the  shank  of  the  milled  head,  and  the  long  handle 
allows  of  a  very  delicate  motion  being  imparted  to  the  pinion.  With  a 
well-cut  rack  the  author  finds  even  high-power  objectives  can  be  satis- 
factorily focussed. 

This  form  of  fine  adjustment  by  means  of  a  loose  lever  attached  to 
the  coarse  adjustment  pinion,  was  described  by  Messrs.  Smith  and  Beck 
at  the  Microscopical  Society  of  London  on  October  9th,  1861.*  A  very 
similar  construction  by  Ladd  is  also  figured  in  the  third  edition  of 
Carpenter,  p.  81,  fig.  27  (1862).  Mr.  Beck  states  in  a  foot-note  that 
Mr.  Brookes  (Charles  Brooke  ?)  was  the  first  to  recommend  this  kind  of 
slow  motion. 

Males-Watson  Two-speed  Fine  Adjustment. — The  essential  feature 
in  this  new  two-speed  fine  adjustment  is  a  lever  similar  to  that  regularly 


Fig.  114. 

fitted  to  Watson's  Microscopes.  The  fulcrum  of  this  is  at  D,  and  the 
lever  is  worked  by  the  milled  head  A  on  the  point  E.  By  using  a  coarse 
thread  for  the  screw  a  speed  of  ^th  of  an  inch  for  each  complete 
rotation  is  produced.  The  second  and  slower  speed  is  obtained  by 
another  lever  fitted  to  the  first  at  the  point  F,  which  is  acted  on  by  the 
screw  B  at  the  point  G.  A  somewhat  finer  screw  is  used  for  this,  and 
the  combination  of  the  levers  yields  a  movement  as  slow  as  ^th  of  an 
inch  for  each  complete  turn  of  the  milled  head.  Any  desired  ratio  of 
speed  can  be  obtained  by  altering  the  pitch  of  the  threads  of  the  micro- 
meter screws.  Fig.  113  shows  the  adjustment  fitted  to  a  Watson's  Van 
Heurck  Microscope,  and  Fig.  114  gives  a  sectional  view  of  the  working 
parts. 

*  Trans.  Mic.  Soc,  x.  (18C2)  p.  11,  pi.  .r>. 


610 


SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Berger's  Fine  Adjustment.  —  Fig.  115,  from  Messrs.  Zeiss'*  new 
Catalogue,  shows  the  action  of  this  fine  adjustment  more  clearly  than 
the  illustration  previously  published  in  the  Journal  for  1898,  p.  585, 


fig.  99. 


iS:t-«%isi-dl 


Fig.  115. 


Zeiss'  Small  Mineralogical  Stand.j  —  This  model  (fig.  116)  is 
numbered  IX1'  in  the  Catalogue  ;  it  is  not  inclinable,  and  possesses 
rack-and-pinion  coarse  adjustment.  The  tube,  which  is  not  provided 
with  draw-tube,  carries  on  its  upper  extremity  a  divided  circle  and  a  re- 
movable analyser.  At  the  lower  end  are  two  sliding  carriers  and  a 
centring  appliance.  One  of  these  carriers  bears  a  second  analyser, 
while  the  other  is  available  for  a  quartz  or  other  crystal  plate  for  inser- 
tion above  the  objective.  The  polariser  is  combined  in  a  sliding 
sleeve  with  a  condenser  system  of  1  •  0  N.A.      The  upper  lens  of  this 

*  Fig.  19,  p.  44,  of  Zeiss'  Catalogue. 

t  Catalogue,  English  edilion,  1902,  pp.  G8-71,  fig.  34. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


UU 


Via.  in;. 


612  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Fin.  117. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


G13 


condenser  is  easily  removable,  as,  whon  using  low  magnifications,  it  is 
advisable  to  work  with  the  lower  condenser  lens  only.  A  sliding  sleeve, 
within  which  the  polariser  may  be  revolved  by  means  of  a  lever,  is 
situated  below  the  revolving  and  graduated  stage, 

Zeiss'  Small  Model  Polarising  Microscope.* — This  stand  (fig.  117), 
indexed  as  VIb,  is  one  of  Zeiss'  smaller  models  adapted  for  work  with 
polarising  apparatus.  It  bears  a  revolving  stage  (diam.  80  mm.)  with 
a  graduated  peripheral  scale.  A  centring  appliance  for  objectives  is 
situated  on  the  lower  extremity  of  the  tube.  Objectives  of  the  highest 
power  can  be  used,  and  the  stage  can  bo  completely  rotated. 

Messter's  Attachable  Mechanical  Stage.f —  M.  Marpmann  highly 
praises  this  accessory  for  its  cheapness  and  convenience.  The  object- 
slide,  which  fits  into  a  space  of  suitable  size,  is  secured  by  two  clamps. 
The  stage  itself  is  easily  attached  to  any  Microscope :  the  upper  screw 
fits  into  a  hole  of  the  table  and  the  trigger-shaped  part  on  the  right  is 
secured  to  the  pillar,  so  that  the  stage  is  rigid  in  all  positions.  Of 
the  two  screws  which  control  the  stage  motions  the  lower  imparts  a  per- 
pendicular movement  from  front  to  rear  within  limits  of  30  mm.,  and 
the  front  one  a  lateral  movement  within  a  range  of  50  mm.  These 
dimensions  serve  for  preparations  of  large  size.  Positions  are  noted  by 
means  of  two  scales  which  are  easily  read  to  0*  1  mm. 


Fig.  118. 

Huntingdon's  Tilting-stage  for  Holding  and  Adjusting  Minerals. 
—This  apparatus  (fig.  118),  made  by  Messrs.  E.  and  J.  Book,  consists 
of  a  pair  of  brass  plates  which  grip  a  ball,  held  in  two  circular  holes 
cut  in  the  plates.  The  ball  is  surmounted  by  a  small  stage,  and  from 
its  inferior  aspect  projects  a  rod  by  which  the  specimen  is  oriented.     By 

*  Catalogue,  English  edition,  1902,  pp.  G'J-.r>. 

t  Zeitsch.  f.  angew.  Mikr.,  ii.  (11)01)  pp.  230-4  (1  fig.). 


G14 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


means  of  a  screw-clamp  the  pressure  on  the  ball  may  be  adjusted. 
The  tilting-stage  is  placed  on  the  Microscope-stage,  and  the  specimen, 
roughly  mounted  on  a  glass  plate  1  in.  wide,  is  placed  in  the  holder. 
The  apparatus  is  then  adjusted  so  that  the  surface  to  be  examined  is 
exactly  at  right  angles  to  the  optic  axis. 

When  the  Microscope  upon  which  it  is  used  has  a  mechanical  stop, 
an  adjustable  plate  may  be  placed  at  the  base  of  the  Microscope,  so  that 
it  may  be  used  for  temporarily  fixing  the  long  rod.  In  this  case  the 
ordinary  movements  of  the  mechanical  stage  form  a  fine  adjustment  for 
levelling  the  object.  When  the  object  is  levelled  the  plate  may  be 
released,  and  then  the  stage-movements  arc  used  in  the  usual  manner 
for  moving  the  object. 

(2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives. 

Zeiss'  A*  Objective.* — This  useful  objective,  in  which  there  is  an 
arrangement  for  separating  its  component  lenses  by  rotating  a  collar, 
for  the  purpose  of  increasing  its  magnifying  power,  has  had  its 
mechanism  altered,  so  that  now  it  is  in  its  original  form. 

When  it  was  first  introduced,  the  rotation  of  the  collar  caused  the 


back  positive  lens  to  move  away  from  the  front  negative  lens,  which  was 
fixed  ;  but  in  1880  the  motion  was  changed,  so  as  to  make  the  front 
lens  move  while  the  back  remained  fixed.|  The  reason  for  this  was, 
that  the  back  lens,  in  its  excursion  up  the  tube,  should  not  foul  the 
diaphragm,  usually  placed  by  Messrs.  Zeiss  at  the  end  of  their  draw- 
tubes.  Fig.  119,  which  is  taken  from  this  year's  catalogue,  shows  that 
Messrs.  Zeiss  have  reverted  to  their  original  form  in  making  the  back 
lens  the  movable  one. 

An  interesting  account  of  the  theory  of  this  lens  will  be  found  in 
the  Journal  for  1884,  p.  450. 

Assorted  Pairs  of  Objectives  for  Binocular  Microscopes.:}:— These 
are  now  supplied  by  Zeiss  in  a  special  form  of  setting,  and  mounted  in 
pairs  on  slides,  and  are  well  adapted  for  Greenough's  binocular.     They 

*  Catalogue,  English  edition,  p.  14,  fig.  6.        t  Journ.  R.M.S.,  1880,  p.  524. 
;  Catalogue,  English  edition,  1902,  p.  18. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


G15 


are  designated  (55),  (a0),  (a2),  (a3),  and  (PI),  and  are  respectively  of 
working  distances  70,  54,  4(3,  30,  35  mm.  The  combination  (PI)  is 
recommended  as  a  plankton  searcher. 

Zeiss'  Orthomorphic  Eye-piece.*— A  Ramsden  eye-piece  is  made  by 
the  Jena  firm  specially  for  use  with  Greenough's  binocular  Microscopes. 
The  name  "  orthomorphic "  is  applied  to  it  because  of  the  original 
design  of  combining  it  with  small  diaphragms  in  the  region  of  the 
upper  microscopic  nodal  point  in  order  to  satisfy  Mr.  Greenough's 
"  orthomorphic  "  requirements.  The  magnifications  obtained  by  com- 
binations of  this  eye-piece  and  any  of  the  objectives  in  last  paragraph, 
range  between  15  and  72  diameters. 

(3)  Illuminating  and  other  Apparatus. 

Zeiss'  Centring  Apparatus  for  Microscope  Objectives  when  used 
as  Condensers.f — In  many  instances  it  appears  desirable  to  use  achro- 
matic, or  apochromatic,  objectives  as  illuminators  instead  of  ordinary 
condensers.     For  this  purpose  a  sliding  sleeve  is  supplied  with  centring 


(mmwmmuuumMmw 


Fifi.  120. 


collar  into  which  such  objectives  may  be  screwed,  and  which  fits  into 
the  sleeve  of  the  illuminating  apparatus.  The  arrangement  is  seen  in 
fig.  120,  where  u  u'  are  the  centring  screws,  and  r  the  screw  for  clamping 
the  condenser  in  the  sliding  sleeve. 

Solar  Projection  Apparatus  and  its  Adjustment.}  —  A.  H.  Cole 
recommends  a  solar  projection  apparatus  fitted  with  a  porte-lumiere, 
instead  of  a  heliostat,  as  being  a  cheap,  manageable,  and  effective  arrange- 
ment. A  porte-lumiere  and  a  heliostat  are  both  intended  for  reflecting 
sunlight :  but  the  porte-lumiere  is  hand-regulated,  whereas  the  other  is 
clockwork-regulated.  The  author  mounts  his  apparatus  on  a  wide 
board  of  sufficient  length  to  exactly  fit  into  any  desired  window.  The 
window-sash  should  be  raised,  the  board  then  placed  in  situ,  and  the 
sash  then  drawn  down  close  on  to  the  board.    Any  supplementary  fixing 

*  Catalogue,  English  edition.  1902,  pp.  19  and  72. 

t  Tom.  cit,  p.  32  and  fig.  p.  31.  «*-,,«    » 

*  Journ.  Applied  Microscopy,  v.  (1902)  pp.  179o-/  (1  ng.). 


616 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


should  be  added  as  required.  The  board  is  perforated  by  a  hole  large 
enough  for  the  mirror  and  base  rods  to  be  passed  through,  but  smaller 
than  the  brass  plate  to  which  the  water-cell  and  mirror-adjuster  are 
attached.  This  plate  is  firmly  screwed  to  the  board.  The  various 
items  of  apparatus  slide  on  the  base  rods,  and  ordinary  objectives  are 
used.  A  sufficient  darkening  of  the  room  is  obtained  by  very  dark 
opaque  blinds  on  spring-rollers,  their  edges  being  boxed  up. 

(4)  Photomicrography. 

Observing  Prism  for  Photomicrography. — TLis  apparatus,  fig.  121, 
devised  and  made  by  Messrs.  E.  and  J.  Beet,  consists  of  a  right-angle 
prism  fitted  in  a  tube  of  the  same  length  as  and  at  right  angles  to  the 


Ft;.  12j. 

ordinary  Microscope-body.  The  tube  screws  on  to  the  object-glass  end 
of  the  instrument.  "When  the  Microscope  is  in  a  horizontal  position  the 
tube  may  be  connected  with  the  photomicrographic  camera  and  all  the 
observing  done  through  the  supplementary  body  through  the  observing 
prism.  To  take  a  photograph,  the  prism  may  be  instantly  displaced  by 
pressing  a  milled  head,  and  the  light  then  passes  directly  up  the  Micro- 
scope-tube into  the  camara.  So  accurately  are  the  parts  constructed 
:md  adjusted  that  there  is  no  loss  of  definition  and  Amphipleura  pellucida 
can  be  perfectly  resolved. 

Photomicrography.*  —  F.  M.  Duncan's  First  Steps  in  Photomicro- 
graphy, which  only  claims  to  be  a  handbook  for  novices,  consists  of  a 
simple  and  almost  non-technical  account  of  the  methods  and  apparatus 
employed  in  the  production  of  photomicrographs.  It  deals  with  low, 
medium,  and   high-power   work,    developing,  printing,   preparation   of 


*  Louuon,  Hazell,  Watson  &  Vine)-,  1902,  lOi  j>p.,  with  illustrations. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  617 

suitable  objects,  and  with  stereo-photomicrography.'  The  booklet,  which 
forms  one  of  a  series  ("  Amateur  Photographer's  Library")  should  have 
a  ready  vogue. 

(5)   Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Gullstrand,  A. — Allgameine  Theorie  der  monochromatischen  Aberrationen  and 
ihre  nachsten  Ergebnisse  fur  die  Ophthalmologic 

[Very  fully  discusses  the  general  mathematical  questions  involved  in  passage 
of  light-rays  through  the  eye,  and  deduces  their  special  applications  in 
ophthalmology.]  Nova  Acta  Reg.  Soc.  Sri.  Upsalienni*,  XX. 

fasc.  1  (1901)  204  pp.  and  .51  figs. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Zeiss'  Crystal  Films  and  Plates  for  Double  Refraction.*  — (i.) 
Selenite  and  Mica  Films.  These  are  now  supplied  in  four  different 
thicknesses  which,  when  placed  between  crossed  Nicol  prisms,  show  red 
of  tho  i.,  ii.,  iii.,  and  iv.  orders;  there  are  also  four  different  mica  films, 
which  are  graduated  so  as  to  produce  differences  of  phase  equal  to  1  A, 
i  K  ir  K  -k  A<  These  eight  films  compose  the  set  of  selenite  and  mica 
films  originally  proposed  by  H.  v.  Mohl  for  the  examination  of  plant 
cells  in  polarised  light. 

(ii.)  Bravais'  Double  Selenite  Film.  In  this  case  two  semicircular 
films  for  red  of  the  i.  order  are  so  arranged  side  by  side  that  the  equal 
angles  of  optical  elasticity  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  form 
angles  of  45°  to  the  boundary  line. 

(iii.)  Biot-Kleins  Quartz  Plate.  This  is  a  plate  of  quartz  3*75  mm. 
thick,  and  cut  perfectly  perpendicularly  to  the  axis. 

(iv.)  Bertrand's  Quadruple  Quartz  Plate.  Four  quadrant-shaped 
quartz  plates,  cut  perpendicularly  to  the  axis,  are  cemented  together  so 
that  their  dividing  lines  form  the  shape  of  a  cross.  Two  of  the  plates 
are  composed  of  quartz  with  rotatory  power  directed  to  the  right,  the 
other  two  of  crystals  having  the  opposite  rotation. 

(v.)  Stauroscopic  Calc-spar  Plate.  This  is  a  plate  of  calc-spar,  cut 
perpendicularly  to  the  axis,  mounted  so  as  to  be  readily  inserted  between 
eye-piece  and  analyser. 

B.  Technique.! 
CD   Collecting:  Objects,  including-  Culture  Processes. 

Flask  for  Storing  Culture  Media-! — A.  Eobin  describes  a  simple 
device  for  storing  fluid  culture  media.  It  consists  of  a  flask  A  plugged 
with  cotton-wool  and  sealed  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  paraffin  and 
vaselin,  a  bent  tube  d,  and  a  siphon  tube  ab  c  (fig.  122).  The  end  of  the 
tube  d  is  loosely  filled  with  cotton.  The  whole  is  sterilised,  and  then 
the  plug  is  pushed  down  the  neck,  leaving  about  one-half  inch  space  from 
the  brim.  The  surface  is  dusted  with  powdered  sulphate  of  copper, 
and  then  the  space  in  the  neck  above  the   stopper  is  filled  in  with  a 

*  Catalogue,  English  edition,  1902,  pp.  104-5. 

t  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Pro- 
cesses ;  (2)  Preparing  Objects  ;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting  ;  (5)  Mounting,  including  elides,  preservative  fluids,  &c.  ; 
(6)  Miscellaneous. 

%  Journ.  Applied  Microscopy,  v.  (1902)  pp.  1876-7  (1  fig.). 


618 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


mixture  of  paraffin  and  vaselin.  The  siphon  is  started  by  blowing 
through  the  tube  d.  Once  started  the  flask  is  inclined  in  the  direction 
opposite  the  outlet,  when  the  fluid  will  run  back  into  the  tube  b.  The 
level  of  the  fluid  in  o  will  be  the  same  as  in  A.  The  end  of  c  is  then 
sealed  as  well  as  the  end  of  d.  To  pour  out  the  medium,  the  end  of  c, 
after  careful  flaming,  is  broken  off  at  one  of  the  narrowed  points,  and  the 
flask  inclined  in  the  direction  of  c.  The  rapidity  of  the  flow  can  be 
made  to  vary  from  a  drop  to  a  stream  according  to  the  inclination  of 
the  flask.  Hence  this  flask  is  suitable  not  only  for  storage  purposes, 
but  may  be  used  as  a  dropping-bottle  or  used  in  the  bacteriological 
examination  of  water  when  fractions  of  a  cubic  centimetre  are  required. 


^S\ 


Fig.  122. 


New  Method  of  Cultivating  Tetanus  Bacillus.* — L.  Debrand,  who 
had  previously  demonstrated  the  identity  of  the  toxin  produced  in 
anaerobic  cultures  of  the  tetanus  bacillus  and  the  toxin  found  in  air- 
cultures  of  JB.  tetanus  associated  with  JB.  subtilis,  has  recently  made  ex- 
periments which  tend  to  show  that  with  the  toxin  obtained  from  the 
symbiosis  of  these  bacilli  cultivated  aerobically  there  can  be  produced 
a  serum  just  as  active  as  with  the  toxin  raised  by  the  ordinary  methods. 
This  new  cultivation  method  may  replace  the  old  procedure  for  pre- 
paring anti-tetanus  serum. 

Cultivation  of  Nitrite-formers  on  Paper  Disks.f — W.  Omelianski 
sews  numerous  pieces  of  filter  paper  together  and  fits  them  in  the  bottom 

*  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  427-32. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lt0  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  785-7  (1  pi). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


619 


of  a  Petri's  capsule.  Some  carbonate  of  magnesia  is  sprinkled  over  the 
bottom  underneath  the  filter-paper.  The  usual  inorganic  solution  for 
cultivating  nitrite-formers  is  then  poured  in,  care  being  taken  that  tho 
fluid  does  not  reach  the  topmost  layer.  The  fluid  should  reach  about 
half  up  the  clump  of  paper  disks.  The  capsule  is  then  sterilised,  and 
when  cool  inoculated.  When  the  nitrification  process  is  set  up,  the 
fluid  is  tested  for  ammonia  and  nitrous  acid.  When  all  tho  ammonia 
has  disappeared  a  few  drops  of  sterilised  10  p.c.  ammonium  sulphate 
are  introduced.  Colonies  are  just  visible  to  the  eye  by  the  10th  to  15th 
clay  as  yellowish  points,  which  gradually  become  brown. 

(2)  Preparing  Objects. 

Methods  for  Use  in  the  Study  of  Infusoria.* — A.  W.  Peters  obtains 
clean  specimens  of  many  kinds  of  Infusoria  by  the  following  "  yarn- 
siphon  "  method.  From  the  culture-jar  a  quantity  of 
the  liquid  is  removed  with  a  pipette  to  a  Stender  dish. 
The  organisms  are  distributed  by  sucking  up  the  liquid 
into,  and  forcing  it  out  of,  the  pipette  a  few  times.  A 
few  pieces  of  woollen  yarn  about  10  cm.  long  are  then 
laid  parallel  in  a  single  strand,  held  in  water  and 
pressed  together  until  thoroughly  wet.  This  yarn- 
siphon  is  then  placed  with  one  end  in  the  Stender  dish, 
the  other  hanging  over  into  a  receiving  vessel.  Ciliated 
organisms  soon  pass  over  the  siphon  into  the  receiving- 
vessel.  From  time  to  time  fresh  water  is  added  to 
replace  that  lost  by  siphoning. 

To  concentrate  the  organisms  in  a  small  amount  of 
water,  to  remove  the  culture,  or  to  change  the  medium, 
the  author  devised  an  apparatus  termed  a  "  tube-filter." 
One  end  of  a  short  piece  of  wide  glass  tubing  is  closed 
by  a  piece  of  filter-paper  held  in  position  by  a  rubber 
band.  The  process  essentially  depends  on  the  quality 
and  area  of  the  filter-paper  employed  ;  for  rapid  work 
with  about  50  ccm.  of  fluid  a  tube  of  about  3  cm.  in 
diameter  and  6  cm.  in  length  is  used.  The  tube  is  held 
in  a  vertical  position  on  a  ring-stand,  and  under  it  is  placed  a  Stender 
dish  or  other  vessel  containing  the  organisms.  The  tube  is  lowered 
until  its  paper  diaphragm  comes  within  a  few  millimetres  of  the  bottom 
of  the  dish.  In  the  tube  is  hung  a  filled  glass  siphon  with  the  lower 
end  of  the  outer  arm  bent  upwards  to  prevent  its  running  empty.  As 
the  water  rises  through  the  filter-paper  and  into  the  tube,  it  is  removed 
by  the  siphon.  More  culture-water  with  organisms  or  fluid  desired  as 
medium  may  bo  added  from  time  to  time.  The  process  of  upward 
filtration  leaves  nearly  all  the  organisms  in  the  dish  when  tho  tube  is 
removed. 

Another  device,  called  the  U-cell,  serves  much  the  same  purpose  as 
the  tube-filter,  but  on  a  smaller  scale.     To  make  this  U-cell  (fig.  123) 
there  are  necessary  two  slides,  some  rubber  bands,  and  coarse,  tough 
darning-cotton.    A  piece  of  the  cotton  one-and-a-half  times  the  length  of 
the  slides  is  saturated  with  water  and  then  laid  upon  a  slide  in  the  form 

*  Amer.  Natural.,  ssxv.  (1901)  pp.  553-9  (2  figs.) 


Fig.  123. 


f,20 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


of  a  U,  the  two  ends  only  just  projecting  beyond  the  edge  of  the  slide. 
The  other  slide  is  laid  on  top,  and  the  pair  are  secured  by  means  of 
rubber  bands.  This  arrangement  constitutes  the  U-cell.  It  is  filled  by 
standing  it  in  a  nearly  vertical  position,  and  then  injecting  the  fluid 
containing  the  organisms  with  a  pipette  through  the  open  end  of  the  U. 
Or  it  may  be  filled  by  siphoning  by  means  of  a  piece  of  woollen  yarn 
thrust  through  the  U-aperture  to  a  depth  of  5-10  mm. 

The  U-cell  may  also  be  used  for  a  circulating  medium,  as  shown  in 
fig.  124.  The  cells  are  placed  at  an  angle  in  a  glass  dish,  and  lean 
against  an  inner  vessel  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  first.  The  dimen- 
sions of  the  two  vessels  should  be  so  selected  that  the  upper  ends  of  the 


Fig.  124. 


cells  come  in  contact  with  the  inner  vessel  at  about  5  mm.  below  its 
upper  end.  From  the  inner  vessel  water  is  led  by  cotton-yarn  siphons 
S"  into  the  cells.  A  constant-level  siphon  S'  is  hung  over  the  wall  of 
the  outer  vessel.  The  inner  vessel  is  supplied  from  a  bottle  fitted  with 
an  air-tube  A  and  a  siphon-tube  S.  The  inner  vessel  and  its  yarn- 
siphons  should  be  protected  from  dust  by  a  glass  plate,  the  edge  of  which 
is  notched  to  admit  the  siphon-tube.  Woollen  yarn  is  used  when  a 
rapid  flow  is  desired,  cotton  for  a  slower  rate. 

In  the  preparation  of  microscopical  specimens  requiring  change  of 
fluids  under  the  cover-glass,  the  author  uses  cotton- wool.  A  small 
quantity  of  dry  absorbent  wool  is  placed  on  a  slide  and  moistened  with 


ZOOLOGV   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPYj    FTC.  62] 

a  drop  or  two  of  water  containing  Infusoria.  The  cotton  is  thon  spread 
out  into  a  thin  layer  about  the  size  of  the  cover-glass  to  be  used.  The 
cover  is  then  placed  on  the  cotton  layer  and  secured  in  position  by 
means  of  rubber  bands.  The  slide  is  placed  in  a  sloping  position,  and 
the  fluids  introduced  by  adding  them  in  drops  at  the  top  side  of  the  slip. 
The  excess  fluid  streams  out  on  the  lower  side,  or  may  be  guided  down 
by  strips  of  filter-paper. 

When  the  latter  device  is  adopted,  the  rubber  bands  may,  if  desired, 
be  removed  after  the  passage  of  the  fixing  fluid.  The  cotton  acts  as  a 
mechanical  obstruction,  the  organisms  being  caught  in  the  meshes.  The 
procedure  is  safe  and  rapid,  and  also  convenient,  as  the  preparations  may 
be  inspected  at  any  stage  or  stored  up  for  future  examination. 

Preparation  of  Metal  Specimens  for  the  Microscope.*  —  In  pre- 
paring specimens  of  metal,  the  principal  object,  says  M.  I.  Cross,  is  to 
obtain  a  perfectly  level  surface,  free  from  all  scratches  and  marks,  with 
the  highest  degree  of  polish.  The  surface  of  the  sample  is  first  care- 
fully filed  or  ground.  The  marks  made  by  this  procedure  are  then 
taken  out  with  a  very  smooth  file  or  with  emery  cloth,  the  coarseness 
of  the  cloth  being;  gradually  diminished  until  the  finest  grade  is 
reached.  From  this  stage  the  polishing  must  be  done  on  parchment 
or  chamois  leather  stretched  very  tightly  on  wood  ;  the  leather  being 
sprinkled  with  fine  crocus  powder  or  rouge  moistened  with  a  little 
water.  At  this  stage  the  metal  should  be  frequently  examined  under 
the  Microscope.  This  is  easily  done  by  clamping  it  in  a  metal-holder. 
When  the  requisite  degree  of  polish  is  attained  the  preparation  is  ready 
to  be  etched,  by  which  process  the  structure  is  further  developed. 
Etching  is  effected  by  various  reagents,  such  as  dilute  mineral  acids, 
but  best  by  infusion  of  liquorice  root  and  tincture  of  iodine.  The 
method  of  applying  the  reagent  is  as  follows :  the  specimen  is  either 
coated  with  some  protective  varnish, — leaving  the  surface  to  be  acted 
on  free, — and  immersing  the  whole  in  a  bath  ;  or  a  few  drops  may  be 
applied  to  the  surface  and  then  spread  by  means  of  a  glass  dipping  rod. 
The  solution  should  be  allowed  to  act,  say,  for  20  seconds ;  the  specimen 
is  then  carefully  washed  in  methylated  spirit,  the  surface  being  gently 
rubbed  with  the  little  finger,  after  which  it  is  washed  in  water  and 
then  dried  with  a  soft  piece  of  linen.  If  the  etching  be  not  satisfactory, 
the  process  should  be  repeated.  Owing  to  the  advent  of  the  metal- 
holder  it  is  no  longer  necessary  to  fix  the  piece  of  metal  to  a  glass 
slide,  as  this  apparatus  is  fitted  with  jaws  which  grip  the  preparation 
tightly  and  allow  it  to  be  set  in  any  plane. 

(3)  Cutting-,  including-  Imbedding-  and  Microtomes. 
Born  and  Peter's  Orientation  Plate.|— This  appliance,  named  after 
its  inventors,  is  made  by  Messrs.  Zeiss,  and  is  designed  to  mark  the 
position  of  objects  contained  in  hardening  paraffin,  aud  at  the  same 
time  to  impress  so-called  lines  of  direction  upon  the  paraffin  blocks. 
For  the  latter  purpose  one  side  of  the  plate  has  several  parallel  grooves, 
of  equal  width  and  with  sharp  edges,  cut  into  it.  A  pair  of  glass  set- 
squares  is  generally  supplied  with  the  instrument. 


*  Knowledge,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  189-90. 

t  Catalogue,  English  edition,  1902,  p.  114. 


October  loth,  190. 


>  Z    T 


•> 


622     SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

(4)  Staining-  and  Injecting-. 

Staining  Biliary  Canaliculi.* — St.  CiecLanowski  recommends  Wei- 
gert's  nerve-staining  method  for  demonstrating  biliary  canaliculi.  Small 
pieces  of  liver  are  fixed  for  not  less  than  24  hours  in  2-4  p.c.  formalin, 
and  after-hardened  in  alcohol.  The  sections  are  mordanted  in  0*5  p.c. 
chromic  acid  solution  for  2  hours,  and  then  stained  in  Weigert's  hema- 
toxylin solution.  When  sufficiently  stained  the  sections  are  differentiated 
in  the  ferridcyanide  solution,  and  having  been  thoroughly  washed  are 
mounted  in  the  usual  way. 

Glycogen  Staining. f — Best  publishes  a  method  for  staining  glycogen 
in  the  liver,  tumours,  &c,  by  means  of  lithium-carmin.  The  procedure 
is  as  follows.  The  sections  are  first  stained  with  Delafield's  or  Bohmer's 
haematoxylin,  and  after  having  been  washed  in  water  are  immersed  for 
15-20  minutes  in  a  freshly  made  mixture  consisting  of  carmin  solution 
2,  liq.  ammon.  caust.  3,  and  methyl-alcohol  6. 

The  carmin  solution  is  prepared  by  boiling  a  mixture  of  carmin  1, 
ammon.  chloratum  2,  lithium  carbonicum  0*5,  and  50  water.  To  this, 
when  cold,  20  ccm.  of  liq.  ammon.  caustici  are  added.  After  the  carmin 
staining  the  preparations  are  decolorised  in  the  following  mixture,  fre- 
quently renewed : — methyl-alcohol  2,  absolute  alcohol  4,  water  5,  or  in 
liq.  ammon.  caustic.  1,  absolute  alcohol  2.  Dehydration  in  80  p.c.  and 
100  p.c.  alcohol,  oil,  balsam. 

The  tissue  should  be  fixed  in  absolute  alcohol  and  imbedded  in 
celloidin. 

(5)   Mounting-,  including-  Slides,  Preservative  Fluids,  &c. 

Sodium  Silicate  as  a  Mounting  Medium  for  Microscopical  Pre- 
parations.:}: —  Schiirhoft  recommends  silicate  of  sodium  mixed  with 
10  p.c.  glycerin  and  10  p.c.  water  for  mounting  microscopical  prepara- 
tions. 80  parts  of  commercial  silicate  of  sodium  solution  are  added 
to  a  mixture  of  10  parts  glycerin  and  10  parts  previously  mixed.  The 
medium  hardens  well  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours. 

Simple  Method  for  Preserving  Urinary  and  other  Deposits.§ — 
K.  Bohnstein  says  that  the  deposit  or  sediment  from  secretions  or  dis- 
charges may  be  preserved  in  the  following  simple  manner.  In  the  case 
of  urine  the  sediment  is  first  treated  with  an  equal  bulk  of  2  p.c. 
formalin,  and  the  deposit  therefrom  mixed  with  an  equal  volume  of  the 
following  solution : — formalin  20,  glycerin  125,  distilled  water  up  to 
200.  When  the  material  to  be  preserved  is  of  a  more  solid  character 
such  as  vomit  or  faeces,  it  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  an  equal  bulk  of 
the  solution. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Micrometer  Gauge.  ||  —  This  micrometer  gauge  (fig.  125),  made  by 
Elliott  Brothers,  is  excellently  adapted  for  ascertaining  the  thickness  of 
cover-glasses.     The  instrument  is  fitted  with  a  ratchet  head  to  prevent 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi  (1902)  pp.  426-30. 

t  Deutsch.  Med.  Wochenschr.,  1902,  No.  5,  Vereins-Beil.,  p.  36. 

1  Deutsch.  Apoth.-Zeit.     See  Zeitachr.  angew.  Mikr.,  viii.  (1902)  p.  54. 

§  Fortschr.  d.  Med.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  41-4. 

!|  Elliott  Bros.'  Catalogue,  1902,  p.  18,  fig.  3550. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


f>23 


undue  straining  of  the  contact  points,  and  is  made  in  sizes  to  take  £  in.  to 
1  in.  measurement  in  steps  of  T1TVo  *a'  The  pitch  of  the  screw-shaft  is  50 
to  the  inch,  and  the  circumference  of  the  cylinder  carried  by  the  shaft 
is  divided  into  20  parts,  so  that  each  division  on  the  cylinder  equals 


Fir..  125. 


0  •  001  in.  By  slightly  enlarging  the  cylinder,  a  reading  of  Ttf<h>  o  *n' 
is  obtained  by  subdividing  the  20  divisions  into  10  parts.  These 
gauges  are  also  made  to  read  in  metric  measure  to  0*01  and  0*001  mm. 

Lee  and  Henneguy's  Histological  Technique.*  —  The  well-known 
treatise  on  the  technique  of  microscopical  anatomy  by  Bolles  Lee  and 
Henneguy  has  reached  its  third  edition.  In  the  present  issue  the  work 
has  been  practically  recast  and  is  considerably  enlarged.  While 
numerous  obsolete  methods  have  been  omitted,  fifty  pages  of  entirely 
new  matter  have  been  added.  The  additions  include  chapters  on  the 
theory  of  fixation,  setting  of  microtome  knives,  principles  of  histo- 
logical staining,  methods  for  making  series  of  sections,  &c.  The 
chapters  on  coal-tar  colours  and  on  cytological  methods  have  been 
practically  re-written,  and  that  on  neurological  methods  has  not  only 
been  entirely  recast  but  has  been  remodelled  on  a  scheme  suggested  by 
van  Gehuchten.  The  authors  acknowledge  also  assistance  from  P.  Mayer 
in  the  selection  of  new  matter  in  the  chapters  on  zoological  methods. 

Dictionary  of  Photography.f  —  E.  J.  Wall's  Dictionary  of  Photo- 
graphy has  just  reached  its  eighth  edition.  The  present  issue,  enlarged 
to  656  pages,  has  been  revised  and  brought  up  to  date  by  T.  Bolas. 
Nearly  100  pages  of  new  matter  and  many  diagrams  have  been  added, 
but  owing  to  concentration  and  elimination  the  bulk  of  the  volume  is 
not  unduly  increased.  The  work  presents  the  same  general  features  as 
have  rendered  its  success  so  marked. 

Re-crystallisation  of  Platinum.} — W.  Rosenhain  points  out  that 
platinum,  when  used  as  foil  or  as  crucible,  is  in  a  condition  of  severe 
strain,  having  been  bent,  drawn,  rolled,  &c.  either  in  the  cold  or  at 
temperatures  far  below  its  annealing  temperature.  When  submitted 
to  a  prolonged  exposure  at  a  high  temperature  it  undergoes  re-crystal- 
lisation, and  then  becomes  brittle. 

*  Traite  des  Methodes  techniques  de  ll'Anatomie  Microscopique,  Histologic. 
Ernbryologie  et  Zoologie,  par  A.  Bolles  Lee  et  L.  F.  Henneguy,  avec  une  preface 
par  Prof.  L.  Ranvier,  3me  e'dition,  Paris,  Octave  Doin,  1902,  ix.  and  553  pp. 

+  Hazell,  Watson  and  Viney,  London,  1902,  fi56  pp. 

X  Proc.  Rov.  Soc,  lxx.  No.  462  (1902)  pp.  252-4  [l  fig.). 


(J24  SUMMARY   OF   CUKKENT   RESEARCHES. 

Microscopic  Effects  of  Stress  on  Platinum.* — Messrs.  T.  Andrews 
find  C.  R.  Andrews  prepared  an  ingot  of  pure  platinum,  carefully  ma- 
chined into  a  cube  0*30  in.  square.  This  was  microscopically  polished 
and  subjected  to  a  compression  stress  of  12 '82  tons  per  square  inch, 
thereby  reducing  its  height  by  10  p.c.  of  the  original  dimension.  Tho 
result  was  to  produce  a  great  number  of  "  slip-bands,"  roughly  inclined 
at  an  angle  of  45°  to  the  line  of  the  compression  force  on  the  crystal 
sectional  facets.  The  experiment  is  confirmatory  of  the  observations 
of  Ewing  and  others,  that  stress  alone,  without  etching,  sometimes 
renders  manifest  the  lines  of  inter-crystalline  junction  of  the  large  or 
primary  crystal  grains  of  a  stressed  metal,  providing  that  the  stress 
is  of  sufficient  intensity. 

Eichards,  B.  E. — System  of  Recording  Cultures  of  Bacteria  genealogically  for 
Laboratory  Purposes. 

[This  system  furnishes  a  convenient  means  of  recording  all  data  relating  to 
the  study  of  individual  laboratory  cultures  of  bacteria.] 

Joum.  Applied  Microscopy,  1902,  pp.  1877-83. 
Starrow,  F.  W.,  E.N — Principles  of  Simple  Photography. 

[A  manual  embodying  the  ruling  principles  of.  elementary  photography.] 

London,  Hazell,  Watson  &  Viney,  1902,  130  pp., 
with  illustrations  by  the  author. 

*  Tree.  Eoy.  Sec,  lsx.  No.  4C2  (1902)  pp.  250-2  (3  figs.). 


JOURNAL 


OF    THE 


ROYAL  MICROSCOPICAL  SOCIETY. 

DECEMBER  1902. 


TRANSACTIONS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


X. — Electrical  Method  of  Talcing  Microscope  Measurements. 
By  Philip  E.  Shaw,  B.A.,  D.Sc. 

(Bead  November  19th,  1902.) 

Two  years  ago  *  I  described  a  method  of  taking  very  small 
measurements  by  a  new  process,  that  of  electric  touch.  Since  then 
considerable  advance  has  been  made  on  the  same  lines,  and  now 
it  is  possible  to  measure  one-millionth  of  a  mm.  with  accuracy, 
and  the  method  has  been  used  in  a  variety  of  physical  problems.! 

By  simplifying  the  original  instrument  a  small  apparatus, 
called  the  Simple  Electric  Micrometer,  has  been  produced  giving 
measurements  of  one-thousandth  of  mm.  or  less.  It  has  a  great 
number  of  uses  in  the  physical  laboratory,  including  one  applica- 
tion to  the  Microscope  about  to  be  described. 

This  method  of  measuring  is  novel  in  two  respects.  Firstly,  it 
is  electrical ;  secondly,  it  is  a  direct  method,  which  is  in  its  favour. 

Description. — In  the  diagram  (fig.  126)  the  essential  parts  for 
the  measurement  are  shown. 

The  slide  si  is  mounted  on  the  stage  s,  o  being  the  Microscope 
objective.  A  screw  sc  is  brought  up  to  nearly  touch  the  edge  of 
the  slide.  This  screw  is  carried  by  a  nut  n,  and  has  a  graduated 
■disc  cl  and  milled  head  m  attached  to  it.  If  the  screw  have  two 
threads  to  a  mm.,  and  the  graduated  disc  have  500  divisions,  then 
a  movement  of  the  screw-disc  by  one  division  corresponds  to  a 
movement  of  the  screw-point  t  by  one-thousandth  of  a  mm.  (i.e. 
1  micron).  The  micrometer-screw  is  supported  on  a  stand  quite 
separate  from  the  Microscope,  so  that  it  can  be  removed  and 
packed  in  a  separate  box  for  preservation.  There  is  a  universal 
joint  j  between  the  screw  and  the  stand,  so  that  we  can  raise  or 
lower  the  screw,  point  it  in  any  direction  whatever,  and  then 
rigidly  clamp  it  there.     Suppose  the  screw  and  stage  are  brought 

*  Phil.  Mag.,  Dec.  1900. 

t  Phil.  Mag.,  March  1901 ;  Electrician,  March  1901  and  March  1902. 

December  17th,  1902  2  tj 


626 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


into  contact,  an  electric  circuit  is  completed  through  a  battery  5, 
a  resistance  r,  a  telephone  receiver  te,  a  nut  n,  and  thence  through 
the  screw  sc  and  the  stage  s  to  the  battery.  At  each  make  or 
break  of  circuit  at  the  point  t  the  telephone  "speaks." 

In  order  to  measure  any  object  seen  in  the  Microscope  slide, 
move  the  stage  by  the  rack-and-pinion  or  other  adjustment,  till 
the  cross-wire  is  on  one  side  of  the  object.  Bring  the  screw  sc  into 
contact  with  stage  s,  and  when  the  telephone  speaks  observe  the 


Fig.  12G. 

reading  Ex  of  the  disc  d.  Now  move  the  stage  till  the  other  side 
of  the  object  coincides  with  the  cross-wire.  Bring  the  screw  into 
contact  again,  and  obtain  a  new  reading  B2  of  the  disc  d.  Then 
the  diameter  of  the  object  is  (B2  —  Bx).  $*m£ 

As  an  example,  three  sets  of  readings  were  taken  for  Bacillus 
tuberculosis,  and  were  as  follows  : — 


Ri. 

R2. 

Length  =  E2  -  Ei- 

411 

410-7 
411 

414 
414 
414 

3    microns  \ 

menu 
3-3      „               31 

I   microns 
3          „        J 

Electrical  Method  for  Measurements.     By  P.  E.  Shaw.       627 

As  an  instance  of  another  class  of  measurement  the  following 
is  given.  If  it  be  desired  to  accurately  measure -the  number  of 
lines  in  a  diffraction  grating  used  to  produce  a  normal  spectrum, 
place  the  grating  on  the  stage  and  proceed  as  before.  A  table  of 
results  is  given. 

Every  50  Lines  in  a  Diffraction  Grating. 


llirrometer 
Reading. 


Difference  in 
Term  of  M. 


225 

G79 

1134 


} 

7Q  1 


1593 
2040 
2498 
2953 
3410 


454 

455 
459 
453 
458 
455 
457 


Mean  456  /j.  for  50  lines. 


Fig.  127  shows  the  micrometer  by  itself. 

Fig.  128  shows  the  whole  apparatus  for  Microscope  measure- 
ments. 

Details. — This  method  of  measuring  by  electric  contact   has 
been  exhaustively  tested  for  several  years  and  is  quite  reliable. 
Consistent  results  can  be  obtained  if  two  conditions  are  observed: — 
(1)  Both  the  contact  surfaces  of  the  screw  and  the  stage  must  be 
metallically  clean ;  fine  emery  cloth  should  be  used  on  them  till 
they  are  quite  free  from  lacquer,  oil,  &c.     (2)  Vibrations  should 
be  avoided.     Mount  the  apparatus  on  a  steady  table  not  subject 
to  vibrations,   and   handle  the   screw  delicately  when   taking   a 
measurement.     Any  cell  will  do  for  the  circuit,  and  any  telephone 
receiver  will    act,  though  a  "  loud  speaker "  is  most  convenient. 
For  resistance  I  have  used  a  few  hundred  ohms.     The  object  in 
having  resistance  is  to  keep  the  current  small,  but  it  is  not  an 
essential.     In  completing  the  circuit  through  the  Microscope,  I 
have  used  any  spare  screw  on  the  Microscope  and  brought  the 
joining  wire  to  it.     If  there  is  no  screw  convenient,  the  wire  may 
be  simply  lashed  firmly  on  the  instrument,  but  of  course  to  an 
unlacquered  surface.      It  should  be   observed   that   the   method 
works  equally  well  whether  immersion  is  adopted  or  not. 

2  u  2 


628 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


Other  Methods  of  Measuring.  —  (1)  The  Ramsden  Eye-piece 
Micrometer. — This  is  a  convenient  and  sensitive  method,  but  e very- 
measurement  taken  by  it  has  to  be  divided  by  the  magnifying 
power  of  the  objective,  a  quantity  which  is  only  known  to  a 
certain  degree  of  accuracy.  Hence,  besides  the  error  due  to  the 
micrometer  reading,  a  second  one  is  introduced  into  the  measure- 
ment. Moreover,  the  magnifying  power  must  be  known  for  every 
objective.  Again,  in  most  cases  the  Eamsden  eye-piece  is  mounted 
in  the  tube  of  the  Microscope,  so  that  movement  and  oscillations 
of  the  tube  take  place  each  time  the  Microscope  is  handled,  thus 
introducing  errors.  To  avoid  this,  the  eye-piece  should  be  on  a 
separate  stand. 

(2)   Less  sensitive  than  the   former  is  the  Jackson   eye-piece 


Fig.  127. 


micrometer.  It  is  convenient,  as  with  it  the  eye-piece  is  not 
handled,  and  the  difficulty  in  the  Eamsden  form  is  avoided.  But 
it  labours  under  the  other  disadvantages  mentioned. 

(3)  The  stage  micrometer  method. — Whilst  the  ruled  scale  is 
the  standard  of  length  it  cannot  be  used  directly  on  the  object  to 
be  measured,  but  either  we  (a)  use  the  camera  lucida  method  of 
sketching,  which  is  clumsy,  or  (b)  calibrate  the  eye-piece  micro- 
meter by  means  of  the  ruled  surface,  and  then  proceed  hence- 
forward to  use  the  eye-piece  micrometer.  The  stage  micrometer 
rulings  are  not  perfectly  uniform.*  Thus  the  methods  in  common 
use  at  present  are  all  indirect,  for  at  least  two  steps  have  to  be 

*  See  Carpenter's  book  on  the  Microscope,  7th  edition,  p.  231. 


Electrical  Method  for  Measurements.     By  P.  E.  Shaw.      629 

taken  in  any  measurement  made.  Each  step  involves  errors  and 
expenditure  of  time. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  electric  micrometer  is  a  direct  method  ; 
only  one  measurement  is  required,  thus  making  for  accuracy, 
whilst  at  the  same  time  the  instrument  used  is  very  sensitive. 

If  one  specially  wishes  to  work  by  means  of  an  eye-piece 
micrometer,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  the  electric  method  can  be  used 
in  place  of  the  stage  micrometer  to  give  a  very  accurate  calibra- 
tion of  the  eye-piece.     But  this  does  not  seem  a  desirable  course. 

(4)  Some  modern  Microscope  stages  are  moved  by  a  screw 
which  has  a  graduated  head.  In  this  way  a  measurement  may  be 
taken  directly  (as  with  the  electrical  method).  In  principle  this 
micrometer  is  good,  but  in  practice  it  has  three  disqualifications  :  — 


Fig.  128. 


(i.)  The  measuring-screw  is  given  the  work  of  carrying  the  stage 
with  it  when  it  turns  ;  supposing  no  looseness  or  backlash  occur 
at  first,  these  will  probably  be  set  up  in  time  from  the  wearing- 
action,  and  so  errors  will  arise,  (ii.)  It  is  inconvenient  to  have 
such  a  large  graduated  disc  attached  near  the  stage  as  will  give 
readings  of  1  micron ;  but  the  disc  is  generally  small,  and  hence 
the  readings  cannot  be  very  fine  or  the  instrument  delicate,  (in.) 
The  micrometer  screw  being  fixed  on  the  stage  will '  be  liable  to  be 
knocked  and  damaged,  and  so  spoiled  for  accurate  measurement. 
Any  fine  measuring-screw  should  be  put  away  when  not  in  use. 

The  Electric  Micrometer  is  like  the  above  in  being  direct- 
acting,  but  it  does  not  suffer  from  the  disqualifications  mentioned. 
It  can  be  used  with  any  Microscope  having  a  movable  stage  (and 


630  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

if  a  movable  stage  does  not  exist  a  temporary  one  could  be  easily 
made  by  having  a  brass  plate  moved  by  the  screw  itself),  no  other 
micrometer  at  all  being  needed. 

I  have  used  it  on  two  laboratory  Microscopes  for  a  variety 
of  measurements.  It  takes  only  a  minute  or  two  to  set  up  the 
apparatus. 

Given  delicacy  of  touch,  measurements  can  be  made  of  any- 
thing visible.     I  have  found  no  difficulty  in  reading  to  £  micron. 

If  a  capstan-pin  be  inserted  into  the  edge  of  the  milled  head 
of  the  screw,  a  more  delicate  angular  movement  may  be  given  to 
the  screw,  and  readings  of  T\,  micron  obtained. 


SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

RELATING    TO 

ZOOLOGY    AND     BOTANY 

(principally  invertebrata  and  cryptogamia), 

MICROSCOPY,    Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VEKTEBRATA. 
a.  Erabryology.f 

Influence  of  Temperature  on  Development  of  Fowl's  Egg-.} — C.  L. 
Edwards  has  made  a  careful  study  of  this  question.  His  data  are  based 
on  238  incubated  and  59  unincubated  eggs. 

The  physiological  zero,  or  the  temperature  below  which  there  is  no 
development,  is  given  by  most  authors  at  28° ;  it  is  established  at  the 
degree  included  between  20°  and  21°.  The  index  of  development 
between  20°  and  30° "75  is  given;  the  normal  average  diameter  of  the 
blastoderm  and  of  the  area  pellucida  is  calculated.  The  average  volume 
of  the  egg  is  also  considered.  We  cannot  summarise  the  tables,  but 
the  general  result  shows  a  direct  dependence  of  ontogenetic  organisation 
upon  warmth. 

Retrogressive  Changes  in  Ovarian  Follicles.  §  —  A.  Buhler  first 
describes  the  retrogressive  changes  in  the  burst  follicle  of  Cyclostomes 
(lamprey)  and  Teleosts.  There  is  an  almost  complete  degeneration, 
well  seen  in  Coregonus ;  the  epithelium  and  the  theca  connective-tissue 
degenerate  pari  passu  and  almost  equally.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
process  in  Coregonus  there  is  in  the  theca  a  certain  progressiveness  in 
the  formation  of  a  few  large  connective-tissue  cells,  and  this  is  much 
more  marked  in  the  lamprey,  where  the  theca  holds  out  till  after  the 
degeneration  of  the  epithelium.  The  residue  of  the  theca  becomes  an 
inseparable  part  of  the  connective-tissue  of  the  superficial  ovarian 
lamina.     There  is  no  formation  of  new  tissue, — no  corpus  luteum. 

Buhler  then  discusses  the  degeneration  of  the  unburst  follicle.  This 
is  more  complex  since  it  involves  the  absorption  of  the  ovum,  partly 

*  The  Society  are  uot  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they  do 
not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers  noted, 
nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of  this  part  of 
the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  published,  and  to 
describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  &c,  which  are  either  new  or  have 
not  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

t  This  section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so  called, 
but  nlso  those  dealing  with  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  and  allied  subjects. 

%  Amer.  Journ.  Physiol.,  vi.  (1902)  pp.  351-97. 

§  Morphol.  Jahrb.,  xxx.  (1902)  pp.  377-452  (2  pis.  and  2  figs.). 


632     SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

by  chemical  and  physical  disintegration,  partly  by  the  active  agency  of 
the  elements  of  the  follicular  envelopes.  This  is  described  at  length. 
The  result  is  the  same  as  before — the  specific  epithelium  of  the  follicle 
is  wholly  lost  and  the  remains  of  the  connective-tissue  pass  into  the 
lamina  ovarii  superficialis. 

Albuminoid  Crystals  in  Ova  of  Roe  Deer.  *  — V.  von  Ebner  de- 
scribes the  remarkable  occurrence  of  crystalline  bodies  in  the  ova  of 
the  roe  deer.  The  reactions  point  to  an  albuminoid  body,  insoluble  in 
water,  soluble  in  salt  solution,— a  globulin  in  the  strict  sense.  The 
crystals  occurred  only  in  ova  already  surrounded  by  a  zona. 

Ovary  and  Menstruation.!  —  J.  Halban  has  made  experiments  on 
Pavian  monkeys  which  have  led  him  to  the  conclusion  that  menstruation 
is  definitely  stopped  after  removal  of  the  ovaries.  The  experiments 
show  that  menstruation  is  dependent  on  the  ovary ;  and  that  the  cause 
of  menstruation  is  to  be  found  in  a  chemical,  not  directly  nervous,  nexus, 
since  the  persistence  of  menstruation  depends  on  the  presence  of  the 
ovary  in  the  body  irrespective  of  its  position,  whether  subcutaneously 
between  muscle  and  fascia,  or  in  the  mesentery. 

Pseudochromosomes  in  Ova  of  Birds.J  —  F.  d'Hollander  describes 
"  pseudochromosomes  "  ("  Balbiani's  nucleus,"  "  vitelline  nucleus  ")  in 
the  ova  of  Parus  major,  Muscicapa  grisola,  and  the  fowl.  These  bodies 
occur  in  varied  form  (as  granules,  rods,  filaments,  vesicles  with  chromatic 
walls,  &c),  distinct  from  the  germinal  vesicle.  He  regards  these  enig- 
matical bodies  as  equivalent  to  the  "  pseudochromosomes  "  of  Heidenhain 
and  Piirst,  the  ergastoplasmic  structures  of  Prenant  and  the  brothers 
Bouin,  the  spicules  found  by  von  Winiwarter  in  the  human  ovum,  and 
the  pseudochromosomes  observed  by  Van  der  Stricht  in  the  ovum  of 
the  bat. 

Atypical  Spermatozoa.§— I.  Broman  has  studied  the  atypical  forms 
of  spermatozoa  occurring  in  man,  salamander,  and  dog-fish.  He  dis- 
tinguishes three  sets : — (I.)  Giant  and  dwarf  spermatozoa  occur  which 
are  typical  except  in  size.  They  probably  arise  from  spermatocytes 
whose  chromosomes  have  been  unequally  divided  between  the  two 
daughter-cells.  (II.)  Spermatozoa  occur  with  2-4  tails  but  one  head, 
which  arise  from  spermatocytes  with  bipolar  or  multipolar  mitoses. 
(III.)  Spermatozoa  with  two  or  three  heads  also  occur,  and  arise  in 
man  when  nuclear  division  of  spermatocytes  is  not  followed  by  plasmic 
division.  In  the  forms  of  this  type  which  occur  in  the  salamander  the 
behaviour  of  the  idiozome  is  of  particular  interest. 

A  fourth  category  of  atypical  spermatozoa  is  elsewhere  ||  discussed. 
It  includes  those  (often  occurring  in  man)  which  have  au  abnormal  form. 
The  abnormality  may  affect  the  form  of  the  head,  the  attachment  of  the 
tail,  the  spiral  sheath  of  the  connecting-piece,  or  the  sheath  of  the  main 
tail-piece,  or  several  of  these  at  once.  The  origin  of  these  abnormalities 
is  unknown, — perhaps  they  may  be  classed  as  pathological  variations. 

*  SB.  Alcad.  Wiss.  Wieu,  ex.  (1901)  pp.  5-12  (2  figs.). 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  71-92. 

t  Yerh.  Anat.  Ges.,   xvi.  Vers,  in  Anat.  Anzeig.  Erg'anzungshft.,  xxi.  (1902). 
pp.  16S-71  (5  fiss.).  §  Anat.  Hefto,  xviii.  (1902)  pp.  509-47  (11  pis.), 

||   Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  497-531  (107  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICKOSCOPY,   ETC.  633 

In  the  more  speculative  part  of  his  paper,  Brornan  expresses  his 
belief  that  these  atypical  sperms  may  function  in  fertilisation.  He 
attaches  particular  importance  to  those  with  one  head  and  two  tails, 
which,  he  suggests,  may  be  responsible  for  twins  from  one  ovum. 

Fertilisation  in  the  Bat.*— 0.  Van  der  Stricht  has  had  the  good 
fortune  to  be  able  to  study  the  behaviour  of  the  spermatozoon  in  the  act 
of  fertilising  the  ovum  of  Vespertilio  noctula.  The  entire  spermatozoon 
penetrates  into  the  interior  of  the  vitellus  ;  it  may  enter  at  the  pole 
where  the  polar  globules  are  detached,  or  at  the  opposite  pole,  and 
probably  at  any  spot.  The  tail  persists  a  very  long  time  beside  the  head, 
after  the  latter  is  transformed  into  the  pronucleus,  even  on  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  first  cleavage  spindle.  A  spermaster  is  formed  around  a 
central  corpuscle — the  spermocentrum,  and  reaches  to  the  anterior  end 
of  the  portion  which  connects  to  the  tail  of  the  spermatozoon.  No 
rotation  of  the  head  through  180°  was  observed. 

Epithelial  Structures  on  Parrots'  Beaks,  f  —  A.  Ghigi  has  ex- 
amined a  series  of  embryos  of  Melopsittacus  undulatus.  The  epitrichium 
is  most  developed  on  the  dorsal  surface,  and  least  ventrally  ;  comparison 
with  other  birds  shows  that  its  distribution  is  very  variable,  as  is  also 
the  distribution  and  quantity  of  ceratohyalin  in  the  individual  epi- 
trichial  elements. 

The  "  egg-tooth  "  consists  of  many  superposed  strata  of  denticulate 
cells  with  very  distinct  and  stainable  nuclei  and  granular  cytoplasm. 

The  papillae  of  the  beak  are  dermal  and  epidermal  elevations,  ex- 
tending the  surface  which  forms  the  horny  investment  of  the  beak  and 
thereby  affording  greater  strength. 

The  dentition  is  represented,  as  Rose,  Carlsson,  and  others  have 
shown,  by  epithelial  laminee  on  the  jaws,  and  that  of  the  upper  jaw  in 
parrots  attains  a  notable  degree  of  development,  and  persists  some  time 
after  the  bird  is  hatched. 

Regeneration  of  the  Lens  in  Chick  Embryos.:}:  —  D.  Barfurth  in 
co-operation  with  O.  Dragendorff  has  shown  that  the  embryo  of  the 
fowl  shows  characteristic  regenerative  processes  on  the  internal  wall  of 
the  optic  cup  and  can  form  a  new  lens.  The  regenerated  lens  is  closely 
connected  with  the  margin  of  the  optic  cup,  therefore  with  the  sub- 
sequently formed  iris  margin.  The  operations  destroyed  the  normal 
ectodermic  primordium  of  the  lens  and  injured  the  subjacent  portion 
of  the  developing  optic  cup.  It  seems  most  probable  that  the  margin 
of  the  optic  cup  affords  the  formative  tissue  for  the  new  lens. 

It  appears  from  the  above  that  the  embryo-bird  has  a  regenerative 
capacity  which  the  adult  almost  entirely  loses,  which  corresponds  with 
what  Barfurth  has  previously  observed  in  regard  to  Amphibians.  Bar- 
furth inclines  to  say  that  regenerative  capacity  is  an  original  and 
intrinsic  power  of  organisms,  and  he  does  not  think  that  this  view  is 

*  Verh.  Anat.  Ges.,  xvi.  Vers,  in  Anat.  Anzeig.  Erg'anzungshft.,  xxi.  (1902) 
pp.  163-8  (1  fig.). 

t  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  145-63  (8  figs.). 

%  Verh.  Anat.  Ges.,  xvi.  Vers,  in  Anat.  Anzeig.  Erg'anzuDgshft.,  xxi.  (1902) 
pp.  185-99  (13  figs.). 


634  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

inconsistent  with   what  Weismaun    has    maintained    in   regard    to   its 
adaptive  significance. 

Branchial  Clefts  in  Lizard  and  Slow-worm.* — Prenant  and  Saint- 
Remy  corroborate  on  the  whole  the  conclusions  of  Maurer. 

The  first  cleft  does  not  develop  as  such,  but  is  at  its  first  appearance 
a  dorsal  sensory  organ ;  the  second  cleft  gives  rise  to  the  anterior 
thymus;  the  third  is  associated  with  the  posterior  thymus  and  a  para- 
thymia glandule ;  the  fourth  gives  rise  to  a  structure  like  a  parathymic 
glandule,  but  this  degenerates  completely ;  the  fifth,  developed  in 
Lacerta,  is  quite  transitory  in  the  slow-worm.  There  is  a  paired  post- 
branchial  evagination,  but  that  on  the  left  retrogresses  and  usually  dis- 
appears, while  that  on  the  right  becomes  a  gland  which  is  at  its  maximum 
in  young  forms,  and  retrogressive  in  adults. 

Skull  and  Nervous  System  of  Ceratodus.f — A.  N.  Sewertzoff  has 
studied  the  development  of  the  primordial  cranium  of  Ceratodus  and 
the  nervous  system.  In  its  development  the  cranium  of  this  Dipnoan 
shows  a  greater  resemblance  to  that  of  Urodela  than  to  that  of  any 
other  group.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  not  a  few  distinctive  features 
which  do  not  occur  in  Amphibia.  Moreover,  as  one  would  expect,  the 
resemblance  to  Amphibia  decreases  as  development  proceeds. 

The  distribution  of  the  nerves  in  Ceratodus  is  in  general  the  same 
as  in  Protopterus,  as  described  by  Pincus,  while  some  peculiarities,  e.g. 
as  to  the  nervus  praaopticus,  distinguish  it  sharply  from  that  of  other 
Vertebrata. 

Structural  Feature  connected  with  Mating  of  Diemyctylus  viri- 
descens.| — W.  A.  Hilton  describes  the  quaint  mating  habits  in  this 
Urodele.  After  excitation,  in  which  the  male  touches  the  female  with 
the  sides  of  his  head,  the  male  leaves  the  female  but  is  closely  followed 
by  her.  The  male  moves  slowly  forward  and  throws  his  body  into 
serpentine  undulations,  and  a  spermatophore  is  emitted  which  may 
come  to  the  cloaca  of  the  female  as  she  follows  her  mate  farther  along. 
"What  is  the  nature  of  the  attraction  which  leads  the  female  to  follow  ? 

Hilton's  suggestion  is  that  it  may  be  in  part  due  to  the  secretion  of 
three  or  four  quite  large,  deep  glandular  pits  which  extend  from  the 
back  of  the  male's  eye  along  the  side  of  the  head.  They  are  repre- 
sented by  small  pin-prick-like  minute  depressions  in  the  female.  Adult 
males  taken  at  any  time  except  the  breeding  season  show  the  gland 
tubules  associated  with  the  pits  in  a  resting  state ;  when  breeding  the 
gland  lumens  are  filled  with  secretion.  No  pits  or  glands  were  found 
in  D.  torosus,  whose  breeding  habits  are  dissimilar. 

Palaeontology  and  Evolution.§ — E.  Koken  expounds  a  number  of 
conclusions  which  command  general  assent.  The  palaeontologist  has  to 
deal  with  the  most  direct  "  evidences  of  evolution," — there  are  fossil- 
series,  there  are  extinct  links  between  modern  types,  there  is  an  un- 
mistakable progress,  and  so  on. 

*  Comptes  Itendus,  cxxxv.  (1902)  pp.  62-3. 
t  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  593-608  (5  figs.). 
X  Amer.  Nat,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  643-51  (11  figs.). 

§  '  Palaontologie  und  Descendenzlehre,'  Jena,  1902,  Svo,  33  pp.     See  Zool.  Cen- 
■  tralbl.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  432-5. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  635 

He  emphasises  the  necessity  of  assuming  "  reiterated  species- 
formation  "  (iterative  Artbildung),  namely,  the  repetition  of  similar 
variations  at  different  epochs,  as  if  there  were  a  "  predisposition  towards 
certain  lines  of  variability."  This  is  a  very  interesting  inquiry,  which 
few  have  pursued,  as  to  parallelism  in  evolutionary  processes. 

The  author  is  not  a  Darwinian,  but  a  frank  Lamarckian.  Not  only 
do  changes  in  the  earth  and  its  climate  bring  about  changes  in  species, 
in  part  directly  and  in  part  by  influencing  instincts,  but  the  instinct 
and  the  will  of  the  organisms  are  the  most  important  factors  in  evolu- 
tion, whether  in  the  formation  of  the  Ichthyosaurian  paddle  or  in  the 
establishment  of  the  feet  of  Diprotodon.  But  the  difficulty  is  to 
harmonise  such  psychological  formulae  as  "  will,"  with  biological  factors 
of  a  more  objective  sort. 

b.  Histology. 

Artificially  induced  Anomalies  in  Cell-Division.*  —  K.  Werner 
has  experimented  on  the  effects  of  ether  spray.  The  cold  brings  about 
proliferation  and  cell-lesions ;  and  abnormal  modes  of  cell-division 
ensue.  Most  are  amitotic,  but  sometimes  the  mitotic  character  is  pre- 
served. The  amitotic  process  is  a  traumatic,  in  a  certain  sense  sim- 
plified, mitosis.  There  is  an  unsymmetrical  and  incomplete  rearrangement 
of  the  chromatin  before  the  metakinesis,  and  on  this  other  phenomena 
depend.  Although  not  of  equal  value  to  mitosis,  the  amitosis  gives 
rise  to  viable  cells.  Giant  cells  of  unicellular  origin  arise  either  by 
stimulation  of  the  centres  and  paralysis  of  the  periphery  (Weigert),  or 
by  a  hindering  of  cell-wall  formation  through  the  persistent  activity 
of  the  centres  (His). 

Direct  Division  in  Artificial  Conditions.!  —  W.  Schimkewitsch 
directs  attention  to  a  number  of  experiments  which  he  has  made  on  the 
eggs  of  Loligo  and  the  fowl,  which  show  that  unnatural  conditions  of  a 
chemical  nature  induce  direct  division  where  indirect  division  should 
occur.  The  variety  of  conditions  when  this  occurs  is  great,  but  it 
seems  as  if  they  might  all  be  included  in  the  statement  that  an  un- 
naturally intensified  metabolism  tends  to  induce  the  direct  mode  of 
division.  An  interesting  survey  is  taken  of  the  numerous  and  very 
varied  instances  where  this  relapse  to  amitosis  has  been  observed. 

Reticular  Apparatus  in  Spinal  Ganglion  Cells.J— M.  Jaworowski 
has  found  in  the  spinal  ganglion  cells  of  birds  and  amphibians  the  same 
"reticular  apparatus"  as  Golgi  has  described  in  mammals.  It  is  quite 
different  from  Apathy's  nerve-fibrils  or  Holmgren's  canaliculi ;  it  is  a 
closed  structure,  composed  of  threads,  confined  to  the  inner  plasmic 
region,  and  in  no  connection  with  the  surface. 

Pituitary  Body  of  Amphibians. § — A.  Bochenek  finds  that  a  nerve- 
strand  from  the  under  part  of  the  infundibulum  enters  the  hypophysis 
and  ends  in  the  glandula  infundibuli.  In  Urodela  the  glandula  in- 
fundibuli  consists  of  a  single  segment,  and  is  almost  exclusively  formed 
of  a  dense  meshwork  of  nerve-fibres.    In  Anura  there  are  two  segments, 

*  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  Ixi.  (1902)  pp.  85-122  (1  pi.). 

f  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxii.  (1902)  pp.  COo-S. 

t  Bull.  Acad.  Interna t   Bci.  Cracovie,  1902.  pp.  40.3-13  (1  pi.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  397-403  ('2  figs. ). 


636  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

— the  anterior  one  corresponding  exactly  to  the  glandula  infundibuli  of 
Urodela,  the  posterior  one  being  a  new  structure  altogether.  Boeke's 
view  that  the  infundibulum  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  sensory  organ  finds 
fresh  support  in  Bochenek's  demonstration  of  the  nerve-strand  above 
mentioned. 

Structure  and  Function  of  Thymus  in  Teleosteans.* — T.  Prymak 
has  studied  this  in  Gobio  fiuviatilis,  Carassins  auratus,  Corvina  nigra, 
and  Stromateus  fiatola.  He  supports  Beard's  conclusion  that  the  thymus 
is  the  first  and  original  source  of  the  leucocytes.  In  every  case  he 
found  that  leucocytes  passed  in  large  numbers  from  the  thymus,  through 
the  thin  epithelial  layer,  into  the  branchial  cavity.  Quantities  of  leuco- 
cytes were  likewise  found  on  the  gills  or  in  their  immediate  vicinity. 
It  seems  plausible  to  conclude,  with  Beard,  that  the  emigrant  leucocytes 
act  as  phagocytes,  dealing  with  the  numerous  micro-organisms  about  the 
gills. 

The  degeneration  of  the  thymus  is  characterised  by  the  appearance 
of  empty  spaces  vacated  by  the  leucocytes,  which  have  passed,  into  the 
blood-vessels  or  migrated  from  the  thymus,  or  changed  into  red  blood- 
corpuscles  which  by-and-by  break  up  into  finely  granular  substance. 
Another  characteristic  is  the  appearance  of  concentric  (Hassal's)  cor- 
puscles. These  are  not  due  to  remains  of  epithelial  cells,  but  arise, 
according  to  the  author,  from  obliterated  blood-vessels. 

Supra-renal  Bodies  of  Plagiostomes.t — E.  Grynfeltt  has  examined 
these  bodies  in  twenty-four  species,  and  finds  the  same  general  structure 
throughout.  They  consist  of  an  epithelial  mass  of  chromaffine  cells 
surrounded  by  a  delicate  capsule,  and  traversed  solely  by  capillaries 
and  terminal  nerve-fibres.  The  nerve-fibres  penetrate  into  the  paren- 
chyma among  the  chromaffine  cells,  in  contact  with  which  they  end  freely. 

Inter-renal  Body  of  Plagiostomes4 — E.  Grynfeltt  communicates 
some  details  in  regard  to  this  puzzling-  body.  It  is  typically  a  paired 
organ.  Its  structure  is  that  of  a  blood-gland,  consisting  of  flexuous 
cellular  strands,  anastomosing  in  a  kind  of  network  with  voluminous 
capillaries  in  the  meshes.  The  cellular  strands  are  enveloped  in  a 
delicate  membrane ;  they  are  usually  solid,  but  have  internal  spaces  in 
Hyliobatis.  The  cells  of  the  inter-renal  body  are  remarkable  for  their 
abundant  content  of  fat. 

Plasmic  Appearance  of  Metaphosphate  of  Calcium.§ — A.  L. 
Merrera  gives  descriptions  and  photomicrographs  of  the  cell-like 
appearances  obtainable  from  enmlsions  of  metaphosphate  of  lime  in 
salt  water.  He  suggests  that  living  matter  may  have  metaphosphate  of 
lime  as  its  foundation. 

c.  General. 

Classification.  || — J.  Stanley  Gardiner  criticises  adversely  Bernard's 
proposal  to  classify  by  localities.  The  specimens  of  a  collection  are  to 
be  divided  into  the  forms  for  each  locality,  and  each  form  is  to  be 
termed  X.  loc.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  &c.  in  accordance  with  the  number  of  forms 
in  that  locality. 

*  Anat.  Anzeig,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  164-77  (2  figs.). 

t  Coniptes  Eendus,  cxxxv.  (1902)  pp.  373-4.  %  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  439-41. 

§  Mem.  Soc.  Cient.  Antonio  Alzate,  xvii.  (1902)  pp.  201-13  (S  figs.;. 
||   Proc.  Cambridge  Phil.  Soc,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  123-7. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  637 

The  author  remarks,  after  criticising  the  proposed  scheme,  that, 
"  Zoology  as  a  science  commenced  with  the  doctrine  of  evolution,  a 
generalisation  of  facts.  Species  in  the  older  sense  are  not,  but  the 
meaning  of  the  term  is  clear  to  all.  It  is  not  unscientific  to  call  each 
twig  of  our  tree  by  a  separate  name.  In  nature  each  twig  is  different 
from  its  neighbour,  and  is  many  times  reduplicated.  Each  replica 
varies  somewhat,  but  the  main  characters  of  the  twig  are  repeated  in 
all.  New  twigs  may  perhaps  be  formed  by  the  splitting  of  old  twigs, 
but  the  more  general  method — certainly  in  corals — is  by  the  bursting  of 
buds." 

Physical  Coloration.* — H.  Mandoul  discusses  the  iridescent  colora- 
tion of  shells,  fish-scales,  insects'  wings,  birds'  feathers,  &c.  Gadow, 
Krukenberg,  and  others  attribute  the  colours  to  dispersion  phenomena 
(caused  by  prisms  or  fine  lines) ;  Briicke  and  others  have  referred  them 
to  the  action  of  fine  lamellae ;  but  neither  interpretation  has  been 
proved.  Careful  investigation  has  led  Mandoul  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  colours  are  due  to  interference  phenomena  caused  by  delicate 
lamellae. 

Copper  in  the  Animal  Org-anism.f — R.  Dubois  has  examined  about 
a  score  of  types,  and  finds  a  general  occurrence  of  copper,  as  in  plants. 
It  occurs  in  terrestrial,  fresh-water,  and  marine  forms,  in  very  varied 
proportions  even  in  the  same  species.  Fishes  contain  less  than  Inverte- 
brates, and  the  latter  have  much  more  than  the  higher  Vertebrates.  The 
proportions  in  different  parts  of  the  same  animal  differ  greatly,  thus  the 
muscles  of  Palinurus  vulgaris  only  contain  4^  mgrm.  in  100  grm.,  the 
blood  has  23  mgrm.  in  100  grm.,  and  the  eggs  show  no  trace.  The 
absence  of  copper  in  the  eggs  of  Palinurus  shows  that  this  element  is 
not  essential  to  the  development  of  the  animal,  as  its  abundance  in  the 
adult  might  suggest.  » 

Lesion  of  the  Semicircular  Canals.} — L.  Boutan  has  made  experi- 
ments on  pigeons  and  concludes  that  the  destruction  of  the  membranous 
canals  implies  at  once  a  temporary  excitation  and  a  paralysis  of  the 
organ.  Immediately  after  the  operation,  the  bird  experiences  false 
sensations  of  rotation,  due  to  the  section  of  the  sensory  nerves,  and  at 
the  same  time,  as  the  result  of  the  definitive  paralysis  of  the  organ,  it 
is  incapable  of  adjusting  the  movements  of  rotation  which  it  actually 
exhibits.  Thus  when  it  is  forced  to  walk,  it  turns  and  tumbles  on  the 
injured  side. 

Brain  of  Macroscelides  proboscideus.  §  —  G.  Elliot  Smith  gives  a 
brief  description  of  the  brain  of  this  Insectivore,  and  shows  that  Parker's 
remark  concerning  the  skeleton,  that  "  we  have  a  curious  mixture  of 
marsupial  (metatherian)  and  eutherian  characters,"  might  with  equal 
truth  be  applied  to  the  brain. 

Anatomy  of  Giant  Salamander  of  Japan. ||— Gakutaro  Osawa  gives 
a  detailed  account  of  the  skeletal,  muscular,  nervous,  and  vascular  system 
of  Cryptdbranchus  japonicus,  the  giant  salamander  of  Japan. 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxv.  (1902)  pp.  65-6. 

t  Ann.  Soc.  Linn.  Lyon,  xlvii.  (1901)  pp.  93-7. 

X  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  1601-3. 

§  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  (Zool.),  xxviii.  (1902)  pp.  443-8  (2  figs.). 

||  MT.  Med.  Fac.  Univ.  Tokio,  v.  (1902)  pp.  221-427  (44  ph.). 


638  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Toxic  Properties  of  the  Saliva  of  certain  Non-poisonous  Colu- 
brines.* —  A.  Alcock  and  L.  Rogers  have  experimented  with  Cerberus 
rhyncops,  Dipsas  forstcnii,  Dryophis  mycterizans,  Zamenis  mucosus,  and 
Tropidonotus  piscator,  and  have  found,  even  from  a  few  experiments, 
strong  reason  to  believe  that  the  difference  between  poisonous  and  "  non- 
poisonous  "  Colubrines  is  not  a  radical  one,  but  is  only  one  of  degree, 
and  that  the  parotid  secretion  of  some  of  the  "  harmless  "  Colubrines 
is  to  a  certain  extent  poisonous  when  injected  subcutaneously. 

Venom  of  Snakes.f  —  C.  Delezenne  finds  that  the  venom  of  snakes 
(cobra,  Bothrops)  contains  a  diastase  having  the  same  properties  as 
enterokinase,  or  the  kinase  of  leucocytes  and  microbes.  He  asks  whether 
it  may  have  digestive  importance,  and  whether  it  is  distinct  from  the 
principle  which  gives  the  venom  its  toxicity. 

Systematic  Position  of  Pleuronectidse.J — G.  A.  Boulenger  proposes 
tbe  establishment  of  a  division  of  the  suborder  Acanthopterygii,  under 
the  name  of  Zeorhombi,  defined  as  aberrant,  strongly  compressed  Perci- 
formes,  with  very  short  praecaudal  region,  modified  in  the  direction  of 
the  flat-fishes,  and  characterised  by  the  combination  of  an  increased 
number  (7-9)  of  ventral  rays,  with  absence  of  hypural  spine  (by  wbich 
Beiycidse  are  excluded),  or  by  asymmetry  of  the  skull  in  the  forms  in 
which  the  spine  of  the  ventral  fin  has  been  lost.  This  division  would 
include  Zeidas,  Amphistiidse,  and  Plenronectidae.  In  short,  the  author 
seeks  to  derive  the  Pleuronectidas  from  an  ancestral  type  to  which  Zeidse 
and  Arnphistiidaa  are  related. 

Vertebrae  of  Terrestrial  Carnivores.§ — E.  Stromer  von  Eeichenbach 
has  made  a  monographic  study  of  the  morphology  and  systematic  sig- 
nificance of  the  vertebras  of  terrestrial  carnivores,  including  some 
extinct  forms.  The  atlas — which  has  the  most  complex  functions — gives 
the  best  clue  to  systematic  relations  ;  the  other  vertebrae  seem  to  be 
relatively  insignificant  in  this  respect. 

Zoologischer  Jahresbericht.||  — We  have  received  the  last  volume 
of  the  Naples  Zoologischer  Jahresbericht  (for  1901),  conforming  in 
plan,  excellence,  and  punctuality,  to  its  predecessors. 

Bonelli,  an  early  Italian  Lamarckian.1T  —  L.  Camerano  gives  an 
interesting  account  of  Franco  Andrea  Bonelli,  who  professed  zoology  at 
Turin  from  1811  to  1830,  and  maintained,  as  documentary  evidence 
shows,  what  would  now  be  called  a  well-defined  Lamarckian  position  in 
regard  to  evolution. 

Tunicata. 

Heart  of  Diplosomidse.** —  A.  Pizon  has  made  some  interesting 
observations  on  the  extraordinary  vitality  of  the  heart  in  these  com- 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  London,  lxx.  (1902)  pp.  446-54. 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxv.  (1902)  pp.  32S-9. 
X  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  x.  (1902)  pp.  295-304. 

§  Zoologica,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  1-276  (5  pis.  and  many  tables  of  measurements). 
||   Berlin,  8vo,  viii.  and  about  400  pp.  not  consecutively  paginated. 
\  Atti  Accad.  Sci.  Torino,  xxxvii.  (1902)  pp.  455-64. 
**  Comptes  Rendua,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  1528-30. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  6: '.9 

posite  Ascidians.  He  has  previously  referred  to  similar  phenomena  in 
Botryllids.  The  beating  goes  on  after  all  the  organs  of  the  ascidio- 
zoids  have  undergone  advanced  degenerative  histolysis,  and  it  begins 
precociously  in  the  young  zooids  before  these  (which  have  an  interesting 
triple  origin)  are  as  yet  integrated  into  a  continuous  whole. 

Development  of  Molgulidse.  *  —  D.  Damas  has  studied  the  embryos 
of  Lithonephyra  eugyranda,  Molgida  echinosiphonica,  and  Anurella  blcizi. 
In  connection  with  the  cleavage  of  the  ovum,  he  notes  the  occasional 
occurrence  of  multiple  division-figures,  most  numerous  towards  the 
periphery,  within  an  undivided  protoplasmic  mass.  An  account  is 
given  of  the  development  of  the  notochord,  "  muscle  "-plates,  and 
neural  tube  in  the  early  embryo  ;  and  the  author  corroborates  what 
Lacaze-Duthiers  observed  in  regard  to  the  remarkable  caudal  degenera- 
tion which  leads  to  the  "  anurous  "  embryo. 

The  larval  nervous  system,  well  developed  in  many  Ascidians,  does 
not  advance  far  in  the  Molgulidse  studied.  It  begins  to  dwindle  after 
the  outlining  of  three  chief  divisions, —  the  cerebral  vesicle,  the  visceral 
region,  and  the  caudal  portion.  There  are  never  any  sense-organs  in 
the  anurous  larvas,  but  the  urodelous  forms  have  a  single  pigmented 
cerebral  organ.  The  greater  part  of  the  primitive  neural  canal  is  de- 
stroyed in  the  retrogressive  metamorphosis.  The  relations  of  the 
hypophysis  with  the  epiblastic  portion  of  the  mouth,  and  the  communi- 
cation of  hypophysial  tube  and  neural  canal,  are  very  distinct. 

There  is  a  simultaneous  formation  of  two  pairs  of  branchial  stig- 
mata. The  parietal  wall  of  the  peribranchial  cavity  is  formed  by  the 
epiblastic  layer,  while  the  visceral  wall  includes,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
lips  of  the  stigmata  formed  by  hypoblastic  diverticula,  and  on  the  other 
hand,  an  interposed  cellular  column  of  epiblastic  origin. 

A  solid  rudiment,  median  and  symmetrical,  gives  origin  to  the  renal 
vesicle.  The  pericardium  passes  in  its  development  through  a  stage 
when  it  appears  as  a  compact  mass.  These  two  organs  are  both  formed 
at  the  posterior  end  of  the  endostyle,  and  their  development  extends 
through  a  considerable  period  of  embryonic  life. 

INVEBTEBHATA. 

Variations  of  Plankton  in  Lake  Geneva.! — E.  Yung,  in  continuing 
a  previous  investigation,  indicates  very  strongly  that  the  methods  in 
vogue  for  measuring  quantitative  variations  in  plankton  are  inadequate. 
Hasty  generalisations  as  to  seasonal  variation,  based  on  insufficient  data, 
are  doing  much  more  harm  than  good. 

Mollusca. 
a.  Cephalopoda. 
Amphitretus  from  the  Sagami  Sea4—L  Ijima  and  S.  Ikeda  de- 
scribe a  specimen  of  this  remarkable  Octopod— a  member  of  a  rare  and 
interesting   genus — perhaps   identical   with   the  single   species  as  yet 
known  A.  pelagicus,  described  by  Hoyle. 

The  authors  agree  with  Hoyle  in  regarding  Amphitretus  as  a  repre- 

*  Arch.  Biol.,  xviii.  (1902)  pp.  599-664  (4  pis.). 

f  Arch.  Phys.  Nat.,  xiv.  (1902)  pp.  119-31  (1  pi.). 

X  Armot,  Zool.  Japon.,  iv.  (1902)  pp.  85-101  (1  pi.  and  3  figs.). 


640  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

sentative  of  a  distinct  family,  the  Arnphitretidse.  This  family  probably 
has  its  nearest  ally  in  the  genus  Alloposus,  the  only  essential  distinctive 
character  being  the  presence  of  a  ventro-median  connection  of  the 
mantle  with  the  siphon  in  Amphitretus.  Apart  from  Alloposus,  which 
Verrill  made  the  representative  of  a  special  family  Alloposidte,  the 
Amphitretidae  seem  more  nearly  related  to  the  Octopodidas  than  to  any 
other  of  the  eight-armed  Dibranchiata. 

y.  Gasteropoda. 

Blood  of  the  Snail.* — E.  Couvreur  has  made  a  physiological  study 
of  the  blood  of  Helix  pomatia.  It  does  not  coagulate,  which  is  difficult 
to  explain.  Perhaps  the  globulin,  which  is  precipitated  by  sulphate  of 
magnesium  and  is  otherwise  different  from  the  fibrinogen  of  mammals, 
is  entirely  combined  with  a  cupriferous  substance  and  incapable  of  be- 
having like  fibrinogen. 

The  blood  of  this  mollusc  contains  no  glucose  either  during  hiber- 
nation or  immediately  afterwards.  It  contains  a  large  proportion  of 
urea  or  of  compounds  of  urea.  The  colouring  matter  ("  hasmocyanin  "), 
which  turns  bluish  on  exposure  to  air,  seems  to  be  due  to  the  combina- 
tion of  an  albuminoid  with  a  cupric  substance,  and  is  only  remotely 
analogous  with  haemoglobin. 

Tanganyika  Gastropods :  Chytra  and  Limnotrochus.t  —  Lettice 
Digby  discusses  the  structure  and  affinities  of  Chytra  kirhii  and  Limno- 
trochus  thomsoni.  The  former  shows  an  obvious  combination  of  cha- 
racters distinctive  of  several  well-known  Prosobranchiate  forms, — 
Capulus,  Xenophorus,  Aporrliais,  Trochus,  Pleurotomaria,  Nassopsis,  &c. 
It  is  suggested  that  in  Chytra  we  are  probably  dealing  with  the  direct 
ancestor  of  the  families  Hipponycidre  and  Capulidaa,  since  the  genus 
combines  the  nervous  system  of  the  one  and  the  radula  of  the  other, 
i.e.  two  of  the  most  salient  features  of  Prosobranchiate  structure. 

