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Journal  or  the 

Ropal  microscopical  Societp 

CONTAINING    ITS   TRANSACTIONS   AND    PROCEEDINGS 

AND 
A   SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

ZOOLOGY       -A-HSTID       IBOT  .A.  3XT  Y 

(principally   Invertebrata    and   Cryptogamia) 

MICROSCOPY,     <5ca. 

EDITED    BY 
R.    G.    HEBB,    M.A.    M.D.    F.R.C.P. 

WITH    THE   ASSISTANCE  OF   THE    PUBLICATION    COMMITTEE    AND 

J.  ARTHUR  THOMSON,  M.A.  F.R.S.E. 

Regius  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  the  University  of  Aberdeen 

A.  N.  DISNEY,  M.A.  B.So.  CECIL  PRICE-JONES,  M.B.  Lond. 

FELLOWS    OF    THE    SOCIETY 

AND 

A.  B.  RENDLE,  M.A.  D.Sc.  F.L.S.        HAROLD  MOORE,  B.Sc. 

Assistant  in  Botany,  British  Museum  Woolwich  Arsenal 


Minimis  partibus,  per  totum  Naturae  campum,  certitudo  omnis  innititur 
quas  qui  fugit  pariter  Naturam  fugit. — Linnceus. 


FOR      THE      YEAR 
1908 


TO  BE  OBTAINED  AT  THE  SOCIETY'S  ROOMS, 

20    HANOVER   SQUARE,    LONDON,  W. 

of  Messrs.  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE,  14  Henrietta  Street,  London,  W.C. 
and  of  Messrs.  DULAU  &  CO.,  37  Soho  Square,  London,  W. 


Extra  and  informal  Meetings  are  held  on  the  1st,  2nd,  and 
4th  Wednesday  evenings  of  the  month.  These  Meetings  are 
devoted  to  (1)  Pond  Life  ;  (2)  Microscopical  Optics  and  Micro- 
scope Construction  ;    (3)  Bacteriology  and  Histology. 


5.  *~  3 


THE 


Jtopl  JJticifMOpcal  Jlflstyg. 


Established  in  1839.     Incorporated  by  Eoyal  Charter  in  1866. 


The  Society  was  established  for  the  promotion  of  Microscopical  and 
Biological  Science  by  the  communication,  discussion,  and  publication  of  observa- 
tions and  discoveries  relating  to  (1)  improvements  in  the  construction  and 
mode  of  application  of  the  Microscope,  or  (2)  Biological  or  other  subjects  of 
Microscopical  Research. 

It  consists  of  Ordinary,  Honorary,  and  Ex-officio  Fellows  of  either  sex. 

Ordinary  Fellows  are  elected  on  a  Certificate  of  Kecommendation 
signed  by  three  Ordinary  Fellows,  setting  forth  the  names,  residence,  and 
description  of  the  Candidate,  of  whom  the  first  proposer  must  have  personal 
knowledge.  The  certificate  is  read  at  two  General  Meetings,  and  the  Candidate 
balloted  for  at  the  second  Meeting. 

The  Admission  Fee  is  21.  2s. ;  and  the  Annual  Subscription  21.  2s.,  pay- 
able on  election,  and  subsequently  in  advance  on  1st  January  annually.  The 
Annual  Subscriptions  may  be  compounded  for  at  any  time  for  31/.  10s.  Fellows 
elected  at  a  meeting  subsequent  to  that  in  February  are  only  called  upon  for 
a  proportionate  part  of  the  first  year's  subscription.  The  annual  Subscrip- 
tion of  Fellows  permanently  residing  abroad  is  1/.  lis.  6^.  or  a  reduction  of 
one-fourth. 

Honorary  Fellows  (limited  to  50),  consisting  of  persons  eminent  in 
Microscopical  or  Biological  Science,  are  elected  on  the  recommendation  of  five 
Ordinary  Fellows  and  the  approval  of  the  Council. 

Ex-officio  Fellows  (limited  to  100),  consisting  of  the  Presidents  for  the 
time  being  of  any  Societies  having  objects  in  whole  or  in  part  similar  to  those  of 
the  Society,  are  elected  on  the  recommendation  of  ten  Ordinary  Fellows  and  the 
approval  of  the  Council. 

The  Council,  in  whom  the  management  of  the  property  and  affairs  of 
the  Society  is  vested,  is  elected  annually,  and  is  composed  of  the  President, 
four  Vice-Presidents,  Treasurer,  two  Secretaries,  and  twelve  other  Ordinary 
Fellows. 

The  Meetings  are  held  on  the  third  Wednesday  in  each  month,  from 
October  to  June,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W.  (commencing  at  8  p.m.).  Yisitors 
are  admitted  by  the  introduction  of  Fellows    (See  preceding  page.) 

The  Journal,  containing  the  Transactions  and  Proceedings  of  the 
Society,  and  a  Summary  of  Current  Researches  relating  to  Zoology  and  Botany 
(principally  Invertebrata  and  Cryptogamia),  Microscopy,  &c,  is  published 
bi-monthly,  and  is  forwarded  post-free  to  all  Ordinary  and  Ex-officio  Fellows 
residing  in  countries  within  the  Postal  Union. 

The  Library,  with  the  Instruments,  Apparatus,  and  Cabinet  of  Objects, 
is  open  for  the  use  of  Fellows  daily  (except  Saturdays),  from  10  a.m.  to  5  p.m. 
It  is  closed  for  four  weeks  during  August  and  September. 

Forms  of  proposal  for  Fellowship,  and  any  further  information,  may  be  obtained  by 
application  to  the  Secretaries,  or  Assistant-Secretary,  at  the  Library  of  the  Society, 
20  Hanover  Square,  W. 

a  2 


patron 
HIS  MAJESTY  THE  KING. 


|last-|.1  residents. 

Elected 

*Sm  Richard  Owen,  K.C.B.  D.C.L.  M.D.  LL.D.  F.R.S.     1840-1 

♦John  Lindley,  Ph.D.  F.R.S 1842-3 

♦Thomas  Bell,  F.R.S 1844-5 

*James  Scott  Bowerbank,  LL.D.  F.R.S 1846-7 

♦George  Busk,  F.R.S 1848-9 

*Arthur  Farre,  M.D.  F.R.S 1850-1 

♦GEORGE  Jackson,  M.R.O.S 1852-3 

♦William  Benjamin  Carpenter,  C.B.  M.D.  LL.D.  F.R.S.     1854-5 

♦George  Shadbolt   1856-7 

♦Edwin  Lankester,  M.D.  LL.D.  F.R.S 1858-9 

*John  Thomas   Quekett,  F.R.S 1860 

*Robert  James  Farrants,  F.R.O.S 1861-2 

♦Charles  Brooke,  M.A.  F.R.S 1863-4 

*  James  Glaisher^  F.R.S 1865-6-7-8 

*Rev.  Joseph  Bancroft  Reade,  M.A.  F.R.S 1869-70 

♦William  Kitchen  Parker,  F.R.S 1871-2 

♦Charles  Brooke,  M.A.  F.R.S 1873-4 

♦Henry  Clifton  Sorby,  LL.D.  F.R.S 1875-6-7 

♦Henry  James  Slack,  F.G.S 1878 

♦Lionel  S.  Beale,  M.B.  F.R.C.P.  F.R.S 1879-80 

♦Peter  Martin  Duncan,  M.B.  F.R.S 1881-2-3 

Rev.  William  Hy.  Dallinger,  M.A.  LL.D.  F.R.S.  1884-5-6-7 
♦Charles  Thos.  Hudson,  M.A.  LL.D.  (Cantab.),  F.R.S.  1888-9-90 

Robert  Braithwaite,  M.D.  M.R.C.S 1891-2 

Albert  D.  Michael,  F.L.S 1893-4-5-6 

Edward  Milles  Nelson  1897-8-9 

William  Carruthers,  F.R.S.  F.L.S.  F.G.S 1900-1 

Henry  Woodward,  LL.D.  F.R.S.  F.G.S.  F.Z.S 1902-:; 

Dukinfield  Hy.  Scott,  M.A.  Ph.D.  LL.D.  F.R.S.  F.L.S.  1904-5-6 


* 


Deceased. 


COUNCIL. 


Elected  15th  January,  1908. 


JJresiDcnt. 
The  Right  Hon.  Lord  Avebury,  P.C.  D.C.L.  LL.D.  F.R.S.  etc. 

inre-|]tcsiuen.ts. 
Conrad  Beck. 
Rev.  W.  H.  Dallinger,  LL.D.  D.Sc.  D.C.L.  F.R.S. 

F.L.S.  F.Z.S. 
J.  W.  H.  Eyre,  M.D.  F.R.S.  (Edin.). 
The  Right  Hon.  Sir  Ford  North,  P.C.  F.R.S. 

treasurer. 

Wynne  E.  Baxter,  J.P.  D.L.  F.G.S.  F.R.G.S. 

Smtiavies. 

J.  W.  Gordon. 

R.  G.  Hebb,  M.A.  M.D.  F.R.C.P. 

#rtmt;in)  litcmkrs  of  Council. 

Rev.  Edmund  Carr,  M.A.  F.R.Met.S. 
*  Frederic  J.  Cheshire. 
*A.  N.  Disney,  M.A.,  B.Sc. 
*George  C.  Karop,  M.R.C.S. 

Henry  George  Plimmer,  M.R.C.S.,  L.S.A.,  F.L.S. 

Thomas  H.  Powell. 

C.  Price- Jones  M.B.  (Loncl.). 
Percy  E.  Radley. 

*Charles  F.  Rousselet. 
F.  Shillington  Scales,  B.A.  (Cantab.). 

D.  J.  Scourfield. 

E.  J.  Spitta,  L.R.C.P.  (Lond.),  M.R.C.S.  (Eng\). 

*  Members  of  the  Publication  Committee. 


librarian.  curators. 

Percy  E.  Radley.  Charles  F.  Rousselet. 

F.  Shillington  Scales, 
B.A.  (Cantab.). 

assistant  secretary. 
F.  A..  Parsons. 


CONTENTS. 


TRANSACTIONS    OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

PAGE 

I. — A  Reply  to  Professor  Porter's  and  Mr.  Everitt's  Criticism  upon  rny  Paper 

on  the  Resolving  Power,  etc.     By  Edward  M.  Nelson         1 

II. — On  the  Diffraction  Rings  for  a  Circular  Opening ;  and  on  the  Limit  of 
Resolving  Power.  (Being  a  Rejoinder  to  Mr.  Nelson.)  By  Alfred 
W.  Porter,  B.Sc.     (Fig.  1)        .,      3 

III.— Mercury  Globules  as  Test  Objects  for  the  Microscope.     By  J.  W.  Gordon. 

(Plate  I.  figs.  1,  2;  and  Figs.  2-6) 6 

IV.— Light  Filters  for  Photomicrography.    By  E.  Moffat.    (Plate  I.  figs.  3-6)  20 

V.— Francis  Watkins'  Microscope.     By  Edward  M.  Nelson.  (Figs.  26-29)   ..  137 

VI. — Eye-pieces  for  the  Microscope.     By  Edward  M.  Nelson 146 

VII. — A  Correction  for  a  Spectroscope.     By  Edward  M.  Nelson.     (Fig.  30)   ..  150 

VIII. — On   Dimorphism  in  the  Recent  Foraminifer,  Alveolina  boscii  Defr.  sp. 
By  Frederick  Chapman,  A.L.S.  F.R.M.S.     (Plates  II.  and  III.  and 

(Fig.  31)       151 

IX.— Gregory  and  Wright's  Microscope.     By  Edward  M.  Nelson  (Fig.  32)    ..     154 
X. — Biddulphia  mobiliensis.     By  Edward  M.  Nelson         158 

XI. — The  President's  Address  :  On  Seeds,  with  Special  Reference  to  British 
Plants.  By  the  Right  Hon.  Lord  Avebury,  P.O.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 
(Plate  IV.  and  Figs.  67-85)      273 

XII. — On  the  Microscope  as  an  Aid  to  the  Study  of  Biology  in  Entomology,  with 
particular  reference  to  the  Food  of  Insects.  By  W.  Wesche,  F.R.M.S. 
(Plates  V.  to  X.  and  Figs.  114-118)       401 

XIII. — Illuminating  Apparatus  for  the  Microscope.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.  (Figs. 

119-120)      425 

XIV. — Corethron  criophilum  Cast.     By  Edward  M.  Nelson 430 

XV. — On  Cycloloculina,  a  new  Generic  Type  of  the  Foraminifera.  With  a 
Preliminary  Study  of  the  Foraminif  erous  Deposits  and  Shore-sands  of 
Selsey  Bill.  By  Edward  Heron-Allen,  F.L.S.  F.R.M.S.,  and  Arthur 
Earland.     (Plate  XII.  ami  Fig.  138) 529 

XVI. — On  Dendritic  Growths  of  Copper  Oxide  in  Paper.     By  James  Strachan. 

(Plate  XIII.)        544 

XVII. — Some  African  Rotifers.     By  James  Murray.     (Plate  XV.) 665 

XVIII. — On  the  Resolution  of  Periodic   Structures.     By   Edward    M.  Nelson. 

(Fig.  157.) 671 

XIX.— An  Auxiliary  Illuminating  Lens.     By  Edward  M.  Nelson.     (Fig.  158.)     673 

XX. — Note  on  a  Remarkable  Alcyonarian,  Studeria  mirabilis  g.  et  sp.  n.     By 

Professor  J.  Arthur  Thomson.  M.A.     (Plate  XVI.) 675 

XXL— The  Present  Status  of    Micrometry.      By  Marshall   D.   Ewell,   M.D. 

Chicago        682 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

NOTES. 

PAGE 

Brachiomonas  submarina  Bolilin.     By  the  Rev.  Eustace  Tozer.     (Plate  XIV.)     ..  551 

On  the  Optical  Properties  of  Contractile  Organs.     By  Doris  L.  Mackinnon,  B.Sc. 

and  Fred  Vies 553 

OBITUARY. 

Henry  Clifton  Sorby.     (Plate  XI.) 431 

Charles  Stewart         435 

Francis  H.  Wenlmm,  C.E.       ..      693 

SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

Relating  to  |Zoology  and  Botany  (principally  Invertebrata  and 
Cryptogamia),  Microscopy,  &c,  inclining  Original  Communications 
from   Fellows  and  Others.*  23,  160,  305,  437,  559,  698 

ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 

a.  Embryology. 

Marshall,  F.  H.  A.,  &  W.  A.  Jolly — Removal  and  Transplantation  of  Ovaries    ..  23 

Cuenot,  L. — Inheritance  of  Pigmentation  in  Mice       23 

Iwanoff,  J.  J. — Artificial  Insemination  in  Nammals  ..      24 

Hatta,  S. —  Gastrulation  in  Petromyzon         24 

Wintrebert,  P. — Determining  Factors  in  Metamorphosis  of  Anura 24 

„           „          Experiments  with  Tadpoles       24 

,,           „         Experiments  with  Axolotls 25 

Meek,  A. — Segments  of  Head  and  Brain  in  Gull         25 

Egounoff,  Sophie — Development  of  the  Alimentary  Canal  in  the  Trout 25 

Carmichael,  E.  S. — Correlation  of  Ovarian  and  Uterine  Functions         160 

Duckworth,  W.  L.  H. — Early  Placenta  in  Macacus  nemestrinus      160 

Hubrecht,  A.  A.  W. — Formation  of  Red  Blood  Corpuscles  in  Placenta  of  Galeopi- 

thecus        161 

Disselhorst,  R. — Growth  of  Testes  in  Birds  and  Mammals       161 

Raspail,  Xavier — Incubation  in  Doves 161 

Patterson,  J.  T. — Amitosis  in  Pigeon's  Egg         161 

Schaub,  S. — Post-embryonic  Development  of  Ardeidm ,      162 

Wintrebert,  P. —  Complementary  Spiracles  in  Anura         1 62 

Goldfinger,  Gizela — Development  of  Lymph-sacs  in  Hind  1 'Amb  of  Frog     ..      . .  162 

Boeke,  J. — Gastrulation  in  Teleosteans 162 

Browne.  F.B.—  Early  Stages  of  Fresh-water  Fishes 163 

Ernst,  Paul — Monstrosities 163 

Dustin,  A.  P. — Origin  of  Gonocytes  in  Amphibians 305 

Rubaschkin,  W. — Origin  of  Germ- cells  in  Mammalian  Embryos       306 

Elliot,  Agnes  I.  M. — Development  of  the  Frog' s  Head      306 

Wintrebert,  P. — Determining  Factors  in  Metamorphosis  of  Anura 307 

Broman,  Ivar — Portal  Circulation  in  the  Embryonic  Metanephros  of  Mammals    ..  307 

Mcller,  F. — Studies  of  Placeut at ion 307 

Wilder,  H.  H. —Bodily  Identity  of  Twins 307 

Thompson,  D'aroy  W. — Shapes  of  Eggs        437 

Assheton,  Kichard — Development  of  Gymnarchus  niloticus      440 

Kryle,  J. — Regeneration  in  the  Pancreas     , 441 


*  In  order  to  make  the  Contents  complete,  the  papers  printed  in  the  '  Transactions' 
and  the  Notes  printed  in  the  'Proceedings'  are  entered  here. 


CONTENTS.  IX 

I'AGB 

Low,  Alexander — Early  Human  Embryo 441 

Regadd,  Cl.,  &  G.  Dubreuil — Corpus  luteum  and  Hut  in  Rabbits 441 

Landman,  Otto— Open  Cleft  in  Embryonic  Eye  of  a  Chick  of  Eight  Days      ..      ..  441 

Reese,  A.  M. — American  Alligator 442 

Branca,  W. — Embryos  in  Ichthyosaurs          442 

Landacre,  F.  L. — Epibranchial  Placodes  of  Ameiurus       44:! 

Nirenstein,  E. — Poison  Glands  of  Salamander 443 

Bles.  E.  J. — Notes  on  Anuran  Development  ..      ..              44:; 

Assheton,  R. — Teleostean  Eggs  and  Larvx  from  the  Gambia 443 

Grochmalickj,  Jan — Regeneration  of  Lens  in  Fishes 443 

Thilo,  O. — Development  of  Carp' s  Swim-bladder 443 

Blaizot,  L. — Gestation  in  Acanthi  as  vidgaris       444 

Thomson.  J.  Arthur — Text-book  of  Heredity        ..      ••    ,••      ••  559 

Kammerer,  P. — Transmission  of  Coercively  Acquired  Reproductive  Adaptations    ..  559 

Lecaillon,  A. — Parthenogenetic  Segmentation  in  Fowl       561 

Anikiew,  Ar.,  &  others — Early  Stages  in  Development  of  the  White  Mouse  ..      ..  561 

Frassi,  L. —  Very  Young  Human  Ovum 561 

Allen,  B.  M. — Origin  of  Sex-cells  in  Rana  pipiens      562 

Molle,  Jacques  van — Studies  on  Spermatogenesis      562 

Bambeke,  Ch.  van — Development  of  Vertebrate  Nerve-cord        562 

Filatoff,  D.,  &  others — Development  of  the  Head 562 

Marcus,  Harry—  Gill-clej 't  Region  of  Gymnophiona ..  562 

Basile,  C. — Influence  of  Lecithin  on  Determination  of  Sex         563 

Aime,  P .—Interstitial  Cells  in  the  Ovary  of  Mammals         563 

Carmichael,  E.  S.,  &  F.  H.  A.  Marshall — Compensatory  Hypertrophy  in  the  Ovary  563 

Nicloux,  Maurice — Passage  of  Ether  Jrom  Mother  to  Faztus     564 

Gentes,  L. — Infundibular  Gland  and  Choroid  Plexus        564 

Reichenow,  E. — Abnormalities  in  Hind  Limbs  of  Rana  esculenta      564 

Schneider,  K.  C. —  Vifalistic  Theory  of  Evolution       564 

Lutz,  Frank  E. — Inheritance  of  Manner  of  Clasping  the  Hands      564 

Herring,  P.  T. — Development  of  Mammalian  Pituitary  Body   : 698 

Rabaud,  E. — Orientation  of  Embryo  in  Hen  s  Egg       699 

Cuenot,  L. — Apparent  Anomalies  in  Mendelian  Proportions     699 

Davenport,  Charles  B. — Inheritance  in  Canaries 699 

Mudge,  G.  P. — Transmission  of  Coat-characters  in  Rats 700 

Marshall,  F.  H.TA.,  &  W.  A.  Jolt — Transplantation  of  Ovaries 700 

Wilson,  James  -Mendelian  Characters  among  Short-horn  Cattle         701 

Ries,  Julius — New  Vieivs  concerning  Fertilisation  and  Maturation 701 

Ballowitz,  E. — Spermatozoa  of  Seals 701 

Roule,  L.,  &  I.  Audige — Development  of  Kidney  in  Teleosteans     702 

Roule,  Louis — Development  of  Notochord  in  Fishes 702 

Wintrebert,  P. — Embryonic  Circulation  in  Goldfish 702 

Regan,  C.  Tate — Hybrid  between  Bream  and  Rudd 702 

6.  Histology. 

Andrews,  E.  A. — Intercellular  Connections  in  Fowl's  Egg 26 

Dubois,  R. — Microbioids  of  the  Purple  Gland  of  Mur ex  brandar is 26 

Stvdnicka,  F.  K. — Matrix  Tissue 26 

Hurthle.  K. — Striped  Muscle 26 

Valle,  Paolo  della — Tetrads  in  Somatic  Cells 27 

Bertkau,  F. — Secretion  of  Mammary  Glands       27 

Cajal,  S.  R. —  Vindication  of  the  Neuron  Theory 27 

Suchard.  E. —  Valves  in  the  Veins  of  a  Frog 27 

Bruntz,  L. — Glandular  Endothelium  of  Lymphatic  Canals  and  Renal  Capillaries 

in  Tadpoles      28 

Kolmer,  W. — Minute  Structure  of  the  Internal  Ear 28 

Schmincke,  A. — Regeneration  of  Cross-striped  Muscle  in  Vertebrata 28 

Harrison,  Ross  G. —  Observations  on  the  Living  Developing  Nerve-fibre 28 

Sterzi,  G. — Central  Nervous  System  of  Cyclostomes 29 

Williams,  L.  W.— Structure  of  Cilia     ..  163 

Retterer,  Ed. — Development  of  Cartilage 163 

Terry,  R.  J. — Neuroglia  syncytium        164 

Dungern,  Emil  v.  &  Richard  Werner — Theory  of  Malignant  Tumours        ..      ..  164 


X  CONTENTS. 

Mubius,  Karl — JEsthetic  Aspect  of  Animals. .      .. 164 

I.apicqie,  L.  —  Weight  of  Brain  in  Man  and  Woman 164 

Winkler,  C.— Eighth  Cerebral  Nerve 165 

Leche.  W. — Dentition  of  Mammals 165 

Oldfield,  Thomas—  New  Acanthoglossus       160 

Matthew,  W.  D. — Relationships  of  Sparassodonta      166 

Pettit,  A. — Kidney  of  Elephant 1 60 

Leiber,  A. — Comparative  Anatomy  of  Tongue  of  Woodpecker 166 

Kloff,  Wilhelmina — Circulatory  Mechanism  in  Teleosteans 166 

Ncssbacm,  M.  —  Mutation-phenomena  in  Animals         167 

Gill,  Theodore — Natural  History  of  the  Lumpsucher        167 

Daubishire,  A.  D. — Respiratory  Mechanism  in  Elasmobranchs 167 

Holt,  E.  W.  L.,  &  L.  W.  Byrne — New  Deep-sen  Fishes  from  South-west  of  Ireland  168 

Henninger,  G. — Labyrinth  Organ  of  Lahyrinthici       168 

Weber.  Max — Freshwater  Fishes  of  New  Guinea         168 

Cohn,  L. — Swim-bladder  in  Scixnidie 168 

Reed,  II.  D. — Poison- glands  of  Catfishes        168 

Borley,  J.  O.,  &  H.  Muir  Evans — Poison  Apparatus  of  Weever       161) 

Hooper,  Cecil  H. — Food  of  Birds 160 

Pixell,  Helen  L.  M. — Structure  and  Function  of  Rectal  Gland  in  Elasmobranchs  31)7 

Meves,  Fr.,  &  Achille  Russo—  Cytological  Notes      308 

Wallenberg,  A. — Neurological  Studies . .              308 

Capparelli,  A. — Myelin  Bodies  in  Nervous  System 308 

Nemiloff,  A. — Nervous  Elements  in  Fishes 444 

Ayers,  Howard — Ventricular  Fibre  of  Brain  of  Myxinoids      444 

Joseph,  H. — Epidermal  Sensory  Cells  in  Amphioxus 444 

Schilze.  Oskar — Histogenesis  of  Nervous  System       444 

Mlodowska,  J. — Histogenesis  of  Muscle         445 

Walker,  C.  E. — Essentials  of  Cytology 565 

Stricht,  N.  Van  der,  &  others — Histological  Studies      565 

Schilling,  K.,  &  others — Neurological  Studies 565 

Vles,  Fred — Double  Refraction  Phenomena  in  Muscle        ..      ..      566 

Herring,  P.  T. — Minute  Structure  of  Mammalian  Pituitary  Body 702 

Thdlin,  Ivar — Spiral  Muscle- fibres        704 

c.    General.  * 

Kidd,  W. — Sense  of  Touch  in  Mammals  and  Birds       29 

Fitzwilliams,  Duncan  C.  L. — Hand  and  Foot  in  Hylobates  agdis 29 

Pocock,  R.  I. — Patterns  of  Cubs  of  Lions  and  Pumas 30- 

Wroui:hton,  R.  C. — African  Mungooses         30 

Andersen,  Knud— Geographical  Races  of  Lesser  Horse-shoe  Bat       30 

Rothschild,  Maurice  de,  &  Henry  Neuville — Enigmatical  Tooth     30 

Perrier,  Remy—  Genital  Organs  of  Bradypodidas      31 

Gisi,  Julia — Brain  of  Hatteria  punctata     31 

Longstaff,  G.  B.,  &  E.  B.  Poulton — Notes  on  South  African  Chameleons   .,      . .  31 

Dogiel,  J. — Anatomy  of  Heart  in  Frog  and  Turtle 31 

Tornier,  (4. — Production  of  Albinism  and  Melanism  in  Frogs 32: 

Begr,  L.  S. —  Fishes  of  Lake  Baikal        32 

Pelegrin,  C.  &  V.  J. — Buccal  Incubation  in  Arius  fissus 32 

Johnstone,  James— Food  of  Plaice  and  Dabs       .." 33- 

,,             „            Teleostean  Abnormalities        33 

Rennie,  John — Oesophageal  Pouches  in  Centrolophus  niger  Gmelin 33 

Mosso,  Angei.o — Fish  Vertebrae  as  Prehistoric  Amulets       34 

Gentes,  L. — Nervous  Lobe  of  the  Hypophysis  and  the  Vascular  Sac 34 

Sheak,  W.  H. —  Young  Red  Kangaroo 308 

Smith,  G.  Elliot — Asymmetry  of  Caudal  Poles  of  the  Cerebral  Hemispheres  in  Man  308 

Vasse,  G.— Pleural  Cavity  of  Elephant 309 

Mulon,  P. — Pigment  of  Suprarenal  Glands 309 

Arnback-Christie-Linde,  Aigusta — Structure  of  Soricidie      309 

Durbe.ce,  VV.,  &  A.  Fleischmann — Studies  on  the  Cloaca  and  Phallus  in  Amniota  309 

Gerhardt,  Ulrich—  Penis  in  Birds       309^ 

Pays-Mellier,  G.,  4  E.  Trouessart — Hybrids  of  Peacock  and  Cochin-china  Hen  310 

Hugues,  Albert — Fasting  Powers  of  the  Swift 310= 


CONTENTS.  XI 

TAOE 

Mullkr,  B. — Air-sacs  of  Pigeon      310 

Edgeworth,  F.  H. — Head-muscles  in  Sauropsiila        310 

Stejneger,  Leonhard — Herpetology  of  Japan      311 

Fortin,  E.  P. — Peculiarities  of  Vision  in  the  Chamxleon 311 

Thevenin,  Armand — Dinosaurs  of  Madagascar 311 

Smallwood,  W.  M. — Phagocytic  Action  of  Kidney-cells  in  Frog       311 

Nussbaum,  A. — Secretion  of  Thumb-swelling  in  Rana 311 

Courtis,  S.  A. — Response  of  Toads  to  Sound-stimuli 312 

Chaine,  J. — Tongue  of  Teleosteans 312 

De  Drouin  de  Boiville,  R. — Abnormality  of  Brook  Trout      312 

Fowler,  H.  W. — New  Lamprey      312 

Lohmann,  H. — Faunistic  Results  of  German  South  Polar  Expedition       313 

Kukenthal,  W. —  Bipolarity  of  Marine  Animals 313 

Romer,  Fritz — Northern  Animals 313 

Goodrich,  E.  S. — Scales  of  Fishes 445 

Beebe,  C.  W. — Seasonal  Change  in  Birds      446 

Porta,  A. — Muscles  of  the  Tail  in  Peacock  and  Turkey 447 

Broom,  R. — Mammal-like  Reptiles 447 

Mitchell.  P.  Chalmers.  &  R.  J.  Pocock — Feeding  Snakes  in  Captivity       ..      ..  447 

Nicolle,  Ch.,  &  Ch.  Comte — Dogs  attacked  with  Kala-azar     447 

Gamble,  F.  W. — Introduction  to  Study  of  Natural  History        566 

Shull,  A.  F. — Habits  of  the  Short-tailed  Shrew 566 

Berry,  C.  8. — Imitative  Tendency  of  Rats  and  of  Cats       567 

Cole,  L.  W. — Intelligence  of  Raccoons 567 

Hamilton,  G.  van  T. — Unusual  Type  of  Reaction  in  Dog 567 

Szak all,  Julius — Ear  of  Hungarian  Blind  Mouse 568 

Camerano,  L. — Quagga  of  Turin  Museum 568 

Richon,  L.,  &  M.  Perrin — Tobacco-poisoning  in  Rabbits 568 

Andrews,  C.  W. — Prozeuglodon  atrox 568 

Peterson,  O.  A. — Chalicotheres       569 

Garman,  Samuel — Reptiles  of  Eastern  Island       569 

Fuchs,  Hugo — Independent  Bony  Epiphyses  in  Sauropsida       569 

Yung,  Emile —  Variation  in  Length  of  Frogs  Intestine       569 

Kerr,  J.  Graham — Autostylic  and  Protostylic      569 

„           „           Swim-bladder  and  Lungs       570 

Blumenthal,  R. — Function  of  Spleen  in  Fishes 570 

Stares,  E.  C. — New  Sub-order  of  Fishes       570 

Huber,  0. — Copulatory  Appendages  of  Lseviraia  oxyrhynchus 570 

Cligny,  A. — Species  of  Trout  ..      ..             570 

Patience,  Alexander — Occurrence  of  Gobius  orca  in  Clyde  Sea  Area 571 

Stock ard,  Charles  R. — Notes  on  Polyodon  spathula 571 

Parker,  G.  H. — Sensory  Reactions  of  Amphioxus        571 

M'Intosh,  W.  C. — Perforations  of  Marine  Animals 572 

Holdhaus,  K. — Differentiation  of  Faunas 572 

Herring,  P.  T. — Action  of  Extracts  of  Saccus  Vasculosis  and  Pituitary  Body      ..  704 

Yerkes,  R.  M. — Dancing  Mouse 705 

Williston,  S.  W. —  What  is  a  Species  ? ,      706 

Zangger,  H. — Functions  of  Membranes 706 

Loomis,  F.  B. — Neio  Horse  from  Lower  Miocene 706 

Purdy,  R.  J.  W. — Occasional  Luminosity  of  White  Owl 706 

Franz,  V. — Pecten  in  Bird's  Eye 707 

Thomas,  Oldfield — New  Jerboa  from  China       707 

Pearl,  R.,  &  F.  M.  Surface — Experiment  with  the  Oviduct  of  the  Hen       ..      ..  707 

Waite,  E.  R. — Asiatic  Red-bellied  Newt        707 

Sweet,  Georgina — Anatomy  of  Australian  Amphibia        70S 

Robinson,  R. — Corpora  adiposa  in  Frog        708 

Ocana,  Jose  Gomez — Function  of  Optic  Lobes  in  Fishes 708 

Masterman,  A.  T. — Mimicry  in  the  Common  Sole      708 

Tower,  R.  W. — Production  of  Sound  in  Drum-fishes 709 

Tunicata. 

Fechner,  Paul — Gill-slit  Formation  in  Ascidians       31 

Ritter,  W.  E. — Ascidians  of  Calif ornian  Coast 34: 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

PAGB 

Brooks,  W.  K. — Homologies  of the  Muscles  of  Cyclowlpa 34 

Fernandez,  Miguel — Structure  of  Salpa      35 

Kerb,  H. —  Winter-buds  of  Clavelina  lepadiformis        447 

Aida,  T. — Japanese  Appendicular ians 572 

Fol,  Alice — Regeneration  of  Test  in  Tunicates .">7:; 

Daumezon,  G. — Musculature  of  Compound  Tunicates 573 

„         „          Development  of  Dirtoma  tridentatum         573 

Roule,  Louis — Development  of  Notochord  in  Larval  Ascidians 573 

Hitter,  W.  E. — California?!  Ascidians 709 

Kert,  H. —  Winter-buds  of  Clavellina  lepadiformis       709 


INVERTEBRATA. 

Sanzo,  Luigi — Nitrogen  Metabolism  in  Marine  Invertebrates      35 

Sollas,  Igerna  B.  J. — Identification  of  Chitin  by  its  Physical  Constants        ..      . .  35 

Mollusca. 

Marohand,  Werner — Latent  Segmentation  in  Molluscs 36 

a.  Cephalopoda. 

Hotle,  W.  E. — Hectocotylisation  and  Luminosity  in  Cuttlefishes       36 

Cuenot,  L. — Liver  of  Cuttlefishes 37 

Smith,  Edgar  A. — Octopus  with  Branching  Arms      37 

Massy,  A.  L. — New  Cephalopods  from  the  Irish  Coast 37 

M'Intosh,  W.  C. — Large  Cuttlefish  at  St.  Andrews       170 

Marchand,  W. — Chromatophores  of  Cephalopods 313 

Doring,  Walter — Female  Gonads  of  Cuttle-fishes       573 

Hoyle,  W.  E. — Cephalopods  from  Sudanese  Red  Sea 574 

/3.  Gastropoda. 

Meisenheimer,  J. — Reproduction  in  Snails 37 

Cuenot,  L. — Origin  of  the  Nematocysts  of  Eolidise       39 

Conklin,  E.  G. — Development  of  Fulgur        39 

Palmer,  Clayton  F. — Structure  of  Californian  Haliotidx        40 

McGlone,  B. — Development  of  Lung  in  Ampullaria  depressa 40 

Stantschinsky,  W. — Structure  and  Relationships  of  Oncidium 40 

Bartsch,  Paul — New  Parasitic  Gastropod 170 

Babbieri,  C. — Larval  Stages  of  Cyclostoma.  elegans      171 

Gbabau,  Amadeus  W. — Orthogenesis  in  Gastropods 171 

Merton,  Hugo — Minute  Structure  of  Ganglion-cells  of  Tethys  leporina 171 

Stbebel,  H. — Gastropods  of  the  Magellan  Province      171 

Bastow,  R.  A.,  &  J.  H.  Gatliff — New  Australian  Chiton        172 

Heath,  Harold — Hermaphroditism  in  a  Chiton 314 

Bellion,  Mlle. — Sugar-reducing  Power  in  Helix  pomatia         314 

Vles,  F. — Pedal  Waves  of  Reptant  Molluscs 314 

Russell,  E.  S. — Environmental  Studies  on  the  Limpet        448 

Legendre,  R. — Experimental  Dwarfing  of  Water-snails 448 

Sterki,  V. — Philomycus 448 

Perrier,  Remy,  &  Henri  Fischer—  Defensive  Glands  in  Tectibranchs 574 

Roaf,  Herbert  E.,  &  M.  Nierenstein — Physiological  Action  of  Extract  of  Hypo- 
branchial  Gland  of  Dog  Whelk         574 

Sykes,  E.  R.—  Chitons  from  Red  Sea  and  East  Africa         574 

Perkier,  Remy  —  Defensive  Pallial  Glands  in  Scaphander         ■      ..      ..  710 

Pieron,  Henri — Sense  of  Taste  in  Fresh-water  Snails         710 

Colton,  H.  S. — Feeding  Habit  of  Fulgar  and  Sycotypus 710 

5.  Lamellibranchiata. 

Anthony,  R. — Supplementary  Siphon  in  Lutraria  elliptica        40 

Drew,  Gilman  A. — Nervous  System  of  Razor-shell  Clam 315 

Debski,  Bronislaw — Distribution  of  Petricola  pholadiformis   ..      ..      ..      ..      :.  315 

Kostaneoki,  K. — Pathogenetic  Development  in  Mactra       448 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

PAGE 

Igel,  J. — Structure  of  Phaseollcama  magellanica 448 

Schwarz,  R. — Relation  between  Body  and  Shell  in  Bivalves       449 

Pelsekeer,  Paul — Concentration  of  Nervous  System  in  Lamellibranchs 449 

Weber,  F.  L. — Sense-organs  of  Cockles 574 

Harms,  W. — Post-embryonic  Development  of  Uw'o        575 

Williamson,  H.  Chas. — Studies  on  Mussels 575 

Arthropoda. 

Woodward,  Henry — Arthropoda  of  British  Coal  Measures        41 

a.  Insecta. 

Carpenter,  George  H. — Injurious  Insects  in  Ireland       41 

MacDougall,  R.Stewart — Larch  Shoot  Moth 41 

,,                 „                 Grain  Weevils 41 

Matheson,  R. — Life-history  of  A panteles  glomeratus 41 

Dubois,  R.,  &  others — Alleged  Fixation  of  Carbon  by  Chry salids 42 

Foot,  Katherine,  &  E.  C.  Strobell — Chromosomes  in  Spermatogenesis  of  Anasa 

tristis        ..      ..       42 

Pieron,  H. — How  Ants  find  their  Nest 42 

Wagner,  Wladimir — Psychobiology  of  Humble  Bees 42 

Santschi,  F. —  Tunisian  Ants „      43 

Adlerz,  G. — Solitary  Wasps 43 

Aurivillius,  Ohr. — Forms  of  the  Female  of  Papilio  dardanus 43 

Tragardh,  Ivar — Termitophilous  Tineid  Larva 43 

Chapman,  T.  A. — Hibernation  of  Marasmarcha ,  43 

Guppy,  L„  jun. — Life-history  of  Cydemon  {Urania)  leilus          44 

Sergent,  Edmond  &  Etienne — Human  Myasis  due  to  CEstrus  Ovis       44 

Jost,  H. — Migrations  of  Hypoderma  Bovis  Larva  in  Ox 44 

Bernhard,  Carl — Viviparity  in  Ephemeridse      44 

Pieron,  H. — Autotomy  in  Orlhoptera      45 

Philiptschenko,  Jur. — Excretion  in  Apterygota          45 

Silverlock,  O.  C. — Senses  of  Ants 172 

Wasmann,  E. — Nests  of  Wanderer  Ants 172 

Walter,  L. — Clasping  Organs  on  Wings  of  Hymenoptera 172 

Bugnion,  E. — Salivary  Glands  of  Hemiptera        172 

Magalhaes,  P.  S.  de — Insects  Injurious  to  Books       172 

Cockerell,  T.  D.  A. — Scale  Insects  of  Date  Palm      173 

Silvestri,  F. — Pests  of  the  Olive 173 

Piersol,  W.  H. — Mating  of  llivellia  boscii 173 

Bezzi,  Mario — Blood-sucking  Flies         173 

Imms,  A.  D. — Structure  and  Behaviour  of  Larva  of  Anopheles  maculipennis    . .      ..  174 

Holmgren,  Nils — Shell-bearing  Mycetophila  Larva 174 

Tiraboschi,  Carlo — Relation  of  Flea*  to  Plague  Dissemination         174 

Tillyard,  R.  J. — Dimorphism  in  Australian  Agrionidse 175 

Silvestri,  F. — New  Order  of  Apterygota       175 

Berlese,  A. — Treatise  on  Insects 315 

Janet,  Charles — Histolysis  of  Wing-muscles  in  Ants  after  Nuptial  Flight     ..      ..  316 

(  erfontaine,  P. —  Uncommon  Dipterous  Larva 316 

Perez,  Ch. — Fat-bodies  of  Muscidm  in  Metamorphosis         316 

Shelford,  V.  E. — Larval  Habits  of  Tiger-beetles 316 

Donisthorpe,  H.  St.  J. — Life-history  and  Bionomics  of  Lomechusa 317 

Scott,  H. —  Variation  of  Nycteribiidas  from  Ceylon       317 

Jackson,  C.  F. — Semi-aquatic  Aphid 317 

Jordan,  H.  E. — Accessory  Chromosome  in  Aplopus  mayeri         318 

Bruntz,  L. — Excretion  in  Tliysanura   ..         318 

Wesche,  W. — On  the  Microscope  as  an  Aid  to  the  Study  of  Biology  in  Entomology, 

with  particular  reference  to  the  Food  of  Insects  (Plates  V.  to  X.  and  Figs. 

114-118) 401 

Jordan,  H.  E. — Accessory  Chromosome  in  Aplopus  mayeri         449 

Marsall,  Guy  A.  K. — Diaposematism . .      ..'      450 

Wilson,  E.  B. — Accessory  Chromosome  in  Anasa  tristis     450 

Bordas,  L. — Cutaneous  Glands  of  Wasps       450 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

PAOE 

Jeannel,  R. —  Cave  Beetles       450 

Dkegener,  P. — Development  of  the  Alimentary  Canal  during  Metamorphosis . .      . .  4.~>u 

Matsumura,  S. — New  European  and  Mediterranean  Gicadinx 451 

Hine,  James  S. — Freezing  Insect  Larvse        451 

Bordas,  L. — Odoriferous  Gland  of  Cockroach       ,      451 

Wesche,  W. — Genitalia  of  Male  Cockroach           451 

Martelli,  G. — Insects  Injurious  to  Olives  and  Figs 451 

Silvestri,  F. — Study  of  Thysanura 452 

Brontz,  L. — Cephalic  Glands  of  Machilis  maritima    .:      452 

„         „       Kidney  of  Machilis  maritima 452 

„         „       Labial  Excretory  Organ  in  Thysanura 452 

Hoffmann,  R.  W. — Structure  of  Collembola 452 

Kellogg,  Vernon  L. — Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in  Silk-moth 575 

Demoll,  R. — Mouth-parts  of  Solitary  Bees 576 

Strohl,  J. — Copulatory  Organs  of  Solitary  Bees ■•  570 

Marshall,  W.  S. — Development  of  Ovary  of  Folistes  pallipes 570 

„           „          Development  of  Ovary  of  Phryganid     577 

Saling.  Th. — Development  of  Gonads  of  Tenebrio  molitor 577 

Meves,  F.,  &  J.  Dcesbekg — Spermatogenesis  of  Hornet      577 

Otte,  H.,  &  others — Spermatogenesis  in  Insects 577 

Rotjbaud,  E. —  Observations  on  Glossina  palpalis 578 

Lubben,  H. — Life-history  of  Thrypticus  smaragdinus 578 

Steche,  0. — Luminosity  of  Tropical  Lampyridse         578 

Wheeler,  W.  M. — Pink  Katydids  as  Mutants     578 

Lefevre,  George,  &  Caroline  McGill — Chromosome*  of  Anasa  tridis  and  Anaz 

Junius       579 

Bugnion,  E.,  &  N.  Popoff — Wax-glands  of  Flata  {Phromnia)  marginella     ..      ..  579 

Mang an,  Joseph — Mouth-parts  of  Blattidte 579 

Siltala,  A.  J. — Development  of  Caddis-worms 580 

Oppenheim,  S. — Regeneration  of  Segments  in  Ephemerid  Larvze        580 

Kellogg,  Vernon  L. — Mallophaga  of  the  Kea 580 

Tannreuther,  (j.  W. — Germ-cells  and  Embryology  of  Aphids 5S0 

Philtptschenko,  Jur. — Head- glands  of  Thysanura      581 

Evans,  William — Collembola  and  Thysanura  of  Forth  Area     582 

Bruntz,  L. — Excretion  in  Thysanura 582 

Nigmann,  M. — Structure  and  Habits  of  Acentropus  niveus 582 

Hewitt,  C.  G. — House-fly        710 

Denioll,  R. — Protandry  in  Insects 711 

Cholodkovsky,  N. — Gastrophilu*  Larva  in  Human  Skin 711 

Kellogg,  Vernon  L. — Reflexes  of  Silkworm  Moths 712 

„             „              Inheritance  in  Silkworms         712 

Berlese,  A. — Treatise  on  Insects 713 

Metalnikov,  S. — Galleria  melonella 713 

Secqdes,  F. — Destruction  of  Book-ioorms        714 

Mecnier,  F. — Flies  in  Amber  . .      714 

Hammar,  A.  G. — Nervous  Syxtem  of  Larva  of  Corydalis  cornuta      715 

Wesche,  W. — Genitalia  as  Indications  of  Relationship       715 

£.  Myriopoda. 

Williams,  S.  R. — Habits  and  Structure  of  Scutigerella  immaculata          31 S 

Robinson,  Margaret — Segmentation  of  the  Head  in  Diplopoda        319 

Verhoeff,  Carl  W. — Studies  on  Julidx       452 

Silvestri,  F. — Cavernicolous  Myriopods        453 

y.   Onychophora. 

Bouvier,  E.  L. — Monograph  on  Onychophora        45 

Sedgwick,  Adam — Distribution  and,  Classification  of  Onychophora 5S3 

S.  Arachuida. 

Police,  G. — Eyes  of  Scorpions 45 

Trouessart,  PI  L. — Sarcoptids  in  Wing-bones  of  Birds     46 

Sergent,  E.,  &  E.  L.  Troiessart — New  Type  of  Sarcoptid      46 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAGE 

Tragardh,  Ivar — Myriopodophilons  Mites      46 

Castellani,  A. — Acarid  from  Omentum  of  Negro        46 

Williamson,  Wm. — Scottish  Hydraehnids 46 

Montgomery,  T.  H.,  jtjn.— Maturation  and  Fertilization  in  Theridium 17") 

Banks,  Nathan — Studies  on  Mites 175 

Maglio,  C,  &  W.  Williamson — Hydraehnids      17.") 

Woodward,  Henry — New  Species  of  Eurypterus t 175 

Bordas,  L. — So-called  Malpighi 'an  Tubes  in  Scorpions         319 

Ellingsen,  Edr — Cave  Pseudoscorpionidie ,  45:; 

Oppenheim,  S.,  &  Friedrich,  P. —  Regeneration  and  Autotomy  in  Spiders      ..      ..  584 

Smith,  F.  P. — British  Spiders         . .      . .  584 

Ellingsen,  Edv. — Notes  on  Pseudoscorpions        584 

Deeley,  G.  P. — New  Britisli  Records  of  Water-mites 585 

Walter,  Charles— Swiss  Hydraehnids         ..        585 

Heinis,  F. — Metamorphosis  of  Species  of  Echiniscus 585 

Eichters,  F. — Marine  Tardigrada          585 

Warburton,  C. — Geographical  Distribution  of  Oribatidse 715 

Payerimhoff,  P.  de — New  Species  of  Ksenenia 715 

Chamberlin,  Ralph  V. — North  American  Lycosidse 715 

Trojan,  E. — New  Mite 716 

e.  Crustacea. 

Giaja,  J. — Ferments  in  Crustaceans       47 

Herdman,  W.  A. — "Granny1'  Crabs      47 

Drzewina,  Anna — Autotomy  in  Grapsus       47 

Pieron,  H. — Autotomy  in  Decapods 47 

Caullery,  M. — Real  Nature  of  Mieroniscidse      47 

Racovitza,  E.  G. — New  Cave  Isopod      48 

Richardson,  Harriet — Terrestrial  Isopods  of  the  Family  Eubelidm         4S 

Racovitza,  E.  G. — Cave  Isopods 48 

Sayoe,  O.  A. — Primitive  Malacostracan 176 

Stimpson,  William — Brachyura  and  Anomura  from  the  North  Pacific 176 

Woodward,  Henry — Fygocephalus  cooper i 176 

Patience,  Alexander — Male  of  D examine  thea 176 

Vejdoysky,  Fr. — Reduction  of  the  Eye  in  New  Gammarid  from  Ireland        ..      ..  177 

Gurney,  R. — Crustacea  of  East  Norfolk  Rivers 177 

Wilson.  C.  B. — Notes  on  Development  of  Argulidm       177 

Bruntz,  L. — Nephrocytes  of  Caprellids 177 

Grtjvel,  A.—  A ntarctic  Cirripedia 177 

Berndt,  W. — Boring  Cirripedia 178 

Pilsbry,  Henry  A. — Barnacles  of  the  United  States  National  Museum 178 

„             ,,            Notes  on  Cirri  pedes       178 

Marsh,  C.  Dwight — North  American  Species  of  Diaptomus       178 

Drzewina,  Anna — Periodic  Change  in  Phototropism  of  Hermit  Crabs 319 

McIntosh,  D.  C. —  Variations  in  the  Norway  Lobster 320 

Patience,  Alexander — New  British  Terrestrial  Isopod 320 

Smith,  G. — Life-history  of  Sacculina      320 

Gruvel,  A. — New  Barnacles 321 

Pesta,  Otto — Metamorphosis  of  Mytilicola  intestinalis       321 

Calman,  W.  T. — Stridulating  Organ  in  Crabs       ,  453 

Drzewina,  Anna — Hydrotropism  in  Crabs „      .  453 

Police,  G. —  Visceral  Nervous  System  of  Decapods        453 

Fulinski,  Benedykt — Development  of  Crayfish 454 

Andrews,  E.  A. — Cambarus  montezumse         454 

Zuelzer,  Margarethe — Regeneration  in  Asellus 454 

Racovitza,  E.  G. — Neio  Marine  Isopod „  454 

Bagnall,  R.  S. — New  Terrestrial  Isopod       455 

Thiele,  Jon. — Neio  Phyllopods       455 

Bradley,  J.  C. — Species  of  Corophium 455 

Briot,  A. — Abnormality  in  a  Crayfish 585 

Lloyd,  R.  E. —  Variation  of  Squilla  investigatoris        585 

Gelderd,  Charles — Alimentary  Canal  of  Schizopods         585 

Gurney,  Robert — New  Species  of  Cirolana  from  a  Spring  in  the  Sahara       ..      ..  585 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

I'AGE 

Giudice,  P.  Lo — Locomotor  Organs  of  Gygebranchitdis 586 

Rogknhofeu,  Alvis — Maxillary  Gland  in  Isopods       586 

Patience,  Alexander — Notes  on  Clyde  Crustacea       586 

„               „              British  Species  of  Trichoniscoide*         586 

Bagnall,  Richard  S. — New  Terrestrial  Isopod 587 

Coutiere,  H. — New  Entoniscid       587 

Roi,  Otto  le — Dendrogaster 587 

Grater,  E. — New  Cave  Copepod 587 

Wilson,  Charles  Branch — North  American  Galigidee     587 

Nowikoff,  M. — Median  Eye  of  Ostracods 587 

Walcott,  C.  D. — Cambrian  Trilobites 588 

Zdluetta,  A.  de — Lamippidse        716 

Pilsbry,  H.  A. — Classification  of  Scalpelliform  Barnacles 716 

Ballowitz,  E. — Headless  Spermatozoa  of  Cirripeds 717 

Carpenter,  George  H.,  &  Isaac  Swain — New  Devonian  Isopod 717 

Axmulata. 

Selensky,  W. — Urns  of  Sipunculids       48 

Martiis,  L.  Cognetti  de — Reproductive  Apparatus  of  Kynotus       49 

Combault,  A. —  Calciferous  Glands  of  Earthworms 49 

M'Intosh,  W.  C. — Notes  on  Poly 'chasts 179 

Lepeschkin,  W.  D. — Nervous  System  of  Saccocirrus  papillocercus 179 

Morguli,  Sergius — Regeneration  in  Podarhe  obscura 179 

Konopacki,  M. — Respiration  in  Earthworms         179 

Salenskt,  W. — Metamorphosis  of  Echmr us 321 

Arwidsson,  Ivar — Studies  on  Maldanidm 321 

Andrews,  E.  A. — Earthworms  as  Planters  of  Trees     321 

Gunther,  R.  T. — Systematic  Position  of  Chsstognatha        322 

Salenskt,  W. — (Esophageal  Pouches  of  Spionidse        455 

Jakubski,  A.  W. — Neuroglia  in  Leeches         , ,      . .  455 

Dehorne,  Armand — Thoracic  Nephridia  of  Her melli das     588 

Reac,  L.  dd — Epidermis  of  Travisia  forbesii 588 

Malaqdin,  A.,  &  A.  Dehorne — Polychsets  of  Amboina      588 

Malaquin,  A.,  &  A.  Bedot — Brain  and  Nuchal  Organ  of  Notopygos  labiatus        ..  588 

Lefevre,  G. — Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in  Tlialassema  mellita 588 

Ikeda,  Iwaji — Remarkable  Echiuroids 590 

Stephenson,  J. — New  Indian  Oligochast        590 

Livanow,  N. — Studies  on  Leeches 590 

Benham,  W.  B. — Neio  Zealand  Leeches 590 

Fior,  Giuseppe  Dalla — Growth  and  Asexual  Reproduction  in  Stylaria  lacustris..  590 

Izuka,  Akira — Breeding  of  Nereis  japonica 717 

Goddard,  E.  J. — Studies  071  Australian  Leeches 718 

Nematohelrninth.es. 

Man,  J.  G.  De — Free-living  Nematodes 49 

Weinberg,  M. — Toxic  Effect  of  Sclerosfomum  equinum        49 

„          .,         Toxins  Secreted  by  Parasites        180 

Deincka,  D. — Nervous  System  of  Ascaris      322 

Porta,  A. — Peculiar  Nematode      455 

Rauther,  Max — Structure  of  Nematodes       5yl 

Martini,  E. — Development  of  Nematodes        591 

Schepotieff,  A. — Chzetosomatidae 5:>1 

„           „         Peculiar  Free-living  Nematodes       592 

Bancroft,  Thos.  L. — Note  on  Filar ia  immit is 718 

Platyhelminthes. 

Mola,  Pasquale — New  Cestode  from  Eagle 50 

„         Para-uterine  Organ  of  Taenia  nigropunctala 50 

Fuhrmann,  O. —  Classification  of  Cyclophyllidea          50 


CONTENTS.  xvii 

PAGE 

Dubois,  Raphael — Action  of  Heat  on  Immature  Mussel-fluke 50 

Hofsten,  Nils  von — New  Bhabdoccela 50 

Meixner,  Adolf — Polycladg  from  the  Somali  Coast  and  a  Revision  of  the  Stylo- 

chinm        50 

Plessis,  G.  Du — Neio  Marine  Triclad 50 

Oxner,  M. — New  Nemerteans 51 

Linton,  Edwin,  &  M.  Kowalewski — Notes  on  Cestodes      180 

(tIARD,  Alfred — Pearl  forming  Flukes ISO 

Nicoll,  W. —  Trematodes  from  British  Birds 180 

Salensky.  W. — Structure  of  Haplodiscus      1S1 

Cohn,  Ludwig — Orientation  of  the  Cestoila 323 

Mrazek,  Al. — Sterility  in  Cestodes         323 

Looss,  A. — Hemiuridie 323 

Martin,  Loeis — Rhythmic  Behaviour  of  Convoluta  Roscoffensis         323 

Wilhelmi,  J. — Planaria  anguluta  Mutter      324 

Ude,  Joh. — Structure  of  Fresh-water  Triclads       324 

Surface,  Frank  JM. — Early  Development  of  a  Polyclad     324 

Martin,  C.  H. — Nematocysts  of  Turbellaria 325 

Mola,  1'asqeale — New  Tapeworm  in  Moorhen 455 

Rosseter,  T.  B. — Hymenolepis  fragilis 456 

Linstow,  O.  von,  &  others — Studies  on  Cestodes        456 

Korotneff,  A. — Cytological  Study  of  Triclad  Pharynx      456 

Hallez,  P. — Parasite  of  Cockle               456 

„         „        Syncytial  Nature  of  the  Gut  in  Rhabdocoelids         456 

Bendl,  W.  E. — New  Species  of  Rhynchodemus      457 

Perez,  Charles — Stichostemma  h'ilhardi      457 

Athias,  M. — Trematode  in  Hibernating  Gland  of  Hedgehog       592 

Lebour,  Marie  V. — Trematodes  in  Fishes 502 

Wilhelmi,  J. —  Uncertain  Species  of  Marine  Triclads 592 

Sabussow,  H. — Planaria  Wytegrensis     ■■              '  592 

Caullery,  M. — Peculiar  Abnormality  in  Proboscis  of  a  Nemertean 593 

Young,  R.  T.— Histogenesis  of  Cysticercus  pisiformis 593 

Leon,  N. — Neio  Human  Tapeworm 718 

Cholodkovsky,  N. — New  Tapeworm  in  Dog         71 S 

Fuhrmann,  O. — Cestodes  of  Birds          718 

Keeble,  F. —  Yellow-brown  Cells  of  Convoluta  par adoxa     ..      718 

Martin,  Louis — Memory  in  Convoluta 719 

Hallez,  Paul — Maturation  and  Cleavage  in  Paracortex  candii        719 

Yatsu,  N. — Cell-division  in  Cerebratulus      720 

i 

Incertae  Sedis. 

Buckman,  S.  S. — Development  of  Ribs  in  Brachiopods         51 

Gregory,  J.  W. — Rotiform  Bryozoa  of  the  Isle  of  Wight 51 

Bogolepow,  M. — Growth  of  Tendr a  zoster icola      51 

Levinsen,  G.  M.  R. — Total  Regeneration  of  Bryozoa 52 

Waters,  A.  W. — Genus  Tubucellaria 52 

McClendon,  J.  F. — New  Species  of  Mt/zostoma ,      181 

Norman,  A.  M. — Notes  on  some  British  Polyzoa 181 

Pavlow,  A.  P. — Genus  Aucella       181 

Rousselet,  C.  F. — Fresh-water  Polyz«a 268 

Schepotieff,  A. — Structure  of  Echinoiieridx        457 

Schmidt,  F. — Lower  Silurian  Brachiopods 457 

Buckman,  S.  S. — Brachiopod  Homoeomorphy         457 

Robertson,  Alice — North  American  lucrustmg  Chilostomatous  Bryozoa 457 

Czwiklitzer,  R. — Larva  of  PediceUina  echinata         593 

Braem,  F. — Spermatozoa  of  Fresh-water  Bryozoa        593 

Bonnevie,  Kristine — Polyspermy  in  Membranipora 593 

Annandale,  Nelson — Bengal  Polyzoa 594 

Assheton,  Richard — New  Species  of  Dolichoglossus    ..             720 

Greger,  D.  K. — Colour  Markings  in  <i  Devonian  Brachiopod 720 

Sollas,  Igerna  B.  J. — Neio  Fresh-water  Polyzoon  from  South  Africa     721 

Dec.  16th,  1908  b 


wiii  CONTENTS. 

Rotifera.  fagk 

Zelinka,  Carl — New  Marine  Rotifera 52 

Rousbelet,  C.  F. — New  Rotifera 181 

De  Beauchamp,  P. — New  French  Rotifers 32:» 

Murray,  Jambs — New  Scottish  Rotifers 325 

De  Beauohamf,  P. — Stomachal  Excretion  in  Rotifera        325 

Murray,  James — Rotifers  from  Gough  Island      458 

Some  African  Rotifers  (Plate  XV.)         665 

Echinoderma. 

Sterzinger,  Irene — Luminosity  of  Amphiura  squamata 52 

Fabiana,  R. — Abnormality  in  Test  of  Echinolampas 53 

MacBride,  E.  "\V. — Development  of  Ophiofhrix  fragilis      -,:> 

Dendy,  Arthur,  &  E.  Hindle — New  Zealand  Holothurians 53 

Cowles,  R.  P. — New  Species  of  Cucumaria 54 

Anderson*,  A.  R.  S. — New  Echinoid  from  Indian  Ocean 182 

Clark,  H.  L. — Cidaridse, 182 

Clark,  Austin  H. — New  Crinoids 182 

Fisher,  W.  K. — New  Holothurians 182 

Poso,  O. — Regeneration  of  Spines  and  Fed icella vix  in  Sea- urcli ins '■>-<'' 

Reichensperger,  &  Ernst  Mangold — Luminosity  of  Ophiuroids 326 

MacBride,  E.  W. — Development  of  Ophiothrix  fragilis       326 

Clark,  Herbert  Lyman — Monograph  on  Apodous  Holothurians 327 

Trojan,  E. — Luminosity  of  Ophiuroids 458 

Reichensperger,  A. — Observations  on  Ophiopsila        458 

Clark,  H.  L. — Japanese  and  East  Indian  Echinoderms     458 

Bohn,  Georges — Habits  of  Starfish        594 

Delage,  Yves — Parthenogenesis  of  Sea-urchins 594 

Koehler,  R„  &  C.  Vanet — Littoral  Holothurians  of  Indian  Ocean 594 

Gadd,  G. — Hermaphroditism  in  a  Sea-urchin       ..      ..      7-!  I 

Vaney,  Clement — Antarctic  Holothurians 721 

Reichensperger,  A. — Glands  of  Crinoids 721 

Bather,  F.  A. — New  Antarctic  Crinoid        721 

Ccelentera. 

Bedot,  M. — Madreporaria  from  Amboina      54 

Herdman,  W.  A. — Rare  British  Coral 54 

Herouard,  E. — Statoblasts  in  a  Scyphistoma         54 

Browne,  E.  T. — Revision  of  Medusas  belonging  to  the  Family  Laodiceidte       . .      ..  54 

Motz-Kossowska,  S, — Gonophores  of  Plumularia  obliqua  and  Sertularia  operculata  55 

Gravely.  F.  H. — Tubularia  indivisa  var.  obliqua       55 

Ekman,  Sven* — Cordylophora  lacustris 55 

Oka,  Asajiro — New  Fresh-water  Medusoid  from  China      183 

Billard,  A. — Hydroids  of  Madagascar  and  South-east  Africa 183 

Brooks,  W.  K.,  &  S.  Rittenhouse — Structure  and  Development  of  Turritopsis 

nutricula 183 

Clarke,  S.  F. — Hydroids  of  Eastern  Tropical  Pacific 184 

Browne,  E.  T. — Hydroids  from  North,  Side  of  Bay  of  Biscay 184 

Senna,  Angelo — Pelagic  Larvse  of  Actiniaria     184 

Wyragevitch,  Th. — Halcampella  ostroumoici       184 

Vaughan,  T.  Wayland — Recent  Madreporaria  of  the  Hawaiian  Island  and  Laysan  1S4 

"Walton,  Chas.  L. — Phellia  murocincta 1S4 

Kinoshita,  K. — Japanese  Primnoidx     ..      ..      185 

Hickson,  S.  J. — Alcyonaria,  Antipatharia,  and  Madreporaria  from  the  North  Side 

of  the  Bay  of  Biscay       185 

Moser,  Fanny — Japanese  Ctenophora 185 

Roule,  Louis — New  Types  of  Alcyonarians  ..      ..      327 

Gravier,  Ch. — Association  of  Alcyonarian  and  Alga 327 

Roule,  Louis — Spines  of  Antipatharia 327 

Richter,  VV. — Development  of  Gonophores  in  Siphonophora       328 


CONTENTS.  XIX 

PAGB 

Ritchie,  James — Australasian  Hydroid  in  North  Sea 328 

Biqelow,  H.  B. — Nuclear  Cycle  of  Gonionemus  murbachii  A.  G.  Mayer :^s 

Weltnbb,  W. — Species  of  Hydra >~|S 

Boulenger,  Charles  L — Cordylophora  in  Egypt       459 

Billard,  A. — New  Varieties  of  Hydroids      459 

Browne,  E.  T. — Limnocnida  tanganicm  in  the  Niger 459 

Kckenthal,  W. — New  Gorgonids 459 

Walton,  Charles  L. — British  Actinian* 460 

Lloyd,  R.  E — Hydroid  parasitic  on  Fish      595 

Stiasny,  G. — Atlantic  Tima  at  Trieste  ..      ..      595 

Thomson,  J.  Arthur — Large  Antipatharian from  Faero  Islands     595 

Kukenthal,  W. — L'evision  of  Nephthyidie 595 

Benham,  W.  B. — New  Zealand  Ctenophores 596 

Kirkpatrick,  R. — New  Dictyonine  Sponge 596 

Annandale,  Nelson — Siesta  of  Spongitta  in  Tropics 596 

,,            „             New  Indian  Fresh-water  Sponges 596 

Boulenger,  Charles  L. — Hydromedusan  from  Lake  Qurun     596 

Thomson,  J.  A. — Note  on  a  Remarkable  Alcyonarian,  Studeria  mirabilis  g.  et  sp.  n. 

(Plate  XVI.) 675 

Whitney,  D.  D. — Green  Bodies  of  Hydra  vivid  is       721 

Warren,  Ernest — Hydroids  from  Natal      722 

Porifera. 

Kirkpatrick,  R. — African  Fresh-water  Sponges  ..      .,      5.) 

Weltner,  W. — Amcebocytes  of  Spongilliih 18. > 

Wilson,  H.  V. — Degeneration  and  Regeneration  in  Sponges       186 

Kirkpatrick,  R. — Antarctic  Mo naxonel lids 186 

Annandale,  Nelson — New  Fresh-water  Sponges  from  Calcutta        .  186 

Haecker,  V. — Studies  on  Radiolarians 186 

Chatton,  E. — Affinities  of  Blastulidium  psedophtorum       187 

Bovard,  John  F. — Structure  and  Movements  of  Condylostoma  patens       187 

Brodsky,  A. — Trichocysls  of  Frontonia  leucas      187 

Dobell,  C.  Clifford — Trichomastix  serpentis      187 

Seltgmann,  C.  G.,  &  Lours  W.  Sambon — Leucocytozoon  of  Red  Grouse 188 

King,  Helen  Dean — New  Sporozoon  in  Toad      188 

Johnstone,  James  —  Sporozoan  Parasites  of  Fishe*      188 

Graham-Smith,  G.  S.  -  Sarcosporidian  in  Parakeets 188 

Negre,  L. — Sarcbsporidial  Infection  in  Mice        188 

Levaditi,  C,  &  J.  McIntosh — Culture  of  Treponema  pallidum       189 

Leger,  L..  &  E.  Hesse — New  Myxosporidiin  Family 189 

Castellani,  A. — Relation  of  Spirochseta  per  tenuis  to  Yaws        ..      ..      189 

Wilson,  H.  V. — Coalescence  and  Regeneration  in  Sponges 328 

Sollas,  Ingicrna  B.J. — Inclusion  of  Foreign  Bodies  by  Sponges      460 

Minchin,  E.  A. — Spicules  of  Leucosolenia      597 

Mackinnon,  Doris  L. — Encystation  of  Actinosphasvium  at  Different  Temperatures  597 

Robertson,  Muriel  —Haplospor idian  of  Flounder      598 

Protozoa. . 

Millett,  F.  W. — Foraminifera  of  Galway ■.      ..  56 

Chapman,  F. — Tertiary  Foraminifera  of  Victoria       56 

Kanitz,  A. — Physiology  of  Pulsating  Vacuole  in  Infusoria        56 

Faure-Fremiet,  E. — New  Hypotrichous  Infusorian 5{j 

Johnstone,  James — Ichthyophthirius  multifiliis  on  British  Roach     M 

Collins,  B. — Notes  on  Acinetaria 57 

I.averan,  A. — Trypanosomes  of  the  Upper  Niger 57 

Laveran,  A.,  &  Thibodx — Role  of  the  Spleen  in  Trypanosomiasis 57 

Robertson,  Muriel — Trypanosoma  of  Pontobdella  muricata      57 

Franca,  Carlos — Trypanosomes  of  Frog  a)id  Leech 57 

Nuttall,  G.  H.  F.,  &  G.  S.  Graham  Smith — Development  of  Piroplasma  canis  in 

Dog 58 

b   2 


XX  CONTEXTS. 

PAGE 

Chapman,    F.  —  On  Dimorphism    in     the    Recent  Foraminifer,  Alveolina    boscii 

Defr.  «p.  (Plates  II.  and  III.,  and  Fig.  31)       L51 

Awerinzew,  IS. — Mi nute  Structure  of  Amoeba  proteus,  Pall 329 

Dobei.l,  C.  0. — Degeneration  in  Opalina        329 

Mast,  S.  O. — Light-reaction*  in  Volvox 3150 

Franca,  C. — Trypanosome  of  the  Eel      330 

Nicolle,  C. — New  Piroplasma  from  a  Rodent       330 

Dobell,  C.  C. — Structure  and  Life-history  of  Copromonas 330 

Ucke,  A. — Trichomonas  and  Megastoma  in  Human  Intestine 331 

Fantham,  H.  B. — Biology  and  Affinities  of  Spirochsetae       331 

Hoogenraad,  H.  R. — Rhizopods  and  Heliozoa  of  the  Netherlands 460 

Murray,  James — Rhizopods  from  Gough  Island 460 

Landacre,  F.  L. — Protozoa  of  Sandusky  Bay      460 

Enriques,  P.— Studies  on  Colpoda 460 

Kofoid,  C  A. — Regeneration  in  Ceratium 460 

Favre-Fremiet,  E. —  Turbilina  instdbilis,  a  variety  of  Strombilidium  gyrans         ..  461 

Lesage.  J. — Heemogregarine  of  Leptodactylus  ocellalus       461 

Chatton,  E.,  &  E.  Alilaire — Parasites  of  Drosophila  confusa        461 

Minchin,  E.  A. — Hsemogregarine  in  Blood  of  a  Himalayan  Lizard 461 

Schellack,  C. — Solitary  Encystation  in  Gregarines 461 

Zuelzer,  Margarethe — Influence  of  Salinity  on  Contractile  Vacuole      461 

Laveran,  A. — Trypanosoma  congolense 4<i'2 

Heron-Allen,  Edward,  &  Arthur  Earland — On  Cycloloculina,  a  New  Generic 
Type  of  the  Foraminifera.     With  a  Preliminary  Study  of  the  Foraminiferous 

Deposits  and  Shore-sands  of  Selsey  Bill  (Plate  XII.  and  Fig.  138)       ..      ..  529 

Pearcet,  F.  G.— Botellina       598 

Lankester,  E.  Ray — Archerina,  Golenkinia,and  Botryococcus 598 

Brodsky,  A. — Remarkable  Adaptation  in  Onychodactylus  Acrobcdes 599 

Entz,  G. — Patagonian  Protozoa      599 

Collin,  B. —  Tokophyra  Cyclopum 599 

Franca,  C. — Hsemogregarine  of  the  Eel 599 

„         „      Trypanosomes  of  the  Frog 599 

Mercier,  L. — Notes  on  Myxosporidia 599 

Cepede,  C'asimir — Parasite  of  Male  Starfish 599 

Lebailly,  C. — Culture  of  Treponema  pallidum  in  vitro       600 

Chatton,  E. — Blastodinium 722 

Zarnick,  B. — New  Order  of  Protozoa     722 

Mercier,  L. — Schizogony  in  Amoeba       722 

Bruce,  David,  &  H.  R.  Bateman — Have  Trypanosomes  an    Ultra-Microscopical 

Stage?      723 

Swarczewsky,  B. — Budding  in  Acineta  gelatinosa 723 


CONTENTS.  XXI 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 

includinsICell-Contents.  page 

Farmer,  J.  B. — Structure  of  Nucleus  in  Relation  to  Organisation  of  Individual     . .  59 

Lubimenko,  W. — Cytology  of  Poll  en-mother -cells  of  Nymphxacex      60 

Gard,  M. —  Ctjstolith-formation  in  the  Cistacex 60 

Lubimenko,  W. — Cytology  of  the  Pollen  of  the  Nymphseacex     190 

Olive,  Edgar  W. — Cell  and  Nuclear  Division  in  Basididbolus  ranarum        ..      . .  190 

Guilliermond,  A. — Aleurone  Grains  of  Grasses 191 

Escoter,  Eud. — Blepharoplast  and  Cenlrosome  of  Marchantia  polymorpha     . .      . .  332 

„          „         Nucleus  and  Karyokinesis  in  Zygnema      332 

Stevens,  F.  L. — Nuclear  Structures  in  Synchytrium 332 

BrocqRousseu,  &  E.  Gain — Peroxy diastase  in  Dry  Seeds        332 

Wisselingh,  0.  van — Karyokinesis  in  (Edogonium 463 

Griggs,  R.  F. — Function  of  the  Centrosome 463 

Oes,  A. — Autolysis  of  Mitosis 601 

Lart,  Er.  de — Cytology  of  Pollen-mother-cells  of  Agave  attenuata 601 

Structure  and  Development. 

"Vegetative. 

Bernard,  Ch. — Centripetal  Wood  in  the  Coniferse       61 

Knox,  A.  A. — Stem  of  Ibervillea  Sonorx       61 

Flot,  L. — Origin  of  Leaves  and  Stem 62 

Tswett,  M. —  Water-stomata  of  the  Lobeliacex      62 

Gatin,  C.  L. — Lenticels  of  Palms 62 

Schwendt,  E. — Extra-floral  Nectaries 63 

Wieland,  G.  R. — Historic  Fossil  Cy cads       463 

,,             „         Cone  of  Pinus 464 

White,  J. — Red  Wood  in  Conifers 602 

Gatin,  C.  L. — Embryology  in  the  Palmacege,  Muscacese,  and  Cannacex 602 

Holm,  T. — Hibernation  and  Vegetative  Reproduction  of  Stellaria 602 

McClendon,  J.  F. — Xerophytic  Adaptations  of  Leaf-structure 724 

Ono,  K. — Extra-floral  nectaries       724 

Reproductive. 

Mirande,  M. — Polycarpellary  Origin  of  the  Pistil  of  the  Lauraceas 63 

Pace,  L. — Fertilization  in  Cypripedium         191 

Jcel,  H.  O. — Development  of  Saxifraga  granulata       191 

Mucke,  M. — Origin  and  Fruit-development  of  Acorus  Calamus 333 

Nichols,  M.  L. — Pollen-development  of  Sarracenia      333 

Schaffner,  J.  H. — Polar  Conjugation  in  the  Angiosperms         464 

Sablon,  L.  du — Albumen  of  Capri ficus 464 

Coulter,  J.  M. — Relations  of  Megaspores  to'^Embryo-sacs  1 . .      725 

Candolle,  A.  de — Monospermous  Capsules 725 

Physiology. 

Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Fraysse,  A. — Parasitic  F lowering  Plants 64 

Mikande.  M. — Parasitic  Phanerogams  and  Nitrates 64 

Schouteden,  H. — Course  of  Molecular  Physiology       65 


XXll  CONTENTS. 

PAGH 

Jatillieb,  Maurice — Biological  Chemistry           192 

Guignakd,  L. — Grafting  of  Plants  containing  Hydrocyanic  Aciil     334 

Bottom  ley,  AV.  B. — Seed  and  Soil  Inoculation  for  Leguminous  Crops     334 

BeauterIE,  J. — Formation  of  Aieurone  Grains 334 

Lubimenko,  W. — Chlorophyll-formation 335 

Hasselbring,  H. — Carbon  Assimilation  of  Penicillium       335 

Clapp,  G.  L.—  Transpiration 603 

Irritability. 

Georgevitch,  P.  M. — Geotropism  in  the  Roots  of  Lupinus  albus       65 

Nordhausen,  M. — Epidermic  of  Foliage-leaves  in  Relation  to  Light-perception      . .  65 

Pfeffer,  W. — Sleep-movements  of  Leaves      192 

Lowschin,  A. — Influence  of  Light  on  Respiration  of  Fungi        335 

Habeklandt,  G. — Geotropic  Sensibility  of  the  Root     603 

Purvis,  J.  E.,  &  G.  R.  Warwick — Influence  of  Light  and  Colours  on  Yeast  ..      ..  604 

Eaybavd,  L. —  Influence  of  Light  on  the  Growth  of  liliizopus  nigricans 725 

Chemical  Changes. 

Marchlewski,  L.,  &  J.  Eobel — Colouring  Matter  of  Chlorophyll     465 

Tswett,  M. — Change  of  Colour  and  Emptying  of  Decaying  Leaves 465 

Osterhout,  W.  J.  V. — Effects  of  Poisonous  Gases  on  Plants      604 

„             ,,              Value  of  Sodium  to  Plants      604 

General. 

Penhallow,  D.  P. — Pleistocene  Flora  of  Canada        66 

Dufour,  L. — Affinities  of  the  Chicoracese        66 

Jancewski,  Ed.  de — Monograph  of  the  Genus  Ribes t)G 

Uexkull-Guldenband,  M.  Nieuwenhuis  von — Harmful   Secretion  of  Sugar  in 

Myrmecophilous  Plants 66 

Bujrck,  W. — Influence  of  Nectaries  on  the  Opening  of  Anthers 67 

Bibliography      ..      .,      >      67 

Avebury,  Lord — The  President's  Address :  On  Seeds,  with  Special  Reference  to 

British  Plaids  (Plate  IV.  and  Figs.  67-85)        *     ..      ..  273 

Bibliography      335 

Lapie,  G. — Phytccology  of  the  Eastern  Part  of  Kabylia      466 

Foxworthy,  F.  W. — Philippine  Woods 466 

i-niROTH,  H.— Pendidation   Theory 467 

White,  C.  A. —  Origin  of  Parasitic  Plants 604 

Molisch,  H. —  Vltramiscroscopic  Organisms 605 

CRYPT  OGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 

Woronin,  H.,  &  K.  Goebel — ApogamyandApospory       68 

Benedict,  R.  0. —  Genus  Antrophyum 68 

Lachmann,  P. — Root-structure  in  Ceratopter is  thalictroides       193 

Christ,  H. — Christensen's  Index  Filicum      194 

Poisson,  H.—  Abnormal  Production  of  Spores  in  Plat ycerium 194 

Binford,  R. — Development  of  Lygodium        194 

Hawkins,  L.  A. — Sporangial  Development  in  Equisetum  hyemale     195 

Stokey,  A.  G. — Inner  Roots  of  Lycopodium  pithyoides       195 

Benson,  M. — New  Palxozoic  Lycopod 195 

Lindman,  C  A.  M. — Lycopodium  complanainm  usbsp.  moniliforme          196 

Kidston,  R.,  &  D.  T.  Gwynne-Vaughan — Fossil Osmundacex        196 

Hickling,  G. — Anatomy  of  Palxostachya  vera     196 

Coward,  K.  H. — Structure  of  Syringodendron      196 

Weiss,  F.  E. — Parichnos  in  the  Lepidodendracex        196 

Sperlich,  A.—  Development  of  Stolons  in  Nephrolepis 335 

Basecke,  P. — Physiological  Sheaths  in  Ferns        336 

Christensen.  C. — Revision  of  the  American  Species  of  Dryopteris 336 

C'lvte,  W.  N..  &  others — North  American  Ferns       .. 336 

Rosenstock,  E. — Descriptions  of  New  Tropical  Ferns         337 


CONTEXTS.  XXU1 

FAG2 

Underwood,  L.  M.,  &  W.  K.  Maxok — New  Species  of  Lindsxa       337 

Christ,  H. — Ferns  of  Paraguay      337 

Maxon.  W.  R. — Tropical  American  Ferns 467 

Copeland,  E.  B.,  &  others — Philippine  Ferns 467 

Campbell,  D.  H. — Symbiosis  in  Fern  ProthaUia 468 

Dowell,  P. — North  American  Fern-Hybrids  of  the  Genus  Dryopteris       468 

Arber.  E.  A.  N.,  &  H  H.  Thomas— Anatomy  of  Sigillaria      468 

Life,  A.  C. — Effect  of  Light  upon  Spore-germination 605 

Bower,  F.  O. — Ophioglossum  simplex 605 

Boodle,  L.  A.— Production  of  Dwarf  Male  Prothalli  in  Sporangia  of  Todea..      ..  606 

Haushberger,  J.  W. —  Water-storing  Tubers  of  Nephrolepis       606 

Trundy,  A.  H.,  &  others—  North  American  Pteridophyta        606 

Hieronymus,  G. —  South  American  Fern*       ..        6U7 

Rosenstock,  E. — Descriptions  of  New  Species  of  Ferns      607 

Druery,  C.  T. — Deciduous  British  Ferns       008 

Halle,  T.  G.— Fossil  Pteridophyta        608 

Weiss,  F.  E. — Stigmaria  with  Centripetal  Wood 608 

Barnhart,  J.  H.,  &  W.  N.  Clute — Deceased  North  American  Pteridologists . .      ..  608 

Sykes,  M.  G. — Anatomy  and  ^Morphology  of  Tmesipteris      609 

Saxelby,  E.  M. — Origin  of  Roots  in  Lycopodium         609 

Bruchmann,  H. — Types  of  Embryo- development 'in  Selaginella 610 

Yamanouchi,  S.—  Cytology  of  Reproduction  in  Nephrodium       726 

Renier,  A. — Origin  of  telodendron  Impressions  of  Bothrodendron 726 

Bertrand,  P. — Leaf -trace  in  Gijropteris  and  Tubicaulis 726 

Perrin,  G. — Conditions  affecting  Prothalli  of  Polypodiacese       727 

Clute,  W.  N.,  &  others — North  American  Ferns       .  •      •  •  727 

Benedict,  R.  C. — Some  Fern  Hybrids  in  North  America 728 

„           ,,          Ophioglossacese  of  the  United  States        728 

Benson,  M. — Lycopod  with  a  Seed-like  Structure 729 

Sykes,  M.  G. — Sporangium-bearing  Organs  of  the  Lycopodiacese      729 

Pampamni,  R. — Lycopodium  squarrosum  and  its  Allies      729 

Bryophyta. 

Marchal.  El.  &  Em. — Apospory  and  Sexuality  in  Mosses          68 

Brothervs,  V.  F. — Classification  of  Families  and  Genera  of  Mosses        69 

Muella,  K. — European  Hepaticse 69 

Dixon,  H.  N. — Mossflora  of  Northumberland         69 

Sebille,  R. — French  Mosses 69 

Britton,  E.  G.,  &  others — North  American  Mosses 69 

Luisier,  A. — Mosses  of  Madeira       70 

Pitard  &  others — Muscinese  of  the  Canary  Islands 70 

Bryhn,  N.,  &  A.  Hesselbo — Arctic  Muscinese 70 

Sktchell.  W.  A. — Sphagna  of  Alaska 70 

Dusen,  P. — Mosses  of  Antarctic  America       71 

Luisier.  A. — Portuguese  Species  of  Fissidens       71 

Douin,  C. —  Genus  Ephemerum        71 

„         Two  Species  of  Sphxrocatpu<  found  in  France 71 

Dismier.  G. —  Variable  Peristome  of  Philonot is      71 

Burrell,  W.  H. — Peculiar  Unattached  Mode  of  Growth  of  Leucobryitm 72 

Horwood.  A.  R.,  &  others — British  Muscinese 197 

Stiuton,  J. — New  and  Hare  Scottish  Mosses 197 

McArdle,  D.,  &  H.  W.  Lett — Irish  Muscinese 197 

Haynes,  C.  C,  &  others — North  American  Muscinese        19S 

Dismier,  G. — Parisian  Species  of  Philonot  is 198 

Warnstorf,  C. —  New  Species  of  Sphagnum 198 

Herzog,  Th. — Trichostomum  mutabile  Br.  and  its  Allies 199 

Nicholson,  W.  E. — Muscinese  of  Crete 199 

Elenkin,  A.  A. — New  Greenhouse  Fissidens 199 

Gyorffy,  I. — Hybrids  of  Physcomitrella        199 

Loeske,  L. — Parallel  Forms  and  Variability  of  Cell-length  in  Mosses       200 

Servit,  M. — Ramification  in  Muscinem 200 

Ernst,  A — Androgynous  Infioresceuces  in  I Himortieni         201 


XXIV  CONTENTS. 

I'AGE 

Bonnier,  G. — Comparison  between  Muscinex  and  Vascular  Cryptogams 201 

Cardot,  J. — Sexuality  in  the  Mouses        337 

Lokch.  W. — Phenomena  of  Torsion  in  Mosses        338 

Been,  H.,  &  others — Asexual  Multiplication  in  Blasia  and  Riella         338 

Evans,  A.  W. — Leucolejunea,  a  New  Genus  of  Hepaticx 339 

Sohiffnbb,  V. — Bryological  Notes 339 

Muller,  K. — European  Hepaticx 339 

Nicholson,  W.  E. — Mosses  of  Sussex      339 

Jackson,  A.  B. — Mosses  of  Hampshire  and  Isle  of  Wight 340 

Ingham,  W. — Notes  on  the  Harpidia       340 

Krieger,  W. — European  Forms  of  Catharinea      340 

Sebille,  R. — Systematic  Position  of  Mnium  riparium 340 

Culmann,  P. — Swiss  Mosses 340 

Mlller,  K. — Hepaticx  of  Baden 341 

Loeske,  L. — Muscinex  of  the  Arlberg  Region         341 

Warnstorf,  K.,  &  othehs — Bryophyta  of  Austria  and  Hungary       341 

Massalongo,  C. — Genus  Cephalozi a  in  Italy 341 

Sapehin,  A.  A. — Xerophytic  Mosses  of  the  Limestone  around  Odessa 342 

Gil,  A.  Casares — Spanish  Species  of  Marchantia        342 

Cardot,  J. — New  Madeiran  Moss-genus,  Tetraslichium       342 

Britton,  E.  G.,  &  others — North  American  Muscinex      342 

Evans,  A.  W. — Hepaticx  of  Puerto  Rico        343 

"Williams,  R.  S.  —  Tropical  American  Mosses        343 

Paris,  E.  G. —  West  African  Mosses 343 

Stephani,  F. —  Hepaticx  of  New  Caledonia  and  Tonkin      343 

Evans,  A.  W. — Japanese  Hepatics 343 

Paris,  E.G. — Muscinex  of  China  and  Indo-Cliina       344 

Levier,  E.,  &  others — Indian  Bryophyta 344 

Bibliography     344 

Waddell,  C.  H.,  &  others — British  Mosses 409 

Coppey,  A. — Notes  on  European  Bryophytes ,      409 

Zodda,  G. — Italian  Muscinex 469 

Grout,  A.  J. — North  American  Mosses 470 

Evans,  A.  W. — Hepaticx  of  Puerto  Rico       470 

Dixon,  H.  N. — Mosses  of  the  Canaries 470 

Paris,  E.  G. — Bryophytes  of  French  Guinea 470 

Cardot,  J. — Mosses  of  the  Belgian  Congo       471 

Brotherus,  V.  F. — Mosses  of  the  Philippine  Islands 471 

Paris,  E.  G. — Hepatics  of  New  Caledonia 471 

Campbell,  D.  H. — Studies  of  Javanese  Anthocerotacex       471 

„  „  Antiquity  of  the  Hepaticx         471 

Meylan,  C. —  Calypogeia  trichomanis  and  its  Allied  Forms        472 

Dismier,  G. — Monograph  of  Philonotis 472 

Paris,  E.  G. — Note  upon  Hookeria  papillata         473 

Luisier,  A. — Fruit  of  Campylopus  polytrichoides  described        473 

Andrews,  F.  M. — Abnormal  Archegonium  in  a  Hepatic      473 

Wheldon,  J.  A. — Harpidium  Section  of  Hypnum       610 

Russell,  T.  H. — Introductory  Study  of  the  Muscinex         611 

West,  W. — Luminosity  of  Schistostega 611 

Cockburn,  B.,  &  others — British  Hepaticx         611 

Bellerby,  W. — Sphagnum  bavaricum  in  Yorkshire     612 

Cheetham,  C.  A. —  Yorkshire  Mosses       612 

Dalman,  A.  A. — Muscinex  of  Flintshire        612 

Stirton,  J. — New  and  Rare  Scottish  Mosses 612 

Coppey,  A. — Muscinex  of  Greece ..  612 

Haynes,  C.  C,  &  others—  North  American  Muscinex        613 

Dixon,  H.  N. — New  South  Indian  Moss        613 

Monkemeyer,  W. —  Tundra- forms  of  Hypnum       613 

Fleischer,  M. — Type  Species  of  Stereohypnum 613 

Maheu,  J. — Propagula  of  the  Genus  Barbula         614 

Gtorffy,  I. —  G aster ogrimmia  in  Hungary 614 

Monkemeyer,  W. — Bryum  zonatum  a  Philonotis 614 

Schiffner,  V. — European  Hepatics        614 


CONTENTS.  XXV 


Massalongo,  C. — Calypogeia  in  Italy    ..      ..      615 

Arnell,  H.  W.  &  C.  Jensen — Cephalozia  in  Scandinavia        615 

Humphrey,  H.  B. — Notes  on  Calif  or  nian  Hepatics      615 

Stephani,  F. — Antarctic  Hepatic* 615 

Lacouture — Illustrated  Key  to  the  Genu*  Lejeunea 615 

Schiffner,  V. — Morphology  and  Anatomy  of  Bucegia  romanica       615 

„         ,,          Notes  on  Riccardia  and  other  Hepatics      616 

Trabit,  R. — Riella  bialata       616 

Roth.  G.,  &  J.  Roll — Sphagnum  and  Sphagnology 729 

Schiffner,  V. — Grimaldia  and  Neesiella      730 

Leeuwen-Reijnvaan,  W.  &  J.  van — Spermatogenesis  in  Mosses  and  Liverworts  . .  730 

Rydberg,  P.  A. — Arctic  Mosses       731 

Collins,  F.  J.,  &  others — North  American  Mosses 731 

Moss  Exchange  Club — British  Mosses        732 

Meylan,  C — Muscinem  of  the  Jura  Range 732 

Bottini,  A . — Italian  Mosses 732 

Cardot,  J. — New  Mosses  of  Japan  and  Corea       732 

Paris,  E.  G. — Muscinem  of  French  China 732 

Cardot,  J. — Bryological  Notes         732 

Brotherus,  V.  F. — Subfamilies  of  Hypnacex       733 

Meylan,  C. — European  Species  of  Oncophorus      733 

Dismier,  G. — Pohli 'a  annotina  and  Allied  Species         733 

Sebille,  R. — Grimmia  andrxoides 733 

Lorenz,  A. — Jungermannia  in  Neio  England        734 

Stephani,  F. — New  Descriptions  of  Hepaticx      * 734 

Evans,  A.  W. — New  West  Indian' Lejeunex         =  731 

Campbell,  D.  H. — Tlialloid  Hepaticse  of  Java 734 

Dcrand,  E.  J. — Development  of  Sexual  Organs  and  Sporogonium  of  Marchantia  ..  735 

Thallophyta. 

Algae. 

Prowazek,  S. — Regeneration  of  Algx      72 

Freund,  H. — Influence  of  External  Conditions  on  the  Asexual  Reproduction  of  Algx  72 

Walker,  N. — Algal  Vegetation  of  Ponds         73 

Collins,  F.  S. — New  Green  Algse 73 

Trondle,  A. — Copulation  and  Germination  of  Spirogyra 73 

Sauvageau,  C. —  Sargassum  bacciferum 74 

„         „          Sexuality  of  Halopteris  scoparia 74 

„         „          Aglaozonia  melanoidea 75 

Reinbold,  T. — Algx  of  the  '  Valdivia  '  Expedition     75 

Bibliography      76 

Nelson,  E.  M. — Biddulphia  mobiliensis         158 

Brand,  F. — Staining  of  Algx 201 

Lewis,  I.  F. — Coleochxte  nitellarum        202 

Lemmermann,  E. — Algx  of  Mark  Brandenburg 202 

Quelle,  F. — Contributions  to  the  Algal  Ilora  of  Nordhausen 203 

Bessil,  J. — French  Algx  collected  in  the  English  Channel 203 

Batters,  E.  A.  L.,  the  late — Marine  Algx  of  Lambay     203 

Borgesen,T\ — Caulerpas  of  the  Danish  West  Indies 203 

Lemmermann,  E. — Plankton  of  the  Yang-tze-kiang      ..      ..              204 

„           „           Pliytoplankton  of  Ceylon          204 

Pascher,  A. — Swarm-spores  of  Fresh-ivater  Algx 204 

Woycicki,  Z. — Pathological  Groicth  Phenomenon  in  Spirogyra  and  Mougeotia       ..  205 

Bergon,  P. — Processes  of  Division,  Cell-rejuvenation  and  Sporulation  in  Biddtdphia  205 

Pavillard,  J. — Species  of  Ceratiu m  in  the  Gulf  of  Lyons 205 

Howe,  M.  A. — Avrainvillea  and  Halimeda 205 

West.  G.  S. — Some  Critical  Green  Algx         206 

Mann,  A. — Diatoms  of  the  Pacific 207 

Deichmann,  H.,  &  L.  K.  Kosenvinge — Distribution  of  Fucacex  on  the  Coast  of 

Greenland        207 

Heydrich,  F.  —  Sphxranthera  lichetioides       208 


XXVI  CONTENTS. 

I'AGB 

Sauvageau,  C. — Fucu8  Living  on  Sand  and  on  Mud 208 

Corbiehe,  L..  &  L.  Mangix — Colpomeni a  sinuosa       209 

Foslie,  M. — 1  Athothamni a  of  the  ' Sea-lark' Expedition      209 

BIBLIOGRAPHY        210 

Heurok,  H.  van — Marine  Algse  of  the  Channel  Islands      345 

Lakowitz—  Algse  of  Danzig  Bay      315 

Yendo,  K. — Fucaceae  of  Japan        345 

Setchell,  W.  A. — Nereocyslie  and  Pelagophycu8 346 

Cotton,  A.  D. — Colpomenia  sinuosa  in  Britain 316 

Borgesen,  F. — Dasycladaceie  of  the  Danish  West  Indies 317 

Cushman,  J.  A. — Tetmemorm  in  New  England 347 

Gerneck,  R. — Lower  Chlorophycese         M47 

Peragallo,  H.  — Diatoms  in  an  Aquarium H47 

Forti,  A. — Fossil  Diatoms       348 

wSauvageau,  C. — L'ose-colour  in  Species  of  My xophycese       348 

^yBocAT,  L. — Pigment  of  Oscillatoria  Cortiana        318 

Jorgensen.  E.— Plankton  of  Mofjord       319 

Karsten,  G. — Indian  Ocean  Phytoplankton 319 

Bibliography 350 

Nelson,  E.  M. — Corethron  criophilum  Cast .,      ..      ..  430 

Toni,  G.  B.  de  —  Nomenclature  of  Algae 173 

Heinze,  L>. — Fixation  of  Nitrogen  by  Algse 173 

Okamora,  K. — Japanese  Algse          171 

Migula,  W. — Algse  of  Middle  Europe 171 

Mazza,  A. — Oceania. Algse 171 

Foslie.  M. — Calcareous  Algse 171 

Toni,  G.  B.  de — Griffithsia  acuta  Zanard 171 

Setchell,  W.  A. — Critical  Notes  on  Laminariacese 471 

Gibson,  C  M. — Scytothamnus  austral  is 175 

Hutchinson,  C.  M. — Algal  Blight  en  Tea     175 

Bally,  W. — Structure  of  Diatoms 175 

Margin,  L. — Membrane  of  Diatoms        ' 176 

Cushman,  J.  A. — Neic  England  Desmids       176 

Edwards,  A.  M. —  Origin  of  Calif ornian  Petroleum 176 

,,             „          Origin  of  the  Bacillarise 177 

Prudent,  P. — Diatom*  of  the  Jura  Lakes      177 

Bachmann.  H. — Phytoplankton  of  Scotch  and  Swiss  Lakes         177 

Bibliography     177 

Peragallo,  H.  &  M. — Marine  Diatomacese  of  France         ,      ..      ..  616 

Philip,  R.  H. —  Yorkshire  Diatoms 617 

Heinzerling,  O. — Structure  of  the  Diatom  Cell 617 

Kofoid,  C.  A. — North  American  Fresh-ivater  Algse     618 

(  asares,  F.  B. — Spanish  Fresh-water  Algse 618 

West,  VV.  &  G.  S. — Fresh-water  Algse  of  the  West  Riding 618 

Wollenweber,  W. — Genus  Hsematococcus 618 

Harier,  B.  A. — Development  of  H ydrodictyon 618 

Hagem,  O. —  Vrospora  in  Norway 619 

Schiller,  J. — Development  of  the  Genus  Viva      619 

Brand,  F. — Cell-wall  Structure  in  Cladophora     619 

Heidinger,  W. — Development  of  the  Sexual  Organs  of  Voucher ia      620 

Davis,  B.  M. — Spore-formation  in  Derbesia 620 

Borgesen,  F. —  West  Indian  Species  of  Avrainvillea 620 

Sykes,  M.  G. — Anatomy  and  histology  of  Macrocystis  and  Laminaria 621 

Cotton,  A.  D. — New  Zealand  Species  of  Rhodophyllis        621 

Foslie,  M. — Criticisms  on  Calcareous  Algse 622 

Kylin,  H.—  Algse  of  Swedish  West  Coast        622 

Lemmermann,  E. — Algse  of  Germany     622 

I'.rown,  H.  B. — Algal  Periodicity 622 

Bibliography 623 

Beguinot,  A.,  &  L.  Formiggini — Italian  Characese 735 

Robinson,  C.  B. — Original  Meaning  of  Chara      735 

Wissenlingh,  C.  van — Cell-icall  Structure  and  Ring-formation  in  (Edogonium     ..  736 

Sauvageau,  C. — Observations  on  the  Germination  of  some  Phseophycese 736 


CONTENTS.  XXVII 

PAGE 

Cotton,  A,  D. — Leathesia  crispa 7:;s 

Sauvageau,  C. — Some  Errors  of  Nomenclature  in  Phxophycex !'■'>$ 

Collins,  F.  S— North  American  Algas 73S 

Fobti,  A. — Italian  Diatoms     738 

Cushman,  J.  A. — Genus  Micrasterias  in  Neio  England       739 

Walton,  L.  B. — Zygospores  of  Spirogyra  in  Relation  to  Theories  of  Variability    ..  739 

Nordstedt,  C.  F.  O.— Index  of  Desm'idex 739 

Bernabd,  C.— Fresh-water  Alga  of  Java      739 

Makgix,  L.—Phytoplankton  off  the  Coast  of  Normandy       740 

Adams,  J.— Irish  Algas 740 

Setchell,  W.  A.,  &  F.  S.  Collins— Algx  from  Hudson's  Bay 740 

Vickeks,  A.,  &  M.  H.  Shaw— Algx  of  Barbadoes         ••      740 

Sluitek,  C.  P.— Algx  of  Dutch  West  Indies 741 

Okamvra.  K.  —  Illustrations  of  Japanese  Algx     .. 741 

Mazza,  A.— Studies  of  Oceanic  Algx      741 

Moobe,  G.  T. — Origin  of  the  Plant  Kingdom        ,  741 

Chapman.  F. — Fossil  Girvanella  :  a  plant    .." 741 

Bibliography 742 

Fungi. 

Kusano,  S. —  Cytology  of  Synchytrium 77 

Reed,  G.  M. — Specialisation  in  Erysiphacex         77 

Spieckerman — Parasitism  of  Vcdsa        77 

Klebahn,  H. — Study  of  Fungi  imperfect/' 78 

Welsford,  E.  J.,  &  H.  C.  Fkaser — Sexuality  and  Development  of  Ascomycetes     . .  78 

Dietel,  P.  &  others — Vredinex 79 

Christman,  A.  H. —Morphology  of  the  Rusts 80 

Belli,  S. — Neio  Boletus 80 

Gallaud,  I.  —Recent  Work  on  Fungi 80 

Setchell,  W.  A. — New  Hymenomycetes         81 

Stevens,  F.  L.,  &  others — Diseases  cf  Plants 81 

Mai'Blanc,  A. — New  or  Rare  Microfungi       S3 

Bainier,  G. — Mycology  from  the  Ecole  de  Pharmacie 83 

Okazaki,  K. — Preparation  of  Enzyme  from  a  Fungus         83 

Studu r-Steinhauslin,  B.— Localities  of  Fungi 83 

Scuorstlin,  Josef — Staining  of  Fungus  Spores 84 

Bibliography      84 

Traverso,  G.  B — Experiments  with  Sclerospora  grumhiicola 210 

Wilson,  G.  West — Studies  in  North  American  Peronosporales.   II          210 

Bainier,  G. — Mycotheca  of  the  School  of  Pharmacy  of  Paris.   XXI.         210 

Frabeb,  H.  C.  L. — Cytology  of  Humaria  rutilans         210 

Stager,  Rob — Biology  of  Ergot      211 

Regel,  R. — Gooseberry  Mildew  in  Russia       211 

Neger,  F.  W. — Mycological  Notes  from  8.  America  and  Spain 211 

Fraser,  H.  C.  L.,  &  H.  S.  Chambers — Morphology  of  Aspergillus  herbariorum       ..  212 

Gceguen.  F. —  Conidial  Development  of  Xylaria  Hypoxylon      212 

Syuow,  H.  and  P.,  &  T.  Petch — Remarkable  Fungus  Forms 212 

Weidemann,  Carl — Study  of  Penicillium 213 

Lindau,  G. — Hyphomycete*      213 

MrJLLER,  W. — Development  of  Eiidophyllum  Euphorbix-silvaticx      213 

Fischer,  Ed..  &  others — Vredinex        213 

Bary.  De — Sphaceolotheca  on  Polygonum       214 

Mangin,  L. — Growth  of  Woody  Fungi 214 

Falck,  Richard — Wood-destroying  Fungi 215 

3U-RRILL,  W.  A. — Polyporacex         215 

Russell,  M.  W. — New  localities  for  Amanita  cxsarea         ..  215 

Kern,  F.  D.,  &  OTHERS — Diseases  of  Plants 215 

Salmon,  E.  S. — Economic  Mycology 21 G 

Molz.  Emil — Pathogenic  Spotting  of  Vine  Shoots 216 

KuoiiDERS,  S.  H. — Parasitic  Fungi  from  Java       217 

Arnold  &  A.  Gokis — Colour  Reactions  in  Russula  and  Lactarius         217 

Froehlich,  Hermann — Assimilation  of  Free  Nitrogen  by  Fungi       217 


xxvin  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Limmjeb,  P. — Chalk  Disease  of  Bread 2)8 

Hitter,  G. — Fermentation  Fungi 218 

Neger,  F.  W. — Fungus-culture  of  Wood-boring  Beetles       ..      .. 218 

Bibliography      218 

Pkmberton,  J.  D. — New  Species  of  Achlya 350 

Petch,  T. — Hydnocystis  Thwaitesii        350 

CliAUSSEN,  P. — Pyronema  confluens 351 

Domaradsky,  M. — Fruit-development  in  Aspergillus  Fischeri 351 

Salmon,  E.  S. — Notes  on  some  Species  of  Erysiphaceee  from  India 351 

Viillemin,  Paul — Seuratia  and  Capnodium         351 

Bonnier,  G. — Origin  of  Yeasts 352 

Lasnier,  E. — Biological  Study  of  Glceosporium 352 

Lindau,  G. — Hyphomycetes       352 

Tkanzschel,  \V. —  Uredinese      352 

Hecke,  Ludwig — Infection  by  Smut  Fungi 353 

Menier,  M. — Poisoning  due  to  Amanita  Phalloides 353 

Lyman,  G.  F. — Polymorphism  of  Hymenomycetes         353 

Lloyd,  C.  G. — Phalloids 354 

Saunders,  J. —  Witches' Brooms  of  the  South  Midlands        354 

Scuellenberg,  H.  C. — Action  of  Fungi  on  Cellulose 354 

Gallaud,  L,  &  A.  Guilliermond — Sexuality  in  Fungi      355 

Farlow,  W.  G. — Notes  on  American  Fungi 355 

Lloyd,  C.  G. — Mycological  Notes 355 

Hohnel,  Franz  von — Mycological  Fragments       356 

Hegyi,  D.  V.,  &  others — Diseases  of  Plants 35G 

Bibliography 357 

Obituary  Notice  of  W.  A.  Kellerman 478 

Clausen,  P. — Development  of  Saprolegnia  monoica      478 

Chatton,  Edouard,  &  Francois  Picard — Parasitic  Laboulbenia 478 

Salmon,  E.  S. — Erysiphaceee  of  Japan 478 

Edgerton,  C.  W. — Two  little-known  Myxosporiums      479 

Klebahn,  K. — Research  on  Fungi  imperfecti        .. 479 

Lindau,  G. — Hyphomycetes       479 

Gueguen,  F. — Systematic  Position  of  Anchorion  and  Oospora 479 

Dandeno,  J.  B. —  Uredinese.       480 

Peltereau,  M.,  &  others — Basidiomycetes 480 

Hohnel,  Fr.  v.,  &  V.  Litschauer—  Contribution  to  our  Knowledge  of  Corticex    . .  480 

Pennington,  L.  H. — Fomes  pinicola  Fr.  and  its  Hosts       481 

Wittmack,  L. — Polyporus  annosus          481 

Bainier,  G. — Mycotheea  and  the  Ecole  de  Pharmacie 481 

Faber,  F.  C.  von — Diseases  and  Pests  of  Coffee 481 

Gussow,  H.  T.,  &  others — Diseases  of  Plants 482 

Morse,  W.  J. — Potato  Scab  in  America 483 

Baccahini,  P. — Fungi  Parasitic  on  the  Vine  Phylloxera     483 

Petch,  T. — Fungi  Parasitic  on  Hevea  brasiliensis       483 

Trotter,  A. — N etc  Subterranean  Parasite 484 

Torrend,  C. — Notes  on  Portuguese  Mycology 484 

Sartory, A. — Peptonificat ion  of  Milk  by  Moulds         484 

Bibliography 484 

Lendner,  A. — Zygospores  of  Sporodinia  grandis 623 

A'uillemin,  Paul — Microsiphonese 623 

Kauffman,  C.  H. — Study  of  Saprolegniacese         623 

Hagem,  O. — Norwegian  Mucorinex         623 

Guilliermond,  A. — Sexuality  in  the  Ascomycetes         624 

Tubeuf,  (J.  von — Taphrina  Alni-incanm       624 

M aire,  Rene — Haustoria  of  Meliola  and  Asterina       6"J4 

Theissen,  F.,  &  J.  M.  Reade — Notes  on  Ascomycetous  Fungi     624 

Kawamvra,  S. — Spotting  of  Bamboos 625 

Kohl,  F.  G. —  Yeast  as  a  Fermentative  Agent 625 

Lind.  J. — Notes  on  Glceosporium 625 

Klebahn,  H. — Research  on  Fungi  Imperfecti       625 

Lindau — Hyphomycetes 626 

Fischer,  E. —  Uredineee 626 


CONTENTS.  XXIX 

1  A'.K 

Mez,  C,  &  Moller — Merulius  lacrymans 626 

Setchell.  W.  A. — Notes  on  Lycoperdon  sculpt um        027 

Petch,  T. — Revision  of  Ceylon  Fungi      627 

Coupin,  Henri — Effect  of  Formic  Acid  on  Fungi        627 

Rumbold,  0. — Biology  of  Wood-destroying  Fungi        627 

Mollisch,  Hans — Phosphorescent  Fungi        (j'27 

Seaver,  F.  J. — Colour-variation  in  Fungi     ..      . .      028 

Crossland,  C,  &  others — Local  Records  of  Fungi 628 

Zellner,  J. — Chemistry  of  the  Higher  Fungi       « 628 

Ducomet — Parasitic  Fungi       628 

Munch,  E. — Blue  Disease  of  Pine- wood         628 

Salmon,  E.  S.,  &  others — Diseases  of  Plants      (129 

Edgerton,  C.  W. — Study  of  Anthracnoses 631 

Bibliography 631 

Dauphin,  J. — Study  of  Mortierellx ,      742 

Mucke,  M. — Development  of  Achlya  polyandra 742 

Guili  iermond,  A.  —  Sexuality  in  the  Ascomycetes         743 

Schneidek-Orelli,  O. — Penicillium  as  a  Fruit  Parasite 743 

Matruchot,  L. —  Vegetation  of  Morchella       743 

Fraser,  H.  C.  T.,  &  E.  Welsford — Cytology  of  the  Ascomycetes       744 

Brooks,  F.  T. — Notes  on  the  Parasitism  of  Botrytis 744 

Mangin,  L.,  &  N.  Patouillard — Mould  of  Fermenting  Grain 744 

Mangin,  L. — Conidial  Formation  in  Aspergillus 744 

Olive,  Edgar  W. — Study  of  Nuclear  Divisions  in  Rusts 745 

Hasler,  Alfred,  &  others —  TJredinese - 745 

Atkinson,  G.  F. — Identity  of  Polyporus  applanatus  of  Europe  and  North  America  746 

Bataille,  Fr. — Monographs  of  the  Higher  Fungi        746 

Magnus,  Werner — Form-development  of  Pileate  Fungi     746 

Coutouly  G.  de — Note  on  Phallus  impudicus      747 

Biers,  P.  M. — Mushroom  Culture 747 

Hohnel,  F.  von — My cological  Notes:  IV. 747 

Burmester,  Hermann — Fungicides       747 

Crossland,  0. — Yorkshire  Fungi 747 

Potter,  M.  C. — Diseases  of  Plants 748 

Transactions  of  the  British  My  cological  Society 748 

Jeanmaire,  J. — Case  of  Poisoning  by  Amanita  junquillea 748 

Spegazzini,  C. — New  Fungi  from  South  America 749 

Bainier,  G. — Mycotheca  of  the  School  of  Pharmacy.     XXVIII 749 

Fallada,  0.,  &  others — Diseases  of  Plants..      , 749 

Bibliography 751 

Lichens. 

Nienburg,  W. — Development  of  Lichen  Apothecia       84 

Zahlbruckner,  A. — Text-booh- of  Lichens      220 

Senft,  E. — Noteworthy  Lichens       220 

Beckman,  P. — Dispersal  of  Lichens        220 

Hesse,  O. — Lichen  Constituents        220 

Rosendahl,  F. — Brotvn  Parmelise 220 

Bibliography      221 

Fink,  Bruce — American  Lichens 358 

Bibliography 358 

Zopf,  W. —  Chemical  Monograph  of  the  Cladonim         485 

Harmand,  J. — French  Lichens ,      633 

Rechinger,  K.,  &  A.  Zahlbruckner — Lichens  from  the  Island  of  Samoa      ..      ..  633 

Merrill,  G.  K. — Lichen  Notes        0:i3 

Zopf,  W. — Lichens  Chemically  Considered 633 

Rave,  P.,  &  Emmanuel  Senft—  Chemical  Constituents  of  Lichens 634 

Bibliography     634 

Senft,  Emanuel — Chemical  Examination  of  Lichens         752 

Bibliography 753 


XXX  CONTENTS. 

Mycetozoa. 

PAGE 

Legeb,  Louis — New  Myxomycete 

PlNOY,  Ernest — Cultural  Experiments  with  Acrasiex 

„        „         Influence  of  Bacteria  on  the  Culture  of  Myxomycetes      221 

BlfcLIOGRA]  ilY      222 

Johnson,  T. — Spongospora  Solani 486 

Fabeb,  E.  0.  von-  Existence  of  Myxomona8  Betas 186 

Pinoy,  E. — Dimorphism  in  Myxomycete         486 

Wolff,  Th, — Unusual  Growth  of  Spumaria  alba 187 

!  ister,  A.  &  G. — Notes  on  Swiss  Mycetozoa 631 

Jahn,  E. — Myxomycete  Studies        'J1'-' 

Bibliography 635 

Johnson,  T. — Spongospora  Solani ••      ••  753 

Kranzlin,  Helene—  Development  of  the  Sporangia  in  Trichia  and  Arcyria]  ..      ..  753 

Schizopliy  ta. 

Schizomycetes. 

Peju,  G.,  &  H.  Rajat — Morphology  of  Human  Tubercle  Bacilli  in  Saline  Media  86 

V\TOOLLEY,  P.  G. — Subcutaneous  Fihro -granuloma!  a  in  Cattle      s|j 

Ellis,  D. — Three  Iron  Bacteria       S6 

Klein,  E. — Susceptibility  to  Plague  of  Mats  of  Diverse  Races     87 

Andrewes,  E.  W.,  &  M.  H.  Gordon — Staphylococci  Pathogenic  to  Man vT 

Gordon,  M.  H. — Micrococcus  of  Epidemic  Cerebrospinal  Meningitis        ^7 

Klein,  E. — New  Plague  Prophylactic 88 

Huss,  H. — Micrococcus  producing  a  Yellow-brown  Colour  on  Cheese 88 

Soclima,  H.  &  A. — Etiology  of  Whooping  Cough       ..              89 

Larrier,  L.  N.,  &  P.  Boveri — Mammilis produced  by  Acid-fast  Bacilli 89 

Sergent,  E. —  Tropism  of  Bacillus  Zopfii      89 

Petri,  L. — Identity  of  the  Bogna  Bacillus  (tubercle')  of  the  Olive-tree      90 

Jcngano—  Renal  Infection  by  a  Microbe  originating  from  the  Blood 90 

Gilbert,  A.,  &  A.  Lippmann — Anaerobic  Bacteria  and  Gall-stones '•", 

Rosenthal,  G. — Sporulation  of  the  Bacillus  Rhewmaticus 222 

Gilbert,  A.,  &  A.  Lippmann — Bacteriology  of  Tropical  Abcess  of  the  Liver    ..       ..  222 

Book,  A. — Coli  Group  of  Bacteria 223 

Klodnitsky,  N.  N. — Multiplying  of  Relapsing  Spirochetes  in  the  Body  of  the  Bug  223 

Smith,  E.  F.  &  (J.  O.  Townsend — Plant  Tumour  of  Bacterial  Origin      223 

Hixterberger,  A. —  Flagella  and  Capsule  of  B.  Anthracis 223 

Beck — Micrococcus  Ester  ificans        224 

Klimenko,  W.  N. — Bacillus  Aterrinus  Tschitensis ..      ..  -24 

Molisch,  H. — Purple  Bacteria 224 

Klimenko,  W.  N. — Bacterium  Mariense 225 

Lohnis,  F.  &  N.  K.  Pillar — Nitrogen-fixing  Bacteria        225 

Russ,  V.  K. — Cultural  Differentiation  of  Capsulated  Bacilli      -!26 

Hess,  H. — Bactridiwm  lipolyticum :  Fat-splitting  Bacterium      3r>9 

Tissier,  H. — Intestinal  Flora  of  Infants        359 

Prowazek,  v. — Comparative  Study  of  Spirochetes        ,      ..  360 

Gckguen,  F. — Bacillus  Eudothrix 360 

Musgrave,  W.  E.,  &  M.  T.  Clegg— Etiology  of  Mycetoma        361 

Kayser,  E.,  &  E.  Manceau — " La  Graisse"  in  Wines       361 

Hansen,  E.  C. — Action  of  Absolute  Alcohol  on  Bacteria  and  on  Yeasts     362 

Mvller,  R. — Blue  Pigment  produced   both  by  a  Diphtheroid   Bacillus  and  by  a 

Streptothrix       .'.       362 

Stigell,  Pi. —  Velocity  of  Progression  and  the  Movement  Curves  of  certain  Bacteria  363 

Schnegg,  H. — Bacterial  Disease  of  Green  Malt 363 

Bowman,  F.  B. — New  Bacillus  of  Dysentery 363 

Neschczadimenko,  M.  P. — Streptothrix  in  Chronic  Suppuration       487 

Bruckner,  J. — Micrococcus  catarrhalis  Pfeiffer  and  Gonococcus       487 

Rothe — Differential  Diagnosis  of  Gonococcus  and  certain  other  Micrococci     . .      ..  487 

Proca,  G. — Bacillus fusiforiuis  (Vincent)  cultivated  in  Symbiosis      488 

Muller-Thurgau,  H. — Bacterium  cystine 488 

Sergent,  E. — Studies  in  Mediterranean  Fever      488 


CONTENTS.  xxxi 

PAG  K 

Sartory,  A.,  &  Clerc — Intestinal  Flora  of  certain  Orthoptera        488 

HoRircHi,  T. — Bacillus  causing  an  Exanthematous  Fever 189 

Jordansky.,  V.,  &  N.  Kladnitsky—  Plague  Bacillus  in  the  Bed  Bug     489 

Verderau,  L. — Toxin  of  Bacillus  virgula      48!) 

Crithari,  C. — Syinbiosis  of  Bacillus  vulgaris  and  Bacillus  hutyricus        489 

Doyen,  M. — Micrococcus  neoformans  ana  Cancer 489 

Potter,  M.  C. — Bacteria  as  Agents  in  the  Oxidation  of  Amorphous  Carbon     ..      ..  489 

Bibliography     489 

Faroy,  G-. — Bacillus  intermediate  to  Bacillus  typhosus  (Eberth)  and  to  Bacillus 

paratyphosus  A  (Brion  and  Kayser)        635 

Goxnermann,  M. — Jelly-forming  Bacteria 636 

Perotti,  R. —  Dicyandiamid-hacteria      636 

Beijerinck,  M.  W. —  Lactic  Fermentation  in  Milk       636 

Salomon,  E. — Differentiation,  of  Streptococci  by  Media  containing  Carbohydrates  ..  <137 

Neumann,  K. — Coli-bacillosis 637 

Donna,  A.  Di — Researches  in  Bacillary  Dysentery       637 

Ohlmacher,  A.  P. — Protective  and  Curative  Artificial  Immunity 637 

Fihrmann,  F. — Developmental  Cycle  of  Bacteria'. 637 

Klein,  E. — Bacillus  fcedans  and  Miscured  Ham 638 

Morpcrgo,  B. — Micrococcus  of  Osteomalacia  and  Rickets 638 

Babes,  V.,  &  D.  Manolesco — Diphtheroid  bacillus  found  in  Cardiac  Vegetations  6  iS 

Ferrarini,  G-. — Bacillus  subtil  is  in  the  Blood  and  Tissues 638 

Marx,  E. —  Bacillus  Pneumonias  Tigris 754 

Nieter,  A. — Bacillus  metatyphosus        754 

Nowak,  J. — Bacillus  of  Bang 754 

Ellis,  D. — Five  New  Species  of  Iron  Bacteria 755 

Beijerinck,  M.  W. — Lactic  Acid  Fermentation  in  Milk 755 

Bartoszewicz,  St.,  &  J.  Schwarzwasser — Tetradiplococcus  filiformans  Lodzensis  756 

Eyre,  J.  W.  H. — Melitensis  Septicaemia         ..      ..       756 

Rodella.  O. — Lactic-acid  Bacilli  and  Cancer  of  the  Stomach 757 

Tschistowitsch,  N.,  &  W.  Jurewitsgh — Opsonins  and  A  ntiphagins  in  Pneumococcic 

Infection 757 

Metchnikoff,  E. — Microbes  of  Intestinal  Putrefaction       758 

Bcsila,  V. — Bacterium  isolated  from  the  Nervous  Centres  of  Rabid  Animals  ..      ..  758 

Babes,  V. — Chain-formation  by  Staphylococcus  aureus        758 

Skrzynski,  Z. — Bacillus  Pathogenic  to  Cats 758 

Merlin,  A.  A.  C,  E.,  &  E.  M.  Nelson— Micrococcus  melitensis        790 


\X\ll  CONTENTS. 


MICROSCOPY. 
A.    Instruments,  Accessories,  etc. 

(1)  Stands. 

Watson  &  Sons'  Metallurgical  Microscope,  "  Tlie  Horizontal "  (Fig.  7)        ..      ..  91 

„          „          "  Mint"  Metallurgical  Microscope  (Fig.  8) 93 

„          „          Laboratory  Dissecting  Microscope  (Fig.  9)      93 

Rohr,  M.  von — Binocular  Instruments            93 

Nelson,  E.  M. — Francis  Watkins  Microscope  (Figs.  26-29)       137 

.,           „           Gregory  and  Wright's  Microscope  (Fig.  32) 154 

Beck's  "London"  Microscope,  Begent  Model  (Figs.  33. :; 4)         227 

Societe   Gexevoise  :    Mineralogical  and   Petrographical   Microscopes,   with   Per- 
manent Centring  and  with  Objective  Botation  (Figs.  35,  36,  37) 229 

Mechanical  Stages  (Figs.  38,  39) 233 

Micrometer  Microscope  (Fig.  40) 234 

Dissecting  Microscope  (Fig.  41)      234 

Frauenhofer's  Screw  Micrometer  (Figs.  42,  43)  ..      ..              235 

Baxter,  Wynne  E. —  Old  Microscope  by  Shuttleworth '(Fig.  8  >)       305 

Leitz'  New  Petrological  Microscope,  Type  A  (Figs.  87-92) 367 

„      Museum  Microscope  (Fig.  93)        371 

Bibliography ..  372 

"Waterhouse"  Museum  Microscope  (Fig.  121)            490 

Konkoly's  Large  Measuring  Microscope  (Fig.  122) 491 

Vogel-Hale  Measuring  Microscope  (Model  C)  (Fig.  12H) 492 

Vogel's  Measuring  Microscope  (Model  1.)   (Fig.  124)          493 

Vogel-Wanach  Large  Measuring  Microscope  (Model  II.)  (Fig.  125)        494 

Vogel-Campbell's  Large  Measuring  Microscope  (Model  III.)   Fig.  126)        ..      ..  496 

Vogel's  Measuring  Microscope  (Model  IV.)  (Fig.  127)        497 

Toepfer's  Universal  Measuring  Apparatus  (Fig.  128)                 498 

Bibliography     500 

Leitz,  E. — Engel's  Cross-stage  with  Automatic  Adjustment  ( Fig.  139)     639 

Swingle,  W.  T.,  &  L.  T.  Briggs — Improvements  in  the    Ultra-violet  Microscope 

(Fig.  140) 639 

Reichert's  Movable  Mechanical  Object-stages  (Figd.  141-143) 641 

„          New  Large  Stand  B  (Fig.  144) 642 

„          New  Medium  Mineralogical  Stand  A  Hi  c  (Fig  145)       644 

„          Large  Stand  A  \ 645 

„          New  Preparation  Microscope  (Fig.  146) 645 

Dreck,  W. — Photomicroscope  for  Ultra-violet  Bays  and  its  Significance  for  Histo- 
logical Investigations,  especially  of  Hard  Structures      646 

Bibliography 646 

Ross'  New  Micrometric  Mechanical  Stage  (Fig.  159)                    760 

„     No.  2  "Steward"  Metallurgical  Microscope  ''Fig.  160) 761 

Reichert's  Traveling  Microscope  (Fi^s.  161,  162)       762 

New  Steinach  Stand  C  (Fig.  163)       763 

„          Neio  Stand  vi.  (Figs   164,165) 765 

Hetjsner's  Object-stage  with  Exchangeable  Plates  (Fig.  16ii)     766 

(2)    Eye-pieces  and  Objectives. 

Houdaille,  M. — Photographic  Objective  containing  a  Uranium-glass  Lens      .      ..  93 

Nelson,  E.  M. — Eye-pieces  for  the  Microscope      146 


CONTENTS.  XXXIII 

iw.j: 

Societe  Genevoise  :  Eye-pieces  for  Mineralogiaal  and  Petrographical  Mii-roscopes 

(Figs.  44-46)  ..      ..  ' 235 

Reichert's  Spectral-ocular  (Fig.  147) 646 

„  In lex-ocular  (Fig.  148)        646 

„  Goniometer-ocular  (.Fig.  149)      647 

„  Objective 64*3 


(3)    Illuminating-  and  other  Apparatus. 

Watson  &  Sons'  Vertical  Illuminator  (Figs.  10-12) '.M 

„         „         "Grip"  Stage-spring  (Figs.  13,  14)        94 

Barnard,  J.  E. — Electric  Mercuri/   Vapour  Lamp  for  Microscopic    Illumination 

(Fig.  15)  ..      ' 95 

Watson  &  Sons'  New  Mechanical  Condenser  Mount  (Fig.  16)          97 

„          „           Aplanatic  Low-power  Condenser  (Fig.  17) 97 

„          „          Macro-illuminator  (Fiiz.  18) 97 

Bechstein's  Photometer,   with   Proportional    Graduation    and   Decimally-divided 

Scale  (Figs.  19,  20)        98 

Bibliography 101 

Pearce's  Total  Reflexion  Refractometer  (Fig.  47)..               236 

Beck's  New  Illuminator  for  High-power  Dark-ground  Illumination  (Fi<js.  48, 49) ..  238 

Troestek,  G. — New  Microscope  Lamp  (Fig.  50) 239 

Foccault's  Heliostat  (Fig.  51)        240 

Wollaston's  Goniometer  (Figs.  52,  53) 241 

Gueguen.  F. — Reglet  for  Direct  Reading  in  Microscopic  Measurement-' 242 

Grimsehl's  L  Hi  put- projection  Lantern -12 

Dowdy,  S.  E. — A  Micro-object  Locater 242 

Halle,  B. — Polarising  Prisms         372 

Bell,  L. — Note  on  some  Meteorological  Uses  of  the  Polariscope 374 

Heimstadt,  (J. — Reichert's  Novelties  in  Mirror  Condensers  (Figs.  94-101)      ..       .  374 

Zeiss — Ultramicroscopy  and  Dark-ground  Illumination      378 

Leitz'  Kaiserling's  Universal  Projection  Apparatus  (Figs.  102-109)         378 

Bibliography 384 

Gordon,  J.  W. — Illuminating  Apparatus  for  the  Microscope  (Figs.  119,  120)  ..       ..  425 

Siedentopf,  H. — History  of  Mirror- Condensers 500 

Reichert's  New  Large  Projection  Apparatus  (Fig.  129) 500 

Leitz'  Dark-ground  Illuminator  for  the  Examination  of  Living  Bacteria  (Fig.  130)  502 

Gebhardt — New  Easily  Legible  Micrometer  Divisions  (Figs.  150,  151) 647 

Gouy,  M. — Apparatus  for  Measuring  Micrometer  Levels      648 

Bibliography     tils 

Nelsox,  E.  M. — An  Auxiliary  Illuminating  Lens  (Fig.  158)      673 

Barnard,  J.  K.  —  Mercury  Vapour  Lamp  for  Microscopical  Work     Fig.  167)..       ..  767 

Ignatowsky's  New  Reflecting  Condenser  (Figs.  168,  169) 768 

Reichert's  Draioing  Apparatus  (Fig.  170 ) 770 

„          Marking  Apparatus  (Fig.  171) ..      ..  771 

(4)   Photomicrography. 

Moffatt,  E. — Light  Filters  for  Photomicrography  (Plate  I.  figs.  3-6)      20 

Turneretscher's  Apparatus  for  Photomicrography  (Fig.  21) 1  < » 1 

Soheffer,  W. — Scheffer's  Microscopical  Researches  on  Plate-grains 24:! 

Bibliography 244 

Lippmann,  G.  —  Reversible  Photographic  Proofs;  Integral  Photographs  (Fig.  Ill))  .,  384 
Chauvead,  A. — Perception  of  Relief  and  Depth  in  the  Simple  Image  of  Ordinary 

Photographic  Proofs:  Conditions  and  Theory  of  this  Perception 385 

Chaiveau,  A. — Additional  Demonstration  of  the  Mechanism  of  Monocular  Stereo- 

scopy 386 

Bibliography 387 

Haoron,  S.  D.  M.,  &  R.  de  Bercegol — Colour-screens  for  Colour-photography    ..  .">n:'> 

Rothe,  M.  E. — Interference  Fringes  produced  by  Photograph*  in  Colours        ..      ..  648 

Photography  of  very  Translucent  Diatoms  at  High  Magnifications        649 

Dec.  16th,  1908 


XX  XIV  CONTENTS. 

(5)  Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

TAGE 

Nelson,    E.  M. — A   Reply  to  Professor  Porter's  and  Mr.  Everitt's  Criticism  upon 

my  Paper  on  the  Resolving  Power,  etc 1 

Porter,  Alfred  W. — On  the  Diffraction  Rings  for  a   Circular  Opening ;  and  on 

the  Limit  of  Resolving  Power      (Being  a  Rejoinder  to  Mr.  Nelson).    (Fig.  1)  3 

Gordon,  J.  W. — Mercury  Globules  as  Test  Objects  for  the  Microscope  (Figs.  2-6)   ..  6 

Fahre.  C. — Measurement  of  Resolution  in  Microscopy         103 

Filon,  L.   N.  G. — New  Method   of  Measuring    Directly   the   Double-refraction  in 

Strained  Glass         ' 103 

Uhler,  H.  S,  &  R.  W.  Wood — Atlas  of  Absorption  Spectra      104 

Bibliography 105 

Nelson,  E.  M. — A  Correction  for  a  Spectroscope  (Fig.  30) 150 

Tissot,  C,  &  F.  Pellin — Correction  of  the  Astigmatism  of  Doubly  Refracting  Prism*  244 

Cantor  Lectures— 77/eon/  of  the  Microscope        245 

Gaidukov.  N. — Application  of  the   fUtramicroscope  (after  Siedentopf)  and  of  the 

Microspectral  Photometer   (after    Engelmann)   to   the   Textile    and    Dyeing 

Industries         387 

Bibliography     387 

Bibliography 649 

Henri,  V. — Influence  of  the  Medium  on  Brotvnian  Movements 649 

Bibliography     ..               ..              ..              650 

Nelson,  E.  M.—  On  the  Resolution  of  Periodic  Structures  (Fig.  157)        671 


(6)  Miscellaneous. 

QrKKETT  Microscopical  Club  105 

Compass  Reading  to  ^^  or  ^^  Millimetre  (Fig.  54)        245 

Caliper  with  Micrometer  Screw  (Fig.  55)      245 

Qiekett  M ieroseopical  Club 246 

Merlin,  A.  A.  C.  E.—Flagellum  of  the  Tubercle  Bacillus 388 

Quekett  Microscopical  Club 3^8 

Bibliography     ..      ..  388 

Wood.  W.  J.— Microscopical  Matters  (Fig.  131) 503 

QrKKETT  Microscopical  Club 505 

Smith,  J  Ciceri — Direct  re  ding  Micrometer-gauge  for  Cuver-glass  (Figs.  132,133)  505 

"  Brassfoundkr" — Composition  of  Brass      507 

Strachan.  James — On  Dendritic  Growths  of  Copper  Oxide  in  Paper  (Plate  XIII.)  544 

Ewell.  Marshall  D — The  Present  Status  of  Micrometry         682 

Rowntree,  C. — Parafftnum  liquidum   B. P.)  as  an  Immersion  Oil 771 

Quekett  Microscopical  Club 771 


CONTENTS.  XXXV 


B.     Technique. 

(1)  Collecting'  Objects,  including-  Culture  Processes. 


PAGE 


Wilson,  H.  V. — Method  by  which  Sponges  may  be  Artificially  Reared      105 

Abbe,  Nakao — Cultivation  of  Gonococci                105 

Bernstein,  E.  P.,  &  A.  A.  Epstein— Simple  Method  of  Sterilising  Blood  for  Cul- 
tural Purposes 106 

PlNOY,  E. — Cultivation  and  Preparation  of  Myxomycetes 1U6 

Danteo,  A.  le — Culture  of  Anaerobe^            107 

Penard,  E. — Collecting  and  Preserving  Fresh-water  Ehizopods 107 

Cohendy,  M.— Intestinal  Broth  for  the  Isolation  of  Essential  and  Potential  Intestinal 

.   Anaerobes         ..  107 

Rosam,  A. — Porous  Culture  Vessels  (Fig.  22) 108 

Reid,  C.,  &  Eleanor  M. — Collecting  Fossil  Flora               108 

Klein,  E. — Enrichment  Method  for  Detecting  Bacillus  typhosus         108 

Dunschmann,    H.  —  Simplified   Method  for    Detecting   the   Presence   of   Bacillus 

typhosus 108 

Sineff.  A. — Simple  Thermostat  (Fig.  23)       ....              ..              109 

Pr<>ca,  G. — Sterilised  Bacterial  Media  for  Cultivation  of  Anaerobes          ..              ..  109 

Harrison,  R.  G. — Observing  Living  Developing  Nerve-fibres                             ..      ..  109 

Levaditi.  C,  &  J.  McIntosh — Cultivation  of  Treponema  pallidum        ..      ..  110 

Lebailly,  C — Multiplication  in  vitro  of  Treponema  pallidum 247 

Kehsteiner,  J. — Cultivation  of  Anaerobic  Bad eria  (Figs.  56-61) 247 

Harrison,  F.  0.  &  B.  Barlow—  Isolating  the  Nodule  organism  of  the  Legumiuosse  252 

Marino,  F. — Method  for  Isolating  Anaerobes  (Fig  62)                ..  '   ..       ..'     ..      ..  252 

Sauvageau,  G. — Cultivation  of  Algae      ..       ..  507 

Surface,  F.  M. — Collecting  and  Preserving  Planocera  inquUina       508 

Nicolle,  C. — Cultivating  the  Parasites  of  Kda-azar  an  i  Aleppo  Boil 508 

GuiLLEMARD.  A. — Separation  of  Bacillus  typhosus  and  Bacillus  roll,     ..                    ..  509 
Bruckner,  J. — Fermentation  of  Sugars  by  the   Meningococcus  and  the  Micrococcus 

catarrhalis        ..              509 

Hata,  S — Aerobic  Cultivation  of  Anaerobes..              ..               509 

Yamanouchi,  Shigeo — Investigating  Apogamy  in  Nephrodium  ..               510 

Caullery,  M.,  &  A.  Lavellee — ( 'ollectiAg  and  Examining  the  Eggs  of  Rhopalura 

ophiccomse  (Fig.  134)            ..              510 

Shearer,  (!. — Collecting  and  Examining  Lar ml  Nephridia  of  Polygordius     . .      ..  511 

Davis,  B.  M. — Collecting  and  Examining  Dolichoglos<u<  pusillus      511 

Stevens,  F.  L.,  &  J.  G.  Temple — Convenient  Mode  of  Preparing  Silicate  Jelly      ..  512 
Dunschmann,  H. — Nutritive   value   of  certain  Peptones  for  different  Species   of 

Bacteria 513 

Bibliography 513 

Kindborg,  E.  A. — Colour  Reaction  for  the  Recognition  of  Bacillus  typhosus    ..      ..  650 

Dunschmann,  H. — Cultivating  Bacillus  typhosus  and  Bacillus  coli 650 

Gaga,  G.  E. — Detection  of  Bacillus  coli  in  Drinking-water         650 

Miller,  E.  C.  L—  Pipette-holder  for  Opsonic  Work  (Figs.  152,  153)        651 

„           „           Plates  for  Growing  Germs  in  Quantity 652 

BlBLICGRAPHY        653 

Brown,  C.  W. — Influence  of  the  Composition  of  the  Medium  on  the  Solvent  Action  of 

certain  Soil  Bacteria       ..              772 

Stein,  R. — Plate-cultivation  of  the  Streptobacillus  of  Ducrey      772 

Jurewitsch,  W. — Potato  Broth  for  the  Culture  of  Tubercle  Bacilli 77:; 

Padlewsky,  L. — Malachite-green  Agar  and  the  Bacilli  of  the  Typhoid  Group        ..  773 

Marchoux,  E. — Culture  in  vitro  of  Avian  Plague        773 

Board,  G. — Detection  of  Indol  in  Microbial  Cultures 771 

Artom,  C. — Method  of  Fixing  the  Eggs  of  A  scar  is  megalocephala      774 

Bodecker,  C.  F. — Celloidin  Decalcification  and  Desilication      774 


\xxvi  CONTENTS. 

1AGR 

Fior,  G-.  Dai, i. a — Examining  Stylaria  lacustris 775 

Nierenstein,  A.     Examining  the  Poison-glands  of  Salamandra  maculosa      ..      ..  775 

Breokner,  A. — Combined  Imbedding  in  Celloidin  and  Paraffin        775 

SoNNiiNBRODT  —  Examining  the ■Oocyte  of the  Fowl        776 

(2)   Preparing-  Objects. 

RuDNEW,  WL; — New  Method  of  Fixation        Ill) 

Andre,  E. — Fixation  and  Preparation  of  Nematohelminthes      110 

Kappers,  0.  U.  A. — Apparatus  for  Rapidly  Cooling  Paraffin  (Pig.  24) Ill 

MTacBride,  E.  W. — Studying  the  Development  of  Ophiothrix  fragilis        Ill 

Ciaccio,  C. — Studying  the  Adenoid  Tissue  of  the  Spleen,  etc 112 

Holmgren,  E. — Examining  the  Trophospongia  of  Striated  Muscle 11  2 

Leeuwen,  W.  D.  van — Fixation  of  Insect  Larvat        112 

Aime,  P. — Studying  the  Interstitial  Cells  of  the  Ovary 113 

Bibliography 113 

Rubenthale,  G. — Fixation  Methods  a7id  Elimination  of  Artefact* 253 

Fantham,  H.  I!. — Studying  Spiroch seta  lialbiani and  Spirochasta  Anodordx  ..      ..  253 

Pesker,  D.  J. —  Demonstrating  the  Histognesis  of  Nerve-fibrils 254 

Mencl,  E. — Demonstrating  Aervous  Tissue  of  Hirudinese 513 

Dogiel,  V. — Examining  Catena ta 513 

Heinkk,  P. — Studying  the  Development  of  Teeth  in  Castor  Fiber     513 

Friedenthal.  H. —  Fixation  with  Trichloracetic  Acid  and  Vranyl  Acetate      ..      ..  514 

Young,  R.  T. — Studying  the  Histogenesis  of  Cysticercus  pisifor mis 514 

Stricht,  N.  van  der — Examining  the  S  euro-epithelium  of  the  Auditory  Apparatus  514 

Gderin,  J.  —  Examining  the  Tentacular  Apparatus  of  Cephalopods 514 

Oes,  Ad. — Demonstrating  the  Autolysis  of  Mitoses        ,      ..       ..  515 

Mayer,  ?. — Bleaching  Technique                515 

Schaposohnikoff,  B. — Studying  the  Eggs  of  Acanthodoris  pilosa       653 

I  >i  ckworth,  W.  L.  H. — Demonstrating  the  Syncytial  Appendages  of  Placental  villi  053 

Nemiloff,  Anton — Examining  the  Nervous  Elements  of  Osseous  Fishes 053 

Wilson,  J.  T.,  &  J.  P.  Hill — Examining  the  Eggs  of  Ornithorhyncus     653 

Wisselingh,  C.  van — Studying  the  Structure  of  CEdogonium     654 

Mi  yes.  F.,  &  J.  Duesberg— Demonstrating  the  Spermatogenesis  of  Hornets     ..       ..  054 

Boulanger,  H. — Micrographic  Study  of  Leather 655 

(3)  Cutting-,  including-  Imbedding-  and  Microtomes. 

Kolmer,  W. — Studying  the  Structure  of  Mammalian  Ear 113 

Federioi,  F.— -Use  of  Sulphuric  Ether  in  Imbedding 113 

Seitz,  A.  L.  L. — Demonstrating  the  Microscopic  Structure  of  Fossil  and  Recent 

Iieptilian  Bone         ..      .        254 

Hennkderg's  Microtome  Auxiliaries  (Figs.  111-112) 388 

Cooper.   W.  F.,  &    L.   E.   Robinson — Method   of  Orientating  Small    Objects  for 

Examination  (Fig.  113)         390 

Broer's  Simple  Microtome  for  Serial  Sections  (Fig*.  135-137) ..  516 

Fince,  C. — Arrangements  for  Utilising  the  Entire  Cutting-edge  of  Microtome  Razors 

(Figs.  154-156) '    .." 655 

Nebmayer,  L. — Celloidin  Imbedding 057 

Dantschakoff,  W. — Preparing  Celloidin  Sections       658 


(4)    Staining-  and  Injecting-. 

Thoma,  R. — Picric-acid  Carmin      114 

Loeffler,  F. — New  Method  of  Staining  Micro-organisms 114 

Schkresche-wsky,  J. — Giemsa-staining  of  Spirochseta  pallida 115 

Bultino,  D.,  &  G.  Quarelli — Staining  Sudanophil  Leucocytes        115 

Pinoy.  Fj.  — Barrel's  Bine 115 

Harris,  N.  MaoL. — New  Method  oj  Preparing  the  Romanowshy  Stain     115 


CONTENTS.  XXXV11 

PAOB 

Loeffler,  F. — Gram's  Staining  Method        I16 

Mighailow,  Sergius  —  Studying  the  Nerve-endings   in  the   Urinary    Bladder  of 

Mammals         

Cepede,  Casimir — Staining-tank  with  Movable  Grooves     

Weidenreigh,  F. — Simple  Method  of  Staining  Blood-films         116 

Herman,  M. — Staining  the  Tubercle  Bacillus         255 

Bartels,  P. — Syringe  for  the  Injection  of  Lymph-vessels  (Vvj;.  63) 255 

Bibliography **91 

Hoffmann,  R. — Staining  Streptococcus  mucosus 518 

Deineka,  D. — Demonstrating  the  Nervous  System  of  Ascari*      ..      ..              •■      ■•  518 

Law,  W.  J. — Demonstrating  Nerve-terminations  in  Teeth,  of  Mammalia 51S 

Krzystalowicz,  F..  <fe  M.  Siedlecki— Studying  the  Morphology  of  Spirochmta  pallida  -jl9 

Schridde,  H. — Demonstrating  Leucocytes  in  Tissues .• 519 

Widal,  F.,  &  others— Staining  Granular  Red  Corpuscles         520 

Rosam,  A. — Simple  Method  of  Microbe  Staining 520 

Wirtz,  R  —Simple  Method  of  Spore  Staining       ■•  520 

Bruckner,  J. — Modification  of  the  Romanowshy  Stain        520 

Ruhland,  W. — Staining  the  Mycelium  of  the  Dry-rot  Fungus 52] 

Brudny,  V. —  Theory  of  the  Gram  Staining  Method      ••  521 

Trincas,  L. — New  Method  of  Staining  Spores  and  Metachromatic  Granules  :  a  Sub- 
stitute for  Gram's  Method 6f>8 

Hamburger,  H.  J. — New  Cold  Injection  Method ••  658 

Zimmermann,  A. — Bielschowky's  Method  for  Demonstrating  Connective-tissue  Fibres  659 

Cavazza,  L.  E. — Demonstrating  the  Presence  of  Tannin     659 

Betegh,  I;,  v. — Differential  Staining  Method  for  Acid-fast  Bacilli           776 

Yamamoto,  J.— Silver  Method  for  Differentiating  the  Bacilli  of  Leprosy  and  Tubercle  776 

Balsz,  H.  H. — Studying  the  Sexual  Organs  of  Cestoda        J_7^ 

Gottberg,  M.,  &  others — Staining  Spirochmta  pallida 777 

Fischel,  H. — Alizarin,  a  Vital  and  Specific  Stain  for  Nervous  Tissue 778 

„         „       Vital  Staining  of  Fresh-water  Animals ' '  ° 

Winiwarter,  H.  V.,  &  G.Sainmont— Flemming's  Triple  Staining  Method . .      ■■  778 

Ciaccio,  C. — Localising  Burin  Bodies  in  Animal  Tissues 779 

Bibliography 780 

(5)    Mounting,  including  Slides,   Preservative    Fluids,  etc. 

Reld,  C,  &  Eleanor  M. — Preserving  Fossil  Seeds  and  L"aves         117 

Fornario,  G. — Preserving  the  Colour  of  Anatomical  Specimens      •■  391 

Gudernatsch,  J.  F.—  Technique  of  the  Water  Method  of  Sticking  Paraffin  Sections 

on  the  Slide      ..      521 

Ogilvie,  H.  S. — Farrant's  Medium         780 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Harvey,  W.  U. — Dust-excluding  Histological  Reagent  Bottle  (Fig.  25) 117 

Bather,  F.  A. — Nathorst's  Use  of  Collodion  Imprints  in  the  Study  of  Fossil  Plants  11  i 

Rawitz'  Microscopical  Technique 1 1  >s 

Traviss,  W.  R. — Forceps- scisxors  (Fitrs.  t>4-66) 256 

Harvey,  W.  H. — Improved  Form  of  Celloidin  Capsule        391 

De  Jager,  L. — Method  for  Photographing  Superficial  Bacterial  Colonies        .        ..  392 

Sereni,  S. — Red  Blood  Cells  in  Malaria 392 

Bibliography     392 

Windsor,  F.  N. — Examining  Seminal  Stains 659 

Wolff,  M.—  I'ipette  for  Microscope  Work  (Fig.  172) 781 

Fatten,  C.  J. — Mesophotography  and  it*  Application  to  Delicate  Unfixed  Embryos  781 


XXXVlil  CONTENTS. 


Metallography,  etc. 

PAGE 

Frikdrich,  K. — Melting  Point  Diagrams  of  the  Binary  Systems  Galena- Magnetic 

Pyrites  and  Galena-Silver  Sulphide         118 

„  „       Melting  Point  Diagrams  of  the  Binary  Systems,  Silver  Sulphide- 

Gopper  Sulphide  and  Lead  Sulphide-Copper  Sulphide         . .      . .  118 

Walker  &  C.  Hill — Influence  of  Stress  on  the  Corrosion  of  Iron 118 

Bbilbt,  G.  T.  -  Hard  and  Soft  States  in  Ductile  Metals 119 

Brown,  W. — Densities  and  Specific  Heats  of  Some  Alloys  of  Iron      119 

Lautsch  &  G.  T amman s — Alloys  of  Iron  with  Molybdenum      119 

Jeriomin,  K.,  &  A.  Portevin — Copper-bismuth  Alloy <s       120 

Hindrichs,  G. — Zinc-cadmium  Alloys 1*20 

Gontermann,  W. — Ant i many -lead  Alloys       120 

Guillet,  L. — Special  Cast  Irons 120 

Pecheux,  H. — Thermo-Electricity of  Nickel 121 

jMaltitz,  E.  voN — Blowholes  in  Steel  Ingots 121 

Burgess,  G.  K. — Melting  Points  of  the  Iron  Group  Elements      121 

Waidner,  0.  W. — Melting  Points  of  Palladium  and  Platinum 121 

Lincoln,  A.  T.  &  others — Electrolytic  Corrosion  of  Brasses 121 

Treitschke,  VV.,  &  G.  Tammann — Alloy*  of  Iron  with  Chromium 122 

Smith,  D.  P. — Alloys  of  Potassium  with  other  Metals 122 

Heyn,  E.,  &  others — Metallography  of  Cast  Iron        122 

Bajkow,  A. — Crystallisation  and  Structure  of  Steel 122 

Howe,  H.  M.— Osmondite 122 

Zimmerschied,  K.  W. — Apparatus  for  Polishing  Metal  Sections        123 

Walker,  W.  H. — Annealing  of  Sterling  Silver     123 

Fay,  H. — Tellurium-tin  Alloys'         123 

Sears,  J.  E. — Longitudinal  Impart  of  Metal  Bods       123 

Turner,  T.,  &  D.  .M.Levy — Annealing  of  Copper      124 

Weiss,  P. — Magnetisation  of  Iron  and  Nickel       124 

Portevin,  A. — Equilibrium  of  the  Nickel-bismuth  System 124 

Charpy,  G. — Annealing-carbon  in  Cast-iron          124 

„        „       Solubility  of  Graphite  in  Iron 124 

Belloc,  G. — Occluded  Gases  in  Steel       124 

Bocdouard,  O.— Extraction  of  Gases  contained  in  Metals " 125 

Freminville,  C.  de—  Vibrations  accompanying  Shock         125 

Konstantinow,  N. — Alloys  of  Cobalt  and  Copper       125 

Limbourg,  F. — Sorbitic  Rails          125 

Portevin,  A. — Iron-carbon  System 125 

Harkort,  H. — Iron-tungsten  System      257 

Tafel,  V. — Zinc  and  Nickel 257 

Campbell,  W. — Structure  of  Metals        257 

Wust.  W. — Theory  of  Malleable/sing      258 

Bo  i. N  em  ANN,  K. — Melting-point  Diagram  of  Nickel-sulphur  Comjiounds 258 

Berwerth,  F. — Steel  arid  Meteoric  Iron        258 

Bannister,  C.  O.,  &  W.  J.  Lambert — Case-hardening  of  Mild  Steel        259 

Scott,  G.  S. — Case-hardening         ..      ..  259 

Longiuuir,  P. — Hardened  Steels      259 

Demozay,  L. — Hardening  of  Steel 259 

Portevin,  A. — Constitution  and  Treatment  of  Steel 260 

Sahmen,  R. — Binary  Alloys  of  Copper 260 

Voss,  G. — Binary  Alloys  of  Nickel 260 

Gwyer,  A.  G.  C. — Binary  Alloys  of  Aluminium 260 

Donski,  L. — Binary  Alloys  of  Calcium 261 

Ehrensberger — Impact-testing  071  Notched  Test-pieces 261 


CONTENTS.  XXXIX 


Guillet,  L. — Constitution  of  Manganese  Cast  Irons 261 

Benoofgh,  G.  D. — Heat  Treatment  of  Copper-zinc  Alloys 262 

Howe.  H.  M.,  &  B.  Stoughton — Piping  and  Segregation 262 

Lambert,  W.  J. — Measurement  of  Extension  of  Tensile  Test-pieces 262 

Hancock,  E.  C. — Recovery  of  Steel  from  Overstrain 262 

Williams,  W.  B. — Influence  of  Stress  on  the  Electrical  Conductivity  of  Metals        ..  262 

Bibliography 263 

Guillet.  L. — Importance  of  Centring  in  Microscopic  Metallography 393 

Breuil,  P. — Constituents  of  Quenched,  Steels  ..       ..  ..      ..  :!93 

Smith,  S.  W.  J. — Tliermomagnetic  Analysis  of  Meteoric  and  Artificial  Nickel-iron 

Alloys        ' 394 

Rose,  T.  K.— Alloys  of  Gold  and 'Tellurium 394 

Hackspill.  L.—  Platinum-thallium  Alloy       394 

Maurer,  E. — Austenite      394 

Goerens,  P — Application  of  Colour  Photography  in  Metallography 395 

Bibliography     ..  • 395 

Friedrich,  K.— The  Metallic  Sulphides  PbS,  Cu2S,  Ag.2S,  FeS 522 

Benedicks,  C. — Solubility  of  Graphite  in  Iron      ..  ..  522 

Tschernoff,  D.  C. — Crystals  of  Diamond  and  Carborundum  in  Steel       522 

Portevin,  A. — Nickel-bismuth  Alloys 522 

Alloys  of  Silver        522 

Chatalier,  H.  le,  &  F.Osmond — Constituents  of  Steel     523 

Metallography  at  the  National  Physical  Laboratory        523 

Wust.  F. — Influence  of  Phosphorus  on  the  Iron-carbon  System 524 

Goerens,  P..  &  N.  Gitowsky — Solidification  and  Melting  of  Cast-iron 524 

Friedrich,  K.,  &  A.  Leroux — Binary  Systems.   Platinum-arsenic  and    Bismuth- 
arsenic      524 

Friedrich,  K. — Cohalt-arsenic  Alloys 524 

Oberhoffer,  P.,  &  A.  Medthen — Specific  Heat  of  Iron-carbon  Alloys 525 

Portevin,  A. —  Use  of  the  Differentia!  Galvanometer 525 

Grabe,  A. —  Influence  of  Nitrogen  on  Steel 525 

Kyrloff,  J  de — Phosphoric  Steels  .      ..      525 

Guertler,  YV.,  &  E.  Rfdolfi — Formula  of  Metallic  Compounds      .        660 

Bohler,  R. — Selective  Colouring      ..      660 

Friedrich,  K. — Cobalt  sulphur  Alloys 660 

Kurnakow,  N.  S.,  &  N.  S.  Konstantinow — Antimonides  of  Iron  and  Cadmium  660 

Sackur,  O..  &  H.  Pick—  Copper-tin  Alloys 660 

Pelabon,  H. —  Tellurides  of  Arsenic  and  Bismuth        661 

Belloc,  G. — Occluded  Gases  in  Special  Nickel  Steel 661 

Arnold,  J.  O. — Factors  of  Safety  in  Marine  Engineering 661 

Huntington,  A.  K.,  &  C.  H.  Desch — Planimetric  Analysis  of  Alloys      661 

Stanton,  T.  E. — Neio  Fatigue,  Test  for  Iron  and  Steel        662 

Rosenhain,  W. — Metallurgical  and  Chemical  Laboratories  in  the  National  Physical 

Laboratory        662 

Law,  E.  F. — Application  of  Colour-photography  to  Metallography     663 

Hess,  E. — Microscopic  Features  of  Hardened  Supersaturated  Steels 663 

Levy.  D.  M. — Iron,  Carbon,  and  Sulphur       663 

Saklatwalla,  B. — Constitution  of  Iron  and  Phosphorus  Compounds       663 

Gulliver,  G.  H..— Cohesion  of  Steel       782 

Edwards,  C.  A. — Function  of  Chromium  and  Tungsten  in  High-speed  Tool-steel   ..  782 

Longridge,  M. — Test  of  Plate*  from  an  Old  Boiler     782 

Guillet,  L.,  &  others — Copper-aluminium  Alloys 782 

Ziegler — Hardness  of  Constituents  of  Alloys 782 

Chatelieu,  H.  le — Troostite 783 

Fremont,  C. — Corrosion  Tests  of  Iron  and  Steel 783 

Kourbatofp — Metallography  of  Quenched  Steels 783 

Maurer,  E.,  &  H.  le  OhateLiER — Quenching  and  Tempering  of  Iron  and  Steel  ..  784 

Robin — Alumina  for  Polishing         784 

Bengoigh.  G,  D.,  &  O.  F.  Hddson— Heat-treatment  of  Muntz  Metal       784 

Howe,  H.  M. — Carbon-iron  Diagram      785 

Vogel,  R.,  &  G.  Tammann — Vanadium-iron  Alloys 785 

Fraenkel,  W. — Silicon-aluminum,  Alloys       785 


xl  CONTENTS. 

PAGB 

Lepkowski,  W.  v. — Composition  of  Saturated  Mix>d  Crystals 785 

Lewkonja,  K. — Binary  Alloys  of  Cobalt        786 

Stadeler,  A. — Manganese  and  Carbon ••  786 

I  \ni..  V.  E  —Alloys  of  Zine,  Hopper,  and  Nickel       786 

Fbiedrich.  K.      Copiirr-urst-nic  System 786 

BIBLIOGRAPHY       787 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   TEE  SOCIETY. 

Meeting,  December  18,  1907 12<J 

January    15,    1908 130 

„        February  19,      „      265 

March  18,           , 268 

„        April  15,            „      390 

May  20,               „      398 

„         June  17,              „      526 

October  21,         „      788 

„        November  IS,     „      792 


General  Index  to  Volume 799 


K 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.  SOC  1908.    PI.  I. 


® 


Fig.   1. 


f\3 


Fig.  3. 


■' , 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  6. 


JOURNAL 

OF   THE 

ft 

ROYAL   MICROSCOPICAL    SOCIETY. 

FEBRUARY,    1908. 


TRANSACTIONS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


I. — A  Reply  to  Professor  Porter's  mid  Mr.   Everitt's   Criticism 
upon  my  Paper  on  the  Resolving  Power,  etc. 

By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

(Bead  November  20,  1907.) 

Duking  the  recess  Messrs.  Porter's  and  Everitt's  paper,  criticising 
my  limits  for  the  resolving  power  of  a  telescope,  has  been  published 
in  the  Journal.  In  the  meantime,  I  have  gone  over  the  experi- 
ments a  second  time,  and  results  substantially  the  same  as  those 
printed  in  my  paper  have  been  obtained.  These  experiments 
prove  that  the  constant  (called  c  in  my  paper)  is  32  p.c.  less  than 
the  radius  of  the  first  dark  ring,  as  calculated  by  Airy,  and  as 
measured,  formerly  by  Fraunhofer  and  Cooke,  and  now  by  Pro- 
fessor Porter  and  Mr.  Everitt. 

The  measurements  published  by  Professor  Porter  and  Mr. 
Everitt  are  those  relating  to  the  rings,  etc.,  seen  in  a  telescope 
when  pointed  to  a  single  artificial  star ;  but  the  measurements 
published  in  my  paper  are  those  made  with  artificial  double 
stars,  when  the  separation  in  the  telescope  was  a  minimum  visible. 
The  following  quotation  from  my  paper  *  shows  that  this  is  so  : — 

"The  first  dark  ring  No.  2  was  measured  by  removing  an 
artificial  double  star  from  a  telescope  until  the  dark  rings  made 
contact ;  the  distance  of  the  telescope  from  the  star  was  then 
measured,  and  the  separation  of  the  stars  being  known,  the  angle 
was  found." 

The  "  No.  2  "  refers  to  the  number  opposite  the  experimental 
result  f  which  Professor  Porter  and  Mr.  Everitt  have  selected 
for  criticism.      In  brief,  Professor  Porter   and  Mr.   Everitt  have 

*  See  this  Journal,  1906,  at  foot  of  p.  524.  t  Toin.  cit.,  table  on  p.  525. 

Feb.  19th,  1908  b 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 

measured  one  thing,  and  I  another,  and  the  difference  between  our 
measurements  amounts  to  32  p.c. 

Professor  Porter  and  Mr.  Everitt  say  : — "  The  question  is  there- 
fore not  merely  one  of  disagreement  between  theory  and  experi- 
ment, but  also  one  of  disagreement  between  Fraunhofer's  and 
Mr.  Nelson's  experimental  values." 

I  have  never  published  nor  shown  my  measurements  of  the 
single  artificial  star  to  any  one,  so  it  is  quite  impossible  for  Pro- 
fessor Porter  and  Mr.  Everitt  to  know  whether  they  do,  or  do  not, 
agree  with  those  of  the  truly  renowned  Fraunhofer. 

I  am  still  of  opinion  that  the  radius  of  the  first  dark  ring  of 

a  single  star  is  too  large  a  measure  for  the  telescopic  resolving 

limit  of  a  double  star;  in  other  words,  the  resolving  limit  of  a 

5". 555 

telescope  is  less  than  ■  . 

a 

This  month  (October  1907)  Mr.  W.  F.  A.  Ellison  has  published 

an  account  of  the  separation  of  &>  Leonis  and  £  Bootis  by  8^  inches 

3"*315 
of  aperture ;    these  results  correspond  to  a  limit  of  and 

3" -06  ,.     , 
respectively. 

These  observations  are  far  finer  than  any  I  have  ever  been  able 
to  accomplish.  Mr.  Ellison  has  thus  lowered  the  value  of  c  to 
0-6718,  and  has  increased  my  percentage  of  32  to  45. 

The  values  of  the  microscopical  experiments  (Nos.  4  and  13) 
given  in  my  table  may  be  far  from  correct.  The  difficulty  of  these 
microscopical  antipoint  measurements  is  very  great  indeed  ;  those 
with  a  telescope  are  mere  child's  play  in  comparison. 


II. — On  the  Diffraction  Rings  for  a  Circular  Opening ; 
and  on  the  Limit  of  Resolving  Power. 

(Being  a  rejoinder  to  Mr.  Nelson.) 
By  Alfred  W.  Porter,  B.Sc. 

(Read  November  20,  1907.) 

There  are  two  different  though  related  questions  connected  with 
Mr.  Nelson's  reply  to  the  paper  by  Mr.  Everitt  and  myself.  The 
first  is,  what  is  the  size  of  the  first  dark  diffraction  ring  for 
the  case  calculated  by  Airy  and  others  ?  and  the  second  is,  what  is 
the  ultimate  resolving  power  of  a  telescope  for  a  close  double  star  ? 
I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  these  questions  are  explicitly  stated,  but 
Mr.  Nelson  confuses  them  both  in  his  original  paper  and  in  his 
reply  to  our  criticism. 

What  I  wish  to  make  perfectly  clear,  first  of  all,  is  that  our 
short  paper  referred  only  to  the  former  of  these  questions,  viz.  the 
radius  of  the  first  dark  diffraction  ring.  Airy's  calculation  of  this 
radius  was  for  the  case  of  a  point  source  of  light :  and  as  a  physicist 
I  feel  somewhat  perturbed  that  a  calculation  which  was  free  from 
any  obvious  flaw  should  be  called  into  question.  It  was  with  the 
object  of  testing  the  calculation  that  our  measurements  were  made, 
with  the  result  that  we  obtained  a  practically  complete  experi- 
mental verification  of  the  theoretical  value.  Hence,  whatever  may 
be  the  explanation  of  Mr.  Nelson's  data,  this  explanation  is  not  to 
be  found  in  incorrectness  in  the  theoretical  calculation. 

Now  this  was  the  only  point  dealt  with  in  our  paper.  Mr. 
Nelson  in  his  reply  forces  upon  us  a  consideration  of  the  second 
question,  viz.  that  of  the  ultimate  resolving  power. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  gather  the  exact  mode  in  which  his 
experiments  were  made.  From  his  paper  we  (and  others)  con- 
cluded that  he  moved  his  stars  till  the  first  dark  rings  came 
into  contact.  From  his  reply,  we  gather  that  his  two  stars  were 
moved  to  such  a  distance  that  they  just  failed  to  be  seen  as  two. 
But  this  latter  does  not  give  one  a  measure  of  the  first  dark  ring,  as 
he  seems  to  claim  !  Mr.  Nelson  does  not  appear  to  realise  that  his 
two  star  images  may  be  so  near  as  to  overlap,  and  yet  show  a  dark 
line  separating  them.  I  believe  that  this  last  fact  is  at  the  bottom 
of  the  confusion  in  his  statements. 

When  the  two  stars  are  a  distance  apart  corresponding  to  the 

b  2 


4  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

conventional  limit  of  resolution,  the  intensity  curves  are  as  shown 
in  fig.  1,  the  dotted  curve  being  the  resultant  intensity  of  the 
overlapping  images,  each  of  which  has  an  intensity  given  by 
the  continuous  lines.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  intensity  in  the 
middle  is  less  than  the  adjacent  maxima  by  about  one-third. 
Such  a  proximity  of  images  will  give  a  well-marked  band  of 
separation  of  the  images,  yet  in  this  case  the  distance  between 
the  maxima  is  only  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  first  dark  ring. 
Now  a  rigorous  calculation  shows  that  Mr.  Nelson's  results  cor- 
respond to  a  closeness  for  which  the  depression  of  intensity  in  the 
middle  will  have  rather  more  than  disappeared.     Hence,  putting 


Fig.  l. 


aside  errors,  which  may  amount  to  about  5  p.c,  we  may  say  that 
Mr.  Nelson  succeeds  in  seeing  the  depression  of  intensity  in  the 
middle  until  it  completely  disappears.  Mr.  Nelson  is  to  be  con- 
gratulated in  this  achievement :  it  denotes  quite  exceptionally 
keen  vision ;  but  he  is  totally  mistaken  in  thinking  that  from  the 
distance  between  his  two  stars  in  this  case  he  can  calculate  the 
radius  of  the  first  diffraction  ring. 

Now  in  regard  to  this  extremely  successful  resolution.  The 
usually  accepted  limit  was  never  intended  to  be  the  ultimate 
value ;  it  was  fixed  in  a  purely  conventional  way,  so  as  to  provide 
a  standard  (in  terms  of  which  different  openings  and  instruments 


Diffraction  Rings.     By  Alfred    W.  Porter.  5 

might  be  compared)  which  would  have  a  perfectly  definite  mean- 
ing, be  totally  independent  of  a  particular  observer's  vision,  and 
at  the  same  time  represent  the  resolving  power  which  a  good 
(though  not  phenomenally  good)  observer  might  be  expected  to 
read.  I  have  myself  taught  in  my  classes  for  ten  years  past  that 
this  standard  is  purely  conventional,  and  is  easily  surpassed. 

However,  accepting  Mr.  Nelson's  data,  we  must  admit  the 
possibility  of  very  considerably  exceeding  the  conventional  limit. 
In  order  to  meet  such  exceptional  cases,  I  desire  to  propose  a 
new  standard,  which  shall  possess  the  merit  of  the  old  one  of 
being  independent  of  the  observer.  Let  the  stars  be  brought  to 
such  a  closeness  that  the  central  depression  just  disappears  ;  it  is 
obvious  that  this  closeness  represents  the  "  ne  plus  ultra  "  case  of 
resolution  for  monochromatic  light.  No  one,  however  keen  his 
vision,  will  cpiiite  succeed  in  seeing  the  star  double  at  this  limit- 
ing distance.  I  propose,  therefore,  to  take  this  degree  of  closeness 
as  the  ultimate  limit  of  resolving  power.  It  corresponds  to  the 
closeness  for  which  the  curves  of  intensity  of  the  individual  stars 
cross  each  other  at  their  points  of  inflexion  (that  is,  at  the  points 
at  which  they  have  no  curvature). 

It  is  true  that  even  for  this  degree  of  closeness,  the  oval  shape 
of  the  disk  of  light  may  enable  one  to  infer  that  it  is  not  a  single 
star  which  one  observes.  Moreover,  if  the  light  is  polychromatic, 
as  usual,  the  tint  at  the  centre  of  the  resultant  image  may  be 
expected  to  be  redder  than  on  each  side  ;  this,  again,  will  tend  to 
make  the  limit  of  resolution  lower  than  we  would  otherwise  expect. 
But  the  limit  I  here  suggest  is  certainly  so  near  the  attainable 
value,  even  when  auxiliary  circumstances  such  as  these  intervene, 
that  it  is  confidently  put  forward  as  the  correct  one  to  employ. 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


III. — Mercury   Globules  as  Test  Objects  for  the  Microscope. 
By  J.  W.   Gordon. 

(Bead  Nov.  20,  1907.) 
Plate  I.  (figs.  1,  2). 

The  difficulty  of  explaining  the  appearance  of  certain  objects  under 
high  magnification  led  me  some  two  or  three  months  ago  to  under- 
take a  comprehensive  study  of  the  appearance  in  the  Microscope 
of  mercury  globules.  The  hypothesis  upon  which  I  worked  was 
that  the  mercury  globule  being  a  simple  object  of  known  shape 
and  optical  properties  I  could  not  be  mistaken  as  to  the  appearances 
which  it  would  present,  and  if  in  any  respect  these  appearances 
should  prove  to  be  unexpected,  they  would  probably  be  easily 
traced  to  their  origin.  This  hypothesis  has  not  been  falsified, 
although  it  may  be  confessed  that  the  appearance  of  mercury 
globules  under  the  conditions  of  high  magnification  has  consider- 
ably surprised  me.  The  phenomena  observed  turn  out  to  be  due 
to  causes  which  will,  I  think,  interest  the  Fellows  of  the  Society. 
I  have  therefore  sought  the  opportunity  of  exhibiting  some  speci- 
mens, and  placing  a  short  description  before  this  Meeting. 

The  first  thing  to  strike  the  observer  is  a  phenomenon  which 
certainly  ought  not  to  have  been  unexpected,  although  I  may 
confess  that  it  surprised  me,  when  I  first  observed  it.  A  mercury 
globule  occupying  the  centre  of  a  bright  field,  and  illuminated  by 
a  large  cone  of  light  from  the  condenser,  presents  a  strong  luminous 
band  about  its  edge,  which  is  in  fact  displayed  upon  its  under 
face.  Attention  being  drawn  to  the  matter,  it  is  quite  easy  to  see 
that  an  objective  of  wide  angle  must  see  for  a  considerable  distance 
round  the  under  face  of  a  spherical  object.  The  diagram  (fig.  2) 
serves  to  show  how  this  comes  about  and  incidentally  to  indicate 
the  rule  by  which  the  inner  edge  of  this  luminous  band  may  be 
calculated.  Taking  the  ray  from  the  point  A  to  the  point  E  to  be 
an  edge  ray  of  the  beam  which  enters  the  objective,  it  is  easy  to 
see  that  that  ray  must  come  from  a  point  C  in  the  beam  received 
from  the  condenser,  since  the  angle  B  A  E  must  be  equal  to  the 
angle  B  A  C.  Moreover,  if  we  draw  the  perpendicular  X  Xr 
through  the  point  A  parallel  to  the  optical  axis,  we  shall  have  the 
angle  E  A  X  equal  to  the  semi-angle  of  aperture  of  the  objective. 
This,  therefore,  is  a  known  angle.    In  like  manner  the  angle  C  A  X' 


Mercury  Globules  as  Test  Objects.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.         7 

is  the  semi-angle  of  aperture  of  the  beam  received  from  the  con- 
denser. This  is  not  necessarily  a  known  angle,  but  if  it  can  be 
ascertained,  it  is  obvious  from  the  diagram  that  the  angle  at  0,  the 
centre  of  the  globule,  subtended  by  the  illuminated  band  A  G,  is 
equal  to  half  the  sum  of  the  angles  E  A  X  and  C  A  X'.  For  writing 
u  and  %  for  these  angles  respectively,  we  have 

ZAOE=Z^-ZAEO  =  ?A±^>-(|-^  =  i(^+%)    [1] 

This  bright  belt  is  clearly  seen  in  the  photograph  (Plate  I.  fig.  1) 
of  a  mercury  globule  exhibited  under  these  conditions.  In  addition 
there  is  seen  in  the  centre  of  the  globule  a  bright  spot  of  light 
reflected  from  its  upper  face.     The  light  which  thus  reaches  the 


Fig.|2. 

upper  face  of  the  globule  can  only  come,  and  does  in  fact  come, 
from  the  lenses  of  the  Microscope,  which  reflect  back  and  condense 
upon  an  object  placed  in  the  middle  of  a  field  a  very  strong  light 
received  by  them  from  the  field.  In  the  photograph  this  spot  of 
light  is  seen  unfocused  since  it  occupies  a  position  about  midway 
between  the  vertex  of  the  globule  and  its  equatorial  plane,  and  the 
Microscope  for  the  purpose  of  taking  this  photograph  was,  in  fact, 
focused  upon  the  illuminated  belt  which  lies  immediately  below 
the  equatorial  plane  upon  the  under  face  of  the  globule.  But, 
by  focusing  up  to  the  principal  focal  plane  of  the  globule,  it  being 
considered  for  this  purpose  as  a  convex  mirror,  a  detailed  view  may 
be  obtained  of  the  interior  of  the  Microscope. 

If  a  mercury  globule  upon  the  stage  of  the  Microscope  is 
illuminated  by  light  from  a  very  small  source  of  illumination,  and 
if,  further,  the  condenser  is  so  disposed  that  the  image  formed  by 
it  of  the  source  of  light  lies  a  little  above  the  equatorial  plane  of 


8 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


Fig.  8. 


the  globule,  we  then  have  the  conditions,  illustrated  by  fig.  3,  under 
which  .Fresnel  rings  are  formed,  by  the  turning  back  upon  itself  of 
a  small  annular  wave-front  reflected  from  a  narrow  zone  lying 
about  the  equator  on  the  surface  of  the  globule.  Here  Z  is  a 
section  of  the  reflecting  zone.  A  is  a  section  of  the  ring  upon 
which  an  incident  annular  wave  front  B  C  is  focused,  and  A'  is  a 
section  of  the  ring  to  which  it  is  reflected.  B  D  is  a  section  of  a 
surface  all  parts  of  which  lie  at  equal  optical  dis- 
tances from  the  ring  A'.  Under  these  conditions 
the  illumination  at  A'  will  be  a  maximum,  if  the 

3  v  5  \ 

distance  C  D  =  0,  or   —    —  ,  etc.,  and  will  be  a 

2      2 

minimum,  if  it  is  equal  to  X,  2  X,  3  X,  etc.  Thus, 
taking  A'  in  a  series  of  different  positions  rela- 
tively to  A,  we  get  varying  illumination,  which 
passes  from  maximum  to  minimum  and  back  to 
maximum  successively,  with  the  result  of  a 
system  of  Fresnel  rings. 

Under  these  conditions  very  magnificent  dis- 
plays of  Fresnel  rings  can  be  produced,  especially 
if  the  field  is  darkened  by  means  of  a  top  stop, 
and  they  have,  in  a  way  presently  to  be  men- 
tioned, an  important  application  for  the  purpose 
of  testing  and  perfecting  the  centring  adjustments  of  the  sub- 
stage  apparatus. 

Eeturning  now  to  the  consideration  of  the  bright  spot  in  the 
middle  of  the  globule,  the  first  thing  that  strikes  the  observer  is 
that  a  very  large  quantity  of  light  is  there  reflected,  and  that  the 
object  on  the  stage  is  in  fact  receiving  a  very  powerful  top  light  from 
the  objective.  This  impression,  upon  examination,  proves  to  be  well 
founded.  In  Plate  I.  fig.  2  we  have  a  photograph  of  a  small  piece  of 
etched  tinfoil.  This  object  was  illuminated  entirely  by  light  thrown 
back  from  the  refracting  surfaces  of  the  Microscope.  If  metallur- 
gists wanted  only  to  examine  minute  pieces  of  metal  like  this 
fragment,  which,  in  fact,  measures  about  y^  inch  in  diameter, 
they  would  not  have  need  to  have  recourse  to  any  other  system  of 
illumination  than  that  which  is  furnished  by  reflection  from  the 
lenses  of  the  objective.  This  fact  has  an  important  bearing  upon 
the  appearance  of  all  small  objects  seen  in  the  Microscope.  To 
this  cause,  for  example,  are  due  some  of  the  most  striking  appear- 
ances presented  by  diatoms.  And  it  is  now  apparent  to  me  that  to 
this  cause  must  be  attributed  the  high  light  shown  upon  the 
specimen  of  Staphylococcus,  a  photograph  of  which  I  showed  to 
the  Society  in  November  last.  The  photograph  is  reproduced  in 
Plate  III.  of  the  Journal  of  the  Society  for  1907  (facing  p.  10).  A 
very  familiar  illustration  of  this  effect  of  top  lighting  is  presented 
by  the  well-known  appearance  of  Pleurosigma  angulation  under  a 


Mercury  Globules  as   Test  Objects.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.         9 

wide-angled  lens.  The  silex  of  angulation  has  a  deep  brownish 
yellow  colour,  which  may  be  seen  when  the  specimen  is  viewed  by 
transmitted  light,  as,  for  example,  by  means  of  an  objective  of  low 
angle.  The  coloration  then  is  seen  to  be  very  strong,  but  if  the 
same  specimen  be  viewed  while  illuminated  from  the  same  source 
of  light  through  a  wide  angled  immersion  lens,  the  yellow  colour 
will  entirely  disappear.  The  silex  then  appears  to  be  of  a  brilliant 
white,  and  detail  which  by  the  transmitted  light  was  wholly 
invisible  comes  strongly  into  view.  This  is,  I  think,  undoubtedly 
a  case  of  top  lighting,  and  the  distinctive  image  which  a  wide- 
angled  lens  alone  can  show  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  illumination 
of  the  upper  surface  by  top  light  from  the  objective. 

Another  very  familiar  instance  of  the  effect  of  this  top  lighting 
is  afforded  by  the  much  discussed  phenomenon  known  as  an 
unoccupied  aperture.  The  top  light  from  an  immersion  objective  is 
given  back  in  very  great  abundance  from  its  peripheral  zones. 
This  may  seem  to  be  a  natural  thing  if  one  considers  only  that  the 
peripheral  zones  comprise  a  large  proportion  of  the  whole  surface. 
But  there  is  probably  some  reason  which  I  have  not  been  able  to 
divine,  for  assigning  to  the  peripheral  zones  a  reflecting  power  more 
than  proportional  to  their  area.  For  if  the  flooding  of  the  stage  with 
this  top  light  be  watched  while  the  observer  cautiously  opens  the 
iris  diaphragm,  it  will  be  seen  that  nothing  particular  happens 
untii  a  certain  point  is  reached  in  the  expansion  of  the  condenser 
aperture.  At  that  point  the  top  light  comes  rushing  in,  and  rapidly 
spreads  over  the  field.  If  any  reflecting  surface  lies  between  the 
object  and  the  objective,  the  image  is  almost  instantaneously 
ruined,  and  all  detail  is  blotted  out  in  a  blazing  mist  of  diffused 
illumination.  It  will  now,  I  think,  be  evident  why  the  explanation 
of  the  phenomena  connected  with  the  unoccupied  aperture  has 
given  so  much  trouble  to  microscopists.  They  have  omitted  to 
consider  the  great  abundance  in  which  the  peripheral  zones 
supply  this  top  light,  and  they  have  therefore  omitted  also  to 
consider  how  all  important  it  is  to  the  use  of  an  immersion 
objective  that  the  space  between  the  specimen  and  the  first 
reflecting  surface  should  be  filled  by  an  absolutely  non-reflecting 
medium.  When  the  front  lens  of  the  objective  and  the  cover 
glass  have  different  refractive  indices,  or  when  the  oil  interposed 
between  them  has  a  refracting  index  differing,  it  may  be  only 
slightly,  from  theirs,  there  is,  of  course,  a  reflecting  plane  or  more 
than  one,  interposed  between  the  specimen  and  the  first  refracting 
surface.  The  same  thing  occurs  of  necessity  in  the  case  of  all 
specimens  which  are  mounted  dry.  When  from  either  of  these 
causes  such  a  reflecting  surface  exists  it  will,  when  illuminated  by 
the  top  light  from  the  objective,  interpose  an  obstacle  through 
which  it  is  quite  impossible  to  see  anything  except  the  most 
strongly    marked   features   of    an    object.      It   is   therefore    not 


10  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

surprising  that  under  these  conditions  the  finer  details,  which  high 
power  lenses  are  specially  employed  to  reveal,  should  be  lost  to 
view,  and  it  is  obvious  that  the  remedy  must  be  to  cut  off  all 
superfluous  light  from  those  zones  of  the  system  which  send  it 
back  in  greatest  abundance  to  the  stage.  When  immersion 
objectives  are  designed  with  a  view  to  the  separating  of  the  focus 
of  reflection  from  that  of  refraction ;  or  when  the  optical 
homogeneity  of  front  lens,  immersion  fluid,  cover-glass  and 
mounting  medium  are  duly  considered  in  setting  up  the  object,  we 
shall  be  able  to  use  cones  of  condenser  light  that  will  fill  our 
objectives,  but  until  these  matters  come  to  be  considered  in 
connection  with  the  power  of  refracting  surfaces  to  reflect  light,  the 
appearance  of  any  given  object  under  illumination  by  large 
condenser  cones  must  be  a  mere  matter  of  chance. 

Another  set  of  phenomena  which  are  largely,  though  by  no 
means  wholly,  explained  by  the  top  lighting  comprises  those 
connected  with  oblique  illumination.  It  has  been  already  pointed 
out  that  the  reflected  light  from  an  immersion  objective  appears 
to  play  a  very  important  part  in  the  lighting  of  the  object.  When 
this  top  light  is  intended  to  fall  sidelong  on  the  object  and  to 
illuminate  it  by  cross  lights,  it  must  of  course  be  oblique  top  light. 
And  this  can  be  secured  by  shading  half  the  objective.  There 
appear  to  be  a  large  number  of  oblique  illumination  effects 
explainable  in  this  way. 

The  foregoing  are  general  observations.  It  remains  to  describe 
in  detail  the  various  applications  which  I  have  so  far  succeeded 
in  making  of  mercury  globules  for  the  purpose  of  testing  the 
Microscope. 

The  first  of  these  experiments  relates  to  the  Fresnel  rings,  the 
formation  of  which  is  illustrated  by  fig.  3,  already  described.  It 
may  be  pointed  out  that  the  number  of  such  rings  which  can  be 
seen  depends  upon  the  aperture  of  the  objective.  In  the  formation 
of  interference  bands,  as  a  rule,  the  outer  members  of  the  series 
fade  out  of  view  either  because  of  the  overlapping  of  different 
members  or  because  the  foreshortening  of  the  aperture  as  seen 
from  the  outlying  parts  of  the  interference  image  cuts  down  its 
light-transmitting  power  to  such  an  extent  that  the  illumination 
becomes  too  weak  to  be  seen.  In  the  case  of  the  mercury  globule, 
howrever,  a  different  set  of  conditions  obtains.  The  reflecting  zone 
is  most  foreshortened,  as  seen  through  the  innermost  rings.  Its 
light-giving  power  therefore  increases  as  the  observer  views  it 
through  the  outer  rings  of  the  series,  and  it  seems  to  be  a  fact  that 
the  limit  of  the  number  of  rings  seen  in  the  Microscope  is  set  by 
the  aperture  of  the  objective. 

It  follows  from  this  consideration  that  the  appearance  of  these 
rings  can  be  used  as  a  test  for  the  centring  of  the  globule  in  the 
optical  axis  of  the  objective.     It  may,  I  suppose,  be  taken  for 


Mercury  Globules  as   Test   Objects.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.        11 

granted,  at  any  rate  for  practical  purposes,  that  the  optical  axis 
passes  through  the  centre  of  the  aperture  of  the  objective.  If  there 
be  any  discrepancy  it  would,  no  doubt,  be  the  aperture,  and  not 
the  optical  axis,  which  would  determine  the  formation  of  the  rings. 
If,  then,  the  mercury  globule  lies  even  at  a  very  small  distance  out 
of  the  optical  centre  of  the  objective,  the  Fresnel  rings  will  be 
visibly  deformed.  In  one  of  the  Microscopes  exhibited  this 
evening  a  mercury  globule  is  displaced  slightly  from  the  optical 
centre  of  an  objective.  The  rings,  instead  of  forming  a  sym- 
metrical concentric  system,  form  a  system  in  which  one  side  is 
very  much  narrowed  and  the  opposite  side  expanded  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  be  quite  unmistakable. 

To  start  the  centring  operations,  therefore,  the  first  thing  to 
be  done  is  to  place  a  mercury  globule  in  the  optical  centre  of  the 
objective.  For  this  purpose  it  is  well  to  swing  the  condenser  clear 
of  the  stage,  and  light  the  object  directly  from  the  lamp  or  mirror. 
It  is,  moreover,  convenient  in  all  these  experiments  to  use  a  circular 
disc  as  the  source  of  light,  though,  of  course,  the  form  of  the  light 
source  is  of  very  little  importance  when  the  condenser  is  out  of  use. 
When  the  observer  is  satisfied  by  the  symmetrical  formation  of  the 
rings  that  the  globule  lies  truly  in  the  optical  axis  of  the  objective, 
he  will  next  proceed  to  rectify  the  position  of  his  source  of  light. 
This  may  be  done  by  inclining  the  mirror,  or  if  the  lamp  is  viewed 
without  a  mirror,  by  adjusting  the  position  of  the  lamp.  This 
adjustment  can  be  roughly  made  by  observing  the  illumination  of 
the  rings.  If  the  source  of  light  is  considerably  out  of  line  with 
the  optical  axis  of  the  instrument,  one  part  of  the  rings  will  appear 
to  be  more  brightly  illuminated  than  another  part.  The  displace- 
ment of  the  light  source  does  not  very  sensibly  affect  the  form  of 
the  rings  or  their  disposition  when  the  light  source  itself  is  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  stage.  But  it  does  most  materially 
affect  their  illumination.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  in  this  way  to- 
obtain  a  collimated  source  of  light.  But  a  still  more  sensitive 
test  will  be  presently  mentioned. 

The  source  of  light  having  thus  been  adjusted  in  line  with  the 
mercury  globule,  the  condenser  may  next  be  swung  into  position, 
and  now  the  advantage  of  the  circular  source  of  light  becomes 
apparent.  The  luminous  disk  should  be  of  such  dimensions  that 
its  image  has  a  diameter  slightly  less  than  that  of  the  globule. 
When,  therefore,  the  source  of  light  is  truly  focused  in  the  middle 
of  the  field,  it  will  be  entirely  occulted  by  the  globule,  and  the 
Fresnel  rings  will  be  brilliantly  seen  upon  a  dark  field.  If  there 
were  no  top  lighting  and  no  diffused  illumination  by  reflection 
from  the  surfaces  of  the  condenser,  the  Fresnel  rings  would,  under 
these  conditions,  be  seen  on  a  field  absolutely  black ;  but  this 
variously  reflected  light  causes  a  considerable  illumination  of  the 
stage,  and  the  Fresnel  rings,  therefore,  are  only  feebly  seen  unless 


12  Transaction*  of  the  Society. 

the  beam  from  the  condenser  is  narrowed  down  to  a  small  cone. 
It  is,  however,  quite  possible  in  spite  of  this  diffused  illumination, 
to  see  the  Fresnel  rings  even  in  the  bright  Held.  By  observing 
them  under  these  conditions,  with  the  aperture  of  the  condenser 
opened  wide,  it  is  possible  to  centre  the  condenser  in  its  turn.  Its 
position  will,  of  course,  be  central,  when  the  rings  are  again  evenly 
illuminated. 

The  final  centring  adjustment  remains  to  be  made — that, 
namely,  which  concerns  the  centring  of  the  iris  diaphragm. 
This  is,  of  course,  effected  in  the  same  way  as  the  centring  of  the 
condenser.  If  when  the  iris  is  closed  the  rings  are  unevenly 
illuminated,  it  must  be  moved  into  a  fresh  position  until  they  are 
seen  to  be  of  uniform  brightness  in  all  parts  of  the  field.  When 
this  result  is  reached  the  centring  is  completed  and  well  adjusted. 
The  mercury  globule  being  now  in  position,  it  may  be  employed 
to  examine  the  interior  of  the  objective.  For  tins  purpose  it  is 
best  to  turn  the  sub-stage  condenser  aside,  and  to  allow  the  light 
from  the  mirror,  or,  better  still,  direct  light  from  the  lamp  to  illu- 
minate the  stage.  It  is,  probably,  best  even  for  this  purpose  to 
have  a  circular  source  of  light,  but  that  is  not  now  so  important 
as  when  observing  the  Fresnel  rings.  The  light  being  accurately 
centred,  if  we  now  focus  upon  the  principal  focal  plane  of  the 
globule,  which  lies  about  midway  between  its  equator  and  its 
vertex,  we  shall  see  a  series  of  images  formed  by  the  various 
reflecting  surfaces  of  the  objective.  The  general  form  of  these 
images  is  that  of  a  bright  field  with  a  circular  dark  object  in  its 
centre,  but,  with  a  very  narrow  cone  of  incident  light,  such  as  we 

get  without  a  condenser,  the  bright  field  may 
lie  reduced  to  the  dimensions  of  a  thin  bright 
outline  to  the  dark  ima^e  of  the  globule.  What 
we  actually  see  is  a  image  of  the  stage  with 
the  globule  itself  at  its  centre.  The  diagram 
(fig.  4)  shows  generally  what  I  take  to  be  the 
optical  system  producing  these  images.  Here 
one  of  the  concave  surfaces  is  represented  by 
the  curve  F  F,  the  conjugate  point  to  the 
point  B,  the  refracting  surface  F  F  being  con- 
sidered as  a  concave  mirror,  lies  at  point  C. 
It  is  brought  to  a  shorter  focus  very  approximately  in  the  principal 
plane  of  the  globule  by  the  upper  surface  of  the  globule,  which 
serves  as  a  convex  mirror,  and  operates  as  a  field  lens  to  shorten 
the  working  distance  of  the  concave  mirror.  The  image  so  formed 
is  seen  through  the  Microscope  in  the  ordinary  way.  If  the 
point  B  is  at  the  focus  of  the  condenser,  it  and  its  conjugate 
point  C  will  be  brilliantly  luminous.  But  even  if  it  be  out  of 
focus,  it  is  sure  to  shed  light  enough  to  be  distinctly  visible  in  the 
dark  face  of  the  mercury  globule. 


Mercury  Globules  as   Test   Objects.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.        13 

It  will  now  be  obvious  that  every  reflecting  surface  in  the 
instrument  must  send  a  certain  amount  of  light  back  to  the  stage. 
It  is  not,  however,  every  such  surface  which  concentrates  the  light 
sufficiently  upon  the  globule  to  produce  a  visible  image  there.     It 
is  a  selection  only  of  the  reflecting  surfaces  which  thus  produce 
images  such  as  can  be  examined  in  the  Microscope.     I  imagine, 
however,  that  every  separate  lens  must  have  at  least  one  surface 
which  thus  yields  a  visible  image.     That,  however,  is  too  com- 
plicated a  problem  for  me  to  be  able  to  discuss  it  to  advantage. 
What  is  quite  clear  from  a  mere  inspection  of  the  images    so 
formed  is  that  almost,  if  not  entirely,  all  the  lenses  contribute  to 
the  collection  of  images.     The  multiplicity  of  such  images  and 
their  disposition  close  behind  one  another — when  a  very  small 
globule  is  used  as  the  reflecting  mirror — are,  indeed,  the  principal 
defects  of  this  system  of  examination.     The  images  will,  many  of 
them,  be  found  to  come  into  view  simultaneously,  and  then  if,  as 
often  happens,  they  overlap  but  do  not  coincide  with  one  another, 
a  confused  image  results  in  which  it  is  not  easy  to  discern  the 
outline  of  the  object  globule.     In  the  case,  however,  of  a  well- 
constructed  lens,  the  light  being  accurately  centred,  these  images 
are  all  concentric,  and  the   various  pictures  can    be   easily  dis- 
criminated  even  when   two    or   more   of  them    come  into  focus 
together.     This  method  of  examining  an  objective  will  be  found  to 
be  a  very  searching  test  of  its  mechanical  perfection,  for  any  lens 
not  perfectly  set  will  produce  an  excentric  image.     Moreover,  this 
mechanical  accuracy  in  the  placing  of  the  lenses  is  itself  a  con- 
dition of  high  optical  quality.     A  single  lens  tilted  to  one  side 
may    produce    but   little    effect   in    the    ordinary  working    of   an 
objective.     But  it  will  effectually  prevent  the  instrument  from 
yielding  the  finest  results  of  which  its  combination  is  capable. 
This  test,  therefore,  is  of  considerable  value,  and  it  has  the  merit 
not  only  of  being  a  crucial  test,  but,  in  addition,  of  being  one  which 
indicates  the  nature  of  any  defect  detected.     It  will  therefore,  I 
imagine,  be  found  to  be  a  useful  addition  to  the  arsenal  of  the 
instrument  maker,  as  well  as  an  easily  available  test  by  which 
the  microscopist  can  examine  the  mechanical  perfection  of  his 
objectives. 

The  lenses  of  the  objective  having  been  in  this  way  examined, 
we  may  now  restore  the  substage,  condenser  and  iris -diaphragm  to 
their  places.  Then,  of  course,  we  shall  have  to  work  "with  focused 
light,  and  the  appearance  presented  by  the  various  images  in  the 
mercury  globule  will  be  altered  accordingly.  It  will  be  found  that 
there  are  two  positions  of  the  substage  condenser  in  which  definite 
images  beside  the  image  of  the  mercury  globule  are  given.  In  one 
of  them,  the  image  is  an  image  of  the  source  of  light ;  in  the  other, 
it  is  an  image  of  an  aperture  of  the  condenser,  defined  as  a  rule, 
of  course,  by  the  iris  diaphragm.     The  mercury  globule  and  the 


14  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

source  of  light  having  been  duly  centred,  it  will  be  found  that 
these  two  images  afford  an  easier  method  of  centring  the  substage 
mechanism  than  that  already  described  of  observations  made  upon 
the  Fresnel  rings.  Thus,  the  iris- diaphragm  being  opened  wide  in 
order  to  expose  the  full  aperture  of  the  condenser,  we  ought,  when 
the  source  of  light  is  focused  in  the  globule,  to  see  it  truly  central. 
If  that  is  the  case,  the  optical  axis  of  the  substage  condenser  is 
coincident  with  the  optical  axis  of  the  Microscope.  Then  a  very 
minute  image  of  the  globule  itself  will  be  seen  occupying  the  exact 
centre  of  the  small  image  of  the  source  of  light.  The  slightest 
displacement  of  the  condenser  disturbs  this  arrangement  and 
throws  this  opaque  image  of  the  globule  visibly  away  from  the 
centre  of  the  source  of  light.  This,  therefore,  is  an  extremely 
critical  test  of  the  centring  of  the  condenser.  The  condenser 
having  been  centred,  you  may  now  alter  its  focal  position  so  as  to 
bring  the  aperture  of  the  condenser  and  the  image  of  the  iris  into 
view  in  the  globule.  If  now  the  iris  be  closed,  its  image  will  be 
seen  closing  either  truly  upon  the  image  of  the  globule  or  upon 
some  excentric  point  according  as  the  iris  is  in  or  out  of  centre. 
Here,  again,  the  necessary  adjustments  are  easily  made,  since  their 
progress  can  be  followed  with  the  eye. 

There  is  among  the  exhibits  upon  the  table  this  evening  one 
which  very  strikingly  indicates  the  great  abundance  in  which  light 
comes  back  from  the  reflecting  surfaces  of  the  optical  system.  A 
comparatively  large  globule,  actually  of  diameter  of  -^  in.,  is  mounted 
under  a  ^-in.  objective.  The  light  is  so  arranged  that  a  strong  image 
is  thrown  back  from  the  observer's  cornea,  when  his  eye  is  placed 
accurately  at  the  eye-point  of  the  instrument.  The  flashing  of  this 
image  across  the  centre  of  the  globule  forms  a  very  striking  object, 
and  it  may  be  observed  that  in  this  experiment  a  very  perfect 
image  of  the  globule  is  in  this  way  formed,  and  may  be  momentarily 
seen.  But  it  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  hold  the  eye  stationary 
enough  for  anything  more  than  a  flash  view  of  this  image.  Beside 
the  corneal  image  a  coloured  and  imperfectly  focused  image 
reflected  from  the  interior  of  the  eye  may  also  be  seen.  I  mention 
it  not  as  an  object  upon  which  I  have  any  observations  to  offer, 
but  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  the  attention  of  others  to  it  who 
will  be  able  to  study  it  to  better  purpose  than  I  can. 

The  phenomenon  just  described  may  be  made  the  starting  point 
of  an  almost  ideal  test  for  resolving  power.  In  place  of  the  eye, 
which  is  a  moving  object,  we  may  substitute  a  mercury  globule 
properly  mounted  at  the  eye-point  of  the  microscope.  It  will  then 
reflect  light  precisely  as  did  the  observer's  cornea  in  the  last 
experiment,  and  if  for  this  purpose  we  use  a  small  mercury  globule 
(one  having  a  diameter  of  j^g  of  an  inch  is  very  suitable),  it  will 
not  impair  the  observer's  view  of  the  stage,  when  he  looks  down 
the  instrument.      In  that  case  he  will  see,  not  the  image  reflected 


Mercury  Globules  as   Test   Objects.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.       15 

from  his  ow,n  cornea,  but  an  image  reflected  from  the  under  face  of 
this  new  globule,  which  I  will,  when  further  referring  to  it,  speak 
of  as  the  speculum  globule,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  object 
globule  on  the  stage. 

It  may  be  convenient  at  this  point  to  invite  you  to  consider  the 
nature  of  the  optical  arrangement  thus  set  up.  It  is,  of  course,  a 
very  common  observation  that  when  two  mirrors  are  placed  on 
opposite  walls  facing  one  another  we  get  a  great  number  of 
successive  reflections  producing  the  appearance  to  the  observer 
placed  between  them  of  a  long  vista  of  mirror  frames  and  many 
repetitions  of  his  own  head.  The  same  thing  would,  of  course, 
happen  if  our  mirrors  were  convex  mirrors.  But  in  that  case  the 
successive  images  would  very  rapidly  diminish  in  size.  In  the  case 
of  plain  mirrors  the  successive  images  diminish  in  apparent  size  as 
the  result  of  perspective,  but  in  the  case  of  convex  mirrors  they 
would  diminish  not  only  as  the  result  of  perspective  but  also  by 
reason  of  the  magnifying  power  of  the  mirrors  themselves.  This 
is  what  happens  in  the  case  of  two  mercury  globules  lacing  one 
another.      The  observer  looking,  as  indicated  in  fig.  5,  past   the 


Fig.  5. 

speculum  globule  into  the  face  of  the  object  globule,  sees  there  an 
image  of  the  inner  face  of  the  speculum  globule  and  in  that  image, 
which  I  will  speak  of  as  an  image  of  the  first  order,  he  sees  an 
image  of  the  second  order  of  the  object  globule  itself  as  reflected 
in  the  face  of  the  speculum  globule.  This  second  order  image  is 
of  necessity  a  very  small  image,  for  it  has  undergone  reduction 
in  size,  first  by  the  speculum  globule  and  then  by  the  object  globule 
itself.  If  now  we  interpose  a  lens  between  these  two  globules 
we  do  not  prevent  in  any  way  the  interchange  of  reflections 
between  them.  The  phenomena  are,  of  course,  somewhat  compli- 
cated by  the  magnifying  power  of  the  lens,  but  are  not  otherwise 
affected  by  it.  We  are  thus  led  to  expect  that  if  the  optical 
system  of  the  Microscope  were  interposed  between  the  two 
globules  of  fig.  5,  we  should  still  have  the  second  order  image  of 
the  object  globule  seen  in  its  own  surface.  This  is  what  actually 
happens,  and  in  one  of  the  Microscopes  upon  the  table  this  evening 
you  will  find  an  arrangement  of  this  sort  set  up  and  a  brilliant 
second  order  image  of  the  object  globule  exhibited  to  view. 


16  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

It  will  be  interesting  now  to  consider  why  the  second  order 
image  happens  to  be  so  conspicuous.  If  it  were  simply  a  question 
of  size,  one  would  expect  the  first  order  image  of  the  speculum 
globule  to  be  more  conspicuous  still,  but,  in  fact,  that  image  can- 
not be  seen.  The  reason  can  easily  be  assigned.  The  speculum 
globule  lies  in  a  perfectly  dark  field,  and  is  illuminated  only  by 
light  which  it  reflects  from  the  stage  of  the  Microscope.  Only  its 
reflecting  surface,  therefore,  is  a  visible  object  at  all,  and  thus  the 
image  of  the  speculum  globule,  theoretically  present  in  the  object 
globule,  is  an  invisibly  dark  object.  Under  very  special  conditions 
of  illumination  it  can  just  be  seen.  But  to  bring  it  into  view  is  a 
difficult  experiment,  and  one  which  I  have  not  attempted  this 
evening  to  demonstrate.  The  images  of  the  speculum  globule 
being  thus  excluded,  we,  nevertheless,  have  to  consider  a  whole 
series  of  images  of  the  second,  fourth,  sixth,  etc.,  orders.  These 
may  all  be  dealt  with  in  a  word  by  considering  only  the  case  of 
the  fourth  order  image.  It  will  at  once  be  appreciated  that  this, 
having  undergone  four  reductions  in  scale  by  reflections  between 
the  globules,  has  become  an  object  almost  infinitesimally  small. 
In  fact  it  is  much  too  small  to  be  seen,  and  therefore,  of  all  the 
images  which  are  theoretically  possible,  only  this  second  order 
image  of  the  object  globule  is,  in  fact,  a  visible  image.  It,  how- 
ever, shines  with  such  effulgence  as  to  constitute  it  a  most  striking 
object,  very  easily  identified  and  observed.  Here,  then,  we  have 
the  primary  conditions  of  a  perfect  test  object:  A  circular  disk 
which  is  densely  black  and  of  known,  that  is  to  say,  of  calculable 
dimensions,  lying  in  a  bright  field  and  capable  by  a  proper  selec- 
tion of  mercury  globules,  of  being  made  to  any  desired  size,  so  that 
we  can  overpass  the  resolving  power  of  any  imaginable  lens. 

The  optical  system  built  up  in  this  way  of  the  two  mercury 
globules  mounted  one  at  each  end  of  the  Microscope,  has  some 
interesting  properties.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  two  globules 
do  not  occupy  positions  which  are  conjugate  to  one  another.  On 
the  contrary,  each  occupies  what  is  an  apertural  plane  in  the 
optical  system  which  focuses  in  the  other  globule.  Consequently, 
the  two  principal  focal  planes  of  the  globules  are  conjugate  to  one 
another,  not  their  two  centres.  From  this  it  follows  that  the 
dimensions  of  the  image  seen  depend  simply  on  the  principal  focal 
lengths  involved,  and  are  independent  of  the  exact  positions  which 
the  globules  occupy.  This  fact  is  highly  convenient,  since  it 
enables  us  to  place  the  speculum  globule  at  whatever  distance 
from  the  eye  lens  is  most  convenient  for  the  observation  that  we 
wish  to  make.  The  position  of  the  object  globule  is,  of  course, 
definitely  determined,  since  its  principal  focal  plane  must  coincide 
with  the  focal  plane  upon  the  stage  of  the  Microscope.  But  it 
may  be  desirable  to  vary  the  position  of  the  speculum  globule.    A 


Mercury  Globules  as  Test  Objects.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.       17 

glance  at  fig.  6,  which  illustrates  the  optical  system,  shows  that 
the  conditions  of  illumination  are  identical  over  an  appreciable 
range  of  distance  along  the  optical  axis  in  the  region  occupied  by 
the  speculum  globule  (gi).  It  is  also  clear  from  this  consideration 
that  the  light  reflected  from  the  surface  of  the  speculum  globule 
does  not  fill  the  whole  aperture  of  the  Microscope,  but  passes  along 
certain  zones,  these  zones  being  more  central  when  the  globule  is 
near  the  eye-lens,  and  more  peripheral  when  it  is  remote  from  the 
eye-lens.  A  very  pretty  experiment  can  be  made  by  moving  the 
speculum  globule  slowly  from  one  of  its  extreme  positions  to  the 
other.  We  can  then  watch  the  gradual  change  in  the  appearance 
of  the  imaG;e  as  it  is  transmitted  through  different  zones  of  the 
system.  The  most  noticeable  change  is  that  the  colour  varies,  the 
image  being,  as  a  rule,  strongly  blue  at  one  end  and  distinctly  red 
at  the  other,  a  good  achromatic  image  being  obtained  at  some 
intermediate  point. 

The  diagram,  fig.  6,  shows  the  path  of  an  incident  pencil  from 


OBJECTIVE. 


OCULAR 


Pig.  6. 


a  point  on  the  object  globule  in  full  lines — the  path  of  a  reflected 
pencil  in  broken  lines.  It  is  obvious  that  the  diameter  of  the 
black  disk  seen  in  the  object  globule  (^/2)  can  be  very  easily 
calculated.  Looking  down  the  instrument  we  have  in  the  field 
the  original  of  the  picture  pourtrayed  in  the  object  globule,  and  it 
is  seen  under  the  full  magnifying  power  of  the  Microscope.  It 
exhibits,  of  course,  a  bright  field,  an  illuminated  edge  of  the 
globule,  which  melts  into  the  field,  and  a  dark  centre,  the  diameter 
of  which  last  depends  upon  the  aperture  of  the  objective  and  the 
angle  at  which  the  light  from  the  condenser  strikes  the  under  face 
of  the  globule.  If  this  latter  factor  were  known  it  would  be  an 
easy  thing  to  calculate  the  diameter  of  the  darkened  part  of  the 
disk  by  the  formula  of  equation  (1),  but  as  the  exact  angle  of  the 
condenser  cone  depends  upon  the  focusing  of  the  condenser, 
and  as,  moreover,  the  focusing  of  the  condenser  may  most 
conveniently  be  adjusted  with  reference  to  the  brightness  of  the 
resulting  image,  this  cannot  very  well  be  made  the  subject  of 
calculation.  But  since  it  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Microscope  and  of 
full  size    it   can    quite   easily    be    made  the  subject  of  measure- 

Feb.  19th,  1908  c 


18  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

ment.  We  may,  therefore,  take  the  following  magnitudes  to  be 
known. 

The  optical  length  of  the  Microscope ;  which  may  be  written  L. 

The  equivalent  focal  length  of  the  ocular; — written /^ 

The  diameter  of  the  speculum  globule; — written  g1. 

The  equivalent  focal  length  of  the  objective ; — written  f2. 

The  diameter  of  the  object  globule ; — written  g2. 

The  diameter  of  the  dark  patch  upon  the  object  globule ; 
— written  D. 

It  will  be  evident  on  reference  to  the  diagram,  fig.  6,  that  the 
apparent  size  of  the  second  order  image  in  the  object  globule  of  its 
own  darkened  surface,  which  may  be  written  d,  is, 

—  if;  f  2f 2  *         *         *      ^    ' 

It  is  evident  from  this  equation  that  the  dimensions  of  the 
test  object  (d)  can  be  varied  in  two  ways  ;  that  is  to  say,  we  may 
alter  the  size  of  the  object  globule  or  we  may  alter  the  size  of  the 
speculum  globule,  and  thus,  by  varying  these  two  elements  in  the 
combination,  we  can  produce  a  black  dot  of  any  required  dimensions 
however  small.  Moreover,  the  mathematical  law  is  one  that  works 
out  to  a  very  convenient  system  in  practice.  If  we  alter  the  size 
of  the  speculum  globule  the  value  of  (d)  alters  according  to  a 
simple  proportion,  so  that  we  may  write  the  above  expression  (2) 

d  =  Gglm 

C  being  a  constant ;  if  everything  except  the  speculum  globule  is 
left  unchanged.  We  have  thus  the  means  of  very  gradually 
altering  the  dimensions  of  the  test  object  by  substituting  speculum 
globules  of  slightly  varying  dimensions. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  vary  the  object  globule  we,  of  course, 
alter  the  value  of  D  at  the  same  time.  In  fact,  D  is  itself  directly 
proportional  to  g2,  therefore  we  may  write  the  product 

g2B  =  Ci^2. 

If  we  assume  everything  to  remain  unchanged  except  the  object 
globule,  we  may  write  equation  (2)  as  follows : — 

a  =  ^>ig2. 

It  thus  appears  that  by  changing  the  object  globule  we  very  rapidly 
alter  the  size  of  the  test  image,  and  if  we  alter  the  size  of  both  the 
globules  simultaneously,  we  get  finally  a  value  in  the  form 

d  =  03g1g2i. 

Under  these  conditions  the  size  of  the  test  image  varies  very 
rapidly  indeed.     And  thus  with  a  comparatively  small  range  of 


Mercury  Globules  as   Test  Objects.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.      19 

mercury  globules  it  is  possible  to  obtain  test  objects  of  all  dimen- 
sions down  to  such  as  will  be  invisible  in  the  finest  instruments 
that  can  be  made,  while  at  the  same  time  we  have  the  power  to 
vary  the  size  of  our  test  object  at  any  point  in  the  series  by  the 
finest  degrees  of  change  of  magnitude. 

It  will  do  doubt  be  understood  that  in  the  case  of  the  speculum 
globule  it  is  necessary,  and  in  the  case  of  the  object  globule  con- 
venient, to  have  it  mounted  between  glasses  in  Canada  balsam.  In 
the  case  of  the  speculum  globule,  which  reflects  the  image  from  its 
lower  face,  it  is  necessary  to  make  sure  that  the  lower  face  is  not 
resting  in  contact  with  the  glass.  If  the  balsam  is  at  all  viscous, 
the  globule  may  subside  into  that  position  in  use,  and  so  present  a 
flattened  face  to  the  object  globule  which,  of  course,  entirely  alters 
the  dimensions  of  the  resulting  second  order  image. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  I. 

Fig    1.— Mercury  Globule. 
„    2.— Etched  Tinfoil. 


20  Transactions  of  the  Society. 


IV. — Li'/kt  Filters  for  Photomicrography. 
By  E.  Moffat. 

(Bead  November  20,  1907.) 

Plate  I.  (figs.  3-6). 

For  a  number  of  years  my  attention  has  been  directed  to  light 
filters  in  connection  with  photomicrography,  as  a  means  of  obtain- 
ing well  contrasted  photographs  of  objects  whose  natural  or  faintly 
stained  appearance  has  occasioned  one  the  greatest  amount  of 
trouble,  and  in  many  cases  had  to  be  abandoned  in  despair. 
Some  fine  pathological  preparation,  highly  valued  it  may  be,  and 
from  which  the  stain  has  all  but  disappeared — to  unmount  and 
re-stain  which  might  be  attended  with  considerable  risk,  owing  to 
the  fineness  of  the  texture — or  some  very  pale-yellow  insect  dissec- 
tion, or  other  difficult  object,  has  to  be  photographed  :  without  a 
filter  and  orthochromatic  plate  the  attempt  would  be  well  nigh 
hopeless,  but  given  a  correctly  prepared  filter  to  meet  the  special 
needs  of  the  case,  the  result  will  be  highly  gratifying. 

The  spectroscope  in  such  cases  is  invaluable  in  the  determina- 
tion of  colour  and  depth  of  tint  required.  A  simple  pocket  instru- 
ment is  sufficiently  good,  but  where  greater  accuracy  is  demanded, 
one  can  easily  rig  up  a  table  instrument  with  two  cheap  tele- 
scopes —  one  being  used  as  a  collimator,  using  the  object-glass 
only,  and  the  other  is  easily  converted  into  a  small  astronomical 
telescope  ;  a  dense  glass  prism  and  slit  completing  the  arrange- 
ment. A  scale  can  be  made  on  paper  of  the  principal  Fraunhofer 
lines,  and  this  can  be  used  for  recording  by  artificial  light,  where 
the  absorption  bands  appear  on  the  spectrum  of  the  dyes  or  filters 
we  are  about  to  employ. 

If  we  place  in  a  cell  of  about  1  cm.  deep  a  weak  solution  of  the 
dye  by  which  the  preparation  is  stained,  we  shall  find  that  the 
spectrum  is  modified,  and  some  parts  may  be  missing  altogether, 
as  where  the  absorption  bands  appear.  Now,  to  obtain  the  greatest 
sontrast,  we  must  photograph  in  the  absorption  band  region  with  a 
filter  which  will  always  be  the  complementary  colour,  and  therefore 
produce  the  greatest  darkness  upon  the  resulting  print,  the  shadows 
upon  the  negative  having  practically  clear  glass  ;  e.g.  fuchsin  gives 
a  band  about  midway  between  D  and  E,  and  is  well  met  by  a  screen 
or  liquid  filter  composed  of  a  saturated  solution  of  copper  acetate 
and  a  little  potassium  bichromate.     These  may  be  made  up  in  two 


Light  Filters  for  Photomicrography.     By  E.  Moffat.         21 

separate  cells,  or  mixed  together,  when  a  muddy  compound  will  be 
produced,  but  by  adding  acetic  acid  drop  by  drop  this  will  clear 
up,  and  a  fine  permanent  filter  will  be  the  result,  this  being  excellent 
also  for  visual  work. 

My  experience  has  been  that  with  these  liquid  filters  a  far 
superior  result  is  obtained  than  with  gelatin-stained  films,  as  the 
latter  when  rubbed  stop  a  considerable  amount  of  light.  The 
liquid  filters  pass  a  maximum  of  light,  and  so  reduce  exposure  to 
a  minimum,  and  at  the  same  time  act  as  heat-absorbing  troughs, 
enabling  the  Microscope  to  keep  longer  in  focus.  Monochromatic 
light  is  hardly  practicable  unless  the  arc  lamp  is  used,  and,  after 
all,  a  bichromatic  light  is  ample  for  nearly  all  purposes,  and  by 
working  with  the  two  chemicals  named  much  good  work  can  be 
done.  A  saturated  solution  of  copper  acetate  in  a  fairly  deep  cell, 
say  25  mm.,  will  cut  out  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum  and  also  the 
orange  beyond  the  D  line.  A  strong  solution  of  potassium 
bichromate  will  absorb  the  spectrum  from  the  violet  end  through 
the  blue  and  beyond  the  F  line.  A  special  case  may  arise  where 
a  red  sensitive  plate  and  a  red  filter  are  required,  such  as  in  a 
faintly-stained  methylen-blue  preparation,  where  the  absorption 
band  is  principally  about  the  C  line  ;  but  in  practice  a  good  nega- 
tive can  generally  be  got  of  this  by  a  deep  orange  filter  and  a 
yellow  sensitive  plate — these  plates  being  exceptionally  good  for 
photomicrographic  work,  and  generally  giving  greater  contrast  than 
the  plate  sensitised  to  the  whole  spectrum. 

As  before  stated,  insect  dissections,  and  similar  objects  of  a 
pale-yellow  or  straw  colour — the  chitinous  substances  assuming 
such  tints  when  mounted  in  balsam — might  be  well  represented  by 
Bismark  brown  (Yesuvian),  which  has  an  absorption  band  from  the 
violet  end  of  the  spectrum  to  the  F  line.  A  successful  result  can 
in  most  cases  be  obtained  by  a  filter  of  gentian-violet,  which  has  an 
absorption  band  in  D  towards  the  yellow,  using  an  ordinary  slow 
plate  and  giving  a  minimum  exposure. 

Excessively  rapid  dry-plates  I  have  found  to  be  of  no  advantage, 
as  there  is  a  greater  danger  of  chemical  and  light  fog,  owing  to  the 
time  usually  required  in  development  of  photomicrographic  nega- 
tives in  comparison  with  field  or  landscape  work,  much  greater 
contrast  being  demanded.  Personally,  I  have  found  that  when  the 
first  appearance  of  the  image  is  from  2^-3  minutes,  and  is  com- 
pleted in  about  15-18  minutes,  the  best  negatives  are  obtained, 
pyro  soda,  with  a  large  quantity  of  potassium  bromide,  being  the 
developer  used. 

The  accompanying  photographs  were  taken  on  Barnet  ortho- 
chromatic  plates  and  printed  on  glossy  bromide  paper,  the  light 
used  being  a  Nernst  lamp,  1  ampere  on  100-volt  circuit,  with  the 
addition  of  an  ordinary  lantern  condenser,  the  exposure  being 
marked  on  each. 


22  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

In  conclusion,  unless  a  good  picture  is  portrayed  upon  the 
ground-glass  screen  to  the  naked  eye  without  the  use  of  a  magnifier, 
just  as  in  ordinary  photography,  the  resulting  negative  will  probably 
be  a  failure,  but  by  the  use  of  the  above  simple  filters,  supplemented 
by  the  spectroscope,  much  may  be  accomplished  upon  subjects 
hitherto  considered  impossible,  and  in  all  cases  much  useful  infor- 
mation may  be  acquired. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE  I. 

Fig.  3. —  Trypanosoma  gambiense.  x  1500.  Leitz  objective  ;  ^oil-immersion; 
6  x  compensating  ocular  ;  Barnet  ortho  plate  ;  Nernst  lamp.  Ex- 
posure, 3  minutes. 

,,  4. — Bacillus  pestis.  x  1200.  Potassium  bichromate  filter.  Exposure, 
3  minutes. 

,,    5. — Poison  fang  of  Spider.     Gentian-violet  filter.     Exposure,  10  seconds. 

,,  6. — Gizzard  of  Cricket,  showing  teeth.  Gentian-violet  filter.  Exposure, 
10  seconds. 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

RELATING    TO 

ZOOLOGY       AND       BOTANY 

(PRINCIPALLY   INVERTEBRATA   AND    CRYPTOGAMIA), 

MICROSCOPY,    Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 
VERTEBRATA. 

a.  Embryology. t 


Removal  and  Transplantation  of  Ovaries.^ — F-  H.  A.  Marshall  and 
W.  A.  Jolly  have  previously  adduced  evidence  in  support  of  the  view 
that  heat  and  menstruation  are  iuducecl  either  directly  or  indirectly 
through  the  activity  of  an  internal  secretion  or  hormone  arising  in  the 
ovaries,  and  that  the  corpus  luteum  provides  a  secretion  which  assists  in 
the  nourishment  of  the  embryo  during  the  first  stages  of  pregnancy.  In 
the  present  paper  the  investigators  show  that  the  existence  of  ovarian 
tissue  is  an  essential  factor  in  normal  uterine  nutrition  ;  and  further, 
that  the  nature  of  the  ovarian  influence  upon  the  uterus  is  chemical 
rather  than  nervous,  since  the  transplanted  ovaries  (in  rats),  while  still 
maintaining  their  functions  (at  least,  in  many  cases),  had  lost  their 
normal  nervous  connections.  It  is  extremely  probable,  therefore,  that 
the  uterus  is  dependent  for  its  proper  nutrition  upon  substances  secreted 
by  the  ovaries,  not  merely  at  the  heat  periods  and  during  pregnancy, 
when  they  show  their  greatest  activity,  but  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
cestrous  cycle. 

Inheritance  of  Pigmentation  in  Mice.§  — L.  Cuenot  continues  his 
important  investigations  on  the  inheritance  of  pigmentation  in  mice,  all 
of  which  go  to  show  the  general  occurrence  of  Mendelian  phenomena. 
In  fact,  all  the  determinants  known  in  mice  conform  strictly  to  Mendelian 
rules.     "  On  ne  connait  chez  les  souris  que  des  caracteres  mendeliens." 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they 
do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers 
noted,  nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of 
this  part  of  the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  pub- 
lished, and  to  escribe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  etc.,  which  are 
either  new  or     ave  not  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

f  This  section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so 
called,  but  also  those  dealing  with  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  and 
allied  subjects. 

X  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xlv.  (1907)  pp.  589-99  (2  pis.). 

§  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  vi.  (1907)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  1,  pp.  i-xiii. 


24  sim  MARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Artificial  Insemination  in  Mammals.*— J.  J.  IwanofiE  discusses 
the  experiments,  sometimes  successful,  which  he  and  others  have  made 
in  the  artificial  insemination  of  sheep,  cows,  and  mares.  He  notes,  inter 
alia,  that  the  seminal  fluid  of  hybrids  of  horse  and  zebra  contains  no 
spermatozoa,  that  the  sperm  may  be  kept  successfully  in  weak  solutions 
of  sodium  chloride  and  carbonate,  and  that  the  spermatozoa  show  great 
resisting  power  against  cold,  alcohol,  and  other  untoward  conditions. 

By  artificial  insemination  Iwanoff  made  a  hybrid  between  a  female 
white  mouse  and  a  male  white  rat.     The  hybrid  was  very  large. 

Gastrulation  in  Petromyzon.f — S.  Hatta  describes  this  process  in 
considerable  detail.  Amongst  others  he  emphasizes  the  following 
peculiarities.  Blastulation  and  gastrulation  overlap  each  other  to  a 
great  extent  in  the  period  of  their  occurrence.  The  prime  cause  of  this 
belated  mode  of  development  is  indisputably  due  to  delay  of  segmenta- 
tion on  account  of  an  enormous  accumulation  of  yolk  within  the  ovum. 
"  Concrescence  "  has  not  been  detected  at  any  stage.  The  macrospheric 
hemisphere  has  an  activity  of  its  own.  "  This  is  an  important  factor  in 
bringing  about  the  gastrulation  in  Petromyzon.  That  such  is  the  case 
in  the  Petromyzon  ovum,  which  contains  a  much  larger  quantity  of  yolk 
than  the  frog's  ovum,  and  that  there  is  no  yolk  plug  in  the  former,  are 
very  striking  facts."  To  explain  this  the  author  assumes  that  the  frog's 
ovum  is  secondarily  holoblastic,  as  has  already  been  maintained  by 
Mitsukuri. 

Determining  Factors  in  Metamorphosis  of  Anura.$ — P.  Wintrebert 
deals  with  the  bearing  of  pulmonary  respiration  on  this  problem.  He 
finds  that  in  tadpoles  of  Rana  temporaria  artificially  prevented  from 
exercising  this  function,  metamorphosis  is  not  prevented,  although  it  is 
delayed.  The  want  of  the  exercise  of  the  lungs  does  not  prevent  their 
development.  At  the  end  of  transformation  larva?,  which  up  till  then 
have  not  breathed  by  their  lungs,  when  transported  into  open  water  do 
not  try  by  taking  in  surface-air  to  remedy  the  asphyxia  caused  by  the 
atrophy  of  the  branchiae.  In  particular,  when  their  fore-limbs  have  no 
support  they  do  not  try  by  hind-limb  movements  to  keep  their  heads 
above  water.  The  absorption  of  the  tail  is  more  complete  if  the  water 
is  abundantly  renewed.  The  tadpoles  of  R.  temporaria  die  in  the  same 
current  in  which  Alytes  obstetricans  metamorphoses  and  survives.  In 
this  latter  form  cutaneous  respiration  in  an  aquatic  medium  suffices  for 
blood  aeration. 

Experiments  with  Tadpoles. §— P.  Wintrebert  finds  that  lame  of 
Rana  temporaria,  transported  from  water  to  air,  undergo  precocious 
metamorphosis.  The  gills  and  tail  atrophy,  being  useless.  The  para- 
lysed tail  becomes  a  mere  skeleton,  but  keeps  its  form.  It  seems  that 
the  abnormal  degeneration  of  the  gills  and  the  tail,  and  the  precocious 

*  Arch.  Sci.  Biol.,  xii.  (1907)  135  pp.,  6  figs.  See  also  Zool.  Zentralbl.,  xiv. 
(1907)  pp.  603-4. 

t  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xxi.  (1907)  Art.  2,  pp.  1-44  (3  pis.). 
%  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxii.  (1907)  pp.  1154-6. 
§  Op.  cit.,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  403-5. 


ZOOLOGY    AMU    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    KTC.  25 

reduction  of  the  alimentary  canal,  furnish  a  large  amount  of  absorbed 
material,  and  this  perhaps  hastens  the  definitive  development  of  the  limbs 
and  the  formation  of  the  spiracular  opening. 

Experiments  with  Axolotls.* — P.  Wintrebert  describes  his  method 
of  transforming  axolotls  into  amblystomas  in  an  inclined  aquarium  with 
an  aquatic  portion  and  a  relatively  dry  portion,  and  with  some  sponges 
forming  an  intermediate  area.  He  tried  Powers'  method  of  leaving  the 
axolotls  in  the  water,  and  suddenly  stopping  the  food  supply  after  a 
period  of  super-abundant  nutrition.  But  no  transformation  was  effected 
in  this  way.  A  modification  of  Marie  von  Chauvin's  method,  as  above 
suggested,  is  usually  effective.  The  importance  of  the  environmental 
factor  has  been  exaggerated  ;  the  hereditary  influence  is  paramount. 

Segments  of  Head  and  Brain  in  Gull.f — A.  Meek  has  studied 
embryos  of  the  Lesser  Blackbacked  Gull  (Larus  fuscus).  He  dis- 
tinguishes in  the  prosencephalon  three  regions  or  "  prosomeres,"  in  the 
mesencephalon  two  regions  or  "  mesomeres,"  and  in  the  rhombencephalon 
thirteen  "  rhombomeres."  Seven  head  somites  are  clearly  represented 
in  the  gull,  but  the  author  finds  reasons  for  concluding  that  the  total 
number  of  segments -was  lbh.  The  probable  relation  of  these  to  the 
ganglia  is  indicated.  According  to  the  author,  the  mixed  dorsal  nerves 
"  were  primarily,  and  are  still,  largely  developed  from  a  series  of  inter- 
segmental ectodermal  ganglia,  and  the  connection  with  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord  is  a  secondary  one.  The  ganglia  became  connected  together 
by  longitudinal  commissures  forming  a  chain  of  ganglia  on  each  side, 
and  extending  to  a  common  meeting  place  in  front  of  the  brain — at  all 
events,  in  the  Cyclostomes.  Those  in  the  body  lost  their  connection 
with  the  spinal  cord,  but  retained  their  relationship  with  the  ectoderm, 
thus  forming  the  nerve  and  organs  of  the  lateral  line."  "  In  the  head 
region  the  ganglia  and  the  nerves  arising  from  them  attained  a  con- 
spicuous development,  establishing  the  organs  of  sense,  the  sensory,  and, 
with  few  exceptions,  the  motor  nervous  system  of  the  region,  and 
extending  in  certain  cases  beyond  it.'1  The  author  sees  reasons  for 
concluding  that  "  an  early  transitory  attempt  at  a  lateral  line  formation 
takes  place  in  the  gull,  in  other  birds,  reptiles,  and  mammals." 

Development  of  the  Alimentary  Canal  in  the  Trout. i- — Sophie 
Egounoff  describes  the  development  of  the  various  regions  of  the  trout's 
alimentary  canal.  The  oesophagus  arises  from  a  solid  endodermic  tract, 
surrounded  by  a  mesodermic  sheath  ;  its  anterior  and  posterior  regions 
develop  differently.  The  stomach  is  also  solid  to  start  with.  In  both 
oesophagus  and  gullet,  the  connective  tissue,  the  circular  muscles,  the 
longitudinal  muscles  develop  in  the  order  in  wbich  these  are  named. 
The  intestine  becomes  hollow  first,  and  remains  long  in  the  form  of  a 
cylindrical  tube  lined  by  simple  cylindrical  epithelium.  After  the 
intestine  has  assumed  its  definitive  structure,  the  pyloric  appendages  arise 
by  the  evagination  of  the  wall. 

*  C.R  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  521  3. 
+  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxi.  (1907)  pp.  408-15  (5  figs.). 
J  Rev.  Suisse  Zool.,  xv.  (1907)  pp.  19-74  (2  pis.). 


26  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

b.  Histology. 

Intercellular  Connections  in  Fowl's  Egg.* — E.  A.  Andrews 
describes  bridges  of  clear  protoplasm  passing  from  cell  to  cell  across  the 
cleavage  furrows  of  a  young  blastoderm,  and  between  cells  in  the  super- 
ficial layer  and  deep-lying  cells.  Whether  in  the  normal  living  blasto- 
derm of  the  fowl's  egg  there  are  such  cell-connections,  and  whether 
they  serve  to  establish  physiological  communication,  remains  to  be 
demonstrated,  but  the  supposition  that  such  phenomena  are  general 
seems  increased  by  this  case. 

Microbioids  of  the  Purple  Gland  of  Murex  brandaris.  f — R.  Dubois 
obtained  in  an  alcoholic  extract  of  this  gland  peculiar  doubly  refractive 
droplets  like  Lehmann's  "  cells  "  ;  they  can  give  rise  spontaneously  to 
"  musculoid "  fibres.  They  go  through  "  une  veritable  evolution," 
becoming  more  regularly  spheroidal,  acquiring  a  nucleus  and  a  nucleolus, 
and  they  develop  reddish-brown  pigment.  They  give  off  pseudopodia 
(or  should  one  not  say  pseudo-pseudopodia  ?)  with  apparent  spontaneity. 

Matrix  Tissue.  J — F.  K.  Studnicka  describes  various  forms  of 
"  Grundsubstanzgewebe,"  or  matrix  tissue  : — The-  young  dental  papilla 
in  Selachians,  the  corium  and  mucus-cartilage  of  Ammocoetes,  the 
corium  and  subcutaneous  gelatinous  layer  in  the  lancelet  and  Lophius, 
the  pericerebral  tissue  in  Lophius  and  Ophidium,  and  the  gelatinous  and 
hyaline  tissue  in  the  skeleton  of  Lophius  and  Orthagoriscus. 

The  matrical  substances  may  arise  through  the  direct  modification  of 
the  protoplasm  of  a  reticulate  embryonic  tissue,  and  may  be  directly 
exoplasmic  (tooth-papillae  of  Selachians). 

The  matrical  substances  may  arise  not  only  between  individual  cells, 
but  also  between  cell-layers  of  the  embryo,  as  if  they  had  an  intercellular 
origin.  It  is  highly  probable  that  they  arise  from  structures  which 
resemble  the  intercellular  parts  or  walls  of  epithelium,  and  it  is  certain 
that  in  these  cases  they  are  exoplasmic  (gelatinous  tissue  of  Amphioxus 
and  Lophius,  supporting  lamellae  and  some  gelatinous  tissue  in 
Ccelentera). 

The  "  Grundsubstanzgewebe "  may  remain  without  cells,  growing 
and  nourishing  itself  independently,  and  forming  new  tonolibrils  in  its 
interior  (gelatinous  tissue  of  Amphioxus  and  the  vitreous  humour).  In 
other  cases  it  may  include  cells  (gelatinous  tissue  of  Lophius,  sheaths  of 
the  notochord).  Finally,  there  are  cases  in  which  an  originally  cellular 
matrix-tissue  may  secondarily  lose  its  cells,  and  yet  remain  capable  of 
nutrition  and  formative  processes  (filling  tissue  in  the  bones  of  Lophius 
and  Orthagoriscus). 

Striped  MuscleJ — K.  Hiirthle  describes  some  interesting  observations 
on  striped  muscle,  made  with  a  view  of  reaching  some  definite  view  as 
to  the  nature  of  the  contractile  substance.  We  can  only  refer  to  a  few 
points.     Kuhne's  observation  of  the  movements  of  a  living  Nematode 

*  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circular,  No.  3  (1907)  pp.  9-15  (2  pis.). 

+  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxii.  (1907)  pp.  435-8. 

j  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxi.  (1907)  pp.  497-522  (15  figs.). 

§  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxvii.  (1907)  pp.  112-27. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  27 

withiu  a  muscle-fibre  suggests  that  the  fibrils  are  firm  elastic  threads, 
which  were  thrust  to  the  side  by  the  worm's  movements.  If  the 
contractile  substance  is  fluid,  it  should  be  affected  by  gravity,  unless  the 
capillary  forces  are  sufficient  to  antagonise  this.  An  ingenious  experi- 
ment with  a  centrifugal  machine  showed  that  rotations  of  1200-1400 
per  minute  did  not  affect  the  distribution  of  the  contractile  substance, 
though  the  force  was  some  400  times  greater  than  that  of  gravity. 
When  a  fresh  fibre  is  cut  with  a  sharp  knife,  nothing  exudes,  and  this  is 
surely  against  the  assumption  of  a  fluid  contractile  substance.  But  the 
view  that  the  fibrils  are  firm  elastic  threads  also  present  difficulties, 
especially  as  to  the  formation  of  the  transverse  disks.  Hurthle  asks 
consideration  for  the  idea  of  functional  transverse  connections,  which 
appear  in  certain  functional  conditions  of  the  muscle  and  disappear  in 
others.  In  the  process  of  contraction  there  may  be  a  strengthening  of 
the  framework.  If  the  muscle  is  regarded  as  an  elastic  band,  its 
modulus  of  elasticity  is  much  lower  than  occurs  in  any  inanimate  body. 
With  Briicke,  we  must  still  say  "  Der  Aggregatzustand  des  lebenden 
Muskels  ist  ein  Geheimnis  eigentlimlicher  Art." 

Tetrads  in  Somatic  Cells.* — Paolo  della  Yalle  has  found  distinct 
"  tetrads  "  in  various  somatic  cells  of  larval  salamanders  and  in  the  root 
of  the  pea.  In  the  metaphase  of  some  mitoses,  among  the  other 
chromosomes,  there  are  typical  tetrads  with  granular  or  elongated 
elements.  The  author  regards  the  occurrence  of  tetrads  as  quite 
accidental.  It  is  seen  whenever  a  chromosome,  with  a  transversal 
splitting,  divides  at  the  metaphase  and  the  two  halves  are  not  separated 
towards  the  two  poles.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  re-union  of 
homologous  chromosomes. 

Secretion  of  Mammary  Glands.f — F.  Bertkau  maintains  that  the 
formation  of  milk  is  purely  a  secretory  process,  and  that  there  is  no 
necrobiosis  of  any  kind  on  the  part  of  the  secretory  epithelium.  Those 
who  have  described  necrobiotic  processes  have  been  deceived  by  imperfect 
technique.  The  cells,  like  the  muscle-cells  of  sweat  glands,  between 
the  membrana  propria  and  the  epithelium  of  the  glandular  alveoli,  are 
true  smooth  muscle-cells. 

Vindication  of  the  Neuron  Theory 4 — S.  R.  Cajal  states  the  case 
for  the  neuron  theory  of  His  and  Forel.  He  brings  forward  a  series  of 
facts,  based  on  the  study  of  nerve-regeneration,  which  support  the  histo- 
genetic  theory  of  His  and  Kupffer.  He  follows  that  with  a  statement 
of  the  arguments  based  on  embryonic  neurogenesis.  The  result  is  a 
convincing  vindication  of  the  neuron  theory.  The  illustrations  of  the 
paper  are  remarkably  fine. 

Valves  in  the  Veins  of  a  Frog.§ — E.  Suchard  finds  that  there  are 
numerous  sigmoid  valves  in  the  veins  of  Rana  escuUnta.  They  are 
comparable  to  those  of  Mammals,  and  are  perfectly  developed.     They 

*  Atti  R.  Accad.  Sci.  Napoli,  xiii.  (1907)  39  pp.  (1  pi.). 

+  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxx.  (1907)  pp.  161-80  (7  figs.). 

j  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  113-44  (24  figs.). 

§  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Pans,  lxii.  (1907)  pp.  452-3. 


28  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

usually  occur  in  pairs,  sometimes  in  threes.  The  femoral  valve  which 
Grruby  described  in  1  Mi' occurs  in  the  femoral  vein  before  its  anasto- 
mosis with  the  external  iliac.  That  which  Gruby  described  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  three  tributaries  of  the  superior  vena  cava  is  really  a 
complicated  system  of  sigmoid  valves.     Valves  also  occur  in  the  toad. 

Glandular  Endothelium  of  Lymphatic  Canals  and  Renal  Capilla- 
ries in  Tadpoles.* — L.  Bruntz  finds  that  these  elements  are  true  nephro- 
cytes, comparable  cytologically  and  physiologically  to  the  nephrocytes  of 
Invertebrates,  such  as  the  branchial  nephrocytes  of  Crustaceans  and  the 
pericardial  nephrocytes  of  Insects. 

Minute  Structure  of  the  Internal  Ear.f — W.  Kolmer  has  investi- 
gated this  subject  in  the  pig,  calf,  goat,  and  horse,  and  describes  the 
histology  of  the  ductus  cochlearis,  Corti  organ,  stria  vascularis,  Reisner's 
membrane,  and  membrana  tectoria.  In  general  the  structure  of  the 
auditory  organ  corresponds  in  these  larger  mammals,  both  anatomically 
and  histologically,  with  the  descriptions  given  by  other  authors  for  smaller 
mammals.  In  all  the  forms  examined,  Held's  support  apparatus  of  the 
Corti  organ  could  be  demonstrated  with  essentially  the  same  structure. 
Stress  in  particular  is  laid  upon  the  "  Horhaaren  "  and  their  relations  in 
the  cochlea,  macula?  and  crista?,  which  according  to  Piper  have  to  do 
with  hearing:  rather  than  with  static  orientation. 


i& 


Regeneration  of  Cross  -  striped  Muscle  in  Vertebrata4  —  A. 
Schmiucke  reviews  the  literature  on  this  subject  and  gives  an  account 
of  his  own  researches  on  Ichthyopsida.  For  example,  in  Triton  tceniatus 
and  T.  cristatus  regeneration  goes  on  by  means  of  sarcoplasts,  which  are 
transformed  into  long  spindle-like  elements  ;  by  amitotic  nuclear  increase 
syncytial  bands  arise  rich  in  nuclei  and  give  rise  to  young  muscle  fibres. 
The  greater  part  of  the  muscle  fibres  is  formed  by  superposition  and 
confluence  of  the  long  spindle  elements  which  have  arisen  from  the  sar- 
coplasts. The  mode  of  nuclear  divisions  in  muscle  regeneration  is 
mitotic  and  in  the  isolated  sarcoplasts  amitotic.  In  fishes  regeneration 
sets  in  late,  in  the  frog  relatively  early,  in  newt,  tree-frog  and  turtle 
after  a  longer  time.  In  extent  it  takes  place  very  slightly  in  fishes,  it 
goes  further  in  the  frog  and  tree-frog,  but  only  in  newts  can  it  be 
regarded  as  anything  like  complete. 

Observations  on  the  Living  Developing  Nerve-fibre.§ — Ross  G. 
Harrison  has  been  able  to  watch  what  takes  place  in  the  end  of  a  growing 
nerve,  and  finds  that  the  nerve-fibre  develops  by  the  outflowing  of 
protoplasm  from  the  central  cells.  The  protoplasm  retains  its  amoeboid 
activity  at  its  distal  end,  the  result  being  that  it  is  drawn  out  into  a 
long  thread,  which  becomes  the  axis  cylinder.  No  other  cells  or  living 
structures  take  part  in  the  process. 

The  development  of  the  nerve  fibre  is  thus  brought  about  by  means 
of  one  of  the  very  primitive  properties  of  living  protoplasm,  amoeboid 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  vii.  (1907)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  4,  pp.  cxi.-xiv. 
t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxx.  (1907)  pp.  695-767  (4  pis.). 
%  Verh.  Phys.  Med.  Gesell.  Wiirzburg,  xxxix.  (1907)  pp.  15-130  (1  pi.). 
§  Amer.  Journ.  Anat.,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  116-18. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  29 

movement,  which  though  probably  common  to  some  extent  to  all  the 
cells  of  the  embryo,  is  especially  accentuated  in  the  nerve-cells  at  this 
period  of  development. 

One  of  his  devices  was  to  excise  a  piece  of  medullary  cord  about 
4  or  5  segments  long  from  an  embryo  frog,  and  to  replace  this  by  a 
cylindrical  clot  of  blood  or  lymph  of  the  proper  length  and  calibre. 
Xo  difficulty  was  experienced  in  healing  the  clot  into  the  embryo  in 
proper  position.  After  2  to  4  days  the  specimens  were  preserved  and 
sectioned.  It  was  found  that  the  funicular  fibres  from  the  brain  and 
anterior  part  of  the  cord,  consisting  of  naked  axones  without  sheath 
cells,  had  grown  for  a  considerable  distance  into  the  clot. 

Central  Nervous  System  of  Cyclostomes.*  —  G.  Sterzi  has  pub- 
lished the  first  instalment  of  a  treatise  on  the  central  nervous  system 
of  Vertebrates.  He  deals  with  Petromyzon,  Myxine,  and  Homea,  dis- 
cussing exhaustively  not  only  the  nervous  system,  but  the  associated 
skeleton,  membranes,  and  vessels. 

c.  General. 

Sense  of  Touch  in  Mammals  and  Birds.f — W.  Kidd  has  made  a 
careful  anatomical  study  of  the  palmar  and  plantar  surfaces  of  a  large 
number  of  mammals  and  of  a  few  birds,  with  special  reference  to  the 
presence  and  the  pattern  of  the  papillary  ridges.  He  finds  that 
the  papillary  ridges  (which  are  found  chiefly  in  Primates)  are  to 
be  regarded  as  primarily  tactile  in  function,  and  only  secondarily 
as  adaptations  to  prevent  slipping.  Thus  they  occur  in  places 
where  they  cannot  possibly  help  in  prehension,  e.g.  on  the  extensor 
surface  of  the  terminal  phalanges  in  Lemur  brunneus.  Further, 
the  pattern  is  in  many  cases  such  that  the  ridges  cannot  possibly 
tend  to  prevent  slipping,  either  in  walking  or  prehension.  The 
increasing  complexity  in  pattern,  which  finds  its  climax  in  the  terminal 
phalanges  of  the  human  hand,  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  adaptation  for 
increasing  the  delicacy  of  the  touch.  Whorls  are  a  further  develop- 
ment of  loops  and  arches.  The  degree  of  development  of  the  papilla? 
of  the  corium  depends  greatly  upon  the  importance  to  the  animal  of 
the  tactile  sense ;  thus  lemurs  have  very  highly  developed  papilla, 
and  so  also  have  many  birds,  for  whom  maintenance  of  equilibrium  is 
a  daily  necessity. 

Hand  and  Foot  in  Hylobates  agilis4 —Duncan  C.  L.  Fitzwilliams 
describes  these  with  reference  to  form  and  function,  indicating  the 
differences  between  them  and  the  hands  and  feet  of  man.  In  Hylobates 
the  fingers  are  capable  of  flexion  and  adduction  to  the  middle  line,  but 
have  little  tendency  to  oppose  the  thumb,  and  transverse  and  longi- 
tudinal creases  are  therefore  met  with.  In  man,  opposition  of  the 
thumb  to  the  fingers  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  characteristics  of 
the  hand,  and  the  creases,  in  consequence,  are  oblique.     There  is  much 

*  II  sistema  nervoso  centrale  dei  Yertebrati.  I.  Ciclostomi  (Padova,  1907)  xiii. 
and  731  pp.,  194  figs. 

t  The  Sense  of  Touch  in  Mammals  and  Birds.    London,  1907, 176  pp.,  164  figs. 
X  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  cxvi.  (1907)  pp.  155-61. 


30  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

less  resemblance  between  a  man's  and  a  gibbon's  foot  than  there  is 
between  their  hands.  In  fact,  the  foot  of  the  gibbon  more  closely 
resembles  the  human  hand  than  the  human  foot. 

Pattern  of  Cubs  of  Lions  and  Pumas.* — R.  I.  Pocock  finds  that 
bhe  patterns  of  the  cubs  of  lions  and  pumas  are  specific  characters. 
These  species  usually  described  as  uniformly  coloured,  were  formerly 
marked  as  their  cubs  are  marked,  and  in  no  other  way.  The  pattern  of 
lion  cubs  is  intermediate  between  the  spotted  pattern  of  leopards  or 
jaguars  and  the  striped  pattern  of  tigers.  From  this  it  may  be  inferred 
that  leopards  (including  jaguars),  lions,  and  tigers  are  nearly  related  one 
to  another.  On  the  assumption  that  spots  preceded  transverse  stripes  in 
evolution,  it  may  also  be  inferred  that  the  stripes  of  tigers  originated 
from  the  fusion  of  rosettes  into  transverse  chains,  as  Bonavia  main- 
tained. The  pattern  of  puma  cubs  affords  no  support  to  the  belief  that 
pumas  are  nearly  allied  either  to  leopards  or  lions :  it  rather  suggests  that 
pumas  may  be  regarded  as  large  self-coloured  representatives  of  one  of 
the  groups  of  smaller  species  of  Felis,  in  the  same  way  that  lions  may  be 
regarded  as  large  and  otherwise  modified  representatives  of  a  group 
exemplified  by  leopards. 

African  Mungooses4  —  R.  C.  Wroughton  supplies  notes  on  the 
various  known  forms  of  the  section  of  the  Herpestinas— usually  known 
as  the  Herpestes  gracilis  group— which  are  small  mungooses  with  a  dark 
tail-tip,  usually  black,  rarely  brown.  They  vary  in  size  and  colour,  and 
occur  all  over  Africa.  Four  groups  of  species  are  recognised,  and  a 
diagnostic  key  is  given  to  the  sixteen  forms  which  are  distinguished. 

Geographical  Races  of  Lesser  Horse-shoe  Bat.J — Knud  Andersen 
adduces  evidence  to  show  that  there  are  three  distinct  races  of  Rhino- 
lophus  hipposiderus.  There  is  a  small  southern  form  {Rh.  h.  minimus) 
distributed,  broadly  speaking,  over  the  Mediterranean  sub-region,  south- 
eastwards  to  Sennaar  and  Keren  ;  a  large  northern  form  {Rh.  hippo- 
siderus) ranging  from  the  extreme  north-west  Himalayas  (Gilgit)  through 
north-west  Persia  and  Armenia,  over  the  whole  of  central  Europe, 
north  of  the  Balkans  and  the  Alps  ;  and  a  form  {Rh.  h.  mimitus)  ap- 
parently confined  to  England,  Wales,  and  Ireland.  Recently,  M.  Mottaz 
has  suggested  that  the  two  Continental  forms  are  not  distinct  races,  but 
represent  sexual  differences  only.  This  view  is  shown  to  be  incorrect. 
An  interesting  point  is  that  the  author  in  an  earlier  contribution  on  this 
subject  predicted  the  existence  of  intermediate  forms  in  border  districts, 
e.g.  south-west  Switzerland,  and  such  forms  he  has  now  obtained  from 
Geneva. 

Enigmatical  Tooth.  — Maurice  de  Rothschild  and  Henry  Neuville 
describe  in  great  detail  a  peculiar  tooth  from  East  Africa.  It  bears 
some  resemblance  to  the  abnormal  tusk  of  an  elephant,  but  the  authors 
cannot  accept  this  interpretation.     They  conclude  that  it  belonged  to 

*  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  cxix.  (1907)  pp.  436-45  (2  pis.). 

t  Op.  cit.,  cxvi.  (1907)  pp.  110-21. 

%  Op.  cit.,  cxix.  (1907)  pp.  384-9. 

§  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  271-333  (3  pis.  and  34  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  31 

some  unknown  large  African  mammal,  recently  extinct,  or  still  repre- 
sented by  living  specimens,  and  that  this  unknown  animal  was  closely 
related  to  the  Proboscidea.  " Semper  aliquid  novi  ex  Africa"  remains 
true. 

Genital  Organs  of  Bradypodidse.* — Remy  Perrier  describes  these, 
with  especial  reference  to  the  mode  of  fixation.  In  general,  he  concludes 
that  the  persistence  of  the  testes  in  the  abdominal  cavity  is  primitive  in 
Edentates  and  not  a  secondary  return  to  an  ancestral  condition,  and 
that  the  Edentates  are  not  related  to  any  other  order  of  Placentals,  but 
represent  an  independent  stock  dating  from  the  early  differentiation  of 
the  Placentals  into  orders. 

Brain  of  Hatteria  punctata.f — Julia  Gisi  has  made  a  detailed  study 
of  the  brain  of  this  interesting  reptile.  In  form  and  structure  it  closely 
resembles  the  Lacertilian  brain.  It  is  more  primitive  as  regards  the 
position  and  paired  differentiation  of  the  cerebellum,  in  the  development 
of  the  cortical  plates  of  the  cerebrum,  in  the  simple  structure  of  the 
velum  medullare  anticum,  and  the  slight  thickening  of  the  medulla. 

The  tracts  of  the  nerve-fibres  are  in  general  like  those  in  other 
reptiles,  but  there  are  some  secondary  and  quantitative  deviations  from 
the  Lacertilian  type,  e.g.  as  regards  the  commissura  mollis  and  the 
stronger  posterior  commissure.  Resemblances  to  Amphibians  are  seen 
in  the  origins  of  the  5th,  7th  and  8th  nerves,  and  in  the  independent 
course  of  the  glosso-pharyngeal  and  the  separated  frontal  vagus  portion. 
But  it  must  be  noted  that  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  form  and  propor- 
tion, which  distinguish  the  brain  of  Hatteria,  are  expressions  of  growth- 
adjustments  in  correlation  with  the  sense-organs  and  the  like,  and  do 
not  reveal  much  as  to  the  systematic  position  of  the  animal. 

A  relatively  primitive  position  is  indicated  by  the  rich  development 
of  the  epithelial  regions,  such  as  the  roof  of  the  third  ventricle.  A 
median  section  shows  that  the  thickening  of  the  nervous  regions  of  the 
brain  is  relatively  slight,  and  the  development  of  the  glandular  parts  is 
highly  specialised. 

Notes  on  South  African  Chameleons.} — G.  B.  Longstaff  and  E.  B. 
Poulton  make  some  observations  on  colour  change  in  several  species  of 
chamasleons.  The  suggestion  is  made  that  in  Ghamcdeon  dilqns  there 
is  a  dry  season  hibernation  during  which  the  colours  are  steadfast.  The 
most  interesting  point  recorded  is  that  when  Cpumiliis  is  subjected  to 
unilateral  illumination,  the  side  in  deep  shadow  assumes  a  brighter  tint 
than  that  towards  the  light,  which  takes  on  a  relatively  dark  colour. 
This  has  the  effect  of  neutralising  the  shadow  on  the  one  side  and  toning 
down  the  high  illumination  of  the  other,  so  that  all  appearance  of  solidity 
is  dissipated. 

Anatomy  of  Heart  in  Frog  and  Turtle. § — J.  Dogiel  gives  an 
account  of  the  muscles  and  nerves  of  the  heart  in  Rana  esculenta  and 
Emys  caspica.     In  the  frog  auricles,  ventricle  and  bulbus,  the  muscles 

*  Ami.  Sci.  Nat.  (Zool.)  v.  (1907)  pp.  1-37  (2  pis.  and  6  figs.), 
t  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  71-236  (1  pi.  and  21  figs.). 
X  Journ.  Linn.  Soc,  xxx.  (1907)  pp.  45-8. 
§  Arch.  Mikr.  inat.,  lxx.  (1907)  pp.  780-97  (2  pis.  and  11  figs.). 


32  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

consist  of  reticulate  bundles  of  different  thicknesses  united  together, 
and  all  apparently  consisting  of  cross-striped  elements.  The  muscles  of 
the  sinus-forming  veins  are  grouped  in  bundles  running  in  various 
directions  ;  these  are  smooth -muscle  elements.  Between  the  auricles 
and  the  ventricle  is  an  intermediate  zone  in  which  neither  cross-striped 
nor  smooth-muscle  fibres  are  to  be  found.  Nerves  and  nerve-cells  occur 
in  the  veins  constituting  the  sinus,  in  the  auricles,  the  ventricle,  and 
near  the  bulbus,  and  further  there  is  a  well  developed  network  on  the 
upper  surface  of  the  bulbus.  In  the  turtle  the  distribution  is  somewhat 
similar,  but  the  majority  of  the  nerve-cells  occur  in  the  region  of  the  liga- 
mentum  atrio-ventriculare,  where  this  ligament  joins  on  the  ventricular 
base  and  beside  its  origin  in  the  auricles.  The  nerve-fibres  run  parallel 
to  the  muscle-fibres  and  sometimes  penetrate  deeply  between  bundles. 
The  view  is  thereby  suggested  that  a  single  nerve-fibre  in  its  course 
innervates  several  muscle-fibres  and  excites  them  to  contraction. 

Production  of  Albinism  and  Melanism  in  Frogs.* — G.  Tornier 
has  experimented  with  larvae  of  Pelobates  fuscus,  and  finds  that  a 
minimum  diet  of  flesh  results  in  albino  frogs,  that  a  maximum  produces 
melanism,  and  that  reddish  and  greyish  colours  can  be  evoked  at  will 
by  regulating  the  food-supply. 

Fishes  of  Lake  Baikal.f — L.  S.  Berg  describes  the  skeleton  of 
Procottus  jeittehi  and  other  Cottidae  from  Lake  Baikal,  and  discusses 
the  osteology  of  Cottocornephoridge  and  Cornephoridre.  He  gives  a 
synopsis  of  these  three  families  of  Baikal  Cataphracti  and  discusses  the 
systematic  position  of  the  various  types.  A  list  is  given  of  all  the  fishes 
known  to  occur  in  the  lake,  ?>4  in  all.  Of  these  there  are  17  which  are 
general  in  Siberian  fresh  waters,  and  17  which  are  endemic.  The  en- 
demic species  may  be  divided  into  two  sets,  (a)  those  which  are  nearly 
related  to  species  widely  distributed  in  Siberia  (Sal mo  alpinus  eryfhrinus, 
Coregonus  migratorius,  Thymallus  arcticus  bakalensis,  Gottus  kneri  and 
C.  kessleri) ;  (b)  those  which  are  quite  unique  (the  sub-family  Abysso- 
cottini,  the  family  Cottocornephoridas,  and  the  family  Comephorida?). 
There  are  no  forms  in  the  Siberian  waters,  nor  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  nor  in 
the  Pacific,  which  come  near  to  these  ;  thus  the  absence  of  a  post-clavicle 
in  the  Baikal  Cataphracti  is  distinctive.  These  peculiar  forms  live  at 
greater  depths  than  any  other  fresh-water  fishes,  for  they  descend  to 
depths  of  1600  metres.  They  are  not,  the  author  maintains,  relicts  of 
previous  geological  periods,  nor  immigrants  from  the  Arctic  or  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  they  are  sui  generis,  and  have  arisen  as  such  in  Lake 
Baikal  during  its  long  geological  history.  They  are  very  ancient  forms, 
very  divergent  from  typical  Cottidas,  and  their  resemblances  to  marine 
forms  are  due  to  convergence. 

Buccal  Incubation  in  Arius  fissus.J — 0.  and  V.  J.  Pellegrin  com- 
municate some  very  interesting  facts  in  connection  with  the  care  of  the 
young  in  this  species  from  the  coast  of  French  Guiana,  which  may  be 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  284-8. 

f  Zoolog.  Untersuch.  am  Baikal-See,  Lief.  iii.  (St.  Petersburg  and  Berlin,  1907) 
75  pp.  (5  pis.  and  15  figs.). 

X  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  350-2. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  33 

briefly  summarised.  In  the  female  the  eggs  are  to  be  found  in  three 
different  stages  of  development ;  the  number  ripening  at  one  time  is 
about  twenty.  The  male  takes  these  in  his  mouth,  where  they  remain 
until  after  hatching,  until,  in  fact,  the  yolk  sac  is  absorbed.  During 
the  whole  of  this  incubation  period  the  male  is  condemned  to  fasting. 

Food  of  Plaice  and  Dabs.*  —  James  Johnstone,  as  the  result  of 
the  examination  of  the  stomachs  of  114  plaice  and  146  dabs  caught  in 
the  same  hauls,  has  made  out  an  interesting  contrast  in  the  matter  of 
their  feeding.  The  dab  is  an  omnivorous  feeder,  taking  anything  on 
the  sea  bottom  from  a  sprat  to  a  zoophyte,  but  nevertheless  indicating  a 
preference  for  particular  food-animals  such  as  Ophiuroids,  crabs,  and 
Lamellibranchs.  In  the  case  of  the  plaice,  by  far  the  commonest  food- 
animals  appear  to  be  Lamellibranchmolluscs,  e.g.  Solen.  Next  in 
importance  come  the  Polychaste  worms,  which  very  seldom  afford  an 
exclusive  food  for  the  plaice,  but  are  nearly  always  associated  with 
Lamellibranchs.  Both  errant  and  tubicolous  forms  are  eaten.  Ophiuroids 
afford  a  very  exceptional  food.  In  the  consideration  of  the  commoner 
food-animals  eaten  by  each  species  there  is  a  probable  explanation  of  the 
ubiquity  of  the  dab  as  compared  with  the  plaice.  Some  interesting  com- 
ments are  made  on  the  relation  of  the  food  supplies  to  the  migrations 
of  fishes. 

Teleostean  Abnormalities.! — James  Johnstone  describes  an  herm- 
aphrodite hake  from  the  West  of  Ireland.  Both  ovaries  are  present 
and  apparently  normal,  but  at  the  posterior  end  of  each  is  a  testis,  which 
is  well  developed  and  larger  than  the  ovary  to  which  it  is  attached. 
At  the  place  of  union  the  lumina  of  the  ovaries  are  continuous  with 
those  of  the  proximal  part  of  the  testes.  The  probability  is  that  the 
fish  was  a  functional  male.  The  same  paper  contains  an  account  of  a 
Trigla  yurnardus  with  an  abnormal  lower  jaw.  The  mouth  is  reduced 
to  a  small  crescentic  slit,  and  both  jaws  are  quite  immovable.  The 
chief  modification  of  the  skull  consists  in  the  dwarfing  of  the  bones  of 
the  lower  jaw.  There  is  no  apparent  angulare,  but  this  is  perhaps 
ossified  with  the  articulare.  This  element  is  greatly  altered  in  form, 
having  its  long  axis  dorsiventral.  The  lower  jaw  proper  consists  of  an 
apparently  single  bone,  which  is  a  flat  hoop  forming  the  lower  margin 
of  the  gape.  It  is  probably  due  to  the  fused  and  completely  ossified 
Meckelian  cartilages. 

(Esophageal  Pouches  in  Centrolophus  niger  Gmelin.J — John 
Rennie  in  a  note  on  the  function  of  these  structures  records  the  fact 
that  in  a  specimen  found  off  the  north-east  coast  of  Scotland  they  were 
"  filled  with  a  soft,  creamy,  pulpy  substance,  similar  to  the  contents  of 
the  stomach  and  pyloric  caeca,"  but  in  a  less  advanced  stage  of  digestion. 
He  suggests  that  those  fishes  possessing  such  pouches,  Stromateidaa  and 
Tetragonuridas,  may  regurgitate  their  food  ;  "  and  as  these  pouches  are 
so  very  thoroughly  supplied  with  spines,  it  seems  possible  that  some 
sort  of  rumination  is  indulged  in." 

*  Proc.  and  Trans.  Liverpool  Biol.  Soc,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  316-27  (2 charts!. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  309-14  (3  figs.). 

%  Ann.  Scot.  Nat.  Hist.,  No.  61  (1907)  pp.  216-1S. 

Feb.  19th,  1908  u 


34  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Fish  Vertebrae  as  Prehistoric  Amulets.* — Angelo  Mosso  gives  an 
account  of  prehistoric  amulets  (in  the  museum  of  the  island  Virginia  in 
Lake  Varese)  which  consist  of  the  vertebra?  of  the  pike  and  of  a  shark. 

Nervous  Lobe  of  the  Hypophysis  and  the  Vascular  Sac.§--L. 
Gentes  points  out  that  the  vascular  sac  or  infundibular  gland  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  nervous  lobe  of  the  hypophysis.  They  are  adjacent 
dependencies  of  the  wall  of  the  infundibulum,  but  they  are  not  homo- 
logous. They  co-exist  in  most  Teleosteans,  but  in  Selachians  the 
infundibular  gland  is  seen  isolated,  and  in  most  Vertebrates  above  fishes 
the  nervous  lobe  is  seen  isolated.     In  Cyclostomes  both  are  absent. 

Tunicata. 

Gill-slit  Formation  in  Ascidians.J — Paul  Fechner  describes  this 
in  Ecteinascidia,  Styelopsis,  Polycyclus,  and  Pyrosoma.  There  appear 
to  be  two  modes  of  development  in  Ascidians.  In  one  the  new  spiracula 
(Kiemenspalten)  arise  throughout  independently  of  those  already  present. 
In  the  other  the  definite  spiracula  descend  from  a  few  primary  slits, 
from  which  they  arise  by  division  and  splitting.  After  a  stage  with 
two  pairs  of  stigmata,  there  occurs  a  quickly  passing  stage  with  three 
pairs  (which  in  the  later  literature  are  characterised  as  primary  proto- 
stigmata),  and  which  become  very  long  cross  slits,  taking  up  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  pharynx.  From  the  division  of  each  of  the  primary 
protostigmata  there  arise  six  transverse  slits  ■ —  the  secondary  proto- 
stigmata  (primary  stigmata  of  van  Beneden).  By  repeated  division 
perpendicular  to  their  length  the  six  first  transverse  rows  of  slits  arise, 
each  having  12  to  18  spiracula. 

Ascidians  of  Californian  Coast. § — W.  E.  Ritter  gives  an  account 
of  the  off-shore  Ascidians  of  the  Californian  region.  Fourteen  species 
are  described  ;  the  depths,  geographical  position,  and  other  data  as  to 
habitat  are  given.  Of  263  stations  occupied  by  the  '  Albatross '  from 
March  to  June,  1904,  only  16  yielded  Ascidians.  The  data  obtained 
are  rather  scanty  to  admit  of  generalisations,  but  indications  in  two 
directions  are  rather  strong.  The  off-shore  Ascidian  fauna  is  consider- 
ably richer  south  than  north  of  Point  Conception,  so  far  as  concerns 
the  areas  worked  over,  and  the  deep  water  along  and  just  beyond  the 
continental  shelf  is  more  prolific  of  this  form  of  animal  life  than  is  the 
shallower  in-shore  water.     Twelve  of  the  species  described  are  new. 

Homologies  of  the  Muscles  of  Cyclosalpa.[| — W.  K.  Brooks  com- 
municates a  note  on  the  musculature  of  this  sub-genus  of  Salpa.  While 
there  is  much  specialisation  among  the  muscles  of  the  various  species, 
there  is  a  very  complete  series  joining  the  simplest  and  least  specialised 
form,  the  solitary  S.  pinnata,  to  the  most  specialised  one,  the  aggregated 

*  Atti  R.  Accad.  Sci.  Torino,  xlii.  (1907)  pp.  1162-5  (1  pi.). 

t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxii.  (1907)  pp.  499-501. 

%  Zeitschr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  Ixxxvi.  (1907)  pp.  523-56  (2  pis.  and  2  figs.). 

§  Univ.  California  Publications,  iv.  No.  1  (1907)  pp.  1-52  (3  pis.). 

||  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circular,  No.  3  (1907)  pp.  173-4. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  35 

S.  floridana.  The  first  six  muscles  are  much  alike  in  all  the  solitary 
and  in  all  the  aggregated  forms.  The  rest  of  the  muscles,  from  muscle  7 
to  muscle  16  are  no  doubt  homologous  in  a  general  way,  but  it  is 
impossible  to  follow  out  the  homology  in  detail.  The  solitary  forms  are 
more  like  each  other  in  respect  to  these  muscles  than  are  the  aggregated 
forms. 

Structure  of  Salpa.* — Miguel  Fernandez  describes  in  young  chains 
of  Salpa  africana-maxima  a  papilla-like  organ  with  a  ridged  surface, 
which  projects  from  the  pharynx  into  the  mantle,  on  the  dorsal  surface 
between  the  ganglion  and  the  anterior  attaching  disk.  It  is  larger  in 
proportion  to  the  youth  of  the  chain,  and  it  disappears  in  the  adult. 
It  consists  of  connective-tissue  with  inclosed  cavities,  and  is  traversed 
by  nerves  from  the  ganglion.  Its  import  is  quite  obscure.  A  similar 
organ  occurs  under  the  anterior  end  of  the  endostyle,  at  a  short  distance 
from  its  end,  and  rather  to  one  side. 

IN  VERTEB  RATA. 

Nitrogen  Metabolism  in  Marine  Invertebrates.* — Luigi  Sanzo  has 
investigated  this  subject.  He  finds  in  the  blood,  tissues,  and  perivisceral 
fluid  of  marine  Invertebrates  a  substance  (yielding  nitrogen  with  sodium 
hypobromite)  which  serves  for  the  preparation  of  urea  from  the  blood 
and  tissues  of  Vertebrates.  This  substance  gives  all  the  characteristic 
reactions  of  urea,  so  that  until  the  contrary  is  proved  it  may  be  regarded 
as  identical.  In  the  Mollusca  and  Crustacea  investigated  this  substance 
is  more  abundant  in  the  liver  than  in  the  muscles,  and  in  these  more  so 
than  in  the  nerivisceral  fluid  ;  it  is  three  times  more  abundant  in  the 
liver  of  Sepia  than  in  the  same  organ  of  Aplysia.  This  may  be  corre- 
lated with  the  feeding,  as  Sepia  feeds  on  marine  animals  and  Aplysia  on 
alga?.  In  Echinoderms  the  percentage  content  is  very  slight,  and  is 
three  times  as  great  in  the  Echinoidea  as  in  the  Holothuroidea. 

Identification  of  Chitin  by  its  Physical  Constants.*  —  Igerna 
B.  J.  Sollas  points  out  that  the  chemical  identification  of  chitin  by  its 
characteristic  decomposition  product,  the  amido-derivative  of  sugar 
known  as  chitosamin,  is  often  inapplicable  because  of  the  small  amount 
available.  She  has  therefore  tried  to  find  a  method  of  identifying 
chitin  by  determining  its  physical  constants.  The  specific  gravity  of 
chitin  from  various  sources  approximates  to  the  value  l-398,  a  number 
which  represents  the  specific  gravity  of  chitin  precipitated  from  its 
solution  in  strong  acid.  The  refractive  index  lies  between  the  limits 
1-550  and  1-557. 

The  bristles  of  Lumbricus,  the  pupal  skin  of  Pieris  and  other 
Lepidoptera,  the  radula  of  Mollusca,  and  the  shell  of  Sepia,  when  freed 
from  mineral  matter  and  easily  soluble  organic  substances,  have  specific 
gravities  and  refractive  indices  which  lie  between  the  same  limits  as 
those  of  chitin  from  various  sources. 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  321-8  (6  figs.). 

t  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxvii.  (1907)  pp.  479-91. 

X  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Londou,  Series  B,  lxxix.  (1907)  pp.  474-81. 

D    2 


36  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Mollusca. 

Latent  Segmentation  in  Molluscs.* — Werner  Marchand  finds  hints 
of  latent  metamerism  in  the  four  gills  of  Nautilus,  in  the  four  gonads 
of  some  bivalves  (such  as  Poromya),  in  the  ccelom  pouches,  and  so  on, 
and  infers  that  the  ancestral  molluscs  had  at  least  three  segments — a 
head  segment  and  two  gonadial  segments,  with  separate  ducts.  He 
favours  Gunther's  suggestion  that  Chgetognatha  are  related  to  the 
ancestral  stock  from  which  Molluscs  arose,  and  concludes  by  maintaining 
(what  his  paper  at  least  can  hardly  be  said  to  warrant)  that  "  we  have 
every  reason  for  speaking  of  a  latent  segmentation  in  molluscs." 

a.  Cephalopoda. 

Hectocotylisation  and  Luminosity  in  Cuttlefishes. f  — W.  E. 
Hoyle,  in  his  Presidential  Address  to  the  Zoological  Section  of  the 
British  Association,  discusses  some  questions  suggested  by  the  study  of 
Cephalopods.  Attention  is  first  directed  to  hectocotylisation,  and  a 
useful  list  of  genera  is  given  showing  the  position  of  the  hectocotylised 
arm  or  arms,  where  this  peculiar  modification  occurs.  In  this  connec- 
tion he  discusses  the  systematic  value  of  this  character,  for  in  every 
family  (with  one  exception,  Sepiolidse)  the  position  of  the  hectocotylised 
arm  is  constant  within  the  limits  of  the  family.  The  position  of 
Spirula  forms  the  next  subject  of  inquiry.  It  is  regarded  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  a  distinct  family,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  it  may  one  day 
become  the  type  of  a  division  co-equal  with  Myopsida  and  (Egopsida. 
The  genera  Idiosepius,  Sepiadarium,  and  Sepioloidea  are  then  discussed. 
It  is  concluded  that  the  position  of  the  hectocotylised  arm  is  not  by 
itself  a  sufficient  guide  to  the  systematic  position  of  doubtful  forms. 

After  discussing  Jaeckel's  view  that  the  Orthoceras  type  was  firmly 
attached,  and  that  Belemnites  were  anchored  in  the  mud,  the  author 
proceeds  to  the  luminous  organs.  These  have  now  been  observed  in 
29  out  of  about  70  genera  of  Decapods,  and  have  been  found  to  present 
a  most  interesting  variety  in  position  and  structure.  A  valuable  list  is 
given  of  the  luminous  Cephalopods,  with  bibliographical  references,  and 
with  notes  on  the  position  of  the  organ,  which  may  occur  in  nine 
different  situations.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  luminous  organs  are 
practically  confined  to  the  ventral  surface  of  the  animal.  Another 
remarkable  fact  is  the  existence  of  organs  concealed  beneath  the  mantle 
and  beneath  the  integument  covering  the  eyeball,  which  can  only  be 
effective  by  reason  of  the  transparency  of  the  tissues  in  the  living 
creature.  The  organs  may  be  glandular  or  non-glandular,  and  the  latter 
may  be  simple,  without  special  optical  apparatus,  or  complex,  with 
more  or  fewer  of  the  following  structures  :  pigment  layer,  reflector,  lens, 
and  diaphragm.  These  organs  occur  in  so  many  and  such  scattered 
families  that  their  origin  must  be  polyphyletic.  Even  in  the  same 
species  they  are  not  all  on  the  same  plan.  It  is  plausible  to  suppose 
that  they  serve  as  recognition  marks,  and  that  they  act  as  searchlights 
playing  over  the  ground.     The  production  of  the  light  is  a  phenomenon 

*  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxvii.  (1907)  pp.  721-8. 
f  Rep.  Brit.  Assoc,  1907,  20  pp. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  37 

parallel  to  the  production  of  heat  in  a  contracting  muscle,  or  of  electric 
discharges  in  the  Torpedo.  Very  noteworthy  is  the  remarkable  economy 
of  the  illuminant ;  a  perfectly  infinitesimal  proportion  of  the  energy 
expended  is  wasted  on  the  production  of  heat. 

Liver  of  Cuttlefishes.* — L.  Cuenot  finds  that  the  liver  includes, 
apart  from  indifferent  replacement-cells,  two  types  : —  (1)  Goblet 
safranophilous  cells  with  fat  globules  (often  inclosing  a  yellow  magma 
with  crystals) ;  and  (2)  vacuolar  cells.  The  vacuoles  and  the  magmas 
are  periodically  ejected.  The  vacuolar  cells  are  proved  by  experiment 
to  be  excretory,  and  they  also  arrest  pigments  added  to  the  food.  Thus 
the  liver  is  an  absorbing  organ — the  chief  absorbing  organ,  as  in  other 
Invertebrates.     In  the  spiral  caecum  fats  are  absorbed,  but  nothing  else. 

Octopus  with  Branching  Arms.f — Edgar  A.  Smith  gives  a  descrip- 
tion of  a  Cephalopod  from  Japan,  in  which  five  of  the  eight  arms  branch 
more  than  once,  and  that  irregularly.  Such  forking  appears  to  be  of 
rare  occurrence.  The  species  is  that  described  as  Polypus  cephea  Gray, 
from  a  single  specimen,  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

New  Cephalopods  from  the  Irish  Coast.! — A.  L.  Massy  describes 
Polypus  profundkula  sp.  n.,  which  appears  to  be  very  nearly  allied  to 
Octopus  eryasticus  Fischer,  particularly  in  the  form  of  the  hectocotylised 
arm  ;  P.  normani  sp.  n.,  a  graceful  form  taken  at  710  fathoms  ;  and 
HelkocraucMa  pfefferi  g.  et  sp.  n.,  a  minute  form  with  large,  oval, 
pedunculate  fins  attached  to  the  end  of  the  dorsal  surface,  and  with  an 
extremely  large  siphon.  The  occurrence  of  several  other  forms  not 
hitherto  recorded  for  British  and  Irish  waters  is  noted. 

y.  Gastropoda. 

Reproduction  in  Snails. § — J.  Meisenheimer  has  made  an  elaborate 
study  of  the  bionomics  of  pairing  in  Helix  pomatia.  To  procure 
material  he  kept  snails  in  a  terrarium,  and  was  able  to  witness  the 
process  fifty  times,  and  to  secure  many  interesting  photographs  and  pre- 
parations. Pairing  takes  place  in  May  and  June,  reaching  its  maximum 
frequency  in  the  first  half  of  June.  Snails  in  search  of  mates  may  be 
seen  to  creep  slowly  about,  feeling  from  side  to  side,  with  the  forepart  of 
the  body  slightly  raised,  and  to  remain  rigid  for  short  periods  in  that 
attitude.  When  two  such  snails  meet,  they  raise  themselves  up  so  that 
almost  the  whole  base  of  the  foot  is  apposed,  only  the  hinder  part  of  it 
and  the  shell  supporting  the  animal  on  the  ground.  This  is  the  charac- 
teristic attitude,  which  is  maintained  throughout  the  whole  process. 
Breathing  is  rapid,  undulatory  movements  pass  through  the  foot  con- 
tinually, mouth-papilas  and  horns  are  in  a  state  of  constant  activity,  and 
the  whole  organism  betrays  signs  of  excitement.  This  preparatory  stage 
is  short,  and  both  snails  sink  downwards  in  apparent  exhaustion.  After 
a  pause  of  about  half-an-hour,  excitement  again  becomes  manifest,  and 
the  movements  recommence.     One   snail  usually  shows  more  activity 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  227-45  (1  fig.). 

+  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  cxix.,  (1907)  pp.  407-10. 

J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  377-84. 

§  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  461-502  (3  pis.,  4  figs.). 


38  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

than  the  other,  the  genital  region  becomes  visible  as  a  whitish  spot  with 
the  female  opening  clearly  marked,  and,  after  a  series  of  convulsive 
movements,  the  spirillum  amoris  is  ejected  with  a  final  exhausting  effort. 
It  was  once  observed  that  both  snails  discharged  their  darts  simul- 
taneously, and  this  is  said  to  be  normal  in  H.  nemoralis.  The  dart 
usually  penetrates  the  margin  of  the  foot,  and  the  immediate  effect  of  it 
is  to  cause  increased  excitement  in  the  other  snail,  ending  usually  in  the 
expulsion  of  its  dart  also.  This  phase  may  last  for  a  couple  of  hours, 
and  is  followed  by  a  long  resting  period.  In  the  final  stage  the  position 
and  movements  are  similar,  the  genital  tract  is  again  prominent,  and 
both  male  and  female  apertures  are  clearly  visible.  Many  unsuccessful 
attempts  may  be  made  before  the  proper  relative  position,  and  the 
simultaneous  extrusion  of  the  organs  have  been  attained,  and  the  sper- 
matophore  of  each  snail  is  safely  deposited  in  the  receptaculum  of  the 
other.  Slowly  the  snails  disengage  themselves,  the  genital  region  is 
retracted,  the  head  slightly  drawn  in,  but  the  undulatory  movements  of 
the  foot  continue,  and  the  snails  remain  together  for  twTo  or  three  hours 
until  the  terminal  threads  of  the  sperrnatophores,  which  still  connect  the 
two,  are  entirely  drawn  in.  During  the  whole  process  the  snails  are 
quite  indifferent  to  external  circumstances.  Moving  them  about,  or 
turning  a  strong  light  upon  them  did  not  distract  them  in  the  least.  It 
occasionally  happened  that  three  snails  met  together  and  united  in  the 
most  manifold  combinations.  Which  two  ultimately  succeeded  in  pairing 
depended  simply  on  the  chances  of  position  ;  there  was  no  hint  of  any- 
thing like  selection. 

Some  time  later  the  snail  hollows  out  a  passage  leading  down  to  a 
roomy  chamber  in  the  ground,  and,  hanging  head  downwards  through 
this  passage,  drops  the  eggs  one  by  one  on  the  floor  of  the  chamber, 
smooths  over  the  top  of  their  hiding-place,  and  leaves  them  to  develop. 

The  second  part  of  the  paper  deals  with  the  morphology  and  physi- 
ology of  the  reproductive  organs.  The  histology  of  the  dart-sac  and  the 
mucous  glands,  and  their  relation  to  each  other  are  described  in  detail. 
The  extrusion  of  the  dart  is  preceded  by  the  outpouring  of  a  considerable 
quantity  of  fluid  from  the  glands.  The  author  differs  from  v.  Ihering 
and  others  in  that  he  regards  this  fluid  merely  as  a  lubricant  which 
facilitates  the  expulsion  of  the  dart,  and  possibly  also  the  entrance  of  the 
penis  into  the  vagina.  The  spermatophore  is  an  exact  cast  of  the  rele- 
vant male  organs,  due  to  the  solidifying  of  the  secretion  of  the  flagellum, 
which  is  poured  out  just  before  and  during  the  passage  of  the  sperms 
from  the  vas  deferens.  The  thick  head  part  with  its  longitudinal  ridges 
represents  the  anterior  part  of  the  penis,  while  the  terminal  thread  corre- 
sponds exactly  to  the  lumen  of  the  flagellum  itself.  The  spermatophore 
is  formed  just  before  and  during  copulation.  The  observer  did  not 
succeed  in  actually  tracing  the  course  of  the  spermatozoa  to  the  upper 
end  of  the  oviduct,  where,  within  a  diverticulum — the  "  fertilisation- 
sac  " — the  eggs  are  fertilised.  He  found  numerous  spermatozoa  within 
the  hermaphrodite  duct,  and  these  were  in  no  way  distinguishable  from 
those — presumably  from  another  animal — in  the  fertilisation-sac  itself. 
The  question  as  to  their  relative  immaturity,  as  suggested  by  Perez,  was 
not  investigated. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  39 

In  regard  to  the  development  of  the  ovum,  an  interesting  point  is 
the  growth  after  fertilisation  of  little  papillae  on  the  surface  of  the  egg, 
to  form  a  complete  spiny  covering,  which  degenerates  again  and  is  cast 
off  within  the  oviduct.  These  spiny  processes  have  been  described  as 
"  pseudopod-like,"  and  as  being  retracted  later,  but  the  author  regards 
them  as  a  protection  against  multiple  fertilisation,  and  suggests  that  the 
fact  that  it  takes  this  form  instead  of  that  of  a  mere  skin-thickening 
may  be  due  to  "  phylogenetic  reminiscence." 

In  addition  to  a  beautiful  series  of  photographs  showing  the  succes- 
sive stages  in  the  process  of  pairing,  the  paper  is  illustrated  with  drawings 
of  all  the  internal  parts,  in  all  phases  of  rest  and  activity,  extrusion  and 
retraction.  These  were  obtained  by  killing  and  immediately  fixing 
snails  in  process  of  copulation. 

Origin  of  the  Nematocysts  of  Eolidiae.* — L.  Cuenot  gives  strong- 
reasons  for  concluding  that  the  nematocysts  of  the  cnidophore-sacs  of 
Eolids  do  not  really  belong  to  these  animals.  They  are  not  made  by  the 
cells  which  contain  them.  They  come  from  the  Ccelentera  on  which 
the  Nudibranchs  feed. 

He  argues  that  the  nematocysts  pass  intact  through  the  digestive 
tract  and  enter  the  hepatic  diverticula  of  the  papilla?  ;  they  reach  the 
cnidophore-sacs  and  enter  the  "  nematophagous  "  cells,  where  they  are 
arranged  so  that  the  end  by  which  discharge  is  effected  is  turned  towards 
the  free  surface  of  the  cell. 

Cuenot  removed  the  cnidophore-sacs  from  some  Eolids,  fed  some 
with  a  species  of  sea-anemone,  and  left  the  others  fasting.  In  both 
cases  the  sacs  were  rapidly  regenerated,  growing  in  the  same  way  as  in 
normal  development.  The  well-nourished  Eolids  had  their  nemato- 
phagous cells  equipped  with  the  nematocvsts  of  the  sea-anemone,  but  the 
fasting  Eolids  showed  no  nematocysts. 

Eolids  do  not  seem  to  profit  much  by  their  borrowed  nematocysts, 
which  are  rendered  less  effective  by  their  position  within  an  internal  sac. 
It  is  true  that  some  fishes  seem  to  regard  Eolids  as  unpalatable,  but  it 
does  not  appear  that  this  is  because  of  the  nematocysts. 

Development  of  Fulgur.f — E.  G-.  Conklin  gives  an  account  of  the 
development  of  Fulgur,  devoting  particular  attention  to  the  influence  of 
the  large  mass  of  yolk.  The  cleavage  of  the  egg  of  Fulgur  is,  cell  for 
cell,  like  that  of  Crejiidula  up  to  the  56-GO  cell  stage,  the  only  difference 
being  in  the  relative  sizes  of  the  macromeres  in  these  two  genera.  In 
later  cleavages  many  more  ectoderm-cells  are  formed  in  Fulgur  than  in 
Crepidula.  The  overgrowth  of  the  yolk  is  very  peculiar.  By  very  great 
extension  of  the  anterior  half  of  the  blastoderm,  while  the  posterior 
half  remains  relatively  fixed,  all  the  organ  bases  are  carried  to  the 
posterior  margin  of  the  blastoderm,  where  they  form  a  kind  of  germ- 
ring.  Subsequently  the  posterior  margin  also  moves  over  the  yolk,  so 
that  the  blastopore  is  finally  formed  at  the  vegetal  pole. 

Before  the  extension  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  blastoderm  an 
apical  invagination  of  ectoderm  cells  is  formed,  which  eventually  dis- 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  vi.  (1907)  pp.  73-102  (1  pi.,  4  figs.). 

t  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1907,  pp.  320-59  (G  pis.). 


40  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

appears.  The  cerebral  ganglia  arise  on  each  side  of  the  apical  invagina- 
tion. The  velar  cells  arise  around  the  outer  margins  of  the  ganglia. 
By  the  rapid  growth  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  blastoderm  these 
organ  bases  are  forced  far  apart  and  posteriorly  until  they  come  to  lie  in 
the  posterior  margin  of  the  blastoderm,  and  by  a  continuation  of  the 
movement  they  are  carried  around  to  the  ventral  side  of  the  embryo, 
where  the  two  halves  of  the  organs  approach  each  other  and  finally 
unite  in  front  of  the  mouth.  The  buccal  ganglia  have  a  somewhat 
similar  history. 

All  other  organs  arise  from  the  median  posterior  portion  of  the 
blastoderm,  and  chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  from  two  "  somatoblasts," 
strikingly  like  the  origin  of  post-oral  organs  in  Annelids. 

All  homologous  organs  arise  from  corresponding  cleavage-cells  in 
Fulgur  and  Crepidula,  and  probably  all  other  Gastropods.  Great  in- 
crease of  yolk  does  not  modify  the  type  of  germinal  localisation,  though 
it  profoundly  affects  gastrulation  and  later  stages. 

Structure  of  Californian  Haliotidae.* — Clayton  F.  Palmer  describes 
the  structure  of  Haliotis  rufescms  and  H.  cracherodii,  devoting  especial 
attention  to  the  kidneys,  the  two  reno-pericardial  canals,  the  circulation, 
and  the  nervous  system. 

Development  of  Lung  in  Ampullaria  depressa.t, — B.  McGlone 
finds  that  the  lung  is  a  secondarily  derived  structure,  arising  as  an 
invagination  of  what  would  become  a  gill  filament.  The  osphradium  is 
similarly  a  modified  gill,  and  may  be  the  homologue  of  a  gill  situated 
on  the  left  side. 

Structure  and  Relationships  of  Oncidium.:}: — W.  Stantschinsky 
gives  an  account  of  three  new  species  of  Oncidium  from  Queensland, 
and  discusses  the  systematic  relationships  of  the  members  of  this  genus. 
He  finds  that  the  sub-genus  Oncis  includes  more  primitive  types,  but 
annectent  forms  unify  the  whole  genus.  The  absence  of  dorsal  eyes  in 
the  species  of  Oncidium  is  due  to  secondary  degeneration.  Most  of  the 
Oncidiidas  are  amphibious,  sometimes  living  in  the  sea,  sometimes  on 
the  beach  ;  but  some  species  seem  to  have  left  the  water  altogether,  and 
illustrate  the  influence  of  isolation  in  species-forming. 

8.    Liamellibranchiata. 

Supplementary  Siphon  in  Lutraria  ellipticaj — R.  Anthony  de- 
scribes a  curious  abnormality  in  this  common  bivalve,  namely,  the 
occurrence  of  an  extra  siphon,  arising  apparently  as  a  bud  from  the 
dorsal  wall  of  the  expiratory  siphon.  A  section  shows  an  external 
epithelium,  a  layer  of  circular  muscle-fibres,  a  layer  of  longitudinal 
muscle-fibres,  a  second  layer  of  circular  muscle-fibres,  a  second  layer  of 
longitudinal  muscle-fibres,  a  third  layer  of  circular  muscle-fibres,  an 
internal  epithelium,  and  a  narrow  central  cavity.  In  other  words,  it 
has  the  normal  structure  of  a  siphon,  but  it  ends  blindly. 

*  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1907,  pp.  396-407  (1  pi.  and  4  figs.). 

t  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circular,  No.  3  (1907)  pp.  176-9  (2  pis.). 

%  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  353-402  (2  pis.  and  3  figs.). 

§  Arch.  Zool.  Exper,  vii.  (1907)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  3,  pp.  lxxxviii.-xcii.  (5  figs.) 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  41 

Arthropoda. 

Arthropoda  of  British  Coal  Measures.* — Henry  Woodward  describes 
two  king-crabs,  Bellinurus  daldwinisp.  n.  and  B.  longicaudatus  sp.  n.  ; 
a  scorpion,  Eoscorpius  (Mazonia)  wardingleyi  sp.  n.  :  Geralinura  mtcliffei, 
sp.  n.  ;  and  discusses  a  representative  of  Anthracomartus  Karsch. 

a.  Insecta. 

Injurious  Insects  in  Ireland.! — George  H.  Carpenter  reports  on 
injurious  insects  observed  in  1906  ;  such  as  the  sheep-louse  (Trichodectes 
sj)//trroce])haltis),  in  regard  to  which  he  recommends  a  second  dipping 
ten  days  after  the  first ;  the  long-horned  barley-fly  {Elachyptera  cornuta) ; 
the  root-gall  weevil  (Ceuthorhynchus  plewostigma)  ;  the  cabbage-stem- 
borer  {Psylliodes  chrysocepJtala)  ;  the  mussel  scale-insect  (Jlytdasjns 
pomoricm)  ;  the  pine  bark-beetle  (Hylurgus  piniperdd)  :  the  willow-beetle 
{Phgllodecta  vulgatissima). 

Larch  Shoot  Moth 4 — R.  Stewart  MacDongall  notes  the  occurrence 
in  Oxfordshire  of  Argyrestltia  {Tinea)  kevigatella,  which  has  not  yet 
found  a  place  on  British  lists.  It  attacks  young  larches,  and  a  single 
caterpillar  can  destroy  a  whole  shoot.  An  account  is  given  of  the  larvas, 
pupa?,  and  adults,  and  of  the  life-history  in  general.  The  treatment 
suggested  is  to  break  off  the  affected  shoots  and  destroy  them  before 
the  escape  of  the  moths. 

Grain  Weevils.§— R.  Stewart  MacDougall  discusses  the  external 
appearance,  life-history,  and  practical  importance  of  Calandra  granaria 
and  C.  oryzce.  The  females  lay  one  egg  in  each  grain.  The  grub  on 
hatching  feeds  on  the  contents  of  the  grain,  and  when  full  fed  pupates 
in  the  eaten-out  hnsk.  In  favourable  conditions  the  whole  life-cycle 
can  be  completed  in  a  month.  The  Ccdandra  weevils  feign  death  on 
being  touched  or  shaken.  They  lie  often  for  a  considerable  time 
refusing  to  show  any  signs  of  life,  though  handled.  Movement  may  be 
induced  by  breathing  on  them.  As  remedial  measures,  fumigation  with 
bisulphide  of  carbon,  sieving  or  screening  the  grain,  and  ventilating  are 
suggested. 


"&tev 


Life-history  of  Apanteles  glomeratus.||--B.  Matheson  gives  an 
account  of  the  life-history  of  Apanteles  glomeratus,  a  parasite  on  the 
caterpillars  of  the  cabbage  butterfly.  Mating  takes  place  ten  or  twelve 
hours  after  emergence  from  the  cocoon,  and  the  females  immediately  go 
in  search  of  their  hosts.  The  eggs  are  deposited  just  beneath  the 
epidermis  of  the  latero-ventral  region  of  the  earlier  stages  of  the  Pieris 
larvae,  so  that  they  are  not  affected  by  the  moult.  The  eggs  hatch  in 
three  or  four  days,  and  the  larvaa  feed  on  the  lymph  and  fatty  tissue  of 
their  hosts,  avoiding  the  vital  parts.  They  become  mature  during  the 
larval  life  of  their  hosts  and  cut  their  wav  out  through  the  skin.     In 


"o' 


*  Geol.  Mag.,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  539-49  (5  figs.). 

t  Economic  Proc.  Rov.  Dublin  Soc,  i.  (1907)  pp.  421-52  (6  pis.,  11  figs.). 

X  Journ.  Board  Agric,  xiv.  (1907)  pp.  395-9  (3  figs.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  412-15  (1  fig.). 

||  Canadian  Entomologist,  1907,  pp.  205-7. 


42  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

summer  50  p.c.  and  in  autumn  (>o-7.~>  p.c.  of  the  Pieris  larvae  examined 
were  infested  with  this  parasite,  which  has  therefore  considerable  economic 
importance. 

Alleged    Fixation    of   Carbon    by    Chrysalids.* — R.  Dubois  and 

E.  Couvreur  refer  to  Marie  von  Linden's  conclusion  that  some  chrysalids 
can  utilise  carbon  dioxide,  fixing  the  carbon.  The  authors  have 
repeated  the  experiment  with  Pieris  brassica,  but  without  any  success. 

Marie  von  Linden f  responds  that  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
chrysalids  of  Pa/pilio  podalvrius  and  of  HylopMla  prasinana  become 
heavier  in  an  atmosphere  rich  in  carbon  dioxide,  while  they  become 
lighter  in  atmospheric  air.  What  is  true  of  these  need  not  be  true  of 
Pieris  brassim,  but  it  may  be  that  Dubois  and  Couvreur  worked  with 
too  dry  an  atmosphere.     The  assimilation  of  C02  requires  humidity. 

Chromosomes  in  Spermatogenesis  of  Anasa  Tristes.^ — Katharine 
Foot  and  E.  C.  Strobell  find  that  there  are  22  spermatogonia!  chromo- 
somes ;  that  none  of  these  retain  their  morphological  individuality 
throughout  the  growth  period  ;  that  in  the  early  prophase  the  so-called 
odd  (heterotropic)  chromosome  of  Wilson  and  Montgomery  (i.e.  the 
eccentric  chromosome  of  the  later  prophases,  or  metaphase)  resembles  in 
no  way  a  nucleolus,  and  is  morphologically  wholly  unlike  the  same 
chromosome  figured  by  Wilson  at  this  stage  ;  that  the  11  chromosomes 
of  the  first  spindle  are  all  bivalents,  and  that  the  11  chromosomes  of 
the  second  spindle  are  all  univalents  ;  that  in  both  the  first  and  second 
spindles  one  chromosome — which  is  believed  to  be  the  eccentric  chromo- 
some of  the  late  first  prophase — often  lags  in  division,  but  that  normally 
its  final  division  occurs  in  both  spindles 

How  Ants  Find  their  Nest.§ — H.  Pieron  points  out  that  there  is 
considerable  variety  in  different  species.     In  Formica  fusca,  F.  cinerea, 

F.  rvfibarbis,  Camponotus  pubescens,  etc.,  the  orientation  is  predomi- 
nantly visual  ;  in  Aplmnog aster  barbara,  A.  testaceo-pilosa,  etc.,  which 
are  very  blind,  the  orientation  is  mainly  muscular  ;  in  Lasius  flaws 
and  L.  fuliginosus  it  is  mainly  olfactory.  The  first  method  admits  of 
orientation  from  the  greatest  distance,  the  muscular  method  is  only  for 
short  distances.  There  is  most  frequently  a  combination  of  methods. 
The  olfactory  method  is  relatively  rare  and  never  exclusively  followed. 

Psychobiology  of  Humble  Bees.|| — Wladimir  Wagner  gives  an 
account  of  the  pyschobiology  of  humble  bees,  in  which  he  deals  with 
the  social  instincts  predominating  at  different  periods  of  the  life-history. 
He  concludes  that  the  common  life  of  the  so-called  "  social  insects " 
represents  neither  a  family,  nor  a  herd,  nor  a  society,  and  still  less  a 
state  unity.  The  study  of  various  forms  of  biological  organisation  in 
the  animal  kingdom  shows  absolutely  no  connection  between  the  life  of 
social  insects  and  true  sociality.     It  represents  a  special  form  of  sym- 

*  C.R.  Soc.^Biol.  Paris,  lxii.  (1907)  pp.  219-20. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  428-9. 

%  Aruer.  Journ.  Anat.,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  279-316  (3  pis.  and  4  figs.). 