Like  Chytra,  Limnotrochus  has  scattered  affinities,  and  it  is  more 
difficult  to  place  than  even  Chytra  itself.  It  is  undoubtedly  allied  both 
to  Chytra  and  to  Typhobia,  as  well  as  to  the  Stromboid  group  repre- 
sented by  the  genera  Strombus  and  Aporrhais  ;  and  it  is  perhaps  more 
nearly  allied  to  these  genera  than  to  any  other  living  types.  But  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  quite  distinct  from  them  all,  and  must,  at  any  rate 
for  the  present,  be  regarded  as  unique. 

5.  Liamellibranchiata. 

Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in  Mactra.J — C.  Kostanecki  has  made 
numerous  experiments  with  the  ova  of  Mactra  stultorum  and  M.  helvacea, 
which  lead  him  to  conclude  that  the  beginnings  of  artificial  partheno- 
genetic  development  may  be  induced  by  increasing  the  concentration 
of  the  sea-water  or  by  adding  various  chlorides,  &c.  The  unfertilised 
ova  under  these  conditions  exhibited,  but  with  considerable  variability 
of  result,  the  protrusion  of  the  polar  bodies  and  a  cleavage  as  far  as 
the  12-cell  stage.     It  is  possible,  he  thinks,  that  with  more  experience 

*  Ann.  Soo.  Linn.  Lyon,  xlvii.  (1901)  pp.  85-91. 

t  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  (Zool.),  xxviii.  pp.  434-42  (3  pis.). 

%  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Cracovie,  1902,  pp.  363-87  (9  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  641 

in   regard   to  the  degree   of   concentration  requisite,  the  development 
might  be  carried  further. 

Systematic  Position  of  the  Solenogastres.*— J.  Thiele  contributes 
a  detailed  discussion  of  this  problem,  and  comes  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  Solenogastres  represent  a  group  of  worms  most  nearly  related  to 
Gordiidae  and  Annelids.  The  relation  of  the  uterus  to  the  heart  and 
the  beginnings  of  a  radula-formation  bring  them  in  contact  with  the 
Molluscan  stock,  among  which  the  Chitonidas  with  their  persistent 
lateral  cords  are  nearest  to  them.  The  memoir  includes  a  lengthy 
anatomical  description  of  the  Solenogastres, — Notomenia  clavigera, 
Proneomenia  australis,  P.  sluiteri,  Neomenia  carinata,  and  Chsetoderma 
nitidulum. 

Variation  in  Position  of  Adductors  in  Anodonta  grandis  Say.f — 
E.  E.  Downing  has  measured  a  large  number  of  specimens  and  reached 
the  following  results.  (1)  The  distance  of  the  adductor  muscle  from 
the  umbo,  measured  along  the  line  of  migration,  varies  considerably  in 
its  relation  to  the  distance  to  the  shell  margin,  measured  along  the 
same  line  produced.  (2)  While  the  range  of  variation  is  comparatively 
large,  the  frequencies  are  well  concentrated  at  or  near  the  mode.  In 
93  p.c.  of  the  cases  the  position  of  the  muscle  would  not  vary  3  mm. 
in  either  direction  from  the  mean  position.  (3)  Roughly  speaking,  we 
may  say  that  the  muscle  is  situated  two-thirds  of  the  way  from  the 
umbo  to  the  margin.  Accurately,  the  mean  ratios  are  0*6757  for  the 
anterior  muscle,  and  0*6608  for  the  posterior.  (4)  The  anterior  adductor 
tends  to  move  toward  the  margin  at  a  more  rapid  rate  than  the  posterior, 
although  there  is  a  tendency  in  both  to  lag  behind  the  rate  of  growth 
of  the  shell  margin.  We  seem  to  have  in  this  form  a  species  that  is 
stable,  rather  than  one  that  is  in  process  of  rapid  evolution. 

Structure  of  Gills  of  Lamellibranchs.J  —  W.  G.  Hidewood  has 
examined  215  species,  belong  to  118  genera,  and  finds  that,  except  in 
a  very  broad  way,  the  minute  structure  of  the  gill,  like  the  grosser 
structure,  cannot  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  genetic  affinity. 

Three  main  types  of  gill  structure  can,  however,  be  recognised,  re- 
presenting apparently  three  successive  grades  of  complexity.  Nuculidae 
and  Solenomyidse  (Pelseneer's  Protobranchia)  are  marked  by  the  mutual 
freedom  of  the  gill-leaflets  or  platelets  into  which  the  embryonic  gill 
papillea  expand.  In  the  two  other  types  the  embryonic  papillae  elongate 
into  filaments,  which  are  held  in  juxtaposition  by  interlocking  cilia 
disposed  in  circular  patches  on  the  anterior  and  posterior  sides  of  the 
filaments  (tleutherorliabdic),  or  by  regularly  arranged  horizontal  bars  of 
cellular  tissue,  which  put  the  adjacent  filaments  into  organic  connection 
the  one  with  the  other  and  convert  the  interfilamentar  spaces  into  rows 
of  fenestras  (synaptorhabdic). 

Pelseneer's  order  Pseudolamellibranchia  is  regarded  as  ill-founded. 
Evidence  is  also  adduced  to  show  that  Pelseneer's  Septibrauchia  are 
degenerate  forms  of  the  Lyonsiella  type,  and  the  suppression  of  Septi- 
branchia  as  a  distinct  order  is  advocated. 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  Ixxii.  (1902)  pp.  249-466  (10  pis.  and  21  figs.), 
t  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  395-400  (6  figs.). 
X  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  London,  lxx.  (1902)  pp.  499-5(0. 

December  17 1\  1902  2  x 


642  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Tn  Avicula  argentea  a  very  interesting  condition  is  noted,  there  are 
both  ciliated  discs  (eleutherorhabdic)  and  organic  interfilamentar  junctions 
(tynaptorhabdic).  In  Anomia  aculeata,  as  in  the  rare  Dimya,  the  gill- 
iilaments  are  not  reflected,  i.e.  they  have  no  ascending  portions. 

Ligament  of  Bivalves.*  —  0.  M.  Eeis  has  studied  this  structure 
with  such  extraordinary  detail  and  thoroughness  that  he  must  surely 
have  finished  off  the  subject.  His  communication  extends  over  more 
than  a  hundred  pages,  and  his  summary  over  sixteen.  The  ligament 
is  a  modification  of  shell-formation,  it  includes  a  non-elastic  portion, 
hardly  distinguishable  from  the  periostracum,  and  an  elastic  portion, 
distinctly  laminated  or  layered,  traversed  usually  by  calcareous  fibres 
running  transverse  to  the  layers.  The  action  of  the  ligament  depends 
upon  its  elasticity,  the  elastic  portion  is  always  bent  postero-veutrally, 
the  non-elastic  portion  has  no  function  and  is  indefinite  as  to  position. 

Artbropoda. 

Eurypterid  Remains  in  Cambrian.  |  —  C.  E.  Beecher  describes 
Strabops  thacheri  g.  et  sp.  u.  from  the  Cambrian  of  Missouri, — an  inter- 
esting discovery  as  almost  the  only  instance  of  Eurypterid-remains 
older  than  the  Upper  Silurian.    Strabops  is  nearly  related  to  Eurypterus. 

a.  Insecta. 

Interesting  Case  of  Mimicry.  |  —  H.  Osborn  describes  a  case  dis- 
covered by  C.  W.  Mally  in  Cape  Town.  A  Jassid  in  the  group  Aco- 
cephalidre — Cephaletus  infumatus  Percheron — lives  on  the  twigs  of 
Dovea  tectorum  Masters  on  which  there  are  numerous  thorn-like  abortive 
bracts.  These  the  insect,  which  has  a  long  thorn-like  frontal  process, 
''mimics"  not  only  in  form,  but  in  colour,  size,  and  position,  so  that 
even  the  eye  of  the  practised  entomologist  finds  it  difficult  to  distinguish 
animal  from  plant. 

Metamorphosis  of  Sisyra.  §  —  Maude  H.  Anthony  gives  an  account 
of  the  metamorphosis  of  this  obscure  little  fly — one  of  the  Hemerobiidae — 
which  passes  its  larval  existence  as  a  parasite  on  fresh-water  sponges, 
clinging  to  their  surfaces  or  descending  into  the  open  ostioles,  jn'ercing 
the  tissue  with  its  long  decurved  jaws.  The  food  obtained  is  so  pure 
that  there  is  no  residuum,  and  at  least  a  fourth  of  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  stomach  is  atrophied,  leaving  no  opening  from  the  stomach  at  that 
end.  Carnivorous  habits  and  piercing  mouth-parts  are  common  to  other 
hemerobian  larvae,  but  the  decurved  position  of  the  mouth-parts  and  the 
tracheal  gills  are  peculiar  to  this  insect  and  Climacia,  its  nearest  ally, 
which  has  similar  habits.  Very  remarkable,  too,  is  the  silk-secreting 
apparatus,  which  is  formed  from  a  modification  of  the  Malpighiau  tubules, 
and  not,  as  usual  in  insects,  from  the  salivary  glands. 

The  mouth-parts  are  not  in  the  usual  opposed  position,  but  are 
approximated  in  pairs  to  form  two  sucking-tubes,  excessively  elongated, 

*  Jahresliefte  Ver.  Nat.  Wurtteinberg,  lviii.  (1902)  pp.  179-291  (4  pis.).  See 
Zool.  Centralbl.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  573-5. 

t  Amer.  JourD.  Sci.,  xii.  (1901)  pp.  364-6  (1  pi.). 

%  Psyche,  ix.  (1902)  p.  327.     See  Zool.  Centralbl.,  ix.  (1902)  p.  532. 

§  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  615-31  (IS  tigs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  643 

and  decurved.  The  brain  is  in  the  prothorax  in  old  larvae.  The  stomach 
is  closed  in  the  larva.  Three  Malpighian  tubules  are  attached  at  both 
ends,  and  two  are  attached  at  one  end, — all  metamorphosed  iuto  silk- 
glands  in  their  middle  portion.  The  small  intestine  is  modified  as  an 
outlet  for  the  silk  secretion.  The  spinneret  is  formed  from  the  terminal 
part  of  the  alimentary  canal. 

A  completer  account  than  has  hitherto  appeared  is  given  of  the  hite 
stages  of  wing  development,  and  the  variations  in  the  venation  of  fifty 
wings  are  tabulated. 

So-called  Microthorax  of  Insects.  *  —  F.  Silvestri  concludes  from  a 
study  of  Japyx,  Campodea,  &c.  that  the  "  microthorax "  or  "  Nachen- 
segment "  distinguished  by  Yerhoeff,  is  nothing  more  than  a  part  of  the 
labial  segment. 

The  segment  which  in  Chilopods  bears  the  maxillipedes  is  homo- 
logous with  the  prothorax  of  insects.  Verhoeff's  "  microthorax,"  if  it  be 
regarded  as  part  of  the  labial  segment,  is  homologous  with  the  first  limb- 
less segment  of  Diplopoda, — the  neck-shield  with  its  sternum. 

Sense-Hairs  of  Lepidopterous  LarvEe.f  —  W.  A.  Hilton  finds  that 
Lepidopterous  larvse  are  clothed  with  hollow  hairs,  each  of  which  is 
supplied  by  a  bipolar  nerve-cell,  a  process  of  which  penetrates  a  short 
distance  into  the  hair  and  probably  terminates  before  reaching  the  tip. 
In  most  species  all  body-hairs  are  sensory;  large  hairs  are  supplied  by 
large  bipolar  nerve-cells,  and  small  ones  by  smaller  bipolar  cells. 

Under  the  hypodermis  of  caterpillars  there  is  a  system  of  multipolar 
cells  more  or  less  intimately  connected  with  nerve-cells  and  fibres,  which 
(a)  stain  lighter  than  the  larger  nerves,  and  (b)  are  closer  to  the  hypo- 
dermis  than  the  other  cells  and  fibres.  Nerves  from  bipolar  sensory 
nerve-cells  go  to  the  central  nervous  system,  run  to  the  ganglia,  leaving 
at  once  to  follow  on  the  outside  of  the  connectives  towards  the  head, 
furming  a  well-marked  sensory  tract.  Motor  nerves — going  to  muscles — 
seem  to  come  directly  from  the  central  cell  areas  of  the  ganglia.  Almost 
the  only  sensory  termination  of  nerves  on  tbe  body  of  insects  is  by  means 
of  the  hairs. 

Culicidse  of  Algiers. $ — H.Souliehas  made  a  number  of  observations 
on  the  CulicidaB  of  Algiers,  which  show  that  malarial  regions  are  rich  in 
Anopheles,  and  that  the  genus  Culex  is  not  an  agent  in  diffusing  the 

disease. 

Oogenesis  in  Hydrophilus  piceus.§  —  Fr.  Megusar  finds  that  the 
ovarian  tubes  are  not  terminally  united  to  the  heart  region  by  a  common 
strand,  as  is  generally  supposed.  The  terminations  of  the  tubes  are 
connected  with  the  diverticula  of  branched  glands  which  stretch  towards 
the  pericardial  region  and  form  there  a  funnel-like  structure  suggestive 
of  the  funnel  of  a  nephridium.  From  this  structure  numerous  raniifi- 
cotions  and  diverticula  proceed,  and  it  is  here  that  the  germ-cells  are 
primarily  formed.  The  seat  of  the  formation  of  the  ova  is  not  really 
in  the  blind  ends  of  the  ovarian  tubules,  nor  in  their  prolongations— 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1002)  pn.  619-20. 
t  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  561-78  (23  figs.). 
%  Comptes  Kendus,  cxxxv.  (1902)  pp.  118-20. 
§  Zool.  Anzeig..  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  607-10. 

2t  X   A 


644  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

the  so-called  terminal  threads — it  is  in  the  germinal  epithelium  which 
Megusar  has  discovered  in  the  pericardial  region. 

Nerve-Endings  in  Striped  Muscle  of  Insects.* — A.  Aggazzotti  has 
demonstrated  by  a  new  method  the  existence  of  Doyere's  "  colline  "  with 
its  nuclei,  and  the  relation  of  the  nerve-fibrils  to  the  isotropic  lines  of 
the  muscle-fibre.  He  finds,  in  regard  to  the  fibrils  emerging  from  the 
nerve-fibre  preterminally  or  from  the  plate,  that  the  axis-cylinders  of  a 
nerve-fibre  have  not  their  final  termination  in  Doyere's  "  colline,"  but 
in  greater  part  are  prolonged  into  numerous  subdivisions  ending  in 
little  granular  aggregations  in  the  muscle-fibre,  or  resolving  into  fine 
fibrillar  endings  which  lose  themselves  in  the  substance  of  the  muscle. 


■&* 


Influence  of  Temperature  during  Pupation.f — M.  von  Linden  gives 
a  valuable  critical  exposition  of  the  results  of  about  forty  papers  on  this 
subject,  and  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  stable  results  sufficiently 
prove  that  characters  acquired  by  parents  are  transmissible  to  offspring. 
In  her  opinion  the  Lamarckian  interpretation  is  justified  by  the  facts. 

Receptacula  seminis  in  Culicidse.J  —  M.  Neveu-Lemaire  describes 
the  position,  structure,  and  function  of  the  receptacula  seminis  in 
females  of  Anopheles  coustani,  Culex  pipiens,  Mansonia  uniformis.  In 
copulation  the  sperms  follow  canals  leading  to  the  receptacula,  where 
they  may  remain  vital  for  a  more  or  less  prolonged  period, — a  fact  of 
importance  in  the  life-history  of  these  insects.  In  Anopheles  there  is 
but  one  receptacle  and  one  canal. 

Testis  of  Tenebrio.§— K.  Demokidoff  found,  at  the  blind  end  of  the 
testicular  follicles  of  Tenebrio,  a  lens-like  body  of  fibrous  structure  with 
few  nuclei,  from  which  a  strand  passed  into  the  follicle.  He  regards 
this  body  as  homologous  with  the  terminal  chamber  of  the  ovarioles. 

Exuvial  Glands. || — E.  Verson  refers  to  a  recent  paper  by  W.  L. 
Tower  describing  peculiar  unicellular  skin-glands  in  the  larvae  of 
Leptinotarsa  decemlineata,  which  secrete  an  exuvial  fluid  between  the 
old  cuticle  and  the  new.  But  in  1890  Verson  described  these  exuvial 
glands  in  the  silkworm,  where  there  are  15  pairs  of  them,  secreting 
a  fluid  between  the  hypodeimis  and  the  cuticle.  They  become  specially 
active  before  a  moult,  and  their  secreted  products  doubtless  help  in  the 
removal  of  the  old  cuticle.  But  they  are  probably  at  the  same  time 
excretory ;  from  the  first  to  the  fourth  larval  moult  the  secretion  con- 
tains oxalic  acid  salts,  and  subsequently  uric  acid. 

B.  Myriopoda. 

Chilopoda  in  Bronn's  '  Tierreich.'  % — K.  Verhoeff  has  begun  what 
will  be  a  welcome  contribution — a  general  account  of  the  Chilopods. 

*  Atti  Accad.  Sci.  Torino,  xxxvii.  (1902)  pp.  724-32  (1  pi.). 
f  Zool.  Centralbl.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  5S1-99. 
t  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxvii.  (1902)  pp.  172-5  (4  figs.). 
§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  575-8  (3  figs.). 
||   Tom.  cit..  pp.  652-4. 

•jf  Bronn's  Klassen  und  Ordnungen  des  Tierreicbs,  Bd.  5,  Abth.  ii.  Lief.  63-5, 
42  pp.  (6  pis.). 


ZOOLOCxY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  G45 

He  discusses  the  literature  and  history  of  the  subject,  and  the  structure 
of  the  skeleton,  skin,  skin-glands,  and  sense-organs. 

Myriopods  are  regarded  as  a  phylogunetic  unity,  and  the  contrast 
between  Progoneata  and  Opisthogoneata  is  emphasised. 

5.   Arachnida. 

Tracheae  of  Spiders.* — E.  Lamy  has  made  a  detailed  study  of  the 
tracheal  system  in  spiders.  In  Epeira,  taken  as  type,  there  are  four 
tubes,  invaginations  of  the  integument,  ending  in  tendinous  extremities 
attached  in  the  internal  tubes  to  the  median  tendons  of  the  abdomen, 
and  in  the  external  tubes  to  the  dorsal  integumentary  insertions  of  the 
fibres  of  the  abdominal  connective  sac. 

In  all  spiders  the  tracheal  orifices  are  formed  by  the  same  pair  of 
stigmata  (belonging  to  the  third  abdominal  segment),  fused  or  not  into 
one,  which  may  be  displaced  to  the  posterior  end  of  the  body.  Similarly, 
tbe  tracheae — however  modified — are  throughout  the  same  in  origin. 
Similar  modifications  seem  to  have  occurred  concurrently  in  different 
families,  and  their  degree  of  development  does  not  give  a  clue  to  general 
genetic  rank,  or  afford  a  basis  of  classification. 

The  tracheae  of  spiders  are  homologous  with  those  of  insects,  and 
also  with  lung- books.  Both  tracheae  and  lung-books  are  ectodermic 
invaginations,  elongated  and  ramifying  in  the  one  case,  internally  plaited 
in  the  other.  They  have  evolved  concurrently,  and  illustrate  in  their 
degree  of  development  a  physiological  balancing.  But  the  bulk  of  the 
author's  paper  is  taken  up  with  a  concrete  description  of  the  tracheae  of 
a  long  list  of  genera. 

Studies  on  the  Arachnid  Entosternite.t  —  E- 1.  Pocock  discusses 
the  structure  of  the  entosternite  in  Xiphosurae,  Scorpiones,  Pedipalpi, 
Araneae,  and  Solifugae,  In  a  second  chapter  he  discusses  the  homologies 
of  this  difficult  structure  in  different  orders ;  they  seem  fairly  obvious 
in  the  case  of  Pedipalpi  and  Araneae,  and  Pocock  shows  that  they  can 
be  to  some  extent  detected  over  a  wider  range.  Thirdly,  the  author 
inquires  into  the  origin  of  the  entosternite,  and  finds  overwhelming 
evidence  in  favour  of  Lankester's  view  (1881)  that  it  may  be  regarded 
as  an  enlargement  and  interlacing  of  the  respective  tendons  of  the 
muscles  which  are  attached  to  it. 

Spiders  of  Germany.} — W.  Bosenberg  continues  his  valuable  mono- 
graph on  the  spiders  of  Germany,  giving  a  systematic  account  of  tbe 
genera  Theridium,  Ero,  Steatoda,  Teutana,  Enoplognatha,  &c. — forty-six 
genera  in  all. 

Limbless  Acarid.§— I.  Tragardh  describes  as  Pimelobia  apoda  g.  et 
sp.  n.  a  limbless  Sarcoptid  occurring  under  the  elytra  of  a  species  of 
beetle  (Pimelia  sp.)  from  the  desert  near  Cairo.  The  parasite  is  very 
degenerate,  and  its  entire  suppression  of  extremities  is  unique  among 
Acarids.     All  the  specimens  were  females,  fixed  by  the  mouth  to  the 

*  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  (Zoil.),  pp.  148-280  (4  pis.  and  71  figs.). 
t  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlvi.  (1902)  pp.  225-62  (2  pis.). 
t  Zoologica,  xiv.  (1902)  pp.  97-192  (9  pis.). 
§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  617  8  (3  rigs.). 


646  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

skin  of  the  host.  They  were  full  of  minute  hexapod  larvae,  which 
develop  directly  into  the  limbless  adults  without  trace  of  nymph  stages. 
From  the  absence  of  males  parthenogenesis  is  inferred. 

e,  Crustacea. 

Dwarf  Males  and  other  Sexual  Peculiarities  in  Cirripedia.*  — 
A.  Gruvel  finds  that  the  dwarf  males  of  the  older  species  of  Scalpellum 
have  a  more  complete  structure  than  in  the  newer  species.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  the  general  somatic  organs  atrophy,  the  reproductive  organs 
become  more  developed,  e.g.  in  the  muscular  investment  of  the  seminal 
vesicle,  which  violently  expels  the  seminal  matter. 

In  the  dwarf  male  of  Scalpellum  peronii  some  abortive  ovarian  cells 
were  found — residues  of  an  ancestral  hermaphroditism. 

Cirripeds  are  typically  hermaphrodite.  They  may  then  exhibit 
autogamy,  or  they  may  be  directly  cross-fertilised  by  other  hermaphro- 
dites. An  indirect  cross-fertilisation,  by  sperms  from  other  forms  con- 
veyed through  the  water,  seems  extremely  unlikely. 

In  Scalpellum  the  original  form  was  hermaphrodite,  and  the  dwarf 
males  are  derived  from  hermaphrodites  which  have  become  fixed  to  other 
hermaphrodites.  In  certain  species,  instead  of  being  fixed  on  other 
hermaphrodites,  they  occur  on  individuals  which  have  become  wholly 
female. 

New  Victorian  Decapods.f— S.  W.  Fulton  and  F.  E.  Grant  describe 
three  new  species  of  shrimps  belonging  to  the  genus  Pontophilus,  and 
a  new  crab—  Cryptodromia  wilsoni.  They  record  the  occurrence  of  a 
fresh-water  form  (from  Lake  Colac),  apparently  identical  with  Hymeno- 
soma  lacustris,  recorded  from  New  Zealand  and  Norfolk  Island. 

New  Parasitic  Copepod  in  Intestine  of  Mussel.*  —  A.  Steuer  de- 
scribes from  Mytilus  galloprovincialis  Lam.  a  remarkable  new  Copepod, 
which  he  calls  Mytilicola  intestinalis  g.  et  sp.  n.  The  parasite  is  very 
common  in  the  mussels  of  the  Bay  of  Trieste,  occurring  in  almost  every 
specimen,  and  sometimes  about  half  a  hundred  in  one.  It  is  of  a  reddish 
colour,  worm-like  in  appearance,  the  male  measuring  4  mm.,  the  female 
about  twice  as  much  in  length.  The  thoracic  segments  have  paired 
dorsal  processes  ;  the  segmentation  of  the  abdomen  is  imperfect.  There 
is  a  median  eye. 

Steuer  gives  a  short  description  of  the  four-jointed  first  antenna?,  the 
three-jointed  hooked  second  antennas,  the  short  knob-like  mandibles, 
the  first  maxillipede,  hooked  in  the  male,  reduced  to  a  small  chitinous 
thickening  in  the  female.  The  position  of  the  second  maxillipede  is 
marked  (in  the  male  only)  by  a  slight  cbitinous  thickening.  The  other 
appendages  are  very  small.     The  genital  aperture  is  paired. 

Nauplii  with  intense  positive  heliotropism  are  succeeded  by  cyclopid 
stages,  which  probably  enter  the  mussel.  The  new  form  belongs  to  tbe 
family  Dichelestiidaa. 

New  Victorian  Amphipods.§— 0.  A.  Sayce  describes  the  following 
new  species, — Chiltonia  subtenuis,  Atyloides  f on  tana,  Gamrnarus  haasei, 

*  P.V.  Soc.  Sci.  Phys.  Nat.  Bordeaux,  1901.  pp.  93-4. 
t  Proc.  E.  Soc.  Victoria,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  59-6S  (3  pis.). 
X  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  635-6  (2  figs.). 
§  Proc.  E.  Soc.  Victoria,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  47-58  (4  pis.) 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  647 

and  Neoniphargus  fultoni.  The  third  of  these  is  of  especial  interest, 
inasmuch  as,  although  an  inhabitant  of  surface-waters,  it  is  totally  with- 
out eyes,  and  is  comparable  in  this  respect  to  Niphargus  pulchellus. 

Annulata. 

Respiration  in  Polychseta.* — J.  Bounhiol  has  made  a  detailed  study 
of  the  respiratory  system  and  functions  in  Polycbaata.  We  can  only  give 
some  of  his  general  results. 

The  branchiae  of  annelids  are  pectinate  or  branched  organs,  some- 
times situated  on  the  various  segments  of  the  body  (Euuicidaa,  Areni- 
colidae),  sometimes  exclusively  cephalic  (Terebellidae),  always  very 
vascular,  and  of  considerable  respiratory  activity,  discharging  three- 
quarters  or  more  of  the  total  respiration,  while  the  skin  is  responsible 
for  about  a  quarter.  There  is  always  cutaneous  respiration,  undoubtedly 
the  primitive  mode.  The  organs  called  branchiae  in  Cirratulidae  and 
Serpulidae  are  not  gills,  but  prehensile  organs.  The  organs  called  lym- 
phatic or  cceliac  branchiae  in  forms  with  colourless  blood  have  no  particular 
respiratory  role. 

The  fluid  of  the  body-cavity  has  a  respiratory  significance  far  inferior 
to  that  of  coloured  blood,  and  it  has  none  unless  it  contain  some  coloured 
corpuscles.  The  species  with  colourless  blood  are  physiologically  in  the 
same  position  as  those  with  only  a  ccelomic  fluid. 

Regeneration  of  Alimentary  Canal  in  Rhynchelmis  limosella.j — 
O.  Winkler  removed  5-10  segments  from  the  anterior  end  and  observed 
the  formation  of  a  new  mouth  (from  ectodermic  invagination)  and  of  a 
new  pharynx  (from  the  old  gut).  He  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the 
regeneration  process,  and  describes  a  number  of  experiments.  It  is 
interesting  to  notice  the  close  correspondence  in  this  case  between  the 
regenerative  and  the  embryonic  development. 

Sense-Organs  of  the  Polychset  Proboscis.  J — A  dele  Oppeuheimer 
gives  an  account  of  certain  sense-organs  of  the  proboscis  of  Itliynchobolus 
clibranchiatus,  which  take  the  form  of  well-differentiated  papillae,  occur- 
ring over  almost  the  entire  surface  of  the  everted  proboscis,  elevated 
above  the  surrounding  surface,  and  covered  by  a  cuticle  which  is  reduced 
to  about  two-thirds  of  the  thickness  it  bus  elsewhere. 

There  are  two  or  three  spindle-shaped  cells  in  a  papilla,  each  termi- 
nating— either  below  the  cuticle  or  more  probably  at  the  very  apex  of 
the  papilla — in  what  is  clearly  a  sensory  structure.  Moreover,  each  of 
these  cells  tapers  gradually  at  its  base  into  a  nerve-fibre.  These  nerve- 
fibres  are  connected  either  directly  or  indirectly — through  the  inter- 
vention of  a  peripheral  nerve-plexus— with  the  eighteen  longitudinal 
nerves  of  the  proboscis.  There  are  two  basal  nuclei  belonging  to  cells 
which  probably  have  the  function  of  cover-cells.  Into  each  papilla  there 
enter,  besides  nerve-fibres,  connective-tissue  fibres  in  close  connection 
with  a  finely  granular  substance,  of  which  there  is  a  particularly  dense 
and  deeply  staining  layer  immediately  under  the  cuticle. 


* 


Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  (Zool.),  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  1-80. 
t  SB.  Bohm.  Ges.  Wiss.,  1902,  No.  12,  34  pp.  (2  pis.). 
X  Proc.  Amer.  Acad.,  xxxvii.  (1902)  pp.  553-62  (6  pis.). 


648  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Observations  on  Swiss  Oligochseta.* —  K.  Bretcher  communicates 
some  notes  on  the  freezing  of  Eeulea  ventriculosa  and  on  the  desiccation 
of  Psammoryctes  plicatus  and  Lumbriculus  variegatus.  He  also  gives  an 
account  of  the  distribution  of  Enchytraeids  and  otber  families,  and  dis- 
cusses the  systematic  characters  of  Enchytraeid  species. 

Chloragogen  of  Oligochaeta.f  —  D.  Rosa  concludes  that  the  typical 
chloragogen  is  a  modified  peritoneum.  Its  elements  are  not  derived  from 
leucocytes  and  do  not  give  rise  to  them.  The  bases  of  the  chloragocytes 
always  adhere  to  the  matrix  of  the  inner  cuticula  of  the  walls  of  the 
blood-vessels.  In  the  main  the  chloragogen  is  an  excretory  tissue,  but  it 
may  also  serve  as  a  deposition-area  for  reserve  materials;  and  this  second 
function  is  the  dominant  one  in  Enchytrasidae.  The  reserves  consist 
essentially  of  fat-globules  ;  the  excretions,  usually  yellowish,  consist  of 
semi-fluid  elastic  spherules  (chloragosomes)  formed  within  the  chlora- 
gocytes from  the  blood.  The  occurrence  of  chloragosomes  in  the  body- 
cavity  is  due  to  the  more  or  less  accidental  liberation  or  bursting  of  the 
chloragocytes,  and  is  not  necessarily  bound  up  with  the  function  of  the 
chloragogen. 

Function  of  Chloragogen  Cells.}— C.  Bartolotti  gives  a  preliminary 
account  of  observations  which  he  has  made,  independently  of  those  by 
Rosa,  on  the  function  of  the  chloragogen  cells  in  Lumbricus  and  Allo- 
lobophora. Their  function  is  predominantly  excretory,  but  they  also 
accumulate  reserve  materials.  He  believes  that  the  excretory  granules 
consist  in  great  part,  if  not  exclusively,  of  uric  acid,  while  the  reserve 
materials  seemed  to  be  glycogen. 

Spermatozoa  of  Allolobophora  fcetida.§ — Katharine  Foot  and  Ella 
Church  Strobell  have  demonstrated  in  these  three  centrosome-like  struc- 
tures— one  at  the  base  of  the  spine,  one  at  the  anterior,  and  one  at  the 
posterior  end  of  the  middle-piece.  They  discuss  the  complications 
which  their  discovery  discloses,  and  direct  attention  to  the  following 
facts — among  others — (1)  the  complete  disappearance  of  both  male  and 
egg  attraction-spheres  at  a  definite  stage  of  the  egg's  development ; 
(2)  the  lack  of  decisive  evidence  that  the  rays  of  the  male  aster  focus 
at  any  one  point  in  the  middle-piece,  or  that  the  rays  of  the  cone  focus 
at  the  base  of  the  spine  ;  (3)  an  inconstancy  in  both  size  and  form  of  the 
egg  centrosome  at  a  given  stage  of  the  development  of  the  spindle,  and 
a  lack  of  evidence  of  any  division  of  either  egg  or  sperm  aster.  They 
conclude  that  the  centrosomes  of  Allolobophora  present  conflicting  evi- 
dence that  demands  rigid  cross-examination. 

Development  of  Clepsine.|| — 0.  Burger  finds  that  Clepsine  shows  in 
its  development,  as  in  its  structure,  a  closer  resemblance  to  typical 
Annelids  than  is  exhibited  by  Nephelis,  Eirudo,  or  Aulastomum. 

The  lateral  cavities  of  Clepsine  correspond  to  the  primitive  segmental 
cavities  of  Ohastopods,  for  they  originate  in  the  same  way.  Burger 
observed  their  dnisal  as  well  as  their  ventral  coalescence;  they  form  a 
dorsal  cavity  corresponding  in  origin  to  the  ventral  cavity.     In  Eirudo 

*  Rev.  Suisse  Zool.,  x.  (1902)  pp.  1-29. 

t  Mem.  Accad.  Torino,  lii.  (1902)  pp.  117-44  (1  pi.). 

+  Reud.  Accad.  Lincei  Roma,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  449-51. 

§  Anier.  Journ.  Anat.,  i.  (1902)  pp.  321-7  (1  pi.). 

||   Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxii.  (1902)  pp.  525-44  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  649 

medicinalis  there  is  a  dorsal  sinus,  which  Burner  regards  as  coelomic 
and  comparable  to  the  dorsal  cavity  in  Clepsine. 

I  "Clepsine  has  a  pair  of  blood-vessels,  dorsal  and  veutral,  which  are 
both  inclosed  in  coelomic  spaces,  corresponding  to  similar  vessels  in 
Chtetopods,  but  apparently  not  represented  in  the  other  leeches  named 
above.  As  in  Chaitopods  these  vessels  arise  ia  Clepsine  in  connection 
with  the  process  of  coalescence  which  unites  the  primitive  segmental 
cavities  above  and  below  the  gut.  Peculiar  to  Clepsine  are  the  "  cardio- 
blasts" — two  rows  of  mesoderm  cells  arising  in  connection  with  the 
primitive  segments,  and  shunted  from  left  and  from  right  towards  the 
middle  line  both  ventrally  and  dorsal ly. 

The  cells  which  in  other  leeches  form  the  '•  botryoidal  tissue"  be- 
come in  Clepsine  "  excretophores"  fat-cells,  and  Stapelzellen.  The  ne- 
phridia  arise  as  in  other  leeches,  as  Bergh  has  described,  in  a  manner 
comparable  to  that  observed  in  Chsetopods.  Burger  shows  further  that 
the  origin  of  the  reproductive  system  in  Clepsine  is  similar  to  that  in 
the  Gnathobdellidae. 

Brain  of  Phascolosoma.* — Marcel  A.  Herubel  gives  an  account  of 
the  minute  structure  of  this  brain  which  lies  between  the  two  dorsal 
retractor  muscles,  euveloped  in  a  fibrous — muscular  and  connective — . 
sheath.      Three  regions  are  distinguishable  and  are  minutely  described. 

The  most  interesting  result  is,  that  the  brain  in  question  seems  to 
consist  of  a  syncytium  of  nuclei  witljin  an  anastomosing  network,  the 
punctated  substance  of  which  seems  to  be  the  immediate  centripetal 
element.  It  is,  therefore,  in  the  network  and  not  in  the  "  cell,"  that 
we  must  look  for  the  seat  of  the  essential  nervous  function.  In  short, 
Herubel's  results  are  against  attaching  importance  to  the  individuality 
and  fixity  of  nerve-cells.     Nervous  function  implies  correlation. 

Development  of  Sagitta.f — L.  Doncaster  has  confirmed  Hertwig's 
account,  except  that  in  S.  bipunctata  the  head-cavities  are  formed  as 
Biitschli  described  (1873).  Hertwig  probably  studied  a  species  with 
minute  head-cavities. 

Sections  of  the  embryo  show  that  in  its  early  stages  the  nuclei  lie 
at  the  free  ends  of  the  cells,  but  as  development  proceeds  those  of  the 
ventral  ectoderm  sink  into  their  bases,  and  in  the  ventro-lateral  areas 
a  great  proliferation  of  nuclei  takes  place  giving  rise  to  the  lateral 
nuclear  bands  of  the  ventral  ganglion.  The  cavities  of  the  embryo 
disappear  entirely,  the  endoderm  becomes  reduced  to  a  thin  septum,  the 
mesoderm  to  two  solid  strands,  in  which  most  of  the  nuclei  become 
aggregated  dorsally  and  ventrally,  and  the  cell-protoplasm  beueath 
them  becomes  converted  into  the  longitudinal  muscles. 

The  larva  is  as  described  by  Hertwig,  but  he  failed  to  observe  the 
mode  of  formation  of  the  posterior  transverse  septum,  which  arises  be- 
tween the  genital  cells  of  each  side  as  they  migrate  from  the  splanchnic 
mesoderm  across  the  body-cavity  to  the  body-wall.  This  migration 
takes  place  at  the  time  of  the  reappearance  of  the  ccelom,  and  the 
septum  is  probably  formed  from  the  mesodermic  envelopes  of  the 
genital  cells. 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  1603-5. 
t  Proc.  Cambridge  Phil.  Soc,  xi.  (1902)  p.  267. 


650  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

The  ectoderm  of  the  larva  in  the  neck  region  and  at  the  front  end 
of  the  fins  is  thickened  and  consists  of  vacuolated  cells  like  those  com- 
posing the  epidermis  of  Spadella  draco.  No  trace  of  excretory  organs 
nor  of  genital  ducts  was  found  in  the  larva ;  the  latter  appears  only  as 
maturity  approaches.  There  is  no  ccelomic  epithelium,  but  the  muscles 
are  formed  from  the  basal  ends  of  the  cells  which  line  the  coelom,  as  in 
Nematodes.  This  fact,  combined  with  the  mode  of  origin  of  the  trans- 
verse septa  and  the  absence  of  many  Annelid  characters,  supports  the 
view  that  the  Chaetognatha  are  not  related  to  the  Annelida. 

Jn  a  subsequent  paper  *  L.  Doncaster  describes  the  complete  and 
equal  cleavage,  the  blastula  with  its  nuclei  at  the  outer  ends  of  its 
cells,  the  gastrula  arising  by  invagination,  and  the  early  appearance  of 
the  primitive  genital  cells  (at  first  2,  then  by  division  4),  which  are 
separated  from  the  inner  layer  of  the  gastrula  at  the  opposite  pole  from 
the  blastopore.  Soon  after  their  appearance  a  pair  of  folds  arise  at  the 
anterior  pole,  which,  growing  backward,  divide  the  archenteric  cavity 
into  three  divisions, — a  median  alimentary  canal  and  two  lateral  coelomic 
cavities. 

The  folds  push  before  them  the  genital  cells  for  some  distance,  and 
the  latter  ultimately  come  to  rest  in  the  ccelomic  cavities,  two  in  each 
•side.  At  about  this  stage  the  front  ends  of  the  coelomic  spaces  become 
separated  off  as  head-cavities,  and  the  ectoderm,  invaginating  till  it 
meets  and  fuses  with  the  endoderm,  forms  the  mouth.  The  blastopore 
comes  to  lie  a  little  in  front  of  the  posterior  end  before  it  closes,  and 
by  the  lengthening  of  the  embryo  in  the  shell  and  the  general  com- 
pression caused  thereby,  all  cavities  become  obliterated.  The  origin 
of  the  cerebral  and  ventral  ganglia  by  ectodermic  thickening  and  in- 
sinking  is  then  described,  as  well  as  the  four  longitudinal  aggregations 
of  the  mesoderm. 

The  larva,  which  escapes  from  the  shell,  usually  not  more  than  two 
days  after  the  eggs  are  laid,  is  a  little  tapering  rod  about  1  mm.  in 
length,  solid  and  without  cavities.  Doncaster  describes  the  differentia- 
tion of  the  ganglia,  the  musculature,  the  ccelomic  cavities,  the  gut,  and 
so  on,  till  the  definitive  structure  is  reached. 

"  In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  it  seems  safest  to  regard 
the  Choetognatha  as  descended  from  a  primitive  ccelomate  stock,  from 
which  the  Annelida  have  arisen  on  the  one  hand;  while,  on  the  other, 
the  Nematoda  probably  branched  off,  but  lost  many  of  their  original 
characters  owing  to  their  parasitic  habit." 

Nematohelmmthes. 

Largest  of  known  Nematodes. f — J.  F.  Gemmill  and  0.  von  Lin- 
stow  describe  Ichthyonema  grayi  sp.  n.,  found  by  Gemmill  in  the  body- 
cavity  of  Echinus  esculentus  from  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  and  also  by 
Shipley  at  Plymouth.  The  female  measured  1500  mm.,  the  male 
60  mm.  in  length.  The  authors  compare  the  new  form  with  the  other 
(7)  species  of  the  genus. 

*  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlvi.  (1902)  pp.  351-98  (3  pis.). 
t  Arch.  Naturges.,  Ixviii.  (1902)  pp.  113-8  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  651 

New  Filaria.*  — !0.  von  Linsfcow  describes  Filaria  cingula  sp.  u. 
from  the  skin  of  the  giant  salamander  of  Japan,  Cryptobranchus  maximus. 
Tlie  specific  title  refers  to  the  prominent  anunli  on  the  cuticle. 

Platyhelininth.es. 

Maturation  and  Fertilisation  in  Cerebratulus  marginatus.f — 
C.  Kostanecki  describes  the  processes  of  maturation  and  fertilisation  in 
this  Nemertine.  One  of  the  outstanding  results  is  the  clear  proof  that 
the  centrosomes  of  the  first  cleavage-spindle  originate  in  the  spermato- 
zoon. In  a  subsequent  paper  J  the  author  discusses  the  remarkable  and 
suggestive  anomalies  in  the  formation  of  the  polar  bodies  in  this 
species. 

Regeneration  of  Pharynx  in  Planaria  maculata.§  —  Henrietta 
F.  Thacher  has  sought  to  find  out  if  there  is  any  marked  difference 
between  the  formation  of  the  pharynx  in  the  new  tissue  of  an  anterior 
j)iece  and  in  the  old  tissue  of  a  posterior  piece.  It  appears  that  the 
regeneration  of  the  pharynx  in  the  new  and  in  the  old  tissue  is  much 
the  same,  (1)  as  to  the  origin  and  migration  of  the  cells,  (2)  as  to  the 
formation  of  the  two  cavities  (the  chamber  and  the  lumen  of  the 
pharynx),  and  (3)  as  to  the  differentiation  of  the  cells  into  the  normal 
tissues. 

They  differ  (a)  in  the  length  of  time  that  elapses  before  the  pharynx 
thickening  shows  itself  (about  twelve  hours  more  being  required  for  its 
appearance  in  the  old  tissue  than  in  the  new),  (b)  in  the  position  of  the 
developing  pharynx  with  regard  to  the  central  digestive  cavity,  and 
(c)  in  the  size  of  the  pharyngeal  chamber  as  shown  by  its  early  irregu- 
larities in  the  posterior  piece.  The  last  two  differences  are  probably 
due  to  the  disposition  of  the  digestive  branches  in  the  two  cases. 

New  Species  of  Monostomum  —  L.  Cohn  describes  Monostomum 
oculobium  sp.  n.,  from  the  eye"  of  Vanellus  melanogasler,  an  exceedingly 
hyaline  form,  as  'transparent  as  a  Medusa,  showing  its  internal  organs 
through  a  thick  cuticle.  One  of  the  peculiarities  observed  was  the 
frequent  occurrence  of  a  situs  inversus  of  the  gonads,  and  this  lends 
Cohn  to  a  discussion  of  similar  conditions  elsewhere,  e.g.  in  Hsemato- 
loechus  variegatus  Rud. 

Incertae  Sedis. 

Structure  of  Cheilostomata.lf  —  S.  F.  Harmer  finds  that  a  large 
number  of  Cheilostomata-  are  provided  with  a  "  compensation  "-sac,  a 
structure  described  by  Jullien,  which  opens  at  the  proximal  border  of 
the  operculum,  or  by  a  "median  pore."  Muscles  usually  run  from  the 
lateral  walls  of  the  zooecium  to  the  floor  of  the  sac,  dilate  it  by  their 
contraction,  thereby  helping  to  force  out  the  polypide.  The  constant 
change  of   water  in   the   compensation-sac  probably  has  a  respiratory 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  634-5  (1  fig.). 

t  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1902,  pp.  270-7  (10  pis.). 

j  Tom.  eit.,  pp.  278-89. 

§  Amer.  Nat,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  633-41  (8  figs.). 

||   Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  712-8  (9  figs.). 

«f  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci ,  xlvi.  (1902)  pp.  263-350  (4  pis.). 


652  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

importance.     The  sac  is  frequently  found  in  zocecia  whose  polypides 
have  undergone  histolysis. 

The  floor  of  the  compeusation-sac  corresponds  in  whole  or  in  part 
with  the  memhranous  frontal  surface  ("frontal  membrane")  of  a  Mem- 
branipora  ;  and  its  muscles  are  homologous  with  the  parietal  muscles  of 
the  same  genus.  It  appears  to  have  been  evolved  in  more  than  one 
way. 

In  Cribrilinidse  a  calcareous  wall  ("frontal  shield")  is  developed  as 
a  series  of  marginal  spines,  which  overarch  the  frontal  membrane.  This 
leads  to  the  condition  found  in  some  Escharine  forms,  in  which,  as  in 
Umbonula,  the  calcareous  frontal  shield  similarly  overarches  the  frontal 
membrane. 

The  frontal  shield  of  the  Microporidaj  and  Steganoporellidre  is  of 
the  nature  of  a  "  eryptocyst,"  i.e.  a  calcareous  lamella  which  grows  hori- 
zontally across  the  body-cavity  beneath  the  frontal  membrane.  This 
has,  perhaps,  led  to  the  condition  found  in  Lepralia,  Schizoporella,  &c. 
in  which  the  compensation-sac  is  developed  as  an  invagination  at  the 
base  of  the  operculum,  and  passes  to  the  deeper  side  of  the  frontal 
shield,  which  is  on  this  view  a  cryptocyst. 

The  epitheca,  or  layer  of  living  tissue,  bounded  by  a  cuticle,  which 
covers  the  frontal  shield,  may  represent  the  entire  frontal  membrane 
(Microporidee,  &c),  or  only  a  part  of  that  membrane  (Lepralia,  &c),  or 
it  may  have  l>een  derived  from  the  outer  calcareous  layer  of  the  frontal 
bars  of  a  Cribrilina-like  form  (Umbonula).  The  epitheca  is  frequently 
responsible  for  the  addition  of  secondary  calcareous  matter  to  the  frontal 
shield,  and  in  some  cases  (Cellepora,  &c.)  for  the  formation  of  new 
generations  of  zocecia  which  are  superposed  on  the  older  ones. 

The  operculum,  in  its  more  primitive  condition,  is  merely  part  of  the 
frontal  membrane  strengthened  by  a  semicircular  marginal  flange.  It 
acquires  a  firmer  texture  and  a  more  elaborate  arrangement  of  its 
thickened  parts  as  the  result  of  its  articulation  with  calcareous  portions 
of  the  zooecium.  While  occlusor  muscles  may  be  regarded  as  an  essential 
adjunct  of  the  operculum,  definite  divaricators  seem  to  have  been  evolved 
as  a  modification  of  the  distal  pair  of  parietal  muscles. 

The  consideration  of  the  relations  of  the  frontal  surface  involves 
some  rearrangements  in  the  classification  of  the  Cheilostomata. 

The  results  of  the  study  of  the  compensation-sac  and  frontal  surface 
generally  are  confirmed  by  an  examination  of  the  primary  zucecium  or 
"  ancestrnla  "  (Jullien). 

Contributions  to  the  Anatomy  of  Rhabdopleura  normani.*— A. 
Conte  and  C.  Vaney  have  studied  well-preserved  specimens^  of  this 
interesting  animal,  colonies  of  which  were  found  by  Prof.  R.  Kcehler  in 
Lophohelia  prolifera. 

Their  most  important  results  are  the  following :— (1)  the  testis  and 
the  ovary  arise  from  differentiations  of  the  two  extremities  of  the  stalk ; 
(2)  the  space  enclosed  between  the  wall  of  the  body  and  the  internal 
organs  is  occupied  by  a  trabecular  connective  tissue ;  it  is  not  sub- 
divided by  septa,  and  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  homologous  with  a  body- 
cavity;  (3)  there  is  not  really  any  notochord. 

*  Comptea  Reudus,  cxxxv.  (1902)  pp.  63-5. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  653 

Rotatoria. 

Parasites  of  Rotatoria.*  —  O.  Zacharias  discusses  the  "  sausage- 
shaped  parasites  "  of  Rotifers.  He  gives  a  list  of  the  forms  in  which 
they  occur  (species  of  Brachionus,  Asplanchna,  Synchseta,  Conochilw, 
and  Polyarthra).  Various  observers  have  noted  and  named  them,  but 
their  position  remains  uncertain.  Zacharias  thinks  that  the  name  lie 
proposed  in  1893 — Ascosporidium  blochmanni — may  be  conveniently  ad- 
hered to. 

New  Rotifers  from  Scotland.f  —  James  Murray,  in  a  short  com- 
munication, figures  and  describes  the  following  seven  new  species  of 
Bdelloida,  most  of  which  he  has  obtained  among  Sphagnum  from 
Blantyre  Moor  in  Scotland  :  Philodina  brcvipes,  acuticornis,  decurvicornis, 
and  obesa  ;   Callidina  ornala ;  Rotifer  quadrioculatus  and  spicatus. 

Key  to  the  Rotifera  for  the  Amateur.  |  —  A  friend,  H.  S.  M.,  of 
the  late  Thos.  S.  Stevens  has  published  this  revised  and  extended  Key 
to  the  Rotifera,  which  includes  some  of  the  new  species  described 
since  Hudson  and  Gosse's  monograph  appeared,  but  by  no  means  all 
of  them.  This  Key  is,  no  doubt,  useful,  but  it  will  not  be  easy,  and 
hardly  safe,  to  determine  species  by  it  alone. 

Echinodernia. 

Structure  and  Hermaphroditism  of  Cucumaria  laevigata^  —  A. 
Ackermann  gives  a  general  description  of  this  Holothurian,  but  the 
chief  interest  of  his  investigation  is  in  regard  to  the  reproductive 
system.  The  genital  tubes  arise  as  diverticula  from  a  "  budding  zone," 
which  occupies  the  upper  portion  of  the  "  genital-basis,"  and  consists  of 
many  canals  abstricted  off  from  the  main  canal.  All  these  tubes  are 
hermaphroditic.  Both  in  young  and  old  animals  a  first  portion  forms 
ova,  a  second  portion  is  used  up  in  follicle-formation,  a  third  portion 
becomes  ultimately  spermatogenetic. 

At  the  most  posterior  portion  of  the  "  genital-basis "  only  male 
organs  occur,  which  arise  from  the  hermaphrodite  tubes  by  a  peculiar 
process — the  female  elements  being  removed  by  the  activity  of  phago- 
cytes. Their  place  is  taken  by  spermatogenetic  cells,  which  arise  from 
an  abundant  multiplication  of  the  indifferent  sex-cells  of  the  hermaphro- 
dite tube. 

The  animals  function  first  as  males,  the  male  elements  reaching 
maturity  first.  Ripe  eggs  occur  in  the  larger  specimens,  after  a  destruc- 
tion of  the  previously  developed  male  tubes.  After  the  ova  are  removed 
from  the  tubes  and  any  remnants  are  destroyed  by  phagocytes,  the  tubes 
become  exclusively  male  gonads.  From  the  first  ovipositiou  onwards 
there  is  a  continuous  absorption  of  the  oldest  male  tubes,  and  therewith 
an  absorption  of  the  posterior  "  genital-basis."  The  absorption  of  ova 
and  of  tubes  is  due  to  phagocytes — all  of  similar  character — plasma- 
cells  with  large  nuclei. 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1902)  pp.  647-9. 

t  Ann.  Scot.  Nat.  Hist.,  July  1902,  pp.  1G2-7  (2  pis.). 

J  Amer.  Mod.  Micr.  Journ.,  May  1902,  pp.  89-114. 

§  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxii.  (1902)  pp.  721-49  (1  pi.  and  2  figs.). 


654  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

In  short,  as  age  increases  there  is  a  diminution  of  the  hermaphro- 
ditism, and  a  predominance  of  maleness.  Perhaps  in  course  of  time 
Cucumaria  laevigata  will  hecome  dioecious. 

Red  Pigment  of  Asterias  rubens.* — E.  Dubois  finds  that  macera- 
tion of  this  starfish  in  fresh  water  yields  a  fine  blood-red  liquid.  This 
does  not  contain  haemoglobin,  nor  does  it  fix  the  atmospheric  oxygen. 
Addition  of  ether  produces  a  change  of  colour  to  strong  yellow  ;md 
separates  an  albumin.  The  pigment  is  ferruginous,  but  does  not  show 
the  characteristic  spectrum. 

Natural  Parthenogenetic  Development^  —  C.  Viguier  reasserts 
his  conviction  that  parthenogenetic  development  may  occur  naturally  in 
sea-urchins  —  Spheerecliinus,  Toxopneustes,  and  Arbaeia.  He  has  obtained 
parthenogenetic  plutei  from  Toxopneustes,  and  gastrulae  from  Arbaeia  ; 
and  he  emphasises  the  fact  that  the  parthenogenetic  development  differs 
in  some  details  from  that  which  follows  fertilisation.  He  also  gives  the 
results  of  experiments  which  show  that  temperature  has  its  influence  on 
the  alleged  natural  parthenogenetic  development. 

Maturation  in  Echinus  esculentus.^  —  T.  H.  Bryce  has  made  an 
important  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  this  process,  and  some  of 
his  results  help  to  harmonise  the  discrepancies  of  other  accounts.  His 
comparison  of  his  results  with  those  of  other  observers  is  very  interest- 
ing, but  we  must  confine  ourselves  to  the  summary  of  observations. 

The  chromatin  thread  or  threads,  derived  only  from  a  portion  of  the 
mass  of  chromatin  in  the  germinal  vesicle,  are  found  split  longitudinally 
and  segmented  into  sixteen  bodies — half  the  number  of  the  chromatin 
rods  in  the  nuclei  of  the  cleavage  divisions.  These  bodies  consist  of 
two  short  rods  placed  side  by  side,  and  each  rod  is  composed  of  two 
spheres  united  by  a  less  deeply  stained  portion  of  the  thread.  The  two 
rods  are  intimately  associated  so  as  to  form  a  tetrad-like  mass,  and  the 
whole  figure  is  to  be  considered  as  a  compound  chromosome. 

After  a  relatively  long  prophase  each  of  these  is  resolved  in  the  first 
polar  metaphase  in  such  a  manner  that  while  the  body  is  opened  up 
along  the  original  cleavage  plane,  another  longitudinal  cleft  is  effected, 
which  is  completed  in  the  anaphase,  and  the  final  result  is  another  com- 
pound chromosome  like  the  original  from  which  it  sprang  except  in  size. 
Each  of  the  sixteen  double  rods  which  remain  in  the  ovum  after  the 
extrusion  of  the  first  polar  body  is  resolved  in  the  second  polar  spindle 
into  its  two  elements  without  further  cleavage  taking  place. 

In  the  telophase  of  the  second  division  the  elements  which  remain 
in  the  ovum  after  the  extrusion  of  the  second  polar  body  elongate  into 
rods  which  become  bent  on  themselves,  while  those  in  the  second  polar 
body  remain  condensed  as  small  bilobed  rods. 

The  maturation  phases  differ  from  the  ordinary  cleavage  mitoses  in 
respect  of  (a)  the  thickening  and  condensation  of  the  chromatin  rods, 
(b)  the  second  longitudinal  splitting  which  occurs  in  the  first  meta- 
kinesis,  and  (c)  the  absence  of  longitudinal  cleavage  in  the  second  meta- 
kinesis.    The  second  mitosis  thus  merely  distributes  the  grand-daughter 

*  Ann.  Soc.  Lyon,  xlvii.  (1901)  pp.  139-41. 
f  Coiuptes  Keudus,  exxxv.  (1902)  pp.  00-2. 
X  Quart.  Jouru.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlvi.  (1902)  pp.  177-224  (3  pis.  and  3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSCOPY,    ETC.  655 

chromosomes  formed  by  the  second  longitudinal  splitting  in  the  first 
mitosis. 

There  is  thus  no  "  reducing  division."  The  only  reduction  which 
occurs  is  effected  in  the  germinal  vesicle,  and  the  chromatin  destined  to 
form  the  chromosomes  of  the  polar  divisions  is  diminished  in  bulk 
merely. 

Ccelentera. 

Increase  of  Mesenteries  in  Madrepora.*  —J.  E.  Ducrdeu  finds  that 
in  most  of  the  polyps  of  Madrepora  only  the  six  bilateral  pairs  of 
primary  mesenteries  are  developed,  four  pairs  complete,  two  incomplete. 
On  any  colony  a  few  enlarged  polyps  may  have  more.  The  new  mesen- 
teries beyond  tho  primary  six  pairs  are  added  in  complete  or  incomplete 
bilateral  pairs  at  only  the  two  axial  extremities,  the  entoccele  of  the 
dorsal  and  ventral  directives.  Like  Porites,  Madrepora  illustrates  the  bi- 
lateral entoccele  type ;  the  cyclic  disposition  is  never  assumed ;  the 
directives  form  isocnemic  pairs,  but  the  other  pairs  are  all  anisocnemic. 

The  pinnate  method  of  mesenterial  increase  is  distinct  from  that 
chaiacteristic  of  most  recent  corals;  in  these  the  metacnemes  are  added 
in  isocnemic  pairs  all  round  the  periphery  of  the  polyp,  within  the  six 
primary  exocceles,  and  in  the  end  constitute  one  or  more  distinct  alter- 
nating cycles.  In  Porites  the  same  method  of  increase  is  characteristic, 
except  that  in  any  one  polj-p  of  Porites  the  new  mesenteries  are  disposed 
at  either  the  one  or  the  other  extremity,  not  at  both. 

Six  new  bilateral  pairs  of  mesenteries  appear  practically  simulta- 
neously iu  Madrepora,  but  only  later  do  they  all  extend  down  the 
poly  pal  wall.  In  Porites  the  new  pairs  follow  one  another  in  regular 
succession. 

In  Madrepora  the  mesenterial  increase  is  early  associated  with 
fission  of  the  stomodaeum,  and  in  the  end  probably  with  complete 
polypal  fission,  in  which  half  the  mesenteries  of  each  tission  are  derived 
from  the  primary  twelve  of  the  original  polyp,  and  the  other  half  are 
new  formations.  The  resulting  paired  arrangement  of  the  mesenteries, 
including  the  presence  of  two  pairs  of  directives,  is  exactly  as  in  primary 
polyps.  Fission  of  the  stomodaaum  appears  very  late  in  Porites,  after 
full  establishment  of  six  new  pairs  of  mesenteries. 

Regeneration  in  Tubularia.  f  —  B.  Godlewski  gives  an  interesting 
description  of  the  regeneration  of  Tubularia  mesembryanthemum  when 
the  stem  is  cut  in  two  longitudinally.  The  hydranth  may  re-develop 
simultaneously  at  both  ends,  or  only  at  one  end  (which  may  be  aboral), 
or  in  the  middle  of  the  stem  (in  pieces  cut  lengthwise  unsymmetrically). 

Regeneration  in  Hydra.  X  —  U.  T.  Rowley  has  sought  to  discover 
whether,  during  the  period  of  regeneration,  the  old  cells  go  over  without 
change  into  the  tissue  of  the  new  animals,  or  whether  new  cells  are 
formed,  and  if  so,  in  what  part  or  parts.  The  answer  given  is  that  the 
new  cells  which  appear  during  the  regeneration  are  formed  by  division 

*  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Giro.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  59-66  (12  tigs.);  Ann.  Nat.  Hist., 
x.  (1902)  pp.  96-115  (12  figs.). 

t  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1902,  pp.  3S7-96  (11  figs.). 
X  Ainer.  Nat.,  xxsvi.  (1902)  pp.  579-83. 


656  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

of  the  old  cells  throughout  the  entire  piece,  as  in  the  normally  growing 
animal,  and  that  the  tentacles  are  formed  from  old  cells  and  from  cells 
that  have  arisen  by  division  of  the  already  differentiated  cells  of  the  old 
part. 

Japanese  Scyphomedusse.* — Kamakichi  Kishinouye  has  in  the  past 
few  years  been  studying  the  Scyphomedusse  of  Japanese  waters,  and  has 
come  to  know  22  species,  most  of  which  are  new  to  science.  Some  are 
very  remarkable. 

The  new  family  Stenoscyphidae  (among  the  Stauromedusae)  is  estab- 
lished for  Stenoscyphus  g.n.- — a  medusa  which  stands  between  Tesseridae 
and  Lucernaridaa,  closely  allied  to  Depastridaa  on  the  one  hand  and  to 
Haliclystidae  on  the  other ;  it  has  a  four-chambered  peduncle  and  eight 
separate  gonads.  It  hangs  down  from  the  fronds  of  Sargassum,  able  to 
detach  itself,  but  without  swimming  power.  As  the  body  has  adhesive 
apparatus  at  both  its  extremities,  it  can  effect  a  locomotion  very  much 
like  that  of  a  leech. 

Very  interesting,  also,  is  Schizodiscus  g.n. — a  Lucernarid  without 
mesogonial  pouches  and  without  adhesive  anchors.  The  Pelagidae  are 
enriched  by  Kuragea  g.n.,  the  Rhizostomae  (Cepheidae)  by  Microstylus  g.n., 
and  Perirhiza  g.n. 

Porifera. 

Studies  on  Hexactinellids.f — Isao  Ijima  has  studied  the  old  types 
of  Corbitella  speciosa  Quoy  Gairaard,  Heterotella  corbicula  Bowerbank,  and 
Eadictyum  elegans  Marshall. 

Gray's  genera  Corbitella  and  Heierotella  should  be  kept  up  as  distinct, 
the  former  to  comprise  not  only  Quoy  and  Gaimard's  species  C.  speciosa, 
but  also  Marshall's  Eudidyum  elegans  as  well  as  F.  E.  Schulze's  Tsegeria 
pulchra,  and  the  latter  to  stand  represented  by  the  single  original  species 
H.  corbicula  of  Bowerbank. 

Ijima  gives  a  definition  of  the  Euplectellid  subfamily  Corbitellinae, 
and  diagnoses  of  the  species  mentioned  above. 

Protozoa. 

Variations  of  Nodosaria  scalaris.J — A.  Silvestri  discusses,  particu- 
larly from  the  systematic  side,  the  occurrence  of  numerous  aberrant 
forms  of  this  Foraminifer,  which  cannot  be  regarded  as  accidental  or 
teratological  anomalies,  but  seem  to  be  quite  definite  variations  from  the 
type. 

Dimorphism  of  Foraminifera.§ — A.  Silvestri  discusses  the  marked 
dimorphism  of  Siphogenerina  columellaris,  which  occurs  in  a  rarer  micro- 
spheric  and  a  commoner  megalospheric  form. 

Discoloration  of  the  Sea  by  Dinoflagellata.  ||  —  H.  B.  Torrey  de- 
scribes the  occurrence  of  enormous  swarms  of  a  species  of  Gonyaulax  at 
San  Pedro,  on  the  Californian  coast.     The  water  was  red  (muddy  ver- 

*  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xvii.  (1902)  article  7,  17  pp.  and  2  pis. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  article  9.  34  pp.  and  1  pi. 

X  Atti  Pont.  Accad.  Rom.  Nuovi  Lincei,  lv.  (1902)  pp.  49-58. 

§  Tom.  cit..  pp.  101-4  (1  fig.). 

||  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  187-92  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY",    ETC.  657 

inilion)  by  day  and  unusually  phosphorescent  at  night.  The  redness 
occurred  for  at  least  two  hundred  miles  along  the  coast,  from  Santa 
Barbara  to  San  Diego,  and  extended  several  miles  to  sea.  It  lasted 
from  July  to  September.  Wherever  it  was  seen  the  fishermen  reported 
a  scarcity  of  food  fishes  ;  the  small  harbour  fishes  seemed  unaffected,  the 
tiny  invertebrates  of  the  plankton  were  abundant  in  it,  but  the  geueral 
effect  was  most  disastrous.  The  beach  was  strewn  with  dead  fishes, 
crustaceans,  holothuriaus,  ifcc.  It  seems  that  Gonyaulax  produces  these 
harmful  effects  by  dying  in  enormous  numbers,  the  putrefactive  changes 
thus  occasioned  pollutiug  the  water  and  giving  rise  to  a  horrible  stench. 
It  died  most  rapidly  along  the  water's  edge,  thus  affecting  the  littoral 
animals  especially.  The  cause  of  the  extremely  rapid  reproduction 
remains  obscure. 

Infusoria  in  Cuckoo-Spit.*— O.  Zacharias  finds  that  the  cuckoo-spit 
formed  by  the  larvaa  of  the  Cicad  Aphrophora  spumaria  is  often  (espe- 
cially in  June  and  July)  tenanted  by  large  numbers  of  the  ciliate  In- 
fusorian  Chilodon  cucullulus  Ehrb. — probably  carried  there  by  the  wind. 
A  minute  form  of  Monadina  was  also  present. 

Coccidium  of  Frog's  Kidneys.f — A.  Laveran  and  F.  Mesnil  have 
worked  out  the  life-history  of  Isopora  lieberkuhnii,  a  parasite  character- 
istic of  the  kidneys  of  Bana  esculenta. 

The  frog  ingests  the  sporocyst  stages  ;  the  sporozoites  become  free 
in  the  alimentary  canal,  and  pass  quickly  into  the  vascular  system. 
Thence  they  pass  into  the  kidneys,  where  the  capillary  system  is  so  well 
developed. 

In  the  kidneys  the  parasites  accumulate  in  the  glomeruli,  rupture 
the  delicate  boundary  which  separates  capillaries  from  canaliculi,  and 
become  free  in  the  canaliculi.  The  infection  of  the  renal  epithelium  is 
doubtless  due  to  young  merozoites,  and  it  seems  probable  that  this 
intta-epithelial  parasitism  is  not  an  essential  feature  in  the  life-history. 

Hfemosporidia  of  Alpine  Birds. $  —  B.  (ialli-Valerio  has  shown 
that  Alpine  birds  are  in  no  way  exempt  from  the  parasitism  of  Haemo- 
sporidia.  He  examined  101  specimens  (36  species,  29  genera,  mostly 
1  asseres),  and  found  29  cases  (18  species,  16  genera)  of  infection  with 
Hsemosporidia.     But  the  particular  parasites  are  not  identified. 

Myxosporidia  of  Coregonus.§— O.  Fuhrmann  describes  in  particular 
Henneguya  zschokkei  Gurley  (=  H.  kolesnihovi  Gurley  and  Myxobolus 
bicaudatus  Zschokke)  which  is  the  cause  of  frequent  disease  in  species 
of  Coregonus. 

*  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxii.  (1902)  p.  608. 

t  Comptes  Eendus,  cxxxv.  (1902)  pp.  82-7  (11  figs.). 

X  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  162-5. 

§  O.R.  Soc.  Neuchatel,  in  Arch.  Phys.  Nat.,  xiv.  (1902)  pp.  172-3. 


-t-^ 


December  17  th,  1902 


658  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 
Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including  Cell-Contents. 

Poison  of  Lotus  arabicus.* — W.  E.  Dunstan  and  T.  A.  Henry  give 
an  account  of  the  chemical  and  physical  properties  of  the  glucoside 
lotusin  which  they  have  isolated  from  this  plant.  The  plant  has  proved 
fatal  to  many  domestic  animals  in  Egypt.  Lotusin,  like  amygdalin, 
gives  prussic  acid  as  a  decomposition  product. 

Structure  and  Development. 
Vegetative. 

Germination  of  Carapa  guianensis.j — J.  W.  Harshberger  describes 
the  germination  of  seeds  of  this  member  of  the  order  Meliacese.  The 
seeds  begin  to  germinate  before  they  fall  out  of  the  capsule.  The  coty- 
ledons are  conferruminate  and  never  leave  the  seed,  and  the  course  of 
germination  is  that  which  is  usually  observed  in  the  case  of  seeds  con- 
taining a  large  store  of  reserve  material.  The  protrusion  of  the  radicle 
is  followed  by  that  of  the  plumule,  the  stem  elongates  and  develops  at 
first  only  scale-leaves,  and  then  in  succession  leaves  which  gradually 
assume  the  character  of  the  adult  form.  The  author  contrasts  the 
germination  of  this  species  with  that  of  C.  moluccensis  which  is  a  man- 
grove plant,  while  G.  guianensis  is  a  land  plant.  The  germination  is 
somewhat  similar  in  the  two  cases ;  the  chief  difference  lies  in  the 
formation  of  a  tuber-like  radicle  and  pneumatode  in  C  moluccensis  in 
association  with  its  littoral  mode  of  life. 

Peculiar  Stages  of  Foliage  in  the  Genus  Acacia.f — C.  E.  Preston 
discusses  the  development  of  the  bipiunate  leaf  and  of  the  phyllode  in 
species  of  Acacia,  and  suggests  that  the  appearances  described  favour 
Reinke's  view  of  the  existence  of  a  great  variety  in  the  mode  of  origin 
of  the  phyllode. 

Precocious  Branching^ — ~D.  G.  Fairchild  describes  the  production 
of  an  early  branch  on  a  poplar,  which  arose  from  a  wound.  The  wound 
had  healed  and  the  branch  originated  near  the  callus.  The  author 
suggests  the  possible  importance  of  the  phenomenon  in  the  production 
of  earlier  developing  varieties  of  shade  or  fruit  trees. 

Subterranean  Organs  of  Californian  Liliace8e.|| — A.  Rimbach  has 
studied  the  method  of  penetration  of  the  soil  adopted  by  various  species 

*  Phil.  Trans.  B,  cxciv.  (1901)  pp.  515-33. 

t  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philad.,  liv.  (1902)  pp.  122-6  (1  pi.). 

J  Amer.  Natural.,  xxxvi.  (1902)  pp.  727-34  (10  figs.). 

§  Bot.  Gaz.,  xxxiii.  (1902)  pp.  461-2  (1  fig.). 

||   Tom.  cit.,  pp.  401-20  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  659 

of  Liliaceae,  all  perennial  herbs.  In  species  of  Clintonia,  Prosartes,  and 
Fritillaria  the  rhizome  alone  by  its  movement  of  growth  determines 
the  position  of  the  plant.  It  grows  horizontally  and  is  influenced  as 
to  its  position  by  the  roots  which  are  not  contractile.  In  species  of 
IAlium,  Scoliopus,  and  Trillium,  on  the  other  band,  the  roots  are  con- 
tractile and  mainly  determine  the  position  of  the  horizontally  develop- 
ing rhizome.  In  Zygadenus,  Chlorogalum,  Calochortus,  and  Brodisea  the 
rhizome  develops  vertically  and  the  contractile  roots  determine  almost 
exclusively  the  position  of  the  plant.  In  the  first  seven  genera  men- 
tioned the  roots  are  of  the  same  kind,  but  in  the  last  three  there  is  a 
morphological  and  physiological  differentiation  of  labour  into  nutritive 
and  contractile  roots.  The  age  of  the  roots  amounts  to  years  in  Clintonia, 
Prosartes,  Scoliopus,  and  Trillium,  but  to  a  few  months  only  in  Fritillaria, 
Zygadenus,  Chlorogalum,  Calochortus,  and  Brodisea.  Contractility  occurs 
not  only  in  long-lived  roots  but  also,  and  in  a  very  high  degree,  in 
short-lived  ones.  Long-lived  roots  assume  also  the  function  of  storing 
reserve  material,  they  may  be  contractile  as  in  Scoliopus  and  Trillium, 
or  not  contractile  as  in  Prosartes  and  Clintonia. 

Rejuvenescence  as  a  Result  of  Grafting.* — L.  Daniel  describes 
the  result  of  grafting  an  herbaceous  annual  Scopolia  carniolica  on  a 
young  tomato  plant.  Scopolia  carniolica  is  one  of  the  earliest  spring 
flowering  plants.  On  May  1st,  its  aerial  shoots,  which  were  beginning 
to  dry  up  and  perish,  were  grafted  on  a  young  tomato  which  at  that 
time  was  at  the  beginning  of  its  development  and  growing  actively. 
The  graft  succeeded,  and  renewed  its  growth,  producing  in  succession 
buds  and  leafy  branches,  and  in  one  case  an  inflorescence  and  fruit. 
The  plants  are  both  members  of  the  same  order,  Solanacese,  but  belong 
to  different  tribes,  viz.  Hyoscyameae  and  Solaneae  respectively.  The 
experiment  shows  that  likeness  of  habit  between  stock  and  graft  is  not 
essential  to  success,  and  also  the  possibility  of  a  rejuvenescence  of  shoots 
which  are  already  in  a  state  of  senility.  The  operation  has  moreover 
profoundly  modified  the  habit  of  the  graft,  so  that  a  second  flowering 
has  occurred. 

Structure  of  the  Wood  in  Deciduous  and  Evergreen  Trees.f  — 
S.  Simon  formulates  the  following  results  of  his  investigations  in  the 
distribution  of  tissue  in  woody  plants  of  the  temperate  zone.  In  the 
case  of  nearly  allied  plants  growing  under  the  same  climatic  conditions, 
the  one  deciduous  and  the  other  evergreen,  there  is  a  greater  tendency 
in  the  former,  owing  to  its  more  limited  period  of  assimilation,  to 
develop  storage  tissue.  This  tendency  is  checked  only  when  the  de- 
ciduous plant  has  some  compensating  contrivance  which  acts  as  a  com- 
plete or  partial  equivalent  for  the  evergreen  leaf.  Corresponding  to 
the'  less  extent  of  storage  tissue  is  a  greater  development  of  mechanical 
tissue  in  the  evergreen  plant.  This  is  correlated  with  the  general 
xerophytic  character  of  these  plants,  which  for  the  same  reason  have 
less  conducting  tissue.  As  regards  distribution  of  tissue,  the  conduct- 
ing elements  occur  fairly  evenly  throughout  the  annual  ring  in  ever- 
green trees,  corresponding  with  the  more  even  distribution  of  activity 

*  Comptes  Kendus,  exxxv.  (1902)  pp.  481-2. 

t  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  229-49  (1  pi.  and  3  figs.). 

2  y  2 


660  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

throughout  the  whole  vegetation  period.  On  the  contrary,  the  large 
conducting  elements  preponderate  in  the  spring  wood  in  deciduous 
trees,  corresponding  with  the  rapid  development  of  a  large  leaf  area  at 
that  season.  Similarly  the  mechanical  tissue  is  also  very  evenly  dis- 
tributed in  the  evergreen  wood,  forming  generally  the  groundwork  of 
the  wood.  On  the  other  hand,  in  deciduous  trees  the  mechanical  tissue 
is  formed  mainly  in  the  autumn  wood  when  the  need  for  conducting 
tissue  is  lessened. 

Increase  in  Diameter  of  Trees.* — A.  W.  Borthwick  has  compared 
results  obtained  by  means  of  Pressler's  increment-borer  with  those  ob- 
tained by  actual  measurements  of  circumference  of  trees  extending  over 
a  series  of  years.  The  experiments  were  carried  out  in  the  Royal 
Botanic  Gardens,  Edinburgh.  The  results  obtained  by  the  two  methods 
closely  coincided.  By  means  of  the  increment-borer  narrow  cylinders 
of  wood  can  be  extracted  from  the  tree-trunk  and  the  breadth  of  the 
annual  rings  can  then  be  measured. 

Abnormal  Secondary  Thickening1  in  Kendrickia.f  —  A.  M.  Clark 
describes  this  process  in  K.  Walkeri,  a  tropical  climbing  epiphyte  be- 
longing to  the  Melastoinaceae.  The  anatomy  of  the  young  stem  is 
typical  of  the  family.  At  a  fairly  early  stage  numerous  small  patches 
aud  several  large  wedge-shaped  areas  of  thin-walled  unlignified  wood- 
parenchyma  are  cut  off  from  the  inner  side  of  the  completely  circular 
cambium  ring.  Later  the  cells  at  the  central  margin  of  the  wedge 
areas  start  new  growth  and  cell-division  ;  the  product  of  this  growth 
splits  the  axial  woody  ring  into  a  varying  number  of  portions.  Later 
on  the  quiescent  cambium  lying  between  the  original  internal  phloem 
and  the  axial  woody  ring  resumes  growth  and  proceeds  to  foi'm  xylem 
on  the  one  side  and  phloem  on  the  other. 

Pericycle  of  Angiosperms.J — J-  Pitard  has  made  extensive  studies 
on  the  evolution  and  the  anatomic  and  taxonomic  value  of  the  pericycle 
in  this  group.  His  communication  is  divided  into  five  parts: — (1)  His- 
torical methods.  (2)  Evolution  of  the  principal  types  of  pericycle  in 
Angiosperms.  (3)  General  phenomena  of  the  evolution  of  the  peri- 
cyclic  zone.  (4)  Taxonomic  and  anatomical  value  of  the  pericycle. 
(5)  Conclusions.  As  regards  the  evolution  of  the  pericycle,  the  author 
describes  five  methods  by  which  the  zone  may  follow  the  tangential 
growth  of  the  axis,  viz. : — (a)  By  tangential  increase  in  size  of  the  cells 
often  followed  by  (/3)  radial  division  of  the  cell,  (y)  Mem  stretching, 
a  tangential  increase  accompanied  by  a  radial  decrease  in  diameter. 
(8)  Crushing ;  the  layer  becoming  flattened  and  killed  by  the  centrifugal 
pressure,  (e)  Rupture  in  the  sclerenchyma  when  the  zone  is  a  ring  of 
sclerenchyma,  as  in  heterogeneous  pericycles  where  parenchyma  alter- 
nates with  groups  of  sclerenchyma. 

Considerable  variation  in  the  radial  diameter  of  the  zone  may  occur 
at  different  ages  of  the  axis ;  and  the  contour  may  also  become  altered 
during  the  course  of  development.  As  regards  function,  the  paren- 
chymatous cells  may  contain   chlorophyll  and  be   assimilative ;   later, 

*  Report  Brit.  Ass..  1001  (1902)  p.  831.  f  Tom.  cit,  pp.  842-8. 

%  Mem.  de  la  Soc.  des  Sci.  Bordeaux,  ser.  6,  i.  (1901)  pp.  173-360  (7  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  661 

however,  the  chlorophyll  disappears,  starch  is  deposited,  and  the  layer 
becomes  a  reservoir  of  reserve  food-stuff.  The  cells  may  also  hecome 
rich  in  deposits  of  tannin  and  calcium  oxalate,  i.e.  are  excretory,  and 
finally,  by  the  sclerosis  of  the  cell-walls,  the  layer  plays  an  important 
mechanical  function. 

The  duration  of  the  zone  is  very  variable.  It  may  perish  a  few 
weeks  after  its  formation  or  may  remain  for  many  years  at  the  surface 
of  great  trunks.  There  seems  little  or  no  relation  between  the  nature 
of  the  zone  and  its  duration.  The  author  also  discusses  the  influence 
of  the  pericycle  on  the  development  of  the  cortex  and  the  central 
cylinder.  Thus  a  sclerotic  pericycle  may  offer  considerable  resistance 
to  the  development  of  bast  and  be  an  important  obstacle  to  the  forma- 
tion of  vessels.  As  regards  its  taxonomic  value,  the  pericycle  of  the 
young  stem  is  a  character  of  the  first  importance,  but  owing  to  the 
modifications  to  which  it  is  liable  in  later  stages,  varying  with  age  and 
even  in  one  and  the  same  tree,  it  becomes  very  difficult  to  draw  con- 
clusions of  taxonomic  value.  As  an  autonomous  zone,  from  an  ana- 
tomical point  of  view,  the  pericycle  does  not  exist  in  woody  axes  even 
relatively  young,  nor  in  many  herbaceous  stems.  It  is  merely  a  con- 
ception. The  study  of  the  evolution  of  the  axis  shows  this  region  to 
be  a  mixture  of  elements  of  the  most  diverse  origin.  As  a  definite  tissue 
also  the  pericycle  has  no  existence.  It  is  a  pseudo-tissue  subject  to 
continual  additions,  destructions,  and  modifications.  Owing  to  the  con- 
tinual intrusion  of  new  elements  the  pericycle  has  no  definite  limits  or 
contour,  and  cannot  be  regarded  as  "  exactly  delimiting  the  position 
and  constitution  of  the  bast." 

Reproductive, 

Polyembryony  in  Gingko.* — M.  T.  Cook  records  a  single  case  of 
polyernbryony  from  Washington  D.C.  Two  embryos  were  present, 
each  as  complete  in  every  respect  as  the  single  embryos  except  in  size ; 
their  length  was  about  three-fourths  the  average  length  of  single 
embryos. 

Histology  of  the  Endosperm.| — W.  Gardiner  and  A.  W.  Hill  have 
investigated  the  histology  of  the  endosperm  during  germination  of  the 
seed  in  Tamus  communis  and  Galium  tiicorne.  A  description  with  figures 
of  the  macroscopic  characters  of  the  germination  in  Tamus  is  given, 
illustrating  the  early  production  of  an  epicotyledonary  tuber  in  which 
the  reserve  materials  of  the  seed  are  in  part  re-stored  as  starch.  The 
thick  endosperm  walls  are,  judging  from  their  reactions  to  stains,  pro- 
bably composed  of  a  reserve  cellulose  like  that  described  by  Gruss  from 
seeds  of  the  date  palm  and  other  plants.  Connecting  threads  occur  in 
groups  throughout  the  walls  which  are  uupitted.  The  progress  of  the 
ferment  action  is  centrifugal  with  reference  to  the  embryo ;  the  fermeut 
which  proceeds  from  the  cotyledon  along  a  few  of  the  threads,  affects 
first  those  walls  of  the  endosperm  cells  which  are  in  immediate  contact 
with  it,  and  as  the  cotyledon  enlarges  pari  passu  with  the  disorganisa- 
tion of  the  endosperm,  extends  its  sphere  of  action  into  deeper  layers. 

*  Bot.  Gaz.,  xxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  64-5  (1  fig.). 

t  Proc.  Cambr.  Philosoph.  Soc,  xi.  (190:0  pp.  445-54  (1  pi.). 


662  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

The  seed  of  Galium  tricorne  affords  a  different  type  of  ferment  action. 
The  thick  and  irregularly  pitted  -walls  of  the  endosperm  are  richly  pro- 
vided with  connecting  threads  which  are  usually  arranged  in  barrel- 
shaped  groups.  No  distinction  can  be  drawn  between  the  groups  of 
threads  which  occupy  the  pit-closing  membranes  and  those  which  occur 
in  thick  parts  of  the  walls,  since  every  gradation  from  one  to  the  other 
occurs.  The  walls  are  apparently  composed  of  a  substance  of  the 
nature  of  pecto-cellulose.  The  progress  of  the  ferment  action  is  not 
centrifugal  as  m  Tamus,  as  the  ferment  appears  to  originate  in  the 
endosperm  and  inwards  towards  the  embryo  in  a  centripetal  manner. 
The  relation  between  the  progress  of  the  ferment  action  and  distribution 
of  the  connecting  threads  is  not  always  clear,  as  in  many  cases  the  dis- 
solution of  the  walls  appears  to  take  place  without  any  obvious  con- 
nection with  the  threads.  The  authors  conclude  that  although  the 
ferments  can  attack  and  dissolve  the  thick  walls  of  the  endosperm 
■without  any  necessary  relation  to  the  connecting  threads,  yet  that  in 
the  initial  stages  the  penetration  of  the  enzyme  may  be  effected  by 
means  of  the  threads  which  thus  afford  a  means  of  reaching  the  internal 
parts  of  the  wall.  Secondly,  that  the  connecting  threads  are  concerned 
mainly  and  primarily  with  the  conduction  of  food  and  stimuli  from  the 
parent  plant  to  the  developing  embryo  and  endosperm  of  the  seed,  and 
that  any  further  use  to  which  they  may  be  put  during  germination 
must  be  regarded  as  only  of  secondary  importance. 

Comparative  Embryology  of  the  Rubiacese.* — F.  E.  Lloyd  formu- 
lates the  following  conclusions  from  a  study  of  twenty-three  species  re- 
presenting nine  genera  of  the  Rubiaceae.  The  ovules  have  a  single 
integument  and  a  greatly  reduced  nucellus,  which  ca7i  be  distinguished 
only  at  an  early  age  when  it  forms  a  cap  of  a  single  layer  of  cells 
crowning  the  archesporium.  In  the  Spermacocese  there  is,  in  addition 
to  the  integument,  a  second  outgrowth,  derived  from  the  fimicle, — a 
strophiole ;  it  contains  the  vascular  supply  of  the  ovules  and  includes 
also  numerous  special  excretory  cells  which  become  loaded  with  raphides. 
Similar  cells  occur  in  some  Galiese  near  the  embryo-sac  for  some  time 
before  and  after  fertilisation  ;  the  calcium  oxalate  may,  the  author  sug- 
gests, be  of  some  positive  value.  Houstonia  differs  from  the  other 
genera  studied  in  that  each  loculus  contains  a  number  of  ovules,  not  a 
solitary  one ;  the  ovules  are  relatively  very  small  and  borne  on  a  club- 
shaped  placenta.  They  have  no  integument,  and  the  archesporium, 
which  consists  of  but  one  functional  embryo-sac  mother-cell,  becomes 
deeply  buried  in  the  nucellar  tissue  by  the  growth  of  the  capping  cells. 
The  author  points  out  that  the  belief  that  a  single  naked  ovule  is 
correlated  with  the  parasitic  habit  must  be  rejected.  Except  in  Hous- 
tonia  the  archesporium  contains  7  to  15  megaspore  mother-cells,  each 
of  which,  except  the  arrested  ones  at  the  side  of  the  archesporium, 
divides  to  form  four  megaspores  which  are  generally  not  separated  by 
walls.  This  condition  is  comparable  to  that  described  as  occurring  in 
Eichhornia  and  Avena.  All  the  megaspores  are  both  morphologically 
and  physiologically  equivalent.  The  author  refers  to  Koernicke's  view 
of  the  fact  that  the  embryo-sac  cell  in  the  great  majority  of  seed  plants 

*  Mem.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  1-112  (15  pis.  and  11  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY",   ETC.  663 

is  derived  from  the  lowest  megaspore,  i.e.  the  one  at  the  chalazal  pole, 
because  the  divisions  which  give  rise  to  the  megaspores  are  such  as  to 
give  the  larger  proportion  of  plasma  to  that  cell  owing  to  its  more 
favourable  position  with  reference  to  the  source  of  nutriment.  This 
view  is  supported  by  the  Rubiacese  in  so  far  that  the  larger  number  of 
megaspores  and  undivided  megaspore  mother-cells  form  a  nutritive 
tissue,  surrounding  more  or  less  completely  the  embryo-sac  cell  which 
arises  near  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  mass.  The  fact  that  in  forms 
in  which  a  pluricellular  sporangium  is  present  any  or  all  of  the  mega- 
spores can  develop  into  embryo-sacs  proves  their  morphological  equality, 
and  the  regular  division  of  each  of  the  megaspore  mother-cells  into 
four  must  be  regarded  as  a  true  tetrad  division. 

The  author  compares  Murbeck's  results  in  Alchemilla,  where  the 
archesporium  is  multicellular;  some  of  the  mother-cells  never  divide 
and  never  give  rise  to  embryo-sacs,  the  others  divide  once  or  twice, 
forming  megaspores,  two  or  more  of  which  may  develop  into  young 
embryo-sacs,  aud  in  the  same  sporogenous  cell-row  two  or  more  may 
commence  their  development  into  embryo-sacs.  This  is  precisely  com- 
parable with  Crucianella  in  Rubiacese.  The  pluricellular  archesporium, 
which  has  been  shown  to  occur  in  widely  separated  families,  has  no 
phylogenetic  significance;  the  meaning  is  purely  physiological.  The 
archesporial  tissue  not  directly  concerned  in  the  formation  of  the 
embryo-sac  takes  actively  or  passively  a  nutritive  role,  either  gradually 
disintegrating  and  becoming  absorbed,  or  growing,  chiefly  in  length, 
and  forming  a  transporting  tissue  connecting  the  embryo-sac  with  the 
vascular  supply  of  the  ovule.  The  embryo-sac  may  develop  in  situ  or 
break  through  the  nucellar  cells  and  pass  along  the  micropylar  canal, 
deriving  nutriment  from  the  adjacent  disintegrating  cells.  The  antipodal 
cells  in  the  Galiese  are  three  in  number,  one  being  much  elongated,  its 
free  end  plunging  into  the  mass  of  disintegrating  megaspores  and 
acting  as  an  absorbent  organ.  In  Crucianella  they  are  short-lived  and 
show  no  special  development.  In  Diodia  virginiana  there  are  from  4 
to  10,  arranged  in  a  long  series  and  physiologically  equivalent  to  the 
single  long  antipodal  in  the  Galiese.  The  author  points  out  that  the 
form  and  cytological  structure  of  the  antipodals,  the  changes  in  their 
food  content,  their  tending  to  multiply  and  form  a  special  conductive  or 
nutritive  tissue,  supports  Westermaier's  conclusion  that  the  antipodals 
form  an  anatomical-physiological  apparatus,  and  not  a  useless  rudi- 
mentary structure  which  may  be  understood  only  from  the  view  of  com- 
parative morphology. 

The  embryo  in  the  Galiese  has  a  highly  developed  suspensor,  the 
cells  of  which  elongate  laterally,  forming  haustoria  which  penetrate 
between  the  cells  of  the  endosperm  ;  the  suspensor  therefore  acts  as  a 
temporary  embryonic  root.  This  condition  is  analogous  to  that  de- 
scribed by  Dickson  in  Tropseolum,  where  the  branches  from  the  base  of 
the  suspensor  penetrate  the  pericarp.  Similar  organs  have  been  de- 
scribed by  Treub  in  Orchidaceae,  and  by  Hofmeister  and  Guignard  in 
Leguminosae.  In  the  Spermacocese  and  Houstonia  there  is  a  complete 
absence  of  these  adaptive  characters  ;  the  suspensor  is  a  very  simple 
structure.  The  peripheral  cells  of  the  endosperm,  from  their  cyto- 
logical character  and  the  behaviour  of   the    adjacent    tissues,  may   be 


664  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

regarded  as  secreting  an  enzyme  and  absorbing  the  food  derived  by 
digestion  of  the  reserve  food-substances  in  the  integument. 

During  growth  of  the  embryo-sac  mother-cell  a  large  number  of 
coarse  fibres  occur  in  the  cytoplasm,  and  persist  through  diakinesis  of 
the  first  division.  The  spindle  in  both  pollen  and  embryo-sac  mother- 
cell  is  of  multipolar  origin,  and  there  is  no  trace  of  centrosomes.  A 
reduced  number  of  chromosomes  appears  in  the  prophase  of  the  first 
division  of  the  pollen  and  embryo-sac  mother-cells,  ten  in  Crucianella, 
twelve  in  Asperula.  These  numbers  are  maintained  throughout  subse- 
quent divisions.  From  the  mode  of  division  the  author  concludes  that 
they  are  true  tetrad  divisions,  and  the  four  resultant  cells  are  spores. 
The  author  also  refers  to  the  question — at  what  point  in  the  life  cycle 
does  the  gametophyte  start  ?  The  two  periods  of  development  have 
been  merged  into  one  another  to  different  degrees  in  different  plants. 
In  extreme  cases,  as  Lilium,  the  gametophyte  appears  to  begin  histo- 
logically with  the  embryo-sac  mother-cell,  and  where  four  spores  are 
produced  it  may  be  regarded  as  an  individual  by  coalescence,  having  its 
origin  in  four  like  vegetative  cells  whose  primitive  function  has  been 
lost.  As  Juel  and  Murbeck  have  shown  in  Antennaria  and  Alchemilla, 
true  tetrad  mitoses  do  not  occur  in  parthenogenetically  reproduced 
plants. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  course  of  the  pollen-tube  may  be  inter- 
cellular, or  pass  through  the  ovary  cavity  in  related  species,  the  author 
infers  that  its  behaviour  is  of  no  practical  significance)  from  the  point  of 
view  of  phylogeny.  Chemotropism  is  assumed  to  be  the  important 
factor  in  guiding  the  pollen-tube,  and  the  suggestion  is  made  that  the 
synergidae  are  the  source  of  the  stimulant. 

Development  of  Ovule  and  Seed  in  Rosaceae.*  —  F.  Pechoutre  has 
studied  the  development  of  ovule  and  seed  in  a  large  number  of  species 
representing  the  different  tribes  of  the  order.  He  finds,  contrary  to  the 
assertions  of  Baillon,  who  considers  the  ovules  of  most  indigenous 
Rosacea?  to  be  monochlamydeous,  that  almost  all  are  dichlamydeous ; 
Geum,  Fragaria,  Potentilla,  and  Alchemilla  alone  of  the  genera  studied 
having  only  an  external  integument,  the  internal  being  absorbed.  The 
development  of  the  integuments  shows  great  homogeneity  throughout 
the  order.  The  internal  originates  from  four  epidermal  cells,  which 
generally  arise  by  tangential  division  of  a  single  epidermal  cell,  or 
sometimes  of  two  neighbouring  cells.  They  appear  at  the  level  of  the 
base  of  the  nucellar  projection,  after  the  differentiation  of  the  embryo-sac 
mother-cells.  The  external  tegument  originates  from  a  subepidermal 
cell  behind  and  close  to  the  dividing  epidermal  cell.  Later  on  cell- 
division  extends  to  neighbouring  subepidermal  cells  and  the  covering 
epidermal  cells.  The  external  tegument  generally  appears  after  the 
internal.  Hence  the  development  of  the  ovular  teguments  in  Rosacea? 
conforms  to  the  rule  general  to  all  Dialypetalse.  Even  in  the  most 
pronounced  cases  of  concrescence  there  is  never  any  confusion  of  the 
initials.  The  variations  which  appear  depend  solely  on  the  relative 
position  of  the  respective  initials.  In  Pirese,  where  a  distance  of  about 
two  epidermal  cells  separates  the  initials,  the  teguments  arise  as  two 

*  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  1-158  (166  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  665 

distinct  protuberances  and  remain  distinct  throughout  from  cbalaza  to 
micropyle.  In  the  Amygdaleae  two  forms  occur.  In  Armeniaca,  Persia*, 
and  Amygdalus  the  initial  of  the  external  tegument  appears  behind  that 
of  the  internal  at  a  distance  of  about  half  the  length  of  an  epidermal 
cell.  Only  one  protuberance  is  formed,  but  the  two  integuments,  though 
in  contact,  remain  distinct  throughout.  In  Cernsus  and  Prunux  the 
subepidermal  cell  in  which  the  outer  originates  immediately  precedes 
the  epidermal  from  which  the  inner  tegument  arises.  There  is  a  single 
protuberance  in  which  the  two  teguments  are  concrescent ;  later,  how- 
ever, the  external  acquires  an  epidermis  of  its  own,  so  that  in  the 
micropylar  region  the  two  teguments  are  distinct.  In  the  Spiral  both 
the  forms  found  in  Amygdalese  occur,  while  in  Spiraea  filipendula  the 
concrescence  is  complete  from  cbalaza  to  micropyle.  The  same  com- 
plete concrescence  occurs  in  the  Sanguisorbese  (except  Alchemilla),  in 
the  Roseas  aud  Rubese.  In  Alchemilla  and  in  the  Potentilleae  studied 
(Geum,  Fragaria,  Potentilla)  except  Dryas,  where  there  are  two  integu- 
ments, the  internal  tegument  is  absorbed,  and  the  ovule  is  niono- 
chlamydeous.  The  subepidermal  initial  of  the  outer  tegument  is 
beneath  the  epidermal  initial  of  the  inner.  Both  initials  divide  at  first 
in  the  usual  way,  but  the  epidermal  cells  are  carried  up  by  the  develop- 
ing external  tegument,  and  are  thus  prevented  from  forming  an  internal. 

The  number  of  layers  comprising  the  two  teguments  at  the  time  of 
fertilisation  varies  considerably  from  three  to  ten  or  more  for  the  outer, 
and  two  to  four  or  more  for  the  inner.  The  time  at  which  the  lull 
number  of  layers  is  formed  also  varies.  The  seed  generally  being  well 
protected  by  the  pericarp,  and  sometimes  by  a  receptacular  envelope,  the 
modifications  undergone  by  the  ovular  integuments  in  their  conversion 
into  seed-coats  are  generally  in  the  sense  of  a  simplification.  In  all 
cases  with  two  teguments  the  inner  takes  a  part,  though  a  feeble  one, 
in  the  constitution  of  the  seed-coat,  sometimes  being  represented  only 
by  a  membranous  layer  without  cellular  structure,  and  never  showing 
any  sclerosis.  The  modifications  of  the  external  tegument  are  subject 
to  numerous  variations.  There  is  always  a  more  or  less  abundant 
albumen  applied  to,  and  intimately  united  with,  the  inner  face  of  the 
seed-coat. 

The  sporogenous  tissue  always  arises  from  several  axial  sub-epidermal 
cells,  which  divide  transversely,  the  upper  forming  a  transitory  tapetum, 
the  lower  forming  the  inacrospoie  mother-cell,  which  always  divides 
tiansversely  to  form  three  or  four  daughter-cells,  one  of  which  forms 
the  embryo-sac.  The  primary  tapetal  cell  divides  by  both  transverse 
and  longitudinal  walls.  In  each  vertical  row  all  the  products  of  division 
of  the  macrospore  mother-cell  are  equivalent  in  their  capacity  of  forming 
an  embryo-sac.  Only  one  embryo-sac  forms  in  each  rank,  but  several 
cells  belonging  to  separate  ranks  may  commence  development,  and  one 
may  find  in  the  adult  nucellus  several  perfect  embryo-sacs ;  generally 
only  a  single  one  arrives  at  maturity.  Any  one  of  the  daughter-cells 
in  a  series  may  become  the  embryo-sac ;  the  selection  depends  ap- 
parently merely  on  mechanical  causes.  When  one  of  the  upper  cells  is 
selected,  the  lower  (generally  only  one)  form  anticlinals,  which  show  a 
higher  vitality  than  their  sister  cells  above  the  embryo-sac,  which  early 
become  crushed  against  the  tapetal  cells. 


666  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

The  epidermis  of  the  nucellus  divides  to  form  an  epidermal  cap 
above  the  tapetum.  Below  the  embryo-sac  and  during  its  development 
the  nucellus  shows  several  threads  of  cells  extending  towards  the 
chalaza,  which  are  crushed  and  in  course  of  absorption.  After  fertilisa- 
tion the  nucellus  is  very  slowly  absorbed ;  in  the  ripe  seed  of  Pireae  it 
is  still  represented  by  a  narrow  layer  of  crushed  cells,  and  sometimes 
by  a  recognisable  epidermis. 

Development  in  the  embryo-sac  immediately  following  fertilisation 
is  very  slow,  especially  in  the  Amygdalese,  but  when  the  albumen  is 
formed  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  very  rapid.  The  embryo  always  has  a  sus- 
pensor,  which  is  massive  and  short  in  the  Amygdaleae,  larger  and  formed 
of  a  double  or  simple  thread  in  all  the  other  tribes.  The  lower  cells  of 
the  suspensor  generally  make  a  notch  in  the  radicular  extremity  of  the 
embryo.  In  favourable  cases  (Pirus,  Sanguisorba,  &c),  where  the  limit 
between  the  cells  of  suspensor  and  embryo  is  well  defined,  the  suspensor 
seems  to  play  no  part  in  the  formation  of  the  organs  of  the  embryo. 
The  early  development  of  endosperm  is  uniform  throughout  the  order, 
commencing  with  a  layer  of  free  nuclei  round  the  sac,  which  is  then 
transformed  into  a  cell-layer  by  formation  of  cell-walls.  Later  the 
cavity  of  the  sac  becomes  filled,  the  Amygdaleae  differing  from  the  rest 
of  the  order  in  that  only  the  upper  part  of  the  sac  is  filled.  The 
nucellus  is  crushed  and  generally  completely  absorbed  by  the  albumen, 
which  is' in  turn  in  great  part  absorbed  by  the  embryo.  A  portion  of 
the  albumen  always  persists,  though  variously  distributed  around  the 
seed.  The  outermost  layer  is  always  remarkable  by  its  abundant  pro- 
teid  contents,  but  only  in  Rhodotypus,  where  the  greatest  quantity  of 
albumen  is  found,  does  it  show  marked  differential  characters  from  the 
rest  of  the  albumen.  Owing  to  the  generally  small  development  of 
albumen,  and  its  intimate  association  with  the  seed-coat,  the  author 
considers  its  function  to  be  protective  rather  than  nutritive.  In  con- 
trast with  the  passive  and  mechanical  protection  afforded  by  the  seed- 
coat,  it  supplies  an  active  physiological  protection  regulating  osmotic 
exchanges  and  preventing  the  intrusion  of  germs. 

The  author  considers  that  the  ovule  and  seed  show  variations  which 
support  the  subdivision  of  the  rosacea^  into  a  number  of  distinct 
families. 

Existence  of  a  Hypostase  in  the  Ovule  and  Seed  of  Rosaceae.* — 
Ph.  Van  Tieghem  refers  to  his  discovery  of  a  small  structure  in  the 
pistil  of  seed-plants  below  the  female  prothallus,  the  object  of  which  is 
to  arrest  towards  the  base  the  longitudinal  growth  of  the  prothallus, 
and  which  he  calls  the  hypostase.  It  consists  generally  of  a  cupule  of 
isodiametric  cells  which  have  strongly  lignified  but  not  much  thickened 
membranes.  When  the  pistil  is  inovulate,  whether  a  nucellus  is  present 
or  not,  it  forms  in  the  parenchyma  of  the  carpel  a  single  structure 
common  to  all  the  female  prothalli.  When  the  pistil  is  ovulate,  whether 
the  nucellus  is  permanent  or  transitory,  it  forms  in  each  ovule  a  small 
individual  hypostase.  Owing  to  its  strong  ligniuoation  it  resists  all  the 
various  diastatic  agencies  which  are  at  work  during  formation  of  embryo 
and  albumen  ;  aud  for  the  same  reason  is  incapable  of  growth.     Hence 

*  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  159-60. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   KTC.  667 

it  appears  in  the  ripe  fruit  exactly  as  it  was  in  the  pistil,  but  being 
relatively  much  smaller  is  difficult  to  perceive.  Iu  the  Perparieteae,  it 
sometimes  occupies  a  more  or  less  elevated  position  in  the  persistent 
nucellus.  By  arresting  the  basal  development  of  the  albumen  it  protects 
from  destruction  the  region  of  the  nucellus  between  itself  and  the 
chalaza :  this  region  is  found  in  the  ripe  seed  intercalated  between  the 
tegument  and  the  albumen,  or  the  tegument  and  the  embryo.  Hence  in 
these  cases  there  is  a  more  or  less  voluminous  perisperm.  The  author 
insists  on  the  necessity  of  looking  for  the  hypostase  and  the  perisperm 
in  future  studies  of  pistil  and  ovule,  and  complains  that  M.  Pechoutre 
has,  in  the  preceding  memoir  on  the  Kosacese,  a  member  of  the  group 
Perparieteae,  completely  ignored  its  existence.  M.  Van  Tieghem  asserts 
that  he  has  himself  observed  it  in  a  good  number  of  cases  situated  some- 
times at  the  very  base  of  the  nucellus,  sometimes  higher  up  in  its  mass. 
He  gives  as  a  special  case  the  strawberry,  in  which  the  little  woody 
cupule  can  be  seen  immediately  beneath  the  endosperm,  and  below  it  a 
small  disc  of  rudimentary  perisperm. 

Development  of  Flower  and  Embryo  of  Spiraea.*— J.  E.  Webb  has 
studied  the  organogeny  of  the  flower  and  the  development  of  the  embryo 
mainly  in  Spireea  japonica.  He  finds  that  the  members  develop  in  the 
following  order  : — sepals,  inner  stamens,  carpels,  outer  stamens,  and 
finally  petals.  The  microsporangia  are  mature  before  the  megasporangia. 
In  the  former  there  is  never  any  trace  of  archesporial  cell  or  plate. 
The  peripheral  layer  of  the  hypodermal  cells  divides  periclmally  to  form 
two  cell-layers,  below  which  is  a  tapetal  layer.  The  tapetum  is  merely 
the  outer  layer  of  the  sporogenous  mass,  and  is  distinguished  from  the 
sporogenous  cells  merely  by  its  position  and  nutritive  function.  The 
author  remarks  that,  although  such  an  explanation  of  the  tapetal  layer 
is  impossible  for  many  microsporangia,  e.g.  Cnicus,  yet  its  possibility 
has  been  suggested  by  Coulter  in  Banuncidus.  By  gradual  changes 
the  tapetal  is  clearly  differentiated  from  the  spore-mother-cells,  to  form 
a  thick  surrounding  layer  rich  in  food  material.  The  inner  of  the  two 
layers  between  tapetum  and  epidermis  is  absorbed  by  the  tapetum  for 
the  benefit  of  the  sporogenous  tissue,  and  the  tapetum  itself  becomes 
ultimately  disorganised  and  absorbed.  The  outer  of  the  two  layers 
becomes  the  endothecium  with  large  cells  and  thickened  walls.  In  the 
megasporangia,  at  a  very  early  stage,  several  hypodermal  cells  at  the 
tip  become  enlarged,  to  form  a  mass  of  archesporial  cells  comparable 
to  that  found  in  Rosa  livida  by  Strasburger.  By  periclinal  divisions  a 
hypodermal  tapetal  mass  becomes  separated  from  an  inner  sporogenous 
mass.  Successive  periclinal  divisions  in  the  tapetum  add  much  to  the 
length  of  the  ovule  and  the  distance  from  the  sporogenous  tissue  to  the 
epidermis,  and  periclinal  divisions  in  the  latter  also  add  to  the  length  of 
the  ovule.  Usually,  one  only  of  the  megaspore-mothcr-cells  enlarges 
for  division,  but  often  two  or  three  begin  to  divide  and  then  all  but  one 
break  down.  The  successful  megaspore  is  the  one  nearest  the  chalazal 
end  of  the  sac.  It  is  very  seldom  that  a  megaspore  nearer  the  micro- 
pyle  shows  any  signs  of  reaching  maturity.  The  embryo-sac  follows 
the  normal  course  of  development,  and  at  an  early  stage  there  occurs  a 

*  Bot.  Gaz.,  xxxiii.  (1902)  pp.  451-60  (28  figs.). 


668  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

thickening  of  the  cells  in  the  chalazal  region  adjacent  to  the  megaspore. 
The  development  of  the  embryo  is  regular  and  normal ;  the  suspensor, 
unlike  that  of  Leguminosae  but  in  accordance  with  typical  illustrations, 
consists  of  a  single  row  of  cells.  Their  function  is  evidently  to  direct 
the  food  supply  derived  from  the  embryo-sac  to  the  embryonic  root 


Physiology. 
Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Influence  of  Varying  Amounts  of  Carbon  Dioxide  in  the  Air  on 
Photosynthesis  and  Plant  Growth.*  —  H.  T.  Brown  and  F.  Escombe 
show  that  a  living  leaf  is  able  within  certain  limits  to  respond  to  in- 
creased amounts  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the  surrounding  air,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  indicate  an  approximate  proportion  between  the  photo- 
synthetic  work  and  the  partial  pressure  of  the  gas.  But  further  experi- 
ments show  that  this  power  of  responding  to  increased  amounts  of  carbon 
dioxide  is  not  correlated  with  increase  in  dry  weight  of  the  plant.  The 
leaf  area  of  plants  grown  for  a  long  period  in  excess  of  C02  was 
generally  much  reduced  in  comparison  with  control  plants  grown  in 
a  normal  atmosphere,  and  in  many  cases  there  was  a  marked  inward 
curling  of  the  leaves.  The  excess  of  C02  in  several  cases  induced  a 
deeper  green  colour  ;  and  the  leaves  showed  a  much  larger  accumulation 
of  starch  than  in  those  of  the  control  plants.  The  most  striking  differ- 
ences were  in  the  development  of  the  reproductive  organs  ;  flowering  was 
almost  entirely  inhibited  on  plants  exposed  to  air  containing  11 '4  parts 
per  10,0U0  of  C02.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  transformation,  trans- 
location, and  general  metabolism  of  the  leaf-reserves  under  the  altered 
conditions  cannot  keep  pace  with  the  increased  tendency  to  produce  an 
extra  amount  of  plastic  material  from  the  atmosphere.  The  slight  in- 
crease in  the  amount  of  C02  in  the  surrounding  air  which  favours 
increased  photosynthesis,  destroys  the  adjustment  of  the  various  parts 
and  results  in  a  more  or  less  abnormal  development  of  the  plant,  the 
reproductive  functions  being  especially  modified.  The  authors  suggest 
that  the  facts  recorded  by  them  indicate  that  the  composition  of  our 
atmosphere,  as  regards  the  carbon  dioxide,  has  remained  practically 
constant  for  a  long  period. 

J.  B.  Farmer  and  S.  E.  Chandler  f  have  made  a  comparative  study 
of  the  internal  structure  of  the  plants  of  several  species  used  by  Brown 
and  Escombe  in  the  above  experiments.  They  find  that  the  results 
which  follow  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  normally 
present  to  about  three  and  a  half  times  the  amount  are  as  follows: — 

(1)  Growth  of  the  internodes  is  checked,  and  the  period  of  growth  as 
measured  by  the  elongation  of  successive  internodes  is  lengthened. 

(2)  Growth  in  surface  of  the  leaves  is  arrested  at  a  more  or  less  early 
stage. 

(3)  The  absolute  number  of  stomata  per  unit  area  of  leaf  surface  is 
considerably  increased,  largely  or  entirely  as  the  result  of  the  non- 
attainment  by  the  epidermal  cells  of  their  normal  size.    The  guard- cells, 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  lxx.  (1902)  pp.  397-412  (6  pis.). 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  413-23  (5  figs,  in  text). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  669 

however,  do  not  diminish,  and  are  found  to  be  gorge!  with  starch ;  the 
stoma  remains  open.  The  relative  proportion  of  stomata  to  the  number 
of  epidermal  cells  in  a  given  area  remains  approximately  constant  in 
the  two  cases. 

(4)  The  anatomical  structure  of  the  internal  tissue  of  the  leaves  is 
not  materially  altered. 

(5)  The  anatomical  structure  of  the  stem  usually  differs  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  formation  of  less  lignified  xylem  elements,  fewer  vessels,  and 
often  also  in  the  imperfect  development  of  mechanical  tissue.  The  phloem 
shows  no  alteration.      No  alteration  could  be  detected  in  the  roots. 

Duration  of  Germinating  Power  of  Seeds.*  —  Jules  Poisson  cites 
certain  observations  which  point  to  the  retention  of  germinating  power 
for  many  years  in  marsh  plants.  In  these  cases  the  seeds  have  been 
able  to  resist  the  action  of  moisture  which  is  generally  found  to  be  preju- 
dicial to  the  retention  of  germinating  power. 

Irritability. 

Nature  of  the  Stimulus  causing  the  Change  cf  Form  and  Struc- 
ture in  an  Amphibious  Plant.f — W.  B.  McCalluin  has  tried  to  ascertain 
the  real  factors  which  determine  the  type  of  leif  produced  by  hetero- 
phyllous water  plants.  The  subject  of  his  experiments  was  P 'roserpinaca 
palustris,  which  grows  in  low  swampy  places  usually  flooded  in  spring 
and  early  uummer,  and  subject  to  occasional  submergence  throughout  the 
season.  He  has  studied  seriatim  as  far  as  possible  the  effects  of  each 
external  factor,  and  concludes  that  the  stimulus  to  the  development  of 
the  water  form  is  not  involved  in  the  light  relation,  in  the  nutritive 
conditions,  temperature,  the  gaseous  content  of  the  water,  nor  the  contact 
stimulus  of  the  water.  The  only  factor  which  is  constant  in  all  cases 
where  the  water  form  develops  is  the  checking  of  transpiration,  and  the 
consequent  increased  amount  of  water  in  the  protoplasm.  When  the 
latter  is  in  that  condition  of  dilution  which  accompanies  the  absorption 
of  a  large  amount  of  water,  the  nature  of  the  growth  is  such  as  to 
produce  the  water  form,  while  those  physical  and  chemical  conditions 
resulting  from  a  partial  withdrawal  of  water  by  evaporation  (i.e.  an 
increased  density  of  the  protoplasm)  result  in  the  production  of  the 
aerial  form. 

Electrical  Conductivity  of  Plant  Juices.}-— F.  D.  Heald  describes 
apparatus  and  methods  for  the  determination  of  the  above.  He  finds 
as  the  result  of  examination  of  the  beet,  potato,  onion,  radish,  and  four 
other  species,  that  plant  juices  are  good  conductors,  the  conductivity 
being  due  largely  to  the  dissolved  mineral  substances,  while  the  organic 
compounds  play  a  minor  part.  The  specific  conductivity  of  the  juice 
obtained  from  the  roots  is  always  considerably  less  than  that  of  the 
juice  from  subaerial  parts.  The  specific  conductivity  generally  in- 
creases progressively  from  the  root  upward,  although  in  some  cases  the 
sap  from  the  stem  has  a  higher  conductivity  than  that  from  the  leaves. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  the  specific  conductivity  is  a  rough  measure 
of  the  relative  amounts  of  ash  present  in  different  parts  of  the  plant. 

*  Comptes  Eendus,  exxxv.  (1902)  pp.  333-5. 
t  Bot.  Gaz.,  xxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  93-108  (10  figs.). 
X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  81-92  (2  figs.). 


670  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Chemical  Changes. 

Enzymes  of  the  Tea-leaf.*  —  H.  H.  Mann  has  investigated  the 
nature  of  the  changes  which  occur  during  the  preparation  of  the  tea- 
leaf  and  comes  to  the  following  conclusions: — (1)  That  an  oxidase 
occurs  in  the  leaf.  (2)  That  this  oxidase  is  the  chief  agent  in  bringing 
about  the  fermentation  and  colouring  of  the  leaf.  It  is  most  active 
below  55°  C.  and  is  destroyed  about  80°  C,  is  very  sensitive  to  acids 
and  also  to  alkalies,  but  not  to  quite  the  same  extent.  There  is  distinct 
evidence  that  part  of  it  usually  occurs  as  a  pro-enzyme  in  the  leaf. 
(3)  That  it  occurs  in  greatest  quantity  in  the  unopened  tip-leaf  of  the 
shoot,  and  that  the  quantity  decreases  as  the  leaves  get  older,  but  that 
the  stalk  contains  at  least  the  same  amount  as  the  tip-leaf.  (4)  That 
leaf  which  contains  the  most  enzyme  makes  the  most  highly  flavoured 
tea.  The  increase  of  enzyme  in  the  leaf  seems  in  some  way  connected 
with  the  amount  of  phosphates  in  the  soil.  (5)  The  amount  of  enzyme 
in  the  leaf  materially  increases  during  withering,  a  fact  which  throws 
a  new  light  on  the  nature  of  the  process,  and  makes  it  probable  that 
the  enzyme  performs  much  more  important  functions  in  the  manufacture 
than  has  hitherto  been  supposed.  Other  enzymes  occur  in  the  leaf,  but 
there  is  at  present  no  evidence  that  they  play  an  important  part  in  tea 
manufacture. 

General. 

Liparis  Loeselii  and  Teucrium  Scordium.t  —  A.  Bennett  gives 
notes  of  the  occurrence  and  distribution  of  these  two  East  Anglian 
marsh  plants,  which  are  becoming  gradually  rarer  as  drainage  and 
cultivation  extend. 

Variations  in  Perianth  of  Ranunculus  Ficaria.J — W.  A.  Nichol- 
son gives  a  table  of  statistics  showing  the  variation  in  the  numbers  of 
the  sepals  and  petals  in  2116  flowers  of  B.  Ficaria  from  Norfolk,  and 
works  out  the  standard  deviation  from  the  mean  by  the  method  recom- 
mended by  Prof.  Pearson.  That  for  the  sepals  is  0  ■  4776,  for  the  petals 
0-9538.  He  finds  that  as  the  sepals  increase  the  petals  decrease  in 
number. 

Albinism  in  Plants.§  —  E.  Pantanelli  publishes  some  researches 
into  the  meaning  of  albinism  in  plants.  After  reviewing  the  papers 
of  previous  authors  he  proceeds  to  the  anatomical  side  of  the  subject, 
and  considers  first  the  relation  between  the  white  patches  and  the 
nervation  and  deformation  caused  by  albinism  ;  and  secondly,  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  chromatophores  in  the  white  leaves.  He  has  studied 
some  eighteen  species.  In  summing  up  his  results  he  finds  that  the 
diversely  coloured  areas  are  always  bordered  by  nerves ;  that  the  pali- 
sade cells  are  the  first  to  turn  white ;  that  the  thickness  of  the  leaf  is 
usually  as  great  in  the  white  patches  as  in  the  green ;  that  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  chromatophores  is  subject  to  great  specific  variation  ;  that  in 
white  patches  the  chrornatophores  are  absent,  in  yellow  patches  they 

*  Journ.  Asiat.  Soc.  Bengal,  lxx.  pt.  ii.  (1902)  pp.  154-66. 

t  Trans.  Norf.  and  Norw.  Nat.  Soc,  vii.  (1902)  pp.  333-8. ' 

%  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  379-82. 

§  Malpighia,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  363-415  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  671 

are  present,  and  it  is  only  in  yellow  patches  that  recovery  of  the  green 
colour  can  occur  in  old  age  ;  that  where  the  chroinatophores  do  occur 
they  are  smaller  than  u&ual. 

British  Dye-plants.* — C.  B.  Plowright  has  examined  and  tested  the 
tinctorial  properties  of  about  70  plants,  using  only  the  simpler  mordants 
(such  as  alum,  ammonia,  iron  sulphate,  &c),  with  a  view  of  ascertaining 
what  shades  and  colours  were  available  for  former  inhabitants  of  our 
islands.  About  150  different  shades  were  produced,  all  essentially 
sombre  in  hue.  The  author  gives  a  list  of  the  plants  and  the  results 
obtained  in  each  case. 

Relationships  of  American  and  Old  World  Birches.t  —  M.  L. 
Fernald  after  a  comparative  study  of  the  North  American  and  old 
world  forms  of  Betula,  concludes  that  some  forms  hitherto  regarded  as 
endemic  in  the  new  world  are  identical  with  old  world  forms,  thus  em- 
phasising the  community  between  the  floras  of  the  eastern  and  western 
north  temperate  areas. 

CRYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 

Pollen  and  Male  Prothallia  from  the  Coal  Measures. i— B.  Renault 
gives  figures  and  descriptions  of  various  preparations  on  which  he  bases 
the  following  conclusions.  Many  pollen-grains  of  the  coal  period  con- 
tained a  male  prothallium  perfectly  well  defined,  the  compartments  in 
which  enclosed  the  antherozoid-mother-cells.  This  prothallium  might 
send  out  a  pollen-tube  as  in  Steplianospermum,  or  allow  the  antherozoids 
to  escape  directly  into  the  pollen-chamber  as  in  JEtlieotesta.  In  cases 
where  the  grain  was  too  large  to  penetrate  the  micropylar  canal  to  the 
pollen-chamber,  it  threw  off  its  extine,  and  the  prothallium  penetrated 
alone ;  the  perforations  in  the  cell-walls  allowed  the  antherozoids  to 
pass  into  the  pollen-chamber,  into  which  the  necks  of  the  archegonia 
opened. 

Fossil  American  Ferns :  Fertile  Fronds  of  Crossotheca  and 
Myriotheca.§ — E.  H.  Sellards  describes  fertile  fronds  of  species  of  these 
Carboniferous  ferns  from  Mazon  Creek,  Illinois.  He  points  out  that 
although  both  genera  are  included  by  Zeiller  in  the  Marattiacese,  the 
large  size  of  the  spores  and  the  comparatively  small  output  to  the 
sporangium  are  characters  not  met  with  in  the  living  representatives  of 
that  group.  The  position  of  the  sporangia  is  also  unusual.  He  also 
examined  spores  from  a  large  number  of  fronds  of  two  species  of 
Pecopteris  from  the  same  locality  and  finds  no  indication  of  heterospory, 
and  does  not  accept  Renault's  suggestion  of  the  existence  of  this  con- 
dition in  the  genus. 

The  same  author, ||  as  the  result  of  examination  of  additional  ma- 
terial, concludes  that  Lesquereux's  fern  genus  Icliophjllum  is  merely 
a  synonym  of  Neuropteris  rarinervis  BuDt. 

*  Trans.  Norf.  and  Norw.  Nat.  Soc,  vii.  (1902)  pp.  383-94. 
t  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  xiv.  (1902)  pp.  167-94  (2  pis.). 
%  Comptes  Kendus,  cxxxv.  (1902)  pp.  350-3  (7  figs.). 
§  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  xiv.  (1902)  pp.  195-202  (1  pi.). 
||  Torn,  cit.,  pp.  203-4  (2  figs.). 


672  SUMMAKY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

r  Structure  and  Affinities  of  Dipteris.*  —  A.  C.  Seward  and  Eliza- 
beth Dale  give  a  general  account  of  the  synonymy  and  characters  of 
the  four  species  of  tbis  genu?,  which  is  mainly  of  Indian  and  Malayan 
distribution.  They  also  give  an  elaborate  description  of  the  anatomy 
of  rhizome,  root,  and  leaf  in  Dipteris  conjugata,  and  then  proceed  to  a 
discussion  of  the  systematic  position  of  the  genus.  "  The  anatomical 
features,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  sporangial  characters  and  the 
characteristic  form  and  venation  of  the  fronds,  afford  ample  reasons  for 
the  removal  of  the  genus  from  the  Poiypodiacefe,  and  its  inclusion  in  a 
separate  family,  of  which  it  represents  the  solitary  surviving-  type." 
The  family  had  a  wide  European  distribution  in  the  early  Mesozoic 
period.  The  authors  give  a  tabular  account  of  the  distribution  in  space 
and  time  of  the  probable  members  of  the  Dipteridineas. 

Danish  Pteridophyta.f — C.  Christensen  publishes  a  revised  list  of 
the  Danish  Pteridophytes,  with  a  few  critical  notes.  He  recognises 
46  species. 

Brazilian  Ferns.J — H.  Christ  concludes  his  study  of  the  ferns  of 
South  Brazil  and  treats  of  the  species  falling  under  the  following 
genera—  Osmunda,  Gleichenia,  Schizsea,  Aneimia,  Dansea,  Ophioglossum, 
Botrychium,  Lycopodium.  The  total  number  of  species  in  the  paper 
is  288.  Eight  of  these  are  described  as  new  in  the  concluding  instal- 
ment, and  with  them  are  some  new  varieties. 

Hybrid  Origin  of  Asplenium  ebenoides.§  —  M.  Slosson  has  been 
endeavouring  for  some  years  to  obtain  plants  of  Asplenium  ebenoides 
by  experimenting  with  the  prothallia  of  A.  platyneuron  and  Camptosorus 
rhizophyllus,  and  has  now  obtained  young  plants  so  like  those  produced 
naturally  that  she  claims  to  have  proved  her  case.  She  describes  the 
methods  followed  in  dealing  with  the  prothallia  and  the  precautions 
adopted. 

Nature  of  the  Stele  of  Equisetum.||  —  D.  T.  Gwynne-Vaughan 
finds  that  the  usual  comparison  of  the  vascular  bundles  of  Equisetum 
with  those  of  a  monostelic  phanerogam  cannot  be  satisfactorily  main- 
tained. The  xylem  of  the  so-called  vascular  bundle  of  Equisetum  con- 
sists of  three  strands,  two  of  which  are  lateral  and  cauline,  while  the 
median  or  carinal  strand  is  common  to  stem  and  leaf.  The  fact  that 
only  a  small  part  passes  out  as  a  leaf-trace,  and  not  the  bundle  as  a 
whole,  is  an  essential  point  of  difference  from  the  bundle  of  a  seed- 
plant.  The  development  of  the  tracheids  in  the  leaf-trace  and  the 
carinal  strand  are  not  exarch  but  endarch  or  perhaps  slightly  mesarch 
on  the  adaxial  side.  The  lateral  strands  are  differentiated  later  than 
the  carinal  strand,  but  do  not  seem  to  be  a  continuation  of  its  centri- 
fugal development.  It  is  suggested  that  the  lateral  xylem  strands  in 
the  vascular  bundles  of  existing  Equisetums  may  perhaps  be  taken  to 
represent  the  last  remnants  of  a  primitive  central  mass,  and  that  this 

*  Phil.  Trans.  B,  cxciv.  (1901)  pp.  487-513  (3  pis.). 

t  Bot.  Tidskr.,  xxiv.  (1902)  pp.  369-76. 

%  Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  ii.  (1902)  pp.  6S9-70S. 

§  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  487-95  (with  figs,  in  text). 

||  Rep.  Brit.  Ass.,  1901  (1902)  p.  850. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  673 

would    be    entirely    in    agreement    with    their    apparently    centripetal 
development  and  in  particular  with  their  cauline  course. 

Mosses. 

Leaf-Anatomy  of  the  Leucobryacese.*  —  J.  Oardot  publishes  the 
results  of  his  researches  into  the  anatomy  of  the  LeucobryaceiB  and 
illustrates  them  with  19  plates  containing  abundant  sketches  of  leaf 
sections.  The  transverse  section  of  the  leaf  is  an  all-important  cha- 
racter of  both  species  and  genus.  It  varies  according  to  the  height  at 
which  it  is  taken  in  a  given  leaf,  but  this  variation  is  constant  in  a 
given  species,  and  hence  is  of  systematic  importance.  The  author 
claims  that  he  has  put  our  knowledge  of  the  leaf-structure  on  a  firmer 
footing  ;  that  Lindberg's  view  that  the  leaf  of  Leucobryum  is  chiefly 
composed  of  an  expanded  nerve  is  correct ;  that  the  affinities  of  the 
Leucobryacefe  are  with  the  Dicranaceoe  on  the  one  hand  and  with  Syr- 
rhopodon  on  the  other ;  that  the  anatomical  characters  of  the  leaf  afford 
natural  and  satisfactory  means  for  discriminating  the  genera.  He 
divides  his  subject  into  four  tribes  : — Leucobryefe,  Leucophaueae,  Octo- 
blephareee,  Arthroeormeae — according  to  the  elements  composing  the 
cross-sections  of  the  leaves  ;  and  the  genera  comprised  are : — I.  Ochro- 
bryum,  Schistomitrium,  Gladopodanthus,  Leucobryum  ;  II.  Leucophanes ; 
III.   Cardotia,  Octoblepliarum ;  IV.  Arthrocormus,  Exodictyon. 

British  Moss  Flora. f — W.  E.  Nicholson  notes  the  occurrence  in 
Britain  (near  Crowborouuh  in  Sussex,  and  Bedgbury  Park  Woods,  Kent) 
of  Ephemerum  stellatum,  a  moss  hitherto  known  only  from  France.  The 
author  gives  a  description  and  figure,  and  refers  to  the  species  as 
"  perhaps  the  smallest  of  all  British  mosses." 

Mosses  of  Jutland. £ — A.  Mentz  discusses  the  nature  and  composi- 
tion of  the  moss  vegetation  of  the  heaths  and  bogs  of  Jutland.  The 
paper  is  in  Danish.     A  bibliography  is  appended. 

European  Species  of  Sematophyllum.§ — Elizabeth  G.  Britton  dis- 
cusses the  synonymy  of  this  genus,  its  European  species,  and  the 
geographical  distribution  of  the  latter. 

Preliminary  List  of  Montana  Mosses.||  —  R.  S.  Williams  gives  a 
list  of  species  collected  between  1886  and  1897  in  various  portions  of 
the  State  chiefly  in  the  Missouri  watershed.  A  new  species  of  Dicranum 
and  of  Barbula  are  described. 

Species  Hepaticarum.^f — F.  Stephani  resumes  his  revision  of  the 
hepatics  of  the  world  by  issuing  the  first  half  of  the  difficult  genus 
Plagiochila.  In  an  introduction  he  discusses  the  importance  of  the 
leaves  and  especially  of  the  leaf-base  as  characters  in  the  classification 
of  the  species.     Coming  to   the  species,  he  enumerates  and  classifies 

*  Mem.  Soc.  Nat.  des  Sci.  Nat.  et  Math,  de  Cherbourg,  xxxii.  (1901-2)  pp.  1-84 
(19  pis.). 

t  Journ.  Bot.,  xl.  (1902)  pp.  337-8  (1  pi.). 

X  Bot.  Tidsskr.,  xxiv.  (1902)  pp.  303-22  (5  figs  in  text). 

§  Journ.  Bot.,  xl.  (1902)  pp.  353-5. 

||  Bull.  New  York.  Bot.  Gard.,  ii.  (1902)  pp.  351-80  (6  pis.). 

t  Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  ii.  (1902)  pp.  657-88  (with  6  figs,  in  text). 

December  17th,  1902  2  z 


674  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

121  from   tropical    America,  all  belonging  to  the  section  Patulfe,  and 
52  of  these  he  describes  in  full.     There  are  27  new  species. 

Petalophyllum  Ralfsii.*  —  S.  Sommier,  who  previously  discovered 
the  rare  British  hepatic  Petalophyllum  Ralfsii  in  the  Tuscan  island 
Pianosa,  has  found  it  again  on  the  mainland  of  Italy  between  Monte 
Argentaro  and  Orbetello,  being  led  to  search  for  it  closely  through 
noticing  that  the  soil  and  plants  (especially  Ophioglossum  lusitanicum) 
were  just  such  as  conceal  the  jilant  on  the  island  of  Pianosa. 

Siamese  Hepatics.f — F.  Stephani  describes  four  new  hepatics  and 
names  thirteen  other  species  collected  in  the  island  of  Koh  Chang  in 
the  Gulf  of  Siam  by  the  Danish  expedition  (1899-1900). 

Riella  cultivated  from  dried  Mud.f  —  M.  P.  Porsild  describes  a 
new  species  of  hepatic — Riella  Paulsenii,  cultivated  from  spores  in 
dried  mud  brought  from  brackish  lakes  in  Bokhara  in  central  Asia,  two 
years  previously.  The  genus  is  remarkable  for  its  submerged  existence, 
its  structure,  rarity,  and  distribution.  The  author  institutes  a  new  sub- 
genus, Trabutiella. 

Hepatics  of  Puerto  Rico.§  —  A.  W.  Evans  describes  fully  and 
figures  the  four  species  of  Leptolejeunea  found  in  the  island  of  Puerto 
Kico.  These  are  minute  and  epiphyllous.  The  author  carefully  com- 
pares the  genus  with  its  ally  Drepanolejeunea  and  brings  out  the  points 
of  difference.     He  includes  an  account  of  the  vegetative  reproduction. 

Priority  of  the  Name  Calypogeia.  |]  —  E.  Levier  discusses  the 
history  and  systematic  values  of  the  debated  generic  names  Calypogeia 
Raddi  (1818),  Kavtia  [or  Kantius]  S.  E.  Gray  (1821),  Cincinnulus  Du 
Mortier  (.1822),  and  Gongylanlhus  Nees  (1836).  Appealing  to  Raddi's 
clear  description  and  figures  of  the  original  species  Jungermannia  caly- 
pogeia in  1808 — the  earliest  demonstration  of  a  subterranean  marsupioid 
perichfetium  in  a  hepatic,  he  claims  this  species  to  be  the  type  of 
Eaddi's  genus  Calypogeia,  under  the  later  name  C.  fissa  Eaddi  (1818), 
and  approves  Nees'  transference  of  Raddi's  two  other  species  to  Gongy- 
lanthus.  As  to  Kantia  Gray  and  Cincinnulus  Du  Mort.,  he  finds  them 
to  be  unwarranted,  though  the  former  was  revived  by  Lindberg — on 
inadequate  grounds. 

Algae. 

Coccospheres  and  Coccoliths.^f — H.  Lohmann  publishes  the  results 
'of  his  researches  on  these  organisms  and  adds  much  to  what  had  pre- 
viously been  known  on  the  subject.  His  paper  is  divided  into  six 
sections,  preceded  by  a  general  introduction.  Section  I.  deals  with  the 
history  of  Coccolithophoridas,  as  the  group  is  here  termed,  with  the  litera- 
ture and  views  already  published  ;  it  is  divided  into  several  subsections  ; 
II.  deals  with  the  structure  of  the  cell  and  of  the  two  coverings,  gelati- 
nous  and  calcareous ;  III.  the  reproduction  and  development ;  IV.  the 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital.,  1902,  p.  73. 

t  Bot.  Tidsskr.,  xxiv.  (1902)  pp.  277-80. 

X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  323-7  (3  figs,  in  text;. 

§  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  49G-510  (3  pis.). 

||    Bull.  Soc.  It;i).,  1902,  pp.  92-8.  • 

f  Arch.  f.  Protistenkunde,  i.  (1902)  pp.  89-165  (3  pU). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  675 

systematic  position  ;  V.  the  classification  ;  VI.  the  distribution,  occur- 
rence, and  significance,  including  the  author's  methods  of  capture,  preser- 
vation, and  examination. 

This  author  regards  Coccospheres  as  true  Flagellata?,  probably 
forming  a  family  in  the  division  Chrysomonadina.  He  shows  that  the 
name  Coccosphaera  must  be  dropped  as  having  been  previously  used  tor 
another  organism  ;  and  he  therefore  proposes  instead  the  name  Coccolitho- 
phora.  His  method  of  capture  of  these  minute  bodies  is  most  ingenious. 
Hitherto  nets  have  been  used  of  the  finest  silk  gauze,  but  Lohmann 
catches  them  by  means  of  the  filteriug  apparatus  of  species  of  Appendi- 
cularia  which  feed  on  them.  An  examination  of  the  carefully  constructed 
apparatus  provided  by  nature  in  these  organisms  has  revealed  a  large 
number  of  species  of  Coccolithophoridae  which  were  small  enough  to  slip 
through  the  finest  meshes  of  a  net,  and  the  author  has  thereby  been  able 
to  form  satisfactory  estimates  as  to  their  distribution  and  occurrence.  It 
has  also  been  possible  to  study  their  minute  structure  in  a  manner  un- 
known before,  and  the  results  are  given  in  section  II.  The  work  was 
carried  on  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  author  shows  that  these 
organisms  are  much  more  common  in  the  upper  layers  of  the  sea  than 
had  been  supposed.  As  regards  tbe  systematic  treatment,  the  author 
divides  them  into  two  main  groups:  Syracosphserinse  having  unper- 
forated  Coccoliths,  and  Coccolithophoringe  with  perforated  Coccoliths. 
Five  new  genera  are  described  and  seventeen  new  species. 

Plankton  of  Alpine  Lakes.*  —  Carl  v.  Keissler  has  continued  his 
investigations  on  the  plankton  of  the  Aber-  or  Wolfgang-See  in  Salz- 
burg. The  author  gives  a  list  of  both  the  phyto-  and  zoo-plankton  met 
with  in  the  lake  from  June  to  September.  The  Chlorophyceae  number 
five,  among  which  Botryococcus  Braunii  Kutz.  is  described  in  some  detail 
with  the  aid  of  a  plate  ;  the  diatoms  number  fourteen  ;  the  Schizophyceae 
present  include  four  forms,  among  which  a  new  variety  GJiroococcus  minor 
Naeg.  var.  dispersus  is  described  and  figured  as  a  new  variety  ;  the  phyto- 
plankton  further  includes  three  PeridineaB  and  six  Flagellata.  Of  the 
zoo-plankton,  two  Protozoa,  five  Rotatoria  and  six  Crustacea  are  men- 
tioned. Tables  are  given,  indicating  the  relative  number  of  the  forms 
at  various  times  of  the  year,  and  also  comparing  the  plankton  of  this 
lake  with  that  of  two  other  Alpine  lakes,  the  Neuenbcrger  See  and  the 
Ottersee,  for  the  months  of  August  and  September.  Tables  are  also 
provided  to  show  the  vertical  distribution  of  the  various  orgunisms,  and 
aiso  the  total  quantity  of  plankton  present  at  various  depths. 

Pond  Plankton.f  —  In  May  1898  a  pond  in  the  palm-garden  at 
Frankfort  a.  M.  was  seen  to  be  coloured  a  deep  green,  and  Otto  Zacharias 
found  that  this  was  caused  by  the  excessive  multiplication  of  a  desmid, 
Polyedrium  papilliferum  var.  tetragona  Br.  Schroder.  The  cells  were 
12  jx  long  and  about  the  same  breadth,  except  at  the  girdle  where  they 
measured  8  /a.  There  was  also  with  it  a  small  quantity  of  Scenedesmus 
opoliensis  Kicht.  and  Synedra  delicatissima  W.  Sm.  In  July  of  the 
same  year  the  author  found  a  similar  luxuriant  growth  of  coenobia  of 
Pediastrum  boryanum,  which  gave  a  light  green  colour  to  the  water  of  a 

*  "Verhandl.  k.  k.  zool.-bot.  Gesell.  Wien,  lii.  pp.  305-27  (1  pi.  and  1  text  fig.). 
t  Biol.  Centrsflbl.,  xxii.  (1902)  pp.  535-6. 

2  z  2 


676  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

pond  at  Marburg.    These  cells  measured  25-45  /i  in  diameter.    Associated 
with  this  species  was  Synedra  acus  Grun. 

Diatoms  of  Lake  Cotronia.* — Matteo  Lanzi  finds  that  the  species 
most  abundantly  represented  belong  to  Cyclotella ;  then  follow  Cocconeis 
and  Synedra,  Colletonema  and  Cymbella.  More  rarely  are  found  species 
of  Navicula,  Pleurosigma,  Surirella,  and  Cymatopleura,  Achnanthes  lanceo- 
lata,  Campylodiscus,  and  Odontidium. 

Phyto  -  plankton  of  the  Erlaufsee,  and  the  Caspian  Sea.  t  — 
V.  Brehm  and  E.  Lederbaner  record  Anabvena  flos  aquas  Breb.,  Ceratium 
hirundinella  Mull.,  Asterionella  formosa  var.  gracillima  Grun.,  Tabellaria 
fenestrata  var.  intermedia  Grun.,  and  JBotryococcus  Braunii  Kiitz.  The 
pbyto-plankton  of  this  lake  is  much  more  rarely  to  be  found  than  the 
zoo-plankton,  and  there  is  no  one  form  which  occurs  sufficiently  often  in 
the  nets  as  to  be  in  any  way  characteristic.  The  least  rare  form  is  Cera- 
tium hirundinella,  which  is  not  found  below  5  m. 

C.  H.  Ostenfeld  J  gives  the  result  of  his  examination  of  plankton 
collected  in  the  Caspian  Sea  by  the  Danish  Expedition  to  Central  Asia. 
The  three  samples  taken  showed  that  a  similarity  exists  between  the 
phyto-plankton  of  the  Caspian  ad  that  of  the  Baltic,  but  that  endemic 
species  constitute  the  larger  part.  The  following  new  species  and 
varieties  are  described : — Amphorella  borealis  var.  caspica,  Diplopsalis 
caspica,  Gonyaulax  Clevei,  Exuviella  cordata,  Chsetoceras  caspicum,  G. 
delicatulum,  C.  Paulsenii,  C.  rigidum,  C.  simplex,  Anabeena  caspica, 
Oocystis  socialis. 

Diatoms  of  the  River  Olona.  §  — Benedetto  Corti  publishes  a  list 
of  the  diatoms  found  by  him  in  this  Italian  river.  Some  years  ago  he 
published  a  paper  '  On  the  Terraces  of  the  Olona,'  and  the  subject  made 
nim  desirous  of  studying  the  fossil  diatoms  of  the  terraces.  His  re- 
searches among  certain  strata  were  without  any  but  a  negative  result. 
He  was  then  led  to  examine  those  still  living  in  the  river,  and  found  58 
different  species,  of  which  he  gives  a  list.  In  the  glacial  peat  of  the 
Olona  he  had  found  18  species,  and  of  these  only  three  are  found  among 
the  species  still  living  in  the  river — Gocconeis  helvetica  Brum,  Gompho- 
nerna  acuminatum  Ehr.,  and  Cymbella  lanceolata  Ehr.  The  marked 
difference  of  species  between  the  fossil  and  the  living  diatoms  of  the 
same  region  is,  in  the  author's  opinion,  of  importance  for  the  micro- 
palasontologist. 

Diatoms  in  Agar-Agar. || — E.  Senft  gives  a  short  list  of  the  diatoms 
most  commonly  found  in  agar-agar,  after  the  substance  has  been  calcined 
and  reduced  to  a  white  ash  and  then  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid. 
Four  species  of  Grammatophora,  Arachnoidiscus  ornatus  Ehr.,  species  of 
Cocconeis,  especially  C.  scutellum  and  its  variety  parva,  and  Campyloneis 
Grevillei  Grun.  are  the  species  which  the  author  regards  as  charac- 
teristic. 

*  Atti  Pont.  Accad.  Rom.  d.  Nuov.  Line,  lv.  (1902)  pp.  145-7. 

t  Verh.  k.  k.  zool.-bot.  Gesell.  Wien,  lii.  (1902)  pp.  388-402. 

X  Vedensk.  Moid.  Naturhist.  Foren.  Copenhagen,  1901 .  pp.  1 29-39  (10  figs,  in  test) 

§  Rendiconti  Real.  1st.  Lomb.,  xxxiv.  (1901)  pp.  764-7. 

||   Zeitschr.  f.  angew.  Mikr.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  85-8  (9  figs,  in  text). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  677 

Extrusion  of  Gametes  in  Fucus.*  —  Ceorge  J.  Peirce  gives  the 
result  of  bis  experiments  in  connection  with  the  fruiting  tips  of  Fucus 
evanescens  Ag.  He  shows  that  the  gametes  effect  their  escape  from  the 
conceptacles  while  still  under  water ;  and  the  contraction  of  the  external 
ct  lis  of  the  thallns,  as  a  result  of  being  left  half  dry  at  low  tide,  is  not 
necessary  to  the  ejection  of  the  sexual  organs,  though  such  contraction 
may  hasten  the  process.  The  extrusion  of  the  gametes  is  effected  by 
mechanical  pressure  which  is  developed  within  the  plant,  and  the  con- 
traction and  compression  as  a  result  of  drying  merely  supplement  this 
pressure. 

The  Genus  Trentepohlia.|  —  F.  Brand  treats  of  the  structure  of 
T  rentepoldia  under  various  headings  and  compares  his  own  results  with 
those  of  previous  writers.  The  sections  of  his  paper  are  entitled  Cell- 
wall,  Cellulose  caps,  Cross-walls  and  Pore-formation,  Growth  and 
Branching,  Sporangia,  Physiological  and  biological  conditions,  Poly- 
morphism, Method  of  preparation  and  staining,  and  New  forms.  Under 
"  Cell- wall  "  the  author  refers  to  the  characteristic  roughnesses  on  the 
outer  wall  of  mature  cells  and  to  the  lamellate  structure  of  the  walls. 
In  the  main  he  is  able  to  confirm  the  statement  of  Correns  concerning 
the  formation  in  T.  iolithus  of  funnel-shaped  lamellae.  He  finds  the 
same  thing  in  his  new  species  T.  Negeri. 

The  development  of  the  cellulose  caps  has  been  traced  by  the  author 
from  an  early  stage,  and  they  are  shown  to  be  the  remains  of  dead 
terminal  sporangia  or  of  end  cells.  The  manner  of  their  formation  is 
described. 

The  cross-walls  of  Trentepohlia  are  said  to  arise  without  preliminary 
thickening  or  folding,  and  it  is  impossible  to  detect  any  division  of  the 
cross-wall  into  layers  such  as  is  commonly  seen  in  Cladophora — the 
septum  is  simple.  As  regards  the  pores  in  the  cross-walls,  the  author 
quotes  the  results  of  Karsten  and  others,  and  gives  his  own  experience 
on  dried  material ;  he  hopes  that  comparative  examination  on  living 
plants  may  lead  to  interesting  results  with  regard  to  delimitation  of 
species.  The  growth  of  Trentepohlia  is  unlimited,  although  it  may 
apjjear  to  be  terminated  by  the  formation  of  sporangia,  for  after  the 
shedding  of  the  spores  the  basal  cell  of  the  sporangium  grows  up 
through  the  empty  sporangium  to  form  new  vegetative  shoots  or  repro- 
ductive cells.     The  method  of  branching  is  fully  dealt  with. 

The  sporangia  may  arise  from  the  base  of  the  plant  or  on  the  fila- 
ments, and  in  the  latter  case  they  may  be  either  terminal,  intercalary 
or  grow  from  the  side  of  the  filament.  The  form  of  the  sporangium 
may  also  vary,  being  either  round,  bottle-shaped,  or  hooped ;  and  the 
author  describes  here  a  new  shape  which  he  has  found  on  a  new  species, 
T.  annul  at  a.  This  he  describes  as  having  funnel-shaped  sporangia, 
which  when  ripe  are  obliquely  oval  and  are  distinguished  from  the 
round  sporangia  by  having  two  short,  funnel-shaped  rings  of  cellulose 
close  to  each  other,  between  the  sporangium  and  the  stalk-cell.  The 
author  was  unable  to  study  the  development  of  these  rings  as  fully  as 
he  could  have  wished  owing  to  lack  of  fresh  material. 

The  section  containing  the  author's  views  from  a  biological  staud- 

*  Torreya,  ii.  (1902)  pp.  134-7. 

t  Beih.  z.  iiot.  Centralbl.,  xii.  (1902)  pp.  200-25  (1  pi.) 


678  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

point  deals  with  the  effect  of  outside  influences  on  the  growth  of  the 
plant  and  the  distribution  of  its  spores.  The  round  sporangia  are  said 
by  Karsten  to  flourish  most  in  damp  surroundings  and  the  hooked 
sporangia  to  prefer  the  air,  and  this  author  finds  that  species  bearing 
round  sporangia  grow  more  constantly  on  vertical  surfaces,  those  with 
hooked  or  funnel-shaped  sporangia  preferring  a  horizontal  surface.  He 
adds  that  further  study  on  these  points  is  to  be  desired. 

Under  Polymorphism  the  author  deals  with  the  changes  in  form 
brought  about  in  the  same  species  by  varying  conditions,  and  deprecates 
the  view  that  a  change  in  the  outward  form  of  the  sporangia  indicates 
a  transition  from  one  species  to  another.  His  method  of  preparation 
in  examining  dried  material  is  given  and  the  effect  of  various  reagents 
on  the  specimens. 

Two  new  species  are  described,  T.  Negeri  from  Chile  and  T.annulata 
from  Bavaria  ;  and  a  new  form  punctata  of  T.  aurea  Mart.,  found  near 
Partenkirchen  in  Bavaria.     A  list  of  literature  on  the  subject  is  given. 

Chondrus  crispus.  *  —  Otto  V.  Darbishire  publishes  a  detailed 
account  of  this  alga,  containing  all  that  had  been  previously  known 
about  it,  together  with  the  results  of  his  own  observations.  In  the 
Introduction,  methods  of  collecting  algae  are  described,  and  instructions 
are  given  concerning  their  preparation  for  the  herbarium  and  the  Micro- 
scope. Then  follows  a  section  devoted  to  the  external  morphology, 
anatomy,  and  histology  of  the  vegetative  organs,  physiology  of  the 
vegetative  organs,  the  reproductive  organs,  and  ecology.  Concluding 
remarks  contain  a  full  diagnosis  of  the  plant.  The  author  succeeded  in 
germinating  tetraspores  of  C.  crispus  on  small  strips  of  parchment 
paper,  which  were  first  soaked  in  running  water  in  order  to  remove  any 
acid  present.  These  strips  were  laid  at  the  bottom  of  small  glass 
troughs,  filled  with  fresh  filtered  sea-water,  and  kept  cool  in  a  fairly  dark 
place.  On  these  strips  was  placed  a  fresh  plant  bearing  a  nemathecium. 
The  tetraspores  escaped  on  to  the  parchment,  and  it  was  then  possible 
to  observe  (he  stages  of  germination  by  placing  the  parchment,  with 
certain  precautions,  under  the  Microscope. 

In  the  section  headed  Ecology  the  author  gives  the  results  of  his  in- 
vestigations as  to  the  vertical  distribution  of  certain  species  of  marine 
algae  in  Port  Erin  Bay. 

The  Genus  Halimeda.t  —  Ethel  S.  Barton  gives  here  a  structural 
and  systematic  account  of  this  genus.  It  is  shown  that  the  manner  of 
communication  between  the  filaments  of  the  central  strand  of  the  thallus 
forms  a  good  specific  distinction,  and  the  author  is  thus  enabled  to 
reduce  the  number  of  species  from  twenty-one  to  seven.  Certain  of  the 
former  species  represent  types  of  variation  within  the  limits  of  one 
srecies.  Communication  takes  place  between  the  filaments  of  the  central 
strand  when  these  reach  the  apex  of  a  joint  or  internode ;  this  com- 
munication may  take  place  either  by  means  of  large  open  pits  in  the 
walls,  or  the  filaments  may  fuse  in  twos  or  threes.  In  order  to  ascertain 
the  manner  of  communication  it  is  necessary  to  decalcify  the  apex  of  a 

*  Liverpool  Mar.  Biol.  Committee  Memoirs,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  viii.  and  42  (7  pis.). 
t  Siboga  Expeditie,  Monogr.  lx.  (Leiden,  1901)  32  pp.  (4  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  679 

joint  in  Perenyi's  fluid  ;  and,  if  the  filaments  are  not  then  sufficiently 
clear,  the  preparation  may  be  treated  with  eau-de-Javelle  and  stained. 

Japanese  Marine  AlgEe.* — K.  Okamura  continues  his  illustrations 
of  the  marine  Algae  of  Japan.  The  author  describes  and  figures  the 
cystocarps  and  tetraspores  of  Lomentaria  catenata  Harv.,  and  shows 
that  it  is  a  distinct  species  related  to  L.  articulala  Lyngb.  A  new 
species,  Phacelocarpus  japonicus,  is  described.  The  cystocarps  and 
tetraspores  are  axillary  and  pedicellate,  and  the  species  is  placed  in  the 
sub-genus  Euctenodus,  near  P.  Labillardieri.  Another  new  species, 
Gutleria  cylindrica,  is  interesting  as  showing  a  new  type  of  structure 
for  the  genus;  the  symmetry  is  radial,  instead  of  bilateral.  Cladophora 
Wrightiana  Harv.  is  described  and  figured  ;  and  the  last  plate  is  of 
Bhipidiphyllon  reiiculatum  (Ask.)  Heydr.  Comparisons  are  drawn 
between  Anadyomene,  Microdictyon  and  Bhipidiphyllon,  the  differences 
between  the  two  latter  genera  being  confined  to  differences  in  the  shape 
of  the  cells  of  the  veins  and  veiulets,  and  in  the  habit. 

Marine  Algse  of  the  Mediterranean.!  —  In  a  note  on  the  algse  of 
this  region  Francesco  Ardissone  gives  a  few  critical  remarks  on  the 
genus  Rodriguezella,  the  species  B.  Straff  or  ellii  Schmitz,  B.  Bornetii 
Schmitz,  Gonstantinea  grandifolia  Ardiss.,  Sphserococcus  rhizophylloides 
Rodrig.,  Halymenia  patens  J.  Ag.,  and  H  decipiens  J.  Ag.  He  also 
describes  a  new  species,  Halymenia  coccinea,  but  he  has  not  seen  the 
fruit.     A  few  remarks  on  nomenclature  close  the  paper. 

The  same  author  $  publishes  the  first  part  of  a  Supplement  to  his 
Phycologia  Mediterransea.  He  deals  with  the  question  of  classification 
according  to  the  system  of  Agardh,  or  of  Schmitz,  and  gives  as  his 
opinion  that  the  Schmitzian  system  is  not  a  natural  or  a  logical  one, 
and  therefore  he  cannot  follow  it.  He  gives  a  synopsis  of  the  orders, 
and  a  list  of  genera  and  species  recorded  from  the  Mediterranean.  Then 
follow  notes  on  Gallithamnion,  treating  of  the  genera  into  which  it  has 
been  divided  by  various  authors,  with  a  key  to  the  species ;  and  notes 
on  Gonstantinea,  Meredithia,  Ghylocladia,  and  Lomentaria.  The  paper 
closes  with  a  list  of  figures  of  genera  represented  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Stichococcus  bacillaris  Naeg.  §  —  L.  Matruchot  and  M.  Molliard 
publish  the  conclusion  of  their  studies  on  the  variations  of  structure  of 
a  green  alga  under  the  influence  of  a  nutritive  medium.  They  describe 
their  experiments  on  Stichococcus  bacillaris,  which  they  find  does  not 
behave  like  an  anaerobic  organism,  though  it  requires  but  little  oxygen 
for  its  development.  Glucose  acts  as  by  far  the  most  favourable 
medium,  and  after  that  dextrin  and  gum,  glycerin  and  mannite.  Sac- 
charose, lactose,  maltose,  peptone,  inuline,  and  starch  have  but  little 
effect.  These  substances  also  affect  variously  the  colour  of  the  alga. 
The  action  of  certain  mineral  substances  is  also  described.  The  various 
changes  obtained  artificially  help  to  explain  the  dimorphism  found  in 
members  of  one  and  the  same  colony.     The  authors  have  distinguished 

*  Illustr.  Mar.  A.lg.  Japan,  i.  No.  vi.  (Tokyo  1902)  pp.  475-93  (5  pis.). 

t  Rendiconti  Real.  1st.  Lombard.,  xxsiv.  (1901)  pp.  122-7. 

%  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1013-41. 

§  Revue  Gen.  Bot.,  xiv.  (1902)  pp.  316-32  (3  pis.). 


/ 


680  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

in  the   cells  of  Stichococcus  (1)   a  single  nucleus,   (2)  three  kinds  of 
granules,  two  of  which  are  visible  in  the  living  plant. 

Salt-water  Aquarium.*  —  Rina  Scott  describes  an  aquarium  in 
which  successful  experiments  have  been  carried  on  for  some  years.  The 
sea-water  can  be  kept  fresh  for  years  without  being  changed,  the  salinity 
being  tested  by  means  of  specific  gravity  balls,  aud  regulated  accordingly. 
The  water  must  be  well  syringed  daily,  and  all  dead  or  decaying  matter 
must  be  removed  at  once.  Periwinkles  are  introduced  in  order  to  devour 
the  superfluous  green  spores.  It  is  possible  to  watch  the  germination  of 
spores  of  Florideae  or  other  algae,  by  allowing  such  spores  to  settle  on 
mica  plates  h  in.  square;  these  plates  are  suspended  among  the  fruits 
and  can  be  removed  and  placed  under  a  Microscope  at  will. 

Fungi. 

Mucors  of  East  Siberia.!  —  Wlad.  Schostakowitsch  has  devoted 
special  attention  to  the  genus  Mucor  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Irkutsk. 
During  his  three  years'  residence  there  he  found  eight  different  species, 
all  of  which  he  cultivated,  and  watched  their  development.  The  fol- 
lowing are  new  to  science  :  31.  irJcutensis,  M.  heterosjwrus  sibiricus,  M.  de 
Baryanus,  and  M.  angarensis. 

Dematophora  in  Fruit.J — Ed.  Prillieux  has  discovered  the  Asco- 
mycetous  fruit  of  the  fungus  Dematophora  necatrix,  which  attacks  aud 
destroys  the  roots  of  fruit  trees,  but  of  which  the  perfect  form  has  not 
hitherto  been  known.  Some  roots  infested  by  the  fungus  were  kept  in 
a  suitably  moist  condition  for  several  years,  and  the  mature  perithecia 
were  at  last  produced.  Careful  examination  proved  them  to  belong  to 
the  genus  Bosellinia,  and  the  author  has  given  them  the  specific  name 
necatrix.  When  Prof.  Hartig  first  described  Dematophora  he  was  im- 
pressed by  the  resemblance  of  the  hyphae  to  those  of  species  of  Bosel- 
linia, and  he  was  then  of  opinion  that  the  mature  fruit  form  would  be 
oue  of  that  genus.  The  perithecia  are  globose,  brown,  about  1*5  mm. 
in  diameter.     The  spores  are  very  dark  coloured  when  mature. 

The  Genus  Aspergillus.§ — (J.  Wehmer  has  published  an  account  of 
the  above  genus,  with  special  reference  to  the  forms  that  occur  in 
central  Europe.  The  ascus  fruit  is  known  in  only  three  or  four  species, 
and  the  author  does  not  think  these  should  he  placed  in  another  genus, 
Eurotium.  He  decides  also  that  the  genus  Sterigmatocystis  cannot  stand. 
He  finds  that  the  branching  conidiophores,  by  which  it  is  distinguished, 
occur  simultaneously  with  simple  conidiophores  on  the  same  individual. 
He  has  arranged  the  classification  according  to  colour:  green,  white, 
black,  and  yellow  or  brown. 

Fruit  Yeasts.|J — W.  Rommel  found  two  wild  yeasts  growing  in  flask 
beer  that  had  been  kept  for  some  time,  and,  in  order  to  discover  their 

*  New  Phytologist,  i.  (1902)  pp.  124-6. 

t  Zeitschr.  aDgew.  Mikr.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  02-5. 

J  Comptes  Rend  us,  exxxv.  (1902)  pp.  275-8. 

§  Mem.  Soc.  phys.  et  hist.  nttt.  Geneve,  xxxiii.  (1901)  pt.  2,  No.  i  (5  pis.).  Cf. 
Centralbl.  Bakt.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  173-5. 

||  AVochenschr.  f.  Brauorei,  xix.  No.  12,  pp.  176-S.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  ix. 
(1902)  pp.  170-1. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  681 

origin,  he  instituted  a  series  of  cultures  with  many  different  kinds  of 
fruits.  He  failed  to  find  the  yeasts  that  he  sought,  but  he  made 
interesting  notes  of  the  various  fungal  organisms  that  developed  in  his 
media,  and  he  gives  an  account  of  them.  Tliey  comprise  several  species 
of  yeast,  Torula,  Mucor,  and  other  filamentous  fungi. 

New  Pathogenic  Yeast  (Klein's  Yeast).*  —  This  yeast  on  which 
E.  Cohu  has  conducted  a  series  of  researches,  was  found  by  Klein  along 
with  other  pathogenic  organisms  in  milk.  He  proved  its  injurious 
nature  on  various  small  animals,  and  sent  a  pure  culture  to  the  Hygienic 
Institute  at  Halle,  where  a  further  study  was  prosecuted  by  Cohu.  The 
yeast  grew  in  a  large  variety  of  liquid  media,  and  when  planted  on  a 
firm  substratum  it  covered  it  over  with  a  greyish  shining  layer.  The 
best  culture  medium  of  all  was  beer-wort  with  its  natural  acid  reaction. 
In  it  the  yeast  formed  thick  masses  of  the  consistency  of  butter  of  a 
yellow  or  brownish  tinge.  Experiments  were  made  by  Cohn  as  to  its 
effect  on  various  animals. 

New  Uredinese.'j"  —  J.  T.  Lindroth  has  published  a  list  with  dia- 
gnoses of  30  new  species  of  rusts  from  various  countries.  He  thinks 
that  JEcidium  thysselini,  found  on  Thysselinum  palustre,  has  probably  its 
teleut  jspoie  form  on  Oar  ex;  of  JEcidium  selini,  which  grows  on  Selinum 
linearis,  the  uredo-  and  teleutospore  stages  grow  on  Polygonum  viviparum. 
The  other  species  recorded  are  single  stages  of  the  rust,  mostly  the 
teleutospore  stage. 

Relationship  between  Pleospora  and  Helminthosporium.t  —  H. 
Diedicke  has  been  engaged  in  tracing  the  connection  between  the 
conidial  and  ascus  forms  of  these  fungi  lound  growing  on  the  same  host. 
He  has  conducted  a  series  of  culture  and  infection  experiments  on  dif- 
ferent grasses.  He  finds  that  the  Helminthosporium  species  parasitic  on 
Bromus  asper  and  Triticum  repens  are  distinct  from  each  other,  and  that 
they  are  the  conidial  forms  of  Pleospora.  The  author  considers  that 
the  Pleospora  is  identical  with  PI.  trichostoma  Wint,  but  that  form 
species  have  developed  on  Bromus  and  on  Triticum.  The  conidial  form 
belongs  to  Helminthosporium  gramineum  Eabenh.,  which  has  also  de- 
veloped form  species  on  the  different  hosts. 

Infection  Experiments  with  Uredir.eee.§  —  Tubeuf  has  infected 
plants  of  Epilobium  angustifolium  successfully  with  secidiospores  of  the 
fir.  The  spores  of  Cseoma  Abietis  podinatae  grew  on  Salix  caprsea. 
The  witch's  broom  ascidium  of  the  fir  had  been  proved  by'Eischer  to  be 
connected  with  the  fungus  on  Stellaria  nemorum.  Tubeuf  infected  also 
Stellar  ia  media  and  Gerastium  semi-decandrum  with  the  same  fungus, 
and  in  each  case  reproduced  another  stage  in  the  life-history  of  the 
parasite. 

Rusts  of  the  Umbellifer8e.|| — J.  J.  Lindroth  has  published  his 
study  of  the  Uredineaa  found  on  the  above  plants.     In  determining  the 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.  lte  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  737-48. 

t  Meddel.  fr.  Stockholms  Hogskohs  botaniska  Institut,  iv.  (1901)  p.  8.  See 
als«.  Centralbl.  Bakt,,  2*  Abt.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  812-3. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  317-29  (9  tigs.).  §  Tom.  cit.,  p.  241. 

||  Acta  Soc.  pro  Fauna  et  Flora  Fennica,  xxii.  No.  1,  224  pp.  See  also  Hed- 
wigia  Beiblatt,  xli.  (1902)  po.  151-3. 


682  SUMMAEY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

species  he  relies  strongly  on  the  number  of  germ-pores  in  the  uredo- 
and  teleutospores.  Such  comprehensive  species  as  Puccinia  bullata  are 
now  divided  up  into  a  number  of  smaller  species.  He  also  lavs  stress 
on  tbe  warts  and  reticulations  of  the  epispore.  He  divides  Puccinia 
into  five  groups — Reticulata},  Psorodermag,  Bullatae,  and  two  other 
groups  which  are  not  so  exactly  defined.  There  are  70  species  of 
Puccinia  recorded  on  Umbelliferae,  but  only  11  species  of  Uromijres. 
There  are  also  some  Mcidium,  Uredo,  and  Cseoma  forms.  The  author 
records  several  new  species. 

Function  of  Paraphyses  in  the  Uredineae.*  —  P.  Magnus  accepts 
the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  P.  Dietel  f  as  to  tbe  protective  function 
of  the  paraphyses ;  but  he  considers  they  serve  yet  another  purpose ; 
they  raise  and  burst  the  epidermis  of  the  host-plant  and  make  room  for 
the  growing  spores.  Magnus  gives  in  this  connection  an  account  of 
several  species  of  Coleosporium.  He  finds  tbat  the  paraphyses  there 
serve  both  for  protection  and  for  the  lifting  of  the  epidermis.  In 
Coleosporium  parapliysatum  the  development  is  somewhat  different.  The 
epidermis  is  not  burst,  and  the  germinating  teleutospores  push  their 
sterigma  between  the  epidermal  cells  and  bear  the  sporidia  on  reaching 
the  open.  This  species  of  Coleosporium  forms  a  transition  to  other 
genera,  more  especially  to  Coleopuccinia.  The  author  hopes  to  pursue 
the  subject  further. 

Experiments  with  Rusts.} — Klebahn  continues  the  account  of  his 
various  culture  experiments  with  tbe  rusts  of  Conifers.  He  has  estab- 
lished satisfactorily  the  connection  between  various  life-stages  of  the 
fungi.  He  also  made  successful  experiments  with  JEeidium  Pastinacse, 
Puccinia  Angelicse-Bistortse,  the  rusts  of  Ribes  and  Carex,  and  the 
Puccinias  of  various  grasses. 

Amanita  ovoidea.§  —  Matteo  Lanzi  has  examined  the  so-called 
"  meal"  of  this  fungus,  which  is  found  on  the  stalk  below  the  ring,  and 
which  is  composed  of  white  cells  mostly  elliptical  in  form. 

Germination  of  Basidiospores.|| — Margaret  C.  Ferguson  has  studied 
the  conditions  most  favourable  to  the  germination  of  spores  of  various 
forms  of  Basidiomycetes,  more  especially  those  of  Agaricus  campestris. 
She  gives  an  account  of  the  methods  employed,  the  different  media 
used,  the  conditions  of  temperature,  &c.  It  was  found  that  the  presence 
of  a  bit  of  the  mycelium  of  Agaricus  campestris  made  possible  the  ger- 
mination of  all  the  spores  in  the  culture.  The  writer  closes  with  a 
historical  account  of  previous  work. 

Hydnacese.^T — Howard  J.  Banker  publishes  a  historical  review  of  this 
natural  order  of  Hymenomycetes.  He  discusses  each  genus  in  turn,  aud 
proposes  some  changes  in  nomenclature.  Radulum  is  untenable,  as  there 
is  already  a  genus  Radula  in  the  Jungenuanniaceaa  ;  he  therefore  proposes 
to  replace  it  with  Tylodon.     Hericium  he  also  considers  untenable,  but 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xx.  (1002)  pp.  334-9. 

t  Of.  Hedwigia,  Beiblatt  xli.  (1902)  pp.  58-61. 

X  Zeit.  f.  Pflanzenk.,  xii.  (1902)  pp.  129-51. 

§  Atti  A<'C  Pontif.  N.  Lincei,  lv.  (1901-1902)  pp.  97-100. 

*||  Bull.  No.  26,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1902,  43  pp.  (3  pis.). 

i  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxix.  (1902)  pp.  436-48. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  683 

the  species  composing  the  genus  require  farther  examination.  Odontia 
is  preoccupied  by  Odontia  Pers.,  and  the  name  Etheirodon  is  chosen  as  a 
substitute.  Neokneiffia  is  now  used  instead  of  Kneiffia,  the  latter  name 
having  been  given  to  a  genus  of  Epilobiaceae.  Pycnodon  was  also  pro- 
posed for  this  genus.  The  writer  thinks  that  there  are  several  names 
of  genera  that,  with  more  advanced  knowledge,  will  be  found  to  be 
synonyms. 

Crystalloids  of  the  Basidiomycetes.* — Cb.  Van  Bambeke  discovered 
crystalloids  in  tbe  mycelium  of  Lepiota  meleagris,  and  at  a  later  date  in 
L.  cepsestipes.  He  then  proceeded  to  examine  all  the  sections  of  the 
higher  fungi  that  were  within  his  roach,  and  came  to  tlie  conclusion  that 
tbe  presence  of  crystalloids  is  the  rule  in  the  Hymeuomycetes  and 
Gasteromycetes.  Tbey  occur  in  the  vegetative  part  as  well  as  in  the 
carpophore,  and  are  more  or  less  numerous  according  to  the  genus  or 
species.  Tbey  are  usually  in  large  numbers  in  tbe  stalk  and  in  tbe 
vegetative  parts.  They  become  fewer  in  the  hymenial  tissue.  The 
crystalloids  have  the  appearance  of  a  regular  rhomb,  but  they  are  some- 
times spherical  and  also  intermediate  in  form.  The  author  considers 
them  to  be  reserve  material  rather  than  products  of  degeneration.  This 
view  is  supported  by  tbe  fact  of  tbe  gradual  diminution  in  size  of  these 
bodies  in  tbe  tissue  bordering  on  tbe  hymenium,  as  if  this  substance 
were  being  gradually  used  up  in  spore-production.  A  series  of  tables 
give  the  results  of  his  examination  in  graphic  form,  and  the  hyphae 
containing  the  crystalloids  are  figured. 

Silver-leaf  Disease.f — J.  Percival  finds  that  this  disease  of  Prunus 
is  due  to  a  fungus  in  the  roots.  It  is  characterised  by  a  peculiar  grey 
appearance  of  the  leaves,  though  no  fungus  is  present  in  the  leaves,  nor, 
as  a  rule,  in  the  stem  or  branches.  In  all  the  cases  of  disease  examined 
the  tissues  of  the  root  were  found  to  be  permeated  with  fine  hyphie, 
and  in  one  case  tbe  fruiting  bodies  of  Stereum  purpureum  were  found  on 
a  branch  of  a  tree  affected  with  silver-leaf.  On  inoculating  healthy  trees 
with  Stereum  the  disease  was  again  produced.  The  author  is  of  opinion 
that  the  fungus  secretes  an  oxidase  which  in  a  short  time  pervades  the 
branches  and  leaves,  and  causes  by  its  action  the  silvery  look  on  the 
leaves.  The  affected  trees  produce  little  or  no  fruit,  and  are  always 
sickly  and  unprofitable. 

Spanish  Lichens.}  —  M.  Llenas  y  Fernandez  publishes  a  list  of 
lichens  (58  species  and  9  varieties)  gathered  in  the  environs  of  Barcelona, 
and  calls  attention  to  the  neglect  with  which  the  Spanish  Cryptogams, 
and  especially  tbe  Lichens,  have  been  treated. 

Contribution  to  the  Lichen  Flora  of  Emilia.  §  —  Carlo  Zanfrognini 
gives  a  first  instalment  of  his  list  of  lichens  from  Emilia,  that  district 
in  the  north  of  Italy  which  includes  the  provinces  of  Piaceuza,  Parma, 
Reggio,  Modena,  Bologna,  Forli,  Ferrara,  and  Ravenna,  representing  a 
very  varied  country  of  mountain  and  plain.  The  Sylloge  Lichenum 
ltalicorum,  published  in  1900  by  A.  Jatta,  embraces  the  whole  of  Italy ; 

*  Bull.  Classe  Sci.  Acad.  Koy.  Belg.,  No.  lv.  (1902)  pp.  227-50  (1  pi.), 

t  Journ.  Linn.  8oc.  (Bot.),  xxxv.  (1902)  pp.  390-5  (1  pi.  and  5  figs.). 

j  Bolet.  Socied.  Espaii.  Hist.  Nat,  ii.  (1902)  pp.  207-11. 

§  Nuov.  Gioru.  Bot.  Ital.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  190-211. 


684  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

but  while  some  districts  are  well  represented  in  that  work,  others,  and 
of  these  Emilia  is  one,  have  very  poor  records.  The  writer  proposes  in 
this  list  to  fill  up  the  blanks  left  in  the  larger  work.  In  general,  he 
has  followed  Jatta's  system  of  classification,  aud  this  first  publication 
includes  £enera  and  species  of  Kamalinacere,  Cladoniaceae,  Sphaero- 
phoraceae,  and  Parmeliaceae. 