§  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxii.  (1907)  pp.  216-17. 

|  Zoologica,  xix.  (1907)  heft  46,  p.  1-239  (86  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  43 

biosis  of  a  clearly  indicated  parasitic  character  ;  it  lies  quite  apart  from 
the  evolution  of  sociality  in  the  animal  kingdom,  with  the  various  stages 
of  which  (assemblies,  aggregations,  herds,  etc.)  it  has  nothing  in  common. 

Tunisian  Ants.* — F.  Santschi  confirms  the  reality  of  the  aberrant 
genus  Leptanilla,  of  which  he  has  obtained  three  new  species,  represented 
by  males.  They  are  probably  the  smallest  male  ants,  yet  they  are  allied 
to  the  Dorylinse,  in  which  some  of  the  males  (Dorylus)  are  peculiarly 
large.  Santschi  also  reports  some  new  and  interesting  cases  of  ergato- 
morphism. 

Solitary  Wasps,  t — Gr.  Adlerz  gives  an  account  of  a  large  number 
of  solitary  wasps  belonging  to  such  genera  as  Bumenes,  Hoplomerus, 
Lionotus,  Ancistroceros,  and  Odyn&rus. 

Forms  of  the  Female  of  Papilio  dardanus.  % — Chr.  Aurivillius 
describes  some  new  forms  of  the  very  interesting  polymorphic  female 
of  Papilio  dardanus  Brown,  and  takes  a  survey  of  previously  recorded 
forms. 

Termitophilous  Tineid  Larva.  § — Ivar  Tragardh  describes  a  Tineid 
larva  from  nests  of  RMnotermes  in  Zululand.  The  relations  between 
the  larvae  and  the  termites  are  evidently  of  a  friendly  nature.  When 
disturbed,  the  larva?  were  seen  to  make  their  way  to  other  parts  of  the 
nest,  coming  along  one  after  the  other,  at  regular  intervals,  as  in  a 
procession,  each  larva  being  escorted  by  a  few  soldiers  and  workers. 
The  larvae  depend  upon  the  material  of  the  nest  for  food.  It  seems 
that  the  lateral  abdominal  appendages  of  the  larva  function  as  exuda- 
tion organs,  emitting  a  strong  odour  which  is  attractive  to  the  termites. 

As  appendages,  which  appear  to  be  homologous,  occur  in  other 
Lepidopterous  larvae,  where  their  function,  when  known,  is  stated  to  be 
defensive,  it  is  not  probable  that  the  Tineid  larva  has  acquired  them 
independently  us  an  adaptation  to  its  termitophilous  life.  It  is  more 
likely  that  their  function  has  changed  from  being  repulsive  to  being 
allurino;  organs. 


■■st 


Hibernation  of  Marasmarcha.  || — T.  A.  Chapman  finds  that  in 
this  Plume  Moth  the  newly-hatched  larvae  hibernate  without  feeding. 
Furthermore,  without  eating  they  are  able  to  afford  to  secrete  silk  and 
spin  a  cocoon.  The  author  does  not  know  of  any  similar  case  among 
Lepidoptera.  After  prolonged  search  he  found  the  cocoons  in  the  sand 
surrounded  by  minute  aggregations  of  sand  particles.  The  larvae  of 
Marasmarcha  (plmodactyla,  fauna,  tuttidactyla),  always  occur  on  plants 
that  form  a  considerable  mass,  and  it  seems  likely  that  the  young  larvae 
form  their  hibernating  cocoons  amongst  the  dead  leaves  and  other 
material  of  the  plant  close  to  the  ground,  and  not  on  the  plant  itself, 
but  have,  owing  to  the  density  of  the  plant,  little  difficulty  in  finding  a 
growing  point  when  they  come  out  in  the  spring. 

*  Rev.  Suisse  Zool.,  xv.  (1907)  p.  305-34  (7  figs.). 

t  Arkiv  Zool.,  iii.  (1907)  No.  17,  pp.  1-64. 

%  Tom.  cit,,  No.  23,  pp.  1-7  (2  pis.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  No.  22,  pp.  1-7  (1  pi.) 

[|j  Trans.  Entomol.  Soc.  London,  1907,  pp.  411-14  (1  pi.) 


44  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Life-history  of  Cydemon  (Urania)  leilus.  *  —  L.  Gruppy,  jun.,  has 
studied  the  life-history  of  this  moth  in  Trinidad.  The  spherical  eggs 
with  longitudinal  ribs  are  laid  on  the  undersides  of  leaves,  usually 
singly  or  in  pairs;  the  larvae,  with  sixteen  legs,  are  particularly  active 
and  spring  madly  about  when  touched  ;  after  the  first  moult  eight  long 
black  hairs  appear  on  the  body,  and  these  increase  in  number  with 
successive  moults  ;  the  yellowish-brown  glossy  pupa  lies  inside  a  roomy 
cocoon  of  yellowish-red  silk  ;  the  transformations  occupy  nearly  six 
weeks,  of  which  two  are  in  the  pupa  stage.  The  larvae  usually  feed 
from  the  underside  of  a  leaf  ;  when  alarmed  they  drop  immediately  by 
a  silken  thread  and  remain  suspended  until  the  alarm  is  over  ;  in 
locomotion  they  often  lower  themselves  in  a  similar  way.  The  haunts 
of  the  moth  are  probably  in  the  forests  of  Venezuela,  whence  it 
migrates  annually  to  Trinidad. 

Human  Myiasis  due  to  (Estrus  Ovis.f  — Edmond  and  Etienne 
Sergent  give  au  account  of  a  human  myiasis  very  common  in  some 
mountainous  parts  of  Algeria,  where  there  are  fewer  sheep  than  men. 
The  disease  is  called  "  Thim'ni,"  and  it  is  due  to  the  larva?  of  the  sheep 
bot-fly  which  live  in  the  facial  cavities,  producing  painful  and  serious 
inflammation. 

Migrations  of  Hypoderma  Bovis  Larva  in  Ox. J — H.  Jost  gives  a 
remarkable  account  of  the  wanderings  of  the  larva  of  this  fly  in  the 
tissues  of  the  ox  in  the  course  of  its  development.  The  eggs,  laid  upon 
the  skin,  are  licked  off  and  enter  the  alimentary  canal.  About  the 
junction  of  the  gullet  and  stomach  the  young  larva?  are  hatched. 
They  penetrate  into  the  submucosa  of  the  gullet,  wandering  here 
in  abundance  during  several  months  (July  to  November).  They 
then  migrate  by  way  of  the  diaphragm,  kidneys,  intermuscular 
connective  tissue  of  the  lumbar  muscles,  vessels,  and  nerve  strands 
to  the  vertebrae,  passing  into  the  vertebral  canal,  where  they  stay 
usually  between  December  and  May.  Subsequently  the  larva?  wander 
through  between  the  vertebra?  and  pass  by  way  of  the  intermuscular 
connective-tissue  of  the  back  muscles  to  the  subcutis,  which  is  to  be 
regarded  as  the  last  chief  place  of  their  assembling.  They  occur  here 
from  January  up  till  July.  The  "bots"  are  pathological  new  formations 
of  connective  tissue,  and  the  lining  of  the  exit  channel  arises  by  a 
proliferation  of  the  epidermis  cells. 

Viviparity  in  Ephemerida?.§ — Carl  Bernhard  has  investigated  this 
subject,  with  particular  reference  to  Chloeon  dipterum.  Amongst  other 
results  he  has  arrived  at  are  the  following:  general  conclusions.  An 
Ephemerid  is  oviparous  (1)  when  in  each  oviduct  several  eggs  are  formed 
in  succession  (polyoistic),  which  then  after  each  other  enter  the  calyx 
partly  during  the  nymphal  and  subimaginal  life  :  (2)  when  the  eggs  are 
enveloped  in  a  strong  chitinous  chorion.     An  Ephemerid  is  viviparous 

*  Trans.  Entoraol.  Soc,  pp.  405-10  (2  pis.). 

t  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  392-9. 

X  Zeitschr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxvi.  (1907)  pp.  641-715  (1  pi.  and  3  figs.). 

§  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxvii.  (1907)  pp.  467-79. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  45 

(1)  when  in  each  oviduct  only  one  egg  is  formed  (monoistic),  which 
is  first  observed  in  the  calyx  in  the  imago  ;  (2)  when  the  eggs  are 
surrounded  by  a  thin,  soft,  and  non-chitinous  chorion.  The  author 
shows  that  these  characters  are  related  to  the  different  modes  of  repro- 
duction. It  appears  that  the  larvae  of  no  other  Ephemerid  are  so  widely 
distributed  nor  so  numerous  as  those  of  Chloeon  dipterum,  in  spite  of 
the  smaller  number  of  eggs  in  this  species.  This  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  here  a  smaller  number  succumb  during  development  than 
in  oviparous  species. 

Autotomy  in  Orthoptera.* — H.  Pieron  describes  protective  reflex 
autotomy  in  Mantis  religiosa,  Empusa  egena,  GryMus  campestris,  Nemobius 
silvestris,  various  Locustidas  and  Acrididre,  and  Forfimla  auricularia. 

Excretion  in  Apterygota.f — Jur.  Philiptschenko  deals  with  the 
excretory  and  phagocytary  organ  of  CtenoUpisma  lineata  F.  as  a  con- 
tribution to  the  study  of  this  subject.  This  species  possesses  three 
kinds  of  excretory  structures,  viz.,  the  urinary  cells  of  the  fat  body,  the 
Malpighian  vessels  and  pericardial  cells,  and  a  peculiar  phagocytary 
organ,  the  pericardial  septum.  In  this  respect  this  insect  approaches 
those  Orthoptera  which  possess  a  permanent  phagocytary  organ,  but 
between  the  two  types  there  is  nevertheless  a  whole  series  of  far-reaching 
differences. 

&.  Onychophora. 

Monograph  on  Onychophora.:}: — E.  L.  Bouvier  continues  his  mono- 
graphic account  of  the  Onychophora,  the  present  instalment  beginning 
the  description  of  the  family  Peripatopsidse,  which  includes  the  three 
sub-families  Peripatoidinae,  Peripatopsinas,  and  Paraperipatinae. 

8.   Arachnida. 

Eyes  of  Scorpions. § — G.  Police  has  made  an  elaborate  study  of 
these,  and  denies  the  alleged  dimorphism  of  the  lateral  and  median  eyes. 
The  former  have  been  compared  to  simple  eyes  and  the  latter  to  com- 
pound eyes.  But  they  develop  in  the  same  way  and  have  the  same 
essential  structure.  They  represent  a  distinct  type  of  eye.  As  regards 
their  development  and  their  single  lens  they  may  be  compared  to  ocelli, 
but  as  regards  the  structure  of  the  retinal  elements  (different  from  that 
of  the  simple  eyes  of  spiders,  crustaceans,  and  insects)  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  these,  they  approach  the  compound  type. 

In  the  simple  eyes  found  in  most  Arachnids,  and  in  many  crustaceans 
and  insects,  the  retinal  unit  is  represented  by  a  single  cell,  of  which  the 
distal  part  is  unpigmented. 

In  the  compound  eyes  of  most  crustaceans  and  insects,  the  retinal 
unit  is  a  group  of  six  cells  (retinule)  arranged  around  an  axis.  In 
these  eyes  the  image,  before  reaching  the  retinule,  traverses  the  cuticular 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  463-5. 
t  Zeitschr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxviii.  (1907)  pp.  99-116  (1  pi.). 
X  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  (Zool.)  v.  (1907)  pp.  61-80  (8  figs.). 
§  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  1-70  (2  pis.  and  3  figs.). 


46  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

refractive  medium  (the  crystalline  cone),  and  each  unit  is  impressed  by 
an  image. 

In  the  eyes  of  scorpions,  the  retinal  unit  is  represented  by  a  group 
of  five  cells,  there  is  no  crystalline  cone,  the  image  is  refracted  only  by 
the  cuticular  crystalline  structure,  and  there  is  one  image  for  the  whole 
of  the  retinules,  each  being  impressed  by  a  portion  of  the  image  re- 
refracted  by  the  crystalline  structure. 

Sarcoptids  in  Wing-bones  of  Birds.* — E.  L.  Trouessart  has  found 
a  new  species  of  Tyroglyphus  (T.  antricola),  apparently  living  as  a 
commensal  within  the  cavities  of  the  wing-bones  of  parrots  and  other 
birds.  It  is  likely  that  they  entered  while  the  birds  were  sleeping,  by 
way  of  the  nostrils,  bronchi,  lungs,  and  air-sacs.  They  probably  feed 
on  inhaled  spores.  Among  the  Tyroglyphids  there  were  carnivorous 
mites  (Cheletes  rapax  and  G.  alacer),  probably  feeding  on  the  former. 

New  Type  of  Sarcoptid.t— E.  Sergent  and  E.  L.  Trouessart  de- 
scribe Mialges  anchora  g.  et  sp.  n.,  which  lays  its  eggs  on  one  of  the 
Hippoboscidas  (Lynchia  maura),  a  parasite  of  the  domestic  pigeon  in 
Algeria.  It  is  probable  that  the  mite  passes  most  of  its  life  on  the  bird, 
and  only  attacks  the  insect  when  depositing  its  eggs.  Only  the  mature 
females  and  the  larva?  have  been  found.  The  mite  uses  the  insect's 
blood  as  food.  This  is  the  first  instance  of  a  really  parasitic  Sarcoptid 
being  found  on  an  insect — indeed,  on  a  cold-blooded  animal.  The  first 
pair  of  limbs  have  no  ambulacral  sucker,  but  end  in  a  double  grappling- 
organ  like  an  anchor. 

Myriopodophilous  Mites.J — Ivar  Tragardh  describes  two  new  forms 
of  Antennophorinre,  namely,  Neomegistus  julidicola  and  Parameyisti/s 
con/rater,  found  in  Natal  and  Zululand  on  Julida?  belonging  to  the 
genus  Spirostrfiptus.  He  discusses  the  question  of  the  various  stages  in 
the  life-history  of  the  mites,  and  the  relationships  of  his  new  genera. 
The  mites  do  not  occur  on  the  Julidse  in  the  winter  months.  It  seems 
probable  that  they  feed  on  the  offensive  fluid  which  their  hosts  secrete 
during  the  summer.     Experiments  confirmed  this  remarkable  fact. 

Acarid  from  Omentum  of  Negro.§ — A.  Castellani  records  the  dis- 
covery of  two  specimens  of  an  Acarid-like  parasite,  in  the  fat  of  the 
omentum  of  a  negro  who  had  died  of  sleeping  sickness.  The  colour  is 
dark  yellowish,  shape  oval,  palpi  very  short,  six  legs  well  developed, 
apparently  without  hairs,  each  leg  composed  of  five  segments.  The 
total  body  length  is  0*55  mm.  The  parasite  resembles  Cytoleichm 
mrcoptoides  Heguin,  occurring  in  various  internal  organs  in  fowls. 

Scottish  Hydrachnids.||—  Wm.  "Williamson  continues  his  investiga- 
tion of  Scottish  hydrachnids,  and  gives  a  list  of  26  species  collected 
during  1906.     Seven  of  these  are  new  Scottish  records. 

*  Coniptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  598-601. 

t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxii.  (1907)  pp.  443-5  (3  figs.). 

%  Arkiv  Zool.,  iii.  (1907)  No.  28,  pp.  1-33  (1  pi.,  18  figs.). 

§  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,  xliii.  (1907)  p.  372. 

|l  Trans.  Edinburgh  Field  Nat.  and  Micr.  Soc,  1906-7,  pp.  393-4. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  47 


e.   Crustacea. 

Ferments  in  Crustaceans.* — J.  Giaja  found  in  Astacus  leptodactylis 
(as  in  the  snail)  a  ferment  called  raffinase.  This  seems  to  be  absent 
in  marine  Crustaceans  (as  also  in  marine  molluscs).  Lactase,  also  present 
in  Astacus,  was  found,  among  marine  forms,  only  in  the  lobster.  In  the 
lobster,  however,  there  was  no  trace  of  invertine,  which  was  found  in  all 
other  Crustaceans  experimented  with.  The  gastric  juice  of  Paliaurus 
vulgaris,  which  acts  on  amygdalin,  has  no  action  on  salicin. 

"  Granny  "  Crabs.j — W.  A.  Herdman  has  a  note  on  what  the  Port 
Erin  fishermen  call  "  granny  "  crabs,  though  they  are  not  necessarily  old 
nor  female.  They  are  caught  in  considerable  abundance  during  July 
and  August,  and  are  promptly  killed,  the  impression  being  that  they  are 
diseased.  A  "  granny  "  crab,  which  may  be  of  any  size  above  4  inches, 
is  generally  female,  and  has  a  worn  and  dilapidated  appearance,  the 
shell  being  pitted  and  stained  with  black,  and  the  great  claws  corroded 
and  frequently  broken.  The  surface  is  frequently  overgrown  with 
barnacles  and  other  foreign  bodies.  The  men  say  that  the  flesh  has  a 
strong  bitter  taste  and  a  powerful  purgative  effect.  There  is,  however, 
in  all  probability  nothing  abnormal  about  these  crabs.  They  are  merely 
individuals  which  are  approaching  the  time  when  in  every  second  year 
a  crab  of  this  size  will  cast  its  shell.  The  practice  of  destroying  them 
is  unwarranted. 

Autotomy  in  Grapsus. j — Anna  Drzewina  points  out,  in  answer  to 
Pieron,  that  autotomy  of  the  claw  occurs  without  violent  excitation  in 
specimens  of  Grapsus  varkis,  in  which  the  oesophageal  commissures 
have  been  cut.  She  does  not  seek  to  deny  the  intervention  of  the 
cerebral  ganglia  in  autotomy  ;  they  may  have  an  excitatory  or  an  inhibi- 
tory action  ;  but  the  point  is  that  their  intervention  is  not  indispensable. 

Autotomy  in  Decapods.§ — H. Pieron  distinguishes  between  "evasive" 
autotomy,  which  seems  to  him  "  voluntary  "  in  the  same  sense  as  an 
endeavour  to  escape  is  voluntary,  and  reflex  autotomy,  which  is  much 
more  general.  The  muscular  contractions  which  effect  autotomy  in 
Grapsus  are  of  the  same  order  as  the  normal  locomotor  contractions. 
Voluntary  or  evasive  autotomy  is  particularly  well  developed  in  Grapsus, 
but  it  occurs  elsewhere,  for  instance  in  hermit  crabs.  Reflex  autotomy 
is  not  universally  distributed  even  among  the  Brachyura. 

Real  Nature  of  Microniscidse.|| — M.  Caullery  has  given  experimental 
proof  of  the  view  held  by  G.  0.  Sars,  that  Microniscidse  are  really 
stages  in  the  life-history  of  Epicaridae,  intermediate  between  the 
Epicaridian  and  Cryptoniscian  larva?.  Although  Bonnier  persists  in 
regarding  Microniscidas  as  a  distinct  family,  Caullery  thinks  that  the 
position   held   by   Sars   is   incontestable.      In   the   case   of   Portuuion 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxxiii.  (1907)  pp.  508-9. 

t  Liverpool  Biol.  Committee,  21st  Report,  1907,  pp.  25-6. 

X  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  493-5. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  517-19. 

||    Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  596-8. 


48  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

kossmanni  Griard  and  Bonnier,  parasitic,  on  Platyoniscus  latipes,  Caullery 

lias  seen  the  production  of  "  microniscid  "  stages. 

New  Cave  Isopod.* — E.  G.  Racovitza  describes  Spelozoniscus 
debrugei  g.  et  sp.  n.,  from  an  Algerian  cave.  The  very  convex  elliptical 
body  can  be  rolled  into  a  ball ;  the  head  is  without  frontal  lobes, 
antennary  tubercles,  or  scutellum,  but  has  a  deep  antennary  grove  on 
each  side  of  the  median  line  ;  the  antennae  are  of  the  Cylisticus-type  ; 
the  antennules  have  two  joints  ;  some  of  the  other  appendages  resemble 
those  of  Cylisticus,  others  those  of  ArmadiUidium.  Like  Eleoniscus, 
this  new  genus  expresses  the  tendency  of  Porcellio-like  forms  to  roll 
themselves  up,  but  it  represents  a  failure  in  the  solution  of  this  problem. 
The  perfect  ball  of  the  widely  distributed  ArmadiUidium  vulgare  is  a 
complete  solution,  but  in  Spelmoniscus  the  antennas  are  kept  extended 
and  exposed  to  attack.  Thus  Spelozoniscus  has  had  to  take  refuge  in  a 
subterranean  habitat,  "  cet  asile  que  dame  nature  installa  a  peu  de  frais 
pour  ses  viellards,  ses  impotents  et  ses  rates."  The  new  type  is  colourless, 
blind,  and  covered  with  tactile  setre  ;  it  has  no  longer  any  near  relatives 
in  daylight  ;  it  is  an  archaic  representative  of  a  fauna  which  has 
disappeared. 

Terrestrial  Isopods  of  the  Family  Eubelidse.t — Harriet  Richardson 
gives  an  account  of  a  collection  of  new  species  of  Eubelidas  made  in 
Liberia  by  0.  F.  Cook.  A  new  genus,  Ethelumoris,  is  established 
near  Ethelum  ;  the  flagellum  of  the  second  antennas  consists  of  two 
joints,  the  coxopodites  of  the  first  thoracic  segment  extend  along  the 
lateral  margin,  but  arise  from  the  underside  of  the  segment. 

Cave  Isopods. J — E.  G.  Racovitza  reports  on  16  cavernicolous  species 
of  Isopods,  e.g.  Trichoniscus  dispersus  sp.  n.,  Trichouiscoides  pyrenmus 
sp.  n.,  T.  tuberculatus  sp.  n.,  Anaphiloscia  simani  g.  et  sp.  n.,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  some  of  the  forms  included  in  the  unnatural  genus 
Philoscia,  PorceUio  manacorisp.  n.,  Cylisticus  caver nicola  sp.  n.,  Eleoniscus 
heleiue  g.  et  sp.  n.  (the  new  genus  presenting  a  mixture  of  characters 
seen  in  Cylisticus  and  ArmadiUidium,  but  most  nearly  related  to  Elwna), 
and  ArmadiUidium  pruvoti  sp.  n. 

Annulata. 

Urns  of  Sipunculids.§ — W.  Selensky  has  studied  the  structure  and 
development  of  the  much-discussed  fixed  and  free-swimming  "  urns  "  of 
Sipunculus  nudus,  comparing  them  with  the  free-swimming  urns  of 
Pltymosoma  and  the  fixed  urns  of  Phymosoma  and  Aspidosiphon.  An 
urn  consists  of  a  vesicular  cup,  a  neck,  and  a  ciliated  disk.  It  begins 
as  a  bud-like  outgrowth  from  the  walls  of  a  blood-vessel ;  it  consists 
of  the  connective-tissue  of  the  wall  of  the  vessel,  and  is  surrounded  by 
endothelial  cells,  among  which  there  is  one  at  least  of  the  large  ciliated 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  vii.  (1907)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  3,  pp.  lxix.-lxxvii.  (9  figs.), 

t  Smithsonian  Misc.  Collections,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  219-47  (67  figs.). 

%  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  145-225  (11  pis.). 

§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1807)  pp.  329-36  (4  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC  49 

cells  tli.it  occur  in  the  endothelium  of  the  vessels.  The  urns  arise  both 
on  the  inside  and  on  the  outside  of  the  tentacular  vessels,  and  there  is 
no  real  difference  between  those  which  remain  sedentary  and  those  which 
become  free-swimming.  There  is  no  doubt  that  they  arise  from  the 
Sipunculid-tissue.  They  are  not  parasites.  They  are  not  phagocytic, 
but  they  help,  as  Cuenot  pointed  out,  to  purify  the  ccelomic  fluid  by 
collecting  and  agglutinating  particles.  They  are,  perhaps,  comparable 
to  the  ciliated  organs  connected  with  the  nephridia  of  Hirudinea,  which 
are  also  derivatives  of  peritoneal  tissue. 

Reproductive  Apparatus  of  Kynotus.* — L.  Cognetti  de  Martiis 
describes  the  gonads  and  associated  structures  in  this  peculiar  Madagascar 
genus  of  earthworms,  and  fills  up  the  gaps  in  the  previous  descriptions 
by  Rosa,  Benham,  and  Michaelsen. 

Calciferous  Glands  of  Earth  worms. t — A.  Combault  suggests  that 
these  glands  have  some  respiratory  significance.  They  may  fix  the  CO., 
and  thus  avoid  asphyxiation.  The  concretions  may  be  the  result  of 
the  fixing  of  the  CO.,  in  the  glands.  Some  specimens  of  Helodrilus 
caliginosus  sub-sp.  trapezoides,  were  placed  in  very  dilute  lime-water ; 
after  24  hours  the  glands  were  loaded  with  carbonate  of  lime.  Further 
experiments  confirmed  this. 

Nematohelminthes. 

Free-living  Nematodes. J—  J.  G.  De  Man  describes  18  species  of 
free  Nematodes,  all  of  which  (except  Eurgstoma  terricola  sp.  n.,  from 
the  soil)  have  been  collected  on  the  coasts  of  Zealand.  Thirteen  are 
new,  e.g.,  jfflgialoalaimus  elegans  g.  et  sp.  n.,  Gobbia  trefusiceformis  g.  et 
sp.  n.,  Parasabatieria  vulgaris  g.  et  sp.  n.,  and  Metalinhommus  tgpicus 
g.  et  sp.  n.  A  useful  list  is  given  of  all  the  free  marine  Nematodes  the 
author  has  found  on  the  coasts  of  Zealand. 

Toxic  Effect  of  Sclerostomum  equinum.§ — M.Weinberg  has  ex- 
perimented with  extracts  of  this  parasite,  and  has  obtained  rather 
important  results.  He  finds  that  these  extracts  dissolve  the  red  blood- 
cells  of  the  horse.  The  toxic  substance  is  secreted  especially  by  the 
cephalic  part  of  the  parasite,  and  also  by  the  digestive  tube  ;  it  is 
resistent  to  a  temperature  of  from  115-120°  for  15-20  minutes,  and  is 
not  specific  for  the  horse,  since  it  acts  similarly  upon  the  blood-cells  of 
guinea-pig,  rabbit,  ox,  and  sheep.  Sclerostomes  also  secrete  a  substance 
with  the  properties  of  a  precipitin  with  horse  and  with  rabbit  serum. 
Extracts  of  larvas  have  a  similar  but  less  marked  effect.  Other  hel- 
minths found  in  the  horse  {Oxguris  equi,  Ascaris  megalocephala,  Tamia 
perfoliata,  Tcmia  plicata)  do  not  secrete  a  heematoxin  ;  it  is  noteworthy 
that  the  only  parasite  capable  of  doing  so  is  the  only  one  which  lives  on 
the  blood  of  the  horse. 

*  Atti  R.  Accad.  Sci.  Torino,  xlii.  (1907)  pp.  1138-50  (1  pi.). 
t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxii.  (1907)  pp.  440-2. 
%  Tijdschr.  Nederland.  Dierk.  Ver.,  x.  (1907)  pp.  227-44. 
§  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  798-807. 

Feb.  19th,  1908  e 


50  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Platyhelmintlies. 

New  Cestode  from  Eagle.* — Pasquale  Mola  describes  a  new  Cestode, 
Davainea  h&rtwigi,  found  in  the  intestine  of  Nisaetus  fasciatus.  When 
the  eagle  was  caught  it  had  in  its  beak  a  wall-lizard,  in  the  peritoneal 
cavity  of  which  cysts  were  found  containing  a  cysticercus.  This,  the 
author  considers,  is  the  same  Cestode  found  in  the  eagle,  and  that 
the  life-cycle  is  completed  between  the  two  hosts,  L.  muralis  and 
iV.  fasciatus. 

Para-uterine  Organ  of  Tsenia  nigropunctata.t — Pasquale  Mola 
describes  this  organ,  first  noted  by  Crety  in  1890.  It  is  a  winding 
tube,  running  in  the  middle  line  over  each  proglottis.  It  starts  from 
the  uterus  and  runs  forward  with  an  undulating  course.  An  account 
of  its  histological  features  is  given,  and  it  is  noted  that  cells  pass 
from  this  tube  to  the  uterus,  forming  an  abundant  parenchyma  ex- 
tending to  every  small  uterine  pouch  and  enveloping  the  eggs. 

Classification  of  Cyclophyllidea.J — 0.  Fuhrmann  revises  the  classifi- 
cation of  this  order,  altering  the  system  proposed  by  Braun.  He  re- 
cognises ten  families — Tetrabothrida3,  Mesocestoididfe,  Anoplocephalidae, 
Davaineidre,  Dilepinidas,  Hynienolepidaa,  Tseniidae,  Acoleinidse,  Amabi- 
linidas,  and  Fimbriariidse — and  nine  sub-families,  with  a  total  of  66 
genera. 

Action  of  Heat  on  Immature  Mussel-fluke. §  —  Raphael  Dubois 
finds  that  Gymnophallus  margaritarum  Dubois  can  survive,  for  at  least 
48  hours,  temperatures  between  35°  and  40°  C,  which  are  fatal  to  the 
mussel.  The  new  form,  which  results  from  the  influence  of  the  in- 
creased temperature  on  the  immature  fluke,  is  probably  a  stage  towards 
the  final  form.  Therefore  it  seems  likely  that  the  final  metamorphosis 
occurs  in  a  warm-blooded  animal,  which  is  probably  a  bird. 

New  RhabdocQela.|| — Nils  von  Hofsten  describes  three  new  Rhab- 
doccela  from  moor-lochs  in  the  island  of  Gotland,  namely,  Castrada 
instructa,  DaJJijeliu  pallida,  and  D.  succincta. 

Polyclads  from  the  Somali  Coast  and  a  Revision  of  the  Stylo- 
chinse.^T — Adolf  Meixner  gives  an  anatomical  account  of  a  number  of 
polyclads,  13  species,  collected  by  Ch.  Gravier  off  the  Somali  coast,  and 
takes  this  opportunity  of  making  a  revision  of  the  previously  described 
members  of  the  family  Stylochinse. 

New  Marine  Triclad.**— G.  Du  Plessis  gives  a  description  of  a 
beautiful  little  Triclad,   Cercyra  verrucosa  sp.  n. — so-called  because  of 

*  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxvii.  (1907)  pp.  575-8  (5  figs.). 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  87-90  (2  figs.). 
%  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  289-97. 
§  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  xliii.  (1907)  pp.  502-4. 
II  Arkiv  Zool.,  iii.  (1907)  pp.  1-15  (1  pi.). 

i  Zeitschr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxviii.   (1907)  pp.  385-498  (5  pis.  and  2  figs.). 
**  Rev.  Suisse  Zool.,  xv.  (1907)  pp.  129-41  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  51 

the  great  development  of  papillae  in  a  double  or  triple  series  on  the 
dorsal  surface,  which  seem  to  serve  as  fixing  organs.  It  is  only  the 
seventh  Triclad  found  on  the  Mediterranean  shores. 

New  Nemerteans.*— M.  Oxner  describes  two  new  species  which  he 
has  found  at  Roscoff — Amphiporus  martyi  sp.  n.,  a  very  transparent 
form  which  lives  along  with  Linens  ruber  ;  Prosorochmus  delayei  sp.  n., 
which  is  viviparous  and  hermaphrodite. 

Incertae  Sedis. 

Development  of  Ribs  in  Brachiopods.f — S.  S.  Buckrnan  discusses 
the  development  of  the  ribbed  stage  in  Gincta  and  Eudesia,  and  shows 
that  there  are  various  methods  by  which  "similar  looking  ribbed  forms" 
have  been  evolved  from  "  similar  looking  smooth  forms."  ' 

It  may  be  of  use  to  quote  the  general  introduction  to  his  study  : 
"  The  test  ornament  of  Brachiopods  is  found  in  three  main  phases — 
smooth,  ribbed,  and  spinous.  (A  striate  stage  is  sometimes  interposed 
between  the  smooth  and  the  ribbed,  but  not  always.)  These  three 
phases  are  in  this  anagenetic  sequence  to  one  another  :  in  relation  to 
its  nearest  allies,  a  costate  species  of  a  given  series  is  more  advanced 
than  a  smooth  one  of  that  series,  and  a  spinose  one  still  further  than  a 
costate.  There  are  catagenetic  developments  also  in  reverse  order  : 
in  certain  Productids  the  costate  stage  follows  on  a  spinose  ;  in  Aran- 
thothyris  there  are  certain  cases  of  the  spinose  ontogenetic  stage  being 
followed  by  a  smooth.  If,  however,  the  catagenetic  phases  be  put  aside 
for  the  present,  it  may  be  said  that  the  state  of  external  ornament — 
smooth,  costate,  spinose — indicates  the  position  of  a  Brachiopod  as  more 
or  less  advanced  than  its  fellows."  The  author  gives  an  interesting  table 
showing  sequences  of  developmental  phases  of  test  ornament,  in  the 
one  case  subsequent  to  Gincta,  in  the  other  case  prior  to  Eudesia. 

Rotiform  Bryozoa  of  the  Isle  of  Wight.} — J.  W.  Gregory  describes 
Bicavea  rotaformis  sp.  n.,  which  occurs  at  the  base  of  the  cretaceous 
Holaster planus  zone  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  It  consists  of  a  wheel-shaped 
body  borne  on  a  narrow  cylindrical  stem.  Its  nearest  allies  are  some 
specimens  from  the  Danian  Chalk  of  Faxoe,  described  as  Radiopora 
urn nl a  var.  stipitata  by  Pergens  and  Meunier  in  1887. 

Growth  of  Tendra  zostericola.§ — M.  Bogolepow  describes  the  growth 
of  colonies  of  this  Bryozoon  on  the  glass  sides  of  an  aquarium.  The 
original  "  cell  "  or  oozoid  formed  a  chain  of  blastozoids  ;  blastozoid  buds 
appeared  which  formed  the  beginning  of  an  axis  or  of  axes  of  the 
second  order  ;  and  so  on.  Gradually  a  thick  crust  resulted.  The  author 
watched  the  processes  of  degeneration,  the  formation  of  "  brown  bodies," 
and  the  process  of  restoration,  and  he  gives  an  account  of  the  various 
appearances  presented  by  the  living  colony. 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  vii.  (1907)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  3,  pp.  lix.-lxix.  (6  figs.). 

t  Quart.  Jouru.  Geol.  Soc,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  338-43  (1  pi.). 

\  Geol.  Mag.,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  442-3. 

§  Zool.  Auzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  305-16  (7  figs.). 

]•;   -1 


52  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Total  Regeneration  of  Bryozoa.* — G.  M.  It.  Levinsen  reports  tliiit 
in  some  species  of  Bowerbanhia  and  Merribranipora,  in  Valkeria  urn  and 
Cribrillina  labiata  sp.  n.,  and  in  some  other  cases,  the  whole  individual  is 
regenerated  from  the  endosarcof  the  stolon.  The  zoecia  reproduce  their 
polypide  a  certain  number  of  times,  then  the  zoecium  falls  off,  and  the 
whole  individual  is  replaced  from  the  scar. 

Genus  Tubucellaria.f —  A.  W.  Waters  gives  a  brief  account  of 
the  species  of  this  genus,  in  which  a  description  of  a  new  form, 
T.  Zanzibar iensis,  is  included.  Some  notes  are  given  upon  the  ovicells, 
which  appear  to  differ  considerably  in  structure  in  different  Bryozoa. 
It  is  suggested  that  in  the  present  genus  the  shape  of  the  opening  of  the 
ovicell  "  seems  to  be  a  specific  character."  The  so-called  "  diminutive 
polypide  "  in  the  ovicellular  zocecia  is  shown  to  be  derived  from  the 
substance  of  the  ordinary  form. 

Rotifera. 

New  Marine  Rotifera. $ — Carl  Zelinka,  in  a  work  of  considerable 
magnitude,  describes  two  new  species,  Synchceta  atlantica  and  Rattulus 
henseni,  as  occurring  in  great  abundance  in  a  certain  limited  area  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  and  which  were  collected  by  the  German  Plankton 
Expedition  of  1889.  The  area  inhabited  by  these  two  Rotifers,  and 
these  two  species  only,  lies  in  latitude  60°  17'  N.,  and  between  longitude 
14°  and  30°  W.,  or  about  midway  between  the  northernmost  coast  of 
Scotland  and  the  southernmost  point  of  Greenland.  A  few  more  speci- 
mens of  the  same  two  species  were  obtained  near  Bermuda,  and  then, 
with  the  exception  of  a  single  dead  lorica  of  a  Colurus  (or  Monurd) 
obtained  in  a  haul  near  Ascension,  no  more  Rotifers  at  all  were  en- 
countered in  any  other  parts  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  which  was  crossed 
three  times. 

The  fine-plankton  net  was  lowered  to  a  depth  of  400  m.,  and  the 
richest  catch  of  Synchceta  and  Rattulus  in  the  above-named  area  was 
obtained  in  lat.  29°  W.,  and  contained,  by  Henson's  method  of  counting, 
as  many  as  364,352  Synchmta  and  44,500  Rattulus  to  every  column  of 
water  having  a  surface  area  of  •  1  sq.  m.  (about  1  sq.  ft.)  and  a  depth 
of  400  m.  A  vast  number  of  floating  eggs  of  these  Rotifers  were 
obtained  at  the  same  time.  The  fact  that  Rotifers  occur  at  such 
great  depth  was  not  known  before,  and  the  barrenness,  as  regards 
Rotifera,  of  the  rest  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  is  certainly  very  remarkable; 

The  author  finally  gives  an  elaborate  review  and  list  of  all  known 
marine  and  brackish-water  Rotifera,  156  in  number,  and  discusses  the 
question  of  the  origin  of  this  marine  fauna. 

Echinoderma. 

Luminosity  of  Amphiura  squamata.§ — Irene  Sterzinger  finds  that 
the  luminous  organs  of  this  Ophiuroid  are  at  the  tips  of  the  tube-feet. 

*  Oversigt  k.  Danske  Vidensk.  Selsk.  Fordhandl.,  1907,  pp.  151-9  (1  pi.), 
t  Journ.  Linn.  Soc,  xxx.  (1907)  pp.  126-32  (2  pis.). 

%  Plankton  Expedition  der  Humboldt-Stiftung,  1889,  ii.  (Kiel,  1907)  pp.  1-79 
(3  pis.).  §  Zeitschr.  wiss.  ZooL,  lxxxviii.  (1907)  pp.  358-84  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    .MICROSCOPY .    ETC.  53 

The  luminosity  is  due  to  mucus,  which  is  secreted  by  cells  of  the 
external  epithelium  at  the  tip  of  the  tube-foot.  It  accumulates  in  the 
intercellular  spaces,  and  passes  out  by  apertures  in  small  papilla?  at 
the  tip.     The  luminosity  is  extra-cellular. 

The  animal  produces  non-luminous  as  well  as  luminous  mucus  ; 
both  are  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid.  Mucus  glands  occur  also  in  the 
tube-feet  of  other  Echinoderms,  e.g.,  Astropecten  aurantiacus,  in  the 
sensory  buds  of  Ophiothrix  fragilis,  and  in  the  tentacles  of  Antedon 
rosacea.  The  mucus  seems  to  help  adhesion  in  Amphiura  squamata  and 
Ophiothrix  fragilis,  both  of  which  are  able  to  climb  up  vertical  walls. 

Abnormality  in  Test  of  Echinolampas.* — R.  Fabiani  describes  in 
the  fossil  test  of  this  sea-urchin  a  peculiar  abnormality  in  the  ambulacra! 
plates,  especially  in  two  of  the  areas  of  the  trivium.  The  poriferal 
zones  of  one  series  converge  rapidly  towards  those  of  the  other  series  in 
the  same  ambulacrum,  they  almost  unite,  and  then  they  suddenly 
diverge  again  and  follow  their  usual  course. 

Development  of  Ophiothrix  fragilis. f  —  E.  W.  MacBride  sum- 
marises the  leading  points  in  the  development  of  Ophiothrix  fragilis. 
An  important  discovery  made  in  the  course  of  his  investigations  is  that 
there  are  two  types  of  development,  depending  on  whether  fertilisation 
is  effected  naturally  or  artificially.  For  example,  if  the  former,  seg- 
mentation results  in  the  formation  of  a  thick-walled  blastula  ;  if  the 
latter,  a  solid  mass  of  cells  or  morula  results.  The  abnormal  develop- 
ment has  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  normal  development  of 
Ophiura  brevis,  and  is  of  interest  as  showing  how  far-reaching  in  its 
influence  on  the  subsequent  development  is  the  condition  of  the  egg  at 
the  moment  of  fertilisation,  and  the  idea  is  suggested  that  here,  perhaps, 
is  to  be  found  the  origin  of  variations.  The  author  remarks  that  "  we 
must  assume  that  eggs  are  capable  of  fertilisation  before  they  are  quite 
ripe,  and  that  the  fact  that  eggs  can  be  fertilised  is  no  proof  that  they 
are  fully  ripe,  or  that  the  resulting  development  is  normal.  This  con- 
clusion has,  I  think,  a  somewhat  important  bearing  on  the  experimental 
studies  for  which  the  eggs  of  Echinodermata  have  furnished  the  material. 
Notably  the  statements  which  some  authors  have  made  about  obtaining 
ripe  eggs  from  sea-urchins  like  Strongylocentrotus  all  the  year  round 
must  be  received  with  great  caution."  On  the  disputed  question  of  the 
homology  of  the  right  hydroccele,  it  is  noted  that  in  Ophiothrix  fragilis 
it  is  from  the  beginning  on  the  risrht  side  of  the  larva. 


- 


New  Zealand  Holothurians.J — Arthur  Dendy  and  E.  Hindle  give 
an  account  of  some  Holothurians  from  Xew  Zealand,  amongst  which 
they  find  six  new  species.  Of  these  Rhabdomolgus  novw-zealandicB  is 
the  most  remarkable;  by  its  discovery  the  view  is  confirmed  that 
spicules  are  really  absent  in  this  genus,  which  has  hitherto  been  dis- 
credited by  systematists,  and  which  must  now  be  revived. 

*  Atti  Accad.  Sci.  Veneto-Trentino-Istriana,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  75-8  (2  figs.). 
t  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  Series  B,  lxxix.  (1907)  pp.  440-5  (4  figs.). 
j  Journ.  Linn.  Soc,  xxx.  (1907)  pp.  95-125  (4  pis.). 


54  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

New  Species  of  Cucumaria.* — R.  P.  Cowles  describes  Cucumcnria 
curata  sp.  n.,  from  the  Californian  coast.  Many  individuals  are  usually 
seen  together,  in  the  breeding  season  at  least,  forming  black  patches 
just  below  low-tide  mark.  The  species  is  of  especial  interest  on  account 
of  the  care  of  the  eggs  and  young.  As  soon  as  the  eggs  are  laid  they 
are  transferred,  probably  by  means  of  the  tentacles,  to  the  ventral 
surface  of  the  body,  and  are  kept  there  until  they  develop  into  young 
forms  several  millimetres  in  length.  The  eggs  are  large,  almost  1  mm. 
in  diameter.  Associated  with  the  Holothurian  during  the  breeding 
season  there  is  a  small  Nematode  which  feeds  upon  the  eggs,  often  de- 
stroying the  whole  brood. 

Coelentera. 

Madreporaria  from  Amboina.t — M.  Bedot  has  done  good  service 
to  students  of  Madreporarian  corals  by  publishing  not  only  full  descrip- 
tions, but  abundant  beautiful  illustrations,  of  a  large  collection  (79 
species)  of  Madreporaria  from  Amboina. 

Rare  British  Coral.| — W.  A.  Herdman  dredged  from  the  Train 
bank,  8  miles  off  Port  Erin,  a  distinctly  rare  British  coral,  Paracyathus 
pteropus.  It  was  described  by  Gosse  from  a  specimen  found  attached  to 
a  shell  of  Cyprina  from  the  deepest  part  of  the  Moray  Firth,  but  as  the 
soft  parts  were  unknown  to  Gosse,  a  brief  description  of  the  Isle  of 
Man  specimen  was  drawn  up  from  the  living  specimen  by  Chadwick. 
The  column  is  cylindrical,  not  much  higher  than  the  corallum  ;  the 
disk  is  flat,  or  very  slightly  raised  in  the  centre,  without  distinct  margin  ; 
the  tentacles  are  28  in  number,  arranged  in  two  alternating  circlets, 
the  stem  is  tapering,  membranous,  studded  with  numerous  wans 
(cnidophores  ?),  the  head  is  sub-globular  and  opaque  ;  the  mouth  is  a 
lengthened  and  very  mobile  slit,  with  crenulate  lips  ;  the  colour  of  the 
column,  disk,  and  tentacles  is  transparent  white,  and  a  broad  vandyked 
band  of  vivid  emerald  green  surrounds  the  mouth  ;  the  diameter  of  the 
corallum  is  3  mm. 

Statoblasts  in  a  Scyphistoma.§  — E.  Herouard  has  found  in  a 
Scyphistoma  at  Roscoff  (like  Dalzell's  "  Hydra-tuba "),  encysted  buds 
"with  a  latent  life  and  representing  veritable  statoblasts."  They  are 
formed  on  the  pedal  disk  and  are  inclosed  in  a  chitinous  envelope.  If 
the  envelope  be  burst,  the  bud  begins  to  proliferate  and  forms  a  polyp. 
The  "  statoblasts  "  are  formed  during  a  resting  period,  and  the  time 
necessary  is  about  15  days.  After  a  statoblast  is  formed,  the  polyp 
moves  a  short  distance  on  its  "  pedal  sole,"  leaving  the  statoblast 
behind.     After  coming  to  rest  again,  the  polyp  forms  a  new  statoblast. 

Revision  of  Medusa?  Belonging  to  the  Family  Laodiceidae.  || 
E.  T.  Browne  includes  in  this  re-defined  family  the  following  genera  : 

*  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circular,  No.  3  (1907)  pp.  8-9  (2  pis.). 

f  Rev.  Suisse  Zool.,  xv.  (1907)  pp.  143-292  (46  pis.). 

\  Liverpool  Biol.  Committee,  21st  Rep.,  1907,  pp.  24-5. 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  601-3. 

II  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xx.  (1907)  pp.  457-80. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  55 

Laodice,  Staurophora,  Ptychoyena,  Staurodiscus,  Toxorchis,  Melicertissa. 
The  character,  now  selected  as  distinctive  of  the  family,  is  the  presence 
of  cordyli,  commonly  called  sensory  clubs,  on  the  margin  of  the 
umbrella.  A  cordylus  is  quite  distinct  from  marginal  bulbs  and 
tubercles  or  sprouting  tentacles  and  cirri.  Its  shape  varies  slightly  in 
different  genera,  but  it  always  has  a  clear  translucent  appearance,  with- 
out any  coloration,  and  is  free  from  nematocysts.  It  is  also  without 
otoliths  and  such  concretions  as  are  generally  found  in  sense-organs. 

Gonophores  of  Plumularia  obliqua  and  Sertularia  operculata.  * — 
S.  Motz-Kossowska  refers  to  the  general  opinion  that,  among  the 
Calyptoblastea,  Medusoids  occur  only  in  the  Campanulariidae  and 
related  families,  such  as  the  CampanulinidaB  and  some  of  the  Lafceidas. 
In  1902  Torrey  found  free  gonozoids  in  Haleciidae ;  the  author  has 
found  medusiform  gonozoids  in  Plumularia  obliqua  Saunders  (in  which 
a  male  Medusoid  was  seen  to  detach  itself)  and  in  Sertularia  operculata  L. 
(in  which  the  liberation  of  a  Medusoid,  almost  mistakable  for  that  of 
the  former  species,  is  probable). 

Tubularia  indivisa  var.  obliqua. f — F.  H.  Gravely  found  this 
variety  at  Port  St.  Mary,  Isle  of  Man.  It  is  characterised  by  a  single 
large  tentacle  covering  the  umbrella-mouth  of  each  female  gonophore 
and  capable  of  moving  to  a  slight  extent.  A  similar  form  has  been 
described  by  Bonnevie  and  Swenander.  The  female  gonophore  shows 
a  single  radial  canal  instead  of  four — a  feature  correlated  with  the 
presence  of  the  single  large  tentacle  to  the  base  of  which  the  canal  runs. 
The  male  gonophore  shows  no  radial  canals  or  tentacles,  but  shows  — 
what  the  normal  T.  indivisa  apparently  does  not — conspicuous  sterile 
cells  in  the  outer  layers  of  sperm,  these  cells  often  bearing  delicate 
processes  that  pass  inwards  towards  the  spadix. 

Cordylophora  lacustris4 — Sven  Ekman  discusses  the  distribution 
of  Cordylophora  lacustris  Allman  in  Swedish  waters. 

Porifera. 

African  Fresh-water  Sponges.§ — R.  Kirkpatrick  reports  on  speci- 
mens of  a  new  variety  of  Ephydatia  fluviatilis  L.,  collected  by  J. 
Stuart  Thomson,  from  a  pond  near  Cape  Town.  This  almost  cosmo- 
politan species  has  been  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  but  is 
now  recorded  for  the  first  time  from  Africa.  A  second  species,  Spon- 
gillu  rerebellata  Bowerbank,  was  obtained  from  a  pond  near  Cairo  by 
Innes  Bey.  Thus  the  two  commonest  European  species  have  to  be 
added  to  the  list  of  African  fresh- water  sponges,  of  which  21  species 
are  known.  The  Cape  specimen,  which  is  named  E.  fluviatilis  var. 
capensis  var.  n.,  is  a  strongly  marked  variety,  as  regards  its  oxeas, 
amphidisks,  and  gemmules. 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,vii.  (1907)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  4,  pp.  cxiv.-xviii.  (3  figs.). 

t  Liverpool  Marine  Biol.  Station,  21st  Ann.  Rep.,  1907,  pp.  15-17. 

J  Arkiv.  Zool.,  iii.  (1907)  pp.  1-4. 

§  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xx.  (1907)  pp.  523-5  (11  figs.). 


56  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES  RELATING    TO 

Protozoa. 

Foraminifera  of  Galway.*  —  F.  W.  Millett  has  published  some 
notes  on  Foraminifera  collected  on  the  seashore  at  Galway,  by  F.  P. 
Balkwill,  in  1879-80.  Along  with  Balkwill,  he  reported  on  this 
collection  in  the  Journal  of  Microscopy  and  Natural  Science,  iii. 
1884,  but  as  the  plates  came  out  roughly,  he  has  had  the  original  draw- 
ings reproduced  by  photogravure.  The  classification  and  nomenclature 
have  been  brought  into  accordance  with  modern  researches.  Among 
the  more  interesting  forms  the  following  may  be  noted  : — Spirilondina 
acutimargo,  Milwlina  auberiana,  Ammodiscus  shoneanus,  Trochammina 
plimta,  Lagena  clathrata,  L.fimbriata,  Pulvinulina  patagonica,  Lingulina 
carinata  (in  Silvestri's  genus  Ellvpsolingulind). 

Tertiary  Foraminifera  of  Victoria.! — F.  Chapman  gives  an  account 
of  the  Foraminifera  in  the  Balcombian  deposits  of  Port  Philip.  He 
comments  on  the  abundance  of  Foraminifera  in  many  of  the  clays  and 
limestones  of  the  Victorian  Tertiary  strata,  and  on  the  gigantic  size  and 
redundant  growth  of  many  of  the  species — an  index  to  the  congenial 
life-conditions. 

Physiology  of  Pulsating  Vacuole  in  Infusoria.} — A.  Kanitz  dis- 
cusses the  relation  of  temperature  to  the  activity  of  the  pulsating 
vacuole  in  Infusoria.  The  reactions  to  temperature  are  such  as  to  render 
physical  explanations,  e.g.  osmosis,  insufficient.  They  appear  to  conform 
to  the  R.G.T.  rule  (Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit  Temperaturregel),  accord- 
ing to  Avhich  a  raising  of  the  temperature  10°  increases  the  reaction  speed 
from  two  to  three  times.  The  results  obtained  with  the  pulsating 
vacuoles  of  different  Infusoria  in  accordance  with  this  rule  are  most 
readily  explained  in  relation  to  chemical  processes. 

New  Hypotrichous  Infusorian.§ — E.  Faure-Fremiet  describes  a  new 
form,  which  he  makes  the  type  for  a  new  genus,  Ancystropodium 
maupasi  g.  et  sp.  n.  This  form  possesses  a  contractile  pedicle,  consist- 
ing of  a  protoplasmic  strand,  which  carries  on  its  left  border  seven 
marginal  cilia.  The  species  is  a  highly  differentiated  one,  adapted  for 
fixation  by  means  of  its  tranverse  cilia.  The  author  considers  the 
question  of  a  possible  relationship  with  the  Vorticellida?,  but  regards  such 
a  view  as  untenable. 

Ichthyophthirius  multifiliis  on  British  Roach. || — James  Johnstone 
records  the  occurrence  of  this  Ciliate  upon  the  skin  and  gills  of  roach 
in  Hesketh  Lake,  Southport.  Only  the  roach  were  affected,  and  pike, 
perch,  and  eels  living  in  the  same  water  showed  no  signs  of  disease. 
The  epidemic  produced  considerable  mortality  among  the  roach  for 
about  a  month,  after  which  it  died  out.  This  appears  to  be  the  first 
record  of  this  Ciliate  in  British  waters.  An  account  of  its  structure  and 
mode  of  multiplication  is  given. 

*  The  Recent  Foraminifera  of  Galway.     Plymouth,  1908,  8  pp.  (4  pis.). 

t  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  (Zool.)  xxx.  (1907)  pp.  10-35  (4  pis.). 

%  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxvii.  (1907)  pp.  11-25. 

§  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  377-8. 

||  Proc.  and  Trans.  Liverpool  Biol.  Soc,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  292-5  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  57 

Notes  on  Acinetaria.*  —  B.  Collins  describes  Ephelota  gemmipara 
Herfcwig  and  Hypocoma  acinetarum  sp.  n.  The  former  has  buds  at  once 
tentaculate  and  ciliated,  as  Ishikawa  observed  in  the  case  of  E.  biitsch- 
liana.  Multiplication  occurs  by  transverse  (never  longitudinal)  fission, 
by  multiple  ovoid,  tentaculate,  non-ciliated  buds,  and  by  multiple  ciliated 
buds,  which,  as  noted,  sometimes  show  tentacles  before  their  separation 
from  the  parent.  A  full  account  of  the  structure  of  the  animal  is  given, 
but  the  results  are  mainly  in  agreement  with  those  of  R.  Hertwig.  It  is 
noted,  however,  that  there  is  a  horse-shoe  of  large  cilia  on  the  dorsal 
surface  of  the  embryo.  The  new  species  of  Hypocoma  lives  on  the 
stalk  of  Ephelota  and  on  Acineta  compressa  ;  it  has  a  secondarily  acquired 
asymmetry  ;  there  is  a  single  ventral  tentacle  and  an  interesting  posterior 
invagination  ;  the  ciliation  is  in  concentric  ellipses.  It  seems  that  Hypo- 
coma is  not  a  primitive  type — a  possible  starting-point  for  the  Acine- 
taria and  derived  from  Uhilodon.  It  is  rather  a  highly  specialised 
terminal  type,  morphologically  deformed.  The  affinities  between  Acine- 
taria and  Ciliata  should  probably  be  looked  for  in  the  direction  of 
the  Peritricha, 

Trypanosomes  of  the  Upper  Niger. f— A.  Laveran  has  sought  ex- 
perimentally to  clear  up  the  difficult  question  of  the  specific  nature  of 
the  agents  in  the  Trypanosome  diseases  of  this  region.  Two  oxen  in- 
oculated with  the  virus  of  "  Mai  de  la  Zousfana  "  and  "  El  Debab,"  and 
quite  cured,  showed  themselves  completely  refractory  to  Trypanosoma 
soudanmse,  whence  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  Trypanosome  of  these 
diseases  is  really  T.  soudanense.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the 
Trypanosome  observed  in  horses  and  dromedaries  in  Algeria  exists  also 
in  the  Upper  Niger.  It  is  possible  that  the  centre  of  infection  is  this 
latter  region,  and  that  transportation  to  Algeria  is  effected  by  the  caravans 
coming  from  Timbuctoo. 

Role  of  the  Spleen  in  Trypanosomiasis.!  —  A.  Laveran  and 
Thiroux  have  looked  into  this  important  subject.  They  find  that  the 
Trypanosomes  found  in  the  spleen  during  life,  or  even  after  death, 
have  the  same  structure  as  those  taken  from  the  general  circulation. 
Extract  of  spleen  has  not,  in  vitro,  trypanolytic  properties,  nor  in  animals 
whose  spleen  is  removed  is  trypanosomiasis  sensibly  modified.  In 
trypanosomiasis,  as  in  malaria,  the  spleen,  without  doubt,  contributes  to 
the  freeing  of  the  circulation  from  the  debris  of  the  hsematozoa  follow- 
ing trypanolytic  crises,  but  this  seems  to  be  all  that  it  can  do. 

Trypanosome  of  Pontobdella  inuricata.§— Muriel  Robertson  re- 
cords her  observations  on  a  Trypanosome  from  the  alimentary  canal  of 
Pontobdella  mvricata.  She  agrees  with  Brumpt  that  this  is  probably  the 
Trypanosoma  rake  of  the  skate.  It  is  evidently  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  Pontobdella,  since  of  60  specimens  examined  only  one  failed  to  yield 
examples.  A  series  of  forms  is  described,  and  points  in  their  minute 
structure,  e.g.  the  kinetonucleus,  are  discussed.    The  flagellum  appears  to 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,vii.  (1907)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  4,  pp.  xciii.-ciii.  (3  figs.). 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  293-5.  J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  14-18. 

§  Proc.  Roy.  Phys.  Soc,  xvii.  (1907)  pp.  83-108  (4  pis.). 


58  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

be  developed  from  a  pair  of  arrested  mitotic  figures  developed  out  of  the 
distal  of  the  two  segments  into  which  the  original  kinetonucleus  divides. 
The  process  of  division  is  described. 

Trypanosomes  of  Frog  and  Leech.* — Carlos  France  finds  that  the 
Invertebrate  host  of  Trypanosoma  costatum  and  T.  roiatorium  of  the  frog 
is  a  leech.  From  the  leech  he  has  been  able  to  infect  the  frog.  There 
is  a  Trypanosome  phase  in  the  frog,  and  a  Herpetomonad  phase  in  the 
leech.  The  author  has  also  some  notes  on  the  culture  of  the  frog's 
trypanosomes  |  and  on  their  intra-vitam  staining. $ 

Development  of  Piroplasma  canis  in  Dog.§  — G.  H.  F.  Nuttall  and 
G.  S.  Graham  Smith  describe  the  appearance  of  this  parasite  in  unstained 
preparations,  its  mode  of  multiplication,  including  an  account  of  the 
nuclear  changes,  the  fate  of  the  various  forms  as  observed  in  the  living 
blood,  and  the  complete  cycle  of  development  within  the  blood.  The 
mode  of  multiplication  stated  briefly  is  as  follows.  A  free  pyriform 
parasite  enters  a  normal  red-blood  corpuscle  and  rapidly  assumes  a  rounded 
form.  It  then  enlarges  and  passes  through  an  actively  amoeboid  stage, 
at  the  end  of  which  it  again  becomes  rounded.  After  a  short  period  of 
quiescence  in  this  condition,  it  protrudes  two  symmetrical  processes, 
which  rapidly  grow  and  become  pear-shaped.  The  protoplasm  of  the 
parasite  flows  into  these  processes,  and  its  body  consequently  gradually 
diminishes,  until  it  is  represented  by  a  minute  rounded  mass,  to  which 
the  pyriform  processes  are  attached.  Eventually  this  also  disappears, 
and,  finally,  two  mature  pyriform  parasites  are  left,  which  are  joined 
together  for  a  time  by  a  thin  strand  of  protoplasm.  After  a  variable 
time  these  parasites  are  liberated  by  the  rupture  of  the  corpuscle,  and 
swim  away,  to  enter  fresh  corpuscles  and  repeat  the  process.  Occasionally 
a  single  rounded  intra-corpuscular  parasite  gives  rise  to  four  or  more 
pyriform  parasites  by  the  protrusion  of  a  corresponding  number  of 
processes.  The  authors  never  observed  any  forms  which  could  be  re- 
garded as  gametes. 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Portugaise  Sci.  Nat.,  i.  (1907)  pp.  27-8  (2  figs.). 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  5-8  (3  figs.).  %  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  9-11. 

§  Journ.  Hygiene,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  232-72  (3  pis.  and  14  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  59 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including  Cell-Contents. 

Structure  of  Nucleus  in  Relation  to  Organisation  of  Individual.* 
J.  B.  Farmer  has  continued  his  investigations  as  to  the  structural 
constituents  of  the  nucleus  and  their  relation  to  the  organisation  of  the 
individual.  While  recognising  the  great  importance  of  the  nucleus,  the 
author  believes  that  the  properties  of  the  individual  may  be,  at  least  in 
part,  attributed  to  the  interaction  of  the  nucleus  with  the  cytoplasm 
external  to  it.  Such  interaction  of  cytoplasm  and  nucleus  is  seen  in  the 
fact  that  enucleated  eggs  of  one  species  of  echinoderm,  when  fertilised, 
give  rise  to  larva?  resembling  the  male  parent.  It  is  also  seen  in  the 
effects  of  polyspermy,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  reason  that  polyspermy 
so  seldom  occurs  in  healthy  cultures,  is  that  a  sudden  chemical  change 
results  from  the  entrance  of  the  first  sperm  into  the  cytoplasm  of  the 
egg.  Tlie  author  has  proved  that  in  several  Fucaceas  and  in  some  ferns 
the  entrance  of  the  first  sperm  into  the  egg-cytoplasm  is  followed  by  the 
paralysis  or  disorganisation  of  other  sperms  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Evidence  that  cytoplasm  is  the  cause  of  similar  disintegration  is  also 
afforded  by  the  Gymnosperms,  and  most  markedly  by  the  Cycads  with 
motile  spermatozoids. 

As  to  the  act  of  fertilisation,  the  author  considers  that  not  only  must 
there  be  union  of  two,  and  not  more  than  two  nuclei,  but  these  nuclei 
must  retain  a  certain  structural  basis,  and  he  agrees  with  Darwin, 
Weismann,  and  De  Vries  in  regarding  the  constituents  of  the  nucleus, 
and  not  the  nucleus  as  a  whole,  as  charged  with  the  control  of  the 
chemical  transformations  in  the  cell,  which  reveal  themselves  in  the 
characters  of  the  cell.  The  chromomeres  which  constitute  the  chromo- 
somes may  be  compared  to  ferments  which  set  up  in  the  extra-nuclear 
cytoplasm,  chemical  changes  which  constitute  development.  The 
present  work  favours  the  Mendelian  theory,  and  it  appears  that  fertilisa- 
tion is  to  be  regarded  as  a  mechanical  mixture  of  the  nuclear 
constituents  rather  than  the  formation  of  a  chemical  compound.  The 
units  in  each  of  the  sexual  nuclei  retain  their  individuality,  and  at 
fertilisation  these  units  are  sorted  out  into  different  combinations. 
Experiments  and  observations  show  that  the  actual  number  of 
chromosomes  is  immaterial,  but  the  usual  constancy  of  number  is 
evidence  of  the  organising  function  of  the  cell  as  a  whole  rather 
than  of  independence  of  the  chromosomes.     Chromosome-reduction  is 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  lxxix.  B  (1907)  pp.  446-G4. 


<)0  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

both  a  consequence  and  a  condition  of  sexuality,  and  affords  convincing 
proof  of  the  existence  of  persistent  structural  units,  which  are  directly 
responsible  for  the  characters  manifested  by  the  developing  organism. 
The  significance  of  reduction  is  in  the  sorting  out  of  structural 
entities  and  in  the  distribution  of  entire  sets  of  them  in  the  sexual  cells. 
The  relatively  small  number  of  chromosomes  renders  it  impossible  to 
regard  them  as  structural  entities,  and  their  real  importance  lies  in 
their  structure  as  similarly  organised  groups  of  chromomeres,  but  not 
necessarily  of  the  same  chromomeres.  It  is  possible  that  the  chromo- 
meres themselves  may  prove  to  be  the  structural  entities  of  the  cell. 
The  constancy  in  form  of  the  chromosomes  is  an  expression  of  organisa- 
tion within  the  cell,  not  of  unchanging  aggregation  of  the  same  con- 
stituents. Evidence  is  afforded  that  given  a  complete  set  of  chromo- 
somes, whether  in  single  or  in  duplicate,  the  complete  life-history  may 
be  covered,  and  that  the  duplicate  set  arising  from  sexuality  is  merely  a 
means  of  producing  variation. 

The  primordia  (structural  entities),  which  constitute  the  hereditary 
mechanism,  impose  the  limits  within  which  development  can  take  place, 
but  within  those  limits  other  conditions,  e.g.,  specific  exciting  substances, 
may  determine  the  path  actually  followed. 

Cytology  of  Pollen-mother-cells  of  Nymphfeacese.* — AV.Lubimenko 
and  A.  Maige  have  made  a  morphological  and  cytological  study  of 
pollen-development  in  the  Nympkasaceas. 

The  authors  draw  the  following  conclusions  from  their  investigation:-. 
During  the  prosynapsis  stage,  the  nuclei  of  the  pollen-mother-clls 
increase  in  size,  until  they  are  4-5  times  larger  than  the  vegetative 
nuclei.  The  increase  in  size  of  the  nucleus  is  accompanied  by  a 
corresponding,  but  less  marked,  increase  in  the  size  of  the  cells  them- 
selves. The  increase  in  size  of  the  nuclei  may  perhaps  be  considered 
as  the  result  of  delay  in  nuclear  division.  During  the  passage  from 
prosynapsis  to  synapsis  there  is  a  still  greater  increase  in  the  size  of  the 
nucleus  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  cell :  this  increase  in  size  is  the 
result  of  enlargement  of  the  nuclear-sac  and  of  the  nucleolar  and  lino- 
chromatic  masses,  and  is  always  followed  by  a  slow  enlargement  of  the 
mother-cell  itself.  In  the  spireme  stage  the  volumes  of  the  reproductive 
nuclei  undergo  a  diminution  in  size,  and  are  then  only  six  times  larger 
than  the  vegetative  nuclei.  This  diminution  of  volume  corresponds  to 
a  re-establishment  of  the  normal  proportions  in  the  nuclear-sac,  the 
nucleolar  and  the  lino-chromatic  masses,  and  is  accompanied  by  the 
appearance  of  a  well-differentiated  nuclear  membrane. 

The  chromosomes  are  formed  by  concentration  of  the  chromatin  at 
certain  points  of  the  spireme  ;  they  are  of  various  forms,  and  seem  to  be 
composed  of  a  varying  number  of  small  bodies. 

During  the  period  which  elapses  between  chromosome-formation  and 
the  disappearance  of  the  nuclear  membrane,  the  volume  of  the  nucleus 
diminishes  by  one-half.  It  is  probable  that  the  entire  spindle  is  formed 
exclusively  from  nuclear  substance  (linin  and  nucleolus),  and  that  the 
cytoplasm  has  no  part  in  its  constitution. 

*  Rev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  401-25  (5  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  61 

Cystolith-formation  in  the  Cistacese.*  —  M.  Gard  has  examined 
the  silicified  thickenings  which  occur  in  the  leaves  of  many  CistaceEe. 
They  are  found  in  epidermal  cells,  stomata,  palisade,  and  spongy 
parenchyma,  and  although  they  have  no  pedicel,  the  larger  formations 
greatly  resemble  true  cystoliths.  They  are  not  usually  confined  to  a 
single  cell,  but  extend  through  several  adjacent  cells.  They  often 
surround  a  stoma  or  the  base  of  a  hair.  They  are  analogous  to  similar 
formations  which  have  been  noticed  in  the  Oleacete,  Santalacese, 
Loranthaceae,  and  Euphorbiacea3.  Although  they  cannot  be  utilised  in 
the  distinction  of  species,  they  appear  to  be  constant  in  individuals 
of  very  different  origin,  e.g.  in  C.  monspeliensis  they  always  abound  in 
the  lower  epidermis,  while  the  C.  populifolius  they  surround  the  stomata  ; 
it  may  thus  prove  useful  to  mention  them  in  anatomical  descriptions. 

Structure  and.  Development. 
Vegetative. 

Centripetal  Wood  in  the  Conifer ae.-j-— Ch.  Bernard  has  investigated 
various  members  of  the  Conifers  in  order  to  discover  how  far  centripetal 
wood  is  developed  in  the  bracts  and  scale-leaves.  The  present  research 
is  a  continuation  of  that  published  by  the  author  in  1904,  and  is 
especially  intended  as  a  reply  to  the  criticisms  of  Bertrand.  The  latter 
wras  of  the  opinion  that  the  so-called  centripetal  wood  was  nothing 
but  a  diffused  mass  of  cork,  developed  for  physiological  reasons.  The 
author  re-affirms  his  former  statements,  and  contends  that  centripetal 
wood  still  exists,  although  sometimes  in  a  much  modified  form,  in  the 
leaves  of  conifers,  and  more  particularly  in  the  leaf -tips  ;  the  exist- 
ence of  such  wood  in  the  bracts  and  scale-leaves  is  also  clearly  demon- 
strated. The  plants  examined  include  Agathis  borneenxis,  Katakidozaniia 
sp.,  Aru  in- aria  imbricata,  A.  Bidwillii,  Thuya  occidental  is,  Larix  decidaa, 
Gedrus  Libani,  Picea  orientalis,  P.  excelsa,  Abies  cephalonka,  Pin  us 
Montana,  P.  Oembra  ;  the  author  believes  that  the  confirmatory  results 
given  by  these  genera  tend  to  showT  that  all  the  Coniferas  have  preserved, 
at  least  in  those  organs  which  have  retained  their  ancestral  characters, 
the  typical  centripetal  xylem. 

Stem  of  Ibervillea  Sonorge.J — A.  A.  Knox  has  investigated  the 
stem-structure  of  Ibervillea  Sonorce.  The  author  describes  the  exterior 
of  the  stem  as  having  a  tendency  to  the  seven-angled  type,  but  later  on 
it  is  terete.  There  are  five  bundles  forming  an  outer  ring,  while  the 
number  in  the  inner  ring  varies  from  five  to  nine.  There  are  endocyclic 
and  ectocyclic  sieve-tubes,  as  well  as  commissural  sieve-tubes  connecting 
the  phloem  of  adjacent  bundles.  There  is  an  active  inner  cambium. 
The  sieve-tubes  gradually  become  obliterated  and  serve  as  a  secretory 
system,  and  their  contents  provide  wound-gum.  There  is  a  periderm 
with  phellogen  and  phellem.  There  is  no  true  bark  nor  any  deep 
phellogens.  There  is  a  large  deposition  of  calcium  carbonate  which 
gives  the  surface  of  the  stem  a  greyish  appearance.     The  meristematic 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  13G-7. 

t  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xxii.  (1907)  pp.  211-44  (50  figs.). 

%  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxiv.  (1907)  pp.  329-44  (1  pi.  and  2  figs.). 


62  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

parenchyma  of  the  medullary  rays  gives  rise  to  supernumerary  masses  of 
phloem  in  the  secondary  stem.  No  interfascicular  cambium  is  present, 
but  there  is  much  dilatation  of  all  the  parenchyma. 

Origin  of  Leaves  and  Stem.* — L.  Flot  has  contributed  the  last  of 
his  series  of  papers  dealing  with  the  origin  of  the  leaves  and  stem.  The 
following  are  the  conclusions  formed  by  the  author.  The  first  differen- 
tiation of  the  meristematic  apex  of  Phanerogams  consists  in  the  forma- 
tion of  foliar  outgrowths  arising  from  a  layer  of  cells  which  ultimately 
gives  rise  to  a  vascular  meristem.  The  latter  forms  cortex  and  epidermis 
both  above  and  below,  and  in  the  centre  is  differentiated  into  ordinary 
fibro- vascular  tissue.  The  direction  of  growth  is  determined  by  the 
different  pressures  on  the  terminal  bud,  being  greatest  where  the  pressure 
is  least.  The  outgrowth  thus  formed  constitutes  a  foliar  segment  and 
ultimately  develops  into  a  typical  leaf.  The  stem-structure  is  first 
determined  by  the  structure  and  anastomoses  of  the  young  leaf -bases, 
and  when  these  are  complete,  the  whole  mass  of  cortical  and  vascular 
tissue  and  epidermis  constitutes  the  stem.  When  once  the  stem  has 
thus  been  formed,  the  lower  cells  of  each  leaf-base  rapidly  multiply  and 
so  form  internodes,  thus  causing  the  stem  to  increase  in  length. 
Increase  in  thickness  may  be  brought  about  by  increase  in  the  number 
of  bundles,  and  this  is  in  accordance  with  the  number  of  leaves  ;  or  it 
may  be  due  to  the  appearance  of  new  meristematic  layers,  but  even  then 
it  is  possible  to  discover  the  traces  of  the  primitive  leaf -structure. 

Water-stom^ta  of  the  Lobeliacese.f — M.  Tswett  has  made  a  careful 
study  of  the  hydathodes  of  Lobelia  Dortmanna,  Lobelia  splendens,  and 
Lobelia  fulgens.  While  confirming  the  descriptions  of  these  structures 
given  by  Buchenau  and  Minden,  the  author  claims  that  the  stomata 
found  in  connection  with  them  represent  quite  a  new  type.  The 
opening  of  each  stoma  is  divided  into  halves  by  a  thickened,  cutinised 
partition  which  stretches  from  one  extremity  of  the  guard-cells  to  the 
other.  In  several  cases  this  cutinous  membrane  is  continued  right  over 
the  opening  so  as  to  completely  close  it.  Twenty  other  species  of 
Lobeliaceas  have  also  been  examined,  nineteen  of  which  have  similar 
stomata,  while  the  remaining  one  is  doubtful.  It  is  of  interest  to  note 
that  the  Cainpanulacere,  which  were  also  examined,  have  water-stomata 
of  the  ordinary  type,  and  are  destitute  of  a  cutinised  membrane.  The 
author  is  uncertain  as  to  the  exact  physiological  meaning  of  these  new 
stomata,  but  believes  that  their  early  and  complex  formation  points  to 
some  important  function  in  connection  with  the  early  life  of  the  leaf. 

Lenticels  of  Palms. J — G.  L.  Gatin  has  studied  the  development  of 
the  lenticels  found  upon  the  roots  and  at  the  base  of  the  rootlets  of 
certain  palms.  The  author  finds  that  these  structures  are  also  found  on 
the  petiole  of  the  cotyledon  of  several  distantly  related  species.  They 
are  not  confined  to  plants  reared  artificially,  but  may  also  be  found  on 
those  growing  under  natural  conditions.    They  develop  where  the  hypo- 

*  Rev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  169-92  (5  figs.), 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  305-16  (1  pi.). 
%   Tom.  cit.,  pp.  193-207  (13  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICllOSCOPY,    ETC.  63 

dermal  sclerenchyrna  is  interrupted,  owing  to  the  activity  of  a  diffuse 
layer  of  active  cambial  cells.  Their  structure  strongly  recalls  that  of  the 
"  Staubgrubchen  "  of  the  Marattiaceae,  and  in  their  mode  of  formation 
they  resemble  ordinary  lenticels.  The  author  objects  to  the  term 
"  pneumathodes,"  proposed  by  Jost,  and  proposes  to  class  the  lenticular 
structures  found  on  palm-roots  with  those  found  in  the  Marattiaceae 
under  the  name  of  "primitive  lenticels."  It  is  interesting  to  note 
the  analogy  in  structure  of  the  respiratory  organs  of  the  palms,  the 
( Jyathacese  and  the  Marattiaceae. 

Extra-floral  Nectaries.* — E.  Schwendt  has  studied  a  large  number 
of  genera  with  special  reference  to  extra-floral  nectaries.  In  the  Poly- 
gonaceae  the  nectaries  are  simple  epidermal  formations,  and  have  no 
typical  secreting  tissue.  In  Oossypium  and  Tecoma  radicans  there  is  an 
ill-defined  secreting  tissue.  In  the  Polypodiaceas  and  in  Acacia  cornigera, 
glandular  tissue  is  present  but  no  special  secretion,  while  in  the  Oleaceae 
there  is  a  typical  secreting  tissue,  and  also  a  specially  modified  secreting 
upper  surface.  Vascular  bundles  are  specially  modified  in  connection 
with  the  more  complex  nectaries.  The  nectar-secreting  upper  surface  of 
the  Polygonaceas,  etc.,  and  the  disk-like  nectaries  in  Tecoma  radicans 
are  also  trichomes.  The  secreting  hairs  of  the  Polygonaceae  begin 
development  by  radial  division  of  a  single  epidermal  cell,  while  in  the 
Oleaceae  and  Gossypium,  the  first  divisions  are  tangential.  The  radial 
walls  of  the  stalk  of  the  trichomes  are  suberised  just  before  secretion 
begins.  The  nectaries  of  the  Polypodiaoese  are  of  a  type  hitherto 
unknown,  in  that  the  gland  can  simultaneously  secrete  nectar  both  on 
the  upper  and  under  surface  of  the  lamina.  Tannin  is  so  abundant  in 
the  nectaries  that  there  is  reason  for  supposing  that  it  has  some  con- 
nection with  the  formation  of  sugar  ;  it  first  makes  its  appearance  while 
the  nectary  is  still  in  a  meristematic  condition.  There  appears  to  be 
good  reason  for  the  view  that  nectaries  originated  as  regulators  of  the 
passage  of  water  through  the  epidermis,  i.e.  that  in  the  first  place  they . 
behaved  somewhat  like  hydathodes. 

Reproductive. 

Polycarpellary  Origin  of  the  Pistil  of  the  Lauracese.f — M. 
Mirande  has  studied  the  pistil  in  the  Lauraceaa,  and  concludes  that  the 
present  opinion  as  to  its  monocarpellary  character  is  erroneous.  The 
investigations  in  the  Cassythaceae  clearly  show  traces  of  three  carpels, 
the  posterior  of  which  is  prolonged  into  a  style  and  stigma,  while  the 
two  latero-anterior  abort.  The  ovarian  canal  which  opens  at  the  base  of 
the  single  persistent  style,  and  brings  the  ovarian  cavity  into  communi- 
cation with  the  exterior,  is  nothing  but  au  incomplete  stylar  canal  which 
ends  at  the  level  where  the  two  anterior  carpels  are  about  to  expand. 
Further  investigations  made  upon  other  groups  of  the  Lauraceaa  confirm 
these  results,  and  hence  the  author  concludes  that  the  pistil  of  the 
Lauraeere  is  composed  of  several — usually  three — open  carpels,  one 
posterior,  and  two  latero-anterior. 

*  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xxii.  (1907)  pp.  245-86  (2  pis.). 
t  Comptes  Kendus.  cxlv.  (1907;  pp.  570-i!. 


64  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Physiology. 
Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Parasitic  Flowering  Plants.* — A.  Fraysse  contributes  a  summary 
of  his  recent  papers  dealing  with  the  biology  of  parasitic  Phanerogams. 
The  genera  examined  include  Osyris  alba,  Gytinus  Hypocistis,  Odontitis 
rubra,  Euphrasia    officinalis,   Lathrma   squamaria,    L.  clandestine,,  and 

Mtiiwtropa  Hypopitys. 

The  author  finds  that  the  plants  most  readily  attacked  by  such 
parasites  as  Lathnea,  Euphrasia,  etc.,  winch  attach  themselves  by 
suckers,  are  those  with  bacteria-nodules,  tubercles,  mycorhizas,  etc. 
The  suckers  are  sometimes  pericyclic,  sometimes  endodermic  in  origin, 
and  probably  represent  modified  roots.  The  invasion  of  the  parasite 
usually  causes  the  formation  in  the  host  of  a  cambium  zone,  a  layer  of 
cork  or  other  similar  structures  for  the  purpose  of  isolating  the  infected 
region.  There  may  also  be  much  mucilage  or  gum  formed  around  the 
point  of  attack.  Some  of  the  green  parasites  absorb  both  mineral  food 
and  carbon  compounds  from  their  hosts,  e.g.  Odontites,  while  others  only 
absorb  carbon  compounds,  e.g.  Euphrasia.  Those  without  chlorophyll 
absorb  the  whole  of  their  food  from  the  host.  In  all  cases,  the  parasite 
has  a  selective  power,  and  by  means  of  diastases  converts  the  absorbed 
food-materials  into  compounds  suitable  for  assimilation.  Glucose 
appears  to  be  the  principal  source  of  carbon,  and  thei'e  is  a  special 
diastase  present  for  converting  the  starch  of  the  host-plant  into  this 
sugar.  The  latter  may  be  immediately  assimilated,  or  may  be  absorbed 
and  then  reconverted  into  a  form  of  starch  until  needed.  Tannin  may 
be  used,  as  in  Gytinus,  as  an  agent  of  nutrition  and  protection.  The 
suckers  contain  substances  which  protect  the  parasite  from  the  toxins 
secreted  by  the  host.  Infection  is  effected  by  the  agency  of  cellulose- 
diastases,  and  other  ferments  of  a  similar  character,  which  are  most 
active  when  the  host  offers  the  greatest  resistance. 

Parasitic  Phanerogams  and  Nitrates. f — M.  Mirande  has  con- 
ducted experiments  with  the  view  of  discovering  whether  parasitic 
phanerogams  absorb  nitrates.  The  method  employed  was  that  of  quali- 
tative analysis  of  the  plant-sap  by  microchemical  methods,  using  the 
sensitive  sulphuric-diphenylamine  reaction,  and  special  attention  was 
given  to  the  organs  of  attachment,  roots,  suckers,  etc.  Parasites  with 
little  or  no  chlorophyll  do  not  absorb  nitrates  from  the  host-plants, 
semi-parasites  may  or  may  not  absorb  nitrates.  It  appears  that  the 
reduction  of  nitrates  depends  upon  the  chlorophyll-function,  and  hence 
those  plants  which  are  destitute  of  chlorophyll,  and  thus  unable  to 
reduce  nitrates,  absorb  nitrogen  from  the  host-plants  in  a  state  of 
organic  combination,  thus  profiting  by  the  chlorophyll-function  of  the 
host-plants.  Variation  in  the  power  of  nitrate-absorption  fluctuates 
with  the  amount  of  chlorophyll  present. 

*  Rev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  49-69  (13  figs.). 
t  Coniptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  507-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  65 

Course  of  Molecular  Physiology.*— H.  Schoufceden  has  edited  the 
manuscript  of  a  course  of  lectures  by  the  late  Professor  Leo  Errera  on 
the  application  of  physical  laws  to  the  phenomena  of  plant  physiology. 


Irritability. 

Geotropism  in  the  Roots  of  Lupinus  albus.f — P.  M.  G-eorgevitch 
has  made  a  cytological  study  of  the  roots  of  Lupinus  albus  with  special 
reference  to  geotropism.  The  root-cap  surrounds  a  columella,  which, 
together  with  the  adjacent  cells,  is  rich  in  starch-granules.  Normally 
these  granules  rest  upon  the  physically  lower  cell-walls.  In  the  normal 
cells  of  the  root-tip  the  nucleus  behaves  as  if  lighter  than  the  rest  of 
the  cell-contents,  while  the  starch-corpuscles  appear  to  be  heavier,  and 
follow  the  direction  of  the  force  of  gravity,  when  the  position  of  the 
root  is  changed.  There  is  in  each  cell  an  accumulation  of  protoplasm, 
which  stains  very  deeply,  and  which  bears  an  important  relationship  to 
the  position  of  the  starch-granules,  for  when  the  root-tip  is  bent,  so 
that  gravity  acts  at  right  angles,  or  parallel  to  the  organic  axis,  the 
starch-granules  cover  the  physically  lower  cell-wall,  while  the  proto- 
plasmic layer  rests  upon  the  morphological  lower  cell-wall.  The  move- 
ment in  any  direction  of  the  starch-granules  is  always  accompanied  by 
movement  of  the  protoplasmic  layer.  Also,  the  cell-nucleus  is  influ- 
enced by  the  force  of  gravity,  and  can  be  either  positively  or  negatively 
geotropic.  The  cell-nucleus  of  geotropically  directed  roots  shows  the 
same  structure  as  that  of  the  ordinary  cell-nucleus,  and  exhibits  normal, 
mitotic  cell-division.  The  cells  of  the  growing  root  under  the  influence 
of  gravity  behave  as  if  subjected  to  a  one-sided  pull  or  pressure,  those 
on  the  concave  side  being  short  and  broad,  while  those  on  the  convex 
side  are  much  elongated. 

Epidermis  of  Foliage-leaves  in  Relation  to  Light-perception. $ — 
M.  Nordhausen  has  experimented  with  Fittonia,  Impatiens,  etc.,  with 
special  reference  to  the  connection  of  the  epidermal  cells  with  light- 
perception.  Haberlandt's  theory  that  the  papillose  outer  walls  of  the 
epidermis  act  like  lenses,  throwing  light  upon  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
cells,  the  plasmic  linings  of  which  are  sensitive  to  light,  has  not  been 
confirmed  by  the  present  experiments.  Moreover,  the  reason  put  forward 
by  Haberlandt  for  the  failure  of  certain  experiments,  viz.  that  the  light- 
sensitiveness  is  not  inherited  but  acquired,  and  may,  therefore,  vary 
with  changed  conditions,  is  criticised  by  the  author,  who  contends  that 
this  sensitiveness  would  then  be  constantly  changing  under  normal 
conditions.  The  conclusion  appears  to  be  that  the  papilla?  of  the  epi- 
dermis stand  in  no  direct  causal  relationship  to  the  perception  of  light 
by  the  leaf -blade. 

*  Cours  de  Physiologie  Moleculaire  fait  au  doctorat  en  sciences  botauiques  en 
1903  par  Leo  Errera.  Extrait  du  Recueil  de  l'lnstitut  botanique  de  Bruxelles, 
VII.     Brussels:  Lamertin,  1907,  xii.  and  153  pp.,  20  figs,  in  text. 

t  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xxii.  (1907)  pp.  1-20  (1  pi.). 

X  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  398-410. 

Feb.  19th,  1908  f 


66  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 


General. 

Pleistocene  Flora  of  Canada.* — D.  P.  Penhallow  has  examined 
various  leaves  from  the  interglacial  deposits  of  the  Don  Valley,  Toronto. 
The  specimens  included  Acer  pleistocenicum,  A.  torontoniensis,  Garya 
alba,  Gercis  canadensis,  Gyperus  sp.,  Gleditschia  donensis,  Madura  auran- 
tiaca,  Picea  nigra,  Ostrija  virginica,  Platanus  occidentalis,  Populus 
grandidentata,  Primus  sp.,  Quercus  alba,  Robinia  pseudacacia,  Tilia 
americana,  and  Ulmus  americana.  The  present  examination  confirms 
previous  conclusions  as  to  the  Don  flora,  and  the  existence  of  a  climate 
warmer  than  the  present  one.  It  is  now  definitely  proved  that  succes- 
sive northerly  and  southerly  movements  of  the  continental  ice-sheet 
involved  corresponding  movements  in  the  vegetation,  and  brought  about 
the  elimination  of  unstable  species.  The  evidence  of  the  Pleistocene 
clays  of  Toronto  agrees  with  that  of  similar  deposits  at  Elmira,  New 
York,  etc. 

Affinities  of  the  Chicoracese.f — L.  Dufour  has  studied  the  cotyle- 
dons of  this  group  with  special  reference  to  its  evolution  and  affinity. 
There  are  two  distinct  types  of  cotyledons  ;  those  of  the  first  group  are 
broad,  but  they  rarely  exceed  20  mm.  in  length,  while  the  petiole  is 
often  ill-defined.  This  type  of  cotyledon  is  characteristic  of  Gichorium, 
Lactuca,  Sonchus,  Grepis,  Taraxacum,  Hieracium,  etc.  The  second  type 
is  less  common,  but  is  found  in  the  genera  Scorzonera,  Tragopogon, 
Geropogon,  and  Podospermum  ;  here  the  cotyledons  often  reach  a  length 
of  50-60  mm.,  while  the  breadth  does  not  exceed  3  mm.  The  author 
regards  the  present  classification  of  the  Chicoraceae  as  very  artificial, 
and  suggests  that  they  should  be  divided  into  two  groups  according  to 
the  characters  of  their  cotyledons.  One  group  should  comprise  such 
types  as  Tragopogon,  etc.,  the  simplest  being  Scorzonera  and  Tragopogon, 
with  undivided  leaves,  while  Podospermum,  with  its  much-divided  leaves, 
is  the  most  highly  evolved  type.  The  other  group  should  comprise 
Gichorium,  Lactuca,  etc.,  and  here,  again,  there  is  a  gradual  transition 
from  the  simple  to  the  much-divided  leaf. 

Both  groups  appear  to  have  had  a  common  origin  in  plants  with 
simple  leaves,  and  this  character  is  frequently  revealed  in  the  cotyledons 
and  first  foliage  leaves. 

Monograph  of  the  Genus  Ribes.} — Ed.  de  Jancewski  has  published 
an  exhaustive  account  of  this  genus,  in  which  he  includes  as  a  section, 
as  is  now  usually  done,  Grossularia,  to  which  belongs  the  gooseberry. 
The  genus  contains  133  species,  for  most  of  which  a  figure  of  the  flower 
is  given  in  addition  to  a  very  full  description  of  the  plant. 

Harmful  Secretion  of  Sugar  in  Myrmecophilous  Plants.§  —  M. 
Nieuwenhuis  von  Uexkull-Giildenband  has  studied  myrmecophilous 
plants,  in  order  to  test  the  opinion  of  Delpino,  Kerner,  and  others,  that 
the  secretion  of  sugar  in  extra-floral  nectaries,  is  useful  in  attracting 

*  Amer.  Nat.,  xli.  (1907)  pp.  443-52  (2  figs.), 
t  Comptes  Rendus.  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  567-70. 

%  Mem.  Soc.   Phys.  Hist.  Nat.  Geneve,  xxxv.  (1907)  pp.  199-517  (202  figs,  in 
text).  §  Proc.  Acad.  Amsterdam,  ix.  pt.  1  (1907)  pp.  150-6. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  67 

ants  which  protect  the  plants  against  injurious  insects.  The  results  of 
the  investigations  appear  to  show  that  in  many  plants,  the  secretion  of 
sugar  does  much  harm,  by  attracting  not  only  ants,  but  beetles,  bugs, 
etc.,  which  eat  the  sugar  and  also  the  nectaries,  leaves  and  flowers. 
This  is  the  case  with  the  orchid  Spathoglottis  plicata,  a  shrub-like 
malvaceous  plant,  and  others.  In  Hibiscus  rosa-sinensis  and  in  Hibiscus 
tiUaceus,  where  extra-floral  nectaries  occur,  no  sugar  is  secreted  owing 
to  the  growth  of  a  fungus  in  the  nectaries,  and  here  the  plants  are 
healthy  and  uninjured  by  insects.  There  is  no  confirmation  of  Burck's 
theory  that  extra-floral  nectaries  occur  near  inflorescences,  in  order  to 
attract  ants  which  serve  as  a  protection  against  bees  and  wasps  which 
would  bore  the  flowers.  The  number  of  bored  flowers  stands  in  no 
direct  relatioii;to  such  nectaries,  but  rather  in  relation  to  the  position  of 
the  plants,  weather,  etc.  Moreover,  the  shapes  and  positions  of  the 
nectaries  do  not  appear  to  be  adapted  for  ants,  and  young  plants, 
where  most  protection  is  necessary,  have  no  sugar  secretion.  The  ants 
which  are  attracted  appear  to  be  of  a  peaceful  nature,  and  unable  to 
afford  any  protection  to  plants  ;  the  dangerous  ants,  which  might  be 
of  use  in  this  way,  are  carnivorous  and  can  only  be  attracted  by  animal 
food.  The  author  believes  that  the  real  meaning  of  these  nectaries 
has  yet  to  be  discovered,  and  that  new  investigations  must  include 
plant-physiology  as  well  as  biology. 

Influence  of  Nectaries  on  the  Opening  of  Anthers.*  —  W.  Burck 
has  conducted  investigations  with  the  object  of  discovering  whether  the 
nectaries  and  other  glucose-secreting  tissues  influence  the  opening  of  the 
anthers  by  withdrawing  water  from  them.  Experiments  conducted  upon 
Diervillea  rosea,  Digitalis  purpurea,  Oenothera  Lamarckiana,  etc.,  show 
that  water  is  withdrawn  from  the  anthers  by  osmosis  set  up  by  the 
glucose-containing  tissue  found  in  the  stamens  and  corolla.  Other 
flowers,  whose  anthers  behave  differently,  have  similar  tissue,  but  to  a 
very  much  smaller  extent.  In  a  second  series  of  experiments  con- 
ducted upon  SteUaria  media,  Gerastium  semidecandrum,  G.  erectum, 
Holostewn  umbellatum,  and  many  other  flowers  having  a  nectary  at  the 
base  of  each  stamen,  the  bursting  of  the  anthers  appears  to  be  due  to 
the  osmotic  influence  of  the  nectaries,  not  as  in  the  first  group,  to  simple 
glucose-containing  tissue.  While  in  a  third  series  of  experiments  upon 
such  flowers  as  Ranunculus  acris,  Brassica  oleracea,  Geranium  molle,  etc., 
negative  results  were  obtained,  the  general  conclusions  seem  to  show  that 
nectaries  and  glucose-secreting  tissues  play  an  important  part  in  enabhng 
the  anthers  to  open  at  the  right  time,  independently  of  the  hygroscopic 
condition  of  the  air. 

Baegagli-Petrucci,   G. — Descrizione  di  alcuni  tricomi  de  Palme.     (Descrip- 
tion of  some  trichomes  of  palms.)  Nuovo  Giorn.  But.  Ital.,  n.s.  xiv.  (1907) 

pp.  293-5  (1  pi.). 

Colozza,  A. — Studio  anatomico  sulle  Goodeniaceae.     (An  anatomical  study  of  the 
Goodeniacese.)  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  304-26* (2  pis.). 


Proc.  Acad.  Amsterdam,  ix.  pt.  1  (1907)  pp.  390-6. 

F    •> 


68  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

CRYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 
(By  A.  Gepp,  M.A.,  F.L.S.) 

Apogamy  and  Apospory.* — H.  "Woronin  discusses  the  question  of 
apogamy  and  apospory  in  certain  ferns.  She  has  discovered  apogamy  in 
Notochlama  EcMoniana,  N.  sinuata,  Pellcm  tenera,  P.flavens,  and  has 
followed  out  the  development  of  the  germinating  plants  in  these  as  well 
as  in  Trichomanes  Kranssii.  And  in  the  latter  plant  she  has  also 
followed  out  the  development  of  the  antheridia  and  the  formation  of  the 
prothallium,  which  usually  is  a  flat  expansion  arising  from  a  filament. 
In  this  plant  also  she  produced  apospory  artificially.  Various  physio- 
logical experiments  made  by  the  author  are  described,  and  a  full 
summary  of  her  results  is  given. 

K.  Goebel  f  has  succeeded  in  producing  apospory  artificially  in  various 
ferns,  obtaining  prothallia,  sporophytes,  and  intermediate  structures.  He 
finds  that  regeneration  is  more  active  in  young  than  in  older  leaves ; 
that  the  product  of  regeneration  is  not  necessarily  a  sporophytic  struc- 
ture ;  that  there  seems  to  be  no  great  difference  between  the  nuclei  of 
prothallia  and  those  of  sjwrophytes,  and  so  no  sharp  distinction  between 
the  x  and  2x  generations. 

Genus  Antrophyum.J — R.  C.  Benedict  treats  of  the  genus  A/itro- 
phyum,  giving  a  synopsis  of  its  sub-genera  and  of  the  American  species. 
Four  sub-genera  are  distinguished,  one  of  them  being  new,  Antrophy- 
opsis,  which  comprises  five  African  species,  A.  Boryanum  being  the  type. 
Nine  American  species  are  recognised  and  re-described.  Two  of  them 
are  new,  A.  Dussianum  from  the  West  Indian  Islands,  and  A.  Jenmani 
from  British  and  French  Guiana. 

Bryophyta. 

(By  A.  Gepp.) 

Apospory  and  Sexuality  in  Mosses.§ — El.  and  Em.  Marchal  give 
an  account  of  the  methods  and  results  of  their  experiments  undertaken 
to  determine  the  sexuality  of  the  protonemas  obtained  by  cultivation  of 
portions  of  pedicel  and  theca  of  the  maturing  sporogonium,  Stahl 
and  others  having  already  shown  the  possibility  of  obtaining  such  a 
protonema  by  regeneration.  Results  were  obtained  with  fourteen 
species,  but  only  those  derived  from  three  dioicous  species,  Bryum 
caespiticium,  Mnium  hornum,  and  B.  argenteum,  are  now  published. 
1.  The  aposporic  protonema  resulting  from  the  regeneration  of  the 
sporophyte  is  morphologically  identical  with  the  haploidic  protonema ; 
placed  in  favourable  conditions  it  is  apt  to  produce  gonophytes.  2. 
These  gonophytes  are  bisexual,  like  the  sporogonium,  from  which  they 
emanate.      3.    This    double    sexual    polarity   expresses    itself   in   the 

*  Flora,  xcviii.  (1907)  pp.  101-62  (figs.). 

+  SB.  k.  Akad.  Wiss.,  xxxvii.  (1907)  pp.  119-38  (figs.).  See  also  Bot.  Gazette, 
xliv.  (1907)  p.  317.  X  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxiv.  U907)  pp.  445-58. 

§  Bull.  CI.  Sci.  Acad.  Koy.  Belg.,  1907,  pp.  765-89.     See  also  pp.  728-30. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  69 

production  of  synoicous  flowers.  These  latter,  however,  are  always 
accompanied  in  a  predominant  proportion  by  flowers  which,  by  a  latent 
influence,  manifest  only  male  polarity,  or  very  rarely  by  flowers  of  female 
character.  4.  The  gonophytes  which  produce  these  male  or  female 
flowers  are,  nevertheless,  also  virtually  bisexual,  this  bisexuality 
revealing  itself  immediately  in  the  products  of  regeneration  when 
syncecism  reappears.  5.  The  protonema  arising  by  regeneration  of 
the  sporogonium  consequently  gives  birth  among  species,  however 
strictly  dioicous,  to  a  new  form,  hermaphrodite,  or  more  exactly, 
androgyno-synoicous,  capable  of  reproducing  itself  indefinitely  in  an 
asexual  manner. 

Classification  of  Families  and  Genera  of  Mosses.* — V.  F.  Brotherus 
publishes  a  further  contribution  to  the  section  Musci  in  Engler  and 
Prantl's  "  Die  natiiiiichen  Pflanzenfamilien."  He  finishes  the  family 
Hookeriacege  and  treats  of  the  Hypopterygiacese  (with  three  genera), 
Helicopkyllaceee  (two  genera),  Rhacopilaceee  (one  genus),  Leskeaceee 
(twenty-three  genera  arranged  in  five  groups).  A  large  portion  of  the 
group  Thuidieas  stands  over  for  completion  in  the  next  part  of  the 
work. 

European  Hepaticse.t — K.  Mueller,  of  Freiburg,  publishes  the  fifth 
part  of  his  monograph  of  the  European  Hepatic*  in  Rabenhorst's 
Kryptogamen-Flora  von  Deutschland,  Oesterreich  und  der  Schweiz, 
and  gives  full  descriptions  of  the  following  genera  of  Marchantiacese 
with  their  species  :  Reboidia,  Grimaldia,  Neesiella,  Firnbriaria,  Fegatella, 
Lunularia,  Exormotheca.  Dumortiera,  Bucegia,  Freissia,  Marcliantia. 
Passing  on  to  the  second  great  division  of  hepatics — Jungermanniales, 
he  begins  the  consideration  of  the  section  Jungermanniaceee  Anakro- 
gynas  by  describing  Sphwrocarpus  and  Riella. 

Mossflora  of  Northumberland.! — H.  N.  Dixon  publishes  a  list  of 
the  mosses  he  collected  in  Northumberland  in  the  summer  of  1905,  and 
of  the  species  recorded  by  other  bryologists,  indicating  the  probable 
inaccuracy  of  some  of  these  records. 

French  Mosses. § — P.  Sebille  gives  a  list  of  some  rare  or  interesting 
species  of  the  bryological  flora  of  Saone-et-Loire.  It  consists  of  139 
species,  chiefly  authenticated  by  the  late  M.  Philibert.  In  subsidiary 
lists  are  grouped  the  species  of  Mediterranean  type,  those  of  Alpine 
type,  and  those  of  the  Atlantic  coast  type.  CI.  Dismier  ||  gives  a  list  of 
rare  species  found  in  the  Vallee  de  la  Voulzie  near  Provins  (Seine-et- 
Marne). 

North  American  Mosses. — E.  CI.  Brittonlf  publishes  some  notes  on 
the  nomenclature  of  North  American  mosses,  with  special  reference 
to  a  recent  part  of  Brotherus'   monograph  of   mosses  in  Engler  and 

*  Leipzig  :  W.  Engelrnann,  i.  abt.  3  (1907)  pp.  961-1008  (tigs.). 
t  Leipzig :  E.  Kummer,  vi.,  lief.  5  (1907)  pp.  257-320. 
\  Proc.  Berwick  Nat.  Club,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  305-26. 

§  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxiv.  (1907)  pp.  114-22. 

||  C.R.  Congres  Soc.  Sav.,  1906,  3  pp. 
H  Bryologist,  x.  (1907)  pp.  100-1. 


70  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Prantl's  Die  naturlichen  Pflanzenfamilien.  A  description  is  given  of 
Pterygophyllum  acuminatum  Pur.,  an  East  Indian  species  now  stated  to 
have  Hookeria  Sullivantii  0.  Muell.  as  a  synonym,  having  a  distribution 
from  Ohio  to  Guadeloupe  and  in  South  America. 

A.  Lorenz*  publishes  some  further  notes  upon  the  bryophytes  of 
Waterville  in  the  White  Mountain  territory  of  New  Hampshire,  an 
incompletely  explored  region. 

C.  H.  Demetriof  gives  a  list  of  100  mosses  collected  in  various  parts 
of  Missouri. 

E.  J.  Window!  describes  the  dehiscence  of  capsules  and  dispersal  of 
spores  which  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  observe  in  process  of  execution 
in  Sphagnum  growing  in  a  swamp  in  Vermont  on  a  sunny  morning  in 
August. 


w 


Mosses  of  Madeira.§ — A.  Luisier  publishes  a  note  on  some  bryo- 
logical  additions  to  the  flora  of  Madeira  collected  by  C.  A.  de  Menezes. 
The  two  genera  Cinclidotus  and  Brachymenium  have  never  previously 
been  recorded  for  the  Atlantic  islands.  Menezes  has  discovered 
Cinclidotus  fontinaloides  var.  madeirensis  Card,  and  Brachymenium 
pMlonotula  Hpe.,  which  latter,  like  Philonotis  obtusata  CM.,  is  a 
Madagascan  species.  Similarly  in  the  Azores  are  found  species  whose 
affinity  is  with  those  of  the  African  islands.  Menezes  has  also  discovered 
a  new  variety,  Astrodontium  TreUasei  var.  latifolium  Card. 

Muscinese  of  the  Canary  Islands.  || — Pitard,  Corbiere  and  Negri 
publish  an  account  of  the  principal  Canary  Islands,  a  bibliographical 
index  and  a  catalogue  of  the  Muscineaa  with  their  stations,  including 
101  mosses,  20  of  which  are  new  to  the  flora,  and  62  hepatics,  18  of 
which  are  new  records  for  the  Canaries  and  3  new  to  science. 

Arctic  Muscineae.lf — N.  Bryhn  publishes  an  enumeration  and 
description  of  the  bryophytes  collected  during  the  second  Norwegian 
Polar  expedition.  These  include  57  hepatics  and  233  mosses,  several  of 
which  are  new  and  four  are  figured. 

A.  Hesselbo  **  publishes  a  list  of  the  Andreaaales  and  Bryales  found 
in  East  Greenland,  between  74°  15'  and  65°  35'  lat.  N.,  in  the  years 
1898-1902.  They  were  collected  during  several  expeditions  by  Kruuse 
and  Hartz,  and  amount  to  132  species,  several  of  them  being  new  to  the 
local  flora. 

Sphagna  of  Alaska.jf — W.  A.  Setchell  gives  a  summary  of  the 
cryptogamic  work  of  the  University  of  California  Botanical  Expedition 
to  Alaska  in  1899,  and  adds  a  list  of  some  previously  unreported  Alaskan 
Sphagna,  determined  by  C.  Warnstorf,  including  21  species  and  forms. 

*  Bryologist,  x.  (1907)  pp.  102-3. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  103-6.  J  Tom.  cit.,  p.  111. 

§  Bull.  Soc.  Portugaise  Sci.  Nat.  Lisbonne,  i.  (1907)  p.  71. 

|i  Mem.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  1907,  44  pp. 

i  Vidensk.-selsk.  Kristiania,  1906,  260  pp.  (1  pi.). 

**  Meddelelser  om  Gronland,  xxx.  (1907)  pp.  315-32. 

ft  Univ.  of  California  Publications,  Botany,  ii.  (1907)  pp.  309-15. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  71 

Mosses  of  Antarctic  America.* — P.  Dusen  publishes  the  fifth  part 
of  his  contributions  to  the  bryology  of  the  Magellan  region,  West 
Patagonia,  and  South  Chili.  It  contains  records  of  34  species,  13  of 
which  are  described  for  the  first  time,  some  by  Dusen  and  some  by 
Brotherus.  One  change  of  name  is  announced,  from  Grimmia  pachy- 
phylla  Dus.  to  G.  Dirksouii  Dus.  Sis  plates  and  two  text-figures  show 
the  points  of  the  new  species. 

Portuguese  Species  of  Fissidens.f — A.  Luisier  publishes  a  note 
upon  some  Portuguese  species  of  Fissidens.  He  describes  a  new  variety 
of  F.  serrulatus  called  Henriquesii.  F.  Wehoitschii  he  considers  to  be 
only  a  variety  of  F.  polypkyllus.  According  to  Bottinithe  latter  species 
is  a  variety  of  F.  serrulatus,  and  F.  Welwitschii  a  mere  form  of  the 
same.  F.  polypkyllus  var.  Newtoui,  another  Portuguese  moss,  is 
described  in  Husnot's  Muscoloffia  Gallica. 


'bJ 


Genus  Ephemerum.J — C.  Douin  has  made  a  study  of  Ephemerum 
stellatum,  and  is  able  to  correct  and  complete  the  published  descriptions 
of  the  plant.  He  gives  numerous  figures  showing  the  development  of 
the  spores,  the  sterile  and  fertile  plants  under  different  aspects,  the 
leaves,  capsule,  calyptra,  etc.  He  also  provides  a  key  to  the  European 
species  of  the  genus. 

Two  Species  of  Sphaerocarpus  found  in  France.§ — C.  Douin  dis- 
cusses in  detail  the  species  of  Splmroearpus  found  in  France.  A  close 
study  of  much  material  has  shown  him  that  two  species,  distinguishable 
only  by  their  spores,  occur  in  France — S.  terrestris  and  S.  calif omicus . 
He  describes  carefully  the  development  of  the  spores  and  shows  how  the 
mature  tetrads  differ  in  the  two  species.  The  8.  terrestris  described  by 
Boulay  in  his  Hepatiques,  p.  178,  is  most  probably  S.  califortvicus, 
which  appears  to  be  more  common  in  France  than  the  true  S.  terrestris. 
The  spores  in  both  species  remain  permanently  united  in  tetrads.  They 
are  larger,  yellowish,  more  loosely  reticulated,  cristate,  not  spinose,  in 
S.  californicus  ;  whereas  in  S.  terrestris  they  are  smaller,  obscure,  black, 
of  much  smaller  more  numerous  meshes,  with  crests  very  black  and 
bearing  numerous  sharp  black  spines. 

Variable  Peristome  of  Philonotis.|| — G.  Dismier  discusses  the 
specific  value  of  the  interlamellar  thickenings  of  the  peristome-teeth  in 
the  species  of  the  genus  Philonotis.  He  shows  how  several  recent  authors 
have  employed  these  structures  as  diagnostic  characters,  and  gives  the 
results  of  his  own  observations,  that  the  presence  or  absence  of  these 
structures  is  unstable  and  is  of  no  value  in  the  discrimination  of  species, 
and  that  their  degree  of  development  varies  much  from  one  specimen  to 
another.  P.  media  Bryhn  is  but  P.  Macouni  (=  P.  Ryani)  with  the 
interlamellar  protuberances  absent.  P.  rividaris  Warnst.  is  the  same 
as  P.  marchica,  but  has  the  protuberances  inconspicuously  developed. 

*  Arkiv  Botanik.,  vi.  (1907)  32  pp.  6  plates,  figs,  in  text. 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Portugaise  Sci.  Nat.  Lisboune,  i.  (1907)  pp.  15-21  (9  figs.>. 

X  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  1907,  pp.  242-51,  30G-26  (80  figs.). 

§  Rev.  Brvolog.,  xxxiv.  (1907)  pp.  105-12  (figs.). 

||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  112-14. 


72  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Peculiar  Unattached  Mode  of  Growth  of  Leucobryum.* — W.  H. 
Burrell  describes  the  common  but  insufficiently  known  occurrence  of 
Leucobryum  glaucum  in  the  form  of  unattached  flattened  balls,  measuring 
1-2  inches  in  diameter.  They  are  found  with  normal  attached  tufts 
under  beech-trees,  where  they  tend  to  be  kicked  about  by  game-birds 
and  other  animals  that  feed  upon  beech-nuts.  The  thick  spongy  water- 
retaining  nature  of  the  leaves,  and  the  free  formation  of  adventitious 
buds,  are  other  factors  that  contribute  to  the  production  of  the  cushions, 
as  the  plants  contain  a  sufficiency  of  water  for  prolonged  independent 
growth,  and  the  numerous  buds  swelling  out  tend  to  produce  a  ball  of 
branches  radiating  from  near  a  common  centre.  The  author  cites  a 
description  by  H.  N.  Dixon  of  unattached  balls  of  Porotrichum 
alopecurum  in  moist  hollows  in  Weldon  Quarries  in  Northamptonshire. 
These  balls  measure  2-5  inches  in  diameter,  and  consist  of  profusely 
branched  stems. 

Thallophyta. 

Algse. 

By  Mbs.  E.  S.  Gepp. 

Regeneration  of  Algse.f  —  S.  Prowazek  has  been  studying  the 
subject  of  regeneration  of  algae  at  intervals  for  the  last  six  years,  and  he 
now  publishes  the  most  important  of  his  results.  His  investigations 
were  made  on  the  following  species  :  Spirogyra  Weberi  Kiitz.,  Mougeotia 
gemtfiexa  Ag.,  Ulva  lactuca,  Cladophora,  Bryopsis  plumosa,  Vaucheria 
sessilis,  Valonia,  and  Ectocarpus.  His  results  are  described  under  the 
following  headings  :  1.  Phenomena  which  arise  during  or  immediately 
after  infliction  of   the  wound    (irritation  and  wounding  phenomena). 

2.  Regeneration    and    reparation    phenomena   in    the    narrow  sense. 

3.  Regeneration  phenomena  which  exceed  the  original  limit  of  form- 
structure.     The  paper  is  illustrated  by  text  figures. 

Influence  of  External  Conditions  on  the  Asexual  Reproduction 
of  Algas.J — H.  Freund  describes  the  experiments  which  he  has  made 
on  this  subject,  with  the  results  at  which  he  has  arrived.  Among  some 
of  the  conditions  with  which  he  experimented  are  temperature,  intensity 
of  light,  increase  and  removal  of  nutritive  salts,  etc.  The  first  plant 
dealt  with  is  (Edogonium  pluviale,  and  after  detailing  many  series  of 
experiments,  he  gives  an  interesting  comparison  between  (E.  pluviale, 
(E.  diplandrum,  and  (E.  capillar e.  Hccmatococcus  pluvialis  was  also 
treated.  A  section  devoted  to  general  considerations  is  followed  by  a 
summary  of  the  results  of  this  work. 

In  CE.  pluviale  and  H.  pluvialis,  the  external  conditions  necessary 
to  the  formation  of  zoospores  differ  according  to  the  previous  conditions 
of  growth.  The  significance  of  inorganic  salts  for  the  formation  of 
zoospores  in  both  algas  depends  in  the  first  place  upon  their  chemical 
properties.  After  treatment  with  Knop1s  nutritive  solution,  (E. pluviale 
forms  zoospores,  if  nitrate  and  phosphate  have  been  withheld.     Diminu- 

*  Bryologist,  x.  (1907)  pp.  108-11  (figs.). 

t  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxvii.  (1907)  pp.  737-47  (11  figs,  in  text). 

%  Flora,  xcviii.  (1907)  pp.  41-100. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  73 

tion  of  light  does  not  provoke  formation  of  zoospores  in  plants  grown 
in  nutritive  solution  :  while  on  the  other  hand  they  are  produced 
both  by  diminution  of  light  and  by  transference  into  diluted  nutritive 
solution.  (Fj.  pluviale  also  produces  zoospores  when  it  has  been  cultivated 
in  cane-sugar  solution  and  this  is  replaced  by  diluted  Knop's  solution. 

Resting  cysts  of  H.  pluvialis  which  have  lived  in  old  foul  water  in 
bright  light,  develop  swarm-spores  when  transferred  to  distilled  water, 
or  when  provided  with  suitable  nitrates  (nitrate,  nitrite,  ammonium 
salts).  Light  is  not  necessary  to  produce  this  result,  though  it  enhances 
the  effect  considerably.  Cysts  of  H.  pluvialis,  which  have  been  for  a 
long  time  in  darkness,  form  swarm-spores  when  they  are  again  lighted 
or  when  they  receive  cane-  or  grape-sugar. 

Algal  Vegetation  of  Ponds.* — N.  Walker  has  examined  certain 
ponds  situated  above  the  Bramhope  railway  tunnel,  near  Leeds,  occupy- 
ing excavations  in  clay  which  were  made  sixty-seven  years  ago.  He 
mentions  three  available  sites  for  algre,  and  gives  the  species  found  on 
each.  Site  1  :  Winter  shoots  of  CEnanthe  fistulosa  which  form  a  pale 
green  zone,  from  2-3  yards  wide,  extending  from  the  edge  of  the  pond 
to  a  depth  of  about  9  in.  Several  factors  which  probably  control  the 
succession  of  algal  associations  are  mentioned,  and  the  species  occurring 
in  the  various  months  are  enumerated.  Site  2  :  Shoots  of  Potamogeton 
natans  and  Sparganium  ramosum  occurring  in  the  deeper  water  (1—3  ft.). 
The  vertical  distribution  of  the  alga?  on  these  shoots  is  in  some  cases 
striking,  and  seems  to  be  affected  by  surface  commotion  caused  by  wind 
and  by  differences  in  the  illumination.  Species  of  CEdogonium  and 
Bulbochcete  are  followed  by  Spirpgyra  Weberi  and  other  filamentous  algae, 
to  be  displaced  in  their  turn  by  species  of  Mougeotia  and  Desmids. 
Site  3  :  Short  decaying  shoots  of  the  smaller  flowering  plants,  which 
cover  the  floor  of  the  pond  in  shallower  parts  not  occupied  by  CEnanthe. 
The  dominant  alga  is  Glceocystis  vesiculosa.  In  one  shallow  pond  with 
deep  mud,  Spirogyra  longata  dominates  throughout  the  year.  The 
movement  of  Phormidium  inundatum  along  the  filaments  of  Spirogyra 
from  the  bottom  to  the  surface  is  described. 

New  Green  Algae. f — F.  S.  Collins  describes  five  new  species,  some 
of  which  have  already  been  distributed  in  the  Phycotheca  Boreali- 
Americana.  They  are  only  in  part  from  New  England  localities,  but  so 
general  is  the  distribution  of  plants  of  this  class  that  the  author  states 
they  may  be  found  in  any  temperate  locality.  The  species  in  question 
are :  Pleurococcus  marinus,  Chcetomorpha  chelonum,  Cladophora  amphibia. 
Vaucheria  longipes,  and  V.  Gardneri.  The  two  species  of  Vaucheria  are 
figured. 

Copulation  and  Germination  of  Spirogyra.} — A.  Trondle  is  the 
most  recent  investigator  of  Spirogyra.  Other  writers  have  left  doubtful 
certain  details  in  the  behaviour  of  the  nuclei  with  regard  to  sexual  pro- 
cesses, and  the  present  author  is  able  to  add  fresh  facts  on  these  points. 
He   describes    phenomena  which    vary   from    those   generally    known, 

*  Rep.  Brit.  Assoc.  York,  1906,  pp.  758-9. 

t  Rhodora,  ix.  (1907)  pp.  197-202  (1  pi.). 

X  Bot.  Zeit.,  lxv.  (1907)  pp.  187-217  (1  pi.,  13  figs,  in  text). 


74  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

both  in  the  preparations  for  copulation  and  in  the  topography  of  the 
copulating  cells.  The  subject  is  treated  under  the  headings  :  1. 
Notes  on  the  morphology  of  the  process  of  copulation  ;  (a)  Spirogyra 
neglecta  ;  (b)  S.  spreeiana.  2.  Ripening  of  the  zygotes  ;  (a)  starch  and 
oil ;  (b)  the  chromatophores  ;  (c)  the  nuclei.  8.  Structure  of  the  ripe 
zygotes  ;  (a)  contents  ;  (b)  membrane.  4.  Germination  of  the  zygotes. 
5.  Law  of  numbers  and  reduction  of  the  chromatophores  and  chromo- 
somes. The  results  are  set  forth  in  a  detailed  summary,  and  a  list  of 
literature  is  given.     The  paper  is  illustrated  by  a  plate  and  text-figures. 

Sargassum  bacciferum.* — ('.  Sauvageau  combats  the  statements  of 
certain  authors  that  S.  bacciferum  has  been  found  growing  attached  any- 
where, and  declares  definitely  that  this  is  not  the  case.  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  the  error  should  have  been  so  widely  accepted.  The 
original  home  of  S.  bacciferum  has  never  been  found,  though  the  species 
is  known  in  such  quantity  in  the  Sargasso  Sea,  as  well  as  floating  in  the 
waters  round  Cape  de  Verde,  the  Azores,  Bermuda,  New  Orleans, 
Guadeloupe,  Brazil,  Chili,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  Ceylon.  It  is 
rarely  thrown  up  on  the  shores  of  Europe.  There  are  two  alternative 
theories  as  to  this  species  :  either  it  grows  in  a  fixed  state  on  the  shores 
of  some  country,  whence  it  is  wafted  by  currents  far  and  wide  and 
almost  entirely  in  a  sterile  condition  ;  or  it  has  lived  and  vegetated  from 
time  immemorial  in  a  floating  condition  and  propagated  itself  by 
budding.  Piccone  regards  it  as  indicating  a  former  tract  of  land  now 
submerged,  the  ancient  Atlantis.  The  present  author  suggests  that 
collectors  might  do  something  towards  unravelling  this  mystery  by  col- 
lecting and  examining  the  plants  which  are  growing  among  the  drifting 
Sargassum,  since  some  of  these  might  be  sufficiently  characteristic  to 
reveal  their  place  of  origin. 

Sexuality  of  Halopteris  scoparia.f — C  Sauvageau,  the  first  dis- 
coverer of  heterogamic  sexuality  among  the  Sphacelariaceas,  has  found 
organs  resembling  antheridia  in  dried  specimens  of  Halopteris  brachy- 
carpa,  H.  congesta,  and  H.  hordavea.  So  far  as  he  could  tell,  the  oogonia 
are  unilocular  and  inclose  a  single  large  oogonium.  A  still  more  inte- 
resting discovery  has  been  made  by  this  author,  namely  that  of  sexual 
organs  on  the  well-known  species  Halopteris  (Stypocaulon)  scoparia,  so 
widely  distributed  in  Europe,  the  Atlantic,  and  the  Mediterranean.  The 
asexual  organs  are  very  common  in  winter,  although  the  germination  of 
the  zoospores  has  never  been  followed.  In  December  1903,  the  author 
collected  2G  examples  of  H.  scoparia  thrown  up  on  the  coast  between 
Biarritz  and  S.  Sebastian,  and  preserved  them  without  any  special  care. 
On  examination  he  found  that  while  25  of  these  had  only  asexual  organs, 
the  other  one  had  instead  oogonia  and  antheridia.  These  organs  occupy 
the  same  position  as  the  sporangia.  The  oogonia  apparently  contain 
only  one  oosphere,  which  measures  about  100/*..  In  the  hope  of  obtain- 
ing further  material  bearing  sexual  organs,  the  author  collected  plants 
from  the  warmer  seas  of  Teneriffe,  and  he  also  examined  plants  from 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxii.  (1907)  pp.  1082-4. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  506-7. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,  ETC.  75 

Banyuls  in  the  Mediterranean,  but  without  success.  The  sexuality 
therefore  of  H.  scoparia  rests  on  the  testimony  of  a  single  specimen,  and 
it  may  be  fairly  deduced  that  the  occurrence  of  antheridia  and  oogonia 
is  extremely  rare. 

Aglaozonia  melanoidea.* — In  two  interesting  notes,  C.  Sauvageau 
adds  largely  to  our  knowledge  of  A.  melanoidea  and  its  life-history.  He 
succeeded  in  finding  it  in  the  Gulf  of  Gascony,  and  now  he  finds  it  at 
Banyuls  in  the  Mediterranean  ;  besides  which  the  late  Anna  Vickers 
dredged  it  up  in  the  Bay  of  Naples.  After  Sauvageau  had  found  it  in 
the  Gulf  of  Gascony,  he  put  forth  the  theory  that  A.  melanoidea  might 
be  the  sporophyte  of  Cutleria  adspersa.  One  objection  to  this  theory 
was  that  A.  chilosa  would  then  be  left  without  a  gametophytic  genera- 
tion ;  and  another  was  that  A.  melanoidea  was  then  unknown  in  the 
Mediterranean.  This  latter  objection  has  been  now  done  away  with. 
The  plant  found  by  Anna  Vickers  is  an  intermediate  state  between  the 
sterile  plants  from  Guethary  and  the  fertile  ones  from  Banyuls.  These 
fertile  specimens  were  collected  in  December  1905  and  January  1906, 
and  were  found  to  have  sporangia  grouped  in  sori,  each  of  the  rows  of 
cells  of  a  sorus  being  surmounted  by  an  elongated  sporangium.  At  the 
end  of  February  and  at  the  end  of  June,  the  plants  were  once  more 
sterile,  and  corresponded  with  the  specimens  gathered  at  Guethary.  The 
sporangia  contained  eight  zoospores,  similar  to  those  of  A.  parvula. 
The  latter  species  is  less  common  at  Banyuls  than  is  A.  melanoidea. 
Cultures  of  the  zoospores  of  A.  melanoidea  were  made,  and  the  results 
were  extremely  interesting.  Hundreds  of  plantlets  were  produced,  all 
showing  the  same  character.  They  consisted  of  monosiphonous,  very 
slender  filaments,  2-4  mm.  long,  having  long  cells  below.  The  shorter, 
less  branched,  plantlets  were  either  sterile  or  nearly  so,  while  the  longer 
plantlets,  much  branched  halfway  up,  were  very  fertile,  bearing  anthe- 
ridia and  oogonia  in  all  stages  of  development.  None  of  these  plants 
resembled  a  young  Cutleria  :  indeed,  had  their  life-history  not  been 
known  they  would  have  been  regarded  as  a  new  genus  intermediate 
between  Ectocarpus  and  Cutleria.  The  author  designates  this  form 
"  form  Kuckuck,"  since  that  author  had  previously  obtained  certain 
confervoid  filaments  from  a  culture  of  Aglaozonia  parvula.  The  actual 
position  and  signification  of  "form  Kuckuck"  in  the  life-cycle  of 
Cutleria  cannot  at  present  be  stated,  but  various  suggestions  are  made 
by  the  author. 

Algae  of  the  'Valdivia'  Expedition.! — T.  Reinbold  publishes  his 
report  on  the  marine  algae  of  the  German  '  Valdivia '  Deep-sea 
Expedition  (1X98-9).  The  areas  from  which  the  specimens  came  are 
the  Canary  Islands,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Bouvet  Island,  Kerguelen 
Island,  the  islands  of  St.  Paul  and  New  Amsterdam,  Sumatra,  Nicobar 
Islands,  Diego  Garcia  (Chagos  Archipelago),  Mahe  (Seychelles),  Dar-es- 
Salaam,  Red  Sea ;  162  species  are  enumerated,  and  -1  of  these  are  new 
to  science.  The  largest  collections  were  made  in  Kerguelen,  Sumatra, 
Diego  Garcia,  Mahe,  and  Dar-es-Salaam.     In  his  general  remarks  on 

*  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  139-41  and  271-2. 

t  Wiss.  Ergebn.  Deutsch.  Tiefsee-Exped.  '  Valdivia,'  ii.  2  (1907)  3S  pp.  (4  pis.). 


76  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

the  algae  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  author  gives  a  list  of  areas  the  algae 
of  which  are  well  known,  insufficiently  known,  and  slightly  or  not  at  all 
known,  appending  the  titles  of  the  more  important  papers,  geographi- 
cally arranged.  The  unknown  areas  are  the  Mozambique  Coast, 
Delagoa  Bay,  much  of  the  Indian  Coast,  Persian  Gulf,  and  many 
small  islands.  The  present  paper  fills  in  some  of  the  gaps  in  treating 
of  the  islands  of  Diego  Garcia  and  Mahe.  In  studying  the  algal 
distribution  in  the  Indian  or  any  other  ocean,  it  is  essential  to  have  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  various  ocean-currents — the  most  important 
factor  in  their  distribution,  carrying  not  only  those  species  which  float  by 
means  of  air- vesicles,  but  also  species  parasitic  upon  them  and  the  spores 
of  many  other  species.  The  main  currents  in  the  Indian  Ocean  are  as 
follows  :  South  of  the  equator  flows  the  great  equatorial  current  from 
east  to  west,  which  upon  striking  the  north  point  of  Madagascar  splits 
into  two  branches — the  Agulhas  and  the  Mascarene  currents.  The 
latter  flows  south,  while  the  former,  passing  round  west  of  Madagascar 
and  sending  out  a  small  branch  northwards,  flows  down  the  east  coast  of 
Africa.  This  warm  Agulhas  current  is  met  south-east  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  (in  about  40°  S.  lat.)  by  cold  antarctic  currents  which 
deflect  it  to  the  east  where  it  joins  up  again  with  the  Mascarene 
current,  and  these  united  flow  across  to  Cape  Leeuwin,  in  West 
Australia,  accompanied  by  cold  currents  on  the  southward  side.  At 
Cape  Leeuwin  a  portion  of  this  warm  current,  turning  northward, 
unites  again  with  the  equatorial  current,  thus  completing  its  circuit. 
Another  and  less  important  current  runs  south  of  the  equator,  but 
north  of  the  aforesaid  equatorial  current  and  in  the  contrary  direction — 
namely,  from  west  to  east.  By  the  help  of  the  above  currents  there  is  a 
possible  means  of  communication  between  the  marine  floras  of  the 
Malay  Archipelago  and  West  Australia  and  those  of  the  Mascarenes 
and  Madagascar,  as  well  as  of  the  east  coast  of  Africa. 

The  rest  of  the  paper  is  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  the  character 
of  the  algal  flora  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Taken  as  a  whole  it  does  not 
appear  to  have  any  very  distinctive  flora  of  its  own.  In  the  southern 
parts  the  character  is  that  of  the  subantarctic  zone.  As  regards  the 
tropical  parts  the  west  and  north  have  a  fairly  uniform  character,  but 
the  east  exhibits  signs  of  the  influence  of  West  and  North  Australia 
and  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Bocat,  L. — Sur  la  Marennine  de  la  Diatomee  bleue;  comparaison  avec  la  Phyco- 
cyanine.   (On  the  Marennin  of  the  blue  diatom  :  comparison  with  Phycocyanin.) 
[A  chemical  analysis  of  the  blue  coloration  of  Navicula  ostrearia,  designated 
by  E.  Ray  Lankester  as  Marennin.] 

C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxii.  (1907)  pp.  1073-5. 

Duggar,  B.  M. — The  Relation  of   certain  Marine  Algae  to  various  Solutions. 
[Plasmolytic  experiments  with  various  isosmotic  solutions  of  sodium  chloride, 
potassium  nitrate,  and  sugar  ;  also  the  poisonous  action  of  certain  salts 
of  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths  upon  marine  algae.] 

Trans.  Acad.  Sci.  St.  Louis,  xvi.  (1906)  pp.  473-89. 

Edwards,  A.M. — The  so-oalled  "Infusorial  Earths,"  and  their  Chemical  Analyses. 

Chemical  News,  xcv.  (1907)  pp.  241-5. 

Mazza,  A. — Saggio   di  Algologia  oceanica.     (Contributions  to  marine  algology.) 
[A  continuation.]  Nuov.  Notar.,  xviii.  (1907)  pp.  177-95. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  77 

Sauvageau,  C. — Le  verdissement  des  huitres  par  la  diatomee  bleue.    (The  green 
coloration  of  oysters  by  the  blue  diatom.) 
[A  long  treatise,  dealing  exhaustively  with  all  past  work  on  the  subject, 
and  giving  a  bibliography  of  91  works.] 

Soc.  Sci.  d'Arcachon,  x.  (1907)  128  pp. 

Fungi. 

(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Cytology  of  Synchytrium.* — S.  Kusano  selected  for  this  research  a 
still  undescribed  species,  Synchytrium  Purerar'm.  He  devoted  his 
attention  to  the  relation  between  parasite  and  host,  and  comparisons 
are  drawn  between  the  results  obtained  and  those  of  other  workers  in 
the  same  field.  In  the  species  examined  no  resting  spores  are  formed, 
but  sporangia  can  pass  the  winter  within  the  tissue  of  the  hosts  and 
produce  swarm-spores  in  spring.  These  spores  probably  enter  by  the 
stomata  and  find  their  way  to  non-chlorophyll,  sub-epidermal  cells. 
The  parasite  grows  within  the  cells  of  the  host,  absorbing  the  walls  and 
those  of  the  neighbouring  cells,  or  compressing  them  to  make  room  for 
its  large  size,  and  thus,  from  being  intracellular,  comes  to  occupy  an 
intercellular  lysigenetic  space.  When  growth  finishes,  a  hyaline  mem- 
brane is  formed  round  it,  and  the  whole  contents  break  up  into  spores, 
which  are  ejected  by  the  swelling  up  of  the  surrounding  host-cells. 
Kusano  found  that  the  cytoplasm  and  nuclei  of  the  host  remained 
healthy,  and  though  they  eventually  disappear,  that  is  due  probably  to 
self -disorganisation . 


l&^ 


Specialisation  in  Erysiphacese.-f  —  G-.  M.  Reed  selected  Erysiphe 
Oichoracearum  for  a  series  of  experiments  in  this  field.  He  recalls  the 
work  done  on  these  lines,  and  gives  his  own  results.  The  spores  of  the 
fungus  were  sown  on  23  varieties  of  Cucurbitaceae  belonging  to  three 
different  genera.  There  was  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  inoculation  in 
any  instance  ;  the  fungus  spores  taken  from  any  species  when  trans- 
ferred, grew  at  once  on  any  other  species.  He  contrasts  his  results 
with  those  of  Salmon,  who  found  some  five  physiological  species  in 
Erysiphe  graminis.  He  considers  that  the  species  he  was  dealing  with 
probably  represents  a  less  primitive  form  than  the  one  on  grass,  and 
that  it  has  become  adapted  to  a  larger  number  of  hosts. 

Parasitism  of  Valsa.J — Spieckerman  examined  a  number  of  pear- 
trees  that  had  died,  and  found  the  branches  beset  with  Valsa  cincta. 
In  cultures  he  produced  pycnidia,  but  attempts  at  infection  in  the  open 
gave  only  negative  results.  He  concludes  that  the  Valsa  is  a  wound 
parasite,  that  it  gains  entrance,  and  then  penetrates  deeply  into  the 
sound  tissue.  The  affected  trees  were  all  in  a  moist  locality.  An 
epidemic  among  cherry-trees  was  traced  to  the  action  of  a  Cytospora, 
also  a  "weak  parasite,"  and  the  author  includes  these,  and  probably 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  538-43  (1  pi.). 

t  Trans.  Wis.  Acad.  Sci.  Arts  and  Letters,  xv.  (1907)  p.  527.  See  also  Bot. 
Centralbl.,  cv.  (1907)  p.  536. 

X  SB.  Nat.  Ver.  Preusz.  Rheinl.  Westf.,  1907,  pp.  19-27.  See  also  Ann.  Mycol., 
v. (1907)  pp.  379-80. 


78  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

many  of  the  Valsece,  among  the  forms  that  may  become  parasitic  in 
favourable  surroundings. 

Study  of  Fungi  imperfecta* — H.  Klebahn  is  continuing  his  re- 
searches in  this  branch  of  mycology.  He  has  succeeded  in  demonstrating 
the  connection  between  Marssonia  juglandis  and  the  ascomycetous  form 
Gnomonia  leptostyla,  both  found  on  walnut  leaves.  Klebahn  sowed  the 
spores  of  Gnomonia  on  young  leaves  of  the  host-plant,  and  produced 
the  Marssonia  form.  Intermixed  with  the  rather  large  two-celled 
Marssoyiia  spores  he  found  small  one-celled  spores  that  have  been 
wrongly  described  as  a  separate  fungus  under  the  name  Leptofhyrium 
juglandis.  He  also  made  gelatin  cultures  of  the  Marssonia  spores, 
which  he  describes.  The  perithecia  of  the  Gnomonia  fruit  carry  the 
fungus  over  the  winter,  and  to  stamp  out  the  disease  it  is  only  necessary 
to  destroy  the  leaves  in  autumn  or  before  the  spring  vegetation  is 
formed. 

Sexuality  and  Development  of  Ascomycetes. — Two  papers  on  this 
subject  have  appeared  recently.  The  first,  by  E.  J.  Welsford,|  contains 
an  account  of  the  development  of  Ascobolus  furfurascens.  In  this  fungus 
the  earliest  stages  show  a  scolecite  of  6-10  usually  similar  uninucleate 
cells,  which  by  division  rapidly  become  multinucleate.  The  fourth  cell 
from  the  end  becomes  larger  than  the  others,  and  forms  the  ascogenous 
cell.  The  protoplasm  and  nuclei  from  the  other  cells  of  the  scolecite 
pass  into  the  ascogenous  cell,  where  they  fuse  in  pairs  and  enter  the 
ascogenous  hyphae,  which  rise  from  that  cell.  These  hyphee  grow  out, 
bend  over  in  the  usual  characteristic  fashion,  and  form  the  asci.  The 
author  considers  that  the  nuclear  fusions  in  the  ascogenous  cell  repre- 
sent a  reduced  sexual  process. 

The  second  paper,  by  H.  C.  Fraser,J  describes  the  sexual  process  in 
Lachnea  stercorea,  which  the  author  sums  up  thus  :  (1)  The  archicarp 
of  Lachnea  stercorea  consists  of  several  cells,  and  terminates  in  a  large, 
multicellular  archegonium.  (2)  From  the  ascogonium  a  trichogyne, 
which  is  at  first  unicellular,  but  eventually  consists  of  four,  five,  or  six 
ccenocytic  cells,  grows  out.  Its  terminal  cell  is  much  larger  than  the 
others,  and  may  become  continuous  with  the  antheridium.  (3)  The 
antheridium,  which  is  not  always  fully  developed,  is  a  unicellular  cceno- 
cytic sac  ;  its  origin  could  not  be  traced  with  certainty.  (4)  The  male 
nuclei  do  not  reach  the  ascogonium,  but  fertilisation  of  a  reduced  type 
occurs,  the  female  nuclei  fusing  in  pairs.  (5)  Ascogenous  hyphs,  into 
which  the  fused  nuclei  pass,  grow  out  from  the  ascogonium,  and  asci 
are  formed,  by  the  usual  method,  at  their  tips.  (6)  Lachnea  stercorea 
is  intermediate,  with  regard  to  its  sexuality,  between  Pyronema  con- 
fiuens,  on  the  one  hand,  and  Hiimaria  granulata  on  the  other,  and  with 
regard  to  the  organisation  of  its  trichogyne,  between  Pyronema  and 
certain  of  the  Pyrenomycetes.  Experiments  were  also  made  on  spore 
germination  in  this  species.  They  were  treated  with  digestive  fluids  or 
with  dung  extract,  and  germination  took  place  in  about   fifty  hours 

*  Zeitschr.  Pflanzenkr.,  xvii.  (1907)  pp.  223-37  (1  pi.  and  2  figs.), 
t  New  Phvtologist,  vi.  (1907)  pp.  156-61  (1  pi.). 
I  Ann.  of  Bot.,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  349-60  (2  pis.) . 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSCOPY,    ETC.  79 

after  the  beginning  of  the  experiment.  It  was  evidently  induced  by 
continued  warmth  and  an  alkaline  medium,  the  action  of  which,  in  part 
at  least  is  to  cause  softening  of  the  wall  of  the  spore. 

Uredinese.* — P.  Dietel  has  described  a  series  of  new  species  of 
Uredineae  from  Chili  and  Brazil,  in  South  America.  In  most  cases  he 
is  dealing  with  only  one  form  of  the  rust. 

J.  Ivar  Liro|  gives  an  account  of  experiments  with  the  rusts  of 
Finland.  For  a  number  of  forms  he  establishes  the  limits  of  growth,  in 
others  he  confirms  previous  findings,  and  he  gives  also  an  account  of  his 
negative  results.  He  experimented  with  Melampsora  Larici-tremulce, 
P  actinia  JEcidii-melampyri,  P.  JEcidii-rumicis,  Uromyces  Trifolii,  Oymno- 
sporangium,  and  Gronartium. 

J.  C.  Arthur  %  treats  of  the  Coleosporiaceas,  Uredinaceae,  and 
iEcidiaceae  in  the  recent  issue  of  the  North  American  Flora.  He 
describes  many  new  species.  A  number  of  names  have  been  changed. 
The  new  genera  are  Necium,  Gionothrix  in  the  Uredinaceee ;  Cy  sting  ophora, 
Dicheirinia,  and  Discospora  in  the  xEcidiaceae. 

P.  Magnus  §  publishes  a  note  on  the  nomenclature  of  some  recent 
species  of  Uromyces  on  Papilionaceae.  They  have  been  wrongly  named, 
and  Magnus  corrects  the  errors. 

J.  C.  Arthur  ||  gives  an  account  of  his  cultures  of  Uredinege  in  1906, 
the  seventh  series  of  such  reports.  Many  of  the  cultures  yielded  nega- 
tive results,  and  these  are  also  recorded.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
discoveries  was  the  autcecious  nature  of  flax  rust,  Melampsora  Lini. 
This  gives  a  good  prospect  of  stamping  out  the  rust  by  destroying  the 
old  flax  straw  on  which  the  fungus  lives  during  the  winter. 

A  new  species  of  Diorchidium  is  described  by  Th.  Wurth.1T  The 
fungus  causes  deformations  of  the  host-plant,  especially  of  the  leaf- 
stalk. The  teleutospores  of  this  fungus  are  vertically  septate,  giving  two 
cells  on  one  stalk  ;  occasionally  a  third  cell  was  formed  at  the  side  of  the 
others.     The  new  species  is  D.  Koordersii. 

Klebahn**  publishes  a  series  of  twenty-six  culture  experiments  with 
various  Uredineae.  Some  of  these  are  amplifications  or  verifications  of 
previous  work,  others  deal  with  new  questions  of  relationships  and 
biological  species.  In  his  examination  of  Phragmidium  Rubi,  he 
remarks  that  though  the  many  species  of  Rubus  are  closely  related  and 
difficult  to  separate,  yet  the  fungus  is  very  constantly  selective  in  the 
species  on  which  it  grows,  infecting  some  richly  and  dying  out  on  others. 

Rene  Probstft  gives  a  series  of  results  obtained  with  culture  experi- 
ments of  Uredineaa  on  Compositse.  He  found  four  specialised  forms 
within  the  species  Puccinia  Hieracii.  He  found  also  that  P.  Leontodontis 
grew  only  on  Leontodon  hispidus  ;  that  P.  Hypochocridis  was  distinct 

*  Aim.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  pp.  244-6. 

t  Acta  Soc.  F.  &  Fl.  Fenn.,  xxix.  No.  6  (1900)  25  pp.     See  also  Ann.  Glycol., 
v.  (1907)  p.  301. 

X  North  American  Flora,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  83-100.     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cv. 
(1907)  pp.  136-7.  §  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxv.  (1907)  p.  340. 

||  Journ.  Mycol.,  xiii.  (1907)  pp.  189-205. 
1  Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1907)  pp.  71-5  (4  rigs.). 
**  Zeitschr.  Pflanzenkr.,  xvii.  (1907)  pp.  129-57. 
+  t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  543-4. 


SO  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

from  P.  Hieracii,  and  also  from  P.  montevago,  a  new  form  that  grows 
only  on  ffgpochceris  uniflora.  He  established  also  two  forms  for 
P.  carduorum. 

Wilhelm  Muller*  has  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  Melampsoree 
on  species  of  Euphorbia.  He  finds  that  they  can  be  divided  into 
definite  classes  according  to  the  form  of  the  teleutospore  and  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall.  He  divides  them  thus  into  five  different  types.  He 
finds,  further,  that  those  with  elongate  spores  and  thickened  apex  belong 
to  southern  lands,  while  those  with  short  thin-walled  spores  are  found 
in  Middle  and  North  Europe.  It  is  possible  also  that  the  length  of  the 
spores  corresponds  with  the  length  of  the  palisade  cells.  Measurements 
and  drawings  of  the  teleutospores  of  many  of  the  species  are  given,  and 
the  size  of  both  teleutospores  and  uredospores  are  printed  in  tabular 
form. 

Morphology  of  the  Rusts.f — A.  H.  Christman  reviews  the  theories 
held  by  successive  workers  on  the  origin  of  the  different  stages  in  the  life- 
cycle  of  the  Uredineag,  and  then  proceeds  to  give  his  own  interpretations 
which  he  bases  on  the  examination  of  certain  spore  types  that  do  not 
originate  in  a  fusion-cell.  He  finds  one  of  these  types  in  the  secondary 
uredospores  of  Pkragmidium  PotentillcB-canadensis.  They  arise  from 
a  large  basal  cell  which  contains  two  nuclei,  and  is,  he  considers, 
equivalent  to  the  basidium  or  basal  cell  of  the  JEcidium  and  teleutospore 
stages.  Conjugate  division  of  the  basal  cell-nuclei  takes  place,  and  an 
upper  cell  is  cut  off — the  first  spore  initial  cell.  The  division  of  this 
cell  provides  the  stalk  and  the  uredospore,  the  stalk  corresponding  to 
the  sterile  cell  in  the  jEcidiwn.  Meanwhile  the  basal-cell  has  budded 
out  and  formed  another  uredospore  initial  cell.  The  difference  between 
this  formation  and  that  of  the  primary  uredosorus  is,  that  in  the  latter 
the  underlying  mycelium  is  uninucleate,  while  the  mycelium  from  which 
the  secondary  spores  arise  is  binucleate.  Christman  also  examined  a 
teleutospore  form,  Puccinia  Podophylli,  and  found  a  similar  series  of 
phenomena  to  that  already  described.  Occasionally  trinucleate  cells 
were  observed,  suggesting  possible  pathological  migrations  of  nuclei. 

Christman  holds  with  Blackman  that  the  sporophyte  stage  begins 
with  the  associated  nuclei  in  the  basal  cell,  and  that  there  is  a  series 
of  asexual  reproductive  cycles  within  the  sporophyte  generation.  The 
gametophyte  he  considers  to  be  the  primitive  original  generation,  and 
the  autcecious  rusts  probably  older  than  the  hetercecious. 

New  Boletus.} — S.  Belli  describes  at  some  length  Boletus  sardous 
sp.  n.,  which  grows  throughout  Sardinia.  The  very  bulbous  stem,  large 
pores,  and  the  colour  and  form  of  the  spores,  differentiate  it  completely 
from  the  two  species  most  nearly  allied,  B.  granulatus  and  B.  badius. 
It  grows  most  abundantly  under  Cistus  trees.  The  fungus  is  reproduced 
in  a  coloured  plate. 

Recent  Work  on  Fungi. § — I.  Gallaud  continues  his  review  of  the 
different  papers  that  have  been  published,  especially  on  the  cytology  of 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  544-63  (31  figs.). 

t  Bot.  Gazette,  xliv.  (1907)  pp.  81-100  (1  pi.). 

%  Atti  Accad.  Sci.  Torino,  xlii.  (1907)  pp.  1024-30  (1  col.  pi.). 

§  Rev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  459-64  and  506-12  (11  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  81 

this  large  group.  In  the  two  contributions  cited  he  confines  himself  to 
the  Basidioinycetes  and  Uredinere.  He  finds  that  in  the  first  group  a 
much  more  extensive  research  is  required  before  any  certainty  can  be 
reached.  He  quotes  largely  from  R.  Maire,  who  described  the  associated 
nuclei  of  the  Basidiomycetes  as  a  synkarion,  and  who  traces  their  history 
throughout  the  life  of  the  plant.  Gallaud  also  lays  much  stress  on 
Blackman's  research  in  the  Uredineas. 

New  Hymenomycetes.* — W.  A.  Setchell  describes  at  some  length 
two  hypogaBous  Secotiaceaj.  They  are  not  entirely  subterranean,  but 
develop  under  a  covering  of  dead  leaves  and  other  debris.  Secotium 
tenuipes  looks  when  uncovered  like  a  Bolbibius  or  Coprinus,  and  is  about 
2  in.  in  height.  The  gleba  is  formed  of  anastomosing  plates  or  gills  ; 
the  spores  are  yellowish-brown.  The  second  species,  Elasmomyces  russu- 
loides,  looks  like  a  young  Russula.  A  section  shows  the  hymenogastroid 
nature  of  the  pileus.     The  spores  are  colourless  and  reticulate. 

Diseases  of  Plants.  —  F.  L.  Stevens  t  has  investigated  the 
Chrysanthemum  Ray  Blight,  by  cultivating  the  fungus  on  agar  media,  by 
infecting  other  plants,  and  following  the  development  of  the  parasite. 
He  finds  it  to  be  one  of  the  Sphreropsideas,  Ascochyta  Chrysanthemisip.  n. 
It  attacks  the  flower  often  while  in  the  bud,  blackening  the  receptacle, 
peduncle,  and  stem.     No  higher  fruiting  form  was  distinguished. 

E.  Henry  |  writes  on  the  pine  disease  in  the  Jura  forests.  The 
branches  affected  by  the  disease  become  yellowish  at  the  extremities, 
then  red.  The  voung;  branches  alone  are  attacked  ;  the  mycelium 
penetrates  to  the  cambium  and  kills  it  all  round  the  branch.  The 
pycnidia  of  the  fungus,  a  species  of  Phoma,  are  produced  in  the  cortex 
and  pierce  the  bark.  No  trees  have  been  killed,  and,  as  the  fungus  has 
disappeared  once,  it  is  hoped  that  it  will  again  die  out.  No  remedy  for 
it  has  been  found. 

A  pine  disease  that  has  done  considerable  damage  in  the  Jura  has 
been  diagnosed  as  due  to  the  action  of  Phoma  on  the  leaves.  Prillieux 
and  Maublanc  §  give  an  account  of  the  fungus,  and  they  recommend 
planting  of  beech-trees  among  the  pines  as  an  almost  certain  means  of 
checking  the  spread  of  the  disease. 

Ch.  Bernard  ||  describes  a  disease  of  coco-palms  caused  by  Petfalozzia 
pahnarum.  The  spores  of  the  fungus  were  found  to  germinate  very 
easily  and  quickly  in  cultures  and  to  infect  fresh  plants  with  equal 
rapidity,  which  accounts  for  the  spread  of  the  disease.  Only  quite 
young  plants  suffered.  An  account  is  given  of  methods  of  killing  the 
fungus. 

Several  instances  of  fungoid  attacks  have  been  notified  to  the  Board 
of  Agriculture. H  Helmiathosporium  gramineum  was  found  on  wheat. 
Celery    plants   were   suffering   from   the   leaf-blight   Oercospora    Apii. 

*  Journ.  Mycol.  xiii.  (1907)  pp.  236-41  (1  pi.), 
t  Bot.  Gazette,  xliv.  (1907)  pp.  241-58  (15  figs.). 
%  Comptes  Rendus,  cxliv.  (1907)  pp.  725-7. 
§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  699-701. 

|]  Bull.  Agric.  Indes  Neerland,  ii.  (1906).  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cv.  (1907) 
pp.  433-4.  %  Journ.  Board  of  Agric,  xiv.  (1907)  pp.  416-17. 

Feb.  19th,  1908  G 


82  SUMMAKY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

These  diseases  can  be  checked  or  cured  by  suitable  spraying.  Capno- 
dium  Footii  and  Splmrotheca  Mali  were  found  on  the  same  plum-tree, 
both  of  them  leaf-fungi,  the  latter  the  more  deadly  of  the  two. 

An  account  is  given  of  gooseberry  "  cluster-cup  disease."  *  The 
JEcidia  going  on  the  leaves  and  fruit,  the  uredo-  and  teleutospores  on 
sedges.     The  disease  rarely  assumes  the  proportions  of  an  epidemic. 

L.  Petri  f  has  studied  and  described  a  malady  of  olives  that  has 
been  attacking  the  plants  in  Tuscany  for  two  years.  It  appears  as  pale, 
then  reddish,  yellow  depressed  spots  on  the  fruit.  He  diagnosed  the 
fungus  causing  the  spots  as  CyMndrosporium  Olivce-  sp.  n.,  one  of  the 
Melanconiaceae.  Petri  found  that  it  was  not  a  wound  parasite,  but  that 
the  glands  of  the  epicarp  offer  the  points  of  attack. 

The  same  writer  J  describes  a  disease  of  pines  due  to  the  fungus 
Cytosporella  damnosa  sp.  n.  It  attacks  the  twigs,  and  the  leaves  above 
the  point  of  attack  wither  and  die.  The  fruits  of  the  fungus  are  deeply 
imbedded  in  the  cortex,  and  do  not  at  first  show  any  disturbance  of  the 
bark.  The  cambial  zone  is  destroyed  by  the  mycelium,  which  also 
invades  the  tracheides  of  the  wood,  and  disturbs  the  transport  of  water 
and  salts  to  the  apical  regions. 

In  a  further  paper  L.  Petri§  describes  the  galls  produced  on  the 
leaves  of  Azalea  indica  by  Exobasidium  indica.  The  extent  of  the 
deformation  of  the  leaves  depends  on  their  state  of  maturity,  the  later 
the  attack  the  less  change  takes  place  in  the  tissues.  He  describes  the 
infection  and  the  course  of  the  mycelium  within  the  plant.  The 
principal  change  is  the  multiplication  of  the  vascular  elements,  and  still 
more  the  great  development  of  the  parenchyma,  the  latter  accounting 
for  the  increase  in  size. 

H.  M.  Quanjer  |]  gives  an  account  of  various  organisms  that  are 
harmful  to  species  of  Brassica.  He  deals  chiefly  with  insects,  but  he 
also  describes  the  mischief  done  by  the  fungus  Phoma  oleracea.  In 
the  plants  attacked,  the  wood-vessels  became  hard  and  filled  with  brown 
gum.  It  has  been  proved  that  infection  is  not  conveyed  with  the 
seeds.     Insects  play  a  considerable  part  in  carrying  the  spores. 

J.  Behrens  %  renders  a  report  of  plant- diseases  in  Baden.  Plums 
suffered  from  the  attacks  of  Monilia,  the  weather  in  spring  having  been 
peculiarly  favourable  for  the  development  of  the  fungus.  The  occur- 
rence of  rust  and  smut  is  also  noted,  though  the  harvest  was  not 
seriously  impaired. 

L.  Mangin  **  gives  further  information  concerning  the  red  disease 
of  pines  in  the  Jura.  Several  of  the  microfungi  found  on  the  trees 
have  been  satisfactorily  proved  to  be  saprophytes.  There  remain, 
however,  some  that  are  parasitic  and  harmful.  Among  these  Phoma 
abietina  and  JEcidiiim  elatinum  are  the  most  noteworthy,  but  none  of 
them  are  of  any  serious  importance. 

*  Journ.  Board  of  Agric,  pp.  428-9  (8  figs.). 
+  Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  pp.  320-5  (5  figs.). 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  326-32  (1  pi ).  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  341-7  (8  figs.). 

I,  Zeitschr.  Pflanzenkr.,  xvii.  (1907)  pp.  258-67. 

*§  Ber.  Groszh.  Bad.  Landw.  Vers.  August  (Karlsruhe,  1906)  109  pp.     See  also 
Zeitschr.  Pflanzenkr.,  xvii.  (1907)  pp.  270-1. 
**  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  934-5. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  83 

Diseases  of  cereals  due  to  ScUrospora  graminicola,  one  of  the  Perono- 
sporeae,  are  described  by  E.  T.  Butler.*  The  fungus  causes  malforma- 
tion of  the  host  either  in  the  flower  or  in  the  stem  and  leaves  ;  a  full 
description  of  the  fungus  is  given,  and  a  systematic  account  of  the  genus. 

Black  disease  of  peach-trees  is  due  to  Gytospora  rubescens.  F.  M. 
Rolfs  f  has  described  its  growth  and  action  on  the  host.  He  concludes 
that  it  is  the  pycnidial  form  of  Valsa  leucostoma. 

New  or  Rare  Microfungi.J — Under  this  title,  A.  Maublanc  describes 
a  number  of  new  species  of  Pyrenomycetes  and  Fungi  imperfecti,  in  some 
cases,  following  the  germination  of  the  spores  and  the  development  of 
the  mycelium.  A  new  genus,  Geratopycnidium,  also  one  of  the  Fungi 
imperfecti  (Excipulaceae),  is  recorded.  It  grows  on  the  excreta  of  insects 
on  leaves.  It  does  not  enter  the  tissues  nor  affect  the  plant  in  any 
way.  It  forms  small  perithecia,  with  rather  long,  tapering  beaks,  and 
2-celled  colourless  spores. 

Mycology  from  the  Ecole  de  Pharmacie. — G.  Bainier  continues 
his  studies  of  moulds,  giving  descriptions  of  a  new  species,  and  notes 
on  species  already  known.  Two  new  species  of  Scopulariopsis  are 
described  and  figured.  The  conidiophore  has  the  same  type  of  branching 
as  Penicillium,  but  the  general  habit  of  the  plants  is  very  different. 
Gonatobotrys  fuscum  ;  G.  simplex  and  Arthrobytrys  superba  are  also 
re-described,  and  their  growth  and  development  followed.  In  a  third 
paper  he  gives  an  account  of  Papulaspora  aspergilliformis,  and  of  two 
new  species  of  Ascodesmis.  In  these  two  genera  the  carpogonium  is 
formed  from  a  single  mycelial  branch.  In  the  former  other  hyphaa 
grow  out  and  form  a  covering  ;  in  Ascodesmis  the  asci  are  naked.  All 
these  fungi  are  carefully  figured. 

Preparation  of  Enzyme  from  a  Fungus. || — K.  Okazaki  describes  a 
new  species,  Aspergillus  OkazaMi,  and  its  economical  value  in  the  pro- 
duction of  an  enzyme.  The  fungus  is  entirely  white  and  easily  cultured  ; 
spores  are  mixed  with  prepared  rice,  which  is  then  spread  on  boards  and 
suspended  in  a  suitable  atmosphere.  In  a  few  days  the  substratum  is 
covered  with  the  white  growth  of  the  fungus.  It  is  mixed  with  water, 
allowed  to  stand  for  a  day,  and  then  precipitated  with  absolute  alcohol. 
The  deposit  is  washed  and  dried  in  the  usual  manner,  and  placed  on  the 
market. 

Localities  of  Fungi. If — B.  Studer-Steinhauslin  proposes  two  theories 
as  to  the  occurrence  of  fungi  in  woods  : — (1)  That  the  mycelium  of 
certain  species  is  always  associated  with  the  roots  of  special  trees,  and 
therefore  these  fungi  and  the  trees  will  always  be  found  together. 
(2)  That  different  fungi  require  different  chemical  constituents  in  the 
humus,  which  they  find  in  the  leaves  of  various  trees.    Some  fungi  grow 


* 


Mem.  Dept.  Agric.  India,  ii.  No.  1  (1907)  19  pp.  (5  pis.).  See  also  Bot. 
Centralbl.,  cv.  <1907)  pp.  573-4.  t  Science,  xxvi.  (1907)  p.  87. 

X  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  141-9  (1  pi.  and  7  figs.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  125-40. 

||  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  481-4  (1  pi.). 

i  Mitth.  Nat.  Ges.  Bern,  1906  (1907)  xvii.  pp.  See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907) 
pp.  381-2. 

0  2 


S4  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

everywhere  ;  others  prefer  certain  woodlands,  but  will  also  grow  on  other 
soil ;  finally,  a  third  group  will  only  grow  in  certain  special  kinds  of 
woods. 

Staining  of  Fungus  Spores.* — Josef  Schorstein  has  been  experi- 
menting with  spores  of  Morchella  esculenta  and  their  reaction  to  stains. 
The  fungus  was  kept  moist  for  a  time,  so  that  a  number  of  spores  ger- 
minated, then  after  some  delay  they  were  stained.  It  was  found  that 
the  germinated  spores  alone  had  taken  up  the  stain  acid  methyl-green, 
the  germinating  tube  turning  blue.  After  12  hours  the  tube  became 
green,  and  the  remaining  spores  began  to  show  coloration.  Schorstein 
describes  the  physiological  conditions  inducing  these  differences  in 
staining  capacity. 

Fries,  O.  Rob. — Anteckningar  om  svenska  Hymenomyceter.     (Notes on  Swedish 
Hymenomycetes.) 

[Remarks   on  habitat   and   development  of  various  Agaracineae,   Tremel- 
linese,  etc.]  Ark.  Bot.,  vi.  No.  15  (1907)  31  pp. 

Kern,  F.  Dunn — New  Western  Species  of  Gymnosporangium  and  Eoestelia. 

[Three  new  species  of  GxjmnosiMrangitml   are  described  on  juniper,  and 
three  species  of  Rocstclia  on  Cratcegus  and  Amelanchier.~] 

Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxiv.  (1907)  pp.  459-63. 

Morgan,  A.  P. — North  American  Species  of  Agaricaceae. 

[A  continuation  of  the  description  of  the  Melanosporse.] 

Joum.  Mycol.,  xiii.  (1907)  pp.  246-55. 

Murrill,  W.  A. — Some  Philippine  Polyporaceae. 

[A  number  of  old  and  new  species  are  described  under  Murrill' s  new  nomen- 
clature of  the  Polyporese.]  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xiii. 

(1907)  pp.  465-81. 

Patouillard,  N. — Basidiomycetes  nouveaux  du  Bresil  recuellis  par  F.  Noack. 
(Basidiomycetes  collected  in  Brazil  by  F.  Noack.) 

[Seven  new  species  are  described.]  Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  pp.  364-6. 

Rick — Fungi  Anstro-Americani,  Fasc.  vii.-viii. 

[A  list  of  41  fungi,  with  notes.     One  new  species  is  described.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  335-8. 

Saccardo,  P.  A.,  &    G.  B.  Traverso — Sulla  disposizione  e  nomenclatura  dei 
gruppi  micologici  da  sequirsi  nella  "  Flora  italica  cryptogamia." 

[The  arrangement  and  nomenclature  to  be  followed  in  the  mycological 
groups  of  the  "  Italian  Cryptogamic  Flora."]  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  315-19. 

Sydow,  H.  &  P. — Novae  fungorum  Species,     IV. 

[Ten  new  species  described.]  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  338-40. 

„  ,,  Verzeichnis  der  von   Herrn  Noack   in  Brasilien   gesammelten 

Pilze.     (List  of  fungi  collected  by  F.  Noack  in  Brazil.) 
[Some  new  species  are  included.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  348-63  (1  fig.). 

Lichens. 
(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Development  of  Lichen  Apothecia.f — W.  Nienburg  has  examined 
the  apothecia  of  several  forms  of  Lichens,  and  draws  various  interesting 
conclusions  from  the  results  of  his  research.  He  finds  that  in  Usnea 
several  carpogonia  with  trichogynes  are  developed  under  the  cortex,  all 

*    Ann.  Mycol.  v.  (1907)  pp.  323-4  (1  fig.). 

t   Flora,  xcviii.  (1907)  pp.  1-40  (7  pis.  and  3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  85 

of  them  disappearing  except  one  only,  which  forms  the  subhymenial 
layer.  The  hypothecium  is  entirely  vegetative  in  origin  and  arises 
from  the  cortical  cells.  He  contrasts  this  development  with  that  of 
Parmelia  acetabulum,  in  which  the  hypothecium  is  a  product  of  the 
ascogonium,  and  the  ascogenous  hyphas  rise  from  the  hypothecium 
through  the  subhymenium  giving  it  a  generative  character  as  contrasted 
with  its  vegetative  character  in  Usnea.  The  author  concludes  that 
Parmelia  and  Usnea  are  not  so  closely  related  as  has  been  supposed, 
though  he  states  that  other  Parmelia,  may  not  conform  to  this  type. 

A  further  study  was  made  of  Cladonia  types  with  a  view  to  throw 
light  on  the  nature  of  the  fruit  in  this  family — whether  the  podetium 
is  a  secondary  thallus  or  a  highly  developed  excipulum.  He  quotes  the 
work  and  views  of  various  workers,  and  gives  his  own  results.  In  Bceo- 
myces  he  finds  the  stalk  to  be  an  elongate  excipulum,  in  Sphyridium  a 
small  typical  podetium  or  secondary  thallus,  and  in  Icomadophila  a  stage 
between  the  two  forms.  Further,  he  finds  that  Bceomyces  is  apogamous, 
since  neither  carpogonia  nor  trichogynes  could  be  discovered.  In  Icoma- 
phila  he  found  both  organs  as  well  as  numerous  spermogonia,  in 
Sphyridium  carpogonia  were  much  reduced  and  spermogonia  were  rare. 
Nienburg  considers  that  there  are  not  sufficient  data  to  determine  the 
nature  of  the  Cladonia  podetia. 

Mycetozoa. 

New  Myxomycete.* — Louis  Leger  describes  an  organism  allied  to 
the  Mycetozoa,  or  rather  perhaps  to  the  Acrasieae.  He  found  it  living 
as  a  parasite  in  the  bodies  of  Coleoptera  from  Algeria.  The  vegetative 
condition  is  to  be  found  in  or  between  the  adipose  cells  of  the  insects, 
more  particularly  in  the  genital  organs.  The  youngest  stages  are  ovoid 
or  spherical  in  form,  with  one  nucleus  ;  later  the  form  is  amoeboid  and 
multinucleate,  with  from  2  to  8  nuclei.  Nuclear  division  is  by  mitosis. 
The  vegetative  bodies  increase  by  division.  At  the  termination  of  this 
stage  the  substance  breaks  up  into  small  uninucleate  spores,  though  some- 
times there  are  large  multinucleate  spores  also.  The  Coleoptera  do  not 
seem  to  be  seriously  incommoded  by  the  presence  of  the  parasite.  Leger 
names  it  Sporomyxa  scauri  g.  et  sp.  u. 

Cultural  Experiments  with  Acrasiese.t; — Ernest  Pinoy  undertook 
a  research  to  decide  the  connection,  if  any,  between  bacteria  and 
mycetozoa.  Dictyostelium  mucoroides  had  been  described  as  parasitic 
on  bacterial  colonies,  and  Pinoy  proved  this  to  be  true.  He  isolated 
a  fluorescent  bacterium,  and  found  that  the  spores  of  D.  mucoroides 
would  not  germinate  without  the  presence  of  this  bacterium.  He  fonnd 
also  that  the  ruyxaincebre  produced  from  the  spores  were  nourished 
by  the  digestion  of  bacteria  in  their  vacuoles,  and  that  a  diastase  is 
formed  which  he  calls  acrasidiastase,  by  aid  of  which  the  bacteria  are 
digested.  The  author  examined  by  similar  methods  two  other  members 
of  the  group,  Dictyostelium  purpureum  and  Polysphondylium  violacetnu. 

*  Cornptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (l'JOT)  pp.  837-8. 

t  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xxi.  (PJU7)  pp.  622-50  (i  pis.). 


86  SUMiMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

He  showed,  among  a  series  of  corresponding  results,  the  necessity  for 
the  presence  of  a  bacterium  in  the  culture,  and  the  effects  of  different 
bacteria.  He  also  followed  the  division  of  the  nuclei  and  the  formation 
of  the  spore  heads. 

Schizophyta. 
Schizomycetes. 

Morphology  of  Human  Tubercle  Bacilli  in  Saline  Media.* — 
G.  Peju  and  H.  Rajat  find  that  when  tubercle  bacilli  are  grown  at  38°C. 
in  peptone  broth,  to  which  has  been  added  up  to  4  p.c.  of  KI  in  a 
saturated  aqueous  atmosphere,  and  if  after  15  to  18  days  the  growth  is 
subcultured  repeatedly  into  fresh  similar  medium,  the  bacilli  of  the 
later  (5th  to  6th)  generations  have  become  elongated,  some  forming 
filaments  50-60  /j.  long,  some  having  lateral  buddings  :  these  buds  appear 
to  elongate  into  filaments  which  also  have  lateral  buds,  a  mycelial 
appearance  resulting  ;  but  dichotomous  division  was  never  observed. 

Subcutaneous    Fibro-granulomata    in    Cattle.f  —  P.  G.  Woolley 

describes  cases  of  subcutaneous  granulomata  occurring  in  Chinese  cows, 
with  appearances  resembling  actinomycosis.  The  tumours  consisted  of 
a  fibrous  envelope  inclosing  granulomatous  tissue  and  a  central  cavity 
containing  pus,  from  which  on  every  occasion  the  author  obtained,  after 
a  week  or  more,  by  culture  on  glycerin-agar,  minute  fine  granular  grey 
colonies  of  non-motile  short  thin  rods  ;  these  stained  by  the  ordinary 
dyes,  but  not  by  Gram's  method  ;  they  were  not  acid-fast,  but  when 
stained  with  carbol-thionin  or  with  10  p.c.  carbol-fuchsin  they  showed 
a  beaded  appearance.  Growth  was  slow,  and  only  obtainable  on  glycerin- 
agar.     The  organism  was  not  pathogenic  to  monkeys. 

Three  Iron  Bacteria  4 — D.  Ellis  describes  three  thread  bacteria,  that 
are  covered  with  the  red  hydroxide  of  iron,  and  constitute  the  red  deposit 
in  the  streams  of  the  neighbourhood  of  Glasgow.  1.  Leptothriz 
ochracea  consists  of  a  number  of  straight  filaments  often  with  unsym- 
metrical  ends,  and  having  a  sharply  contoured  membrane  ;  they  vary  in 
width  from  1  ■  5-2  /x,  though  when  covered  with  ferric  oxide  the  width 
may  be  3/*  or  more,  and  the  length  attains  300/*  or  over.  Conidia 
arise  by  budding,  the  buds  separating  by  constriction,  though  this  is 
often  delayed  and  the  buds  elongate  to  form  new  threads.  The  conidia 
are  oval,  1  •  5  by  1  /a.  Multiplication  by  cell-division  also  occurs. 
Motility  was  never  observed.  2.  Gallionella  ferruginea  is  usually 
associated  with  the  preceding,  and  is  seldom  found  alone.  In  appear- 
ance it  resembles  a  hairpin  spirally  twisted  round  itself  ;  the  thickness 
of  the  threads  varies  from  0 "  5-1  /*.  The  author  was  not  able  to  dis- 
tinguish any  definite  membrane.  Multiplication  takes  place  by  the 
cutting  off  of  small  portions  which  elongate  into  new  individuals. 
Conidia  formation  also  occurs.  Motility  was  never  observed.  3. 
Spirophyllumfernitjuieum,  the  body  of  the  cell  is  elongated  and  flattened 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  p.  427. 

t  Ceutralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlv.  (1907)  p.  214. 

j  Op.  cit.,  2te  Abt.,  xix.  (1907)  p.  502. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  87 

and  spirally  twisted,  the  number  of  turns  varying  from  a  quarter  turn 
up  to  fifteen  or  more  turns  ;  the  width  varies  from  1-6  p,  the  length 
reaching  200  /x  or  more  ;  the  middle  portion  of  the  cell  has  a  thickness 
of  only  about  0*25  fx,  whilst  the  edges  are  thickened  up  to  0*5  /x  ;  there 
is  no  definite  membrane  ;  the  ends  are  irregular  and  unsymmetrical  ; 
conidia  formation  takes  place  as  in  the  two  previous  organisms  ;  only 
one  doubtful  case  of  vegetative  division  was  observed.  Referring  to  the 
layer  of  iron  on  the  membrane  that  surrounds  these  organisms,  the 
author  considers  it  to  be  an  instance  of  the  property  possessed  by 
vegetable  protoplasm  of  attracting  certain  non-living  substances,  and  he 
repudiates  the  idea  that  the  attraction  of  the  iron  has  any  biological 
significance. 

Susceptibility  to  Plague  of  Rats  of  Diverse  Races.* — E.  Klein 
has  found  that  the  common  sewer  rat  is  considerably  less  susceptible  to 
plague  than  the  tame  or  white  rat.  Experimenting  on  the  brown  and 
grey  ship  rat  from  South  America,  the  brown  and  white  ship  rat  from 
Norway,  and  the  black  rat  from  New  Zealand,  India,  and  South  Africa, 
the  author  found  that  cultures  of  white  rat  B.  pestis  are  by  far  the  most 
virulent  ;  next  comes  B.  pestis  of  the  black  rat ;  but  the  B.  pestis 
obtained  through  the  brown  South  American  ship  rat  and  the  Norway 
rat  was  in  each  case  of  lesser  virulence. 

Staphylococci  Pathogenic  to  Man.j — F.  W.  Andrewes  and  M.  H. 
Gordon,  for  purposes  of  differentiation  and  classification,  have  subjected 
a  large  number  of  staphylococci,  obtained  from  various  sources,  to  a 
series  of  observations,  which  included  besides  those  dealing  with  morpho- 
logical, tinctorial,  and  cultural  characters,  eight  physiological  tests,  viz. 
(1)  the  clotting  of  milk  within  one  week  at  37°  C. ;  (2)  the  liquefaction 
of  gelatin  within  one  week  at  22°  C.  ;  (3)  the  reduction  of  neutral  red 
within  48  hours  at  37°  C.  under  anaerobic  conditions  ;  (4)  the  reduction 
of  nitrate  to  nitrite  within  three  days  at  37°  C.  ;  (5)  the  production  of 
acid  when  cultivated  for  one  week  at  37°  C.  in  Lemco-litmus  medium 
containing  1  p.c.  maltose  ;  (6)  ditto  with  lactose  instead  of  maltose  ; 
(7)  ditto  with  glycerin  ;  (8)  ditto  with  mannite. 

The    authors    conclude    that   staphylococci   fall    into  two  groups  : 

(1)  Gram-negative  cocci    (M.  catarrhalis,    meningococcus,  gonococcus)  ; 

(2)  Gram-positive  staphylococci,  of  which  8.  pyogenes  is  the  commonest 
example.  It  exists  either  as  S.  aureus,  S.  citreus,  or  *S'.  albus,  according  to 
the  partial  or  complete  suppression  of  its  chromogenic  properties.  The 
common  saprophytic  coccus  of  the  skin,  S.  epidermidis  albus,  is  perfectly 
distinct  biologically,  and  is  identical  with  the  Micrococcus  neoformuns  of 
Doyen. 

Micrococcus  of  Epidemic  Cerebrospinal  Meningitis. | — M.H.Gordon 
reviews  the  evidence  associating  the  meningococcus  of  Weichelbaum  with 
epidemic  meningitis.  The  organism  is  found  to  be  present  in  pure 
culture  both  in  the  cerebrospinal  exudate  and  in  the  cerebral  ventricles  ; 
the  coccus,  which  is  negative  to  Gram's  stain,  is  in  the  form  of  flattened 

*  Rep.  Med.  Officer  Local  Govt.  Board,  1905-6,  p.  431. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  p.  543.  X  Tom.  cit.,  p.  435. 


88       SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

bean-like  diplococci,  or  as  single  cocci,  chiefly  inclosed  in  the  lencocytee 
of  the  exudate  ;  it  is  an  obligate  aerobe  ;  it  grows  best  on  agar  contain- 
ing ascitic  fluid  ;  the  author  found  that  nutrose  ascitic  agar  ("  nasgar  ") 
was  specially  suitable  ;  it  also  grows  well  in  broth  to  which  10  p.c.  fresh 
sterile  ascitic  fluid  has  been  added,  and  in  this  medium  it  lives  longer 
(up  to  a  fortnight)  than  on  solid  media  ;  it  is  killed  by  a  temperature  of 
65°  C.  for  30  minutes.  The  colonies  formed  on  nasgar,  in  strong  con- 
trast to  colonies  of  Gram-positive  cocci,  after  24  hours  at  37°  C,  appear 
as  smooth,  translucent,  regular,  circular,  or  oval  disks,  resembling  young 
colonies  of  B.  coli ;  the  optimum  temperature  of  growth  is  36-87°  C. ; 
growth  is  arrested  at  42°  C. ;  and  at  25°  C.  its  pathogenic  action  is 
exerted  by  an  endotoxin. 

Serum  of  patients  suffering  from  the  disease  agglutinated  the  coccus 
in  dilutions  of  1  in  10  to  1  in  100,  and  some  cases  up  to  a  dilution  of 
1  in  400,  but  the  commencement  of  the  agglutination  reaction  bears  no 
definite  relation  to  the  onset  of  the  disease. 

The  reactions  of  the  meningococcus  and  other  Gram-negative  cocci 
to  glucose,  galactose,  maltose,  and  saccharose,  are  given  in  a  table,  and 
the  results  show  the  value  of  these  reactions  in  differentiating  the 
meningococcus  from  the  other  Gram-negative  cocci  liable  to  occur  in  the 
upper  respiratory  passages. 

The  organism  has  also  been  isolated  from  the  blood,  from  nasal 
secretion,  and  saliva,  and  has  been  located  in  the  middle  ear,  in  joints, 
and  in  the  eye  when  inflamed  during  the  disease. 

Its  detection  in  the  secretion  of  the  upper  respiratory  passages  is  im- 
portant as  indicating  the  route  by  which  infection  has  been  acquired,  or 
is  imparted  to  others  ;  but  the  identification  is  difficult  owing  to  the 
presence  of  other  Gram-negative  cocci  from  which  the  meningococcus 
has  to  be  differentiated  by  cultivation. 

New  Plague  Prophylactic* — E.  Klein  has  prepared  from  the 
necrotic  nodules  of  the  bubo  or  other  affected  organs,  a  plague  prophy- 
lactic material  of  uniform  value,  and  which  is  readily  standardised  and 
preserved.  The  author  claims  that  by  using  bacillary  masses  from  the 
animal  direct,  a  material  is  secured  of  greater  uniformity  and  activity 
than  that  obtained  from  artificial  medium,  and  that  since  the  specific 
toxin  produced  by  the  microbe  is  presumably  stored  up  in  the  organs  of 
the  animal  dying  of  plague,  it  might  be  possible  by  injecting  into  the 
animals  subfatal  doses  of  this  tissue  toxin,  to  confer  on  them  an 
immunity  against  B.  pestis.  As  the  result  of  numerous  experiments 
with  material  obtained  from  the  raw  or  the  heated  filtrate  of  emulsion  of 
dried  plague  organs,  it  appeared  that  appropriate  doses  injected  into  rats, 
were  protective  in  as  short  a  period  as  seven  days,  and  persisted  for 
many  weeks. 

Micrococcus  producing  a  Yellow-brown  Colour  on  Cheese. t  —  H. 
Huss  describes  the  morphological  and  cultural  characters  of  a  micro- 
coccus isolated  from  a  cheese,  the  rind  of  which  was  stained  a  yellow- 
brown  colour  by  the  organism.     The  cheese  affected  had  come  from  a 

*  Bep.  Med.  Officer  Local  Govt.  Board,  1905-6,  p.  392. 
t  Centralbl.  Bakt ,  2te  Abt.,  xiv.  (1907)  p  518. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  89 

factory  in  Saxony.  The  organism  was  isolated  from  the  cheese  itself, 
and  also  from  splinters  of  the  wood  on  which  the  cheese  had  stood.  It 
appeared  together  with  many  other  organisms  on  plates  of  nutrient 
gelatin  and  agar  inoculated  from  the  washings  of  the  samples  in  sterile 
water.  The  author  has  named  the  organism  Micrococcus  chromofiavus  ; 
the  coccus  measured  0 "  9-1 '  05  /x  in  diameter  ;  it  was  not  motile  ;  it 
stained  well  with  carbol-fuchsin,  but  not  by  Gram's  method  ;  an  obli- 
gate aerobe,  it  grew  better  at  35°  C.  than  at  20°  C,  and  growth  was 
less  vigorous  on  acid  than  on  alkaline  media  ;  gelatin  was  liquefied  ; 
superficial  colonies  are  round,  having  a  greenish-yellow  colour  (becoming 
brown)  and  a  granular  appearance  ;  broth  is  clouded,  and  forms  an 
abundant  thready  yellow  deposit  after  four  days  at  20°  C.  Portions  of 
Tilsit  cheese  placed  on  filter  paper  that  had  been  used  in  filtering  a 
broth  culture  (24  hours  old),  showed  after  a  week  a  yellow-brown 
coloration. 

Etiology  of  Whooping  Cough.* — H.and  A.  Soulima  have  obtained 
from  each  of  a  number  of  cases  of  whooping  cough  cultures  of  a  small 
rod-like  organism,  which  appears  identical  in  its  morphology  and 
biology  with  the  bacillus  of  Eppendorf,  and  also  with  the  microbe  of 
Bordet  and  Genou.  To  isolate  the  organism  with  certainty,  it  was 
necessary  to  select  patients  in  which  the  disease  had  developed  without 
rise  of  temperature.  The  expectoration  was  collected  during  paroxysms 
of  cough,  repeatedly  washed  in  warm  sterile  "  eau  physiologique,"  and 
used  to  inoculate  freshly  prepared  blood-agar  plates. 

Mammitis  produced  by  Acid-fast  Bacilli,  t —  L.  N .  Larrier  and 
P.  Boveri  inoculated  the  mammae  of  female  guinea-pigs  with  various 
acid-fast  bacilli,  and  compared  the  resulting  mammitis  with  that  pro- 
duced by  Koch's  tubercle  bacillus.  The  authors  found  that,  whereas 
the  tubercle  bacillus  caused  a  suppurative  and  ulcerative  mammitis 
accompanied  by  "  adenopathie,"  which  was  manifested  by  the  8th  to  10th 
day,  the  mammitis  produced  by  the  other  acid-fast  bacilli  occurred  earlier, 
was  transitory,  having  ceased  by  the  0th  day,  and  was  benign  and  un- 
accompanied by  tegumentary  ulceration  or  adenopathy.  Tubercle  bacilli 
can  be  demonstrated  in  the  milk  from  10  to  15  days  after  inoculation, 
but  in  the  benign  mammitis  the  milk  was  free  from  acid-fast  bacilli  after 
the  8th  day. 

Tropism  of  Bacillus  Zopfii.f — E.  Sergent  has  observed  the  direc- 
tions assumed  by  ,the  filaments  of  growth  in  cultures  of  B.  zopfii  on 
gelatin.  The  author  found  that  this  organism  is  particularly  sensitive 
to  the  elastic  property  of  the  gelatin.  When  the  gelatin  is  stretched 
the  filaments  take  the  direction  of  the  force  of  tension  ;  when  the 
gelatin  is  compressed,  the  filaments  follow  a  direction  perpendicular  to 
the  force  of  compression.  Since  gravity  is  the  commonest  cause 
actuating  the  elasticity  of  the  gelatin,  the  tropism  of  B.  zopfii  may  be 
regarded  as  geotropic. 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  p.  11.  f  Tom.  cit.,  p.  15. 

+  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  lxiii.  (1907)  p.  \±1 . 


90  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Identity  of  the  Rogna  Bacillus  (tubercle)  of  the  Olive-tree.*- 
L.  Petri  obtained  on  peptone-glucose  agar-plate  cultures  made  from  the 
contents  of  a  young  olive  tubercle  an  abundant  production  of  yellow 
colonies  of  Ascobacterium  lutewn  Babes ;  cultures  made  from  other 
tubercles  developed  chiefly  the  sporing  bacillus  of  Schiff-Giorgini  ;  but 
in  other  cultures,  besides  these  two  organisms,  were  the  colourless 
colonies  of  a  third  organism,  which  soon  assumed  a  milk-white  colour, 
and  consisted  of  non-sporing  rods  corresponding  to  Smith's  bacillus. 
The  author  found  that  these  three  organisms  are  always  simultaneously 
present  in  the  olive  tubercles  in  varying  proportions,  and  he  compares 
their  morphological  and  cultural  characters.  From  the  results  of  many 
inoculation  experiments  on  healthy  plants,  the  author  found  that  only 
pure  cultures  of  Smith's  bacillus  caused  positive  infection,  and  he 
considers  that  the  positive  results  obtained  by  other  workers  with  the 
other  two  organisms  were  due  to  the  use  of  impure  cultures. 

Renal  Infection  by  a  Microbe  originating  from  the  Blood.j — 
Jungano  has  isolated  from  a  case  of  cystitis,  besides  many  other 
bacterial  forms,  a  small  anaerobic  motile  bacillus,  :J>-4//,  long  by  0  ■  5/x, 
with  rounded  ends,  staining  badly  by  aniline  dyes,  and  not  by  Gram's 
method,  and  having  no  capsule,  and  forming  no  spores  ;  in  broth  it 
clouded  the  medium,  but  formed  no  deposit ;  it  grew  well  on  agar, 
forming  small  round  yellow-coloured  colonies  ;  it  produced  no  gas  ;  it 
grew  on  gelatin  without  causing  liquefaction  ;  after  18  days  at  22°  C.  it 
formed  typical  stalactite  cultures.  It  was  not  pathogenic  to  rabbits, 
but  produced  subcutaneous  abscesses  in  guinea-pigs.  The  author  has 
named  the  organism  B.  albarran.  Owing  to  the  peculiar  conditions  of 
the  case,  the  author  considers  that  the  renal  infection  originated  from 
the  blood. 

Anaerobic  Bacteria  and  Gall-stones.! — A.  Gilbert  and  A.  Lippmann 

report  that  by  making  anaerobic  cultivations  from  the  core  of  gall- 
stones they  have  obtained  evidence  in  82  p.c.  of  the  cases  examined  of 
the  presence  of  anaerobic  bacteria,  of  which  Bacillus  fundi/liformis  was 
the  most  frequent.  Aerobic  control  cultures  only  gave  B.  coli,  or  were 
sterile. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.,  xix.  (1907)  p.  531. 

t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  p.  302.  J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  405-7. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


91 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.   Instruments,  Accessories,  etc.* 
(1)   Stands. 

Watson  and  Sons'  Metallurgical  Microscope,  "  The  Horizontal."  f 
This  instrument  (fig.  7)  is  designed  for  bench  work  and  for  photo- 
graphic purposes.  It  possesses  great  conveniences  for  fine  work,  and  is 
extremely  stable.  It  is  attached  to  a  bench  or  some  firm  base  by  means 
of  screws.    The  body  is  of  extra  large  diameter,  and  has  a  sliding  draw- 


Fig.  7. 


tube.  It  is  fitted  with  rack  work  and  pinion  for  focusing.  The  stage 
has  mechanical  movements  and  rotates  concentrically.  The  vertical  and 
horizontal  movements  are  divided  and  read  by  verniers  to  -^  mm. ;  the 
stage  is  focused  by  means  of  coarse-  and  fine-adjustments.  A  compound 
substage  with  screws  to  centre  and  rackwork  to  focus,  and  also  double 
mirror,  are  included  for  transparent  objects.  A  Hook's  joint  handle 
with  connecting  device  is  provided  for  operating  the  fine-adjustment  of 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands ;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives ;  (3) 
Illuminating  and  other  Apparatus  ;  (4)  Photomicrography ;  (5)  Microscopical 
Optics  and  Manipulation  ;   (6)  Miscellaneous. 

t  Watson  and  Sons'  Supplement  to  Catalogue  No.  2,  p.  8. 


Fig.  8. 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES. 


93 


the  stage  when  a  photomicrographic  camera  is  in  vise,  and  a  bullseye 
condenser  is  included  for  illuminating  opaque  objects. 

Watson  and  Sons'  "Mint"  Metallurgical  Microscope.*  —  This 
instrument  (fig.  8)  is  substantially  tke  same  as  the  "  Works "  model, 
previously  described  in  the  Journal,!  but  is  not  so  large  nor  so  massively 
constructed.  The  body  is  of  large  size,  and  fitted  with  rackwork  and 
sliding  draw-tubes.  The  stage  is  of  the  raising  and  lowering  type,  and 
has  mechanical  movements,  and  partial  rotation.  The  instrument  is 
made  with  either  the  horseshoe  or  tripod  form  of  foot. 

Watson  and  Sons'  Laboratory  Dissecting  Microscope.^  —  The 
frame  of  this  instrument  (fig.  9)  is  constructed  of  mahogany ;  the  sides 
slope  at  a  convenient  angle  ;  the  glass  stage,  4|  in.  square,  is  removable. 
The  arm,  which  carries  lenses,  has  a  spiral  rack-and-pinion  adjustment. 
The  mirror  is  on  gimbals. 


Fig.  9. 

Binocular  Instruments^ — M.  von  Rohr's  book  with  the  above  title 
treats  the  subject  from  three  points  of  view — theoretically,  historically, 
systematically.  Part  I.  (theoretical)  discusses  the  theory  of  vision 
(pages  1— ID).  Part  II.  (historical)  devotes  the  following  174  pages  to 
the  various  types  of  binocular  instruments,  and  describes  in  detail  their 
fluctuations  in  utility  during  each  of  the  last  five  decades  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  the  period  1890-1900  being  one  of  marked  recovery. 
Part  III.  is  a  very  interesting  and  useful  chronological  bibliography 
under  numerous  heads  and  sub-heads. 


(2)  Eye-pieces  and   Objectives. 

Photographic  Objective  containing  a  Uranium-glass  Lens.|| — In 
connection  with  the  increasing  use  of  colour  filters,  it  has  occurred  to 

*  Watson  and  Sons'  Supplement  to  Catalogue  No.  2,  pp.  6-7. 
t  See  this  Journal,  1904,  p.  105. 

X  Watson  and  Sons'  Catalogue,  19th  edition,  1907-8,  p.  71. 
§  Die  binokularen  Instruments    Berlin:  Julius  Springer  (1907)  223  pp.  90  rigs. 
||  Bull.  Soc.  Franc.  Photog.,  xxiii.  (1907)  p.  212.  See  also  Zeit.  lnstrumentenk., 
xxvii.  (1907)  p.  233. 


94 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


M.  Houdaille  that  it  might  be  of  advantage  to  make  the  objective  itself 
act  as  a  filter.  After  consultation  with  the  firm  of  Parra-Mantois,  a 
uranium-glass,  10  mm.  thick,  absorbing  10  p.c.  of  the  visible  rays,  and 
50  p.c.  of  those  incident  on  the  photographic  plate,  was  selected.  From 
this  glass  a  compound  objective  was  cut  from  a  design  calculated  by  the 
author.  The  results  w7ere  compared  with  those  obtained  by  a  colourless 
objective.  With  equal  exposures  the  negatives  obtained  by  the  uranium- 
glass  were  clearer  and  could  be  longer  developed.  The  tones  corre- 
sponding to  the  yellow  rays  were  deepened,  and  those  corresponding  to 
the  blue  weakened,  while  the  plates  were  uniformly  bright  to  the  very 
circumference. 

(3)    Illuminating-  and  other  Apparatus. 

Watson  and  Sons'  Vertical  Illuminator.*  —  This  apparatus  is 
made  in  two  forms  :  (1)  with  a  prism  ;  (2)  with  a  disk  of  very  thin 
glass.  In  the  prism  form  (fig.  10)  light  concentrated  by  a  bullseye  is 
passed  through  a  small  aperture  in  the  side  of  the  illuminator.  It  is 
then  reflected  through  the  objective  to  the  specimen,  the  objective  acting 


Fig.  10. 


Fig.  11. 


Fig.  12. 


as  its  own  condenser.  In  the  glass  disk  pattern  (fig.  11)  the  light  is 
conducted  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  prism  form,  but  the  reflection 
is  effected  by  means  of  a  very  thin  disk  of  glass  set  at  an  angle  of  45°  to 
the  optic  axis. 

Another  variety  of  the  disk  pattern  is  seen  in  fig.  12.  It  is  of 
square  form  with  an  iris  diaphragm  mounted  on  a  plate  sliding  in  a 
groove,  allowing  the  light  to  fall  obliquely  or  directly  upon  the  reflecting 
glass  as  desired.  This  vertical  illuminator  can  only  be  employed  with 
Microscopes  having  a  body  of  large  diameter.  If  necessary,  the  iris 
diaphragm  may  be  mounted  on  an  excentric,  so  that  vertical  adjustment 
also  may  be  obtained. 

Watson  and  Sons'  "  Grip  "  Stage-spring,  f — Four  advantages  are 
claimed  for  this  pattern  (figs.  13,  14)  :  (1)  free  rotation  of  the  spring  ; 
(2)  firmly  fixed  butt ;  (3)  removal  of  spring  and  butt  with  perfect  ease  ; 
(4)  non-liability  of  objectives  to  catch  the  spring,  which  lies  quite  flat 


*  Watson  and  Sons'  Supplement  to  Catalogue  No.  2,  p.  17,  3  figs, 
t  Watson  and  Sons'  Catalogue,  19th  edition,  1907-8,  p.  12. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,  ETC. 


95 


except  at  top.  As  the  illustrations  show,  the  fitting  socket  which  is 
inserted  in  the  stage  is  sprung,  and  though  the  middle  passes  a  conical- 
shaped  pin,  to  which  at  the  top  a  little  screw-head  is  attached.     By 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  14. 


screwing  on  this  head  the  fitting  socket  is  expanded,  and  hence  the  butt 
is  held  firmly.     To  release  the  apparatus  the  screwing  action  is  reversed. 

Electric  Mercury  Vapour  Lamp  for  Microscopic  Illumination. 
J.  E.  Barnard  gives  the  following  description  of  the  mercury  vapour 
lamp  (fig.  15)  exhibited  by  him  on  April  17th,  1907.  The  type  of  lamp' 
used  for  the  experiments  here  described,  is  that  made  by  the  Bastian 
Mercury  Lamp  Co.  Owing  to  its  convenient  size  and  shape,  and  small 
current  consumption,  it  has  been  found  most  suitable  for  microscopical 
purposes.  Owing  to  the  fact  that,  when 
mercury  vapour  is  in  a  condition  of  in- 
candescence, the  light  emitted  by  it  con- 
sists spectroscopically  of  bright  lines, 
which  are  evenly  distributed  over  the 
visual  spectrum,  it  has  therefore  been 
found  to  have  considerable  possibilities 
for  microscopic  work. 

The  Bastian  lamp  is  of  the  arc  lamp 
type,  the  light  being  produced  between 
two  bodies  of  mercury  instead  of  between 
two  carbons.  Being  inclosed  within  a 
sealed  glass  tube  there  is  no  loss  of  the 
mercury  whatever,  and  the  lamp  once  set 
up  in  operation  continues  to  work  with- 
out adjustment  or  renewal  of  any  kind, 
until  the  "  life  "  of  the  "  burner  "  por- 
tion of  the  lamp  is  exhausted.  This 
"  life  "  in  the  nature  of  things  must  have 
some  limit,  though  it  is  difficult  to  say 
at  present  what  that  limit  is.  Probably 
3000  hours  may  be  regarded  as  a  fair 
average,  though  burners  have  been  tested  continuously  for  over  700O 
hours  without  any  sensible  diminution  in  their  efficiency,  and  it  is  quite 
possible  that  improved  methods  of  manufacture  may  render  a  life  of 
6000  hours  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception. 

The  lamp  as  now  in  use  commercially,  is,  in  fact,  an  arc  lamp,  that 
is  to  say,  it  is  in  working  much  the  same  as  a  carbon  arc.  The  differ- 
ence, however,  is  that  in  the  mercury  lamp  the  arc  itself  is  very  long, 
and  constitutes  the  source  of  light.     Id  the  carbon  arc  this  is  not  the 


Fig.  15. 


'96  SUMMARY    QF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

case,  the  carbon  poles  themselves,  either  one  or  both,  being  the  source 
of  light. 

It  is.  with  this  lamp,  quite  easy  to  obtain  monochromatic  light,  as  it 
is  obviously  only  necessary  to  screen  off  the  bright  lines  in  the  spectrum 
which  are  not  required,  and  the  one  which  remains  will  then  constitute  a 
source  of  light  which  is  not  merely  monochromatic,  but  is  of  one  wave- 
length. The  brightest  lines  in  its  spectrum  lie  in  the  region  of  the 
orange-yellow,  green,  and  blue-violet,  and  it  is  these  three  that  are  <>f 
use.  There  are  a  number  of  faint  lines,  but  for  the  purpose  now 
described  they  are  not  of  any  importance,  and  are  not  sufficiently  bright 
to  interfere  in  practice  with  the  result.  The  necessary  colour-screens 
can  be  made  by  staining  gelatin  films  with  a  suitable  dye,  or  a  more 
exact  and  convenient  method  is  to  use  glass  cells  in  which  is  placed  a 
solution  of  the  dye  employed.  By  means  of  a  direct- vision  spectroscope 
it  is  easy  to  observe  the  exact  concentration  of  the  solution  that  is 
required,  and  no  undue  absorption  of  light  therefore  occurs. 

The  following  combinations  of  dyes  in  aqueous  solution  have  been 
found  satisfactory : — Eosin  and  filter  yellow  K  (Fuerst  Bros.)  will 
filter  out  all  but  the  orange-yellow  line.  The  eosin  should  be 
sufficiently  concentrated  to  exclude  the  green  line,  the  filter  yellow  K, 
being  used  only  to  subdue  the  violet  and  ultra-violet.  This  screen  is 
perhaps  the  one  of  most  value  for  either  visual  or  photographic  work,  as 
the  position  of  the  line  in  the  spectrum  is  that  of  the  greatest  visual 
luminosity.  In  photomicrography  its  application  will  be  sufficiently 
obvious.  Naphthol-green  and  filter  yellow  K  will  give  a  light  that  is 
visually  a  brilliant  green,  but  spectroscopically  transmits  some  yellow 
as  well.  The  green,  however,  predominates  so  largely  that  for  visual 
work  it  is  very  useful  where  a  considerable  quantity  of  light  is  required. 

Tartrazine  will  transmit  the  yellow  and  green  lines,  but  in  this  case 
the  yellow  predominates,  the  green  being  somewhat  subdued.  To 
obtain  the  green  line  only,  a  solution  of  acid-green  must  be  used 
together  with  filter  yellow  K,  and  this  gives  a  source  of  green  light  for 
microscopic  work,  either  visual  or  photographic,  which  it  is  difficult  to 
imagine  can  be  improved  upon.  The  violet  line  is  more  easy  to  isolate, 
as  it  can  be  filtered  off  with  a  screen  of  methyl-violet  or  gentian-violet. 
It  lies  rather  far  in  the  spectrum  towards  the  ultra-violet,  so  that  visually 
it  is  not  of  great  use,  but  its  possibilities  in  photography  are  obvious. 

The  illustration  herewith  shows  the  form  of  lamp  made  by  the 
Bastian  Co.,  and  suitable  for  microscopic  work.  It  has  an  automatic 
tilting  device,  so  that  immediately  the  current  is  switched  on  the  arc  is 
struck  and  the  lamp  lights.  The  process  is  therefore  similar  to  the 
starting  of  a  carbon  arc,  in  which  the  two  poles  have  to  touch  one 
another  before  any  current  passes  or  light  is  produced. 

When  the  mercury  bridges  over  the  gap  between  the  poles  and  is 
allowed  to  flow  back  again,  some  mercury  is  vaporised  in  the  tube  and 
the  light  is  at  once  emitted. 

The  length  of  the  glass  tube  is  dependent  on  the  voltage  of  the 
supply,  and  the  polarity  of  the  current  must  be  arranged  so  that  the 
mercury  commences  to  vaporise  at  the  negative  pole,  the  residual 
mercury  being  driven  back  into  the  bull)  at  the  positive  pole. 

For  microscopic  work  it  possesses  the  additional  advantage  that  there 
is  practically  no  radiant  heat. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


97 


Watson  and  Sons'  New  Mechanical  Condenser  Mount.* — In  this 
mount  (fig.  10)  a  tube  of  the  universal  substage  size  is  fixed  below  the 


;Fig.  16. 

iris-diaphragm,  which  can  be  carried  by  rackwork  out  of  the  optical 
axis  for  obtaining  effects  when  testing  objectives  for  oblique  illumination. 
The  apparatus  includes  also  a  rotating  ring  to  carry  dark-ground  and 
oblique  light  stops. 

Watson  and-  Sons'  Aplanatic  Low-power  Condenser.!  —  This 
condenser  (fig.  17)  is  suitable  for  low  and  medium  powers,  up  to  a 
numerical  aperture  of  0*65.     It  has  a  power  of  §  in.,  and  a  numerical 


*\j^r 


Fig.  17. 


Fig.  18. 


aperture  of  0*5,   of  which  0'48  is    aplanatic.      The  diameter  of    the 
back  lens  is  0*6  in. 

Watson  and  Sons'  Macro-illuminator.^ — This  is  a  single  achromatic 
combination  of  1*25  in.  clear  aperture  and  2  in.  focus  (fig.  18).  It  is 
suitable  for  illuminating  large  objects  under  low  powers.  The  lens  is 
mounted  to  fit  into  the  substage  close  to  the  object,  so  as  to  focus  the 
image  of  the  source  of  light  on  the  objective. 

Watson  and  Sons'  Catalogue,  ISth  edition,  1907-8,  p.  98. 

t  Loc.  cit. 


t  Loc.  cit 
Feb.  19th,  1908 


H 


98 


SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Bechstein's  Photometer,  with  Proportional  Graduation  and 
Decimally-divided  Scale.*  —  This  instrument,  which  is  made  by 
Schmidt  and  Haensch  of  Berlin,  is  an  improved  form  of  certain  others 
manufactured  by  the  same  firm,  and  is  shown  in  figs.  19  and  20.  The 
following  advantages  are  claimed  for  it : — (1)  Easy  portability  and  small 
weight ;    (2)   absence  of  unit-marks  ;   (3)   convenient  legibility  in  the 


Fig.  19. 


graduations  ;  (4)  simple  calculation  with  extreme  accuracy  of  measure- 
ment ;  (5)  long  range  of  measurement  both  downwards  and  upwards  ; 
(6)  special  protection  of  the  parts  important  for  the  constant  of  the 
given  medium  ;  (7)  universal  application  ;  (8)  moderate  price. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  figures  that  the  instrument  consists  essentially 

*  Zeit.  f.  Instrumentenk.,  xxvii.  (1907)  pp.  178-83  (6  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


99 


(1)   of  a  comparison  light-source  0,  whose  intensity  can  be  weakened 
by  a   double   sector  S  ;    (2)  of  a  Lumrner-Brodhun  comparison  cube 


P.  adjustable  both  for  equality  as  well  as  for  equality  and  contrast ; 
(3)  of  a  tube  h3  (fig.  20)  for  the  reception  of  the  light  to  be  measured 

h  2 


100     SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

and  of  the  apparatus  G'  (fig.  1!))  necessary  for  the  decimal  enlargement 
of  the  measuring-scale  ;    and  finally  (4)  of  an  inspection  contrivance 
V  for  the  purpose  of  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  light-source  to  be 
measured.     The  weakening  of  the  light  emitted  from  the  electric  com- 
parison light-source  0,  and  diffusely  refracted  through  the  three  plates 
vv  v2,  v3,  set  in  the  light-and-dust  proof  revolver  D,  is  effected  by  the 
fixed  sector  and  rotating  light-beam.     The  sector-measuring  apparatus 
consists  of  two  equally  large  detached  sectors  operated  by  a  handle  g  and 
symmetrically  arranged  about  a  diameter  ;  they  rotate  over  another  pair 
similarly  arranged  but  of  different  size.     Between  the  sectors  are  slits 
forming  the  four  arms  of  a  cross.     The  opalescent  glass  plate  vx  (fig.  20), 
regarded  as  self-luminous,  is  focused  through  the  lens-combination  L1?  L2, 
sharply  on  to  the  wedge-shaped  lens  IK.    The  plane  formed  by  the  sectors 
coincides  with  the  focal  plane  of  IK  ;  the  eye-cap  with  the  aperture  A  is 
in  the  focus  of  the  lens  L,  adjustable  in  the  tube  h.     Thus  at  A  the 
sector-slits  above  referred  to  are  sharply  defined.    For  fuller  explanation 
the  course  of  the  rays  must  now  be  considered  in  a  reversed  direction, 
i.e.,  originating  from  A.     A  sharp  image  of  the  eye-cap  would  now  be 
formed  at  a  (rig.  20),  but,  on  account  of  the  refraction  of  wedge-lens 
IK  this  image  would  be  laterally  displaced  from  the  principal  axis.     If 
rotation  be  imparted  to  the  lenses  IK,  L2,  Lx,  which  are  all  set  in  a  tube 
rotatory  about  the  principal  axis,  the  image  at  a  will  describe  a  circular 
path  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  rotation.      In  its  subsequent 
course  the  light  falls  on  the  plate  vv  whose  illumination  would  be  in- 
termittent   on    account    of    the    slits  between  the   sectors ;    but    this 
illumination  could  be  made  uniform  to  the  eye  if  sufficient  velocity  of 
rotation  were  imparted,  and  the  intensity  of  illumination  would  be  pro- 
portional to  the  aperture-angle  of  the  sectors.     The  lenses  L1?  L2,  which 
take  part  in   the   rotation,  are   continuously  penetrated   at   the   same 
distance  by  the  rays,  and  could  not  affect  the  proportionality.     The 
sector-adjustment  can  be  read  off  on  the  circle  S  by  means  of  the  index  N. 
The  graduation  extends  to  10,  each  main  graduation  being  divided  into 
tenths.     A  small  electric  motor  rotates  R. 

The  comparison-lamp  O  is  electric  incandescent,  and  is  secured 
within  its  chamber  by  strong  clamps.  This  lamp-chamber  is  adjust- 
able by  push  action  in  the  axis  of  the  instrument,  the  movement 
being  read  off  on  the  scale  T,  and  the  brightness  can  be  regulated 
within  the  limits  of  the  current-intensity.  Some  adjustment  of  light- 
intensity  is  also  attained  by  passing  the  light  through  more  than  one 
plate  v  (blue  tinted  if  preferred)  of  the  revolver  D.  To  secure  uni- 
formity of  diffusion  through  the  revolver  plates,  the  electric  lamp, 
approximately  a  point,  should  be  mounted  in  an  Ulbricht  globe  ;  the 
opal  glass  plate  is  then  opposite  a  uniformly  illuminated  gypsum  screen, 
and  transmission  of  the  glow-threads  is  prevented.  The  position  of  the 
rotatory  upper  structure  H2  in  the  main  body  H  is  governed  by  the 
screw  s3  and  the  circular  scale  H.  The  glass  strips  kv  h2,  are  for 
attaining  contrast,  and  can  be  applied  to  the  Lummer-Brodhun  cube  LB 
by  small  levers  externally  controlled.  The  light  to  be  measured  falls  on 
LB  from  /x  or  M  through  the  tube  hvfi  being  intended  for  measurement 
of  illumination  and  M  for  measurement  of  intensity.  The  lens  LC  not 
only  produces  image-formation  from  (j.  or  M  at  the  aperture  A  of  the 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  101 

eye-cap  under  simultaneous  use  of  the  cube  LB  and  the  lens  L,  but 
serves  also  to  adjust  the  tube  hY  with  regard  to  the  light  to  be  measured. 
When  all  the  upper  structure  is  in  adjustment,  LC  produces  on  a 
ground-glass  disk  n   provided  with  a   mark   an   approximately  sharp, 
image  of  the  light-source  to  be  measured.     A  mirror  is  set  at  v  so  that 
the  experimenter  can  conveniently  observe  the  proper  orientation  of  the 
instrument.      The   screen   c   rotates  on   d  by  means   of   the  external 
handle  g2.     It  is  moved  aside  when  the  adjustment  of  LC  is  in  process 
but,  on  release,  automatically  resumes  its  first  position  and  effectually 
prevents  the  interference  of  any  light  from  the  observer's  position  with 
that  diffused  through  the  revolver  plates.     The  equation  of  observation 
is  B  =  c  S,  where  B  =  the  illumination  strength  in  metre-candles,  c  = 
the  intensity,  and  S  =  the  sector-opening  as  given  on  the  graduated 
scale  at  S.     Then,  if  light  of  unit  metre-candle  is  passed  through  //., 
and  if  equality  or  equal  contrast  is  obtained  when  S  =  10,  it  follows 
that  c  =0*1.     If,  the  instrument  remaining  in  the  same  adjustment, 
illumination  of  10  metre-candles  is  presented  at  ft,  S  would  equal  100, 
a  number  beyond  the  sector-range  (graduated  from  1  to  10).     A  plate 
rotatory  about  C  is  now  brought  into  the  position  m2,  where  it  transmits 
only  0  •  1  of  the  light ;  thus  c  now  equals  1*0;  in  the  position  m3  it 
would  transmit  0*01  of  the  light,  and  c  would  now  equal  10.     These 
positions  are  all  known  by  marks  external  to  the  chamber  G-,  and  thus 
by  product  of  the  values  of  r,  and  S  the  candle-power  of  an  illuminant 
is  known.     Further  weakening  of  the  light-source  can  be  effected  by 
rotation  of  the  tube  r,  which  is  fitted  with  windows  of  such  a  size  that 
they  transmit  10  _1,  10  ~2,  etc.,  of  /x.     For  the  measurement  of  smaller 
illuminations  a  mirror  of  gypsum  is  placed  obliquely  before  fx.     The 
diffuse  reflecting  power  of  gypsum  is  greater  than  the  transmissibility  of 
the  opal  glass  plates,  and  therefore  the   brightness  of   the  source  is 
increased.      Diminution  of  the  comparison-light  must  be   effected,  if 
necessary,  by  any  of  the  means  provided,  and  the  calculation  made  as 
before. 

Bell,  L. — Physiological  Basis  of  Illumination. 

[The  author  discusses  many  familiar  difficulties  of  vision,  e.g.  the  well 
known  trouble  found  at  twilight  in  trying  to  work  by  a  mixture  of 
natural  and  artificial  lights.] 

Proc.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts  and  Set.,  xlviii.  (1907)pp.  77-96  (6  figs.) 

Eeprinted  as  a  separate  pamphlet. 

(4)   Photomicrography. 

Turneretscher's  Apparatus  for  Photomicrography.* — The  full  title 
of  G.  M.  Turneretscher's  treatise  is  given  below.  The  apparatus  is  the 
outcome  of  many  years'  experience,  and  is  adapted  to  the  photography 
of  objects  in  their  natural  size,  as  well  as  to  enlarged  or  diminished  re- 
productions. In  all  cases  the  apparatus  lends  itself  to  the  easy  deter- 
mination of  the  proportion  between  object  and  image.     The  camera  is 

*  Apparate  zur  Herstellung  von  wissenchaftlichen  photographischen  Auf- 
nahmen  und  von  Mikrophotographien  bei  schwachen  Vergrosserungen  unter 
bequemer  Einhaltung  eines  genauen,  Grossenverhaltnisses  zwischen  Objekt  und 
Bild.  Museumskunde,  iii.  (Berlin,  1907)  pp.  158-70  (4  figs.).  Also  as  a  separate 
pamphlet. 


102 


K'MMAHY    OF    (TL'L'KNT    liKSFAIiCHES    HELAT1NG   TO 


always  set  in  the  vertical  position,  and  fig.  21,  which  omits  the  bellows, 
shows  its  adaptation  to  the  more  delicate  requirements.  F  is  an  iron 
horseshoe-shaped  foot  carrying  a  vertical  board  B  which  acts  as  the 
pillar  of  a  Microscope.  On  the  lower  half  of  this  board  two  projecting 
bearers  T  support  a  mirror  S,  15  by  17  cm.,  rotatory  about  a  hori- 
zontal axis,  and  removable,  if  required,  by  single  hand-use.  To  the 
upper  half  of  this  vertical  board  is  attached  an  arrangement  V  which 
allows  the  object-table  to  rise  or  fall  about  6  cm.  by  the  action  of  a 
micrometer  screw  M.  By  means  of  a  lengthening  rod,  applied  at  a  ball- 
joint  K  over  the  rack  of  the  micrometer  screw,  the  micrometer  screw 
itself  can  be  actuated  at  a  greater  distance  away — a  necessity  often  felt 


Fig.  21. 


with  increased  bellows  extension.  Thus  the  fine-adjustment  is  attained 
by  movement  of  the  object-stage,  which  has  the  advantage  that  for 
a  selected  objective  and  a  selected  bellows  length  the  magnification  is  a 
known  quantity.  The  arrangement  of  the  upper  part  of  the  apparatus 
closely  resembles  that  of  a  Microscope.  A  sleeve  H  fitted  to  the  hori- 
zontal slab  A  carries  a  tube  C15  57  mm.  wide  and  105  mm.  long,  within 
which,  on  its  under  side,  a  second  tube  D,  cloth  covered,  is  inserted,  its 
lower  end  being  threaded  for  the  reception  of  an  ordinary  micro- 
objective,  or  projection-objective,  E.  For  diminutions  or  for  photo- 
graphy in  natural  size,  other  tubes  C2  of  similar  width  and  thread  can 
be  inserted.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  tube  C,  a  short  tube  G  can  be 
used  for  carrying  the  narrower  tube  g  of  an  ocular.  This  arrangement, 
of  course,  reproduces  a  Microscope,  but  is  useful  for  determining  the 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICItOSCOPY,    ETC.  103 


most  convenient  position  of  the  object.  When  it  is  required  to  produce 
photographs  by  the  objective  alone,  a  special  tube  J  is  provided,  75  cm. 
long,  open  at  its  upper  end,  but  carrying  at  its  lower  end  a  diaphragm 
of  25  mm.  diameter.  The  tube  is  controlled  by  push-movement,  and 
can  be  manipulated  until  a  perfect  image  is  obtained.  The  object-stage 
is  12*5  by  15  cm.,  and  has  three  grooves  at  its  narrow  sides  for  various 
exchangeable  accessories.  A  blackened  metal  plate  R,  with  object- 
clamps,  inserted  into  the  uppermost  groove,  forms  the  object-stage 
proper.  The  second  groove  is  for  an  opal  disk  to  secure  uniformity  of 
illumination.  The  third  groove  is  for  obtaining  a  dark  background, 
the  mirror  S  being  removed  and  the  wooden  box  Q  (blackened  inside)  put 
in  its  place.  In  the  case  of  larger  objects,  dark-ground  illumination  is 
secured  by  removal  of  the  box  and  by  placing  the  object  on  black  card- 
board. For  transparent  objects  on  a  bright  ground,  the  mirror  itself 
serves  as  an  object-stage,  and  is  placed  in  the  uppermost  groove.  For 
opaque  objects  on  a  bright  ground,  a  strong  illumination  is  directed 
from  above  on  to  the  object,  whilst  the  mirror  (now  an  opal  glass  plate) 
is  illuminated  from  a  weaker  source.  This  method  has  the  advantage 
of  almost  eliminating  the  shadow. 

(5)  Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Measurement  of  Resolution  in  Microscopy.* — C.  Fabre  discusses 
the  theory  of  microscopical  resolution,  and  emphasises  the  results  of  his 
experiments  with  Grayson's  test-plates.  He  has  found  plate  No.  6,  de- 
signed for  use  with  objectives  of  large  aperture,  especially  satisfactory. 
On  this  plate  the  lines  of  the  first  group  are  at  intervals  of  10,000  to 
the  inch  ;  those  of  the  next  group  contain  double  that  number  ;  and  in 
the  last  group  there  are  120,000  to  the  inch.  A  prolonged  use  con- 
vinced the  author  that  this  plate  is  the  best  means  of  measuring  the 
resolving  power  and  the  defining  power  of  an  objective.  The  length 
and  the  regularity  of  the  lines  give  also  a  very  clear  notion  of  the 
curvature  of  the  field  of  the  objective  under  examination.  The  author 
also  points  out  that  knowledge  of  the  resolving  power  of  a  lens  may 
prevent  false  decisions  as  to  the  existence,  or  otherwise,  of  micro- 
organisms in  an  object. 

New   Method    of   Measuring    Directly  the   Double-refraction   in 

Strained  Glass.j — L.  N.  G.  Filon  describes  his  method  for  the  above. 

A  horizontal  beam  of  parallel  homogeneous  light  is  made  to  impinge 

normally  on  a  vertical  face  of  a  rectangular  horizontally-placed  glass 

slab,  subject  to  vertical  flexure.     If  Cx  =  stress-optical  coefficient  for 

the  ray  polarised  in  the  plane  of  the  cross-section,  and  for  light  of  the 

given  wave-length  ;  M  =  bending  moment  ;  I  =  moment  of  inertia  of 

the  cross-section  about  the  "  neutral  axis  "  ;  and  T  =  thickness  of  the 

slab,  then  the  points  at  which  the  disturbance  is  in  the  same  phase  can 

be  shown  to  lie  upon  a  straight  line  inclined  at  0,  to  the  vertical,  where 

O  MT 
#i  =    --y — .     Such  a  slab  under  flexure  will  deflect  the  wave-front  like 

*  Mem.  Acad.  Sci.  Toulouse,  vi.  (1906)  pp.  142-9. 

t  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  Series  A,  lxxix.  (1907)  pp.  440-2  (1  fig.). 


104  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

a  prism,  and  will  do  the  same,  but  to  a  different  extent,  to  the  wave 
polarised  in  the  perpendicular  direction.  If  the  beam  of  light  be 
analysed  by  means  of  a  grating,  the  spectrum  lines  all  appear  doubled, 
the  two  components  being  oppositely  polarised.  The  shift,  so  produced, 
can  be  measured,  and  0i  therefore  obtained  ;  hence,  C\  is  known. 
Similarly  C2  can  be  found.  Thus  the  absolute  changes  in  the  two 
indices  of  refraction  can  be  calculated,  and  this  not  only  for  one  kind  of 
light,  but  for  as  many  kinds  at  once  as  there  are  lines  visible  in  the 
spectrum  under  observation. 

Atlas  of  Absorption  Spectra. — This  is  a  very  excellent  collection, 
by  H.  S.  Uhler  and  R.  W.  Wood,  of  photographs  of  absorption  spectra. 
For  their  production  a  mirror  and  a  concave  grating  were  employed,  the 
light  from  the  source  passing  through  a  wedge-shaped  layer  of  the 
solution  under  investigation,  after  reflection  from  the  mirror.  This 
layer  is  placed  horizontally  over  the  slit,  which  is  also  horizontal,  the 
path  of  the  rays  being  vertical.  Through  a  tilting  arrangement  adapted 
to  the  containing  cell  its  angle  is  variable.  Its  edge  is  at  right  angles 
and  in  the  same  plane  as  the  direction  of  the  slit. 

Three  exposures  of  different  but  relatively  uniform  duration  were 
usually  given  to  each  plate.  As  source  of  light  a  Nernst  lamp  was  used 
for  wave-lengths  between  0'65/x  and  0*326^,  and  for  wave-lengths 
between  0-326/x  and  0*2  //.,  and  as  an  index  a  specially  arranged  spark 
discharge  between  electrodes  of  an  alloy  of  cadmium  and  zinc  on  the 
one  hand,  and  of  brass  on  the  other  was  used,  the  spark  spectrum  photo- 
graph being  superposed  on  that  from  the  Nernst  burner. 

The  authors  recommend  water  as  a  solvent  of  the  substances  investi- 
gated as  being  free  from  absorption  in  the  ultra-violet.  But  a  recent 
determination  of  the  refractive  indices  of  water  has  shown  that  for  the 
extreme  wave-length  0'185/x.  this  is  not  the  case.* 

As  Professor  Wood  points  out  in  the  introduction,  several  workers 
have  made  a  series  of  photographs  of  absorption  spectra  previously,  but 
with  them,  the  end  in  view  was  not  a  book  of  reference.  Work  of  this 
kind  was  undertaken  under  the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Microscopical 
Society  in  1893,  the  outcome  of  which  were  the  F  and  6  line  screens 
described  subsequently  in  this  Journal^  and  also  a  screen  for  use  in 
orthochromatic  photography  4  On  that  occasion  the  sun  alone  was  used 
as  light  source,  the  fine  absorption  lines  of  the  solar  spectrum  in  no  way 
interfering  with  the  observation  of  the  comparatively  broad  absorption 
bands  of  the  substances  under  investigation,  and  showing  their  position 
at  a  glance.  In  this  way  most  of  the  anilines  now  described,  besides 
others,  and  the  principal  salts  of  copper  and  chromium  were  then  photo- 
graphed. But  the  present  authors,  by  employing  light  from  the  artificial 
sources  described,  have  extended  the  range  to  the  ultra-violet,  and  finally 
have  published  their  work,  together  with  a  descriptive  table  of  the 
substances  investigated,  and  of  the  results  obtained.  This  table  gives 
the  commercial  as  well  as  the  chemical  name  of  each,  and  also  that  of 


* 


Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  1906. 
t  See  this  Journal,  1894,  pp.  164-7,  and  1S95,  pp.  145-7. 
%   Journ.  Roy.  Photo.  Soc,  1895. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  105 

the  maker.     The  whole  forms  a  very  complete  and  accurate  book  of 
reference. 

Die  neue  Spektralmethode  der  Lippmannsohen  Farbenphotographie. 

Centralbl.  Zeit.  f.  Opt.  u.  Mech.,  xxviii.  (1907)  pp.  219-21  (2  figs.). 

Die  Pb.otograpb.ie  in  nattirlichen  Farben.  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  254-5. 

(6)   Miscellaneous. 

Quekett  Microscopical  Club. — The  443rd  Meeting  of  the  Club  was 
held  on  November  15,  the  President,  Dr.  E.  J.  Spitta,  F.R.A.S., 
F.R.M.S.,  etc.,  in  the  chair.  Mr.  James  Murray  communicated  a  valu- 
able paper,  which  was  read  by  Mr.  D.  J.  Scourfield,  F.Z.S.,  F.R.M.S., 
on  "  PhiJodina  macrostyla  Ehr.,  and  its  Allies."  Mr.  F.  P.  Smith  made 
some  remarks  on  "British  Spiders  taken  in  1907,"  and  dealt  with  some 
twenty  species,  of  which  one,  Tarantula  nemoralis,  taken  at  Bexhill  High 
Woods  on  June  21,  is  for  the  first  time  recorded  as  British. 

At  the  444th  Ordinary  Meeting  held  on  December  20,  the  President 
in  the  chair,  Mr.  J.  I.  Pigg,  F.R.M.S.,  exhibited  lantern  photomicro- 
graphs illustrating  the  development  of  the  prothallus  from  the  spore  of 
the  maidenhair  fern.  A  paper  communicated  by  Mr.  E.  M.  Nelson, 
F.R.M.S.,  on  "  Some  Hairs  upon  the  Proboscis  of  the  Blow-fly,"  was 
read  by  the  Hon.  Sec.  Four  kinds  of  hairs  were  described.  Mr.  E.  F. 
Law  exhibited  a  number  of  lantern  slides  in  colour  obtained  by  the 
Lumiere  autochrome  process.  They  were  photomicrographs,  mostly 
x  1000,  of  the  oxidisation  colours  obtained  by  heat-tinting  the  polished 
surfaces  of  phosphor-bronze,  gunmetal,  and  various  commercial  cast- 
irons. 

B.  Technique.* 
(1)    Collecting  Objects,  including'  Culture  Processes. 

Method  by  which  Sponges  may  be  Artificially  Reared.j — H.  V. 
Wilson  gives  the  following  method.  Into  a  tub  about  GO  x  30  cm., 
and  covered  with  glass,  a  half-dozen  sponges,  freed  from  live  oysters 
and  crabs,  are  put.  They  are  raised  from  the  bottom  on  bricks. 
The  tub  is  emptied,  filled,  and  flushed  for  some  minutes,  thrice  daily. 
Direct  rays  of  the  sun  should  be  avoided.  In  the  course  of  some  weeks 
the  sponges  regenerate,  giving  rise  to  small  masses  of  undifferentiated 
tissue.  When  in  this  condition,  if  these  masses  be  attached  to  wire 
gauze  and  suspended  in  a  live-box  floating  at  the  surface  of  the  open 
water  of  a  harbour,  the  masses  will  in  a  few  days  grow  and  re-develop 
spores  and  oscula,  flagellated  chambers,  and  skeletal  arrangement  of  the 
normal  sponge. 

Cultivation  of  Gonococci.J — Nakao  Abe  uses  a  meat  extract,  which 
he  prepares  as  follows  :  500  grm.  of  chopped-up  beef  are  immersed  in 
1000  c.cm.  of  tap-water,  and  placed  in  a  refrigerator  for  18-24  hours. 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Pro- 
cesses ;.  (2)  Preparing  Objects  ;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes  ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting;  (5)  Mounting,  including  slides,  preserving  fluids,  etc.  'r 
(6)  Miscellaneous.  t  Science,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  912-15. 

%  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Orig.,  lte  Abt.,  xliv.  (1907)  pp.  705-9. 


106  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

The  fluid  is  then  passed  through  a  paper  Alter,  and  afterwards  through 
a  Chamberland  filter.  The  reddish  germ-free  filtrate  is  preserved  in 
test-tubes  or  flasks,  and  if  prevented  from  drying,  the  stock  will  keep 
for  weeks.  For  cultivation  purposes  it  is  mixed  with  solid  or  liquid 
peptonised  media.  Thus,  with  2  p.c.  nutrient  agar,  the  procedure  is  as 
follows  :  test-tubes  containing  some  5  c.cm.  of  2  p.c.  nutrient  agar  are 
liquefied  and  cooled  down  to  40-50°  (."'.,  and  then  1-2  c.cm.  of  the  meat 
extract  are  added  ;  in  about  a  minute  the  medium  is  ready  for  use. 

Simple  Method  of  Sterilising  Blood  for  Cultural  Purposes.* — 
E.  P.  Bernstein  and  A.  A.  Epstein  place  400  c.cm.  of  fresh  ox-blood  in 
a  sterile  Erlenmayer's  flask  of  500  c.cm.  capacity,  in  which  have  been 
previously  placed  30  c.cm.  of  1  p.c.  ammonium  oxalate  solution  and 
|  c.cm.  of  40  p.c.  formalin.  After  shaking,  and  then  allowing  to  stand 
for  i  hour,  an  equal  quantity  of  sterile  physiological  salt  solution  is 
added  to  the  blood.  After  24  hours  the  blood  may  be  used  for  cultural 
purposes.  One  part  of  the  diluted  blood  is  added  to  15  parts  agar  or 
broth,  so  that  the  tubes  contain  about  1  :  3G000  formalin. 

Cultivation  and  Preparation  of  Myxomycetes.f — E.  Pinoy  culti- 
vated Dictyostelium  mucoroides  on  a  medium  composed  of  20  grm.  agar, 
50  grm.  linseed,  and  1  litre  of  water.  This  was  heated  to  117°  C,  and 
after  having  been  distributed  into  glass  vessels  was  sterilised  at  115°  C. 
for  \  hour.  As  the  medium  could  not  be  filtered,  the  impurities  were 
got  rid  of  by  keeping  the  medium  at  37°  C.  until  the  extraneous  matters 
had  sedimented.  When  the  agar  had  set,  the  clear  portion  was  cut  off 
and  was  used.  On  this  medium  spores  were  sown,  and  cultures  asso- 
ciated with  bacteria  were  obtained.  The  presence  of  one  or  more  kinds 
of  bacteria  seems  to  be  indispensable  for  the  nutrition  of  the  fungi, 
and  all,  with  the  exception  of  B.  pyocyanms,  were  Gram-negative. 

For  examining  the  cultures  the  condensation  water  was  used,  and 
preparations  made  as  hanging  drops,  or  in  Van  Tieghem's  cells.  For 
examination  in  vivo,  neutral  red  was  found  to  be  the  best  stain,  as  it 
■colours  not  only  the  partially  digested  bacteria,  but  also  has  the  property 
of  indicating  the  reaction  of  fluids,  turning  yellow  if  they  be  alkaline, 
and  red  or  blue  purple  if  acid.  Hence  it  indicates  the  acid  or  alkaline 
reaction  of  the  liquid  in  the  vacuoles.  Neutral  red  does  not  affect  the 
living  organisms,  but  if  in  excess  the  myxamcebae  are  killed,  and  there- 
fore stain.  For  fixed  preparations  Laveran's  method  was  adopted.  A 
film  is  made  in  the  usual  way,  and  when  dry  is  fixed  with  alcohol  for 
ten  minutes.  It  is  then  stained  with  the  following  mixture  :  4  c.cm.  of 
1  per  thousand  aqueous  eosin,  6  c.cm.  distilled  water,  1  c.cm.  Borrel's  blue. 
The  stain  is  allowed  to  act  for  15-20  minutes,  and  then  the  film  is 
differentiated  with  a  5  p.c.  tannin  solution.  The  results  obtained  by 
the  foregoing  method  were  controlled  by  two  other  procedures,  viz. 
staining  with  Heidenhain's  iron-hasmatoxylin  after  fixation  in  sublimate, 
and  by  Borrel's  method.  This  consists  in  fixing  with  the  following 
fluid  :  water  300  grm.,  acetic  acid  20  grm.,  osmic  acid  20  grm., 
platinum  chloride  2  grm.,  chromic  acid  3   grm.,  then   staining   with 

^  *  Journ.  Infect.  Diseases,  iii.  (1906)  pp.  772. 
~  t  Aim.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  622-56  (4  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    .MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  107 

magenta  red  and  differentiating  with  picro-indigo-carmine,  followed  by 
alcohol  and  oil  of  cloves. 

Culture  of  Anaerobes.* — A.  le  Dantec  describes  a  method  for  culti- 
vating anaerobes.  It  depends  on  the  slow  diffusion  of  gases  through 
liquids  in  capillary  tubes.  Tbe  upper  end  of  a  pipette  is  drawn  out  into 
a  capillary  neck  ;  broth,  previously  1  toiled,  cooled  and  inoculated  with 
an  anaerobic  organism,  is  drawn  in  as  far  as  the  upper  cylinder  above 
the  constricted  neck,  and  the  lower  end  of  the  pipette  is  then  closed  in 
a  flame.  Satisfactory  anaerobic  growth  occurs  in  the  medium  contained 
in  the  body  of  the  pipette. 

Collecting  and  Preserving  Fresh-water  Rhizopods.t — E.  Penard, 
in  describing  his  methods,  states  that  the  collecting  of  these  creatures  is 
as  simple  as  possible.  In  ponds,  streams,  and  marshes  he  closes  the 
mouth  of  a  small  test-tube  with  the  thumb  and  plunges  the  whole  arm 
in  the  water,  so  as  to  bring  the  test-tube  level  with  the  organic  felt  which 
usually  covers  the  bottom,  then  on  raising  the  thumb  the  water  rushes  in, 
carrying  with  it  the  surface  mud,  which  is  alwavs  richest  in  organisms 
of  all  kinds.  For  collecting  in  deep  lakes,  a  very  simple  dredging 
apparatus  is  used,  which  brings  up  strips  of  brown  organic  felt  which 
covers  the  bottom  mud,  and  which  alone  contains  the  Rhizopods. 
Details  as  to  finding  and  isolating  the  creatures  so  collected  will  be 
found  in  the  paper,  as  well  as  the  various  methods  of  preparing  them  as 
microscopic  objects.  It  need  here  only  be  mentioned  that  the  author 
fixes  the  Rhizopods  with  absolute  alcohol,  stains  them  with  borax- 
carmin,  and  mounts  them  in  balsam,  the  whole  process  being  performed 
on  the  mounting  slip. 

Intestinal  Broth  for  the  Isolation  of  Essential  and  Potential 
Intestinal  Anaerobes. J  — M.  Cohendy  prepares  this  medium  as  follows  : 
1.  The  stomach,  tongue,  liver,  intestine,  and  pancreas  of  the  dog,  sheep, 
pig,  or  fowl  are  washed  and  defatted.  2.  Then  the  stomach  and  tongue, 
pounded  up  together,  are  mixed  with  7  c.cm.  HC1,  and  500  cent, 
water,  and  incubated  at  40°  C.  for  18  to  20  hours.  3.  To  500  grm.  of 
intestine,  liver,  and  pancreas,  pounded  up  together,  are  added  1100  c.cm. 
of  water  and  macerated  for  18  to  20  hours  at  24°  0.  4.  The  two  fluids 
are  mixed  together,  and,  after  boiling  for  2  minutes,  strained  through  a 
fine  sieve.  5.  After  alkalinising,  the  fluid  is  cooled  down  to  50°  C.  and 
the  white  of  one  egg  to  every  250  c.cm.  is  added.  6.  Boil  for  2  minutes, 
filter,  cool  to  50°  C.  ;  add  the  white  of  an  egg  to  every  500  c.cm.,  sterilise 
at  120°  C.  for  20  minutes.  7.  Add  0  ■  9  grm.  anhydrous  glucose  to  every 
100  c.cm.,  filter  through  Chardin  paper.  8.  Distribute  into  sterilised 
tubes  or  flasks  ;  sterilise  for  20  minutes  at  115°  C. 

To  make  solid  media  with  agar,  add  between  (6)  and  (7),  i.e.  before 
the  glucose,  and  with  the  white  of  egg  8' 5  grm.  agar,  but  sterilise  for 
45  minutes  at  120°  C.     Then  proceed  as  before. 

The  foregoing  embraces  the  general  principles,  but  for  certain  details 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  p.  135. 

t  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  x.  (1907)  pp.  107-16. 

t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  649-51. 


108 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Fig.  22. 


the  original  should  be  consulted.  The  author  has,  from  an  experience 
of  six  years,  found  that  essential  as  well  as  potential  anaerobes  form 
colonies  in  these  media  within  24  hours  at  38°. 

Porous  Culture  Vessels.  * — A.  Rosam  calls  attention  to  the  value 
of  a  utensil,  used  for  keeping  butter  cool  in  hot  weather,  for  cultivating 
micro-organisms  which  require  moisture  and  darkness.  In  shape  it  is 
somewhat  like  a  dish-cover,  and  is  made  of  porous  earthenware.  It  is 
constructed  to  hold  water  between  its  inner  and  outer  surfaces,  and  is  filled 

or  emptied  from  the  top.  As  shown  in  the 
illustration  (fig.  22)  it  is  placed  on  a  dish 
and  is  of  sufficient  size  to  accommodate 
several  Petri's  capsules. 

Collecting  Fossil  Flora  .f — C  Reid  and 
Eleanor  M.  Reid  obtained  specimens  from 
the  brickearth  of  Tegelen-sur-Meuse  bv 
following  three  or  four  seams  to  a  place 
where  each  was  overlaid  by  barren  clay. 
Samples  from  the  seam  were  then  cut  out 
and  placed  at  once  in  clean  boxes  for  re- 
moval. Afterwards  the  clay  was  taken  out 
and  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly.  When  dry, 
about  half  a  pound  of  clay  was  placed  in  a 
sieve  and  water  poured  over  it.  All  the  floating  particles  were  collected 
with  a  earners-hair  brush  and  placed  aside.  The  washing  was  continued 
until  the  vegetable  material  was  free  from  mud.  The  muddy  filtrate 
was  next  passed  through  four  sieves  with  increasingly  finer  meshes,  the 
residues  from  each  being  separately  collected  and  placed  in  jars  with 
clean  water.  The  residues  were  then  examined  in  water  with  suitable 
lenses,  and  everything  determinable  picked  out.  The  selected  seeds 
were  then  stored  in  suitable  bottles. 

Enrichment  Method  for  Detecting  Bacillus  typhosus.}  — E.  Klein 
has  devised  an  enrichment  method  for  detecting  Bacillus  typhosus  in 
polluted  material.  He  used  beef  broth  mixed  with  bile  salt  and 
malachite-green  adjusted  in  the  following  maimer  :  To  400  c.cm.  of 
faintly  alkaline  beef  broth  were  added  5  c.cm.  of  5  p.c.  aqueous  solution 
of  sodium  taurocholate  and  then  malachite-green  (Xo.  120  Hochst)  in  the 
proportion  of  1  :  1500.  The  medium  was  decanted  into  tubes  (10  c.cm. 
each),  and  then  sterilised.  Tubes  examined  24  hours  after  inoculation 
with  the  suspected  fluid  showed  that  B.  typhosus  had  grown  freely,  i.e. 
had  become  enriched,  while  the  progress  of  B.  coli  had  been  inhibited. 
Subcultures  were  made  on  Drigalski  plates. 

The  use  of  malachite-green  for  inhibiting  the  growth  of  B.  coli  was 
discovered  by  Loeffler.§ 

Simplified  Method  for  Detecting  the  Presence  of  Bacillus 
typhosus. ||— H.  Dunschmann  recommends  a  medium  of  the  following 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.,  xx.  (1907)  p.  154  (1  fig.), 
t  Verb.  k.  Akad.  Wetenscb.  Amsterdam,  xiii.  (1907)  pp.  1-26  (3  pis.). 
%  Lancet,  1907,  ii.,  pp.  1519-21.  §  See  tbis  Journal,  1906,  p.  612. 

II  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  483-5. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


109 


composition  for  isolating  B.  typhosus  from  stools,  etc. :  3  p.c.  agar, 
1  p.c.  gelatin,  3  p.c.  peptone,  3  p.c.  lactose,  0*7-1  p.c.  taurocholate. 
The  taurocholate  is  prepared  from  ox-bile  by  precipitating  with  alum, 
and  then  treating  the  filtrate  with  perchloride  of  iron.  The  resulting 
fluid  is  filtered  until  quite  clear.  This  filtrate,  which  is  strongly  acid, 
is  neutralised  with  sodium  carbonate,  and  after  addition  of  some  animal 
charcoal,  is  evaporated  on  a  water-bath.  The  residue  is  treated  with 
alcohol  and  filtered,  the  treatment  being  repeated  twice,  and  then  the 
dry  residue  dissolved  in  water  to  make  a  10  p.c.  solution,  after  which  it 
is  sterilised  at  110°  C. 

Simple  Thermostat.* — A.  Sineff  describes  an  effective  incubator 
which  any  person  can  make.  It  is  made  of  cardboard  or  a  thin  wood 
used  for  box-making.  It  has  a  lid 
through  which  a  thermometer  is  in- 
inserted  (fig.  23),  and  at  its  lower 
part,  just  above  the  bottom,  a 
couple  of  slits  for  the  insertion  of 
an  iron  plate.  Convenient  sizes  are 
20  x  20  x  20  cm.  or  30  x  20  x  20 
cm.,  the  iron  plate  being  18  x  50  cm. 

As  shown  in  the  illustration,  the 
iron  plate  is  heated  by  means  of  a 
paraffin  lamp  or  other  source  of 
heat,  after  the  manner  of  the  early 
hot-stage.  The  apparatus  is  said  to 
be  capable  of  working  within  0  ■  5°. 

Sterilised  Bacterial  Media  for 
Cultivation  of  Anaerobes. f  —  GL 
Proca  finds  that  used  and  sterilised 
cultures   of    certain    bacteria   form 

excellent  media  for  cultivating  anaerobes  in  the  presence  of  air.  The 
tubes  should  be  sterilised  at  65-70°  C,  and  inoculated  directly  they  have 
cooled  sufficiently.  In  broth  the  growth  is  scanty,  but  more  abundant 
cultures  are  obtainable  by  pouring  the  inoculated  medium  over  agar  or 
serum  slopes.  Instead  of  cultures,  thick  suspensions  of  bacteria  may  be 
used,  and  agar  tubes  be  liquefied,  and,  after  inoculation,  be  rapidly 
cooled  down.  Good  growth  takes  place  in  the  depth  of  the  medium 
provided  the  surface  be  covered  with  a  broth  culture  sterilised  at  from 
65-70°  C.  The  cultures  used  were  those  of  B.  coli,  B.  typhosus,  and 
Vibrio  cholera,  and  the  anaerobes  cultivated  were  B.  tetani,  B.  botulinus, 
a  club-shaped  bacillus  isolated  from  earth,  and  a  bacillus  obtained  from 
a  case  of  gangrene. 

Observing  Living  Developing  Nerve-fibres. J — The  method  em- 
ployed by  R.  G.  Harrison  was  to  isolate  pieces  of  embryonic  tissue 
known  to  give  rise  to  nerve-fibres,  such  as  the  whole  or  fragments  of 
the  medullary  tube  or  ectoderm  from  the  branchial  region,  and  to 
observe  their  further  development.     The  pieces  were  taken  from  frog 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlv.  (1907)  pp.  191-2  (1  fig.). 
t  C.B,.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  620-1. 
%  Amer.  Journ.  Anat.,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  116-18. 


Fig.  23. 


101  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

embryos  about  3  mm.  long,  at  which  stage,  i.e.,  shortly  after  the  closure 
of  the  medullary  folds,  there  is  no  visible  differentiation  of  the  nerve 
elements.  After  carefully  dissecting  it  out,  the  piece  of  tissue  is  re- 
moved by  a  fine  pipette  to  a  cover-slip  upon  which  is  a  drop  of  lymph 
freshly  drawn  from  one  of  the  lymph-sacs  of  an  adult  frog.  The  lymph 
clots  very  quickly,  holding  the  tissue  in  a  fixed  position.  The  cover-slip 
is  then  inverted  over  a  hollow  slide,  and  the  rim  sealed  with  paraffin. 
When  reasonable  aseptic  precautions  are  taken,  tissues  will  live  under 
these  conditions  for  a  week,  and  in  some  cases  specimens  have  been  kept 
alive  for  nearly  four  weeks.  Such  specimens  may  be  examined  from 
day  to  day  under  high  powers. 

Cultivation  of  Treponema  pallidum.* — C.  Levaditi  and  J.  Mcintosh 
have  obtained  cultivations  of  Spirochetes  by  means  of  the  following 
method.  They  inserted  collodion  bags  charged  with  infected  material 
into  the  peritoneal  sac  of  monkeys.  The  material  used  was  obtained 
from  syphilised  monkeys.  From  the  cultures  thus  made  were  obtained 
organisms  morphologically  identical  with  Treponema  pallidum,  but  with- 
out pathogenic  power. 

(2)  Preparing-   Objects. 

New  Method  of  Fixation.! — Wl.  Rudnew  places  pieces  of  freshly 
killed  animals  in  the  ordinary  ether-alcohol  solution  of  celloidin,  and 
after  3  or  4  weeks  removes  to  thick  celloidin  solution.  The  pieces  are 
then  stuck  on  wood-blocks  and  hardened  in  70  p.c.  alcohol,  and  sec- 
tioned in  the  usual  way.  Unlike  most  inventors,  the  author  does  not 
claim  that  this  method  is  perfect :  indeed  he  admits  that  it  has  defects 
which  he  hopes  to  remedy,  but  in  the  title  of  the  paper  points  out  that 
it  is  specially  adapted  for  the  study  of  the  nervous  system. 

Fixation  and  Preparation  of  Nematohelminthes4  —  E.  Andre 
finds  that  boiling  water  gives  the  best  results.  When  small  the  animals 
should  be  placed  in  a  capsule  and  boiling  water  poured  over  them ;  this 
should  not  be  allowed  to  act  longer  than  the  fraction  of  a  second,  and 
then  the  animals  must  be  plunged  into  cold  water.  Large  worms  should 
be  placed  in  a  glass  tube  of  a  diameter  a  little  larger  than  that  of  the 
animal.  The  tube  is  plunged  into  boiling  water,  and  after  one  or  two 
seconds  transferred  to  cold  water.  If  these  large  worms  are  to  be 
sectioned  they  must  be  cut  up  into  lengths  of  several  centimetres  before 
immersing  in  the  appropriate  fluid.  For  staining  in  toto  an  alcohol 
fluid  is  recommended,  for  the  reason  that  while  hot  water  is  a  fixative  it 
is  in  no  sense  a  preservative. 

Small  thread-worms,  to  be  mounted  whole  as  microscopical  specimens, 
should  be  transferred  after  fixation  to  the  following  medium  :  distilled 
water  80,  glycerin  10,  formol  10,  placed  in  a  watch-glass  or  capsule. 
The  vessel  should  be  uncovered  but  protected  from  dust.  When  the 
fluid  has  evaporated  to  the  extent  of  several  cubic  centimetres  the 
animals  may  be  mounted  in  glycerin  or  glycerin-jelly.     This  method  of 

*  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur.,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  784-97  (2  pis.) 
f  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi  v.  (1907)  pp.  243-53. 
%  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  278-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


Ill 


fixation  by  means  of  boiling  water  and  preservation  in  formol-glycerin 
is  also  applicable  to  small  Arthropoda. 

Apparatus  for  Rapidly  Cooling  Paraffin.*— C.  U.  A.  Kappers 
describes  an  apparatus  (fig.  24)  for  rapidly  cooling  paraffin  blocks.  It 
consists  of  a  metal  box  A,  which  has  an  opening  B  for  connecting 
with  the  water  supply.  The  table  C  has  two  steps,  the  object  being  to 
accommodate  blocks  of  different  sizes.  A  piece  of  one  side  D  is  cut 
out  so  that  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  tank  is  just  below  the  upper 
surface  of  the  blocks.      When  the  upper  surface  of  the  paraffin  has 


become  sufficiently  hard  to  bear  the  water,  the  aperture  D  is  closed  by 
means  of  a  glass  plate.  The  apparatus  is  supported  upon  a  basin  by 
means  of  four  arms. 

Studying  the  Development  of  Ophiothrix  fragilis.f  —  E.  W. 
MacBride  made  observations  on  and  also  drawings  of  living  larvae. 
Those  used  for  sections  were  fixed  in  1  p.c.  osmic  acid,  followed  by 
Muller's  fluid.  The  sections  were  made  by  the  celloidin-paraffin  method 
and  the  procedure  similar  to  that  already  described  by  the  author  in  the 
case  of  Echinus  esculentus.  It  was  found  that  the  celloidin  became 
badly  cracked  if  the  sections  were  left  drying  on  the  top  of  the  thermo- 
stat for  longer  than  40  minutes.  When  it  was  necessary  to  supplement 
the  information  obtained  from  views  of  the  living  larva?  by  whole 
mounts  of  preserved  ones,  these  were  cleared  from  osmic  acid  by  immer- 
sion in  water  or  weak  alcohol.  The  vessel  containing  them  was  then 
placed  (open)  inside  a  larger  one,  on  the  bottom  of  which  was  a  layer  of 
chlorate  of  potash  crystals,  over  which  strong  hydrochloric  acid  was 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxiv.  (1907)  pp.  254-7  (1  fig.). 

t  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  li.  (1907)  pp.  557-606  (6  pis.  and  4  figs,  in  text). 


112  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

poured.     The  larger  vessel  was  closed.      The  euchlorine  gas  evolved 
soon  oxidised  the  black  deposit  of  metallic  osmium  on  the  tissues. 

In  the  orientation  of  sections  the  postero-lateral  arms  of  the  larva; 
were  of  the  greatest  assistance,  for  they  persist  until  the  metamorphosis 
is  quite  complete,  so  that  they  mark  a  constant  plane  amidst  the  varying 
position  of  the  other  organs.  This  plane  is  called  the  frontal  plane,  and 
most  of  the  sections  were  cut  parallel  to  it.  Sections  parallel  to  the 
median  sagittal  plane  of  the  larva  were  also  employed,  as  were  transverse 
sections  when  they  became  necessary  in  order  to  elucidate  special  points. 

Studying  the  Adenoid  Tissue  of  the  Spleen,  etc.* — C.  Ciaccio 
adopted  Levaditi's  Spirochceta  method  for  studying  the  fine  structure  of 
the  adenoid  tissue  of  the  spleen,  lymphatic  glands,  and  intestine.  He 
fixed  in  10-15  p.c.  formalin  for  24  hours,  and,  after  a  short  washlin  dis- 
tilled water,  immersed  the  tissue  in  90°  C.  alcohol  for  24  hours.  After  re- 
moval of  the  alcohol  in  distilled  water,  the  pieces  were  passed  into  1  *  5  p.c. 
silver  nitrate  for  3  to  4  days  at  38  °C.  On  removal  they  were  again 
washed  in  distilled  water,  and  then  placed  in  the  reducing  solution, 
which  consisted  of  2  p.c.  pyrogallic  acid  plus  15  p.c.  formalin.  After 
reduction,  the  pieces  were  passed  successively  through  water,  alcohols, 
and  xylol  to  paraffin.  The  sections  were  examined  unstained  and 
stained  :  the  best  staining  solution  was  Pianese's  fluid  (acid-fuchsin, 
Martin's  yellow,  and  malachite-green). 

Examining  the  Trophospongia  of  Striated  Muscle.f  —  E.  Holm- 
gren examined  the  striated  muscle  of  Insecta,  Crustacea,  Amphibia,  fish, 
reptiles,  birds,  and  mammals.  At  first  the  author's  trichloracetic- 
resorcin-fuchsin  method  was  employed,  but  was  afterwards  supplanted 
by  Golgi's  silver-chromium  method.  The  solution  consisted  of  4  parts 
of  4  p.c.  bichromate  of  potash  and  1  part  1  p.c.  osmic  acid,  the  material 
being  immersed  therein  for  6  to  8  days  at  30-31°  C.  This  was  followed 
by  0*75  p.c.  silver  nitrate  solution  for  24  to  48  hours  at  the  same 
temperature.  The  material  was  then  placed  in  alcohol,  frequently 
changed,  for  24  hours,  then  xylol,  xylol-paraffin,  and  pure  paraffin. 
Carnoy's  and  Flemming's  fluids  were  also  used,  the  sections  being 
stained  with  Heidenhain's  iron-hamitoxylin,  acid-fuchsin,  and  picro- 
carbol-fuchsin. 

Fixation  of  Insect  Larvae. $ — W.  D.  van  Leeuwen  has  devised  a 
mixture  which  he  has  found  very  useful  for  fixing  insects,  especially 
during  metamorphosis.  It  consists  of  1  p.c.  picric  acid  in  absolute 
alcohol  6,  chloroform  1,  formalin  1,  acetic  acid  \  part,  or  less.  The 
mixture  should  be  freshly  prepared.  The  insects,  pupaj,  larvge,  imagos 
are  left  in  the  fluid  for  24  hours  or  so,  and  then  transferred  to  90  p.c. 
alcohol  for  3  days,  and  afterwards  preserved  or  further  treated  in  any 
desired  manner.  Good  sections  can  be  obtained  by  the  benzol-paraffin 
method. 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxi.  (1907)  pp.  594-601  (7  figs.), 
t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxxi   (1907)  pp.  165-247  (8  pis.). 
\  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  316-20. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  113 

Studying  the  Interstitial  Cells  of  the  Ovary.* — P.  Aime  worked 
with  the  ovaries  of  several  species  of  mammals.  These  were  at  different 
stages  of  development,  ranging  from  the  early  foetal  state  to  the  adult 
condition.  The  material  was  fixed  in  Bouin's  fluid  (formol-picro-acetic 
acid),  Fleinming's  strong  fluid,  Tellyesnicky's  bichromate-acetic  acid 
mixture,  sublimate,  sublimate  and  platinum  chloride,  and  also  by 
Altmann's  special  method.  After  a  few  days'  immersion  the  material 
was  washed.  The  best  results  were  obtained  from  pieces  which  were 
washed  in  running  water  for  12  to  48  hours. 

The  paraffin  sections  were  stained  with  iron-hasmatoxylin  and  eosin 
or  light-green,  Delafield's  hgematoxylin,  or  with  iron-hsematoxylin  plus 
picric  acid-fuchsin,  or  eosin  and  light-green.  Sections  from  pieces  fixed 
with  Flemming  were  stained  with  the  triple  safranin,  gentian-violet  and 
orange  mixture,  or  with  sufranin  and  light-green.  Altmann's  method 
was  adopted  for  showing  the  granules  of  the  interstitial  cells. 

Schouten,  S.  L. — Methode  zur  Anfertigung  der  glasernen  Isoliernadeln,   ge- 
horend  zu  dem  Isolierapparat  fur  Mikroorganismen. 

[A  description  of  the  apparatus  and  method  of  making  the  glass  needles  for 
the  author's  isolating  apparatus.  A  full  description  of  the  method  has 
previously  appeared  in  this  Journal,  (1905,  pp.  758-60).] 

Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxiv.  (1907)  pp.  258-68  (15  figs.). 

(3)    Cutting',  including1  Imbedding  "and  Microtomes. 

Studying  the  Structure  of  Mammalian  Ear.f — W.  Kolmer  gives 
at  considerable  length  the  results  of  his  experiences  for  examining  the 
auditory  apparatus  of  certain  domestic  mammals.  The  difficulties  to  be 
overcome  are  the  prevention  of  distortion  of  the  soft  parts  and  the 
effective  removal  of  the  lime  salts  from  the  bone.  Injection  of  the 
fixative,  after  washing  out  the  blood,  through  the  carotid,  is  tedious  but 
gives  good  results.  The  best  method  of  decalcification  seems  to  be  to 
imbed  the  fixed  material  in  celloidin,  and  then  immerse  in  some  decal- 
cifying medium,  nitric  acid  for  choice.  Most  of  the  well-known  fixatives 
were  tried  (Flemming,  Hermann,  sublimate,  sublimate  and  picric  acid, 
formol-bichromate-acetic).  Small  objects  were  imbedded  in  paraffin, 
large  ones  in  celloidin. 

The  sections  were  stained  with  some  hematoxylin  solution,  and 
contrast-stained  with  Congo-red  or  acid-rubin,  or  by  Bielschowski's  and 
Cajal's  methods. 

Use  of  Sulphuric  Ether  in  Imbedding.^  —  F.  Federici  describes 
methods  for  using  sulphuric  ether  for  imbedding  in  paraffin,  and  also  in 
celloidin  and  paraffin  He  found  that  while  sulphuric  ether  at  ordinary 
temperature  was  a  poor  solvent  of  paraffin,  its  solvent  power  increased 
proportionately  to  the  temperature.  Recalling  Heidenhain's  method  of 
paraffin  imbedding  by  the  aid  of  carbon  bisulphide, §  he  removed  pieces 
of  tissue  from  absolute  alcohol  to  ether,  and  after  a  few  hours  trans- 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  95-143  (3  pis.). 

t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.  u.  Entwickl.,  lxx.  (1907)  pp.  697-706  (3  pis.). 

X  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxi.  (1907)  pp.  601-3. 

§  See  this  Journal,  1902,  p.  111. 

Feb.  19th,  1908  r 


114  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

fared  them  to  a  mixture  of  ether  and  paraffin  (ether  5  c.cm.,  paraffin 
m.p.  50°  C.  =  4  grm.)  for  3  or  4  hours,  and  then  for  a  similar -period  to  a 
second  solution  (ether  5  c.cm.,  paraffin  m.p.  50°  C.  =  4  grm.),  The  ether 
and  paraffin  solution  is  easily  made  by  placing  fragments  of  paraffin 
together  with  the  ether  in  a  well  stoppered  bottle  and  incubating  at 
from  30-40°  C. ;  care  must  be  taken  not  to  bring  the  bottle  near  an  open 
flame.  After  the  second  impregnation  in  the  ether-paraffin  mixture,  the 
pieces  may  be  transferred  to  pure  paraffin  m.p.  50°  C. 

As  ether  readily  dissolves  celloidin,  the  author  saw  his  way  to  perfect 
a  method  for  a  mixed  imbedding.  In  this  method  the  pieces  are  re- 
moved from  absolute  alcohol  to  ether  for  12  to  24  hours,  and  then  to  a 
3-4  p.c.  solution  of  celloidin  in  ether.  This  is  followed  by  the  ether- 
paraffin  solutions,  and  finally  by  pure  paraffin.  From  blocks  made  by 
this  latter  method  sections  may  be  obtained  which  are  not  only  very 
thin,  but  form  ribands  quite  easily.  Such  sections  may  be  stuck  on  the 
slide  by  the  water,  albumen  or  Schallibaum's  methods.  While  section- 
ing, the  block  does  not  require  moistening  with  alcohol,  though  when 
the  cutting  is  finished,  it  is  advisable  to  cover  the  surface  with  paraffin. 

(4)  Staining-  and  Injecting1. 

Picric-acid  Carmin.* — R.  Thoma  finds  that  picric-acid-carmin  is  of 
great  use  for  double  staining,  for  staining  nuclei  and  for  decalcified 
osseous  tissue.  1  grm.  of  picric  acid  is  dissolved  in  100  c.cm.  warm 
distilled  water,  and  filtered.  To  the  hot  filtrate  is  added  0  ■  5  grm.  red 
carmin.  The  mixture  is  warmed  until  the  powder  is  dissolved,  is 
constantly  stirred  and  brought  to  the  boil  once.  It  is  allowed  to  cool 
slowly,  and  after  about  24  hours  is  filtered. 

Picric-acid-carmin  stains  sections  in  about  20  minutes.  The  sections 
are  washed  in  tap-water  and  differentiated  with  1  p.c.  picric  acid 
solution.  After  several  washings  in  water  the  sections  maybe  examined 
in  glycerin  or  dehydrated  and  mounted  in  balsam. 

New  Method  of  Staining  Micro-organisms.t — F.  Loeffler  describes 
the  following  methods  for  staining  micro-organisms,  especially  spiro- 
chastae,  gonococci  and  diphtheria  bacilli.  The  film  is  fixed  with  ethyl- 
alcohol,  and  then  treated  with  3  drops  of  0 '  5  p.c.  solution  of  sodium 
arsenate  and  1  drop  of  0*5  p.c.  solution  of  malachite-green-zinc- 
chloride  (Hochst).  This  is  warmed  for  one  minute  and  then  the 
preparation  is  carefully  washed.  5-10  drops  of  Giemsa  stain  are  mixed 
with  5  c.cm.  of  J  p.c.  glycerin,  and  brought  to  the  boil.  The  film  is 
then  treated  for  4-5  minutes  with  the  hot  solution,  and  afterwards 
washed  with  a  stream  of  water. 

Another  procedure  given  consists  in  mixing  4  parts  borax  (2  •  5  p.c), 
methylen-blue  (1  p.c),  with  1  part  polychrome  methylen-blue,  and  then 
adding  an  equal  quantity  of  0  •  05  p.c.  brom-eosin  B  extra  or  extra  A.  G. 
(Hochst).  The  preparations  are  treated  with  the  warmed  solution  for 
one  minute,  and  then  immersed  in  a  solution  consisting  of  saturated 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxiv.  (1907)  p.  139. 

t  Deutsche  Med.  Wochenschr.,  1907,  No.  5.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt., 
lte  Abt.  Ref.,  xl.  (1907)  pp.  307-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  115 

aqueous  solution  of  tropseolin  00  5  parts,  acetic  acid  0*5,  water  100. 
They  are  then  washed  with  water.  In  order  to  decolorise  the  prepara- 
tions more  slowly,  the  tropasolin  solution  may  be  diluted  5-10  times  with 
water. 

Giemsa-staining  of  Spirochseta  pallida.* — J.  Schereschewsky  ex- 
poses the  prepared  slide,  the  film  being  still  moist,  to  osmic  acid  vapour 
for  a  few  seconds,  and  after  drying  in  the  air  fixes  in  the  flame  and 
then  treats  it  with  Giemsa's  stain  in  the  following  way  :  13  drops  of 
Giemsa  solution  are  diluted  with  10  com.  of  0*5  p.c.  glycerin  and  heated 
to  boiling,  and  if  no  precipitate  occurs  the  film  is  treated  therewith. 
Aiter  2  or  3  minutes  the  solution  is  poured  off,  and  if  the  preparation 
be  not  sufficiently  stained,  the  operation  is  repeated.  After  a  short  wash 
the  preparation  is  mopped  up  with  blotting-paper,  dried,  and  examined 
in  the  usual  way. 

Staining  Sudanophil  Leucocytes.f — D.  Bultino  and  Gr.  Quarelli  used 
the  following  solutions  for  staining  the  fat  globules  in  leucocytes  : 
0  •  2  p.c.  solution  of  Sudan  iii  in  absolute  alcohol,  and  aO'l  p.c.  solution 
of  brilliant  Kresyl-blue  in  the  same  medium.  The  authors  found  that 
the  percentage  of  sudanophils  is  much  increased  in  all  suppurating 
affections  and  in  pneumonia. 

Borrel's  Blue.! — E.  Pinoy  states  that  Borrel's  blue  is  conveniently 
made  by  mixing  100  grm.  distilled  water,  1  grm.  silver  oxide,  and  1  grm. 
medicinal  methylen-blue.  The  mixture  should  be  kept  in  a  yellow 
glass  bottle.  After  three  weeks,  during  which  period  the  flask  should 
be  shaken  from  time  to  time,  it  is  filtered.  The  maturation  may  be 
hastened  by  keeping  the  fluid  at  37°  C.  Its  staining  property  depends 
much  on  the  quality  of  the  methylen-blue. 

New  Method  of  Preparing  the  Romanowsky  Stain.§ — N.  MacL. 
Harris  gives  the  following  procedure.  Make  up  a  saturated  solution  of 
Griibler's  aqueous  yellow  eosin  in  methyl-alcohol  and  preserve  ;  then 
mix  2  grm.  medicinal  methylen-blue  and  9  grm.  sodium  bicarbonate, 
and  triturate  in  mortar.  Remove  to  beaker  of  250  c.cm.  capacity  and  mix 
in  25-30  c.cm.  distilled  water  ;  steam  sterilise  for  an  hour  and  a  quarter. 
Grind  up  the  black  residue,  mix  with  200-250  c.cm.  water  and  add  10  c.cm. 
of  4  p.c.  sodium  hydrate.  Extract  with  chloroform  and  then  evaporate 
off  the  chloroform  in  a  water-bath.  The  resulting  mass  is  made  up 
largely  of  methylen-violet,  variable  amounts  of  methylen-azure,  and 
other  substances.  Dissolve  the  mass  in  methyl-alcohol ;  this  makes  the 
stock  solution  of  crude  methylen-violet  and  azure. 

To  make  the  staining  fluid,  take  of  the  stock  solution  60  c.cm..  of 
methyl-alcohol  33  c.cm.,  of  the  stock  eosin  solution  1-1  •  5  c.cm.  Bottle 
and  add  from  0*  05-0  '15  grm.  methvlen-blue. 

The  staining  of  blood-films  is  carried  out  by  Wright's  method,  the 
film  being  covered  with  the  solution,  which  is  allowed  to  act  for  one 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlv.  (1907)  pp.  91-4  (1  pi.). 
t  Rev.  Clin.  Med.  Florence,  1907,  pp.  321  and  337.    See  also  Brit.  Med.  Journ., 
1907,  ii.,  epit.  108.  J  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  633-4. 

§  Johns  Hopkins  Hosp.,  Bull,  xviii.  (1907)  p.  281. 

I  2 


116  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

minute.     A  similar  amount  of  water  is  added  and  allowed  to  stand  for 
five  minutes.     Wash  for  1-2  minutes  in  running  water. 

If  dysenteric  stools  are  to  be  stained,  the  dye  should  be  allowed  to 
act  for  2  minutes,  while  for  Treponema  pallidum  10  minutes  may  be 
necessary. 

Gram's  Staining-  Method.  *— F.  Loeffler  has  tested  a  number  of 
methyl-violets  and  gentian-violets  in  their  relation  to  Gram's  method. 
The  best  results  were  obtained  with  methyl-violet  6  B  and  B  N  in 
10  p.c.  solution  freshly  dissolved  in  1-2 '5  p.c.  aqueous  carbolic. 
Sections  taken  from  alcohol  were  placed  in  the  stain  solution  for  2  to  10 
minutes,  washed  in  water,  transferred  to  Gram's  iodine  solution  for  2 
minutes,  then  into  5  p.c.  aqueous  nitric  acid  or  sulphuric  acid  for  1 
minute  (or  for  10  seconds  into  3  p.c.  alcoholic  hydrochloric  acid),  and 
finally  into  absolute  alcohol  until  completely  decolorised  ;  cleared  in 
xylol,  and  mounted  in  balsam. 

Studying  the  Nerve-endings  in  the  Urinary  Bladder  of  Mammals. 
Sergius  Michailowf  treated  the  material  by  the  supravital  method. 
Pieces  of  quite  fresh  bladder  were  immersed  in  the  Ringer-Locke  fluid, 
to  which  methylen-blue  had  been  added,  and  when  sufficiently  stained 
the  tissues  were  fixed  with  7-10  p.c.  molybdanate  of  ammonium.  The 
pieces  were  then  washed  with  water,  dehydrated,  and  mounted  in  balsam. 
Occasionally  the  material  was  stained  with  Grenadier's  alum-carmin. 

Staining-tank  with  Movable  Grooves.  % — Casimir  Cepede  describes 
a  staining-tank  with  movable  grooves.  These  slots  or  grooves  are  like 
the  tanks  made  of  glass  or  porcelain,  and  are  of  such  dimensions  that 
the  pieces  can  be  easily  removed.  This  device  enables  the  various  parts 
of  the  tank  to  be  easily  cleaned. 

Simple  Method  of  Staining  Blood-films.§ — F.  Weidenreich  places 
in  a  watch-glass  or  capsule  some  5  c.cm.  of  1  p.c.  osmic  acid  solution,  and 
adds  10  drops  of  acetic  acid.  Perfectly  clear  slides  are  laid  over  the 
glass  pan  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  paper  for  2  minutes  ;  the 
capsules  should  be  covered  during  the  exposure  with  a  bell-jar.  The 
blood  obtained  in  the  usual  way  is  then  made  into  a  film  on  the  side  of 
the  slide  which  has  been  exposed  to  the  paper.  The  slide  is  at  once 
returned  to  the  bell-jar  for  about  1  minute.  When  the  film  is  quite  dry 
the  slide  is  passed  thrice  through  the  flame  and  then  is  flooded  for 
about  a  minute  with  a  very  dilute  solution  of  potassium  permanganate 
(pale  red  hue).  The  film  is  then  washed  with  water  and  mopped  up 
with  filter  paper,  after  wrhich  it  is  ready  for  staining,  for  which  purpose 
the  following  are  suitable  :  Ehrbch's  tri-acid  mixture,  Giemsa,  gentian- 
violet,  eosin-methylen-blue,  haematein. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Ref..  xi.  (1907)  p.  78. 
t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxxi.  (1907)  pp.  254-83  (2  pis.). 
%  C  R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  485-7  (2  figs.). 

§  Folia  hamatologica,  iii.  (190G)  7  pp.    See  also  Zeitschr.  Wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxiv. 
(1907)  pp.  301-2. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


117 


(5)    Mounting-,  including-  Slides,  Preservative  Fluids,  etc. 

Preserving  Fossil  Seeds  and  Leaves.* — C.  Reid  and  Eleanor  M. 
Reid  treated  the  fossil  seeds  they  had  collected  f  in  the  following  way. 
A  few  seeds  were  removed  from  the  store-bottles  and  washed  in  water  to 
remove  the  formalin  or  salicylic  acid  used  for  their  temporary  preserva- 
tion. Then  a  thin  film  of  wax  (paraffin  filtr.,  45°  C.  G-riibler)  was 
melted  on  a  glass  plate  or  Microscope  slide.  The  seeds  or  leaves  were 
placed,  still  wet,  on  the  film,  and  the  plate  immediately  heated  to  a 
temperature  just  sufficient  to  melt  the  wax.  By  this  procedure  the  seed 
is  impregnated  with  wax  and  rendered  so  tough  that  it  could  be  easily 
handled.  The  superfluous  wax  was  then  removed  with  blotting-paper,  or 
by  brushing  the  surface  with  benzine.  In  the  case  of  leaves  it  was 
found  best  to  place  them  between  two  glass  plates  charged  with  films  of 
wax  ;  they  then  become  quite  flat,  and  were  easily  photographed.  When 
the  wax  is  hard  one  plate  is  warmed  and  slid  off,  and  the  exposed 
surface  of  the  leaf  cleaned  with  benzine.  The  second  glass  was  then 
warmed  until  the  leaf  could  be  slid  to  a  clean  part  of  the 
plate,  and  no  excess  of  wax  remained.  The  toughened 
leaf  could  then  be  lifted  off  and  mounted  on  a  card  like 
an  herbarium  specimen. 

(6)    Miscellaneous. 

Dust-excluding  Histological  Reagent  Bottle.^ — 
The  bottle  (fig.  25)  devised  by  W.  H.  Harvey  differs 
from  the  ordinary  type  in  the  structure  of  the  neck, 
which  ends  abruptly  without  any  lip.  The  pipette 
has  a  glass  cover  or  dome,  through  which  it  passes, 
sufficiently  large  to  receive  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  The 
cover  must  be  at  least  1  mm.  longer  than  the  neck, 
to  prevent  fracture  at  the  union  of  pipette  and  cover. 
As  a  further  precaution,  a  thin  rubber  or  felt  washer 
may  be  placed  upon  the  shoulder  of  the  bottle. 

Nathorst's  Use  of  Collodion  Imprints  in  the 
Study  of  Fossil  Plants. — By  the  term  "  collodion  im- 
print "  is  meant,  says  F.  A.  Bather,§  the  impression  of 
any  surface  on  a  thin  film  of  collodion.  An  impression 
is  obtained  by  letting  a  drop  or  two  of  collodion,  dissolved  in  ether,  fall 
on  the  surface  to  be  copied.  The  ether  evaporates  rapidly,  so  that  the 
film  is  hard  in  2  or  ?>  minutes.  When  dry  it  is  removed  to  a  slide,  and 
preserved  dry  under  a  cover-slip  held  in  position  by  gummed  strips  of 
paper  or  by  Canada  balsam.  When  the  imprint  is  very  sharp,  the  film 
may  be  preserved  in  glycerin-jelly  without  its  distinctness  being  much 
impaired.  It  is  advisable  to  throw  away  the  first  made,  as  it  usually 
retains  some  dust  from  the  surface  of  the  object,  the  following  films  being 
free  from  this. 


Fig.  25. 


*  Vevh.  k.  Akad.  Wetenscb.  Amsterdam,  xiii.  (1907)  pp.  1-26  (3  pis.). 

t  See  this  Journal,  ante,  p.  108. 

t  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxiv.  (1907)  p.  2S0  (1  fig.). 

§  Geol.  Mag.,iv.  (1907)  pp.  437-40  (1  fig.). 


118  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

The  film  placed  on  the  slide  is  examined  under  the  Microscope  by 
transmitted  light ;  quite  high  powers  may  be  used,  and  photomicrographs 
taken.  The  illumination  should  be  oblique,  the  mirror  being  shifted 
until  the  best  effect  is  obtained.  Though  such  collodion  films  have  long 
been  used  in  the  measurement  of  microscopic  objects,  and  by  botanists  f<  >r 
copying  the  cuticular  surface  of  living  plants,  Nathorst  was  the  first  to 
employ  the  method  in  the  study  of  fossils. 

Rawitz'  Microscopical  Technique.* — This  manual,  by  B.  Eawitz, 
aims  at  giving  as  complete  an  account  as  possible  of  the  present  con- 
dition of  microscopical  technique,  in  a  handy  form,  and  suitable  for 
reference  in  the  laboratory.  The  work  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  first 
dealing  with  the  various  methods  of  research,  and  the  second  with  the 
application  of  these  methods  to  the  different  organs  and  tissues.  The 
volume  is  but  little  adorned  with  illustrations,  there  being  but  eighteen 
altogether,  and  all  of  them  old  friends. 

Metallography,  etc. 

Melting  Point  Diagrams  of  the  Binary  Systems  Galena- 
Magnetic  Pyrites  and  Galena-Silver  sulphide.f— K.  Friedrich  has 
employed  for  this  work  lead  sulphide  with  «7 "  1  p.c.  Pb,  magnetic 
pyrites  with  62*35  p.c.  Fe,  and  silver  sulphide  with  99*6  p.c.  Ag2S. 
Both  equilibrium  diagrams  are  simple,  consisting  of  two  branches 
meeting  at  the  eutectic  point,  and  the  horizontal  eutectic  line.  A  lower 
horizontal  at  175°  C.  in  the  galena-silver  sulphide  diagram  indicates  a 
transformation  point  in  AgjS.  The  melting  points  are,  lead  sulphide 
1114°  C,  magnetic  pyrites  "l  187°  C,  eutectic  (70  p.c.  PbS)  *63°  C, 
silver  sulphide  835°  C,  eutectic  (77  p.c.  Ag.,S,  23  p.c.  PbS)  630°  C. 
Photomicrographs  are  given. 

Melting  Point  Diagrams  of  the  Binary  Systems,  Silver  sulphide- 
Copper  sulphide  and  Lead  sulphide-Copper  sulphide.^ — K.  Friedrich 
gives  the  equilibrium  diagrams.  Ag.2S  and  Cu2S  appear  to  form  an 
unbroken  series  of  mixed  crystals.  A  minimum  occurs  at  70  p.c.  AgoS 
(677°  C),  there  is  no  eutectic.  1121°  C.  is  the  melting  point  of  copper 
sulphide.  The  lead  sulphide-copper  sulphide  diagram  has  two  branches 
meeting  at  the  eutectic  point  51  p.c.  Cu2S,  540°  C.  No  ternary  com- 
pounds exist.  A  dilute  solution  of  iodine  in  potassium  iodide  was 
used  for  etching  the  sections. 

Influence  of  Stress  on  the  Corrosion  of  Iron.§ — Walker  and 
C.  Hill  measured  the  potential  given  by  pure  Swedish  iron,  stressed  in 
tension  in  a  testing  machine,  against  a  normal  calomel  electrode,  in 
ferrous  sulphate  solution.  Below  the  elastic  limit  the  potential  change 
is  exceedingly  small.  Somewhere  above  the  elastic  limit  the  potential 
rises  suddenly.     Out  of  a  considerable  number  of  specimens  broken  in 

*  Leipzig :  W.  Engelniann  (1907)  438  pp. 
+  Metallurgie,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  479-85  (21  figs.). 
X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  671-3  (7  figs.). 
§  Mechanical  Engineer,  xx.  (1907)  p.  155. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  119 

tension,  the  potential  of  six  reached  a  constant  value  shortly  after 
fracture.  The  difference  between  the  initial  and  final  potentials  varied 
from  0-0019  to  0*0077  volt.  The  conclusion  is  drawn  that  even 
beyond  the  elastic  limit  the  corrosion  of  iron  is  not  greatly  affected  by 
stress. 

Hard  and  Soft  States  in  Ductile  Metals.* — Gt.  T.  Beilby,  in  con- 
tinuation of  his  previous  work  on  this  subject,  has  sought  to  define 
more  accurately  the  temperature  range  over  which  crystallisation  takes 
place  in  metals  hardened  by  cold  work.  Hard  drawn  wires  of  gold, 
silver  and  copper  were  heated  to  various  temperatures.  Observations 
were  made  of  the  microstructure,  the  mechanical  stability  (by  determining 
the  load  which  would  give  a  permanent  extension  of  1  p.c),  the  E.M.F. 
given  by  a  thermocouple  consisting  of  a  hard  wire  and  a  wire  previously 
heated  to  the  given  temperature.  The  change  in  elasticity  was  deter- 
mined by  taking  the  pitch  of  the  note  given  by  reed  vibrators  of  different 
metals  annealed  at  various  temperatures.  The  following  are  among  the 
author's  conclusions.  The  most  severe  mechanical  working  of  a  metal 
always  produces  a  mixed  structure  of  the  hard  and  soft  phases.  It  has 
not  yet  been  found  possible  to  produce  a  homogeneous  specimen  of 
metal  entirely  in  the  hard  state.  The  temperature  ranges  over  which 
(1)  re-crystallisation,  (2)  loss  of  mechanical  stability,  (3)  development  of 
thermal  E.M.F.  between  wires  in  the  hard  and  soft  states,  (4)  complete 
restoration  of  elasticity  in  hardened  metal  occur,  coincide  with  each  other 
closely.  The  maximum  amount  of  change  in  gold,  silver  and  copper 
occurs  between  200°  and  800°  C.  The  change  is  essentially  the  develop- 
ment of  the  crystalline  from  the  non-crystalline  condition. 

Densities  and  Specific  Heats  of  Some  Alloys  of  Iron. J — From 
measurements  made  on  a  large  number  of  alloys,  quenched  in  water  from 
a  bright  red  heat,  W.  Brown  has  determined  the  effect  upon  the  specific 
volume  and  specific  heat  of  iron,  of  additions  of  carbon,  manganese, 
nickel,  tungsten,  silicon,  chromium,  copper,  cobalt  and  aluminium.  The 
results  are  expressed  as  change  per  1  p.c.  of  added  element.  By  applying 
these  results  to  the  calculation  of  dissipation  of  energy  per  cycle  in 
armature  cores,  the  superiority  for  this  purpose  of  silicon  steel  to  pure 
iron  or  other  alloys  is  demonstrated. 

Alloys  of  Iron  with  Molybdenum 4— Lautsch  and  G.  Tammann 
have  sought  to  determine  the  equilibrium  diagram.  The  metals  melted 
in  magnesia  tubes  were  heated  to  1800°-1850°  C,  and  the  protected 
thermocouple  inserted  when  the  temperature  had  fallen  to  1600°  C. 
Alloys  with  more  than  70  p.c.  molybdenum  could  not  be  made  homo- 
geneous in  this  way,  the  molybdenum  not  dissolving  completely.  Abnor- 
malities apparent  in  the  curve,  which  theoretically  cannot  occur  in  a 
two-component  system,  have  led  the  authors  to  put  forward  the  hypo- 
thesis that  owing  to  the  slow  formation  of  a  compound  the  system  must 
be  considered  as  one  of  three  components — iron,  molybdenum  and  the 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,   Series  A,  Ixxix.  (1907)    pp.    463-80  (12   figs.).      See    also 
Nature,  lxxvi.  (1907)  pp.  572-4  (2  figs.). 

t  Trans.  Roy.  Dublin  Soc.,  ix.  (1907)  pp.  59-84  (6  figs.). 
X  Zeitschr.  Anorg.  Chem.,  lv.  (1907)  pp.  386-401  (18  figs.). 


120  SUMMARY    OF   CUBEENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

compound  ;/■.  The  equilibrium  diagram  is  accordingly  shown  in  the 
three  dimensional  system.  If  iron  and  molybdenum  could  be  mixed  at 
1800°  C.  so  quickly  that  the  compound  x  had  not  time  to  form,  two 
series  of  mixed  crystals  only  would  be  formed.  The  compound  x  and 
iron  do  not  form  mixed  crystals.  Alloys  prepared  by  the  alumino- 
thermic  process,  and  thus  heated  to  a  much  higher  temperature,  contain 
distinctly  more  of  the  compound  x.  The  structure  of  alloys  prepared  in 
either  way  is  not  altered  by  heating  to  1200°  C.  and  quenching,  showing 
that  the  differences  are  not  due  to  reactions  occurring  in  the  solid  state. 
It  appears  that  the  amount  of  the  compound  present  slowly  increases  as 
the  temperature  rises.    A  similar  case  is  that  of  aluminium  and  antimony. 

Copper-bismuth  Alloys. — K.  Jeriomin*  gives  the  equilibrium 
diagram,  differing  considerably  from  Gautier's.  No  compound  is  formed. 
If  mixed  crystals  exist,  their  concentration  is  very  low — less  than  0  ■  5  p.c. 
copper  in  bismuth,  or  bismuth  in  copper.  The  eutectic  contains  not 
more  than  0*5  p.c.  copper. 

A.  Portevin  f  has  also  determined  the  equilibrium  diagram,  and  states 
that  neither  compounds  nor  solid  solutions  are  formed.  The  eutectic 
contains  very  little  copper.  Crystals  of  copper  are  found  in  the  alloy 
with  0  •  3  p.c.  copper. 

Zinc-cadmium  Alloys.^ — G.  Hindrichs  gives  the  equilibrium 
diagram,  showing  no  compounds  or  solid  solutions.  The  eutectic  com- 
position and  temperature  are  £2*6  p.c.  cadmium  and  270°  C.  The 
thermal  results  were  confirmed  by  microscopic  examination. 

Antimony-lead  Alloys. § — W.  Gontermann  has  re-determined  the 
equilibrium  diagram,  because  of  some  discrepancies  and  omissions  in 
previous  determinations.  No  compounds  or  mixed  crystals  are  formed. 
A  peculiarity  was  noted  in  the  cooling  curves  of  the  alloys  from  which 
antimony  first  crystallises.  The  eutectic  point  is  apparently  double, 
two  halts  occurring  at  temperatures  about  5°  C.  apart.  After  showing 
that  this  cannot  be  due  to  the  formation  of  a  compound  or  to  changes 
occurring  in  the  solid  state,  the  author  suggests  the  explanation  that 
the  double  halt  is  due  to  the  difference  in  solubility  of  large  and  small 
crystals  of  antimony. 

Special  Cast  Irons. || — By  adding  nickel  in  increasing  amounts  to 
(1)  white  iron,  (2)  grey  iron,  L.  Guillet  prepared  a  series  of  nickel  cast 
irons.  Microscopic  examination  showed  that  nickel  favours  the  forma- 
tion of  graphite.  Similar  tests  were  made  with  manganese.  The  author 
arrives  at  the  general  conclusion  that  those  elements  which  enter  into 
solution  in  iron  (nickel,  aluminium,  silicon) .  promote  the  formation  of 
graphite,  while  the  elements  which  form  a  double  carbide  with  cementite 
(manganese,  chromium)  tend  to  prevent  graphite  formation. 

*  Zeitschr.  Anorg.  Chexn.,  lv.  (1907)  pp.  412-14  (1  fig.). 
t  Rev.  de  Metallurgie,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  1077-80  (4  figs.). 
%  Zeitschr.  Anorg.  Chern,  lv.  (1907)  pp.  415-18  (1  fig). 
§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  419-25  (2  figs.). 
||  Comptes  Kendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  552-3. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  121 

Thermo-electricity  of  Nickel.* — H.  Pecheux  has  measured  the 
E.M.F.  developed  by  thermocouples  prepared  from  copper  and  three 
specimens  of  commercial  nickel,  varying-  somewhat  in  chemical  com- 
position. The  notable  effect  of  impurities  in  the  nickel,  and  of  anneal- 
ing, on  the  E.M.F.  developed  is  shown. 

Blowholes  in  Steel  Ingots.f — E.  von  Maltitz  discusses  the  forma- 
tion and  prevention  of  blowholes.  Though  the  gas  found  in  them 
consists  almost  wholly  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen,  the  gas  evolved  during 
solidification  contains  a  large  proportion  of  carbon  monoxide,  and  it 
appears  that  the  formation  of  blowholes  is  largely  due  to  the  evolution 
of  carbon  monoxide.  The  solvent  power  of  molten  steel  for  ferrous 
oxide  (the  source  of  the  carbon  monoxide)  increases  as  the  temperature 
rises,  and  at  the  same  time  the  affinity  of  iron  for  oxygen  increases  more 
rapidly  than  that  of  carbon  for  oxygen.  Thus  carbon  monoxide  is 
given  off  when  highly  heated  molten  steel  (containing  both  ferrous 
oxide  and  carbon  in  solution)  is  cooled,  as  by  stirring  with  a  steel  rod. 
The  liberation  of  carbon  monoxide  probably  induces  the  simultaneous 
liberation  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen. 

Melting-  Points  of  the  Iron  Group  Elements.} — G.  K.  Burgess 
has  obtained  the  following  values  by  a  new  radiation  method  : — Iron 
1505°  C,  cobalt  1464°  C,  manganese  1207°  C,  chromium  1489°  C, 
nickel  1485°  C.  Minute  quantities  of  the  metal  were  placed  on  an 
electrically  heated  platinum  strip  within  a  brass  tube  through  which 
hydrogen  was  passed.  The  particles  were  microscopically  observed 
through  a  mica  window,  and  the  temperature  of  the  platinum  strip  was 
taken  by  a  Holborn-Kurlbaum  optical  pyrometer  at  the  instant  when 
the  metal  was  seen  to  melt. 

Melting-  Points  of  Palladium  and  Platinum.§ — G.  W.  Waidner 
and  G.  K.  Burgess  have  selected  the  values,  palladium  1546°  G.  and 
platinum  1753°  C.,  from  the  results  given  by  radiation  and  other 
methods. 

Electrolytic  Corrosion  of  Brasses.||—  A.  T.  Lincoln,  D.  Klein,  and 
P.  E.  Howe  have  subjected  to  electrolytic  corrosion  in  normal  solutions 
of  some  sodium  and  ammonium  salts  a  series  of  copper-zinc  alloys 
representing  most  of  the  different  solid  solutions,  annealed  at  400°  0. 
for  several  weeks.  For  the  alloys  of  50  p.c.  or  more  copper  the 
corrosion  product  (precipitate  resulting  from  corrosion)  has  practically 
the  same  composition  as  the  alloy.  For  alloys  of  low  copper  content 
the  corrosion  product  is  nearly  pure  zinc.  While  the  amount  of  corro- 
sion in  sodium  chloride  decreases  with  increase  in  copper  content  of  the 
brass,  in  other  solutions  the  reverse  was  found  to  be  the  case. 

*  Cornptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  591-3. 

t  Bull.  Amer.  Inst.  Mining  Eng.,  xvii.  (1907)  pp.  691-726. 

t  Bull.  Bureau  of  Standards,  iii.  (1907)  pp.  345-55  (1  fig.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  163-208. 

||  Journ.  Phys.  Chem.,  xi.  (1907)  pp.  501-36  (12  figs.). 


122  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Alloys  of  Iron  with  Chromium.* — W.  Treitschke  and  G.  Tammann 
have  investigated  the  equilibrium  diagram.  Owing  to  the  high  viscosity 
of  molten  chromium  at  1(>0<>°  C,  it  was  found  necessary  to  heat  the 
alloys  to  170<>  C.  in  magnesia  tubes  in  order  to  secure  complete  mixing 
of  the  fluid  metals.  With  more  than  1(1  p.c.  chromium  the  cooling 
curves  no  longer  indicated  the  transformation  points  of  iron.  The 
peculiarities  of  the  freezing  point  curve  are  explained  in  the  same  way 
as  for  the  iron-molybdenum  alloys,  by  the  existence  of  a  compound  x 
with  a  relatively  slow  rate  of  formation.  The  system  thus  becomes  a 
ternary  system.  The  diagram,  and  the  microstructure  of  the  alloys, 
are  discussed  in  detail. 

Alloys  of  Potassium  with  other  Metals.j — D.  P.  Smith  has  deter- 
mined the  equilibrium  diagrams  of  the  binary  alloys  of  potassium  with 
aluminium,  magnesium,  zinc,  cadmium,  bismuth,  tin,  and  lead,  and 
gives  a  table  summarising  his  results.  Potassium  is  not  miscible  in  the 
liquid  state  with  aluminium  and  magnesium,  and  only  partially  miscible 
with  zinc,  cadmium,  and  lead.  Compounds  were  found  in  each  series 
except  the  potassium-aluminium  and  potassium-magnesium  systems. 
Owing  to  the  rapidity  with  which  the  alloys  oxidised,  microscopic 
examination  was  difficult.  Some  sections  were  cut  and  examined  under 
paraffin  oil. 

Metallography  of  Cast  Iron.} — E.  Heyn  and  0.  Bauer  have  sought 
to  determine  the  range  of  temperature  in  which  graphite  is  formed,  in  two 
series  of  alloys,  the  first  containing  about  4  p.c.  silicon,  3  p.c.  carbon,  the 
second  about  1"5  p.c.  silicon,  :-5#2  p.c.  carbon.  The  samples  were  slowly 
cooled  from  a  temperature  well  above  the  melting  point,  and  quenched 
at  different  temperatures.  One  sample  of  each  series  was  slowly  cooled 
to  atmospheric  temperature,  the  cooling  curve  being  taken.  Graphite 
was  estimated  in  each  sample,  and  sections  were  microscopically  ex- 
amined ;  total  carbon  and  silicon  were  also  determined.  The  results 
indicate  that  iron  alloys  containing  1*2-4  "25  p.c.  silicon  and  2  •  7— 
3-12  p.c.  total  carbon  solidify  as  white  iron,  and  that  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  graphite  is  formed  in  the  temperature  interval  of  40°  C.  below 
the  end  of  solidification.  E  Heyn  discusses  the  literature  of  the 
subject.     P.  Goerens§  and  E.  Heyn  ||  deal  with  the  formation  of  kish. 

Crystallisation  and  Structure  of  Steel.1T  —  A.  Bajkow  has  made 
analyses  and  microscopic  examination  of  octahedral  crystals  found 
in  blow-holes  in  steel  castings.  In  three  specimens  the  carbon  was 
0  •  54-0*  98  p.c,  manganese  0' 78-1*  06  p.c.  All  the  crystals  contained 
inclusions  of  slag  in  crystalline  form. 

Osmondite.** — H.  M.  Howe  gives  an  account  of  the  experimental 
results  from  which  Heyn  and  Bauer  deduced  the  existence  of  this  new 

*  Zeitschr.  Anorg.  Chem.,  lv.  (1<J07)  pp.  402-11  (9  figs.), 
t  Op.  cit.,  lvi.  (1907)  pp.  109-42  (9  figs.). 

%  Stahl  und  Eisen,  xxvii.  (1907)  pp.  1565-71,  1621-5  (33  figs.). 
§  Torn,  cit.,  pp.  1776-7.  '||  Tom.  cit.,  p.  1778. 

^f  Journ.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  xxvi.  (1907)  p.  1139.     Abstract  from  Journ.  Russ. 
Phvs.-Chem.  Ges.,  xxxix.  (1907)  pp.  399-410. 

**  Electrochem.  and  Met.  Ind.,  v.  (1907)  pp.  347-50  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  123 

iron-carbon  phase.  When  hardened  steel  is  tempered,  the  change  in 
physical  properties  precedes  the  change  in  carbon  condition.  Thus, 
when  a  0*95  p.c.  carbon  steel  quenched  in  water  from  900°  C.  was  re- 
heated to  400°  C,  70  p.c.  of  the  loss  of  hardness  had  taken  place,  and 
only  1:5  p.c.  of  the  change  from  hardening  carbon  to  cementite  had 
occurred.  Osmondite,  the  chief  constituent  when  the  change  has  pro- 
ceeded thus  far,  is  defined  as  a  solid  solution  of  iron  carbide  in  a- iron. 
Doubt  is  thrown  on  the  suggestion  that  the  hardness  of  osmondite, 
which  is  still  distinctly  harder  than  pearlite,  is  due  to  "  inequiaxing  " 
(distortion  of  the  crystalline  grains). 

Apparatus  for  Polishing  Metal  Sections.* — K.  W.  Zimmerschied 
describes  a  machine  designed  for  the  use  of  a  number  of  students. 
The  ten  horizontal  polishing  wheels  are  driven  from  two  shafts  run- 
ning below  the  bench.  The  spindle  of  each  polishing  wheel  carries  at  its 
lower  end  a  friction  disk,  which  can  be  raised  out  of  contact  with  the 
driving  wheel  on  the  shaft,  thus  stopping  the  polishing  wheel.  Speed  is 
regulated  by  sliding  the  driving  wheel  along  the  shaft.  Each  polishing 
wheel  is  provided  with  a  water-guard,  and  is  continuously  supplied 
with  distilled  water  from  a  glass  nozzle.  The  metal  section,  after  sur- 
facing on  a  fine  carborundum  wheel,  is  polished  in  turn  with  (1)  very 
fine  carborundum  powder  on  a  canvas-covered  disk  ;  (2)  alumina  on 
broadcloth  ;  (3)  if  still  finer  polishing  is  required,  ronge  on  broadcloth. 

Annealing  of  Sterling  Silver.f — W.  H.Walker  found  that  the 
dark  "fire-surface  "  produced  on  silver  containing  7*5.  p.c  .copper,  by 
annealing,  was  due  to  the  oxidation  of  the  copper.  By  annealing  in  a 
non-oxidising  atmosphere  this  surface  darkening  may  be  prevented. 
Sterling  silver  which  has  been  partially  oxidised  and  afterwards  annealed 
in  a  reducing  atmosphere,  shows  blisters  on  the  surface,  apparently 
caused  by  the  formation  of  water  vapour  within  the  metal. 

Tellurium-tin  Alloys.:}: — H.  Fay  has  determined  the  freezing-point 
curve,  and  studied  the  microstructure.  One  compound,  SnTe,  melting 
at  769°  C,  occurs,  and  forms  a  eutectic  with  tellurium,  containing 
85  p.c.  of  that  metal,  melting  point  399°  C,  and  a  eutectic  with  tin  of 
very  low  concentration  in  tin. 

Longitudinal  Impact  of  Metal  Rods.§ — J.  E.  Sears  has  determined 
the  velocity  of  propagation  of  elastic  waves  in  rods  of  steel,  copper,  and 
aluminium,  by  a  dynamical  method.  Two  equal  rods  of  the  metal  were 
suspended  horizontally  by  cords,  with  their  ends  (made  slightly  convex) 
just  touching  and  their  axes  in  the  same  straight  line.  One  rod  was 
withdrawn  a  given  distance  and  allowed  to  swing  against  the  other. 
The  duration  of  longitudinal  impact  was  measured  by  allowing  an 
electrical  circuit  to  be  completed  by  the  contact,  and  measuring  the 
total  quantity  of  electricity  passing  during  contact.  The  results  are  in 
very  close  agreement  with  the  velocities  calculated  from  the  formula 

v  =  \/  —,  subjected  to  a  small  correction  to  give  the  true  adiabatic 
v     p 

*  Journ.  Amer.  Cheni.  Sec,  xxix.  (1907)  pp.  855-8  (3  figs.). 

+  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1198-1201  (3  figs.).  J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1265-8  (1  fig.). 

§  Proc.  Camb.  Phil.  Soc,  xiv.  (1907)  pp.  257-86  (9  figs.). 


124  SUM.MAlIY    OF    CURRENT    KKSKAKCHKS    KKLATINC    TO 

values.     Young's  modulus,  therefore,  tins  the  same  value  whether  the 
loading  is  slow  or  sudden. 

Annealing  of  Copper.* — T.  Turner  and  I).  M.  Levy  have  deter- 
mined the  dilatation  of  copper,  both  hard-drawn  and  annealed,  between 
0°  C.  and  600°  C.  The  curves  obtained  for  the  two  varieties  are  almost 
identical,  and  are  nearly  straight  lines  ;  the  change  taking  place  when 
hard  worked  copper  is  annealed  is  not  accompanied  by  any  alteration  of 
length.  Similar  determinations  were  made  on  wrought  iron,  steel  con- 
taining 0  *  94  p.c.  carbon,  and  several  copper  alloys.  An  extensometer 
designed  by  the  author  was  used  for  measuring  the  increase  of  length. 

Magnetisation  of  Iron  and  Nickel.f — P.  Weiss  found  the  intensity 
of  magnetisation  to  saturation  of  pure  Swedish  iron  to  be  1731,  and  that 
of  nickel  407,  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  the  error  not  exceeding 
0  *  5  p.c.     Two  different  methods  wTere  employed. 

Equilibrium  of  the  Nickel-bismuth  System. :£ — A.  Portevin  states 
the  results  obtained  by  the  application  of  the  method  of  thermal  analysis 
to  cooling  curves,  but  does  not  give  the  equilibrium  diagram.  Micro- 
scopic examination  indicated  that  equilibrium  was  reached  only  for 
alloys  near  either  end  of  the  series  ;  complexes  of  three  or  four  phases 
were  obtained  in  alloys  further  removed  from  the  pure  metals. 

Annealing-carbon  in  Cast  Iron.§ — G.  Charpy  divided  a  quantity  of 
molten  cast  iron  into  two  portions.  One  was  cooled  slowly,  giving  its 
carbon  as  graphite,  the  other  rapidly  cooled  and  subsequently  annealed, 
causing  the  separation  of  the  carbon  as  annealing-  or  temper-carbon. 
The  author  then  demonstrated  the  identity  of  these  two  forms  of 
carbon  :  ( ] )  by  the  chemical  reactions  of  the  carbon  separated  on  dis- 
solving the  iron  in  nitric  acid  ;  (2)  by  the  similarity  in  progress  of 
decarburisation  of  the  two  samples  on  heating  in  a  current  of  hydrogen. 

Solubility  of  Graphite  in  Iron.|| — G.  Charpy  prepared  a  grey  cast 
iron  with  total  carbon  :»*75  p.c,  graphite  3*34  p.c.  and  with  only  traces 
of  impurities,  by  melting  cemented  Swedish  iron  with  wood  charcoal,  and 
slowly  cooling.  Small  pieces  were  heated  to  different  temperatures  for 
several  hours  and  quenched.  The  combined  carbon  increased  steadily 
from  0*31  p.c  in  the  sample  heated  at  750°  C.  to  i  "47  p.c  at  1,150°  C. 
The  results  of  these  determinations  and  of  other  experiments  described 
by  the  author  lead  him  to  consider  that  the  solubility  of  graphite  in 
iron  decreases  regularly  with  temperature.  A  probable  value  for  the 
solubility  at  1000°  C.  is  1  p.c 

Occluded  Gases  in  Steel.f — G.  Belloc  summarises  the  results  of  his 
extensive  investigations,  to  be  fully  described  later.  A  steel  contain- 
ing 0- 12  p.c.  carbon  was  used;  the  work  included  determination  of 
(1)  the  composition  of  the  gas  evolved  on  heating,  and  variation  of 
composition  with  temperature  ;  (2)  rate  of  evolution  of  gas  at  different 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  Series  A,  lxxx.  (1907)  pp.  1-12  (4  tigs.). 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  1155-7. 
J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1168-70.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1173-4. 

|!  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1277-9.  \  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1280-3. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  125 

temperatures  ;  (3)  influence  of  position  from  which  the  sample  is  taken, 
on  the  amount  of  gas  evolved. 

Extraction  of  Gases  contained  in  Metals.*  —  0.  Boudouard  has 
shown,  by  successive  heatings  of  samples  of  iron  at  1100°  C.  in  vacuo, 
that  gas  is  still  evolved  at  the  third  heating.  A  much  larger  quantity  of 
gas  (amounting  to  0*22  p.c.  by  weight)  was  evolved  from  filings  than 
from  the  same  metal  in  the  form  of  wire  or  sheet,  and  a  greater  propor- 
tion of  the  total  gas  evolved  was  given  off  at  the  first  heating  in 
the  case  of  filings.  Volatilisation  of  the  iron  commenced  at  1)00°  C, 
and  was  marked  at  1100°  C. 

Vibrations  accompanying  Shock.| — C.  de  Freminville  has  made  an 
extended  study  of  the  fractures  of  glass,  sandstone,  steel,  and  other 
materials.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  his  deductions  as  to  the  character 
of  the  vibrations  accompanying  shock  are  so  vaguely  expressed  as  to 
be  of  little  practical  value.  A  comprehensive  classification  of  fractures 
is  given. 

Alloys  of  Cobalt  and  Copper.:}: — The  equilibrium  diagram  of  this 
series,  determined  by  N.  Konstantinow,  indicates  that  no  compounds  are 
formed,  and  that  there  are  two  series  of  solid  solutions  with  concentra- 
tion limits,  6  •  5  p.c.  cobalt  and  15  p.c.  copper.  From  :->0  to  70  p.c.  cobalt 
the  melt  splits  up  into  two  liquid  layers  on  cooling.  Confirmation  of 
the  diagram  was  obtained  by  micro-examination  :  the  separation  into 
two  layers  was  not  evident  in  the  sections,  probably  on  account  of  the 
small  difference  in  specific  gravity  of  the  two  liquids.  The  etching  re- 
agents were  hydrochloric  acid  for  the  copper-rich  alloys,  and  ferric 
chloride  for  the  alloys  of  low  copper  content. 

Sorbitic  Rails. §— By  experiments  carried  out  on  1*5  m.  lengths 
of  steel  rail,  F.  Limbourg  has  shown  that  the  hardness,  tensile  strength, 
and  stiffness  (indicated  by  deflection  in  a  drop  test)  of  rails  may  be 
considerably  raised  by  treatments  of  the  kind  suggested  by  Stead  and 
Richards.  The  treatment  consisted  in  quenching  the  rails  hot  from  the 
rolls,  in  water,  and  reheating  to  temperatures  ranging  from  450-650°  C.  ; 
or  in  immersing  in  water  till  no  longer  red,  and  cooling  in  air,  the  in- 
ternal heat  of  the  rail  effecting  a  partial  annealing. 

Iron-carbon  System. || — A.  Portevin  considers  that  the  multitudinous 
investigations  of  this  system  have  led  to  the  final  establishment  of  the 
theory  of  equilibrium.  He  gives  a  clear  account  of  the  diagram  ex- 
pressing the  labile  equilibrium  between  iron  and  cementite  and  the 
stable  equilibrium  between  iron  and  graphite.  The  numerous  references 
in  the  course  of  the  paper  constitute  a  useful  bibliography. 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv    (1907)  pp.  1283-4. 

t  Rev.  de  Metallurgie,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  833-84  (38  figs.). 

I  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  983-8  (8  figs.).  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  989-92. 

||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  993-1005  (3  figs.). 


12G 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  18th  of  December,  1907,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W. 
Mr.  Conrad  Beck,  Vice-President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  20th  of  November,  1907,  were 
read  and  confirmed. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society  since  the  last  Meeting,  exclu- 
sive of  exchanges  and  reprints,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of  the  Society 
were  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 
Bernard  Rawitz,  Lehrbuch  der  Mikroskopischen  Technik.\        rp7     p   ,  r  , 

(8vo,  Leipzig,  1907)        f  **  ^u0l/isner- 

Eug.  Warming,  Dansk  Plantevsekst.     2  Klitterne,  F<prste\  m,     A    .-, 

Halvbind.     (8vo,  Copenhagen,  1907) J  ine  manor- 

^-in.  Objective  by  Andrew  Ross,  date  about  1842       . .       . .       Mr.  J.  E.  Ingpen. 


Mr.  Eustace  Large  described  a  number  of  slides  of  natural  twin- 
crystals  of  selenite  exhibited  under  Microscopes  in  the  room.  The  way 
in  which  the  specimens  had  been  prepared  and  the  effects  produced  by 
the  varying  angles  at  which  the  twin-plane  cut  the  cleavage-plane  were 
further  illustrated  by  diagrams  and  models.  Some  large  reflecting 
polariscopes  with  horizontal  stages  were  also  exhibited,  and  a  description 
of  these  was  appended  to  the  paper. 

Mr.  Large  said  :  "  I  propose  to  assume  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
action  of  polarised  light,  and  will  only  briefly  refer  to  two  points,  viz. : 
1.  That  the  thickness  of  a  plate  of  selenite,  or  mica,  determines  the 
particular  wave-length  that,  by  interference,  will  be  cancelled  ;  leaving 
the  residue  of  wave-lengths,  of  the  particular  light  we  may  be  working 
by  to  combine  and  form  the  actual  colour  seen,  which  colour  will  be  com- 
plementary to  that  cancelled  ;  and  (2)  That  if  an  even  plate  be  cut  in 
half,  and  one  half  placed  over  the  other  parallel,  the  colour  will  be  that 
of  a  plate  double  the  thickness,  but  if  one  be  crossed  at  right  angles  on 
the  other  the  action  in  the  one  will  exactly  counteract  that  in  the  other, 
and  darkness  will  be  restored,  that  is,  assuming  the  nicols  to  be  crossed, 
giving  a  dark  field.  Consequently,  if  two  pieces  of  unequal  thickness 
be  crossed  the  colour  will  be  that  of  a  plate  equal  to  their  difference  in 
thickness.  Selenite  is  the  natural  crystallised  form  of  gypsum,  and  con- 
sists of  the  metal  calcium  +  sulphuric  acid  +  2  equivalents  of  water.  If 
1  part  of  the  water  be  driven  off  by  heat  plaster  of  Paris  remains.  If 
both,  the  plaster  produced  will  not  "  set."  The  crystals  occur  naturally 
of  all  sizes.     They  do  not  appear  to  have  been  produced  artificially  of 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY.  127 

any  useful  size.  They  belong  to  the  oblique  system,  and  have  a  plane 
of  very  easy  cleavage  parallel  to  the  flat  sides  of  the  crystal.  There  are 
other  planes  of  cleavage,  or  at  least  of  easy  fracture,  which  are  probably 
connected  with  the  formation  of  the  features  which  are  about  to  be 
described. 

"  If  a  normal  twin-plate — showing,  say  red — is  laid  on  a  rotating  stage, 
between  crossed  nicols,  there  will  be  four  positions  in  which  one  area  (A) 
will  be  red  and  the  other  (B)  black,  and  at  nearly  30°  from  each  posi- 
tion these  colours  will  be  reversed.     (  ?  28°  16'.)      Between  the  two 
areas  A  and  B  there  will  be  merely  a  boundary.     This  boundary  may 
be  quite  irregular,  perfectly  straight,  or  zigzag  with  beautiful  regular 
angles.     Bat,  in  addition,  this  boundary,  which  is  called  the  twin-plane, 
may  not  be  perpendicular  to  the  cleavage-plane.     The  result  then  will 
be  that  the  twin-plate  is  practically  made  up  of  two  opposed  wedges, 
and  if  the  plate  is  rotated  so  that  one  of  these  is  dark  the  other  will 
shine  out  in  bands  of  colours,  showing  Newton's  orders  of  thin  film 
colours.    The  angle  of  this  twin-plane  may  be  more  or  less  acute,  giving 
the  orders  in  thin  lines  or  spread  into  broad  bands.    Instead  of  an  angle 
the  junction  may  be  a  series  of  steps,  or  alternate  steps  and  angles.    Also 
these  variations  may  occur  lengthwise,  and  all  these  in  every  possible 
combination.     The  most  striking  forms  may  be  classified  into  broad  or 
narrow  wedges,  parallel  bands,  bands  cut  up  into  rhomboids,  mitred 
angles,  and  a  very  beautiful  zigzag  form.     Specimens  of  each  are  shown 
under  the  Microscopes.     Some  beautiful  effects  result  from  crossing  two 
wedge  twins  on  each  other.    Another  interesting  feature  is  that  whereas 
the  two  halves  of  some  twins  are  at  about  30°,  all  that  I  have  myself 
obtained  from  the  London  clay  are  at  about  75°,  so  within  7|°  either 
way  of  cancelling  each  other,  and  therefore  when  wedged  they  give  a 
nearly  dark  band  with  Newton's  orders  running  both  ways.     Most  of 
the  features  are  best  seen  by  from  1-in.  to  2-in.  objectives,  but  some 
are  large  enough  to  show  well  on   the  table  polariscopes,  or  projected 
on  the  screen. 

"  This  form  of  reflecting  polariscope,  as  constructed  for  me  by  Messrs. 
Baker,  is  a  most  useful  appliance  for  workers  in  thin  films.  The 
analysing  reflector  can  be  used  for  general  observation  of  large  surfaces 
and  for  display  of  finished  work,  while  a  Nicol,  with  low-power  lens,  is 
easily  substituted  for  actual  exact  marking  and  cutting  on  the  large 
horizontal  glass  stage.  Also,  a  mirror  and  single  glass  plate  converts  it, 
in  a  moment,  into  a  Norremburg  doubler,  so  useful  for  gauging  the 
thickness  of  \-  and  -i-wave  films  in  mica  work.  A  revolving  |-wave 
mica  plate  under  the  stage  gives  change  of  colour  (plus  and  minus),  or 
a  pair  of  ^-wave  plates  would  give  change  by  actual  rotation  of  the 
polarised  beam. 

"  I  have  also  a  small  appliance,  consisting  of  a  fragment  of  Iceland 
spar,  mounted  on  the  nose  of  objective.  This  gives  a  double  image, 
and  if  diagonal  cross  lines  are  ruled  on  a  blackened  slip  on  the  stage, 
with  a  selenite  plate,  two  complementary  coloured  images  appear  of  the 
network  superposed,  and  wherever  the  lines  cross,  the  coloured  lights 
re-combine  into  white  light. 

"  Small  clear  pieces  of  Iceland  spar  about  ^-in.  thick  can  be  selected, 


128  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

that  only  require  mounting  between  two  thin  glass  covers  with  balsam, 
and  the  experiment  is  pretty  and  instructive." 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  voted  to  Mr.  Large  for  his  very 
interesting  exhibit  and  description. 


Mr.  J.  E.  Barnard  exhibited  some  specimens  of  luminous  Bacteria 
contained  in  a  number  of  culture  tubes,  and  also  in  large  quantities  in 
a  solution  in  a  flask.  On  the  lights  in  the  room  being  turned  off,  the 
light  given  off  by  these  organisms  was  at  once  seen.  The  contents  of 
the  flask  whilst  undisturbed  remained  dark,  but  became  very  luminous 
when  agitated.  It  was  explained  that  the  light  produced  was  nearly 
monochromatic,  and  in  position  was  between  the  lines  F  and  G  in  the 
spectrum.  The  whole  of  the  energy  of  these  bacteria  seemed  to  be 
utilised  in  producing  light,  as  no  heat  whatever  could  be  detected. 
Mr.  Barnard  did  not  propose  to  give  any  description  of  the  organisms 
producing  the  light,  nor  as  to  the  preparation  of  the  examples  before 
the  Meeting,  but  intimated  his  willingness  to  do  so  on  a  future  occasion 
if  the  matter  was  of  interest  to  the  Fellows  of  the  Society.  (A  further 
exhibition  of  the  tubes  was  given  in  a  dark  room  at  the  close  of  the 
Meeting.) 

The  Chairman  said  they  must  give  a  very  hearty  vote  of  thanks  to 
Mr.  Barnard  for  his  very  interesting  exhibit,  and  expressed  a  hope  that 
he  would  tell  them  something  more  about  the  subject  at  some  future 
date.  He  said  it  seemed  almost  to  suggest  that  when  their  coal  and  gas 
gave  out,  they  might  perhaps  be  growing  bacteria  to  light  their  rooms  ! 


Mr.  E.  M.  Nelson's  paper,  "  Gregory  and  Wright's  Microscope," 
was  read  by  Dr.  Hebb,  a  photograph  of  the  instrument  being  handed 
round  for  inspection. 

Mr.  Nelson's  paper,  "  A  Co^-ection  for  a  Spectroscope,"  was  also  read 
by  Dr.  Hebb,  and  was  illustr.      I  by  a  diagram. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  ^re  unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Nelson 
for  these  communications. 


A  paper  by  Mr.  James  Murra)  on  "  Some  African  Rotifers,"  was 
read  by  Mr.  Rousselet,  and  was  ill  I  *ated  by  drawings  of  the  species 
mentioned   as  having   been  collect*.  J  Cape  Colony,    Uganda,   and 

Madagascar. 

Mr.  Rousselet  mentioned  that  at  th  ent  time  Mr.  Murray  was  on 

his  way  to  the  Antarctic  regions  on  bo;.  e  Nimrod,  sent  out  by  the 

British  Antarctic  Expedition,  1907,  and  ntending  to  spend  twelve 

months  there.  He  had  daily  devoted  so  of  his  time  during  the 
voyage  to  the  Cape  in  endeavouring  to  procc  e  marine  rotifera  from  the 
Atlantic,  but  had  failed  to  find  any.  Mr.  R>  elet  further  stated  that 
this  agreed  with  the  experience  of  the  Germ;  Mankton  Expedition  of 
1889,  who  found  no  rotifers  in  the  Atlantic  .opt  in  two  limited  and 
widely  separated  areas,  the  one  in  the  North  A  I  lantic  midway  between 
North  Britain  and  Greenland,  where  two  species  -,  nchceta 'and Rattuhis) 
were  found  in  enormous  numbers,  and  the  oth  off  Bermuda,  where 
the  same  two  species  were  again  encountered. 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY.  129 

The  Chairman  thought  the  paper  was  one  of  great  interest,  which  they 
would  be  very  pleased  to  see  in  the  Journal.  As  regards  the  occasional 
presence  of  large  numbers  of  rotifers,  he  might  say  he  had  a  similar 
experience  some  time  ago  in  Westmorland  ;  on  one  occasion  he  found 
the  lakes  swarming  with  certain  forms  of  animalculse,  while  a  short 
time  afterwards  he  was  unable  to  find  any. 

Mr.  Wesche  said  that  one  of  the  forms  illustrated  showed  some 
lateral  appendages,  which  he  thought  very  remarkable,  and  so  far  as  he 
knew,  were  absolutely  unique  amongst  the  Bdelloids  ;  it  was  numbered 
5  on  the  plate,  and  described  under  the  name  of  Gallidina  pinniger.  The 
appendages,  he  thought,  might  be  of  similar  function  to  the  blades 
on  the  shoulders  of  the  common  species  Polyarthra  platyptera  Ehr., 
giving  a  sudden  movement  to  the  animal  to  enable  it  to  escape  the  jaws 
of  some  predacious  enemy.  In  the  matter  of  finding  large  numbers  of 
a  species  in  a  particular  place  at  one  time,  and  none  whatever  at  another, 
would  be  the  experience  of  every  collector,  as  it  had  often  been  his. 

Mr.  Barnard  remarked  that  Bacterium  indicum  was  phosphorescent 
in  the  tropics,  and  sometimes  appeared  in  very  large  quantities,  which 
he  thought  might  possibly  be  accounted  for  by  the  presence  of  nutri- 
ment. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Murray 
for  his  paper,  and  to  Mr.  Rousselet  for  reading  it. 


The  Chairman  reminded  the  Fellows  that  their  next  Meeting  would 
be  their  Anniversary,  at  which  they  usually  had  an  address  from  their 
President.  He  regretted  to  say,  however,  that  this  time  they  would 
be  without  this,  as  Lord  Avebury  found  he  would  be  quite  unable  to 
be  present  owing  to  his  having  to  be  elsewhere  to  receive  an  additional 
honour  conferred  upon  him,  the  date  of  which  function  could  not  be 
altered.  His  Lordship  had  expressed  his  great  regret  at  not  being 
able  to  be  present  at  the  Annual  Meeting,  but  had  intimated  that  the 
Society  should  not  lose  the  benefit  of  his  address,  which  he  hoped  to 
give  them  on  a  future  occasion.  In  substitution  for  the  address,  they 
had  arranged  for  a  paper  to  be  read,  "  On  the  Microscope  as  an  Aid  to 
the  Study  of  Biology  in  Entomology,  with  special  reference  to  the 
Food  of  Insects,"  by  Mr.  W.  Wesche. 

As  the  next  would  be  their  Annual  Meeting,  it  was  necessary  to 
elect  two  Auditors  of  the  Society's  accounts,  and  on  behalf  of  the 
Council  he  nominated  Mr.  J.  M.  Allen. 

Mr.  C.  L.  Curties  was  then  proposed  by  Mr.  Marshall,  and  seconded 
by  Mr.  Ersser,  as  Auditor,  on  behalf  of  the  Fellows. 

The  names  of  these  two  gentlemen  having  been  submitted  to  the 
Meeting,  they  were  declared  to  have  been  duly  elected  as  Auditors. 

The  following  list  of  Fellows,  proposed  by  the  Council  as  the  Officers 
and  Council  of  the  Society  for  the  ensuing  year,  was  then  read  by  the 
Secretary,  and  would  be  submitted  for  election  at  the  Annual  Meeting 
on  January  15th,  1908  : — 

President — Lord  Avebury. 

Vice-Presidents — Mr.  Beck,  Dr.  Dallinger,  Dr.  Eyre,  and  Sir  Ford 
North. 

Treasurer — Mr.  W.  E.  Baxter. 

Feb.  19th,  1908 


130  PROCEEDINGS   OK   THE   SOCIETY. 

Secretaries-  -Mr.  J.  W.  Gordon  and  Dr.  R.  G.  Hebb. 

Ordinary  Members  of  Council  —  Messrs.  Carr,  Cheshire,  Disney, 
Karop,  Pliminer,  Powell,  Price  -  Jones,  Radley,  Rousselet,  Scales, 
Scourtield,  and  Spitta. 

Librarian — Mr.  P.  E.  Radley. 

Curator  of  Instruments — Mr.  C.  F.  Ronsselet. 
„       Slides— Mr.  F.  S.  Scales. 


The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  cordially  voted  to  Messrs.  Baker  for 
the  loan  of  the  Microscopes  under  which  the  slides  of  Selenite  were 
exhibited  that  evening. 

It  was  announced  that  the  Rooms  of  the  Society  would  be  closed 
from  Tuesday,  December  24th,  to  Monday,  December  30th. 


New  Fellow. — The  following  was  balloted  for  and  duly  elected  an 
Ordinary  Fellow  of  the  Society  : — Mr.  Chas.  R.  Scriven. 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited : — 

Mr.  J.  E.  Barnard  : — Luminous  Bacteria. 

Mr.  Eustace  Large  : — Twin  Selenites,  two  crystals,  crossed  ;  ditto, 
angled  ;  ditto,  zig-zag,  narrow  ;  ditto,  ditto,  broad  ;  ditto,  mitred  angle  ; 
ditto,  double  mitre ;  ditto,  rhomboid ;  ditto,  compound  rhomboid ; 
ditto,  natural  and  artificial  wedge  ;  Double-image  prism  on  Objective  ; 
Reflecting  Table  Polariscopes,  under  two  of  which  were  selenite  designs 
lent  by  Mr.  C.  L.  Curties. 

Mr.  J.  Inderwick  Pigg  : — Microphotograph,  front  page  of  '  Daily 
Mail.' 

The  Society  : — ■  |  in.  Objective,  by  Andrew  Ross. 


ANNIVERSARY  MEETING 


Held  on  the  15th  of  January,  1908,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W., 
E.  J.  Spitta,  Esq.,  L.R.C.P.,  etc.,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  18th  of  December,  1907,  were 
read  and  confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  Chairman. 

Messrs.  T.  D.  Aldous  and  F.  Orfeur  having  been  appointed  to  act  as 
Scrutineers,  the  ballot  for  the  election  of  Officers  and  Council  for  the 
ensuing  year  was  proceeded  with. 

An  old  Microscope,  presented  to  the  Society  by  Mr.  Michie,  per  Sir 
Frank  Crisp,  was  exhibited  by  Mr.  Rousselet,  who  read  a  description  of 
the  instrument  and  assigned  it  to  Jones,  the  successor  of  Adams,  as  the 
maker,  who  probably  constructed  it  about  100  years  ago. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Michie 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY.  131 

for  his  donation,  to  Sir  F.  Crisp  for  having  forwarded  it,  and  to  Mr. 
Rousselet  for  his  description  of  it. 


Mr.  C.  Beck  exhibited  and  described  a  new  method  of  showing 
bacteria  by  dark-ground  illumination,  being  a  modification  of  the  para- 
bolic illuminator,  used  in  conjunction  with  a  Nernst  lamp  and  mono- 
chromatic blue  light.  The  new  apparatus  was  devised  by  him  to  obviate 
the  inconvenience  caused  by  the  oil  running  down  the  reflecting  surfaces 
of  the  illuminator  and  allow  a  perfect  focusing  adjustment  for  the  light. 
It  was  pointed  out  that  when  bacteria  were  shown  on  a  bright  ground 
they  appeared  only  like  black  lines,  whilst  when  seen  on  a  dark  ground 
they  were  rendered  far  more  distinct,  although  their  appearance  varied 
somewhat  according  to  what  parts  reflected  light  most  brilliantly.  In 
general  the  appearance  seen  was  that  of  a  brilliantly  illuminated  envelope 
and  bright  nuclei  ;  if  there  was  a  twist  in  the  specimen  under  observation 
they  would  get  nodes  of  light  at  the  twists,  whilst  in  other  cases  an 
extremely  brilliant  circular  patch  would  be  seen  in  one  place.  In 
employing  this  method  it  was  important  to  have  a  perfectly  clean  slide 
only  containing  the  creatures  it  was  desired  to  examine,  since  every 
particle  in  the  field  would  be  strongly  reflective  and  a  mass  of  brilliant 
material  in  the  background  prevented  the  examination  of  objects  in 
the  foreground.  He  thought  this  method  of  illumination  was  well 
worth  considering,  as  being  much  more  likely  to  give  a  correct  idea  of 
what  was  being  seen,  than  if  the  ordinary  method  was  employed.  The 
construction  and  action  of  the  parabola  was  explained  by  means  of 
diagrams  on  the  board. 

The  Chairman  said  there  could  be  no  question  as  to  the  difficulty  of 
getting  photographs  of  unstained  bacteria  seen  in  the  ordinary  way,  and 
the  process  described  by  Mr.  Beck  certainly  seemed  to  be  worth  atten- 
tion. The  only  difficulty  which  occurred  to  him  in  connection  with  the 
matter  was  that  it  was  limited  to  a  numerical  aperture  of  1,  but  he 
thought  their  hearty  congratulations  were  due  to  Mr.  Beck  for  what  he 
had  accomplished.  Everything  new  was  of  value,  for  even  if  it  was  not 
apparent  at  the  moment  it  might  be  in  the  future,  when  it  was  most 
convenient  to  find  a  piece  of  apparatus,  just  what  you  wanted,  read) 
to  hand. 

Mr.  Beck  said  the  angular  aperture  was  limited  by  the  fact  that  in 
looking  at  bacteria  they  were  seen  in  water  which  had  a  refractive  index 
of  1  •  38.  The  actual  angle  of  the  illuminator  was  from  1-1  to  1  •  5,  but 
this  was  cut  down  by  the  water.  If  seen  in  oil  the  angle  would,  of 
course,  be  higher. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  Mr.  Beck  for  his  com- 
munication. 


Mr.  J.  W.  Ogilvy  exhibited  and  described  a  new  Microscope  by  Leitz  ; 
diagrams  showing  the  mechanism  of  the  fine-adjustment  were  placed 
upon  the  table. 


The  Annual  Report  of  the  Society  for  1 907  was  then  read  by  Dr.  Hebb. 


132  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

REPORT  OF   THE   COUNCIL   FOR   1907. 

FELLOWS. 

Ordinary. — During  the  year  1907, 15  new  Fellows  have  been  elected, 
and  2  reinstated,  whilst  11  have  died,  14  have  resigned,  and  6  have 
been  removed.  Among  the  deaths  the  Council  regrets  to  notice  the 
names  of  two  distinguished  Fellows,  Dr.  Czapski,  of  whom  an  obituary 
notice  has  already  appeared  in  the  Journal,  and  of  Professor  Charles 
Stewart,  who  was  Secretary  from  1878-82. 

The  list  of  Fellows  now  contains  the  names  of  395  Ordinary,  1 
Corresponding,  42  Honorary,  and  81  Ex-Officio  Fellows,  being  a  total 
of  519. 

FINANCE. 

Subscriptions  have  been  paid  with  the  usual  regularity. 

To  avoid  a  repetition  of  a  debit  balance  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
£163  19s.  Id.  India  3  per  Cent.  Stock  has  been  sold,  realising 
£139  14s.  Hd.  This  is  part  of  £1033  13s.  Qd.  invested  during  the 
past  7  years.  It  is  hoped  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  part  with 
more  of  the  invested  funds,  but  to  prevent  this  it  becomes  important  to 
maintain  the  roll  of  Members  at  its  normal  strength  by  electing  Fellows 
in  the  place  of  those  who  cease  to  be  such  by  death  and  resignation. 

JOUENAL. 

In  the  Transactions  are  recorded  17  important  papers,  of  which  11 
deal  with  optical  and  microscopical  subjects,  the  remaining  fi  being 
biological. 

The  valuable  summary  of  current  researches  relating  to  Zoology, 
Botany  and  Microscopy  has  maintained  its  accustomed  high  standard  of 
excellence,  for  which  the  Society  is  indebted  to  the  continued  care  and 
energy  of  the  editorial  staff. 

LIBRARY. 

The  Library  is  in  good  order  ;  the  number  of  volumes  has  been 
increased  by  the  donation  and  purchase  of  some  important  works. 

The  Shelf  Catalogue  is  in  progress,  and  it  is  hoped  to  complete  it  by 
the  end  of  the  current  year. 

INSTRUMENTS   AND   APPARATUS. 

The  Instruments  and  Apparatus  in  the  Society's  Collection  continue 
to  be  in  good  condition. 

During  the  past  year  the  following  additions  have  been  made  : — 

Feb.  20,  1907.— A  Powell  and  Lealand  Microscope,  No.  2,  of  1885, 
and  Accessories  ;  a  Powell  and  Lealand  Microscope,  No.  3,  of  1848,  and 
Accessories  ;  a  Hugh  Powell  Tank  Microscope  and  Accessories ;  a  W.  J. 
Salmon  Microscope,  with  Eye-piece  ;  a  W.  Mathews  Microscope,  with 
Eye-piece  ;  Portion  of  a  Goniometer,  by  Powell  and  Lealand  ;  Five  Low- 
power  Objectives,  by  S.  Highley  ;  Miscellaneous  Apparatus.  All  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  Peyton  T.  B.  Beale. 

March  20. — A  Solar  Microscope,  by  Nairne.  Presented  by  Mr.  F.  R. 
Tindall  Lucas. 

May  15. — A  Traviss  Expanding  Stop  for  Dark-ground  Illumination 
Presented  by  Mr.  H.  Ausbuttel. 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY.  133 

Oct.  16. — A  Warington's  Universal  Microscope.  Presented  by 
Mr.  J.  E.  Ingpen. 

Dec.  18. — An  old  Object  Glass,  J,  in.,  by  Andrew  Ross,  made  in 
1842,  and  said  to  be  the  second  made.     Presented  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Ingpen. 

CABINET. 

The  slides,  many  of  them  unnamed,  presented  to  the  Society  by 
Dr.  J.  W.  C.  (Ilaisher,  have  been  overhauled  and  classified  ;  and  great 
progress  has  been  made  in  the  examination  and  classification  of  the 
extensive  collection  of  Mr.  James  Hilton.  It  is  proposed  to  make  a 
complete  examination  of  the  whole  of  the  Society's  Collection  of  Slides, 
and  eventually  to  supply  a  classified  Catalogue. 

TOOLS. 

The  Society's  standard  sizing  gauges  for  nose-pieces  and  objectives, 
with  the  plug  and  ring  gauges,  are  in  good  condition,  as  are  the  plug 
and  ring  gauges  for  eye-pieces  and  substage  fittings. 

There  are  in  stock,  for  sale,  5  pairs  of  sizing  gauges  and  6  pairs  of 
hand  chasers. 

The  Treasurer  presented  his  Cash  Statement  and  duly  audited 
Balance  Sheet  for  the  year  1!)07.  He  called  attention  to  the  fact  that 
there  was  a  considerable  falling  off  in  the  number  of  the  Ordinary 
Fellows  of  the  Society.  Their  high- water  mark  in  this  respect  was 
reached  in  1891,  when  they  numbered  663,  since  which  time  they  had 
been  decreasing,  until  now  they  had  rather  less  than  400.  He  hoped 
everyone  would  do  his  best  to  increase  the  number  during  the  coming 
year.  He  might  mention  that  though  their  finances  had  gone  to  the 
bad  by  about  £18,  they  must  consider  that  they  had  an  increase  of  books 
in  the  library,  as  well  as  an  increased  stock  of  Journals  for  whatever 
these  might  be  worth. 

Mr.  J.  M.  Offord  said  they  had  heard  the  Report  and  the  Treasurer's 
statement,  and  though  they  must  regret  to  hear  that  their  numbers 
were  falling  off,  he  thought  they  would  agree  that  in  other  respects  the 
account  given  was  satisfactory.  He  had  much  pleasure  in  moving  that 
the  Report  and  Balance  Sheet  be  received  and  adopted,  and  that  they 
be  printed  and  circulated  in  the  usual  way. 

Mr.  Imboden  having  seconded  the  motion,  it  was  put  to  the  Meeting 
and  carried  unanimously. 

A  vote  of  thanks  to  the  Honorary  Officers  of  the  Society  for  their 
services  during  the  year  was  proposed  by  Mr.  D.  J.  Scourfield  and 
seconded  by  Mi-.  Ersser. 

The  Chairman  said  he  was  quite  sure  he  need  say  nothing  to  com- 
mend this  vote  to  the  Fellows  present,  who  were  all  well  aware  of  how 
much  they  owed  to  the  labours  of  their  officers  and  especially  to  their 
Honorary  Secretary.  Fellows  were  often  quite  unconscious  of  the  work 
which  every  "  evening  "  entailed,  and  be  did  not  think  there  were  many 
present  who  would  not  especially  couple  with  this  vote  of  thanks — and 
with  considerable  pleasure  too — the  name  of  Dr.  Hebb,  their  much 
esteemed  Secretary. 

The  motion  was  then  put  to  the  Meeting  and  carried  by  acclamation. 

Dr.  Hebb,  in  responding,  said  he  was  much  obliged  to  those  present 


134 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


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3 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY.  135 

for  their  vote  of  sympathy  and  thanks,  but  thought  he  ought  to  ask 
them  to  include  their  Assistant-Secretary,  Mr.  Parsons,  without  whose 
help  it  would  be  quite  impossible  for  him  to  carry  on  the  work. 

A  vote  of  thanks  to  the  Auditors  and  Scrutineers  was  then  proposed 
by  Mr.  Gardner  and  seconded  by  Mr.  Pigg. 

The  Chairman  in  putting  this  to  the  Meeting  remarked  that  Auditors 
and  Scrutineers  were  very  important  people  and  well  deserving  of  their 
thanks.  The  work  they  undertook  was  a  labour  of  love,  and  he  was 
afraid  like  most  labours  of  love  was  very  likely  to  be  easily  forgotten,  so 
he  hoped  the  Fellows  present  would  receive  the  motion  with  pronounced 
acclamation. 

The  motion  was  unanimously  carried. 


The  Scrutineers  having  handed  in  their  report  as  to  the  result  of 
the  Ballot,  the  Chairman  declared  the  following  gentlemen  to  have  been 
duly  elected  as  the  Officers  and  Council  of  the  Society  for  the  ensuing 
year  : — 

President—  The  Right  Hon.  Lord  Avebury,  P.C.  F.R.S.,  etc. 

Vice-Presidents— Conrad  Beck  ;  Rev.  W.  H.  Dallinger,  LL.D.  D.Sc. 
D.C.L.  F.R.S.  F.L.S.  F.Z.S.  ;  J.  W.  H.  Eyre,  M.D.  F.R.S.  (Edin.)  ; 
The  Right  Hon.  Sir  Ford  North,  P.C.  F.R.S. 

Treasurer— Wynne  E.  Baxter,  J.P.  F.G.S.  F.R.G.S. 

Secretaries— J.  W.  Gordon  ;  R.  G.  Hebb,  M.A.  M.D.  F.R.C.P. 

Ordinar//  Members  of  Council — Rev.  Edmund  Carr,  M.A.  F.R.Met.S. ; 
Frederic  J.  Cheshire ;  A.  N.  Disnev,  M.A.  B.Sc.  ;  George  C.  Karop, 
M.R.C.S, ;  Henry  Geo.  Primmer,  F.L.S. ;  Thomas  H.  Powell ;  C.  Price- 
Jones,  M.B.  (Lond.)  ;  P.  E.  Radley  ;  Charles  F.  Rousselet ;  F.  Shil- 
ling-ton Scales ;  David  J.  Scourfield  ;  E.  J.  Spitta,  L.R.C.P.  (Lond. 
M.R.C.S.  (Eng.). 

Librarian — -Percy  E.  Radley. 

Curator  of  Instruments,  etc. — Charles  F.  Rousselet. 

Curator  of  Slides — F.  Shillington  Scales,  B.A.  (Cantab). 


The  Chairman  then  called  attention  to  what  might,  he  said,  be 
termed  a  novel  situation.  For  some  years  past  the  Meeting,  instead  of 
having  two  Secretaries  present  had  never  had  more  than  one,  upon 
whom,  they  all  were  aware,  had  fallen  the  heat  and  burden  of  the  day. 
To-night,  however,  the  novel  situation  to  which  he  had  referred  would 
take  place,  for  the  Fellows  were  about  to  see  the  vacant  chair  once  more 
filled,  and  filled  he  was  glad  to  say,  by  one  whom  he  believed  would  be 
a  very  active  worker  in  the  interests  of  the  Society.  He  therefore, 
without  further  delay,  would  at  once  ask  Mr.  Gordon,  whom  the  Fellows 
had  elected  to  the  vacant  chair,  to  come  upon  the  platform  and  take  it. 
He  hoped  sincerely  that  Dr.  Hebb  would  start  his  co-secretary  to  work 
at  once,  and  give  him  plenty  of  it  too,  so  that  the  numerous  details  of 
the  secretarial  office  might  be  shared  for  the  future  in  a  more  fitting 
and  appropriate  manner. 

Mr.  Gordon  in  suitable  terms  expressed  his  thanks  to  the  Chairman 
for  his  kind  words  and  to  the  Fellows  of  the  Society  for  his  election. 

The  Chairman  said  they  were  to  have  had  a  paper  that  evening  read 
by  Mr.  AVesche,  "  On  the  Microscope  as  an  Aid  to  the  Study  of  Biology  in 


136  PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    SOCIETY. 

Entomology,  with  particular  reference  to  the  Food  of  Insects."  Unfor- 
tunately— and  he  knew  they  would  all  regret  it — Mr.  Wesche  was  unable 
to  be  with  them,  having  been  laid  aside  by  severe  illness.  He  had,  however, 
sent  in  his  paper  that  afternoon,  and  a  number  of  slides  in  illustration  of 
the  subject  to  be  exhibited  under  Microscopes  in  the  room,  whilst  five 
lantern  slides  were  ready  for  the  lantern  to  be  shown  upon  the  screen. 

Dr.  Hebb  having  read  some  portions  of  the  paper  which  had  been 
marked  by  the  Author, 

The  Chairman,  in  moving  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Wesche  for  this 
communication,  again  expressed  his  regret  at  the  enforced  absence  of  its 
Author,  whose  work  was  always  so  thorough  that  his  papers  were  neces- 
sarily long  and  rather  difficult  to  epitomise,  so  that  the  one  before  them 
would  have  to  be  read  to  be  properly  understood.  The  thanks  of  tin- 
Meeting  were  also  voted  to  Dr.  Hebb  for  reading  the  extracts  and  to 
Mr.  Imboden  for  preparing  the  slides  which  had  been  shown  on  the 
screen,  as  well  as  to  Messrs.  Baker  for  the  loan  of  the  Microscopes  under 
which  the  mounted  preparations  had  been  exhibited. 

Mr.  J.  E.  Barnard's  paper  "  On  an  improved  type  of  Mercury  Vapour 
Lamp"  was  deferred  to  a  future  Meeting,  as  the  Author  was  unable, to 
be  present  in  consequence  of  a  severe  cold. 

It  was  announced  that  at  the  Meeting  of  the  Society  on  March  18 
the  President  would  give  the  Annual  Address,  entitled  "  On  Seeds. 
with  special  Reference  to  British  Plants." 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited  :  — 

The  Society : — An  old  Microscope,  Jones'  most  improved  type, 
presented  by  Mr.  A.  S.  Michie. 

.  Messrs.  R.  &  J.  Beck  : — Living  Bacteria  under  ordinary  illumina- 
tion ;  Living  Bacteria  under  dark-ground  illumination. 

Mr.  J.  W.  Ogilvy  : — Five  Microscopes  by  Messrs.  E.  Leitz,  stands 
AB  C  D  F  fitted  with  their  new  fine-adjustment. 

Mr.  W.  Wesche  : — The  following  slides  under  Microscopes  in  illus- 
tration of  his  paper.  Portion  of  abdomen  of  a  dragon-fly,  Archibasis  ? 
from  Borneo,  snowing  fragments  of  an  Anthomyid  ;  Portion  of  abdomen 
of  earwig,  Forficula  auricularia,  showing  fragments  of  Aphides  ;  Portion 
of  abdomen  of  dragon-fly,  EnalJagma  civilis,  from  Indiana,  U.S.A., 
showing  fragments  of  lepidopterous  larva ;  Abdomen  of  Oncodes  gib- 
bosus,  showing  intestine — these  insects  are  without  mouth-parts  and 
this  food  was  taken  while  in  the  larval  stage,  and  is  only  found  in  the 
female  insect ;  Portion  of  thorax  of  Rhantus  ?  water  beetle,  showing 
the  eye  of  a  fly,  Chironomus  ;  Extremity  of  abdomen  of  fly,  Syrphus 
balteatus,  showing  pollen  granules  ;  Portion  of  abdomen  of  fly,  Enipis 
livida,  showing  hairs  and  scales  of  gnat,  C'tdex ;  Portion  of  abdomen  of 
fly,  Norrellia  spinimana,  showing  hairs  and  scales  of  gnat,  C'ulex  ;  Por- 
tion of  abdomen  of  bee,  Apis  melifica,  Ligurian  variety,  showing  pollen 
of  several  flowers ;  Abdomen  of  fly,  Nycteribia  hermanii,  parasitic  on 
bats,  showing  blood  ;  Portion  of  abdomen  of  fly,  Scataphila  despecta, 
showing  diatoms  ;  Portion  of  abdomen  of  fly,  Hylemyia  strigosa,  showing 
spores  of  fungus.  Also  the  following  lantern  slides  :  Broken-up  Aphides 
in  the  stomach  of  earwig  ;  Remains  of  fly  in  dragon-fly,  Enailagma 
civilis  ;  Remains  of  caterpillar  in  same  ;  ditto,  ditto,  another  place  ; 
Pollen  in  abdomen  of  fly,  Syrphus  balteatus. 


JOURNAL 

OF   THE 

ROYAL   MICROSCOPICAL    SOCIETY. 

APRIL,    1908. 


TRANSACTIONS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

V. — Francis   Watkins'  Microscope. 
By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

(Read  November  20,  1907.) 

Mr.  J.  Scott  Underwood  has  kindly  sent  for  inspection  an  old 
Microscope  signed  "  Fra.  Watkins,  Charing  Cross,  London."  One 
point  of  interest  in  this  instrument  is  its  sumptuous  construction  ; 
the  limb,  body,  foot,  and  all  the  fittings,  down  to  the  handle  of  its 
box,  are  of  solid  silver. 

Silver  Microscopes  are  not  unknown,  I  have  myself  seen  three 
besides  this  one.  Watkins  appears  to  have  been  an  Anglo-French- 
man; he  published  a  book  in  French  entitled  "  L'Exercice  du  Micro- 
scope," 12mo,  London.  A  copy  of  this  work  is  in  the  Society's 
library,  and  the  date  of  the  hall  mark  upon  the  Microscope  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  publication  of  the  book,  viz.  1754-5. 

A  reference  to  fig.  26  shows  the  general  construction  of  this 
Microscope.  It  has  a  folding  tripod  foot,  from  which  rises  a 
vertical  pillar ;  *  to  the  top  of  this  pillar  an  inclinable  limb  is 
attached  by  a  compass  joint ;  this  limb  carries  the  body,  the  stage, 
and  the  mirror.  To  discover  how  much  is  original  in  this  Micro- 
scope it  is  necessary  to  examine  some  of  those  which  pre-date  it. 
In  the  "  New  Universal  Double  "  Microscope,  by  George  Adams,  in 
1746  f  (fig.  27),  we  find  a  folding  tripod  foot  with  a  vertical  pillar : 
the  body  is  attached  to  this  pillar  and  the  mirror  to  the  foot.  For 
focusing  the  "  Universal  Double  "  Microscope  the  coarse -adjust- 

*  The  folding  tripod  foot  with  vertical  pillar  was  first  used  by  Edmund 
Culpeper  (at  ye  Crossed  Swords  in  Moore  fields),  as  a  stand  for  Wilson's  "screw 
barrel  "  Microscope,  circa  1730. 

t  Micrographia  Illustrata.  Adams,  1746.  Plate  iii.  It  is  stated  that  the 
Microscope  is  made  either  of  brass  or  of  silver. 

April  15th,  1908  L 


i:;x 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


ment  is  effected,  as  in  John  Marshall's  Microscope,  by  sliding  the 
body  up  or  down  the  pillar  to  a  line  numbered  with  the  same 
number  as  that  of  the  power  used,  and  for  a  fine- adjustment  thu 
stage  is  actuated  by  a  screw  at  the  foot  of  the  pillar.  Adams' 
Microscope  had  a  rotating  wheel  of  six  powers.  *     This  wheel  was 


Fig.  26. 


very  large  ;  it  had  six  spokes  ;  the  powers  were  set  at  the  end  of  the 
spokes,  the  upright  pillar  being  the  axis  upon  which  this  wheel 
rotated. 

Now,  if  we  return  to  Watkins'  Microscope,  some  improvements 
of  first  importance  will  be  found,  the  principal  one  of  which  is  the 
introduction  of  an  inclinable  limb  to  carry  the  body,  stage,  and 

*"The  first  rotatingT  nosepiece  was  designed  by  Le  pere  Cherubin  d'Orleans, 
capucin,  (Francois  Laserre),  1681. 


Francis   Watkins'  Microscope.     By  E.  M.  Nelson.         139 

mirror.  This  is,  so  far  as  I  know,  the  earliest  example  wherein  this 
design  is  to  be  seen  ;  and  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  this 
design  is  the  basis  upon  which  the  modern  Microscope  is  built. 
This  plan  was  afterwards  adopted  by  Adams  in  his  "  Variable " 
Microscope,*  1771  (fig.  28),  which  he  tells  us  was  designed  by  a 
nobleman,  who  did  not  wish  his  name  to  be  published.  I  was  of 
opinion,  until  I  had  seen  the  Watkins  Microscope,  that  the 
"  Variable  "  of  the  anonymous  nobleman  was  the  prototype  of  the 
modern  Microscope,  but  it  is  clear  that  the  "  Variable  "  is  nearly 
a  quarter  of  a  century  later  than  this  signed  and  dated  example 
of  Watkins'  Microscope.     The  coarse-adjustment  focusing  arrange- 


Pig.  27. 

ment  of  Watkins'  Microscope  differed  from  those  of  its  day, 
inasmuch  as  the  stage,  which  slides  up  and  down  the  limb,  is  placed 
to  a  number  similar  to  that  of  the  power  used  (in  fact,  there  are 
two  sets  of  numbers,  marked  S  and  D :  S  indicating  the  set  of 
numbers  to  be  used  with  the  simple,  and  D  those  with  the  "  double," 
or  compound,  Microscope),  whereas  in  earlier  instruments  it  was 
the  body,  and  not  the  stage,  that  was  moved  in  this  way.  Watkins' 
Microscope  has  a  neat  form  of  spring-clamp  to  fix  the  stage  in 
a  definite  position.  The  fine-adjustment,  which  in  Watkins' 
Microscope  is  worked  by  a  screw  at  the  end  of  the  limb,  moves 


Micrograpkia  Illustrata,  ed.  4,  plate  ii. 


L    2 


140 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


the  body,  but  in  Adams'  "  Universal  Double "  Microscope  the 
screw,  at  the  bottom  of  the  pillar,  moves  the  stage. 

Watkins  in  this  design  has  therefore  reversed  the  motions  of 
Adams'  earlier  Microscopes  by  changing  a  stage  tine  into  a  coarse- 
adjustment,  and  a  body  coarse  into  a  fine-adjustment. 

The  principal  fault  in  Watkins'  design  is  that  the  instrument 
is  too  much  like  a  split-cane  fishing  rod.  It  is  all  on  springs ;  it 
cannot  be  touched  without  its  shaking  like  an  aspen.  The  folding 
tripod  is  a  spring ;  the  compass  joint  on  the  limb  is  in  a  totally 
wrong  position,  viz.  at  the  end  where  it  manifestly  is  devoid  of  any 


Fig.  28. 


balance ;  the  difficulty,  therefore,  of  bringing  this  Microscope,  on 
account  of  its  instability,  to  a  correct  focus  can  be  imagined. 
The  arm  which  holds  the  body,  and  which  is  at  right  angles  to 
the  limb,  is  a  thin  plate  of  silver,  far  too  weak  for  its  work. 
It  is  important  thus  to  trace  the  faults  of  this  old  Microscope, 
for  by  doing  so  we  are  enabled  to  find  out  what  influence  the 
design  had  in  Microscope  construction  ;  for  if  we  examine  the 
Microscope  that  next  followed  it,  viz.  Adams'  "  Variable  "  (fig.  28), 
we  shall  see  what  points  in  Watkins'  design  were  retained,  and 
what  rejected  as  faulty.  We  find,  then,  that  the  folding  tripod, 
vertical  pillar,  and  the  inclinable  limb  are  retained,  but  the  limb 


Francis   Watkins'  Microscope.     By  E.  M.  Nelson.  141 

has  now  a  much  stouter  form  of  joint,*  and  the  point  of  its  attach- 
ment is  in  the  best  position  for  stability.  The  plate  by  which  the 
body  is  attached  to  the  limb  has  a  strengthening  bracket  below  it. 
One  cannot  help  thinking  that  the  noble  designer  of  the  "  Variable  " 
Microscope  must  have  been  acquainted  not  only  with  this  design  of 
Watkins',  but  also  with  its  faults,  which  he  specially  corrects  while 
following  the  Watkins'  design  in  the  main. 

Eeturning  again  to  Watkins'  Microscope,  we  find  the  wheel  of 
powers  much  improved.  The  seven  |  powers  are  mounted  between 
two  disks  of  silver  1  ■  15  in.  in  diameter.  This  form  of  the  wheel 
of  powers  lasted  until  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  for 
it  was  afterwards  adopted  by  Adams,  Benjamin  Martin,!  and  still 
retained  in  the  "  Most  Improved  Compound  "  Microscope  of  Jones 
in  1798. 

If  a  digression  is  allowed,  it  may  be  explained  that  the 
nobleman's  "  Variable "  was  optically  of  a  very  advanced  type. 
The  Huyghenian  eye-piece  had,  in  addition  to  the  field-lens,  a 
double  eye-lens ;  there  was,  besides,  another  lens  lower  down  the 
tube,  to  act  as  a  back  lens  for  the  various  powers — this  was  probably 
copied  from  Benjamin  Martin. §  The  "  Variable  "  had  a  very  im- 
portant novelty,  for  the  powers  were  not  placed  in  a  wheel,  but 
were  mounted  in  separate  "  buttons,"  so  that  they  could  be  com- 
bined, which  was  of  course  a  great  advance,  for  by  this  means  the 
spherical  aberration  was  reduced,  and  so  a  larger  aperture  could  be 
used.  The  nobleman's  "  Variable  "  was  therefore  the  first  Micro- 
scope to  possess  an  objective  which  was  a  "  combination."  If  any 
one  takes  the  trouble  to  examine  a  good  specimen  of  an  old  non- 
achromatic  Microscope,  they  will  find  that  the  image,  field,  etc.,  are 
not  at  all  bad,  so  far  as  they  go  :  the  one  drawback  is  lack  of  aperture. 
The  spherical  and  chromatic  aberrations  were  so  great  that  the 
apertures  of  the  object-glasses  had  to  be  reduced  to  a  pin's  point. 
The  fault,  therefore,  with  all  of  them  is  too  much  empty  magnifica- 
tion. 

The  best  form  ever  attained  in  pre-achromatic  days  was  either 
Wollaston's  doublets  (1829)  or  Coddington's  Microscope  (1830). 
These  instruments  will  show  the  watered-silk  appearance  upon  a 
strongly  marked  Podura  scale  just  breaking  up  into  small  exclama- 
tion marks. 

*  Joints  of  this  form  were  in  common  use  for  Gregorian  and  other  telescopes 
at  that  time. 

t  Lindsay's  Microscope,  patented  1743,  had  seven  powers  mounted  in  two 
strips,  four  in  one,  and  three  in  the  other. 

X  At  the  sign  of  Hadley's  Quadrant  and  Visual  Glasses,  near  Crown  Court, 
Fleet  Street. 

§  I  have  made  exhaustive  experiments  with  Martin's  back  lens,  and  find  that 
it  is  an  advantage  because  it  increases  the  N.A.,  and  still  more  the  Optical  Index, 
as  it  lowers  the  power.  The  focal  length  of  the  lens  is  5|  in.  See  this  Journal, 
1898,  p.  474,  fig.  81. 


142  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

The  measured  foci  of  Watkins'  seven  powers*  are  as  follows 


No.  7     . 

.     0-95  in. 

No.  3     . 

.      0-28  in. 

„    6      . 

.     0-55  „ 

„    2     . 

.    o-ii    „ 

„    5 

.     0-78  „ 

„    1      • 

.     0-086  „ 

„   4     . 

.     0-46  „ 

The  powers  with  the  compound  body  attached  would,  therefore, 
range  from  about  30  to  430  diameters.  Nos.  5  and  6  obviously 
have  been  transposed.  There  are  three  lieberkuhns,  diameters — 
1  •  3  in.,  focus  0 '  6  in.  ;  1*1  in.,  focus  0  •  4  in.  ;  0*8  in.,  focus  0  •  3  in. 

This  is  an  improvement  upon  Lindsay's  plan  of  a  single  conical 
speculum,  which  had  to  do  duty  for  all  the  powers.  Dr.  Lieber- 
kiihn's  compass  Microscope,  made  by  Cuff  (1743)  had  a  separate 
spherical  mirror  adjusted  to  each  of  its  four  powers,  thus  pre-dating 
Watkins'.  The  body  of  Watkins'  Microscope  is  6  in.  long,  1^  in. 
diameter  at  its  widest  part,  and  elegantly  tapered.  Adams'  "  New 
Universal "  (fig.  27)  is  probably  the  earliest  Microscope  to  possess 
a  body  with  this  kind  of  taper.  This  taper  survived  a  long  time, 
for  it  is  found  in  Coddington's  Microscope  of  1830,  t  and  in  1843  a 
remnant  of  it  is  left  by  Hugh  Powell  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube  ;  J 
Beck  and  Eoss  never  tapered  the  body,  but  the  Lister-Tulley,  made 
by  Smith  in  1826,  was  tapered  at  the  bottom ;  so  tapered  bodies 
lasted  about  100  years. 

The  eye-piece  is  Huyghenian,  and  a  very  good  one ;  the  eye- 
lens  is  a  plano-convex  of  1  in.  focus,  and  the  field-lens  an  equi- 
convex  of  2  in.  focus,  the  distance  between  them  being  If  in. 
Calculation  shows  that  to  obtain  the  best  results  the  eye-lens 
ought  to  have  a  focal  length  of  0*865  in.,  and  the  distance  between 
the  lenses  ought  to  have  been  1  •  785  in.,  so  the  old  eye-piece  is  not 
so  far  wrong  after  all. 

The  fine-adjustment  screw,  which  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  limb,  has  30  threads  to  the  inch.  This  position  for  the  fine- 
adjustment  screw  is  derived  from  Adams'  "  New  Universal 
Double  "  (fig.  27) ;  the  difference  between  them  should  be  noted, 
Adams'  at  the  bottom  of  the  pillar,  Watkins'  at  the  bottom  of  the 
limb.     There  is  an  old  Microscope  in  the  Society's  cabinet  with  the 

*  Culpeper  and  Scarlet's  Microscope  had  five  powers ;  Wilson's  screw  barrel 
si*x  powers,  foci  0"  5,  0  3,  0-16,0-08,  0-05,0-02.  Lieberkiihn's  compass  Micro- 
scope, made  by  Cuff  (1743)  had  four  powers,  foci  1-0,  0-6,  0*3,  0-08.  A  Benjamin 
Martin  (circa  1760)  has  six  powers ;  their  measured  foci  are  as  follows  :  1  •  25,  0-96, 
0-46,  0-37,  0'31,  0-13.  The  highest  power  was  always  numbered  1.  It  is  curious 
to  note  that  the  screw-thread  of  the  "  pipe  "  in  Benjamin  Martin's  Microscope  is 
almost  identical  with  that  of  the  Society's  standard  thread — it  readily  screws  on 
the  nose-piece  of  any  modern  Microscope  ! 

t  Coddington's  Optics,  pt.  ii.,  pi.  13,  fig.  190.  See  this  Journal,  1898,  p.  474, 
fig.  82.  This  is  Gould's  Pocket  Microscope  {1828),  made  by  Cary,  181  Strand.  It 
is  very  similar  to  Coddington's,  the  foci  and  lens  distances  are  the  same,  but  the 
lenses,  for  cheapness  (it  may  be  presumed),  are  all  equi-convex. 

t  See  this  Journal,  1900,  p.  289,  fig.  79. 


Francis   Watkins    Microscope.     By  E.  M.  Nelson.         143 

same  construction.*  Varley's  f  (1831)  and  Pritchard's  %  (1838) 
Microscopes,  made  by  Hugh  Powell,  were  the  last  of  this  form. 

The  arm  is  only  attached  to  the  limb  by  three  small  knitting- 
needles — these  can  be  seen  in  fig.  26,  the  centre  one,  upon  which 
the  fine-adjustment  screw-thread  is  cut,  is  the  thickest,  viz. 
12  B.W.G.,  the  other  two,  which  are  17  B.W.G.,  act  as  guides. 

The  mirror,  1|  in.  in  diameter,  is  both  plane  and  concave ; 
this  is  a  very  early,  if  not  the  earliest  known  example  of  a  plane 
and  concave  mirror. 

The  limb  is  a  dovetailed  prism ;  this  is  probably  the  earliest 
instance  of  its  use  in  Microscope  construction. 

The  stage  is  1 '  4  in.  wide  and  2  in.  deep,  the  distance  of  the 
optic  axis  from  the  limb  being  1^  in.  The  stage  is  unlike  those  of 
other  makers :  on  its  upper  side  it  has  a  spring-clip  for  "  sliders," 
and  on  the  lower  one  to  hold  a  tube.  Attention  has  already  been 
called  to  the  well  designed  spring-clip  to  hold  the  stage  at  any 
place  on  the  limb. 

The  pillar  is  4£  in.  long,  and  it,  like  the  stage,  is  of  artistic 
form.  A  single  Microscope  in  form  just  like  this  one  was  presented 
to  the  Society  by  Colonel  Tupman  in  1905  ;  it  was  thought  to  have 
been  made  by  Lindsay,§  but  now  it  is  clear  that  it  is  by  Watkins. 

This  Microscope  is  packed  in  a  very  handsome  box  (6f  by 
5f  by  2  in.)  made  of  oak,  covered  with  shagreen,  the  hinges  and 
clips  being  of  silver.  This  ends  the  description  of  the  Microscope 
itself,  but  in  the  same  cabinet  there  is  packed,  besides  the  shagreen 
box,  a  solar  projection  apparatus,  also  made  of  silver.  The  projec- 
tion Microscope  was  invented  by  Dr.  Lieberklihn,  and  in  1740 
exhibited  by  him  in  London.  The  Microscope  passed  through  the 
axis  of  a  ball,  which  fitted  in  a  socket  in  a  window  shutter ;  the 
Microscope  was  pointed  directly  to  the  sun,  the  projection  being 
effected  by  means  of  a  single  lens,  i.e.  the  simple  Microscope. 
Le  pere  Cherubin  d'Orleans  had,  iu  1671,  placed  a  telescope  in  the 
axis  of  a  similar  ball-and-socket  in  a  window  shutter  for  the  purpose 
of  projecting  the  solar  disk ;  this  may  have  suggested  the  idea  of 
the  solar  projecting  Microscope  to  Dr.  Lieberklihn. 

John  Cuff,||  in  1743,  greatly  improved  the  solar  projection 
Microscope  by  fitting  a  mirror  to  it,  and  by  arranging  matters  so 
that  the  position  of  this  mirror  could  be  adjusted  from  the  inside  of 
the  room,  so  that  it  was  capable  of  rotation  by  cat-gut  passing 
round  a  pulley,  and  its  inclination  could  be  varied  by  means  of  a 
rod.  It  was,  in  brief,  a  simple  form  of  heliostat,  which  could  be 
worked  by  hand. 

*  See  this  Journal,  1903,  p.  587,  fig.  143. 

t  Op.  cit.,  1900,  p.  283,  figs.  70-73. 

X  Microscopic  Illustrations,  Goring  and  Pritchard,  figs.  12,  17,  21. 

§  At  y<?  Dial  near  Catherine  Street  in  y<*  Strand. 

II  Against  Serjeant's  Inn  Gate  in  Fleet  Street. 


144 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


There  are  several  of  these  solar  projection  Microscopes,  by 
various  makers,  in  the  Society's  cabinet.  Fig.  29  illustrates 
Watkins'  projection  apparatus,  which  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
Cuff's  ;  the  cat-gut  and  pulley  are  replaced  by  a  rack-and-pinion. 
The  instrument  is  shown  fixed  to  the  pillar  and  tripod  ;  it  has  been 
so  placed  for  the  purpose  of  being  photographed  for  illustration,  but 
in  actual  use  the  square  silver  plate  would  be  fixed  to  a  window 
shutter,  the  mirror  being  outside  the  window.  The  pillar  and 
tripod-foot  would  be  removed  from  the  limb,  the  screw-pin  having 
a  butterfly-nut  for  this  purpose  ;  the  limb  is  held  by  a  clamp  on 
the  tube,  which  screws  into  the  square  plate.     This  tube  has  three 


Fig.  29. 

draws — they  are  not  fully  extended  in  the  figure ;  at  the  square 
plate  end  of  the  tube  there  is  an  equi-convex  lens,  11  in.  in  focus, 
to  condense  the  sunlight  upon  the  object.  The  two  butterfly-nuts, 
on  the  front  of  the  square  plate,  are  for  the  purpose  of  attaching  it 
to  the  window  shutter,  and  the  milled  head  actuates  rack-work  for 
rotating  the  mirror.  It  seems  a  wonder  that,  in  the  absence  of  any 
heat  absorber,  the  specimen  upon  the  stage  was  not  burnt  up  by 
the  condenser:  it  is  probable  that  the  sun's  image  had  to  be 
placed  considerably  out  of  focus. 

To  sum  up  the  important  points  in  this  beautiful  Microscope  of 
Watkins,  we  find  that  they  are  three  in  number;  the  first,  and 


Francis   Watkins'  Microscope.     By  E.  M.  Nelson,       145 

most  important,  is  the  hinged  limb  which  supports  the  Micro- 
scope, the  object,  and  illuminating  apparatus ;  the  second,  almost 
as  important,  is  the  prism  bar  and  V-grooves  ;  the  third  is  the  plane 
and  concave  mirror.  To  this  list  may  be  added  one  of  quite 
secondary  importance,  viz.  it  is  an  early  example  of  the  improved 
form  of  the  wheel  of  powers.  Permit  me  to  express  my  thanks  to 
Mr.  Underwood  for  so  kindly  sending  his  Microscope  for  examina- 
tion.* 

Appendix. 

As  regards  the  performance  of  old  non-achromatic  Microscopes, 
it  may  be  pointed  out  that  empty  magnification  had  its  use  in  pre- 
achromatic  days,  for  it  was  by  this  means  that  aperture  in  a 
dioptric  Microscope  was  obtained.  The  method  of  making  these 
objectives  was  probably  to  open  out  the  diaphragm  until  the  image 
just  begun  to  show  signs  of  becoming  foggy  ;  it  will  be  found  under 
these  circumstances  that  a  ^  in.  will  have  a  N.A.  of  about  0*  1,  and 
a  -jJq  one  of  about  0*2. 

Benjamin  Martin's  No.  6  measures  0-0425  N.A.  and  5*3  O.I. 

„  1         „         0  198        „  2-5     „ 

It  was  mentioned  above  that  when  Martin's  back  lens  was 
inserted,  the  apertures  would  be  slightly  increased  ;  used  thus,  the 
No.  1  will  just  resolve  15,000  lines,  Grayson.  When  a  compound 
body  is  placed  over  a  lens,  the  focus  is  lengthened  and  the  aperture 
reduced  ;  it  was  very  probably  on  this  account  that  many  of  the 
old  observers,  without  knowing  the  reason,  preferred  a  "  single  "  to  a 
"  double  "  Microscope. 

*  This  Microscope  was  sold  by  J.  C.  Stevens,  of  King  Street,  Covent  Garden, 
Feb.  18,  1908,  for  52  guineas.  The  price  obtained  was  due  less  to  the  scientific 
or  intrinsic  value  of  the  instrument  than  to  the  hallmark,  date  1754. — [Ed.] 


146 


VI. — Eye-pieces  for  the  Microscope. 
By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

{Bead  February  19,  1908.) 

Having  been  informed  by  Messrs.  Zeiss  that  the  glass  0*82  had 
been  taken  out  of  Messrs.  Schott  and  Co.'s  list,  I  selected  another 
glass,  viz.  that  used  for  the  prisms  in  the  best  quality  of  binoculars, 
and  have  recomputed  the  table  of  eye-pieces  for  that  glass.  This 
glass  is  of  a  permanent  nature,  clear,  and  of  low  dispersion,  so  it  is 
in  every  way  suitable  for  eye-pieces. 

To  repeat  the  explanation  of  terms,  s  is  the  radius  of  the  surface 
of  the  eye-lens  next  the  eye,  and  r  the  radius  of  that  towards  the 
object  glass,  b  being  the  diameter  of  the  eye-lens  ;  S,  R,  and  B 
have  a  similar  meaning  with  reference  to  the  field-lens  ;  d'  is  the 
distance  between  the  surfaces  of  the  lenses,  h  the  diameter  of  the 
hole  in  the  diaphragm,  t  is  the  distance  the  incident  surface  R  is  to 
be  below  the  top  of  the  tube  of  the  Microscope,  and  F  is  the 
equivalent  focus  of  the  eye-piece. 

For  the  formulas  upon  which  these  eye-pieces  have  been  calcu- 
lated, the  reader  is  referred  to  the  original  paper  in  this  Journal, 
1900,  p.  165.  The  following  are  additional  formulas  to  those  given 
in  that  paper : — 

b  =  0-575/';        B=-i*      ;       q=f*J     .; 

i  _   /  /  -r-/  -  d 

10 

t  =  q-(l-  I)F-0-3in. 

These  formulae  give  the  theoretical  values  of  b  and  B ;  in 
practice  either  b  must  be  a  little  reduced,  or  B  increased.  In 
Table  I.,  for  the  short  tube,  alternative  values  of  b,  h,  B,  and  d'  are 
given  for  R.M.S.  standard  gauge  No.  1,  and  in  Table  II.  values  are 
given  for  R.M.S.  gauge  No.  4. 

Instead  of  designating  the  eye-pieces  by  letters,  or  by  numbers, 
such  as  I.,  II.,  III.,  etc.,  other  numbers  are  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  columns.  These  numbers  represent  the  magnifying  power  of 
the  eye-piece  when  a  certain  tube-length  is  employed.  As  every 
object  requires  a  different  tube-length,  the  magnifying  power  of 
the  entire  Microscope  is  a  variable  quantity  ;  consequently,  when 
accuracy  is  required,  the  magnifying  power  must  be  determined  for 
each  separate  case,  but  for  rough  estimations  the  number  at  the 
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Eye-pieces  for  the  Microscope.     By  E.  M.  Nelson.  L49 

In  Table  II.,  the  figure  over  the  inches  column  relates  to  the 
long  tube,  and  that  over  the  millimetre  column  to  the  short  tube. 
Eings  are  to  be  placed  over  the  eye-piece  tubes  to  maintain  the 
value  of  t ;  the  eye-pieces  are  therefore  "  parfocal."  As  stated 
previously,  "  parfocal  "  eye-pieces  were,  in  1839,  made  by  Powell, 
who  has  continued  to  make  them  ever  since.  It  was  probably 
Cornelius  Varley  who  suggested  this  idea  to  Powell. 

A  correction  is  needed  with  regard  to  the  statement  in  my 
previous  paper  that  Varley  was  the  first  to  fit  a  draw-tube  adjust- 
ment between  the  eye-lens  and  the  field-lens  of  the  Huyghenian  eye- 
piece, for  subsequently,  while  cleaning  a  signed  Benj.  Martin  Micro- 
scope, I  discovered  a  similar  draw-tube  which  clearly  pre-dates 
Varley's  design. 

My  acknowledgments  are  due  to  Mr.  W.  B.  Stokes  for  correc- 
tions and  useful  suggestions. 


150 


VII. — A   Correction  for  a  Spectroscope. 
By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

(Read  December  18,  1907.) 

It  is  the  common  experience  of  everyone  who  has  worked  with  a 
spectroscope  that  the  image  of  the  slit  is  represented  by  curved 
lines,  especially  when  high  up  in  the  spectrum.  Now  curved 
images  are  due  to  the  spherical  aberration  of  an  oblique  pencil. 
Therefore  we  know  by  the  curved  image  upon  the  plate  that  we 
are  dealing  with  an  oblique  pencil ;  and  although  rays  which  have 
been  parallelized  by  the  collimator  and  passed  through  the  prism 
are  supposed  to  fall  upon  the  telescope  in  a  direct  manner,  a  little 
consideration  will  show  that  the  prism  has,  by  its  refraction,  never- 
theless rendered  their  incidence  oblique.  The  correction  for  this 
«rror  is  obvious.     The  telescope  objective  should  be  mounted  upon 


Fig.  30. 

a  pivot  so  as  to  be  capable  of  rotation  about  a  vertical  axis ;  an 
indicator  pointing  to  an  arc,  graduated  in  wave-lengths,  would  be 
convenient  for  setting  the  objective  at  any  required  position.  It 
would  be  desirable  and  very  simple  to  make  this  adjustment 
automatic  (see  fig.  30),  by  fixing  an  arm  B  to  the  pivot  A,  carrying 
the  object-glass  of  the  telescope,  and  by  means  of  a  spring  making 
this  arm  bear  upon  a  horizontal  excentric,  C,  fixed  to  the  axis  of 
the  pillar  D. 

Then,  as  the  telescope  was  rotated  round  the  axis  D  of  the 
pillar,  the  arm  B  would  be  moved  by  the  excentric  C,  and  the 
object-glass  turned  upon  its  pivot  A. 

By  this  means,  the  lines  in  a  spectrum  would  be  rendered 
perfectly  straight,  because  the  incidence  would  be  always  direct, 
and  what  is  more  important,  the  lines  would  be  made  critically 
sharp. 

It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  spectroscopists  have  for  so 
long  been  content  with  a  curved  image  of  a  straight  object,  and 
fuzzy  images. 


151 


VIII. — Or  Dimorphism  in  the  Recent  Foraminifer,  Alveolina 

boscii  Defr.  sp. 

By  Fkedekick  Chapman,  A.L.S.,  F.R.M.S., 
Palaeontologist  to  the  National  Museum,  Melbourne. 

(Bead  February  19,  1908.) 

Plates  II.  and  III. 

Preliminary  Remarks. — The  spindle-shaped  tests  of  Alveolina 
boscii  will  be  familiar  to  all  who  have  examined  dredgings  from 
moderately  shallow  water  in  tropical  regions.  In  the  fossil  state, 
species  of  the  same  genus  are  found  in  Cretaceous,  Eocene,  and 
Miocene  limestones  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 

With  regard  to  the  occurrence  of  dimorphism  in  this  genus — 
the  phenomenon  of  the  two  stages  in  the  life-history  of  the  organism, 
in  which  the  shell  commences  either  with  a  large  central  chamber 
(form  A),  or  a  small  one  (form  B) — our  knowledge  is  limited  to  one 
instance,  for  the  form  B  seems  only  to  have  been  noticed,  by 
Munier  Chalmas,  in  a  fossil  species.*  In  that  example  the  micro- 
spheric  form  was  distinguished  by  a  very  small  central  chamber, 
surrounded  by  five  simple  chambers,  which  were  not  subdivided. 

Occurrence  and  Description. — The  usual  form  of  the  test  in 
Alveolina  boscii,  as  found  in  our  coral  beach  sands  and  shallow 
water  dredgings,  is  that  having  a  comparatively  short  fusiform 
shell  with  a  large  central  chamber. 

It  has  lately  been  my  good  fortune  to  meet  with  the  form  B  of 
this  species  in  some  material  kindly  handed  to  me  by  Messrs. 
Charles  Hedley,  F.L.S.,  and  C.  J.  Gabriel,  who  dredged  it  from  the 
Great  Barrier  Eeef,  at  Cairns  Keef,  near  the  Hope  Islands,  Queens- 
land. These  dredgings  consisted  mainly  of  large  foraminiferal 
tests  beloDging  to  the  genera  Orbitolites  (0.  eomplanata,  Lam.), 
Alveolina  (A.  boscii,  Defr.  sp.),  Polystomella  (P.  craticulata,  F.  and 
M.  sp.),  and  Polytrema  (P.  miniaceum,  L.  sp.).  The  Alveolinm 
were  nearly  all  of  the  usual  type  (form  A),  but  a  few  exceptions 
occurred  in  which  the  test  was  of  extraordinary  length.  Since  the 
microspheric  shell  is  generally  larger  than  the  megalospheric,  it 
seemed  highly  probable  that  at  last  we  had  met  with  examples 

*  Schlumberger,  Ch.,  "  Sur  le  Biloculina  depressa  d'Orb.,  au  point  de  vue  du 
dimorphisme  des  Foraminiferes."  Assoc.  Franc,  pour  l'Avan.  des  Sciences, 
Congres  de  Rouen,  1883,  p.  526.  See  also  Lister,  in  Ray  Lankester's  Treatise  of 
Zoology,  pt.  i.  1903,  p.  111. 

[I  am  indebted  to  my  friend,  Mr.  F.  W.  Millett,  for  a  copy  of  this  paper,  which 
does  not  appear  to  be  in  any  of  the  Melbourne  Libraries.] 


152  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

of  the  microspheric  form.  Some  careful  preparations  of  these  tests 
confirmed  that  opinion,  and  photographs  of  the  sections  are  now 
reproduced. 

In  form  A  the  central  chamber,  or  megalosphere,  is  ovoid  or 
kidney-shape,  and  in  the  present  example  has  a  longer  diameter 
of  250  //,.  The  succeeding  chamber  is  nearly  spherical  in  optical 
section,  and  is  immediately  followed  by  a  series  of  shallow  cham- 
bers lengthened  along  the  principal  axial  line,  and  secondarily  sub- 
divided into  chamberlets,  at  first  in  a  single  row,  and  afterwards 
increasing  to  two  or  three  superposed  series  with  intermediate 
floors.  The  increasing  complexity  of  the  serial  arrangement  of 
chamberlets  with  the  growth  of  the  shell  is  seen  on  the  apertural 
face  of  the  test,  which  has  a  generally  cribrate  appearance. 

In  form  B  the  central  chamber,  or  microsphere,  has  a  diameter 
of  33  fi,   succeeded   by  two   fairly  short  and  shallow  crescentic 


Pig.  31. — Triloculine  series  of  the  central  disk  in 
Alveolina  boscii  (form  B). 

chambers,  and  three  larger,  all  of  which  are  simple,  as  previously 
stated  of  Munier  Chalmas'  fossil  example.  These  chambers  of 
the  central  disk  are  arranged  on  the  triloculine  plan  (see  fig.  31), 
and  not  on  the  peneropline,  as  Lister  *  infers  from  Schlumberger's 
note  on  the  fossil  occurrence.  Following  upon  these  are  the 
normal  chambers  of  the  test,  which  extend  the  whole  length  of 
the  shell,  and  are  subdivided  into  several  rows  of  chamberlets, 
as  in  form  A,  and  showing  successional  increase  in  the  number  of 
floors  or  horizontal  partitions,  as  in  the  megalospheric  type.  In 
form  A,  however,  the  segments  of  the  convolutions  are  compara- 

*  Loc.  supra  cit. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATES  II.  and  III. 

Fig.  1. — The  two  forms  of  Alveolina  boscii  Defr.  sp.    From  the  Great  Barrier  Reef, 

(Cairns  Reef),  Queensland,      x  1^- 
,,    2. — A  longitudinal,  median  section  through  a  megalospheric  test  of  A.  boscii. 

Great  Barrier  Reef,      x  16. 
„    3. — A  longitudinal,  median  section  through  a  microspheric  test  of  A.  boscii. 

Great  Barrier  Reef,      x  16. 
„   4. — Central  area  of  the  megalospheric  form  (A)  of  A  boscii.      x  184. 
,,    5. — Central  area  of  the  microspheric  form  (B)  of  A.  boscii.     x  184. 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.  SOC.,  1908.     PI.  II. 


x   U 


x   16 


£:*•** 


Form    A 


'W«H 


x   16 


Form    B 


F.C.  photomicr. 


DIMORPHISM     IN     ALVEOLINA     BOSCH,     Defr.  sp. 


JOURN.  R.  M1CR.  SOC,  1908.     PI.  III. 


Form    A 
5 


Form    B 


F.C.   photomicr. 

DIMORPHISM     IN     ALVEOLINA     BOSCH,    Defr.  sp. 
The    megalosphere   and    microsphere.       X  184. 


On  Dimorphism  in  Alveolina  boscii  Defr.  sp.  By  F.  Chapman.      153 

tively  higher  and  shorter,  and  consequently  the  chamberlets  are 
elongated  in  a  vertical  direction,  or  coincident  with  the  minor  axis 
of  the  test.  This  peculiarity  of  its  internal  structure  is  seen  ex- 
ternally in  the  general  shape,  which  is  constant  throughout  the 
growth  of  the  foraminifer ;  as  will  be  readily  recognised  from  an 
inspection  of  the  two  photographs  (Plate  II.  figs.  2,  3).  The 
lengths  of  the  tests  in  forms  A  and  B,  of  which  slightly  enlarged 
photographs  are  now  given,  measure  7*5  mm.  and  18*25  mm. 
respectively. 

Concluding  Observations. — It  is  already  well  recognised  that, 
whilst  almost  every  type  of  rhizopod  shell  can  be  readily  referred  to 
the  asexual  stage  A,  the  alternating  sexual  stage,  characterised  by 
the  microsphere,  is  undoubtedly  rare,  and  often  extremely  so. 
Schaudinn,  Lister,  and  others,  who  have  contributed  so  much  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  life-history  of  this  group,  conclusively  show 
that  the  megalospheric  form  is  the  stage  fitted  for  a  quiescent- 
conditioned  reproduction  of  the  species,  and  that  the  megalospheric 
form  can  repeatedly  give  rise  to  other  asexual,  megalospheric 
individuals.  When,  however,  non-related  individuals  of  the  same 
species  are  introduced,  the  zoospores  of  different  parentage  can 
conjugate,  and  result  in  the  production  of  microspheric  examples. 

In  the  case  of  Alveolina  the  same  rule  holds  good,  and  in  a 
very  marked  degree,  for  individuals  of  the  melagospheric  form 
occur  out  of  all  ordinary  proportion  to  the  microspheric  form, 
which,  as  has  already  been  shown,  is  known  for  certain  only  in 
two  solitary  instances,  one  as  a  fossil,  the  other  as  a  recent  form  ; 
although  it  is  probable  that  in  some  instances  the  long  slender 
tests  of  the  microspheric  shell  of  the  living  species  may  have  been 
passed  over  unnoticed  as  merely  abnormally  elongate  examples. 
Apropos  of  the  last  remark,  it  is  of  interest  to  note  that  W.  B. 
Carpenter,  in  his  "  Introduction,"*  says  :  "  The  length  of  the  longest 
complete  specimen  in  my  possession  is  0  •  35  of  an  inch,  but  I 
have  a  specimen  whose  shape  is  nearly  cylindrical  (the  A.  quoyii 
of  d'Orbigny),  which,  though  incomplete  at  one  end,  measures 
0'50  of  an  inch."  The  A.  quoyii\  referred  to  by  Carpenter  is,  in 
all  probability,  another  instance  of  form  B,  as  may  have  been 
Carpenter's  own  imperfect  specimen. 

*  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Poraminifera,  1862,  p.  99. 
t  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  vii.  (1826)  p.  307. 


April  15th,  1908  M 


154 


IX. — Gregory  and    Wright'*  Microscope. 
By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

(Read  December  18,  1907.) 

An  old  and  rare  book  has  just  turned  up  which  bears  upon  the 
evolution  of  the  Microscope  at  an  important  period  of  its  history, 
viz.  when  it  was  just  beginning  to  crystallise  into  its  present  form. 
If  you  will  refer  to  this  Journal  for  1899,  p.  325,  a  description  will 
be  found  of  an  interesting  Microscope  presented  by  Dr.  Dallinger. 
This  Microscope,  not  signed,  was  thought  to  be  of  Benjamin  Martin's 
workmanship;  now,  however,  it  is  possible  to  read  its  history  more 
accurately. 

The  book  from  which  this  new  information  is  derived,  pub- 
lished in  1786  by  Messrs.  Gregory  and  Wright,  opticians,  No.  148 
Leadenhall  Street,  describes  a  "  New  Universal  Microscope, 
which  has  all  the  uses  of  the  Single,  Compound,  Opaque,  and 
Aquatic  Microscopes."  The  plate  in  the  book  from  which  fig.  32 
is  copied  shows  that  this  Microscope  is  almost  identical  with 
that  in  the  Society's  cabinet.  It  has  the  same  folding  tripod- 
foot  with  the  compass  joint  at  the  bottom  of  the  limb,  it  has 
the  same  shaped  body  with  a  coned  end,  and  the  movement  of  the 
body,  backwards  and  forwards  and  also  in  arc,  is  the  same,  even 
to  details  of  ornament.  There  is  the  same  holder  for  either  the 
substage  condenser  or  for  the  lieberkiihn,  and  the  same  Benjamin 
Martin  pivoted  super-stage.  The  difference  between  the  instru- 
ments is  that  Gregory's  is  a  stage,  and  the  other  a  body  focuser. 
It  is  evident  that  in  Gregory's  Microscope  we  see  a  Benjamin 
Martin's  latest  type  of  instrument — in  brief,  a  small  edition, 
without  accessories,  of  the  magnificent  instrument  he  made  for 
George  III.,  which  is  in  the  Society's  cabinet.  The  limb,  which  is 
pivoted  by  a  compass  joint  to  the  top  of  the  tripod  foot,  is  an  equi- 
lateral prism  ;*  the  rack  is  cut  into  the  base  of  this  prism  at  the 
back,  and  the  pinion,  which  protrudes  at  right  angles  from  the  base 
of  this  triangle,  moves  up  and  down  with  the  stage.  If  we  now 
examine  the  limb  of  the  Microscope  presented  by  Dr.  Dallinger, 
we  shall  find  that  it  is  a  tube  of  circular  section,  with  an  inner 
tube  actuated  by  rack-and-pinion,  and  a  third,  a  push-tube,  inside 
this  one  to  hold  the  body.  The  push-tube  is  the  coarse-adjustment, 
and  the  rack-and-pinion  the  fine-adjustment.  It  is  evident,  there- 
fore,   that    Dr.    Dallinger' s    is    a    later    and   improved   form    of 

*  See  this  Journal,  1903,  p.  589,  fig.  144. 


Gregory  and   Wright1  s  Microscope.     By  E.  M.  Nelson.      155 

Gregory's.  Now  we  know  from  the  book  that  the  date  of 
Gregory's  is  1786,  and  therefore  we  can  say  with  certainty 
that  Dr.  Dallinger's  was  not  made  by  Benjamin  Martin,  as  he 
died  in  1782.  It  is  more  than  probable  that  Gregory  and  Wright 
became  Benjamin  Martin's  successors,  and  were  the  makers  of  the 
Microscope  presented  by  Dr.  Dallinger.  It  is  interesting  to 
notice  the  name  of  Gregory's  Microscope  "  Single,  Compound, 
Opaque,  and  Aquatic."  In  early  days  Microscopes  were  termed 
"  single "   and  "  double,"   because  they  consisted   of  one  or  two 


Fig.  32. 


lenses,  but  after  the  "  body  lens "  (field  glass)  was  added  by 
Monconys,  in  1660,  the  word  "  double"  became  inappropriate,  and 
it  appears  that  "  compound  "  was  substituted  for  it  by  Dr.  Smith 
in  1738  (Compleat  System  of  Optics)  ;  in  this  he  was  followed 
by  Benjamin  Martin  (Optical  Essays),  1770.  "  Double  "  was 
last  used  by  Wood  (Master  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge),  in 
his  Optics,  1818,  but  "single"  lasted  for  nearly  a  century  longer, 
until  it  was  displaced  by  Wollaston's  invention  of  the  doublet  in 
1829,  and  so,  in  1830,  we  find  the  word  "  simple  "  in  Coddington 

m  2 


156  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

(Optics,  Part  II.).*    "  Single  "  is  found  for  the  last  time  in  Potter's 
Optics,  Part  1.,  1847. 

"  Opaque  "  is  meant  to  convey  the  information  that  lieber- 
kuhns  (invented  1738),  are  supplied  for  the  illumination  of  opaque 
objects.  The  term  "Aquatic  "  requires  a  longer  explanation.  In 
1755  Cuff  made  Ellis's  Aquatic  Microscope,  or  what  would  now 
be  called  a  dissecting  stand.  The  lens-holder  was  so  mounted  that 
the  lens  could  be  moved  backwards  and  forwards,  as  well  as  in 
arc,  over  an  object  upon  the  stage.  This  movement  of  the  lens 
over  the  object,  instead  of  the  object  under  the  lens,  was  at  that 
time  thought  a  great  deal  of  because  it  was  said  that  aquatic 
animals  were  disturbed  by  the  movement  of  the  stage.  These 
movements  were  still  in  use  in  1852,  for  they  are  seen  in  a  dis- 
secting stand  by  Andw.  Eoss.  f  All  Microscopes  having  these 
movements  were  said  to  be  "  aquatic." 

Martin's  super-stage,  found  in  numerous  models  of  that  time, 
consists  of  a  plate  of  brass  with  three  holes  in  it,  the  centre  one 
1\  in.,  and  those  on  either  side  "7  in.  in  diameter.  There  was  a 
pivot  on  the  lower  side  which  fitted  into  a  hole  in  the  stage, 
permitting  the  plate  to  be  moved  in  arc.  A  watch-glass  for 
holding  living  animals  in  water  was  placed  in  the  large  central 
aperture,  and  a  piece  of  plain  glass  in  one  of  the  side  holes  for 
holding  objects  suitable  for  examination  by  transmitted  light ;  in 
the  other  hole  was  fitted  a  piece  of  ivory,  black  upon  one  side  and 
white  upon  the  other,  for  holding  objects  which  were  to  be 
illuminated  by  a  lieberkuhn ;  a  white  object  would  be  placed  upon 
the  black  side  of  the  disk,  and  a  black  object  upon  the  white  side. 
So  Martin's  super-stage  was  an  ingenious  and  useful  adjunct  to 
Microscopes  of  that  date. 

The  total  height  of  this  Microscope  was  14  in.,  the  body 
being  6  in.  when  the  draw-tube  was  closed.  These  are  the  same 
dimensions  of  Benjamin  Martin's  "  No.  1,"  which  is  illustrated  on 
page  474,  fig.  81,  of  this  Journal,  1898. 

From  Watkins'  and  Gregory's  Microscopes  was  evolved,  in 
1798,  Jones's  %  "  Most  Improved,"  which  is,  in  essential  particulars, 
the  form  of  the  modern  Microscope.  Jones's  "  Most  Improved  " 
has  a  foot  with  an  upright  pillar,  to  the  top  of  which  is  hinged,  by 
a  compass  joint,  a  limb  which  carries  the  magnifying  portion,  the 
object  and  the  illuminating  apparatus,  and  this  is  the  form  of  every 
Microscope  at  present  in  use,  for  if  we  examine  the  most  aberrant 
form,  viz.  Powell's  No.  1,  we  find  a  gipsy  tripod  foot,  which  is 
merely  a  foot  and  pillar  in  one  piece  ;  the  bent  claw  obviously  falls 
under  the  same  category. 

*  Barlow,  Ency.  Metrop.,  art.  Optics.  "  Simple  is  found  in  the  index,  but  the 
word  in  the  text  is  "  single."     (Accompanying  plate  is  dated  1822.) 

f  Quekett  on  the  Microscope,  2nd  ed.,  p.  59,  fig.  37;  copied  in  this  Journal, 
1900,  p.  428,  fig.  109.  J  W.  and  S.  Jones,  135  next  Furnival's  Inn,  Holborn. 


Gregory  and   Wright's  Microscope.     By  E.  M.  Nelson.       1 57 

It  has  been  said  that  the  modern  Microscope  was  evolved  from 
Straus  Durckheim's  drum  Microscope,  made  by  Oberhaeuser  in 
1835,  but  between  that  and  the  hinged  limb  Microscope  of  the 
present  day  there  is  nothing  in  common,  and  no  continuity. 

Before  closing,  allow  me  to  correct  a  mis-statement  in  a  former 
paper  (see  this  Journal,  1901,  p.  729),  where  in  a  description  of  a 
Powell  Microscope  of  1840,  presented  to  the  Society  by  Messrs. 
Watson,  I  stated,  upon  the  authority  of  Hannover,*  that  Fraunhofer 
was  the  designer  of  the  screw-stage  micrometer.  A  similar  state- 
ment is  made  in  the  9th  ed.  Ency.  Brit.,  art.  Fraunhofer.  The 
screw-stage  micrometer  and  webbed  eye-piece  are  described  by 
Benjamin  Martin  in  his  Optical  Essays  (1770),f  page  48,  and 
were  fitted  to  his  large  instrument  in  our  cabinet.  Fraunhofer 
was  not  born  until  five  years  after  Martin's  death. 

A  correction  is  also  needed  in  a  paper  on  the  rackwork  coarse- 
adjustment  (see  this  Journal,  1899,  p.  262,  Synopsis),  where  I 
stated  that  the  Microscope  "  Body-focuser,"  one  inch  of  rack  in 
slot  in  tube  (telescope  form) ;  example  in  Society's  cabinet,"  was 
made  by  Benjamin  Martin,  circa  1776  ;  for  this,  read  made  by 
Gregory  and  Wright,  circa  1795. 

*  English  Translation,  1853,  p.  67,  pi.  1,  fig.  12. 

t  Martin's  Optical  Essays  are  not  dated,  but  we  learn  from  Adams  on  the 
Microscope,  1798,  p.  21,  that  they  were  published  in  1770. 


If.x 


X. — Biddulphia  Mobiliensis. 
By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

(Read  February  19,  1908.) 

This  diatom  may  be  popularly  described  as  being  of  the  well- 
known  Isthmia  type,  and  consequently  much  like  a  pocket  cigar- 
case.  Probably  a  diatomist  would  say  that  the  Isthmia  was  a 
Biddulphia,  but  as  this  note  is  written  for  microscopists  in  general, 
and  not  for  diatomists  only,  it  will  be  better  to  describe  this 
Biddulphia  as  being  like  an  Isthmia,  a  common  microscopical 
object. 

Upon  the  side  of  this  diatom  strise,  which  count  41,000  and 
32,000  per  inch  (1,610  and  1,260  per  mm.),  can  be  seen  with  a 
low  power,  but  with  any  lens  of  moderate  aperture  the  diatom 
can  easily  be  dotted. 

When  the  object  is  examined  under  the  most  critical  condi- 
tions, with  a  very  large  axial  solid  cone  of  illumination,  a  suitable 
blue-green  screen,  and  a  power  of  not  less  than  2,000  diameters, 
the  primary  areolations  will  be  found  to  contain  a  very  minute 
secondary  structure. 

This  structure  is  so  delicate  that  it  is  not  possible  to  hold  the 
image  for  long  at  a  time.  In  general,  four  small  dots  will  be 
perceived  in  each  primary,  and  if  this  had  been  all,  it  would  have 
been  better  not  to  mention  the  fact,  because  the  image  might 
merely  be  a  diffraction  phenomenon  ;  but  the  investigation  was 
continued  until  some  primaries  which  had  five,  and  even  six, 
secondary  dots  in  them  had  been  found,  thus  proving  that  this 
secondary  structure  is  an  entity. 

The  diatom  was  sent  to  Mr.  Merlin,  who  has  kindly  examined 
it,  and  has  confirmed  the  observation  that  all  the  primaries  do  not 
have  the  same  number  of  secondary  dots. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  this  note  is  not  accompanied  by  even 
a  rough  drawing  of  these  secondaries.  The  image  is  excessively 
difficult,  and  cannot  be  held  long  enough  to  draw ;  the  eye  has 
repeatedly  to  be  rested  in  order  to  get  even  a  momentary  glimpse 
of  this  tenuous  structure. 

This  is,  so  far  as  I  know,  the  smallest  primary  in  which  any 
secondary  structure  has  been  seen.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
secondary  structures  which  have  been  found  to  be  present  in  so 
many  species  of  diatoms  are  of  great  importance  to  the  organism, 


Biddulphia  Mobiliensis.     By  E.  M.  Nelson.  159 

and  it  may  be  suggested  that  they  are  placed  there  to  guard  the 
internal  plasma  from  bacterial  attacks. 

The  subject  is  of  some  interest  to  microscopy,  as  these 
secondaries  have  only  been  seen  with  long-tube  Microscopes,  and 
it  is  very  probable  that  this  resolution  will  never  be  reached  by  a 
short-tube  Microscope. 

It  has  often  been  asked,  Which  is  the  better  instrument  of  the 
two  ?  A  decisive  answer  can  at  once  be  given  to  this  question. 
If  the  instrument  is  required  for  the  examination  of  the  most 
minute  structures,  the  long-tube  is  the  better ;  but  if  it  is  required 
for  other  things,  such  as  portability  or  cheapness,  then  a  short-tube 
may  be  preferable.  But  so  long  as  a  Microscope  is  employed  for 
the  highest  purpose,  such  as  the  revelation  of  the  minute  unknown, 
then  a  long-tube  has  no  rival. 

The  ultimate  appeal  concerning  any  very  minute  structure  must 
go  to  a  long-tube  Microscope. 


SUMMARY  OF   CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

RELATING    TO 

ZOOLOGY       AND       BOTANY 

(PRINCIPALLY    INVERTEBRATA   AND   CRYPTOGAMIA), 

MICROSCOPY,    Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 

a.  Embryologry.t 


Correlation  of  Ovarian  and  Uterine  Functions.} — E.  S.  Carrnichael 
and  F.  H.  A.  Marshall  find  that  the  removal  of  the  ovaries  of  young 
animals  (rodents)  prevents  the  development  of  the  uterus  and  Fallopian 
tubes,  which  remain  in  an  infantile  condition.  The  subsequent  growth 
and  general  nutrition  of  the  animals  seem  to  be  unaffected.  The  removal 
of  the  ovaries  in  adult  rodents  leads  to  fibrous  degeneration  of  the  uterus 
and  Fallopian  tubes  (most  marked  in  the  mucous  membrane).  Tbe 
animals'  subsequent  health  and  nutrition  remain  good.  These  observa- 
tions for  the  most  part  support  the  evidence  obtained  clinically  in  the 
human  subject  after  surgical  operation. 

The  removal  of  the  uterus  in  a  young  animal  has  no  influence  in 
preventing  the  further  development  of  the  ovaries,  which  are  capable  of 
ovulating  and  forming  corpora  lutea  after  adult  life  has  been  reached. 
The  removal  of  the  uterus  in  an  adult  animal  does  not  give  rise  to  any 
degenerative  change  in  the  ovaries,  if  the  vascular  connections  of  the 
latter  remain  intact.  These  latter  observations  do  not  support  the  con- 
tentions of  those  surgeons  who  advocate  sub-total  hysterectomy,  believing 
that  the  functional  activity  of  the  ovary  is  in  some  way  dependent  on 
the  presence  of  the  uterus. 

Early  Placenta  in  Macacus  nemestrinus.§ — W.  L.  H.  Duckworth 
finds  that  the  decidual  formation  in  this  case  is  that  known  as  decidua 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they 
do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers 
noted,  nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of 
this  part  of  the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  pub- 
lished, and  to  describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  etc.,  which  are 
either  new  or  have  not  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

f  This  section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so 
called,  but  also  those  dealing  with  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  and 
allied  subjects. 

\  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  London,  Series  B,  lxxix.  (1907)  pp.  387-94. 

§  Proc.  Cambridge  Phil.  Soc,  xiv.  (1907)  pp.  299-312  (8  pis.). 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES.  161 

•compacta  basalis,  no  decidua  reflexa  being  present.  The  "  wall "  or  cir- 
cumvallation  described  by  Selenka  in  Semnopithecidse  is  not  present. 
The  uterine  tissues  immediately  beneath  the  area  of  attachment  of  the 
blastocyst,  and  also  for  some  distance  on  either  side  of  this,  are  oedema- 
tous.  Immediately  beneath  the  blastocyst  there  is  even  an  accumulation 
of  a  fibrinous  exudation,  by  which  the  apparently  degenerating  cells  of 
the  uterine  epithelium  are  thrust  off.  There  is  no  evidence  of  the 
transformation  of  cells  either  of  the  uterine  epithelium  or  of  the  glan- 
dular lining  into  syncytial  masses.  The  evidence  of  the  sections  leads 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  intervillous  spaces  are  not  lined  by  any  deri- 
vatives of  maternal  cells,  but  by  embryonic  ectodermal  cells.  The 
epithelial  lining  cells  of  the  uterine  glands  seem  to  play  no  permanent 
part  in  the  formation  of  placental  tissues.  The  embryonic  tissue  which 
has  permanent  relations  in  the  placenta  as  ultimately  constituted  is 
identified  with  Voigt's  Grundschicht  of  the  villous  processes  (Pcytotro- 
phoblast  of  other  authors).  In  the  stage  described  there  was  no  meso- 
derm in  the  embryonic  villi. 

Formation  of  Red  Blood  Corpuscles  in  Placenta  of  G-aleopithecus.* 
A.  A.  W.  Hubrecht  finds  clear  evidence  of  haematopoiesis,  not  only  in 
the  maternal  mucosa,  but  also  in  the  embryonic  trophoblast.  He  finds 
that  the  blood  corpuscles  thus  formed  circulate  in  the  maternal  blood- 
vessels only.  Incidentally  he  adds  evidence  in  favour  of  the  view  that 
the  red  blood  corpuscles  in  mammals  are  not  equivalent  with  cells,  but 
must  be  regarded  as  nuclear  derivatives. 


j&"- 


Growth  of  Testes  in  Birds  and  Mammals.f — R.  Disselhorst  calls 
attention  to  various  facts  which  show  that  the  growth  of  the  testes  in 
birds  and  mammals  is  for  a  long  time  relatively  independent  of  that  of 
the  body  generally.  While  other  organs  are  showing  their  maximum 
rate  of  growth,  the  testes  remain  in  a  latent  state.  This  condition  is 
paralleled  by  that  of  the  testes  in  hibernating  animals,  and  in  birds  out- 
side of  the  breeding  season.  The  author  refers  to  a  paper  which  he 
published  in  189s, J  in  which  he  discussed  the  changes  of  weight  in  the 
gonads  at  different  periods  of  life. 

Incubation  in  Doves.§ — Xavier  Raspail  notes  that  a  turtle-dove 
(Turtur  auritus)  twice  in  succession  left  its  eggs  on  the  eighteenth  day, 
the  eggs  not  developing.  A  carrier  pigeon  did  the  same  four  times  on 
the  eighteenth  day,  the  eggs  not  developing.  He  concludes  that  the 
birds  become  aware  of  the  futility  of  brooding  any  longer.  The  turtle- 
dove is  very  sensitive,  knowing  when  "  a  profane  hand  "  has,  in  its 
absence,  touched  the  eggs  or  the  young,  and  leaving  them  in  conse- 
quence ;  it  is  surprising  that  it  does  not  become  sooner  aware  that  the 
eggs  are  not  developing. 

Amitosis  in  Pig-eon's  Egg.|| — J.  T.  Patterson  finds  that  amito.sis 
plays  an  important  role  in  the  development  of  the  pigeon's  blastoderm. 

*  Proc.  Acad.  Amsterdam,  Section  of  Sciences,  ix.  (1907)  pp.  873-8. 

t  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  113-17. 

J  Arch.  wiss.  Tierheilkunde,  xxiv.  (1898)  heft  6. 

§  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  89-90. 

||  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908).  pp.  117-25  (24  figs.). 


1(32  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

A  study  of  the  regional  occurrence  of  mitosis  and  amitosis  reveals  the 
fact  that  the  former  is  found  mainly  in  slowly  and  the  latter  in  rapidly 
growing  parts  of  the  blastoderm.  The  idea  that  the  cells  which  divide 
by  amitosis  are  on  the  road  to  degeneration  receives  no  support  from 
the  facts  here  recorded.  Amitosis  is  probably  the  result  of  special 
physiological  conditions  which  create  a  stimulus  to  cell-division,  but 
what  these  conditions  are  we  are  unable  to  say. 

Post-embryonic  Development  of  Ardeidse.* — S.  Schaub  has  studied 
Ardea purpurea,  A.  cinerea  and  Nyctieorax  griseus,  with  special  reference 
to  the  changes  in  the  proportions  of  the  body  during  post-embryonic 
development,  the  changes  in  the  scales  of  the  feet,  and  the  distribution 
of  the  feathers.  He  discusses  the  pterylography  in  its  developmental 
and  phyletic  aspects.  Emphasis  is  laid  on  the  primary  geometrically 
precise  disposition  of  the  feathers,  which  is  interpreted  in  con-elation 
with  the  strains  on  the  skin.  There  may  have  been  a  primitive  diffuse- 
ness  of  distribution  from  which  the  geometrically  orderly  arrangements 
have  evolved,  but  a  secondary  diffuseness  may  arise  in  the  definite 
plumage.  Powder-down  feathers  are  peculiarly  specialised  down-feathers 
forming  a  dust  whose  function  seems  to  be  analogous  to  that  of  the 
preen  gland.  There  is  no  fat  about  the  powder  :  the  greasy  feeling  is 
due  to  the  mechanical  nature  of  very  flexible  minute  horny  plates.  The 
powder  is  formed  by  the  degeneration  of  a  cellular  sheath  around  the 
barbs.  But  the  powder-down  feathers  of  different  birds  are  very  diverse, 
and  are  rather  analogous  than  homologous  structures. 

Complementary  Spiracles  in  Anura.f — P.  Wintrebert  has  corrobo- 
rated in  Alytes  obstetricans  and  Rana  temporaria  the  observation  of 
H.  Brauss  (on  Bombinator)  that  the  opening  from  the  branchial  chamber 
at  the  beginning  of  the  metamorphosis  occurs  even  in  the  absence  of 
the  anterior  limbs.  He  does  not  regard  this  as  an  "  ontogenetic  remi- 
niscence," but  gives  an  ingenious  interpretation  of  the  growth-conditions 
which  lead  to  the  perforation. 

Development  of  Lymph-sacs  in  Hind  Limb  of  Frog.J— Gizela 
Goldfinger  has  studied  this  on  the  developing  and  regenerating  limb, 
and  finds  that  lymph-capillaries  ramify,  form  a  network,  and  coalesce 
with  obliteration  of  their  walls,  so  that  sacs  result — a  confirmation  of 
Kanvier's  view. 

Gastrulation  in  Teleosteans.§ — J.  Boeke  maintains  that  in  Teleos- 
teans  (muraenoids)  the  process  of  gastrulation  is  ended  as  soon  as  the 
prostomial  thickening  has  been  formed,  viz.  at  the  beginning  of  the 
covering  of  the  yolk.  At  that  moment  the  "  Anlage  "  of  the  entoderm 
is  clearly  differentiated,  and  the  ectodermal  cells  begin  to  invaginate  to 
form  the  chorda  and  mesodermic  plates ;  the  concentration  of  the  cells 
towards  the  median  line  begins  ;  the  long  and  slender  embryo  is  formed 
out  of  the  broad  and  short  embryonic  shield.     The  blastula  cavity,  in 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  305-404  (2  pis.  and  18  figs.). 

t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  439-41. 

%  Bull.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  No.  4  (1907)  pp.  259-76  (1  pi.). 

§  Proc.  Acad.  Amsterdam,  Section  of  Sciences,  ix.  (1907)  pp.  800-8  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  L63 

the  cases  in  which  it  is  developed,  has  disappeared  as  such ;  all  the 
following  processes,  the  longitudinal  growth  of  the  embryo,  the  covering 
of  the  yolk  by  the  blastoderm  ring,  the  closure  of  the  yolk  blastopore, 
belong  to  the  notogenesis,  and  we  are  no  more  entitled  to  reckon  these 
processes  to  gastrulation  proper  than  we  are  to  do  that  of  the  covering 
of  the  yolk  by  the  entoderm  in  Sauropsids. 

Early  Stages  of  Fresh-water  Fishes.* — F.  B.  Browne  gives  a  brief 
account  of  the  early  stages  in  the  life-history  of  the  pike,  the  perch,  the 
bream,  the  roach,  and  the  stickleback. 

Monstrosities. t — Paul  Ernst  discusses  numerous  human  monstrosities 
in  the  light  of  experimental  embryology  and  phylogeny.  He  shows  in 
an  instructive  way  how  recent  researches  on  the  influence  of  abnormal 
conditions  on  ova  and  embryos  throw  light  on  familiar  teratological 
phenomena  in  man.  There  is  less  light  to  be  got  from  phylogenetic 
considerations,  but  illustrations  of  arrested  development  are  common. 
The  paper  is  illustrated  by  a  grim  series  of  plates  showing  monstrosities. 

b.  Histolog-y. 

Structure  of  Cilia.J — L.  W.  "Williams  has  studied  the  action  of  cilia,, 
especially  on  Gastropoda  larva,  and  has  been  led  to  a  modification  of 
the  theory  of  their  structure.  All  protoplasmic  processes,  cilia,  flagella, 
pseudopodia,  and  Acinetarian  tentacles,  are  of  essentially  the  same 
structure,  and  consist  of  a  contractile  protoplasmic  sheath  enclosing 
a  solid  or  fluid  non-contractile  core.  Primitively  the  sheath  is  con- 
tractile throughout,  and  is  not  marked  off  structurally  or  functionally 
from  the  rest  of  the  ectoplasm.  Secondarily  the  sheath  becomes 
differentiated  into  contractile  and  non-contractile  portions. 

The  contractile  protoplasm  of  velar  cilia  and  ctenophore  plates  is 
practically  confined  to  the  base  of  the  cilium.  Parker  has  shown  that 
in  reversible  cilia,  e.g.  in  Metridium,  the  contractile  substance  must 
occur  in  two  bands  on  opposite  sides,  and  that  irreversible  cilia  have 
probably  only  one  band.  Ballowitz  has  shown  that  spermatozoan  flagella 
have  a  fibrillar  axial  structure  surrounded  by  a  sheath  of  uneven  thick- 
ness ;  others  have  shown  that  the  axial  rod  supports  an  irregular  con- 
tractile protoplasmic  sheath. 

The  core  of  the  pseudopodium,  which  is  to  be  regarded  as  the 
simplest  cilium,  is  fluid.  In  higher  stages  of  ciliary  development  a  solid, 
which  is  elastic  in  cilia  and  flagella  and  inelastic  in  pendulous  pseudo- 
podia, replaces  the  fluid  core. 

Development  of  Cartilage. § — Ed.  Retterer  finds  that  in  embryonic 
development  the  first  trabecular  of  fundamental  substance  are  elaborated 
by  the  chromophilous  protoplasm  of  the  cellular  syncytium  which  repre- 
sents the  primordium  of  the  cartilage.  From  their  first  appearance  they 
show  zones  or  lamellae,  alternately  light  and  dark.     To  begin  with,  the 

*  Trans.  Norfolk  and  Norwich  Nat.  Soc,  viii.  (1907)  pp.  478-88  (2  pis.). 
t  Verh.  Schw.  Nat.  Ges.,  89th  Jahres.  in  St.  Gallen,  1907,  pp.  129-G9  (19 figs., 
mostly  plates).  J  Amer.  Nat.,  xli.  (1907)  pp.  545-61  (2  figs.). 

§  C.K.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  3-6. 


164  SUMMARY    OK   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

trabecule  run  from  cell  to  cell-forming  an  alveolar  system.  Later  on, 
the  cells  begin  to  elaborate  concentric  layers  around  each  cell,  and  the 
cartilage  takes  on  the  features  of  the  adult  cartilage. 

Neuroglia  Syncytium.* — R.  J.  Terry  finds  that  the  neuroglia  of  the 
brain  of  Batrachus  (opsanus)  In  a  is  a  syncytium  comparable  in  form  and 
structure  with  that  of  human  and  pig  embryos. 

Theory  of  Malignant  Tumours.j — Emil  v.  Dungern  and  Richard 
AVerner  discuss  the  influence  of  external  stimuli  on  the  growth  and 
multiplication  of  cells,  and  expound  the  following  thesis.  All  cells  have 
in  themselves  several  regulation-mechanisms  which  inhibit  a  persistent 
increase  of  the  growth  and  multiplication.  By  diverse  stimuli  these 
inhibitory  arrangements  may  be  temporarily  weakened  or  put  out  of 
gear,  so  that  exaggerated  assimilation  and  proliferation  set  in.  The 
inhibitory  arrangements  may  be  regenerated,  but  it  is  not  possible 
experimentally  to  render  them  permanently  futile  without  destroying 
the  rest  of  the  cellular  organisation.  Thus  it  is  not  possible  to  induce 
experimentally  an  unlimited  proliferation  of  cells,  such  as  occurs  in 
malignant  tumours. 


'■to* 


./Esthetic  Aspect  of  Animals.}—  Karl  Mobius  discusses  the  aesthetic 
value  of  the  various  forms  of  animal  life.  A  pleasant  aesthetic  emotion 
at  the  sight  of  a  beautiful  animal  has  an  objective  and  a  subjective  basis, 
both  very  complex.  On  the  one  hand,  there  are  definable  qualities  of 
symmetry,  proportion,  balance,  coloration,  which  please  us  ;  on  the  other 
hand,  we  read  into  the  animal  the  qualities  of  a  human  artist,  and  we 
praise  the  freedom  and  individuality,  the  unity  and  harmony,  and  fre- 
quently the  effectiveness  and  significance  which  its  beauty  expresses. 
In  estimating  an  animal's  aesthetic  value,  it  is  very  important  to  see  it  in 
its  natural  setting  and  to  see  it  alive.  Beauty  of  form  pleases  us  more 
than  beauty  of  colour — it  goes  deeper,  it  has  more  meaning.  A  large 
part  of  Mobius's  beautifully  illustrated  book  is  devoted  to  a  consideration 
of  what  might  be  called  the  canons  of  animal  architecture.  All  styles 
are  not  equally  pleasing,  and  there  are  reasons  for  this.  Thus  the 
human  eye  does  not  like  to  look,  we  are  told,  at  animals  which  are  un- 
symmetrical,  whose  bodies  lack  unity,  whose  parts  are  monotonously 
repeated,  which  lack  a  centre  for  the  eye  to  rest  on,  which  are  so  un- 
conventional, like  crabs,  as  to  be  broader  than  they  are  long.  Whether 
one  agrees  or  not  with  the  illustrious  author,  who  has  been  for  so  long 
familiar  with  beautiful  animals,  and  with  the  display  of  them  in  the 
museum  at  Berlin,  one  cannot  but  be  interested  in  his  discussion  of  a 
fascinating  subject. 

Weight  of  Brain  in  Man  and  Woman. § — L.  Lapicque  notes  that 
the  average  weights  of  the  brains  in  adult  Europeans  are  1360  grm.  for 
men  and  1220  for  women.     But  the  average  weights  of  the  body  are 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxi.  (1907)  pp.  27-30  (2  figs.). 

f  Das  Weseti  der  bdsartigen  Geschwiilste,  erne  biologische  Studie.  Leipzig  : 
1907,  159  pp.     See  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxvii.  (1907)  pp.  767-8. 

\  Astbetik  der  Tierwelt.  By  Prof.  Karl  Mobius.  Jena  :  Fiscber  (1908)  128  pp., 
(3  pis.,  195  figs.).  §  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  432-5. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  165 

66  und  54  kilogrm.     "When  this  is  taken  into  account,  the  result  is- 
practically  equality  between  the  sexes. 

Eighth  Cerebral  Nerve.* — C.  Winkler  discusses  the  central  course  of 
the  nervus  octavus,  and  its  influence  on  motility.  Previous  researches 
have  shown  tbat  the  distribution  of  the  eighth  nerve  is  much  more 
complicated  than  was  surmised  before,  and  Ewald  has  shown  that  dis- 
turbances of  locomotion  in  pigeons  follow  the  removal  of  the  labyrinth 
on  one  side  or  on  both  sides.  "Winkler  finds  that  the  course  of  the 
octavus  fibres-  and  their  distribution  towards  different  centres  in  the 
medulla  oblongata,  pons,  and  mesencephalon  is  different  in  detail  in 
pigeon,  rabbit,  dog,  cat,  mouse,  and  man,  and  that  the  functional 
troubles,  consequent  on  section  of  the  octavus  in  pigeon,  rabbit,  dog, 
and  cat  are  also  different  in  detail.  The  mode  of  the  central  distribu- 
tion of  the  eighth  nerve  does  not  warrant  a  sharp  distinction  between 
that  of  the  N.  cochlearis  and  that  of  the  N.  vestibularis.  It  is  necessary 
to  ask  whether  the  cochlear,  whose  end-organ  is  endowed  with  the 
function  of  hearing,  does  not  exert  a  certain  influence  upon  the  muscular 
system,  and  whether  the  vestibular,  endowed  with  important  significance 
for  motor  functions,  does  not  contribute  also  to  the  function  of  hearing. 
"Winkler  thinks  that  by  the  octavus-fibres,  centres  are  innervated,  whence 
originate  long  tracts  towards  the  lateral  and  anterior  columns  of  the 
medulla  providing  the  motor  centres  with  fibres,  and  that  even  primary 
octavus  fibres,  though  in  a  slight  degree,  follow  the  same  path.  We 
cannot  do  more  than  indicate  the  general  nature  of  this  memoir,  in 
which  the  author  seeks  to  establish  a  correlation  between  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  octavus  fibres  and  the  physiological  role  of  the  nerve. 

Dentition  of  Mammals.! — W.  Leche  continues  his  important  in- 
vestigations on  the  ontogeny  and  phylogeny  of  mammalian  dentitions. 
In  the  present  instalment  he  deals  with  the  families  Centetidge,  Soleno- 
dontidse,  and  Chrysochloridas,  which  he  discusses  not  only  as  regards 
their  teeth,  but  in  respect  to  the  entirety  of  their  characters. 

His  most  general  result  is  that  the  Insectivora  should  be  classified  as 
follows  :• — 


I.  Sub-order  Centetoidea  - 

II.  Sub-order  Brinacoidea 
III.  Sub-order  Soricoidea 


[   Family  1.  Chrysochloridai. 

„  2.  Centetidas. 

„  3.  Solenodontidse. 

„  4.  Leptictidae. 

„  5.  Erinaceidas. 

|         „  6.  Soricidas. 

i        „  7.  Talpidae. 


Leche  gives  some  interesting  illustrations  of  convergence,  e.g.  between 
Erinacevs  and  Ericulus,  Notoryctes  and  Chrysochloris ;  in  the  special 
sesamoid  associated  with  the  flexor  digitorum  profundus  in  Chrysochloris, 
compared  with  Notoryctes  and  Necrolestes,  he  finds  an  illustration  of 
progressive  evolution  ;  in  Chrysochloris,  again,  he  sees  an  example  of  the 
preservation  of  a  primitive  type  by  specialisation ;  Hemicentetes  may  be 

*  Verb.  k.  Akad.  Wetensch.  Amsterdam,  xiv.  (1907)  pp.  1-202  (24  pis.). 
t   Zoologica,  xx.  Heft  49  (1907)  pp.  1-157  (4  pis.  and  108  figs.). 


L66  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

described  as  a  persistent  young  stage  of  Centetes  ;  in  the  history  of  the 
Itli  deciduous  premolar  of  Hemicentetes  nigriceps,  there  is  a  good  instance 
of  "  function-change,"  and  among  other  interesting  points  emphasized  is 
the  evolution  of  similar  forms  of  teeth  along  different  paths  and  the 
I  insistence  of  a  hypobasal  chorda  dorsalis  in  the  skull  of  /'e/itetes  and 
Ericulus. 

New  Acanthoglossus.*—  Oldfield  Thomas  describes  a  new  long- 
nosed  Echidna  (Acttntlioglossus  goodfplloivi  sp.  n.)  obtained  by 
Walter  Goodfellow  in  the  island  of  Salawatti.  The  genus  has  not 
hitherto  been  recorded  out  of  New  Guinea  itself,  and  there  mainly  or 
entirely  at  high  altitudes,  for  which  the  thick  coat  of  A.  bruignii 
is  admirably  suited.  The  island  of  Salawatti  is  throughout  comparatively 
low,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  species  of  Acanthoglossus  occurring 
there  should  have  a  coat  much  more  spinous  and  less  hairy  than  in  any 
of  the  forms  of  A.  brnignii. 

Relationships  of  Sparassodonta.* — W.  D.  Matthew  discusses  this 
interesting  group  of  extinct  mammals  found  in  the  Tertiary  formations 
of  Patagonia.  They  appear  to  have  taken  the  place  of  true  Carnivora  in 
South  America  during  most  of  the  Tertiary  period,  as  the  carnivorous 
Marsupials  do  in  the  modern  fauna  of  Australia.  The  Sparassodonts 
appear  to  be  related  to  Marsupials,  such  as  Thylacinus,  rather  than  to 
Placentals,  such  as  the  Creodonts  and  modern  Carnivora. 

Kidney  of  Elephant.} — A.  Pettit  describes  the  kidney  of  Elephas 
(Loxodon)  africanus,  which  consists  of  a  variable  number  of  lobes  sur- 
rounded by  a  sort  of  muscular  sacking.  In  some  other  mammals  smooth 
muscle-fibres  have  been  found  associated  with  the  capsule  and  calices  of 
the  kidney,  and  even  in  the  renal  parenchyma.  It  is  possible  that  the 
marked  development  in  the  African  elephant  may  have  to  do  with  the 
evacuation  of  the  urine  from  the  immense  organ,  but  there  are 
no  facts  to  prove  this.  The  kidney  of  the  elephant  has,'  as  usual,  a 
"  pluri-reniculate  "  stage,  but  the  peculiarity  is  that  this  persists,  though 
with  a  tendency  to  a  reduction  of  the  number  of  lobes,  in  the  adult.  It 
is  intermediate  between  the  "  conglobate  "  and  "  pluri-reniculate  "  types, 
and  is  remarkable  for  the  system  of  contractile  partitions. 

Comparative  Anatomy  of  Tongue  of  Woodpecker.§ — A.  Leiber  pub- 
lishes a  monograph  dealing  with  the  structure,  comparative  anatomy, 
mechanism  and  phylogeny  of  the  woodpecker's  tongue.  He  deduces  the 
somewhat  complicated  anatomy  of  this  organ  from  the  simpler  relations 
observed  in  the  genera  C'itta  and  Certhia,  where  the  development  is  less 
extreme  but  in  the  same  direction. 

Circulatory  Mechanism  in  Teleosteans.|| — Wilhelmina  Kolff  finds 
that  the  propulsion  of  the  blood  is  due  not  merely  to  the  action  of  the 
heart,  but  to  numerous  subsidiary  factors — the  negative  pericardial  pres- 

*  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xx.  (1907)  pp.  498-9. 

t  Geol.  Mag.,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  531-5. 

%  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  vii.  (1907)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  4,  pp.  ciii.-xi.  (2  rigs.). 

§  Zoologica,  xx.  Heft  51  (Stuttgart,  1907)  pp.  1-79  (6  pis.  and  13  figs.). 

|j  Atti  R.  Accad.  Lincei  Roma,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  479-90  (5  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  167 

sure,  the  respiratory  movements,  and  the  muscular  contractions  in 
swimming.  In  the  eel  the  normal  frequency  of  beats  is  greater  than 
that  of  the  respiratory  movements,  in  Bar  bus  fluviatilis  and  Telestes 
mutkdlus  it  is  less.  Stimulation  of  the  vagus  nerve  produces  diastolic 
arrest ;  cutting  it  results  in  acceleration.  Warming  the  water  results  in 
increasing  the  rapidity  of  the  cardiac  rhythm  up  to  a  maximum  which  is 
not  exceeded  ;  when  the  temperature  is  lowered,  the  frequency  diminishes. 

Mutation-phenomena  in  Animals.* — M.  Nussbaum  calls  attention 
to  cases  such  as  the  differences  in  the  optic  chiasma  in  nearly  related 
species  of  fishes.  In  one  the  right  is  uppermost,  in  another  the  left  is 
uppermost ;  and  there  are  many  similar  instances  in  regard  to  which  an 
apparent  abruptness  of  change  must  be  postulated.  In  other  words, 
there  is  a  certain  discontinuity  in  the  adult  results,  though  these  results 
are  reached  by  continuous  ontogenetic  development.  But  it  is  hardly 
to  details  of  this  sort  that  de  Vries1  concept  of  mutation  refers. 

Natural  History  of  the  Lumpsucker.f  —  Theodore  Gill  gives  an 
interesting  account  of  the  peculiarities,  habits,  and  relationships  of  the 
lumpsucker.  The  skeleton  is  very  remarkable  because  of  the  extreme 
reduction  of  the  bones  and  the  inverse  development  of  cartilage.  All 
the  bones,  however,  are  there,  but  existent  in  a  reduced  state  or  as  thin 
membrane-like  pieces  fastened  to  the  cartilaginous  mass.  The  relation- 
ships of  Cyclopterids  are  with  the  Sculping  or  Cottidse,  which  have  the 
bones  firm  and  well  ossified,  and  very  little  persistent  cartilage.  A 
review  is  taken  of  the  different  genera. 

The  lumpsucker  is  widely  distributed  in  the  North  Atlantic,  both 
horizontally  and  vertically.  It  frequents  cold  waters  :  it  is  a  "  bottom 
fish,"  though  it  may  be  found  swimming  freely  ;  it  is  rather  lethargic, 
but  very  active  and  fierce  in  the  breeding  season  ;  it  feeds  on  crustaceans, 
medusae,  worms,  and  shell-less  molluscs. 

The  spawning  season  lasts  from  February  to  June.  The  male  keeps 
a  watchful  guard  over  the  eggs,  not  merely  defending  them  from 
intruders,  but  aerating  them  by  waving  his  pectoral  fins  and  spouting 
water  from  his  mouth,  as  Fulton  has  shown.  An  account  of  the  larva? 
is  given,  and  the  vivid  paper  ends  with  a  discussion  of  the  lumpsucker's 
dubious  palatability. 

Respiratory  Mechanism  in  Elasmobranchs.J — A.  D.  Darbishire 
has  elucidated  several  interesting  facts  in  connection  with  the  breathing 
in  various  types.  In  the  dogfish,  water  is  drawn  into  the  mouth  and 
spiracle  by  the  expansion  of  the  whole  phargyngeal  region  ;  water  is  pre- 
vented from  entering  the  gill  slits  by  their  automatic  closure,  the  gill 
covers  being  in  part  passive  agents  in  determining  the  respiratory  cur- 
rent. The  differences  between  the  dogfish  and  ray  in  their  respiratory 
mechanism  all  relate  to  the  flat  shape  and  ground  habitat  of  the  ray. 
In  the  former  the  greater  part  of  the  inhaled  water  enters  through 
the  mouth,  in  the  latter  through  the  spiracle — solely  through  it  when 
the  fish  is  at  rest.     In  the  dogfish  water  never  enters  solely  through  the 

*  Mutationserscheinuugen  bei  Tieren.  (Bonn,  1906)  24  pp. 
t  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  175-94  (16  figs.). 
\  Journ.  Linn.  Soc,  xxx.  (1907)  pp.  86-94  (3  figs.). 


168  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

spiracle  :  it  is  occasionally  ejected  from  it ;  in  the  ray  the  current  can  he 
definitely  reversed  for  a  considerable  number  of  respiratory  acts.  In 
Ilh inn  the  water  is  drawn  into  the  mouth  by  the  undulation  of  the  gill 
covers,  which  are  thus  active  agents  in  determining  the  respiratory 
current.  The  spiracle  in  Rhina  is  only  capable  of  slow  and  imperceptible 
opening  and  closing  ;  it  does  not  open  and  shut  rhythmically  as  in  the 
case  of  the  ray  and  dogfish. 

New  Deep-sea  Fishes  from  South-west  of  Ireland.* — E.  W.  L. 
Holt  and  L.  W.  Byrne  describe  the  following  new  species  collected  by 
the  '  Helga  ' — Lremonema  latifrons,  from  720  fathoms  ;  Cyttosoma  JielgcB, 
from  540-660  fathoms  ;   Oneirodes  megaceros,  from  775-795  fathoms. 

Labyrinth  Organ  of  Labyrinthici.f — G.  Henninger  describes  the 
structure  and  position  of  this  accessory  respiratory  organ  in  Anabas 
scandens,  Macropodus  viridi-auratus,  and  Trichogaster  fasciatus,  and 
relates  experiments  which  show  that  atmospheric  air  is  used  by  these 
fishes.  He  discusses  the  afferent  and  efferent  blood-vessels  and  the 
rete  mirabile  in  the  organ,  as  also  the  fact  that  the  heart  contains 
"  mixed  blood." 

Freshwater  Fishes  of  New  Guinea.  J — Max  Weber  points  out 
that  the  river  fishes  of  New  Guinea  belong  to  two  groups  :— (1)  afluvio- 
marine  group,  which  is  Indo- Australian,  or  Indo- Pacific,  and  which  may 
be  met  with,  also,  for  instance,  in  Ambon  or  Celebes,  and  (2)  a  charac- 
teristic Australian  contingent.  Of  the  latter,  24  in  number,  none  is 
known  from  the  sea.  Of  the  12  species  of  Melanotseniidaj  known  from 
New  Guinea,  and  of  the  12  species  from  tropical  or  sub-tropical 
Australia,  not  one  is  common  to  the  two  regions,  although  the  differences 
between  some  of  the  species  are  very  small.  The  author  concludes  that 
the  connection  between  Australia  and  New  Guinea  must  have  been  not 
earlier  than  in  the  Pliocene,  and  the  breaking  up  of  it  in  the  Pleistocene. 

Swim-bladder  in  Scisenidae.§  —  L.  Cohn  describes  the  complications 
of  the  swim-bladder  in  Collichthys  lucida,  Otolithus  argmteus,  and  other 
Scisenids.  In  some  genera,  e.g.  Corvina,  there  are  species  with  swim- 
bladders  without  diverticula,  with  simple  cornua,  with  dichotomously 
forked  cornua,  and  with  dendriform  outgrowths.  In  Otolithus  gracilis 
the  first  pair  of  diverticula  form  3  to  4  branches,  and  extend  for- 
wards to  the  auditory  capsule,  with  which  the  branches  are  closely 
connected  ;  the  second  pair  grow  dorsallv,  and  surround  with  their 
branches  the  under  side  of  the  first  and  second  vertebrae  ;  then  follow 
numerous  outgrowths,  extending  downwards  to  right  and  left ;  each 
outgrowth  divides  into  a  dorsal  branch  and  a  ventral  branch,  the  former 
branching  much  more  than  the  latter. 


*& 


Poison-glands   of  Catfishes.||—  H.  D.  Reed  describes  the  poison- 
glands  of  the  "  stone  cats "  and  "  mad  toms,"  species  of  Nbturus  and 

*  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  8,  i.  (1908)  pp.  86-95  (1  pi.  and  1  fig.). 

t  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  251-304  (4  pis.  and  3  figs.). 

%  Proc.  Acad.  Amsterdam,  Section  of  Sciences,  ix.  (1907)  pp.  462-5. 

§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  433-40  (4  figs.). 

||  Amer.  Nat.,  xli.  (1907)  pp.  533-66  (5  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  169 

SchUbeodes  found  in  North  American  streams.  These  catnshes  have  an 
axillary  pore,  which  is  the  opening  of  a  gland.  Experiments  with 
S.  gyrinus  indicate  that  the  secretion  of  the  gland  is  poisonous.  In 
addition  to  the  axillary  glands,  S.  gyrinus  and  S.  noctunrus  have  similar 
glands  developed  about  the  pectoral  and  dorsal  spines,  with  ends  pro- 
jecting slightly  through  a  slit  in  the  epidermis.  Spine-glands  are  not 
found  in  those  species  which  possess  well  developed  seme  upon  the 
spines. 

The  glands  are  invaginations  of  the  epidermis  ;  the  gland -sheath 
is  modified  corium  ;  the  clavate  cells  of  the  skin  become  the  secretory 
cells  ;  the  ordinary  epidermal  cells  form  a  supporting  network  ;  there 
are  no  muscles  for  forcing  out  the  secretion  ;  the  cell-walls  are  evidently 
ruptured  by  the  pressure  of  their  contents,  and  in  this  way  the  spines  are 
constantly  anointed  with  the  poisonous  secretion. 

Poison  Apparatus  of  Weever.* — J.  0.  Borley  describes  the  poison- 
glands  of  Trachinus  draco  and  T.  vipera,  which  are  lodged  in  five  or 
six  rays  of  the  dorsal  fin  and  in  a  spinous  outgrowth  of  the  opercular 
bone.  The  opercular  gland  consists  of  a  capsule  of  connective-tissue, 
a  rich  network  of  capillaries,  and  very  large  secretory  cells  in  radiating 
columns.  The  secretion  appears  in  two  states  :  masses  of  finely  granular 
material,  and  highly  refringent  colloidal  substance,  either  two  secretions 
or  two  stages  of  one  secretion.  It  is  highly  probable  that  there  is  a 
perpetual  waste  of  secretion  into  the  sea,  though  this  is  minimised  by 
the  closeness  with  which  the  sheath  fits  the  spine.  Where  the  spine 
issues  from  the  substance  of  the  operculum  it  is  still  at  the  bottom  of 
a  tube  sunk  in  the  operculum,  this  tube  being  the  sheath.  This  tube 
wrinkles  down  about  the  spine  as  the  latter  enters  a  victim  until  about 
one-third  of  the  spine  is  uncovered. 

H.  Muir  Evans  f  has  made  some  experiments  on  the  action  of  the 
weever's  poison.  He  refers  to  the  previous  investigations  of  BottardJ 
and  Briot,§  but  his  own  work  was  independent  of  these.  An  injection 
of  the  poison  into  gold-fish,  frog,  mouse,  and  guinea-pig,  produced  local 
paralysis.  Marked  haemolysis  was  seen  in  the  blood  of  pigeons  and 
various  mammals.  The  poison  is  probably  an  "amboceptor,"  which 
unites  with  the  endocomplements  of  the  blood-cells. 

Food  of  Birds. || — Cecil  H.  Hooper  has  gathered  together  a  number 
of  facts  in  regard  to  the  food  of  birds,  especially  of  those  that  are 
important  practically.  A  few  examples  may  be  given.  The  amount  of 
insect-food  eaten  by  sparrows  is  comparatively  small.  Bullfinches  do 
much  harm  to  fruit-buds,  especially  gooseberries.  Blackbirds  destroy 
much  fruit,  but  are  harmless  or  useful  at  other  times,  eating  worms, 
grubs,  etc.  Starlings  devour  leather- jackets  and  wireworms,  but  destroy 
much  fruit.  Missel-thrushes  eat  many  fruits,  but  outside  the  fruit 
season  they  do  no  harm.  The  song-thrush  devours  fruits,  but  also 
insects,  snails,  and  worms.    Greenfinches  are  a  terrible  pest  among  hops  ; 

*  Trans.  Norfolk  and  Norwich  Nat.  Soc,  viii.  (1907)  pp.  369-73  (1  fig.). 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  355-68  (1  fig.).  $  Les  Poissons  Venirneux,  1889. 

§  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  1902-4. 
||  Journ.  Board  of  Agriculture,  xiv.  (1907)  pp.  402-12. 

April  loth,  1908  n 


170  SUMMABY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

they  eat  newly  sown  and  sprouting  seeds,  and  fruit-buds  :  they  eat  very 
few  insects,  but  many  weeds.  Chaffinches  eat  various  kinds  of  larvge, 
green-fly,  etc.,  but  destroy  fruit-buds,  freshly  sown  and  sprouting  crops. 
Rooks  destroy  leather- jackets,  chafer  larvae,  wireworms,  caterpillars,  slugs, 
young  voles,  but  also  eggs  and  young  of  fowls  and  partridge,  certain 
fruits,  and  freshly  sown  seeds.  The  jackdaw  eats  cockchafer  grubs,  wire- 
worms,  and  leather- jackets  ;  like  the  rook,  it  will  strip  trees  of  walnuts, 
and  where  numerous,  is  destructive  to  peas  and  grain  crops.  It  is  a 
very  destructive  bird  to  the  eggs  and  young  of  game-birds  and  poultry, 
and  will  completely  clear  the  nests  of  small  birds  of  their  eggs  and  young. 
The  wood-pigeon  seems  to  have  no  redeeming  feature  from  the  farmer's 
point  of  view.  Blue-tits  are  great  insect-eaters  ;  they  collect  caterpillars 
from  fruit  trees,  but  they  also  spoil  apples,  pears,  and  other  fruits.  The 
blackcap,  whitethroat,  and  robin  are  insect-eaters,  but  levy  some  toll  on 
fruits.  The  wren,  willow-wren,  goldcrest,  hedge-sparrow,  tree-creeper, 
spotted  flycatcher,  pied  wagtail,  goatsucker,  martin,  swallow,  swift,  etc., 
are  all  useful  and  above  reproach.  The  goldfinch  is  very  useful  as  a 
weed  seed-eater,  as  it  splits  the  seeds  before  eating  them.  Larks  seem 
to  do  considerable  damage  to  growing  crops,  strawberries,  peas,  cabbage, 
and  green  crops.  Of  course  the  author  points  out  that  in  many  cases 
the  verdict  is  still  indecisive  ;  the  facts  require  to  be  more  numerous 
and  precise.  Particular  attention  is  given  to  the  black-headed  gull, 
which  eats  earthworms,  wireworms,  leather- jackets,  slugs,  and  much  vege- 
table and  animal  matter  considered  "  neutral  "  from  a  practical  point  of 
view.  If  it  gets  plenty  of  insects  and  worms,  it  does  not  take  to  fish  or 
cereals. 

INVERTEBRATA. 

Mollusca. 
o-  Cephalopoda. 

Large  Cuttlefish  at  St.  Andrews.* — W.  C.  M'Intosh,  in  his  recent 
contribution  of  notes  from  the  Gratty  Marine  Laboratory,  records  the 
occurrence  of  a  large  specimen  of  Ommastrephes  sagittatus,  d'Orb., 
stranded  on  the  rocks  near  St.  Andrews.  The  length  of  the  mantle 
from  the  tip  of  the  tail  to  the  collar  was  25  in.,  the  pen  measured  23  in., 
the  eight  arms  had  an  average  length  of  IZ\  in.  ;  the  tentacles  were 
unfortunately  absent.     A  description  of  the  suckers  is  given. 

#.  Gastropoda. 

New  Parasitic  Gastropod. f — Paul  Bartsch  describes  Eulima  ptilo- 
crinicola  sp.  n.  found  on  Ptilocrinus  pinnatus,  dredged  by  the  '  Albatross  ' 
in  1588  fathoms  off  British  Columbia.  The  three  specimens  had  the 
proboscis  deeply  inserted  in  the  side  of  the  body  of  the  Crinoid,  and 
it  was  necessary  to  sever  it  in  order  to  release  the  shell.  The  parasitic 
habit,  the  texture,  and  weak  malleations  of  the  surface,  recall  certain 
forms  of  Stylifer,  but  the  absence  of  the  mucronate  apex  and  the 
presence  of  the  operculum  make  it  necessary  to  refer  the  new  form  to 
Eulima. 

*  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xx.  (1907)  pp.  172-5  (3  figs.). 

t  Proc.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  555-6  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,  ETC.  171 

Larval  Stages  of  Cyclostoma  elegans.*  ■ —  C.  Barbieri  gives  an 
account  of  the  larvae  of  this  common  terrestrial  Prosobranch.  There  is 
a  well  developed  velar  region,  without  cilia,  covered  by  a  layer  of 
vacuolated  epithelial  cells.  There  are  two  vitelline  sacs,  right  and  left, 
the  latter  the  larger.  Both  are  composed  of  vacuolated  cells.  The 
liver  develops  in  the  right  vitelline  sac  and  in  the  proximal  portion  of 
the  left.  The  more  differentiated  part  of  the  left  vitelline  sac  atrophies. 
A  considerable  tract  of  the  oesophagus  consists  solely  of  vacuolated  cells. 
The  kidney  and  the  pericardium  develop  from  a  common  rudiment, 
and  the  heart  arises  as  an  introflexion  of  the  pericardial  wall.  At  an 
early  stage  the  pedal  gland  is  formed,  and  has  two  distinct  ducts  and 
openings,  but  the  proximal  parts  of  the  ducts  afterwards  coalesce.  The 
supra-pedal  gland  is  formed  much  later  and  independently  of  the  pedal 
srland.  There  are  folds  on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  mantle  which  mav 
be  regarded  as  a  rudimentary  branchia. 

Orthogenesis  in  Gastropods.! — Amadeus  W.  Grabau  discusses  the 
occurrence  of  orthogenetic  variation,  i.e.  progressive  variation  along 
definite  and  determinate  lines,  in  various  Gastropod  types,  such  as 
Fulgur  and  Melania.  The  Melanias,  to  which  he  refers  in  most  detail, 
form  a  group  of  highly  "  accelerated  "  Gastropods  in  which  the  spines, 
a  specialised  feature,  appearing  late  in  the  phylogeny  of  most  Gastropods, 
have  become  a  dominant  character,  appearing  before  the  ribs  have 
disappeared.  Many  "  phylogerontic  "  members  of  this  group,  forming 
terminals  of  genetic  series,  retain  their  ornamentation  only  in  the  young, 
the  adults  becoming  smooth.  In  several  lines  extreme  accentuation  of 
certain  characters  at  the  expense  of  others  has  resulted  in  grotesque 
forms.  All  the  characters,  however,  appear  and  disappear  in  a  regular 
progressive  manner  both  in  ontogeny  and  in  phylogeny.  The  Melanias 
therefore  constitute  an  excellent  group  from  which  illustrations  of  ortho- 
ontogenesis  and  ortho-phylogenesis  may  be  obtained. 

Minute  Structure  of  Ganglion-cells  of  Tethys  leporina.ij:— Hugo 
Merton  describes  the  canalicular  system  within  the  ganglion-cells 
of  Tethys.  There  is  a  genuine  network  which  penetrates  the  entire 
endoplasm,  and  forms  a  meshwork  around  the  nucleus.  The  close 
relations  between  the  chromophilous  substance  and  the  network  point  to 
a  reciprocal  interaction  between  the  two,  which  is  probably  of  import- 
ance in  the  metabolism  of  the  ganglion-cell. 

Gastropods  of  the  Magellan  Province^ — H.  Strebel  completes  his 
survey  which  includes  236  species  and  varieties,  of  which  209  are  marine. 
In  the  present  instalment  he  deals  with  Acmcea,  Fissurella,  Patinella, 
Siphonaria,  Stephanoda,  etc.  The  characteristic  species  are  Trophon 
geversianus,  laciniatus  and  decolor,  Voluta  ancilla,  Photinula  violacea, 
Patinella  mar/ellanica,  Nacella  cymbularia,  Fissurella  alba,  Euthria 
plumbea  and  magellanica. 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  257-84  (21  figs.). 

+  Amer.  Naturalist,  xli.  (1907)  pp.  607-46  (3  pis.). 

%  Zeitschr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxviii.  (1907)  pp.  327-57  (2  pis.). 

§  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  79-196  (8  pis.  and  6  figs.). 

S  2 


172  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

New  Australian  Chiton.* — R.  A.  Bastow  and  J.  H.  Gatliff  describe 
Enoplockiton  torri  sp.  n.  from  the  coast  of  Queensland.  If  the  reference 
to  Enoplockiton  is  correct  the  species  is  very  interesting  geographically, 
for  the  other  species  of  the  rare  genus,  E.  niger  Barnes,  occurs  oe  the 
coast  of  Peru.  "  The  head-valve  is  studded  with  numerous  bright,  clear, 
amber  eyes,  not  ocelli,  but  real  and  very  human-looking  eyes  ;  these  also 
occur  on  the  lateral  areas  and  on  the  posterior  valve.  .  .  .  The  girdle, 
with  its  radially  striated  scales,  is  ■  unmistakably  well  secured  to  the  very 
numerous  and  deeply-cleft  teeth  in  the  insertion  plates.  .  .  .  The  whole 
of  the  dorsal  sculpture  is  granulate." 

Arthropoda. 
a.  Insecta. 

Senses  of  Ants.f — 0.  C.  Silverlock  has  made  a  number  of  interesting 
-experiments  on  the  reactions  of  ants  to  heat  and  light.  He  shows  that 
some  ants  at  least  feel  a  rise  in  temperature  of  not  more  than  -3°  C. 
He  confirms  Lord  Avebury's  conclusion  that  the  ultra-violet  rays  affect 
the  ants  as  true  light  rays.  The  ants  change  their  position  by  reason 
of  their  dislike  to  the  colour  of  the  ultra-violet  rays,  and  also  by  reason 
of  the  smaller  amount  of  heat  transmitted  through  the  violet  end  of 
the  spectrum. 

Nests  of  Wanderer  Ants.| — E.  Wasmann  has  been  able  to  obtain 
some  information  from  E.  Luja  in  the  Congo  regarding  the  hitherto 
unknown  nest  of  Dorylus  (Anommd)  wilverthi.  It  was  found  at  the  foot 
of  a  tree  in  the  forest ;  it  included  in  its  upper  portions  numerous  myr- 
mecophilous  beetles  quite  different  from  those  which  accompany  the 
armies  on  the  march  ;  the  latter  were  found  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the 
nest.  A  number  of  interesting  details  are  given,  and  the  author  refers 
to  some  other  records  of  the  nests  of  wanderer  ants. 

Clasping  Organs  on  Wings  of  Hymenoptera.§ — L.  Walter  gives  a 
thorough  description  of  the  interlocking  of  the  fore  and  hind  wings  in 
ants,  bees,  wasps,  and  other  Hymenoptera.  The  hind  wing  bears  clasping 
hooks  (distal  and  sub-basal)  and  marginal  bristles.  The  hooks  are  in- 
serted into  a  groove  formed  by  a  recurving  and  folding  in  of  the  posterior 
margin  of  the  fore-wing.  But  the  details  of  the  arrangement  are  in- 
tricate. The  development  has  been  worked  out,  and  the  precise  function 
in  flight  is  analysed. 

Salivary  Glands  of  Hemiptera.|| — E.  Bugnion  describes  the  principal 
and  the  accessory  salivary  glands  of  Pentatoma  grisea,  Graphosoma  linea- 
tum,  Syrbmastes  marginatus  and  Pyrrhocoris  apterus,  besides  giving  an 
account  of  the  salivary  pump  and  the  excretory  ducts. 

Insects  Injurious  to  Books. — P.  S.  de  Magalhaeslf  makes  some  notes 
on  a  species  of  Lepisma,  a  small  beetle  somewhat  like  Anobium  biblio- 

*  Proc.  R.  Soc.  Victoria,  xx.  (1907)  pp.  27-30  (2  pis.). 

t  Nature  Notes,  xviii.  (1907)  pp.  165-9. 

%  Atti  Pontif.  Acad.  Rom.,  lx.  (1907)  pp.  224-9. 

§  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  65-87  (4  pis.). 

I|  Arch.  Sci.  Phys.  Nat.,  xxiv.  (1907)  pp.  639-42. 

<|f  Bull.  Zool.  Soc.  France,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  95-100. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  173 

tkecarmn,  and  a  small  species  of  Tinea.  The  small  beetle  is  described  as 
Dorcatoma  bibliophagum.  It  sometimes  bores  through  a  row  of  several 
volumes.  Carbon  sulphide  is  the  best  remedy,  but  as  the  fumes  injure 
the  colour  of  the  books  and  are  not  without  danger,  F.  Secques  *  suggests 
placing  the  infected  books  for  two  or  three  days  in  an  air-tight  receptacle, 
containing  vapour  of  formol  at  a  temperature  of  50°  or  60°.  To  remove 
the  insects  from  inaccessible  nooks  in  the  library,  small  vessels  with 
formol  may  be  placed  in  the  vicinity,  or  even  powder  of  trioxymethylene. 
It  is  noted,  however,  that  the  vapour  does  not  kill  the  cocoons. 

.  Scale  Insects  of  Date  Palm.f — T.  D.  A.  Cockerell  describes  Parla- 
toria  bhinchardi,  found  on  date-palms  transported  from  Africa  to  Arizona. 
The  female  is  dormant  through  the  winter  ;  the  male  seems  to  be  very 
short-lived,  dying  after  impregnating  the  female.  The  larvae,  which 
crawl  about  restlessly  for  some  time,  are  probably  carried  from  tree  to 
tree  by  insects  and  birds.  Attention  is  also  directed  to  the  marlatt 
scale  (Phmucococcus  marlatti),  discovered  many  years  ago  by  C.  L. 
Marlatt  on  date-palms  imported  from  Algeria.  E.  H.  Forbes  J  discusses 
methods  of  exterminating  these  date-palm  scales,  recommending  especially 
good  pruning  and  firing  infected  trees  with  gasoline. 

Pests  of  the  01ive.§ — F.  Silvestri  continues  his  account  of  the  inju- 
rious insects  which  infest  the  olive.  He  deals  in  detail  with  the  important 
Prays  oleellus,  one  of  the  Hyponoineutidae,  and  more  briefly  with  numerous 
other  pests. 

Mating  of  Rivellia  boscii.|| — W.  H.  Piersol  describes  the  curious 
mating  habit  of  this  fly,  which  he  studied  near  Toronto.  The  female 
runs  about  on  the  leaves  in  small  circles  or  spirals,  varied  by  an  occa- 
sional straight  course.  The  wings  are  moved  slowly  up  and  down,  with 
occasional  pauses  for  a  second  or  two.  The  much  smaller  male  follows 
closely,  and  when  the  pace  admits  touches  the  female  on  the  abdomen 
with  his  proboscis,  or  with  an  anterior  leg.  Sooner  or  later  he  mounts, 
the  penis  is  extended  and  taps  the  abdomen  of  the  female  two  or  three 
times,  when  the  latter  also  becomes  extended  (automatically,  for  it 
happens  even  when  the  male's  attentions  are  not  acceptable),  and  copu- 
lation begins.  The  wings  keep  in  constant  motion,  great  excitement  is 
exhibited,  and  a  droplet  of  colourless  fluid  from  the  male's  proboscis  is 
transferred  to  the  female,  who  eats  it.  This  transference  of  a  globule  is 
repeated  many  times  before  the  pair  separate.  There  are  many  curious 
details  in  this  connection.  There  is  some  evidence  of  choice  on  the 
female's  part.  The  author  refers  to  the  passage  of  some  secretion  from 
the  mouth  of  the  male  pigeon  to  his  mate  as  a  possibly  analogous  case. 

Blood-sucking  Flies.1T — Mario  Bezzi  takes  a  survey  of  the  species  in 
the  genera  Stomoxys,  Glossina,  Glossinella,  Siphona  (Hcematobia)  ami 
Lyperosia,  and  describes  a  few  new  forms. 

*  Bull.  Zool.  Soc.  France,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  100-1. 

t  Bull.  Agric.  Exper.  Station  Univ.  Arizona,  No.  5G  (1907)  pp.  185-92  (5  pis. ). 
X  Tom,  cit.,  pp.  193-207  (5  figs.). 

§  Boll.  Lab.  Zool.  Scuola  Agric.  Portici,  ii.  (1907)  pp.  83-184  (68  figs.). 
|]  Amer.  Nat.,  xli.  (1907)  pp.  465-7. 
If  Rend.  R.  1st.  Lombardo,  xl.  (1907)  pp.  433-60. 


174  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Structure  and  Behaviour  of  Larva  of  Anopheles  maculipennis.* 
A.  1).  I  nuns  gives  a  preliminary  account  of  the  larvae  of  this  mosquito, 
collected  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cambridge.  The  various  systems  in 
the  body  are  described.  The  large  oenocytes  are  segmentally  arranged 
in  clusters  ;  the  small  oenocytes,  which  are  very  numerous,  have  no 
definite  arrangement.  The  imaginal  buds  are  well  developed  and  easy 
to  discover.  They  are  superficial  in  position,  being  situated  just  below 
the  hypodermis,  and  the  primitive  invaginations  of  the  buds  remain 
permanently  open. 

In  another  paper f  he  describes  the  external  features,  digestive  and 
respiratory  systems.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  structure  in  the 
digestive  system  is  the  peritrophic  membrane,  a  thin,  probably  chitinous 
tube  which  completely  incloses  the  food  as  it  passes  through  the  mesen- 
teron.  It  appears  to  protect  the  mesenteric  epithelium  from  abrasion 
by  hard  and  resisting  particles  of  food.  Like  other  chitinous  mid-gut 
linings,  it  is  shed  at  ecdysis.  On  the  respiratory  system  certain  tracheal 
branches  are  described  which  are  very  thin-walled,  and  which  by  envelop- 
ing the  terminal  chamber  of  the  heart  probably  enable  the  blood  to  come 
into  close  contact  with  their  contained  oxygen,  and  in  this  way  form  a 
kind  of  "  lung."  Tracheal  anal  gills  are  also  present,  which  are  well 
supplied  with  blood,  and  probably  function  as  accessory  respiratory 
organs. 

Shell-bearing  Mycetophila  Larva.J  —  Nils  Holmgren  describes 
the  anatomy  of  the  larva  of  Mycetophila  ancyUformans  sp.  n.  which 
carries  a  black  shell,  and  which  was  at  first  mistaken  for  an  Ancylus. 
It  occurs  on  the  leaves  of  a  species  of  Barnbus  in  the  primeval  forests  of 
Bolivia  and  Peru.     A  diagnostic  description  of  the  imago  is  also  given. 

Relation  of  Fleas  to  Plague  Dissemination. § — Carlo  Tiraboschi 
gives  a  very  full  discussion  of  this  subject,  bringing  together  all  the 
known  facts  regarding  the  role  of  rats  and  mice,  their  distribution,  and 
the  morphology  of  their  fleas.  The  paper  also  contains  a  systematic 
account  of  the  families  Pulicidse  and  Sarcopsyllidge,  together  with 
notes  on  the  Pediculi  and  Acarid  parasites  of  the  rat.  Rats  and  mice 
play  an  important  part  in  disseminating  plague  ;  it  is  quite  established 
that  fleas  are  disseminated  from  rat  to  rat,  from  rat  to  man,  and  from 
man  to  man.  The  fleas  concerned  in  plague  dissemination  are  Pulex 
cheopis  Roth.,  Ceratophyllus  fasciatus  Bosc,  Ctenopsylla  musculi  Duges, 
Ctenocephalus  felis  Bouche,  and  Ctenocephalus  canis  Curtis  ;  the  most 
probable  species  in  transference  from  rat  to  man  are  P.  cheopis, 
P.  irritans,  Ctenocephalus  felis,  C.  canis,  and,  perhaps,  Ceratophyllus 
fasciata,  but  chiefly  P.  cheopis.  This  last-named  species  is  widely  dis- 
tributed on  rats  in  the  plague-infested  regions  of  India  and  Australia. 
The  facility  with  which  it  is  transported  naturally  by  man  in  the  absence 
of  rats  renders  it  very  important.  Neither  the  Sarcopsyllidaa,  lice,  nor 
Acarids  are  of  significance  in  this  connection,  and  bugs  ordinarily  do 
not  play  an  important  role  in  the  dissemination  of  plague. 

*  Proc.  Cambridge  Phil.  Soc,  xiv.  (1907)  pp.  292-5. 

t  Journ.  Hygiene,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  291-318  (2  pis.  and  1  fig.). 

t  Zeitschr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  lxixviii.  (1907)  pp.  1-77  (5  pis.  and  2  figs.). 

§  Arch,  de  Parasitol.,  xi.  (1907)  pp.  545-620  (15  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  175 

Dimorphism  in  Australian  Agrionidae.* — R.  J.  Tillyard  records 
•dimorphism  of  the  females  in  two  Australian  genera.  These  two  con- 
tain the  smallest  and  weakest  species  of  the  dragon-flies  known  in 
Australia,  a  point  which  the  author  regards  as  strengthening  the 
contention  that  the  existence  of  dimorphic  females  is  in  some  manner  or 
other  connected  with  the  preservation  of  the  species.  The  forms 
exhibiting  dimorphism  are  Ischnura  delicata  Selys  9  and  Ar/riocnemis 
splendida  Martin  ?  .  The  two  genera  referred  to,  though  differing 
widely  in  their  wing-structure,  have  many  points  of  similarity. 

New  Order  of  Apterygota.f — F.  Silvestri  describes  Acermtomon 
g.n.,  represented  by  A.  doderoi  sp.  n.  It  was  found  in  humus  at  Genoa 
and  other  localities  in  Italy.  Antennae  and  cerci  are  absent ;  the  oral 
apparatus  is  suctorial ;  there  are  eleveu  abdominal  segments  and  a  very 
primitive  anal  segment ;  the  genital  aperture  is  unpaired  on  the  eleventh 
urosternite  ;  there  is  a  supra-anal  and  a  sub-anal  lamina  ;  there  are  no 
eyes,  but  there  are  two  ocelli  (?).  It  is  the  most  primitive  insect  as  yet 
discovered,  and  requires  a  special  order — Protura. 

5.   Arachnida. 

Maturation  and  Fertilisation  in  Theridium.J — T.  H.  Montgomery, 
jun.,  has  studied  the  eggs  of  a  common  spider,  Theridium  tepidariorum, 
and  describes  the  ovarian  ova,  the  stage  of  the  first  maturation  spindle, 
the  stage  of  the  second  polar  spindle,  the  pronuclei  and  cleavage  nuclei, 
and  the  frequent  occurrence  of  polyspermy. 

Studies  on  Mites.§  —  Nathan  Banks  has  made  a  catalogue,  with 
bibliographical  references,  of  the  mites  of  the  United  States,  which  will 
be  of  great  service  to  those  working  at  this  group.  A  preliminary  list 
by  Osborn  and  Underwood,  published  in  1886,  included  99  species  in  28 
genera.  The  present  list  gives  450  species  in  133  genera,  "  yet  this  is 
probably  less  than  a  third  of  the  entire  Acarid  fauna  of  the  United 
States."  It  may  be  noted  that  a  synopsis  of  genera  ||  was  published  in 
1904. 

Hydrachnids. — C.  Maglio  ^f  gives  a  list,  revised  and  criticised,  of 
Italian  Hydrachnids.  He  has  made  a  number  of  new  records,  and  the 
total  number  of  species  amounts  to  86. 

W.  Williamson**  records  18  species  (in  12  genera)  from  Scottish 
Lakes  ;  Lebertia  porosa  Sig  Thor,  and  Oxus  ovalis  Muller  are  additions 
to  the  two  previous  lists  for  Scotland,  and  Huitfeldtia  rectipes  Sig  Thor 
is  a  new  British  record,  the  genus  having  been  hitherto  recorded  from 
Norway  only. 

New  Species  of  Eurypterus.ft — Henry  Woodward  describes,  from  the 
Coal-measures  to  the  north-west  of  Ilkeston,  Ewrypterus  moyseyi  sp.  n. 
and  E.  derbiensis  sp.  n. 

*  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.  Wales,  1907,  pt.  2,  pp.  382-90. 

t  Boll.  Labor.  Zool.  Scuola  Agric.  Portici,  i.  (1907)  pp.  296-311  (18  figs.). 

J  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  237-50  (2  pis.). 

§  Proc.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus  ,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  595-625. 

||  Op.  cit.,  xxviii.  (1904)  pp.  1-114. 

i  Rend.  R.  1st.  Lombardo,  xl.  (1907)  pp.  953-74. 
**  Proc.  R.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xxvii.  (1907)  pp.  302-7  (7  figs.). 
-tt  Geol.  Mag.,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  277-82  (1  pi.). 


176  SUMMARY    Off    CURRKNT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


«•  Crustacea. 

Primitive  Malacostracan.* — 0.  A .  Sayce  describes  Koonunga  cursor 
g.  et  sp.  n.,  a  remarkable  Crustacean  from  fresb-water  reedy  pools  near 
Melbourne.  He  regards  it  as  the  most  primitive  sessile-eyed  Malacos- 
tracan hitherto  known.  Its  nearest  ally  is  the  stalk-eyed  Anaspiih* 
tasmanue  G.  M.  Thomson,  which  it  resembles  in  general  appearance, 
but  it  requires  the  definition  of  a  new  family  (Koonungidae).  The 
thorax  has  its  anterior  segment  fused  with  the  head,  leaving  seven 
distinct  subequal  segments.  The  eyes  are  sessile,  there  is  no  antennarv 
scale,  the  mandibles  have  a  single  dentate  cutting-edge  and  molar  ex- 
pansion without  any  "  spine-row  "  or  its  equivalent.  The  maxillipeds 
are  like  those  of  Anaspis,  but  without  any  trace  of  gnatho-basic  lobes. 
The  branchiae  and  the  swimming  branches  of  the  legs  are  like  those 
of  Anaspida?.  The  last  pair  of  legs  is  flexed  in  the  opposite  direction 
to  the  preceding  ones.  The  pleopods  are  uniramous,  except  the  first 
two  pairs  in  the  male. 

As  is  well  known,  Anaspides  differs  from  other  Schizopods  in  having 
no  vestige  of  a  carapace,  and  in  having  eight  distinct  thoracic  somites. 
This  new  form  differs  markedly  in  having  sessile  eyes,  in  having  no 
antennary  scale,  and  in  the  coalescence  of  the  first  thoracic  segment 
with  the  head.  The  loss  of  stalked  eyes,  carapace,  and  scale-like  exo- 
podite  on  the  antenna,  marks  Koonungia  as  the  most  primitive  sessile- 
eyed  Malacostracan  at  present  known,  and  it  is  no  doubt  a  very  ancient 
type.  It  is  remarkably  active — running,  swimming,  and  springing 
forcibly  forwards.     It  shuns  strong  light. 

Brachyura  and  Anomura  from  the  North  Pacific. f  —  William 
Stimpson,  who  died  in  1872,  made  an  important  report  on  the  crabs 
and  hermit-crabs  collected  by  the  North  Pacific  Exploration,  1853-6. 
This  report  was  at  first  supposed  to  have  been  destroyed  by  a  fire  in 
1871,  in  which  much  valuable  material  was  lost,  but  it  was  afterwards 
found  at  the  Navy  Department,  and  has  lain  for  many  years  unpublished 
at  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  It  is  now  published  as  an  historical 
document,  under  the  able  editorship  of  M.  J.  Rath  bun,  who  has  given 
the  current  or  accepted  names  where  these  differ  from  Stimpson's.  The 
illustrations  are  from  pencil  drawings,  made,  it  is  supposed,  by  Stimpson 
himself. 

Pyocephalus  cooperi.J — Henry  Woodward  discusses  this  primitive 
Schizopod  crustacean  from  the  Coal-measures,  devoting  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  marsupial  plates  of  the  adult  female.  There  are  six  or  seven 
broad,  scale-like,  imbricated  plates  or  oostegites  forming  the  marsupium 
in  which  the  eggs  and  the  immature  young  were  carried. 

Male  of  Dexamine  thea.§ — Alexander  Patience  describes  this  form, 
which  has  hitherto  escaped  observation.     The  reason  is  probably  due 

*  Victorian  Naturalist,  xxiv.  (1907)  pp.  117-20. 

t  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  xlix.  (1907)  240  pp.  (26  pis.). 

%  Geol.  Mag.,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  400-7  (1  pi.  and  2  figs.). 

§  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  series  8,  i.  (1908)  pp.  117-22  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  1  i  i 

to  the  fact  that  the  male  being  apparently  always  smaller  than  the 
female  might  be  passed  over  as  a  younger  specimen,  and  to  the  fact 
that  the  distinctive  first  gnathopod  (with  a  somewhat  deep  sinus  on  the 
upper  margin)  seems  to  be  habitually  tucked  away  among  the  mouth- 
organs  when  it  is  not  in  use. 

The  author  gives  a  synoptic  table  for  the  discrimination  of  Tritceta 
gibbosa,  Dexamine  then,  and  D.  spinosa,  and  notes  that  the  first  two  are 
widely  distributed  in  the  Clyde  sea-area  in  depths  up  to  35  fathoms.  It 
is  also  shown  that  D.  dolichonyx  is  the  male  of  Tritwta  gibbosa. 

Reduction  of  the  Eye  in  New  G-ammarid  from  Ireland.* — Fr. 
Yejdovsky  describes  Bathyonyx  de  Vimesi  g.  et  sp.  n.,  discovered  by 
W.  F.  de  Vismes  Kane,  from  130-150  ft.  deep,  in  Lough  Mask.  It  is 
intermediate  between  Grangonyx  and  Gammarus,  and  is  peculiarly  in- 
teresting in  showing  what  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  stage  in  the 
degeneration  of  the  eye. 

Crustacea  of  East  Norfolk  Rivers.f — R.  Gurney  gives  an  interest- 
ing account  of  the  Crustaceans  in  the  tidal  regions  of  these  rivers, 
and  shows  that  a  number  of  marine  forms  have  become  habituated  to 
a  considerable  proportion  of  fresh-water.  The  brackish-water  species, 
Heterotanais  gurneyi  Norman,  was  found  in  abundance  in  fresh-water. 
Good  figures  are  given  of  Gyathura  carinata  Kroyer,  a  new  record  for 
Britain. 

Notes  on  Development  of  Argulidse.ij: — C.  B.  Wilson  gives  for  the 
first  time  an  account  of  the  newly-hatched  larvse  of  two  of  the  common 
American  Avgulids,  Argulus  ftmduli,  a  salt-water  form,  and  A.  maculosus, 
a  fresh-water  form.  He  also  gives  a  description  and  figure  of  the  male 
of  A .  catostomi.  In  each  case  the  form  described  is  the  only  one  needed 
to  complete  a  full  account  of  the  species. 

Nephrocytes  of  CaprellidsJ— L.  Bruntz  describes  in  Protella  pkasma 
three  pairs  of  cephalic  and  six  pairs  of  thoracic  nephrocytes.  There  are 
also  nephro-phagocytes  all  along  the  thorax  and  above  the  heart.  They 
eliminate  carminate  of  ammonia  when  that  is  injected  into  the  general 
cavity  of  the  body,  and  they  are  able  to  capture  particles  of  Chinese  ink. 
These  cells  and  the  blood-corpuscles  are  the  only  phagocytic  elements  in 
Caprellids.  There  is  no  phagocytic  organ  analogous  to  that  in 
Gammarids. 

Antarctic  Cirripedia.|| — A.  Gruvel  makes  a  preliminary  report  on 
the  operculate  Cirripeds  collected  by  the  '  Gauss.'  He  notes  Pachylasma 
giganteum,  from  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  hitherto  recorded  only 
from  the  Mediterranean,  various  species  of  Balanus,  TubicincV  a  tracheal  is, 
Tetraclita  porosa,  and  a  single  new  species,  EJminius  crista}  linns,  so  named 
because  of  the  transparent  walls  and  opercular  pieces. 

*  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xx.  (1907)  pp.  227-45  (2  pis.). 

t  Trans.  Norfolk  and  Norwich  Nat  Soo.,  viii.  (1907)  pp.  410-38  (1  pi.  and  1  fig.).. 

J  Proc.  U.S.  Nat.  Museum,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  411-24  (4  pis.). 

§  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  vi.  (1907)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  3,  pp.  lvi.-ix. 

||  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  104-6. 


178  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Boring  Cirripedia.* —  W.  Berndt  proposes  a  revised  classification  of 
the  Acrothoracica,  or  boring  Cirripedia.  The  sub-order  Pygophora  in- 
cludes the  family  Cryptophialidae  (Cryptophialus)  and  the  family  Koch- 
lorinidse  (Kochlorine,  Lithoglyptus,  and  Weltneria).  The  sub-order 
Apygophora  includes  the  family  Alcippidas  (Alcippe). 

Barnacles  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  f — Henry  A. 
Pilsbry  gives  an  account  of  the  pedunculate  Cirripedes  and  the  sessile 
family  Verrucidae  in  the  United  States  National  Museum.  He  deals 
with  the  following-  genera  : — Mitella,  Lithotrya,  Scalpellum,  Oxynaspis, 
Dpus,  Pacilasma,  Megalasma,  Octolasmis,  Gonchoderma,  Heteralepas, 
Alepas,  and  Verruca.  The  Pedunculata  from  North  American  coasts 
number  56  species,  and  the  Verrucidse  5  species.  The  pelagic  forms, 
with  one  exception,  are  widely  distributed  forms,  already  known  from 
many  Atlantic  and  Pacific  localities.  One  pelagic  species,  Alepas 
pacifica,  is  an  interesting  form  commensal  on  large  medusa?.  The  deep- 
water  forms,  both  of  Lepadida?  and  Verrucidse,  support  the  opinion 
advanced  by  Hoek,  Annandale,  and  others,  that  deep-sea  Cirripedes  have 
■a  very  wide  distribution. 

Notes  on  Cirripedes. — Henry  A.  Pilsbry  %  describes  some  new 
Japanese  and  North-Western  Pacific  Cirripedes — Scalpellum  g 'onion otum, 
S.  weltnerianum,  and  Balanus  orcutti. 

In  another  paper,  Pilsbry  §  discusses  the  genus  Megalasma,  which  is 
distinguished  from  Paicilasma  by  the  structure  of  the  carina,  which  has 
wide  sides  near  the  base,  and  a  well-developed  oblique  plate  or  septum 
within  the  base,  bridging  across  the  cavity  of  the  carina,  and  terminating 
above  in  two  projections  or  teeth.  The  species  of  Pacilasma  occur 
chiefly  on  the  carapaces  of  crabs,  while  Megalasma  has  been  found 
mainly  on  sea-urchin  spines  and  on  other  Cirripedes.  A  key  to  the 
various  species  is  given. 

North  American  Species  of  Diaptomus.  || — C.  Dwight  Mason  has 
made  a  useful  revision  of  the  North  American  species  of  this  cosmopolitan 
genus,  which  is  so  prominently  represented  in  fresh-water  plankton. 
All  the  North  American  species  (34)  are  peculiar  to  the  country,  and 
some  have  a  relatively  restricted  habitat.  Isolation  has  probably  had 
an  important  role  in  the  evolution  of  the  species,  and  it  seems  likely 
that  Diaptomus  is  very  susceptible  to  environmental  stimuli.  Peculiar 
bizarre  characters  are  more  apt  to  appear  in  species  living  in  shallow 
waters,  and  with  a  narrow  range  of  habitat.  There  is  a  marked 
distinction  between  deep-water  and  shallow-water  species.  There  is  no 
reason  to  think  that,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  species  are 
distributed  in  any  way  except  by  water  carriage.  Various  groups  of 
species — oreyonensis,  teni/icaudatus,  leptopus,  signicauda,  and  albuqi'er- 
quensis — are  distinguished,  and  a  systematic  description  is  given  of 
all  the  species. 

*  Arch.  Natur.,  lxxiii.  (1907)  pp.  287-9. 

t  U.S.  Nat.  Museum,  Bull.  No.  60  (1907)  x.  and  122  pp.  11  pis.  and  36  figs.). 

J  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1907,  pp.  360-2. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  408-16  (1  pi.  and  7  figs.). 

||  Trans.  Wisconsin  Acad.  Sci.,  xv.  (1907)  pp.  381-516  (14  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  179 


Annulata. 

Notes  on  Polychaets.* — W.  C.  M'Intosh  describes  GenetylUs  citrina, 
a  new  Phylloclocid,  which  approaches  G.  lutea  Malmgren.  The  setigerous 
region  is  supported  by  a  black  spine  and  carries  shorter  bristles  with 
shorter  terminal  processes  than  in  G.  lutea. 

The  author  also  discusses  in  some  detail  the  reproduction  of  Nereis 
diversicolor,  and  finds  that,  so  far  as  observed  at  St.  Andrews,  there  is 
no  foundation  for  the  statement  that  the  Scotch  representatives  are 
hermaphrodite,  and  still  less  that  they  are  viviparous,  as  mentioned  by 
Max  Schultze,  by  the  "  Cambridge  Natural  History,"  and  by  Gravier. 

Nervous  System  of  Saccocirrus  papillocercus.f — W.  D.  Lepeschkin 
finds  that  each  metamere  has  two  pairs  of  ganglia,  with  a  cross-shaped 
commissure  between  each  pair  ;  that  each  metamere  has  six  pairs  of 
nerves,  of  which  i.  ii.  and  iv.  are  motor,  while  iii.  v.  and  vi.  are 
sensory  ;  that  the  6th  nerve  has  associated  with  it  a  strongly  refractive 
body,  probably  a  sense-organ  ;  that  the  lateral  sense-organs  in  each 
segment  are  well  developed  ;  that  there  is  a  setose  glandular  sensory 
region  along  the  back  ;  and  that  the  ventral  cord  includes  colossal 
nerve-fibres  and  giant  ganglion -cells.  The  complexity  of  the  nervous 
system  is  against  the  view  that  Saccocirrus  is  a  primitive  type. 

Regeneration  in  Podarke  obscura.J —  Sergius  Morguli  notes  that 
when  this  Polychast  regrows  a  posterior  half,  the  regrown  part  is  for 
a  time  transparent  and  without  chitinous  cuticle.  Gradually  the  old 
tissue  has  its  chitinous  layer  thinned  off,  and  the  new  part  becomes 
chitinised.  Finally,  the  old  and  new  parts  are  covered  by  a  continuous 
layer  of  uniform  thickness.  The  author  finds  in  this  "  a  case  of  trans- 
mission of  materials  from  all  parts  of  the  old  tissue  to  provide  for 
the  building  up  of  the  new  tissue,"  but  his  facts  are  not  convincing. 
He  concludes  that  it  is  the  organism  as  a  whole,  and  not  the  exposed  cut 
surface,  that  is  concerned  with  the  regeneration  of  the  lost  tissue. 

By  interesting  experiments  in  Lumbriculus,  the  author  §  has  con- 
vinced himself  that  little  worms  grown  from  parts  which  have  a  high 
regenerative  capacity  have  a  similar  capacity.  The  ratio  between  the 
rates  of  posterior  regeneration  in  the  mother-pieces  is  very  nearly  like 
that  between  the  rates  of  regeneration  in  their  regenerated  offspring. 
"  The  property  of  regeneration  passes  over  to  the  new  tissue,  together 
with  the  protoplasmic  material  it  is  built  of." 

Respiration  in  Earthworms. || — M.  Konopacki  has  made  an  elabo- 
rate physiological  study  of  the  respiratory  processes  in  various  species 
of  Lumbrkus,  in  normal  and  in  peculiar  conditions.  The  intensity  of 
the  respiration  differs  in  different  species  ;  it  is  directly  proportional 
to  the  temperature.     Earthworms  can  live  for  6  to  30  hours  without 

*  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xx.  (1907)  pp.  175-85  (1  pi.). 

t  MT.  Ges.  Freund.  Naturw.  Moskau,  xcviii.  (1907).  Tagebucb  Zool.  Abtb...  iii. 
pp.  1-9  (2  pis.).     See  also  Zool.  Zentralbl.,  xiv.  (1907)  p.  435. 

%•  Obio  Nat.,  viii.  (1907)  pp.  217-19.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  219-21. 

||  Bull.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  No.  5  (1907)  pp.  357-431  (15  figs.). 


180  SUMMARY   OF   CUKRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

oxygen,  but  go  on  excreting  carbon  dioxide  during  that  time  almost  at 
the  normal  rate.  The  intramolecular  respiration  is  very  important, 
and  there  is  evidence  of  enzymatic  processes  in  the  respiration,  and  of 
a  certain  regulative  power  in  abnormal  conditions.  But  most  of  the 
results  are  of  a  technical  physiological  character,  and  not  readily 
summarised  here. 

Nematohelminthes. 

Toxins  Secreted  by  Parasites.* — M.  Weinberg  has  already  main- 
tained that  the  species  of  Sclerostomum  infesting  the  horse  secretes  toxic 
substances  which  dissolve  the  red-blood  corpuscles,  hinder  coagulation, 
and  produce  a  precipitate  in  the  serum.  He  seeks  to  extend  this  to 
cesophagostomiasis,"  of  which  he  has  studied  thirty  cases  in  monkeys, 
and  to  ankylostomiasis. 

Platyhelminthes. 

Notes  on  Cestodes. — Edwin  Linton  f  describes  Calyptrobothrium 
minus  sp.  n.,  from  the  Torpedo.  The  bothria  are  in  pairs,  prominent,, 
very  flexible  in  life,  with  the  relatively  large  suckers  characteristic  of 
the  genus.  The  general  plan  of  a  mature  segment  is  like  that  of 
C.  occidentale.  Figures  are  given  of  two  free  segments  in  coitu,  and 
of  the  everted  cirrus  with  spermatozoa  issuing  from  the  apex.  It  is 
noted  that  free  segments  are  capable  of  making  progressive  movements^ 
during  which  the  anterior  end  is  elongated  so  as  to  resemble  the  neck 
of  certain  distomes.  The  resemblance  is  heightened  by  the  almost  con- 
stant presence  of  a  rounded  knob  at  the  anterior  end.  The  surface  of 
the  joint  is  slightly  roughened  by  very  minute  serrations  which  project 
posteriorly,  so  that  the  spasmodic  contractions,  aided  by  a  kind  of  flowing 
peristalsis,  constantly  propel  the  segment  forward. 

M.  Kowalewski  %  briefly  discusses  two  avian  Cestodes,  Aploparaxis 
penetrans  Clerc,  from  the  intestine  of  Limnocryptes  gallinula,  and  Hyme- 
nolepis  compressa  Linton. 

Pearl-forming  Flukes. §  —  Alfred  Giard  discusses  Gymnophalh/s 
somaterm  Levinseu,  the  young  form  of  which  he  has  found  in  Donax 
and  Tellinaceas  at  Boulogne,  the  adult  probably  occurring  in  Oedemia 
or  some  other  sea-bird.  He  also  deals  with  G.  bursicola  from  mussels 
and  Saxicava  rugosa,  the  adult  form  of  which  occurs  in  the  eider-duck. 

Trematodes  from  British  Birds.|| — W.  Nicoll  describes  a  large 
number  of  forms — Spelotrema  excellem  sp.  n.,  from  the  herring-gull ; 
S.feriatum  sp.  n.,  from  Pel idna  alpina,  Totanus  calidris  and  JEgialites 
hiaticula  :  Tocotrema  jejunum  sp.  n.,  from  Totanus  calidris  ;  Gymno- 
phallus  dapsilis  sp.  n.,  from  Oedemia  fusca  and  0.  nigra,  Maritrema 
gratiosum,  and  two  other  new  species  of  this  new  genus. 

*  Ann.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  25-7. 

t  Proc.  U.S.  Nat.  Museum,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  275-84  (7  figs.). 

%  Bull.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  No.  7  (1907)  pp.  774-6  (1  pi.). 

§  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  416-20. 

||  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xx.  (1907)  pp.  245-71. 


/OOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  18 1 

Structure  of  Haplodiscus.* — W.  Salensky  describes  certain  parts  of 
this  interesting  and  very  primitive  representative  of  the  Turbellaria 
Acoela.  The  subject  of  his  study  was  H.  ussoivii  from  Messina  and 
Naples.  The  parenchyma  is  discussed  in  detail.  The  central  paren- 
chyma consists  of  two  epithelial  layers,  a  dorsal  and  a  ventral,  which 
meet  in  the  horizontal  plasma  ;  these  two  layers  correspond  to  the 
dorsal  and  ventral  walls  of  the  alimentary  canal  of  other  Turbellaria  ; 
the  oral  or  digestive  parenchyma  is  a  part  of  the  central  parenchyma 
and  presumably  of  endodermic  origin.  The  frontal  organ  is  an  aggre- 
gate of  skin-glands  opening  at  the  anterior  tip  of  the  body  ;  the  secretion 
is  probably  offensive  and  defensive.  Delage's  suggestion  that  the  organ 
is  sensory  is  not,  however,  dismissed,  for  a  strong  nerve  passes  to  the 
organ  from  the  brain.  The  post-cerebral  cell-mass  is  very  like  an 
aggregate  of  ovarian  cells,  but  it  seems  to  have  no  connection  with  the 
gonads,  and  is  probably  glandular.  The  vas  deferens  and  the  seminal 
vesicle  are  described. 

Incertae  Sedis. 

New  Species  of  Myzostoma.t — J.  F.  McClendon  describes  three  new 
species — M.  cubanum,  M.  evermanni,  and  M.  cerriferoideum,  found  on 
Crinoids  and  Ophiuroids  in  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  Previously  J 
he  gave  an  account  of  those  collected  on  the  '  Albatross '  expedition  to 
Japan. 

Notes  on  some  British  Polyzoa.§ — A.  M.  Norman  discusses  Micro- 
pora  impressa  (Moll.)  from  Guernsey,  Terebripora  ditrupm  sp.  n.  from 
the  calcareous  shell  of  the  Annelid  genus  Ditrupa  from  Shetland,  Schizo- 
porella  alderi  (Busk)  which  show  considerable  variation  in  its  mode  of 
growth,  Eschariaa  dutertrei  (Audouin),  Phylactella  pygmc&a  (Norman) 
from  Shetland,  of  which  a  figure  is  given  for  the  first  time,  and  Gellepora 
surcularis  (Packard). 

Genus  Aucella.|| — A.  P.  Pavlow  gives  a  monographic  account  of 
this  Brachiopod  genus,  discussing  the  relationship  and  distribution  of 
the  numerous  species,  and  taking  account  of  Aucellina  and  other  related 
types. 

Rotifera. 

New  Rotifera.^f — C.  F.  Rousselet  gives  a  description  and  figures  of 
Brachiotius  sericus,  a  new  species  characterised  by  the  structure  of  the 
lorica,  which  is  covered  all  over  with  fine  longitudinal  wavy  lines  giving 
the  appearance  of  watered  silk,  and  also  by  a  posterior  overhanging, 
more  or  less  pointed,  projection  of  the  carapace.  The  author  further 
describes  Brachiomis  quadratus  var.  rotundas,  a  new  variety,  and  gives 
accurate  figures  of  Brachiomis  rubens  Ehrenbg.,  which  appears  to  have 
been  wrongly  figured  and  described  in  Hudson  and  Gosse's  monograph. 

*  Bull.  Acad.  Soi.  St.  Petersbourg,  No.  18  (1907)  pp.  819-42  (8  figs.). 
+  Proc.  U.S.  Nat.  Museum,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  63-5  (2  figs.). 
%  Bull.  Amer.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  xxiii.  (1906)  pp.  119-30  (3  pis.). 
§  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xx.  (1907)  pp.  207-12  (1  pi.  and  1  fig.). 
||  Nouv.  Mem.  Soc.  Imp.  Nat.  Moscou,  xvii.  (1907)  pp.  1-84  (6  pis.). 
^  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  (1907)  pp.  147-54  (2  pis.). 


182  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Echinoderma. 

New  Echinoid  from  Indian  Ocean.* — A.  R.  S.  Anderson  describes 
Breynia  vredmburgi  sp.  n.  from  the  Andamans.  It  agrees  in  some 
respects  very  closely  with  B.  carinata  and  B.  multituberculata  from  the 
Indian  Oligocene.  It  is  distinguishable  in  many  respects  from  B.  aus- 
tralasue,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  large  number  of  ambulacra!  plates 
traversed  by  the  sub-anal  fasciole,  which  includes  no  less  than  eight 
modified  pairs  of  pores,  a  larger  number  than  is  known  in  any  other 
Spatangoid. 

Cidaridse.f — H.  L.  Clark  has  revised  this  family,  giving  diagnoses 
of  the  genera  and  the  recent  species,  with  the  usual  artificial  keys  and 
bibliographic  references.  It  seems  that  Gidaris  is  nearest  to  the  ancestral 
form  and  the  centre  from  which  the  different  genera  have  come.  Whether 
Tylocidaris  represents  a  more  primitive  type,  because  of  its  imperforate 
tubercles,  is  an  open  question.  The  other  genera  (21  are  recognised) 
fall  into  three  groups,  but  the  lines  between  these  groups  are  not  clear 
enough  to  warrant  any  recognition  of  subfamilies. 

New  Crinoids. — Austin  H.  Clarkf  describes  Ptilocrinus  pinnatus 
g.  et  sp.  n.  from  the  North  Pacific,  near  Moresby  Island,  1588  fathoms. 
It  is  remarkable  in  being  the  only  stalked  Crinoid  known  from  the 
Eastern  Pacific  (see  infra),  with  the  exception  of  the  closely  related 
Galamocrinus  diomedce.  from  the  Galapagos  Islands.  The  basals  are 
completely  anchylosed  into  a  funnel-shaped  cup  as  in  Bathycrinus  ;  the 
arms  are  five  and  unbranched,  with  about  sixty  joints  ;  the  stem  is  com- 
posed of  360  joints,  smooth  and  very  slender,  and  unusually  flexible. 
The  author  also  discusses  the  species  of  Bathycrinus,  and  makes  a  new 
name,  B.  australis,  for  one  of  them. 

Clark  also  describes  §  Phrynocrinus  nudus  g.  et  sp.  n.  from  the  south 
coast  of  Nipon,  Japan.  The  calyx  is  acorn-like,  and  quite  different 
from  that  in  any  known  Crinoid  ;  there  is  a  broad  naked  space  between 
the  small  radials  ;  no  interradial  plates  could  be  made  out ;  and  in  many 
features  this  new  form  is  so  peculiar  that  it  requires  a  special  family, 
Phrynocrinidae.  Another  new  form  is  Bathyrinus  pacificus,  from  near 
the  same  locality,  a  representative  of  a  genus  hitherto  known  only  from 
the  Atlantic. 

In  a  third  paper  ||  the  author  describes  Eudiocrinus  tuberculatus  sp.  n., 
and  records  two  other  species  of  this  Comatulid  genus,  all  from  Japanese 
waters. 

New  Holothurians.1T — W.  K.  Fisher  describes  18  new  species  of 
Holothurians  from  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  a  new  genus  Opheodeso?na, 
represented  by  0.  spectabilis  and  by  three  species  included  in  (Ester- 
gren's  Euapta.  In  this  new  type  there  are  numerous  madreporic  canals, 
distributed  around  the  ring  canal.     A  cartilaginous  ring  is  sometimes 

*  Journ.  and  Proc.  Asiatic  Soc.  Bengal,  iii.  (1907)  pp.  145-8. 

t  Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.  Harvard,  li.  (1907)  pp.  165-230  (11  pis.). 

X  Proc.  U.S.  Nat.  Museum,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  551-4  (3  figs.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  507-12  (4  figs.).  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  569-74. 

if  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  637-744  (17  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  183 

present,  when  perforations  are  along  the  anterior  border,  not  along  the 
posterior  border  as  in  Synaptula.  The  two  large  lateral  holes  in  the 
handle  of  the  anchor  plate  are  absent ;  the  central  hole  is  larger  than 
Euapta,  and  rounded,  not  acute,  on  the  outer  edge.  The  plates  are 
otherwise  as  in  Euapta.  The  calcareous  ring  has  conspicuous  anterior 
projections.  Tentacles  and  anchors  are  as  in  Euapta,  and  retractors  are 
present. 

Coelentera. 

New  Fresh-water  Medusoid  from  China.* — Asajiro  Oka  describes 
Limnocodium  kaivaii  sp.  n.  from  the  Yang-tze-kiang,  about  1000  nautical 
miles  from  its  mouth.  The  umbrella  is  hemispherical  ;  the  velum 
projects  inwards  for  about  a  quarter  of  the  breadth  of  the  sub-urnbrellar 
diameter  ;  there  are  over  256  tentacles  of  seven  different  sizes  ;  the 
diameter  was  about  20  mm.  The  author  compares  this  new  form  with 
L.  sowerbyi  (whose  native  habitat  remains  unknown),  and  with 
Limnocn ida  from  Tanganyika,  Victoria  Nyanza  and  the  Niger.  Systemati- 
cally the  affinities  of  Limnocodium  (the  generic  diagnosis  of  which  is 
enlarged),  are  with  the  Olindias  group,  and  the  author  is  inclined  to 
place  it  nearer  to  the  Leptomedusae  than  to  the  Trachomedusas. 

Hydroids  of  Madagascar  and  South-east  Africa. t — A.  Billard 
reports  on  a  collection  of  38  species,  of  which  six  are  new,  and  the  chief 
interest  of  his  report  is  probably  that  at  least  eight  of  the  species  are 
characteristically  Australian,  while  18  are  common  to  Australia  and 
these  South-east  African  regions. 


-"&* 


Structure  and  Development  of  Turritopsis  nutricula.J — W.  K. 
Brooks  and  S.  Rittenhouse  describe  the  structure  of  this  Medusoid.  It 
is  compared  with  Gallitiara,  and  with  a  new  genus  (Modeeria  in  part),  for 
which  the  name  Mccradia  is  proposed.  The  ova  of  Turritopsis  arise  in 
the  ectoderm  of  the  manubrium ;  they  grow  by  the  absorption  of  the 
primitive  ovarian  cells,  and  when  mature  are  densely  crowded  with  large 
yolk  granules.  Dehiscence  takes  place  at  a  definite  time,  from  5  to  6 
o'clock  in  the  morning.  The  egg  is  spherical  and  membraneless.  Matu- 
ration and  fertilisation  occur  in  the  water  after  the  eggs  are  deposited. 

Cleavage  is  total  and  nearly  equal,  at  first  regular,  afterwards  very 
erratic.  A  solid  morula  results,  whose  cells  form  a  syncytium.  Parts 
of  eggs  divided  during  cleavage  continue  to  develop  normally  in  every 
respect  except  size.  Cell- walls  re-appear  peripherally  and  establish  the 
ectoderm,  the  mesoglcea  appears,  and  the  endoderm  is  late  of  being 
differentiated  in  the  internal  syncytium.  There  is  some  evidence  of 
amitotic  division  in  the  late  segmentation. 

The  planula  becomes  attached  by  nearly  its  entire  side,  and  is  trans- 
formed into  a  root.  The  first  hydranth  develops  from  a  bud  from  about 
the  middle  of  the  root.  The  tentacles  develop  in  indefinite  whorls,  each 
whorl  with  four  tentacles. 

Annot.  Zool.  Japon,  vi.  (1907)  pp.  219-27  (1  pi.), 
t  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  335-96  (2  pis.). 
%  Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  xxxiii.  (1907)  pp.  129-60  (6  pis.). 


184  SUMMARY    OF   OUBEBNT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

Hydroids  of  Eastern  Tropical  Pacific* — S.  P.  Clarke  reports  on 
the  Eydroids  collected  by  the  '  Albatross'  (1904-5).  The  collection  is 
surprisingly  small,  including  only  12  species.  At  112  stations  no 
Eydroids  were  obtained.  The  following-  are  new — Pennaria  pacifica, 
Gampanula/ria  obliqua,  Obelia  striata,  Campanulina  denticulata,  and 
<  'ladoearpus  (//stomas.  It  is  interesting  to  find  that  two  of  the  species, 
Thiuaria  tubal  if  or  mis  and  Zygophylax  chazalei,  were  hitherto  known 
only  from  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  isthmus  of  Panama.  The  label  in 
the  bottle  with  Campanulina  denticulata  records  a  depth  of  2*45 
fathoms,  something  unusual,  but  not  unequalled  for  Hydroids.  Alhnan 
records  Stylactis  vermicola  and  31onocaulis  imperator  from  2900  fathoms. 

Hydroids  from  North  Side  of  Bay  of  Biscay/]-— E.  T.  Browne 
reports  ou  a  collection  of  37  species,  including  two  new  species  Bimeria 
arborea  and  B.  biscayana,  and  several  rare  deep-sea  forms. 

Pelagic  Larvae  of  Actiniaria.J — Angelo  Senna  reports  on  those 
collected  on  the  voyage  of  the  '  Liguria '  in  1903-5,  under  command  of 
the  Duke  of  Abruzzi.  In  the  family  Cerianthidae  he  describes  four  new 
forms  of  Dactylactis  ;  in  the  Zoanthidae,  three  larvae  of  Zoanthella  and 
several  of  Zoanthina.     The  structure  of  these  forms  is  fully  discussed. 

In  the  same  connection  we  may  note  the  account  given  by  0.  Carl- 
gren  §  of  northern  forms  :  Arachnactis  and  other  larvae  of  Cerianthidae  ; 
the  larva?  of  Peachia  hastata  parasitic  on  Medusae  ;  and  various  pelagic 
forms,  e.g.  of  Sagartia  viduata,  Zoanthina  and  Zoanthella. 

Halcampella  ostroumowi.|| — Th.  Wyragevitch  describes  this  new 
Actinian  from  the  Black  Sea.  It  is  cylindrical,  vermiform,  delicate, 
semi-transparent,  with  12  longitudinal  stria1,  with  24  tentacles.  It 
changes  its  shape  incessantly  and  rapidly.  Eight  mesenteries  reach  the 
oesophagus,  but  only  four  of  these  are  fertile.  The  author  found  no 
acontia,  no  sphincter,  and  no  septostomes.  It  seems  likely,  though  not 
certain,  that  the  young  stages  occur  within  the  gastro-vascular  system 
of  Aurelia  aurita,  and  some  facts  bearing  on  this  question  are  recorded. 

Recent  Madreporaria  of  the  Hawaiian  Island  and  Laysan.^f — T. 
Way  land  Vaughan  deserves  to  be  congratulated  on  his  magnificent  mono- 
graph of  these  Madreporarians.  He  discusses  the  classification,  the  species 
problem,  the  distribution  and  the  factors  determining  it,  the  faunal 
affinities  of  the  Hawaiian  forms,  and  then  proceeds  to  a  systematic 
account  with  special  attention  to  the  morphology  of  the  hard  parts. 
The  photographic  plates  are  of  great  excellence. 

Phellia  murocincta.** — Chas.  L.  Walton  found  this  beautiful  little 
sea-anemone  near  St.  Ives,  under  stones  in  a  small  dark  cave,  along  with 

*  Mem.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.  Harvard,  xxxv.  (1907)  pp.  1-18  (15  pis.). 

f  Jouru.  Mar.  Biol.  Assoc,  viii.  (1907)  pp.  15-36  (2  pis.  and  1  fig.). 

X  Raccolte  Planctoniche  (R.  1st.  Stud.  Sup.  Firenze),  iii.  (1907)  pp.  81-198 
(4  pis.,  37  figs.). 

§  Nordisches  Plankton  (Brandt  and  Apstein)  lief  v.  (1906)  pp.  65-89  (10  figs.). 

||  Bull.  Acad.  Imp.  Sci.  St.  Petersbourg,  xxii.  (1905,  received  1907)  pp.  85-98 
(14  figs.).  U  Bull.  U.S.  Museum,  No.  59  (1907)  pp.  1-222  (96  pis.). 

**  Journ.  Mar.  Biol.  Assoc,  viii.  (1907)  pp.  47-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  185 

young  specimens  of  Actinia  equina,  Germs  pedunculatus,  and  a  number 
of  Depastrtim  cyat/iiforme.  It  was  J  in.  in  diameter  when  expanded  ;  the 
"epidermis"  was  not  dense  (as  in  Gosse's  description),  but  free  and 
easily  removed  ;  the  column  was  usually  much  flattened  during  the  day, 
pillar-like  at  night ;  no  acontia  were  emitted ;  there  were  36  tentacles. 
much  more  active  at  night  than  during  the  daytime  ;  the  colouring 
harmonised  very  exactly  with  the  surroundings. 

Japanese  Primnoidse.* — K.  Kinoshita  gives  a  preliminary  account 
of  a  number  of  interesting  new  species  of  Primnoidae  from  Sagami  and 
Kagoshima  : — Plumarella  spinosa,  Thouaretta  typica,  Dicholaphis  deli- 
cata  (g.  n.),  Galigorgia  granulosa,  Primnoa  pacifica,  Stachyodes  irregu- 
laris, S.  trannulata,  and  Calyptrophora  ijimai.  It  will  be  very  interest- 
ing to  see  the  full  descriptions  of  some  of  these,  e.g.  of  Primnoa  pacifica, 
for  P.  lepadifera  or  reseda  has  been  hitherto  the  only  known  representa- 
tive of  the  genus. 

Alcyonaria,  Antipatharia,  and  Madreporaria  from  the  North  Side 
of  the  Bay  of  Biscay.f  — S.  J.  Hickson  reports  the  occurrence  of 
Alcyonium  coralloides  (=  Sympodium  coralloides),  Gorallium  maderense 
(=  Pleurocorall  ium  maderense),  Isidella  elongata,  Acanella  arbuscula, 
Acanthogorgia  ridleyi ;  Stichopathes  spiralis,  Parantipathes  larix,  Schizo- 
pathes  crassa  ;  Garyophyllia  clavus,  Demophyllum  cristagalli,  and  Loplio- 
helia  prolifera.  Of  these  records  the  most  interesting  is  that  of 
Gorallium  maderense.  Only  one  other  specimen  of  this  species  has 
hitherto  been  obtained,  and  no  specimen  of  the  family  has  hitherto  been 
recorded  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 

Japanese  Ctenophora.|  —  Fanny  Moser  reports  on  a  collection 
made  by  Doflein  off  the  east  coast  of  Japan,  which  included  Ocyroe 
maadata,  Beroe  cucumis,  B.  forsJcdli,  B.  hyalina  sp.  n.,  Hormiphora 
japonica  sp.  n.,  Pandora  mitrata  sp.  n.,  Bolina  mikado  sp.  n.  The  dis- 
tinctions of  the  genera  Neis,  Pandora,  and  Beroe  are  discussed.  It  is 
pointed  out  that  in  B.  cucumis  the  gastral  vessels  are  unbranched,  and 
that  the  ramifications  of  the  meridional  vessels  on  the  stomach-wall  end 
blindly,  whereas  in  B.  ovata  the  gastral  vessels  are  branched,  and  the 
ramifications  of  the  meridional  and  gastral  vessels  on  the  stomach-wall 
form  an  anastomosing  network.  Agassiz's  Idya  roseola  is  identical  with 
B.  cucumis. 

Porifera. 

Amcebocytes  of  Spongillids.§ — W.  Weltner  gives  an  account  of  the 
seasonal  changes  in  Ephydatia  fluviatilis,  and  devotes  special  attention  to 
the  amcebocytes.  He  maintains  that  in  the  growing  sponge  these 
elements  form  the  mesogloea,  the  skeleton,  and  the  gemmules  ;  that 
they  are  the  agents  in  the  new  growth  in  spring  and  in  the  reparation 
of  injuries.  They  are  the  most  important  elements  in  the  sponge  body, 
for  they  can  replace  all  the  others. 

*  Annot.  Zool.  Japon,  vi.  (1907)  pp.  229-34. 

t  Journ.  Mar.  Biol.  Assoc,  viii.,  (1907)  pp.  6-14. 

X  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  449-54. 

§  Archiv  Natur.,  lxxiii.  (1907)  pp.  273-86(2  figs.). 

April  15th,  1908  o 


186  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Degeneration  and  Regeneration  in  Sponges.* — H.  V.  Wilson  notes 
that  siliceous  sponges  in  confinement  give  rise  to  small  masses  of  un- 
differentiated tissue,  which  in  their  turn  are  able  to  grow  and  differen- 
fciate  into  perfect  sponges.  In  a  species  of  Stylotella  the  process  as  a 
whole  has  been  worked  out.  The  oscula  and  pores  close,  the  canal 
system  is  in  some  degree  suppressed,  the  sponge  shrinks  and  becomes 
like  Spongilla  in  its  winter  state.  It  may  subdivide  into  numerous 
masses,  which  recover  their  differentiation  in  open  water.  In  other  cases 
a  large  part  of  the  sponge  dies,  but  living  fragments  remain,  which  can 
recover.  Minute  masses  may  occur  over  the  general  surface,  or  they 
may  be  scattered  throughout  the  body.  These  small  remnants  behave 
like  plasmodia  ;  they  are  aggregations  of  syncytial  protoplasm  studded 
with  nuclei.  Wilson  has  showm  that  when  suitably  exposed  in  open  water 
they  can  form  perfect  sponges.  This  production  of  regenerative  tissue 
has  been  seen  in  Mkrociona,  but  only  in  Stylotella  has  the  author  directly 
proved  the  regenerative  power.  Maas  has  described  in  degenerating 
Sycons  the  formation  of  compact  cords  of  cells  showing  amoeboid  pheno- 
mena. It  may  also  be  noted  that  in  1886  J.  Arthur  Thomson  described 
and  figured  what  he  called  "regenerative  capsules"  in  Spongelia  pallescens, 
without,  however,  following  up  their  history. 

Antarctic  Monaxonellids.f  — R.  ]  Kirkpatrick  reports  on  the 
Monaxonellida  brought  home  by  the  '  Discovery ' — a  collection  of  43 
species,  of  which  24  are  new.  The  following  new  genera  are  established 
— Sigmaxinyssa,  Cercidochela,  and  Hoplahithara. 

New  Fresh-water  Sponges  from  Calcutta.:}:  — Nelson  Annandale 
describes  the  following  new  species — Spongilla  proliferens,  S.  crassissinw, 
Fphydatia  indica,  Trochospongilla  latouchiana,  and  T.  phillottiana. 

Protozoa. 

Studies  on  Radiolarians. — V.  Haecker  §  gives  a  detailed  account 
of  the  structure  and  development  of  the  skeleton  in  Ccelographidge, 
with  special  reference  to  the  highly  differentiated  condition  seen  in 
Cozlogr •aphis  antarctica.  Thus  the  central  capsule  is  inclosed  in  an 
internal  shell,  which  consists  of  two  halves  and  is  beset  with  small  teeth 
on  the  aboral  margin  on  both  sides.  Each  of  the  shell-halves  bears  a 
high  helmet-like  galea  elongated  towards  the  oral  side,  and  at  the  base 
of  the  galea  is  drawn  out  into  a  tube  or  rhinocanna  extending  towards 
the  oral  shell-margin.  The  Coelographidre  are  not  separable  from  the 
Ccelodendridas,  and  the  sub-order  Phseodendria  is  proposed.  Within 
this  there  are  five  sub-families,  characterised  by  their  skeletons.  The 
author  deals  with  eight  genera  and  seventeen  species. 

W.  Mielck  ||  deals  with  Acanthometridse  from  New  Pomerania,  and 
works  out  a  notable  simplification  of  the  systematic  relations. 

*  Science,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  912-15. 
t  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xx.  (1907)  pp.  271-91. 

X  Journ.  and  Proc.  Asiatic  Soc.  Bengal,  iii.  (1907)  pp.  15-26  (7  figs.). 
§  Arch.  Protistenk.,  ix.  (1907)  pp.  139-69  (20  figs.). 

||  Wiss.  Meer.  Abt.  Kiel,  No.  10  (1907)  pp.  41-105  (5  pis.  and  20  figs.).  See  also 
Zool.  Zentralbl.,  xiv.  (1907)  pp.  621-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  187 

Affinities  of  Blastulidium  pgedophtorum.* — E.  Chatton  has  studied 
this  parasite  which  Ch.  Perez  found  in  the  eggs  and  young  partheno- 
genetic  embryos  of  Daphnia  obtmct.  It  was  found  on  species  of 
Simocephalus,  <  'hydorus,  and  Lynceus,  and  Chatton  has  seen  enough  of 
it  to  enable  him  to  say  that  it  must  be  removed  from  among  the 
Haplosporidia  and  placed  among  the  Chytridinese. 

Structure  and  Movements  of  Condylostoma  patens.f — John  F. 
Bovard  has  studied  this  large  Ciliate.  He  describes  the  thin,  transparent, 
homogeneous,  very  elastic  pellicula  ;  the  hyaline  threads  or  myonemes 
which  form  the  primary  ridges  marking  the  surface  ;  the  cilia  which 
arise  from  furrows  along  the  sides  of  the  myonemes  ;  the  membranellae 
which  seem  to  arise  from  a  fusion  of  rows  of  cilia ;  the  broad,  thin,  trans- 
parent, undulating  membrane  which  lies  in  the  buccal  groove  and  is 
attached  at  the  base  of  the  right  oral  lip  :  and  so  on. 

The  movements  of  the  animal  are  directly  dependent  on  the  shape 
of  the  body.  Normally  the  animal  moves  in  a  circle  to  the  left  when 
gliding.  This  is  caused  by  the  bend  of  the  posterior  end  of  the  body 
towards  the  left.  The  spiral  swimming  is  the  result  of  the  curvature  of 
the  body,  and  not  wholly  dependent  on  the  oblique  position  of  the  cilia. 
The  motor  reaction  is  the  same  as  for  other  Protozoa.  It  consists  of  a 
backward  movement,  a  turning  toward  a  structurally  defined  side,  and 
then  a  movement  forward.  It  is  of  the  same  type  in  cut  pieces  as  in 
whole  individuals,  but  is  modified  by  the  form  of  the  pieces. 

Trichocysts  of  Frontonia  leucas.J — A.  Brodsky  finds  relatively  large 
trichocysts  in  this  Infusorian.  Each  shows  three  parts— head,  neck,  and 
body.  After  expulsion  from  the  ectoplasm  they  increase  ten  or  twelve 
times  in  length.  They  appear  to  arise  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  endo- 
plasm  near  the  nucleus.  In  contact  with  water  the  trichocyst  becomes 
like  a  flattened  sphere,  and  is  the  subject  of  violent  agitation.  A  spiral 
line  is  seen  in  its  interior,  which  uncoils  with  extreme  rapidity  into  a 
long  thread  with  the  debris  of  the  envelope  as  a  minute  body  at  one  end. 

Trichomastix  serpentis.§ — C.  Clifford  Dobell  describes  this  new 
species  of  flagellate  Infusorian  from  the  rectum  of  a  boa-constrictor. 
It  is  perhaps  the  same  as  Grassi's  3fonocercomonas  coronellce,  Hammer- 
schmidt's  Cercomonas  colubrorum,  Monocercomonas  colubrorum,  and  Bodo 
colubrorum.  It  is  usually  oval  or  pyriform  in  shape  ;  it  has  three 
flagella  at  the  anterior  end  directed  forwards,  and  another  longer  flagellum 
directed  backwards  ;  there  is  a  basal  granule  (like  a  Trypanosome's 
blepharoplast)  at  the  origin  of  the  flagellum  ;  a  flexible  axial  rod  runs 
through  the  animal ;  there  is  a  well-marked  cytostome. 

The  creatures  are  very  active.  They  divide  longitudinally,  and  the 
details  of  the  division  are  described.  In  the  degenerative  processes, 
leading  on  to  death,  giant  forms  twice  the  normal  size  were  sometimes 
observed,  and  these  divided  abnormally,  commonly  giving  rise  to  three 
or  four  daughter-cells. 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  34-6. 

t  California  Univ.  Publications,  Zool.,  iii.  (1907)  pp.  343-G8  (1  pi.  and  21  figs.). 

j  Arch.  Sci.  Phys.  Nat.  (xxiv.)  (1907)  pp.  644-5. 

§  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  li.  (1907)  pp.  449-58  (1  pi.  and  2  figs.). 

0  2 


188  .SUMMARY    OF    CI'KKKNT    KKSKAKi  IIKS    RELATING   TO 

Leucocytozoon  of  Red  Grouse.* — C.  G.  Seligmanrj  and  Louis  W. 
Sambon  publish  a  preliminary  note  on  Leucocytozoon  lovati  sp.  n.  from 
the  blood  of  Lagopus  scoticm.  Only  the  fully  grown  sexually  differen- 
tiated sporonts  have  been  observed,  and  these  are  briefly  described. 
They  are  contained  in  oval  or  spindle-shaped  elements,  with  the  ex- 
tremities usually  drawn  out  into  fine  long  threads  not  unlike  flagella. 
These  elements  appear  to  be  blood-cells  greatly  altered  by  the  parasites 
they  inclose.  The  infected  bird  was  not  considered  to  have  suffered 
from  "  grouse  disease." 

New  Sporozoon  in  Toad.f — Helen  Dean  King  describes  Bertramin 
oufonis  sp.  n.  from  Bidder's  organ  in  the  common  American  toad  Bufo 
lentiginosiis,  and  points  out  that  the  bodies  Knappe  described  in  1880 
as  spermatozoa  in  this  organ  are  probably  stages  in  the  life-cycle  of 
Bertramia.  Bidder's  organ  is  undoubtedly  a  rudimentary  ovary,  and  in 
the  light  of  our  present  knowledge  regarding  the  origin  and  develop- 
ment of  germ-cells,  it  is  inconceivable  that  functional  spermatozoa  could 
be  formed  in  and  from  the  cytoplasm  of  rudimentary  ova  that  are 
destined  to  undergo  degeneration. 

Sporozoan  Parasites  of  Fishes.  J — James  Johnstone  records  a  heavy 
infection  of  the  skin  of  the  sole  with  Lymphocystis  johnstoni.  The 
cysts  are  colourless,  very  opaque,  and  easily  discernible  to  the  naked  eye. 
and  of  average  diameter  0'32  mm.  An  account  is  also  given  of  a 
Myxosporidian  invasion  of  the  cartilaginous  layer  of  the  sclerotic  in 
Gadus  esmarlrii,  H.  M.  Woodock  has  examined  preparations  of  the 
cysts,  and  describes  the  spores  ;  he  concludes  that  there  is  here  a  new 
species  of  Myxobolus,  distinguished  by  the  size  of  the  spores.  It  is 
the  first  Myxosporidian  recorded  for  the  Gadidas.  He  proposes  the 
name  Myxobolus  esmarhii  sp.  n. 

Sarcosporidian  in  Parakeets.  §— G.  S.  Graham-Smith  describes  the 
cysts  and  spores  of  a  presumed  Protozoon  parasite  from  the  heart, 
gizzard,  and  other  muscles  of  young  parakeets  (Psittacus  undulatus). 
Injection  of  cyst  material  into  the  abdominal  cavity,  and  feeding 
experiments  failed  to  infect  adults,  although  naturally  infected  young 
forms  died.  The  parasite,  though  differing  in  many  respects,  more 
closely  resembles  Bhinosporidium  kinecdyi  than  any  other  cyst-producing 
protozoon. 

Sarcosporidial  Infection  in  Mice.|| — L.  Negre  has  experimented 
on  this  subject.  He  finds  that  young  mice  are  more  easily  infected 
than  old  ;  45  days  elapse  between  ingestion  of  spores  and  the  appear- 
ance of  the  parasites  in  the  muscles  ;  80  to  90  days  elapse  from  the  time 
of  infection  until  the  spores  possess  maximum  infecting  power.  At  the 
beginning  of  infection  the  parasites  in  the  abdominal  muscles  are  more 
developed  than  those  elsewhere ;  when  the  infection  is  slight  they  are 
most  numerous   in   the  abdominal  muscles.      Inoculation  by  skin  or 

*  Lancet,  1907,  ii.  pp.  829-30  (3  figs.) 
t  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1907,  pp.  273-8. 

%  Proc.  and  Trans.  Liverpool  Biol.  Soc,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  295-8,  304-8  (1  pi.  and 
1  fig.).  §  Journ.  Hygiene,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  552-7  (2  pis.). 

|l  O.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  374-5. 


ZOOLOGY  AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  189 

peritoneum  cannot  be  effected,  and  if  the  spores  are  preserved  in  water 
for  3  or  4  days  they  become  inert.  Amongst  mice  living  together 
the  proportion  infected  is  greater  than  amongst  a  similar  number  living 
apart.  There  is  an  intestinal  stage  of  the  parasite  which  is  discharged 
with  the  excrement,  and  infection  occurs  by  ingestion  of  such  material, 
but  this  stage  has  not  been  isolated. 

Culture  of  Treponema  pallidum.* — C.  Levaditi  and  J.  Mcintosh, 
by  means  of  collodion  sacs  containing  material  from  syphilitic  lesions 
placed  in  the  peritoneal  cavity  of  the  rabbit,  successfully  obtained 
cultures  of  this  organism.  As  many  as  twelve  passages  were  effected, 
and  the  organisms  were  more  numerous  at  the  end  than  at  the  beginning. 
It  was  proved  that  an  exchange  between  the  contents  of  the  sac  and  the 
fluid  of  the  peritoneal  cavity  is  indispensable,  and  that  the  presence  of 
anaerobic  microbes  favoured  the  culture.  The  Treponema  of  the  cultures 
possesses  a  filiform  prolongation  at  the  extremity  resembling  the  analo- 
gous formations  described  by  Borrel  in  Schaudinn's  T.  pallidum.  It 
multiplied  by  transverse  fission.  The  cultures  not  being  pure,  the 
authors  cannot  affirm  that  all  their  forms  are  T.  pallidum,  but  on 
morphological,  biological,  and  staining  reaction  grounds,  they  consider 
that  the  two  types  are  to  be  associated.  A  loss  of  pathogenic  activity 
resulted,  which  is  attributed  to  the  new  conditions  of  life  of  the  organism 
and  to  the  impurity  of  the  cultures. 

New  Myxosporidian  Family,  f — L.  Leger  and  E.  Hesse  describe  a 
new  Myxosporidian,  a  parasite  of  the  gall-bladder  of  the  sardine.  It  is 
extremely  rare,  and  has  always  been  found  associated  with  Ceratomyxa 
truncata  Thelohan.  It  possesses  only  one  polar  capsule,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished from  Myxoholus  piriformis  by  the  form  of  the  valves,  the 
direction  of  the  valve  suture,  the  absence  of  vacuoles  in  the  sporoplasm, 
monosporic  pansporoblasts,  and  its  free  life  in  the  biliary  fluid.  For  this 
form,  Coccomyxa  morovi,  the  authors  propose  a  new  family  Coccomyxidas, 
intermediate  between  the  Phamocystes  and  Cryptocystes. 

Relation  of  Spirochaeta  pertenuis  to  Yaws.J — A.  Castellani  has 
made  out  some  definite  points  in  connection  with  the  relation  of  this 
Spirochmta  to  yaws.  It  is  always  present  in  eruption  material  obtained 
from  persons  suffering  from  the  disease.  When  filtered  off,  the  material 
is  inert.  Monkeys  are  infected  by  inoculation  with  such  material,  and 
may  be  also  with  blood  from  the  general  circulation  and  from  the  spleen. 
Sjiirochceta  pertenuis  is  frequently  present  in  the  spleen  and  lymphatic 
glands.  Yaws  is  generally  conveyed  by  actual  contact,  but  experiments 
have  proved  that  it  may  be  conveyed  by  flies,  and  possibly  by  other 
insects. 

*  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  784-95. 
t  Comptes  Renclus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  85-7. 
I  Journ.  Hygiene,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  558-69. 


H)0  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including-  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including'  Cell-Contents. 

Cytology  of  the  Pollen  of  the  Nymphseaceae.  * — W.  Lubimenko 
and  A.  Maige  have  completed  their  researches  upon  the  pollen-mother- 
cells  of  the  Nyrnphseacese,  with  the  following  results.  In  the 
prosynapsis  stage  there  is  a  simple  nuclear  network  with  chromatin 
granules ;  during  synapsis  the  nuclear  membrane  bursts,  while  the 
network  forms  a  spongy  mass  round  the  nucleolus,  and  the  chromatin 
granules  fuse  to  form  corpuscles.  During  the  spireme  stage  the  chro- 
matic thread  fills  the  nuclear  cavity,  but  there  is  no  longitudinal 
splitting  at  this  stage. 

The  chromosomes  are  formed  by  condensation  of  the  chromatin  at 
different  points  of  the  spireme.  The  first  and  second  mitoses  are 
normal,  but  in  the  telophase  of  both,  a  transitory  granular  plate  appears 
at  the  equator  of  the  spindle,  which  probably  represents  a  remnant  of 
one  of  the  ancestral  divisions  of  the  pollen-mother-cells.  Also  in  the 
telophase  the  mother-cell  is  simultaneously  divided  into  four  daughter- 
cells.  In  this  respect,  the  two  species  studied  resemble  the  Dicotyledons, 
while  the  simple  nature  of  the  prosynapsis  and  the  early  dissociation  of 
the  pollen-mother-cells  brings  them  near  the  Dicotyledons.  There 
appears  to  be  a  certain  ratio  between  the  masses  of  the  nucleus  and  of 
the  cell,  both  in  the  vegetative  and  reproductive  tissues,  and  this  ratio 
varies  in  a  very  definite  way  in  the  different  cycles  of  development. 
The  three  pollen  mitoses  differ  from  a  vegetative  mitosis  by  bringing  a 
larger  mass  of  chromatin  into  play,  and  by  the  larger  quantity  of 
nuclear  contents,  which  are  very  rich  in  chromatin.  The  third  mitosis 
results  in  the  formation  of  two  nuclei,  a  large  vegetative  nucleus  and  a 
small  generative  one  ;  this  difference  in  volume  may  be  attributed  to 
an  unequal  division  of  the  chromatin  in  this  mitosis,  which  would  thus 
play  an  important  function  in  chromatic  reduction. 

Cell  and  Nuclear  Division  in  Basidiobolus  ranarum.f — Edgar  W. 
Olive  studied  this  fungus  on  material  cultivated  from  the  intestine  of  a 
frog.  He  found  that  the  processes  of  division  were  the  same  in  both 
beak  and  vegetative  cells  with  some  minor  differences.  Cell-division 
takes  place  by  the  gradual  growth  of  a  cell-plate  from  the  wall  inwards 
like  the  narrowing  of  an  iris  diaphragm.  The  mitotic  figure  consists  of 
a  broad  barrel-shaped  spindle  ;  the  chromatin  plate  in  the  centre 
consists  of  a  mass  of  numerous  minute  chromosomes,  and  at  each  pole 

*  Rev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  474-501.  See  also  this  Journal,  1908,  p.  60. 
f  Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  pp.  404-18. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  191 

there  is  a  disk-  or  crescent-shaped  mass — the  pole-plate.  Beyond  each 
pole-plate  there  is  a  granular  aggregation  of  archoplasm,  from  which 
towards  the  close  of  the  karyokinetic  process  there  extend  radiations 
into  the  surrounding  cytoplasm.  In  the  late  stages  the  daughter-nuclei 
move  further  and  further  apart  as  the  fibres  disappear. 

Aleurone  Grains  of  Grasses.* —  A.  Guilliermond  contributes  some 
remarks  upon  the  aleurone  grains  of  grasses.  The  grain  is  a  spherical 
spongy  mass,  one  of  the  interstices  of  which  contains  a  very  large 
globoid.  During  the  earlier  hours  of  germination,  the  proteid  is 
partially  dissolved,  and  the  aleurone  grain  is  transformed  into  a  little 
vacuole  occupied  by  one  or  two  large  granules  which  represent  the 
insoluble  part  of  the  proteid,  while  near  or  upon  the  edge  of  this  vacuole 
are  numerous  globoids.  Subsequently  the  proteid  entirely  dissolves  and 
nothing  remains  but  the  globoids,  which  also  dissolve  by  the  tenth  day. 
The  aleurone  grains  of  grasses  are  analogous  to  those  of  the  lupin,  but 
have  less  proteid,  which  is  nothing  but  a  thin  layer  around  the  globoids, 
while  the  globoids  themselves  are  of  smaller  size,  also  the  proteid  is  in- 
soluble in  potash  after  fixation  in  alcohol.  This  type  of  aleurone  grain 
is  found  in  wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley  ;  maize  is  similar,  but  the 
globoids  are  larger  and  there  is  rarely  more  than  one  in  each  grain. 

Structure  and  Development. 
Reproductive. 

Fertilization  in  Cypripedium.t  — L.  Pace  has  investigated  the 
phenomenon  of  fertilization  in  Cypripedium  spectabile  and  parviflorum. 
and  less  fully  in  pubescens  and  candidum.  It  appears  that  two  cells  are 
formed  by  the  mother-cell,  but  no  wall  is  formed  in  the  second 
division,  even  when  the  nuclei  of  both  "  daughter-cells  "  divide,  as  may 
rarely  occur.  Two  megaspore  nuclei  are  used  in  the  formation  of  the 
embryo-sac,  and  may  be  related  to  double  fertilization.  The  completed 
embryo-sac  has  only  four  nuclei.  Double  fertilization  is  probably 
constant,  and  the  primary  endosperm  nucleus  results  from  the  fusion  of 
the  polar  nucleus,  one  synergid  and  one  male  nucleus. 

Endosperm  of  four  nuclei  has  been  found.  The  presynaptic  nucleus 
gives  evidence  of  the  pairing  of  threads,  probably  of  paternal  and 
maternal  origin.  The  gametophyte  has  11  chromosomes,  the  sporo- 
phyte  has  22,  while  the" endosperm  probably  has  33.  An  interesting 
comparison  is  made  of  the  successive  stages  of  development  of  the 
animal  egg  and  of  the  eggs  of  Lilium  and  Cypripedium  respectively. 
These  two  genera  show  only  one  more  division  from  the  mother-cell  to 
the  egg  than  in  the  maturation  of  the  animal  egg,  and  thus  have  the 
fewest  divisions  reported  in  the  angiosperms. 

Development  of  Saxifraga  granulata.^ — H.  0.  Juel  has  investigated 
the  development  of  Saxifraga  granulate,  with  the  following  results.  The 
nucleus  of  the  embryo-sac-mother-cell  contains  a  single  homogeneous 
chromatin -thread  during  the  synapsis  and  spireme  stages,  in  the  next 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  768-770. 

t  Bot/Gazette,  xliv.  (1907)  pp.  353-74  (4  pis.,  1  fig.). 

I  Nov.  Act.  Reg.  Soc.  Sci.  Upsala,  i.  (1907)  pp.  1-39  (4  pis.). 


192  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

stage  this  thread  is  drawn  round  so  as  to  form  a  double  thread,  the  two 
parts  of  which  intertwine  during  the  succeeding  stage  and  give  rise  to  a 
double  chromosome.  The  reduced  number  of  chromosomes  is  about 
thirty.  The  stigma  and  upper  part  of  the  style  has  an  endotrophic 
conducting  tissue,  while  the  rest  of  the  pistil  has  an  ectotrophic  con- 
ducting tissue,  which  is  distributed  over  the  placenta,  but  only  forms  a 
narrow  band  on  the  side  near  each  carpel.  The  upper  surface  of  the 
placenta  is  swollen  between  the  points  of  insertion  of  the  seeds  ;  this 
arrangement,  together  with  the  conducting  tissues,  serves  to  direct  the 
right  course  of  the  pollen-tube.  While  the  nuclei  are  in  the  pollen-tube 
no  special  sheath  could  be  seen  surrounding  them,  but  when  they  reach 
the  embryo-sac  a  bladder-like  sheath  is  visible,  which  soon  disappears. 
The  pollen-tube  discharges  its  contents  into  the  single  synergid.  After 
the  division  of  the  central  nucleus  the  embryo-sac  divides  up  into  smaller 
cells  round  the  antipodals,  and  these  small  cells  fill  up  the  remaining 
space.  Two  kinds  of  endosperm  are  formed  :  a  basal  portion  which 
develops  quickly,  and  a  central  portion  which  develops  later  at  the 
expense  of  the  basal  portion.  The  nucellus-tissue  is  rich  in  starch  and 
forms  a  perisperm  during  the  development  of  the  endosperm  ;  it  has  quite 
disappeared,  however,  in  the  ripe  seed.  Fats  and  proteids  are  found  in 
small  quantities  in  the  basal  endosperm  and  in  the  embryo,  but  in  larger 
quantities  in  the  central  endosperm.  Starch  is  found  in  the  embryo. 
While  the  seed  is  ripening,  tubercles  grow  out  from  the  bases  of  the 
funicles,  which  serve  for  seed-dispersal. 

Physiology. 
Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Biological  Chemistry.* — When  Raulin  published  his  study  of  the 
growth  of  a  mould  in  an  artificial  solution  he  remarked  on  the  advan- 
tage that  seemed  to  accrue  to  the  fungus  from  the  admixture  of  certain 
chemical  elements.  Maurice  Javillier  has  taken  up  the  subject,  and  has 
again  proved  the  favourable  influence  of  infinitesimal  quantities  of  zinc 
on  the  growth  of  Sterigmatocystis  nigra.  It  acts  as  an  antiseptic  and 
prevents  the  development  of  foreign  organisms  that  would  damage 
the  culture. 

Irritability. 

Sleep-movements  of  Leaves.f — W.  Pfeffer  has  investigated  the 
sleep-movements  of  plants,  and  finds  that  they  are  the  result  of  light 
and  heat  reactions  set  up  by  daily  changes  in  illumination  and  tempera- 
ture. The  sleep-movements  disappear  when  the  temperature  and  illu- 
mination are  uniform,  and  never  appear  in  plants  raised  under  such 
conditions,  although  by  establishing  a  daily  change  of  light  and  tem- 
perature movements  reappear  in  the  one  case  and  are  induced  in  the 
other.  Such  movements  can  only  be  brought  about  by  gradual  and  not 
by  sudden  change,  and  are  the  result  of  internal  activities  tending  to 
the  establishment  of  a  position  of  equilibrium  corresponding  to  the  new 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  1212-15. 

t  Abhandl.  Math.  Phys.  Kl.k.  Sachs.  Ges.  Wiss.,  xxxiii.  (1907)  pp.  259-472  (36 
figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  1(J3 

conditions.  As  a  rule  the  light-stimulus  increases  as  the  amount  of 
light  decreases.  In  uniform  light  and  temperature  the  movements  do 
not  cease  at  once,  but  gradually,  the  rhythm  being  similar,  but  the 
amplitude  decreasing.  Some  plants,  e.g.  Mimosa  and  Albizzia,  have  a 
very  rapid  time  reaction,  while  others,  e.g.  Phaseolus,  only  respond 
after  a  considerable  period.  The  two  former  genera  are  affected  both 
by  increase  and  decrease  of  light,  while  the  latter  is  only  affected  by 
the  increase  of  light  in  the  morning.  In  plants  like  Phaseolus,  which 
have  a  long  reaction  time,  the  process  of  stimulation  continues  for  some 
time  after  the  cause  of  the  stimulus  has  ceased.  Flowers  which  exhibit 
sleep-movements  behave  in  the  same  way  as  foliage-leaves,  e.g.  the  tulip 
and  crocus  behave  like  Mimosa,  and  flowers  with  slow  time  reactions 
behave  like  Phaseolus.  In  general,  plants  which  respond  to  changes  in 
temperature  will  also  respond  to  changes  in  light,  the  same  movements 
being  produced  by  change  in  either  condition. 

CRYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 
(By  A.  Gepp,  M.A.,  F.L.S.) 

Root-structure  in  Ceratopteris  thalictroides.* — A  posthumous 
paper  by  P.  Lachmann  has  been  published,  on  the  origin  and  develop- 
ment of  the  roots  and  rootlets  of  Ceratopteris  thalictroides.  The  subject 
is  treated  of  fully  under  three  heads  :  (1)  Origin  of  the  roots ;  (2) 
Development  of  the  root  ;  (3)  Origin  and  Development  of  the  rootlets  ; 
and  a  resume  is  given  at  the  conclusion  of  each  part.  The  author  finds 
that  the  first  ten  or  twelve  roots  of  Ceratopteris  emanate  from  the  stem, 
while  the  later  ones  proceed  from  the  leaves,  where  they  occupy  the 
basal  region  of  the  petiole.  As  regards  the  development  of  the  root,  the 
mother-cell  produces  groups  of  elements,  usually  composed  of  one 
rootcap-segment  and  of  three  series  of  cortico-stelic  segments.  These 
are  all  described  in  detail.  The  centre  of  the  stele  is  occupied  by  large 
cells  or  potential  vessels  which,  in  most  ferns  having  a  binary  root,  are 
differentiated  into  large  scalariform  vessels  and  consequently  do  not  form 
a  pith.  The  formation  of  the  tissues  composing  the  central  cylinder  is 
clearly  centrifugal,  while  their  differentiation  is  centripetal. 

A  study  of  the  rootlets  of  Ceratopteris  shows  that  they  are  disposed 
in  two  rows  diametrically  opposite  and  produced  by  two  series  of  sextants, 
predestinated  for  their  formation  and  for  that  of  the  ligneous  bundles. 
The  division  of  each  of  these  sextants  is  described.  The  apex  of  the 
rootlet  frees  itself  by  piercing  the  piliferous  layer  of  the  root-mother. 
The  author  has  never  seen  the  intra-lacunary  rootlets  described  by 
Poirault.  From  the  very  base  the  rootlet  possesses  its  piliferous  layer 
and  two  quite  distinct  cortical  zones  ;  consequently,  there  is  no  epistele. 
The  connection  of  its  conducting  tissue  with  that  of  the  root  is 
established  across  the  pericycle  of  the  latter,  without  the  production  of  a 
"  pedicule  pericyclique  "  analogous  to  that  described  by  Van  Tieghem 
and  Douliot  for  other  species.     The  paper  is  illustrated  by  thirty-seven 


figures. 


*  Rev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  523-56  (figs,  in  text). 


194  SUMMARY   OK   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Christensen's  Index  Filicum.* — H.  Christ  publishes  some  remarks 
upon  the  "  Index  Filicum  "  of  Carl  Christeusen,  which  has  beeh'-in  the 
hands  of  the  public  for  a  little  more  than  a  year.  The  "  Index  "  is  a  great 
advance  in  systematic  pteridology,  achieving  its  emancipation  from  the 
two  cardinal  errors  of  the  old  Hookerian  school,  viz.  a  blind  insistence 
upon  the  importance  of  the  indusium  and  sorus  as  characters  for  the 
formation  of  genera;  and  secondly,  the  forcible  inclusion  of  the  less 
well-marked  species  as  varieties  and  forms  under  arbitrarily  created 
species-types.  Christensen  has  revived  many  genera  and  species  created 
by  Presl,  Fee  and  Mettenius,  which  for  years  have  been  treated  with 
suspicion  or  neglect  in  the  "  Species  Filicum  "  and  "  Synopsis  Filicum," 
Christensen  being  able  to  recognise  the  validity  of  a  genus  or  species 
without  prejudice  to  the  particular  part  of  the  plant  in  which  the 
proper  character  is  situated.  Hence  Christensen's  system  of  classification 
is  a  natural  and  not  an  artificial  one.  Christ's  criticisms  embrace  ques- 
tions of  geographical  distribution,  nomenclature,  synonymy,  the  genera 
of  Diel's  system,  and  so  on. 

Abnormal  Production  of  Spores  in  Platycerium.t — H.  Poisson 
describes  and  figures  a  plant  of  Platycerium  biforme  which  in  the  warm 
fern-house  of  the  Paris  Museum  produced  spores  on  the  upper  surface  of 
one  of  its  sterile  fronds.  He  endeavours  to  account  for  this  abnormal 
occurrence. 

Development  of  Lygodium. J — R.  Binford  has  studied  the  develop- 
ment of  Lygodium  circinnatum  with  a  view  to  testing  its  value  as  an 
intermediate  type  in  the  line  of  evolution  from  Marattiacere  to  Poly- 
podiacese.  Lygodium  is  chosen  as  representing  Schizaaacege.  The  author 
describes  his  results  under  the  headings  :  Arrangement  and  order  of 
sporangia ;  the  stalk  :  the  tapetum  ;  the  wall ;  the  sporogenous  mass  ; 
sterile  sporangia  ;  relationships.  He  finds  that  the  family  to  which 
Lygodium  belongs  has  some  characteristics  which  cannot  be  considered 
as  intermediate  in  the  line  of  evolution  mentioned  above,  but  belong  to 
this  family  only.  The  sporangium  has  a  marginal  initial  cell  w7ith 
early  divisions  of  the  dolabrate  (zwei-schneidig)  type,  and  this  is  not 
reported  for  any  other  ferns.  The  single  sporangium  in  each  sorus,  the 
large  sporangium  and  spores,  and  the  indusium,  which  in  cross-section 
shows  the  tissue  regions  of  the  foliage  leaf,  are  characteristics  which  in 
nature  or  degree  of  development  belong  only  to  this  special  group  of 
ferns.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  Schizagaceaa  form  a  clear  link 
in  the  chain  of  evolution  of  the  annulus,-the  author  considers  that  the 
peculiarities  mentioned  above  are  so  striking  and  apparently  so  well 
established,  and  the  relations  of  Lygodium  are  so  ancient,  that  we  can 
hardly  consider  it  to  be  very  close  to  the  evolutionary  line  that  leads  to 
the  Polypodiaceae.  It  seems  rather  to  have  appeared  very  early  in  the 
evolution  of  leptosporangiate  ferns  and  to  have  progressed  in  a  line 
somewhat  divergent  from  the  main  line  leading  to  the  Polypodiaceae. 

*  Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  145-55. 

+  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  liv.  (1907)  pp.  108-10  (figs.). 

X  Bot.  Gazette,  xliv.  (1907)  pp.  214-24  (37  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,  ■  ETC.  195 

Sporangial  Development  in  Equisetum  hyemale.* — L.  A.  Hawkins 
gives  an  account  of  the  development  of  the  sporangium  of  Equisetum 
hyemale,  and  claims  that  the  plant  "  is  of  the  eusporangiate  type  ;  the 
sporogenous  tissue  comes  from  a  single  cell ;  the  first  wall  is  peridural, 
the  inner  cell  being  sterile,  while  the  sporogenous  tissue  comes  entirely 
from  the  outer  cell  ;  the  tapetum  comes  from  the  cells  surrounding  the 
sporogenous  mass  ;  there  are  two  types  of  sporangia  differing  in  develop- 
ment and  governed  by  the  direction  of  the  second  division  ;  many  of 
the  sporocytes  are  disintegrated  during  the  formation  of  tetrads." 

Inner  Roots  of  Lycopodium  pithyoides. t — A.  G.  Stokey  describes 
the  structure  and  development  of  the  roots  of  Lycopodium  pithyoides,  an 
epiphytic  Pteridophyte  transplanted  from  Mexico  to  Chicago.  It 
resembles  a  young  Pinas  sylvestris  ;  and  practically  every  leaf  is  a  sporo- 
phyll.  But  more  striking  than  the  general  habit  is  the  appearance  of 
the  stem  in  transverse  section.  The  stele  is  small,  and  not  remarkable, 
but  is  conspicuously  surrounded  by  numerous  smaller  heavily  sheathed 
steles.  These  are  the  "  inner  roots  "  described  by  Strasburger  as  existing 
in  certain  species  of  Lycopodium.  They  arise  in  acropetal  succession  at 
any  point  of  the  stele,  and,  instead  of  penetrating  the  cortex  at  once, 
and  emerging  as  aerial  roots,  they  turn  downwards,  and,  boring  through 
the  cortex,  emerge  finally  at  or  near  the  base.  This  habit  is  associated 
with  erect  forms  of  Lycopodium,  both  terrestrial  and  epiphytic.  Stokey 
describes  the  development  and  structure  of  these  roots  in  L.  pithyoides, 
giving  some  comparative  notes  on  other  species. 

New  Palaeozoic  Lycopod. J — M.  Benson  describes  shortly  a  new 
palaeozoic  Lycopod  with  a  seed-like  structure.  The  vegetative  organs  of 
this  plant,  Miadesmia  membranacea,  were  discovered  by  Bertrand  in 
1894,  in  sections  of  a  calcite  nodule  from  the  Gannister  beds  of  Hough 
Hill.  From  an  examination  of  much  new  material,  further  details  are 
known  as  to  the  vegetative  organs,  as  well  as  a  fairly  complete  account 
of  the  reproductive  organs.  Miadesmia  was  very  minute,  with  a  slender 
stem  and  without  any  trace  of  skeletal  tissue.  It  is  the  first  palaeozoic 
Lycopod  of  herbaceous  character  known  structurally.  The  megasporo- 
phylls  were  identified  by  D.  H.  Scott  in  1001,  and  they  show  a  more 
advanced  type  of  seed  habit  than  has  hitherto  been  met  with  in 
Cryptogams.  The  megasporangium  gives  rise  to  but  one  thin-walled 
spore,  which  in  development  and  structure  resembles  an  embryo-sac 
and  germinates  in  situ.  An  integument  surrounds  the  sporangium, 
leaving  but  a  small  orifice  as  micropyle.  This  is  surrounded  by  numerous 
long  processes  of  the  integument,  which  formed  a  collecting  and 
incubating  apparatus  for  the  microspores.  There  is  no  trace  of  an 
envelope  about  the  microsporangium.  The  carpellary  leaf  was  shed  at 
maturity,  and  resembles  a  winged  seed.  Apart  from  structural  modi- 
fications   of   the   megasporophyll,  Miadesmia  is  most  closely  allied  to 

*  Ohio  Naturalist,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  122-8  (2  pis.).      See  also  Bot.  Gazette,  xliv. 
(1907)  p.  78.  t  Bot.  Gazette,  xliv.  (1907)  pp.  57-63  (2  pis.). 

X  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  Series  B,  lxxix.  (1907)  No.  B  534,  p.  473. 


196  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

in  m-specialised  species  of  Selaginella,  such  as  S.  selaginoides,  but  the 
foliage  leaves  show  the  archaic  leaf  base  comparable  with  that  of  Lepido- 
dendrese. 

Lycopodium  complanatum  subsp.  moniliforme.* — C.  A.  M.  Lind 
man  describes  and  figures  a  new  subspecies  of  L.  complanatum  found  in 
Sodermanland,  Sweden,  in  great  quantities  in  1895,  at  a  station  which 
the  author  has  failed  to  rediscover. 

Fossil  Osmundaceae.t — iR.  Kidston  and  D.  T.  Gwynne-Vaughan 
describe  and  figure  two  new  species  of  Osmwidites,  0.  Dunlopi,  and 
0.  Gibbiana,  both  obtained  from  Jurassic  rocks  near  Gore,  Otago 
district,  New  Zealand.  They  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  minute 
structure  of  the  stem,  leaf  base,  and  roots ;  and  compare  the  structure  of 
0.  Dowkeri  Carr.  and  0.  sJcidegatensis  Penhallow,  adding  a  chapter  on 
theoretical  considerations  and  the  ancestry  of  the  Osmundaceae. 

Anatomy  of  Palseostachya  vera.} — Gr.  Hickling  has  made  a  careful 
re-investigation  of  the  anatomy  of  Paheostachya,  and  describes  the 
general  features  of  the  fossil  cone,  the  structure  of  its  axis,  its  cortex  and 
medulla,  the  vascular  system,  vascular  supply  of  the  appendages, 
sporangiophore  bundles,  bracts,  sporangiophores,  sporangia,  spores.  He 
thereby  brings  to  light  certain  new  features  and  corrects  some  errors  of 
observation  made  by  Williamson.  He  discusses  the  affinities  of  the  cone, 
and  holds  that  Palceostachya  vera  is  a  Calamarian  fructification 
•characterised  by  axillary  sporangiophores. 

Structure  of  Syringodendron.§ — K.  H.  Coward  describes  the 
structure  of  a  portion  of  a  fossil  plant  from  the  Lower  Coal  Measures  of 
Shore  sent  to  the  Manchester  Museum  by  Lomax  of  Bolton.  They 
were  tangential  sections  of  bark,  and  at  A.  C.  Seward's  suggestion  were 
compared  with  Syringodendron,  and  found  to  agree.  Syriagodendroii  is 
the  bark  of  Sigillaria.  The  pairs  of  scars  in  rows  exhibited  by  the  speci- 
mens are  interpreted  as  having  been  caused  by  the  parichnos  strands  which 
have  nndergone  subsequent  growth.  There  is  evidence  that  the 
parichnos  strands  acted  as  respiratory  organs. 

Parichnos  in  the  Lepidodendracese.jl — F.  E.  Weiss  gives  a  resume 
of  all  that  has  been  published  upon  the  parichnos  in  these  fossil  plants, 
the  structure  of  the  organ  and  the  nature  of  its  function.  He  gives  the 
results  of  his  own  study  of  a  series  of  slides  in  the  Manchester  Museum, 
figures  a  re-construction  of  the  leaf-cushion  Lepidoden droit,  and  shows 
bow  the  aerenchyma  of  the  parichnos  of  the  leaf,  communicating  with 
that  of  the  middle  cortex  of  the  stem  and  with  that  of  the  roots, 
constituted  a  respiratory  system  for  those  parts  of  Lepidodendron  and 
Sigillaria  which  were  imbedded  in  a  water-logged  soil. 

*  Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  131-2  (figs.). 
f  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xlv.  (1907)  pp.  759-80  (6  pis.). 
t  Ann.  of  Bot.,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  369-86  (2  pis.). 

§  Mem.  Proc.  Manchester  Lit.  and  Phil.  Soc,  li.  part  2   (1907)  No.  7,  6  pp., 
1  pi.  and  figs.  ||  Tom   cit.,  No.  8,  22  pp.,  1  pi.  and  figs. 


ZOOLOGY    AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  197 

Bryophyta. 
(By  A.  Gepp.) 

British  Muscinese. — A.  R.  Horwood  *  treats  of  the  extinction  of 
numerous  species  of  lichens,  hepatics  and  mosses  in  Charnwood  Forest 
during  the  past  70  years,  as  a  consequence  of  the  disafforestation,  drainage, 
increasing  smoke  and  gases  from  collieries  and  brick  and  pipe  works,  and 
dust  from  quarries  and  cement  works.  The  same  thing  is  going  on  to 
a  less  extent  in  many  parts  of  England,  and  the  author  urges  that  a 
competent  investigation  of  the  local  cryptogamic  floras  should  be  made 
before  it  is  too  late.  A.  Ley  f  gives  a  list  of  62  mosses  in  his  additions 
to  the  flora  of  Herefordshire.  They  are  rarer  species  and  varieties, 
and  are  either  new  to  the  county  or  recorded  from  new  stations. 
H.  Whitehead^  records  the  luxuriant  occurrence  of  Ricciella  fluitans  in 
a  pond  on  Golding's  Hill  during  the  autumn  of  1906.  The  author 
adds  a  few  general  remarks  upon  the  habit  and  structure  of  the  members 
of  Ricciaceae. 

New  and  Rare  Scottish  Mosses. §— J.  Stirton  gives  an  account  of 
some  new  and  some  rare  mosses  collected  mostly  at  or  near  Arisaig  in 
the  West  of  Scotland.  The  following  11  species  and  a  variety  are 
described  as  new  to  science  : — Dicranum  leiophyllum,  Trichostomum 
episemum,  Barbida  Umosella,  Schistidium  nodulosum,  Grimmia  polita, 
Rhacomitrium  consocians,  R.  divergens,  Bartramia  subvirella,  Pohlia 
tenerrima,  OUgotrichum  exiguum,  0.  hercynicum  va,r.  fastig latum,  Hypnum 
teichophyllum.  All  but  the  Hypnum  and  Dicranum  are  barren  plants. 
Among  the  rarities  mentioned  are  fruiting  specimens  of  Ulota  phyllantha 
and  U.  scotica  ;  of  the  former  probably  not  more  than  a  dozen  capsules 
had  been  previously  found.  It  is  remarkable  that  capsules  of  U.  phyl- 
lantha have  never  been  found  save  when  the  plant  grows  intermingled 
with  U.  Bruchii  in  a  fertile  state.  Other  rare  species  are  Barbida 
Umosa,  B.  exiguella,  B.  icmadophila,  Hypnum  corrugatulum,  H.  cana- 
riense. 

Irish  Muscineae.— D.  McArdle||  publishes  lists  of  71  species  and 
varieties  of  mosses  and  20  hepatics,  collected  on  the  island  of  Lambay, 
which  lies  off  Howth  in  Co.  Dublin.  These  records  are  part  of  the 
results  obtained  during  1905-6  from  an  organised  attempt  to  determine 
the  natural  history  of  the  island.  The  rocky  coast  yielded  an  abundance 
of  material  of  a  few  genera  ;  the  caves  of  the  north  shore  were  found  to 
be  monopolised  by  a  few  appropriate  species  ;  in  the  inland  and  marshes 
were  several  species  of  Hypnum.  A  new  variety  of  H.  splendens  is 
plentiful  in  a  rocky  pasture.  A  great  difference  is  revealed  between  the 
hepatic  flora  of  the  island  and  that  of  the  Hill  of  Howth.  The  same 
author  IT  gives  a  list  of  68  mosses  and  4?>  hepatics  of  Co.  Mayo,  collected 
in  a  remote  mountain  district  near  Lough  Corrib,  the  Finny  River,  etc. 

*  Journ.  of  Bot.,  xlv.  (1907)  pp.  334-9.  t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  317-29. 

X  Essex  Naturalist,  xiv.  (1907)  p.  276. 

§  Ann.  Scot.  Nat.  Hist.,  No.  63  (1907)  pp.  171-80. 

||  Irish  Naturalist,  xvi.  (1907)  pp.  99-104.        %  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  332-7. 


198  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

In  the  limestone  of  Cong  is  the  Pigeon  Hole  cave  ;  here  Lejeunea  MacTcaii 
grows  plentifully;  here  also  are  found  Wurhynchium pumilum,  E.  Tees- 
dalei  and  E.  tenellum.  At  Curranamona  a  small  quantity  of  Andrecea 
crassinervia  was  collected.  The  moss  flora  is  often  poorly  developed  in 
the  district.  H.  W.  Lett*  points  out  that  Polytrkhum  attenuatum  \< 
not  rare  in  Ireland,  as  1).  McArdle  has  stated,  but  is  abundant  in  Co. 
Down,  and  has  been  found  in  eleven  other  Irish  counties. 

North  American  Muscinese. — C.  C.  Haynesf  concludes  her  account 
of  the  species  of  Lophozia  of  the  United  States,  selected  from  the 
writings  of  A.  W.  Evans,  but  illustrated  by  herself.  G.  E.Nichols  J 
gives  a  list  with  synonymy  of  the  five  species  of  Amblystegiella  found 
in  the  United  States,  and  supplies  an  account  of  the  history  of  the  genus. 
J.  M.  Holzinger§  explains  the  series  of  errors  which  have  been  made 
by  authors  over  the  moss  now  designated  Homalotheciella  subcapillata 
Card.,  and  shows  why  the  name  Burnettia  has  to  be  dropped.  A.  Lorenz  || 
publishes  some  illustrated  notes  on  Radula  tenax  Lindb.,  which  has 
never  previously  been  figured.  It  occurs  in  New  Hampshire,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Connecticut. 

Parisian  Species  of  Philonotis.^f — G.  Dismier  has  revised  the 
species  of  Philonotis  found  in  the  environs  of  Paris,  and  shows  that, 
whereas  three  species  only  of  this  difficult  genus,  P.  fontana,  P.  calcarea, 
and  P.  marchica,  have  been  recorded  as  occurring  there,  in  reality  two 
other  species,  P.  ccespitosa  and  P.  capillaris,  also  occur.  Further, 
P.  marchica  really  does  grow  in  the  district,  though  all  previous  records 
of  it  are  shown  to  be  false.  This  species  has  often  been  confounded 
with  others,  especially  with  P.  fontana  and  P.  cmspitosa.  It  differs  in 
having  its  leaves  shaped  like  an  elongated  isosceles  triangle  with  curvi- 
linear sides,  concave  at  base,  not  plicate,  carinate,  with  margins  flat,  and 
bearing  sharp  teeth  along  the  whole  length,  with  cells  always  papillate 
•on  their  upper  angles,  with  tissue  translucent,  and  nerve  thin  throughout. 
He  says  that  P.  cozspitosa  does  not  seem  to  have  become  sufficiently  well 
known  hitherto  ;  its  principal  distinguishing  characters  are  that  the 
tufts  are  but  little  radicelliferous,  the  stems  are  slender,  the  leaves 
relatively  large,  homotropous  (a  rarely  absent  character),  falcate,  flat 
(not  plicate),  with  tissue  translucent,  and  often  composed  of  square  or 
rather  long  rectangular  cells.  The  lower  leaves  of  sterile  plants  should 
always  be  examined,  since  the  upper  leaves  and  those  of  male  stems  are 
nearly  always  misleading  ;  hence  the  bad  naming  of  many  specimens. 

New  Species  of  Sphagnum.** — C.  Warnstorf  begins  a  paper  on  new 
European  and  extra  European  Sphagna,  in  which  he  gives  descriptions 
of  27  species  of  Sphagnum,  belonging  to  the  cymuifolium,  subsecundum, 
mucronatum,  acutifolium,  and  cuspidatum  groups.  The  descriptions  are 
detailed  and  are  in  some  species  supplemented  by  figures. 

*  Irish  Naturalist,  xvi.  (1907)  p.  348. 

t  Bryologist,  xi.  (1908)  pp.  1-3  (1  pi.).  %  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  4-5. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  p.  7.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  p.  9. 

i  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  liv.  (1907)  pp.  196-200. 

**  Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1907-8)  pp.  76-124. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  199 

Trichostomum  mutabile  Br.  and  its  Allies.* — Th.  Herzog  has  made 
a  thorough  study  of  the  variable  species  T.  mutabile  and  all  the  supposed 
allied  species  and  varieties.      He  has  had  more  than    250    specimens 
through  his  hands,  and  he  is  therefore  able  to  form  a  broad  and  just 
view  of  the  mutability  of  the  species.     As  a  result,  he  sinks  T.  Morale 
Mitt.,  T.  cuspidatum  ttchimp.,  and  T.  lutescens  (Lindb.),  and  disposes  of 
many  varieties,  taking  as  the  name  for  this  collective  species  T.  mutabile 
Br.     Unfortunately,  the  forms  are  so  numerous  that  the  author  finds  it 
impossible  to  point  out  a  really  fixed  type  to  serve  as  a  true  variety  of 
T.  mutabile,  in  the  ordinary  sense  ;  and  he  has,  therefore,  set  up  what 
he  calls  "  ideal  types  "  as  indicating  the  main  lines  of  divergence.     These 
are  founded  on  forms  more  or  less  easily  diagnosed  and  distinct  from 
each  other  :    densum,  Morale,  mutabile,  and   cuspidatum.      The   inter- 
mediate  forms   are   designated   by   a   special  system  of  nomenclature, 
explained  by  the  author.     He  then  treats  of  difference  in  growth,  the 
foliage-characters,  leaf-form,  and  anatomy,  form  of  the  capsule,  size  and 
variety  of  structure  of  the   peristome.      Finally,  the  author  describes 
fully  the  types  and  sub-types,  giving  full  geographical  distribution  of 
each,  followed  by  a  chapter  on  phylogenetic  conclusions  and  a  diagram 
of  form-affinities. 

Muscinese  of  Crete.f — W.  E.  Nicholson  publishes  a  list  of  91  mosses 
and  13  hepaticas  collected  by  him  during  a  fortnight's  stay  in  the  island 
of  Crete.  The  sun  was  already  beginning  to  dry  up  the  vegetation, 
which  added  to  the  difficulty  of  the  collector.  The  region  examined  was 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kandia,  in  which  the  most  productive  locality 
was  the  bed  of  the  Kairatos  and  the  adjacent  ravines  close  to  the  recent 
excavations  of  Knossos.  The  author  also  crossed  the  island,  and  was 
thus  enabled  to  gain  a  fairly  good  general  idea  of  the  moss  flora.  He 
finds  the  mosses  of  the  subalpine  zone,  which  are  so  rich  in  Central 
Europe,  to  be  poorly  represented  in  Crete.  There  was  no  species  of 
Dicranum,  Rhacomitrium  or  Hylocomium,  and  the  genus  Hypnum  was 
represented  by  H.  mpressiforme  only.  A  cave  on  Mount  Ida,  at  a  height 
of  5000  ft.,  was  thickly  hung  with  mosses,  among  which  Neckera  turgida 
predominated.  The  author  points  out  that  many  localities  remain 
unexplored,  which  offer  an  interesting  field  for  work. 

New  Greenhouse  Fissidens.J — A.  A.  Elenkin  describes  and  figures 
Fissidens  Waldheimii,  a  new  species  of  moss  which  grows  abundantly  on 
the  trunks  of  Dicksonia  antarctica  in  the  glasshouses  of  the  Imperial 
Botanic  Garden  of  St.  Petersburg.  It  was  associated  with  Pt&rygophyllum 
hepaticcefolium  and  Rhacopilum  convolutaceum.  This  Fissidens  fruits  in 
winter,  and  much  resembles  F.  adiantoides,  but  the  leaves  lack  the 
hyaline  margin  of  that  species,  the  spores  are  verruculose,  and  the  stems 
are  rufescent  below  with  radicles  almost  to  the  apex. 

Hybrids  of  Physcomitrella.§ — I.  Gyorffy  has  investigated  the  com- 
parative anatomy  of  Physcomitrella  patens,  P.  Hampei,  Physcomitrium 

*  Nova  Acta  Acad.  Cses.  Leop. -Carol.,  lxxiii.  (1907)  pp.  451-81  (7  pis.). 
t  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxiv.  (1907)  pp.  81-6. 

\  Bull.  Jard.  Imp.  Bot.  St.  Petersbourg,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  1-8  (2  pis.). 
§  Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1907)  pp.  1-59  (figs.). 


200  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES  RELATING   TO 

pyriforme,  and  P.  splicer  icam,  and  gives  a  detailed  account  of  his  results. 
He  states  that  just  as  Funaria  hybrida,  Ditrichum  Breidleri,  D. 
astomoides  are  hybrid  mosses  of  known  parentage,  so  also  is  Physcomi- 
trella  Hampei,  the  mother  of  which  is  always  P.  patens,  but  the  father 
may  be  either  PJvyscomitrium  sphcp/ricum  or  P.  pyriforme  or  P.  eurysto- 
mum.  The  author  very  carefully  describes  the  structure  of  the  respective 
parents  and  of  the  resulting  hybrids.  He  finds  that  the  hybrids  in  their 
vegetative  parts  (oophyte)  correspond  with  the  mother  species,  P. patens  ; 
but  in  the  asexual  generation  (sporophyte)  they  inherit  the  characters  of 
the  father  species. 

Parallel  Forms  and  Variability  of  Cell-length  in  Mosses.* — 
L.  Loeske  has  been  studying  the  parallelism  of  forms  in  various  species 
under  the  influence  of  similar  external  conditions.  In  this  sort  of 
work  the  study  of  herbarium  specimens  is  of  very  little  help  ;  the  plants 
must  be  observed  in  their  natural  habitats.  He  discovered  a  new  variety, 
Hygrohypnum  subsplmricarpum  var.  cataractarmn,  in  a  cascade  in  Algau, 
a  form  remarkable  for  the  long  and  even  excurrent  costa  in  its  leaves 
(the  costa  of  the  type  being  but  three-quarters  of  the  length  of  the  leaf). 
He  thereupon  turned  his  attention  to  Amblystegium  fallax  and  its  var. 
spinifolium,  which  Roth  and  others  claim  to  be  a  distinct  species  ;  and 
he  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  A.  fallax  is  a  flowing- water  form  of 
A.  filicinum,  that  A.  fallax  var.  spinifolium  is  a  parallel  form  of 
A.  irriguum,  and  A.  noterophiloides  a  parallel  form  of  A.  fluviatile. 
Warnstorf  indeed  combined  the  two  latter  into  one  species.  Gratoneuron 
irrigatum  is,  Loeske  thinks,  a  mixture  of  parallel  forms  of  G.  commuta- 
tum  and  G.falcatum  growing  in  mountain  streams.  The  rest  of  Loeske's 
paper  treats  of  the  increase  in  length  of  the  prosenchymatous  cells  of 
the  leaf  in  species  of  Gratoneuron  and  Hygroamblystegwm,  this  lengthening- 
being  proportional  to  the  increased  length  of  the  leaf  under  the  influence 
of  running  water  ;  this  is  associated  with  a  strengthening  of  the  midrib. 
Loeske  recounts  some  observations  made  by  him  of  change  of  form  in 
mosses  under  change  of  environment. 

Ramification  in  Muscineae.t — M.  Servit  has  been  incited  by  the 
researches  of  Yelenovskv  to  examine  the  mode  of  branching  in  Muscineae. 
On  the  whole  he  confirms  the  results  of  that  author,  but  he  also  publishes 
fresh  observations  and  adds  to  those  already  made.  In  liverworts  two 
modes  of  ramification  are  recognised  :  (1)  the  terminal  branching  in 
which  the  branches  arise  exogenously  ;  (2)  the  intercalary  endogenous 
formation  of  shoots.  Leitgeb  distinguishes  two  modifications  of  the 
former  method.  This  division  is  based  on  the  behaviour  of  the  shoot 
in  an  early  stage,  but  the  present  author  shows  that  the  fully  developed 
plant  does  not  always  correspond  with  the  young  stages.  Velenovsky 
describes  certain  so-called  angular  leaves  (angular  blatter)  for  the  vas- 
cular cryptogams  only,  but  Servit  here  describes  and  figures  similar 
growths  for  liverworts,  notably  Mastigobryum  trilobatum,  where  this 
axillary  bract  is  inserted  on  two  branches.  He  discusses  monopodial 
and  dichotomous  branching  as  it  occurs  in  the  hepatics,  in  which  group 
the  former  mode  of  branching  characterises  the  erect  growing  species, 

*  Allgem.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  xiii.  (1907)  pp.  119-22. 

t  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xxii.,  Abt.  1  (1907)  pp.  287-93  (figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  201 

and  the  dichotomous  the  closely  creeping  species.  The  mosses  branch 
monopodially.  The  sphagna  are  so  peculiar  in  their  ramifications  as  to 
confirm  the  view  that  they  form  an  isolated  moss  type. 

Androgynous  Inflorescences  in  Dumortiera.* — A.  Ernst  has  made 
a  special  study  of  two  Javan  species  of  Dumortiera,  D.  trichocephala 
N.  ab  E.,  and  D.  velutina  Schiffn.,  and  compares  hi$  results  with  the 
work  done  in  other  species  of  the  genus  by  Leitgeb  and  Goebel.  He 
describes  the  habit  and  place  of  growth  of  the  two  species  under  con- 
sideration, and  then  gives  a  short  description  of  their  male  and  female 
receptacles.  Besides  these,  he  finds  in  D.  trichocephala  frequently,  and 
more  rarely  in  D.  velutina,  inflorescences  of  mixed  sex,  that  is,  shoots 
which  have  come  to  bear  sexual  organs,  the  rays  of  which  do  not  all  bear 
organs  of  similar  sex.  These  are  by  no  means  exceptional  growths,  as 
in  Preissia  commutata,  but  quite  common  in  D.  trichocephala  on  plants 
collected  from  many  localities  in  Java.  This  species  differs,  therefore, 
from  the  generality  of  Marchantioideae  Cornpositae  in  being  monoecious, 
not  dioecious,  inasmuch  as  it  possesses  male,  female,  and  mixed  in- 
florescences, on  different  branches  of  the  same  plant.  Statistics  are 
given  as  to  the  occurrence  of  mixed  inflorescences  in  both  D.  tricho- 
cephala and  D.  velutina. 

Comparison  between  Muscinese  and  Vascular  Cryptogams.! — 
G.  Bonnier  reviews  the  theories  put  forward  from  time  to  time  by  various 
authors  as  to  an  analogy  between  the  respective  parts  of  plants  in  these 
two  groups,  but  he  condemns  them  all  as  being  untenable,  and  pronounces 
the  Muscineae  to  be  a  group  by  itself,  occupying  a  special  position  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom.  He  then  proceeds  to  examine  possible  intermediates 
between  Muscineae  and  Vascular  Cryptogams  on  the  one  hand  and 
Muscineae  and  Thallophytes  on  the  other,  the  former  of  these  considera- 
tions being  the  subject  of  the  present  paper.  This  he  does,  after  a  few 
preliminary  remarks,  under  the  following  headings  :  (1)  Comparison  of 
the  Gametophyte  in  Muscineae  and  Vascular  Cryptogams ;  (2)  Com- 
parison of  the  Sporophyte  ;  and  (3)  Comparison  of  the  mode  of 
multiplication.  In  conclusion,  he  points  out  that  notwithstanding 
comparisons  and  homologies,  the  Muscineae  present  great  differences  from 
other  plants.  Though  Anthoceros  resembles  Vascular  Cryptogams  in  its 
gametophyte,  it  differs  profoundly  in  its  sporophyte  ;  and  though  an 
alga  of  the  Florid  eae  in  protonema,  sporogonium  and  thallus  may  have  a 
general  development  very  comparable  with  that  of  a  moss,  it  differs 
profoundly  in  the  origin  of  the  spore  mother-cells,  the  archegonium  and 
antheridium. 

Thallophyta. 

Algse. 

(By  Mrs.  E.  S.  Gepp.) 

Staining  of  Algae.}  — F.  Brand  has  made  interesting  experiments, 
proving  that  the  use  of  various  reagents  is  not  only  a  convenient  means 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  455-64  (1  pi.), 
t  Rev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  513-21  (figs,  in  text). 
t  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  497-506. 

April  15th,  1908  p 


202  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

of  determining  their  identity,  but  that  it  also  leads  to  certain  scientific 
deductions.  He  finds  that  a  given  reagent  has  the  same  effect  on  all 
parts  of  the  same  species,  be  they  vegetative  or  rhizoidal,  zoospores,  or 
germinating  plantlets.  This  fact  is  of  great  importance  in  the  dis- 
crimination of  forms  belonging  to  polymorphic  species,  and  would,  for 
instance,  prevent  confusion  between  the  young  stages  of  Cladophora, 
which  resemble  Gongrosira,  and  the  true  Gongrosira  which  reacts  to  a 
different  stain.  Instances  are  given  of  the  effect  of  various  stains  on 
certain  genera  of  algee,  which  have  been  soaked  for  24  hours  in  water 
containing  a  percentage  of  acetic  acid  ;  all  the  material  employed,  except 
where  specially  stated,  was  from  dried  plants. 

The  author  then  describes  a  new  species  of  Gongrosira,  G.  lacustris, 
which  he  discovered  during  his  staining  experiments.  A  new  form  of 
Coleochcete  scutata,  f.  lobata,  is  also  described,  which  the  author  con- 
siders as  representing  merely  a  biological  form  of  typical  C.  scutata. 
There  is  no  sign  on  it  of  reproductive  organs,  and  it  has  not  reappeared 
in  the  year  of  writing. 

Coleochsete  nitellarum.* — I.  F.  Lewis  remarks  on  the  structure  of 
G.  nitellarum,  and  compared  specimens  collected  at  Long  Island  with 
the  original  German  plants  described  by  Jost  in  1895.  |  Lewis  notes 
two  peculiarities  of  structure — the  thin,  delicate  cell-walls,  and  the 
broad,  flat  shape  of  the  cells,  and  explains  both  these  phenomena 
by  the  endophytic  habit  of  the  species.  He  points  out  that  his 
Long  Island  plants  are  strictly  monoecious,  the  antheridia  being 
usually  produced  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  oogonia.  The 
mode  of  origin  of  antheridia  and  oogonia  is  described,  and  an 
account  given  of  fertilisation  as  observed  in  stained  preparations. 
The  nucleus  of  the  oogonium  is  central  in  the  cell,  and  some- 
what larger  than  the  vegetative  nuclei.  The  nucleus  from  the 
spermatozoid,  at  first  small,  increases  in  size  as  it  approaches  the 
oogonial  nucleus,  until  two  nuclei  of  approximately  the  same  size  lie 
side  by  side  in  the  centre  of  the  oogonium.  The  nuclei  fuse  while  the 
chromatin  is  in  the  resting  condition.  Immediately  after  fusion, 
neighbouring  vegetative  cells  send  up  branches  over  the  oogonium  to 
form  the  characteristic  cortex  of  the  oospore.  Formation  of  the 
zoospores  is  described,  and  the  author  shows  that  there  is  here  an 
indication  of  the  formation  of  a  multilocular  sporangium  similar  to 
that  in  certain  Phaeophyceae.  Division  of  the  nucleus  is  indirect,  and 
does  not  take  place  until  the  single  pyrenoid  and  chromatophore  have 
first  divided.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule  is  in  the  case  of  the 
antheridia,  where  the  chromatophore  and  pyrenoid  remain  undivided 
in  the  mother-cell. 

Algae  of  Mark  Brandenburg-.} — E.  Lemmermann  publishes  the 
second  part  of  his  work  on  the  algae  of  Brandenburg.  He  completes 
the  systematic  treatment  from  Phormidium  to  Rivularia  and  the  genera 
of  Camptotrichiaceas ;  and  then  proceeds  to  deal  with  the  class  Flagel- 
latae  from  a  general  point  of  view.     His  remarks  cover  the  structure  of 

*  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Calendar,  Notes  Biol.  Lab.,  March  1907,  pp.  29-30. 

t  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.  xiii. 

X  Kryptogamen-Flora  Mark  Brandenburg,  iii.  part  2  (1907)  pp.  129-304. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  203 

the  cell,  movement,  nutrition,  multiplication,  formation  of  colonics, 
phenomena  of  attraction,  occurrence,  seasonal  dimorphism,  parasites,  and 
symbiosis.  A  list  of  literature  on  the  subject  is  given,  and  the  opening 
lines  of  the  systematic  treatment  of  the  group  are  included  in  this  part. 

Contributions  to  the  Algal  Flora  of  Nordhausen.*  -  -  F.  Quelle 
gives  a  list  of  31  species  new  to  the  district  collected  by  himself. 
Among  these  is  Surirella  anceps  Lewis,  which  up  to  the  present  time 
has  only  been  recorded  once,  and  that  was  from  the  Notch  Valley  in 
the  White  Mountains,  United  States,  in  1S60.  The  conditions  in  which 
this  species  is  found  living  in  the  Hartz  Mountains  are  much  the  same 
as  those  of  the  original  habitat.  The  author  describes  some  of  the 
characteristic  features  of  the  species.  Names  are  given  of  certain 
Cyanophycere  which  constitute  "water-bloom  "  at  two  localities. 

French  Algae  collected  in  the  English  Channel.! — J.  Bessil  gives 
an  account  of  an  algological  excursion  lasting  three  days  to  the  environs 
of  Saint- Vaast-la-Hougue,  and  of  Barfleur  in  the  English  Channel,  the 
objects  being  to  observe  marine  algae  in  situ,  to  study  them  alive  in 
their  habitats,  to  obtain  an  idea  of  the  marine  flora  in  its  diverse  facies, 
to  learn  how  to  collect,  determine,  and  study  algae,  to  become  familiar 
with  their  forms  and  names.  He  recounts  what  was  done  each  day,  and 
gives  lists  of  the  algae  found. 

Marine  Algae  of  Lambay4 — The  late  E.  A.  L.  Batters  made  a  list 
of  about  200  species  of  algaa  collected  at  Lambay,  an  island  off  the 
coast  of  Co.  Dublin,  during  a  week  in  April  1906,  during  the  combined 
attempt  of  zoologists,  botanists,  etc.,  to  investigate  the  natural  history 
of  the  island.  Twenty  of  the  species  have  never  previously  been 
recorded  from  the  coasts  of  the  island,  and  only  one  species  has  been 
recorded  previously  from  Lambay.  Many  of  the  common  species  were 
absent  at  the  time  of  the  investigation.  The  algal  flora  of  the  island 
on  the  whole  resembles  most  nearly  that  of  the  Isle  of  Man  and  the 
Clyde  sea  area. 

Caulerpas  of  the  Danish  West  Indies.§ — F.  Borgesen  writes  an 
ecological  and  systematic  account  of  the  Caulerpas  of  the  Danish  West 
Indies,  and  divides  his  remarks  into  two  sections,  a  General  and  a 
Systematic  part.  In  the  General  part  he  deals  first  with  the  external 
conditions  under  which  the  Caulerpas  live  in  the  Danish  West  Indies, 
describing  the  three  localities  as  "  somewhat  exposed,"  "  sheltered,"  and 
in  "  deeper  water."  On  much  exposed  shores  he  has  never  found  any 
of  these  plants.  Under  "  the  rhizome  and  root  of  the  Caulerpas  and 
their  variations  under  different  external  conditions,"  the  author 
describes  (1)  epiphytic  or  mud-collecting  Caulerpas  ;  (2)  sand  and 
mud  Caulerpas  ;  and  (3)  rock  and  coral-reef  Caulerpas.  In  the  sand- 
Caulerpas  the  roots  "  first  grow  vigorously  without  division  some  cms. 
down  into  the  bottom,  and  then  suddenly  become  divided  into  numerous 

*  Mitth.  Thiiriug.  Bot.  Ver.,  1907,  pp.  36-9. 
t  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  liv.  (1907)  pp.  269-80. 
X  Irish  Naturalist,  xvi.  (1907)  pp.  107-10. 

§  Mem.  Acad.  Roy.  Sci.  Lett.  Danemark,  ser.  7,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  339-92  (figs,  in 
text). 

p  2 


204  SUMMAKY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

rhizoids,  whereas  the  roots  of  the  rock  and  coral  Caulerpa,  on  the 
contrary,  are  commonly  directly  divided  into  several  branches,  which  by 
degrees  are  divided  into  a  great  multitude  of  thin  rhizoids."  The  form 
of  the  rhizoids  may  vary  in  the  same  species  according  to  the  substratum 
on  which  it  grows.  Under  the  heading  of  "  The  different  types  of 
assimilation-shoots  in  Caulerpa,  and  their  ecological  adaptation  to  the 
surrounding  external  conditions,"  the  author  criticises  the  published 
views  of  Reinke  as  to  their  uniformity  of  external  conditions,  and 
maintains  that  among  Caulerpas  there  is  sufficient  variation  in  this 
respect  to  account  for  much  of  the  variety  of  form  in  the  genus  being 
caused  by  adaptation.  He  divides  the  genus  into  species  which  have 
(1)  leaf-like,  bilateral  assimilation-shoots,  and  (2)  radial  species,  and  he 
finds  that  Caulerpas  must  be  regarded,  to  a  great  extent,  as  ecologisms 
which  are  highly  variable  and  adapted  to  particular  growing  places. 
There  are,  of  course,  certain  variations  which  are  not  ecological,  but 
the  whole  subject  must  be  treated  by  means  of  experiments,  and  more 
knowledge  is  required  before  the  variability  of  the  species  can  be 
satisfactorily  explained.  Nine  species  are  recorded  from  the  Danish 
West  Indies,  on  each  of  which  the  author  gives  critical  notes  and  adds 
illustrations. 

Plankton  of  the  Yang-tze-kiang.* — E.  Lemmermann  publishes  the 
first  records  of  the  plankton  of  Chinese  rivers.  He  took  six  samples 
between  Chingkiang  and  Kiukiang,  and  he  enumerates  the  species  f  ouud 
therein,  which  included  10  Schizophycese,  8  Chlorophycege,  5  Conjugates, 
1  Flagellate,  54  Bacillarige  ;  he  makes  remarks  on  some  of  the  species 
and  describes  several  novelties.  Finally,  he  states  that  the  plankton  of 
the  Yang-tze  differs  from  that  of  previously  examined  rivers  by  the 
predominance  of  Lysigonium  varians  De  Toni,  Synedra  ulna  Ehrenb., 
S.  longissima  var.  subcapitata  Lemm.,  Surirella  calcarata  Pfitz.,  and 
Diaptomus,  the  presence  of  Pediastrum  clathratum  Lemm.  and  Surirella 
elongata  Lemm.,  and  the  absence  of  certain  typical  forms. 

Phytoplankton  of  Ceylon.f — E.  Lemmermann  publishes  the  first 
records  of  phytoplankton  from  Ceylon.  The  material  was  collected  by 
Borgert  and  Willey,  partly  in  Gregory  Lake  near  Nuwara  Eliya, 
and  partly  in  Colombo  Lake.  From  Gregory  Lake  are  recorded  4  Schizo- 
phyceas,  6  Chlorophyceas,  4  Conjugatae,  2  Flagellatae,  1  Peridiniale  and 
10  Bacillariales.  Remarks  are  made  on  the  species  of  Melosira  and 
Pediastrum,  which  occur  there ;  a  new  species,  Lyngbya  Borgerti,  is 
described,  as  well  as  a  new  variety,  ceylanica,  of  Dinobryon  cylindricum. 
In  Colombo  Lake  were  found  6  Schizophyceae,  9  Chlorophyceae,  3  Con- 
jugate, 1  Flagellate,  3  Bacillariales.  The  phytoplankton  of  this  lake 
is  poor,  and  the  species,  with  three  exceptions,  are  not  well  represented. 
All  except  two  are  found  in  European  waters. 

Swarm-spores  of  Fresh-water  AlgaB.J — A.  Pascher  publishes  an 
account  of  his  experiments,  extending  over  four  years,  on  certain  Chloro- 

*  Archiv  Hydrobiol.  u.  Planktonkunde,  ii.  (1907)  pp.  534-44  (1  pi.), 
t  Zool.  Jahrb.  Abt.   Systematik.  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  263-8.     See  also  Hedwigia, 
xlvii.  (1908)  Beibl.,  p.  69. 

+  Stuttgart :  Luerssen,  Bibliotbeca  Botanica,  xiv.  heft  67  (1907)  116  pp.  (8  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  205 

phyceae,  arranged  under  the  following  headings  : — 1.  Variation  of  zoo- 
spores of  certain  Chlorophyceee,  notably  Ulothrix  zonata,  Stigeoclonium 
(4  species),  Draparnaudia  glomerata,  Tribonema  and  Oedogonium. 
2.  Development  of  zoospores,  witli  special  regard  to  intermediate  forms 
of  swarm-spores.  3.  Systematic  treatment  of  Ulotrichales,  divided  into 
Tetrakontre  and  Dikontse.  The  paper  is  illustrated  with  8  plates,  repre- 
senting the  variations  by  mathematical  curves. 

Pathological  Growth-phenomenon  in  Spirogyra  and  Mougeotia.* 
Z.  Woycicki  has  investigated  further  the  effect  of  coal-gas  on  plants,  and 
adds  to  our  knowledge  on  the  subject.  He  finds  that  the  quantity  of 
this  gas  which  is  present  in  laboratories  exercises  a  strong  influence  on 
the  cells  of  Spirogyra  when  kept  there.  Various  experiments  were  carried 
out  on  species  of  Spirogyra  and  Mougeotia,  short  accounts  of  which  are 
given  in  the  present  preliminary  note,  and  further  details  are  promised 
shortly.     The  results  are  a  further  confirmation  of  the  views  of  Richter. 

Processes  of  Division,  Cell-rejuvenation  and  Sporulation  in 
Biddulphia.f — P.  Bergon  gives  the  results  of  five  years  of  careful  study 
of  the  biology  of  Biddulphia  mobiliensis  Bailey.  Despite  prolonged 
observation  he  has  failed  to  determine  the  fate  of  the  motile  microspores 
after  their  escape  from  the  sporangium.  He  describes  in  detail  the 
process  of  cell-division,  the  disposition  of  the  nucleus  and  endochrome 
in  the  resting  state,  the  orientation  and  symmetry  of  the  cell.  As  regards 
the  formation  of  auxospores,  he  finds  that  in  B.  mobiliensis  they  do  not 
arise  from  the  most  diminutive  cells,  but  from  cells  only  slightly  less 
than  medium  size.  He  therefore  prefers  to  regard  this  phenomenon  as 
a  rejuvenation  of  the  cell,  rather  than  as  a  method  of  re-establishing  its 
size.  He  gives  a  long  and  minute  description  of  the  details  of  sporula- 
tion, which  he  finds  to  occur  at  a  fairly  constant  season  in  the  year, 
depending,  however,  rather  on  the  weather.  At  Arcachon  sporulation 
occurs  between  the  extreme  end  of  December  and  the  end  of  February  ; 
that  is,  in  the  time  of  greatest  vegetative  intensity.  Fine  cold  weather 
is  particularly  favourable  to  the  process.  He  thinks  that  there  is  a 
correlation  between  rejuvenation  and  sporulation,  since  he  has  found 
the  two  processes  going  on  side  by  side  in  great  abundance.  He  gives 
a  series  of  measurements  of  the  cell  in  repose,  in  rejuvenation,  and  in 
sporulation. 

Species  of  Ceratium  in  the  Gulf  of  Lyons.J — J.  Pavillard  publishes 
notes  upon  all  the  species  of  Ceratium  found  in  the  Gulf  of  Lyons. 
These  are  27  in  number,  and  one  of  them  is  new  to  science.  His  system 
is  to  regard  as  a  species  every  form  that  is  sharply  defined  by  constant 
characters,  rather  than  to  group  them  as  varieties  of  a  specific  type,  or  as 
forms  of  the  same  variety.  In  this  he  follows  Schrceder.  For  some  of 
the  species  he  gives  dimensions,  which  as  a  rule  are  invariable. 

Avrainvillea  and  HalimedaJ — M.  A.  Howe  publishes  the  third  part 
of  his  Phycological  Studies,  and  in  it  he  deals  almost  entirely  with  the 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  527-9. 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  liv.  (1907)  pp.  327-58  (4  pis.). 

X  Torn,  cit.,  pp.  148-54,  225-31  (1  fig.). 

§  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxiv.  (1907)  pp.  491-51G. 


206  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

two  genera  above  mentioned.  His  first  section  is  devoted  to  remarks 
on  the  sporangia  of  Halimeda  tridens  (under  which  name  he  refers  to 
what  we  commonly  call  H.  incrassata)  and  of  H.  Tuna.  The  sporangia 
of  H.  tridms  have  not  been  hitherto  recorded,  and  they  are  here  com- 
pared with  those  of  H.  Tuna.  They  are  uniformly  yellowish-brown  or 
burnt-umber  colour,  and  the  sporangiophores  are  most  densely  clustered 
along  the  upper  margins  of  the  segments,  especially  at  the  apices  of  the 
lobes  ;  they  may,  however,  emerge  from  any  part  of  the  segment  and 
sometimes  completely  cover  its  surface.  The  author  then  presents  his 
views  on  the  American  species  of  the  H.  Tuna  group,  in  which  he 
recognises  three  distinct  species — E.  Tuna,  H.  discoidea,  and  H.  scabra. 
He  attributes  a  certain  amount  of  importance  to  the  degree  of  calcifica- 
tion, as  well  as  to  the  size  and  shape  of  the  peripheral  and  subperipheral 
utricles.  The  next  section  is  devoted  to  a  treatment  of  the  American 
species  of  the  H.  tridms  group,  in  which  the  author  describes  a  new 
species  H.  simulans,  and  recognises  three  other  species.  One  of  these  is 
the  H.  monile  Lam.,  generally  regarded  as  being  a  form  of  PL.  incrassata. 
A  key  of  the  four  species  of  this  group  is  given.  An  important  fact 
is  recorded  in  this  paper,  namely,  the  finding  for  the  first  time  of  the 
sporangia  of  Avrainvillea,  which  the  author  has  discovered  in  the  species 
A.  nigricans  Decne.  They  consist  of  clavate  and  fusiform  to  pyriform 
and  subglobose  bodies,  borne  on  filaments  raised  above  the  surface  of  the 
thallus.  Sometimes  the  sporangium  only  contains  a  single  spore,  but 
the  usual  number  is  three,  four  or  five,  rarely  six,  seven  or  eight.  The 
author  regards  them  as  aplanospores.  The  final  section  of  the  paper 
deals  with  the  American  species  of  AvrainviUea,  of  which  the  author 
describes  four  with  synonymy  and  key.  He  adds  finally  a  note  on 
U.  tomentosa  Murray  and  U.  luteofusca  Murray. 

Some  Critical  Green  Algae.*  —  G.  S.  "West  publishes  notes  on  six 
members  of  the  Chlorophyceas,  about  which  nothing  or  little  is  known. 
Three  of  these  are  new  species,  and  one  is  transferred  to  another  genus. 
The  first  alga  dealt  with  is  Polgclmtophora  simplex,  the  discovery  of 
which  adds  a  second  species  to  that  genus.  The  author  describes  it  in 
detail,  and  points  out  the  differences  between  it  and  Glceochcete  Witt- 
rockiana  Lagerh.  P.  simplex  is  a  member  of  the  Chlorophyceas,  and  its 
cells,  which  are  not  enveloped  in  mucilage,  are  each  furnished  with  two 
to  four  simple  bristles.  G.  Wittrockiana,  on  the  other  hand,  is  one  of  the 
Myxophyceae,  with  its  cells  enveloped  in  a  copious  mucilage,  and  its 
bristles  frequently  possess  short  spuivlike  branches.  Brachiomonas  sub- 
marina  Bohlin  is  next  described,  belonging  to  a  genus  only  observed 
hitherto  from  Norway  and  Sweden.  Phyllobiuni  sphagnicola  is  another 
new  species,  and  constitutes  the  first  recorded  instance  of  a  Phyllobium 
occurring  on  the  leaves  of  a  Sphagnum.  Kirchneriella  subsolitaria,  the 
third  new  species,  differs  from  the  three  previously  known  members  of 
that  genus  in  the  subsolitary  habit  and  the  entire  absence  of  mucus. 
Tetraedron  platyisthmum  has  been  known  as  Cosmarium  pi  at  y  isthmian 
Archer,  who  recorded  it  from  Ireland.  West  now  finds  it  in  collec- 
tions of  algas   from  the  boggy  hollows  in  the  Lewisian  gneiss  of  West 

*  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  (Bot.)  xxxviii.  (1908)  pp.  279-89  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  207 

Sutherland,  and  is  able  to  give  a  fuller  description  of  the  plant,  showing 
that  it  is  not  a  Desinid.  Finally,  the  author  records  Chodatella  quadriseta 
Leuimermann,  from  Studley  Park,  Warwickshire. 

Diatoms  of  the  Pacific* — A.  Mann  reports  on  the  Diatoms  collected 
by  the  'Albatross'  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  during  the  years  1888-1904. 
He  first  describes  the  methods  employed  for  examining  the  samples  to 
see  if  they  contained  diatoms,  as  well  as  the  way  of  mounting  the  speci- 
mens. Many  of  the  samples  were  destitute  of  diatoms,  but  some,  even 
as  deep  as  987  and  1744  fathoms,  were  particularly  rich  in  them.  The 
importance  of  the  study  of  diatoms  is  pointed  out  as  an  aid  in  deter- 
mining the  extent  and  direction  of  ocean  currents  and  the  origin  of  the 
materials  composing  the  sea  bottoms.  This  is  partly  owing  to  the  inde- 
structibility of  their  siliceous  remains,  those  which  were  formed  centuries 
ago  being  as  well  preserved  as  those  of  this  year's  product ;  and  partly 
to  their  extreme  minuteness,  which  allows  them  to  be  readily  transported 
by  even  quite  slow  ocean  currents  or  surface  drifts  from  their  places  of 
origin  to  remote  points  and  finally  sifted  down  upon  the  sea  bottom. 
Another  point  is  the  enormous  number  of  known  species,  over  4000, 
some  of  which  are  peculiar  to  certain  localities,  there  being  a  tropical, 
temperate,  and  frigid  flora.  The  author  then  goes  on  to  show  that 
certain  species  were  found  in  certain  areas,  one  instance  being  that  of 
Biddulphia  favus,  which  forms  a  practically  unbroken  chain  from  Cali- 
fornia to  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Other  important  facts  concerning  the 
geographical  distribution  of  diatoms  are  given.  The  main  part  of  this 
report  consists  of  an  annotated  catalogue  of  genera  and  species,  in  which 
a  certain  number  of  new  species  are  described.  Synonymy,  references 
to  literature,  and  critical  notes  follow  each  record.  A  list  of  data  of  the 
stations  at  which  diatoms  were  collected  by  the  '  Albatross,'  and  a  full 
bibliography  complete  the  work,  which  is  illustrated  by  11  plates. 

Distribution  of  Fucacese  on  the  Coast  of  Greenland.!— H.  Deich- 
mann  and  L.  K.  Rosenvinge  write  a  criticism  of  a  publication  by  K.  J.  V. 
Steenstrup  on  the  question  whether  the  upper  limit  of  the  Fucaceae  zone 
can  be  regarded  as  indicating  variations  of  sea-level.  A  short  resume 
is  given  of  the  views  of  this  author,  and  then  the  views  of  the  present 
writers  are  set  forth.  They  deal  principally  with  the  "  Isf od  "  or  coating 
of  ice  which  is  formed  during  the  winter  on  the  rocks  at  the  edge  of  the 
sea,  and  stretches  from  a  point  above  high-water  mark  to  a  point  more 
or  less  below  it.  Deichmann  has  made  a  careful  study  of  this  Isfod  and 
describes  the  manner  and  time  of  its  growth  and  the  effect  it  has  on  the 
algae.  He  maintains  that  it  is  not  harmful  to  the  littoral  flora  as  has 
been  supposed,  but  that  the  bare  zone  lying  between  high-water  mark 
and  the  lowest  limit  of  terrestrial  vegetation  is  the  result  of  other  causes. 
The  zone  is  too  much  splashed  by  sea-water  to  allow  of  the  successful 
growth  of  land  plants,  while  marine  algae  cannot  easily  exist  where  there 
is  an  insufficient  supply  of  water. 

The  distribution  of  the  Isfod  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  region 

*  Contrib.  U.S.  National  Herbarium,  x.  (1907)  pp.  215-422  (11  pis.), 
t  Bot.  Tiddsk.,  xxviii.  (1907)  pp.  171-84  (photos.).     (French  resume.) 


208  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

examined,  but  the  authors  show  that  its  presence  is  not  destructive  to 
marine  algae. 

Sphaeranthera  lichenoides.*— F.  Heydrich  discusses  this  plant,  which 
was  figured  so  long  ago  as  17*6  by  Ellis  and  Solanderf;  indeed,  their 
figures  are  pronounced  to  be  far  the  best  existing  to  this  day.  He 
criticises  adversely  the  views  held  by  Foslie  on  the  limits  of  the  species 
and  its  forms,  which  views  have  been  incorporated  in  De  Toni's  Sylloge 
Algarum.  Heydrich  considers  that  of  the  material  he  has  examined,  two 
large  groups  can  be  made;  the  first,  consisting  exclusively  of  plants 
which  grow  on  Corallina,  and  are  found  more  often  on  the  North- 
European  coasts  ;  the  second,  all  those  which  do  not  occur  on  Gorallina, 
but  on  stones,  large  algaB  and  rhizomes  of  Posidonia,  and  inhabit  the 
Mediterranean.  The  first  form  he  calls  pusilla,  the  second  depressa. 
The  figure  of  Ellis  and  Solander  \  represents  Heydrich's  f .  pusilla,  but 
f .  depressa  has  never  been  figured.  A  third  form,  growing  on  Rytiphlaza 
pinastroides  in  Jersey  is  called  f .  densa  and  forms  a  link  between  S.  lichen- 
oides and  8.  Philippi.  The  manner  of  attachment  to  the  substratum  is 
discussed  and  the  differences  are  considered  by  the  author  to  be  of  value 
in  the  determination  of  the  species.  The  structure  of  the  procarp  is 
considered  in  detail,  and  both  antheridia  and  tetrasporangia  are 
described. 

Fucus  Living  on  Sand  and  on  Mud.§— C.  Sauvageau  has  found 
two  species  of  Fucus — F.  spiralis  and  F.  vesiculosus — growing  at  Arcachon 
on  clayey  sand.  The  plants  of  F.  spiralis  measure  only  a  few  centimetres, 
rarely  a  decimetre.  The  older  plants  throw  out  at  their  base  new  fronds 
on  a  very  short  perennial  stipe,  but  these  shoots  never  become  trans- 
formed into  stolons.  Propagation  takes  place  exclusively  by  the  germi- 
nation of  oogonia.  The  plants  are  attached  to  the  sand  by  means  of 
rhizoids,  which  are  the  prolongation  of  the  intertwined  hypha?  or  fibres 
of  the  stipe  ;  these  become  generally  welded  together  to  form  the  disk 
of  attachment  in  plants  of  Fucus  which  have  passed  their  first  youth. 
Thus  it  is  seen  that  F.  spiralis  adapts  itself  to  a  life  on  sand  by  preserv- 
ing the  characters  of  its  early  stages.  Living  side  by  side  with  F.  spiralis 
is  found  F.  vesiculosus,  similarly  affixed  to  the  sand  by  a  bouquet  of 
rhizoids.  It  attains,  however,  a  greater  height,  namely,  10-15  cm.,  and 
it  grows  more  rapidly.  The  large  fronds  are  usually  without  vesicles, 
and  the  few  vesiculiferous  individuals  observed  were  not  fertile  ;  indeed, 
the  fructification,  almost  constant  in  F.  spiralis,  is  on  the  contrary  rare 
in  F.  vesiculosus  growing  on  sand,  while  large  plants  of  this  species  fixed 
on  a  solid  base  are  abundantly  fertile. 

The  author  records  also  F.  lutarius,  growing  on  stretches  of  mud  at 
a  tide  level  intermediate  between  that  of  F.  vesiculosus  and  F.  platycar- 
pus  var.  spiralis  (F.  spiralis),  forming  scattered  tufts  which  are  weighed 
down  at  low  water.  Their  base,  more  and  more  enveloped  in  mud,  is 
never  fixed  to  any  solid  substratum,  and  new  fronds  arise  from  the 
midrib  of  the  enveloped  portion.     Thus  the  plants  multiply  by  vegetative 

*  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xxii.  Abt.  2  (1907)  pp.  222-30  (1  pi.). 

t  Zoophytes  (London,  1786)  p.  131,  tab.  xxiii.  (figs.  10-12). 

j  Loc.  cit.  §  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Bordeaux,  lxii.  (1907)  pp.  699-703. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  209 

means,  which  accounts  for  the  absence  of  reproductive  organs.  By  its 
habitat,  its  sterility,  and  its  mode  of  multiplication,  F.  lutarius  appears 
to  the  author  sufficiently  distinct  from  F.  veskulosus  and  F.  axillaris. 
He  considers  it  is  probably  an  adaptation  of  one  of  these  two  species  to  a 
particular  habit  of  life.  This  opinion  is  strengthened  by  the  variation 
in  the  distribution  of  the  cryptostomata,  which  is  not  yet  of  a  definite 
character. 

Colpomenia  sinuosa.* — L.  Corbiere  publishes  a  note  upon  Colpomenia 
sinuosa,  recording  its  presence  at  numerous  stations  on  the  coast  of 
Cherbourg  as  well  as  20  kilometres  to  the  west.  He  has  no  doubt  that 
millions  of  plants  of  it  exist  in  the  English  Channel  to  the  north  of 
Cotentin,  though  at  the  time  of  writing  it  had  not  been  observed  on 
the  oyster  beds  of  St.  Vaast.  Specimens  were  collected  at  Les  Flamands, 
near  Cherbourg,  so  long  ago  as  March  1906. 

L.  Mangin  shortly  discusses  points  of  interest  in  connection  with 
this  alga,  and  states  that  he  has  found  it  at  St.  Vaast  among  rocks  to 
the  north  and  east  of  the  Isle  of  Tatihou.  It  has  also  been  found  in 
water  of  varying  degrees  of  salinity,  and  the  author  hopes  to  give  shortly 
more  information  on  the  degrees  of  salinity  and  of  brackish  water  in 
which  the  plant  can  live.  He  points  out  that  in  certain  states  C.  sinuosa 
may  be  confused  with  Leathesia  difformis  ;  but  the  former  has  a  dense 
cortex,  composed  of  polyhedral  cells  closely  adpressed,  while  L.  difformis 
has  a  filamentous  external  cortex,  composed  of  cells  easily  separated. 
The  confusion  can  only  take  place  in  autumn,  since  Colpomenia  appears 
in  autumn  and  winter,  while  Leathesia  is  a  summer  plant,  appearing 
in  June. 

Lithothamnia  of  the  '  Sealark '  Expedition.! — M.  Foslie  has  worked 
out  the  collection  of  Lithothamnia  made  by  J.  Stanley  Gardiner  in 
the  Chagos  Archipelago,  Saya  de  Malha  Banks,  Seychelles,  and  other  of 
the  surrounding  reefs  and  islands.  He  opens  his  paper  with  remarks 
on  the  different  species  which  occur  in  the  different  localities,  and  makes 
interesting  comparisons  with  the  coral-reef  building  flora  of  other  parts 
of  the  world.  He  finds  a  close  correspondence  between  the  area  in 
question  and  the  Maldives,  the  only  region  of  the  Indian  Ocean  which 
has  been  well  worked  hitherto.  It  appears  that  three  or  four  species 
are  the  important  reef -builders  in  the  littoral  region  and  in  the  upper- 
most part  of  the  sublittoral  region.  These  are  Lithophyllum  onkodes, 
L.  craspedium  and  Goniolithon  frutescens  ;  while  L.  Kaiseri  (pallescens) 
also  contributes  to  the  formation  of  reefs,  and  in  depths  of  about 
60  fathoms  Lithothamnion  indicum  and  L.  australe  play  their  part.  The 
author  finds  also  that  where  Lithothamnia  occur  in  great  abundance, 
covering  entire  atolls,  the  number  of  species  is  small,  but  the  number  of 
individuals  is  enormous.  This  is  the  case  at  Chagos,  Coetivy,  certain 
places  in  the  Maldives,  at  the  Ellice  Islands  (Funafuti),  and  at  the 
Gilbert  Islands  in  the  Pacific.  In  places  where  Lithothamnia  do  not 
appear  in  such  large  quantities  the  number  of  species  is  much  larger. 
There  seems  to  be  a  considerable  correspondence  between  the  Litho- 
thamnia in  the  Indian  Ocean  and  those  in  large  areas  of  the  Pacific 


l&v 


*  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  liv.  (1907)  pp.  280-4. 

t  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  (Bot.)  ser.  2,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  93-108  (2  pis.). 