A  further  instalment  *  contains  species  belonging  to  the  genera 
Umbilicaria,  Gyi-ophora,  and  Endocarpon.  The  crustaceous  lichens  follow 
in  order,  and  those  belonging  to  the  Lecanoracei  are  included. 

Compounds  from  Lichens,  f  —  W.  Zopf  describes  the  properties  of 
various  acids  and  other  chemical  compounds  ohtained  from  different 
lichens.     Some  of  the  compounds  are  new  to  science. 

Kryptogamen-Flora.J — Andreas  Allescher  has  issued  another  part 
which  continues  the  account  of  the  Fungi  imperfecti.  He  concludes 
the  genus  Coryneum.  Then  follow  the  small  genera  Scolecosporium, 
Aster  osporium,  Seiridium,  and  Seiridiella  ;  the  two  latter  being  very 
closely  allied.  The  two  genera  Monochsetea  and  Pestalozzia  occupy  the 
remaining  pages.  The  former  genus  has  been  hitherto  regarded  as  a 
sub-genus  of  Pestalozzia.  Allescher  raises  it  to  generic  rank,  in  order 
to  make  the  work  of  arrangement  easier.  The  species  are  tabulated  on 
an  alphabetical  list  of  host  plants — and  the  author  found  it  simpler  to 
place  all  the  forms  of  Monochsetea  by  themselves.  The  spores  differ 
from  those  of  Pestalozzia  in  having  only  one  appendage. 

Contributions  to  Fungus  Floras.  —  N.  Eanojevie  §  completes  his 
list  of  Servian  fungi,  247  in  all.  There  is  one  new  species,  Ascobohts 
serbicus,  included  in  this  last  contribution. 

P.  Hennings  j|  describes  the  fungi  collected  by  Puttemans  and 
A.  Hammar  at  Sao  Paulo  during  the  years  1900  and  1901.  They  are 
all  microscopic  and  grow  on  leaves  or  branches  of  various  plants. 
Many  new  species  are  described,  and  three  new  genera,  Puttemansia, 
a  member  of  the  Pezizaceae  with  erumpent,  globose  and  then  cupulate, 
hairy  ascomata  ;  the  spores  fusiform — three-septate  and  yellowish — 
hyaline,  found  on  leaves  of  a  member  of  Lauraceae.  Pseudomelasmia 
near  to  the  genus  Melasmia,  one  of  the  Leptostromataceae ;  the  conidia 
are  oblong,  hyaline,  and  one-septate.  Tetracrium,  a  Hyphomycete,  bears 
four  radiate  conidia  at  the  tips  of  the  conidiophores ;  they  are  elongate- 
fusiform,  pluri-septate  and  colourless. 

Hennings  %  also  publishes  his  Fungi  Cosiaricenses  I.  received  from 
H.  Pittier.  There  are  a  few  Myxomycetes.  There  are  no  new  genera. 
Most  of  the  species  of  fungi  are  microscopic  ;  many  of  them  are  new 
to  science.     They  have  been  collected  at  or  near  Costa  Rica. 

Under  mycological  notes,  A.  Scherffel  **  describes  several  new 
Cbytridineae  which  he   has  found  growing  on  green  algae.     They  are 

*  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  355-77. 

t  Amial.,  ccexxi.  (1901)  pp.  37-61.  See  also  Journ.  Chem.  Soc,  lxxxii.  (1902) 
i.  pp.  4(55-6. 

X  Rabenhorst's  Kryptogamen-Flora,  vii.  Lief.  85  (Leipzig,  1902)  pp.  (J41-704. 
§  Hedwigia,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  97-103.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  104-18. 

1  Hedwigia,  Beiblatt,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  101-5.  **  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  105-7. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  685 

Ghytridium  gibbosum  on  Cladophora,  Lagenidium  CEdogonii  fouud  in  the 
vegetative  cells  of  (Edogonium  and  Aphelidium  Melosirse  in  Melosira. 

P.  Dietel  *  reviews  the  genus  Uropyxis  and  allied  genera.  With 
the  exception  of  U.  Steitditeri,  which  is  found  in  Abyssinia;  all  the 
species  of  the  genus  are  from  the  American  continent.  The  genus  is 
characterised  by  the  presence  of  two  germinating  pores  in  each  spore- 
cell  and  by  a  sheath  which  envelopes  the  teleutospore. 

Fungi  Javanici.1— A  list  of  fungi  from  Java,  all  of  them  new  to 
science,  has  been  issued  by  P.  Hennings.  They  were  collected  by 
Zimmermaun.  There  are  several  new  genera  : — Zimmermaniella  in  the 
family  Dothideaceae,  the  asci  of  which  contain  three  oblong  continuous 
spores  ;  this  genus  is  also  distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  stroma ; 
Discomycopsella,  one  of  the  Leptostromatacese  ;  Didymostilbe,  nearly 
allied  to  Stilbum,  but  with  septate  spores ;  and  Didymobotryopsis,  also  a 
member  of  the  Stilbaceae,  but  distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  stroma. 

The  same  author  %  describes  some  new  Pezizacete  found  in  Germany. 
These  are  a  variety  Raatzii  of  Pyronema  domesticum,  Pyronema  Buchsii 
and  Sarcoscypha  pseudomelastoma. 

He  publishes  §  still  another  series  of  species  of  Cordiceps  from 
Surinam.  There  are  six  new  forms  all  found  growing  on  insects.  One 
of  them,  G.  Michaelisii,  was  found  on  a  chrysalis. 

A  new  Hymenomycete,  Phlebia  Kriegeriana,  is  also  described  by 
Hennings. |]  It  was  collected  by  Krieger  at  Konigstein,  and  differs  from 
other  European  species  in  colour  and  form. 

Fungus  Flora  of  the  Sonntagberg.^f — P.  Pius  Strasser  gives  a 
second  contribution  of  fungi  from  this  region  of  Austria.  The  numbers 
here  published  are  738-856.  There  are  several  new  species,  one  new 
genus  in  the  Spheeropsideee,  namely  Strasseria  near  Neottiospora ,  and  one 
new  Hyphomycetous  genus  Hohneliella,  a  member  of  the  Phseostilbeae. 
Brosadola  and  Saccardo  have  determined  the  new  forms. 

Fungus  Flora  of  Piedmont.** — Teodoro  Ferrario  publishes  a  second 
list  of  fungi  collected  in  Piedmont.  He  lias  already  recorded  112  species 
from  the  same  neighbourhood ;  the  present  contribution  brings  the 
number  up  to  218.  The  larger  number  belong  to  the  Deuterornycetaa, 
and  the  new  species  or  varieties,  of  which  there  are  21,  are  all  micro- 
scopic, most  of  them  Sphaeropsideee.  The  author  has  been  assisted  by 
Saccardo  in  determining  several  of  the  new  species.  They  are  all 
illustrated. 

North  American  Mycology.jt — F.  S.  Earle  contributes  notes  on  the 
following.  (1)  Synonymy  of  Ascocorticium — A.  albidum  Brcfeld  is 
identical  with  Ascomyces  anomalus  Ell.  and  Hark.  (2)  A  synopsis  of 
North  American  species  of  Periconia,  with  description  of  several  new 
species.  (3)  New  Florida  Fungi.  (4)  New  California  Fungi.  (5)  New 
Fungi  from  various  localities. 


r> 


*  Tom.  cit,  pp.  107-13.  f  Hedwigia,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  140-9. 

X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1G4-6.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  167-9. 

||  Hedwigia,  Beiblatt,  xli.  (1902)  pp.  146-7. 

«j[  Verh.  k.  k.  zool.-bot.  Ges.  Wien,  lii.  (1902)  pp.  429-37. 
**  Malpighia,  xvi.  (1902)  pp.  2-46  (2  pis.). 
tf  Bui).  New  York  Bot.  Gard.,  ii.  (1902)  pp.  331-50. 


686  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Diseases  of  Plants.*  —  An  account  is  given  of  Plasmodiophora 
Brassicse,  the  way  in  which  it  is  propagated,  and  the  best  means  of 
preventing  or  curing  the  disease. 

A  paper  f  on  Larch  and  Spruce  Fir  canker,  by  G.  Massee,  gives 
the  results  of  the  observations  and  experiments  of  many  years.  He 
discusses  the  various  stages  of  the  diseases  and  the  probable  manner 
of  infection.  He  considers  them  to  be  entirely  wound  parasites,  all 
infection  experiments  having  failed  on  uninjured  bark.  The  Larch 
canker  is  caused  by  Dasyscypha  calycina ;  the  fungus  causing  the  spruce 
disease  is  D.  resinaria.  The  latter  is  frequently  enabled  to  enter  the 
tissue  of  the  host  through  wounds  made  by  a  small  parasitic  fungus 
Exosporium  sp.  Methods  of  prevention  and  cure  are  suggested.  The 
paper  is  well  illustrated. 

Another  paper  $  deals  with  Cucumber  and  Melon-leaf  blotch,  due 
to  a  parasitic  fungus  Cercospora  Melonis.  It  occurs  only  in  green- 
houses where  the  air  is  hot  and  moist.  Preventive  measures  are  recom- 
mended. 

Canker  in  Apple-Trees.§  —  Hasselbring  has  discussed  the  various 
diseases  affecting  the  bark  of  apple-trees  popularly  described  as  canker. 
The  most  common  instance  ot  the  disease  in  Illinois,  U.S.,  is  due  to 
a  fungous  parasite,  Nummularia  discreta.  It  is  a  wound  parasite  and 
gains  entrance  to  the  tree  through  openings  in  the  bark  caused  by 
pruning  or  by  accidental  injuries.  It  produces  extended  blackened 
areas,  and  the  bark  cracks  and  finally  crumbles  away.  The  affected 
branch  is  always  killed  by  the  fungus.  Badly  diseased  limbs  should 
be  cut  and  burned,  and  wounds  in  the  tree  should  be  painted  with  some 
antiseptic  solution. 

Economic  Fungi. || — There  is  a  considerable  number  of  the  smaller 
fungi  that  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  various  articles  of  commerce, 
and  Prof.  Wehner  has  given  an  account  of  some  of  the  most  important. 
He  cites  some  of  the  forms  of  yeast  used  in  brewing,  in  the  East,  as 
well  as  Aspergillus  Oryzse,  which  is  employed  in  Japan  in  the  making 
of  Soja  sauce.  Aspergillus  niger  is  used  for  the  production  of  oxalic 
acid  ;  Citromycet  Pfefferianus  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  citric 
acid.  He  takes  note  also  of  Penicillium  glaucum  which  is  mixed  with 
the  cheese  curds  to  form  the  green  veins  of  Roquefort  and  Gorgonzola. 
The  Chinese  make  a  red  colouring  matter  from  Monascus  pjurpmreus,  but 
the  method  employed  remains  a  secret.  The  author  also  mentions  some 
other  fungi  which  are  used  as  colouring  agents. 

Pathogenic  Fungi. IT — L-  Gedoelst  calls  this  book  a  technical  guide 
to  vegetable  parasitology.  His  aim  has  been  to  provide  a  manual  that 
can  be  consulted  alike  by  the  physician  and  the  botanist.  He  gives 
descriptions  of  the  various  fungi  that  have  been  found  to  cause  diseases 
of  the  animal  body  and  gives  the  best  methods  of  isolating  and  culti- 

*  Journ.  Board  of  Agric,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  145-9  (1  fig.). 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  176-88  (3  pis.). 
J  Tom.  cit..  pp.  196-8  (1  pi.). 

§  Bull.  No.  7u  Univ.  of. 111.  Agr.  Station.   See  also  Gard.  Chron.,  xxxii.  (1902)  p.  60. 
"||  Zeitschr.  angew.  Mikr.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  89-90. 

f  '  Les  Champignons  Parasites  de  l'Homme  et  des  Animaux  Domestiques,'  par 
L.  Gedoelst  (Brussels,  1902)  pp.  vi.  and  199  and  124  figs. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  687 

vatiug  the  parasites,  with  an  account  of  inoculation  experiments  em- 
ployed to  verify  the  identity  of  the  fungus  with  the  origin  of  the  disease. 
The  fungi  are  all  minute  species.  In  the  group  of  Phycomycetes  he 
describes  several  forms  of  the  Mucorincae.  Among  the  pathogenic  Asco- 
mycetes  he  includes  forms  of  Saccharomycetinese  and  Plectascineae,  and 
under  Fungi  imperfecti  he  describes  the  diseases  due  to  Discomyces, 
Oidium,  &c. 

Fungal  Disease  in  Horses.* — J.  de  Haan  has  investigated  a  disease 
of  horses  in  Batavia.  He  found  that  it  was  caused  by  the  presence  of  a 
fungus  in  the  skin,  more  especially  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth,  lip,  and  nose.  In  the  later  stages  the  bones  of  the  head  are 
also  attacked.  An  examination  showed  the  presence  of  yellowish-grey 
lumps  of  a  somewhat  hard  formation  varying  in  size  from  the  head  of 
a  pin  to  an  egg  ;  and  traversed  in  all  directions  by  a  well-developed 
mycelium  which  also  penetrated  the  surrounding  tissue.  The  writer 
has  named  the  fungus  Hypliomyeosis  destruens  equi,  and  he  is  of  opinion 
that  it  is  the  sole  origin  of  the  malady.  Infection  comes  from  the  food, 
and  the  fungus  gains  entrance  to  the  tissue  through  some  small  wound 
in  the  mucous  membrane  caused  by  the  grasses,  &c.  that  compose  the 
fodder.  In  the  external  skin  the  fungus  would  similarly  find  entrance 
through  some  abrasion.  De  Haan  made  cultures  of  the  fungus,  and  with 
these  he  re-infected  the  mouth  and  neck  of  healthy  horses.  The  experi- 
ment was  unsuccessful. 

Continuity  of  Protoplasm  in  Fungi.j  —  Arthur  Meyer  reviews 
the  work  already  done  on  this  subject  by  (Jbmielewsky,  Wahrlich,  and 
others,  and  gives  an  account  of  the  different  fungi  in  which  this  phe- 
nomenon had  already  been  noted.  He  devotes  special  attention  to  the 
mode  in  which  the  perforating  protoplasmic  strands  are  formed  between 
the  cells.  There  are  two  possible  ways  in  which  this  could  take  place  : 
that  the  closed  membrane  should  be  pierced  by  the  protoplasmic  strand, 
or  that  the  opening  should  be  left  in  the  wall  at  its  original  formation. 
He  finds  that  the  latter  is  the  process  followed  in  the  fungi.  Meyer 
discusses  also  the  fusion  of  kyphae  and  the  occurrence  of  clamp  con- 
nections with  reference  to  the  subject  of  continuity  between  cells. 
Fusion  of  hyphaa  has  been  demonstrated  by  various  observers  in  many 
Basidiomycetes  and  Ascomycetes,  and  in  the  promycelial  cells  of  the 
Ustilagiuea).  It  has  been  noted  in  the  germinating  tube  of  the  uredo- 
spores  of  Uromyces  Pose,  but  not  as  yet  in  any  other  member  of  the 
Uredineae.  The  author  discusses  at  some  length  the  bearing  of  these 
facts  on  the  phylogeny  of  the  group.  The  paper  is  followed  by  a  large 
and  complete  bibliography  of  the  subject. 

Influence  of  Light  on  the  Respiration  of  the  Lower  Fungi.J — 
N.  A.  Maxiinow  gives  the  results  of  his  researches  on  two  species  of  fungi, 
Mucor  stolonifer  and  Aspergillus  niger.  He  used  direct  sunlight  or  the 
light  from  an  electric  lamp  for  the  illumination  of  the  plants,  and  he 
grew  them  on  various  media.  He  found  that  the  influence  of  the  light 
varied  Avith  the  age  of  the  cultures :  at  a  young  stage  light  had  no  effect 

*  Centralis.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  758-63  (2  figs.). 

t  Bot.  Zeit.,  lx.  (1902)  pp.  139-78  (I  pi.). 

J  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  193-205  and  261-73. 


688  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

on  the  respiration.  On  older  plants  there  was  a  marked  increase, 
especially  on  those  cultures  where  nourishment  was  scanty.  The 
influence  of  the  light  made  itself  felt  in  about  30  minutes,  but  if  the 
plant  was  exposed  to  alternate  light  and  dark  the  effect  of  the  light 
was  altogether  feebler. 

Respiration  of  Fungi.*  —  S.  Kostytschew  gives  the  results  of  his 
research  on  respiration  which  was  undertaken  to  determine  if  there 
were  any  connection  between  intramolecular  respiration  and  the  alcoholic 
fermentation  of  yeast  fungi.  He  experimented  with  Mucor  stolonifer 
and  Aspergillus  niger,  growing  them  on  various  media  in  an  atmosphere 
free  from  oxygen.  He  concludes  that  intramolecular  respiration  is  not 
identical  with  the  fermentation  process. 

Weather  and  Parasitic  Fungi.f — Karl  Sago  has  collected  facts  and 
statistics  on  the  appearance  and  disappearance  during  certain  seasons  of 
various  fungnl  diseases,  especially  those  that  occur  on  the  vine.  He 
finds  that  the  direction  and  force  of  the  wind  has  a  great  influence  on 
the  spread  of  disease,  and  that  hail  showers  render  the  host-plant  more 
liable  to  attack.  More  work  is  required  to  determine  the  weather  con- 
ditions that  affect  special  forms.  Alternaria  solani  spread  with  great 
rapidity  in  dry  weather  that  supervened  on  a  rainy  season.  During  a 
warm  damp  summer  it  was  noticed  that  there  was  very  little  disease. 

Decomposition  of  Compounds  of  Selenium  and  Tellurium  by 
Moulds. J  —  0.  Rosenheim  gives  a  resume  of  his  results  which  confirm 
those  recently  published  by  Maassen.  The  biological  test  for  arsenic 
onsists  in  the  formation  of  gaseous  organic  arsenic  compounds  with  a 
characteristic  garlic  odour  produced  by  the  growth  of  certain  moulds 
(Aspergillus,  Penicillium,  Mucor)  in  media  containing  arsenic.  "When 
applying  this  test  to  beer  and  sugar  which  contained  selenium  and 
arsenic,  the  author  noticed  a  pronounced  faecal  odour  different  from 
that  produced  by  arsenic  alone.  Experiments  with  soluble  selenium 
compounds  showed  that  this  was  due  to  the  presence  of  selenium.  It 
was  also  found  that  tellurium  compounds  were  decomposed  by  Peni- 
cillium brevicaule,  producing  a  very  characteristic  odour.  The  odour 
produced  by  decomposition  of  selenium  compounds  is  very  disagreeable, 
being  something  like  skatol  or  mercaptan,  whilst  the  gases  formed  by 
tellurium  compounds  have  a  strong  garlic  odour.  The  test  is  extremely 
sensitive;  0*01  mgrm.  in  1  ccm.  oi  liquid  is  easily  demonstrated  by  a 
vigorous  growth  of  the  mould.  Unlike  arsenic,  pure  selenium  aud 
tellurium  are  not  attacked  by  the  mould. 

Influence  of  Sulphocyanic  Acid  on  Growth  of  Aspergillus 
niger.§  —  A.  Fernbach  finds  that  the  presence  of  sulphocyanate  of 
ammonia  in  a  liquid  in  which  the  mould  is  growing  has  no  sensible 
effect  on  the  development  of  the  mycelium,  but  causes  arrest  of  the 
fructification  which  only  begins  to  develop  when  the  sulphocyanate  has 
disappeared,  probably  as  a  result  of  oxidation.  This  effect  is  remarkable 
as  it  is  contrary  to  what -we  might  expect  from  the  general  behaviour  of 

*  Eer.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xx.  (1902)  pp.  327-34. 

t  Zeit.  Pflauzenkr.,  xii.  pp.  151-7. 

%  Proc.  Chem.  Soc,  xviii.  (1902)  pp.  138-9. 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxv.  (1902)  pp.  51-2. 


ZOOT,OGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  689 

compounds  which  are  prejudicial  to  the  growth  of  lower  organisms, 
especially  in  the  case  of  moulds.  The  general  result  is  a  diminution 
of  the  we;ght  of  the  mycelium  and  a  speedy  assumption  of  the  spore- 
forming  stage. 

New  Pathogenic  Blastomyces.*  —  E.  Klein,  in  addition  to  a  new- 
bacillus  (Bacterium  diphtheroides,  which  morphologically  resembles  the 
B.  diphtherise,  grows  only  at  37°  C,  slowly  liquefies  inspissated  blood- 
serum,  produces  acid,  and  causes  clotting  of  litmus-milk),  describes  a 
new  pathogenic  blastomyces  which  he  isolated  from  a  sample  of  country 
milk.  This  yeast  is  a  strict  aerobe,  grows  readily  between  20°  and 
37°  C.  on  all  ordinary  media,  liquefies  gelatin  slowly,  does  not  form 
gas  in  sugar  media,  the  growth  on  solid  media  being  whitish  at  first, 
but  afterwards  becoming  yellow.  The  organism  stains  well  with  the 
anilin  dyes,  and  also  by  Gram's  method. 

When  inoculated  into  the  peritoneal  cavity  of  guinea-pigs,  this  yeast 
provokes  the  formation  of  a  tumour  or  tumours,  followed  by  the  death 
of  the  infected  animal.  Subcutaneous  and  intravascular  inoculation  also 
yield  similar  results,  and  from  the  tumours  the  yeast  may  be  recovered 
in  pure  culture     The  blastomyces  is  pathogenic  to  rabbits  and  mice. 

Protophyta. 
Scliizophyceae. 

Cytology  of  Cyanophyceae.t  —  H.  Wager  describes  the  "central 
body  "  of  the  cell  as  resembling  the  nuclei  of  higher  organisms  in  that 
it  is  composed  of  a  chromatic  network,  but  differing  in  the  absence  of  a 
nuclear  membrane  and  nucleolus.  Chromatin  is  present,  but  generally 
only  in  small  quantities.  Presence  of  phosphorus  was  also  shown.  In 
the  process  of  division  t^e  cell  begins  to  divide  and  new  cell-walls  are 
formed  independently  of  the  division  of  the  nucleus.  Some  of  the 
division  stages  in  the  nucleus  resemble  true  stages  of  karyokinetic 
division.  The  colouring-matter  of  the  cell  occurs  in  the  form  of  granules 
or  fibrils  in  the  peripheral  layer,  the  structure  of  which  recalls  that  of 
the  chromatophores  of  other  organisms. 

Schizomycetes. 

Unusual  Bacterial  Grouping.^— Mary  Hefferan  describes  the  un- 
usual bacterial  grouping  occurring  in  a  cultivation  of  the  B.  rosaceus 
metaloides,  obtained  from,  the  Krai  Laboratory.  The  bacillus  in  ques- 
tion is  a  slender  rod  1*2  //.  to  2  /x  long,  actively  motile,  and  possessing 
polar  flagella.  When  grown  in  ordinary  broth  and  examined  micro- 
scopically, either  stained  or  in  a  hanging-drop  preparation,  the  indi- 
vidual elements  show  a  peculiar  grouping,  being  bound  together  in  the 
form  of  rosettes  or  asters  of  varying  sizes.  These  rosettes  were  ob- 
served in  practically  all  fluid  media,  including  cultivations  in  broth, 
milk,  nitrate  solution,  asparagin  solution,  &c.  When  cultivated  upon 
solid  media,  however,  the  growth  on  agar  is  the  only  one  which  shows 
this  peculiar  rosette  formation,  none  whatever  being  observed  in  cultures 
upon  gelatin  or  potato. 

*  Local  Gov.  Board  Reps..  1900-1901  (1902)  pp.  328-52. 

t  Report  Brit.  Ass.,  1901  (1902)  p.  830. 

%  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2"  Abt,,  vi;i.  (1902)  pp.  H89-99. 

December  17th,  190  I  3  a* 


690  r  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

Observations  were  made  as  to  the  rate  of  growth  and  the  time  occu- 
pied in  the  formation  of  the  rosettes,  by  inoculating  from  rosette-free 
potato  cultures  into  a  hanging-drop  of  broth  and  observing  micro- 
scopically. For  the  first  two  hours  after  inoculation  no  rosette  formation 
was  noted,  but  from  this  time  onwards  up  to  24  hours  the  rosettes 
increased  in  numbers,  reaching  their  maximum  at  the  last-named  point, 
the  time  required  for  the  appearance  of  the  rosettes  corresponding  ap- 
parently to  that  required  for  cell-multiplication  to  take  place.  The 
author  is  of  opinion  that  the  formation  of  the  rosettes  is  too  regular 
and  perfect  to  be  explained  as  a  passive  agglomeration  caused  by  some 
agglutinating  substance,  whilst  observations  upon  cell-division  under 
conditions  unfavourable  to  the  bacillus,  e.g.  pressure  and  lack  of  oxygen, 
still  showed  the  tendency  of  the  dividing  cells  to  form  rosette  groups,  a 
fact  which  strongly  supports  the  theory  that  the  phenomenon  must  be 
closely  connected  with  the  vital  processes. 

Intestinal  Bacteria  of  Chironomus  Larvae.*  —  Leger,  during  the 
course  of  some  researches  upon  the  parasitology  of  the  Diptera,  ob- 
served three  micro-organisms  present  in  the  intestinal  canal  of  the 
larvae  of  Chironomus  plumosus,  with  such  constancy  as  to  constitute  them 
true  parasites.  These  three  bacteria  were,  in  order  of  frequency,  a 
streptothrix,  a  bacillus,  and  a  spirillum  or  spirochaeta. 

The  streptothrix  occurred  as  hyaline  filaments,  1*5  /a  long,  forming 
bundles  or  interlacing  tresses,  also  ovoid  conidia,  2  •  8  p  in  length,  in 
the  posterior,  and,  but  rarely,  in  the  middle  intestine.  Occasionally  it 
is  present  in  such  masses  in  the  rectum  as  to  lead  to  great  distension. 

The  bacillus  was  less  frequently  observed  than  the  streptothrix, 
although  sometimes  the  two  organisms  were  associated ;  it  was  a  short, 
straight,  or  slightly  curved  motile  rod,  6  to  8  fi  in  length,  sometimes 
free  in  the  intestinal  canal,  but  usually  attached  by  one  extremity  to  the 
surface  of  the  epithelial  cells.  It  forms  ovoid  spores,  1  ■  7  fx  long,  at  the 
free  extremity,  which  becomes  somewhat  swollen. 

The  third  organism,  the  spirillum,  rarer  than  either  of  the  above- 
mentioned  species,  closely  resembles  the  Spirillum  Obermeyerei.  It 
occurs  as  long  filiform  threads,  15  to  20  /x  in  length,  and  containing  in 
such  a  length  four  or  five  very  pronounced  curves.  Like  the  bacillus,  it 
is  attached  by  one  extremity  to  the  intestinal  wall,  the  unattached  por- 
tion exhibiting  constant  rapid  undulatory  movements.  The  author 
concludes  that  these  spirochsetsB  are  the  structures  that  previous  ob- 
servers (e.g.  P.  Vignon)  have  described  as  the  cilia  of  the  epithelial  cells 
of  the  intestine. 

Bacillus  Lacto-rubifaciens.f — Gruber  isolated  a  bacillus  from  milk, 
which  produces  a  red  coloration  of  that  fluid,  and  possesses  the  following 
characters.  It  is  a  short  rod  with  parallel  sides  and  rounded  ends, 
occurring  singly,  in  pairs,  and  short  threads,  1  •  75  /x  to  14  fx  long,  by 
0  •  4  fx  to  0  •  6  fx.  Occasionally  diplo-bacilli  are  found,  and  sometimes  more 
or  less  oval  single  rods,  many  of  the  rods  showing  distinctly  refractile 
granules,  and  from  old  cultivations  the  stained  preparations  show  dis- 
tinct central  granules,  which  are  not,  however,  true  spores.  The  or- 
ganism is  motile,  with  peritrichous  flagella.     The  bacillus  grows  well 

*  Comptcs  Rendu?,  exxxiv.  (1902)  pp.  1317-9. 

t  Ccntralbl.  Bakt.,  2,e  Abt.,  viii.  (1902)  pp.  457-62. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  691 

at  18°  to  22°  C,  forming  upon  gelatin  plates  flat  spreading  surface 
colonies,  which  in  two  days  attain  a  diameter  of  1  to  2  mm.,  slightly 
heaped  up  in  the  centre,  with  a  sharply  defined  outline.  Deep  colonies 
are  small  and  punctiform,  round,  with  a  sharp  contour,  light  edges  and 
dark  centre.  Stab  and  streak  cultivations  upon  gelatin  closely  resemble 
those  of  the  jB.  colt ;  the  organism  does  not  liquefy  gelatin.  Cultivations 
upon  agar  are  by  no  means  characteristic.  Broth  at  24  hours  becomes 
uniformly  turbid ;  later  the  growth  sinks  to  the  bottom  as  a  sediment, 
and  leaves  the  bulk  of  the  medium  clear.  Potato  cultivations  grow  well 
in  about  24  hours.  Cultivations  in  milk  grow  well  at  20°  to  22°  C,  and 
in  about  four  days  show  distinct  red  coloration,  associated  with  a  marked 
acid  reaction.  The  consistence  of  the  milk  is  altered,  and  becomes 
somewhat  slimy,  but  does  not  undergo  subsequent  peptonisation ;  the 
depth  of  rose  tint  increases  up  to  about  the  tenth  day.  The  addition  of 
grape  sugar  to  the  milk  causes  the  earlier  development  of  a  deep  red 
coloration  (in  two  days) ;  the  addition  of  milk-sugar,  however,  does  not 
cause  so  marked  a  change. 

This  bacillus  is  differentiated  from  the  B.  lactis  erythrogenes  by  its 
white  growth  upon  gelatin  and  agar  (as  compared  with  the  yellow 
coloration  and  wine-red  staining  of  the  nutrient  medium  by  the  erythro- 
genes), and  by  its  intense  slime  formation  in  milk,  associated  with  the 
production  of  a  red  colour  and  an  acid  reaction  without  disintegration 
of  the  casein,  the  B.  lactis  erythrogenes  coagulating  milk  with  an  alkaline 
reaction,  producing  a  blood-red  colour  of  the  milk,  and  later  peptonisa- 
tion. B.  jjrodigiosus  and  Sarcina  rubra  are  easily  differentiated  from 
the  B.  lacto-rubifaciens  by  reason  of  the  coloured  character  of  their 
growth  upon  gelatin,  agar,  <vc. 

Black  Dry-rot  in  Swedes.* — Middleton  and  Potter  describe  a  bac- 
terial disease  attacking  swedes,  which  they  term  "  black  dry-rot."  This 
disease  takes  the  form  of  a  dark,  almost  black,  spot  in  the  centre  of  the 
turnip,  which  gradually  increases  in  size  till  only  a  shell  of  normal 
tissue  may  be  left  in  the  root.  The  organism  responsible  for  the 
disease  was  isolated  by  means  of  cultivations  upon  neutral  turnip  broth 
rendered  solid  by  gelatin,  and  when  transplanted  upon  sterile  blocks  of 
healthy  swede  produced  a  disease  identical  with  that  from  which  it  was 
originally  obtained.  The  organism  is  a  short,  motile  rod,  3  yu.  by  1  /a. 
It  is  an  aerobe  and  liquefies  gelatin,  and  possesses  a  single  polar 
flagellum,  but  no  further  specific  characters  have  as  yet  been  worked 
out  for  this  organism. 

New  Syphilis  Bacillus.f — De  Lille  and  Jullien  have  isolated  upon 
ordinary  nutrient  media  a  new  bacillus,  both  from  the  blood-serum 
of  a  syphilitic  patient,  and  from  the  serum  obtained  from  blisters  (raised 
by  means  of  cantharides  plaster).  This  organism  is  a  pleomorjmic 
motile  bacillus,  5-8  fx  long  by  0  ■  015  /a  to  0  •  03  /*  broad,  which  retains  the 
colour  when  stained  by  Gram's  method,  and  which  in  old  cultures  grows 
out  into  threads,  and  later  on  becomes  granular.  When  grown  upon 
agar  it  forms  a  creamy  moist  greenish  layer,  and  it  liquefies  gelatin, 
forming  a  light  greenish  pigment. 

*  Journ.  Board  Agric,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  25-32, 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  Ref.,  p.  6  ;   also  Deutsch.  Mel  Woch., 
1901,  No.  29. 

3  a  2 


692     SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

The  bacillus  is  pathogenic  to  guinea-pigs  and  frogs,  the  former 
dying  in  10-15  days  after  intraperitoneal  injection.  At  the  site  of 
inoculation  an  ulcerating  papule  torms,  with  swelling  of  the  neighbour- 
ing glands.  The  bacillus  is  agglutinated  by  the  serum  of  syphilitic 
patients. 

Bacilli  in  Syphilitic  Semen.*  —  Max  Joseph  and  Piorkowski  ex- 
amined bacteriologically  the  semen  of  22  syphilitic  patients,  employing 
pieces  of  fresh  normal  placental  tissue  as  their  culture-medium  ;  these 
were  previously  observed  in  sterile  Petri  dishes  and  contaminated  por- 
tions rejected.  Sterile  pieces  were  inoculated  with  freshly  ejaculated 
semen  and  incubated  at  37°  C.  In  every  case  transparent  dewdrop-like 
colonies  of  bacilli  appeared  on  the  first  day,  which  later  became  grey 
and  confluent.  The  bacilli  were  broad  and  granular,  clubbed  at  one  or 
both  ends  like  the  Klebs-Loffier  bacillus,  and  of  about  the  size  of  the 
B.  subtilis.  The  bacillus  stained  best  with  carbol-fuchsin  or  gentian- 
violet,  also  by  Gram,  but  were  not  acid-fast.  Polar  staining  involution 
forms  were  noted  in  old  cultivations.  Sub-cultivations  in  broth  failed, 
but  succeeded  on  solid  agar  or  better  still  on  serum-agar,  the  growth 
appearing  as  a  greyish-white  waxy  layer.  In  gelatin  stab  there  was  a 
luxuriant  whitish  growth,  and  on  potato  a  moist,  glistening,  whitish 
layer.  Milk  was  coagulated  with  the  production  of  an  acid  reaction,  but 
no  gas  formation  was  noted. 

The  bacillus  was  not  pathogenic  to  guinea-pigs,  rabbits,  or  mice. 
No  growth  could  be  obtained  from  the  semen  of  healthy  non-syphilitic 
men.  The  bacilli  appeared  to  be  related  in  some  way  to  the  sperma- 
tozoa, for  if  the  semen  was  kept  a  few  hours  until  the  spermatozoa  were 
dead,  no  growth  could  be  obtained,  and  further,  if  no  spermatozoa  were 
present  in  the  seminal  fluid,  even  when  such  was  derived  from  cases  of 
recent  syphilis,  no  bacilli  could  be  demonstrated. 

Transmissibility  of  Plague  to  Bats.f  —  Gosio  remarks  that  many 
species  of  animals  have  been  studied  with  regard  to  their  susceptibility 
to  bubonic  plague,  rats  and  mice  exhibiting  spontaneous  infection  in 
countries  where  plague  is  epidemic  :  whilst  the  field-mouse,  guinea- 
pig,  rabbit,  ape,  cat,  fowl,  and  sparrow  have  been  infected  experimen- 
tally. The  pigeon  is  susceptible  when  fasting,  and  the  lizard  and  snake 
if  kept  at  a  high  temperature.  The  dog,  ox,  and  hedgehog  have  so  far 
proved  immune.  At  the  time  of  the  small  epidemic  of  plague  at  Naples, 
when  the  author  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  sanitary  department,  no 
public  health  statistics  were  available,  but  by  instituting  such  statistics 
the  origin  of  the  infection  was  traced  to  the  warehouses  of  the  Punto 
Franco,  where  both  rats  and  bats  abounded,  and  although  high  walls 
and  an  isolated  drainage  system  prevented  the  egress  of  the  former,  these 
precautions  were  obviously  useless  if  the  infection  could  be  conveyed  by 
the  bats.  Gosio  therefore  inoculated  the  common  bat  (  Vesperugo  noctula), 
which  is  found  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  with  plague  bacilli 
isolated  from  the  Naples  epidemic  and  retained  in  a  virulent  condition 
by  passages  through  white  rats.  Subc\itaneous  inoculations  were  prac- 
tised, the  dose  at  first  employed  being  0*5  ccm.  of  a  24-hour  old  broth 

*  Med.  Rev.  Reviews,  v.  (1902)  pp.  420-1.     See  also  Berlin  Klin.  Woch.,  1902, 
pp.  257  ond  282.  f  Atti  Reale  Accad.  Lincei,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  448-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  693 

cultivation.  As  these  were  found  to  give  positive  results,  smaller  doses 
were  tried,  and  it  was  eventually  found  that  from  0  •  05  to  0  •  1  of  a  24-hour 
old  broth  culture  invariably  infected  the  bats  and  caused  death  within  a 
relatively  short  time.  Post-mortem,  the  spleen  showed  the  typical 
appearance  and  all  the  internal  organs  contained  plague  bacilli.  Fur- 
ther, as  it  has  been  shown  that  the  common  flea  carries  plague  bacilli, 
all  the  varieties  of  parasites  found  on  the  dead  bats  were  examined  and 
found  to  contain  the  B.  pestis. 

Shell-fish  and  Typhoid.*  —  E.  Klein  shows  by  a  series  of  careful 
experiments  that  both  cockles  and  mussels  are  able  to  take  up  from 
polluted  sea-water  the  specific  organisms  of  both  typhoid  and  cholera,  at 
any  rate  when  presented  to  them  in  large  quantities  and  under  laboratory 
conditions,  and  to  retain  them  in  their  interior  for  some  days  after  re- 
moval from  the  source  of  contamination.  Further,  under  these  conditions 
the  author  was  able  to  demonstrate  that  the  B.  typhosus  actually  multi- 
plied in  the  interior  of  the  cockle. 

Klein  also  investigated  the  valuo  of  the  cooking  processes  usually 
employed  for  these  shell-fish  in  destroying  the  specific  germs,  and  found 
that  when  boiling  water  was  applied  to  the  infected  molluscs  in  bulk, 
the  organisms  in  the  interior  of  the  shell-fish  were  not  necessarily  killed, 
although  those  on  the  surface  were  destroyed. 

Pathogenic  Bacillus  in  Cockles.|  —  Galeotti  and  Zardo,  who  were 
interested  in  some  fatal  cases  of  food -poisoning,  resulting  apparently 
from  the  ingestion  of  cockles  (Murex  bradatus)  gathered  from  the  oyster- 
beds  at  Isola  (Austria),  obtained  from  the  mayor  of  that  town  samples 
of  the  molluscs  collected  from  the  same  situation.  These  they  ex- 
amined bacteriologically,  and  isolated  from  them  a  bacillus  which  they 
could  not  identify  with  any  existing  described  bacterium,  although  it 
obviously  belonged  to  the  hemorrhagic  septicaemia  group.  Their 
bacillus  is  a  thick,  sluggishly  motile  rod,  1*6  /x  to  1*7  fx  by  0*7  ft, 
with  rounded  ends.  It  stains  evenly  throughout,  is  neither  alcohol-  nor 
acid-fast,  and  does  not  retain  the  stain  when  treated  by  Gram's  method. 
It  is  usually  arranged  in  pairs,  and  thread  formation  was  not  observed, 
nor  could  involution  forms  be  detected,  even  in  old  cultures.  It  does 
not  form  spores,  nor  could  the  presence  of  flagella  be  demonstrated  by 
staining  methods.  It  grows  well  at  25°  C.  and  37°  C,  is  a  facultative 
aerobe,  and  grows  well  in  whatever  anaerobic  method  is  adopted  fur  its 
cultivation,  and  in  the  absence  of  oxygen  produces  a  fair  amount  of  gas. 
Gelatin  plate  cultivations  show  small,  rounded,  sharply-defined,  greyish, 
iridescent  colonies,  which  do  not  liquefy  the  medium.  Cultures  upon 
agar  and  inspissated  blood-serum  show  similar  discrete  colonies,  which 
do  not  coalesce.  Broth  cultivations  soon  become  universally  turbid,  but 
no  pellicle  formation  can  be  observed.  The  bacillus  is  pathogenic  to 
mice,  guinea-pigs,  and  rabbits,  whether  introduced  into  the  system  by 
way  of  the  stomach,  peritoneal  cavity,  subcutaneous  tissue,  or  intra- 
venously. The  anatomical  changes  occurring  in  the  animals  which 
•died  after  injection  of  cultivations  of  the  bacillus  consisted  chiefly  of 
haemorrhages  and  infarcts,  and  closely  resembled  those   noted   at  the 

*  Local  Gov.  Board  Reps..  1900-1901  (1902)  pp.  564-71. 
f  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  !«•  Abt.,  xxxi.  (1902)  pp.  593-614. 


f>94  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

post  mortem  examination  of  the  bodies  of  those  who  had  died  after  eating 
the  shell-fish  from  the  same  beds. 

The  authors  remark  that  the  actual  proof  that  the  bacillus  they 
isolated  from  the  shell-fish  was  the  cause  of  the  fatal  illness  in  people 
who  had  eaten  similar  bivalves  is  wanting,  as  none  of  the  morbid  secre- 
tions from  the  bodies  direct  were  used  for  inoculation  experiment ;  but  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  careful  chemical  analysis  excluded  the  possibility 
of  simple  poisoning,  and  having  due  regard  to  the  pathogenic  effects  of 
the  bacillus  they  isolated,  they  consider  they  are  justified  in  ascribing 
the  deaths  to  infection  by  their  bacillus.  The  authors  give  a  critical 
analysis  of  31  recorded  instances  of  poisoning  after  ingestion  of  various 
contaminated  food-stuffs,  and  append  a  bibliography  of  the  subject. 

Streptococcus  of  Scarlet  Fever.*  —  M.  H.  Gordon  describes  the 
Streptococcus  scarlatinas,  aud  gives  the  points  which  differentiate  it  from 
the  ordinary  Streptococcus  pyogenes.  He  specially  mentions  the  marked 
tendency  to  the  formation  of  oval  and  rod-shaped  individuals  as  com- 
pared with  the  strictly  spherical  shape  of  the  S.  pyogenes.  The  S. 
scarlatinas  upon  gelatin  and  agar  also  grows  more  slowly,  aud  has  a 
somewhat  different  appearance  ;  it  clots  milk,  producing  a  strongly  acid 
reaction  in  the  course  of  its  growth,  and  finally  it  is  less  virulent  to- 
white  mice. 

The  author  bases  his  description  upon  ten  strains  isolated  from  the 
tonsillar  mucus  of  ten  cases  of  scarlet  fever ;  in  three  cases  the 
organism  was  also  associated  with  the  S.  pyogenes.  He  considers 
that  the  streptococcus  of  Baginsky  and  Sommerfeld,  and  also  that 
isolated  by  Class,  may  simply  be  varieties  of  this  S.  scarlatinas. 

Bacteriology  of  Scarlatina.! — M.  H.  Gordon  details  his  investiga- 
tions into  the  bacteriology  of  scarlet  fever,  during  which  he  isolated 
an  organism,  the  Streptococcus  scarlatinas,  from  each  of  the  ten  cases 
he  examined  between  the  2nd  and  34th  days  of  the  disease.  The 
streptococcus  isolated  from  five  of  these  cases  was  virulent  for  the  mouse, 
and  in  three  cases  examined  on  the  2nd,  3rd,  and  4th  days  respectively 
it  was  associated  with  a  virulent  strain  of  the;#.  pyogenes.  In  four  cases 
of  suspected  scarlatina  investigated  by  the  writer,  two  yielded  evidence 
of  the  presence  of  the  S.  scarlatinas,  and  later,  desquamation  proved 
their  nature ;  the  two  remaining  cases,  in  which  the  bacteriological 
examination  yielded  negative  results,  were  not  followed  by  desquamation. 

The  author  isolated  the  S.  pyogenes  from  the  nasal  discharge  of  five 
out  of  twelve  cases  of  scarlatina,  and  from  the  aural  discharge  of  five 
out  of  twelve  cases  of  scarlatinal  otorrhoea,  and  he  therefore  concludes^ 
that  this  organism  plays  an  important  role. 

The  technique  adopted  in  isolating  the  organism  was  to  collect 
tonsillar  secretion  in  a  calibrated  loop  holding  about  ^^  ccm.  Two 
such  loopfuls  of  the  secretion  were  added  to  2  ccm.  sterile  salt  solution 
and  varying  quantities  of  the  dilution,  equivalent  to  from  jrJ57  ccm.  to 
tthhtdtt  ccm-  inoculated  on  to  inspissated  horse's  serum. 

In  concluding  his  paper,  Gordon  suggests  that  the  S.  scarlatinas 
occupies  a  position  in  the  bacteriological  kingdom  between  S.  pyogenes 
and  B.  diphtherias. 

*  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  1902,  ii.  p.  445. 

t  Local  Gov.  Board  Reps.,  1900-1901  (1902)  pp.  353-404. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  695 

Bacteria  and  Hemp.*  — V.  Peglione  refers  to  a  paper  published  in 
1896,  in  which  he  described  a  diseased  condition  of  the  stalk  of  the 
hemp,  characterised  by  disorganisation  of  the  cuticle  and  the  cortical 
testa,  and  by  the  presence  in  the  altered,  tissues  of  a  micro-organism 
resembling  the  B.  cubonianus.  The  specificity  of  this  pathological 
manifestation  has  been  since  doubted,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  fact  that 
the  macroscopical  appearances  of  the  lesion  may  be  confused  with  those 
produced  by  hail,  and  the  author  regrets  that  he  has  had  no  oppor- 
tunities of  settling  this  particular  point. 

He  has  observed  numerous  hemp  plants,  grown  in  unfavourable 
conditions  (e.g.  imperfect  preparation  of  the  soil  or  late  sowing,  followed 
by  bad  climatic  conditions),  in  which  numerous  leaves,  and  sometimes 
the  top  or  tuft  of  the  plant,  exhibit  a  condition  termed  by  the  peasants 
"  brusone."  These  leaves  are  marked  with  spots  of  irregular  form,  at 
first  yellowish,  afterwards  becoming  black,  and  in  a  few  days  affecting 
the  greater  part  of  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  at  the  same  time  the  leaf- 
tissue  becomes  dry  and  fragile.  When  this  stage  is  reached,  some  of  the 
leaf-veins  may  become  wrinkled  or  warped ;  the  peripheral  part  of  the 
spot  presents  a  light  colour  and  an  indistinct  edge,  as  is  observed  in  the 
spots  produced  by  moulds.  When  the  spots  reach  a  certain  size, 
the  dry  tissues  split  and  separate,  producing  perforations.  Placing  the 
diseased  leaves  upon  discs  of  blotting-paper,  enclosed  in  Petri's  dishes, 
a  slight  moisture  is  observed  in  those  parts  of  the  paper  under  the  spots 
on  the  leaves  in  a  few  hours,  and  soon  after  large  yellow  drops  appear, 
which  microscopically  show  pure  colonies  of  diplococci. 

Sections  of  the  leaves,  hardened  in  alcohol  and  treated  for  a  time 
with  dilute  solution  of  caustic  potash  (afterwards  neutralised  by  lactic 
acid),  show  colonies  of  micro-organisms  in  the  intercellular  spaces  of 
the  tissue,  especially  abundant  in  the  peripheral  parts  of  the  spots  and 
on  the  limits  of  sound  tissue.  The  bacteria  are  found  principally  in 
hemp  of  stunted  growth,  especially  when  the  soil  has  been  insufficiently 
prepared,  and  it  is  frequent  in  plants  grown  in  "  crude"  soil.  Climatic 
conditions  also  exert  a  decisive  influence  on  the  spread  and  severity  of 
the  infection,  this  year  the  condition  being  quite  common.  The  author 
has  not  yet  determined  the  behaviour  of  the  microbe  outside  the  plant, 
or  whether  it  is  identical  with  the  B.  cubonianus. 

Bacteriology  of  Human  Fseces.f  —  A.  Klein  records  some  of  the 
results  of  his  researches  to  determine  the  total  number  of  bacteria  pre- 
sent in  the  human  fasces.  His  conclusions  may  be  briefly  summed  up 
as  follows : — 

(1)  Healthy  adults  excrete  much  greater  numbers  of  bacteria  in  the 
faeces  every  24  hours  than  had  hitherto  been  suspected,  amounting  to 
8800  milliards,  responsible  for  0-31  p.c.  of  the  solid  matter  of  the 
faeces. 

(2)  Of  these,  however,  only  about  1  p.c.  are  living  and  capable  of 
multiplication  if  transferred  to  suitable  media:  the  remainder  are  dead. 

(3)  Anti-bacterial  action  can  be  demonstrated  in  most  faaces,  the 
bacterial  power,  even  outside  the  body  at  37°  C,  often  diminishing  the 
number  of  living  germs,  or  at  least  inhibiting  their  growth. 

*  Atti  Reale  Accad.  Lincei,  xi.  (1902)  pp.  32-4. 

t  Proc.  K.  Akad.  Wetenschappen  te  Amsterdam,  May  25th,  1901. 


€96  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING  TO 

Bacillus  Coli  in  Dysentery.*  —  M.  Lesage  draws  attention  to  the 
rarity  of  the  B.  coli  in  the  faeces  during  the  early  stage  of  dysentery, 
a  fact  first  noted  by  Le  Dantec.  He  distinguishes  three  stages  in 
typical  dysentery,  and  states  that  out  of  26  cases  examined  in  the  first 
stage  he  was  only  able  to  detect  typical  B.  coli  in  6,  and  from  63  cases 
in  the  second  stage  he  isolated  the  organism  18  times.  On  the  other 
hand,  from  every  case  in  the  third  stage  he  obtained  cultivations  of 
the  colon  bacillus.  The  organisms  isolated  from  cases  in  the  first  two 
stages  were  usually  members  of  the  paracoli  group,  and  characterised 
by  their  inability  to  coagulate  milk,  and  absence  of  odour  from  the 
cultures.  He  further  states  that  by  cultivating  the  paracolon  bacillus 
upon  potato  through  a  number  of  generations, — tho  number  of  sub- 
cultures varying  with  the  variety  of  potato, — the  power  of  coagulating 
milk  was  regained,  and  the  peculiar  odour  of  the  B.  coli  again  made 
its  appearance  in  the  cultures. 

Cereal  Products  and  Bacteria. * — E.  Klein  and  A.  C.  Houston,  who 
showed  in  a  previous  report  that  some  grains,  also  cereal  products  such 
as  wheat-flour,  contained  not  only  saprophytic  bacteria  but  also  members 
of  the  coli  group  and  spores  of  the  B.  euteritidis  sporogenes,  have  con- 
tinued their  researches  in  this  direction  by  cultivating  various  patho- 
genic microbes  (B.  typhosus,  B.  diphtherise,  B.  pyocyaneus,  and  the 
Staphylococcus  aureus)  in  a  medium  composed  of  wheat-flour,  rice-flour, 
and  oatmeal  respectively,  to  which  sterilised  water  had  been  added  in 
the  proportion  of  9  ccm.  to  one  gram  of  flour.  As  the  result  of  numerous 
experiments  the  authors  state  that  the  B.  typhosus  could  be  recovered 
as  late  as  25  davs,  and  the  B.  pyocyaneus  29  days,  after  sowing  in  rice- 
flour  and  water.  When  planted,  in  wheat-flour  and  water  the  respective 
figures  were  5  days  and  14  days.  The  Staphylococcus  aureus  was  re- 
covered as  late  as  the  24th  day  from  oatmeal  and  water.  The  B.  diph- 
therise  appears  to  die  out  rapidly  in  these  media,  and  is  not  recovered 
later  than  the  third  day,  whilst  the  V.  cholerse  did  not  appear  to  survive 
beyond  the  sixth  day. 

Antagonism  of  the  Soil  to  the  Bacillus  typhosus. }— S.  Martin  has 
investigated  the  factors  concerned  in  the  destruction  of  the  B.  typhosus 
when  that  organism  is  introduced  into  the  soil.  The  method  he  adopted 
was  to  isolate  a  common  non-putrefactive  bacillus  from  the  soil, — B. 
ramificans,— and  to  inoculate  it  simultaneously  with  a  B.  typhosus  re- 
cently isolated  from  a  human  source,  into  sterilised  soil;  incubate 
portions  at  22°  C.  and  at  37°  C,  and  examine  at  frequent  intervals  to 
ascertain  the  result  of  the  mixed  infection.  Control  experiments  were 
made  in  which  diluted  peptone  broth  was  inoculated  with  these  two 
organisms  and  similarly  incubated.  In  this  series  of  experiments  it 
was  found  that  in  the  soil  the  B.  typhosus  had  undergone  considerable 
diminution  in  26  days,  and  could  no  longer  be  recovered  after  about 
33  days :  in  the  liquid  medium,  diminution  of  the  B.  typhosus  was  noted 
in  45  days,  and  its  extinction  in  72  days.  This  latter  observation  was 
repeated  in  a  slightly  different  manner.  The  peptone  broth  was  first 
inoculated  with  the  B.  typhosus  and  was  incubated  at  37°  C.  for  several 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxv.  (1902)  pp.  403-5. 

t  Local  Gov.  Board  Reps.,  1900-1901  (1902)  pp.  310-27. 

j  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  487-511. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  697 

days  before  the  B.  ramificans  was  added  to  the  medium  :  the  final 
result,  however,  was  unaltered,  as  52  days  later  the  B.  typhosus  was 
extinct. 

Martin  further  cultivated  the  B.  ramificans  alone  and  in  association 
with  the  B.  typhosus  in  flasks  of  dilute  peptone  broth  for  about  10  weeks  : 
the  cultivations  were  then  filtered  through  porcelain  filters  and  each 
sterile  filtrate  inoculated  with  the  B.  typhosus.  Three  days  later,  how- 
ever, the  B.  typhosus  was  extinct.  The  filtrates  from  cultivations  pre- 
pared by  inoculating  fluid  media  with  ordinary  soil  were  likewise 
inoculated  with  the  B.  typhosus  with  identical  results. 

Manual  of  Determinative  Bacteriology.* — Determinative  Bacterio- 
logy is  the  title  chosen  by  F.  D.  Chester  to  designate  a  collection  of  short 
descriptions,  obtained  from  the  original  sources,  of  over  seven  hundred 
recorded  species  of  bacteria.  The  work  is  intended  to  serve  as  a  labo- 
ratory manual  to  aid  in  the  identification  of  unfamiliar  organisms, 
and  in  the  preface  it  is  stated  that  "  with  the  use  of  the  present  manual 
it  is  believed  that  the  teacher  can  place  a  given  culture  in  the  hands  of 
his  pupil  and  expect  him  to  determine  it." 

In  the  first  42  pages  of  the  book  the  author  briefly  summarises 
what  is  known  of  the  cell-structure  of  bacteria,  and  elaborates  a  scheme 
of  terminology  to  be  employed  in  describing  the  naked-eye  characters 
of  artificial  cultivations,  which  if  universally  adopted  would  not  only 
simplify  and  condense  but  would  also  lead  to  a  much-to-be-desired 
accuracy  and  uniformity  in  such  descriptions. 

He  also  discusses  the  important  subject  of  nutrient  media,  their  pre- 
paration, composition,  and,  more  important  still,  their  reaction,  a  few 
standard  methods  of  staining,  and  some  points  in  the  observation  of 
the  chemical  functions  of  bacteria.  Two  pages  are  devoted  to  an  out- 
line scheme  for  the  complete  study  of  any  given  organism,  adapted 
from  the  report  of  the  Laboratory  Committee  of  the  American  Public 
Health  Association,  the  author  urging  upon  the  student  the  necessity 
for  the  careful,  systematic,  and  complete  study  of  species. 

Chapter  III.  is  devoted  to  the  classification  of  bacteria,  and  in- 
sensibly glides  into  the  main  portion  of  the  book, — the  descriptions  of 
species.  Of  the  compilation  of  descriptions,  scanty  thougli  they  of 
necessity  are,  having  regard  to  the  paucity  of  detail  in  many  of  the 
original  descriptions,  we  must  express  unqualified  admiration,  whilst 
the  full  synonymy  and  the  excellent  index  render  the  work  a  handy 
reference  book  for  the  laboratory  bookshelf. 

Bibliography. 

Eknst,  P. — TTeber  den  Ban  der  Bakterien. 

Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2"  Abt,  VIII.  (1902)  pp.  1-7,  34-6,  65-73,  97-107. 
Jensen,  O. — Studien  iiber  das  Kanzigwerden  der  Butter. 

Centralbl.  Bald.,  2"  Abt.,  VIII.  (1902)  pp.  11-6,  42-6,  74-80,  107-14, 
140-4,  171-4,  211-6,  278-81,  309-12,  342-6,  367-9,  406-9. 

Will,  H. — Die  Farbe  des  Bieres  und  die  Hefe. 

Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2"  Abt.,  VIII.  (1902)  pp.  7-11,  36-42. 


*  F.  D.  Chester;   Macmillan  and  Co,  London  and  New  York,  1901,  8vo,  401  pp. 


aud  13  lig8 


698 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.  Instruments,  Accessories,  &c* 

(1)  Stands. 

Swift's  "Ariston"  Fine  Adjustment.  —  J.  Swift  and  Son  claim 
that  their  new  fine  adjustment  (fig.  129)  entirely  eliminates  the  side- 
movement  which  occurs  in  so  many  instruments  when  the  micrometer- 
screw  is  put  in  motion.     The  accompanying  illustration,  which  gives  a 

sectional  view,  shows  how  the 
principle  of  the  apparatus  has 
been  worked  out.  The  milled 
head  of  the  screw  is  isolated  and 
supported  on  an  independent  tube 
fixed  to  the  base-piece.  The  only 
point  of  contact  of  the  micro- 
meter-screw is  its  fine  point 
bearing  upon  the  top  of  the 
fine  adjustment.  The  advantages 
claimed  for  the  Ariston  fine  ad- 
ustment  are  that  even  with  a 
coarse  screw  a  very  slow  rate  of 
speed  and  extremely  delicate 
focussing  are  obtained  ;  that  it  is 
practically  impossible  for  it  to  get 
out  of  order,  and  that  the  micro- 
meter-screw is  entirely  discon- 
nected from  any  of  the  fittings 
likely  to  produce  movement  when 
the  milled  head  is  touched. 


Fig.  12  9. 


Scheffee,  W. — Mikroskope. 

[A  popular  introduction  to  the 
instrument.] 

Forms  Bandchen  35  of  the  series 
"  Aus  Natur  und  Geisteswelt," 
B.  G.  Teubner,  Leipzig. 


(2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives. 

Berger's  Stereoscopic  Loups.  f  —  E-  Berger  has  arranged  a  com- 
bination of  stereoscopic  loups  which  seems  likely  to  be  of  considerable 
service  to  miniature  painters,  lithographers,  microscopists,  watchmakers, 
and  others  who  are  interested  in  delicate  handicraft.  The  author  thinks 
it  offers  many  advantages  over  the  present  watchmaker's  lens.  In  the 
construction  two  of  Berger's  decentric  lenses  inclined  to  one  another  in 
the  horizontal  meridian  are  used.  The  inclination  is  so  arranged  that 
the  light  rays  do  not  fall  at  too  great  an  angle  on  the  strongly  prismatic 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands ;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives ;  (3)  Illu- 
minatiug  and  other  Apparatus;  (4)  Photomicrography ;  (5)  Microscopical  Optica 
and  Manipulation;  (6)  Miscellaneous. 

t  Central.  Zeit.  f.  Opt.  u.  Mech.,  xxiii.  (1902)  pp.  145-6  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY.   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


699 


parts  of  the  lenses.     The  loups  are  fitted  up  in  a  sort  of  camera,  which 
may  be  worn  over  the  eyes  and  secured  by  a  band  behind  the  head. 

Zeiss'  Improved  Algascope.* — A  "  No.  1  Combination  Lens  "  is  fitted 
to  a  sliding  sleeve,  to  which  a  small  stage  with  spring  object-holders  is 
attached.    In  this  form  the  lens  is  known  as  the  "  improved  Algascope." 


Fig.  130. 

The  "  combination  lens "  consists  of  three  achromatic  lenses  combined 
with  an  achromatic  dispersion  lens,  which  also  serves  as  an  eye-piece. 
The  magnifications  obtainable  from  different  members  of  the  series  vary 
between  11  and  100  diameters. 

(3)  Illuminating  and  other  Apparatus. 

Zeiss'  Epidiascope.f  —  This  is  an  apparatus  for  the  projection  of 
objects  lying  in  a  horizontal  position.     It  employs  reflected  light  in 


*  Catalogue,  English  edition,  1902,  p.'  23. 


t  Special  Catalogue. 


700 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


tho  case  of  opaque,  and  transmitted  light  with  transparent  (or  at  least 
translucent)  objects.  As  compared  with  Zeiss'  projection  apparatus  with 
an  optical  bench  (Catalogue,  No.  249)  it  possesses  the  following  charac- 
teristic advantages:  — (1)  Greater  latitude  in  the  shape  and  size  of 
objects ;  (2)  when  reflected  light  is  used,  the  illumination  is  more  per- 
fect ;  (3)  transition  from  operation  with  reflected  to  transmitted  light 
is  effected  with  greater  speed  and  convenience  ;  (4)  the  apparatus  is 
easily  adjusted  for  projection  obliquely  upwards ;  (5)  the  several  com- 


Fig.  131. 

ponent  parts  are  better  protected  against  dust  and  improper  usage.  On 
the  other  hand,  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  optical  bench,  the  epidia- 
scope lacks  somewhat  the  manysidedness  of  application  so  characteristic 
of  Zeiss'  other  projection  apparatus.  The  epidiascope  is  about  4  ft.  11  in. 
in  length,  2  ft.  6  in.  in  width,  and  about  4  ft.  11  in.  high.  The  height 
is  so  calculated  that  a  person  standing  on  the  floor  at  the  side  of  the 
apparatus  may  be  able  to  work  it  with  ease  and  comfort.  The  source 
of  light  used  is  a  search-light  lamp  adjusted  for  a  current  of  30  or  50 
amperes.     The  objective  supplied  cannot  be  exchanged  for  one  of  differ- 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


701 


ent  focus  without  special  adaptation.  Hence  the  degree  of  magnification 
can  only  be  varied  by  altering  the  distance  between  the  apparatus  (which 
is  placed  on  casters)  and  the  screen.  With  the  small  search-light  the 
magnification  of  a  uniformly  illuminated  area  of  9  sq.  iu.  is  magnified 
9  diameters ;  but  smaller  objects  may  be  maguitied  up  to  25  diameters. 
With  the  larger  lamp  the  magnification  varies  from  14  to  37  diameters. 
An  opaque  screen  is  recommended  for  the  projection  and  may  be  pre- 
pared as  follows : — A  wall  space,  or  a  paper  or  linen  screen,  is  painted 


Fig.  132. 

with  white  zinc,  prepared  with  water  and  size,  and  dusted  over  with 
powdered  chalk  just  before  the  coat  of  paint  becomes  dry.  Such  a 
colouring  can  be  easily  renewed  when  necessary. 

When  reflected  light  is  used  the  light  emitted  by  the  crater  of  the 
positive  carbon  falls  upon  the  parabolic  mirror  of  the  lamp  and  is  thence 
reflected  in  the  shape  of  a  nearly  cylindrical  pencil.  It  next  passes 
through  the  cooling  chamber  (which  is  filled  with  water  and  performs 
the  function  of  absorbing  heat  rays),  then  strikes  a  mirror  and  is  by  it 
reflected  obliquely  through  the  diaphragm  and  upon  the  object  inline- 


702  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

diately  below.  From  the  object  the  light  is  diffusely  reflected  upwards. 
Of  the  reflected  rays,  only  those  which  are  confined  in  their  passage 
to  the  space  marked  off  by  the  dotted  lines  reach  the  objective.  The 
cone  of  rays  travelling  upwards  through  the  objective  meets  the  erecting 
mirror  and  is  finally  reflected  upon  the  screen. 

When  transmitted  light  is  used  the  mirror  previously  employed  is 
turned  back  so  as  to  allow  the  pencil  of  rays  to  pass  to  a  second  mirror. 
From  there  it  is  reflected  obliquely  downwards  upon  a  third  mirror, 
which  again  reflects  it  vertically  upwards  into  the  condensing  lens 
situated  below  the  object-stage.  On  leaving  the  condenser,  the  rays  of 
light  pass  through  the  transparent  object  and  form  a  reduced  image  of 
the  search-light  reflector  near  the  projection  objective.  They  next  pass 
through  the  objective  and  meet  the  erecting  mirror.  The  latter  is  fitted 
with  a  regulator.  The  position  of  the  mirror  is  that  required  for  pro- 
jecting the  picture  obliquely  upwards. 

Fig.  130  represents  the  simplified  Microscope  with  a  planar  lens 
in  use.  Fig.  131  shows  the  whole  epidiascope  and  the  simplified  Micro- 
scope attached  to  it  when  used  with  a  planar  lens.  Fig.  132  gives  the 
epidiascope  with  the  simplified  Microscope  provided  with  an  ordinary 
microscopical  objective  and  ocular. 

Projection  Microscopes  using  Electric  Arc  or  Oxyhydrogen 
Light.* — A.  H.  Cole  points  out  that  the  utility  of  projection  Microscopes 
depends  upon  the  degree  of  success  with  which  three  practical  problems 
are  solved  : — (1)  A  light  of  intense  brilliancy  must  be  produced  and 
kept  in  the  optical  axis ;  (2)  the  system  of  condensers  must  collect  the 
largest  possible  percentage  of  light  rays  from  the  luminous  point  and 
deliver  them  at  the  proper  angle  of  convergence  for  each  of  the  objectives 
used ;  (3)  the  apparatus  must  not  be  too  cumbersome  or  complicated, 
or  too  expensive  for  ordinary  use.  Fig.  133  shows  the  author's  attempt 
to  solve  these  problems,  the  body  being  rotated  upwards  on  the  top  of 
the  plate  and  held  in  position  by  a  slender  support  so  as  to  give  a 
clear  view  of  the  90°  arc  lamp  and  electrical  connections.  The  base- 
board is  cut  away  under  the  lanq)  so  as  to  permit  the  use  of  long  vertical 
carbons.  At  the  rear  end  and  right  side  of  the  board  is  placed  the 
switch  in  the  most  convenient  position  for  use.  On  the  opposite  side 
of  the  board  is  the  fuse-block.  At  the  right  of  the  fuse-block,  as  seen 
in  the  illustration,  are  two  binding-posts  connected  with  the  fuse-block 
by  two  twisted  flexible  wire  cables.  From  the  other  end  of  the  fuse- 
block  two  similar  cables  connect  with  the  binding-posts  of  the  knife- 
switch.  When  the  electricity  is  turned  into  the  lamp  by  closing  the 
switch,  it  passes  to  each  carbon  through  the  cables  connected  with  the 
right-hand  binding-posts  of  the  switch.  The  arc  is  formed  between 
the  proximate  ends  of  the  carbons,  which  are  shown  on  an  alternating 
current  of  110  volts,  and  in  about  the  proper  adjustment  to  develop  the 
maximum  power  of  the  lamp.  The  carbons  are  fed  together  or  singly 
by  turning  both  feed-wheels  at  the  end  of  the  horizontal  shaft  below 
the  horizontal  carbon  at  the  same  time,  or  either  one  alone,  as  needed. 
The  entire  lamp  may  be  elevated,  or  lowered,  and  rotated  to  the  right 
or  left,  and  moved   along  the  base-rods  and  clamped  in  any  position. 

*  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  v.  (1902)  pp.  1892-3,  2012-3  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


■03 


The  available  light  is  derived  from  the  end  of  the  horizontal  carbon 
and  falls  directly  into  condenser  number  one,  then  passes  through  con- 
denser number  two,  both  of  which  are  in  the  conden  ser-cell  attached  to 
the  front  of  the  plate.  The  light  next  passes  through  the  water-tank, 
then  through  condenser  number  three,  which  is  at  tached  to  the  tank, 
then  passes  to  the  substage  condenser  if  high-power  objectives  are  being 
used,  next  through  the  object  mounted  on  the  stage  of  the  Microscope, 
then  through  the  objective,  and,  lastly,  through  th  e  amplifier  and  falls 
upon  the  screen.  The  substage  condenser  is  not  used  with  low-power 
objectives,  as  it  produces  a  cone  of  rays  with  too  wide  an  angle.  The 
amplifier  is  a  single  plano-concave  lens  of  5  or  6  in.  focal  length  and 
may  be  used  with  any  objective  to  increase   the  magnification  of  the 


Fig.  133. 


image  on  the  screen.     It  is  preferable  to  a  regular  microscopic  ocular, 
as  it  intercepts  less  light. 

In  working  with  high-power  objectives  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind 
that  the  field  is  sometimes  only  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
that  perfectly  uniform  illumination  is  essential  for  successful  work.  By 
observing  an  arc  through  smoked  glass,  or  through  a  combination  of  two 
plates  of  deep  ruby  and  blue  glasses,  it  is  readily  seen  that  the  arc 
creeps  about  on  the  ends  of  the  carbons  as  they  are  slowly  consumed. 
The  luminous  point  consequently  varies  in  position.  This  difficulty 
may  be  overcome  in  three  ways : — (1)  By  using  soft-cored  carbons  ; 
(2)  by  using  as  small  a  horizontal  carbon  as  possible  in  combination 
with  a  larger  vertical  carbon ;  (3)  by  moving  the  luminous  point  into 
the  optical  axis  by  a  slight  vertical  or  lateral  movement  of  the  arc.  To 
accomplish  the  last,  the  vertical  supporting  rod  of  the  lamp  should  not 


704  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

be  clamped  rigidly,  and  a  slight  lateral  push  on  the  feed-wheels  will 
rotate  the  lamp  on  its  support.     Small  carbons  burn  away  more  rapidly 
than  large  ones,  and  the  feed  requires  more  frequent  attention.     The 
carbons  shown  in  the   engraving  are  T7^  and  T\  in.  in  diameter,  "  Niirn- 
berg  soft-cored  Electra  brand."     In  the  highest  power  work  which  the 
author  has  done  with  the  electric  light,  a  very  steady  light  was  obtained 
by  using  a  -^  in.  cored  vertical  and  a  -^  in.  solid  horizontal  carbon. 
The  light  from  a  110-volt  alternating  incandescent  current  was  sufficient 
to  give  a  strong  picture  of  a  stained  transverse  section  of  an  earthworm 
having  a  magnification  of  8800  diamefers  by  measurement.     The  objec- 
tive used  was  a  B  and  C  xV"^n-  oil-immersion  in  connection  with  an 
amplifier.     The  conditions  just  described  will  indicate  the  reason  for 
the  use  of  hand-fed  90°  arc  lamp  rather  than  for  other  types  of  hand- 
fed  lamps  or  for  any  of  the  automatic-fed.     The  automatic-fed  lamp 
is  convenient  in  very  low  power  and  lantern  slide  projection,  but  here 
also  the  90°  lamp  gives  as  good  results.     Concerning  the  field  of  illu- 
mination on  the  screen,  it  should  be  noted  that,  if  the  Microscope  is 
pushed  too  close  to  the  lamp,  the  field  will  be  blue  and  will  not  give 
satisfactory  results.     As  the  Microscope  is  moved  to  a  greater  distance 
from  the  lamp,  the  centre  of  the  field  will  be  strongly  illuminated,  and 
at  a  still  greater  distance  the  entire  field  will  be  evenly  illuminated, 
and  this  is  the  best  position  for  all  objects  except  ths  most  difficult, 
which  may  require  the  strong  central  illumination.    The  system  of  con- 
densers is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  the  best  combination  consists 
of  three  plano-convex  condensers,  each  4^  in.  in  diameter,  and  arranged 
as  follows : — No.   1,  a  plano-convex  lens  of  about  5  in.  focal  length 
with  its  plane  side  next  to  the  light ;    No.  2,  a  plano-convex  lens  of 
6  J,  in.  focal  length  with  its  convex  side  facing  the  convex  side  of  No.  1, 
and  enclosed  in  the  same  cell  with  it ;  No.  3,  a  plano-convex  lens  of  about 
11  in.  focal  length  and  attached  to  the  water-tank  with  its  convex  side 
facing  the  Microscope.     A  simple  plano-convex  sulstage  condenser  of 
x£  in-  focal  length  is  a  necessity  in  high-power  work  with  the  above 
condensers,  but  its  efficiency  varies  with  its  distance  from  the  object. 
The  correct   distance  for  each  objective  should  be  determined  by  ex- 
periment and  recorded  for  reference.     All  the  above  directions  for  the 
electric  light  apply   equally   well  to  the   oxyhydrogen,  in   which   the 
luminous  point  is  constant :  but  the  less  interne  light  materially  reduces 
the  available  magnification. 

Method  of  Measuring  Objects  in  the  Microscope.* — F.  E.  Ives 
proposes  a  simple  arrangement  for  stage  measurement.  In  fig.  134, 
A  represents  the  foot  of  the  Microscope  ;  B  is  a  block  of  wood  notched 
to  fit  against  the  foot  and  project  in  a  particular  direction ;  C  is  a  rider 
with  set-screw  and  a  post,  and  spring-clamp  D  to  hold  a  jeweller's  saw 
having  sixty-four  teeth  to  the  inch  ;  E  is  the  Welsbach  light  diffused 
by  a  ground- glass  chimney  and  shielded  from  the  eyes  by  a  hood  open 
only  on  the  side  towards  the  Microscope.  The  source  of  light  being 
on  a  level  with  the  Microscope,  the  jeweller's  saw  is  supported  in  a 
vertical  plane  directly  between  the  light  and  the  Microscope  mirror, 
and  in  this  position  its  image  can  be  focussed  in  the  field  of  the  Micro- 

*  Journ.  Franklin  Inst.,  cliv.  (1902)  pp.  73-6  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


705 


scope  by  slightly  racking  back  the  condenser.  The  image  of  the  saw- 
teeth constitutes  the  measuring  scale  which  can  be  given  any  desired 
value,  within  limits,  by  adjusting  its  distance  from  the  Microscope 
mirror  and  comparing  the  focussed  image  with  the  scale  on  a  stage 
micrometer.  When  the  scale  is  nob  wanted  the  block  is  pushed  aside 
and  can  be  replaced  in  an  instant.  An  engraved  scale  on  glass,  or 
celluloid,  could  be  substitute  1  for  the  saw.* 


Fig.  134. 


Form  of  Vertical  Camera  and  its  Uses.f  —  J.  Reighard  has  ar- 
ranged an  apparatus  for  photographing  such  objects  as  the  eggs  of 
Amia,  which  are  some  2  mm.  in  diameter,  spherical  and  opaque,  and 
must  be  photographed  under  liquid  with  a  vertical  camera.  He  used 
Zeiss'  larger  photomicrographic  camera,  which  is  made  in  two  sections 
so  that  the  front  section  alone  may  be  employed  where  a  short  bellows 
is  desired.  The  camera  was  attached  by  means  of  clamps  to  an  iron 
frame  consisting  of  two  iron  rods  held  together  by  cross  bars  at  the 
ends  and  middle,  and  the  length  of  the  bellows  could  be  varied  by  the 
adjustment  of  the  clamps.  The  frame  could  be  slid  backwards  and  for- 
wards in  four  grooved  supports  screwed  to  the  top  of  an  iron  stand  : 
this  top  was  a  heavy  I-shaped  casting  bolted  to  the  rest  of  the  stand. 
A  fine  adjustment  was  secured  by  the  following  device :  — Alongside 
the  camera  frame  (on  the  left)  at  a  distance  of  5  cm.  from  it  runs  a 
vertical  wooden  rod  3  to  4  cm.  in  diameter  (fig.  135) ;  this  rod  is 
pivoted  at  its  upper  end  to  the  ceiling  near  the  first  pulley  wheel,  and 
at  its  lower  end  it  is  pivoted  on  a  wooden  bracket  which  extends  from 
the  wall  just  below  the  board  to  which  the  iron  base-plate  is  attached ; 
the  rod  is  thus  within  easy  reach  of  a  person  focussing  the  camera,  and 
turns  freely  ;  its  upper  end  for  about  6  cm.  is  formed  into  a  spool  and 

*  This  is  a  variant  of  the  ghost  micrometer  described  by  Dr.  Goring  in  '  Micro- 
graphia,'  1837,  p.  51.     It  has  since  been  re-invcnted  manv  times, 
t  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  v.  (1902)  pp.  1782-90  (7  figs.). 

December  17th,  1902  3  b 


706 


SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 


about  it  the  rope  running  to  the  counterpoise  makes  one  turn  ;  the  re- 
mainder of  the  rod  is  octagonal ;  by  turning  the  rod  with  the  hand  the 
camera  may  be  moved  up  or  down  with  great  delicacy,  while  the  rod 
offers  no  hindrance  to  the  direct  and  more  rapid  movement  of  the 
camera  by  hand. 


ImN 


Fig    135. 


Fig.  136. 


Fig.  137  shows  the  apparatus  fitted  to  the  Microscope,  the  illumina- 
tion being  provided  in  this  case  by  a  Thomson  90°  arc  lamp,  lantern- 
condenser,  and  alum-cell.  The  Microscope  must  be  attached  to  a 
levelling  plate  which  is  a  cast-iron  slab  17  by  25  mm.  and  6  mm.  thick, 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


707 


with  truncated  rectangular  pyramidal  feet  8  mm.  high  at  the  corners ; 
these  feet  are  pierced  by  levelling  screws.  The  slab  is  provided  with 
ear-like  projections  extending  from  either  end  through  which  the  plate 
may  be  screwed  to  small  iron  plates  set  into  the  floor.  The  upper 
surface  of  the  levelling  plate  is  provided  with  stops  against  which  the 
base  of  the  Microscope  fits,  with  felt  pads  for  the  instrument  to  rest 
on  ;  it  has  also  a  binding-screw  by  means  of  which  a  metal  strip  is 
clamped  across  the  base  of  the 
Microscope  to  hold  it  to  the  plate 
(fig.  138).  To  the  end  of  the 
plate  at  the  back  of  the  Micro- 
scope is  attached  a  socket  from 
which  rises  an  iron  rod  12  mm. 
in  diameter,  and  vertically  ad- 
justable by  a  thumb-screw  in  the 
socket.  At  the  top  of  this  rod  is 
a  cross  bar  'for  bearing  a  pair  of 
pulley-wheels,  which  may  be  set 
at  any  point  on  4 the  backwardly 
projecting  limb  of  the  cross  bar. 
An  iron  rod  11  cm.  long  and 
5  mm.  in  diameter  is  attached  to 
one  end  of  the  axis  of  the  pulley 
by  means  of  a  Hooke's  joint. 
Supported  from  the  wall  by  two 
brackets  alongside  the  camera  is 
a  vertical  metal  rod  which  extends 
from  the  level  of  the  coarse- 
adjustment  screws  to  the  upper- 
most camera  support  (fig.  137). 
This  rod  is  provided  with  two 
adjustable  milled  heads,  which 
may  be  set  at  any  point  so  as  to  be 
within  easy  reach.  At  the  lower 
end  of  the  vertical  rod  is  a  third 
bracket  which  supports  a  hevel 
gear  whose  cog-wheels  are  each 
about  3  cm.  in  diameter  (fig.  138). 
The  upper  wheel  is  attached  to 
the  vertical  rod,  while  to  the 
lower  is  attached,  by  means  of  a 
Hooke's  joint,  an  iron  rod  like 
that  attached  to  the  axis  of  the 
pulley-wheel,  but  only  3  cm.  in 

length.  When  the  levelling  plate  is  in  position  these  two  iron  rods 
may  be  united  by  means  of  a  brass  sleeve  in  which  there  are  two 
screws  (fig.  138).  The  Hooke's  joints  give  this  connection  a  certain 
degree  of  flexibility,  and  so  permit  of  considerable  movement  of  the 
levelling  plate  and  of  adjustment  of  the  pulley-wheels  on  the  cross  bar. 
When  the  connections  have  been  made,  the  coarse  adjustment  of  the 


Fig.  337. 


3  b  2 


■08 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Microscope  may  be  manipulated  by  an  operator  looking  at  the  ground 
glass  of  tbe  fully  extended  camera.     The  coarse  adjustment  is  to  be 


Fig.  138. 


Fig.  139. 


preferred  for  all  work  with  very  low  powers.     If  high  powers  are  to 
be  used  the  focussing  rod  and  Hooke's  joint  may  be  attached  to  the  limb 


ZOOLOGY   AXD   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  709 

of  the  cross  bar,  opposite  that  which  carries  the  pulleys,  and  by  means 
of  these  the  fine  adjustment  may  be  turned  from  a  distance. 

A  fiat  opaque  object,  such  as  a  chick  blastoderm,  may  be  brought 
into  the  focal  plane  of  the  objective  by  the  following  device  (figs.  138 
and  139) : — To  the  centre  of  a  brass  plate  of  the  size  and  form  of  the 
Microscope  stage  is  soldered  a  flat  brass  ring  40  mm.  in  diameter  and 
9  to  10  mm.  high,  thus  forming  a  shallow  pan  in  the  centre  of  the 
brass  plate ;  to  the  centre  of  one  face  of  a  small  brass  disc  30  mm.  in 
diameter,  a  brass  ball  of  about  6  mm.  in  diameter  is  attached  by  a  stem 
2  mm.  long;  this  ball  is  received  into  a  socket  between  the  lower  face 
of  the  brass  pan  and  a  small  brass  disc  screwed  to  it,  and  this  socket 
is  packed  with  oiled  leather  ;  the  small  metal  plate  then  forms  a  sort  of 
false  adjustable  bottom  within  the  pan,  which  is  filled  with  alcohol  and 
placed  on  the  Microscope  stage  ;  the  specimen  is  then  place  1  on  the 
false  bottom  which  is  tilted  until  the  specimen  lies  as  nearly  as  possible 
in  the  focal  plane  of  the  objective.  The  brass  plate  may  be  provided 
with  holes  by  means  of  which  it  may  be  attached  by  pins  inserted 
into  the  clip-holes  of  the  Microscope  stage. 

(4)  Photomicrography. 

Bagshaw,  W. — Elementary  Photomicrography.      London,  1902,  70  pp.  and  6  plft 

Marktanner-Tukneketscher,  G. — Wichtigere  Fortschritte  auf  dem  Gebiete 
der  Mikrophotographie  und  des  Projektionswesens. 

[Gives  a  very  complete  resume  of  international  progress  in  photomicrography.] 
Jahrb.f.  Photographie  unci  lieproductionstevknik  fur  das  Jahr  1902,  Halle; 

also  in  pamphlet  form,  21  pp.  and  5  figs. 

(5)    Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Kraft,  C. — Etudes  experimentales  sur  Techelle  des  couleurs  d'intsrferance. 

[The  author  describes  the  mapping  out  of  the  colours  of  various  spectra  in 
connection  with  the  corresponding  wave-lengths.] 

Bull.  Int.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  No.  5  (1902)  pp.  310-53  (4  pis.). 

t6)  Miscellaneous. 

Chambers  and  Inskeep's  Improved  Ophthalmometer.*  —  This  in- 
strument, for  measuring  the  curvature  of  the  cornea,  possesses,  as  its 
special  characteristics,  stationary  and  luminous  mires  and  adjustable 
prisms.  These  features  give  it,  say  its  inventors,  a  distinct  superiority 
over  other  forms  of  ophthalmometer. 

Fig.  140  gives  a  rear  side  view  of  the  instrument,  and  shows  the 
adjustments  for  focussing,  for  perpendicular  adjustment,  and  for  moving 
the  prisms.  Fig.  141  presents  the  stationary  mires  and  head-rest.  The 
construction  will  be  understood  from  fig.  142.  which  is  a  vertical  section 
of  the  instrument,  d  is  the  outer  tubo  mounted  to  rotate  in  sleeve  or 
collar  s,  supported  by  standard  t,  the  standard  being  swivelled  in 
tubular  support  g ;  h  is  a  diaphragm ;  10  is  the  eye-piece,  with  suit- 
able lenses  a  and  b ;  n  is  a  stationary  disc  borne  on  collar  s,  graduated 
to  indicate  angles  of  meridional  deviation  of  plane  of  mires;    i  is  a 

*  Chambers,  Tnskeep  &  Co.'s  Special  Catalogue. 


710 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 


pointer,  or  index  finger,  carried  on  angular  bridge  q  of  telescope-tube 
to  point  out  angle  on  graduated  scale ;  M  is  a  black  concave  disc  rotating 
with  the  tube  d ;  wio  are  the  mires,  made  of  translucent  material  ; 
12,  12  are  hemispherical  shells  containing  the  light,  connected  with 


Fig.  mo. 


wires  running  from  insulated  rings  in  the  hollow  stem  t ;  /  is  the 
inner  or  sliding  tube  of  telescope,  carrying  a  prism  h  h,  whose  refractive 
plane  is  in  the  plane  of  the  mires:  this  tube  has  a  rack  o  attached 
thereto  for  moving  it;  this  rack  projects  through  a  slot  m,  and  is 
engaged  by  a  pinion  p,  by  which  the  inner  tube  is  carried  back  and 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


711 


forth  in  the  outer  tube.  On  the  axis  of  the  pinion  is  a  milled  head, 
for  turning  the  pinion  and  discs  in  duplicate,  graduated  on  outer  edge 
and  face  with  a  scale  in  millimetres  of  radii  and  their  equivalent  in 
dioptres.  The  effect  of  moving  the  prisms  longitudinally  is  to  approxi- 
mate or  separate  the  images  of  the  mires  as  seen  on  the  cornea. 