210  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

Ocean  within  the  tropics ;  and  this  concerns  several  of  the  species  them- 
selves as  well  as  their  mode  of  occurrence,  particularly  such  as  determine 
the  general  aspect  of  the  vegetation.  The  author  describes  13  species 
collected  on  the  '  Sealark '  Expedition,  one  of  which  is  new. 

Ok  am  uk  a,  K. — Icones  of  Japanese  Algae.  Tokyo  :    (1907)  i.  Nos.  1-3. 


Fungi. 

(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Experiments  with  Sclerospora  graminicola.* — G.  B.  Traverso  pub- 
lished some  time  ago  an  account  of  a  Sclerospora  found  on  plants  of 
Setaria  italica,  which  varied  somewhat  from  the  typical  form  Scl.  grami- 
nicola.  Further  gatherings  of  the  fungus  have  enabled  him  to  examine 
it  more  carefully.  He  finds  that  the  conidial  forms  of  the  two  are  iden- 
tical, but  all  attempts  to  infect  plants  other  than  S.  italica  have  failed, 
and  he  has  also  found  the  fungus  richly  infesting  S.  italica  in  a  field, 
and  leaving  untouched  the  plants  of  S.  viridis  that  grew  there  also  in 
abundance.  Traverso  considers  that  he  is  dealing  with  a  new  biological 
form,  var.  Setarim-italicce.. 

Studies  in  North  American  Peronosporales.  Il.f — G.  West  Wilson 
discusses  in  this  paper  the  two  tribes  Phytophthorese  and  Rysotheceae, 
which  normally  germinate  by  means  of  zoospores.  The  latter  includes 
the  genera  Basidiophora,  Sclerospora,  Rhysotheca,  and  Pseudoperonospora. 
Rhysotheca,  a  new  genus,  includes  the  greater  number  of  species 
usually  referred  to  Plasmopara,  the  type  species  being  Plasmopara 
viticola.  Two  species  are  assigned  to  Pseudoperonospora  :  P.  cubensis 
and  P.  Geltidis.  The  former  causes  a  somewhat  widespread  and  serious 
disease  on  Cucurbitacege.  P.  Celtidis  is  the  only  member  of  the  order 
which  affects  a  tree — it  grows  on  Celtis  occidentalis,andi&  somewhat  rare. 

Mycotheca  of  the  School  of  Pharmacy  of  Paris.  XXI. £ - 
O.  Bainier  gives  a  further  series  of  interesting  studies  of  various 
fungi.  Two  additional  species  of  Syncephalastrnm  were  cultivated  and 
are  now  described  and  figured  ;  they  differ  from  the  previously  known 
species  in  having  stolons.  Piptocephalis  Freseniana  was  also  grown  and 
the  development  watched  ;  zygospores  were  produced  on  the  mycelium 
cultivated  with  Mucor  fragilis  on  a  crust  of  bread  moistened  with  water. 

A  new  species  of  Trichurus  is  described  ;  it  resembles  somewhat  a 
Stysanus,  but  the  fructification  is  beset  with  long  bristles.  A  new 
genus  and  species  of  Hyphomycetes  (Dematicese)  Chlamydomyces  diffusus 
is  described  and  compared  with  Trichocladium  asperum  and  Acremoniella 
utra.     All  three  are  closely  related. 

Cytology  of  Humaria  rutilans.§ — H.  C.  L.  Fraser  has  made  a 
careful   study  of  this   Discomycete  with   a   view   to   ascertaining   the 

*  Nuovo  Giorn.  Bot.  Ital.,  xiv.  (1907)  pp.  575-8. 

+  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxiv.  (1907)  pp.  387-416. 

\  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  218-41  (4  pis.). 

§  Ann.  of  Bot.,  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  35-53  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  211 

development  of  the  ascogoniuin,  spores,  etc.  She  finds  that  the  ascocarp 
originates  as  a  tangle  of  septate  hyplne,  each  cell  containing  one  or 
a  few  nuclei  of  two  sizes,  the  smaller  fusing  in  pairs  and  so  producing 
the  larger,  thus  constituting  a  process  of  reduced  fertilisation  or 
apogamy.  The  cells  containing  these  nuclei  form  ascogenous  hyphae  ; 
as  they  develop,  their  nuclei  increase  in  size  ;  the  two  terminal  nuclei 
undergo  simultaneous  karyokinetic  division,  showing  sixteen  chromo- 
somes. The  further  formation  of  the  ascus  and  the  various  phases  of 
nuclear  division  are  followed  in  detail.  The  spores  are  outlined  by 
radiations  passing  from  the  centrosome  ;  near  the  base  of  the  spore 
vacuoles  may  take  part  in  the  process. 

Biology  of  Ergot.* — Rob.  Stager  publishes  a  continuation  of  his 
studies  on  Clavkeps  purpurea.  He  finds  that,  though  the  sclerotia  lie 
4  to  6  months  in  the  soil  without  germination,  growth  can  be  hastened 
by  more  favourable  conditions  of  moisture  and  warmth.  From  theasco- 
spores  produced  on  sclerotia  collected  from  Festuca  arundinacea,  he  in- 
fected Anthoxanthum  odoratum  and  Melica  nutans  successfully,  the  latter 
especially  so.  Later  the  infection  experiments  were  extended  to  Poa 
alpina  and  Bromus  erectus,  in  both  these  cases  unsuccessfully.  Other 
grasses  were  also  infected,  and  Stager  finally  established  that  he  was 
dealing  with  typical  Clavkeps  purpurea.  He  next  experimented  with 
Clavkeps  taken  from  Poa  annua,  and  as  a  result  proved  that  he  was 
dealing  with  a  biological  species  of  C.  purpurea.  Further  experiments 
are  to  be  undertaken. 

Gooseberry  Mildew  in  Russia.f — R.  Regel  communicates  the  history 
of  the  first  appearance  of  the  American  mildew  in  central  Russia.  It 
was  seen  first  at  Winnitzy,  in  Podolia,  in  1895,  in  the  garden  of  a  man 
who  was  keenly  interested  in  American  fruit  trees,  which  he  had  im- 
ported in  considerable  numbers.  Along  with  the  fruit  trees  he  had 
also  brought  over  the  disease. 

Mycological  Notes  from  South  America  and  Spain.J — F.  W.  Neger 
records  two  species  of  Chytridiaceas  found  by  him  in  Chili :  Synchytrium 
Taraxaci,  in  which  the  sporangia  are  rather  larger  than  in  the  European 
forms,  and  Syn.  aureum,  on  a  species  of  Plantayo.  From  Patagonia 
he  records  Urophlyctis  major,  on  Rumex  mar  it  im  us,  hitherto  found  only 
sparsely  in  Germany.  Two  species  of  Erysiphaceaj,  also  from  Pata- 
gonia, were  diagnosed,  one,  Sphce,rothera  spiralis,  new  to  science. 
Notes  are  added  on  several  fungi  from  southern  Spain,  notably  Ant  mi- 
liaria erkophila,  which,  at  a  slight  elevation,  forms  little  pustules  on  the 
leaf,  which,  as  a  rule,  contain  perithecia  as  well  as  the  conidial  form. 
At  a  higher  elevation,  the  vegetative  mycelium  grows  so  luxuriantly 
that  balls  are  formed  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg  or  larger.  These  are  either 
formed  of  sterile  mycelium  or  with  conidiophores  only.  Perithecia  never 
occur  at  the  higher  altitude.  Changed  conditions  of  temperature  and 
humidity  account  for  the  wide  differences  in  the  development  of  the 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xx.  (1908)  pp.  272-9. 
t  Gartenflora,  lvi.  (1907)  pp.  357-8. 
J  Centralbl.  Bakt.  xx.  (1907)  pp.  92-5. 


212  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

fungus.      It  is  always  superficial,  but  damages  tbe  host-plant  by  ex- 
cluding air  and  light. 

Morphology  of  Aspergillus  herbariorum.* — H.  C.  L.  Fraser  and 
H.  S.  Chambers  have  made  a  cytological  study  of  the  development  of 
this  fungus.  All  the  cells  are  multinucleate  as  well  as  the  ascospores 
and  conidia  ;  the  latter  contain  about  four  nuclei  at  maturity.  The 
archicarp  arises  as  a  narrow  branch  from  the  mycelium  ;  it  is  at  first 
aseptate,  but  cell-walls  soon  appear  and  cut  off  a  septate  stalk,  a 
unicellular  trichogyne  and  a  unicellular  ascogonium.  The  antheridium 
arises  separately,  and  consists  of  a  long  stalk,  at  the  apex  of  which  is  a 
small  antheridial  cell.  It  either  fuses  with  the  tip  of  the  trichogyne  or 
degenerates  before  reaching  this  stage.  It  seems  probable  that  such 
fusion  sometimes  takes  place  ;  at  other  times  it  is  replaced  by  the  fusion 
of  ascogonial  nuclei  in  pairs.  The  ascogonium  then  becomes  septate, 
and  each  cell  produces  ascogenous  hyphffi,  from  which  arise  the  asci  in 
which  eight  spores  are  formed.  The  authors  suggest  several  new  terms 
to  explain  the  different  forms  of  nuclear  fusion  other  than  the  normal 
syngamy  :  viz.  homoiogamy — a  fusion  of  two  sexual  nuclei  of  the  same 
kind  ;  hylogamy — fusion  of  one  sexual  with  one  vegetative  nucleus  ; 
and  pseudogamy — fusion  of  two  vegetative  nuclei.  In  Aspergillus  either 
normal  syngamy  or  homoiogamy  takes  place.  A  comparison  is  made 
between  Aspergillus  and  other  Ascomycetes,  and  the  relationship 
of  the  group  to  the  Uredineae  and  the  red  algae  is  indicated. 
Aspergillus  is  regarded  as  a  primitive  ascomycetous  type,  from  which 
most  others  can  be  derived. 

Conidial  Development  of  Xylaria  Hypoxylon.f — F.  Gueguen  kept 
this  fungus  in  a  moist  chamber,  and  made  observations  on  the  forma- 
tion of  conidia,  etc.  He  found  that  the  stromata  were  positively 
phototropic  ;  the  elongation  of  the  clubs  and  the  production  of  conidia 
took  place  only  under  the  influence  of  light.  The  basidia  produce  at 
their  tips  a  large  number  of  conidia,  which  do  not  germinate  until  they 
have  attained  complete  maturity. 

The  region  of  growth  of  the  "  club "  is  subterminal  a  few  milli- 
metres  below  the  tip  ;  the  basidia  that  bear  the  conidia  rise  from 
medullary  hyphae. 

Remarkable  Fungus  Forms. — H.  and  P.  SydowJ  describe  anew 
species,  Xylaria  obesa,  15  cm.  high  and  10  cm.  thick,  which  grew  on 
wood  in  Eastern  Africa.  The  stroma  is  at  first  smooth  and  with  a  yellow 
covering,  the  fruiting  portion  being  distinguished  by  wrinkles  and  folds. 

T.  Petch  §  publishes  an  account  of  a  Sclerotium  found  in  termite 
nests,  which  had  already  been  seen  and  described  by  Berkley  as  Sclero- 
tium stipitatum.  Petch  was  able  to  develop  from  these  the  ascus  form 
of  Xglaria  nigripes.  When  a  comb  from  the  nests  is  kept  under  a 
bell-jar,  it  produces  a  conidial  Xylaria.  T.  Petch  concludes  that  this 
fungus  was  continually  kept  in  check  by  the  ants  as  a  weed.  When 
the  nest  is  deserted  in  wet  weather,  Xylaria  grows  from  the  comb ;  if 

*  AnD   Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  pp.  419-31  (2  pis.). 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  186-217  (2  pis.). 

%  Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  p.  400.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  401-3. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  213 

in  dry  weather,  a  Sclerotium  is  formed,  Sc.  stipitatum.  Large  sclerotia  give 
rise  to  a  perithecial  Xylaria  ;  the  smaller  sclerotia  produce  only  conklhil 
forms. 

Study  of  Penicillium.* — Carl  Weidemann  sums  up  the  work  of  various 
writers  on  this  genus,  and  gives  a  sketch  of  the  species  examined  and 
established  by  them.  He  lays  special  stress  on  the  necessity  of  always 
recording  the  substratum  on  which  the  fungus  has  been  growing,  and 
also  in  culture  experiments  he  considers  it  advisable  to  test  the  develop- 
ment on  a  variety  of  substances.  He  has  followed  this  plan  in  his 
examination  of  seven  species,  P.  olivaceum,  P.  italicum,  P.  camemberti, 
P.  roqueforti,  P.  Juglandis,  P.  Muses,  and  P.  Jciliense.  The  last  three 
are  new  species  discovered  by  him  on  various  substances  ;  several  of 
the  others,  as  the  names  indicate,  grew  on  cheese.  He  gives  in  each 
case  a  microscopic  description  of  the  species  and  adds  the  observations 
made  on  the  cultures  on  gelatin,  rice,  sugar,  milk,  tannin,  etc.  The 
species  are  all  illustrated.  No  ascomycetous  fruit  was  found  for  any  of 
the  species. 

Hyphomycetes.t — The  fascicle  just  issued  by  G.  Lindau  deals  with 
some  of  the  largest  genera  of  Hyphomycetes,  Helminthosporium,  Brachy- 
sporium,  and  Cercospora.  The  latter  is  parasitic  on  leaves,  stalks,  etc., 
and  is  often  the  cause  of  considerable  damage  to  cultivated  plants.  A 
large  number  of  species  are  described,  and  the  genera  are  illustrated, 
sometimes  by  drawings  of  several  species. 

Development  of  Endophyllum  Euphorbiae-silvaticse.l — W.  Midler 
describes  this  fungus,  which  lives  in  the  stems  and  leaves  of  Euphorbia 
amygdaloides,  and  which  takes  two  years  for  its  full  development.  The 
rhizome  buds  become  infected  by  the  spores,  the  fungus  remains  dormant 
during  the  winter  and  grows  in  spring  with  the  growth  of  the  host-plant. 
In  April  and  May  pyenidia  and  sometimes  aecidia  are  formed.  After  a 
second  winter  the  mycelium  attacks  the  meristem  of  the  plant  and  causes 
the  characteristic  deformations.  Pyenidia  are  again  formed  and  teleuto- 
spores  in  cup-like  sori  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  The  growth  of 
the  plant  is  seriously  retarded,  and  flowering  is  hindered  or  entirely 
prevented. 

Uredineas. — Ed.  Fischer  §  reports  on  Gymnosporangium  in  Switzer- 
land. He  distinguishes  two  classes  ;  those  in  which  the  teleutospores 
grow  on  Juniperus  Sabina,  and  those  with  teleutospores  on  J.  communis. 
Five  species  have  been  distinguished,  but  Fischer  thinks  there  are  pro- 
bably more  than  that  number  included  in  the  group.  His  inoculation 
experiments  proved  this  in  more  than  one  instance. 

F.  Urech  ||  reported  a  case  of  Puccinia  Garicis  having  been  found 
growing  on  a  nettle  stalk,  forming  a  sorus,  about  10  cm.  in  length,  and 
causing  a  bending  of  the  stalk.  Though  diligent  search  was  made,  no 
second  instance  of  its  occurrence  was  found. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  675-90,  755-69  (8  figs.). 

t  Rabenhorst's  Kryptogamen  Flora,  i.  abt.  9,  lief  106  (Leipzig,  1907)  pp.  49-112. 

%  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xx.  (1908)  pp.  333-41. 

§  Arcb.  Sci.  Phys.  Nat.,  xxiv.  (1897)  pp.  494-6. 

||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  497-8. 


214  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Eriksson  *  writes  on  the  significance  of  the  Barberry  in  the  propaga- 
tion of  wheat  rust.  There  are  seven  different  biological  forms  of  Puccinia 
graminis  in  which  the  aacidium  is  to  be  found  on  the  Barberry,  but  the 
gecidiospores  will  only  reinfect  the  grass  from  which  it  originated  in  the 
first  instance— all  other  crops  are  safe  from  that  particular  rust.  Eriks- 
son notes  also  that  aecidiospores  from  the  Barberry  do  not  germinate 
easily,  and  he  concludes  from  his  study  of  the  subject  that  it  is  quite 
safe  to  cultivate  the  Barberry,  as  it  plays  a  comparatively  small  part  in 
rust  propagation. 

J.  0.  Arthur  f  publishes  the  results  of  his  series  of  culture  experiments 
for  1907.  In  the  first  17  recorded,  no  results  were  obtained.  A  second 
list  of  22  includes  those  species  which  had  been  already  experimented 
with,  but  in  which  additional  knowledge  was  gained  as  to  germination, 
etc.  He  records  further  H  species  of  Uredinese  that  were  successfully 
cultivated  for  the  first  time. 

W.  Miiller  %  has  undertaken  an  exhaustive  study  of  Melampsora  on 
Euphorbiacefe.  He  has  established  7  biological  species  in  M.  helioscopice. 
There  is  one  that  grows  on  Euphorbia  helioscopia  alone,  the  other  forms 
are  confined  to  different  species  of  Euphorbia.  The  author  has  also 
made  observations  on  the  time  of  teleutospore  germination,  the  duration 
of  the  period  of  incubation,  etc. 

Walther  Krieg  §  publishes  the  results  of  an  extended  series  of  similar- 
experiments  with  the  Uromyces  that  form  their  aecidia  on  species  of 
Ranunculus.  He  has  established  some  new  biological  species,  and  fixed 
the  limits  of  growth  of  the  many  forms  dealt  with. 

Sphaceolotheca  on  Polygonum. |] — De  Bary  separated  this  genus 
from  Ustilayo  because  the  hyphaj  were  not  entirely  converted  into  spores 
as  in  the  latter  genus.  Four  species  are  now  known  :  Sph.  Hydropipieris 
on  Polygonum  Hydropiper  ;  Sph.  borealis  on  P.  Bistortm  ;  and  Sph. 
Polygoni-vivipari,  which  were  included  by  De  Bary  under  the  first- 
mentioned.  H.  C.  Schellenberg  in  the  paper  before  us  describes  the 
appearance  and  development  of  all  of  these,  and  gives  the  reasons  for 
separating  them.  The  fourth  species,  Sph.  alpina  sp.  n.,  on  P.  alpinum, 
is  also  carefully  described  ;  in  it,  the  spore  layer  is  found  between  the 
leaf-sheaths  and  the  flower-stalks,  and  infection7  probably  takes  place 
during  the  development  of  the  flower.  The  so-called  columella  of  this 
fungus  is  composed  of  sterile  hyphse  that  surround  the  vascular  bundle 
of  the  host ;  similar  hyphae  clothe  the  wall  of  the  attached  capsules. 

Growth  of  Woody  Fungi. H — L.  Mangin  has  made  observations  on 
the  growth  of  some  of  the  larger  Polyporeae.  He  calculated  that  a  large 
fructification  of  Unyulina  fomentaria  measuring  3*50  m.  in  circum- 
ference and  20  cm.  thick,  had  grown  entirely  in  not  more  than  11 
months.  Similar  observations  had  been  made  on  U.  betulina,  of  which 
the  growth  is  similarly  rapid  ;  a  few  months  only  are  necessary  for  the 
growth  of  woody  fungi  40  cm.  and  more  in  width. 

*  Illustr.   Landw.   Zeit.,  No.  41  (1907).     See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xx.  (1907) 
pp.  188-9.  t  Jouru.  Mycol.  xiv.  (1908)  pp.  7-26. 

J  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  441-60. 
§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  697-714  and  771-88. 
||  Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  pp.  385-95  (1  pi.). 
1  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  155-6  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  215 

Wood-destroying  Fungi.* — Richard  Falck  has  made  a  biological 
study  of  those  fungi  that  are  destructive  to  living  trees,  to  felled  tree?, 
or  to  worked  wood.  He  enumerates  the  different  fungi  of  these  groups, 
each  showing  a  different  type  of  mycelium.  In  all  of  these,  there  is  an 
internal  mycelium.  In  a  fourth  series,  which  embraces  Merulius  (dry 
rot),  some  Polyporege,  etc.,  a  surface  mycelium  is  formed.  These  are 
compared  and  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  different  hyphaa  noted  and 
tabulated.  It  is  constant  for  each  species,  and  depends  on  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  mycelium,  a  purely  physical  consideration. 

Polyporaceae.t  —  The  North  American  flora  is  gradually  being 
published,  and  W.  A.  Murrill  has  charge  of  the  Polyporaceae.  He  treats 
these  according  to  his  own  rearrangements  of  genera  and  species.  He 
recognises  4  tribes  :  Porieas,  with  8  genera  ;  Polyporeae,  with  47  genera  ; 
Fomiteaa,  with  10  genera  ;  and  Daedaleae  with  5  genera.  The  new  genera 
are  Fuscoporia,  Fuscoporella,  Fomitiporia,  Fomitiporella,  Tinctoporia, 
Melanoporella,  and  Melanoporia.  A  very  large  number  of  the  species 
described  are  new  to  science. 

New  Localities  for  Amanita  caesarea.J — This  edible  agaric  is  very 
common  in  Italy  and  southern  France,  but  less  frequently  met  with  further 
north.  M.  W.  Russell  publishes  a  list  of  places  where  it  has  been 
gathered  :  Fontainebleau,  Versailles,  etc.,  with  some  new  localities  also 
in  the  north.     The  fungus  is  usually  found  on  sandy  soils. 

Diseases  of  Plants.  § — F.  D.  Kern  gives  an  account  of  the  occur- 
rence of  ScUrotinia  in  the  State  of  Indiana.  The  fungus  in  the  conidial 
stage  is  known  as  Monilia  fructiyena,  and  causes  rotting  of  certain  stone 
fruits.  Peaches  or  plums  finally  shrivel  up  and  become  mummified 
— on  these  dried  fruits  the  ascospore-form  Sclerotinia  fructiyena  is  pro- 
duced. It  is  rarely  found,  as  it  takes  two  years  to  develop,  and  occurs 
on  fruits  that  have  been  covered  over  by  humus  for  some  time. 

The  same  author  ||  gives  a  list  of  diseases  that  have  been  identified  in 
the  State  of  Indiana  for  some  years  past.  These  are  classified  under  root- 
diseases,  affecting  absorption  of  food  materials  ;  stem-diseases,  affecting 
ascent  of  sap  and  transpiration  ;  those  on  wood,  interfering  with 
absorption  and  transfer  of  water  ;  those  on  bark,  affecting  transpiration 
only  ;  and  on  leaf,  affecting  transpiration  and  assimilation. 

T.  Petch  ^[  describes  a  disease  of  the  tea-plants  in  Ceylon,  caused  by 
the  fungus  Massaria  thekola  sp.  n.     It  attacks  the  stem. 

E.  J.  Butler  **  also  describes  diseases  from  the  East  Indies.  On 
Areca  Catechu,  a  species  of  Phytophthora  attacks  and  destroys  the  upper 
parts  of  the  tree.  Another  fungus,  probably  a  Basidiomycete,  destroys 
the  roots  ;  and  on  other  palms  he  found  a  Pythium,  which  lived  on  and 
destroyed  the  sheathing  leaves  of  the  crown. 

*  Hausschwammforschungen,  Jena  (1907)  pp.  53-154.  See  also  CentralbL 
Bakt.,  xx.  (1908)  pp.  348-51. 

t  North  American  Flora,  ix.  pt.  1  (1907)  72  pp.     New  York  Bot.  Gard. 

X  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  liv.  (1907)  pp.  25-6. 

§  Proc.  Ind.  Acad.  Sci.  (1906)  pp.  134-6. 

II  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  129-33  (1  fig.). 

Tf  Circ.  and  Agric.  Journ.  Roy.  Bot.  Gard.  Ceylon,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  21-30  (1  fig.). 
See  also  Ann.  Mycol.  v.  (1907)  p.  445. 

**  Agric.  Journ.  India,  i.  (1906)  12  pp.  (2  pis.).  See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907) 
pp.  450-1. 


21G  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

The  same  writer,  along  with  II.  M.  Lefroy,  *  undertook  experiments 

with  Mncor  exitiosus  on  insects  of  the  locust  tribe,  to  see  if  the  fungus 
would  attack  these  and  so  aid  in  reducing  their  numbers.  Tin- 
experiments  all  proved  the  futility  of  the  attempt.  The  fungus  did  no 
harm  even  when  introduced  as  a  wound-parasite  into  the  bodies  of  tin- 
locusts. 

W.  Harris  f  has  published  a  paper  on  vine  culture,  and  adds  an 
account  of  the  fungoid  diseases  which  attack  it.  These  are  Sphacelous 
ampelinum,  Lee-stadia  Bidwelli,  Peronospora  viticola,  Uncinula  spiralis, 
Oidium  Tucker i,  and  Glozosporium.  fructigenum.  Various  remedies  are 
suggested  for  these  diseases. 

P.  HariotJ  describes  an  Oidium  of  the  genus  Microsphcera  that 
infested  an  oak.  Its  development  coincided  with  a  prolonged  time  of 
wind  from  the  north-east. 

A.  Maublanc  §  gives  a  study  of  the  fungi  that  infest  Conifers,  with 
a  more  detailed  description  of  Fusicoccum  abietinum,  which  attacks  the 
branches  and  kills  the  tips,  or  sometimes  fastens  on  branches  several 
years  old  with  equally  serious  results.  The  diseased  portion  is  easily 
recognised  by  the  coloration  of  the  affected  part,  which  becomes  a 
blackish-brown. 

Economic  Mycology. || — An  account  of  various  fungous  diseases  of 
fruit  trees  which  have  done  serious  damage  in  the  Kent  orchards  has 
been  published  by  B.  S.  Salmon.  These  are  chiefly  cherry  leaf  scorch 
(Gnomonia  ery  thro  stoma)  and  apple  scab  or  black-spot  (Fusicladium 
dendriticum).  Both  of  these  have  done  great  harm.  Salmon  recom- 
mends spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  as  an  effective  and  proved  remedy. 
He  notes  also  the  first  appearance  in  England  of  Urophlyctis  Alfalfa  on 
lucerne  plants.  It  forms  galls  on  the  crown  of  the  plant,  and  completely 
destroys  it.  He  also  redescribes  the  American  gooseberry  mildew 
(Sphmrotheca  mors-uvce),  confined  so  far  to  a  few  localities  in  the  Mid- 
lands, but  quite  certain  to  spread  rapidly  if  measures  are  not  adopted  to 
stamp  it  out.  In  a  second  paper  1f  he  describes  a  serious  disease  of 
potatoes  that  has  appeared  in  England  within  the  last  ten  years,  and 
forms  black  scabs  on  the  tubers.  It  is  due  to  a  chytridiaceous  fungus, 
Oh/rysophlyctis  endobiotka,  which,  as  Salmon  points  out,  has  erroneously 
been  described  by  several  writers  as  CEdomyces  leproides,  a  totally  different 
fungus.  Growers  are  specially  warned  against  diseased  seed.  The  fungus 
has  appeared  so  far  chiefly  in  Scotland  and  the  north  of  England,  where 
whole  crops  have  been  rendered  useless. 

Pathogenic  Spotting  of  Vine-shoots.** — Emil  Molz  has  examined 
the  spots  on  the  young  stems  of  the  vine,  and  finds  they  are  due  to  a 

*  Agric.  Res.  Inst.  Pusa,  Bull.  No.  5  (1907)  5  pp.  See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  v. 
(1907)  p.  451. 

t  Bull.  Jamaica  Dept.  Agric,  v.  (1907)  pp.  1-26.  See' also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cv. 
(1907)  pp.  670-1. 

%  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  157-9. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  160-73  (6  rigs.). 

||  Report  S.E.  Agric.  Coll.  Wye.,  1907,  58  pp.  (26  pis.). 

•([  Leaflet,  Black-scab  or  Warty  Disease  of  Potatoes,  S.E.  Agric.  Coll.  Wye.,  Opp. 
(6  pis.). 

**  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xx.  (1908)  pp.  261-72  (2  pis.  and  13  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  217 

variety  of  causes.  Often  they  resemble  lenticels,  but  in  section  they 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  loose  cells  that  fill  the  cavity 
of  the  lenticel.  Instead  of  these  there  is  a  massing  of  dead  brown 
cells  cut  off  by  a  cork-layer,  which  mark  the  position  of  old  lenticels 
that  have  lost  their  function.  Other  spots  mark  the  place  of  glands 
that  have  now  become  brown  and  withered.  The  fungus,  Uncinula 
necator,  causes  spots  to  form  round  the  place  where  its  haustoria  have 
pierced  the  epidermis.  Fungicides,  such  as  Bordeaux  mixture,  and  hail, 
also  cause  damage  to  the  young  shoots,  and  the  fungus  Sphaceloma 
ampelinum  gives  rise  to  extended  black  patches. 

Parasitic  Fungi  from  Java.* — S.  H.  Koorders  gives  the  results  of 
prolonged  and  careful  culture  experiments  with  Qlwosporium  elasticce, 
Colletotrichum  Ficus,  and  their  ascomycetous  form,  Neozimm&rmannia 
elasticce  sp.  n.  They  all  grow  on  Ficus  elastica,  causing  sometimes  con- 
siderable damage,  though  never  entirely  destroying  the  host.  In  addition 
to  these  two  forms  of  fungi  imperfecti,  various  other  growth-forms  were 
identified  belonging  to  the  same  life-cycle,  mostly  conidial  forms  that 
were  produced  in  the  cultures,  or  that  grew  saprophytically  on  decaying 
vegetation.  All  the  different  stages  are  described  and  figured.  The 
author  has  studied  another  series  of  fungi  on  the  same  host,  a  number 
of  them  being  new  species,  and  the  following  genera  also  new  :  Neohen- 
ningsia  (Aspergillacese),  Wetitiomyces  (Perisporiacese),  Lindauomyces 
(Stilbacere),  Wiesneriomyces,  and  Acrotheciella  (Tuberculariacese). 

Colour  Reactions  in  Russula  and  Lactarius.f  —  I.  Arnould  and 
A.  Goris,  following  the  example  of  lichenologists  and  of  Boudier  for 
the  Ascomycetes,  have  employed  a  chemical  solution  as  a  means  of 
distinguishing  between  different  species.  The  substance  sulfovaniliaue 
(water  2  parts,  sulphuric  acid  2  parts,  vanilin  %  gramme)  had  been  used 
by  Ronceray  to  test  certain  lichens  for  the  presence  of  orcin.  On  the 
application  of  the  reagent  the  tissues  of  most  of  the  larger  fungi  tinge 
rose  of  varying  shades.  In  certain  species  of  Lactarius  and  Russula, 
the  tissue  turns  rose,  and  the  cystidia  and  laticiferous  cells  blue. 
Russulce  that  are  very  acrid  turn  rose  and  blue.  Russula  rosea  becomes 
entirely  rose-coloured,  and  R.  vesca  and  R.  lilacea  give  the  same  reaction  ; 
in  R.  lepida  the  hymenial  layer  becomes  rose-violet.  R.  delica  has 
numerous  cystidia  and  laticiferous  cells,  which  colour  blue,  while  in 
R.  cyanoxantha  only  the  tips  of  the  cystidia  take  the  blue  colour.  Simi- 
lar variations  of  colour  are  noted  in  Lactarii.  Further  tests  will  be 
made  in  a  future  season. 

Assimilation  of  Free  Nitrogen  by  Fungi.| — Hermann  Froehlich 
selected  four  Hyphomycetes  for  experiment,  Macrosporium  commune, 
Alternaria  tenuis,  Cladosporium  herbarum,  and  Hormodendron  clado- 
sporioides.  Incidentally,  he  established  the  autonomy  of  the  last  two 
species.     All  of  these  are  saprophytes,  and  live  on  plant  remains.     They 

*  Verh.  k.  Akad.  Wet.  Amsterdam,  xiii.  No.  4  (1907)  iv.  and  264  pp.  (12  pis.  and 
61  figs.) 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  174-8.  See  also  Comptes  Rendus, 
cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  1199-1200. 

X  Jahrb.  Wiss.  Bot.,  xlv.  (1907)  pp.  256-302  (3  figs.). 

April  15th,  1908  Q 


218  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

are  all  aerobic  and  require  oxygen  for  their  devolopment ;  no  fermenta- 
tion was  produced  in  any  of  the  cultures.  Froehlich  established  the 
assimilation  of  free  nitrogeu  in  all  of  these  fungi :  it  was  highest  in 
Macrosporium  commune,  lowest  in  Hormodendron.  The  combined 
nitrogen  is  thus  made  available  for  the  use  of  chlorophyll  plants.  He 
also  proved  in  a  series  of  cultures  what  has  been  long  surmised,  that 
Penieillium  glaucum  and  Aspergillus  niger  also  assimilate  free  nitrogen 
from  the  atmosphere. 

Chalk-disease  of  Bread.* — A  sample  of  bread  that  had  been  left 
wrapped  in  parchment  for  some  time  was  found  to  have  developed  a 
growth  of  a  white  chalky  fungus.  P.  Lindner  examined  it  and  found  it 
to  be  a  new  species,  Endomgces  fibuliger.  It  has  the  power  of  forming 
hat-shaped  spores  and  can  ferment  various  sugars,  thus  resembling  Willia 
yeasts  ;  but  it  does  not  give  a  yeast  generation  free  from  mycelia  in 
fermenting  liquids. 

Fermentation  Fungi. f — CI.  Putter  has  proved  that  a  spherical  yeast 
may  be  imitated  by  cultivating  Mucor  racemosus  in  a  nutrient  solution  ; 
if  the  yeast-cells  are  placed  in  solution  that  contains  no  acid,  mycelia  are 
again  formed. 


■.- 


Fungus-culture  of  Wood-boring  Beetles.!  —  F.  W.  Neger  has 
carried  on  an  investigation,  begun  by  H.  G.  Hubbard,  as  to  the  fungus- 
food  and  fungus-culture  of  certain  ambrosia  beetles.  In  the  passages 
formed  in  the  wood  by  the  beetles  the  fungus  growth  called  ambrosia  is 
constantly  found.  Neger  tried  to  grow  these  fungoid  bodies,  but  they 
invariably  died  off  without  further  development.  He  established,  how- 
ever, that  the  fungus  was  brought  into  the  passages  by  the  beetles,  and 
that  the  ambrosia  fungus  is  one  that  infects  pine-needles,  probably  a 
Ceratostomella.  He  found,  further,  that  very  frequently  Graphium — the 
conidial  form  of  Ceratostomella— grew  abundantly  in  the  passages.  The 
beetles  do  not  purposely  carry  in  fungus  spores,  as  do  the  ants,  but 
the  conidia  cling  to  their  bodies  and  are  carried  with  them  to  any  new 
wood  that  is  attacked  by  them. 

Bebgamesco,  G. — Clitocybe  Pelletieri. 

[A  new  species  of  Agaric  from  Italy.] 

Nuovo.  Giorn.  Bot.  Ital.,  xiv.  (1907)  pp.  527-8. 

Bubak,  Fh. — Adatok  Magyarorszag  gombaflorajahoz.  (Contribution  to  the  fungus 
flora  of  Hungary.) 

[A  number  of  new  species  have  been  found  and  described,  especially  among 
the  Sphasropsidese.]  Novenytani  Kbzlemimiek  (1907)  42  pp. 

See  also  Ann.  MycoL,  v.  (1907)  pp.  439-40. 

Hennebebg,  W. — Ein  Beitrag  zur  Bedeutung  von  Gips,  Kohlensaurem  Kalk  und 
Soda  fur  die  Hefe.  (The  significance  of  gypsum,  carbonate  of  lime  and  soda, 
in  the  culture  of  yeast.) 

[Yeast-cells  die  off  where  there  is  a  lack  of  alkali.] 

Centralbl.  Bakt.,xx.  (1908)  pp.  225-9. 

*  Wochensch.  Brau.,  xxiv.  (1907)  pp.  469-74.  See  also  Journ.  Inst.  Brewing, 
xiii.  (1907)  pp.  735-6. 

t  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxv.  (1907)  p.  25.  See  also  Journ.  Inst.  Brewing, 
vii.  (1907)  p.  733.  J  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xx.  (1908)  pp.  279-82. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  219 

Hohnel,  Fr.  von — Mykologisches. 

[Notes  on  various  species  of  fungi,  Leptosphmriamodesta  and  Cladosterigma 
ficsisporiim,  the  latter  one  of  the  Dacryomycetinese.] 

Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  lvii.  (1907)  pp.  321-4. 
See  also  Ann.  Mycol,  v.  (1907)  p.  440-1. 

Jaap,  O. — Weitere  Beitrage  zur   Pilzflora  der  nordfriesischen  Inseln.      (Further 
contributions  to  the  fungus  flora  of  the  North  Friesian  Islands.) 
[Several  new  species  are  described,  and  a  large  number  listed.] 

Schrift.  Nat.  Ver.  Schlesiv. -Hoist,  xiv.  (1907)  pp.  15-33. 
See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  p.  44. 

Kellebmah,  W.  A. — Behm's  First  Beport  on  Guatemalan  Ascomycetae. 
[A  few  species  are  new,  the  others  are  determined.] 

Joum.  Mycol.,  xiv.  (1908)  pp.  3-7. 

Kusano,  S. — A  New  Species  of  Taphrina  on  Acer. 

[Four  species  are  already  known  :  the  author  describes  a  fifth,  T.  nikkoensis.'] 

Bot.  Mag.  Tokio,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  65-7  (1  fig.). 
See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  p.  441. 

Miehe,  H. — Thermoidium  sulfureum  g.  et.  sp.  n. 

[A  new  heat-fungus,  isolated  from  self-heating   plant  remains ;    sulphur 
coloured  ;  spores  produced  from  cells  of  the  hyphse.] 

Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  510-15  (6  figs.). 

Morgan,  A.  P. — North  American  Species  of  Agaricaceae,  the  Melanospora. 

[Seventeen  species  are  described.]  Joum.  Mycol.,  xiv.  (1908)  pp.  27-32. 

Oeetel,  G. — Phoma  Kuhniana  sp.  n. 

[The  fungus  was  found  on   runners  of  cultivated   Viola  odorata;    it  has 
minute  perithecia  and  minute  spores.]         Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  p.  431. 

Peck,  C.  H.— New  Species  of  Fungi 

[Six  species  of  Basidiomycetes.]  Joum.  Mycol.,  xiv.  (1908)  pp.  1-3. 

Petch,  T.— Note  on  Ustilago  Treubii  Solms. 

[The  writer  notes  the  frequent  occurrence  of  this  gall-forming  Ustilago  in 
Ceylon.     He  adds  measurements  to  the  original  diagnosis.] 

Ann.  Mycol,  v.  (1907)  p.  403. 

Rttz,  W. — Beitrage  zur  Kenntnis  der  Pilzflora  des   Kienthales.      (Contributions 
to  the  fungus  flora  of  the  Kien  Valley  (Bernese  Oberland). 

[A  special  study  was  made  of  Chytridiacese  and  Uredinese,  and  a  number  of 
new  forms  were  determined.]  Mitth.  Nat,  Ges.  Bern  (1907)  p.  168. 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,,cv.  (1907)  p.  602 

Sartory  &  Demanche — Etude  d'une  levure  (Cryptococcus  Bogerii  sp.  n.). 
[Study  of  a  pathogenic  yeast.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  179-85. 

Straszer,  P.  Pius — Vierter  Nachtrag  zur  Pilzflora  des  Sonntagberges.    (Fourth 
contribution  to  the  fungus  flora  of  the  Sonntagberg,  N.  Austria.) 
[This  completes  the  list  of  1348  species.] 

Verh.  k.k.  Zool.  Bot.  Ges.  Wien,  lvii.  (1907)  pp.  299-340. 

Sydow — Mycotheca  Germanica,  Fasc.  xii-xiii.  (Nos.  551-650). 

[Several  new  species  are  included  in  the  list,  and  diagnoses  are  given  of  these 
and  of  several  others,  with  explanatory  notes.] 

Ann.  Mycol,  v.  (1907)  pp.  395-99. 

Vill,  A. — Fungi  bavarici  exsiccati.     (Bavarian  fungi,  8th  cent.) 

[This  is  a  continuation  of  Allescher  and  Schnabl's  Exsiccati.  chieflv  micro- 
forms.] Gerolshofen  (1904). 

See  also  Bot,  Centralbl.,  cv.  (1907)  pp.  664-5. 


Q  2 


'220  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Lichens. 
(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Text-book  of  Lichens.*  —A.  Zahlbriickner  has  just  issued  the  last 
fascicle  dealing  with  lichens  in  the  Pficmzmfamilien.  It  concludes  the 
Ascolichenes,  and  gives  an  account  of  the  Hynienolichenes.  The  latter 
include  only  the  three  genera  Cora,  Gorella  and  Dictyonema,  all  of 
these  containing  only  tropical  or  subtropical  species  in  which  the 
symbiont  is  a  cyanophyceous  alga,  and  the  fructification  that  of  a 
Basidiomycete.     An  index  of  the  genera  completes  the  volume. 

Noteworthy  Lichens.! — E.  Senft  has  examined  a  peculiar  growth 
found  by  A.  Zahlbriickner  on  the  thallus  of  Physma  dalmaticum.  It 
arose  either  intercalary  on  hyphae  of  the  thallus  or  terminal  on  these 
hyphae.  There  was  no  cellulose  reaction,  and  the  author  considered  it 
to  be  probably  a  change  in  the  hyphae  due  to  an  enzyme,  whereby  they 
were  rendered  mucilaginous. 

Dispersal  of  Lichens.} — P.  Beckman  has  considered  the  case  of 
those  crustaceous  rock  lichens  that  have  neither  soredia  nor  hymenial 
gonidia,  such  as  Gasparrinia  murorum,  Lecanora  sordida,  Hmnatomma 
ventosum,  etc.  The  spores  must  be  chief  agents  in  the  spread  of  these 
forms,  but  the  mode  of  growth  of  the  thallus  must  also  play  a  part ; 
the  areolae  into  which  they  are  divided  tend  to  become  further  apart, 
and  in  time,  by  weather-action,  to  become  loosened  from  the  substratum 
and  carried  about  by  the  wind.  All  these  scattered  areolae  represent 
one  individual  plant.  In  the  case  of  several  species  of  Rhizocarpon 
with  a  creeping  and  spreading  hypothallus,  the  spores  start  new 
individuals  at  different  centres  which  tend  to  meet  each  other,  thus 
presenting  a  decussated  thallus.  The  thallus  of  these  forms  is  also 
often  cracked,  but  the  cracking  serves  probably  only  for  aeration  and 
not  for  dispersal. 

Lichen  Constituents. § — 0.  Hesse  has  examined  the  chemical  con- 
stituents of  a  large  series  of  lichens,  a  continuation  of  previous  work 
in  the  same  field.  He  found  a  new  acid  in  Usnea  articulata,  which  he 
designates  articulat-acid,  and  two  in  Ramalina  armorka,  armorica-acid 
and  armor-acid.  He  found  also  new  substances  in  the  brightly -coloured 
Tornabenia  (Physcia)  chrysophthalma  and  T.  flavicans.  Other  lichens 
yielded  various  acids  already  known. 

Brown  ParmeliaB.|| — F.  Rosendahl  has  brought  his  anatomical  study 
of  the  group  to  bear  on  their  systematic  position,  and  at  the  end  of  his 

*  Engler  and  Prantl's  Nat.  Pflanzenfamilien,  Leipzig:  W.  Engelmann,  i. 
Abt.  1,  lief.  230  (1907)  pp.  193-249  (24  figs.). 

t  SB.  k.  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien  Math.-Nat.  Kl.,  cxvi.,  Abt.  1  (1907)  pp.  429-38 
(1  pi.).     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cv.  (1907)  p.  630. 

\  Engler,  Bot.  Jabrb.,  xxxviii.  (1907)  Beibl.,  pp.  1-72  (10  figs.).  See  also  Ann. 
MycoL.v.  (1907)  pp.  459-60. 

§  Journ.  prakt.  Cbemie,  Neue  Folge,  lxxvi.  (1907)  pp.  1-57.  See  also  Bot. 
Centralbl.,  cv.  (1907)  pp.  628-9. 

||  Nova  Acta  Abh.  k.  Leop.-Car.  Deutscb.  Akad.  Nat.,  lxxxvii.  (1907)  pp.  403-59 
(4  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  221 

paper  he  draws  up  three  different  tables  of  arrangement,  each  embodying 
the  results  of  his  observations  and  discoveries.  He  divides  the  series  of 
the  lichens  broadly  into  two  classes  :  those  with  a  many-layered  cortex, 
and  those  with  a  narrow  cortex  of  about  two  cells.  In  the  many-layered 
cortex  he  distinguishes  an  inner  layer  of  living  cells  and  an  outer  of 
crushed  and  dead  cells.  In  each  species  he  has  given  details  of  the 
structure,  the  presence  or  absence  of  isidia,  soredia,  trichomes,  fat-cells, 
and  rhizoids,  and  he  describes  the  developments  of  the  ascogonia  and 
spermogonia.  Calcium  hypochlorite  has  been  found  useful  in  differen- 
tiating species  ;  some  tinge  red  when  it  is  applied,  others  show  no  change 
of  colour":  The  red  coloration  is  usually  due  to  the  presence  of 
lecanor-acid.  The  paper  is  illustrated  by  microscopic  drawings  and  by 
photographic  reproductions  of  nearly  all  the  species  discussed. 

Hue,  A. — Trois  Lichens  Nouveaux.    (Three  new  lichens.) 

[Two  species  of  Stereocaulon  and  one  Solorina  from  the  East 
(Japan  and  Java).] 

Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  liv.  (1907)  pp.  414-21  (2  figs.). 

,,        Heppiearum  ultima  e  familia  Collemacearum  tribubus  nonnullas  speoies 
morphologice  et   anatomice  elaboravit.      (Morphological    and   ana- 
tomical study  of  some  species  of  Heppia,  a  "  tribe  "  of  Collemacese.) 
[A  description  of  the  genus  Heppia,  with  which  the  author  unites 
several  other  genera.] 

Mem.  Sc.  Nation.  Sci.  Nat.  Math.,  xxxvi.  (1907),  44  pp. 
See  also  Ann.  My  col.  v.  (1907)  pp.  460-1. 

Jatta,  Antonio. — I   Licheni   dell'   Erbario   Tornabene.     (The    lichens  of  the 
Tornabene  herbarium.) 

[A  list  of  86  species  or  varieties  collected  in  Sicily.] 

Nuovo  Giorn.  Bot.  Ital.  xiv.  (1907)  pp.  529-38. 

Lesdain,  Bouly  de. — Notes  Lichenologiques.     (Lichenological  notes.) 

[A  number  of  new  varieties  are  diagnosed,  and   notes  published  on  various 
species.]  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  liv.  (1907)  pp.  442-6. 

Nils  on,  Berger. — Die  Flechten  vegetation  des  Sarekgebirges.     (Lichen  flora 
of  the  Sarek  Mountains.) 

[288  species  were  determined,  5  of  them  new  to  science.  The  author 
makes  a  new  genus  Parmularia  for  the  section  Placodiuni  of  the  genus 
Lecanora.~\  Nat.-Wiss.  Unters-Sarekgebirg.  in  Schivedisch-Lappland 

iii.  Botanik  (1907)  pp.  1-70. 
See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  p.  461. 

Steiner,  J. — Lichenes  Austro-africani.     (Lichens  of  Southern  Africa.) 

[Lichens  collected  by  H.  A.  Junod  and  Dultre.     Several 
new  species  are  determined  and  diagnosed.] 

Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  ser.  2,  vii.  (1907),  pp,  637-46. 
See  also  Ann.  Mijcol.,  v.  (1907)  p.  462. 

„  ,,       Ueber  Buellia  saxorum  und  verwandte  Flechtenarten.     (On  Buellia 

saxorum  and  allied  lichen  species.) 

Verh.  k.k.  Zool.  Bot.  Oes.  Wien.,  lvii.  (1907)  pp.  340-71. 

Mycetozoa. 
(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Influence  of  Bacteria  on  the  Culture  of  Myxomycetes.*— Ernest 
Pinoy  concludes  his  paper  on  this  subject.     The  action  of  bacteria  on 

*  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  686-700. 


222  SUiM-MAUY    OK   CURRENT    KKSKAHCHES   RELATING   TO 

the  Acrasieae  has  been  already  recorded.  He  now  studies  them  in  con- 
nection with  the  development  of  true  Mycetozoa,  Didymium  difforme 
and  Didymium  diffusion.  In  nature  the  sporangia  of  these  Myxomy- 
cetes  always  contain  numerous  impurities,  including  a  large  series  of 
Bacteria.  He  proved  by  his  cultures  that  the  spores  would  not  develop 
without  the  accompanying  bacterium,  Bacillus  luteus  Fliigge.  The 
author  draws  attention  to  the  formation  of  cysts  in  the  sporangium  ; 
they  are  larger  than  the  spores  and  without  ornamentation  on  the 
surface.  These  can  persist  for  several  years  ;  a  sclerotium  is  but  an 
assemblage  of  cysts.  He  verified  the  observation  that  from  the  spores 
of  D.  effusum  and  Spumaria  alba  zoospores  are  only  formed  in  liquid 
media  ;  on  a  solid  substratum  the  spores  give  rise  to  myxamcebee. 

Further  experiments  were  made  with  Plasmodiophora  Brassicce,.  Pinoy 
describes  his  methods  of  preparing  and  obtaining  pure  cultures.  He  finds 
that  bacteria  always  accompany  the  spores.  Their  role  in  the  host-plant 
seems  to  be  to  destroy  the  tissue  and  secure  the  escape  of  the  Plasmo- 
diophora, but  they  exercise  also  some  extracellular  influence,  as  cultures 
that  contained  no  bacteria  showed  no  signs  of  growth.  It  is  evident 
that  the  bacteria  are  introduced  into  the  roots  by  the  Plasmodiophora, 
and  then  follows  a  true  symbiosis  between  the  two  organisms. 

Stdegis,  W.  C. — The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado. 

[About  100  species  have  been  published,  with   descriptive   notes  ;    one   new 
species  and  two  varieties  are  included.] 

Colorado  Coll.  Publ.  Gen.  Ser.  30,  Sci.  Ser.  xii.  (1907)  No.  1,  pp.  1-43. 

See  also  Ann.  MycoL,  v.  (1907)  p.  445. 

Schizophyta. 
Schizomycetes. 

Sporulation  of  the  Bacillus  Rheumaticus.*— G.  Rosenthal,  from 
observations  on  two  varieties  of  the  bacillus  of  Achalme,  viz.  B.  per- 
fringens  and  B.  rheumaticus,  finds  that  when  subcultures  of  these  two 
organisms  in  albumen  water  are  plunged  into  boiling  water  for  two 
minutes  they  all  give  a  positive  growth  on  incubation,  but  if  exposed 
for  four  minutes  the  cultures  of  B.  rheumaticus  are  apparently  killed, 
whereas  those  of  B.  perfringens  give  a  late  but  abundant  growth  with 
irregular  forms  ;  the  same  results  were  obtained  when  the  cultures  were 
boiled  for  half  a  minute,  showing  that  the  two  varieties  have  unequal 
resistance  to  heat.  Cover-slip  preparations  showed,  in  the  case  of  the 
perfringens  cultures,  typical  sporulation  ;  but  with  B.  rheumaticus,  besides 
some  bacilli,  there  were  a  number  of  bodies  about  the  size  of  Staphylo- 
coccus aureus,  that  stained  by  Gram's  method,  resisted  badly  the  decolora- 
tion by  acids  when  stained  by  Ziehl's  method,  and  when  unstained  were 
slightly  refringent. 

Bacteriology  of  Tropical  Abscess  of  the  Liver.f — A.  Gilbert  and 
A.  Lipmann  have  examined  pus  from  two  cases  of  tropical  abscess  of 
the  liver.  In  the  first  case  the  pus  was  slightly  odorous  and  of  a  brown 
colour,  and  cover-slip  preparations  showed  a  number  of  cocci  and  rods 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  p.  577.  f  Tom.  cit.,  p.  565. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  223 

that  stained,  and  a  few  bacilli  that  did  not  stain  by  Gram's  method  ; 
aerobic  cultures  gave  only  Staphylococcus  aureus  having  no  pathogenic 
action  on  rabbits,  but  from  cultures  in  the  depth  of  agar  were  isolated 
B.  perfringens,  Enterococcus,  B.  ramosus  and  B.fragilis.  In  the  second 
case  the  pus  was  also  slightly  odorous  and  brown  in  colour,  and  cover- 
slip  preparations  showed  a  few  cocci  and  a  number  of  bacillary  forms, 
none  of  which  were  stained  by  Gram's  method.  Ordinary  broth  and 
agar  cultures  gave  no  growth,  but  anaerobic  cultures  showed  a  small 
growth  of  Enterococcus  and  a  large  development  of  B.  funduliformis, 
which  probably  masked  the  development  of  other  germs.  The  authors 
consider  that  with  more  complete  bacteriological  examinations  the  number 
of  non-microbial  cases  of  hepatic  abscess  would  be  diminished.  # 

Coli  Group  of  Bacteria.* — A.  Buck  concludes  from  the  results  of 
his  researches  on  this  group  of  organisms  that  in  the  same  bowel  there 
may  occur  at  the  same  time  many  varieties  of  B.  coli.  About  25  p.c.  of  all 
these  bacteria  were  agglutinated  by  the  serum  of  the  same  individual,  or 
by  other  sera,  in  dilutions  of  1  in  30.  Strains  of  B.  coli  that  are  cultur- 
ally alike  may  be  separated  by  their  serum  reactions.  A  readily  agglu- 
tinating strain  will  agglutinate  at  a  higher  dilution  with  a  strange  serum 
than  with  that  of  its  own  host.  The  agglutination  of  B.  coli  is  not 
interfered  with  if  the  strange  serum  is  from  a  typhoid  patient. 

Multiplying  of  Relapsing  Spirochetes  in  the  Body  of  the  Bug.f 
N.  N.  Klodnitzky  has  observed  the  development  of  Spirockastes  of 
relapsing  fever  in  the  tissues  of  the  bug.  Using  Giemsa's  stain  the 
author  examined  the  morphology  of  the  contents  of  normal  and  of 
infected  insects.  During  the  first  3  to  5  days  after  infection  the  pre- 
parations showed  individuals  with  well  marked  spirals,  but  in  later 
specimens  there  was  an  unusual  development  of  threads  felted  together 
or  arranged  in  skeins,  or  like  twisted  hair.  These  threads  were  usually 
stretched,  and  rarely  wavy  ;  they  were  also  observed  in  hanging  drops. 
Later  specimens  obtained  about  the  30th  day  after  infection  showed  that 
these  threads  had  broken  up  into  rods  of  various  forms  and  lengths. 

Plant  Tumour  of  Bacterial  Origin.! — E.  F.  Smith  and  C.  0. 
Townsend  have  isolated  a  motile  bacillus  from  a  tumour  or  gall  found 
on  a  cultivated  daisy.  The  organism  is  aerobic,  and  grows  on  ordinary 
nutrient  agar  and  potato,  and  also  in  broth,  which  becomes  slightly 
clouded,  and  has  a  tenacious  fibrous  pellicle  ;  it  produces  no  gas  within 
12  days  on  sugar  or  alcoholic  media  ;  casein  is  separated  from  litmus 
milk,  with  the  production  of  an  alkaline  reaction  ;  it  does  not  licpiefy 
gelatin  ;  a  temperature  of  25°  C.  is  most  favourable  to  the  growth  on 
agar  or  in  broth  ;  the  bacillus  has  1-3  polar  flagella.  Inoculation  of 
roots,  and  young  shoots  and  stems  of  healthy  daisies,  tobacco  plants, 
tomatoes,  potato,  sugar  beet,  and  peach  trees,  caused  the  formation  of 
galls. 

Flagella  and  Capsule  of  B.  Anthracis.§  —  A.  Hinterberger  was 
never  able  to  observe  that  B.  anthracis  possessed  true  flagella,  but,  by 

*  Ceutralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xiv.  (1907)  p.  577. 

t  Op.  cit.,  xlv.  (1907)  p.  126.  %  Op.  cit.,  2te  Abt.,  xx.  (1907)  p.  89. 

§  Op.  cit.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlv.  (1907)  p.  108. 


224  SUMMARY    OV   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING  TO 

treating  with  ammonia  and  staining  with  silver  colloid,  the  author 
appears  to  have  established  the  areas  surrounding  the  bacilli  as  true 
capsules. 

Micrococcus  Esterificans.* — Beck  describes  this  organism  as  resem- 
bling Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus,  and  producing  a  characteristic  fruity 
aroma.  The  aromatic  substance  is  insoluble  in  alcohol,  but  dissolves  in 
ether,  chloroform,  and  sulphide  of  carbon.  Butter  treated  with  broth 
cultures  of  the  coccus,  keeps  fresh  for  about  five  days  longer  than 
ordinary  butter  made  from  the  same  cream.  It  is  suggested  that  this 
organism  might  be  useful  in  the  manufacture  of  butter,  by  improving 
its  taste  and  keeping  property. 

Bacillus  Aterrinus  Tschitensis.f — W.  N.  Klimenko  has  isolated 
from  the  air  of  his  clinical  laboratory,  at  Tschita,  a  bacillus  that  pro- 
duces a  brown  pigment ;  it  is  an  actively  motile  rod  with  rounded  ends, 
resembling  B.  mesentericus  vulgaris  ;  it  occurs  most  often  singly,  rarely 
in  pairs,  and  sometimes  forms  threads  ;  it  has  a  single  centrally-placed 
oval  spore  ;  it  stains  by  ordinary  analin  dyes  and  by  Gram's  method, 
but  is  not  acid-fast :  it  is  a  potential  aerobe  :  the  optimum  tempera- 
ture is  36°-40°  0. 

On  agar  the  colonies  appear  after  16  to  20  hours,  and  by  reflected 
light  both  superficial  and  deep  colonies  have  a  white  colour  with  a 
lustreless  wrinkled  surface  ;  but  after  48  hours  the  deep  colonies  by 
transmitted  light,  and  the  superficial  colonies  by  reflected  light,  have  a 
dark  brown  colour ;  after  the  fourth  day  a  production  of  brown  pig- 
ment commences  to  diffuse  into  the  medium  around  the  superficial 
colonies.  Pigment  is  also  formed  by  colonies  grown  on  gelatin,  and  the 
medium  commences  to  liquefy  after  the  third  day,  and  on  the  surface 
of  the  liquefied  gelatin  there  floats  a  pellicle  which  develops  a  brown- 
black  pigment ;  growth  on  agar  containing  sugar  or  glycerin  shows  no 
formation  of  gas  ;  pepton-broth  is  clouded,  a  pellicle  being  formed 
which  develops  a  brown-black  pigment ;  on  potato  the  growth  is  at 
first  dry  and  wrinkled,  but  later  is  thick  and  greasy,  having  the  colour 
of  cafe-au-lait,  the  colour  of  the  potato  itself  being  unaltered  ;  milk  is 
clotted,  the  coagulum  being  subsequently  dissolved.  The  organism  is 
not  pathogenic.  It  closely  resembles  B.  mesentericus  niger  and  B.  lactis 
Gorini. 

Purple  Bacteria.  J— H.  Molisch  has  classified  these  organisms  into  two 
groups,  viz.  those  that  deposit  sulphur  granules  in  their  bodies  and  those 
that  do  not.  Each  of  these  is  again  subdivided  into  two  sub-groups  or 
families,  according  as  the  cells  are  free  or  are  associated,  and  these 
families  comprise  separate  sub-families,  depending  on  the  form  of  the 
cell  division,  the  property  of  swarming,  and  on  the  morphology  of  the 
cells.  The  author  finds  that  the  susceptibility  of  those  bacteria  to  light 
extends  to  all  the  visible  and  invisible  ultra  red  rays.  On  examining 
the  giving  off  of  oxygen  under  the  influence  of  light,  it  was  found  that 
carbonic  acid  was  not  assimilated,  so  that  the  colouring  matter  of  these 
organisms  is  not  analogous  to  chlorophyll. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.,  xix.  (1907)  p.  594. 

f  Op.  cit.,  2te  Abt.,  xx.  (1907)  p.  1.         J  Op.  cit.,  2te  Abt.,  xx.  (1908)  p.  289. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,  ^ETC.  225 

By  extracting  cultures  with  alcohol  the  author  obtained  a  green 
colouring  matter,  "  bacteriochlorin,"  which  was  quite  distinct  from 
chlorophyll,  and  gave  an  entirely  different  spectrum.  By  extracting 
the  bacteria  thus  freed  from  bacteriochlorin  with  carbon  disulphide, 
"  bacteriopurpurin  "  was  obtained.  The  combined  spectra  of  these  two 
colouring  matters  corresponded  with  the  spectrum  of  the  living  bacteria. 

Bacterium  Mariense.* — W.N.  Klimenkohas  isolated  this  bacillus  from 
the  spleen  and  blood  of  an  apparently  healthy  guinea-pig.  The  round- 
ended  rods,  which  are  actively  motile,  and  possess  8  to  12  peritrichal 
flagella,  are  usually  single,  sometimes  in  pairs,  rarely  forming  threads  ; 
they  stain  by  the  ordinary  dyes,  but  not  by  Gram's  method,  and  are  not 
acid-fast  ;  metachromatic  granules  may  occasionally  be  demonstrated. 
The  organism  is  a  potential  anaerobe,  but  the  best  growth  is  obtained 
under  aerobic  conditions  at  'M°  G.  The  colonies  on  gelatin  resembles 
those  of  B.  coli  and  B.  typhosus,  and  the  medium  is  not  liquefied ;  on 
Conradi-Drigalski  and  on  Endo's  media,  development  resembles  that  of 
B.  typhosus.  In  milk  no  change  is  apparent  for  the  first  six  days,  but  it 
then  becomes  transparent  and  of  a  yellow-brown  colour,  with  a  deposit 
at  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  the  reaction  becoming  more  and  more 
alkaline.  Growth  on  potato  is  similar,  but  less  vigorous  than  that  of 
B.  coli.  This  bacillus  has  no  denitrifying  properties,  it  produces  no 
indol,  and  its  growth  on  all  media  containing  carbohydrates  causes  an 
alkaline  reaction.  It  is  pathogenic  for  white  rats,  white  mice,  rabbits, 
guinea  pigs,  and  pigeons. 

Nitrogen-fixing  Bacteria,  f — F.  Lohnis  and  N.  K.  Pillar  have 
examined  the  soil  from  rice  fields  on  the  Malabar  coasts,  near  Trawankur, 
for  the  presence  of  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria. 

Tubes  of  soil  extract  +0*5  p.c.  K.,HP04  received  respectively 
1  p.c.  mannite,  1  p.c.  glucose,  1  p.c.  tartaric  acid,  and  were  neutrabsed 
with  soda ;  to  one  set  of  these  tubes  was  added  1-2  p.c.  of  Ca  C03,  a 
controle  set  being  free  from  chalk.  All  the  tubes  were  then  inoculated 
with  the  soil.  The  amount  of  nitrogen  being  measured  before  and 
twenty  days  after  inoculation.  In  the  mannite  tubes  with  chalk  the 
increase  of  nitrogen  was  4-l  mg.  per  100  cm.,  which  was  0*86  mg.more 
than  in  the  mannite  tube  without  chalk.  In  the  glucose  tubes  the 
nitrogen  increase  was  3 '  38  mg.  and  0*56  mg.  more  than  in  the  tubes  con- 
taining chalk.  In  the  tartaric  solution  tubes  the  increase  of  nitrogen 
was  only  1*7  mg.,  and  this  was  0*14  mg.  less  than  in  the  chalk  contain- 
ing tubes. 

Microscopically  Azotobacter  was  not  observed,  but  besides  several 
strains  of  B.  pneumonice,  B.  radiobacler,  B.  subtilis,  B.  oxalaticus, 
Micrococcus  sulphurous,  B.  turcosum,  B.  chrisoglcea,  B.  lipsiense,  the 
author  isolated  two  new  species,  B.  malabarensis  and  B.  tartaricum. 
B.  malabarensis  is  a  strong  nitrogen  fixer,  especially  in  mannite  solu- 
tions ;    it   occurs   as   large,   stout  rods,  with  numerous  flagella  ;    it  is 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlv.  (1907)  p.  481. 
t  Op.  cit.,  2te  Abt.,  xix.  (1907)  p.  87. 


226  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

slightly   motile,   stains   by  Gram's  method,  and  forms  spores;    when 
grown  on  gelatin  it  liquefies  the  medium. 

B.  tartaricum  is  not  a  marked  nitrogen  fixer  ;  it  occurs  as  short  rods, 
which  are  not  motile,  do  not  stain  by  Gram's  method,  do  not  form 
spores,  and  do  not  liquefy  gelatin. 

Cultural  Differentiation  of  Capsulated  Bacilli.* — V.  K.  Russ 
•examined  a  number  of  capsulated  bacilli  belonging  to  the  four  groups 
of  (1)  B.  lactis  aerogenes,  (2)  B.  pneumonia,  (3)  B.  mucosus  ozcence, 
(4)  B.  scleromatis,  in  respect  to  their  production  of  acid  and  alkaline 
with  carbohydrate  media,  and  their  reactions  to  coloured  media  of 
Endo's  fuchsin,  and  Loeffier's  green  solution. 

The  carbohydrates  used  were  dextrose,  galactose,  lsevulose,  lactose, 
maltose,  saccharose,  starch,  arabinose,  dextrin,  mannite,  dulcite,  and 
erythrite.  The  tests  showed  that  only  B.  scleromatis  produced  alkali, 
or  had  no  action  with  lactose  ;  only  B.  ozarnce  produced  acid  with 
erythrite  ;  that  B.  aerogenes  and  B.  ozcence  both  formed  acid,  whilst 
B.  friedldnderi  and  B.  scleromatis  both  gave  alkaline  reaction,  or  had  no 
effect  with  dulcite. 

On  Endo's  lactose  fuchsin  agar,  the  aerogenes  group  behaved  as  the 
coli  group,  producing  a  deep  red  colour  ;  the  B.  friedldnderi  and 
B.  scleromatis  behaved  as  B.  typhosus,  or  had  no  effect,  and  with 
B.  ozamce  the  medium  was  coloured  pink. 

The  author  gives  a  table  of  the  results  obtained  with  four  solutions 
of  Loeffier's  green,  and  finds  that  though  B.  lactis  aerogenes  has  very 
marked  characters  with  these  solutions,  the  test  is  not  of  practical  use  in 
differentiating  the  other  three  groups.  The  author  also  refers  to  other 
capsulated  organisms  not  included  in  the  above  four  groups,  and  shows 
in  what  way  they  are  allied  biologically  according  to  the  above  tests. 
It  appears  that  B.  capsulatus  of  Pfeiffer,  and  B.  mucosus  capsulatus 
of  Fasching,  are  both  indentical  with  B.  lactis  aerogenes. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xliv.  (1907)  p.  289. 


•  le^al  • 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  227 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.   Instruments,  Accessories,  etc.* 
(1)   Stands. 

Beck's  "London  "  Microscope,  Regent  Model. | — This  instrument  is 
shown  in  fig.  33,  and  is  designed  for  the  most  exacting  research.  The 
stage  is  square,  4  in.  by  4  in.,  surfaced  with  ebonite,  and  provided  with  a 
mechanical  stage,  with  racks  and  pinions,  giving  traversing  motions  of 
2  in.  in  the  horizontal  direction  and  1  in.  in  the  vertical  direction,  each 
motion  being  provided  with  graduations  by  which  the  positions  of  ob- 
jects can  be  registered  and  refound.  The  mechanical  stage  is  removable, 
leaving  the  stage  free  for  large  dishes,  and  four  spring-clip  holes  are 
provided.  An  iris  diaphragm  is  set  in  the  thickness  of  the  stage,  and  is 
actuated  by  means  of  a  lever  extending  to  the  stage  edge.  This 
diaphragm  has  a  slightly  curved  form,  so  that  when  closed  to  a  small 
aperture  it  is  within  one  or  two  hundredths  of  an  inch  of  the  stage  level. 
By  this  construction  the  iris  may  be  closed  even  when  an  Abbe  con- 
denser in  the  substage  is  at  its  highest  position,  and  when  the  light  from 
the  condenser  is  in  focus  upon  the  object.  There  is,  therefore,  no  risk 
of  damage  being  done  to  the  stage  iris  diaphragm  when  focusing  the 
condenser,  as  it  does  not  come  in  contact  with  it  at  any  position.  The 
substage  is  focused  by  means  of  a  spiral  rack-and-pinion  adjustment, 
and  is  carried  on  a  massive  bracket  which  swings  to  one  side  on  a  strong 
centre.  The  condenser  (fig.  34)  can,  therefore,  be  instantly  swung  out 
of  the  optic  axis  to  one  side  by  means  of  the  same  milled  head  which 
actuates  the  focusing  adjustment.  As  soon  as  the  condenser  has  been 
racked  down  to  its  lowest  limit,  it  swings  clear  of  the  stage.  The  sub- 
stage  is  provided  with  centring  screws.  The  limb  of  the  instrument  is 
made  with  a  large  aperture  forming  a  handle,  through  which  the  entire 
hand  can  be  passed  for  lifting  and  manipulating  the  instrument ;  no 
strain  is  put  on  any  working  parts  of  the  Microscope  when  it  is  lifted  in 
this  manner.  The  fine  adjustment  is  of  a  more  sensitive  pattern  than 
that  of  the  "  London  "  model,  being  about  four  times  as  delicate,  each 
division  on  the  drum  representing  TooWo  m-  This  fitting  is  placed 
almost  directly  behind  the  Microscope  body,  so  that  the  weight  does  not 
overhang  the  fitting  to  any  great  extent,  and  thus  a  fine  adjustment  can 
be  made  which,  in  spite  of  its  extreme  delicacy,  is  equally  sensitive  to  the 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands ;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives ;  (3) 
Illuminating  and  other  Apparatus  ;  (4)  Photomicrography ;  (5)  Microscopical 
Optics  and  Manipulation  ;   (6)  Miscellaneous. 

t  R.  and  J.  Beck,  London,  Special  Catalogue,  1908. 


228  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    DELATING    TO 


Fig.  H3. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


229 


large  and  a  small 


smaller  motion.     The   milled  head  is  made  with  a 
diameter,  so  that  for  moderate  powers  the  small  milled  head  can  be 
rapidly  revolved,  thus  giving  a  quick  motion  ;  the  larger  milling  enables 
full  advantage  to  be  taken  of  the  delicate  adjustment  with  high  powers. 


Fig.  34. 


Societe  G-enevoise  :  Mineralogical  and  Petrographical  Microscopes, 
with  Permanent  Centring  and  with  Objective  Rotation. — A  section 
of  this  instrument,  numbered  2426  in  the  maker's  catalogue,  is  shown  in 
fig.  35.  The  system  has  the  advantage  of  remaining  always  centred. 
The  stage  carries  a  column  on  which  slides  the  objective-holder,  and  to 
this  latter  the  objective  is  applied  by  means  of  a  spring  clamp,  which 
facilitates  rapid  change  of  objective.  The  Microscope  tube  is  mounted 
on  a  strong  column  and  moves  independently  of  the  objective.  There  is 
an  opening  in  the  tube  above  the  objective  for  inserting  optical  lamellae 
or  for  a  revolver  of  plates  of  mica  and  quartz. 

Fig.  36  shows  model  No.  2429  of  the  same  firm.  The  purpose  of 
the  instrument  is  the  same  as  with  the  last,  and  similar  advantages  are 

*  Catalogue  of  the  Societe  Genevoise  pour  la  construction  d'instruments  de 
physique  et  de  mecanique,  1907. 


230  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Fig.  35. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


231 


Fig.  36. 


232 


SIWIMAKY    nv    r['|;|;i,\T    I;  KSK  A  R|  'I  I  Ks    RELATING    TO 


claimed.     The  difference  is  in  the  limb  which  supports  the  tube;  the 
limb  being  solidly  attached  to  the  base  and  carrying  the  rackwork  at  its 


Fig.  37. 


upper  end.     The  tube  movement  is  independent  of  that  of  the  objective. 

Fig.  37  shows  model  No.  2481  in  section.     Here  the  nicols  rotate 

while  the  stage  is  fixed,  and  this  arrangement  gives  a  means  of  suppress- 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


233 


ing  all  decentring  of  the  microscopic  stage  in  relation  to  the  optical  axis 
of  the  Microscope.  The  rotation  of  the  nicol  is  obtained  by  means  of  a 
pillar,  parallel  to  the  Microscope,  and  bearing  two  pinions  engaging  in 
two  small  stages  supporting  the  polarisers  and  analysers.  The  polariser 
is  fitted  with  a  quick-movement  screw  tor  raising  or  lowering.  The 
object-stage  can  be  rotated,  as  desired,  independently  of  the  nicol ;  it 
carries  a  pivoting  condenser.* 

Mechanical     Stages.f  —  Fig.   38   represents    a    mechanical    stage 
designed   for   use   with   the    above    mineralogical   and   petrographical 


Fig    38. 


Microscopes.  The  apparatus  is  constructed  with  crossed  carriers  for 
centring  ;  it  has  a  coarse-adjustment  by  raekwork,  and  a  fine-adjustment 
byJa  micrometer  screw  with  divided  head. 


Fig.  39. 


Fig.  39  shows  Fedorow's  stage.!    It  is  made  in  two  forms  :  a  small 
model,  with  two  movements  of  rotation  ;  and  a  large  model,  with  four 

*  There  is  a  great  resemblance  to  Swift's  patent,  which  has,  however,  perhaps 
run  out. — Ed. 

f  Catalogue  of  the  Societe  genevoise  pour  la  construction  d'instruments  de 
physique  et  de  mecanique,  1907,  No.  2421  (fig.  2121a). 

%  Op.  cit.,  Catalogue  No.  2192. 

April  15th,  1908  R 


234 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


such  movements.     The  illustration  refers  to  the  latter  model,  and  is 
considered  by  the  makers  to  be  self-explanatory. 

Micrometer    Microscope.* — This  instrument,  mounted  on  a  stand 
(fig.  40),  has  a  movable  thread  at  the  focus  of  the  ocular  for  sub- 


Fig.  40. 


dividing  the  spaces  on  a  graduated  bar.     The  ocular  field  is  about  9  mm. 
Magnification  from  30  to  40. 


Fig.  41. 


Dissecting  Microscope.f— This  instrument  (fig.  41)  has  the  arm 
and  dissecting  stage,  and  is  independent  of  the  Microscope  stand.  The 
objective,  which  has  a  rack-and-pinion  adjustment,  is  composed  of  three 
doubles. 

*  List  Phvs.  and  Mech.  Instr.  Soc.  genevoise,  1907,  p.  37  (1  fig.), 
t  Tom.  oit.,  pp.  97-8. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


235 


Frauenhofer's  Screw  Micrometer.*— This  instrument  is  fitted  to  a 
telescope  or  Microscope  of  low  power,  and  is  mounted  on  a  brass  column. 
It  is  provided  with  turning  movements  so  that  it  can  be  used  vertically 


Fig.  42. 


Fig.  43. 


(fig.  42)  and  horizontally  (fig.  43),  and  measurements  taken  in  all 
directions.  The  micrometer  can  change  places  with  the  shelf,  so  that 
the  instrument  may  serve  as  Microscope  with  micrometric  shelf.  The 
tripod  folds  up. 


(2)   Eye-pieces  and  Objectives. 


Societe  Genevoise :  Eye-pieces  for  Mineralogical  and  Petrog-ra- 
phical  Microscopes.! — Fig.  44,  numbered  2442  in  the  maker's  cata- 
logue, represents  an  auxiliary  nicol,  with  divided  circle  for  use  above  the 
ocular.      Figs.  45,  46,  numbered  2485  by  the  makers,  show  Babinet's 


*  List  Phys.  and  Meek.  Instr.  Soc.  genevoise,  1907,  pp.  36-7  (2  figs.), 
t  Catalogue  (1907)  of  the  Soc.  genevoise  pour  la  construction  d'iustrumentsde 
physique  et  de  niecanique,  p.  12. 

R   2 


236 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


compensator  in  genera]  view  and  in  sect  inn.    Xo  description  is  furnished 
with  the  illustration. 


• 


Fig.  44. 


Fig.  45. 


Fig.  46. 


C3)   Illuminating-   and  other  Apparatus. 

Pearce's  Total  Reflexion  Refractometer.* — This  instrument  (fig. 
•47),  numbered  2190  in  the  catalogue  of  the  Genevan  firm,  has  been 
made  after  the  designs  of  F.  Pearce.  The  general  view  recalls  that  of 
Abbe's  refractometer,  but  Pearce's  optical  arrangements  are  suitable  for 
measurements  upon  large  as  well  as  upon  small  fragments.  In  case  of 
large  fragments,  an  objective  0'  and  an  ocular  A'  replace  the  objective 

*  Soc.  genevoise  pour  la  construction  d'instruments  de   physique  et  de  rne- 
canique,  Special  circular,  1907. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSCOI'V,    ETC. 


237 


0  and  the  ocular  shown  in  the  figure.  The  magnification  of  this  com- 
bination is  from  3-4  diameters,  and  the  separating  power  is  sufficient  to 
insure  under  good  conditions  evaluation  to  the  fourth  decimal.     This 


illiliinlliJ!'"' 

minium 


HWIIIjjiliiiiillp 


.  i  !l!!lll!IU!l!l;i 


Fig.  47. 


objective  0'  is  formed  of  an  achromatic  lens  combined  with  a  plano- 
concave lens  of  the  same  glass  as  the  hemisphere.  This  latter  lens, 
whose  concave   surface  has  a   radius  of    curvature    equal   to   that   of 


238  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

the  hemisphere,  is  intended  to  nullify  the  influence  which  the 
spherical  surface  of  the  hemisphere  exerts  on  the  paths  of  the  rays. 
The  objective  0'  can  also  be  provided  with  a  correction  lens,  when 
using  the  combination  for  the  vision  of  very  distant  objects  by  re- 
flexion on  the  plane  surface  of  the  hemisphere ;  this  property  is  use- 
ful for  the  adjustment  of  the  hemisphere.  For  small  fragments  the 
combination  used  consists  of  an  objective  0,  composed  of  an  achro- 
matic lens  of  about  40  mm.  focal  length,  with  a  correction  lens  and  a 
special  ocular.  This  ocular  fits  with  gentle  friction  into  the  tube  u 
of  the  instrument,  and  bears  at  its  anterior  end  a  network  in  the  focus 
of  the  objective  ;  the  anterior  lens  (divergent)  giving,  in  combination 
with  the  objective,  an  enlarged  image  (4-5  diameters)  of  the  object 
placed  on  the  hemisphere.  This  image  is  formed  in  the  plane  of  an 
iris  diaphragm  i,  which,  for  more  convenience,  can  be  laterally  displaced 
by  the  aid  of  the  screws  r.  The  image  is  viewed  by  the'loup  /.  When 
the  loup  I  is  replaced  by  another  of  a  focus  giving  vision  of  the  net, 
this  optical  combination,  which  is  a  real  Microscope,  is  converted  into 
a  telescope  directed  on  infinity,  and  by  it  the  phenomenon  of  total 
reflexion  can  be  observed.  A  nicol  prism  N  fitted  wTith  a  graduated 
circle  can  be  easily  adapted  to  either  of  the  two  combinations  without 
derangiug  the  observations.  Perfect  centring  of  the  objective  is 
obtained  by  the  action  of  three  screws  not  shown  in  the  figure,  and 
that  of  the  hemisphere  by  the  three  screws  1,  2,  3.  The  makers  supply 
full  instructions  for  the  use  of  the  instrument. 

Beck's  New  Illuminator  for  High-power  Dark-ground  Illumination.* 
This  apparatus  permits  of  dark -ground  illumination,  with  object-glasses 


Fig.  48. 

as  high  as  a  TV  in.  oil-immersion.  The  principle  is  that  of  a  reflecting 
paraboloid,  specially  designed  to  obviate  the  difficulty  arising  from  the 
immersion  fluid  running  down  the  side  of  the  paraboloid  and  the 
consequent  impossibility  of  adjusting  the  focus.  The  new  illuminator 
is  made  of  two  parts,  which  may  be  more  or  less  separated,  and  tin's 
enables  the  light  to  be  focused,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  slip  on 
which  the  object  is  mounted,  and  the  oil  is  kept  away  from  the  reflecting 
surface.  The  lower  portion  consists  of  a  reflecting  paraboloid  B 
(fig.  48),  reflecting  parallel  light  to  a  focus  at  C,  with  a  concave  upper 
surface.  The  upper  portion  of  the  apparatus  is  in  the  form  of  a  lens  A, 
with  focus  at  C,  the  upper  surface  of  which  is  placed  in  immersion 
contact  with  the  under  surface  of  the  slip  ;  the  curved  side  is  concentric 

*  R.  and  J.  Beck,  London,  Special  Catalogue,  1908. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICEOSCOPY,    ETC. 


239 


with  the  focus  C,  and  truncated  to  such  an  extent  as  to  stop  all  light 
of  less  obliquity  than  1*0  N.A.  from  reaching  the  object.  Therefore 
when  dry  lenses,  or  oil-immersion  lenses,  with  no  greater  angle  than 
1*0  N.A.  are  used,  no  direct  light  enters  the  Microscope,  but  the 
objects  are  illuminated  by  an  annular  ring  of  very  oblique  light,  and 
are  seen  due  to  the  light  which  they  reflect.  By  moving  the  paraboloid 
B  up  or  down  by  means  of  the  lower  milled  ring  which  rotates  the 
sleeve  in  which  it  is  held,  the  lens  A  being  retained  in  contact  with  the 
slide,  the  light  is  accurately  focused  and  the  maximum  brilliancy 
obtained.  Various  forms  of  bacteria,  viewed  by  this  method,  show 
different  structure,  and  it  would  appear  to  be  a  hopeful  method  of 
obtaining  an  increased  power  of  examining  living  micro-organisms.  A 
powerful  light  is  essential.     An  incandescent  gas  lamp,  with  a  bullseye 


Fig.  49. 


to  project  a  parallel  beam  upon  the  mirror  of  the  Microscope,  gives  good 
results.  The  Nernst  electric  lamp  forms  an  excellent  light  for  this 
purpose.  But  whatever  light  is  used  it  should  be  parallelised  by  means 
of  a  bullseye  or  aplanatic  condenser.  Fig.  49  shows  the  Nernst  lamp 
on  stand  complete  with  an  aplanatic  Herschel  condenser. 

New  Microscope  Lamp.* — C.  Troester  has  devised  a  lamp  by  which 
light  is  transmitted  from  its  source  to  the  Microscope  through  a  straight, 
internally-polished  tube  (fig.  50).  The  source  of  light  is  an  incandescent 
burner,  with  a  metal  chimney  having  an  opening  in  front.  The  tube  is 
so  fitted  that  it  can  revolve  in  a  vertical  plane,  and  about  a  point  in  the 
centre  of  the  incandescent  body.  The  Microscope  mirror  is  placed  close 
to  the  end  of  the  tube  and  arranged  to  catch  the  central  beams.  A 
convex  lens  is  inserted  at  the  lamp  end,  and  a  blue  glass  disk  at  the 
Microscope  end.     The  light  obtained  is  said  to  be  more  powerful  than 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlv.  (1907)  pp.  574-5  (1  fig.). 


240 


SUMMAUV    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


the  best  daylight.     The  apparatus,  which  takes  up  little  space  and  is 
easily  arranged,  is  made  by  E.  Leitz. 


Fig.  50. 


Foucault's  Heliostat.* — In  this  instrument  (fig.  51),  which  can  be 
adapted  to  different  latitudes,  the  mirror  has  a  diameter  of  30  cm. 


Fig.  51. 

*  Catalogue  (1907)  of  the  Soc.  genevoise  pour  la  construction  d' instruments  de 
physique  et  de  rnecanique,  pp.  87-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


241 


Wollaston's  Goniometer.* — This  instrument  (fig.  52),  the  circle  of 
which  is  140  millimetres  in  diameter,  is  provided  with  regulating  screw 
apparatus   for  centring   crystals,   and   vernier  reading  to  30  seconds. 


""WliiiiiaiiiiiiiiH 


F.g.  52. 


Fig.  53. 


The  same  instrument,  as  improved  by  Mallard  (fig.  53),  has,  in  addition, 
a  collimator  with  slit  of  various  forms  and  an  adjustable  support  for  the 
black  mirror. 

*  List  Pkys.  and  Mech.  Instr.  Soc.  Genevoise  (1907)  pp.  4S-9. 


242  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Reglet  for  Direct  Reading  in  Microscopic  Measurements.  * — To 
facilitate  quick  measurement  with  camera-lucida  drawings,  F.  Guegueii 
has  contrived  a  simple  apparatus  such  as  every  microscopist  would  he 
able  to  make  to  suit  his  instrument.  The  Microscope  having  been  first 
slanted  at  a  suitable  inclination  to  the  vertical,  a  rectangle  is  cut  out  of 
&  piece  of  celluloid,  the  longest  side  of  this  rectangle  being  equal  to  the 
vertical  distance  separating  the  base  of  the  micrometric  screw  from  the 
table  on  which  the  Microscope  is  placed.  This  transparent  rectangle, 
being  placed  upright  on  its  narrow  side  in  a  plane  parallel  to  the 
plane  of  symmetry  of  the  Microscope,  is  cut  obliquely  across  the  corner 
by  a  line  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  instrument.  The  reglet  thus 
formed  gives  a  means  of  always  insuring  the  same  slope  of  tube. 
When  the  instrument  has  been  thus  inclined  and  provided  with  a 
micrometer  objective  and  a  camera  lucida  at  a  variable  angle,  the 
micrometric  scale  seen  under  the  various  magnifications  employed,  is 
drawn  successively  on  the  table.  For  strong  optical  combinations  a 
tenth,  or  perhaps  a  fifth  of  a  millimetre  would  be  drawn  :  for  weak 
enlargements  the  entire  scale  would  be  drawn.  Each  of  these  traces 
having  been  afterwards  geometrically  sub-divided  into  fractions,  whose 
smallest  division  would  equal  1  //.,  it  will  only  remain  to  counter-draw  side 
by  side  on  the  sheet  of  celluloid  the  various  graduated  scales  (this  can 
be  done  by  the  aid  of  a  graver  or  scalpel),  and  record  their  values.  The 
appropriate  part  of  the  celluloid  sheet,  when  used  for  measurement, 
would  be  superposed  on  the  drawing  obtained  by  the  camera-lucida. 

Grimsehl's  Liliput-projection  Lantern.t — This  instrument  is  made 
by  A.  Kriiss,  of  Hamburg,  to  the  design  of  Professor  Grimsehl.  Its 
optical  peculiarity  is  a  short-focus  illuminating  lens.  The  light-source 
is  an  electric  arc  lamp  requiring  a  current  of  1  •  5  amperes.  The  whole 
arrangement  is  extremely  compact,  and  being  mounted  on  a  pillar-stand 
-can  be  raised  or  depressed  at  pleasure. 

A  Micro-object  Locater.J — S.  E.  Dowdy  writes  :  "When  showing 
a  mixed  slide  of  objects  under  a  low  power  to  friends  or  to  a  class,  the 
necessity  often  crops  up  for  locating  a  particular  specimen  which  has 
been  picked  out  by  the  observer.  There  is  an  eye-piece  on  the  market, 
fitted  with  an  index-needle,  specially  devised  to  overcome  this  difficulty  ; 
but  it  is  expensive,  and  is  very  little,  if  any,  more  effective  than  the 
contrivance  which  any  working  microscopist  can  make  for  himself.  All 
that  is  wanted  is  a  circular  piece  of  glass  capable  of  fitting  between  the 
eye-piece  lenses,  resting  on  the  diaphragm  usually  to  be  found  in  the 
eye-piece  tube.  This  glass  must  be  ruled  off  into  small  squares.  If 
one  possesses  a  glazier's  diamond,  the  glass  can  be  cut  and  ruled  at 
home  ;  but  any  optician  could  get  it  done  for  a  small  sum.  If,  how- 
ever, it  is  preferred  to  make  it  at  home,  and  no  diamond  or  glass-cutter 
is  available,  here  is  an  alternative  method  of  manufacture.  Get  a  cir- 
cular  glass,  such  as  is  used  in  phonograph  reproducers,  just  the  right 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol,  de  Paris,  lxiii.  (1.07)  pp.  117-18. 

t  Central.  Ztg.  f.  Opt.  u.  Mech.,  xxviii.  (1907)  pp.  307-8  (2  figs.). 

j  English  Mechanic,  lxxxvi.  (1908)  pp.  5G4-5. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  243 

size.  Now  dip  it  in  a  solution  of  gelatin,  draining  off  the  superfluous 
liquid,  and  allowing  it  to  dry.  The  squares  can  then  be  scratched  on 
the  film  side  with  a  pin.  In  whichever  way  the  glass  is  prepared,  it 
must  have  the  squares  numbered  consecutively  in  small  figures.  When 
this  glass  is  inserted  in  the  eye-piece,  each  square  covers  a  small  portion 
of  the  field,  and  the  squares  being  numbered,  the  location  of  any  par- 
ticular object  can  easily  be  signified  to  any  number  of  observers.1' 

(4)  Photomicrography. 

Scheffer's  Microscopical  Researches  on  Plate-grains. — W.  Scbeffer 
has  devoted  much  attention  to  the  above  subject,  and  his  results  are 
herewith  summarised  under  the  titles  of  his  respective  articles. 

Microscopical  Researches  on  the  Effect  of  the  Persulphate  and  Ferri- 
cyanide Reducers,  as  also  on  the  Re-developing  of  Bleached  Negatives  with 
Alcoholic  Developers* — The  author's  object  was  to  investigate  the  reason 
for  the  difference  in  action  of  Lumiere's  ammonium  persulphate  reducer 
(soft  result)  and  Farmer's  ferricyanide  of  potash  reducer  (harsh  result). 
Suitable  preparations  were  made,  and  the  gelatin  films  sectionised  by 
the  microtome,  and  examined  microscopically.  It  was  found  that  the 
effect  of  the  ferricyanide  was  limited  to  the  upper  part  of  the  surface, 
all  grains  then  being  dissolved,  while  in  the  lower  part  they  were  not 
touched.  The  persulphate,  on  the  other  hand,  penetrated  the  whole 
film,  and  thus  reduced  all  grains  in  an  equal  proportion.  The  author 
quotes  Werkner's  redevelopment  formula,  which  is  especially  suited  for 
changing  harsh  negatives  into  soft  ones  without  loss  of  image  in  the 
transparent  part. 

Note  on  the  Reversed  of  Solarised  Negatives  with  Farmer's  Reducer. ,| 
If  a  bromide  negative  is  exposed  under  a  photometer  in  such  a  way 
that  the  more  transparent  area  of  the  field  appears  already  as  a  positive 
by  solarisation,  and  the  negative  obtained  by  this  is  reduced  afterwards 
with  Farmer's  reducer,  then  a  part  of  the  reversed  (by  solarisation) 
regions  is  changed  again  into  a  negative.  This  is  best  to  be  seen  in 
those  places  where  the  solarisation  has  not  gone  too  far.  Microscopic 
examination  showed  that  in  the  solarised  parts  the  grains  were  equal  in 
size  and  evenly  distributed  over  the  whole  thickness  of  the  film.  In 
the  less  exposed  parts  the  size  and  quantity  of  grains  in  the  upper  parts 
were  both  greater.  Under  certain  circumstances,  reduction  with  ferri- 
cyanide of  potassium  would  invert  the  relative  portions  of  transparency 
of  these  two  parts,  e.g.  if  the  reducer  had  penetrated  down  to  the  half 
of  the  two  films  equally.  In  one  case  the  greater  quantity  of  the  grains 
would  have  dissolved,  and  only  a  very  slight  opacity  remain  ;  in  the 
other,  comparatively  more  of  the  grain  would  remain  unattacked,  and 
consequently  the  parts,  formerly  more  opaque,  would  be  relatively  more 
transparent  after  reduction. 

Microscopical  Researches*  on  'the  Size  and  Distribution  of  the  Plate- 
grains. % — The  author  illustrates  his  researches  by  a  series  of  nineteen 

*  British  Journ.  Photog..  liii.  (1900)  pp.  964-5  (9  tigs.). 

+  Tom.  cit..  p.  1027  (2  figs.). 

i  Op.  cit.,  liv.  (1907)  pp.  116-20  (19  figs.). 


24-4  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

photographs,  showing  various  stages  and  results  in  the  development  of 
a  plate  The  first  stage  of  development  always  seemed  to  originate  in 
the  protrusion  of  small  rod-like  processes,  usually  knob-terminated,  from 
the  grains.  These  processes,  or  filaments,  seemed  to  be  more  numerous 
on  the  smaller  grains  than  on  the  large  ones.  The  impression  suggested 
to  the  observer  was  that  the  results  were  in  the  nature  of  an  explosion, 
which  took  place  during  the  exposure,  small  bodies  being  apparently 
shot  away  from  the  grains  and  making  their  way  through  the  gelatin 
either  in  straight  or  in  irregularly  curved  lines.  Both  the  terminal 
knobs  and  the  filaments  acted  as  germs,  at  which  development  com- 
mences. Sometimes  the  filament  is  hardly  visible  even  with  the  highest 
power  oil-immersions.  Thus  the  germs  at  which  the  formation  of  the 
developed  grain  commences  are  situated  outside  the  original  grains,  and 
also  the  further  stages  of  development  are  outside  the  original  grains. 
The  developed  grains  are  always  clumsily-aggregated  masses. 

It  would  seem  that  in  an  exposed  film  the  grains  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes  : — (1)  Original  grains,  i.e.  grains  which  have  germs 
round  themselves,  which  germs  are  the  points  where  development 
commences.  These  original  grains  are  not  dissolved  by  development. 
(2)  Dissolving  grains — grains  which  show  no  germs,  and  which  are 
dissolved  either  partly  or  entirely  by  chemical  development.  (3) 
Developed  black  grains. 

Jficroscopic  Researches  on  the  Plate-grain*  —  In  this  article  the 
author  examines  the  relations  of  "  dissolving  "  and  "  original "  grains 
under  different  conditions  of  development  and  exposure.  He  infers 
that  the  solubility  of  the  dissolving  grains  in  chemical  developers  is 
governed  by  the  exposure,  and  that  the  solubility  increases  at  the  com- 
mencement corresponding  with  the  exposure  up  to  a  maximum,  after 
which  it  decreases  with  the  increasing  exposure.  He  also  found  that 
the  solubility  of  the  dissolving  grains,  as* well  as  the  size  of  the  developed 
grains,  corresponded  with  the  concentration  of  the  developing  solution. 
The  size  of  the  developed  grains  also  depended  on  the  number  of  grains 
in  unit  volume  of  the  gelatin. 


&v 


Mees,  C.  E.  K. — Screen-plate  Colour  Photography. 

[The  author  describes  some  twelve  processes,  and  discusses  the  scientific 
principles  which  underlie  them.] 

Journ.  Soc.  Arts,  lvi.  (1908)  No.  2878,  pp.  195-204  (6  figs.). 

(5)  Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Correction  of  the  Astigmatism  of  Doubly  Refracting  Prisms.t — 
C.  Tissot  and  F.  Pellin  refer  to  the  deformation  of  image  produced  in 
various  degrees  by  all  doubly  refracting  prisms.  In  the  case  of  a  nicol, 
it  is  only  the  extraordinary  rays  which  contribute  to  the  image,  i.e.  rays 
which  do  not,  in  general,  remain  in  the  plain  of  incidence.  The  result  is 
a  dyssymmetry  which  can  be  proved  by  an  easily  shown  astigmatism. 
Thus,  if  a  homocentric  beam,  limited  by  a  narrow  circular  diaphragm,  be 

*  British  Journ.  Photog.,  liv.  (1907)  pp.  271-3  (7  figs.). 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  866-7  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC 


245 


received  on  a  nicol  provided  with  a  convergent  lens,  two  real  perfectly 
distinct  foci  will  appear  capable  of  reception  on  a  screen.  The  astigma- 
tism is  still  more  clearly  seen  with  a  polarising  Microscope.  The  authors 
show,  however,  that  an  image  as  sharp  as  when  there  is  no  interposition 
of  a  nicol  can  be  always  obtained  by  superposing  on  the  ocular  a  cylin- 
drical lens  of  suitable  power,  orientated  so  that  the  axial  section  coincides 
with  the  plane  of  symmetry  of  the  prism. 

Cantor  Lectures  :  Theory  of  the  Microscope.* — A  series  of  Cantor 
Lectures  in  December  and  January  last  were  given  by  C.  Beck  on  the 
theory  of  the  Microscope.  The  author  did  not  treat  the  subject  on  the 
usual  lines,  but  devoted  his  attention  mainly  to  the  instrument  as  at 
present  in  actual  use,  with  especial  reference  to  practical  considerations. 
Although  he  fully  recognises  indebtedness  to  others,  e.g.  E.  M.  Nelson 
and  J.  W.  Gordon,  his  lectures  contain  much  novelty  and  originality, 
and  will  be  found  to  include  many  points  which  have  recently  occupied 
the  attention  of  microscopists.  The  first  two  lectures  discuss  lenses,  and 
the  author  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  limits  of  constructive  excellence 
have  been  practically  attained.  The  third  lecture  deals  with  diffraction, 
and  the  fourth  with  practical  applications  of  theory. 


(6)  Miscellaneous. 


Compass  Reading  to  gfo  or  ^Vo  Millimetre.!— This  instrument 
(fig.  54)  measures  objects  3  millimetres  thick.  The  amplification  is  ob- 
tained by  a  lever  and  a  Microscope  having  at  its  focus  a  glass  micrometer. 


Fig.  54. 


Caliper  with  Micrometer   Screw.} — This   instrument   (rig.   55)  is 
mounted  on  a  cast-iron  foot,  has  a  ratchet  head,  and  exerts  a  uniform 

*  Journ.  Soc.  Arts,  lvi.  Nos.  2875-8  ;  and  as  a  reprint. 

t  List  Phys.  and  Mech.  Instr.  Soc.  Genevoise,  1907,  p.  44. 

%  Tom.  cit.,  p.  41. 


246 


SUMMAItY   of   cuim;knt    ukska  KGHES    1,'KLATING  to 


pressure  on  the  object  measured.     The  larger  size  measures  to  approxi- 
mately 5^j  of  a  millimetre. 


Fig.  55. 


Quekett  Microscopical  Club.  —  The  445th  Ordinary  Meeting  of 
the  Club  was  held  on  January  17,  the  President,  Dr.  E.  J.  Spitta, 
F.R.A.S.  F.R.M.S.,  in  the  Chair.  Owing  to  the  unfortunate  absence 
through  illness  of  the  authors,  neither  of  the  two  papers  announced 
were  read.  Messrs.  Baker  exhibited  with  the  lantern  a  number  of 
slides,  mostly  of  pond  life.  Mr.  E.  Large,  using  the  projection 
polariscope,  exhibited  some  very  interesting  and  beautiful  sections  of 
selenite  crystals,  also  some  photomicrographs  of  twinned  crystals. 

At  the  446th  Ordinary  Meeting,  which  was  also  the  42nd  Annual 
General  Meeting,  Professor  E.  A.  Minchin,  M.A.  (Oxon.),  was  elected 
President.  The  usual  reports,  which  were  very  satisfactory,  were 
presented  by  the  Committee,  Treasurer,  Librarian,  and  Curator. 
Dr.  E.  J.  Spitta,  F.R.A.S.  F.R.M.S.,  the  retiring  President,  delivered 
the  Annual  Presidential  Address,  taking  for  his  subject  "  The  Photo- 
graphy of  Very  Translucent  Diatoms  at  High  Magnifications."  Refer- 
ence was  made  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  contrast  between  the 
object  and  the  background,  and  this  being  due  to  the  nearness  of  the 
index  of  refraction  of  the  mounting  medium  to  that  of  the  silex  of  the 
diatom  (l-43)  (Canada  balsam  is  1'52),  it  was  advised  that,  if  possible, 
diatoms  to  be  photographed  under  high  powers  should  be  mounted  in 
realgar,  the  "index  of  visibility  "  of  which  is  121,  that  of  Canada  balsam 
being  only  9.  The  "fog"  seen  round  dot  markings  was  stated  to  be 
caused  by  the  fact  that  no  lens,  or  combination  of  lenses,  can  represent 
the  image  of  a  point  as  another  point,  but  such  must  be  shown  as  a  disk 
of  more  or  less  sensible  diameter.  This  "  fog "  is  got  rid  of  in  the 
following  manner  : — A  negative  is  made  on  a  fast  plate,  and  is  developed 
preferably  with  hydrokinone  to  obtain  maximum  contrast.     A  positive 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  247 

is  made  from  the  negative,  by  contact,  on  a  second  fast  plate.  From 
this  positive  a  second  negative  is  made,  and  subsequently  from  this  a 
second  positive,  both  by  contact,  on  slow  "  process  "  or  "lantern  "  plates. 
Lantern  slides  showed  the  great  improvement  and  practical  absence 
from  the  "  fotr "  thus  obtained. 


B.  Technique.* 
(1)    Collecting-  Objects,   including-  Culture   Processes. 

Multiplication  in  vitro  of  Treponema  Pallidum.! — C.  Lebailly 
finds  that  liver  and  spleen  infected  with  Treponema  pallidum  are 
excellent  cultivation  media  for  these  organisms.  Pieces  of  liver  and 
spleen  were  cut  out,  with  the  usual  precautions,  from  the  body  of  a  foetus 
and  incubated  for  45  days.  Examination  at  the  end  of  15  days  showed 
a  great  increase  in  the  number  of  Treponemata  :  at  the  end  of  45  days 
there  was  no  apparent  increase  in  the  number,  and  many  were  much 
degenerated. 

Cultivation  of  Anaerobic  Bacteria.! — J.  Kursteiner  finds  that  two 
chief  methods  have  been  employed  for  the  cultivation  of  anaerobic 
organisms  :  (1)  in  which  oxygen  is  apparently  not  excluded,  as  with 
media  containing  reduced  substances,  or  portions  of  organic  tissue,  or 
as  in  mixed  cultures  with  aerobes  ;  (2)  in  which  oxygen  is  excluded, 
either  by  covering  the  lower  or  upper  layers  of  the  medium  with  glass, 
mica,  or  paraffin,  by  boiling  the  medium,  by  vacuating,  by  substituting 
another  gas  for  the  oxygen,  by  absorption  of  the  oxygen,  or  by  a 
combination  of  these  principles. 

The  author  describes  the  most  practical  methods  of  R.  Bum  and  of 
J.  H.  Wright.  1.  Burri  employs  a  glass  tube  the  size  of  an  ordinary 
test-tube,  closed  at  either  end  by  wool  plugs  and  sterilised  for  two 
hours  at  160°  to  180°  C. ;  a  number  of  rubber  corks  kept  under 
sterilised  water  ;  a  sterile  Petri  dish,  a  scalpel,  and  a  sheet  of  clean  white 
filter -paper  ;  2  p.c.  glucose-agar  is  prepared  and  sterilised,  and  when 
cooled  to  42°  C.  is  inoculated  and  poured  into  one  of  the  glass  tubes, 
which  is  then  plugged  with  wool  and  a  rubber  cork,  stood  in  cold  water 
to  solidify  the  medium,  and  incubated  at  30°  C.  or  37°  C,  and  finally 
on  the  top  of  the  solid  medium  a  few  c.cm.  of  fresh  sterilised  agar  are 
poured  and  quickly  solidified.  After  the  colonies  have  appeared  the 
rubber  cork  is  removed,  and  the  cylinder  of  agar  is  allowed  to  slide  out 
of  the  tube  on  to  the  filter-paper,  where  it  is  dried  ;  sections  of  the 
medium  1-2  mm.  in  thickness  are  then  made  with  the  sterilised  knife, 
and  transferred  directly  to  a  Petri  dish,  placed  on  a  dark  ground  ;  by 
carefully  made  cuts  a  colony  is  then  removed  from  one  of  the  sections 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Pro- 
cesses; (2)  Preparing  Objects  ;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes  ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting  ;(5)  Mounting,  including  slides,  preservative  fluids,  etc. ; 
(6)  Miscellaneous. 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  312-14. 

X  Centialbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.  xix.  (1907)  pp.  1-26,97-115,  202-20,  385-88  (6  figs.). 


248 


SUMMARY    OK   OUJUliENT    RESEARCHES    DELATING   TO 


mid  examined  microscopically  and  subcultured  to  determine  whether  the 
organism  is  obligate  anaerobe  or  not  (fig.  56). 

2.  By  the  method  of  J.  H.  Wright,  an  ordinary  test-tube  containing 
8-10  c.cm.  of  some  fluid  medium  is  inoculated,  and  a  sterile  plug  of 
wool  is  pushed  down  in  such  a  way  as  to  touch  the  medium  ;  on  to  this 


Growth 
free 
zone 


«§§r* 


Growth 
free 
zone 


Rubber  stopper 

Fin.  56. 


plug  sodium  pyrogallate  solution  is  dropped,  and  the  tube  is  at  once 
closed  with  a  rubber  cork.  A  refinement  of  this  method  was  devised 
by  Burri,  who  flamed  the  wool  plug  lief  ore  it  was  pushed  into  the  tube, 
and  after  it  had  been  pushed  down  a  second  wool  plug  was  introduced, 
and  this  was  soaked  with  the  pyrogallate  solution,  the  tube  being  then 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSOOPV,  KTC. 


249 


closed  with  a  rubber  cork,  thus  avoiding  much  risk  of  contaminating 
the  medium  (fig.  57). 

This  modified  method  is  also  applied  to  plate  cultivations  ;  a  small 


—    Rubber  stopper 


Hygroscopic 
cotton  wool 
stopper  saturated 
with  alkalin 
pyrogallol 


Fig.  57. 


Sterile  dry  plug  of 

non-hygroscopic 

wool 


Inoculated 
medium 


3  cm.. 


Fig.  58. 


Rubber  stopper 


Hygroscopic 
cotton  wool 
stopper  saturated 
with  alkalin 
pyrogallol 


Sterile  dry  plugof 

non-hygroscopic 

wool 


A  Anaerobe  plate 


glass  dish  80  by  80  by  7  mm.  being  used  to  hold  the  medium,  and 
which,  after  inoculation,  is  passed  into  the  tube,  which  is  plugged  and 
corked  as  before  (fig.  58). 

The  author  also  describes  a  method  for  cultivations  under  conditions 
completely  free  from  oxygen.  The  apparatus  is  shown  in  tig.  59  ;  it 
consists  of  a  long  tube  holding  sterile  broth,  and  communicating  at  the 
middle  with  a  short  tube,  in  which  is  the  inoculating  material,  and  both 
tubes  are  corked,  like  the  modified  Wright's  tube  (fig.  57)  ;  after  stand- 
ing at  37°  C.  for  five  days,  the  long  tube  is  inoculated,  and  after  18  hours 
the  broth  is  clouded.  The  absence  of  oxygen  is  demonstrated  by  control 
tubes,  the  long  arm  containing  a  clear  solution  of  pyrogallic  acid,  the 

April  15th,  1908  s 


250 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


shorter  tube  a  solution  of  caustic  potash,  the  tube  being  corked  as  before  ; 
after  10  days  at  37°  C.  the  contents  of  the  tubes  are  mixed,  and  no  sign 
of  brown  coloration  occurs. 

Light  bacteria  may  be  used  as  oxygen  indicators.     The  author  refers 
to  the  absolute  anaerobic  cultivation  of  Stiller,  and  to  the  extreme  diffi- 


Inoculation 
material 


ifS 


Rubber  stopper 


Hygroscopic 
cotton  wool 
stopper  saturated 
witb  alkalin 
pyrogallol 


Sterile  dry  plug  of 

nou-hygroscopic 

wool 


:^r£r       )  Sterile  broth 


Fig.  59. 

culty  of  attaining  it,  on  account  of  the  air  adhering  to  the  surface  of  the 
glass  culture  tube  and  contained  also  in  the  medium  ;  these  traces  of 
oxygen  may  be  readily  removed  by  employing  an  obligate  aerobic  micro- 
organism, but  the  amount  of  oxygen  may  be  too  minute  to  enable  the 
light  bacteria  to  emit  light.  By  means  of  B.  mesentericus  the  author 
was  able  to  free  his  medium  from  oxygen  as  quickly  as  with  a  light 
bacterium. 

The  author  next  considers  the  method  of  effecting  a  number  of  sub- 
cultures in  continuous  oxygen-free  condition.  The  apparatus  (fig.  60) 
is  a  development  of  the  double  culture  tube  (fig.  59),  and  consists 
of  4  to  16  tubes,  joined  at  the  middle,  the  level  of  communication  be- 
tween succeeding  tubes  being  higher  than  between  those  immediately 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


251 


preceding  ;  the  series  of  tubes  contains  fluid  medium  ;  the  right  amount 
of  liquid  necessary  to  allow  succeeding  tubes  to  be  filled  from  the  pre- 
ceding by  tilting  the  whole  apparatus,  is  previously  tested  and  the  levels 
marked.     The  tubes  are  sterilised  and  inoculated  with  B.  mesenteric  us. 


^>    ^ 


I 


/ 


Sterile  cotton 
•}   wool  plug  before 
sealing  off 


Hygroscopic 
wool  plug 
saturated  with 
alkalin  pyrogallol 


Sterile,  dry, 
non-hygroscopic 
wool  plug 


Nutrient  fluid 


Fig.  60. 


and  after  10  hours  the  broths  are  clouded  ;  the  first  tube  is  then  inocu- 
lated with  a  loopf ul  of  B.  pvtrificus  broth,  and  all  the  tubes  are  closed 
anaerobically  as  before  ;  subcultures  were  made  from  tube  to  tube  every 
two  days,  and  after  the  appearance  of  growth  in  the  last  tube  this  was 
opened,  and  on  microscopical  examination  was  found  to  be  typical  B. 
putrificus,  with  no  evidence  of  involution  forms.  Similar  results  were 
obtained,  in  a  long  series,  by  using  light  bacteria  in  place  of  B.  mesen- 
tericus,  and  subculturing  other  anaerobic  organisms. 

The  author  further  modified  the  tubes  by  drawing  out  the  upper 
portions  into  narrow  necks,  which,  after  receiving  the  two  plugs  of  wool 
as  before,  were  sealed  in  the  flame  instead  of  being  corked  (fig.  61). 

s  2 


252  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Referring  to  the  use  of  paraffin  in  excluding  oxygen,  the  author 
demonstrated  by  several  experiments,  employing  light  bacteria,  that 
paraffin  is  useless,  since  it  not  only  allows  the  passage  of  oxygen,  but  can 
store  it  up. 

The  author  concludes  from  his  observations,  that  both  obligate  and 
falcultative  anaerobes  can  live  for  a  number  of  generations,  without  any 
functional  alteration,  in  complete  exclusion  from  free  oxygen.  The 
similar  behaviour  of  these  two  classes  of  organisms  expresses  the  fact 
that  potential  anaerobes  are  just  as  good  representatives  of  anaerobic  life 
as  the  essential  anaerobes,  over  which  they  have  the  advantage  of  bein<„r 
able  to  grow  normally  also  in  air. 

Isolating  the  Nodule  Organism  of  the  Leguminosse.* — F.  C. 
Harrison  and  B.  Barlow  have  examined  upwards  of  thirty  species  of 
Papilionaceas,  and  with  two  exceptions,  found  nodules  developed  on  the 
roots.  To  isolate  the  nodule  organism  the  authors  employed  a  medium 
consisting  of  wood  ashes,  which  contains  phosphate,  sulphide  and 
chloride  of  potassium,  sodium,  calcium,  magnesium  and  iron,  but  no 
nitrogen,  to  which  was  added  some  form  of  sugar.  Fresh  ashes  were 
shaken  up  in  water,  boiled  and  filtered,  and  to  various  strengths  of  the 
aqueous  filtrate  2  to  5  p.c.  of  maltose  were  added.  Ash  maltose  agar 
was  also  used. 

To  isolate  the  Pseudomonas  radicicola,  the  root  of  the  plant  is  washed 
under  a  tap,  and  a  nodule  is  removed  with  forceps  and  immersed  in  an 
aqueous  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  mercuric  chloride  crystals  for 
two  to  three  minutes  ;  it  is  then  placed  on  a  filLer-paper  moistened  with 
the  same  solution,  and  cut  open  by  a  specially  made  knife  needle, 
previously  flamed,  and  portions  of  bacteroidal  tissue  are  removed  into 
sterile  water  in  a  Petri  dish.  From  the  resulting  emulsion  cover-slips 
were  prepared  and  stained,  and  ash  agar  plate  cultivations  were  made 
and  incubated  at  20°  C.  No  other  organisms  were  detected  in  the 
nodules  besides  the  Pseudomonas  radicicola.  On  ash  maltose  agar,  in 
two  to  three  days  it  forms  a  raised,  transparent,  wet,  shining,  spreading 
growth,  which  draws  out  into  a  fine  thread  when  touched  with  a  needle. 
Cultures  on  this  medium  remain  alive  for  over  a  year.  The  organisms 
are  small  rods,  often  swollen  at  one  end,  and  rarely  branched  ;  they  are 
actively  motile,  and  a  single  polar  flagellum  may  be  developed  ;  the  cell- 
contents  are  not  uniform,  often  concentrated  in  bands,  and  varying  with 
the  species  of  the  legume,  the  condition  of  infection  and  growth,  the  age 
and  size  of  the  nodule,  and  the  portion  of  the  nodule  examined.  They 
stain  well  with  ordinary  dyes,  but  are  decolorised  by  Gram's  method. 
The  authors  give  some  reports  showing  the  benefit  obtained  by  the 
distribution  of  pure  cultures  of  Pseudomonas  radicicola  in  Canada. 

Method  for  Isolating  Anaerobes.f — F.Marino  describes  the  following 
simple  method  for  isolating  anaerobic  bacteria.  ;>>0-:'>.r>  c.cm.  of  a  mixture 
of  ordinary  agar  and  3-5  p.c.  glucose  are  distributed  into  large  test- 
tubes.  When  required  for  use  such  a  tube  is  melted,  and  on  attaining 
a  temperature  of  42°,  1  c.cm.  of  rabbit  or  horse  serum  is  passed  in  ;  the 

*  Centralis.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.  xix.  (1907)  p.  264. 

t  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  1005-8  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  253 

serum  has  been  previously  heated  to  55°  for  20  minutes.  It  is  then 
inoculated  with  the  material  to  be  examined  ;  from  this  first  tube,  a 
second  is  inoculated,  from  the  second  a  third,  and  often  a  fourth  from 
the  third.  After  the  inoculations,  the  contents  are  poured  into  the 
larger  half  of  a  Petri's  capsule,  and  covered  with  the  small  part  turned 
upside  down  ;  the  pair  is  then  covered  With  a  still  larger  half  (fig.  62). 


[^j^^^^^^^^^ 


Cultivation 
media 

Fig.  62. 

After  ;>  or  4  days'  incubation,  one  of  the  halves  is  removed  and  any 
colonies  descried  are  fished  out  by  means  of  a  glass  pipette. 

When  dealing  with  very  slowly  growing  anaerobes,  especially  in 
intestinal  contents,  it  is  advisable  to  add  3  p.c.  lactose  as  well  as  the 
foregoing  constituents. 

When  the  microbes  are  isolated  it  is  quite  easy  to  cultivate  them  in 
a  liquid  medium. 

(2)  Preparing-  Objects. 

Fixation  Methods  and  Elimination  of  Artefacts.* — G.  Rubenthale 
has  obtained  satisfactorv  results  towards  the  eliminating  of  artefacts 
produced  by  existing  fixation  methods,  by  endeavouring  to  minimise  the 
shock  produced  on  the  living  tissue  by  the  reagent,  and,  besides  in- 
sisting on  the  principles  of  isotony  and  isothermy,  the  author  advocates 
diminishing  the  sensibility  of  the  tissne  by  ansesthesia,  and  a  slow  appli- 
cation of  the  fixation  reagent,  commencing  with  weak  solutions  and 
gradually  increasing  them  until  the  desired  result  is  obtained.  Isotony 
is  attained  by  placing  the  specimen  in  the  medium  to  which  it  natu- 
rally belongs — muscle  into  blood-serum,  nerve  into  cerebrospinal  fluid, 
embryonic  tissue  into  amniotic  fluid,  etc.  Anaesthesia  is  conferred  by 
immersing  the  tissues  in  solutions  of  hydrochlorate  of  cocaine  or  chloral 
hydrate.  These  methods,  however,  increase  the  duration  of  the  fixation 
process,  and  to  somewhat  obviate  this  effect  the  author  reduces  the  size 
of  the  specimen.     A  detailed  account  is  given  of  the  technique  employed. 

Studying  Spirochseta  Balbiani  and  Spirochasta  Anodontse.f — 
H.  B.  Fantham  examined  these  two  Spirochetal  in  their  natural 
environment  as  far  as  possible.  When  a  style  was  present,  the  freshly 
extracted  structure  was  mounted  in  a  drop  of  sea-water  or  fresh-water 
in  the  cases  of  Ostrea  and  Anodonta  respectively,  and  placed  in  a  moist 
chamber.  The  organisms  were  thus  kept  alive  from  3  to  G  hours 
while  the  style  was  examined  in  sections  in  the  laboratory  at  a  tempera- 
ture above  that  normal  to  the  animals.  The  fluid  contents  of  the  stylo 
were  pressed  out  and  the  still  wet  smear  fixed  with  osmic  acid  vapour, 
or  hanging  drops  of  the  parasites  in  their  natural  medium  were  made 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxiv.  (1907)  p.  133. 

t  Quart.  Joum.  Micr.  Sci.,  lii.  (1908)  pp.  1-73  (:J.  pis,  and  11  figs,  in  text). 


254  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

and   thus   examined.       Methylen-blue    in    \  p.c.   solution    effectively 
stained  the  parasites. 

For  examining  the  parasites  in  the  fixed  condition,  osmic  acid  vapour 
was  found  to  give  the  best  results.  The  wet  film  obtained  from  the 
style  was  in  the  vapour  of  2-4  p.c.  osmic  acid  for  1-4  minutes.  Dried 
films,  after  fixed  in  ethyl  or  methyl-alcohol,  also  gave  good  results. 
The  most  successful  stains  were  gentian-violet  (Ohlmacher's  formula, 
which  contains  formalin),  hematoxylin  (Delafield's,  Ehrlich's,  and 
Heidenhain's  formulas),  Giemsa,  Leishman,  alcoholic  safranin,  and 
Loeffler's  methylen-blue.  For  revealing  structural  details  in  the  mem- 
brane, gentian-violet  and  iron-hsematoxylin  were  most  useful.  The 
various  modifications  of  Eomanowski  were  much  less  successful  than  the 
hematoxylin  stains.  Sections  were  made  of  the  style  of  Anodin  which 
had  been  fixed  in  Flemming's  fluid  :  these  were  stained  with  hema- 
toxylin solutions,  Giemsa  and  methylen-blue. 

Demonstrating  the  Histogenesis  of  Nerve-fibrils.  * — D.  J.  Pesker 
opened  the  abdominal  cavities  of  gravid  white  mice  killed  with  chloro- 
form, and  removed  the  embryos  separately  or  together  with  the 
membranes  and  the  uterus. 

The  material  was  fixed  in  the  following  fluid  :  alcohol  (96  p.c.) 
96-97  c.cm.  ;  ammonia  (10  p.c.)  4-3  c.cm.  In  this  fluid,  changed  after 
24  hours,  the  embryos  were  left  for  2  days.  The  larger  embryos  were 
cut  in  several  pieces  after  24  hours.  On  removal  from  the  fixative,  the 
pieces  were  washed  in  water  and  then  transferred  to  1|  p.c.  silver- 
nitrate  and  kept  for  3  or  4  days  at  37°  C.  When  withdrawn  from  the 
silver  solution,  the  objects  were  mopped  up  with  blotting-paper  and 
placed  in  the  following  solution  for  24  hours  in  diffuse  daylight : 
pyrogallic  acid,  2  ;  formalin,  5  ;  distilled  water,  100.  Paraffin  sections 
were  then  prepared  in  the  usual  way,  and  these  were  treated  for  5  to  15 
minutes  with  1  p.c.  gold-chloride  solution,  from  which  they  were  directly 
transferred  to  5  p.c.  hyposulphite  of  sodium  for  10  to  12  minutes.  The 
sections  were  then  submitted  to  prolonged  washing  in  water,  and  after- 
wards mounted  in  the  usual  way. 

(3)  Cutting-,  including:  Imbedding-  and  Microtomes. 

Demonstrating  the  Microscopic  Structure  of  Fossil  and  Recent 
Reptilian  Bone.f  —  A.  L.  L.  Seitz  remarks  that  one  of  the  greatest 
difficulties  in  obtaining  microscopical  preparations  of  fossil  bones  is 
their  fragility,  and  tendency  to  crumble  in  manipulation.  His  method 
was  to  surround  the  pieces  with  a  mixture  of  resin  and  wax  (9-1),  and 
then  to  remove  slices  with  fine  fret-saws,  or  with  circular  saws  and  emery. 
The  slices  thus  obtained  were  stuck  on  stout  slides  with  a  mixture  of 
resin,  wax,  and  hard  balsam  (9-1-1),  and  then  ground  down  with  emery 
on  rough  glass,  and  afterwards,  if  necessary,  polished  with  smooth  glass. 
The  flattened  surface  was  then  fixed  with  the  resinous  mixture  to 
another  slide,  and  the  first  one  removed  by  careful  heating  and  manipu- 
lation. The  other  surface  of  the  slice  is  then  ground  down  on  an 
emery  wheel  with  water    until    it    is  about  1  mm.  thick,  when  it  is 

*  Archiv  Mikrosk.  Anat.  u.  Entwickl.,  lxxi.  (1908)  pp.  333-49  (1  pi.). 
t  Nova  Acta  Leopold-Carol.  Acad.,  lxxxvii.  (1907)  pp.  229-400  (14  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


255 


further  thinned  down  by  means  of  the  first-mentioned  method,  and 
when  of  suitable  thickness  may  be  mounted  straight  away  or  first  stained 
with  a  1-3  p.c.  eosin  solution  for  the  purpose  of  detecting  traces  of 
organic  matter.  Several  pages  full  of  precautions  to  be  taken  during  the 
different  stages  are  given,  but  for  these  details  the  original  should  be 
consulted. 


(4)  Staining:  and  Injecting-. 

Staining  the  Tubercle  Bacillus.* — M.  Herman  recommends  the 
following  method  as  being  superior  to  the  Ziehl-Nielsen  procedure. 
He  uses  a  1  p.c.  solution  of  ammonium  carbonate  in  distilled  water  as 
a  mordant,  and  a  3  p.c.  solution  of  crystal-violet  (methyl-violet  6  B) 
in  95  p.c.  ethyl-alcohol.  The  solutions  are  mixed  when  required  for 
use  in  the  proportion  of  3  of  mordant  to  1  of  stain.  The  sections  or 
smears  are  hot-stained  in  the  usual  way  and  then  decolorised  with  10  p.c. 
nitric  acid  and  95  p.c.  alcohol.  The  author  claims  that  by  this  method 
many  more  tubercle  bacilli  are  to  be  demonstrated  than  by  any  other. 

Syringe  for  the  Injection  of  Lymph-vessels,  f — P.  Bartels  gives 
the  following  description  of  a  syringe  (fig.  63)  used  by  him  for  anatomical 


Fig.  63. 


purposes,  and  especially  for  the  injection  of  lymph-vessels  :  A.  The 
syringe  barrel  (1)  consisting  of  a  graduated  glass  tube,  having  at  one 
end  (2)  a  metal  nozzle,  and  at  the  other  end  (3)  a  metal  ring,  both 
being  provided  with  a  knob  for  a  bayonet  lock.  B.  A  metal  club  con- 
sisting of  a  rod  (4)  and  a  piston  (5)  in  the  middle  of  which  a  ring  is 
cut  out  for  a  washer.      C.  A  metal  junction  piece  (9)  fitted  to  the 

*  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  92-6  (1  fig.), 
t  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxx.  (1907)  p.  613  (1  fig.). 


256 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


bayonet  lock  of  the  nozzle  (2),  and  holding  a  glass  canule  (7)  fixed  by 
a  strip  of  leather  (8).  D.  A  metal  cover  to  fit  into  the  metal  ring  (3) 
of  the  syringe,  and  to  which  are  attached  rings  to  take  the  index  and 
middle  fingers  and  thumb. 


(6)  Miscellaneous. 


Forceps-scissors. — W.  R.  Traviss  exhibited  at  the  October   1907 
Meeting  *  an  instrument  which  is  at  once  a  pair  of  scissors  and  a  folding 


nxmn 


1 


<Gdb 


W 


£& 


Fig.  64.  Fig.  65 


Fig.  66. 


forceps.  It  is  intended  for  cutting  off  particular  pieces  of  weed,  etc..  and 
for  retaining  them  until  released.  In  fig.  64  are  seen  the  general  features 
of  the  instrument.  The  blade  B  is  ground  away  so  as  to  allow  space  for 
the  wire  spring  C,  which  is  fixed  to  the  blade  A.     The  extremity  of  C 

*   See  this  Journal,  1907,  pp.  760-1. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY, '  ETC.  257 

projects  beyond  the  cutting  edge  of  A  when  the  scissors  are  open,  but 
when  these  are  closed  the  spring  is  forced  past  the  cutting  edge.  In 
fig.  65  is  shown  a  section  through  D,  with  an  object  X  which  is  to  be 
cut.  Inspection  of  this  proves  that  when  B  and  C  meet,  the  object  is  first 
held  and  then  cut. 

Fig.  66  shows  another  weed-cutter,  in  the  form  of  a  guillotine,  useful 
for  cutting  and  holding  specimens  in  deep  jars,  etc.  A  is  a  square  brass 
tube,  cut  away  at  its  lower  end,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  with  a  slot  in  the 
remaining  side,  leaving  a  cutting  edge  C  ;  beyond  C  is  fitted  a  small 
block  D.  A  square  plunger  B  fits  this  tube,  having  its  lower  end  bevelled 
to  a  square  edge.  This  plunger  is  actuated  by  a  rod  sliding  in  the  tube  F, 
and  is  kept  raised  by  a  spiral  spring  E  (in  a  spring  box  H)  against  the 
under  side  of  the  milled-head  O.  The  instrument  is  plunged  into  the 
jar  of  water  containing  the  weed  or  other  like  object,  which  is  caught  in 
the  slot  above  mentioned.  On  pressing  the  milled  head  the  plunger 
descends,  cuts  the  object  as  it  passes  the  edge  of  the  slot,  and  holds  it 
against  the  block  D.  On  withdrawing  the  instrument  and  releasing  the 
spring  the  plunger  rises,  and  the  fragment  which  has  been  cut  is  released. 

Metallography,  etc. 

Iron-tungsten  System.* — H.  Harkort  gives  a  lengthy  account  of 
the  preparation  of  a  large  number  of  carbonless  iron-tungsten  alloys, 
the  determination  of  their  solidification  temperatures  and  critical  ranges, 
and  their  microstructure.  A  section  of  the  paper  deals  with  the  theory 
and  construction  of  granular  carbon  resistance  furnaces,  one  type  of 
which  was  used  for  the  melting  of  the  alloys.  The  Saladin  double 
galvanometer  was  used  for  the  heating  and  cooling  curves.  Many  of 
the  alloys  obtained  were  inhomogeneous,  and  marked  discrepancies 
exist  between  the  tungsten  added  and  that  found  by  analysis.  The 
freezing-point  temperatures,  though  too  irregular  [to  admit  of  the  con- 
struction of  a  reliable  equilibrium  diagram,  point  to  the  existence  of  a 
compound.  Ar2  and  Ac  2  appear  to  be  little  affected  by  addition  of 
tungsten,  while  Ar  3  and  Ac  3  are  raised. 

Zinc  and  Nickel.f  —  V.  Tafel  has  determined  the  equilibrium 
diagram  in  the  range  0-50  p.c.  nickel.  At  about  60  p.c.  nickel  the 
boiling-point  and  melting-point  coincide.  One  compound,  NiZn3 
occurs,  melting  at  876°  C,  distinctly  brittle  and  giving  a  characteristic 
blue  coloration  with  dilute  nitric  acid.  One  of  the  series  of  mixed 
crystals  passes  through  a  transformation  point  in  the  solid  state.  The 
microsections  were  etched  either  with  dilute  nitric  acid,  or  first 
electrolytically,  suspended  as  positive  pole  in  water  containing  a  little 
sulphuric  acid,  this  process  being  followed  by  staining  with  iodine 
solution. 

Structure  of  Metals.J — W.  Campbell  has  accumulated  much 
evidence  in  support  of  the  universally  accepted  theory  of  the  crystal - 

*  Metallurgie,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  617-31,  639-47,  673-82  (44  figs.  |. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  781-5(14  figs.). 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  801-9,  825-34  (85  photomicrographs). 


258  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

line  structure  of  metals,  and  illustrates  the  paper- with  an  instructive  series 
of  photomicrographs.  A  molten  metal,  on  cooling  to  its  freezing-point, 
starts  to  crystallise  from  centres  which  are  more  numerous  as  the  speed 
of  cooling  is  greater.  Thus  rapid  freezing  produces  a  small  grain.  In 
impure  metals  the  greater  purity  of  the  first  forming  dendrites  produces 
irregularity  in  composition  in  the  solid  metal  ;  this  may  be  rendered 
visible  in  etched  sections.  In  pure  metals  the  orientation  within  each 
grain  may  be  revealed  by  deep  etching,  developing  etching-pits  and 
secondary  crystals.  The  influence  of  mechanical  distortion  and  of 
annealing  was  investigated.  The  author  describes  the  crystalline 
structure  of  aluminium,  antimony,  bismuth,  cadmium,  copper,  gold,  lead, 
nickel,  platinum,  silver,  tin,  and  zinc. 

Theory  of  Malleableising.* — F.  Wrist  found  that  in  cast  iron 
containing  4  p.c.  total  carbon,  1  p.c.  silicon,  with  very  small  amounts  of 
other  impurities,  3' 4  p.c.  temper  carbon  was  formed  by  heating  in 
vacuo  for  two  hours  at  950°  C.  Weighed  quantities  of  the  cast  iron 
and  of  dried  iron  oxide,  contained  in  separate  porcelain  boats,  were 
heated  in  a  previously  evacuated  tube  in  a  Heraeus  furnace.  Samples 
of  gas  formed  could  be  drawn  off  and  analysed.  The  author  gives  the 
results  obtained,  from  which  he  concludes  that  malleableising  proceeds 
through  the  combination  of  oxygen  with  temper  carbon  (formed  by 
annealing)  giving  CO.,,  which  then  penetrates  the  iron  and  forms  CO 
with  more  temper  carbon.  The  CO  then  takes  oxygen  from  the  ore, 
which  is  reduced,  and  C02  is  again  formed.  If  the  supply  of  oxygen 
from  the  ore  fails,  C02  ceases  to  be  re-formed,  and  the  iron  may  even 
be  re-carburised  by  the  decomposition  of  CO  into  C02  and  C.  Photo- 
micrographs and  diagrams  illustrate  the  paper. 

Melting  Point  Diagram  of  Nickel  -  sulphur  Compounds.!  — 
K.  Bornemann  gives  the  equilibrium  diagram  of  the  nickel-sulphur 
system  from  0-31  p.c.  sulphur.  A  homogeneous  melt  is  obtained  in 
this  range.  The  only  compound  stable  in  the  molten  state  is  Ni3S2, 
melting-point  787°  C.  Others  exist  at  lower  temperatures.  Ni3S2  and 
nickel  form  two  series  of  mixed  crystals  ;  the  eutectic  of  the  two 
saturated  solid  solutions  melts  at  644°  C.  The  thermal  results  were 
microscopically  confirmed. 

Steel  and  Meteoric  Iron.f—F.  Berwerth  describes  the  structure  of 
meteorites,  with  special  reference  to  the  Vienna  collection,  and  points 
out  that  meteoric  iron  may  be  regarded  as  a  variety  of  steel.  Kamacite, 
taenite,  and  plessite  are  the  three  chief  constituents,  all  containing 
nickel.  A  plate  of  Toluca  meteoric  iron  was  kept  at  950°  C.  for  seven 
hours  and  slowly  cooled.  The  kamacite  was  then  found  to  have  changed 
into  a  finely-granular  aggregate.  The  author  proposes  to  distinguish 
meteoric  irons,  whose  structure  has  been  changed  by  heating  within 
terrestrial  space,  as  metabolites.  Such  meteorites  have  a  finely- 
granular  fracture,  differing  greatly  from  the  usual  coarsely  crystalline 

*  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  7-12  (16  figs.). 

f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  13-19  (20  figs.). 

X  Journ.  Iron  and  Steel  Inst.,lxxv.  (1907,  3)  pp.  37-51  (5  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  259 

fracture.  The  surface  furrows  (piezoglyps)  found  on  meteorites  are 
ascribed  to  erosive  action  of  gases  on  originally  rough  and  irregular 
fractured  surfaces  in  their  passage  through  the  atmosphere.  J.  E.  Stead, 
and  others,  contributed  to  the  discussion. 

Case-hardening  of  Mild  Steel.* —  C.  0.  Bannister  and  W.  J. 
Lambert  have  heated  mild  steel  bars  in  a  cementing  material  at 
871°  C.  and  at  1)82°  C.  for  varying  lengths  of  time.  The  structure 
and  hardness  were  investigated  both  after  slow  cooling  and  after 
re-heating  to  843°  C.  and  quenching  in  water.  At  871°  C.  the  carbon 
content  of  the  outer  layer  did  not  increase  beyond  0  ■  '.>  p.c,  while  at 
982°  C.  the  bars  became  supersaturated  on  the  outside. 

Case-hardening. f — G.  S.  Scott,  in  the  course  of  experiments  on  the 
influence  of  time,  temperature,  and  composition  of  cementing  material, 
has  found  that  the  materials  which  give  the  most  rapid  case-hardening 
effect  either  contain  nitrogen  or  have  the  power  of  utilising  atmo- 
spheric nitrogen.  Gaiillet's  mixture  (60  p.c.  wood  charcoal,  40  p.c. 
BaC03),  is  very  effective.  Samples  of  mild  steel,  cemented  in  a  non- 
nitrogenous  material  (sugar  carbon),  were  found  to  absorb  less  carbon 
than  samples  (1)  cemented  in  the  same  way,  but  previously  heated  in 
an  atmosphere  of  ammonia-gas  at  550°  C,  or  (2)  cemented  in  the  same 
material  through  which  passed  a  stream  of  ammonia-gas.  Heating  in 
ammonia-gas  was  found  to  produce  twinning  ;  the  author  suggests  that 
nitrogen  induces  the  formation  of  y-iron,  and  that  this  is  the  explana- 
tion of  its  effect  in  accelerating;  carburisation. 


*& 


Hardened  Steels.J — P-  Longmuir  examined  the  microstructure  of  a 
large  number  of  commercially  hardened  tools,  carbon  0 '  5  to  2*0  p.c. 
The  good  tools  were  found  to  consist  of  hardenite,  alone  or  with 
cementite  or  ferrite,  and  had  a  characteristic  absence  of  definite 
structural  pattern.  The  tools  spoilt  in  hardening  frequently  showed 
marked  patterns,  and  martensitic,  austenitic,  and  troostitic  appearances 
were  noted.  The  effect  of  different  heating  and  quenching  temperatures 
on  a  1*15  p.c.  carbon  steel  was  determined.  Uniformity  of  structure 
in  tool  steel  is  only  obtained  by  quenching  in  a  certain  range  of 
temperature. 

Hardening  of  Steel.§  —  L.  Demozay  states  at  some  length  the 
conclusions,  many  of  which  are  of  an  obvious  character,  drawn  from 
extensive  series  of  experiments,  in  which  the  rates  of  heating  and  of 
cooling  of  steel,  under  widely  varying  conditions,  were  determined. 
The  heating  curves  given  are  of  value.  The  transformation  point  on 
heating  varies  between  two  temperatures,  the  maximum  value  being  the 
transition  temperature  at  the  centre  of  a  very  small  sample  rapidly 
heated,  the  minimum  that  of  the  surface  of  a  large  sample  slowly 
heated.  For  a  given  temperature  of  heating-bath  the  maximum  rate  of 
heating  diminishes  from  outside  to  centre  of  the  sample. 

*  Journ.  Iron  and  Steel  Inst.,  lxxv.  (1907,  3)  pp.  114-19  (22  photomicrographs). 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  120-36  (12  figs.). 

X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  137-43  (lb  photomicrographs). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  144-78  (49  figs.). 


260  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Constitution  and  Treatment  of  Steel.* — A.  Portevin  applies  the 
equilibrium  diagram  of  the  iron-carbon  system  to  the  constitution  and 
thermal  treatment  of  steels  and  cast  irons.  The  constituents,  micro- 
scopically distinguished  in  a  polished  section,  may  correspond  (1)  to 
the  phases  in  stable  or  labile  equilibrium  at  the  ordinary  temperature  ; 
(2)  to  the  phases  in  equilibrium  at  a  higher  temperature,  preserved 
unchanged  by  quenching  ;  (3)  to  states  of  transition  between  the 
phases  as  in  (2)  and  as  in  (1).  The  author  briefly  describes  the  mode 
of  production  of  the  known  constituents,  including  osmondite,  but 
purposely  leaving  out  of  account  Benedicks'  ferronite  and  Kourbatoff's 
troosto-sorbite  because  so  little  is  known  regarding-  them. 


■'&"- 


Binary  Alloys  of  Copper,  t  —  R.  Sahmen  has  determined  the 
equilibrium  diagrams  of  the  systems  cobalt-copper,  iron-copper,  man- 
ganese-copper, and  magnesium-copper.  The  component  metals  of  each 
system  are  miscible  in  all  proportions  in  the  molten  state.  In  the 
cobalt-copper  and  iron-copper  systems,  mixed  crystals  occur  at  both 
ends  of  the  diagram.  Temperatures  of  magnetic  and  thermal  trans- 
formations were  determined  in  these  series.  Manganese  and  copper 
form  a  continuous  series  of  mixed  crystals  with  a  minimum  freezing-point 
at  866°  C.  and  about  65  p.c.  copper.  Magnesium  and  copper  form  two 
compounds,  Cu2Mg  and  CuMg2,  melting-points  797°  C.  and  570°  C. 
Etching  reagents  used  were  ammoniacal  solution  of  hydrogen  peroxide, 
and  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  used  electrolytically. 

Binary  Alloys  of  Nickel. J  —  G.  Voss  gives  the  results  of  his 
determinations  of  equilibrium  diagrams  for  the  binary  alloys  of  nickel 
with  tin,  lead,  thallium,  bismuth,  chromium,  magnesium,  zinc,  and 
cadmium.  Tests  were  made  of  magnetic  permeability,  temperatures 
of  magnetic  transformation  were  determined,  and  the  alloys  were  micro- 
scopically examined.  Owing  to  the  low  boiling-points  of  zinc  and 
cadmium,  the  diagrams  for  the  systems  containing  these  metals  only 
cover  the  range,  0-27  p.c.  nickel  and  0-15  p.c.  nickel,  respectively.  The 
compounds  found  were  Ni3Sn2,  Ni3Sn,  Ni4Sn.  NiBi,  NiBi3,  Ni2Mg, 
NiMg2,  NiZu3,  NiCd4.  With  tin,  lead,  and  thallium,  nickel  is  not 
completely  miscible  in  the  liquid  state. 

Binary  Alloys  of  Aluminium.  §— A.  G.  C.  Gwyer  has  determined 
the  equilibrium  diagrams  for  the  alloys  of  aluminium  with  copper,  iron, 
nickel,  and  cobalt,  with  which  metals  aluminium  is  completely  misci I »le  in 
the  molten  state.  Aluminium  does  not  mix  in  any  proportion  with  lead  i  >r 
cadmium  :  no  alloys  are  formed  therefore,  and  the  diagrams  for  these 
two  binarv  systems  are  the  simplest  possible.  The  compounds  are 
CuAl2,  CuAl,  Cu3Al,  FeAl3,  NiAl3,  NiAl,,  NiAl.  Co3Al13,  Co2Al-„  CoAl. 
Thermal  results  were  confirmed  by  microscopical  examination.  The 
author  considers  that  Carpenter  and  Edwards  assumed  the  existence  of 
Cu4Al  on  insufficient  evidence,  and  points  out  that  they  did  not  mention 
'CuAl,  though  its  existence  was  indicated  by  their  thermal  results.     A 

*  Rev.  de  Mitallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  24-33  (10  figs.). 
+  Zeitsehr.  Anorg.  Cbem.,  lvii.  (1908)  pp.  1-33  (27  figs.). 
%  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  34-71  (42  figs.). 
§  Tom.  cit.,pp.  113-53  (30  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  261 

comparison  is  made  between  the  three  metals  of  the  iron  group  in  their 
behaviour  with  aluminium. 

Binary  Alloys  of  Calcium.* — The  electrolytic  production  of  pare 
metallic  calcium  in  large  quantities  has  rendered  the  study  of  its  alloys 
possible.  L.  Doriski  has  investigated  its  alloys  with  zinc,  cadmium, 
aluminium,  thallium,  lead,  tin,  bismuth,  antimony,  and  copper,  and 
gives  incomplete  equilibrium  diagrams.  Owing  to  the  powerful 
affinity  of  calcium  for  oxygen,  the  great  amount  of  heat  evolved 
when  calcium  is  dissolved  in  molten  metals  (causing  an  explosive 
reaction  in  some  cases),  and  the  destructive  action  of  high  calcium 
alloys  on  the  Jena  glass  and  porcelain  tubes  used,  the  alloys  were  pre- 
pared only  with  great  difficulty.  Some  of  the  high  calcium  alloys 
were  melted  in  vacuo.  Most  of  those  of  low  calcium  content  were 
prepared  by  dropping  calcium  in  small  amounts  into  the  metal  heated 
considerably  above  its  melting-point.  Calcium  is  remarkable  for  its 
readiness  to  form  compounds.  The  following  were  found  : —  CaZnu„ 
CaZn4,  Ca2Zn3,  CaZn  (?),  Ca4Zn,  CaCd3,  CaCd,  Ca3Cd,  (?),  CaAl3,  CaTl3, 
CaTl  (?),  CaPb3,  CaSn3.  Compounds  with  antimony  and  bismuth  pro- 
bably exist.  Microscopic  examination  confirmed  the  diagrams  deduced 
from  thermal  analysis. 

Impact-testing  on  Notched  Test-pieces. f — Ehrensberger  considers 
this  to  be  a  useful  addition  to  testing  methods,  affording  additional 
information  on  mechanical  properties,  and  makes  the  following  re- 
commendations as  the  result  of  an  investigation  of  the  test.  The 
machine  to  be  a  Charpy  pendulum,  one  of  three  types  giving  respectively 
250,  75,  and  10  kilogram-metres  striking  energy.  In  the  test-piece 
160  x  30  x  30  mm.  a  hole  4  mm.  diam.  is  drilled  in  the  centre  of  the 
length,  parallel  to  one  face  and  15  mm.  distant  from  it ;  a  cut  is  made 
from  the  hole  to  the  opposite  side.  A  rounded  notch  is  thus  produced. 
The  width  of  test-pieces  cut  from  plates  and  similar  material  may  be  less 
than  30  mm.  The  test-pieces  are  machined  cold,  and  must  not  after- 
wards be  heated.  The  results  to  be  expressed  as  energy  absorbed  per 
square  centimetre  ("  spezifische  Schlagarbeit ").  The  test-piece  to  be 
completely  broken.  The  numerous  diagrams  and  tables  of  tests  on 
different  steels  with  variously  shaped  notches  show  the  necessity  for 
standardisation  of  methods. 

Constitution  of  Manganese  Cast  Irons. J — L.  Guillet  retracts  his 
former  statement  that  cast  irons  of  high  manganese  content  do  not 
contain  y-iron.  What  appeared  to  be  pearlite  was,  in  fact,  the  eutectic 
mixed  crystals-cementite.  The  addition  of  nickel  or  manganese  to  cast 
iron  in  sufficient  quantity  produces  y-iron.  In  the  case  of  a  grey  iron 
the  addition  of  manganese  produces  y-iron  before  the  graphite  has  dis- 
ppeared.  Increase  in  manganese  is  accompanied  by  an  increase  in 
amount  of  carbide. 


■> 


Zeitschr.  Anorg.  Ghem.,  lvii.  (1908)  pp.  185-219  (8 figs.). 

t  Stahl  und  Eisen,  xxvii.  (1907)  pp.  1797-1809,  1833-9  (19  figs.).  (Report  of 
committee  appointed  by  the  German  Association  for  Testing  Materials  to  inves- 
tigate this  method  of  testing.) 

\  Gomptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  74-5. 


262  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Heat  Treatment  of  Copper-zinc  Alloys.* — G.  1).  Bengough  and 
0.  F.  Hudson  have  investigated  the  effect  upon  niicrostructure  and 
mechanical  properties  of  Muntz  metal  of  annealing  at  different  tem- 
peratures. The  brass  contained  60'43  p.c.  copper,  39*21  p.c  zinc, 
0*33  p.c.  lead,  and  was  rolled  hot  to  round  bars,  which  were  finally 
reduced  slightly  by  cold  rolling.  In  this  state  the  metal  had  a 
considerably  higher  tensile  strength  and  elongation  than  in  the  cast 
condition.  Brass  of  this  composition  is  normally  constituted  of  a  and 
/3  solid  solutions.  On  heating,  a  dissolves  progressively  in  (3  with  rise 
of  temperature  ;  at  720°  C.  /?  is  the  sole  constituent.  By  quenching  at 
different  temperatures,  alloys  containing  the  two  phases  in  different 
proportions  may  be  obtained.  Test  bars  quenched  after  heating  to  a 
temperature  high  enough  to  produce  a  notable  increase  in  the  proportion 
of  /3  give  a  slightly  increased  maximum  tensile  stress  and  a  greatly 
diminished  elongation.  /3  appears  to  be  brittle.  Dilute  ammonia 
solution  was  used  for  etching  ;  a  etched  light,  ft  dark.  By  varying  the 
strength  of  the  solution  a  completely  reversed  effect  may  be  produced. 

Piping  and  Segregation.! — H.  M.  Howe  and  B.  Stoughton  have 
studied  these  phenomena  in  ingots  cast  from  wax  containing  green 
copper  oleate  (1'5  p.c).  The  wax  was  coloured  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  red  cerasine,  which  does  not  segregate.  The  predictions  made  by 
Howe  concerning  the  influence  of  casting  conditions  upon  piping  and 
segregation  were  verified.  £ 

Measurement  of  Extension  of  Tensile  Test-pieces. § — W.  J.  Lambert 
claims  great  accuracy,  combined  with  simplicity,  for  a  method  of  measuring 
small  extensions,  which  consists  in  projecting  a  magnified  image  of  the 
gap  between  knife  edges  attached  to  the  ends  of  the  test-piece,  on  the 
focusing  screen  of  a  photomicrographic  apparatus.  The  extension  is 
readily  calculated  from  the  increase  in  width  of  the  image  of  the  gap, 
given  the  magnification. 

Recovery  of  Steel  from  Overstrain.  || — E.  C.  Hancock  has  show  n 
that  a  carbon  steel  and  a  steel  containing  3 "  5  p.c.  nickel,  when  over- 
strained in  either  tension  or  compression,  lose  their  elasticity  for  stresses, 
both  of  the  same  and  of  the  opposite  kind.  Recovery  takes  place 
through  rest  and  more  rapidly  on  warming. 

Influence  of  Stress  on  the  Electrical  Conductivity  of  Metals.1T 
W.  E.  Williams  has  determined  the  effect  of  hydrostatic  pressure  upon 
the  resistance  of  wires  of  lead,  aluminium,  bismuth,  and  manganin. 
The  resistance  of  lead  and  aluminium  is  diminished  by  pressure,  that  of 
bismuth  and  manganese  increased,  the  change  in  each  case  being 
proportional  to  the  pressure. 

*  Journ.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  xxvii.  (1908)  pp.  43-52  (30  figs.). 

t  Bull.  Amer  Inst.  Mining  Engineers,  xvi.  (1907)  pp.  561-73  (17  figs.). 

X  See  this  Journal,  1907,  p.  382. 

§  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.,  clxix.  (1907)  pp.  349-51  (2  figs.). 

||  Phil.  Mag.,  xiii.  (1907)  pp.  688-93  (8  figs.). 

1  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  635-43  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY,  BOTANY  AND  MICROSCOPY,  ETC.  263 

Bach,  C. — Investigation  of  a  Copper  Tube  split  in  use. 

Zeitschr.  Vet:  Deutsch.  lug.,  li.  (1907)  pp.  1667-9  (12  figs.). 

Campbell,  W. — Heat  Treatment  of  Medium-Carbon  Steels  ^Influence  of  Speed 
of  Cooling  on  Physical  Properties  and  Structure. 

Metallwgie,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  772-8  (50  figs.). 

D  i  eg  el,  C. — Age-cracks  in  Copper  Alloys. 

Rev.  de  Metallurgie,  iv.  (1907)  Extraits,  p.  67S. 

Giolotti,  F. — Practical  Value  of  Metallography. 

Rassegna  Mineraria  (1907)  pp.  277-82. 

Guillet,  L. — A  New  Chromium  Tool  Steel. 

[The  properties  and  micro-structure  of  an  accidentally  made 
"  steel,"  containing  2*18  p.c.  carbon, 14-88  p.c.  chromium, 
are  described.] 

Rev.  de  Metallurgie,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  1025-6  (2  figs.). 
,,  ,,        Industrial  Application  of  Metal  Microscopy. 

Le  Genie  Civil  (1907)  pp.  111-13. 

Harbord,  F.  W. — Action  of  Toothless  Circular  Saws. 

[Microscopic  observations  of  disk  and  cut  metal  lead  to  the   explanation 
that  the  action  proceeds  through  fusion  of  the  metal  cut.] 

Engineer,  cv.  (1908)  p.  187  (8  figs.). 
See  also  Nature,  lxxvii.  (1908)  p.  419. 
Janecke,  E. — The  Ternary  System,  Lead-cadmium-mercury. 

Zeitschr.  Phys.  Chem.,  lx.  (1907)  pp.  399-412  (7  figs.). 

Juptner,    H.  von — Application    of  the   Laws    of   Physical    Chemistry   in   the 

Metallurgy  of  Iron. 

Journ.  Iron,  and  Steel.  Inst.,  lxxv.  (1907) 

pp.  59-85  (7  figs.). 

,,  ,,  Microstructure  of  Steel. 

Oesterr.  Zeitschr.  fur  Berg-und  Uilttenwesen, 
(1907)  pp.  161-4,  177-80. 
Kerdyk,  F. — Microstructure  of  a  Broken  Shaft. 

[The  failure  of  a  propeller  shaft  is  ascribed  to  faulty  heat  treat- 
ment.] Dingler's  Polytech.  Journ.  (1907)  pp.  683-5. 

,,         „        Metallographic  Practice.       Stahl  und  Eisen,  xxvii.  (1907)  pp.  1892. 

Moissan,  H. — Vaporisation  of  Metals. 

Proc.  Roy.  Inst.,  xviii.  (1907)  part  2,  pp.  377-91  (1  fig.). 
Moldenke,  R. — Production  of  Malleable  Castings. 

Foundry,  xxxi.  (1907)  pp.  257-9. 

M  o  stow  its  c  h,  W. — Lead-oxide  and  Silica. 

Metallurgie,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  647-55  (2  figs.). 

Puschin,  N. — Potential  and  Constitution  of  Metallic  Alloys. 

Zeitschr.  Anorg.  Chem.,  lvi.  (1907).  pp.  1-45  (17  figs.). 

See  also  Journ.  Soc.  Chem.  lnd.,  xxvi.  (1907)  pp.  1141-2  ; 

xxvii.  (1908)  pp.  77  and  126.     Journ.  Russ.  Phys.- 

Chem.  Ges.,  xxxix.  (1907)  pp.  353-99,  528-66. 

FvUER,  R.— Form  of  Melting-point  Curves  in  Binary  Systems. 

Zeitschr.  Phys.  Chem.,  lix.  (1907)  pp.  1-16  (7  figs.). 

Saposhnikow,  A.,  &  J.  Kaniewski — Hardness  and  Microstructure  of  Lead- 
antimony  Alloys.        Journ.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  xxvii.  (1908)  pp.  126-7  (abstract). 

Saposhnikow,  A.,  &  M.  Sacharow  —  Hardness  and  Microstructure  of 
Cadmium-zinc  Alloys.  Tom.  cit.,  p.  127  (abstract). 

Shemtschushny,  S.,  &  N.  Jepremow — Phosphorus  Compounds  of  Man- 
ganese. Tom.  cit.,  p.  77  (abstract). 

Shemtschushny,  S.,  G.  Urasow,  &  A.  Rykowskow — Alloys  of  Man- 
ganese with  Copper  and  Nickel.  Tom.  cit.,  p.  77  (abstract). 

[The  four  papers,  references  to  which  are  given  above,  appeared  in  Journ. 
Rtcss.  Phys. -Chem.  Ges.,  xxxix.  (1907). 


264  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES. 

Sauvecr,  A. — Graphic  Representation  of  the  Solidification  of  Eutectic  Alloys. 

Electrochcm.  and  Met.  hid.,  vi.  (1908)  p.  18  (1  fig.). 
Sahmen,  R.,  &  A.  v.  Vegesack — Application  of  Thermal  Analysis  to  Three- 
component  Systems. 

Zeitschr.  Phys.  Client.,  lix.  (1907)  pp.  257-83  (12  figs.)  pp.  697-702(3  figs.) ; 

lx.  (1907;  pp.  507-9  (1  fig.). 

Sieverts,  A. — Occlusion  and  Diffusion  of  Gases  through  Metals. 

Zeitschr.  Phys.  Cliem.,  lx.  (1907)  pp.  129-201  (8  figs.). 
Stribeck,  R. — Spherical  Test-pieces  of  Hardened  Steel. 

Zeitschr.  Ver.  Deutsch.  Ing.,  li.  (1907)  pp.  1444-51, 

1500-6,  1542-7  (23  figs.). 
Shuddem agen,~C.  L.  B. — Demagnetising  Factors  for  Cylindrical  Iron  Rods. 

Proc.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts,  and  Sci.,  xliii.  (1907)  pp.  185-256  (25  figs.). 

Stromeyer,  C.  E. — Further  Experiments  on  the  Ageing  of  Mild  Steel. 

[The  author  considers  that  the  existence  of  an  ageing  effect  is  confirmed  by 
the  results  of  the  further  mechanical  tests  given.  See  this  Journal, 
1907,  p.  640.]  Journ.  Iron  and  Steel  Inst.,  lxxv.  (1907)  pp.  86-113 

(29  figs.). 
Wawrzinirk — Elastic  Properties  of  Steel.  Mctallurgie,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  810-15 

(3  figs.). 
,,  ,,  Metal  Microscopy.  Stahl  und  Eisen,  xxvii.  (1907)  p.  1892. 

Explosion  of  Thermal  Storage  Drum  at  Greenwich. 

[A  report  on  the  microstructure  of  the  faulty  plate  is  included.] 

Engineering,  lxxxv.  (1908)  pp.  113-17  (17  figs.). 
See  also  Engineer,  cv.  (1908)  pp.  57,  82-4,  91-2,  96-7. 

Mitteilungen  aus  dem  Koniglichen  Materialprufungsamt,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  157-231. 
[Contains  a  section  describing  the  year's  work  in  metallography.] 


2 1);". 


PEOCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  19th  of  February,  1908,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W. 
A.  N.  Disney,  Esq.,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  15th  of  January,  1908— being  the 
Anniversary  Meeting  of  the  Society — were  read  and  confirmed,  and  were 
signed  by  the  Chairman. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society  (exclusive  of  exchanges  and 
reprints)  received  since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of  the 
Society  were  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 
J.  M.  Hulth,  Bibliographia  Linnaeana.    Partie  I.,  Livraison  1.1  Kungl.  Vetenskaps 

(8vo,  Upsala,  1907)      J  Societeten  i  Upsala 

Conrad  Beck,  Cantor  Lectures  on  The  Theory  of  the  Micro- 1 

scope.     Delivered  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  Nov.  and  Dec.  >        The  Author. 

1907.     (8vo,  London,  1908)       ) 

Slide,  A  Iveolina  boscii ..      ..     Mr.  F.  Chapman. 


Mr.  J.  E.  Barnard  exhibited  and  described  an  improved  type  of 
mercury  vapour  lamp.  The  lamp  exhibited  on  a  former  occasion  had 
been  improved  on,  and  the  one  now  shown  was  made  with  a  thicker  and 
shorter  tube.  This  gave  a  sufficiently  large  source  of  light  to  enable 
critical  illumination  to  be  obtained  with  a  well  filled  field,  when  using 
medium  powers.  The  effect  of  using  this  new  form  of  lamp  was 
shown  under  two  Microscopes  in  the  room,  one  with  a  screen,  giving 
absolutely  monochromatic  green  light,  the  other  without  a  screen,  the 
soft  blueish  light  in  which  was  very  pleasant  to  work  with,  and,  owing 
to  the  entire  absence  of  red  rays,  constituted  an  excellent  illuminant 
for  visual  microscopic  work. 

Mr.  J.  W.  Gordon  inquired  if  Mr.  Barnard  had  satisfied  himself  as 
to  the  absence  of  any  short-length  waves  of  light,  which  might  prove 
injurious  to  the  user.  The  danger  which  lurked  in  that  sort  of  thing 
had  been  brought  home  to  them  lately  by  the  fact  that  Dr.  Hall 
Edwards  had  lost  his  arm  through  incautious  operating  with  X-rays, 
at  a  time  when  the  risks  of  damage  from  that  source  were  unknown  and 
unsuspected. 

Mr.  Barnard  said  this  risk  was  really  nil,  owing  to  the  incan- 
descent mercury  vapour  being  inclosed  in  a  glass  tube,  which  of  course 
absorbed  practically  all  the  ultra-violet  rays.     A  further  safeguard  in 

April  loth,  1908  I 


266  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

the  case  of  glass  tubes  which  were  transparent  to  ultra-violet  rays,  was  to 
use  a  screen  of  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  quinine  between  the  light  and 
the  Microscope,  which  completely  absorbed  all  these  rays. 


Mr.  C.  L.  Curties  exhibited  a  number  of  slides  under  Microscopes  in 
the  room,  illustrative  of  the  stages  in  the  life-history  of  the  Culicidaj  ; 
the  labels  attached  to  each  were,  he  thought,  sufficiently  explicit  to  render 
it  unnecessary  for  him  to  further  describe  them. 

Votes  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Barnard  and  to  Mr.  Curties  for  their  exhibits 
were  unanimously  passed. 


Attention  was  called  to  some  excellent  stereo-photographs  sent  for 
exhibition  by  Mr.  Dollman,  and  placed  upon  the  table,  with  stereoscopes, 
for  the  inspection  of  the  Fellows  present. 


Mr.  E.  M.  Nelson's  paper  on  "  Eye-pieces  for  the  Microscope  "  was 
taken  as  read,  the  greater  part  of  it  consisting  of  numerical  tables  which, 
though  of  considerable  value,  it  was  thought  would  prove  uninteresting 
reading.     The  paper  would,  however,  be  printed  in  the  Journal. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  Mr.  Nelson  for  his  paper. 


The  Rev.  Eustace  Tozer  read  a  paper  on  "  The  Life-history  of  a  new 
Protophyte,"  which  he  illustrated  by  six  lantern  slides,  and  by  living  and 
mounted  specimens  under  Microscopes,  showing  the  various  methods  of 
reproduction.  He  also  exhibited  micro-slides  of  Rotifers,  stained  and 
mounted  in  Canada  balsam  by  a  new  process. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  voted  to  the  author. 


Mr.  F.  Chapman's  paper,  "  On  Dimorphism  in  the  Recent  Forami- 
nifer,  Alveolina  boscii"  was  read  by  Dr.  Hebb,  specimens  in  illustration 
being  exhibited  under  the  Microscope. 

Mr.  Earland  said  that  he  had  examined  Mr.  Chapman's  specimens,  and 
was  under  the  impression  that  he  had  observed  similar  ones  on  several 
occasions,  when  examining  dredgings  in  which  Alveolina  boscii  was 
plentiful.  It  had  never  occurred  to  him,  however,  that  the  variation 
might  be  due  to  dimorphism,  he  had  always  regarded  it  as  an  abnormal 
variation.  Such  questions  could  only  be  answered,  in  the  majority  of 
species,  by  the  cutting  of  thin  sections  through  the  median  line,  a  process 
requiring  the  greatest  skill  and  delicacy  of  touch.  He  had  often  tried, 
but  very  rarely  succeeded  in  the  operation.  Mr.  Chapman  was  well 
known  for  his  skill  in  these  matters,  and  he  was  to  be  congratulated 
on  the  interesting  discovery  resulting  from  his  work. 

A  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Chapman  for  his  paper  was  unanimously 
passed. 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY.  267 

Mr.  Nelson's  paper,  on  "  Biddulphia  Mobiliensis,"  was  read  by  Dr. 
Hebb — the  concluding  portion  dealing  with  the  comparative  values  of 
long  and  short-tube  Microscopes  in  the  examination  of  minute  structures. 


Mr.  C.  L.  Curties  exhibited  on  the  screen  a  number  of  lantern  slides 
of  various  microscopic  objects,  for  which  the  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were 
unanimously  voted. 

A  description  of  a  micro-object  locater,  devised  by  Mr.  S.  E.  Dowdy, 
and  exhibited  applied  to  a  Microscope  in  the  room,  was  read  by  Dr.  Hebb. 


It  was  announced  that  at  the  next  Meeting  of  the  Society  the 
President  hoped  to  be  able  to  give  his  address,  "  On  Seeds,  with  Special 
Reference  to  those  of  British  Plants." 


New  Fellow. — The  following  was  balloted  for  and  duly  elected  an 
Ordinary  Fellow  of  the  Society  : — Mr.  Eric  Graham  Saunders. 


The  following  Objects,  Instruments,  etc.,  were  exhibited : — 

The  Society : — The  following  Stereo-photomicrographs,  by  Mr. 
Dollman  :  Blow-fly's  tongue  x  300  ;  Medusa  of  Opercular  ella  x  20  ; 
Medusa  of  Schyzohydra  tergemma  x  80  ;  Plumatella  x  16  ;  Tubular ia 
crocea  x  8  ;  Volvox  globator  x  50;  an  Object-locater,  sent  for  ex- 
hibition by  Mr.  S.  E.  Dowdy  ;  Slide  of  Alveolina  boscii,  in  illustration  of 
Mr.  Chapman's  paper. 

Mr.  J.  E.  Barnard  :  —An  Improved  Mercury  Vapour  Lamp. 

Mr.  C.  L.  Curties  : — Eight  Slides,  illustrating  the  life-history  of  some 
Diptera  :  Culex,  pupa,  larva,  male,  female  ;  Tanypus,  pupa,  larva,  male, 
female  ;  and  Lantern  Slides  of  various  microscopic  objects. 

Mr.  J.  I.  Pigg  :— Scale  of  Dogfish,  stained  with  hematoxylin. 

Rev.  Eustace  Tozer  :—  Drawings,  and  six  Lantern  Slides,  and  the 
following  Slides  under  Microscopes  in  illustration  of  his  paper,  A  New 
Protophyte  :  (1)  Living  forms  ;  (2)  Direct  reproduction  of  parent-form, 
small  ;  (3)  Canada  balsam  mount,  showing  flagella  ;  (4  and  5)  Bud- 
cysts  ;  (6)  Zoospores  from  bud-cysts  ;  Micro-slides  of  Rotifers,  stained, 
and  mounted  in  Canada  balsam  by  a  new  process. 


T  '1 


268  l'KOCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  18th  of  March,  1908,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W. 
The  Right  Hon.  Lord  Avebury,  F.R.S.,  etc.,  President, 

in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  19th  of  February,  1908,  were 
read  and  confirmed. 

The  following  Donation  to  the  Society  was  announced,  and  the 
thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  voted  to  the  donor. 

From 
Woodward,  Horace  B.,  History  of  the  Geological  Society  of  (    afrf^aTRnkptv 
London  (8vo,  London,  1907) {^f London    V 


Mr.  J.  Ciceri  Smith  read  a  description  of  a  direct-reading  micro- 
meter gauge,  which  he  exhibited  in  the  room  ;  the  mechanism  of  the 
instrument  being  further  illustrated  by  diagrams. 

Mr.  Smith  said  this  micrometer  would  be  found  very  convenient  for 
rnicroscopists.  It  was  an  improved  cover-glass  gauge,  with  an  auto- 
matic calculating  index,  upon  which  the  thickness  of  the  glass  in  decimal 
fractions  of  an  inch  was  seen  at  a  glance,  and  upon  the  divided-thimble 
half  divisions  (  =  iroV  o  m0  could  be  read  off.  A  full  description  of  the 
instrument,  with  illustrations,  will  be  published  in  next  issue. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Smith  for 
his  exhibition  and  explanation. 


Mr.  C.  F.  Rousselet  gave  the  following  account  of  a  series  of  mounted 
specimens  of  the  rarer  species  of  fresh-water  Polyzoa,  which  were  ex- 
hibited under  Microscopes  in  the  room. 

The  fresh-water  Polyzoa  received  a  good  deal  of  attention  from 
zoologists  about  the  middle  of  last  century,  but  Professor  xAJlman,  by 
the  publication  in  1856  of  his  monograph  of  this  group,  appears  to  have 
almost  exhausted  the  subject  as  far  as  Great  Britain  is  concerned,  for 
during  fifty  years  afterwards  no  new  species  were  discovered  in  England, 
with  the  single  exception  of  the  remarkable  Victorella  pavida,  found  by 
Saville  Kent  in  1868. 

Naturalists  abroad,  in  America,  Germany,  India,  Japan,  etc.,  have 
been  more  active,  and  have  brought  to  light  about  a  dozen  new  species 
of  great  interest,  and  it  is  these  rarer  and  mostly  foreign  forms  which 
my  exhibit  this  evening  is  intended  to  illustrate. 

The  well-known  and  common  species,  such  as  Lophopus,  Cristatella, 
Plumatella,  Fredericella  sultana,  and  Paludicella,  have  often  been  ex- 
hibited, and  are  not  here  this  evening.  The  forms  represented  are  the 
following  : — 

1.  Victorella  pavida  Saville  Kent  was  first  found  at  one  of  the  earliest 
excursions  of  the  Quekett  Microscopical  Club,  on  September  12. 1868,  in 
the  Victoria  Docks.  Some  years  afterwards,  in  1885,  it  was  found 
again  by  Dr.  Bousfield,  in  the  Surrey  Canal,  and  in  March  1906,  guided 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY.  269 

by  this  gentleman,  I  obtained  it  once  more  at  the  same  spot,  after  an 
interval  of  21  years.  Lastly,  I  found  it  in  the  Surrey  Commercial  Docks, 
at  a  Quekett  Club  excursion  on  October  5  of  last  year. 

This  species  is  also  known  from  Germany.  It  is  always  found 
attached  to  the  stems  of  the  hydroid  Gordylopliora  lacustris,  with  which 
it  seems  to  have  entered  into  a  symbiotic  arrangement  for  mutual  support 
and  food  supply. 

I  cannot  enter  into  any  description,  beyond  saying  that  it  is  a 
very  small  species  of  a  marine  type,  with  a  circular  lophophore  of  only 
eight  tentacles.  The  specimen  under  the  Microscope  is  the  first  ever 
prepared  with  tentacles  fully  extended. 

2.  Victorella  symbiotica.  Last  year*  I  described  a  second  species  of 
this  genus,  which  was  brought  by 'Dr.  Cunnington  from  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika. It  was  found  completely  imbedded  in  a  sponge,  the  long 
narrow  tubes  penetrating  through  its  substance,  to  enable  the  creature  to 
expand  its  tentacles  above  the  surface  of  the  sponge. 

This  species  also  seems  to  possess  sufficient  intelligence  to  see  the 
advantage  of  entering  into  a  similar  symbiotic  arrangement  with  a  sponge 
for  protection  and  food  supply. 

3.  Pott siella  erecta. — In  1884  Mr.  Edw.  Potts,  of  America,  published 
a  very  short  account,  without  figure,  of  a  new  Polyzoan  under  the  name 
of  Paludicella  erecta,  which  he  had  found  attached  to  submerged  stones 
in  the  Pennsylvania  Canal  in  his  neighbourhood.  In  1887  Professor 
Kraepelin,  of  Hamburg,  having  obtained  some  specimens  from  Mr.  Potts, 
changed  the  generic  name  into  Pottsiella  in  his  monograph  of  the 
German  Fresh-water  Bryozoa,  having  recognised  that  its  affinities  are 
quite  different  from  those  of  Paludicella. 

Last  August,  at  my  request,  Mr.  Potts  was  good  enough  to  send  me 
some  living  specimens  to  Boston,  where  I  was  able  to  prepare  a  few 
fully  expanded,  and  the  specimen  under  the  Microscope  is  the  first  one 
so  obtained.  Later  in  the  year,  after  the  cold  weather  had  set  in,  Mr. 
Potts  sent  me  some  stones  with  the  died-down  tubes  of  this  species,  and 
from  the  creeping  stolons  of  some  of  these,  new  tubes  have  been  formed 
in  my  aquarium,  and  for  the  first  time  in  England  I  have  seen  the 
living  Pottsiella  expand  its  circular  lophophore  of  about  twenty-two 
tentacles. 

4.  Urnatella  gracilis  is  another  rare  American  species  which  was 
discovered  and  described  by  Leidy  in  1851,  in  the  Schuylkill  River. 

The  same  stones  lately  received  from  America  to  which  Pottsiella  is 
attached,  have  also  a  number  of  Urnatella,  and  here  again  I  revived  in 
my  aquarium  the  first  living  specimens  ever  seen  in  this  country. 

Urnatella  is  a  fresh-water  representative  of  another  marine  type — 
Pedicellina. 

5.  Arachnoidia  Ray-Lankesteri. — In  1903  Mr.  Moore  brought  this 
remarkable  Polyzoan  from  Lake  Tanganyika,  where  it  was  subsequently 
found  again  by  Dr.  Cunnington,  and  the  slide  exhibited  here  is  from 
this  expedition  of  1905.  It  is  also  of  a  marine  type  with  rounded  flat 
cells,  closely  adhering  to  shells  and  stones,  with  a  tall  erect  tube  at  one 
end,  from  which  the  animal  protrudes  its  circular  lophophore  of  sixteen 
tentacles. 

*  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London  (1907)  pp.  250-257  (2  pis.). 


270  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

6.  Hislopia  lacustris  is  a  peculiar  species  found  by  Carter  in  185<s  in 
Central  India.  Lately  it  has  again  been  found  by  Dr.  Annandale,  of 
the  Calcutta  Museum,  and  also  by  Captain  Walton,  who  sent  me  the 
specimen  exhibited  here  from  Bulandshahr,  Northern  India. 

7.  Membranipora  mono  star  hi/s  var.  fossaria  Hincks,  is  a  brackish- 
water  species  which  has  evidently  wandered  from  the  sea,  and  occurs  in 
tide  pools,  which,  after  heavy  rains,  contain  very  little  salt  water.  The 
present  specimen  was  sent  to  me  by  Mr.  Hurrell,  who  found  it  near 
Great  Yarmouth  in  a  pool  about  a  mile  from  the  sea,  encrusting  the 
submerged  stems  of  an  herbaceous  plant. 

8.  Pectinatella  magnified  is  a  remarkable  American  species  made 
known  in  1851  by  Leidy.  It  has  also  been  found  in  the  Elbe  at  Ham- 
burg, the  statoblasts  having  no  doubt  been  introduced  from  America, 
and  in  the  Havel,  near  Berlin.  The  colonies  form  solid,  rounded, 
gelatinous  masses  of  the  size  of  a  child's  head,  and  the  animals  are 
arranged  in  rosette-shaped  groups  on  the  surface.  I  saw  a  number  of 
these  colonies  at  the  Government  Biological  Station  at  Wood's  Hole,  in 
America,  and  Mr.  Potts,  having  procured  a  living  specimen  when  staying 
at  Philadelphia,  I  prepared  the  group  under  the  Microscope  with  the 
horseshoe-shaped  lophophore  of  every  individual  fully  expanded.  The 
statoblasts  are  very  large,  rounded,  and  have  12-17  long,  anchor-shaped 
hooks  round  the  periphery.  I  brought  back  some  living  statoblasts, 
which  are  now  hatching  in  my  aquarium,  and  have  also  introduced  some 
in  various  canals  and  ponds,  so  I  hope  it  will  be  possible  in  future  to 
study  this  interesting  species  in  this  country. 

!).  Pectinatella  gelatinosa. — This  species  comes  from  Japan,  and  was 
discovered  in  LS90  at  Tokio  by  Dr.  Oka,  who  was  good  enough  to  send 
me  the  specimens  here  exhibited.  The  large  statoblasts  have  the  shape 
of  a  cardinal's  hat,  and  have  very  minute  booklets  round  the  edge. 

10.  Lophopodella  Thomasi. — This  species  I  described  in  1904  *  from  a 
specimen  received  from  Mr.  Thomas,  who  had  found  it  four  years  earlier 
in  a  pool  formed  by  the  Hunyani  River  in  Rhodesia.  The  specimen  was 
killed  and  preserved  in  a  fully  contracted  state,  so  only  the  peculiar  and 
characteristic  statoblasts  can  be  shown. 

1 1 .  Plumatella  tanganyikce,  is  another  African  species  brought  back 
by  Dr.  Cunnington,  who  found  it  in  Lake  Tanganyika,  encrusting  shells, 
stones,  and  submerged  plants. 

12.  Fredericella  Gunningtoni  is  yet  another  new  species  from  the  same 
Tanganyika  Expedition  ;  the  tubes  of  this  Fredericella  are  formed  of 
coarse  sand-grains,  creeping,  closely  adherent,  interlacing  on  shells  and 
stones.     The  circular  lophophore  has  sixteen  tentacles. 

The  President  said  that  Professor  Allman's  work  on  the  Polyzoa,  to 
which  reference  had  been  made,  was  one  of  the  most  excellent  mono- 
graphs produced  in  this  country,  and  it  was  a  remarkable  thing  that  so 
long  a  period  should  have  elapsed  before  any  additions  were  made  to  the 
species  which  he  described.  The  Society  was  much  indebted  to  Mr. 
Rousselet  for  his  interesting  communication  and  for  the  exhibition  of 
the  specimens  described. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Rousselet 
for  his  exhibit. 

*  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club.,  ser.  2,  ic.  (1904)  pp.  45-56  (1  pi.) 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY.  271 

The  President,  on  rising  to  give  his  animal  address  to  the  Society, 
said  that  when  the  Society  did  him  the  honour  of  asking  him  to  accept 
the  office  of  President,  he  had  some  hesitation  as  to  acceding  to  their 
request ;  in  the  first  place  because  he  was  not  now  so  much  in  London 
as  formerly,  and  in  the  second  place  because  the  state  of  his  eyes  did  not 
permit  him  to  do  much  microscopic  work.  Hence  he  felt  rather  doubtful 
if  he  ought  to  occupy  such  a  position.  However,  the  Council  persisted 
in  their  request  that  he  would  do  so,  and  he  had  given  way  to  their 
appeal,  as  he  so  highly  appreciated  the  honour  which  they  proposed  to 
confer  upon  him  that  he  felt  he  could  not  decline.  The  responsibility 
of  the  position  was,  however,  borne  upon  him  again  when  he  had  to 
consider  the  subject  for  the  annual  address.  His  distinguished  prede- 
cessor in  that  chair  had  taken  the  subject  of  the  Seeds  of  Fossil  Plants. 
and  following  this  precedent,  he  decided  to  address  them  on  the  subject 
of  the  seeds  and  fruits  of  modern  British  Plants  (confining  his  attention 
on  the  present  occasion  to  those  of  the  Dicotyledons),  and,  if  the  subject 
proved  acceptable,  to  take  the  seeds  and  fruits  of  the  Conifers  and 
Monocotyledons  as  the  topic  of  his  address  of  next  year.  He  then 
proceeded  to  read  an  extremely  interesting  paper  on  the  seeds  of  the 
various  orders  of  flowering  plants  and  trees,  with  special  reference  to 
the  methods  by  which  they  were  distributed — remarking  at  the  close 
that  he  feared  the  subject  might  have  been  wearisome  to  some  persons, 
although  if  he  had  failed  to  interest  them  he  was  sure  it  was  not  the 
fault  of  the  seeds  themselves. 

Mr.  Disney  said  he  had  very  great  pleasure  in  proposing  a  very 
hearty  vote  of  thanks  to  the  President  for  the  interesting  and  suggestive 
address  to  which  they  had  just  had  the  pleasure  of  listening.  The 
subject  was  somewhat  novel  as  regarded  that  Society,  but  he  felt  sure 
that  it  had  been  none  the  less  welcome  on  that  account,  and  that  all 
would  look  forward  with  expectation  to  the  continuation  which  the 
President  had  promised.  He  also  wished — in  addition  to  showing  their 
appreciation  of  the  address — to  express  their  indebtedness  to  Lord 
Avebury  for  accepting  the  office  of  President  of  their  Society. 

Mr.  Wynne  E.  Baxter,  in  seconding  the  vote  of  thanks,  reminded  the 
Fellows  of  the  Society  that  this  was  not  the  first  time  they  had  been 
indebted  to  the  President  for  an  address,  for  when  in  1877  the  Council 
decided  to  establish  a  "  Quekett  Lecture,"  the  first  one  was  delivered  by 
their  present  President,  "On  the  Anatomy  of  the  Ant."  They  were  not 
only  under  great  obligation  to  him  for  the  address  given  to  them  that 
evening,  but  also  for  having  consented  to  become  their  President  for 
another  year. 

Mr.  Disney  then  put  the  proposal  to  the  Meeting,  when  it  was  carried 
unanimously  by  acclamation. 

The  President  said  he  felt  greatly  indebted  to  the  mover  and  seconder 
of  the  vote  of  thanks  for  the  kind  way  in  which  they  had  spoken,  and 
to  the  Fellows  present  for  the  way  in  which  it  had  been  received.  He 
desired  also  to  thank  them  for  the  constant  support  which  he  had 
received  during  the  year  of  his  Presidency,  and  which  he  felt  sure  would 
be  further  extended  to  him  during  the  year  on  which  they  had  entered. 


272  PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE   SOCIETY. 

The  Secretary  said  they  had  received  a  letter  from  Mr.  Stephi  oaon, 
intimating  his  wish  to  dispose  of  a  number  of  the  Journals  of  the  Society, 
which  he  offered  for  4/.  10s. 


The  next  Meeting  of  the  Society  will  take  place  on  April  15,  when 
Mr.  F.  Enock  will  give  one  of  his  illustrated  lectures. 


New  Fellows. — The  following  were  elected  Ordinary  Fellows  : — 
Messrs.  Thos.  Stewart  Baird,  Arthur  Forshaw,  David  Gordon,  Edward 
Geo.  Howard. 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited : — 
Mr.   J.   Ciceri   Smith : — Examples   of    Direct-reading    Micrometer 
<niuges. 

Mr.  C.  F.  Rousselet : — Mounted  specimens  of  the  following  Fresh- 
water Polyzoa : — Victorella  pavida,  V.  symbiotica,  Pottsiella  erecta, 
Urnatella  gracilis,  Arachnoidia  Ray-LanTcesteri,  Hislopia  lacustris,  Mem- 
branipora  monostachys  var.  fossaria,  Pectinatella  magnified,  P.  gelatinosa, 
Lophodella  Thomasi,  Statoblasts,  Fredericella  Gutiningtoni,  Plumatella 
tanganyikcB. 


JOURN.R.MICR.S0C.1908.P1.IV. 


^10a. 


10b. 


lOd. 


-JR. 


11a. 


&- 


12b. 

West, Newman  Iith. 


JOUBNALi 

OF   THE 

ROYAL  MICROSCOPICAL    SOCIETY. 

JUNE,    1908. 


TRANSACTIONS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


XI. — The  President's  Address :    On  Seeds,  with  Special  Reference 

to  British  Plants. 

By  The  Right  Hon.  Lokd  Avebury,  P.C.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 

(Bead  March  18,  1908.) 

Plate  IV. 

When  the  Council  did  me  the  honour  of  inviting  me  to  accept 
their  nomination  for  the  Presidency,  I  placed  before  them  two  reasons 
which,  while  fully  appreciating  the  honour,  made  me  feel  very 
doubtful  whether  I  ought  to  consent.  In  the  first  place,  I  am  not 
now  so  much  in  London  as  formerly,  and,  secondly,  my  eyes  no 
longer  permit,  or  are  fit  for,  much  microscopic  work.  The  Council, 
however,  pressed  me  to  accept,  and,  perhaps  too  readily,  I  allowed 
myself  to  be  over-persuaded.     This  came  home  to  me  still  more 


EXPLANATION   OF    PLATE  IV. 

Fig.    1. — Delphinium  peregrinum.    x  12.    Longitudinal  section  of  seed.  L,  some 

of  the  uppermost  tunics  or  laminse  ;  LS,LS,  longitudinal  sections 

of  laminse  ;  r,  embryo. 
„       2. — Pinguecula  vulgaris  Linn,     x  16.     F,  funiculus. 
„      3. — Veronica  hedercefolia  Linn,     x  8.     Ventral  face  of  seed,  showing  the 

funiculus  or  seed-stalk  F  in  the  centre  of  a  nearly  circular  and  deep 

cavity. 
,,      4. — Melampyrum  pratense. 
„     5a. — Galeopsis  versicolor  Curt,     x  16.     Dorsal  aspect  of  nutlet.     B,  bald, 

or  uniformly  pale  brown  patch  ;  B  S,  B  S,  black  spots  on  a  blackish 

brown  surface,  speckled  with  grey. 
„     5b. — Ditto.     Ventral  aspect  of  nutlet.     S,  scar  of  attachment  to  receptacle 

and  to  one  another ;   I  A,  inner  angle  ;   B.  bald  patch  ;  C  T,  convex 

top. 

June  17th,  1908  u 


274  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

forcibly  when  I  came  to  consider  the  question  of  my  Presidential 
Address. 

It  occurred  to  me,  however,  that  as  my  distinguished  predecessor 
chose  for  the  subject  of  his  Address  "  The  Flowering  Plants  of  the 
Mesozoic  Age,"  and  dwelt  mainly  on  their  organs  of  reproduction, 
I  might  take  Fruits  and  Seeds  for  my  subject,  with  special  reference 
to  British  Plants. 

I  propose  this  year  to  deal  with  the  Dicotyledons,  and,  if  it 
meets  with  your  approval,  next  year  with  the  Conifers  and  Mono- 
cotyledons, ending  with  some  general  observations. 

I  have  elsewhere*  divided  fruits  and  seeds  from  the  point  of 
view  of  their  dispersal  into — 

Seeds  or  fruits  with  wings,  which  are  carried  by  wind. 

Seeds  or  fruits  with  feathery  appendages,  carried  by  wind,  and 
sometimes,  as  in  Willow,  floated  by  water. 

Seeds  in  capsules  which  open  at  the  top,  the  seeds  being 
jerked  out  by  the  wind. 

Seeds  or  fruits  with  hooks,  which  are  carried  by  animals. 

Those  which  are  eaten,  and  the  seeds  thus  carried  by  animals. 

Those  which  are  thrown  by  the  plants  ;  and,  lastly, 

Those  which  are  sown  by  the  plants  themselves. 

In  the  whole  of  Botany  there  is  perhaps  no  more  fascinating 
department  than  that  which  relates  to  Fruits  and  Seeds — their 
development  and  morphology,  their  forms  and  structure,  size  and 
colour — which,  however,  can  best   be  dealt  with  when  we  have 

*  British  Flowering  Plants,  p.  15. 


EXPLANATION   OP   PLATE  IN  .—continued. 

Fig.  6a. — Ajuga  reptans  Linn,  x  16.  Inner  or  ventral  face  of  the  nutlet,  show- 
ing the  wall  of  the  carpel  N  and  the  partly  exposed  seed  S. 

,,     66. — Ditto.     The  dorsal  aspect  of  the  nutlet. 

,,     la. — Ajuga  Chamc&pitys  Schrieb.     x  16.     Showing  the  dorsal  aspect. 

,,  76. — Ditto.  The  ventral  aspect  of  the  nutlet.  N,  ruptured  wall  of  nutlet : 
S,  seed  partly  exposed. 

,,  8a. — Teucrium  Botrys  hinn.  x  16.  Dorsal  aspect  of  a  nutlet,  showing  wide- 
meshed  netting  of  broad,  blunt  ridges,  with  pits  between. 

,,  86. — Ditto.  Face  by  which  the  nutlets  are  attached  to  the  receptacle  and  to 
one  another.     N,  shell  of  nutlet ;  S,  seed  partly  exposed. 

,,  9. — Verbena  teucroides.  x  4.  Pyrene  of  the  fruit,  containing  one  seed 
inclosed  in  one-fourth  part  of  the  reticulated  ovary  walls.  The 
species  is  a  native  of  Brazil,  etc. 

,,  10a. — Polygonum  Persicaria  Linn,     x  8.    Triquetrous  nutlet. 

,,  106. — Ditto.     Transverse  section  of  10a. 

„  10c. — Ditto.     Biconvex  nutlet. 

,,  10a\ — Ditto.     Transverse  section  of  10c. 

„  11a. — Etq)horbia  amygdaloidcs  Linn,  x  8.  Ventral  aspect  of  seed.  Ch, 
chalaza ;  R,  raphe  ;  C,  caruncle. 

,,  116. — Ditto.     Dorsal  aspect  of  seed. 

,,  12a. — Euphorbia  Helioscopia  Linn,     x  8.     Dorsal  aspect. 

,,  126. — Ditto.    Ventral  aspect.     R,  Raphe ;   C,  caruncle. 


The  President's  Address.     By  Lord  Avcbury.  275 

the  facts  fully  before  us.  The  diversity  is  astonishing,  not 
only  in  each  large  family,  but  even  between  nearly  allied 
species. 

Eanunculace^. — In  the  very  first  family,  the  Ranunculacere, 
we  find  an  example  of  these  remarkable  differences.  There 
are  three  main  types.  Some  fruits  are  baccate,  and  adapted  for 
dispersal  by  animals,  especially  birds.  Others  are  dry  ;  some  are 
several-,  some  one-seeded.  The  latter  form  achenes,  the  seed  being 
inclosed  in  the  carpel. 

The  many-seeded  fruits  or  follicles  burst  at  the  ventral  suture, 
so  that  the  seeds  can  fall,  or  be  thrown  out. 
Our  only  baccate  species  is  Actcea  spicata. 

Two  of  our  British  Eanunculacea? — namely,  Clematis  Vitalba 
and  Anemone  Pulsatilla — have  long  feathery  persistent  styles, 
and  are  dispersed  by  the  wind.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  the 
genus  Anemone  some  species  have  an  elongated  and  persistent  style, 
while  others  have  not. 

Species  much  exposed  to  the  wind,  those,  for  instance,  living 
in  mountainous  and  open  places,  generally  have  feathery  awns, 
while  in  those  preferring  woods  and  meadows  the  awns  are  more 
or  less  hooked.  We  find  a  somewhat  similar  division  in  the 
Bosacere,  Dryas  having  feathery,  Geum  rather  hooked  awns. 

The  achenes  are  often  wrinkled,  netted  or  pitted,  which  would 
make  them  lighter  and  more  easily  carried  by  wind.  Others  are 
hairy,  which  would  tend  to  the  same  result.  Lastly,  some  are 
hooked,  as,  for  instance,  several  Ranunculi,  especially  a  Continental 
species,  R.  falcatus. 

When  the  fruit  consists  of  a  many-seeded  follicle,  the  seeds  are 
liberated  at  maturity  by  the  carpel  opening  at  the  top.  The 
stalk  at  the  same  time  hardens,  and,  being  elastic,  the  seeds  are 
jerked  out  by  the  wind,  or  sometimes  by  a  passing  animal.  Such 
seeds  are  generally  smooth,  and  very  often  black.  This  arrange- 
ment occurs  in  Caltha,  Trollius,  Aquilegia,  Paionia,  and  other 
genera. 

The  seeds  of  Delphinium  are  curiously  wrinkled,  and  in  D. 
Ajacis  these  form  plaits  of  considerable  depth,  while  in  D.  pere- 
grinum  they  might  be  described  as  laminae,  imbricated  one  over 
another.  The  advantage  of  this  arrangement  is  not  clear  to  me. 
Perhaps  the  reason  is  to  make  the  seed  lighter  (plate  IV.  fig.  1). 

Berberide^e. — We  have  only  one  indigenous  species,  the  com- 
mon Barberry.  The  fruit  is  a  berry ;  the  ovary  is  1 -celled,  and 
contains  a  few  basal,  erect  ovules,  only  one  or  two  of  which  develop 
into  seeds.  When  there  are  two,  they  become  plano-convex  by 
mutual  pressure.  They  are  thickest  at  the  chalazal  end,  next  the 
apex  of  the  fruit. 

As  is  usual  in  species  where  the  fruits  are  intended  to  be  eaten 
by  birds,  the  testa  is  crustaceous,  and  the  surface  almost  smooth. 

D  2 


276  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

The  endosperm  also  is  hard.  The  seeds  are  generally  thrown  up 
uninjured. 

The  fruits  are  generally  dark  blue,  purple,  or  red,  though  in 
some  species  white  (B.  pruinosa).  It  may  be  suggested  that  in 
species  where  the  leaves  are  deciduous,  or  remain  green,  the  red 
fruits  would  be  very  conspicuous ;  while  in  those  where  the  leaves 
put  on  autumn  tints,  a  blue-black  colour  would  show  up  better. 
B.  vulgaris,  with  red  berries,  is  deciduous.  B.  Aquifolium,  B. 
Dancinii,  and  B.  empetrifolia,  with  persistent  leaves,  sometimes 
turning  to  orange  or  bright  red,  have  purple  berries. 

Nympil-eaceje. — Of  this  order  we  have  two  genera,  Nymphcea, 
or  Caslalia,  and  Nwphar,  the  yellow  Water-lily. 

The  fruit  is  a  berry.  The  ovary  consists  of  many  carpels, 
united  to  form  as  many  cells.  The  ovules  are  numerous,  and 
scattered  over  the  walls  of  the  cells.  They  are  pendulous  and 
anatropous,  and  develop  into  seeds  about  as  large  as  grains  of 
wheat.  The  testa  is  very  thick,  crustaceous,  polished,  and  shining. 
The  perisperm  is  white,  mealy  or  floury,  and  the  embryo  is  minute, 
lying  near  the  micropyle.   In  Nymphwa  the  fruit  ripens  under  water. 

When  the  fruit  is  picked  to  pieces  by  birds,  many  of  the 
slippery  seeds,  no  doubt,  would  escape  and  float  away,  or  in  some 
cases  adhere  to  the  plumage  and  be  carried  away.  The  seeds 
themselves  are  heavy,  but  in  Nymphcca  the  seed  is  enveloped  in 
an  outer  coat,  or  arillus,  and  between  the  two  is  a  layer  of  air, 
which  enables  them  to  float. 

In  Nuphar  there  is  no  arillus,  but  the  walls  of  the  carpel 
separate  into  two  layers,  of  which  the  inner  one,  being  spongy 
and  charged  with  air,  causes  the  seeds  to  float. 

The  flowers  of  the  white  Water-lily  float  on  the  surface  of  the 
water  among  the  foliage,  and  when  the  stigmas  have  been  pollinated 
by  the  visits  of  various  Libellulidpe  and  other  insects,  the  vase-like 
ovary  is  drawn  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  water,  and  in  about  a 
month  or  six  weeks  bursts,  and  the  seeds,  which  are  contained  in 
a  bladder-like  vesicle  containing  air,  rise  to  the  surface  and  are 
distributed  by  the  action  of  currents  and  the  wind.  The  filmy  air- 
vesicles  soon  decay,  the  seeds  sink  to  the  bottom  and  are  sown  in 
the  soft  mud  and  ooze. 

Papavekace^e. — In  this  family  the  carpels  are,  as  a  rule,  con- 
nate into  an  ovoid  or  oblong  capsule,  or  a  pod  opening  either  from 
below  upwards  (Chclidonium),  or  from  above  downwards  (Glaucium). 
In  exceptional  species,  however,  the  fruit  is  fleshy,  and  in  Platy- 
stemon  the  carpels  are  distinct. 

In  the  Poppies  the  capsules  are  upright,  divided  by  vertical 
incomplete  septa  ;  the  stigmas  are  arranged  on  the  summit  in  rays, 
and  the  capsules  open  by  a  series  of  valves  beneath  these  rays 
(fig.  67). 

The  result  of  this  arrangement  is  that,  when  the  wind  blows, 


The  Presidents  Address.     By  Lord  Avebury. 


277 


globular 


and  the  poppy-heads  are  swung  backwards  and  forwards,  the  seeds 
are  jerked  out  of  the  capsules.  As  usual  in  such  cases  they  are 
small,  and  deep  brown  or  nearly  black,  and  thus  less  conspicuous 
to  birds.  They  are  also  more  or  less  pitted.  In  form  they  are 
more  or  less  reniform. 

As  regards  our  four  indigenous  Poppies,  they  may  be  distin- 
guished as  regards  the  capsules  as  follows : — 

Capsule,  club-shaped     \  £  ff^one,  hairy. 
r         (P.  dubium,  smooth. 

(  P.  hybridum,  hairy. 

(  P.  Rhmas,  smooth. 

In  P.  Argemone  the  plant  is  altogether  hairy,  perhaps  as  the 
result   of  its   living  in    dry   regions,   and   the 
hairiness  of  the  capsule  probably  has  reference 
not  so   much   to  the  capsule  itself  as  to  the 
general  habit  of  the  plant. 

In  Glaucium  (the  Horned  Poppy)  and  Che- 
lidonium the  fruit  is  a  pod,  and  dehisces  like 
that  of  the  Leguminosa?,  but  while  in  Glau- 
cium it  opens  from  the  apex  downwards,  those 
of  Chelidonium  do  so  from  the  base  upwards. 

In  Chelidonium  the  base  of  the  capsule 
matures,  and  naturally  opens,  first.  In  Glau- 
cium, however,  the  pod  is  much  longer,  reach- 
ing from  10  inches  to  a  foot.  If  the  valves 
separated  at  the  base,  the  placentas  would  have 
to  support  the  whole  weight,  and  would  pro- 
bably give  way,  in  which  case  the  pod  would 
collapse,  and  the  seeds  would  not  be  properly 
scattered. 

The  seeds  of  our  Poppies,  and  of  Glaucium, 
as  of  so  many  species  where  they  are  jerked 
out  of  capsules,  are  deeply  pitted ;  those  of 
Meconopsis,  Roemeria,  and  Corydalis  are  reticu- 
late ;  those  of  Chelidonium  smooth  and  black. 

CrucifeR/E. — This  great  family  is  generally 
divided  for  purposes  of  convenience  by  the 
relative  length  of  the  pod,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  radicle 
with  reference  to  the  cotyledons,  which  in  some  cases  have  their 
edges  to  the  radicle  (accumbent),  while  others  have  the  radicle 
folded  over  one  face  (incumbent).  The  fruit  is  generally  a  pod, 
divided  into  two  cells  by  a  thin  partition.  It  is  generally  con- 
sidered that  the  pod  originally  consisted  of  four  carpels,  but  this 
is  now  the  case  in  one  genus  only,  Tetrapoma.  The  valves  of 
the  pod  generally  separate  at  maturity,  but  in  a  few  genera  the 
pod  is  indehiscent.  The  surface  of  the  seed  is  generally  smooth ; 
but  there  are  a  few  interesting  exceptions.     Some  are  very  much 


Fig.  67.— Capsule  of 
a  Poppy,  a,  indi- 
cates level  of  aper- 
ture. 


278  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

flattened,  which  would  obviously  favour  dispersal  by  the  wind. 
Where  the  pods  are  narrow,  as  in  Nasturtium  sylvestre and  Brassica 
Sinapistrum  (Charlock),  there  is  only  one  row  of  seeds;  where  the 
pod  is  broader,  as  in  Nasturtium  amphibium  and  Brassica  (Dip/o- 
taxis)  tenuifolia,  there  are  two. 

In  many  species  the  seeds  are  carried  away  as  food  by  animals, 
and  being  no  doubt  often  dropped,  are  thus  dispersed.  In  others 
the  seeds  are  much  flattened,  and  no  doubt  carried  by  wind. 

In  some  species  of  Cardaminc  and  Dentaria  the  valves  of  the 
pod  open  elastically  at  maturity  and  scatter  the  seeds. 

In  some  species  of  Brassica  the  pods  terminate  in  a  kind  of 
beak  which  often  contains  one  or  two  seeds.  It  seems  possible 
that  they  may  thus  escape  being  eaten  by  birds. 

Lepidium  sativum,  the  common  Cress,  is  remarkable  for  its  tri- 
partite cotyledons.  This  character  is  perhaps  due  to  a  longitu- 
dinal folding  in  ages  long  gone  by,  so  as  to  enable  the  embryo  to 
fill  the  seed. 

A  Brazilian  species  of  Cardamine,  C.  chenopodifolia,  produces 
underground  pods  as  well  as  others  of  the  common  aerial  type. 
These  underground  pods  differ  in  being  shorter  and  containing 
fewer  seeds.  We  shall  find  one  or  two  similar  cases  in  other 
orders,  and  the  reason  I  think  is  that  if  there  were  a  number  of 
seeds  they  would  interfere  with  one  another,  and  all  but  one  or 
two  would  perish. 

Eesedace^e. — In  the  genus  Reseda  the  seeds  are  contained  in  a 
capsule  as  in  some  preceding  genera,  but  it  is  unique  in  the  fact 
that  the  cup  is  open  long  before  maturity.  It  contains  numerous 
seeds  arranged  along  a  number  of  placentas  ecpual  to  that  of  the 
styles. 

The  seeds  are  rugose,  but  so  finely  that  they  appear  smooth  to 
the  naked  eye,  and  are  black  with  a  lustrous  sparkle. 

Those  of  R.  lutea  are  much  larger  than  those  of  R.  luteola. 

Violarie^e.  —  In  the  Violariese,  again,  the  fruit  may  be  an 
indehiscent  berry,  or  a  capsule  opening  elastically  by  as  many 
valves  (3)  as  there  are  placentas.  This  is  the  case  with  our  only 
indigenous  genus,  Viola.  The  species,  however,  fall  into  two 
groups.  In  one  (V.  hirta,  V.  odorata,  etc.),  fig.  68,  the  capsules 
nestle  on  the  ground,  and  are  even  said  (as,  for  instance,  by 
Vaucher)  to  bury  themselves.  They  are,  at  any  rate,  pushed  among 
moss,  decaying  leaves,  etc.,  close  to  the  ground.  In  other  species 
(V.  canina,  fig.  69)  the  capsules  when  open  resemble  an  inverted 
tripod.  Each  valve  contains  a  row  of  from  three  to  five  brown, 
shining,  pear-shaped  seeds,  slightly  flattened  at  the  upper  (free)  end. 
As  the  capsule  dries  the  sides  approach  one  another  (figs.  70,  71), 
and  grip  the  smooth  seeds  more  and  more  tightly,  till  at  length 
the  attachment  is  ruptured  and  the  seeds  are  thrown  several  feet. 
I  have  suggested  elsewhere  that  we  get  a  clue  to  the  existence  of 


The  President's  Address.     By  Lord  Avebury. 


279 


the  two  plans  if  we  remember  the  different  modes  of  growth.     The 
first  series  of  species  have,  in  ordinary  parlance,  no  stem,  and  the 


Fig.  68. — Viola  hirta.    a,  flower-bud ;  b,  full-sized  capsule. 

capsules  are  therefore  close  to  the  ground.     In  V.  canina,  on  the 
other  hand,  there  is  a  short  stem,  and  the  seeds  being  thus  raised 


Fig.  69. — Viola  canina.     Capsule 
with  seed. 


Fig.  70. — Viola  canina.    Capsule 
after  ejecting  the  seeds. 


some  little  distance  above  the  ground,  can  be  thrown   to  greater 
advantage. 

The  ejection  of  the  seeds  follows  a  regular  order.     The  outer 


280 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


seed  goes  first,  and  then  the  others  in  regular  sequence.  The 
second  carpel  does  not  begin  until  the  first  has  discharged  all  its 
seeds. 

It  is  remarkable  that  among  the  violets  the  sweet,  coloured 
flowers  rarely  develop  seed,  most  of  which  are  produced  by  the 
"  cleistogamous  "  apetalous  flowers. 


Fig.  71. — Viola  comma,     a,  bud  of  cleistogamous  flower ; 
b,  older  bud ;  c,  capsule  open. 


Caryophylle^e  (the  Pink  Family). — The  capsules  are  mem- 
branous or  crustaceous;  rarely  berried  (Cucubalus).  The  capsules 
open  with  a  number  of  teeth  equal  to  or  double  that  of  the  styles. 
The  seeds  are  numerous,  or  reduced  by  abortion.  The  seeds  are 
always  more  or  less  flattened,  but  in  some  cases  this  takes  place 
dorsally  (Dianthus,  Tunica),  in  others  laterally.  In  Dianthus  the 
hilum  is  situated  about  the  middle  of  the  ventral  face,  so  that  the 
seed  is  peltate.  In  this  genus  and  in  Tunica  the  embryo  is  straight ; 
in  the  other  genera  it  is  curved,  though  sometimes  only  slightly. 
The  surface  is  generally  finely  rugose,  but  sometimes  papillose  or 
smooth.  In  Silenc  edpestris  and  S.  quadrifida  they  are  quite  long, 
and  the  colour  is  either  black  or  brown.  Some  few  (Spergida 
arvensis,  Spergularia  marina)  are  described  in  English  specimens 
as  winged.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case  in  all  localities.  On 
the  Continent  the  variety  S.  heterosperma  is  described  as  having 
some  seeds  winged  and  others  not. 

At  maturity  the  capsules  open  at  the  top,  and  when  the  stem 


The  President's  Address.     By  Lord  Avebury.  281 

is  jerked  by  the  wind,  or  perhaps  by  some  passing  animal,  the 
seeds  are  jerked  out. 

In  other  cases  they  are,  no  doubt,  carried  by  birds.  The 
pointed  tubercles  of  Lychnis  Flos-cuculi  perhaps  serve  for  this 
purpose.  The  largest  seeds  of  any  British  species  are  those  of 
Lychnis  Githago.  It  is  an  annual  species.  On  the  other  hand, 
Stcllaria  Holostea  and  Arenaria  peploides,  in  which  the  seeds  are 
nearly  as  large,  are  both  perennials. 

Cistine.e. — The  Cistinere  also  are  represented  in  our  flora  by  a 
single  genus — Helianthemum,  the  Bock-rose.  The  fruit  is  a  capsule, 
1-celled,  or  incompletely  divided  into  several,  and  opening  by 
3,  5,  or  10  valves.     The  seeds  are  smooth. 

PoRTULACEiE. — Of  this  order  we  have  only  one  really  native 
species,  Montia  fontanel,  and  one  naturalised,  Clay tonia  per foliata. 
Of  the  latter  I  will  only  observe  that  it  is  another  case  in  which 
seeds  in  capsules  are  black  and  glossy.  The  seeds  of  Montia  are 
probably  carried  about  by  aquatic  birds. 

Hypericine^e. — The  fruit  is  a  capsule,  or  in  some  foreign 
species  a  berry.  Hypericum  Androscemum  forms  a  connecting 
link  between  the  two,  as  the  capsule  is  succulent  and  as  a  rule 
does  not  open.  In  the  other  species,  or  most  of  them,  the  capsule 
opens  at  the  summit,  and  the  seeds  are  scattered  by  the  wind. 

In  H.perforatum,  H.  hirsutum  and  some  others,  in  fact  in  our 
British  species  generally,  the  seeds  are  sausage-shaped  and  pointed 
at  each  end.  The  seeds  appear  to  be  often  sterile.  Some  of  the 
exotic  genera  have  winged  seeds. 

Malvaceae. — The  fruit  in  the  Mallows  is  formed  on  a  very 

different  plan  from  any  of  those  which 

we  have  hitherto  been  considering.     It 

is    indeed    in    rare    cases    a   berry,  but 

generally,  and  in  all  our  British  species, 

it  consists  of  many  carpels  arranged  in 

a  circle  round  a  central  axis.    The  seeds 

are  sometimes  several,  but    in   British 

species  one,  in  each  carpel,  to  which  it 

conforms.     The  surface  is  often  rugose, 

but  so  finely  as  to  be  practically  smooth, 

brown  or  black.  -c     ,-0      n       ,    f  ,r  , 

mi  .  .  ,  Fig.  72 . — Carpel  of  Malva 

Ine  carpels  are  in  some  species  gla-  moschata. 

brous  :  this  is  the  case  in  M.  sylvestris, 

which,  however,  has  a  variety,  var.  lasiocarpa,  with  hairy  carpels. 
In  M.  rotundifolia  they  are  downy,  and  in  M.  moschata  hairy. 

The  hairs  of  course  render  the  capsules  lighter,  and  would  thus 
promote  dispersal  by  the  wind.  In  Althcea  the  carpels  are  flattened 
and  winged,  which  would  promote  the  same  object.  It  is  im- 
possible, however,  not  to  be  struck  by  the  singular  resemblance 
the  capsules  present  to  small  green  or  brown  caterpillars,  curled  up 


282  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

in  the  attitude  so  common  to  them.  Many  small  caterpillars  also 
are  covered  with  long  hairs,  and  would  thus  be  mimicked  by  the 
hairy  capsules  (fig.  72).  The  resemblance  is  so  striking  that  it  can 
hardly  be  accidental,  and  I  have  suggested  elsewhere  that  birds 
pick  up  the  carpels  taking  them  for  insects,  and  carry  them,  with 
the  seeds  in  them,  some  little  distance  before  finding  out  their 
mistake. 

Celastrine^e. — Of  this  order  we  have  only  a  single  species, 
Euonymus  europosus,  the  Spindle.  As  in  so  many  other  small  trees, 
the  fruit  is  arranged  to  attract  birds.  It  is  a  4-celled  and  lobed 
capsular  fruit,  more  or  less  tinged  with  red.  Each  cell  contains 
1-2  seeds,  which  are  rather  large  and  completely  covered  by  a 
brilliant  orange  or  red  "  arillode."  When  the  carpels  burst  open, 
which  occurs  on  the  dorsal  suture,  the  seeds  drop,  and  hang  sus- 
pended by  a  long  stalk.  It  is  one  of  the  comparatively  few  plants 
in  which  the  embryo  early  assumes  a  green  colour. 

Tiliace^e. — In  this  family  the  fruit  consists  of  2-10  cells,  or 
it  is  1 -celled  by  suppression  or  many-celled  by  false  septa,  or 
a  drupe,  or  (rarely)  a  berry.  The  construction  is  therefore  very 
various. 

In  our  only  species,  the  Lime,  it  is  a  small  globular  nut  con- 
taining one  or  two  seeds.  In  many  trees  (Sycamore,  Maple,  Elm, 
Hornbeam,  Pine,  Eir,  etc.)  the  seeds  are  disseminated  by  means  of 
wings,  which,  though  they  serve  the  same  purpose,  are  of  very 
different  origin.  In  the  Lime  the  peduncle  of  the  fruit  is 
bordered  or  winged  halfway  up  by  a  long  narrow  leaf-like  bract. 

The  seedling  is  very  unusual.  It  is  palmate,  consisting  of  five 
lobes,  the  central  one  being  the  longest.  This  peculiar  form 
enables  it  to  lie  in  the  hollow  of  the  seed,  just  occupying  the  con- 
cavity of  the  cup. 

LinetE. — The  fruit  is  a  septicidal  capsule,  consisting  of  five 
carpels.  The  seeds  are  much  compressed  laterally,  and  the  main 
point  which  1  would  notice  in  connection  with  the  present  Address 
is  that  if  the  seeds  are  moistened,  as,  for  instance,  by  coming  in 
contact  with  damp  ground,  they  develop  a  copious  mucilage  which 
attaches  them  to  the  soil,  and  thus  perhaps  facilitates  the  exit 
of  the  young  plant.  This  property  is  well  known  to  us  through 
the  familiar  linseed  poultice. 

Geraniace.e. — In  this  order  also  the  fruit  presents  very  curious 
and  diverse  structures.  Our  four  British  genera  have  each  totally 
different  plans  for  the  dissemination  of  the  seed : 

Capsule  separating  into  five  1-seeded  carpels,  each  with  a 
long  awn ;  awn  elastic,  not  twisted  (Geranium) ;  awn  twisted 
(Brodium).  Capsule  with  four  angles  opening  with  as  many 
valves  (Oxalis),  Capsule  bursting  elastically  in  five  valves  which 
roll  inwards  (Impatiens). 

In  the  Geraniums  the  five  1-seeded  carpels  are  arranged  round 


The  President's  Address.     By  Lord  Avebury.  283 

a  long  central  receptacle,  and  curl  upwards,  with  a  long  elastic  awn, 
which  at  maturity  detaches  itself  from  the  beak  elastically  and 
throws  the  seed  (sometimes  with,  sometimes  without  the  carpel)  to 
a  distance  of  several  feet. 

Even  in  Geranium  itself  the  differences  are  considerable. 
After  the  flower  has  faded  the  central  axis  gradually  elongates. 
The  seeds,  five  in  number,  are  situated  at  the  base  of  the  column, 
each  being  inclosed  in  a  capsule,  which  terminates  upwards  in  a 
rod-like  portion,  which  at  first  forms  part  of  the  central  axis,  but 
gradually  detaches  itself.  When  the  seeds  are  ripe  the  ovary 
raises  itself  into  an  upright  position ;  the  outer  layers  of  the  rod- 
like termination  of  the  seed-capsule  come  to  be  in  a  state  of  great 
tension,  and  eventually  detach  the  rod  with  a  jerk,  and  thus  throw 
the  seed  some  little  distance. 

In  some  species  (G.  Robertianum,  G.  lucidum,  G.  molle, 
G.  pusillum,  G.  2?yrenaicum)  the  carpels  detach  themselves  and 
are  thrown  with  the  seeds.  In  others  {G.  sanguineum,  G.pratense, 
G.  sylvaticum,  G.  columbinum,  G.  dissectum)  the  capsules  remain 
attached  to  the  awn.  The  seeds  are  retained  temporarily  in  place 
by  a  tuft  of  hair. 

In  this  genus  we  get  a  clue  to  the  meaning  of  the  difference  of 
the  texture  of  the  surface  of  seeds.  In  the  first  group,  where  the 
valves  are  thrown  with  the  seeds,  the  surface  of  the  seeds  is  smooth. 
In  the  second  they  are  more  or  less  reticulated,  which  would  make 
them  lighter  and  more  easily  carried  by  wind.  It  might  also  serve 
to  hold  the  seeds  to  the  ground,  and  thus  facilitate  the  exit  of  the 
cotyledons. 

In  Erodium  the  structure  is  somewhat  similar,  but  the  modus 
operandi  is  very  different.  The  capsules  remain  attached  to  the 
awns,  and  closely  envelop  the  seeds.  The  awns  are  twisted,  and 
more  or  less  hygroscopic.  Consequently,  like  those  of  some 
grasses — the  so-called  "  live  oats  "  for  instance,  they  elongate  and 
contract  with  differences  in  humidity.  This  tends  to  press  them 
into  loose  sand  or  earth,  and  as  the  seeds  are  more  or  less  covered 
with  backward-pointing  hairs,  they  can  practically  only  move  in 
one  direction,  so  that  they  are  forced  more  and  more  deeply  into 
the  ground. 

The  seeds  remain  in  the  carpel,  and,  as  in  the  Geranium,  where 
this  is  the  case,  they  are  smooth. 

In  Oxalis  also  the  seeds  are  thrown,  but  the  mechanism  is  quite 
different.  The  force  resides  in  the  seed  itself.  The  capsule,  as  in 
the  preceding  genera,  is  5-chambered,  but  the  walls  are  fleshy, 
except  opposite  the  middle  of  each  chamber,  where  they  are  com- 
paratively thin.  The  outer  coat  of  each  seed  is  a  transparent 
covering,  within  which  is  a  smooth,  hard  black  testa.  The  outer 
coat  contains  four  to  five  layers  of  parenchymatous  cells.  The  cells 
of  the  inner  layer  are  smaller  than  those  of  the  outer,  closely  com- 


284 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


pressed,  and  gradually  becoming  very  turgescent.  This  is  not  the 
case  with  the  outer  layer.  Finally,  the  coat  splits  down  one  side, 
the  inner  cells  expand  at  once,  thus  turning  the  coat  inside  out, 
the  inner  and  now  larger  layer  coming  to  the  outside,  while  the 
originally  outer  layer  is  turned  inwards.  The  result  of  this  is  that 
the  seed  is  jerked  out  to  a  considerable  distance.  Owing  to  the 
elevation  of  the  capsule,  the  seeds  fly  clear  of  the  leaves. 

Lastly,  in  the  Balsam  {Impatiens),  the  dividing  walls  of  the 
5-chambered  capsule  are  thin,  and  eventually  separate  themselves 
from  the  centre,  which  thus  becomes  a  pillar  standing  in  the  middle 
of  the  fruit.  As  the  fruit  dries,  the  cells  immediately  below  the 
epidermis  are  in  a  state  of  gradually  increasing  tension,  more  so 
than  the  layers  below.     Moreover,  while  the  carpels  of  Geranium 


straight,   and   thus 


position  like  that  of  a  watch-spring, 
those  of  Impatiens  turn  slightly  to 
one  side  (the  right),  the  result  of 
which  is  that  in  contracting  they 
resemble  a  corkscrew.  Finally, 
the  fruit  bursts,  the  valves  roll  up 
suddenly  like  a  watch-spring,  and 
fly  off,  carrying  the  seeds  with 
them.  In  this  case,  therefore,  the 
elastic  tissue  is  part  of  the  ovary 
— not,  as  in  the  preceding  genus, 
the  outer  coating  of  the  seed 
itself.* 

Acerace.e. — The  Maples  (Acer- 
aceae)  are  trees,  and  have  winged 
fruits,  which  are  often  carried  by 
the  wind  to  a  considerable  distance. 
PcHAMNACE.e. — Our  British  spe- 
cies of  this  family  (the  Buckthorns) 
are  also  shrubs  or  small  trees,  and 
the  fruit,  as  is  so  often  the  case 
with  small  trees,  is  a  berry.     The  colour  is  black  or  dark  purple. 

Lkguminos.e. — The  ovary  of  the  Peaflower  is  single  1-celled, 
with  one  or  more  seeds  arranged  along  the  inner  or  upper  angle. 
The  fruit  is  a  pod.     The  seeds  as  a  rule  are  smooth. 

With  this  uniformity,  however,  is  combined  much  variety.  In 
some  ( Vicia  hirsuta,  Genista  anglica,  G.  tinctoria,  TJlex,  Ononis, 
Lotus,  Lathyrus  Nissolia,  L.  pratensis,  L.  maritimus)  the  pod  bursts 
open  elastically  and  scatters  the  seeds.     Each  valve  of  the  pod 


Fig.  73.— 1,  Pod  of  Common  Vetch. 
The  line  ab  shows  the  direction 
of  the  woody  fibres.  2,  Pod  of 
Common  Vetch  after  bursting 
open. 


*  Zimmerman  explained  the  dehiscence  by  the  tension  of  the  woody  layer ; 
Steinbrinck,  by  the  difference  between  the  tension  of  the  woody  layer  and  of  the 
outer  epidermis,  which  is  also  Eichholz'  view.  (Pringsheim's  Jahr.  Wiss.  Bot. 
xvii.,  1886.) 


The  President's  Address.     By  Lord  Avebury, 


•jsr, 


contains  a  layer  of  woody  cells,  which  however  do  not  pass  straight 
up  the  pod,  but  are  more  or  less  inclined  to  the  axis.  When  the 
pod  bursts  it  does  not,  as  already  described  in  Gardamine,  roll  up 
like  a  watch-spring,  but  twists  itself  more  or  less  like  a  corkscrew 
(fig.  73). 

In  a  thicket  of  Furze  in  dry    bright   weather   a   continuous 
crackling  may  be  heard.     In  many  genera  the  pods  do  not  open. 


Fig.  74. — Trifolium  subterraneum.  Shoot  showing  huds  at  end, 
and  three  older  flower-heads,  which  are  turned  down  and 
beginning  to  bury  themselves. 

Some  are  provided  (Medicayo)  with  hooks  and  spines  and  are 
carried  away  by  animals  ;  in  other  species  of  Medicayo  the  pods  are 
curled  in  several  close  spires,  thus  forming  balls  or  wheels,  which 
are  rolled  along  the  ground,  especially  in  hot  dry  countries,  by  the 
wind. 

Several  foreign  species  of  Leguminosa?  (Arachis  hypoycea,  Vicia 
amphicarpa,  Lathyrvs  amphicarpa,  etc.)  have  a  similar  habit.     In 
Astrayalus  the  dorsal  suture  is  inflected, 
while   in    the  allied    genus    Oxytropis  the 
ventral  suture  is  inflected. 

Ornithopus  and  Hippocrepis  have  many- 
seeded  pods,  and  between  each  two  seeds  is 
a  constriction  which  acts  like  a  hook.  In 
Trifolium  dubium  and  T.  filiforme  the  style 
is  persistent  and  hooked.  In  T.  frayi- 
ferum  and  T.  rcsupinatum  the  calyx  is 
inflated,  and  persistent,  thus  probably  assist- 
ing in  dispersal  by  wind.  T.  subterraneum, 
a  low  white-flowered  species  which  is  be- 
coming common  on  golf-courses,  buries 
its  seeds,  which,  as  in  other  similar  cases, 
(figs.  74,  75). 

EosacE/E. — From  our  present  point  of  view  the  Eose  family 
may  be  divided  into  those  with  a  succulent,  and  those  with  a  dry 
fruit.  To  the  former  belong  Primus,  Bubus,  Frayaria,  Bosa, 
Cratccyus,  and  Cotoneaster;  to  the  latter,  Spiraea,  Dry  as,  Geum. 
Potentilla,  Alchemilla,  Ayrimonia,  and  Poterium. 


Fig.  75.— Trifolium  sub- 
terraneum. Flower- 
head,  slightly  mag- 
nified. 

are   few   in  number 


286  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

In  the  first  group  the  fruits  are  adapted  for  dissemination 
by  animals,  and  especially  by  birds.  The  seeds  have  very  generally 
a  hard  or  bony  covering,  so  that  when  the  fruit  is  eaten  they 
pass  away  uninjured. 

In  strictness  it  is  not,  however,  quite  correct  to  say,  as  regards 
the  whole  of  the  first  division,  that  the  "  fruit "  is  pulpy.  In  the 
Strawberry,  for  instance,  what  we  call  the  fruit  is  rather  the  enlarged 
receptacle.  The  true  fruits  are  what  we  generally  regard  as  the 
seeds.  The  hips  of  the  Eose,  again,  are  an  enlarged  and  deeply 
concave  receptacle,  on  the  inner  face  of  which  the  true  fruits,  or 
achenes,  are  inserted.  The  seeds  are  protected  both  by  the  outer 
woody  structure  of  the  achenes,  and  by  the  stiff  hairs  with  which 
they  are  covered.  The  haws  of  the  Thorns  differ  from  the  hips  of 
Eoses  in  being  more  or  less  adherent  to  the  bony  mass  in  the 
centre. 

In  the  Pear  and  Apple  the  cartilaginous  carpels  are  completely 
inclosed  in  a  firm  and  fleshy  receptacle.  In  all  these  cases  the  true 
seeds  are  practically  smooth. 

The  fruit  of  the  Easpberry  and  Blackberry  is  quite  different 
from  that  of  the  Strawberry.  The  outer  coat  of  the  acheue  is 
sweet  and  juicy,  and  is  the  part  for  the  sake  of  which  the  fruit 
is  eaten.  The  receptacle,  which  is  the  delight  in  the  Strawberry, 
is  in  the  Easpberry  the  white,  fleshy,  but  not  sweet,  central  cone, 
which  we  leave  behind. 

In  the  dry-fruited  Eosaceee  the  achenes  of  Dryas  terminate  in 
a  persistent,  feathery  style,  and  are  adapted  for  dispersal  by  wind. 

Geum  montanum  has  a  similar  feather.  In  our  common  Geum 
urbanum  the  carpels  are  hairy  and  terminate  in  a  style,  which 
is  hairy  in  the  middle  and  smooth  at  each  end.  Immediately  below 
the  hairy  tract  a  projection  develops  (fig.  76),  which  gradually 
elongates  and  curves.  Finally,  when  the  seed  is  ripe,  the  upper 
part  of  the  style  detaches  itself  (figs.  77,  78,  79),  so  that  the  fruit 
terminates  in  a  hook,  which  entangles  itself  in  the  hair  of  any 
passing  animal.  It  will  be  seen,  however,  from  the  arrangement 
that  the  fruit  cannot  be  torn  away  until  it  is  ripe.  Any  one 
who  has  walked  through  a  field  where  this  species  flourishes  can 
testify  to  the  effective  manner  in  which  the  achenes  attach  them- 
selves to  a  passing  animal. 

Potentilla  Fragariastrum  remarkably  resembles  the  Strawberry, 
and  differs  mainly  in  the  absence  of  the  fleshy  receptacle. 

Some  of  the  foreign  species  have  winged  seeds,  and  are  evidently 
adapted  for  dispersal  by  the  wind. 

OxAGRARiEiE. — In  this  family  we  have  six  British  genera,  which 
differ  materially  in  the  structure  of  the  fruits  and  the  mode  of 
dispersal  of  the  seeds. 

The  fruit  of  Epilobium  is  a  pod,  which  opens  from  above 
downwards.     The  seeds  are  numerous,  and  at  the  upper  end  have 


The  President's  Address.     By  Lord  Avebury. 


287 


a  tuft  of  long,  silky,  white  hairs.  They  are  therefore  adapted  to  be 
driven  by  the  wind. 

In  Cirecea,  the  Enchanter's  Nightshade,  the  fruit  is  obovoid, 
1-2-celled,  with  one  seed  in  each  cell,  conforming  to  the  interior 
of  the  cell.  The  fruit  is  covered  with  bristly,  spreading,  hooked 
hairs.  They  would  thus,  with  the  seed  in  them,  be  carried  away 
by  passing  animals.  When  the  fruit  is  ripe  the  pedicel  turns 
downwards.     It  is  thickened  and  articulated  at  the  base. 

The  other  three  genera  are  aquatic  plants,  with  small  seeds. 
They  are  probably  carried  with  mud  by  birds  from  one  pond  to 
another. 


t> 


(&S 


Fig.  76. 


Fig.  77. 


Fig. 78. 


Fig.  79. 


Figs.  76-79. —  Geum  urbanum.     Fig.  76,  young  style;  Fig.  77,  older; 
Fig.  78,  still  older  ;  Fig.  79,  ripe  fruit. 


Cucurbit  a  CEiE. — Our  only  British  species  of  this  family  is  the 
Common  Bryony.  The  fruit  is  a  berry,  red  or  orange  in  colour,  and 
the  leaves  are  deciduous.  This  accords  with  the  suggestion  made 
already. 

The  seeds  are  flat  and  nearly  orbicular. 

Crassulace^e. — The  seeds  are  generally  small,  and  therefore 
easily  carried  by  the  wind.  They  adhere  also  to  almost  any 
surface. 

KiBESiACEiE. — The  fruits  are  berries  with  more  or  less  sweet 
juice.     The  seeds  are  suspended  on  long  stalks. 

SaxifragacE;E. — The  fruit  is  a  capsule,  which,  as  in  so  many 
cases,  opens  at  the  top,  so  that  the  seeds  are  jerked  out  by  the 
wind.  As  a  rule  they  are  very  small.  Those  of  S.  o]jpositifolia  are 
decidedly  papillous,  which  would  tend  to  make  them  adhere  the 
more  closely  to  the  fur  of  animals. 

In  Parnassia  and  Drosera,  as  in  some  other  plants  of  a  similar 
habit  (Narthecium,  etc.),  the  testa  is  spongy  and  loose  in  texture. 


288  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

This  would  make  it  lighter  and  enable  it  to  float,  or  perhaps 
prevent  it  from  sinking  too  deeply  into  the  herbage  of  the  Sphagnum 
in  which  it  so  often  lives. 

Each  of  our  species  of  Drosera  differs  somewhat  from  the  others 
in  the  texture  of  the  surface  of  the  seeds.  There  must,  I  suppose, 
be  some  reasons  for  these  differences,  but  they  are  not  very 
apparent. 

In  D.  intermedia  the  seeds  are  densely  covered  with  small 
elevated  points,  as  in  some  species  of  Arenaria,  Silene,  and  other 
Caryophylleae.     These  would,  no  doubt,  lighten  the  seeds. 

Umbellifeile. — There  are  two  carpels,  coherent  into  a  2-celled 
ovary,  each  cell  containing  one  ovule,  suspended  from  the  top. 
The  fruit  is  2-celled,  dividing  into  two  portions  (mericarps)  often 
suspended  at  the  top  of  single  or  double  axis.  The  surface  has 
ten  ridges,  sometimes  produced  into  wings.  The  furrows  between 
the  main  elevations  are  sometimes  occupied  by  subordinate  ridges. 
The  seed  is  pendulous.  The  fruit  is  often  compressed  ;  sometimes 
laterally,  in  which  case  a  slice  cut  through  the  seed  has  an  oval 
form,  the  division  being  across  the  narrow  diameter.  When  the 
compression  is  from  back  to  front,  the  division  is  across  the 
broadest  diameter.  In  this  order  the  seeds  are  comparatively 
uniform,  and  the  main  differences  occur  in  the  fruits. 

The  fruits  are  dry  and  in  some  cases  eaten  by  birds,  but  the 
principal  modes  of  dispersal  are  by  hooks  or  wings. 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  these  different  methods  of 
dispersal  would  have  prevailed  in  different  groups  of  the  order. 
As,  however,  we  have  seen  in  other  cases,  this  is  not  the  case. 
Hooks,  for  instance,  occur  in  several  genera  (Sanicula,  Anthriscus, 
JDaucus,  Caucalis)  by  no  means  nearly  allied.  Anthriscus  vulgaris, 
for  instance,  in  which  the  carpels  are  armed  with  hooked  bristles, 
is  so  nearly  allied  to  Chcerophyllum  temulum  and  G.  sylvestre  that 
Bentham  in  the  "  Handbook  of  the  British  Flora  "  places  it  in  the 
same  genus  as  C.  Anthriscus. 

In  Eryngium  the  carpels  are  covered  with  chaffy  scales,  which 
are  longest  on  the  primary  ridges.  These  would  serve  to  lighten 
the  fruit,  but  they  would  also  help  to  entangle  them  in  the  fur  of 
animals. 

In  other  cases  the  persistent  styles  are  recurved,  forming 
hooks  which  would  serve  for  the  same  purpose  [uEgoptodium,  Slum, 
Pimpinclla). 

Winged  fruits  occur  in  Angelica,  Smyrnium,  Crithmum, 
Myrrhis,  Sium,  etc.     These,  as  we  should  expect,  are  glabrous. 

In  Scandix  Pecten-veneris  the  fruit  is  developed  into  a  long 
beak,  and  when  the  bases  of  the  carpels  split  away,  they  diverge 
widely.  Perhaps  this  facilitates  their  being  torn  off  by  any  passing 
animals. 

The  aquatic  species,  as  usual,  are  glabrous.  In  some  Umbellifers, 


The  President's  Address.     By  Lord  Avebury.  289 

especially   those   of  dry   regions,    the   seeds    are   extraordinarily 
light. 

Araliace.^e. — Of  this  order  we  have  only  one  species,  the  Ivy, 
Hedera  Helix.  It  is  as  a  rule  the  last  of  our  English  species  to 
flower.  The  fruit  is  a  black,  5-celled  berry,  with  one  seed  in  each 
cell.  These  are  somewhat  irregular  in  form,  convex  on  the  back, 
and  wedge-shaped  from  being  arranged  round  a  centre,  so  that  the 
five  together  form  a  sphere. 

LokanthacE/E. — The  fruit  of  this  interesting  plant  is  also  a 
berry,  the  Mistletoe  (Viscum),  and  no  doubt  is  intended  for  dis- 
persal by  birds.  It  is  white,  and  contains  a  single  seed  imbedded 
in  a  peculiarly  glutinous  pulp,  which  serves  to  make  it  adhere  to 
the  bark  of  any  branch  on  which  it  is  deposited.  For  seeds  which 
rest  on  the  ground  such  a  provision  would  be  unnecessary. 

CoRXACEyE. — The  fruit  of  the  Cornels  is,  in  ordinary  language, 
a  berry,  but  technically  it  is  a  drupe,  i.e.  a  berry  in  which  the 
"  pericarp  "  consists  of  two  distinct  layers,  the  outer  one  fleshy  or 
pulpy,  the  inner  one  dry  and  cartilaginous  or  woody.  This  layer 
is,  in  Comus,  very  hard,  and  no  doubt  effectually  protects  the  seeds 
when  the  fruit  is  eaten.     It  is  2-celled,  with  one  seed  in  each  cell. 

The  fruit  of  C.  sanguinea  is  black,  and  thus  conspicuous  against 
the  leaves,  which  are  a  bright  red  in  autumn.  C.  suecica  has  red 
fruit. 

Caprifoliace^e. — The  fruit  is  a  berry,  generally  1 -seeded,  green 
in  Adoxa,  but  generally  either  red  or  black.  The  fruits  are  evi- 
dently intended  for  dissemination  by  birds,  and  the  actual  seeds 
are  protected  as  usual  in  such  cases  by  the  hardness  of  the  inner 
coat  or  "  endocarp." 

In  the  Honeysuckle  the  divisions  of  the  cells  soften  or  dis- 
appear. 

Stellat.e. — Of  this  family,  or  sub-family,  we  have  four  genera. 

In  Bubia  the  fruit  is  a  small,  black,  2-lobed  berry. 

In  the  large  genus  Galium,  G.  Crucictta  has  almost  succulent 
fruits.  In  others,  for  instance  G.  boreale  and  G.  Aparine  (Cleavers), 
the  fruits  are  hooked.  With  the  exception  of  G.  boreale,  which  has 
hooked  bristles  on  the  fruit,  the  perennial  species  are  smooth, 
while  the  annual  species  have  reversed  spines  or  hooks,  if  not  on 
the  fruit,  at  any  rate  on  the  stems.  I  am  inclined  to  suggest  that 
parts  of  the  plant  are  torn  off  and  carried  away,  the  fruits,  of  course, 
going  with  them.  In  G.  tricomc  the  pedicels  are  turned  back,  and 
thus  form  a  hook. 

The  rough  fruits  of  Sherardiu  are  surmounted  by  the  enlarged 
calyx,  which  has  spreading  teeth. 

SolanacEtE. — The  Solanacepe  have  two  carpels,  cohering  into  a 
two-celled  ovary.  The  fruit  is  technically  a  capsule,  a  berry  either 
dry  or  pulpy,  or  a  "  pyxidium,"  i.e.  a  box  with  transverse  dehiscence, 
as  in  the  Pimpernel. 

June  17th,  1908  x 


290  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

In  two  of  our  four  English  genera,  Solanum  and  Atropa,  the 
fruit  is  a  many-seeded  berry. 

In  Solanum  the  fruits  are  deeply,  but  finely  pitted  and  rugose, 
and  are  no  doubt  scattered  by  birds  when  eating  the  pulpy  fruit. 
In  S.  nigrum  the  fruit  is  black.  In  S.  Dulcamara,  which  has  a 
climbing  or  straggling  habit,  they  are  red  and  very  conspicuous  in 
autumn  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf.  On  the  Continent  they  are  some- 
times black,  sometimes  red,  sometimes  yellow  or  yellowish-green, 
and  are  said  to  come  true  from  seed.  Atropa  Belladonna  has  a 
rather  large,  black  berry. 

In  Datura  Stramonium  the  fruit  is  a  large,  globular,  prickly 
capsule,  which  opens  at  the  top.  The  seeds  are  large,  numerous, 
and  wrinkled,  flattened  by  mutual  pressure,  and  black. 

In  our  fourth  genus,  the  Henbane  {Hyoscyamus  niger)  the 
fruit  is  also  a  capsule.  It  is  crowned  by  the  persistent  and  en- 
larged calyx,  which  forms  a  cup,  from  which  the  seeds  are  gradually 
scattered  by  the  wind,  when  the  cap  of  the  capsule  has  been 
thrown  off.  The  seeds  are  numerous,  laterally  much  compressed, 
reniform,  and  approximately  orbicular,  but  varying  a  good  deal  in 
shape  and  size.     They  are  somewhat  deeply  pitted. 

Valeriane;e. — The  fruit  is  small,  dry,  and  seed-like,  3-celled, 
each  with  one  ovule,  two  of  winch,  however,  come  to  nothing.  The 
empty  cells,  no  doubt,  serve  to  lighten  the  seed.  In  Centranthu 
and  Valeriana  the  border  of  the  calyx  develops  into  a  beautiful 
feathery  pappus.  In  Valerianella.  there  is  no  pappus.  The  fertile 
cell  is  larger  than  the  others.  The  fruits  present  curious  little 
differences  in  the  different  species. 

DiPSACEiE. — In  this  order,  which  is  very  nearly  allied  to  the 
Valerianese,  though  in  appearance  more  nearly  resembling  Com- 
posites, we  have  two  genera,  Dipsacus  and  Scabiosa.  In  Dipsacus 
the  bracts  surrounding  the  flower-head  form  a  sort  of  cup  surround- 
ing the  seeds,  and  from  which  they  are  ejected.  In  the  Fuller's 
Teasel,  which  is  generally  regarded  as  a  mere  variety  of  D.  sylvcstris, 
but  the  origin  of  which  is  not  known,  the  scales  are  hooked. 

In  Scabiosa  the  calyx  terminates  in  fine  bristles,  which  must 
often  get  entangled  in  the  hairs  and  wool  of  passing  animals. 

Composite. — Of  this  great  family  we  have  nearly  fifty  British 
genera.  As  to  the  number  of  species,  there  are  great  differences 
of  opinion.  This  is  due  in  great  measure  to  the  difficulty  of 
determining  the  number  of  species  in  the  very  complex  and 
variable  genus  Hieracium.  The  ovary  is  inferior,  1-celled, 
1-ovuled.  The  fruit  is  always  dry ;  it  is  an  "  achene,"  generally 
sessile,  sometimes  provided  with  a  long  beak. 

The  modes  of  dispersal  of  the  seeds,  or,  to  speak  more  techni- 
cally, the  achenes,  are  very  various.  When  they  are  small,  as  in 
the  Daisy,  they  probably  adhere  to  the  feet  of  animals,  especially 
in  wet  weather.     In  many  cases,  no  doubt,  they  are  carried  by 


s 


The  President's  Address.     By  Lord  Avebtiry.  291 

birds.  In  Bidens  the  achenes  terminate  in  barbed  bristles.  In  the 
Burdocks  {Arctium)  the  bracts  surrounding  the  flower-head  are 
strongly  hooked  at  the  apex,  and  evidently  arranged  so  that  the 
whole  head  should  be  carried  away  by  some  passing  animal. 

In  a  large  proportion  of  the  species  the  achenes  are  distributed 
by  the  wind  in  consequence  of  the  presence  of  a  pappus.  In  some 
cases  it  is  but  slightly  developed.  In  Arctium  it  has  possibly 
degraded,  being  replaced  by  the  hooked  barbs. 

Other  genera  possibly  represent  cases  in  which  it  is  even  now 
being  evolved.  In  Centaurea,  for  instance,  it  is  short,  and  cannot 
be  very  efficient. 

In  many  genera,  however,  it  is  highly  and  beautifully  developed. 
The  hairs  of  the  pappus  are  in  some  species  simple,  and  in  others, 
which  seem  to  represent  the  highest  development,  plumose. 

The  life-history  of  the  plant  seems  often  arranged  with  refer- 
ence to  them.  In  the  common  Dandelion  the  bud  lies  prostrate  on 
the  ground ;  when  the  florets  are  ready  to  open,  the  flower-stalk 
raises  itself  so  as  to  get  all  the  sun,  and  be  as  conspicuous  as 
possible  to  insects.  Every  evening  and  in  wet  weather  it  closes,  so 
as  to  preserve  its  precious  charge  from  too  much  wet.  I  once  kept 
one  awake,  however,  all  night  by  keeping  it  in  the  light  of  an 
Argand  lamp.  When  the  flower  is  fertilised,  the  stalk  once  more 
becomes  horizontal,  or  nearly  so,  thus  endeavouring  to  avoid  the 
dangers  which  might  befall  it  if  it  remained  upright  while  the  seeds 
were  maturing.  This  takes  about  a  fortnight,  and  when  the  seeds 
are  ripe  the  flower-stalk  again  rises  perpendicularly,  thus  assum- 
ing the  position  most  favourable  to  assist  in  the  dispersal  of  the 
achenes  by  the  wind.  Where  the  grass  is  short,  as  for  instance  on 
lawns,  the  intelligent  plant  keeps  its  flower-stalk  also  short ! 

In  the  Dandelion  {Taraxacum),  the  Lettuce  {Lactuca),  and 
some  others,  the  achenes  terminate  in  a  long  beak.  The  object  of 
this,  perhaps,  may  be  to  carry  the  upper  end  further  from  the 
disk  of  the  flower-head,  and  thus  give  more  space  for  the  expansion 
of  the  pappus. 

In  the  species  hitherto  mentioned,  the  seeds  are  all  alike. 

In  Leontodon  hirtus,  however,  most  of  the  fruits  have  a  well- 
developed  pappus  ;  but  those  of  the  outer  row  have  none. 

In  Hypochceris  glabra  the  pappus  of  the  outer  florets  is  sessile, 
while  the  inner  ones  are  on  a  long  beak. 

The  common  Calendula.  (Marigold)  (fig.  80)  of  our  gardens  is 
an  even  more  interesting  case.  Three  devices  for  dispersal  are 
united  in  each  head.  The  outer  achenes  (fig.  81)  are  narrow,  and 
bent  into  a  curve  forming  three  parts  of  a  circle,  and  well  adapted 
to  hang  on  to  the  fur  of  any  passing  animal.  Then  follow  a 
certain  number  which  are  puffed  out  with  wide  wings  (fig.  82),  and 
are  evidently  intended  for  dispersal  by  wind.  Towards  the  centre 
the  achenes  are  smaller,  and  much  resemble  small  green  or  brown 

X  2 


292 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


caterpillars  (fig.  82).  These,  it  has  been  suggested,  are  picked  up 
by  birds,  and  then  dropped  when  they  discover  their  mistake. 
Between  the  extreme  types  there  are  many  intermediate  forms. 


Side  view. 


Front  view. 


Section. 

Hooked  form.  Winged  form.  Grub-like  form. 

Fig.  80.  Fig.  81.  Fig.  82. 

Figs.  80-82. — Seeds  of  Calendula  officinalis,  showing  various  forms. 

Ericaceae. — The  fruit  is  a  capsule,  a  berry,  or  a  drupe.  The 
ovary  has  generally  as  many  cells  as  the  lobes  of  the  corolla,  with 
one  to  many  seeds  in  each. 

The  genera  with  berries  are  Vaccinium,  Aroutus,  and  Arcto- 
staphylus.  Vaccinium,  Vitis-idaza,  V.  Oxycoccus,  and  Aroutus  Unedo 
have  red  berries  and  evergreen  leaves.  Vaccinium  Myrtillus, 
V.  uliginosum,  and  Arctostaphylus  alpina,  have  black  berries  and 
deciduous  leaves,  in  accordance  with  the  general  rule. 

In  the  remaining  genera,  Andromeda,  Loiseleuria  (Azalea), 
Mcnziesia,  Calluna,  Erica,  Pyrola,  and  Monotropa,  the  fruit  is  a 
capsule.  The  seeds  are  small.  In  Monotropa,  as  in  so  many 
parasites,  the  seeds  are  very  small.  They  are  nearly  cylindrical, 
and  covered  with  a  loose  testa,  produced  at  both  ends. 

In  Andromeda  Polifolia  the  seeds  are  black  and  glossy,  as  is  so 
often  the  case  in  species  where  this  arrangement  prevails.  Those 
of  Calluna  are  reticulated  and  light. 

CAMPANULACEiE. — The  fruit  is  a  capsule,  with  many-seeded 
cells.  The  seeds  are  numerous  and  minute,  and,  as  in  other  cases, 
are  jerked  out  by  the  wind  or  by  passing  animals.     In  the  latter 


The  President's  Address.      By  Lord  Avebury.  293 

case  they  would  readily  adhere  to  the  fur,  and  so  be  carried  away. 
In  some  species  of  the  genus  Campanula  the  capsule  opens  as 
usual  at  the  top  or  near  the  top  (C  Bapunculus,  C.patula,  C.persici- 
folia,  C.  cenisia,  C.  hybrida,  etc.)  In  others,  on  the  contrary,  the 
openings  are  at  or  near  the  base  (C.  rapunculoides,  C.  rotundifolia, 
C.  Trachelium,  C.  latifolia,  C.  Medium,  etc.  I  have  suggested  as 
the  explanation  of  the  difference  that  in  the  former  species,  how- 
ever, the  capsules  are  upright,  in  the  latter  group  they  hang  down. 
In  both  cases,  therefore,  the  openings  are  at  the  upper  end,  so  that 
the  seeds  cannot  drop,  but  must  be  shaken  out. 

Pklmulace^;. — The  fruit  is  a  one-celled  capsule,  containing 
more  or  less  numerous  seeds. 

In  Primida,  Lysimachia,  Cyclamen,  and  Samolus,  it  opens  at 
the  top  ;  in  Anagallis  and  Centunculus  transversely,  the  upper  half 
becoming  detached,  leaving    the  seeds  in  a  sort  of   cup.     Along 


sztSt 


Fig.  83. — Anagallis  arvensis.     Wall  of  the  capsule, 
c  c,  elongated  cells  along  the  line  of  dehiscence. 

the  line  of  dehiscence  (fig.  83)  the  cells  are  elongated  transversely, 
and  are  but  slightly  attached  to  one  another,  while  above  and 
below  they  present  irregular  outlines,  which  tend  to  keep  them 
together. 

The  seeds  are  attached  to  the  receptacle  by  their  ventral  face, 
while  the  outer  one  is  rounded  or  flattened  by  the  walls  of  the 
capsule.     They  are  more  or  less  pitted. 

Aquifoliace^e. — The  holly  is  a  typical  berry-bearing  tree.  If  we 
speak  of  a  berry,  the  holly  is  one  of  the  first  we  think  of.  Botanic- 
ally,  however,  the  fruit  is  a  drupe  rather  than  a  berry.  The  ovary 
is  3-5,  generally  4-celled,  with  one  seed  in  each  cell. 

The  fruit  is  red,  as  usual  with  evergreens,  and  we  all  know 
how  they  show  up  against  the  green  leaves. 

Lentibulariace^e. — Fruit,  a  capsule.     "We  have   two   genera, 


294  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Pinguicula  and  Utricularia  (plate  IV.  fig.  2).  The  seeds  of  Pin- 
guicula  are  relatively  large,  oblong,  terete  or  nearly  so,  with  a 
furrow  on  one  side  corresponding  to  the  raphe,  netted,  with  the 
meshes  in  longitudinal  lines,  light  brown  and  shining.  They  are 
slightly  prolonged  at  the  base  and  the  funiculus  is  partly  persistent. 

They  are  very  light  and  adhere  readily  to  the  fingers,  so  that 
they  could  often  be  carried  away  by  any  animal  treading  on  them. 

The  British  Utricularias  are  all  water-plants,  celebrated  for 
their  curious  "  eel  traps,"  which  serve  to  capture  minute  water- 
animals.     The  seeds  are  small,  oblong  and  striated. 

Jasmixace^e. — The  structure  of  the  fruit  presents  again,  in  this 
family,  great  differences.  In  some  genera  it  is  a  capsule,  in  others 
a  berry. 

We  have  two  genera,  Fraxinus,  the  Ash,  with  dry  capsules, 
commonly  called  keys,  which,  including  the  wing,  are  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  length,  thin  and  light,  so  that  they  are  easily 
carried  by  the  wind.  They  have  a  slight  twist,  as  in  other  similar 
fruits,  and  this  probably  tends  to  carry  them  further. 

Such  winged  fruits  are  very  typical  of  high  trees.  On  the  other 
hand,  our  second  genus  of  the  family,  Ligustrum  (the  Privet),  like 
so  many  other  bushes  and  low  trees,  has  a  berry  fruit.  In  the 
early  stages  there  are  two  ovules  in  each  cell,  but,  as  in  so  many 
other  cases,  only  one  comes  to  maturity. 

The  fruit  is  black,  and  the  leaves  nearly  evergreen.  It  is 
evidently  intended  to  be  eaten  by  birds,  and  the  embryo  is  pro- 
bably protected  by  the  hard  endosperm. 

Apocynaceje. — The  fruit  consists  of  two  oblong  or  elongated 
capsules  or  follicles,  each  of  a  single  cell,  diverging  as  they  ripen. 

Vinca  minor,  the  lesser  Periwinkle,  is  the  only  truly  British 
species.  It  has  oblong-cylindrical  seeds,  terminated  abruptly  at 
each  end.  They  are  probably  disseminated  by  birds  and  small 
quadrupeds. 

Geistianace^e. — Fruit  a  capsule,  dehiscing  along  the  margins 
of  the  carpels ;  many-seeded.  The  fruit  is  generally  a  capsule,  but 
sometimes,  though  not  in  British  genera,  a  berry.  The  capsules  of 
Limnanthemum,  as  in  some  other  water-plants,  sink  below  the 
surface  while  the  seeds  are  ripening.  As  in  so  many  seeds  which 
are  intended  to  be  scattered  from  capsules,  those  of  Gentiana 
Amarella  are  pitted  and  glossy. 

Polemoniace;E. — The  fruit  is  a  3-celled  capsule,  opening  by 
three  valves  opposite  the  middle  of  the  cells.  The  seeds  have  a 
narrow  wing,  but  are  probably  more  effectively  dispersed  by  being 
jerked  from  the  capsule. 

CoNVOLVULACEyE. — The  fruit  is  either  a  capsule,  with  valves 
detaching  from  the  septum,  or  a  berry.  In  most  of  our  species 
there  are  four  seeds,  each  forming  a  quarter  of  a  sphere,  so  as  to 
fill  up  the  capsule. 


The  President's  Address.      By  Lord  Avehcry.  295 

We  have  two  genera — very  different  in  habit  and  appearance. 
Convolvulus  has  an  indehiscent  capsule.  In  C.  sepium  the  seeds 
are  rather  large  and  heavy.  In  the  smaller  species  we  have  a 
somewhat  rare  case,  the  form  of  the  capsule  depending  on  the 
number  of  seeds  which  are  fertilised.  If  the  capsule  has  its  full 
complement  of  four  seeds,  it  is  4-angled. 

In  Cuscuta  europcea  (the  dodder)  the  capsule  bursts  transversely 
at  the  base.  It  seems  probable  that  the  long,  filiform,  twisted  and 
curling  stems  often  get  torn  away  by  passing  animals,  carrying  the 
seeds  with  them. 

Boragine^e. — The  ovary  as  a  rule  is  deeply  4-lobed,  with  a 
simple  style  inserted  in  the  centre.  The  fruit  consists  of  four 
small  nuts,  resembling  seeds,  and  inclosed  in,  or  surrounded  by, 
the  calyx. 

In  Symphytum  the  seeds  are  hard,  smooth,  and  polished,  resem- 
bling small  pebbles.  They  are  probably  distributed  partly  by 
water  and  partly  by  birds.  Those  of  Lithospenmini  are  similar,  and 
in  L.  officinale  bright  blue,  which  makes  them  very  conspicuous. 
Birds  are  fond  of  them,  and,  as  they  are  so  slippery,  must  often  drop 
them  about. 

In  Myosotis,  the  Forget-me-not,  the  calyx  tube  contracts  more  or 
less  over  the  nutlets,  so  that  they  generally  remain  for  some  time 
together.  The  species  may  be  divided  into  three  groups.  In  M. 
ccespitosa,  M.  palustris,  and  M.  repens,  the  hairs  on  the  calyx  are 
straight  and  depressed.  The  nutlets  readily  adhere  to  the  fingers, 
and  may  probably  thus  be  carried  about  by  animals. 

In  M.  versicolor,  M.  arvensis,  and  M.  collina,  this  is  evidently 
the  case.  The  calyx  is  covered  with  bristly  hairs,  many  of  which 
are  hooked.  They  cling  tenaciously  to  any  woolly  or  rough  surface. 
In  M.  sylvatica  there  are  three  kinds  of  hairs,  adpressed  and  short, 
long  and  arching,  while  some  are  hooked  and  of  intermediate 
length. 

The  most  highly  modified  fruits  in  this  direction  are  those  of 
the  Hound's-tongue,  Cynoglossum.  The  nutlets  separate  from  the 
receptacle,  and  only  remain  attached  to  the  central  axis  by  the 
produced  upper  ends,  which  makes  them  more  liable  to  be  carried 
away  by  animals.  Tins  is  still  further  promoted  by  the  fact  that 
the  nutlets  are  densely  covered  with  conical,  "  glochidiate,"  or 
many-barbed  warts,  which  readily  catch  in,  and  hold  tight  to  any 
woolly  or  rough  surface. 

OROBANCHACEiE. — The  Orobanchacese  are  all  parasitic,  and,  as 
is  usual  in  such  cases,  the  seeds  are  small,  in  some  species  so  small 
as  to  resemble  dust.  The  fruit  is  a  capsule.  Green  leaves  are 
entirely  wanting. 

ScrophulariaceyE. — The  fruit  is  generally  a  capsule,  sometimes, 
however,  though  rarely,  and  not  in  any  of  our  British  species,  a 
berry.     The  seeds  are  generally  more  or  less  sculptured,  though 


296  Tin  a  suctions  of  the  Society. 

some  are  smooth.  These  are  generally  quite  small.  Those  of  some 
species  of  Linaria  (L.  vulgaris,  L.  Pelisseriana)  and  Rhinantft/us 
Grista-galli  are  winged.  In  Linaria  Cylribalaria,  which  lives 
habitually  on  walls,  the  flowers  face  outwards,  but  after  they  are 
fertilised  the  flower-stalks  turn  towards  the  wall,  thus  tending  to 
protect  the  seeds  and  often  to  sow  them  in  some  cranny.  They 
are  ridged  and  very  light,  so  as  to  be  easily  carried  about  by  the 
wind.  In  other  species  of  Linaria  the  capsules  open  at  the  top, 
and  the  seeds  are  jerked  out  by  the  wind,  as  is  also  the  case  with 
those  of  the  Foxglove  {Digitalis  'purpurea). 

The  seeds  of  Veronica  are  peltate,  being  attached  to  the  placenta 
by  the  middle.  In  some  species  they  are  deeply  cup-shaped,  owing 
to  the  curvature  of  the  edges,  so  as  to  occupy  all  the  space  available 
in  the  cells  of  the  capsule.  This  makes  them  very  light,  and  thus 
esily  carried  by  wind  (plate  IV.  fig.  3).  The  species  differ  much 
in  the  size  of  the  seed,  those  of  the  aquatic  species  being  very 
small. 

In  the  Snapdragon  the  seeds  are  covered  with  high  longitudinal 
ridges.  These  would  serve  to  lighten  them,  and  perhaps  tend  to 
protect  them  from  being  eaten,  as  well  as  against  great  cold.  A 
similar  arrangement  occurs  in  some  foreign  species,  notably,  for 
instance,  in  Maurandia  Barclayana. 

Those  of  Euphrasia  are  of  an  unusual  type.  They  are  large, 
oblong,  narrowed  to  both  ends,  flattened  on  one  side  and  ribbed 
longitudinally.     The  ribs  are  greyish. 

Mclampyrvm  offers  a  very  interesting  case.  The  seeds  mimic 
the  cocoons  of  ants.  They  are  of  the  same  form,  size,  and  colour, 
white  with  a  black  spot  at  one  end.  I  have  observed  that  they  are, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  carried  away  by  ants,  being,  I  think,  taken  for 
cocoons  (plate  IV.  fig.  4). 

Labiate. — Ovary  of  two  carpels,  each  with  two  cells,  free 
or  in  pairs.  Fruit  consisting  of  four  achene-like  lobes  or 
nutlets. 

The  fruit  of  the  Labiatse  recalls  that  of  the  Boraginere.  As  in 
that  order,  it  consists  of  four  nutlets,  which,  however,  in  the 
Labiatse  are  as  a  rule  smaller,  and  do  not  present  so  many  differ- 
ences. They  closely  resemble,  and  are  often  taken  for  seeds.  The 
calyx  in  the  Labiate  is  either  small  or  tubular,  and  the  base  is 
always  narrow.  When  the  nutlets  are  small  they  are  more  or  less 
spherical ;  when  they  are  larger  they  are  often  more  or  less 
trigonous  by  mutual  pressure  (plate  IV.  figs.  5a,  5b). 

The  nutlets  having  assumed  the  character  and  functions  of 
seeds,  have  also  developed  a  style  of  sculpture  which  is  generally 
confined  to  true  seeds.  They  are  often  netted  or  covered  with 
small  warts. 

Some  of  the  larger  forms  are  remarkable  in  being  variegated  or 
spotted  (Galeopsis  angustifolia,    G.  versicolor,  G.  Tetrahit,  Lamium 


The  President's  Address.      By  Lord  Avebury.  297 

amplexicaule,  L.  hybridum,  etc.)-     No  explanation  of  this  has  yet 
been  suggested. 

Many  species  have  a  ring  of  hairs  in  the  throat.  This  would 
tend  to  protect  the  nutlets  when  young  and  delicate,  but  its 
principal  use  perhaps  may  be  to  prevent  them  from  falling  out, 
unless  thrown  out  by  a  high  wind,  which  of  course  would  increase 
the  distance  to  which  they  would  be  jerked.  It  is  remarkable  that 
in  the  genus  Calamintha,  the  ring  of  hairs  is  present  in  C.  arvensis 
and  C.  officinalis,  but  does  not  occur  in  C.  Clinopodium. 

It  would  almost  seem  as  if  in  some  species — for  instance,  in 
Mentha  rotundifolia  (Mint),  Nepeta  Cataria,  and  in  Marjoram, 
Origanum  vulgare — the  nutlets  are  intended  to  be  dispersed  in  the 
calyx,  and  in  the  latter  species  the  bracts  also  appear  to  aid  in  the 
dispersal.  In  Marrubium  vulgare  the  calyx  has  ten  spinous  teeth, 
one  for  each  rib,  recurved  and  strongly  hooked  at  the  tip. 
Stachys  sylvatica  also  has  recurved  teeth.  In  some  species  the 
calyx  teeth  are  covered  with  long,  bristly  hairs,  which,  besides  their 
usual  function,  may  serve  to  assist  the  dispersal  of  the  seeds.  In 
the  Mint  (Mentha  sylvestris)  the  surface  is  covered  with  little 
points  and  depressions,  and  in  water  absorb  moisture,  and  swell  up 
into  globular,  transparent  sacs. 

In  Salvia  Verbenaca,  and  other  species  of  the  genus,  the  nutlets 
become  mucilaginous  when  wetted.  This  perhaps  may  be  useful 
in  causing  them  to  adhere  to  damp  ground.  In  S.  pratensis  the 
nutlets  when  placed  in  water  emit  long  colourless  filaments,  which 
are  more  or  less  spirally  coiled.  In  &  Horminum  the  mucilaginous 
tissue  in  places  extends  to  half  the  depth  of  the  whole,  and  as  soon 
as  it  comes  in  contact  with  water  it  swells  out  with  great  rapidity, 
increasing  to  many  times  its  original  thickness.  It  develops  into 
thick  threads,  which  move  and,  so  to  say,  wriggle  about  like  so 
many  worms. 

The  Skull-cap  (Scutellaria)  is  so  called  because  the  calyx  bears 
a  curious  resemblance  to  an  ancient  helmet,  with  the  visor  down. 
The  upper  lip  is  closely  pressed  down  on  the  lower  one,  thus  pro- 
tecting the  nutlets.  When  ripe  the  top  of  the  helmet  flies  off 
at  a  touch,  and  the  nutlets  are  at  the  same  time  jerked  away. 

In  Galeopsis  versicolor  the  calyx  has  stiff  glandular  hairs,  which 
would  cause  it  to  be  torn  off  if  brushed  against  by  animals. 
The  seeds  are  large  and  peculiar.  It  is  now  a  weed  of  cultiva- 
tion, but  no  doubt  its  peculiarities  go  back  to  a  period  before  the 
cultivation  of  corn  (plate  IV.  fig.  5a).  The  nutlets  are  large, 
oblong,  bluntly  trigonous  in  the  lower  half,  strongly  rounded  or 
convex  on  the  upper  half  of  the  inner  face,  which  slopes  away  to  the 
ridge  forming  the  two  lateral  edges,  convex  on  the  dorsal  aspect. 
The  surface  is  granular  and  dark  brown,  more  or  less  densely 
marked  with  grey  specks. 

The  nutlets  of  Ajvga  are  also  peculiar.     Those  of  Ajvga  reptans 


298  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

(plate  IV.  figs.  6a,  6b)  are  large  and  strongly  netted,  the  meshes 
beins:  arranged  in  longitudinal  lines.  The  base  of  the  inner 
face  is  angled,  with  a  Hat  crescent-shaped  area  on  either  side  of 
of  the  angle  where  they  come  in  contact  with  one  another.  Those 
of  A.  Chamcepitys  (plate  IV.  figs.  7a,  7a)  are  more  elongated,  united 
for  more  than  half  their  length,  and  prominently  netted  with 
strong,  obtuse  ridges,  the  meshes  being  arranged  in  longitudinal 
lines. 

In  Teucrium  Botrys  (plate  IV.  figs.  8a,  8b)  the  nutlets  are 
globular,  relatively  large,  united  over  a  considerable  area  at  the 
base,  netted  with  broad  ridges,  and  a  deep  pit  in  each  mesh, 
more  or  less  covered  with  sessile  mealy  glands. 

Verbenace^e. — This  family  differs  from  the  preceding  princi- 
pally in  having  the  ovary  entire.  The  fruit  is  four-celled,  with  one 
seed  in  each  cell,  and  at  maturity  separates  into  four  nutlets,  each 
of  which  is  oblong,  truncate  at  the  apex,  four-  to  six-ribbed  on  the 
dorsal  aspect.  The  seed,  which  is  entirely  filled  by  the  embryo, 
closely  conforms  to  the  interior  of  the  nutlet. 

That  of  V.  teucroides  (plate  IV.  fig.  9),  a  native  of  Brazil,  has 
a  somewhat  peculiar  form. 

Plantagixe^e. — The  fruit  is  a  capsule,  opening  transversely,  or 
indehiscent.  The  seeds  are  sometimes  few  and  comparatively 
large,  in  other  species  more  numerous  and  smaller.  Wind  is 
probably  the  principal  agent  in  distribution,  but  birds  feed  on 
them,  and  no  doubt  sometimes  drop  them.  In  some  species 
they  are  mucilaginous. 

Chexopodiace^e. — The  ovary  is  1 -celled.  The  fruit  a  utricle, 
that  is  to  say  the  outer  covering  formed  of  the  ovary,  loosely 
surrounds  the  single  seed,  or  in  some  rare  cases  the  fruit  is  a  berry. 
The  flower  is  often  persistent,  and  incloses  the  fruit.  This  pro- 
bably facilitates  dispersal  by  wind. 

The  seeds  may  be  either  vertical  or  horizontal,  both  forms 
occurring  in  the  same  genus,  and  even  in  the  same  species  (Cheno- 
podium  Bonus- Hcnricus,  C.  ruhrum).  In  this  family  also  we  meet 
cases  where,  as  in  Chenopodium  fcetidum,  the  testa  is  mucilaginous. 

In  Atriplcx  hortensis  there  are  two  kinds  of  seeds.  They  differ 
in  size  and  colour.  The  larger  seeds  are  the  more  numerous. 
Larger  seeds  suborbicular,  laterally  compressed  and  concave  on 
the  sides',  entirely  encircled  by  the  embryo,  which  is  annular  and 
peripheral,  thickest  round  that  edge  containing  the  cotyledons  of 
the  embryo.  Testa  pale  yellowish-brown,  or  testaceous,  thin  but 
tough,  very  shallowly  rugulose  on  the  surface.  The  concavities  at 
the  sides  are  due  to  the  shrinking  of  the  central  endosperm  or  to 
the  fact  of  there  not  being  sufficient  to  fill  the  seed  properly. 

The  smaller  seeds  are  reniform-orbicular  or  simply  orbicular, 
laterally  compressed,  but  biconvex.  Testa  black,  shining  and  show- 
ing itself  through  the  membranous  utriculus,  finely  but  distinctly 


The  President's  Address.     By  Lord  Avebury.  299 

rugose,  very  dark  reddish -brown  by  transmitted  light,  crustaceous 
and  brittle. 

They  are  mixed  indiscriminately  on  the  panicle.  The  large 
brown  ones  germinate  much  more  quickly  than  the  small  black 
ones,  which  would  seem,  under  natural  conditions,  to  be  more 
adapted  to  remain  in  a  resting  condition  in  the  ground  during  the 
winter  and  germinate  in  spring.  If  such  is  the  case  they  would 
enable  the  plant  to  exist  in  a  colder  climate  than  the  large  ones 
would.     The  plant  occurs  in  Britain  as  a  garden  escape. 

Some  fruits  inclosed  in  the  dry  wing-like  perianth  were 
dropped  in  a  tumbler  of  water,  and  all  of  them  floated  for  seven 
days.  At  that  time,  contrary  to  what  might  have  been  expected, 
the  larger  fruits  containing  the  larger-sized  seeds  with  the  thin 
grey  testa  and  covered  by  the  broad  perianth  segments  had  sunk, 
and  the  seeds  had  commenced  to  germinate.  At  the  end  of 
twenty-one  days  many  of  the  seedlings  had  risen  above  the  water, 
and  the  cotyledons,  already  green,  had  commenced  to  expand. 
The  small  black  seeds  with  the  crustaceous  testa,  covered  by  a 
small  perianth,  were  still  floating  after  twenty-one  days,  and  on 
examination  proved  to  be  quite  fresh  and  sound. 

A.  hastata  also  has  two  forms  of  fruit. 

POLYGONACE.E. — Fruit  a  berry,  utricle,  or  nut.  In  our  English 
species  the  fruit  is  a  small,  seed-like  nut,  inclosed  in  the  persistent 
flower,  and  containing  one  seed.  The  prevailing  form  is  trigonous. 
There  are  three  styles,  indicating  the  presence  of  three  carpels. 

The  persistent  perianth  leaves  evidently  serve  as  wings. 

The  sepals  of  the  Docks  {Ilumex)  have  one  or  more,  often  red, 
glands.  These  perhaps  induce  birds  to  carry  them  off,  thinking 
they  may  be  sweet  and  good  to  eat.  The  persistent  sepals  no  doubt 
lighten  the  fruits,  and  in  some  species  are  deeply  toothed  or 
laciniate,  which  would  help  to  entangle  them  in  the  fur  of  animals. 

In  Polygonum  Hydropiper  the  nutlets  are  of  two  forms, 
triquetrous  or  biconvex.  The  latter  are  much  the  more  numerous. 
In  P.  Persicaria  also  there  are  two  forms  (plate  IV.  figs.  10a,  10b, 
10c,  lOd). 

In  P.  viviparum,  a  high  Alpine  form,  more  than  one-half  of  the 
flowers  on  the  lower  part  of  the  stem  are  replaced  by  small  bulbils 
or  enlarged  buds  that  fall  away  and  reproduce  the  plant.  At  high 
elevations  the  growing  season  is  often  so  short  and  the  conditions 
so  adverse  that  the  plant  is  unable  to  produce  and  mature  seeds 
before  the  return  of  winter.  The  flowers  on  the  upper  portion 
of  the  stem  seldom  ripen  seeds,  but  fall  away  some  time  after 
flowering. 

This  Polygonum  may  be  compared  with  Sasrifraga  ccrnua,  which 
produces  numerous  clusters  of  bulbils  along  the  stem,  and  usually 
only  one  flower  on  the  top.  S.  stellaris  and  S.  nivalis  sometimes 
behave  in  the  same  way.  Akin  to  the  above  are  the  viviparous 
forms  of  Poa  alpina  and  Pestuca  ovina. 


300  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Thymele^e. — The  fruit  is  a  nut,  drupe,  or  berry.  We  have 
only  one  genus,  Daphne,  with  two  species,  which  are  small  shrubs. 
The  fruit  is  a  berry,  with  one  large  seed.  D.  Mezereum  flowers 
early,  and  the  red  1  terries  show  up  well  against  the  green  leaves. 

D.  Laureola  has  black  berries.  The  leaves  are  persistent.  The  fruits 
are  poisonous,  but  not  apparently  to  birds. 

El^eagnace.e. — The  order  is  a  small  one,  and  we  have  only  one 
British  species,  the  Sea  Buckthorn,  Hippophae  rhamnoides.  The 
fruit  bears  a  close  superficial  resemblance  to  that  of  Daphne,  but 
the  structure  is  very  different.  The  base  of  the  calyx,  or  at  least 
of  the  perianth,  is  in  this  genus  persistent,  and  assumes  the 
character  of  a  pulpy  berry,  inclosing  a  nutlet,  also  of  uncommon 
construction.  The  ovary  wall  is  thin  and  membranous,  enveloping 
a  large  oblong-obovoid  seed,  with  a  crustaceous,  smooth,  and 
shining  black  testa. 

In  this  country  Hippophae  is  confined  to  the  sea-coast,  but  on 
the  Continent  and  in  Asia  it  extends  far  inland,  especially  on  river 
banks,  and  ascends  to  a  considerable  height. 

Though  it  belongs  rather  to  the  domain  of  entomology,  I  may 
mention  that  the  full-grown  caterpillar  of  the  Hawkmoth 
(S.  hip2)opha;s),  which  feeds  on  this  species,  bears  (and  is  the  only 
one  which  does  so)  large  yellow  spots  closely  resembling  the  fruit, 
both  in  size  and  colour. 

Santalace^e.  —  Of  this  family  we  have  only  one  species, 
Thesium  linophyllum,  an  inconspicuous  shrubby  plant  nestling 
amongst  the  dwarf  herbage  of  chalky  downs,  and  of  parasitic 
habit.  The  fruit  is  a  small  green  nutlet,  marked  with  several 
longitudinal  ribs.  There  are  three  ovules,  but  as  a  rule  only  one 
comes  to  maturity. 

ARiSTOLOCHiACEyE. — Fruit  an  indehiscent,  ovoid  globular  cap- 
sule, crowned  by  the  persistent  perianth. 

EuphorbiacE/E.  -  The  fruit  is  dry  or  fleshy,  naked  or  some- 
times adnate  to  the  perianth.  The  seed  is  pendulous.  Of  the  three 
genera,  Euphorbia  has  three  carpels,  each  containing  a  single  seed, 
Mercurialis,  Dog's  Mercury,  has  a  2-celled  capsule,  with  two  seeds, 
or  rarely  3  cells  with  three  seeds  ;  while  Buxus,  the  Box,  has 
a  3-celled  capsule  with  one  or  two  seeds  in  each  cell. 

The  seeds  of  our  western  European  Euphorbiacere  are  as  a 
rule  smooth,  but  in  E.  Lathyris  they  are  rugose  and  reticulated  ; 
in  E.  Helioscopia,  E.  pterococca,  E.  Taurinensis,  E.  segetalis,  and  E. 
Peplus,  they  are  alveolated  or  pitted  ;  in  E.  jmbescens  ridged ;  in 

E.  Myrsinxtes  and  E.  pithyusa  rugose  ;  in  E.  cxigva  tuberculated  ;  in 
E.  portlanclica  irregularly  pitted  ;  in  E.  sulcata  longitudinally,  and 
in  E.  falcate  transversely,  furrowed  (plate  IV.  figs.  11a,  lib). 

The  capsules  are  in  some  species  rough,  verrucose  (E.  spinosa, 
E.  hyberna),  or  even  hairy  (E.  i^ubesccns).  In  some  species  it  is 
possible  that  the  capsules  are  disseminated  with  the  seeds  in  them. 


The  President's  Address.      By  Lord  Avebury.  301 

The  seeds  in  some  species  resemble  small  beetles,  such  as  Lady- 
birds, and  may  perhaps  be  carried  by  birds  (plate  IV.  figs.  12a,  126). 

In  Mercurialis  perennis  the  capsule  is  hairy  and  may  easily  be 
carried  away  with  the  seed  by  rabbits  and  other  animals. 

The  Box  lives  on  chalk  hills,  and  the  seeds  are  also  probably 
transported  in  the  same  way. 

EmpetracE/E. — Empetrum,  the  Crowberry,  is  a  low  heath-like 
shrub.  The  fruit  is  a  drupe ;  it  is  6-  to  9-celled  with  a  seed 
in  each  cell.  The  walls  are  in  two  layers  :  the  inner  (endocarp) 
is  thick  and  bony ;  the  outer  one  fleshy.  When  ripe  the  fruit  is 
black,  globular,  and  about  the  size  of  a  pea. 

CALLlTRiCHlNEiE.  —  Callitriche  is  an  aquatic  floating  herb. 
There  is  no  perianth.     The  fruit  is  entire,  with  a  single  seed. 

Urticace.e. — The  fruit  is  small,  dry,  rarely  succulent  (the 
Mulberry),  1- seeded.  We  have  three  genera ;  the  Nettle,  the 
Pellitory,  and  the  Hop. 

In  the  Nettles  ( Urtica),  the  fruit  consists  of  a  minute  nutlet, 
inclosed  in  the  persistent  calyx,  which  bristles  with  short  stiff 
hairs,  and  thus  probably  adheres  to  the  feet  and  fur  of  animals. 
The  fruit  of  the  Pellitory  (Parietaria)  is  formed  on  the  same  plan. 

In  the  Hop  {Humulus  Lwpulus),  the  achene  is  broadly  ovoid 
subcompressed,  smooth,  and  somewhat  glossy.  The  seed  con- 
forms to  the  interior  of  the  achene,  and  the  embryo  is  coiled  up 
so  as  to  fit  itself  in.  Each  fruit  is  inclosed  by  the  incurved  base 
of  a  large  membranous  bract,  more  or  less  densely  covered  by 
yellow  glands.  The  large  and  light  catkin  is  readily  blown  about 
by  the  wind,  which  is  evidently  the  principal  agent  in  the  dis- 
semination of  the  seeds. 

UlmacEvE.  —  Ovary,  1-  to  2-celled.  Fruit,  a  samara  or  a 
nut;  1-seeded;  seed  inverted.  In  the  Elm  {Ulmus  montana), 
the  ovary  is  2-celled  with  one  ovule  in  each  cell,  only  one  of 
which,  however,  develops  into  a  seed.  The  fruit  is  a  samara,  flat, 
thin,  and  leaf-like,  slightly  thickened  at  the  centre,  broadly  ovate 
or  orbicular,  six  to  nine  lines  long,  with  a  notch  at  the  top.  The 
seed  is  suspended  in  a  small  cavity  near  the  centre  of  the  fruit. 
The  trees  flower  in  February  and  March,  before  the  leaves  appear. 
The  fruit  ripens,  detaches  itself,  and  is  carried  away  by  the  wind 
in  June.  The  wing  develops  on  both  sides,  from  the  base  of  the 
calyx,  along  the  stalk  of  the  fruit,  and  the  fruit  itself,  to  the  style, 
beyond  which  it  extends  on  both  sides. 

AMENTACEyE. — The  ovary  may  be  1-  or  several  celled,  but  the 
fruit  is  always  1 -celled,  and  is  either  a  nut  or  a  several-seeded 
capsule,  opening  with  two  valves.  The  catkin  scales  sometimes 
form  an  involucre,  around  or  below  the  fruit. 

The  wide  distribution  of  the  order  over  the  world  indicates 
great  antiquity.  The  anemophilous  character  of  the  flowers  and 
their  independence  of  insects  tend  to  corroborate  this  view,  while 


302  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

the  willows  suggest  to  us  how  plants  may  have  originally  passed 
from  anemophilous  to  entomophilous  fertilisation. 

In  the  species  with  large  edible  fruits  (hazel,  oak,  Spanish 
chestnut,  etc.),  as  in  some  other  similar  cases,  the  cotyledons  are 
thick  and  fleshy,  and  remain  in  the  seed.  In  the  two  former  they 
are  piano  convex,  and  each  occupies  one-half  of  the  interior  of  the 
nut,  to  which  it  conforms.  Those  of  the  Spanish  Chestnut  are 
more  or  less  wavy,  and  ruminate,  or  unequally  folded. 

The  fruits  are  more  or  less  inclosed  in  a  cupule  or  involucre. 
In  the  Birch  it  takes  the  form  of  a  scale  consisting  of  a  bract  and 
two  bracteoles,  connate  into  one  piece,  trifid  at  the  apex,  and  falling 
with  the  nutlet.  They  closely  overlap  one  another,  forming  a 
cylindrical  spike.  In  the  Alder  they  form  an  oval  spike,  and  the 
scales  when  mature  spread  out,  and  let  the  nutlets  drop  away. 
In  the  Hornbeam  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  bract  there  is  a  three- 
lobed  bracteole,  partly  enveloping  the  nut,  enlarged  and  leafy 
upwards,  especially  the  one  in  the  middle. 

In  the  Hazel  there  are  two  greatly  enlarged  bracteoles,  more  or 
less  toothed  or  fringed  at  the  margins.  There  are  originally  two 
ovules  in  each  cell,  but  only  one  comes  to  maturity. 

The  cupule  of  the  Oak  consists  of  many  bracteoles,  united 
into  one  piece  but  carried  with  the  free  imbricated  points  of  the 
bracteoles.  It  forms  the  well  known  cup  in  which  the  acorn  sits. 
There  are  two  ovules  in  each  cell,  but  only  one  matures. 

The  fruits  of  the  Spanish  Chestnut  are  inclosed,  two  or  three 
together,  in  a  cupule  of  four  pieces,  which  are  densely  covered 
with  long  prickles.  These  open  when  the  fruit  is  ripe,  but  serve 
to  protect  it  when  young,  and  also,  no  doubt,  assist  in  its  dis- 
semination. In  this  species  also  there  are  two  ovules,  but  only 
one  seed. 

The  cupule  of  the  Beech  consists  of  four  lobes  or  valves, 
covered  on  the  back  with  numerous  loose,  pointed  scales,  perhaps 
representing  the  original  bracteoles.  It  incloses  two  or  three 
fruits,  which  are  more  or  less  winged  at  the  edges.  The  coty- 
ledons are  folded  up  like  a  fan,  so  as  to  occupy  the  interior  of  the 
nutlet. 

The  seeds  of  the  Willow  (Salix),  as  already  mentioned,  are 
minute,  furnished  with  long  silky  hairs,  and  further  lightened  by 
a  hollow,  not  being  quite  filled  by  the  embryo. 

In  the  Poplar  also  the  seeds  are  minute,  and  have  a  parachute 
of  silky  hairs.     The  fruits  are  very  varied  in  form  and  structure. 

In  some  (Willows  and  Poplars)  the  fruits  are  minute,  and 
provided  with,  and  carried  about  by  long  silky  hairs ;  in  the  Birch 
and  Hornbeam  they  are  winged,  and  transported  by  the  wind ;  in 
others  (Oak,  Beech,  Hazel,  Spanish  Chestnut,  etc.)  they  are  large 
and  carried  about  by  animals  as  food.      The  fruit  of  the  Alder, 


The  President's  Address.     By  Lord  Avebury.  303 

which  grows  near  streams  and  lakes,  is  light,  and  probably  carried 
mainly  by  water. 

The  arrangement  of  the  seeds  is  also  very  interesting.  Fig.  84 
is  a  diagram  of  a  nut  with  the  parts  somewhat  separated  from  one 
another,  so  as  to  show  the  relations  more  clearly.  The  micropyle 
m  is  at  the  apex  of  the  seed.  The  ovule,  however,  is  not  straight 
and  orthotropous,  which  would  be,  or  at  any  rate  seem  to  be,  the 
simplest  arrangement.  Quite  the  contrary,  for  we  find  a  long 
placental  axis  pi,  which  extends  to  the  apex  of  the  nut,  from  which 
starts  a  raphe  r,  which  returns  about  half-way  back  again  to  the  place 
where  the  true  attachment  or  chalaza  ch  is  situated.  I  am  not  pre- 
pared to  suggest  any  circumstances  which  would  render  this 
complex  arrangement  specially  adapted  to  present  conditions.  It 
would  seem  as  if  it  would  be  simpler,  and  give  Nature  less  trouble, 
if  the  ovule  sat  directly  with  its  base  on  the  stalk,  thus  doing  away 
with  both  the  placental  axis  pi  and  the  raphe  r.  This  view  is 
strengthened  by  the  fact  that  such  an  arrangement  has  actually 


m. 


Fig.  84. 

been  nearly  attained  by  the  Oak.  The  ovule  in  this  genus  is  theo- 
retically anatropous,  but  the  placental  axis  and  the  raphe  are  both 
greatly  shortened,  so  that  the  distance  which  the  nourishment  has 
to  traverse  is  much  less,  though  the  actual  place  of  attachment 
remains  the  same.  The  Oak,  in  fact,  seems  to  have  appreciated  the 
difficulties  of  the  situation,  and  to  have  in  great  measure  neutralised 
them.  Is  it  fanciful  to  imagine  that  some  ages  hence  the  Oak  may 
be  practically  orthotropous  ?  (fig.  85). 

But  why  should  these  species  be  anatropous  if  it  is  an 
advantage  to  be  orthotropous  I  On  this  question  some  light  is 
thrown  by  the  fact  that  while  one  seed  only  comes  to  maturity, 
the  ovary  contains  originally  several  cells,  each  with  one  or  two 
ovules,  though  none  of  the  others  comes  to  anything.  They  can, 
however,  easily  be  seen,  either  at  the  apex  of  the  seed,  as  in  the 
Nut  and  Beech  {Fagus),  or,  as  in  the  Oak,  near  the  base.  Their 
presence  appears  to  indicate  that  these  species  are  descended  from 
ancestors,  the  fruit  of  which  was  composed  of  several  cells,  each 
with  more  than  one  seed — a  state  of  things,  therefore,  very  unlike 
the  present,  and  in  which  the  anatropous  condition  would  be  an 


304  Transaction*  of  the,   Society. 


advantage.  It'  this  view  be  correct,  the  structure  of  the  fruit  in 
the  Nut,  Beech,  aud  others  becomes  peculiarly  interesting,  because 
it  represents  a  case  in  which  the  present  arrangements  are  not 
those,  in  all  respects,  most  convenient  to  the  plant,  and  renders  it 
probable  that  the  same  explanation  may  apply  to  other  cases  of 
difficulty. 

The  seeds  of  the  Willow  closely  resemble  those  of 
Epilobium ;  like  them  are  inclosed  in  a  capsule,  and  are  wafted 
about  by  means  of  a  tuft  of  long  hairs.  In  Epildbium,  however, 
these  are  situated  at  the  summit,  in  Salix  at  the  base  of  the  seed. 
In  Epilobium  the  hairs  can  easily  grow  upwards  and  overlap 
several  seeds  above  them.  When  the  capsule  opens,  moreover, 
they  are  thus  more  readily  dried  by  the  outer  air.  In  Salix,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  capsules  are  short.  The  hairs,  therefore,  grow 
along  the  seeds.  If  they  started  from  above,  they  would  have  to 
turn  round  and  downwards,  which  would  be  a  disadvantage ;  but 
starting  as  they  do  from  the  base  of  the  seed,  they  are  able  to 
accommodate  an  additional  length,  equal  to  that  of  the  seed,  and 
when  the  capsule  begins  to  open  the  free  ends  escape  into  the 
open  air. 

The  Amentaceee  complete  the  Dicotyledons.  If  the  Society 
approve,  I  shall  hope  to  deal  with  the  Conifers  and  Monocotyledons 
next  year,  and  then  terminate  with  some  general  remarks.  It  only 
remains  for  me,  in  conclusion,  to  thank  the  Society  for  their  kind 
and  constant  support,  and  for  the  honour  they  have  conferred  on 
me  in  electing  me  to  the  Presidency  for  another  term  of  office 

Note. — For  permission  to  reproduce  figs.  67  to  85,  from  "  Notes  on  British 
Flowering  Plants,"  by  Lord  Avebury,  we  are  indebted  to  the  courtesy  of  Messrs. 
Macmillan  and  Co.,  Limited. 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES' 

RELATING    TO 

ZOOLOGY       AND        BOTANY 

(PRINCIPALLY   INVERTEBRATA   AND    CRYPTOGAMIA), 

MICEOSCOPY,    Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 

a.  Embryology. t 


Origin  of  Gonocytes  in  Amphibians.^ — A.  P.  Dustin  has  made  a 
study  of  the  origin  of  the  sex-cells  in  Amphibians,  with  a  view  to  deter- 
mining (1)  what  part  of  the  embryo  gives  rise  to  the  first  rudiment  of 
the  sexual  organ,  and  (2)  whether  the  cells  of  which  the  primary  rudiment 
is  composed  go  to  form,  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  with  or  without  the 
assistance  of  other  elements,  the  later  definite  sex-cells.  After  reviewing 
the  literature  on  the  subject,  the  investigator  describes  his  researches  on 
Triton  alpestris,  Ranafusca,  and  Bufo  vulgaris,  the  larvae  of  Rana  being 
studied  up  till  the  final  metamorphosis.  He  found  that  the  course  of 
development  was  fundamentally  the  same  in  Triton  and  Rana,  but  that 
some  stages  which  were  successive  in  Triton  were  simultaneous  in 
Rana.  His  general  conclusions  are  as  follows.  The  first  rudiments  of 
the  reproductive  organs  of  Amphibians  are  paired,  symmetrical,  and  of 
purely  mesoblastic  origin.  These  rudiments  represent  morphologically 
a  part  of  the  primitive  ccelom  (gonocoele).  They  do  not  exhibit  rneta- 
meric  arrangement  except  in  the  Urodela,  where  traces  of  such  arrange- 
ment may  be  discerned.  The  unpaired  genital  rudiment  of  Amphibians 
results  from  the  union  along  the  median  line  of  the  paired  bilateral 
primordia.  The  rudiments  of  the  definitive  bilateral  glands  result  from 
the  emigration  of  the  cells  of  the  primary  rudiment  into  a  peritoneal 
crest  projecting  into  the  ccelom,  and  ultimately  from  the  localised  pro- 
liferation of  the  cells  of  the  peritoneal  epithelium,  forming  the  crest 
and  investing  the  primary  gonocytes.     A  certain  number  of  the  cells  of 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they 
do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers 
noted,  nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of 
this  part  of  the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  pub- 
lished, and  to  describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  etc.,  which  are 
either  new  or  have  not  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

t  This  section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so 
called,  but  also  those  dealing  with  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  and 
allied  subjects.  X  Arch.  Biol.,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  411-522  (2  pis.). 

June  17  th,  1908  Y 


306  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

the  primary  bilateral  rudiment  become  actual  sex-cells ;  the  rest  degene- 
rate at  ontogenetic  stages  varying  according  to  the  species.  A  second 
lineage  of  gonocytes  arises  by  modification  of  the  germinative  cells  due 
to  the  proliferation  of  the  peritoneal  epithelium.  These  invest  the 
surface  of  the  reproductive  organs  and  form  a  germinative  epithelium. 
The  number  of  gonocytes  is  subject  to  considerable  fluctuations.  The 
gonocytes  of  both  first  and  second  lineage  may  become  capable  of  fer- 
tilisation. They  never  fuse  together,  and  never  become  follicular  cells. 
If  from  any  cause  sexual  development  is  arrested,  these  cells  undergo 
degeneration. 

The  last  part  of  the  paper  discusses  the  bearing  of  these  results  on 
the  general  theory  of  the  evolution  of  genital  organs.  The  author  con- 
siders that  they  bring  the  organogenesis  of  the  reproductive  organs 
entirely  into  line  with  what  is  known  in  regard  to  other  Vertebrates, 
differing  in  this  opinion  from  Bouin,  whose  investigations  on  Rana  led 
him  to  regard  Weismann's  theory  as  inapplicable,  and  even  to  deny  that 
there  is  any  cellular  specificity. 

Origin  of  Germ-cells  in  Mammalian  Embryos.* — W.  Paibaschkin 
finds  that  in  the  rabbit  on  the  thirteenth  day  the  ccelomic  epithelium  of 
the  median  part  of  the  Wolffian  body  attains  the  character  of  a  germinal 
epithelium.  At  this  stage  there  are  found  also  single  germ-cells  outside 
the  germinal  ridge,  lying  mainly  under  the  aorta  in  the  mesenchyme 
tissue.  On  the  eleventh  day  the  germinal  epithelium  (in  the  old  sense) 
is  not  formed,  only  single  germ-cells  are  to  be  found  in  the  epithelium  of 
the  median  part  of  the  "Wolffian  body.  On  the  tenth  day  no  germ-cells 
are  to  be  found  here,  although  single  germ-cells  are  found  in  the  dorsal 
parts  of  the  mesentery,  and  in  larger  numbers  in  the  ventral  mesentery 
and  surrounding  the  hind  gut.  These  last  exhibit  amoeboid  movement. 
The  youngest  stage  at  which  germ-cells  were  traced  was  in  ninth-day 
embryos,  in  which  they  lie  close  to  the  epithelium  on  the  hind  gut  and 
mainly  in  its  ventral  section.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  place  of  origin 
of  the  germ-cells  lies  at  some  distauce  from  the  germ-gland  region,  and 
that  the  germ-cells  occur  much  earlier  than  has  hitherto  been  assumed. 


&* 


Development  of  the  Frog's  Head.f — Agnes  I.  M.  Elliot  deals  with 
the  development  of  the  segments  of  the  occipital  region  of  the  skull. 
In  front  of  the  myotome  associated  with  the  first  spinal  nerve  and  its 
ganglion  there  are  in  the  9  mm.  tadpole  two  myotomes.  Cartilaginous 
arches  appear  in  connection  with  these  and  fuse  with  the  parachordals 
from  which  they  are  still  distinct  in  a  20  mm.  tadpole.  Both  these 
myotomes  and  a  rudimentary  ganglion  associated  with  one  of  them 
disappear,  while  the  cartilaginous  arches  corresponding  to  them  form 
the  occipital  region  of  the  skull.  The  vagus  arises  by  numerous  roots. 
It  is  suggested  that  the  hinder  roots  may  represent  ventral  roots  of 
the  nerves  of  the  missing  post-otic  segments  and  also  of  the  segment  in 
which  the  first  myotome  is  developed.  The  segmentation  of  the  post- 
otic  region  of  the  skull  agrees  in  Rana  with  that  in  Necturus. 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  222-4. 

t  Quart.  Jouru.  Micr.  Sci.,  li.  (1907)  pp.  647-57  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  307 

Determining  Factors  in  Metamorphosis  of  Anura.* — P.  Wintrebert 
has  experimented  with  tadpoles  of  Rana  temporaria,  and  finds  that  tad- 
poles of  about  43  mm.  long  removed  quite  abruptly  from  the  water  to 
moist  air  are  not  injuriously  affected,  and  that  in  fact  metamorphosis  is 
sharply  accelerated. 

Portal  Circulation  in  the  Embryonic  Metanephros  of  Mammals. t 
Ivar  Broman  finds  in  the  embryos  of  man,  pig,  and  mole  blood-vessels 
in  the  rudiments  of  the  metanephros.  In  a  human  embryo  of  16  mm. 
these  were  very  distinct,  as  also  in  an  8  mm.  mole  and  in  pigs  of  14-22 
mm.  It  was  suspected  but  not  confirmed  that  the  vessels  branched  off 
from  the  arterial  vasa  efferentia  of  the  primitive  kidney.  On  the  other 
hand  the  author  has  traced  some  of  these  to  the  posterior  cardinal  veins, 
and  others  to  the  venae  revehentes  of  the  pronephros.  Hence  it  is 
assumed  that  the  kidney  vessels  found  are  all  veins,  and  that  the  one 
group  is  afferent  and  the  other  efferent.  In  other  words,  the  meta- 
nephros of  the  mammals  examined  very  probably  possesses  at  this  stage 
(before  the  kidney  arteries  have  developed)  a  so-called  portal  circulation. 

Studies  of  Placentation.— F.  MullerJ  describes  the  pre-placentary 
and  placentary  stages  in  the  squirrel,  and  compares  them  with  those  in 
other  rodents.  Hans  Strahl§  gives  an  account  of  the  uterus  puerperalis 
of  the  hedgehog,  which  is  very  distinctive,  differing  in  many  ways  from 
that  of  rodents. 

Bodily  Identity  of  Twins. || — H.  H.  Wilder  has  made  a  study  of 
the  ridge  patterns  of  the  hands  and  feet  of  twins.  As  the  patterns  are 
ordinarily  very  variable  he  thought  that  they  might  illustrate  the  organic 
agreement  of  the  twin  individuals  more  exactly  than  bodily  form,  physical 
measurements,  features,  etc.  He  found  a  remarkable  agreement,  and 
gives  an  illustration  of  the  right  hand  of  each  of  a  pair  of  twins  which 
shows  this  in  a  striking  way.  While  he  admits  that  caution  is  necessary 
in  drawing  conclusions,  he  suggests  that  in  the  case  of  twins  resulting 
from  the  bipartition  of  a  siugle  egg  the  agreement  of  the  ridge  figures 
is  due  to  the  dominance  of  a  determining  substance  within  the  egg, 
which  even  here  fixes  the  form  they  are  to  assume.  The  agreement  is 
only  in  the  larger  features  and  does  not  extend  to  individual  lines,  so 
that  the  theory  involves  the  notion  that  the  details  are  determined  by 
forces  acting  later  on  in  development. 

b.  Histology. 