Fig.  141. 


In  using  the  ophthalmometer,  the  operator,  after  the  necessary  adjust- 
ments for  height,  obtains  a  clear  image  in  the  patient's  eye  of  the  mires 
by  the  focussing  adjustment.  He  then  turns  the  tube 'horizontally 
slightly  to  right  or  left  until  two  images  of  the  mires  are  seen  in  close 
proximity  (fig.  143).  An  outer  image  may  be  seen  on  either  side  of  the 
field  of  view,  but  these  are  always  widely  separated  from  the  inner  ones, 


712 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


and  are  to  be  disregarded.  The  instrument  is  now  revolved  until  the 
long  meridian  lines  of  the  images  show  a  single  straight  and  unbroken 
one.      If  there  is  no  astigmatism  this  condition  will  be  seen  at  all  axial 


Fig.    Ii2. 


positions;  if  astigmatism,  at  but  two  positions.     Directions  are  given, 
for  reading  the  variation  of  cornea  curvature  in  dioptres  and  fractions. 


S^S8|ksife»fe3g^ 


■  flfip 


"\ 


Fig.  143. 


Interesting'  Extracts  from  Borelli.  —  The  following  passages,  of 
which  a  literal  translation  is  subjoined,  occur  in  Borelli's  Treatise  on 
the  Telescope  and  other  magnifying  glasses,  viz.  De  vero  Telescopii 
inventore  cum  brevi  omnium  Conspiciliorum  Historia.  Autliore  Petro 
Borello.  Hagse-Comitum,  1655.  The  copy  of  this  work  in  our  library 
is  in  fair  condition,  though  two  pages,  including  the  portrait  of  the 
author,  are  wanting. 

Book  i.  p.  10 : — "  And  lastly  the  Microscope,  or  the  fly  or  flea  spy- 
glass, by  which  the  flea  and  the  fly  rise  to  (the  size  of)  the  camel  and  the 
elephant,  is  made  of  two  glasses  inclosed  in  a  tube  ;  the  glass  nearest 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  713 

the  eye  is  convex,  and  made  out  of  a  minute  segment  of  a  spherule,  the 
diameter  of  which  should  be  two  inches;  the  other  is  a  flat  glass:  it 
may  also  be  made  out  of  two  convex  (glasses),  and  this  is  better." 

Book  ii.  p.  43 : — "  The  third  kind  of  tube  is  the  Microscope  for 
greatly  increasing  the  size  of  small  objects,  as  fleas,  &c.  This  consists 
of  two  glasses  and  a  tube  of  one  inch  (?  long)  or  thereabouts,  in  which 
small  bodies  are  placed.  One  glass,  that  nearest  the  eye,  is  convex  (and) 
ground  out  of  a  minute  segment  of  a  sphere,  the  diameter  of  which  is 
at  most  equal  to  two  inches ;  the  lower  one  near  the  bottom,  on  which 
the  things  to  be  looked  at  are  placed,  is  merely  a  simple  piece  o  lass 
flat  on  both  sides. 

"  Or  Microscopes  are  made  of  two  convex  glasses,  reduced  to  the 
shape  of  the  tube ;  one,  which  is  directed  towards  the  things  to  be  looked 
at,  is  highly  convex,  and  should  be  made  from  the  segment  of  a  small 
sphere ;  the  other,  which  is  applied  to  the  eye,  is  somewhat  flatter ;  of 
course  the  proportion  to  the  things  to  be  seen  in  it  must  be  carefully 
considered." 


B.  Technique.* 
CD    Collecting-  Objects,  including-  Culture  Processes. 

Physical  Properties  of  Gelatin,  in  reference  to  its  use  in  Cul- 
ture Media. f — G.  C.  Whipple  made  experiments  which  show  that  the 
character  of  the  gelatin  used  in  culture  media  has  a  most  important 
influence  upon  quantitative  and  qualitative  bacteriological  work,  and 
that  for  different  observers  to  obtain  results  which  may  be  fairly  com- 
parable, it  will  be  necessary  to  use  culture  media  made  from  one  and 
the  same  lot  of  gelalin.  It  will  be  necessary  also  to  follow  a  most  rigid 
system  in  the  preparation,  sterilisation,  and  use  of  nutrient  gelatin,  in 
order  that  its  physical  condition  may  be  the  same  in  all  cases.  The 
chemical  characteristics  of  different  gelatins  with  reference  to  their  use 
in  culture  media  are  not  discussed,  as  investigations  in  that  direction 
are  not  completed,  but  the  effect  of  the  physical  condition  of  the  culture 
medium  on  bacterial  growth  is  pointed  out.  The  viscosity,  melting-point, 
and  spissitude  (jelly  strength)  of  gelatin  solutions  are  described,  and  a 
new  form  of  spissimeter  and  a  new  method  of  stating  the  results  of 
spissitude  measurements  are  suggested. 

Method  of  Cultivating  Anaerobic  Bacteria.!— F.  C.  Harrison  de- 
scribes a  method  of  growing  anaerobes  which  is  a  combination  of  the 
pyrogallol  method  and  a  vacuum.  Plates  or  tubes  are  placed  in  a  bell- 
jar  with  stopcock  at  the  top  (fig.  144),  and  this  connected  with  a  vacuum 
pump.  The  bell-jar  is  sealed  to  the  dish  with  paraffin.  Pyrogallic  acid 
is  placed  on  the  floor  of  the  dish,  and  the  apparatus  shown  in  fig.  145  is 
inserted  after  having  been  filled  with  KOH  or  NaOH.     The  vacuum 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)    Collecting    Objects,  including    Culture   Pro- 
cesses ;  (2)  Preparing  Objects  ;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes  ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting  ;  (5)  Mounting,  including  slides,  preservative  fluids,  &c. 
(6)  Miscellaneous. 

t  Technol.  Quart.,  xv.  (1902)  pp.  127-60  (14  tigs.). 

X  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  v.  (1902)  p.  1974  (2  figs.). 


714 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


causes  the  NaOH  in  the  tube  to  siphon  off,  and  the  last  remaining  trace 
of  oxygen  is  absorbed. 


r\ 


-J 

\ 

Fig.  144. 


Fig.  145. 


Egg's  as  a  Medium  for  the  Cultivation  of  Bacillus  tuberculosis.* 
M.  Dorset  finds  that  coagulated  egg-albumen  is  an  excellent  medium 
for  cultivating  the  tubercle  bacillus.  The  white  and  yolk  are  mixed 
together  and  then  distributed  in  tubes.  The  tubes  are  incubated  at  70°  C. 
for  two  successive  days  for  four  hours  and  simultaneously  sterilised.  A 
couple  of  drops  of  sterilised  water  are  poured  into  each  tube,  and  then 
the  surface  of  the  slope  is  inoculated  witli  the  tuberculous  material. 
The  cotton-wool  plugs  are  saturated  with  paraffin,  and  the  ends  of  the 
tubes  filled  in  with  paraffin. 

Apparatus  for  Removing  Pieces  of  Tissue  for  Microscopical 
Examination.f — T.  L.  Webb  has  devised  an  apparatus  for  removing 
pieces  of  tissue  for  histological  examination  by  means  of  suction.  The 
apparatus  consists  of  a  glass  tube  about  J  in.  in  diameter,  which  is 
attached  to  an  aspirator.  When  the  aspirator  is  turned  on  some  tissue 
is  drawn  up  into  the  tube  and  then  it  is  easy  to  snip  off  a  piece. 

(2)  Preparing  Objects. 

Simple  Method  of  Preparing  Bone  Sections.! — H.  G.  Rosenberger 
first  cuts  rough  sections  with  a  saw  and  then  inserts  them  in  a  cavity 
hollowed  out  of  a  piece  of  soft  pine.  The  block  is  then  held  against  a 
revolving  grindstone,  so  that  wood  and  bone  are  ground  down  together. 
As  soon  as  the  first  side  is  well  smoothed,  the  section  is  turned  and  the 

*  Amer.  Med.,  iii.  (1902)  pp.  555-6.  See  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Ref.,  xxxii. 
(1902)  p.  114. 

+  Journ.  Brit.  Dental  Assoc.,  xxiii.  (1902)  pp.  438-40  (1  fig.). 
I  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  v.  ri902")  p.  1996. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  715 

other  side  ground  until  the  desired  thickness  is  nearly  reached.  The 
section  is  then  removed  and  finished  off  on  an  oilstone  or  hone,  and 
finally  mounted  in  thick  balsam. 

Neurological  Technique.* — A  monograph  containing  the  approved 
methods  of  examining  nervous  tissue  has  long  been  a  desideratum.  This 
want  has  been  supplied  by  Irving  Hardesty,  whose  work  entitled 
Neurological  Technique  will  be  found  of  the  greatest  service  by  those 
who  are  engaged  in  studying  or  in  teaching  the  histology  of  the  nervous 
system.  The  sub-title  (Some  special  histological  methods  employed  for 
the  study  of  the  nervous  system,  together  with  a  laboratory  outline  for 
the  dissection  of  the  central  nervous  system  and  the  neurological 
nomenclature  (BNA)  arranged  in  a  classified  list)  more  closely  indicates 
the  general  scope  of  this  useful  work. 

The  first  part  of  the  work  deals  with  general  considerations  as  to 
the  need  and  action  of  reagents,  and  with  general  instructions  in  pro- 
cedure. Then  come  fifteen  methods  for  demonstrating  the  histological 
appearances  of  the  central  nervous  system.  These  are  followed  by  two 
methods  for  museum  preparations,  after  which  is  a  chapter  on  the  fixa- 
tion and  preservation  of  human  embryos  and  foetuses.  The  last  two 
chapters  deal  with  the  application  of  formalin  and  with  the  dissection 
of  the  central  nervous  system.     There  is  an  adequate  index. 

(3)  Cutting-,  including'  Imbedding  and  Microtomes. 

Marble  Blocks  for  Celloidin  Tissues.f — E.  C.  Streeter  recommends 
marble  blocks  instead  of  wood  or  cork  for  celloidin  masses.     He  has 
given  them  a  year's  trial  and   is    satisfied  that  they  are  very  advan- 
tageous. 
Slonaker,  J.  R— An  Attachment  to  the  Minot  Microtome  for  catting  Sections 

of  1  micron  thickness.  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  V.  (1902)  pp.  1994.-6  (4  figs.). 

(4)    Staining  and  Injecting. 

Rapid  Method  of  Staining  the  Morphotic  Elements  of  Blood.|— 
Marino  uses  two  solutions  :— (i.)  A  saturated  solution  of  acid  fuchsin  ; 
(ii.)  Brilliant  kresyl-blue  1  to  1000-4000  water,  or  kresyl-blue  1,  abso- 
lute alcohol  200.  The  preparations  are  stained  for  one  minute  in  the 
acid-fuchsin  solution,  and  then  having  been  washed  with  water  are 
treated  for  15-20  minutes  with  the  kresyl-blue. 

Staining  Axis-Cylinders  of  Fresh  Spinal  Cord.§  —  H.  L.  Osborn 
finds  that  spinal  cord  may  be  stained  sufficiently  well  for  demonstration 
purposes  by  placing  a  small  piece  in  30  p.c.  alcohol  and  incubating  at 
56°  for  six  hours.  Small  pieces  are  teased  out  in  distilled  water  on  a 
slide  and  irrigated  with  an  aqueous  solution  of  acid-violet. 

New  Alcoholic  Carmin  Solution.||— N.  Loewenthal  prepares  a  car- 
min  solution  in  the  following  way.      The  first  step  is  to  make  a  sodium 

*  University  of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago,  and  Wesley  and  Son,  London,  1902,  xii. 
and  188  pp.  and  4  figs.  t  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  v.  (1902)  p.  1970. 

X  C.R.  Soc.  Biol,  de  Paris,  liv.  (1902)  p.  457. 
§  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  v.  (1902)  p.  1987  <1  fig.). 
II   Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xix.  C1902)  pp.  56-GO. 


716  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

picro-carmin  mixture  by  heating  together  0*4  grm.  earmiu,  100  ccm. 
water,  and  0'8  ccm.  10  p.c.  caustic  sod;;.  While  still  hot,  25  ccm.  of 
0*5  p.c.  aqueous  solution  of  picric  acid  are  added  gradually.  When 
cold  this  sodium  picro-carmin  is  mixed  with  half  its  bulk  of  1  p.c. 
HC1.  The  red  precipitate  which  forms  is  then  washed  until  the  water 
is  no  longer  yellow.  The  dark  red  deposit  on  the  filter  is  then  dis- 
solved in  70  p.c.  alcohol  acidulated  with  HC1  (about  1  p.c).  The 
solution  is  quite  clear  and  gives  good  results  after  any  method  of  fixation. 
The  immersion  time  is  from  a  half  to  several  hours.  The  after  treat- 
ment is  simple  and  consists  of  changes  of  alcohol  from  70  p.c.  up  to 
absolute.  The  author  states  that  the  solution  is  an  effective  nuclear 
stain,  that  by  its  use  aqueous  media  can  be  avoided,  and  that  it  does 
not  colour  celloidin. 

Flagella  Staining.* — W.  Kuntze  describes  the  procedure  he  adopts 
for  staining  flagella.  The  medium  recommended  for  cultivating  the 
bacteria  is  the  ordinary  1  p.c.  meat-pepton-ugar  but  without  salt.  The 
tubes  need  not  be  fresh.  The  cultures  used  for  inoculating  should 
be  from  a  few  days  to  several  weeks  old  and  have  been  kept  at  the 
room  temperature  for  some  time.  The  freshly  sown  tubes  are  in- 
cubated and  are  ready  for  use  in  from  8  to  10  hours.  An  essential 
for  success  is  that  the  cover-slip  should  be  perfectly  clean,  and 
though  a  decent  result  may  be  attained  by  wiping,  washing  in  ether 
and  flaming,  it  is  safer  to  follow  the  procedures  of  van  Ermengem  and 
Hinterberger.  On  the  clean  cover-slip  is  placed  a  drop  of  tap-water. 
This  is  effected  by  means  of  a  loop  h— £  mm.  in  diameter  and  made  by 
bending  a  piece  of  glass  rod.  From  this  drop  of  water  a  droplet  about 
the  size  of  a  pin's  head  is  removed  and  placed  on  another  cover-glass- 
To  the  latter  is  added  a  minute  trace  of  the  bacterial  culture  and  the 
suspension  distributed  into  a  thin  layer  by  means  of  the  glass  loop-rod. 
This  must  be  performed  without  rubbing  or  pressing  lest  the  flagella 
be  torn  off  or  damaged.  The  film  should  dry  in  a  few  seconds ;  it  is 
then  fixed  in  the  flame  jin  the  usual  way.  When  the  film  has  cooled 
it  is  mordanted  with  van  Ermengem's  fluid  made  about  a  week  before. 
The  mordant  consists  of  1  vol.  2  p.c.  osmic  acid  and  2  vols.  25  p.c. 
tannic  acid  with  four  drops  of  acetic  acid  to  100  ccm.  The  mordanting 
takes  from  \  to  \  hour  according  to  the  temperature  of  the  room.  As 
it  is  important  that  the  preparations  should  not  come  in  contact  with 
metallic  substances,  the  cover-slips  are  held  in  glass-bladed  forceps 
during  the  rest  of  the  manipulation.  The  films  are  next  washed  with 
distilled  water,  and  while  still  damp  some  1  p.c.  alcoholic  solution  of 
silver  nitrate  is  dropped  on.  After  a  few  seconds  they  are  treated  with 
the  developer  (5  grm.  gallic  acid,  3  grin,  tannin,  10  grm.  acetate  of  soda, 
350  grm.  distilled  water).  After  a  short  action,  silver  nitrate  solution 
is  again  dropped  on  until  the  black  precipitate,  which  forms  at  first,  is 
washed  away.  The  films  are  then  washed  with  distilled  water,  and  if 
it  be  found  that  they  are  clean  and  free  from  precipitate  may  be  at  once 
passed  through  absolute  alcohol  and  dried  in  the  flame.  If,  however,  any 
precipitate  still  remain  they  must  be  treated  with  gold  chloride  solution 
(1-2000  or  3000).      Should  it  be  necessary  to  use  gold  chloride  the 

*  Centrulbl.  Bakt,  1"  Abt.  Orifj.,  xxxii.  (1902)  pp.  555-60  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  717 

preparation  should  be  previously  exposed  to  the  light  for  a  short  time, 
and  in  any  case  the  treatment  must  be  of  short  duration.  If,  after  using 
gold  chloride,  the  resulting  picture  is  found  to  be  good,  it  is  advisable 
to  expose  the  preparation  to  the  light  for  a  few  days,  as  gold  is  reduced 
much  more  slowly  than  silver. 

Staining  Sections  of  Spinal  Cord  with  Coerulein  S.* — B.  Rawitz 
recommends  Coerulein  S  (Hochst)  for  staining  sections  of  spinal  cord. 
The  following  solution  gives  good  results: — Cnerulei'n  S  0*1  grm., 
potassio-tartrate  of  antimony  1*0  grm.,  distilled  water  100  ccm.  The 
potassio-tartrate  is  dissolved  in  lukewarm  water,  the  pigment  is  then 
added,  and  the  mixture  boiled  in  a  sand-bath.  When  cold,  the  clear 
dark-green  fluid  is  decanted  off  and  kept  as  stock.  When  required 
for  use,  one  part  of  the  stock  solution  is  mixed  with  ten  to  twenty  times 
its  volume  of  distilled  water.  The  time  required  is  21-48  hours,  and 
it  maybe  necessary  to  incubate  at37°-10°.  The  sections  are  afterwards 
washed  in  distilled  water,  dehydrated  in  96  p.c.  alcohol,  and  after  clearing 
in  bergamot  oil  mounted  in  balsam. 

Simplified  Method  of  Staining  with  Polychrome  Methylen-Blue.f 
B.  Rawitz  gets  excellent  results  by  means  of  the  following  simplified 
procedure.  The  sections  are  placed  for  24-48  hours  in  dilute  poly- 
chrome blue  (1-50  Aq  dest.).,  and  then  after  a  short  washing  with  water 
are  immersed  for  24,  48-72  hours  in  96  p.c.  alcohol  or  until  they 
become  quite  light  blue.  They  are  then  cleared  up  in  dark-green 
bergamot  oil  (the  yellow  is  too  acid)  and  mounted  in  xylol. 

Staining  the  Reticulum  of  Spinal  Ganglion-cells. J — F.  Kopsch 
demonstrates  the  reticulum  in  ganglion-cells  of  the  spinal  cord  in  the 
following  manner.  Not  more  than  six  ganglia  are  immersed  in  2  ccm. 
of  2  p.c.  osmic  acid  solution  for  about  eight  days.  The  acid  must  be 
renewed  if  there  be  any  reduction.  The  reticulum  begins  to  stain 
about  the  fifth  day,  but  does  not  attain  its  maximum  till  the  eighth  or 
even  later.  Though  this  method  is  not  successful  with  cells  of  the 
central  nervous  system  it  gives  good  results  with  cells  from  other 
regions,  e.g.  salivary  gland. 

Zangrek,  H. — Histologisch-Farbetechnische  Erfahrungen  im  allgemeinen  und 
speziell  iiber  die  Moglicbkeit  einer  morphologischer  Darstellung  der  Zell- 
Narkose  (vitale  Farbung).  (A  discussion  on  histological  staining  technique  and 
intra  vitam  staining.) 

Vierteljahrschrift  Naturf.  Ges.  Zurioli,  XVII.  (1902)  pp.  43-72. 

(5)   Mounting-,  including-  Slides,  Preservative  FTuids,  &c. 

Double  Mounting  for  Whole  Objects.§  —  H.  F.  Perkins  suggests 
the  following  device  for  mounting  objects  to  be  studied  from  both  sur- 
faces. The  object  is  mounted  on  a  large  cover-glass  with  a  smaller 
slip  for  cover.  The  larger  slip  is  then  laid  on  an  ordinary  slide  and 
one  end  fixed  by  means  of  gummed  paper  or  sticking-plaster.     This 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxi.  (1902)  pp.  551-5.  t  Tom.  cit,  p.  555. 

t  S.B.  Konigl.  Preuss.  Akad.  Wiss.  Berlin,  xxxix.  (1902)  pp.  929-35  (1  fig.). 

§  Journ.  App.  Micr.,  v.  (1902)  p.  1926  (1  fig.). 


718 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


acts  as  a  hinge  and  allows  the  large  slip  to  be  turned  over.  A  small 
wire  clip  is  used  to  hold  the  covers  firmly  to  the  slido  in  either 
position. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

New  Counting-  Apparatus  for  Plate  Cultures.*  —  E.  Thiele  de- 
scribes a  counting  apparatus  which  is  intended  to  avoid  counting  the 
colonies  twice  over.  It  consists  of  a  tripod  stand  having  a  loup  attached 
to  the  upper  end  of  the  pillar.  This  loup  has  a  diameter  of  10  cm., 
gives  a  magnification  of  six  to  eight,  and  can  be  used  with  both  eyes. 
The  plate  is  borne  on  a  carrier  which  can  be  moved  up  and  down  the 
pillar.  The  carrier  is  marked  out  in  squares  or  in  sextants.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  loup  and  the  carrier  is  such  that  a  pencil  canjbe 
used  to  indicate  the  colonie?. 


"»»Ba»»«S<BKX5fg55»5 


Fig.  146. 


Effect  of  Reheating  upon  Overheated  Steel.f  —  K.  F.  Goransson 
concludes  that  the  destruction  of  the  coarse  network  of  cenientite  is 
caused  by  its  carbon  being  dissolved  in  the  martensite,  and  that  the 
network  surrounding  the  new  grains  is  formed  by  the  expulsion  of 
cementite  from  the  martensite  as  it  is  being  cooled. 

Steel  Rails :  Relation  between  their  Structure  and  Durability. { 
R.  Job  has  undertaken  a  long   series  of  microscopic  observations  on 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.,  ix.  (1902)  pp.  332-3  (1  fig.). 
1-  Metallographist,  v.  (1902)  pp.  216-28. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  177-91  (13  microphotos). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  719 

steel  rails  which  have  fractured  or  duly  worn  in  use,  as  well  as  on 
other  rails  which  have  shown  especial  durability.  His  conclusions  are 
corroborative  of  other  investigators'  results  and  show  the  iinportauce  of 
giving  to  steel  rails  a  fine-grained  structure  throughout — not  merely  as 
a  surface  layer.  The  rail  should  be  fine-grained  even  at  the  centre 
of  the  head,  and  practically  amorphous  at  the  surface.  Reliance  upon 
chemical  analysis  is  quite  untrustworthy. 

S.  S.  Martin's  *  experiments  point  to  the  same  conclusion,  and  he 
argues  that  since  no  change  of  structure  can  result  from  finishing  below 
the  critical  point,  a  rail  must  be  rolled  as  near  the  critical  point  as 
possible  to  get  the  best  structure,  or  in  the  case  of  rail  steel  between 
700°  C.  and  725°  C. 

A.  Sauveur,f  after  discussing  theories  of  present  methods,  points  out 
that,  in  order  to  confer  a  fine-grained  structure  upon  steel  rails,  there 
seem  to  be  three  courses  of  manufacture  open  : — (1)  To  shorten  the 
crystallising  period,  i.e.  the  time  during  which  the  rail  is  allowed  to 
cool  undisturbedly  above  the  critical  temperature  (say  about  700°  C). 
(2)  To  cause  a  part  of  the  crystallising  period  to  occur  previous  to  the 
final  pass  through  the  mill.  (3)  To  finish  the  rail  at  the  temperature 
most  desirable  for  easiness  and  speed  of  manipulation  in  rolling,  and 
then  to  reheat  it  to  a  temperature  slightly  above  the  critical,  a  treat- 
ment which  would  result  in  the  breaking  up  of  the  pre-existing  coarse 
structure  and  replacing  it  by  a  much  finer  one. 

S.  S.  Martin  |  also  shows  by  the  comparison  of  fine  micro-sections 
the  difference  between  hot  and  cold  sawing  upon  steel.  It  follows  that 
in  studying  the  structure  of  rails  care  should  be  taken  that  the  polished 
sections  are  sufficiently  removed  from  the  hot  sawn  side  to  be  un- 
affected by  the  action  of  the  saw ;  otherwise  seriously  misleading 
observations  might  result :  a  coarsely  crystalline  rail  might  be  made  to 
appear  fine-grained. 

Effects  of  Strain  on  the  Crystalline  Structure  of  Lead.§ — J.  C. 
W.  Humfrey  experimented  with  some  exceptionally  favourable  lead 
crystals.  The  effect  of  tensile  strain  was  to  produce  slip-bands,  and  it 
appeared  that,  when  a  slip  had  been  produced  in  any  part,  there  was 
a  tendency  for  it  to  continue  there  rather  than  in  other  parts  of  the 
specimen.  Thus  the  effect  was  rather  to  localise  the  strain.  If  the 
originally  uniformly  oriented  crystal  showed  signs  of  recrystallisation 
after  straining,  it  was  found  that  moderate  heating  (up  to  100°  C.)  very 
much  facilitated  the  process.  Experiments  were  specially  carried  out 
to  determine  whether  the  recrystallisation,  which  is  apparent  imme- 
diately after  re-etching  a  severely  strained  crystal,  is  a  direct  and 
instantaneous  effect  of  the  strain,  or  is  a  growth  which  occurs  during 
the  interval  of  time  that  has  elapsed  during  the  straining  and  the 
examination.  The  author's  opinion  is  clearly  in  favour  of  the  latter 
hypothesis,  and  he  considers  it  ought  to  be  classed  with  the  progressive 
growth  demonstrated  by  Ewing  and  Eosenhain  in  their  observations 
on  the  crystals  of  ordinary  lead  after  straining. 

*  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  191-6  (4  microphotos);  and  Iron  Age,  Dec.  26,  1901. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  supra,  pp.  197-202. 

%  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  245-7  (5  microphotos). 

§  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  lxx.  (1902)  pp.  462-4. 


720  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES. 

Structure  of  Copper- Antimony  Alloys.*  —  J.  E.  Stead  contributes 
a  microphotograph  showing  the  value  of  the  "  superposing  "  method  for 
the  preparation  of  alloys  to  be  studied  under  the  Microscope.  The 
method  consists  of  first  melting  the  metal  of  highest  specific  gravity 
and  then  pouring  on  top  of  this,  in  a  molten  condition,  the  other, 
lighter  metal.  The  two  metals  will  alloy  in  such  a  manner  that  a  ver- 
tical cross-sectioa  will  show  crystals  of  a  pure  metal  at  one  end  and 
crystals  of  the  other  metal  at  the  other  end,  while  between  these  the 
metals  will  be  found  alloyed  in  all  proportions. 

C.  H. — The  Microscope  and  the  Metallurgy  of  Steel. 

Railroad  Gazette,  June  13.  1902;  and 
Metallographist,  V.  (1902)  pp.  240-4  (4  figs.). 
Campbell,  W. — Structure  of  Metals  and  Binary  Alloys. 

[A  valuable  practical  treatise,  with  many  original  illustrations.] 

Journ.  Franklin  Inst.,  CLIY.  (1902)  pp.  1-16.  131-42  (32  microphotoa). 

Hiorns,  A.  H. — Metallography:  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Structure  of 
Metals,  chiefly  by  the  aid  of  the  Microscope. 

Macmillan  &  Co  ,  London,  1902,  xiv.  and  158  pp.  and  96  figs. 

*  Metallographist,  v.  (1902)  pp.  247-8  (1  fig.). 


721 


PEOCEEDINGS   OF  THE   SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  15th  of  October,  1902,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W. 
Dr.  Henry  Woodward,  F.R.S.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  18th  of  June   last  were  real 
and  confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  President. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society  was  submitted,  amongst  which 
special  mention  was  made  of  the  Manual  of  Bacteriology ;  British 
Association  Beports  for  1901,  from  Mr.  Frank  Crisp  ;  a  Microscope  from 
Mr.  Jackson  ;  and  another  from  Mr.  Waters. 

From 

Chesler,  F.  D.,  A  Manual  of  Determinative  Bacteriology.)  mi     t,  it-  t 

(8vo,  New  York  and  London,  1901)        ../  The  Publishers. 

Hinton,  A.  Horsley,  "  P.O.P.":  A  Simple  Book  of  Instruc-j 

tion  in  the  Use  of  Silver  Printing  Out  Paper.     (Svo,>  The  Publishers.. 

London,  1902) ) 

Sparrow,   F.  W.,  The  Principles  of  Simple  Photography.\  „,,     p  J7.  , 

(Svo,  London,  1902) J  l lie  ruoiislier*. 

Wall,  E.  J.,   The   Dictionary  of  Photography.     Sth  ed.,\  m,     d  tt-j, 

revised  by  Thos.  Bolas.     (Svo,  London,  1902)      ..      ..  f  ±He  Publishers. 

Board  of  Agriculture.     Beports  of  Proceedings  under  thel  The  Secretary  to  the 

-12)/ 


Diseases  of  Animals  Acts,  &c,  1901.  (Svo,  London,  1902)/    Board  of  Agriculture 
British  Association.     Report  1901.     (Svo,  London,  1902)  ..  Mr.  Frank  Crisp. 

Microscope  by  Gary,  with  Varley  Stage        {"u&CtowSX* 

An  old  Microscope  which  belonged  to  Mr.  Geo.  Jackson,  a)       „r     T  T      T    7 

former  President  of  the  Society        /       ™r.  John  Jackson. 


Mr.  C.  F.  Rousselet  said  that  the  old  Microscope  presented  by  Mr. 
John  Jackson,  of  Torquay,  was  interesting  as  having  ibeen  made  by  his 
father,  the  late  Dr.  George  Jackson,  who  was  one  of  the  Founders  and 
a  former  President  of  the  Society  (in  1852-3),  and  as  being  the  proto- 
type of  what  was  known  as  the  Jackson-Lister  Model.  It  would  be 
noticed  that  the  brass  limb  was  in  one  piece,  which  was  grooved  down 
the  centre,  having  been  ploughed  in  one  cut,  and  the  body,  stage,  and 
substage  all  moved  in  this  groove.  The  motion  of  the  body  and  sub- 
stage  was  effected  by  rack-and-pinion  by  milled  heads  placed  vertically 
at  the  back  of  the  limb,  whilst  the  stage  was  moved  by  a  fine  micro- 
meter screw  which  acted  as  the  fine  adjustment.  It  was  fitted  with  a 
mechanical  stage,  and  had  three  object-glasses,  two  eye-pieces,  a  micro- 
meter eye-piece,  and  other  accessories.     Though  the  instrument  itself 

December  17th,  1002  3  o 


722  PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE   SOCIETY. 

was  made  by  Dr.  George  Jackson,  the  optical  portion,  object-glasses, 
and  eye-pieces  were  the  work  of  Mr.  James  Smith.  The  Society  was 
greatly  indebted  to  Mr.  John  Jackson  for  this  very  interesting  present. 


Dr.  Hebb  said  the  Microscope  which  had  been  presented  to  the 
Society  by  Mr.  Waters  and  his  sister,  Miss  Celia  Waters,  was  made  by 
Cary,  and  was  believed  by  Mr.  Waters  to  be  at  least  60  years  old.  It 
was  fitted  with  Varley  and  Sons'  Lever  Stage,  the  upper  plate  of  which 
bad  its  movement  controlled  by  an  ingenious  parallel  motion  placed 
below  it.  A  Varley  Microscope,  having  a  stage  constructed  on  this 
principle,  is  figured  in  QueJcett  on  the  Microscope,  1848. 


Messrs.  Elliott  Bros,  sent  a  Class  Microscope  for  exhibition,  which 
was  passed  round  for  the  inspection  of  the  Fellows  present. 

On  the  Motion  of  the  President,  a  cordial  vote  of  thanks  was  passed 
to  the  donors  of  these  instruments  and  of  the  other  presents  to  the 
Society,  and  to  Messrs.  Elliott  Bros,  for  their  exhibit. 


The  President  said  they  were  to  be  favoured  that  evening  with  what 
he  was  sure  would  be  a  most  interesting  demonstration  by  Prof.  Bonney 
1  On  Rock  Changes  in  Nature's  Laboratory,'  and  the  Society  was  much 
indebted  to  Prof.  Bonney  for  giving  them  his  valuable  time  on  that 
occasion. 

Prof.  Bonney  said  he  would  commence  his  remarks  by  a  few  ex- 
planatory words,  because  he  thought  that  the  subject  upon  which  he  was 
going  to  speak  might  perhaps  lie  a  little  outside  the  range  of  those 
which  usually  came  under  the  notice  of  the  Society.  The  changes 
which  took  place  in  nature  were  brought  about  by  the  operation  of  three 
great  agencies,  water,  pressure,  and  heat,  only  here  their  action  went  on 
much  more  slowly  than  any  process  which  we  were  obliged  to  adopt, 
Nature  not  being  cramped  for  time  or  limited  to  threescore  years  and 
ten.  We  could  apply  heat,  for  instance,  and  could  melt  a  portion  of 
rock,  and  by  its  fusion  produce  a  glass,  but  Nature,  working  slowly, 
could  crystallise  these  substances  in  a  way  which  we  could  not.  The 
three  forces  seldom  acted  entirely  apart  from  each  other,  often  two,  and 
sometimes  all  three,  working  together.  For  example,  a  layer  of  ordinary 
mud  depressed  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  covered  up  with  similar 
material,  is  subjected  to  pressure.  The  weight  of  about  12  ft.  of 
average  rock  is  roughly  that  of  one  atmosphere,  whilst  the  earth  tem- 
perature is  known  to  increase  at  the  rate  of  about  1°  for  every  60  ft. 
of  descent.  So  that  a  layer  of  Thames  mud  when  buried  under  3000  ft. 
of  similar  material  would  be  subject  to  a  pressure  of  250  atmospheres, 
and  have  its  temperature  raised  50°,  or  twice  its  present  average 
amount.  Commonly,  however,  some  one  of  these  forces  was  dominant, 
but  in  other  cases  each  has  dominated  in  its  turn.  In  the  district  of 
Skiddaw,  for  instance,  the  slaty  rock  has  been  heated  by  intrusive 
granite,  but  at  Glendalough,  in  Wicklow,  the  granite  came  first,  and 
then  pressure  acted  and  forced  the  altered  rock  to  assume  a  slaty  con- 
dition.    Tho  subject  he  had  chosen  was  a  rather  wide  one,  and  he  there- 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  SOCIETY.  723 

fore  proposed  to  limit  his  remarks  to  three  kinds  of  rocks — the  Sandy, 
the  Muddy,  and  the  Calcareous.  To  begin  quite  at  the  outset,  he  ought 
to  show  them  the  materials  themselves — sand,  mud,  and  pounded  shell ; 
but  he  proposed  to  pass  over  these,  and  give  some  illustrations  of  the 
rocks  formed  from  them  by  means  of  sections  of  such  rocks  shown  upon 
the  screen.  It  would  have  made  these  sections  more  conclusive  if  they 
had  been  shown  by  polarised  light,  the  effect  of  which  might  be  com- 
pared to  that  of  a  coloured  map  as  contrasted  with  the  same  only  in 
outline.  This,  however,  involved  so  much  loss  of  light,  that  he  had 
decided  not  to  use  it. 

In  illustration  of  the  effects  of  water,  a  section  was  shown  of  in- 
durated organic  sand  from  the  Torres  Straits — probably  a  comparatively 
modern  rock — in  which  the  various  materials  comprising  it  were 
cemented  together  by  very  small  crystals  of  calcite  ;  this  was  followed 
by  a  section  of  a  more  ancient  limestone  rock.  A  section  of  sandstone, 
consisting  of  grains  of  quartz,  was  then  exhibited,  showing  how  the 
material  was  cemented  by  the  deposition  of  minutely  crystalline  quartz, 
probably  brought  about  by  the  action  of  water.  Next  he  exhibited  a 
piece  of  hardened  mud-stone  of  great  age. 

As  regarded  the  effects  of  pressure,  it  was  pointed  out  that  when  a 
quantity  of  flakes  were  pressed  together  they  arranged  themselves 
parallel,  and  gave  rise  to  cleavage,  but  if  a  solid  body  consisting  of 
fair-sized  grains,  like  a  granite,  was  thus  acted  upon,  it  was  either 
crushed  or  sheared.  The  solvent  power  of  water  was  also  increased  by 
pressure,  so  that  when  felspar  was  crushed,  water  partially  dissolved  it, 
and  when  the  pressure  was  removed  some  of  the  constituents  went  back 
into  mineral  form,  but  as  it  had  generally  lost  some  of  its  alkalies,  it 
then  commonly  took  the  form  of  mica.  In  illustration  of  the  effects  of 
pressure,  a  large  number  of  sections  were  shown,  and  the  special  features 
in  each  pointed  out.  These  included  granite  from  Wicklow,  an  un- 
crushed  rock  formed  of  two  kinds  of  felspar  and  two  kinds  of  mica ; 
granite  from  Brittany  which  had  been  subjected  to  greater  pressure,  and 
two  specimens  considerably  more  crushed ;  hard  felspathic  sandstone 
from  N.W.  Scotland,  which  had  been  exposed  to  various  degrees  of 
pressure,  and  quartzite  from  the  same  under  similar  conditions ;  slate 
from  the  Ardennes,  consisting  of  mud  blackened  by  carbonaceous  matter ; 
and  slate  from  the  Isle  of  Man,  exhibiting,  secondary,  or  "  strain-slip  " 
cleavage.  As  illustrating  the  changes  chiefly  due  to  heat,  a  further 
series  of  sections  was  exhibited,  including  specimens  with  Chiastolites, 
Andalusites,  brown  mica,  &c,  from  Skiddaw  and  Brittany.  Other  sec- 
tions showed  examples  of  changes  produced  by  heat  in  calcareous  rocks, 
including  two  from  Montreal,  in  one  of  which  the  remains  of  fossils 
could  be  traced,  while  from  the  other  they  had  disappeared  in  the  re- 
crystallisation  of  the  calcite. 

The  series  was  concluded  by  the  exhibition  of  a  set  of  three  speci- 
mens of  rocks,  the  past  history  of  which  was  not  at  present  perfectly 
clear,  the  first  of  these  showing  the  effect  of  puckering  by  pressure,  and 
the  others  exhibiting  secondary  cleavage  structure,  with  re-crystallisa- 
tion. Prof.  Bonney  expressed  the  hope  that  he  had  been  able  to  show, 
by  the  action  of  the  three  influences  referred  to,  that  the  nature  of  rocks 
might  be  entirely  changed,  and   that  a  rock  which  began  from   mud 

3  o  2 


724  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

might  bo  changed  into  crystalline  rock  like  mica  schist,  and  that 
the  process  had  been,  and  indeed  was  still,  going  on  with  exceeding 
slowness.  The  rock  sections  with  which  the  demonstration  was  illus- 
trated were  shown  upon  the  screen  with  great  brilliancy  and  sharpness, 
although  very  highly  magnified,  by  means  of  Messrs.  Zeiss'  "  Epidia- 
scope." 

The  President  said  that  after  the  applause  which  followed  the  con- 
clusion of  Prof.  Bonney's  remarks,  it  was  hardly  necessary  to  assure  the 
author  of  their  appreciation  and  their  thanks.  Nothing  could  have 
been  more  delightful  than  to  see  such  a  beautiful  series  of  slides,  and  to 
have  them  explained  so  intelligibly.  It  must  certainly  lead  those  who 
had  been  present  to  think  and  observe  for  themselves,  and  desire  to 
know  more  about  the  microscopic  structure  of  rocks.  They  had  been 
shown  how  those  who  were  able  to  prepare  and  study  rock  sections  for 
themselves  could,  by  this  means,  trace  the  changes  which  had  taken 
place  from  the  effect  of  greater  and  greater  pressure,  heat,  and  con- 
tortion. He  did  not  know  anything  more  likely  to  impress  them  than 
what  they  had  seen  and  heard  that  evening,  and  they  desired  to  express- 
their  indebtedness  to  Prof.  Bonney  for  the  able  manner  in  which  he  had 
explained  tho  meaning  of  these  very  beautiful  slides. 

A  hearty  vote  of  thanks  to  Prof.  Bonney  was  unanimously  passed. 


The  following  Objects,  Instruments,  &c,  were  exhibited  :— 

The  Society  : — An  Old  Microscope  mado  by  Cary,  fitted  with 
Varley  and  Sons'  Stage.  An  Old  Microscope,  made  by  Dr.  Geo.  Jackson, 
seventh  President  of  the  Society. 

Dr.  E.  G.  Hebb:— A  German  "  Class"  Microscope,  lent  by  Messrs. 
Elliott  Bros. 

Prof.  Rev.  Canon  T.  G.  Bonney  : — Slides  of  Rock  Sections  projected 
ou  the  screen,  illustrating  his  Demonstration. 


New    Fellow.  —  The  following  was  elected  an   Ordinary   Fellow 
Mr.  Josiah  Beddow. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  19th  of  November,  1902,  at  20  Hanovek  Square,  W„ 
Dr.  Henry  Woodward,  F.R  S.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  15th  of  October,  1902,  were  read 
and  confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  President. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society  (exclusive  of  exchanges  and 
reprints),  received  since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of 
the  Society  were  voted  to  the  donors. 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY.  725 

From 

Bagshaw,    Walter,    Elementary    Photomicrography.       (Svo,!  ,™  g  Author 

London,  1902)        ) 

Hardesty,  Irving,  Neurological  Technique.   (8vo,  Chicago  audi  theVniverdtvof 

London,  1902)        |  Chicago  Pre  J 

Mann,  Gustav,  Physiological  Histology.     (8vo,  Oxford,  1902){  tJcl^elZnPrL. 

Board  of  Agriculture.      Report  on  Distribution  of  Grants,\  The  Board 

1901-2.     (8vo,  London,  1902)     )  of  Agriculture. 

Internationale  Monatschrift  fiir  Anatomic  mid  Physiologic)  „,,     F,-. 

Bd.  xix.  Heft  1-12.    (8 vo,  Leipzig,  1902)         /  *neM.auor. 


The  President  said  they  were  to  be  favoured  that  evening  with  a 
demonstration  on  '  The  Microscope  in  Fossil  Botany,'  and  he  could  not 
say  how  much  he  felt  indebted  to  Dr.  Scott  for  coming  there  to  give 
them  this,  which  he  was  quite  sure  would  prove  to  be  a  paper  of  very 
great  interest. 

Dr.  D.  H.  Scott  said  that  when  the  President  asked  him  to  give  to 
the  Society  some  account  of  the  structure  of  fossil  plants  ho  was  proud 
to  agree  to  do  so,  but  when  he  remembered  that  a  paper  had  been  read 
by  their  late  President  on  a  similar  subject  he  felt  himself  in  a  some- 
what difficult  position  in  having  to  follow  one  who  was  so  high  an 
authority  on  these  questions.     He  thought,  however,  that  he  might  also 
•congratulate  himself  on  the  fact  that  after  so  able  an  exposition  on  that 
occasion,  those  who  were  then  present  already  had  some  acquaintance 
with  the  subject,  so  that  there  would  be  no  need  for  him  to  touch  on 
the  general  history  of  fossil  botany.      The   particular   department  of 
palseontological  research  concerned  with  the  structure  of  plants  was  one 
•of  comparatively  modern  origin.     Of  course  fossil  wood,  which  was  the 
most  familiar  example  of  vegetable  remains  with  structure  preserved,  had 
been  known  for  a  long  time,  but  anything  like  a  scientific  study,  with 
the  idea  of  investigating  the  organisation  of  fossil  plants,  was  scarcely 
attempted  until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.     Among  the 
earliest  specimens  to  attract  attention  were  those  curious  examples  from 
Saxony,  the  "  Staarsteine  "  or  Psaronii,  which  are  the  silicified  stems  of 
tree-ferns.     Bernard  Cotta  in  1832,  and  Witham  of  Lartington  in  1833 
almost  simultaneously  published  accounts  of  what  they  had  discovered  : 
in   "Witham's  work  great  assistance  was  given  by  Nicol,  who  cut  the 
sections,  and  by  Macgillivray,  who  acted  as  artist.     Later  on  Brongniart 
in  France,  who  had  already  begun  his  classical  investigation  of  fossil 
plants,  turned  his  attention  to  this  branch  of  the  subject.     His  mono- 
graph on  Sigillaria  elegans  (1839)  is  a  model  of  what  such  a  work  should 
be  ;  he  placed  the  whole  subject  on  a  sound  basis,  and  did  more  for 
fossil  botany  than  any  one  previously. 

In  England,  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  and,  at  a  later  date,  Binney  likewise 
made  important  contributions  to  structural  fossil  botany,  while  no  one 
had  done  more  for  the  subject  than  Kenault  in  France,  or  Solms-Laubach 
in  Germany.  He  hardly  needed  to  refer  to  the  work  of  the  late  Presi- 
dent of  the  Society,  or  to  that  of  Prof.  Williamson  who  had  published 
so  magnificent  a  series  of  researches  on  the  fossil  plants  of  the  coal 
measures.  It  was  peifectly  plain  to  anyone  who  knew  anything  of 
botany,  that  there  was  a  wide  difference  between  a  knowledge  of  the 


726  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

external  forms  of  plants  and  a  study  of  their  internal  structure.  Those 
fossil  remains  of  plants  with  which  the  casual  observer  was  most 
.  familiar,  showed  little  or  nothing  of  their  internal  structure,  and  it  was 
only  when  we  came  to  the  petrified  remains,  where  the  plants  had  their 
tissues  thoroughly  impregnated  with  lime  or  other  mineral  matter,  that 
the  structure  could  be  studied.  Broadly  speaking,  specimens  exhibiting 
external  form  showed  no  structure,  and  vice  versa.  Most  of  the  British 
coal-measure  material  which  was  of  value  in  these  investigations  occurred 
in  the  form  of  calcareous  nodules  imbedded  in  certain  mines  in  the  coal 
itself ;  these  concretions  were  simply  crammed  with  vegetable  remains 
which  had  been  prevented  by  petrifaction  from  becoming  reduced  to 
coal.  In  the  French  Carboniferous  deposits  the  preserving  agent  had 
for  the  most  part  been  silica. 

Dr.  Scott  then  proceeded  to  demonstrate  the  structure  of  some 
Carboniferous  plants  by  the  exhibition  of  a  fine  series  of  photographs 
shown  on  the  screen  by  the  Epidiascope,  first  showing,  in  each  family 
dealt  with,  some  examples  of  external  habit,  and  then  going  on  to  sec- 
tions exhibiting  the  internal  structure.  The  first  group  taken  was  the 
Calamariese,  which  have  much  in  common  with  the  modern  Horse-tails. 
In  sections  of  the  cones  the  spores  were  well  seen  in  the  sporangia. 
The  heterosporous  nature  of  the  fructification  was  pointed  out  in  some 
examples,  from  which  and  from  various  other  points  in  their  organisation 
it  was  concluded  that  these  plants  attained  a  higher  grade  of  differen- 
tiation than  their  present  representatives.  The  series  further  included 
examples  of  stems  and  cones  of  the  Sphenophylleae,  a  group  in  some 
respects  intermediate  between  Horse-tails  and  Clubmosses ;  also  of  the 
Palaeozoic  LycopodiaceaD  (Lepidodendron  and  Bothrodendron),  in  which 
the  cell-structure  and  details  of  the  fructification  were  remarkably  well 
shown.  He  also  exhibited  under  a  number  of  Microscopes  on  the  table 
many  of  the  actual  sections,  from  some  of  which  the  lantern  photo- 
graphs had  been  taken,  and  mentioned  that  the  chief  difficulty  he  had 
experienced  in  the  matter  was  in  making  a  selection  from  the  large 
amount  of  material  available.  He  had  purposely  limited  himself  to  a 
few  groups  of  Palaeozoic  plants. 

The  President  said  he  was  sure  it  would  be  unnecessary,  after  the 
way  in  which  they  had  received  Dr.  Scott's  communication,  to  ask  if 
they  desired  to  thank  him  for  it.  He  (Dr.  Scott)  had  very  wisely  given 
them  an  account  of  two  extinct  types  of  fossil  plants,  in  which  the  ex- 
ternal form  and  the  internal  structure,  both  of  which  had  been  preserved  in 
a  fossil  state,  had  been  shown  on  the  screen  and  explained,  and  it  would 
no  doubt  be  the  opinion  of  the  Meeting  that  this  had  been  done  in  a 
very  complete  manner  by  the  author.  A  point  which  was  of  great 
interest  to  them  was  that  the  specimens  they  had  been  looking  at  were 
the  actual  sections  of  fossil  plants,  and  not  things  which  were  what 
was  called  "  faked  up  "  ;  and  therefore  they  could  not  fail  to  afford  the 
greatest  interest.  He  was  quite  sure  that  Dr.  Scott  could  give  them  a 
dozen  evenings  of  this  kind,  as  there  were  many  other  formations  beside 
the  coal  measures  in  which  the  microscopic  structure  of  plants  has  been 
met  with,  all  of  which  were  very  familiar  to  him.  He  desired  to  con- 
vey, on  behalf  of  the  Fellows  of  the  Society,  their  very  best  thanks 
to  Dr.  Scott  for  his  interesting  and  instructive  demonstration. 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY.  727 

Mr.  Edmund  J.  Spitta  then  gave  a  demonstration  on  "  An  Apparatus 
for  obtaining  Monochromatic  Light  with  a  Mixed  Jet."  He  commenced 
by  reminding  the  Fellows  that  resolution  of  minute  structure  depended 
upon  two  functions, — the  numerical  aperture  of  the  objective  and  the 
wave-length  of  the  light  employed ;  and  since  numerical  aperture  had 
now  reached  its  limit,  at  least  so  far  as  existing  knowledge  led  us  to 
see,  it  was  clear  that  any  further  advance  for  increasing  resolution 
must  be  looked  for  in  the  direction  of  the  quality  of  the  light,  which 
must  be  monochromatic  and  of  the  shortest  possible  wave-length.  At- 
tempts to  obtain  monochromatic  blue  light  by  means  of  glass  screens 
had  failed  beause  blue  glass  of  whatever  quality  he  had  tried  always 
allowed  other  colours  also  to  pass,  usually  red,  and  so  prevented  the 
light  being  purely  monochromatic. 

Though  this  was  considered  by  some  as  not  so  very  important  in 
photography,  if  the  plates  used  were  not  orthochromatic,  still  it  was 
sufficiently  disturbing  to  prohibit  the  accuracy  of  focus  for  the  demands 
of  study,  when  the  Microscope  was  visually  use-1.  Screens  consisting 
of  liquid  solutions  had  also  been  tried,  but  though  by  this  means  it  was 
possible  to  obtain  monochromatic  blue  light,  it  was  found  to  be  too  faint 
for  use  when  employing  a  mixed  jet.  A  portion  of  the  spectrum  from  a 
prism  seemed  more  promising ;  but  this  required  the  apparatus  to  be 
arranged  in  a  semicircular  fashion  and  so  rendered  it  unsuitable,  in 
addition  to  which  the  amount  of  light  available  was  very  small  and 
the  beam  very  narrow — too  narrow  indeed  to  fill  the  field  of  a  homo- 
geneous one-twelfth. 

The  diffraction  spectrum  reflected  from  a  grating — a  series  of  fine 
lines  ruled  on  a  metal  surface — was  open  also  to  the  objection  that  the 
light  could  not  be  used  "  direct."  About  four  years  ago,  however, 
Mr.  Thorpe  showed  at  the  Eoyal  Society's  soiree  some  replicas  off 
diffraction  gratings  made  by  coating  the  metal  with  a  thin  film  of 
celloidin  or  some  such  substance,  which  when  removed  exhibited  an 
exact  reproduction  of  the  rulings,  and  consequently  of  the  diffraction 
colours,  but  with  this  very  great  advantage,  viz.  that  the  spectrum  could, 
be  seen  through  the  replica  as  it  was  so  transparent.  At  that  time  it 
was  difficult  to  get  a  perfect  film  off  a  large  enough  grating  to  be  of 
any  service  for  the  subject  in  hand,  but  now  Mr.  Thorpe  was  able  to 
make  them  lj  in.  square.  Moreover,  he  had  lately  achieved  mounting 
them  on  corrective  glass  prisms  cut  to  the  proper  angle,  so  that  any 
single  colour  of  special  wave-length  could  be  used  "  direct,"  which  at 
once  did  away  with  the  objection  of  having  to  arrange  the  apparatus 
in  a  semicircular  fashion. 

Mr.  Spitta  then  explained  by  a  diagram  on  the  screen  how  he 
arranged  his  apparatus,  pointing  out  the  position  of  the  collective  con- 
denser, the  use  of  the  collimator,  and  how  the  Microscope  was  placed. 
He  also  spoke  of  the  importance  of  using  critical  light  and  how  it  was 
to  be  obtained.  It  was  pointed  out  from  the  study  of  Abbe's  law  of 
resolution  to  be  an  obvious  conclusion,  that  as  red  light  consisted  of 
about  30,000  waves  to  the  inch  and  blue  light  of  about  60,000,  the 
resolving  power  of  an  objective  used  with  the  latter  would  be  just 
double  that  obtainable  by  the  use  of  the  former  wave-length. 

Three  photographs  of  Ampliipleura  pclhieida  were  then  thrown  on 


728  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

the  screen,  the  first  to  show  the  ordinary  transverse  lines,  the  second 
taken  with  a  Gifford's  F  line  (green)  screen  to  try  and  resolve  the  dots 
which  were  only  faintly  visible,  and  the  third  with  the  use  of  mono- 
chromatic blue  light  obtained  with  the  apparatus  in  question,  which 
showed  the  same  diatom  clearly  resolved  in  dots.  Mr.  Spitta  con- 
sidered further  remarks  were  unnecessary  seeing  the  hour  they  had 
reached,  save  perhaps  that  the  apparatus  was  on  view  in  the  adjoining 
room  where  the  Amphipleura  would  be  shown  resolved  in  the  manner 
he  had  explained. 

_  The  President  said  they  were  extremely  indebted  to  Mr.  Spitta  for 
this  demonstration,  and  intimated  that  the  apparatus  which  he  had  de- 
scribed would  be  exhibited  in  the  adjoining  room  at  the  close  of  the 
Meeting. 

Mr.  Conrady  said  that  having  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  appara- 
tus, and  the  result  obtained  by  its  means,  he  should  like  to  congratulate 
Mr.  Spitta  on  the  successful  result  of  the  perseverance  with  which  he 
had  followed  up  the  problem  of  Amphipleura  pellucida  until  he  had  at 
last  succeeded  in  resolving  it  into  clear  unmistakable  dots. 

A  hearty  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Spitta  was  then  unanimously  passed. 

_  A  paper  by  Dr.  P.  E.  Shaw  on  '  An  Electrical  Method  of  Taking 
Microscopic  Measurements '  was  on  the  Agenda,  but  in  the  absence  of 
the  author  it  was  not  read  in  extenso.  A  diagram  of  the  apparatus 
drawn  on  the  board  was  briefly  explained  by  Dr.  Hebb,  and  the  thanks 
of  the  Meeting  were  voted  to  Dr.  Shaw  for  his  communication. 


On  the  motion  of  the  President,  a  vote  of  thanks  was  also  cordially 
accorded  to  Messrs.  Watson  and  Sons  for  the  loan  of  a  large  number  of 
Microscopes,  by  means  of  which  Dr.  Scott's  preparations  were  shown  in 
the  room. 

The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  &c,  were  exhibited  :— 
Dr.  Dukinfield  H.  Scott : — The  following  sections  of  Fossil  Plants 
illustrating  his  paper.  Catamites  communis,  young  stem,  transv.  sect, 
showing  pith,  wood,  remains  of  phloem,  and  cortex  ;  Catamites  sp., 
minute  twig,  transv.  sect,  showing  ring  of  vascular  bundles  and  cortex  ; 
C.  communis,  long.  sect,  of  stem  showing  wood  and  diaphragms  at 
nodes ;  C.  communis,  tang.  sect,  of  wood,  near  pith,  showing  node  and 
base  of  a  branch  ;  Calamitcs  sp.,  showing  leaves  of  small  twigs  in 
transv.  sect.;  Calamites  sp.,  minute  rootlet,  transv.  sect,  showing  young 
stele,  double  endodermis,  and  lacunar  cortex  ;  Calamostachys  Binneyana, 
transv.  sect,  showing  axis,  peltate  scales,  sporangia,  and  spores ;  C.  Bin- 
neyana, transv.  sect,  of  cone  showing  whorl  of  bracts ;  C.  Binneyana, 
long.  sect,  of  cone  showing  bracts  alternating  with  peltate  scales,  bear- 
ing sporangia ;  C.  Binneyana,  long.  sect,  of  cone  showing  axis,  bracts, 
peltate  scales,  sporangia,  and  spores  ;  Sphenophyllum plurifoliatum,  transv. 
sect,  of  stem  showing  primary  and  secondary  wood,  phloem,  periderm, 
and  remains  of  cortex ;  S.  plurifoliatum,  long.  sect,  of  stem  showing 
structure  of  wood  and  periderm  ;  S.  Dawsoni,  long.  sect,  of  cone  showing 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY.  729 

bracts,  pedicels,  sporangia,  and  spores  ;  S.  Daicsoni,  long.  Beet,  showing 
axis,  bracts,  &c. ;  Lepidodendron  selaginoides,  transv.  sect,  of  stem  show- 
ing wood,  phloem,  inner  and  outer  cortex,  periderm,  and  leaf-bases ; 
L.  selaginoides,  transv.  sect,  of  stem  showing  primary  and  secondary 
wood,  cortex,  and  periderm  ;  L.  selaginoides,  long.  sect,  of  advanced  stem 
showing  same  features  as  previous  slide  ;  Bothrodendron  mundum,  transv. 
sect,  of  bifurcating  stem  showing  the  two  steles  already  separated  by 
the  cortex ;  Lepidostrobus  Veltheimianus,  transv.  sect,  of  cone  through 
microspore  region,  showing  axis  surrounded  by  microsporangia  ;  L.  Velt- 
heimianus, transv.  sect,  of  cone  through  megaspore  region,  showing  axis 
surrounded  by  megasporangia ;  L.  Veltheimianus,  long.  sect,  of  cone, 
almost  complete,  showing  microsporangia  only ;  Spencerites  insignis, 
transv.  sect,  of  cone  showing  axis  surrounded  by  sporangia  containing 
winged  spores ;  Lepidocarpon  Wildianum,  section  of  "  seed,"  the  interior 
of  which  is  partly  filled  by  the  prothallus ;  Lepidocarpon  Lomaxi, 
section  of  "  seed,"  the  interior  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  prothallus  ; 
Fern-sporangia,  sorus  consisting  of  mauy  sporangia  showing  annulus 
and  containing  spores ;  Lyginodendron  Oldhamium,  transv.  sect,  of  stem 
showing  pith,  primary  and  secondary  wood,  phloem,  leaf-trace  bundles, 
and  cortex. 

Mr.  Edmund  J.  Spitta  : — Apparatus  for  obtaining  Monochromatic 
Light  with  an  ordinary  mixed  jet ;  Amphipleura  pellucida  shown  under 
the  Microscope  with  monochromatic  light  obtained  by  above  apparatus. 


New  Fellows  : — The  Eight  Hon.  Lord  Kayleigh  was  elected  an 
Honorary  Fellow.  The  following  were  elected  Ordinary  Fellows: — 
Messrs.  George  Chandler  Whipple  and  J.  Hilliard  Johnson. 


730 


INDEX  OF  NEW  BIOLOGICAL  TERMS,  OE  OLD  TERMS  WITH 
NEW  MEANINGS,  RECORDED  IN  THIS  VOLUME. 


ZOOLOGY. 


Accessory  chromosome,  McClung,  41 

Adiaphorogenetic,  Hallez,  51 

Atncebula,  Lankcster,  440 

Ancestrula,  Jullien,  652 

Apobatic  phototaxis,  Rothert,  31 

Archseocytes,  Ijima,  562 

Bionic  value,  Williams,  546 

Chloragosomes,  Rosa,  64S 

"  Cliromatophores,"  in  a  new  sense,  Adachi, 

296 
Compensation-sac.  Harmer,  651 
Cryptocyst,  Harmer,  652 
Diplosomes,  Zimmermann,  170 
Eleutherorhabdic,  Ridewood,  641 
Enha3mospore,  Lankester,  440 
Environmental  variations,  Ewart,  533 
Excretophores,  Burger,  649 
Exotospore,  Lankester,  440 
Faunule,  Williams,  546 
Female  eggs,  Beard,  534 
"  Forms,"  in  classification,  Bernard,  630 
Gemmule-larva  or  Bud-embryo,  Ijima,  562 
Gynandromorphy,  Kohl,  40 
Ilomere,  Blackmail,  182 
Karyotaxis,  Broman,  162 


Male  eggs,  Beard,  534 
Matricidal  epitoky,  Bohn,  49 
Metamp,  Bidder,  190 
Microcentrotaxis,  Broman,  162 
Microthorax,  Verhoeff,  643 
Monochorial  twins,  Rosner,  159 
Osmotic  pseudogamy,  Ariola,  2S9 
Puraspermatozoids,  Van  Lint,  535 
Parova,  Van  Lint,  535 
Peristorae-funuel,  Friedemann,  310 
Photokinetic,  Nagel,  32 
Phototropism  and  Phototaxis,  more  precise 

use,  Nagel,  31 
Primitivknoten,  Mitrophanow,  294 
Pseudogamy,  Ariola,  299 
Pseudochromosomes,  d'Hollander,  632 
Pseudothyroidea,  Mayer,  539 
Renovation,  Wahl,  42 
Reticular  apparatus,  Golgi,  635 
Soleuocytes,  Goodrich,  298 
Stereotaxis,  Buller.  536 
Synandry,  Giard,  551 
Synaptorhabdic,  Ride  wool,  641 
Vermicule,  Lankester,  440 


BOTANY. 


Achroocyst,  Arbaumont,  62 
Amylogen,  Syniewski,  63 
Apolar,  Bertrand  and  Cornaille,  78 
Archimycetes,  Marpmann,  463 
Boletol,  Bertrand,  222 
Chlorite,  Arbaumont,  62 
Cyanocysr,  Arbaumont,  62 
Dhurrin,  Dumtan  and  Henry,  566 
Endochlorite,  Arbaumont,  62 
Epiachenes,  Villari,  571 
Excoecarin,  Perkiu  and  Briggs,  443 
Gyrnnochlorite,  Arbaumont,  62 
Heterodynamic,  Correns,  200 
Homodynamic,  Correns,  200 


Homoogonous,  Correns,  201 
Hypoachenes.  Villari,  571 
Jacaraudin,  Perkin  and  Briggs,  443 
Karyoplastic-cell,  Heydrich,  5S3 
Lotusin,  Dunstan  and  Henry,  658j| 
Manneotetrose,  Tauret,  567 
Manninotetrose,  Tauret,  567 
Periacbenes,  Villari,  571 
Plasmoptysis,  Fischer,  34S 
Protospore-cell,  Heydrich,  5S3 
Saponarin,  Barger,  568 
Schizoogonous.  Correns,  201 
Scutellarin,  Molisch,  315 
Spherulin,  Petit,  194 


731 


INDEX. 


Abbe  Drawing  Camera,  105 

Abbott,  — .,  Lesions  produced  by  Acid- 
resisting  Bacilli,  480 

Ab^olon,  C.,  New  Moravian  Cave-Insect, 
429 

Abysmal  Antarctic  Fauna,  35 

Abyssal  and  Plankton  Fauna  around 
Capri,  297 

Acacia,  Peculiar  Stages  of  Foliage,  658 

Acantbias,  Eye-Muscles,  539 

Acautbodians  and  Cestracionts,  Carboni- 
ferous, 547 

Acarid,  Limbless,  645 

Acarids,  South  American,  183 

Acetylene  Gas  for  the  Lantern,  490 

—  Illuminator  for  the  Lantern,  389 
Achalme's  Bacillus  of  Acute  Rheumatism 

and  the  Bacillus  enteritidis  sporogenes, 
Probable  Identity,  93 
Achenes,  Structure,  571 
Achromatic  Combination,  the  Lister,  17 
Acid-fuchsin     Staining     for     Degenerate 
Nerve-Fibres,  501 

resisting  Bacilli  in  Gangrene,  226 

Acids,  Carbonic  and  other,  Reactions  of 
Infusorians  to,  191 

—  Distribution  in  Plants,  63 
Acinetines,  Structure,  507 
Ackermann,   A.,    Structure   and    Herma- 
phroditism of  Cucumaria  laevigata,  653 

Acorn,  Microscopic  Characters  of  Fruit- 
Envelopes,  321 

Acrasiese,  462 

Actmians  of  Porto  Rico,  562 

Actinomucor  repens,  589 

Actinomyces  asteroides,  599 

Actinotrocha,  Notes,  435 

AiJachi,  B.,  Skin  Pigment  in  Man  and 
Monkeys,  296 

Arklario,  C,  Matrix  of  Vitreous  Humour 
in  tiie  Eye  of  Man  and  Animals,  296 

Adductors  in  Anodonta  grandis,  Variation 
in  Position,  641 

Adt-e,  A.  A.,  Hastings  Apochromat,  236 

Aderhold,  R.,  Clasterosporium  carpo{Jti- 
lum,  589 

—  New  Species  of  Venturia,  466 
Adhesion-Cultures,  372 


Adil-Bey,  Cattle  Plague,  381 
Adjustment,  Fine,  Berger's,  610 

Males-Watson  Two-speed,  609 

New  Two-speed,  506 

Swift's  "  Ariston,"  698 

—  for  Microscope,  607 

—  of  Projection  Microscope,  Moll's  Appa- 

ratus for,  362 
Admetus  pumilio,  Development,  430 
JEolosoma  tenebrarum,  Notes  on,  186 
Agarics,  European,  594 
"  Ageing  "  of  the  Embryo  of  Grasses,  204 
Aggazzotti,  A.,  Nerve-Endings  in  Striped 

Muscle  of  Insects,  644 
Agglutination  of  Bacteria,  89 

—  of  Tubercle  Bacillus,  348 

—  of  Vibrios,  228 

—  Reaction  Results,  Interpretation,  228 
Agglutins,  Formation,  227 

Ahrens,  F.B.,  Fermentation  without  Cells, 

75 
Aijrner,  A.,  Epithelium  of  Epididymis  in 

Mammals,  163 
Air-roois  of  Avicennia  tomentosa,  446 
Albinism  in  Plants,  670 
Albrecht's  Microscope  lor  Measuring  Plant- 
Growth,  358 

—  Objective-Carriers,  237 

Albugo,  Gametogenesis  and  Fertilisation, 

S3 
Alcock,  A.,  Toxic  Properties  of  Saliva  of 

certain  Non-poisonous  Colubrines,  638 
Alcohol,  Action  on  Germination  of  somo 
Seeds,  575 

—  Influence  on  Natural  Immunity,  91 
Alcijonium  digitatum,  Structure,  189 
Aleurone-Grains  in  Oily  Seeds,  442 
Allen,  C.  E.,  Middle  Lamella  of  Cells,  61 
Algaj,  British  Marine,  585 

—  Fresh-water,  of  Ceylon,  5S4 
of  Switzerland,  461 

—  from  Caroline  Islands,  213 

—  Japanese  Marine,  679 

—  Marine,  of  Iceland,  461 
of  the  Mediterranean,  679 

—  New  Genus,  Pseudenclouium,  82 

—  Nitrates    and   the  Carbon-Assimilalion 

of,  204 

—  Notes  on  some  Fresh-water,  584 

—  of  Jamaica,  335 


•32 


INDEX. 


Algae  of  Harriman  Alabka  Expedition,  58.1 

—  of  Verona,  335 
District,  585 

— .     See  Contents,  xxvii 
Alga-like  Fern-prothallus,  329 
Algascope,  Zeiss'  Improved,  099 
Alimentary  Canal  in  Decapoda,  Glands, 
46 

in  Rhynclielmis  limosella,  647 

of  Lac/is  Koreni.  30S 

—  Svstem  of  Birds,  Modifications  induced 

by  Diet,  172 
Alinit,  603 

Alinit-liacillus  Beta,  342 
Allen,  E.  J.,  Fauna  of  Exe  Estuary,  174 
Allescher,  A.,   Rabenhorst's  Cryptogamic 

Flora  of  Germany,  &c.  (Fungi   Imper- 
'    fecti),  86,  464,  590,  684 
Alii.--,  E.  P.,  jun.,  Ophthalmic  Nerves  of 

Mustehts  lasvis,  29 
AUolobophora  fcetida,  Spermatozoa,  64S 
Alloys,  Coppur-Iron,  261 

—  of  Copper  and  Tin,  383 

—  Structure  of  Copper-Antimony,  720 
Alpine  Plants,  Means  of  Distribution,  76 
Alsike,  Crystals  of  Calcium  Oxalate   in 

Seedlings,  505 
Amanita  ovoidea,  6S2 
Amaryllideaj,  Bulbiform  Seeds,  66 
Amberg,  O.,  Cork-formation  in  Interior  of 

Leaf-stalk  of  Nuphar  luteum,  44S 
Amberg,  S.,  Staining  Dysenteric  Amoeba?, 

254 
Amblystoma  and  Axolotl,  34 
Ameiurns  nebulosus,  Breeding  Habits,  34 
Ammocnete,  Ciliated  Grooves  in  Brain,  545 
Ammocoetes,    Development    of   Olfactory 

Organ,  29 
Amniota,  Development  of  Pancreas,  1C5 
Amoeba;,  Digestion,  562 

—  Methods  for  Rearing,  107 
Amphibians,  Experimental  Parthenogene- 
sis, 537 

—  Molluscum  Contasiosuni  in,  297 

—  Pituitary  Body,  635 

Amphibious  Plant,  Nature  of  Stimulus 
causing  Change  of  Form  and  Structure, 
669 

Amphipods,  New  Victorian,  646 

Amphicarpous  Plants,  65 

Amphineura  and  Cephalopoda,  Relation- 
ship, 3S 

Amphioxus  and  Higher  Craniota,  Relation 
of  Wetameric  Segmentation  in,  to 
that  in  Petromyzon,  29 

—  Excretory  Organs,  29S,  424 

—  Homologue  of  Infundibular  Organ,  546 
Amphitretus  from  Sagami  Sea,  639 
Amphiuma,  Cranial  Nerve3,  545 
Ampullae,  Lorenzini's,  Nerves,  423 

—  Selachian,  Homology,  540 
Amylornyces  and  a  Micrococcus,  Associa- 
tion, 602 


Anaerobes,   Simple   Apparatus  for  Culti- 
vating in  Test-tubes,  497 
Anaerobic  Cultures,  Apparatus,  250 
Anatomy,  General,  Outlines  of,  32 

—  Leaf,  of  Rutacese,  568 

—  of  Seed  Plants.     See  Contents,  xxi 
Ancel,  P.,  Skin-Glands  of  Amphibians,  30 

—  Variations  in  Human  Vertebral  Column, 

424 
Anchoring  of  Plantain-Seed,  458 
Anderson,    A.    P.,    Fungal    Diseases    of 

Plants,  Ac,  220 
Andre',  G.,  Accumulation  of  Mineral  and 

Organic   Matter    in    "Woody    Plants, 

573 

—  Action  of  Temperature  on  Absorption 

of  Minerals  in  Etiolated  Plants,  324 

—  Distribution  of  the  Acids  in  Plants,  63 

—  Nutrition  of  the  Seedling  at  the  Expense 

of  its  Cotyledons,  203 

—  Transformation  of  Proteids  during  Ger- 

mination, 456 
Andrews,  T.,  Micro-Crystalline  Structure 

of  Platinum,  504 
Andrews,  T.  and  C.  R.,  Microscopic  Effects 

of  Stress  on  Platinum,  624 
Andrews,  W.,  Stopping  down  the  Lens  of 

the  Human  Eye,  494 
Andromeda  polifolia,  Fungi,  595 
Andropogon  Sorghum,  Rust,  592 
Angiopteris  evecta,  Vegetative  Propagation, 

459 
Angiosperms,'  Pericycle,  600 
Anglade,  D.,    New   Method  of  Staining 

Neuroglia,  499 
Angus,  H.  F.,  The  Apertometer  and  its  Use, 

448 
Animal,  Extraordinary,  560 

—  Morphology,  Microtechnique,  257 
Anisotonic  Solutions.  Reactions,  544 
Anjeszkv,   — .,   Bacillus   Tuberculosis   in 

Buda-Pesth  Butter,  478 
Ankyroderrna    and    Synapta,    Calcareous 

Plates,  436 
Annual  Address,  127 

—  Meeting,  122 
Anuulata.     See  Contents,  xvi 
Anodonta  grandis,  Variation  in  Position  of 

Adductors,  641 
Ant,  New  Agricultural,  from  Texas,  429 

—  Sense  of  Taste  in,  552 
Antagonisms,  Bio-chemical.  228 
Antedon  rosacea,  Genital  Pores  of  Male. 

437 

Antherozoids  in  Asterella  californica, 
Forcible  Discharge,  578 

Anthoceros,  Apospory,  79 

Anthony,  M.  H.,  Sletamorphosis  of  Sisyra, 
642 

Anthrax,  Does  it  form  Spores  under  Anae- 
robic Conditions?  107 

Ants,  Senses  of,  39 

—  Studies  on,  557 


INDEX. 


Anoplopterus  platychir,  Distribution,  173 
Aortic  Arches  and  the  Origin  of  Arteries 

in  Reptiles,  Variations,  27 
Apathy,   S.,    Microtechnique    of    Animal 

Morphology,  257 
Apertometer  and  its  Use,  4SS 
Aphanochsete,  Observations  on,  597 
Apochromat,  Hastings,  230 
Apospory  in  Anthoceros,  79 
Apparatus  for  Removing  Pieces  of  Tissue 

for  Microscopical  Investigation,  714 
Apple  Trees,  Canker,  6S6 
Apples,  Changes  during  Ripening,  457 
Aquarium,  Salt-water,  080 
Arachnid  Entostcrnitc,  Studies,  045 
Arachnida.     See  Contents,  xv 
Araliaceas,  Embiyogeny,  450 

—  Formation  of  the  Ovule  and  Embryo- 

sac,  71 
Arbacia,    Artificial    Parthenogenesis    in- 
duced by  the  Use  of  Sea-water  concen- 
trated by  Evaporation,  41S 
Arbaumont,  J.  d',  Evolution  of  Chlorophyll 

and  Starch  in  the  Stem,  62 
Arber,  A.  E.  N.,  Nitrates  and  the  Carbon - 
Assimilation  of  Algse,  204 

—  Type-Speeiniens  of  Lyginodendron  Old- 

hamium,  20S 
Archibald  and  Richards,  Study  of  Grow- 
ing-Crystals   by    Instantaneous   Photo- 
micrography, 364 
Ardissone,  P.,  Marine  Algsc  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, 679 
Argutinsky,    P.,  Demonstrating   the  Ma- 
laria Parasite,  251 

—  Examining  Blood-plates,  253 

Ariola,  V.,  "  Pseudogamy  "  in  Benialium 

Entalis,  299 
Arissema   triphylhtm  and  A.   Bracoutium, 

Seeds  and  Seedlings,  198 
Arker,  J.,  Influence  of  the   Surrounding 

Medium  on  the  Growtli  of  Roots,  74 
Armitage,  E.,  Irish  Mosses,  459,  581 
Arndt,  G.,  Saw  for  making   Microscopic 

Preparations  of  Hard  Objects,  112 
Arr.ell,  W.,  New  Hepatics,'332 
Arnold,  J.  O.,  Properties  of  Steel  Castings, 

382 
Amoldi,  W.,  Embryogeny  of  the  Sequoi- 

ncea?,  70 
Arsenic,  Minute  Traces  in  Animals,  544 
Arterio-Venous  Anastomoses  in  Man  and 

Mammals,  422 
Arthropoda.    See  Contents,  xiii 
Arthropods,     Collection     of     Microscopic 
Marine,  551 

—  Epithelial    Regeneration    in   Mid-gut. 

551 
Arthur,  J.  C,  New  Uredinca;,  4G6 

—  Uredinese,  217 

Ascaris,  Fermentation  of  Glycogen,  557 
Ascidians  of  Bermudas,  54S 
Asclepiadeae,  Formation  of  Pollen,  199 


Asclepias  Cornuti,  Development  of  Polli- 

nium  and  Sperm-Cells,  320 
Ashby,  E.,  Fossil  Polyplacophora,  177 
Ashe's  Two-speed  Fine  Adjustments,  232 
Aspergillus,  The  Genus,  680 
Aspergillus    niger,    Influence    of    Sulpho- 

cyanic  Acid  on  Growth,  6S8 
Asphyxiation,  Resistance  of  Myriopods  to 

305" 
Asplenium  ebenoides.  Hybrid  Origin,  G72 
Assimilation,  Chlorophyll,  72 

—  of  Carbon  by  a  Green  Alga,  323 
Aster,  Quantitative  Study  of  Variation  in 

Bracts,  Roys,  and  Disk-florets.  326 
Aderella  californica,  Forcible   Discharge 

of  Antherozoids,  57S 
Asterias  glacialis.  Maturation,  437 

—  rubens.  Red  Pigment,  654 

Astruc,  A.,  Distribution  of  the  Acids  in 

Plants,  63 
Atherine,  New  Species   in   Fresh  Water, 

297 
Auditors,  Appointment,  121 
Auerbach,  M.,  Brown  Fat  in  Rodents  and 

Insectivores,  422 
Aurelia  aurita,  Post- Embryonic  Develop- 
ment, 310 
Auto-Intoxication  and  Growth,  543 
Autotomy  in  Marine  Invertebrates,  174 
Avian  Diphtheria,  225 
Avicennia  tomentosa,  Air-roots.  446 
"  Awamori,"  339 
Axial  Skeleton  in  Amphibia,  Development, 

27 
Axis-Cylinders     of    Fresh    Spinnl    Cord, 

Staining,  715 
Axolotl  and  Amblystoma,  34 
Azorella  Selago,  Morphology  and  Anatomy, 

466 


B. 


Bacilli,  Acid-fast,  344 

—  Acid-resisting  in  Gangrene,  223 

—  Cholera,  Spore-formation,  90 

—  in  Syphilitic  Semen,  692 

—  Lesions    produced    by   Acid-resisting. 

480 

—  Pseudo-diphtheria,  226 

Bacillus  anthracis,  Capsule  and  Flagella, 

226 
Bacillus,  Capsulated  New,  313 
Bacillus  caseolyticus,  477 

—  coli  communis,   Medium   for    Isolating 

Bacillus  typhosus  in  presence  of, 

250 

in  Dysentery,  696 

Variability  of  Gas-formation,  92 

—  diphtheria  in  Simple  Rhinitis,  481 

—  dysenterix,  Resistance  to  Cold,  480 

—  entfritidis    sporogenes    and   Achalme's 

Bacillus  of  Acute  Rheumatism,  Pro- 
bable Identity,  93 


734 


INDEX. 


Bacillus  acidi  lactici,  Decomposition    of 
Lactose  by,  478 

—  Lacto-rubifaciens,  690 
Bacillus,  New  Capsulated,  343 
Pyogenic,  601 

—  Pathogenic  to  Rats,  602 

—  New  Syphilis,  691 

—  Pathogenic,  in  Cockles,  693 
Bacillus  radicicola,  Polymorphism,  225 

—  tuberculosis,    Eggs    as   a  Medium  for 

Cultivation,  714 

in  Buda-Peslh  Butter,  478 

in  Cheese,  478 

—  typhosus,  Antagonism  of  the  Soil  to, 

696 
Bacillus  coli,  and  related    Species, 

Media  for  distinguishing,  496 
Medium  for  Isolating  in  the  presence 

of  Bacillus  coli  communis,  250 
Bacteria  Agglutination,  89 

—  Anaerobic  Cultivation,  370 
Method  of  Cultivating,  713 

—  and  Cereal  Products,  696 

—  and   Fungi,   Composition   of    Proteids 

and  Cell-Membranes,  457 

—  and  Hemp,  695 

—  and  the  Disintegration  of  Cement,  89 

—  Chlamydospores,  224 

—  Decomposition  of  Nitrates  and  Nitrites, 

224 

—  Effect  of  Nitrates  on  the   Shapes  of 

Certain,  88 

—  Enumeration  of  Water,  229 

—  Experimental  Production  of  Parasitic 

Races,  474 

—  Fixing  to  Slide  or  Cover-Slip  without 

Drying,  Method,  498 

—  Gram-Staining,  in  the  Intestines  of  In- 

fants, 229 

—  "  Hanging-Block  "  Preparation  for  ob- 

serving developing,  380 

—  Intestinal,  of  Chironomus  Larvae,  690 

—  Luminous,  342 

—  Nitrogen- Assimilating,  in  Soils,  341 

—  Proteolytic  Power,  88 

—  Reaction  to  Stimuli,  88 

—  Resorption  from  Intestines,  347 

—  Sporiferous,   Metachromatic    Granules 

in,  89 

—  Stainability  of,  Influence  of  High  Tem- 

peratures on, 499 
Bacterial  Disease  of  the  Potato,  223 

—  Flora  of  Mont  Blanc,  475 

—  Grouping,  Unusual,  689 
Bacteriological   Examination  of   Potable 

Water,  91 

—  Purposes,  New  Injection  Syringe,  259 
Bacteriology   and   Pathology,  Handbook, 

603 

—  Manual  of  Determinative,  697 

—  Mi  quel  and  Cambier's,  349 

—  of  Human  Faeces,  695 

—  of  Scarlatina,  694 


Bacteriosis  of  Kohlrabi,  90 
Bacterium  phusianicida,  600 

—  pyogenes  ramosum,  602 

Baeteroids,  Formation  in   Artificial  Nu- 
trient Media,  226 
Baker,  F.  C,  Structure  of  Limnxa  emar- 

ginata,  550 
Baker,  F.  W.  W.,  Exhibition  of  Micro- 
scopic Slides  illustrating  Eve  Struc- 
ture, 119,  121 

—  New  Two-speed  Fine  Adjustment,  506 
Baker,   J.   L.,   Action    of   Ungerminated 

Barley  on  Starch,  576 
Baker's  Portable  Diagnostic  Microscope,  9S 
Balanus     improvisus.     Observations     on 

Young  Stages,  432 
Ballowitz,  E.,  Two-tailed  Spermatozoa,  538 
Bainbeke,  V.,  Mycology  in  France,  221 
Bananas,  Composition,  566 
Banehi,  A.,  Paranbula  in  Marsupials,  33 
Banker.  H.  J.,  Hydnaceae,  682 
Baranetzky,  J.,  Causes  of  the  Direction  of 

Branches,  66 
Barbadoro,    L.,    Development    of   Frog's 

Retina,  28 
Barbagallo,    — .,    Preserving    Intestinal 

Worms,  258 
Barberry.  Witch's  Brooms,  592 
Barbier,  M.,  Mycology  in  France,  221 
Barfurth,  D.,  Regeneration  of  the  Lens  in 

Chick  Embryos,  633 
Barger,  G.,  Saponarin,  568 
Barker,  B.  T.  P.,  Spore-formation  in  Sac- 

charomycetes,  339 
Barker,  T.,  British  Mosses,  581 
Barnard,  — .,  Luminous  Bacteria,  342 
Barrett-Hamilton,   G.   E.    H.,   Origin    of 

Colour  in  Animals,  173 
Barsickow,  M.,  Secondary  Growth  in  Thick- 
ness in  Palms,  316 
Bartelletti,  V.,  Study  of  the  Family  Och- 

naceae,  especially  of  Malayan  Species, 

318 
Barthels,  P.,  Minute  Structure  of  Cuvierian 

Organs,  436 
Bartolotti,   C,  Function  of  Chloragogen 

Cells,  648 
Barton,  E.  S.,  The  Genus  Halimeda,  678 
Basidiomycetes,  Crystalloids,  683 
Basidiospores,  Germination,  682 
Bast-Fibres  of  Japanese  Fibre-Plants,  318 
Bat,  Development  of  Inner  Ear,  420 

—  Fertilisation,  633 
Bataille,  F.,  Fungus  Flora,  340 
Bataillon,    E.,    Experimental    Partheno- 
genesis in  Amphibians,  537 

Bats,  Copulation,  164 

—  Hibernation,  33 

—  Transmissibility  of  Plague,  692 
Battelli,  F.,  Rheotactic  Properties  of  Sper- 
matozoa, 161 

Batters,  E.  A.  L.,  British  Marine  Algae, 
585 


INDEX. 


735 


Agglutination  of  Tubercle  Ba- 


Bayer,  F.,  Alinit-Bacillus  Beta,  342 
Bdellostcma  dombeyi.  Vascular  System,  174 
Beard,  J.,  Determination  of  Sex  in  Animal 
Development,  534 

—  Numerical  Law  of  Germ-Cells,  419 
Beauverie,  J.,  Influence  of  Osmotic  Pres- 
sure on  the  Form  and  Structure  of 
Plants,  76 

—  Mycorhiza,  336 
Beck, 

cillus,  348 

Beck,  C,  Microscope  with  observing  Prism 
and  Eye-piece  for  Photomicrography, 
266 

—  New  Micrometer  Microscope,  119,  121 

—  Prof.  Huntingdon's  new  Stage,  266 ' 

—  Standing's  Imbedding  Microtome,  385 
Beck,  R.  and  J.,  Exhibition  of  Typical 

Bacteria,  264 

—  Observing  Prism  for  Photomicrography, 

616 
Beck's  Imperial  Microscope,  95 

—  Micrometer  Microscope,  357 
Beck-Steinheil  Orthostigmats,  360 
Beddard,  F.  E.,  "Chestnuts"  of  Horse, 

172 

—  Two  New  Earthworms,  433 

Bedot,  — .,  Historical  Study  of  the  Zoo- 
logical Investigation  of  Hydroids,  311 
Beecher,   C.   E.,  Eurypterid  Remains  in 
Cambrian,  642 

—  Ventral  Integument  of  Trilobites,  427 
Beer,  — .,  Coemansiella  alabastrina,  464 
Beetles,  British,  Coloration,  180 
Beet-root,  Cultivation,  452 
Beggiatoa,  223 

Bel),  F.  J.,   Occurrence  of   Squilla  des- 

Tnaresli  in  North  Sea,  185 
Bending  of  Mature  Wood  in  Trees,  66 
Benham,  W.   B.,    Platyhelmia,    Mesozoa, 

and  Nemertini,  186 
"  Benikoji  "  Fungus,  466 
Bennett,  A.,  Liparis  Loeselii  and  Teucrium 

Scordium,  670 
Bennett,  A.  W.,  120 

—  Death,  264 

—  the  late,  155 

Bentler,  B.,  Paryphanta  hochstetteri,  427 
Berg,  E.,  Biology  of  Ranunculus  Ficaria, 

73 
Bergendal,     D.,     Notes    on     Carinoma 

armandi,  309 
Berger,  E.,  Stereoscopic  Loups,  698 
Berger's  Fine  Adjustment,  610 
Bergh,  R.  S.,  Origin  of  Blood- Vessels,  160 
Berlese,  A.,  Copulation  of  House-Fly,  301 
— ■  South  American  Acarids,  ]  83 
Berliner,  K.,  Hofmann's  Nuclei  in  Spinal 

Cord  of  Chick,  539 
Bernard,  H.  M.,  Studies  on  the  Retina,  541 
Berry,  E.  W.,  Stipules  of  Liriodendron,  67 
Berthelot,  M.,  Distribution  of  the  Acids 

in  Plants,  63 


Bertrand,  C.  E.,  Fibrovnscular  Bundles  in 
the  Stem  and  Leaf  of  Filicineaj, 
78 

Chains  of  Filicinesa,  207 

Bertrand,  G.,  Blue  Colour  in  Fungi,  222 
Bescherelle,  E.,  Lists  of  Mosses  and.  Hepa- 

tics,  332,  333 
Besredka,  — .,  Streptococcus  Hemolysin, 

346 
Bessey,  O,  Morphology  of  the  Pine-Cone, 

318 
Best,  — .,  Glycogen  Staining,  622 
Bettmann,  — .,  Neutral  Red  for  Staining 

Nucleated  Red  Blood-Corpuscles,  114 
Bevan,  E.  J.,  Researches  on  Cellulose,  61 
Beyerinck,   M.,  Lactic   Ferments  in   the 

Arts  346 
Bibliography,  94,  230,  236,  237,  247,  263, 
350,  383, 487, 494,  505,  697,  698,  709, 
715,  717,  720 

—  of  Works  dealing  with  the  Microscope 

and  other  Optical  Subjects,  20 
Bidder,  G.,  Modifications- or  Metampy  in 
Halichondria  panicea  and  in  Suberites 
domuncula,  190 

—  Sycon  compresmm,  190 

Bigelow,   M.   A.,   Early  Development  of 

Lepas,  555 
Bild,  A.,  Development  of  Teeth  in  Sus 

domestica,  162 
Binot,  — .,  Bacterial  Flora  of  Mont  Blanc, 

475 
Bio-chemical  Antagonisms,  228 

—  Studies  on  the  Tubercle  Bacillus,  92  ] 
Biogeographical  Regions,  426 

Biology  and  Medicine  in  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, History,  170 

Birches,  American  and  Old  World,  Rela- 
tionship, 671 

Birds,  Caeca,  542 

Bisexual  Condition,  Passage  from  to  Uni- 
sexual Condition  by  Unilateral  Parasitic 
Castration,  326 

Bisulphide  of  Carbon  in  Paraffin  Imbed- 
ding, 111 

Bites  of  Latrodectus  13-gidtatus,  45 

Bitter,  G.,  Parmelia,  85 

—  Variability  of  Lichens  under  different 

external  conditions,  84 
Bivalve,  Inferior  Backward  Current  in,  39 
Bivalves,  Ligament,  642 

—  with  Red  Blood-Corpuscles,  550 
Black  and  White  Dot  Phenomenon,  367 
Blackman,  F.  F.,  Reaction  of  Leaves  to 

Traumatic  Stimulation,  74 
Blackman,  M.  W.,  Spermatogenesis  of  Sco- 

lopendra,  182 
Blanchard,   N,,   Grand-parental    Inherit- 
ance, 419 
Blastomyces,  New  Pathogenic,  689 
Blenny,  Montagu's,  Young  of,  167 
Bliesener, — .,  Spore- formation  in  Cholera 
Bacilli,  90 


73G 


INDEX. 


Blood,  Biological  Test,  543 

—  of  Snail,  G40 

—  Rapid  Method  of  Staining  the  Morpho- 

tic  Elements,  715 

Blood-Corpuscles,  Bivalves  with  Bed,  550 

Blood-Films,  Handy  Method  of  Preparing 
Slides  and  Slips,  108 

Blood-Plates,  Examining,  252,  253 

What  are  they?  170 

Blood-Preparations,  Method  for  Fixing, 
372 

Blood- Vessels,  Origin,  100 

Blumentritt,  F.,  Fungal  Diseases  of  Plants, 
&c,  220 

Bochenek,  A.,  Pituitary  Body  of  Amphi- 
bians, 635 

Boeke,  J.,  Homologue  of  Infundibular  Or- 
gan in  Amphioxus,  546 

Boekbout,  F.  W.  J.,  Cultivation  Medium 
for  Cheese  Bacteria,  1 08 

Bohn,  G.,  Biological  Theory  of  Vision,  298 

—  Marine  Intoxications  and  the  Life  of 

Burrowers,  34 

—  Seasonal  Histolysis  in  Polyclircts,  48 
Bokorny,  T.,  Energy  of  Assimilation  in 

Fungi,  587 
Bombicci,  — .,  Apparatus  for  Cultivating 

Anaerobes,  251 
Bone-Sections,  Simple  Method  of  Making, 

498,714 
Bonelli,  an  early  Italian  Lamarckian,  038 
Bonnevie,  K.,  Chromatin-Reduetion  in  So- 
matic Cells,  50 

—  New  Parasitic  Gasteropod  in  Holothu- 

rian,  426 
Bonney,   T.    G.,   On    Eock    Changes    in 

Nature's  Laboratory,  722 
Bonnier,  J.,  Commensal  Schizopod,  555 

—  New  Giant  Pyrosoma,  526 

Boodle,  L.  A.,  Anatomy  of  the  Gleickcni- 

acese,  207 
Bordas,  L.,  Bites  of  Latrodeclus  lS-gutta- 

tus,  45 
Borelli,  Interesting  Extracts  from,  712 
Born  and  Peter's  Orientation  Plate,  621 
Borner,  G,  New  Collembola,  44,  181 

—  Structure  and  Classification  of  Collem- 

bola, 302 
Borntraeger,  A.,  Sugars  and  Organic  Acids 

in  certain  Fruits,  567 
Borthwick,  A.  "W.,  Increase  in  Diameter 

of  Trees,  660 
Bose,  J.  C,  Electric  Response  in  Plants 

under  Mechanical  Stimulus,  574 
Bosenberg,  \V.,  Monograph  ou  Spiders  of 
Germany,  45 

—  Spiders  of  Germany,  045 

Bosse,  B.,  Experiments  with  Devcke's 
Media,  229 

Bossiffi  and  Lipariese,  Anatomical  Investi- 
gation of  Leaf  and  Axis,  195 

Botany,  Applied,  History  aud  Develop- 
ment, 458 


Botany  of  Tasmania,  577 

—  The  Microscope  in  Fossil,  725 

—  Topographical,  327 

Botezitt,  E.,  Nerve-Endings  in  Taste  Me- 
nisci, 16S 

Botryomycosis,  599 

Botryti*  cinerea,  Parasitism,  590 

Bottle  for  Cedar- Wood  Oil,  503 

Bouchard,  M.,  Fungal  Diseases  of  Plants, 
&c.,  221 

Boulay,  N,  Topographical  Botany,  327 

Boulenger,  G.  A..  Systematic  Position  of 
Pleuronectida?,  638  ^"^ 

Bounhiol,  J.,  Respiration  in  Polyehfeta, 
617 

Bourquelot,  E.,  Cane-Sugar  in  Reserve 
Food- Stuffs  of  Phanerogams,  326 

—  Determination  of  the  Presence  of  Cane- 

Sugar  in  Plants,  63 
Boutan,  L.,  Experiments  on  Pigeons  fin 
relation  to  the  Semicircidar  Canals,  544 

—  Lesion  of   the    Semicircular   Canals, 

637 

Bouvier,  E.  L.,  Papillae  of  Onychophorar 
306 

Bouygues,  M.,  Origin  and  Differentiation 
of  Vascular  Meristems  in  Leaf-Stalk, 
316 

Boveri,  T.,  Problem  of  Fertilisation,  418 

Bovista  ammophila,  336 

Pover,  G.,  Vitality  of  Leaves  after  their 
Fall,  73 

Bra,  M.,  Presence  of  a  Parasite  in  Blood 
of  Epileptics,  346 

Brachiopods,  North  Atlantic,  1S7 

Braddon,  W.  L.,  Handy  Method  of  Pre- 
paring Slides  and  Slips  for  taking  Blood- 
Films,  108 

Bradford,  J.  R.,  Fixing  and  Staining  Try- 
panosoma, 372 

—  Trypanosoma  brucel,  440 

Brain  of  Ammoccete,  Ciliated  Grooves,  545 

—  of  Macroscelides  proboscideus,  637 

—  of  Phascolosoma,  649 

—  Sections,  Zeiss'  Stand  for,  4So 
Braithwaite,  B.,  127 

—  British  Moss-Flora,  459 

Branch  and  Stem  of  same  Tree,  Uu:on,r44S 
Branches,  Causes  of  Direction,  66 
Branchial  Clefts  in  Lizard  and  Slow-worm. 
634 

in  Ophidio,  539 

Branching,  Precocious,  658 
Brand,  F.,  Cladophora,  82 

—  Cladophora  /Egagropila,  333 

—  The  Genus  Trentepohlia,  677 

Brasil,  L.,  Alimentary  Canal  of  Lagis 
lcoreni,  308 

—  Netv  Sporozoon,  313 

Brasseur,  — .,  A  Not.ible  Advance  in  Co- 
lour Photography,  211  :         ._.  »  ".«*»— s| 

Brauer,  A.,  Development  of  Excretory  Or- 
pins in  Gymnophiona,  421 


1  \  I  )EX. 


737 


Braun,  M.,  Fasciolid  Parasites  of  Birds,  558 
Braus,  H.,  Dorsal  Groove  and  Dorsal  Su- 
ture in  Gastrula  of  Triton,  28 
Breathing  Organs  of  Pseudoscorpionidse, 

184 
Breeding  Habits  of  Ameiurus  nebulosus,  34 
Brefeld,  O.,  Pleoinorphism  and  Chlamydo- 
spore  Formation  among  Filamentous 
Fungi,  587 

—  Sexual  and  Non-Sexual  Keproduction 

in  the  Zygomycetes,  213 
Brehm,  V.,  Phyto-plankton  of  the  Erlauf- 

see  and  the  Caspian  Sea,  676 
Brenner,  W.,  Air-roots  of  Avicennia  tomen- 

tosa,  446 
Bretcher,     K.,    Observations     on     Swiss 

Oligockseta,  648 
Bretscher,  K.,  Life  of  Earthworms,  186 
Briggs,  S.  H.  C,   Colouring  Matters  of 

Green  Ebony,  443 
Britain,  New  Mosses,  209 
Britton,  E.  G.,  European  Species  of  Sema- 
tophyllum,  673 

—  Filmy  Ferns  of  South  America,  578 
Broman,  I.,  Atypical  Spermatozoa,  632 

—  Movements   of  Spermatids   and  their 

Parts,  162 
Bronn's  '  Tierreich,'  Chilopoda  in,  644 
Brotherus,  V.  F.,  Lists  and  New  Species 

of  Mosses,  210 
Browicz,  M.  T.,    Intracellular  Canals   in 

Hepatic  Cells,  422 
Brown,  A.  J.,  Enzyme  Action,  325 
Brown,  H.  T.,  Enzyme  Action,  325 

—  Influence  of  Varying  Amounts  of  Car- 

bon   Dioxide  in  the  Air  on    Photo- 
synthesis and  Plant  Growth,  668 
Browne,  C.  A.,  jun.,  Constituents  of  Pith 

of  Maize  and  Elder,  567 
Bruce,  D.,  New  Trypanosoma,  564 
Brun,  J.,  Fresh-water  Diatoms  from  the 

Island  of  Jan  Mayen  and  the  East  Coast 

of  Greenland,  212 
Bryce,  T.  H.,  Maturation  in  Echinus  escu- 

lentus,  654 
Bryological  Notes,  580 
Bryum,  Bohemian  Species,  5S0 
Brzeziuski,  F.  P.,  Vegetable   Pathology, 

595 
Bubak,  F.,  Puccinia,  337 

—  Urophlyctis  bohemica,  586 

Biihler,  A,  Ketrogressive  Changes  in 
Ovarian  Follicles,  631 

Bulbiform  Seeds  of  Amaryllidese,  66 

Bulbils  of  LysimacMa  terrestris,  67 

Buller,  A.  H.  R.,  External  Phenomena  of 
Fertilisation,  536 

Bullock-Webster,  G.  E.,  Characeae  from 
Co.  Monagban,  582 

Bupestris  sanguinea,  Sexual  Dimorphism, 
180 

Burbury,  F.  E.,  List  of  Tasmanian  Dia- 
toms, 583 

December  17  th,  1002 


Burette  for  removing  Definite  Quantities 
of  Sterile  Fluids,  380 

Burgenstein,  A.,    Germination   of    Fern- 
Spores.  78 

Burger,  O.,  Development  of  Clepsine,  648 

—  Lateral  Hermaphroditism  in  Palinurus 
frontalis,  433 

Burgerstein,"  A.,   Germinating   Power  of 
the  Seeds  of  Cereals,  204 

Burkholder,    J.    F.,    Simple    Method    of 
Making  Bone  Sections,  498 

Burmauniacete  from  Brazil,  458 

Burne,  R.  H.,  Innervation  of  Supra-orbital 
Canal  in  Chimxra  monstrosa,  168 

Burr,  R.,  Source  of  Acid   Organisms  of 
Milk,  476 

Burrowers,  Life  of,  and  Marine  Intoxica- 
tions, 34 

Buscalioni,  L.,  New  Mode  of  Measuring 
Transpiration,  75 

Busse,  W.,  Rust  of  Andropogon  Sorghum, 
592 

Butler,  E.  A..  Some  British  Hemiptera,  428 

Butter,  B.  tuberculosis  in  Buda-Pesth,  478 

Butter-Fat,  Decomposition,  336 

Butterflies,  Colours  not  due  to  Diffraction, 
302 

Byrne,  L.  W.,  Young  of  Montagu's  Blenny, 
167 


Cabbage  and  Cancer,  441 

Cacace,  E.,  Proteolytic  Power  of  Bacteria, 

88 
Cseca  of  Birds,  542 
Csecilians,  Systematic  Position,  545 
Calm,  — .,  Gram-staining  Bacteria  in  the 

Intestines  of  Infants,  2^9 
Cajal,  P.  R.  y,  Evolution  of   Pyramidal 

Cells  of  the  Cerebrum,  422 
Calcium    and    Magnesium,   Relations    to 
Plant-Growth,  573 

—  oxalate,  Function,  63 
Caliper  Gauge,  117 
Calleja,  C,  Caeca  of  Birds,  542 
Caiman,  W.  G.,  Affinities  of  Uronectes,  185 
Calmette,  A.,  Hsemolytic  Action  of  Cobra 

Poison,  544 
Calypogeia,  Priority  of  the  Name,  674 
Cambarus,  Structure  of  Male  in  Genus,  48 
Cambier  and  Miquel,  Bacteriology,  349 
Cambier,  R.,  Medium  for  Isolating  Bacillus 
typhosus  in  presence  of  Bacillus  coli  com- 
munis, 250 
Camera,  Abbe  Drawing,  105 

—  Ordinary,  Simple  Means  of  producing 

Microphotographs  with,  246 

—  Panoramic  View,  367 

—  Vertical,  Form  of,  and  its  uses,  705 
Camerano,  L.,  Bonelli,  an  early   Italian 

Lainarckian,  638 

—  Statistical  Study  of  Organisms,  171 

3    D 


738 


INDEX. 


Cameron,  J.,  Development  of  Layers  of 

Retina,  538 
Camichel,  — .,  Blue  and  Green  Coloration 

in  Skin  of  Vertebrates.  33 
Campbell,  W.,  Alloys  of  Copper  and  Tin, 
383 

—  Crystallisation  produced  in  Solid  Metal 

by  Pressure,  261 
Camus,  F.,  Lists  of  Hepatics  and  Mosses, 

331 
Cancer  and  Cabbage,  441 
Cane-sugar  in  Plants,  Determination   of 

the  Presence,  63 
in  Eeserve  Food -Stuffs  of  Phanero- 
gams, 326 
Canker  in  Apple  Trees,  686 

—  of  the  Oak,  338 

Cannon,  W.  B.,  Reaction  of  Daphnia  to 

Light,  47 
Capillary  Vessels,  Muscularisation,  542 
Capsule  and  Flagella  of  B.  anthracis,  226 

—  of  Anthrax,  Staining,  257 

Capurro,  M.  A.,  Alleged  Peritubular  Lym- 
phatic Tubes  of  the  Testis,  538 

Carapa  guianensis,  Germination  of  Seeds, 
572,  658 

Carhohydrate,  Conversion  in  the  Germina- 
tion of  Date,  326 

Carices,  North  American,  577 

Cardot,  J.,  Leaf- Anatomy  of  Leucobrya- 
cese,  673 

Carinoma  armandi.  Notes  on,  309 

Carmin  Solution,  New  Alcoholic,  715 

Carnations,  Fungus  Pests,  471 

Carnivores,  Vertebras  of  Terrestrial,  638 

Carp,  Dolphin,  547 

Carpenter.  G.  H.,  Arctic  Pantopoda,  184 

—  Collembola  from  Franz-Josef  Land,  182 
Carpophyll  of  Encephalartos,  65 

Carr,  Rev.  Canon,  125 
Carruthers,  W.,  265 

—  President's  Address,  129 
Caryophyllams,  New  Species,  557 
Cassiope,  Anatomy  of,  68 

Castalia  and  Nymphasa,  Development  of 
Embryo-sac  and  Embryo,  449 

Castellani,  A.,  Method  for  Detection  of 
Typhoid  Bacillus  in  Blood,  496 

Cat,  Tailless,  Progeny,  292 

Catechus,  Acacia  and  Gambier,  Con- 
stituents, 568 

Cathetometer,  Short  Table,  359 

—  Table,  389 
Cattle  Plague,  381 

—  Wild,  European,  425 
Caullery,  M.,  Fecampia,  558 

—  Free*  Phase  in  the  Life-Cycle  of  Ortho- 

nectids,  53 
Cavara,  F.,  Resistance  to  Salt   Solution, 

324 
Cave-Insect,  New  Moravian,  429 
Cedar- Wood  Oil  Bottle,  503 
Cell,  Chemical  Organisation,  423 


1   Cell  Contents.     See  Contents,  xxi 
Cell-Division,  Artificially  induced  Anoma- 
lies, 635 
Cell-nucleus  of  Saccharomyces,  Demonstra- 
tion, 113 
Celloidin  Tissues,  Marble  Blocks  for.  715 
Cells,  Binurdeate,  in  certain  Hymenomy- 
cetes,  217 

—  Living,  Action  of  Copper  on  the  Growth, 

203 

—  Sertoli's,  Function,  161 
Cellulose,  Fermentation,  597 

—  Researches,  61 
Centipedes,  Luminosity,  182 

Centring  Apparatus,  Zeiss',  for  Microscope 
Objectives  when  used  as  Condensers,  615 
Cephalopoda  and  Amphineura,  Relation- 
ship, 38 

—  Development  of  Radula,  36 
— .     See  Contexts,  xiii 

Ceratodus,  Skull  and  Nervous  System,  634 
Ceratopteris  thalictroides,  Anatomy,  32S 
Cercopithecus  cynomolgus,  Ckondrocranium, 

163 
Cereals,    Changes    in    Nitrogenous    Sub- 
stances in  Ripening,  456 

—  Germinating  Power  of  the  Seeds,  2()t 

—  Influence  of  Nitrogenous  Manures  on 

the  Form,  453 

—  Rust,  338 

—  Smut,  591 

Cerebral  Degenerations,  422 

—  Hemispheres,  Origin,  26 
Cerebratulus  marginatus.   Maturation  and 

Fertilisation,  6-M 
Cerebrum,  Evolution  of  Pyramidal  Cells. 

422 
Cestoda,  Germinal  Layers,  50 
Cestudes,  Avian,  50 

—  Fertilisation,  557 

Cestracion,  Reminiscence  of  Holoblastic 
Cleavage  in  Ovum,  29 

Cestracionts  and  Acanthodians,  Carboni- 
ferous, 547 

Chsetoderma,  38 

Chamseleons,  Prodromus  of  Monograph, 
297 

Chambers  and  Inskeeju's  Improved  Oph- 
thalmometer, 709 

Champion,  G.  C,  Sexual  Dimorphism  in 
Buprestis  sanguined,  180 

Chandler,  S.  E.,  Influence  of  Varying 
Amounts  of  Carbon  Dioxide  in  the  Air 
on  Photosynthesis  and  Plant  Growth, 
66S 

Chapman,  F.,  Foiaminifera,  439 

Characeas  from  County  Monaghan,  582 

Characters,  Acquired,  Alleged  Case  of 
Transmission,  164 

Charpentier,  P.  G.,  Assimilation  of  Carbon 
by  a  Green  Alga,  323 

Charrin,  A.,  Influence  on  Offspring  of  In- 
jecting Toxins  into  Parents,  29 


INDEX. 


739 


Cheauvaud,  G.,  Precursors  of  Sieve-tubes 

in  Gynmosperins,  569 
Cheese,  B.  tuberculosis  iu,  478 

—  making,  Use  of  Tyrogen,  226 
Cheilostomata,  Structure,  651 
Clieiuauxism  of  Copper  Salts  on  Penicil- 

lium  glaucum,  824 
Chemical  Changes  in  Seed  Plants.      See 

Contents,  xxv. 
Chermes,  Hermaphroditism  in  Species  of, 

553 
Chester,  F.  D.,  Manual  of  Determinative 

Bacteriologv,  697 
"  Chestnuts  "  of  Horse,  172 

—  Soils  suitable  for,  453 
Chevalier-Euler  Achromatic  Doublet,  16 
Chick,  Hofmann's  Nuclei  in  Spinal  Cord, 

539 
Chilopod,  Annectant  Type,  429 
Chilopoda,  Comparative  Morphology,  305 

—  in  Bronu's  '  Tierreich,'  644 

Ch  imsera  monstrosa,  Innervation  of  Supra- 
orbital Canal,  168 

Chironomus  Larvae.  Intestinal  Bacteria, 
690 

Chlamydospoies  of  Bacteria,  224 

Chloragogeu  Cells,  Function,  648 

—  of  Oligochseta,  648 

Chlorophyll  and  Starch  in  Stem,  Evolu- 
tion, 62 

—  Assimilation,  72 
of  Cut  Leaves,  73 

—  Contributions  to  Chemistry  of,  206 
Chodat,  B.,  Fresh-water  Algae  of  Switzer- 
land, 461 

Cholera  Vibrios,  Demonstration  of,  110 

Effect  of  Human  Gastric  Juice  on, 

224 
Cholodkovsky,   N.,    Hermaphroditism    in 

Species  of  Chermes,  553 
Chondocranium  of  Cercopithecus  cynomol- 

gus,  163 
Chondrus  crispus,  678 
Christ,  H.,  Brazilian  Ferns,  672 
Christensen,  C,  Danish  Pteridophyta,  672 
Chromatin-Reduction  in  Somatic  Cells,  50 
Chromatophores  of  Fresh-water  Diatoms, 

80 
Chromosome,  Accessory,  in  Insect  Sperma- 
togenesis, 41 
Chromosomes  in  Larix  leptolepis.  Reduc- 
tion, 60 

—  Reduction  in  the  Number  in  the  Em- 

bryo-sac Mother-cell,  68 
Chroococcacese,  New  Genus,  Pilgeria,  88 
Chrysanthemums,  Cultivated.  Disease  of, 

596 
Chrzaszoz,     T.,    Yeast-eating     Amoeboid 

Organism,  562 
Church,  A.  H.,  Phyllotaxis,  67 
Chytra    and    Limnotrochus,    Tanganyika 

Gastropods,  640 
Chytridinese,  New,  S4 


Ciechanowski,  S.,  Staining  Biliary  Canali- 

culi,  622 
Ciliata,  New,  192 
Cirripedia,  Dwarf  Males  and  other  Sexual 

Peculiarities,  646 
Citron,  E.,  Multicellular  Sense-Organs  in 

Syncoryne  sarsii,  55 
Cladochytrium  Alismatis,  214 
Cladonema,  Occurrence  in  the  Bahamas, 

188 
Cladophora,  82 
Cladophora  Mqaqropila,  333 

—  cornea,    Growth    in    Form    of    Balls, 

460 
Clark,  A.  M„  Abnormal   Thickening  in 

Kendrickia,  660 
Clark,  F.,  On  the  Toxic  Properties  of  some 

Copper  Compounds,  222 
Clark,  H.  L.,  An  Extraordinary  Animal, 
560 

—  Echinoderms  from  Puget  Sound,  437 
Classification,  636 
Clasterosporium  carpophilum,  589 
Clausen,    H.,   Influence    of   Nitrogenous 

Manures  on  the  Form  of  Cereals,  453 
Cleistogamy  of  Stellaria  pallida,  72 
Clepsine,  Development,  648 
Cleve,  A.,  Contributions  to  the  Flora  of 

Bear  Island,  212 
Cleve,  P.  T.,  Plankton,  581 

—  Recent  Publications  on  Diatoms,  582 
Clinton,  G.  P.,  Cladochytrium  Alismatis, 

214 
Clos,  D.,  Cross-Pollination  and  Self-Polli- 

nation,  71 
Clupea  sprattus,  Life-history,  166 
Clythra  quadripunctata,  Life-history,  303 
Coal    Measures,   Pollen    and    Male   Pro- 

thallia,  671 
Cobelli,  R.,   Sense  of  Taste   in  an  Ant, 

552 
Cobra  Poison,  Ha;molytic  Action,  544 
Coccidse  occurring  in  Britain,  Monograph, 

429 
Coccidiurn  of  Frog's  Kidneys,  657 
Coccoliths  and  Coccospheres,  674 
Coccospheres  and  Coccoliths,  674 
Cockerell,  T.  D.  A.,  Pigments  of  Nudi- 

branchs,  38 
Cockles,  Pathogenic  Bacillus  in,  693 
Coco-nut,  Chemical  Studies,  575 

Fruit,  65 

Coe,  W.  R.,  Nemertean  Parasites  of  Crabs, 

558 
Ccelentera.    See  Contents,  xviii 
Ccelom,  Homologies,  175 
Coemansiella  alabastrina,  464 
Coeruleln  S,  Staining   Sections  of  Spinal 

Cord,  717 
Coggi,  A.,  Nerves  of  Lorenzini's  Ampullae, 

42:; 
Cohn,  — .,  Trocar  for  the  Aseptic  Collection 

of  Portions  of  Tumours,  382 

3  d  2 


740 


INDEX. 


Cohn,  E.,  New  Pathogenic  Yeast,  681 
Cohn,  F.,  Function  of  Corpus  Luteum  in 

Relation  to  Insertion  of  Ova  in  Uterus, 

25 
Cohn,  L.,  New  Species  of  Monostomum, 

651 
Coker,  W.  C,  Gametophytes  and  Embryo 

of  Podocarpus,  319 
Cole,  A.  H.,  Projection  Microscopes  using 
Electric  Arc  or  Oxyhydrogen  Light, 
702 

—  Solar  Projection    Apparatus    and   its 

Adjustment,  015 
Cole,  L.  J.,  Discoarachne  brevipes,  307 
Coli  and  Typhoid,  Differential  Diagnoses, 

598 
Collapsible  Tubes,  Immersion  Oil  in,  116 
Collecting  Objects.     See  Contents,  xxxvi 
Collembola  from  Franz- Josef  Land,  182 

—  New,  44,  181 

—  Structure  and  Classification,  302 
Collins,  S.  F.,  Algre  of  Jamaica,  335 
Collodion     Sacs,    Improved     Method     of 

Making,  502 
Colonies,    Aggregated,    in     Madreporian 

Corals,  561 
Coloration,  Blue  and  Green,  in   Skin  of 
Vertebrates,  33 

—  of  British  Beetles,  180 

—  Physical,  637 

Colour  in  Animals,  Origin,  173 

— ■  Photography,  Notable  Advance,  241 

—  Photomicrography,  243 

Colouring,  Correlation,  in  Liver,  Skin,  and 

Hairs,  32 
Colours  of  American  Crayfish,  46 

—  of  Northern  Polypetalous  Flowers,  457 
Colubriues,    Toxic    Properties  of  certain 

Non-poisonous,  638 

Comber,  Thomas,  the  Late,  158 

Commensal  Oligochsete  in  New  England, 
49 

Comstock,  J.  H.,  General  Course  of  Ento- 
mology, 551 

Conifers,  Development  of  Stomata,  315 

Conjugation,  Abnormal,  in  Spirogyra,  80 

Conn,  H.  W.,  Ripening  of  Cream,  90 

Conradi,  H.,  Medium  for  Isolating  Typhoid 
Bacilli,  871 

Conrady,  A.  E.,  728 

Constantineanu,  J.  C,  New  Chytridinepe, 
84 

Conte,  A.,  Contributions  to  Anatomy  of 
Bhabdopleura  normani,  652 

—  New  Microsporidian,  58 

—  Note    on    Additions     to    Fresh-water 

Fauna,  546 
Conus  Poisoning,  301 
Cook,  M.  T.,  Development  of  Embryo-sac 

and  Embryo  in  Castalia  and  Nym- 

phsea,  449 

—  Methods  for  Rearing  Amoebae,  107 

—  Polyembryony  in  Gingko,  661 


Copeland,  E.  B.,  Sexuality  in  Spirogyra,  333 
Copepod,   New  Parasitic,  in   Intestine  of 

Mussel,  646 
Copepods  of  Faroe  Channel  and  Shetlands, 

185 
Copper,  Action  on  the  Growth  of  Living 
Cells,  203 

—  Compounds,  Toxic  Properties  of  some, 

222 

—  in  the  Animal  Organism,  637 

—  -Antimony  Alloys,  Structure,  720 

—  -Tin  Alloys,  Results  of  Chilling,  261 
Coprophilous  Fungi  II.,  335 
Copulation  of  Bats,  164 

—  of  House-fly,  301 

Copulatory  Apparatus  of  Male  Trichoptera, 

43 
Corallinacese,  New  Genus,  Perispermum, 

212 
Corallinse  from  Port  Renfrew,  Vancouver, 
584 

—  Japanese,  584 

Corals,  Madreporian,  Aggregated  Colonies. 
561 

—  Rugose,  Relationships,  189 

Corbie,  M.  C,  Fungus  Pests  of  the  Carna- 
tions, 471 

Cord,  Fresh  Spinal,  Staining  Axis-Cylin- 
ders of,  715 

Cordylophora  lacustris,  Development,  1S8 

Coregonus,  Myxosporidia,  657 

Cork- formation  in  Interior  of  Leaf- stalk  of 
Nuphar  luteum,  448 

Cornaille,  F.,  Fibrovascular  Bundles  in 
the  Stem  and  Leaf  of  Filicinese,  78 

Cornet's  Forceps,  Modification,  258 

Corney,  R.  G.,  Poisoning  in  Conus,  301 

Corpus  Luteum,  Function  in  Relation  to 
Insertion  of  Ova  in  Uterus,  25 

Correns,  C,  Hybridism  and  Xenia,  200 

—  On  the   Separation  of    Characters    in 

Hybrids  of  Pea  Type,  454 
Corynebacterium  lymphse  vaccinalis,  94 
Corti,  B.,  Diatoms  of    the   River  Olona, 

676 
Cotte,  J.,  Suberites  domuncula,  56 
Cotyledons,  Nutrition  of  the  Seedling  at 

the  Expense  of,  203 
Council,  New,  122 

Counting  Apparatus,  New,  for  Plate  Cul- 
tures, 718 
Coutiere,  H.,  New  Rhizocephalid  Type, 
555 

—  Structure  of  Thylacoplethus,  555 
Couvreur,  E.,  Blood  ofi  Snail,  640 
Cover-glass  Forceps,  New,  260 
Cover-slips,  Substitute,  115 
Crabs,  Nemertean  Parasites,  558 
Crawley,   H,  Progressive    Movement    of 

Gregarines,  441 
Crayfish  and  Hermit  Crab,  Regeneration, 
431 

—  Colours  of  American,  46 


INDEX. 


741 


Cream,  Ripening  of,  90 

Crinoid,  New,  437 

Crocodile,  Trematodes,  308 

Croft,  W.  B.,  Colours  of  Butterflies  not  due 

to  Diffraction,  302 
Crofts,  J.  S.,  Action  of  Hydrogen  peroxide 

on  Carbohydrates  in  presence  of  Ferrous 

Sulphate,  576 
Croneberg,    A.,   Hydrachnids   of    Central 

Russia,  307 
Crosby,   J.   H.,   Reaction   of  Bacteria   to 

Stimuli,  SS 
(  loss,  C.  F.,  Researches  on  Cellulose,  61 
Cross- Pollination  and  Self-Pollination,  71 
Crucifene,  Anatomy  and   Morphology  of 

Flower,  320 
Crustacea,  Limnetic,  Reproduction,  432 

—  New  Blind,  48 

—  Scottish,  555 

— .     See  Contents,  xvi 

Crustaceans,    Relict    in    North    German 

Lakes,  432 
Cryptogamic  Flora  of  Germany,  Raben- 

horst's,  86,  210,  464 
Cryptogams,  Lists  and  New  Species,  210 

—  Protoplasmic  Continuity,  314 
— .    See  Contents,  xxvi 

Crystalline  and  Crystalloid  Substances  in 
Plants,  61 

—  Structure  of  Metals,  262 
Crystallisation   produced  in  Solid  Metal 

by  Pressure,  261 
Crystalloid  and  Crystalline  Substances  in 

Plants,  61 
Crystalloids  of  Basidiomycetes,  683 
Crystals,  Albuminoid,  in  Ova  of  Roe  Deer, 
632 

—  of  Calcium   Oxalate    in  Seedlings  of 

Alsike,  565 
Cuckoo-spit,  Infusoria  in,  657 
Cucumaria  laevigata,  Structure  and  Herma- 
phroditism, 653 
Cuenot,  L.,  Bivalves  with  Red  Blood-Cor- 
puscles, 550 

—  Heredity  Studied  in  Mice,  294 
— ■  Physiology  of  Echinoderms,  54 
CulicidBB  of  Algiers,  643 

—  Receptacula  seminis,  644 
Cultivating  Anaerobes,  Apparatus,  251 

—  Anaerobic  Bacteria,  Method,  713 
in  Test-tubes,  Simple  Apparatus  for, 

497 
Cultivation  Medium  for  Cheese  Bacteria, 
108 

—  of    Bacillus    tuberculosis,   Eggs    as    a 

Medium,  714 

—  of  Rhizobium  leguminosarum,  108 
Culture-media,    Physical     Properties     of 

Gelatin,  in  reference  to  its  use  in,  713 

—  Processes.     See  Contents,  xxxvi 
Cumings,  E.  R.,  Variation  in  Platystrophia. 

560 
Current,  Inferior  Backward,  in  Bivalve,  39 


Curtis,  C.  C,  Observations  on  Transpira- 
tion, 572 
Cutting  Objects.     See  Contents,  xxxvii 
Cuttlefish,  Dichotomy  of  Arms,  299 
Cuvierian  Organs,  Minute  Structure,  436 
Cyanogenesisin  Plants,  566 
CyanophyceaB,  Cytology,  689 

—  New  Genus,  Richelia,  88 

Cycads,  Living,  Notes  on — The  Zamias  of 

Florida,  448 
Cyclamen,  Regeneration  of  Leaf- Blade,  447 
Cystocarp,  Development  in  some  Floridese, 

334 
Cystoopsis  acipenseri,  308 
Cytology.     £ee  Contents,  xxi 

—  of  Cyanopliycese,  689 

Czapek,  F.,  Proteid  Formation  in  Plants, 

457 
Czapski's  Cornea  Microscope,  484 


D. 


Dahl,  F.,  Arrangement  of  a  Spider  Collec- 
tion, 554 

—  Classification  of  Spiders,  554 

Dale,  E.,  Structure  and  Affinities  of  Dip- 
teris,  672 

—  Tubers  of  Dioscorea,  68 

Damas,  D.,  Development  of  Molgulidse, 
639 

Dangeard,  P.  A.,  Zoospore  and  Spermato- 
zoon, 57 

Daniel,  L.,  Grafting,  Pinching,  and  An- 
nular Decortication,  73 

—  Rejuvenescence  as  a  Result  of  Grafting, 

659 
Daniellia,  Secreting  Apparatus,  318 
Dantec,  F.  Le,  Two  States  of  Living  Mat- 
ter, 31 
Daphnia,  Reaction  to  Light,  47 
Darbishire,  O.  V.,  Chondrus  crispus,  678 
Dark-Ground  Illumination,  Lens,  237 
Darwin,  F.,  Method  of  Investigating  the 
Gravitational  Sensitiveness  of  the  Root- 
tip,  575 
Dassonville,  C,  Mycology  in  France,  221 
Date,  Conversion  of  Carbohydrate  in  Ger- 
mination, 326 
Davenport,  C.  B.,  Reaction  of  Daphnia  to 

Light,  47 
Davis,  T.  J.,  New  Cover-glass  Forceps,  260 
Dean,  B.,  Notes  on  Living  Nautilus,  36 

—  Reminiscence  of  Holoblastic  Cleavage 

in  Ovum  of  Cestracion,  29 
Dearness,  J.,  Magnifiers,  237 
Debrand,  L.,  New  Method  of  Cultivating 

Tetanus  Bacillus,  618 
Decapoda,  Glands  of  Alimentary  Canal,  46 
Decapods,   New   and    Little-known,   Vic- 
torian, 432 

—  of  Celebes,  432 

—  New  Victorian,  646 


742 


INDEX. 


Decortication,     Annular,     Grafting     and 

Pinching,  73 
Deegener,  P.,  Odoriferous  Organ  of  the 

Male  Hepialus  hectus,  302 
Deep-Sea  Fauna,  35 

Deetjen,  — .,  Examining  Blood-plates,  252 
Deherain,  P.  P.,  Cultivation  of  Beet-root, 
452 

—  Formation  of  Starch  in   the  Grain  of 

Wheat,  63 

Dekhuyzen,  M.  C.,  Examining  Blood- 
plates,  252 

Delacroix,  G.,  Bacterial  Disease  of  the 
Potato,  223 

Delage,  Y.,  Function  of  Sphaeridia  in  Sea- 
Urchins,  437 

Delamare,  G.,  Influence  on  Offspring  of 
Injecting  Toxins  into  Parents,  29 

Dele'pine,  S.,  Human  and  Bovine  Tuber- 
culosis, 92 

Delezenne,  C,  Venom  of  Snakes,  63S 

De  Lille,  — ,  New  Syphilis  Bacillus,  <J91 

Delphinium  consolida,  Colouring  Matter 
from  the  Flowers,  443 

Dematopbora  in  Fruit,  6S0 

Demokidoff,  K.,  Testis  of  Tenebrio,  644 

Dendrocometes  paradoxus,  Conjugation, 
438 

Dendy,  A.,  Free-Swimming  Hydroid,  561 

—  Ciliated  Grooves  in  Brain  of  Ammo- 

ccete,  545 

—  Oviparous  Species  of  Onychophora,  306 
Denis,  P.,  Development  of  Inner  Ear  in 

Bat,  420 
Dennis,  D.  W.,  Photomicrography,  240 
Dennis'    High-power    Photomicrography, 

242 
Bentalium  Entails,  "  Pseudogamy,"  299] 
JDentaria  bulbifera,  Staminode-like  Struc- 
tures in,  198 
Dermaptera  and  Microthorax,  302 
Descent,  Present  Position  of  the  Theory, 

171 
Desrnarestiese,    Structure    and    Develop- 
ment, 583 
Development  of  Duck  and   Tern,  Early 
Stages,  294 

—  of  Hypodermal  Imaginal  Discs  in  Lar- 

val Diptera,  42 

—  of    Polyxtomum    integerrimum,    Early 

Stages,  51 
Deycke's  Media,  Experiments,  229 
Dewitz,  J.,  Hindering  Pupation,  180 
Diameter  of  Trees,  Increase,  660 
Diastase,  Cytological  Changes  accompany- 
ing the  Secretion,  565 

—  Ungerminated     Barley,     Action     on 

Starch,  576 
Diatom    Frustules,   Capillary   Absorptive 
Action,  212 

—  Structure,  Images,  248 
Diatomacese,  Parasitic  Fungi,  463 
Diatomaceen-Kunde,  Schmidt's  Atlas,  82 


Diatoms,  Atlas,  460 

—  Classification,  211 

—  Colourless,  81 

—  Fresh-water,  Chromatophores  of,  80 
from  the  Island  of  Jan    Mayen 

and  the  East  Coast  of  Green- 
land, 212 

—  in  Agar- A  gar,  676 

—  Marine,  of  France,  82 

—  New  Genus,  Stauronella,  81 

—  of  Lake  Cotronia,  676 

—  of  the  River  Olona,  676 

—  Recent  Publications,  582 
Dichotomy  of  Arms  in  Cuttlefish,  299 
Dichromatism,    Prisms     and     Plates     for 

showing,  493 
Dickel,  F.,  Life-history  of  Hive  Bee,  180 
Didymozoon,  New  Species,  187 
Diederichs,  K.,  Forinol  as  a  Preservative 
and  Fixative,  109 

—  Picro-carmin  Solutions,  255 

—  Preparation  of  Radulse,  374 
Diedicke,  H,  Relationship  between  Pleo- 

spora  and  Helminthosporium,  681 
Diemyctylus   viridescens,   Structural   Fea- 
ture connected  with  Mating,  634 
Diet,  Modifications  in  Alimentary  System 

of  Birds  induced  by,  172 
Dietel,  P.,  Contributions  to  Fungus  Floras, 
685 

—  New  Fungi,  469 

—  Paraphyses  of  Uredinese,  467 

—  Storing  up  of  Water  in  the  Spores  of 

Uredinese,  85 
Digby,  L.,  Tanganyika  Gastropods  :  Chy- 

tra  and  Limnotrocha,  640 
Digestive  Gland  in  Molluscs,  300 
Dimorphism  of  Foraminifera,  656 

—  Seasonal,  Experiments  in,  41 

—  Sexual,  in  Bupestris  sanguinea,  ISO 
Dingier,  H.,  Floating  Organs  of  Plants,  66 
Dinoflagellata,  Discoloration  of  the  Sea, 

656 

—  Two  New,  563 
Dioscorea,  Tubers,  68 

Diphtheria  and  Pseudodiphtheria  Bacilli. 
Indol-like  Reaction  given  by  Cultures 
of,  93 

—  Avian,  225 

Diplopoda,  Anterior  or  Cephalic  Glands, 
553 

Diplodia  cacaoicola,  338 

Diplosomidse,  Heart,  638 

Dipteris,  Structure  and  Affinities,  672 

Dipterous  Flies,  Undescribed  Palpi  on  the 
Proboscis  of  Some,  with  Remarks  on 
Mouth-parts  in  several  Families,  412 

—  Pupae,  Prothoracic  Respiratory  Appa- 

ratus, 428 
Direction  of  Branches,  Causes  of,  66 
Dischidia  with  Double  Pitchers,  569 
Discoarachne  brevipes,  307 
Discomycetes,  Some  North  American,  590 


INDEX. 


743 


Discs,    Hypodermal    Imaginal,    Develop- 
ment iu  Larval  Diptera,  42 
Disease  in  Plants,  70 

—  Silver-leaf,  683 

Diseases,  Fungal,  of  Plants,  219 

—  of  Plants,  4G9,  686 

Disinfection,   &c,   Preparation   of  Spores 

for  Testing  Methods  of,  227 
Dismier,  &.,  French  Muscineas,  579 
Distomids,  New,  55S 

Distomum  duplication  in  Fresh-water  Mus- 
sels, 431 

—  folium,  Life-history.  51 

Distomuin  from  the  Duckmole,New  Species, 
187 

Didomum  hepaticum,  Maturation  and  Fer- 
tilisation, 434 

Distribution  of  Alpine  Plants,  Means  of, 
76 

—  of  the  Sexes  in  the  Composita?,  64 
Diverticulum  of  Duct  of  Spermutheca  in 

Helix  asptrsa,  176 
Division,  Direct,  in  Artificial  Conditions, 
635 

Dixon-Nuttall,  F.  E.,  New  Rotifers,  435 
Dodge,  C.  W.,  Immersion  Oil  in  Collaps- 
ible Tubes,  116 
Doniinici,  — ,  Method  for  Fixing  and  Stain- 
ing Hematopoietic  Tissue,  372 

—  Method  for  Fixing  Blood-Preparations, 

372 
Doncaster,   L.,   Development   of   Sagitta, 

649,  650 
Donistliorpe,  H.  St.  J.  K.,  Coloration  of 
British  Beetles,  ISO 

—  Life-History  of  Clythra  quadripunctata, 

303 
Dorset,   M.,   Eggs  as  a  Medium  for  the 

Cultivation  of  Bacillus  tuberculosis,  714 
Double  Flowers  and  Parasitism,  65 
Double-Image  Discs  and  Complementary 

Interference  Colours,  249 
Doublet,  Chevalier-Euler  Achromatic,  16 
Douin,  J.,  Ephemerum  tenerum,  332 

—  List  of  Hepatics,  332 

Downing,  E.  R.,  Variation  in  Position  of 
Adductors  in  Anodonta  grandis,  641 

Dragendorff,  O.,  Regeneration  of  the  Lens 
in  Chick  Embryos,  633 

Dragon-Flies  of  Illinois,  181 

Drawing-Apparatus  for  Weak  Magnifica- 
tions, and  Preparation  Stand, 
Zeiss',  485 

Winker's,  for  Weak  Magnifications, 

361 

—  Camera,  Abbe,  105 

—  Stand,  Giltsch's,  488 
Draw-tube,  an  Old  Rackwork,  360 
Drigalski,  V.,  Medium  for  Isolating  Ty- 
phoid Bacilli,  371 

Dropper  for  Sterile  Fluids,  116 
Drummond,  I.  M.,  Development  of  Palu- 
dina  viviparu,  549 


Driiner,  L.,  Musculature  of  Urodela,  35 
Dry-rot,  Black,  in  Swedes,  691 

Micro-chemical   Reactions  of  Wood 

affected  with,  118 
Dubois,  R.,  Copper  in  the  Animal  Organ- 
ism, 637 

—  Formation  of  Pearls,  38 

—  Red  Pigment  of  Asterias  rubens,  654 
Duboscq,  O.,  Epithelial  Regeneration  in 

Mid-gut  of  Arthropods,  551 

—  Sexual  Phenomena  in    Pterocephalus, 

564 
Ducamp,  L.,  Embryo  of  Hedera,  71 

—  Embryogeny  of  Araliaceae,  450 

—  Formation  of  the  Ovule  and  Embryo- 

sac  in  the  Araliaceae,  71 
Duck  and  Tern,  Early  Stages  in  Develop- 
ment, 294 
Duerden,  J.  E.,  Actinians  of  Porto  Rico, 
562 

—  Aggregated  Colonies   in    Madreporian 

Corals,  561 

—  Increase  of  Mesenteries  in  Madrepora, 

655 

—  Relationship  of  Rugosa  to  Living  Zoan- 

theae,  437 

—  Relationships  of  Rugose  Corals,  189 
Dume'e,  P.,  Mycology  in  France,  221 
Duncan,  F.  M.,   Stereophotomicrography, 

366 

—  Photomicrography,  616 

Duncan,  J.  B.,  Mosses  New  to  Britain,  210 
Dunstan,  W.  R.,  Cyanogenesis  in  Plants, 
566 

—  Poison  of  Lotus  arabicus,  658 
Dupont,  C,  Cultivation  of  Beet-root,  452 
Dupont,  E.,  Formation  of  Starch  in  the 

Grain  of  Wheat,  63 

Durand,  E.  J.,  Some  North-American  Dis- 
comycetes,  590 

Durrand,  A.,  Report  on  the  Recent  Fora- 
minifera  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  col- 
lected by,  509 

Duse'n,  P.,  Lists  and  New  Species  of 
Cryptogams,  210 

—  Lists  of  New  Species  of  Hepatics,  210 
Duval,  — ,  Etiology  of  Acute  Dysentery, 

480 
Dybowski,   B.,   Life-History    and    Young 

Stages    of    the   "Fat-Fish"     of    Lake 

Baikal,  167 
Dye-plants,  British,  671 
Dysenteric  Amoeba?,  Staining,  254 
Dysentery,  Acute,  Etiology,  480 

—  ^Etiology  of,  91 


E. 


Ear  in  Man,  Development,  163 
—  Inner,  in  Bat,  Development,  420 
Earland,  A.,  Exhibition  of  Foraminifers 
266 


744 


INDEX. 


Earle,  F.  S.,  North  American  Mycology, 

685 
Earthworms,  Life  of,  1S6 

—  Two  New,  433 

Eastman,  C.  K.,  Carboniferous  Cestracionts 

and  Acanthodians,  547 
Ebner,  V.  v.,  Albuminoid  Crystals  in  Ova 

of  Roe  Deer,  632 
Ebony,  Green,  Colouring  Matters,  443 
Ecbinoderma.     See  Contents,  xviii 
Echinoderms,  Body-Wall  and   Gut-Wall, 
560 

—  from  Puget  Sound,  437 

—  Physiology,  54 

Echinus  esculentus,  Maturation,  654 
Eckel,  E.  C,  Variation  in  Snakes,  424 
Edwards,  C.  L.,  Influence  of  Temperature 

on  Development  of  Fowl's  Egg,  631 
Egg,  Fowl's,  Influence  of  Temperature  on 

Development,  631 
Egg-laying  in  the  Fowl,  Influence  of  Diet, 

294 
Elastic  Tissue,  Modifications  of  Weigert's 
Method  of  Staining,  113 

New  Method  of  Staining,  256 

Electric  Lobes,  Staining  Nerve  Fibrillae  of 

Neurones,  254 
Electrical  Conductivity   of  Plant   Juices, 

660 
Electrical  Lamp,  Microscopist's,  239 
Electricity,  Paraffin  Bath  heated  by,  111 
Electrothermal  Paraffin  Bath,  111 
Elk,  Peculiar  Process  in  Seminal  Vesicle, 

293 
Elliott  Bros.,  Class  Microscope,  622 

—  Micrometer-Gauge,  722 
Elm-Trees,  Insects  Injurious  to,  429 
Embryo  and  Flower  of  Spiraea,  Develop- 
ment, 667 

Embryo  of  Hedera,  71 

Embryo-sac  and  Ovule,  Formation  in  the 
Araliacea?,  71 

in  Piper  and  Heckeria,  Develop- 
ment, 570 

Embryogeny  of  the  Sequoiaceae,  70 

Embryological  Methods,  30 

Embryology,  Comparative,  of  Rubiaceae, 
662 

—  of  Vertebrates.     See  Contents,  viii 
Emmerich,  — ,  Bio-chemical  Antagonisms, 

228 
Emmerling,   O.,  Action   of   Sunlight   on 

Enzymes,  456 
Encephalartos,  Carpophyll,  65 
Enehytrssidse,  Regeneration,  433 
Endosperm,  Histology,  661 
Engelhardt,  H.,  Tertiary  Plants  from  tho 

Himmelsberg,  577 
Engler,   A.,  Vegetation   of  Mountainous 

Districts  North  of  Lake  Nyasa,  458 
Englisch,  O.,  Nutrition  of  Hops,  453 
Enriques,  P.,  Digestive  Gland  in  Mollusc, 
300 


Enriques,  P.,  Histolysis  in  Metamorphosis 
of  Flies,  42 

—  Osmotic  Phenomena  in  Infusorians,  439 

—  Preparing  Liver  of  Mollusca,  375 

—  Reactions  to  Anisotonic  Solutions,  544 
Enteropneust,  New,  559 
Enteropneusta,  Genera,  310 
Entomology,  General  Course,  551 
Entosternite,  Arachnid,  Studies,  645 
Enzyme  Action,  325 

—  of  Nepenthes,  Proteolytic,  205 
Enzymes,  Action  of  Sunlight  on,  456 

—  Demonstration  of,  10S 

—  of  Tea-leaf,  670 

—  Oxidising,  205 
Eolidse,  Papilla?,  176 

Ephippia  of  the  Lynceid  Entomostraca, 

554 
Epidiascope,  Zeiss',  506,  699 
Epididymis  in  Mammals,  Epithelium,  163 
Epileptics,  Parasite  in  Blood,  346 
Epiphegus,  Subterranean  Plants,  447 
Epithelial  Structures  on  Parrots'  Beaks, 

633 
Epstein,  S.,  Burette  for  Removing  Definite 

Quantities  of  Sterile  Fluids,  380 
Equisetum,  Nature  of  Stele,  672 
Eriksson,  J.,  Parasitic  Fungi,  87 

—  Rust  of  Cereals,  338 
of  Timothy  Grass,  592 

—  Witch's  Brooms  on  Barberry,  592 
Ersser,  T.  D.,  Acetylene  Gas  for  the  Lan- 
tern, 490 

—  New   Acetylene    Illuminator    for    the 

Lantern,  389 

Reversible  Live-Box,  381,  386 

Erysiphaceaj,  Contributions  to  the  Biology, 
215 

—  Notes,  465 
Erysiphe  Graminis,  589 

Escherich,  K.,  Development  of  Nerve-cord, 

301 
Escombe,  F.,  Influence  of  VaryingAmounts 
of  Carbon  Dioxide  in  the  Air  on  Photo- 
synthesis and  Plant  Growth,  668 
Esten,  W.  M.,  Ripening  of  Cream,  90 
Ether  Freezing  Apparatus  for  the  Micro- 
tome, New,  110 
Etiolated  Plants,  Action  of  Temperature 

on  Ahsorption  of  Minerals,  324 
Euphorbiaceae,  Anatomy,  445 
Eurypterid  Remains  in  Cambrian,  642 
Evans,  A.  W.,  Hepatics  from  Puerto  Rico, 

674 
Evans,  A.  W.,  List  of  Hepatics,  332 
Evolution  and  Heterogenesis,  75 

—  and  Palaeontology,  634 

Ewart,  A.  J.,  Protoplasmic  Streaming  in 

Plants,  314 
Ewart,  J.   C,    Variation,   Germinal   and 

Environmental,  533 
Ewing,  — .,  Crystalline  Structure  of  Metals. 

262 


INDEX. 


745 


Excretory  Organs  in  Gymnophiona,  421 

of  Amphioxus,  298 

Excursions,  Announcement,  391 
Exhibition  of  Foraminifera,  266 

—  of  Fresh-water  Entomostraca,  390 

—  of  Malaria  Parasites,  122 

—  of  Pond-life,  3S6 

—  of  Typical  Bacteria,  264 

—  Illustrating  the  Structure  and  Develop- 

ment of  the  Eye,  119 
Eycleshymer,  A.  C,  Breeding  Habits  of 

Ameiurus  nebulosus,  34 
Eye-muscles  of  Acanthias,  539 

—  of  Fiat-Fish,  Migration,  420 
Eye-piece,  Demonstration,  487 

for  Use  in  Photomicrography,  266 

Zeiss'  Orthomorphic,  615 

Eye-pieces  for  the  Microscope.    See  Con- 


tents, xsxiv 


F. 


Faeces,  Human,  Bacteriology,  695 
Fairchild,  D.  G.,  Precocious  Branching, 

658 
Falkenberg,  R.,  The  Rhodoinelacese,  583 
Farmer,    J.    B.,    Influence     of   Varying 

Amounts  of  Carbon  Dioxide  in  the  Air 

on  Photosynthesis   and  Plant  Growth, 

668 
Fasching,  — .,  New  Capsulated  Bacillus, 

343 
Fasciation  of  Pine-Apples,  322 
Fat,  Brown,  in  Rodents  and  Insectivores, 

422 
Fat-fish,  of  Lake  Baikal,  Life-history  and 

Young  Stages,  167 
Fat-staining  Pigment,  New,  112 

—  Substance  of  Tubercle  Bacillus,  345 
Fauna,  Abysmal  Antarctic,  35 

—  British,  Additions,  175 

—  Deep-sea,  35 

—  Fresh-water,  Note  on  Additions  to,  546 

—  of  a  Mountain  Stream,  548 

—  of  Exe  Estuary,  174 

—  of  Neuenburgersee,  Notes,  307 

—  of  Switzerland  and  the  Glacial  Period, 

35 

—  of  the  Gulf  of  Triest,  548 

Faunas,  Fossil,  and  Geological  Formations, 

546 
Fecampia,  558 
Feinberg,   — .,   Plasmodiopliora    Brassiese, 

586 
Feinberg,  L.,  Cabbage  and  Cancer,  441 
Feistmantel,  C,  Streptothrix  farcinica,  586 
Felt,  E.  P.,  Insects  Injurious  to  Elm  Trees, 

429 
Ferguson,  M.  C,  Development  of  the  Oo- 

spkere  and  Fertilisation  in  Pinus  Stro- 

bus,  70 

—  Germination  of  Basidiospores,  682 


Fermentation,  Alcoholic,  of  Indian  Fig- 
Must,  337 

—  without  Cells,  75 

Ferments,  Oxidising,  Reaction  and  Nature, 

455 
Fernald,  M.  L.,  Relationships  of  American 

and  Old  World  Birches,  671 
Fernandez,  M.  L.  y,  Spanish  Lichens,  6J<3 
Fernbach,  A.,  Influence  of  Sulphocyanic 

Acid  on  Growth  of  Aspergillus  nlger,  688 
Fern-Prothallus,  Alga-like,  329 
Fern-Stele,  New  Type,  329 
Ferns,  Brazilian,  672 

—  Classification,  328 

—  Filmy,  of  South  America,  578 

—  Fossil    American :    Fertile   Fronds   of 

Crossotheca  and  Myriotheca,  671 
Heterosporous,  79 

—  of  the  North-eastern  States,  Analytical 

Key  based  on  the  Stipes,  578 
Ferrario,  T.,  Fungus  Flora  of  Piedmont, 

685 
Fertilisation  and  Development  of  Oospliere 
in  Pinus  Strobus,  70 

—  and  Gametogenesis  in  Albugo,  83 

—  Double  in  Naias,  69 

in  Solanacea?  and  Gentianacese,  199 

—  External  Phenomena,  536 

—  in  the  Bat,  633 

—  Nature  of,  419 

—  of  Pythium  de  Baryanum,  335 

—  Problem,  418 

Fibrovascular  Bundles  in  the  Stem  and 

Leaf  of  Filicinese,  78 
Fickler,  — .,  Corynebacterium  lymphse  vacci- 

nalis,  94 
Fielde,  A.  M.,  Senses  of  Ants,  39 

—  Studies  on  Ants,  551 

Fig-must,  Indian,  Alcoholic  Fermentation, 

337 
Filaria,  New,  651 
Filatowa,    E.,    Observations     on    Young 

Stages  of  Balanus  improvisus,  432 
Filicinese,  Fibrovascular  Bundles   in  the 
Stem  and  Leaf,  78 

Chains,  207 

Films  and  Plates  for  Double  Refraction, 
Zeiss'  Crystal,  617 

—  Blood,  Handy   Methods   of   Preparing 

Slides  and  Slips,  108 
Filtering  Apparatus,  Practical,  260 
Fine -Adjustment,   New   Two-speed,  267, 

354 
Swift's  "  Ariston,"  698 

—  Adjustments,  Ashe's  Two-speed,  232 
Fink,  B.,  Lichens  of  Minnesota,  467 
Fischer,  — .,  Plasmoptysis,  348 
Fischer,  E.,  Chondrocranium  of    Cercopi- 

thecus  cynomolgus,  163 

—  Parasitic  Fungi,  219 

—  Phalloideas,  87 

Fischler,  G.,  Formation  of  New  Stems  from 
Old  Willows,  197 


746 


INDEX. 


Fish,  Bony,  Development  of  Mid-brain,  165 

—  Mounting  for  Museums,  258 

—  Parasites,  52 

Fish-scales,  Periodic  Growth,  173 
Fishes,  Two  New  Hseinogregarines,  59 
Flagella  and  Capsule  of  B.  anthracis,  220 

—  Staining,  710 
New  Method,  502 

Fiask  for  Storing  Culture  Me<iia,  617 

Flat-fish,  Migration  of  Eye,  420 

Flax,  Retting,  475 

Fleissig,  P.,  Oil  in  Vaucheria,  83 

Fleure,    H.   J.,    Kelations   of    Kidney    in 

Haliotis,  550 
Flexner,  S.,  iEtiology  of  Dysentery,  91 
Flies,  Histolysis  in  Metamorphosis,  42 

—  Setse  on  Legs,  553 

Flint,  J.  M.,  Method  of  Demonstrating  the 

Framework  of  Organs,  379 
Floating  Organs  of  Plants,  66 
Flora,  Fungus,  of  Tyrol,  222 

—  Marine,  of  the  Gulf  of  Naples,  585 

—  of  Bear  Inland,  Contributions,  212 

—  of  Hot  Springs,  597 

—  of  Koh  Chang,  462 

—  of  San  Domingo,  GEcological   Sketch, 

578 

Florentin,  R.,  Significance  of  Ionisation  in 
Acclimatisation,  312 

Floresco,  N.,  Correlation  of  Colouring  in 
Liver,  Skin,  and  Hairs,  32 

Florideae,  Development  of  Cystocarp  in 
some,  334 

ol  Tetrasporangium,  583 

Flower  and  Embryo  ol  Spiraa,  Develop- 
ment, 667 

—  Origin,  198 

Flowers,  Abnormal,  of  Forsythia  viridis- 
sima,  199 

—  Double,  and  Parasitism,  65 

—  Pollen    and   Anemophilous,  Chemical 

Demonstration  of  Nectaries,  566 

—  Polypetalous,  Colours  of  Northern,  457 

—  Position  with  respect  to  Light,  204 

—  Strengthening  and  Nourishing  System, 

198 
Focussing    Attachments    to   Photomicro- 
graphic  Cameras,  Stringer's,  246 

—  in  Photomicrography,  New  Method,  490 
Foliage   In   the   Genus  Acacia,  Peculiar 

Stages,  658 
Folli,  — .,  Acid-resisting  Bacilli  in  Gan- 
grene, 226 
Follmann,  O.,  New  Crinoid,  437 
Foot,  K.,  New  Method   of  Focussing  in 

Photomicrography,  490 
■ —  Spermatozoa  of  Allolobopltora  foetida, 

648 
Foraminifera,  439 

—  Dimorphism,  656 

—  Exhibition,  266 

' —  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  collected  by 
Mr.  A.  Durrand,  Report  on,  509 


Ford.  S.  O.,  Anatomy  of  Geratopteris  thalic- 

troides,  328 
Fi  irgan,  W.,  Photomicrographs  on  Gelatino- 
bromide  Films,  493 

—  Simple  Means  of  Producing  Micropho- 

tographs    with  an  ordinary  Camera, 
246 
Formaldehyde,  Use  for  Preventing  Lique- 
faction in  Glycerin-jelly  Mounts,  25S 
Formalin,  Raising  Melting-poiut  of  Gela- 
tin by  means  of,  lHi 
Formol  as    a  Preservative  ami  Fixative, 

109 
Forxythia  viridissima,  Abnormal  Flowers, 

199 
Foiti,  A.,  Algaj  of  the  Verona  District,  335, 
585 

—  Use   of  Formaldehyde   for  Preventing 

Liquefaction  in  Glycerin-jellyMounts, 
258 

Fossil-Botany,  The  Microscope  in,  725 

Fossil  Heterosporous  Ferns,  79 

Fouilliaud,  R.,  Paraffin  Bath  heated  by 
Electricity,  111 

Fowls'-Eggs,  Influences  of  Injections  into 
the  Albumen,  160 

Fraenkel,  L.,  Function  of  Corpus  Luteum 
in  Relation  to  Insertion  of  Ova  in  Uterus, 
25 

Fraqarium  elegans,  Ovum  within  Testes, 
548 

Fraqillaria  crotonensis,  "Variation,  461 

'Fram'  Microscope  with  Mechanical  Stage, 
267 

Framework  of  Organs,  Method  of  Demon- 
strating, 379 

Frandsen,  P.,  Reactions  ofLimax  maximus, 
299 

Freeman,  R.,  New  Rotifers,  435 

Fresh-water  Entomostraca,  Exhibition, 
390 

Freudenreich,  E.  v.,  Use  of  Tyrogen  in 
Cheese-making,  226 

Fricke,  F.,  Atlas  of  Diatoms,  460 

Friedmann,  O.,  Post-Embryonic  Develop- 
ment of  Aurelia  aurita,  310 

Frule,  H.,  North-Atlantic  Brachiopods, 
187 

Molluscs,  176 

Friedel,  J.,  Chlorophyll  Assimilation  of 
Cut  Leaves,  73 

Fritsch,  F.  E.,  Anatomical  Systematic 
Investigation  of  Leaf  and  Axis  in 
the  Hippocrateaeese,  318 

—  Observations  on  Aphanochsete,  597 

—  CEdogonium,  582 
Frog,  Pseudothyroid,  539 
Frog's  Retina,  Development,  28 

Frozen  Sections,  Rapid  Method  of  making 

Permanent  Preparations  of,  377 
Fruits,  Sugars  and  Organic  Acids  in,  567 
Fry,  T.  C,  Formation  of  Pollen    in    As- 
clepiadeaj,  199 


INDEX. 


747 


Fucus,  Extrusion  o£  Gametes,  677 
Fuhrmann,  O.,  Avian  Cestodes,  50 

—  Fertilisation  in  Cestodes,  557 

—  Myxosporidia  of  Coregonus,  657 
Fulton,    S.W.,    New     and     Little-known 

Victorian  Decapods,  432,  646 
Fungal  Disease  in  Horses,  687 

of  Plants,  &c,  219 

Fungi  and  Bacteria,  Composition  of  Pro- 
teids  and  Cell-Membranes,  457 

—  Blue  Colour  in,  222 

—  Continuity  of  Protoplasm,  687 

—  Coprophilous,  471 

—  Economic,  686 

—  Energy  of  Assimilation,  5S7 

—  Filamentous,  Pleomorphism  and  Chla- 

mydospore  Formation,  587 

—  from  Java,  468 

—  Intra  vitam  Staining,  378 

—  Javanici,  685 

—  Lists  and  New  Species,  340 

—  Lower,  Influence  of  Light  on  the  Re- 

spiration, 687 

—  of  the  Netherlands,  340 

—  on  Andromeda  poli'folia,  595 

—  Parasitic,  86,  219 

—  Parasitic,  and  Weather,  688 
of  Diatomacese,  463 

of  Tropical  Cultivated  Plants,  596 

—  Pathogenic,  686 

—  Preserving  and  Examining,  339 

—  Resistance  to  Temperature,  471 

—  Respiration,  688 

— .    See  Contents,  xxviii 

—  "  Shot-hole,"  218 

—  Some  New,  469 

—  South  American,  222 

—  Spanish,  468 

—  Spore-Germination  in  Higher,  472 

—  West  American,  467 
Fungus  Cultures,  596 

—  Flora,  340 

-of  Piedmont,  685 

of  Tyrol,  222 

Servian,  468 

of  the  Sonntagberg,  685 

—  New  Marine,  Pyrrhosorus,  213 

—  Pests  of  Carnations,  471 

—  Floras,  Contributions,  684 

Futterer,  — .,  Micro-organisms  in  Systemic 
Circulation,  348 


G. 


Gabritschewsky,   G.,   Influence  of   High 
Temperatures  on  the  Stainability  of 
Bacteria,  499 
—  Polythermostats,  496 
Gage,  S.  H.,  '  The  Microscope,'  118 
Gager,  C.  S.,   Development  of  Pollinium 
and  Sperm-Cells  in  Asclepias  Cornuti, 
320 


Gain,  E.,  "  Ageing "  of   the  Embryo  of 

Grasses,  204 
Galaxaura,  79 
Galeotti,    — .,    Pathogenic    Bacillus     in 

Cockles,  693 
Galeus  antarcticus,  Development,  166 
Gallardo,   A.,    Change    of   Sexuality    in 

Plants,  71 
Galli-Valerio,  B.,  Hsernosporidia  in  Alpine 

Birds,  657 
Galls,  Notes  on,  301 

—  Peculiar  Phytoptid,  553 

—  Study,  181 

Gait,  H.,  Method  of  Preserving  Museum 

Specimens,  379 
Gametes,  Extrusion  in  Fucus,  677 
Gametogenesis  and  Fertilisation  in  Albu- 
go, 83 
Gametophytes  and  Embryo  of  Podocarpus, 

319 
Gammarus,  New,  185 
Ganglion-cells,  Spinal,  Staining  Reticulum, 

717 
Garbini,  A.,  New  Gammarus,  185 

Species  of  Pcridinium,  192 

Gardiner,  J.  S.,  Classification,  636 
Gardiner,  W.,  Histology  of  the  Endosperm, 

661 
Garjeanne,  A.  J.  M.,  Spore  Distribution, 

330 
Gasteromycetes,  339 
Gas-formation  by  Bacillus  coli  communis, 

Variability  of,  92 
Gastric  Juice,  Human,  Effect  on  Cholera 

Vibrios,  224 
Gastropod,  New  Cave,  177 

—  New  Parasitic,  in  Holothurian,  426 
Gastropoda.     See  Contents,  xiii 
Gastropods,    Tanganyika  :     Chytra     and 

Limnotrochus,  640 
Gastrotricha,  New  Species,  187 
Gatin,  C.  L.,  Structure  of  the  Tuberous 

Roots  of  Thrincium  tuberosa,  196 
Gatta,  D.  M.  F.  de,  Notes  on  Galls,  301 
Gatta,  M.  F.  de,  Studies  on  Galls,  181 
Gaucher,  L.,  Anatomy  of  Euphorbiacese, 

445 
Gauge,  Micrometer,  622 
Gautier,  A.,  Chemical  Basis  of  Variation, 
31 

—  Minute  Traces  of  Arsenic  in  Animals, 

544 
Gautrelet,  J.,  Occurrence  of  Compounds 

of  Phosphorus  in  Invertebrates,  298 
Geastrse,  593 

Gedoelst,  L.,  Pathogenic  Fungi,  686 
Gelatin  as  a  Substitute  for  Glass,  257 

—  Physical  Properties,  in  reference  to  its 

use  in  Culture  Media,  713 

Gemmill,  J.  F.,  Largest  of  known  Nema- 
todes, 650 

Genau,  K.,  Development  of  Sauromatim/ 
guttatum  Schott,  202 


748 


INDEX. 


Genera,  New,  Acornpsoinyces,  215 

Aporina,  557 

Arachnomyces,  335 

Arenaaa,  468 

Aschersoniopsis,  341 

Aturellus,  183 

Bonordoniella,  469 

Bulgariopsis,  341 

Carcinonemertes,  558 

Celsenogaiuasus,  183 

Chorioactis,  465 

Cotylotretus,  309 

Davincia,  468 

Delpontia,  468 

Desmatractum,  584 

Diarthra,  151 

Dictyerpa,  335 

Didymobotryopsis,  685 

Didymostilbe,  685 

Dimcerium,  563 

Dioicoruyces,  215 

■ Diplochsete,  335 

Discomycopsella,  685 

Endophrys,  563 

Enteroxenos,  426 

Euhaplomyces,  215 

Eumonoicomyces,  214 

Fleischeria,  468 

Gnathomysis,  555 

Gomontiella,  223 

Guttulinopsis,  462 

Gymnodochium,  335 

Joyeuxella,  313 

Kainomyces,  215 

Hapalophragmium,  217 

Helostroma,  221 

Herpetophrya,  563 

Heterostronia,  221 

Hjartdalia,  183 

■ Hohneliella,  685 

Hyalospora,  217 

Hypimetopus,  432 

Kuragea,  656 

Listeromyces,  469 

Ludwigia,  436 

Macrochytrium,  588 

Mesobates,  183 

Micrauurida,  181 

Microstylus,  656 

Midotiopsis,  341 

Moelleroclavus,  341 

Moellerodiscus,  341 

Moutoniella,  468 

Mytilicola,  646 

—  —  Neomichelia,  469 

Nepbrocephalus,  309 

Nidula,  467 

Oistosomum,  309 

Ostracolethe,  177 

Ostreopsis,  462 

Pelagobydra,  561 

Perirhiza,  656 

Perispermum,  212 


Genera,  New,  Pilgeria,'  88 

Pimelobia,  645 

Planoventer,  151 

Platydrornia,  432 

Plectothrix,  595 

Pleistophora,  58 

Postclausa,  151 

Pseudenclonium,  82 

Pfeudoecistes,  150 

Pseudomelasmia,  684 

■ Puttemansia,  684 

Khabdodermella,  312 

Kichelia,  88 

Einia,  468 

Schizodiscus,  656 

Spelseoconeha,  177 

Stauronella,  81 

Stenoscyphus,  656 

Stephanoprora,  309 

Stereotydeus,  1 83 

Stichomyces,  215 

Stilbobypoxylon,  341 

Strabops,  642 

Strasseria,  685 

Tetracrium,  684 

Tetraedropbrya,  313 

Tetramastix,  152 

Tricbobotrys,  469 

Trypanoplasma,  58 

Typhlorhyncus,  434 

Urozercon,  183 

Volutina,  469 

Xenopus,  469 

Xenosporium,  469 

Zimmermaniella,  6S5 

Zoogonoides,  558 

Zoogonus,  558 

Genital  Apparatus,  Female,  in  Microlepi- 
doptera,  40 

Geograpbical  Distribution  of  Priapulus, 
186 

Geopyxis  and  Urnula,  Studies,  464 

Geotaxis  of  Paramcecium  aurelia,  Changes, 
191 

Gerardinus  decemmaculatus,  Reproduction, 
421 

Gerassimow,  J.  J.,  Influence  of  tbe  Nu- 
cleus on  the  Growth  of  the  Cell,  60 

Gerlacb,  M.,  Value  of  Kainite,  453 

Germany,  Monograph  on  Spiders  of,  45 

Germ-cells,  Numerical  Law,  419 

Germicides,  472 

Germinal  Layers  in  Cestoda,  50 

Geminating  Power  of  Seeds,  Duration,  669 

Germination  of  Basidiospores,  682 

—  of  Carapa  guianensis,  658 

—  of  Fern-Spores,  78 

—  Transformation  of  Fatty  Matters  into 

Sugars  in  Oily  Grains  during,  206 

of  Proteids  during,  456 

Germinative  Cells,  So-called,  in  Medullary 

Canal  of  Man,  167 
Germ-layers  of  Vertebrates,  26 


INDEX. 


749 


Gessard,  C,  Melanogenic  Variety  of  Ba- 
cillus pyocyaneus,  92 

Geum,  Integument  of  the  Ovule  and  Seed, 
66 

Ghigi,  A.,  Epithelial  Structures  on  Parrots' 
Beaks,  633 

Giard,  A.,  Determination  of  Sex  in  Lepi- 
doptera,  41 

—  Expulsion   of  Spermatozoa   in   Sciara, 

551 

—  Habits  of  Larvae  of  Sciara  medullaris,  551 

—  Note  on  the  History  of  Merogony,  26 

—  Passage   from   Bisexual   to  Unisexual 

Condition  by  Unilateral  Parasitic 
Castration,  326 

Giardina,  A.,  Early  Stages  in  Oogenesis 
and  the  Synaptic  Phases,  537 

Gibbs,  R.  E.,  Phyllospadix  as  a  Beach- 
builder,  327 

Giemsa,  G.,  Staining  Malaria  Parasites, 
373 

Gies,  W.  J.,  Chemical  Studies  of  Coco- 
nut, 575 

Giesenhagen,  K.,  Leaf- Movements  in 
Polytrichum,  209 

— t  Niphobolus,  79 

Giglio-Tos,  E.,  So-called  Germinative 
Cells  in  Medullary  Canal  of  Man,  167 

Gil,  A.  C,  Red-coloured  Hepatics,  579 

Gildersleeve,  — .,  Lesions  produced  by 
Acid-resisting  Bacilli,  480 

Gil  lot,  V.  and  X.,  Mycology  in  France,  221 

Gills  of  Lamellibranchs,  Structure,  641 

Giltsch's  Drawing  Stand,  488 

Gingko,  Polyembryony,  661 

Girdwood,  G.  P.,  On  Stereomicrograpby, 
12 

Glands,  Anterior  or  Cephalic,  of  Diplo- 
poda,  553 

—  Cervical,  of  Marsupials,  33 

—  Exuvial,  644 

—  of  Alimentary  Canal  in  Decapoda,  46 

—  Skin,  of  Amphibians,  30 

—  So-called  Hepatico-Pancreatic  of   Iso- 

pods,  556 

Glass-rod  Substage,  240 

Gleicheniauese,  Anatomy,  207 

Glendinning,  T.  A.,  Enzyme  Action,  325 

Gliick,  H.,  Stipular  Structures  of  Mono- 
cotyledons, 447 

Glycerin-jelly  Mounts,  Use  of  Formalde- 
hyde for  preventing  Liquefaction,  258 

Glycogen,  Fermentation  of,  in  Ascaris,  557 

Gnetacese,  Vascular  Structure  of  Flowers, 
320 

Godlewski,  E.,  Regeneration  in  Tubularia, 
655 

Goebel,  — .,  Homologies  in  the  Develop- 
ment of  Male  and  Female  Sexual  Organs, 
206 

Goffart,  J.,  Anatomy  of  Leaves  in  Ranun- 
culacese,  444 

—  Rhizomorpha,  594 


Goldberg, — .,  Interpretation  of  Agglutina- 
tion Reaction  Results,  228 
Goblberg,  S.  J.,  Influence  of  Alcohol  on 

Natural  Immunity,  91 
Golden,   K.    E.,    Photomicrography   with 

Simple  Apparatus,  482 
Goldhorn,  L.  B„  Staining  Mast-Cells  and 

the    Chromatin   of    Malaria    Parasites, 

502 
Golenkin,  M.,  Mycorhiza  in  the  Marchan- 

tiaceae,  219 
Golowin,   E.   P.,   Phagocytic    Organs    in 

Nematodes,  49 
Gomont,  — .,  Flora  of  Koh  Chang,  462 
Gomontiella,  a  new  Genus  of  Schizophy- 

ceae,  223 
Gonionema  murbachii,  Budding  in  Larvae, 

561 
Gonococcus,  Cultivation,  601 
Gonothyrsea  loveni,  Development,  55,  311 
Gonyaulax,  Discoloration  of  Water  by,  57 
Goodrich,  E.  S.,  Excretory  Organs  of  Aiu- 

phioxus,  298,  424 
Goransson,  K.  F.,  Effect  of  Reheating  upon 

Overheated  Steel,  718 
Gordon,  M.  H.,  Bacteriology  of  Scarlatina, 
694 

—  Streptococces  of  Scarlet  Fever,  (394 
Gosio,  — .,  Transmissibility  of  Plague  to 

Bats,  692 
Gough,  L.  H.,  Development  of  Admetus 

pumilio,  430 
Grabower,  — .,  Nerve-Endings  in  Human 

Muscle,  295 
Graeffe,  E.,  Fauna  of  the  Gulf  of  Triest, 

54S 
Grafting,  Hybridisation  by,  73 

—  Pinching,  and  Annular  Decortication, 

73 

—  Rejuvenescence  as  a  Result,  659 
Gram,  B.,  Aleurone-Grains  in  Oily  Seeds, 

442 
Grandis,    V.,    Electrical     Properties    of 

Nerves,  425 
Grant,  F.  E.,  New  and  little-known  Vic- 
torian Decapods,  432,  646 
Grasses,  "  Ageing"  of  the  Embryo,  204 
Gratings  ruled  by  Mr.  Grayson,  385 
Gravity,  Dispensability  in  Development  of 

Toad's  Egg.  537 
Grayson's  ruled  Gratings,  385 
Green  Alga,  Assimilation  of  Carbon,  323 
Greenough's  Binocular  Microscope,  607 
Gregarines,  Progressive  Movement,  441 
Grew,  Nehemiah,  Life  and  Work  of,  129 
Grieg,  J.  A.,  North  Atlantic  Brachiopods, 
187 

Molluscs,  176 

Griffiths,  D.,  Anchoring  of  Plantain -Seeds. 
458 

—  West  American  Fungi,  467 

Groove,  Dorsal,  and  Dorsal  Suture  in  Gas- 
trula  of  Triton,  28 


750 


INDEX. 


Grosser.  O.,  Arterio-Venous  Anastomoses 

in  Man  and  Mammals,  422 
Growing-Crystals,  Study  by  Iustantaneous 

Photomicrography,  364 
Growth  of  Seed  Plants.      See  Contents, 

xxiii 
Gruber,    — .,    Bacillus    Lacto-rubifaciens, 

690 
Griinbanm,  A.  S.,  Media  for  distinguisk- 

ing   B.   coli,   B.   typhosus    and   related 

Species,  49G 
Griiss,  J.,  Biological   Phenomena   in   the 
Cultivation  of  Ustilago  Maydis,  591 

—  Conversion  of  Carbohydrate  in  the  Ger- 

mination of  Date,  326 
Gruvel,  A.,  Dwarf  Males  and  other  Sexual 

Peculiarities  in  Cirripedia,  646 
Grynfeltt,  E.,  Inter-renal  Body  of  Plagio- 
stomes,  636 

—  Supra-renal    Bodies    of    Plagiostomes, 

636 
Guerin,  C,  Avian  Diphtheria,  225 
Guerin,  P.,  Development  of  Seed  in  Sapin- 

dacese,  321 
Guignard,    L.,    Double    Fertilisation    in 
Naias,  69 

in  the  Solauacese  and  Gentiana- 

cese,  199 

—  Secreting  Apparatus  of  Daniellia,  31S 
Guilliermond,   A.,    Sexuality    of   certain 

Yeasts,  216 
Gurwitsch.  A.,  Filamentous  Tufts  of  Epi- 
thelial (.'ells  in   Vas  epididymis  of 
Man,  170 

—  Eapid   Method    of    Iron-Hsernatoxylin 

Staining,  256 
Guth,  H.,  Intra  vitam  Staining  of  Fungi, 

378 
Gwynne-Vaughan,  D.  T.,  Nature    of  the 

Stele  of  Equisetum,  672 
Gymnonscus,  New,  464 
Gymnophiona,  Development  of  Excretory 

Organs,  421 
Gymnosperms,  Precursors  of  Sieve-tubes, 

569 
Gynandromorphy  in  a  Wasp,  40 


H. 