Structure  and  Function  of  Rectal  Gland  in  Elasmobranchs.f — 
Helen  L.  M.  Pixell  has  studied  the  rectal  gland,  which  Sanfelice  and 
Howes  called  the  appendix  digitiformis,  in  Scijlliam  eanicula  and  Raja 
punctata.  It  has  a  compound  tubular  structure,  the  walls  of  the  tubules 
consisting  of  low  cylindrical  cells  interspersed  with  numerous  goblet-cells. 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  257-9. 
f  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxi.  (1907)  pp.  94-7. 

X  Proc.  Acad.  Amsterdam,  Section  of  Sciences,  ix.  (190G)  pp.  380-9. 
§  Op.  cit.,  xiii.  (1907)  pp.  1-22  (3  pis.). 
||  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  193-200  (2  figs.), 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  174-8. 

Y   2 


308  SUMMARY   OF   CUBBEN1    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Testing  for  area,  which  has  been  said  to  be  abundant  in  the  gland,  gave 
no  result.  An  extract  of  the  gland  confirmed  Blanehard's  statement 
as  to  the  presence  of  ferments  similar  to  amylopsin  and  lipase. 

Cytological  Notes.  —  Fr.  Meves  *  describes  the  mitochondria,  or 
"  chondriokonts  "  (chains,  or  rods  or  granules),  in  embryonic  cells,  and 
supports  Benda's  view  that  they  must  be  regarded  as  definite  and  in- 
dividualised components  of  the  cells. 

Achille  Russot  discusses  the  origin  of  the  mitochondria  and  the 
formation  of  the  deutoplasm  in  the  oocytes  of  mammals. 

Neurological  Studies. — A.  Wallenberg!  gives  an  account  of  his 
researches  on  the  brain  and  cranial  nerves,  with  especial  reference  to  the 
sensory  tracts,  in  Teleosteans  and  Selachians.  F.  Livini  §  describes  the 
cerebrum  and  thalamencephalon  of  a  marsupial,  Mypsi/primnus  rufescens, 
with  especial  reference  to  the  nerve-tracts. 

Myelin-bodies  in  Nervous  System. ||  — A.  Capparelli  describes  cor- 
puscles containing  myelin  in  the  central  nervous  system  of  higher 
animals,  and  discusses  their  relations  to  the  protoplasmic  prolongations 
of  the  nerve-cells.  They  occur  chiefly  in  the  grey  matter  of  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord,  as  egg-shaped  or  spherical  bodies,  with  an  envelope  of 
a  nervous  network,  the  meshes  of  which  are  sometimes  so  close  as  to 
suggest  a  homogeneous  membrane.  This  network  surrounds  true  myelin 
masses.  These  myelin-bodies  are  in  contact  with  the  protoplasmic  end- 
ings of  the  nerve-cells  and  with  the  surface  of  the  cell.  They  pro- 
bably supply  nutritive  and  functioning  material  for  the  nerve-cells  and 
nets. 

[c.  General- 
Young-^  R,eci  Kangaroo.1T —  W.  H.  Sheak  describes  a  young  red 
kangaroo  (Ifacropus  rufus  Desru.)  which  was  born  in  the  Barnum  and 
Bailey  menagerie.  He  first  saw  it  when  it  was  beginning  to  put  its 
head  out  of  the  pouch,  and  was  apparently  about  two  months  old.  A 
month  later  it  began  to  come  out  of  the  pouch,  but  would  run  back 
when  alarmed,  going  in  head  first  and  turning  round,  but  leaving  the 
tail  and  hind  legs  protruding  18-20  in.  The  mother  was  very  solicitous 
for  his  safety,  and  at  first  tried  to  prevent  his  coming  out  by  hold- 
ing him  with  her  paws.  The  father  shared  the  cage,  but  took  no 
notice  of  the  young  one.  The  young  one  showed  the  brick-red  colour 
of  the  father  from  the  first.  It  was  seen  to  protrude  its  head  from  the 
pouch  and  nibble  at  the  grass  while  the  mother  was  feeding. 

Asymmetry  of  Caudal  Poles  of  the  Cerebral  Hemispheres  in  Man,** 
G.  Elliot  Smith  deals  with  this  subject  and  with  its  influence  on  the 
occipital  bone.     The  area  striata  is  described,  and  its  relations  to  the 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxi.  (1907)  pp.  399-407. 
t  Atti  (Rend.)  R.  Accad.  Lincei  Roma,  xvi.  (1907)  pp.  292-6. 
X  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxi.  (1907)  pp.  369-99  (46  figs.). 
§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1-11.  ||  Op.  cit.,  xxx.  (1907)  pp.  580-8  (10  figs.), 

f  Amer.  Nat.,  xli.  (1907)  pp.  724-5. 
**  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxx.  (1907)  pp.  574-8  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  309 

squama  occipitalis  and  the  direction  of  the  Yenous  sinuses.  A  sym- 
metrical form  of  brain  is  commoner  in  negroes  than  in  Egyptians  or 
Europeans.  In  this  respect  the  negro  is  distinctly  more  Simian  than 
the  non-negroid  races.  In  the  white  races  there  seems  to  have  been 
a  greater  specialisation  of  the  two  cerebral  hemispheres  than  in  the 
case  of  the  negro,  and  in  the  former  the  resulting  dissimilarity  of 
shape  in  the  cerebral  hemispheres  produces  a  cranial  asymmetry.  The 
symmetry  of  the  negro  cranium  is  thus  a  sign  of  inferiority. 

Pleural  Cavity  of  Elephant.* —  G.  Vasse  has  had  an  opportunity 
of  examining  the  lungs  of  a  fully  grown  female  elephant  in  the  Portu- 
guese colony  of  Gorongoza.  He  publishes  a  note  establishing  the  fact 
that  the  lungs  are  quite  free  in  the  pleural  cavity.  "  They  detached 
with  the  greatest  facility — just  as  easy  as  the  respiratory  apparatus  of  a 
ruminant  — and  at  no  point  did  any  adherence  exist." 

Pigment  of  Suprarenal  Glands. f  —  P.  Mulon  establishes  a  rela- 
tion between  the  amount  of  pigment  and  the  functional  actiYity  in 
the  gland.  He  finds  that  in  guinea-pigs,  when  the  suprarenale  have 
functioned  loug,  or  much,  or  one  has  taken  up  the  work  of  two,  there  is  an 
increase  of  pigment  and  a  reduction  of  fat. 

Structure  of  Soricidse.f — Augusta  Arnback-Christie-Linde,  with  a 
view  of  clearing  up  questions  of  relationship  amongst  the  Insectivora, 
has  planned  a  memoir  upon  the  structure  of  the  Soricidas.  In  the 
present  instalment  she  deals  with  the  integument,  musculature  (except 
that  of  the  pelvis),  brain,  sexual  apparatus,  digestive  organs,  spleen, 
respiratory  system,  heart  and  vessels,  as  illustrated  in  several  species  of 
Crocidura  and  of  Sorex.  General  phyletic  conclusions  are  deferred  until 
the  skeleton  and  teeth  have  been  dealt  with. 

Studies  on  the  Cloaca  and  Phallus  in  Amniota.§—  W.  Diirbeck 
and  A.  Fleischmann  conclude  these  studies.  The  present  memoir  deals 
with  the  external  genitals  of  the  adult  pig,  and  the  development  and 
transformations  of  the  phallus  in  the  pig  embryo,  and  the  external 
genitals  of  the  house-cat.  A  tabular  review  of  the  genital  development 
in  Mammalia  is  given  by  Diirbeck,  and  Fleischmann  reviews  the  facts 
and  offers  some  general  theoretical  considerations. 


t3^ 


Penis  in  Birds. ||—  Ulrich  Gerhardt  refers  to  the  usual  statement 
that  a  true  penis  is  confined  to  RatitaB  and  Lamellirostres.  A  rudi- 
mentary one  is  said  to  occur  in  Grax,  Grypturus,  and  a  few  other 
Carinataa.  Gadow  quotes  Tschudi's  report  as  to  a  penis  H  in.  long 
in  Penelope  abourri.  Gerhardt  has  found  a  similar  organ  in  Grax  alector. 
In  its  structure  it  resembles  that  of  some  Anatidse,  like  Dendrocygnus 
and  Mergus.  The  author  also  found  a  well-developed  penis  in  Tinamus 
rufescens,  quite  different  from  that  of  Grax,  but  resembling  that  of 
Apteryx. 

*  Comptes  Reudus,  cxliv.  (1907)  p.  1230.; 

t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxii.  (1907)  pp.  905-6. 

X  Morphol.  Jahrb.,  xxxvi.  (1907)  pp.  463-514  (35  fi*s.) 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  515-69  (4  pis.  and  29  figs.). 

||  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  649-51. 


310  SUMMARY    01'   CURKENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

Hybrids  of  Peacock  and  Cochin-china  Hen.* — G.  Pays-Mellier  and 
E.  Trouessart  record  the  successful  hybridisation  of  Pavo  cristatus  var. 
nigripennis  £  and  Gallus  gallus  var.  sinensis  ?.  The  male  parent  was 
the  more  prepotent. 

The  authors  remark  that  the  hybrid  of  Pavo  cristatus  and  NumMa 
meleagris  has  been  known  for  long,  and  they  refer  to  Gallus  x  Nurunl" 
and  to  the  crossing  of  Phasianus  with  the  nearly  allied  genera  Chryso- 
lophus,  Genweus,  and  Catreus,  and  with  the  more  distant  genera  Gallus, 
Acomus,  Lophwa,  and  Tragopan.  The  alleged  crossing  of  Crax  alberti 
and  the  fowl  seems  doubtful. 

Fasting  Powers  of  the  Swift.j — Albert  Hugues  refers  to  Brehm's 
statement  that  a  swift  can  fast  for  six  weeks,  and  relates  some  of  his  own 
observations,  the  most  striking  case  being  that  of  a  fast  of  21  days  less 
3  hours,  during  which  the  weight  decreased  from  57  to  21  grm. 

Air-sacs  of  Pigeon.^: — B.  M  tiller  has  made  a  study  of  the  morphology 
of  the  air-sac  system  of  the  pigeon,  with  a  view  to  throwing  more  light 
on  the  problem  of  its  function.  After  giving  a  description  of  the 
methods  by  which  he  succeeded  in  hardening  the  air-sacs  in  a  rela- 
tively distended  condition,  and  in  obtaining  an  idea  of  the  relative  degrees 
of  expansion  during  the  various  phases  of  breathing,  the  author  gives  a 
general  account  of  the  air-sac  system,  its  distribution,  and  its  relation  to 
the  diaphragmatic  membranes.  The  pulmonary  and  abdominal  dia- 
phragm, the  lungs,  the  ostia,  and  the  different  air-sacs  with  their  diver- 
ticula, are  then  described  in  detail,  followed  by  a  critical  consideration  of 
the  most  important  hypotheses  as  to  the  function  of  the  air-sacs.  The 
author  concludes  that  their  importance  as  respiratory  organs  has  been 
over-rated,  and  believes  that  their  effect  is  mainly  mechanical.  He 
regards  them  as  structures  selectively  developed  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
creasing the  size  of  the  thorax  without  increasing  its  weight,  and  for 
facilitating  the  movements  of  the  organs  in  it,  especially  the  heart.  The 
air-spaces  are  not  organs  with  a  positive  function,  but  rather  empty 
spaces  whose  value  lies  in  their  emptiness,  and  their  shape  is  of  no  im- 
portance, their  asymmetry  being  simply  due  to  the  asymmetry  of  the  spaces 
they  have  to  occupy  between  the  viscera.  The  connection  with  the  lungs 
is  a  consequence  of  their  phylogenetic  development,  and  has  no  physio- 
logical significance  other  than  that  they  assist  in  renewing  the  air  in 
the  trachea.     A  copious  bibliography  is  appended. 

Head-muscles  in  Sauropsida.§ — F.  H.  Edgeworth  has  investigated 
the  head  musculature  in  Gallus  and  other  Sauropsida.  The  distinctive 
features  of  birds  as  compared  with  living  reptiles  are  set  forth  in  detail. 
Birds  resemble  the  Rhynchocephalia  in  possessing  an  upper  portion  of 
the  mandibular  myotome  inserted  into  the  pterygoid  process,  but  the 
adult  condition  in  the  latter  group  is  clearly  a  secondary  modification 
correlated  with  a  fixation  of  the  ptery go-quadrate.     These  are  features 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  1203-5. 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  106-8. 

t  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  1.  (1907)  pp.  365-414  (5  pis.). 

§  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  li.  (1907)  pp.  511-56  (39  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  311 

of  resemblance  which  at  first  sight  suggest  a  very  distant  Chelonian  rela- 
tionship for  birds,  but  which  are  in  reality  only  ancestral  traits,  which 
are  also  present  in  embryonic  stages  of  other  Sauropsidan  groups.  The 
Rhyncocephalia  have  preserved  two  features  more  archaic  than  are  found 
in  any  other  Sauropsidan  group— the  continuity  of  the  ceratohyal  and 
the  condition  of  the  branchio-hyoid  muscle — but  in  the  upgrowth  of 
the  external  pterygoid  muscle  and  in  the  condition  of  the  lingual  muscles 
they  are  less  primitive  than  the  Chelonia.  Like  the  Chelonia  and 
Crocodilia  they  have  preserved  a  fixed  pterygoid  bone.  These  are  but  a 
few  of  the  many  points  of  an  instructive  and  important  memoir. 

Herpetology  of  Japan.*  —  Leonhard  Stejneger  gives  a  valuable 
systematic  account  of  the  amphibians  and  reptiles  of  Japan  and  adjacent 
territory,  with  analytical  keys,  notes  on  variation  and  distribution,  and 
abundant  illustrations. 

Peculiarities  of  Vision  in  the  Chamgeleon.t — E.  P.  Fortin  refers 
to  the  acuteness  of  the  chamseleon's  vision  for  near  objects.  The  pre- 
cision with  which  it  picks  up  a  very  small  insect  at  a  distance  of  15  cm. 
is  remarkable.  This  acuteness  of  vision  is  mainly  due  to  peculiarities 
in  the  fovea,  which  has  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  that  of  man.  The 
visual  field  of  the  chania3leon  is  small  compared  with  man's,  but  the  eyes 
are  raised  up,  have  highly  developed  muscles  and  great  freedom  of  move- 
ment. This  makes  up  for  the  small  visual  field.  From  an  opthalmo- 
logical  point  of  view  there  is  much  interest  in  the  way  the  chameleon 
can  alter  the  shape  of  its  pupil.  The  independence  of  movement 
possessed  by  each  of  the  eyes  is  seen  also,  according  to  Huot,  in  sea- 
horses and  pipe-fishes. 

Dinosaurs  of  Madagascar.^ — Armand  Thevenin  finds  that  most  of 
the  Dinosaur  bones  found  in  Madagascar  are  of  Jurassic  or  Cretaceous 
age.  _  All  the  Jurassic  bones  belong  to  Bothriospondylus  madagascariensis, 
a  Dinosaur  3*5  m.  high  and  15  m.  long.  It  resembles  Morosaurus,  a 
North  American  form,  and  Cetiosaurus  oxoniensis,  and  appears  to  have 
lived  about  the  same  time  as  these  two. 

Phagocytic  Action  of  Kidney-cells  in  Frog.§—  W.  M.  Smallwood 
gives  an  account  of  a  case  of  Ram  pipiens,  in  which  one  of  the  fatty 
bodies  was  found  in  a  haemorrhagic  condition.  Examination  of  sections 
revealed  the  fact  that  within  the  fatty  body  the  blood-cells  were  under- 
going degeneration,  and  that  this  was  even  more  the  case  in  the  kidney. 
It  was  rare  to  find  in  the  kidney  any  red  cells  with  a  nucleus,  and  the 
cells  of  the  tubules  as  well  as  the  tubules  themselves  were  filled  with 
disintegrating  blood-cells  in  all  stages  of  degeneration.  The  tubule-cells 
were  evidently  behaving  in  a  phagocytic  manner.  It  was  found  on 
examination  that  the  ilium  had  been  broken,  and  it  seems  likely  that 
this  breakage  was  the  cause  of  the  haemorrhage. 

Secretion  of  Thumb-swelling  in  Rana.||— A.  Nussbaum  finds  that 
by  stimulating  the  Ramus  cutaneus  antebrachii  et  manus  lateralis  of  the 

*  Bull.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.,  No.  58  (1907)  pp.  i.-577  (35  pis.  and  409  l/gs.). 
t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  hdv.  (1908)  pp.  316-7. 
%  Cornptes  Rendus,  cxliv.  (1907)  pp.  1302-4. 
§  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  201-5  (8  figs.). 
||  Op.  cit.,  xxx.  (1907)  pp.  578-9  (2  fig*.) 


312     SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

N.  brachialis  longus  inferior  (ulnaris),  lie  obtained  a  widening  of  the 
exit  duct  of  the  thumb-gland,  which  he  regards  as  a  sign  of  increased 
secretion.  The  experiment  was  performed  upon  a  copulating  male  of 
Ranafusca. 

Response  of  Toads  to  Sound-stimuli.* — S.  A.  Courtis  has  made  a 
study  of  the  response  of  toads  to  sound-stimuli  during  the  breeding 
season.  He  removed  a  female  which  had  been  seized  by  two  males  and 
placed  her  about  10  feet  away.  One  of  the  males  uttered  a  shrill  trilling 
note  sustained  for  15-20  seconds.  The  female  immediately  swam  to- 
wards him  and  mating  took  place.  This  experiment  was  repeated  with 
many  pairs,  and  the  distance  between  males  and  females  wTas  increased 
to  30  feet,  but  in  every  case  the  females  responded  to  the  call  of  the 
males.  Only  a  few  of  the  males  uttered  the  call,  and  other  males  moved 
in  the  direction  of  it.  The  observer's  general  conclusions  are  that  both 
male  and  female  toads  can  hear  and  locate  in  space  the  call  of  the  male  ; 
that  the  response  is  unintelligent  and  mechanical ;  that  to  the  sound  of 
the  mating  call  a  motor  response  is  given  which  serves  to  bring  the 
sexes  to  the  same  place  ;  that  motion  is  the  stimulus  which  starts  the 
clasping  reflex  ;  that  neither  sex  is  able  to  recognise  the  other  without 
actual  contact ;  and  that  toads  do  not  profit  quickly  by  experience. 

Tongue  of  Teleosteans.t— J.  Chaine  has  examined  this  organ  in  a 
series  of  types.  He  finds  that  it  is  completely  devoid  of  muscle,  but 
possesses  resisting  ligaments.  The  commonest  relation  observed  is  that 
of  two  lateral  ligaments  separated  throughout  their  entire  length.  A 
second  type  is  that  exhibited  in  Callionymus  hjra,  which  possesses  only 
one  aponeurotic  formation  extending  from  the  extremity  of  the  ento- 
glossa  to  the  hyoidean  apparatus  covering  the  whole  breadth  of  the 
ventral  face  of  the  tongue.  A  third  type — the  most  complex — is  exem- 
plified in  the  pike,  which  has  two  very  powerful  ligaments,  an  external 
and  an  internal.  The  latter  is  inserted  on  the  entoglossa  behind  the 
former.     Both  are  in  the  form  of  a  small  flat  band. 

Abnormality  of  Brook  Trout.| — R.  de  Drouin  de  Bouville  describes 
a  peculiar  condition  which  seems  not  very  uncommon  in  Salvelinus 
fontinalis.  The  joint  between  the  lingual  and  the  basihyal  is  enormously 
stretched,  its  resistance  becoming  inadequate  to  maintain  the  curvature 
of  the  cornua  of  the  hyoid  and  the  branchial  arches.  These  pieces 
straighten  out,  affecting  in  their  movement  the  operculum  and  the 
branchiostegal  rays.  The  fishes  look  as  if  they  had  a  projecting  collar. 
According  to  the  author  all  this  is  due  to  adeno-carcinoma  of  the  thyroid 
gland,  which  brings  about  the  displacement  of  the  branchial  and  oper- 
cular skeletal  pieces. 

New  Lamprey.§ — H.  W.  Fowler  establishes  a  new  genus,  Oceano- 
myzon,  with  0.  wilsoni  as  the  type.  The  supra-oral  lamina  is  not 
especially  contracted,  its  two  converging  teeth  are  well  separated  and 
distinct.  The  infra-oral  lamina  is  crescentiform  and  spout-like  at  the 
middle,  with  denticles  obsolete.     The  innermost  teeth  of  the  disk,  or 

*  Amer.  Nat.,  xli.  (1907)  pp.  677-82. 

fCR.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxii.  (1907)  p.  924. 

j  Op.  cit.,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  229-31.J 

§  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1907,  pp.  461-66  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  Ml.:! 

those  along  each  side  of  the  orifice,  are  bicuspid,  large,  and  similar  to 
those  on  the  supra-oral  lamina.  In  this  combination  of  characters,  the 
new  type,  which  was  found  in  the  open  Atlantic,  differs  from  Bathymyzon 
and  Petromyzon.  A  small  black  fresh-water  lamprey,  Abbott's  Ammo- 
codes  cepytera,  also  known  as  Lampetra  wilderi  Gage,  is  re-named  Lam- 
pet  ra  (epytera  (Abbott). 

Faunistic  Results  of  German  South  Polar  Expedition.*  — 
H.  Lohmann  summarises  the  distributional  data.  The  distribution  of 
01igocha3ta  and  Isopoda  does  not  support  the  idea  of  the  previous 
existence  of  an  Antarctic  Continent  uniting  the  three  Southern  Con- 
tinents. Regarding  plankton — Pteropods,  Salpa,  Appendicular ia,  Tin- 
timiEB — the  Antarctic  region  is  throughout  richer  in  species  than  the 
Arctic.  The  majority  of  the  polar  forms  deviate  widely,  yet  bipolar 
varieties  and  species  groups  have  been  proved.  Of  sea  mites,  only 
Halicaridas  were  found  in  the  Antarctic  region.  Of  these  a  small  species 
group  of  Polymela  proves  to  be  bipolar.  This  family  also  predominates 
in  the  Kerguelen  Islands.  On  St.  Paul  and  at  the  Cape  the  Antarctic 
species  and  most  of  the  Kerguelen  forms  are  absent.  A  brief  description 
of  the  sea  mites  found  is  given. 


&* 


Bipolarity  of  Marine  Animals.t — W.  Kukentkal  discusses  this 
subject,  treating  of  littoral,  abyssal,  and  pelagic  forms.  A  number  of 
littoral  animals  show  marked  bipolarity.  With  regard  to  abyssal  forms 
no  very  valuable  results  appear  to  have  been  attained,  yet  the  author 
regards  the  existence  of  bipolar  animals  as  possible.  It  is  most  strongly 
indicated  amongst  plankton.  The  author  considers  that  migrations  of 
different  kinds  have  been  the  cause  of  bipolarity,  e.g.  in  the  case  of 
pelagic  forms  from  the  warm  water  areas.  The  floor  of  the  sea  has 
probably  been  the  former  connecting  path  for  many  littoral  forms  ;  in 
others  the  west  coasts  of  the  continents  may  have  made  an  exchange 
possible. 

Northern  Animals.} — Fritz  Romer  has  published  an  interesting 
lecture  on  the  northern  animals  in  their  relation  to  the  fauna  of  tem- 
perate zones,  and  in  their  special  adaptations  to  boreal  conditions. 

INVERTEBRATA. 

Mollusca. 
a.  Cephalopoda. 

Chromatophores  of  Cephalopods.§  —  W.  Marchand  reviews  the 
literature— more  particularly  the  works  of  Rabl,  Steinach,  Chun,  and 
Hertel — on  the  subject  of  the  structure  and  function  of  these  bodies. 
The  play  of  colour  in  the  skin  of  Cephalopoda  is  conditioned  by  the 
iridocytes  and  by  the  chromatophores.     The  latter  possess  a  distinctive 

*  Schrift.  Natur.  Vereiu.  Schleswig-Holstein,  xiv.  (1906)  pp.  1-14.  See  also 
Zool.  Zentralbl.,  xiv.  (1907)  pp.  392-3. 

t  Veroffentl.  Institut.  f.  Meereskunde,  heft  11  (1906)  28  pp.  See  also  Zool. 
Zentralbl.,  xiv.  (1907)  p.  392. 

%  SB.  Senckenberg.  Nat.  Ges.,  1907,  pp.  63-112. 

§  Zool.  Zentralbl.,  xiv.  (1907)  pp.  289-301. 


314  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

motor  apparatus.  On  every  chromatophore  may  be  distinguished  a 
peculiar  pigment-body  and  a  number  of  radial  fibres  issuing  from  it. 
There  is  a  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  whether  the  pigment-body  is 
unicellular  or  multicellular.  Both  Chun  and  Steinach  found  that  the 
radial  fibres,  often  anastomosing,  occasionally  pass  directly  over  into  the 
skin  musculature.  Chun  found  in  Bolitama  that  there  is  a  connection 
between  one  (and  of  ten  several)  of  the  radial  fibres  and  fine  side-branches 
of  the  skin-nerves.  Numerous  observations  on  the  physiology  of  the 
chroinatophores  are  quoted,  but  at  present  unification  of  the  results 
seems  difficult. 

3.  Gastropoda. 

Hermaphroditism  in  a  Chiton.* — Harold  Heath  has  found  that 
Trachydermon  raymondi  is  normally  hermaphrodite.  In  the  early  stages 
ova  appear  in  typical  fashion  ;  when  the  animal  becomes  half-grown 
(4-5  mm.  long)  some  of  the  primitive  sex-cells  form  clusters  of  sper- 
matozoa. In  1851  Middendorf  reported  hermaphroditism  in  Amicula 
pallasi,  but  Plate,  in  1899,  failed  to  confirm  this,  and  thought  that 
Middendorf  has  misinterpreted  sperm  mother-cells  as  immature  ova. 
With  this  single  and  doubtful  exception,  all  known  Chitons  have  been 
reported  as  dioecious,  but  Heath  has  shown  that  Trachydermon  raymondi 
is  an  indubitable  exception. 

The  number  of  spermatozoa  is  always  comparatively  small,  and  they 
are  seemingly  shed  almost  continuously  during  tlie  winter  and  spring. 
A  number  occur  grouped  together  during  the  breeding  season,  so  that 
a  large  number  of  spermatozoa  is  not  so  essential  as  with  the  majority 
of  species.  The  young  are  brooded  over  by  the  parent  as  in  Chiton 
poli,  Ischnochiton  imitator,  and  a  few  other  species. 

The  gonad  seems  to  arise  as  two  proliferations  of  cells  of  the 
anterior  pericardial  wall,  and  each  gonoduct  seems  to  be  almost  wholly 
an  outgrowth  of  the  wall  of  the  gonad,  and  not  in  large  measure  an 
ectodermal  product. 

Sugar-reducing  Power  in  Helix  pomatia.f  —  Mile.  Bellion  finds 
that  the  liver,  albumen-gland,  and  muscles  of  Helix  jjomatia  contain 
substances  which  have  a  sugar-reducing  property,  and  that  in  the  period 
of  activity  following  hibernation  these  substances  are  considerably 
diminished.     This  diminution  is  particularly  marked  in  the  liver. 

Pedal  Waves  of  Reptant  Molluscs.! — F.  Vies  finds  that  there  are 
several  interesting  varieties  in  the  type  of  wave-motion  to  be  seen  on 
the  foot  of  creeping  Molluscs.  These  are  classified,  first,  as  direct,  i.e. 
those  in  which  the  waves  are  propagated  in  the  same  direction  as  that  in 
which  the  animal  is  moving  ;  and  retrograde,  where  the  waves  move  in 
an  opposite  direction,  i.e.  from  front  to  back.  The  direct  forms  are 
further  sub-divided  as  follows  : — monotaxic,  with  one  or  more  waves 
visible  traversing  the  whole  width  of  the  foot,  e.g.  Helix,  Li  max,  Arion  ; 
ditaxic,  having  two  systems  of  waves,  each  occupying  one-half  of  the 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  10-12. 

+  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  238-40. 

X  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  276-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  315 

foot  with  the  median  line  unaffected  by  the  waves,  e.g.  Haliotis,  Trochus 
(these  forms  move  rapidly)  ;  tetrataxic,  with  four  systems,  two  sets  of 
lateral  alternating  waves,  seen  in  small  species  of  Littorina.  Amongst 
the  retrograde  forms,  both  monotaxic  (e.g.  Chiton),  and  ditaxic  (e.g. 
Littorina  littorea  and  L.  rudis)  occur.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  retro- 
grade forms  correspond  with  the  locomotor  waves  in  various  other 
Invertebrate  types,  e.g.  Oligochajtes,  Nemerteans,  Gephyreans,  insect 
larvas,  etc. 

8.    Lamellibranchiata. 

Nervous  System  of  Razor-shell  Clam.* — Gilman  A.  Drew  has  made 
experiments  with  Ensis  directus,  which  is  well  suited  for  the  physio- 
logical study  of  the  nervous  system.  Continued  stimulation  of  any 
portion  of  the  body  has  in  time  an  effect  on  all  the  ganglia.  The  siphons, 
collar,  and  foot  may  be  so  gently  stimulated  as  to  cause  them  to  be  with- 
drawn without  disturbing  organs  that  receive  their  nerves  from  other 
ganglia.  The  relation  of  the  ganglia  of  a  pair  is  intimate.  Stimulating 
nerves  connected  with  one,  causes  organs  connected  with  both  to 
respond  promptly.  Association  fibres,  by  which  ganglia  communicate 
with  each  other,  are  found  only  in  commissures  and  connectives. 
Although  the  anterior  pallia!  nerves  are  united,  so  that  a  connection  is 
formed  between  the  cerebral  ganglia,  and  the  circum-pallial  nerves  con- 
nect the  cerebral  and  visceral  ganglia  of  corresponding  sides,  there  is  no 
evidence  that  the  ganglia  are  able  to  communicate  through  them.  Both 
cerebral  and  visceral  ganglia  are  provided  with  sensory  and  motor  cells. 
The  pedal  ganglia  are  apparently  dependent  upon  the  cerebral  for 
initiative.  When  the  pedal  ganglia  are  isolated  from  the  others,  stimu- 
lation of  the  surface  of  the  foot  causes  only  local  responses,  due  to  the 
direct  stimulation  of  muscle-fibres.  It  would  seem  that  the  sensory 
neurons  have  neither  endings  nor  collaterals  in  the  pedal  ganglia,  but  are 
continued  to  the  cerebral  ganglia.  Impulses  may  pass  in  both  directions 
through  any  of  the  commissures  and  connectives.  Stimulation  may 
cause  impulses  to  be  sent  by  roundabout  connections  when  the  usual 
connections  are  destroyed,  but  the  stimulation  must  be  of  considerable 
duration,  and  the  result  is  often  considerably  delayed. 

Distribution  of  Petricola  pholadiformis.t — Bronishnv  Debski  points 
out  that  C.  Boettger's  record  of  this  mollusc  in  the  German  "  Watten- 
See  "  recpiires  to  be  supplemented  by  other  records  of  its  occurrence  in 
England  in  1896  and  subsequently,  and  in  Belgium  in  1903. 

Arthropoda. 
a.  Insecta. 

Treatise  on  Insects.!— A.  Berlese's  treatise  on  insects  continues  to 
appear,  the  latest  part  dealing  mainly  with  the  alimentary  system,  in- 
cluding the  Malpighian  tubules.  The  first  volume  is  nut  yet  completed, 
but  the  800th  page  lias  been  reached  and  the  1000th  figure. 

*  Journ.  Exp6r.  Zool.,  v.  (1908)  pp.  311-26  (1  pi.). 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  p.  1. 

X  Gli  Insetti,  Milano,  1908,  pp.  713-800  (1  pi.  aud  figs.  892-1000). 


316  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Histolysis  of  Wing-muscles  in  Ants  after  Nuptial  Flight.*  — 
Charles  Janet  lias  previously  described  the  histolysis  of  the  vibratory 
muscles  of  the  wings  of  ants  after  the  wings  are  lost.  He  now  inquires 
into  the  fate  of  the  ordinary  non-vibratory  muscles  associated  with  the 
wings.  Here,  too,  there  is  necrobiosis,  a  sort  of  premature  senescence. 
Finally  the  remains  of  the  muscle  undergo  digestion.  There  is  no 
phagocytosis. 

Uncommon  Dipterous  Larva.f  —  P.  Cerfontaine  describes  a  rare 
dipterous  larva  of  the  genus  Mkrodon,  of  which  a  few  specimens  were 
found  in  the  stumps  of  hornbeam  and  oak  trees  near  Liege.  The  general 
aspect,  form  and  movements  of  this  larva  are  so  peculiar  and  Gastropod- 
like,  that  it  is  not  surprising  that  it  should  have  been  classed  as  a 
mollusc  before  its  metamorphosis  was  observed.  The  investigator  gives 
an  account  of  the  general  structure  of  the  larva,  and  describes  and  figures 
in  minute  detail  the  various  chitinous  structures  on  the  surface  of  the 
body.  The  results  agree  in  the  main  with  those  of  Hecht,  but  he  finds 
that  the  buccal  armature  is  much  more  complex  than  Hecht  described, 
and  that  the  so-called  chitinous  stylets  are  simply  the  extremities  of 
the  antenna?.  He  also  finds  on  the  dorsal  surface  a  series  of  sensitive 
organs  which  have  not  hitherto  been  described.  These  organs  are  of 
the  same  type  as  those  on  the  ventral  surface,  but  have  a  much  more 
elongated  cone  ;  they  are  metamerically  arranged. 

Just  before  metamorphosis  not  only  the  larval  respiratory  mechanism 
but  the  respiratory  horns  of  the  nymph,  and  the  outline  of  the  stigmata 
of  the  perfect  insect,  can  be  seen.  As  metamorphosis  was  not  observed 
it  was  impossible  to  determine  to  which  of  the  two  species,  31.  mutabilis 
or  31.  devius,  the  specimens  in  question  belong. 

Fat-bodies  of  Muscidae  in  Metamorphosis.! — Ch.  Perez  states  that 
for  a  time  during  metamorphosis  the  fat-body  functions  as  a  storing 
kidney  (rein  d'accumulation).  As  the  imaginal  organs  develop  they 
digest  within  their  protoplasm  some  of  the  inclusions.  Whenever  the 
Malpighian  tubes  are  differentiated  they  commence  to  function  even 
before  the  emergence  of  the  imago  ;  the  urates  provisionally  heaped  up 
in  the  fat-cells  are  dissolved  and  circulated.  They  reach  the  cells  of  the 
Malpighian  tubes,  and  finally  pass  from  their  lumina  to  the  intestine  as 
an  abundant  meconium. 

Larval  Habits  of  Tiger-beetles.§ — V.  E.  Shelf ord  gives  a  preliminary 
account  of  the  habits  of  the  larvae  of  some  American  tiger-beetles,  which 
he  reared  from  the  egg  in  a  glass-covered  vivarium.  The  species  chiefly 
described  is  Ckindela  purpurea,  but  other  eleven  races  were  studied  at 
the  same  time.  Adults  were  caught  in  April  and  mating  took  place  in 
a  few  days,  there  being  no  "  courting  "  on  the  part  of  the  male.  Some 
days  later  the  female  bored  vertical  holes,  7-9  mm.  in  depth,  and 
deposited  a  single  elongated  egg  of  a  clear  translucent  cream-colour  in 
each  hole.  About  fifty  eggs  were  laid  by  one  female.  Small  larvae 
appeared  in  two  weeks.      The  first  larval  stage  lasts  about  a  month. 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  1205-8  (1  fig.). 
t  Arch.  Biol.,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  368-410  (2  pis.). 
%  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  Ixii.  (1907)  pp.  909-11. 
§  Jouru.  Linn.  Soc,  xxx.  (1908)  pp.  157-88  (4  pis.). 


ZOOLOGV    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  317 

The  larvae  hibernate  in  the  third  stage,  emerging  in  April  and  feeding 
till  June,  when  pupation  takes  place.  The  perfect  insect  hibernates 
again  and  does  not  become  sexually  mature  until  the  first  warm  days  of 
the  third  spring,  when  it  lays  its  eggs  and  dies.  In  other  species  the 
eggs  are  not  laid  till  midsummer,  and  the  imagos  emerge  the  following 
July  and  mature  quickly,  so  that  adult  life  lasts  only  two  months.  Tem- 
perature, moisture,  and'  food  influence  the  length  of  the  stages.  Pig- 
mentation and  final  hardening  of  the  cuticle  takes  place  in  the  pupa 
in  those  parts  which  are  employed  in  the  final  ecdysis,  and  the  bristles 
of  the  imago  assist  in  the  removal  of  the  exuvium. 

Life-history  and  Bionomics  of  Lomechusa.* — H.  St.  J.  Donisthorpe 
communicates  some  interesting  facts  regarding  this  beetle,  which  is  a 
dweller  in  the  nests  of  the  robber-ant,  Formica  sanguined,  and  whose 
life-history  has  been  worked  out  by  Father  Wasmann.  Lomechusa 
possesses  short  aborted  labial  palpi  and  patches  of  golden  hairs  upon 
the  abdomen,  whence  the  ants  obtain  a  sweet  secretion.  The  secretion 
exudes  from  orifices  under  the  hair.  The  beetles  ask  to  be  fed  by  the 
ants  by  tapping  them  with  their  antenna?.  They  may,  however,  feed  them- 
themselves,  sucking  the  honey  given  to  the  ants,  and  biting  at  dead 
ants  and  larvae.  In  courtship  the  male  and  female  Lomechusa  face  each 
other,  bringing  their  antennae  and  mouths  together,  and  tapping  each 
other  quickly.  In  copulation  the  male  turns  his  tail  over  his  head, 
meeting  the  upturned  female  abdomen  which  is  in  front.  The  male  in 
these  circumstances  is  carried  hanging  back  in  the  air  or  walking  on  the 
tips  of  his  front  pair  of  legs.  They  separate,  and  after  caressing  each 
other  the  process  is  repeated  and  copulation  resumed.  Lomechusa  defends 
itself  successfully  against  the  attacks  of  foreign  ants,  F.  rufa,  F.  exsecta, 
etc.,  introduced  into  the  nest.  They  emit  an  odour  when  seized,  which 
comes  from  glands  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  abdomen.  The  larva 
mimics  the  ant  larva  ;  it  is  valued  and  protected  by  the  ants  themselves  ; 
they  feed  it  and  place  it  even  upon  their  own  larvae,  many  of  which  it 
devours.  Some  interesting  facts  are  stated  regarding  the  relation  of 
Lomechusa  to  the  production  of  "  pseudogynes "  in  the  ants'  nests. 
Eecently  this  beetle  has  been  found  to  be  not  uncommon  in  England. 

Variation  of  Nycteribiidae  from  Ceylon. | — H.  Scott  has  examined 
a  hundred  specimens  of  Cyclopodia  sylcesi  Westwood,  a  parasite  upon 
Pteropus  medius  in  Ceylon,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  to  what  extent 
variation  occurs.  He  records  that  in  57  males  there  is  no  appreciable 
variation  in  size,  structure,  and  colour.  In  the  43  females  only  one 
striking  variation  was  noted,  viz.  in  the  numbered  arrangement  of  the 
large  tubercles  on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  abdomen.  These  are  so 
variable  that  they  cannot  be  relied  on  as  a  specific  character. 

Semi-aquatic  Aphid. :£ — 0.  F.  Jackson  describes  Aphis  aquaticus 
sp.  n.,  which  was  found  infesting  Phihtria  canadensis  and  other  aquatic 
plants.  Three  pairs  of  lateral  wax-glands  on  the  thorax  make  a  secretion 
which  keeps  the  insect  from  getting  wet,  and  other  adaptations  to  the 
semi-aquatic  life  are  noted. 

*  Trans.  Entorn.  Soc.  London,  1907,  pp.  415-20.  t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  421-8. 

t  Ohio  Naturalist,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  243-9  (1  pi.). 


318  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Accessory  Chromosome  in  Aplopus  mayeri.* — H.  E.  Jordan  traces 
the  history  of  the  accessory  chromosome  in  the  Phasmid,  Aplopus  mayeri, 

from  its  first  origin  in  the  secondary  spermatogonia,  through  its  various 
changes  during  the  growth  and  maturation  processes,  to  its  final  disappear- 
ance in  thr  head  of  the  ripening  spermatozoa.  He  reserves  theoretical 
considerations  for  future  discussion,  and  summarises  the  results  of  his 
investigation  as  follows.  The  accessory  chromosome  appears  in  the 
resting  stage  of  the  secondary  spermatogonia  as  a  chromatin  nucleus 
characteristically  close  to  the  nuclear  wall.  At  the  last  spermatogonia] 
division  it  passes  over  into  the  resting  stage  of  the  primary  spermatocyte 
without  entering  a  reticular  stage,  as  do  the  ordinary  chromosomes. 
Both  the  primary  and  secondary  spermatogonia  have  a  metaphase  group 
of  thirty-five  chromosomes.  Metaphase  groups  of  the  follicle  cells  of 
the  ovary  contain  thirty-six  chromosomes.  Synapsis  occurs  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  growth  period  by  an  end-to-end  union  of  pairs  of  univalent 
elements.  Equatorial  plates  of  primary  spermatocytes  contain  eighteen 
chromosomes.  The  accessory  chromosome  passes  undivided  to  one  pole 
of  the  first  maturation  spindle,  and  thus  produces  a  dimorphism  of  the 
daughter-cells  and  the  resulting  spermatozoa.  The  first  maturation 
division  is  reductional,  the  second  is  equational.  Equatorial  plates  of 
secondary  spermatocytes  show  a  disparity  in  the  number  of  chromosomes  ; 
one  group  contains  a  large  U-shaped  element  peripherally  and  numbers 
eighteen  ;  those  groups  which  lack  a  body  of  such  form  contain  only 
seventeen  chromosomes.  The  accessory  chromosome  can  be  traced  as  a 
specific  structure  from  the  resting  stage  of  the  last  order  of  spermato- 
gonia through  all  the  various  phases  of  synapsis  and  maturation,  until 
it  disintegrates  in  the  head  of  the  ripening  spermatozoon. 

Excretion  in  Thysanura.f — L.  Bruntz  finds  labial  renal  organs 
opening  to  the  exterior  in  MacMlis  and  Lepisma.  There  are  also  nephro- 
cytes  like  fat^cells  in  the  connective-tissue  which  bounds  the  pericardial 
sinus  in  MacMlis.  Similar  elements  in  Lepisma,  but  quite  unlike  fat- 
cells,  occur  in  connection  with  the  pericardial  sinus.  Phagocytosis  is 
exhibited  by  blood-corpuscles  and  by  the  pericardial  septum  in  some 
species  {Lepisma  saccharin  a  and  Ctenolepisma  lineata). 

P,  Myriopoda. 

Habits  and  Structure  of  Scutigerella  immaculata.J  —  S.  R. 
Williams  has  studied  this  member  of  the  Symphyla,  that  interesting 
group  of  Arthropods  that  seems  to  partake  to  a  certain  extent  of  the 
characters  of  the  millipedes,  the  centipedes,  and  the  Thysanuran  order 
of  insects.  It  lays  eggs  and  hatches  its  young  (in  the  latitude  of 
southern  Ohio)  during  late  May  and  early  June.  The  time  of  laying  is 
influenced  by  the  temperature.  In  the  laboratory  at  least  the  adult  is 
needed  to  keep  off  destructive  fungi  from  the  eggs.  The  egg  is  covered 
by  a  vitelline  membrane  and  a  much-ridged  chorion. 

The  larva  has  seven  pairs  of    legs  and  ten  dorsal  scutes,  and  is 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  284-95  (35  figs.). 
t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (190S)  pp.  231-3. 


Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  xxxiii.  (1907)  pp.  461-85  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  319 

hatched  more  nearly  like  the  adult  than  in  Diplopods.  It  is  more  like 
the  adult  than  the  newly-hatched  IMhobius  among  Chilopods.  "  It  is, 
therefore,  a  highly  specialised  young  rather  than  a  generalised  ancestral 
form  such  as  the  hexapod  larva  of  other  Diplopoda  is  considered  to  be." 
•  It  seems  probable  that  Scutigerella  is  carnivorous,  and  it  seems  to 
secrete  a  peritrophic  membrane  about  the  contents  of  its  mid-gut,  as  do 
some  of  the  lower  insects. 

The  first  joint  of  a  typical  walking  leg  is  moved  by  five  slender 
muscles,  which  originate  on  the  dorsal  scutes.  In  its  mode  of  loco- 
motion, though  not  in  its  rate,  S.  immcmdata  resembles  the  Diplopods. 
Ecdysis  seems  to  occur  shortly  before  oviposition.  The  most  common 
method  of  escape  from  the  cast  skin  is  by  freeing  the  head  and  then 
creeping  forward  out  of  the  old  husk  ;  but  this  is  not  the  only  method. 

Segmentation  of  the  Head  in  Diplopoda.*  —  Margaret  Robinson 
has  examined  embryos  and  larvae  of  Archispirostreptus  from  South 
Africa,  from  which  she  draws  certain  conclusions  as  to  the  head  seg- 
ments. The  embryo  has  two  additional  head -segments,  the  possession 
of  which  would  seem  to  give  the  Diplopoda  a  place  in  the  Arthropod 
system  nearer  to  the  Chilopoda  and  Hexapoda  than  that  recently 
assigned  to  them.  These  additional  segments  are  (1)  a  tritocerebral 
segment  representing  the  tritocerebral  rudiments  found  in  Hexapoda 
and  Scolopeinlra,  and  also  the  tritocerebral  segment  in  Crustacea  ;  (2)  a 
pair  of  rudimentary  roaxillas  lying  in  front  of  the  pair  which  forms 
the  gnathochilarium  in  the  adult.  These  are  probably  homologous 
with  the  first  maxillae  in  Chilopoda  and  Crustacea,  and  with  the  super- 
linguae  (Folsom)  of  Hexapoda.  The  gnathochilarium  is  probably  a 
part  of  the  head,  and  the  post-maxillary  segment  of  Heymons  and 
Silvestri  is  purely  a  body  segment. 

8.  Arachnida. 

So-called  Malpighian  Tubes  in  Scorpions.f— L.  Bordas  has  studied 
these  structures  in  Buthus  europceus,  and  finds  that  they  are  inextricably 
associated  with  the  liver,  being,  in  fact,  excretory  ducts  of  that  organ, 
differing  in  detail  from  the  large  ducts  which  open  into  the  gastric 
region. 

«.  Crustacea. 

Periodic  Change  in  Phototropism  of  Hermit  Crabs.f  —  Anna 
Drzewina  finds  that  specimens  of  C'libaiiarius  misanthropus  Risso  in  an 
aquarium  show  periodic  changes  from  positive  to  negative  phototropism, 
which  approximately  synchronise  with  the  changes  of  the  tide.  During 
the  period  corresponding  to  neap  tides  the  Pagurids  show  marked  and 
very  constant  negative  phototropism,  but  as  the  tides  become  higher 
towards  the  spring-tides,  positive  phototropism  sets  in.  The  possible 
meaning  of  the  parallelism  is  discussed,  but,  as  the  observer  points  out, 
there  is  need  for  extended  observations. 

*  Quart.  Joum.  Micr.  Sci.,  li.  (1907)  pp.  607-24  (1  pi.,  G  figs.), 
f  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  167-9. 
X  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  1208-9. 


320  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

Variations  in  the  Norway  Lobster.*  -  -  D.  C.  Mcintosh  has 
examined  a  large  number  of  specimens  of  the  Norway  lobster  {Nephrops 
norvegicus),  procured  from  Newhaven  fishmarket  or  trawled  in  the 
Firth  of  Forth  and  the  Moray  Firth.  In  regard  to  the  relative  size  of 
males  and  females,  it  was  found  that  less  than  1  per  cent,  of  the  females 
and  30  per  cent,  of  the  males  examined  were  over  16  cm.  in  length  ; 
while  20  per  cent,  of  the  males,  as  against  80  per  cent,  of  the  females, 
were  under  12  "5  cm.;  so  that  in  general  the  female  adult  is  shorter 
than  the  male.  Of  5894  specimens  only  703,  or  scarcely  12  per  cent., 
were  females.  It  was  found,  however,  that  the  proportion  of  females 
was  much  greater  in  hauls  taken  with  a  smaller  meshed  net,  and  it  is 
suggested  that  the  well-known  scarcity  of  females  in  boxes  procured  for 
laboratory  purposes  may  be  partly  accounted  for  by  the  method  of 
capture.  It  was  found  that  variation  in  the  number  and  arrangement 
of  the  male  genital  apertures  was  not  uncommon.  The  normal  aper- 
tures were  present  in  every  case,  but  in  6  •  5  per  cent,  there  were  addi- 
tional openings,  the  variation  ranging  from  the  normal  two  up  to  six. 
These  extra  openings  occur  without  any  regard  to  bilateral  symmetry. 
The  number  of  individuals  showing  abnormality  decreases  as  the  extent 
of  the  abnormality  increases.  Particulars  as  to  the  material  examined, 
the  number  and  extent  of  variations,  etc.,  are  clearly  arranged  in  tables. 

New  British  Terrestrial  Isopod.f  —  Alexander  Patience  describes 
Trichoniscus  linearis  sp.  n.,  from  Kew  Gardens,  where  it  was  found 
under  flower-pots  along  with  Haplophthalmus  danicus  Budde  Lund. 
Another  species,  T.  stebbingi,  was  found  in  the  flower-pots,  and  six  other 
Trichoniscidas  were  taken  at  Kew  on  the  same  day.  The  new  species  is 
at  once  distinguished  from  all  the  other  British  species  of  Trichoniscus 
by  its  conspicuously  linear  form,  approaching  nearer  to  T.  pygmceus, 
G-.  O.  Sars,  in  this  respect  than  any  other  member  of  the  genus. 

Life-history  of  Sacculina.J — G-.  Smith  has  experimentally  infected 
Carcinas  mamas  with  this  parasite  and  followed  out  the  life-history.  It 
is  briefly  as  follows.  The  eggs  undergo  maturation  in  the  brood-pouch 
and  are  self -fertilised.  Development  up  to  the  nauplius  stage  proceeds 
here  ;  the  nauplii  are  expelled  to  the  exterior  and  lead  a  free-swimming 
existence  for  four  days,  undergoing  four  moults.  The  cypris  stage  is 
reached  on  the  fifth  day,  and  after  two  or  three  days  of  free  existence 
the  cypris  larvae  attach  themselves  by  their  antennules  to  a  hair  upon 
any  portion  of  a  young  crab,  preferably  upon  the  appendages.  The 
cypris  casts  off  its  thoracic  appendages,  the  ectoderm  draws  away  from 
the  shell  and  comes  to  surround  a  mass  of  mesodermal  cells  ;  it  secretes 
a  chitinous  coat,  and  in  this  manner  the  Kentrogon  larva  is  formed. 
The  cypris  shell,  including  all  the  larval  organs,  is  thrown  off.  The 
embryonic  cells  of  the  Kentrogon,  consisting  of  ectoderm  and  mesoderm, 
pass  through  an  ectodermal  hollow  dart  into  the  haemoccele  of  the 
crab,  and  are  carried  in  the  blood-stream  till  they  reach  the  intestine. 
They  are  inclosed  in  a  thin  chitinous  cuticle.     The  Saccidina  interna 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Phys.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xvii.  (1908)  |pp.  129-42. 

t  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  i.  ser.  8„  pp.  280-2  (1  pi.). 

X  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Soc,  li.  (1907)  pp.  625-32  (6  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  32  L 

migrans  now  proceeds  to  grow  rapidly,  to  throw  out  roots  in  all  direc- 
tions, while  the  central  tumour  grows  down  the  intestine  toward  the 
junction  of  thorax  and  abdomen  of  the  crab.  At  this  time  the  adult 
organs  are  differentiating  in  the  most  posterior  portion  of  the  central 
tumour,  which  soon  arrives  at  the  position  of  evagination  of  the  adult 
Sacculina.  Here  differentiation  proceeds,  and  the  pressure  of  the  growing 
tumour  upon  the  epithelium  of  the  crab  causes  it  to  degenerate,  and 
thus  when  the  crab  next  moults  a  hole  is  left  in  the  new  chitin,  through 
which  the  Sacculina  protrudes  and  so  gains  the  exterior. 

New  Barnacles.* — A.  Grovel  makes  a  preliminary  note  on  the 
collection  of  stalked  Cirripeds  made  by  the  German  Antarctic  Expedition. 
It  includes  four  new  species  of  Scalpellum. 

Metamorphosis  of  Mytilicola  intestinalis.f — Otto  Pesta  gives  an 
interesting  account  of  this  Copepod  parasite  of  MyUlus  gallpprovincialis, 
in  whose  life-cycle  are  included  extremes  of  feeding  habits,  from  those 
of  a  free  life  to  that  of  parasitism.  At  the  change  of  habit,  swimming 
legs  are  transformed  into  crawling  ones,  their  now  useless  or  even  in- 
jurious bristles  becoming  either  rudimentary  or  thorny.  Thorny  bristles 
may  secure  fixation.  Similar  transformations  occur  in  the  thoracic  limbs. 
A  reduction  of  the  number  of  segments  sets  in  when  the  gut  lumen  of 
the  host  is  nearly  filled  up  by  the  further  growth  of  the  parasite,  and  a 
long  worm-like  creature  results,  which  moves  by  alternate  extension  and 
contraction  of  certain  body  segments.  For  definitive  onward  move- 
ments the  legs,  now  greatly  modified,  serve  as  struts  pressing  rhythmically 
upon  the  gut-wall. 

Annulata. 

Metamorphosis  of  Echiurus.J — W.  Salensky  returns  to  a  study  of 
the  development  of  Echiurus,  and  gives  an  account  of  the  assumption 
of  the  definitive  form,  the  differentiation  of  the  skin,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  larval  and  adult  nervous  system. 

Studies  on  Maldanidae.§ — Ivar  Arwidsson  has  studied  a  large  number 
of  Scandinavian  and  Arctic  Maldanidae,  and  gives  an  account  of  the  whole 
family,  in  which  he  recognises  five  sub-families — Luinbriclymeniaj, 
Rhodininae,  Nicomachinae,  Euclynieninas,  and  Maldaninae.  The  elabo- 
rate memoir  contains  descriptions  of  numerous  new  forms. 

Earthworms  as  Planters  of  Trees.|| — E.  A.  Andrews  gives  an  account 
of  some  observations  showing  that  earthworms  may  aid  in  the  germina- 
tion of  the  seeds  of  at  least  one  important  kind  of  tree,  by  their  habit  of 
plugging  up  the  mouth  of  their  burrows.  On  May  3  it  was  noticed  that 
the  ground  under  a  group  of  silver  maple  trees  was  covered  with  the 
little  key-fruits  or  samaras  that  had  fallen  from  the  trees,  and  in  many 
places  these  were  collected  into  little  heaps  a  foot  or  more  apart.     Each 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  157-62. 

t  Zeitschr.  Wiss.Zool.,  lxxxviii.  (1907)  pp.  78-98  (1  pi.). 

%  Bull.  Acad.  Sci.  St.  Petersbourg  (1908)  No.  3,  pp.  307-28  (16  figs.). 

§  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxvi.  (1907)  pp.  1-308  (12  pis.). 

||  Amer.  Nat.,  xli.  (1907)  pp.  711-14. 

June  17  th,  1908  z 


322  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

heap  contained  from  twelve  to  fifty  fruits,  some  lying  loose,  some  partly 
buried,  and  bound  together  with  earth  and  a  few  fibres,  probably  grass. 
The  ground  for  a  radius  of  several  inches  round  each  heap  was  markedly 
free  from  seeds  and  clean,  so  that  it  seemed  as  if  the  earthworms  had 
reached  out  as  far  as  possible  and  dragged  back  all  the  seeds  they  could 
find  to  the  mouths  of  their  burrows.  In  every  collection,  three,  four, 
or  more  seeds  had  sprouted,  while  outside  the  heaps  not  a  single  sprouting 
seed  was  found.  Several  weeks  later  some  dozens  of  young  trees,  three 
or  four  inches  in  height  and  with  two  or  three  pairs  of  leaves,  were  found 
under  the  parent  trees,  standing,  with  the  remains  of  the  heaps  still 
visible  about  them,  apparently  on  the  site  of  the  earthworms'  burrows. 

Systematic  Position  of  Chsetognatha.* — R.  T.  Gunther  concludes 
that  this  class  approaches  in  its  structure  and  development  nearer 
to  the  Mollusca  than  to  any  other  group.  He  points  to  the  following 
resemblances  : — the  worm-shaped  body,  which  recalls  the  Amphineura 
Aplacophora  ;  the  bilateral  symmetry  in  general,  and  particularly  of  the 
body-cavity  ;  the  presence  of  an  abdominal  sac  behind  the  anus  ;  the 
absence  of  undoubted  segmentation  ;  the  jaw  armature  in  Sagiita  and 
Proneomenia  ;  buccal  and  visceral  commissures  in  the  nervous  system  ; 
the  pre-oral  ciliary  wreath  or  velum  ;  the  endoskeleton  in  the  head  of 
Nautilus  and  Spadella  ;  the  lateral  and  tail  fins  in  Sagitta  and  the 
Dibranchiate  Cephalopods  ;  the  two  paired  openings  from  the  cavity 
of  the  gonads  ;  the  hood  and  the  circumoral  propodium  of  Cepha- 
lopods ;  the  development  of  the  eggs  within  a  follicular  epithelium 
and  their  growth  upon  stalks  ;  the  tendency  in  pelagic  molluscs  for 
shell,  mantle,  gills  and  foot  to  disappear,  e.g.  PhylJirho'e.  On  the 
ground  of  these  and  other  observations,  Chajtognatha  are  regarded  as 
the  living  representatives  of  that  phyletic  stage  which  is  represented 
by  veliger  larva?,  and  from  such  a  free-swimming  ancestor  the  creep- 
ing Polyplacophora,  worm-shaped  Aplacophora,  and  the  swimming 
Cephalopods  may  have  arisen  independently.  A  systematic  scheme  of 
the  Mollusca  is  put  forward  in  which  Chastognatha  and  Cephalopoda  are 
grouped  together  as  Nectomalacia,  and  all  other  Molluscs  as  Herpeto- 
malacia.     The  characters  of  these  groups  are  defined. 

Nematohelminth.es. 

Nervous  System  of  Ascaris.t — D.  Deincka  describes  the  sensory 
and  motor  nerve-cells.  He  recognises  two  types  of  sensory  cell.  Those 
of  the  first  type  are  connected  with  each  other  by  means  of  their  short 
processes,  along  which  the  neurofibrils  of  one  cell  pass  over  into  the  body 
of  another,  and  also  by  means  of  central  processes  which,  branching  greatly 
as  they  meet,  form  an  intimate  network.  The  cells  of  the  second  kind 
are  connected  by  means  of  short,  greatly  branched  dendrites.  The  two 
kinds  of  cell  are  closely  intermingled  in  the  sensory  end  apparatus  ;  they 
share  by  means  of  their  fibrils  in  the  formation  of  the  thin  nerve-tufts 
of  the  papillae,  and  also  form  the  network  of  delicate  nerve-branches 
which  constitutes  the  main  mass  of  the  papillae     The  motor-cells  are 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  71-2. 

t  Zeitschr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxix.  (190S)  pp.  242-307  (9  pis.  and  7  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,  ETC.  323 

only  connected  more  or  less  closely  with  one  another  when  they  possess 
strongly  branched  dendrites  which  form  networks.  There  are  four  types 
of  motor-cell. 

Platyhelminthes. 

Orientation  of  the  Cestoda.* — Ludwig  Cohn  makes  some  striking 
suggestions  on  this  subject.  He  holds  that  the  key  to  the  morpho- 
logical significance  of  the  Cestode  body  is  to  be  found  in  the  oncosphere. 
Its  front  end  is  the  hook-bearing  end,  which  in  movement  is  directed 
anteriorly.  In  all  taded  Cysticercoids  the  embryonal  booklets  of  the 
oncosphere  are  found  on  the  caudal  appendage,  which  is  thus  to  be 
regarded  as  the  anterior  end  of  the  Cysticercoid.  There  is  a  stage  in  all 
Cestodes  when  the  whole  anterior  body  is  lost,  and  in  the  proliferating 
scolices  we  have  animals  which  without  possessing  a  real  anterior  end, 
i.e.  a  head,  fix  themselves  by  the  hinder  end  to  the  gut  wall,  and  hang 
with  their  relatively  most  anterior  end  freely  suspended  in  the  gut. 
This  thesis  thus  assumes  (1)  that  in  Cestodes  the  anterior  and  the  posterior 
body  arise  separately  from  a  middle  piece  ;  (2)  that  the  hinder  part 
detaches  itself  aud  alone  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  sexual  animal ; 
(3)  that  the  zone  of  growth  of  Cestodes  occurs  not  on  the  front  end 
close  behind  the  head,  but,  on  the  contrary,  away  from  it.  These 
points  are  fully  discussed  in  the  paper. 

Sterility  in  Cestodes.f — Al.  Mrazek  found  an  example  of  Tatria 
acanthorhyneha  which  possessed  only  male  organs  and  a  receptaculum 
seminis.  Another  individual  possessed  in  the  youngest  (anterior)  pro- 
glottids  distinct  rudiments  of  single  parts  of  the  sex-organs,  e.g.  cirrus 
sac,  etc.,  but  in  the  oldest  proglottids  had  not  the  slightest  trace  of  these 
organs  or  their  rudiments.  It  is  regarded  as  probable  that  the  develop- 
ment had  proceeded  so  far  and  stopped,  and  that  the  rudiments  then 
disappeared.  It  is  possible  that  these  phenomena  have  some  relation  to 
the  rare  cases  of  Cestoda  in  which  the  sexes  occur  separate. 

Hemiuridse.l — A.  Looss  deals  with  the  anatomy  and  classification  of 
the  members  of  the  Distomid  family  Hemiuridas,  giving  a  detailed 
account  of  its  sub-families,  genera,  and  species.  The  members  of  this 
family  are  inhabitants  of  the  alimentary  canal  of  marine  bony  fishes. 
They  are  entirely  or  nearly  cylindrical,  and  in  some,  though  not  in  all, 
the  body  consists  of  two  regions,  trunk  and  abdomen  (Schwanzanhang). 
The  skin  is  always  unarmed,  and  the  suckers,  which  are  muscular  and 
powerful,  are  set  close  together.  The  eggs  are  extremely  numerous, 
thin-shelled,  and  relatively  small,  usually  about  0 "  02  mm.,  exceptionally 
0 '  03  mm.  in  length. 


*&' 


Rhythmic  Behaviour  of  Convoluta  Roscoffensis.§— Louis  Martin 
has  made  some  new  and  interesting  observations  on  this  subject.  He 
finds  that  darkness  inhibits  the  movements,  which  synchronise  with  the 
tides.     Convoluta  does  not  rise  in  darkness,  or  if  it  have  done  so,  it 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  51-66. 

+  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,  xlv.  (1907)  p.  234-5. 

X  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxvi.  (1907)  pp.  63-180  (9  pis.). 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  555-7. 


324  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RKSF.ARCHES   RELATING   TO 

descends.  An  interesting  exception  is  the  fact  that  on  moonlight 
nights,  and  ('specially  at  full  moon,  the  rhythm  is  maintained,  and  that 
even  although  the  sky  is  dark.  It  is  also  found  that  various  physical. 
chemical,  or  physiological  influences  are  capable  of  disturbing  this 
rhythm. 

Planaria  angulata  Muller.* — J.  AVilhelmi  clears  up  the  confusion 
in  connection  with  the  terminology  of  Planaria  angulata  Muller.  The 
name  has  been  given  to  a  Nemertine,  a  marine  Triclad,  and  a  larva 
whose  development  has  been  regarded  by  several  embryologists  as  in 
the  category  of  Polyclads.  P.  angulata  Muller  must  be  classed  as 
a  Nemertine.  The  form  named  by  Agassiz  as  P.  angulata  has  no  claim 
to  the  title,  and  further,  in  consequence  of  his  brief  description,  is  difficult 
to  identify  again,  although  many  circumstances  point  to  its  being  the 
Bdellurid  which  lives  upon  Limulus.  Owing  to  Agassiz'  uncertain  de- 
termination there  is  great  doubt  as  to  the  value  of  the  observations  made 
by  Balfour  and  by  Korscheldt  and  Heider  on  the  development  of 
P.  angulata. 

Structure  of  Fresh-water  Triclads.f  —  Job.  Ude  has  published  a 
memoir  dealing  with  the  anatomy  and  histology  of  Planaria  gonocephala 
Dug.,  Dendrocodum  angarense,  and  D.  punctatum.  An  examination  of 
the  characters  of  Planaria  tvgtegrensis,  as  stated  by  Sabussows,  shows 
it  to  be  much  more  probably  a  variety  merely  of  P.  gonocephala. 

Early  Development  of  a  Polyclad.J — Frank  M.  Surface  has  studied 
the  early  stages  in  the  development  of  Planocera  inquilina  Wh.  The 
cleavage  is  strictly  spiral  in  the  dextral  sequence  until  a  late  stage 
(forty-four  cells).  Three  quartets  of  ectomeres  are  given  off  in  alter- 
nating dexiotropic  and  Inotropic  directions.  At  the  next  division  a 
fourth  quartet  is  formed,  the  cells  of  which  are  of  very  large  size  and 
contain  most  of  the  yolk.  The  "  macromeres  "  are  very  minute  cells, 
which  remain  at  the  vegetative  pole  until  the  closure  of  the  blastopore. 
The  markedly  degenerative  character  of  their  nuclei  and  the  small 
amount  of  cytoplasm  indicate  that  they  degenerate  without  giving  rise 
to  any  structure. 

At  the  stage  with  forty  cells  there  are  formed  at  the  animal  pole 
four  small  "  apical "  cells,  like  those  in  Annelids  and  Molluscs.  At  the 
forty-four-cell  stage  the  posterior  cell  of  the  fourth  quartet,  ±d,  buds  a 
single  large  cell  into  the  interior  of  the  embryo.  Both  of  these  cells, 
4  d  and  4  d2,  next  divide  bilaterally.  Of  these  four  cells  the  two  upper 
and  inner  give  rise  to  a  portion  of  the  mesoderm,  and  possibly  a  small 
part  of  the  endoderm.  The  lower  pair  of  cells,  lying  on  the  surface  of 
the  embryo,  give  rise  to  practically  all  of  the  endodermal  part  of  the 
alimentary  canal.  Thus  the  history  of  this  cell,  4  d,  shows  a  remarkable 
resemblance  to  its  homologue  in  Molluscs  and  Annelids. 

The  three  anterior  cells  of  the  fourth  quartet,  4«,  4&,  and  4^,  seem 
to  function  only  as  the  bearers  of  food-yolk,  and  apparently  give  rise  to 

*  Zool.  Jabrb.,  xxvi.  (1907)  pp.  1-10. 

t  Zeitscbr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxix.  (1908)  pp.  308-70  (3  pis.  and  3  figs.). 

X  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1907,  pp.  514-59  (G  pis.), 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  325 

no  morphological  structure.  The  very  large  nuclei  of  these  cells  can  be 
followed  until  the  beginning  of  the  pharyngeal  invagination.  The  yolk 
in  these  cells  breaks  up  into  spherules,  probably  through  the  action  of 
enzymes  from  the  large  nuclei.  This  liquefied  yolk  is  afterwards  absorbed 
by  the  endoderm  cells. 

A  large  portion  of  the  ectoderm  is  formed  by  the  successive  budding 
or  delimination  of  small  cells  from  larger,  deeper-lying  cells.  A  portion 
of  the  mesoderm,  chiefly  that  part  lying  around  the  pharynx,  is  de- 
rived from  cells  of  the  second  quartet,  and  thus  corresponds  to 
the  ';  secondary  "  mesoblast  or  "  larval "  mesenchyme  of  Annelids  and 
Molluscs. 

In  the  spiral  cleavage,  the  segregation  of  the  ectoblast  in  three 
quartets,  the  formation  of  a  large  part  of  the  mesoderm  from  4  d,  the 
formation  of  the  apical  cells,  and  in  many  other  details,  the  development 
corresponds  to  that  of  Annelids  and  Molluscs.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
the  development  of  the  entire  alimentary  canal  from  a  portion  of  the 
mesentoblast,  4  d,  and  in  the  consequent  degeneration  of  the  "  macro- 
meres  "  and  of  the  remaining  cells  of  the  fourth  quartet,  this  Polyclad 
is  unique. 

Nematocysts  of  Turbellaria.*— C.  H.  Martin  has  experimentally 
proved  in  a  series  of  Turbellaria  that  their  nematocysts  are  derived  from 
their  food.  For  example,  if  Microstoma  lineare  is  fed  upon  Gordylo- 
pltora,  the  nematocysts  of  this  polyp  are  found  under  its  skin.  Ordi- 
narily its  nematocysts  are  derived  from  Hydra,  upon  which  it  feeds. 
The  same  process  probably  occurs  in  the  other  Turbellaria,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  Anonymus  virilis,  and  therefore  there  is  no  ground 
for  the  generally  accepted  homology  between  nematocysts  and  rhabdites. 

Rotifera. 

New  French  Rotifers.f  —  P.  de  Beauchamp  describes  Proalides 
te/itaculatas  g.  et  sp.  n.,  a  remarkable  footless  Notommatid  adapted  for 
free-swimming.  It  has  affinities  with  Proales,  Taphrocampa,  and  possibly 
Adadyla.  The  author  also  describes  Proales  similis  sp.  n.  and  Rattulus 
cylindricus  Imhof,  var.  chattoni  var.  n. 

New  Scottish  Rotifers.} — James  Murray,  in  a  supplementary  note 
on  Scottish  Rotifers  collected  by  the  Lake  Survey,  gives  lists  of  species 
found,  mostly  in  moss,  in  various  parts  of  North  Scotland,  Orkney  and 
Shetland.  Amongst  these  are  the  following  new  species  :  Philodina 
convertjens,  CaUidina  minuta,  C.  circinata,  C.  plicata  var.  hirundella, 
which  are  described  and  figured. 


'&■ 


Stomachal  Excretion  in  Rotifera.§ — P.  de  Beauchamp  describes  a 
process  observed  in  the  stomach  of  Rotifera  in  which  a  selective  action 
is    exercised   whereby   from   amongst   the   substances   swallowed,   e.g. 

*  Quart.  Joum.  Micr.  Sci.,  lii.  (1908)  pp.  261-77  (1  pi.). 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  148-57  (3  figs.). 

I  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xlvi.  (1908)  pp.  189-201  (2  pis.). 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxliv.  (1907)  pp.  1293-5. 


326      SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

chlorophyll,  some  parts  are  digested  and  retained  in  the  form  of  baso- 
phil globules  and  fat,  while  others  are  excreted  from  the  cells  into  the 
gut  in  the  form  of  strongly  acidophile  grains. 

Echinoderma. 

Regeneration  of  Spines  and  Pedicellarise  in  Sea-urchins.* — 0.  Poso 
has  experimented  with  Sphatrechinus  granulans,  Echinus  microtuber- 
culatus,  and  Strongylocmtrotus  lividus,  and  finds  that  there  is  regeneration 
of  spines  and  pedicellariae.  He  was  led  to  this  research  by  the  state  of 
some  of  the  sea-urchins  collected  at  Naples  some  time  after  the  eruption 
of  Vesuvius  in  1906,  which  showed  delicate  spines,  disproportionately 
young  looking.  On  a  sudden  change  from  a  large  reservoir  to  a  small 
glass  vessel  a  specimen  of  Sphavrechinus  shed  most  of  its  spines  and 
seemed  about  to  die.  It  recovered,  however,  and  began  to  regenerate 
what  it  had  lost. 

Luminosity  of  Ophiuroids. — Reichensperger  f  has  studied  Ophiop- 
sila  annulosa  (Sars),  0.  aranea  Forbes,  Amphiura  flliformis  Midler,  and 
A.  squamata  Sars.  In  the  first  there  are  peculiar  glandular  structures 
in  the  lateral  spines  ;  in  A.  flliformis  there  are  similar  structures  in  all 
the  spines.  In  A .  chiqjei,  which  is  not  luminous,  there  are  no  glandular 
structures  of  this  sort,  but  they  occur  again  in  A.  squamata.  In 
0.  aranea,  however,  they  are  not  to  be  found.  Reichensperger  thinks 
that  in  the  three  species  above  noted  the  glandular  structures  associated 
with  the  spines  are  the  luminous  organs.  He  does  not  agree  with 
Irene  Sterzinger's  conclusion  that  in  A.  squamata  the  tube-feet  produce 
luminous  mucus. 

Ernst  Mangold  %  has  studied  the  same  four  species,  and  he  also  has 
concluded  that  the  luminosity  is  associated  with  skeletal  plates  and  spines, 
not  with  tube-feet.  He  criticises  Irene  Sterzinger's  argument.  He  also 
discusses  the  climbing  powers  of  Ophiuroids,  and  concludes  that  the 
attachment  of  the  tube-feet  is  not  mainly  due  to  a  secreted  glutinous 
substance.  The  theory  that  the  fixation  is  due  to  glutinous  secretion 
is  not  convincing.  There  is  more  to  be  said  for  the  theory  that  the 
tube-feet  may  act  as  muscular  suckers. 

Development  of  Ophiothrix  fragilis.§ — E.  W.  MacBride  communi- 
cates the  results  of  his  investigation  of  this  subject.  The  early  develop- 
ment varies  with  the  condition  of  the  egg  at  the  moment  of  fertilisation, 
and  the  development  of  the  unripe  egg  resembles  in  certain  features  that 
of  Ophiura  brevis.  The  ccelome  originates  as  a  single  vesicle  from  the 
apex  of  the  archenteron,  and  this  appears  to  be  true  for  all  classes  of 
Echinoderms.  This  segments  into  three  somites  on  each  side.  The 
middle  somite  on  the  right  occasionally  assumes  a  five-lobed  form, 
proving  beyond  doubt  that  it  is  a  right  antimere  of  the  water-vascular 
system.  Metamorphosis  is  initiated  by  a  preponderant  growth  of  the 
organs  of  the  left  side,  which  affects  the  larval  arms  and  the  sides  of 
the  oesophagus,  and  which  not  only  carries  the  hydroccele  round  the 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  14-16. 

t  Biol.  Centralbl.  xxviii.  (1908)  pp.  166-8.  J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  169-76. 

§  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  li.  (1907)  pp.  557-606  (6  pis,  4  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  327 

oesophagus,  but  also  the  rnadreporic  pore  and  the  left  anterior  coelorne, 
so  that  these  come  to  be  near  the  right  hydrocoele.  The  origin  of  the 
perihsernal  canals  is  described.  From  their  walls  originate  the  motor 
ganglion  cells  and  in  all  probability  the  ventral  intervertebral  muscles. 
The  primitive  germ-cells  originate  from  the  left  posterior  coelome 
covering  the  stone  canal, 

Monograph  on  Apodous  Holothurians.* — Herbert  Lyman  Clark  has 
completed  a  valuable  monograph  on  the  Synaptidse  and  Molpadiidse. 
It  has  been  based  on  the  collection  of  over  two  thousand  specimens  in 
the  United  States  National  Museum,  and  is  intended  as  a  complete 
account  of  all  the  apodous  Holothurians  known  to  science.  The  author 
deals  with  structure,  functions,  habits,  inter-relations,  development,  and 
classification.  Of  Synaptidae  there  are  21  genera  and  88  species  ;  there 
is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  common  ancestor  was  a  small  10- 
tentacled  apodous  form,  probably  with  wheel-shaped  calcareous  particles  ; 
Rhdbdomolgus  seems  to  be  the  nearest  living  representative  of  the 
ancestral  stock,  though  it  is  not  necessarily  close  to  it ;  Polyplectana, 
Protankyra,  Polycheira,  and  Acanthotrochus  are  the  most  highly  special- 
ised forms  on  the  four  different  branches  on  which  the  Synaptid  genera 
may  be  arranged.  Of  Molpadiidse  there  are  8  genera  and  46  species  ; 
the  ancestor  of  the  group  was  probably  a  15-tentacled  pedate  Cucu- 
marian ;  to  this  it  may  be  that  Himasthleplbora  is  nearest,  while 
Gephyrothuria  is  also  primitive.  The  author  is  to  be  congratulated  on 
the  completion  of  a  very  fine  piece  of  work. 

Coelentera. 

New  Types  of  Alcyonarians.f — Louis  Eoule  refers  briefly  to  two 
new  types  which  he  found  in  a  collection  from  Amboina.  The  first  is 
Pachyclavularia  erecta  g.  et  sp.  n.,  in  which  the  mesoglcea  of  the  basilar 
membrane  is  so  thick  that  the  encrusting  mode  of  growth  characteristic 
of  Clavularids  is  replaced  by  one  more  or  less  erect.  The  second  is  a 
Virgalarid  —  Svavopsis  elegans  g.  et  sp.  n.,  which  has  no  pinnules  or 
calices. 

Association  of  Alcyonarian  and  Alga. J — Ch.  Gravier  describes  a 
case  of  association  in  very  large  numbers  of  a  unicellular  alga  with  an 
Alcyonarian,  Sarcophytum  mycetoides  Grav.  In  the  first  stages  the  alga? 
are  regarded  as  parasitic,  but  once  established  and  its  nutrition  assured, 
the  relationship  becomes  symbiotic.  The  case  is  regarded  as  parallel 
with  that  of  Convoluta  and  its  green  cells. 


O' 


Spines  of  Antipatharia.§ — Louis  Roule  has  investigated  the  ques- 
tion of  the  morphological  significance  of  these  structures.  His  con- 
clusion is  that  they  are  abortive  branches,  and  correspond  to  branches 
of  the  axis.  Antipatharians  with  undivided  colonies  have  only  these 
abortive  structures,  while  those  that  branch  exhibit  a  normal  develop- 
ment. These  conclusions  have  been  arrived  at  by  a  comparison  of 
Antipatharians  with  a  complete  colony  of  a  new  Gorgonid  genus 
Rhopalonella,  from  the  Antarctic  seas. 

*  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,  xxxv.  (1907)  231  pp.,  13  pis. 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  946-7. 

X  Op.  cit.,  cxliv.  (1907)  pp.  1462-4.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1453-4. 


328  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Development  of  Gonophores  in  Siphonophora.* — W.  Richter  lias 
studied  this  in  Rhizophysa,  Physalia,  and  Hvppopodius.  Only  some  of 
the  more  general  facts  elucidated  in  the  paper  can  be  quoted  here. 
In  all  the  gonophores — male  and  female — examined,  the  origin  of  the 
radial  canals  from  stomach-grooves,  independently  of  the  bell-nucleus, 
is  established.  The  germ-cells  arise  in  the  endoderm  ;  only  in  Physalia 
could  the  ectodermal  origin  of  the  spermatoblasts  be  proved  with  any 
probability.  In  none  of  the  forms  does  a  wandering  of  the  germ-cells 
to  the  ectoderm  take  place.  The  development  of  the  gonophores  into 
the  medusoid  structure  goes  on  in  the  usual  way  in  the  female  gono- 
phores and  in  the  male  of  Hippopodius.  The  male  of  Rhizophysa  shows 
a  simplification  in  so  far  as  that  a  typical  bell-cavity  is  not  developed  ; 
further  development  is  by  a  downwardly  directed  growth,  accompanied 
by  a  progressive  blending  of  the  tamiolas  edges.  The  most  important 
result  is  the  demonstration  that  the  old  A^assiz-AVeismann  theorv  of  the 
origin  of  the  Medusa  cannot  be  held  for  the  Siphonophora,  as  Goette  has 
already  shown  for  the  Hydromedusae.  A  new  light  is  here  thrown  upon 
the  question  of  the  origin  of  the  Siphonophora  from  the  Hydromedusae. 

Australasian  Hydroid  in  North  Sea.f — James  Ritchie  gives  an  inter- 
esting account  of  a  colony  of  S&rtularia  elonyata  picked  up  in  the  North 
Sea.  The  colony  was  complete,  with  naturally  terminated  stems  and 
perfect  pinnae,  upon  practically  every  one  of  which  in  the  more  mature 
colonies  are  perched  exceedingly  delicate,  loosely  attached  gonangia. 
The  preservation  of  these  delicate  structures  is  regarded  as  evidence 
that  the  colony  was  not  artificially  transported,  e.g.  in  ballast  on  board 
some  ship  loading  at  an  Australasian  port,  but  was  borne  on  ocean 
currents. 

Nuclear  Cycle  of  Gonionemus  murbachii  A.  G.  Mayer.} — H.  B. 
Bigelow  gives  an  account  of  the  mitosis  in  the  somatic  cells  of  adult 
tissues  of  this  Ccelenterate,  of  its  entire  course  of  spermatogenesis,  the 
early  nuclear  development  of  the  oocyte,  and  the  nuclear  phenomena 
connected  with  fertilisation.  An  interesting  point  is  that  in  fertilisation 
nuclear  union  may  take  place  either  by  fusion  or  by  apposition  ;  the 
determining  factor  is  believed  to  be  the  relative  sizes  of  the  nuclei  at 
the  time  of  their  union.  In  the  first  cleavage  spindle  there  are  the  full 
number  of  somatic  chromosomes.  In  the  second  cleavage  there  is  a 
reduced  number,  each  of  which  is  a  bivalent  structure  resulting  from 
the  pairing  of  univalent  chromosomes.  The  number  of  chromosomes 
in  the  third  cleavage  has  not  been  observed,  but  in  the  fourth  and 
subsequent  cleavages  all  nuclei  have  the  full  somatic  number  of 
chromosomes. 

Porifera. 

Coalescence  and  Regeneration  in  Sponges.§ — H.  Y.  Wilson  de- 
scribes the  formation  of  plasmodial  masses  in  moribund  specimens  of 
Mkrociona  prolifera.     When  fragments  are  squeezed  through  a  cloth  so 

*  Zeitschr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxvi.  (1907)  pp.  557-618  (3  pis.  and  13  figs.). 
t  Proc.  Roy.  Phys.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xvii.  (1907)  pp.  80-3  (1  pi.). 
X  Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.  Harvard,  xlvii.  (1907)  pp.  287-399  (8  pis.). 
§  Journ.  Exper.  Zool.,  v.  (1907)  pp.  245-58  (4  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  329 

that  the  cells  pass  out,  the  same  kind  of  phenomenon  is  seen.  The  cells 
aggregate  into  true  syncytial  masses  with  pseudopodia.  The  syncytia 
fuse  into  an  incrustation,  and  regeneration  occurs.  Flagellate  chambers 
appear  in  great  abundance,  canals  arise  as  isolated  spaces  which  come 
into  connection  with  one  another  ;  oscula  are  developed.  The  syncytia 
consist  mainly  of  spheroidal  granular  cells  (amcebocytes  or  archasocytes), 
but  collar  cells  and  more  or  less  hyaline  cells  also  enter  into  their  com- 
position. The  author  also  describes  the  fusion  of  the  larvae  of  a  species 
of  Lissodendoryx,  and  makes  some  very  interesting  general  suggestions, 
e.g.  by  comparing  the  behaviour  of  the  dissociated  cells  of  sponges  with 
the  plasmodium  formation  in  Mycetozoa  and  Proteomyxa.  The  ten- 
dency to  fusion  exhibited  by  two  similar  sponge-syncytia  is  probably 
adaptive.  The  additional  safety  from  enemies  and  accidents,  accruing 
from  increase  in  the  size  of  the  mass,  more  than  compensates  for  the 
reduction  in  number  of  the  individual  masses  that  start  to  grow. 
Experiments  show  that  masses  of  considerable  size  are  frequently  able 
to  withstand  conditions  that  wipe  out  very  small  masses. 

Protozoa. 

Minute  Structure  of  Amoeba  proteus,  Pall.* — S.  Awerinzew  has 
investigated  the  structure  of  Amoeba  by  the  aid  of  sections.  The 
protoplasm  immediately  beneath  the  outer  p:llicle  is  highly  vacuolar, 
but  the  vacuoles  are  very  small  in  comparison  to  those  layers  within. 
Here  there  is  a  layer  of  radially  arranged  relatively  large  vacuoles,  and 
within  this  a  central  region  in  which  the  nucleus  lies,  and  in  which  the 
vacuoles  increase  in  size  and  numbers  from  its  periphery  towards  the 
centre.  The  vacuoles  of  this  central  protoplasmic  mass  are  on  the  whole 
larger  than  those  of  the  layer  immediately  beneath  the  pellicle.  The 
walls  of  the  vacuoles  are  beset  with  granules.  The  nuclear  structure 
resembles  that  of  the  protoplasm.  The  nuclear  vacuoles  of  the 
external  layer  nearly  all  show  chromatin  corpuscles,  stainable  with 
nuclear  stains.  Similar  corpuscles  occur  also  in  the  walls  of  the  meshes 
of  the  remaining  nuclear  mass.  These,  however,  appear  to  be  distin- 
guished by  their  chemical  qualities  from  the  peripheral  nuclear  granules, 
and  are  smaller  in  size.  The  appearances  of  protoplasm  and  nucleus 
here  described  have  nothing  to  do  with  reproductive  processes,  but 
represent  a  stage  in  those  transformations  induced  by  heightened  feeding 
and  the  accelerated  growth  consequent  on  this. 

Degeneration  in  Opalina.f — C.  C.  Dobell  describes  the  degenerative 
changes  undergone  by  Opalina  when  the  host  is  starved  for  some  time. 
It  changes  form  and  assumes  all  sorts  of  indefinite  shapes.  These 
modified  Opalina  do  not  divide  in  the  normal  manner,  but  simply  con- 
strict off  pieces,  which  completely  lose  their  cilia  and  give  rise  to 
globules  of  a  substance  of  high  refractivity  in  their  cytoplasm,  which  are 
"  eosinophile "  in  character.  These  globules  ultimately  run  together 
into  large  masses  within  the  cell.  The  chromatin  of  the  nucleus  in  these 
atrichous  forms  becomes  massed  in  granules  at  the  periphery,  whilst  the 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  45-50. 

t  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  li.  (1907)  pp.  633-46  (1  pi.  and  2  figs.). 


330  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES  RELATING    TO 


nucleus  itself  increases  sometimes  to  double  the  original  diameter.  In 
the  larger  atrichous  forms,  division  may  take  place,  both  of  nucleus  and 
cytoplasm.  Buds  may  be  given  off  without  nuclei,  but  they  appear  to  dis- 
integrate and  die.  As  a  rule,  the  chromatin  of  the  nucleate  forms  is  cast 
out  into  the  cytoplasm,  and  later  to  the  outside,  when  the  organism 
dies.  The  author  discusses  the  "  extraordinary  parallel  "  which  exists  in 
the  changes  he  describes  and  certain  so-called  "sexual"  processes  in 
Protozoa. 

Light-reactions  in  Volvox.* —  S.  0.  Mast  describes  in  detail  the 
reactions  of  V.  globator  and  V.  minor  to  light.  The  eye-spots  are  situated 
on  the  outer  posterior  surface  of  the  individuals.  Volvox  rarely  moves 
exactly  in  the  direction  of  the  light-rays,  but  deflects,  apparently  under  the 
influence  of  gravity,  up  or  down  or  to  the  side,  the  degree  of  deflection 
being  least  for  strongly  positive  colonies  exposed  to  light  of  optimum 
intensity.  The  motion  is  regulated  by  the  relative  intensity  of  the  light 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  colony.  Orientation  is  not  the  result  of  "trial 
and  error,"  but  is  brought  about  by  motor  reactions  in  the  individuals 
composing  the  colony.  Volvox  is  positive  in  comparatively  low,  and 
negative  in  comparatively  high  light-intensities,  but  there  is  great  varia- 
tion in  regard  to  this,  depending  upon  the  physiological  state  of  the 
colonies.     Weber's  law  seems  to  hold  for  the  light-reactions  of  Volvox. 

Trypanosome  of  the  Eel.f — C.  Franca  gives  an  account  of  Trypano- 
soma granulosum  Laveran  and  Mesnil,  which  is  very  abundant  in 
Anguilla  vulgaris  in  Portugal.  The  species  has  very  distinctive  nuclear 
characters,  and  it  occurs  in  two  well-marked  varieties,  parva  and  magna. 
Culture  in  the  blood  of  the  eel  gives  rise  to  "  herpetomonad "  forms. 
No  endocellular  stages  are  found  in  the  eel's  blood. 

New  Piroplasma  from  a  Rodent.} — C.  Nicolle  describes  a  new 
Pwoplasma  from  Ctenodactylus  gondi  Pallas,  an  Octodont  of  North  Africa. 
It  appears  to  be  common ;  it  resembles  the  Leishman  body  in  appearance, 
and  has  the  peculiarity  of  dividing  into  four,  not  two,  daughter-cells. 
The  author  names  it  Piroplasma  quadrigeminum. 

Structure  and  Life-history  of  Copromonas.§ — C.  C.  Dobell  gives  an 
account  of  Copromonas  subtilis  from  the  rectum  of  Rana  temporaria,  and 
discusses  various  points  in  flagellate  morphology.  There  is  an  asexual 
and  a  sexual  cycle  in  the  life-history.  During  the  former,  multiplica- 
tion takes  place  by  longitudinal  division.  After  a  time  the  monads 
conjugate  in  pairs,  and  reducing  divisions  of  the  nuclei  take  place, 
followed  by  encystation.  The  cysts  are  capable  of  being  dried  up. 
These  are  swallowed  by  frogs  and  toads,  and  reach  the  rectum  by  way  of 
the  digestive  tract.  As  a  rule  the  cysts  do  not  liberate  their  contents 
(a  small  hyaline  monad)  until  the  fseces  have  left  the  frog,  but  some- 
times the  monads  emerge  from  their  cysts  and  lead  a  semi-parasitic  life 
in  the  large  intestine.  Development  does  not  appear  ever  to  be  com- 
pleted inside  the  frog. 

*  Journ.  Comp.  Neurol,  and  Psych.,  xvii.  (1907)  pp.  99-180  (15  figs.). 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Portugaise  Sci.  Nat.,  i.  (1907)  pp.  94-102  (1  pi.). 

t  C.R  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiii.  (1907)  pp.  213-16  (1  fig.). 

§  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  lii.  (1908)  pp.  75-120  (2  pis.  and  3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  331 

Trichomonas  and  Megastoma  in  Human  Intestine.* — A.  Ucke  has 
observed  organisms  in  fresh  fasces  which  he  is  inclined  to  regard  as 
stages  in  the  development  of  Trichomonas.  Besides  the  typical  pear- 
shaped  organism,  pointed  posteriorly,  with  three  flagella  anteriorly, 
undulating  membrane,  nucleus  and  vacuole,  there  were  the  following 
phases  : — The  pear-shaped  body  is  rounded  off,  and  becomes  oval.  The 
vacuole  increases  in  size  and  the  protoplasm  is  crowded  into  the 
periphery.  After  the  whole  has  become  spherical  the  protoplasm  is 
collected  at  two  opposite  poles,  whilst  it  thins  out  in  the  equatorial 
plane.  Here  there  begins  a  segmentation,  which  gradually  increases 
and  leads  to  the  segmenting  off  of  two  spherical  but  smaller  bodies  of  a 
signet-ring  form.  It  is  regarded  as  probable  that  further  division  goes 
on.  Out  of  188  cases  examined,  the  author  found  9  infected  with 
Megastomum  entericum,  which  occurred  in  both  vegetative  and  encysted 
forms. 

Biology  and  Affinities  of  Spirochsetae.f — H.  B.  Fantham  discusses 
the  movements,  structure,  and  general  affinities  of  Spirochceta  {Trypano- 
soma) balbianii  Certes  and  Spirochceta  anodontm  Keysselitz.  The 
motion  of  these  organisms  is  resolvable  into  at  least  two  components — 
(1)  a  vibratory  motion  of  flexion  of  the  body  mainly  for  progression  ; 
and  (2)  a  spiral  or  corkscrew  movement  of  the  body  as  a  whole,  due  to 
the  winding  of  the  membrane.  The  membrane  is  a  spirally  wound 
lateral  extension  of  the  ectoplasmic  periplast.  It  is  characteristic  of  the 
genus  Spirochceta  as  now  defined.  Only  asexual  modes  of  multiplica- 
tion, principally  by  longitudinal  fission,  are  known  with  certainty. 
Spirochetes  are  regarded  as  having  affinities  both  with  bacteria  and 
the  Protozoa ;  they  are  undoubted  protists.  The  author  is  inclined 
to  accept  the  protozoan  nature  of  these  organisms,  and  considers  that  a 
provisional  new  class  of  the  Protozoa,  viz.  Spirochaetacea,  might  be 
instituted  for  their  reception  when  our  knowledge  of  them  is  a  little 
more  extensive. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,  Orig.,  xlv.  (1907)  pp.  231-3. 

t  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  ScL,  lii.  (1908)  pp.  1-73  (3  pis.  and  11  figs.). 


332  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including-  Cell-Contents. 

Blepharoplast  and  Centrosome  of  Marchantia  polymorpha.*  — 
End.  Escoyez  has  studied  the  so-called  centrosomes  which  occur  in  the 
spermatic  mitoses  of  Marchantia  polymorpha,  and  finds  that  these  bodies 
only  occur  in  the  last  division,  and  that  while  in  form  and  position  they 
resemble  true  centrosomes,  their  real  function  is  that  of  blepharoplasts. 
They  are,  in  fact,  organs  sui  generis,  and  the  relation  between  them  and 
the  spindle  can  be  simply  explained  by  the  special  mode  of  division  of 
the  mother-cell  of  the  sperrnatozoids. 

Nucleus  and  Karyokinesis  in  Zygnema.f — The  same  author  has  in- 
vestigated karyokinesis  in  Zygn&ma,  and  draws  the  following  conclusions 
from  his  observations.  All  the  chromosomes  are  produced  from  a 
chromatic  network  ;  the  nucleolus  only  provides  chromatic  material  for 
the  chromosomes,  but  contributes  no  morphological  elements.  The 
chromosomes  are  elongated  rods  which  split  longitudinally  in  the  usual 
way  ;  this  is  seen  most  clearly  in  the  metaphase.  In  the  telophase,  the 
chromosomes,  which  are  at  first  crowded  together,  spread  out  into  the 
nuclear  vacuole,  and  are  united  by  their  drawn-out  ends.  The  nucleolus 
is  formed  at  this  stage,  not  from  the  united  chromosomes,  but  quite 
independently  from  the  chromatic  network.  The  chromosomes  appear 
to  retain  their  individuality  from  one  mitosis  to  another.  The  pyrenoids 
and  chromatophores  multiply  by  simple  fission,  independently  of  the 
nucleus. 

Nuclear  Structures  in  Synchytrium.J — F.  L.  Stevens  has  described 
some  unusual  nuclear  figures  from  the  large  nucleus  of  Synchytrium 
decipiens.  One  of  these  is  a  nucleus  without  a  membrane,  consisting 
wholly  of  chromatin  and  a  large  nucleolus ;  this  form  appeared  always 
in  cells  with  one  nucleus,  and  therefore  before  any  division  had  taken 
place.  Other  phenomena  noted  were  the  asters  variously  connected  with 
nuclei,  and  evidently  of  extranuclear  origin  ;  but  the  absence  of  a 
complete  series  of  figures  made  it  impossible  to  identify  the  different 
stages,  and  so  to  explain  the  nature  of  the  various  bodies  seen.  The 
development  of  the  resting  spore  is  followed,  and  of  the  sporangia. 

Peroxydiastase  in  Dry  Seeds.§ — Brocq-Rousseu  and  E.  Gain  have 
experimented  with   seeds   of    different  ages  obtained   from   plants   of 

*  La  Cellule,  xxiv.  (1907)  pp.  247-54  (1  pi.). 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  354-64  (1  pi.). 
%  Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  pp.  480-4  (1  pi.). 
§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.' 1297-8. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  333 

numerous  families  and  of  widely  different  habitat,  with  the  object  of 
proving  whether,  as  suggested  by  Bertrand  and  others,  they  contain  a 
diastase.  The  authors  conclude  that  dry  seeds  usually  contain  per- 
oxy diastase  (i.e.  diastase  and  peroxide  of  hydrogen).  It  appears  to  be 
located  in  the  embryo,  but  does  not  maintain  its  existence  indefinitely. 
The  duration  of  its  existence  will  be  made  the  subject  of  a  future 
research  ;  at  present  it  appears  to  have  some  relation  to  the  age  of  the 
seed.  It  may  also  be  supposed  that  there  is  some  connection  between 
the  peroxydiastase  of  the  resting  seeds  and  the  true  oxydases  of  active, 
living  plants. 

Structure  and  Development. 
Reproductive. 

Origin  and  Fruit-development  of  Acorus  Calamus.* — M.  Mucke 
has  investigated  the  fruit-formation  of  Acorus  Calamus,  and  is  of  the 
opinion  that  the  cause  of  the  arrest  of  fruit-development  must  be  sought 
in  the  unfavourable  climatic  conditions  of  its  new  habitat,  since  it  was 
originally  a  native  of  the  warm  regions  of  eastern  Asia,  and  was  not 
brought  to  Europe  until  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
when  it  was  imported  into  Germany.  Indian  and  European  plants  show 
a  certain  difference  in  their  habit  and  behaviour  under  different  con- 
ditions of  culture.  Acorus  has  a  stratified  perisperm  which  incloses 
characteristic  albuminous  cell-contents,  and  is  absorbed  by  the  growing 
embryo-sac.  The  pollen  and  ovules  in  A.  Calamus  undergo  an  arrest 
of  development  which  prevents  seed-formation,  while,  on  the  contrary, 
there  is  normal  development  in  A .  gramineus,  which  therefore  produces 
seeds  capable  of  germinating. 

Pollen-development  of  Sarracenia.f  ■ — M.  L.  Nichols  has  made 
cytological  studies  of  the  pollen  of  Sarracenia  flava,  S.  purpurea, 
S.  variolaris,  S.  rubra,  and  3.  psittacina,  and  also  of  hybrids  of  S.  flava 
x  S.  variolaris,  and  S.  flava  x  S.  purpurea.  The  writer  agrees  with 
those  authors  who  believe  that  there  is  a  connection  between  the 
nucleolus  and  the  formation  of  chromatin,  and  quotes  the  relations  of 
the  nucleolus  and  the  chromatin  in  the  prophases  of  the  first  matura- 
tion division  in  support  of  her  opinion.  The  variation  in  the  staining 
properties  of  the  nucleolus  at  this  period  indicates  some  sort  of  chemical 
change,  and  the  material  thus  elaborated  escapes  into  the  nuclear  sac,  is 
absorbed  by  the  linin,  and  distributed  along  its  threads.  The  nucleolus 
does  not  appear  to  have  the  same  definiteness  of  function  as  the  chromo- 
somes and  centrosomes,  and  it  is  probable  that  it  represents  a  different 
physiological  activity  at  different  times  and  in  different  cells.  The 
present  investigation  has  not  made  it  possible  to  determine  whether 
there  is  a  conjugation  of  chromosomes  during  the  synapsis  stage,  neither 
does  the  behaviour  of  the  nucleolus  entirely  favour  the  individuality  of 
the  chromosomes. 

•  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  lxvi.  (1908)  pp.  1-23  (1  pi.). 
+  Bot.  Gazette,  xlv.  (1908)  pp.  31-7  (1  pi.). 


334  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Physiology. 
Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Grafting  of  Plants  containing  Hydrocyanic  Acid.* — L.  G-uignard 
has  made  experiments  with  the  object  of  discovering  whether  there  is 
any  migration  of  chemical  substances  from  the  graft  to  the  stock,  or 
vice  versa.  The  researches  hitherto  made  in  this  connection  dealt  with 
the  migration  of  alkaloids,  e.g.  atropine,  but  the  author  regards  them 
as  unsatisfactory,  since  it  is  not  certain  what  part  is  played  by  alkaloids 
in  plant  physiology.  On  the  other  hand,  the  various  compounds  of 
hydrocyanic  acid  are  known  to  have  an  important  function  in  food- 
elaboration,  and  are  very  easy  to  detect,  and  therefore  the  present 
experiments  deal  with  plants  rich  in  these  substances.  The  plants  used 
as  grafts  and  stocks  were  Phaseolus  lunatics  and  the  ordinary  Haricot 
bean  ;  and  Photinia  and  Cotoneaster,  with  the  hawthorn  and  the  wild 
quince.  The  results  show  that  when  a  plant  containing  a  hydrocyanic 
glucoside  is  grafted  on  a  plant  destitute  of  this  substance,  or  inversely, 
there  is  no  migration  of  the  substance.  Among  the  Rosacea?  such 
migration  did  occur,  but  only  in  different  species  of  the  same  genus, 
both  of  which  had  the  power  of  elaborating  the  same  glucoside.  The 
author  concludes  that,  in  spite  of  the  interchange  of  substances  between 
stock  and  graft  connected  with  common  nutrition  and  development, 
certain  organic  principles  remain  localised  in  the  one  or  the  other. 
Grafting  represents  an  artificial  symbiosis,  in  which  each  species  retains 
its  own  individuality. 

Seed  and  Soil  Inoculation  for  Leguminous  Crops.f — W.  B. 
Bottomley  publishes  the  results  of  his  experiments  with  crops  inoculated 
with  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria.  The  author  distributed  more  than  a 
thousand  specimens  of  his  culture,  and  about  80  p.c.  of  the  reports 
received  showed  an  increase  in  crop.  Fifty-two  reports  are  quoted,  but 
only  nineteen  cases  give  figures,  and  there  is  so  great  a  disparity  in  the 
results  that  no  discussion  is  possible.  So  far  as  they  go,  it  appears  that 
a  culture  has  been  obtained  which,  in  suitable  cases,  may  increase  the 
yield  of  leguminous  crops  30  to  50  p.c.  It  is  not  claimed,  however, 
that  the  culture  cures  "  sickness  "  or  increases  the  frequency  with  which 
leguminous  crops  can  be  grown,  and  inoculation  is  found  to  fail  when 
the  soil  is  too  acid,  or  when  it  is  deficient  in  lime,  potash  and  phosphates, 
or  when  drainage  is  needed. 

Formation  of  Aleurone  Grains.f — J-  Beauverie  contributes  a  note 
upon  the  globoids  of  aleurone  grains.  The  metachromatic  properties  of 
the  globoids  render  it  easy  to  follow  the  different  stages  in  the  formation 
of  the  aleurone  grain.  The  appearance  of  the  globoids  precedes  that 
of  the  crystalloids  and  the  amorphous  substances.  The  granulations 
possessing  the  properties  of  the  globoids  appear  early  in  the  nucellus  and 
endosperm,  and  even  in  the  integuments  where  no  globoids  are  formed. 
It  appears  that,  contrary  to  the  usual  opinion,  the  globoid-substance  has 
an  independent  existence  within  the  grain,  and  can  exist  apart  from  the 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  1376-80. 

t  London,  '  Country  Life '  Office.     See  also  Nature,  lxxvii.  (1908)  pp.  330-31. 

j  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  1345-47. 


r 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  335 

grain.     Some  seeds,  which  are  without  aleurone-grains,  are  now  known 
to  possess  a  substance  having  properties  similar  to  those  of  globoids. 

Chlorophyll-formation.* — W.  Lubimenko  contributes  a  note  upon 
chlorophyll-formation  in  the  higher  plants,  under  different  intensities 
of  light.  The  results  of  his  experiments  show  that  there  is  a  maximum 
intensity  for  chlorophyll-formation.  This  intensity  is  less  than  the 
natural  intensity,  and  varies  with  different  species,  and  also  with  the 
same  species  at  different  temperatures.  These  facts  are  of  importance 
in  showing  that  a  green  plant  can  adapt  itself  to  a  weakened  illumination 
by  increasing  its  production  of  chlorophyll. 

Carbon  Assimilation  of  Penicillium.f — H.  Hasselbring  has  con- 
ducted a  series  of  culture  experiments  with  various  substances  in  order 
to  advance  our  knowledge  of  the  nutrition  of  fungi.  Naegeli  had 
stated  that  food-value  depended  on  the  specific  linkage  of  certain  atomic 
groups,  but  this  has  been  disproved,  and  it  is  now  held  that  no  general 
relation  has  been  established  between  the  atomic  structure  of  a  substance 
and  its  food-value.  Assimilation  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  plant  as 
well  as  on  the  chemical  reactions  of  the  medium  used,  and  though  such 
medium  has  nutritive  value  for  one  plant  it  will  not  serve  for  all  plants. 
Hasselbring  found  that  alcohol  and  acetic  acid,  and  the  substances  from 
which  the  acetic  acid  radicle  is  easily  derived,  are  assimilated  by 
Peiikillium  glaucum.  The  effect  of  different  media  is  discussed,  and 
the  results  given  in  detail. 

Irritability. 

Influence  of  Light  on  Respiration  of  Fungi.! — A.  Lowschin  has 
studied  the  lower  fungi  with  the  object  of  testing  the  statements  made 
by  certain  authors  as  to  the  effect  of  light  on  their  respiration.  The 
author  has  performed  a  series  of  experiments  upon  Cladosporium, 
Penicillium,  Aspergillus,  and  Outturn,  but  in  no  case  did  the  light  pro- 
duce any  regular  acceleration  of  respiration,  which  was  independent  of 
the  warmth  produced  in  the  culture  by  actinic  rays. 

General. 

Abechavaleta,  J. — Flora  Uruguaya. 

[The  author  concludes  his  account  of  the  Compositae  of  this  flora.] 

Anales  del  Museo  National  de  Montevideo.    VI.  Flora  Uruguaya, 

iii.  pp.  229-502  (figs,  in  text). 

CRYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 

(By  A.  Gepp,  M.A.,  F.L.S.) 

Development  of  Stolons  in  Nephrolepis.§ — A.  Sperlich  continues  his 
studies  on  Ne2)hrolepis,  by  describing  the  developmental  history  of  the 
stolons.  He  has  ascertained  the  exact  time  when  the  first  stolon  is 
produced,  its  function,  its  position,  its  relation  to  leaf -rudiment,  and  to 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  1347-9. 

t  Bot.  Gazette,  xlv.  (1908)  pp.  176-93. 

t  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xxiii.  pt.  1  (1908)  pp.  5-1-64  (3  pis.). 

§  Flora,  xcviii.  (1907)  pp.  341-61  (figs.). 


336  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

the  segmentation  of  the  apical  cell.     The  first  stolon's  rudiment  appears 

alter  the  third  or  fourth  leaf  of  the  embryo.  The  firsi  lateral  axes  of 
the  embryo  Nephrulfpis  are  in  function  root-bearers.  The  stolon,  like 
the  leaf,  is  the  product  of  a  special  segment  of  the  apical  cell.  The  tir-i 
stolons  of  epiphytic  species  serve  to  anchor  the  plant,  and  are  very 
hydrotropic. 

Physiological  Sheaths  in  Ferns.* — P.  Basecke  publishes  detailed 
results  of  his  studies  upon  the  physiological  sheaths  of  the  axes  and 
fronds  of  the  Filicineae,  and  upon  the  substitution  of  cork.  He  dis- 
cusses the  endodermis  at  great  length  from  the  points  of  view  of 
development,  structure,  biology,  and  physiology.  He  then  treats  of  the 
formation  of  cork,  the  dividing  layers  between  rhizome  and  frond,  the 
lenticels  and  the  intercellular  cuticularisation,  the  mechanical  tissues 
of  rhizome  and  frond,  and  their  lignification.  He  appends  a  long 
bibliography. 

Revision  of  the  American  Species  of  Dryopteris.f — C.  Christensen 
having,  when  preparing  his  "  Index  Filicum,"  realised  the  extremely  con- 
fused condition  in  which  the  numerous  forms  allied  to  the  two  species, 
Dryopteris  opposita  and  D.  Sprengelii,  had  been  left  by  the  authors  of 
the  "Synopsis  Filicum,"  has  studied  some  1200  specimens  of  the  group 
and  published  a  complete  revision,  in  which  are  described  82  species, 
based  upon  the  following  characters  —  nervature,  outline  of  frond, 
pubescence,  texture,  position  of  sori,  etc.  He  supplies  an  analytical  key 
to  render  determination  more  easy.  He  gives  full  synonymy  and  distri- 
bution of  the  species,  critical  notes,  and  often  a  figure.  There  are  nine 
new  species,  and  some  new  varieties.  In  the  appendix,  two  more  new 
species  belonging  to  other  groups  are  described. 

North  American  Ferns.  —  W.  N.  Clute  %  describes  and  figures 
AspUnium  Ferrissi,  a  new  species  collected  in  the  canyon  region  of 
Arizona  by  J.  H.  Ferriss.  Other  unique  species  have  been  recorded 
from  the  canyon  country  which  borders  on  Mexico. 

The  same  author  §  gives  a  simple  account  of  the  life-history  of  the 
ferns,  and  describes  a  new  extreme  form,  Nephrodiwn  cristatum  Clinto- 
nianum  f .  silvaticum. 

He  also  ||  brings  to  an  end  his  check-list  of  the  North  American 
Fern  worts. 

W.  A.  Terrylf  describes  a  new  pubescent  variety  of  the  ostrich  fern, 
transplanted  from  Plain ville  into  his  own  garden  at  Bristol  (Conn.). 

A.  Hans  **  describes  the  result  of  hybridising  the  American  species, 
Polystichum  acrostic  ho  ides  with  four  forms  of  P.  annulare.  The  latter 
species  is  European,  and  not  able  to  withstand  the  full  rigour  of  the  North 

*  Bot.  Zeit.,  lxvi.  (1908)  Abt.  1,  pp.  25-87  (3  pis.). 

t  Kgl.  Danske  Vid.  Selsk.  Skrift.,  ser.  7,  Sci.  iv.,  No.  4  (1907)  pp.  247-336 
(52  figs.). 

t  Fern  Bulletin,  xvi.  (1908)  pp.  1-2. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  5-13.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  16-23. 

U  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  3-5.  **  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  14-15. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  337 

American  winter.     But  in  the  hybrid  plants  the  strain  of  the  American 
parent  confers  immunity  from  the  frost. 

Descriptions  of  New  Tropical  Ferns.*— E.  Rosenstock  gives  descrip- 
tions of  ten  new  species  of  ferns  from  German  East  Africa,  Brazil, 
Uruguay,  Ecuador,  Sumatra,  and  indicates  their  affinities. 

New  Species  of  Lindssea.j — L.  M.  Underwood  and  W.  R.  Maxon 
describe  two  new  species  of  Lindsma,  one  collected  in  Colombia  by 
Pittier,  and  the  other  in  Cuba  by  Wright  and  other  botanists. 

Ferns  of  Paraguay 4 — H-  Christ  publishes  descriptions  of  some  nine 
new  species  of  ferns  collected  in  Paraguay  by  E.  Hassler,  and  adds  notes 
upon  two  other  rare  species. 

Bryophyta. 

(By  A.  Gepp.) 

Sexuality  in  the  Mosses.§  —  J.  Cardot  treats  of  the  question  of 
sexuality  in  the  mosses,  and  gives  a  summary  of  the  results  obtained 
by  El.  aud  Em.  Marchal.  The  Marchals  investigated  the  life-history 
of  three  dioicous  mosses  —  Barbula  unguiculata,  Bryum  argenteum, 
Ceratodon  parpareus — with  a  view  to  determining  whether  or  not  the 
numerous  plants  arising  from  the  spores  of  a  given  sporogonium,  itself 
the  product  of  one  and  the  same  fertilised  egg,  are  all  of  one  sex.  They 
found  them  to  be  of  different  sexes.  And,  further,  they  ascertained 
that  the  sex  of  the  ultimate  plant  is  already  predetermined  in  the  spore ; 
that  the  protonema  unfailingly  transmits  the  sex  of  the  spore  to  the 
young  plants — that  is  to  say,  that  the  protonema  buds  off  plauts  which 
are  solely  male  or  solely  female  ;  that  a  secondary  or  regenerative  pro- 
tonema is  equally  faithful  in  the  transmission  of  sex.  Hence  dioicism 
originates  at  the  time  of  sporogenesis,  at  the  time  of  the  division  of  the 
spore-mother-cells,  when  reduction  of  chromosomes  takes  place. 
Previous  to  the  time  of  this  nuclear  reduction  all  the  cells  of  the 
sporogonium  (both  stalk  and  capsule)  possess  a  bisexual  potentiality. 
And  when  at  this  stage  portions  of  the  sporogonial  wall  or  stalk  are 
made  to  regenerate  as  a  consequence  of  traumatic  injury,  an  aposporic 
protonema  is  obtained.  And  the  Marchals  state  that  in  case  of  the  three 
dioicous  species — Bryum  ccespiticium,  B.  argenteum,  Mnium  hornum — 
the  aposporic  protonema  produces  gonophytes,  which  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases  have  a  male  character,  while  some  bear  synoicous 
flowers,  and  a  few  exhibit  a  female  character  only.  But  are  the  sexual 
characters  of  these  axes  maintained  by  the  products  of  their  vegetative 
reproduction  ?  Experiments  instituted  to  settle  this  question  have 
brought  out  this  important  fact:  that  the  products  of  the  second  diploid 
generation  are  bisexual,  whatever  be  the  sex  manifested  by  the  axes  of 
first  generation  whence  they  arose  ;  these  latter  are  then  in  every  case 

*  Fedde,  Repertorium,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  2-6,  292-6. 
t  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  1.  (1907)  pp.  335-6. 
%  Bull.  Herb.  Boissier,  ser.  2,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  922-8. 
§  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  8-11. 

June  17th,  1908  2  A 


338  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

potentially  bisexual.  And  this  fact  is  in  perfect  harmony  with  the 
theory.  In  the  haploid  or  sexiferous  phase  the  cells  of  a  muss  present 
only  one  series  of  chromosomes  (one  sexual  determinant)  ;  and  the 
unisexual  polarity  is  absolute,  and  is  transmitted  without  alteration  by 
vegetative  propagation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sporophyte  (diploid 
phase)  has,  as  the  result  of  fertilisation,  reunited  in  its  cells  two  series 
of  chromosomes,  including  the  two  sexual  determinants.  And  if  we 
avoid  sporogenesis  by  obtaining  direct  vegetative  reproduction  from  the 
wall  or  stalk  of  the  sporogonium,  the  resulting  gonophytes  exhibit  by 
their  bisexuality  the  presence  of  male  and  female  determinants.  Even 
on  the  unisexual  axes  of  first  aposporic  generation  the  unisexuality  is 
only  apparent ;  it  conceals,  as  has  been  shown,  a  potential  hermaphro- 
ditism ;  and  the  sexual  bipolarity,  whether  it  manifests  itself  or  not, 
impregnates  all  the  cells  of  the  aposporic  moss-plant.  The  Marchals 
have  therefore  succeeded  in  producing  out  of  a  strictly  dioicous  species 
a  new  hermaphrodite,  or,  more  precisely,  an  androgynosynoicous  form 
which  is  capable  of  reproducing  itself  indefinitely  as  such  by  vegetative 
methods.  It  remains  to  be  determined  whether  the  gametes  of  this 
new  form  could  produce  an  oospore  developing  into  a  sporogonium  with 
4  n  chromosomes,  and  what  would  be  the  spores  of  such  a  capsule.  And 
the  Marchals  are  investigating  this  problem— a  problem  of  great  interest 
to  the  systematic  bryologist,  as  explaining,  in  case  of  many  genera,  the 
existence  and  meaning  of  allied  species  which  are  almost  completely 
alike  in  their  vegetative  characters,  and  differ  in  scarcely  anything  but 
sexuality. 

Phenomena  of  Torsion  in  Mosses.* — W.  Lorch  has  investigated  the 
phenomena  of  torsion  in  the  stems  of  Polytrichaceae  and  of  Dicrainiin 
undulatvm.  He  describes  and  figures  the  apparatus  he  employed,  and 
gives  details  of  his  experiments  and  results.  He  finds  that  the  stems 
of  one  and  the  same  species  may  twist  to  right  or  left,  the  direction 
of  the  spiral  upon  which  the  leaves  are  set  being,  in  his  opinion,  due 
to  the  direction  followed  by  the  successive  segments  cut  off  from  the 
apical  cell. 

Asexual  Multiplication  in  Blasia  and  Riella. — H.  Buchf  gives  the 
results  of  his  experiments  on  the  vegetative  reproduction  of  Blasia 
piisilla,  which  confirm  and  complete  the  researches  of  Leitgeb.  His  very 
detailed  and  incompressible  resume  is  reproduced  in  Hedwigia,  xlvii. 
(1908)  Beibl.,  pp.  74-6.  K.  Goebel  %  describes  in  detail  the  formation 
of  gemmae  in  Riella,  giving  figures  of  R.  Cossoniana,  R.  Clausonis,  and 
R.  Battandieri,  and  compares  the  results  with  those  previously  recorded 
for  R.  Americana  by  Howe  and  Underwood.  He  finds  marked  analogies 
with  the  formation  of  gemmaa  in  Marchantia  and  Lunularia.  And  he 
finds  other  reasons  for  concluding  that  the  Riellaceae  are  allied  to  the 
Marchantiaceae  rather  than  to  the  Jungerrnanniaceae,  despite  certain 
difficulties.  The  Marchantiaceae  stand  at  the  head  of  the  following  four 
groups  :  Riccieae,  Corsiniaceae,  Riellaceae,  Marchantiaceae. 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxvi.  a.  (1908)  pp.  78-87  (fig.). 

t  Ofv.  Finsk.  Vet.  Soc.  Forh.,  xlix.  (1906-7)  No.  16,  42  pp.  (2  pis.). 

\  Flora,  xcviii.  (1908)  pp.  308-23  (figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  339 

Leucolejeunea,  a  New  Genus  of  Hepaticae.*— A.  W.  Evans  sepa- 
rates off  from  Archil  ejeuma  Schiffn.  a  new  genus,  Leucolejeunea,  proposed 
for  the  reception  of  three  North  American  species,  A.  clypeata,  A. 
Sdlowiana,  and  A.  conchifolia,  described  (or  redescribed)  and  figured  by 
the  author  six  years  ago.  And  with  them  he  associates  A.  xanthocarpa, 
of  wide  distribution  within  the  tropics  and  outside,  and  also  A.  rotundi- 
stipula,  a  Cape  species.  He  gives  a  detailed  description  of  the  genus, 
and,  having  had  the  opportunity  of  studying  the  type-material  of 
Lejeunea  unciloba  Lindenb.,  he  is  able  to  show  that  it  agrees  with 
A.  Sellowiana  and  takes  precedence  of  it. 

Bryological  Notes.t — V.  Schiffner  publishes  a  continuation  of  his 
notes  upon  Bryophytes.  88.  Cephalozia  connivens  has  been  found  among 
some  North  American  material  of  Telaranea  nematodes,  and  is  thus 
shown  to  be  a  circumpolar  species.  39.  C.  gracillimavar.  viridis  Douin, 
hitherto  recorded  only  for  France,  has  been  found  in  Dalmatia.  40. 
Scapania  calcicola  Ingh.  is  distinguished  from  8.  aspera  by  having  larger 
leaf-cells,  and  a  new  form  of  it  is  described.  S.  calcicola  was  first  found 
in  Sweden  and  France  ;  it  is  absent  from  England,  but  has  recently 
been  found  in  Bosnia  and  Lower  Austria.  41.  Riccia  pseudo-Frostii 
Schiffn.  receives  a  more  complete  description,  founded  upon  material 
gathered  near  Regensburg  by  Familler.  The  openings  of  the  air-cells 
do  not  arise  by  resorption  or  dying  off  of  epidermal  cells.  The  species 
has  been  found  by  Nicholson  in  Sussex.  42.  The  vegetative  repro- 
duction of  Leptoscyphus  cuneifolius,  a  rare  and  sterile  European  species, 
is  brought  about  by  the  breaking  off  of  the  small  obcuneate  leaves  at 
their  bases.  These  are  carried  away  by  wind  or  water,  and  sprout  at 
their  margins.  A  similar  process  occurs  in  some  tropical  species  of 
Plagiochila. 

European  Hepaticae.J — K.  Miiller  publishes  the  sixth  part  of  his 
monograph  of  the  "  Lebermoose  "  in  Rabenhorst's  Kryptogamen-Flora, 
treating  of  the  following  genera  : — Riella  (continuation  with  descriptions 
of  five  more  species)  ;  Aneura  (6  species)  ;  Metzgeria  (4)  ;  Blyttia  (1)  ; 
Mbrckia  (3)  ;  Pellia  (3) ;  Blasia  (1) ;  Petalophyllum  (1) ;  Fossombronia 
(generic  description).     Figures  of  each  species  are  supplied. 

Mosses  of  Sussex.§ — W.  E.  Nicholson  publishes  an  enumeration  of  . 
the  mosses  of  Sussex,  comprising  344  species  and  numerous  varieties. 
In  an  introductory  note  he  gives  a  sketch  of  the  geology  and  physical 
geography  of  the  county,  a  brief  account  of  the  principal  bryologists 
who  have  collected  in  Sussex,  and  a  list  of  papers  in  which  previous 
records  have  been  published.  Nearly  all  the  species  in  the  present 
enumeration  have  been  actually  observed  in  the  field  by  Nicholson  him- 
self during  the  last  fifteen  years.  He  adds  a  list  of  15  more  species 
which  have  been  found  just  outside  the  borders  of  the  county,  and  may 
reasonably  be  expected  to  occur  in  Sussex  itself. 

*  Torreya,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  225-9. 

t  Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeit.,  lvii.  (1907)  pp.  454-8. 

%  Leipzig  :  E.  Rummer,  1908,  pp.  321-84. 

§  Hastings  and  East  Sussex  Nat.,  i.  (1908)  pp.  79-110. 

2   A   2 


340  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Mosses  of  Hampshire  and  Isle  of  Wight.* — A.  B.  Jackson  pub- 
lishes a  moss-flora  of  Hampshire  and  the  Isle  of  Wight,  containing  220 
species  and  several  varieties.  It  is  based  partly  on  the  earlier  published 
records  of  Venables,  C.  B.  Clarke,  H.  Reeks,  F.  T.  Warner,  H.  N. 
Dixon,  and  sundry  manuscript  lists. 

Notes  on  the  Harpidia.f  —  W.  Ingham  gives  the  results  of  his 
observations  of  the  Harpidia  in  their  natural  habitats  in  the  Plain  of 
Yorkshire,  and  of  the  changes  which  they  undergo  as  their  environment 
alters  from  wetness  to  dryness,  etc.,  during  successive  seasons  and  years. 
He  states  his  conclusions  as  to  the  passing  of  one  form  into  another  as 
the  deep  water  of  a  pool  drains  or  evaporates  away  or  completely  dries 
up.  His  observations  are  directed  to  Hypnum  aduncum,  H.fluitans, 
and  H.  lycopodioides. 

European  Forms  of  Catharinea.J — W.  Krieger  gives  the  results  of 
his  further  studies  of  the  European  species  of  Catharinea.  He  main- 
tains that  C.  unduJata  is  not  a  series  of  separable  forms,  but  a  group  of 
variations  which  pass  directly  into  one  another.  Almost  every  visible 
part  of  the  plant  is  variable.  While  C.  Hausknechtii  is  a  good  species, 
G.  pallida  Peterfi  must  be  reduced,  being  synonymous  with  G.  undulata 
var.  chlorocarpa.  The  author  provides  a  key  to  the  forms  of  C.  undulata 
and  the  few  other  European  species,  and  concludes  with  notes  on  special 
forms,  adding  a  reference  to  two  new  forms  of  Polytrichaceas  of  which 
he  has  become  possessed. 

Systematic  Position  of  Mnium  riparium.§ — R.  Sebille  recalls  the 
dispute  between  H.  Muller  and  W.  P.  Schimper  forty-five  years  ago 
about  the  moss  now  known  as  Mnium  riparium  Mitt.  (1864),  which  is 
distinguished  from  31.  serratum  by  the  inflorescence  only.  31.  riparium 
is  strictly  dioicous,  whilst  31.  serratum  is  synoicous,  but  sometimes  bears 
flowers  which  are  solely  female.  Muller  at  first  designated  31.  riparium 
as  31.  serratum  var.  dioicum,  but  after  a  controversy  with  Schimper  he 
was  constrained,  against  his  own  conviction,  to  regard  the  plant  as  a 
separate  species.  Sebille  now,  after  a  study  of  numerous  specimens  of 
31.  serratum  confirming  its  marked  tendency  to  separate  its  sexes,  is 
inclined  to  regard  31.  riparium  as  a  dioicous  form  of  the  synoicous  but 
variable  31.  serratum,  especially  in  view  of  the  broader  modern  views 
as  to  the  liability  of  the  nature  of  the  inflorescence  to  vary  under  the 
influence  of  climate  or  of  the  chemical  constitution  of  the  soil.  He 
comes  to  the  conclusion  that  31.  serratum  is  an  Alpine  species  growing 
in  rich  humus,  and  that  its  dioicous  variety,  31.  riparium,  is  a  lowland 
race  proper  to  poor  alluvial  soil.  It  had  previously  been  recorded  from 
Germany,  North  Italy,  Britain,  and  Scandinavia.  And  now  France  is 
added  to  its  distribution. 

Swiss  Mosses. || — P.  Culmann  describes  and  figures  Bryum  sagittal- 
folium,  found  associated  with  Philonotis  tomentella  at  an  altitude  of 

*  Papers  and  Proc.  Hampshire  Field  Club  (1907)  12  pp.  (reprint). 

t  Rev.  Brvolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  35-8. 

\  Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  200-3. 

§  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  12-13.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  17-28  (fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  341 

6000  ft.  on  the  Susten.  It  is  nearly  allied  to  B.  Duvalii.  The  author 
adds  to  this  description  an  enumeration  of  Swiss  mosses  and  hepatics 
principally  gathered  in  the  Bernese  Oberland.  He  includes  41  hepatics 
and  70  mosses,  appending  critical  notes  to  some  of  them. 

Hepaticse  of  Baden.* — K.  Miiller  records  the  additions  made  to  the 
hepatic  flora  of  Baden  in  1905-6,  mostly  by  three  collectors.  In  all 
104  species  are  enumerated,  10  of  which  are  new  to  Baden,  raising  the 
flora  to  159  species. 

Muscineae  of  the  Arlberg  Region.t — L.  Loeske  gives  the  bryological 
results  of  an  expedition  of  about  three  weeks  into  the  Arlberg  region 
of  Tyrol.  He  was  accompanied  by  Osterwald,  and  they  wandered 
well  over  the  district,  reaching  heights  of  2600  m.,  2400  m.,  etc.  The 
author  does  not  in  any  way  pretend  that  this  list  is  exhaustive,  but  he 
merely  gives  the  species  found,  and  adds  in  some  cases  critical  notes  on 
other  species  found  elsewhere.  He  records  88  species  of  hepaticse, 
9  sphagna,  and  264  mosses.  He  exhibits  in  parallel  columns  the 
specific  differences  between  Philonotis  marchica  and  P.  rivularis,  and 
discusses  the  effect  of  running  water  upon  the  leaf -cells  of  AmMystegium 
filicinum,  A.fallax,  and  other  mosses. 

Bryophyta  of  Austria  and  Hungary. —  K.  WarnstorfJ  gives  a 
sketch  of  the  vegetation  of  Schreiberhau  in  the  Riesengebirge,  and 
includes  a  list  of  the  mosses,  among  which  are  four  new  forms.  He 
notifies  an  occurrence  of  Nematode  galls  on  Jungermannia  incisa,  and 
figures  the  Anguillula  which  forms  the  galls.  This  is  the  second  time 
that  such  galls  have  been  recorded  for  the  hepatics.  He  criticises  the 
work  of  Roll  in  regard  to  certain  Sphagnacese,  and  refers  some  of  Roll's 
new  species  to  already  existing  species.  F.  Quelle  §  gives  a  list  of  four 
Jungermanniacege  and  about  forty  Bryineas  gathered  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Innsbruck  and  in  the  region  of  the  Ortler.  F.  Straub  ||  gives  a 
list  of  87  mosses  gathered  by  him  and  his  pupils  at  several  Hungarian 
localities.  I.  Gyorffy  %  publishes  notes  upon  Bruchia  palustris  var. 
Degenii  and  Dicranum  scoparium  var.  nigrescens,  both  new  to  science 
and  both  found  on  the  Hohe  Tatra  of  Hungary.  The  genus  Bruchia 
had  never  previously  been  recorded  for  Hungary.  The  author  gives  a 
detailed  description  of  the  first  plant,  with  a  figure  and  a  table  of 
measurements  of  the  sporogonium. 

Genus  Cephalozia  in  Italy.** — C.  Massalongo  has  monographed  the 
Italian  species  of  Cephalozia.  These  are  twenty-seven  in  number,  and 
fall  into  five  subgenera :  —  Eucephalozia  (7  species),  Noivellia  (1), 
Pleuroclada  (1),  Cephalozietta  (16),  Hggrobiella  (2).  The  species  are 
described  in  full.     A  detailed  synoptical  key  to  them  is  supplied. 

*  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xxii.  (1907)  Abt.  2,  pp.  241-54. 
t  Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1901)  pp.  156-99. 

j  Abh.  Bot.  Verein.  Prov.  Brandenburg,  xlix.  (1907)  pp.  159-88  (figs.). 
§  Mitt.  d.  Thiir.  Bot.  Ver.,  n.f.  xxi.  (1906)  pp.  98-100. 
||  Noven.  Kozlernen.  vi.  (1907)  pp.  176-9,  and  Beibl.,  p.  63. 
%  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  38-40. 
**  Malpigbia,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  289-339. 


342  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Xerophytic  Mosses  of  the  Limestone  around  Odessa.*  —  A.  A. 
Sapehin  regards  the  cushion-shaped  tufts  of  mosses  as  an  adaptation  to 
the  conditions  of  life  in  dry  places,  the  cushions  being  permeated  with 
capillary  passages  which  enable  the  colony  to  absorb  every  drop  of  water 
that  falls  upon  the  tuft.  Tortuous  capillary  passages  are  produced  by 
the  appression  of  the  leaves  against  the  stem  when  either  dry  or  moist ; 
and  the  leaves  often  imbricate  over  one  another.  In  great  drought  the 
apical  leaves  die,  turn  brown,  and  so  protect  the  leaves  beneath  them. 
The  hairs  and  papilla?  of  the  leaf -surface  serve  to  disperse  the  sun's  rays 
that  strike  the  plant. 

Spanish  Species  of  Marchantia.f — A.  Casares  Gil  writes  of  the 
differences  between  the  two  native  Spanish  species  of  Marchantia, 
M.  polymorpha,  and  M.  paleacea  ;  and  shows  how  they  may  be  distin- 
guished even  in  the  barren  state,  especially  by  the  shape  of  the  inner 
opening  of  the  barrel-shaped  stomata.  In  the  former  species  this  inner 
opening  is  quadrate  (porus  internus  quadratus),  whereas  in  M.  paleacea 
the  inner  opening  is  cruciate  (porus  internus  cruciatus).  These  differ- 
ences are  shown  by  figures. 

New  Madeiran  Moss-genus,  Tetrastichium. :£ — J.  Cardot  gives  the 
history  of  Lepidopilum  fontanum  Mitt.,  a  moss  which  occurs  in  Madeira, 
the  Azores,  and  the  Canaries,  but  has  hitherto  been  known  in  the  sterile 
state  only.  Mitten,  in  describing  it  in  1863,  established  for  it  the  sub- 
genus Tetrastichium,  but  subsequently  employed  that  name  in  different 
sense  for  a  group  of  South  American  mosses  (Crossomitrium  of  C. 
Midler).  Cardot  having  now  had  the  opportunity  of  examining  a 
Teneriffe  specimen  of  L.  fontanum  with  a  single  old  deoperculate 
capsule,  which  is  horizontal,  short,  asymmetrical,  inflated  below,  shows 
that  the  plant  belongs  to  neither  Lepidopilum  nor  Crossomitrium,  but 
has  more  affinity  with  Hookeria  lucens.  He  therefore  designates  it  as 
Tetrastichium  fontanum,  the  representative  of  a  new  genus.  It  is  not 
closely  allied  to  Lepidopilum  virens  Card.,  an  Azores  species  with 
8-ranked  leaves,  which  probably  is  a  true  Lepidopilum.  Tetrastichium 
is  the  second  endemic  moss-genus  recorded  for  the  Atlantic  Islands,  the 
other  being  Alophosia  Card.,  a  Polytrichaceous  genus. 

North  American  Muscineae.  —  E.  G.  Britton  §  publishes  notes  on 
nomenclature,  and  calls  attention  to  Hypopterygium  canadense  Kindb., 
a  member  of  a  tropical  or  subtropical  genus  which  does  not  occur  north 
of  Mexico  and  Cuba,  except  in  case  of  the  above  species,  which  grows 
in  Queen  Charlotte  Island,  British  Columbia.  This  is  an  anomalous 
instance  of  distribution  of  a  tropical  genus,  which  finds  its  parallel  in 
the  occurrence  of  Hookeria  laetevirens  at  Killarney.  A.  J.  Grout  || 
enumerates  133  mosses  collected  in  the  mountains  of  western  North 
Carolina  in  the  summer  of  1907.      H.  X.  Dixon's  paperlf  on  Nematode 

*  Bull.  Jard.  Imp.  Sci.  St.  Petersbourg,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  81-4  (figs.). 
t  Boletin  R.  Soc.  Espanola  Hist.  Nat.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  107-112  (figs.). 
%  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  6-7. 

§  Bryologist,  xi.  (1908)  pp.  24-5.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  25-30. 

T  Tom.  cit.,  p.  31. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  343 

Galls  on  Mosses  (Journ.  of  Bot.,  Sept.  1905)  is  reprinted.  C.  C. 
Haynes  *  has  compiled  a  list  of  helpful  literature  for  students  of  North 
American  hepaticae,  being  principally  the  papers  of  A.  W.  Evans, 
M.  A.  Howe,  and  L.  M.  Underwood. 

Hepaticae  of  Puerto  Rico.f — A.  W.  Evans,  continuing  his  studies 
of  the  hepaticae  of  Puerto  Rico,  publishes  his  eighth  article  upon  the 
Lejeunese,  in  which  he  treats  of  the  genera  Symbiezidium,  Marchesinia, 
Mastigolejeunea,  Caudalejeunea,  and  Bryopteris.  Symbiezidium  is  a 
revived  name,  first  published  by  Trevisan  in  1877,  and  now  utilised 
by  Evans  to  replace  Platylejeunea  Spruce.  Four  species  of  Symbiezidium 
are  treated  of  in  the  present  paper.  The  genus  Marchesinius  was  first 
employed  in  1821  to  contain  the  species  Jungermannia  Mackaii ;  and 
the  synonyms  which  have  usually  replaced  it  are  Phragmicoma  Dumort. 
(1822)  and  Homalolejeunea  Spruce.  Evans  follows  Trevisan  and 
Schiffner  in  reviving  Gray's  genus  with  a  feminine  termination,  and 
treats  of  one  species.  Mastigolejeunea  is  represented  by  one  species  in 
Puerto  Rico,  and  Caudalejeunea  by  one  species  only,  the  author  being 
of  opinion  that  the  five  so-called  American  species  are  simply  forms  of  a 
single  one.  Finally,  one  species  of  Bryopteris  occurs  in  Puerto  Rico. 
The  author  carefully  redescribes  in  detail  and  figures  or  annotates  the 
species  of  which  he  treats. 

Tropical  American  Mosses.} — R.  S.  Williams  publishes  some  lists 
of  determinations,  namely,  twenty  Colombian  and  two  Guatemalan 
mosses  collected  by  H.  Pittier,  and  eleven  Cuban  mosses  collected  by 
W.  R.  Maxon.     Among  them  are  descriptions  of  four  new  species. 

West  African  Mosses.§  —  E.  G.  Paris  gives  a  list  of  thirty-eight 
mosses  collected  by  Pobeguin  in  Fouta-Djallon  in  French  West  Africa. 
Among  them  are  thirteen  species  new  to  science.  Appended  are  deter- 
minations by  F.  Stephani  of  six  hepatics  from  the  same  collection. 

Hepaticae  of  New  Caledonia  and  Tonkin. ||  —  F.  Stephani  gives 
descriptions  of  tweuty  new  species  of  hepatics,  seventeen  of  which  were 
collected  in  New  Caledonia  and  three  in  Tonkin  by  Le  Rat  and  his 
wife. 

Japanese  Hepatics.^  —  A.  W.  Evans  gives  an  account  of  twelve 
hepatics  from  the  province  of  Tosa  in  Japan,  most  of  them  being  new 
records  for  Japan.  Seven  of  them  are  described  in  detail  and  figured, 
and  five  of  them  are  new  to  science.  The  Japanese  hepatics  are  of 
unusual  interest,  and  already  more  than  250  species  have  been  recorded. 
These  are  partly  of  northern,  partly  of  southern  type,  as  might  be 
expected  in  view  of  the  many  degrees  of  latitude  over  which  Japan 
extends.  At  least  two  endemic  genera  are  found  there,  Gaviculuriu 
Steph.  and  Makinoa  Miyake,  both  monotypic.    And  a  number  of  species 

*  Bryologist,  xi.  (1908)  pp.  32-3. 

t  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxiv.  (1907)  pp.  533-68  (4  pis.). 

I  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  569-74. 

§  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  1-6.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  28-35. 

\  Proc.  Washington  Acad.  Sci.,  viii.  (1906)  pp.  141  -66  (3  pis.). 


344  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

occur  in  Japan  which,  though  referable  to  well-known  genera,  present 
peculiarities  so  anomalous  as  to  necessitate  a  revision  or  amplification  of 
the  original  generic  characters. 

Muscinese  of  China  and  Indo-China.* — E.  6.  Paris  publishes  his 
seventh  article  on  the  Muscineae  of  Eastern  Asia,  comprising  fifteen 
mosses  gathered  by  the  missionaries  Courtois  and  Henry  in  China,  in 
the  provinces  of  Ngan-Hoei  and  Kiang-Sou  ;  twenty-four  collected  by 
Eberhardt  in  a  very  humid  climate  in  the  south-east  of  Tonkin  ;  and 
twenty-five  collected  by  the  scientific  exploring  mission  of  Indo-China 
in  Laos  upon  the  Than-Hoa-Luang-Prabang  road,  which  follows  the 
parallel  19°  40'  lat.  N.  In  all  thirty-one  species  new  to  science  are  de- 
scribed, and  appended  are  descriptions  of  two  new  species  of  Calymperes 
obtained  from  Panama  and  New  Caledonia.  Finally,  F.  Stephani  sup- 
plies a  list  of  five  species  of  Hepatic*  from  Laos. 

Indian  Bryophyta. — E.  Levierf  publishes  some  corrections  of  mosses 
issued  in  his  "  Bryotheca  Exotica,"  Series  I.  (l'J07).  J.  F.  Duthie  $  has 
revised  and  supplemented  Sir  Richard  Strachey's  "Catalogue  of  the 
Plants  of  Kumaon."  On  pp.  234-242  is  an  enumeration  of  102  mosses 
and  18  hepatics  collected  by  Strachey  and  Winterbottom  in  1846-9 
in  Kumaon  and  neighbouring  districts,  and  determined  by  Mitten. 
E.  Levier,§  commenting  upon  Strachey's  Catalogue,  adds  a  personal 
note  upon  the  great  services  rendered  to  bryology  by  J.  F.  Duthie 
when  superintendent  of  the  Saharnnpur  Gardens,  and  by  his  successor, 
W.  Gollan,  now  deceased.  These  two,  by  their  own  efforts  and  by  the 
employment  of  English  and  Indian  collectors,  amassed  considerable 
quantities  of  Bryophyta  from  the  North-West  Provinces,  Tibet,  the 
Eastern  Himalayas,  the  Central  Provinces,  and  even  from  Upper  Burma. 
Kabir  Khan,  in  particular,  has  shown  himself  to  be  a  specially  successful 
and  energetic  collector,  having  found  several  new  species,  and  having 
ascended  to  an  altitude  of  19,000  ft.  to  obtain  some  rarities. 

Sapehin,  A.  A. — TJeber  das  Leuchten  der  Prothallien  von  Pteris  serrulata.  (Con- 
cerning the  luminosity  of  the  prothallium  of  Pteris  ser- 
rulata.) 

[The  cause  of  this  phenomenon  is  the  same  as  in  the 
moss  Schistostega  osmundacea,  viz.  refraction  of 
light  by  the  cells.] 

Bull.  Jard.  Imp.  Bot.  St.  Pt>tersbourg, 
vii.  (1907)  pp.  85-8. 

„        „  Die  Ursachen   der  Wasserfiillung   der  Sacke  von  Lebermoosen. 

(The  causes  which  bring  about  the  filling  of  the  sacs  of 
hepaticse  with  water.) 

[The  author  raises  objections  to  the  experiments  of 
Goebel,  and  demonstrates  that  hepaticse  when 
moistened  suck  water  into  their  sacs  in  con- 
sequence of  the  increase  in  their  volume.] 

Tom.  cii.,pp.  113-1G  (1  fig.). 


*  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  40-55.  f  Tom.  cit.,  p.  13. 

I  London  :  Lovell  Reeve  and  Co,  1906,  p.  269. 
§  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  14-15. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  345 

Thallophyta. 

Algae. 

(By  Mrs.  E.  S.  Gepp.) 

Marine  Algae  of  the  Channel  Islands.* — H.  van  Heurck  has  pub- 
lished a  marine  flora  of  these  islands,  founded  on  his  own  collections 
and  those  of  Piquet,  White,  Cattlow,  Bovier-Lapierre,  Marquand,  and 
others.  After  each  species  is  given  the  list  of  localities  in  the  islands 
where  it  occurs,  as  well  as  a  rough  indication  of  the  part  of  the  French 
coast  from  the  Belgian  frontier  to  Brest,  whence  it  has  been  recorded. 
References  to  literature,  exsiccatee  and  illustrations  are  also  given.  One 
new  species  is  described  and  figured,  Epilithon  van  HeurcTcii  Heydrich, 
which  grows  on  Aglaosphenia.  Following  the  enumeration  of  species  is 
a  systematic  table  of  genera,  and  finally  a  complete  index  with  a  certain 
number  of  synonyms.  The  present  work  is  only  an  abbreviated  form 
of  a  more  important  work  on  the  subject  which  the  author  hopes  to 
publish  later,  containing  descriptions  and  figures,  in  the  style  of  the 
Traite  cles  Diatomees.  An  article  dealing  with  the  geology  and  history 
of  the  Channel  Islands,  by  E.  T.  Xicolle,  adds  to  the  interest  of  the 
books. 

Algae  of  Danzig  Bay.j — Lakowitz  publishes  the  results  of  his  study 
of  this  district  during  the  last  twenty  years,  based  mainly  on  his  own 
collections.  Neither  Diatoms  nor  Flagellates  are  included,  and  the  work 
deals  only  with  Rhodophyceee,  Phreophycese,  Chlorophyceae  (including 
CharaceEe),  and  Cyanophyceae.  Certain  new  forms  are  described  and 
one  new  species,  Goniotrichum  simplex.  Keys  are  given  for  the  genera, 
and  the  species  are  described  in  German,  followed  by  critical  remarks, 
notes  as  to  habitat,  and  geographical  distribution.  Many  of  the  species 
are  figured  in  the  text.  The  second  part  of  the  work  deals  with  the 
conditions  of  vegetation  in  the  Bay  of  Danzig,  and  describes  the  dis- 
trict, discussing  the  limits,  conditions  at  various  depths,  the  geological 
composition  of  the  substratum,  the  history  of  its  origin,  salinity,  and 
temperature,  and  the  prevailing  winds  and  ocean  currents.  In  a 
description  of  the  vegetation  the  author  treats  of  the  component  parts 
of  the  vegetation,  its  horizontal  distribution  inside  the  Bay,  distribution 
in  depth,  the  position  of  the  flora  of  the  Bay  as  regards  geographical 
distribution,  the  probable  origin  of  the  flora,  and  the  importance  of 
algal  vegetation  as  a  factor  in  marine  life. 

Fucaceae  of  Japan. % — K.  Yendo  publishes  the  complete  account  of 
his  studies  on  this  subject,  a  preliminary  notice  of  which  appeared  in 
1905.  The  author  has  had  considerable  difficulty  in  identifying  some 
of  the  species  from  the  wholly  inadequate  descriptions  of  earlier  authors, 
and  out  of  the  thirty-nine  species  of  Sargassum  hitherto  regarded  as 
belonging  to  the  Japanese  flora  only  eighteen  seem  to  him  to  be  valid. 
In  a  section  of  the  book  devoted  to  "  Distribution  of  Fucaceous  Algae 

*  Society  Jersiaise,  Labey  et  Blarnpied,  St.  Helier  (1908)  xii.  and  120  pp. 

t  Algenflora  der  Danziger  Bucht.    Leipzig  :  Engelmann  (1907),  141  pp.,  70  figs. 

X  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Imper.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xxi.  (1907)  174  pp.    (18  pis.). 


346  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

on  the  Coast  of  Japan,"  the  author  discusses  the  two  prevailing  currents 
along  the  Japanese  coasts,  which  may  lie  briefly  described  as  a  warm  and 
a  cold  current.  The  courses  of  these  are  described,  and  it  is  shown  that 
they  amply  account  for  the  remarkable  climatic  differences  at  places 
having  the  same  latitude.  The  author  draws  up  a  table  of  distribution 
of  all  the  species  of  Fucacese,  showing  how  fifty-nine  species  are  dis- 
tributed among  forty-six  different  localities  on  the  Japan  Sea,  the 
Ochotsk  Sea,  and  the  Pacific.  Then  follow  critical  notes  to  all  the  species 
and  varieties.  The  novelties  are  Coccophora  ?  Imperata,  Sargassum 
setaceum,  several  other  species  of  Sargassum,  and  a  new  genus,  Ishige, 
with  species  /.  OJcamurai,  founded  on  Pelvetia  Babingtonii  Okam. 
Eighteen  large  plates  complete  this  valuable  work  on  the  Japanese 
Fncaceae. 

Nereocystis  and  Pelagophycus.* — W.  A.  Setchell  has  made  a  study 
of  the  two  alga?,  N.  Luetkeana  and  Pelagophycus  giganteus,  and  sets 
forth  his  results.  He  discusses  the  views  of  Frye  as  to  the  length  to 
which  the  former  species  may  attain,  21  m.,  and  is  more  inclined  to 
believe  Mertens,  who  gives  90  m.  as  the  extreme  length  of  the  thallus. 
The  longest  specimen  ever  seen  by  the  author  was  41  m.  long.  It  is 
often  found  growing  anchored  by  its  holdfasts  to  other  members  of 
Laminariaceae,  particularly  to  Pterggophora  califomica.  Setchell  differs 
from  Frye  as  to  the  duration  of  life  of  the  individual  plant,  and  states 
his  opinion  that  N.  Luetkeana  is  an  annual  plant.  The  early  stages 
appear  in  February  or  March,  and  the  plant  passes  through  its  growth 
and  fruiting  by  November,  disappearing  in  December  or  January. 

The  author  then  turns  to  Pelagophycus,  and  quotes  some  extracts 
from  old  authors  of  the -eighteenth  century  alluding  to  a  marine  plant 
called  Porra.  One  of  these,  Le  Gentil,  in  "  Voy.  dans  les  Mers  de 
l'lnde,"  Paris,  1781,  gives  an  excellent  drawing  of  Porra,  which  shows 
it  to  be  the  Pelagophycus  giganteus  Aresch.  The  name  is  therefore 
altered  in  the  present  paper  to  P.  Porra,  and  the  reasons  of  the  author 
for  maintaining  Pelagophycus  as  a  separate  genus  are  given. 

Colpomenia  sinuosa  in  Britain.f — A.  D.  Cotton  records  the  first 
appearance  of  this  alga  on  the  shores  of  Britain.  It  has  been  found  by 
himself  at  Swanage  and  by  Holmes  at  Torquay  during  last  year.  Up 
to  within  the  last  few  years  it  was  not  known  further  north  than  Cadiz, 
but  since  then  it  has  migrated  up  the  French  coast,  where  it  causes  great 
anxiety  to  the  oyster  cultivators,  as  it  interferes  seriously  with  the 
oysters  in  a  manner  described  by  various  French  authors,  and  noticed 
in  past  numbers  of  this  Journal.  The  present  author  points  out  the 
external  likeness  between  Colpomenia  sinuosa  and  Leathesia  difformis. 
In  structure,  however,  C.  sinuosa  may  be  distinguished  by  the  thinner, 
non-gelatinous  walls  and  by  the  structure,  which  is  cellular,  and  not 
filamentous..  Leathesia  also  is  usually  irregularly  lobed,  even  when  quite 
young,  and  has  a  resiliency  which  is  lacking  in  Colpomenia.  Figures  are 
given  of  the  structure  of  both  species. 

*  Bot.  Gazette.,  xiv.  (1908)  pp.  125-34. 

t  Kew  Bulletin,  1908,  No.  2,  pp.  73-7  (3  figs.).     See  also  Journ.  Bot.,  xlvi. 
(1908)  pp.  82-3. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  347 

Dasycladaceae  of  the  Danish  West  Indies.* — F.  Borgesen  gives  an 
account  of  the  species  of  Dasycladaceae  collected  by  him  in  the  Danish 
West  Indies.  The  first  species  is  Neomeris  anaulata  Dickie,  of  which 
he  describes  and  figures  variations  in  the  form  and  size  of  the  sporangia. 
The  plant  occurs  both  on  sheltered  and  exposed  coasts,  and  seems  to  be 
rather  common.  Batophora  Oerstedi  is  next  discussed,  and  the  author 
agrees  with  M.  A.  Howe  in  considering  the  name  Batophora  must  hold 
good  instead  of  Botryophora.  Acetubalaria  caliculus  is  fully  described 
and  treated  of,  and  its  identity  with  A.  Suhrii  is  regarded  as  fairly 
established.     A.  crenulata  and  Acicularia  Schenhii  are  also  recorded. 

Tetmemorus  in  New  England.f — J.  A.  Cushman  records  for  New 
England  the  four  species  of  this  genus  known  from  the  British  Isles. 
In  New  England  the  plants  occur  mostly  in  sphagnum  pools,  and  seem 
to  be  more  common  at  an  elevation,  being  found  very  abundantly  in 
certain  mountain  ponds  with  sphagnous  borders.  A  description  and  the 
corrected  synonymy  for  each  species  is  given  and  measurements  taken 
from  New  England  specimens.  A  key  to  the  New  England  Tetmemorus 
describes  shortly  the  differences  between  the  species.. 

Lower  Chlorophyceaa.} — B.  Gerneck  has  made  cultivations  of  a 
considerable  number  of  the  lower  Chlorophyceas,  which  he  gathered  in 
ditches,  etc.,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Gottingen.  In  the  introduction  to 
his  paper  on  the  subject,  he  describes  in  detail  the  methods  he  employed 
in  obtaining  his  cultures,  while  in  the  special  part  which  follows  he  gives 
the  results  of  his  work  in  connection  with  each  special  organism,  and 
describes  new  genera  and  species.  In  the  second  or  general  part  the 
author  discusses  such  questions  as  the  influence  of  light  and  temperature, 
that  of  the  substratum  of  the  culture,  and  of  higher  concentration  of 
nutritive  solutions  in  connection  with  his  results  ;  also  the  influence  of 
the  culture  medium  on  the  manner  of  growth  and  on  the  formation  of 
gelatin,  as  well  as  the  production  of  reserve  material.  He  then  describes 
the  transition  to  resting  stages  in  the  older  cultures,  the  formation  of 
involution  cells  under  conditions  of  exhausted  soil,  the  formation  of 
swarm-spores  and  the  methods  of  bringing  this  about,  and  the  occur- 
rence of  gametes.  Copulation  was  only  observed  in  two  species  of 
Cystococcus,  and  did  not  take  place  in  ChJorosarrina  minor  nor  Gbrocystis 
vesiculosa,  which  possesses  zoospores  generally  regarded  as  sexual.  The 
author  regards  the  appearance  of  akinetes  and  aplanospores  as  being 
probably  the  result  of  a  lack  of  nutritive  salt  in  the  culture  substratum. 
Finally  a  list  is  given  of  the  literature  consulted. 

Diatoms  in  an  Aquarium. §— H.  Peragallo  has  examined  the  diatoms 
growing  in  an  aquarium  at  Banyuls  which  had  been  left  untouched  for 
five  years,  and  he  states  that  he  has  rarely  met  so  interesting  a  collection. 
Among  the  63  species  and  9  varieties,  only  two  are  surface  epiphytes, 
which  were  probably  introduced  at  the  time  of  washing,  previous  to 
examination.      The  predominating  species  in  the  aquarium  vary  very 

*  Bot.  Tidssk.,  xxviii.  (190S)  pp.  271-83  (9  figs,  in  text), 
t  Bull.  Torrev  Bot.  Club,  xxxiv.  (1907)  pp.  599-601. 
X  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  221-90  (2  tables). 
§  C.R  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  Ixiv.  (1908)  pp.  99-100. 


348  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

much  in  their  mode  of  life  ;  many  of  them  showing  the  character  of 
species  unattached  and  influenced  by  currents.  Others  are  bottom  forms, 
which  are  sometimes  met  with  in  plankton,  such  as  Coscinodisca.*  Ocnlus- 
Iridis,  C.  gigas,  Biddulphia  membranacea,  and  Auricula  insecta.  Other 
bottom  species,  such  as  Actinoptychvs  Moelleri,  are  rare  in  this  collection, 
while  others,  such  as  Auricula  insecta,  Navicula  dalmatica,  and 
Rhoicosigma  compactum,  are  abundant.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
species  is  Gephyria  media  Arnott,  a  tropical  Californian  form,  of  which 
three  examples  were  present.  The  author  is  of  opinion  that  the  diatoms 
of  the  original  dredging  have  lived  and  multiplied  during  the  six  years 
in  the  aquarium,  where  the  conditions  of  light  and  temperature  were 
favourable. 

Fossil  Diatoms.* — A.  Forti  gives  a  list  of  the  species  found  by  him 
in  samples  taken  from  the  Miocene  deposits  of  Bergonzano  (Reggio 
d'Emilia).  He  intends  to  publish  later  a  full  account  of  the  collection, 
with  diagnoses  of  new  species.  The  present  communication  mentions 
only  the  commoner  and  more  easily  recognised  species.  The  most  part 
of  the  material  consists  of  characteristic  fragments  of  Coscinodiscus 
gazellce  Janisch,  few  of  the  specimens  being  entire. 

Rose-colour  in  Species  of  Myxophyceae.t — C.  Sauvageau  has  made 
some  experiments  on  rose-coloured  species  of  Myxophyceas,  with  a  view 
to  studying  their  phycocyanin.  Specimens  of  Lyngbya  sordida  Gom. 
were  obtained  at  a  depth  of  about  6  to  S  metres,  which  were  as  red  as 
Erythrotrichia  or  Chantransia  ;  and  these  were  treated  with  fresh-water, 
or  fresh -water  mixed  with  ether,  which  caused  the  cells  to  increase 
markedly  in  length  and  diminish  in  width.  As  a  result  of  his  experi- 
ments, the  author  finds  that  marine  species  of  Lyngbya,  and  probably 
also  of  other  Myxophycese  which  have  a  slender  rigid  sheath,  treated 
with  fresh-water  and  ether,  form  excellent  material  for  a  spectroscopic 
study  of  the  dissolution  of  phycocyanin  ;  and  the  swollen  cells,  with  a 
non-permeable  cell-wall,  would  be  an  interesting  study  from  a  cytological 
point  of  view.  The  pigment  of  the  rose-coloured  Myxophyceae  studied 
replaces  that  which  gives  them  their  usual  colour,  and  arises  from  its 
transformation. 

In  another  note,  the  author  remarks  on  the  red  Oscillarieae  observed 
in  an  aquarium  of  the  laboratory  at  Banyuls-sur-mer,  and  he  comes  to 
the  conclusion  that  one  of  the  influences,  probably  the  principal  one, 
which  causes  their  red  colour  is  attenuation  of  light — in  fact,  they  turn 
red  to  save  their  lives,  and  the  "  complementary  chromatic  adaptation  " 
of  Engelmann  and  Gaidukov  has  no  part  in  it.  They  form  dwarf 
individuals,  and  in  an  aquarium  they  keep  their  red  colour  as  if  they 
were  a  well  characterised  race,  and  prosper.  The  aquarium  in  question 
had  been  untouched  for  five  years,  and  the  list  of  algse  found  flourish- 
ing in  it  includes  species  of  Chlorophycese,  Phajophyceas,  and  Floridese. 

Pigment  of  Oscillatoria  Cortiana.J — L.  Bocat  has  made  a  study  of 
the  spectrum  of  red  plants  of  0.  Cortiana,  comparing  it  with  that  of 

*  Nuov.  Notar..  xix.  (1908)  (Reprint). 

t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  95-9. 

\  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  101-2. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  349 

phycocyanin  and  phycoerythrin,  and  he  finds  that  the  spectra  of  these 
two  substances  and  that  of  the  pigment  of  0.  Cortiana  are  related  but 
not  identical.  The  normal  pigment  of  that  species  has  not  been  studied  ; 
but  the  author  is  of  opinion  that  when  the  red  colour  is  assumed  by  the 
plant,  it  is  no  longer  able  to  assimilate  in  orange  radiations,  but  uses, 
like  Flor  ideas,  green  radiations.  He  comes  to  this  conclusion,  while 
granting  that  the  action  of  the  ether  has  helped  to  disperse  the  absorp- 
tion band  of  the  orange.  Bands  i.,  ii.,  and  hi.  of  0.  Cortiana  correspond 
approximately  to  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  bands  of  chlorophyll,  where 
assimilation  is  very  feeble. 

Plankton  of  Mofjord.* — E.  Jorgensen  gives  some  interesting  results 
of  his  investigations  of  the  natural  conditions  of  Mofjord,  which  is  the 
innermost  part  of  a  long  narrow  fjord  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bergen. 
The  water  reaches  a  depth  of  217  in.,  and  is  rather  fresh  on  the  surface, 
varying  however  from  1-20  mille  in  salinity,  according  to  the  quantity 
received  from  streams.  The  greatest  thickness  of  this  sheet  of  fresh- 
water is  about  10-12  m.  Statistics  of  the  salinity  and  distribution  of 
gases  below  this  sheet  are  given.  The  plankton  in  the  upper  layers 
(0-35  m.)  is  very  rich,  while  below  that  only  empty  frustules  occur  as  a 
rule.  The  dominant  species  are  :  GJmtoceras  curvisetum,  Sceletonema 
costatum,  and  Ceratium  spp.  A  few  fresh-water  forms,  Melosira  varians, 
Surirella  ovata,  and  Tabellaria  flocculosa,  have  been  noted,  more  or  less 
scattered. 

Indian  Ocean  Phytoplankton.! — CI.  Karsten  publishes  the  last  part 
of  his  account  of  the  phytoplankton  collected  on  the  '  Valdivia '  Expe- 
dition in  1898-9,  and  the  whole  work  is  a  valuable  and  important  con- 
tribution to  the  study  of  those  organisms.  In  the  present  contribution 
he  gives  (1)  lists  of  the  species  which  were  found  in  the  different  hauls 
in  the  Indian  Oeean  ;  (2)  a  systematic  part,  and  (3)  a  general  part.  In 
the  systematic  part  all  the  species  found  in  the  Indian  Ocean  are  de- 
scribed '  and  figured,  except  such  as  had  been  treated  in  previous  con- 
tributions. Among  the  diatoms  one  genus,  35  species,  and  6  varieties 
are  new,  and  of  Peridineae  15  species  and  6  varieties.  In  the  general 
part  all  questions  relating  to  the  investigation  of  plankton  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  light  of  the  new  results  obtained  by  the  '  Valdivia '  Ex- 
pedition. The  author  regards  the  Indian  Ocean  as  a  more  or  less 
compact  floral  unity,  and  the  differences  which  he  observed  he  considers 
as  the  result  of  a  greater  or  less  intermixing  of  neritic  forms.  The 
vertical  distribution  of  the  phytoplankton  is  not  markedly  different  from 
that  of  the  Antarctic  region.  The  greater  number  of  the  algai  occur 
above  a  depth  of  200  in.,  generally  between  60-100  in.,  while  below 
400  m.  only  isolated  living  cells  are  found.  On  the  surface  live  the 
Schizophyceas  and  the  long-horned  light  Geratia  ;  then  follow  C/mtoceras 
peruvianum  and  chains  of  the  lighter  species  of  Rhizosolenia,  then  the 
more  compact  Geratia  amphisolenia,  the  large-celled  RhizosoUnia,  and  the 
remaining  species  of  G/mtoceras.      This  is  the  vertical  order  down  to 

*  Trondjem  kgl.  norske  Vidensk.  Selskskrift,  1906,  No.  9  (1907)  40  pp. 
t  Wiss.  Ergeb.  Deutsch.  Tiefsee  Exped.  '  Valdivia.'  1898-99,  ii.  2  (Jena.  1907) 
pp.  223-548  (20  pis.).     See  also  Bot.  Zeit.,  lxvi.  (1908)  pp.  87-101.  ? 


350  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

60,  80,  and  100  m.  Then  the  actual  mass  of  organisms  is  less  until  the 
"  shade-flora "  begins,  composed  of  Planktoniella,  Valdiviella,  Goscino- 
discus,  Antelmindlia,  and  Halosphmra,  which  forms  a  fairly  dense  vegeta- 
tion to  about  150  m.,  occasionally  even  to  200  m.  From  thence  down- 
wards to  400  m.  there  is  a  gradual  decrease  of  cells,  and  below  that 
depth  there  are  only  colourless  cells  of  Peridiiiiinn,  Phalacroma,  and 
Diplopsalis.  In  the  lowest  depths  is  found  only  the  rain  of  dead  cells 
falling  to  the  bottom  from  the  upper  strata.  The  author  compares  the 
Indian  Ocean  phytoplankton  with  that  of  the  Atlantic,  and  finds  that 
the  warmer  regions  are  characterised  by  numerous  species  of  diatoms 
and  Peridinere,  which  are,  however,  represented  by  few  individuals.  As 
regards  vertical  distribution  of  species  and  quantity,  it  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Special  chapters  are  devoted  to  neritic  and 
oceanic  phytoplankton  ;  ocean  currents  and  phytoplankton  ;  quantitative 
distribution,  and  its  dependence  on  external  factors  ;  occurrence  of 
vertical  currents  and  their  influence  ;  the  different  nutritive  matters,  etc. 
Other  important  questions,  such  as  the  microspores,  the  systematic  inter- 
relation of  centric  and  pennate  diatoms,  the  phylogeny  of  Rhizosolenia, 
etc.,  are  discussed. 

Beguinot,  A.,  &  L.  Fobmiggini — Ricerche  ed  osservazioni  sopra  aloune  entita 
vicarianti  nelle  Characee  della  Flora  Italiana.  (Researches  and  observations 
on  certain  vicarious  entities  in  the  Characese  of  the  Italian  flora.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital.,  1907,  pp.  100-16. 

Hernandez-Pachecho,  E. — Consideraciones  respecto  a  la  organizacion,  genero 
de  vida  y  manera  de  fosilizarse  algunos  organismos  dudosos  de  la  epoca  silurica 
y  estudio  de  las  especies  de  algas  y  huellas  de  gusanos  arenicolas  del  sihirico 
inferior  de  Alcuescar  (Caceres).  (Considerations  respecting  the  organisation, 
mode  of  life,  and  manner  of  fossilisation  of  some  doubtful  organisms  of  the 
Silurian  period,  and  a  study  of  the  species  of  algse  and  casts  of  arenicolous 
worms  of  the  Lower  Silurian  of  Alcuescar  in  the  province  of  Caceres.] 

Bol.  R.  Soc.  Espafiola  Hist.  Nat.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  75-91  (4  pis.). 

Mazza,  A.— Saggio  di  Algologia  oceanica.     (A  study  of  oceanic  algology.) 

[A  continuation.]  Nuov.  Notar.,  xix.  (1908)  pp.  1-24. 

Fungi. 

(By  A.  Lorbain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

New  Species  of  Achlya.* — J.  D.  Pemberton  describes  this  new 
fungus,  which  was  found  in  a  culture  of  Saprolegnia,  etc.,  taken  from  a 
small  brook.  It  is  characterised  by  the  presence  of  antheridia,  which 
arise  immediately  below  the  oogonium  ;  the  fertilising  tube  rises  from 
the  septa  that  divides  the  oogonium  from  the  antheridium.  Cultures 
of  the  new  species  were  made  on  small  gnats  in  hanging  drops,  and  the 
whole  development  was  followed  with  ease. 

Hydnocystis  Thwaitesii.f — T.  Petch  has  collected  a  number  of 
specimens  of  this  rare  fungus,  and  gives  a  revised  and  full  account  of  it. 
The  species  looks  somewhat  like  a  Peziza,  and  grows  on  decaying  wood. 
It  is  a  Peziza  without  a  disk  :  there  is  a  thick  wall  only,  of  a  cup-like 

*  Bot.  Gazette,  slv.  (1908)  pp.  194-6  (6  figs.), 
f  Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  p.  473-5  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  351 

shape  ;  the  wall  is  of  three  parts  ;  outer  and  inner  of  varying  thickness, 
and,  inclosed  in  a  cavity  between  them,  the  fertile  layer  of  asci  and 
hyaline,  elliptic,  smooth  spores.  The  author  considers  this  species  to 
belong  to  Genea,  one  of  the  Tuberinere. 

Pyronema  confluens.* — P.  Claussen  has  had  occasion  to  examine 
this  Ascomycete,  and  he  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  no 
fusion  of  nuclei  in  the  ascogoniuni  such  as  Harper  described.  The  male 
nuclei  pass  from  the  antheridium  to  the  ascogonium,  but  do  not  fuse  ; 
they  lie  side  by  side  until  the  ascus  stage  is  reached,  and  the  fusion  of 
nuclei  there,  considered  to  be  a  second  fusion,  is  really  the  first  fusion  of 
the  conjugate  nuclei.  Claussen  thinks  that  this  will  prove  to  be  the  case 
in  all  of  the  ascomycetous  forms,  and  that  fusion  in  the  ascus  is  a  belated 
sexual  fusion  between  male  and  female  nuclei.  He  cites  cases  of  de- 
layed fusion  to  illustrate  his  discovery. 

Fruit-development  in  Aspergillus  Fischeri.j — M.  Domaradsky  has 
undertaken  an  examination  of  this  species,  and  publishes  some  pre- 
liminary notes.  He  was  able  from  the  ascospore  to  grow  the  mycelium 
and  conidiophores  in  a  hanging-drop  culture.  Mycelium  and  conidio- 
phores  are  white  ;  the  fruit  is  slightly  yellowish.  Following  the  de- 
velopment of  the  ascus  fruit,  he  found  on  one  of  the  hyphge  a  twisted 
branch,  occasionally  forming  a  perfect  screw,  multinucleate,  and  at  first 
non-septate,  becoming  septate  at  a  later  stage .  No  organ  corresponding 
to  an  antheridium  was  detected,  and  he  concludes  that  some  kind  of 
sexual  act  has  taken  place  in  the  twisted  hypha,  resulting  in  the  associa- 
tion of  two  nuclei.  The  enveloping  hyphas  in  this  species  do  not  arise 
from  the  hyphas  nearest  to  the  "screw":  from  those  at  some  distance 
fine  branches  arise  that  grow  towards  the  "  screw,"  and  finally  form  the 
peridium. 

Notes  on  some  Species  of  Erysiphacese  from  India. J  —  E.  S. 
Salmon  describes  some  infection  experiments  made  with  Erysiphe  gra- 
in inis  from  India.  The  host-plant  was  Tritict/m  vulgare,  and  plants  of 
the  same  species  and  of  Hordeum  vulgare  were  inoculated  with  the 
oidiospores  and  with  the  ascospores.  The  infection  was  successful  only 
with  the  Triticum  plants.  Salmon  was  successful  in  slightly  infecting 
some  plants  of  Hordeum  silvaticum  with  the  same  oidiospores  ;  but  the 
experiments  proved  that  Erysiphe  graminis  occurring  in  India  on  wheat 
is  a  biologic  form,  as  it  is  in  Europe.  He  describes  a  new  species  of 
Uncimda,  growing  on  teak. 

Seuratia  and  Capnodium.§ — Paul  Yuillemin  draws  a  comparison 
between  these  two  genera  of  fungi,  species  of  which  were  found  grow- 
ing together.  They  are  both  Ascomycetes  ;  the  former  is  rather  of  the 
nature  of  a  Discomycete  ;  the  species  8.  coffekola  was  found  in  Java 
along  with   Capnodiwm,  on  leaves  of  the  coffee-plant ;  the  two  fungi 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  586-90  (1  fig.). 

t  Op.  cit.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  14-16. 

%  Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  pp.  476-9. 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  307-8. 


3">2  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

were  so  closely  associated  that  it  was  difficult  to  assign  to  each  its 
own  developmental  stages.  The  author  compares  the  association  to 
that  found  in  lichens  between  alga  and  fungus. 

Origin  of  Yeasts.*— Following  Viala  and  Pacottet,  G.  Bonnier  has 
cultivated  Glceosporium  nerviaeijuum  to  try  and  reproduce,  as  they  did, 
a  yeast-form.  He  succeeded,  after  various  failures,  in  securing  a  pure 
culture,  and  the  characteristic  conidia  and  pycnidia  already  observed  by 
Klebahn  ;  but  after  eight  months'  continual  growth  on  various  sub- 
stances, he  has  never  found  any  yeast  torulation  nor  any  endospore 
formation.  He  is  thus  forced  to  conclude  that  Viala  and  Pacottet  must 
have  had  some  impurity  in  their  culture,  and  that  yeast,  as  before,  must 
be  regarded  as  an  autonomous  plant. 

Biological  Study  of  Glceosporium.f — E.  Lasnier  selected  for  ex- 
periment two  saprophytic  species  of  this  genus,  G.  Cattleym,  which  grows 
on  decaying  lea\es  of  the  orchid  Cattleya,  and  67.  Musarum,  which  attacks 
bananas.  He  grew  the  mycelium  and  spores  in  different  media,  and 
records  the  effect  produced  in  each  case.  He  found  that  forms  of 
fructification  were  developed  that  are  unknown  in  natural  conditions  : 
conidia  of  a  hyphomycetous  type  were  produced  at  the  tips  of  mycelial 
branches  at  the  extremities  of  closely-packed  tufts  of  hyphse,  or  peri- 
thecia  were  formed.  These  variations  were  entirely  due  to  the  medium 
in  which  they  were  grown.  Sugars  were  found  to  favour  spore  forma- 
tion ;  yeasts  were  not  observed  ;  alkalies  in  small  quantities  did  not  affect 
the  growth  of  the  fungus,  but  acids  retarded,  or  in  stronger  quantities 
completely  checked,  development. 

Hyphomycetes4  —  The  part  just  issued  by  G-.  Lindau  is  largely 
occupied  by  the  description  of  species  of  the  parasitic  genus  Gercospora. 
Other  genera  with  brown  septate  spores  are  dealt  with,  and  the  curious 
genus  Sporochisma,  which  forms  its  spores  inside  the  hyphai.  The 
Pha3odictya3  have  been  commenced,  and  one  genus,  Coniothecium,  has 
been  described.  As  before,  there  are  many  illustrations,  especially  of 
Gercosporce,. 

Uredinese. — TV.  Tranzschel  §  gives  results  of  twelve  series  of  experi- 
ments. He  has  been  able  in  several  cases  to  associate  different  forrns  of 
the  life-cycle.  He  contrasts  Puccinia  obtusata  and  P.  Isiacce  ;  with  the 
spores  of  the  latter  he  infected  a  large  number  of  plants  in  different 
natural  orders,  producing  the  JEcidium  form. 

J.  C.  Arthur  ||  publishes  diagnoses  of  fifteen  new  species  of  UredineaB, 
all  of  them  from  the  American  continent  or  neighbouring  islands. 

B.  Pole  Evans  %  has  undertaken  a  study  of  the  histology  of  the 
"  cereal  rusts,"  P.  graminis,  P.  rubigo-vera,  and  P.  coronata,  and  the 
first  paper  deals  with  the  mycelium  of  the  uredo  form,  which  in  an  early 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  clxvi.  (1908)  pp.  704-7. 
t  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiw  (1908)  pp.  ?7-  43  (3  pis.). 
X  Rabenhorst's  Kryptogamen-Flora,  i.  Abt.  9,  lief  107  (Leipzig,  1908)  pp.  113-76. 
§  Trav.  Mus.  Bot.  Acad.  Sci.  St.  Petersbourg,  iii.   (1907)  pp.  37-55.     See  also 
Hedwigia,  Beibl.,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  126-8. 

||  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxiv.  (1907)  pp.  5S3-92. 
i  Ann.  Bot.,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  441-66  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSCOPY,    ETC.  353 

stage  shows  distinctive  rnorphologica  characters,  the  substomatal  vesicle 
and  the  haustoria  differing  according  to  the  hosts.  The  work  is  being 
carried  ont  at  the  Transvaal  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Rudolf  Bock  *  has  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  several  species  of 
Uredineae  to  test  the  existence  of  biological  forms.  In  Puccinia  Gentiance 
he  failed  to  prove  specialisation,  though  several  species  of  Gentiana  were 
immune  to  the  fungus  ;  also  some  species  that  were  free  from  rust  in 
the  open  were  easily  induced  to  grow  the  fungus.  With  Uromyces 
Geranii  he  found  that  there  were  several  of  the  hosts  recorded  that  could 
not  be  infected  by  the  spores  he  was  cultivating,  indicating  probable 
specialisation  ;  the  rusts  found  on  all  of  the  hosts  were  morphologic- 
ally identical.  Puccinia  viola,  was  also  studied,  and  it  was  found  that 
another  species,  P.  depauperans,  also  grew  on  Viola  lutea,  V.  tricolor, 
and  V.  cornuta,  which  are  thus  collective  hosts.  Experiments  were  made 
with  P.  obtusata,  which  is  very  similar  to  P.  Isiacee,  as  already  noted  by 
Tranzschel,  but  probably  forms  its  JEcidia  on  a  much  more  restricted 
range  of  hosts. 

Infection  by  Smut  Fungi. t, — There  are  two  methods  of  infection 
described  for  Ustilago  :  in  one  the  seedling  plants  are  infected,  in  another 
it  is  the  flower  that  is  attacked.  Ludwig  Hecke  finds  that  there  is  a 
third  method  by  which  the  fungus  enters  the  host,  which  he  calls 
"  shoot "  infection.  In  perennial  plants  the  old  stump  can  be  infected, 
and  the  new  shoots  in  time  produce  smutted  heads  :  this  was  proved  in 
Urocystis  occulata  on  Secede  cereale. 

Poisoning  due  to  Amanita  Phalloides4 — M.  Menier  describes  two 
cases  of  poisoning  caused  by  eating  this  fungus,  one  of  them  fatal.  He 
publishes  a  complete  account  of  the  remedies  used  to  counteract  the 
poison,  which  were  successful  in  one  case,  though  the  patient  was  more  or 
less  indisposed  for  a  month  thereafter.  A  note  is  added  from  C.  B. 
Plowright  on  the  poisoning  of  a  family  at  Ipswich  in  the  autumn  of 
1907. 

Polymorphism  of  Hymenomycetes.§ — G.  F.  Lyman  has  made  a 
large  series  of  artificial  cultures  of  some  of  the  larger  fungi,  many  of 
which  possess  some  secondary  method  of  reproduction.  He  proved  that 
JEgerita  Candida  is  the  conidial  form  of  an  undescribed  Peniophora,  to 
which  he  gives  the  name  P.  Candida,  and  Miclienera  artocreas  a  secondary 
growth  of  Corticium  subgiganteum.  Incidentally  he  proved  the  autonomy 
of  Lentodium  squamulosum,  considered  by  some  to  be  an  abnormal  form 
of  Lentinus  tigriuiis.  He  grew  the  fungus  from  the  spore,  the  mature 
fruiting  body  reproducing  all  the  characters  of  Lentodium.  In  many  of 
the  cultures  he  found  that  the  first  mycelium  grown  from  the  spores  was 
composed  of  slender  hyphre  without  clamp  connections  and  bearing 
conidiophores ;  at  a  later  stage  stouter  hyplue  with  clamp  connections 
and  no  condiophores  were  formed. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xx.  (1908)  pp.  564-92. 

t  Zeitschr.  landw.  Versuch.  Oesterr.,  1907.  pp.  572-4.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt., 
xx.  (1908)  p.  625. 

J  Bull.  Soc.  Mvcol.  France,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  68-72. 

§  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  xxxiii.  (1907)  pp.  125-209.  See  also  Bot.  Gazette, 
xlv.  (1908)  p.  207. 

June  17th,  1908  2  b 


354  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Phalloids. — C.  (J.  Lloyd*  has  giveD  an  account  so  far  as  yet  known 
of  the  genera  and  species  of  this  group  of  fungi  in  Australia. 
They  include  species  of  eight  genera,  and  photographs  are  reproduced 
of  plates  already  published.  He  classifies  them  under  sections,  with  (1) 
simple  stem,  (2)  lobed,  (3)  columnar,  and  (4)  clathrate,  each  section 
containing  two  or  more  genera.  An  account  is  given  of  the  species  in 
the  different  herbaria,  where  and  by  whom  they  were  collected.  In 
Mycological  Notes  t  Lloyd  publishes  various  critical  remarks  on  Mutinus, 
Phallus,  Lysurus,  Clathrus,  etc.,  with  figures  either  from  nature  or  from 
authentic  drawings.  Lloyd  has  gathered  together  much  information 
that  is  interesting  and  useful  about  these  plants. 

Witches'  Brooms  of  the  South  Midlands.;}; — J.  Saunders  finds  that 
in  most  cases  the  exciting  cause  of  brooms  on  trees  is  a  parasitic  fungus. 
The  phenomena  associated  therewith  are,  usually,  crumpling  of  the 
foliage  and  barrenness  and  brevity  of  life  of  the  twigs  :  the  leaves  fall 
early,  the  twigs  live  for  only  one  or  two  seasons,  so  that  a  full-grown 
broom  contains  numerous  dead  twigs  entangled  with  the  new  growth. 
A  list  of  trees  is  given  on  which  brooms  have  been  observed  ;  the 
exciting  fungus  in  spruce  fir  was  a  species  of  Puccinia,  in  all  the  other 
cases  a  species  of  Exoascus.  On  hornbeam  and  birch,  brooms  are  caused 
by  Exoascus  and  also  by  a  mite,  but  on  the  latter  tree  he  states  that  the 
brooms  due  to  the  mite  are  diminutive  in  size  and  are  outgrowths  from 
diseased  buds  ;  the  large  well-known  birch  broom  is  caused  by  Exoascus. 

Action  of  Fungi  on  Cellulose. § — H.  C.  Schellenberg  has  made  a 
prolonged  study  of  this  subject  by  growing  selected  fungi,  parasites  or 
semi-parasites,  on  various  plant  substances.  Two  kinds  of  cellulose  had 
been  distinguished  :  true  cellulose  which  is  only  soluble  in  boiling  acid, 
and  hemicellulose,  which  yields  to  more  or  less  weak  acid  solutions.  The 
author  explains  how  he  grew  the  fungi,  and  describes  the  substances 
with  which  he  experimented.  Among  grasses  he  selected  Molinia  co&ruka, 
as  rich  in  hemicellulose  ;  seeds  of  Lupinus  hirsutus,  with  less  soluble 
hemicellulose  ;  date-kernels  still  more  resistant  to  acids,  and  seeds  of 
Tmpatiens  and  Cyclamen,  which  contain  amyloids.  The  selected  fungi 
were  several  species  of  Mucor,  Rhizopus  nigricans,  Thamnidium  eUgans, 
Penicillium,  Botrytis,  Nectria,  Cladosporium,  etc.  These  fungi,  though 
very  different  in  their  action,  were  capable  of  dissolving  the  hemi- 
cellulose in  one  or  another  of  the  plants  presented  to  them,  though  they 
showed  a  quite  remarkable  specialisation  in  this  respect.  Vuillemin 
distinguishes  four  different  ferments  :  Molinia-,  Lupinus-,  Phmnix-, and 
Tmpatiens-cjtase,  by  means  of  which  the  fungi  attack  and  destroy  the 
different  kinds  of  hemicellulose.  True  cellulose  remained  intact,  and 
this  he  considers  due  to  its  chemical  constitution.  He  also  discusses 
the  action  of  bacteria  on  cellulose  and  their  ferments.  Incidentally  he 
draws  a  distinction  between  the  behaviour  of  Botrytis  cinerea  and 
B.  vulgaris,  the  latter  being  more  active  :  he  thinks  this  decides  that  they 

*  Cincinnati,  U.S.A.,  July  1907,  24  pp.,  25  figs. 

f  Mycological  Notes,  No.  28  (Cincinnati,  U.S.A.,  Oct.  1907)  pp.  349-64  (19  figs.). 

X  Journ.  Bot.,  xlvi.  (1908)  pp.  116-19. 

§  Flora,  xcviii.  (1908)  pp.  257-308. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  355 

represent  two  distinct  species.  The  conclusion  is  drawn  that  fungi  are 
more  active  in  the  breaking-up  of  plant  remains  than  we  had  realised, 
and  that  the  different  fungi  are  not  able  to  attack  plants  indiscriminately, 
but  are  strongly  specialised  in  this  respect. 

Sexuality  in  Fungi. — I.  Gallaud  *  brings  to  an  end  his  review  of 
work  done  on  this  subject.  In  the  present  contribution  he  describes 
Blackmail's  and  Christman's  work  on  Uredinere,  and  contrasts  their 
results  with  Maire's  work  on  the  Basidiomycetes.  Dangeard  and  Sapin- 
Trouffy  consider  the  fusion  of  nuclei  in  the  basidium  and  the  teleutospore 
to  be  fertilisation,  analogous  with  that  of  the  higher  plants.  Maire, 
on  the  contrary,  considers  that  this  fusion  is  comparable  to  chromatic 
reduction,  and  is  in  no  sense  sexual  fusion. 

A.  Guilliermond  f  begins  a  review  of  recent  work  on  the  same  subject 
in  the  Ascomycetes.  Among  the  hemiasci  he  quotes  from  work  done  by 
Mile.  Popta  on  Protomyces  and  Ascoidea ;  the  latter  she  retains  among 
the  hemiasci,  the  former  belongs  rather  to  the  Phycomycetes.  The 
results  and  theories  of  Dangeard,  Juel,  Barker,  Ikeno,  and  Kuyper  are 
also  considered.  They  studied  different  members  of  this  troublesome 
group,  the  point  in  dispute  being  the  nature  of  the  spore  capsule, 
whether  it  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  sporangium  or  an  ascus.  Dangeard 
connects  the  hemiasci  with  the  Chytridiaceae,  which  he  regards  as  the 
ancestors  of  the  Ascomycetes,  the  latter  being  derived  from  the  sexual 
sporangium,  while  the  hemiasci  have  arisen  from  the  asexual  sporangium. 
Juel  removes  Taphridium  from  the  Exoascea3,  and  places  it  also  among 
the  hemiasci ;  the  so-called  ascus  of  this  genus  develops  similarly  to  the 
sporangium  of  Protomyces.  Monascus,  an  allied  genus,  has  been  placed 
by  Kuyper  in  a  new  group  of  Endoasceas  on  account  of  the  formation 
of  asci  in  the  interior  of  the  oogonium. 

Notes  on  American  Fungi. f  —  W.  G.  Farlow  found  growing  in 
Vermont,  and  now  describes  as  Tremella  reticulata,  a  fungus  previously 
published  as  a  Gorticium.  From  a  solid  gelatinous  base  there  rose  to 
the  height  of  3  inches  or  more  masses  of  white  jelly  ;  branches  arose 
from  a  common  base,  anastomosing  below,  reticulated,  and  becoming 
free  upwards ;  he  found  in  it  the  typical  Tremella  basidia  and  spores. 
Further  notes  are  given  on  Synchytrium  pluriannulatum  and  Puccini- 
astrum  arcticum. 

Mycological  Notes. § — C.  G.  Lloyd  has  recently  issued  a  number  of 
papers  bearing  on  the  larger  fungi.  In  Nos.  29  and  30  he  discusses 
some  Phalloids  and  some  of  the  Polyporea3,  notably  Fomes  niyricans, 
as  he  finds  that  two  plants  are  included  under  that  name.  The  second 
paper  deals  with  further  examples  of  Phalloids  and  Lycoperdons.  A 
third  paper  is  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  the  Nidulariaceae,  with 
plates  102-11  ;  descriptions  of  the  genera  and  species  are  given.  A 
beginning  has  been  made  with  the  study  of  the  Polyporese,  and  Lloyd 
gives  us  "  Polyporoid  issue,  No.  1,"  containing  a  number  of  forms  of 

*  Rev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  556-9  (6  figs). 

t  Op.  cit.,  xx.  (1908)  pp.  32-9  (12  figs.). 

\  Coutrib.  Crypt.  Lab.  Harvard  Univ.,  lxv.  (1907)  17  pp. 

§  Mycological  Notes,  Cincinnati,  Jan.  and  Feb.  1908. 

•1   B   2 


356  SUMMARY    OE    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Polystictus   of    the   perennis   group    and   an    account    of    Polyporus 

Schweinitzii,  and  again  a  note  on  Fomes  nigricans,  with  photographic 
reproductions  of  the  two  forms  in  question.  There  are  many  figures 
throughout  these  works,  of  which  the  numbers  are  continuous  with 
previous  issues,  though  a  new  pagination  of  the  test  begins  with  the 
Polyporoid  issue. 

Mycological  Fragments  :  iii.* — Franz  von  Hohnel  continues  his 
work  on  systematic  mycology,  passing  under  review  many  published 
forms,  and  examining  new  material.  In  these  notes  he  publishes  four 
new  genera  :  Protodontia  (Treruellacese)  ;  Wettsteinina  (Dothiseacege), 
with  a  single  8-spored  ascus,  which  he  places  in  a  new  family,  Pseudo- 
sphaeriaceaB  ;  Pseudospharia,  also  with  one  ascus,  but  with  muriform 
spores  ;  and  SphmrodermeUa.  He  describes  a  large  number  of  new  species 
from  the  neighbourhood  of  Vienna,  and  a  second  series  from  Samoa. 
He  gives  also  critical  notes  of  various  known  forms  :  Bombardia  fasci- 
culata  is  placed  by  him  among  the  Sordarieas,  and  these  he  divides  into 
two  groups,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  perithecial  wall.  Dcpdalia 
quercina  he  has  decided  must  be  included  in  Lenzites  quercina,  the 
former  name  having  been  given  to  a  less  developed  form. 

Diseases  of  Plants. — Attention  is  called  f  to  Gooseberry  Black- 
Knot,  a  fungus  that  attacks  the  stems  and  larger  branches  of  the 
gooseberry  and  red  and  black  currant.  The  first  indication  of  the 
disease  is  the  wilting  and  yellowing  of  the  leaves,  which  fall  early  in 
the  season.  The  fungus  Plowrightia  ribesia  is  a  wound  parasite,  and 
cannot  pierce  an  uninjured  surface. 

D.  V.  Hegyi  $  describes  cases  of  crumpling  and  distortion  in  wheat, 
caused  sometimes  by  an  insect,  and  sometimes  by  the  fungus  Helmintho- 
sporium  gramineum,  or  by  unfavourable  weather  conditions. 

Claude  W.  Egertou  §  has  investigated  an  anthracnose  of  the  black- 
berry Rubus  nigrobaceus,  and  found  that  it  was  due  to  a  pyrenomycete, 
Gnomonia  Rubi.  He  cultivated  the  ascospores  on  bean  agar,  and 
reproduced  the  perithecia  in  about  ten  to  fourteen  days.  He  also  carried 
out  inoculation  experiments  with  success,  the  fungus  spread  rapidly  in 
branches  infected,  and  though  blackberry  fruit  set,  most  of  it  dried  up 
before  it  matured. 

P.  Yoglino  ||  has  given  an  account  of  a  troublesome  fungus  on 
Solatium  Melongena.  Brown  spots  of  varying  size  are  formed  on  the 
leaves,  later  on  the  fruits,  very  rarely  on  the  stems.  Small  perithecia  of 
Ascochgta  hortorum  appear  scattered  over  the  spots,  and  spores  are 
produced  in  great  numbers.  Favoured  by  the  excessive  humidity  of  a 
wet  season,  these  germinated  on  other  leaves  and  penetrated  to  the 
interior  tissues  through  the  pores  of  the  stomata,  and  the  brown  spots 
were   again  formed.      Vogliano  found  that  several  other  plants  were 

*  SB.  k.  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien,  Math.-Nat.  Kl.,  cxvi.  1  (1907)  pp.  83-162  (1  pi.) 
See  also  Hedwigia,  Beibl.,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  117-22. 
t  Journ.  Board  Agric,  1908,  pp.  680-1  (4  figs.). 
J  Zeitschr.  Pflanzenkr.,  xvii.  (1907)  pp.  334-6. 
§  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxiv.  (1907)  pp.  593-7  (3  figs.). 
||  Malpighia,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  353-63  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  357 

liable  to  infection  from  the  same  fungus  :  8.  Lycopersicam,  S.  nigrum, 
S.  dulcamara,  Physalis  Alkekpngi,  Datura  Mitel,  and  Atropa  Belladonna. 

R.  E.  Smith  *  publishes  his  examination  of  the  California  peach 
blight,  which  is  found  wherever  peaches  are  cultivated  in  California,  and 
which  is  increasingly  hurtful.  It  is  caused  by  the  fungus  Coryneum 
Beijerinkii,  which  attacks  the  leaves  and  young  shoots,  causing  spots 
and  finally  killing  the  parts  attacked.  The  spores  alight  on  the  young 
twigs,  and  with  sufficient  moisture  they  germinate  and  penetrate  the 
bark.     Gum  is  exuded  copiously  from  the  injured  twigs. 

Beockman-Jeeosch  &  E.  Maiee — Contributions  a  l'etude  de  la  fiore  myco- 
logique  de  l'Autriche.  (Contributions  to  the  study  of  the  mycological  flora  of 
Austria.) 

[A  list  of  fungi  collected  during  a  botanical  excursion  to  the  Eastern  Alps 
by  the  Vienna  Congress.  Several  new  species  are  recorded  of  micro- 
fungi.]  Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  lvii.  (1907)  pp.  271-80, 

328-38,  421-4  (4  figs.). 
See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  p.  556. 

Boudier,  E. — Icones  Mycologies,  ser.  iv.  livr.  18. 

[The  issue  comprises  20  plates  of  Basidiomycetes  and  Ascomvcetes.] 

Paris  :  Klinksieck,  190S. 

Feedinandsen,  C,  <£  O.  Winge — Mycological  Notes. 

[Includes  notes  on  the  spores  of  Psetidovalsa  aucta  and  Fenestella  fenestrate, 
and  on  the  conidial  form  of  Helotium  herbarum.  Some  new  species  for 
Denmark  are  recorded.]  Bot.  Tidsskr.,  xxviii.  pp.  249-56  (8  figs.). 

See  also  Ann.  Mycol,  v.  (1907)  p.  357. 

Giissow,  H.  T. — Ascochyta  Quercus-Ilicis  sp.  n. 

[Found  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  of  Quercus  Ilicis.~] 

Joum.  Bot,,  xlvi.  (1908)  p.  123. 
Hohnel,  Fr.  v. — Mycologisches,  xviii.-xxi. 

[Notes  on  four  different  species  of  microfungi.] 

Oesterr.  Bot,  Zeitschr.,  lvii.  (1907)  pp.  321-4. 
See  also  Hedivigia,  Beibl.,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  122-3. 

Mu brill,  W.  A. — Polyporaceae.     (Concluded.) 

[The  species  are  arranged  under  MurriU's  new  classification.  There  are 
keys  to  all  the  genera.]        North  American  Flora,  ix.,  pt.  2.,  pp.  73-131. 

See  also  Neiv  York  Bot,  Gard,,  1908. 

Patouillard,  N.,  &  P.  Hariot — Fungorum  novorum  Decas  tertia. 
[Third  decade  of  new  fungi.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  13-16. 

Patouillard,  N. —  Champignons  nouveaux  ou  peuconnus.  (New  or  little  known 
fungi.) 

[Many  new  species  are  described,  mostly  from  the  Southern  States  or  from 
South  America.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  1-12  (3  figs.) 

Rostrup,  E. — Lieutenant  Olufen's  Second  Pamir  Expedition.     V.    Fungi. 

[Plants  collected  in  Central  Asia  and  Persia  by  Ove  Paulsen.  Several  species 
are  new.]  Joum.  Bot.  Copenhagen,  xxviii.  2  (1907). 

See  also  Hedivigia,  Beibl.,  xlvii.  (1908)  p.  124. 

Rehm,  H. — Ascomyceten  exes.,  Fasc.  40. 

[Descriptions  or  notes  on  25  species,  several  of  them  new.] 

Ann.  Mycol.,  v.  (1907)  pp.  465-73. 


*  Agri.  Exper.  Stat.   California,  Bull.  No.  191  (1907).     See  also  Bot.  Gazette, 
xiv.  (1908)  pp.  208-9. 


358  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Rehm,  H. — Ascomycetes  novi. 

[A  large  number  of  new  species  from  different  parts  of  the  world.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  516-46. 

Sabtory  &  Jourde — Pathologie  Experimentale.  Caracteres biologiques  et  pou- 
voir  pathogene  de  Sterigmatocystis  lutea.  (Biological  characters  and  pathogenic 
power  of  S.  lutea.) 

[Describes  the  growth  of  the  fungus,  and  the  fatal  effect  of  infection.] 

Comptcs  Bendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  548-9. 

Sydow,  H.  &  P.,  &  E.  J.  Butler — Fungi  Indiae  Orientalis. 

[A  large  number  of  microscopic  fungi  from  India  are  listed.     Many  new 
species  are  described  in  the  Ustilaginese  and  Uredinese. 

Ann.  Mycol,  v.  (1907)  pp.  485-515  (5  figs.). 

Tranzschel,  W.  vo n — Diagnosen  einiger  Uredineen. 

[Diagnoses  of  some  Uredineae  from  Asia  and  Russian  territories.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  547-51. 


Lichens. 

(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

American  Lichens.*— Bruce  Fink  publishes  his  last  paper  on 
Cladonia,  giving  an  account  of  several  species  with  red  fruits,  G.  digitata, 
C.  deformis,  and  G.  bellidiflora.  The  first  of  these  grows  usually  on 
trunks  or  on  decaying  wood  in  forests,  the  two  latter  on  soil  :  G.  deformis 
in  woods,  G.  bellidiflora  on  high  open  places  ;  detailed  descriptions  are 
given  of  each.  A.  S.  Foster  f  describes  the  lichens  that  are  to  be  found 
growing  on  Alnus  Oregana,  a  tree  that  occupies  any  area  that  has  been 
burned  over  ;  it  is  a  favourite  habitat  and  a  large  number  are  recorded. 
R.  Heber  Howe,  jun.,1  has  been  examining  the  lichens  of  the  Monadnock 
region  that  had  been  collected  by  G-.  A.  Wheelock.  He  publishes  a  first 
list  of  27  species  of  Ramali/ia,  Getraria,  Usnea,  and  A  lector  ia.  with  some 
few  notes  appended. 


Oswald,  L.,  &  F.  Quelle — Beitrage  zu  einer  Flechtenflora  des  Harzes  und 
Nordthuringens.  (Contributions  to  a  lichen  flora  of  the  Harz  and  North 
Thuringia.)  Mitt.  Thilr.  Bot.  Ver.,  n.f.  xxii.  (1907)  pp.  8-25. 

See  also  Hedwigia,  Beibl.,  xlvii.  (1908)  p.  128. 

Steiner,  J. — Lichenes  Austro-Africani. 

[A  list  of  lichens  from  South  Africa ;  a  number  of  them  are  new.] 

Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  637-46. 

Vereitinow,  J.  A. — Excursions  lichenologiques  dans  le  gouvernment  Grodno. 
(Lichenological  excursions  in  Grodno.] 

[The  lichen  formation  of  the  woods  described.] 

Bull.  Jard.  Imp.  Bot.  St.  Petcrsbourg,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  89-98. 
See  also  Hedwigia,  Beibl. ,  xlvii.  (1908)  p.  129. 

Wasmuth,  P. — Verzichniss  der  Strauch  und  Blattflechten  der  Umgebung  Revals. 
(List  of  shrub  and  leaf  lichens  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Reval.) 

Naturf.  Ver.  Bigi,  1.  (1907)  pp.  211-21. 
See  also  Hedwigia,  Beibl.,  xlvii.  (1908)  p.  130. 


*  Brvologist,  xi.  (1908)  pp.  21-4  (1  pi.). 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  34-5.  X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  35-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  359 

Schizophyta. 
Schizomycetes. 

Bactridium  lipolyticum  :  Fat-splitting  Bacterium.*  —  H.  Huss 
examined  some  unpleasant-tasting  milk  obtained  from  "  Montavoner  " 
cows.  The  samples  were  treated  in  two  portions,  that  were  allowed  to 
stand  on  ice  and  at  room  temperature  respectively  for  two  days.  In  the 
first  case  the  sample  was  not  curdled,  and  had  a  sweet,  rancid  taste  ;  but 
the  other  portion  was  curdled,  and  had  a  sour,  rancid  taste,  and  smelt  of 
butyric  acid.  In  both  cocci  were  found  microscopically,  either  singly 
or  in  pairs,  but  in  the  second  portion  there  was  an  abundance  of 
B.  giintheri.  On  agar  and  gelatin  plates  prepared  from  both  portions 
there  were  obtained  colonies  of  Pseudomonas  coli,  B.  cerogenes,  yeasts, 
Pemcillium,  B.  giintheri,  and  gelatin-liquefying  rods  of  Bactridium 
lipolyticum,.  Pasteurised  cream  was  inoculated  with  these  various 
organisms,  but  the  B.  lipolyticum  alone  produced  the  peculiar  rancid 
taste  of  the  affected  milk  sample. 

B.  lipolyticum,  which  produces  the  fat-splitting  enzyme,  is  a  small 
coccal-shaped  rod  with  peritrichal  flagella.  The  coccal  shape  is  espe- 
cially marked  with  gelatin  cultures,  and  streptococcal-like  chains  are 
formed,  the  gelatin  being  rapidly  liquefied.  The  rods  show  active 
motility  ;  they  stain  well  with  carbol-f  uchsin,  and  also  by  Gram's  method ; 
growth  is  not  good  in  an  atmosphere  of  nitrogen  ;  optimum  temperature 
is  from  30°  to  35°  C. 

Broth  is  clouded,  and  shows  a  sandy  deposit ;  milk  is  curdled  after 
three  days,  the  upper  layers  being  peptonised  and  of  a  brown-grey  colour, 
the  medium  having  a  strong  alkaline  reaction  ;  at  the  end  of  three  weeks 
the  casein  is  completely  dissolved,  and  the  liquid  becomes  viscid,  of  a 
dirty  yellow  colour,  and  smelling  of  nuts  ;  there  is  gas  production  in 
all  cultures,  also  a  slight  formation  of  indol,  and  reduction  of  nitrates 
to  nitrites. 

Glycerin,  mannite,  dextrose,  saccharose,  raffinose,  and  xylose  are 
fermented  with  the  production  of  acid,  but  lactose  is  unaffected.  The 
fat-splitting  property  was  demonstrated  by  employing  the  diffusion 
method  of  Eijkman. 

Intestinal  Flora  of  Infants.-]"  —  H.  Tissier  finds  that  the  intestinal 
flora  of  infants  from  one  to  five  years  of  age  changes  as  the  diet  becomes 
more  varied.  There  is  a  "  fundamental  flora  "  (B.  bifidus,  enterococcus, 
B.  coli,  B.  acidophilus,  B.  exilis,  and  B.  Hi  of  Rodella)  which  has  survived 
from  the  suckling  period,  and  which  is  fixed  and  constant  and  of 
physiological  importance,  and  an  "additional  flora"  of  variable  com- 
position which  is  responsible  for  pathological  effects.  The  author 
advocates  a  diet  that  will  maintain  a  preponderance  of  the  "  fundamental 
flora  "  ;  a  vegetable  diet  favours  the  growth  of  B.  bifidus  in  the  lower 
portion  of  the  large  bowel,  where  by  virtue  of  its  acid-producing  pro- 
perty it  will  excite  peristaltic  action  and  evacuation  of  the  bowel  content, 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.  xx.  (1908)  p.  474. 
t  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xxii.  (1908)  p.  189. 


360  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

and  will  also  exercise  an  opposing  action  on  the  injurious  bacteria  and 
other  members  of  the  "additional  flora." 

The  author  gives  descriptions  of  the  morphology  and  biology  of  the 
new  species  Coccobacillu*  prceacutus,  Coccobacillus  oviformis,  Diplococcus 
orbiculus,  B.  ventriosus,  and  B.  capillosus  that  were  isolated  among  the 
"  additional  flora." 

Comparative  Study  of  Spirochetes.* — v.  Prowazek  has  described 
various  forms  of  spirochetes.  («)  Spirochete  of  tropical  abscess  ;  in 
the  contents  of  the  swelling,  besides  pyogenic  micro-organisms  were 
found  large  spirochetes,  resembling  in  form  and  movement  those  of 
balanitis,  though  generally  more  slender,  the  terminal  periplast  was 
more  delicate  and  flagella-like  ;  longitudinal  division  was  frequently 
observed  ;  resting  stages  occur  as  with  other  spirochetes,  the  parasite 
being  twisted  up  into  a  tangle  of  deeply  stained  fragments  ;  taurocho- 
late  of  soda  (1  :  10)  dissolves  the  spirochete. 

(b)  Spirochete  of  stomatitis  (S.  buccalis).  In  a  case  of  stomatitis  the 
author  found  a  number  of  mouth  spirochetes  of  large  dimensions  ;  the 
undulating  membrane  was  well  shown  in  macerated  preparation,  the 
elementary  fibrille  being  sometimes  split  up  and  resembling  peritrichal 
flagella ;  resting  phases  were  also  seen.  Besides  S.  buccalis  and 
S.  dentium,  the  author  found  a  third  spirochete,  which  he  regarded 
as  intermediate. 

(c)  Framboesia  spirochetes  (S.  pallidida),  is  stouter  than  S.  pallida, 
the  undulations  are  not  so  stiff  and  regular  ;  the  body  is  not  so  elastic, 
and  the  ends  are  often  bent  into  hooks,  and  a  terminal  flagellum  is 
seldom  shown  ;  there  is  frequent  longitudinal  division. 

(d)  Spirochetes  of  syphilis  (S.  pallida).  In  monkey  syphilis  the 
spirochetes  are  generally  fewer  than  in  human  syphilis.  The  resting 
stage  probably  accounts  for  the  long  latent  period  of  the  disease. 
Taurocholate  of  sodium  dissolves  the  spirochetes  ;  syphilitic  material 
mixed  with  taurocholate  of  sodium  for  half  an  hour  is  no  longer 
infectious  ;  but  if  syphilitic  material  is  injected  simultaneously  with 
taurocholate  of  soda,  infection  is  not  prevented. 

(e)  Spirochete  Intra,  occurred  in  the  blood  of  the  otter  as  broad, 
band-like  organisms  with  blunted  ends,  and  showing  in  the  blue  stained 
protoplasm  four  various  sized  chromatin  fragments. 

The  author  concludes  that  spirochetes  are  distinguished  from 
bacteria  by  their  behaviour  with  taurocholate  of  soda  and  saponin,  by 
their  morphology,  by  their  multiplication  by  longitudinal  division,  and 
by  their  characteristic  resting  stage. 

Bacillus  Endothrix.t — F.  Gueguen  isolated  on  two  occasions  an 
organism  from  the  hair  of  a  patient  suffering  from  alopecia.  The 
interior  of  the  hairs  exhibited  a  number  of  fine  discontinuous  longi- 
tudinal strie ;  staining  with  violet-dahlia  and  differentiating  with 
alcohol  or  Gram's  method  showed  that  these  strie  were  formed  of 
short  bacilli.  "When  planted  on  gelatin  these  bacilli  developed  chrome- 
yellow  colonies,  composed  of  non-motile,  short,  round-ended  rods  in  thin 
capsules  ;  no  spore-production  was  noted,  though  the  body  content  was 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Ref.,  xl.  (1908)  p.  822. 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  p.  199. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  361 

often  collected  into  ovoid  masses  resembling  spores  ;  pepton-broth  is 
clouded  after  three  days,  and  has  a  viscid  yellow  deposit ;  gelatin  is  not 
liquefied  ;  growth  on  potato  is  visible  after  24  hours,  and  develops 
into  a  citron-yellow  band,  smooth  at  the  centre,  but  granular  and 
irregular  at  the  edges ;  in  pepton-water  nitrates  are  reduced  to 
nitrites,  and  in  broth  there  is  a  slight  production  of  gas  ;  indol  is  not 
formed  ;  urea  is  unaltered,  and  there  is  no  fermentation  of  glucose, 
maltose,  or  lactose  ;  milk  is  peptonised  to  a  clear  yellow  liquid  with 
sediment. 

The  organism  is  distinct  from  the  "  bacille  seborrheique  "  and  from 
the  Coccus  butyricus  of  Sabouraud,  though  it  resembles  Ascobacterium 
of  Babes. 

Etiology  of  Mycetoma.* — W.  E.  Musgrave  and  M.  T.  Clegg  have 
isolated  from  a  case  of  Mycetoma  a  Streptothrix  organism  (S.  freeri). 
It  is  an  essential  aerobe  and  grows  on  ordinary  media,  but  especially  well 
on  those  containing  sugar,  and  on  potato  at  37°  C. ;  on  alkaline  litmus 
milk  growth  occurs  on  the  surface  as  dry,  flat  particles,  which  become 
confluent  and  form  a  heaped-up  yellow  mass,  a  tenacious  sediment 
being  deposited  ;  the  milk  is  not  coagulated,  and  there  is  no  formation 
of  acid,  but  the  medium  is  slowly  decolorised  ;  the  growth  on  potato 
has  a  pink  to  yellow  colour  ;  when  grown  on  gelatin  the  medium  is  not 
liquefied.  The  organism  stains  by  the  ordinary  dyes,  and  also  by  the 
methods  of  Grain- Weigert  and  Ziehl-Nielsen-Gabbet ;  some  specimens 
show  fragmentation,  and  when  stained  by  the  last  named  method  they 
present  a  close  resemblance  to  the  tubercle  bacillus.  A  number  of 
animals  developed  the  lesions  of  Mycetorna  after  intra-peritoneal 
inoculation  ;  three  typical  examples  of  Madura  foot  developed  in 
monkeys  after  injection  of  the  organism  into  the  foot.  The  authors 
consider  this  organism  to  be  distinct  both  from  the  S.  machine  of 
Vincent  and  from  the  organism  described  by  Wright,  and  conclude  that 
Madura  foot  is  probably  produced  by  any  one  of  several  species  of 
Streptothrix. 

"  La  Graisse  "  in  Wines.f — E.  Kayser  and  E.  Manceau  recognise 
two  ferments  as  the  cause  of  "  La  graisse."  The  microbes  that  produce 
the  one  have  been  previously  described  :  they  multiply  readily  on 
peptonised  sugar  media,  they  are  resistant  to  acids,  and  attack  hevulose 
more  rapidly  than  other  sugars  ;  those  of  the  second  group  are  also 
short  bacilli,  arranged  in  long  and  twisted  chains  ;  peptonised  liquids 
are  not  suitable  for  their  growth,  they  are  less  resistant  to  acids,  and 
they  act  more  vigorously  on  glucose  than  on  the  other  sugars.  The 
authors  find  that  certain  aerobes  play  an  important  role  in  the  diseases 
of  wine,  not  only  by  facilitating  the  development  of  the  anaerobic 
organisms  of  "  la  graisse,"  but  also  because  they  form  true  associations 
with  these  germs,  and  can  thereby  modify  the  preference  of  the  ferments 
for  certain  sugars.  Among  these  aerobes  were  found  yeasts,  mycoderma. 
a  bacillus,  two  varieties  of  cocci,  and  a  sarcina,  which  have  already  been 
described  as  causing  the  "  bleu  "  of  champagnes. 

*  Philippine  Journ.  Sci.,  ii.  (1907)  p.  477. 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  p.  92. 


o62  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Action  of  Absolute  Alcohol  on  Bacteria  and  on  Yeasts.* — E.  C. 
Hansen  experimented  on  the  action  of  ethyl  alcohol  on  yeasts  and  on 
certain  bacteria,  viz.,  J>.  cofo'and  B. pasteurianus.  The  organisms  were 
collected  on  a  platinum  wire  and  thoroughly  spread  in  a  line  layer  over 
the  inside  of  a  sterile  flask,  and  after  standing  24  to  4H  hours  in  the 
dark  at  room  temperature,  the  cells  were  regarded  as  dried  ;  these  were 
then  treated  witli  absolute  alcohol,  and  it  was  found  on  every  occasion 
that  after  one  minute  the  cells  still  lived  and  could  be  cultured  in  broth, 
and  in  two  cases  the  cells  survived  the  action  for  eight  minutes.  By 
using  60  p.c.  to  50  p.c.  alcohol  all  the  cells  were  killed  within  one 
minute,  and  the  same  result  was  obtained  when  undried  cells  were 
treated  with  absolute  alcohol.  From  these  results  it  is  shown  that 
bacteria  in  a  moist  state  have  a  less  resistance  to  absolute  alcohol 
than  when  they  are  dried  ;  the  dried  wall  of  the  cell  must  take  up  water 
before  the  alcohol  can  penetrate  the  cell  substance.  Referring  to  the 
different  results  obtained  by  other  observers,  the  author  accounts  for 
these  by  the  methods  employed,  and  lays  stress  on  the  proper  drying  of 
the  cells  by  thoroughly  spreading  in  thin  layers.  In  some  cases  a  sur- 
rounding mucus  capsule  will  protect  the  organism  from  the  action  of  the 
alcohol. 

Blue  Pigment  produced  both  by  a  Diphtheroid  Bacillus  and  by  a 
Streptothrix.f — E.  Miiller  isolated  from  a  serum  plate  culture,  made 
from  a  swab  from  a  tonsil,  a  diphtheroid  bacillus  which  produced  a  light 
blue  colour  on  potato  and  in  milk,  but  not  on  agar  or  on  gelatin.  The 
organism  presented  most  of  the  characters  of  the  diphtheria  bacillus, 
but  was  not  pathogenic  for  guinea-pigs.  The  author  has  named  it 
B.  mlkolor.  A  year  later  the  author  found  on  an  unused  potato-tube 
a  Streptothrix  colony,  surrounded  by  an  intense  blue-coloured  area. 
Grown  on  thin  layers  of  medium  beautiful  concentric  rings  were  formed, 
and  are  represented  in  a  number  of  illustrations  accompanying  the 
description  of  the  organism.  These  ring  colonies  are  formed  by  zones 
of  growth  with  aerial  hyphge  alternating  with  zones  where  the  hyphae 
are  absent.  The  author  has  named  this  organism  Streptothrix  ccelicolor. 
It  grows  well  at  room  temperature  and  at  86°  C. ;  it  is  an  obligate 
aerobe  ;  it  has  a  characteristic  earthy  smell ;  gelatin  is  liquefied  without 
production  of  the  pigment ;  milk  is  peptonised  without  the  formation 
of  acid  or  pigment.  The  author  considers  the  blue  pigment  is  identical 
in  these  two  organisms  ;  it  is  only  formed  at  temperatures  below  30°  C, 
and  in  the  presence  of  oxygen  ;  its  formation  is  apparently  caused  by 
the  action  of  the  organism  on  the  starch  of  the  potato,  and  on  some 
molecular  complex  nearly  allied  to  the  starch  molecule  that  may  be 
present  in  the  media  in  which  this  pigment  appears.  The  author  has 
named  this  pigment  amylocyanin  ;  it  is  soluble  only  in  water  ;  spectrum 
examination  shows  a  strong  absorption  of  light  between  the  D  line  and 
the  green,  and  a  fainter  absorption  at  either  side  extending  to  the  C  and 
E  lines  respectively. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlv.  (1907)  p.  466. 
t  Op.  cit.,  xlvi.  (1908)  p.  195. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    .MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  363 

Velocity  of  Progression  and  the  Movement  Curves  of  certain 
Bacteria.* — E.  Stigell  has  studied  the  various  forms  and  measured  the 
velocities  of  movement  of  different  bacteria.  By  using  a  magnification 
of  1500  and  an  ocular  micrometer,  ten  estimations  of  the  distances 
travelled  in  definite  intervals  of  time  were  made,  and  an  average  of  these 
velocities  was  taken  for  each  organism  examined.  It  was  shown  that 
whereas  B.  subtil  is  travelled  3'41/x.per  second,  the  average  velocity  of 
B.  typhosus  was  only  1*15ju,  per  second,  and  of  Vibrio  aquatilis  only 
0  •?!»//.  per  second. 

By  means  of  an  Abbe  drawing  apparatus  the  forms  of  movement 
were  traced  on  paper ;  those  of  B.  subtilis  and  B.  megatherium  were 
almost  straight  lines,  but  B.  pyocyaneus  moved  in  irregular  excentric 
curves.  The  author  supplies  a  number  of  interesting  reproductions  of 
these  tracings. 

Bacterial  Disease  of  Green  Malt.j — H.  Schnegg  remarks  that  in 
wet  years  green  malt  is  liable  to  a  disease  which  causes  the  death  of  the 
rootlet  and,  at  the  same  time,  increases  the  number  of  sinkers.  The 
bacteria  which  cause  this  disease  are  located  in  the  embryo  of  the  barley- 
corn, and  spread  thence  to  the  growing  rootlet.  The  organisms  first 
attack  the  epidermis  cells  of  the  rootlet,  and  subsequently  the  interior 
cells  lying  between  the  epidermis  and  the  endodermis  ;  they  appear, 
however,  to  be  incapable  of  attacking  the  endodermis,  and  the  vascular 
bundles  are  thus  protected  from  their  action.  The  author  has  isolated 
the  bacterium  by  placing  small  portions  of  barley  embryos  (suspected 
to  be  affected  with  the  disease)  and  small  pieces  of  diseased  rootlets  in 
sterile  wort  and  preparing  gelatin-plate  cultures  from  the  wort  cultures. 
The  appearance  of  the  organism  indicates  that  it  belongs  to  the  group 
known  as  Termo  bacteria,  and  it  appears  to  be  very  similar  to,  if  not 
identical  with,  Bacterium  coli.  In  sugar-containing  nutrient  liquids  it 
causes  fermentation  and  a  considerable  degree  of  acidity.  By  addition 
of  disinfectants  to  the  steep-water  the  bacteria  may  be  destroyed,  but 
such  treatment  injures  the  germinating  power  of  the  barley.  The  danger 
of  bacterial  attack  may  be  lessened,  however,  by  adding  to  the  steep- 
water  agents  which  cause  an  increase  of  the  germinating  power  of  the 
grain.  The  bacterium  (either  as  a  result  of  enzyme-secretion  or  of  a 
stimulation  to  enzyme-secretion  in  the  corn)  accelerates  the  modification 
of  the  corns,  and  hence  it  may  be  that  its  action  is  beneficial  rather  than 
injurious.  Kilned  malt,  prepared  from  green  malt  affected  with  the 
disease,  is  of  good  quality  in  every  respect. 

New  Bacillus  of  Dysentery. J —  F.  B.  Bowman  describes  a  new 
bacillus  which  was  isolated  from  the  dejecta  of  cases  of  infantile  dysentery 
prevailing  in  Manila  in  July  and  August  of  1007.  The  organism, 
named  Bacillus  "6',"  was  characterised  by  small,  deep-blue  colonies, 
which  were  first  detected  after  48  hours'  incubation  on  agar.     B.  "S" 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlv.  (1907)  p.  289. 

t  Zeitschr.  Gesell.  Brauw..  xxx.    (1907)  pp.  537  et  seq.     See  also  Journ.  Inst. 
Brewing,  xiv.  (1908)  pp.  191-5. 

X  Pbilippine  Journ.  Sci.,  iii.  .'1908)  pp.  31-8. 


364  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

is  distinguished  from  B.  coli  by  being  smaller  and  more  delicate.  Its 
motility  is  very  marked.  Coagulation  of  milk  is  delayed,  and  the  litmus 
present  is  completely  reduced.  It  forms  no  gas  in  lactose-litmus,  and 
grows  freely  therein.  Indol  reaction  is  negative.  Thus  culturally  and 
morphologically  B.  "S"  resembled  in  some  ways  B.  dysenterm,  in  others 
B.  coli  and  B.  typhosus. 

The  specific  agglutinins  developed  in  animals  from  this  bacillus  did 
not  react  with  B.  dysenterm,  B.  coli,  and  B.  typhosus.  Serum  from  one 
patient  agglutinated  the  bacillus  isolated  from  this  patient,  but  did  not 
react  with  other  organisms  from  the  same  source.  The  author  claims 
that  this  bacillus,  B.  "#,"  has  not  hitherto  been  described,  and  was  the 
cause  of  the  epidemic  alluded  to. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


365 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.   Instruments,  Accessories,  etc.* 
(1)    Stands. 

Old  Microscope  by  Shuttle-worth.  —  This  Microscope  (fig.  86), 
presented  to  the  Society  by  Mr.  Wynne  E.  Baxter,  is  signed  Shuttle- 
worth,  London.  It  is  known  that  after  Benjamin  Martin's  death  in 
1782,  his  models  were  copied  by  other  makers  such  as  Gregory  and 


Fig.  86. 


Wright,  Shuttleworth,  and  others.    It  will  be  seen  that  the  present  instru- 
ment closely  follows  those  of  Benjamin  Martin  in  shape  and  design. 

The  triangular  limb  is  pivoted  by  a  compass-joint  to  the  top  of  the 
folding  tripod-foot.  The  rack  is  cut  into  the  back  of  the  prismatic 
limb,  and  the  pinion,  which  protrudes  at  right  angles  from  the  base, 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands ;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives ;  (3) 
Illuminating  and  other  Apparatus ;  (4)  Photomicrography ;  (5)  Microscopical 
Optics  arid  Manipulation  ;   (6)  Miscellaneous. 


366  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Fig.  87. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  367 

moves  up  and  down  with  the  stage.  Numbers  1-6  are  engraved  on  one 
side  of  the  limb  to  indicate  the  position  of  the  stage  with  the  six 
objectives.  The  body  of  the  Microscope  is  fixed  to  an  arm  which  can 
be  moved  backwards  and  forwards  and  also  in  arc  over  the  object,  and 
carries  Martin's  multiple  disk  of  object-cases.  Below  the  stage  a  con- 
densing lens  is  fixed  on  a  separate  arm,  and  made  movable  out  of  the 
way  by  means  of  a  joint  when  not  wanted.  The  mirror  is  plane  and 
concave,  and  both  the  arms  carrying  the  mirror  and  the  condensing  lens 
are  made  to  slide  on  the  limb. 

The  date  of  the  present  instrument  may  be  given  as  about  1786.  It 
represents  an  important  link  between  Benjamin  Martin  of  1782  and 
Jones'  "  Most  Improved  "  model  of  1797,  and  as  such  it  is  a  valuable 
addition  to  our  collection  of  old  Microscopes. 

Leitz'  New  Penological  Microscope,  Type  A.* — CI.  Lincio,  of 
Varzo,  fully  describes  this  Microscope,  of  which  Figs  87  and  88  give 
side  views.  It  is  made  with  a  heavy  foot  F  (fig.  87)  surmounted  by  a 
forked  piece  S  t,  within  which  the  upper  body  0  T  may  be  inclined  about 
a  hinge  CI.  The  latter  is  situated  on  a  level  with  the  stage,  at  such  a 
height  that  when  tilted  back  the  Microscope  may,  without  sacrifice  of 
stability,  be  made  to  receive  the  light  direct  from  an  artificial  source. 
The  upper  body  is  so  designed  as  to  provide  an  unusually  large  working 
space  in  the  plane  of  the  stage,  and,  incidentally,  forms  a  convenient 
handle  by  which  the  Microscope  may  be  grasped.  This  part  carries  the 
mechanism  for  the  coarse-adjustment  g  E  and  the  fine-adjustment /E. 
The  former  is  effected  by  a  rack-and-pinion  provided  with  obliquely  cut 
teeth  so  as  to  minimise  play.  The  range  of  motion  is  such  that  a 
working  distance  of  9  •  5  cm.  is  obtainable  with  the  shortest  (low-power) 
objective  (No.  1),  and  7 '  5  cm.  with  the  largest  (high-power)  objectives. 
The  fine-adjustment  is  of  the  new  form  which  has  been  already  described 
in  this  Journal. f  The  stage-plate  is  provided  with  holes  for  the  insertion 
of  object-clips  and  angular-stops.  The  graduations  and  angular-stops 
serve  as  finders.  The  thickness  of  the  stage-plate  suffices,  moreover,  for 
the  adaptation  of  fixing-clamps  and  clips  for  the  usual  forms  of  stage- 
fittings,  rotation  devices,  etc.  The  position  of  large  objects  may,  after 
centring  the  stage  and  setting  the  index  back  to  the  respective  numbers 
of  the  h  mm.  scales,  be  recorded  with  the  aid  of  the  graduations  along 
two  radial  lines  engraved  at  right  angles  to  each  other  upon  the  stage- 
top.  As  a  matter  of  fact  an  object  marker,  which  screws  to  the  tube 
like  an  ordinary  objective,  is  obtainable  for  an  insignificant  sum,  and  is 
much  to  be  preferred  to  any  of  these  finders  when  quick  work  has  to  be 
done  and  when  it  is  intended  to  subsequently  photograph  selected 
portions  of  specimens.  The  stage  is  fitted  with  a  clamp  and  fine-adjust- 
ment, which  will  be  found  a  useful  adjunct  in  the  measurement  of  angles 
of  crystals,  in  determining  the  direction  of  extinction,  etc.  It  consists 
of  a  tangential  screw  with  milled  head  T  S  (fig.  88),  which  engages  into 
a  sector  under  the  edge  of  the  stage. 


Ij,^      Wi        UUV,      •JWl^V 


*  Neues  Jahrb.  f.  Mineralogie,  Geologie,  und  Palaontologie,  xxiii.  (1906)  pp. 
163-86  (6  stereoscopic  plates  and  10  text  figs. ;  also  as  an  extract  frorn  above 
(E.  Nagele,  Stuttgart) ;  and  in  an  English  trans.  (E.  Leitz,  London),  stereoscopic 
plates  not  included.  t  1907,  p.  479. 


368 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Fig.  88. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


;y,<? 


The  illuminating  apparatus  consists  of  a  mirror  (plane  and  concave 
sides),  polariser,  iris  diaphragm,  and  condenser,  the  last  three  (figs.  89, 
90,  91),  being  mounted  on  a  detachable  angle-piece  g,  to  which  is 
likewise  attached  the  rack  tg  (not  shown  in  fig.  87).  Those  parts 
which  are  capable  of  being  thrown  out  of  action,  viz.  the  hinged  carrier 
of  the  upper  condenser  C  B,  the  upper  condenser  0  C  with  the  slider  S 


M 


Fig.  89. 


for  the  iris  diaphragm  J,  and  the  lower  condenser,  are  shown  in  both 
positions.  The  polariser,  the  lower  and  upper  condenser  lenses,  are 
shown  half  in  section  and  half  as  they  appear  when  withdrawn  from 
their  respective  mounts.  The  polariser  is  a  large  Glan-Thompson 
prism  with  a  symmetrical  field  of  polarisation  of  30° ;  and  the  author 
fully  describes  the  means  provided  for  its  adjustment.     J  is  the  iris 


3} 


UC 
JZrr=^ 


m 


Fig.  90. 


Fig.  91. 


diaphragm,  as  followed  by  the  lower  condenser  lens  U  C,  which  yield  an 
approximately  parallel  beam  of  light.  Both  are  carried  by  the  slider  S. 
The  iris  diaphragm  is  placed  above  the  polariser  so  as  to  render  it 
possible  to  limit  at  will  the  pencil  of  plane-polarised  light.  It  is  used 
in  conjunction  with  the  polariser,  e.g.  for  determining  after  Becke's 
method  the  difference  of  refraction  in  minerals,  twin  lamina?,  etc.  The 
essentially  novel  feature  of  the  illuminating  apparatus  is  the  upper 
condenser  0  C  (fig.  89).  This  is  so  mounted  that  it  may  be  tilted  back 
June  17th,  1908  2  c 


370  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

by  a  lever  C  H  and  bridge  C  B,  and  that  it  may  be  thrown  in  and  out  of 
action  at  any  elevation  of  the  illuminating  apparatus.      This  hinged 
condenser  may  be  supplied  in  two  forms,  one  of  the  customary  aperture 
of  120°,  the  other  having  an  aperture  corresponding  to  that  of  a  wide- 
angle  lens  of  N.A.  1*48.     As  the  apertures  of  the  objectives  advance  it 
will  be  found  necessary  to  centre  the  hinged  condenser  after  the  inter- 
change, if  the  available   polarised   field   is   to   be   fully   used.       This 
adjustment  is  effected  by  a  horizontal  ring  recessed  into  the  disk  g  and 
carrying  the  hinged  condenser,  whilst  two  screws,  C  C  (figs.  87  and  88), 
and  a  copper  spring  serve  to  centre  it  accurately  with  respect  to  the  axis 
of  the  Microscope.     The  movement  of  the  hinged  condenser  is  limited 
by  a  screw.     In  all,  there  are  six  methods  of  illumination  attainable. 
1.  After  removal  of  the  entire  illuminating  apparatus  the  object  may 
be  illuminated  either  direct  or  with  the  aid  of  the  mirror,  according  to 
the  inclination  of  the  body.     2.  Illumination  maybe  produced  by  means 
of  the  iris  diaphragm  and  the  rack-and-pinion  only.     3.  Illumination 
with  the  iris  diaphragm,  the  lower  condenser  and  the  rack-and-pinion 
motion.   4.  Illumination, after  folding  back  the  upper  condenser,  removing 
the  slider  S  and  substituting  for  the  polariser  a  wide-angle  Abbe  con- 
denser.    In  this  case  the  rack  motion  serves  for  focusing  this  condenser, 
the   angle   of   the   illuminating   pencil   being   adjustable   either   by   a 
vertical  movement  of  the  condenser  or  by  means  of  a  wheel  diaphragm, 
which  may  be  attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  condenser  mount.     The 
wheel  diaphragm  forms  part  of  a  simple  apparatus  provided   for   the 
production  of  oblique  illumination,  such  as  is  employed  in  determining 
refraction  by  Schroeder  v.  d.  Kolk's  method  of  envelopment.     5.  Illu- 
mination by  parallel  polarised  light   in   conjunction   with   the   entire 
illuminating  apparatus,  excepting  the  hinged  condenser  ;  and  (6)  finally, 
illumination  by  convergent  polarised  light  with  the  assistance  of  the 
hinged  condenser. 

The  observation  tube  consisting  of :  the  objective,  objective  clutch, 
compensation  slit,  objective  centring  device,  and  sliding  analyser  are 
placed  at  the  lower  end  of  the  tube  ;  whereas  the  Bertrand  lens  and  the 
eye-piece  are  contained  within  the  draw-tube.  Full  particulars  of  all 
these  parts  are  given  by  the  author. 

To  render  the  Microscope  available  as  a  focimeter,  a  vertical  scale 
divided  into  \  mm.  is  attached  to  the  left  of  the  tube,  so  as  to  slide 
along  a  vernier  on  the  intermediate  fitting  B  g  (fig.  88),  above  the  milled- 
head  of  the  coarse-adjustment,  which  renders  it  possible  to  read  to 
-^  mm. 

The  author  adds  and  explains  sectional  drawings  illustrating  (1)  the 
ray-path  with  parallel  light  in  an  ordinary  Leitz  Microscope  ;  (2)  the 
ray-path  within  the  petrological  Microscope  of  convergent  polarised 
light. 

Fig.  92  shows  the  revolving  slide-diaphragm,  which  is  affixed  to  the 
lowrer  rim  of  the  polariser  or  chromatic  condenser  by  means  of  three 
converging  or  equidistant  clips  situated  below  the  stationary  disk  L  S. 
One  of  these  clips  may  be  displaced  and  fixed  by  a  screw  S.  The  dia- 
meter of  the  first  hole  corresponds  to  that  of  the  polariser  tube  ;  from 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


371 


2  downwards  the  holes  serve  as  stops.  The  centre  of  hole  2  coincides 
with  that  of  hole  1  when  the  spring-catch  S  t  engages  into  the  nick  I. 
The  centres  of  the  holes  are  arranged  heptagonally  in  a  circle,  and  the 
object  of  introducing  this  diaphragm  with  its  range  of  eight  grades  was 
to  replace  the  iris-diaphragm,  usually  placed  between  the  polariser  and 
the  mirror,  and  at  the  same  time  to  render  it  available  as  a  Wright's 
slider.  The  diameters  of  the  apertures  are  engraved  on  the  disk  in  terms 
of  millimetres. 

In  the  construction  of  the  Microscope  due  allowance  has  been  made 
for  its  practical  applicability  to  photomicrography,  and  the  stand  may 
accordingly  be  employed  with  Leitz'  New  Universal  Photomicrographic 
Apparatus.     Besides  photographs   of  the  usual  character,  stereoscopic 


Fig.  92. 


views  of  inanimate  objects  (e.g.  crystals)  may  be  obtained.  For  this 
purpose  the  object  is  successively  displaced  laterally  32  mm.  to  the  left 
and  to  the  right  of  the  middle  line  and  sharply  focused,  a  photograph 
being  taken  in  each  position.  A  stereoscopic  dark-slide  has  the  ad- 
vantage that  both  exposures  may  be  made  on  one  plate,  without  which 
it  is  difficult  to  obtain  uniformly  developed  negatives  or  even  prints. 

Leitz'  Museum  Microscope*  —  Leitz'  Museum  Microscope  is  a 
simple  apparatus  for  showing  persons  unacquainted  with  the  use  of  the 
microscope  a  series  of  specimens.  In  this  instrument  (fig.  93)  the  stage 
is  replaced  by  a  drum  capable  of  rotation  from  left  to  right,  and  pro- 
vided with  supports  for  twelve  preparations,  which  are  retained  in 
position  by  clips.  Another  detachable  drum  of  sheet-metal  serves  to 
preserve  the  specimens  from  damage.     Both  drums  are  perforated  by 


E.  Leitz*  Catalogue,  No.  42  (1907)  p.  63  (1  fig.). 


2    C   2 


372 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


twelve  apertures  for  illumination  and  observation.    In  the  interior  of  the 
drum  is  a  mirror  which  is  movable  in  all  directions.     A  spring'  register 


at'the  back  of  the  drum  insures  the  correct  position  of  each  specimen  as 
it  comes  under  observation.  The  Microscope  is  provided  with  a  coarse 
rack-and-pinion  adjustment. 

Petri,  R.  T. — A.  van  Leeuwenhoek's  Mikroskop.  g 

Naturio.  Woclienschr.,  sxii.  p.  1-7. 


(3)    Illuminating   and  other  Apparatus. 

Polarising  Prisms.* — B.  Halle  commences  his  treatment  of  this 
subject  by  an  interesting  historical  outline  of  the  calcite  prism.  He 
shows  how  the  "  epoch-making  discovery  of  the  Englishman  Nicol "  has 
suggested  other  forms  due  to  later  observers,  e.g.  to  Foucault.  Praz- 
mowsky,  Glan,  Glan-Thompson,  Hartnack-Prazmowsky,  Ahrens,  Grosse, 
Rochon,  Senarmont,  Wollaston,  and  Abbe.  He  describes  and  tabulates 
the  characteristics  of  each,  and  shows  that  the  necessary  waste  of 
material  in  their  preparation  increases  rapidly  in  the  more  modern 
forms.  This  is  a  serious  matter  on  account  of  the  growing  rarity  of  the 
raw  material,  the  price  of  which  has  risen  some  twentyfold  in  the  last 
thirty  years.  The  author  has  partially  met  this  difficulty,  for  by  the 
help  of  a  specially  constructed  saw  |  he  has  succeeded  in  reducing  the 

*  Deutsch  Mechaniker-Zeitung  (Jan.  1908)  pp.  6-8  and  16-19  (3  figs.), 
t  Op.  cit.,  1896,  p.  143. 


ZOOLOGY,  BOTANY  AND  MICROSCOPY,  ETC.         373 

waste  by  one-half  in  the  case  of  large  prisms.  This  mechanical  method, 
however,  is  not  adapted  for  the  smaller  prisms.  Now  a  study  of  his 
tables  shows  that  the  prisms,  as  used,  differ  considerably  as  regard  their 
field  of  view  (opening)  and  their  polarisation-field.  Whilst  prisms  with 
larger  opening  usually  have  a  narrowly  limited  polarisation-field,  those 
with  smaller  opening,  in  consequence  of  their  large  polarising  angle, 
attain  a  proportionally  large  field.  It  is  therefore  necessary  in  selecting 
a  prism  to  keep  one's  requirements  carefully  in  view.  For  an  analyser 
(eye-Nicol)  a  prism  with  large  polarising  angle,  and  consequently  large 
opening,  is  desirable  ;  whereas  for  a  polariser  a  large  beam  with  few 
converging  rays  would  be  usually  recommended.  The  author  describes 
and  figures  an  apparatus  by  which  the  polarisation  angle  may  be 
measured.  The  prism  A  to  be  investigated  is  securely  mounted  on  a 
circular  table  B,  whose  centre  is  C.  The  analyser  is  placed  on  a  segment 
D,  which  is  concentric  with  C,  and  rotates  round  it.  The  plane  of  B 
extends  slightly  beyond  the  segment,  and  its  circumference  is  graduated. 
The  first  prism  is  so  placed  that  a  narrow  face  is  at  C,  and  both  prisms 
are  so  arranged  that  their  extraordinary  rays  are  in  the  same  plane  and 
at  the  zero  of  the  scale.  Illumination  (lamp  or  daylight)  reaches  the 
remoter  end  of  the  polariser.  The  analyser  and  polariser  are  now  inter- 
changed and  the  segment  rotated  leftwise,  until  a  point  is  reached  at 
which  no  light  passes  through  to  the  eye.  This  is  the  limit  of  the 
polarisation  field  on  the  one  side,  and,  in  the  case  of  Nicols  with 
inclined  end-planes,  is  marked  by  a  bluish  tint.  The  segment  is  now 
brought  back  to  the  zero  point,  and  the  analyser  rotated  90°  about  its 
long  axis.  The  field  of  view  is  now  quite  black  ;  but  the  segment  is 
rotated  rightwise  until  the  blackness  disappears,  thus  marking  the 
other  limit.  The  angle  subtended  at  C  by  these  limits  is  the  value  of 
the  required  angle  of  the  polarisation  field.  If  the  limits  are  equally 
distant  from  the  zero  the  polarisation  field  is  symmetrical.  The  author 
gives  the  following  values  of  the  polarisation  angle,  the  field  being 
symmetrical  unless  otherwise  stated  : — 

(The  reference  letters  a-l  relate  to  details  of  construction.) 


(h)  Glan-Tbompson 

34° 

(9) 

Glan-Thompson,     symmetric 

(e)    Hartnack-Prazmowsky 

32 

field    ..    '       

18°' 

(i)    Ahrens  (linseed  oil  cement)  .. 

26 

(c) 

Halle,  unsymmetric  field 

19-* 

(d)  Halle 

25 

do.         symmetric  field 

17 

(k)  Ahrens  (balsam  cement) 

24 

(/) 

Glan 

8 

(b)  Nicol 

24 

(a) 

Foucault 

7 

(g)  Glan-Thompson,      unsymme- 

ffl 

Grosse     .. 

6 

tric  field 

32 

The  last  thr  ee  are  thus  only  applicable  for  parallel  light,  the  others 
being  also  use  ful  for  more  or  less  convergent  light.  The  forms  h,  e,  d,  b 
are  especially  suitable  for  analysers  on  account  of  their  small  cross- 
section  and  la  rge  polarisation  angle  ;  the  others  serve  better  as  polarisers. 
The  two  Ahre  ns'  prisms  seem  capable  of  great  reduction  in  size.  The 
different  form  s  of  the  Glan-Thompson  show  that  a  large  opening  com- 
bined with  red  uced  polarisation  field  is  most  economically  attained  by 
altering  the  an  gle  of  the  prism  ;  such  a  change  is,  however,  possible  only 
in  prisms  with   balsam  or  linseed-oil  cement. 


374  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Note  on  some  Meteorological  Uses  of  the  Polariscope.*— L.  Bell, 
as  the  result  of  certain  observations  made  at  Mount  Moosilauke,  New 
Hampshire,  was  led  to  think  that  the  polariscope  might  have  some  use 
in  meteorological  prognostics.  Atmospheric  haze  is  well  known  to  be  due 
to  suspended  particles  of  one  sort  or  another,  and  haze  which  produces 
polarisation  as  well  as  the  ordinary  sky  polarisation,  is  due  to  particles 
small  compared  with  the  wave-length  of  light.  The  polariscope 
integrates  the  effects  of  such  particles  along  the  line  of  sight.  The 
process  of  increasing  nucleation,  which  results  in  cloud  formation  and 
frequently  in  subsequent  rain,  was  found  to  be  accompanied  by  a 
fall  in  polarisation,  and  its  progress  could  be  well  followed  by  the 
polariscope. 

Reichert's  Novelties  in  Mirror  Condensers.*  — 0.  Heimstadt 
describes  several  new  forms  of  mirror  condensers  which  have  been 
recently  brought  out  by  the  firm  of  C.  Reichert,  of  Vienna. 

Mirror  Condenser  with  variable  disk-diaphragm.— This  is  shown  in 
fig.  94,  the  principle  being  that  of  the  well  known  iris  diaphragm  but 


Fig.  94. 


Fig.  95. 


with  reversed  action.  The  small  plates  P  of  the  disk  B  are  projected 
over  the  rim  of  the  top  plate  so  soon  as  the  lever  H  is  rotated  in  the 
required  direction  about  the  axis  T.  The  effect  of  the  lever  action  is  to 
extend  outwards  the  little  plates  of  the  disk  so  that  their  rims  approxi- 
mately form  a  circle  which  can  attain  to  the  size  of  the  opening  of  the 
mirror  condenser.  The  above  apparatus  is  listed  by  the  maker  as 
"  Mirror  Condenser  C,"  and  is  optically  the  same  as  the  mirror  con- 
denser A.  With  dry  objectives  the  lever  H  is  rotated  rightwise,  and 
with  immersion  systems  leftwise.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  appa- 
ratus does  not  secure  an  absolutely  dark  field,  because  the  aperture 
of  the  condenser  cannot  be  greater  than  the  aperture  of  the  objective  ; 
some  light  other  than  that  diffracted  by  the  ultra-microscopic  particles 
will  therefore  reach  the  eye.  But  this  fact  does  not  constitute  a  dis- 
advantage, for  it  is  found  that  the  image  is  brighter  and  the  higher 
powers  of  the  immersion  system  have  more  effect. 


*  Proc.  American  Acad,  of  Arts  and  Sci.,  xliii.  (1908)  pp.  407-12  (1  fig.). 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxiv.  (1907)  pp.  233-42  (7  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


375 


Fig.  95  illustrates  another  method  of  securing  a  dark  field  with 
immersion  objectives,  the  observation-objective  being  so  stopped  off  that 
the  rays  passing  by  the  rim  of  the  disk-diaphragm  are  detained  in  the 
objective.  This  is  effected  by  the  insertion  of  an  intermediate  piece 
introduced  between  the  tube-stop  and  the  objective  mount.  This 
intermediate  carries  a  tube-stop  C  of  the  required  size,  corresponding  to 
the  aperture  of  the  objective.  The  stop  is  made  removable  so  that  it 
does  not  interfere  with  the  ordinary  use  of  the  objective. 


Fig.  96. 


Exchange  Condenser. — This  is  shown  in  fig.  96,  and  its  construction 
is  due  to  P.  Schmidt.  A  double-action  Abbe  condenser  of  N.A.  1*10  is 
so  combined  with  a  conical  condenser  that,  either  the  disk-diaphragm  B, 
or  the  lens  L.2,  together  with  the  iris  I,  can  be  inserted.  In  the  first  case 
the  condenser  functions  as  an  ultra-microscopic  illuminating  apparatus 
(as  shown  in  fig.  96)  ;  in  the  other  case,  as  an  ordinary  condenser. 

Plate-Condensers. — Figs.  97-101  illustrate  an  entirely  new  class 
of  ultra-microscopical  illuminators,  and  derive  their  name  from  the  fact 
that  they  (especially  the  simpler  forms)  bear  some  resemblance  to  a 
glass  plate.  They  have  the  advantage  of  being  completely  independent 
of  the  illuminating  apparatus  of  the  Microscope,  and  their  application 
only  requires  the  existence  of  the  Microscope  mirror  and  of  a  sufficiently 
large  stage-aperture.     They  could  therefore  be  used  with  the  simplest 


376  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

stand.  Fig.  97  shows  the  most  primitive  form  of  such  a  condenser,  the 
whole  arrangement  resembling  an  object-slide  on  whose  lower  surface  a 
conical  mirror  K  has  been  cemented  by  its  smaller  end.  A  metal  plate 
B  is  cemented  on  to  the  large  end  of  the  frustum  k,  so  as  to  keep  the 
direct  rays  back  from  the  preparation.  This  frustum  lies,  as  shown,  in 
the  stage  aperture,  and  as  its  lower  diameter  is  14*6  mm.,  the  stage 


i //    k-KY=3 


B 


Fig.  97. 


aperture  must  be  at  least  15  mm.  in  diameter.  The  axis  of  the  conical 
mirror  is  indicated  by  a  diamond  scratch  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
plate,  and  by  the  aid  of  a  weak  objective  this  mark  is  set  in  the  midst 
of  the  field,  and  the  point  of  the  light-cone  applied  to  it  by  manipulation 
of  the  Microscope  mirror.  The  insertion  of  a  strong  illuminating  lens 
between  the  light-source  and  the  Microscope  mirror  is  recommended,  as 

x 


' V  '  Kv 


B 


Fig.  98. 


the  illuminated  plane  of  the  preparation  is  thereby  much  increased. 
The  preparation  itself  can  be  laid  on  the  top  of  the  plate  without  a  slide, 
thereby  avoiding  the  necessity  of  an  immersion.  It  is  obvious  that 
such  a  method  would,  however,  only  be  of  advantage  in  a  preliminary 
examination,  and  would  not  lend  itself  to  permanent  preparations.  But 
the  difficulty  can  be  overcome  if  the  permanent  preparation  (fig.  98) 


X*  '      '*;* 


IT* 


\ 

Fig.  99. 


has  been  mounted  on  an  extremely  thin  object-slide  (about  1  mm.  thick). 
Also  the  plate  condenser  must  be  secured  by  stage-clamps,  and  the  pre- 
paration can  then  be  shifted  as  desired.  The  application  of  a  drop  of 
immersion  fluid  is,  of  course,  necessary. 

Fig.  99  represents  another  very  simple  arrangement  for  ultramicro- 
scopical  purposes.     The  conical  mirror  is  now  replaced  by  a  spherically 


ZOOLOGY  A.ND  BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,  ETC. 


377 


ground  mirror-lens  L,  whose  silvered  surface  is  protected  from  injury 
by  being  cemented  on  to  a  glass  block  A,  provided  with  a  suitable  recess. 
The  stop  B,  T-shaped  in  cross-section,  shuts  oat  the  direct  rays,  and 
those  of  N.A.  less  than  I'D;  it  is  cemented  centrally  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  mirror-lens.  The  glass  plate  P  serves  to  protect  the 
whole  arrangement  from  external  effects  :  its  ends  are  made  to  project 
somewhat  beyond  A,  so  as  to  receive  the  stage-clamps.    This  instrument, 


z: 


j^ 


^ 


\    CREICHERTWIEM.    / 


M 


*-■    D 


1X3 


^ 


2 


Fig.  100. 


listed  by  the  manufacturer  as  "  mirror-condenser  E,"  is  centred  and 
manipulated  exactly  as  in  figs.  97  and  98. 

In  figs.  100  and  101  we  have  a  more  developed  form  of  type  E, 
designed  to  satisfy  the  highest  requirements.  The  lower  glass  plate  is 
replaced  by  a  metal  plate  Z,  whose  projecting  ends  serve  for  the  stage- 
clamps.    The  obliquely  ground  plate  A  is  pressed  downwards  by  the  fillets 


'Fig.  101. 


F.  The  plate  D  is  perforated  in  the  middle  by  an  opening  fitted  in 
with  a  window,  which  can  be  easily  screwed  out.  Plate  A  bears  on  its 
upper  side  two  collars  (fig.  101),  which  are  intended  to  receive  two  smaller 
clamps,  Ko,  by  which  means  the  preparation  can  be  fixed  on  the  con- 
denser. The  advantage  of  this  form,  known  as  "  mirror-condenser  F," 
is  that  it  can  be  taken  to  pieces  for  cleaning,  and  is  better  protected 
from  injury  by  the  metal  mounting. 


378 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


Ultramicroscopy  and  Dark-ground  Illumination.*  —  The  new 
catalogue  of  C.  Zeiss  not  only  gives  a  priced  list  of  all  the  apparatus 
required  for  the  above  research,  but  also  supplies  a  very  full  description 
of  the  methods  of  application,  with  a  full  bibliography.  The  subject  is 
arranged  into  five  parts :  (1)  General  ul train icroscopic  apparatus  ;  (2) 
Ultramicroscopy  for  cells,  fibres ;  (3)  Ultramicroscopy  for  colloids  ; 
(4)  Siedentopf 's  paraboloidal  condenser ;  (5)  Applying  a  stop  to  the 
immersion-condenser. 

Kaiserling's  Universal  Projection  Apparatus.! — This  apparatus 
made  by  E.  Leitz,  of  Wetzlar,  has  been  already  described  in  this  Journal 
(1907,  p.  627) ;  but  a  new  catalogue!  explains  in  detail  its  application 
to  various  kinds  of  projection. 


Fig.  102. 


1.  Microscopic  Projection. — Before  proceeding  to  direct  projections 
with  the  Microscope  it  is  necessary  to  turn  aside  lens  Q  of  400  mm.  focus 
(fig.  102),  which,  together  with  the  reversing  mirror  G,  is  hinged  upon 
the  upper  steel  tube  E,  after  which  the  optical  bench,  together  with  its 
appurtenances,  may  be  brought  into  the  path  of  the  light.  The  small 
optical  bench  Bl  (fig.  103),  has  three  stands,  which  may  be  moved  along 
the  larger  optical  bench  by  a  rack-and-pinion  gear;  The  first  stand, 
reckoned  from  lens  K3,  is  fitted  with  an  iris-diaphragm,  the  second  with 

*  Special  Catalogue,  C.  Zeiss,  Jena  and  London,  etc.   (English  version),  1907. 
The  various  parts  are  numbered  Mikr.  227-31. 

t  Universal  Projection  Apparatus.     E.  Leitz,  London  (Engish  version),  1908. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


379 


a  lens  of  50  mm.  diameter,  and  the  third  with  a  centring  nosepiece  for 
two  objectives.  One  of  the  condensers  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a 
microscope  condenser  of  the  usual  type,  whilst  the  other  is  a  single  lens. 
The  judicious  displacement  of  these  stands  furnishes  the  means  of 
illuminating  any  of  the  microsummars  of  24,  35,  and  42  mm.  focus, 
objectives  Nos.  1-9  and  oil-immersion  lens  TV  in.  Microsummars 
//4'5  are  particularly  adapted  for  low-power  projection  without  an 
eye-piece. 


Fig.  103. 

2.  Diascopic  Projection.  —  In  this  mode  of  projection  the  object- 
stage  U  (fig.  104)  should  be  swung  aside.  Having  displaced  the  objec- 
tives and  eye-pieces,  the  lantern  projection  lens  Q  (e.g.  aplanatic  lens  of 
200  mm.  focus)  must  be  turned  into  the  optic  axis.  The  carrier  itself 
remains  in  its  original  position,  the  objective  of  200  mm.  focus  only 
requiring  sharp  focusing  by  means  of  the  rack-and-pinion.  The 
lantern  slide-carrier  (figs.  104  and  105)  is  arranged  to  take  two  slides  at 


0 


once,  one  above  the  other,  the  lower  one  being  that  which  appears  on 
the  screen.  The  latter  is  removed  in  a  downward  direction,  whilst  the 
upper  one  glides  into  its  place  so  as  to  be  projected  in  turn.  The  suc- 
ceeding lantern  slide  is  introduced  from  above,  and  the  process  repeated 
as  often  as  required.  To  facilitate  the  removal  of  the  lower  slide,  the 
optical  bench  is  provided  with  an  arched  gap,  so  as  not  to  impede  the 
motion  of  the  hand,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  figure.  The  holder  of  the 
lantern  slides  is  adjustable  in  all  directions,  so  as  to  render  it  available 


380 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRKNT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


for  use  with  plates  of  various  sizes,  and  the  largest  plate  which  it 
projects  is  12  by  9  cm.,  casting  an  image  230  by  172  cm.  (90  by  68  inches) 
on  a  screen  at  4  metres  distance  with  a  lens  of  200  mm.  focus. 

8.  Episcopic  Projection  {from  above). — For  this  purpose  the  optical 
bench  with  its  fittings  is  swung  aside,  the  stop-pin  on  the  radial  arm 
released,  and  the  objective  Q  (figs.  102)  of  400  mm.  focused  in  the  optic 
axis.     The  mirror  G  is  then  inclined  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  the  axis 


Fig.  105. 


of  the  lens,  this  being  greatly  facilitated  by  the  pressure  of  a  spring 
catch.  The  lamp  is  tilted  at  45:>  by  the  handle  fitted  at  the  back  until 
the  quadrant  fixes  its  position.  The  mirror  G,  being  silvered  on  its 
outer  worked  surface,  should  not  be  touched,  and  should  not  be  cleaned 
otherwise  than  with  a  soft  camel-hair  brush  ;  after  use  the  mirror  should 
always  be  covered  with  its  protecting  cap.  The  illuminated  area  is  of 
the  form  of  an  ellipse,  measuring  28  by  20  cm.  in  the  extreme  case. 
By  withdrawing  the  lamp  from  the  lens  the  light  may  be  concentrated 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


:;si 


upon  a  smaller  area.  Fig.  102  shows  diagramniatically  the  path  of  epi- 
scopically  projected  rays,  and  fig.  106  shows  the  optical  bench  as  seen 
from  the  front  when  thrown  out  of  action. 


<04J 


Fig.  106. 


4.  Lateral  Episcopic  Projection. — This  mode  of  projection  is  princi- 
pally resorted  to  in  the  case  of  those  objects  which  must  be  maintained 
in  a  vertical  position  in  a  fluid  medium,  or  which,  owing  to  their  size, 
cannot  be  accommodated  upon  the  stage.     If,  for  instance,  it  is  required 


\ 

e 

\  ,' 

.." 

HC 


J 


Fig.  107. 


to  project  on  the  screen  part  of  a  living  being,  the  subject  is  so  placed 
at  the  side  of  the  apparatus  that  the  part  in  question  may  be  illuminated 
by  the  lamp  and  completely  reflected  by  the  mirror.  In  this  case  the 
lamp  is  returned  to  its  horizontal  position  and  turned  through  45°  about 


382 


SUMMARY    OE    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


its  vertical  axis.  The  mirror  G  should  be  turned  about  the  axis  of 
the  objective  Q  of  400  mm.  focus.  Fig.  107  represents  this  mode  of  pro- 
jection, and  shows  the  path  of  the  rays. 


Fig.  108. 


5.  Diascopic  Projection  (for  horizontally-placed  objects). — Apart  from 
its  immediate  purpose,  that  of  projecting  horizontal  objects  floating  in 
licmid,  the  arrangement  has  the  advantage  that  lantern  slides  or  sections 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


383 


up  to  210  mm.  in  diameter  may  be  projected  by  simply  placing  them 
on  the  condenser  lens.  The  latter  is  let  into  the  stage,  and,  when  not 
required,  is  covered  by  a  sliding  shield.     From  fig.  109  it  will  be  seen 


Fig.  109. 


that  the  lamp  is  lowered  for  -this  mode  of  projection.  To  do  so  it  is 
only  necessary  to  loosen  a  clamping  screw  and  to  depress  the  handle 
provided  at  the  side  of  the  vertical  steel  tubes.    The  motion  of  the  lamp 


384  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

is  facilitated  by  a  counterpoise.  After  lowering  the  lamp  lens  Kj  should 
be  thrown  out  of  action,  and  the  lamp  placed  at  such  a  distance  from 
lens  K,  that  the  pencil  of  rays  emerging  from  the  latter,  after  reflection 
at  the  inclined  mirror  placed  below  the  stage,  may  entirely  fill  the  lens 
let  into  the  stage.  The  reversing  mirror  G  sends  the  light  through 
objective  Q,  whereby  an  image  is  formed  on  the  screen. 

Lettner,  G. — Skioptikon  Einftihrung  in  die  projektionskunst. 

Leipzig  (1907)  105  pp.  (22  figs.). 

(4)  Photomicrography. 

Reversible  Photographic  Proofs  ;  Integral  Photographs.* — Under 
the  above  titles  G.  Lippmann  discusses  the  principles  which  must 
underlie  the  production  on  a  single  film  of  such  an  effect  as  would  be 
equivalent  to  the  actual  view  obtained  of  a  landscape  by  an  observer 
through  a  window,  the  film  yielding  the  same  varieties  of  effect  as  would 
be  afforded  by  slight  changes  of  position  on  the  part  of  the  observer. 
The  author  thinks  that  the  practical  difficulties  to  be  overcome  may  not 
prove  to  be  insurmountable.  It  is  necessary  to  imagine  a  film  as  ordi- 
narily used,  formed  of  a  transparent  pellicule  of  celluloid  or  of  collodion, 


Fig.  110. 

treated  on  one  of  its  faces  with  an  emulsion  sensitive  to  light.  Before 
spreading  the  emulsion  on  the  pellicule,  suppose  that  the  latter  has 
been  pressed  while  hot  in  a  kind  of  goffering  machine,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  produce  on  each  of  its  faces  a  large  number  of  small 
excrescences  in  the  shape  of  spherical  segments.  Each  of  the  excrescences 
with  which  the  anterior  face  (this  face  will  remain  bare  of  emulsion)  is 
intended  to  act  as  a  convergent  lens.  Each  of  the  excrescences  of  the 
posterior  face  is  covered  with  a  sensitive  emulsion,  and  is  intended  to 
receive  the  image  formed  by  one  of  the  anterior  lenses.  Fig.  110  shows 
an  enlarged  section  of  a  film  thus  constituted.  In  order  that  each  image 
may  be  in  focus,  corresponding  segments  must  have  the  same  centre  of 
curvature,  and  the  ratio  of  a  front  ray  to  a  back  ray  must  be  n  —  1,  where 
n  is  the  index  of  refraction  of  the  celluloid  for  rays  photographically 
the  most  active.  The  system  formed  by  any  one  whatever  of  the  small 
front  lenses,  and  by  the  portion  of  sensitive  layer  corresponding  to  it, 
forms  a  small  camera  like  an  eye,  the  lens  being  the  cornea  and  the 
sensitive  layer  the  retina.  There  is  no  crystalline,  and  none  is  required, 
for,  in  virtue  of  its  small  diameter,  the  tiny  camera  can  remain  sensibly  in 
focus  on  every  object,  however  slight  its  distance.  If  the  term  "  cellule  " 
be  applied  to  each  such  elementary  camera,  it  follows  that  the  complete 
pellicule  is  a  tissue  of  these  cellules  juxtaposed.     If  each  cellule  be  a, 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  446-51  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    .MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  385 

simple  eye,  their  combination  recalls  the  compound  eye  of  an  insect. 
The  first  property  of  such  a  system  is  to  give  photographic  images 
without  its  introduction  into  a  camera.  It  suffices  to  present  the  system 
in  full  light  before  the  objects  to  be  represented.  The  use  of  a  camera  is 
unnecessary,  because  each  cellule  is  itself  a  camera.  The  pellicule  must, 
of  course,  be  preserved  in  a  light-tight  box,  and  only  exposed  as  required. 
The  result  is  to  give  a  series  of  small  microscopic  images  fixed  each  on 
the  retina  of  one  of  the  cellules.  Observed  from  the  side  of  the  sensitive 
layer,  these  images  could  not  be  distinguished  with  the  naked  eye,  and 
they  would  give  the  impression  of  a  uniform  grey.  On  the  other  hand, 
suppose  the  eye  placed  on  the  anterior  side,  and  the  proof  illuminated 
by  transparency  in  diffused  light,  such  as  would  be  furnished  by  white 
paper  applied  to  the  pellicule  ;  the  eye  would  then  see,  instead  of  the 
system  of  small  images,  a  single  resultant  image  projected  in  space  in 
actual  size.  Moreover,  this  image  will  vary  according  to  the  position  of 
the  observer's  eye.  Such  an  image  would  be  a  negative,  but  the  author 
suggests  means  for  obtaining  a  positive. 

With  regard  to  the  technical  difficulties,  the  author  points  out  that 
the  necessary  texture  of  surface  must  await  the  invention  of  a  suitable 
moulding  machine  of  high  precision.  But  possibly  collodion  and 
celluloid  could  be  abandoned  in  favour  of  other  refrangible  materials. 
Glass,  for  instance,  would  furnish  the  lens-spherules  in  unlimited 
quantities  ;  but  there  would  still  be  the  difficulty  of  sifting  them  out 
with  precision  and  affixing  them  on  a  membrane  of  collodion,  so  as  to 
obtain  an  exactly  suitable  thickness.  If  glass  of  index-refraction  exactly 
equal  to  2  •  0  could  be  obtained  the  difficulties  would  largely  vanish,  for 
a  sphere  of  such  a  glass  converges  parallel  rays  on  to  its  posterior  surface. 
Such  a  sphere  half-covered  with  a  sensitive  layer  furnishes  the  simplest 
•of  cameras.  Glass  can  be  obtained  with  refractive  index  greater  than 
2*0,  and  also  exceeding  1*9,  but  at  present  2*0  is  unattainable.  The 
mixtures  of  silicates  with  molybdates  and  tungstates  of  lead,  which 
might  be  expected  to  give  the  required  result,  seem  always  to  crystallise 
out  without  formation  of  glass. 

Perception  of  Relief  and  Depth  in  the  Simple  Image  of  Ordinary 
Photographic  Proofs :  Conditions  and  Theory  of  this  Perception.* 
Lippmann's  observations  on  integral  photographs,  noticed  above, 
have  suggested  various  considerations  to  A.  Chauveau,  which  he  has 
treated  in  a  paper  with  the  above  title,  and  he  adds  that  tho  scope 
of  his  article  would  be  indicated  by  the  addition  of  the  following 
sub-title  : — The  stereogenic  property  of  retinal  images,  dissociated  by 
cessation  of  the  convergence  of  the  two  optical  axes  on  the  surface  of  a 
simple  photographic  proof.  Exterior isation  of  these  two  retinal  images, 
with  projection  of  their  details  on  the  respective  planes  which  they  occupy 
in  the  depth  of  the  space  photographed.  In  the  course  of  his  treatment 
the  author  emphasizes  the  principle  that  binocular  vision  is  not  necessary 
to  the  appreciation  of  relief  and  of  distances  :  it  is  capable  only  of  im- 
proving this  appreciation.  Now  photographic  representation  of  a 
landscape  is  only  an  intermediate  reception,  a  kind  of  relay  between  the 
eye  and  the  landscape.     The  latter,  in  reality,  is  impressed  in  reduced 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  725-30. 
June  17  th,  1908  2d 


386  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   To 

form  on  the  sensitive  plate  as  it  would  Lave  been  on  the  retina  of  the 
eye  had  the  eye  been  substituted  for  the  photographic  objective.  The 
result  is  that  vision  instead  of  bearing  directly  on  the  landscape,  is 
arrested  on  the  proof  representing  it :  it  is  an  image,  similarly  reduced, 
of  this  first  reduction  which  is  impressed  on  the  retinae.  Each  of  the 
latter  acts  separately  and  possesses  the  property  of  revealing  in  miniature 
the  landscape  photographed,  as  the  real  landscape  when  viewed  directly 
is  seen  in  its  natural  size.  If  a  retinal  image  be  reversed  in  direction  it 
will  reproduce  the  landscape  in  real  size  with  its  attributes  of  length, 
width,  and  depth ;  but  if  such  an  image  exteriorise  itself  by  means  of  a 
photographic  proof,  it  will  reproduce  the  landscape  more  or  less  reduced, 
as  the  three  attributes  will  be  in  reality  there,  although  the  stereogenic 
property  is  for  the  time  being  suppressed.  The  author  points  out,  as 
one  of  his  illustrations,  that  single-eye  observation  of  a  perfectly 
illuminated  ordinary  photograph  is  seldom  slow  in  detecting  the  details 
in  the  proof  in  their  relief  and  depth.  The  dissociation  of  the  two  retinal 
images  is  then  spontaneously  accomplished  :  the  two  images,  in  fact, 
separately  appear  if  one  fugitively  opens  the  second  eye.  Two-eye 
vision,  really,  brings  the  sensation  of  a  plane  image,  and  so  long  as 
single-eye  observation  is  continued,  the  proof  exhibits  stereoscopic 
characteristics  which  persist  if  the  primitive  proof  is  replaced  by  a 
numerous  series  of  others.  If,  instead  of  focusing  one's  optic  axes 
directly  on  to  a  photographic  proof,  one  makes  them  converge  beyond  it, 
the  dissociation  is  again  obtained  and  the  landscape  is  seen  double  with 
all  its  reliefs  and  depths.  If  the  focus  is  brought  back  on  to  the  proof, 
the  images  fuse  and  the  sense  of  relief  disappears.  The  process  which 
lends  itself  to  the  continuous  and  rapid  repetition  of  these  alternations 
must  be  the  one  to  furnish  the  most  complete  information  on  the 
mechanism  for  the  acquisition  of  the  stereogenic  property  of  retinal 
images  furnished  by  moving  photographs.  Hence  it  may  with  confidence 
be  declared  that  this  acquisition  is  the  necessary  consequence  of  the  rever- 
sion and  of  the  exteriorisation  of  these  images,  projected  in  a  state  of 
dissociation  outside  the  eye. 

Additional  Demonstration  of  the  Mechanism  of  Monocular 
Stereoscopy.* — In  this  article  A.  Chauveau  goes  more  fully  into  the 
theory  of  his  subject,  and  describes  several  experiments.  He  concludes 
that  the  systematic  use  of  dissociation  prisms  is  to  be  recommended  for 
the  demonstration  of  the  unity  of  the  mechanism  both  of  monocular 
stereoscopy  and  of  binocular  stereoscopy,  both  methods  depending  in 
the  same  manner  on  the  phenomenon  of  reversion  and  of  exteriorisation 
of  retinal  images.  Even  as  regards  the  purely  picturesque  observation 
of  stereoscopic  photographs,  this  method  is  just  as  much  to  be  recom- 
mended. With  the  two  bare,  prisms  in  general  use  one  obtains,  in 
reality,  besides  the  relief  of  the  classic  image  of  the  ordinary  stereoscope, 
that  of  the  two  components  of  this  classic  image.  The  simultaneous 
vision  of  these  three  images  in  a  more  or  less  marked  relief,  forms  a 
picture  so  much  the  more  interesting  because  the  observer  sees  it  in 
instantaneous  self -constitution  under  his  eyes,  and  because  it  explains 

*  Comptes  Rendus,|cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  846-53  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  387 

very  clearly  how  the  same  apparatus,  which  creates  the  relief  of  retinal 
images  by  dissociating  them,  improves  them  by  bringing  these  images 
into  another  combination. 

Fran(,-ois-Franck,  Gii.-A. — Note  generate  sur  les  prises  de  vues  instantanees 
microphotographiques  (plaque  fixe  a  pellicule)  avec  l'arc  volta'ique. 

C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxii.  (1907)  p.  G57. 

Nbuhauss,  R. — Lehrbuch  der  Microphotographie. 

Leipzig  (S.  Hirzel)  1907,  xvi.  and  273  pp.  (3  pis.,  63  figs.). 

Pinoy,  E. — Nouvel  appareil  de  miorophotographie :  possibility  d'obtenir  meme  a  de 
forts  grossissements,  une  image  donnant  l'idee  de  la  structure  d'objet  presentant 
une  certaiue  epaisseur.  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxi.  (190G)  pp.  552-4  (1  fig.). 

Siede,  W. —  liber  einen  einfachen  Mikrophotographischen  Apparat. 

Zeitschr.  f.  angew.  Mikrosk.,  xiii.  (1907)  p.  62. 
Swingle,  W.  T.,  &  L.  T.  Briggs — Improvements  in  the  Ultraviolet  Microscope. 

Science,  n.s.  xxvi.  (1907)  p.  180. 

(5)  Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Application  of  the  Ultramicroscope  (after  Siedentopf)  and  of  the 
Microspectral  Photometer  (after  Engelmann)  to  the  Textile  and 
Dyeing  Industries. — N.  Gaidukov  has  investigated  the  above  subject 
in  regard  to  a  great  variety  of  materials,  and  states  his  conclusions 
as  follows  : — 

1.  By  means  of  Siedentopf  s  ultramicroscope  it  is  possible  to  test  the 
qualities  of  woven  threads,  and  to  detect  the  sources  of  these  qualities. 

2.  By  means  of  Engelmann's  spectral-photometer  it  is  possible  to 
examine  the  smallest  particle  of  dye-stuff  ;  to  arrive  at  a  chromatic 
analysis  (qualitative  and  quantitative)  of  individual  threads ;  to  com- 
pare the  colour  peculiarities  of  the  dye  and  of  the  threads  dyed  with  it ; 
to  observe  the  spectra  of  several  adjacent  threads  ;  and  to  compare  with 
one  another  the  intensities  of  the  tint  of  several  threads  of  the  same 
material. 

The  author  does  not  regard  his  results  as  exhaustive,  but  rather  as 
suggestive  of  a  very  promising  field  for  exploration. 

Heimstadt,  O. — Spiegelkondensor  fur  ultramikroskopische  Beobachtungen. 

Zeitschr.  f.  Chemie  u.  Industrie  d.  Kollo'ide,  i  (1907)  heft  9. 

Cleric i,  E. — Sulla  determinazione  dell'indice  di  refrazione  al  microscopio. 

Atti  delta  R.  Accad.  dei  Lincei,  xvi.  (1907)  p.  336. 

Faure-Fremiet,  E. — Sur  l'etude  ultramicroscopique  de  quelques  protozoaires. 

C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  briv.  (1908)  pp.  582-4. 

Gatin-Gruzewska,  Z.,  A.  Mater,    &    G.  Schaepfer— Sur    la    structure 
ultramicroscopique  des  empois  d'Amidon  et  de  leurs  constinants. 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  599-601. 

Siede,   W. — Ein   neuer     Apparat    zur    Sichtbarmachung     ultramikroskopischen 
Teilchen.  Zeitsclir.  f.  angew.  Mikrosk.,  xiii.  (1907)  p.  79. 

Schuster,    A. — Einfuhrung  in    die    Theoretische   Optik   Autorisierte,  deutsche 
Ausgabe,  iibersetzt  von  H.  Konan. 

Leipzig  und  Berlin  (B.  G.  Teubner)  1907,  xiv.  and  413  pp. 

(2  pis.  and  185'  figs.) 

*  Zeit.  f.  Ang.  Chemie  und  Zentralbl.  f.  Technische  Chemie,  xxi.  (1908)  p.  393 
et  seq.  (1  pi.  and  1  fig.). 

2  D  2 


388  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Flagellum  of  the  Tubercle  Bacillus.* — A.  A.  0.  E.  Merlin  confirms 
the  observation  of  E.  M.  Nelson  f  that  tubercle  bacilli  are  possessed  of 
flagella.  He  states  that  many  flagellated  specimens  will  be  found  in 
any  ordinary  well-stained  sputum  slide,  and  even  a  good  \  or  \  in. 
dry-objective,  used  critically  with  a  large  axial  illuminating  cone,  should 
prove  quite  sufficient  if  an  oil-immersion  lens  is  not  available. 

Quekett  Microscopical  Club.  —  The  447th  Ordinary  Meeting  was 
held  on  March  20,  TJ08,  the  President,  Prof.  E.  A.  Minchin,  M.A., 
F.Z.S.,  in  the  chair.  Mr.  A.  E.  Hilton  read  a  paper  on  "  The  Cause 
of  reversing  currents  in  Plasmodia  of  Mycetozoa."  After  describing 
the  observed  phenomena  at  some  length,  the  author  concluded  that 
streaming  of  the  interior  plasm  is  controlled  by  the  drier  aggregations 
of  plasm  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere,  and  that  these  controlling 
centres  affect  the  fluid  plasm  by  an  alternating  force  of  pressure  and 
suction.  He  suggests  that  the  visible  pulsations  are  indications  of  a 
respiratory  function  inherent  in  the  whole  mass  of  the  plasmodium. 
Mr.  C.  D.  Soar,  F.R.M.S.,  read  a  paper  on  the  genus  Hydrachna.  The 
term  Hydrachna  was  first  used  by  Midler  in  1776.  Of  the  21  species 
now  described,  4  were  new,  and  3  others  first  time  of  recording  in 
Britain. 

At  the  448th  Ordinary  Meeting  held  on  May  15,  the  President  in 
the  chair,  Mr.  C.  Lees  Curties,  F.R.M.S.,  exhibited  and  described  the 
simple  form  of  apertometer  devised  by  Mr.  F.  J.  Cheshire,  F.R.M.S., 
and  an  improved  mercury-vapour  lamp  for  use  in  microscopy.  Mr. 
R.  T.  Lewis,  F.R.M.S.,  exhibited  some  preparations  of  especially 
brdliantly  coloured  insects,  and  the  President  exhibited  a  preparation 
demonstrating  the  existence  of  an  organic  axial  filament  in  the  spicules 
of  calcareous  sponges.  The  spicule  had  been  decalcified  and  the  filament 
(and  outer  sheath)  stained  with  picric  (or  nitric)  acid  and  nigrosine. 
Mr.  F.  Martin-Duncan,  F.R.P.S.,  delivered  a  lecture,  illustrated  with 
lantern  photographs,  dealing  with  points  of  interest  in  insect  life  and 
development. 

Koch,  L.,  &  E.  Gilg —  Pharmakognostisches  Praktikum.  Eine  Anleitung  znr 
mikroskop.  Untersuchung  von  Drogen  u.  Drogenpulvern  zum  Gebraucne  in 
prakt.  Kursen  der  Hochschnlen. 

Berlin  :  Gebr.  Borntrager,  1907,  viii.  and  272  pp.  (140  figs.). 

B.  Technique.* 
(3)  Cutting-,  including  Imbedding-  and  Microtomes. 

Henneberg's  Microtome  Auxiliaries.* — The  Leitz  firm  have  made 
for  the  designer,  Prof.  Henneberg,  an  addition  to  their  chain  microtome. 
This  addition  the  author  finds  of  great  service  in  cutting  longer  bands 

*  English  Mechanic,  lxxxvii.  (1908)  p.  112. 

t  See  this  Journal,  1905,  pp.  412-13. 

X  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Pro- 
cesses ;  (2)  Preparing  Objects  ;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting ;  (5)  Mounting,  including  slides,  preservative  fluids,  etc. ; 
(6)  Miscellaneous. 

§  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikr.,  xxiv.  (1907)  pp.  274-7  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY.    MICROSCOPY.    KTC. 


389 


of  serial  sections  as  they  are  automatically  carried  along,  unfolded,  and 
delivered  without  hanging  down  from  the  back  of  the  knife.  A  band- 
gear  (fig.  Ill)  is  secured  to  the  knife  and  consists  of  an  endless  band 
running  on  two  rollers,  which  are  set  crosswise  through  the  two  ends  of 
a  tube.     In  order  that  the  band  may  always  be  kept  taut,  the  tube  is 


Fig.  111. 


formed  of  two  pieces  fitting  into  one  another  and  pressed  outwards  by  [a, 
spiral  spring  lying  in  the  interior  of  the  tube,  the  tube  being  carried  by 
a  clamp  fastened  by  two  pressure  screws  on  the  knife-back.     These 


Fig.  112. 

screws  are  set  behind  one  another,  not  sidewise,  so  that  it  is  possible  to 
arrange  the  band  horizontally  or  oblique.  The  roller  is  thus  close 
behind  the  knife-back.  In  the  axis  of  the  other  roller  there  is  a  toothed- 
wheel.  An  angle-piece  carrying  a  clutch  is  fastened  on  to  the  arm 
which  bears  the  chain-wheel.  This  clutch  projects  from  the  end  of  a 
staff  which  is  adjustable  in  its  length,  and  at  its  place  of  attachment  is 


300 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


rotatory  about  the  angle-piece.  The  clutch  when  setengages  downwards 
in  the  toothed-wheel  of  the  rear  roller.  When  the  apparatus  is  in 
action  the  band  in  the  case  of  every  section  travels  just  as  mnch  forwards 
as  the  movement  in  length  of  a  section  of  the  object  under  treatment. 

As  soon  as  the  serial  sections  have  commenced  formation  their  free  ends 
are  placed  by  a  paint-brush  'on  the  band  and  then  left :  while  the  cutting 
is  continued  the  sections  unfold  and  arrange  themselves  ribbon-like  on 
the  band  till  they  have  reached  the  free  end,  where  they  are  removed  in 
their  entirety.  The  movement  of  the  knife-block  insures  the  automatic 
action  of  the  band-gear.  The  teeth  of  the  wheel  are  so  cut  that  the 
clutch  slides  downwards  over  them  in  the  back  stroke,  and  engages  in 
them  in  the  forward  stroke. 

Some  preliminary  trials  will  be  necessary  to  get  the  exact  position  of 
the  clutch  staff  suitable  for  the  section-length,  so  that  the  sections  may 
form  a  perfect  ribbon.  In  order  to  facilitate  this  operation  the  author 
has  designed  a  special  knife  adjustment  (fig.  112),  consisting  of  a  modified 
knife-clamp  and  a  small  block  with  position  screw.  A  perforated  circular 
disk  around  which  the  required  movement  is  to  take  place  is  applied  to 
and  fixed  upon  the  screw-holder.  The  shanks  of  the  knife  bear 
corresponding  notches  in  which  the  disk  engages.  The  small  block  with 
the  position-screw  is  set  in  the  groove  of  the  knife-block,  and  a  slight 
rotation  of  the  position-screw  gives  the  required  inclination  to  the 
knife. 

Method  of  Orientating  Small  Objects  for  Examination.* — 
W.  F.  Cooper  and   L.    E.    Robinson   contribute   a   short   note   on   a 


CORK 


PLASTY iNL 

CORH- 


,HN 


Fig.  113. 

method  they  have  found  useful  in  their  work  on  Ixodidea.  The 
method  is  an  improvement  on  those  generally  used  for  the  examination 
of  ticks.     The  authors  give  the  following  account  of  their  procedure. 

"  In  the  examination  of  the  appendages  and  small  portions  of 
Arthropods,  considerable  difficulty  is  often  experienced  in  fixing  them 
temporarily  in  a  suitable  position  for  observation.  This  can  be  over- 
come by  the  use  of  a  preparation  universally  known  as  '  Plasticine.' 

"  A  small  bead  of  it  is  placed  on  a  slide  and  slightly  flattened  :  the 
object  is  then  placed  upon  it,  moved  into  a  suitable  position,  and 
slightly  pressed  into  the  plasticine. 

"We  have  devised  a  simple  piece  of  apparatus  by  means  of  which 
the  object  may  be  rotated  in  one  plane  (fig.  113).     A  cork  is  cemented 

*  Original  communication. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  391 

to  one  end  of  an  ordinary  micro-slide  by  sealing-wax  ;  a  glass-headed 
pin,  about  2  in.  long,  is  inserted  through  the  upper  end  of  the  cork,  in 
the  direction  of  the  long  axis  of  the  slide;  on  the  point  of  this  pin  is 
placed  a  small  rectangular  piece  of  cork  which  carries  the  plasticine. 
By  revolving  the  pin,  the  object  can  be  rotated  and  observed  through 
an  angle  of  18<>  ." 

(4)  Staining-  and  Injecting-. 

Arnold,  J. — Supra vitale  Farbung  Mitochondrion  ahnlioher  Granula  in  den  knor- 
pelzellen  nebst  Bemerkungen  uber  die  Morphologie  des  Xnorpelglykogens. 

Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  361-6. 

Be  the,  A. — 1st  die  primare  Farbbarkeit  der  Nervenfasera  durcn  die  Amvesenheit 
einer  besenderen  substanz  bedingt.  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  337-45  (1  pi.). 

(5)    Mounting-,  including-  Slides,  Preservative  Fluids,  etc. 

Preserving  the  Colour  of  Anatomical  Specimens.* — G.  Fornario 
finds  that  the  following  method  is  superior  to  that  of  Kaiserling  for 
retaining  the  colour  of  museum  specimens.  The  fresh  specimens,  which 
may  or  not  be  washed  in  physiological  salt  solution,  are  immersed  in  a 
4  p.c.  solution  of  commercial  formalin  for  4S  hours,  after  which  they 
are  transferred  to  90  p.c.  alcohol  for  not  more  than  24  hours.  The 
specimen  is  then  placed  in  fresh  DO  p.c.  alcohol,  and  to  this  is  added,  drop 
by  drop,  a  variable  quantity  of  the  following  solution  :  saturated  solution 
of  picric  acid  100  c.cm.,  glacial  acetic  acid  4  c.cm.  The  initial  colour 
should  reappear  in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes. 

The  quantity  of  the  picric  acid  solution  varies  according  to  the  size 
of  the  piece  ;  it  does  not  exceed  10  c.cm.  per  litre.  In  this  solution  the 
pieces  may  remain  indefinitely,  but  a  few  days  suffice.  They  are  then 
transferred  to  90  p.c.  alcohol,  in  which  they  are  permanently  preserved. 
For  large  pieces  it  is  useful  to  add  a  very  small  quantity  of  haemoglobin 
to  the  picric  acid  solution. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Improved  Form  of  Celloidin  Capsule. f — W.  H.  Harvey  employs  the 
following  method  for  making  celloidin  capsules.  The  cover  and  body  of 
a  gelatin  capsule  are  separated,  and  through  the  bottom  of  the  latter  a 
hole  is  made  to  admit  a  piece  of  glass  tubing  of  4-6  mm.  external 
diameter.  The  capsule  being  closed  again,  the  glass  tube  is  warmed  and 
passed  through  the  hole  until  it  touches  the  cover,  to  the  inside  of  which 
it  will  adhere.  The  capsule  and  about  3  cm.  of  the  glass  tube  are  now 
dipped  into  a  specimen  tube  of  melted  paraffin  ;  on  withdrawing,  the 
tube  is  rotated  to  enable  the  paraffin  to  cool  in  an  even  layer.  The 
capsule  and  tube  are  now  dipped  twice  into  a  specimen  tube  containing 
a  3  p.c.  solution  of  celloidin,  and  then  three  or  four  times  into  a  9  p.c. 
solution  of  celloidin.  When  the  last  layer  has  set,  the  structure  is  placed 
in  a  test-tube  containing  chloroform  which  burdens  the  celloidin  and 
dissolves  the  paraffin,  leaving  the  gelatin  capsule  free  in  a  shell  of 
celloidin.  The  whole  is  then  placed  in  a  bath  of  spirit  for  a  few 
minutes,  and  then  into  a  beaker  of  water.     The  glass  tube  may  now  be 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (.1908)  pp.  543-4. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  It"  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvi.  (1908)  p.  285. 


392  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    I.I'.SEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

readily  withdrawn,  and  the  gelatin  capsule  is  removed  by  means  of  a 
wire  hook,  a  transparent  celloidin  capsule  being  left.  This  is  then 
sterilised  and  filled  or  inoculated,  and  then  closed  by  passing  a  small 
ping  of  aseptic  wool  down  the  neck  of  the  capsule,  and  capped  with  a 
drop  of  paraffin.  The  author  claims  that  these  capsules  have  strength, 
maximum  of  dialysing  surface,  no  limit  to  capacity,  and  other  obvious 
advantages. 

Method  for  Photographing  Superficial  Bacterial  Colonies.*  — 
L.  de  Jager  employs  the  following  method  for  photographing  certain 
transparent  superficial  bacterial  colonies.  On  to  the  surface  of  the 
gelatin  or  agar-plate  culture  is  pasted  a  piece  of  smooth,  thin  gummed 
paper  ;  when  this  is  removed  again,  after  the  manner  of  preparing  a 
hektograpkic  copy,  the  whole  of  the  surface  colony  adheres  to  it ;  the 
paper  is  then  dried  and  flamed  like  a  coverslip,  until  it  assumes  a  yellow 
colour  :  it  is  then  covered  with  a  concentrated  solution  of  toluidin-blue, 
a  piece  of  blotting-paper  being  placed  under  it  to  prevent  the  under 
surface  from  being  stained  ;  the  colonies  stain  dark  blue,  and  paper 
faint  blue  ;  after  a  few  minutes  the  stain  is  removed  by  repeated  wash- 
ings in  water ;  the  paper  is  then  soaked  in  oil,  which  renders  it  quite 
transparent,  and  it  can  then  be  used  as  a  photographic  negative.  When 
printing,  in  order  to  protect  the  celloidin  paper  from  the  oil,  it  is  well 
to  interpose  a  layer  of  collodiuni  between  the  two  papers. 

Red  Blood  Cells  in  Malaria.f — S.  Sereni  has  subjected  the  blood  of 
malarial  patients  to  the  centrifuge,  and  also  to  spontaneous  sedimenta- 
tion, and  found  that  the  red  cells  containing  parasites  preponderated 
only  in  the  outermost  zone  of  the  centrifuged  blood  or  in  the  lowest 
layers  of  the  sedimented  blood,  and  this  was  irrespective  of  the  period 
or  stage  of  the  parasite,  with  the  exception  of  the  half -moon  forms  which 
were  found  in  the  zone  between  the  globular  sediment  and  the  blood 
serum.  The  author  concludes  that  the  presence  of  a  malarial  parasite 
increases  the  specific  gravity  of  the  blood  corpuscles,  and  that  the 
crescent  forms  diminish  their  specific  gravity.  The  author  considers 
that  to  this  increase  of  specific  gravity,  and  consequent  diminution  of 
elasticity,  and  also  to  the  increase  of  superficial  viscosity,  may  be 
referred  the  fact  that  the  parasite-holding  red  cells  are  fewer  in  the 
circulation,  and  in  fresh  blood  are  less  readily  distinguished  than  normal 
cells,  and  may  also  account  for  the  accumulation  of  red  cells  containing 
developing  or  spore-forming  parasites  in  the  capillary  network  of  various 
organs,  and  especially  in  the  brain. 

Moysey,    L. — Method  of  Splitting  Ironstone  Nodules  by  means  of  an  Artificial 
Freezing  Mixture. 

[Method  of  freeing  fossils  without  damage ;  though  not  strictly  micro- 
scopical, the  method  is  indirectly  useful  if  slices  or  sections  of  a  fossil  be 
required.]  Geological  Mag.,  v.  (1908)  pp.  220-2. 


*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  slvi.  (190S)  p.  92. 
t  Op.  cit.lte!  Abt.  Ref.,  xl.  (1908)  p.  850. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  393 


Metallography,  etc. 

Importance  of  Centring  in  Microscopic  Metallography.*  —  L. 
Guillet  describes  a  stage  fitting  designed  by  Le  Grrix  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  the  same  field  into  view  in  successive  examinations  of  a  section. 
The  edge  of  the  section  is  grooved  at  one  point.  Two  small  angle- 
blocks  are  fixed  at  right  angles  to  each  other  on  a  brass  plate  fitting  on 
the  stage.  The  section  is  placed  so  that  one  angle-block  fits  into  the 
groove,  while  another  point  of  the  edge  of  the  section  is  in  contact  with 
the  other  block.  The  author  describes  a  number  of  examples  of  photo- 
graphs of  the  same  field  after  successive  etchings,  in  sections  of  steel, 
cast  iron,  brass,  etc. 

Constituents  of  Quenched  Steels.f  —  P.  Breuil  reports  upon  the 
research  undertaken  by  him  as  the  outcome  of  the  formation  of  the 
International  Committee  for  Investigating  the  Constituents  of  Steel.* 
This    committee    has    apparently   ceased    to    exist ;    no   authoritative 
report    seems    to    have    been   issued.      The    publication   of    Breuil's 
work  has  been  long  delayed  through  the  opposition  of  H.  le  Chatelier 
and  L.   Gnillet,  who  do  not  appear  to   have    been  satisfied  with  the 
methods  adopted  and    the    experimental    programme  followed.      The 
author  examined,  microscopically  and  mechanically,  six  steels  (carbon 
0'38,    0-70,    0-85,    1"20,    1*40,    1'80   p.c),   and    some    cast-irons 
and   cemented   steels.      Samples  (three   different   sizes)  of    each  were 
quenched  from  650°,  750°,  850°,  1050°,  and  1200°-C,  and  were  examined 
as  quenched,  and  also  after  re-heating  to  225°,  355°,  and  455°  C.     The 
temperatures  were   taken    by  a  thermocouple,  in  conjunction  with   a 
Callendar  recorder  arranged  as  a  potentiometer.     Considerable  decar- 
burisation  occurred  in  heating,  so  that  the  true  structures  were  only 
obtained  in  the  central  portions  of  the  larger  pieces.     The  author  gives 
numerous  details  of  methods  of  polishing,  etching,  and  preparation  of 
polishing  powders.     Powdered  talc  was  employed  for  polishing,  and 
KourbatofFs  reagents  were  used.      The  most  remarkable  conclusions 
reached  by  the  author  relate  to  the  constitution  of  troostite,  which  is 
held  to  be  finely  divided  graphitic  carbon  resulting  from  the  decompo- 
sition of  cementite  before  passing  into  solution  in  the  iron.    Cementite  A 
is  the  cementite  of  pearlite,  while  cementite  B  is  massive.     Sorbite  is  a 
pearlite  of  fine  emulsified  granules  of  cementite.     Martensite  is  a  com- 
plete but  unsaturated  solution  of  cementite  A  in  ferrite.     Hardenite  is 
a  saturated  martensite.     Austenite  is  hardenite,  in  which  is  dissolved 
cementite  B.      Osmondite  is  an  incipient  solution  of  the  granules  of 
sorbite,  which  are  surrounded  bv  troostite.     The  changes  which  occur 
when  an  annealed  steel  is  heated  are  as  follows  : — Towards  700°  C.  the 
sorbite  or  pearlite  granulates  and  the  granules  enlarge,  then  begin  to 
dissolve  in  the  ferrite,  apparently  with  some  difficulty,  for  the  larger 
grains,  more  slow  to  dissolve,  give  off  carbon   by  dissociation.     It  is 

*  Rev.  de  Metallurgie,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  1027-36  (33  figs.). 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Industrie  Minerals,  ser.  4,  vi.  (1907)  pp.  553  683  (18  figs,  and  333 
photomicrographs).  See  also  Metallurgie,  v. (1908)  pp.  59-60,96-9, 105-14(335  figs.). 
%  See  this  Journal,  1905,  p.  534. 


394  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

this  carbon  which  the  author  terms  troostite.  The  constituent  con- 
taining this  separated  carbon  is  osmondite.  All  the  carbide  of  pearlite 
or  sorbite  is  dissolved  at  850°  C.  ;  carbide  B  begins  to  dissolve  at  higher 
temperatures.  The  effect  of  reheating  on  quenched  steels  is  destruction 
of  unstable  equilibrium,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  sorbite. 

Thermomagnetic  Analysis  of  Meteoric  and  Artificial  Nickel-iron 
Alloys.* — S.  W.  J.  Smith  has  determined  the  magnetic  permeability  of 
a  sample  cut  from  the  Sacramento  meteorite  (7-8  p.c.  nickel)  and  of  an 
artificial  nickel-iron  alloy  (5  "8  p.c.  nickel)  at  temperatures  between  0° 
and  850°  C,  under  varying  conditions  of  heating  and  cooling.  The 
meteorite  consisted  of  kamacite,  through  which  passed  thin  layers  of 
taenite.  Taenite  is  assumed  to  be  a  eutectic,  with  about  27  p.c.  nickel, 
of  (1)  mixed  crystals  containing  about  7  p.c.  nickel  (kamacite),  and 
(2)  mixed  crystals  of  much  higher  nickel  content,  probably  not  less 
than  87  p.c.  The  temperature-concentration  diagram,  representing  the 
magnetic  changes  in  the  nickel-iron  system,  is  held  to  be  the  equilibrium 
diagram  showing  the  crystallisation  of  these  two  series  of  mixed  crystals 
from  a  homogeneous  solid  solution.  From  his  results  the  author 
deduces  a  theory  explanatory  of  the  irreversibility  of  nickel-iron  alloys. 
Irreversibility  is  held  to  be  due  to  supersaturation.  As  the  homogeneous 
solid  solution  is  cooled,  a  point  is  reached  at  which  it  is  saturated,  and 
if  nuclei  of  the  mixed  crystals  which  should  separate  were  present, 
separation  would  commence.  But  the  solution  remains  supersaturated 
(metastable)  through  a  temperature  interval.  A  lower  point  is  then 
reached,  at  which  the  labile  succeeds  the  metastable  state.  Crystallisa- 
tion then  necessarily  begins. 

Alloys  of  Gold  and  Tellurium.! — T.  K.  Rose  has  determined  the 
equilibrium  diagram.  One  compound,  AuTe2  or  Au2Te4  (melting  point 
452°  C),  and  two  eutectics,  with  20  and  GO  p.c.  gold  respectively,  occur. 

Platinum-thallium  Alloy. t — Thermal,  microscopic,  and  chemical 
investigations  of  the  alloys  produced  by  dissolving  platinum  in  molten 
thallium,  lead  L.  Hackspill  to  assert  the  existence  of  the  compound 
PtTl,  the  properties  of  which  are  described.  It  melts  at  685°  C,  and 
is  analogous  to  PtPb. 


^ 


Austenite.§ — Owing  to  the  failure  of  numerous  attempts  to  produce 

austenite  in  pure  iron-carbon  alloys,  E.  Maurer  tried  to  obtain   this 

constituent  in  three  steels  of  the  following  composition  : — 

12  3 

Nickel  3-73  p.c. 

Manganese 

Carbon 

Silicon 

Martensite  was  obtained  in  Xos.  1  and  2  by  heating  at  1050°  C.  for 
15   minutes,   and    quenching    in  ice  water,  while  No.  3  yielded  pure 

*  Phil.  Trans.  Roy.  Soc,  Series  A.  ccviii.  (1908)  pp.  21-109  (31  figs.). 
t  Journ.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  xxvii.  (1908)  p.  229.     See  also  Bull.  Inst.  Min.  and 
Metallurgy,  1908. 

X  Comptes  Kendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  820-2.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  822-6. 


1-83  p.c. 

2-20  p.c. 

1-21    „ 

1-18   „ 

1-94    „ 

0-28    „ 

0-88    „ 

0-94    „ 

ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  395 

austenite.  This  austenite  showed  distinct  twinning.  The  steel  in  this 
state  was  not  magnetic,  was  not  very  hard,  but  could  be  considerably 
hardened  by  mechanical  distortion,  by  re-heating  to  400°  C,  or  by 
immersion  in  liquid  air,  all  these  treatments  converting  austenite  into 
martensite. 

H.  le  Chatelier  points  out  the  importance  of  Maurer's  production  of 
homogeneous  austenite.  While  two  well-known  alloys  of  iron,  con- 
taining respectively  13  p.c.  manganese  and  25  p.c.  nickel  are 
undoubtedly  austenitic.  it  did  not  seem  possible  to  produce  austenite 
with  certainty  in  steels  containing  small  amounts  of  these  metals. 

Application  of  Colour  Photography  in  Metallography.*  —  For 
developing  the  structure  of  metal  sections,  methods  by  which  the 
•constituents  are  differently  coloured  are  in  many  respects  superior  to 
etching  methods,  which  merely  bring  out  the  constituents  in  relief. 
P.  Goerens  regrets  that  heat-tinting  is  so  little  used,  and  describes  the 
production  on  Lumiere  plates  of  photomicrographs  in  colour.  The 
coloured  photomicrographs  of  a  heat-tinted  iron-phosphorus  alloy 
(1*5  p.c.  phosphorus),  given  by  the  author  as  reproductions  of 
Lumiere  photographs  in  colour,  clearly  show  the  variation  in  concen- 
tration of  the  solid  solution.  It  is  advantageous  to  have  the  section 
as  richly  coloured  as  possible  ;  a  yellow  screen  is  placed  at  the  diaphragm 
of  the  photomicrographic  apparatus.  The  theory  of  the  process,  and  full 
directions  for  working  it,  are  given. 

Baykoff — Crystallisation  and  Structure  of  Steel. 

Rev.  de  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  177-81  (7  figs.) 

Borne mann,  K. — Constitution  of  Nickel  Ore. 

[A  determination  of  the  equilibrium  diagrams  of  the  systems  FeS  — Ni3S2 
and  FeS— Ni2S.]  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  61-8  (22  figs.). 

Crowther,  J.  A. — Fatigue  of  Metals  subjected  to  Radium  Rays. 

Proc.  Comb.  Phil.  Soc.,  xiv.  (1908)  pp.  340-50  (3  figs.). 

Gahl,  W. — Graphite  Separation  in  Iron-carbon  Alloys. 

[A  theoretical  discussion  of  the  results  obtained  by  Heyn,  Goerens,  Bene- 
dicks, Osann,  etc.] 

Stahl  nun  Eisen,  xxviii.  (1908)  pp.  225-9  (5  figs.). 
Portevin,  A.— Alloys  of  Gold. 

[The  second  article  of  the  series.     See  above,  Portevin,  "  Alloys  of  Silver."] 

Rev.  de  Mitallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  182-204  (31  figs.). 
Bevillon,  L. — Special  Steels  at  the  Automobile  Salon. 

Tom.  tit.,  pp.  53-68. 
Rowland,  W.  S. — Electrolytic  Corrosion  of  Copper- aluminium  Alloys. 

Journ.  Phys.  Chem.,  xii.  (1908)  pp.  180-206  (8  figs.). 

Stoughton,  B. — Micro-constituents  of  Cast  Iron. 

Foundry,  xxxii.  (1908)  p.  41. 

Watts,  0.  P. — Metals  in  the  Order  of  their  Boiling-points. 

Traits.  Aiurr.  Electrochem.  Soc,  xii.  (1907)  pp.  141-54. 

*  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  19-23  (5  figs.). 


:\W 


PK0CEED1NGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  15th  of  April,  1908,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W. 
Conrad  Beck,  Esq.,  Vice-President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  18th  of  March,  1908,  were  read 
and  confirmed. 


A  Donation  of  an  Old  Microscope  (made  by  Shuttleworth  about 
1786)  from  Mr.  W.  E.  Baxter  was  announced,  the  instrument  being 
exhibited  in  the  room,  and  described  by  Mr.  C.  F.  Rousselet. 

The  Chairman  said  he  was  quite  sure  that  the  Fellows  present  would 
pass  a  very  hearty  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Baxter  for  this  addition  to 
their  collection  of  instruments,  which  was  now  becoming  an  important 
and  interesting  one. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  unanimously  voted  for  this  donation. 


Messrs.  Watson  and  Sons  exhibited  a  new  form  of  Museum  Micro- 
scope which  had  been  designed  by  Mr.  C.  0.  Waterhouse,  of  the  Natural 
History  Museum  at  South  Kensington.  The  instrument  was  entirely 
inclosed  in  a  glass  case,  excepting  the  eye-piece,  by  turning  which  an 
alteration  of  focus  could  be  made.  All  the  working  parts  of  the  instru- 
ment were  secured  against  interference  or  removal  by  the  public,  who 
could  make  use  of  the  instrument  when  once  it  had  been  adjusted,  and 
an  object  placed  upon  the  stage  by  an  attendant.  A  drum-shaped  stage 
for  twelve  objects,  mounted  on  the  ordinary  3  in.  by  1  in.  slides,  could 
be  rotated  from  the  exterior  of  the  case. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  Messrs.  "Watson  for  sending 
this  Microscope  to  the  Meeting  for  exhibition. 

Mr.  Pigg,  in  reply  to  an  inquiry  from  the  Chairman  as  to  a  specimen 
of  Microscopic  Writing  which  he  was  exhibiting,  said  that  the  slide  was 
a  specimen  of  Webb's  diamond  writing.  The  Lord's  Prayer,  containing 
227  letters,  had  been  written  in  the  space  of  2W000  scl-  m->  which  was 
in  the  ratio  of  15  bibles  to  the  square  inch.  A  *fe  in.  objective  was 
necessary  to  decipher  the  writing.  The  size  of  the  space  occupied  by 
the  writing  is  4^  in.  by  5}iT  in.  The  ratio  of  letters  to  the  square  inch 
is  53,880,000. 

The  Chairman  asked  where  Mr.  Webb's  writing  machine  was  at  the 
present  time. 

Mr.  Pigg  said  he  did  not  know. 

Mr.  C.  L.  Curties  said  that  Mr.  Webb  destroyed  it  before  his  death. 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY.  397 

Mr.  F.  Shilling-ton  Scales  read  a  number  of  extracts  from  a  paper 
contributed  by  Mr.  James  Strachan,  "  On  Dendritic  Growths  of  Copper 
Oxide  on  Paper,"  the  subject  being  illustrated  by  a  large  number  of 
examples  exhibited  under  Microscopes  in  the  room.  Lantern  slides  of 
some  of  these  were  subsequently  shown  upon  the  screen. 

Mr.  Strachan  verified  previous  investigations  showing  that  these 
dendrites  originated  in  minute  particles  of  copper,  their  branching 
being  due  to  the  direction  of  the  fibres  in  the  paper,  and  showed  further 
that  they  were  not  peculiar  to  any  particular  kind  of  fibre,  that  they 
formed  a  coating  outside  and  not  inside  the  fibre,  that  they  were  found 
in  quite  recent  papers,  and  that  they  might  be  formed  in  as  short  a 
time  as  twelve  months.  He  advanced  various  suggestions  with  regard 
to  the  chemical  process  which  took  place. 

Mr.  Scales  beiug  called  upon  by  the  Chairman  for  an  expression  of 
his  own  opinion  on  the  subject,  said  that  he  should  not  wish  to  indorse 
all  the  theories  which  Mr.  Strachan  had  put  forward  in  this  very 
interesting  paper,  but  there  was  no  doubt  he  was  right  as  to  the  fact 
that  these  forms  arose  from  the  oxidation  of  particles  of  copper  derived 
from  portions  of  the  machinery  during  the  process  of  manufacture  of 
the  paper  that  they  branched  along  the  fibres  of  the  paper,  and  that 
this  process  took  a  much  shorter  time  than  had  hitherto  been  thought 
possible,  but  when  he  came  to  the  reasons  why  they  branched  out  in  this 
remarkable  manner,  and  the  chemical  changes  which  caused  them  to  do 
this,  he  was  getting  upon  rather  more  controversial  ground.  The  copper 
must  necessarily  have  an  intermediate  stage  of  solution  of  some  kind, 
but  what  was  the  exact  nature  of  the  process  by  which  it  was  dissolved 
and  re-crystallised  was  not  yet  set  beyond  question. 

The  Chairman  said  they  were  much  indebted  to  Mr.  Scales  for  bring- 
ing the  subject  before  them  in  the  absence  of  the  author  of  the  paper. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Strachan 
for  his  paper,  and  to  Mr.  Scales  for  reading  it. 


Mr.  F.  Enock  then  gave  a  very  interesting  exhibition  of  lantern 
slides  in  illustration  of  his  remarks  on  "  Nature's  Protection  of  Insect 
Life  " — all  the  slides  having  been  taken  by  the  Sanger-Shepherd  three- 
colour  process.  Mr.  Enock  prefaced  his  description  of  the  pictures 
by  a  brief  accouut  of  the  process  which  he  had  employed  in  their  pro- 
duction, by  transferring  the  red  and  yellow  prints  to  the  blue  plate,  so 
as  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  transmitting  the  light  of  the  lantern  through 
the  thickness  of  three  films — with  the  result  that  a  much  brighter 
picture  was  produced  without  in  any  way  impairing  the  fidelity  of  the 
coloration.  The  difficulties  experienced  in  taking  photographs  of  living 
subjects,  which  were  likely  to  move  during  the  time  needed  for  three 
exposures,  were  also  mentioned.  The  series  exhibited  comprised  a 
number  of  illustrations  of  so-called  mimicry  on  the  part  of  moths  and 
caterpillars,  some  of  which  had  settled  themselves  on  bark  and  other 
objects  so  nearly  of  the  same  colour  as  themselves  that  it  was  extremely 
difficult  to  determine  their  whereabouts.     The  exhibition  concluded  with 


398  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

a  few  slides  of  flowers,  etc.,  to  demonstrate  the  fidelity  of  the  process  in 
the  reproduction  of  the  natural  colours. 

On  the  motion  of  the  Chairman,  a  very  hearty  vote  of  thanks  was 
passed  to  Mr.  Enock  for  his  very  beautiful  and  interesting  exhibition. 


Notice  was  given  that  the  rooms  of  the  Society  would  be  closed  from 
Thursday  evening,  April  17,  to  Tuesday  morning,  April  21. 

Also  that  at  the  next  meeting  of  the  Society,  on  May  20,  there  would 
be  a  special  exhibition  of  Pond-life. 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited  : — 

The  Society  : — An  Old  Microscope  by  Shuttleworth,  presented  by 
Mr.  Wynne  E.  Baxter. 

Messrs.  Watson  and  Sons  : — New  form  of  Museum  Microscope. 

Mr.  J.  Inderwick  Pigg  : — Microscopic  writing  by  Webb,  the  Lord's 
Prayer  being  written  within  an  area  of  ^ynnm  S(l'  m> 

Mr.  F.  Shillington  Scales: — 16  micro-slides  of  dendrites  from  paper. 
Lantern  slides  shown  on  the  screen  and  various  specimens  in  illustration 
of  Mr.  Strachan's  paper. 

Mr.  W.  J.  Marshall : — Dendritic  crystals  on  old  ledger  paper. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  20th  of  May,  1908,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W. 
A.  N.  Disney,  Esq.,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Chairman  said  they  had  received  a  letter  from  the  President 
expressing  his  regret  at  not  being  able  to  be  present,  as  he  was 
detained  by  important  business  at  the  House  of  Lords  ;  he  hoped, 
however,  to  be  able  to  join  them  later  in  the  evening. 


The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  April  15,  1908,  were  read  and  con- 
firmed, and  were  signed  by  the  Chairman. 


The  List  of  Donations  (exclusive  of  exchanges  and  reprints)  re- 
ceived since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of  the  Society 
were  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 

C.  F.  O.  Nordstedt,  Index  Desmidiacearum,  Supplements.  I  Sufd'ofse'des  Sciences 
(4to,  Berolini,  1908)  \  Stockholm 

H.  &  M.  Peragallo,    Les  Diatomees    Marines  de   France.  \       -,   T  m        , 
(8vo,  Grez-sur-Loing,  1908) /      M- J-  lemPere- 

Cornelius   Varley,  A  Treatise  on  Optical  Drawing  Instru-\   ,f     T   w    T 

ments.     (8vo,  London,  1845) j  Mr.  J.  Jb.  xngpen. 

Direct-reading  Micrometer  Gauge Mr.  J.  Ciceri  Smith. 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY.  399' 

Mr.  C.  F.  Rousselet  said  that  the  Society  were  going  to  exhibit  in 
the  Biological  Section  of  the  Franco-British  Exhibition  a  collection  of 
instruments  illustrative  of  the  history  of  the  Microscope.  The  collec- 
tion would  consist  of  twenty-eight  old  Microscopes,  most  of  which  were 
taken  from  the  Society's  own  collection,  several  others  being  lent  for 
the  purpose  by  Sir  Frank  Crisp  and  Mr.  Nelson.  As  the  Fellows 
present  would  no  doubt  be  interested  in  what  would  be  shown,  lantern 
slides  of  the  various  instruments  had  been  prepared,  which  were  then 
exhibited  on  the  screen — a  brief  description  being  given  of  each,  and 
the  parts  referred  to  being  indicated  where  necessary  by  Mr.  J.  W. 
Gordon  with  a  pointer.  The  series  included  models  by  Leeuwenhoek, 
Wilson  (screw  barrel  form),  Lieberkuhn,  Marshall,  Culpeper,  Jones, 
Benjamin  Martin,  Shuttleworth,  Cuthbert,  Chevalier,  Hugh  Powell 
(early  form  1839),  James  Smith,  Andrew  Ross ;  and  finished  with 
Powell  and  Lealand's  of  1848. 

The  Chairman  felt  sure  that  the  Fellows  of  the  Society  had  been 
greatly  interested  by  this  exhibition,  and  would  return  a  very  hearty 
vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Rousselet  and  Mr.  Gordon  for  bringing  the  matter 
before  them.  The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  unanimously  voted  to 
these  gentlemen  accordingly. 


Mr.  J.  E.  Barnard  exhibited  an  old  Photomicrographic  Apparatus, 
which  was  designed  by  Dr.  Maddox  for  Dr.  Lionel  S.  Beale.  There 
were  two  points  about  it  which  were  worth  notice  ;  the  first  of  which 
was,  that  the  objective  was  connected  up  to  the  stage  by  a  light-excluding 
appliance  ;  the  other  being  that  the  sub-stage  condenser,  and  other 
illuminating  apparatus,  were  carried  on  a  triangular  bar,  which  was 
inverted.  He  should  be  very  pleased  to  place  the  apparatus  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Society  if  it  was  considered  of  sufficient  value  to  be  worth 
adding  to  their  collection. 

The  Chairman  expressed  the  thanks  of  the  Society  to  Mr.  Barnard 
for  his  exhibit,  and  for  the  present  to  them  of  the  apparatus  described, 
which  they  would  be  very  pleased  to  accept  and  to  place  amongst  the 
other  objects  of  interest  in  their  collection. 

The  Chairman  called  attention  to  the  large  number  of  examples  of 
pond-life  exhibited  in  the  room,  and  asked  for  a  very  hearty  vote  of" 
thanks  to  those  Members  of  the  Quekett  Club  and  Fellows  of  their  own 
Society  who  had  brought  their  Microscopes  and  objects  for  exhibition. 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited : — 

The  Society  : — Lantern  Slides  of  Microscopes  to  be  exhibited  at  the 

Franco-British  Exhibition. 
Mr.  J.  E.  Barnard  : — An  Old  Photomicrographic  Apparatus. 
Specimens  of  Ponddife,  as  follows  : — 

Mr.  F.  W.  Watson  Baker: — Plumatella  emerging  from  statoblasts. 
Mr.  James  Burton  : — Draparnahlia  sp.,  Stentor  sp.      Illuminated  with 

Rheinberg's  colour  disks. 
Mr.  Thomas  N.  Cox  : — Anacharis. 
Mr.  D.  Davies  : — CEcistes  crystallinus. 


400  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

Mr.  Th.  A.  Delcomyn  : — Desmids,  Diatoms,  etc. 

Mr.  A.  Downs: — Hydra fusca,  Volvox  globator. 

Mr.  F.  W.  Eyre  : — Melicerta  ringens. 

Mr.  A.  E.  Hilton  : — Spongilla,  lacustris  (?)      x  20. 

Mr.  E.  Hinton  : — Bladderwort,  showing  captured  Entomostraca. 

Mr.  J.  T.  Holder  : — Water-mite. 

Mr.  H.  S.  Martin  : — Actinosphcerium  eichhomi. 

J.  I.  Pigg  :— Circulation  of  blood  in  tail  of  Tadpole. 

F.  J.  W.  Plaskett : — Fresh-water  Diatoms,  Navicula,  Surirella,  etc. 

Mr.  Thomas  H.  Powell  : — Cyclosis  in  Vallisneria. 

Mr.  G.  H.  J.  Rogers  : — Lophopus  crystallinus. 

Mr.    C.    F.    Rousselet : — Fredericella    sultana,    Lophopus    crystallinus, 

Rotifera,  various,  Melicerta  ringens,  Stephanoceros  eichhomi,  Volvox 

globator. 
Mr.  J.  Pledge  : — Actinosphcerium  eichhomi  (^  in.  objective). 
Mr.  D.  J.  Scourfield  : — Ditto  (y1^  in.  objective). 
Mr.  C.  J.  J.  Sid  well : — Ditto  (1  in.  objective  dark  ground). 
Mr.  T.  J.  Smith  : — Diptera,  Mochlonyx  (male). 
Mr.  Charles  D.  Soar  : — Water-mites. 
Mr.  H.  Taverner  : — Water-mites. 
Mr.    George    Tilling : — Melicerta    ringens,    shown    with    Rheinberg's 

colour  disks. 
Mr.  W.  R.  Traviss  : — Circulation  in  Nitella. 
Mr.  Charles  Turner  : — Head  of  Water-beetle,  Gyrinus  natata,  showing 

the  two  pairs  of  eyes. 
Mr.  J.  C.  Webb  : — Daphnia. 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.  SOC.  1908.   PI.  V. 


W.  Wesehe,  del. 


JOUENAL 

OF    THE 

ROYAL  MICROSCOPICAL    SOCIETY. 

AUGUST,   1908. 


TRANSACTIONS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


XII. — On   the  Microscope  as  an  Aid  to  the   Study  of  Biology  in 
Entomology,  with  particular  reference  to  the  Food  of  Insects. 

By  W.  Wesche,  F.E.M.S. 

(Read  January  15,  1908.) 
Plates  V.  to  X. 

Entomologists  are  generally  satisfied  with  the  identification  and 
classification  of  their  specimens  ;  connected  with  this  work  are  many 
points  of  the  greatest  interest,  such  as  variation  and  mimicry,  and 
in  the  phylogeny  new  points  are  constantly  arising  and  give  little 
leisure  for  other  work.  So  the  large  majority  of  the  life-histories 
still  remain  unstudied,  and  the  habits  of  many  well  known  species 

EXPLANATION   OF   PLATE  V. 

Fig.  1. — Fore  leg  of  Chrysops  arcutiens  L.  $  .  To  illustrate  the  simple  type 
of  limb.  This  insect  belongs  to  the  family  of  the  Tabanidse,  and  is  a  well  known 
and  keen  blood-sucker.     It  is  met  with  in  our  English  woods  and  meadows. 

Fig.  2. — Middle  leg  of  Chrysopilns  aureus  Mg.  9  .  Simple  type.  Belongs  to 
the  Leptidse,  and  is  not  uncommon  in  long  grass  and  meadows. 

Fig.  3. — Hind  leg  of  Beris  vallata  Forst.  9  .  Simple  type.  Belongs  to  the 
Stratiomyidse  ;  is  very  common,  and  found  on  the  hedges. 

Fig.  4. — Fore  leg  of  Hydroplwrus ;  species  undetermined  (c$).  To  illustrate 
the  raptorial  or  predaceous  type.  Belongs  to  the  Dolichopodidse,  and  resembles 
Aphrosylus  in  the  structure  of  the  legs,  but  has  dissimilar  mouth-parts.  It  is  a 
small  Australian  insect,  which  I  captured  at  Geelong,  Vic. 

Fig.  5. — Fore  leg  of  Notiphila  cinerea  Fin.  9  .  Raptorial  type.  It  has  the 
remarkable  saw-like  process  on  the  femur,  found  also  in  many  of  the  Hydrellinse. 
It  is  placed  in  the  Ephydridse,  is  an  inhabitant  of  damp  places,  and  is  rare  in  my 
experience. 

Fig.  6. — Middle  leg  of  Caricea  tigrina  F.  $  .  Raptorial  type.  Placed  in  the 
Anthomyidae,  but  is  fiercely  predaceous.     Common  in  damp  meadows. 

Aug.  19th,  1908  2  e 


402  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

are  yet  a  matter  of  conjecture ;  indeed,  the  amount  of  care  and 
patience  required  for  the  working  out  of  these  are  sufficient  to 
deter  all  but  the  most  enthusiastic.  I  do  not  think  that  the  work 
of  the  field  naturalist,  the  accurate  and  minute  noting  of  habit 
and  life-history,  can  be  overvalued,  but  I  would  point  out  another 
method,  which,  while  it  cannot  supersede,  can  absolutely  confirm 
as  well  as  suggest  further  observation,  and  by  its  unaided  use 
show  a  great  number  of  structures,  that  on  account  of  their  minute- 
ness are  visible  by  no  other  means.  This  method  I  have  applied 
mainly  to  the  insect  in  the  imaginal  stage,  which,  owing  to  the 
quickness  of  movement  in  life,  is  the  most  difficult  of  observation, 
but  it  can  be  used  with  advantage  in  the  study  of  the  more  simple 
larva.  It  has  often  been  my  experience  to  hear  speakers  depre- 
ciate the  method  of  those  who  mount  whole  insects  with  pressure, 
the  softer  parts  being  dissolved  and  the  object  cleared  in  caustic 
potash.  Their  objections  are  good  from  many  points  of  view,  but 
the  fact  remains,  that  this  method  is  the  only  one  that  will  enable 
the  student  to  use  the  higher  powers  of  the  Microscope ;  and  it  is 
just  this  use  of  the  high  powers  that  is  absolutely  necessary  for  a 
complete  study  of  a  preparation,  which  when  well  mounted,  ex- 
hibits all  points  of  structure,  and  of  difference  other  than  colour, 
that  the  examination  of  a  pinned  specimen  can  show,  and  multi- 
tudes of  detail  that  are  beyond  the  powers  of  resolution  of  the 
simple  lens.  It  is  true  that  allowances  have  to  be  made  for  altered 
shapes  and  relations,  but  experience  and  study  will  give  an  idea  of 
the  changes  undergone,  and  enable  the  student  to  reconstruct  the 
original  form  of  his  subject  in  a  mental  image. 

I  shall  endeavour  to  show  that  it  is  possible  to  take  a  prepara- 
tion of  an  insect  that  may  be  quite  unfamiliar,  and  sitting  by  a 
comfortable  fireside,  with  a  Microscope  conveniently  arranged, 
study  it:  (1)  place  it  in  its  particular  order,  family  and  genus; 
(2)  ascertain  its  sex ;  (3)  describe  its  habits,  whether  blood-sucking, 
predaceous,  or  otherwise  ;  (4)  show  how  it  obtains  its  food  or  attacks 
its  prey ;  (5)  tell  what  that  food  is,  sometimes  naming  the  animal, 
plant,  or  insect,  that  serves  as  such ;  (6)  know  if  it  crawls  on  the 
earth,  flies  in  the  air,  swims  in  or  skates  on  the  water,  or  is  para- 
sitic ;  (7)  see  how  the  insect  smells,  tastes,  hears  and  feels  ;  (8)  trace 
the  differences  that  shade  from  species  to  species ;  (9)  see  the 
remains  of  the  organs  of  the  past,  examining  their  minute  remnants  : 
(10)  see  that  there  is  nothing  in  Nature  that  is  not  logical  and  has 
not  a  "why  and  a  wherefore";  (11)  and  be  convinced  that  all 
these  observations  strengthen  and  fit  in  with  that  great  fact  of 
Evolution,  which  has  so  altered,  for  the  man  who  thinks,  the  aspect 
of  the  earth  as  well  as  that  of  the  heavens.  But  the  field  of 
inquiry  is  so  large  and  the  mass  of  detail  so  bewildering,  that  the 
student  of  "  life-history  "  must  use  method  in  his  investigations, 
and  it  appears  to  me  that  he  will  best  obtain  data  bearing  on  his 


The  Microscope  and  Biology.     By  W.  Wesche".  403 

inquiry  by  a  separate  study  of  the  parts.     They  may  be  divided 
thus : — 

I. — General  Structure.  This  includes,  in  addition  to  the 
insect  as  a  whole,  (a)  the  limbs  ;  (b)  the  finer  bristles  ;  (c)  the  sense- 
organs. 

II. — The  Armature  of  the  Mouth. 

III. — The  Contents  of  the  Abdomen  :  (a)  food ;  (b)  structure. 
IV. — The  Genitalia. 


I. — General  Structure. 

This  may  be  regarded  from  several  points  of  view,  as  it  is 
(a)  Utilitarian  ;  (b)  Sensorial ;  (c)  Eaptorial ;  (d)  Secondary  sexual. 

A.  Utilitarian. — A  study  of  the  wings  and  their  nervation 
affords  information  as  to  the  character  of  the  flight,  but  also  is  in 
a  measure  a  guide  that  will  tell  something  of  the  evolution  of  the 
species.  The  openings  of  the  tracheae  on  the  thorax  and  the 
abdomen  show  us  how  sounds  are  made,  and  how  the  insect  oxy- 
genates the  blood.  The  immense  importance  of  keeping  the  antennae 
clean  is  shown  by  the  contrivances  on  the  fore  limbs,  such  as  the 
brush  on  the  metatarsi  of  the  Muscidae,  or  the  comb  on  the  tibiae 
of  the  Hymenoptera.  The  Microscope  will  show  how  it  is  possible 
for  an  insect  to  skate  on  the  surface  of  smooth  water,  and  para- 
sitism can  be  recognised  by  the  flattened  form  of  the  body  and 
the  character  of  the  legs,  particularly  the  claws. 

b.  Sensorial. — This  section  requires  almost  exclusively  high- 
power  work,  and  will  in  some  cases  necessitate  the  cutting  of 
sections.  All  or  most  of  the  many  modifications,  such  as  "  taste 
hairs,"  or  "  olfactory  pits,"  and  other  structures  so  clearly  brought 
before  us  in  "  Senses  of  Animals,"  *  can  be  seen  on  preparations 
mounted  with  pressure  :  they  must  be  looked  for  on  the  antennae 
and  mouth-parts.f  On  the  legs  will  be  found  some  sense-organs, 
particularly  in  Diptera,  which  are  comparatively  rare,  and  which 
I  have  described  in  a  former  paper :  those  on  the  coxae  are  more 
frequently  met  with  than  the  organs  on  the  tibiae.f 

C  Raptorial. — Under  this  heading  I  include  all  modifications 
that  are  used  in  holding  prey.  The  most  usual  characteristic  is 
an  enlargement  of  the  femur  to  contain  the  much-developed 
muscles,  and  the  legs  and  often  the  fore  coxae  have  rows  of  strong 
sharp  spines.  But  strong  spines  are  equally  characteristic,  and 
the  arrangement  is  apt  to  alter  in  different  families.  This  type 
is  usually  easily  recognisable,  as  it  is  found  in  both  of  the  sexes, 
but  there  are  a  number  of  genera  in  the  Syrphidae  which,  from  the 

*  Senses  of  Animals,  1889,  Sir  John  Lubbock. 

t  Sopra   certi  organi  di  senso  nelle  antenne  dei   Ditteri.     Dr.   Paul   Mayer, 
Reale  Accademia  dei  Lincei,  1878-79. 

t  Some  New  Sense  Organs  in  Diptera.     Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  190-i. 

2   E   2 


404  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

general  appearance  and  detail  of  some  of  their  limbs,  as  well  as 
the  armature  of  the  mouth,  might  be  thought  to  be  raptorial,  were 
it  not  that  the  convincing  evidence  afforded  by  the  contents  of 
their  stomachs  exonerates  them — (Ascia,  Erystalis,  Heliophilus, 
Mallota,  Xylota,  and  Syritta).  In  some  of  the  genera  of  the 
Ephydridae,  there  is  a  serrated  fore  femur,  the  chitin  itself  being 
drawn  out  into  a  number  of  sharp  teeth,  exactly  like  those  of  a 
saw  ;  this  is  unusual,  most  of  these  contrivances  consisting  of 
strong  hairs  in  sockets. 

d.  Secondary  sexual. — These  structures  are  more  strikingly 
developed,  and  more  commonly  found  in  the  male  sex ;  they 
mostly  consist  of  an  extraordinary  variety  of  modification  of  the 
legs,  usually  of  one  particular  pair,  and  often  of  the  abdomen. 

Setse  are  altered  in  shape  and  grouped  in  rows  ;  they  are,  as  a 
rule,  blunter  than  those  found  on  the  raptorial  limb,  and  occa- 
sionally take  the  form  of  bunches  or  pads  of  quite  soft  hair. 
Sometimes  a  seta  is  provided  with  a  round  head,  not  unlike  that 
of  the  ordinary  pin.  In  many  cases  the  shapes  of  the  tibiae  are 
modified,  and  more  often  the  tarsi  are  greatly  enlarged,  spatulated 


EXPLANATION    OF   PLATE    VI. 

Fig.  7. — Hind  leg  of  Leptogaster  cylindrica  Deg.  ?  .  Raptorial  type.  Belongs 
to  the  Asilidae,  the  most  predaceous  family  in  Diptera. 

Fig.  8. — Fore  leg  of  Hilara  clypcata  Mg.  <$ .  To  illustrate  the  secondary 
sexual  type.  The  extraordinarily  enlarged  metatarsus  is  used  in  holding  the 
female,  whose  fore  leg  is  quite  simple.  The  Hilaridcc  mate  while  flying,  belong 
to  the  predaceous  Empidae,  and  are  found  over  streams  or  brooks. 

Fig.  9. — Fore  leg  of  Hydrotea  parva  Mde.  6  ■  Secondary  sexual  type.  The 
males  of  this  genus  of  the  Anthomyidse,  are  easily  recognised  by  the  remarkable 
modifications  of  the  fore  femora  and  tibia.  In  the  Hydrellinse  the  fore  femora  of 
both  sexes  is  elaborated  for  predatory  purposes.  In  Hydrotea  only  that  of  the 
male,  and  for  sexual  advantage.  These  insects  are  found  in  gardens  and  on 
hedges,  and  appear  to  be  general  feeders  like  the  Blow-fly. 

Fig.  10. — Middle  leg  of  Dolichopus  plumipes  Scop.  6  .  Secondary  sexual  type. 
Belongs  to  the  family  of  the  same  name,  and  is  predaceous.  The  fine  tomentum 
on  the  tarsi  of  many  genera  enables  the  insect  to  glide  on  the  surface  film  of 
shallow  undisturbed  water.  This  particular  species  is  however  met  with  on 
damp  herbage. 

Fig.  11. — Hind  leg  of  Ophyra  leucostoma  W.  <$ .  Secondary  sexual  type. 
Belongs  to  the  Anthomyidse,  and  from  the  venation  of  wing,  the  shortness  of  the 
labium,  and  the  marked  remains  of  the  maxillary  palpi,  may  be  thought  to  be  of 
a  far  more  primitive  form  than  any  of  the  Muscidae  proper,  except  the  Cyrtoneura 
group.  Every  joint  of  this  leg  is  modified  for  sexual  purposes.  The  femur  has 
numerous  hairs  and  stiff  bristles ;  the  tibia  is  curved  and  ciliated  with  a  soft 
pad  or  brush  of  hair,  and  the  inner  sides  of  the  tarsi  are  clothed  with  delicate 
pubescence.     The  food  consists  of  pollen  and  minute  vegetable  organisms. 

Fig.  12. — Fore  leg  of  Melophagus  ovinus  L.  9  .  Parasitic  type.  This  insect  is 
found  on  sheep,  and  is  sometimes  wrongly  called  the  "  sheep  tick."  The  claw  is 
characteristic  of  the  family,  the  Hippoboscidae,  and  is  well  adapted  for  fastening 
on  to  the  fleece  of  the  host ;  so  much  so  that  I  have  had,  on  occasion,  some 
trouble  in  detaching  hair  from  it. 

Fig.  13. — Fore  claw  of  Culcx  pipiens  L.  6  ■  This  is  a  secondary  sexual  charac- 
ter. A  comparison  of  the  claws  figured  will  give  an  idea  of  the  habits  of  the 
insects. 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.  SOC.  1908.   PI.  VI. 


W.  Wesehe",  del 


The  Microscope  and  Biology.     By  W.  Wesche'.  405 

or  feathered,  to  enable  the  male  to  maintain  a  firm  hold  of  the 
female.  In  the  Culicidre  even  the  claws  of  one  pair  of  legs  are 
altered,  and  have  an  extra  barb.  On  the  under  side  of  the  abdo- 
men are  bunches  of  hair,  tubercles,  and  spined  areas  in  regions  of 
contact. 

As  in  the  raptorial  Ephydridse,  so  in  a  few  insects  in  this 
section,  the  femur  itself  is  modified  into  teeth  and  hooks.  The 
genera  Hydrotea  and  Borborus  nitidus  Mg.  among  the  flies,  are  of 
this  rarer  type.  Even  the  sucker  has  been  used,  and  most 
microscopists  are  familiar  with  the  beautiful  apparatus  on  the  fore 
legs  of  the  Dytiscus  Beetle.  The  stridulating  organs  used  in 
calling  the  sexes  together,  would  come  under  this  head  also. 

In  the  female,  secondary  sexual  characters  are  comparatively 
rare,  and  mostly  consist  of  arrangements  of  spines  on  contact 
areas. 

I  only  know  of  one  modification  of  the  limbs,  and  that  con- 
sists of  enlargement  of  the  last  joint  of  the  hind  tarsi,  and  I  would 
feel  inclined  to  place  this  in  another  section,  were  it  not  for  the 
fact  that  the  males  are  without  this  character.* 

As  this  division  of  the  subject  has  had  but  little  attention,  I 
will  give  an  account  of  my  observations,  which,  however,  are  con- 
fined, as  will  be  most  of  my  remarks,  to  insects  of  the  order  Diptera. 

Secondary  Sexual  Characters  in  the  Female  Insect. 

Bibionid^e.  Dilophus  febrilis  L.  has  two  hairy  tubercles  on  the 
posterior  ends  of  the  eighth  segment,  laterally  placed.  The  male 
also  has  two  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  abdomen.  Both  sexes 
have  two  rows  of  teeth,  or  strong  hairs  modified  into  teeth,  across 
the  thorax.  Their  presence  in  the  female  is  easy  to  understand ; 
in  the  male,  especially  as  they  seem  nearly  as  well  developed  as  in 
the  female,  difficult. 

Chtronomyid^. — Chironomus  plumosus  L.  is  provided  with  two 
patches  of  soft  hair  on  the  dorsal  sides  of  the  last  segment. 

Empid^e. — In  Hilara  cilipes  Mg.  there  is  a  notched  guide  for 
the  fiagellum  of  the  male  on  the  ovipositor  of  the  female. 

DoLiCHOPODiDyE. — A  large  number  of  species  in  the  Dolicho- 
podida?  have  a  strong  blunt  fringe  of  spines  on  the  end  of  the 
ovipositor.  This  is  a  character  that  so  far  I  have  only  found  in  this 
family,  which  is  so  remarkable  for  the  development  of  primary 
characters  in  the  male.  The  antennae  are  also  often  smaller  than 
those  of  the  male :  the  reason  is  obvious. 

*  The  late  Dr.  Meade  iu  his  British  Anthomyidae,  p.  47,  gives  Chortophila 
billbcrgi  Ztt.  as  another  example,  the  female  having  the  second  and  third  joints 
of  the  front  tarsi  dilated.  Drs.  Schiner  and  Zetterstedt  are  mentioned  as  having 
wrongly  ascribed  this  character  to  the  male.  I  am  not  acquainted  with  the 
insect,  and  cannot  say  which  doctor  is  right. 


406  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Syrpiiid2E. — Sphazrophoria  scripta  L.  has  the  outer  edges  of  the 
abdomen  decidedly  more  thickly  haired  than  the  same  part  in 
the  male. 

Conopod^e. — C.  quadrifasciata  Deg.  has  a  remarkable  organ 
which  protrudes  from  the  ventral  side  of  the  abdomen,  and  hangs 
down  anteriorly  to  the  opening  of  the  vagina.  A  microscopic 
preparation  shows  an  even  more  remarkable  complexity ;  pos- 
teriorly to  the  opening  of  the  vagina  are  two  very  powerful  teeth 
with  levers  attached  to  their  bases.  Opposite  are  two  lobes  studded 
with  blunt  spines,  and  with  sensory  hairs  on  the  extremities. 
More  anterior  to  this,  and  on  the  ventral  part,  is  an  area  also 
studded  with  blunt  spines,  but  more  densely,  and  arranged  in 
rows  of  2,  3,  5,  and  6.  From  this  point  begins  the  descent  of  the 
organ  alluded  to,  which  is  seen  to  be  a  hairy  unpaired  lobe,  fur- 
nished on  the  posterior  side  with  short  blunt  spines  more  sparsely 
distributed,  and  on  the  anterior  surface  with  sharp  hairs  (plate  VII. 
figs.  14,  15). 

In  C.  fiavipes  L.  an  even  more  striking  appearance  is  seen,  as 
the  "  unpaired  lobe  "  appears  to  have  quite  a  point.  In  a  prepared 
specimen  the  vagina  is  found  to  be  even  more  armed  than  in 
C.  quadrifasciata,  as  is  also  the  posterior  surface  of  the  lobe  and 
the  ventral  space  between.  Posterior  to  the  male  genitalia  of 
the  last-named  species  is  a  little  shiny  black  knob  ;  this  is  a  paired 
organ  homologous  with  the  "  forcipes  superiores  "  of  the  ordinary 
genitalia.  This  knob,  when  the  whole  hypopygium  is  turned  in 
under  the  abdomen  of  the  female,  comes  in  contact  with  the  serrated 
posterior  surface  of  the  "  lobe  "  and  is  kept  in  position  by  it.  That 
being  so,  effective  fertilisation  would  be  greatly  helped  by  the 
"  unpaired  lobe,"  and  it  is  easy  to  see  that  females  possessing  it,  or 
tending  to  vary  in  the  direction  of  greater  development,  would 
have  an  advantage  over  the  simpler  females,  and,  passing  on  the 
character  to  their  female  offspring,  produce  these  extraordinary 
complications  (plate  VII.  figs.  16,  17). 

Anthomyid/E.  Pegomyia  latitarsis  Ztt.  has  the  last  joint  of 
the  posterior  tarsi  enlarged,  while  the  males  are  normal ;  the 
advantage  of  this  to  the  possessor  is  not  obvious.  Pegomyia 
bicolor  W.  has  two  very  thickly  haired  patches,  placed  one  behind 
the  other  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  abdomen,  close  to  the  aper- 
ture of  the  ovipositor.  There  are  also  two  groups  of  eight  spines 
disposed  laterally  on  each  side  of  the  posterior  patches. 

Cordylurid^e.  Norellia  spinimana  Fin.  has  a  number  of 
blunt  spines  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  abdomen  and  below  the 
ovipositor. 

Sapromyzid^e.  S.  fasciata  Fin.  has  on  each  side  of  the  fourth 
segment  a  patch  of  very  fine  bristles,  highly  chitinised  and  seated 
on  a  curious  corrugation  of  membrane ;  S.  apicalis  Lw.  has  the 
fine  hair  of  the  membrane,  laterally  on  the  lower  part  of  the 


Tlie  Microscope  and  Biology.     By  W.  Weschi.  407 

abdomen,  modified  into  sharp  hooks.  Lauxanea  aenea  Fin.  has 
the  same.  These  structures  are  peculiar,  as  usually  the  chitinous 
plates  are  altered.  They  are  undoubtedly  "  secondary  sexual," 
and  present  degrees  of  development  in  those  species  observed ; 
They  are  very  marked  in  S.  fasciata,  might  easily  escape  notice  in 
S.  apicalis  and  L.  cenea,  while  they  are  absent  in  S.  lupulina  F. 
and  Lauxanea  bilineata  Hutton  (N.  Zealand)  and  L.  decora  Schiner 
(S.E.  Australia). 

Borborhle.  The  membrane  of  the  abdomen  in  B.  equinus  L. 
is  studded  with  short  sharp  spines,  but  not  close  to  each  other  in 
the  contact  areas,  as  in  the  Sapromyzida? ;  the  corresponding  part 
in  the  male  is  nearly  bare,  though  the  plates  on  the  ventral  side 
of  the  abdomen  are  thickly  covered  with  seta?.  Sphasrocera  sub- 
sultans  F.  has  similar  modifications. 

HiPPOBOSCiDiE.  H.  equina  L.  has  large  lateral  spined  tubercles 
on  each  side  of  the  vagina,  as  well  as  two  spiny  patches  on  the 
dorsal  side,  near  the  posterior  end  of  the  abdomen ;  the  whole  of 
this  part  is  much  more  sharply  spined  than  in  the  male. 

Olfersia  tasmanica  Wesche,  a  Tasmanian  insect,  parasitic  on 
the  Wallaby,  has  tubercles  in  the  same  places,  but  they  are  armed 
with  long  delicate  spines. 


II. — The  Mouth-parts. 

The  majority  of  insects  are  provided  with  a  strong  pair  of 
biting  or  crushing  jaws  (mandibles),  which  break  up  their  food  and 
enable  the  smaller  jaws  (maxilla?)  to  seize  it,  and  with  the  aid  of 
the  labium  transmit  it  down  the  gullet  till  it  reaches  the  gizzard. 
The  three  principal  orders  whose  trophi  most  markedly  differ  from 
this  scheme  are  the  Hemiptera,  Lepidoptera  and  Diptera,  and  the 
microscopist  who  is  familiar  with  these  four  types  can  already  do 
much  in  classifying  his  preparations.  The  Hemiptera  can  be 
easily  recognised  by  their  "  beak  " :  a  sharp  case  (labium)  which 
contains  fine  delicate  lancets  (mandibles  and  maxilla?)  and  is 
usually  turned  in  under  the  thorax.  The  Lepidoptera  have  their 
maxilla?  modified  into  a  long  double  tube,  which  is  carried  curled 
up  like  a  watch-spring.  The  Diptera  are  distinguished  by  the 
presence  of  trachea?  on  the  labium.  In  the  Culicida?  (gnats)  and 
certain  parasitic  forms  this  character  may  fail,  but  high  powers  will 
show  traces  of  their  presence,  or  of  their  presence  in  the  past. 
Mandibles  that  bite  or  crush  will  never  be  found,  though  their 
representatives  are  present  in  certain  families ;  but  in  the  trophi 
there  is  such  a  wide  range  of  variation,  and  such  alteration  of 
detail,  that  from  a  study  of  this  part  alone  a  judgment  can  be 
formed  of  the  habits  and  food,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  of  the 
place  in  the  scheme  of  classification.     I  have  treated  this  subject  at 


408  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

some  length  in  a  paper  published  in  the  Journal  of  this  Society,* 
but  will  supplement  those  observations  by  a  few  general  rules, 
that  will,  I  hope,  enable  the  student  to  glean  facts  from  his 
preparations. 

1.  When  the  mandibles  and  maxillae  are  present  the  insect  is 
a  blood-sucker,  as  Culcx,  Tabanus,  or  Simnlmm. 

2.  When  the  labium  is  without  teeth  and  has  only  a  simple 
arrangement  of  tracheos,  and  the  mouth  is  armed  with  maxillae  and 
with  maxillary  palpi,  the  insect  is  predaceous,  as  in  Empis. 

3.  When  the  labium  is  without  teeth,  but  has  well  developed 
tracheal,  and  the  mouth  is  armed  with  maxillae  and  with  maxillary 
palpi,  the  insect  feeds  on  the  pollen  of  flowers,  as  in  Syrphus. 

4.  When  the  labium  is  without  teeth,  or  maxilhe,  and  the  palpi 
present  (well  developed)  are  labial,  the  insect  feeds  on  the  juices 
or  the  smaller  pollen  of  flowers,  as  in  Trypeta,  or  Pipunculus. 

N.B. — The  palpus  is  labial  when  unattached  to  the  stipes  or 
cardo  of  the  maxilla — in  Calliphora  labial,  in  Syrphus  or  Culex 
maxillary. 

5.  When  the  mouth-parts  are  as  in  Rule  4,  except  that  the 
labella  or  paraglossae  of  the  labium  have  strongly  chitinised  teeth 

*  "  The  Mouth-parts  of  the  Nemocera  and  their  Relation  to  the  other  Families 
in  Diptera,"  January  1904. 


EXPLANATION    OF   PLATE    VII. 

Fig.  14. — Part  of  the  abdomen  of  Conops  quadrifasciata  Deg.  6  .  This  and 
the  next  two  figures  are  drawn  from  pinned  specimens  to  show  the  ordinary 
appearance  as  seen  when  examined  with  a  simple  lens. 

Fig.  15. — Part  of  the  abdomen  of  C.  quadrifasciata  9  to  show  the  curious 
unpaired  organ  that  is  appended  to  this  part  in  the  female. 

Fig.  16. — Part  of  the  abdomen  of  C.  flavipes  L.  9  ,  to  show  an  even  more 
remarkable  development  of  the  appended  lobe. 

Fig.  17. — Part  of  the  abdomen  of  C.  flavipes  L.  9  ,  drawn  from  a  prepared 
specimen,  to  show  the  complicated  spinose  armature  of  the  part. 

Fig.  18. — Trophi  of  Norrellia  spinimana  Fin.  9  .  (The  mouth  does  not  differ 
in  the  sexes.)  Raptorial  type,  to  illustrate  Rule  5.  This  insect  is  placed  in  the 
Cordyluridse,  and  a  lateral  view  is  given  of  the  trophi. 

Fig.  19. — The  teeth  of  N.  spinimana  drawn  from  a  higher  magnification. 
They  are  very  strong  and  highly  chitinised,  and  may  be  compared  with  those  on 
the  paraglossae  (labella)  of  the  blow-fly  (Calliphora  erythrocephala  Mg.). 

Fig.  20. — Trophi  of  Lyperosa  (?)  9  .  This  is  a  Sinhalese  insect,  and  is,  though 
much  smaller,  closely  allied  to  our  blood-sucking  Stomoxys,  the  chief  point  of 
difference  being  the  larger  relative  size  of  the  palpi  in  Lyperosa ;  the  male  arma- 
ture does  not  differ  from  that  of  the  female.  Blood-sucking  Muscid  type,  to 
illustrate  Rule  8.     Lateral  view. 

Fig.  21. — Part  of  the  paraglossae  of  Hydrotea  occulta  Mg.  6  ,  highly  magnified, 
to  show  the  situation  and  character  of  the  teeth  characteristic  of  the  general 
feeder.  Armature  identical  in  both  sexes.  To  illustrate  Rule  6.  This  insect 
belongs  to  the  Anthomyia  family,  and  the  preparation  shows  the  dorsal  side  upper- 
most. 

Fig.  22. — Trophi  of  Tabanus  sudeticus  Zlr.  9  .  The  males  are  without  the 
mandibles.  A  blood-sucker  of  the  most  pronounced  type.  To  illustrate  Rule  1. 
Dorsal  view. 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.  SOC.  1908.   PI.  VII. 


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W.  Wesche*   del. 


The  Microscope  and  Biology.     By  W.  Wesche'.  409 

at  their  bases,  the  insect  is  predaceous,  as  in  Scatophagy  Caricea,, 
and  many  of  the  Cordyluridae. 

6.  When  the  mouth-parts  are  as  in  Eule  5,  except  that  the 
teeth  are  transparent  and  less  developed,  the  insect  is  a  general 
feeder,  but  is  not  predaceous,  as  in  Calliphora,  Musca,  or  Lucilia. 

7.  When  the  labium  is  hardened  into  a  style,  or  is  geniculated, 
and  tracheal  or  traces  of  trachea?  can  be  made  out,  but  no  vestiges  of 
teeth,  the  insect  feeds  on  the  juices  or  nectar  of  flowers,  as  in 
Prosena  or  Siphona. 

8.  When  the  labium  is  hardened  into  a  style  with  no  tracheae, 
but  more  or  less  developed  teeth,  the  insect  is  a  blood-sucker,  as 
in  Stomoxys,  Glossina,  or  Melophagus. 

9.  When  special  teeth  or  spines  are  found  on  the  labrum  or 
hypopharynx  the  insect  is  predaceous,  as  in  Dolichopus  or 
Phora. 

N.B. — The  mouth-parts  differ  in  the  sexes  of  the  last-named 
family  in  several  species  that  I  have  examined,  but  I  do  not 
commit  myself  to  the  statement  that  it  is  so  in  all  the  species,  or 
that  the  females  are  predaceous  and  the  males  general  feeders.  So 
far  as  my  observations  go  I  have  taken  a  small  acalyptrate  Muscid 
out  of  the  mouth  of  P.  concinna(?.)  Mg.  £  and  have  found  the  mouth 
of  P.  incrassata  Mg.  <?  simple,  and  armed  as  in  Eule  9,  in  the 
female. 

III. — The  Contents  of  the  Abdomen  and  the  Food 

of  Insects. 

a.  Food. — Most  preparations  of  the  whole  insect  will  show 
food,  or  traces  of  food.  When  it  is  present  in  quantities,  it  is 
often  forced,  by  the  pressure  necessary  in  mounting,  back  into  the 
mouth,  or  through  the  weak  membranes  that  are  between  the 
plates  of  the  abdomen,  through  the  ovipositor,  or  through  the  anus, 
giving  an  opportunity  for  examination  better  than  that  through 
the  chitinous  segments  of  the  body.  Also  the  membrane  alluded 
to  is  often  quite  transparent,  and  permits  a  good  view  of  detail, 
even  with  an  oil-immersion.  My  attention  was  first  drawn  to  this 
subject  by  a  preparation  of  the  female  of  the  earwig  (Forjicula 
auricularia  L.),  which  happened  to  have  had  a  very  full  meal  before 
being  killed.  The  abdomen  was  filled  with  a  confused  mass  of 
shreds  of  chitin,  long-jointed  stalks,  and  round  reniform  objects 
which  were  pierced  with  a  number  of  holes.  I  had  made  some 
preparations  of  the  aphides  that  I  found  in  my  garden,  which  also 
was  the  place  of  capture  of  the  earwig,  and  I  recognised  the 
"jointed  stalks"  as  the  antennas  and  the  reniform  masses  as  the 
eyes.  I  then  looked  for  the  tubes,  characteristic  of  these  insects, 
which  exude  the  "  honey  dew,"  dear  to  the  Formicidae,  and  after 
careful  search  I  found  a  number.       I  examined  other  Forficuloz, 


410  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

and  in  all  I  found  this  tube ;  I  could  then  say  with  certainty  that 
though  the  earwigs  might  damage  our  dahlias,  they  certainly 
helped  our  roses.  Another  earwig  is  full  of  debris,  and  scales  of 
Lepidoptera  can  be  recognised. 

The  food  of  the  mandibulate  insects  is  comparatively  easy  to 
identify,  as  the  prey  is  broken  up  into  large  fragments,  recognisable 
by  comparison  or  experience.  Before  describing  my  observations 
of  Diptera,  I  shall  make  some  discursive  remarks  on  a  few  other 
Orders.  In  all  these  insects  the  food  is  in  various  stages  of 
digestion ;  the  last  stage  seems  marked  by  the  presence  of  a  black, 
finely -granular  mass  (occasionly  only  traces)  in  the  abdomen, 
staining  the  intestine,  and  in  some  cases,  the  mouth.  This  colour 
is  possibly  a  chemical  reaction  of  the  digestive  fluids,  with  the 
various  chemicals  through  which  the  preparation  has  been  passed. 
I  think,  from  my  observations  on  this  point,  that  it  is  highly 
probable  that  the  process  of  digestion  in  all  insects,  whatever  the 
nature  of  the  food,  is  identical. 

Remarks  on   Various  Mandibulate  Insects. 

A  mole  cricket,  Gryllotalpa  americana,  that  came  flying  at  the 
lights  in  a  hotel  at  Cairns,  North  Queensland,  has  the  abdomen 
full  of  shreds  of  neatly  bitten  vegetable,  probably  grass. 

The  larvffi  of  Myrmeleon,  which  had  made  their  sandy  traps  on 
the  borders  of  the  Burdeken  river,  in  the  same  part  of  Australia, 
show  reddish  masses,  which  our  knowledge  of  the  food  of  these 
creatures  enables  me  to  say  is  probably  the  digested  blood  or  juice 
of  insects. 

In  the  Coleoptera,  I  am  able  to  say  that  Pterostichus  cupreus 
was  decidedly  carnivorous,  as  I  found  six  antennae  of  a  Neuropteron, 
probably  a  Sialid,  in  its  stomach. 

One  of  the  smaller  water-beetles  of  genus  Rhantus  has  half  the 
head  of  a  fly  in  the  thorax,  just  before  the  gizzard,  which  I  recognise  as 
that  of  a  Chironomus.  That  Scolopendra  (centipede)  is  carnivorous 
is  known,  and  I  have  a  specimen  which  contains  the  antenna  of  a 
Coleopterous  insect,  probably  one  of  the  clavicorn  beetles. 

Cockroaches  {Periplaneta  orientalis  L.),  are,  I  believe,  supposed 
to  keep  houses  clear  of  other  insect  pests.  I  have  a  preparation  of 
a  female  which  has  the  remains  of  other  cockroaches  inside. 
These  can  be  recognised  by  the  peculiar  sculpturing  of  the  chitin, 
though  broken  up  into  minute  pieces.  This  insect  was  one  of  a 
number  kept  in  a  trap  all  night.  The  person  who  caught  them 
remarked  that  by  the  morning  all  the  small  ones  had  disappeared. 

Of  the  Hymenoptera,  a  saw-fly  {Nematus  $  )  has  the  black 
stain  alluded  to  as  characteristic  of  the  last  stage  of  digestion. 

A  worker  bee  {Apis  mellifica  L.),  of  the  Ligurian  variety,  had 
the  abdomen  full  of  several  species  of  pollen. 


The  Microscope  and  Biology.     By  W.  Wesche".  411 

Our  common  wild  bee  (Bombus  pratorum  2  ?),  has  some  very 
large  pollen  granules  inside,  which  are  probably  from  the  flower 
of  the  hollyhock  (Althcea). 

Hallictus  leucozonus  2 ,  another  wild  bee,  has  made  a  meal  of 
pollen,  which,  however,  is  partially  digested. 

The  food  of  a  wasp  (  Vespa  vulgaris)  was  less  easy  to  determine  ; 
it  was  a  fine  reddish,  granular  mass,  which  had  cracked  across. 
This  is  the  way  that  albumen  behaves  when  mounted  in  xylol 
and  Canada  balsam,  and  I  conclude  that  some  juices  of  animal 
or  insect  have  been  the  staple  part  of  its  meal.  There  was  also 
some  debris  in  the  thorax. 

Of  all  insects  the  Odonata  (dragon-flies)  are  the  most  voracious, 
and  as  they  only  partially  break  up  their  prey,  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  identify  fragments  ;  for  example  I  recognised  many 
portions  of  the  wings  of  Diptera.  This  is  a  part  that  is  often 
rejected  ;  it  is  not  an  unusual  sight  to  see  a  dragon-fly  capture  a 
moth,  immediately  followed  by  the  slow  flutter  of  the  four  wings 
to  the  earth,  bitten  off  by  the  captor.  I  have  a  few  preparations 
of  these  insects,  which  are  from  all  parts  of  the  globe ;  from  an 
examination  of  the  abdomen  of  these  (there  is  not  one  that  is  not 
full  of  undigested  food),  I  should  think  that  the  favourite  meal  is 
that  on  some  dipterous  insect,  particularly  the  haunter  of  streams. 

In  Orthetrum  ccerulescens  F.  I  have  seen  some  minute  tarsi 
and  claws  that  probably  belong  to  small  Ephydridse,  and  I  can 
recognise  a  tarsal  joint,  a  base  of  an  antenna,  the  characteristic 
interior  tubes  of  the  head,  several  parts  of  the  wings,  and  part  of 
an  eye  of  an  unfortunate  Chironomus. 

An  Archibassis,  from  Borneo,  has  made  a  meal  of  a  fly ;  I  am 
able  to  say,  from  the  character  of  one  of  the  receptacula  seminis, 
that  the  prey  was  a  female,  one  of  the  large  Muscid  family, 
probably  an  Anthomyid ;  a  part  of  the  tracheal  of  the  labium,  and 
several  pieces  of  the  eye  are  also  recognisable. 

An  American  insect  from  Indiana,  U.S.A.,  Enallagma  civilis, 
was  very  thorough,  and,  as  might  be  expected  from  an  inhabitant 
of  the  Great  Kepublic,  exhaustive  in  his  method.  He  began  the 
day  on  a  Chirononucs,  then  devoured  a  large  larva  of  Lepidoptera 
(this  last  was  interesting,  as  usually  the  prey  is  caught  on  the  wing) ; 
and  completed  the  third  course  of  his  meal  with  another  fly.  The 
caterpillar  was  easily  identified  by  the  claws  of  the  prolegs,  but  the 
presence  of  pollen  granules  in  the  abdomen  of  the  dragon-fly  rather 
baffled  me,  till  I  saw  that  they  must  be  the  food  of  the  larva,  which, 
like  its  captor,  was  overtaken  by  fate  soon  after  a  meal. 

I  now  turn  to  the  more  difficult  part  of  my  subject,  the 
Diptera,  though  in  this  order  I  can  offer  a  more  comprehensive 
survey,  as  in  my  study  of  this  branch  over  1500  slides  were  exa- 
mined with  high  powers,  and  often  with  a  magnification  of  over 
1000  diameters.     The  general  appearance  varies,  but  not  more  so 


412  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

than  in  other  orders,  and  the  fine  black  granule  already  alluded  to, 
is  present  in  the  very  large  majority  of  cases. 

In  the  Culicidai,  Tabanidse,  Glossinidse,  and  Stomoxidre,  that  are 
known  blood-suckers,  and  whose  mouth-parts  are  so  modified  that 
it  is  scarcely  possible  for  them  to  obtain  other  food,  that  food, 
when  digested,  presents  a  certain  character,  rather  like  that  of 
albumen,  cracked  and  shrivelled  up,  and  resembles  in  some  degree 
that  seen  in  Vespa.  I  found  a  similar  appearance  in  one  of  my 
preparations  of  the  house-fly  (Musca  domestica  L.)  caught  inside  the 
house,  and  concluded  that  she  (it  was  a  female)  had  been  sucking 
the  juices  of  ra\\r  meat,  a  highly  probable  occurrence.  The  pollen- 
feeders  present  no  difficulties  ;  their  food  is  mostly  undigested,  the 
insects  being  caught  on  the  flowers,  and  sometimes  the  plant  on 
which  the  insect  was  feeding  can  be  recognised  by  the  characters 
of  the  pollen. 

There  is  a  group  consisting  of  such  flies  as  the  house-fly,  the 
blow-fly  (Calliphora  erithrocephala  Mg.),  and  the  green  bottle-fly 
(Lucilia),  which  seem  to  feed  on  anything  and  everything,  and  the 
contents  of  their  abdomens  are  baffling. 

Eepeatedly  in  certain  flies,  mostly  inhabitants  of  fields  or 
gardens,  in  the  midst  of  the  amorphous  mass  of  digested  food, 
little  dark  brown,  semi-transparent,  cellular  organisms  are  seen. 
These,  from  a  comparison  with  plates  and  descriptions,  I  should 
think  are  the  spores  of  some  of  the  "  rusts  "  or  "  mildews." 

Owing  to  the  small  size  of  the  openings  in  the  mouth,  no 
large  fragments  can  reach  the  stomach ;    I   have,    however,  four 


EXPLANATION   OF   PLATE   VIII. 

Fig.  23. — Trophi  of  Empis  livida  L.  9  .  The  mouth-parts  do  not  differ,  and 
both  sexes  are  predaceous.     To  illustrate  Rule  2.     Lateral  view. 

Fig.  24. — Trophi  of  Platychirus  manicatus  Mg.  $  .  The  mouth  does  not  differ 
in  the  sexes.  A  pollen  feeder,  like  all  the  Syrphidce.  To  illustrate  Rule  3. 
Lateral  view. 

Fig.  25. — Trophi  of  Helomyza  rufa  Fin.  9  .  The  mouth  does  not  differ  in  the 
sexes.  This  insect  is  placed  in  the  somewhat  anomalous  group  of  Heliomyzidae, 
and  is  only  representative  of  the  flower  feeders,  and  illustrative  of  Rule  4  as 
regards  itself ;  some  species  of  the  genus  differ  in  type.  Dorsal  view,  and  rather 
diagrarnmatically  drawn. 

Fig.  26. — Trophi  of  Conops  quadrifasciata  Deg.  <J .  The  mouth  does  not  differ 
in  the  sexes.  The  labium,  chiefly  by  a  modification  of  the  mentum,  has  under- 
gone changes,  which  have  made  it  into  a  hard  style,  fitted  to  probe  the  nectaries 
and  cavities  of  flowers.  To  illustrate  Rule  7,  and  for  comparison  with  Fig.  20 
(Lyperosa),  which  has  undergone  similar  changes.     Lateral  view. 

Fig.  27. — Labrum  of  Pcecilobothrus  nobilitatus  L.   9  .     Dorsal  view. 

Fig.  28. — Labrum  of  P.  nobilitatus  9  .     Lateral  view. 

Fig.  29. — Hypopharynx  of  P.  nobilitatus  9  .  The  mouth-parts  do  not  differ 
in  the  sexes.  Pcecilobothrus  is  a  genus  of  the  Dolichopodidse,  is  predaceous, 
and  is  often  seen  on  shallow  brooks  and  streams,  skating  on  the  surface  film. 
To  illustrate  Rule  9.     Dorsal  view. 

Fig.  30. — Labrum  of  Phora  incrassata  Mg.  9  .  This  part  is  quite  simple  in 
the  male,  and  without  the  sharp  processes.     To  illustrate  Rule  9.     Dorsal  view. 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.  SOC.  1908   PI.  VII 


W.  Wesehe,  del. 


The  Microscope  and  Biology.     By  W.  Wesche.  413 

preparations  of  predaceous  flies,  Empis  livida  L.,  the  Dolichopid 
Mcdeterus  truncorum  Mg.,  and  the  Cordylurid  Nordlia  spinimana 
<  Mg.,  which  contain  the  hairs  and  scales  of  gnats  (Culex). 

What  will  appeal  to  a  section  of  my  fellow  microscopists  is 
the  fact  that  two  of  my  preparations  show  that  when  alive  they 
had  a  taste  for  the  Diatomace?e. 

An  unnamed  Camosid  from  Geelong,  Vic,  has  three  small 
Navicular  inside ;  while  Scatophila  despecta,  Hal.,  a  minute  Ephy- 
drid,  has  a  whole  collection,  and  is  like  a  slide  spread  with 
Pinnuliarce  and  Naviculce.  "We  may  infer  that  they  found  their 
food  in  marshv  spots,  which,  however,  is  already  known  of  these 
two  genera. 

r 

Remarks  on  the  Food  of  Diptcra. 

Mycetophilid^e. — In  Glaphyroptera  fascipennis  Mg.  I  find 
some  digested  pollen  and  the  usual  black  granular  stain. 

Bibionid.e. — In  Bihio  hortulanus  L.  $ ,  the  digested  food 
appears  to  contain  some  very  fine  earthy  debris,  some  of  it  quite 
crystalline.     This  is  an  appearance  often  met  with. 

In  the  male  of  the  same  species  I  can  distinguish  some  pollen. 

Dilophus  (?),  an  undetermined  or  unnamed  insect  from  New 
Zealand,  shows  spores  of  mould  or  mildew. 

SimuliD/E. — In  S.  reptans  L.  the  food  is  much  cracked,  yet  not 
clearly  characteristic  of  the  blood-suckers. 

Chironomyid.e. — The  abdomens  of  several  species  of  Chiro- 
nomus  are  full  of  pollen ;  the  colouring  in  some  species  is  affected 
by  it.  Another  shows  short  fine  rods  of  dark  colour :  these 
adhere  in  small  bundles,  and  are  unique  in  my  observations. 

In  the  intervening  families,  Ornephilidae,  Psychodidse,  Culi- 
cidse,  Dixidee,  Ptychopteridae,  Limnobidaj,  Tipulidas,  and  Rhy- 
phidae,  my  observations  call  for  no  record ;  traces  of  "  black 
granule  "  can  be  seen  in  most. 

Stratiomyid.e. — Beris  vallata  Forst.  $  and  Chloromyia  formosa 
Scop.  $  show  a  dark,  amorphous  mass,  of  which  little  can  be 
made,  though  the  "  black  granule  "  is  very  marked. 

CyrtidtE. — In  two  females  of  Oncodes  gibbosus  L.  I  find  the 
intestine  full  of  a  dark  mass ;  in  two  males,  empty.  Both  sexes 
are  absolutely  without  mouth-parts,  the  cavity  being  covered  over 
with  a  membrane.  This  mass  in  the  female  is  probably  larval 
food,  necessary  to  sustain  her  through  the  stages  of  maternity. 
The  male  I  would  expect  to  die  soon  after  coitus. 

Empid^e. — Rhamphomyia  pennata  Mg.  $  has  some  fine  sedi- 
ment with  the  black  granule,  and  another  female  shows  a  minute 
spore  of  fungus  or  mildew.  One  preparation  of  Empis  chioptera 
Fin.  $  shows  the  intestines  full  of  a  very  minute  reddish,  or 
reddish  brown  granule,  rather  dried  up  in  appearance ;  this,  by 


& 


414  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

experience,  I  associate  with  the  food  of  the  predaceous  insect ; 
this  observation  is,  however,  contradicted  by  that  on  the  next  pre- 
paration in  the  point  of  colour,  the  granules  being  white  and 
sinning,  and  reflecting  the  light  in  the  manner  of  starch.  An 
almost  identical  appearance  is  seen  on  a  preparation  of  E.  bruni- 
pennis  Mg. 

A  female  of  E.  livida  L.  affords  valuable  data,  as  it  contains 
digested  and  undigested  food ;  the  hairs  and  scales  of  a  gnat 
(Culex),  and  a  joint  (probably  of  the  palpus  of  a  male)  are  quite 
recognisable,  and  the  digested  food  has  a  reddish  brown  appear- 
ance of  a  finely  granular  texture  ;  where  the  hairs  and  scales  are 
thickest,  the  black  colour  is  also  present,  combined  with  a  more 
digested  portion. 

Dolichopodid.e. — The  black  stain  in  most  of  my  preparations 
is  very  strongly  marked.  Psilopa  wiedemanni  Fin.  $  shows 
pollen  and  spores  of  fungi.  Another  preparation  has  minute  rods, 
also  probably  fungoid.  The  contents  of  the  stomach  contradict 
the  character  of  the  mouth,  which  has  sharp  teeth  on  the  labrum, 
and  is,  on  that  character,  raptorial,  though  the  tracheae  of  the 
labium  are  singular,  and  unlike  that  part  in  all  other  insects  of 
the  family. 

Gymnopternus  assimilis  Staeg.  $  has  pollen  in  the  stomach. 
The  labium  of  these  insects  is  longer  than  is  usually  found  in  the 
Dolichopodidae,  and  they  seem  to  have  more  of  the  characters  of 
flower  feeders  than  is  the  rule  in  the  species  of  this  family.  Their 
mouth-parts  appear  to  be  intermediate  between  the  ordinary  and 
a  specialised  type.  There  is  one  species — Orthochile  rdgrocosrulea 
Ltr. — that  has  quite  a  long  labium,  obviously  modified  to  enable 
the  insect  to  reach  the  nectary  of  flowers. 

Medetcrus  truncortim  Mg.  $  has,  like  E.  livida,  hair  and  scales 
of  Culex  inside. 

Another  species  contains  a  greenish  mass,  which,  however, 
seems  to  be  mixed  with  albumen. 

Two  preparations  of  Campsicnemus  curvipes  Fin.,  male  and 
female,  show  a  somewhat  similar  appearance  to  E.  livida  in  the 
digested  part. 

Lonchopterid^e. — L.flavicauda  Mg.  $  is  quite  full  of  trans- 
parent, structureless  filaments,  long,  cone-shaped,  and  tapering, 
which  I  have  not  met  with  in  other  insects,  and  are  probably  the 
mycelium  of  some  fungus  or  mould ;  the  other  specimens  of  the 
same  insect  only  show  the  black  granule. 

Platypezid^e  and  Pipunculid^e. — I  cannot  arrive  at  definite 
conclusions  as  to  what  I  find  in  my  preparations  of  these 
insects. 

Syrphid^e. — S.  balteatus  Deg.  and  S.  ribesii  L.,  like  most  of  my 
preparations  of  the  insects  of  this  family,  show  an  immense  mass 
of  undigested  pollen. 


The  Microscope  and  Biology.     By  W.  Wesche.  415 

S.  ortas  Wk.,  a  New  Zealand  fly,  has  the  same,  with  much  the 
same  size  in  the  granules,  but  a  careful  inspection  shows  an  un- 
familiar detail  in  the  sculpturing. 

There  are  some  pollen  granules  of  willow-herb  (Bplloblum)f 
mixed  with  a  greater  number  of  that  of  other  flowers,  in  the 
abdomen  of  Syritta  plplens  L.   $  . 

Two  preparations  of  Ery stalls  arbustorum  L.  show  a  mass  of 
partially  digested  pollen  and  also  a  great  number  of  black  debris, 
broken  up  into  large  pieces,  and  occasionally  somewhat  crystalline 
forms. 

Conopod^e. — Most  of  my  preparations  only  show  digested  food, 
but  Alyopa  buccata  L.  shows  some  pollen  granules. 

QEstkid^e. — I  find  nothing  in  the  abdomen  of  Gastrophllus  equl 
L.  £ ,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  fact  that  in  this  insect  the 
mouth-parts  are  nearly  totally  absent. 

Tachinid^e. — Oliiiera  lateralis  F.  $  shows  a  unicellular  growth 
of  low  type — it  may  be  a  fungus  that  grows  in  the  balsam,  defying 
caustic  potash  and  acetic  acid.  Another  £  shows  a  few  pollen- 
grains,  and  the  jaws  of  larvae,  showing  her  to  be  viviparous. 

As  might  be  expected  from  the  trophi,  which  are  modified  into 
long  styles  for  probing  the  nectaries  of  flowers,  the  abdomens  of 
Prosena  and  Slphona  show  nothing. 

Muscid^e. — I  have  a  preparation  of  Stomoxys  calcltrans  L.  £ 
which  gives  a  good  example  of  digested  blood ;  very  often  the 
abdomen  is  empty.  A  female  bit  me  on  the  ankle,  through  a 
merino  sock,  in  September  last.  I  drove  her  off,  but  she  returned 
to  the  same  spot,  and  I  placed  the  cyanide  bottle  over  her.  The 
short  labium  of  this  insect  is  scarcely  fitted  for  penetrating  through 
clothing. 

One  preparation  of  M.  domestlca  $  shows  the  appearance  of 
having  fed  on  the  juices  of  meat,  and  has  already  been  alluded  to ; 
another  $  shows  an  amorphous  mass,  which  has  some  angular 
fragments  of  a  dark  colour ;  while  a  third,  £ ,  shows  a  conglome- 
rate of  circular  dark  bodies,  which  are  probably  partially  digested 
pollen-granules. 

Calllphora  graenlandlca  Ztt.  shows  the  usual  dark  granular 
mass. 

Lucllla  (?)  has  a  number  of  angular  black  bodies,  and  a  fewer 
number  of  fragments  of  what  appears  to  be  chitin,  mixed  with  the 
usual  mass. 

Morellla  curvlpes  Mcq.  Both  sexes  of  this  insect  show  a  mass 
of  pollen,  one  or  two  black  pieces,  as  in  Lticilia  above,  and  a 
reddish  mass  of  digested  food.  These  were  captured  in  a  hayfield 
in  June. 

Anthomyid^e. — Polletes  lardaria  F.  contains  a  granular  dirty 
mass  and  very  minute  shining  granules  of  pollen  (?).  Captured 
in  Epping  Forest,  where  all  the  flies  were  covered  with  it. 


416  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Hgetodesia  lazta  Fin.  $  shows  a  peculiar  yellowish  mass, 
which  contains  an  immense  number  of  objects,  chitinous  in  colour 
and  transparency  ;  some  are  boat-shaped,  others  round,  many 
appear  to  be  cells  joined  to  each  other — they  have  not  the  form  of 
the  mould  or  mildew  alluded  to  before.  They  may  be  the  spores  of 
fungus. 

H.  obscurata  Mg.  $  shows  a  dark  red  cracked  mass. 

H.perdita  Mg.   $  shows  usual  dark  mass. 

H.  pallida  F.  £  shows  the  same,  with  the  black  stain,  a  number 
of  large  angular  black  pieces,  several  spores,  and  one  scale  of 
Lepidoptera. 

A  curious  male  fly  from  New  Zealand,  with  pubescent  eyes  but 
Cosnosia  teeth  on  the  labella,  and  claws  and  legs  resembling  Caricea 
tigrina  F.,  has  red  cracked  flocculent  matter  in  the  stomach,  and  is 
probably  predaceous. 

Two  preparations  of  males  of  Spilogaster  communis  Dsv.  show  a 
number  of  unicellular  rod-like  spores  ;  one  also  the  larva  or  pupa  of 
a  parasite. 

S.  jlagripcs  End.  %  ,  among  a  large  mass  of  the  usual  type,  shows 
four  large  pollen-granules. 

S.  uliginosa  Fin.  $  contains  a  number  of  minute  granules, 
•quite  reniform  in  appearance,  shining,  and  having  the  appearance 
of  starch. 

S.  notata  Fin.  $  shows  separate  pollen-granules  of  large  size. 
The  very  strong  chitinous  teeth,  the  long  hypopharynx,  the  spined 
fore  femora,  and  the  situation  where  I  captured  this  insect  (a 
marshy  spot),  all  point  to  its  being  similar  in  habits  to  Caricea 
tigrina ;  as  I  shall  show  later,  I  also  find  pollen  in  that  insect,  and 
•on  the  whole  I  think  S.  notata,  unlike  the  other  species  in  the  genus 
that  I  have  studied,  is  predaceous — at  all  events,  occasionally  so. 

A  male  of  Hydrotea  metcorica  L.,  from  Jersey,  shows  reddish 
masses  of  semi-digested  food ;  a  higher  power  resolves  and  separates 
these  into  minute  circles  with  a  dot  in  the  middle. 

Three  preparations  of  H.  irritans  Fin.,  a  male  and  two  females, 
all  show  digested  food  and  pollen.  What  the  object  of  the  females 
is  in  buzzing  round  man  on  hot  days  is  not  at  all  obvious.  The 
male  is,  as  far  as  my  experience  goes,  never  in  these  crowds. 

H.  dentipes  F.  £  is  of  interest,  as  it  shows  pollen  and  digested 
material,  the  usual  granular  mass,  with  broken  up  black  fragments, 
and,  in  addition  to  these,  some  unicellular  vegetation  similar  to  that 
in  Oliviera. 


EXPLANATION   OF   PLATE   IX. 

Fig.  31. — Photograph  of  part  of  abdomen  of  Forficula  auricularia  (Earwig), 
showing  the  fragments  of  Aphides  (plant  lice)  in  the  stomach. 

Fig.  32. — Photograph  of  part  of  abdomen  of  Odonata  (Dragon  fly),  Enallagma 
■civilis,  showing  the  fragments  of  a  fly  (Chironomus)  in  the  stomach. 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.  SOC.   1908.    PI.  IX. 


V 


•J" 


-.. 


s 


Fig.  31. 


Fig.  32. 


W.  Imboden,  photo. 


The  Microscope  and  Biology.     By  W.  Wescke*.  417 

Ophyra  leucostoma  W.  $  shows  dark  reddish  lobular  masses, 
some  of  which  seem  to  be  made  up  of  the  same  material  as  that 
in  the  intestine  of  H.  meteorica. 

Drymia  hamata  Fin.,  as  I  would  expect  from  the  character  of 
the  mouth,  shows  pollen.  In  these  flies  the  paraglossia  of  the 
labium  have  been  elongated,  and  the  tracheae  simplified,  but  not 
so  much  modified  as  in  Siphona. 

Hylemia  strigosa  F.  $  is  quite  full  of  spores  of  fungus. 

Lasiops  ctenoctema  Kow.    $  has  the  abdomen  full  of  a  dark 
mass,  with  black  angular  fragments  similar  to  that  in  H.  dentipes  2 
and  others. 

The  two  sexes  of  Anthomyia  pluvialis  L.  show  pollen  and  the 
black  stain. 

The  food  in  A.  radicum  is  very  quickly  digested,  as,  out  of 
twenty  preparations,  in  only  two  was  the  food  present  in  any 
quantity ;  the  black  granular  stain  was  very  constant,  and  in  the 
abdomens  of  four  I  found  black  angular  debris,  and  one  single 
spore. 

Homalomyia  scalaris  $  shows  masses  of  minute  pollen. 

H.  canicularis  L.  $  shows  a  fine  yellowish  granule.  This 
insect  was  caught  inside  a  house  in  Maida  Vale,  and  the  contents 
of  his  stomach  are  not  without  traces  of  albumen. 

H.  incisatura  Ztt.  £ . — Many  black  fragments,  and  digested 
food  in  nodules. 

Caricea  tigrina  F.  $  shows  digested  food  which  seems  albu- 
minous, but  also  a  number  of  rather  large  pollen-granules.  Two 
males  from  the  borders  of  the  New  Forest  have  no  pollen,  and 
what  little  food  is  present  is  of  the  appearance  seen  in  E.  livida. 

Hoplogaster  mollicula  Fin.,  a  male  from  Jersey,  shows  an  intes- 
tine, or  rather  stomach,  as  it  is  swollen  into  a  large  bulb,  full  of 
transparent,  long  filaments,  of  a  low  vegetable  nature  (mycelium 
of  a  fungus  ?).  A  female  from  the  same  place  has  well-digested  food 
of  a  dark  colour,  and  a  few  separate  filaments,  which  appear  to  be 
a  series  of  minute  cells,  and  probably  are  spores  of  a  fungus.  A 
second  female  has  obviously  been  feeding  on  the  same  food  as  the 
male.  A  male  from  the  New  Forest  is,  unfortunately,  quite 
empty.  Another  female  shows  some  hairs,  which  suggests  that 
this  species  is  occasionally  predaceous. 

A  Csenosid  from  Kineton,  Victoria,  shows  pollen-granules  and 
some  semi-lunate  bodies  that  are  strange  to  me. 

Another,  from  Geelong,  Victoria,  shows  a  scattered  mass  of 
debris,  with  some  small  crystals  and  one  or  two  diatoms. 

CORDILURID^E. — Scatophaga  stercoraria  L.  var.  Merdaria  F.  $ , 
and  all  the  Scatophagidse,  show  digested  food  much  like  in  appear- 
ance to  that  found  in  Empis  livida ;  this  particular  male  has  also 
a  minute  cluster  of  reniform,  shining  cells,  and  a  spore  of  fungus 
or  mildew. 

Aug.  19th,  1908  2  F 


418  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Four  preparations,  two  of  S.  lutaria  F.  and  two  of  S.  stercoraria 
L.,  show  what,  by  comparison,  I  consider  the  digested  juice  or 
blood  of  insects.  These  insects  are  fiercely  predaceous,  but  I  have 
found  them  in  numbers  on  the  blossom  of  the  Ivy  (Hedera)  in  the 
autumn,  but  whether  to  feed,  or  from  their  interest  in  the  other 
flies,  who  are  even  more  numerous,  I  am  not  absolutely  certain. 

I  think  I  can  distinguish  a  little  animal  debris,  hair,  etc.,  in 
the  excreta  of  a  &  lutaria  that  I  collected  in  Jersey. 

A  male  and  female  of  Fucellia  fucorum  Fin.  both  show  an 
appearance  similar  to  that  seen  in  the  Scatophagidse.  Another 
shows  some  curious  minute  circles  with  a  dot  in  the  middle  when 
the  thinner  parts  of  the  intestine  are  examined  with  the  higher 
power. 

A  female  of  Norellia  spinimana  Mg.  shows  a  few  hairs  clustered 
into  a  bunch,  while  a  male  of  the  same  species  has  the  abdomen 
full  of  masses  of  hair  and  a  great  number  of  scales  of  a  gnat 
(Culex)  or  gnats.  These  are  in  greater  number  than  in  E.  livida, 
already  described,  and  in  masses,  while  in  the  female  and  in 
E.  livida  they  seem  to  be  in  pellets.  It  is  interesting  that  in 
Prof.  Poulton's  paper,*  there  is  no  mention  of  Culicidse  as  prey, 
or  of  N.  spinimana  as  predaceous,  though  there  are  twenty  records 
of  different  insects,  mostly  Diptera,  being  captured  in  the  grasp  of 
E.  livida. 

Heliomyzid^e. — Helomyza  rufa  Fin.  has  been  feeding  on  small- 
sized  pollen,  while  H.  similis  shows  a  preference  for  larger.  Of  a 
female  of  this  genus,  I  can  reconstruct  the  following  history  :— 
She  was  very  young,  as  not  only  are  the  wings  perfect,  but  the 
insect  is  virgin,  not  having  been  impregnated ;  this  can  be  seen 
by  the  receptacula  seminis,  which  are  quite  clear  and  empty. 
While  feeding,  or  possibly  immediately  after  emerging  from  the 
pupa  case,  she  had  been  attacked  by  a  small  ichneumon,  which 

*  Predaceous  Insects  and  their  Prey.     Prof.  E.  B.  Poulton,  F.R.S.,   Trans 
Entom.  Soc,  London,  Jan.  23,  1907. 


EXPLANATION   OP  PLATE   X. 

Fig.  33.— Photograph' of  another  part  of  the  abdomen  of  Odonata  (Dragon- 
fly).    E.  civilis,  showing  fragments,  particularly  the  jaws  of  Lepidopterous  larva. 

Fig.  34. — Photograph  of  part  of  the  abdomen  of  a  Hawk  or  Hover  fly,  Syrphus 
balteatus  Deg.   8  ,  showing  pollen-grains  in  stomach. 

Note. — The  following  letters  are  used  in  the  mouth-parts  throughout  the  plates. 

-i-i  i  Pr-  Paraslossa.      % 

m.  Mandible.  f  ^  Ligufa 


I.  Lacinia. 


I  p.  Labial  palpus 
g.  Galea.  L     Palpiger 

mp    Maxillary  palpus.  -  Maxilla.  *  £  Mentum. 

pf.  Palpifer.  s  m    Submentum. 

s-  Stipes.  ltm  Labrum. 

c-  Cardo-  h.  Hypopharynx. 


Labium. 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.  SOC.  1908.   PI.  X. 


/. 


> 


^RE 


Fig.  33. 


*. 


Fig.  34. 


W.  Imboden,  phcto. 


The  Microscope  and  Biology.     By  W.  Wesche".  419 

laid  eight  eggs  in  the  thorax,   where  they  [can  still  be  seen  in 
situ. 

SciomyziD/E. — Tetanocera  Icevifrons  Lw.  is  quite  filled  with 
digested  food,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  intestine  shows  much 
black  stain. 

Ortalid^e. — Ptcropcectria  nigrina  Mg.,  Seoptera  vibrans  L.,  and 
Ulidia  nigripennis  Lw.,  show  the  black  granular  remains,  but  no 
undigested  food. 

TRYPETiDiE. — Acidia  lychnidis  F.  shows  pollen,  and  the  intes- 
tine is  much  stained  with  black. 

Tephritis  formosa  Lw.  £  has  a  particularly  long  intestine, 
much  coiled,  and  full  of  nearly  digested  food. 

Lonch^eid^e. — Lonchcea  nigrimana  Mg.  is  full  of  pollen,  and 
all  the  members  of  this  small  family  are  flower  haunters. 

Sapromyzid.e. — The  flies  of  this  family  are  mostly  full  of  debris 
of  various  kinds,  with  large  fragments  of  black  or  chitinous-looking 
material.  It  is  interesting  that  a  Lauxania  from  New  Zealand  has 
an  identical  appearance. 

In  addition  to  this,  Sapromyza  fasciata  Fin.  shows  the  spores 
so  often  met  with.  Another  undetermined  Sapromyza  also  shows 
a  number  of  spores. 

The  debris  in  Lauxanca  mnea  Fin.  is  large,  and  there  are  some 
crystals.  \ 

L.  bilineata  Hutton  (N.Z.)  also  shows  a  similar  type  of  digested 
food.  Some  of  the  crystals  in  L.  decora  Schiner  (S.  Australia)  are 
green. 

Sepsid^e. — Sepsis  cynipsea  L.  shows  the  usual  black  granular 
stain  and  some  digested  food. 

Ephydrid^e. — Parhydra  coarctata  Fin.  has  varying  appearances  ; 
one  shows  a  very  fine  mass  of  conglomerate,  with  larger  pieces  of 
chitin  (?),  and  others  black  in  colour  and  angular  in  form.  Another 
quite  different,  rather  like  dried  blood.  A  third  with  the  intestine 
full  of  conglomerate. 

Scatophila  despecta  Hal.  shows  many  diatoms,  Pinnuliaria  and 
Navicula. 

Borborid^e. — Borboras  equimts  L.,  male  and  female,  both  show 
a  large  granule  and  reddish  nodules  in  the  intestine. 

B.  genicidatus  (?)  Mg.  $  shows  some  very  minute  reniform 
granules,  besides  the  usual  mass. 

Limnosina  fuscipennis  Hal.  has  all  the  abdomen  full  of  larger, 
milky  white,  kidney-shaped  pollen. 

Phorid^e. — Phora  riifipes  Mg.  $  shows  the  cracked  dried-up 
appearance  that  I  associate  with  albumen.  There  is  little  doubt 
that  some  of  these  flies  are  predaceous.  An  undetermined  Phora 
from  New  Zealand  also  shows  this  appearance  in  both  sexes. 

HippoBOSCiDiE. — A  Nycteribid  shows  blood  in  quite  an  un- 
digested state  (N.  Hermanni  Leach). 

2  f  2 


420  Transactions  of  the  Society. 


The  Contents  of  the  Abdomen. 

b.  Structure. — I  shall  now  make  some  remarks  on  the  structure 
found  in  the  abdomen,  regarded  more  especially  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  microscopist.  The  containing  membranes  of  the  intes- 
tines, and  of  the  various  complicated  glands  that  surround  the 
stomach,  are  so  soluble  that  they  seldom  or  never  show  in  pre- 
parations fitted  for  high  powers.  However,  the  following  parts 
are  often  visible  : — (1)  the  gizzard,  or  crop ;  (2)  the  rectal  papilla? ; 
(3)  the  breathing  tracheae  and  the  stigmata ;  (4)  the  eggs  or  larvae 
or  pupa  ;  and  (5)  receptacula  seminis  or  spermathecoe. 

1.  The  gizzard  is  an  elaborate  and  interesting  structure  in 
many  insects.  In  our  large  grasshoppers  it  is  scarcely  a  micro- 
scopic organ ;  in  the  earwig  (Forficula)  it  consists  of  two  arms 
studded  with  rows  of  sharp  hooks ;  in  the  cockroach  (Periplaneta) 
it  is,  though  chitinous,  more  muscular  and  is  adapted  for  crushing, 
not  tearing.  All  can  be  easily  found  in  preparations.  Nothing 
similar  exists  in  the  flies,  but  an  organ  composed  of  a  number  of 


a.  Papilla.  b.  Receptaculurrit 

Fig.  114. — Rectal  papillae  of  Hydrellia  griseola  Fin.  9  .  Theldelicate  membrane 
is  the  anal  extremity  of  the  intestine.  In  the  process  of  dissection  it  has  been 
forced  out  of  the  anus,  and  consequently  reversed ;  normally,  the  apices  of  the 
cones  of  the  papillae  are  on  the  inner  side,  but  I  have  drawn  it  just  as  I  saw  it. 
This  figure  also  shows  the  single  receptaculum  seminis  that  is  found  in  this  fly, 
which,  moreover,  is  remarkable,  as  the  mouth  contains  a  complete  maxilla. 

filaments,  springing  from  a  central  tube,  is  often  met  with  in  the 
calyptrate  Muscidoe.  This  is  the  chyle  stomach.  The  crop  or 
gizzard  can  be  differentiated  in  the  blow-fly  (Calliphora),  though 
to  see  it  special  dissection  is  necessary ;  it  is  not  likely  to  appear 
in  preparations,  such  as  the  other  observations  can  be  made  from. 
A  somewhat  similar  organ  is  found  in  the  abdomen  of  the  fleas 
(Pulicidoe). 

2.  The  rectal  papillae  will  often  be  met  with  pressed  out  of  the 
anus.  In  some  Diptera  they  have  minute  scales ;  this  is  most 
marked  in  the  Dolichopodida:,  the  "  fan-tailed  flies,"  where  micros- 
copists  will  find  them  mostly  in  the  abdomen  or  in  the  ovipositor. 
I  give  a  figure  of  them  as  they  are  found  in  a  minute  Ephydrid, 
Hydrellia  griseola  Fin.  This  was  drawn  from  a  dissection :  it  is 
seldom  these  organs  appear  so  clearly. 

3.  The  tracheae  are  often  dissolved  away  by  the  potash,  but 


The  Microscope  and  Biology.     By  W.  Wesche'.  421 

good  preparations  can  be  secured  by  careful  watching,  taking  the 
insect  out  of  the  solution  immediately  the  chitin  is  thoroughly 
softened  and  will  not  crack  with  pressure.  They  are  beautiful 
symmetrical  objects,  and  can  be  easily  traced  to  their  openings, 
the  stigmata,  particularly  in  the  longer  ovipositors,  where  the 
membrane  is  transparent.  The  stigma  has  a  minute  apodeme  or 
lever  to  control  its  aperture  ;  this  lever  in  the  flies  undergoes  great 
changes  in  appearance,  so  that  it  is  occasionally  possible  to  find 
the  place  of  an  insect  in  the  classification  by  a  sight  of  this 
part  alone. 

4.  Eggs  will  often  be  met  with  in  various  stages  of  development. 
In  Pcriplaneta  the  capsule  that  contains  them  can  be  seen,  but 
certainly  not  recognised,  as  it  appears  as  a  mass  of  folded  chitin. 

When  eggs  are  present  in  the  flies,  the  abdomen  is  full  of  them  ; 
the  receptacula  seminis  in  some  species  are  egg-shaped,  but  are 
usually  only  three  in  number  and  can  thus  be  distinguished,  but 
the  beginner  is  very  likely  to  take  them  for  eggs. 

5.  Larvae  when  present  will  always  show,  as  their  jaws  will 


Fig.  115. — Jaws  of  the  larva  of  Lucilia  sericata  Mg.     These  larvse  infest  the 
fleeces  of  sheep.     Most  of  the  larvae  in  the  Muscidge  have  the  trophi  of  this  type. 

not  dissolve.  There  are  many  species  of  the  large  Muscid  family 
that  are  viviparous,  and  a  slide  with  the  jaws  of  the  larvae  showing 
in  the  abdomen  will  absolutely  settle  this  point  in  the  life-history. 
I  have  preparations  of  Oliviera  lateralis  F.,  Plagia  trepida  Mg.  and 
Phorocera  serriventris  End.,  showing  these  jaws.  In  the  latter 
case  a  problem  at  once  presents  itself.  The  female  has  a  remarkable 
ovipositor,  of  which  the  principal  part  is  a  curved  hook  turned  in 
under  the  abdomen.  (Not  at  all  resembling  in  arrangement  this 
part  as  found  in  the  Pipunculidae.)  The  question  arises,  to  what  use 
does  an  insect  put  an  ovipositor  when  that  insect  does  not  lay  eggs  ? 
One  day  a  field  naturalist  will  notice  this  fly  boring  holes  in 
something  that  will  contain  food,  or  abraiding  with  the  under 
surface  of  the  abdomen  some  leaf  or  plant  and  depositing  larvae. 
The  edges  of  the  plates  on  the  under  side  of  the  abdomen  are 
spined  (hence  Eondani's  name).  This  elaboration  exists  for  some 
very  specific  purpose,  but  here  the  limitations  of  what  I  may  call 
the  "  arm-chair  method  "  come  in,  and  we  must  wait  for  the  field 
naturalist  to  solve  the  problem.  Even  here  the  Microscope  affords 
a  clue  that  may  suggest  a  solution.     The  "  scent  pits "  on  the 


422  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

antennae  of  the  female  are  unusually  numerous  and  well  developed 
— far  more  so  than  in  those  of  the  male. 

The  "  scent  pits  "  on  the  antenna?  of  many  of  the  Ichneumonidae 
are  very  large  and  regularly  disposed  on  each  of  the  numerous 
joints.  Mr.  C.  0.  Waterhouse,  Pres.E.S.,  told  me  that  he  has  watched 
the  females  of  certain  species  using  the  antennas  to  detect  the 
presence  of  larvae  living  under  the  bark  of  the  smaller  branches  of 
shrubs ;  this  was  obviously  done  by  scent,  and  when  the  insect 
was  satisfied  of  the  presence  of  its  prey  the  ovipositor  was  brought 
into  play  and  eggs  laid  in  or  near  the  unfortunate  host.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  larvae  of  the  Tachinidae  in  which  family  Pkorocera 
is  placed,  live  on  the  larvae  of  other  orders,  and  even  on  the  larvae 
of  a  species  of  fly  (Sciara  mali  Fitch).  It  therefore  appears  pro- 
bable that  the  host  of  P.  serriventris  is  some  insect  that  burrows 
into  wood  or  other  substance,  and  the  ovipositor  and  the  highly 
specialised  scent-organs  (dependent  on  each  other  for   successful 

Fig.  116.  Fig.  117.  Fig.  118. 


Fig.  116. — Receptaculurn  semiuis  of  Conops  flavipes  L.  Four  are  found  in  this 
insect ;  actual  size,  circa  200  /j.. 

Fig.  117. — Receptaculurn  of  Chrysopillus  aureus  Mg.  Three  are  present  in  this 
insect ;  actual  size,  130  p. 

Fig.  118. — Receptaculurn  of  Beris  vallata  Forst.  Three  are  found  in  this  insect, 
and  each  have  the  long  tubular  attachment  figured  ;  these  organs  in  the  Tabanidae 
and  Asilidse  have  similar  appendages.     Actual  size  of  bulb,  100  /*. 

application)  have  developed,  giving  Phorocera  particular  advantages, 
possibly  the  monopoly  of  a  species,  for  the  food  of  its  larvae. 

These  flies  were  quite  common  in  a  garden  in  South  Hamp- 
stead  in  the  month  of  June. 

6.  The  pupa  will  be  found  in  the  abdomen  of  the  Hippoboscidae, 
those  remarkable  flies  which  have  been  so  modified  that  they  pass 
through  the  larval  stage  in  the  abdomen ;  it  is  but  seldom  that  a 
specimen  shows  this. 

7.  The  receptacula  seminis  may  be  regarded  as  part  of  the 
female  genitalia,  but  for  convenience  I  will  make  what  few  remarks 
I  have  to  make  here.  I  am  only  acquainted  with  these  organs  in 
Diptera.  They  vary  remarkably  and  inexplicably,  not  only  in 
number  (from  one  to  four)  but  in  sculpturing  and  shape,  species 
differing  from  species.     In  groups  like  the  Anthomyidae,  where 


The  Microscope  and  Biology.     By  W.  Wesche'.  423 

sexual  dimorphism  is  commonly  found,  the  females  are  very  diffi- 
cult to  distinguish,  and  I  have  been  able  to  separate  female  insects 
by  a  comparison  of  this  part. 

When  I  say  "  inexplicably  "  I  do  so  advisedly,  as  in  what  manner 
the  various  setae,  points,  tubercles,  folds  and  differences  in  shape 
can  influence  any  particular  species  is  at  present  an  enigma  ;  varia- 
tions in  genitalia  are  a  check  on  hybridism,  but  how  do  these 
modifications  further  that  end  ? 


IV. — The  Genitalia. 

I  have  treated  this  subject  at  some  length  in  a  former  paper,* 
to' which  I  refer  those  who  wish  to  pursue  this  difficult  subject. 

The  study  of  these  organs  is  of  great  use  in  the  separation  of 
species.  The  microscopist  who  has  seen  that  the  genitalia  are 
identical,  is  not  confused  by  the  variability  in  colours,  however 
remarkable,  or  deceived  by  the  similarity  of  appearance  so  per- 
plexing in  the  Sarcophagidse  or  the  Lucilidce,  and  in  so  many 
Lepidoptera. 

Summary. 

I  have  several  times  mentioned  facts  that  may  be  very  ancient 
history  to  the  entomologist,  but  are  useful  to  the  microscopist  of 
average  experience.  But  besides  this,  I  have  collected  a  number 
of  observations  that  I  submit  are,  at  all  events,  out  of  the  beaten 
track,  and  I  shall  enumerate  these  in  the  order  in  which  they 
occur  in  the  paper. 

1.  Modifications  in  the  general  structure  that  are  guides  as  to 
the  habits  of  insects  are  discussed.  Figures  of  various  types  of 
limbs  are  given  in  the  plates. 

2.  A  number  of  the  comparatively  rare  secondary  sexual 
characters  in  the  female  are  given,  confined  however,  to  the  Order 
of  Diptera. 

3.  General  rules  are  formulated  for  finding  the  nature  of  the 
food  from  the  characters  of  the  mouth-parts,  also  confined  to  the 
same  Order.  Figures  of  the  various  types  to  illustrate  the  rules 
are  given  in  the  plates. 

4.  A  number  of  observations  of  the  food  of  various  mandibu- 
late  insects  belonging  to  other  Orders  are  given,  and  illustrated  by 
photography  in  the  plates. 

5.  The  appearance  of  digested  food  in  various  insects  is  dis- 
cussed, and  suggests  that  an  identical  process  of  digestion  occurs 
in  all  Orders,  and  in  all  habits  (predaceous  or  otherwise). 

*  "  The  Genitalia  of  Both  Sexes  of  Diptera."  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  Ser.  2  (Zool.) 
ix.,  Part  10,  July  1906. 


424  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

6.  Recognisable  remains  of  prey  are  found  in  a  number  of 
inandibulate  insects. 

7.  Also  in  a  few  Diptera. 

8.  Remains  identified  as  scales  and  hairs  of  Culcx. 

9.  The  food  of  non-predaceous  flies  is  discussed,  and  in  one  or 
two  cases  the  pollen  is  recognised. 

10.  Food  which  must  have  been  eaten  in  the  larval  stage  is 
found  in  the  abdomen  of  the  female  imago  of  Oncodes  gibhosus  L., 
and  not  in  that  of  the  male. 

11.  Spores  of  rust  or  mould,  or  mildew,  are  found  in  the  intes- 
tines of  many  Diptera,  from  New  Zealand  as  well  as  England. 

12.  Larvae  are  found  in  the  abdomens  of  several  viviparous 
flies — Phoroccra,  Oliviera,  and  Plagia. 

13.  Differences  are  noted  in  the  armature  of  the  mouth  of  the 
males  and  females  of  some  Phoridse. 

Methods  of  Work. — I  use  a  §  in.  for  general,  and  a  |  in.  capable 
of  working  at  a  long  distance,  for  particular  examination.  With 
them  I  use  a  powerful  substage  condenser  (the  ordinary  Abbe  is 
not  sufficiently  powerful).  A  ^  oil-immersion,  with  a  tube-length 
of  25  mm.,  is  occasionally  employed. 

Examination  through  the  slip  is  sometimes  necessary,  when 
the  part  desired  to  be  seen  is  on  the  under  side  of  the  preparation ; 
an  eye-piece  of  high  magnification  is  used  with  the  §  in.,  and 
answers  very  fairly  well.  The  satisfactory  working  of  these 
objectives  entirely  depends  on  the  substage  illumination ;  the  con- 
denser must  be  powerful,  and  the  iris  diaphragm  carefully  used, 
as  the  objects  focused  are  often  on  the  surface,  or  even  between 
plates  of  only  semi-transparent  chitin. 

In  conclusion,  I  have  to  express  my  great  obligations  to 
Mr.  Walter  Imboden,  F.R.M.S.,  for  his  most  valuable  assistance 
in  so  kindly  photographing  the  abdomens  of  various  insects. 


425 


XIII. — Illuminating  Apparatus  for  the  Microscope. 
By  J.  W.  Gordon. 

(Read  June  17,  1908.) 

The  illuminating  apparatus  which  is  this  evening  exhibited  has 
been  designed  as  the  result  of  experience  gained  in  working  with 
very  high  powers.  But  it  is  believed  that  it  will  be  found  to 
comprise  several  material  improvements  upon  present  forms  of 
apparatus  even  for  use  with  ordinary  magnifying  powers. 

For  successful  illumination  of  the  stage  of  a  Microscope  it  is 
necessary  that  the  operator  should  have  control  over  (1)  the 
brilliancy  of  the  light;  (2)  the  form  of  the  luminous  disk  which 
constitutes  the  source  of  light ;  and  (3)  the  angle  under  which  the 
light  is  incident  upon  the  object.  It  is  further  important  that  the 
light  source,  when  in  focus,  should  be  a  featureless  disk,  and  that 
all  the  adjustments  relating  to  the  points  above  enumerated  should 
be  susceptible  of  being  independently  made. 

These  points  may  best  be  illustrated  by  taking  notice  of  the 
defects  exhibited  by  the  various  sources  of  illumination  in 
common  use. 

To  take,  first  of  all,  the  ordinary  paraffin  lamp.  The  great 
defect  of  this  light  source  is  that  it  is  too  feeble  for  use  with  very 
high  magnifying  powers.  With  ordinary  magnifications,  however, 
its  brilliancy  is  abundantly  sufficient.  But  here  its  shape  is  faulty. 
The  side  of  the  flame  is  unsuitable  for  use,  because  its  luminosity 
and  colour  vary  in  different  parts  of  its  area.  This  defect  may, 
indeed,  be  made  good  by  placing  a  perforated  diaphragm  in  front 
of  the  flame,  and  using  only  a  selected  part  as  the  effective  source 
of  light.  In  that  case,  however,  if  a  uniform  source  of  light  is  to 
be  obtained,  it  is  necessary  to  limit  the  exposed  surface  to  such  a 
small  area  that  an  equal  breadth  of  light-source  can  be  obtained 
by  placing  the  flame  end-on  to  the  Microscope — and  this,  in  fact, 
is  the  plan  adopted  in  practice  by  all  experienced  microscopists. 
It  has  the  additional  advantage  of  presenting  the  flame  with  its 
long  axis  in  line  with  the  optical  axis  of  the  instrument,  with  the 
result  that  the  light  is  concentrated,  since  to  some  extent  the 
remoter  parts  of  the  flame  shine  through  the  nearer  parts,  which  are 
not  entirely  opaque  to  the  flame-light. 

For  use  with  high  powers  a  source  of  light  having  an  elongated 
form  is,  however,  very  unsuitable,  for  a  reason  which  will  be  easily 


426  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

understood  by  reference  to  the  annexed  diagram  (fig.  119).  Here  the 
optical  system  of  the  Microscope  is  represented  by  its  Gauss  planes. 
Now  let  us  suppose  that  for  the  due  delineation  of  a  particular 
feature  in  the  object  it  is  necessary  to  throw  the  light-source 
slightly  out  of  focus  with  the  object.  Then,  the  image  of  the 
light-source,  being  focused,  say  at  Px  -2]0  in.  short  of  the  object, 
another  image,  conjugate  to  this,  will  be  formed  at  the  point 
marked  P2  in  the  diagram,  which  lies  at  about  -^fa  in.*  behind 
the  eye-point  E  of  the  instrument,  it  being  assumed  that  the 
Microscope  as  a  whole  has  a  magnifying  power  of  1000.  It  will, 
of  course,  follow  that  this  image  of  the  source  of  light  will  be 
interposed  between  the  eye-lens  of  the  Microscope  and  the  retina 
•of  the  observer ;  and  therefore,  upon  the  principle  first  explained 
by  Helmholtz,  the  effect  upon  the  image,  so  far  as  diffraction  is 
concerned,  will  be  the  same  as  if  a  diaphragm  were  interposed  at 
that  point  in  front  of  the  observer's  eye,  having  an  aperture  of  the 
same  form  and  dimensions  as  the  image  of   the  flame.      Those 


Fig.  119. 

dimensions  are  easily  calculable.  But  as  it  is  only  the  breadth 
which  now  concerns  us,  it  will  suffice  to  obtain  a  notion  of  the 
breadth  of  this  post-ocular  image  of  the  lamp-flame.  Assuming 
the  original  lamp-flame  to  have  a  breadth  of  j1^  in.,  its  image  at 
Px  would,  with  a  £-in.  condenser,  have  a  breadth  of  about  one- 
thirtieth  of  that  quantity,  amounting,  say,  to  ^^  in.  The  second 
image,  formed  at  P2,  may  be  supposed  to  have  a  breadth  of  about 
one-quarter  of  this  amount,  so  that  the  image  of  the  lamp-flame 
formed  over  the  eye-lens  of  the  instrument  would  have  a  dia- 
meter of  about  50V0  ^n-  It  ^s  we^  known  that  the  diffraction 
produced  by  an  aperture  of  such  dimensions  is  very  serious,  and 
in  fact  it  is  found  quite  impossible  to  obtain  a  well-resolved 
image  of  fine  detail  under  these  conditions.  Experience  has  shown 
that  what  is  known  as  "  critical  illumination  "  is  necessary  ,  that  is 
to  say,  the  edge  of  the  flame  must  be  accurately  focused  in  the 
plane  of  the  object,  so  that  its  image  may  everywhere  coincide  with 
the  image  of  the  object  and  there  may  be  no  diffracting  aperture 
interposed  between  the  eye-lens  and  the  observer's  retina.  Hence 
it  is  in  practice  found  impossible  to  use  a  lamp-flame  for  critical 

*  This,  perhaps,  is  stated  too  rigorously,  the  position  and  dimensions  of  the 
image  being  variable  within  comparatively  wide  limits  in  different  optical  systems. 
But  as  the  case  actually  put  is  one  that  might  very  well  occur  in  practice,  it  may 
serve  the  purpose  of  illustration. 


Illuminating  Apparatus.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.  427 

work  under  other  conditions  than  those  of  precise  focusing  on  the 
stage  of  the  instrument ;  and  the  very  considerable  advantage  of 
being  able  independently  to  control  the  brightness  of  the  illumina- 
tion and  the  angle  at  which  the  light  shall  be  incident  upon  the 
object,  is  lost.  This  is,  in  fact,  a  more  serious  difficulty  than  is 
commonly  supposed  in  the  way  of  high-power  microscopic  work ; 
and  what  has  here  been  stated  in  reference  to  the  lamp-flame 
applies,  of  course,  with  added  force  to  such  sources  of  light  as 
electric  lamp  filaments  or  Welsbach  mantles.  The  diffraction 
which  they  produce  when  thrown  slightly  out  of  focus  makes  them 
wholly  useless  under  those  conditions  of  working,  and  the  con- 
traction of  the  illuminated  field  when  they  are  in  focus  makes  them 
entirely  unsuitable  for  the  purposes  of  critical  illumination. 

This  difficulty  has  in  practice  been  met  by  placing  ground-glass 
between  the  source  of  light  and  the  condenser.  So  long  as  the 
ground-glass  remains  out  of  focus  it  forms  a  most  excellent  light 
source.     But  if  it  is  brought  into  the  position  in  which  it  yields 


Ground Glass 


Fig.  120. 


the  brightest  field  its  grain  becomes  conspicuous,  and  of  course 
destroys  the  image.  For  this  reason  a  flame  or  filament  covered 
with  ground-glass,  in  the  usual  way  of  employing  that  medium,  has 
only  a  very  limited  application  in  microscopy. 

The  two  great  difficulties,  then,  against  which  provision  has  to 
be  made  in  devising  a  source  of  light  for  the  Microscope  are 
(1)  diffraction  due  to  the  post-ocular  image  of  the  filament  when  a 
glowing  filament  is  used ;  and  (2)  the  loss  of  light  and  intrusion  of 
the  grain  when  a  diaphanous  screen  is  employed  to  diffuse  the  light 
from  the  primary  light  source. 

Both  these  difficulties  are  met  by  the  use  of  the  speculum  ex- 
hibited this  evening.  The  apparatus  consists,  as  shown  in  fig.  120, 
of  a  glass  rod,  one  end  of  which  is  cut  to  a  plane  surface  and  finely 
ground.  Such  a  surface  can  be  very  strongly  illuminated,  for  it 
will  bear  exposure  to  very  intense  radiant  heat.  The  small  size 
and  symmetrical  form  of  the  exposed  surface  render  it  singularly 
tolerant  of  this  particular  kind  of  hard  usage,  and  the  very  con- 
siderable conducting  power  of  the  glass  rod  prevents  it  from  being 
easily  heated  to  fusing-point.  It  may  thus  be  placed  with  perfect 
safety  within  \  in.  of  a  Xernst  filament,  and  in  that  way  it  can  be 
made  to  receive  a  very  intense  illumination.  In  the  illuminating 
apparatus  now  under  description  this  ground-glass  surface  becomes 


428  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

the  effective  source  of  light.  It  is  a  very  convenient  light  source, 
because  its  brilliancy  can  be  varied  within  wide  limits,  and  very 
simply.  By  varying  the  distance  between  the  filament  and  the 
ground-glass  surface,  the  luminosity  of  the  latter  can  be  rapidly 
and  greatly  altered,  since  it  varies  inversely  with  the  square  of  the 
distance  between  the  filament  and  the  ground-glass  film.  The  light 
which  in  this  way  enters  the  glass  speculum  is  transmitted  almost 
intact  by  total  internal  reflection  along  the  length  of  the  glass  rod. 
If  a  glass  be  chosen  which  has  low  absorbent  power  and  is  free 
from  optical  defects,  the  illumination  is  almost  constant  at  all 
points  of  the  speculum.  The  optical  system  of  such  a  speculum 
presents  some  very  interesting  features,  but  its  discussion  would 
demand  more  space  than  can  be  allotted  to  it  in  this  paper.  It 
may  suffice  here  to  say  that  these  internal  reflections  give  rise  to  a 
figure  in  which  a  central  disk  of  light  is  seen  surrounded  by  a 
succession  of  luminous  rings  concentric  with  it,  the  illumination 
falling  off  gradually  towards  the  edges  of  the  pattern.  The 
diameter  of  the  central  disk  and  of  its  concentric  rings  is,  of  course, 
determined  primarily  by  the  diameter  of  the  rod.  Its  appearance, 
however,  is  dependent  equally  upon  the  magnifying  power  under 
which  it  is  viewed.  A  rod  of  about  \  in.  diameter  yields  a  disk 
of  very  serviceable  size. 

The  glass  speculum,  which  is  conveniently  made  about  6  in. 
in  length,  but  may  be  of  any  required  dimensions,  is  mounted  in  a 
carrier  which  holds  it  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  is  provided  at 
the  end  opposite  to  the  ground-glass  already  described  with  a 
polished  surface,  flat  or  lenticular  in  form,  according  to  the  user's 
requirements.  The  use  of  a  lens,  when  the  end  of  the  rod  is  shaped 
to  a  lenticular  form,  is  to  focus  the  condenser  short  of  the  ground- 
glass  at  some  point  in  the  rod  where  the  speculum  pattern  is  of  a 
convenient  size.  By  speculum  pattern  I  mean  the  appearance  of 
the  light  source  when  some  plane  in  the  interior  of  the  speculum 
is  chosen  as  the  source  of  light.  The  speculum  pattern  has  the 
same  general  character  of  a  luminous  central  disk  surrounded  by 
bright  rings,  as  the  ground-glass  seen  with  the  aid  of  the  speculum. 
But  in  the  speculum  pattern  itself  there  is  no  visible  grain  of  the 
ground-glass.  This  results  from  the  circumstance  that  the  light 
at  any  point  within  the  speculum  is  supplied  by  rays  coming  from 
various  points  upon  the  ground-glass.  The  features  of  various 
points  of  origin  therefore  are  combined,  with  the  result  that  the 
luminous  patch  is  as  structureless  as  is  the  flame  of  an  oil  lamp. 
We  have,  in  fact,  a  diffusion  similar  to  that  which  results  from 
throwing  the  ground-glass  out  of  focus  ;  but  the  use  of  a  cylindrical 
reflector  secures  at  the  same  time  that  there  shall  be  no  corre- 
sponding loss  of  light  or  loss  of  angle,  since  the  light  which  would, 
if  unreflected,  have  become  diffused  over  a  broad  wave-front,  is 
here  condensed  by  reflection  into  the  original  and  unvarying  area. 


Illuminating  Apparatus.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.  429 

We  thus  obtain  a  light  source  which  is  structureless,  and  which, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  can  be  made  to  vary  indefinitely  in 
intensity. 

The  rest  of  the  apparatus  can  be  very  briefly  described.  To 
the  polished  end  of  the  speculum  are  fitted  stops  of  various  forms 
and  sizes  for  the  purpose  of  giving  any  required  shape  and 
dimensions  to  the  light  source.  The  fittings  in  which  the  burner 
and  speculum  are  carried  are  made  adjustable  in  height  for  the 
purpose  of  collimation,  and  the  whole  is  placed  upon  a  convenient 
stand  adapted  to  hold  the  various  parts  in  due  relation  to  one 
another,  while  permitting  the  requisite  freedom  of  motion. 

It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that  this  speculum  can  be  used 
not  only  with  a  Nernst  lamp,  but  with  any  form  of  illuminant. 
Filamentous  lamps,  like  the  Osram  and  Tantalum  lamps,  which 
burn  with  very  high  brilliancy,  are  equally  available,  although,  as 
these  lamps  are  ordinarily  made,  their  filaments,  being  inclosed  in 
a  glass  envelope,  cannot  be  brought  into  such  close  proximity  to 
the  ground-glass  end  of  the  speculum  as  the  Nernst  lamp,  which 
burns  in  the  open.  Whatever  the  form  of  the  primary  source  of 
light,  the  speculum  pattern  retains  its  even  illumination  and 
symmetrical  figure,  with  the  result  that,  whether  focused  in  the 
plane  of  the  object — that  is  to  say,  under  the  conditions  of  what  is 
commonly  called  "  critical  illumination  " — or  not,  the  diffracting 
aperture  is  of  circular  form,  and  therefore  yields  a  symmetrical 
antipoint,  producing  the  best  image  which  any  Microscope  with 
which  it  may  be  used  is  capable  of  yielding. 


430  Transactions  of  the  Society. 


XIV. — Corethron  criophilum  Castr. 
By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

(Read  June  11th,  1908.) 

During  the  examination  of  a  strewn  slide  this  diatom  was  found. 
Critical  examination  showed  that  the  "  awns,"  or  bristles  of  the 
"  broom,"  had  minute  secondary  spines  arranged  spirally  round 
them.  These  secondary  spines,  though  quite  conspicuous  in  other 
varieties  of  this  and  kindred  species,  have  not  been  previously 
observed  on  this  variety.  These  secondary  spines  are  not  like  the 
short  thorns  upon  a  Bacteriastrum*  but  they  more  resemble  the 
spines  upon  the  hair  of  a  Polyxenus  Lagurus.  They  are  minute, 
being  much  about  the  size  of  a  fiagellum  of  a  bacterium. 

It  is  not  on  account  of  the  insignificant  biological  importance 
of  the  discovery  of  these  small  secondary  spines  that  this  note  is 
brought  before  you  this  evening — nevertheless,  it  is  as  well  that 
an  organism  should  be  figured  as  correctly  as  possible— but  from  a 
microscopist's  point  of  view  this  diatomic  structure  does  possess 
some  importance,  for  not  only  is  it  an  excellent  test  object,  but  it 
will,  better  than  almost  any  other  object,  enable  a  microscopist  to 
discriminate  between  the  various  competing  methods  of  illumina- 
tion. There  can  in  this  case  be  no  doubt  about  the  structure :  no 
question  can  possibly  arise  as  to  whether  it  is  a  hole  or  a  boss,  a 
puncta  or  a  pearl. 

In  this  object  the  focus  for  the  white  dot  image  is  longer  than 
that  for  the  black  dot.  The  thickness  of  the  "  awns  "is  0  •  000006 
inch  plus  0-000003  for  antipoint  correction  =  0-000009  inch, 
or  0*23  fM.  It  is  then  an  interesting  question  if  this  structure  can 
be  better  seen  with  a  small  or  large  axial  cone  of  transmitted  light, 
or  upon  a  dark  ground  obtained,  by  the  lately  revived  oil  immer- 
sion paraboloid,  by  Mr.  Gordon's  top-stop  arrangement,or  by  some 
other  method. 

Apart  from  these  considerations,  questions  upon  the  theory  of 
microscopic  vision  are  opened  up,  fOr  at  the  present  time  it  is  held 
that  a  self-luminous  bright  line  of  great  tenuity  can  be  seen  upon 
a  dark  ground  where  a  dark  line  of  the  same  thickness  upon  a 
bright  ground  could  not ;  but  Mr.  Gordon  will  tell  you  whether  an 
object,  such  as  this  particular  structure,  illuminated  upon  a  dark 
ground,  would  behave  as  a  self-luminous  object  or  not. 

*  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  iii.  ser.  2,  pi.  4,  fig.  2,  p.  42. 


431 


OBITUAKY. 

Henry  Clifton  Sorby.     1826-1908. 

Plate  XI. 

Microscopical  Science,  as  well  as  this  Society,  has  suffered  a 
serious  loss  by  the  death,  on  March  9,  of  Dr.  Sorby.  As  President 
of  the  Society,  in  1875-7,  he  contributed  to  our  Journal  two 
addresses  of  a  very  striking  and  suggestive  character,  while  our 
own  publications,  as  well  as  those  of  other  scientific  societies,  con- 
tain many  important  communications  from  his  pen,  illustrating  the 
enormous  value  of  the  Microscope  as  an  instrument  of  scientific 
research. 

Sorby's  life  was  a  singularly,  and  happily,  uneventful  one. 
Succeeding  to  a  moderate  fortune,  and  receiving  a  sound  education 
in  the  grammar  school  of  his  native  town,  supplemented  by  private 
tuition,  he,  at  a  very  early  age,  determined  to  devote  his  life  to  the 
study  of  science ;  and  this  devotion  to  scientific  research  was  never 
interrupted  by  the  duties  owing  to  a  family,  by  the  cares  of  a 
business,  or  by  the  distractions  of  a  profession.  During  his  earlier 
years,  Sorby's  interest  and  activities  were  almost  entirely  confined  to 
his  native  town  of  Sheffield  and  its  scientific  societies.  In  his  later 
years,  after  the  death  of  his  widowed  mother,  he  was  in  the  habit 
of  spending  all  the  summer  months  on  board  his  yacht,  which, 
provided  as  it  was  with  Microscopes  and  other  apparatus  for  re- 
search, became  a  laboratory  in  which  he  carried  on  the  multi- 
farious investigations  described  in  his  numerous  memoirs. 

At  the  time  that  he  was  President  of  this  Society,  Sorby  wrote 
as  follows  : — "  My  entire  life  has  been  spent  either  in  scientific 
research  or  in  preparation  for  it  " — and  this  statement  might  have 
been  justly  repeated  by  him  on  his  death-bed.  For  even  during 
the  last  five  years  of  his  life,  while  confined  to  his  bed  by  a  series 
of  accidents,  he  was  actively  engaged  in  completing  and  publishing 
the  results  of  important  investigations.  Nor  did  the  manifestations 
of  his  enthusiasm  for  research  cease  with  the  extinction  of  life  itself 
—  for  a  posthumous  memoir  of  the  highest  value  has  just  appeared 
in  the  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society ;  while,  by  the  terms  of 
his  will,  a  large  part  of  Sorby's  fortune  will  go  to  the  Sheffield 
University — in  the  foundation  of  which  he  took  such  an  important 
part — and  the  Koyal  and  Geological  Societies  receive  bequests,  to 
be  devoted  to  the  promotion  of  investigations  of  the  same  character 
as  those  which  occupied  the  donor  during  his  whole  life,  j 


432  Obituary. 

A  glance  at  the  titles  of  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty- 
papers  published  by  Sorby  will  show  how  wide  were  his  sympathies 
and  how  varied  his  scientific  tastes.  Scarcely  any  branch  of 
physical  or  natural  science  escaped  his  attention,  and  he  not  un- 
frequently  strayed  into  the  domains  of  archaeology,  history,  and 
art.  Yet  amid  all  this  bewildering  range  of  pursuits,  one  fact 
stands  out  conspicuously — his  faith  in  and  reliance  upon  the 
Microscope  as  a  most  potent  aid  in  scientific  research. 

Sorby's  contributions  to  microscopy  may  be  classed  under 
three  heads  : — 1.  Improvements  in  and  additions  to  the  Micro- 
scope, designed  to  increase  its  usefulness  in  scientific  investiga- 
tions. 2.  Discoveries,  often  of  the  most  curious  and  unexpected 
character,  in  relation  to  physics,  natural  history,  and  even  to 
medicine,  sanitation,  and  jurisprudence,  achieved  by  the  use  of  the 
Microscope.  3.  The  establishment  of  new  methods  of  research  by 
microscopic  means,  which  have  had  the  most  profound  influence 
on  the  progress  of  science  and  the  improvement  of  technological 
methods. 

1.  Sorby's  first  work  with  the  Microscope,  commenced  while  he 
was  very  young,  was  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  minute  shells 
from  the  Bridlington  Crag.  He  tells  us  that  he  was  pretty  well 
versed  in  the  use  of  polarised  light,  and  that  he  had  practised  the 
art  of  drawing  under  the  Microscope,  and  of  representing  objects 
in  their  true  colours.  He  soon  found,  however,  that  to  do  useful 
work  it  was  necessary,  wherever  possible,  to  obtain  thin  trans- 
parent sections  of  the  objects  studied ;  and  having  learned  from 
Professor  William  Crawford  Williamson  how  anatomists  and 
botanists  prepare  thin  sections  of  hard  substances,  it  occurred  to 
him  that  it  would  be  possible  by  the  same  methods  to  make  trans- 
parent sections  of  rocks.  He  at  once  set  to  work  in  this  manner 
and  in  time  introduced  many  improvements  in  the  method.  In 
employing  such  sections  he  was  able  to  show  that  the  polariscope, 
attached  to  the  Microscope,  is  no  mere  toy,  but  a  most  powerful 
aid  to  scientific  research. 

On  the  announcement  in  1860  by  Bunsen  and  Kirchoff  of  their 
methods  of  spectrum  analysis,  Sorby  at  once  directed  his  energies 
to  the  employment  of  the  Microscope  in  this  interesting  field  of 
research.  Having  devised  a  form  of  Microscope,  with  a  spectro- 
scopic attachment,  he  showed  how  in  the  most  varied  branches  of 
scientific  work  important  results  were  to  be  obtained  by  the  use  of 
the  instrument. 

The  study  of  stony  meteorites  and  of  their  chondritic  con- 
stituents led  Sorby  in  1869  to  employ  the  Microscope  as  an  aid  to 
blowpipe-analysis,  and  thus  to  furnish  valuable  aid  to  the  chemist 
and  mineralogist.  By  flattening  blowpipe-beads  while  they  were 
still  hot,  and  then  examining  them  under  the  Microscope,  he 
showed   that   the   characteristic   crystals    of    various   substances 


Obituary.  433 

formed  in  a  bead  could  be  recognised.  In  this  way  he  to  some 
extent  foreshadowed  the  methods  so  beautifully  developed  by 
Boricky,  Behrens  and  others.,  known  as  "  Microchemical  Analysis." 

In  the  same  way  the  examination  of  the  polished  and  etched 
surfaces  of  the  metallic  meteorites — and  subsequently  of  artificial 
irons  and  steels — led  Sorby  to  devise  that  useful  method  of 
illumination,  the  parabolic  reflector. 

A  method  of  determining  the  refractive  index  of  substances 
had  been  devised  more  than  a  century  ago  by  the  Due  de  Chaulnes. 
But  it  remained  nothing  more  than  an  interesting  suggestion  till 
Sorby  showed  how,  by  adding  a  graduated  circle  to  the  tine-adjust- 
ment and  the  employment  of  suitable  gratings,  the  Microscope 
could  be  converted  into  a  refractometer  of  great  value  in  identify- 
ing minerals  in  the  thinnest  rock-sections. 

Subsequent  devices,  as  shown  in  the  pages  of  this  Journal, 
enabled  him  to  solve  the  problem  of  determining  double  refraction 
under  similar  conditions. 

In  successive  editions  of  Dr.  Lionel  Beale's  useful  manual, 
"  How  to  Work  with  the  Microscope,"  Sorby  supplied  a  series  of 
brief  instructions  concerning  the  new  methods  he  had  introduced 
for  making  thin  sections  of  rocks  and  minerals,  for  determining 
refraction  and  double  refraction,  and  for  studying  absorption  and 
other  spectra  with  the  Microscope. 

2.  It  is  an  almost  impossible  task  even  to  enumerate  the 
highly  curious,  and  often  important,  discoveries  to  which  Sorby's 
ingenious  instrumental  appliances  and  original  methods  conducted 
their  author. 

By  the  microscopical  study  of  coals  and  limestones  he  was  led 
to  highly  important  conclusions  concerning  the  polymorphism  of 
carbon  and  calcium  carbonate  ;  while  his  investigations  of  iron- 
stones and  dolomites  showed  how  great  a  part  is  played  by  pseudo- 
morphism in  the  determination  of  the  characters  of  those  rocks. 
When  he  came  to  study  slates  and  schists  in  thin  slices  under  the 
Microscope,  the  theories  of  cleavage  and  foliation,  by  which  he  will 
always  be  remembered  by  geologists,  suggested  themselves  to  Ins 
mind.  And,  in  the  end,  his  study  of  the  minute  cavities  in  the 
crystals  of  rocks  with  their  liquid  contents — including  super- 
saturated alkaline  solutions  and  carbon  dioxide — resulted  in  his 
far-reaching  generalisations  concerning  the  conditions  under  which 
deep-seated  and  erupted  igneous  rocks  must  have  consolidated. 

An  examination  of  the  curious  phenomenon  of  impressed 
pebbles  was  to  Sorby  the  starting  point  in  a  series  of  ingenious 
speculations,  which  culminated  in  the  doctrine  enunciated  in  his 
Bakerian  lecture,  "  On  the  Direct  Correlation  of  the  Mechanical 
and  Chemical  Forces." 

In  the  same  way  the  study  of  meteorites,  by  the  aid  of  the 
Microscope,  led  him  to  many  ingenious  deductions  concerning  the 

Aug.  19th,  1908  2  G 


434  Obituary. 

conditions  under  which  these  visitants  to  our  globe  must  have 
been  formed. 

The  invention  of  the  "  Microspectroscope  "  was  signalised  by  a 
number  of  curious  discoveries  on  the  spectrum  of  the  blood  and  the 
changes  that  blood  undergoes  in  time,  of  the  colours  of  hah'  in  man 
and  the  lower  animals,  the  colours  of  eggs,  of  insects,  and  of  the  leaves 
and  flowers  of  plants,  and  their  changes,  of  algas,  fungi,  and  many- 
other  organic  bodies.  The  absorption  spectra  of  gems,  and  the 
relations  between  absorption  and  fluorescence,  were  also  studied  by 
Mm,  and  ingenious  methods  based  on  these  observations  were 
devised  for  the  analysis  of  organic  substances  and  the  detection  of 
poisons. 

In  his  later  years,  when  he  utilised  his  yacht  for  studies  of 
marine  organisms  and  their  distribution,  and  when  much  of  his 
time  and  attention  was  devoted  to  devising  methods  for  preserving 
these  organisms  and  preparing  them  for  exhibition  as  lantern 
slides,  we  find  him  at  all  times  utilising  his  Microscope  in  con- 
nection with  his  interesting  work. 

3.  Sorby  himself  made  the  avowal  that,  throughout  his  career, 
he  was  always  more  concerned  to  seek  out  new  and  fruitful  lines 
of  research,  than  to  pursue  those  already  discovered  to  their 
ultimate  development.  It  might  perhaps  be  expected  that,  con- 
sidering his  wide  range  of  interests,  and  the  facility  with  which  he 
abandoned  old  lines  of  investigation  when  attracted  by  new 
problems,  the  outcome  of  his  labours  would  be  varied,  curious,  and 
fascinating,  rather  than  conducive  to  great  advances  in  science  or 
productive  of  valuable  commercial  results. 

Nothing,  however,  could  be  further  from  the  truth,  for  Sorby 
will  always  be  honoured  as  the  pioneer  in  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant branches  of  geological  science,  and  as  the  discoverer  of  a 
method  which  is  having  a  most  potent  influence  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  industries  of  his  native  town. 

At  the  recent  centenary  of  the  Geological  Society,  the  geologists 
from  every  part  of  the  globe  united  in  hailing  Sorby  as  the  "  Father 
of  Microscopical  Petrography  " — for  his  early  work  resulted  in  the 
development  of  a  method  that  has  revolutionised  the  study  of 
rocks.  A  large  and  ever-increasing  yearly  output  of  literature 
testifies  to  the  importance  which  this  branch  of  science  has  now 
assumed. 

In  the  same  way,  the  discoveries  to  which  Sorby  was  led  by 
his  study  of  the  metallic  meteorites,  concerning  the  nature  of  the 
compounds  building  up  artificial  irons  and  steels,  have  led  to  the 
recognition  of  the  "  sorbitic "  method  as  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant  aids  in  investigating  the  causes  of  the  strength  or  weakness 
of  various  products  used  in  the  industrial  arts.  And  the  use  of  the 
method  has  now  extended  to  other  branches  of  metallurgy. 

Sorby's  complete  absorption  in  scientific  labour  and  speculation 


JOURN.  R.  M1CR.  SOC.  1908.    PI.  XI. 


/*Y  *    C*-       ^/&~/^^ 


Obituary.  435 

often  rendered  him  completely  oblivious  to  the  ordinary  interests  of 
other  men.  This  sometimes  led  to  little  peculiarities  occasionally 
bordering  on  eccentricity,  but  always  of  the  most  amiable  kind. 
His  servants  and  sailors  were  devoted  to  him,  and  the  few  scientific 
friends  who  had  the  pleasure  of  knowing  him  intimately  could  not 
sufficiently  admire  the  transparent  simplicity  and  extreme  love- 
ableness  of  his  character.  Honours  justly  flowed  to  him  from  every 
quarter,  but  left  him  modest  and  undistracted  from  the  research  to 
which,  in  his  youth,  he  determined  to  devote  his  life,  and  to  which, 
in  his  old  a°:e,  he  remained  so  constant.* 

John  W.  Judd. 

[For  the  loan  of  the  portrait  we  are  indebted  to  the  courtesy  of  the  editor  of 
the  "  Geological  Magazine,"  Dr.  Henry  Woodward,  LL.D.  F.R.S.  F.G.S.  F.Z.S. 
F.R.M.S.— Ed.] 


Charles  Stewart,  1840-1907. 


Charles  Stewart  was  bom  in  1840  at  Plymouth,  where  his 
father  and  grandfather  had  been  in  practice.  He  received  his 
medical  education  at  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  taking  the 
M.E.C.S.  in  1862.  In  1866  he  obtained  the  post  of  Curator 
of  the  Museum  at  St.  Thomas's  Hospital,  and  was  subsequently 
Lecturer  on  Comparative  Anatomy  and  joint  Lecturer  on  Physiology 
at  that  institution.  In  1884  his  connection  with  St.  Thomas's 
Hospital  ceased,  owing  to  his  appointment  as  Conservator  of  the 
Museum  of  the  Eoyal  College  of  Surgeons,  a  post  he  held  till  his 
death  on  September  27,  1907. 

From  1866  Stewart  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Linnean  Society,  and 
from  1890  to  1894  held  the  office  of  President.  He  became  a 
Fellow  of  the  Eoyal  Microscopical  Society  in  1867,  and  was  joint 
Secretary  with  H.  J.  Slack  from  1873  to  1878,  and  from  1878  to 
1883  with  Sir  Frank  Crisp.  In  1896  he  was  elected  to  the 
Fellowship  of  the  Eoyal  Society,  and  three  years  later  the 
University  of  Aberdeen  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
(honoris  causa). 

Stewart  was  a  great  lecturer ;  his  words  came  easily  and 
eagerly,  and  he  was  able  to  communicate  his  ideas  and  facts  not 

*  Interesting  autobiographical  reminiscences  of  Sorby  will  be  found  |in  his 
"  Unencumbered  Research  :  A  Personal  Experience,"  published  in  the  "  Essays 
on  the  Endowment  of  Research,"  1876,  and  in  a  lecture  before  the  Sheffield 
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  in  1879,  entitled  "  Fifty  Years  of  Scientific 
Research."     A  list  of  his  numerous  papers  is  given  in  "  The  Naturalist  "  for  1906. 

2      G    2 


436  Obituary. 

only  in  graphic  and  striking  language,  but  to  illustrate  them  on 
the  blackboard  with  wonderful  freehand  drawings.  Though  of 
recent  years  he  rarely  frequented  the  meetings  of  the  Society,  in 
former  times  he  was  an  assiduous  and  constant  attendant,  and 
contributed  during  the  active  period  the  following  papers  to  the 
Society  : — 

Note  on  the  Scalp  of  a  Negro.     Bead  Jan.  1,  1873.     Monthly  Micr.  Journ., 

1873,  p.  54. 
Notes  on   Bucephalus   polymorphus.     Eead  June  2,  1875.     Monthly  Micr. 

Journ.,  1875,  pp.  1,  2. 
On   the  Lachrymal  Gland  of  the   Common    Turtle.     Read  Nov.  7,  18/ 7. 

Monthly  Micr.  Journ.,  1877,  p.  241. 
On  a  New  Coral,  Stylaster  stellulatus,  and  Note  on  Tubipora  musica.     Eead 

March  6, 1878.     Journ.  E.M.S.,  1878,  pp.  41-4. 
On  some  Structural  Features  of  Echinostrephus  molare,  Parasalenia  gratiosa, 

and  Stowopneustes  variolaris.    Eead  Nov.  10,  1880.    Journ.  B.M.S.,  1880, 

pp.  909-12. 
On  a  Supposed  New  Boring  Annelid.     Eead  May  11,  1881.     Journ.  E  M.S., 

1881,  pp.  717-19. 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

RELATING    TO 

ZOOLOGY      AND       BOTANY 

(principally  invertebrata  and  cryptogamia), 

MICROSCOPY,    Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 
a.  Embryology,  t 


Shapes  of  Eggs.} — D'Arcy  W.  Thompson  discusses  the  factors  which 
determine  the  shapes  of  the  eggs  of  birds.  Eggs  may  be  spherical, 
elliptical,  ovoid,  or  blunt  at  one  end  and  pointed  at  the  other.  Selec- 
tionist interpretations  suggest  that  the  pointed  egg  is  less  apt  than  a 
spherical  one  to  roll  off  a  narrow  ledge  of  rock,  and  that  the  conical 
form  permits  many  large  eggs  to  be  packed  closely  under  the  mother- 
bird.  But  in  dealing  with  organic  forms,  we  should  first  try  to  in- 
terpret them  in  terms  of  "  the  intrinsic  forces  of  growth  acting  from 
within  and  the  forces  of  tension  and  pressure  that  may  have  acted  from 
without."  The  problem  is  :  given  a  practically  incompressible  fluid, 
contained  in  a  deformable  capsule,  which  is  either  (a)  entirely  inex- 
tensible,  or  (b)  slightly  extensible,  and  placed  in  a  long  elastic  tube,  the 
walls  of  which  are  radially  contractile,  to  determine  the  shape  under 
pressure.  An  incompressible  fluid  contained  in  an  inextensible  envelope 
cannot  be  deformed  without  puckering  of  the  envelope  taking  place,  and, 
as  this  does  not  occur,  it  may  be  assumed  (a)  that  the  envelope  is  to 
some  extent  extensible,  or  (b)  that  the  whole  structure  grows  under 
relatively  fixed  conditions — two  suppositions  which  are  practically 
identical  with  one  another  in  effect.  At  all  points  the  shape  is  de- 
termined by  the  law  of  the  distribution  of  radial  pressure  within  the 
given  region  of  the  oviduct,  surface  friction  helping  to  maintain  the 
egg  in  position.  If  the  egg  be  under  pressure  from  the  oviduct,  but 
without  any  marked  component  either  in  a  forward  or  backward  direc- 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they 
do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers 
noted,  nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of 
this  part  of  the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  pub- 
lished, and  to  describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  etc.,  which  are 
either  new  or  have  not  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

t  This  section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so 
called,  but  also  those  dealing  with  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  and 
allied  subjects.  %  Nature,  June  4, 1908,  pp.  111-13. 


438  NUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

tion,  the  egg  will  be  compressed  in  the  middle,  and  will  tend  more 
or  less  to  the  form  of  a  cylinder  with  spherical  ends.  The  eggs  of 
the  grebe  and  cormorant  (or  crocodile)  may  be  supposed  to  receive  their 
shape  in  such  circumstances. 

When  the  egg  is  subject  to  the  peristaltic  contraction  of  the  ovi- 
duct during  its  formation,  then  from  the  nature  and  direction  of 
motion  of  the  peristaltic  wave  the  pressure  will  be  greatest  somewhere 
behind  the  middle  of  the  egg  ;  in  other  words,  the  tube  is  converted 
for  the  time  being  into  a  more  conical  form,  and  the  simple  result  follows 
that  the  anterior  end  of  the  egg  becomes  the  broader  and  the  posterior 
the  narrower. 

In  an  egg,  consisting  of  an  extensible  membrane  filled  with  an 
incompressible  fluid  and  under  external  pressure,  the  equation  of  the 

envelope  is  p„  +  T  (—  +—\  =  P,  where  pn  is  the  normal  component  of 

external  pressure  at  a  point  where  r  and  r1  are  the  radii  of  curvature, 
T  is  the  tension  of  the  envelope,  and  P  the  internal  fluid  pressure.  This 
is  simply  the  equation  of  an  elastic  surface  where  T  represents  the 
coefficient  of  elasticity  ;  in  other  words,  a  flexible  elastic  shell  has  the 
same  mathematical  properties  as  the  fluid  membrane-covered  egg. 
The  author  goes  on  to  discuss  particular  applications  of  this  equation 
of  equilibrium. 

Development  of  Polypterus  senegalus.*  —  J.  Graham  Kerr  has 
worked  over  the  collection  of  eggs  and  embryos  of  Polypterus  made 
by  the  late  J.  S.  Budgett.  The  eggs  seem  to  be  deposited  in  shallow 
lagoons  early  in  the  rainy  season,  and  apparently  adhere  to  submerged 
twigs  or  water-plants.  There  is  some  indication  that  fertilisation  is 
internal.  The  young  fry  apparently  accompany  a  parent  (probably  the 
male)  in  a  dense  swarm. 

The  segmentation  is  complete,  and  in  its  earliest  stages  nearly 
equal ;  the  invagination  groove  is  at  first  nearly  equatorial ;  as  the 
curve  described  by  the  groove  becomes  closed,  an  enormous  "yolk- 
plug  "  is  formed  ;  rudiments  of  external  gills  and  cement  organs 
appear  at  an  early  stage  ;  the  buccal  cavity  is  for  a  while  a  widely-open 
space  bounded  by  the  cement  organs,  the  lower  side  of  the  head,  and  the 
cardiac  region. 

The  mesoderm  of  the  trunk  region  arises  as  it  does  in  Lepidosiren, 
Protopterus,  and  Petromyzon,  by  "delamination."  A  well-developed 
solid  post-anal  gut  is  present,  which  eventually  breaks  up  and  disappears. 
It  is  interesting  to  find  that  the  secretory  epithelium  of  the  cement 
organ  is  endodermic,  arising  as  a  pair  of  hollow  enteric  diverticula, 
which  become  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  endoderm  and  establish  a 
connection  with  the  outer  surface. 

The  lung  rudiment  is  median  and  ventral,  and  very  soon  shows 
asymmetry.  The  pancreas  develops  from  three  rudiments,  and  the  liver 
is  really  a  hepatopancreas,  having  pancreatic  tissue  spread  out  over  part 
of  its  ventral  surface. 

*  The  Work  of  John  Samuel  Budgett  (Cambridge,  1907)  pp.  195-284  (3  pis.  and 
67  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,  ETC.  439 

The  dorsal  aorta  arises  from  cells  or  protoplasmic  masses  derived 
from  the  sclerotome  ;  its  lumen  is  derived  from  the  fusion  of  originally 
separate  vacuoles  in  these  masses  ;  the  endocardium  appears  to  be 
mesoblastic  in  origin  ;  the  blood-corpuscles  appear  suddenly,  and  it  is 
suggested  that  they  are  mesenchyme  cells  set  free  by  an  epidemic  of 
mitosis. 

The  chondrocranium  is  amphibian-like  in  early  stages.  The  neural 
tube  arises  by  overarching  of  the  medullary  folds.  Both  infundibulum 
and  optic  rudiments  are  clearly  recognisable  while  the  medullary  groove 
is  still  widely  open  throughout.  As  in  Lepidosiren  and  other  forms,  the 
brain  is,  during  the  earlier  part  of  its  development,  divided  into  two, 
not  three  regions— the  primitive  forebraiu  and  the  rhombencephalon. 
The  pineal  outgrowth  is  single,  and  without  any  eye-like  structure. 
In  the  adult  the  cerebellum  becomes  highly  developed,  and  forms 
anteriorly  a  valvula  cerebelli,  while  posteriorly  it  projects  back  in  a 
quite  similar  manner  into  the  fourth  ventricle.  The  material  forming 
the  side  walls  of  the  thalamencephalon  does  not  become  pushed  out  to 
form  cerebral  hemispheres,  but  is  accommodated  partly  by  the  great 
increase  in  the  length  of  the  thalamencephalon,  partly  by  its  becoming 
invaginated  into  the  interior  of  the  third  ventricle.  The  two  olfactory 
rudiments  are  apparently  connected  by  an  ectodermal  thickening  across 
the  middle  line  in  early  stages  ;  the  cavity  of  the  olfactory  organ  is  a 
secondary  excavation  in  the  originally  solid  rudiment. 

On  the  whole,  the  general  phenomena  of  development  in  Polypterus 
show  frequent  striking  resemblances  with  what  occur  in  Dipnoans  and 
in  the  lower  Amphibia.  In  the  investigator's  opinion  these  resemblances 
are  sufficient  by  themselves  to  indicate  the  probability  that  the  Teleo- 
stomes,  the  Dipnoans,  and  the  Amphibians,  have  arisen  in  phylogeny 
from  a  common  stem,  which  would  in  turn  probably  have  diverged  from 
the  ancestral  Selachian  stock.  The  ancestors  of  the  Amniota  ;probably 
diverged  either  about  one  or  about  several  points  from  the  region 
of  the  stem  common  to  Dipnoi  and  Amphibia. 

The  external  gills  develop  in  Polypterus  exactly  as  they  do  in 
Lepidosiren  and  Protopterus,  and  in  the  more  primitive  Amphibia 
(Urodela  and  Gymnophiona),  i.e.  each  one  arises  as  an  outgrowth  from 
the  outer  side  of  the  visceral  arch  (in  this  case  hyoidean),  composed  of 
mesenchymatous  core  and  an  ectodermal  covering.  They  appear  before 
the  perforation  of  the  gill-clefts,  and  are  probably  organs  of  great 
antiquity.  The  respiratory  epithelium  of  the  gill-clefts  has  arisen  by  a 
spreading  inwards  from  the  ectodermal  respiratory  epithelium  of  the 
external  gills. 

The  author  returns  to  his  theory  that  paired  limbs  are  honio- 
dynamous  with  external  gills  in  which  the  potential  motor  function 
has  been  accentuated. 

Budgett  showed  that  the  condition  of  the  fin-skeleton  in  the  larva 
of  Polypterus  indicates  its  close  relationship  to  the  type  of  uniserial  fin- 
skeleton  in  sharks  ;  Graham  Kerr  re-states  the  hypothesis  that  both  can 
be  referred  back  to  a  primitive  biserial  archipterygium  like  that  of 
Ceratodus. 

In  the  evolution  of  the  head  there  has  been  a  varying  amount  of 
displacement  in  an  antero-posterior  direction  of  the  relative  positions 


440      SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

of  mesoderm  segments  and  visceral  pouches  ;  and  it  is  suggested  that  the 
enterocoelic  pouches  were  once  wholly  posterior  to  the  visceral  pouches, 
and  that  the  two  structures  are  really  homodynamous. 

The  nervous  material  which  corresponds  with  the  whole  of  the 
cerebral  heinisphei"e  in  the  higher  forms — including  the  pallium  or 
mantle — lies  in  Polypterus  in  the  thickened  wall  of  the  thalamen- 
cephalon.  What  is  ordinarily  called  the  pallium  in  a  Crossopterygian  is 
simply  the  roof  of  the  thalamencephalon,  and  the  conditions  in 
Actinopterygian  Ganoids  and  Teleosts  are  similar. 

These  are  some  of  the  general  results  of  an  exceedingly  important 
investigation. 

Development  of  Gymnarchus  niloticus.*  —  Richard  Assheton 
describes  the  development  of  this  Teleost,  which  belongs  to  the 
Mormyridas,  a  primitive  Malacopterygian  family.  His  material  was 
collected  in  the  Gambia  by  the  late  J.  S.  Budgett,  and  the  memoir  is  the 
first  account  of  the  development  of  any  Mormyrid.  The  development  is 
on  the  whole  typically  Teleostean,  but  there  are  many  interesting  features. 
The  egg  is  large  (10  mm.  in  diameter)  and  the  development  is  very 
rapid,  the  larva  emerging  upon  the  seventh  day,  whereas  that  of  a  trout 
takes  35-100  days,  according  to  the  temperature.  The  elongated 
embryo  suggests  that  of  an  Amniote  with  almost  typical  "  primitive 
streak  "  ;  the  "  archenteron  "  in  so  far  as  it  occurs  is  more  like  that  in 
an  early  stage  of  Hypogeophis  (Brauer)  than  a  "  Kupffer  vesicle."  In 
the  region  of  the  primitive  streak  the  hypoblast  is  continuous  with  the 
yolk  and  the  primitive  streak  as  it  is  in  Amphibia,  and  not  separated  as 
it  is  in  birds  and  mammals.  There  is  a  large  mass  of  yolk,  and  the 
larvae  have  very  long  gill-filaments  hanging  down  in  two  blood-red 
branches. 

The  alimentary  canal  arises  as  a  cleft  among  the  hypoblast  cells. 
At  an  early  stage — or  perhaps  from  the  outset— the  pharyngeal  region  is 
without  a  lumen.  It  does  not  acquire  one  until  the  larva  is  hatched. 
There  is  one  pair  of  true  gill-clefts  between  the  6th  and  7th  visceral 
arches ;  the  other  "  gill-clefts  "  of  embryonic  life  are  invaginations  of 
the  ectoderm  which  undermine  the  visceral  arches.  There  are  long 
external  uniramous  gill-filaments  on  the  1st,  2nd,  3rd,  and  4th  branchial 
arches,  which  shrivel  after  the  operculum  has  grown  over  them,  excepting 
the  proximal  ends  which  give  rise  to  the  permanent  gills.  The  whole 
apparatus  is  lined  by  epiblast  from  first  to  last. 

The  air  bladder,  which  arises  as  a  single  diverticulum  of  the 
oesophagus  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  mid-dorsal  line,  has  right  and  left 
lobes  ;  its  structure  and  vascular  supply  and  the  habits  of  the  fish  all 
point  to  its  use  as  a  lung.  The  yolk-sac  is  to  be  regarded  as  an 
appendage  of  the  liver — due  to  the  accumulation  of  yolk  in  that  part  of 
the  egg  which  normally  becomes  the  liver.  The  gall-bladder  and  liver 
arise  by  the  constriction  off  of  a  large  ventral  recess  of  the  alimentary 
canal  just  posterior  to  the  oesophagus  ;  the  pancreas  is  developed  as 
diverticula  from  the  bile  ducts  (the  constricted  region  just  mentioned), 
and  these  grow  backwards  to  mingle  with  the  "  islands  of  Langerhans  " 

*  The  Work  of  John  Samuel  Budgett  (Cambridge,  1907)  pp.  293-421  (6  pis., 
80  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  441 

tissue  and  even  with  the  spleen.  The  islands  of  Langerhans  arise  very 
early  as  a  solid  mass  of  epithelial  tissue  which  becomes  broken  up  by  the 
splitting  of  the  mesenteric  artery. 

There  are  certain  features  which  suggest  an  earlier  condition  of 
Teleostean  evolution  than  is  the  case  with  other  Teleosts  whose  develop- 
ment is  known.  Assheton  inquires  speculatively  whether  the  Teleosteans 
may  be  descended  from  a  proto-amphibian  stock,  which  by  a  mutation 
returned  to  strictly  aquatic  habits.  He  refers  to  the  amphibian-like 
character  of  the  lips  of  the  blastopore,  to  the  vestige  of  neural  tube 
formation,  to  various  features  in  the  development  of  the  excretory 
system,  to  the  lung-like  and  vestigially  double  air-bladder,  to  the  trace 
of  an  auricular  septum  and  the  suggestion  of  a  double  circulation,  to  the 
large  size  of  the  aortic  arch  of  the  fourth  visceral  arch,  and  to  the 
peculiar  character  of  the  gill-clefts,  filaments  and  arches. 

Regeneration  in  the  Pancreas.* — J.  Kyrle  has  experimented  with 
dogs  and  guinea-pigs,  and  finds  that  the  pancreas  has  some  regenerative 
capacity  both  as  regards  the  parenchyma  and  the  islands  of  Langerhans. 
From  their  own  epithelial  components  both  these  kinds  of  tissue  may 
effect  regeneration,  but  this  may  be  supplemented  by  re-growth  from  the 
efferent  ducts. 

Early  Human  Embryo.f  —  Alexander  Low  describes  a  human 
embryo  of  13-14  mesodermic  somites,  2' 6  mm.  in  length.  He  has 
reconstructed  a  model  of  the  whole  and  of  various  parts.  The  noto- 
chord  lies  in  close  relation  with  the  endoderm  forming  the  roof  of  the 
gut,  and  is  not  separated  off  at  its  cranial  commencement,  appearing 
more  as  a  heaping  up  of  cells  than  as  an  evagination.  The  aortic  stem 
divides  into  a  pair  of  aortic  arch  vessels,  and  there  are  traces  of  a  second 
pair.  The  dorsal  aorta  is  paired  throughout.  The  mouth,  which  is 
separated  from  the  pharynx  by  a  complete  bucco-pharyngeal  membrane, 
shows  on  its  roof  a  slight  funnel-like  beginning  of  the  oral  part  of  the 
hypophysis  ;  the  pharynx  shows  four  pairs  of  pouches.  The  medullary 
plate  is  still  open  at  both  ends  ;  the  hind  brain  shows  seven  neuromeres. 

Corpus  luteum  and  Rut  in  Rabbits.J — CI.  Regaud  and  G.  Dubreuil 
have  made  experiments  which  they  regard  as  proving  that  the  corpora 
lutea  do  not  condition  rut.  But  F.  Vuillemin,§  whose  results  are  criti- 
cised by  Regaud  and  Dubreuil,  maintains  his  previous  conclusion  that,  in 
the  rabbit,  as  in  other  mammals,  rut  (like  menstruation)  is  determined 
by  the  internal  secretion  of  the  cells  of  the  corpus  luteum. 

Open  Cleft  in  Embryonic  Eye  of  a  Chick  of  Eight  Days.  || — 
Otto  Landman  found  a  case  in  which  the  fissure,  which  normally  closes 
on  the  6th  day,  was  widely  open  on  the  8th  day.  A  complete  cleft 
extended  from  the  edge  of  the  pupil  to  the  region  of  the  optic  nerve  ; 
there  was  an  inversion  of  the  lips  of  the  foetal  cleft  throughout  its 

*  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxxii.  (1908)  pp.  141-60  (1  pi.). 

t  Journ.  Anat.  Physiol.,  xlii.  pp.  237-51  (3  pis.  and  15  figs.). 

X  C  R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  142-4. 

§  Tom.  oit.,  pp.  444-5. 

||  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1907)  pp.  456-9  (5  figs.). 


442  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

entire  extent  except  in  the  iris  ;  pigment  extended  into  the  inner  layer 
of  the  secondary  optic  cup ;  there  were  no  ciliary  processes.  Had  the 
embryo  grown  to  maturity,  it  would  have  had  a  large  coloboma  of  the 
iris,  choroid,  and  retina. 

American  Alligator.* — A.  M.  Reese  gives  a  general  outline  of  the 
whole  process  of  development  in  the  American  Alligator  (A  missis- 
sipiensis),  which  has  hitherto  been  little  studied  owing  to  the  difficulty 
of  procuring  suitable  embryological  material.  Owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  embryo  may  undergo  considerable  development  before  the  egg  is 
laid,  and  also  to  the  uuusual  difficulty  of  removing  the  young  embryos, 
the  earlier  stages  of  development  are  very  difficult  to  obtain.  The 
mesoderm  seems  to  be  derived  chiefly  by  proliferation  from  the  endo- 
derm,  and  in  this  way  all  that  is  anterior  to  the  blastopore  arises. 
Posterior  to  the  blastopore,  the  mesoderm  is  proliferated  from  the  lower 
side  of  the  ectoderm  in  the  usual  way.  No  distinction  can  be  made 
between  the  mesoderm,  derived  from  the  ectoderm  and  that  derived 
from  the  endoderm.  The  ectoderm  shows,  during  the  earlier  stages,  a 
very  great  increase  in  thickness  along  the  median  longitudinal  axis  of 
the  embryo.  The  notochord  is  apparently  of  endodermal  origin,  though 
in  the  posterior  regions  where  the  germ-layers  are  continuous  with  each 
other  it  is  difficult  to  decide  with  certainty.  The  medullary  folds  have 
a  curious  origin,  difficult  to  explain  without  the  use  of  figures.  They 
are  continuous  posteriorly  with  the  primitive  streak,  so  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  tell  where  the  medullary  groove  ends  and  the  primitive  groove 
begins,  unless  the  dorsal  opening  of  the  blastopore  be  taken  as  the 
dividing  point.  The  amnion  develops  rapidly,  and  entirely  from  the 
anterior  end.  The  blastopore,  or  neurenteric  canal,  is  a  very  distinct 
feature  of  all  the  earlier  stages  up  to  about  the  time  of  the  closure  of 
the  medullary  canal.  Preceding  the  ordinary  cranial  flexure,  there  is  a 
sort  of  temporary  bending  of  the  head  region,  due  apparently  to  the 
formation  of  the  head  fold.  During  the  earlier  stages  of  development 
the  anterior  end  of  the  embryo  is  pushed  under  the  surface  of  the 
blastoderm,  and  hence  is  not  seen  from  above.  Body  torsion  is  not  so 
definite  in  direction  as  in  the  chick,  some  embryos  lying  on  the  right 
side,  some  on  the  left. 

Of  the  gill-clefts,  three  open  clearly  to  the  exterior,  and  probably  a 
fourth  also.  A  probable  fifth  cleft  was  seen  in  sections,  and  in  one 
surface  view.  The  first  trace  of  the  excretory  system  is  seen  as  a  dor- 
sally  projecting  solid  ridge  of  mesoblast  in  the  middle  of  the  embryo, 
which  ridge  soon  becomes  hollowed  out  to  form  the  AVolffian  duct.  The 
origin  of  the  pituitary  and  pineal  bodies  is  clearly  seen ;  the  latter 
projects  backwards.  No  connection  can  be  seen  between  the  first  rudi- 
ments of  the  sympathetic  nerves  and  the  central  nervous  system.  The 
lumen  of  the  oesophagus  is  for  a  time  obliterated  as  in  other  forms. 
The  choroid  fissure  is  a  very  transitory  but  well-marked  feature  of  the 
eye. 

Embryos  in  Ichthyosaurs.f — W.  Branca  maintains  that  some  of 
the   embryos   found   in    Ichthyosaurs    were    swallowed.       Inside    the 

*  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,  li.  (1908)  66  pp.,  23  pis. 
t  SB.  k.  Preuss.  Akad.  Berlin,  1908,  pp.  392-6. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  443 

stomach  of  a  Xiphias  there  were  found  13  small  porpoises  and  13  dog- 
fishes, all  unbitten.  If  in  a  case  like  this  the  animal  died  soon  after  its 
meal  and  was  fossilised,  it  might  present  an  appearance  like  that  of  some 
of  the  Ichthyosaurs  with  so-called  embryos.  Not  that  Branca  denies 
the  occurrence  of  embryos  in  Ichthyosaurs  :  his  point  is  that  there  are 
sometimes  so  many  young  ones  inside  the  body  that  some  must  have 
come  in  from  outside. 

Epibranchial  Placodes  of  Ameiurus.* — F.  L.  Landacre  has  en- 
deavoured to  ascertain  to  what  extent  these  ectodermic  thickenings  and 
proliferations  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  cranial  nerves.  The 
communis  ganglia  of  the  9th  nerve  and  the  visceral  portions  of  the 
ganglia  of  the  first  two  divisions  of  the  10th  nerve  are  practically  pure 
placodal  ganglia  ;  there  is  more  doubt  about  the  geniculate  ganglion, 
although  even  here  the  incorporated  neural  crest  portion  must  be  very 
small ;  in  the  third  division  of  the  10th  there  is  a  large  neural  crest 
portion  which  combines  with  the  placodal  portion  so  intimately  that  it 
is  not  possible  to  distinguish  them.  Every  cranial  nerve  containing 
gustatory  fibres  comes  from  a  ganglion  which  can  be  traced  wholly  or  in 
part  to  an  epibranchial  placode. 

Poison-glands  of  Salamander.f — E.  Nirenstein  has  studied  the  de- 
velopment of  these  glands  in  Salamandra  maculosa,  and  finds  that  they 
arise  by  the  transformation  of  mucous  glands  when  these  are  still  in  an 
undifferentiated  state,  and  partly  after  they  have  become  differentiated. 
Mucous  glands  are  continually  changing  into  poison-glands.  The  for- 
mation of  the  secretion  from  minute  secretory  corpuscles  is  described  in 
detail.  The  secretory  corpuscle  is  regarded  as  a  definite  differentiation 
of  the  cytoplasm,  just  as  a  myofibril  or  a  trichocyst  is. 

Notes  on  Anuran  Development.! — E.  J.  Bles  contributes  some 
exquisitely  illustrated  notes  on  stages  of  Paludicola  fuscomacidata, 
Hemisus  marmoratum,  and  Phyllomedusa  hypochondrialis  collected  by  the 
late  J.  S.  Budg-ett. 


*er 


Teleostean  Eggs  and  Larvae  from  the  G-ambia.§ — R.  Assheton 
reports  on  a  collection  made  by  the  late  J.  S.  Budgett,  including 
some  stages  supposed  to  belong  to  Hyperopisus  bebe,  and  the  larvae  of 
Heterotis  niloticus  and  Sarcodaces. 

Regeneration  of  Lens  in  Fishes. || — Jan  Grochmalicki  has  experi- 
mented with  young  trout  {Trutta  fario  and  T.  widens),  and  finds 
definite  evidence  that  a  lens  may  be  regenerated.  The  process  begins 
in  a  primordium  on  the  upper  iris  margin  or  laterally,  and  it  seems  to 
be  much  slower  than  in  Amphibians. 

Development  of  Carp's  Swim-bladder. IT — 0.  Thilo  finds  that  the 
swim-bladder  arises  on  the  right  side  of  the  oesophageal  wall,  as  a  small 

*  Ohio  Naturalist,  xiii.  (1908)  pp.  251-5. 
t  Arch.  Mikr.  An  it.,  lxxii.  (llJ08)  pp.  47-140  (3  pis.). 

\  The  Work  of  J.  S.  Budgett  (Cambridge,  1907)  pp.  443-58  (6  pis.,  2  figs.). 
§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  435-42  (6  figs.). 

||  Zeitschr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxix.  (1908)  pp.  164-72  (6  figs.). 
\  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  589-97  (5  figs.). 


444  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

roundish  diverticulum  two  days  after  the  fish  is  hatched.  It  grows 
quickly  and  tills  with  air  which  is  swallowed  at  the  surface.  It  becomes 
spherical  and  is  inclosed  in  a  firm  envelope.  As  the  pressure  increases 
a  part  of  the  bladder  is  protruded  like  a  hernia.  This  grows  quickly  and 
becomes  the  anterior  part  of  the  hour-glass-shaped  air-bladder.  The 
shape  gives  the  bladder  relatively  more  strength  to  resist  pressure,  and 
it  may  be  an  advantage  to  have  two  bladders  in  a  line  instead  of  one 
large  one. 

Gestation  in  Acanthias  vulgaris.* — L.  Blaizot  finds  that  in  this 
dogfish  there  is  no  nutriment  provided  by  a  secretion  or  degeneration  of 
the  uterine  wall,  and  that  the  embryos  are  not  bound  to  the  uterine  wall 
by  their  vitelline  vesicle.  It  may  be  said  that  Acanthias  is  intermediate 
between  the  oviparous  dogfishes,  and  those  with  pronounced  viviparous 
adaptations. 

b.  Histology. 

Nervous  Elements  in  Fishes.f  —  A.  Nemiloff  has  studied  the 
nerve-cells  of  the  cerebral,  spinal,  and  sympathetic  ganglia,  and  dis- 
cusses the  minute  cytoplasmic  and  nuclear  structure,  the  structure  of 
the  surrounding  envelopes,  the  "  trophocytes  "  between  the  cell  and  its 
envelope,  the  interstitial  tissue  (including  a  small  bundle  of  striped 
muscle  in  the  ganglion  of  the  vagus  in  Lota  vulgaris),  the  inclosures 
and  parasites,  and  the  changes  in  the  nucleus. 

Ventricular  Fibre  of  Brain  of  Myxinoids.J  —  Howard  Ayers 
describes  a  fibre  within  the  ventricular  cavity  of  the  brain  of  Bdello- 
stoma  and  Myxine,  which  serves  to  connect  the  ependyma  cells  of  the 
cavity  and  of  the  spinal  canal.  The  fibre  for  the  most  part  follows  the 
outlines  of  the  ventral  portion  of  each  chamber,  but  it  is  much  coiled  in 
the  fourth  ventricle.  It  consists  of  innumerable  fibrils  derived  from  the 
ependyma  cells,  lying  in  the  cavity  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  It  is 
certainly  an  organ  of  relation,  bringing  all  parts  of  the  ventricular  cavity 
into  intimate  communication.  It  may  be  connected  with  the  vaso-motor 
control  of  the  ventricular  lymph  supply. 

Epidermal  Sensory  Cells  in  AmphioxusJ — H.  Joseph  corroborates 
the  occurrence  of  true  sense-cells  among  the  epidermic  cells  of  the  lance- 
let,  and  gives  some  details  in  regard  to  their  (variable)  distribution  and 
minute  structure. 

Histogenesis  of  Nervous  System. ||  —  Oskar  Schulze  describes  a 
number  of  observations  on  a  large  variety  of  animals,  which  contradict 
the  widespread  view  that  nerve-fibres  grow  out  freely  from  central  cells. 
He  finds  that  the  longitudinal  growth  of  nerves  comes  about  by 
mitosis  in  a  chain  of  elements  (the  "  nerve-fibre-cells "),  whose  nuclei 
have  been  previously  regarded  as  the  nuclei  of  Schwann's  sheath.  A 
nerve-fibre  is  a  multinucleate  neurofibrillar  syncytium  inclosed  in  a 
medullary  mantle. 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  57-9. 

t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxxii.  (1908)  pp.  1-46  (2  pis.,  7  figs.). 

\  Anat.  Auzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  445-8  (5  figs.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  448-55  (7  figs.). 

||  SB.  k.  Preuss.  Akad.  Wiss.  Berlin,  1908,  pp.  166-77. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  445 

Histogenesis  of  Muscle.* — J.  Mlodowska  has  studied  the  develop- 
ment of  skeletal  muscle  in  embryos  of  fowl,  mouse,  rabbit  and  pig.  A 
muscle-fibre  is  equivalent  to  several  cells  fused  in  a  syncytium  ;  it  may  be 
derived  from  cells  which  have  belonged  to  several  myomeres  ;  the  myo- 
blasts of  adjacent  myomeres  coalesce  by  means  of  ever-broadening 
bridges  of  plasma,  on  which  fibrils  grow  ;  the  disappearance  of  the 
metamerism  is  helped  by  mesenchyme  cells,  which  arrange  themselves  in 
rows  and  unite  with  the  bridge  by  numerous  processes.  The  contractile 
fibrils  are  either  the  product  of  a  single  myoblast  (in  this  case  they 
grow  independently  into  the  other  myoblasts  which  compose  the  syncy- 
tium), or  they  may  owe  their  origin  to  several  myoblasts  (in  this  case 
they  subsequently  unite  by  their  ends  to  form  a  single  long  fibril).  A 
fibril  may  be  the  product  of  cells  belonging  to  several  myomeres.  The 
fibril  formed  in  one  myomere  may  grow  independently  into  the  cell- 
territory  of  adjacent  myomeres,  the  plasmic  bridges  previously  formed 
serving  as  transitions.  Fibrils  have  a  certain  individuality — of  growing 
beyond  their  origin,  of  increasing  in  length  and  thickness,  and  of  mul- 
tiplying by  splitting.  Organogenetic  processes  lead  to  over-production 
of  embryonic  muscular  tissue  :  part  undergoes  degeneration,  and  part 
becomes  connective.  Increase  in  the  number  of  muscle  fibres  is  due 
not  only  to  longitudinal  splitting  of  fibres,  but  also  to  the  co-operation 
of  mesenchyme  cells  which  form  chains. 

c.    General. 

Scales  of  Fishes.f — E.  S.  Goodrich  has  studied  the  different  types 
of  scale  in  fishes,  with  special  reference  to  their  use  in  classification. 

1.  The  placoid  scale  of  Selachii  and  Holocephali  begins  as  a  cone 
of  dentine  deposited  by  mesoblastic  scleroblastic  cells  below  the  epi- 
dermis, in  continuity  with  the  basement  membrane.  A  basal  plate 
may  be  present  in  the  form  of  a  direct  extension  inwards  of  the  cone, 
never  as  a  separate  element  which  becomes  fused  on  to  it  secondarily. 
Both  the  cone  and  the  plate  are  composed  of  dentine  or  some  allied 
substance,  never  of  true  bone  ;  the  cone  may  pierce  the  epidermis  when 
fully  grown.  The  scales  and  plates  of  Heterostraci  have  been  evolved 
by  the  combination  of  a  covering  of  separate  isolated  denticles  and  an 
underlying  plate. 

2.  The  cosmoid  scale,  e.g.  of  Megalichthys,  consists  of  a  basal  layer  of 
parallel  bony  laminas  of  "  isopedine,"  over  which  is  a  bony  zone  with 
large  vascular  spaces.  These  canals  combine  near  the  surface  in  a 
more  regular  horizontal  system,  with  vertical  canals  reaching  the  outer 
surface.  Below  the  surface  the  canals  expand  into  conical  chambers, 
between  which  pass  upwards  another  set  of  vertical  canals,  ending 
above  in  pulp-cavities.  From  these  radiate  a  multitude  of  canaliculi. 
Williamson  gave  the  name  of  "cosmine"  to  a  peculiar  dentine-like  sub- 
stance in  "  ganoid  "  scales,  and  Goodrich  uses  the  term  cosmoid  for 
scales  with  a  tissue  with  canaliculi  like  those  of  dentine.  The  cosmoid 
scale  has  an  outer  layer  of  dentine-like  substance,  a  middle  bony  layer 

*  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1908,  pp.  145-71  (2  pis.). 
t  Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1907,  pp.  751-74  (4  pis.,  9  figs.). 


446  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

with  vascular  spaces,  and  an  inner  layer  of  bony  laminae,  probably  ossified 
fibrous  tissue  of  the  cutis.  The  cosmoid  scale  grows  in  thickness  only 
by  the  addition  of  new  lamellae  below  ;  its  outer  surface  is  covered  with 
a  thin  shiny  layer,  the  nature  and  origin  of  which  are  uncertain. 

3.  The  ganoid  scale  is  found  in  all  Actinopterygii  except  the  modern 
Teleostei.  In  its  full  development  it  is  seen  in  the  rhombic  scales 
of  Palceoniscus  and  Lepidosteus.  It  grows  in  thickness  by  the  addition 
of  new  layers,  not  only  below  but  also  on  the  upper  surface.  The 
oldest  part  of  the  scale  is  the  centre.  The  lower  layers  are  bony  or 
fibrous,  the  upper  of  much  denser  homogeneous  enamel-like  ganoine. 
The  palaeoniscoid  and  lepidosteoid  scales  are  two  distinct  varieties  of 
the  ganoid  scale. 

Besides  cosmoid,  palaeoniscoid,  and  lepidosteoid  scales,  certain  other 
varieties  are  found,  such  as  the  Rhizodont  and  Dipnoan,  which  are 
probably  to  be  derived  from  the  cosmoid.  The  position  of  the 
Coelacanth  scale  is  at  present  difficult  to  determine  ;  it  may  be  a  primitive 
form  in  which  the  denticles  have  uot  yet  fused  to  a  cosmine  layer,  as 
Williamson  supposed  ;  or  it  may  be  simply  a  degenerate  cosmoid  scale 
to  the  surface  of  which  denticles  have  become  attached. 

The  cosmoid  scale  occurs  in  the  extinct  Osteolepidoti  (Crossopterygii) 
and  Dipnoi,  but  in  no  other  group  of  fish.  Similarly,  the  ganoid 
scale  occurs  in  the  Teleostomi  and  never  elsewhere.  The  palaeoniscoid 
type  is  restricted  to  the  Palaeoniscidae  and  their  immediate  allies  ;  while 
the  lepidosteoid  type  is  universal  among  the  Protospondyli,  the  iEtheo- 
spondyli  and  the  Pholidophoridae,  and  not  found  in  any  other  group 
as  far  as  is  known. 

The  scale  of  Polypterus  is  of  the  ganoid  type  and  belongs  to  the 
palaeoniscoid  variety.  The  scales  of  Acanthodii  are  not  placoid,  but 
approach  most  nearly  to  the  lepidosteoid  type. 

Seasonal  Change  in  Birds.*  —  C.  W.  Beebe  publishes  a  pre- 
liminary report  of  some  experiments  on  birds,  undertaken  with  a  view 
to  finding  out  what  factors  determine  the  seasonal  changes  in  the 
plumage  of  male  birds.  The  tanager  (Piranga  erythromelas)  and  the 
bobolink  (Dolichonyx  oryzivorus),  in  which  the  summer  and  winter 
plumage  are  markedly  different,  were  the  subjects  of  these  experiments, 
which  dealt  mainly  with  one  factor — the  condition  of  the  bird  as  to 
fatness  or  thinness.  Males  in  full  nuptial  plumage,  which  had  not  been 
allowed  to  breed,  were  kept  in  small  cages  in  a  dim  light,  and  fed  rather 
more  abundantly  than  usual.  They  soon  became  less  active,  ceased  to 
sing,  and  increased  in  weight.  In  autumn  no  trace  of  the  usual  moult 
could  be  discovered,  and  the  birds  remained  in  perfect  health.  A  few 
were  taken  into  the  light,  and  their  diet  changed,  and  they  soon  began 
to  sing.  A  sudden  alteration  of  temperature  either  upwards  or  down- 
wards wrought  a  radical  change.  They  stopped  feeding,  lost  weight, 
and  rapidly  moulted  into  the  normal  winter  plumage.  Those  that  were 
kept  the  whole  time  in  dim  light  with  high  feeding  were  gradually 
brought  into  normal  conditions  in  spring,  and  very  quickly  they  began 
to  moult  into  new  nuptial  plumage,  having  skipped  the  winter  stage 

*  Amer.  Naturalist,  xlii.  (1908)  pp.  34-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  447 

altogether.  The  investigator,  while  admitting  that  these  experiments 
do  not  yet  afford  a  sufficiently  wide  basis  for  generalisation,  claims  that 
they  prove  in  regard  to  the  two  species  concerned,  that  the  sequence  of 
plumage  is  not  in  any  way  predestined  by  inheritance,  but  that  it  may 
be  interrupted  by  certain  changes  in  the  environmental  complex. 

Muscles  of  the  Tail  in  Peacock  and  Turkey.* — A.  Porta  describes 
this  musculature,  to  which  no  particular  attention  has  hitherto  been 
paid.  He  distinguishes  five  pairs — elevators  of  the  coccyx,  depressors  of 
the  coccyx,  external  pubo-coccygeals,  internal  pubo-coccygeals,  and  inter- 
transversala.     He  also  describes  four  anal  muscles. 

Mammal-like  Reptiles.!  —  R.  Broom  regards  the  mammal-like 
reptiles  as  forming  a  well-defined  group,  whose  earlier  members  show 
so  much  affinity  with  the  primitive  Diaptosaurians  and  with  the  higher 
Cotylosaurians  as  to  render  it  highly  probable  that  from  some  Cotylo- 
saurian  ancestor  all  the  later  reptiles  are  descended.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  higher  mammal-like  reptiles  approach  so  closely  to  the 
mammals,  that  it  is  not  always  possible  to  distinguish  between  them. 
Thus  Tritylodon  is  held  by  many  to  be  a  reptile,  by  others  it  is  believed 
to  be  a  mammal ;  Dromatherium,  Microconodon,  and  Karoomys  are 
generally  believed  to  be  mammals,  but  it  is  just  possible  they  may  be 
reptiles  ;  while  Sesamodon  and  Melinodon,  which  are  believed  to  be 
Cynodont  reptiles,  may  possibly  prove  to  be  mammals.  The  difference 
between  a  Cynodont  reptile  and  a  Monotreme  is  less  than  the  difference 
between  a  Monotreme  and  a  Marsupial,  and  this,  again,  is  not  much 
greater  than  that  between  a  Marsupial  and  an  Insectivore. 

Feeding  Snakes  in  Captivity.^ — P.  Chalmers  Mitchell  and  R.  J. 
Pocock  note  that  at  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  no  species  of 
snake,  poisonous  or  non-poisonous,  refused  to  take  dead  food.  It  was 
found  unnecessary  to  give  live  food  to  any  individual  snake.  They  note 
that  a  human  hand  slowly  and  carefully  advanced  on  a  small  bird  or 
mammal  has  just  as  much  power  of  fascination  as  a  snake  has — that  is 
to  say,  none.  Except  in  the  case  of  monkeys  (not  including  Lemurs) 
there  is  no  evidence  that  animals  have  any  specific  fear  of  snakes.  It  is 
probable  that  human  beings  have  inherited  a  specific  fear  of  snakes  from 
their  anthropoid  ancestors. 

Dogs  affected  with  Kala-azar.§ — Ch.  Nicolle  and  Ch.  Comte  find 
that  the  parasite  associated  with  kala-azar  occurs  in  dogs  in  Tunis,  and 
suggest  that  man  is  infected  through  fleas. 

Tunicata. 

Winter-buds  of  Clavelina  lepadiformis.|| — H.  Kerb  describes  the 
formation  of    "  winter-buds "  in  unfavourable   conditions.      They  are 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  116-20  (4  figs.). 

t  Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1907,  pp.  1047-61  (4  figs.). 

X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  785-94. 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  789-91. 

||  SB.  Ges.  Nat.  Freunde  Berlin,  1907,  No.  6,  pp.  167-70  (1  pi.). 


448  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

small  chambers  on  the  side  of  a  stolon,  containing  nutritive  material 
and  blood-cells,  covered  with  epithelium  and  tunicin.  Inside  these  buds 
a  complete  Ascidian  is  built  up. 

INVERTEBRATA. 

Mollusca. 
y.  Gastropoda. 

Environmental  Studies  on  the  Limpet.* — E.  S.  Russell  seeks  to 
correlate  certain  modifications  of  the  shell  of  Patella  vulgata  with 
definite  environmental  conditions.  As  to  the  homing  habit,  he  con- 
cludes that  every  limpet  of  15  mm.  and  upwards,  occupies  for  long 
periods  at  a  time  a  definitely  fixed  position  to  which  it  returns  after 
any  wanderings  that  it  may  make  for  food  ;  that  limpets  under 
15  mm.,  if  not  yet  settled  in  a  definite  position,  never  wander  far  away, 
and  generally  keep  to  the  same  stone.  The  movements  are  chiefly  when 
covered  by  the  tide.  High-water  and  low-water  limpets  differ  in 
definite  ways,  which  are  carefully  tabulated.  Adult  exposed  shells  are 
lower  spired,  narrower,  thicker,  and  more  irregular  than  sheltered  shells. 
An  interesting  conclusion  is  that  the  "  rough "  types  occur  on  rough 
stones  ;  the  "  smooth  "  types  (var.  cmrulea)  on  polished  stones.  A  small 
change  in  an  environment  may  produce  through  its  continuous  action  a 
large  cumulative  result  by  a  summation  of  successive  little  effects. 

Experimental  Dwarfing  of  Water-snails.f  —  R.  Legendre  has 
experimented  with  Lymnmns  stagnalis  and  Planorbis  corneus,  rearing 
parts  of  the  same  brood  in  varied  conditions.  He  finds,  as  previous 
experimenters  have  done,  that  it  is  not  difficult  to  produce  dwarf  forms 
by  crowding.  Unlike  Semper  and  De  Varigny,  however,  he  finds  reason 
to  believe  that  the  excreta  in  the  water  act  in  an  inhibitory  manner  on 
growth. 

Philomycus.J — Y.  Sterki  makes  some  notes  on  this  genus  of  nearctic 
slugs,  which  is  distinguished  from  Limax  by  having  the  mantle  extended 
over  almost  the  whole  body.  He  defines  a  few  species,  and  proposes  to 
give  the  genus  the  attention  which  it  merits. 

8.    Iiamellibranchiata. 

Parthenogenetic  Development  in  Mactra.§ — K.  Kostanecki  found, 
in  1905,  that  a  potassium  chloride  sea-water  solution  served  as  a  stimulus 
to  the  parthenogenetic  development  of  the  eggs  of  Mactra.  In  studying 
the  matter  further,  he  finds  that  there  is  mitotic  nuclear  division  without 
corresponding  cell-division. 

Structure  of  Phaseolicama  magellanica.|| — J.  Igel  gives  an  ana- 
tomical description  of  this  bivalve,  which  occurs  under  stones  on  the 

*  Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1907,  pp.  856-70  (12  figs.). 

f  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  viii.  (1908)  Notes  et  Bevue,  No.  3,  pp.  lxxvii.-lxxxiv . 

%  Ohio  Naturalist,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  265-6. 

§  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1908,  pp.  97-101  (1  fig.). 

||  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  1-44  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  449 

shores  of  the  Falkland  Islands.  As  in  the  related  form,  Modiolarca 
trapezina,  there  is  a  brood-chamber.  The  eggs  pass  into  the  inner  gills, 
are  fertilised,  and  develop  there  till  they  have  attained  their  definitive 
form.  The  various  systems — nervous,  muscular,  alimentary,  and  so  on 
— are  described  at  length. 

Relation  between  Body  and  Shell  in  Bivalves.* — R.  Schwarz 
has  studied  this  problem  in  a  large  number  of  cases.  He  finds  two 
styles  of  architecture,  the  one  represented  by  Gardium,  Venus,  Cytherea, 
Tapes,  Artemis,  etc.,  and  the  other  by  Mytilus,  Avicula,  Pecten,  Ostrea, 
etc.  He  also  deals  with  aberrant  forms,  such  as  Lima  (which  belongs 
to  the  Gardium  style,  not  to  that  of  Pectinids),  Hippopus,  and  Tridacna, 
and  seeks  in  general  to  show  that  the  study  of  the  shell  apart  from  the 
body  is  sure  to  mislead.  More  definitely,  as  he  says,  the  assumption 
that  the  shell-margin  or  the  hinge  in  one  bivalve  is  homologous  with  the 
shell  margin  or  the  hinge  in  another,  must  be  entirely  given  up. 

Concentration  of  Nervous  System  in  Lamellibranchs.  ft — Paul 
Pelseneer  describes  the  close  approximation  of  the  ganglia  in  Lima 
squamosa,  where  cerebral,  pedal,  and  visceral  ganglia  are  close  together 
below  the  oesophagus.  In  L.  inflata  the  arrangement  is  intermediate 
between  that  of  L.  squamosa  and  the  typical  wide  separation. 

Arthropoda. 
«•  Insecta. 

Accessory  Chromosome  in  Aplopus  Mayeri.f — H.  E.  Jordan  has 
traced  the  history  of  the  accessory  chromosome  in  this  Phasmid.  Some 
spermatozoa  have  18  chromosomes,  like  the  ova  ;  others  have  one  less. 
The  accessory  chromosome  appears  in  the  resting  stage  of  the  secondary 
spermatogonia  as  a  chromatin  nucleolus  characteristically  close  to  the 
nuclear  wall.  At  the  last  spermatogonial  division  it  passes  over  into  the 
resting  stage  of  the  primary  spermatocyte  without  entering  a  reticular 
stage  as  do  the  ordinary  chromosomes.  Both  the  primary  and  secondary 
spermatogonia  have  a  metaphase  group  of  35  chromosomes.  Metaphase 
groups  of  follicle  cells  of  the  ovary  contain  36  chromosomes. 

Synapsis  occurs  in  the  early  stages  of  the  growth  period  by  an  end- 
to-end  union  of  pairs  of  univalent  elements.  Equatorial  plates  of 
primary  spermatocytes  contain  18  chromosomes.  The  accessory  chromo- 
some passes  undivided  to  one  pole  of  the  first  maturation  spindle,  and 
thus  produces  a  dimorphism  of  the  daughter-cells  and  the  resulting 
spermatozoa. 

The  first  maturation  division  is  reductional  ;  the  second  isequational. 
Equatorial  plates  of  secondary  spermatocytes  show  a  disparity  in  the 
number  of  chromosomes.  One  group  contains  a  large  U-shaped  element 
peripherally,  and  numbers  18  ;  those  groups  lacking  a  body  of  such  form 
contain  only  17  chromosomes.     The  accessory  chromosome  can  be  traced 

•  Morphol.  Jahrb.,  xxxviii.  (1908)  pp.  91-134  (3  pis.). 

t  Bull.  Classe  des  Sciences  Acad.  Roy.  Belgique,  Nos.  9-10  (1907)  pp.  871-8 
(3  figs.).  {  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  281-95  (48  figs.). 

Aug.  19th,  1908  2  h 


450  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

as  a  specific  structure  throughout  until  it  disintegrates  in  the  head  of  the 
ripening  spermatozoon. 

Diaposematism.* — Guy  A.  K.  Marshall  discusses  reciprocal  mimicry 
and  some  limitations  of  the  Miillerian  hypothesis  of  mimicry.  He  points 
out  the  difficulty  of  accepting  the  idea  of  a  mutual  simultaneous  mimicry 
between  two  unpalatable  species,  such  as  is  postulated  by  the  hypothesis 
of  "  diaposematism."  It  is  suggested  that  an  initial  inequality  in  the 
individual  numbers  of  the  two  distasteful  species  is  an  essential  condition 
for  the  production  of  Miillerian  mimicry,  and  that  in  such  circumstances 
the  mimetic  approach  would  always  be  in  one  direction  only,  namely, 
from  the  rarer  species  towards  the  more  abundant.  Any  initial  varia- 
tion from  the  latter  towards  the  former  must  be  disadvantageous. 

The  various  cases  which  have  been  cited  in  evidence  of  diaposematism 
or  reciprocal  mimicry  are  critically  examined,  and  it  is  argued  that  the 
facts  can  be  more  satisfactorily  interpreted  on  lines  which  do  not  involve 
the  assumption  of  a  mutual  interchange  of  characters  between  mimic 
and  model.  Miiller's  principle  is  important,  but  it  has  definite  limitations, 
and  the  attempt  to  explain  all  cases  of  mimicry  among  butterflies  on  the 
Miillerian  theory  is  contested.  The  wide  significance  of  Bates's  principle 
has  not  been  adequately  appreciated.  Indeed  the  theory  of  Bates  will 
explain  many  cases  of  mimicry  between  unpalatable  species  which  have 
been  previously  considered  as  purely  Miillerian  in  character. 

Accessory  Chromosome  in  Anasa  tristis.f  — ■  E.  B.  Wilson,  in 
opposition  to  the  criticisms  of  Foot  and  Strobell,  who  could  find  no 
accessory  chromosome  in  Anasa  tristis,  confirms  his  previous  conclusion 
that  the  number  of  chromosomes  in  the  spermatogonia  is  21,  in  the  eggs 
22  ;  and  that  the  accessory  chromosome  in  the  second  maturation 
division  passes  undivided  to  one  pole,  so  that  half  of  the  spermatozoa 
have  10  chromosomes,  and  half  have  11  chromosomes. 

Cutaneous  Glands  of  Wasps 4 — L.  Bordas  finds  in  various  species 
of  Vespa,  groups  of  unicellular  glands  on  the  anterior  margin  of  the  two 
last  abdominal  sternites.  Each  gland  is  a  large  spherical  cell,  with  a 
delicate  canal  passing  to  the  exterior,  and  often  uniting  with  several 
others. 

Cave  Beetles. § — Pi.  Jeannel  describes  a  large  collection  (31  species) 
of  beetles  from  Pyrenean  and  other  caves.  He  deals  with  several  new 
forms — e.g.  Speodketus  g.n.  and  Speonomus  g.n.,  including  species  pre- 
viously referred  to  Bathyscia. 

Development  of  the  Alimentary  Canal  during  Metamorphosis.  || 
P.  Deegener  follows  up  his  previous  account  (190-1)  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  alimentary  canal  in  Cybister  roeselii,  with  a  careful  description 
of  all  the  changes  undergone  in  Malacosoma  castrensis  during  metamor- 
phosis. 

*  Trans.  Entomol.  Soc,  Loudon,  1908,  pp.  93-142. 

f  Science,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  191-3. 

j  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  59-64  (3  figs.). 

§  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  267-326  (3  pis.). 

||  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxvi.  (190S)  pp.  45-182  (5  pis.  and  1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPV,    ETC.  451 

New  European  and  Mediterranean  Cicadinse.*  —  S.  Matsumura 
notes  that  new  species  of  beetles  and  butterflies  are  hardly  to  be  found 
in  Europe,  but  there  are  still  plenty  of  Cicadinse  undiscovered.  He 
himself,  during  his  stay  in  Europe  and  the  Mediterranean  region,  has 
found  90  new  species,  and  he  gives  a  description  of  about  half  of  these 
in  the  present  communication.  He  found  in  Port  Said  and  Egypt  the 
well-known  Delp/iax  furcifera,  first  described  by  Horvath  from  Japan, 
and  two  other  forms  injurious  to  the  rice  crops  in  Japan  and  Formosa — 
namely,  Nephotettix  apkalis  Motsch.  and  Nisia  nervosa  Leth.,  were 
found  in  Tangiers. 

Freezing  Insect  Larvse.t — James  S.  Hine  subjected  the  larvse  of  a 
moth,  BeJJura  obJiqua,  which  live  in  the  stems  of  the  cat-tail  reed  (Typha 
latifolia),  to  six  consecutive  nights  and  days  of  freezing  in  water  (the 
temperatures  varying  from  -  6°  F.  to  -  16°  F.).  None  of  the  specimens 
shows  signs  of  injury  from  the  treatment.  Three  larvee  treated  similarly, 
but  without  water,  received  no  notable  injury.  He  refers  to  other  cases, 
and  points  out  that  the  susceptibility  to  cold  is  as  marked  in  some  types 
as  indifference  to  it  in  others. 

Odoriferous  Gland  of  Cockroach. J — L.  Bordas  describes  the  large 
arborescent  gland  found  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  abdomen  in  male 
cockroaches  (Periplaneta  orientalis  and  P.  americana).  It  has  been 
erroneously  regarded  by  some  as  an  annex  to  the  male  genital  system. 
The  whole  of  each  of  the  component  tubes  is  glandular.  The  secretory 
cells  are  described,  and  it  is  noted  that  the  defensive  volatile  secretion 
is  distinctly  alkaline. 

Genitalia  of  Male  Cockroach  § — W.  Wesche  distinguishes  the  fol- 
lowing parts  : — (1)  a  tube  for  the  passage  of  spermatozoa  into  the  con- 
taining apparatus,  and  a  gland  (Miall's  conglobate)  for  the  production  of 
some  semi-viscid  fluid,  used  in  the  formation  of  the  spermatophore  ; 
(2)  the  combination  of  the  theca  and  the  hypophallus,  penis,  and 
paraphalli,  by  movements  of  which  the  viscid  secretion  and  the  sper- 
matozoa are  brought  together ;  (3)  the  containing  apparatus,  with  a 
covering-plate  held  down  over  it  by  the  apodeme.  On  excitement,  the 
lever  would  relax  the  muscles  holding  down  the  cover,  and  a  fourth  part 
— the  spinus — bending  over  would  transfix  a  spermatophore  and  transfer 
it  to  the  cloaca  of  the  female.  The  author  compares  the  parts  of  the 
complex  mechanism  with  the  similar  structures  in  Diptera. 

Insects  Injurious  to  Olives  and  Figs.|| — G-.  Martelli  discusses  the 
habits  and  life-history  of  the  olive-fly  (Dacus  olece)  ;  F.  Silvestri  deals 
with  the  number  of  generations  in  a  year  ;  F.  Silvestri,  G-.  Martelli,  and 
L.  Masi  have  studied  the  Hymenoptera  parasitic  on  the  larva?  of  the 
fly.  F.  Silvestri  discusses  Prays  oleellus  ;  L.  Masi  deals  with  the  various 
parasites  of  Dacus  olece;  F.  Silvestri  describes  Occophylhmbius  neylectus 

*  Joum.  Coll.  Sci.  Tokyo,  xxiii.  (1908)  Art.  6,  pp.  1-46  (1  pi.). 
t  Ohio  Naturalist,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  258-60. 

X  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  31-2.  See  also  Ann.  Sci.  Nat. 
(Zool.)  vii.  (1908)  pp.  1-24  (1  pi.,  7  figs.). 

§  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  x.  (1908)  pp.  235-42  (2  pis.). 
||  Boll.  Lab.  Zool.  Scuola  Agric.  Portici,  ii.  (1908)  pp.  1-358. 

2  H  2 


452  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

g.  et  sp.  n.,  a  new  moth  whose  larvae  eat  the  olive  leaves.  G.  Martelli 
records  his  observations  on  the  scale-insects  of  the  olive  and  their 
parasites.  P.  Silvestri  and  G.  Martelli  describe  Ceroplastes  rusci,  the 
scale-insect  of  the  fig. 

Study  of  Thysanura.* — F.  Silvestri  describes  new  species  of  Lepisma 
from  South  Africa,  new  genera  and  species  of  myrmecophilous  and  ter- 
mitophilous  Lepismids,  new  Thysanura  from  Corfu,  and  a  new  Italian 
species  of  Japyx. 

Cephalic  Glands  of  Machilis  maritima.f — L.  Bruntz  finds  two  sets 
of  head-glands— an  anterior  pair  opening  at  the  base  of  the  masticatory 
cavity  near  the  mandibles,  and  a  posterior  pair  opening  into  the  excretory 
canal  of  the  "  labial  kidneys."  The  secretion  of  the  first  pair  may  help 
in  mastication,  that  of  the  second  pair  may  help  to  wash  out  the  excre- 
tory products.  The  salivary  glands  described  by  various  workers  are  the 
labyrinths  and  excretory  canals  of  the  "  labial  kidneys." 

Kidney  of  Machilis  maritima.| — L.  Bruntz  finds  in  the  epithelium 
of  the  excretory  canals  of  the  so-called  kidney  of  this  Thysanuran  a  highly 
developed  network  of  tracheae,  the  .branches  of  which  penetrate  between 
the  epithelial  cells.  He  also  gives  some  information  as  to  the  cyto- 
plasmic structure  of  the  cells  composing  the  excretory  canals. 

Labial  Excretory  Organ  in  Thysanura. §— L.  Bruntz  distinguishes 
on  this  organ,  a  saccule  which  eliminates  ammoniacal  carmin  injected 
during  life  into  the  body  cavity,  and  a  labyrinth  which  does  the  same 
for  carminate  of  indigo.  He  describes  the  details  of  this  labyrinth  in 
Machilis  maritima,  and  his  histological  results  confirm  the  physiological 
conclusion  (based  on  injections  of  carmin)  that  the  organ  in  question 
is  a  true  kidney. 

Structure  of  Collembola.|| — R.  W.  Hoffmann  has  made  an  elaborate 
study  of  Tomocerus  plimibeus  L.,  with  especial  reference  to  the  mouth- 
parts,  the  cerebral  ganglia,  the  musculature  and  innervation  of  the  head. 
He  has  discovered  near  the  cerebral  ganglia  two  peculiar  dendriform 
bodies — very  peculiar  cell-complexes — which  he  proposes  to  call  "  head- 
kidneys." 

f),  Myriopoda. 

Studies  on  Julidae.^f — Karl  W.  Verhoeff  continues  his  researches  on 
Diplopoda  in  a  discussion  of  the  Julidaa  and  some  Polydesmids.  He 
deals  with  Leptoiulus  and  Ophiiulns,  LeptopliyUum,  Micropachyiulus, 
Allot yphloiul us,  Cylindroiulus,  Typhloiulus,  Heteroiulus,  and  Brachyiidus, 
and  with  various  morphological  questions  concerning  the  appendages. 

*  Boll.  Lab.  Zool.  Scuola  Agric.  Portici,  ii.  (1908)  pp.  359-96  (24  figs.), 
t   Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  491-3. 
X  Tom.  cit.,  871-3.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1045-7. 

||  Zeitschr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxix.  (1908)  pp.  598-689  (5  pis.  and  18  figs.). 
f  YArch.  Natur.,  lxxiii.  (1907)  pp.  423-74  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  453 

Cavernicolous  Myriopods.* — F.  Silvestri  describes  from  the  eastern 
region  of  the  Pyrenees  (a)  two  new  Diplopoda— Spelmor/lomeris  docleroi 
g.  et  sp.  n.  and  Sp.  racovitzw  sp.  n.,  and  (b)  a  new  centipede,  Lithobius 
allot 'yphlus. 

8.  Arachnida. 

Cave  Pseudoscorpionidae.f — Edr.  Ellingsen  reports  on  a  dozen  false 
scorpions  from  Pyrenean  and  other  caves,  including  Obisium  lonijidigi- 
tatum  sp.  n.,  and  a  new  blind  variety  of  Chthonius  tetrachelatus.  It 
should  be  noted  that  some  of  the  dozen  species  discussed  are  only  acci- 
dentally cavernicolous. 

f,  Crustacea. 

Stridulating  Organ  in  Crabs. % — W.  T.  Caiman  describes  a  well- 
developed  stridulating  organ  in  males  of  an  African  river-crab,  Potamon 
(Potamonautes)  africanum.  It  is  formed  by  groups  of  modified  spines 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  coxa?  of  the  first  and  second  pairs  of  walking 
legs,  and  on  parts  of  the  free  branchiostegal  edge  of  the  carapace  imme- 
diately opposed  to  them.  The  organ  occurs  in  some  other  species  of 
this  genus,  but  it  is  not  known  in  other  genera  of  Potoinonidse. 
Stridulation,  or  the  possession  of  apparently  stridulating  organs,  has 
been  reported  in  Matuta,  Ozius,  Platyonychus,  Ocypode,  Macroph- 
thalmus,  Sesarma,  and  some  other  Clrapsidaj,  but  in  these  cases  the  main 
portion  of  the  apparatus  consists  of  ridges  or  granules  on  the  surface  of 
the  exoskeleton,  never  of  modified  spines,  although  the  latter  are 
commonly  found  in  the  stridulating  organs  of  the  Arachnida. 

Hydrotropism  in  Crabs. §  —  Anna  Drzewina  has  studied  the  be- 
haviour of  shore  crabs  {Carcinus  mamas)  when  taken  away  from  the 
sea.  Even  at  a  distance  of  over  100  m.  they  make  for  the  water.  This 
is  independent  of  illumination,  time  of  day,  wind,  etc.  The  crabs  may 
ascend  inclined  planes  in  making  for  the  sea.  They  are  hydrotropic. 
When  the  sand  is  very  wet  with  rain  they  do  not  go  straight  for  the  sea. 
They  walk  along  a  bar  with  water  on  each  side  of  them,  as  if  equally 
attracted  in  the  two  directions.  Crabs  that  live  near  high-tide  mark 
are  very  much  more  sensitive  hydrotropically  than  those  from  low-tide 
mark.  Experience  counts.  In  investigating  reactions  the  past  of  the 
animal  must  be  borne  in  mind.  Crabs  taken  from  the  wrack-covered 
rocks  of  the  seaweed  zone  make  for  rocks  and  sea-weed  patches  rather 
than  for  the  sea. 

Visceral  Nervous  System  of  Decapods.  || — G.  Police  has  studied 
this  in  Palinurus,  Homarus,  Astacus,  Scyllarus,  Penceus,  Galathea,  Maja, 
Dromia,  Carcinus,  and  other  Decapod  Crustacea.  The  anterior  portion 
of  the  visceral  nervous  system  includes  two  lateral  centres  (the  paired 
visceral  ganglia)  and  an  unpaired  median  ganglion.     The  relations  of 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  via.  (190S)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  3,  pp.  lxv.-lxxiii.  (14  figs.). 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  415-20. 

%  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  series  8,  i.  (1908)  pp.  469-73  (5  figs.). 

§  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  1009-11. 

||  MT.  Zool.  Stat.  Neapel.xix.  (1908)  pp.  69-116  (2  pis.  and  1  fig.). 


45-4  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

these  three  ganglia  are  very  fully  discussed.  The  posterior  portion 
(if  the  visceral  nervous  system  is  formed  in  Macrura  by  nerves  which 
arise  from  the  last  ganglion  of  the  ventral  chain,  and  from  the 
1  tranches  which  innervate  the  telson.  In  Brachyura  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  visceral  nervous  system  comes  from  the  single  ventral  concentration 
of  ganglia  and  from  the  two  median  nerves  passing  back  from  this. 

Development  of  Crayfish.* — Benedykt  Fulinski  describes  the  origin 
of  the  mesoderm,  distinguishing  two  kinds — the  nauplial  and  meta- 
nauplial  (primary  and  secondary  of  Reichenbach).  He  also  deals  with 
the  vascular  system.  The  heart-wall  consists  of  two  layers  of  cells, 
the  outer  adventitia  and  the  inner  muscularis ;  both  arise  from  the 
visceral  mesoderm  ;  no  internal  endothelium  is  discernible.  The  cavities 
of  pericardium,  heart,  and  blood-vessels  must  be  regarded  as  remains  of 
the  blastocoele.  The  vessels  arise  in  the  visceral  mesoderm  as  gutter- 
like primordia,  in  part  independently  of  the  heart,  in  part  as  outgrowths 
of  its  wall.  These  distal  and  central  primordia  of  vessels  meet  to  form 
blood-vessels.  The  sternal  artery  is  at  first  paired,  but  the  right  or  the 
left  component  degenerates.  The  blood-cells  are  partly  mesodermic  and 
partly  endodermic  in  origin. 

Cambarus  montezumse.f — E.A.Andrews  makes  some  notes  on 
this  Mexican  crayfish,  which  are  of  interest  in  themselves  and  in  con- 
nection with  Ortmann's  theory  that  all  the  species  of  Cambarus  may  be 
derived  from  ancestors  once  living  in  the  Mexican  region.  The  sexes 
seem  to  be  about  equal  in  number  :  in  the  lot  of  179  purchased  in  the 
market  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  91  were  males,  and  S8  females.  Forty-four 
females  had  the  seminal  vesicle  on  the  right  side  of  the  body,  and  44 
were  sinistral.  The  first  pleopods  are  absent  in  the  females.  The 
attached  larva?  differ  from  those  of  other  species  in  the  perfection  of  their 
sensory  clubs,  in  the  size  of  spinules,  dentation  of  mandibles,  and  per- 
fection of  the  last  pleopods.  They  support  the  view  that  the  early  larvae 
of  Cambarus  have  degenerated  from  more  active  forms  in  connection 
with  a  life  of  dependence  upon  the  mother. 

Regeneration  in  Asellus.J — Margarete  Zuelzer  has  studied  in 
Aselhis  aquatkus  the  influence  of  regeneration  on  the  rate  of  growth. 
The  animal  can  re-grow  its  antenna?,  walking  legs,  and  furca.  The  new 
parts  appear  after  the  first  moult  after  the  amputation,  and  have  the 
normal  size  after  the  third  moult.  During  the  regenerating  period  there 
is  a  hastening  of  the  moultings. 

New  Marine  Isopod.§ — E.  G.Racovitza  describes  Anoplocopea  hansmi 
g.  et  sp.  n.,  an  interesting  new  Sphaeromid  from  the  Gulf  of  Ajaccio.  It 
is  related  to  Campecopea  and  to  the  cavernicolous  Sphaeromids,  which 
Hansen  has  ranked  in  the  section  Monolistrini. 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  20-8  (6  figs.). 

t  Op.  cit.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  665-9. 

X  SB.  Ges.  Natur.  Freunde  Berlin,  No.  9  (1907)  pp.  283-4. 

§  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  viii.  (1908)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  3,  pp.  lxxxiv.-xc.  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  455 

New  Terrestrial  IsopocL* — R.  S.  Bagnall  describes  Philosciapatiencei 
sp.  n.,  found  in  a  hot-house  of  the  Botanical  Gardens,  Kew.  It  strongly 
resembles  the  common  British  Trichoniscus  pusillus  iu  colour,  shape, 
size,  and  movements,  but  it  seems  to  belong  to  the  genus  Philoscia,  in 
the  vicinity  of  P.  couchii. 

New  Phyllopods.f — Joh.  Thiele  describes  some  interesting  new 
species — e.g.  Apus  frenzeli,  from  Argentina,  A.  madagassicus,  Strepto- 
cephalus  distinctus,  Leptestltcria  vilUgera,  Lynceus  madagascarensis, 
Gh irpcephalus  sinensis. 

Species  of  Corophium.J  —  J.  0.  Bradley  describes  Corophium 
spinkoriie  Stimpson  and  C.  salmonis,  in  regard  to  which  we  have 
hitherto  had  very  vague  information.  He  also  gives  a  diagnostic  key 
for  the  genus,  based  on  the  work  of  Stebbing. 

Annulata. 

(Esophageal  Pouches  of  Spionidae.§ —  W.  Salensky  describes  the 
structure  and  development  of  these  interesting  pockets  in  larvae  of 
Polydora  comuta,  and  in  adults  of  Spin  fuliginosus.  They  are  very 
similar  to  those  previously  described  by  the  author  in  Polggordius  and 
Saccocirrus.  In  the  Polydora  larva  there  are  five  symmetrical  pouches, 
but  only  the  first  two  persist  as  open  clefts.  They  are  comparable  to 
the  pouches  in  Enteropneusts  and  Chordata,  and  they  increase  the 
plausibility  of  the  view  that  the  Chordata  evolved  from  an  Annelid  stock. 

Neuroglia  in  Leeches. || — A.  W.  Jakubski  has  made  a  comparative 
histological  study  of  the  supporting  tissue  of  the  nervous  system  in  various 
Hirudinea — Hirudo  medicinalis,  Aulostomum  gulo,  Nephelis  vulgaris, 
Clepsine  sexoculata,  and  Pontobdella  muricata. 

Nematoh.elminth.es. 

Peculiar  Nematode. 1[ — A.  Porta  describes  Gnathostoma  paronai  sp.n. 
from  the  intestine  of  Mm  rajah,  from  the  island  of  Mentawei.  The 
mouth  has  two  lips,  there  are  numerous  rows  of  hooks  on  the  head 
and  strange  tridendate  scales  or  lamellae  covering  the  anterior  two-thirds 
of  the  body.  The  genus  Gnathostoma  was  founded  by  Owen  in  1836, 
and  is  synonymous  with  Cheiracanthus  Diesing  (1839). 

Platyhelminthes. 

New  Tapeworm  in  Moorhen.** — Pasquale  Mola  describes  Tamia 
marchali  sp.n.  from  Galliaula  chloropus,  and  suggests  that  the  other  host 
is  the  Mollusc  Cyrlostoma  elegans. 

*  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  8,  i.  (1908)  pp.  428-31  (1  pi.). 

+  SB.  Ges.  Natur.  Freunde  Berlin,  No.  9  (1907)  pp.  288-97  (2  pis.). 

J  Univ.  California  Publications,  Zoology,  iv.  (1908)  pp.  227-82  (5  pis.). 

§  Bull.  Acad.  Imp.  Sci.  St.  Petersbourg,  ser.  6  (1908)  pp.  687-708  (23  figs.). 

||  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1908,  pp.  86-91. 

i  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  8-9  (2  figs.). 

**  Bull.  Classe  Sci.  Acad.  Roy.  Belgique,  Nos.  9-10  (1907)  pp.  886-98  (1  pi.). 


456  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Hymenolepis  fragilis.* —  T.  B.  Rosseter  describes  this  tapeworm, 
which  he  found  in  a  wild  duck  {Anas  boschas,  /era  L.).  This  is  the 
only  recorded  instance  of  its  having  been  found  since  Krabbe  discovered 
the  species  in  a  teal  (Anas  crecca  L.),  and  called  it  Taenia  fragilis. 

Studies  on  Cestodes.  —  0.  von  Linstow  f  describes  Hymenolepis 
furcifera  Krabbe,  and  Tatria  biremis  Kow.,  from  Podiceps  nigricollis. 

P.  E.  Garrison  J  discusses  the  cestode  parasites  of  man  in  the 
Philippine  Islands,  and  describes  Tcenia  philippina  sp.  n.,  the  Cysticercus 
of  which  remains  unknown. 

Ludwig  Colin  §  describes  Lytocestus  adherens  g.  et  sp.  n.,  from  the 
intestine  of  Clarias  fuscus.  It  is  apparently  a  Tetraphyllid,  but  the 
genital  system  is  quite  different  from  that  of  previously  described 
genera. 

C.  v.  Janicki  ||  gives  a  valuable  account  of  the  structure  of  Amphilina 
liguloidea  Diesing,  showing  in  particular  how  it  occupies  an  inter- 
mediate position  between  Trematodes  and  Cestodes,  and  that  there  is 
much  to  be  said  in  support  of  Piutner's  view  that  it  is  a  ptedogenetic 
larval  form. 

Cytological  Study  of  Triclad  Pharynx. % — A.  Korotneff  describes  a 
remarkable  process  of  nucleus-expulsion  in  the  cell-plate  which  limits  the 
wall  of  the  pharynx  in  Planarians.  He  thinks  that  the  process  is  not  so 
unique  as  it  may  seem  ;  thus  various  authorities  have  described  a  nucleus- 
expulsion  in  the  development  of  red  blood-corpuscles.  In  the  case  of  the 
Planarian  pharynx  the  nucleus  seems  to  disappear  when  the  cytoplasm 
ceases  to  be  plastic  or  even  active. 

Parasite  of  Cockle.**  —  P.  Hallez  describes  Proderostoma  cardii 
g.  et  sp.  n.,  a  parasitic  Rhabdoccel  which  lives  in  the  stomach  of  Gardium 
edule  (in  44  p.c.  of  those  examined).  It  is  one  of  the  Vorticidse,  and 
is  allied  to  GraffiUa  and  to  the  parasite  of  Tellina  which  Graff  has  called 
Provortex  tellince.  It  may  be  called  a  protandrous  hermaphrodite,  but 
spermatozoa  are  produced  after  as  well  as  before  the  period  when  the 
ovary  functions.  Numerous  cocoons  (over  70)  are  produced  by  each 
animal  and  are  lodged  in  the  connective  tissue  of  the  parent.  A  cocoon 
contains  1  to  3  ova,  usually  2,  and  the  young  bore  their  way  out  of  the 
parent  into  the  cockle's  stomach. 

Syncytial  Nature  of  the  Gut  in  Rhabdoccelids.tf — P-  Hallez  has 
studied  the  embryos  of  Proderostoma  cardii,  and  finds  that  the  gut  has 
no  lumen,  that  it  is  a  syncytium,  and  that  it  does  not  differ  from 
the  connective  syncytium  except  in  imprisoning  the  remains  of  the 
yolk.     The  gut  never  shows  any  epithelium,  and  there  is  no  distinc- 

*  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  x.  (1908)  pp.  229-34  (1  pi.). 

f  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,  xlvi.  (1908)  pp.  38-40  (5  figs.). 

I  Philippine  Journ.  SoL,  ii.  (1907)  pp.  537-50  (5  pis.). 

§  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,  xlvi.  (1908)  p.  134-9  (4  figs.). 

j|  Zeitschr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxix.  (1908)  pp.  568-97. 

1  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  555-67  (2  pis.  and  2  figs.). 
**  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  1047-9. 
tt  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1106-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  457 

tion  in  structure  or  origin  between  gut  and  mesenchyme.  There  is 
no  trace  of  endodermic  primordium,  not  even  of  the  four  transitory 
endodermic  cells  which  are  seen  in  Triclads. 

New  Species  of  Rhynchodemus.*  —  W.  E.  Bendl  gives  a  descrip- 
tion of  two  new  Planarians  in  this  genus — R.  henrici  (European)  and 
R.  purpureas  (East  African).  He  calls  attention  to  the  very  varied 
states  of  the  male  genital  apparatus  in  different  species — from  great 
simplicity  in  R.  ochroleucus,  to  relative  complexity  in  R.  henrici — and  he 
finds  that  the  forms  with  simple  copulatory  apparatus  are  oriental  and 
Australian,  while  those  with  complex  parts  are  paltearctic  and  Ethiopian. 
He  takes  a  survey  of  the  known  forms,  and  arranges  them  in  order  of 
differentiation. 

Stichostemma  Eilhardi.f — Charles  Perez  found  in  a  garden  tank  at 
Bordeaux  specimens  of  this  fresh-water  Nemertean,  which  was  discovered 
by  F.  E.  Schulze  in  an  aquarium  in  the  Zoological  Institute  at  Berlin, 
in  1893,  and  studied  by  T.  H.  Montgomery.  Perez  notes  that  the 
number  of  eyes  is  variable,  and  that  protandrous  hermaphroditism  is 
very  marked. 

Incertse  Sedis. 

Structure  of  Echinoderidae.J — A.  Schepotieff  re-affirms,  in  answer 
to  Zelinka,  his  previous  statements  as  to  the  structure  of  these  peculiar 
forms.  He  regards  the  Echiuoderidre  as  related  to  Gastrotricha  on  the 
one  hand,  to  Gordiacea  and  Nematodes  on  the  other. 

Lower  Silurian  Brachiopods.§— F.  Schmidt  discusses  a  number  of 
forms  from  the  Eastern  Baltic,  chiefly  from  Lower  Silurian  strata,  be- 
longing to  the  genera  Plectambonites  Pand.,  Leptcena  Dalm.,  and  Stro- 
phonema  Blainv. 

Brachiopod  Homoeomorphy.||— S.  S.  Buckman  points  out  that  it  is 
easy  but  dangerous  to  group  under  one  name  a  series  of  shells  of  similar 
appearance,  especially  when  they  are  in  the  smooth  catagenetic  stage, 
because  this  smooth  stage  may  have  been  attained  by  the  loss  of  different 
distinctive  features,  pointing  to  polygenetic  origins.  An  instructive  case 
in  this  respect  is  found  in  the  series  of  forms  called  Spirifer  glaber,  a 
heterogeneous  series,  including  representatives  of  at  least  three  genetic 
series,  as  the  author  shows. 

North  American  Incrusting  Chilostomatous  Bryozoa.1T  —  Alice 
Robertson  deals  with  45  species  (in  18  genera)  of  incrusting  Chilo- 
stomata  from  the  west  coast  of  North  America.  Of  these  species  six 
are   new.     Some  of    the    descriptions   given  by   Hincks   (from  scanty 

*   Zeitschr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxix.  (1908)  pp.  525-54  (2  pis.). 

+  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  476-7. 

%  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  585-9. 

§  Bull.  Acad.  Imp.  Sci.  St.  Petersbourg,  1908,  pp.  717-26. 

11  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  27-33. 

«[f  Univ.  California  Publications  (Zoology)  iv.  pp.  253-344  (11  pis.). 


458  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

material)  are  amplified.  Nineteen  of  the  species  discussed  are  restricted 
to  the  west  coast  of  North  America,  the  remainder  being  cosmopolitan  or 
circumpolar.  Attention  is  directed  to  the  relationship  existing  between 
a  Cyphonautes-larva  frequently  met  with,  and  Membranipora  villosa 
Hincks,  a  species  rather  abundant  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Rotatoria. 

Rotifers  from  Gough  Island.* — James  Murray  reports  that  a  small 
tuft  of  moss  brought  from  Gough  Island  by  the  'Scotia'  expedition 
harboured  Philodina  flaviceps  Bryce,  Callidina  angusticoUis  Murray,  and 
a  Bdelloid  egg. 

Echinoderma. 

Luminosity  of  Ophiuroids.f — E.  Trojan  has  studied  the  luminosity 
of  Ophiopsila  aranea,  0.  annulosa,  and  Ophiocaniha  spinulosa.  It  in- 
creases with  stimulation,  is  not  separable  from  the  animal,  has  not  to  do 
with  exuded  mucus,  and  is  entirely  intracellular.  The  seat  of  the 
luminosity  is  in  some  of  the  epidermic  cells. 

Observations  on  Ophiopsila4  —  A.  Reichensperger  finds  that  the 
brittle-stars  of  this  name  have  an  epithelium  which  is  able  to  form 
strong  "  cilia  "  at  various  parts  of  the  surface,  e.g.  on  the  "  ciliated 
spines  "  beside  the  internal  "  tentacular  scale."  The  rows  of  "  cilia  " 
keep  currents  going  over  the  disk,  and  thus  help  in  nutrition  and 
respiration.  The  "  cilia  "  are  really  comparable  to  the  "  combs  "  of 
Ctenophores  ;  they  arise  from  a  cell-complex  by  the  fusion  of  many 
individual  cilia.  The  "  ciliated  spines  "  are  movable  by  a  muscle,  and 
are  transitional  between  lateral  spines  and  tentacular  scales.  In  0. 
annulosa  there  are  usually  twelve  pores  on  the  Madrepore  plate  ;  in 
0.  aranea  there  are  very  few  (1  to  tf)  ;  both  species  have  five  Polian 
vesicles,  instead  of  four,  as  in  the  other  five-rayed  Ophiuroids  that  have 
been  studied  ;  the  water-vascular  system  forms  a  close  whole.  The 
tentacles  have  a  strongly  differentiated  sensory  epithelium  ;  in  the  distal 
parts  of  the  arms  they  bear  sensory  buds. 

Japanese  and  East  Indian  Echinoderms.§ — H.  L.  Clark  gives  an 
annotated  list  of  70  species,  including  new  species  of  Pteraster  (2), 
Asterias  (1),  Ophiozona  (1),  Ophioglypha  (1),  Ophiocreas  (1),  Spa- 
tangus  (1),  and  Molpadia  (1).  Except  in  the  case  of  Asterias,  a  list  of 
the  known  species  is  given,  and  a  diagnostic  key  of  great  service. 

Coelentera. 

Species  of  Hydra.  || — W.  Weltner  discusses  the  distinctions  between 
the  German  species  of  Hydra.  It  seems  that  H.  viridis,  H.  grisea,  and 
H.fusca  may  be  distinguished  by  their  colour,  form,  length  of  tentacles, 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Phys.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xvii.  (1908)  pp.  127-9. 
+  Biol.  Centralbl.  xxviii.  (1908)  pp.  343-52. 

\  Zeitschr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxix.  (1908)  pp.  173-92  (1  pi.,  3  figs.). 
§  Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.  Harvard,  li.  (1908)  pp.  279-311. 
||  Arch.  Natur.,  lxxiii.  (1907)  pp.  474-8  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  459 

and  the  details  of  the  cnidoblasts.  There  is,  however,  another  form 
(Brauer's  Hydra  sp.,  Hefferan's  H.  monmcia)  which  is  near  H.  fusca, 
but  different  in  the  shape  of  the  ova  and  the  manner  of  depositing  the 
ova.  It  is  dioecious,  though  it  is  called  H.  monmia.  Weltner  describes 
well-fed  specimens  of  H.  grisea,  which  formed  numerous  small  ova,  but 
showed  no  hints  of  testes.  The  eggs  were  set  adrift  and  soon  broke 
up.  The  species  is  normally  hermaphrodite.  Unisexual  conditions  of 
H.  viridis  have  also  been  noticed.  One  of  the  specimens  of  H.  grisea, 
which  is  figured ,  had  nine  eggs,  a  body  1  ■  1  cm.  long,  and  six  tentacles 
2  •  75  cm.  long. 

Cordylophora  in  Egypt.* — Charles  L.  Boulenger  reports  the  abun- 
dant occurrence  of  Cordylophora  lacustris  in  the  brackish  water  of  Lake 
Qurun.  This  is  the  first  record  of  the  genus  from  Africa.  The 
colonies  were  very  vigorous,  the  hydrocaulus  in  some  attaining  the 
height  of  8  or  9  cm.  The  lake  is  150  miles  inland,  and  at  present 
without  communication  with  the  sea,  except  by  the  Nile.  Geological 
evidence  shows,  however,  that  in  late  Pliocene  tiuies  the  depression  in 
which  the  lake  lies  must  have  been  a  large  brackish  fjord  in  communica- 
tion with  the  Mediterranean. 

New  Varieties  of  Hydroids.f  —  A.  Billard  describes  Thecocarpus 
myriophyllum  L.  var.  orientals  v.  n.  and  perarmatus  v.  n.,  from  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  The  interesting  features  are 
the  presence  of  a  closed  corbula  and  a  supplementary  asymmetrical 
dactylotheca.  In  specimens  showing  regeneration  there  are  modified 
hydroclads  similar  to  the  phylactocarps  of  Lytocarpus.  The  occurrence 
of  this  western  species  in  the  far  east  is  interesting  geographically. 

Limnocnida  tanganicae  in  the  Niger.! — E.  T.  Browne  discusses 
this  fresh-water  medusa,  which  the  late  J.  S.  Budgett  discovered  in  the 
Niger  delta.  He  shares  the  view  of  Boulenger  that  Limnocnida  is  a 
relic  of  the  fauna  of  a  Middle  Eocene  sea  which  stretched  across  the 
Soudan  to  India.  This  would  account  for  the  occurrence  of  the 
medusa  in  localities  so  far  apart  as  Lake  Tanganyika  and  the  Niger 
delta.  It  seems  probable  that  a  hydroid  stage  exists,  and  has  still  to 
be  discovered.  This  interesting  animal  has  affinities  with  the  Olin- 
diadag,  but  still  remains  unclassifiable. 

New  Gorgonids.§  —  W.  Kiikenthal  gives  diagnoses  of  some  new 
species.  Among  Priinnoidae  he  reports  three  new  species  of  ThouareUa, 
and  two  of  PrimnoeJla.  He  regards  AmpMlaphis  as  inseparable  from 
ThouareUa,  and  he  improves  the  definition  of  PrimnoelJa.  To  the 
genus  Acanthoyorgia  three  new  species  are  added  ;  Iciligorgia  ballini, 
Spongioderma  chuni,  and  Titan  idium  hartmeyeri,  are  interesting  new 
forms.  In  Erythro podium  stechei  sp.  n.,  Kiikenthal  finds  a  transition 
from  the  Alcyonid  to  the  Scleraxonial  type,  and  to  Solenocaulon  in 
particular. 

*  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  i.  ser.  8.,  pp.  492-3. 

t  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  viii.  (1908)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  3,  pp.  lxxiii.-lxxvii. 
(3  figs.). 

J  The  Work  of  John  Samuel  Budgett.  Edited  by  J.  Graham  Kerr,  Cambridge, 
1907,  pp.  471-80  (1  pi.).  §  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  9-20. 


460  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

British  Actinians.* — Charles  L.  Walton  discusses  the  occurrence  of 
Sagartia  In  eke.  Verrill  at  Plymouth.  It  was  found  on  the  American 
coast  about  1892,  and  in  Plymouth  Docks  in  1896,  and  it  may  be  that  it 
was  introduced  into  both  areas  about  the  same  time.  The  author  makes 
some  interesting  notes  on  Sagartiidae  and  Zoanthidae  from  Plymouth,  and 
in  another  paper  t  he  reports  on  fourteen  species  collected  by  the '  Huxley ' 
in  the  North  Sea  in  the  summer  of  1907. 

Porifera. 

Inclusion  of  Foreign  Bodies  by  Sponges.:}: — Igerna  B.  J.  Sollas 
describes  Migas  porphyrion  g.  et  sp.  n.  from  Mozambique,  an  interest- 
ing Monaxonid  whose  skeleton  consists  of  foreign  bodies  as  well  as 
"  proper  "  spicules.  Reasons  are  given  for  believing  that  the  inclusion 
of  sand-grains  is  due  to  the  activity  of  small  granular  amcebocytes  on 
the  cortex.  Other  cases  —  Euspongia  officinalis  var.  rotunda  and 
Tedania  commixta — are  discussed.  In  the  former  the  cells  of  the  free 
surface,  in  the  latter  those  of  the  basal  surface  appear  to  engulf  foreign 
matter. 

Protozoa. 

Rhizopods  and  Heliozoa  of  the  Netherlands. § — H.  R.  Hoogenraad 
gives  a  faunistic  account,  including  over  fifty  species  of  Amoeba,  Vam- 
pyrella,  Arcella,  Diffiugia,  Quadrula,  Raphidiophrgs,  etc. 

Rhizopods  from  G-ough  Island. ||  —  James  Murray  reports  that  a 
small  tuft  of  moss  brought  from  Gough  Island  by  the  '  Scotia  '  Expe- 
dition harboured  Heliopera  petricola  Leidy,  var.  amethystea  Penard, 
Euglypha  ciliata  Ehr.,  another  species  of  Euglypha,  and  a  species  of 
Diffiugia. 

Protozoa  of  Sandusky  Bay. If — F.  L.  Landacre  gives  a  faunistic  list 
of  the  Protozoa  collected  in  or  near  this  bay  (Lake  Erie).  The  locality 
is  very  rich  in  Infusoria  and  Mastigophora,  and  the  list  is  a  long  one. 
The  bibliography  of  papers  dealing  with  North  American  Protozoa  will 
be  found  useful. 

Studies  on  Colpoda.** — P.  Enriques  discusses  various  species  of  this 
genus,  distinguishing  Colpoda  cucullus  0.  F.  Midler,  G.  maupasi  sp.  n., 
and  G.  steini  Maupas  emend.  He  also  deals  with  some  structural 
features,  e.g.  the  buccal  appendage,  which  turns  out  to  consist  of  distinct 
cilia,  not  of  a  continuous  membranella. 

Regeneration  in  Ceratium.ff — C.  A.  Kofoid  finds  that  in  Dino- 
flagellate  genera,  such  as  Ceratium,  in  which  the  theca  is  shared  between 

*  Journ.  Marine  Biol.  Assoc,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  217-14. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  215-26. 

%  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  8,  i.  (1908)  pp.  395-401  (5  figs.). 

§  Tydschr.  Nederland.  Dierk.  Ver.,  x.  (1908)  pp.  384-424. 

||  Proc.  Roy.  Phys.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xvii.  (1908)  pp.  127-9. 

i  Proc.  Ohio  Acad.  Sci.,  iv.  (1908)  pp.  421-72. 

**  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  viii.  (1908)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  1.  pp.  i.-xv.  (10  figs.). 

ft  Univ.  California  Publications  (Zoology)  iv.  (1908)  pp.  345-86  (33  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  461 

the  daughter-schizonts  at  schizogony,  compensatory  regeneration  of  the 
newly  forming  part  of  the  exoskeleton  occurs.  Skeletons  of  senile 
appearance  may  be  removed  by  exuviation,  plate  by  plate,  often  at  the 
time  of  schizogony.  This  exuviation  makes  it  possible  for  the  animal  to 
effect  readjustments  of  specific  gravity  and  specific  surface  to  changing 
conditions  of  flotation. 

Autotomy  of  the  two  antapicals,  or  of  all  three  horns,  is  of  widespread 
occurrence  among  many  species  of  Ceratium,  especially  in  those  from 
deeper  levels  in  the  sea.  It  is  caused  by  local  resolution  of  the  cellulose 
wall,  and  is  regulatory  in  character,  preserving  in  the  horns  after 
autotomy  the  proportions  characteristic  of  the  species.  Autotomy  assists 
in  the  adjustment  of  specific  surface,  and  possibly  also  of  specific  gravity 
to  changing  conditions  of  flotation,  especially  as  affected  by  tempera- 
ture. Regeneration  with  or  without  preceding  autotomy  may  occur  in 
all  three  horns.  It  is  also  regulatory,  and  tends  to  preserve  the  norm  of 
the  species. 

Turbilina  instabilis,  a  variety  of  Strombilidium  gyrans.* — E. 
Faure-Fremiet  points  out  that  the  oligotrichous  Infusorian  described  by 
P.  Enriques  as  Turbilina  instabilis  g.  et  sp.  n.,  is  simply  a  new  variety  of 
Strombilidium  g  grans,  described  by  Stokes  in  1888,  and  more  recently 
by  J.  Roux.  He  makes  some  notes  on  the  posterior  attaching  filament 
and  on  the  peculiar  nuclear  conditions. 

Hsemogregarine  of  Leptodactylus  ocellatus.f — J.  Lesage  reports  a 
new  species,  Hcemogregarina  leptodactyli,  in  the  blood  of  the  common 
Argentine  frog,  Leptodactylus  ocellatus,  the  counterpart  of  H.  theileri  in 
the  edible  frog. 

Parasites  of  Drosophila  confusa.J — E.  Chatton  and  E.  Alilaire  find 
in  this  Muscid,  which  frequents  breweries  and  the  like,  and  does  not  bite, 
two  Flagellate  parasites,  namely,  Leptomonas  drosophike  sp.  n.,  and 
Trypanosoma  drosophike  sp.  n.  This  is  the  first  record  of  the  occurrence 
of  a  "  true  "  trypanosome  in  a  non-biting  Arthropod. 

Haemogregarine  in  Blood  of  a  Himalayan  Lizard. § — E.  A.  Minchin 
describes  Hcemogregarini  thomsoni  sp.  n.,  discovered  by  F.  Wyville 
Thomson  in  Agama  tuberculoid,  and  makes  some  notes  on  its  intra- 
corpuscular  and  free  vermicule  stages. 

Solitary  Encystation  in  Gregarines.|| — C.  Schellack  finds  that  among 
the  Eugregarines  solitary  encystation  does  not  occur  in  the  Polycystidege 
(except  in  abnormal  cases),  but  that  it  does  frequently  occur  in  the 
Monocystideas,  although  its  significance  is  not  known.  But  among  the 
Schizogregarines  solitary  encystation  is  the  rule  in  the  Aggregatidas 
during  the  period  of  schizogony. 

Influence  of  Salinity  on  Contractile  Vacuole. % — Margarethe  Zuelzer 
has  found  that  adding  sea-water  to  the  fresh-water  in  which  Amoeba 

*  C.R  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  428-30. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  995-6.  X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1004-6  (8  figs.). 

§  Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1907,  pp.  1098-1104  (2  pis.). 
||  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  597-609. 
f  SB.  Ges.  Natur.  Freunde  Berlin,  1907,  No.  4,  pp.  90-4  (2  figs.). 


462  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

verrucosa  was  living,  till  there  were  equal  parts  of  fresh  and  salt,  led 
to  the  disappearance  of  the  contractile  vacuole.  She  was  led  to  this 
and  similar  experiments,  which  require  further  extension,  from  a  study 
of  marine  Heliozoa,  in  which  there  is  no  contractile  vacuole. 

Trypanosoma  congolense.* — A.  Laveran  inoculated  a  goat  with 
T.  congolmse,  and  re- inoculated  it  after  its  recovery.  The  second  attack 
was  mild  and  the  cure  rapid.  Two  subsequent  inoculations  had  no 
result,  the  goat  had  become  immune.  But  a  subsequent  inoculation  with 
T.  dimorphon  was  followed  by  a  well-marked  infection.  Therefore  he 
concludes  that  T.  congolense  and  T.  dimorphop  are  distinct  species. 

*  Comptes  Kendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  853-6. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  463 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including:  Cell-Contents. 

Karyokinesis  in  (Edogonium.*— C.  van  Wisselingh  finds  that  the 
karyokinesis  in  (Edogonium  agrees  closely  with  that  of  higher  plants  ; 
the  origin  of  the  chromosomes,  formation  of  the  nuclear  plate,  etc., 
resemble  those  of  the  embryo-sac  of  Fritillaria  and  Leucojum.  The 
nucleolus  is  like  that  of  higher  plants,  but  unlike  that  of  Spirogyra. 
There  are  nineteen  chromosomes  of  very  different  lengths,  some  of 
which  are  heterogeneous.  The  author  considers  that  the  production  of 
four  swarm-spores  upon  germination  of  the  oospore,  is  very  significant, 
and  he  regards  CEdogonium  as  a  generation  with  a  simple  number  of 
chromosomes,  reduction  taking  place  in  the  oospore.  From  this  it 
would  follow  that  it  exhibits  no  alternation  of  generations. 

Function  of  the  Centrosome.f — R.  F.  Griggs  has  made  a  cytological 
study  of  Synchytrium,  with  the  ultimate  hope  of  correlating  it  with 
other  plants  and  animals,  in  such  a  way  as  to  throw  some  light  on  the 
general  problems  of  cell-organisation,  and  finally  to  arrive  at  some  con- 
clusions regarding  the  relationships  of  the  Chytridiales.  While  the 
exact  history  of  the  structures  here  described  is  provisional,  the  present 
work  confirms  Kusano's  statements  that  the  rays  of  the  centrosome 
inclose  the  vacuole  which  surrounds  the  chromosomes,  and  form  the 
deeply  staining  nuclear  membrane  around  it. 

Structure  and  Development. 
"Vegetative. 

Historic  Fossil  Cycads.J — <>•  R.  Wieland  gives  a  brief  account  of 
Cycadeoidea  etrusca,  C.  Reichenbachiana,  Williamsonia  gigas,  and  Anomo- 
zamites  minor. 

The  vegetative  features  of  G.  etrusca  agree  closely  with  those  of  the 
Maryland  Cycads  ;  the  synangia  are  clearly  of  the  Marattiaceous  type, 
while  the  pollen  is  seemingly  mature.  G.  Reichenbachiana  has  a  columnar 
type  of  trunk  with  very  large  leaf-bases,  and  its  flower-buds  agree  closely 
with  those  of  G  dacotensis  ;  the  author  considers  that,  in  the  light  of 
the  new  facts  disclosed  by  this  specimen,  English  writers  are  mistaken 
in  classing  the  Cycadeoidese  in  the  Bennettitea?,  and  that  the  latter  term 
should  be  used  in  a  very  restricted  sense.     Williamsonia  gigas  forms  an 

*  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xxiii.  (1908)  pp.  137-56  (1  pi.). 

t  Ohio  Nat.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  277-86  (2  pis.). 

X  Arner.  Journ.  Sci.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  93-101  (1  fig.). 


464  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

important  connecting  link  between  Cycas  and  cycadeoidean  types  with 
reduced,  laterally  borne  fructifications.  This  specimen  indicates  an 
entire  plant  with  mature  fronds  and  large  fruits,  having  a  foliar  crown 
of  the  same  size  as  a  Zamia  of  Florida,  with  fronds  rather  less  than  two 
feet  in  length,  but  with  a  more  slender  stem.  The  author  considers 
that  this  type  favours  Newell  Arber's  idea  or  a  true  pre-Angiosperm  or 
hemi-Angiosperm.  Anomozamites  minor  is  to  be  regarded  as  of  great 
importance,  in  that  it  is  suggestive  of  relationships  to  primitive  Angio- 
sperms,  i.e.  the  Magnoliaceae. 

Cone  of  Pinus.* — G.  R.  Wieland  contributes  a  note  upon  the  accele- 
rated cone  growth  in  Pinus  rigida.  The  cluster  of  cones  is  formed  of 
fifty-three  cones  of  normal  development,  and  resembles  a  single  huge 
cone  like  that  of  Pinus  Coulteri ;  as  usual,  the  main  vegetative  axis  was 
prolonged.  The  author  regards  the  production  of  ferns  as  the  greatest 
achievement  in  vegetal  evolution,  and  believes  that  since  Silurian  times, 
Pteridosperms,  Gyrnnosperms,  and  Angiosperms  have  been  derived  from 
Ferns  by  such  methods  as  extreme  reduction,  development  of  generalised 
types  or  organs,  rearrangement  of  fertile  axes,  etc.  The  present  instance 
of  a  simple  form  of  accelerated  branching,  seems  to  support  this  view,  by 
showing  that  new  "  emplacements  "  may  lead  to  an  entirely  new  series 
of  modifications  in  organs  of  reproduction. 

Reproductive. 

Polar  Conjugation  in  the  Angiosperms.f — J.  H.  Schaffner  con- 
tributes a  short  note  on  the  origin  of  polar  conjugation  in  the  Angio- 
sperms. The  author  favours  the  theory  put  forward  by  Porsch,  who 
regards  the  two  synergids  of  Angiosperms  as  homologous  with  the  neck 
canal  cells  of  the  Gymnosperms,  and  the  upper  polar  as  equivalent  to 
the  ventral  cell.  In  short,  the  typical  embryo-sac  of  the  Angiosperms 
represents  two  archegonia,  the  vegetative  cells  having  disappeared.  The 
present  writer  quotes  two  of  his  own  papers  in  support  of  this  theory, 
and  is  of  the  opinion  that  all  polar  conjugations  had  their  origin  in  the 
former  conjugation  of  one  or  both  polars  with  the  second  sperm.  Lack 
of  such  fusion  may  represent  either  a  primitive  condition  or  a  more 
recent  parthenogenetic  condition.  Conjugation  without  the  presence 
of  a  second  sperm  must  be  looked  upon  as  a  special  parthenogenetic 
development.  Finally,  no  endosperm  resulting  from  any  of  these  fusions 
can  properly  be  called  an  embryo. 

Albumen  of  Caprificus.J — L.  du  Sablon  has  studied  the  structure 
and  development  of  the  Caprificus,  and  finds  that  the  albumen  will 
develop  in  the  absence  of  fertilisation  ;  it  is  parthenogenetic,  and  is 
digested  by  the  larva  in  the  same  manner  as  normal  albumen.  The 
fully  formed  larva  completely  fills  the  pericarp,  and  no  trace  of  albumen 
then  remains.  The  parthenogenetic  albumen  differs  somewhat  from 
ordinary  albumen  in  its  structure,  for  its  cell-walls  are  destitute  of 
cellulose,  and  its  thick  protoplasmic  contents  contain  globoids  of  varying 

*  Anier.  Journ.  Sci.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  102-4  (1  fig.). 

t  Ohio  Nat.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  255-8. 

X  Rev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xx.  (1908)  pp.  14-24  (1  pi.,  6  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  465 

size.  The  nuclei  are  large,  irregular,  and  have  one  or  more  nucleoli ; 
there  may  be  several  in  a  single  cell.  In  the  rare  cases  where  fertilisa- 
tion has  taken  place,  the  albumen  then  formed  is  identical  with  that 
found  in  Smyrna  figs.  It  would  appear  that  the  development  of 
parthenogenetic  albumen  is  dependent  upon  the  deposition  of  the  eggs 
of  the  Blastophagus  in  the  female  flowers,  for  Capri  figs  which  had  not 
been  visited,  withered  before  maturity.  The  impulse  given  by  the  visit 
of  the  insect  replaces  that  given  normally  by  fertilisation,  and  upon  it 
depends  the  future  growth  of  the  ovule,  pericarp,  and  albumen. 

Physiology. 
Chemical   Changes. 

Colouring  Matter  of  Chlorophyll.*— L.  Marchlewski  and  J.  Robel 
contribute  a  preliminary  note  upon  their  researches  in  connection  with 
the  colouring  matter  of  chlorophyll.  The  authors  have  treated  an 
80  p.c.  alcoholic  solution  of  chlorophyll  with  gaseous  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  have  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  black-brown  sediment  which  can  be 
used  in  the  preparation  of  various  chlorophyll  derivatives.  This  sedi- 
ment, to  which  the  name  phyllogen  is  given,  appears  to  be  identical  with 
phgeophytin— a  substance  lately  prepared  by  Willstatter,  by  the  action 
of  oxalic  acid  "on  crude  chlorophyll  solutions — since  the  physical  and 
chemical  properties  of  both  are  alike.  The  authors  consider,  however, 
that  further  investigations  are  necessary,  since  the  composition  of 
various  chlorophyll  derivatives  is  so  similar,  that  constancy  of  com- 
position does  not  prove  homogeneity. 

Change  of  Colour  and  Emptying  of  Decaying  Leaves.  —  M. 
Tswettf  has  made  experiments  upon  decaying  leaves,  and  considers  that 
there  are  two  stages  in  their  autumn  colouring  :  shades  of  red  or  yellow 
prevail  while  the  leaf  is  dying,  while  grey,  brown,  and  black  indicate 
that  the  leaf  is  dead.  During  the  breaking-down  and  disappearance  of 
plastic  materials,  the  leaves  remain  fresh  and  turgescent,  even  to  the 
epidermal  cells,  and  the  experiments  show  that  both  epidermal  and 
mesophyll  cells  retain  the  semi-permeable  plasmatic  membrane.  Even 
after  leaf-fall,  cell-life  may  be  retained  for  a  considerable  time.  In  the 
second  stage  the  leaves  lose  their  turgescence,  owing  to  a  soluble, 
oxidising  enzyme,  which  is  prevented  from  acting  in  living  leaves 
through  the  osmotic  limits  of  the  cell-contents.  The  author  confirms 
the  old  opinion  that  the  more  important  constituents  of  the  ash  and  the 
nitrogen  compounds  return  from  the  leaves  to  the  mother-shoot  before 
leaf -fall.  Most  of  the  experiments  made  with  regard  to  the  emptying 
of  leaves  are  unsatisfactory,  and  only  the  re-transmission  of  the  nitrogen 
is  at  present  fully  established. 

In  a  second  paper  $  the  author  states  that  yellow  leaves  contain  only 
traces  of  normal  colouring  matters,  their  colour  being  due  to  a  new 
pigment,   termed   "autumn  xanthophyll."      The   latter   is   probably  a 

*  Bull.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  x.  (1907)  pp.  1037-9. 
t  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  88-93. 
X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  94-101. 

Aug.  19th,  1908  2  I 


466  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

degradation  product  of  xanthophyll  and  carotin.  The  soluble  yellow 
pigment,  obtained  by  boiling  yellow  leaves,  is  a  mere  artificial  product, 
and  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  colouring  of  leaves  while  they  are  still 
alive,  although  it  acts  in  this  way  after  they  are  dead. 

General. 

Phytecology  of  the  Eastern  Part  of  Kabylia.* — G.  Lapie  has 
studied  the  vegetation  of  this  region,  and  finds  five  distinct  zones.  The 
ridges  of  Djurdjura  form  the  cedar  zone,  and  are  characterised  by  such 
trees  as  Cedrus  Libani,  Acer  obtusatum,  Quercus  Mirbeckii,  etc.,  shrubs 
as  Crataegus  laciniata,  Lonicera  arborea,  etc.,  and  small  plants  such  as 
Pmonia  corallina,  etc.,  together  with  a  few  mosses.  The  Arbalou  and 
the  older  summits  form  the  oak  zone,  the  eastern  portion  being  covered 
with  Quercus  Ilex,  while  the  western  sides  abound  in  Q.  Suber.  The 
third  zone  is  mainly  characterised  by  deciduous  oaks,  e.g.  Quercus 
Mirbeckii  and  Q.  Afares,  with  an  abundant  undergrowth  of  Erica  arborea, 
or  in  more  shady  districts  various  species  of  Genista,  Cytisus,  Pteris,  etc. 
The  fourth  zone  comprises  the  lower  summits  of  Numidia,  a  part  of 
Cretace  and  Medjanien,  and  here  the  sandstone  ridges  are  covered  with 
Quercus  Suber,  together  with  Thymus  numidicus,  Erica  arborea,  etc. 
The  clay  soil  of  the  lower  districts  and  of  Numidia  is  covered  with  the 
olive  tree,  and  forms  the  fifth  zone.  The  undergrowth  is  composed  of 
Pistacia  Lentiscus,  etc.  In  general,  the  sides  and  summits  of  the  lofty 
peaks  have  a  xerophytic  vegetation  ;  the  summits  of  lower  peaks  with  a 
calcareous  substratum  have  similar  plants,  but  if  the  substratum  is  of 
sandstone,  the  plants  are  tropophyllous.  On  the  low  grounds  the 
chemical  and  physical  nature  of  the  soil  exerts  great  influence  on  the 
vegetation,  being  xerophytic  in  the  region  of  the  olive  tree  and  semi- 
xerophytic  with  the  evergreen  oak.  The  summits  of  medium  height 
present  the  highest  degree  of  humidity,  while  the  presence  of  a  sand- 
stone substratum  diminishes  the  xerophytic  character  of  the  vegetation. 

Philippine  Woods.f — F.  W.  Foxworthy  contributes  a  preliminary 
paper  with  the  object  of  facilitating  a  ready  identification  and  classifica- 
tion of  the  commoner  Philippine  woods.  The  present  paper  contains  a 
general  and  technical  discussion  of  the  gross  morphology  and  minute 
anatomy  of  wood.  This  is  followed  by  a  brief  description  of  its  physical 
and  chemical  properties,  and  information  connected  with  its  durability 
and  decay.  The  author  then  gives  short  notes  on  the  structure, 
appearance,  common  names,  range  and  usefulness  of  individual  species, 
and  finally  a  very  complete  index.  It  is  hoped  that  this  will  put  an  end 
to  the  confusion  now  existing  concerning  the  woods  of  Manila,  and  will 
lead  to  a  better  understanding  of  their  uses,  and  the  discovery  of  further 
uses.  It  may  also  be  expected  that  the  present  work,  together  with  the 
parts  to  be  published  later  on,  will  be  a  help  to  discovering  the  relation- 
ships existing  between  the  woods  of  the  Philippine  Islands  and  those  of 
the  rest  of  the  world. 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  649-52. 

t  Philippine  Journ.  Sci.,  ii.  (1907)  pp.  351-404  (4  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  467 

Pendulation  Theory.* — H.  Siniroth  publishes  an  account  of  a  theory 
~bj  which  he  claims  to  explain  the  changes  and  distribution  of  living 
organisms,  and  to  trace  back  the  theory  of  descent  to  one  uniform 
cosmic  principle.  The  author  supposes  that  the  earth  has  two  fixed 
poles,  between  which  the  north  and  south  axis  swings  slowly  backwards 
and  forwards,  and  these  vibrations  indicate  the  geological  periods.  The 
portion  of  the  earth's  surface  which  is  most  strongly  affected  by  the 
vibrations  lies  on  a  meridian  passing  through  Behring  Straits,  and  is 
constantly  changing  its  latitude  and  position  towards  the  sun.  The 
water,  under  the  influence  of  centrifugal  force,  acts  upon  the  land,  so 
that  dry  parts  become  submerged,  and  vice  versa.  The  change  between 
land  and  water  gives  rise  to  continued  formation  of  living  organisms  ; 
and  for  this  reason  the  human  race  and  all  living  things,  so  far  as  they 
can  be  traced  back,  arose  in  the  eastern  hemisphere,  and  spread  thence 
in  ordered  lines  over  the  whole  of  the  earth's  surface.  The  author 
makes  the  remarkable  claim  that  all  creation,  the  geological  periods, 
volcanoes,  earthquakes,  meteorological  phenomena,  etc.,  can  be  explained 
by  his  theory. 


CRYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 
(By  A.  Gepp,  M.A.  F.L.S.) 

Tropical  American  Ferns.j— W.  R.  Maxon  publishes  the  first  of  a 
series  of  studies  of  tropical  American  ferns,  designed  to  include  notes  on 
some  of  the  earlier  species,  corrections  in  nomenclature,  revisions  of 
certain  genera  and  smaller  groups  of  species.  He  first  treats  of 
Asplenium  salicifolium  Linn.,  and  carefully  isolates  it,  showing  how  it 
has  been  misunderstood,  and  how  it  has  been  confused  with  half  a  dozen 
other  species.  These  latter  he  distinguishes,  and  adds  to  them  a  new 
species  of  near  affinity.  In  Holodktyum  he  describes  a  new  Asplenioid 
genus  founded- on  Asplenium  Ghieslreghtii  Fourn.  and  A.  Finckii  Baker. 
He  discusses  the  identity  of  A.  rhizopliyllum  L. ;  supplies  a  new  generic 
name,  Pessopteris,  to  replace  Anaxetum  Schott ;  adds  a  new  species  of 
Adiantopsis  to  the  three  already  recorded  for  Cuba  ;  and  describes 
Ananthacorus,  a  new  genus  allied  to  Vittaria  and  founded  on  Pteris 
angustifolius  Sw.  He  supplies  a  chapter  of  miscellaneous  notes  and 
corrections  of  nomenclature  ;  and  concludes  with  a  series  of  descriptions 
of  twelve  new  species  of  various  genera. 

Philippine  Ferns. — E.  B.  Copeland  %  gives  a  list  of  new  or  interest- 
ing Philippine  ferns,  among  which  is  a  new  genus  Davallodes,  founded 
on  the  Leucostegia  hirsuta  of  J.  Smith,  which  was  transferred  to 
Mkrolepia  by  Presl.  Copeland  adds  to  it  two  new  species.  In  other 
genera  he  describes  four  new  species  and  six  varieties,  and  calls  attention 

*   Die  Pendulationstheorie.     H.  Sirnroth. 

t   Contrib.  U.S.  Nat.  Herb.,  x.  (1908)  pp.  473-503  (2  pis.). 

J   Philippine  Journ.  Sci.,  iii.  (1908)  pp.  31-39  (6  pis.). 

2    I   2 


468  SCTMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

to  Hemigramma  latifolia,  Tectaria  crenata,  and  some  presumed  hybrids 
between  the  two,  illustrating  his  remarks  with  photographs. 

The  same  author  *  publishes  notes  on  the  Steere  Collection  of 
Philippine  Ferns  named  by  Harrington,!  and  corrects  the  erroneous 
determinations. 

Copeland  J  also  publishes  a  revision  of  Tectaria,  with  special  regard 
to  the  Philippine  species.  He  defines  the  groups  into  which  the  species 
fall,  supplies  a  key  to  the  17  Philippine  species,  and  adds  descriptive 
remarks  to  each  of  those  species. 

Symbiosis  in  Fern  Prothallia.§ — D.  H.  Campbell  cites  numerous 
instances  of  symbiotic  association  of  fungi  with  higher  plants,  and  also 
of  Schizophycege  with  hepatics  and  other  plants.  The  presence  of 
mycorhizal  fungi  in  the  roots  of  Cupuliferse,  Orchidaceas,  and  Ericaceae, 
and  in  a  large  number  of  diverse  families,  having  been  considered,  more 
particular  attention  is  directed  to  the  presence  of  similar  endophytic 
fungi  in  the  prothallia  of  Pteridophytes — Ophioglossaceae,  Lycopodiaceae, 
Osmundaceaj,  Marattiacese,  and  Gleicheniacese.  The  author  describes 
his  own  researches  in  connection  with  the  last  three  families,  describing 
and  figuring  the  structure  of  the  endophyte.  As  to  the  significance  of 
the  endophyte,  the  author  points  out  that  though  an  important  part  of 
its  functions  is  to  supply  nitrogen  compounds  to  the  host,  another  part 
may  be  to  supply  carbon  compounds  directly  or  indirectly,  especially 
where  the  host  is  destitute  of  chlorophyll.  The  host  having  acquired 
the  habit  of  associating  itself  with  the  fungus,  the  gradual  development 
of  such  purely  saprophytic  subterranean  gametophytes  as  those  of 
Ophioglossacese  is  readily  conceivable. 

North  American  Fern-Hybrids  of  the  Genus  Dryopteris.||  — 
P.  Dowell  gives  an  account  of  some  new  North  American  ferns  which 
he  describes  as  hybrids  of  the  genus  Dryopteris.  They  are  not  referable 
to  any  single  recognised  species,  but  have  characteristics  in  common 
with  two  known  species  ;  they  tend  to  be  sterile,  the  sporangia  being 
largely  abortive  ;  they  occur  only  occasionally,  and  rarely  in  large 
numbers  in  any  one  locality  ;  they  grow  in  places  favourable  for  the 
mingling  of  the  gametes  and  usually  associated  with  the  supposed  parent 
species.  Four  new  hybrids  are  described,  based  on  the  parent  species 
D.  Clintoniana,  D.  intermedia,  D.  Goldiana,  D.  marginalis . 

Anatomy  of  Sigillaria.il — E.  A.  N.  Arber  and  H.  H.  Thomas  give 
an  account  of  the  structure  of  Sigillaria  scutellata  Brongn.,  and  other 
Eusigillarian  stems,  in  comparison  with  those  of  other  Palaeozoic 
Lycopods.  The  chief  material  described  came  from  the  lower  Coal 
Measures  of  Shore-Littleborough  in  Lancashire,  two  well  preserved 
stems.  These,  and  other  specimens  alluded  to,  belong  to  species  of  the 
Rhytidolepis   section   of   the   Eusigillariae.      The  medulla,  protoxylem, 

*  Philippine  Journ.  Soi.,  ii.  (1907)  pp.  405-7. 
t  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  Bot.,  xvi.  (1877)  p.  25. 
X  Philippine  Journ.  Soi.,  ii.  (1907)  pp.  409-18. 
§  Amer.  Nat.,  xlii.  (1908)  pp.  154-65  (figs). 
II  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  135-40. 
i  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  ser.  B,  lxxx.  (1908)  pp.  148-50. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  469 

primary  and  secondary  wood,  and  medullary  rays  are  preserved.  Phloem, 
inner  cortex  and  cambium  are  not  preserved.  Ligules  and  ligular  pits 
are  found  to  be  present.  The  course  of  leaf  traces  has  been  followed. 
The  trace  consists  of  a  double  xylem  strand.  The  bundle  is  collateral 
without  secondary  wood.  The  parichnos  is  present.  The  Eusigillarias 
are  compared  anatomically,  first  with  the  Subsigillariaj,  and  then  with 
Lepidodeiidron  and  Lepidophloios. 

Bryophyta. 
(By  A.  Gepp.) 

British  Mosses.  —  C.  H.  Waddell*  states  that  Orthotrichum  dia- 
phanum  var.  aquaticum,  found  by  Nicholson  on  willows  near  Lewes, 
Susses,  also  occurs  on  trees  below  flood-mark  by  the  river  Lagan,  at 
Magheralin,  Co.  Down. 

D.  Lillie  \  gives  lists  of  mosses  collected  in  Shetland,  Orkney, 
Caithness,  and  West  Sutherland,  which  are  additional  to  the  records  of 
the  Census  Catalogue  of  the  Moss  Exchange  Club. 

P.  Culmann's  J  description  of  Barbula  (or  Didrjmodon)  Nicholsoni,  a 
new  moss  discovered  on  the  wall  of  a  culvert,  Amberley  Wild  Brooks, 
Sussex,  by  W.  E.  Nicholson,  is  reproduced. 

W.  G.  Travis  §  records  the  discovery  of  the  rare  moss,  Swartzia 
inclinata,  on  boggy  ground  at  Rainford  Junction,  in  Lancashire.  It 
was  fertile  and  was  growing  associated  with  Lophozia  badensis.  It  was 
probably  the  same  species,  and  not  S.  montana,  which  was  collected  by 
Skelhorne  in  the  neighbourhood  more  than  fifty  years  ago. 

Notes  on  European  Bryophytes.  ||  —  A.  Coppey  discusses  in  some 
detail  the  relationship  of  his  Barbula  papillosissima,  collected  at  an 
altitude  of  7000  to  8000  feet  on  Mt.  Khelmos  (Aroania),  in  Greece  ; 
showing  that  it  is  identical  with  a  presumed  Sardinian  moss  named 
B.  nivalis  var.  hirsuta  by  Venturi,  but  it  is  specifically  distinct  from 
B.  ruralis,  being  characterised  by  the  presence  of  a  remarkable  solitary 
hollow  papilla  upon  each  leaf -cell.  P.  Culmann  1[  publishes  a  descriptive 
note  upon  the  true  Seligeria  brevifolia  of  Lindberg,  which  he  has  suc- 
ceeded in  finding  at  three  stations  in  Switzerland  ;  and  shows  how  it 
differs  from  S.  pusilla  var.  Seligeri,  regarded  by  Limpricht  as  a  synonym 
of  the  former  moss.  He  also  records  some  new  hepatics  for  Canton 
Berne.  Potier  de  la  Varde  **  having  discovered  the  rare  Alpine  hepatic 
Marsupella  Sprucei  near  Guingamp  in  Brittany,  describes  its  habitat,  its 
conditions  of  growth,  and  the  difficulty  of  finding  it  at  all.  E.  Balle  ff 
gives  an  enumeration  of  pleurocarpous  mosses  collected  in  the  environs  of 
Vire,  Calvados. 

Italian  Muscineae.Jt — Gr.  Zodda  publishes  a  first  contribution  to  the 
moss-flora  of  the  province  of  Belluno,  based  upon  a  collection  of  106 

*  Journ.  of  Bofc.,  xlvi.  (1908)  p.  172.  t  Loc.  cit. 

%  Tom.  cit.,  p.  173.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  123-4. 

||  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  74-9.  %  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  79-80. 

**  Tom.  cit.,  p.  81.  ft  Tom.  cit.,  p.  82. 
XX  Malpighia,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  479-511. 


470  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

mosses  and  18  hepatics  made  by  R.  Pampanini  in  the  heart  of  the 
dolomitic  Alps  of  Cadore.  He  gives  a  list  of  the  localities  visited  by 
Pampanini,  some  notes  upon  the  previous  bryological  literature  concern- 
ing this  region,  and  adds  some  notes  upon  distribution.  Three  species 
and  11  varieties  are  new  to  the  Italian  moss-flora  ;  13  mosses  and 
6  hepatics  are  new  for  the  province  of  Belluno  ;  and  39  species  or  varieties 
are  new  for  the  province  of  Veneto.  Specially  notable  are  the  very  rare 
species  Grimmia  Holleri  and  Bryum  bimoideum. 

North  American  Mosses.* — A.  J.  Grout  publishes  the  fourth  part 
of  his  "  Mosses  with  Hand-lens  and  Microscope,"  a  non-technical  hand- 
book of  the  more  common  mosses  of  the  north-eastern  United  States. 
It  is  freely  illustrated  from  standard  works,  provides  keys  to  the 
genera  and  species,  and  emphasized  descriptions  with  helpful  annota- 
tions. The  purpose  of  the  book  is  to  enable  moss-students  to  identify 
all  the  less  rare  species  with  as  little  microscope  work  as  possible. 

Hepaticae  of  Puerto  Rico.f — A.  W.  Evans  publishes  his  ninth  con- 
tribution to  the  study  of  the  hepatic^  of  Puerto  Rico,  giving  an  account 
of  the  following  genera  : — Brachiolejeunea,  Ptychocoleus,  Archilejeunea, 
Leucolejeunea,  and  Anoplolejeunea.  1.  Two  species  of  Brachiolejeunea 
were  already  known  from  the  West  Indies  ;  to  these  is  now  added  a 
new  species,  B.  insular  is.  2.  Ptychocoleus  Trev.  is  here  used  to  replace 
Acrolejeunea  as  defined  by  Spruce  and  by  Schiffner  :  P.  polycarpus 
occurs  in  Puerto  Rico  and  is  re-described  by  Evans.  3.  Archilejeunea 
is  represented  by  A.  viridisima  in  Puerto  Rico  ;  a  careful  description  of 
this  species  is  supplied.  4.  The  widely  distributed  Leucolejeunea  xantho- 
carpa  occurs  in  Puerto  Rico,  and  is  re-described.  5.  Anoplolejeunea  of 
Schiffner  was  monotypic.  Evans  finds  the  type  to  be  indistinguishable 
from  Lejeunea  conferta  Meissn.,  and  unites  the  two,  giving  a  detailed 
description  of  the  species.  Many  critical  annotations  are  included  in 
the  paper. 

Mosses  of  the  Canaries.! — H.  N.  Dixon  gives  an  account  of  a  small 
collection  of  mosses  made  by  Miss  Wells  in  the  Canary  Islands.  They  are 
twenty-two  in  number  ;  four  of  them  are  additions  to  the  moss-flora  of 
the  Canaries,  and  five  to  the  moss-flora  of  the  Atlantic  Islands  as  a 
whole.  Brachythecium  purum  var.  canariense  is  a  curious  novelty  from 
Palma. 

Bryophytes  of  French  Guinea.§ — E.  G.  Paris  reports  upon  a  further 
collection  of  mosses  collected  by  Pobeguin  in  Fouta-Djallon,  in  tropical 
French  West  Africa,  including  20  mosses,  six  of  which  are  new,  and 
3  hepatics,  one  of  which  is  new.  In  a  brief  summary  the  author 
points  out  that  before  1902  not  a  Bryophyte  was  known  from  French 
Guinea,  but  that  owing  to  the  efforts  of  three  French  collectors — 
Normand,  Maclaud,  and  especially  Pobeguin — in  six  years  176  mosses 

*  New  York  City  :  published  by  the  author,  pt.  iv.  (1908;  pp.  247-318  (figs.), 
t  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  155-79  (3  pis.). 
%  Journ.  of  Bot.,  xlvi.  (1908)  pp.  184-6. 
§  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  57-61. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  471 

and  29  hepatics  have  been  gathered  in  that  region,  and  of  these  128 
mosses  (73  p.c.)  and  four  hepatics  (14  p.c.)  have  proved  to  be  new  to 
science. 

Mosses  of  the  Belgian  Congo.* — J.  Cardot  publishes  preliminary 
diagnoses  of  mosses  collected  in  the  Belgian  Congo  by  Laurent  and 
Paque,  and  near  Oussouye  on  the  Casainance  by  Mathieu.  He  hopes 
later  to  give  fuller  descriptions  accompanied  by  figures.  Eighteen 
novelties  are  described,  and  most  of  the  specimens  from  the  French 
Congo  are  previously  unknown  species  of  Fissidens  or  Galymperes. 

Mosses  of  the  Philippine  Islands.f — V.  F.  Brotherus  publishes  a 
list  of  98  mosses  collected  in  the  Philippine  Islands  by  Merrill  and 
others.  Twenty-two  of  the  species  are  new  to  science.  New  also 
is  the  genus  MerriUiobryum,  agreeing  with  Fabronia  in  structure  of 
stem  and  leaves,  but  differing  much  in  its  sporogonium. 

Hepatics  of  New  Caledonia.  J  —  E.  G.  Paris  gives  a  list  of  16 
hepatics  collected  by  Le  Kat  in  New  Caledonia,  and  determined  by 
Stephani.  None  of  them  are  new  to  science,  but  some  are  recorded  for 
New  Caledonia  for  the  first  time. 

Studies  of  Javanese  AnthocerotaceaB.§ — D.  H.  Campbell  has  pub- 
lished studies  on  some  Javanese  Anthocerotaceae.  He  separates  off  from 
Anthoceros  certain  species,  which  had  been  grouped  together  on 
account  of  their  spiral  elaters  and  the  absence  of  stomata  on  the  sporo- 
gonium, into  a  new  genus  Megaceros,  which  has  the  additional  characters 
of  multiple  chromatophores  and  green  spores.  Two  new  species  from 
Java  are  added.  They  are  both  monoecious.  The  thallus-form  and 
apical  growth  and  archegonia  are  as  in  typical  Anthoceros  ;  the  large 
solitary  antheridium  is  more  like  that  of  Dendroceros.  The  early 
divisions  in  the  embryo  recall  Dendroceros  ;  the  amount  of  sporogenous 
tissue  is  great  as  in  Notothylas.  As  in  Anthoceros,  the  primary  chromato- 
phore  of  the  spore-mother-cell  divides  into  four  before  the  nucleus 
divides  ;  the  spores  are  small  and  thin- walled  and  contain  a  large  chloro- 
plast.  The  elaters  are  multicellular  as  in  Dendroceros.  The  sporophyte  has 
much  green  tissue  but  no  stomata  ;  the  cells  contain  2-6  chromatophores. 
The  foot  is  large  and  has  root-like  extensions.  Campbell  also  treats  of 
Notothylas  javensis  and  of  two  unnamed  Javan  species  of  Dendroceros. 
Finally  he  discusses  the  affinities  of  the  Anthocerotaceae,  and  would 
keep  them  in  a  special  class  distinct  from  both  Marchantiales  and 
Jungermanniales,  though  perhaps  approaching  somewhat  to  Cyath odium 
in  the  former  of  these  two. 

Antiquity  of  the  Hepaticse.|| —  D.  H.  Campbell  discusses  the 
distribution  of  the  Hepaticaa  and  its  significance.  He  is  strongly  of 
opinion  that,  though  fossil  remains  of  indubitable  Bryophytes  are  very 

*  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  62-7. 

t  Philippine  Journ.  Sci.  Manila,  iii.  (1908)  pp.  11-30. 

J  Rev.  Brvolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  p.  62. 

§  Ann.  of  Bot.,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  467 -S6 ;  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  91-102  (5  pis.  and  figs.). 

||  New  Phvtologist,  vi.  (1907)  pp.  203-212. 


472  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

scarce  in  Palaeozoic  formations,  we  must  not  conclude  that  the  hepatics 
are  therefore  of  comparatively  late  origin.  They  are  almost  as  scarce  in 
the  later  formations.  Their  delicate  leaves  do  not  lend  themselves  to 
preservation,  and  their  elaters  and  other  more  durable  structures  are  too 
small  to  attract  notice.  The  existing  geographical  distribution  of  the 
hepatics  is  a  line  of  research  that  would  throw  light  on  the  degree  of 
antiquity  of  the  group ;  but  it  has  not  been  much  examined.  The 
spores  are  not  suited  for  wide  distribution,  but  usually  require  speedy 
germination.  After  briefly  surveying  the  distribution  of  other  groups 
of  plants,  the  author  treats  that  of  hepatics  in  more  detail,  indicating 
broadly  the  distribution  of  several  genera  of  wide  range.  The  obvious 
conclusion  from  such  a  study  of  the  hepatics  is  the  small  number  of 
genera  and  their  wide  distribution,  especially  in  case  of  the  genera  of 
older  type.  No  recently  developed  group  could  have  acquired  such  a 
wide  distribution  of  its  simpler  forms  with  so  little  modification. 

Calypogeia  trichomanis  and  its  Allied  Forms.* — C.  Meylan  pub- 
lishes some  researches  upon  Galypogeia  trichomanis  Corda.  This  old 
species  has  in  recent  years  been  divided  into  six  species  :  C.  trichomanis, 
G.  suecica,  G.  sphagnicola,  G.  submersa,  G.fissa,  C.  Mulleriana.  Meylan 
has  studied  each  of  these  species  or  subspecies  carefully  in  the  field  and 
under  the  Microscope.  He  divides  his  subject  into  two  parts,  treating 
first  of  the  forms  which  avoid  growing  in  marshes,  and  secondly  of  the 
marsh  forms.  Having  to  deal  with  plants  mostly  sterile,  he  employs 
vegetative  characters  ;  and,  stating  that  the  shape  of  the  upper  part  of 
leaf  is  of  very  little  value  owing  to  its  variability  on  the  same  plant,  he 
prefers  to  employ  as  characters  the  shape  of  the  amphigastria  and  the 
areolation  of  the  leaves.  Having  discussed  the  various  forms,  he  con- 
cludes that  there  are  two  types  or  well  defined  species  : — C.  trichomanis 
and  C.  suecica,  the  first  growing  always  on  humus  and  bogs,  the  second 
always  on  rotting  wood  ;  that  the  former  has  the  varieties  Neesiana,fissa, 
Sprengelii  (with  a  form  submersa)  ;  that  the  latter  has  a  variety  or 
form  erecta.  He  adds  that  there  remains  a  group  of  forms  which  grow 
associated  with  species  of  Sphagnum,  namely  G.  sphagnicola  ;  but  he 
prefers  to  regard  it,  not  so  much  a  species,  as  a  variety  of  the  same  value 
as  Sprengelii.  In  fine,  G.  trichomanis  (exclusive  of  G.  suecica)  varies 
enormously  according  to  environment,  producing  a  multitude  of  forms 
useless  to  classify,  as  they  grade  into  one  another. 

Monograph  of  Philonotis.f — Gr.  Dismier  publishes  a  monograph  of 
the  French  species  of  Philonotis,  and  indeed  of  all  the  European  species, 
for  he  treats  of  all  the  other  European  forms  of  this  difficult  genus 
which  have  been  described  as  species.  He  bases  the  delimitations  of  the 
species  upon  the  form  and  direction  of  the  cauline  leaves,  their  areola- 
tion, denticulation,  flat  or  revolute  margins,  and  the  position  of  the 
papillae  on  the  cells.  The  species  recognised  by  him  are  eight : — 
P.  rigida,  P.  marchica,  P.  capillaris,  P.  ccespitosa,  P.  fontanel,  P.  tomen- 
tella,  P.  seriata,  P.  calcarea.  The  result  is  that  the  numerous  puzzling 
forms  are  gathered  into  clearly  defined  groups. 

*  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  67-74. 

t  M6m.  Soc.  Sci.  Nat.  Math.  Cherbourg,  xxxvi.  (1908)  pp.  367-428.     See  also 
Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  p.  83. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  473 

Note  upon  Hookeria  papillata.* — E.  6.  Paris  shows  that  No.  93 
of  the  Cuban  Mosses  gathered  by  C.  Wright  (1856-8)  was  wrongly 
referred  by  Sullivant  to  Hookeria  papillata  Mont.  ;  that  it  is  really  H. 
crenata  Mitt.,  which  species  Mitten  founded  upon  No.  92  of  the  same 
cxsiccati  (wrongly  referred  to  H.  Merkelii  Hornsch).  Sullivant,  says 
Paris,  made  the  same  blunder  over  Montagne's  species  in  connection  with 
a  specimen  collected  by  the  Wilkes  Exploring  Expedition, — a  specimen 
which  he  had  previously  distinguished  as  H.  oblongifolia. 

Fruit  of  Campylopus  polytrichoides  described,  f — A.  Luisier  has 
brought  together  the  few  facts  hitherto  known  about  the  sporogonia 
of  Campylopus  polytrichoides,  old  material  only,  collected  in  Portugal. 
In  the  past  few  years  further  examples  have  been  found  on  the  coast 
of  Portugal.  And  Luisier,  having  himself  been  fortunate  enough  to 
find  some  of  these  specimens,  has  drawn  up  a  description  of  pedicel, 
capsule,  calyptra,  and  peristome,  and  illustrates  it  with  some  figures. 

Abnormal  Archegonium  in  a  Hepatic.f— F.  M.  Andrews  describes 
and  figures  an  abnormal  form  of  archegonium  observed  in  Porella 
platylla.  It  contained  two  perfectly  formed  egg-cells,  each  with  a  row 
of  canal  cells.  He  also  figures  some  branched  elaters  found  in  the  same 
species. 

JThallophyta. 

Algae. 

(By  Mrs.  E.  S.  Gepp.) 

Nomenclature  of  Algae.§  —  G.  B.  de  Toni  has  been  appointed  secre- 
tary of  the  algological  section  of  the  special  committee  appointed  by  the 
Botanical  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1905,  to  consider  the  subject  of  Crypto- 
gamic  Nomenclature,  and  report  to  the  Congress  of  Brussels  in  1910. 
He  asks  for  the  opinions  of  algologists  upon  general  problems  or 
particular  cases  of  algological  nomenclature,  as  an  aid  to  the  settlement 
of  the  priority  of  generic  names,  and  the  best  way  of  settling  the  claims 
of  various  authors.  He  gives  some  instances  of  changes  attempted  by 
Trevisan,  Ruprecht,  0.  Kuntze  ;  of  objections  raised  by  Le  Jobs  ;  of 
views  advanced  by  Nordstedt — for  instance,  that  for  the  Desrnidiea?  the 
starting-point  should  be  "  The  British  Desniidieas "  of  Ralfs  (1848). 

Fixation  of  Nitrogen  by  Algae.  ||  —  B.  Heinze  gives  the  results  of 
his  researches  into  the  question  of  the  fixation  of  free  nitrogen  by  algae, 
and  supplies  a  summary  of  the  literature  of  the  subject.  Some  bacteria 
have  this  property,  but  fungi  have  not.  Some  algae,  such  as  Nostoc, 
possess  the  power  to  a  certain  degree ;  association  with  such  nitrifying 
organisms  as  Azotobacter,  however,  greatly  promotes  the  function. 

*  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  p.  Gl."" 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Portugaise  Sci.  Nat.,  i.  (1907)  pp.  89-91. 

J  Bot.  Gazette,  xlv.  (1908)  p.  340  (figs.). 

§  Nuov.  Notar.,  xix.  (1908)  pp.  67-71. 

||   Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xvi.  2  (1906)  pp.  640-53;  703-11. 


474  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Japanese  Algae. — K.  Okamura,*  who  has  published  six  numbers  of 
"  Illustrations  of  the  Marine  Algae  of  Japan  "  during  the  last  few  years, 
is  now  continuing  the  series  under  the  title  of  "  Icones  of  Japanese 
Algae."  Six  parts  have  already  appeared,  each  of  which  contains  five 
quarto  plates.  The  figures  show  the  habit  of  each  alga  as  well  as  the 
details  of  its  structure,  and  they  are  all  accurately  and  clearly  drawn. 
Descriptions  in  English  are  given  for  those  species  which  are  either  new 
or  little  known. 

Algae  of  Middle  Europe.! — W.  Migula  continues  the  publication  of 
his  "  Kryptogamen-Flora,"  which  occupies  vols,  v.-vii.  of  Thome's  "  Flora 
von  Deutschland,  Osterreich  und  der  Schweiz."  The  Chlorophyceaa  are 
brought  to  an  end  in  Part  48,  a  full  index  being  provided.  In  Part  49,  the 
treatment  of  the  Rhodophyceas  is  begun  ;  the  group  of  the  Bangiales 
occupying  but  a  few  pages,  the  remaining  group — Florideae — is  soon 
reached,  and  the  following  four  orders  of  Florideas  are  discussed — 
Nemalionales,  Gigartinales,  Rhodymeniales,  and-Cryptonemiales.  Keys 
to  the  'families,  genera,  and  species  are  supplied  ;  and  brief  and  clear 
descriptions  of  them  all  are  given,  further  assistance  being  afforded  by 
means  of  figures. 

Oceanic  Algae.f — A.  Mazza  continues  his  studies  of  marine  algas, 
and  treats  of  some  of  the  Delesseriacege,  giving  critical  notes  upon  three 
species  of  Martensia  and  ten  species  of  Nitophyllum. 

Calcareous  Algae. §  —  M.  Foslie  publishes  the  fourth  part  of  his 
Algological  Notes,  in  which  he  describes  a  number  of  species  of  Litho- 
thamnion,  Goniolithon,  Lithophyllum,  Melobesia,  and  Mastophora,  from 
all  parts  of  the  world,  most  of  them  new  to  science.  On  the  species 
previously  known  he  gives  interesting  notes.  The  paper  is  written  in 
Norwegian. 


■'b-1 


Griffithsia  acuta  Zanard.|| — G.  B.  De  Toni  gives  an  account  of 
Griffitlisia  acuta,  an  unpublished  species  found  in  Zanardini's  herbarium, 
and  gathered  at  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  perhaps  by  Portier.  It  is  a 
sterile  plant.  De  Toni  compares  its  dimensions  carefully  with  those  of 
G.furcellata  and  G.  Duriaei,  and  other  species. 

.  Critical  Notes  on  Laminariaceae.^ — W.  A.  Setchell  publishes  some 
critical  notes  on  Laminariaceas.  He  has  succeeded  in  discovering  what 
must  be  the  type  of  Areschoug's  Hafgygia  Ruprechtii,  misplaced  and 
labelled  with  another  name  in  Areschoug's  herbarium  at  Stockholm. 
In  habit,  colour,  lack  of  bullae,  it  closely  resembles  Laminaria  bullata  f . 
cuneata  of  Setchell  and  Gardner,  but  appear  to  differ  in  length  of  stipes 
and  position  of  mucilage  ducts  in  the  stipes.  There  is  great  need  for 
a  study  of  the  forms  referred  by  Kjellman  and  others  to  L.  ballata. 


* 


Icones  of  Japanese  Algse.     Tokyo  :  1907-8,  i.  Nos.  1-6  (30  pis.). 
+  Gera  :  P.  von  Zezschwitz,  vi.  1  (1907)  lief.  4=0-8,  pp.  673-918  (47  pis.) ;  also 
vi.  2  (1908)  lief.  49-53,  pp.  1-144  (25  pis.). 
X  Nuov.  Notar.,  xix.  (1908)  pp.  49-66. 
§  Kgl.  Norske  Vidensk.  Selsk.  Skrift,  No.  6  (1907)  pp.  30. 
||  Nuov.  Notar.,  xix.  (1908)  pp.  85-9.  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  90-101. 


ZOOLOGY    AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  475 

Setchell  also  treats  of  the  species  grouped  by  Griggs  under  his  recently 
established  genus  Renfreivia.  R.  parvula  Griggs  is  identical  with 
L.  ephemera  Setchell.  Setchell  states  in  detail  his  reasons  for  regarding 
Renfreivia  as  not  separable  from  Laminaria,  and  as  not  being  a  primitive 
form  of  Laminaria,  but  as  a  later  form  modified  by  environment. 
Setchell  next  discusses  the  fructification  of  Pterygophora,  and  its 
relationships  which  he  thinks  to  be  with  Alaria  rather  than  with 
Laminaria.  The  unknown  species  Alaria  marginata  of  Postels  and 
Ruprecht  seems  to  be  identical  with  A.  prcelonga  and  A.  laticosta  of 
Kjellman.     Setchell  also  treats  of  some  other  species  of  Alaria,  etc. 

Scytothamnus  australis.* — C.  M.  Gibson  writes  on  the  morphology 
and  systematic  position  of  Scytothamnus  australis.  She  gives  a  short 
history  of  the  plant,  and  then  describes  the  mature  thallus,  which  is 
composed  of  three  zones,  the  thallus  being  solid,  and  not  hollow.  Hairs 
were  found  on  all  parts  of  the  thallus,  having  no  connection  whatever 
with  the  reproductive  organs.  They  were  traced  by  the  author  from  the 
earliest  stages,  close  to  the  apex  of  the  thallus.  An  examination  of  the 
growing  point  showed  that  the  apex  is  occupied  by  a  group  of 
meristematic  cells  and  not  by  a  definite  apical  cell.  The  apex  is  always 
blunt.  Sporangia  are  only  found  on  plants  in  which  growth  in  length 
has  ceased  and  the  tissues  are  quite  mature  right  up  to  'the  apex.  They 
are  unilocular  only,  occur  all  over  the  surface,  and  are  formed  from 
modified  cells  of  the  limiting  layer.  Stages  in  the  development  of  the 
sporangia  are  described  and  figured.  Scytothamnus  lies  between 
Dictyosiphonacese  and  Chordariacea?  as  regards  the  mature  vegetative 
structure.  It  agrees  with  the  former  in  the"  position  and  structure  of  its 
sporangia,  but  differs  from  it  in  the  lack  of  an  apical  cell.  The  author 
shows  that  Scytothamnus  australis  is  quite  distinct  from  Dictyosiphon 
fasciculatus,  and  that  S.  rugulosus  is  also  a  good  species. 

Algal  Blight  on  Tea.|  —  C.  M.  Hutchinson  gives  an  account 
of  Cephaleuros  virescens,  the  "  red  rust "  of  tea,  an  alga  belonging  to 
the  Chlorolepideas  group.  It  does  much  damage  to  the  tea  crops  of 
North-east  India,  and,  it  is  said,  to  mango-trees  in  Bengal.  It  attacks 
the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  former  and  the  stems  of  the  latter.  It  settles 
in  crevices  of  young  plants  and  forms  yellow  patches,  and  pierces  the 
tissues.  It  is  propagated  by  means  of  water-borne  zoospores  and  of 
air-borne  sporangia. 

Structure  of  Diatoms.J—W.  Bally  discusses  the  gelatinous  substance 
which  is  found  surrounding  the  girdle  of  certain  marine  plankton 
diatoms,  notably  species  of  CJmtoceras.  He  describes  the  neutral  results 
obtained  by  staining  both  fresh  and  preserved  material,  and  makes 
suggestions  as  to  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  substance  observed ;  and 
he  thinks  it  consists  most  probably  of  gelatinous  matter  which  has 
exuded  between  the  girdle  and  the  valve.  Minute  investigation  has 
shown  the  author  that  only  one,  and  that  the  older,  of  the  "two  valves 

*  Joum.  Bot.,  xlvi.  (190S)  pp.  137-41  (2  pis.). 

t  Mem.  Depart.  Agric.  India  (Bot.)  i.  No.  6  (1907)  35  pp.  (8  pis.). 

J  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxvia.  (190S)  pp.  147-51. 


•476  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

remains  in  connection  with  the  girdle,  and  that  the  girdle  consists  of  a 
simple  hollow  cylinder,  while  the  valves  show  a  strong  incurving  on  the 
side  turned  towards  the  girdle.  Thus  the  connection  between  valve  and 
girdle  is  a  very  loose  one.  For  a  final  explanation  of  the  gelatinous 
external  band  investigation  of  other  species  is  necessary.  It  seems  to 
be  absent  in  G.  boreale  and  G.  constrictum,  while  in  G.  decipiens,  the 
species  principally  studied,  it  was  not  always  present.  As  regards  the 
object  of  the  gelatinous  band,  the  author  is  of  opinion  that  it  is  con- 
nected with  the  floating  apparatus,  and  indeed  bears  the  same  relation 
to  the  external  rays  of  Ghcetoceras  as  the  silk  of  an  umbrella  does  to  the 
ribs. 

Membrane  of  Diatoms.* — L.  Mangin  has  studied  the  constitution 
•of  the  membrane  of  diatoms,  and  finds  that  it  is  not  composed,  as  has 
been  believed,  of  cellulose  or  of  something  akin  to  that  substance  ;  but 
that  it  responds,  on  the  other  hand,  to  pectic  reagents,  and  is  therefore 
clearly  composed  either  of  pecten  or  of  substances  closely  akin  to  it. 
Diatoms  which  are  fresh  or  have  been  preserved  in  alcohol  do  not 
respond  well  to  the  action  of  stains,  and  it  is  necessary  to  prepare  the 
material  by  the  use  of  certain  salts  (iron-alum,  ammonium  vanadate,  etc.), 
and  stain  with  old  hgematoxylin-alum. 

Other  methods  of  preparation  are  described  also,  and  the  use  of 
ruthenium  and  of  old  hamiatoxylin-alum  is  recommended  previous  to 
mounting  in  Canada  balsam.  Comparison  is  drawn  between  the  con- 
stitution of  the  membrane  of  Diatoms  and  that  of  Peridinieas,  in  which 
the  substance  is  almost  pure  cellulose.  The  author  finds  that  calcination 
is  a  considerable  aid  to  the  study  of  the  niinute  structure  of  the  valves, 
but  the  process  can  only  be  applied  to  bottom  forms,  as  plankton 
diatoms  are  too  delicate.  The  staining  of  plankton  is  an  important 
factor  in  a  study  of  their  structure,  and  has  enabled  the  author  to 
correct  certain  erroneous  views  concerning  Ghcetoceras  and  other  genera. 
He  divides  Ghcetoceras  into  two  groups,  which  he  briefly  defines,  and 
into  one  of  which  he  sinks  Schiitt's  genus  Peragallia.  A  paper  con- 
taining more  details  on  the  subject  is  promised  shortly. 

New  England  Desmids.f — J.  A.  Cushman  records  49  species  of 
Closterium  from  New  England,  19  of  which  have  not  been  noted  before 
from  that  district.  One  new  species,  G.  Novce-Anglice,  is  described  :  it 
is  one  of  the  longest  species  of  the  genus,  and  is  near  G.  Calamus 
Playfair.  A  short  diagnosis  and  measurements  are  given  for  each 
record,  as  well  as  references  to  literature,  and  reliable  plates.  In  a  short 
introduction  the  author  describes  the  principal  characters  of  the  genus 
and  of  the  two  groups  into  which  it  is  divided. 

Origin  of  Californian  Petroleum.^— A.  M.  Edwards  discusses  the 
origin  of  petroleum  in  California,  and  states  his  reasons  for  supposing 
that  the  connection  observed  between  deposits  of  marine  diatoms  and 
asphalt  and  petroleum  indicates  that  petroleum  rock-oil  and  asphalt  are 
products  of  the  decomposition  of  beds  of  marine  diatoms. 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  770-3. 

t  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxv.  (190S)  pp.  109-34  (3  pis.). 

X  Nuov.  Notar.,  xix.  U908)  pp.  72-78. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  477 

Origin  of  the  Bacillariae.* — A.  M.  Edwards  discusses  the  origin  of 
the  Bacillariae.  He  has  searched  shaded  damp  places  for  microscopic 
algae,  and  states  that  he  has  found  in  such  places  Lyngbya  muralis,  and 
seen  it  die  down  and  grow  into  Spirogyra  and  Cladopliora.  And  he  also 
declares  among  them  are  particles  as  of  clay,  which  turn  into  Monas  lens 
and  then  into  Navicula  quadrangula.  He  gives  a  list  of  diatoms  found 
in  the  sediment  from  a  New  Jersey  stream-bed,  allowed  to  stand  in 
the  sun. 

Diatoms  of  the  Jura  Lakes.f — P.  Prudent  adds  to  his  studies  of 
the  diatomaceous  flora  of  the  lakes  of  the  Jura,  some  lists  of  the  species 
collected  by  him  in  the  Lac  d'Aiguebelette  and  the  Lacs  de  Saint  Jean- 
de-Chevelu.  The  former,  situated  at  an  altitude  of  1260  ft.  in  Savoy, 
furnished  117  species,  two  of  which  are  new  for  the  French  flora,  and 
some  of  which  are  rare  forms,  and  one  of  which  is  a  marine  species.  On 
the  other  hand  the  two  lakes  of  Saint  Jean-de-Chevelu  produced  86 
forms,  one  being  new  and  another  quite  rare. 

Phytoplankton  of  Scotch  and  Swiss  Lakes.:}:— H.  Bachmann  pub- 
lishes a  comparative  study  of  the  Phytoplankton  of  the  lakes  of  Scotland 
and  of  Switzerland.  He  visited  Scotland  in  1905  and  published  his 
results  in  1907.  In  the  present  paper  he  reduces  his  results  to  a  more 
compact  form.  He  first  treats  in  a  general  manner  of  the  eight  Scottish 
lakes  he  visited — depth,  dimensions,  altitude,  climate,  temperature,  and 
their  effects.  He  then  shows  in  a  table  all  the  species  of  phytoplankton 
found  in  each  Scottish  lake,  indicating  the  comparative  frequency.  In 
the  following  list  he  gives  a  systematic  enumeration  of  the  plankton 
found  in  fifteen  Swiss  lakes.  He  then  states  the  results  that  follow 
from  a  comparison  of  the  two  floras.  Some  of  the  more  interesting 
species  he  discusses  at  greater  length,  giving  for  instance  numerous 
figures  of  CeraUum  hirundinella  from  thirty  Swiss  lakes  and  from  the 
Scotch  lochs.  Chlamydomonas  stipitata  is  a  new  species.  Notes  on  the 
vertical  distribution  and  the  annual  periodicity  of  the  phytoplankton 
are  added. 

Bach,  E.  B. — The  Characeae  of  Michigan. 

[Partial  list  of  the  Characese  of  Michigan — 13  species  ;  and '  appeal  to 
botanists  to  collect  more.] 

Michigan  Acad.  Sci.,  Ninth  Report,  1907,  p.  126. 

De  Tioni,  G.  B. — Matteo  Lanzi. 

[Born  1824,  died  1908.  Expert  diatomist  and  mycologist ;  residing  at 
Rome.  Account  of  his  life  and  work,  with  an  enumeration  of  his  pub- 
lished papers.]  Malpigliia,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  512-18. 

Lignieh,  O. — Sur  une  Algue  Oxfordienne  (Glceocystis  oxfordiensis  sp.  n.). 

[On  Glceocystis  oxfordiensis,  a  new  species  of  fossil  algre,  found  on  a  frag- 
ment of  Araucarioxylon  in  the  Oxford  Clay  in  Calvados.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  liii.  (1906)  p.  5  (fig.). 


*  Nuov.  Notar.,  xix.  (1908)  pp.  79-S4. 

t  Ann.  Soc.  Bot.  Lyon,   xxxi.   (1906)  pp.  51-8.     See  also  Nuov.  Notar.,  xix. 
(1908)  pp.  104-6. 

X  Arch.  Sci.  Phys.  Nat.  Geneve,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  219-68,  360-72  (figs.-). 


•478  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Fungi. 
(By  A.  Loerain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Obituary  Notice  of  W.  A.  Kellerman.* — "While  on  a  scientific 
expedition  to  Guatemala,  the  editor  of  the  Journal  of  Mycology  died 
very  suddenly  from  malarial  fever.  He  had  gone  there  for  the  fourth 
time  to  collect  material,  and  the  trip  was  almost  completed.  Kellerman 
was  born  in  1850  ;  the  latter  years  of  his  life  he  was  Professor  of  Botany 
in  the  Ohio  State  University.  Every  moment  he  could  spare  from  class 
and  laboratory  work  was  devoted  to  the  collecting  of  plants  and  building 
up  herbaria.  Since  1902  he  had  been  the  sole  editor  of  the  Journal. 
He  has  been  a  devoted  worker  in  the  cause  of  Mycology.  Nearly  eleven 
pages  are  occupied  by  a  list  of  his  publications  in  various  branches  of 
botany,  though  chiefly  on  parasitic  fungi.  A  portrait  of  Kellerman 
forms  the  frontispiece. 

Development  of  Saprolegnia  monoica.f — P..  Clausen  found  that 
the  researches  of  Davis  and  Trow  on  the  cytology  of  the  Saprolegniacege  led 
the  authors  to  opposite  results,  and  that  these  results  were  not  in  harmony 
with  those  of  more  recent  studies  on  Ascomycetes  and  Basidiomycetes. 
He  gives  a  sketch  of  previous  work,  and  describes  his  own  methods  of 
culture  with  ants'  eggs  as  substratum,  and  of  fixing,  colouring,  and  em- 
bedding. In  this  species  both  oogonia  and  antheridia  are  formed,  the 
latter  arising  from  the  stalk  that  bears  the  oogonia,  though  occasionally 
they  are  borne  on  more  distant  hyphse.  The  oogonia  are  multinucleate 
and  full  of  plasma  in  the  early  stages.  Later,  degeneration  sets  in,  and 
there  is  only  a  thin  layer  of  plasma  and  a  few  nuclei  left.  The  nuclei 
divide  by  mitosis  simultaneously,  and  the  oosphores  are  formed  round 
certain  of  the  nuclei,  each  one  being  uninucleate  and  each  nucleus 
having  at  the  beginning  a  centrosome.  The  antheridia  pierce  the  mem- 
brane of  the  oogonium,  and  either  branch  or  remain  simple  ;  they  apply 
themselves  to  the  oosphere  and  a  nucleus  passes  over  which  fuses  with 
the  oosphere  nucleus  ;  the  older  oospores  are  always  uninucleate.  The 
small  size  of  the  nuclei  made  it  impossible  to  count  the  chromosomes 
exactly  :  he  reckoned  about  10  to  14,  but  it  is  certain  that  no  reduction 
took  place,  and  Clausen  was  led  to  the  conclusion  that  it  did  not  occur 
until  germination  of  the  oospore.  In  this  respect  it  agrees  with  the 
process  observed  in  the  zygote  germination  of  Coleoclmte. 

Parasitic  Laboulbenia.J — Edouard  Chatton  and  Francois  Picard 
describe  one  of  these  fungi,  Trenomyces  histophorus  g.  et  sp.  n.,  cha- 
racterised by  its  having  advanced  further  on  the  way  to  parasitism  than 
any  other  member  of  the  same  order.  The  basal  cell  of  the  organism  is 
spherical  ;  it  pierces  by  a  tube  the  cuticle  of  the  insect,  and  feeds  on  the 
adipose  tissue — without,  however,  seriously  injuring  the  host. 

Erysiphacese  of  Japan. § — E.  S.  Salmon  publishes  a  supplementary 
paper  based  on  a  collection  of  examples  on  120  different  hosts  sent  to 

*  Journ.  Mycol.,  xiv.  (1908)  pp.  49-63. 
'  f  Festschrift.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxvi.  No.  5  (1908)  pp.  144-61  (2  pis.). 
%  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  201-3. 
§  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  1-16. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  479 

him  from  Morioka,  Province  Rikuchu.  Salmon's  determinations  are 
made  on  morphological  lines,  and  by  this  means  he  brings  together 
very  diverse  hosts.  He  finds  a  new  variety  of  the  gooseberry  mildew, 
Sphmrotheca  mors-uvm,  growing  on  leaves  of  Stephanandra  ;  several  new 
varieties  are  described,  and  in  many  cases  new  hosts  for  species  already 
known.    He  appends  an  alphabetical  list  of  the  hosts,  with  their  parasites. 