Haacke,  P.,  Decomposition  of  Lactose  by 
B.  acidi  lactici,  478 

Haan,  J.  de,  Fungal  Disease  in  Horses, 
687 

Haas,  G.  C.  F.,  Some  Evidences  of  Un- 
scientific Conservatism  in  the  Construc- 
tion of  Microscopes,  248 

Haberlaudt,  G.,  On  Fibrillar  Structure  of 
Protoplasm,  194 

Haecker,  V.,  Reproduction  of  Limnetic 
Crustacea,  432 

Haematopoietic  Tissue,  Method  of  Fixing 
and  Staining,  372 


Hematoxylin,  Constitution,  443 
Hemogregarines  from  Fishes,  Two  New, 

59 
Hemolymph  Glands  in  Man  and  Mam- 
mals, 169 
Hemolysin  of  Streptococcus,  346 
Hsemosporidia  of  Alpine  Birds,  657 
Hair  turning  White,  295 
Hairs,  Examination  for  Medico-legal  pur- 
poses, 115 
Halaearidse,  Arctic,  431 
Halban,  J.,  Ovary  and  Menstruation,  632 
Halicltondria  panicea  and  Suberites  domun- 

cula,    Modifications     or    Metampy    in, 

190 
Halimeda,  The  Genus,  678 
Haliotis,  Relations  of  Kidney,  550 
Halkin,  H,  Early  Stages  in  Development 

of  Polystomum  integerrimum,  51 
Hall,  J.  G.,  Einbrvology  of  Limnocharis, 

570 
Hamamelis  virginiana,  Development,  570 
Hamrnar,  A.,  Development  of  Ear  in  Man, 

163 
Hamrnar,  J.  A..  Development  of  Tongue 

in  Man,  26 
Hammerl,   — .,  Cultivation  of  Anaerobic 

Bacteria,  370 
"  Hanging-Block  "  Preparation  for  Observ- 
ing Developing  Bacteria,  380 
Hanging-drop  Cultivation,  496 
Hansgirg,   — .,    Phyllobiologic   Types  in 

some  Orders  of  Seed-plants,  576 
Hansgirg,  A.,  Biology  of  Leaves,  67 
Hanusch,  F.,  Value  of  Green  Manures, 

453 
Haptera  of  Lichens,  218 
Hard  Objects,  Saw  for  making  Microscopic 

Preparations  of,  112 
Harden,  A.,  Microscopical  Appearances  of 

Pressed  Yeast  after  Liquefaction,  85 
Hardesty,  J.,  Neurological  Technique,  715 
Hariot,  P.,  Bovista  amnwphila,  336 
Harmer,  S.  F.,  Structure  of  Cheilostomata, 

651 
Harper,  — .,  Binucleate  Cells   in  certain 

Hymenomycetes,  217 
Harris,  H.   F.,  New  Method  of  Staining 

Elastic  Tissue,  256 
Harris,  J.  A.,  Structure  of  Male  in  Genus 

Camharus,  48 
Harris,  N.  M.,  Improved  Method  of  Making 

Collodion  Sacs,  502 
Harrison,  — .,  B.  tuberculosis  in  Cheese, 

478 
Harrison,  F.  C,  Method  of  Cultivating 

Anaerobic  Bacteria,  713 
Harroy,  M.,  Chlorophyll  Assimilation  of 

Cut  Leaves,  73 
Harshberger,  J.  W.,  Cockscomb  Fasoiation 

of  Pine-apples,  322 
—  Germination  of  Carapa  guianensis,  658 
of  Seeds  of  Carapa  guianensi*,  572 


INDEX. 


751 


Harshberger,  J.  W.,  Limits  of  Variation  in 
Plants,  75 

—  (Ecological  Sketch  of  the  Flora  of  San 

Domingo,  57S 
Hart,  A.  C,  Dragon-flies  of  Illinois,  181 
Hartlaub,  CI.,  Revision  of  Genus  Sertula- 

rella,  55 
Hartmann,   M.,    Maturation    in    Asterias 

glaclalis,  437 
Hartog,  M.,  Structure  of  Acinetines,  507 
Hasselbring,  — .,  Canker  in  Apple  Trees, 

686 
Hassenkamp,    A.,    Development    of    the 

Cystocarp  in  some  Florideae,  334 
Hastings  Apochromat,  236 
Hastings, — .,  Efficiency  of  Pasteurisation, 

477 
Hastings,  — .,  Heat-resisting  Micrococcus, 

602 
Hatai,   S.,   Efferent   Neurons   in    Electric 
Lobes  of  Torpedo  oecidentalis,  168 

—  Staining  Nerve-Fibrilhe  of  Neurones  in 

Electric  Lobes,  254 

Hatta,  S.,  Relation  of  Metameric  Segmen- 
tation in  Petromyzon  to  that  in  Am- 
pliioxus  and  in  Higher  Craniota,  29 

Hatteria,  Retina,  541 

Hauman,  — .,  Retting  of  Flax,  475 

Head  Skeleton,  Teleostean,  Morphology, 
420 

Hi  aid,  F.  D.,  Electrical  Conductivity  of 
Plant  Juices,  669 

Heart  of  DiplosomidaB,  63S 

—  of  Molgula  manhattensis,  548 

Heath,    H.,    Introductory    Text-book    of 

Zoology,  547 
Hebb,  R.  G.,  120 — Announcement  of  Ex- 
cursions, 391 

—  Microscope  by  Gary,  722 

Hecke,  L.,  Baeteriosis  of  Kohlrabi,  90 

Heckel,  E.,  Germination  of  Ongnekoa  and 
Strombosia,  322 

Hedera,  Embryo,  71 

Hefferan,  M.,  Unusual  Bacterial  Grouping, 
689 

Hegler,  R.,  Fixing  and  Staining  Phyco- 
chroniaceae,  374 

Heidenhain,  M.,  Carbon  Bisulphide  in 
Paraffin  Imbedding,  111 

Heim,  L.,  Demonstration  of  Cholera  Vi- 
brios, 110 

Heinricher,  E.,  Green  Hemiparasites,  451 

—  Parasitic  Fungi,  219 

Heinricher,  H.,  Green  Hemi-Parasites,  197 

Helier,  F.,  Mycology  in  France,    222 

Heliozoa  around  Geneva,  312 

Helix  aspersa,  Diverticulum  of  Duct  of 
Spermotheca,  176 

Helix,  Free  Intra-epithelial  Nerve-End- 
ings, 176 

Helly,  K.,  Circulation  in  the  Spleen,  169 

Helminthosporium  and  Pleospora,  Re- 
lationship, 681 


Helminthostachys  and  Ophioglossum,  Pro- 
thalli,  327 

Helminthostachys,  Ophioglossum,  and  Psi- 
lotum,  Prothallus  of,  77 

Hemi-Parasites,  Green,  197,  451 

Hemiptera,  Some  British,  428 

Hemispheres,  Cerebral,  Origin,  26 

Hemp  and  Bacteria,  695 

Hennesuy,  L.  F.,  Maturation  and  Fertilisa- 
tion in  Distomum  hepaticum,  434 

Hennings,  P.,  Contributions  to  Fungus 
Floras,  684 

—  Fungi  Costaricenses.  684 

—  Fungi  on  Andromeda  polifolia,  595 

—  Fungi  Javanici,  685 

—  Japanese  Rusts,  340 

—  List  of  New  Fungi  from  Para,  340 

—  New  Fungi,  469 

—  New  Hymenomycete,  685 
— 'New  Pezizacese,  685 

—  Parasitic  Fungi,  86 

—  Plant  Diseases,  470 

—  South-American  Fungi,  222 

—  Species  of  Cordiceps  from  Surinam,  685 
Henry,  T.   A.,   Cyanogenesis  in    Plants, 

566 

—  Poison  of  Lotus  arabicus,  658 
Hepatic  Cells,  Intracellular  Canals,  422 
Hepaticaa,  American,  Notes,  459 
Hepaticarum  Species,  673 

Hepatics  from  Puerto  Rico,  674 

—  Red-coloured,  579 

—  Siamese,  674 

Sepialus  hectus,  Odoriferous  Organ  of  the 

Male,  302 
Herbst's  Corpuscles  in  Sparrow  and  Fowl, 

Structure,  31 
Heredity  Studied  in  Mice,  294 
Hermaphroditism  and  Structure  of  Cucu- 
maria  laevigata,  653 

—  in  Herring,  421 

—  in  Species  of  Chermes,  553 

— ■  Lateral,  in  Palinurus  frontalis,  433 
Hermit  Crab  aud  Crayfish,  Regeneration, 

431 
He'rouard,  E.,   Body-Wall  and   Gut- Wall 
in  Echinoderms,  560 

—  Calcareous    Plates     of    Synapta    and 

Ankyroderma,  436 
Hen-era,   A.    L.,   Plasmic  Appearance   of 

Metaphosphate  of  Calcium,  636 
Herpetomonas,  Multiplication,  313 
Herring,  Hermaphroditism,  421 
Herring,  P.  T.,  Comparative  Anatomy  and 

Embryology  of  the  Malpighian  Bodies, 

540 
Hertwig,  O.,  Germ-layers  of  Vertebrates, 

26 
Hertwig,  R.,  Nature  of  Fertilisation,  419 
Herubel,  M.  A.,  Brain  of  Phascolosoma, 
649 

—  Peritoneal  Elements  of  Phascolosuma 

vulgare,  433 


752 


INDEX. 


Herzog,  — .,  Tuberculosis  iu  Cold-blooded 

Animals,  47! I 
Herzog,  J.,  Strengthening  and  Nourishing 

System  in  Flowers,  198 
Herzog,  T.,  Lists  of  Mosses,  331 
Heterodera  schaclitii,  50 
Heterogenesis  and  Evolution,  75 
Heteronemertean,  nevr,Zygeupolia  litoralis, 

309 
Hewlett,  R.  T.,  Indol-like  Reaction  given 
by     Cultures      of    Diphtheria     and 
Pseudodiphtheria  Bacilli,  93 

—  Probable  Identity  of  Achalme's  Bacil- 

lus of  Acute  Rheumatism  and  the 
Bacillus  enter itidis  sporogenes,  93 

Hexactinellids,  Studies,  656 

Heycock,  — .,  Results  of  Chilling  Copper- 
tin  Alloys,  261 

Heydrich,  F.,  Development  of  Tetra- 
sporangium  in  Floridese,  583 

—  Perispermum,  a  New  Genus  of  Coral- 

linacete,  212 
Heymons,  R.,  Development  of  Scolopendra, 

44 
Hibernation  of  Bats,  33 
Hickson,  S.  J.,  Conjugation   of   Dendro- 

cometes  paradoxus,  438 

—  Structure  of  Alcyonium  digitatum,  189 
Hieronymus,  G.,  New  Species  of  Selagi- 

nella,  578 
Hilger,  A.,  New  Photo-measuring  Micro- 
meter, 506 

—  Photo-measuring  Micrometer,  486 
Hill,  A.  W.,  "  Hanging-Block  "  Prepara- 
tion for  Observing  Developing  Bac- 
teria, 380 

—  Histology  of  the  Endosperm,  661 

—  Histology  of  the  Sieve-tubes  of  Pinus, 

195 
Hilton,  W.  A.,  Sense-hairs  of  Lepidopter- 
ous  Larvae,  643 

—  Structural    Feature    connected     with 

Mating   of    Diemyctylus  viridescens, 
634 
Hinterberger,  — .,  Capsule  and   Flagella 

of  B.  anthracis,  226 
Hintze,   R.,  Life-History  of  Lanhesterella 

minima,  441 
Hinze,  G.,  Beggiatoa,  223 
Hippocrataceaceaj,  Anatomical  Systematic 

Investigation  of  Leaf  and  Axis,  318 
Hirschfeld,  H.,  Examining    Blood-plates, 

252 
Hirudinea,  Vascular  System,  556 
Hirudo  troctina,  186 
Histological  Technique,  Lee  and  Henne- 

guy's,  623 
Histology.    See  Contents,  x 
Histolysis  in  Metamorphosis  of  Flies,  42 

—  Seasonal,  in  Poly  clarets,  48 
Hitchcock,  R.,  Capillary  Absorptive  Action 

of  Liatoin  Frustules,  212 
Hive  Bee,  Life-History,  ISO 


Hochstetter,  F.,  Variations  in  the  Aortic 
Arches  and  the  Origin  of  Arteries  iu 
Reptiles,  27 

Horlmeister,  O,  Demonstration  of  the  Cell- 
nucleus  of  Saccharomyces,  113 

Hofmeister,  F.,  Chemical  Organisation  of 
Cell,  423 

Hohlke,  D.  F.,  Resin-Receptacle  in  the 
Polypodiacese  and  in  some  Phanero- 
gams, 64 

Holborn,  K.,  Some  Fungus  Cultures,  596 

Holder  for  Metallurgical  Work,  494 

Hollander,  F.  d',  Pseudochromosomes  iu 
Ova  of  Birds,  632 

Holm,  T.,  North-American  Carices,  577 

Holmgren,  N,  Chitin-Foruaation,  Muscle- 
Insertion,  and  Cell-Connections  in  In- 
sects, 178 

Holoblastic  Cleavage,  Reminiscence  iu 
Ovum  of  Cestracion,  29 

Holothurian,  Hermaphrodite,  54 

—  New,  from  New  Zealand,  436 

Parasitic  Gasteropod  in,  426 

Holzapfel,  K.,  Stand  for  Holding  Slides. 

259 
Holtzapffel's  Microscope,  19 
Homarus  europ>ieus,  Observations  on,  185 
Honey  of  Bees,  429 
Hops,  Nutrition,  453 
Horrell,  — .,  Mosses  New  to  Britain,  209 
Horses,  Fungal  Disease,  687 
Host  and  Parasite,  Relation  between,  593 
Hot  Water,  Animals  in,  171 
House-FJy,  Copulation,  301 
Houser,  G.  H.,  Brain  of  Mustelus,  30 
Houssay,  F.,  Growth  and  Auto-Intoxica- 
tion, 543 

—  Influence  of  Diet  on  Egg-laying  in  the 

Fowl,  294 

—  Modifications  in  Alimentary  System  of 

Birds  induced  by  Diet,  172 
Houston,  A.  C,  Bacteriological  Examina- 
tion of  Potable  Water,  91 

—  Cereal  Products  ami  Bacteria,  696 
Howard.  A.,  Diplodia  cacaoicola,  33S 
Howe,  M.  A.,  Notes  on  American Hepaticse. 

459 

Hubbert,  W.  R.,  Ink  for  Writing  on  Glass. 
381 

Huie,  L.  H.,  So-called  Hepatico-pancrea- 
tic  Glands  of  Isopods,  556 

Hume,  E.  H.,  Media  for  distinguishing 
B.  coli,  B.  typhosus,  496 

Humfrey,  J.  C.  W.,  Effects  of  Strain  ou 
the  Crystalline  Structure  of  Lead,  719 

Hunter,  G.,  Notes  on  Development  of  Liver 
540 

Hunter,  G.  W.,  Heart  of  Molgula  man- 
hattensis,  54S 

Hunter,  J.,  Irish  Mosses,  459 

Hunter,  S.  J.,  Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in 
Aibacia  induced  by  the  Use  of  Sea- 
water  Concentrated  by  Evaporation,  41  > 


INDEX. 


753 


Huntingdon's  New  Stage,  266 

—  Tilting-stage  for  Holding  and  Adjust- 

ing Minerals,  613 
Hyams,  I.  F.,  Oscillaria  prolffica,  341 
Hybridisation  by  Grafting,  73 
Hybridism  and  Xenia,  200 
Hybridity,  Laws  of,  72 
Hydnacese,  682 
1 1  ydra,  Eegeneration,  655 
Hydrachnid,  New  British,  554 
Hydrachnids,  New  Genera,  183 

—  of  Central  Russia,  307 
Hydrocoridae,  Morphology  of  Labial  Parts, 

552 

llydrodictyon  utriculatwm,  Starch-forma- 
tion in,  205 

Hydrogen  peroxide,  Action  on  Carbohy- 
drates in  presence  of  Ferrous  Sulphate, 
576 

Hydroid,  Free-Swimming,  561 

Hydroids,  Historical  Study  of  the  Zoo- 
logical Investigation,  311 

Hydrophilm  piceus,  Oogenesis,  643 

Hymcnomycetes,  Binucleate  Cells  in,  217 

Hyphse,  Fungal,  Zymase  in,  587 

Hypopterygiacese,  79 

Hypostase,  Existence  in  Ovule  and  Seed 
of  Rosacese,  666 

Hypotrichous  Infusoria,  Comparative  Mor- 
phology, 192 


Ijima,  J.,  Amphitretus  from  Sagami  Sea, 
639 

—  Studies  on  Hexactinellids,  656 
Ikeda,  I.,  Development  of  Phoronis  ijhnai, 

52 
Ikeda,  S.,  Amphitretus  from  Sagami  Sea, 

639 
Illuminating  Apparatus.     See  Contexts, 

XXXV 

Illumination,  Lens  for  Dark-Ground.  237 
Imbedding  in  Paraffin,  Apparatus,  377 
in  Vacuo,  112 

—  Objects.     See  Contents,  xxxvii 
Immersion  Oil  in  Collapsible  Tubes,  116 
Immunity,  171 

—  and  Predisposition  in  Plants,  473 

—  Natural,  Influence  of  Alcohol  on,  91 
Index  of  New  Biological    Terms,  or  Old 

Terms  with  New  Meanings,  recorded  in 

this  Volume,  730 
Indol-like    Reaction    given    by    Cultures 

of    Diphtheria     and    Pseudodiphtheria 

Bacilli,  93 
Infusoria,   Adaptability   to    Concentrated 
Solutions,  192 

—  Hypotrichous,    Comparative    Morpho- 

"logy,192 

—  in  Cuckoo-Spit,  G57 

—  Methods  for  Use  in  Study  of,  619 


Infusorian,  New  Parasitic,  563 
Infusorians,  Osmotic  Phenomena,  439 

—  Reactions  to  Carbonic  and  other  Acids, 

191 
Inghilleri,  F.,  New  Injection  Syringe  for 

Bacteriological  Purposes,  259 
Inheritance,  Grand-parental,  419 
Injecting  Objects.     See  Contents,  xxxvii 
Injection  Syringe,  New,  for  Bacteriological 

Purposes,  259 
Ink  for  Writing  on  Glass,  381 
Innervation    of    Supra-orbital    Canal    in 

CMmsera  monstrosa,  168 
Inorganic  Salts,  Action  on  the  Structure 

and  Development  of  Plants,  72 
Insecta.    See  Contents,  xiv 
Insects,  Aquatic,  in  the  Adirondacks,  179 

—  Chitin-Formation,  Muscle-Insertion  and 

Cell-Connections,  178 

—  Injurious  to  Elm-trees,  429 

—  Nerve-Endings  in  Striped  Muscle,  644 

—  So-called  Microthorax,  643 

—  Spermatogenesis,  178 
Instruments,   Accessories,   &c.     See  Con- 
tents, xxxiv 

Integument  of   the   Ovule  and   Seed  of 
Geum,  6Q 

—  Ventral,  of  Trilobites,  427 
Interference  Colours,  Complementary,  and 

Double-Image  Discs,  249 
Inter-renal  Body  of  Plagiostomes,  636 
Intestinal  Worms,  Preserving,  258 
Intestine  in  Vertebrates,  Vascularisation, 

172 

—  Pig's,  Development,  27 
Intoxications,   Marine,   and  the    Life    of 

Burrowers,  34 

Intracellular  Constituents  of  Tvphoid  Ba- 
cillus, 225 

Inui,  T.,  Yeast  Fungi  used  iu  Manufacture 
of  "  Awamori,"  339 

Invertebrata.     See  Contents,  xii 

Involution   Forms    of    some 
Bacteria,  91 

Ionisation  in  Acclimatisation,  Significance, 
312 

Iris  in  Man,  Development,  164 

Iron  and  Steel,  Report  of  a  Demonstra- 
tion of  Methods  used  in  Photomicro- 
graphy of,  1 

Iron-HsematoxylinStaining,Rapid  Method, 
256 

Iron  Impregnation  of  Nerve  Fibrillse,  254 

Irritability  of  Seed  Plants.  See  Contents, 
xxiv 

—  of  the  Higher  Plants,  74 
Irritation,  Influence  on  Growth   of  Uni- 
cellular Plants,  471 

Isatis  tinctoria.  Colouring  Matters  obtain- 
able from,  567 

Ishikawa,  C,  Reduction  of  Chromosomes 
iu  Larix  leptolepis,  60 

Isopods,  Blind,  New  Genus,  432 


Plague-like 


December  17th,  1902 


3    E 


754 


INDEX. 


Isopods,    So-called     Hepatico-Paucreatic 

Glands,  556 
Issatscbenko,  — .,  Bacillus  Pathogenic  to 

Rats,  602 
Issel,  R.,  Animals  in  Hot  Water,  171 
Ives,  F.  E.,  Method  of  Measuring  Objects 

in  the  Microscope,  704 
Ives,  F.  E.,   Photograph  of  Pleurosigma 

angulatum,  529 
—  Photomicrographic  Device,  491 
Iwanoff,  K.  S.,   Composition  of   Proteids 

and   Cell-Membranes  in    Bacteria    and 

Fungi,  457 


J. 


Jaccard,  P.,  Distribution  of  Plants  in  the   i 

Alps  and  Jura  Mountains,  206 
Jackson,  C.  M.,  Vascular  System  of  Bdello- 

stoma  dombeyi,  174 
Jacobi,  A.,  Bio-geographical  Regions,  426 
Jaderholm,  E„  List  of  Mosses,  331 
Jahn,  E.,  Studies  in  Myxomycetes,  585 
Janda,  V.,  Notes  on  iEolosoma  tenebrarum. 

186 
Janssens,  J.  A.,  Spermatogenesis  in  Newt, 

538 
Jacquet,  M.,  Dolphin  Carp,  547 
Javillier,  M.,  Investigation  and  Presence 

of  Rennet-ferment  in  Plants,  575 
Jaworowski,  M.,  Reticular  Apparatus  in 

Spinal  Ganglion-Cells,  635 
Jeffrey,  E.  C,  Stem  of  Pteridopkytes  and 

Gymnosperms,  194 
Jennings,  H.  S.,  "  Artificial  Protoplasm," 
190 

—  Reaction  of  Bacteria  to  Stimuli,  8S 

—  Reactions  of  Infusorians   to  Carbonic 

and  other  Acids,  191 
Jimero,  H.,  Honey  of  Bees,  429 
Job,  R.,  Steel    Rails :    Relation   between 

their  Structure  and  Durability,  718 
Joel,  H.  O.,  Pyrrhosorus,  a  New  Marine 

Fungus,  213 
Johnson,  D.  S.,  Development  of  the  Em- 
bryo-sac in  Piper  and  Heckeria,  570 

—  Germination  in  Piperaceae,  571 
Johnson,  S.  W.,  Circulation  in  Lumbricus. 

433 
Johnston,  J.  B.,  Circulation  in  Lumbricus, 
433 

—  Homology  of  Selachian  Ampullae,  546 
Johnston,  S.  J.,  New  Species  of  Distomum 

from  the  Duckmole,  187 
Johnstone,  J.,   Cervical  Glands  of  Mar- 
supials, 33 

—  Protozoon  Parasite  in  Plaice,  193 
Joint,  Last,  of  Limbs  in  Arthropods,  427 
Jones,  — .,  Mosses  New  to  Britain,  209 
Jones,  L.,   Method    for  Cleaning  Slides, 

503 
Jiinsson,  B.,  Structure  and  Development 
of  the  Desniarestise,  583 


Jonsson,  H.,  Marine  Algce  of  Iceland,  461 
Jordan,  D.  S.,  Introductory  Text-Book  of 

Zoology,  547 
Joseph,   H.,    Abnormalities    in  Veins   of 

Salamander,  35 
—  Supporting-Substances  of  the  Nervous 

System,  296 
Joseph,  M.,  Bacilli  in  Svphilitic  Semen, 

692 
Jost.  L.,  Theory  of  the  Shifting  of  Lateral 

Organs  through  Mutual  Pressure,  322 
Jourdaiu,  S.,  Formation  and  Diseases  of 

Pearls,  39 
Jullien,  — .,  New  Syphilis  Bacillus,  691 
Julus  communis,  Alimentary  Tract,  553 
Jurie.  A.,  Hybridisation  by  Grafting,  73 


K. 


Kaalaas,  B.,  New  Hepatics,  332 

Kadyi,  — ..  Staining  Grey  Matter  of  Spinal 
Cord  after  Mordanting  with  Metallic 
Salts,  500 

Kaestner,  S.,  Embryological  Methods,  30 

Kainite,  Value,  453 

Kane,  W.  F.  de  V.,  Mysis  relicta  in  Ireland, 
46 

Kapelkiu,  AW,  Development  of  Axial  Skele- 
ton in  Amphibia,  27 

Karop,  G.  C,  128— Hanging-drop  Cultiva- 
tion, 496 

Karsten,  G.,  Colourless  Diatoms,  81 

Kastle,  J.  H.,  Reaction  and  Nature  of 
Oxidising  Ferments,  455,  456 

Kedrowski,  W.  J.,  Cultivation  of  the 
Leprosy  Bacillus,  249 

Keissler,  C.  v.,  Plankton  of  Alpine  Lakes, 
675 

—  Plankton  of  Attersee,  36 
Keller,  I.  A.,  GEdogonium,  582 
Kellerman,  AW   A.,  American   Mycology, 

594 

Kellog,  V.  L.,  General  Course  of  Ento- 
mology, 551 

Kendall,  A.  J.,  New  Method  of  Flagella- 
Staining,  502 

Kendrickia,  Abnormal  Secondary  Thicken- 
ing, 660 

Kennel,  J.,  Progeny  of  a  Tailless  Cat,  292 

Kent,  AW  J.,  Colours  of  American  Cray- 
fish, 46 

Kerr,  J.  G.,  Relationship  between  Ainphi- 
neura  and  Cephalopoda,  38 

Khoury,  — .,  Micro-Organisms  of  Egyptiau 
"  Leben  Raib,"  343 

Kidd,  AT.,  Argument  for  Use-Inheritance 
Interpretation,  421 

Kidney  in  Haliotis,  Relations,  550 

Kienitz-Gerloff,  — .,  Protoplasmic  Con- 
tinuity in  Cryptogams,  314 

Kindberg,  N.  O,  Genus  Thamnium,  579 

—  Hypopterygiaceae,  79 


INDEX. 


755 


Kineses,  Spermatocyte,  in  Orthoptera,  43 
Kingsley,  J.  S.,  Cranial  Nerves  of  Am- 
phiuma,  545 

—  Systematic  Position  of  Caecilians,  545 
Kinkeliba,  Botanical  Origin,  569 
Kirchner,  D.,  A  Disease  of  Clover,  470 
Kirkwood,  J.    E.,    Chemical    Studies    of 

Coco-nut,  575 
Kishinouye,  K.,  Japanese  Scyphomedusae, 

656 
Kjellman,  F.  R.,  Galaxaura,  79 
Klebahn,   — .,   Experiments  with   Rusts, 

682 

—  Fungal  Diseases  of  Plants,  &c,  219 

—  Uredineae  Cultures,  466 
Klebs,  G.,  Sporodinia  grandis,  5S8 
Klein,  A.,  Bacteriology  of  Human  Faeces, 

695 
Klein,  E.,  Bacterium  phasianicida,  600 

—  Cereal  Products  and  Bacteria,  696 

—  New  Pathogenic  Blastomyces,  689 

—  Shell-fish  and  Typhoid,  693 

Klein,  J.,  Staminode-like  Structures  in 
Dentaria  bulbifera,  198 

Klocker,  A.,  New  Gymnoascus,  464 

Klos,  R.,  Life-history  of  Tephroclystia 
virgaureata,  ISO 

Kny,  L.,  Influence  of  Tension  and  Pres- 
sure on  Direction  of  Cell-wall,  322 

Korlis,  T.,  New  Method  for  Staining  Nerv- 
ous Tissue,  114 

Kohl,  F.  F.,  Gynandromorphy  in  a  Wasp, 
40 

Kohlbrugge,  — .,  Agglutination  of  Vibrios, 
228 

Kohler,  A.,  Tape  Measure  for  Adjustment 
of  Projection  Oculars,  248 

Kohlrabi,  Bacteriosis,  90 

Koken,  E.,  Palaeontology  and  Evolution, 
634 

Kolster,  R.,  Acid-fuchsin  Staining  for  De- 
generated Nerve-Fibres,  501 

—  Paraffin-Imbedding  in  Vacuo,  112 

— ■  Peculiar  Process  in  Seminal  Vesicles  of 

Elk,  293 
Koppen,  H.,  Spines  of  Spinax,  423 
Kopsch,  F.,  Examining  Blood-plates,  253 

—  Staining    the    Reticulum     of    Spinal 

Ganglion-Cells,  717 

Korff,  K.  v.,  Spermatogenesis  in  Phalan- 
gista  vulpina,  419 

Korschinsky,  S.,  Heterogenesis  and  Evolu- 
tion, 75 

Kosaka,  K.,  Cerebral  Degenerations,  422 

Kostanecki,  C,  Artificial  Parthenogenesis 
in  Mactra,  640 

—  Maturation   and  Fertilisation  of  Cere- 

bratulus  marginatum,  651 
Kostytschew,   S.,   Respiration    of    Fungi, 

688 
Kovessi,   F.,   Relation  of  the   Supply  of 

Water  to  the  Ripening  of  Woody  Plants, 

73 


Kowalevsky,  A.,  The  Genus  Chaetodernia, 

38 
Kraemer,  H.,  Crystalline  and  Crystalloid 

Substances  in  Plants,  61 
Krembzow,  E.,  Papillae  of  Eolidae,  176 
Kresling,  K.,  Fat  Substance  of  Tubercle 

Bacillus,  345 
Kresylecht  Violet,  112 
Krompecher,  E.,  Metachromatic  Granules 

in  Sporiferous  Bacteria,  89 
Krvptogamen-Flora,   86,    210,    464,   590, 

6'S4 
Ksopo  or  Tanghin  de  Menabe  (Menabea 

venenata),  a  Poison  Plant  of  the  Saka- 

laves,  194 
Kiikenthal,  W.,  Practical  Course  of  Zoo- 
logy, 423 
Kuntze,  W.,  Flagella  Staining,  716 
Kupfer,   E.  M.,  Studies  on  Urnula  and 

Geopyxis,  465 
Kusano,   S.,  Transpiration   of  Evergreen 

Trees  in  Winter,  573 
Kuwana,  S.  I.,  Scale-Insects  of  Japan,  553 
Kuwano,  H.,  New  Enteropneust,  559 
Kyle,  H.  M.,  Action  of  Spurge  on  Salinon- 

oid  Fishes,  425 


Laboulbeniaceae,  New  Genera  and  Species, 

214 
Lacerta   agilis.   Disruptive   Processes    in 
Ovarian  Ova,  538 

—  muralis.  Development  of  Ventral  Pan- 

creas, 540 
Lachi,   P.,    Accessory    Lobes    on    Spinal 

Cord  of  Birds,  295 
Lacteal  Secretion,  169 
Lactic  Ferments  in  the  Arts,  346 
Lactose,  Decomposition  by  B.  acidi  lactici, 

478 
Lafar,  F.,  Technical  Mycology,  473 
Lagerheim,  G.,  Contributions  to  the  Flora 

of  Bear  Island,  213 
Lagis  koreni.  Alimentary  Canal,  308 
Laidlaw,  F.  F.,  New  Rhabdoccel,  434 
Lamarck,  Life  and  Work,  547 
Lamb,  A.  B.,  Eye-Muscles  of  Acanthias, 

539 
Lamella,  Middle,  of  Cells,  61 
Lamellibranchiata.     See  Contents,  xiii 
Lamellibranchs,  Structure  of  Gills,  641 
Lamp,  New  Microscope,  104 
Lamprey,  Thyroid,  421 
Lamy,  E.,  Tracheae  of  Spiders,  645 
Lang,  W.  H.,  Apospory    in    Anthoceros. 
79 

—  Prothalli  of   Ophioglossum   and  Hel- 

minthostachys,  327 

—  Prothallus  of  Ophioglossum,  Helmin- 

thostachys,  and  Psilotum,  77 
Langley,  S.  P.,  The  New  Spectrum,  247 
Lankester,  E.  R.,  Okapia  johnstoni,  172 


756 


INDEX. 


Lankester,  E.  R.,  Terminology  for  Various 

Stages  of  the  Malaria  Parasite,  440 
Lanhesterella  minima,  Life-History,  441 
Lanzi,  M.,  Amanita  ovoidea,  682 

—  Diatoms  of  Lake  Cotronia,  676 
Larix   leptolepis,  Reduction    of  Chromo- 
somes, 60 

Larva,  Ciliated,  of  Sponge,  Asexual  Ori- 
gin, 562 
Larvae  of  Gonionema  murbachii,  Budding, 
561 

—  of  Sciara  mertullaris,  Habits,  551 

—  Lepidopterous,  Sense-hairs,  643 
Latrodectus  13-guttatus,  Bites  of,  45 
Laurent,  E.,  Influence  of  Mineral  Salts  on 

the  Production  of  Root-tubercles  in 
Pisum,  203 

—  Poisonous  Principle  in  the  Mistletoe.  64 
Laveran,  A.,  Action  of  Human  Serum  on 

Trypanosoma  hrucei,  313 

—  Coccidium  of  Frog's  Kidneys,  657 

—  Methods  for  Examining  Trypanosoma 

lewisi,  117 

—  Multiplication     of     Trypanosoma    in 

Fishes,  564 

—  New  Trypanosoma,  440 

—  Trypanosoma  in  Fishes,  5S 

—  Two  New  Haemogregarines  from  Fishes, 

59 
Laxa,  O.,  Decomposition  of  Butter-fat,  336 
Lazaro,  D.  B.,  Spanish  Fungi,  468 
Lead,  Effects  of  Strain  on  the  Crystalline 

Structure,  719 
Leaf-Anatomy  of  Leucobryaceae,  673 
Leaf-Blade   in    Cyclamen,   Regeneration, 

447 

—  Movements  in  Polytrichum,  209 

—  Stalk,   Origin    and   Differentiation    of 

Vascular  Meristems,  316 

—  Traces,  Persistence,  64 
Leaves,  Biology,  67 

—  Reaction  to  Traumatic  Stimulation,  74 
Leavitt,  R.   G.,   Subterranean   Plants  of 

Epiphegus,  447 

"  Leben  Raib,"  Egyptian,  Micro-organisms 
of,  343 

Leche,  W.,  Alleged  Case  of  Transmission 
of  Acquired  Characters,  164 

Lecithin  in  Plants,  568 

Lederbauer,  — .,  Growth  of  Cladophora 
cornea  in  form  of  Balls,  460 

Lederbauer,  E.,  Phyto-plankton  of  the 
Erlaufsee  and  the  Caspian  Sea,  676 

Ledoux-Lebard, — .,  Action  of  Blood-Serum 
on  Paramecium,  563 

Lee  and  Henneguy's  Histological  Tech- 
nique, 623 

Lefevre,  G.,  Botanical  Origin  of  Kinkeliba, 
569 

Leger,  — .,  Intestinal  Bacteria  of  Chirono- 
mus  Larvae,  690 

Le'ger,  L.,  Epithelial  Regeneration  in  Mid- 
gut of  Arthropods,  551 


Leger,  R.,  Multiplication  of  Herpetomonas' 
313 

—  Sex-Elements  in  Stylorhynchus,  58 

—  Sexual  Phenomena  in  Pterocephalus, 

564 

Leggett,  F.  W.,  Glass-rod  Substage,  240 

Leguminous  Plants,  Yield,  452 

Le  Hello,  — .,  Maternal  Impression  in  a 
Mare,  294 

Leisering,  B-,  Shifting  in  Heads  of  Sun- 
flower during  Development  from  Flower- 
ing to  Ripening,  453 

Leitz's  Spherically,  Chromatically,  and 
Astigmatically  Corrected  Objective,  360 

Lemmermann,  E.,  Silicoflagellate  Proto- 
zoa, 57 

Lenecek,  O.,  Union  of  Branch  and  Stem 
of  Same  Tree,  448 

Lenoble,  — .,  Method  for  Fixing  Blood- 
Preparations,  372 

Lens  tor  Dark-ground  Illumination,  237 

—  in  Chick  Embryos,  Regeneration,  633 

—  Measurement  of  the  Focus,  146 

—  of  Human  Eye,  Stopping  down,  494 
Leon,  N.,  Morphology  of  Labial  Parts  in 

Hydrocoridse,  552 
Leonardi,  G.,   South  American  Acarids, 

183 
Lepas,  Early  Development,  555 
Lepeophtheirus   and    Lernaea,    Structure, 

185 
Lepidodendron,  So-called  Phloem,  330 
Lepidoptera,  Determination  of  Sex,  41 
Lepontre,  — .,  Experimental  Production  of 

Parasitic  Races  of  Bacteria,  474 
Leprosy  Bacillus,  Cultivation,  249 
Lernasa    and  Lepeophtheirus,   Structure, 

185 
Lesage,  M.,  Bacillus  coli  in  Dysentery,  696 
Leshure,    — .,    Modification    of    Cornet's 

Forceps,  258 
Lesieur,  C,  Pseudo-diphtheria  Bacilli,  226 
Leslie,  C.  de,  Influence  of  Spermotoxin  on 

the  Fertilising  Power  of  Spermatozoa. 

26 
Lesparre,  M.  A.  de  G.  de,  Spore-Germina- 
tion in  Higher  Fungi,  472 
Letellier,  A.,  Purple  of  Purpura  lapillus, 

550 
Lett,  H.  W.,  Irish  Mosses,  581 
Leucine  and  Tyrosine  as  Food-stuffs,  452 
Leucobryaceae,  Leaf- Anatomy,  673 
Leuscher,   E.,   Composition   of   Bananas, 

566 
Levene,  P.  A.,  Biochemical  Studies  on  the 

Tubercle  Bacillus,  92 
Levier,  E.,  French  Muscinese,  579 

—  Priority  of  the  Name  of  Calypogeia,  674 
Levy,   — .,   Corynebacterium  lymphte   vac- 

cinalis,  94 
Lewton-Brain,  L.,  Parasitic  Fungi,  87 
Lichen  Flora  of  Emilia,  Contribution  to, 

683 


INDEX. 


757 


Lichen,  Spore-Distribution,  339 
Lichens,  21S,  467 

—  Compounds  from,  6S4 

—  Haptera,  218 

—  Spanish,  683 

—  Variability  of,  under  Different  External 

Conditions,  84 
Life,  Animal,  Story  of,  42?> 
Ligament  of  Bivalves,  642 
Light  and  Spore-Germination,  324 

—  Effect  on  Animals,  31 

—  Influence  on  the|Respiration  of  Lower 

Fungi,  687 

—  Monochromatic.  Apparatus  for  obtain- 

ing with  a  Mixed  Jet,  727 

—  Position  of  Flowers  with  respect  to,  204 
Lignieres,  J.,  Classification  of  Hemorrhagic 

Septicaemia,  93 
Ligula,  Position,  51 

Liliaceas,   Californian,    Subterranean   Or- 
gans, 658 
Limax  maximus,  Reactions,  299 
Lime,  Necessity  of,  for  Plants,  203 
Limnsea  emarginata,  Structure,  550 
Limnocharis,  Embryology,  570 
Limuotrochus    and   Chytra,    Tanganyika 

Gastropods,  640 
Limon,  M.,  Lacteal  Secretion,  169 
Limpricht,   K.   G.,  Eabenhorst's  Crypto- 

gamic  Flora  of  Germany  (Musci),  210 
Linden,  M.  v.,  Influence  of  Temperature 

during  Pupation,  644 
Lindner,  P.,  Adhesion-Cultures,  372 
Lindroth,  J.  J.,  Rusts  of  the  Umbelliferse, 

681 
Lindroth,  J.  T.,  New  Uredinese,  681 
Lindsay,  B.,  Story  of  Animal  Life,  423 
Linens  gesserensis,  Structure,  187 
Lingula,  Habits,  559 
Linko,  A.,  An  Interesting  Medusoid,  188 
Linsbauer,  K.,  Anatomy  of  Cassiope,  68 
Linstow,  O.  v.,  Largest  of  known  Nema- 
todes, 650 

—  New  Filaria,  651 

—  New  Nematodes,  434,  557 

—  Position  of  Ligula,  51 

Lint,  A.  v.,  Determination  of  Sex,  535 

Linton,  E.,  Fish  Parasites,  52 

Liparieae  and  Bossiseae,  Anatomical  In- 
vestigation of  Leaf  and  Axis,  195 

Liparis  loeselii  and  Teucrium  scordium, 
670 

Liriodendron,  Stipules,  67 

Lister,  A,  and  G.,  Notes  on  Mycetozoa,  462 

Lister  Achromatic  Combination,  17 

Lithobius  forficatus,  Oogenesis  and  Sper- 
matogenesis, 304 

Littorina,  Experiments  on,  37 

Live-Box,  New  Reversible,  381 

Liver-Cells,  Nutritive  Channels  communi- 
cating with  Lobular  Capillaries,  295 

Liver,  Notes  on  Development,  540 

—  of  Mollusca,  Preparing,  375 


Lizard  and  Slow-worm,  Branchial  Clefts, 

634 
Lloyd,  C.  G.,  Geastrae,  593 

—  The  Gasteromycetes,  339 

Lloyd,  F.  E.,  Comparative  Embryology  of 

the  Rubiacese,  662 
Lo    Bianco,   S.,    Plankton    and    Abyssal 

Fauna  around  Capri,  297 
Lochmann,  — .,  Bacillus  caseolyticus,  477 
Loevenhart,  A.  S.,  Reaction  and  Nature  of 

Oxidising  Ferments,  456 
Loew,  — .,  Bio-chemical  Antagonisms,  228 
Loew,  E.,  Cleistogamy  of  Stellaria  pallida, 

72 
Loewenthal,  N.,  New  Alcoholic   Carmin 

Solution,  715 
Lohmann,  H.,   Coccospheres  and   Cocco- 

liths,  674 
Loisel,  G.,  Function  of  Sertoli's  Cells,  161 

—  Internal  Secretion  of  Testis,  538 

—  Spermatogenesis  in  Sparrow,  293 
Lolium  temulentum,  Poisonous  Properties, 

64 
Lonay,  H.,  Anatomy  of  Ranunculaceae,  444 
London,  E.  S.,  Examination  of  Hairs  for 

Medico-legal  Purposes,  115 
Long,  W.  H.,  List  of  New  Fungi,  340 
Longchamps,  M.  de  S.,   Development  of 

Phoronis,  435 
Loranthus  aphyllus.  Sucker,  196 
Lorch,  W.,  Anatomy  and  Biology  of  Mosses, 

79 
Lotus  arabicus,  Poison,  658 
Loups,  Berger's  Stereoscopic,  698 
Lovell,  J.  H.,  Colours  of  Northern  Poly- 

petalous  Flowers,  457 
Loyetz,  M.,  Germinal  Vesicle  of  Reptiles, 

161 
Lubosch,  W.,  Development   of  Olfactory 

Organ  of  Arnmoccetes,  29 
Lubowski,   — .,  Formation  of   Agglutins, 

227 
Lulham,  R.  B.,  New  Type  of  Fern-Stele, 

329 
Lumbricus,  Circulation,  433 
Luminosity  in  Centipedes,  182 
Lydekker,  R.,  European  Wild  Cattle,  425 
Lyginodendron   Oldhamium,    Type-Speci- 
mens, 208 
Lynceid  Entomostraca,  Ephippia,  554 
Lyon,  F.  M.,  Sporange   and  Oophyte  of 

Selaginella,  76 
Lysimachia  terrestris,  Bulbils,  67 


M. 


Maas,  O.,  Gemmation  of  Tethya,  55 
Maassen,  A.,  Decomposition   of  Nitrates 

and  Nitrites  by  Bacteria,  224 
McAlpine,  D.,  «  Shot-hole  "  Fungi,  216 
MacCallum,   — .,  Actinomyces    asteroides, 

599 


758 


INDEX. 


MacCallum,  J.  B.,  Development  of  Pig's 
Intestine,  27 

McCallum,  W.  B.,  Nature  of  the  Stimulus 
causing  the  Change  of  Forni  and  Sub- 
stance in  an  Amphibious  Plant,  669 

Macchiati,  L.,  Chlorophyll  Assimilation, 
72 

McClendon,  J.  F.,  Life-History  of  Ulula 
hyalina,  552 

McClung,  C.  E.,  Accessory  Chromosome  in 
Insect  Spermatogenesis,  41 

—  Spermatogenesis  in  Insects,  179 
Macdonald,  J.  H.,  Methods  of  rendering 

Golgi-Sublimate  Preparations  perma- 
nent by  Platinum  Substitution,  501 

MacDougal,  D.  T.,  Bulbils  of  Lysimachia 
terreslris,  07 

Macfadyen,  A.,  Intracellular  Constituents 
of  the  Typhoid  Bacillus,  225 

Mack,  H.  v..  Central  Nervous  System  of 
Sipuncidus  nudus,  309 

—  Examining  Nervous  System  of  Sipun- 

culus  nudus,  373 
McMillan,   C,   Observations  on  Pterygo- 

phora  californica,  582 
Macroergates  in  Pheidole  commutata,  40 
Macroscelides  proboscideus,  Brain,  G37 
Mactra,  Artificial  Parthenogenesis,  640 
Macvicar,  S.  M.,  Lists  and  New  Species  of 

Mosses,  331 
Madan,  Henry  George,  24 
Maddox,  Richard  Leach,  Obituary,  530 
Madrepora,  Increase  of  Mesenteries,  655 
Magalhaes,  P.  S.  de,  Microbe  of  Piedra,  87 
Magnesium    and    Calcium,   Relations    to 

Plant-Growth,  573 
Magnifiers,  237 

Magnus,  P.,  Function  of  Paraphyses  in 
Uredinese,  682 

—  Parasitic  Fungi,  219 

—  Underground   Species  of  Urophlyctis, 

336 

—  Uredinese,  217 

—  Urophlyctis,  586 

Maige,  A.,  Structure  of  the  Tuberous  Roots 
of  rHtrincia  tuberosa,  196 

Mainardi,  A.,  Cross-Pollination  and  Self- 
Poll  ination,  71 

Maire,  R.,  Mycology  in  France,  221 

Maize,  Disease  of,  470 

Malaquin,  A.,  Life-History  of  Monstril- 
lidae,  46 

Malaria  Parasite,  Demonstrating,  251 

Terminology  for  Various  Stages,  440 

—  Parasites,  Staining,  378 

Chromatin  of,  and  Mast-Cells,  502 

Malay  Archipelago,  Recent  Foraminifera, 

509 
Male  in  Genus  Cambarus,  Structure,  48 
Males-Watson   Two-speed    Fine    Adjust- 
ment, 609 
Malpighian  Bodies,  Comparative  Anatomy 
and  Embryology,  540 


Mandoul,  — .,  Blue  and  Green  Coloration 

in  Skin  of  Vertebrates,  33 
Mandoul,  H.,  Physical  Coloration,  637 
Mangin,  L.,  Staining  Woody  Tissue,  113 
Manipulation,  Microscopical.      See    Con- 
tents, xxxv 
Mann,  H.  H.,  Enzymes  of  Tea-leaf,  670 
Manna,  Two  new  Sugars  extracted  from, 

567 
Manures,  Green,  Value,  453 

—  Nitrogenous,  Influence  on  the  Form  of 

Cereals,  453 
Marchal,  E.,  Erysiphe  Graminis,  589 

—  Influence  of  Mineral  Salts  on  the  Pro- 

duction of  Root-Tubercles  in  Pisuni, 
203 
Marchantiacese,  Mycorhiza,  219 
Marchlewski,   L.,  Colouring   Matters   ob- 
tainable from  Isatis  tinctoria,  567 
Mare,  Maternal  Impression,  294 
Marine  Mammals,  Distribution,  297 
Marino,  — .,  Rapid  Method  of    Staining 

the  Morpholic  Elements  of  Blood,  715 
Marmorek,  — .,  Unity  of  Pathogenic  Strep- 
tococci, 598 
Marpmann,   G.,   Distinguishing  between 
Pleurosigma    angulatum   and  balti- 
cum  under  Low  Powers,  257 

—  Micro-chemical     Reactions     of    Wood 

aftected  with  Dry  Rot,  118 

—  New  Fluid  Medium  for  Preserving  Zoo- 

logical Objects,  258 

—  Parasitic  Fungi  of  Diatomacese,  463 

—  Preparation  and  Preservation  of  Urinary 

Sediment,  115 

—  Yeasts,  591 

Marshall,  G.  A.  K.,  Experiments  in  Sea- 
sonal Dimorphism,  41 

Marshall,  W.  S.,  Genital  Pores  of  Male 
Antedon  rosacea,  437 

Marsupials,  Cervical  Glands,  33 

—  Parafibula,  33 

Martel,  E.,  Anatomy  and   Morphology  of 

Flower  of  Cruciferse,  320 
Martin,   S.,  Antagonism    of  the    Soil   to 

Bacillus  typhosus,  696 
Martin,  S.  S.,  Steel  Rails  :  Difference  be- 
tweenHot  and  Cold  Sawing,  719 

—  Steel  Rails :    Relation  between   their 

Structure  and  Durability,  719 
Massart,   J.,   Structure   and   Affinities  of 

Schizophyta,  473 
Massart,  M.  J.,  Irritability  of  the  Higher 

Plants,  74 
Massee,  G.,  Coprophilous  Fungi,  471 
Fungi  II.,  335 

—  European  Agarics,  594 

—  Larch  and  Spruce  Fir  Canker,  686 

—  Plant  Diseases,  470 

Masterman,  A.  T.,  Notes  on  Actinotrocha, 

435 
Mateos,  M.  R.,  Hirudo  troctina,  186 
Maternal  Impression  in  a  Mare,  294 


INDEX. 


759 


Mating  of  Diernyctylus  viridescens,  Struc- 
tural Feature  connected  with,  o:>4 
Matouschek,    F.,   List   of    Hepatics    and 

Mosses,  331 
Matruchot,  L.,  Mycology  in  France,  221 

—  Stichococcus  bacillaris,  679 

Matter.  Organic  and  Mineral,  Accumula- 
tion in  Woody  Plants,  573 

Matthaei,  G.  L.  C,  Reaction  of  Leaves  to 
Traumatic  Stimulation,  74 

Maturation  in  Echinus  esculentus,  (!54 

Maximow,  N.  A.,  Influence  of  Light  on 
the  Respiration  of  the  Lower  Fungi, 
087 

Matzuschita,  T.,  Effect  of  Salt  in  Nutrient 
Media  on  the  Growth  of  Micro-orgauisms, 
89 

Mauck,  A.  V.,  Variation  in  IMatystrophia, 
500 

May,  W.,  Relations  of  Calcium  and  Mag- 
nesium to  Plant-Growth,  573 

Mayer,  S.,  Muscularisation  of  Capillary 
Vessels,  542 

Maze,  M.,  Zymase  in  Fungal  HyphsB,  587 

Maze',  M.  P.,  Transformation  of  Fatty 
Matters  into  Sugars  in  Oily  Grains 
during  Germination.  200 

Mazza,  A.,  Marine  Flora  of  the  Gulf  of 
Naples,  585 

Mazzarelli,  G.,  Affinities  of  Phyllaplvsia. 
38 

Measuring  Objects  in  the  Microscope, 
Method,  704 

Measurements,  Electrical  Method  of  Tak- 
ing Microscope,  025,  728 

Media  for  distinguishing  B.coli,  B.typhosus, 
and  related  Species,  490 

—  Nutrient,  Method  for  examining,  498 
Medicine  and  Biology  in  the  Nineteenth 

Century,  History,  170 
Medico-legal    Purposes,   Examination    of 

Hairs  for,  115 
Medium  for  Cheese  Bacteria,  Cultivation, 
108 

—  Influence  of  the  Surrounding,  on  the 

Growth  of  Roots.  74 
Medullary  Canal  of  Man,  So-called  Ger- 
minative  Cells,  107 

—  Sheath  of  Nerve-Fibres,  Staining,  500 
Medusoid,  Interesting,  188 

Meehan,  T.,  Bending  of  Mature  Wood  in 

Trees,  60 
Meek,  S.  E.,  Mounting  Fish  for  Museums, 

258 
Megastoma  entericum,  58 
Megusar,   P.,   Oogenesis   in    Hydrophilus 

piceus,  643 
Mehner,  — .,  Fungal  Diseases  of  Plants, 

&c,  219 
Meierhofer,  H.,  Bladders   of  Utricularia, 

190 
Meijere,  H.   de,  Prothoracic   Respiratory 

Apparatus  in  Dipterous  Pupse,  428 


Meijere,  J.  C.  H.  de.  Last  Joint  in   the 

Limbs  of  Arthropods,  427 
Meissner,  P.,  Apparatus  for  Imbeddiug  in 

Paraffin,  377 
Melanogenic  Variety   of  Bacillus  pyocy- 

aneus,  92 
Melting-point  of  Gelatin,  Raising  by  means 

of  Formalin,  116 
Membrane,  Limiting,  in   Human  Serosa, 

169 
Mendel,  G.,  Laws  of  Hybridity,  72 
Menier,  M.,  Mycology  in  France,  222 
Menon,  K.  R.,  Notes  on  Actinotrocha,  435 
I   Mentz,  A.,  Mosses  of  Jutland,  673 
1   Mereschkowsky,  C,  Classification  of  Dia- 
toms, 211 

—  Okedenia,  8] 

—  Stauronella,  a  New  Genus  of  Diatoms, 

81 
Merlin,  A.  A.,  Certain  Minute  Structure 
observed  in  some  Forms  of  Tricera- 
tiurn,  495 

—  Spermatozoon  of  Rat,  53S 
Merogony.  Note  on  the  History,  26 
Merrett,  W.  H,  Report  of  a  Demonstration 

of  Methods  used  in  Photomicrography 

of  Iron  and  Steel,  1 
Mesenteries  in  Madrepora,  Increase,  655 
Mesnil,  F.,  Coccidium  of  Frog's  Kidneys, 

657 
Mesnil,  F.,  Fecampia,  558 

—  Free  Phase  in  the  Life-Cycle  of  Ortho- 

nectids,  53 

—  Methods  for  Examining  Trypanosoma 

Lewisi,  117 

—  Multiplication     of     Trypanosoma     in 

Fishes,  564 

—  Trypanosoma  in  Fishes,  58 

—  Two  New  Haemogregarines  from  Fishes, 

59 
Mesoblast,  Early  Development  in  Thalas- 

sema,  557 
Mesozoa,  Nemertini,  and  Platyhelmia,  180 
Messter's   Attachable   Mechanical   Stage, 

613 
Metachromatic    Granules    in   Sporiferous 

Bacteria,  89 
Metal,    Crystallisation    produced    in,    by 
Pressure,  261 

—  Specimens    for    the   Microscope,    Pre- 

paration, 621 

Metallurgical  Work,  Holder,  494 

Metals,  Crystalline  Structure,  262 

Metamorphosis  of  Sisyra,  642 

Metampy,or  Modifications, in  Halicliondria 
panicea  and  in  Snberites  domuncnla,  190 

Metaphosphate  of  Calcium,  Plasmic  Ap- 
pearance, 636 

Metchnikoff,  E.,  Immunity,  171 

—  On  the  Process  of  Hair  turning  White, 

295 
Metzner,  R.,  Megastoma  entericum  Grassi, 
58 


760 


INDEX. 


Meyer,  A.,  Chlaniydospores  of  Bacteria, 
224 

—  Continuity  of  Protoplasm  in  Fungi,  687 

—  New  Microscope  Lamp,  104 

Meyer,   J.   A.,   Disruptive    Processes    in 

Ovarian  Ova  of  Lacerta  agills,  538 
Mever,  S.,  Iron   Impregnation  of  Nerve 

Fibrillae,  254 
Miani,  D.,  Action  of  Copper  on  the  Growth 

of  Living  Cells,  203 
Mice,  Heredity  Studied  in,  294 
Michael,  A.  D.,  British  Tyroglyphidse,  431 
Michaelis,  L.,  New  Fat-staining  Pigment, 

112 
Micbeletti,  L.,    Poisonous    Properties    of 

Lolium  temulentum,  64 
Micro-chemical  Reactions  of  Wood  affected 

with  Dry  Rot,  118 
Micrococcus  and  Amylomyces,  Association, 
602 

—  Heat-resisting,  602 
Microlepidoptera,  Female  Genital  Appara- 
tus, 40 

Micrometer  Gauge,  622 

—  New  Photo-measuring,  506 

—  Photo-measuring,  486 
Micro-oreranisms  in  Systemic  Circulation, 

348 

of  Egpytian  "  Leben  Raib,"  343 

Variability,  342 

Microphotographs,  Simple  Means  of  Pro- 
ducing with  an  ordinary  Camera,  246 
Microscope  Adjustment,  607 

—  and    other    Optical    Subjects,    Biblio- 

graphy of  Works  dealing  with,  20 

—  Baker's  Portable  Diagnostic,  98 

—  Beck's  Imperial,  95 
Micrometer,  357 

—  by  Carpenter  and  Westley,  389 

—  Czapski's  Cornea,  484 

—  for  Measuring  Plant-Growth,  Albrecht's, 

358 

—  Greenough's  Binocular,  607 

—  Holtzapffel's,  19 

—  Lamp,  New,  104 

—  Method  of  Measuring  Objects,  704 

—  New  Micrometer,  119 

—  Old,  by  Pillischer,  384 
by  Pritchard,  386 

—  Pillischer's  "  Lenticular,"  353 

—  Pye's  Reading,  358 

—  Ross'  New,  231 

—  Seibert's  Laboratory,  101 

Large  Model  No.  2,  354 

No.  3, 101 

New  Dissection,  101 

Projection   with   Electric  Light, 

103 
Travelling,  98 

—  The,  S.  H.  Gage's,  118 

—  Waddefs  Erecting,  291 

—  Watson's  New  "  Holos  Fram,"  354 

—  Work,  New  Methods.  142 


Microscope,  Zeiss'  Small  Mineralogical,  610> 

Model  Polarising,  613 

Stand  for  Brain  Sections,  483 

Microscopes,  New  Pattern  Reading,  389 

—  Projection,  using  Electric  Arc  or  Oxy- 

hydrogen  Light,  702 

—  Some  Evidences  of  Unscientific   Con- 

servatism, in  Construction,  248 

—  Two  Early,  by  Andrew  Ross  (?)  351 
Microscopic  Effects  of  Stress  on  Platinum, 

624 
Microscopical    Manipulation.      See    Con- 
texts, XXXV 

—  Optics.    See  Contents,  xxxv 
Microscopical     Preparations,    Method    of 

Making,  for  Photographic  Purposes,  253 

—  Technique.     See  Contents,  xxxvi 
Microscopy.     See  Contexts,  xxxiv 
Microsporidian,  New,  58 
Microtechnique   of  Animal    Morphology, 

257 
Microthorax  and'Dermaptera,  302 
Microthorax,  So-called,  of  Insects,  643 
Microtome,  Jung's,  Slide-Brake,  375 

—  New  Ether  Freezing  Apparatus,  110 
Microtomes,    See  Contents,  xxxvii 

—  Standing's  Imbedding,  375 
Mid-brain  in  Bony  Fish,  Development,  165 
Middleton,  — .,  Black  Dry-rot  in  Swedes, 

691 
Migula,  W.,  Mosses  of  Central  Europe,  580 
Milk,  Detection  of  Tubercle  Bacilli  in,  343 

—  Source  of  Acid  Organisms,  476 
Millett,   F.   W.,    Report  on    the    Recent 

Foraminifera  of  the  Malay  Archipelago 

collected  by  Mr.  A.  Durrand,  267.  509 
Mills,  C.  K.,  Neurofibrillar  Theory,  542 
Mimicry,  Interesting  Case,  642 
Mimicry  of  a  Moss  by  a  Larva  and  Pupa, 

43 
Minden,  M.  V.,  The  Saprolegniea?,  587 
Minervini,  R.,  Modifications  of  Weigert's 

Method  of  Staining  Elastic  Tissue,  113 
Mingazzini,  P.,  Molluscum  contagiosum  in 
Amphibians,  297 

—  Superficial  Secretion  of  Tapeworms,  187 
Minkiewicz,  R.,  Adaptability  of  Infusoria 

to  Concentrated  Solutions,  192 

Miquel  and  Cambier's  Bacteriology,  349 

Mistletoe,  Poisonous  Principle,  64 

Mite,  Hibernating  Cyst,  431 

Mites,  Myrmecophilous,  183 

Mitlacher,  W.,  Microscopic  Characters  of 
Fruit  Envelopes  of  Acorn,  321 

Mitosis  and  Cell-division,  160 

Mitrophanow,  P.,  Early  Stages  in  Develop- 
ment of  Duck  and  Tern,  294 

Mitsukuri,  K.,  Experiments  ou  Littorina, 
37 

Miyake,  K.,  Fertilisation  of  Pythium  de 
Baryanum,  335 

Miyoshi,  M.,  Spore-Distribution  in  a  Li- 
chen, 339 


INDEX. 


761 


Mobius,  K.,  Concept  of  Species,  542 

Moeller,  A.,  Acid-fast  Bacilli,  344 

Mohr-Laubenheim,  K.,  Fungal  Diseases 
of  Plants,  &c.,  220 

Molgula  manliattensis,  Heart  of,  54S 

Molgulidpe,  Development,  639 

Molisch,  H.,  Scutefiarin,  315 

Molliard,  M.,  Double  Flowers  and  Para- 
sitism, 65 

—  Stichococcus  bacillaris,  679 

Moll's  Apparatus  for  the  Adjustment  of  a 

Projection  Microscope,  362 
Mollusca.     See  Contents,  xiii 
Molluscs,  Digestive  Gland,  300 

—  North  Atlantic,  176 

Molluscum  Contagiosum  in  Amphibians, 

297 
Monguillon,  E.,  Lichens  of   the  Sarthe, 

468 
Moukemeyer,  W.,  Abnormalities  in  Mosses, 
331 

—  List  of  Mosses,  332 

—  New  Variety  of  Moss,  331 
Monnier,  U.,  Mycology  in  France,  222 
Monochromatic  Light,  Apparatus  for  ob- 
taining with  a  Mixed  Jet,  727 

Monocotyledons,  Origin  of  Seed-leaf,  446 

—  Stipular  Structure,  447 
Monostomum,  New  Species,  651 
Monstrillidae,  Life-History,  46 
Monstrosity  in  a  Trout,  298 
Montemartini,  L.,  Abnormal  Conjugation 

in  Spirogyra,  80 
Montgomery,  T.  H.,  Larva  of  Plethodon 

cinereus,  28 
Moore,  A.,  Isolation  of  Typhoid  Bacillus, 

371 
Moore,  E.  M.,  Reactions  of  Infusorians  to 

Carbonic  and  other  Acids,  191 
Morandi,  E.,  Hsernolyrnph  Glands  in  Man 

and  Mammals,  169 
Morel,  C,  New  Method  of  Staining  Neu- 
roglia, 499 
Morgan,  T.  H,  Dispensability  of  Gravity 

in  Development  of  Toad's  Egg,  537 
Morgenstern,  P.,  Development  of  Cordylo- 

phora  lacudris,  188 
Morrell,  R.  S.,  Action  of  Hydrogen  peroxide 

on  Carbohydrates  in  presence  of  Ferrous 

Sulphate,  576 
Morse,  R.  L.,  Kresylecht  Violet,  112 
Moss-Flora,  British,  459,  673 
Mosses,  Abnormalities,  331 

—  Anatomy  and  Biology,  79 

—  Australian,  580 

—  British  and  Irish,  581 

—  Geographical  Distribution,  331 

—  Irish,  459 

—  Lists  and  New  Species,  331 

—  new  to  Britain,  209 

—  of  Central  Europe,  580 

—  of  Jutland,  673 

—  of  Madagascar,  580 


Mosses  of  Montana,  Preliminary  List,  673 

—  of  South-western  Switzerland,  460 

—  of  West  Tropical  Africa,  460 

—  Peristome.  331 
Mougeotia.  New,  333 

Moulds,  Decomposition  of  Compounds  of 
Selenium  and  Tellurium,  688 

—  Resistance  of  some  to  Metal  Poisoning 

472 
Mounting,  Double,  for  Whole  Objects,  717 
Mounting  Medium,  Sodium  Silicate  as,  for 
Microscopical  Preparations,  622 

—  Objects.    See  Contents,  xxxviii 
Mouton,  H,  Digestion  in  Amcebre,  562 
Mucor  as  an  Alcohol  Yeast,  588 

—  Genus,  463 

Mucors  of  East  Siberia,  680 

Mudge,  G.  P.,  Aid  to  the  Study  of  Zoology, 

171 
Mueller,  K.,  List  of  Hepatics,  332 
Miiggenburg.  — .,  Mimicry  of  a  Moss  by  a 

Larva  and  Pupa,  43 
Midler,  F.  C,   History  of  Medicine  and 

Biology  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  170 
Miiller,  J.,  Assimilating  Rcots  of  Tsenio- 

phyllum,  68 
Midler,  K.,  Australian  Mosses,  580 
Miiller,  P.  T.,  Agglutination  of  Bacteria, 

89 
Murbach,  L.,  A  Demonstration  Eye-piece, 

487 
Murbeck,  S.,  Amphicarpous  Plants,  65 
Murray.  J.,  New  Rotifers  from  Scotland, 

653 
Muscineae.  French,  579 
— .     See  Contents,  xxvi 
Muscle-Fibril,  Minute  Structure,  542 
Musculature  of  Urodela,  35 
Museum  Specimens,  Method  of  Preserving, 

M79 
Mussel,  New  Parasitic  Copepod  in  Intes- 
tine, 646 
Mussels,  Spawning  Period,  17S 
Mustelus,  Brain,  30 
Mustelus  Ixvis,  Ophthalmic  Nerves,  29 
Mycetozoa,  Notes.  462 
— .     See  Contents,  xxviii 
Mycology,  American,  594 

—  British,  339 

—  in  France,  221 

—  North  American,  685 

—  Technical,  473 
Mycorhiza,  336 

—  in  Marchantiaceaj,  219 
Myriopoda.     See  Contents,  xv 
Myriopods,  Locomotion,  553 

—  Notes  on,  306 

—  Resistance  to  Asphyxiation,  305 
Myrmecophilous  Mites,  183 
Mysis  in  the  Volga,  556 

Mysis  relicta  in  Ireland,  46 
Myxomycetes,  Studies,  585 
Myxosporidia  of  Coregouus,  657 


762 


INDEX. 


Nagel,  W.  A.,  Effect  of  Light  on  Animals, 
31 

Naias,  Double  Fertilisation,  69 

Name,  W.  G.  v.,  Ascidians  of  Bermudas, 
548 

Nautilus,  Notes  on  Living,  36 

Navas,  E.  P.  L.,  Lichens,  218 

Nectaries  in  Pollen  Flowers  and  Anemo- 
jihilous  Flowers,  Chemical  Demonstra- 
tion, 566 

Nedokutschaeff,  N.  K.,  Changes  in  Nitro- 
genous Substances  in  Ripening  Cereals, 
456 

Needbam,  J.  G.,  Aquatic  Insects  in  the 
Adirondack^,  179 

—  Dragon-flies  of  Illinois,  181 

Neger,  F.  W.,  Contributions  to  the  Biology 
of  the  Erysiphacefe,  215 

—  Fungal  Diseases  of  Plants,  &c,  220 
Neisser,  — .,  Formation  of  Agglutins,  227 
Nelson,  E.  M.,  An  Old  Rackwork  Draw- 
tube,  360 

—  Bibliography  of  Works   dealing    with 

the   Microscope   and    other   Optica) 
Subjects,  20 

—  Holtzapffel's  Microscope,  19 

—  New  Methods  in  Microscope  Work,  142 

—  Panoramic  View  Camera,  367 

—  Polarising  with  the  Microscope,  264 

—  The  Black  and  White  Dot  Phenomenon, 

369 

—  The  First  English  Achromatic  Objec- 

tives, 16 

—  Two   Early  Microscopes,    by  Andrew 

Ross  (?)  351 

—  Waddel's  Erecting  Microscope,  291 
Nematodes,  Largest  known,  650 

—  New,  434,  557 

—  Phagocytic  Organs,  49 
Nematohelmintb.es.     See  Contents,  xvii 
Nemertini,  Platybelmia  and  Mesozoa,  1S6 
Nencki,    L.,     Differential     Staining     for 

Tubercle  and  Smegma  Bacilli,  256 

Neobeliscus,  Affinities  of  Genus,  37 

Neomenians,  Classification,  549 

Neostroma,  Position,  189 

Nepenthes,  Proteolytic  Enzyme,  205 

Nerve-cord,  Development,  301 

Nerve-endings,  Free  Intra-epithelial,  in 
Helix,  176 

in  Human  Muscle,  295 

in  Peritoneum  of  Mammals,  168 

in  Striped  Muscle  of  Insects,  644 

in  Taste  Menisci,  ItiS 

Nerve-fibres,  Acid-fuchsin  Staining  for 
Degenerated,  501 

Nerve-fibrillae,  Iron  Impregnation,  254 

of  Neurones  in  Electric  Lobes,  Stain- 
ing, 254 

Nerves,  Cranial,  of  Amphiuma,  545 

—  Electrical  Properties,  425 


i   Nerves.  Ophthalmic,  of  Mustelus  Ixvis,  29 
Nervous  System  and  Skull  of  Ceratodus. 
634 

Central,  Platinum  Method,  256 

, of    Sipunculus    nudus,    Examining, 

373 
Supporting  Substances,  296 

—  Tissue,  New  Method  of  Staining,  114 
Neumann,    — .,    Bacillus    diphtherias,    in 

Simple  Rhinitis,  481 

—  Nitrogen- Assimilating  Bacteria  in  Soils, 

341 
Neuro-fibrillar  Theory,  542 
Neuro-fibrils  in  Ganglion  Cells  of  Cerebral 

Cortex,  Staining,  500 
Neuroglia,  New  Method  of  Staining,  499 
Neurological  Technique,  715 
Neurons,  Efferent,   in   Electric  Lobes   of 

Torpedo  ooeidentalis,  168 
Neutral  lied  for  Staining  Nucleated  Red 

Blood-corpuscles,  114 
Neuville,  H.,  Vascularisation  of  Intestine 

in  Vertebrates,  172 
Neveu-Lemaire,  M.,  Eecepiacula  Seminis 

in  CulicidsB,  644 
Neville,  — .,  Results  of  Chilling  Copper- 
Tin  Alloys,  261 
Newcombe,  F.  C,  Rheotropism  of  Roots, 

454 
Newstead,    R.,    Monograph    on    Coccidse 

occurring  in  Britain,  429 
Newt,  Spermatogenesis,  538 
Newton,  C.  R.,  Oxidising  Enzyrnes,  205 
Nichols,  M.  L.,  Spermatogenesis  of  Oniscus 

asellus,  47 
Nicholson,  W.  A.,  Variations  in  Periantb 

of  Ranunculus  Ficaria,  670 
Nicholson,  W.  E.,  British  Moss  Flora,  673 

—  Mosses  of  South-western  Switzerland, 

460 
Nicolle,  M.,  Cattle  Plague.  381 
Nicotra,  L.,  Origin  of  the  Flower,  19S 
Nidulariaceas  of  North  America,  467 
Xiphobolus,  79 
Nishikawa,  T.,  Discoloration  of  Water  by 

Gonyaulax,  57 
Nitrates   and  Nitrites,  Decomposition    by 

Bacteria,  224 

—  Effect  on  the  Shape  of  certain  Bacteria, 

88 
Nitrite  -  Formers,    Cultivation    on   Paper 

Disks,  618 
Nitrogen-Assimilating  Bacteria  in   Soils, 

341 
Noack,  F.,  Fungal  Diseases  of  Plants.  &c, 

219 
Nodosaria  scalaris,  Variations,  656 
Noll,  A.,  New  Ether  Freezing  Apparatus 

for  the  Microtome,  110 
Nomenclature,  Questions,  298 
Normal  Serum  in  Pneumo-Enteritis,  347 
Norris,  H.  N.,  Pseudothyioid  of  Frog,  539 
North,  Right  Hon.  Sir  Ford,  120 


INDEX. 


763 


Nuclei,  Hoffmann's,    in    Spinal    Cord    of 

Chick,  539 
Nucleolus,  Nature  and  Function,  505 
Nucleus,  Influence  on  Growth  of  Cell,  60 
Nudibranchs,  Pigments,  38 
Nuphar  luteum,  Cork-formation  in  Interior 

of  Leaf-stalk,  448 
Nusbaum,   J.,    Regeneration    in    Enchy- 

trpeidse,  433 
Nussbaum,  M.,  Cell-divisions  and  Mitosis, 

160 
Nutrition  of  Seed  Plants.    See  Contents, 

xxiii 
Nuttall,   G.   H.   F.,   Biological  Test   for 

Blood,  543 
Nymphsea  and  Castalia,  Development  of 

Embryo-sac  and  Embryo,  449 


O. 


Oak,  Canker,  338 
Objective-carriers,  Albrecht's,  237 
Objective,  Leitz',  Spherically,   Chromati- 
cally, and  Astigmatically  corrected, 
360 " 

—  Zeiss'  A*,  614 

Objectives,  Assorted  Pairs,  for  Binocular 
Microscopes,  614 

—  First  English  Achromatic,  16 
— .    See  Contents,  xxxiv 

—  when  used  as  Condensers,  Zeiss'  Cen- 

tring Apparatus,  615 

—  Zeiss',  487 

O'Brien,  A.,  Resistance  to  Temperature  of 

Fungi,  471 
Ochnacese,  Study  of  the  Family,  318 
Oculars  for  General  Laboratory  Work,  487 
Odhner,  T.,  New  Distomids,  558 

—  New  Trematodes  from  Crocodile,  308 
Odoriferous  Organ  of  the  Male  Hepialus 

hectus,  302 
GMogonia,  with   Semicircular    Foot-cell, 

210 
OZdogonium,  582 

GSgopsid,  Cephalopods,  Synopsis,  299 
Oil  in  Vaucheria,  83 
Oka,  A.,  Vascular  System  of  Hirudinea, 

556 
Okamura,  K.,  Japanese  Marine  Algse,  679 
Okapia  johnstoni,  172 
Okedenia,  81 
Olfactory  Organ  in  Vertebrates,  164 

of  Ammoccetes,  Development,  29 

Oligochseta,  Chloragogen,  648 

—  Swiss,  Observations,  048 
Oligochsete,  Commensal,  in  New  England, 

49 
Olive,  E.  W.,  The  Acrasiese,  462 
Olivier,  M.  H,  Lichens  of  the  Pyrene'es- 

Orientales,  468 
Omelianski,V.,  Fermentation  of  Cellulose, 

597 


Omeliansbi,   W.,    Cultivation    of   Nitrite- 
formers  on  Paper  Disks,  618 

—  Simple  Apparatus  for  Cultivating  Anae- 

robes in  Test-tubes,  497 
Oncjuekoa  and  Strombosia,  Germination , 

322 
Oniscus  asellus,  Spermatogenesis,  47 
Onvchophora,  Oviparous  Species,  306 

—  Papillae,  306 

Oogenesis  and  Spermatogenesis  in  LHlio- 
bius  forficatus,  304 

—  Early    Stages    in,   and    the    Synaptic 

Phases,  537 

—  in  Hydrophilus  piceus,  643 
Oophyte  and  Sporango  of  Selaginella,  76 
Oosphere,  Development  and  Fertilisation 

in  Pinus  strobus,  70 
Ophidia,  Branchial  Clefts,  539 
Ophioglossum  and  Helminthostachys,  Pro- 
thalli,  327 

—  Helminthostachys,  and  Psilotum,  Pro- 

thallus  of,  77 
Ophthalmometer,  Chambers  and  Inskeep's 

Improved,  709 
Opisthobranchs,  "  Talisman,"  427 
Oppenlieimer,  A.,  Sense-Organs  of  Poly- 

chaet  Proboscis,  647 
Optics,  Microscopical.  See  Contents,  xxxv 
Opto-Technics,  495 
Oranges,  Black  Rot,  596 
Orchids,  Malformations  of  the  Flower,  577 
Ord,  William  Miller,  the  late,  417 
Organism,  Yeast-eating  Amoeboid,  562 
Organisms,  Statistical  Study,  171 
Organs  of  Plants,  Floating,  66 
Orientation  Plate,  Born  and  Peter's,  621 
Orthonectids,  Free  Phase  in  Life-Cycle,  53 
Orthoptera,  Index  to  North  American,  428 

—  Spermatocytic  Kineses,  43 
Orthostigmats,  Beck-Steinheil,  360 
Osawa,  G.,  Anatomy  of  Giant  Salamander 

of  Japan,  637 
Osborn,  H.,  Interesting  Case  of  Miinicrv, 

642 
Osborn,  H.  L.,  Axolotl  and  Amblystoma, 
34 

—  Staining  Axis-Cylinders  of  Fresh  Spinal 

Cord,  715 
Oscillaria  prolifica,  341 
Osmotic  Pressure,  Influence  on  Form  and 

Structure  of  Plants,  76 
Ostenfeld,  C.  H.,  Phyto-plankton  of  the 

Caspian  Sea,  676 
Ott,  E.,  Chromatophores  of  Fresh-water 

Diatoms,  80 
Otto,  R.,  Changes  during  Ripening  Apples, 

457 
Oudemaus,  A.  O,  Hibernating  Cyst  of  a 

Mite,  431 
Oudemans,   C.    A.  J.    A.,    Fungi  of  the 

Netherlands,  340 
Ova  of  Birds,  Pseudo-chromosomes,  632 

—  of  Roe  Deer,  Albuminoid  Crystals,  632 


764 


INDEX. 


Ova,  Ovarian,  of  Lacerta  agilis,  Disruptive 

Processes,  538 
Ovarian  Follicles,  Retrogressive  Changes, 

631 
Ovary  and  Menstruation,  632 
Overton,  J.  B.,  Parthenogenesis  in  Thalic- 

trum  purpurascens,  451 
Oviparous  Species  of  Onychophora,  306 
Ovule  and  Embryo-sac,  Formation  in  the 

Araliaceae,  71 
—  and  Seed  in  Rosacea?,  Development,  664 
Ovum  withiu  Testes  of  Fragarium  elegant, 

548 


Packard,  A.  S.,  Lamarck,  Life  and  Work, 

547 
Pakes,  W.  C.  O,  Effect  of  Nitrates  on  the 

Shape  of  Certain  Bacteria,  88 
Palacky,  J.,  Distribution  of  Marine  Mam- 
mals, 297 

—  Geographical   Distribution  of  Mosses, 

331 
Palaeontology  and  Evolution,  634 
Palinurus  frontalis,  Lateral  Hermaphro- 
ditism, 433 
Palms,  Secondary  Growth  in  Thickness, 

316 
Palpi,  Undescribed,  on  the  Mouth-parts  of 
Diptera,  508 

on  the  Proboscis  of  some  Dipterous 

Flies,  with  Remarks  on  the  Mouth- 
parts  in  several  Families,  412 
Paludina  vivipara,  Development,  549 
Pancreas  in  Amniota,  Development,  165 

—  Ventral,  Development  in  Lacerta  mura 

lis,  540 
Pantanelli,  E.,  Albinism  in  Plants,  670 
Pantopoda,  Arctic,  184 
Papillae  of  Eolidaa,  176 

—  of  Onychophora,  306 
Pappenheim,  A.,  New  Triple  Stain,  257 
Paracolon  Bacillus,  Infection,  597 
Paraffin,  Apparatus  for  Imbedding  in,  377 

—  Bath,  Electrothermal,  111 
heated  by  Electricity,  111 

—  Imbedding,  Carbon  Bisulphide  in,  111 
in  Vacuo,  112 

Parafibula  in  Marsupials,  33 
Paramecium,  Action  of  Blood-Serum  on, 

563 
Paramozcium  aurelia,  Changes  in  the  Geo- 

taxis,  191 
Paraphyses  in  Uredinese,  Function,  682 
Paraphyses  of  Uredinese,  467 
Parasite,  An  unusual  Human,  558 

—  and  Host,  Relation  between,  593 

—  in  Blood  of  Epileptics,  346 
Parasites,  Fish,  52 

—  Nemertean,  of  Crabs,  558 

—  of  Birds,  Fasciolid,  558 

—  of  Rotatoria,  653 


Parasitic  Fungi,  86 

Paratore,  E.,  Nature  and  Function  of  the 
Nucleolus,  565 

—  Polymorphism  of  Bacillus  radicicola, 

225 

Parenchyma  of  Leaves,  Refringent  Glo- 
bules, 194 

Paris,  — .,  Lists  of  Mosses  and  Hepatics, 
332 

—  Mosses  of  West  Tropical  Africa,  460 
Paris,  E.  G.,  Mosses  of  Madagascar,  580 
Parker,  G.  H.,  Dispersal  of  Sagartia  lucise, 

562 

Parmelia,  85 

Parona,  C.,  Dichotomy  of  Arms  in  Cuttle- 
fish, 299 

Parrots'  Beaks,  Epithelial  Structures,  633 

Parsons,  E.  A.,  Exhibition  of  Slides  of 
Malaria  Parasites,  122,  128 

Parthenogenesis,  Artificial,  in  Arbacia  in- 
duced by  the  Use  of  Sea-water 
concentrated  by  Evaporation,  418 

—  Artificial,  in  Mactra,  640 

—  Development,  Natural,  654 
of  Silk-Moth  Ova,  428 

—  in  Amphibians,  Experimental,  537 
Paryphanta  hochdetteri,  427 

Passerini,  N.,  Effect  of  Sunshine  on  Plants, 

574 
Pasteurisation,  Efficiency,  477 
Pathogenic  and  Teratogenic  Agents,  543 
Pathology  and   Bacteriology,  Handbook, 
603 

—  Vegetable,  340,  595 

Paton,  D.  N.,  Amount  of  Dissolved  Oxy- 
gen in  Water  required  by  Young  Sai- 
monidaj,  425 
Paton,  S.,  Staiuing  Neuro-fibrils  in  Gan- 
glion-Cells of  Cerebral  Cortex,  500 
Patouillard,  M.,  Mycology  in  France,  221 
Patouillard,  N.,  Bovista  ammophila,  336 
Patterson,  — .,  Segmentation  of  the  Verte 

brate  Body,  32 
Pea  Hybrids,  Experiments,  321 

—  Type,  On  Separation  of  Characters  in 

Hybrids,  454 
Pearls,  Formation,  38 
and  Diseases,  39 

—  Origin,  39 

Pearson,  H.  H.  W.,  Dischidia  wifh  Double 
Pitchers,  569 

Pe'choutre,  F.,  Development  of  Ovule  and 
Seed  in  Rosaceae,  664 

Pe'choutre,  L.,  Integument  of  the  Ovule 
and  Seed  of  Geum,  66 

Peck,  C.  H.,  List  of  Fungi,  340 

Pedaschenko,  D.,  Development  of  Mid- 
brain in  Bony  Fish,  165 

Peglione,  V.,  Bacteria  and  Hemp,  695 

—  Disease  of  Maize,  470 

—  Parasitic  Fungi,  219 

Peirce,  G.  J.,  Extrusion  of  Gametes  in 
Fucus,  677 


INDEX. 


765 


Pellegrin,  J.,  Long  Fast  of  Python,  545 
Penard,  E.,  Heliozoa  around  Geneva,  312 
Penicillate  Tubes  of  Phyllactinia,  84 
Penicillium  glaucum,  Chemauxism  of  Cop- 
per Salts,  324 
Penzig,  O.,  Fungi  from  Java,  468 
Peragallo,  H.  and  M.,  Marine  Diatoms  of 

France,  82 
Percival,  J.,  Crystals  of  Calcium  Oxalate 
in  Seedlings  of  Alsike,  565 

—  Silver-leaf  Disease,  683 

Perez,  C,  Commensal  Schizopod,  555 

—  New  Giant  Pyrosoma,  426 

Perianth   of  Ranunculus  Ficaria,  Varia- 
tions, 670 
Pericycle  of  Angiosperms,  660 
Peridinium,  New  Species,  192 
Periodic  Growth  of  Fish-Scales,  173 
Perispermum,  a  New  Genus  of  Corallina- 

ceae,  212 
Peristome  of  Mosses,  331 

—  Structure,  209 

Perkin,  A.  G.,  Colouring  Matter  from 
Flowers  of  Delphinium  consolida, 
443 

Matters  of  Green  Ebony,  443 

—  Constituents  of  Acacia  and  Gambier 

Catechus,  568 
Perkin,  W.  H.,  jun.,  Constitution  of  He- 
matoxylin, 443 
Perkins,   H.   F.,   Budding    in   Larvae    ol 
Gonionema  murbachii,  561 

—  Double   Mounting  for  Whole  Objects, 

717 

—  Occurrence  of  Cladonema  in  the  Baha- 

mas, 188 
Perrier,  E.,  Stolonial  Growth  in  Syllidaj, 

308 
Perrot,  E.,  Botanical  Origin  of  Kinkeliba, 
569 

—  On  the  Ksopo  or  Tanghin  de  Menabe' 

(Menabea  venenata)  a  Poison  Plant 
of  Sakalaves,  194 
Petalophyllum  Ralfsii,  |674 
Peter  and  Bnrn's  Orientation  Plate,  621 
Peters,   A.  W.,  Methods  for  Use   in  the 

Study  of  Infusoria,  619 
Pethybridge,   G.  H.,  Action  of  Inorganic 

Salts  on  the  Structure  and  Development 

of  Plants,  72 
Petit  et  Borne,  Handbook  of  Bacteriology 

and  Pathology,  603 
Petit,   L.,    Refringent    Globules    in    the 

Parenchyma  of  Leaves,  194 
Petri,  L.,  Stigmata  of  Sericaria  mori,  180 
Petromyzon,  Relation  of  Metameric  Seg- 
mentation in,  to  that  in  Amphioxus  and 

in  Higher  Craniota,  29 
Pfeffer,  G.,  Synopsis  of  ffigopsid  Cephalo- 

pods,  299 
Phagocytic  Organs  in  Nematodes,  49 
Phalangista  vulpina,  Spermatogenesis,  419 
Phalloidese,  87 


Phanerogams  and    Polypudiacese,  Resin- 
Receptacle  in,  64 

—  Cane-Sugar  in  Reserve  Food-Stuffs,  326 
Pharyux  in  Planaria  maculata,  Regenera- 
tion, 651 

Phascolosoma,  Brain,  649 

Phascolosoma  vnlgare,  Peritoneal  Elements, 

433 
Pheidole  tommutata,  Macroergates  in,  40 
Philibert,  H,  Peristome  of  Mosses,  331 

—  Structure  of  the  Peristome,  209 
Phisalix,  O,  Hemolytic  Effect  of  Viper's 

Venom,  544 
Phloem,  So-called,  of  Lepidodendron,  330 
Phoronis,  Development,  435 
Phoroni8  ijimai,  Development,  52 
Phoronis,  New  Species,  53 
Phosphorescence,  Marine,  563 
Phosphorus  Compounds  in   Invertebrates, 

298 
Photograph  of  Pleurosigma  angulatum,  by 

F.  E.  Ives,  529 
Photographic  Purposes,  Method  of  Making 

Microscopical  Preparations,  253  j 
Photography,  Dictionary,  623 

—  Notable  Advance  in  Colour,  241 
Photo-measuring  Micrometer,  486 
Photomicrographic     Cameras,     Stringer's 

Focussing,  246 

—  Device,  491 

Photomicrographs    on     Gelatino-bromide 

Films,  493 
Photomicrography,  240,  616 

—  Colour,  243 

—  Dennis'  High-power,  242 

—  New  Method  of  Focussing  in,  490 

—  Observing  Prism,  616 

—  of  Iron  and  Steel,  Report  of  a  Demon- 

stration of  Methods  used  in,  1 
— .     See  Contents,  xxxv 

—  Seibert's  Vertical  Apparatus,  106 

—  Study  of  Growing  Crystals  by  Instan- 

taneous, 364 

—  with  Simple  Apparatus,  492 

Photosynthesis  and.  Plant  Growth,  Influ- 
ence of  Varying  Amount  of  Carbon  Di- 
oxide in  the  Air,  668 

Phycochromacea),  Staining    and    Fixing, 

374 
Phyllactinia,  Penicillate  Tubes  of,  84 
Phyllaplysia,  Affinities,  38 
Phyllospadix  as  a  Beach-builder,  327 
Phyllotaxis,  67 
Phylogeny  of  Protists,  57 
Phyloglossum,  Prothallium,  208 
Physiology  of  Seed  Plants.  See  Contents. 

xxi 
Phyto-plankton  of  the  Erlaufsee  and  the 

Caspian  Soa,  676 
Piccioli,  L.,  Soils  suitable  for  Chestnuts, 

453 
Picro-carmin  Solutions,  255 
Piedra,  Microbe  of,  87 


766 


INDEX. 