Two  little-known  Myxosporiums.* — C.  "W.  Edgerton  describes  two 
fungi,  one  parasitic  on  Liriodendron  tulipifera,  the  other  on  apple  and 
pear  trees.  He  considers  them  new  species  of  the  genus  Myxosporium. 
A  general  account  is  given  of  bark-canker  of  apple  and  pear  caused 
by  the  fungus,  and  contrasts  are  drawn  with  those  that  cause  rot.  The 
species  on  Liriodendron  is  also  described  ;  the  twigs  on  which  it  grew 
were  dead,  though  it  was  not  ascertained  that  the  fungus  had  killed 
them.  Edgerton  calls  his  new  fungi  Myxosporium  corticolum  on  apple, 
and  M.  longisporum  on  the  tulip  tree. 

Research  on  Fungi  imperfecti.f  —  K.  Klebahn  has  experimented 
with  the  fungus  Septoria  piricola,  a  parasite  on  the  leaves  of  Pyrus  com- 
munis. He  describes  the  action  of  the  mycelium  on  the  host-plant,  and 
the  conidia  of  the  fungus,  comparing  them  with  other  species  recorded 
on  the  same  leaves,  Depazea  piricola  and  D.  pyrina,  Septoria  nigerrima, 
S.  Pyri,  and  also  S.  dealbata,  all  of  which  he  finds  to  be  synonymous 
with  S.  piricola.  The  ascus  form,  Mycosphcvrella  sentina,  is  also  de- 
scribed. Leaves  of  Pyrus  were  infected  with  the  ascospores,  and 
pycnidia  were  produced  ;  cultures  were  also  made  on  plum-agar,  and  the 
pycuidia  of  Septoria  piricola  were  again  formed. 

Hyphomycetes.J  —  G.  Lindau's  latest  fascicle  deals  with  a  series 
of  genera  characterised  by  brown  muriform  conidia  of  varying  form, 
a  difficult  group  to  arrange.  One  subdivision  is  made  to  consist 
of  but  one  genus,  Sirodesmium,  distinguished  by  its  muriform  spores 
borne  in  chains  on  a  very  short  stalk.  Lindau  retains  both  Dictyo- 
sporium  and  Speira,  very  closely  allied  genera.  Stemphylium,  Mystro- 
sporium,  and  Macrosporium  form  another  well-nigh  inseparable  trio  of 
genera,  badly  differentiated.  As  usual  the  genera  are  well  illustrated, 
though  more  figures  would  have  been  welcome. 

Systematic  Position  of  Achorion  and  Oospora.§ — F.  Gueguen  has 
produced  in  his  cultures  of  Oospora  chlamydospores  and  spiral  hyphaa, 
with  two  to  five  spirals,  which  break  up  into  smaller  portions,  something 
like  a  letter  S  or  small  open  rings.  He  has  also  demonstrated  by  his 
cultures  that  Oospora  has  a  septate  mycelium,  which  removes  it  from 
the  Microsiphoneae.  Gueguen  finds  that  spirals  are  characteristic  of  the 
Gymnoasceas,  and  for  that  and  other  reasons  he  considers  Oospora  a 
conidial  form  of  that  group.  He  places  Achorion,  which  is  allied  to 
Trichophyton,  in  the  same  systematic  group  as  Oospora. 

*  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  48-53  (2  figs.). 
t  Zeitschr.  Pflanzenkr.,  xviii.  (1908)  pp.  5-17  (1  pi.), 

J  Rabenhorst's  Kryptogamen-Plora,  i.  abt.  9,  lief.  108  (Leipzig,  1908)  pp. 
177-240.  §  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxix.  (1908)  pp.  852-4. 


480  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Uredineae.* — J.  B.  Dandeno  supplies  an  account  of  experiments  and 
observations  on  Puccinia  malvacearum .  He  finds  that  in  the  case  of 
this  rust,  which  produces  teleutospores  alone,  the  reproduction  of  the 
fungus  in  the  following  year  is  provided  for  by  mallow  plants  that  have 
survived  the  winter  and  in  which  the  mycelium  is  perennial.  The  theory 
that  the  seed  carries  over  the  fungus  was  found  to  be  incorrect,  as  also 
the  over-wintering  of  the  teleutospores  :  none  were  induced  to  germinate 
after  a  winter's  duration.  The  mycelium  of  the  fungus  is  intercellular, 
though  occasionally  a  haustorium  is  developed  that  penetrates  a  cell  of 
the  host. 

Basidiomycetes. — M.  Peltereau  f  publishes  his  studies  and  observa- 
tions on  Russula,  a  genus  well  defined  and  easily  recognised,  but  the 
species  of  which  are  difficult  to  diagnose.  This  is  owing  to  the  various 
forms  each  species  may  assume  and  to  the  changing  colours  under 
different  conditions.  The  author  takes  them  in  groups  and  gives 
characteristics  of  each.  Incidentally  he  remarks  that  the  mild  forms 
are  all  edible,  some  of  them  very  good — and  even  some  of  the  acrid 
species  may  be  eaten  with  impunity. 

F.  Gueguen  %  gives  his  observations  on  some  species  of  Lepiota.  He 
tested  the  rate  of  growth  in  L.  lutea  in  the  dark  and  in  light,  and  found 
they  grew  much  larger  in  the  dark.  A  small  form  allied  to  L.  lutea  was 
named  L.  Boudieri.  It  is  entirely  sulphur-yellow  coloured  and  grew  in 
hot-houses. 

A.  Courtet§  reports  some  cases  of  poisoning  by  Tricholoma  tigrinum. 
It  had  been  collected  and  eaten  under  the  impression  that  all  grey  kinds, 
such  as  Glitocybe  nebularis,  were  harmless.  Another  case  was  due  tc- 
eating  Amanita  muscaria,  it  being  mistaken  for  A.  caisarea.  Neither  of 
the  cases  proved  fatal,  though  the  symptoms  of  poisoning  were  severe. 

Ph.  Guinier  ||  and  R.  Maire  give  examples  of  the  influence  of 
geotropism  on  the  orientation  of  Ungulina  fomentaria.  A  specimen  was 
found  that  had  commenced  growing  on  a  standing  tree  in  the  usual 
normal  manner.  Then  the  tree  had  fallen  to  the  ground  and  a  new 
growth  of  the  fungus  had  commenced,  entirely  covering  the  pores  with 
a  hard  tissue  and  forming  a  second  fungus  at  right  angles  to  the  first. 

Contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  Corticese.^f — Fr.  v.  Hohnel  and 
V.  Litschauer  contribute  a  study  of  this  group  based  on  the  plants  of 
several  important  herbaria  in  Vienna,  Geneva,  and  Berlin.  They  have 
changed  the  genera  of  several  species.  Other  species  they  have  found 
to  be  synonymous  with  those  of  earlier  date.  A  diagnosis  of  the  genus 
Aleurodiscus  is  given,  with  a  list  of  the  species.  The  authors  have 
traced  the  development  of  JEgerita  Candida  :  it  never  forms  spores  ;  the 
globose  bodies  are  abnormal  basidia  of  some  Peniophora,  and  the  fungus 
must  be  known  as  P.  JEgerita.     Two  new  genera  have  been  diagnosed  : 

*  Michigan  Acad.  Sci.,  Ninth  Report,  1907,  pp.  68-73  (5  figs.), 
t  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  95-120. 
t  Tom.  cit.  pp.  121-32  (3  figs.).  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  133-7. 

||  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  138-40  (2  figs.). 
i  SB.  k.  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien.  Math.-Nat.  Kl.,  cxvi.  Abt.  1  (1907)  pp.  739-852 
(4  pis.,  20  figs.).     See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  73-7. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC  481 

Glceopeniopliont,  which  forms  gloeocystidia  as  well  as Feniophora-cjstidisi, 
and  Dendrothele,  which  has  thorn-like  growths  on  the  fruiting  surface. 
A  number  of  new  species  belonging  to  different  genera  are  also 
described. 

Fomes  pinicola  Fr.  and  its  Hosts.* —  L.  EL  Pennington  has 
studied  the  habitat  of  several  of  the  larger  Polypores,  more  especially 
Fomes  pinicola.  He  found  that  it  was  the  most  common  of  the  fungi 
that  affect  Conifers.  The  fruiting  bodies  were  almost  always  found  on 
dead  trunks  after  the  wood  had  become  much  decayed.  On  standing 
trunks  they  grew  near  the  ground.  Occasionally  the  fungus  was  formed 
on  the  wood  of  deciduous  trees ;  in  one  district  it  grew  abundantly  on 
balsam  poplars.  The  fruiting  bodies  vary  in  shape,  depending  largely 
on  the  rate  of  growth  ;  the  colours  of  the  pileus  vary  according  to  the 
age  of  the  fungus  :  in  some  instances  on  deciduous  trees  the  pileus  may 
be  entirely  destitute  of  red  and  yellow  colours. 

Polyporus  annosus.f — L.  Wittmack  publishes  a  photographic  plate 
and  a  description  of  a  young  fir-tree,  sis  years  old,  that  bore  about 
middle  height  a  large  fruiting  specimen  of  P.  annosus.  It  surrounded 
the  young  tree  and  the  branches,  which  looked  as  if  they  had  grown 
through  the  fungus.  In  the  near  neighbourhood  there  had  been  an  old 
stump  attacked  by  this  fungus,  which  had  spread  to  the  sapling. 

Mycotheca  of  the  Ecole  de  Pharmacie.l — In  a  first  paper  G.  Bainier 
presents  a  series  of  observations  on  the  development  of  several  Hypho- 
mycetes.  The  rather  confused  sporiferous  head  of  Periconia  is  described 
as  bearing  a  number  of  globose  or  oblong  smooth  basidia,  each  with  a 
short  chain  of  muriculate  conidia.  Several  forms  of  Brachycladium  and 
DendrypMum  are  also  figured  and  described.  In  the  latter  genus  the 
author  establishes  a  new  subgenus,  Dendrypliiopsis,  with  conidia  borne  in 
verticils  on  the  conidiophore.  A  second  paper  deals  with  a  new  species, 
Sterigmatocgstsis  insueta,  entirely  dark  brown,  very  minute,  and  with 
much-branched  conidiophores. 

Chestnuts  filled  with  a  dark  powder  were  examined  and  cultures 
made,  which  produced  a  Hyphomycete,  Harziella  Gastanm  sp.  n.  Minute 
conidia  are  borne  at  the  tips  of  obpyriform  basidia  clustered  near  the 
apes  of  the  branches.    StachyUdium  bicolor  is  also  described  and  figured. 

Bainier  describes  and  figures  Sordaria  vestita  and  S.  decipiens.  The 
latter  species  has  an  8-spored  ascus,  and  varieties  with  4,  16,  and  32 
spores  in  each  ascus,  differing  from  each  other  in  the  smaller  size  of  the 
spores  as  these  increase  in  number.  These  spores  have  an  appendix  at 
each  end  ;  at  one  end,  in  the  form  of  a  mass  of  small  filaments,  at  the 
other  end,  in  addition,  a  long  cylindrical  cell  growing  out  from  the  centre 
of  the  shorter  filaments. 

Diseases  and  Pests  of  Coffee.§  —  F.  C.  von  Faber  gives  a  review 
of  the  numerous  enemies  of  the  coffee-plant,  both  vegetable  and  animal. 

*  Mich.  Acad.  Sci.,  Ninth  Report,  1907,  pp.  80-2. 
t  SB.  Ges.  Nat.-Preunde  Berlin,  ix.  (1907)  pp.  298-9  (1  pi.). 
I  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxix.  (1908)  pp.  73-9-1  (1  pis.). 
§  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xxi.  (1908)  pp.  97-117  (12  figs.). 

Aug.  19th,  1908  -l  k 


482  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

He  is  impressed  with  the  necessity  of  grouping  in  this  manner  the  pests 
of  tropical  plants.  First  on  the  list  of  fungal  parasites  he  places 
Hemihia  vastatrix,  the  Uredine  of  which  the  life-history  was  worked 
ont  by  Marshall  Ward.  Faber  goes  over  the  ground  again,  and  describes 
in  detail  the  different  spores,  their  germination  and  development,  and 
their  growth  on  the  host-plant.  He  gives  an  account  of  the  annual 
attack  of  the  fungus,  the  spores  of  which  are  dispersed  by  the  monsoon. 
The  leaves  are  destroyed  by  the  fungus  and  fall  from  the  trees,  then 
follows  a  loss  in  flower  and  fruit,  owing  to  the  weakened  condition  of 
the  tree.  Very  great  damage  has  been  caused  by  this  fungus  ;  an  account 
is  given  of  the  varying  degrees  of  susceptibility  of  the  different  varieties 
of  coffee  plants,  and  methods  of  combating  the  disease  are  also  dis- 
cussed. Another  disease,  due  to  a  Corticium,  on  the  branches  and  leaves, 
is  also  fully  dealt  with.  Pellicularia  kohroga  forms  a  black-rot  or  leaf- 
rot ;  it  appeared  first  in  Jamaica,  but  has  been  detected  in  Java,  India, 
and  Venezuela.  It  is  chiefly  a  leaf-disease.  Other  leaf-diseases  are 
Glmosporium  coffeanum,  Cercospora  coffeicola,  and  Oolletotrichum  coffea- 
num,  all  of  which  cause  spots  on  the  leaves,  and  lower  the  vitality  of 
the  host-plant. 

Diseases  of  Plants.*— The  pathologist  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture 
reports  on  specimens  of  gooseberry  plants  from  Dunstable,  which  were 
found  to  be  covered  by  a  harmless  Phoma  ;  seed -potatoes  from  Chester 
were  infested  with  Macrosporium  Solani,  causing  brown  patches  in  the 
interior  of  the  tuber  ;  potatoes  from  Feltham  were  attacked  by  Phytoph- 
thora. 

H.  T.  Giissowj  records  a  new  tomato  disease  for  this  country, 
whither  it  has  evidently  been  imported  from  the  Continent.  The  plants 
are  attacked  by  Septoria  Lycopersici,  which  develops  on  the  leaves  and 
destroys  them.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  is  recommended  as 
soon  as  the  disease  appears  ;  badly  attacked  plants  should  be  cut  back 
or  destroyed  by  burning. 

Some  other  cases  of  disease  are  recorded  ;  %  Gymnosporhmi  clavarice 
orme  was  found  on  pink  thorn,  distorting  the  branches,  and  violet  root- 
rot,  Rhizoctonia  violacea,  was  causing  the  decay  of  stored  potatoes. 

D.  v.  Hegyi  §  describes  cases  of  crumpling  and  distortion  in  wheat, 
caused  sometimes  by  an  insect  and  sometimes  by  the  fungus  Hehnintho- 
sporium  gramimum,  or  by  unfavourable  weather  conditions. 

A.  Stift  ||  publishes  a  long  review  of  all  the  cases  of  disease  recorded 
as  occurring  on  beet  and  potato  during  the  year  1907,  including  insect 
as  well  as  fungus  attacks.  On  beet  he  notes  chiefly  Phoma  Betce, 
Peronospora  Schachtii,  Uromyces  Betce,  etc.,  discussing  the  causes  in  soil 
or  climate  that  favour  their  development.  A  series  of  fungi  that  attack 
potatoes  is  next  dealt  with.  Phytophthora  infestans  was  of  less  im- 
portance than  some  other  diseases.  Phellomyces  sclerotiophorus  has 
been  found  to  be  the  stroma  of  Sptondylocladium  atrovirens  ;  Stysanus 

*  Jouru.  Board  of  Agric,  xv.  (1908)  p.  47. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  111-15  (figs.).  J  Tomcit.,  pp.  119-20. 

§  Zeitschv.  Pflanzenkr.,  xvii.  (1907)  pp.  334-6. 

||  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xxi.  (1908)  pp.  117-43. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  483 

stemonitis  has  been  proved  to  be  a  parasite,  but  the  damage  does  not  go 
very  deeply  into  the  tissue  of  the  tuber.  Fusarium  oxysporum  has  been 
the  cause  of  very  considerable  loss,  while  Phytophtkora,  Rhizoctonia,  and 
Bacteria  add  largely  to  the  score.  An  account  is  given  of  the  feeding  of 
pigs  with  more  or  less  diseased  tubers,  and  the  results  on  the  health  of 
the  animals  is  stated  ;  they  were  not  affected  unless  the  potatoes  were 
very  badly  diseased. 

Potato  Scab  in  America. — W.  J.  Morse  *  states  that  the  disease  is 
caused  by  a  minute  parasitic  fungus  Oospora  scabies.  It  has  increased 
greatly  during  the  last  few  years,  and  the  bulletin  has  been  issued  to 
warn  growers  of  the  serious  nature  of  the  disease  and  to  advise  them  as 
to  remedies.  Morse  recommends  the  use  of  sulphur  on  the  land,  which 
tends  to  acidify  the  soil,  a  condition  inimical  to  the  fungus,  but  above 
all  he  advises  disinfection  of  seed  potatoes  to  prevent  the  propagation  of 
the  fungus.  Soaking  them  in  formalin  solution  has  been  found  of  value, 
or  exposing  them  to  formaldehyde  gas.  Morse  explains  the  best  methods 
of  applying  the  gas. 

A  second  paper  f  by  the  same  author  treats  of  potato  diseases 
generally  :  early  blight  due  to  Alter  naria  Solani  ;  late  blight  to  Phytoph- 
tkora infestans,  and  forms  of  scab.  He  discusses  the  various  methods 
of  spraying,  disinfecting,  etc.,  and  gives  results  of  experiments  with 
fungicides,  etc. 

Fungi  Parasitic  on  the  Vine  Phylloxera.^ — P.  Baccarini  received 
from  G.  B.  Grassi  some  Phylloxeras  that  had  evidently  been  killed  by 
fungi ;  the  bodies  of  the  insects  were  almost  munrmified,  being  pene- 
trated and  filled  by  brown  hyphge.  He  describes  the  different  fungus 
fructifications  that  he  noted  in  cultures  on  media  in  which  he  had  placed 
the  insects,  some  on  one  and  some  on  another.  They  were  species 
of  Cladosporium,  Macrosporium,  Fusarium,  Phoma,  Altemaria,  and 
Penicillium.     Descriptions  of  these  fungi  are  given. 

Fungi  Parasitic  on  Hevea  brasiliensis.§ — The  culture  of  this 
plant  has  developed  enormously  in  Ceylon  of  late  years,  with  the 
increased  demand  for  indiarubber,  and  has  become  subject  to  a  number 
of  parasitic  and  other  fungi,  some  of  which  cause  great  damage. 
T.  Petch  has  followed  the  growth  of  these  fungi,  and  writes  an 
account  of  them.  He  gives  a  historical  sketch  of  the  indiarubber 
culture  in  Ceylon,  explaining  the  conditions  that  prevail  and  that  are 
more  or  less  favourable  to  the  spread  of  the  parasites.  The  young 
plants  in  the  nurseries  are  well  protected  by  coco-nut  leaves  from  the 
sun  and  the  rain,  and  any  leaves  that  are  exposed  become  covered  with 
spots  on  which  several  leaf  fungi  settle  ;  such  are  Helminthosporium 
H&vece,  Pestalozzia  palmarum,  Gla'osporium  elasticce,  G.  Hevea,  and 
several  other  members  of  the  fungi  imperfecti.  Petch  deals  next  with 
the  root  fungi,  and  much  of  the  root  trouble  he  attributes  to  the  custom 
of  leaving  stumps  in  the  ground  when  trees  are  felled  :  these  are  the 

*  Maine  Agric.  Stat.,  Bull.  No.  141,  1907,  pp.  81-92. 
t  Op.  cit.,  No.  149,  pp.  287-330  (figs.). 
t  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital.,  1908,  pp.  10-16  (figs.  a-g). 
§  Zeitschr.  Pflanzenkr.,  xviii.  (1908)  pp.  81-92. 

2   K   2 


484  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

breeding  ground  for  Fames  semitostus  and  other  fungi.  The  ants  follow 
destroying  roots  already  attacked  by  the  fungus,  and  in  the  case  of 
standing  trees  a  high  wind  blows  them  over.  Some  microfollin'  that 
attack  roots  are  also  described.  On  stems  and  twigs  he  records  a  large 
number  of  parasitic  forms,  several  of  them  new  and  peculiar  to  Hevea. 
Finally  on  the  fruit  there  is  found  the  same  PhytopMhora  that  attacks 
cocoa-pods.  No  method  has  yet  been  devised  of  effectually  dealing  with 
this  fungus,  but  as  the  fruit  is  only  valuable  on  account  of  the  seed,  the 
economic  damage  Is  so  far  negligible. 

New  Subterranean  Parasite.* — A.  Trotter  found  at  Avellino  on 
the  roots  of  Crepis  bulbosa  protuberances  or  galls  4-5  mm.  in  diameter, 
quite  distinct  from  the  tubers  natural  to  the  plant.  He  describes  the 
microscopic  structure  of  these  galls  and  of  the  fungus  ;  the  spores  of 
which  filled  the  numerous  cavities.  The  gall  itself  is  formed  of  the 
tissue  of  the  host-plant  excited  to  abnormal  growth  by  the  presence  of 
the  parasite. 

Notes  on  Portuguese  Mycology.f — C.  Torrend  remarks  on  the 
very  abundant  phanerogamic  flora  of  Portugal,  and  compares  it  with 
the  cryptogamic,  which  promises  to  be  equally  rich.  He  gives  coloured 
figures  and  descriptions  of  some  rare  forms  that  he  has  found  there 
recently  :  Lycoperdon  fragile,  a  species  common  in  America  ;  Terfezia 
rosea,  one  of  the  Tuberaceee  ;  Colus  hirudinosus,  a  Phalloid  found  in 
S.  France,  Algeria,  and  New  Caledonia  ;  finally,  Torrendia  pulchella,  one 
of  the  Hymenogastracere  that  grows  in  the  open.  It  has  a  distinct 
stalk,  and  a  pileus  in  which  is  a  chambered  receptacle.  These  fungi  are 
illustrated  by  coloured  plates. 

Peptonification  of  Milk  by  Moulds.]:— It  has  been  found  that 
certain  moulds  coagulate  milk  and  then  peptonise  the  casein  by  the 
secretion  of  trypsin.  A.  Sartory  experimented  with  pure  cultures  of 
some  80  moulds,  and  chronicles  the  results,  which  were  very  different  in 
species  intimately  connected  morphologically.  He  suggests  that  this 
property  of  the  moulds  might  be  used  as  a  specific  test.  In  some  cases 
the  action  was  rapid,  3  days  or  so,  in  others  slow,  11  to  II  days  ;  in 
others  again  there  was  no  peptonification  produced. 

Atkinson,  Geo.  F. — Notes  on   some  New  Species  of   Fungi   from  the   United 
States. 

[Species  belonging  to  the  Hyinenomycetes.] 

Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  54-62. 

Bresadola,    J. — Fungi  aliquot  gallici  novi  vel  minus  cogniti.     (Some  French 
fungi  new  or  little  known.) 

[The  fungi  were  collected  by  H.  Bourdot,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Moulins.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  37-47. 

Bubak,  Fe. — Neue  oder  Kritische  Pilze.     (New  or  critical  fungi.) 

[New  species  are  diagnosed,  and  copious  notes  are  given  on  others — all 
microfungi.]  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  22-9  (13  figs.). 


*  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  19-22  (3  figs.). 

f  Bull.  Soc.  Portug.  Sci.  Nat.,  i.  (1908)  pp.  177-83  (1  pi.). 

j  C.B.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  789-90. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  485 

Gueguen,  Fern  and — Sur  un  Oospora  nouveau. 

[Oospora  lingualis,  associated  with  Gryptococcus  lingua? -piloses  on  "  black 
tongue."]  Comptes  Rendiis,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  994-6. 

Heimeel,  A. — Beitrag  zur  Flora  des  Eisacktales.  III.  (Contribution  to  the 
flora  of  the  Eisack  valley.) 

Verh.  k.k.  Zool.-Bot.  Ges.  Wien,  1907,  pp.  415-57. 
See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  p.  72. 

Jaap,  0  — Mykologiscb.es  aus  dem  Khtingebirge.    (Fungi  of  the  Rhone  mountains.) 
[A  list  of  323  fungi.]  Allg.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  xiii.  (1907)  p.  169. 

See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  p.  77. 

Jackson,  H.  S. — Sorosporium  Ellisii  Wint. — a  composite  species. 

[The  writer   considers  that   two  species  are  here  included ;  he  separates 
S.  confusnm  sp.  n.  (on  Aristida).] 

Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxviii.  (1908)  pp.  147-9. 

Kauppman,  C.  H. — Unreported  Michigan  Fungi  for  1906. 

[A  list  of  the  larger  fungi  found  in  the  State.] 

Mich.  Acad.  Sci.,  Ninth  Report,  1907,  pp.  83-7. 

Lindau,  G.,  &  P.  Sydow — Thesaurus  litteraturae  mycologicae  et  licheno- 
logicae  ratione  habita  praecipue  omnium  quae  adhuc  scripta  sunt  de  mycologia 
applicata.  (Thesaurus  of  mycological  and  lichenological  literature,  chiefly  of 
applied  mycology.)  Leipzig  :  Brothers  Borntriiger,  i.  pt.  1  (1907)  400  pp. 

Mas  see,  G. — New  or  Critical  British  Fungi. 

[An  account  of  several  species  new  to  Britain,  with  critical  notes.] 

Joum.  Bot.,  xlvi.  (1908)  pp.  151-5. 

Malkofp,    Konstantin  —  Erster  Beitrag  zur  Kenntniss  der  Pilzflora  Bulga- 
riens.     (First  contribution  to  a  knowledge  of  the  fungus  flora  of  Bulgaria.) 
[A  list  of  208  species  is  published,  all  of  them  parasitic] 

Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  29-36. 

Morgan,  A.  P. — North  American  Species  of  Agaricaceae. 

[Species  of  Hypholoma  and  Stropharia  are  described.] 

Joum.  Mycol.,  xiv.  (1908)  pp.  64-75. 

Peter,  A. — Die  Pyrenomyceten  und  Tuberaceen  der  Gottingen  Flora. 

[A   list   of   these   fungi    from  Gottingen,  with    locality  and  distribution. 
Several  of  thern  are  new  or  rare  in  Germany.] 

Nachricht.  k.  Ges.  Wiss.  Gott.  Math.-Phys.  El.,  i.  (1908)  pp.  28-52. 

Rick,  J. —  Contributio  ad  monographiam  Agaricacearum  et  Polyporacearum 
Brasiliensium.  (Contribution  to  a  monograph  of  Brazilian  Agarics  and 
Polypores.) 

[Several  new  species  are  included  in  this  survey.] 

Brot,,  vi.  (1907)  pp.  65-92  (9  pis.). 
See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  p.  81. 
Sydow,  H.   &  P. — Einige  neue  von  Herrn  J.  Bornmuller  in  Persien  gesammelt. 
Pilze. 

[Diagnosis  of  five  species  of  microfungi.]       Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  7-18. 


Lichens. 

(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith.) 

Chemical  Monograph  of  the  Cladoniae.*  —  W.  Zopf  has  worked 
through  the  species  of  this  genus  that  occur  in  Germany,  with  a  view  of 
determining  their  chemical  constituents,  and  testing  by  this  means 
their  systematic  position.  He  upholds  the  larger  groups  of  those  with 
red  apothecia  and  those  with  brown,  but  he  is  impelled  to  make  several 
changes  within  these  groups ;  he  recommends  a  more  careful  morpho- 

*  Festschr.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxvi.  (1908)  No.  3,  113  pp.  (4  pis.). 


486  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

logical  examination  to  see  if  they  cannot  be  classified  in  a  way  that  will 
also  express  their  chemical  affinities.  Zopf  has  isolated  several  new 
acids,  and  in  some  cases  he  finds  that  plants  looked  on  as  varieties  must 
be  treated  as  species  ;  thus  C.  fimbriate/,  f .  nemoxyna  has  been  made  a 
species  by  the  author  because  it  contains  no  fumar-protocetrar-acid,  such 
as  is  found  in  C.  fimbriate/  and  others  closely  allied. 

Mycetozoa. 

•(By  A.  Loerain  Smith.) 

Spongospora  Solani.* — T.  Johnson  publishes  a  carefully  worked  out 
study  of  this  organism,  which  he  considers  to  be  a  slime-fungus  closely 
allied  to  Plasmodiophora.  It  causes  scabs  on  potato  tubers,  and  in 
some  districts  in  Ireland  it  is  as  injurious  to  potatoes  as  finger-and-toe  is 
to  turnips.  The  spores  are  grouped  in  balls,  comparable  to  grains  of 
sand,  and  just  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  When  still  immature  the 
spore-contents  appear  as  one  fairly  dense  body  ;  at  a  more  advanced 
stage  they  contain  six  or  eight  distinct  bodies — swarm-spores  which 
escape  into  the  surrounding  medium,  and  serve  to  propagate  the 
Spongospora.  Scabby  potatoes  when  planted  produce  other  scabby  tubers  ; 
sometimes  the  rhizome  is  affected.  Clean  seed-potatoes  are  essential  to  a 
healthy  crop.  Johnson  gives  advice  as  to  checking  or  overcoming  the 
disease. 

Existence  of  Myxomonas  Betae.f  —  This  organism  was  originally 
described  by  Brzezinski  as  a  pseudo-myxomycete  which  lived  parasitic- 
ally  on  beetroot.  The  results  were  questioned  by  Trzebinski  in  a 
later  paper,  and  now  by  F.  C.  von  Faber,  who  has  gone  over  the  whole 
ground  carefully,  and  in  his  summing  up  says  : — "  No  stage  whatever  of 
any  myxomycete  of  any  kind  could  be  found  in  the  roots,  and  it  can  be 
stated  with  absolute  certainty  that  Myxomonas  Betce  does  not  exist." 
Faber  gives  proofs  of  his  statement ;  he  finds  that  what  were  considered 
to  be  zoospores  in  motion  were  protoplasmic  particles  in  Brownian 
motion,  or  perhaps  bacteria  that  had  got  into  the  cultures. 

Dimorphism  in  a  Myxomycete4 — E.  Pinoy  records  further  observa- 
tions on  a  culture  of  Bidymium  nigripes.  With  white  plasmodia  placed 
in  his  culture  tubes  he  was  able  to  obtain  fructifications  in  10  to  20 
days.  Some  of  the  tubes,  however,  showed  a  plasmodium  that  was 
yellow  or  orange,  others  blackish  violet.  From  neither  of  these  did  he 
obtain  fructifications,  only  sclerotia.  He  tried  again  by  mixing  the  two 
plasmodia,  and  failed  ;  he  then  made  separate  cultures  of  the  two 
sclerotia,  and  taking  the  myxanicebag  obtained  he  mixed  a  few  of  them  in 
a  third  culture  tube.  Under  these  conditions  he  obtained  fructifications 
in  10  or  12  days.  Pinoy  considers  that  he  is  dealing  with  a  form  of 
sexuality,  that  he  has  -f  and  —  spores,  such  as  were  found  by  Blakeslee 
in  Mucor,  that  with  one  or  the  other  alone  there  is  no  fructification,  but 
only  when  the  two  kinds  are  mixed. 

*  Econ.  Proc.  Roy.  Dublin  Soc,  i.  (1908)  pp.  453-64  (1  pi.). 
t  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  177-82. 
%  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  630-1. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  487 

Unusual  Growth  of  Spumaria  alba.*— Th.  Wulff  describes  a 
growth  of  Plysarum  cinereum,  which  covered  large  patches  of  grass  in  a 
meadow,  and  considerably  lowered  its  value.  In  the  same  field  he  now 
records  an  equally  abundant  invasion  of  Spumaria  alba,  which  showed 
itself  chiefly  in  great  masses  on  the  mowed  grass.  The  field  belonged 
to  the  Swedish  experimental  station  at  Flahult,  and  consisted  of  well- 
drained  moss-land  mixed  with  sand  and  manured  with  lime  and  minerals, 
but  not  with  saltpetre  or  dung.  A  very  wet  season  from  the  middle  of 
June  to  the  end  of  August  preceded  the  unusual  development  of  the 
myxomycete.  Wulff  is  unable  to  say  if  the  grass  was  injured,  but  in 
any  case  it  looked  unappetising. 


Schizophyta. 
Schizomycetes. 

Streptothrix  in  Chronic  Suppuration. f—M.  P.  Neschczadimenko 
has  isolated  a  streptothrix  organism  from  the  purulent  discharge  of  an 
umbellical  fistula.  Microscopically,  the  pus,  when  stained  by  Gram's 
method,  showed  stained  and  unstained  cocci  and  rods,  and  large  quan- 
tities of  long,  sometimes  branched  threads  0  ■  75-1  yu,  in  width ;  in 
sterilised  water  the  pus  showed  irregular  white  clumps,  which,  on 
shaking,  broke  up  into  small  flocculi,  consisting  of  a  tangle  of  threads 
and  cocci ;  these  flocculi  were  transferred  to  various  fluid  and  solid 
media,  and  under  strictly  anaerobic  conditions  growth  occurred  at 
36°-37°  C.  More  vigorous  growth  was  obtained  in  broth  with  yolk  of 
egg  after  8-10  days  ;  it  consisted  of  white  granules  adhering  to  the  wall 
of  the  tube,  the  medium  remaining  clear  ;  microscopical  examination 
showed  long  threads  often  branched,  and  bent  and  twisted  rods  with 
thickened  ends.  On  agar  it  forms  irregular-shaped  colonies,  grey- white 
at  first,  but  becoming  darker  and  of  a  yellow  tint,  especially  at  the 
centre,  and  consists  of  rod-forms  resembling  the  diphtheria  bacillus.  No 
growth  was  obtained  on  gelatin  or  on  potato.  The  organism  did  not 
growr  under  aerobic  conditions,  and  it  does  not  appear  to  be  pathogenic 
for  animals  ;  it  is  not  acid-fast.  The  etiological  relation  of  this  strepto- 
thrix to  the  suppuration  in  this  case  is  not  certain. 

Micrococcus  catarrhalis  (Pfeiffer)  and  Gonococcus.  f — J.  Bruckner 
refers  to  the  difficulty  of  distinguishing  the  Micrococcus  catarrhalis  from 
the  Gonococcus  and  Meningococcus,  on  ascitic  agar  or  serum  agar,  on 
account  of  the  variable  forms  assumed,  but  finds  that  it  is  easy  to 
distinguish  these  organisms  in  ascitic  broth  by  the  formation  by 
M.  catarrhalis  of  opaque  white  flocculi  which  are  deposited  and  leave 
the  broth  clear,  whereas  the  Gonococcus  and  the  Meningococcus  cloud 
the  broth,  form  a  delicate  pellicle,  and  a  flocculent  deposit,  which  dis- 
appears on  shaking,  but  the  broth  always  remains  cloudy. 

Differential  Diagnosis  of  Gonococcus  and  certain  other  Micrococci. § 
Rothe  finds  that  the  Gonococcus  ferments  dextrose,  but  not  lasvulose  or 

*  Zeitschr.  Pflanzenkr.,  xxiii.  (1908;  pp.  2-5  (1  pi), 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.  lte  Abt.  Orig.  xlvi.  (1908)  p.  578. 

%  C.K  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  p.  619. 

§  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvi.  (1908)  p.  G45. 


488  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

maltose  ;  that  Meningococcus  ferments  dextrose  and  maltose,  but  not 
kevulose ;  that  DipUeoccus  flavus  ferments  dextrose,  bevnlose.  and 
maltose ;  and  that  Micrococcus  catarrhalis  and  M.  cinereus  ferment 
neither  dextrose,  lasvulose,  nor  maltose. 

Bacillus  i'usiformis  (Vincent)  cultivated  in  Symbiosis.* — (J.  Proca 
finds  that  B.fusiformis  grows  especially  luxuriantly  in  a  broth  containing 

II.  subtil  is  and  streptococcus,  and,  instead  of  forming  a  thick  deposit,  is 
distributed  through  the  liquid  medium.  Similar  abundant  growth 
occurs  when  B.fusiformis  and  streptococcus  are  grown  in  a  sterilised 
broth  culture  of  B.  coli  or  B.  typhosus  :  if  the  broth  is  diluted  with 
distilled  water  so  that  the  growth  of  the  streptococcus  can  hardly  take 
place,  the  B.fusiformis  still  grows  abundantly.  B.fusiformis  inoculated 
together  with  B.  subtilis  on  pepton  agar,  prepared  without  meat,  forms 
after  3-4  days'  incubation,  small  round,  circumscribed,  whitish-yellow 
opaque  colonies,  composed  of  typical  bacillary  forms.  In  broth,  in  the 
presence  of  B.  subtilis  and  streptococcus,  the  B.fusiformis  has  a  spirillar 
appearance  ;  this  spirillum  form  when  transferred  to  solid  media  repro- 
duces the  typical  fusiform  bacillus. 

Bacterium  cystinse.f — H.  Muller  -  Thurgau  describes  four  new 
species  of  cyst-forming  organisms  (bacterienblasen).  (1)  Bacterium 
man n itopmum  is  found  occasionally  in  fruit  wines  as  snow-white  flocculi 
measuring  1-3  cm.  in  diameter,  composed  of  short  or  long,  jointed  or 
un jointed  rods  up  to  50/x  long  ;  the  rods  are  not  motile,  and  have  no 
flagella  ;  spore-formation  does  not  occur ;  they  tend  to  form  zoogloeic 
masses  ;  growth  occurs  on  gelatin,  which  is  not  liquefied  ;  the  rods  stain 
by  ordinary  dyes,  and  also  by  Gram's  method  ;  it  is  a  potential  anaerobe, 
with  a  minimum  temperature  of  8°-10°C,  and  an  optimum  of  25°-30°C.  ; 
it  ferments  kevulose  and  saccharose,  but  not  maltose,  dextrose,  or 
mannite.  (2)  B.  gracile  resembles  the  preceding  :  it  is  found  in  zoo- 
glceic  masses  and  bladders  in  fruit  wines,  especially  in  certain  perry  ;  it 
occurs  as  short  non-motile  rods  1-1  ■  2  p.  long,  long  threads  not  being 
observed.  No  spore-formation  occurs ;  the  staining  reaction  and 
chemical  characters  were  not  examined.  (3)  Micrococcus  cystiopceus 
forms  zoogloeic  masses  and  bladders  in  fruit  wines,  and  occurs  as  cocci, 
diplococci,  and  tetrads.  (4)  A  micrococcus  resembling  the  preceding, 
and  found  in  bladders  in  fruit  wine,  but  was  not  studied  in  pure  culture. 

Studies  in  Mediterranean  Fever.i — E.  Sergent  and  others  find  that 
the  goats  of  Algiers  are  only  affected  to  a  small  extent  in  comparison 
with  the  Maltese  goats,  viz.  4*2  p.c.  as  against  30-50  p. a,  and  suggest 
that  this  is  due  probably  to  the  fact  that  Algerian  goats  are  impure 
breeds,  strongly  mixed  with  Spanish  goats.  Mediterranean  fever  seems 
to  be  enzooic  with  goats  of  Maltese  breed.  The  author  finds  that  the 
infection  may  be  conveyed  to  ail  domestic  animals  and  to  man  by 
ingestion  or  by  contact  of  the  micrococcus  excreted  in  the  milk  or  the 
urine. 

Intestinal  Flora  of  certain  Orthoptera.§ — A.  Sartory  and  Clerc 
have  made  cultivations  on  agar,  glucose-agar,  and  in  broth  from  the 

*  C.E.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  p.  771. 
f  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.,  xx.  (1908)  p.  445. 
t  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xxii.  (1908)  p.  209. 
§  C.E,.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  p.  544. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  489 

intestinal  contents  of  different  Orthoptera,  and  have  isolated  various 
moulds  and  bacteria,  including  especially  Penicillium  glaucum,  and 
Mucor  mucedo,  B.  stibtilis,  B.  coli,  and  Staphylococcus  aureus. 

Bacillus  causing  an  Exanthematous  Fever.* — T.  Horiucbi  has 
isolated  from  the  stools  and  in  some  cases  also  from  the  urine  of  patients 
suffering  from  an  exanthematous  fever,  during  the  Russo-Japanese  war, 
a  bacillus  which  is  culturally  similar  to  the  B.  paratyphosus,  but  gives 
a  positive  indol  reaction  ;  it  agglutinates  with  the  serum  of  the  patient 
from  whom  it  was  isolated,  and  with  that  of  others  suffering  from  an 
identical  illness,  and  it  appears  to  be  the  specific  cause  of  the  fever. 
The  author  has  named  the  organism  B.  febris  exanthematici  Mandschurice. 

Plague  Bacillus  in  the  Bed  Bug.t  —  Y.  Jordansky  and 
N.  Kladnitsky  conclude  from  their  experiments  that  the  coccobacillus 
of  plague  retains  its  virulence  in  the  bug  for  at  least  10  days,  and  from 
this  fact  the  inference  may  be  drawn  that  in  certain  cases  the  bug  may 
become  an  infective  agent. 


"&v 


Toxin  of  Bacillus  virgula.J — L.  Verderau  finds  that  the  toxin  of 
B.  virgula  is  a  definite  alkaloid,  and  analogous  to  the  active  principle  of 
other  vegetables. 

Symbiosis  of  Bacillus  vulgaris  and  Bacillus  butyricus.§— C.Crithari 
finds  that  if  sufficient  care  be  taken  to  maintain  a  permanent  acidity  of 
the  medium  the  phenomena  of  butyric  fermentation  are  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  The  details  are  tabulated  in  three  sections  which  show  the 
results  of  the  action  of  the  bacteria  singly  and  in  combination. 

Micrococcus  neoformans  and  Cancer. || — M.  Doyen  finds  that  cancer 
may  be  diagnosed  by  the  specific  reaction  with  M.  neoformans  on  the 
following  grounds  :  (1)  The  serum  of  cancerous  patients  contains  specific 
bodies.  (2)  These  specific  bodies  exert  an  elective  action  on  the  extract 
of  powder  from  the  tumour,  and  of  31.  neoformans  and  on  young  cultures 
of  this  microbe,  so  as  to  produce  either  fixation  of  the  complement  or 
agglutination.  (3)  The  diagnosis  of  deep-seated  cancer  may  be  definitely 
made  in  the  majority  of  cases  by  a  combination  of  three  tests  :  (1) 
fixation  of  complement ;  (2)  agglutination  ;  (3)  determination  of  the 
opsonic  index. 

Bacteria  as  Agents  in  the  Oxidation  of  Amorphous  Carbon.l" — 
M.  C.  Potter  finds  that  under  conditions  of  exposure  to  the  air,  a  slow 
oxidation  of  amorphous  carbon  takes  place  through  the  agency  of 
bacteria  :  during  this  action  C09  is  given  off  and  heat  is  evolved. 


- 


Marshall,  C.  E.,  &  B.  Farrand. — Bacterial  Associations  in  the  Souring  of 
Milk.  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.  xxi.  (1908)  pp.  7-59. 


*  Centralbl.  Bakt.  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvi.  (1908)  p.  586. 

t  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  455-62. 

X  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  803-5. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  818-20.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  816-18. 

i  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  Series  B,  lxxx.  (1908)  pp.  239-59. 


490 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.   Instruments,  'Accessories,  etc.* 
(1)    Stands. 

_  "  Waterhouse "  Museum  Microscope. — This  Microscope  (fig.  121) 
is  [designed  for  the  display  of  one  dozen  microscopic  objects,  in  a 
museum  or  exhibition,  where  it  is  required  to  leave  the  instrument 
unattended  and  at  the  same  time  to  prevent  breakage  or  injury  to 
Microscope  or  objects.     The  instrument  here  illustrated  is  an  improved 


Fig.  121. 

form  of  previous  patterns.  It  consists  of  a  dust-proof  ebonised 
mahogany-framed  glass  case,  in  which  the  Microscope  is  fitted.  The 
objects,  twelve  in  number,  mounted  on  the  standard  size  of  slips, 
3  by  1  in.,  are  placed  upon  a  revolving  brass  drum  of  very  solid  con- 
struction. The  surfaces  on  which  the  objects  rest  are  machine-planed, 
thereby  insuring  proper  focus  being  maintained  when  objects  are 
changed.  The  drum  is  rotated  by  means  of  a  milled  head  from  outside 
the  case,  and  fine  focusing  is  effected  by  moving  the  projecting  eye-piece 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands ;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives ;  (3) 
Illuminating  and  other  Apparatus ;  (4)  Photomicrography ;  (5)  Microscopical 
Optics  and  Manipulation  ;   (6)  Miscellaneous. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


491 


end  in  a  spiral  manner.  A  spring  catch  indicates  when  the  object  is 
exactly  in  line  of  vision.  The  body  of  the  instrument  is  fixed  at  an 
angle  of  45°  approximately,  this  being  found  the  most  convenient 
position  for  ordinary  observation.  Illumination  is  obtained  from  an 
adjustable  plano-concave  mirror  mounted  in  the  interior  of  drum.  All 
parts  projecting  outside  the  case  are  securely  protected  from  injury,  and 
the  door  is  fitted  with  lever  lock.  The  most  suitable  powers  to  use  with 
the  instrument  are  from  2-|  in.  The  instrument  is  made  by  Messrs. 
Watson  and  Sons. 

Konkoly's  Large  Measuring  Microscope.* — This  apparatus  (fig.  122) 
is  made  by  Messrs.  Otto  Toepfer  und  Sohn,  of  Potsdam,  and  is  listed 


Fig. 122. 


No.  Sb  in  their  catalogue.  The  instrument  is  specially  intended  for  the 
measurement  of  sunspots,  but  is  equally  well  adapted  for  other  purposes. 
It  is  built  up  on  a  heavy  cast-iron  base  plate,  moving  on  three  foot- 
screws.  The  upper  surface  of  this  base  plate  is  planed,  the  lower  strongly 
ribbed  ;  the  centre  part  is  perforated  for  the  admission  of  light  on  to  the 
plate  to  be  measured.     In  the  front  of  the  base  plate  there  is  a  prism 

*  Otto  Toepfer  und    Sohn's  Catalogue    (Neue    Astrophysikalische  Apparate, 
1908),  Potsdam. 


492  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

bar  supported  on  two  feet,  and  graduated  into  millimetres;  at  the  back 
of  the  base  plate  there  is  a  sill  plate  planed  on  top  and  parallel  to  the 
prism  bar.  The  plate-stage  (or  object-stage)  is  carried  on  two  bearers 
moving  on  the  prism  bars  and  supported  by  rollers,  the  bearers  being 
actuated  by  rack-and-pinion.  The  base-plate  also  carries  an  arched 
support  at  right  angles  to  the  stage  movement  ;  the  summit  of  this 
arch  is  another  prism  bar,  and  carries  the  Microscope  on  bearers  actuated 
by  rack-and-pinion.  The  Microscope  movement  is  naturally  at  right 
angles  to  the  stage  movement.  The  upper  prism-bar  is  graduated  into 
millimetres,  but  both  prisms  can  be  more  finely  graduated  if  desired. 
A  position  circle  on  the  stage  is  intended  to  receive  photographic  plates 
up  to  16  by  16  cm.,  and  is  connected  with  a  circular  rackwork  under 
this  stage  controlled  from  the  right-hand  end  of  the  stage.  A  frame, 
clearly  shown  in  the  illustration,  covers  the  object  placed  on  the  posi- 
tion-circle, and  contains  a  grating  divided  into  intervals  of  2  by  2  mm. 
This  frame  moves  on  a  hinge  (seen  to  the  left),  and  is  kept  tight,  when 
shut  up,  by  a  screw.  The  Microscope  magnifies  ten  times,  and  can  be 
rotated  in  a  long  groove  90°  about  its  optic  axis  ;  it  can  be  clamped 
firmly  on  an  adjustable  peg,  so  that  the  micrometer  screw  of  the  Micro- 
scope is  parallel  to  one  or  another  of  the  lines  of  the  grating-system. 
The  Microscope  measurement  is,  therefore,  merely  applied  from  line  to 
line  of  the  glass  plate  (at  most  2-2  lines).  The  divisions  on  both 
prisms  correspond  to  the  glass  net,  and  should  he  parallel  with  them; 
therefore,  the  divisions  on  the  prisms  should  coincide  with  the  net- 
lines,  and  this  is  easily  regulated  by  the  index.  The  index  on  the  prism 
graduations,  as  well  as  on  the  position  circle,  is  easily  read  by  means  of 
large  loups  of  convenient  size.  This  apparatus  has  been  in  use  for  four 
years  at  the  Prussian  Royal  Astrophysical  Observatory,  and  has  given 
satisfactory  results. 

Vogel-Hale  Measuring  Microscope  (Model  C).* — This  instrument 
is  listed  No.  &c  in  the  maker's  catalogue,  and  is  shown  in  fig.  123.  It  is 
mainly  intended  for  the  measurement  of  solar  spectra.  The  strong  iron 
stand  on  which  it  is  mounted  can  lie  inclined  at  any  angle  between  0° 
and  60°  at  the  observer's  pleasure.  The  iron  frame  forming  the 
measuring  stage  slides  between  two  steel  runners,  and  is  covered  with  a 
glass  plate  for  the  reception  of  the  object,  which  is  secured  by  pressure 
springs  of  adjustable  length.  The  measuring  screw  is  very  carefully 
constructed,  and  has  an  available  length  of  150  mm.  ;  one  rotation  of 
the  thread  gives  an  axial  movement  of  0*5  mm.,  and  imparts  a  corre- 
sponding movement  to  the  measuring  stage  by  means  of  a  steel  nut 
beneath  it.  A  counterweight  is  applied  to  the  screw  so  as  to  avoid 
deadway.  Two  drums,  with  common  index,  are  fitted  near  the  screw- 
head,  and  give  the  readings  :  one  of  these  drums  records  the  rotations  of 
the  screw,  and  the  other  the  rotations  of  the  first  drum.  The  first  drum 
is  divided  into  hundredths,  and  tenths  of  these  can  safely  be  estimated, 
so  that  a  reading  of  0*0005  mm.  can  be  obtained  ;  a  scale  divided  into 
millimetres  shows  the  movement  of  the  stage  in  that  unit.     The  illu- 

*  Otto  Toepfer  und  Sohn's  Catalogue  (Neue  Astrophisikalische  Apparate, 
1908),  Potsdam. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


493 


urination  of  the  object  is  attained  by  a  rotatory  long  mirror   placed 
underneath  the  stage.      The  Microscope  is  on  a   rail   parallel   to  the 
measuring  screw,  and  is  adjustable  by  hand-movement,  by  which 
the  arangement  of  long  objects — e.g.  spectra — is  much  facilitated 
Microscope  is  equipped  with  one  ocular  and   three  objectives, 
about  4-100  diameters  ;    focusing  is  by  rack-and-pinion.     The  ocular 
has  strong  threads,  and  can  be  rotated  through  90°. 


means 
.  The 
giving 


Fig.  123. 

Vogel's  Measuring  Microscope  (Model  I.).* — This  apparatus  of 
Otto  Toepfer  und  Sohn  (Xo.  9  in  their  catalogue)  serves  for  almost  the 
same  purpose  as  model  C,  but  the  Microscope  is  intended  to  be  used  in  a 
constant  position.  For  this  purpose  the  Microscope  is  movable  by  hand 
on  a  slide,  and  is  provided  with  a  prism  in  order  to  be  convenient  for 
the  observer.  The  illumination  of  the  measuring  screw,  its  gradation, 
and  the  optical  equipment,  are  the  same  as  in  the  similar  parts  of  the 
measuring  stage  of  model  C.  As  will  be  plainly  seen  from  the  illus- 
tration (fig.  124),  the  apparatus  may  be  accompanied  with  an  etching 
installation  which  can  be  adjusted  and  clamped  on  the  slide  of  the 
Microscope.     This  auxiliary  gives  a  means  of  engraving  fine  divisions  on 

*  Otto  Toepfer  und  Sohn's  Catalogue  (Neue  Astrophvsikalische  Apparate 
1908),  Potsdam. 


4H4 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


metal,  glass,  etc.,  and  they  can  be  arranged  either  obliquely  or  perpen- 
dicularly to  the  direction  of  the  stage  motion. 


Fig.  124. 


Vogel-Wanach  Large  Measuring  Microscope  (Model  II.).* — This 
apparatus  (fig.  125),  9a  in  the  maker's  catalogue,  is  specially  constructed 
for  the  measurement  of  star  spectra.  It  is  mounted  on  a  strong  tripod 
with  a  hinged  pillar,  so  that  any  desired  inclination  between  0°  and  90° 
can  be  arranged.  Microscope  and  measuring  stage  are  arranged  on  a 
specially  stiffened  carrier,  and  an  inclosed  glass  plate  forms  the  object- 
bearer.  A  circular  mirror  with  universal  movement  is  set  below  the 
stage  and  illuminates  the  object.     The  measuring  screw  has  an  available 

*  Otto  Toepfer   und   Sohu's   Catalogue  (Neue   Astrophysikalische  Apparate, 
1908),  Potsdam. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


495 


length  of  50  mm.  and  a  pitch  of  0-5  mm.  Certainty  of  screw  action  is 
attained  by  a  counterweight,  and  the  reading  (0  •  0005  mm.)  is  given  by 
a  loup  or  two  drums  with  common  index,  as  in  model  C  ;  there  is  also  a 
scale  for  reading  the  millimetres.     The  Microscope  is  in  a  slide,  and  is 


Fig.  125. 


adjustable  perpendicularly  to  the  direction  of  measurement ;  it  is  operated 
by  a  screw  of  50  mm.  available  length  and  1  mm.  pitch,  which  can 
therefore  be  used  as  a  measuring  screw.  The  corresponding  drum  is 
divided  into  hundredths,  and  by  estimation  of  tenths  readings  can  be 
taken  to  0*001  mm.  A  laterally  applied  millimetre  scale  counts  the 
whole  rotations   of   the   screw.      The   Microscope   is  equipped  with  a 


4«.)i; 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    To 


Huyghen's  ocular  with  variable  thread  distances ;  the  field  can  be 
variously  stopped  off  (as  in  model  A).  There  are  three  objectives,  giving 
about  10-100  diameters.  Focusing  is  by  rack-and-pinion,  and  the 
ocular  is  rotatory  through  00°. 


Fig.  126. 


Vogel-Campbell's  Large  Measuring  Microscope  (Model  III.). — 
This  instrument  (fig.  120),  $b  in  the  maker's  catalogue,  resembles 
model  II.  in  its  horseshoe  mount  and  hinged  pillar,  inclinable  through 
90°.     But  it  differs  essentially  from  the  other  types  in  its  retention  of 

*  Otto   Toepfer  und    Sohn's   Catalogue    (Neue  Astrophysikalische   Apparate, 
1908),  Potsdam. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


497 


the  ordinary  Microscope  form,  so  that  in  addition  to  the  rack-and-pinion 
adjustment  there  is  also  a  fine-adjustment  by  prism  action  and  micrometer- 
screw  ;  in  consequence,  stronger  magnifications  can  be  used.  The  great 
distance  of  the  measuring  stage  from  the  pillar  is  notable,  as  well  as  the 
provision  of  stage  spring-carriers,  so  that  plates  of  16  cm.  by  16  cm.  can 
be  applied  and  their  central  parts  measured.  The  details  of  the  measuring 
stage,  the  illumination,  the  measuring  screw,  and  the  reading  scales,  are 
practically  the  same  as  for  model  II.  The  Microscope  has  one  ocular 
and  three  objectives,  giving  about  10-100  diameters  ;  stronger  objectives 
can  be  used  if  desired.  The  ocular  has  strong  threads,  and  is  rotatory 
through  90°. 

Vogel's    Measuring  Microscope   (Model  IV.).* — This    instrument 
(fig.  127)  is  the  oldest  form  of  measuring  instrument  constructed  by 


Fig.  127. 


Messrs.  Toepfer  und  Sohn  (catalogue  number,  9c).  The  principle  is 
essentially  that  of  a  Microscope,  with  fine-adjustment  and  horse-shoe 
shape,  hinged  pillar  for  inclination,  and  a  glass  plate  as  object-carrier. 
The  available  part  of  the  measuring  screw  extends  to  30  mm,  and  the 
pitch  is  0*5  mm.     The  scales  read  to  0*0005  mm.  by  means  of  two 

*  Otto  Tospfer  und  Soma's   Catalogue    (Neue    Astrophisikalische    Appaiate, 
(1808),  Potsdam. 


Aug.  19th,  1908 


2   L 


498  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

drums  with  common  index,  and  there  is  a  separate  scale  for  the  milli- 
metres. The  Microscope  has  a  simple  ocular,  with  strong  threads,  and 
three  objectives  giving  10-100  diameters.  The  ocular  is  rotatory 
through  90°,  and  stronger  objectives  can  be  used  if  desired. 

Toepfer's  Universal  Measuring  Apparatus.* — The  description  given 
of  this  instrument  (fig.  128)  by  A.  Wolfer  states  that  it  is  intended  for 
the  measuring  of  photographic  star-plates  of  all  kinds,  as  well  as  for 
other  purposes  requiring  exact  measurement,  such  as  the  examination  of 
micrometer  screws. 

A  desk-shaped  protuberance  a  standing  on  an  iron  base-plate  has  its 
upper  surface  inclined  to  the  observer  at  an  angle  of  45°,  and  carries  the 
object-stage  and  the  horizontally  placed  and  horizontally  working  main 
measuring-screw.  In  front  of  the  protuberance  a,  and  partly  extending 
over  it,  there  is  a  very  strong  bearer  b  b,  stiffened  with  ribs  and  bowed 
at  its  centre  ;  the  lower  part  of  the  bearer  is  vertical,  and  its  upper 
part  is  parallel  to  the  object-stage,  the  Microscope  being  applied  to  it  in 
a  slide,  and  receiving,  by  means  of  a  screw,  a  movement  perpendicular  to 
the  movement  of  the  object-stage.  Thus  the  whole  arrangement  pro- 
vides a  very  convenient  attitude  for  the  observer.  There  are  means  for 
levelling  the  instrument  as  a  whole.  The  object-stage  c  is  a  glass  plate 
fastened  on  to  a  square  bronze  frame,  and  works  by  means  of  four  pins 
on  a  circular  metal  plate,  whose  circumference  forms  a  position  circle, 
and  is  graduated  to  half-degrees,  and  reads  to  minutes  by  means  of  two 
verniers  diametrically  placed.  This  position  circle  is  rotatory  in  a  strong 
cast-iron  ring  concentrically  set  beneath  it,  the  verniers,  as  well  as  a 
tangent-screw,  being  attached  to  the  ring.  The  measuring  stage  and 
all  its  parts  are  operated  by  the  horizontal  main  screw,  and  may  be 
moved  in  the  direction  of  its  axis.  This  screw  is  very  strong,  and  is 
carefully  designed  for  its  double  purpose  of  movement  and  measurement, 
the  diameter  of  its  thread  being  10  mm.,  its  thread-distance  0*5  mm., 
and  the  whole  action  range  100  mm.  •  There  are  two  drums  (the  right- 
hand  one  is  shown  in  figure)  near  the  screw-handle,  and  these  give  the 
whole  rotations  and  hundredths,  so  that  the  accuracy  of  the  direct 
reading  extends  to  ttoVo  mm.  A  scale  g,  divided  into  millimetres,  and 
an  index  moving  with  the  measuring  stage,  give  the  actual  position  at 
any  moment  in  millimetres.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  handles  for 
the  rotation  of  the  screw,  there  is  a  disk  h  of  7  cm.  diameter  with 
finger  openings  ;  this  disk  is  outside  the  drum,  and  serves  for  quick 
rotation  when  rapid  transport  of  the  measuring  stage  over  large  dis- 
tances is  required.  Means  are  provided  whereby  the  weight  of  the 
stage  is  taken  off  the  screw  and  thrown  on  to  ball  bearings  working  in 
grooves  in  the  desk-shaped  frame.  The  glass  plate  is  16  by  16  cm.  ; 
smaller  plates  may  be  fixed,  so  that  they  lie  centrically  with  the  position- 
circle. 

When  it  is  desired  to  examine  a  micrometer  screw,  the  glass  plate  is 
removed  and  replaced  by  a  hollowed-out  bronze  plate  with  a  circular 
aperture  of  50  mm.  diameter.  This  bronze  plate  is  provided  with  a 
screw-thread,   and   receives   the    micrometer,   whose   ocular    has   been 

*  Zeitschr.  f.  Instrumentenk.,  xxvii.  (1907)  pp.  297-301  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    -MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


499 


removed  so  as  to  expose  the  threads.  The  Microscope  of  the  measuring 
apparatus  is  sharply  directed  on  the  threads,  whose  orientation  is  judged 
by  the  position  angle  of  the  stage.  Illumination  is  by  a  mirror.  The 
screw  which  operates  the  Microscope  is  an  accurately  worked  micrometer 
screw,  and  thus  also  serves  for  measurement.  Its  thread-distance  is 
1  mm.,  its  available  range  80  mm.,  the  whole  rotations  being  read  off 
on  a  straight-edged  scale,  and  the  hundredths  on  a  drum  at  the  lower 


Fig.  12S. 


end  of  the  screw  ;  the  accuracy  is  to  TT5Vo  mm.  A  disk  0,  with  finger 
openings,  is  provided  for  quick  motions.  The  dead  weight  of  the 
Microscope  is  taken  off  the  bearings  as  far  as  possible  by  a  suspended 
weight  p,  so  that  the  sliding  movement  is  extremely  smooth.  The 
Microscope  has  three  objectives,  and  is  focused  by  rack-and-pinion  ; 
the  magnifying  powers  are  known  by  reference  to  a  graduated  scale  on 
the  draw-tube.  The  upper  end  of  the  Microscope  is  defined  by  a  circular 
flange,  and  has  two  independent  rotations,  one  of  which  may  extend  to 

2  L  2 


500  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

360°,  and  the  other  is  limited  to  90°.  Two  pieces  of  measuring  apparatus 
are  applied  to  the  flange,  one  being  a  simple  eye-piece  with  two  parallel 
threads.  One  of  these  threads  is  fixed,  and  the  other  can  be  adjusted 
to  or  from  it ;  a  third  thread  is  perpendicular  to  both.  The  movable 
thread  can  be  set  at  any  distance  from  the  fixed  thread,  suitable  for  the 
examination  of  the  object  under  consideration,  and  is  used  in  connexion 
with  the  stage  screws.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  arrangement  would 
facilitate,  for  example,  the  testing  of  a  micrometer  screw.  The  com- 
binations of  oculars  and  objectives  allow  of  magnifications  between 
2  and  100-fold.  In  place  of  the  above  described  ocular,  an  ordinary 
micrometer  is  also  provided,  having  two  double  threads  perpendicular 
to  one  another,  and  operated  by  two  micrometer  screws  r  and  s,  of 
0*25  mm.  range.  Thus  simultaneous  measurements  of  right-angled 
co-ordinates  can  be  made.  There  is  an  arrangement  for  bringing  the 
origin  of  co-ordinates  into  the  centre  of  the  field. 

Gebhardt,  W. — Aus  Optischen  und  mechanischen  Werkstatten. 

[The   author  reviews  the  chief  German   modern   microscopes   and  their 
auxiliaries — most  of  which  have  been  already  noticed  in  our  Journal.] 
Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  396-421  (15  figs.). 

Rohr,  M.  v. — Die  binokularen  Instrumente  nach  Guellen  bearbeitet. 

Berlin  :  Springer,  viii.  and  223  pp.  70  figs.  1  tab. 

Schwarzmann,  M. — Sammlungsmikroscope  und  Mineraliensammlungen. 

Centralbl.  Mineral.  Geol.  it.  Palaontol.,  1907,  pp.  615-24  (3  figs.). 

(.3)    Illuminating   and  other  Apparatus. 

History  of  Mirror-Condensers.*  —  H.  Siedentopf  collects  and  de- 
scribes all  the  various  forms  of  mirror-condensers  which  have  appeared 
since  J.  B.  Reade  invented  the  first  in  1837.  He  enumerates  in  all 
some  sixteen  varieties,  some  of  which  have  been  more  than  once  "  dis- 
covered." Thus,  J.  W.  Stephenson's  "Catoptric  Illuminator"  (1879), 
came  out  as  "Reichert's  Speigelkondensor  "  in  1906.  The  author  points 
out  that,  with  the  invention  of  Abbe's  illumination  apparatus,  the 
catoptric  condenser  passed  into  oblivion,  although  it  possessed  the 
conspicuous  advantage  of  not  decomposing  the  light.  The  advent  of 
ultramicroscopy  has  again  drawn  attention  to  the  subject  in  the  hope 
that  the  scope  of  the  new  method  may  thereby  be  widened.  Zeiss' 
rock-crystal  paraboloid  for  obtaining  dark-ground  illumination  with 
ultra-violet  light  is  described,  but  the  author  concludes  his  paper  by 
remarking  that  mirror-condensers  can  only  avail  to  a  very  limited 
extent,  as  compensation  for  the  more  complete  installations  for  the 
examination  of  ultramicroscopic  particles. 

Reichert's  New  Large  Projection  Apparatus.!  —  In  describing 
this  instrument,  O.  Heirnstadt  says  that  great  care  has  been  taken  to 
meet  the  three  essentials  of  projection  apparatus,  viz.  (1)  that  bright 
images  should  be  obtained  ;  (2)  that  all  kinds  of  projection  in  ordinary 
use  should  be  obtainable  ;  (3)  that  the  change-over  from  one  kind  of  pro- 
jection to  another  should  be  expeditious.  The  first  requirement  is  met 
by  the  use  of  an  arc  lamp  with  the  carbons  mutually  perpendicular, 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  382-93  (16  figs.),  with  a  bibliography 
of  some  30  references.  t  Tom.  cit..  pp.  370-81  (7  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


501 


combined  with  the  best  optical  appliances.  As  regards  the  second 
requirement,  four  kinds  of  projection  have  been  provided — viz.  dia- 
scopic,  epidiascopic,  megascopic,  and  microscopic.  In  the  diascopic 
installation,  diapositives  up  to  13  by  18  cm.  can  be  used,  and  at  a 
distance  of  5  metres  from  the  objective  a  magnification  of  14  diameters 
is  obtained.  The  epidiascopic  and  megascopic  projections  produce  a  flat 
surface  of  uniform  expansion.  The  body  of  the  apparatus  is  set  on  a 
strong  cast-iron  frame  running  upon  rollers,  and  stiffened  by  a  wooden 
inclosed  utensil  box.  The  projection  apparatus  is  supplied  with  an 
automatic  self-regulating  arc  lamp  of  special  construction.  The  lamps 
are  designed  for  a  uniform  current  strength  of  30  amperes.     The  upper 


1 


Fig.  129 

and  positive  carbon,  whose  crater  acts  as  the  light  source,  is  fixed  in  the 
optic  axis,  thus  giving  the  great  advantage  of  constant  centricity  as  the 
carbon  burns  away.  Moreover,  as  this  crater  is  applied  directly  to  the 
illuminating  apparatus,  a  uniform  current  furnishes  a  higher  intensity 
than  is  obtained  with  lamps  of  older  make.  As  the  negative  carbon  is 
vertical,  the  light  source  can  be  brought  very  close  to  the  condenser, 
thus  yielding  another  advantage,  because  the  condenser  can  thus  be 
made  of  higher  aperture — a  distinct  gain  to  the  brightness  of  the  image. 
The  special  features  of  this  lamp,  therefore,  make  it  very  easy  and  con- 
venient to  manage  ;  it  moves  on  runners,  and  can  be  fixed  by  clamp- 
screws  ;  there  is  a  lever  for  operating  it  in  the  direction  of  the  optic 
axis.     Fig.  129  gives  a  good  general  view  of  the  apparatus  as  a  whole. 


502 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Leitz'  Dark-ground  Illuminator  for  the  Examination  of  Living 
Bacteria.* — This  dark-ground  illuminator  (fig.  180)  is  mainly  intended 
for  examining  living  and  unstained  bacteria  under  the  Microscope. 
The  method  involved  depends  upon  the  contrast  produced  between  the 
intensely  illuminated  bacteria  and  their  dark  surroundings.  Two  reflect- 
ing surfaces,  one  internal,  the  other  external  (see  figure)  are  so  shaped 
as  to  almost  completely  unite  the  rays  in  a  point  P,  so  that  by  the  dimi- 
nution of  the  astigmatism  to  its  lowest  limits  an  intense  illumination  of 
the  bacteria  is  obtained.  Since  the  apertures  of  the  extreme  rays  «P 
and  b  P  lie  within  the  limits  1 '  1  and  1 -45,  it  follows  that  a  considerable 
amount  of  light  is  collected  at  P.  When  dry  lenses  are  used  all  the  rays 
which  enter  from  below  and  converge  towards  P  go  to  illuminate  the 
bacteria  (shown  by  lines  and  dots),  and  are  totally  reflected  at  the  surface 
of  the  cover-glass.  The  light  diffused  by  the  bacteria  (represented  by 
dotted  lines)  enters  the  objective,  and  thus  produces  an  image  of  the 
bacteria,  which  under  these  act  as  self-luminous  bodies.     As  the  rays  are 


Fig.  130. 


united  at  P  by  reflection  instead  of  by  refraction,  there  is  no  chromatic 
dispersion,  and  the  annular  illumination  of  the  bacteria  obviates  diffrac- 
tion. The  optical  portion  of  the  dark-ground  illuminator  is  contained 
in  a  mount  provided  with  a  centring  arrangement,  and  slips  from  below 
into  the  sleeve  which  usually  carries  the  Abbe  condenser.  Since  the 
point  P  should  lie  within  the  preparation,  it  is  necessary  to  use  slides  of 
uniform  thickness,  the  proper  thickness  being  1*0  mm.  The  requisite 
correction  is  effected  by  raising  or  lowering  the  dark -ground  illuminator 
by  means  of  the  movement  forming  part  of  the  illuminating  apparatus. 
It  should  in  this  connection  be  noted  that  the  space  below  the  object- 
slide  Q  should  always  be  filled  with  oil.  A  Nernst  lamp  or  incandescent 
gas  lamp  may  be  used,  but  the  best  source  of  light  is  a  small  arc-lamp. 
The  Wetzlar  firm  have  devised  a  special  model,  similar  to  that  used  for 
the  Edinger  apparatus,  requiring  a  current  of  four  amperes,  and  capable 
of  attachment  to  any  existing  house  supply.     Immersion  lenses  may  be 

*  Special  Circular,  English  version,  E.  Leitz,  London. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  503 

used,  and  they  offer  the  advantages  of  comparative  independence  of 
cover-glass  thickness  and  a  brighter  image. 

The  circular  describes  many  of  the  details  of  manipulation  necessary 
for  success. 

(4)  Photomicrography, 

Colour-screens  for  Colour-photography.* — An  extremely  ingenious 
method  of  producing  colour-screens  for  colour-photography  has  re- 
cently been  invented  by  S.  D.  M.  Hauron  and  R.  de  Bercegol,  of 
Joinville-le-Point  (Seine),  France. 

A  sheet  of  glass,  celluloid,  or  other  suitable  material  is  covered  with 
a  material  that  is  permeable  to  water,  such  as  gelatin.  Over  this  is 
spread  a  coloured  varnish  impermeable  to  water.  Small  parallel  bands 
or  tracks,  separated  by  intervals  equal  to  their  width,  are  drawn  by  a 
ruling-machine.  The  sheet  is  dipped  into  a  water-colour,  which  im- 
pregnates the  gelatin  exposed  by  the  tracks.  This  produces  a  two- 
colour  screen.  To  produce  a  third  colour,  a  second  protecting  varnish 
is  spread  ;  by  the  same  ruling-machine  tracks  are  hollowed  out  trans- 
versely and  at  intervals  of  double  their  width,  deep  enough  to  expose 
the  lower  layer  of  gelatin,  which  the  water-colour  above  used  has  not 
penetrated.  The  sheet  is  dipped  into  a  water-colour  bath  of  a  third 
colour,  producing  a  three-colour  screen.  The  process  is  variously 
modified.  A  thick  coating,  superficially  coloured,  may  be  employed, 
and  the  lines  obtained  by  successive  varnish  coatings,  rulings,  and 
water-colour  baths.  A  coloured  celluloid  base  may  be  used,  coated 
with  gelatin,  rulings  made  deep  enough  to  expose  uncoloured  celluloid, 
and  the  exposed  celluloid  then  coloured  by  a  pigment  dissolved  in 
acetone,  amyl  acetate,  or  like  liquid  that  bites  into  and  penetrates  the 
celluloid.  The  third  colour  is  obtained  by  another  gelatin  coating 
and  similar  steps.  The  gelatin  is  then  removed  from  the  celluloid 
base,  leaving  the  three-colour  screen.  Another  method  of  manufacture 
is  to  make  celluloid  sheets  with  coloured  gelatin,  rulings  made  to  ex- 
pose the  celluloid,  colouring  effected  with  pigment  dissolved  in  acetone 
as  above,  a  second  colourless  gelatin  protecting  layer  coated  on,  and 
the  third  colour  obtained  in  the  same  way.  With  this  modification, 
two  colours  may  be  superposed  at  the  intersections  of  the  lines,  if  the 
rulings  are  made  crossing  each  other.  In  a  fourth  modification,  the 
coloured  lines  are  printed  from  a  plate  engraved  by  a  ruling-machine. 
Two  sets  of  lines  may  be  printed  by  a  greasy  colouring  material,  and 
crossing  each  other,  the  third  colour  being  filled  in  by  floating  the  sheet 
in  a  colour-bath  to  which  the  greasy  colours  are  impermeable.  The 
screens  may  be  sensitised  directly,  or  they  may  be  detachably  connected 
to  the  sensitive  plate.  The  transparent  support  for  the  screens  may  be 
coloured  slightly  yellow,  so  as  to  moderate  the  activity  of  the  blue-violet 


light. 


(6)  Miscellaneous. 


Microscopical  Matters.t — W.  J.  Wood  describes  some  microscopical 
matters  in  a  letter  to  the  editor  of  the  "  English  Mechanic,"  but  the 

*  English  Mechanic,  lxxxvii.  (1908)  p.  295  (3  figs.).  ] 
f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  110-11  (1  fig.). 


504 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


chief  feature  of  his  communication  consists  in  the  fact  that  most  of  his 
subsidiary  apparatus  was  made  by  himself.  The  illustration  showing 
the  writer's  Microscope  table  and  the  disposition  of  the  apparatus  is 
interesting  (fig.  131). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  505 

Quekett  Microscopical  Club. — The  449th  Ordinary  Meeting  was 
held  on  June  19,  the  President,  Prof.  E.  A.  Minchin,  M.A.,  F.Z.S.,  in 
the  Chair.  Mr.  A.  Earland  exhibited  and  described  a  number  of  pre- 
parations of  Foraminifera,  in  regard  to  which  special  reference  may  be 
made  to  a  slide  showing  "  triple  isomorphism."  The  species  were 
Cornuspira  of  the  Porcellanous  type,  Ammodiscm  of  the  Arenaceous 
group,  and  Spirillina,  a  Hyaline  form.  Mr.  W.  Wesche,  F.R.M.S.,  con- 
tributed a  paper  on  "  The  Proboscis  of  the  Blow-fly,  Calliphora  erythro- 
cephala  Mg.  :  a  Study  in  Evolution." 

Ciceri  Smith's  Direct-reading  Micrometer-gauge  for  Cover-glass. 
At  the  March  Meeting  J.  Ciceri  Smith  exhibited  and  gave  the  follow- 
ing description  of  a  direct-reading  micrometer-gauge  (figs.  132  and  133). 

"  The  difficulty  of  reading  a  micrometer  of  the  indirect  type  in  a  dull 
light  is  a  well  known  fact,  and  as  a  short  mental  calculation  is  usually 
required  to  arrive  at  the  proper  result,  an  error  is  very  liable  to  slip  in, 
especially  when  the  instrument  is  only  used  occasionally,  or  when  the 
small  graduations  are  indistinct. 

"  The  improved  instrument  is  of  the  caliper  type,  with  the  addition 
of  a  set  of  self -calculating  or  indicating  dials,  the  chief  feature  being 
that  the  readings  are  seen  at  a  glance.  They  are  made  in  various  sizes, 
from  the  smallest  up  to  those  of  1-in.  capacity.  I  shall,  however,  confine 
my  description  to  the  smallest  size,  as  this  is  the  pattern  which  is  best 
suited  for  the  measuring  of  microscopical  glass. 

"  The  readings  for  this  small  work  are  indicated  on  two  dials  ;  the 
first  figure  (reading  from  the  left)  indicates  hundredths,  and  the  second 
figure  thousandths  of  an  inch,  which  latter  is  our  British  unit  measure- 
ment, so  that  one-thousandth  of  an  inch  is  technically  known  as  '  one 
mil ' — therefore  these  units  for  conciseness  are  frequently  described  as 
'mils.'  The  divisions  on  the  bevelled  edge  of  the  thimble  indicate 
|  mils.  I  may  mention  that  the  divisions  on  the  shank  are  for  larger 
measurements,  and  indicate  tenths  of  an  inch — capacity  ■£$. 

"  The  gauge  consists  of  a  horseshoe-frame,  having  a  screwed  shank 
or  fixed  nut  to  carry  the  micrometer  spindle,  and  a  recessed  portion  to 
receive  or  contain  the  mechanism,  which  is  in  turn  covered  by  metal 
plates.  The  front  plate  is  pierced  with  apertures,  through  which  the 
figures  appear  consecutively. 

"  Two  principles  are  involved  in  the  construction  : — (1)  A  screwed 
spindle  travelling  in  a  fixed  nut  and  fitted  into  the  body  of  the  frame  ; 
(2)  working  in  conjunction  with,  and  operated  by  the  micrometer  spindle 
is  the  registering  mechanism.  When  the  instrument  is  manipulated  so 
as  to  increase  the  gauge  the  counter  moves  forward,  and  if  manipulated 
so  as  to  decrease  the  gauge  the  counter  moves  backward. 

"The  recording  mechanism  is  self-contained  in  an  independent, 
cage-like  frame,  and  is  operated  in  the  following  manner  : — The  decimal 
figures  appearing  in  bold  relief  on  the  index  are  automatically  indicated 
in  a  step-by-step  motion,  actuated  by  the  rotation  of  the  micrometer 
spindle,  which  in  turn  drives  a  train  of  pinion-wheels  and  a  cam-wheel, 
and  upon  the  arbors  are  mounted  white  collars  or  dials,  having  black 
figures  on  their  periphery.      On    the    micrometer  spindle    is    fitted  a 


506 


SUMMAKY    OF    ODKKKNT    UKNKAHCHKK  KKLATINU    TO 


slotted  sleeve,  on  which  is  mounted  the  units-dial,  and  also  the  first 
pinion-wheel. 

"The  connection  of  the  spindle  to  the  registering  gear  is  effected  by 
means  of  a  projecting  stop  or  key  fixed  on  the  unthreaded  portion  of  the 
spindle,  which  engages  with  the  slotted  sleeve,  imparting  a  rotary  motion, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  key  is  absolutely  free  to  travel  transversely  in 
the  slot  when  the  screw  spindle  is  rotated,  so  as  to  either  increase  or 
decrease  the  gauge.  Therefore  the  pinion-wheel,  which  is  mounted  on 
the  sleeve,  drives  the  hundredths  dial,  operated  through  the  intermediate 
pinion  and  cam-wheel,  which  imparts  the  step-by-step  motion. 

"The  pitch  of  the  micrometer  screw  is  -j^  in.  The  rotating  thimble, 
which  is  rigidly  attached  to  the  spindle  and  turns  with  it,  is  so  disposed 
as  to  protect  the  micrometer  screw  against  injury  and  also  to  exclude 
dust  or  dirt.     A  knurled  head  is  fitted  freely  on  the  outer  end  of  the 


JEI1 

v\\ 

I 

111 

III 

Fig.  132. 


thimble,  and  when  manipulated  drives  the  spindle  through  the  friction 
of  a  small  spring,  which  is  interposed  ;  hence  it  is  impossible,  with 
ordinary  care,  to  strain  the  screw,  since  as  soon  as  the  pressure  becomes 
too  great,  the  spring  yields  to  the  resistance  and  allows  the  thimble 
to  slip. 

"  Fig.  132  shows  the  gauge  when  almost  closed,  with  a  reading  of 
0*023  inch. 

"  In  fig.  133  is  seen  the  internal  construction  of  the  instrument : — 
A,  micrometer  screw-spindle  ;  B,  projecting  stop  on  spindle  ;  C,  first 
pinion-wheel  and  slotted  sleeve  combined  ;  D,  intermediate-wheel  con- 
necting E  with  C  ;  E,  cam-wheel ;  F,  projecting  lug  on  cam-wheel  E, 
which  gives  the  step-by-step  motion  to  G  ;  G-,  pinion-wheel,  constructed 
with  long  and  short  teeth  alternately  ;  H  are  the  short-teeth  on  wheel  G; 
J  are  the  long-teeth  on  wheel  G  ;  K  is  the  thousandths  or  units  dial ; 
L  is  the  hundredths  dial. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  507 

"  Note  that  when  (1)  the  wheel  G  is  locked  against  rotation  by  the 
cam-wheel  E  resting  on  the  points  of  the  long  teeth,  and  is  released  and 
moves  forwards  or  backwards  when  the  lug  F  engages  with  the  short 
teeth  H.  (2)  The  wheels  E  and  D  are  rigidly  fixed  on  the  same  arbor 
and  revolve  together.  The  wheels  C  D  E  G  are  mounted  in  a  straight 
line  on  the  frame,  but  for  illustration  purposes  only  ;  E  and  G  have 
been  separated  from  C  and  D  to  avoid  any  overlapping  of  E  and  D  in 
the  diagram." 

Composition  of  Brass.*  —  The  question  asked  by  "  Theodolite," 
What  is  brass  ?  opens  up  an  interesting  and  important  subject  to 
Microscopists.  It  is  said  that  many  modern  Microscopes  wear  out  iu  a 
very  short  time,  in  spite  of  their  having  adjusting  screws  to  take  up  the 
wear,  that  the  slides  and  V-grooves  wear  and  the  threads  of  screws  strip, 
so  that  in  a  very  little  time  the  instrument  becomes  useless.  From 
"  Brassf ounder's "  communication  it  would  appear  that  the  modern 
Microscope  is,  like  other  scientific  instruments,  made  of  inferior  or  too 
soft  metal.  This  writer  says  : — "  When  I  was  an  apprentice  brass  was 
copper  and  zinc  in  different  proportions,  according  to  quality,  with  the 
addition  of  a  little  tin  for  the  best  metal ;  but  cutting  prices  in  com- 
petition have  altered  this,  so  that  modern  brass  is  any  mixture  of  metals 
which  will  produce  a  yellow  surface  when  polished.  The  introduction 
of  automatic  machines  in  the  instrument  trade  is,  however,  very  largely 
responsible  for  bad  metal  in  instruments.  Really  good,  age-lasting  brass 
is  very  tough  in  working  up  ;  it  is  also  rather  hard.  Owing  to  the  way 
in  which  it  pulls  on  to  the  tools  in  working,  it  becomes  very  hot,  and 
has  to  be  worked  at  a  low  speed.  The  brassfounder  gets  over  the 
difficulty  by  mixing  a  metal  which  will  work  well  in  the  machine,  and  it 
happens  that  a  crisp,  cool-cutting  metal  is  very  poor  in  quality.  Good 
metal  will  stand  nearly  a  white  heat  before  melting,  but  the  metal  usually 
used  will  not  stand  the  ordinary  heat  required  for  brazing.1' 

Several  other  contributors  write  on  this  subject,  and  give  the  com- 
position of  various  kinds  of  brass  ;  for  these  the  original  may  be  con- 
sulted with  advantage. 


B.  Technique.! 

(1)  Collecting  Objects,  including:  Culture  Processes. 

Cultivation  of  Algae.J — -C.  Sauvageau  takes  small  fragments  of 
plant,  and  having  cleaned  and  washed  them,  places  them  in  a  drop  of 
filtered  water  in  a  Van  Tieghem's  moist  cell.  For  the  observation  of  the 
reproductive  bodies  the  thinnest  slips  are,  of  course,  the  best.  If  it  be 
proposed  to  follow  the  course  of  the  germination,  thicker  slips  are 
preferable.  Ordinary  slides  are  too  smooth  for  the  later  stages  of 
development,  as  the  young  plantules  adhere  badly  and  undergo  abnormal 

*  English  Mechanic,  April  3,  10,  17,  24,  May  1,  1908. 

t  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Pro- 
cesses ;  (2)  Preparing  Objects  ;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes  ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting ;  (5)  Mounting,  including  slides,  preservative  fluids,  etc.  ; 
(6)  Miscellaneous. 

%  OB.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  700-1. 


508  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

development.  The  author  roughens  one  surface  of  the  slips  by  means 
of  hydrofluoric  acid.  In  a  lead  capsule,  the  lid  of  which  is  perforated 
by  several  holes,  the  diameter  of  which  is  equal  to  two-thirds  of  that 
of  the  slips,  is  placed  a  mixture  of  calcium  fluoride  and  sulphuric  acid. 
The  hydrofluoric  acid  vapour  corrodes  the  glass  surface,  and  as  soon  as 
one  slip  becomes  whitish  it  is  replaced  by  another. 

The  fine  and  regular  roughness  thus  produced  interferes  with 
observation  much  less  than  may  be  supposed,  provided  the  illumination 
be  suitable,  and  certainly  allows  the  progress  of  growth  to  be  watched 
satisfactorily. 

Collecting  and  Preserving  Planocera  inquilina.* — F.  M.  Surface 
obtained  the  material  from  the  branchial  chambers  of  the  large  whelk, 
Sycotypus  canaliculatm,  during  July  and  August  at  Woods  Hole.  About 
three  or  four  worms  were  obtained  for  every  whelk  opened.  The  adult 
polyclads  were  transferred  to  dishes  of  sea-water,  in  which  the  water  was 
changed  by  means  of  a  system  of  balanced  siphons.  These  siphons 
served  to  keep  the  water  free  from  sand  and  dirt,  and  also  prevented 
the  overflow  of  the  water  and  the  escape  of  the  worms. 

The  animals  soon  laid  eggs  in  spiral,  gelatinous  capsules,  containing 
from  100  to  2000  eggs  apiece.  The  tough  capsules  are  very  difficult  to 
penetrate  with  fixing  and  staining  reagents. 

Stages  from  the  maturation  of  the  ova  to  the  free-swimming  larvae 
were  obtained  without  difficulty  under  laboratory  conditions.  The  adult 
animals,  however,  only  lived  for  a  few  days. 

Eggs  were  fixed  in  various  solutions :  sublimate-acetic,  95  p.c. 
alcohol,  Gilson's  mercuro-nitric,  picro-sulphuric,  picro-acetic,  Perenyi's 
and  Flemming's  solutions.  Of  these  Gilson's  fluid  and  the  sublimate- 
acetic  were  found  to  be  the  best.  For  staining  whole  mounts  Conklin's 
picro-hgematoxylin  was  used  ;  but  stronger  solutions  were  found  better 
for  these  eggs.  The  eggs  were  then  clarified  in  xylol  and  mounted 
in  balsam. 

Owing  to  their  small  size  it  was  impossible  to  remove  the  eggs  from 
their  capsule,  but  they  cleared  better  if  the  capsule  was  torn.  It  was 
found  necessary  to  bleach  the  Flemming  material  with  peroxide  of 
hydrogen  before  sectioning.  A  number  of  stains  were  used  for  the 
sections,  but  Delafield's  hematoxylin,  either  in  toto  or  on  the  slide, 
proved  most  useful.  A  combination  of  thionin  and  acid-fuchsin  also 
gave  good  results.  There  is  too  much  yolk  in  these  eggs  to  use 
Heidenhain's  iron-alum  hematoxylin  to  advantage. 

Cultivating  the  Parasites  of  Kala-azar  and  lAleppo  Boil.f — 
C.  Nicolle  has  cultivated  successfully  the  parasites  of  Aleppo  boil  and  of 
Kala-azar  on  the  following  medium  : — agar  14  grm.,  sea-salt  G  grm., 
water  1)00  grm.  This  is  distributed  in  test-tubes  and  sterilised  ;  next 
the  tubes  are  liquefied  at  55°,  and  one  third  of  rabbit's  blood  obtained 
aseptically  from  the  heart  is  added.  The  tubes  are  sloped  for  12  hours 
and  afterwards  incubated  at  :-57°  for  5  days.  They  are  preserved  for 
future  use  at  room  temperature.     The  inoculations  were  made  in  the 

*  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  lix.,  1907,  pp.  514-59  (6  pis.), 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  498-9,  842-3. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  509 

condensation  fluid  after  the  manner  of  MacNeal  and  Novy.*  Cultures 
were  also  made  on  the  medium  used  by  these  investigators,  but  the 
results  were  not  so  favourable  as  on  those  of  the  author's  modification. 
The  tubes  were  kept  at  about  22°  (19°-23°),  and  examined  on  the  ninth 
day.  It  is  stated  that  in  the  case  of  Kala-azar  sub-cultures  were 
successful  down  to  the  sixth  generation. 

Separation  of  Bacillus  typhosus  and  Bacillus  coli.f — A.  Guillemard 
has  been  able  to  separate  B.  typhosus  and  B.  coli  by  adding  certain 
alkaline  salts  to  the  culture  medium.  The  author  found  that  sulphates 
and  phosphates  of  sodium  caused  broth  cultures  of  B.  coli  to  produce 
flocculi  which  were  soon  deposited,  and  the  liquid  medium  became  clear, 
but  that  cultures  of  B.  typhosus  were  unaffected,  and  the  uniform 
cloudiness  of  the  broth  remained.  Chlorides  and  nitrates  had  no 
appreciable  effect  on  cultures  of  B.  coli.  The  author  found  that  B. 
paratyphosus  A  Bryon-Kayser  and  B.  enteriditis  Gaertner  behaved  like 
B.  coli  in  forming  flocculent  cultures,  but  B.  paratyphosus  B  Schott- 
miiller  and  B.  d'Achard  (psittacosis)  behaved  like  B.  typhosus. 

Fermentation  of  Sugars  by  the  Meningococcus  and  the  Micro- 
coccus catarrhalis.! — J-  Bruckner,  employing  litmus-broth  mixed  with 
ascitic  fluid  and  various  sugars,  finds  that  one  strain  M  1  of  the  Meningo- 
coccus ferments  cane-sugar,  lactose,  and  mannite,  but  not  glucose,  or 
maltose  ;  that  two  other  strains,  M  2  and  M  3,  ferment  all  five  of  these 
sugars.  Of  two  strains  of  Micrococcus  catarrhal  is,  one  ferments  cane- 
sugar,  glucose,  lactose  and  maltose,  though  more  slowly  than  the 
Meningococcus,  whereas  the  other  only  reddens  the  lactose  broth  very 
slightly  and  for  a  short  time.  The  author  considers  that  litmus  media 
are  not  suitable  for  the  differentiation  of  these  micrococci. 

By  using  slightly  alkaline  media  containing  neutral  red,  the  two 
strains  M  2  and  M  3  behave  identically  in  broth  containing  1  p.c.  maltose, 
there  appears  a  slightly  fluorescent  cerise  coloration  which  soon  becomes 
ruby  red  ;  glucose  broth  becomes  canary -yellow  with  green  fluorescence, 
and  broths  containing  other  sugars  are  unchanged  ;  M  1  gives  the  same 
reaction  with  maltose,  but  only  after  5  days,  whereas  with  glucose  there 
appears  a  slightly  fluorescent  cerise  coloration.  It  was  noted  that  with 
litmus  media  this  strain  attacked  neither  glucose  nor  maltose.  The  two 
strains  of  M.  catarrhalis  attacked  none  of  the  sugars  in  ascitic  neutral 
red  broth.  The  author  considers  that  this  method  offers  an  easy  differ- 
entiation between  the  Meningococcus  and  the  Micrococcus  catarrhalis. 

Aerobic  Cultivation  of  Anaerobes.§ — S.  Hata  finds  that  the  culti- 
vation of  anaerobes  in  the  presence  of  air  occurs  in  broth  which  con- 
tains reducing  agents  and  solid  particles.  In  Smith-Torazzi's  organ- 
broth,  and  Wrzosek's  potato-broth,  the  reducing  properties  of  the  cells, 
and  the  cells  themselves  as  solid  particles  act  together.  In  broth  con- 
taining   0*3-0'7  p.c.  anhydric   Na2S03,  anaerobes  will   grow   in    the 

*  See  this  Journal,  1904,  p.  116. 

f  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  p.  1177. 

I  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  p.  765. 

§  Ceutralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvi.  (1908)  p.  539. 


510  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

presence  of  air,  if  pieces  of  agar  are  also  present,  and  may  produce  as 
muck  or  more  toxin  as  in  broth  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen.  In 
broth  containing  a  small  quantity  of  iron  filings  or  ferro-sulphate, 
bacilli  grow  well  but  lose  their  virulence.  By  the  addition  of  a  little 
fresh  blood-serum  to  the  Na^S03,  the  toxin  production  is  three  to  five 
times  increased. 

Investigating  Apogamy  in  Nephrodium.*  —  Shigeo  Yamanouchi 
raised  the  apogamous  prothallia  from  ordinary  spores,  which  were  sown 
on  sterilised  soil  consisting  of  vegetable  mould  and  sand  ;  these  were 
placed  in  the  greenhouse  and  kept  growing  with  special  care.  The 
cultures,  in  pots  placed  on  saucers  filled  with  water,  were  exposed  to 
direct  sunlight  after  the  prothallia  had  developed  two  or  three  cells. 
Excessive  evaporation  was  regulated  carefully,  and  the  prothallia  kept 
growing  for  a  long  period,  exposed  to  direct  sunlight,  and  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  from  28-32°  C.  The  rate  of  growth  of  these  prothallia,  as 
compared  with  those  under  normal  conditions,  was  quite  slow.  Fixation 
i  if  the  prothallia  was  made  during  all  stages  of  development.  The 
killing  and  fixing  of  the  material,  with  washing,  imbedding,  cutting, 
and  staining,  was  done  by  the  method  used  in  the  study  of  spermato- 
genesis, oogenesis,  and  fertilisation. 

Collecting  and  Examining  the  Eggs  of  Rhopalura  ophiocomse.f 
M.  Caullery  and  A.  Lavallee  remark  that  Ophiurids  infected  with 
Orthonectid  parasites  are  easily  recognisable,  as  they  are  usually  flabby 
and  sterile.  The  ventral  surface  is  greyish-white,  instead  of  being  pale 
orange  ;  all  parts  of  the  host's  body  may  be  invaded.  For  their  study 
it  was  necessary  that  the  males  and  females  should  be  mature,  and  this 
point  was  settled  by  observing  that  when  ripe,  the  animals  swam  about 
freely  when  set  free  in  the  water  by  tearing  open  the  host.  The  hosts, 
placed  in  flat  glass  vessels  containing  sea-water,  and  these  vessels  on  the 
stage  of  a  binocular  Microscope,  are  torn  open,  and  when  a  sufficient 
number  of  both  sexes  are  obtained,  the  remains  of  the  Ophiurid  are 
removed.  The  contents  of  the  pans  are  then  poured  into  a  glass  vessel 
containing  a  thin  layer  of  fresh  sea-water.  Herein  fecundation  takes 
place,  and  during  the  next  24  hours,  while  the  eggs  are  developing, 
samples  are  removed  from  time  to  time  for  the  purpose  of  examination 
in  vivo. 

For  the  study  of  the  fixed  material,  the  procedure  was  as  follows  : 
The  animals  were  picked  up  with  a  capillary  pipette  and  transferred  to 
the  fixative,  usually  Bourn's  fluid,  sometimes  acetic-sublimate  ;  after  this, 
they  were  frequently  washed  by  decantation,  aided  by  the  pipette.  This 
done,  each  lot  was  placed  in  a  small  tube  filled  with  80°  alcohol,  and 
plugged  with  cotton-wool.  The  tube  was  then  immersed  in  a  bottle  of 
80°  alcohol.  The  fecundated  females  were  imbedded  in  the  following 
manner  :  A  tube  7-8  cm.  long,  with  an  internal  diameter  of  about  5  mm., 
the  lower  end  for  a  length  of  2  cm.  being  oblong  (fig.  134).  In  this 
rectangular  portion  are  2  holes  (/fig.  134  A).     The  end  is  covered  with 

•  Bot.  Gazette,  xlv.  (1908)  pp.  289-318  (2  pis.). 

t  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.  et  Gen.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  421-69  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


511 


B.     R 


:fl 


tine  cambric,  or  bolting  silk,  fastened  on  with  thread  ;  this  cap  must 
come  above  the  holes/;  the  inferior  surface  is  then  dipped  into  collodion, 
in  order  to  render  the  bottom  of  the  tube  impermeable  to  fluids,  any  inter- 
change of  menstrua  taking  place  through  the  holes/.  The  Orthonectids, 
or  other  small  organisms,  are  placed  in  the 
expanded  portion  of  the  tube  by  means 
of  a  capillary  pipette,  and  then  the  tube 
inserted  in  the  stopper  of  a  small  glass 
cylinder  (fig.  134  B),  which  is  destined  for 
the  various  reagents.  In  this  way  the 
animals  are  fixed,  cleared  up,  and  pa- 
raffined, without  loss  or  damage.  When 
impregnated  with  paraffin,  the  tube  is 
solidified  with  cold  water,  the  cap  is  re- 
moved, and  slight  heat  allows  the  block  to 
be  removed  from  the  tube.  The  block  is 
then  sectioned.  The  sections,  about  10 /a 
thick,  were  stained  with  iron-hasrnatoxylin. 

Collecting    and    Examining    Larval  }  \\  f 

Nephridia  of  Polygordius.* — C.  Shearer 
obtained  the  material  from  the  Naples 
Zoological    Station    in    1002 ;    the   adult 

worms  containing  the  sexual  products  being   c--"        *3}gs  f' 

broken  up  in  small  jars  of  fresh  sea-water, 
when  the  ripe  eggs  and  spermatozoa  readily 
separate  out.     The  sexual  products  remain  Fig.  134. 

suspended  in   the  water  while  the  broken 

fragments  of  worms  and  debris  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  jar,  when  they 
can  be  readily  drawn  off.  The  jars  are  set  aside  until  fertilisation 
has  taken  place.  The  first  signs  of  cleavage  appear  some  three  or 
four  hours  later.  The  eggs  are  then  stirred  up  and  washed  in  several 
changes  of  sea-water  to  remove  unnecessary  spermatozoa.  Development 
proceeds  rapidly  and  steadily  till  the  third  day,  when  they  must  be  fed, 
otherwise  they  atrophy  and  eventually  break  up. 

For  sectioning,  the  combined  celloidin-paraffin  method  was  adopted, 
the  material  having  been  fixed  in  Flemming's  strong  solution  or  in 
Hermann's.  The  sections  were  stained  with  hajmacalcium  or  some 
hamiatoxylin  solution ;  while  for  larva?  to  be  studied  whole,  dilute 
picro-carmin,  followed  by  slight  acid-alcohol,  gave  satisfactory  results. 

The  larva  of  Polyyordias  is  found  in  the  "  tow  "  abundantly  during 
the  months  of  February,  March,  and  April  ;  it  is  possible  also  to  rear  the 
larva  from  the  egg  throughout  all  the  summer  and  winter  months. 

Collecting  and  Examining  Dolichoglossus  pusillus.f — B.  M.  Davis 
obtained  the  material  from  mud  flats  which  at  low  tides  are  uncovered. 
When  a  favourable  site  is  located  a  spadeful  of  mud  is  dug  up  and  the 
burrow  of  each  animal  carefully  examined  for  eggs.  By  breaking  down 
one  side  of  the  burrow  and  gently  lifting  the  animal  out,  or  pushing  it 

*  Phil.  Trans.,  cxcix.  (1908)  pp.  199-230  (4  pis.). 

t  Univ.  California  Publications  (Zoology),  iv.  (1908)  pp.  197-226  (5  pis.). 


512  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

aside,  the  eggs,  if  present,  may  be  seen  clinging  to  the  unbroken  side. 
They  are  usually  closely  packed  and  sometimes  extend  over  an  area  of 
several  square  millimetres.  The  eggs  are  removed  from  the  burrow  by 
means  of  a  fine  pipette  to  a  shallow  dish  filled  with  clear  water  ;  the 
eggs  are  then  separated  from  sand  and  transferred  to  small  bottles  of 
sea-water  ;  eggs  from  the  same  burrow  are  kept  in  separate  bottles.  On 
reaching  the  laboratory  the  eggs  are  placed  in  small  dishes  filled  with 
fresh  sea-water,  occasionally  changed  to  keep  the  animals  alive.  The 
animals  were  killed  and  fixed  by  means  of  Zenker's  fluid,  corrosive- 
acetic  mixture,  Lo  Bianco's  chrom-osmic  mixture,  and  osmic  acid.  The 
specimens  were  preserved  in  80  p.c.  alcohol.  The  animals  were  killed 
from  time  to  time  at  different  stages  of  development,  fifteen  series  being 
made.  Numerous  stains  were  used,  the  most  satisfactory  being  haemaluni 
counterstained  with  Congo  red  for  the  early  stages,  and  Mallory's  con- 
nective-tissue stain  for  advanced  stages  that  were  fixed  in  Zenker's  fluid. 
Living  material  was  examined  with  a  stereoscope  Microscope. 

Convenient  Mode  of  Preparing  Silicate  Jelly.*  —  F.  L.  Stevens 
and  J.  C.  Temple  describe  their  method  as  follows  :  First  ascertain  the 
percentage  of  silicic  anhydride  on  the  sample  of  sodium  silicate  to  be 
used  ;  this  consists  in  decomposing  the  silicate  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
precipitating  the  silicic  acid,  evaporating  to  dryness,  washing  until  wash- 
water  contains  no  chloride,  then  heating  to  redness  and  weighing  the 
silicic  anhydride.  Enough  should  be  made  at  once  to  last  for  several 
years.  After  making  the  determination,  dilute  the  silicate  to  be  used 
until  the  solution  contains  4-5  p.c.  of  silicic  anhydride.  Next  prepare 
hydrochloric  acid  of  such  strength  that  1  c.cm.  neutralises  1  c.cm.  of  the 
sodium  silicate  solution,  using  methyl-orange  as  an  indicator  (litmus, 
phenolphthalein,  and  cochineal  are  not  suitable). 

To  104  c.cm.  of  acid  add  slowly,  constantly  stirring  the  while,  lOOc.cm. 
of  the  sodium  silicate  solution,  the  excess  of  acid  being  used  to  prevent 
coagulation  during  sterilisation.  This  solution  is  then  tubed  and 
sterilised  in  an  autoclave  at  120°  for  15  minutes.  The  silicic  acid  should 
come  out  clear.  If  there  be  any  turbidity  it  is  due  to  a  deficiency  of 
hydrochloric  acid.  The  solution  of  silicic  acid  thus  prepared  constitutes 
the  base  of  the  medium.  To  cause  it  to  solidify  to  a  jelly,  add  to  a 
tube  of  this  base  1  c.cm.  of  a  sterile  concentrated  solution  of  such  salts  as 
may  be  desired,  but  in  every  case  containing  enough  sodium  carbonate 
to  a  little  more  than  neutralise  the  excess  of  acid  present.  In  a  few 
minutes  after  the  addition  of  the  salt  solution,  the  whole  will  be 
solidified,  giving  a  clear  transparent  jelly.  If  plate  cultures  be  desired, 
it  is  well  to  inoculate  the  base  before  the  addition  of  the  salts,  since 
after  the  medium  starts  to  set,  there  is  no  time  for  proper  mixing.  If 
slants  be  desired,  the  tubes  must  be  placed  in  the  proper  position  before 
the  medium  sets.  Prepared  in  this  way,  silicate  medium  is  convenient 
and  efficient  for  the  isolation  of  nitrite  and  nitrate  organisms.  Instead 
of  using  sodium  carbonate  for  neutralising,  magnesium  carbonate  may 
be  employed,  as  when  the  jelly  is  prepared  by  dialysis. 

*  Centralbl.Bakt.,  xxi.  2te  Abt.  (1908)  pp.  84-7. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  513 

Nutritive  Value  of  certain  Peptones  for  different  Species  of 
Bacteria.* — H.  Dunschmann  compared  three  peptones  :  (1)  Peptone 
Defresne,  obtained  from  the  action  of  the  pancreas  on  beef ;  (2) 
peptone  Martin,  obtained  by  digesting  the  minced  stomachs  of  pigs  by 
means  of  the  peptone  they  contain  ;  (3)  vegetable  peptone,  obtained 
from  albuminoid  substances  extracted  from  leguminous  vegetables,  and 
peptonised  by  means  of  papaiotine.  The  solutions  used  consisted  of 
3  p.c.  peptone,  3  p.c.  lactose,  and  1  p.c.  lemco.  These  were  inoculated 
with  B.  typhosus,  B.  coli,  anthrax,  and  B.  diphtheria,.  For  typhoid, 
diphtheria,  and  anthrax,  vegetable  peptone  gave  by  far  the  best  results, 
while  with  B.  coli  there  was  but  little  difference.  When  the  medium 
without  lactose  was  tested  by  means  of  the  same  microbes,  it  was  found 
that  B.  coli  throve  much  better  on  the  Martin  and  Defresne's  peptones 
than  on  the  vegetable,  and  that  the  vegetable  peptone  presents  obvious 
advantages  for  differentiating  B.  typhosus  and  B.  coli. 

Kitt,  Th.  —  Bakterienkunde  und   pathologische  Mikroskopie   fur  Tierarzte   und 
Studierende  der  Tiermedizin. 

Wien :  M.  Perles,  1908,  fifth  and  much  enlarged  edition, 
v.  and  578  pp.,  with  more  than  200  illustrations  and 
4  col  pis. 

(2)  Preparing-  Objects. 

Demonstrating-  Nervous  Tissue  of  Hirudinea3.| — E.  Mencl  fixed 
Hirudinefe  in  the  following  solution  : — (1)  Saturated  solution  of  subli- 
mate and  distilled  water,  of  each  500  grin.  ;  (2)  chromic  acid,  0*5-1 
grm.  ;  (3)  a  trace  of  glacial  acetic  acid.  The  preparations  were  stained 
with  Heidenhain's  hematoxylin,  picro-magnesia-carmin,  Delafield  and 
Bordeaux  red,  or  orange  G-,  Apathy's  gold  chloride  method,  and  with 
Ramon  y  Cajal's  silver  method. 

Examining  Catenata.J — V.  Dogiel  made  intra  vitam  examinations 
by  teasing  out  the  intestine  which  contained  the  parasites  in  sea-water. 
The  material  was  then  transferred  to  a  slide.  Fixed  preparations  were 
obtained  by  means  of  Flenmiiug's  fluid,  acetic  sublimate  and  Carnoy's 
mixture  (absolute  alcohol  75,  acetic  acid  25).  Sections  made  from 
material  fixed  in  sublimate  and  acetic  acid  were  stained  with  iron- 
hsematoxylin.  Those  fixed  in  Flemming's  fluid  were  treated  mostly 
with  safranin,  but  some  with  picro-carmin,  while  for  those  fixed  in 
Carnoy's  fluid  hamialuin  gave  the  best  results. 

Studying  the  Development  of  Teeth  in  Castor  Fiber. § — P.  Heinick 
decalcified  the  material  in  a  mixture  of  5  parts  96  p.c.  alcohol,  1  part 
strong  nitric  acid.  The  fluid  was  re-made  and  renewed  every  3-4  days. 
The  material  was  not  properly  decalcified  for  from  8-11  weeks.  After 
this  time  the  preparations  were  freed  from  the  acid  by  immersion  in 
96  p.c.  alcohol,  to  which  precipitated  chalk  had  been  added.  This  took 
from  6-8  weeks,  the  spirit  being  renewed  every  3  or  4  days,  until  blue 
litmus  paper  showed  no  acid  reaction.     The  next  step  was  to  obtain  the 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  999-1001. 
t  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxix.  (1908)  pp.  371-416  (2  pis.). 
j  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxix.  (1908)  pp.  417-71  (3  pis.). 
§  Zool.  Jarhb.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  355-402  (2  pis.). 

Aug.  19th,  1908  2  M 


514  SUMMARY    OF   CDRKKNT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

jaws  in  Mo  by  means  of  an  alcoholic  borax-carmin  solution  (4-G  days). 
The  material  was  then  dehydrated  in  upgraded  alcohols  and  imbedded 
in  paraffin,  the  intermediary  being  cedar  oil.  The  sections  varied  from 
20-25  fi  in  thickness.  If  the  borax-carmin  had  not  been  successful  the 
sections  were  also  stained  with  bleu  de  Lyon. 

Fixation  with  Trichloracetic  Acid  and  Uranyl  Acetate.* — H. 
Friedenthal  praises  the  action  of  a  mixture  of  uranium  acetate  and 
trichloracetic  acid  for  fixation  purposes.  Excellent  results  are  ob- 
tainable from  a  fluid  composed  of  equal  parts  of  saturated  uranium 
acetate  solution  and  50  p.c.  trichloracetic  acid.  As  a  universal  fixative 
which  is  said  to  satisfy  the  requirements  of  botanists  and  zoologists 
alike,  a  solution  with  the  following  composition  is  given  : — Trichlor- 
acetic acid  20,  uranium  acetate  10,  chromic  acid  1,  osmic  acid  0'5, 
platinum  chloride  0  ■  5. 

Studying  the  Histogenesis  of  Cysticercus  pisiformis.t  —  R.  T. 
Young  obtained  his  material  by  feeding  young  Lepus  cuniculus  (Belgian 
hare)  and  Lepus  pinetis  with  proglottids  of  Tcenia  serrata.  The  liver, 
omentum,  lungs,  and  mesenteric  glands  were  found  infected.  The  best 
fixative  was  Flemming's  strong  chrom-aceto-osmic  mixture,  in  which 
the  larvae  were  immersed  for  two  to  three  hours.  After  washing  in 
running  water,  they  were  passed  through  up-graded  alcohols.  The  next 
best  fixative  was  saturated  sublimate  in  70  p.c.  alcohol,  to  which  1  p.c. 
glacial  acetic  acid  was  added. 

Heidenhain's  iron-haamatoxylin,  sometimes  used  with  no  counter- 
stain,  but  more  often  in  conjunction  with  eosin,  Bordeaux-red,  or  satu- 
rated aqueous  solution  of  water-blue  and  picric  acid,  gave  the  best  results 
in  staining.  Vom  Rath's,  Apathy's,  and  Golgi's  methods  were  also  tried, 
but  none  gave  very  satisfactory  results. 

Examining  the  Neuro-epithelium  of  the  Auditory  Apparatus. — 
N.  van  der  Stricht:  used  bat-embryos  chiefly,  also  those  of  guinea-pigs, 
cats,  and  one  human  embryo.  This  material  was  fixed  in  Flemniing 
(2-4  weeks),  Hermann  (8  days),  acetic-sublimate  alcohol  (1  day),  Perenyi 
(1  hour),  Bouin  (1-2  days)  ;  Benda's  method  of  fixation  was  also  tried, 
and  found  to  give  excellent  results.  On  the  whole,  the  fluids  which  con- 
tained osmic  acid  gave  the  best  results.  Material  when  fixed,  if  left  in 
iodine-alcohol  (70  p.c.)  for  5  months  to  2  years,  was  found  to  stain 
intensely  by  the  iron-alum  method.  The  cochleas  were  decalcified  in 
3  p.c.  nitric  acid  and  afterwards  imbedded  in  paraffin  by  means  of  the 
disulphide  method.  Pieces  fixed  in  fluids  not  containing  any  osmic  acid 
were  stained  en  bloc  in  borax-carmin.  The  sections  were  mostly  stained 
with  iron-haernatoxylin  and  Bordeaux  red. 

Examining  the  Tentacular  Apparatus  of  Cephalopods.§ — J.  Guerin 
fixed  the  material  in  Flemming's,  Bouin's,  or  Carnoy's  fluids.     In  the 

*  S.B.  Gesell.  Natur.,  Freunde,  Berlin  (1907)  pp.  207-11. 

t  Zoolog.  Jarhb.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  183-254  (4  pis.). 

X  Arch,  de  Biol.,  xxiii.  (1908)  pp.  541-693  (5  pis.). 

§  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.  et  Gen.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  1-178  (4  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  515 

two  former  the  pieces  should  not  be  immersed  longer  than  12  hours,  in 
the  latter  not  more  than  one.  Paraffin  impregnation  was  effected  by 
means  of  chloroform  or  in  vacuo  ;  for  the  preliminary  stages  the  melting- 
point  of  the  paraffin  was  42°,  for  the  final  55°-60°.  The  sections,  3-10  /x 
thick,  were  best  stained  with  magenta-red  and  indigo-picrocarmin, 
safranin  and  indigo-picrocarmin,  or  safranin  and  light-green.  After 
fixation  in  Bouin's  fluid  hematoxylin,  followed  by  some  contrast  stain, 
such  as  picro-fuchsin  or  eosin,  gave  good  results,  as  also  did  picro-indigo- 
carmin  and  Mayer's  carmin. 

Demonstrating  the  Autolysis  of  Mitoses.*— Ad.  Oes  treated  the 
material  (root-ends,  young  anthers,  etc.)  in  the  following  manner : 
They  were  incubated  at  32°-40°  C.  in  toluol  or  chloroform  "water  (|-| 
vol.  p.c.)  with  or  without  the  addition  of  neutral  salts  (usually  \  p.c. 
ordinary  salt).  Instead  of  toluol  or  chloroform-water,  carbolic  acid  was 
sometimes  used,  and  in  place  of  NaCl,  the  nitrates  of  potassium  and 
sodium  were  employed.  In  some  cases  small  quantities  of  acids  or 
alkalies  were  added.  The  best  results  were  obtained  at  38°  C.  with 
toluol  water,  to  which  h  p.c.  NaCl  was  added.  After  £-24  hours  the 
objects  were  fixed  in  various  media,  of  which  Kleinenberg's  picro7 
sulphuric  acid  and  the  strong  Flemrning's  mixture  were  mostly  used. 
The  material  was  stained  with  safranin  and  gentian-violet,  Delafield's 
hematoxylin,  Heidenhain's  iron-alum-hasmatoxylin,  fuchsin,  acid- 
fuchsin,  and  others. 

Bleaching  Technique.!— P.  Mayer  mentions  a  commercial  solution 
of  peroxide  of  hydrogen  which  is  a  very  powerful  bleaching  reagent. 
Mixed  with  water  or  alcohol  it  gives  off  oxygen  copiously,  and  still 
more  energetically  on  the  addition  of  a  little  potassium  iodide.  The 
bleaching  power  was  tested  on  natural  pigment  and  on  tissues  blackened 
with  osmic  acid,  and  its  action  compared  with  that  of  other  reagents, 
such  as  hydrochloric  acid  and  potassium  chlorate,  chlorine  water,  and 
Alfieri's  method. 

Hydrogen  peroxide  has  a  great  tendency  to  cause  the  section  to 
be  separated  from  the  slide,  especially  when  the  action  is  energetic,  as 
it  is  when  mixed  with  water.  If  the  diluent  be  alcohol,  then  the  action 
is  not  sufficiently  strong. 

Alfieri's  method  consists  in  treating  the  sections  with  permanganate 
of  potassium  (1  :  2000)  until  they  become  brown,  and  then  dissolving 
out  the  oxide  of  manganese  which  has  been  precipitated  in  the  tissues 
with  oxalic  acid  (1  :  300).  The  process  is  repeated  if  the  bleaching  is 
not  sufficient.  As  the  oxalic  acid  is  not  altogether  harmless,  it  should 
not  be  allowed  to  act  longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary. 

Chlorine  water  is  often  simpler  and  more  convenient  in  its  applica- 
tion than  the  author's  cherished  mixture  of  hydrochloric  acid  and 
potassium  chlorate. 

All  these  solutions  appear  to  act  quite  as  well  before  the  paraffin  is 
removed  from  the  section  as  after. 

*  Bot.  Zeit.,  lte  Abt.  (1908)  pp.  89-117  (1  pi.).        \ 
t  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  353-6. 

2    M   2 


516 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


(3)  Cutting,  including:  Imbedding-  and  Microtomes. 

Broek's  Simple  Microtome  for  Serial  Sections.* — A.  J.  P.  v.  d. 
Broek,  as  the  result  of  several  years'  experience,  highly  recommends  the 
following  instrument  as  being  simple  in  construction  and  easy  in 
manipulation.  Fig.  135  shows  the  microtome  as  seen  from  the  left  and 
slightly  from  the  front,  fig.  186  is  a  longitudinal  section,  and  fig.  137  is 
a  horizontal  section  through  a  b  in  fig.  186.  The  instrument  stands  on  a 
heavy  cast-iron  base  which  can  be  clamped  down  by  a  position-screw,  3. 
The  trapezium-shaped  slide,  4,  is  supported  by  two  side  pieces,  5,  and  a 
bar,  7,  connects  the  slide  with  a  crank,  6,  whose  movement  imparts  to 


Fig.  135. 

the  slide  the  necessary  backward  and  forward  motion,  and  presses  the 
object-holder  against  the  knife.  If  the  object  is  imbedded  in  paraffin, 
the  paraffin  is  melted  on  to  a  brass  plate,  26,  which  can  be  screwed  on 
and  off  ;  a  celloidin  preparation  is  fixed  with  a  clamp  (fig.  185).  The 
hemisphere,  22,  is  hollow,  and  can  by  a  special  arrangement  be  fixed  in 
any  desired  position,  so  as  to  give  any  suitable  inclination  to  the  pre- 
paration ;  this  effect  being  attained  by  a  circular  plate,  24,  to  whose 
lower  side  is  attached  a  perforated  rod.  Through  the  perforation  passes 
a  kind  of  crank  connected  with  the  screw,  25,  whose  movement  (see 
fig.  136)  gives  any  desired  inclination  to  the  hemisphere.  The  sleeve,  9, 
containing  the  mechanism  of  the  object-holder,  rests  on  a  micrometer- 
screw,  10,  and  is  gripped  on  both  sides  by  the  rims,  8,  of  the  frame. 
The  micrometer-screw  rests  with  its  lower  point  on  screw  13  and  its 
upper  end  is  fixed  by  the  rod  14  ;  the  whole  micrometer-screw  is  there- 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxiv.  (1907)  pp.  268-74  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


517 


"*•'  CM    f£ 
CM     CM     N 


— 


SO 


518  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

fore  firmly  connected  with  the  frame  8.  A  cog-wheel,  11,  is  attached 
to  the  micrometer-screw,  and  under  it  is  the  rod  15,  one  end  of  which 
carries  a  small  clutch  which  engages  in  the  cogs.  The  apparatus  18, 
consisting  of  a  bent  bar  rotatory  about  a  plug  screw,  11),  is  attached  to 
the  front  part  of  the  iron  foot-plate.  One  end  of  this  bar  is  set  to  the 
divided  scale,  17,  and  regulates  the  thickness  of  the  sections  :  the  other 
end  supports  a  vertical  peg,  20.  A  similar  vertical  peg,  21,  is  set  in  the 
base-plate,  and  is  shown  in  fig.  135.  When  the  crank  G  is  rotated 
towards  the  right,  i.e.  against  the  knife,  the  rod  15  at  a  certain  moment 
strikes  against  the  peg  20,  whereupon  the  clutch  15a  is  urged  back 
on  the  cog-wheel,  the  movement  corresponding  to  the  pre-arranged 
section-thickness.  In  the  leftward  movement  of  the  crank  G  the  object- 
carrier  and  object  first  pass  the  knife  and  then  the  bar  15  reaches  the 
peg  21  and  must  halt.  The  end,  15«,  of  the  same  bar  is  then,  by  the 
further  movement  of  the  crank,  pushed  forward,  and  transfers  its  motion 
by  the  clutch  to  the  cog-wbeel  11,  and  so  to  the  micrometer-screw.  As 
this  latter  is  fixed  at  both  its  ends,  the  sleeve  fastened  on  it  is  movable, 
and  is  therefore  slightly  pushed  upwards  by  an  amount  corresponding  to 
the  adjustment  on  the  scale.  An  endless  band  can  be  attached  to  the 
instrument  and  made  to  receive  the  section-ribbon  by  rotating  the 
handle  27.  Screws  2!)  and  30  serve  to  slant  the  knife,  a  flat-ground 
razor,  as  required.  The  nut  in  which  the  micrometer-screw  engages 
consists  of  two  halves.  If  the  knob  32  is  rotated  90°  then  both  these 
halves  are  separated  and  the  whole  sleeve  9  can  be  raised  or  depressed  ; 
this  arrangement  is  required  at  the  commencement  of  operations  so  as 
to  bring  the  object  into  proper  position  for  the  knife.  The  scale  is  so 
divided  that  the  sections  can  be  cut  from  2  //.  to  70  p.  (even  numbers). 

I  (4)  Staining  and  Injecting-. £< 

Staining  Streptococcus  mucosus.*— R.  Hoffmann  advocates  the  use 
of  Jenner's  stain  for  detecting  and  studying  this  organism  when 
present  in  pure  culture,  or  when  associated  with  other  organisms  in 
purulent  or  other  discharges,  and  especially  for  use  for  clinical  pur- 
poses. Films  are  fixed  and  stained  for  two  minutes  in  a  methyl- 
alcoholic  solution  of  acid  eosin  and  methylen-blue,  washed  in  neutral 
distilled  water  and  dried.  The  bacterial  body  substance  steins  deep 
blue,  the  capsule  light  blue,  and  the  mucus,  adhering  to  the  outer 
surface  of  the  capsule,  stains  pale  pink. 

Demonstrating  the  Nervous  System  of  Ascaris.f — D.  Deineka 
finds  that  the  methylen-blue-ammonium-molybdate  method  is  the  best 
for  staining  the  nervous  tissue  of  Invertebrates,  the  procedures  of  Golgi 
and  Ramon  y  Cajal  being  quite  useless. 

Demonstrating  Nerve-terminations  in  Teeth  of  Mammalia. }  — 
W.  J.  Law  highly  recommends  Bethe's  method  for  odontt (logical  work, 
and  gives  the  following  description  of  it  as  varied  for  use  with  teeth  : — 

"  Small  pieces  of  perfectly  fresh  tissue  are  fixed  by  placing  upon 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  A.bt.  Orig.,  xlvi.  (1908)  p.  219. 

t  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxix.  (1908)  pp.  242-307  (11  pis.  and  7  text  figs.). 

X  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Medicine  (Odontological  Section)  i.  (1908)  pp.  45-60  (7  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  519 

blotting-paper  and  covering  with  a  10  p.c.  solution  of  commercial  nitric 
acid.  This  serves  to  decalcify  as  well  as  to  fix  them,  and  also  lessens 
the  susceptibility  of  Nissl's  granules  to  take  the  stain.  They  are  left 
in  the  acid  until  decalcified  (4K  hours),  and  the  acid  is  frequently 
changed  so  as  to  keep  it  of  as  uniform  a  strength  as  possible.  They 
are  then  placed  in  8  c.cni.  of  alcohol  90  p.c,  3  c.cm.  of  water,  and 
1  c.cm.  of  ammonia  for  24  hours.  If  they  turn  brown,  discard  :  this 
is  due  to  impure  nitric  acid  or  too  long  immersion.  Again  place  in 
alcohol  for  6  to  12  hours,  then  in  1  c.cm.  of  HOI,  3  c.cm.  of  water 
and  8  to  12  c.cm.  of  alcohol  for  24  hours.  Then  alcohol  again 
for  10  to  24  hours,  distilled  water  for  2  to  6  hours  (not  longer), 
ammonium  inolybdate,  4  p.c,  for  24  hours.  Dehydrate  as  rapidly  as 
possible  and  imbed  in  paraffin  ;  cut  sections  as  thin  as  possible ; 
attach  the  sections  to  the  slides  with  Meyer's  albumin  ;  wash  out  the 
paraffin  with  naphtha  and  alcohol  ;  rinse  the  slide  with  distilled 
water  ;  then  cover  the  sections  with  distilled  water  and  heat  for  10 
minutes  at  50°  to  60°  C.  The  top  of  the  imbedding  bath  is  a  very 
good  place  for  this.  Pour  off  the  water  and  cover  with  toludin-blue 
1  in  4000  ;  replace  in  the  paraffin  bath  for  10  minutes  ;  dehydrate  ; 
clear  and  mount.  Keep  all  the  sections,  and,  if  you  are  lucky,  some 
of  them  will  be  found  to  have  the  nerve  fibres  duly  stained." 

Studying  the  Morphology  of  Spirochseta  pallida.* — F.  Krzystalowicz 
and  M.  Siedlecki  wash  open  sores  or  ulcers  with  sterilised  water  or  salt 
solution,  but  if  the  skin  be  unbroken  the  site  of  the  lesion  is  cleaned 
with  soap  and  water  and  then  with  the  alcohol-ether  mixture.  A 
clear,  slightly  sanguinolent,  fluid  is  obtained  from  open  sores  by  squeezing 
the  borders  of  the  lesion.  When  the  surface  of  the  lesion  is  dry  and 
intact,  a  blister  may  be  raised  by  means  of  cantharides,  ammonia,  or 
chloroform,  or  even  by  heat.  When  the  lesion  is  deep-seated,  e.g. 
glands  or  gummata,  juice  may  be  withdrawn  by  means  of  a  hypo- 
dermic syringe.  However  obtained,  the  juice  is  spread  on  a  slide, 
dried  in  the  air,  and  fixed  with  osmic  acid  vapour.  Such  films  are  stained 
with  Giemsa  (1  drop  to  1  c.cm.  of  water)  for  several  hours,  and  after 
washing  with  water  are  decolorised  by  immersion  for  several  minutes 
in  25  p.c.  tannin  solution.  After  this  they  are  again  washed  with 
water,  while  after  this  a  rapid  wash  with  absolute  alcohol  will  not 
damage  the  staining  and  helps  to  clean  up  the  preparation. 

Instead  of  osmic  acid,  formol  may  be  used  for  fixation  ;  the  results 
therefrom  are  not  so  good,  but  it  has  the  advantage  of  allowing  any 
staining  method  to  be  applied  to  the  films. 

Demonstrating  Leucocytes  in  Tissues.! — H.  Schridde  fixes  the 
material  in  formol-Mliller,  though  other  methods  are  also  suitable.  Thin 
paraffin  sections  (5  /a)  fixed  to  the  slide  in  the  usual  way  are  placed  for 
20  minutes  in  a  solution  consisting  of  Giemsa  to  1  c.cm.  of  water.  After 
washing  in  water  they  are  mopped  up  with  blotting-paper  and  then 
transferred  to  water-free  aceton.     After  about  a  minute  they  are  placed 

*  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1908,  pp.  173-231  (2  pis.). 
t  Zentralbl.  f.  Allgem.  Pathol,  u.  Pathol.  Anat.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  770-1.     See  also 
Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxiii.  (1906)  pp.  212-14. 


520  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

in  acid-free  toluol  or  xylol  and  mounted  in  neutral  balsam.  The 
preparations  should  be  kept  in  the  dark.  It  is  claimed  that  by  this 
method  the  leucocytes  are  demonstrable  in  post  mortem  material. 

Staining  Granular  Red  Corpuscles.* — F.  Widal,  P.  Abrami,  and 
M.  Brule  fix  blood-stains  intra  vitam  in  the  following  manner.  A  few 
drops  of  blood  are  received  into  a  mixture  consisting  of  10  p.c.  sodium 
chloride,  1  c.cm.  2  p.c.  oxalate  of  potassium,  1  c.cm.  Unna's  blue  or  azur- 
blue  20  drops.  After  allowing  the  solution  to  act  for  some  10  minutes, 
the  mixture  is  centrifuged  and  the  deposit  spread  on  slides  and  fixed  by 
the  aid  of  heat  in  the  usual  way. 

Simple  Method  of  Microbe  Staining.f — A.  Rosam  recommends  the 
following  staining  solution,  composed  of  a  mixture  of  f  safranin  and 
J  methylen-blue.  The  pigments  are  first  dissolved  in  alcohol,  and  this 
concentrated  spirituous  solution  is  further  diluted  with  equal  quantities 
of  spirit  and  water.  After  this,  10  p.c.  ammonia  is  added.  The 
ammonia  facilitates  the  penetration  of  the  dye.  In  practice,  a  drop  of 
the  staining  solution  is  placed  on  the  slide  which  already  carries  the 
material  to  be  examined.  This  latter  has  been  moistened  with  water, 
and  after  a  coverslip  has  been  imposed,  the  preparation  may  be 
examined. 

The  staining  solution  easily  deteriorates,  and  requires  to  be  made 
afresh  at  least  once  a  fortnight. 


x&' 


Simple  Method  of  Spore  Staining.! — R.  Wirtz  fixes  the  films  in 
osmic  acid  vapour  and  then  floods  the  cover-slip  with  5  p.c.  malachite- 
green  solution  ;  heats  to  vaporisation  and  repeats  the  heating  twice  at 
short  intervals.  The  film  is  then  washed  with  carbol-fuchsin  diluted 
five  times  and  at  once  washed  in  running  water.  Treated  in  this  way 
the  rodlets  are  stained  red  and  the  spores  pale  green.  The  method  is 
specially  applicable  to  Tetanus. 

Modification  of  the  Romanowsky  Stain. § — J.  Bruckner  dissolves 
by  aid  of  heat  1  grin,  methylen-blue  in  100  c.cm.  of  distilled  water ; 
after  cooling  down,  15  c.cm.  of  decinormal  soda  solution  are  added,  or 
6  cgs.  of  sodium  hydrate  in  powder  previously  dissolved  in  10  c.cm.  of 
distilled  water.  The  mixture  is  incubated  at  37°  for  five  days  to  ripen  the 
blue,  and  then  50  cgs.  of  eosin  dissolved  in  50  c.cm.  H20  are  added. 
After  being  well  shaken  the  mixture  is  allowed  to  rest  for  a  couple  of 
hours.  The  precipitate  is  gathered  on  a  filter  and  then  washed  with 
500  c.cm.  distilled  water.  The  filter  with  the  precipitate  is  kept  at  37° 
until  dry  (about  24  hours)  and  then  the  precipitate  is  dissolved  in 
100  c.cm.  of  methyl  alcohol.     After  24  hours  the  solution  is  filtered. 

In  order  to  stain  blood  1  c.cm.  of  the  stock  solution  is  mixed  with 
5  c.cm.  of  methylic  alcohol  and  poured  over  the  dried  but  unfixed  film, 
and  after  ten  minutes  10-12  drops  of  distilled  water  are  added.  After 
a  lapse  of  five  minutes  the  film  is  washed  with  water,  dried  and  mounted 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  496-9  (1  fig.). 
t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,2te  Abt.,  xx.  (1908)  pp.  724-5. 
X  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lteAbt.  Orig.,  xlvi.  (1908)  pp.  727-8. 
§  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  968-9. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  521 

in  thick  cedar  oil.  Blood  films  may  also  be  stained  by  the  following 
method  : — 1  c.cm.  of  the  stock  solution  is  diluted  with  20  c.cm.  of 
distilled  water,  and  the  film  which  has  been  previously  fixed  in  absolute 
alcohol  immersed  therein  for  20-30  minutes,  after  which  it  is  washed  in 
water,  dried  and  mounted  in  cedar  oil.  Rapid  staining  of  Treponema 
pallidum  may  be  effected  by  means  of  this  stain  in  the  following 
manner  :  10  c.cm.  of  5  p.c.  glycerin  are  mixed  with  10-12  drops  of  the 
stock  solution.  This  mixture  is  boiled  for  a  few  seconds  and  poured 
hot  over  the  preparation  previously  fixed  in  absolute  alcohol.      After 

3  minutes  the  film  is  washed  in  water,  dried  and  mounted  in  thick 
cedar  oil. 

Staining  the  Mycelium  of  the  Dry-rot  Fungus.*  —  W.  Ruhland 
fixes  the  material  for  a  few  minutes  in  0  •  8  p.c.  chromic  acid,  to  which 
1  p.c.  acetic  acid  is  added,  and  then  washes  for  2-3  hours.  The  ob- 
jects are  then  mordanted  6-24  hours  in  1*5  p.c.  iron-alurn  solution, 
and  then  heated  with  a  formal  hematoxylin  solution  of  the  following 
composition  :  1  grm.  hematoxylin  crystals,  200  c.cm.  distilled  water, 

4  c.cm.  formalin.  The  solution  is  shaken  and  filtered.  The  mycelium 
flakes  may  remain  herein  for  12-24  hours,  though  less  may  suffice.  After 
washing  again,  they  are  differentiated  in  0*5  p.c.  iron-alum  solution. 
This  takes  a  few  minutes  to  half  an  hour.  Then  washing  in  water, 
alcohol,  xylol,  balsam.  The  plasma  is  bluish;  the  nuclei,  bluish-black  to 
black. 

Theory  of  the  Gram  Staining  Method.f — Y.  Brudny  made  an 
elaborate  investigation  as  to  the  why  and  wherefore  of  the  Gram  staining 
reaction.  He  finds  that  it  is  clue  to  the  specific  permeability  of  Gram- 
positive  bacteria  to  iodine.  This  expresses  in  other  terms  that  for 
certain  bacteria  the  lugol  solution  acts  as  a  mordant,  and  that  the 
alcohol  decolorises  or  not,  though  it  must  be  admitted  that  there  are 
intermediate  stages  in  the  reaction. 

(5)    Mounting-,  including-  Slides,  Preservative  Fluids,  etc. 

Technique  of  the  Water  Method  of  Sticking  Paraffin  Sections 
on  the  Slide. J — J.  F.  Gudernatsch  washes  the  slide  with  some  good 
potash  soap  under  the  tap,  and  then  picks  up  the  section,  which  has 
been  floated  on  the  surface  of  water  in  a  bowl.  After  arranging  the 
section,  the  superfluous  water  is  poured  off  ;  the  slide,  covered  with 
something  to  protect  from  dust,  is  placed  in  an  incubator  until  all  the 
water  has  evaporated.  In  this  way  the  sections  are  not  only  flattened 
out,  but  are  stuck  on,  and  it  only  remains  to  dissolve  out  the  paraffin  in 
the  usual  way,  and  then  pass  the  sections  through  the  ordinary  staining 
and  other  fluids.  If  there  be  any  need  for  hurry,  the  sections,  when 
arranged  on  the  slide,  may,  instead  of  being  placed  in  the  incubator, 
be  mopped  up,  and  at  the  same  time  flattened  out  by  means  of 
blotting-paper.  Then,  after  a  stay  of  about  3  minutes  in  the  incubator, 
the  sections  will  be  found  to  have  adhered.  This  procedure,  however, 
is  frequently  not  so  successful  as  the  one  previously  described. 

*  Arb.  biol.  Anstalt.  f.  Land.  u.  Forstw.,  v.  (1907)  p.  492. 
t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt ,  xxi.  (1908)  pp.  62-79. 
j  Zeitscbr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  357-60. 


522  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Metallography,  etc. 

The  Metallic  Sulphides  PbS,  Cu.,S,  Ag,S,  FeS.— K.  Friedrich  *  has 
attempted  an  investigation  of  the  equilibrium  diagrams  of  the  alloys  of 
these  sulphides  with  sulphur.  He  gives  the  melting  points  ( + 10°  C.) 
as  PbS  1120°  C,  Cu,S  1135°  C,  Ag2S  812°  C,  FeS  1171°  C.  The 
solidification  of  all  the  alloys,  including  the  pure  sulphides,  takes  place 
through  a  considerable  temperature  interval.  PbS,  Ag2S,  and  FeS  do 
not  appear  to  correspond  to  maxima  in  the  solidification  point  curves. 
It  might  be  inferred  from  these  results  that  none  of  these  four 
sulphides  do  in  fact  correspond  to  definite  chemical  compounds.  The 
technical  difficulties  of  investigation,  however,  are  great,  and  the 
abnormal  results  may  perhaps  be  explained  otherwise. 

Solubility  of  Graphite  in  Iron.f— C.  Benedicks  discusses  the  form 
of  the  equilibrium  diagram  of  the  stable  iron-graphite  system,  from 
0-2  p.c.  carbon.  Heyn's  view  is  that  graphite  is  completely  insoluble 
in  iron  in  the  solid  state,  while  Ruer's  diagram  indicates  complete  in- 
solubility below  a  line  running  from  1000°C.  at  0  p.c.  carbon  to  1140°  C. 
(the  eutectic  temperature)  at  2  p.c.  Earlier  workers  put  the  limiting 
temperature  much  lower.  The  author  gives  some  experimental  results, 
and  indicates  the  desirability  of  accurate  determinations  of  the  direction 
of  the  curve. 

Crystals  of  Diamond  and  Carborundum  in  Steel.} — D.  C. 
Tschernoff  in  1868  found  small  transparent  crystals  in  an  ingot  of 
tool  steel.  A  recent  examination  of  some  of  the  same  crystals  and 
the  steel  by  F.  Osmond  has  led  him  to  believe  they  are  carborundum. 

Nickel-bismuth  Alloys. §  —  A.  Portevin  gives  a  more  complete 
account,  with  diagrams  and  photomicrographs,  of  his  determination  of 
the  equilibrium  diagram. ||  After  pointing  out  how  incomplete  reactions 
occurring  during  the  cooling  of  an  alloy  interfere  with  the  applica- 
tion of  thermal  analysis,  the  author  describes  the  experimental  work,  the 
results  of  which  point  to  the  existence  of  two  successive  and  incomplete 
reactions  in  the  nickel-bismuth  system.  These  may  be  expressed  by  the 
equations — 

(1)  At  054°  C. :  liquid  with  6-5  p.c.  Ni  +  Ni  ^±  NiBi(?) 

(2)  At  462°  C.  :  liquid  with  3  p.c.  Ni  +  Xi  Bi  ?  ^±  Ni  Bi3 
At  269°  C.  the  eutectic  Bi  -  Ni  Bi3  forms. 

Bromine  water  was  used  as  an  etching  reagent. 

Alloys  of  Silver. IT — This  is  the  first  of  a  series  of  papers  by 
A.  Portevin,  in  which  is  to  be  given  an  account  of  the  researches  on 
alloys  carried  out  since  1904  in  the  laboratories  of  G.  Tammann,  at 
Gottingen,  and  of  Kurnakow  at  St.  Petersburg.  The  industrial  metals 
will  be  taken  in  alphabetical  order,  and  the  various  investigations  of  the 

*  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  23-27,  50-8  (9  figs.). 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  41-5  (10  figs.). 

X  Rev.  de  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  79-80  (1  fig.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  110-20  (8  figs.).  fl  See  this  Journal,  1908,  p.  124. 

f  Rev.  de  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  144-66  (32  figs.). 


zoology  and  botany,  microscopy,  etc.  523 

alloys  of  any  one  metal  grouped  together.  Though  the  work  has  all 
been  published  elsewhere  *  the  collection  in  a  more  compact  form  of  the 
accurate  data  obtained  should  prove  useful. 

Constituents  of  Steel.f — H.  le  Chatelier  attempts  a  much  needed 
definition  of  the  constituents  of  the  iron-carbon  alloys.  They  are 
classified  as  elements  (ferrite  or  pure  iron,  and  graphite  or  pure  carbon), 
compounds  (cementite  Fe3C  is  the  only  example),  solid  solutions, 
aggregates,  and  possibly  emulsions  or  colloidal  solutions.  The  allotropic 
varieties  of  iron  may  also  be  classed  as  constituents.  Two  solid  solutions 
are  known,  austenite  (carbon,  or  carbide  of  iron,  in  y-iron),  and  mar- 
tensite  (the  same  in  a-iron).  As  constituent  x,  the  nature  of  which  is 
doubtful,  the  author  deals  with  troostite,  osmondite,  troosto-sorbite,  and 
the  sorbite  of  Stead.  Its  general  characteristic  is  that  of  assuming  a 
deep  black  coloration  upon  etching  with  dilute  acids.  Constituent  x 
may  be  a  solid  solution  or  an  aggregate  of  very  finely  divided  elements. 
The  work  of  Charpy  and  Grenet  would  indicate  that  it  is  a  very 
intimate  mixture  of  ferrite  and  cementite.  Pearlite  and  the  sorbite  of 
Osmond  (incompletely  formed  pearlite)  are  aggregates,  composed  of 
ferrite  and  cementite.  The  part  played  by  /?-iron,  and  the  constitution 
of  x,  are  still  open  questions. 

F.  Osmond  J  points  out  that  the  hard  austenite  obtained  by  some 
workers  is  in  reality  martensite.  As  to  the  constitution  of  martensite, 
its  magnetic  behaviour  indicates  that  the  whole  of  the  iron  is  not  in  the 
a  state,  probably  the  remainder  is  /3,  while  the  carbon  exists  as  a  pseudo- 
solution.  Stead  appears  to  use  the  term  sorbite  in  the  same  sense  as 
Osmond.     Constituent  x  may  be  identified  with  troostite. 

Metallography  at  the  National  Physical  Laboratory. § — The 
annual  report  contains  a  section  describing  the  year's  work  in  the 
metallurgical  department.  As  a  preliminary  to  the  investigation  of 
the  ternary  system  alaminium-copper-manganese,  the  binary  system 
aluminium-manganese  has  been  studied.  The  alloys  containing  30- 
65  p.c.  manganese  disintegrate  spontaneously  from  the  solid  cast  state 
into  a  fine  crystalline  powder.  The  results  of  the  inquiry  into  the 
various  methods  of  obtaining  cooling  curves  have  been  published  else- 
where. Crystalline  silica  has  a  well  marked  recalescence  at  580°  C.  For 
the  research  on  eutectic  alloys  the  lead-tin  system  was  chosen.  Equi- 
librium was  reached  only  by  exposure  of  the  alloys  to  a  temperature  of 
175°  C.  for  several  weeks.  The  limit  of  solid  solubility  of  tin  in  lead 
appears  to  lie  near  17  p.c.  tin — a  much  higher  percentage  than  has 
hitherto  been  supposed.  Oxide  of  chromium  was  found  to  give  good 
results  in  the  polishing  of  very  soft  metals.  Some  progress  has  been 
made  in  the  photomicrography  of  metal  sections  by  ultra-violet  light ; 
the  Zeiss  apparatus  is  described.  Monochromatic  blue  light  may  be 
used  for  approximate  focusing  and  for  the  other  preliminary  adjust- 
ments. The  difficulties  of  the  method  are,  however,  serious,  and  sharp 
photographs  at  high  magnifications  have  not  yet  been  obtained. 

*  Zeitschr.  Anorg.  Chem.,  1904,  to  present  date. 

t  Rev.  de  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  167-72.  J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  205-6. 

§  National  Physical  Laboratory  Report  for  1907. 


524  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Influence  of  Phosphorus  on  the  Iron-carbon  System.* — F.  Wiist 
prepared  and  examined  30  alloys  containing  phosphorus,  increasing  from 
0*02-21 '56  p.c.  and  saturated  with  carbon  in  the  molten  state.  The 
temperature  of  commencement  of  solidification  is  progressively  lowered 
by  increase  of  phosphorus  up  to  C>  ■  7  p.c,  about  27°  C.  for  each  1  p.c. 
phosphorus.  Further  additions  raise  the  freezing-point.  A  pause  in 
the  cooling  curves  at  950°  C.  is  due  to  the  presence  of  phosphorus  ;  it 
increases  in  intensity  up  to  6  •  7  p.c,  then  diminishes,  and  finally  dis- 
appears at  15  p.c.  (Fe3P).  At  this  percentage  Ar  1  also  vanishes  ;  it  is 
diminished  in  intensity  though  unchanged  in  position  by  smaller  phos- 
phorus additions.  The  solubility  of  carbon  in  iron  is  diminished  by 
phosphorus.  A  ternary  eutectic  occurs  in  the  iron-carbon-phosphorus 
system,  phosphorus  6 •  7  p.c,  carbon  2*0  p.c,  iron  91  "3  p.c,  melting 
point  950°  C.  Its  existence  and  that  of  the  compound  Fe3P  are  amply 
confirmed  by  microscopic  examination.  A  combined  heat-tinting  and 
etching  method  was  used.  Some  reproductions  of  Lumiere  colour  photo- 
micrographs of  sections  treated  in  this  way  are  given,  in  which  the 
constituents  of  the  ternary  eutectic  are  clearly  differentiated. 

Solidification  and  Melting  of  Cast-iron. — To  determine  at  what 
stage  in  the  cooling  of  molten  cast-iron  the  formation  of  graphite  occurs 
P.  Goerens  and  N.  Gutowskyf  have  quenched  two  pure  cast  irons  (carbon 
3*91  and  4*72  p.c.  respectively)  at  different  temperatures,  both  rising 
and  falling,  and  studied  the  micro-structure.  Cooling  and  heating 
curves  were  also  taken.  The  authors  conclude  that  graphite  formation 
in  pure  cast-iron  takes  place  during  the  eutectic  solidification  interval. 
The  longer  the  duration  of  solidification  of  the  eutectic,  the  more 
abundantly  is  graphite  formed.  The  graphite  crystals  are  larger  the 
more  slowly  they  are  formed.  The  eutectic  forming  on  solidification 
is  cementite-mixed  crystals  ;  graphite  results  from  the  decomposition  of 
this  cementite.  These  conclusions  (agreeing  with  Wrist's)  are  supported 
by  an  interesting  series  of  photo-micrographs. 

Binary  Systems,  Platinum-arsenic  and  Bismuth-arsenic.J — K. 
Friedrich  and  A.  Leroux  have  determined  the  equilibrium  diagrams  for 
the  ranges  72-100  p.c.  platinum  and  85-100  p.c.  bismuth.  Arsenic- 
rich  alloys  were  not  investigated.  The  first  diagram  points  to  the 
existence  of  a  eutectic  melting  at  597°  C,  containing  about  13  p.c. 
arsenic.  Possibly  the  compound  Pt2As3  occurs.  There  appear  to  be  no 
mixed  crystals.  The  diagram  of  the  bismuth-arsenic  system  consists  of 
two  horizontal  lines,  one  at  267°  C.  (melting-point  of  bismuth),  and  one 
between  480-490°  C. 

Cobalt-arsenic  Alloys.§ — K.  Friedrich  has  determined  the  equi- 
librium diagram  for  the  range  0-53*5  p.c.  arsenic.  The  compounds  are 
Co5As2  (a  and  fi  modifications)  Co2As,  Oo3As2,  and  possibly  CoAs.  The 
pure  cobalt  used  melted  at  1494°  C.  The  diagram  is  too  complex  for 
brief  description. 

*  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  73-87  (38  figs.). 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  137-47  (32  figs.). 

j  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  150-7  (27  figs.).  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  148-9  (7  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  525 

Specific  Heat  of  Iron-carbon  Alloys.*  —  P.  Oberhoffer  and  A. 
Meuthen  have  introduced  some  important  improvements  into  tbe  apparatus 
previously  described.!  A  repeat  determination  gave  a  somewbat  lower 
value  for  tbe  specific  beat  from  0°-650°  C.  of  tbe  nearly  pure  iron  used  ; 
tins  causes  the  bend  in  tbe  curve  at  650°  C.  to  be  sharper.  The  mean 
specific  beat  of  iron  between  0  and  650°  C.  is  raised  by  about  0*0011 
by  the  addition  of  0  •  5  p.c.  carbon.  The  increase  in  specific  heat  is  pro- 
portional to  the  percentage  of  carbon.  Tbe  mean  specific  beat  of  pure 
iron  is  0-1432  ;  that  of  carbide  of  iron  0*1581,  between  0  and  650°  C. 

Use  of  the  Differential  Galvanometer.! — A.  Portevin  contributes 
some  notes  on  the  double  galvanometer,  and  its  use  in  taking  heating 
and  cooling  curves.  By  theoretical  reasoning  be  arrives  at  the  conclu- 
sion that,  if  certain  conditions  be  fulfilled,  the  amount  of  heat  liberated 
is  proportional  to  the  horizontal  distance  of  the  point  of  the  curve 
(showing  difference  of  temperature)  corresponding  to  the  end  of  the 
liberation  of  heat,  from  the  continuation  of  tbe  part  of  the  curve  cor- 
responding to  the  absence  of  critical  points.  A  method  of  increasing 
gradually  the  current  supplied  to  an  electric  furnace  by  increasing 
automatically  the  cross-section  of  a  Hquid  resistance,  is  described. 
Great  uniformity  of  beating  may  thus  be  obtained.  A  convenient 
method  of  standardising  the  pyrometer  is  given. 

Influence  of  Nitrogen  on  Steel.§— A.  Grabe  states  that  Braune's 
method  of  estimating  nitrogen  gives  too  high  results,  due  to  the 
presence  of  nitrite  in  the  potash.  Estimations  made  by  the  author 
gave  the  following  figures  : — 

1 2  Swedish  bar  irons 0  •  0020-0  ■  0045 

38  steels  (miscellaneous)  ...         0*0025-0*0125 

20  cast  irons  (miscellaneous)   ...         0' 0010-0 '0065 

The  author  is  of  opinion  that  the  minute  percentages  found  in 
wrought  and  cast  iron  cannot  have  the  least  influence  on  quality.  It  is 
doubtful  if  percentages  less  than  0*015  in  steel  can  have  a  harmful 
effect. 

Phosphoric  Steels.  ||—  J.  de  Kryloff  has  studied  more  than  250 
samples  of  steel  which  have  failed  in  use.  The  steels  which  contained 
much  phosphorus  showed  a  marked  inequality  in  tbe  distribution  of 
carbon.  Low  carbon  areas,  constituted  chiefly  of  ferrite  grains  high  in 
phosphorus,  were  seen  in  the  micro-sections.  The  author  concludes 
that  when  tbe  percentage  of  phosphorus  does  not  exceed  0*07,  a  uniform 
structure  may  be  obtained  by  suitable  beat  treatment ;  but  when  more 
phosphorus  is  present,  the  initial  heterogeneity  persists  after  heat  treat- 
ment. 

*  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  173-7  (3  figs.). 

+  See  this  Journal,  1907,  p.  757. 

X  Rev.  de  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  295-305  (9  figs.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  353-4.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  355-60  (19  figs.). 


526 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  17th  of  June,  1908,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W. 
A.  N.  Disney,  Esq.,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Chairman  said  they  had  received  a  letter  from  the  President, 
regretting  that  in  consequence  of  his  absence  in  the  country  he  would  be 
unable  to  be  with  them  that  evening. 


The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  May  20,  11)08,  were  read. 

Mr.  J.  W.  Gordon  said,  before  the  Minutes  were  confirmed,  he  should 
like  to  suggest  an  addition  to  them,  as  he  ought  to  have  mentioned  at 
the  last  Meeting  that  the  lantern  slides  of  the  instruments  sent  to  the 
Franco-British  Exhibition,  which  were  shown  on  that  occasion,  were  lent 
for  the  purpose  by  Mr.  C.  Baker.  He  regretted  the  oversight,  and 
tendered  his  apologies  to  Mr.  Curties. 

The  addition  proposed  by  Mr.  Gordon  was  then  made,  and  the 
Minutes,  as  so  amended,  were  confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  Chair- 
man. 


Mr.  J.  W.  Gordon  exhibited  a  new  lens  for  high-power  Microscopy, 
which  had  been  devised  by  himself  and  Mr.  H.  F.  Moulton,  the  con- 
struction of  which  was  described  with  the  aid  of  a  sectional  diagram 
shown  upon  the  screen.  This  lens  had  been  designed  to  obviate  the  use 
of  the  oscillating  screen  introduced  some  time  since,  the  substitute  for 
the  oscillating  screen  being  an  opaque  white  screen  placed  within  the 
objective  itself.  The  optical  result  of  introducing  the  screen  is  to  pro- 
duce a  large  emergent  pencil  of  light  the  full  size  of  the  pupil  of  the 
eye.  The  lens  under  proper  conditions  of  illumination  was  capable  of 
producing  perfect  images  in  the  highest  obtainable  scale  of  amplifica- 
tion. As  exhibited  at  the  Meeting,  it  produced  a  picture  of  a  Podura 
scale  under  a  magnifying  power  of  8000  diameters. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Gordon 
for  his  communication. 


Mr.  Arthur  Skinner  exhibited  a  small  simple  Microscope  by  Caw. 
This  was  only  4f  in.  high,  with  a  square  pillar  mounted  on  a  very  heavy 
cylindrical  brass  stand.  It  was  provided  with  a  plane  mirror,  1  in. 
diameter,  and  a  mechanical  stage  which  worked  up  the  pillar  by  a  focus- 
ing rackwork,  the  teeth  of  which  were  set  obliquely,  as  in  many  modern 
Microscopes.  The  stage  had  movements  of  0 '  4  in.  horizontally  and 
0*5  in.  vertically,  and  provision  was  made  for  the  use  of  condensers 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY.  527 

The  lens  was  fixed  in  position.     There  were  two  similar  instruments  in 
the  Society's  collection,  one  by  Dollond  and  the  other  by  Tully. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  Mr.  Skinner  for  his  exhibit. 


The  Chairman  called  attention  to  a  number  of  slides  of  sections 
illustrating  the  development  of  the  chick,  which  were  exhibited  under 
Microscopes  in  the  room — for  which  the  thanks  of  the  Society  were 
unanimously  voted. 

Some  stereo-photomicrographs  sent  by  Mr.  Dollman  were  also  ex- 
hibited, and  were  passed  round  for  the  inspection  of  the  Fellows  present,, 
the  thanks  of  the  Meeting  for  these  very  beautiful  objects  being  voted 
to  Mr.  Dollman. 

Mr.  E.  Her  on- Allen  read  a  paper — the  joint  production  of  himself 
and  Mr.  A.  Earland— on  "  Cycloloculina,  a  New  Generic  Type  of 
Foraminifera,"  which  they  had  found  on  the  shore  of  Selsey  Bill  ;  a  map 
of  the  district  was  exhibited,  on  which  the  points  where  the  specimens 
were  collected  were  pointed  out,  and  a  number  of  lantern  slides  in  further 
illustration  of  the  paper  were  shown  upon  the  screen. 

Mr.  Earland  said  that  it  had  been  a  great  pleasure  to  him  to  have 
been  associated  with  his  friend  in  the  description  of  a  very  interest- 
ing type,  and  he  thought  Mr.  Heron-Allen  was  entitled  to  much  credit 
for  the  perseverance  with  which  he  had  pursued  his  investigations  into 
the  source  of  its  origin.  He  believed  they  would  eventually  trace  the 
specimens  to  some  Eocene  deposit  which  was  not  exposed  above  low- 
water  mark.  The  specimens  which  had  been  discovered  in  the  Pleis- 
tocene deposits  were  probably  derived  from  the  denudation  of  this 
undiscovered  bed  during  Pleistocene  times,  for  the  Pleistocene  deposits 
were  of  cold  water  or  even  arctic  origin,  whereas  Cycloloculina  was  by  its 
affinities  a  sub-tropical  type.  Of  one  thing  he  was  convinced,  the  source 
of  origin  could  not  be  very  far  away  from  the  place  of  discovery,  for  the 
specimens  were  too  fragile  to  travel  any  considerable  distance  after  they 
were  washed  out  of  their  native  bed. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Heron- 
Allen  and  Mr.  Earland  for  their  communication. 


Mr.  J.  W.  Gordon  gave  a  resume  of  his  paper  on  "An  Illuminating 
Apparatus  for  the  Microscope,"  in  which  the  light  from  a  Nernst  lamp 
was  conveyed  to  the  stage  through  a  glass  rod — the  intensity  of  the 
light  being  regulated  by  the  distance  of  the  lamp  from  the  end  of  the 
rod.  This  apparatus  was  exhibited  in  the  room,  and  a  demonstration  of 
its  utility  was  given  at  the  close  of  the  Meeting.  He  added,  that  Mr. 
Oonrady  had  been  good  enough,  having  read  a  proof  of  his  paper,  to 
write  him  a  letter  on  the  subject,  in  which  he  mentioned  that  a  glass 
rod,  bent  to  a  curved  form,  had  been  used  as  a  speculum  for  trans- 
mitting the  light  from  a  Microscope  lamp  to  a  point  close  beneath  the 
sub-stage  condenser  by  Dr.  Kochs  twenty  years  ago,  and  was  at  one  time 
produced  commercially  by  the  firm  of  Zeiss,  of  Jena. 

The  Chairman  said  that  the  principle  of  illuminating  through  a 
glass  rod  was  not  new,  as  it  was  shown  before  that  very  Society  some 
twenty  years  ago  ;  but  in  that  case  the  rod  was  bent  from  an  iron  screen 


528  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

in  front  of  the  lamp  to  the  under  side  of  the  object,  the  light  being 
transmitted  through  the  rod  by  internal  reflexion. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  Mr.  Gordon  for  his  paper. 


Mr.  E.  M.  Nelson's  paper  on  "  Gorethroti  criophilum"  was  read  by 
Dr.  Hebb ;  and  the  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  Mr.  Nelson  for 
his  communication  and  to  Dr.  Hebb  for  reading  it. 


Mr.  J.  W.  Gordon  said  he  wished  to  announce  to  the  Meeting  that 
the  Council  had  made  arrangements  by  which  it  would  be  possible  for 
the  Fellows  of  the  Society  to  combine  in  sectional  groups  for  the  pursuit 
of  the  particular  branch  of  microscopical  study  in  which  they  were  most 
interested.  As  a  beginning,  it  was  proposed  to  form  three  groups  :  one 
for  the  "  brass  and  glass  "  section,  one  for  Bacteriology,  and  another  for 
Pond- life.  Mr.  Scourfield  was  practically  in  charge  of  the  matter,  and 
if  Fellows  who  desired  to  work  in  either  of  these  sections  would  put  them- 
selves into  communication  with  him,  or  with  either  of  the  Secretaries  of 
the  Society,  they  would  be  able  to  start  work  at  the  beginning  of  the 
next  Session.  The  meetings  would  take  place  on  Wednesday  evenings, 
other  than  those  of  the  Ordinary  Meetings  of  the  Society,  and  it  was 
earnestly  hoped  that  the  sections  mentioned  would  be  joined  by  a 
sufficient  number  of  the  Fellows  of  the  Society,  to  enable  a  good  start  to 
be  made  when  their  meetings  commenced  in  the  autumn. 


It  was  announced  that  the  next  Meeting  of  the  Society  would  take 
place  on  October  21,  and  that  the  rooms  of  the  Society  would  be  closed 
on  and  from  Friday,  August  14,  and  re-open  on  Monday,  September  14. 


New  Fellows. — The  following  were   elected   Ordinary  Fellows 
Messrs.  Daniel  Davies,  Theodore  W.  Smith,  Joseph  Wilson. 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited : — 

Mr.  J.  AY.  Gordon  and  Mr.  Fletcher  Moulton  : — A  New  Lens  for  high- 
power  Microscopy,  with  diagrams  of  the  same  shown  upon  the 
screen. 

Mr.  J.  W.  Gordon  : — Illuminating  Apparatus  for  the  Microscope,  in 
illustration  of  his  paper. 

Mr.  E.  Heron-Allen  and  Mr.  A.  Earland  : — Twelve  slides  under  Micro- 
scopes ;  Lantern  slides  shown  upon  the  screen ;  Foraminiferous 
material,  and  a  Map  of  Selsey  Bill  in  illustration  of  their  paper 

Dr.  Hebb  : — Micro-slides  lent  by  Mr.  A.  Flatters — 10  slides  illustrating 
the  structural  parts  of  the  chick  at  various  stages  of  its  development 
from  about  2  to  4|  days,  and  9  slides  of  transverse  sections  of  the 
same  ;  Stereo-photomicrographs,  by  Mr.  W.  P.  Dollman,  of  Alveolina 
oblonga,  x  6  ;  Fungus  in  Horse's  Eye,  x  300  ;  Statoblast  of  Fresh- 
water Polyzoon  from  Bombay,  x  350  ;  Biddulphia  anlediluviana 
from  Baltic  mud,   x  350. 

Mr.  Arthur  Skinner  : — An  Old  Simple  Microscope  by  Gary. 


JOURRR.MICR.SOC.1908.pl.  XII. 


?i&*$L 


-***#, 


J.A.Lovegrove  del. 


West. Newman  lith. 


Cycloloculina,. 


JOUENAL 

OF   THE 

ROYAL   MICROSCOPICAL    SOCIETY 

OCTOBER,  1908. 


TRANSACTIONS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 


XV. — On  Cycloloculina,  a  Nevj  Generic  Type  of  the  Foraminifera. 

With  a  Preliminary  Study  of  the  Foraininiferous  Deposits 
and  Shore-sands  of  Selsey  Bill. 

By  Edward  Heron-Allen,  F.L.S.  F.K.M.S., 
and  Arthur  Earland. 

(Read  June  17,  1908.) 
Plate  XII. 

Introductory  Note  by  Edward  Heron-Allen. 

I  opine  that  if  there  might  be  a  special  heaven  for  Ehizopodists,  it 
would  be  one  whose  leading  feature  would  be  a  calm  sea,  in  the 
surface  waters  of  which  a  record  number  of  living,  pelagic  Fora- 
minifera might  be  gathered  in  the  terminal  bottle  of  a  common 
tow-net.    If  this  may  be  postulated  as  the  Walhalla  of  the  student 


EXPLANATION   OF   PLATE   XII. 

Fig.  1. — Cycloloculina  annulata  sp.  u*.     1st  or  discorbine  stage,     x  9G.     Balsam 

mount. 
„     2. — Ditto.     2nd  or  pavonine  stage,      x  60.     Balsam  mount. 
,,     3. — Ditto.     3rd  or  annular  stage,      x  48.     Balsam  mount. 
,,     4. — Ditto.     3rd  or  annular  stage,      x  48.    Coarse  specimen.    Opaque  mount. 
,,     5. — Ditto.     3rd  or  annular  stage   (fragment).      X  48.      Hyaline  specimen. 

Opaque  mount.     To  show  the  crenulated  surface  of  chambers. 
„     6. — Ditto.     Detail  showing  spines  on  septal  face  of  chamber,     x  290. 
,,     7. — Ditto.     Detail  showing  areolated  structure  round  the  tubuli.      x  290. 
,,     8. — Cycloloculina  polygyra  sp.  n.       3rd  or  annular  stage.       x  48.      Balsam 

mount. 

Oct.  21st,  1908  2  n 


530  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

of  the  Foraminifera,  his  Niffelheim  may  certainly  lie  found  in  the 
material    which,    for    the    past    year,    has    occupied    my  leisure 
moments,  and  the  appellate  jurisdiction  of  my  friend   and    col- 
laborator, Arthur  Earland.     I  refer  to  the  material  which  may  lie 
scraped  at  any  time,  between  tide-marks,  from  the  surface  of  t In- 
shore sand  of  Selsey  Bill,  which  extends  from  the  point  of  the 
Bill  north-westwards,  through  Bracklesham  Bay,  to  the  brackish 
waters  of  Chichester  Harbour,  opposite  Hayling  Island  and  the 
Isle  of  Wight.     When  first  I  suggested  devoting  my  attention  to 
this  material   to   Mr.  F.  W.   Millett,  he  returned   me   a   highly 
characteristic  answer,  and  one  which  would  have  seriously  damped 
the  ardour  of  a  beginner.      He  said  :  "  The  specimens  of  Fora- 
minifera are  interesting,  but   I  cannot  quite  see  how  you  are  to 
make  a  useful  monograph  out  of  this  jumble  of  fossils  washed 
out  of  uncertain  beds  from  unknown  localities." 

In  the  beLrinnins:  I  found  Mr.  Earland  at  one  with  him,  but  as 
I  continued  doggedly  upon  the  quest,  Mr.  Earland  came  round  to 
my  view  that  this  is,  perhaps,  the  most  remarkable  and  suggestive 
foraminiferous  deposit  to  be  found  in  the  British  Islands.  The 
completed  study  of  the  Foraminifera  of  the  locality,  we  hope  to 
lay  before  the  Society  at  a  future  date,  but  it  has  seemed  good  to 
us  to  introduce  the  subject,  with  a  paper  upon  a  most  interesting 
form  continually  recurrent  in  the  material,  which,  at  first,  we  were 
disposed  to  regard  as  a  new  species  of  Planorbulina,  but  which  we 
have  gradually  been  forced  to  recognise  as  a  new  genus,  for  which 
we  propose  the  generic  name  of  Cycloloculina,  and  which  we  have 
the  honour  to  lay  before  you  in  two  species,  named  respectively 
Cycloloculina  annvlata  and  C.  jpolygyra. 

It  will  not  be  impertinent  to  the  consideration  of  the  genus  to 
devote  a  few  moments  to  the  history  of  its  discovery.  Selsey  Bill 
is  the  peninsula  resembling,  as  it  were,  an  "  uvula "  dependent 
from  the  extreme  south-west  of  Sussex,  a  few  miles  only  from  the 
borders  of  Hampshire ;  and  there  is  probably  no  locality  upon  the 
coast  lines  of  Great  Britain  which  has  attracted  in  a  greater  degree 
the  earnest  attention  of  geologists.  It  may  be  said  at  once  that  the 
whole  of  the  district  under  consideration,  forms  part  of  the  most 
noteworthy  of  the  raised  beaches  which  occupied  the  attention  of 
Professor  Prestwich,  and  were  so  learnedly  and  lucidly  described 
and  discussed  by  him  in  the  '  Quarterly  Journal '  of  the  Geological 
Society  in  1892.*  For  the  purpose  of  this  paper,  the  geological 
interest  of  this  shore  commences  at  Bracklesham  Farm,  which  is 
situate  just  beyond  the  western  boundary  of  the  Geological  Survey's 
Map,  Sheet  332,  and  opposite  which  lies  the  great  bank  of  Eocene 
fossils  which  is  exposed  at  low  tide,  and  is  composed  of  agglome- 

*  This  raised  beach  extends  from  Brighton  on  the  east,  to  Portsmouth  on  the 
west,  and  includes  the  whole  district  south  of  a  line  drawn  from  Portslade  through 
Arundel  to  Havant  (Postscript,  No.  11). 


On  Cycloloculina.  531 

rated  masses  of  Gardita  (Venericardia)  planicosta  and  acuticosta, 
digging  through  which,  one  finds  an  equally  rich  bed  of  the  large 
Gyprcea  tuberculosa.  This  bed  reappears  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Bill,  opposite  the  now  reclaimed  Pagham  Harbour,  where 
cockles  have  been  gathered  from  time  immemorial,  and  have 
achieved  a  reputation  to  which  testimony  was  borne  by  Izaak 
Walton,  who  records  that  there  are  four  good  things  in  Sussex, 
"  a  Selsey  cockle,  a  Chichester  lobster,  an  Arundel  mullet,  and  an 
Amberley  trout."  *  Proceeding  south-eastwards,  we  arrive  at  the 
Turrit  ell  a  beds  of  Earnley,  beds  which  dip  under  the  peninsula, 
and  (like  the  Gardita  beds)  reappear  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Bill,  opposite  Park  Farm.  Further  on,  just  before  we  reach 
Thorney  Farm,  we  find  the  shore,  at  low  tide,  literally  strewn  with 
the  little  disks  of  Nummulites  Iccvvjatus,  whilst,  opposite  Thorney 
Farm,  we  find  Eocene  deposits  at  the  extreme  limit  of  low  tides 
in  which  the  gigantic  shells,  often  two  feet  in  length,  of  Gerithium 
giganteum  are  not  uncommon.  The  next,  and,  to  us,  a  most 
interesting  deposit,  is  found  immediately  in  front  of  Medmerry 
Farm,  now  ruined  by  the  encroachment  of  the  sea,  where  a  spit 
of  Post-Pliocene  mud  (a  Pleistocene,  or  Post-Tertiary  deposit), 
runs  out  to  sea,  which  can  easily  be  examined  at  spring  tides,  and 
is  extraordinarily  rich  in  fossil  Foraminifera.  The  question  as  to 
whether  these  are  in  situ,  or  derived,  or  partly  derived  and  partly 
in  situ,  we  must  leave  for  discussion  when  we  present  to  the 
Society  the  completed  results  of  our  work  upon  the  Selsey  shore 
sands.  Between  Med  merry  Farm  and  the  Thorney  Coastguard  Station, 
a  high  bank  of  recent  shingle,  heaped  up  against  the  Eaised  Beach 
and  the  Coombe  Eock,  Mr.  Clement  Reid's  section  of  which 
(Postscript  Xo.  9,  p.  355)  has  been  so  often  reproduced  in  works  and 
papers  dealing  with  Tertiary  and  Post-Tertiary  deposits,  keeps  the 
sea  (not  always  successfully)  from  inundating  the  low-lying 
marshes  that  lie  between  the  disused  oyster  beds  of  Medmerry 
Farm  and  the  "Windmill,  which,  at  this  point,  forms  a  feature  of 
the  landscape.  "  Passing  Thorney  Coastguard  Station  "  (we  quote, 
for  the  sake  of  convenience,  from  Mr.  Clement  Beid's  '  Memoir ' 
upon  the  Sheet  No.  332,  Postscript  Xo.  13),  "  we  reach  the  highest 
Eocene  deposits  represented  in  the  Selsey  peninsula.  These  con- 
sist of  clays  and  sandy  rock-beds  full  of  Foraminifera,  such  as 
Nummulina  variolaria,  and  Alvcolina  sabulosa,  etc.f     The  Mixon 

*  The  Complete  Angler.  Bv  I.  Walton  and  C.  Cotton.  London,  1653, 
Chap.  IV.     Third  Day. 

t  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  locality  identified  in  the  early  geological 
memoirs  as  "  Thorney  Coastguard  Station  "  is  very  misleading.  The  erosion  of  the 
coast  having  practically  washed  away  the  old  Thorney  Coastguard  Station,  the 
name  has  been  transferred  to  the  newer  Coastguard  Station  two  miles  south-east,  so 
that  in  any  memoir  prior  to  1863  Thorney  Coastguard  Station  means  Bracklesham 
Bay,  whilst  in  later  memoirs  (as,  for  instance,  Mr.  Reid's  Geological  Memoir, 
Postscript,  No  13)  "  Thorney"  means  the  Coastguard  Station  heretofore  known  as 
"  Danners,"  which  is  at  the  end  of  West  Street,  Selsey. 

2  n  2 


532  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Eocks  opposite  Selsey  yield  the  Alveolina  limestone,  of  which  so 
much  of  the  village  is  built.  It  is  no  longer  quarried,  as  its 
removal  led  to  a  more  rapid  wasting  of  the  coast."  The  whole 
of  these  Tertiary  and  Post-Tertiary  deposits  (which  will  receive 
our  careful  consideration  when  the  time  arrives  for  presenting  our 
completed  work  to  the  Society)  are  overlaid  by  the  Coombe  Kock 
and  brick-earths  which  Mr.  Clement  Eeid  has  made  the  subject 
of  significant  study  and  observation  (Postscript,  Nos.  6  and  9) ; 
and,  as  we  pursue  our  way  round  the  Bill,  we  meet  again, 
cropping  out  upon  the  eastern  coast,  the  Nummulite  bed,  and  the 
Cardita  and  Turritella  beds,  before  we  reach  the  broad  expanse  of 
marsh  clay,  overlaid  with  recent  shingle,  that  shelves  from 
Pagham  harbour  into  the  sea,  just  beyond  the  long  spit  of  heaped- 
up  shingle  that  stretches  seaward  opposite  Park  Farm.  It  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  coast  of  Selsey  Bill  has  been,  and  is, 
subject  to  a  degree  of  annual  erosion,  unsurpassed  on  the  British 
coasts.  It  was  our  intention  to  show,  by  means  of  a  map,  the 
old  coast-lines  as  shown  upon  survey  maps,  dating  from  1570 
until  the  present  time  ;  but  we  have  been  unable  to  complete  this 
work  for  the  present  occasion  (for  which,  perhaps,  it  would  have 
been  premature),  but  the  map  will  be  completed  in  this  particular 
for  the  illustration  of  our  later  paper.  By  that  time,  also,  we 
shall  have  completed  a  series  of  carefully  measured  sections  which 
we  are  preparing,  showing  the  strata  of  the  brick  earth,  torrent 
gravels,  marine  gravels,  and  drift  all  over  the  Selsey  peninsula. 
And,  with  a  view  to  giving  more  complete  data  for  the  micro- 
geologist,  we  shall  present  an  analysis  of  some  thirty-six  samples 
of  strata,  reaching  from  the  16-foot  level  to  the  100-foot  level, 
taken  from  two  artesian  borings  that  I  have  made  through  this 
Coombe  rock  and  the  underlying  strata  in  the  centre  of  Selsey 
village  in  a  fruitless  search  for  an  underground  water  supply. 

I  little  knew  when,  as  a  new  settler  in  Selsey  at  the  commence- 
ment of  1907,  I  determined  to  make  a  systematic  study  of  the 
Foraminifera  of  the  Selsey  shore-sand — fired  by  Arthur  Earland's 
exhaustive  study  of  the  Foraminifera  of  Bognor  (Postscript,  No.  17) 
and  my  own  earlier  and  desultory  studies  of  the  same  sand,  and  of 
that  at  Littlehampton — what  I  was  undertaking.  It  seemed  to 
me  that,  to  arrive  at  a  complete  catalogue  of  the  species  to  be  found 
between  tide-marks,  all  that  was  necessary  was  to  make  an  ex- 
tended gathering  and  wash,  float,  and  elutriate  the  contained  forms. 
Accordingly,  in  the  course  of  some  half-dozen  walks  at  low  tide 
from  the  foreshore  of  the  extreme  point,  slightly  to  the  east  of  the 
Marine  Hotel,  up  to  Bracklesham  Bay  (Thorney  Farm),  a  distance 
of  about  2£  miles,  I  collected  exactly  1000  cubic  centimetres  of 
foraminiferal  scrapings,  which,  after  treatment,  gave  the  following 
results : — 


On  Cycloloculina.  533 

c.cm. 

Coarse  sittings  left  on  the  3Vm-  sieve        . .          . .  22-5 

Pure  Foraminifera  (skimmed  froni the  surface)  ..  5-0 

Floatings  left  on  the  gL-in.  sieve     ..          ..          ..  24 -5 

..                 ,,         ^-in.  silk        9-5 

Elutriated  material  left  on  the  3Vm-  sieve           ..  6-0 

ffVin.  sieve           ••  63-° 

T^-in.  silk            ..  15-5 

Residue             ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..  854-0 


1000-0 


Within  a  year  of  the  incipience  of  the  task  of  examining  the 
material,  I  had  compiled  a  catalogue  of  over  200  species,  both 
recent  and  fossil,  but  very  soon  upon  the  query  slide  I  found 
I  had  three  or  four  discoidal  shells  of  a  highly  friable  nature, 
in  very  imperfect  condition,  that  I  had  never  seen  before.  I  sub- 
mitted them  to  my  collaborator  in  this  paper,  who  recognised  as  a 
fact,  what  I  had  by  that  time  tentatively  advanced,  viz.  that  the 
shell  was,  at  any  rate,  a  new  species,  perhaps  related  to  the 
Planorbulina  costellata  or flabellum  of  Terquem.* 

Once,  however,  mounted  in  balsam,  we  recognised  that  we  were 
dealing  with  a  Foraminifer,  not  only  new  as  regards  species,  but 
having  an  entirely  new  plan  of  growth  and  development,  and  con- 
sequently a  new  genus.  The  determination  and  description  of  the 
shell  is  as  follows  : 

Precis  of  Origin. 

The  specimens  on  which  the  genus  is  founded  are  fossils,  and 
were  found  in  company  with  many  other  fossil  Foraminifera  derived 
from  Secondary  and  Tertiary  strata.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
fossils  are  such  as  would  occur  in  Tertiary  beds  of  the  period  of 
the  "  Calcaire  Grossier  "  (Eocene),  and  it  is  therefore  probable  that 
the  specimens  have  their  origin  in  the  submarine  denudation  of 
strata  which  are  not  exposed  above  low-water  mark.  It  is  hoped 
to  settle  this  point  by  dredging  in  the  neighbourhood,  but  in  the 
meantime  it  is  thought  desirable  to  publish  this  description  of  the 
most  interesting  form  yet  met  with  in  the  gatherings. 


Family  IX.  Rotaliidae. 

Sub-family  2,  Eotalin^e. 

Genus,  Cycloloculina  Heron-Allen  and  Earland. 

Definition   of  the    Genus. — Test   free   (or   perhaps   sometimes 
adherent  in  the  later-  stage  of  growth),  complanate,  discoidal,  con- 

*  Les  Foraminiferes  de  l'Eocene  des  Environs  de  Paris.     By  M.  O.  Terquem, 
Mem.  Soc.  Geol.  de  France,  ser.  3,  ii.  (1882). 


534  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

sistiug  of  three  distinct  series  of  chambers  arranged  in  one  plane 
representing  three  distinct  life-periods,  of  each  of  which  we  have 
been  fortunate  enough  to  secure  perfect  and  typical  examples. 
These  three  life-periods  are  as  follows  : — 

1.  An  initial  series  of  seven  or  eight  chambers  arranged  in  one 
plane  in  a  compressed  and  evolute  spiral,  all  the  chambers  being 
visible  on  both  faces  of  the  test.  The  chambers  grow  rapidly  in 
thickness,  so  that  a  young  shell  at  the  period  of  the  completion  of 
this  first  or  "  Discorbine "  stage  of  growth  is  somewhat  wedge- 
shaped  in  vertical  section. 

2.  An  intermediate  or  "  Pavonine"  stage,  consisting  of  two  or 
three  chambers,  which,  rapidly  increasing  in  width  (as  opposed  to 
depth,  which  from  the  completion  of  the  first  or  Discorbine  stage 
remains  pretty  constant  during  the  remaining  growth),  overlap  and 
infold  the  initial  or  Discorbine  series. 

3.  A  final  series  of  narrow  annular  chambers  arranged  concen- 
trically round  the  earlier  stages. 

The  completed  test  is  usually  symmetrical  and  roughly  circular 
in  outline,  but  is  sometimes  more  or  less  irregular  both  in  outline 
and  in  superficial  appearance,  as  though  it  had  grown  in  contact 
with  an  irregular  surface.  No  attached  specimens  have,  however, 
been  found  as  yet. 

The  test  is  distinctly  and  somewhat  coarsely  perforated.  As 
the  test  increases  in  growth  and  age,  the  walls  become  thickened 
by  a  deposit  of  shell  substance  between  the  tubuli,  and  the  surface 
then  assumes  a  rough,  or  areolated  appearance,  distinctly  visible  in 
balsam  mounts,  due  to  the  cup -shaped  depressions  left  round  the 
perforations  (plate  XII.  fig.  7).  The  edges  of  these  cups  appear  to 
have  been  produced  into  minute  spines,  which  are  especially  notice- 
able round  the  perforations  on  the  oral  faces  of  the  chambers,  where 
they  have  been  included  and  protected  from  injury  by  the  growth 
of  the  succeeding  chambers  (plate  XII.  fig.  6). 

The  continual  deposition  of  this  shell-substance  causes  the  older 
shells  to  assume  a  crenulate,  or  even  warty,  superficial  appearance, 
which  masks  the  sutural  lines.  The  plan  of  growth  then  becomes 
very  obscure,  but  is  still  readily  observable  in  balsam  mounts. 

Aperture. — There  is  no  special  oral  aperture  in  any  of  the 
stages  of  growth.  The  only  communication  between  the  successive 
chambers  consists  of  the  ordinary  tubuli,  which  are  equally  dis- 
tributed over  the  septal  face  of  the  chambers,  as  well  as  over  the 
outer  sides.  The  septal  tubuli  do  not  differ  in  any  way  from  the 
other  perforations. 

This  absence  of  special  aperture  is  one  of  the  most  marked 
features  of  the  genus,  and  has  no  parallel  in  the  perforate  Forami- 
nifera  outside  the  Tinoporina?,  of  which  sub-family  the  absence 
of  a  special  aperture  is  a  characteristic  feature. 

The  genus  Cycloloculina  will  be  placed  in  the  second  sub-family 


On  Gycloloculina.  535 

Rotalinse  of  Brady's  ninth  family,  the  Eotaliidre,  and  between  the 
genera  Discorbina  and  Planorbulina,  which  are  its  nearest  allies, 
although  the  absence  of  special  aperture  might  lead  one  to  suppose 
that  its  affinities  were  with  the  Tinoporinae.  The  earliest  chambers 
however,  which  are  on  the  Discorbine  plan  of  growth,  mark  its  affinity 
to  that  genus.  It  differs  from  Planorbulina,  to  which  it  bears  a 
superficial  resemblance  externally,  in  the  construction  and  arrange- 
ment of  its  later  chambers,  and  in  the  absence  of  definite  oral 
apertures.  In  Planorbulina  the  chambers  succeeding  the  early 
spiral  portion  are  arranged  in  more  or  less  concentric  order,  but  the 
method  of  arrangement  rapidly  becomes  obscure,  and  one  portion 
of  the  periphery  often  grows  more  rapidly  than  another,  owing  to 
the  accretion  of  chamberlets.  Planorbulina,  moreover,  is  more  or 
less  an  adherent  form,  and  the  later  chambers  grow  to  some  extent 
over  their  predecessors,  so  that  the  initial  spiral  portion  is  only 
visible  on  the  under,  or  attached,  surface  of  the  test.  This  over- 
lapping reaches  its  fullest  development  in  P.  accrvalis  (Brady),  in 
which  the  chamberlets  are  irregularly  heaped  together. 

In  Planorbulina,  moreover,  the  oral  apertures  are  very  well 
defined,  consisting  of  minute  arched  slits,  with  everted  lip,  placed 


A 


/""V- 


4^y\ 


stfpzz&r. 


Fig.  138. — Diagrammatic  Section  of  a  Portion  of  Planorbulina. 

A,  oral  apertures. 

on  each  side  of  the  chamberlet  at  the*  points  of  attachment  co  the 
previous  whorl. 

Our  type  bears  a  somewhat  superficial  resemblance  to  a  species 
which  was  described  by  d'Orbigny  under  the  name  of  Planorbulina 
>•<  rmiculata,  but  which  was  transferred  by  Brady  to  the  genus 
Pulvinulina  on  grounds  which  do  not  appear  very  convincing  to 
us.  It  may  be  noted  that  Brady  assigns  Terquern's  Planorbulina 
Eocccna  to  this  species,  but  we  think  incorrectly,  as  specimens 
which  are  undoubtedly  referable  to  Terquern's  species  are  of 
frequent  occurrence  at  Bognor  and  Selsey,  and  they  bear  but  little 
resemblance  to  Pulvinulina  {Planorbulina)  vermiculata,  of  which 
we  have  excellent  specimens  from  the  Mediterranean. 

The  undivided  tubular  chambers  which  are  the  characteristic 
feature  of  the  genus  Cycloloculina,  have  no  parallel  in  the 
Foraminifera.       D'Orbigny 's    second  order,    the   Cyclostega,  was 


536  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

created  to  include  those  forms  in  which  the  test  was  discoidal 
and  composed  of  concentric  segments,  but  in  Orbitolites,  and  its 
isomorph  Cytloclypeus,  these  annular  chambers  are  subdivided  by 
partitions  into  chamberlets,  as  is  also  the  case  in  Orbiculiiw,  which 
in  its  variety  compressa  (0.  comjjrrssa  d'Orbigny),  bears  a  remark- 
able resemblance  to  our  form. 

Terquem  in  his  celebrated  monograph  *  figures  and  describes 
several  abnormal  Piano ■rbulince,  most  of  which  occur  among  the 
Selsey  fossils.  One  of  his  species,  viz.  Planorbulina  Jiabellum 
(Terquem),t  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Pavonine  stage  of 
Cycloloculina,  and  is  indeed  probably  referable  to  this  genus, 
though  apparently  not  to  either  of  the  Selsey  types.  Terquem's 
figure  differs  from  our  form  in  the  shape  of  the  later  chambers, 
which  are  arcuate  instead  of  being  tubular  and  of  horseshoe  form. 

Terquem's  figure  does  not,  however,  tally  very  accurately  with 
his  description  of  the  species,  which  is  stated  to  be  very  variable 
in  shape  and  in  the  number  of  chambers.  In  this  respect  it  differs 
again  from  our  form,  in  which  the  chambers  are  remarkably  con- 
stant in  shape  and  nearly  always  ten  in  number,  up  to  the  comple- 
tion of  the  Pavonine  stage. 

Cycloloculina  annulata  sp.  n.     Plate  XII.  figs.  1-7. 

Definition  of  Species. — Test  free,  complanate,  discoidal,  consist- 
ing of  the  three  series  of  chambers  arranged  more  or  less  irregularly 
in  one  plane.  Peripheral  edges  of  the  chambers  rounded.  The 
entire  surface  of  the  shell,  including  the  peripheral  edge,  some- 
what coarsely  perforate.  No  aperture  to  the  test  other  than  these 
perforations,  which  represent  the  sole  means  of  communication 
between  the  successive  chambers  of  the  test. 

The  surface  of  the  test  varies  greatly  in  individual  specimens. 
It  is  occasionally  almost  smooth,  clear,  and  distinctly  hyaline,  and 
in  these  specimens,  which  are  always  regularly  complanate,  the 
peculiar  arrangement  of  the  chambers  is  tolerably  apparent  even 
when  the  shell  is  viewed  as  an  opaque  object,  the  concentric 
sutural  furrows  being  clearly  marked.  In  the  majority  of  specimens, 
however,  the  test  is  irregularly  complanate,  and  the  surface  is  so 
distorted  by  the  irregular  crenulated  growth  of  the  chambers,  and 
so  roughened  by  the  depositions  of  secondary  shell  deposit  round 
the  edges  of  the  perforations,  that  the  sutural  furrows  are  only 
visible  at  intervals.  The  real  structure  of  the  test  is  thus  masked, 
and  such  specimens  might  easily  be  overlooked  or  regarded  as 
abnormal  Planorbulincv  of  the  "  larvata  "  group.  The  transference 
of  these  thick  and  coarsely  built  specimens  to  balsam  is,  however, 

*  Les  Foraminiferes  do  l'Eocene  des  Environs  de  Paris.     By  M.  0.  Terquem, 
Mem.  Soc.  Geol.  de  France,  ser.  3,  ii.  (1882). 
t  Tom.  cit.,  p.  92,  pi.  xi.  fig.  19. 


On  Cycloloculina.  537 

sufficient  to  disclose  their  identity  with  the  smooth  and  regular 
specimens  which  possibly  represent  individuals  which  had  lived  in 
deeper  and  more  undisturbed  water,  or  under  conditions  less 
favourable  for  exuberance  of  shell  growth. 

A  series  of  radial  crinkles  or  undulations,  which  are  more 
noticeable  in  the  thin- walled  specimens  than  in  the  coarser  shells, 
might  at  first  sight  give  the  impression  that  the  annular  chambers 
are  divided  by  radial  partitions  into  small  chamberlets ;  but 
these  markings  are  purely  superficial,  and  the  examination  of 
numerous  balsam  specimens  has  proved  that  the  tubular  chambers 
are  undivided  throughout  (plate  XII.  fig.  5). 

Mode  of  Growth. — The  initial  or  "  Discorbine  "  stage  commences 
with  a  primordial  chamber,  which  is  followed  by  about  six  other 
chambers,  crescentiform  in  shape,  and  arranged  as  in  Discorbina 
biconcava  (Parker  and  Jones),  to  which  species  the  shell,  at  the 
completion  of  its  first  stage,  bears  some  resemblance  (plate  XII. 
fig.  1).  With  the  seventh  chamber,  the  second,  or  "Pavonine," 
stage  may  be  said  to  commence.  Owing  to  its  great  breadth,  as 
compared  with  its  diameter,  it  commences  that  overlapping  of  the 
preceding  chambers,  which,  continually  increasing  in  the  eighth 
and  ninth  chambers,  usually  reaches  its  culminating  point  in 
the  tenth  chamber,  which  completely  infolds  all  its  predecessors, 
its  opposite  extremities  meeting  at  the  base  of  the  shell.  The  test, 
which  had  been  more  or  less  fan-shaped,  or,  rather,  Pavonine 
(peacock-tail  shape)  at  the  eighth  and  ninth  chambers,  is  now 
practically  circular,  only  a  slight  flattening  at  the  base  showing 
where  the  encircling  edges  of  the  tenth  chamber  have  met  (plate 
XII.  fig.  2). 

The  third,  or  "  Annular  "  stage  of  growth,  now  begins,  and  the 
animal  adds  several  tube-like  undivided  chambers,  each  of  which 
completely  surrounds,  all  its  predecessors  (plate  XII.  figs.  3,  4). 
The  number  of  these  chambers  varies  considerably.  The  largest 
specimen  which  we  have  found  shows  six  of  these  concentric 
annular  chambers.  The  specimen  is  imperfect,  but  it  probably 
marks  the  approximate  limit  of  growth,  as  the  average  number  of 
annular  chambers  in  the  third  stage  does  not  exceed  four. 

From  the  ninth  or  tenth  chamber  to  the  completion  of  the 
shell,  there  is  but  little  variation  in  the  diameter  of  the  tube-like 
chambers,  the  average  diameter  of  the  chambers  being  about 
0  *  05  mm.  This  means  that  the  tubes,  though  very  nearly  circular 
in  section,  are  rather  broader  than  they  are  deep. 

In  the  next  species,  however — Cycloloculina  polygyra — the 
variation  is  in  the  other  direction,  the  depth  being,  if  anything, 
greater  than  the  breadth. 

One  abnormal  specimen  was  found  in  which /the  shell  showed 
signs  of  fracture  and  repair  during  the  third  stage  of  the  animal's 
life.      A  considerable  piece  of  the  test  has  been  broken  away, 


538  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

and  the  gap  filled  up,  not  by  the  restoration  of  the  broken  annular 

chambers,  but  by  the  insertion  of  irregular  chaniberlets,  which  fill 
the  space  and  complete  the  circular  outline  of  the  shell. 

The  species  varies  considerably  in  size,  but  the  following 
measurements  may  be  taken  as  approximating  to  an  average  of 
the  various  stages  : —  "  Discorbine  "  stage :  length,  0  •  26  mm. ; 
breadth,  0  ■  20  mm.  "  Pavonine  "  stage  :  length,  0  ■  5  mm. ;  breadth, 
0*6  mm.  Adult,  or  "'Annular"  stage:  diameter,  1-1*1  mm. 
The  concentric  annuli  average  0  ■  05  mm.  in  diameter. 

The  thickness  of  the  specimens  is  approximately  the  same  in 
all  stages  of  growth  after  the  first  few  chambers,  and  an  average 
for  a  moderately  flat  specimen  would  be  0  ■  046  mm. 

Cycloloeuliaa  polygyra  sp.  n.     Plate  XII.  fig.  8. 

Definition  of  Species. — Test  free,  complanate,  discoidal,  con- 
sisting of  the  three  series  of  chambers  arranged  symmetrically  in  one 
plane.  Peripheral  edge  nearly  square.  Perforations  finer  than  in 
the  type,  and  without  any  secondary  deposit  of  shell  substance 
between  the  pores.  Sutural  lines  either  very  slightly  depressed, 
or  flush,  or  even  slightly  limbate.  Number  of  chambers  in  the 
first  two  stages,  usually  eight.  Average  number  of  chambers  in 
the  third,  or  "  Annular  "  stage,  about  five.  The  annular  chambers 
increase  regularly  in  diameter,  instead  of  remaining  of  practically 
constant  diameter,  as  in  C.  annulata,  and  this  gradual  increase 
gives  a  false  impression  of  a  closely  coiled  spiral,  whence  our 
specific  name  ''polygyra."  As  the  thickness  of  the  test  is  prac- 
tically the  same  in  all  stages,  it  follows  that  the  internal  section 
of  the  chambers  varies  at  different  stages  of  growth,  the  early 
chambers  being  almost  ribbon-like,  while  the  later  ones  are 
nearly  square  in  section. 

The  species  is  founded  on  certain  specimens  which  are  found 
associated  with* C.  annulata  in  several  of  the  gatherings.  It  is  of 
very  infrequent  occurrence  as  compared  with  the  type,  and  all  the 
specimens  hitherto  found  are  adults.  There  is,  however,  no  doubt 
from  their  structure,  that  the  test  passes  through  the  same  three 
stages  as  does  C.  annulata,  from  which  it  differs  in  several  essential 
features. 

The  chief  differences  are  : — 

A.  In  size,  the  species  is  considerably  smaller  than  C.  annulata. 
Our  largest  specimen  of  C.  polygyra  measures  0  ■  5-0  ■  6  mm.  in 
diameter,  which  is  less  than  the  average  size  of  C.  annulata.  The 
shell  is  altogether  smaller,  neater,  and  more  finished  in  appearance 
than  the  type. 

B.  The  peripheral  edge  is  square,  not  rounded,  as  in  C.  annulata, 
and  the  sutural  lines  are  only  slightly  depressed,  and  sometimes 
flush  or  limbate. 


On  Cycloloculina.  539 

C.  The  secondary  shell  deposit  between  the  perforations  is 
entirely  wanting,  and  the  test,  consequently,  never  acquires  the 
coarse  and  weathered  appearance  which  marks  many  specimens  of 
C.  annul  ata. 

D.  The  annular  chambers  vary  in  diameter  and  in  sectional 
shape. 

The  genus  being  thus  established,  and  its  two  distinctive  species 
having  been  determined  by  the  examination  of  recurrent  specimens, 
we  had  reached  a  point  at  which  it  became  imperative  that  some 
organised  effort  should  be  made  to  determine  the  exact  locality,  if 
not  the  precise  geological  stratum,  from  which  this  interesting 
fossil  is  derived.  We  therefore  made  the  following  series  of 
gatherings  of  a  strictly  localised  character,  taking  whenever 
possible,  not  only  a  sample  of  the  shore- sand,  but  of  the  rocks 
and  other  deposits  exposed  at  low  spring  tides,  and  of  the  sea-floor 
by  means  of  dredging. 

1.  Shore-sand.  From  a  small  sand-bay,  or  pocket,  in  the 
shelter  of  the  spit  of  shingle  that  runs  out  to  sea  opposite  Park 
Farm,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Bill.  (It  may  be  observed  that 
this  is  the  only  spot  on  the  eastern  shore  which  is  not  covered  at 
all  states  of  the  tide  with  a  greater  or  lesser  depth  of  shingle, 
derived  apparently  from  the  raised  beach  or  Coombe  Eock.) 

2.  Mud.  A  green  plastic  clay  (?  Tertiary)  dredged  in  five 
fathoms  outside  the  Mixon  Bocks. 

3.  Rock  detritus.  The  indurated  and  Pholas-hored  Tertiary 
clay.  Pebbles,  and  small  boulders,  dredged  in  five  fathoms  outside 
the  Mixon  Eocks,  locally  known  as  "The  Clibs." 

4.  Eock  detritus.  The  Alvcolina  limestone  forming  the  Mixon 
Eocks  proper,  of  which  most  of  the  old  houses  in  Selsey  are  built. 
Dredged  with  Nos.  2  and  3. 

5.  Eock  detritus.  The  muddy  sand  found  in  the  pools  under 
the  boulders  upon  the  highest  point  of  the  Mixon  Eocks,  piled 
round  the  Mixon  Beacon  and  uncovered  at  low  tide.  This  consists 
of  the  detritus  of  Nos.  2  and  3  mingled  with  recent  Foraminifera. 

6.  Shore-sand.  From  the  commencement  of  the  "  sands  " 
opposite  the  Marine  Hotel,  extending  slightly  eastward  towards 
the  extreme  point,  off  which  are  the  Mixon  Eocks. 

7.  Shore-sand.  From  the  same  point,  extending  about  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  westward,  opposite  "  The  Bungalows." 

8.  Mud-deposit.  Opposite  Thorney  (New)  Coastguard  Station, 
called  by  Mr.  C.  Eeid  the  "  Selsey  Beds."  A  brown  loamy 
(Pleistocene)  mud,  with  much  detritus  of  derived  fossil  Mollusca. 

9.  Mud-deposit.  A  Post-Tertiary  estuarine  clay,  of  deep 
indigo  blue  colour,  about  three  feet  thick,  separating  No.  8  at  this 
point  from  No.  10. 

10.  Bracklesham  Beds.      The  Pholas-bored  Eocene    belt  that 


540  Tin  a  mixtions  of  the  Society . 

surrounds    the  peninsula.      Sample   taken   below   Nos.  8  and  9, 
opposite  Thorney  Coastguard  Station. 

11.  Shore-sand.  From  the  sands  midway  between  No.  7  and 
No.  12  above  the  "  Selsey  Beds  "  (No.  8). 

12.  Shore-sand.  From  the  shore  opposite  the  oyster-beds 
and  Windmill,  slightly  north-west  of  the  present  Thorney  Coast- 
guard Station. 

13.  Shore-sand.  From  the  shore  opposite  Medmerry  Farm, 
between  the  Coombe  Rock  and  the  spit  of  Pleistocene  mud 
described  by  Mr.  C.  Eeid  (Postscript,  No.  9 ;  also  Nos.  8  and  10). 

14.  Mud-deposit.  Dug  from  the  Pleistocene  mud  ("  Clibs ") 
exposed  at  spring-tide  (Laminarian  zone)  opposite  Medmerry 
Farm. 

15.  Shore-sand.  From  the  shore  of  Bracklesham  Bay  opposite 
Thorney  Farm,  and  the  now  abandoned  (old)  Thorney  Coastguard 
Station. 

16.  Focene-sand.  From  the  interior  of  large  and  perfect  shells 
of  Cardita  planicosta,  from  a  depth  of  two  feet  in  the  Bracklesham 
Beds,  uncovered  at  low  water  of  spring  tides  in  Bracklesham  Bay. 

Besides  the  foregoing  samples  of  material,  we  possess,  and  shall 
examine  systematically  in  due  course,  the  thirty-six  Artesian-well 
samples  of  the  strata  of  the  Selsey  peninsula  to  which  reference 
has  been  made. 

The  presence  of  a  large  number  of  purely  chalk  Foraminifera 
in  the  Selsey  shore-sand  is  accounted  for  by  the  continual 
throwing  up  and  shattering  upon  the  shingle,  of  hollow  flints 
(Spongidse)  from  the  upper  chalk  (probably  from  the  Isle  of 
Wight),  and  a  description  of  the  contents  of  some  of  these  will 
form  a  necessary  termination  to  our  completed  study  of  the  Fora- 
minifera of  the  locality. 

It  will  readily  be  gathered  from  a  glance  at  the  foregoing 
catalogue  of  material,  that  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  Foraminifera 
of  Selsey  Bill  must  occupy  all  the  leisure  that  we  can  devote  to  it 
for  some  years  to  come.  Meanwhile  we  have  made  a  preliminary 
and  necessarily  somewhat  cursory  examination  of  the  twelve 
samples  composing  the  above  catalogue,  with  a  view  to  ascertain- 
ing, as  far  as  is  at  present  possible,  the  precise  origin  of  the  genus 
Gycloloculina. 

The  result  of  such  examination  is  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Park  Farm.  Almost  entirely  the  detritus  of  recent  shells. 
A  few  Nummulites,  but  practically  no  Foraminifera,  recent  or  fossil. 

2.  Mixon  Mud.  The  coarse  siftings  gave  Nummulites  and 
Alveolina  Boscii  in  quantity,  with  small  Eocene  Mollusca,  often  full 
of  pyrites.  The  Nummulites  frequently  encrusted  with  Polyzoa 
{H yd  r  actinia,  etc.),  showing  that  they  have  been  washed  out  of  the 
matrix  for  some  time.  Large  casts,  in  glauconite  and  quartzose,  of 
Miliolina  cdveoliniformis,  Biloeulina,  Diseorhina  (?  parisiensis).    One 


On  Cycloloculina.  541 

Cycloloculina  was  found  among  the  finer  sittings  looking  very  much 
out  of  place,  and  probably  washed  by  the  current  Irom  the  point  of 
the  Bill.  A  feature  of  the  finer  sittings  were  robust  sponge-spicules 
and  fragments  of  a  gem-mineral  not  yet  identified. 

3.  "  Clibs."  Principally  Nummulites,  with  a  disconcerting  mix- 
ture of  recent  forms,  evidently  washed  out  of  the  Pholas  borings. 

4.  Alvcolina  limestone.  Large  casts  in  yellowish  silica  of 
various  Miliolinm,  and  perhaps  some  large  Polymorphince. 

5.  Under  the  Mixon  Rocks.  The  same  casts  as  in  No.  4,  with 
a  large  proportion  of  recent  arenaceous  forms  {Verneuilina  poly- 
stropha  and  Ifaplophragmium  canariense,  with  large  recent  Miliolince 
(Massilina  secans). 

6.  Opposite  Marine  Hotel.  Suspending  judgment  as  to  the 
single  test  dredged  in  5  fathoms  (No.  2),  Cycloloculina  makes  its 
first  appearance  here,  where  it  is  fairly  plentiful. 

7.  Opposite  "  The  Bungalows."  Here  Cycloloculina  is  an  in- 
creasingly recurrent  shell. 

8.  Selsey  Beds.  A  brown  clay,  full  of  derived  Eocene  fossil 
Foraminifera,  but  no  Cycloloculina  found  in  situ. 

9.  Blue  Band.  No  sign  of  Cycloloculina,  but  many  Estuarine 
forms,  such  as  Nonionina,  Trochammina,  etc.,  all  filled  with  iron 
pyrites.  This  band  is  full  of  vegetable  detritus  and  fragments  of 
pyrites. 

10.  Bracklesham  Beds.  An  Eocene  clay,  very  rich  in  fossil 
Foraminifera,  but  no  sign  of  Cycloloculina  at  present. 

11.  Above  the  Selsey  Beds.  Here  Cycloloculina  is  more 
plentiful  than  anywhere  else,  the  specimens  being,  for  the  most  part, 
delicate  and  perfect. 

12.  Opposite  the  Oyster  Beds.  Here  Cycloloculina  is  a  re- 
current form,  though  generally  somewhat  battered. 

13.  Opposite  Medmerry  Farm.  Here  Cycloloculina  is  about  as 
common  as  in  No.  12,  but  more  battered  as  a  rule. 

14.  Pleistocene  mud  deposit.  In  the  first  small  lump  of  this 
mud  which  we  washed  we  found  a  perfect  Cycloloculina  annulata 
and  a  perfect  C.  polygyra,  but  many  hours'  patient  search  since 
then  have  failed  to  produce  a  further  specimen  of  either.  The 
utmost  care  is  taken  to  use  clean  sieves  and  new  muslins,  but  until 
more  specimens  are  washed  out  we  must  suspend  judgment  as 
to  this  sample. 

15.  From  the  shore  of  Bracklesham  Bay.  In  this  we  have 
failed  to  find  any  trace  of  Cycloloculina.  The  gathering  consists 
almost  entirely  of  Eocene  fossils,  shell-detritus,  with  Xummulites, 
and  a  striking  collection  of  large  glauconite  casts  of  Foraminifera, 
but  few  tests,  either  recent  or  fossil.  We  have,  however,  found  in 
this  sample  several  specimens  of  the  rare  Polyraorphina  complanata 
figured  by  d'Orbigny  in  his  "  Foraminiferes  fossiles  du  Bassin 
Tertiaire  de  Vienne  "  (Paris,  1846). 


542  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

16.  Interior  of  Cardita,  Bracklesham.  A  green  sandy  clay  in 
which  we  have  found  no  trace  of  any  Foraniinifera  whatever. 

It  will  therefore  be  seen  that  within  the  time  limits  of  our 
researches  up  to  the  present,  the  genus  Cycloloculina  is  found  as  a 
derived  fossil  only,  in  the  shore-sands  of  the  western  side  of  Selsey 
Bill,  from  the  extreme  point  opposite  the  Marine  Hotel,  up  to 
Medmerry  Farm,  growing  more  scarce  as  one  proceeds  north- 
westward. The  shell  is  extremely  delicate  and  friable,  and  we  are 
of  opinion  that  it  is  incapable  of  travelling  far  in  a  perfect 
condition,  or  of  withstanding  the  wash  of  the  tide  for  more  than  a 
short  while.  It  is  found  by  us  in  its  best  state  in  elutriated  rough 
material,  the  process  of  washing  appearing  to  damage  it  almost 
beyond  recognition,  whilst  its  weight  renders  it  almost  entirely 
absent  from  "  floatings."  It  would  appear  therefore  to  be  washed 
from  some  Post-Tertiary  mud  stratum  near  that  which  Mr. 
C.  Reid  has  named  the  "  Selsey  Beds,"  where  it  occurs  no  doubt 
to-day  as  a  derived  fossil,  having  been  washed  there  from  some 
hitherto  undiscovered  soft  band  in  the  Eocene  clays  of  the  Pholas- 
bed  which  fringes  the  shore  at  this  point.  It  appears  furthermore 
to  be  one  of  Nature's  failures,  existing  probably  in  great  quantity 
in  situ  wherever  it  came  into  existence,  but  the  exact  geological 
stratum  or  deposit  in  which  it  had  its  origin  is  for  the  present 
purely  conjectural,  and  must  remain  so  until  we  can  make  a  mure 
extended  and  localised  series  of  dredgings. 

Note. — In  the  completing  paper  which  we  propose  to  lay  before 
the  Society  shortly,  we  shall  endeavour  to  trace  the  relationships 
between  the  sub-marine  and  the  sub-aerial  geology  of  the  peninsula 
of  Selsey,  and,  in  giving  a  list  of  the  Foraniinifera  both  recent  and 
fossil  which  we  have  identified  in  our  gatherings,  we  shall  make 
the  attempt  to  ascribe  to  each  species  its  correct,  or  at  any  rate 
probable,  origin. 


Postscript. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  paper  it  has  been  found  necessary  to 
consult  many  authorities,  and  we  think  it  desirable  to  give  the 
following  list  of  works,  in  chronological  order,  to  which  we  have 
had  recourse  for  the  purpose  of  verifying  our  researches  into  the 
origin  of  the  Foraniinifera  of  the  Selsey  peninsula. 

1.  Trimmer,  J.  —  On  the   Agricultural  Geology  of   England  and  Wales. 

Jonrn.  Eoy.  Agric.  Soc.  England,  xii.  (1851)  p.  445. 

2.  God  win-Austen,  K. — On  the  Newer  Tertiary  Deposits  of  the  Sussex  Coast. 

Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc.,  xiii.  (1855)  p.  40.    (1857  Postponed  Papers.) 

3.  Fisher,  0. — On   the  Bracklesham   Beds  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  Basin. 

'     Op.  cit.,  xviii.  (1S61)  p.  65. 


On  Gycloloculina.  543 

4.  Bell,  A. — Contributions  to  the  Fauna  of  the  Upper  Tertiaries.    I.  The 

"  Mud-deposit "  at  Selsey,  Sussex.  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  series  4, 
No.  43  (1871)  p.  45. 

5.  Wood,  S.  V. — The  Newer  Pliocene  Period  in  England.     Quart.  Journ. 

Geol.  Soc,  xxxvi.  (1880)  p.  457  (part  1) ;  and  xxxviii.  (1882)  p.  667, 
(part  2). 

6.  Eeid,  C— On  the  Origin  of  Dry-chalk  Valleys  and  of  Cooinbe  Rock. 

Op.  cit,,  xliii.  (1887)  p  364. 

7.  Gakdnee,  J.  S.,  H.  Keeping,  and  H.  W.  Monckton. — The  Upper  Eocene, 

comprising  the  Berton  and  Upper  Basrshot  Formations.  Op.  cit., 
xliv.  (1888)  p.  578. 

8.  Bell,  A. — Notes  qn  some  Post-Tertiary  Marine  Deposits  on  the  South 

Coast  of  England.     Op.  cit.,  xlvii.  (1891)  p.  172. 

9.  Reid,  C. — The    Pleistocene    Dejjosits  of  the    Sussex   Coast,  and  their 

Equivalents  in  other  Districts.     Op.  cit.,  xlviii.  (1892)  p.  344. 

10.  Bell,  A. — Notes  on  a  Post-Tertiary  Deposit  in  Sussex.     Yorkshire  Phil. 

Soc.  Beport  for  1892,  p.  58.  (Reprinted  York,  1893.)  Supplementary 
Note  (leaflet)  by  F.  W.  Millett,  The  Foraminifera  of  a  Post-Tertiary 
Deposit  in  Sussex. 

11.  Prestwich,  J. — The  Raised  Beaches  and  "  Head"  or  Rubble-drift  of  the 

South  of  England :  their  relation  to  the  Valley  Drifts,  and  to  the 
Glacial  Period ;  and  on  a  late  Post-Glacial  Submergence.  Quart. 
Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  xlviii.  (1892)  p.  263. 

12.  Reid.  C.— A  Fossiliferous Pleistocene  Deposit  at  Stone,  on  the  Hampshire 

Coast,    Op.  cit.,  xlix.  (1893)  p.  325. 

13.  Reid,  C. — The  Geology  of  the  Country  around  Bognor  (Explanation  of 

Sheet  332,  London,  1897).     Memoirs  Geological  Survey,  1898. 

14.  Mill,  Hugh  Robert — A  Fragment  of  the  Geography  of  England:  South- 

west Sussex.  Reprinted  from  Geographical  Journal,  March  and 
April,  1900 

15.  Reid,  C. — The  Geology  ol  the  Country  near  Chichester  (Explanation  of 

Sheet  317,  London,  1903.)     Memoirs  Geological  Survey,  1903. 

16.  Elsden,  J.  V.,  and  W.  Whitaker — Excursion  to  Selsey  and  Chichester. 

Proc.  Geol.  Assoc,  xviii.  (1904)  p.  475. 

17.  Earland,  A. — The  Foraminifera  of  the  Shore-sand  at  Bognor,  Sussex. 

Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  series  2,  ix.  (1905)  No.  57,  p.  187. 


544  Transactions  of  the  Soci<  ty. 


XVI. — On  Dendritic  Growths  of  Copper  Oxide  in  Paper. 
By  James  Strachan. 

(Read  April  15,  1908.) 
Plate  XIII. 

I.   Introduction. 

The  occurrence  of  dendritic  growths  in  paper  has  been  observed 
for  a  long  time,  but  it  is  only  within  recent  years  that  their  pre- 
cise nature  has  been  determined.  They  were  mistaken  at  first  for 
vegetable  or  fungoid  growths,  and  were  designated  by  such  names 
as  Conferva  dendritica  (Agardh  and  Lyngbye)  and  Dematium 
olivaceum  (Schumacher).*  In  the  year  1872,  however,  Liversidge  f 
established  the  fact  that  the  dendritic  growths  in  paper  contain 
copper,  and  are  purely  inorganic  in  their  composition.  There 
appears  to  have  been  some  doubt  at  this  time  as  to  the  nature  of 
the  copper  compound  composing  the  dendrites,  whether  sulphide 
or  oxide,  and  Tait  \  was  among  the  first  to  point  out  that  these 
growths  are  probably  derived  from  the  oxidation  of  metallic 
particles  imbedded  in  the  paper  during  manufacture.  Tait  esti- 
mated, from  an  examination  of  various  books  containing  dendrites, 
that  it  required  a  period  of  at  least  twenty  years  for  the  develop- 
ment of  these  growths.  Doubts  concerning  the  true  nature  of 
dendrites  persisted  for  a  number  of  years,  until  in  1901  the  whole 
subject  was  reviewed  and  gone  into  by  Scales,§  who  came  to 
the  following  conclusions,  from  a  careful  microscopical  and  micro- 
chemical  examination  of  dendrites  in  various  kinds  of  paper  : — 

1.  That  the  dendrites  in  paper  are  composed  of  copper  oxide 
with  a  central  metallic  nucleus. 

2.  That  the  metallic  particles  from  which  the  dendrites  grow 

*   Vide  Carrington's  remarks  on  this  subject  in  Science  Gossip,  i.  (1895)  p.  268. 

t  Journ.  Chem.  Soc,  x.  (1872)  p.  646. 
'     J  Crystals  Bred  in  Books.      Science  Gossip,  i.  (1895)  p.  85. 

§  Dendritic  Spots  in  Paper,  by  F.  S.  Scales,  F.R.M.S.      Science  Gossip,  vii.  n.s. 
(1901)  p.  258,  et  seq.  (2  photomicrographs). 

EXPLANATION   OF   PLATE    XIII. 

Fig.  1. — Dendritic  growth  of  copper  oxide  in  paper,  containing  70-75  p.c.  wood 
cellulose  fibres  ;  fourteen  months'  growth,      x  20. 
,,    2. — Dendritic  growth  of  copper  oxide  in  paper,  composed  purely  of  wood 
cellulose  ;  about  five  years'  growth,      x  12, 


JOURN.  R.  M1CR.  SOC.   1908.   PI.  XIII 


^yr^ 


Fig.   1. 


-*-**v 


Fig.   2. 


Dendritic  Growths  of  Copper  Oxide  in  Paper.  545 

are  derived  most  probably  from  the  paper-making  machinery,  in 
the  process  of  paper-making. 

3.  That  the  growth  of  the  dendritic  crystals  of  copper  oxide 
follows  the  lie  of  the  fibres  in  the  paper,  and  along  the  fibres :  the 
ramifications  of  the  dendrites  depending  entirely  upon  the  fibres  of 
the  paper. 

4.  That  dendrites  seem  to  grow  more  readily  upon  fibres  having 
a  large  central  canal,  such  as  cotton ;  practically  all  the  papers 
examined  contained  cotton  fibres. 

5.  That  the  oxidation  of  the  metallic  nuclei  is  a  slow  process. 
The   only  subsequent  paper  on  this  subject  was  written  by 

Simon  *  in  1903,  and  in  it  the  author  gives  merely  a  recapitulation 
of  the  "  Science  Gossip  "  articles,  with  further  chemical  evidence 
confirming  facts  already  clearly  established.  Having  satisfied 
himself  as  to  the  reality  of  three  points  settled  definitely  by  Scales 
(viz.  1.  Composition — copper  oxide;  2.  Growth  by  oxidation  from 
a  central  metallic  nucleus  ;  3.  Growth  alon^  the  fibres  of  the 
paper),  the  present  writer  set  about  the  solution  of  the  following 
questions,  answers  to  which  were  as  yet  doubtful : — 

1.  Are  the  dendritic  growths  of  copper  oxide  confined  to  any 
particular  kind  of  fibre,  such  as  cotton  ? 

2.  What  is  the  rate  of  the  oxidation  of  the  metallic  nucleus, 
and  consequent  growth  of  the  dendrite  ? 

3.  Why  do  dendrites  occur  in  some  classes  of  paper  and  not  at 
all,  or  very  rarely,  in  others  ? 

4.  Why  are  dendrites  of  less  frequent  occurrence  in  modern 
papers  than  in  papers  made  towards  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
centurv  ? 


II.   Results  of  New  Investigations. 

Evidence  was  carefully  collected  for  about  six  years  from 
various  sources,  including  writing  and  printing  papers  of  all  ages, 
especially  modern  papers  the  ages  of  which  were  definitely  known. 
After  examining  many  hundreds  of  dendrites,  and  the  nature  of 
the  papers  in  which  they  were  found,  I  arrived  at  definite  answers 
to  the  above  questions,  thus  clearing  away  several  doubtful  ideas. 

1.  With  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  fibres  upon  which  the 
dendritic  growth  takes  place,  it  is  quite  evident  that  dendrites 
grow  indiscriminately  upon  all  of  the  fibres  commonly  in  use  for 
the  manufacture  of  various  kinds  of  paper,  viz.  cotton,  linen, 
esparto,  straw,  and  various  kinds  of  wood  cellulose.  The  growth 
of  the  dendritic  copper  oxide  upon  the  fibres  is  purely  a  superficial 
phenomenon,  and  does  not  proceed  at  all  along  the  central  canal 

*  Dendritic  Forms  in  Paper.     Trans.  Manchester  Micr,  Soc,  1903,  pp.  92-5 
(1  pi.). 

Oct.  2 lit,  1908  2o 


546  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Ml' .my  fibre.  Indeed,  in  most  eas^s  by  removing  the  sizing  (either 
rosin  or  gelatin)  and  washing  the  fibres  gently  with  the  aid  of  a 

rather  stiff  brush,  the  greater  part  of  a  dendrite  can  be  removed 
from  the  surface  of  the  paper  in  which  it  occurs,  leaving  in  many 
instances  nothing  but  the  metallic  nucleus  surrounded  by  fibres 
stained  slightly  by  a  yellowish  tinge  of  colour.  The  growth  of  a 
dendrite  is  affected  to  some  extent  by  the  nature  of  the  fibres, 
being  most  vigorous  upon  softer  cellulose  such  as  that  of  cotton 
and  certain  woods,  and  least  active  upon  harder  cellulose,  such  as 
that  of  linen,  esparto,  and  straw. 

2.  The  rate  of  growth  of  a  dendrite  in  paper  is  very  variable, 
according  to  its  guidance  by  variety  of  circumstances,  both  internal 
and  external.  We  have  seen  that  early  writers  on  the  subject  re- 
garded the  growth  as  an  extremely  slow  process — as  long  as  twenty 
years  being  allowed  as  an  estimate  by  Tait.  From  observations 
of  papers,  of  which  the  exact  date  of  manufacture  was  known  in 
each  instance,  I  have  ascertained  that  the  oxidation  of  the  metallic 
nucleus,  and  consequent  growth  of  the  dendritic  oxides,  is  in  many 
cases  a  comparatively  rapid  phenomenon  ;  under  favourable  cir- 
cumstances a  dendrite  may  develop  appreciably  in  a  period  as  short 
as  six  months.  The  chief  external  factor  favouring  the  growth  of 
dendrites  in  paper  is  the  presence  of  atmospheric  moisture,  without 
which  oxidation  could  not  proceed.  Cellulose  absorbs  from 
9-12  p.c  of  natural  atmospheric  moisture,  and  its  moisture-content 
varies  according  to  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere,  and 
the  temperature  of  the  latter.  The  internal  circumstances  govern- 
ing the  rate  of  growth  are,  the  nature  of  the  fibres  themselves,  and 
the  presence  of  materials  other  than  cellulose  in  the  fabric  of  the 
paper.  From  numerous  observations  it  appears  that  dendrites 
grow  most  rapidly  upon  wood  and  cotton  celluloses,  less  rapidly 
upon  linen,  and  least  rapidly  upon  esparto  and  straw  fibres.  Den- 
drites grow  more  readily  and  rapidly  in  rosin-sized  papers  than  in 
papers  sized  with  gelatin  (tub-sized),  which  is  due  probably  to  the 
fact  that  the  gelatin  layer  on  the  surface  of  the  latter  forms  a  more 
complete  protection  to  the  fibres,  from  atmospheric  influences,  than 
the  rosin-sizing,  which  latter  is  chiefly  in  the  interstices  of  the 
paper  as  particles,  and  to  a  much  less  extent  as  an  actual  coating 
upon  the  fibres  themselves.  The  presence  of  filling  and  loading 
materials  such  as  kaolin  and  satin -spar  is  not  favourable  to  the 
growth  of  dendrites,  and  they  are  consequently  rare  in  heavily- 
loaded  or  coated  papers.  As  an  example  of  rapid  growth  under 
favourable  circumstances,  I  quote  the  example  of  a  paper  com- 
posed of  wood  cellulose  70  p.c,  straw  cellulose  30  p.c,  rosin-sized, 
10  p.c.  loading,  which  was  made  in  December  1906.  Dendrites 
were  first  observed  in  this  paper  in  May  1907,  and  continued  to 
develop  to  the  present  date.  The  nuclei  consisted  of  small  particles 
of  bronze,   0 "  2-1  ■  5  mm.  in  diameter,  derived  from   the  bars  or 


Dendritic  Growths  of  Copper  Oxide  in   Paper.  547 

knives  of  the  refining  engines.  In  this  paper  a  nucleus  of  bronze 
0*8  mm.  in  length  became  a  dendrite  3  "2  mm.  in  length,  during  a 
period  of  twelve  months,  and  even  then  the  nucleus  was  not  much 
reduced,  but  merely  coated  over  with  oxide  of  copper. 

3.  The  occurrence  of  dendrites  in  certain  classes  of  paper,  and 
their  absence  in  others,  admits  of  a  very  simple  explanation.  For 
example,  dendritic  growths  are  more  common  in  certain  fine 
writing-papers,  such  as  ledger-papers,  because  the  stuff  from  which 
the  latter  are  prepared  undergoes  a  prolonged  treatment  in  the 
beating  and  refining  engines,  thus  presenting  greater  opportunity 
for  the  contamination  of  the  paper-stuff  with  particles  of  bronze 
ground  from  the  bars  and  blades  of  the  reducing  machinery. 
Many  of  these  particles  are  caught  in  the  sand-traps  of  the  paper- 
machine,  but  the  lighter  fragments  are  carried  into  the  paper-web, 
thus  forming  the  nuclei  of  future  dendrites.  Dendrites  are  also 
more  common  in  light,  porous  cartridge-papers,  and  light  printing- 
papers,  in  which  the  pores  of  the  fabric  are  not  filled  to  excess  with 
loading  materials.  In  short,  dendrites  occur  most  frequently  in 
papers  which  have  undergone  either  prolonged  or  severe  milling, 
and  in  papers  which  present  favourable  internal  circumstances  for 
their  growth. 

4.  Several  reasons  are  apparent  for  the  less  frequent  occurrence 
of  dendrites  in  recently-made  papers  than  in  papers  made  about 
the  middle  of  last  century.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  their 
non-appearance  in  recent  papers  was  due  to  their  slowness  of 
growth,  but  that  is  not  the  case.  An  evident  reason  is  the  substitu- 
tion of  steel  for  bronze  in  modern  beating-engines.  Particles  of 
iron  are  extremely  common  in  the  cheaper  papers  made  to-day,  but 
these  never  develop  into  true  dendrites;  they  give  rise,  on  oxida- 
tion, to  mere  red  stains,  having  no  apparent  crystalline  structure. 
Another  reason  for  their  less  frequent  occurrence  is  that  most 
modern  printing-papers  are  more  heavily  loaded  and  filled  than 
formerly,  in  answer  to  the  demand  for  a  printing-paper  having  a 
smooth  surface  suitable  for  half-tone  illustrations.  As  already 
pointed  out,  dendritic  growths  do  not  flourish  in  a  heavily-loaded 
or  coated  paper. 

III.   The  Size  and  Mode  of  Growth  of  Dendrites. 

Dendritic  growths  in  paper  vary  much  in  size  according  to 
their  age  and  size  of  nucleus,  the  ultimate  size  of  a  dendrite 
depending  entirely  upon  the  size  of  the  central  nucleus  from  which 
it  grows.  From  less  than  1  mm.,  I  have  found  them  up  to  12  mm. 
in  greatest  diameter,  which  in  machine-made  papers  is  usually 
parallel  to  the  "machine-direction"  of  the  paper.  Simon  records 
them  "up  to  say  15  mm.  in  diameter,"  but  dendrites  of  copper 
oxide  of  that  size  in  paper  must  In-  rather  rare. 

2  o  2 


548  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

A  dendrite  appears  to  continue  its  growth  as  long  as  the 
nucleus  remains  in  part  unoxidised.  A  dendrite  in  a  cotton 
paper,  from  a  book  dated  1850,  showed  neither  increase  in  size  nor 
change  in  contour  during  a  period  of  five  recent  years,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  the  nucleus  had  become  completely  oxidised, 
probably  many  years  ago.  It  would  appear  from  this,  that  after 
the  central  nucleus  of  a  dendrite  is  completely  oxidised,  the  oxides 
produced  do  not  of  themselves  spread  to  any  appreciable  extent  ob 
the  fibres.  The  growth  of  a  dendrite  is  more  active  and  rapid  in 
its  initial  stages,  before  the  nucleus  becomes  thickly  coated  with 
oxide.  The  dendritic  growth  creeps  along  the  various  fibres  in 
characteristic  fashion.  The  more  or  less  cylindrical  fibres  of  straw, 
esparto,  and  linen,  become  sheathed  in  copper  oxide,  the  deposit 
upon  linen  being  usually  thick  and  rather  patchy.  The  wider, 
tubular  fibres  of  cotton  cellulose,  become  coated  in  a  similar 
manner  to  those  of  linen,  but  when  the  cotton  fibres  are  more  flat 
and  riband-like,  the  dendrite  often  spreads  out  laterally  from  fibre 
to  fibre  in  beautiful  fern-like  traceries.  The  latter  habit  is  typical 
also  of  almost  all  dendrites  found  in  papers  composed  of  wood 
cellulose,  the  flattened  fibres  of  which  seem  to  present  an  ideal 
surface  for  the  dendritic  growth,  the  oxide  of  copper  spreading  and 
branching  from  fibre  to  fibre  in  a  beautiful  and  delicate  crystalline 
pattern.  As  pointed  out  by  Scales,  the  ramifications  of  dendrites 
generally  depend  upon  the  lie  of  the  fibres  in  the  paper.  This  is 
true  for  straw,  esparto,  linen,  and  some  cotton  papers ;  but  in  the 
case  of  wood  cellulose  papers,  and  some  papers  composed  of  flat- 
tened cotton  fibres,  the  crystalline  energy  of  the  growth  asserts 
itself,  allowing  of  frequent  lateral  growth  in  a  direction  often  at 
right  angles  to  the  lie  of  the  fibres.  This  fact  appears  to  be  due 
partly  to  the  flat  shape  of  the  fibres,  and  partly  to  their  compara- 
tive softness,  which  allows  of  a  more  vigorous  growth. 

Most  dendrites,  especially  old  ones,  are  composed  almost 
wholly  of  black  cupric  oxide,  but  in  many  cases,  especially  in 
recent  dendrites,  I  have  observed  the  formation  of  dark-red,  trans- 
lucent cuprous  oxide,  and  of  a  yellowish  substance  similar  in 
appearance  to  a  partially  hydrated  cuprous  oxide.  From  a  careful 
consideration  of  many  dendrites  during  various  stages  in  their 
growth,  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  copper  is  conveyed 
along  the  pores  of  the  cellulose  in  a  hydrated  cuprous  condition, 
possibly  in  chemical  union  with  the  cellulose,  and  that  it  crys- 
tallises in  the  form  of  capillary-aggregates  of  cuprous  oxide  upon 
the  surface  of  the  fibres,  the  red  cuprous  oxide  being  subsequently 
oxidised  to  the  black  cupric  form.  I  have  not  at  any  time 
observed  the  characteristic  green  colour  of  cupric  carbonate  in 
dendrites,  but,  nevertheless,  it  is  most  probable  that  the  minute 
quantities  of  carbonic  acid,  and  perhaps,  of  ammonia,  present  in 
the  atmosphere,   play  an  important  part   in  the  oxidation  of  the 


Dendritic  Growths  of  Copper  Oxide  in  Paper.  549 

metallic  nucleus,  as  catalytic  agents  in  the  presence  of  water  and 
oxygen.  The  whole  process  is  a  chemical  one,  in  which  the  cellu- 
lose plays  an  important  part  as  a  physical  conveyer  of  the  means 
of  oxidation,  and  as  a  physical  and  chemical  carrier  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  oxidation,  to  and  from  the  metallic  nucleus.  The  superior 
crystalline  energy  of  cuprous  oxide,  the  porous  nature  of  the 
cellulose  surface,  and  the  presence  of  minute  traces  of  oxidised 
copper  in  the  fibres  themselves  (derived  from  the  milling  engines), 
are  most  probably  all  factors  in  the  activity  of  dendritic  growth. 


IV.   Microscopical  Examination  of  Dendrites. 

Dendrites  in  paper  may  be  mounted  dry  for  examination  under 
the  Microscope.  This  is  convenient  for  examination  with  low 
powers  by  reflected  light,  especially  when  it  is  desired  to  observe 
their  growth,  in  which  case,  of  course,  they  must  not  be  sealed  up 
air-tight.  For  examination  with  medium  and  high  powers  by 
transmitted  light,  I  have  found  mounting  in  a  waxy  medium  an 
admirable  and  convenient  plan.  The  refractive  index  of  Canada 
balsam  renders  it  unsuitable,  and  glycerin  has  a  solvent  action  on 
the  dendrite.  Pure  spermaceti  wax,  or  white  paraffin  melting  at 
130°  to  135°  F.,  may  be  utilised  for  the  purpose,  preferably  the 
former.  The  fragment  of  paper  containing  the  dendrite  is  first 
treated  with  hot  distilled  water  and  hot  alcoholic  ether  to  remove 
sizing,  then  dried  thoroughly  and  soaked  in  the  melting  wax  for  a 
few  minutes.  It  is  then  mounted  on  a  glass  slip  with  a  drop  of 
melted  wax,  the  cover-glass  being  applied  with  moderate  pressure 
until  perfectly  cold.  If  sufficient  pressure  be  applied  to  the  cover- 
glass  during  mounting  the  waxy  medium  shows  good  detail  even 
with  fairly  high  powers,  and  brings  out  very  well  the  translucent 
nature  of  the  red  crystalline  cuprous  oxide.  Particles  of  kaolin 
stand  out  very  clearly  in  the  paper  thus  mounted,  and  it  may  be 
observed  how  the  dendritic  growth  avoids  such  obstacles.  The 
fibres  may  be  stained  before  mounting,  and  aniline  green  will  be 
found  a  suitable  colour.  If  a  finer  mounting  medium  be  desired, 
refined  paraffin  oil  (sp.  gr.  0  *  900)  may  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

In  the  micro-chemical  examination  of  metallic  particles  in 
paper,  a  delicate  method  of  distinguishing  between  extremely 
minute  particles  of  iron,  and  of  copper,  is  sometimes  required. 
This  may  be  done  as  follows : — A  small  fragment  of  the  paper  in- 
cluding the  suspected  particle,  is  placed  upon  a  glass  slip,  covered 
with  a  drop  of  dilute  (20  p.c.)  hydrochloric  acid,  and  warmed 
gently  over  a  small  flame.  After  a  few  minutes  a  drop  of  a  pure 
solution  of  potassium  sulpho-cyanide  is  added.  If  iron  be  present 
the  characteristic  blood-red  colour  of  ferric  thio-cyanate  shows  at 
once.     If  iron  be  absent,  the  examination  is  continued  for  copper, 


550  Transactions  of  th   Society. 

the  fragment  of  paper  being  dried  and  ignited  carefully  iu  a 
platinum  dish,  or  upon  foil  of  that  metal.  When  the  paper  is 
reduced  to  white  ash,  if  the  particle  be  metallic  it  will  appear  as  a 
black  speck  iu  the  ash.  The  latter  is  then  placed  upoo  ;i  glass 
slip,  a  drop  of  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  added,  and  warmed.  To 
this  is  added,  when  cold,  a  drop  of  starch  solution  containing 
potassium  iodide.  If  cupper  be  present,  an  intense  blue  or  black 
coloration  results  ;  iron  gives  the  same  reaction,  but,  in  the  absenn- 
of  iron,  copper  is  indicated,  these  two  metals  being  the  only  ones 
found,  as  a  rule,  in  paper. 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.  SOC.  1908.   PI.  XIV. 


551 


NOTES. 

Brachiomonas  submarina,  Bohlin. 
By  the  Rev.  Eustace  Tozer. 

Plate  XIV. 

Since  reading  rny  paper  at  the  meeting  of  the  Royal  Microscopical 
Society,  February  1908,  I  have  seen  the  note  on  this  form  pub- 
lished by  Mr.  G.  S.  West,  of  Birmingham,  in  the  Linnean  Journal 
for  January.  Mr.  West  kindly  refers  to  my  find,  and  after  some 
correspondence  with  him  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  it 
would  be  inadvisable  to  dissociate  this  alga  T  described  from 
Bohlin's  Brachiomonas  submarina  in  spite  of  certain  differences. 

My  observations  will  be  seen  to  agree  with  Mr.  West's  up  to  a 
certain  point.     Bohlin's  description  I  have  not  seen. 

The  alga  then  was  found  by  me  four  years  ago  in  brackish 
water  at  Sheerness.  My  son  also  found  it  in  rain-water  in  an  old 
boat.  It  is  probable  that  the  boat  brought  in  the  alga  from  the 
sea,  and  the  rain-water,  becoming  saturated  with  salt,  provided  a 
suitable  medium  for  development. 

The  alga  consists  of  a  sphere  arising  from  the  surface  of  which 
are  five  firm  processes  somewhat  curved.  These  processes  are 
hollow,  opening  at  the  base  into  the  sphere  (plate  XIY.  fig.  1).  The 
outlines  of  the  sphere  are  clearly  seen  when  the  contents  divide. 

A  rich  green  chlorophyll  fills  the  sphere.  It  is  somewhat 
granulated  and  contains  a  fairly  conspicuous  nucleus. 

A  remarkable  fact  with  regard  to  the  chlorophyll  is  that 
when  the  alga  is  kept  a  few  hours  in  the  dark  it  contracts  \v  the 
sphere,  leaving  the  processes  cp:iite  clear.  When  the  alga  is  exposed 
again  to  strong  light,  the  chlorophyll  is  seen  extending  into  the 
processes  until  only  the  tips  are  clear. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  say  that  I  have  observed  similar 
expansion  and  contraction  of  the  protoplasmic  contents  in  the  cells 
of  Melosira  and  Pleurosigma  under  similar  conditions.  In  Mclosira 
the  protoplasm  curls  up  and  auxospore  formation  may  thus  be 
induced. 

Brachiomonas  is  bi-flagellate,  the  flagella  being  thick,  long,  and 
very  active.  The  alga  swims  with  a  "  trembling  "  motion,  and  a 
crowd  of  the  forms  resemble  the  flight  of  a  flock  of  swallows.  The 
five  processes  (four  of  which  are  of  equal  size,  the  fifth  at  the 


552  Notes. 

tail  of  the  sphere  being  slightly  longer)  assist  in  swimming  like 
the  leaves  of  a  paddle-wheel,  the  alga  turning  a  somersault  by 
their  aid. 

It  is  found  in  the  ditches  all  the  year  through,  but  has  two 
"swarming"  periods — February,  just  after  the  keen  frosts,  and 
again  in  early  October.  At  such  periods  it  may  be  collected 
"  pure "  as  it  migrates  in  the  water,  as  it  were,  in  the  form  of 
clouds.     At  other  times  it  mixes  freely  with  Eaglena. 

In  size,  apart  from  the  processes,  it  approaches  Sphcerella 
nivalis. 

Multiplication  proceeds  by  the  chlorophyll  contracting  to  the 
sphere  and  dividing  into  two  large  oval  portions.  In  these  two 
portions  the  chlorophyll  contracts  to  the  base  of  each,  leaving  the 
fore  end  almost  clear  (plate  XIV,  fig.  2). 

Division  goes  on  to  four  portions  which  evolve  into  the  parent 
form  (zoogonidia).     (Plate  XIV.  figs.  3,  4). 

In  other  spheres  the  chlorophyll  divides  up  into  smaller  por- 
tions which  likewise  assume  the  parent  form  (gametes).  (Plate 
XIV.  fig.  5.) 

After  prolonged  active  movements  in  the  cell  these  forms  break 
through  and  swim  in  pairs,  and  I  noticed  a  constant  exchange  of 
partners.  This  is  doubtless  a  form  of  true  conjugation,  though  I 
was  not  fortunate  enough  to  trace  results. 

There  are  further  phenomena  which  I  have  frequently  observed 
and  which  appear  to  me  to  be  referable  to  multiplication. 

The  chlorophyll  splits  up  in  many  cells  into  minute  green 
spherules,  as  far  as  I  could  count  about  sixty-four  in  number. 
These  spherules  escape  and  are  provided  with  four  fiagella  apiece. 
These  likewise  swim  in  pairs  (plate  XIV.  fig.  6). 

In  correspondence  with  me,  Mr.  West  would  refer  this 
phenomenon  to  a  pathological  condition,  and  he  states  that  such  a 
condition  may  often  set  in  before  the  organism  as  a  whole  is  really 
dead.  This  did  not  appear  to  me  to  be  such  a-  condition.  The 
collection  was  pure.  As  the  alga  swims  about  in  "  clouds  "  or 
"  colafties "  it  is  easy  to  obtain  it  quite  pure,  and  the  peculiar 
4-flagellated  zoospores  arising  from  this  division  preclude  this 
supposition  of  pathological  condition. 

Another  phenomenon  which  I  referred  to  at  the  meeting  as 
formation  of  "bud  cysts'"  is  very  common  with  this  alga.  A 
pellucid  sphere  forms  in  the  chlorophyll,  then  another,  sometimes 
three  or  four.  By-and-by  zoospores,  uniflagellate,  can  be  clearly 
made  out  within  these  pellucid  spheres  (plate  XIV.  fig.  7). 

These  spheres  become  somewhat  pear-shaped  and  penetrate 
the  envelope  of  the  alga  and  are  detached.  They  burst,  and  the 
zoospores  escape,  having  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  the  sper- 
matozoon of  Homo. 

I  at  first  took  this  to  be  a  stage  in  the  evolutiou  of  the  alga, 


Notes.  553 

but  since  these  zoospores  or  spermatozoa  attach  themselves  to  the 
alga,  it  may  possibly  be  a  case  of  parasitism. 

Very  frequently  the  four  bodies  of  chlorophyll  formed  by 
division  do  not  immediately  evolve  into  the  parent  type,  but 
escape  and  rest  in  masses  of  jelly. 

Occasionally  three  zoogonidia  are  found  in  a  cell  instead  of 
four  (plate  XIV.  fig.  4). 


On  the  Optical  Properties  of  Contractile  Organs. 

By  Doris  L.  Mackinnon,  B.Sc,  and  Fred  Vles. 

Within  the  last  half  century  quite  a  number  of  writers  have  treated 
of  the  optical  properties  of  contractile  organs  (muscles,  cilia,  flagella, 
etc.),  ami  have  shown  that  these  elements  are  illuminated  between 
the  crossed  nicols  of  a  polarising  Microscope.  This  optical  reaction 
has  been  considered  as  due  to  birefringence,  and  a  certain  number 
of  physiologists,  among  whom  special  mention  must  be  made  of 
Engelmann,  have  believed  that  they  could  base  certain  very 
important  theories  concerning  contractility  on  the  general  fact  of 
the  birefringence  of  contractile  organs.  But  it  is  far  from  having 
been  strictly  demonstrated  that  the  illumination  of  all  contractile 
organs  between  crossed  nicols  is  identical  with  a  phenomenon  of 
birefringence  ;  as  early  as  1862  Eouget  expressed  his  belief — in  a 
completely  hypothetical  fashion,  and  without  demonstration  in 
support  —  that,  in  the  case  of  muscle  fibres,  phenomena  of 
"  depolarisation "  by  diffraction  might  easily  simulate  apparent 
birefringence.  This  opinion,  however,  appears :  scarcely  to  have 
been  submitted  afterwards  to  thorough  examination. 

One  of  us  recently  undertook  (1908)  the  experimental  investi- 
gation of  depolarisation  phenomena  in  contractile  organs,  and 
attempted  to  demonstrate  that,  while  the  illumination  of  muscle 
fibres  between  crossed  nicols  is  certainly  due  to  birefringence,  that 
of  vibratile  cilia  is  of  quite  a  different  nature,  and  arises  from  a 
phenomenon  of  partial  depolarisation  of  the  light  by  reflection  or 
refraction.  The  method  for  distinguishing  between  the  two  optical 
phenomena  consisted  mainly  in  observing  whether  the  illumination 
of  the  object  disappeared  (depolarisation)  or  not  (birefringence), 
when  this  object  was  immersed  in  a  liquid  having  the  same  index 
of  refraction  as  itself.  The  physical  theory  of  depolarisation 
states,  in  fact,  that  the  illumination  of  a  depolarising  body  varies 
with  the  refractive  index  of  the  surrounding  medium ;  this  illu- 
mination disappears  completely  when  the  exterior  index  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  object  (at  that  moment  there  are  no  longer  any 


554  Notes. 

phenomena  of  reflection  or  of  refraction  on  its  surface) ;  and  it 
reappears  whenever  the  ratio  of  the  two  indices  is  greater  or  less 
than  unity.  To  demonstrate  depolarisation,  then,  one  must  mount 
the  object  in  a  series  of  liquids  of  gradually  increasing  refractive 
index,  and  ascertain  whether  its  illumination  diminishes,  reaches 
a  minimum,  nil  (when  its  index  is  equal  to  that  of  the  liquid), 
and  then  gradually  increases  again. 

We  have  continued,  on  various  contractile  organs,  and  by  the 
same  immersion  method,  the  comparison  of  the  phenomena  of 
birefringence  and  depolarisation,  as  begun  by  Vies.  Our  observa- 
tions were  carried  out  on  (1)  various  motor  elements  of  Protozoa 
(cilia  and  myonemes  of  ciliate  Infusoria) ;  (2)  flagella  of  sperma- 
tozoa; (3)  swimming-plates  of  Ctenophora ;  (4)  the  body,  and  that 
much-discussed  structure,  the  undulating  membrane  of  Trypano- 
soma balbianii  Certes. 

The  several  experiments  were  made  on  preparations  either 
mounted  separately  in  each  of  the  liquids  of  the  series  and  then 
compared  together,  or  else  passed  through  all  the  series  in  succes- 
sion, first  in  one  direction  and  then  in  the  reverse.  The  two 
methods  gave  comparable  results. 

Concerning  the  latter  method,  however,  it  is  necessary  to 
point  out  here  that  if  one  follows  one  of  these  "  reversible  "  prepara- 
tions first  in  one  direction  and  then  in  the  other  through  the 
ascending  series  of  indices,  the  intensity  of  the  illumination  of  the 
same  object  in  the  same  liquid  is  not  always  exactly  of  the  same 
degree  on  the  outward  as  on  the  return  journey  ;  there  is  a  sort  of 
retardation,  a  "hysteresis"  of  the  illumination,  which,  after  all, 
is  exactly  what  one  might  expect,  seeing  that  the  process  has  to 
be  carried  out  under  a  cover-slip ;  the  diffusion  of  the  new  reagent 
introduced,  and  the  corresponding  elimination  of  the  old,  is  never 
quite  perfectly  effected,  and  there  may  well  be  traces  of  the  pre- 
ceding liquid  left  (of  higher  or  lower  index  as  the  case  may  be). 
As  a  result,  the  numerical  equivalent  of  the  preparation-liquid  is 
in  reality  a  little  higher  or  a  little  lower  than  its  true  value, 
according  to  the  direction  of  the  progression  through  the  series. 
Moreover,  these  differences  become  less  and  less  with  the  length  of 
time  that  one  allows  for  the  diffusion  of  the  liquids. 


A.    Cilia  of  Pkotozoa. 

Our  experiments  were  carried  out  on  the  adoral  cilia  of  large 
Stentors  (Stentor  polymorphus  Ehrbg.)  and  Vorticella.  The  results 
are  entirely  in  agreement  with  those  obtained  for  the  cilia  of 
the  gills  of  the  mussel.  The  reaction  is  very  near  zero  (so 
near,  indeed,  that  very  delicate  methods  of  compensation  alone 
are  able    to  make    it  appreciable)   in  a  zone  of   indices    included 


Not 


IX. 


.-;,:> 


between  n  =  l-49  and  n  =  1'54,  with  an  absolute  minimum — 
which  is  zero — about  1*51;  the  illumination  reappears  the  further 
that  one  departs  from  this  zone  in  either  direction. 

The  following  tables  bring  together  the  chief  points  in  these 
experiments : — 

1.  Adoral  cilia  of  Stentor  polymorphus  :— 


Inilex  Nt  of 
the  Liquid. 


Liquid  employed. 


Degree  of  Illumination 
of  the  Object. 


Comparison  of  the 

Indices  of  the 
Liquid  Xl  and  of 

the  Object  N,|. 


1-33 

Water. 

Very  distinct. 

1-36 

Ethvl-alcohol. 

Very  distinct. 

1-37 

Water  and  glycerine. 

Fainter,  but    still 

distinct. 

1-47 

Glycerin. 

Very  faint. 

1-49 

Castor-oil. 

Extremely  faint. 

1-51 

Cedar-oil. 

Nil 

NL  =N0 

1-53 

Oil  of  cloyes. 

Extremely  faint. 

1-54 

Creasote. 

Extremely  faint. 

1-60 

Creasote  +  niono- 

Faint,    but    more 

bromide  of  naph- 

distinct. 

thaline. 

1-66 

Monobrornide      of 
naphthaline. 

Distinct. 

2.    Reversible    preparation :    the    same   Stentor   was    followed 
through  a  series  of  liquids  : — 


36 
53 
66 
53 


1-36 


Liquid. 


Ethyl-alcohol. 

Oil  of  cloves. 

Monobrornide  of  naphthaline. 

Oil  of  cloves. 

Ethvl-alcohol. 


Illumination. 


Distinct. 
Practically  nil. 
Distinct. 
Extremely  faint. 

Faint,  but  distinct. 


3.  Reversible  preparation  :  Vorticella: — 


Xl 

Liquid. 

Illumination. 

1-36 
1-53 
1-66 
1-53 
1-36 

Ethyl-alcohol. 

Oil  of  cloves. 

Monobrornide  of  naphthaline. 

Oil  of  cloves. 

Ethyl-alcohol. 

Verv  distinct. 
Nil." 

Distinct. 
Practically  nil 
Very  distinct. 

4.  Desiccation  has  the  same  effect  on  the  cilia  of  Protozoa  as 
on  epithelial  cilia — the  illumination  is  quite  destroyed  ;  this  again 
confirms  the  depolarisation  hypothesis. 


:,:,«; 


Notes. 


B.    Myonemes. 

After  having  looked  in  vain  for  illumination  of  the  mvonemes 
in  Stentor,  Spirostomwm,  Dilcptus,  and  Vorticclla  (probably  too 
small),  we  were  able  to  detect  a  faint,  but  distinct,  illumination  in 
the  stalk  of  a  large  Carchesium. 

The  immersion  experiment  failed  to  show  any  noteworthy 
variation  in  the  illumination,  either  for  the  sheath  of  the  stalk  or 
for  the  contractile  filament  that  it  incloses.  These  elements  must, 
therefore,  be  considered  birefringent,  in  contradiction  to  Rouget's 
hypothesis,  but  in  agreement  with  the  opinion  of  Engelmann. 

C.    Flagella  of  Spermatozoa. 

The  faint,  but  yet  distinct,  illumination  of  the  large  sperma- 
tozoa of  Triton  cristatus  Laur.  must  be  regarded  as  a  phenomenon 
of  depolarisation.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  refractive  index  of 
the  liquid  in  which  these  organs  become  "  extinguished "  is  a 
little  higher  than  that  for  the  cilia  :  NL  =  1-56  instead  of  1  ■  51. 
This  difference,  which  is  quite  evident,  seems  to  be  rather  an  im- 
portant argument  in  favour  of  certain  recent  theories,  which  would 
tend  to  separate  these  two  elements  from  one  another : — 


Xl 


33 
36 
47 
49 
51 
54 
1-56 
1-58 
1-60 
1-66 


Liquid. 


Illumination. 


Water. 

Ethyl-alcohol. 

Glycerine. 

Castor-oil. 

Cedar-oil. 

Creasote. 
I  Various    mixtures    of 
J    creasote      and     bro- 
mide of  naphthaline 


J 


Bromide  of  naphthaline 


Distinct. 

Distinct,  but  fainter. 
Very  faint. 
Very  faint. 
Practically  nil. 
Practically  nil. 

Nil 

Nil     .....      . 

Very  faint,  but  distinct. 
Distinct. 


Xl  and  X0 


NL  =  N„ 


D.   Swimming-plates  of  Ctenophora  (Cydippe  plumosa  Chun.). 

The  illumination  here  is  also  due  to  depolarisation.  The  ex- 
tinction occurs  in  an  index  slightly  higher;  than  that  for  ordinary 
epithelial  cilia  :  between  1STL  =  1*53  and  1  ■  54 : — 


Xl 

Liquid. 

Illumination. 

Xl  and  K0. 

1-34 
1-36 
1-49 
1-51 
1-53 
1-54 
1-66 

Sea-water. 

Ethyl-alcohol. 

Castor-oil. 

Cedar-oil. 

Oil  of  cloves. 

Creasote. 

Bromide  of  naphthaline. 

Very  distinct 

Fainter. 

Faint,  but  still  distinct. 

Practically  nil. 

Nil 

Nil 

Distinct. 

}  NL  =  N0 

Notes. 


557 


F.    Trypanosoma  balbianii  Certes. 

The  body  of  Trypanosoma  (Spirochasta)  balbianii  and  its  un- 
dulating membrane  (especially  the  "  bordering  filament  ")  give  a 
feeble  reaction  between  crossed  nicols.  This  illumination  is  due 
to  depolarisation,  and  disappears  in  a  liquid  with  an  index 
NL  =  1 • 56 :— 


Nl 

Liquid. 

Illumination. 

Nl  and  N0. 

1-34 

Sea-water. 

Distinct. 

1-36 

Ethyl-alcohol. 

Less  distinct. 

1-47 

Glycerine. 

Fairly  distinct. 

1-51 

Cedar-oil. 

Very  faint. 

1-53 

Oil  of  cloves. 

1-56 

Creasote  +  bromide  of 
naphthaline. 

Nil 

NL=N0 

1-66 

Bromide  of  naphthaline. 

Very  faint. 

That  the  illumination  of  T.  balbianii  should  be  of  this  kind  is 
not  without  interest,  in  view  of  a  recent  discussion  on  the  nature 
of  the  "  strengthening  striations  "  of  its  membrane.  These  stria- 
tions  were  regarded  by  Vies  (1906)  as  of  a  ciliary  nature — an 
opinion  which  was  rejected  by  Borrel  and  Cernovodeanu  (1907), 
and  finally  by  Fantham  (1908),  who  would  have  them  to  be 
myonemes.  The  optical  properties  that  we  have  just  described 
seem  rather  in  favour  of  the  first  theory  ;  their  illumination  being- 
due  to  depolarisation,  removes  these  elements  from  among  the 
myonomes ;  further,  their  "index  of  extinction,"  close  to  1*56, 
possibly  places  them  nearer  fiagella  than  cilia. 


Conclusions. 

The  results  of  all  these  experiments,  as  well  as  of  the  former 
experiments  by  Vies,  may  be  summed  up  thus :  the  reactions  of 
contractile  organs  between  crossed  nicols  permit  of  their  being 
divided  into  two  groups,  of  which  one  is  characterised  by  true 
birefringence,  and  the  other  by  phenomena  of  depolarisation.  These 
two  groups  are  indicated  by  the  following  table  : — 


Illumination  due  to 


Birefringence 


Depolarisation 


Muscle-fibres. 
Myonemes  of  Protozoa. 

Epithelial  cilia. 
Cilia  of  Protozoa. 

„       Ctenophora. 
Fiagella  of  spermatozoa. 
Body  and  undulating  membrane 
of  Trypanosoma  balbianii. 


558  Notes. 

\\\   the   Latter   group,   the   "index   of    extinction"   gradually 
increases  from  the  first  element  to  the  last;  thus  : — 

index  of  extinction. 

Epithelial  cilia       ..  ..  ..  ..  ..         1*51 

Cilia  of  Protozoa    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..         1*51 

Swimming-plates  of  Ctenophora  . .  . .         1  •  53 

Flagella 1-56 


Bibliography. 

Borrel  &  Cernovodeanu — Membrane  ondulante   de  Spirochasta   balbianii. 

C.E.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  xlii.  (1907)  p.  1102  (1  fig.). 
Engelmann — Kontraktilitat  u.  Doppelbrechung.     Arch.  f.  Ges.  Physiol,  xi. 

(1875)  p.  432. 
Fantham —  Spirochasta  (Trypanosoma)  balbianii   and  Spirochmta   anodontm. 

Quart.  Journ.  Mier.  Sci.,  lii.  (11)08)  pp.  1-73  (3  pis  ). 
Rouget — Sur  les  phehomenes  de  polarisation  qui  s'ohservent  dans  quelques 

tissus.     Journ  de  Physiol.  (Brown-Sequard)  v.  (1862)  p.  2-17  (1  pi.). 
Vles — Structure  et  affinity's  de   Trypanosoma  balbianii.      C.E.  Soc.    Biol. 
Paris,  hi.  (1906)  p.  408  (1  fig.). 
„      Sur  la  birefringence  apparente  des  cils  vibratiles.     Comptes  Bendus, 
cxlvi.  (1908),  pp.  88-9. 


SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES 

RELATING    TO 

ZOOLOGY      AND       BOTANY 

(PRINCIPALLY*  INVERTEBRAT  A   AND    CRYPTOGAM^), 

MICKOSCOPY,    Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VESTEBRATA. 
«.    Embryology,  t 


Text-book  of  Heredity.  J  —  J.  Arthur  Thomson  has  supplied  au 
introduction  to  the  study  of  heredity,  which  gives  prominence  to  the 
modern  results  which  have  been  reached  by  the  microscopic  study  of  the 
germ-cells,  by  the  application  of  statistical  methods,  and  by  experiment. 
The  chapters  are  as  follow  : — Heredity  and  inheritance,  defined  and 
illustrated  ;  the  physical  basis  of  inheritance  ;  heredity  and  variation  ; 
common  modes  of  inheritance  :  reversion  and  allied  phenomena ; 
telegony  and  other  disputed  questions ;  the  transmission  of  acquired 
characters  ;  heredity  and  disease  ;  the  statistical  study  of  inheritance  ; 
the  experimental  study  of  inheritance  ;  the  history  of  theories  of  heredity 
and  inheritance  :  heredity  and  development  :  heredity  and  sex  ;  social 
aspects  of  biological  results.  There  is  a  copious  bibliography  of  fifty 
pages  and  a  useful  subject-index  to  the  bibliography. 

Transmission  of  Coercively  Acquired  Reproductive  Adaptations. § 
P.  Kammerer  has  made  very  interesting  and  important  experiments  with 
Salamanders.  In  Salamandra  maculosa  high  up  the  mountains  the 
viviparous  condition  obtains.  The  animal  produces  numerous  (up  to 
72)  larvae,  25-30  mm.  in  length,  with  four  legs  and  short  gills.  In 
warmer  conditions  the  ovo-viviparous  condition  obtains.  The  animal 
lays  large  eggs  which  hatch  in  a  few  minutes  into  larvae  similar  to  those 
produced  viviparously,  but  a  little  smaller  (23-25  mm.).    The  larvae  and 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they 
do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers 
noted,  nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of 
this  part  of  the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  pub- 
lished, and  to  describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  etc.,  which  are 
either  new  or  have  not  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

t  This  section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so 
called,  but  also  those  dealing  with  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  and 
allied  subjects. 

X  Heredity.  London  :  Murray  ;  New  York  :  Putmans,  1908,  xvi.  and  G05  pp., 
49  figs,  (some  coloured). 

§  Arch.  f.  Entwickel.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  7-51  (1  pi.). 


560  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

eggs  in  these  two  cases — which  are  quite  normal — are  deposited  in  the 
water,  and  metamorphosis  takes  place  after  some  months  into  land 
salamanders  45-5G  mm.  in  length.  In  the  case  of  S.  atra,  the  two 
larvae  have  very  long  gills  in  utero  and  no  fin  to  the  tail ;  when  they 
are  born  they  are  38—40  mm.  in  length. 

AVhat  Kammerer  sought  to  do,  was  to  simulate  alpine  conditions  in 
the  case  of  S.  maculosa,  l>y  keeping  the  animals  at  a  low  temperature 
and  without  water.  The  latter  condition  was  sufficient  by  itself.  He 
found  that  the  action  of  the  changed  surroundings  was  cumulative. 
After  a  few  pregnancies,  2-7  young  are  produced,  39— 43  mm.  in  length, 
with  short  gills  or  without  gills,  and,  to  begin  with,  black  in  colour. 
Finally,  a  stage  is  reached  where  only  two  young  ones  are  produced,  as 
in  S.  atra. 

Secondly,  Kammerer  sought  to  simulate  for  S.  atra  the  conditions 
normal  to  S.  maculosa.  He  kept  the  salamanders  at  a  higher  tempera- 
ture (25°-30°  C),  and  in  shallow  water  or  with  abundance  of  water 
beside  them.  When  the  full  result  was  reached,  3-9  larvae,  35-45  mm. 
long,  were  produced,  with  gills  at  most  8  mm.  in  length  (in  contrast  to 
the  very  long  normal  gills  of  S.  atra),  with  a  fin  2-3  mm.  in  breadth, 
and  of  a  coffee-brown  colour  instead  of  the  usual  black.  These  larvae  were 
more  adapted  to  the  water  than  larvae  at  the  corresponding  stage  cut  out 
from  the  uterus  of  an  ordinary  pregnant  S.  atra. 

The  offspring  of  the  salamanders  experimented  with  were  kept  for 
2h  years  in  vivaria  indoors,  but  did  not  become  sexually  mature  until 
they  were  put  in  large  vivaria  in  the  open  air  where  conditions  were 
more  normal.     They  became  mature  when  3 J  years  old. 

1.  The  offspring  of  those  specimens  of  S.  maculosa  that  had  been 
subjected  to  cold  and  want  of  water  gave  birth  to  (a)  very  advanced 
large-headed  larvse,  45  mm.  long,  with  much  reduced  gills,  which  under- 
went metamorphosis  several  days  after,  or  moderately  advanced  larvae, 
40  mm.  long,  with  large  gills  (both  sets  laid  in  water),  or  (b)  to  small 
larvae,  26  mm.  long,  with  rudimentary  gills.  The  latter  were  laid  on 
land  ;  they  were  unable  to  live  in  water  ;  they  underwent  metamorphosis 
after  4  weeks,  and  were  then  29  mm.  long. 

2.  The  specimens  of  S.  atra  which  were  born  as  larvse,  bore  in  the 
water  3-5  larvse  of  two  sizes,  33-40  mm.  or  21-23  mm.,  light  in  colour, 
with  gills  8  mm.  long,  and  with  a  fin  3  mm.  broad. 

In  the  case  of  (1)  it  should  be  observed  that  the  conditions  were 
normal  for  S.  maculosa ;  in  the  case  of  (2)  the  conditions  were  to  a 
certain  extent  a  continuation  of  the  experimental  conditions  under  which 
the  parents  were  born,  for,  as  is  well-known,  S.  atra  lives  at  high 
altitudes,  where  the  temperature  is  low  and  where  water  is  scarce. 

3.  Specimens  of  S.  maculosa  born  as  salamanders,  showed  under 
repetition  of  the  experimental  conditions  an  augmentation  of  the  effects. 
Their  offspring  were  very  like  normal  offspring  of  S.  atra. 

As  to  the  general  interpretation  of  these  very  interesting  results, 
Kammerer  admits  that  there  is  possibly  a  direct  action  of  the  environ- 
mental conditions  on  the  germ-plasm,  but  he  considers  that  there  is, 
nevertheless,  a  true  transmission  of  an  acquired  mode  of  reproduction. 

He  does  not  accept  Weismann's  limitation  of  the  concept  "  acquired 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  561 

characters"  to  purely  somatogenic  characters.  That  is,  he  alters  the 
basis  of  discussion.  It  is  of  minor  importance,  he  says,  whether  the 
change  produced  in  the  germ-plasm  is  brought  about  "  physically  "  (i.e. 
by  direct  action  of  the  stimulus),  or  "  physiologically  "  (i.e.  by  action  of 
the  modified  soma  on  the  germ-plasm).  It  is  sufficient  to  note  the  fact 
that  there  are  characters  which  can  be  experimentally  established  in  one 
generation  and  appear  in  the.  next  generation  in  the  absence  of  the 
modifying  conditions.  Since  the  controversy  as  to  the  transmission 
of  somatic  modifications  began,  there  have  been  few  experiments,  and 
we  have  therefore  peculiar  pleasure  in  recording  Kammerer's  very 
important  work. 

Parthenogenetic  Segmentation  in  Fowl.* — A.  Lecaillon  maintains 
against  Barfurth  and  others,  that  the  unfertilised  eggs  of  the  fowl  may 
exhibit  "  a  special  segmentation  which  one  can  hardly  designate  other- 
wise than  as  a  parthenogenetic  segmentation.  The  cells  which  result 
from  this  segmentation  may  possess  a  nucleus  of  normal  appearance  and 
capable  of  exhibiting  the  phenomena  of  mitosis."  Very  soon,  however, 
the  cells  degenerate  and  development  stops. 

Early  Stages  in  Development  of  the  White  Mouse,  f —  Ar. 
Anikiew  describes  and  figures  the  early  stages  of  segmentation  in  the 
ova  of  the  white  mouse.  He  found  some  with  two  polar  bodies  and 
some  with  one.  In  the  maturation  and  fertilisation  stages  there  is  a 
marked  polar  differentiation,  but  this  seems  to  disappear  later  on.  It 
may  be  indicated  by  the  position  of  the  large  pronuclei  and  of  the 
nuclear  figures.  In  the  stage  of  the  segmentation-spindle  the  proto- 
plasm is  marked  by  a  special  grouping  of  the  nutritive  particles  in  a  sort 
of  annular  layer  around  the  mitotic  figure,  as  is  sometimes  seen  at  an 
earlier  stage. 

A  fine  account  J  of  the  phenomena  of  maturation  and  f ertilisation  in 
the  ovum  of  the  white  mouse  has  been  given  by  H.  Lams  and  the  late 
J.  Doorrne. 

Very  Young  Human  Ovum.§ — L.  Frassi  gives  an  account  of  a 
young  ovum  in  situ,  discussing  the  decidua  and  its  vessels,  the  lencocytic 
infiltration,  the  limitation  of  foetal  and  maternal  elements,  and  the 
epithelial  remains  of  the  wall  of  the  egg-chamber.  He  regards  the 
following  as  belonging  to  the  embryo  :  (1)  the  cellular  enveloping  layer  ; 
(2)  the" cell-pillars  ;  (3)  the  syncytium  ;  (4)  the  layer  of  Langhans 
(four  epithelial  layers  formed  from  the  primary  epiblastic  trophoblast) ; 
and  (5)  the  mesoblast  of  the  chorion.  The  cellular  enveloping  layer 
retains  the  original  trophoblast  character  and  presses  persistently  upon 
the  maternal  tissue.  The  author's  bibliography  takes  the  form  of  a 
table  showing  what  the  various  observers  have  said  as  to  Langhans' 
layer,  the  syncytium,  the  intervillous  spaces  and  the  villi,  the  mode  of 
fixation,  the  decidua,  the  giant-cells,  the  glands,  vessels,  fibrin,  size  of 
ovum,  etc. 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (190S)  pp.  647-9. 

t  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (190S)  pp.  320-30  (7  figs.). 

X  Arch.  Biol,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  259-365  (3  pis.). 

§  Arch.  Mlkr.  Anat,,  lxxi.  (190S)  pp.  667-94  (1  pi.  and  ]7  figs.). 

Oct.  21si,  1908  2  P 


562  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Origin  of  Sex-cells  in  Rana  pipiens.* — B.  M.  Allen  finds  that  in 
this  frog-  the  sex-cells  arise,  in  a  Large  proportion  at  least,  from  the 
endoderm,  from  which  they  pass  into  the  root  of  the  mesentery  at  the 
time  when  the  latter  is  formed  by  the  approximation  of  the  lateral 
plates  of  mesoderm.     The  same  is  true  in  the  turtle  (Chrysemys). 

Studies  on  Spermatogenesis.! — Jacques  van  Molle  describes  the 
spermatogenesis  of  the  squirrel.  The  fine  filaments  which  appear  at  the 
beginning  of  the  development  of  the  spermatocyte  associate  together  in 
pairs  during  the  synapsis.  The  nucleoli  seen  in  the  first  "  leptotene  " 
stages  are  resolved  into  chromosomial  filaments.  The  synapsis  stage 
includes  three  phases,  and  the  conjugation  of  chromosomes  occurs  in  the 
middle  or  "  amphisynaptene  "  phase. 

Development  of  Vertebrate  Nerve-cord.}— Oh.  van  Bambeke  has 
studied  this  in  Pelobates  fuscus,  where  the  process  is  peculiar.  He  notes 
that,  apart  from  Amphioxus,  there  are  two  modes  of  formation  in 
Vertebrates  :  the  sides  of  the  medullary  groove  may  close  to  form  a 
medullary  canal,  or  the  axis  may  be  a  solid  keel,  which  secondarily 
becomes  tubular.  In  Pelobates  the  medullary  plate  does  not  form  the 
walls  of  the  medullary  groove  ;  the  closure  of  the  groove  is  due  to  the 
enveloping  membrane  (Deckschicht  of  Goette)  ;  after  this  is  closed  the 
medullary  plate  gives  rise  to  the  true  medullary  canal.  The  details  of 
this  peculiar  mode  of  origin  are  described  and  figured.  The  author 
points  out  that  in  Hylodes  martinicensis  the  neural  plate  was  found  by 
Sampson  to  be  solid,  recalling  the  condition  in  Teleosts  and  bony 
Ganoids.  More  cases  should  be  examined  before  it  is  affirmed  that  the 
primarily  solid  or  the  primarily  tubular  foundation  of  the  neural  axis  is 
the  more  primitive  condition. 

Development  of  the  Head. — D.  Filatoff§  has  studied  the  meta- 
merism of  the  head  of  Emys  Ivtaria. 

W.  Sippel  discusses  the  structure  and  development  of  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  in  Birds  and  Mammals. 

A.  BrachetIF  concludes  his  study  of  the  development  of  the  head  of 
Amphibians,  as  regards  sensory  structures,  nervous  system,  musculature, 
and  skeleton. 

Gill-cleft  Region  of  Gymnophiona.** — Harry  Marcus  has  studied 
embryos  of  Hypogeophis  rostratus  and  H.  alternans.  One  of  his  general 
conclusions  is  that  the  Gymnophiona  are  the  most  primitive  living- 
Amphibians.  Some  of  the  reasons  are  the  following.  There  are  seven 
visceral  clefts  ;  the  "  ultimobranchial  body,"  developed  from  the  last,  is 
directly  homologous  with  that  of  Selachians  and  Geratodus  ;  the  lung- 
primordium  may  be  compared  writh  the  diverticulum  from  the  eighth 
gill-pouch  of  the  lamprey  ;  a  second  aortic  arch  is  formed  ;  the  spiracle 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxi.  (1907)  pp.  339-47  (5  figs.), 

t  La  Cellule,  xxiv.  (1907)  pp.  259-76  (1  pi.). 

%  Arch.  Biol.,  xxiii.  (1908)  pp.  523-39  (1  pi.). 

§  Morphol.  Jahrb.,  xxxvii.  (1907)  pp.  289-96  (3  pis.  and  4  figs.). 

||  Torn,  cit.,  pp.- 490-524  (1  pi.  and  12  figs.). 

1|  Arch.  Biol.,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  193-257  (3  pis.). 

**  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxxi.  (1908)  pp.  695-774  (4  pis.  and  12  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  563 

breaks  through  and  remains  open  for  a  considerable  time  ;  the  first 
rudiment  of  the  gills  consists  of  paired  protrusions,  as  in  Polypterus  ; 
there  are  rudiments  of  spiracular  and  opercular  gills;  as  in  Selachians, 
each  visceral  cleft  has  a  thymus  rudiment,  though  only  from  the  second 
to  the  fifth  (as  Bryce  has  shown  in  Lepidosireri)  are  the  primordia 
separated  off  as  independent  bodies.  Another  general  conclusion  is  that 
the  gills  in  all  Amphibians  are  purely  ectodermic  structures. 

Influence  of  Lecithin  on  Determination  of  Sex.* — C.  Basile  has 
experimented  with  rabbits,  into  which  he  injected  lecithin.  There  seems 
to  be  an  increase  in  reproductivity,  the  general  nutritive  conditions  being 
improved  by  the  lecithin  injections.  But  the  lecithin  treatment  seems 
also  to  increase  the  mortality  of  the  young  germs  and  the  frequency  of 
abortive  development.  The  treatment  does  not  seem  to  increase  the 
number  of  female  offspring. 

Interstitial  Cells  in  the  Ovary  of  Mammals. f — P.  Aime  pub- 
lishes an  account  of  his  investigations  on  the  interstitial  cells  of  the 
ovary  of  some  Mammals.  He  finds  that  the  interstitial  tissue  is  a 
very  inconstant  structure,  aud  that  it  is,  therefore,  not  an  essential 
organ  comparable  in  importance  to  the  corpus  luteum.  The  interstitial 
cells  arise  from  the  cells  of  the  embryonic  connective-tissue.  They 
develop  either  at  the  expense  of  the  embryonic  mesenchyme  cells, 
or  at  that  of  the  Graafian  follicles.  In  the  majority  of  Mammals 
they  are  absent  altogether.  Where  they  occur,  their  evolution  usually 
begins  after  birth,  but  in  the  horse  they  are  characteristic  of  the 
embryonic  period.  Their  glandular  function  is  evident.  They  do  not 
divide,  they  are  closely  connected  with  the  capillaries,  and  they  present 
all  the  cytological  characters  which  indicate  glandular  activity.  Their 
resemblance  to  the  interstitial  cells  of  the  testis  is  purely  morphological. 
In  the  horse  young  interstitial  cells  and  xanthochromous  interstitial 
cells  are  found  in  the  foetal  ovary  as  well  as  in  the  testes,  but  there  are 
no  interstitial  cells  in  the  ovary  of  the  adult.  The  only  internal  secreting 
-land  in  the  ovary  of  the  adult  horse  is  the  corpus  luteum.  The 
hypothesis  that  the  interstitial  cells  have  a  trophic  role  in  relation  to 
the  sexual  cells  has  some  probability  if  it  be  based  on  the  time  of  their 
appearance,  which  precedes  that  of  the  Graafian  follicles.  But  this  role 
is  difficult  to  explain  in  view  of  the  fact  that  a  great  many  animals  in 
which  the  ovary  is  absolutely  crowded  with  ovocytes  have  no  interstitial 
cells  at  any  period  of  their  lives.  The  author  admits  that  the  function 
of  the  interstitial  cells  is  still  unknown,  but  he  suggests,  with  regard  to 
the  horse,  the  theory  that  there  is  an  equilibrium  between  their  internal 
secretion  in  the  foetus,  and  the  internal  secretion  of  the  maternal  corpora 
lutea  during  the  first  half  of  gestation. 

Compensatory  Hypertrophy  in  the  Ovary 4 — E.  S.  Carmichael  and 
F.  H.  A.  Marshall  have  experimented  with  rabbits,  testing  Bond's  con- 

*  Atti  R.  Accad.  Lincei  Roma,  xvii.  (1908)  pp.  643-  52. 

t  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.  et  Gen.,  vii.  (1907)  pp.  95-143  (3  pis.), 

X  Journ.  of  Physiol.,  xxxvi.  (1908)  pp. 431-4. 

2  P  2 


564  SUMMARY   OF   CUEEENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

elusion  that  after  one  ovary  has  been  removed  compensatory  hypertrophy 
occurs  in  the  other,  but  only  if  the  animal  is  allowed  to  becomi 
pregnant,  or  at  least  to  have  sexual  intercourse.  The  authors  rind 
that  not  only  is  sexual  intercourse  unnecessary  for  the  purpose  of 
inducing  compensatory  hypertrophy  in  the  ovary,  but  that  ovulation  is 
not  essential.  Moreover,  if  one  ovary  be  removed  at  a  very  early  stage 
of  pregnancy,  abortion  does  not  necessarily  follow,  the  remaining  ovary 
being  apparently  sufficient  for  the  continuance  of  pregnancy  until  full 
time. 

Passage  of  Ether  from  Mother  to  Fcetus.* — Maurice  Nicloux  has 
proved  in  guinea-pigs  that  ether,  like  chloroform  and  alcohol,  can  pass 
from  mother  to  fcetus.  As  with  chloroform,  the  quantity  found  in  the 
foetal  liver  is  greater  than  that  in  the  maternal  liver,  which  probably 
means  that  the  former  is  proportionately  richer  in  lecithin. 

Infundibular  Gland  and  Choroid  Plexus.j — L.  Gentes  shows  that 
the  mode  of  development  (in  the  Torpedo)  is  in  favour  of  the  interpreta- 
tion which  regards  the  infundibular  gland  as  a  ventral  choroid  plexus. 

Abnormalities  in  Hind  Limbs  of  Rana  esculenta.J — E.  Reichenow 
reports  on  a  number  of  abnormalities  observed  in  a  collection  of  several 
thousand  young  frogs.  One  had  one  hind  leg,  another  had  three,  and 
a  third  had  four.  He  refers  to  some  similar  cases  recently  reported  by 
Woodland,  and  suggests  that  a  collection  should  be  made  of  what  are 
certainly  not  great  rarities. 

Vitalistic  Theory  of  Evolution. §— K.  C.  Schneider,  a  thorough- 
going vitalist,  who  believes  in  a  specific  vital  energy  of  a  psychical 
nature,  gives  an  outline  of  a  vitalistic  theory  of  evolution.  He  combines 
what  seems  to  him  sound  in  various  existing  theories.  Thus  he  is  in 
many  ways  in  agreement  with  Weismann,  but  replaces  his  idea  of  deter- 
minants by  an  idea  of  potencies,  and  he  maintains  that  of  all  biological 
factors  the  psychical  is  the  most  important.  He  does  not  find  any 
warrant  for  believing  in  the  transmission  of  somatic  modifications,  but 
he  accepts  another  piece  of  the  Lamarckiau  theory,  namely,  that  great 
importance  must  be  attached  to  the  independent  responses  of  the 
organism  which  is  above  all  things  a  creative  agent.  He  lays  stress  on 
mutations,  but  still  more  on  what  he  calls  "  descensions,"  that  is  to  say, 
great  changes  in  organisation,  such  as  the  acquisition  of  a  notochord  or 
gill-clefts.  To  account  for  these  "  big  lifts  "  in  evolution,  he  invokes  the 
aid  of  a  self-assertive  entelechy  or  soul  or  formative  principle. 

Inheritance  of  Manner  of  Clasping  the  Hands.  || — Frank  E.  Lutz 
discusses  data  concerning  the  manner  in  which  the  different  members  of 
families  put  the  right-hand  or  left-hand  thumb  uppermost  in  clasping  the 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  329-31. 
f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  6S7-9. 

%  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  677-82  (4  figs.) 

§  Versuch  einer  Begriindung  der  Descendenztheorie.  Jena  :  Fischer,  1908, 
viii.  and  132  pp.  ||  Amer.  Nat.,  xlii.  (1908)  pp.  195-6. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  565 

hands,  with  the  fingers  alternating.  His  conclusions  arc  based  on  data 
for  about  600  supplied  by  J.  Arthur  Thomson. 

The  mode  of  clasping  the  hands  is  inherited  ;  it  does  not  follow 
Mendelian  law  ;  neither  position  breeds  true.  There  is  no  significant 
sexual  dimorphism,  nor  hint  of  assortative  mating.  It  has  apparently  no 
relation  to  right-  or  left-handedness. 

There  are  a  number  of  somewhat  similar  problems.  Thus,  the  males 
of  the  commou  black  cricket  (Gryllus)  usually  keep  the  right  tegmen 
over  the  left. 

b.  Histolog-y. 

Essentials  of  Cytology. *— C.  E.  Walker  has  written  a  very  useful 
introduction  to  cytology.  It  is  terse  and  up-to-date,  and  very  lucid. 
The  chapters  deal  with  the  structure  and  parts  of  the  cell,  cell-division, 
the  meiotic  phase  (the  whole  period  during  which  reduction  is  taking 
place),  the  post-meiotic  divisions,  the  male  sexual  elements,  the  matura- 
tion of  the  ovum,  fertilisation,  the  probable  individuality  of  the  chromo- 
somes, the  morphological  aspect  of  the  transmission  of  hereditary 
characters,  and  cytological  methods. 

Histological  Studies. — N.  Van  der  Stricht  f  gives  a  detailed 
account  of  the  histogenesis  of  the  constituent  parts  of  the  auditory 
neuro-epithelium,  the  macula?  acusticae,  and  the  organ  of  Corti. 

N.  Loewenthal  $  has  made  a  study  of  the  very  heterogeneous  sub- 
maxillary salivary  gland  of  hedgehog  and  white  rat. 

August  Schuberg  §  gives  an  account  of  the  connections  between 
epithelial  cells  and  connective-tissue  cells  in  the  skin  of  Amphibian  larva? 
(Axolotl,  Salamander,  etc.).  They  do  not  represent  the  persistence  of 
primary  conditions  ;  they  may  be  present  or  absent  on  the  same  area 
in  different  specimens  ;  they  may  appear  de  novo  without  requiring 
pre-existing  intercellular  connections. 

E.  Holmgren  |j  describes  the  trophospongia  or  intracellular  network  of 
cross-striped  muscle  in  Arthropods  and  Mammals,  and  discusses  its 
physiological  i uiportance. 

J.  Duesberg  1"  discusses  the  mitochondrial  apparatus  in  the  cells  of 
Vertebrates  and  Invertebrates,  dealing  with  its  varied  form,  its  state  in 
the  resting  cell,  its  behaviour  during  division,  its  role  in  the  structure  of 
spermatozoa,  and  its  reaction  to  stains. 

Neurological  Studies.— K.  Schilling  **  gives  a  detailed  account  of 
the  brain  of  the  lamprey  (Petromyzon  fluviatUis). 

0.  V.  A.  Kappers  ff  describes  the  brain  of  Am  in  calva  and  of 
Lepidosteus  osseus. 

*  The  Essentials  of  Cytology  :  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Living  Matter, 
with  a  chapter  on  Cytological  Methods.  London  :  Constable  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1907, 
139  pp.,  49  figs.  t  Arch.  Biol,  xxiii.  (1908)  pp.  5-11-693  (5  pis.). 

X  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxxi.  (1908)  p.  588-666  (2  pis.). 
§  Zeitsohr.  Wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxvii.  (1907)  pp.  551-602  (4  pis.,  1  fig.). 

Arch.  Mikr.  Anat,,  lxxi.  (1907)  pp.  165-247  (8  pis.,  6  figs.). 
«    Torn,  cit.,  pp.  284-96  (1  pi.). 

**  Abh.  Seuckenberg.  Nat.  Gesell.,  xxx.  (1907)  pp.  425-46  (1  pi.,  2  figs.). 
+  +  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  149-500  (1  pi.,  6  figs.). 


566  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

Ciro  Barbieri  *  has  studied  the  development  of  the  cranial  nerves  in 
the  trout,  and  rinds  that  it  conforms  generally  to  what  has  been  described 
in  other  Vertebrates. 

A.  J.  P.  van  den  Broek  f  begins  a  series  of  investigations  on  the 
structure  of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system  in  Mammals,  dealing  first 
with  that  of  the  neck. 

R.  Burckhardt  f  has  made  a  profound  study  of  the  brain  of  Scymnus 
lichia  in  particular  and  of  Selachians  in  general,  and  proposes  to  work  on 
to  an  elucidation  of  the  phylogeny  of  the  Vertebrate  brain. 

Double  Refraction  Phenomena  in  Muscle. §—  Fred  Vies  has  made 
some  interesting  studies  on  the  "  birefringence  "  of  muscle  in  frog  and 
bird,  crayfish  and  beetle,  muscle  and  snail.  The  degrees  of  birefringence 
were  measured,  and  the  action  of  physical  and  chemical  agents  was 
studied.  Desiccation,  alcohol,  glycerin,  chloroform,  ether,  formol, 
xylol,  have  no  effect  on  the  muscular  birefringence;  heating  to  +50°, 
and  water  at  + 100°,  produce  partial  attenuation  of  the  birefringence  ; 
heating  to  +  170°,  acids,  bases,  chloride  of  mercury,  and  pepsin  destroy 
it  altogether. 

There  is  no  use  in  studying  the  phenomena  on  tissues  fixed  with 
Flemming's  fluid  and  the  like.  The  birefringence  has  not  to  do 
with  hydration,  nor  with  the  presence  of  birefringent  fats,  and  several 
other  possibilities  are  excluded.  It  is  probably  due  to  some  albuminoid 
or  albuminoids,  which  can  stand  a  high  temperature. 

c.  General. 

Introduction  to  Study  of  Natural  History. || — F.  W.  Gamble  has 
supplied  an  admirable  short  introduction  to  the  study  of  animal  life. 
It  is  distinguished  by  its  freshness,  its  suggestiveness,  and  its  fine  style. 
The  author  deals  with  "  the  fulness  of  the  earth,"  the  organisation  of 
animal  life,  the  movements  of  animals,  the  quest  for  food,  "  the  breath 
of  life,"  the  senses  of  animals,  the  colours  of  animals,  the  welfare  of  the 
race,  and  the  life-histories  of  insects.  The  work  is  written  in  the  first 
instance  for  those  who  wish  to  learn  or  teach  such  a  survey  of  the 
animal  pageant  as  can  ally  itself  with  observation  and  experiment ;  and, 
in  the  second  place,  for  those  who  wish  to  organise  their  knowledge  of 
animal  life.  It  is  not  exactly  the  kind  of  scientific  contribution  which 
is  usually  recorded  in  this  Journal,  but  it  is  a  book  of  so  much  dis- 
tinction that  we  do  a  service  in  helping  to  make  it  well  known. 

Habits  of  the  Short-tailed  Shrew.1T — A.  F.  Shull  has  made  a  study 
of  the  habits  of  the  short-tailed  shrew,  Blarina  brevicauda.  He  finds 
that  it  feeds,  at  least  in  winter,  on  snails  of  the  genus  Polygyra,  which 
it  hoards  and  moves  to  the  surface  as  the  temperature  falls,  and  into  its 
burrow  as  it  rises.     Empty  shells  are  not  carried  back  into  the  burrow. 

*  Morphol.  Jahrb.,  xxxvii.  (1907)  pp.  162-201  (2  pis.). 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  202-88  (26  figs.). 

%  Abh.  k.  Leop.  Carol.  Akad.  Halle,  lxxiii.  (1907)  pp.  241-450(5  pis.  and  64  figs.). 
§  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  viii.  (1908)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  2,  pp.  xl.-li.  (2  figs.). 
||  Animal  Life.  London:  Smith,  Elder  and  Co.,  1908,  xviii.  and  305  pp.  (63  figs.), 
f  Amer.  Nat.,  xli.  (1907)  pp.  495-522  (5  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  567 

Other  principal  foods  are  voles,  mice,  insects,  and  earthworms.  Vege- 
table foods,  except  nuts,  are  not  eaten.  The  burrows  of  Blarina  are 
similar  to  those  of  Mkrotus  pmnsylvanica,  but  are  of  greater  depth,  and 
the  openings  are  farther  apart.  The  smell,  hearing,  and  tactile  sense  of 
Blarina  are  acute  ;  its  sight  serves  merely  to  distinguish  light  from 
shadow.  Experiments  in  feeding  a  captive  Blarina  showr  that  its 
economic  importance  may  be  considerable,  since,  unlike  the  other 
common  shrew,  Sorex personatus,  it  is  almost  exclusively  carnivorous. 

Imitative  Tendency  of  Rats  and  of  Cats.* — C.  S.  Berry  finds  that 
when  "  two  rats  were  put  into  the  box  together,  one  rat  being  trained  to 
get  out  of  the  box,  and  the  other  untrained,  at  first  they  were  indifferent 
to  each  other's  presence,  but  as  the  untrained  rat  observed  that  the 
other  was  able  to  get  out,  while  he  was  not,  a  gradual  change  took  place. 
The  untrained  rat  began  to  watch  the  other's  movements  closely  ;  he 
followed  him  all  about  the  cage,  standing  up  on  his  hind  legs  beside 
him  at  the  string,  and  pulling  it  after  he  had  pulled  it.  He  also 
saw  that  when  he  was  put  back  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  loop  was 
the  point  of  greatest  interest  for  him,  and  that  he  tried  to  get  out  by 
working  at  the  spot  where  he  had  seen  the  trained  rat  try."  In  cats 
Berry  found  similar  and  more  marked  cases  of  "  imitation."  It  seems 
like  imitation  in  the  making,  but  the  animal  that  does  not  know  learns 
by  paying  attention  to  its  comrade,  and  in  an  indefinite  way  doing  the 
same  sort  of  thing  itself. 

Intelligence  of  Raccoons. f — L.  W.  Cole  has  followed  Thorndike's 
methods,  and  improved  on  them,  in  studying  the  behaviour  of  raccoons. 
The  experiments  consisted  largely  in  allowing  the  animals  to  learn  to 
open  boxes  closed  by  fastenings  of  various  degrees  of  complexity.  The 
learning  was  largely  by  trial  and  error,  but  it  did  not  seem  to  be  confined 
to  this.  Sometimes  a  raccoon  seemed  to  "  catch  the  idea,"  sometimes 
it  learned  by  being  "  put  through  "  an  act,  sometimes  it  seemed  to  learn 
by  watching  the  experimenter.  Some  ingenious  experiments  suggest 
that  some  animals  hold  mental  images.  They  fought  against  being  put 
into  boxes  witli  complex  fastenings,  from  which  they  had  some  time 
before  had  difficulty  in  escaping,  though  they  willingly  went  into  similar 
boxes  whose  fastenings  they  had  found  simple.  To  raise  a  green  signal 
meant  food,  a  red  one  meant  nothing.  They  learned  to  raise  these 
signals  by  clawing  at  the  standards,  but  they  could  not  see  beforehand 
which  sign  would  come  up  by  clawing  at  a  certain  standard.  When  the 
red  one  came  up  they  clawed  it  down  again,  then  clawed  up  the  green 
one,  and  prepared  to  receive  food. 

Unusual  Type  of  Reaction  in  Dog.J — Gr.  van  T.  Hamilton  has 
studied  the  behaviour  of  a  dog  which  learned  that  in  order  to  escape 
from  a  pen  and  get  food  he  must  press,  out  of  a  number  of  levers,  the 
one  that  bore  the  same  sign  as  was  found  on  a  general  signboard  else- 
where in  the  pen.     He  inspected  the  signboard,  passed  in  review  the 

*  Journ.  Comp.  Neurol.  Psychol.,  xvi.,  pp.  333-61 ;  xviii.  (1908)  pp.  1-25.  See 
also  Amer.  Nat.,  xlii.  (190S)  pp.  212-13. 

t  Op.  cit.  xvii.  (1907)  pp.  211-61.     See  also  Amer.  Nat.,  xlii.  (190Si  pp.  213-14. 
%  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  329-41.     See  also  Amer.  Nat.,  xlii.  (190S)  pp.  215-16. 


568  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

four  levers  till  he  found  the  one  with  the  same  sign,  and  pressed  it. 
Afterwards,  being  a  clever  dog,  he  discovered  that  a  simpler  way  was  to 
begin  at  one  end  and  press  the  levers  till  he  came  to  the  one  thai 
worked.  When  electric  shocks  were  attached  to  the  "  wrong  "  levers,  he 
decided  not  to  play  any  more. 

Ear  of  Hungarian  Blind  Mouse.* — Julius  Szakall  gives  a  full  ac- 
count of  the  auditory  organ  in  Spalax  hungaricus,  and  shows  that  it  has 
a  very  high  development  in  compensation  for  the  degeneracy  of  the  eye. 
Although  there  is  some  hint  of  retrogression  even  in  the  ear,  e.g.  in 
the  absence  of  the  musculus  tensor  tympani  and  the  musculus  stapedius, 
the  greater  part  of  the  structure  is  very  highly  developed.  Indeed,  the 
author  shows  that  in  some  respects  the  internal  ear  of  Spalax  is  more 
perfect  than  that  of  auy  other  Mammals  hitherto  studied. 

Quagga  of  Turin  Museum.f — L.  Camerano  discusses  this  specimen, 
which  seems  to  be  intermediate  between  Equus  quagga  greyi  and  Equus 
quagga  lorenzi,  which  may  therefore  equally  deserve  a  sub-specific  name, 
trouessarti  being  proposed. 

Tobacco-poisoning  in  Rabbits.} — L.  Richon  and  M.  Perrin  gave 
eight  rabbits  subcutaneous  injections  of  infusion  of  tobacco  ;  there 
was  a  very  marked  retardation  of  growth  ;  and  in  two  cases,  after  the 
cessation  of  the  poisoning,  there  was  a  renewal  of  growth. 

Prozeuglodon  atrox.§— C.  W.  Andrews  regards  it  as  settled  that  the 
Zeuglodonts  are  descended  from  Creodonts,  and  that  Odontoceti  are 
derived  from  Zeuolodonts.  There  is  a  series  of  forms  linking:  the 
Zeuglodonts  to  the  terrestrial  Creodonts  ;  the  earliest  of  these  is  Pro- 
tocetus  atavus  from  the  Middle  Eocene  of  Cairo,  and  somewhat  later  is 
Prozeuglodon  atrox,  which  has  many  Creodont  features.  It  seems  to 
have  been  with  great  rapidity  that  both  Cetaceans  and  Sirenia  became 
completely  adapted  to  an  aquatic  life.  They  diverged  from  a  terrestrial 
stock  during  the  Lower  Eocene,  and  were  completely  adapted  long  before 
the  close  of  the  Middle  Eocene.  The  great  marine  reptiles  had  vanished 
from  the  seas,  and  that  gave  the  newcomers  free  scope.  The  limbs 
ceased  to  support  the  weight  of  the  body,  and  many  changes  followed 
from  this.  The  body  is  subjected  to  pressure  on  its  anterior  end,  and 
some  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  skull  are  associated  with  this.  Abundant 
food  and  the  floating  of  the  body  may  have  made  the  large  size  possible. 
"No  doubt  the  various  changes  above  noticed  may  be  regarded  as 
entirely  the  result  of  selection  acting  on  variations  in  the  necessary 
direction,  but  the  rapidity  with  which  these  changes  took  place,  and  the 
apparent  uselessness  of  some  of  them,  at  least,  suggest  that  in  spite  of  the 
generally  accepted  doctrine  that  acquired  characters  are  not  inherited, 
in  some  cases  complete  change  of  the  conditions  acting  throughout  the 
life  of  each  individual  for  generations  does  actually  give  rise  to  and 
direct  the  modifications  undergone." 

*  Math.  Nat.  Ber.  Ungarn,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  135-58  (8  Sgs.). 

+  Atti  R.  Accad.  Sci.  Torino,  xliii.  (1908)  pp.  562-5. 

+  C.1I.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  563-5. 

§  Geol.  Mag.,  v.  (1908)  pp.  209-12  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  569 

Chalicotheres.* — 0.  A.  Peterson  gives  a  preliminary  account  of  the 
splendidly  preserved  remains  of  Moropus  in  the  Carnegie  Museum. 
The  skeleton  presents  a  unique  combination  of  characters.  The 
phalanges  are  highly  modified,  terminating  in  cleft  ungues  which  were, 
no  doubt,  covered  by  heavy  claws  ;  otherwise  the  skeleton  is  distinct- 
ively of  an  Ungulate  type,  most  closely  resembling  the  Perissodactyla. 
The  fore  limbs  are  longer  than  the  hind  limbs ;  they,  together 
with  the  clawed  feet,  must  have  given  the  animal  a  very  peculiar 
appearance.  Some  species  are  as  large  as  an  African  rhinoceros,  or 
even  larger.  Cope  put  them  in  a  separate  order,  Ancylopoda  ;  they 
are  now  referred  to  the  Chalicotherioidea,  an  aberrant  super-family  of 
the  Perissodactyla.  In  Miocene  times  they  extended  over  Europe,  Asia, 
and  America.  There  are  about  twenty  individuals  of  Moropus  repre- 
sented in  the  Carnegie  Museum. 