Pierce,  G.  J.,  Forcible  Discharge  of  An- 

therozoids  in  Asterella  californica.  578 
Pierce,  N.  B.,  Black  Rot  of  Oranges,  596 
Pigment,  Red,  of  Asterias  rubens,  654 
Pigments  of  Nudibranchs,  38 
Pig's  Intestine,  Development,  27 
Pillischer's  "  Lenticular  Microscope,". 353 
Pilsbry,  H.  A.,  Affinities  of  Genus  Neo- 

beliscus,  37 
Pinching,  Grafting,  and  Annular  Decorti- 
cation, 73 
Pine-apples,  Cockscomb  Fasciation,  322 
Pine-Cmie,  Morphology,  318 
Pinus  strobus,  Development  of  the  Oosphere 

and  Fertilisation  in,  70 
Piorkowski,   -.,  Bacilli  in  Syphilitic  Se- 
men, 692 
Piperacese,  Germination,  571 
Pirotta,  R.,  Primary  Vascular  Elements  in 

Roots  of  Monocotyledons,  317 
Pitard,  J.,  Pericycle  of  Anu'iosperms,  660  ■ 
Pitchers,  Double,  in  Dischidia,  569 
Pith  of  Maize  and   Elder,  Constituents, 

567 
Pitsch,  O.,  Yield  of  Leguminous  Plants, 

452 
Pituitary  Body  of  Amphibians,  635 
Pizon,  A.,  Heart  of  Diplosomidse,  638 

—  Mechanical  Theory  of  Vision,  32 
Plagiostomes,  lnter-renal  Body,  636 

—  Supra-renal  Bodies,  636 
Plague,  Transmissibility  to  Bats,  692 
Planaria  maculata,  Regeneration  of 'Pha- 
rynx, 651 

Planarian,  Notes  on  a,  434 

Planarians,   Distribution  as   affected    by 

Temperature,  308 
Plankton,  581 

—  and  Abyssal  Fauna  around  Capri,  297 

—  in  Lake  Geneva,  Variations,  639 

—  of  Alpine  Lakes,  675 

—  of  Attersee,  36 

—  of  Lake  of  Maria-Laach.  426 

—  Pond,  675 
Plant  Diseases,  469 

—  Growth  and  Photosynthesis,  Influence 

of  Varying  Amount  of  Carbon  Di- 
oxide in  the  Air,  668 

—  Juices,  Electrical  Conductivity,  661 1 
Plantain-Seed,  Anchoring,  458 
Plants,  Albinism,  670 

—  Diseases,  686 

—  Distribution    in  the    Alps    and   Jura 

Mountains,  206 

—  Effect  of  Sunshine  on,  574 

—  Electric  Response    under   Mechanical 

Stimulus,  574 

—  Electrical  Phenomena,  574 

—  Investigation  and  Presence  of  Rennet- 

ferment,  575 

—  Necessity  of  Lime  for,  203 

—  Predisposition  and  Immunity,  473 

—  Proteid  Formation  in,  457 


Plants,  Protoplasmic  Streaming,  314 

—  Tertiary,  from  the  Himmelsberg,  577 

—  Woody,  Accumulation  of  Mineral  and 

Organic  Matter,  573 
Plasmodiophora  Brassicse,  586 
Plasmoptysis,  348 
Plate  Cultures,  New  Counting  Apparatus, 

718 
Platinum  Method  for  the  Central  Nervous 

System,  256 

—  Micro-Crystalline  Structure,  504 

—  Microscopic  Effects  of  Stress,  624 

—  Re-crvstallisation,  623 

—  Substitution,  Golgi-Sublimate  Prepara- 

tions, Methods  of  rendering  Perma- 
nent, 501 

Plato,  J.,  Intra  vitam  Staining  of  Fung 
378 

Platyhelmia,  Mesozoa,  and  Nemertini,  186 

Platyhelminthes.     See  Contents,  xvii 

Platysfrophia,  Variation,  560 

Pletheclon  cinereus,  Larva,  28 

Pleospora   and   Helminthosporium,  Rela- 
tionship, 681 

Pleuronectidae,  Systematic  Position,  638 

Pleurosigma  angulatum  and  balticum.  Dis- 
tinguishing under  Low  Powers,  257 

Photograph  by  F.  E.  Ives,  529 

Plimmer,   H.   G.,   Fixing    and    Stainiug 
Trypanosoma,  372 

—  Trypanosoma  brucei,  440 
Plowrigbt,  C.  B  ,  British  Dye-Plants,  671 

—  Ozonium  auricomum,  339 
Plumatella  and  Vivipara,  310 
Pneumo-Enteritis,  Normal  Serum  in,  347 
Poche,   F.,   Distribution   of  Anoplopterus 

platychir,  173 

of  Siluroids,  173 

Pocock,  R.  I.,  Annectant  Type  of  Chilo- 
pod,  429 

—  Studies  on  the  Arachnid  Eutosternite 

645 
Podczaski,   T.,   Differential   Staining  for 

Tubercle  and  Smegma  Bacilli,  256 
Podocarpus,  Gametophytes   and  Embryo, 

319 
Podpera,  J.,  Bohemian  Species  of  Bryum, 

580 
Poirault,  M.,  Mycology  in  France,  221 
Poisoning  in  Conus,  301 
Poisonous  Principle  in  the  Mistletoe,  64 

—  Properties  of  Lolium  temulentum,  64 
Poisson,  J.,  Duration  of  GerminatingPower 

of  Seeds,  669 
Polarising    Apparatus,    Seibert's     Large, 
104 

—  with  the  Microscope,  142,  264  " 
Polarisation-Microscopes,  Seibert's,  234 
Pollacci,   G.,   New    Mode  of    Measuring 

Transpiration,  75 
Pollen    and   Male   Prothallia  from   Ccal 
Measures,  671 

—  Formation  in  the  Asclepiadeae,  199 


INDEX. 


767 


Pollen  of  Zostera,  Development,  449 
Pollicard,  A.,  Lympho-myeloid  Connective 

Stroma  in  Testes  of  Young  Rays,  422 
Pollination,  Influence  on  the  Development 

of  the  Pericarp,  321 
Polychset  Proboscis,  Sense-Organs,  647 
PolycliiBta  Embryos,  Fixation,  373 

—  Respiration,  647 

Polychrets,  Sensory  Cells  in  Proboscis,  49 

—  Seasonal  Histolysis,  48 
Polychroiam  of  Flowers,  64 
Polychrome    Methylen  -  Blue,    Simplified 

Method  of  Staining,  717 

Polyem'oryony  in  Gingko,  661 

Polymorphism  of  Bacillus  radicicola,  225 

Polyplacopliora,  Fossil,  177 

Poli/stomum  integerrimum,  Early  Stages  in 
Development,  51 

Polythermostats,  496 

Polytoma,  Structure  and  Division,  460 

Polytrichum,  Leaf-movements,  209 

Porifera.     See  Contents,  six 

Porsilcl,  M.  P.,  Riella  cultivated  from 
Dried  Mud,  674 

Portheim,  L.  R.  v.,  Necessity  of  Lime  for 
Plants,  203 

Potable  Water,  Bacteriological  Examina- 
tion of,  91 

Potato,  Bacterial  Disease,  223 

—  Tubers,  Germination,  452 

Potter,  — .,  Black  Dry-rot  in  Swedes,  61  >1 
Potter,  M.  C,  Canker  of  Oak,  338 

—  Parasitism  of  Pseudomonas  destructans, 

597 
Powell,  T.,   Semi-apochromatic  Objective 

of  TVin.  Focus,  3sij 
Planter,   V.,   Substitute    for    Cover-slips, 

115 
Predisposition   and   Immunity  in  Plants, 

473 
Preisz,  H,,  Practical  Filtering  Apparatus, 

260 
Prenant.  — .,  Branchial  Clefts  in  Lizard 

and  Slow-worm,  634 
Prenaut,  A.,  Branchial  Clefts  in  Ophidia, 

539 
Preparing  Objects.     See  Contents,  xxxvii 
Preservative  Fluids.  See  Contexts,  xxxviii 
Preserving  Zoological  Objects,  New  Fluid 

Medium,  258 
President,  The,  119,  122,  3S4,  722.  725 
President's  Address :     Life  and  Work  of 

Nehemiah  Grew,  129 
Pressure  and  Tension,  Influence  on  Direc- 
tion of  Cell-wall,  322 

—  Mutual,    Theory   of    the    Shifting    of 

Lateral  Organs,  322 
Preston,  C.  E.,  Peculiar  Stages  of  Foliage 

in  the  Genus  Acacia,  658 
Priapulus,  Geographical  Distribution.  186 
Prillieux.  E.,  Dematophora  in  Fruit,  680 
Prism,  Observing,  266 
for  Photomicrography,  616 


Progeny  of  a  Tailless  Cat,  292 
Projection  Apparatus,  Solar,  and  its  Ad- 
justment, 615 

—  Microscope,  Moll's  Apparatus  for  Ad- 

justment of,  362 

—  Microscopes,  using  Electric  Arc  or  Oxy- 

hydrogen  Light,  702 

—  Oculars,  Tape  Measure  for  Adjustment, 

248 
Proteid  Formation  in  Plauts,  457 
Proteids,  Formation,  74 

—  Transformation    during    Germination, 

456 
Proteolysis  and  Tryptophane.  325 
Proteolytic  Power  of  Bacteria,  SS 
Prothalliof  Ophioglossum  and  Helmintho- 

stachys,  327 
Prothallia,  Male,  and   Pollen  from  Coa 

Measures,  671 
Prothallium  of  Phylloglossum,  20S 
Prothallus  of  Ophioglossum,  Helmintho- 

stachys.  and  Psilotum,  77 
Protists,  Phylogeny,  57 
Protoplasm,  Artificial,  190 

—  Continuity  in  Fungi,  687 

—  Fibrillar  Structure,  194 

—  Permeability,  442 

Protoplasmic    Continuity  in  Cryptogams, 
314 

—  Streaming  in  Plants,  314 
Prototracheata.    See  Contents,  xv 
Protozoa,  Observations  on,  563 

—  of  the  Volga-plaukton,  313 
— .     See  Contents,  xix 

-r-  Silico- Flagellate,  57 
Protozoon  Parasite  in  Plaice,  193 
Protz,  A.,  New  Hydrachnids,  183 
Prowasek,  S.,  Bladders  of  Utricularia,  197 
Prowazek,  S.,  Structure   and  Division  of 
Polytoma.  460 

—  Tetrads  in  Spermatogenesis,  162 
Pruntt,  A.,  Black  Rot,  596 

Prunet,  M.  A..  Black  Rot  of  Vine,  469 
Pruvot,  G.,  Classification  of  Neomenians, 
541) 

—  Stolonial  Growth  in  Syllidse,  307 
Prymak,  T.,  Structure   and   Function    of 

Thymus  in  Teleosteans,  636 
Przesmycki,  A.  M.,  Parasites  of  Rotifers, 

50o 
Przibram,  H.,  Observations    on  Homarus 

europseus,  185 
Pseudo-chromosomes  in  Ova  of  Birds,  632 
Pseudodiphtheria  and  Diphtheria  Bacilli, 
lndol-like  Reaction  given  by  Cultures 
of,  93 

—  Bacilli,  226 

"  Pseudogamy  "  in  Dentalium  Eutalis,  299 
Pseudomonas  destructans,  Parasitism,  597 
Pseudoscorpionidaa,  Breathing  Organs,  184 
Pseudothyroid  of  Frog,  539 
Pseudo-tuberculosis    (Streptobacillary)  of 
Grey  Rat,  47: » 


768 


INDEX. 


Psilotum,      Ophioglossum,       Helmintho- 

stachys,  Prothallus  of,  77- 
Pteridophyta,  Danish,  G72 

—  See  Contents,  xxvi 
Pterocephalus,  Sexual  Phenomena,  564 
Pterygophora     californica,     Observations, 

582 
Puccinia,  337 
Pulst,  C,  Resistance  of  some  Moulds  to 

Metal  Poisoning,  472 
Punnett,  R.  O,  Structure  of  Lineus  gesser- 

ensis,  187 
Pupation,  Hindering,  ISO 

—  Influence  of  Temperature,  644 
Purpura  lapillus,  Purple  of,  550 

Pye,  W.  G.  &  Co.,  New  Pattern  Reading 
Microscopes,  389 

—  Reading  Microscope,  35S 

—  Short  Table  Cathetometer,  359 

—  Table  Cathetometer,  3S9 
Pyrosoma,  New  Giant,  426 
Pyrrhosorus,  a  new  Marine  Fungus,  213 
Pythium  de  Baryanum,  Fertilisation,  335 
Python,  Long  Fast,  545 


Q. 


•Quensel,  XL,  New  Method  of  Examining 
Sputum,  254 


R. 


Rabaud,  E.,  Pathogenic  and  Teratogenic 
Agents,  543 

Rabenhorst's  Cryptogamic  Flora  of  Ger- 
many, &c.  (Fungi  Imperfecti),  86, 
464,  590, 684 

—  Cryptogamic  Flora  of  Germany  (Musci), 
210 

Rabiger,  — .,  Staining  the  Capsule  of  An- 
thrax, 257 

Rabinowitsch,  — .,  Agglutination  of  Tu- 
bercle Bacillus,  348 

Raciborski,  M.,  Vegetative  Propagation  in 
Angiopteris  evicta,  459 

Rackwork  Draw-tube,  Old,  360 

Radiolarians  of  Faroe  Channel  and  Shet- 
lands,  191 

Radula,  in  Cephalopoda,  Development,  36 

Radulse,  Preparation,  374 

Rammelbero;,  K.,  Composition  of  Orchid 
Tubers,  566 

Eana  temporaria,  Variations  in  Vascular 
System,  424 

Randies,   W.    B.,   Crystalline    Style    and 
Style-sac  in  Turritella  communis,  427 

Ranojevie,   N.,  Contributions   to   Fungus 
Floras,  684 

Ranojevie',  N.,  Servian  Fungus  Flora,  468 

RanunoulacesB,  Anatomy,  444 

of  Leaves,  444 

Ranunculus  Ficaria,  Biology  of,  73 


Ranunculus  Ficaria,  Variations  in  Peri- 
anth, 670 

Raspail,  X.,  Notes  on  a  Planarian,  434 

Ravenel,  M.  P.,  Virulence  of  Bovine  and 
Human  Tubercle  Bacilli,  92 

Rawitz,  B.,  Simplified  Method  of  Staining 
with  Polychrome  Methylen-Blue,  717 

—  Staining  Sections  of  Spinal  Cord  with 

Coerulein  S,  717 
Rays,   Young,  Lympho-myeloid   Connec- 
tive Stroma  in  Testes,  422 
Receptacula  seminis  in  Culicidse,  644 
Rechinger,  C,  Peculiar  Phytoptid  Galls, 

553 
Re-crystallisation  of  Platinum,  623 
Red,  Neutral,  for  Staining  Nucleated  Red 

Blood-Corpuscles,  114 
Redikorzew,  W.,  Ovum  within  Testes  of 

Fragarium  elegans,  54  S 
Reeb,  — .,  Lecithin  in  Plants,  568 
Reese,  A.  M.,  Thyroid  of  Lamprey,  421 
Refringent  Globules  in  the  Parenchyma 

of  Leaves,  194 
Regaud,    C,    Paraffin  Bath  Heated    by 

Electricity,  111 
Regaud,  C.  O.,  Demonstrating  the  Seminal 

Tubules  of  the  Rat  by  means  of  Renaut's 

Fluid,  114 
Regeneration,  Epithelial,  in  Mid-gut  of 
Arthropods,  551 

—  in  Hermit  Crab  and  Crayfish,  431 

—  in  Hydra,  655 

—  in  Tubularia,  655 
Regions,  Bio-geographical,  426 
Reichenbach,  E.  S.  v..  Vertebrae  of  Ter- 
restrial Carnivores,  638 

Reiffen,  A.,  New  Holothurian  from  New 
Zealand,  436 

Reighard,  J.,  Form  of  Vertical  Camera  and 
its  Uses,  705 

Reinbold,  — .,  Algae  from  the  Caroline 
Islands,  213 

.,  Flora  of  Koh  Chang,  462 

Reinke,  F.,  Outlines  of  General  Anatomy, 
32 

Reis,  O.  M.,  Ligament  of  Bivalves,  642 

Remy,  T.,  Nutrition  of  Hops,  453 

Renard,  — .  Le,  Chemauxism  of  Copper 
Salts  on  Penicillium  glaucum,  324 

Renault,  B.,  Fossil  Heterosporous  Ferns, 
79 

—  Pollen  and  Male  Prothallia  from  the 
Coal  Measures,  671 

Renaut's  Fluid,  Demonstrating  the  Semi- 
nal Tubules  of  the  Rat  by  means  of,  114 

Rendle,  A.  B.  Bulbiform  Seeds  of  Ama- 
ryllidese,  (id 

Renilla,  Regeneration  and  Regulation,  54 

Rennert,  R.  J.,  Seeds  and  Seedings  of 
Ariszema  triphyllum  and  A.  Dracontium, 
198 

Rennet-ferment,  Investigation  and  Pre- 
sence in  Plants,  575 


INDEX. 


769 


Report,  Annual,  123 

Reproduction,  Sexu.il  and  Non-Sexual,  in 

Zygomycetes,  213 
Reptiles,  Germinal  "Vesicle,  161 
Resin-Receptacle    in    the    Polypodiacese 

and  in  some  Phanerogams,  61 
Resorption   of  Bacteria  from   Intestines, 

347 
Respiration  of  Fungi,  6S8 


of  Lower  Fungi, 

;;sy 


Influence  of  Light, 


Respiratory  Prothoracic  Apparatus  in  Dip- 
terous Pupae,  428 
Retina,  Development  of  Frog's,  28 

—  Development  of  Layers,  538 

—  of  Hatteria,  541 

—  Studies,  541 
Retting  of  Flax,  475 

Reuss,  H.,  Distomum  duplicatum  in  Fresh- 
water Mussels,  434 

Reuter,  K ,  Preparation  of  Pure  Roman- 
owsky-Nocht  Stain,  112 

Rhabdoccel,  New,  434 

Bhabdopleura  normani,  Contributions  to 
Anatomy,  652 

Rhabdospora,  Arctic-Alpine,  210 

Rheinberg,  J.,  Double-Image  Discs  and 
Complementary  Interference  Colours, 
249 

—  The  Black  and  "White  Dot  Phenome- 

non, 367 
Rheotropism  of  Roots,  454 
Rhinantkacese,  Green,  Suckers,  323 
Rhizobium     leguminosarum,    Cultivation, 

108 
Rhizocephalid  Type,  New,  555 
Rhizomorpha,  594 
Rhizopods,  British  Fresh-water,  56 
Rhodomelacese,  583 

—  Spiral  Arrangement,  334 
Bhijnchehnis    limosella,    Regeneration  ' of 

Alimentary  Canal,  647 

liieliards  and  Archibald,  Study  of  Grow- 
ing Crystals  by  Instantaneous  Photo- 
micrography, 364 

Richards,  E.  H.,  Oscillaria  proh'fica,  341 

Richardson,  F.  L.,  Colour  Photomicro- 
graphy, 243 

Ricciardi,  S.,  New  Species  of  Didymozoon, 
187 

Ridewood,  W.  G.,  Structure  of  Gills  of 
Lamellibrauchs,  641 

Riella  Cultivated  from  dried  Mud,  674 

Riggenbach,  E.,  Autotomy  in  Marine  In- 
vertebrates, 174 

Rimbach,  A.,  Subterranean  Organs  of  Cali- 
fornia n  Liliacea3,  658 

Rings  and  Brushes,  143 

Ripening  of  Cream,  90 

—  of  Woody  Plants,  Relation  of  the  Sup- 

ply of  Water  to,  73 
Rist,  — .,   Micro-Organisms  of  Egyptian 
"  Leben  Raib,"  313 

December  17th,  1902 


Robertson,  W.  F.,  Methods  of  rendering 
Golgi-Sublimate  Preparations  Per- 
manent by  Platinum  Substitution, 
501 

—  Platinum  Method  for  the  Central  Nerv- 
ous System,  256 

Robin,  A.,  Flask  for  Storing  Culture 
Media,  617 

Rodway,  L.,  Botany  of  Tasmania,  577 

Rogers,  L.,  Toxic  Properties  of  Saliva  of 
certain  Non-poisonous  Colubrines,  638 

Rogozinski,  — .,  Resorption  of  Bacteria 
from  Intestines,  347 

Rohnstein,  R.,  Simple  Method  for  Pre- 
serving Urinary  and  other  Deposits,  622 

Rolland,  M.  L„  Mycology  in  France,  221 

Romanowsky-Nocht  Stain,  Pure,  Prepara- 
tion of,  112 

Romell,  L.,  South  American  Fungi,  222 

Rommel,  W.,  Fruit  Yeasts,  680 

Roos,  E.,  Function  of  Thyroid  Gland,  425 

Roots,  Assimilating,  of  Tamiophyllum,  68 

—  of  Monocotyledons,  Primary  Vascular 

Elements",  317 

—  Rheotropism,  454 

— ■  Tuberous,  of  Thrincia  tuherosa,  Struc- 
ture, 196 
Root-tip,   Method    of   Investigating    the 

Gravitational  Sensitiveness,  575 
Root- tubercles    in    Pisum,     Influence    of 

Mineral  Salts  on  the  Production.  203 
Rosa,  D.,  Chloragogen  of  Oligochseta,  64S 
Rosacea?,  Development  of  Ovule  and  Seed, 
664 

—  Existence  of  a  Hypostase  in  Ovule  and 

Seed,  666 
Rosenberg,  O.,  Development  of  Pollen  in 
Zostera,  449 

—  Embryology  of  Zostera  marina,  449 
Rosenberger,    H.  G.,    Simple   Method   of 

Preparing  Bone  Sections,  714 

Rosenfeld,  A.,  Involution  Forms  of  some 
Plague-like  Bacteria,  91 

Rosenhain,  — .,  Crystalline  Structure  of 
Metals,  262 

Rosenhain,  W.,  He-crystallisation  of  Pla- 
tinum, 623 

Rosenheim,  O.,  Decomposition  of  Com- 
pounds of  Selenium  and  Tellurium  by 
Moulds,  688 

Rosenvinge,  K.,  Spiral  Arrangement  in 
Rhodomelaceaa,  334 

Rosuer,  A.,  Monochorial  Twins,  159 

Ross,  Andrew,  Two  Early  Microscopes 
by  (?)  351 

Ross,  Messrs.,  Lens  for  Dark-Ground  Il- 
lumination, 237 

Ross'  New  Microscope,  231 

Rossi,  G.,  Alimentary  Tract  of  Jnlus  com- 
munis, 553 

—  Locomotion  of  Myriopods,  55:; 

—  Resistance  of  Myriopods  to  Asphyxia- 

tion, 305 

3    F 


770 


INDEX. 


Rot,  Black,  596 

of  Oranges,  596 

Rotatoria,  Parasites,  653 

— .     See  Contents,  xviii 

Roth,  J.,  Variability  of  Gas-forination  by 

Bacillus  coli  communis,  92 
Rotifer,  New,  187 
Rotifera,  Preserving  and  Mounting,  378 

—  Key  for  the  Amateur,  653 
Rotifers,  New,  435 

—  New,  from  Scotland,  653 

Third  List  since  1889,  148,  267 

—  Parasites  of,  561! 

Rottman,  G.,  Development  of  Radula  iu 

Cephalopoda,  36 
Roule,  L.,  New  Species  of  Atberine  in 

Fresh  Water,  297 
Rousselet,  C.  F.,  New  Rotifer,  18S 

—  On  the  Genus  Synchajta,  507 

—  Preserving  and  Mounting  Rotifera,  378 

—  The  Genus  Synchseta  :  A  Monographic 

Study  with  Descriptions  of  Five  New 
Species,  269,  393 

—  The  Jackson  Microscope,  721 

—  Third  List  of  New  Rotifers  since  1889, 

148,  267 
Rowland,  S.,  Intracellular  Constituents  of 
the  Typhoid  Bacillus,  225 

—  Microscopical  Appearances  of  Pressed 

Yeast  after  Liquefaction,  85 
Rowley,   H.  T.,  Regeneration   in   Hydra, 

655 
Rubiacese,  Comparative  Embryology,  662 
Rugosa,  Relationships  of,  to  Living  Zoan- 

these,  437 
Rulot,  H.,  Hibernation  of  Bats,  33 
Russell,  — .,  Efficiency  of  Pasteurisation, 
477 

—  Heat-resisting  Micrococcus,  602 
Rust  of  Andropogon  Sorghum,  592 

—  of  Cereals,  33S 

—  of  Timothy  Grass,  592 
Rusts,  Experiments,  682 

—  Japanese,  340 

—  of  the  Umbellifera?,  681 
Rutacese,  Leaf-Anatomy,  568 
Ruzicka,  — .,  Variability  of  Micro-Organ- 

isms,  342 
Rysselbergke,   Van  — .,  Permeability    of 
Protoplasm,  442 


S. 


Sablon,  L.  du.,  Tubercle  of  Tamus  com- 
munis, 317 

Sabrazes,  — .,  Pseudo-Tuberculosis  (Strep- 
tobacillary) of  Grey  Rat,  479 

Saccardo,  P.  A.,  Fungi  from  Java,  468 

—  Sylloge  Fungorum,  341 

Saccharomyces,  Demonstration  of  the  Cell- 
nucleus,  113 

Saccharomycetes,  Spore-formation,  339 


Sagartia  lucise,  Dispersal,  562 

Sagifta,  Development,  649 

Sago,  K.,  Weather  and  Parasitic  Fungi, 

688 
Saint-Remy,  G.,  Branchial  Clefts  iu  Lizard 

and  Slow-worm,  634 
in  Ophidia,  539 

—  Germinal  Layers  in  Cestoda,  50 
Saito,  K„  Bast-Fibres  of  Japanese  Fibre- 
Plants,  31 S 

Sala,  G.,  Structure  of  Herbst's  Corpuscles 

in  Sparrow  and  Fowl,  31 
Salamander,  Abnormalities  in  Veins,  35 

—  Giant,  of  Japan,  Anatomy,  637 
Saliva  of  certain  Non-poisonous  Colubrines. 

Toxic  Properties,  638 
Salmon,  E.,  Plant  Diseases,  470 
Salmon,  E.  S.,  Bryological  Notes,  580 

—  Coprophilous  Fungi  II.,  335 

—  Notes  on  Erysiphacese,  465 
Salmonidse,  Young,  Amount  of  Dissolved 

Oxygen  in  Water  required,  425 
Salmo  fario,  Yolk-organ,  166 
Salmonoid  Fishes,  Action  of  Spurge  on. 

425 
Salt,   Effect  in   Nutrient  Media   on  the 
Growth  of  Micro-organisms,  89 

—  Solution,  Resistance  to,  324 

Salts,  Inorganic,  Action  on  the  Structure 

and  Development  of  Plants,  72 
Salvi,  G.,  Copulation  of  Bats,  164 
Sampolo,  — .,  [Notable  Advance  in  Colour 

Photography,  241 
Sainter,  M.,  Relict  Crustaceans  in  North 

German  Lakes,  432 
Sanchez,   D.,   Diverticulum    of   Duct    of 

Snermotheca  in  Helix  aspersa,  176 
SapindacesB,  Development  of  Seed,  321 
Saponarin,  568 
Saprolegniese,  587 
Sarcocystis  tenella  in  Man,  564 
Sarcoli,  — .,   Alcoholic   Fermentation    of 

Indian  Fig-Must,  337 
Sargant,  E.,  Origin  of  Seed-leaf  in  Mono- 
cotyledons, 446 
Sarnthein,   Count  v.,   Fungus    Flora    of 

Tyrol,  222 
Sartori,  — .,  Detection  of  Tubercle  Bacilli 

in  Milk,  343 
Saunders,  De  A.,  Algae  of  the  Harriman 

Alaska  Expedition,  585 
Sauromatum  guttatum,  Development,  202 
Sauvageau,  M.  O,  Sphacelariaceas,  211 
Sauveur,  A.,  Steel  Rails,  Relation  between 

their  Structure  and  Durability,  719 
Savery,  G.  B.,  British  and  Irish  Mosses, 

581 
Saw  for  making  Microscopic  Preparations 

of  Hard  Objects,  112 
Sayce,  O.  A.,  New  Blind  Crustacea,  48 
Genus  of  Blind  Lopods,  432 

—  New  Victorian  Amphipods,  646 
Scale-Insects  of  Japan,  553 


INDEX. 


771 


Scaphopoda.     See  Contents,  xiii 
Scarlatina,  Bacteriology,  694 
Scarlet  Fever,  Streptococcus,  694 
Schafer,  E.  A.,  Minute  Structure  of  Mus- 
cle-Fibril, 542 

—  Nutritive  Channels  within  the  Liver- 

Cells  communicating  with  the  Lobu- 
lar Capillaries,  295 
Schafther,  J.  H.,  Oculars  for  General  La- 
boratory Work,  487 
Schenkel,  E.,  Decapods  of  Celebes,  432 
Scherffel,  A.,    Contributions    to    Fungus 
Floras,  6S4 

—  Phylogeny  of  Protists,  57 

—  Kemarks  on  OEdogonia  with  Semicir- 

cular Foot-cell,  210 
Schimkewitsch,   W.,   Direct  Division    in 
Artificial  Conditions,  635 

—  Influences  of  Injections  into  the  Albu- 

men of  Fowls'  Eggs,  1G0 
Schizomycetes.     See  Contents,  xxxi 
Schizophvceae,  Gomontiella,  a  new  Genus, 

223  " 
— .     See  Contents,  xxxi 
Schizophyta.  Structure  and  Affinities,  473 
Schizopods,  Commensal,  555 
Schlngdenhauffen,  M.,  Lecithin  in  Plants, 

56S 
Schmidle,  W.,   Algae   from   the   Caroline 

Islands,  213 

—  Notes    on    some    Fresh-water    Alga?, 

584 

—  Pilgeria,   a  new  Genus  of  Chroococ- 

cacese,  88 
Schmidt,  G.,  Resistance  of  B.  dysenterix 

to  Cold,  480 
Schmidt,  J.,  Flora  of  Koh  Chang,  462 

—  Richelia,  a  new  Genus  of  Cyanophycese, 

88 
Schmidt's  Atlas  der  Diatomaceen-Kunde, 

82 
Schneider,  A.,  Function  of  Calcium  oxa- 
late, 63 
Schneider,  G.,  Gelatin  as  a  Substitute  for 
Glass,  257 

—  Life-History  of  Clupea  sprattus.  166 

—  New  Species  of  Caryophylkeus,  557 
Schniewind-Thies,  J.,   Reduction   in   the 

Number  of  Chromosomes  in  the  Embryo- 
sac  Mother-cell,  68 
Schostakowitsch,  W.,  Actinomucor  repens, 
589 

—  Genus  Mucor,  463 

—  Mucors  of  East  Siberia,  680 
Schottmiiller,  H.,  Germ  and  Water-tight 

Stopper  for  Flasks,  503 

Schouten,  S.  L.,  Demonstration  of  En- 
zymes, 108 

Schrenk,  H.  v.,  Vegetable  Pathology, 
340 

Schroeder,  A.,  Anatomical  Investigation 
of  the  Leaf  and  of  the  Axis  in  the 
Lipariese  and  Bossiaeae,  195 


Schroter,  C-,  Variation  in  Fragillaria  cro- 

tonensis,  461 
Schulz,  N.,  Light  and  Spore-Germination, 

—  324 

Schulze,  C,  Alinit,  603 

Schulze,   E.,   Leucine   and    Tyrosine    as 

.  Food-stuffs,  452 

Schulze,  H.,  Leaf-Anatomy  of  Rutaceae, 
568 

Scliultz-Schultzenstein,  — .,  Effect  of  the 
Human  Gastric  Juice  on  Cholera  Vi- 
brios, 224 

Schumacher,  S.  v.,  Yolk-organ  of  Salmo 
fario,  166 

Schuuck,  — .,  Contributions  to  the  Chem- 
istry of  Chlorophyll,  206 

Schiirhoft,  — .,  Sodium  Silicate  as  a  Mount- 
ing Medium  for  Microscopical  Prepara- 
tions, 622 

Schwabach,  E.,  Development  of  Stomata 
in  Conifers,  315 

Schwalbe,  E.,  What  are  "Blood-plates?" 
170 

Sciara,  Expulsion  of  Spermatozoa,  551 

Sciara  medullaris,  Habits  of  Larvae,  551 

Scolopendra,  Development,  44 

—  Spermatogenesis,  182 

Scott,  A.,  Additions  to  British  Fauna,  175 

—  Spawning  Period  of  Mussels,  178 

—  Structure  of  Lepeophtheirus  and  Ler- 

naea,  185 
Scott,  D.  H.,  The  Microscope  in  Fossil 
Botany,  725 

—  The  Old  Wood  and  the  New,  315 
Scott,  R.,  Salt-water  Aquarium,  680 
Scott,  T.,  Scottish  Crustacea,  555 
Scourfield,  D.  J.,  Ephippia  of  the  Linceid 

Entomostraca,  554 

—  Exhibition    of   Fresh-water  Entomos- 

traca, 390 
Scudder,  S.  H.,  Index  to  North  American 

Orthoptera,  428 
Scutellarin,  315 
Scyphomedusas,  Japanese,  656 
Sea-Urchins,  Function  of  Sphseridia,  437 
Seckt,  H.,  Influence  of  X-rays  on  Plant 

Organism,  455 
Seed  and  Ovule"in  Rosaceae,  Development, 
664 

—  in  Sapindaceae,  Development,  321 
Seed-leaf  in  Monocotyledons,  Origin,  446 
Seedling,  Nutrition  of,  at  the  Expense  of 

its  Cotyledons,  203 
Seed-Plants.  Phyllobiologic  Types  in  some 

Orders,  576 
Seeds,  Action  of  Alcohol  on  Germination, 
575 

—  and  Seedlings  of  Arissema  triphyllum 

and  A.  Dracontium,  198 

—  Bulbiform,  of  Amaryllideae,  66 

—  Duration  of  Germinating  Power,  669 

—  of  Carapa  guianensis.  Germination,  .372 

—  of  Cereals,  Germinating  Power,  204 

3  f  2 


772 


INDEX. 


Seeds,  Oily,  Aleurone-Grains,  442 

—  Resistance  to  Low  Temperatures,  204 
Seeliger,  O.,  Deep-Sea  Fauna,  35 
Segmentation  of  the  Vertebrate  Body,  32 

—  Metameric,  Relation  in  Petromyzon  to 

that  in  Amphioxus  and  in  Higher 
Craniota,  29 
Seibert's   Apparatus   for    Vertical   Photo- 
micrography, 106 

—  Laboratory  Microscope,  101 

—  Large  Model  Microscope  No.  2,  354 
No.  3,  101 

Polarising  Apparatus,  104 

—  Mineralogical  Stand,  234 

—  New  Dissection  Microscope,  101 
Projection  Microscope  with  Electric 

Light,  103 

—  Travelling  Microscope,  98 
Selaginella,  New  Species,  578 

—  Sporange  and  Oopliyte,  76 

—  Sporangia,    Spore-casting    Mechanism, 

459 
Selby,  A.  D.,  Resistance  of  Seeds  to  Low 

Temperatures,  204 
Selenium  and  Tellurium  Compounds,  De- 
composition by  Moulds,  OSS 
Self-Pollination  and  Cross-Pollination,  71 
Seligo,  A.,  New  Rotifers,  436 
Sellards,  E.  H.,  Fossil  American  Ferns : 
Fertile     Fronds     of     Crossotheca    and 
Myriotheca,  671 
Sematophyllum,  European  Species,  673 
Semicircular     Canals,     Experiments     on 
Pigeons  in  relation  to,  544 

Lesion,  637 

Seminal  Vesicles  of  Elk,  Peculiar  Process 

in,  293 
Sencert,  L.,  Variations  in  Human  Verte- 
bral Column,  424 
Senft,  E.,  Diatoms  in  Agar- Agar,  676 
Sense-Hairs  of  Lepidopterous  Larvae,  643 
Sense-Organs,  Multicellular,  in  Syncoryne 
sarsii,  55 

of  the  Polychset  Proboscis,  647 

Sensory  Cells  in  Proboscis  of  Polychaets,  49 
Septicaemia,  Hemorrhagic,  Classification, 

93 
Sequoiacese,  Embryogeny  of,  70 
Serapias,  Study  of  the  Genus,  577 
Sericaria  mori,  Stigmata,  180 
Sernander,  R.,  Haptera  of  Lichens,  218 
Sertoli's  Cells.  Function,  161 
Sertularella,  Revision  of  Genus,  55 
Serum  Media,  Diphtheria  Toxins  in,  481 
Seta?  on  Legs  of  Flies,  553 
Seurat,  L.  G  ,  Origin  of  Pearls,  39 
Seward,  A.  C,  So-called  Phloem  of  Lepi- 

dodendron,  330 
—  Structure  aud  Affinities  of  Dipteris,  672 
Severtzoft',  A.  N.,  Skull  and  Nervous  Sys- 
tem of  Ceratodus,  634 
Sex,  Determination,  535 
in  Animal  Development,  534 


Sex-Elements  in  Stylorhynchus,  58 
Sex  in  Lepidoptera,  Determination,  41 
Sexes  in  the  Composite,  Distribution,  04 
Sexual  Development,  Precocious,  541 

—  Organs,  Male  and  Female,  Homologies 

in  the  Development,  206 
Sexuality,  Change  of,  in  Plants,  71 

—  in  Spirogyra,  333 

—  of  certain  Yeasts,  21 6 

Shaw,  P.  E.,  Electrical  Method  of  Taking 

Microscope  Measurements,  625,  728 
Shear,  C.  L.,  American  Fungi,  594 
Shedd,  O.  M.,  Reaction  and  Nature  of 

Oxidising  Ferments,  455 
Shell-fish  and  Typhoid,  693 
Shifting  of  Lateral  Organs  through  Mutual 

Pressure,  Theory,  322 
Shipley,  A.  E.,  Abysmal  Antarctic  Fauna, 

35 
Shoemaker,  D.  N.,  Development  of  Ha- 

mamelis  virginiana,  570 
"  Shot-hole  "  Fungi,  216 
Shrimp,  Larval  Stages,  431 
Shull,  G.  H,  Quantitative  Study  in  Bracts, 

Rays,   and    Disk-florets   of   Species  of 

Aster,  326 
Siedlecki,  M.,  New  Parasitic  Infusorian. 

563 
Sieve-tubes  of  Pinus,  Histology,  195 

Precursors  of,  in  Gymnosperms,  569 

Silicoflagellate  Protozoa,  57 
Siluroids,  Distribution,  173 
Silver-leaf  Disease,  683 
Silvestri,  A.,  Dimorphism  of  Foraminifera, 
656 

—  Variations  of  Nodosaria  scalaris,  656 
Silvestri,  F.,  Anterior  or  Cephalic  Glands 

of  Diplopoda,  553 

—  Notes  on  South  American  Termites  and 

their  Termitophilous  Associates,  302 

—  So-called  Microthorax  of  Insects,  643 

—  Studies  on  Thysanura.  429 

Simon,  S.,  Structure  of  the  Wood  in  De- 
ciduous and  Evergreen  Trees,  659 

Simpson,  J.  Y.,  Observations  on  Protozoa, 
563 

Simroth,  H.,  New  Genus  of  Stylommato- 
phora,  177 

Sine'ty,  R.  de,  Spermatocytic  Kineses  in 
Orthoptera,  43 

Sipunculus  nudus,  Central  Nervous  Svs- 
tem,  309 

—  Examining  Nervous  System,  373 
Sisto,  P.,  Haemolyniph  Glands  in  Man  and 

Mammals,  169 

Sisyra,  Metamorphosis,  642 

Skeleton,  Axial,  in  Amphibia,  Develop- 
ment, 27 

Skin  of  Vertebrates,  Blue  aud  Green  Co- 
loration, :!3 

Skin-Pigment  in  Man  and  Monkeys,  296 

Skorikow,  A.  S.,  Geographical  Distribution 
of  Priapulus,  1S6 


INDEX. 


773 


Skull  and  Nervous  System  of  Ceratodus, 

634 
Slide-Brake  of  Jung's  Microtome,  375 
Slides,  Cleaning,  Method,  503 
— .     See  Contents,  xxxviii 

—  Stand  for  Holding,  259 

Slonaker,  J.  R.,  Method  for  "Washing, 
Staining,  and  Dehydrating  Small  Speci- 
mens, 378 

Slosson,  M.,  Hybrid  Origin  of  Asplenium 
ebenoides,  672 

Slow-worm  and  Lizard,  Branchial  Clefts, 
634 

Slupski,  K.,  Does  Anthrax  form  Spores 
under  Anaerobic  Conditions?  107 

Small  Specimens,  Washing.  Staining  and 
Dehydrating,  Method,  378 

Smegma  Bacilli  and  Tubercle,  Differential 
Staining,  256 

Smidt,  H.,  Free  Intraepithelial  Nerve- 
endings  in  Helix,  176 

Smith,  G.  E.,  Brain  of  Macroscelides  pro- 
boscideus,  637 

Smith,  R.  E.,  Parasitism  of  Botrytis  cinerea, 
590 

Smith,  R.  G.,  Bacteria  and  the  Disintegra- 
tion of  Cement,  89 

—  Cultivation  of  Rhizobium  leguminosarum, 

108 

—  Vibrio  denitrificans,  93 
Smut  of  Cereals,  591 
Snail,  Blood,  640 
Snakes,  Variation,  424 

—  Venom,  638 

Soar,  C.  D.,  New  British  Hydrachnid,  554 

Sodium  Silicate  as  a  Mounting  Medium 
for  Microscopical  Preparations,  622 

Solenogastres,  Systematic  Position,  641 

Solutions,  Concentrated,  Adaptability  of 
Infusoria  to,  192 

Sommier,  S.,  Petalophyllum  Ralfsii,  674 

Sosnowski,  J.,  Changes  in  the  Geotaxis  of 
Paramcecium  aurelia,  191 

Soulie,  H,  Culicidse  of  Algiers,  643 

Soulier,  A.,  Fixation  of  Polychseta  Em- 
bryos, 373 

Southwell,  T.,  Hermaphroditism  in  Her- 
ring, 421 

Sparrow,  Spermatogenesis,  293 

Spawning  Period  of  Mussels,  17S 

Species,  Concept  of,  542 

Spectrum,  The  New,  247 

Spengel,  J.  "W.,  Genera  of  Enteropneusta, 
310 

Sperlich,  A.,  Suckers  of  Green  Rhinantha- 
cese,  323 

Spermatids  and  their  Parts,  Movements, 
162 

Spermatogenesis  and  Fecundation  of 
Zamia,  201 

—  and  Oogenesis  in  IAthobins  forficatus, 

304 

—  in  Insects,  178 


Spermatogenesis  in  Newt,  538 

—  in  Phalangista  vulpina,  419 

—  in  Sparrow,  293 

—  Insect,  Accessory  Chromosome,  41 

—  of  Oniscus  asellus,  47 

—  of  Scolopendra,  182 

—  Tetrads,  162 
Spermatozoa,  Atypical,  632 

—  Expulsion  in  Sciara,  551 

—  of  Allolobophora  fcetida,  648 

—  Rheotactic  Properties,  161 

—  Two-tailed,  538 
Spermatozoon  and  Zoospore,  57 

—  of  Rat,  538 

Spermotoxin,     Influence    on     Fertilising 

Power  of  Spermatozoa,  26 
Speschnew,  N.  N.  v.,  Black  Rot  of  Vine, 

470 
Sphacelariaceae,  211 

Sphseridia,  Function  in  Sea-Urchins,  437 
Spider  Collection,  Arrangement,  554 
Spiders,  Classification,  554 

—  of  Germany,  645 
Monograph,  45 

—  Tracheae,  645 
Spinal-cord,  Membranes,  169 
of  Birds,  Accessory  Lobes,  295 

—  —  Staining  Grey  Matter  after  Mordant- 

ing with  Metallic  Salts,  500 
Sections  with  Ccerule'in  S,  717 

—  Ganglion-Cells,   Reticular    Apparatus, 

635 
Spinax,  Spines,  423 

Spiraea,  Development  of  Flower^and  Em- 
bryo, 667 
Spirogyra,  Abnormal  Conjugation,  80 

—  Sexuality,  333 

Spitta,  E.  J.,  An  Apparatus  for  obtaining 
Monochromatic  Light  with  a  Mixed  Jet, 
727 

Spleen,  Circulation  in,  169 

Sponge,  New  Calcareous,  312 

Sponges,  Algerian,  562 

—  from  New  South  Wales,  190 
Sporange  and  Oophyte  of  Selaginella,  76 
Spore-casting    Mechanism  of  Selaginella 

Sporangia,  459 
Spore-Distribution,  330 

in  a  Lichen,  339 

Spore-formation  in  Cholera  Bacilli,  90 
Spore-Germination  and  Light,  324 

in  Higher  Fungi,  472 

Spores  for  Testing  Methods  of  Disinfec- 
tion, &c,  Preparation,  227 

—  of  Ferns,  Germination,  78 

—  of  the  Uredineae,  Storing  up  of  Water 

in,  85 
Sporodinia  grandis,  588 
Sporozoon,  New,  313 

Spuler,  A.,  New  Method  for  Staining  en 
masse,  114 

of  Staining  in  Bulk,  378 

Spurge,  Action  on  Salmonoid  Fishes,  425 


774 


INDEX. 


Sputum,  New  Method  of  Examining,  254 
Squilla    desmaresti,    Occurrence    in    the 

North  Sea,  185 
Ssinitzin,  D.  T.,  Life-history  of  Distomum 

folium,  51 
Stage,  Mechanical,  Zeiss'  Smaller,  605 

—  Messter's  Attachable  Mechanical,  613 
Stager,   R ,    Chemical    Demonstration    of 

Nectaries  in  Pollen  Flowers  and  Anemo- 
philous  Flowers,  566 
Staining  Biliary  Canaliculi,  622 

—  en  masse,  New  Method,  114 

—  Flagella,  717 

—  Glycogen,  622 

—  in  Bulk,  New  Method,  378 

—  Nervous  Tissue,  New  Method,  114 

—  Sections  of  Spinal   Cord   with  Cceru- 

lein  S,  717 

—  Objects.     See  Contents,  xxxvii 

—  the    Morphotic    Elements    of    Blood, 

Bapid  Method,  715 

—  with  Polychrome  Methylen-Blue,  Sim- 

plified Method,  717 

—  the  Reticulum  of  Sjunal  Ganglion-cells, 

717 
Staminode-like    Structures    in    Dentaria 

bulbifera,  198 
Stand  for  Holding  Slides,  259 

—  Preparation   and   Drawing   Apparatus 

for  Weak  Magnifications,  Zeiss',  485 
Standing's  Imbedding  Microtome,  375,  385 
Stands,  Microscope.    See  Contents,  xxxiv 
Starch  and  Chlorophyll  in  Stem,  Evolution, 

62 
Starch-formation  in  Hydrodictyon  utricu- 

latnm,  205 
Starch,  Formation  in  the  Grain  of  Wheat, 
63 

—  Structure,  62 

Stassano,  H.,  Conjugation  in  Trypanosoma 

of  Rat,  193 
States,  Two,  of  Living  Matter,  31 
Statistical  Study  of  Organisms,  171 
Stead,  J.  E.,  Copper-Iron  Alloys,  261 

—  Structure  of  Copper-Antimony  Alloys, 

720 
Steel  and  Iron,  Report  of  a  Demonstration 
of  Methods  used  in  Photomicrography 
of,  1 

—  Castings,  Properties,  382 

—  Effect  of  Reheating  upon  Overheated, 

718 

—  Rails,  Relation  between  their  Structure 

and  Durability,  718 
Steen,  R.  H.,  Electrothermal  Paraffin  Bath, 

111 
Stefansky,  — .,  New  Pathogenic  Bacillus, 

601 
Steinbrinck,  C,  Spore-casting  Mechanism 

of  Selaginella  Sporangia,  459 
Stele  of  Equisetum,  Nature,  672 
Stellaria  pallida,  Cleistogamy,  72 
Stem  and  Branch  of  same  Tree,  Union,  448 

—  of  Pteridophy tes  and  Gymnosperms,  194 


Stem-structure,  Origin  of  Peripheral,  316 
Stems,  New,  Formation  from  Old  Willows, 

197 
Stenta,  M.,  Inferior  Backward  Current  in 

Bivalves,  39 
Stenzel,  G.,  Malformations  of  the  Flower 

of  Orchids,  577 
Stephan,  P.,  Interstitial  Cells  of  the  Testis, 

423 
Stephani,  F.,  Lists  and  New  Species  of 
Hepatics,  210 

—  Siamese  Hepatics,  674 

—  Species  Hepaticarum,  673 
Stereomicrography,  12 
Stereophotomicrograpby,  366 
Stereoscopic  Loups,  Berger's,  698 
Sterzi,  G.,  Membranes  ol  Spinal  Chord,  169 
Steuer,  A.,  New  Parasitic  Copepod  in  In- 
testine of  Mussel,  646 

Stevens,  F.  L.,  Gametogenesis  and  Ferti- 
lisation in  Albugo,  83 
Stevens,  T.  S.,  Key  to    the  Rotifera  for 

Amateurs,  653 
Stichococcus  bacillaris,  679 
Stigmata  of  Sericaria  mori,  180 
Stiles,  C.  W.,  Questions  of  Nomenclature, 

298 
Stimuli,  Reaction  of  Bacteria  to,  88 
Stimulus   causing  Change  of  Form   and 

Structure    in    an    Amphibious    Plant, 

Nature  of,  669 
Stingelin,  T.,  Notes  on  Fauna  of  Neuen- 

burgersee,  307 
Stipular   Structures   of    Monocotvledons, 

447 
Stipules  of  Liriodendron,  67 
Stitz,  H.,  Female  Genital  Apparatus  in 

Microlepidoptera,  40 
Stokes,  W.  B.,  Images  of  Diatom  Structure, 

248 
Stolonial  Growth  in  Syllidse,  307 
Stomata,  Development  in  Conifers,  315 
Stopper,  Germ  and  Water-tight,  for  Flasks, 

503 
Stow,  S.  C,  List  of  Diatoms,  583 
Strasburger,  E.,  Formation  of  the  Pollen 

in  the  Asclepiadese,  199 
Strasser,  H.,  Olfactory   Organ  in   Verte- 
brates, 164 
Strasser,  P.  P.,  Fungus  Flora  of  the  Sonn 

tagberg,  685 
Streeter,   E.  C,   Marble  Blocks  for  Cel- 

loidin  Tissues,  715 
Streptococci,  Unity  of  Pathogenic,  598 
Streptococcus  Hemolysin,  346 

—  of  Scarlet  Fever,  694 
Streptothrix  farcinica,  586 

Stringer's  Focussing  Attachments  to  Pho- 
tomicrograph ic  Cameras,  246 
Strobell,  E.  C.,  New  Method  of  Focussing 
in  Photomicrography,  490 

—  Spermatozoa  of  Allolobophorafcetida,6±S 
Strombosia   and  Onguekoa,  Germination, 

322 


INDEX. 


775 


Strong,  — .,  Infection  by  Paracolon  Bacil- 
lus, 597 
Strong,  R.  P.,  Strongyloides  intestinalis,  50 
Structure     and     Development     of    Seed 
Plants,  Reproductive.     See  Contents, 
xxii 
Vegetative.   See  Contents, 


xxi 


Stschelkanovzeff,  J.  P.,  Breathing  Organs 
of  Pseudoscorpionidae,  184 

Stubbs,  G.,  Taxine,  568 

Studnicka,  F.  K.,  Origin  of  Cerebral  Hemi- 
spheres, 26 

Sturnay,  R.,  New  Cave  Gasteropod,  177 

Stutzer,  A.,  Formation  of  Bacteroids  in 
Artificial  Nutrient  Media,  226 

Stylommatopliora,  New  Genus,  177 

Stylorhynchus,  Sex-Elements,  58 

Suberites  domuncula,  56 

and  Halichondria  panicea,  Modifica- 
tions or  Metampy  in,  190 

Substage,  Glass-rod,  240 

Substitute  for  Cover-slips,  115 

Subterranean  Organs  of  Galifornian  Lili- 
acese,  658 

Sucker  o£  Loranthus  ophyllus,  196 

Suckers  of  Green  Rkinanthaceae,  323 

Sugars  and  Organic  Acids  in  certain 
Fruits,  567 

—  Two  new,  extracted  from  Manna,  567 
Sukatscbeff,  L.,  Action  of  Alcohol  on  Ger- 
mination of  some  Seeds,  575 

Sulphocyanic  Acid,  Influence  on  Growth 
of  Aspergillus  niger,  0§8 

Sunflower,  Shifting  of  Heads  during  De- 
velopment from  Flowering  to  Ripening, 
453 

Sunshine,  Effect  on  Plants,  574 

Supra-renal  Bodies  of  Plagiostornes,  636 

Su$  domestica,  Development,  162 

Sutton,  W.  S.,  Spermatogenesis  in  Insects, 
178 

Suture.  Dorsal,  and  Dorsal  Groove  in  Gas- 
trula  of  Triton,  28 

Swift,  J.,  and  Son,  "  Ariston  "  Fine  Ad- 
justment, 698 

Swinnerton,  H.  H.,  Morphology  of  Teleos- 
tean  Head  Skeleton,  420 

Sycon  compressum,  190 

Sydow,  H.  and  P.,  Monograph  of  the 
Uredineae,  593 

—  Uredinese,  217 

Sydow,  P.,  Sylloge  Fungorum,  341 
Syllidse,  Stolonial  Growth,  307 
Sylloge  Fungorum,  341 
Synapta    and    Ankyroderma,   Calcareous 

Plates,  436 
Synchseta,  The  Genus,  269,  393,  507 
Syncoryne  sarsii,  Multicellular  Sense-Or- 

gans,  55 
Syniewski,  W.,  Structure  of  Starch,  62 
Syphilitic  Semen,  Bacilli,  692 
SJzili,  A.,  Development  of  Iris  in  Man,  164 


T. 


Ticniophyllum,  Assimilating  Roots,  68 

Taliew,  W.,  Polychroism  of  Flowers,  64 

Tammes,  T.,  Microscopist's  Electrical 
Lamp,  239 

Tamus  communis.  Tubercle,  317 

Tansley,  A.  G.,  New  Type  of  Fern-Stele, 
329 

Tape  Measure  for  Adjustment  of  Projec- 
tion-Oculars, 248 

Tapeworms,  Superficial  Secretion,  187 

Taste,  Sense  of,  in  an  Ant,  552 

Tauret,  C,  Two  new  Sugars  extracted 
from  Manna,  567 

Taxine,  568 

Tea-leaf,  Enzymes,  670 

Technique,  Microscopical.  See  Contents, 
xxxvi 

Tecqmenne,  C,  Development  of  Ventral 
Pancreas  in  Lacerta  muralis,  540 

Teeth,  Development  in  Sus  domestica,  162 

—  of  Hag  and  Lamprey,  424 
Teleostean  Head  Skeleton,  Morphology ,420 
Teleosteans,    Structure    and   Function  ot 

Thymus,  636 

Tellurium  and  Selenium  Compounds,  De- 
composition by  Moulds,  688 

Temperatirre,  Action  on  Absorption  of 
Minerals  in  Etiolated  Plants,  324 

—  Distribution  of  Planarians  affected  by, 

308 

—  Influence  during  Pupation.  644 

on  Development  on  Fowl's  Egg,  631 

Tenebrio,  Testis,  644 

Tension  and  Pressure,  Influence  on  Direc- 
tion of  Cell-wall,  322 

Teodoresco,  E.  G.,  Gomontiella,  a  new 
Genus  of  Schizophycese,  223 

Tephroclystia  virgaureata,  Life-history,  ISO 

Teratogenic  and  Pathogenic  Agents,  543 

Teratological  Work,  Recent,  541 

Termites  and  their  Termitophilous  Asso- 
ciates, South  American,  Notes,  302 

Termitoxenia,  43 

Terms,  Index  of  New  Biological,  or  Old 
Terms  with  New  Meanings,  recorded  in 
this  Volume,  730 

Tern  and  Duck,  Early  Stages  in  Develop- 
ment, 294 

Ternetz,  O,  Morphology  and  Anatomy  of 
Azorella  selago,  446 

Testis,  Alleged  Peritubular  Lymphatic 
Tubes,  538 

—  Internal  Secretion,  538 

—  Interstitial  Cells,  423 

—  of  Tenebrio,  644 

Tetanus  Bacillus,  New  Method  of  Culti- 
vating, 61S 
Tethya,  Gemmation,  55 
Tetrads  in  Spermatogenesis,  162 
Tetiasporangium    in  Florideae,   Develop- 
ment, 583 


776 


INDEX. 


Teucrium  Scordium  and  Liparis  Loeselii, 

670 
Thacher,  H.  F.,  Regeneration  of  Pharynx 

in  Planaria  maculata,  651 
Thalassema,  Early  Development  of  Meso- 

blast,  557 
Thalictrum  purpurascens,  Parthenogenesis, 

451 
Tbamnium,  Genus,  579 
Thaxter,  R.,  New  Genera  and  Species  of 

Laboulbeniacese,  214 
The'el,  H.,  Hermaphrodite  Holothurian,  54 
Thickening,  Abnormal  Secondary,  in  Ken- 

drickia,  660 
Thiele,  J.,  Homologies  of  Coeloni,  175 

—  Systematic    Position    of   the     Soleno- 

gastres,  641 
Thiele,  R.,  New  Counting  Apparatus  for 

Plate  Cultures,  71S 
Thiothrix,  Gas  Vacuoles,  603 
ThiseltonDyer,  Sir  W.  T.,  Carpophyll  of 

Encephalartos,  65 

—  Persistence  of  Leaf-traces,  64 

—  Sucker  of  Loranlhus  aphyllus,  196 
Thomas,  A.  P.  W.,  Affinities  of  Tmesip- 

teris,  329 

—  Alga-like  Fern-Prothallus,  329 

—  Prothallium  of  Phylloglossuru,  20S 
Thomas,  R.  H.,  Luminosity  in  Centipedes, 

182 

Thompson,  C.  B.,  Zygeupolia  litoralis,  a 
new  Heteronemertean,  309 

Thompson.  S.  P.,  Opto-Technics,  495 

Thomson,  J.  S.,  Periodic  Growth  of  Fish- 
Scales,  173 

Tlior,  — .,  New  Genera  of  Hydrachnids,183 

Thorpe.  T.  E.,  Taxine,  568 

Thrincia  tuberosa,  Structure  of  the  Tuber- 
ous Roots,  196 

Thymus  -in  Teleosteans,  Structure  and 
Function,  036 

Thylacoplethus,  Structure,  555 

Thyroid  Gland,  Function,  425 

—  of  Lamprey,  421 
Thysanura,  Studies,  429 
Tichomirow,  A.,  Artificial  Parthenogenesis 

of  Silk-Moth  Ova,  428 

Tiessen,  F.,  Bottle  for  Cedar- Wood  Oil,  503 

Tilting-stage,  Huntingdon's,  for  Holding 
and  Adjusting  Minerals,  613 

Timberlake,  H.  G.,  Starch-formation  in 
Hydrodictyon  utriculatum,  205 

Timofejew,  D.  A.,  Nerve-endings  in  Peri- 
toneum of  Mammals,  168 

Timothy  Grass,  Rust,  592 

Tmesipteris,  Affinities,  329 

Toad's  Egg,  Dispensability  of  Gravity  in 
Development,  537 

Tobacco,  Mosaic  Disease,  576 

Tobler,  F.,  Abnormalities  in  Mosses,  331 

—  Origin  of  Peripheral   Stem-Structure, 

316 
Todd,  R.  A.,  Fauna  of  Exe  Estuary,  174 


Tollens,  B.,  Constituents  of  Pith  of  Maize 

and  Elder,  567 
Tompa,     A.,    Electrical     Phenomena    in 

Plants,  574 
Tongue,  Development  in  Man,  26 
Tonniges,   C,   Spermatogenesis    and  Oo- 
genesis in  Lithobius  forftcatus,  304 
Topsent,  E.,  Algerian  Sponges,  562 
Tornquist,  A.,  Position  of  Neostroma,  189 
Torpedo  occidentalis.  Efferent  Neurons  in 

Electric  Lobes,  168 
Torr,  W.  G.,  Fossil  Polyplacophora,  177 
Torrey,  H.  B.,  Discoloration  of  the  Sea  by 
Dinoflagellata,  656 

—  New  Species  of  Phoronis,  53 

—  Regeneration  and  Regulation   in   Re- 

nilla,  54 
Torrey,  J.  C,  Cytological  Changes  accom- 
panying the   Secretion  of  Diastase,. 
565 

—  Early   Development    of    Mesoblast    in 

Thalassema,  557 
Toxic  ^Properties  of   some  Copper   Com- 
pounds, 222 
Toxins,  Diphtheria,  in  Serum  Media,  481 

—  Injecting    into    Parents,   Influence   on 

Offspring,  29 
Tracheae  of  Spiders,  645 
Tragardh,  J.,  Limbless  Acarid,  645 
Transpiration,  New  Mode  of  Measuring. 

75 

—  Observations  on,  572 

—  of  Evergreen  Trees  in  Winter,  573 
Traumatic  Stimulation,  Reaction  of  Leaves 

to,  74 

Treasurer's  Account  for  1901,  126 

Trees,  Increase  in  Diameter,  660 

Trematodes,  New,  from  Crocodile,  308 

Trentepohlia,  The  Genus,  677 

Triceratium,  Certain  Minute  Structure 
observed  in  some  Forms,  495 

Trichoptera,  Copulatory  Apparatus  of 
Male,  43 

Triple  Stain,  New,  257 

Triton,  Dorsal  Groove  and  Dorsal  Suture 
in  Gastrula,  28 

Trocar  for  the  Aseptic  Collection  of  Por- 
tions of  Tumours,  382 

Trotter,  A.,  Parasitic  Fungi,  219 

Trouessart,  E.,  Arctic  Halacaridse,  431 

—  Collection     of     Microscopic      Marine 

Arthropods,  551 

—  New  Uropodinae,  554 
Trout,  Monstrosity,  298 
Trypanosoma  brucei,  440 

Action  of  Human  Serum  on,  313 

Trypanosoma,  Fixing  and  Staining,  372 

—  in  Fishes,  58 

Trypanosoma  Leivisi,  Methods  for  Examin- 
es- 117  .      ...  , 
Trypanosoma,  Multiplication   in    Fishes. 

564 

—  New,  440,  564 


INDEX. 


777 


Trypanosoma  of  Rat,  Conjugation  in,  193 
Tryptophane  and  Proteolysis,  325 
Trzebiuski,  M.  J.,  Influence  of  Irritation 

on  Growth  of  Unicellular  Plants,  471 
Tschermak,   E.,   Experiments    with   Pea 
Hybrids,  321 

—  Iuflueuce  of  Pollination  on  the  Develop- 

ment of  the  Pericarp,  321 
Tubercle  and  Smegma  Bacilli,  Differential 
Staining,  256 

—  Bacilli  in  Milk,  Detection,  343 

Virulence  of  Bovine  and  Human,  92 

—  Bacillus,  Agglutination,  34S 

Biochemical  Studies  on,  92 

Fat  Substance,  345 

—  of  Tamus  communis,  317 
Tuberculosis,  Human  and  Bovine,  92 

—  in  Cold-blooded  Animals,  479 
Tubers  of  Dioscorea,  68 

—  Orchid,  Composition,  566 

Tubeuf,  — .,  Infection  Experiments  with 
Uredineaa,  681 

—  Smut  of  Cereals,  591 
Tubularia,  Regeneration,  655 

Tulley,  W.,  First  English  Achromatic 
Objective,  16 

Tunicata.     See  Contents,  xii 

Turritella  communis,  Crystalline  Style  and 
Style-sac,  427 

Turro,  R..  Apparatus  for  Anaerobic  Cul- 
tures, 250 

Twins,  Monochorial,  159 

Two-speed  Fine  Adjustment,  New,  354 

Typhoid  and  Coli,  Differential  Diagnosis, 
59S 

—  and  Shell-fish,  693 

—  Bacilli,  Medium  for  Isolating,  371 

—  Bacillus,  Intracellular  Constituents,  225 
Isolation,  371 

Method  for  Detection  in  Blood,  496 

New     Method     of    Isolating    from 

Water,  249 
Tyrogen,  Use  in  Cheese-making,  226 
Tyroglyphidse,  British,  431 
Tyrosine  and  Leucine  as  Food-stuffs,  452 

U. 

Uexhull-Gyllenband,  M.  v.,  Distribution 
of  the  Sexes  in  the  Compositse,  64 

Ulpiani,  — .,  Alcoholic  Fermentation  of 
Indian  Fig-Must,  337 

TJlula  hyalina.  Life-history,  552 

Umbelliferse,  Rusts,  681 

Underwood,  L.  M.,  Classification  of  Ferns, 
328 

Unisexual  Condition,  Passage  from  Bi- 
sexual Condition  by  Unilateral  Parasitic 
Castration,  326 

Urban,  F.,  New  Calcareous  Sponge,  312 

Uredine,  Pure  Cultures,  337 

Uredinese,  217 

—  Cultures,  466 


Uredineae,  Function  of  Paraphyses,  682 

—  Infection  Experiments,  681 

—  Monograph,  593 

—  New,  466 

—  Paraphyses,  467 

—  Storing  up  of  Water  in  the  Spores,  85 
Urinary     and     Other     Deposits,    Simple 

Method  for  Preserving,  622 

—  Sediment,  Preparation   and  Preserva- 

tion, 115 
Urnula  and  Geopyxis,  Studies,  464 
Urodela,  Musculature,  35 
Uronectes,  Affinities,  185 
Urophlyctis,  586 

—  Underground  Species,  336 
Uropodinse,  New,  554 
Use-Inheritance  Interpretation,  Argument 

for,  421 
Vstilugo  Maydis,  Biological  Phenomena  in 

the  Cultivation,  591 
Utricularia,  Bladders,  196 
Uyeda,  Y.,  "Benikoji  "  Fungus,  466 


Valerio,  G.,  Botryomycosis,  599 

Yallet,  G.,  New  Method  for  Isolating  the 

Typhoid  Bacillus  from  Water,  249 
Van    Bambeke,   C,   Crystalloids    of   the 

Basidiomycetes,  683 
Van  der  Stricht,  O.,  Fertilisation  in  the 

Bat,  633 
Vaney,  C,  Contributions  fo>5  Anatomy   of 
Bhabdopleura  normani,  652 

—  New  Microsporidian,  58 

—  Note    on    Additions    to    Fresh-water 

Fauna,  546 
Van  Tieghem,  P.,  Existence  of  a  Hypo- 

stase  in  the  Ovule  and  Seed  of  Rosace se, 

666 
Variability  of  Micro-organisms,  342 
Variation,  Chemical  Basis,  31 

—  Germinal  and  Environmental,  533 
— ■  in  Plants,  Limits  of,  75 

Vas  epididvmis  of  Man,  Filamentous  Tufts 

of  Epithelial  Cells,  170 
Vascular  System  of  Bdellostoma  dombeyi, 

174 
Vaucheria,  Oil  in,  83 
Yayssiere,  A., '  Talisman  '  Opisthobranchs, 

427 
Vedder,  — .,  Etiology  of  Acute  Dysentery, 

480 
Vegetable  Pathology,  340 
Vegetation  of  Mountainous  Districts  North 

of  Lake  Nyasa,  458 
Veins  of  Salamander,  Abnormalities,  35 
Velenovsky,   M.,   Abnormal    Flowers    of 

Forsythia  viridissima,  199 
Venom  of  Snakes,  638 
Venturia,  New  Species,  466 
Verhoeff,     K.,     Chilopoda     in     Bionn'e. 

'  Tierreich,'  644 


778 


INDEX. 


Verhoeff,  K.  W.,  Comparative  Morphology 
of  Chilnpoda,  305 

—  Dermaptera  and  Microthorax.  302 
Arerson,  E.,  Exuvial  Glands,  644 
Vertebrae  of  Terrestrial  Carnivores,  638 
Vertebral  Column,  Human,  Variations,  424 
Vertebrata.    See  Contents,  viii 
Vestergren,  T.,  An  Arctic- Alpine  Rhabdo- 

spora,  216 

—  New  Fungi,  469 
Vezey,  J.  J.,  119,  125 
Vibrio  denitrificans,  93 
Vibrios,  Agglutination,  228 

Viguier,  C,  Natural  Parthenogenic  De- 
velopment, 654 

Villari,  E.,  Structure  of  Achenes,  571 

Vincenzi,  L.,  Limiting  Membrane  in  Hu- 
man Serosa,  169 

Vines,  H.  S.,  Proteolytic  Enzyme  of  Nepen- 
thes, 205 

—  Tryptophane  and  Proteolysis,  325 
Violet,  Kresylecht,  112 

Viper's  Venom,  Hasmolytic  Effect,  544 
Virchow,  H.,  Retina  of  Hatteria,  541 
Vision,  Biological  Theory,  298 

—  Mechanical  Theory,  32 

Vitality  of  Leaves  after  their  Fall,  73 

Vitreous  Humour  in  the  Eye  of  Man  and 
Animals,  Matrix,  296 

Vivipara  and  Plumatella,  310 

Vochting,  H.,  Germination  of  Potato 
Tubers,  452 

Vogel,  P.,  Means  of  Distribution  of  Alpine 
Plants,  76 

Voges,  — .,  Normal -Serum  in  Pneumo- 
Enteritis,  347 

Vogler,  P.,  Variation  in  Fragillaria  croto- 
nensis,  461 

Voglino,  P.,  Disease  of  Cultivated  Chrysan- 
themums, 596 

Voigt,  M.,  New  Ciliata,  192 

Eotifer,  187,  436 

Species  of  Gastrotricha,  187 

Voigt,  W.,  Distribution  of  Planarians  as 
affected  by  Temperature,  308 

Volker,  — .,  Development  of  Pancreas  in 
Amniota,  165 

Vriens,  J.  G.  C,  Raising  the  Melting- 
point  of  Gelatin  bv  means  of  Formalin, 
116 

Vuillemin, — .,  Association  of  Amylomyces 
and  a  Micrococcus.  602 

Vuillemin,  P.,  Penicillate  Tubes  of  Phyl- 
lactinia,  84 

—  Sarcocystis  tenella  in  Man,  564 


W. 

Waddel's  Erecting  Microscope,  291 
Wadsworth,  J.  T.,  Conjugation  of  Dendro- 

cometes  paradoxus,  438 
Wager,  H.,  Cytology  of  Cyanophyceje,  6S9 


Wahl,  B.,  Development  of  Hypodermal 
Imaginal  Discs  in  Larval  Diptera,  42 

Waite,  E.  R ,  Development  of  Galeus 
antarcticus,  166 

Walbaum,  — .,  Enumeration  of  Water 
Bacteria,  229 

"Wallengren,  H.,  Comparative  Morphology 
of  Hypotrichous  Infusoria,  192 

—  Glands  of  Alimentary  Canal  in  Deca- 

poda,  46 

—  Sensory  Cells  in  Proboscis  of  Polychsets, 

Wall's,  E.  J.,  Dictionary  of  Photography, 
623  L    * 

Warburg,  O.,  History  and  Development  of 
Applied  Botanv,  458 

Ward,  H.  M.,  Disease  in  Plants.  76 

—  Parasitic  Fungi,  S6 

—  Predisposition  and  Immunity  in  Plants, 

473" 

—  Preserving  and  Examining  Fungi,  339 

—  Pure  Cultures  of  a  Uredine,  337 

—  Relation  between  Host  and  Parasite,  593 
Warming,  E.,  Burmanniacese  from  Brazil, 

458 
Warren,  E.,  Teeth  of  Hag  and  Lamprey,  424 

—  Variations  in  Vascular  System  of  Rana 

temporaria,  424 
Wasmann,  E.,  Genus  Termitoxenia,  43 

—  Myrmecophilous  Mites,  1S3 
Wasp,  Gynandromorphy  in,  40 
Water  Bacteria,  Enumeration,  229 

—  Relation  of  the  Supply  to  the  Ripening 

of  Woody  Plants,  73 

—  Storing  up  in  the  Spores  of  the  Ure- 

dineae,  85 
Waters,  C.  E.,  Analytical  Key  for  the  Ferns 
of  the  North-eastern  States,  based  on  the 
Stipes,  578 
Watson  and  Sons, '  Fram '  Microscope  with 
Revolving  Top-plate,  267 

—  Holder  for  Metallurgical  Work,  494 

—  New  '  Holos  Fram  '  Microscope,  354 
Two-speed    Fine  Adjustment,   267, 

354 
Webb,  J.  C,  Microscope  by  Carpenter  and 
Westley,  389 

—  Old  Microscope  by  Pritchard.  386 
Webb,  J.  E.,  Development  of  Flower  and 

Embryo  of  Spiraea,  667 

Webb,  T,  L.,  Apparatus  for  Removing 
Pieces  of  Tissue  for  Microscopical  Ex- 
amination, 714 

Webber,  H.  J.,  Spermatogenesis  and  Fecun- 
dation of  Zamia,  201 

Wedeles,  — .,  Grayson's  ruled  Gratings, 
385 

Wehrner,  C,  The  Genus  Aspergillus,  680 

Wehner,  — .,  Economic  Fungi,  686 

Weigert's  Method  of  Staining  Elastic 
Tissue,  Modifications,  113 

Weil,  R.,  Preparation  of  Spores  for  Testing 
Methods  of  Disinfection,  &c,  227 


INDEX. 


779 


Weinland,  E.,  Fermentation  of  Glycogen 

in  Ascaris,  557 
Weissbein,    S.,    Method    of     Examining 

Nutrient  Media,  498 
Weitlauer,  F.,   Marine   Phosphorescence, 

563 
Wendt,  G.  v.,  Method  of  making  Micro- 
scopical   Preparations     for    Photo- 
graphic Purposes,  253 

—  Simple  Method  of  Fixing  Bacteria  to 

the  Slide  or  Cover-slip  without  Dry- 
ing, 498 
Werner,  F.,  Prodromus  of  Monograph  on 

Chamaeleons,  297 
Werner,  K.,  Artificially  induced  Anomalies 

in  Cell-Division,  635 
Wesche',W.,  Setae  on  Legs  of  Flies,  553 

—  Undescribed  Palpi  on  the  Proboscis  of 

some  Dipterous  Flies,  with  Remarks 
on  the  Mouth-parts  in  several  Fami- 
lies, 412,  508 
Wesenberg,  G.,  Dropper  for  Sterile  Fluids, 
116 

—  Germicides,  472 

West,  G.  S.,  British  Fresh-water  Rhizo- 
pods,  56 

—  Flora  of  Hot  Springs,  597 
West,  W.,  New  Mougeotia,  333 

West,  W.  and  G.  S.,  Flora  of  Koh  Chang, 
462 

—  Fresh-water  Alga?  of  Ceylon,  584 
Wheeler,  W.  M.,  Macroergates  in  Pheidole 

commutata,  40 

—  New  Agricultural  Ant  from  Texas,  429 
Whipple,   G.  C,  Physical   Properties   of 

Gelatin    in    reference    to    its    Use    in 

Culture  Media,  713 
White,    V.    S.,    Nidulariaceae    of    North 

America,  467 
Whitelegge,  T.,  Sponges  from  New  South 

Wales,  190 
Wieland,  G.  R.,  Notes  on  Living  Cycads — 

The  Zamias  of  Florida,  448 
Weisner,  J.,   Position    of    Flowers    with 

respect  to  Light,  204 
Wildbolz,  — .,  Cultivation  of  Gonococcus, 

601 
Wilkinson,  E.  J.,  Colouring  Matter  from 

Flowers  of  Detyhinium  consolida,  443 
Will,  H.,  Observations  on  the  Vitality  of 
the  Yeast-plant,  591 

—  Yeast-water  for  Biological  Analysis,  107 
Willcox,  M.  A.,  Commensal  Oligochaete  in 

New  England,  49 
Wille,  — .,  Oas  Vacuoles  in  Thiothrix,  603 
Williams,  H.  S.,  Fossil  Faunas  and  Geo- 
logical Formations,  546 
Williams,  R.    S.,  Eurhynchium    Taylorae 
and  Brachythecium  Pringlei,  332 

—  Migration  of  Eye  of  Flat-fish,  420 

—  Preliminary  Listpf  Montana  Mosses,  673 
Wi.liams,  W.  R.,  Precocious  Sexual  De- 
velopment, 541 


Williamson,    H.    C,    Larval    Stages    of 

Shrimp,  431 
Willie,  N.,  l'seudenclouium,  a  New  Genus 

of  Algae,  82 
Willot,  — .,  Heterodera  schachtii,  50 
Willows,  Old,  Formation  of  New  Stems 

from,  197 
Wilson,    H.   V.,  Asexual    Origin  of   the 

Ciliated  Sponge  Larva,  562 
Wiltner,  W.,  Relict  Crustaceans  in  North 

German  Lakes,  432 
Windle,   B.   C.  A.,   Recent  Teratological 

Work,  541 
Winkel's  Drawing   Apparatus,  for  AVeak 

Magnifications,  361 
Winkler,  G.,  Regeneration  of  Alimentary 

Canal  in  Rhynchelmis  limosella,  647 
Winkler,  H.,  Regeneration  of  Leaf-blade 

in  Cyclamen,  447 
Winkler,  W.,  Mucor  as  an  Alcohol  Yeast, 

588 
Winton,  A.  L.,  Fruit  of  the  Cocoa-nut,  65 
Witch's  Brooms  on  the  Barberry,  592 
Wittmack,  L.,  Improved  Method  of  Sec- 
tioning Carbonised  Woods,  499 
Wolfenden,  R.   N.,    Copepods    of   Faroe 
Channel  and  Shetlands,  185 

—  Radiolarians   of    Faroe   Channel   and 

Shetlands,  191 
WolfF,  — .,  Differential  Diagnosis  of  Coli 

and  Typhoid,  598 
Wood,  C,  Diphtheria  Toxins  in   Serum 

Media,  481 
Wood,  Carbonised,  Improved  Method  of 
Sectioning,  499 

—  in    Deciduous    and   Evergreen   Trees, 

Structure,  659 

—  Mature  in  Trees,  Bending,  66 

—  Old,  and  the  New,  315 

Wood,  R.  W.,  Prisms  and  Plates  for  show- 
ing Dichromatism,  493 

Woods,  A.  F.,  Mosaic  Disease  of  Tobacco, 
576 

Woodward,  Dr.  H.,  266 

Woody  Tissue,  Staining,  113 

Worsdell,  W.  C,  Vascular  Structure  of  the 
Flowers  of  Gnetaceae,  320 

Wright,  J.  H.,  Rapid  Method  of  making 
Permanent  Preparations  of  Frozen  Sec- 
tions, 377 

Wroblewski,  A.,  Buchner's  Yeast  Extract, 
85 

W.R.,W.A.,  and  N.A.,  Measurement  of,  143 

Wulfert,  J.,  Development  of  Gonoihyrxa 
loveni,  55,  311 

Wynn,  W.  H.,  Staining  Medullary  Sheath 
of  Nerve-Fibres,  500 


Xenia  and  Hybridism,  200 

X-Rays,  Influence  on  Plant  Organism,  455 


780 


INDEX. 


Yates,  J.,  Constitution  of  Hematoxylin, 

443 
Yatsu,  N.,  Habits  of  Lingula,  559 
Yeast  Extract,  Bucliner's,  85 

—  New  Pathogenic,  681 

—  Plant,  Observations  on  the  Vitality,  591 

—  Pressed,     Microscopical     Appearances 

after  Liquefaction,  85 
Yeasts,  591 

—  Fruit,  680 

—  Sexuality,  216 

Yeast- Water  for  Biological  Analysis,  107 
Yendo,  K.,  Corallinse  from  Port  Renfrew, 
Vancouver,  584 

—  Japanese  Corallineaa,  584 
Yolk-organ  of  Salmo  fario,  166 
Yung,  E.,  Monstrosity  in  a  Trout,  298 

—  Variations  of  Plankton  in  Lake  Geneva, 

639 


Zacharias,  O.,  Infusoria  in  Cuckoo-Spit, 
657 

—  Parasites  of  Rotatoria,  653 

—  Plankton  of  Lake  of  Maria-Laach,  426 

—  Pond  Plankton,  675 

—  Two  new  Diuofiagellata,  563 
Zahlbruckner,  A.,  Lichens,  218 

—  Lichens  of  the  Netherlands,  468 
Zaleski,  W.,  Formation  of  Proteids,  74 
Zamia,  Spermatogenesis  and  Fecundation, 

201 
Zamias  of  Florida — Notes  on  Living  Cy- 

cads,  448 
Zander,  E.,  Copulatory  Apparatus  of  Male 

Trichoptera,  43 
Zanfrognini,  C,  Contribution  to  the  Lichen 

Flora  of  Emilia,  683 
Zardo,  — .,  Pathogenic  Bacillus  in  Cockles, 

693 
Zeiss'  A*  Objective,  614 

—  Assorted  Pairs  of  Objectives  for  Bin- 

ocular Microscopes,  614 


Zeiss'  Centring  Apparatus  for  Microscope 
Objectives  when  used  as  Condensers, 
615 

—  Crystal  Films  and  Plates  for  Double 

Refraction,  617 

—  Epidiascope,  506,  699 

—  Improved  Algascope,  699 

—  Small  Mineralogical  Stand,  610 
Model  Polarising  Microscope,  613 

—  Smaller  Mechanical  Stage,  605 

—  Objectives,  487 

—  Orthomorphic  Eye-piece,  615 

—  Preparation  Stand  and  Drawing  Appa- 

ratus for  Weak  Magnifications,  485 

—  Stand  for  Brain  Sections,  483 
Ziegler,  H.  E.,   Present   Position  of  the 

Theory  of  Descent,  171 

Zimmerman,  A.,  Parasitic  Fungi  of  Tro- 
pical Cultivated  Plants,  596 

Zoanthese,  Living,  Relationships  of  the 
Rugosa  to,  437 

Zodda,  G.,  Study  of  the  Genus  Serapias,  577 

Zolotinsky,  N.,  Reproduction  of  Gerardinus 
decemmaculatus,  421 

Zoologischer  Jahresbericht,  638 

Zoology,  Aid  to  the  Study,  171 

—  Introductory  Text-book,  547 

—  Practical  Course,  423 
Zoospore  and  Spermatozoon,  57 

Zopf,  W.,  Compounds  from  Lichens,  684 
Zostera,  Development  of  Pollen,  449 
Zostera  marina,  Embryology,  449 
Zschokke,  F.,  An  unusual  Human  Para- 
site, 558 

—  Fauna  of  a  Mountain  Stream,  54S 
of  Switzerland  and  the  Glacial  Pe- 
riod, 35 

Zygeupolia  litoralis,  a  new  Heteronemer- 
tean,  309 

Zygomycetes,  Sexual  and  Non-Sexual  Re- 
production, 213 

Zykoff,  W.,  Cystoopsis  acipenseri,  308 

—  Mysis  in  the  Volga,  556 

—  Plumatella  and  Vivipara,  310 

—  Protozoa  of  the  Volga — Plankton,  313. 
Zymase  in  Fungal  Hyphse,  587 


LONT>ON  :     PRINTED   BY   WILLIAM   CLOWES   AND  SONS,    L7MITKD 
GREAT   TVINDMILL   STREET,  W.,   AND  DOKE   ST1IEET,   STAMFORD  STREFT,   S.E. 


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