Reptiles  of  Eastern  Island.! — Samuel  Garman  discusses  two  species 
of  small  lizards — a  gecko,  Lepidodactylus  lugubris,  and  a  skink,  Crypto- 
blep'harus  pmcilopleurus.  It  appears  that  these  lizards  were  not  originally 
derived  from  the  nearer  islands  to  the  westward,  in  the  direction  of 
Samoa  and  the  Fijis,  but  from  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  to  the  far  north- 
westward. The  possibilities  of  transport  to  the  isolated  volcanic  island 
are  discussed.  Some  marine  Chelonians  and  a  marine  snake  are  also 
recorded,  but  they  are  obviously  of  less  interest  as  regards  distribution. 

Independent  Bony  Epiphyses  in  Sauropsida4 — Hugo  Fuchs  has 
found  true  epiphyses  in  the  humerus,  radius,  ulna,  and  some  other  bones 
of  Varan  lis  r/riseus,  in  the  femur  of  Uromastix  acanthmurus,  in  the 
humerus  of  Phrynosoma  harJanii,  and  in  some  other  cases.  He  notes 
that  Clegenbaur  and  Dollo  both  refer  to  epiphyses  in  lizards,  and  that 
Huxley  pointed  out  the  epiphysial  nature  of  the  tip  of  the  cnemial 
process  in  the  Rhea. 

Variation  in  Length  of  Frog's  IntestineJ — Emile  Yung  finds  that 
Ranafusca  has  a  shorter  intestine  than  R.  esculenta,  that  in  both  species 
the  males  have  a  shorter  intestine  than  the  females,  and  that  in  the  same 
species  and  sex  the  larger  individuals  have  a  relatively  longer  intestine. 
In  spring  the  intestine  is  relatively  shorter  than  in  autumn,  this  differ- 
ence having  to  do  with  the  rest  or  activity  of  the  digestive  tract  in  the 
period  before  measurement. 

Autostyiic  and  Protostylic.|| — J.  Graham  Kerr  points  out  that  two 
very  different  modes  of  suspension  of  the  jaw  are  confused  under  the 
term  autostyiic.  In  Heterodontus  the  palato-pterygo-quadrate  cartilage 
is  firmly  adherent  to  the  cartilaginous  cranium;  in  Chimcera  complete 
fusion  has  occurred.  But  in  Dipnoi  the  suspension  of  the  lower  jaw 
from  the  skull  is  more  primitive.  It  is  through  the  upper  part  of  the 
mandibular  arch  itself.     This  may  be  called  protostylic. 

*  Amer.  Nat.,  xli.  (1907)  pp.  733-52  (26  figs.). 

+  Bull.  Mus.  Conip.  Zool.  Harvard,  lii.  (1908)  pp.  1-14  (1  pi.). 

t  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp  352-60  (4  figs.). 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  1306-8. 

||  Proc.  Roy.  Phys.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xvii.  (1908)  p.  1     . 


570  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Swim-bladder  and  Lungs.* — J.  Graham  Kerr  supports  the  hypo- 
thesis of  SagemehJ  that  the  condition  in  which  there  exists  a  pair  of 
lungs  with  a  mid-venl  ral  glottis  is  the  primitive  one.  Sagemehl  supposed 
that  with  increasing  predominance  of  the  hydrostatic  function  of  the 
lungs  in  fish-like  forms,  one  was  lost,  and  the  other  passed  up  dorsally. 
The  author  shows  that  this  is  supported  by  various  facts  in  the  develop- 
ment of  Crossopterygians  and  Dipnoans. 

Function  of  Spleen  in  Fishes.f — R.  Blumenthal  has  studied  the 
role  of  the  spleen  in  skate,  dogfish,  conger,  sole,  sand-eel  and  other 
fishes.  He  finds  evidence  that  it  is  the  normal  place  for  the  destruction 
of  red  blood-corpuscles. 

New  Sub-order  of  Fishes.}— E.  C.  Starke  defines  a  new  sub-order, 
Atalaxia,  for  the  reception  of  the  Stylephoridse,  a  family  represented  by 
Stylephorus  chordatus.  The  first  specimen  of  this  remarkable  fish  was 
obtained  about  1790,  in  the  Western  Atlantic  between  Cuba  and 
Martinique  ;  the  second  specimen — on  which  Starks1  paper  is  based — was 
obtained  by  the  Agassiz  Expedition  (1904-5),  just  south  of  the  Galapagos 
Islands. 

The  vertebra?  consist  of  centra  only ;  the  opposite  halves  of  the 
hyoid  are  remote  from  each  other  ;  the  palato-quadrate  bar  has  atrophied  ; 
the  ethmoid  is  far  anterior  to  the  vomer,  and  supported  by  a  pro- 
jection from  the  parasphenoid  ;  there  is  no  orbitosphenoid  ;  the  caudal 
fin  is  divided  and  part  of  the  rays  turned  upward  :  the  lower  three  are 
enlarged  and  produced  backward  into  a  long  process. 

This  remarkable  aberrant  form  has  some,  probably  distant,  affinities 
with  the  Taeniosomi  (including  Trachypteridre)  and  Regalecidse. 
Its  affinity  is  shown,  for  instance,  by  the  poorly  ossified  skeleton,  the 
horizontal  pectoral  base,  the  upturned  caudal  fin,  the  absence  of  cross 
articulations  in  the  dorsal  rays,  the  reduction  of  the  lower  pharyngeals, 
the  presence  of  four  pairs  of  superior  pharyngeals,  and  the  ascending 
processes  on  maxillae  as  well  as  on  premaxillas. 

Copulatory  Appendages  of  Lasviraia  oxyrhynchus.§  —  0.  Huber 
describes  the  skeleton  and  musculature  of  this  "  clasper,"  which  comes 
nearest  to  that  of  Bain  bulk.  On  the  knife-like  edge  of  one  of  the 
cartilages  there  is  a  saw-like  row  of  eight  sharp  teeth,  covered  with 
chondrodentin.  They  are  not  separate  pieces  like  denticles,  but  re- 
present a  marginal  modification  of  the  cartilage.  No  similar  speciali- 
sation is  known.  Huber  comments  on  the  specific  distinctiveness  of 
the  structure  of  these  copulatory  appendages,  and  on  their  individual 
variability. 

Species  of  Trout.|| — A.  Cligny  points  out  that  a  young  sea-trout 
cannot  be  distinguished  from  a  young  common  trout,  though  the  adult 
forms  are  readily  distinguished.     He  gives  evidence  in  support  of  the 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Phys.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xvii.  (190S)  pp.  170-4  (2  figs.). 

t  ComptesRendus,  cxlvi.  (190S)/pp.  190-1. 

J  Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.  Harvard,  lii.  (1908)  pp.  17-22  (5  pis.). 

§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  717-20  (4  figs.). 

||  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  1302-4. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  571 

conclusion  of  Knut-Dahl,  that  some  of  the  progeny  of  the  common 
trout  descend  to  the  sea  and  become  sea-trout.  In  fact,  sea-trout  form 
a  detached  tribe  of  common  trout,  recently  and  imperfectly  separated  off. 

Occurrence  of  Gobius  orca  in  Clyde  Sea  Area.*  ■ —  Alexander 
Patience  has  obtained  this  species,  which  is  one  of  the  smallest  and 
rarest  of  European  fishes,  on  three  occasions  in  the  Forth  of  Clyde. 
The  closely  allied  G.  jeffreyssii,  which  Giinther  recorded  from  three 
localities  in  the  Clyde,  is  not  uncommon. 

Notes  on  Polyodon  spathula.f — Charles  E.  Stockard  makes  some 
notes  on  the  habits  of  this  fish,  which  is  abundant  in  some  lakes  border- 
ing the  lower  Mississippi  river.  He  was  not  successful  in  getting  any 
embryos. 

The  fish  may  attain  a  length  of  about  six  feet,  and  often  weighs 
over  a  hundred  pounds.  It  frequents  the  deeper  parts,  and  feeds 
chiefly  on  small  Crustacea,  chiefly  Copepods.  The  snout  is  not  essential, 
and  its  use  is  probably  rather  as  a  tactile  organ  than  as  foraging  instru- 
ment. 

Sensory  Reactions  of  Amphioxus4 — G.  H.  Parker  has  studied  the 
West  Indian  Amphioxus,  BrancMostoma  caribimum  Sundevall,  a  close 
relative  of  the  common  European  form,  B.  lanceolatum  Pallas.  It  is 
only  very  slightly  sensitive  to  light ;  it  responds  to  a  rapid  increase,  but 
not  to  a  rapid  decrease.  The  only  known  photoreceptors  are  the  eye- 
cups  in  the  wall  of  the  nerve-tube.  It  is  photokinetic  and  negatively 
phototropic. 

Amphioxus  is  stimulated  by  water  warmer  than  that  in  which  it 
lives  (31  C°.),  and  is  killed  in  water  at  40°  C.  or  higher.  It  is  also 
stimulated  by  water  colder  than  31°  C,  and  is  killed  by  lengthy  exposure 
to  water  of  4°  C.  or  lower.  It  is  thermokinetic  and  negatively  thermo- 
tropic. 

The  outer  surface,  especially  the  oral  hood  and  the  tentacular  cirri, 
is  sensitive  to  mechanical  stimuli.  Amphioxus  is  also  sensitive  to 
sound  vibrations.  It  is  thigmotropic,  and  slightly  rheotropic  and 
geotropic. 

The  outer  surface  of  Amphioxus  is  sensitive  to  solutions  of  nitric 
acid,  potassic  hydrate,  picric  acid,  alcohol,  and  to  strong  ether,  chloro- 
form, turpentine,  oil  of  bergamot,  and  oil  of  rosemary,  but  not  to 
solutions  of  sugar.  It  is  also  stimulated  by  diluted  sea  water  and  by 
fresh  water.     Amphioxus  is  negatively  chemotropic. 

The  photoreceptors  in  Amphioxus  are  anatomically  distinct  from  the 
receptors  for  thermal,  mechanical,  and  chemical  stimuli,  and  these  three 
are  at  least  physiologically  distinct  from  one  another. 

To  all  stimuli  that  induce  locomotion,  Amphioxus  responds  by  forward 
movements  when  the  stimuli  are  applied  to  the  tail,  and  by  backward 
movements  when  they  are  applied  to  the  middle  or  to  the  anterior  end. 
The  animal  generally  buries  itself  tail  foremost,  and  in  all  probability 
usually  swims  tail  foremost,  though  it  may  reverse  both  processes. 

*  Trans.  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  Glasgow,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  74-6. 

t  Amer.  Nat.,  xli.  (1907)  pp.  752-66  (3  figs.). 

t  Proc.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts  and  Sci.,  xliii.  (1908)  pp.  415-55. 


572  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

When  Amphioxus  is  cut  in  two,  both  halves  lose  much  in  sensitive- 
ness, the  posterior  proportionally  much  more  than  the  anterior.  The 
anterior  part  of  the  nerve-tube  is  brain-like,  the  posterior  part  cord-like. 

The  skin  contains  tactile  organs,  but  there  are  no  derived  organs 
such  as  lateral  line  organs  or  cars.  The  photoreceptors  are  the  eye-cups 
of  the  nerve-tube,  and  these  probably  represent  the  elements  from  which 
the  rod-  and  cone-cells  of  the  lateral  eyes  of  Vertebrates  have  been 
derived. 

The  rod-  and  cone-cells  of  the  Vertebrate  retina  are  inverted,  not 
because  they  have  retained  a  morphological  position  dependent  upon  an 
external  origin,  but  because  of  their  orientation,  acquired  as  effective 
eye-cups  in  the  nerve-tube  of  a  primitive  Vertebrate. 

The  chemical  sense-organs  of  Anrphioxus  are  located  in  the  skin,  and 
are  chiefly  important  as  organs  for  testing  the  character  of  the  chemical 
environment,  rather  than  for  the  selection  of  food.  From  these  un- 
differentiated chemical  sense-organs  have  probably  been  derived  the 
organs  of  taste  and  smell,  of  which  the  former  are  apparently  not  present 
in  Amphioxus,  while  the  latter  may  be  represented  by  the  so-called 
olfactory  pit. 

Perforations  of  Marine  Animals.* — W.  C.  M'Intosh  discusses  in  a 
highly  interesting  manner  the  boring  of  shells  by  Cliona,  of  rocks  by 
sea-urchins,  of  wood  by  Ghdura  terebrans,  Limnoria  lignorum,  Pholas, 
Teredo,  and  the  like.  He  has  brought  together  manv  scattered  obser- 
vations,  and  he  discusses  impartially  the  various  theories  of  the  mode 
of  perforation. 

Differentiation  of  Faunas.f — K.  Holdhaus  discusses  the  various 
ways  in  which  an  area  with  homogeneous  fauna  may  be  divided  into 
two  or  more  areas  with  distinctive  faunas.  (1)  An  area  may  be  divided, 
and  the  originally  similar  contingents  may  evolve  on  different  lines, 
e.g.  in  the  Galapagos  islands  with  their  species  of  Tropidurus,  etc. 
(2)  An  area  may  be  divided,  and  some  of  the  constituents  in  one  of  the 
parts  may  be  eliminated,  e.g.  in  the  contrast  of  Elba  and  Corsica  in  re- 
spect of  Pselapkm  and  other  small  beetles.  (8)  Different  migrants  may 
be  added  to  the  two  areas.  Separation  may  lie  due  to  geographical 
isolation  by  some  insuperable  physical  barrier,  or  to  a  diversity  of 
vital  conditions.  Two  faunas  may  become  uniform  by  migration 
(resulting  in  fusion  of  the  indigenous  forms  and  the  migrants  or  in 
extirpation  of  the  indigenous  forms)  or  by  an  elimination  of  the  forms 
which  distinguish  the  two.  The  author  gives  examples  of  the  different 
possibilities. 

Tunicata. 

Japanese  Appendicularians.J — T.  Aida  describes  Kowalevshia  tenuis 
Fol.,  Fritillaria  haplostoma  Fob,  F.  pellucida  Busch,  F.  rittcri  sp.  n., 
Oilcopleura  longicauda  Vogt.,  0.  fusiformis  Fob,  0.  megastoma  sp.  n., 
0.  mikrostoma  sp.  n.,  0.  comntogastra  sp.  n.,  0.  rufescens  Fob,  0.  dioica 

*  Zoologist,  Feb.  1908,  pp.  1-20. 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  38-45. 

%  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xxiii.  art.  5  (1907)  pp.  1-25  (4  pis.). 


ZOOLOGV   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  573 

Fol.,  Stegosoma  magnum  Langhs.  The  commonest  species  are  0. 
longicauda,  0.  dioica,  0.  fusiformis,  which  haYe  been  recorded  from  tin- 
coast  of  Chili — showing  a  wide  range  of  distribution.  Some,  snch  as 
KowalevsMa  ten  nix  and  Fritillaria  haplostoma,  occur  along  with  swarms 
of  Noctiluca,  and  only  then. 

Regeneration  of  Test  in  Tunicates.* —  Alice  Fol  has  found  that 
Ascidiella  aspersa  can  sometimes  re-grow  its  test.  Experiments  with 
Phallusia  etc.  did  not  succeed.  The  reasons  for  failure  are  discussed. 
Thus  the  test  is  needed  as  a  basis  for  the  muscular  movements,  and  the 
animal  dies  if  the  test  be  removed.  There  may  be  fatal  loss  of  blood,  or 
the  removal  of  a  part  of  the  tunic  may  induce  a  fatal  hernia.  The  in- 
vestigator does  not  explain  why  the  removal  of  the  test  may  be  survived 
in  some  specimens  of  Ascidiella. 

Musculature  of  Compound  Tunicates.f — G.  Daumezon  finds  in 
species  of  Distoma  transverse  bundles  in  the  mantle  and  longitudinal 
bundles  in  the  branchial  region,  in  addition  to  the  more  primitive 
arrangements  which  run  longitudinally  in  the  mantle  and  transversely 
in  the  branchial  region. 

Development  of  Distoma  tridentatum4 — GL  Daumezon  compares 
the  development  of  this  compound  Ascidian  with  that  of  Distaplia 
magnilarva  as  described  by  Davidoff.  There  are  some  notable  differ- 
ences which  are  probably  due  to  the  large  quantity  of  yolk  in  Distoma. 
The  mesoderm  and  notochord  of  D.  tridentatam  cannot  be  formed  in 
the  usual  way — by  folding  of  the  wall  of  the  enterou — for  the  enteric 
cavity  is  not  formed  until  after  their  appearance. 

Development  of  Notochord  in  Larval  Ascidians.§ — Louis  Roule 
has  studied  the  development  of  A.scidia  mentula.  He  finds  that  after 
gastrulation  the  enteric  primordium  gives  rise  posteriorly  to  three 
enteroccelic  diverticula,  one  median  and  two  lateral.  The  latter  form 
the  musculature.  The  former  gives  rise  to  the  notochord  on  its  dorsal 
surface  and  sides,  and  ventrally  to  the  endodermic  cord  (cordon  endo- 
dermique) — a  row  of  cells  which  extends  under  the  notochord  the  whole 
length  of  the  tail.  At  its  end  the  notochord  seems  simply  part  of  the 
wall  of  a  median  caecum  from  the  archenteron. 

IN  VERTEBBATA. 

Mollusca. 

a.  Cephalopoda. 

Female  Gonads  of  Cuttle-fishes.  || — Walter  Doring  describes  these 
in  a  number  of  species  :  Sepia  elegans,  S.  officinalis,  Loligo  vulgaris, 
L.  marmora,  Rossia  macrosoma,  and  Sepiola  rondeletii.  He  gives  a 
detailed  account  of  the  structure  of  the  oviduct,  the  oviducal  gland, 
the  nidimental   glands,  and  the   accessory  nidimental    glands,  and  he 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  79-81. 

t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.    1908)  pp.  774-5. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  776-7. 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  357-9. 

[j  Zeitsehr.  wiss.  Zool.,  xci.  (1908)  pp.  112-S9  (59  figs.:. 


574  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

discusses  the  development  of  these  organs  in  Sepia,  Loligo,  Sepiola,  .  Ilex, 
and  Octopus. 

The  chief  results  are  the  following.  The  oviduct  of  Myopsidse,  and 
probably  of  all  dibranchiate  Cephalopoda,  is  a  constricted-off  part  of  the 
ccelom,  and  is  therefore  in  close  ontogenetic  connection  with  the 
gonadial  cavity.  The  genital  ducts  of  Myopsidse  are  in  many  respects 
between  those  of  Oigopsidai  and  Octopodas.  In  the  series  of  genera 
Loligo,  Sepia,  Rossm,  Sepiola,  there  is  a  "  differentiation-tendency  "  from 
Oigopsid  to  Octopod  characters.  There  is  phylogenetic  interest  in  the 
fact  that  the  oviducal  gland  of  Myopsida?  {Sepia,  Loligo,  Sepiola)  has  a 
paired  origin  ;  the  unpaired  nature  of  its  duct  must  be  secondary. 

Cephalopods  from  Sudanese  Red  Sea.* — W.  E.  Hoyle  reports  on 
a  collection  made  by  Cyril  Crossland.  Of  the  nine  species,  four 
(possibly  five)  also  occur  in  the  waters  around  Ceylon,  and  three  at 
Zanzibar.  The  most  interesting  point  is  the  occurrence  in  the  collection 
of  a  complete  specimen  of  Sepia  lefebrei,  which  has  hitherto  been  known 
only  from  a  single  shell,  described  and  figured  seventy  years  ago  by 
d'Orbigny. 

/3.   Gastropoda. 

Defensive  Glands  in  Tectibranchs.f  —  Rerny  Perrier  and  Henri 
Fischer  describe  the  minute  structure  of  defensive  pallial  glands  which 
occur  in  various  Tectibranchs.  To  these  they  have  previously  applied 
the  designation  "  Glands  of  Blochmaun,"  after  the  zoologist  who  first 
noted  analogous  structures  in  Aplysiadas.  The  glands  in  question  occur 
in  Bulla  striata,  Accra  bullata,  Aplysia  depilans,  Scaphander,  and  other 
forms.  They  lie  at  the  level  of  the  pallial  opening,  and  each  consists  of 
a  multicellular  canal  opening  into  the  mantle  cavity,  and  a  muscular 
calyx  surrounding  a  large  glandular  cell. 

Physiological  Action  of  Extract  of  Hypobranchial  Gland  of  Dog 
Whelk.}  —Herbert  E.  Roaf  and  M.  Nierenstein  find  that  there  is  a 
substance  in  the  hypobranchial  gland  of  Purpura  lapillus  which  is  allied 
chemically  and  physiologically  to  adrenalin. 

Chitons  from  Red  Sea  and  East  Africa. §  —  E.  R.  Sykes  reports 
on  a  collection  made  by  Cyril  Crossland.  It  includes  ten  species,  of 
which  two  are  new,  Callistochiton  crosslandi  sp.  n.  and  Acanthochites 
nierstraszi  sp.  n.  One  feature  of  special  interest  in  this  collection  is  the 
representation  of  the  genus  Cryptoplax  from  the  shores  of  Eastern 
Africa,  the  two  species  which  occur,  C.  burrowi  Smith  and  C.  striatus 
Lamarck,  being  previously  known  from  Australia  and  Eastern  Seas. 

8.  Lamellibranchiata. 

Sense-organs  of  Cockles.||  —  F.  L.  Weber  discusses  the  two  kinds 
of  sense-organs  found  in  cockles.      Thus    Cardium  edule   has  on   the 

*  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  (Zool.)  xxxi.  (1907)  pp.  35-43  (7  figs.). 

+  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  1335-7. 

1  Journ.  Physiol.,  xxxvi.  (1907)  pp.  1-4. 

§  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  (Zool.)  xxxi.  (1907)  pp.  31-4. 

i    Arbeit.  Zool.  Inst.  Univ.  Wien.  xvii.  (1908)  pp.  187-220  (2  pis.), 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  575 

siphons  (1)  an  "  eye,"  consisting  of  pigment,  lens,  nerve,  retina,  and 
argentea  ;  and  (2)  another  organ,  consisting  of  sensory  hairs.  He  describes 
the  state  of  affairs  in  C.  mi  stir  inn,  C.  muticum,  and  five  other  species. 
In  all  cases  the  "sensory  hair  organ"  consists  of  an  unsunk  group  of 
epitheloid  sensory  cells,  with  sensory  hairs  communicating  with  the 
exterior.  The  author's  experiments  show  that  cockles  do  not  "  see." 
Those  without  "  eyes "  react  like  those  with  "  eyes."  There  is  great 
sensitiveness  to  shadows — even  of  clouds  overhead — but  it  is  not  de- 
pendent on  the  presence  of  "  eyes."  The  sensory  hair-organ  is  probably 
an  organ  of  chemical  sense. 

Post-embryonic  Development  of  Unio.* — W.  Harms  has  studied 
Unio  pictorum  and  U.  tumidus.  As  Lillie  observed,  the  glochidium  of 
Unio  is  not  so  highly  differentiated  as  that  of  Anodonta.  The  infection 
of  fishes  is  oftener  on  the  gills  than  on  the  fins.  The  parasitism  lasted 
for  26-28  days  at  a  temperature  of  16-17°  0.  Nutritive  protoplasmic 
processes  from  the  larval  mantle-cells  enter  into  intimate  union  with  the 
portion  of  branchial  tissue  to  which  the  glochidium  is  fixed.  The  author 
compares  the  changes  that  occur  during  the  parasitism  with  those 
that  have  been  established  in  regard  to  Anodonta,  and  notes  various 
differences.  He  shows  that  heart,  pericardium,  and  kidney  are  all  due 
to  the  ectoderm.  The  najad-stages  are  also  described,  and  the  changes 
they  undergo.  An  interesting  figure  of  a  najad  three  weeks  old  shows 
the  larval  and  the  definitive  shell. 

Studies  on  Mussels. f — H.  Chas  Williamson  discusses  the  develop- 
ment of  the  reproductive  organs  in  Mytilus  edidis,  and  the  appearance  in 
different  months  of  the  year.  He  records  facts  bearing  on  the  growth 
of  the  mussel,  and  describes  its  movements.  An  account  of  the  struc- 
ture of  the  foot  is  given,  with  special  reference  to  the  byssus  pit.  The 
author  has  also  some  notes  on  the  horse-mussel  and  the  spout-fish  (Solen 
siliqua). 

Arthropoda. 
a.  Insecta. 

Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in  Silk-moth. ! — Vernon  L.  Kellogg 
notes  that  in  a  clutch  of  unfertilised  eggs  laid  by  a  virgin  silk-moth 
(Bombyx  mori)  there  are  almost  always  some  (7-8  p.c.  on  an  average) 
which  begin  to  develop.  In  the  Bagdad  race  25-75  or  even  more  begin 
to  develop.  The  development  extends  to  the  formation  of  the  embry- 
onic envelopes  or  further.  Some  collapse  within  a  few  days,  some  in  a 
few  weeks,  while  a  few  persist  for  several  months.  The  normal  duration 
of  the  egg-stage — from  laying  to  hatching — is  about  nine  mouths. 

Tichomiroff  (1885  and  1902)  found  that  by  bathing  the  unfertilised 
eggs  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  or  by  rubbing  them  gently,  he 
could  increase  the  number  that  developed.  He  found  that  the  develop- 
ment was  somewhat  abnormal.  Verson  (1899)  used  electricity  as  a 
stimulus,  and  Quajat  used  various  chemical  and  physical  stimuli  also 
with  success,  but  his  report  is  not  clear. 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  693-703  (5  figs.). 

t  Fishery  Board  for  Scotland,  25th  Ann.  Rep.,  part  iii.  (1908)  pp.  221-55  (5  pis.). 

I  Biol.  Bulletin,  xiv  (1907)  pp.  15-22. 


57G  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

Kellogg  tried  about  a  hundred  experiments.  Dry  air,  friction,  heat, 
sulphuric  acid,  phosphoric  pentoxide  and  glacial  phosphoric  acid  were  used 
as  dehydrating  agents,  and  these  increased  the  proportion  of  partheno- 
genctically  developing  ova. 

At  the  same  time'  he  tried  other  treatment,  not  dehydrating,  and 
got  hardly  less  favourable  results.  He  thought  that  hydrogen  ions 
might  be  the  development-inciting  factor,  but  other  experiments  did 
not  bear  this  out.  All  that  he  can  say  at  present  is  that  a  great  variety 
of  stimuli  increase  the  usual  proportion  of  parthenogenetic  ova. 

Mouth-parts  of  Solitary  Bees.* — R.  Demoll  has  made  a  compara- 
tive study  of  the  mouth-parts  in  solitary  Apidse,  and  shows  the  gradual 
series  of  transformations  from  relatively  simple  conditions,  as  in  Hal  id  us 
and  Heriades,  to  great  specialisation.  He  discusses  the  adaptations  of 
the  mouth-parts  to  flowers,  and  the  theoretical  interpretation  of  the  pro- 
cess by  which  these  adaptations  were  wrought  out.  He  is  disinclined  to 
allow  that  the  parts  were  in  any  degree  moulded  by  use.  The  memoir 
includes  an  interesting  discussion  of  the  rudimentary  parts  in  parasitic 
bees,  but  here  again  the  Lamarckian  interpretation  is  considered  and 
rejected. 

Copulatory  Organs  of  Solitary  Bees.f — J.  Strohl  has  studied  the 
male  copulatory  organs  in  numerous  genera.  In  the  females  there  are, 
in  solitary  bees,  no  corresponding  parts.  Each  genus  has  its  distinctive 
peculiarities,  except,  perhaps,  in  some  of  the  parasitic  bees,  and  genera 
which  resemble  one  another  as  regards  copulatory  organs,  e.g.  Andrena 
and  Biareolina,  have  other  evidences  of  relationship.  The  conditions 
as  regards  species  are  varied  ;  the  species  of  Andrena,  or  of  Halktus,  or 
of  Nomada,  are  not  very  different  (as  regards  copulatory  organs),  but 
those  of  Osmia  are.  The  same  is  true,  with  the  same  examples,  of 
individual  variability.  Closely  related  species  are  not  usually  very 
different  in  copulatory  organs,  and  the  constant  varieties  of  Nomada 
ruficornis  do  not  show  marked  differences  as  regards  copulatory  parts. 
Similarly  Hal  ictus  albipes  resembles  H.  calceatus,  of  which  it  is,  perhaps, 
a  variety.  Parasitic  bees  seem  to  be  relatives  of  their  hosts  ;  the  copu- 
latory organs  of  Nomada  are  like  those  of  Andrena,  those  of  Sphecodes 
like  those  of  Halictus.  The  facts  are  against  attaching  importance  to 
physiological  isolation,  as  far  as  variations  in  the  reproductive  parts  are 
concerned.  The  author  believes  in  the  origin  of  varieties  by  a  continua- 
tion of  the  variations  which  germinal  selection  secures. 


tov 


Development  of  Ovary  of  Polistes  pallipes.J — W.  S.  Marshall  has 
studied  this  wasp  in  reference  to  the  history  of  the  cellular  elements  of 
the  ovary.  It  begins  as  a  syncytium  with  similar  nuclei ;  cell-boundaries 
appear  ;  ovarian  tubules  develop  ;  these  differentiate  into  three  parts  ; 
oocytes  and  primitive  nurse-cells  become  distinguishable  ;  mitosis  occurs 
in  the  epithelial  and  primitive  nurse-cells  ;  the  latter  are  finally  absorbed 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  xci.  (1908)  pp.  1-51  (2  pis.  and  11  figs.). 
t  Zool.  Jabrb..  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  333-84  (3  pis.  and  2  figs.). 
\  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxviii.  (1907)  pp.  173-213  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  577 

by  the  oocytes.  The  oocytes  pass  through  synapsis,  out  of  which  come 
long  beaded  threads  ;  these  break  up,  the  contained  chromatin-granules 
remaining  together  in  small  achromatiu  masses. 

Development  of  Ovary  of  Phryganid.* — W.  S.  Marshall  has  studied 
Platyphylax  designatus  Walk,  as  regards  the  development  of  the  ovary, 
tracing  the  history  from  homogeneity  to  the  differentiated  oocytes. 

Development  of  Gonads  of  Tenebrio  molitor.  f — Th.  Saling  has 

followed  the  development  in  both  sexes,  starting  from  the  extremely 
similar  ovarian  and  testicular  primordia,  and  working  onwards  to  the 
differentiated  organs. 


■"to"- 


Spermatogenesis  of  Hornet.! — F.  Meves  and  J.  Duesberg  have 
studied  in  particular  the  spermatocyte  divisions  of  Vespa  crabro,  and 
find  that  the  first  division  is  practically  the  same  as  in  the  bee,  including 
the  formation  of  non-nucleated  directive  corpuscles.  In  regard  to  the 
bee,  Meves  has  suggested  that  the  nuclear  division  in  the  first  spermato- 
cyte division  is  suppressed  because  the  drone  develops  from  an  unfertilised 
ovum  which  forms  two  polar  bodies.  All  the  cells  derived  from  such 
an  ovum  should  have  reduced  nuclei.  The  suppression  of  the  nuclear 
division  in  the  first  spermatocyte  division  prevents  further  reduction  of 
chromatin-mass  and  number  of  chromosomes.  It  is  suggested  that  the 
males  of  wasps  and  ants  are  developed  from  unfertilised  ova. 

Spermatogenesis  in  Insects. — H.  Otte§  gives  a  detailed  account  of 
the  spermatogenesis  in  Locusta  viridissima  ;  the  spermatogonium  has 
16  pairs  of  chromosomes  ;  the  spermatozoon  has  16  ordinary  chromo- 
somes (each  probably  half  maternal  and  half  paternal)  ;  in  half  of  the 
spermatozoa  there  is  an  accessory  chromosome. 

G.  Wilke  ||  gives  an  account  of  the  spermatogonia,  tetrad-formation, 
and  two  maturation  -  divisions  in  Hydrometra  lacustris,  one  of  the 
Hemiptera. 

W.  D.  Henderson  1[  has  studied  the  spermatogenesis  of  Dytiscus 
marginalis,  and  has  followed  the  changes  of  the  chromosomes  from  the 
spermatogonia  to  the  end  of  the  second  maturation  division,  his  results 
agreeing  in  the  main  with  those  of  A.  and  K.  E.  Schreiner. 

Friedrich  Schafer  **  has  made  a  detailed  study  of  the  spermato- 
genesis of  Dytiscus,  with  special  reference  to  the  chromatiii-reduction. 
In  the  spermatogonia  there  are  36  normal  and  2  accessory  chromosomes  ; 
the  reduction  in  number  occurs  in  the  synapsis  stage  of  the  spermato- 
cytes by  apposition  and  conjugation  of  two  homologous  chromosomes. 
In  the  metaphase  of  the  first  and  second  maturation-division,  there  are 
18  normal  bivalent  chromosomes,  plus  one  accessory  chromosome.  There 
as  no  reduction-division  in  Weismann's  sense  ;  both  maturation-divisions 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.  lxviii.  (1907)  pp.  214-37  (2  pis.). 

T  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  238-303  (2  pis.  and  14  figs.). 

J  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxxi.  (1908)  pp.  571-87  (2  pis.). 

§  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxiv.  (1907)  pp.  431-520  (3  pis.  and  2  figs.). 

j|  Jen.  Zeitschr.  f.  Naturw.,  xlii.  (1907)  pp.  669-720  (3  pis.  and  19  figs.). 

^  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxvii.  (1907)  pp.  644-84  (2  pis.  and  5  figs.). 

**  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  535-86  (1  pi.  and  7  figs.). 

'Oct.  21st,   1008  2   Q 


578  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

are  "  differential  equation-divisions."  But  there  is  reduction  in  number 
and  quantity,  for  the  spermatid  has  18  bivalent,  quantitatively  reduced 
chromosomes,  plus  an  accessory  chromosome. 

Observations  on  Glossina  palpalis.* — E.  Boubaudhas  studied  speci- 
mens of  this  fly  kept  individually  in  separate  glass  tubes  (closed  in  with 
muslin),  and  fed  with  blood  every  48  hours.  Like  its  relatives,  the  fly 
is  "larviparous."  The  first  laying  maybe  looked  for  in  about  three 
weeks  :  the  others  follow  every  nine  or  ten  days.  A  young  larva  is 
hatched  out  of  the  egg  immediately  after  the  larva  which  preceded  it 
in  the  uterus  has  attained  its  full-grown  form.  The  larval  life  lasts 
nine  or  ten  days  ;  the  females,  probably,  live  on  an  average  about  three 
months,  and  reproduce  8-10  times. 

The  pupation  (in  dry  places)  is  described.  Abortion  and  intra- 
uterine pupation  are  not  infrequent.  The  average  duration  of  the  pupal 
life  is  33  clays,  but  it  may  be  modified  by  external  conditions.  Heat  is 
very  fatal.  Indeed  the  pupae  cannot  accommodate  themselves  to  a  tem- 
perature about  25°  G.  In  this  there  is  suggested  a  practicable  way  of 
waging  war  against  the  bearer  of  the  germs  of  sleeping  sickness. 

Life-history  of  Thrypticus  smaragdinus.t — H.  Liibben  has  been 
successful  in  working  out  the  life-history  of  this  rare  Dolichopid  fly. 
The  larvae  were  found  in  the  root-stocks  of  the  reed,  Arundo  phragmites. 
and  they  pupate  there.  The  pupae  have  a  very  remarkable  head  arma- 
ture or  boring  apparatus,  and  the  abdominal  tracheal  "  horns  "  are  much 
longer  than  the  prothoracic  pair.  Attention  is  called  to  the  conver- 
gence between  the  Thrypticus  pupae  and  that  of  some  Cecidomyids,  e.g. 
Lasioptera  indusa,  which  have  a  similar  head-armature. 

Luminosity  of  Tropical  Lampyridae.ij: — 0.  Steche  notes  that  the 
intermittent  character  of  the  light  is  not  due  to  periodic  covering  of  the 
luminous  organ,  for  he  observed  the  phenomenon  in  absolutely  motion- 
less forms.  After  paralysis  with  spider-poison  the  normal  luminosity 
continues,  which  is  against,  the  idea  that  the  respiratory  movement  of 
air  in  the  tracheae  is  a  decisive  factor  in  the  illumination.  Some  intra- 
cellular oxidation-process  is  suggested.  If  the  connection  with  head 
and  breast  be  broken,  the  luminosity  stops,  and  as  the  importance  of 
respiratory  movements  and  blood-circulation  does  not  seem  to  be  great. 
judging  from  the  spider-bite  experiment,  the  author  infers  that  the 
influence  of  the  central  nervous  system  is  of  moment.  Even  after  the 
nerve  connection  is  cut,  chemical  or  mechanical  stimulation  of  the  cells 
results  in  luminosity,  but  the  light  is  weak,  somewhat  different  from  the 
normal,  and  not  discontinuous. 

Pink  Katydids  as  Mutants.§ — W.  M.  Wheeler  calls  attention  to 
the  sporadic  occurrence  of  pink  individuals  among  the  usually  leaf -green 
katydids  (Locustidae  belonging  to  the  sub-families  Phaneropterinae  and 
Pseudophyllinae).     They  are  well  known  in  Amblycorypha,  which  have 

*  Comptes  Eendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  362-5. 

t  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  319-32  (1  pi.  and  6  figs.). 

X  Zool.  Auzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  710-12. 

§  Amer.  Nat.,  xli.  (1907)  pp.  773-80. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  579 

also  a  brown  phase,  and  similar  aberrations  occur  in  certain  Homoptera. 
The  author  suggests  that  the  pink  individuals  are  mutants,  but  breeding 
experiments  are  necessary.  On  the  sport  or  mutation  hypothesis  we 
should  expect  pink  individuals  mated  inter  se  to  produce  only  pink 
individuals,  and  the  same  should  result  mutatis  mutandis  in  the  case  of 
the  brown  forms.  Pink  or  brown  individuals  crossed  with  the  common 
green  form  may  be  expected  to  give  offspring  in  the  Mendelian  propor- 
tion, with  the  pink  and  brown  characters  acting  as  recessives. 

Chromosomes  of  Anasa  tristis  and  Anax  Junius.*  —  George 
Lefevre  and  Caroline  McGill  confirm  E.  B.  Wilson's  results  as  regards 
the  chromosomes  in  the  spermatogenesis  of  Anasa  tristis.  They  find  the 
number  to  be  21,  and  they  observed  the  presence  of  an  accessory  or 
heterotropic  chromosome,  which  behaved  as  Wilson  described.  Their 
results  are  quite  at  variance  with  those  of  Foot  and  Strobell. 

The  behaviour  of  the  chromosomes  in  the  spermatogenesis  of  the 
dragon-fly,  Anax  junivs,  closely  parallels  the  conditions  in  Anasa. 
In  the  differentiation  of  its  chromosomes  as  w-chromosomes,  macro- 
chromosomes,  and  chromosomes  of  intermediate  sizes  ;  in  the  occurrence 
of  an  odd  number  of  chromosomes  (27)  in  the  male  groups,  and  of  this 
number  plus  one  (28)  in  the  female  groups  ;  in  the  presence  of  an 
accessory  or  heterotropic  chromosome  which  persists  as  a  condensed  body 
throughout  the  growth-period  and  passes  undivided  at  the  second 
maturation-division  into  one  of  the  spermatids,  a  strict  parallelism  may 
be  recognised  between  Anax  and  those  insects — of  which  Anasa  tristis 
may  be  taken  as  a  type — which  possess  a  heterotropic  chromosome.  In 
at  least  one  of  the  Odonata,  therefore,  a  dimorphism  of  the  spermatozoa 
occurs,  and  the  theory  of  the  determination  of  sex  by  differentiated  sex- 
chromosomes  receives  additional  support. 

Wax-glands  of  Flata  (Phromnia)  marginella.f — E.  Bugnion  and 
N.  Popoff  give  an  account  of  the  wax-glands  of  this  Homopterous  insect 
of  Ceylon  and  India.  The  larvas  secrete  remarkable  silk-like  ribbons, 
which  are  inserted  in  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  In  the  adult  there  are 
no  abdominal  tufts,  but  the  end  of  the  body,  the  margins  of  the  wings, 
etc.,  are  usually  covered  with  white  flakes.  The  minute  structure  of 
the  glands  is  described  in  detail. 

Mouth-parts  of  BlattidaB.J — Joseph  Mangan  finds  that  there  is  need 
for  more  careful  investigation  of  the  much-studied  mouth-parts  of  cock- 
roaches. He  contributes  some  fine  figures  of  the  hard  parts  of  Peri- 
planeta  australasice  and  their  musculature,  and  discusses  the  theoretical 
interpretations  suggested  by  Verhoeff  and  Hansen.  He  notes,  for 
instance,  that  elongated  plates  at  the  free  tip  of  the  hypopharynx  may 
represent  a  pair  of  maxillulas  fused  with  the  tongue.  Just  below  the  tip 
of  the  lacinia  there  is  a  singular  process,  which  is  mentioned  by  Rolleston, 
but  not  recorded  on  any  drawing  known  to  the  author.  The  maxillary 
palp  is  most  plausibly  homologous  with  an  endopodite. 

*  Amer.  Journ.  Anat.,  vii.  (1908)  pp.  469-87  (5  figs.). 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Vaud.  Sci.  Nat.,  xliii.  (1907)  pp.  549-63  (7  pis.  and  4  figs.). 

%  Proc.  R.  Irish  Acad.,  xxvii.,  B,  i.  (1908)  p.  1-10  (3  pis.). 

2  q  2 


580  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Development  of  Caddis-worms.* — A.  J.  Siltala  gives  a  very  welcome 
study  of  the  post-embryonic  development  of  Tricnoptera.     In  family 

after  family  he  describes  the  two  stages  in  larval  development ;  he  dis- 
cusses in  particular  the  chitinous  integumentary  processes,  the  mouth- 
parts  and  antennas,  and  the  respiratory  organs  ;  and  he  deals  also  with 
the  physiological  and  ecological  aspects  :  the  locomotion,  nutrition, 
respiration,  moulting,  and  the  making  of  the  protective  cases. 

Regeneration  of  Segments  in  Ephemerid  Larvae. f — S.  Oppenheim 
has  experimented  with  larvae  of  ( 'loeon  dipterum,  removing  the  last  seg- 
ment. Most  die  in  3-5  days,  but  12  out  of  532  regenerated  the  lost 
segment.  Between  the  second  and  third  moult  the  regenerated  piece 
approximated  to  the  normal  shape.  In  a  few  cases  he  succeeded  in 
getting  some  regeneration  after  removing  two  and  three  segments. 

Mallophaga  of  the  Kea.  J — Vernon  L.  Kellogg  finds  that  the  Kea 
{Nestor  notabilis)  has  some  troubles  of  its  own.  It  bears  three  species 
of  Mallophagan  parasites,  Lipeurits  circumfasciatus  Piaget,  var.  Jcea 
Kellogg,  Colpocephalum  setosum  Piaget  (also  found  on  the  vulture),  and 
Mmopon  fulvofasciatum  Piaget  var.  kea  Kellogg  (the  same  species  occurs 
on  Buteo  vulgaris).  It  is  curious  that  two  of  the  three  parasites  should 
have  been  previously  recorded  not  from  parrots  but  from  birds  of  prey. 

Germ-cells  and  Embryology  of  Aphids.§  —  Gr.  W.  Tannreuther 
describes  the  development  of  certain  Aphids,  with  special  reference  to 
the  behaviour  of  the  two  kinds  of  eggs  during  maturation,  and  the 
relation  of  the  sexual  to  the  parthenogenetic  individuals.  The  life- 
history  of  two  of  the  species  chiefly  studied,  Melanoxanthus  sal  iris  and 
M.  salickola,  is  described  in  detail.  In  regard  to  the  germ-cells,  the 
author  finds  that  the  somatic  number  of  chromosomes,  six,  is  a  generic 
characteristic.  The  chromosomes  vary  in  size,  four  large  and  two 
small.  This  number  and  size  of  chromosomes  is  constant  in  both  the 
sexual  and  parthenogenetic  forms.  In  the  male,  the  six  univalent  chro- 
mosomes ithite  end  to  end  in  pairs  in  the  early  prophase  of  the  first 
spermatocyte  division,  and  form  two  large  and  one  small  bivalent  chro- 
mosome. There  is  a  short  resting  period  between  the  first  and  second 
spermatocyte  division.  Each  spermatid  receives  three  chromosomes, 
two  large  and  one  small.  No  accessory  chromosome  is  present.  The 
first  division  separates  bivalent,  and  the  second  divides  univalent 
chromosomes.  The  six  chromosomes  at  the  beginning  of  the  growth- 
period  in  the  sexual  ova  pass  into  the  resting  stage,  and  the  reduced 
number,  three — two  large  and  one  small— are  found  in  the  prophase  of 
the  maturation  division.  Both  polar  bodies  are  formed  before  the 
germinal  vesicle  breaks  down.  Fertilisation  occurs  at  the  time  of  de- 
position, and  the  male  and  female  pronuclei  unite  shortly  after  the 
eggs  are  deposited.  Both  polar  bodies  remain  within  the  egg-cytoplasm 
near  the  periphery,  and    disappear  before  the  beginning  of   cleavage. 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  ii.  supp.  9  (1907)  pp.  309-626  (5  pis.  and  20  figs.). 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  72-7  (6  figs.). 

J  Psyche,  1907,  pp. 122-3. 

§  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxiv.  (1907)  pp.  609-42  (5  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  581 

In  the  ova  of  the  parthenogenetic  females  the  sis  chromosomes  are 
found  in  the  prophase  of  the  single  maturation-division.  No  reduction 
occurs,  and  the  chromosomes  divide  equally,  as  in  the  somatic  mitoses. 
The  polar  body  does  not  disappear  immediately,  as  in  the  sexual  ova, 
but  remains  within  the  egg  near  the  periphery  as  a  dark  compact  mass 
of  chromatin,  and  does  not  disappear  until  after  the  fourth  cleavage. 
There  are  no  perceptible  differences  in  the  sexual  and  parthenogenetic 
ova  at  the  beginning  of  the  growth  period.  They  originate  from  the 
follicular  epithelium  at  the  base  of  the  end  chamber. 

Cleavage  always  begins  in  the  centre  of  the  egg.  The  plane  of  di- 
vision for  the  subsequent  divisions  varies.  Descendants  from  both 
daughter-cells  of  the  first  cleavage  contribute  to  the  formation  of  the 
blastoderm.  The  cleavage  nuclei  resulting  from  one  of  the  daughter- 
nuclei  form  the  germ-band.  All  the  cleavage  nuclei  do  not  pass  to  the 
periphery  in  the  formation  of  the  blastoderm.  Those  that  remain  within 
the  yolk  area  aid  in  the  digestion  of  the  yolk  and  prepare  it  for  assimila- 
tion. The  blastoderm  begins  uniformly  over  the  entire  surface  of  the 
egg.  When  the  blastoderm  is  completely  formed  there  is  a  short  inactive 
period  in  the  sexual  embryo.  The  uninvaginated  blastoderm  becomes 
the  serosa.  The  germ-band  is  completely  separated  from  the  un- 
invaginated blastoderm.  The  germ-band  is  of  the  completely  im- 
mersed type.  The  parthenogenetic  embryo  is  provided  with  yolk  as 
needed  in  the  process  of  development.  In  the  sexual  embryo  the  yolk  is 
completely  formed  before  fertilisation.  The  sexual  males  and  females 
develop  from  parthenogenetically  produced  ova,  while  the  first  partheno- 
genetic generation  develops  from  sexually-produced  ova. 

The  primary  yolk  originates  within  the  cytoplasm  of  the  egg.  The 
secondary  yolk  originates  from  the  follicular  nuclei  without  the  egg.  A 
definite  number  of  parthenogenetic  generations  are  produced  before  the 
sexual  male  and  female  appear.  External  conditions  do  not  increase  or 
decrease  the  number  of  parthenogenetic  generations.  The  greatest 
number  of  winged  forms  appear  in  the  second  generation,  especially  when 
food  is  abundant.  The  parthenogenetic  developing  embryo  within  the 
winter  or  sexual  egg  passes  through  the  winter  in  a  half -grown  condition. 
A  distinct  male  and  female  line  begins  in  the  fifth  parthenogenetic 
generation.  The  individuals  of  the  presexual  or  last  parthenogenetic 
generation  produce  either  all  males  or  all  females.  Only  two  generations 
contribute  directly  to  the  formation  of  the  male  and  female,  i.e.  the  fifth 
and  presexual  generations. 

Head-glands  of  Thysanura.* — Jur.  Philiptschenko  discusses  the 
various  kinds  of  glands  which  occur  in  the  head  of  Thysanura.  Of 
special  interest  are  the  tubular  glands  of  the  last  head-segment  (the 
labial  segment),  which  consist  of  a  terminal  vesicle  and  a  coiled  canal, 
and  excrete  through  the  walls  of  the  vesicle  injected  ammoniaail  car- 
mine. They  are  nephridia,  which  occur  also  in  CoDembola  and  Diplopoda, 
though  absent  in  Chilopoda  and  Insects.  Besides  these  nephridial  glands, 
there  are  anterior  and  posterior  salivary  glands :  the  posterior  glands 
correspond  to  those  of  many  insects  ;  the  anterior  glands  are  represented 
in  a  few  insects. 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  xci.  (1908)  pp.  93-111  (2  pis.  and  2  figs.). 


582  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Collembola  and  Thysanura  of  Forth  Area.* — William  Evans  con- 
tinues the  list  published  by  G.  II.  Carpenter  and  himself  in  is1.)'.).  In- 
cluding Tsotoma  minuta  Tullberg,  /.  bidmticulata  Tullberg,  Achorvtes 
manubrialis  Tullberg,  and  a    species  of    Tetracanthella  -  a  genus  not 

hitherto  recorded  from  the  British  Isles — there  are  now  sixty-six  species 
of  Collembola  known  from  the  Forth  area. 

Excretion  in  Thysanura. f — L.  Bruntz  finds  that  excretion  is  effected 
by  nephrocytes  and  phagocytes.  In  Machilis  the  nephrocytes  are  like 
the  adipose  cells,  and  lie  along  the  sides  of  the  lobes  of  connective-tissue 
in  the  region  of  the  pericardial  sinus.  In  Lepisma  the  nephrocytes  are 
very  different  from  the  adipose  cells,  but  they  occur  again  in  the  region 
of  the  pericardial  sinus,  or  suspended  on  the  fibres  which  connect  the 
heart  to  the  dorsal  wall. 

Phagocytosis  is  effected  by  the  blood-cells,  and,  in  some  cases,  by  a 
phagocytic  organ.  This  special  organ  occurs  in  Lepisma  saccharma  and 
(Jtmolepisma  Jineata  in  the  pericardial  septum. 

Structure  and  Habits  of  Acentropus  niveus.J — M.  Nigmann  gives 
a  full  anatomical  and  ecological  account  of  this  interesting  aquatic 
•butterfly,  which  he  found  in  great  abundance  in  Greifswald,  on  the  right 
and  left  of  the  estuary  of  the  Ryck.  The  caterpillar  was  found  on 
various  species  of  Potamogeton  and  other  aquatic  plants.  The  eggs  are 
0*5  mm.  in  length,  furrowed  on  the  surface,  yellowish-green  and  opaque 
when  freshly  deposited,  but  becoming  more  transparent  as  development 
proceeds,  till  they  are  crystal-like  when  the  larvae  emerge.  They  are 
deposited  in  clumps  or  packets  on  the  food-plant,  to  which  they  are 
attached  by  a  jelly-like  substance.  In  regard  to  the  two  kinds  of  eggs 
reported  by  some  observers,  the  author  believes  that  these  are  fertilised 
and  unfertilised,  the  latter  kind  being  transparent  from  the  first,  and 
often  deposited  in  an  abnormal  manner.  The  number  of  eggs  in  a 
clump  varied  from  56  to  117.  The  period  of  incubation  varied  according 
to  temperature,  usually  from  14  to  21  days,  but  in  two  cases  it  reached 
29  and  31  days  respectively.  The  newly  emerged  caterpillar  eats  its 
way  into  the  heart  of  the  stalk,  and  there  passes  the  first  few  days.  On 
leaving  the  stalk  the  caterpillar  makes  a  shelter  by  spinning  longitudinal 
pieces  of  leaf  loosely  together  with  the  ends  open  so  that  it  is  entirely 
surrounded  by  water.  From  this  tube  it  stretches  forth  its  head  and 
feeds  on  the  leaves  within  reach.  Four  moults  were  observed,  but  it  is 
suggested  that  an  earlier  one  may  have  taken  place  within  the  stalk.  In 
regard  to  the  much-discussed  question  of  larval  respiration,  Nigmann 
demonstrates  that  the  tracheal  system  develops  very  gradually,  and  that 
it  is  only  in  the  later  larval  stages  that  the  branches  reach  the  skin  and 
begin  to  be  filled  with  air.  He  regards  the  blood  as  the  means  by  which 
oxygen  is  conveyed  to  the  tissues  in  the  earlier  stages. 

For  pupation  a  new  leaf -shelter  is  made,  this  time  closed  at  the  end, 
and  the  true  cocoon  is  spun  within  it.  The  author  was  able  to  confirm 
Muller's  observation  (in  regard  to  another  aquatic  form)  that  the  bubbles 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Phys.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xvii.  (1903)  pp.  195-200  (2  figs.), 
t  Arch    Zool.  Exper.,  viii.  (1908)  pp   471-88  (1  pi.). 
X  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  489-560  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  583 

of  air  spun  into  the  cocoon  are  produced  from  the  anterior  end  of  the 
larva  itself,  probably  from  the  thoracic  stigmata.  The  imprisoned  air- 
bubbles,  which  are  so  numerous  that  they  give  the  whole  cocoon  a  silvery 
appearance,  make  tracheal  respiration  possible  throughout  the  period  of 
pupation — about  25  days. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  females,  a  long-winged  and  a  short-  or 
rudimentary-winged  type.  Transition  forms  were  not  found.  The 
long-winged  females  and  the  males  live  in  the  air,  but  never  go  far 
from  water,  and  quickly  die  if  they  are  removed  from  damp  air.  The 
short-winged  females  live  entirely  in  the  water,  and  move  awkwardly  if 
taken  out  of  it.  The  author  believes  that  there  is  a  summer  and  a 
winter  generation,  and  that  the  long-winged  females  belong  exclusively 
to  the  latter.  The  caterpillar  passes  the  winter  in  a  more  or  less  torpid 
state  within  its  leaf -shelter  at  the  bottom  of  the  pond. 

The  short-winged  females  swim  under  water  with  the  posterior  end 
at  the  surface.  The  stigmata  are  here  very  minute,  and  the  author 
regards  this  attitude  as  connected  with  reproduction  rather  than  with 
respiration.  Copulation  takes  place  at  the  surface,  the  female  turning 
round  on  the  dorsal  surface  when  approached  by  the  male.  Males  may 
be  occasionally  dragged  under  water  accidentally,  and  so  have  been 
supposed  to  enter  the  water  in  quest  of  the  females.  After  copulation 
the  female  seeks  a  suitable  twig,  lays  her  eggs,  and  dies  almost  at  once. 

The  last  part  of  the  paper  contains  a  discussion  of  the  anatomy  of 
the  imagines,  with  special  reference  to  the  difference  between  the  sexes. 
Many  of  the  secondary  sexual  characters  of  the  female  are  shown  to  be 
connected  with  aquatic  life  :  thus  the  different  arrangement  of  hairs 
makes  the  leg  of  the  female  an  effective  swimming  organ.  The  wing 
stumps  are  also  used  in  swimming,  and  the  sparseness  of  the  scales  on 
the  ventral  surface  admits  of  respiration  by  endosmosis. 

In  regard  to  its  systematic  position,  Acentropus  agrees  closely  with 
Hydrocampa  and  other  aquatic  Pyralidae  so  far  as  wing-venation,  re- 
productive organs,  and  the  aquatic  life  of  the  larva  and  pupa  are  con- 
cerned, and  must  therefore  be  ranked  with  them.  But  it  stands  alone 
as  regards  the  remarkable  modification  of  the  female  insect  to  aquatic 
life,  and  it  also  exhibits  a  greater  degeneration  of  the  mouth-parts  than 
the  other  Pyralidae. 

7-  Prototracheata. 

Distribution  and  Classification  of  Onyckophora.* — Adam  Sedgwick 
points  out  that  the  known  species  of  Peripatus  are  referable  to  seven 
geographical  groups  : — (1)  those  of  the  neotropical  region  except  Chili, 
Neo-Peripatus  ;  (2)  those  of  tropical  Africa,  Congo-Peripatw ;  (?>) 
Malaya,  Eo-Peripatus  ;  (4)  South  Africa,  Capo-Peripatus  ;  (5)  New 
Britain.  Melano-Peripatus ;  (G)  Australasia,  Austro-Peripatus  ;  (7) 
Chili,  Chilio-Peripatus.  " 

He  gives  the  characters  of  each  of  these  groups  of  species,  and  con- 
cludes from  the  survey — (1)  that  the  geographical  groups  of  species  are 
natural  zoological  groups,  the  members  of  which  are  more  closely 
related  to  each  other  than  to  those  of  other  groups  ;  and  (2)  that  the 

*  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Bci..  lii.  (1908)  pp.  379-40(3  (13  figs.). 


584  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

distinguishing  specific  characters  are  distributed  in  an  entirely  haphazard 
manner  in  the  different  specific  groups,  so  that  it  is  quite  impossible  to 
show  the  phylogenetic  affinities  of  the  specific  groups  by  any  tree  dike 
arrangements. 

He  infers  that  the  present  species  of  Peripatus  are  derived  from  a 
single  widely-ranging  species  roughly  extending  within  the  limits  of  the 
present  distribution,  and  that  this  species  was  highly  variable,  including 
within  the  range  of  its  variation  all  the  different  characters  at  present 
exhibited  by  the  whole  genus. 

5.  Arachnida. 

Regeneration  and  Autotomy  in  Spiders.* — S.  Oppenheim  confirms 
some  of  the  results  recently  reached  by  P.  Friedrich.  Terrestrial  spiders 
can  throw  off  their  limbs  at  the  trochanter  ;  all  the  joints  have  a 
strong  regenerative  capacity,  but  it  is  strongest  at  the  preformed  tro- 
chanter plane.  The  regenerated  limb,  which  differs  from  the  normal 
only  in  being  smaller  and  lighter  in  colour,  has  not  at  first  the  power 
of  autotomy  or  of  regeneration.  Stimuli  which  would  have  provoked 
autotomy  on  a  normal  limb  had  no  effect  during  the  first  four  days 
after  the  moult  which  disclosed  the  regenerated  limb.  If  during  that 
time  a  joint  was  cut  through,  there  was  no  regeneration  at  the  line  of 
amputation.  At  the  next  moult  the  (degenerated)  remainder  of  the 
limb  was  thrown  off  down  to  the  line  of  normal  autotomy.  Some  time 
is  necessary  to  allow  the  new  limb  to  attain  the  full  differentiation 
needed  for  normal  autotomy  and  regeneration. 

Friedrich  |  could  not  find  evidence  of  autotomy  or  regeneration  in 
Aryyroneta  aquatim,  and  he  inferred  that  this  was  because  there  was  no 
need  for  it.  But  Oppenheim,  like  0.  Weiss,f  finds  experimental  evidence 
of  both  autotomy  and  regeneration  as  regards  the  foremost  and  hindmost 
appendage. 

British  Spiders.J— F.  P.  Smith  records,  from  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
Toxem  formicarius,  one  of  our  rarest,  handsomest,  and  most  interesting 
spiders,  whose  presence  in  Britain  has  hitherto  been  attested  only  by 
several  isolated  records  extending  over  three-quarters  of  a  century.  The 
mature  male  might  be  mistaken  for  a  red  ant.  A  male  and  female  of 
Tarentvla  nemoralis — now  for  the  first  time  recorded  from  Britain — were 
taken  in  the  Bexhill  High  Woods,  and  the  very  rare  Lycosa  agrestis  was 
found  in  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

Notes  on  Pseudoscorpions.§ — Edv.  Ellingsen  reports  on  a  collection 
of  pseudoscorpions,  mostly  British,  made  and  partly  determined  by 
H.  Wallis  Kew.  He  notes  that  Obisium  {Roncus)  cambridgii  has  a 
galea,  and  should  be  referred  to  the  genus  Ideobisium.  He  describes 
Chelifer  Tcewii  sp.  n.  from  Cape  Colony,  Obisium  maritimum  Leach  from 
British  coasts,  and  some  other  interesting  forms. 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp  56-60  (3  figs.). 

t  Arch.  Entwickmech.,  xx.  (1906).  t  Op.  cit.,xxiii.  (1907). 

X  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  1907,  pp.  177-90,  1  pi. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp  155-72. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    .MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  585 

New  British  Records  of  Water-mites.*— G.  P.  Deeley  adds  to  the 
list  of  water-mites  that  occur  in  Britain — Thyopsis  caneellata  Protz, 
Sperchon  glandulosits  Koen.,  and  Lyania  bipapillata  Sig.  Thor. 

Swiss  Hydrachnids.f— Charles  Walter  has  given  a  useful  account  of 
the  Swiss  water-mites,  of  which  156  species  are  now  known.  He  has 
added  15  new  species,  and  made  47  new  records.  He  distinguishes 
cosmopolitan  forms  (with  wide  distribution'  both  horizontally  and 
vertically)  and  northern  alpine  forms,  stenothermal  inhabitants  of  cold 
mountain  waters. 

Metamorphosis  of  Species  of  Echiniscus.J— F.  Heinis  finds  that 
many  species  of  Echiniscus,  with  four  claws  and  numerous  filaments  and 
spines  as  adults,  have  a  juvenile  stage  with  two  claws  and  only  a  few 
filaments. 

Marine  Tardigrada.§— F.  Richters  has  some  notes  on  Echmiscoides 
sigismundi  M.  Schultze,  and  describes  Halerhiniscus  guiteli  g.  et  sp.  n., 
and  two  new  species  of  Macrobiotics. 

6-  Crustacea. 

Abnormality  in  a  Crayfish. ||—  A.  Briot  describes  a  male  crayfish 
with  a  peculiar  second-last  thoracic  limb.  The  coxopodite  and  basi- 
podite  were  normal,  the  ischiopodite  showed  two  articular  surfaces,  the 
outer  one  bore  four  normal  joints,  the  inner  one  bore  four  smaller 
joints  curved  in  the  opposite  direction — as  if  it  were  a  piece  of  a  right- 
hand  appendage. 

Variation  of  Squilla  investigatoris.H— R.  E.  Lloyd  finds  that  in 
17  individuals  the  number  of  spinous  teeth  on  the'dactyle  of  the 
raptatorial  claw  varies  from  10  to  18.  Furthermore  they  show  11  different 
types  of  arrangement  when  the  teeth  on  both  claws  are  considered. 
This  feature,  so  variable  in  this  species,  seems  to  be  relatively  stable  in 
other  species.  The  theoretical  possibilities  of  interpretation  are  dis- 
cussed. The  facts  of  the  case  do  not  seem  to  be  in  favour  of  the 
"  theory  of  gradual  change." 

Alimentary  Canal  of  Schizopods.**— Charles  Gelderd  gives  an 
anatomical  and  physiological  account  of  the  gastric  mill,  the  mid-gut, 
the  mid-gut  glands,  and  the  intestine  in  My  sis,  Siriella,  Nyctvphanes, 
and  other  forms. 

New  Species  of  Cirolana  from  a  Spring  in  the  Sahara,  ff 
Robert  Gurney  describes  Cirolana  fontis  sp.  n.,  from  a  freshwater  spring 
in  the  Algerian  Sahara.     The  species  is  evidently  of  subterranean  origin, 

*  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  1907,  pp.  173-6  (1  pi.). 

+  Revue  Suisse  Zool.,  xv.  (1907)  pp.  401-573   4  pis.). 

J  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  69-71. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  77-85  (4  figs.). 

||  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  777-8  (1  fig.). 

t  Records  Indian  Museum,  ii.  (190S)  pp.  29-35  (2  pis.). 

**  La  Cellule,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  7-70  (4  pis.), 

ft  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  682-5  (5  figs.). 


586  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

and  it  is  of  great  interest  as  belonging  to  a  group  which  is  most 
characteristically  marine.  Like  some  other  investigators,  the  author 
favours  the  idea  that  the  subterranean  Crustacean  fauna  has  been  derived 
not  so  much  from  the  surface  as  directly  from  the  sea  itself.  The 
Algerian  species  may  perhaps  have  arisen  from  some  deep  water 
Mediterranean  species  such  as  Cirolana  cceca  Dollfus. 

Locomotor  Organs  of  Gyge  branchialis.*  —  P.  Lo  Giudiee  has 
studied  the  changes  in  the  locomotor  organs  of  this  marine  Isopod  when 
it  becomes  attached  to  Gebia  litoralis,  and  he  has  also  set  the  semi- 
parasite  or  commensal  at  liberty  to  see  what  individual  adaptations  are 
acquired  by  its  reduced  locomotor  organs. 

The  young  animals  can  move  very  quickly  in  the  water,  but  the 
adults  are  fixed  to  their  host  and  cannot  move  after  they  have  been 
attached  for  a  certain  time. 

But  under  certain  conditions  the  commensal  may  be  removed  from 
its  bearer  and  kept  in  life  for  as  many  as  23  days.  The  thoracic  limbs 
undergo  a  slight  increase  in  length  and  the  animals  are  able  to  move 
about  a  little. 

Maxillary  Gland  in  Isopods.j — Alvis  Rogenhofer  has  studied  this 
in  various  types.  The  Bopyridad  have  no  antennary  gland,  but  the 
maxillary  gland  is  well-developed,  and  shows  the  characteristic  parts — 
terminal  vesicle,  urinary  canal,  and  efferent  duct.  In  Oniscina3  the 
maxillary  gland  is  not  degenerate  (as  JSTemec  reported)  but  typical.  The 
results  reached  by  Bruntz  as  to  the  maxillary  gland  of  Isopods  are  con- 
firmed, as  also  is  Vejdovsky's  description  of  funnel-cells  (Trichterzellen). 
In  freshwater  types  the  urinary  canal  of  the  maxillary  and  antennary 
gland  is  longer  than  in  marine  types. 

Notes  on  Clyde  Crustacea. J  —  Alexander  Patience  notes  the 
occurrence  of  Idothea  neglecta  G.  0.  Sars  and  /.  viridis  Slabber  within 
the  Clyde  sea  area.  He  has  also  collected  /.  pelagica  Leach,  /.  emar- 
ginata  Fabr.,  /.  linearis  Pennant. 

In  another  paper  §  the  author  discusses  Philocheras  trispinosus 
Hailstone,  P.  bispinosus  Westwood,  P.  echinulatus  M.  Sars,  P.  neglecta* 
G.  0.  Sars,  P.  sculptus  Bell.,  Pontophilus  spinosus  Leach,  Grangon 
vulgaris  Linn.,  and  C.  alhnanni  Kinahan. 

In  another  communication  ||  the  author  deals  with  some  terrestrial 
Isopods  new  to  the  Clyde  fauna]  area,  e.g.  Trichoniscus  pygmevus  G.  0. 
Sars,  Porcellio  dilatatus  Brandt,  and  Metopotiorthus  pruinosus  Brandt. 

British  Species  of  Trichoniscoides.^f —  Alexander  Patience  dis- 
tinguishes T.  sarsi  sp.  n.  from  T.  albidus  Budde  Lund,  with  which  he 
had  previously  identified  it.  Both  are  British.  The  structure  of  the 
first  and  second  pairs  of  pleopods  of  the  male  seems  to  afford  practic- 
ally constant   specific   distinctions.      The   author   has  some  notes   on 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  xci.  (1903)  pp.  52-80  (1  pi.). 

t  Arbeit.  ZodI.  Inst.  Univ.  Wien.,  xvii.  (1903)  pp.  139-56  (l;pl.). 

J  Trans.  Nat  Hist.  Soc.  Glasgow,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  4:2-6. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  64-71.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  80-6. 

^  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  ii.  (.1908)  pp.  84-8  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  587 

Trichoniscus  pusillus  Brandt,   T.  pygmceus,  T.  roseus  Koch,  and  other 
British  forms. 

New  Terrestrial  Isopod.* — Richard  S.  Bagnall  describes  Philoseia 
patimcei  sp.  n.,  a  new  Isopod  which  he  secured  along  with  a  new 
spider,  f  Ischnothyreus  velox  Jackson,  and  a  new  Tartarid,  Trithyrem 
hai/ null ii  Jackson,  from  a  hothouse  at  Kew.  It  bears  a  strong  re- 
semblance to  Trichoniscus  pusillus,  and  is  nearly  related  to  Philoseia 
couchii.  It  is  of  further  interest  on  account  of  the  small  size  (3  mm. 
by  1*2  mm.).  Its  colour  is  Yiolet  brown,  marbled  with  white,  with 
a  broken  median  band  along  the  back  of  the  mesosome. 

New  Entoniscid.  J  —  H.  Coutiere  describes  Synalpheion  giardi 
g.  et  sp.  n.,  from  Synalpheus  longicarpus  Herrick,  the  first  Entoniscid 
to  be  found  infesting  a  Macruran.  The  others  occur  in  crabs.  The  new 
form  is  closely  allied  to  Eaton  isc  us  from  Por  cell  ana. 

Dendrogaster.§ — Otto  le  Roi  describes  D.  arboresceas  -  le  Roi  f rom 
the  body-cavity  of  Dipsacaster  sladeni,  and  D.  ludwigi  le  Roi  from 
Echinaster  fallax.  He  was  fortunate  enough  to  find  the  male  of  the 
former  in  the  "  mantle-cavity  "  of  the  female.  The  full  account  given 
is  an  important  addition  to  our  knowledge  of  these  extraordinary 
Cirripedes,  known  as  Ascothoracidse.  There  are  only  four  others  as 
yet  known  —  Laura  gerardice  Lacaze-Dutbiers,  Petrarca  bathyactidis 
Fowler,  Synagoga  mira  Norman,  and  Dendrog  aster  aster  kola  Knipow. 

New  Cave  Copepod.|| — E.  Grater  describes  Cyclops  crinitus  sp.  n., 

a  colourless  hyaline  Copepod,  from  the  Holl-loch,  the  largest  Swiss  cave 
(Canton  Schwyz),  which  extends  for  several  kilometres  into  the  moun- 
tain. He  contrasts  it  with  G.  viridis  and  C.  capillatus,  and  with  another 
form,  G.  teras  -Grater,  which  occurs  in  the  same  cave,  and  is  blind. 
He  also  reports  G.  unisetiger  sp.  n.  with  a  single  f ureal  seta,  from  a  Jura 
cave. 

North  American  Caligidae.f — Charles  Branch  Wilson  continues  his 
account  of  North  American  parasitic  Copepods  belonging  to  the  family 
Caligidae.  He  establishes  two  new  sub-families,  Trebinae  and  Eury- 
pborinae,  and  describes  a  new  species,  Dysgamus  ariommus,  besides 
figuring  some  important  forms  like  Alebion  gracilis.  The  larval  stages 
of  the  latter  and  of  others  are  given.  The  artificial  keys  include  all 
the  known  genera  and  species. 

Median  Eye  of  Ostracods.** — M.  Nowikoff  has  studied  the  eye  of 
Cypris  virens,  Eurycypris  pubera,  and  other  species.  He  describes  in 
detail  the  four  component  parts — the  pigment-cup,  the  tapetum,  the 
optic  cells,  and  the  lens. 

*  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  8,  i.  (1908)  pp.  428-31  (1  pi.). 

t  Trans.  Nat  Hist.  Soc.  Northumberland,  Durham,  andNewcastle-upon-Tvne 
iii.  (1907)  pp.  49-78  (1  pi.). 

X  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  1333-5. 
§  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  Ixxxvi    (1907)  pp.  100-33  (2  pis.). 
||  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  45-9  (3  rigs.). 

f  Proc.  U.S.  Nat.  Museum,  xxxi.  (1907)  pp.  669-720  (6  pis.  aud  19  rigs.). 
**  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  xci.  (190S)  pp.  81-92  (1  pi.  and  1  fi.j  ). 


i")88  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Cambrian  Trilobites.* — C.  D.  Walcott  establishes  Burlingida\  a 
new  family  for  Burlingus  g.  n.,  and  describes  Albertdla  g.  n.  in  the 
family  Paradoxals,  Oryctocara  g.  n.  in  the  family  Olenidae,  and  new 
species  of  Zacanthoides,  Neolenus,  and  Bathyuriscus. 

Annulata. 

Thoracic  Nephridia  of  Hermellidae.f — Armand  Dehorne  describes 
in  Sdbellaria  two  thoracic  nephridia,  independent  of  one  another,  each 
provided  with  an  internal  vibratile  funnel  and  a  lateral  external  pore, 
and  resembling  the  Cirratulid  not  the  Serpulid  type. 

Epidermis  of  Travisia  forbesii.J — L.  dn  Reau  finds  that  the  epi- 
dermis of  this  Polychfet  consists  of  cubical  cells  covered  by  a  thick 
cuticle,  that  this  cuticle  gives  passage  to  papilla?  which  coalesce  ex- 
ternally, simulating  a  second  epithelium.  This  is  an  exaggeration  of  the 
free  filiform  papillae  of  Stylarioides  plumosa,  the  more  swollen  papilla?  of 
Flabdligera  affirm,  and  the  short,  swollen,  appressed  but  not  fused, 
papillae  of  Brada  gran  ulata. 

Polychaets  of  AmboinaJ — A.  Malaquin  and  A.  Dehorne  report  on 
a  collection  made  by  Bedot  and  Pictet,  including  Nereis  picteM  sp.  n., 
Eupolyodontes  aniboinensis  sp.  n.,  the  new  genus  Euearunculata  (an 
Amphinomid  with  arborescent  branchiae,  a  strongly  developed  cordif orm 
trilobed  caruncle,  a  single  dorsal  cirrus  to  the  parapodium,  simple,  never 
bifid  setae),  with  the  species  E.  yrubei. 

Brain  and  Nuchal  Organ  of  Notopygos  labiatus.  || — A.  Malaquin 

and  A.  Bedot  give  a  description  of  these  parts  in  this  Amphinomid. 
Their  study  of  the  caruncle  or  nuchal  organ  in  Notopygos  (as  also  in 
Euearunculata)  shows  a  highly  developed  vascularisation,  and  within  the 
cavity  bathed  by  the  vessels  they  find  a  large  quantity  of  mesenchyme 
cells  (amcebocytes,  "Mastzellen,"  pigmented  cells,  etc.).  They  give  strong 
reasons  for  believing j that  this  sensory  organ  has  been  derived  from 
a  srill. 


i~j 


Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in  Thalassema  mellita.f — G.  Lefevre 
has  given  an  account  of  an  experimental  study  of  artificial  partheno- 
genesis in  the  Echiuroid  Thalassema  mellita,  which  is  specially  favour- 
able for  experiment,  because  of  the  ease  with  which  the  sexes  can  be 
distinguished.  The  investigator's  main  purpose  was  to  study  the  mor- 
phobgical  phenomena  concerned  in  artificial  parthenogenesis,  and 
especially,  by  a  careful  cytological  examination  of  the  material,  to  com- 
pare, as  far  as  possible,  the  development  artificially  produced  with  the 
normal  events  leading  up  to  the  formation  of  the  larva.  He  finds  that 
the  unfertilised  eggs  may  be  induced  to  develop  parthenogenetically  into 
actively  swimming    trochophores   by  immersion  for  a  few  minutes  in 

*  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  liii.  No.  2  (1908)  pp.  13-52  (6  pis.), 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  838-40. 
X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  840-2. 

§  Revue  Suisse  Zool.,  xv.  (1907)  pp.  335-400  (9  pis.  and  20  figs.). 
||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  372-400. 
i  Journ.  Exper.  Zool.,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  91-149  (6  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  589 

dilute  solutions  of  acids,  both  inorganic  and  organic.  After  transfer 
from  the  acid  solutions  into  normal  sea-water,  the  egg  throws  off  a 
typical  fertilisation  membrane,  the  germinal  vesicle  breaks  down,  and 
maturation  and  cleavage  follow.  In  successful  experiments,  which  were 
the  rule,  from  50-60  p.c.  of  the  eggs  developed  into  swimming  larvae 
that  could  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  normal  trochophores  of  a 
corresponding  stage.  The  parthenogenetic  development,  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  involves  a  strictly  normal  maturation,  a  normal  cleavage,  at 
least  in  the  early  stages,  and  the  usual  processes  of  differentiation  that 
occur  after  fertilisation  by  sperm.  Gastrulation  takes  place  in  the 
normal  manner,  and  the  parthenogenetic  larva  possesses  a  digestive  tract, 
differentiated  into  mouth,  oesophagus,  stomach  and  intestine,  and  the 
prototroch  and  apical  plate,  bearing  the  normal  arrangement  of  cilia. 
After  maturation  the  egg-centre  disappears,  and  the  cleavage  centro- 
somes  arise  de  novo,  probably  without  division  of  a  single  primary 
centre.  When  first  seen,  they  lie  on  opposite  sides  of  the  egg-nucleus, 
which  becomes  the  first  cleavage  nucleus. 

Cell-division  occurs  mitotically  throughout  development,  and  division 
of  the  nucleus  is  usually  accompanied  by  cytoplasmic  cleavage.  The 
number  of  chromosomes  characteristic  of  the  fertilised  egg  is  not 
restored,  but  the  reduced  number  (12)  is  retained,  and  has  been  counted 
repeatedly  even  in  late  stages.  The  rate  of  division  is  not  so  rapid, 
nor  so  regular  as  in  normal  segmentation,  and  the  parthenogenetic  larva?, 
although  swimming  vigorously  at  the  bottom  of  the  dish,  do  not  rise  to 
the  surface  of  the  water. 

After  exposure  of  the  eggs  to  acid  solutions,  the  polar  bodies  may 
continue  to  divide  mitotically  and  form  a  morula-like  cluster  of  minute 
cells,  thus  exhibiting  an  attempt  at  parthenogenetic  development.  In 
some  experiments  the  eggs  extruded  only  one  polar  body,  and  in  others 
neither  polar  body  was  formed.  In  such  cases,  either  one  or  both  matura- 
tion mitoses  may  take  place  within  the  egg,  with  the  resulting  formation 
of  resting  nuclei,  which  probably  fuse  to  form  a  cleavage  nucleus. 
In  still  other  cases  there  is  evidence  for  believing  that  the  first  matura- 
tion spindle  may  directly  become  the  first  cleavage  spindle,  across 
which  the  egg  divides  into  equal  or  subequal  cells.  The  numerical  re- 
lations of  the  chromosomes  in  these  cases  have  not  been  definitely 
determined.  Eggs  exhibiting  these  abnormalities  of  maturation  give 
rise  to  larvae  indistinguishable  from  those  of  eggs  which  maturate 
normally.  An  endless  variety  of  abnormal  cleavages,  similar  to  those 
described  by  others,  have  been  observed.  Such  cleavages  lead  to  the 
formation  of  ciliated  cellular  structures  which  depart  more  or  less 
widely  from  normal  embryos.  Abnormalities  of  mitosis,  as  polyasters 
and  monasters,  are  not  infrequent,  and  when  nuclear  division  is  not 
followed  by  cleavage  of  the  cytoplasm,  chromosomes  in  excess  of  the 
usual  number  (12)  may  be  found  in  a  single  cell.  Cytasters  are  either 
absent  or  exceedingly  rare,  and  cytoplasmic  cleavage  without  preceding 
nuclear  division  has  not  been  observed.  Amoeboid  movements  of  the 
egg  are  rare,  and,  when  they  occur,  are  not  extensive  ;  "  fusion  phe- 
nomena "  are  lackin<_r. 

Cell-division  would  seem  to  be  a  fundamental  and  essential  factor  in 


590  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

differentiation,  since  in  do  instance  was  a  differentiated,  ciliated  structure 
observed  which  was  unsegmented  ;  the  parthenogenetie  pseudo-trocho 
phores  which  have  been  described  for  GhcBtopterus  and  other  Annelids, 
are  entirely  absent. 

Remarkable  Echiuroids* — Iwajilkeda  describes  Bonellia  miyajimai 
sp.  n.,  the  female  of  which  has  numerous  ventral  hooks,  a  slender 
proboscis  six  times  as  long  as  the  body,  and  branched  anal  glands  with 
numerous  stalked  funnels.  The  male,  found  in  the  body-cavity  of 
the  female,  is  unusually  large,  nearly  30  mm.  in  length  :  there  is  no 
ventral  hook  or  nerve  ring  ;  the  alimentary  canal  is  broken  up  into 
numerous  vesicles.  He  also  describes  two  new  species  of  Thalassema  : 
T.  timioides,  the  long  proboscis  of  which  has  been  known  and  misin- 
terpreted for  some  years,  and  T.  elegans,  another  very  interesting  form. 

New  Indian  Oligochset.f — J.  Stephenson  proposes  to  make  a  new 
genus,  Mafia,  for  one  of  the  Naididge,  which  was  found  on  colonies  of 
Victorella  and  other  Polyzoa.  The  arrangement  of  the  setal  bundles  is 
peculiar  :  there  are  two  dorsal  and  two  ventral  bundles  in  all  segments 
from  the  second  onwards.  The  seta?  are  hook-seta3  and  needle-seta^  ;  the 
most  anterior  bundles,  both  dorsal  and  ventral,  consist  of  needle-setse  ; 
the  posterior  consist  of  hook-setae. 

Studies  on  Leeches.! — N.  Livanow  has  studied  the  nervous  system 
and  the  metamerism  of  the  head-end  of  Herpobdella  atomaria  Carena. 
The  head-region  consists,  as  in  Hirudo  medicinaUs  and  Protoclej/s/s 
tessellata,  of  the  head-lobe  and  the  five  anterior  somites.  The  head-lobe 
and  the  first  two  head-somites  consist  of  one  ring  each,  the  third  has  two 
rings,  the  fourth  has  four,  and  the  fifth  has  five.  In  each  somite  there 
is  a  well-developed  neuro-somite,  and  the  head-lobe  is  in  no  way  con- 
fusible  with  a  somite. 

New  Zealand  Leeches.§ — W.  B.  Benham  describes  Placobddla 
maorica  sp.  n.,  Hirudo  mauiana  sp.  n.,  and  H.  antipodum  Benham,  giving 
in  each  case  an  anatomical  account. 

Growth  and  Asexual  Reproduction  in  Stylaria  lacustris.|| — 
Giuseppe  Dalla  Fior  has  studied  the  process  of  growth  in  this  Annelid, 
which  is  also  known  as  Nais proboscidea.  The  mesoderm  grows  at  the 
free  posterior  end  by  the  activity  of  primitive  mesoblasts,  of  which  there 
are  two  or  three  on  each  side  of  the  hind  end  of  the  mesoderm  streak. 
Before  the  division  of  the  mesoderm  into  primary  segments,  the  chorda - 
cells  of  Semper  (neoblasts)  arise  between  the  two  mesoderm  plates.  These 
elements  always  retain  an  embryonic  character,  and  form  a  continuous 
strand  to  the  most  anterior  segment. 

In  asexual  multiplication  the  mesoderm  in  the  trunk-zone  (the  tail 
of  the  anterior  animal)  is  mainly  regenerated  by  the  neoblasts,  and  only 
to  a  slight  extent  by  the  mesodermic  elements  of  the  lateral  lines.     In 

*  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  1-64  (4  pis.). 

t  Records  Indian  Museum,  ii.  (1908)  pp.  39-42  (4  figs.). 

t  Zool.  Jahrb.,xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  683-702  (1  pi ). 

§  Trans.  New  Zealand  Inst.,  xxxix.  (1907)  pp.  181-93  (2  pis.). 

||  Arbeit.  Zool.  Inst.  Univ.  Wien,  xvii.  (1908)  pp.  109-38  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICEOSCOPY,    ETC.  •  591 

the  head-zone,  in  which  four  trunk-segments  are  formed  anew  behind 
the  head,  the  mesoderm  arises  in  all  probability  in  the  same  way  as  in 
the  trunk-zone.  The  mesoderm  forms  the  longitudinal,  pharyngeal,  and 
setal  musculature,  the  peritoneum,  and  the  nephridia. 

The  ectoderm  forms  the  circular  musculature  and  the  nervous 
system.  At  the  posterior  end  the  primordium  of  the  nervous  system 
coalesces  with  the  ectoderm  ;  the  same  is  seen  in  the  trunk-zone,  where 
a  new  foundation  for  the  nervous  system  is  formed,  uniting  anteriorly 
with  the  old  ventral  nerve-cord  ;  in  the  head -zone  there  is  an  elongation 
of  the  ventral  cord,  and  the  oesophageal  commissure  and  brain  arise  by 
paired  ectodermic  proliferations  on  the  lateral  lines  and  on  the  ventral 
setal  follicles. 

The  pharynx  is  a  product  of  the  endoderm.  The  new  mouth 
rises  by  invagination  of  the  ectoderm  to  meet  the  gut,  and  the  new 
proctodamrn  is  a  simple  coalescence  of  gut  and  epidermis. 

Nematohelminth.es. 

Structure  of  Nematodes.*  —  Max  Rauther  has  investigated  the 
structure  of  the  oesophagus  in  numerous  free-living  Nematodes,  and 
has  also  studied  the  localisation  of  the  excretorv  function.  The  indiero- 
carmin  absorbed  by  the  skin  or  taken  with  the  food  is  not  collected  for 
elimination  in  any  glands,  but  between  the  radial  fibres  of  the  oesophageal 
musculature  and  in  the  most  anterior  and  most  posterior  region  of  the 
mid-gut.  The  excretion  is  thus  indirect ;  the  function  of  the  oesophagus 
may  be  compared  to  that  of  a  Mammalian  glomerulus,  and  that  of  the 
mid-gut  to  that  of  the  absorbing  renal  canaliculus.  The  author  con- 
trasts the  excretion  of  free-living  Nematodes  with  that  of  parasitic 
forms. 

Development  of  Nematodes.! — E.  Martini  has  studied  Pseudalius 
minor,  Cucullanus  elegans,  Nematoxys  ornatus,  and  Rhabdonema  nigro- 
venosum.  Organ-forming  areas  or  cells  can  be  recognised  very  early 
in  development,  even  at  the  8-cell  stage.  Segmentation  results  in 
450-500  elements.  A  primordium  of  the  gut  appears  during  or  imme- 
diately after  segmentation,  and  is  separated  from  the  outermost  cell- 
layer  by  a  groove  open  dorsally.  The  definitive  epithelium  of  the 
surface  of  the  body  is  produced  by  six  longitudinal  rows  of  cells  in 
the  middle  and  posterior  part  of  the  dorsum.  The  bodies  and  nuclei 
of  these  cells  pass  into  the  longitudinal  lines,  especially  in  the  lateral 
areas.  From  the  two  lateral  portions  of  the  groove  the  four  muscle- 
bands  are  differentiated. 

ChaBtosomatidse.j — A.  Schepotieff  discusses  these  peculiar  Nematode- 
like  marine  worms,  and  defines  five  species  of  ( 'hcetosoma.  Among  the 
peculiarities  may  be  noted  :  the  distinct  head-region,  the  ventral  rows 
of  bristles,  and  the  division  of  the  body  into  an  anterior  narrower  and  a 
posterior  broader  region.  The  composite  mobile  seta)  resemble  those  of 
Desmoscolecidse,  but  the   genus  Rhabdogaster  which  Schepotieff  has 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  703-40  (1  pi.  and  7  figs.). 

*■   Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxxvi.  (1907)  pp.  1-54  (3  pis.  and  2  figs.). 

j  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  401-14  (2  pis.). 


592  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

described  is  the  nearest  relative.  Along  with  Rhabdogaster  the  Chaeto- 
somatidae  may  perhaps  lie  ranked  as  a  group  or  sub-order  of  Nematodes, 
and  the  designation  Nematochsetae  is  suggested. 

Peculiar  Free-living  Nematodes.*  —  A.  Schepotieff  describes  Tri- 
choderma  oxycaudatum  Greef,  a  remarkable  marine  Nematode,  which  has 
been  previously  observed  by  Greef,  Metschnikoff,  and  Panceri.  The 
head  has  wing-like  outgrowths,  the  posterior  end  is  pointed  and  has  two 
spicules.  In  these  respects  Trichoderma  is  like  a  Desmoscolecid.  but  it 
is  excluded  from  the  family  by  the  thick  covering  of  hair  and  the  absence 
of  setaa.  It  seems  to  require  a  special  family,  and  the  term  Chaetiferae  is 
suggested. 

Schepotieff  also  describes  Khabdogaster  cygnoides  Metschn.,  previously 
observed  by  Metschnikoff,  Greef,  and  Panceri.  The  body  is  divided  by 
a  narrow  region  into  two  expanded  portions.  The  longitudinal  muscu- 
lature is  weakly  developed.  It  uses  its  buccal  teeth  in  its  peculiar 
locomotion.     Probably  its  position  is  among  the  Chaetosomatidae. 

Platyhelminthes. 

Trematode  in  Hibernating  Gland  of  Hedgehog.f — M.  Athias  des- 
cribes a  Distomid — which  he  has  not  yet  been  able  to  identify — from  the 
interior  of  the  hedgehog's  hibernating  gland.  It  seems  to  be  quite 
different  from  D.  rami  at  inn,  which  has  been  recorded  from  this  host. 

Trematodes  in  Fishes.J — Marie  Y.  Lebour  has  examined  many 
different  kinds  of  British  fishes,  and  has  added  considerably  to  the 
British  records  of  Trematode  fish  parasites.  In  her  list  she  gives  useful 
notes  on  the  food  of  the  fishes  in  question.  The  following  are  new  : — 
Prosorhynchus  grandis  in  cod  and  whiting  ;  St&ringophorus  ovacutus  in 
long  rough  dab  :  Lepodora  elongata  in  cod  ;  Pharyngora  retractilis  in 
whiting  ;  Stephanochasmus  rhombispinosus  in  whiting  ;  S.  triglce  in  grey 
gurnard  ;  Plectanocotyle  cavdata  on  the  gills  of  50  p.c.  of  grey  gurnards. 
These  are  new  species,  but  Pharyngora  is  also  a  new  genus. 

Uncertain  Species  of  Marine  Triclads.§ — J.  Wilhelmi  points  out 
that  Planaria  savignyi  Ruppell  and  Leuckart  is  a  typical  Polyclad, 
probably  a  species  of  Prosthiostomum  ;  P.  longiceps  Duges  is  equi- 
valent to  Monotus  bipunctatus  ;  Bdelloura  rustica  Leidy  is  a  Monotid  ; 
Planoides  fusca  Daly  ell  was  probably  not  a  Triclad  ;  and  Planaria  hsbes 
Dalyell  was  probably  P.  torva  Mull. 

Planaria  Wytegrensis.|| — H.  Sabussow  describes  this  new  species 
from  Lake  Onega  and  compares  it  with  the  closely  allied  Planaria 
gonocephala,  from  which  it  differs  in  having  peculiar  sensory  cells  in  the 
epithelium,  in  having  more  numerous  sensory  pits  (on  the  ventral 
surface  of  the  anterior  end),  and  "  in  various  details  of  the  genital 
svsteni. 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  385-400  (2  pis.), 
t  Bull.  Soc.  Portugaise  Sci.  Nat.,  i.  (1908)  pp.  192-201  (3  pis.). 
X  Rep.  Sci.  Investigations  for  1907,  Northumberland  Sea  Fisheries  Committee, 
1908,  pp.  23-67  (5  pis.).  §  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  33-7. 

||  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  741-7  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  593 

Peculiar  Abnormality  in  Proboscis  of  a  Nemertean.* — M.  Caullery 
describes  the  occurrence  in  Tetrastemma  candidum  of  a  double  proboscis. 
Within  the  same  sheath  they  lie  end  to  end  in  opposite  directions,  with 
the  armatures  turned  toward  the  two  ends  of  the  animal. 

Histogenesis  of  Cysticercus  pisiformis.t — R.  T.  Young  finds  that 
this  bladder-worm  shows  an  extremely  simple  type  of  histogenesis,  tbe 
various  tissues  being  developed  exclusively  by  modification  in  situ  of 
a  pre-existent  undifferentiated  parenchyma.  In  correspondence  with  its 
simplicity  of  development,  Timia  serrata  shows  a  very  simple  type  of 
adult  structure,  the  various  tissues  being  comparatively  little  differen- 
tiated from  one  another.  , 

It  is  very  doubtful  where  there  is  any  ectoderm  or  any  process  of 
gastrulation.  The  lack  of  a  true  epithelium  and  the  simple  character  of 
its  tissues  and  mode  of  nuclear  increase  are  probably  expressions  of  the 
degenerate  character  of  this  tapeworm. 

"  The  role  of  the  chromosomes  in  heredity  is  entirely  lost ;  the  nucleus 
is  probably  not  a  morphological,  but  a  physiological  unit  ;  the  fate  of 
any  cell  is  determined  not  by  its  morphological  structure,  but  rather  by 
its  physiological  environment."  These  are  generalisations,  but  the 
paper  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  process  of  development. 

Incertse  Sedis. 

Larva  of  Pedicellina  Echinata.| — R.  Czwiklitzer  describes  this 
interesting  larva  and  shows  how  it  may  be  interpreted  as  a  modified 
Trochophore.  He  compares  the  Ectoproct  and  the  Endoproct  larva  in 
detail,  and  shows  the  affinities  between  them  in  structure  and  in  mode 
of  fixation.  It  may  be  that  the  Phylactoltemata  are  derived  from  the 
Phoronidte  (them  ganglion  being,  in  that  case,  supra-cesophageal),  and 
the  Gymnolaemata  from  the  Entoprocta  (their  ganglion  being,  in  that 
case,  sub-cesophageal). 

Spermatozoa  of  Fresh- water  Bryozoa.§ — F.  Braem  describes  the 
spermatozoa  of  Plumatella,  Pectinatella,  and  Fredericella  (three  related 
Phylactolamiata),  and  shows  that  they  differ  markedly  from  those  of 
Paludicella  (a  typical  representative  of  the  Gymnolaemata).  It  is 
interesting  to  find  that  the  structural  differences  of  the  adult 
organisms  have  their  counterpart  in  the  spermatozoa. 

Polyspermy  in  Membranipora.|| — Kristine  Bonnevie  finds  that 
polyspermy  occurs  regularly  in  this  Polyzoon.  There  is  a  coalescence 
of  spermatozoa  in  groups  in  the  spermatogenesis,  so  that  a  "sperm- 
zeugma"  results.  One  spermatozoon  only  seems  to  form  the  male 
pronucleus,  but  the  others  may  be  useful  in  furnishing  the  necessary 
chromatin  (and  chromidial  apparatus)  to  re-establish  the  disturbed 
nucleo-cytoplasmic  relation  in  the  ovum. 

*  C.B,  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  738-40  (3  figs.). 

t  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  183-254  (4  pis.). 

j  Arbeit.  Zool.  Inst.  Univ.  Wien,  xvii.  (190S)  pp.  157-86  (1  pi.  and  2  figs.). 

§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  671-3  (2  figs.). 

||  Jen.  Zeitschr.  Naturw.,  xlii.  (1907)  pp.  567-98  (4  pis.). 

Oct.  21st,  1908  -2   B 


594  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Bengal  Polyzoa.* — Nelson  Annandale  describes  a  new  Ectoproctous 
Polyzoon,  Victorelhi  bengalensis  sp.  n.,  from  brackish  ponds  at  Port 
Canning,  Lower  Bengal,  and  a  new  Entoproctous  form,  Loxosomatoides 
colonialis  g.  et  sp.  n.  The  diagnosis  of  the  new  genus  is  : — "  Colonial, 
deciduous  Entoprocta  arising  from  a  creeping  stolon  ;  the  calyx, 
separated  from  the  stalk  by  a  diaphragm,  with  a  slanting  or  vertical 
lophophore  and  bearing  on  its  aboral  surface  a  chitinous  shield,  which 
is  absent  from  the  stalk."  The  closest  affinities  of  Loxosomatoides  are 
probably  with  Myosoma. 

Echinoderma. 

Habits  of  Starfish. f — Georges  Bohn  finds  that  starfishes  (Asteria* 
rubms)  from  the  rocky  regions  of  the  Channel  behave  differently  as 
regards  light  from  those  which  live  in  sandy  parts  of  the  Arcachon 
basin.  The  former  move  away  from  the  light  into  the  shade  ;  the 
latter  remain  stationary  in  phototropic  positions,  the  tip  of  each  arm 
being  turned  towards  the  shade.  When  the  former  can  find  no  shade 
they  end  by  assuming  phototropic  positions,  but  they  do  this  more 
slowly  and  less  perfectly. 

Parthenogenesis  of  Sea-urchins. J — Yves  Delage  suggests  that  one 
reason  why  Loeb's  experiments  do  not  agree  with  his  may  be  found  in 
some  constitutional  difference  between  the  Strow/ylocentrotus  jnopuratus 
of  California  and  the  Paracentrotus  lividus  of  Europe.  In  Loeb's  ex- 
periments with  the  eggs  of  the  California^  form,  pure  saccharine  solu- 
tions, in  strong  concentration,  but  without  any  reagent  added,  resulted 
in  abundant  parthenogenetic  ova  ;  in  Delage's  experiments  with  the  eggs 
of  the  Brittany  form,  it  was  always  necessary  to  add  some  reagent,  acid 
or  alkaline,  or  tannate  of  ammonia,  but  without  exceeding  the  concentra- 
tion corresponding  to  an  isotonic  solution.  The  sea-water  does  not 
permit  development  except  when  the  osmotic  pressure  of  its  salts  has 
been  much  diminished  by  the  addition  of  distilled  water,  and  when  it  has 
been  rendered  isotonic  by  means  of  sugar.  If  Loeb  had  worked  in 
Brittany  he  would  have  found  that  hypertonic  solutions  (whether  alka- 
linised  or  not)  and  soluble  fatty  substances  are  ineffective,  and  he  would 
have  found  the  tannate  of  ammonia  method,  or  something  equivalent. 

Littoral  Holothurians  of  Indian  Ocean.§—  R.  Koehler  and  C.  Vaney 
report  on  a  collection  of  51  species,  of  which  15  are  new,  3  of  Holothuria, 
2  of  Phyllophorus,  8  of  Cucumaria,  and  2  of  Thyone.  It  may  be  noted 
that  Cucumaria  inflexa  has  simple  tentacles  ;  C.  bacilliformis  has  a  rod- 
like body  and  a  rigid  carapace  of  calcareous  plates  ;  the  limits  between 
Thyone  (with  tube-feet  not  in  regular  rows)  and  Cucumaria,  between 
Pseudocucumis  and  Phyllophorus,  are  vague  ;  Holothuria  glaberrima, 
found  in  the   Mergui  Archipelago,  has   also  been  found  on  the  east 

*  Records  Indian  Museum,  ii.  pp.  11-19  (7  figs.). 

t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  633-5  (3  figs.). 

%  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  262-5. 

§  An  Account  of  the  Littoral  Holothurioidea  collected  by  R.I.M.S.S.  '  In- 
vestigator.' Calcutta:  printed  by  order  of  the  Trustees  of  the  Indian  Museum, 
(1908)  54  pp.,  3  pis. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  595 

coast  of  Africa  and  at  Porto  Eico  ;  and  that  Cum  nutria,  echinata  Maren- 
zeller  in  this  collection  was  previously  known  only  from  Japan. 

Coelentera. 

Hydroid  parasitic  on  Fish.*  —  R.  E.  Lloyd  describes  NudirJava 
monacanthi  g.  et  sp.  n.,  growing  on  the  side  of  an  Indian  Ocean  surface 
fish,  Monacanthus  tomentosus.  He  compares  it  with  the  peculiar 
Hydrichthys  mi/rus  which  Fewkes  found  growing  on  the  Carangoid 
fish  Seriola  zonata,  at  Newport,  U.S.A.  The  resemblance  is  only  in 
habit.  Alcock  has  also  described  a  gymnoblastic  hydroid,  Stylactis  rninoi, 
attached  to  a  rock-haunting  Scorpaenid,  Minous  inermis.  In  Nvdkiam 
the  hydrophyton  is  a  compact  plate-like  structure,  composed  of  an 
irregular  labyrinthine  coenosarc  with  very  poorly  developed  perisarc. 
The  hydranths  are  clavif  orm  when  retracted,  totally  devoid  of  tentacles  ; 
their  cavities  are  lined  by  a  special  layer  of  pavement  epithelium,  and 
they  contain  well  developed  muscle-fibres  among  the  endoderm.  The 
gonophores  are  closed  sporosacs,  without  radial  canals,  tentacles,  or 
ectodermal  invaginations. 

Atlantic  Tima  at  Trieste.f — Gr.  Stiasny  reports  the  occurrence  of 
Tima  flavilabris  Eschscholtz — an  Atlantic  species — in  the  Gulf  of  Trieste. 
In  recent  years  this  form  has  occurred  frequently  at  Naples,  and  it  is 
probably  identical  with  T.  bairdii,  which  is  not  uncommon  on  Scottish 
coasts. 

Large  Antipatharian  from  Faero  Islands.} — ,).  Arthur  Thomson 
describes  a  large  specimen,  over  a  yard  in  height,  apparently  of  Paranti- 
pathes  larix  Esper.  A  slight  modification  of  the  diagnosis  of  the  species 
is  suggested,  but  the  chief  point  of  interest  is  the  great  extension  of  the 
previously  recorded  range  of  distribution.  ■; 

Revision  of  Nephthyidse.§ — W.  Kiikenthal  discusses  the  genera 
Eunephthya  Yerrill  and  Gersemia  Marenzeller.  The  former  includes 
Nephthyidae  of  branched  tree-like  habit ;  with  polyps  singly  or  in 
bundles  ;  polyps  retractile  or  non-retractile,  without  verruca  or 
Stutzbundel  ;  canal  walls  not  thickly  filled  with  spicules.  The  latter 
includes  "  Nephthyidre  without  Stutzbundel,  with  polyps  neither  in 
lobules  nor  bundles,  but  singly  ;  with  tree-like  habit,  but  the  branches 
may  remain  rudimentary  ;  the  polyps  have  a  sharply  defined,  non- 
retractile  calyx,  into  which  the  upper  portion  can  be  withdrawn." 

He  suggests  that  Eunephthya  is  at  the  root  of  the  family  and 
links  it  back  to  Alcyonium ;  Gersemia  is  close  beside  Eunephthya; 
Neospongodes  and  IMhophytum  may  be  traced  back  to  Eunephthya, 
and  Lemnalia  is  near  IMhophytum.  From  the  Nephthyiform-stock 
the  genus  Nephthya  has  arisen,  and  parallel  to  it  Gapnella  ;  from 
Xfjihtln/n  the  genus  Dendronephthya  (Spongodes  of  most  authors)  has 
evolved,  and  it  leads  on  to  Scleronephthya ;  Nephthya  again  has  given 
origin  to  Stereonephthya,  which  leads  to  the  Siphonogorgids. 

*  Records  Indian  Museum,  i.  (11)07)  pp.  281-9  (2  pis). 
t  Arbeit.  Zool.  Inst.  Univ.  Wien,  xvii.  (190S)  pp.  221-4  (1  pi.). 
I   Proc.  Rov.  Phys.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xvii.  (1908)  pp.  188-94  (1  pi.). 
§  Zool.  Jakrb.,  xxiv.  (1907)  pp.  317-90. 

2    R   2 


596  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

New  Zealand  Ctenophores.*--  W.  B.  Benham  describes  Berot 
shaJcespeari  sp.  a..,  which  difl'ers  from  the  three  species  of  the  Northern 
hemisphere  —  B.  ovata,  B.  forsJcalii,  and  B.  cucumis,  as  also  from 
B.  australis  (Fiji)  and  B.  macrostoma  (New  Guinea).  A  second  new 
form  is  Ev/ploTcamis  australis  sp.  n. 

New  Dictyonine  Sponge.f— R.  Kirkpatrick  describes  Eurete  annan- 
dalei  sp.  n.,  an  elegant  and  remarkable  form  from  the  Indian  Ocean. 
It  has  not  the  "beautiful  network"  of  anastomosing  tubes,  charac- 
teristic of  Eurete,  but  consists  of  a  vertical  hollow  stem  with  hollow 
separate  lamella?. 

Siesta  of  Spongilla  in  Tropics.:}: — Nelson  Annandale  finds  that 
for  some  hours  in  the  middle  of  the  day  the  currents  cease  and  the 
oscular  collars  are  somewhat  contracted.  It  is  by  no  means  uncommon 
for  Ccelenterates  to  remain  in  a  state  of  quiescence  during  the  heat  of 
the  day  in  the  tropics  and  even  in  temperate  climates,  and  it  is  not 
surprising  that  Sponges  should  follow  the  same  course. 

New  Indian  Fresh-water  Sponges. — Nelson  Annandale  §  describes 
Spongilla  reticulata  sp.  n.,  and  S.  crassior  sp.  n.,  and  distinguishes  the 
characters  of  the  gemmules  in  S.  decipiens  Weber,  S.  fragilis  Leidy, 
S.  crassissima  Annandale,  and  S.  crassior.  He  finds  that  there  is 
considerable  seasonal  variation. 

In  a  subsequent  paper  Annandale  ||  describes  Spoilt)  ill  a  indica  sp.  n. 
closely  allied  to  S.  sumatrana  Weber,  and  S.  lapidosa  sp.  n.  allied  to 
S.  loricata  Weltner.  Of  the  last  named  species  R.  Kirkpatrick^" 
describes  a  new  variety,  bvrmauica. 

Hydromedusan  from  Lake  Qurun.^f — Charles  L.  Boulenger  descrihe> 
Mozrisia  Iponsi  g.  et  sp.  n.,  from  Lake  Quran,  which  communicates  with 
the  Nile  by  means  of  a  network  of  canals  which  irrigate  the  Fayuni.  The 
lake  is  the  remains  of  the  historic  Lake  Mceris,  which  was  used  as  an 
artificial  regulator  of  the  Nile  floods  by  the  monarchs  of  the  twelfth 
dynasty.  It  is  about  the  size  and  shape  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  and 
except  during  high  Nile  receives  very  little  water.  There  is  no  outlet, 
and  the  water  is  decidedly  brackish.  With  the  exception  of  Mcerisia, 
Cordylophora,  and  a  Ctenostomatous  polyzoan,  resembling  Virtorella,  the 
fauna  seems  essentially  a  fresh-water  one,  composed  probably  of  such 
Nile  animals  as  can  accommodate  themselves  to  the  salinity  of  the  lake. 

The  new  form  is  referable  to  the  Anthomedusae,  as  is  shown  by  the 
globular  shape,  four-rayed  symmetry  of  the  umbrella,  manubrial  gonad > 
and  the  absence  of  otocysts.  The  gymnoblastic  hydroid  stage  confirms 
this  position.  Furthermore,  the  simple  mouth,  the  four  unbranched 
tentacles,  and  the  narrow  radial  canals,  exclude  Mozrisia  from  the 
Tiaridae,  Margelidae,  and  Cladonemidse,  and  refer  it  to  the  Codonidse,  near 
Sarsia,  in  fact.     The  hydroid  is  unique  in  its  hollow  tentacles  and  trans- 

*  Trans.  New  Zealand  Inst.,  xxxix.  (1907)  pp.  139-44  (1  pi.). 
t  Records  Indian  Museum,  ii.  (1908)  pp.  21-4  (1  pi.). 
J  Op.  cit.,  i.  (1907)  pp.  387-92  (1  pi.).  §  Loc.  cit. 

§  Op.  cit.,  ii.  (1908)  pp.  25-8  (5  figs.). 
||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  97-9  (1  pi.). 
f  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  lii.  (1908)  pp.  357-78  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  507 

verse  fission  ;  it  approaches  Bougainvilliidae  in  having  a  single  circlet  of 
filiform  tentacles  and  a  cylindrical  hypostome  not  constricted  off  from 
the  body  of  the  hydranth. 

The  new  genus  may  be  defined  as  follows  : — Hydvocaulus  consisting 
of  long  unbranched  stems  rising  at  short  intervals  from  a  small  hori- 
zontal hydrorhiza,  the  latter  invested  by  a  delicate  annulated  perisarc 
continued  on  to  the  bases  of  the  stems. 

Hydranths  claviform,  with  a  small  number  (commonly  four  or 
five)  of  hollow  filiform  tentacles  arranged  in  a  circlet  around  the 
thickest  part  of  the  body. 

Hypostome  cylindrical,  not  constricted  at  its  base.  Asexual  repro- 
duction by  budding  and  transverse  fission. 

Medusa  developed  from  the  body  of  the  hydranth  ;  when  liberated, 
globular  with  four  unbranched  radial  canals  and  tentacles.  Mouth  simple. 
Manubrium  very  short  ;  the  stomach  region  provided  with  per-radial 
pouches  which  in  the  adult  are  produced  into  finger-shaped  diverticula 
extending  down  the  sub-umbrella.  Gonads  developed  on  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  stomach  and  its  diverticula. 

It  is  likely  that  Mwrisia  is  a  relic  of  the  fauna  of  the  Pliocene  sea 
which  once  covered  the  Fayuin  depression. 

Porifera. 

Spicules  of  Leucosolenia.* — E.  A.  Minchin  discusses  the  monaxon 
spicules  and  describes  their  origin — each  arising  from  a  dermal 
epithelial  cell  that  divides  into  two,  the  "  founder  "  and  the  "thickener." 
The  triradiate  systems  are  then  dealt  with  ;  they  arise  from  sextets  of 
cells,  two  of  which  give  rise  to  each  ray  of  the  spicule.  The  gastral 
rays  and  the  derelict  spicules  in  Leucosolenia  complicata  are  then 
discussed.  Conspicuous  rounded  cells,  full  of  coarse  granules,  arranged 
in  a  superficial  layer  and  in  many  cases  appearing  to  be  in  process  of 
being  cast  off,  are  described  as  excretory. 

The  author  believes  that  the  forms  of  monaxon  spicules  are  not 
explicable  in  terms  of  the  physical  properties  of  the  material  or  as  the 
direct  mechanical  outcome  of  the  conditions  in  which  they  develop. 
The  monaxon  spicules  owe  the  peculiarities  of  their  form  chiefly  (perhaps 
entirely)  to  their  relations  to  the  sponge-body,  and  are  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  the  organism.  But  while  the  forms  of  primary  spicules  are 
determined  solely  by  their  relation  to  the  organism,  and  in  no  way  by 
their  crystalline  structure,  when  primary  spicules  are  joined  to  form 
secondary  systems,  crystallisation  may  be  a  condition  determining  the 
angles  at  which  they  join. 

Encystation  of  Actinosphaerium  at  Different  Temperatures.! — 
Doris  L.  Mackinuon  finds  that  at  a  low  temperature,  specimens  of 
Actinosphc&rium  eichhorni  form  small  and  numerous  cysts,  with  nuclei 
scarcely  below  normal  size,  but  markedly  rich  in  chromatin. 

At  a  high  temperature,  the  cysts   formed   are   large   and   few   in 

*  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  Hi.  (1908)  pp.  301-55  (5  pis.  and  5  figs.), 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  407-22  (1  pi.  and  1  fig.). 


598  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

[lumber,  with  nuclei  scarcely  larger  than  those  of  the  cold  cultures,  hut 
poor  in  chromatin. 

Lowered  temperature  paralyses  the  cell-functious  to  some  extent. 
Nuclear  elimination  is  slow  and  incomplete,  as  indicated  by  (1)  the  large 
number  of  nuclei  retained  from  the  mother-cyst  reduction  to  act  as 
centres  for  primary  cysts  :  (2)  the  superabundance  of  chromatin  in 
these  nuclei ;  (3)  the  occurrence  of  two  nuclei  in  one  primary  cyst,  and 
(4)  the  occurrence  of  occasional  "  dead "  nuclei  within  the  groups  of 
primary  cysts. 

In  many  of  the  cultures,  encystation  set  •  in  during  the  oncome  of  a 
"  depression  "  wave,  and  it  was  found  that  in  an  encystation  culture  of 
depressed  individuals  the  nuclear  elimination  tends  to  be  incomplete. 

Haplosporidian  of  Flounder.* — Muriel  Robertson  describes  a  species 
oildithijospnrkliiim  from  the  liver,  the  wall  of  the  stomach  and  intestine, 
and  the  mesentery  of  the  flounder.  It  causes  much  disturbance  of  the 
tissues  of  the  host  and  proliferation  of  the  connective-tissue.  It  is  com- 
pared with  /.  gasterophilum,  described  by  Caullery  and  Mesnil,  from 
which  it  differs  in  various  respects.  Thus  a  well-developed  cyst-wall  is 
generally  present ;  the  nuclei  show  fine  rays  between  the  karyosome  and 
the  nuclear  membrane,  plasmotomy  occurs,  the  annual  comes  out  of  its 
cyst  and  breaks  up  into  reproductive  bodies  which  appear  to  be  binucleate. 

Protozoa. 

Botellina.f — P.  G.  Pearcey  discusses  the  remarkable  Foraminifera 
referred  to  the  genus  BotelUna,  and  describes  B.  pinnata,  a  new  species 
from  the  Cape.  It  is  conspicuous  among  Astrorhizidse  by  its  size 
(1  to  2\  inches  in  height,  with  a  diameter  of  T\  to  -f  of  an  inch),  and  by 
its  walls  subdivided  into  chambers  which  communicate  freely  with  a 
main  tubular  chamber  running  through  the  whole  test.  The  arenaceous 
test  is  free,  erect,  pinnate,  rising  from  a  primordial  chamber  with 
pseudopodial  openings  situated  at  the  extremity  of  the  pinnate  out- 
growths. The  author  has  had  abundant  specimens  at  his  disposal  and 
gives  a  full  account  of  this  remarkable  type. 

Archerina,  Golenkinia,  and  Botryococcus.J — E.  Ray  Lankester 
points  out  that  Chodat's  Oolmkinia  radiata  (1894),  and  Lemmermann's 
Richteriella  botryoides  (18138),  are  the  same  as  his  Archerina  (1885). 
He  thinks,  however,  that  Archerina  is  one  of  the  simpler  Protophyta, 
not  a  Protozoon.  It  occurs  frequently  in  close  association  with 
amoeboid  protoplasm,  probably  belonging  to  a  Vampyrella-like  organism. 

The  author  also  arives  an  account  of  observations  made  nearlv  twenty- 
five  years  ago  on  what  he  called  "cayenne-pepper  growth,"  found 
floating  on  the  surface  of  English  lakes.  His  drawings  are  also 
published.  The  organism  turns  out  to  be  Botryococcus  bra-unit  of 
Ktitzing,  of  which  Chodat  has  published  a  full  description  and  figure. 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Phys.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xvii.  (1908)  pp.  175-87  (2  pis.). 
t  Trans.  S.  African  Phil.  Soc,  xvii.  (1908)  pp.  185-94  (1  pi.  and  1  fig.). 
t  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  iii.  (1908)  pp.  423-30  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  599 

Remarkable  Adaptation  in  Onychodactylus  Acrobates.  * —  A. 
Brodsky  notes  that  this  holotrichous  Infusorian,  which  he  has  studied 
on  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  attaches  itself  to  seaweed  by  a  long 
resistant  anchoring  filament,  which  it  secretes  from  its  conical  "  foot." 
Whenever  this  foot  or  appendix  touches  a  solid  body  it  fixes  a  filament, 
and  the  Infusorian  may  ride  like  a  ship  at  anchor.  This  is  an  interest- 
ing adaptation  to  littoral  life. 

Patagonian  Protozoa.!— G.  Entz,  senior,  reports  on  a  collection  of 
fresh- water  Protozoa  (23  species)  from  Patagonia.  Most  of  them  are 
represented  in  the  European  plankton,  but  the  collection  included 
numerous  specimens  of  Acineta  tripharetrata  sp.  n.  Of  this  and  of  Toco- 
phrya  cyelopum  a  detailed  account  is  given. 

Tokophrya  Cyclopum. +—B.  Collin  has  studied  the  short-stalked 
form  of  this  Infusorian,  which  is  common  on  the  antenna?  and  appen- 
dages of  Cyclops.  He  notes  that  the  canal  of  the  contractile  vacuole 
opens  into  the  base  of  an  "  embryonal  cavity,"  much  larger  than  the 
"embryo."  The  latter  fixes  itself  by  the  pole  which  is  anterior  in 
swimming  :  this  is  the  more  pointed  pole,  furthest  from  the  nucleus, 
inclosing  the  basal  secretion  of  the  future  stalk  ;  the  other  pole  has  a 
rudimentary  ad  oral  zone  of  cilia.  The  same  phenomena  were  seen  in 
another  Infusorian  found  on  Cyclops,  namely,  Choanophrya  infundi- 
bulifera  Hartog,  which  seems  to  be  a  Tokophrya.  In  unfavourable  con- 
ditions Tokophrya,  becomes  mobile,  returning  to  an  embryonic  condition 
or  undergoing  a  sort  of  moult. 

Hgemogregaxine  of  the  Eel.§ — C.  France  describes  Emmoyreyarina 
bettencourti  sp.  n.  from  the  eel.  It  seems  to  be  quite  distinct  from 
E.  liynieresi,  which  Laveran  described  in  eels  from  near  Buenos  Ayres. 

Trypanosomes  of  the  Frog.|| — C.  Franca  finds  that  the  Inverte- 
brate host  of  Trypanosoma  costatum  and  T.  rotator  ium  is  a  leech, 
Helobdella  dlgira,  which  also  transmits  T.  mopinatum. 

Notes  on  Myxosporidia.^]" — L.  Mercier  has  studied  Boferellus  cyprini 

in  various  stages  which  occur  in  the  tubules  of  the  carp's  kiduey.  He 
finds  a  valve-nucleus  in  each  of  the  two  valves  of  the  spore,  and  he 
finds  that  the  peculiar  "  yellow  bodies  "  found  in  the  kidney  along  with 
Myxobolus  cyprini,  or  in  healthy  fishes,  are  the  residues  of  normal 
phagocytosis. 

Parasite  of  Male  Starfish. — Casimir  Cepede**  describes  Orchitophrya 

stellarum  g.  et  sp.  n.,  an  astomatous  Infusorian  which  causes  degenera- 
tion of  some  of  the  cells  of  the  testes  of  the  common  starfish  (Asterias 
rubens),  causing  partial  parasitic  castration. 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  viii.  (1908)  Notes  et  Kevue,  No.  2,  pp.  li.-liii.  (1  fig.), 
t  Math.  Nat.  Ber.  Ungarn.,  xxi.  (1907)  pp.  84-112  (2  pis.  and  7  figs.). 
X  Arch.   Zool.  Exper.,  viii.  (1908)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  2,  pp.  xxxiii.-xxxix. 
(2  figs.).  §  Bull.  Soc.  Portugaise  Sci.  Nat.,  i.  (1908)  pp.  165-8. 

||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  169-70. 

^f  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  viii.  (1908)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  2,  pp.  liii.-lxii.  (5  figs.). 
**  Comptes  Reudus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  1305-6. 


600  SUMMABY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

The  author*  has  been  able  to  keep  this  new  parasite  alive  for  half 
an  hmir  in  the  testicular  juice,  and  for  sixteen  days  in  a  mixture  of 
a  small  quantity  of  testicular  juice  and  sea-salt  solution.  In  the  latter 
it  exhibits  an  adaptation  to  what  approaches  a  marine  medium.  It 
changes  its  mode  of  locomotion,  twisting  in  a  gyratory  fashion  on  its 
longitudinal  axis,  its  cilia  beat  much  more  rapidly,  and  the  endoplasm 
becomes  much  clearer  owing  to  the  disappearance  of  accumulated  reserve 
products. 

Culture  of  Treponema  pallidum  in  vitro.t —  C.  Lebailly  has  suc- 
ceeded in  keeping  Treponema,  pallidum  Schaudinn  alive  for  some  days 
in  vitro,  apart  from  the  living  organism.  It  continued  to  multiply  in 
these  conditions.  This  may  lead  to  fruitful  experiments  in  the  way  of 
acclimatising  the  micro-organism  to  controlled  conditions. 

*  Comptes  Eendus,  cxlv.  (1907)  pp.  1435-7. 
f  Op.  cit.,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  312-14. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  601 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including  Cell-Contents. 

Autolysis  of  Mitosis.*— A.  Oes  has  studied  mitosis  in  Vicia  Fdba, 
Pisum  sativum,  Hdianthus  annum,  etc.,  with  the  following  results. 
Those  cells  where  mitosis  has  just  started,  but  where  further  develop- 
ment has  been  prevented  by  the  addition  of  chloroform,  toluol,  or  any 
similar  substance,  contain  an  enzyme  which  can  dissolve  chromatin. 
This  enzyme  is  most  rapid  in  action  during  ineta-,  ana-,  and  telophase, 
slower  during  prophase,  and  very  slow  indeed  in  the  resting  nucleus. 
In  autolysis  the  spindle-threads  can  no  longer  be  made  out,  while  the 
nuclear  membrane  and  nucleolus  of  the  resting  nucleus  remain  un- 
changed. Temperatures  from  80-40°  C.  favour  autolysis  ;  at  80-90°  C. 
it  is  completely  destroyed.  A  dilute  solution  of  substances  like  nitre 
favour  it,  while  the  reverse  effect  is  produced  by  copper-sulphate,  etc. 
The  enzyme  is  readily  destroyed  by  free  acids,  but  is  uninjured  by 
strong  alkalis.  Nuclein  is  probably  destroyed  by  it,  and  the  diminu- 
tion of  chromatic  material  during  telophase  is  probably  due  to  its 
action.  The  experiments  seem  to  oppose  the  view  that  hereditary 
characters  are  transmitted  through  the  chromatin. 

Cytology  of  Pollen-mother-cells  of  Agave  attenuata.t  —  Er.  de 
Lary,  who  has  studied  the  pollen-mother-cells  of  several  of  the  Amaryl- 
lidacesB,  contributes  a  note  upon  Agave.  Prior  to  synapsis  the  nucleus 
is  completely  filled  by  a  fine  linin  network,  the  filaments  of  which 
bear  small  chromatin  corpuscles  ;  but  the  author  has  been  unable  to 
find  any  association  in  pairs  of  either  the  corpuscles  or  the  filaments. 
In  the  early  synapsis  stage  there  is  no  fusion  in  pairs  of  the  chromatic 
corpuscles,  and  a  little  later  the  chromatin  granules  appear  in  a  single 
row  ;  at  no  time  is  there  any  sign  of  longitudinal  splitting  or  of  fusion 
of  two  filaments.  It  is  probable  that  the  chromosomes  are  formed 
by  concentration  of  the  chromatin,  similar  to  the  chromosome-formation 
of  NympJma  alba  and  Nuphar  luteum.  The  author  favours  the  view 
held  by  Mottier  in  regard  to  other  Monocotyledons,  viz.  the  formation 
of  simple  chromosomes  by  the  transverse  splitting  of  a  double  chromo- 
some. Sometimes  detached  chromosomes  form  accessory  nuclei  during 
the  early  stages,  but  they  disappear  later,  either  through  fusion  with  the 
main  nucleus,  or  by  absorption  into  the  cytoplasm  ;  and  the  author 
considers  that  this  refutes  the  theory  that  supernumerary  nuclei  are 
specially  characteristic  of  hybrids. 

*  Bot.  Zeit.,  lxvi.  (1908)  pp.  89-120  (1  pi.), 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  833-fi. 


602  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Structure  and  Development, 
Vegretative. 

Red  Wood  in  Conifers.* — J.  White  has  carried  out  a  number  of 
experiments  upon  Conifers  in  order  to  test  the  truth  of  the  suggestion 
that  the  formation  of  red  wood  is  "  a  morphogenic  response  to  a  gravi- 
bational  stimulus."  The  plants  used  were  grown  in  pots  and  rotated 
on  a  klinostat,  and  the  results  show  that,  while  the  formation  of  red 
wood  is  due  to  the  stimulus  of  gravity,  the  thickness  of  its  tracheids 
appears  to  be  the  result  of  a  light-stimulus  ;  the  tracheid  walls  of 
strougly  illuminated  branches  were  always  thicker  than  those  under  a 
less  intense  illumination.  Under  similar  conditions,  the  walls  of  the 
tracheids  of  both  red  and  white  wood  were  of  equal  thickness.  It  is 
improbable  that  pressure  and  tension  produced  by  forcibly  curving  the 
branches  has  any  effect  upon  the  thickness  of  the  tracheids  of  either 
white  or  red  wood,  or  upon  the  formation  of  red  wood.  The  minimum 
time  for  response  to  the  stimulus  of  gravity  in  the  production  of  red 
wood  is  2  hours. 

Embryology  in  the  Palmaceas,  Musaceae,  and  Cannaceae.t  —  C.  L. 
Gatin  contributes  a  note  upon  his  recent  studies  of  the  anatomy  and 
development  of  the  embryo  in  the  Palniaceas,  Musaceae,  and  Cannaceae. 
The  embryos  have  several  points  in  common,  of  which  the  following 
are  the  most  important.  They  are  all  surrounded  by  an  epidermis  which 
is  discontinuous  opposite  the  radicle,  where  it  gives  place  to  irregular 
cells  representing  the  remains  of  the  suspensor.  The  central  cylinder 
of  the  radicle  is  well-defined  from  the  first,  but  its  cortex  and  cap 
differ  greatly  in  their  degree  of  differentiation.  In  all  cases  the  radicle 
is  endogenous,  being  most  markedly  so  in  Pinanga  and  Calamus,  which, 
in  this  respect,  resemble  the  Grasses.  There  are  two  phases  of  develop- 
ment in  germination  :  (1)  the  phase  of  preparation,  (2)  the  phase  of 
germination  proper  ;  in  the  former  the  seedling  issues  from  the  seed, 
while  in  the  latter  the  various  organs  complete  their  development. 
In  Palms  the  growth  of  the  cotyledon  is  very  great,  but  the  shape  is 
determined  by  the  interior  of  the  seed  ;  in  Cannaceas  and  Musacea?  the 
growth  is  less,  but  the  form  more,  primitive.  As  stated  previously, 
when  the  plumule  and  radicle  are  in  the  same  straight  line,  no  ligule 
is  formed,  while  if  the  angle  between  the  radicle  and  plumule  is  less  than 
180°,  a  ligule  is  present. 

Hibernation  and  Vegetative  Reproduction  of  Stellaria.i — T. 
Holm  has  studied  American  species  of  Stellar/)/,  and  distinguishes 
three  types  of  vegetative  reproduction.  The  first  type,  represented 
by  S.  p ahcra,  has  no  rhizome,  but  persisting  aerial  stolons.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  shoots  :  floral,  which  die  down  when  the  fruit  is  mature, 
and  vegetative,  which  arise  as  horizontal  branches,  and  form  new 
individuals.  As  soon  as  these  vegetative  shoots  have  formed  roots, 
the  internodes  break  down  and  produce  separate  plants,  which  hibernate 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Victoria  (n.s.)  xx.  2  (1908)  pp.  107-24. 

t  Comptes'Reudus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  93S-10. 

\  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  315-22  (G  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  603 

by  perennial  stem-bases.  The  second  type,  represented  by  S.  lonf/i/ie* 
and  S.  umbellata,  persists  by  "  hibernating  buds  above  ground  and  by 
subterranean  stolons."  This  type  is  very  characteristic  of  plants 
subject  to  extreme  climatic  conditions.  The  third  type,  represented  by 
8.  Jamesii,  has  a  well-developed  rhizome,  but  the  aerial  stems  are  annual. 
The  rhizome  is  much  swollen,  and  bears  membranous,  scale-like  leaves  ; 
only  those  buds  which  are  near  the  apex  develop  into  aerial,  floral  shoots, 
other  buds  remain  dormant.  The  third  type  appears  to  be  rare  in  the 
Caryophyllaceae. 

Physiology. 
Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Transpiration.* — G.  L.  Clapp  has  studied  transpiration  with  the 
view  of  discovering  what  plants  are  most  suitable  for  purposes  of  class- 
demonstration.  The  results  obtained  are  recorded  in  a  series  of  graphs, 
which  bring  out  the  following  facts.  Transpiration  is  at  its  maximum 
when  sunlight  is  most  intense,  moisture  is  least,  and  there  is  a  good 
supply  of  water  in  the  soil.  The  minimum  is  reached  when  temperature 
is  low,  atmospheric  moisture  is  near  the  point  of  saturation,  and  dark- 
ness is  complete.  Transpiration  is  extremely  sensitive  to  slight  changes 
in  external  conditions,  and  points  to  the  possibility  that  the  relation 
between  such  conditions  and  the  amount  of  vapour  given  off  is  not 
purely  physical,  but  "  involves  the  action  of  the  conditions  as  stimuli." 
Of  the  plants  examined,  Helianthus  annum  transpires  most,  but  is  un- 
suitable for  class-demonstration.  Among  those  most  suitable  for  such 
purposes  are  TropcRoluni  majus,  Pelargonium  domesticum,  and  Fuchsia 
speciosa.  The  average  amount  of  transpiration  for  ordinary  green-house 
plants  is  50  grin,  per  hour  per  square  metre  of  surface  in  daylight,  and 
10  grm.  in  night-time. 

Irritability. 

Geotropic  Sensibility  of  the  Root.f — Gr.  Haberlandt  has  investi- 
gated the  statements  of  A.  Piccards  as  to  the  geotropic  sensibility  of 
the  root.  Having  repeated  the  experiments  made  by  this  investigator, 
the  present  writer  is  led  to  agree  with  bis  conclusions,  which  are  briefly 
as  follows  :  Ttie  geotropic  sensibility  of  the  root  extends  from  the  root- 
tip  to  the  zone  of  growth,  but  is  greater  in  the  tip,  especially  at  a 
distance  of  1*5  to  2  mm.  from  the  end.  This  greater  sensibility  of  the 
root-tip  corresponds  to  the  larger  number  of  statoliths  in  the  root-cap. 
The  sensibility  in  the  zone  of  growth  is  clue  to  the  statoliths  of  the 
periblem.  Usually  the  statoliths  are  deposited  irregularly,  but  in  the 
zone  of  most  rapid  growth  in  Vicia  Fdba  they  are  in  layers.  By  the  appli- 
cation of  a  sufficiently  great  centrifugal  force,  the  position  of  the  stato- 
liths in  relation  to  the  cell-walls  may  be  changed,  and  the  response  to 
the  force  of  gravity  overcome.  All  the  experiments  performed  favour 
the  Statolith  Theory. 

*  Bot.  Gaz.,  xlv.  (1908)  pp.  254-67  (-2  figs.,  30  graphs). 
f  Jahrb.  wiss.  Bot.,  xlv.  (1908)  pp.  575-600  (2  figs.). 


ti(J4  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Influence  of  Light  and  Colours  on  Yeast.*-- J.  E.  Purvis  and 
Gr.  R.  Warwick  have  experimented  with  different  species  of  Saccharomyces 
in  order  to  show  the  inllnence  uf  ravs  of  light  of  different  refrangi- 
bility  upon  the  appearance  and  production  of  spores.  Red,  green,  and 
blue  screens  were  used,  and  the  yeast  was  kept  in  an  Incubator  at 
24-25c  C.  In  four  series  of  experiments  the  results  show  that  while 
blue  and  violet  retard  sporulation  in  a  most  marked  manner,  and  green 
to  a  less  extent,  red  rays  produce  the  same  effect  as  darkness.  Ultra- 
violet rays  produce  the  greatest  retardation.  The  influence  of  radium 
was  also  tested,  and  found  to  destroy  the  vitality  of  the  cell.  In 
general,  it  is  found  that  rays  of  low  refrangibility  accelerate  spore 
formation,  and  vice  versa.  Experiments  made  on  the  influence  of  light 
and  colours  upon  fermentation  of  hopped  wort  show  that  fermenting 
solutions  are  not  seriously  influenced  by  these  factors. 

Chemical  Changes. 

Effects  of  Poisonous  Gases  on  Plants.f — W.  J.  V.  Osterhout  has 
made  experiments  on  various  plants,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  in  order 
to  ascertain  whether  it  is  possible  to  distinguish  the  effects  of  poison- 
ous gases  from  those  due  to  drought,  root-injury,  and  other  natural 
causes.  All  the  experiments  confirm  the  opinion  that,  while  drought 
and  natural  causes  result  in  the  fading  of  the  leaves,  beginning  from 
the  oldest,  various  poisonous  gases,  e.g.  sulphur  dioxide,  cause  the  young 
leaves  to  fade  long  before  the  old  ones.  Also  the  young  rind  of  stems 
is  quickly  injured  by  drought,  but  endures  the  action  of  sulphur  dioxide 
for  a  considerable  time. 

Value  of  Sodium  to  Plants.  %  —  The  same  author  has  experi- 
mented with  plants  grown  in  water-cultures  and  in  soil,  with  the  view  of 
discovering  whether  sodium  can  be  used  as  a  protective  agent  to  plants. 
Experiments  were  made  with  various  flowering  plants,  liverworts,  algae, 
and  fungi,  and  tend  to  show  that  sodium  can  protect  plants  against  the 
toxic  action  of  potassium,  ammonium,  magnesium,  and  calcium.  The 
sodium  has  no  nutritive  function,  but  is  only  protective  ;  moreover, 
both  chlorides  and  nitrates  give  similar  results.  These  results  show  a 
striking  similarity  between  the  behaviour  of  plants  and  animals,  and  may 
prove  of  great  value  in  agriculture. 

General. 

Origin  of  Parasitic  Plants.§— C.  A.  White  has  studied  parasitic 
Seed  Plants  with  the  view  of  discovering  something  as  to  their  aggre- 
gate origin.  He  divides  them  into  seven  groups.  Group  I.  includes 
partial  parasites  which  prey  upon  the  roots  of  host-plants  for  part  of 
their  nourishment.  Group  II.  includes  complete  parasites,  which,  how- 
ever, are  nearly  normal  in  structure,  e.g.  Mistletoe.    Group  III.  contains 

*  Joura.  Inst.  Brew.,  xiv.  (1908)  pp.  214-33.  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  339-40. 

t  Univ.  Californ.  Bot.  Publications,  iii.  (1908)  pp.  331-7. 
§  Amer.  Nat.,  xlii.  (1908)  pp.  98-108. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  605 

only  Lathrcea  squamaria.  Group  IV.  includes  Cuscuta  and  Gassytha, 
Group  V.  the  Orobanchacese,  Group  VI.  Raffiesia  and  allied  genera, 
while  Group  VII..  represented  by  the  Balanophoracese,  shows  the  highest 
degree  of  modification.  The  method  of  parasitism  of  each  group  is 
shared  equally  by  every  member,  and  this  method  is  distinct  from  that 
of  each  of  the  other  groups.  All  parasitic  habits  and  structures  appear 
to  be  inherited.  None  of  the  types  show  any  tendency  to  revert  to 
normal  conditions,  and  although  the  fruit  and  flowers  show  that  these 
parasites  were  originally  normal  Phanerogams,  no  transitional  types 
can  be  discovered.  The  author  assumes  that  phanerogamic  parasites 
have  originated  "  by  sudden  and  aggregate  mutation  from  normal 
Phanerogams." 

Ultramicroscopic  Organisms.* — H.  Molisch  publishes  the  results  of 
his  observations  made  in  the  attempt  to  discover  ultramicroscopic 
organisms.  So  far  no  such  bodies  have  been  made  out  with  certainty, 
and  the  author  is  of  the  opinion  that  if  they  do  exist,  they  are  of  little 
importance  and  relatively  few.  All  bodies  previously  thought  to  belong 
to  this  class  have  proved,  on  further  investigation,  to  be  colonies  of 
minute  bacteria,  and  the  present  results  confirm  the  opinion  put  forward 
by  Errera,  that  any  existing  ultramicrobes  cannot  be  much  smaller  than 
the  smallest  known  organisms.  Investigations  made  upon  the  mosaic 
disease  of  tobacco  and  the  chlorosis  of  the  Malvaceae,  make  it  probable 
that  diseases  hitherto  ascribed  to  microbes  are  due  to  the  toxic  action  of 
some  assimilation-product. 


CRYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 

(By  A.  Gepp,  M.A.,  F.L.S.) 

Effect  of  Light  upon  Spore-germination.f — A.  C.  Life  describes 
the  effect  of  light  upon  the  germination  of  spores  and  the  gametophyte 
of  ferns.  The  spores  of  Alsophila  australis  germinated  a  year  after 
collection,  those  of  other  ferns  germinated  as  soon  as  they  were  dry. 
Ordinarily  the  spores  do  not  germinate  in  darkness.  At  temperatures 
above  that  of  ordinary  rooms  the  spores  of  Alsophila  and  Aneimia  would 
not  germinate.  Germination  was  best  in  light  of  medium  intensity, 
weaker  light  inducing  filamentous  or  ribbon-like  prothallia,  while  strong 
light  induced  heart-shaped  prothallia.  Strong  light  led  to  the  production 
of  only  archegonia  in  Alsophila,  but  of  both  sex-organs  in  the  other 
species.  Weak  light  favours  the  production  of  antheridia  and  inhibits 
that  of  archegonia. 

Ophioglossum  simplex.^ — P.  0.  Bower  publishes  a  further  note  on 
Ophioglossum  simplex  Ridley,  a  unique  species  from  Sumatra  described  by 

*  Bot.  Zeit.,  lxvi.  (190S)  pp.  131-9. 

t  Ann.  Rep.  Mo.  Bot.  Gard.,  xix.  (1907)  pp.  109-22.  See  also  Bot.  Gazette, 
xlv.  (1908)  p.  421.  X  Ann.  of  Bot.,  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  327-8. 


606  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

him  in  the  same  periodical  four  years  previously.  It  is  remarkable  for 
the  apparent  absence  of  the  sterile  lamina,  while  the  fertile  spike  is  well 
developed.  This  may  be  attributed  to  the  presence  of  mycorhiza,  which 
facilitates  the  nutrition  of  the  large  spike  in  the  dense  wet  forest,  though 
the  sterile  assimilatory  lamina  is  absent.  He  has  received  further 
Sumatran  specimens  from  E.  Rosenstock,  and  these  possess  a  more  or  Less 
pronounced  outgrowth,  which  clearly  represents  a  sterile  lamina,  thus 
linking  the  species  closer  with  0.  intermedium,  and  0.  pendulum,  and 
justifying  the  view  that  0.  simplex  is  a  reduced  and  not  a  primitive 
form.  He  adduces  other  anatomical  reasons  for  rebutting  D.  H. 
Campbell's  views  that  the  plant  is  a  primitive  form. 

Production  of  Dwarf  Male  Prothalli  in  Sporangia  of  Todea.* — 
L.  A.  Boodle,  when  examining  sporangia  of  filmy  species  of  Todea  (T. 
FraseridbDA  T.  hymmophylloides),  found  antheridia  in  some  of  the  closed 
sporangia,  and  gives  an  account  of  his  observations.  When  plants  of 
T.  Fraseri  are  kept  in  a  sufficiently  damp  atmosphere,  sporangia  do  not 
dehisce,  and  a  number  of  spores  germinate  in  situ  ;  among  the  simple 
few-celled  prothalli  produced  being  some  that  bear  a  single  terminal 
antheridium.  Similar  iutrasporangial  germination  takes  place  in  de- 
tached sporangia  if  kept  moist,  antheridia  being  produced  after  three 
weeks.  The  prothalli  do  not  burst  the  sporangial  wall,  but  die.  Free 
spores,  placed  under  the  same  conditions  as  the  sporangia,  never  pro- 
duced dwarf  male  prothalli,  but  formed  normal  prothalli,  which  within 
the  limits  of  the  author's  experiments  never  produced  sexual  organs.  In 
T.  hymmophylloides  the  spores  germinate  less  readily,  antheridiferous 
prothalli  being  found  in  closed  sporangia  in  only  one  or  two  experiments. 
The  formation  of  dwarf  male  prothalli  in  the  sporangium  is  possibly 
due  to  the  concentration  of  certain  organic  food  substances,  caused  by 
pressure  of  the  growing  spores  in  the  confined  space.  The  concentration 
may  lead  to  special  nutrition  of  the  protoplasm,  resulting  in  precocious 
formation  of  sexual  organs. 

Water-storing  Tubers  of  Nephrolepis.f — J.  W.  Harshberger  gives 
a  resume  of  what  has  been  written  by  Yelenovsky,  Heinricher,  and 
others,  about  the  tubers  of  various  species  of  Nephrolepis  and  their 
function.  He  has  himself  investigated  the  tubers  of  two  species,  N. 
cordifolia  and  N.  davallioides,  and  finds  himself  somewhat  at  variance 
with  previous  writers.  The  principal  function  of  the  tubers  can  definitely 
be  stated  to  be  water  storage,  and  the  amount  of  water  stored  is  consider- 
able.    The  tubers  aid  the  plant  in  tiding  over  the  periods  of  drought. 

North  American  Pteridophyta. — A.  H.TrundyJ  describes  the  method 
of  growth  of  Lycopodium  sabincefolium  in  Maine,  where  it  occurs  in  large 
circles  (up  to  150  ft.  in  circumference),  ever  growing  outwards,  the 
younger  plants  being  situated  on  the  outside  margin  of  the  belt,  and 
the  fruiting  plants  on  the  inside  margin.  The  space  within  the  circle 
is  covered  with  Cladonia  rangiferina.  A  similar  circular  manner  of 
growth  is  noticeable  in  L.  inundatum. 


o 


*  Ann.  of  Bot.,  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  231-43  (1  pi.), 
t  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  271-6. 
t  Fern  Bulletin,  xv.  (1907)  pp  70-1. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICEOSCOPY,    ETC.  007 

W.  N.  Clute  *  figures  and  names  a  new  bipinnatifid  form  of  the 
Christmas  fern  (Polystkham  aero sticho ides),  and  also  gives  a  brief 
account  of  the  sports  of  the  so-called  "  Boston  fern  "  of  cultivation 
(Nephrolepis  exaltata). 

He  also  writes  f  about  the  wholesale  destruction  caused  by  the  col- 
lection and  sale  of  ferns  and  evergreens  for  decorative  purposes. 

He  publishes  $  a  series  of  notes  under  the  title  "  Pteridographia," 
chiefly  embodying  items  of  information  supplied  by  correspondents. 

C*  E.  Waters  §  publishes  some  details  concerning  the  habit  of  Aspi- 
dium  cristatum,  on  the  vertically  growing  fertile  fronds  of  which  the 
pinnae  are  turned  into  a  horizontal  situation,  or  so  as  to  catch  the 
maximum  amount  of  illumination.  He  also  points  out  that  Equisetum 
hy&mafo,  which  is  recorded  as  "fruiting  in  summer,"  discharges  its 
spores  in  early  spring. 

J.  A.  Graves  ||  states  the  simpler  characters  by  which  Aspidium 
spinulosum,  its  varieties  intermedium,  dilatum,  and  A.  Boottii — may  be 
recognised  and  distinguished  from  one  another. 

W.  N.  Clutef  figures  and  describes  Doryopteris  pedata,  a  fern  of 
tropical  America  which  is  included  in  Pteris  by  some  authors. 

He  reports  **  a  new  station  in  Florida  for  the  rare  Hypolepis  repens, 
only  once  found  previously  in  the  United  States. 

He  calls  attention  ft  to  a  hybrid  between  Asplenium  ruta-muraria  and 
A.  trichomanes,  found  in  Vermont  in  1905.  He  discusses  the  application 
of  the  laws  of  nomenclature  to  the  new  Struthiopteris  yermanica  f. 
pubescens.  Much  confusion  existing  between  Nephrodium  patens  and 
N.  molle,  he  shows  how  these  two  species  can  be  distinguished  from  one 
another  and  from  N.  stipulate.  Finally,  he  publishes  a  further  portion 
of  his  checklist  of  the  North  American  Fern  worts,  comprising  the  genera 
Selayinella  and  Isoetes. 

C.  F.  Saunders  IX  records  the  re-discovery  of  Gheilanthes  Parishii,  in 
the  Colorado  desert,  after  a  lapse  of  twenty-seven  years  ;  and  Parish's 
description  of  the  locality  in  which  it  was  originally  found  is  reproduced. 

J.  Shepard§§  shows  how  a  nature-print  negative  may  be  easily 
obtained  from  a  fern  or  other  plant,  and  used  for  making  positive  prints 
of  the  original. 

South  American  Ferns.  |||| — G.  Hieronymus  publishes  a  third  in- 
stalment of  vascular  cryptogams  gathered  by  Alfons  Stiibel  during  his 
travels  in  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Bolivia.  It  is  an  enumeration 
of  133  species,  including  14  new  species  and  several  new  varieties. 

Descriptions  of*  New  Species  of  Ferns.H — E.  Roscnstock  publishes 
descriptions  of  four  new  species  and  a  variety  of  ferns  from  Sumatra. 
New  Zealand,  and  South  America. 

The  same  author  ***  also  publishes  descriptions  of  twenty-one  new 

*  Fern  Bulletin,  xv.  (1907)  pp.  71-4. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  77-9.  %  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  82-9. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  79,  80,  82.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  80-1. 

%  Op.  cit.,  xvi.  (1908)  pp.  33  -5  (pi.).  **  Tom  cit.,  p.  38. 

ft  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  46-57  (2  figs.).  \\  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  35-7. 

§§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  39-42  (2  figs.).             ||||  Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  204-49. 
^f  Fedde,  Repertorium,  v.  (1908)  pp.  13-17.      ***  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  33-44. 


608  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


ferns  collected  in  New  Guinea  by  E.  Werner.  Among  them  is  the  new 
genus  llrniijilrris.  which  differs  from  Pteris  in  having  the  upper  margin 
of  the  laciniaj  free  from  sori. 

Deciduous  British  Ferns.* — C.  T.  Druery  writes  of  the  deciduous 
British  ferns.  Only  one  of  these  (Polypodium  vulgare)  has  the  property 
of  throwing  off  the  fronds  at  a  basal  joint,  and  this  occurs  in  the  spring. 
The  fronds  of  other  species  die  down  on  the  approach  of  winter.  There 
are,  in  fact,  three  groups  : — (1)  those  that  die  down  entirely  in  autumn, 
viz.  lady  fern,  bladder  fern,  oak  and  beech  ferns,  mountain  Lastrea, 
marsh  fern,  and  royal  fern  ;  (2)  those  that  retain  their  greenness  if 
sheltered  during  winter,  viz.  soft  male  fern  and  broad  buckler  fern  ;  (3) 
the  evergreen  group,  viz.  hard  male  fern,  spleenwort,  hart's-tongue, 
shield  ferns,  and  Blechnum. 

Fossil  Pteridophyta.f  —  T.  6.  Halle  gives  an  account  of  some 
herbaceous  Lycopodiacea?  of  the  palaaozoic  and  mesozoic  periods,  a  sub- 
ject which  was  studied  by  Goldenberg  fifty  years  ago.  It  is  clear  that 
the  species  of  Lycopodium  and  Selaginella  of  the  present  day  must  be 
descended  from  herbaceous  ancestors,  and  not  from  the  highly  organised 
dendroid  Lepidodendroti  and  Sit/Maria.  And  such  herbaceous  forms 
certainly  existed  in  the  Devonian.  The  author  gives  a  resume  of  the 
work  of  Goldenberg,  Schimper,  Renault,  Kidston,  Zeiller,  and  others. 
He  also  adds  descriptions  of  the  following  specimens  :  Lycopodites 
Zeiller  i  sp.  n.,  L.  macrophyllus,  L.  scanicus,  Selagiaellites  primcevus, 
S.  elongatus. 

The  same  author  %  makes  some  remarks  on  the  mesozoic  Equisetacere 
of  Skane. 

Stigmaria  with  Centripetal  Wood.§ — F.  E.  Weiss  describes  the 
structure  of  a  Stigmaria  with  centripetal  wood,  the  first  specimen 
obtained  from  the  English  Coal  Measures.  It  came  from  the  Hard  Beds 
of  Halifax.  The  author  regards  it  rather  as  a  Stigmarian  axis  than 
as  a  stem  of  Lepidodendron  niundum  (as  Williamson  concluded  from 
a  more  fragmentary  specimen)  for  the  following  reasons.  The  periderm 
is  very  wide  and  has  a  peculiar  structure,  and  exhibits  the  remains  of 
what  must  be  rootlet-cushions,  and  there  is  no  hard  primary  outer  cortex. 
The  curious  centrical  lateral  bundles,  and  the  system  of  delicate  reticulate 
tracheids,  show  a  likeness  with  S.  Brardii  Renault.  The  course  of  the 
lateral  bundles  through  the  secondary  wood  is  as  in  another  Stigmaria. 
The  obvious  centripetal  development  of  the  protoxylem,  though  more 
characteristic  of  Lepidodendroid  stems  than  of  Stigmarian  axes,  does 
yet  undoubtedly  occur  in  some  examples  of  Stigmaria.  The  primary 
wood  agrees  closely  with  that  of  L&pidodendron  mundum  (now  identified 
with  Bothrodendron),  and  possibly  both  may  belong  to  the  same  plant. 

Deceased  North  American  Pteridologists.|) — J.  H.  Barnhart  gives 
a  chronological  list  of  the  published  papers  of  the  late  Professor  Lucien 

*  Pern  Bulletin,  xv.  (1907)  pp.  75-6. 

t  Arkiv  Botanik,  vii.  No.  5  (1908)  17  pp.  (3  pis.). 

X  Tom.  cit.,  No.  7  (7  pp.). 

§  Ann.  of  Bot.,  xxii.  (190S)  pp.  221-30  (1  pi.). 

||  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxv.  (190S)  pp.  17-38. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICBOSCOPY,    ETC.  609 

Marcus  Underwood.  These  are  212  in  number  ;  the  first  was  printed 
in  1878,  and  the  last  in  1907,  and  78  of  them  are  concerned  with  the 
Pteridophyta.  It  was  during  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life  that  Under- 
wood gave  his  attention  more  particularly  to  ferns,  collecting  material 
in  the  United  States  and  West  Indies,  and  paying  several  visits  to 
Europe  in  order  to  study  type-specimens  of  American  species. 

W.  N.  Olute*  publishes  obituary  notices  of  Benjamin  Davis  Gilbert, 
Lucien  Marcus  Underwood,  and  George  Edward  Davenport,  leading 
students  of  ferns,  deceased  during  1907. 

Anatomy  and  Morphology  of  Tmesipteris.f — M.  G.  Sykes  describes 
the  external  features  and  the  anatomy  of  Tinesijrteris,  based  upon  material 
obtained  from  New  Zealand,  and  shows  that  there  is  an  endodermis 
surrounding  the  single  stele  in  the  rhizome,  and  that  it  has  characteristic 
markings  on  its  radial  walls.  The  endodermis  loses  these  markings  and 
becomes  less  obvious  at  the  transition  region  ;  and  in  the  aerial  stem  it 
can  no  longer  be  distinguished.  The  pith  arises  in  the  centre  of  the 
stele  in  the  transition  region,  and  quickly  expands  to  form  a  large  tissue 
in  the  stem  ;  the  protostele  passes  into  a  medullated  monostele  without 
the  intermediate  stage  of  solenostele.  Growth  from  a  single  apical  cell 
occurs  in  both  rhizome  and  stem.  In  the  fertile  branch,  as  in  the 
sterile,  the  single  bundle  entering  the  axis  branches  into  three,  the  two 
lateral  traces  supplying  the  leaves.  The  central  bundle  supplies  the 
synangium,  which  occurs  at  the  point  of  divergence  of  the  two  leaves. 
The  single  trace  entering  the  synangium  pedicel  branches  into  three  ; 
the  two  lateral  diverge  and  run  round  the  periphery  of  the  septum.  The 
central  trace,  described  for  the  first  time,  is  an  important  argument  in 
favour  of  the  axial  theory  of  the  sporophyll  in  the  Psilotales,  and  is  re- 
garded by  the  author  as  representing  the  vascular  supply  of  the  apex  of 
the  branch.  The  author  searches  for  evidence  of  phylogenetic  relation- 
ship with  Sphenophyllum. 

Origin  of  Roots  in  Lycopodium.l— E.  M.  Saxelby  gives  an  account 
<>f  the  origin  of  the  roots  in  Lycop odium  Selago.  They  arise  near  the 
apex  of  the  stem,  but  below  the  first  leaves,  before  the  vascular  elements 
have  become  differentiated  ;  and  they  arise  from  a  group  of  cells  :  the 
dermatogen  of  the  root  from  the  innermost  layer  of  the  stem  periblem, 
and  the  periblem  and  plerome  of  the  root  from  the  plerome  of  the  stem. 
The  root-apex  is  divided  into  three  meristematic  regions,  the  dermatogen 
giving  rise  to  the  root-cap  and  epidermis,  and  the  periblem  producing 
four  layers  of  cells  over  the  central  plerome.  The  roots  run  down 
through  the  middle  cortex  of  the  stem  and  emerge  from  the  under  side 
of  it  beneath  the  soil  ;  they  do  not  dichotomise  before  emerging.  Each 
root  is  connected  with  two  protoxylem  groups  of  the  stem  and  the 
inclosed  phloem.  Leaf-traces,  on  the  other  hand,  are  never  connected 
with  more  than  one  set  of  protoxylem  elements.  The  roots  may  be 
diarch  or  tetrarch,  the  metaxylem  of  the  former  being  in  two  parallel 
bauds,  and  that  of  the  latter  being  in  the  shape  of  a  horse-shoe.     The 

*  Fern  Bulletin,  xv.  (1907)  pp.  65-70. 

t  Ann.  of  Bot.,  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  63-89  (2  pis.  and  figs.). 

%  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  21-33  (1  pi.). 

Oct.  21st,  1908  2  s 


610  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

protoxylem  is  formed  of  spiral  and  annular  vessels  ;  the  metaxylem  is  of 
wide  tracheids,  either  scalariform  or  with  several  rows  of  pits.  The 
endodermis  is  of  two  or  three  layers,  the  innermost  cells  having  thickened 
radial  and  transverse  walls.  The  lacunae  of  the  middle  cortex  do  nor 
communicate  with  those  of  the  middle  cortex  of  the  stem.  The  roots 
have  a  firm  outer  cortex  of  thick-walled  cells. 

Types  of  Embryo-development  in  Selaginella.*  —  H.  Bruclimann 
demonstrates  that  Selagindla  Martensii,  on  the  one  hand,  and  S.  Poulteri 
and  S.  Kraussiana  on  the  other,  possess  two  different  types  of  embryo- 
development — a  difference  which  is  characterised  by  the  original 
position  of  the  primary  rhizophore.  In  S.  Martensii  the  first  rhizo- 
phore  arises  between  the  foot  and  suspensor.  In  the  other  type  it 
arises  above  the  suspensor  and  foot.  Although  systematists  have 
arranged  the  species  in  different  groups  according  to  their  external 
characters,  it  does  not  follow  that  these  groups  correspond  with  the 
differences  of  structure  shown  in  the  embryo.  The  development  of 
the  embryo  in  each  of  the  two  types  referred  to  is  described  in  detail, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  paper  a  summarised  comparison  is  appended. 


Bryophyta. 

(By  A.  Gepp.) 

Harpidium  Section  of  Hypnum.j  —  J.  A.  Wheldon  discusses  the 
classification  of  the  difficult  group  of  mosses,  the  Harpidia  adunca  of 
Sanio.  He  gives  several  reasons  for  not  accepting  Renauld's  view,  that 
Hypnum  aduncum,  H.  Sendtneri,  H.  Wilson/,  and  H.  lycopodioides 
should  all  be  regarded  as  sub-species  of  H.  aduncum.  Nor  does  he 
accept  Ingham's  view  that  H.  pseudoftuitans  is  a  state  of  H.  aduncum 
{typicum).  In  the  light  of  his  own  observations,  he  holds  that  the 
varieties  typicum,  intermedium,  and  pseudoftuitans  are  not  convertible 
into  one  another  by  wetter  or  drier  conditions.  The  problem  is  much 
more  complex.  Hardly  anything  is  known  of  the  ecology  and  phy- 
logeny  of  the  mosses.  Why  do  some  mosses  have  straight  leaves,  and 
others  falcate  ?  The  branching  of  the  moss-stem  is  not  determined 
merely  by  such  factors  as  light  and  shade,  vertical  or  lateral  illumination. 
In  attempting  to  trace  the  conversion  of  one  species  into  another  in  this 
critical  group,  the  student  must  avoid  being  misled  by  badly  developed 
specimens.  The  author  then  gives  an  account  of  his  own  field  observa- 
tions on  the  following  species  or  groups  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Liverpool  during  a  period  of  fourteen  years  : — Hypnum  aduncum  Ren.. 
H.  Sendtneri  Schimp.,  H.  Wilsoni  Schimp.  The  numerous  forms  of 
H.  aduncum  are  plentifully  represented  ;  those  of  the  group  Kneiffii  are- 
found  chiefly  inland  and  less  in  pools  near  the  coast,  whereas  the  groups 
pseudoftuitans  and  typicum  occur  near  the  coast  only.  As  to  H.  Sendtneri, 
regarded  as  an  Alpine  plant  on  the  Continent,  in  this  country  it  is  con- 
fined   to   the   plains,  and    especially    to  the  vicinity  of  the  sea-coast. 

*  Flora,  xcix.  (1908)  pp.  12-51  ((figs.). 
t  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  85-94. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  611 

H.  Wilsoni  he  regards  as  a  natural  hybrid  between  H.  Sendtneri  and 

H.  lycopodioides,  and  gives  reasons  for  this  view  ;  for  instance,  he  has 
never  gathered  H.  Wilsoni  except  in  pools  where  H.  Sendtneri  and 
H.  lycopodioides  grow  together.  In  conclusion,  he  appends  a  list  of 
Harpidia  ad  tinea,  based  upon  the  work  of  Sanio,  Renauld,  and  Warnstorf, 
the  main  features  of  which  (apart  from  numerous  varieties  and  forms) 
are  as  follows  : — 1.  Hypnum  polycarpon  Bland.  (H.  Kneiffii  Schimp.)  ; 
(2)  H.  simplicissimum  Warnst.  ;  (3)  H.  subaduncam  Warnst.  ;  (4)  H. 
pseudofluitans  Klinggr. ;  (5)  H.  Barbeyi  Ren.  ;  (6)  H.  capillifolium 
Warnst.  ;  (7)  H.  Sendtneri  Schimp.  ;  (7a)  H.  Wilsoni  Schimp. ;  (8) 
H.  lycopodioides  Schwaegr.  ;  (9)  H.  latinerve  Arnell. 

Introductory  Study  of  the  Muscinese.* — T.  H.  Russell  has  pub- 
lished a  book  on  Mosses  and  Liverworts  :  an  introduction  to  their  study, 
with  hints  as  to  their  collection  and  preservation.  He  first  treats  of  the 
mosses,  giving  some  of  the  more  generally  interesting  facts  concerning 
them,  with  a  sketch  of  their  life-history  and  various  modes  of  reproduc- 
duction.  He  then  treats  of  the  hepatics  on  the  same  lines  ;  and  in 
chapter  iv.  he  goes  carefully  into  the  questions  of  the  collection,  ex- 
amination, and  preservation  of  specimens,  describing  the  most  appropriate 
apparatus  to  use,  and  how  to  make  it ;  and  giving'  explicit  instructions 
for  the  preparation  of  Microscope  slides,  with  hints  as  to  how  the  many 
pitfalls  that  beset  the  beginner  may  be  avoided. 

Luminosity  of  Schistostega.f — W.  West  expresses  the  opinion  that 
the  luminosity  of  Schistostega  osmundacea,  which  always  grows  in 
sparsely  lighted  caverns,  is  due  to  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  cells  of  the 
protonema,  which  are  convex  above  and  conical  below.  An  incident  ray 
of  light  is  first  refracted  upon  entering  the  cell,  then  reflected  across  the 
cone,  again  reflected,  and  finally  refracted  upon  emergence,  so  that  some 
of  the  light  passes  back  along  the  path  by  which  it  approached  the  cell ; 
and  the  modification  which  the  light  has  undergone  in  the  protonemal 
cells  accounts  for  the  strange  character  of  the  luminosity. 

British  Hepaticse.J — B.  Cockburn  publishes  a  short  note  on  the 
distribution  of  Pallavicinia  hibernica  and  the  rare  and  inconspicuous 
Petalophyllum  Ralfsii  in  Britain,  and  the  conditions  under  which  they 
occur,  namely,  in  salt  marshes  near  the  sea.  The  two  plants  sometimes 
grow  together. 

W.  Evans  §  gives  an  account  of  the  distribution  of  the  species  of  the 
genus  Riccia  in  the  reservoirs  around  Edinburgh  in  1905,  in  the 
autumn,  when  the  level  of  the  water  was  remarkably  low.  He  visited 
fifteen  reservoirs,  and  found  R.sorocarpa  to  be  present  in  all.  R.glauca 
occurred  in  eight,  R.  crystalUna  in  five,  R.  Lescuriana  in  three,  and 
R.  fluitans  f .  canaliculMa  in  two.     R.  crystal  I  i  mi  was  previously  unknown 

*  London  :    Sampson  Low,  Marston,  and  Co.  (1908)  xiv.  and  200  pp.  (10  pis.). 

t  Naturalist,  No.  606  (1907)  p.  256. 

%  Trans.  Proc.  Bot.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  279-80. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  2S5-7  (1  pi.). 

2   8   2 


f)12  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

in  the  Scottish  flora.     Fossombronia  cristata  was  also  growing  plentifully 
in  most  of  the  reservoirs.     Photographs  of  the  living  plants  are  given. 

F.  Rhodes*  records  the  occurrence  of  Riccisllafluitans  in  abundance 
in  some  dykes  at  Mablethorpe  last  summer.  This  hepatic  has  apparently 
been  recorded  for  Lincolnshire  only  once  previously. 

Sphagnum  bavaricum  in  Yorkshire.!  —  W.  Bellerby  records  the 
occurrence  of  Sphaijuu.m  bavaricum  in  England.  It  was  detected  by 
C.  Warnstorf  among  some  interesting  species  of  Sphagnum  collected  in 
bogs  near  Ellerbeck  by  W.  Bellerby.  Warnstorf  had  recently  published 
a  description  of  S.  bavaricum  in  Hedwigia,  xlvii  (1907)  p.  84.  An 
English  translation  from  the  German  of  this  description  is  supplied  by 
Bellerby.     The  plant  is  allied  to  S.  sub  secundum. 

Yorkshire  Mosses. — C.  A.  Cheetham  %  gives  a  list  of  twelve  mosses 
from  Cautley,  in  West  Yorkshire,  which  have  not  been  recorded  pre- 
viously for  the  district.     Among  them  is  Dicranella  secunda  Lindb. 

The  same  author  §  publishes  some  field  notes  upon  the  more  interest- 
ing mosses  observed  during  an  excursion  of  the  Yorkshire  Naturalists' 
Union.  He  describes  the  luxuriance  of  the  species  observed  on  the 
limestone  in  Ling  Gill ;  the  very  restricted  flora  on  the  gritstone  scars  of 
Pennyghent ;  the  rarities  in  Douk  Grill.  A  list  of  eight  species  new  to 
the  district  is  added. 

C.  A.  Cheetham  ||  gives  a  list  of  seven  mosses  not  previously  recorded 
for  Inglebro',  in  West  Yorks,  and  confirms  the  records  of  eight  which 
were  previously  doubtful. 

Muscinese  of  Flintshire. IF — A.  A.  Dalman  gives  an  enumeration  of 
ten  hepaticse  and  seventy  mosses  of  Flintshire,  with  their  respective 
stations,  and  a  few  notes  upon  peculiarities  of  structure,  etc. 

New  and  Rare  Scottish  Mosses.** — J.  Stirton  gives  an  account  of 
some  mosses  collected  mostly  at  or  near  Arisaig,  in  the  west  of  Scotland. 
Some  of  these  are  interesting  because  of  their  rarity.  Eleven  species  and 
one  variety  are  described  as  new  to  science.  The  descriptions  and  notes 
have  also  been  published  in  the  Annals  of  Scotch  Nat.  Hist.,  1907, 
pp.  171-80. 

MuscineaB  of  Greece-ft — A.  Coppey  has  determined  the  mosses  and 
hepatics  collected  in  Greece  by  Maire  and  Petitmengin,  and  combined 
them  with  a  list  of  all  previous  records,  which  are  but  scanty.  The  more 
interesting  species  are  Barbula  papillosissima  (recently  described), 
Grimmia  Hartmanni,  Funaria  Mairena  sp.  n.,  Bry  am  provincial e,  Hyii- 
num  commutatum,  H.falcatum,  H.  irrigatum.  Annotations  and  figures 
of  these  are  given. 


.-> 


*  Naturalist,  No.  607  (1907)  p.  327.         t  Op.  cit.,  No.  612  (1908)  pp.  15-16. 

X  Op.  cit.,  No.  616  (1908)  p.  193.  §  Op.  cit.,  No.  617  (1908)  pp.  201-2. 

||  Op.  cit.,  No.  606  (1907)  pp.  256-7. 

f  Journ.  of  Bot.,  xlvi.  (1908)  pp.  227-30. 
**  Proc.  Eoy.  Phil.  Soc.  Glasgow,  xxxviii.  (1907)  pp.  150-8. 

tt  Bull.  Soc.   Sci.  Nancy  (1908)  70  pp.  (4  pis.).     See  also  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv. 
(1908)  p.  98. 


ZOOLOGY    AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  613 

North  American  Muscineae. — C.  C.  Haynes*  gives  an  obituary 
notice  of  Professor  L.  M.  Underwood  (b.  1853,  d.  1907),  with  special 
reference  to  his  work  in  connection  with  the  North  American  Hepaticse, 
and  appends  a  bibliography  of  his  works.  A.  W.  Evans,  f  having  re- 
cognised Lopholejeunea  Muelleriana  among  some  hepatics  collected  by 
S.  Rapp,  of  Sanford,  in  Florida,  points  out  certain  details  in  which  it 
differs  from  specimens  gathered  in  Porto  Rico  and  Brazil.  Twenty-nine 
Lejeuneas  are  now  recorded  for  the  United  States,  and  twenty-four  of 
them  for  Florida.  A.  Lorenz  %  publishes  some  notes  upon  Jubula 
pennsylvanica,  illustrated  for  the  first  time  with  figures.  P.  M.  Towle  § 
gives  data  about  the  fruiting  season  of  a  few  species  of  mosses,  chiefly 
Mnium,  Rhodobryum,  and  Bartramia ;  and  shows  how  the  dates  differ 
according  to  latitude,  climate,  and  the  earliness  of  arrival  of  spring. 

E.  G.  Britton  |]  gives  a  history  of  the  various  opinions  that  have  been 
published  about  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  genus  Zygodon  in  North 
America,  and  the  number  of  species  found.  She  sums  up  the  matter  by 
providing  descriptions  of  three  species — Z.  viridissimus,  Z.  rupestris, 
Z.  gracilis — and  of  Leptodontium  excelsum,  which  is  usually  known  as 
Zygodon  Sulivantii.  A.  W.  Evans, IT  having  had  an  opportunity  of 
examining  the  type  specimens  in  the  Lindenberg  collection  of  Hepaticae 
at  Vienna,  and  having  arrived  at  some  conclusions  which  are  at  variance 
with  those  of  recent  writers  and  with  his  own  previous  ideas,  writes  upon 
the  synonymy  of  three  North  American  species.  1.  Lejeunea  Icetevirens 
Nees  and  Mont,  is  the  same  as  L.  lucens  Tayl.  and  L.  glaucophylla 
Gottsche,  and  belongs  to  the  genus  Microlejeunea.  2.  L.  claiisa  Nees  and 
Mont,  is  the  same  as  L.  opaca  Gottsche,  L.  commutala  Gottsche,  and 
D.  lutea  Mont.,  and  should  be  referred  to  Euosmohjeunea.  3.  Frullania 
obcordata  Lehm.  and  Lindenb.  is  the  same  as  F.  caroliniana  Sulliv.  and 

F.  Martiana  Gottsche.  A.  Lorenz  **  gives  figures  of  Marsupella  Sidli- 
vantii  and  M.  sphacellata,  with  explanatory  notes. 

New  South  Indian  Moss.ft  —  H.  N.  Dixon  describes  Brachy- 
me nium  turgidum,  a  new  species  from  the  Western  Ghats.  It  is  a  very 
distinct  species,  characterised  by  a  turgid  subpendulous  capsule,  and  by 
the  leaves  being  narrowly  margined  and  entire,  and  not  spirally  twisted 
when  dry. 

Tundra-forms  of  Hypnum.JJ — W.Monkemeyer  discusses  the  tundra- 
forms  of  Hypnum  exannulatum,  and  distinguishes  a  var.  pinnatum  f. 
tundra,  and  a  var.  brachydictyoa  f.  tundra,  giving  a  description  of  each 
and  adding  critical  notes  on  various  specimens. 

Type  Species  of  Stereohypnum.§§ — M.  Fleischer  publishes  the  basis 
of  a  monograph  of  the  genus  Stereohypnum,  which  is  also  known  as  Micro- 
thamnium.      This    genus  is  rendered   extremely  difficult  owing  to  the 

*  Bryologist,  xi.  (1908)  pp.  41-4  (portrait).  t  Tom.  cit.,  p.  45-6. 

%  Tom.  cit.,  p.  46-7.  §  Tom.  cit.,  p.  53-4. 

il  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  61-6  (1  pi.  and  figs.).  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  67-70. 

**  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  71-3  (2  pis.). 
ft  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  94-6. 
XX  Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  300-4  (2  pis.) 
§§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  271-99  (figs.). 


614  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

uncertainty  attaching  to  several  of  the  older  species,  the  incorrectly 
determined  specimens  in  the  herbaria  of  the  older  authors,  and  the 
multitude  of  new,  but  often  doubtful,  species  described  since  1*70.  The 
author's  purpose  here  is  to  give  critical  descriptions  and  figures  of 
the  oldest  species  in  the  order  of  their  original  publication,  up  to  about 
the  year  1861,  at  the  same  time  reducing  many  of  the  newer  species  to 
the  rank  of  synonyms.  He  treats  some  thirteen  species  in  this  way,  after 
studying  the  type-material  in  each  case. 

Propagula  of  the  Genus  Barbula.* — J.  Maheu  writes  about  the 
propagula  and  bulbils  obtained  by  experimental  culture  of  some  species 
of  Barbula.  Some  species,  which  do  not  normally  produce  them,  may 
be  made  to  do  so  by  submitting  them  to  special  biologic  conditions, 
such  as  confinement  in  a  moist  chamber.  After  a  lapse  of  one  to 
three  months,  propaguliferous  protonemal  filaments  sprout  from  stems, 
leaves,  and  fragments  of  sporogonium.  The  propagula  are  pluricellular 
spheres  about  TV  mm.  in  diameter,  which  fall  off  and  develop  into 
moss-plants.  The  plant  cannot  maintain  its  existence  indefinitely  by 
means  of  propagula  ;  but  these  latter  serve  to  prolong  its  life  until 
suitable  conditions  arise  for  the  development  of  sexual  organs  and  pro- 
duction of  a  sporogonium.  The  production  of  propagula  is  chiefly  due 
to  humidity  ;  light  and  darkness  favour  respectively  the  formation  of 
protonemal  and  rhizoidal  filaments.  Rhizoids,  protonema,  propagula, 
bulbils,  and  leafy  stems,  are  fundamentally  homologous,  being  adaptations 
of  one  and  the  same  organ  to  different  conditions  of  life. 


Lfc>i 


Gasterogrimmia  in  Hungary.! — I.  Gyorffy  shows  that  three  species 
of  this  section  of  Grimm  ia  which  occur  in  Europe  have  been  found  also 
in  Hungary,  and  claims  that  a  fourth  species,  67.  poikilostoma,  originally 
collected  in  Auvergne  by  Gasilien,  and  later  in  Dauphine  by  Sebille, 
has  also  been  gathered  in  Transylvania.  He  gives  a  table  of  measure- 
ments of  the  Transylvanian  plants. 

Bryum  zonatum  a  Philonotis.J  —  W.  Monkemeyer  discusses  the 
question  of  what  Bryum  zonatum  Schimp.  really  is.  Schimper  thought 
it  to  be  allied  to  B.  Marratii.  Limpricht  at  first  took  it  to  be  a  Bryum, 
near  B.  Limprichtii,  but  later  inclined  to  Hagen's  view,  that  it  should  be 
excluded  from  the  genus.  Monkemeyer  having  obtained  a  small  amount 
of  the  original  material  collected  by  C.  G.  Lorentz,  finds  that  it  resembles 
a  Philonotis,  and  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  a  non-papillate  form 
of  Philonotis  seriata,  analogous  to  the  non-papillate  var.  mollis  of 
P.  calcarea. 

European  Hepatics.§ — V.  Schiffner  publishes  critical  remarks  upon 
the  specimens  issued  in  the  fifth  fasciculus  of  his  "  Hepaticse  Europaaa? 
Exsiccatse,"  Nos.  201-50.  The  genera  treated  of  are  SpTienolobus  (12 
specimens),  Acrobolbus,  with  figure  (1),  Anastr&pta  (8),  Plagiochila  (16), 
Pedinophyllum  (4),  L&ptoscyphus  (9).     The  species,  their  varieties  and 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  1161-3. 

t  Rev.  Brvolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  97-8. 

j  Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1908)  p.  305. 

§  Ber.  Naturw.  Med.  Verein.  Innsbruck,  xxxi.  (1908)  Beilage,  70  pp.  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY  *AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  615 

forms,  arc  discussed  critically.  Three  rarities — Acrobolbus  Wilsoni, 
Plagiochila  tridenticulata,  Leptoscyphus  cuneifolius — were  supplied  to  the 
author  from  the  west  of  Scotland  by  S.  M.  Macvicar. 

Calypogeia  in  Italy.* — C.  Massalongo  publishes  a  monograph  of  the 
Italian  species  of  Calypogeia.  He  gives  new  descriptions  of  the  genus 
and  various  species  and  varieties.  He  maintains  four  species— 6'.  Tri- 
chomanis,  C.Neesiaaa,  C.  suecica,  C.  arguta — under  0.  Trichomanis  are 
four  varieties  :  communis,  flssa,  Sprengelii,  gracilis,  and  a  subspecies, 
G.  Miilleriana.  Critical  notes  are  added,  and  attention  is  called  to  other 
species  which  are  likely  to  be  found  within  the  limits  of  Italy. 

Cephalozia  in  Scandinavia.! — H.  W.  Arnell  and  ;C.  Jensen  describe 
and  figure  some  rare  Scandinavian  species  of  Cephalozia,  from  the  original 
specimens  preserved  in  the  herbarium  of  Helsingfors  University,  viz. 
C.  boreal  is  Lindb.  (1887),  C.  subsimplex  Lindb.  MS.,  C.  spinigera  Lindb. 
(1879),  C.  lacinulata  Spruce,  and  C.  (Prionolobus)  Perssonii  Jensen  sp.n. 

Notes  on  Californian  Hepatics4  —  H.  B.  Humphrey  publishes 
some  studies  on  the  physiology  and  morphology  of  some  Californian 
hepatics.  Certain  species  are  infested  with  fungi,  parasitic  in  the  case 
of  Fossombronia  longiseta,  symbiotic  in  the  case  of  Fimbriaria  californica, 
epiphytic  in  the  case  of  Aneura  multifida,  Anthoceros  Pearsoni,  and 
Porella  Bolanderi.  Fertilisation  takes  place  in  Fegatella  conica  during 
early  spring  ;  but  the  spores  do  not  mature  until  the  following  January, 
having  passed  through  the  intervening  dry  season  in  the  tetrad  stage. 
The  dry  season  leads  to  other  adaptations,  which  are  noted.  It  is  fatal 
to  hydrophilous  species,  but  not  to  xerophilous  species,  these  latter  being 
able  to  resume  growth  from  thallus  or  spores  even  after  complete  desic- 
cation. The  spores  of  some  xerophilous  species  are  capable  of  germina- 
tion after  two  years. 

Antarctic  Hepatics.§ — F.  Stephani  gives  an  enumeration  of  the 
hepatica?  collected  by  Skottsberg  in  Tierra  del  Fuego,  the  Falkland 
Islands,  South  Georgia,  and  the  neighbouring  Antarctic  regions.  There 
are  seventy-eight  species,  five  of  which  are  new  to  science. 

Illustrated  Key  to  the  Genus  Lejeunea.|| — Lacouture  publishes  an 
analytical  and  synoptic  key  of  the  forty-three  subgenera  or  genera  into 
which  the  old  genus  Lejeunea  is  now  divided.  He  gives  a  typical  figure 
of  each  in  illustration  of  the  text  printed  opposite  to  it.  The  drawings 
have  been  made  from  nature,  from  sketches  made  by  Spruce,  Schiffner, 
and  Stephani  respectively. 

Morphology  and  Anatomy  of  Bucegia  romanica.1[ — Y.  Schiffner 
gives  a  detailed  and  illustrated  account  of  the  structure  and  develop- 
ment of  the  rare  hepatic  Bucegia  romanica,  based  upon  an  examination 

*  Mabiighia,  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  79-94. 
t  Bot.^Notiser,  1908,  pp.  1-1G  (figs.). 

%  Pl-oc.  Washington  Acad.  Sci.,  x.  (1903)  pp.  1-50  (2  pis.).  See  also  Bot. 
Gazette,  xlv.  (1908)  p.  420. 

-  hwedisch  Siidpolar-Exped.,  iv.  1  (1905)  11  pp.  (rL 
Rev.  Brvolog.,  xxxv.  (190S)  pp.  101-14  (6  pis.). 
%  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xxiii.  2«*  Abt.  ( 1908)  p.  273-90  (figs.). 


616  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

of  a  good  supply  of  living  material  in  all  stages  of  growth.  The  genus 
was  first  described  by  Radian  in  1903,  having  been  discovered  in  the 
Bucegi  range  of  the  Roumanian  Carpathians.  It  occurs  also  at  a  fVw 
stations  on  the  Polish  and  on  the  1  [ungarian  sides  of  the  Tatra  Mountains, 
and  some  specimens  have  recently  been  found  in  the  Vienna  Hof -museum 
which  were  collected  thirty  years  ago. 

Notes  on  Riccardia  and  other  Hepatics.* — V.  Schiffner  continues 
his  series  of  bryological  notes,  and  treats  of  the  following  subjects  : — 
43.  Riccardia  sinuata  v&r.stmoclada,  a  new  variety  recalling  R.mvltifiila 
var.  major,  but  larger,  thicker,  more  branched,  etc.  44.  The  occurrence 
of  R.  incurvata  in  Bohemia.  45.  Peltolepis  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula. 
46.  Chomiocarpou  quadratus,  discovered  in  China.  47.  Some  new  French 
hepatics  collected  by  Douin.     48.  Bucegia  romanica. 

Riella  bialata.j — R.  Trabut  describes  a  new  Riella  from  Algeria, 
which  is  very  remarkable  for  its  two  parallel  wings,  dorsally  situated 
and  covering  right  and  left  the  fructifications.  It  grows  either  out  of 
water  and  creeping,  or  immersed  and  erect. 

Thallophyta. 

Algae. 

(By  Mes.  E.  S.  Gepp.) 

Marine  Diatomacese  of  France.^ — H.  and  M.  Peragallo  have  just 
completed  their  work  on  this  subject,  started  eleven  years  ago.  It  was 
issued  to  subscribers,  according  to  their  choice,  in  fascicles  of  four  plates 
each  with  explanations  and  text,  or  in  sets  of  ten  fascicles,  or  as  a  com- 
plete work.  It  was  also  put  on  the  market  in  three  systematic  sections  ; 
and  finally  it  was  published  in  the  "  Micrographe  Preparateur,"  two  plates 
with  text  in  each  number  of  that  periodical.  In  the  preface  it  is  stated 
that  the  authors  had  the  intention  of  producing  a  complete  and  entirely 
original  flora  of  the  Diatornaceai  of  France,  divided  into  three  parts  : — 
1.  A  general  treatment,  comprising  the  natural  history  of  diatoms, 
methods  of  collection,  cultivation,  preparation,  and  their  classification — 
this  part  being  destined  to  be  published  last  of  all.  '  2.  A  description  of 
the  marine  species,  which  is  accomplished  in  the  present  work.  3.  A 
description  of  the  fresh-water  species,  which  presumably  the  authors  will 
now7  proceed  to  take  in  hand.  The  species  and  forms  are  grouped  in  the 
text  into  sections,  tribes,  families,  genera,  subgenera,  etc.,  reference  to  all 
of  which  is  facilitated  by  means  of  synoptical  tables.  No  such  tables  are 
employed  for  the  species  and  forms,  since  the  plates  themselves  function 
as  the  best  possible  synopsis,  exhibiting  the  forms  side  by  side  and  en- 
larged to  the  same  scale.  This  scale  of  magnitude  is  GOO  diani.,  save  in 
the  case  of  Plenrosigma  and  a  few  other  genera.  The  drawings  were  all 
made  by  camera-lucida,  and  photographed  down  to  the  standard  size. 
Each  species  or  form  is  described,  and  references  to  all  important  litera- 

*  Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  1.  (1908)  pp.  8-12. 
t  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  p.  96. 

X  Diatoniees    Marines    de    France.      Grez-sur-Loing :     Tempere,   1897-190S, 
492  xii.,  and  48  pp.  (137  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  617 

ture  concerning  it  are  cited,  but  the  synonymy  is  purposely  reduced  to 
a  minimum.  Doubtful  species  are  maintained  as  species,  rather  than 
renamed  as  varieties  ;  but  their  position  in  the  text  according  to  their 
affinity  shows  how  they  can  be  referred  as  varieties  to  typical  species. 
Of  the  three  systematic  sections  into  which  the  present  work  is  divided, 
the  first — Raphidees  (Raphidese) — occupies  233  pages  and  50  plates  ;  the 
second — Pseudo-raphidees  (PseudoraphideEe) — occupies  128  pages  and 
39  plates  ;  the  third — Anaraphidees  (Cryptorhaphidese) — occupies  130 
pages  and  50  plates.  The  pelagic  or  plankton  genera  of  Diatomaceae— 
e.g.  Chcetoceros — are  separated  under  the  name  Pleouemees,  a  special 
section  of  Anaraphidees.  At  the  close  of  their  work  the  authors,  in  sub- 
mitting a  synoptical  table  of  the  genera  and  subgenera,  systematically 
arranged,  discuss  briefly  the  evolution  of  the  diatoms,  and  adopt  the 
names  Centriques  and  Pennees  for  the  two  main  divisions  of  the 
group.  The  former  name  represents  the  more  ancient  type,  evidently 
pelagic  in  origin  ;  while  the  Pennees,  comprising  the  Raphidees  and 
Pseudo-raphidees,  took  their  rise  from  organisms  already  engaged  in 
vegetal  evolution  (Chromomonades),  whence  also  sprang  the  Phaso- 
phycea?. 

Yorkshire  Diatoms.* — R.  H.  Philip  publishes  a  note  on  the  distri- 
bution of  Diatoma  hiemale  in  East  Yorkshire.  He  discovered  quantities 
of  it  in  AYeedley  Springs  last  summer.  He  states  that  it  was  certainly 
not  present  in  the  springs  in  1897  ;  and,  indeed,  it  was  not  found  any- 
where in  the  East  Riding  before  September  1899.  Since  then  he  has 
gathered  it  in  five  localities.  But  during  the  last  year  or  two  it 
seems  to  have  increased  enormously,  and  to  have  ousted  almost  every 
other  species  from  Weedley  Springs.  Figures  of  three  forms  of  the 
species  are  given. 

The  same  author  f  found  in  a  sheep-tank  above  Conistone,  in 
Wharfedale,  some  rare  and  interesting  diatoms,  among  them  being 
Amphora  Normanii,  which  was  discovered  by  G.  Norman  in  an  orchid- 
house  in  1853,  but  has  not  been  recorded  for  Yorkshire  since  then  ;  but 
it  has  been  gathered  in  Brussels  Botanic  Garden,  and  at  Cambuslang 
Bridge,  near  Glasgow.  Gymbeila  microcephala  and  C.  leptoceras  are  new 
records  for  the  East  Riding  and  for  Yorkshire  respectively.  Figures 
of  these  are  given. 

Structure  of  the  Diatom-cell.J — 0.  Heinzerling  treats  of  the 
structure  of  the  diatom-cell,  with  special  reference  to  the  assimilatory 
organs,  and  the  relation  of  the  structure  to  systematic  classification. 
First  he  gives  an  account  of  the  protoplast — cytoplasm,  nucleus, 
centrosome,  chromatophores  ;  then  of  the  assimilatory  organs  inclosed 
in  the  protoplast — double-plates,  cell-sap,  "volution  "  (reserve material ), 
oil-drops,  pyrenoids  ;  also  of  the  cell-membrane  and  the  gelatinous  layers, 
Next  he  discusses  the  movements  of  diatoms,  and  the  characteristics  of 
the  structure  of  the  protoblast,  and  especially  of  the  chromatophores  of 
such  genera  as  have  been  investigated.     He  then  gives  an  account  of  the 

*  Naturalist,  No.  608  (1907)  pp.  312-13  (figs.). 
t  Op.  cit.,  No.  612  (1908)  pp.  21-2. 

\  Bibliotheca    Botanica,    heft   69.       Stuttgart  :     Schweizerbartsche    Verlags- 
buchhandlung  (190S)  88  pp.  (3  pis.). 


618  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

protoplastic  structure  of  a  scries  of  species  selected  from  thirty  fresh- 
water genera,  and  appends  a  bibliography. 

North  American  Fresh-water  Algae.* — C.  A.  Kofoid  gives  an  ac- 
count of  the  plankton  of  the  Illinois  River  (1894-99),  including  a 
discussion  of  the  species  of  Kchizophyceae,  Chlorophycese,  Diatomacese, 
and  Conjugate  found  therein,  with  notes  upon  their  respective  seasonal 
distributions,  and  the  factors  that  control  their  production. 

Spanish  Fresh-water  Algae. f — F.  B.  Casares  gives  an  enumeration 
of  twenty-one  Conjugate,  mostly  Desmids,  collected  in  the  provinces  of 
Orense  and  Pontevedra,  in  Galicia.  Instructions  are  given  as  to  the  best 
time  of  year  for  collecting  these  algas,  and  the  best  methods  of  gathering, 
preparing,  and  preserving  the  specimens.  The  average  dimensions  of 
the  species  are  stated. 

Fresh-water  Algae  of  the  West  Riding.J — W.  and  G-.  S.  West  give 
an  enumeration  of  more  than  180  species  and  varieties  of  fresh -water 
algae  collected  by  them  from  time  to  time  on  Austwick  Moss,  in  the  West 
Riding.  Some  of  them  are  new  to  Yorkshire,  and  some  to  West  York- 
shire. The  nature  of  the  ground  is  indicated,  and  a  list  of  the  more 
important  vascular  plants  associated  with  the  algas  is  added. 

Genus  Haematococcus.§— W.  Wollenweber  publishes  some  inves- 
tigations concerning  Hc&matococcus.  He  sums  up  the  most  important 
results  as  follows  : — 1.  H(cmatococcus  can  by  appropriate  cultivation  be 
made  to  pass  through  its  complete  life-history,  yielding  zoospores,  aga- 
metes,  gametes,  zygotes,  aplanospores,  and  palmelloid  states.  2.  The  cell- 
membrane  does  not  consist  of  cellulose.  3.  The  chromatophore  consists 
of  a  delicate  green  tubular  scaffold,  but  in  surface-view  looks  like  a  net. 
4.  Hmnatococcus  possesses  numerous  (up  to  sixty)  contractile  vacuoles, 
imbedded  in  the  uppermost  sheath  of  the  chromatophore,  and  pulsat- 
ing independently  of  one  another.  5.  These  contractile  vacuoles  afford 
the  most  trustworthy  distinguishing  character  between  Hcemotococcus 
and  Chlamydomonas.  6.  Size,  thickness,  and  shape  of  the  zoospore- 
membrane,  development  of  the  chromatophore,  number  and  development 
of  the  pyrenoid  and  of  the  protoplasmic  pseudopodia.  7.  Hmmatococcus 
is  suited  to  a  myxo-  and  auto-trophic  mode  of  life.  In  the  latter  mode 
of  life  agamogony  preponderates.  In  H.  phwialis  only  agamogony 
occurs.  S.  Stephanosphcera  and  Hcematococcus  are  referred  by  Schmidle 
to  Chlamydomonadeas  as  a  subfamily  (Sphaerellaceas),  on  account  of  the 
similar  morphological  and  physiological  conditions.  9.  The  Red  Snow 
alga  finds  no  place  in  Hcematococcus  as  now  understood,  and  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  Chlamydomonas  (C.  nivalis),  as  Wille  has  shown. 

Development  of  Hydrodictyon.|| — R.  A.  Harper  discusses  the  organisa- 
tion of  certain  ccenobic  plants,  describing  in  detail  the  formation  of  the 

*  Bull.  Illinois  State  Lab.  Nat.  Hist.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  19-61. 
t  Boletin  R.  Soc.  Espanola  Nat.  Hist.,  viii.  (190S)  pp.  231-8. 
%  Naturalist,  No.  Gil  (1908)  pp.  101-3. 

§  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot  Gesell.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  238-9S  (5  pis.,  figs.). 
||  Bot.  Soc.  of  America,  publication  36  (1908)  56  pp.,   1  pis.     See  also  Bull. 
Univ.  Wisconsin  Sci.,  iii.  pp.  279-334. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  619 

cell-colonies  of  Hydrodictyon,  and  summarising  the  matter  as  follows:  — 
1.  The  cylindrical  form  of  the  cells  and  their  union  at  their  ends  is  de- 
veloped by  growth  and  pressure  between  the  adjacent  cells  on  the 
principle  of  functional  hypertrophy.  2.  The  large  intercellular  spaces 
of  the  adult  net  have  their  origin  in  the  shrinkage  of  the  mass  of  the 
mother- protoplasm  during  cleavage.  3.  The  central  cavity  of  the  net 
is  clue  to  the  scattering  of  the  swarm-spores  under  the  influence  of 
chemical  and  food  stimuli,  and  their  coming  to  rest  upon  the  mother- 
cell- wall.  4.  The  form  of  the  meshes  is  determined  by  the  chance 
grouping  of  the  spores  in  coming  to  rest,  their  viscidity  tending  to 
maintain  chance  contacts  once  established  ;  and  the  slight  readjustments 
due  to  gliding  of  their  surfaces  upon  each  other  in  the  crowding  in- 
cident to  their  growth  as  spheres  and  when  first  beginning  to  elongate, 
the  number  of  sides  of  the  polygonal  meshes  tending  to  become  larger 
the  greater  the  amount  of  intercellular  space  which  is  present  when  the 
spores  come  to  rest. 

Urospora  in  Norway.* — 0.  Hagem,  when  studying  the  algal  Mora 
of  Drobak  Sound  in  the  spring  of  last  year,  found  on  some  stones  in 
the  littoral  region  several  dark  green  patches  containing  three  species 
of  Urospora — U.  mirabilis,  U.  elongata,  U.  Wormskioldii  ;  the  latter  two 
of  which  had  previously  been  recorded  only  from  the  Arctic  regions.  He 
describes  and  figures  each  of  the  three  species,  and  discusses  their  struc- 
ture, distribution,  affinities,  etc. 

Development  of  the  Genus  Ulva.f — J.  Schiller  has  studied  the  de- 
velopment of  Ulva  in  the  laboratory.  He  gives  a  detailed  account  of 
the  minute  structure  of  the  gametospores  and  their  biology.  He  finds 
that  the  process  of  conjugation  is  just  as  in  Monostroma,  Entermorpha, 
and  many  Phreophyceas.  He  describes  the  germination  and  develop- 
ment of  the  zygotes  and  of  the  gametes  ;  he  describes  the  primary 
and  secondary  rhizoids,  the  latter  of  which  have  a  surprising  power  of 
producing  a  new  cell-filament,  or  rhizoid-shoot.  Ulva  and  Ent&romorpha 
are  indistinguishable  in  their  young  stages,  and  there  is  a  true  branching 
in  both  of  them,  arising  from  a  similar  division  of  the  apical  cell.  In 
both  these  genera  three  forms  of  gametes  are  found,  macrogametes, 
parthenogametes,  and  microgametes,  and  they  occur  four,  eight,  or 
sixteen  together  respectively. 

Cell-wall  Structure  in  Cladophora.J  —  P.  Brand  publishes  some 
notes  upon  the  cell-membrane,  transverse  walls,  and  joints  of  Cladophora, 
to  supplement  the  information  given  by  him  seven  years  ago,  in  a 
paper  on  the  structure  and  growth  of  the  plant.  After  a  general  con- 
sideration of  the  structure  of  the  membrane,  he  treats  of  the  outer 
lamella,  the  sheaths  of  the  membrane,  its  constituent  parts,  its  growth, 
creases  of  the  membrane,  formation  of  transverse  walls,  formation  of 
joints. 

*  Nyt.  Mag.  f.  Naturvid.  Christiana,  xlv.  (1908)  pp.  261-9  (1  pi.). 

t  SB.  k.  Akad.  Wiss.  Math. -Nat.  Kl.  Wien,  cxvi.  1  (1907)  pp.  1691-1716  (1  pl.\ 

I  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  114-43  (lpl.). 


620      SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

Development  of  the  Sexual  Organs  of  Vaucheria.* — W.  Heidinger 
gives  an  account  of  the  development  of  the  sexual  organs  in  \'inirlicrin, 
as  studied  in  species  representing  the  four  groups — CorniculataB  Bessiles, 
Corniculatse  racemosse,  Anomalae,  Woroninia.  He  contrasts  the  respec- 
tive statements  (1)  of  Oltmanns,  that  before  the  oogonium  becomes 
walled  off,  all  the  nuclei  hut  one  are  withdrawn  into  the  pedicel,  and 
(2)  of  Davis,  that  after  the  oogonium  is  walled  off,  all  the  nuclei  but 
one  undergo  degeneration  and  disappear.  After  describing  his  own 
methods  of  investigation,  lie  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  sexual  organs  of  V.  pachyderma,  V.  arrhyncha  sp.  n., 
V.terrestris,  V.  geminata,  and  Woroninia  dichotoma.  He  then  criticises 
B.  M.  Davis's  work  ;  adds  some  systematic  notes  ;  and  sums  up  his 
results  by  stating  that  they  confirm  Oltmanns'  view,  and  that  in  all  the 
groups  of  Vaucheria  examined  the  multinucleate  rudiment  becomes  a 
uninucleate  oogonium  by  the  withdrawal  of  all  the  other  nuclei  into 
the  pedicel  just  before  the  oogonium  is  cut  off  by  the  transverse  wall. 
The  proper  nucleus  remains  in  the  apex  of  the  oogonium  and  puts  out 
processes  into  the  surrounding  plasma,  but  moves  back  into  the  centre 
just  before  fertilisation,  and  remains  there  until  germination  of  the 
oospore. 

Spore-formation  in  Derbesia.f — B.  M.  Davis  gives  an  account  of 
the  formation  of  the  zoospores  of  Derbesia  Lamourouxu.  These  are 
large  and  not  biciliate,  as  in  other  Siphonales,  but  provided  with  a  circle 
of  numerous  long  cilia  at  the  forward  end.  The  lateral  globular  out- 
growth, which  develops  into  a  sporangium,  becomes  separated  from  the 
parent  filament  by  the  closure  of  the  ingrowing  annular  thickening  in 
the  neck.  The  sporangium  contains  at  first  thousands  of  nuclei,  all  alike, 
slightly  larger  than  the  plastids,  and  each  containing  a  small  nucleolus 
and  a  large  chromatin  body.  Some  of  the  nuclei  enlarge  to  a  diameter 
4-6  times  that  of  the  plastids,  and  are  rendered  conspicuous  by  the 
development  of  numerous  protoplasmic  strands  radiating  out  from  the 
cytoplasm  enveloping  the  nucleus.  These  large  nuclei  are  the  centres  of 
the  future  spores.  The  other  nuclei  do  not  fuse  (as  has  been  stated),  but 
undergo  degeneration.  The  spore-masses  separate  and  become  rounded 
up.  The  nuclei  of  each  moves  from  the  centre  towards  the  periphery, 
and  a  circlet  of  granules  is  deposited,  by  means  of  the  protoplasm  strands, 
under  the  plasma-membrane  near  by.  It  does  not  arise  from  the  plasma- 
membrane.  This  circlet  is  the  blepharoplast,  which  splits  into  two  rings  ; 
from  the  lower  ring  the  circle  of  cilia  is  produced.  The  homogeneous 
chromatin  becomes  changed  into  an  irregular  network  of  coiled  threads. 
The  two  rings  of  the  blepharoplast  remain  for  a  time  at  the  base  of  the 
germinating  spore,  then  gradually  grow  fainter.  The  nucleus  divides 
mitotically,  the  spindle  being  intranuclear. 

West  Indian  Species  of  Avrainvillea.J — F.  Borgesen  publishes  an 
account  of  the  species  of  Avrainvillea  hitherto  found  on  the  shores  of 
the  Danish  West  Indies,  based  upon  material  collected  there  by  himself 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  313-63  (1  pi.  and  figs.). 

+  Ann.  of  Bot.,  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  1-20  (2  pis.). 

X  Vidensk.  Meddel.  Natur.  Poren.  Kjobenhavn,  1908,  pp.  27-44  (1  pi.,  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  621 

in  1905-6.  He  describes  and  figures  A.  nigricans,  A.  Mazei,  A.  asarifolia 
(a  new  species  distinct  from  A.  lev  is  Howe),  also  a  unique  plant  allied 
to  A.  levis  but  not  named  specifically,  and  some  plants  referred  to 
A.  comosa.  He  also  discusses  Howe's  genus  Gladocephalus,  and  describes 
a  large  zonate  plant  which  he  considers  to  be  synonymous  with  Flabdlaria 
luteqfusca  Crouan,  and  names  it  G.  luteofusca. 

Anatomy  and  Histology  of  Macrocystis  and  Laminaria.* — M.  (i. 
Sykes  gives  an  account  of  the  anatomy  and  histology  of  Macrocystis 
pyrifera  and  Laminaria  saccharina,  based  upon  material  specially  pre- 
served, and  undertaken  in  order  to  determine  certain  points  about  which 
contradictory  statements  had  been  published.  The  conclusions  reached  by 
the  author  are  that  the  "  trumpet  hyplwe  "  in  both  plants  are  true  sieve- 
tubes,  and  represent  the  modified  original  central  cells  of  the  thallus, 
and  may  be  termed  "  primary  pith  filaments."  They  are  homologous 
with  the  secondary  sieve-tubes  of  Macrocystis  and  Laminaria,  which  are 
similarly  derived  from  the  modified  primary  cortex  of  the  young  thallus. 
The  histology  of  the  sieve-plates  in  the  primary  pith  filaments  and 
secondary  sieve-tubes  is  essentially  the  same.  Threads  are  found 
traversing  the  young  sieve-plate,  and  each  gives  rise  in  the  older  plates, 
apparently  by  means  of  ferment  action,  to  a  slime  string  inclosed  in  a 
rod  of  callus.  The  older  sieve-plates  are  obliterated  by  the  deposition 
of  callus  in  large  masses  over  their  surface.  Callus  is  a  hvdrated  form 
of  cellulose  ;  it  is  produced  in  the  young  sieve-plates  by  the  action  of  a 
ferment  on  the  already  formed  cell-wall,  but  afterwards  is  deposited  by 
the  protoplasm  on  the  sieve-plate  and  on  the  lateral  walls  throughout 
the  length  of  the  tube.  The  histology  of  these  sieve-tubes  is  shown  to 
agree  much  with  that  of  the  sieve-tubes  of  Phanerogams.  At  the  advent 
of  the  callus  the  threads  acquire  an  increased  capacity  for  staining  ;  the 
development  of  the  sieve-plate  is  possibly,  as  in  Pinus,  a  function  of 
ferment  action.  The  slime  strings  are  buried  under  the  thick  over- 
lying callus,  and  cannot,  as  in  Pinus,  be  traced  through  the  callus-pad. 
In  young  stages  of  Laminaria  saccharina  the  cells  of  the  hyphas  become 
secondarily  attached  to  those  of  the  primary  cortex,  probably  also  in 
Macrocystis.  Protoplasmic  threads  have  been  demonstrated  throughout 
the  tissues  of  M.  pyrifera  and  Laminaria  saccharina,  but  in  case  of 
secondary  attachments  their  formation  is  uncertain. 

New  Zealand  Species  of  Rhodophyllis.t — A.  D.  Cotton  gives  an 
account  of  the  Xew  Zealand  species  of  Rhodophyllis,  having  made  a 
study  of  the  specimens  preserved  at  Kew,  in  the  British  Museum,  and  in 
the  private  possession  of  R.  M.  Laing  at  Christchurch,  N.Z.  As  a  result 
he  is  able  to  revise  the  descriptions  of  the  older  species  and  to  describe 
one  novelty.  Thus  the  valid  species  are  Rhodophyllis  acanthocarpa, 
R.  Lainyii  sp.  n.,  R.  membranacea,  R.  Gunnii,  R.  lacerata.  He  lays 
emphasis  on  the  arrangement  of  the  cortical  cells,  and  shows  that  the 
size  of  the  tetrasporangium  varies  considerably.  He  has  cleared  away 
the  difficulty  that  existed  of  recognising  the  plants  from  their  descrip- 
tions, and  of  reconciling  the  statements  of  different  writers.    Particularly 

*  Ann.  of  Bot.,  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  291-325  (3  pis.). 
t  Kew  Bulletin,  1908,  pp.  97-102. 


622  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

is   this    the    case    with    II.  membranami,    which,  after    being   united 
(erroneously)  with  Rhodymenia Jimbriata,  fell  into  neglect.    Rhodophyllis 
membranacea  is  abundant  on  the  coast  of  New  Zealand  ;  but  Rhodymenia 
jimbriata  does  not  occur  there  at  all. 

Criticisms  on  Calcareous  Algae.* — M.  Foslie  criticises  severely  and 
in  detail  F.  Heydrich's  paper  on  Sphcwanthera  iiehmoides.\  For  instance 
he  strongly  disputes  Heydrich's  assumption  that  Millepora  calcarea  Ellis 
and  Soland.  is  a  form  of  Lithophyllum  incrustans,  and  questions  whether 
the  type  figured  is  a  coral  at  all.  Again  he  repeats  his  already  published 
opinion  that  Splicer •anther -a  is  not  a  valid  genus,  but  a  compound  of 
Lithothamnion  Philippii  and  Goniolithon  mamillosum.  And  he  adds 
that  Lithothamnion  lichenoides  placed  by  Heydrich  in  Sphceranfhera  is 
actually  the  type  of  Lithothamnion  as  now  understood  by  algologists. 
Further  he  cites  two  series  of  synonyms  referred  by  Heydrich  respectively 
to  Lithothamnion  Patena  and  Lithophylhim  incrustans,  and  shows  that 
such  a  grouping  of  species  is  not  warranted  by  facts. 

H  Algae  of  Swedish  West  Coast.  J — H.  Kylin  gives  a  list  of  47  marine 
algae  collected  on  the  west  coast  of  Sweden,  partly  by  himself,  partly  by 
the  late  F.  R.  Kjellman.  They  are  mostly  epiphytic  on  other  alga3  or 
on  zoophytes,  or  are  endophytic  species.  Notes  on  their  fruiting  season 
are  added. 

Algae  of  G;ermany.§ — E.  Lemmermann,  in  continuing  the  mono- 
graph of  the  algae  in  the  Kryptogamenflora  der  Mark  Brandenburg, 
treats  of  Class  II.,  the  Flagellatae.  These  are  divided  into  seven  orders 
— Pantostomatineae,  Protomastigineae,  Distomatineae,  Chrysomonadineae. 
Cryptoinonadineaj,  Chloromonadineae,  Euglenineae.  Each  of  these  is 
treated  in  turn,  descriptions  of  the  respective  orders,  families,  genera, 
and  species  being  supplied  ;  and  reference  is  facilitated  by  the  use  of 
keys  and  by  the  figures  grouped  in  the  plates.  The  blood-parasite 
Trypanosoma,  one  tropical  species  of  which  causes  sleeping-sickness,  is 
classed  under  Protomastigineae. 

Algal  Periodicity.|| — H.  B.  Brown  gives  an  account  of  the  periodicity 
of  alga}  in  certain  ponds  and  streams  at  Bloomington,  Indiana,  which  he 
kept  under  close  observation  in  1906-7.  The  flora  of  each  was  analysed 
twice  monthly.  The  Conjugates,  especially  Spiroyyra,  were  the  most 
abundant  algae.  Zygnema  ranked  next.  Moayeotia  was  less  abundant. 
Six  genera  of  Desmids  were  found,  Closterium  being  the  most  plentiful. 
The  (Edogoniales  wTere  plentiful,  and  the  Chaetophorales  fairly  abundant. 
Cladophorales  and  others  were  also  found.  Notes  on  the  behaviour  of 
the  different  algae  are  given  ;  and  the  following  conclusions  were 
reached.  (1)  Under  steady  normal  conditions  an  alga  continues  to 
grow  in  a  healthy  vegetative  state  throughout  the  year.  (2)  A  sudden 
change  in  external  conditions  checks  the  vegetative  growth  and  tends  to 

*  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  2te  Abt.,  xxiii.  (1908)  pp.  266-72. 

t  Op.  cit.,  2te  Abt.,  xxii.  (1907)  p.  222. 

t  Arkiv  f.  Botanik,  vii.,  No.  10  (190S)  10  pp.  (fig.). 

§  Leipzig :  Bomtraeger,  1908,  iii.  beft  3,  pp.  305-196  (pis.). 

||  Bull.  Torrey  Bot  Club,  xxxv.  (190S)  pp.  223-48. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  623 

cause  the  alga  to  enter  a  resting  stage  form  or  to  fruit  sexually.  Tables 
are  given  in  which  the  relative  abundance  and  frequency  of  the 
commoner  algge  are  shown  ;  and  a  complete  list  of  the  alga?  found  is 
appended. 

KiMMEEER,  P.  —  Symbiose  zwischen  (Edogonium  undulatum  und  Wasserjung- 
ferlarven.  (Symbiosis  between  (Edogonium  undulatum  and  the  larvae  of  a 
dragon-fly.)  Wicsner- Festschrift.    Wien  :  K.  Konegen,  1908,  pp.  239-52. 

Karsten,  G.— Die  Entwicklung  der  Zygoten  von  Spirogyra  jugalis  Ktzg.  (The 
development  of  the  zygotes  of  Spirogyra  jugalis.) 

[A  detailed  and  illustrated  account  of  the  changes  in  the  spore-cell  and 
nucleus.]  Flora,  xcix.  (1908)  pp.  1-11  (1  pi. ) 

Fungi. 

(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Zygospores  of  Sporodinia  grandis.* — A.  Lendner  has  submitted 
these  to  careful  examination  throughout  their  development.  He  finds 
that  oue  of  the  protogametes  penetrates  the  other,  suggesting  a  sexual 
difference.  The  protogametes  possess  at  first  numerous  nuclei ;  later 
there  appear  two  large  nuclei  with  always  two  chromosomes  ;  these  fuse 
to  form  the  zygospore  ;  the  remaining  smaller  nuclei  divide  and  Hue  the 
outer  wall ;  finally  they  disappear. 

Microsiphoneae.f — Paul  Yuillemin  explains  the  meaning  of  this  term, 
as  distinct  from  Siphoniycetes.  The  name  has  been  given  to  an  uncer- 
tain group  with  fine  filaments  branched  and  non-septate,  such  as 
Actinomyces,  etc.,  but  the  classification  is  only  provisory.  The  Sipho- 
mycetes represent  another  somewhat  temporary  resting  place  for  uncertain 
forms  such  as  Gunning  hamislla. 

Study  of  Saprolegniacege.J — 0.  H.  Kauffman  collected  his  material 
from  rivers,  ponds,  etc.,  containing  aquatic  plants,  alga?,  or  merely 
decaying  vegetable  matter.  He  explains  his  method  of  cultivating  the 
fungi  in  the  laboratory  and  of  securing  pure  cultures  on  beef -gelatin,  and 
then  transferring  them  to  capsules  of  pea-broth  and  to  solutions  contain- 
ing salts  and  other  substances.  He  noted  the  effect  of  the  different  media 
on  growth  and  reproduction,  the  development  of  the  sexual  organs,  etc. 
His  results  corresponded  with  those  of  Klebs,  that  hasmoglobin  and 
leucin  were  most  favourable  in  inducing  the  production  of  sexual  organs. 
He  describes  in  detail  all  the  variations  in  growth  observed  by  him  ; 
these  were  very  extensive  and  somewhat  affect  the  standards  of  classifica- 
tion within  the  genus.  His  results  also  seem  to  provide  evidence 
towards  the  doctrine  that  sex  in  plants  is  determinable  by  external 
conditions. 

Norwegian  Mucorineae.§ — 0.  Hagem  has  isolated  from  the  air  a 
number  of  Mucor  species.  He  exposed  Petri  dishes  with  a  variety  of 
sterilised  substances  in  and  around  Christiania,  and  found  that  species 

*  Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  ser.  2,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  77-8.  See  alsoBot.  Centralbl.,  cvii. 
(1903)  pp.  618.  f  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  1042-3. 

%  Ann.  of  Bot.,  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  361-87  (1  pi.). 
§  Vid.  Selsk.  Skr.,  i.  Math.-Nat.  Kl.,  No.  7, 1907  (1908)  50  pp.  (22  figs.). 


624  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

of  Miimr  were  of  Tan'  occurrence  in  comparison  with  other  filamentous 
fungi  :  Penicilliwn,  Aspergillus,  and  Cladosporium  being  the  commonest. 
The  author  also  tested  different  soils  for  species  that  might  be  growing 
there,  and  he  found  that  M .  hiemalis  was  the  most  abundant:  other 
species  grew  in  special  localities,  as,  for  instance,  M.  Ramannianus, 
which  occurred  in  pine  woods.  A  number  of  new  species  were  dis- 
covered and  described  in  the  course  of  the  work. 

Sexuality  in  the  Ascomycetes.*  —  A.  Guilliermond  continues  his 
review  of  the  work  recently  done  on  this  subject.  He  takes  up  first  the 
yeasts,  touching  on  the  question  of  the  nucleus,  the  existence  of  which 
he  considers  well  established.  He  describes  conjugation  as  it  is  found 
in  Zygosaccharomyces  and  others,  and  these  conjugations  he  considers 
settle  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the  yeasts,  which  are  autonomous, 
and  not  derived  from  other  forms.  Exoascus  is  next  considered  :  nuclear 
fusion  has  been  demonstrated  in  the  ascogenous  cells  while  still  under 
the  cuticle  of  the  host. 

The  most  important  work  has  been  done  on  the  higher  Ascomycetes 
on  Laboulbmia  by  Thaxter,  and  on'  Pyronema  by  Harper.  Sexual 
conjugation  has  been  observed  by  them  and  subsequent  workers. 
(Inilliermond  follows  each  research,  and  records  the  points  in  which  the 
results  vary  or  agree.  The  original  figures  in  many  cases  are  repro- 
duced, and  add  to  the  interest  and  value  of  the  papers. 

Taphrina  Alni-incanse.f — This  fungus  infests  the  catkins  of  Alnus 
incana,  and  C.  von  Tubeuf  finds  that  it  also  attacks  the  young  shoots. 
He  found  the  deformations  on  the  young  branches ;  the  asci  were 
entirely  similar  to  those  of  the  fungus  on  the  catkins,  and  were  without 
a  stalk-cell ;  the  leaves  also  showed  the  red  coloration  which  they  never 
do  when  attacked  by  T.  epiphylla.  The  author  further  notes  that  the 
swellings  on  the  leaves  of  poplars  due  to  T.  aurea  are  occasionally 
developed  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves. 

Haustoria  of  Meliola  and  Asterina.J — Rene  Maire  has  attacked 
the  vexed  question  as  to  the  parasitism  of  these  fungus-genera.  The 
allied  Capnodkim  grows  on  the  excreta  of  aphides,  but  no  trace  of 
animal  substratum  was  to  be  found  in  their  case.  Careful  preparation 
of  microscopic  sections  showed  distinct  haustoria  penetrating  the  host- 
plant,  and  so  providing  nourishment  for  the  parasite.  These  sucking- 
organs  are  very  constant  and  very  simple  in  Meliola,  but  in  Asterina 
they  vary  from  one  species  to  another  in  their  form  and  in  the  degree  of 
penetration  into  the  host-plant,  in  some  species  only  the  epidermal  cells 
being  reached,  in  others  the  hypodermal  layer. 

Notes  on  Ascomycetous  Fungi. — F.  Theissen§  discusses  Spegazzini's 
monotypic  genus  Diatrypeopsis,  which  he  has  found  frequently  in  Brazil. 
From  his  observations  he  concludes  that  the  fungus  is  identical  with 

*  Rev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xx.  (1908)  pp.  85-9,  111-20,  178-82,  298-305. 
t  Nat.  Zeit.  Land.-Forstw.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  6S-73.     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cvii. 
(1908)  pp.  520-1. 

X  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  124-8  (4  figs.).  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  91-4. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  H2." 

Nummularia punctulata,  and  that  the  genus  Diatrypeopsis  is  redundant. 

The  one  feature — the  colourless  spores — that  placed  it  near  to  Diatrype 
is  not  a  constant  character:  they  have  a  greenish  tinge,  becoming 
brownish-grey  on  their  escape  from  the  ascus. 

J.  M.  Reade,*  working  at  Cornell  University,  has  followed  the  de- 
velopment of  a  number  of  Sclerotiniae,  and  he  gives  full  diagnoses.  In 
all  cases  where  followed  out  the  conidial  stage  is  a  form  of  Monilia, 
which  in  some  cases  was  the  only  form  known  before  these  researches. 
The  sclerotia  were  formed  in  mummified  fruits,  and  in  some  cases  on  the 
twigs  and  leaves  of  the  host-plant. 

Spotting  of  Bamboos.f — S.  Kawamura  gives  an  account  of  the 
different  kinds  of  bamboos  that  are  to  be  found  in  Japan,  some  of  which 
are  distinguished  by  dark  rings  and  spots  on  the  stems.  This  he  finds 
is  due  to  a  fungus,  Myostria  fusispora  g.  et  sp.  n.  The  central  part  of 
the  dark  spots  is  occupied  by  a  cushion-like  mycelium  in  which  is 
imbedded  a  pyriform  perithecium  with  fusiform  colourless  spores. 
Inoculation  experiments  were  unsuccessful,  and  Kawamura  concluded 
that  the  fungus  could  only  attack  injured  areas  of  the  steins. 

Yeast  as  a  Fermentative  Agent.f — F.  G.  Kohl  has  published  an 
exhaustive  treatise  on  these  unicellular  fungi  that  are  used  to  produce 
fermentation.  He  discusses  their  physiological  properties,  and  in  the 
chapter  on  fermentation  he  cites  the  cases  in  which  filamentous  fungi, 
such  as  Mucor,  PenicilUum,  etc.,  have  also  been  employed,  these  fungi 
forming  yeast  torulations  in  the  absence  of  air.  An  account  is  given  of 
alcoholic^fermentations  and  of  the  by-products  formed.  A  new  series  of 
observations  includes  a  description  of  the  methods  employed  in  yeast 
culture,  spore  formation,  the  morphological  characters  of  the  plants,  and 
a  systematic  revision  of  the  various  organisms.  The  book  is  well  illus- 
trated, and  is  supplied  with  a  good  index. 

Notes  on  GlceosporiumJ — J.  Lincl  has  examined  and  described  a 
species  growing  on  the  leaves  of  ferns  that  had  been  variously  classified 
as  G.filicinum  Rostr.  or  as  Exobasidium  Brevieri  Boud.  From  his  own 
observations  he  has  placed  it  in  a  new  genus  of  Protobasidiomycetes 
that  he  has  designated  HerpoMsidium.  The  fungus  develops  in  the 
interior  of  the  leaf,  the  mycelium  spreading  in  the  intercellular  spaces, 
and  also  forming  coils  in  the  cells  of  the  host.  At  the  stomata  it  passes 
into  the  open  and  forms  a  white  superficial  felt  from  which  arise 
upright  basidia  clavate  and  uniseptate,  each  cell  bearing  a  sterigma  and 
basidiospore.  The  fertile  hypha  branches  lower  down,  and  the  branches 
also  act  as  basidia.  Lind  has  also  examined  Glmosporium  deformans  on 
willow  catkins,  and  finds  that  it  is  a  composite  form  comprehending 
four  distinct  species. 

Research  on  Fungi  Imperfecti.||— H.  Klebahn  continues  his  studies 
in  this  field,  and  records  his  new  results.     Asteroma  Padi  on  leaves  of 

*  Ann.  MycoL,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  109-15. 

t  Joum.  Coll.  Sci.  Imp.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  1-11  (5  pis.). 

X  Leipzig :  Quelle  and  Merer  (1908)  viii.  and  343  pp.  pp.  (S  pis.  and  59  figs.). 

§  Arkiv  Botanik,  vii.  (1908)  No.  8,  23  pp.  (3  pis.). 

||  Zeitschr.  Pflanzenkr.,  xviii.  (1908)  pp.  129-54  (2  pis.). 

Ort.  21st,  1908  -'    '1' 


626  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Prunus  Padus  was  examined  and  cultivated,  and  is  fully  described. 
An  ascus  form  was  found  on  the  wintering  leaves,  which  was  used  for 
experimental  cultures  and  inoculation  experiments,  reproducing  the 
Asteroma  on  the  Prunus  leaves.  The  ascus  form  was  found  to  be  a 
Gnomonia  with  elongate  1-septate  spores,  and  identical  with  Sphc&ria 
padicola.     The  different  synonyms  of  the  two  related  forms  are  given. 

Similar  cultures  were  successfully  carried  through  with  Gnomoniella 
tubiformis  on  alder  leaves,  of  which  the  '"imperfect"  form  was  proved 
to  be  Leptothyrium  alneum.  Detailed  accounts  of  cultures  are  given, 
and  the  synonyms,  which  are  many,  are  added.  He  has  found  in 
Gnomonia,  so  far,  that  for  four  different  species  the  imperfect  forms  are 
to  be  sought  in  four  different  genera  of  Sphaeropsideaa. 

Hyphomycetes.* — Lindau  concludes  the  study  of  the  brown-spored 
forms  with  the  Phfeostaurosporaa,  a  family  containing  a  few  genera  with 
conidia  of  peculiar  form.  He  begins  the  third  family,  that  of  the 
Stilbaceaa,  which  includes  those  with  compound  fructification,  the 
conidiophores  being  massed  together  to  form  a  definite  fruiting  body. 
Under  the  first  section  of  the  family,  Hyalosporae,  he  describes  the 
genera  GUkvpodkim,  Stilbdla,  and  Dendrostilbella. 

Uredineas.f — E.  Fischer  passes  in  review  the  development  of  the 
Uredine  through  its  differeut  life-stages.  He  notes  the  disappearance 
of  different  stages  (uredo  or  aacidiuni)  in  certain  forms,  and  attempts  to 
explain  the  factors  that  have  caused  the  shortening  of  the  life-history. 
He  finds  that  these  fall  into  two  classes  :  (1)  indirect,  through  selection 
— in  Alpine  localities  those  that  formed  teleutospores  early  in  the 
autumn  had  a  better  chance  of  survival,  and  in  time  there  persisted 
those  forms  with  teleutospores  only  ;  (2)  direct  influence  of  climate, 
which  caused  the  uredo  stage  to  be  omitted  when  sudden  lowering  of 
temperature  took  place. 

Merulius  lacrymans.J — 0.  Mez  has  issued  a  treatise  on  the  dry-rot 
of  houses.  He  has  examined  the  different  species  of  fungi  that  are 
wood-destroyers,  and  gives  descriptions  of  them.  Special  attention  is 
devoted  to  Merulius,  which  is  really  a  forest  fungus  which  has  been 
transported  into  human  dwellings,  and  he  considers  that  M.  Silvester 
is  only  a  wild  form  of  31.  domesticus.  Instructions  are  given  as  to  the 
best  method  of  destroying  or  preventing  the  "  rot." 

Moller§  has  also  published  a  communication  on  this  important 
subject.  He  describes  specimens  that  he  found  growing  in  the  open, 
but  concludes  that  they  belonged  to  the  species  M.  Silvester,  which  he 
considers  autonomous.  He  made  a  series  of  experiments  on  the  ger- 
mination of  the  spores,  and  found  that  spores  of  the  "  dry-rot "  of 
houses  germinated  quite  normally  after  seventeen  months. 

*  Rabenhorst's  Kryptogamen  Flora,  i.  9te  Abt.,  Lief.  109  (Leipzig,  1908)  pp. 
241-304. 

t  Mitth.  Nat.  Ges.  Bern  (1907)  21  pp.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xx.  (1908) 
pp.  532-4. 

%  Dresden :  R.  Lincke  (1908)  260  pp.  (1  pi.  and  90  figs.).  See  also  Hedwigia, 
xlvii.  (1908)  Beibl.  pp.  176-7. 

§  Hausschwammforschungen,  1907,  beft  1.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xx 
(1908)  p.  537. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  627 

Notes  on  Lycoperdon  sculptum.*  —  W.  A.  Setchell  describes  this 
large  puff-ball  from  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  of  California.  He 
accounts  for  the  different  times  it  has  been  collected  high  up  among  the 
mountains,  usually  on  alluvial  soil  beside  streams,  but  also  in  drier 
localities  among  pines.  It  is  characterised  by  well-marked  sculpturings 
on  the  outer  wall  ;  the  spores  are  minute,  the  capillitium  threads  short 
and  unbranched.  From  the  mode  of  dehiscence — the  breaking  up  of 
the  peridium  into  plates — it  has  been  referred  by  some  authors  to 
Calvatia. 

Revision  of  Ceylon  Fungi. f — This  task  has  been  undertaken  by 
T.  Petch,  who  points  out  the  inevitableness  of  mistakes  when  diagnoses 
or  determinations  are  made  on  dried  specimens  alone.  A  study  of 
fresh  material  on  the  spot  results  in  the  reduction  of  a  number  of 
species  already  described,  though  new  forms  must  lie  added  as  so  many 
have  been  overlooked  by  passing  collectors.  Redescriptions  of  species 
add  to  the  value  of  the  work. 

Effect  of  Formic  Acid  on  Fungi.J — This  study  was  taken  up  by 
Henri  Coupin  to  discover  if  possible  why  the  fungi  of  ants'  nests  never 
produced  the  fruiting  forms.  He  found  that  Rhizopus  nigricans,  grown 
in  atmospheres  impregnated  with  formic  acid  of  varying  densities,  was 
influenced  by  the  acid  chiefly  in  the  reproductive  organs,  which  may 
disappear  altogether  while  the  mycelium  continues  to  grow. 

Biology  of  Wood-destroying  Fungi.§ — 0.  Rumbold  has  cultivated 
on  artificial  media  a  large  number  of  the  higher  fungi  that  grow 
normally  on  wood.  Her  aim  was  to  find  out  how  far  Hartig's  state- 
ment was  correct  that  only  in  dry-rot  do  the  clamp-cells  (Schnallen- 
zellen)  grow  out,  and  also  to  test  the  comparative  influence  of  acid  on 
alkaline  media,  on  the  growth  of  mycelium,  and  on  germination  of  spores. 
Rumbold  proved  that  clamp-cells  grow  out  whenever  present ;  that  no 
wood-fungus  grew  on  alkaline  media,  but  if  the  alkali  was  so  weak  as  to 
be  neutralised  by  the  action  of  the  fungus  itself,  a  slow  development  of 
the  mycelium  was  possible.     Dry-rot  was  the  most  susceptible  to  alkalis. 

Phosphorescent  Fungi.  || — Hans  Mollisch,  writing  on  this  subject, 
insists  upou  two  points  :  1.  It  is  impossible  to  decide  whether  a  fungus 
is  phosphorescent  unless  pure  cultures  of  the  mycelium  have  been  made, 
culture  methods  being  given.  2.  No  conclusion  can  be  drawn  from 
finding  the  fructification  of  a  fungus  on  phosphorescent  wood  as  to  its 
identity  with  the  cause  of  the  phosphorescence.  He  finds  that  a  number 
of  forms  have  been  erroneously  considered  as  phosphorescent,  such  as 
Xylaria  Hypoxylon,  X.  Cookei,  Trametes  Pini,  Polyporus  sulfureus, 
Collybia  c/rrhata,  etc. 

*  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  291-5  (1  pi.). 
+  Ann.  Roy.  Bot.  Gard.  Peradenya,  Ceylon,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  21-68. 
X  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlviii.  (1908)  pp.  80-1. 

§  Nat.  Zeit.  Land.-Forstw.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  81-141  (1  pi.  and  1  4  figs.).     See  also 
Bot.  Centralbl.,  cvii.  (1908)  pp.  518-19. 

Wiesner    Festschrift.     Wien :    Carl  Konegen,   1908,    pp.    19  23.      See   also 
Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1908)  Beibl.  p.  170. 

2    T    2 


628  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Colour-variation  in  Fungi.* — F.  J.  Seaver  is  preparing  a  mono- 
graph of  North  American  Hypocreales,  and  records  some  of  his  observa- 
tions on  the  colour  of  different  members  of  the  group.  He  finds  that 
the  well-known  Nectria  cmnabarina  from  cinnabar-red  colour  becomes, 
with  age,  dark-brown,  and  finally  almost  black.  In  each  colour-stage 
specimens  have  been  described  as  new  species  :  N.  Russell  ii,  N.  ofl'axcata. 
N.  nigresceas,  N.  Melke.  The  writer  finds  similar  confusion  existing  in 
species  of  Hypocrea  ;  fuller  details  are  promised  with  the  issue  of  t In- 
complete monograph. 

Local  Records  of  Fungi."]" — C.  Grassland  gives  a  list  of  forty-seven 
species  that  were  collected  on  a  natural  history  expedition  to  Robin 
Hood's  Bay,  in  the  autumn  of  last  year.  Among  the  interesting  species 
noted  was  a  little  black  mould  CI  aster  osporium  fungorum,  that  grows  on 
species  of  Corticium. 

A  similar  account  X  is  given  of  the  fungi  of  Littondale,  in  York- 
shire. Most  of  the  forms  collected  belonged  to  the  microfungi,  many  of 
them  coprophilous. 

T.  Gribbs  §  reports  on  the  fungi  of  Ribblesdale  ;  some  eighty  species 
were  collected,  but  the  weather  conditions  were  found  unfavourable,  a 
period  of  dry  weather  having  followed  on  a  cold  wet  summer,  and  checked 
the  growth  of  the  mycelium.  ■» 

The  same  author  ||  describes  a  new  Coprinus  (G.  cordisporus),  which 
he  found  on  dung  of  horse,  sheep,  rabbit,  etc.,  in  various  parts  of  York- 
shire and  Derbyshire.  The  spores  are  described  as  obtusely  heart-shaped, 
and  compressed,  front  view  cordate. 

W.  Fowler  %  records  the  appearance  of  Hydnum  auriscalpium  at 
Welbeck  Abbey,  where  it  was  first  collected  in  Britain  by  the  Duchess  of 
Portland,  and  not  since  recorded  for  Yorkshire.  John  Lightfoot  identified 
it  for  the  Duchess  140  years  ago. 

C.  Grassland  **  describes  a  new  species,  Humaria  globose-pal Ivinata, 
found  near  Hebden  Bridge,  on  sediment  in  disused  dye-tank  ;  and,  along 
with  this  species,  gives  a  list  of  plants  new  to  Yorkshire,  and  discovered 
by  him  and  others  since  the  publication  of  the  "  Fungus-Flora  "  in  1905. 

Chemistry  of  the  Higher  Fungi. ft — J.  Zellner  has  summed  up  all 
that  is  known  of  the  chemical  constituents  of  the  higher  fungi,  as  also 
some  of  the  microscopic  forms.  He  takes  the  different  substances,  and 
states  where  they  occur,  and  their  properties,  so  far  as  these  have  been 
ascertained.  Carbonates,  fats,  minerals,  acids,  colouring  agents,  enzymes, 
toxins,  etc.,  are  all  included  in  his  survey. 

Parasitic  Fungi.  —  Ducomet  has  studied  the  development  of  a 
number  of  subcuticular  fungi.  In  some  of  these,  Ggcloconiam,  Cuti- 
cularia  Stigmatea,  and  Fusicladium  Pruni,  the  vegetative  mycelium  is 

*  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  307-14. 

t  Naturalist,  1907,  pp.  288-9. 

%  Tom.  oit.,  pp.  350-3.  §  Torn,  cit.,  pp.  395-6. 

||  Op.  cit.,  1903,  p.  100.  %  Tom.  cit.,  p.  157. 

**  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  214-18. 

ft  Chemie  der  hohereu  Pilze.     Leipzig:  W.  Eiigelmann  (1907),  257  pp. 
XX  These  Sc.     Paris  :  Remies(1907)  208  pp.  (34  pis.).     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl. 
cvii.  (1908)  pp.  368-9. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  629 

constantly  found  just  beneath  the  cuticle  ;  in  other  forms  it  goes  deeper 
into  the  tissue,  as  in  Guignardia,  Fusarium,  Vmturia,  and  Marsonia.  In 
Mycetoderma  the  tissues  are  only  invaded  when  the  leaves  are  dead  ; 
Fusicladium  pyrinum  and  F.  dendriticum  are  subcuticular  in  the  leaf,  but 
penetrate  more  deeply  in  fruit  or  branch.  Many  other  points  of  interest 
are  entered  on  in  the  memoir  :  action  of  the  fungus  on  the  host,  form  of 
the  thallus,  etc.  Some  new  species  have  been  discovered,  and  are 
described. 

Blue  Disease  of  Pine-wood.*  — ■  The  blue  colour  is  stated  by  E. 
Munch  to  be  due  to  a  light-effect  on  finely  divided  mycelium,  and  not 
to  any  colour  produced.  The  disease  is  caused  by  a  species  of  a 
Pyrenomycete,  Ceratostomella,  a  composite  species  which  includes  several, 
distinguished  from  each  other  more  particularly  by  their  conidial  form — 
in  some  being  a  species  of  Cladosporium,  in  others  a  Graph  i  am  or 
Ghalara  I  'iigeri.  The  author  also  describes  a  species  of  Cladosporium  on 
pine-wood  which  induced  a  blue  coloration,  but  he  did  not  find  any 
higher  fruiting  form  connected  with  it. 

In  a  further  paper  f  the  author  discusses  the  biological  conditions 
that  affect  the  growth  of  the  parasite.  It  does  not  grow  except  in  the 
presence  of  a  certain  amount  of  air,  and  increases  rapidly  when  the  air  is 
also  increased  by  disappearance  of  the  sap,  etc. 

Diseases  of  Plants. — E.  S.  Salmon  %  describes  the  nature  and  extent 
of  the  disease  of  apple-leaves  and  fruit  caused  by  a  fungus,  Fusicladium 
dendriticum,  and  known  as  "apple  scab"  or  "black  spot,"  which  first 
becomes  noticeable  by  the  damage  it  causes  to  the  young  fruit.  On  the 
leaves,  the  fungus  is  usually  to  be  found  on  the  upper  surface,  where  it 
forms  black  patches.  It  also  occurs  on  the  young  wood  of  the  tree, 
producing  a  blistered  appearance.  The  disease  can  be  checked  and 
controlled  by  systematic  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  the  first 
application  of  which  should  be  on  the  young  unfolding  leaves,  just 
lief  ore  the  blossoms  open.  If  the  wood  has  been  attacked,  it  should  be 
cut  out  as  much  as  possible,  and  the  tree  sprayed  during  the  winter. 

Several  cases  of  fungus  disease  are  reported  in  the  same  §  journal : 
Anemones  from  Penryn  were  attacked  by  rust,  peaches  from  Ilminster 
were  injured  by  leaf-curl,  Exoascus  deformans,  and  the  roots  of  youug 
peas  from  Cher'tsey  were  attacked  by  Thielavia  basicola,  a  fungus  which 
spreads  very  quickly  under  favourable  weather  conditions.  Remedies  are 
suggested  for  these  diseases. 

'  Kirchner  |]  has  conducted  a  series  of  experiments  by  artificial  inocu- 
lation of  wheat  with  Tilletia  Tritici—  drawing  a  parallel  between  the 
germinating  force  and  the  liability  to  infection.  In  summer  wheat,  the 
greater  the  f  oree  the  less  danger  there  is  of  the  disease  ;  but  this  does 
not  hold  good  for  the  common  winter  wheat,  as  the  results  there  prove 
exactly  the  opposite. 

*  Nat.  Zeitschr.  Land.-Forstw.,  v.  (1907)  pp.  531-73.  See  also  Bot.  Centialbl., 
cvii.  (190S)  pp.  275-6. 

+  Op.  cit.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  32-47.     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cvii.  (1908)  p.  515. 

t  Journ.  Board  Agric,  xv.  (1908)  pp.  182-95  (9  rigs.). 

§  Tom.  cit.  p.  203. 

I!  Fiibling's  Landw.  Zeit.,  1908,  p.  161.  See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (190S)  pp. 
168-9. 


630  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Kock  and  Kornauth*  give  their  experiences  in  combating  th< 
mildew  of  Cucurbitaceae.  Different  genera  within  the  order  show 
considerable  variation  in  their  liability  to  disease,  probably  due  to  the 
type  of  leaves.  Bordeaux  mixture  was  found  to  be  the  best  fungicide. 
Heavy  rains  and  high  variation  of  temperature  favoured  the  appearance 
and  dissemination  of  the  disease. 

W.  M.  Scott  and  J.  B.  Rorerf  describe  the  apple-leaf  spot  caused  by 
Sphcvropsis  malorwn.  A  number  of  other  microfungi  grow  on  the 
diseased  leaves,  notably  Goniothyrium  pirinum.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  has  been  found  of  service. 

L.  C.  Shear  $  has  given  the  results  of  a  series  of  investigations  on 
Cranberry  diseases  caused  by  different  fungi,  and  resulting  in  scald  on 
the  berry,  blast  which  attacks  the  flower,  rot  caused  by  Acanthorhyncus 
Vacciiui,  and  anthracnose  due  to  Glomerella  rufomaculcms-vaccinii.  In 
addition,  cases  of  hypertrophy  caused  by  Exobasidium  are  discussed. 

J.  L.  Spaulding§  describes  the  effect  of  PltgUostirta  solitaria  on 
apple,  causing  fruit-blotch  disease,  and  occurring  on  branches,  leaves, 
and  fruit.  A  blight  disease  of  young  conifers  was  found  by  the  same 
author  to  be  due  to  a  species  of  Pestalozzia,  and  a  heart-rot  of  Sassafras 
to  Fomes  Rib  is.  He  describes  the  manner  in  which  the  fungus  attacks 
the  tree  and  develops  in  the  tissues. 

F.  L.  Stevens  |)  describes  two  apple  fungi :  Hypochnus  ochraleaca, 
which  occurs  extensively  on  apples  and  quinces  in  North  Carolina,  and 
a  form  of  Phoma,  or  PhyMosticta,  which  causes  a  canker  of  the  apple, 
and  has  proved  very  destructive  to  the  trees. 

.  G-.  F.  Atkinson  and  C.  W.  Edgerton^f  publish  a  preliminary  note  on 
a  new  disease  of  the  cultivated  vetch,  causing  spots  on  the  pods.  They 
propose  a  new  generic  and  specific  name,  Protocoronospora  nigricans. 

E.  H.  Smith  **  finds  that  a  Fusarium,  probably  F.  Solani,  causes 
the  blossom  end-rot  of  tomatoes.  A  detailed  description  of  the  fungus 
is  given  ;  the  paper  is  well  illustrated. 

A  disease  of  chestnut  trees  was  discovered  in  1905  in  Bronx  Park, 
New  York,  and  described  by  W.  A.  Murrill  ft  as  due  to  Diaporthe 
parasitica.  The  parasite  has  attacked  other  species  of  Castanea,  and 
the  disease  has  spread  largely  in  the  neighbourhood. 

P.    Cruchet  J  J    describes    new   parasites    on  Polygonum    alpinwm, 

*  Zeitschr.  Landw.  Versuch.  Oesterr.,  1908,  p.  128.  See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi. 
(1908)  p.  169. 

t  U.S.Dept.  Agric.  Bull.,  No  121,  part  5  (1908  )pp.  47-54  (2  pis.).  See  also  Ann. 
Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  169-70. 

:  Bull.  Bur.  PI.  Lad.,  No.  110  (1907).  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cvii.  (1908)  pp. 
147-8. 

§  Science,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  183,  220,  479.  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cvii.  (1908) 
pp.  148-9. 

|i  Op.  cit.,  xxvi.  (1907)  p.  724.     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cvii.  (1908)  p.  313. 

i  Torn,  cit.,  p.  386.     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cvii.  (1908)  p.  357. 
**  Mass.  Agric.  Exp.  Stat.  Techn.,  Bull.  No.  3  (1907)  6  drawings  and  photos. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cvii.  (1908)  p.  357. 

ft  Journ.  New  York  Bot.  Gard.,  ix.  (1908)  pp.  23-30.     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl., 
cvii.  (1908)  p.  594. 

XX  Bull.   Herb.  Boiss..  ser.  2,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  245-7.     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl., 
eviii.  (1908)  p.  94. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  631 

Pitcci/iia  Polygoni-alpini,  and  Sphacelotheca  alpina.     The  latter  destroys 
the  flower  ;  a  second  species  was  detected  on  the  leaves  of  the  same  host. 

Study  of  Anthracnoses.* — 0.  W.  Edgerton  limits  this  term  to  the 
fungi  that  at  one  stage  form  a  GUeosporium.     In  many  cases  the  perfect 
fruit  form  is  knowu,  but  not  in  all.     The  author  includes  Coll etotric hum 
as  a  synonym  of  Glozosjjorium  :  the  difference  between  the  two  he  does 
not  consider  of  generic  importance.      He  describes  the  development  of 
GlcBOsporium  and  then  its  different  forms  as  it  appears  when  associated 
with  different  ascogenous  fungi.     He  takes  first  the  Gnomonia  type,  and 
gives  an  account  of  G.  veneta  with  the  pycnidial  stage   Glaosporium 
nervisequum,  which  is  parasitic  on  sycamore  and  oak.     The  Pseudopeziza 
type  was  first  worked  out  by  Klebahn,  and  his  work  is  referred  to. 
Most  of  the  work  was  done  by  Edgerton  on  the  Glomerella  type  :  the 
perfect  stage,  one  of  the  Pyrenomycetes,  was  found  to  be  extremely 
variable  both  from  the  same  and  from  different  hosts.     It  is  doubtful  if 
they  represent  different  species  or  only  forms — thus  two  forms  were 
found  on  the  apple  :  one  from  the  north,  the  other  from  the  south,  that 
from  the  south  alone  producing  perithecia.     In  artificial  cultures  very 
considerable  variety  was  also  produced,  but  the  author  deprecates  the 
use  of  these  characters  in  the  determination  of  species  as  being  generally 
too  variable.     A  full  bibliography  of  the  subject  is  given. 

Bambeke.  Ch.  Van  —  Le  recueil   de  figures  coloriees  de  champignons  delaisse 
par  Fr.  Van  Sterbeck. 

[An  account  of  the  32  coloured  plates  of  fungi  left  by  Sterbeck.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Boy.  Bot.  Belgique,  xliv.  (1907)  pp.  297-338  (3  pis.). 

Bubak,  Fr.,  &  J.  E.  Kabat— Mykologische  Beitrage.   V.    (Mycological  contri- 
butions.) 

[Descriptions  of  a  number  of  new  species  of  microfungi  from  Bohemia.] 

Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  354-64  (8  figs.). 

Cruchet,  Denis — Contribution  a  la  Flore  mycologique  Suisse.     (Contribution 
to  the  Swiss  mycological  flora.) 

[A  list  of  Fhvcomvcetes  and  Ustilaginese  parasitic  on  various  phanerogams.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Vaud.  Sci.  Nat.,  xliv.  (1908)  pp.  27-33. 

Dietel,   P — Einige  neue  Uredineen  aus  Sudamerika.  II.     (Some  new  Uredines 
from  South  America.) 

TSpecies  from  various  collectors  in  Brazil  and  Chili.] 

Ann.  Mi/col,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  94-8. 

Fbrdinandsen,  C,  &  0.  Wing e— Mycological  Notes. 

[Notes  on  various  misunderstood  forms, 

with  diagnoses  of  several  new  species.] 

Bot.  Tidssk.,  xxviii.  (1907)  pp.  249-56. 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cvii.  (1908)  pp.  245-6. 

tt  „  ,,  Svampe    vegetationen    paa    Borris    Hede. 

(The  vegetation  of  fungi  on  the  heath  at 
Borris.) 

[An  examination  of  the  habitat  of 
the  different  fungi.] 
Bot.  Tidssk.,  xxviii.  (1907)  pp.  257-64. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cviii.  (1908)  p.  95. 


*  Bot.  Gazette,  xlv.  (1908)  pp.  367-408  (1  pi.  and  17  figs.). 


632  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

Hennings,  P.— Fungi  philippinenses.    I. 

[Many  new  species  are  described.] 

Jfedwigia,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  250-G5. 

,,        ,,  Fungi  bahienses. 

[Most  of  the  species  are  new.     The  collection  was  made  by 
E.  Ule.  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  266-70. 

Lendner,  A. — Cinq  especes  nouvelles  du  genre  Mucor.  (Five  new  species  of  the 
genus  Mucor.) 

[Several  of  these  were  developed  in  artificial  cultures.     One  was  growing  on 
a  rust  from  Brazil,  the  others  from  Switzerland.] 

Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  ser.  2,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  78-9. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  cvii.  (1908)  p.  648. 

Lind,  J. — Bemerkungen  uber  einige  parasitische  Pilze  aus  Ruzland.  (Remarks 
on  some  parasitic  fungi  from  Russia.) 

[List  of  an  unpublished  set  of  50  microfungi  by  U.  C.  Sredinsky,  and  of 
some  other  parasites  also  found  iu  St.  Petersburg  herbarium.] 

Ann.  Mycol,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  99-10-4. 

Maire,  Rene — Champignons  de  Sao  Paulo.     (Fungi  of  San  Paulo,  Brazil.) 
[Diagnoses  of  a  number  of  new  species  and  of  rare  forms.] 

Tom.  cit,  pp.  145-53  (1  pi.,  7  figs.). 

Mattirolo,  O. — Relazione  intorno  alia  Memoria.  .  .  Richerche  intorno  ad  alcune 
specie  del  genere  Elaphomyces. 

[Report  on  a  paper  on  the  systematic  position  of  Elaphomyces,  presented 
by  Elfisia  Fontana.] 

Atti  Accad.  Sci.  Torino,  xliii.  (1908)  pp.  97-8). 

Rehm — Ascomycetes  Exs.  Fasc.  41. 

[Notes  and  diagnoses  of  species,  several  of  them  new,  Nos.  1751-75  ;  with  a 
series  of  notes  on  species  already  published.] 

Ann.  Mycol,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  116-24. 

Rick — Fungi  Austro-Americani,  Fasc.  ix.  and  x. 

[Notes  on  a  number  of  species,  some  of  them  new  to  science.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  105-8. 

Sartory,  A.,  &   A.  Jourde — Le  Sterigmatocystis  fusca. 

[An  account  of  some  morphological  and  bio- 
logical characters  of  this  fungus  and  of  its 
pathogenic  properties.] 
C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  926-8. 

,,  ,,  ,,        Note  snr  le  pouvoir   pathogene  des   Sterigmato- 

cystis nigra  et  S.  carbonaria.  (Note  on  the 
pathogenic  power  of  Sterigmatocystis  nigra 
and  S.  carbonaria.) 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1135-6. 

Sydow,  H.  &  P. — Ueber  eine  Anzahl  aus  der  G-attung  Uromyces  Auszuschlies- 
zender,  resp.  unrichtig  beschriebener  Arten.  (Some  species  of  Uromyces  that 
should  be  omitted,  or  that  are  imperfectlv  described.) 

Awn.  Mycol,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  135-43. 

Trillat  &  Sauton — Etude  sur  le  role  des  levures  dans  l'aldehydification  de 
l'alcool.     (On  the  part  played  by'yeasts  in  converting  alcohol  into  aldehyde.) 

Comptes  Renclus,  cxlvii.  (1908)  pp.  77-80. 

Voglino,  Pietro — De  quibusdam  fungis  novis  pedemontanis.  (Some  new  fungi 
from  Piedmont.) 

[Diagnoses  of  new  species  of  microfungi.) 

Atti  Accad.  Sci.  Torino,  xliii.  (1908)  pp.  246-51. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  633 

Lichens. 

(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

French  Lichens.* — J.  Harmand  has  issued  the  third  part  of  his 
systematic  and  descriptive  catalogue  of  French  lichens,  which  includes 
the  Cladoniae  and  filamentous  genera,  such  as  Usnea,  Alectoria,  Ramalina, 
Roccella,  Anaptychia,  etc.  Harmand  does  not  follow  the  new  classifica- 
tion, which  places  Cladonia  near  to  Lecidea,  and  Roccella  among  the 
Graphidege  ;  he  follows  the  older  method  of  classification,  according  to 
the  form  of  the  thallus.  Distribution  of  the  species  in  French  territory 
is  given,  and  keys  are  supplied  for  each  genus. 

Lichens  from  the  Island  of  Samoa.f — The  collection  was  made  by 
K.  Rechinger,  and  the  species  determined  by  A.  Zahlbruckner.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  lichen  flora  resembles  that  of  New  Caledonia. 
There  are  many  forms  with  Ghroolepus  gonidia,  especially  on  twigs  and 
branches  in  mangrove  swamps.  Crustaceous  forms  were  generally 
plentiful,  but  there  were  few  representatives  of  Pertusaria,  Parmelia,  and 
Usnea.  There  were  only  two  species  of  Cladonia,  and  none  of  Stereo- 
caulon.  A  few  new  species  are  described,  and  one  new  genus,  Pseudo- 
lecanactis. 

Lichen  Notes.  V.J—  These  notes  by  G.  K.  Merrill  deal  with  the 
genus  Ramalina.  He  compares  Tuckerman's  with  Nylander's  arrange- 
ment, and  proceeds  to  give  a  short  review  of  the  different  species^  He 
finds  a  leading  mark  of  differentiation  in  the  spores,  which  in  R. 
fastigiata  and  R.  fraxinea  are  curved,  while  in  R.  calicaris  and  R. 
farinacea  they  are  straight.  The  forms  of  R.  calicaris  are  so  many  and  so 
varied  that  a  constant  character  such  as  the  form  of  the  spores  is  of  great 
importance. 

Lichens  Chemically  Considered.§  —  W.  Zopf  has  devoted  much 
attention  to  the  chemical  constituents  of  lichens,  and  he  here  sums  up  the 
results  of  his  researches.  He  reckons  some  143  different  substances, 
most  of  them  of  an  acid  character,  and  all  of  them  crystallisable.  He 
describes  his  methods  of  obtaining  the  acids  from  the  plants  ;  none  of 
them  have  been  found  in  any  other  plant  or  animal.  He  gives  a  list  of 
the  reagents  that  may  be  employed  in  determining  the  presence  of  the 
acids,  which  are  also  useful  from  a  systematic  point  of  view,  though  the 
surroundings,  humidity,  etc.,  may  influence  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
the  acid.  He  does  not  consider  them  in  the  light  of  protective  sub- 
stances for  the  lichens,  as  in  many  cases  they  are  eaten  by  animals  even 
when  they  contain  very  bitter  substances.  Zopf  also  discusses  the 
economic  properties  and  uses  of  the  acids,  and  finally  divides  them  into 
their  chemical  groups. 

*  Lichens  de  France.  Paris  :  Paul  Klincksieck,  part  ii.  (1907)  pp.  211-478 
(3  pis.). 

t  Math.-Nat.  Kl.  k.  Akal  Wiss.  YVien,  lxxxi.  (1907)  66  pp.  (1  pi.).  See  also 
Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1908)  Beibl.,  pp.  172-3. 

X  Bryologist,  xi.  (1908)  pp.  48-53. 

§  Jena :  G.  Fischer  (1907)  xi.  and  49  pp.  (71  figs.).  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl., 
cvii.  (1908)  pp.  196-201. 


634  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

Chemical  Constituents  of  Lichens. — P.  Rave  *  re-examines  the  work 
on  Evernia  furfuracea  by  Zopf,  who  had  decided  that  this  lichen  was  the 
representative  of  a  new  genus,  Pseudevernia,  and  who  had  split  it  into  six 
species.  Elenkin  questioned  the  correctness  of  Zopf's  theories.  Rave  has 
taken  up  the  question,  and  uphold's  Zopf's  views  ;  he  finds  morphological 
as  well  as  chemical  differences  between  the  different  species. 

Emmanuel  Senft  f  writes  on  the  occurrence  of  physcion  and  parietin 
in  lichens.  They  are  insoluble  in  water,  but  can  be  easily  extracted  with 
alcohol,  chloroform,  etc.,  and  they  crystallise '  in  characteristic  forms. 
Coloured  tables  are  given  showing  the  forms  of  the  crystals. 

Beitzelmayr,    Max.  —  Die  Cladonien   des   Harzgebietes   und  Nordthiiringens 
nach  dem    "  Herbarium  Oszwald."      (The   Cladonien   of  the  Harz  and  North 
Thuringia  according  to  Oszwald's  Herbarium.) 
[A  collection  of  about  300  specimens  of  Claclonite.~\ 

Beih.  Bot.  CentralbL,  xxiii.  (1908)  pp  318-23  (V  pis.). 

Elenkin,  A. — Lichenes  florae  Russicae  Mediae,  Fasc.  ii.,  Nos.  51-100. 
[A  varied  selection  of  lichens  from  Central  Russia.] 

St.  Petersbourg,  1907.     See  also  Bot.  CentralbL,  cvii.  (1908)  p.  492. 

Hasse,  H.  E. — Lichens  collected  in  the  Tehachepi   Mountains,  California,  June 
1907. 

[A  considerable  list  of  plants  is  given,  with  instructive  notes  on  some  of  the 
species.]  Bryologist,  xi.  (1908)  pp.  55-7. 

Howe,  Heber  Reginald  —  Lichens  of  the  Mount  Monadnock  Region,  N.H., 
No.  2. 

[Several  forms  of  Thelochistcs  are  discussed  and  compared.] 

Tom.  cit.,  p.  74. 

To  bleb,   F.  —  Kritische  Bemerkungen  uber   Rhaphiospora,  Arthroraphis    Myco- 
bacidia. 

[Critical  notes  on  various  lichens.] 

Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  140-4  (2  figs.) 

Zahlbruchner,  A. — Neue  Flechten.     (New  lichens.) 

[Diagnoses   of    species    from    Patagonia,   California, 
Chili,  Herzegovina,  and  Steierrnark.] 

Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  129-34. 

,,  ,,  New  North  American  Lichens. 

[New  species   described   from  Arizona ;    all  of  them 
collected  from  basaltic  rocks.] 
Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  297-300. 

Mycetozoa. 

(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Notes  on  Swiss  Mycetozoa.J — A.  and  Gr.  Lister  report  on  a  series 
of  forms  collected  on  high  ground,  most  frequently  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  melting  snow.  They  note  certain  variations,  due  apparently  to  their 
Alpine  surroundings  :  great  variation  iu  the  size  and  shape  of  sporangia, 
etc.,  which  other  observers  have  also  remarked.  They  publish  a  new 
variety   of    Physarum    virescens    with    larger    sporangia,   more    rigid 

*  Inaug.-Diss.  von  Munster,  i.  W.  Borna.  Leipzig :  R.  Noske  (1908)  51  pp. 
(2  pis.).     See  also  Hedwigia,  Beibl.,  xlvii.  (1908)  p.  171. 

t  Wiesner  Festschrift.  Wien :  Carl  Konegen,  1908,  pp,  176-92  (1  pi.).  See 
also  Hedwigia,  Beibl.,  xlvii.  (1908)  p.  171. 

%  Journ.  Bot.,  xlvi.  (1908)  pp.  216-19. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  635 

capillitiuin,  and  darker,  rather  larger,  spores.  Chondrioderma  niveum 
was  found  in  a  position  which  indicated  that  the  plasmodium  stage 
must  often  be  passed  under  the  snow. 

Myxomycete  Studies.*— E.  Jahn  devotes  the  seventh  of  these 
papers  to  Ceratiomyxa.  He  describes  the  work  done  by  Famintzin  and 
Woronin  on  this  genus,  which  differs  from  other  Myxomycetes  in 
possessing  a  four-nucleate  spore  :  the  amoeba  which  issues  from  the 
spore  separates  into  four  smaller  amcebas,  these  dividing  once  again,  so 
that  eight  swarmers  arise  from  each.  In  the  development  of  the  fruit 
of  Ceratiomyxa  he  distinguishes  (1)  the  cushion  stage  ;  (2)  elongation 
stage,  when  horn-like  processes  are  formed  ;  (3)  a  mesh  condition,  the 
plasma  covering  the  "  horns "  with  threads  ;  (4)  a  "  plaster "  stage 
(round  amoebae)  ;  (5)  a  spore  stage.  From  careful  preparations  Jahn 
found  that  in  the  mesh  stage  there  is  one  mitotic  division  before  spore 
formation  which,  as  in  other  Myxomycetes,  is  a  reduction  division — 
previous  to  that  there  had  been  a  fusion  of  nuclei  in  the  plasmodium, 
the  resulting  nucleus  containing  16  chromosomes  ;  associated  therewith 
were  many  unpaired  degenerate  nuclei. 

Jaap,  0. — Myxomycetes  exsiccati.  Ser.  1,  Nos.  1-20. 

[A  new  issue  of  Myxomycetes.     E.  Jahn  has  assisted  in  determining  the 
specimens.]  Hamburg  25,  Burggarten  la  1907. 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  cviii.  (1908)  p.  271. 


S  chizophy  t  a. 
Schizomycetes. 

Bacillus  intermediate  to  Bacillus  typhosus  (Eberth)  and  to 
Bacillus  paratyphosus  A  (Brion  and  Kayser).f — (x.  Faroy  has  isolated 
from  the  blood  of  a  fatal  case  of  continuous  fever  resembling  typhoid,  a 
flagellate  micro-organism  morphologically  very  like  B.  typhosus.  Broth, 
agar,  and  potato  cultures  resembled  those  of  B.  typhosus  or  B.  paraty- 
phosus A  ;  growth  occurred  on  gelatin  without  causing  liquefaction  ;  there 
was  no  production  of  indol ;  growth  was  less  vigorous  under  anaerobic 
than  under  aerobic  conditions  ;  milk  was  not  coagulated,  but  litmus-milk 
showed  a  persistent  acidification  :  like  B.  typhosus,  but  less  actively 
than  B.  paratyphosus  A,  this  bacillus  fermented  glucose,  maltose, 
laevulose,  galactose,  and  mannite  ;  like  B.  typhosus,  it  had  no  action  on 
lactose,  saccharose,  raffinose,  arabinose,  or  dulcite  :  it  fermented  glycerin 
slightly,  like  B.  paratyphosus  A,  which,  however,  acts  on  dulcite.  On 
gelatin  with  nitroprussiate  of  soda  a  green  coloration  was  slowly  formed, 
an  effect  which  appears  more  rapidly  and  to  a  more  marked  degree  with 
B.  paratyphosus  A,  and  not  at  all  with  B.  typhosus.  In  neutral-red 
broth  a  slight  orange-red  fluorescence  appeared  after  48  hours,  an  effect 
which  appears  more  intense  with  B.  paratyphosus  A,  and  not  at  all  with 
B.  typhosus. 

In  its  agglutination  reaction  this  organism  appeared  to  be  inter- 
mediate between  B.  typhosus  and  B.  paratyphosus  A.     The  serum  of 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  312-52  (2  figs.), 
t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  p.  1093. 


636  SUMMARY    OF   CUEEENT    RESEAECHES   RELATING   TO 

rabbits  immunised  against   B.  paratyphosus  A  Brion  and   B.  Gaertner 

did  not  agglutinate  the  bacillus  under  consideration. 

Jelly-forming  Bacteria.* — M.  Gronnermann  describes  several  jelly- 
forming  bacteria.  (1)  Myxobacterium  Beta,  met  with  in  jelly-like 
masses  during  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  It  forms  slender  non-motile 
rods  2-5/i  long,  0"  3ft  thick,  two  or  more  being  often  joined  together; 
it  stains  by  the  ordinary  anilin  dyes,  showing  a  granular  appearance, 
but  no  distinct  capsule  ;  growth  is  slow  at  room  temperature,  and  best 
at  34-37°  C.  ;  it  ferments  sugar  only  slightly,  and  without  acid  forma- 
tion ;  at  room  temperature,  or  at  37°  C.  after  24  hours,  it  forms  oval 
spores  with  cross  sections  wider  than  the  bacilli,  but  this  is  preceded  by 
the  formation  of  threads  which  break  up  into  short  rods,  each  of  which 
forms  a  spore. 

(2)  Plennobacterium  Gon.  appears  as  a  transparent  expansion  of  a 
fine  thready  slimy  consistence  on  agar-plates  exposed  to  the  air  of  the 
room  of  the  sugar  press.  Morphologically  the  organism  resembles  the 
hay  bacillus.  Individual  rods  are  2'5-bfi  long  and  0'4-0'6/x,  wide, 
and  have  either  blunt  or,  more  often,  finely  pointed  ends  ;  the  threads 
are  often  much  tangled  ;  growth  is  slower  at  room  temperature  than  the 
Myzobacterium  ;  spores  are  formed  at  37°  C.  after  24  hours. 

Dicyandiamid-bacteria.+ — R.  Perotti  finds  that  in  nutrient  liquids 
containing  a  suitable  amount  of  glucose,  and  for  nitrogenous  material 
only  about  1-2  p.c.  of  dicyanamide,  there  occurs  a  vigorous  and  charac- 
teristic development  of  micro-organisms.  These  belong  to  different 
bacterial  forms  and  classes,  many  not  yet  described,  some  being  ordinary 
soil  organisms,  but  only  certain  of  these  microbes  find  in  this  medium 
the  best  conditions  for  development.  The  dicyanamide  is  incapable  of 
undergoing  a  fermentative  action. 

Lactic  Fermentation  in  Milk.J — M.  W.  Beijerinck  finds  that  from 
a  temperature  point  of  view  there  are  three  classes  of  organisms  in  milk, 
viz.  cryo-  (5-20),  meso-  (20-35),  and  thermo-flora  (35-45).  The  most 
characteristic  of  the  aerobic  cryoflora  are  the  different  varieties  of 
Bacillus  aromaticvs.  It  is  possible  to  distinguish  three  forms  of  lactic 
fermentation  determined  by  the  temperature  ;  a  muciliaginous  fermenta- 
tion at  very  low  temperatures  ;  the  ordinary  fermentation  by  the  Lacto- 
coccus  at  medium  temperatures  ;  and  at  a  relatively  high  temperature  the 
fermentation  by  the  lacto  bacilli's.  Cultures  of  the  mucilaginous  lactic 
fermentation  thrive  in  cultivations  of  baker's  yeast,  anaerobically.  at 
15-18°  C.  in  malt-extract,  and  in  boiled  milk  or  skimmed  milk  (petit 
lait)  at  25-30°  C.  The  acidity  of  the  fermentation  is  low.  Cultures  of 
Lactococcits  lactis  are  obtained  by  allowing  milk  to  become  sour  in  a 
closed  flask  at  20-25°  C,  and  sub-culturing  in  boiled  milk  at  the  same 
temperature.  The  acidity  is  about  8  c.mm.  of  normal  acid  to  100  c.mm. 
of  milk.  Cultures  of  lacto  bacillus  are  best  obtained  in  butter-milk  kept 
anaerobically  at  37-40°  C,  and  sub-cultured  into  boiled  milk  at  over 
30°  C.  The  degree  of  acidity  may  reach  18-23  c.mm.  of  normal  acid  to 
100  c.mm.  of  milk. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.,  xxi.  (1908)  p.  258.  t  Tom.  cit.,  p.  200. 

X  Arch.  Neerland.  Sci.  Exact,  et  Naturel.,  xiii.  (1908)  p.  357. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  631 

Differentiation  of  Streptococci  by  Media  containing  Carbo- 
hydrates.*— E.  Salomon  considers  three  groups  of  streptococci.  (1) 
S.  pyogenes  produces  acid  from  starch,  but  not  from  glycerin,  mannite 
or  raffinose,  though  strains  grown  from  blood  do  produce  acid  from 
glycerin  and  mannite  ;  (2)  S.  mucosus  produces  acid  from  glycerin, 
arabinose,  and  mannite,  but  not  from  raffinose  or  starch  ;  (3)  Pneumo- 
coccvs  produces  no  acid  on  carbohydrate  litmus  ascitic  agar. 

Coli-bacillosis.t  —  K.  Neumann  finds  that  strains  of  coli  bacillus 
causing  calf  dysentery,  when  cultivated  on  artificial  media,  do  not 
appreciably  diminish  in  virulence  during  a  period  of  two  years,  nor  does 
continuous  subculture  from  gelatin  to  gelatin,  or  from  milk  to  milk, 
heighten  the  virulence.  Passage  of  the  organism  through  guinea-pigs 
increases  its  virulence  for  guinea-pigs,  but  not  for  mice  ;  passage  through 
mice  does  not  increase  the  virulence  for  mice,  but  does  so  for  guinea- 
pigs. 

Researches  in  Bacillary  Dysentery .% — -A.  Di  Donna  finds  that  the 
virulence  of  the  Shiga-Kruse  and  Flexner  bacilli  is  diminished  rather 
than  increased  by  passage  through  guinea-pigs.  A  nucleo-proteid  can 
be  obtained  from  Shiga-Kruse  dysentery  bacillus,  which  has  immunising 
properties  for  rabbits.  By  the  autolysis  of  bacilli  by  means  of  physio- 
logical salt  solution,  a  nuclear  substance  can  be  obtained  which  is  pre- 
cipitated by  absolute  alcohol,  and  after  drying  may  be  kept  unchanged 
for  a  long  period  ;  its  immunising  action  is  closely  allied  to  that  of  the 
nucleo  proteid.  The  serum  of  rabbits  treated  with  the  filtrate  of  broth 
cultures  has  protective  properties  against  the  living  bacilli.  The  Shiga- 
Kruse  immune  serum  exerts  no  influence  on  the  jFlexner  bacillus  or  on 
B.  coli. 

Protective  and  Curative  Artificial  Immunity. § — A.  P.  Ohlmacher 
reviews  the  work  of  Wright  and  others  on  the  theory  of  opsonins  and  ou 
the  treatment  by  vaccines,  for  which  he  proposes  the  name  "  opsouogens." 
The  author  mentions  a  number  of  diseases  to  which  the  treatment  has 
been  applied,  and  gives  an  account  of  his  own  clinical  experiences  in  the 
treatment  of  acne,  furunculosis,  staphylococci,  psoriasis,  eczema,  septic 
surgical  affections,  and  gonorrhea,  with  very  remarkable  success. 

Developmental  Cycle  of  Bacteria. || — F.  Fuhrmann  believes  that  the 
ordinary  involution  forms  of  bacteria  are  by  no  means  always  accom- 
panied by  serious  injury  to  the  bacterial  protoplasm,  but  that  the  altered 
cells  have  preserved  their  vital  energy,  and  under  suitable  conditions  can 
reproduce  individuals  of  the  original  form.  The  author  has  found  that 
Pseudomonas  cerevisce,  in  a  mineral  medium  containing  1-2  p.c.  of 
ammonium  chloride  and  h  p.c.  of  saccharose,  passes  through  a  complete 
developmental  series.  The  actively  motile  bacteria  grow  out  into  threads, 
become  non-motile,  and  form  at  various  points  knot-like  joints,  in  which 
are  seen  strongly  retractile  granules  which  are  not  of  the  nature  of  spores  ; 
in  fresh  medium  they  again  give  rise  to  short  motile  rods. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvii.  (1908)  p.  1. 

t  Op.  cit.,  xlvi.  (1908)  p.  671.  J  Op.  cit.,  p.  603. 

§  Michigan  Acad.  Sci.,  Rep.  ix.  (1907)  p.- 118. 

||  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.,  xxi.  (1908)  p.  257. 


G38  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Bacillus  foedans  and  Miscured  Ham.* — E.  Klein  isolated  from 
softened  and  putrid  hums  an  essential  anaerobe,  B.fanlmis.  which  is 
Gram-positive  and  non-motile.  The  bacterium  presents  itself  as  short 
or  long  rods  (l'5-3'5  //.)  and  as  filaments  of  considerable  length  (14  /*). 
It  is  0'4/x  thick,  may  be  straight  or  curved,  the  ends  being  mostly 
rounded.  The  microbe  was  cultivated  under  anaerobic  conditions  in 
glucose-gelatin,  glucose-broth,  and  glucose-pork-broth,  best  at  20  C. 
After  about  8  weeks  the  gelatin  was  liquefied.  There  was  gas  production 
with  evolution  of  an  offensive  putrid  smell. 

Micrococcus  of  Osteomalacia  and  Rickets. f — B.  Morpurgo  claims 
to  have  isolated  a  diplococcus  from  the  bones  of  white  rats.  It  is  1  •  2  /x 
in  diameter,  tends  to  form  chains,  and  is  Gram-positive.  Gelatin  is 
slowly  liquefied  ;  milk  slowly  coagulated  ;  it  forms  acid  in  broth,  but 
does  not  produce  indol  or  nitrite.  On  agar  it  grows  as  a  grey  delicate 
film  or  as  small  round  colonies.  When  injected  into  adult  animals  it 
induces  osteomalacia  ;  into  young  rats,  rickets. 

Diphtheroid  bacillus  found  in  Cardiac  Vegetations.^— V.  Babes 
and  D.  Manolesco  describe  a  new  diphtheroid  organism  isolated  from  a 
case  of  acute  rheumatism.  While  it  resembles  morphologically  and  cul- 
turally B.  (liphtlierm  Klebs-Loeffler,  it  is  less  sensitive  to  the  composition 
of  cultivation  media  and  to  temperature.     It  is  pathogenic  to  animals. 

Bacillus  subtilis  in  the  Blood  and  Tissues.§ — G.  Ferrarini 
describes  a  case  of  enlargement  of  the  spleen  and  lymphatic  glands 
associated  with  the  presence  of  B.  subtilis  in  the  glands  and  blood. 
Microscopical  examination  of  the  glands  revealed  fibro-epithelioid 
hypertrophy  ;  in  places  the  structure  resembled  a  perithelioma,  in  others 
there  were  giant-cells,  in  some  of  which  the  Gram-positive  bacillus  could 
be  found. 

*  Lancet  (1908)  i.  pp.  1832-4  (3  figs.). 
t  Archiv  Sci.  Med.  Turin,  xxxi.  (1907)  p.  1. 
X  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxv.  (1908)  pp.  93-5. 

§  Brit.  Med.  Journ.  (1908)  ii.  epit  36.    See  also  Siena  :  G,  Bernardino,  1908, 
146  pp.,  32  figs. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


039 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.  Instruments,  Accessories,  &c* 

(1)  Stands. 

Engel's  Cross-stage  with  Automatic  Adjustment. f — This  appara- 
tus (fig.  18(J),  made  by  E.  Leitz,  is  intended  to  facilitate  the  examination 
of  sections  and  other  objects  arranged  on  the  stage  in  rows  and  to  lessen 
the  attention  which  the  observer  usually  has  to  bestow  in  order  to 
insure  that  he  does  not  pass  by  mistake  from  one  row  to  another.  The 
designer  substitutes  mechanical  movement  for  ocular  control.  *For  this 
purpose  he  applies  to  an  ordinary  cross-stage  a  spindle  screw  connected 
with  a  toothed  wheel  of  50  teeth  ;  the  wheel  having  a  lever  and  ratchet 


Fig.  139. 


of  two  teeth  by  means  of  which  a  backward  and  forward  movement  can 
be  imparted  to  the  stage.  The  toothed  wheel  can  be  moved  through  as 
many  teeth  as  desired.  Thus  when  a  horizontal  row  has  been  examined 
by  rotation  of  the  spindle  screw,  the  lever  movement  will  automatically 
bring  another  row  under  observation. 

Improvements  in  the  Ultra-violet  Microscope.} — W.  T.  Swingle 
and  L.  T.  Briggs  give  a  short  historical  sketch  of  ultra-microscopy  with 
especial  reference  to  Kohler's  important  introduction  of  quartz  lenses 
and  cadmium  spark.  As  the  ultra-violet  light  of  the  cadmium  spark  is 
absolutely  invisible  to  the  eye,  Kohler  devised  a  "  seeker  "  consisting  of 
a  quartz  lens  and  a  fluorescent  screen  placed  over  the  eye-piece.     This 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands  ;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives ;  (3) 
Illuminating  and  other  Apparatus ;  (4)  Photomicrography ;  (5)  Microscopical 
Optics  and  Manipulation  ;  (6)  Miscellaneous. 

+  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  60-2  (1  fig.). 

t  Science,  xxvi.  (1907)  pp.  180-3  (2  figs.. 


640 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


screen  lights 


up  under  the  action  of  the  ultra-violet  rays,  and  focus- 
ing  is  then  possible.  Focusing  high-power  monochromatic  objectives 
is,  however,  tedious  and  difficult ;  but  the  authors  consider  that  they 
have  devised  a  great  improvement  in  this  respect.  Instead  of  employ- 
ing a  single  pair  of  electrode  holders,  they  recommend  a  double  pair 
(four  in  all)  arranged  so  that  the  cadmium  electrodes  can  be  instantly 
swung  out  and  replaced  by  a  pair  of  magnesium  electrodes  by  means  of 


Fig.  140. 


the  handles  shown  in  fig.  140.  The  cadmium  eleotrode  holders  are 
longer  than  those  for  the  magnesium,  for  a  purpose  explained  later. 
There  is  an  automatic  stop  on  the  lower  pair  of  holders  to  insure  the 
spark  gap  falling  in  the  axis  of  the  collimator  lens.  The  swing-out 
electrode  changer  was  suggested  by  the  discovery  that  the  monochromatic 
lenses,  though  giving  only  badly  blurred  and  coloured  images  with 
ordinary  light,  did  give  very  good  images  that  could  be  focused  sharply 
even  to  the  finest  detail  providing  strictly  monochromatic  visible  light 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


641 


were  used.  The  object  is,  therefore,  first  found  and  centred  with  a  low- 
power  visual  lens,  using  the  magnesium  blue  light.  Then  the  high- 
power  monochrornat  is  used  and  the  spot  found  which  it  is  desired  to 
photograph.  The  camera  is  then  moved  into  place,  and  the  objective 
must  be  adjusted  for  the  change  from  magnesium  to  cadmium  light ; 
this  adjustment  must  be  determined  by  trial  and  noted  for  future  use. 
By  making  the  arms  of  the  magnesium  electrode  holders  5*5  mm. 
shorter  than  those  for  the  cadmium,  it  was  found  possible  to  bring  the 
blue  light  and  the  ultra-violet  rays  to  a  focus  at  the  same  distance 
beyond  the  prisms  and  the  collector  lens  though  not  in  the  same  spot,  as 
the  ultra-violet  rays  are  refracted  much  more  than  the  blue  rays  in 
passing  through  the  prisms.  It  is  found  very  advantageous  to  be 
able  to  do  all  the  exploratory  and  focusing  work  with  blue  light  and 
then  to  apply  the  ultra-violet  light  merely  for  the  few  seconds  necessary 
for  photography.  Moreover,  owing  to  the  greater  precision  in  focusing, 
it  will  be  no  longer  necessary  for  the  biologist  to  equip  himself  with  a 
whole  series  of  expensive  monochromats. 

Reichert's  Movable  Mechanical  Object-stages.* — One  type  of  these 
auxiliaries  is  shown  in  fig.  141.     The  two  adjacent  rack  screw-heads 


Fig.  141. 

a  a'  act  in  such  a  way  that  the  object  can  be  easily  and  safely  moved  in 
two  mutually  perpendicular  directions.  Both  co-ordinate  edges  are 
graduated  and  provided  with  verniers  for  convenience  of  orientation  and 
for  recovery  of  known  positions.  The  circular  periphery  is  radially 
divided.  By  lifting  up  the  screw  b  the  centre  object-holder  can  be  re- 
moved, so  as  to  admit  of  the  insertion  of  culture  dishes.  This  stage  is 
only  applicable  to  stands  A  I  and  A  Ic. 

*  C.  Reichert,  Vienna,  Catalogue,  Mikroscope.No.  26(1908)  pp. 42-3,  figs,  30, 32, 33 
Oct.  21st,  1908  2  u 


642 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


Another  type  is  shown  in  fig.  142,  and  is  only  applicable  to  stands 
with  rectangular  stages.  The  movable  stage  is  secured  by  two  screws 
to  the  ordinary  stage. 


Fig.  142. 


Pig.  143. 


A  third  type  is  shown  in  fig.  143,  and  is  only  intended  for  stands 
fitted  with  strong  circular  brass  stages.  It  will  be  noted  that  the 
transverse  movement  is  mechanical,  and  that  the  vertical  is  by  action  of 
the  jointed  arm. 

Reichert's  New  Large  Stand  B.* — This  (fig.  144)  is  a  little  smaller 
than  stand  A  ii  by  the  same  firm.     It  has  a  new  horizontally-placed, 

*  C.  Reichert,  Vienna,  Catalogue,  Mikroscope,  No.  26  (1908)  p.  20,  fig.  8. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


643 


and  on  its  upper  side  protected,  micrometer  movement,  with  lateral  action. 
The  object-stage  (110  mm.  diameter)  is  circular  and  rotatory,  and  has 


centring   screws. 


The  instrument  is  fitted  with  Abbe's  illuminating 


REICHERT,WIEN. 


Fig.  144. 

apparatus,  with  iris-diaphragm,  and  rack-and-pinion  for  raising  and 
lowering  the  illuminating  apparatus.  The  tilting  is  regulated  and  clamped 
by  a  lever. 

2  u  2 


644 


SUMMARY    OF    CUKEENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Reichert's  New  Medium  Mineralogical  Stand  A  iii  c*  —  This 
stand  (fig.  145)  corresponds  in  general  design  to  stand  C  {vide  supra),  with 
rotatory  object-stage,  divided  into  360  degrees,  and  vernier  readings  to 


Pig.  145. 


0*1°.  It  has  cross-graduations  for  orientation  of  known  preparations. 
The  polariser  is  easily  rotatory,  and  can  be  adjusted  up  and  down  by  a 
screw  ;  the  four  quadrants  of  rotation  are  marked  by  the  engaging  of  a 

*  C.  Reichert,  Vienna,  Catalogue,  Mikroscope,  No.  26  (1908)  p.  39,  fig.  26. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


645 


spring-tooth.  There  is  an  iris-diaphragm,  and  a  removable  illumination 
system.  The  analyser  can  be  put  in  and  taken  out  without  interference 
with  the  adjustment  of  the  instrument.  There  is  a  second  analyser  over 
the  ocular,  with  a  circumference  divided  into  360  degrees.  The  instru- 
ment has  a  quartz  plate  and  an  opening  for  inserting  a  quartz  wedge.  It 
is  also  equipped  with  Bertrand  lens,  Grlans  prisms,  and  an  object-centring 


arrangement. 


Fig.  146. 

Reichert's  Large  Stand,  A 1.*— This  stand,  which  was  figured  and 
described  in  this  Journal  for  1905  (p.  241)  is  now  made  with  a  gradua- 
tion on  the  limb,  to  assist  in  the  focusing  of  high-power  objectives  and 
to  prevent  injury  to  slides.  | 

Reichert's  New  Preparation  Microscope.^ — This  Microscope,  listed 
as  No.  131,  has   a   prism   tube  (fig.  146),  with   erecting  Porro-prisms 

*  C.  Beichert,  Vienna,  Catalogue,  Mikroscope,  No.  26  (1908)  p.  16,  fig.  6. 
t    It   is   interesting   to   note   that   limb-graduation   was  first    introduced  by 
John  Marshall  in  1704. — Ed. 

X  C.  Reichert,  Vienna,  Catalogue,  Mikroscope,  No.  26  (1908)  p.  47,  fig.  40. 


646 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


and  Ramsden  ocular.     The  tube  can  be  applied  to  several  patterns  of 
preparation  stands  supplied  by  the  firm. 

Photomicroscope  for  Ultra-violet  Rays  and  its  Significance  for 
Histological  Investigations,  especially  of  Hard  Structures.*  —  W. 
Dreck  fully  describes  his  methods,  which  seem  to  have  been  very  suc- 
cessful. He  gives  several  photographic  plates  of  diatoms  and  of  sections 
of  teeth  and  bones. 

Marx,  H. — Ein  handliches  Obduktionsmikroskop. 

Zeit.f.  Medizinalbcamte  Jahrg.,  xx.  (1907)  No.  21,  pp.  744-5. 


(2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives. 

Reichert's  Spectral-ocular.f — This  ocular  (fig.  147)  is  due  to  Abbe, 
and  has  the  prisms  arranged  rectilinearly.  By  means  of  a  spiral  move- 
ment the  ocular  lens  can  be  focused  accurately  upon  the  slit  which  can 


Fig.  147. 

be  regulated  both  in  breadth  and  height.  There  is  a  comparison  prism, 
a  lateral  stage,  and  illuminating  mirror,  as  well  as  a  measuring  apparatus 
for  Fraunhofer's  lines. 

Reichert's  Index-ocular  4  —  This  auxiliary,  constructed  after 
Bourguet's  design,  is  shown  in  fig.  148.  Its  peculiarity  consists  in  the 
externally  adjustable  index  by  means  of  which  any  point  in  the  field  of 

*  S.B.  Gesell.  Naturf.  Freunde,  1906,  No.  4  (April)  pp.  108-25  (18  figs.), 
t  C.  Reichert,  Vienna,  Catalogue,  Mikroscope,  p.  58,  fig.  56. 
X  Tom.  cit.,  p.  60,  fig.  60. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


647 


view  can  be  designated.     It  is  especially  adaptable  for  class-work,  where 
the  teacher  wishes  to  demonstrate  to  his  pupils.* 


Fig.  148. 


Reichert's  Goniometer-ocular.f — This  (No.  94  in  maker's  catalogue) 
is  represented  in  fig.  149,  and  is  intended  for  the  measurement  of  angles 
of  crystals. 


Fig.  149. 


Reichert's  Objective.! — The  8  mm.  objective  of  the  Hart  apochroinat 
series  has  been  increased  in  N. A.  from  0*5  to  0'6.  There  is  also  a 
general  reduction  of  prices.  Among  the  achromats  there  is  a  new  ^  in. 
water  immersion  of  N.A.  1 '  10-1 '  15  :  and  anions;  the  semi-achromats  a 


new 


TTT 


in.  homogeneous  immersion  of  N. A.  1 '  3. 

(3)  Illuminating-  and  other  Apparatus. 


New  Easily  Legible  Micrometer  Divisions. §  —  Gebhardt  has, 
with  the  help  of  the  Zeiss  firm,  designed  a  micrometer  with  a  novel 
style  of  graduation  to  lessen  the  difficulties  felt  in  the  application  of 
the  ordinary  pattern  to  uncoloured  objects,  and  to  minimise  the  fatigue 
frequently  experienced  in  continuous  observations.     The  new  ideas  are 

*  It  is  noteworthy  that  this  device  is  due  to  Quekett.     See  Quekett  on  the 
Microscope,  first  edition  (1848)  p.  130,  fig.  91.— Ed. 
+  C.  Reichert,  Vienna,  Catalogue,  Mikroscope,  p.  42. 
J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  11-12. 
§  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  366-9  (2  figs.). 


G48  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

shown  in  figs.  150  and  151,  which  represent  respectively  fine  and  coarse 
graduations.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  ordinary  strokes  are  replaced 
by  small  squares  placed  cornerwise.  The  squares  may  be  black  or  red. 
Dr.  Gebhardt  speaks  very  favourably  of  his  trials  with  these  micrometers, 
and  describes  which  of  Zeiss'  oculars  he  found  most  suitable  for  them. 


TO  at  «*  *" 


Fig.  150. 


Fig.  151. 

Apparatus  for  Measuring  Micrometer  Levels.* — M.  Gouy,  in  his 
investigations  on  the  surface  tensions  of  large  drops,  has  found  the 
cathetometer  unsuitable  for  small  measurements,  and  has  contrived  a 
micrometric  method  of  measurement.  His  Microscope,  provided  with  a 
thread  micrometer,  rests  by  its  three  feet  on  a  polished,  plain,  and 
horizontal  disk  of  glass.  The  Microscope  is  perfectly  horizontal,  and 
can  be  raised  and  lowered.  A  closely  divided  vertical  glass  scale  is  so 
arranged  as  to  be  also  in  the  field  of  view.  A  point,  A,  on  the  micro- 
meter can  be  thus  identified  on  the  scale,  and  the  relation  between  A 
and  the  scale  zero  be  obtained.  This  operation  repeated  on  other  points 
gives  the  differences  of  level  desired.  The  author  gives  full  practical 
explanations,  and  states  that  the  probable  error  of  observation  is  only 
about  0  •  043/a. 

Greenman,  M.  T. — A  New  Laboratory  Projection  Apparatus. 

Anat.  Record,  No.  7,  1907. 
Seibekt,  W.  &  H. — Dnnkelfeldkondensor  und  Dunkelfeldblende. 

Zeit.  f.  angew.  Mikr.,  xiv.  (1908)  p.  4. 

(4)  Photomicrography. 

Interference  Fringes  produced  by  Photographs  in  Colours.f — 
M.  E.  Rothe  describes  some  observations  on  the  above,  sometimes  called 
Talbot's  False  Fringes.  It  is  well  known  that  an  interferential  photo- 
graph illuminated  by  white  light,  and  seen  by  reflection  from  the  glass 
side,  exhibits  fringes  extending  over  the  whole  spectrum,  from  the  red 
to  the  violet.  When  the  sensitive  emulsion  has  been  spread  on  a 
perfectly  horizontal  glass  the  fringes  are  arranged  almost  parallel  to  the 
spectral  rays  ;  but  if  the  gelatin  layer  varies  in  thickness,  the  fringes 
are  more  or  less  inclined  to  the  rays.  These  fringes  can  be  more  easily 
studied  in  proofs  obtained  without  mercurial  mirror,  for  the  colours  are 

*  Comptes  Renclus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  1191-3. 
f  Op.  cit.,  cxlvii.  (1908)  pp.  43-5. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  649 

then  less  dazzling  than  those  of  mercurial  photochromes.  The  author 
has  systematically  studied  fringes  due  to  deposits  of  silver  by  stationary 
waves.  He  shows  that  if  the  gelatin  surface  were  absolutely  parallel  to 
the  glass,  the  appearance,  seen  from  the  glass  side,  would  be  only  a 
uniform  tint  due  to  the  aggregation  of  strata  of  wave-length  A.  But, 
practically,  perfect  parallelism  is  never  obtained,  and  hence  numerous 
gelatin  surface  planes  must  cut  the  glass  plane.  This  fact,  he  shows,  is 
sufficient  to  account  for  the  effect  produced. 

Photography  of  Very  Translucent  Diatoms  at  High  Magnifica- 
tions.*— The  President  of  the  Quekett  Club,  after  describing  the 
difficulties  encountered  in  the  above  research,  recommends  the  following 
method.  A  first  negative  being  taken  on  a  rapid  plate,  say  at  some 
thousand  or  more  diameters,  is  developed,  preferably  with  hydrokiuone, 
to  obtain  as  much  contrast  as  possible.  If  it  is  a  good  one,  showing  the 
dots  or  secondary  markings  sharply  focused,  it  is  left  to  dry.  When 
examined  it  will  be  seen  to  show  the  veil  which  causes  so  much  difficulty  ; 
perhaps  such  will  be  well  seen  around  the  dots,  and  will  give  them  the 
appearance  of  being  immersed  in  a  bath  of  fog.  Perhaps  the  print  may 
show  this  defect  more  definitely  than  the  negative  itself.  A  fast  plate  is 
then  placed  in  contact  (such  a  one  as  the  "  Flashlight "  of  the  Imperial 
Company),  and  the  printing  frame  is  waved  once  before  a  16  c.p. 
electric  lamp,  or  some  other  powerful  illuminant,  placed  about  2  ft. 
away.  This  is  developed  as  if  it  were  a  negative,  i.e.  by  time.  The 
result  is  a  very  well  exposed  and  developed  positive,  and  not  a  very 
thin  and  transparent  one.  The  dots  appear  very  plainly  and  sharply 
focused,  but  there  is  a  decided  fog  over  the  whole  picture.  This  is 
specially  noticeable  between  the  dots,  and  serves  to  muddle  them  up 
in  a  very  disappointing  way.  When  dry,  a  copy  of  this  is  made  upon  a 
slow  plate,  such  as  a  process  or  a  lantern-plate,  and  again  developed  by 
time.  This  becomes  the  second  negative.  Even  a  cursory  glance  shows 
at  once  how  much  brighter  it  is  than  the  first  taken  direct  from  the 
object  ;  but  when  the  print  or  lantern-slide  is  taken  from  this  the  im- 
provement becomes  very  apparent. 

(5)  Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Whittakeb,  e.  T.— The  Theory  of  Optical  Instruments. 

Cambridge  :  University  Press,  1907,  viii.,  72  pp. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Influence  of  the  Medium  on  Brownian  Movements.! — V.  Henri 
studied  these  movements  by  means  of  photomicrographs  obtained  kine- 
matographically  with  magnifications  of  600  diameters.  The  medium 
used  was  diluted  latex,  to  which  were  added  increasing  quantities  of 
hydrochloric  or  acetic  acid,  of  soda,  urea,  and  alcohol.  The  results  ob- 
tained were  that  the  Brownian  movements  are  slowed  by  the  addition 
of  a  coagulating  agent  before  the  phenomena  of  coagulation  are  apparent, 

*  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  1908,  pp.  243-6. 
t  Comptes  Renclus,  May  18  and  July  G,  1908. 


(550  SUMMARY   OF   CUBRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Iii  tlie  jtresciKv  of  an  alkali  these  movements  are  twice  as  slow,  and  in 
the  presence  of  acid  are  nine  times  feebler  than  in  distilled  water. 

Felgentkager,  W. — Eine  einfaches  Methode  zur  Bestimmung  der  periodischen 
Fehler  von  Mikrometerschrauten. 

Vcrhcindl.  d.  Deutsch.  Physik.  Gescll.,  ix.  (1907)  p.  251. 

Hager,  H. — Das  Mikroskop  und  seine  Anwendung.     (Zehnte,  stark  vermehrte 
Aufl.     463  figs.)  Berlin  :  Jul.  Springer  (1908)  444  pp. 

Jagie,  N.  t. — Atlas  und  Grundriss  der  Klinischen  Mikroskopie  mit  Beriicksichti- 
gung  der  Technik.  Wien  :  M.  Perles,  1908. 

KJaiser,    W.  —Die    Technik    des    modernen    Mikroskopes.      (Zweite,    ganzlich 
umgearb.  Aufl.,  mit  vielen  Abbild.)  Wien:  M.  Perles,  1908. 

Kitt,  Th.  —  BakterieDkunde  und   pathologische   Mikroskopie  fur  Tierarzte  und 
Studierende  der  Tiermedizin.     (Fiinfte,  wiederholt  verbess.  u.  umgearb.  Aufl.) 

Wien  :  M.  Perles,  1908. 


B.  Technique.* 
(1)  Collecting'  Objects,  including'  Culture  Processes. 

Colour  Reaction  for  the  Recognition  of  Bacillus  typhosus.! — 
E.  A.  Kindborg  employs  the  following  medium  :  neutral  fleischwasser- 
agar  3  p.c.  and  lactose  5  p.c,  heated  in  a  wTater  bath  till  completely 
dissolved  ;  then  add  fuchsiu,  5  c.cm.  to  100  c.cm.  of  agar,  and  mala- 
chite-green, 4  c.cm.  of  a  normal  solution  of  1  :  120,  and  plate  out ;  the 
medium  solidifies  after  24  hours.  A  suspension  of  faecal  matter  in  salt 
solution  or  in  broth  is  spread  over  the  medium  by  means  of  a  stout 
platinum  loop.  After  12-24  hours  incubation  the  colonies  begin  to 
appear,  and  after  48  hours  the  decolorising  reaction  is  well  marked. 
The  suspicious  colonies  are  then  submitted  to  further  diagnostic  tests. 

Cultivating  Bacillus  typhosus  and  Bacillus  coli.} — H.  Dunsch- 
rnann  has  compared  B.  coli  and  B.  typhosus  with  regard  to  the  nutri- 
tive value  of  taurocholate  and  glycocholate  of  soda  in  combination  with 
nutrose  and  malachite-green.  The  author  finds  that  glycocholate  does 
not  increase  the  amount  of  growth  of  B.  typhosus,  but  that  taurocholate 
increases  it  considerably  ;  on  B.  coli  the  influence  of  these  two  salts  is 
intermediate  to  that  on  B.  typhosus.  Nutrose  is  a  favourable  nutriment 
for  B.  typhosus,  but  not  for  B.  coli.  Malachite-green  exerts  an  anti- 
septic action  on  these  two  organisms. 

Detection  of  Bacillus  coli  in  Drinking-water.§ — G.  E.  Gage,  from 
a  comparative  study  of  media  for  detecting  B.  coli,  draws  the  following 
conclusions.     1.  Lactose  neutral-red  broth  offers  a  good  means  of  making 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Pro- 
cesses ;  (2)  Preparing  Objects  ;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes  ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting ;  (5)  Mounting,  including  slides,  preservative  fluids,  etc. ; 
(6)  Miscellaneous. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvi.  (1908)  p.  554. 

X  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  p.  1175. 

&  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  280-7. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


651 


presumptive  tests  for  J>.  eoli.     2.  The  bile-salt  broth  of  RlacConkey  and 

Hill  also  is  a  good  medium  for  making  rapid  tests  when  the  organism  is 
present  in  appreciable  numbers.  3.  The  Smith  solution  is  not  so  suc- 
cessful as  the  foregoing  for  rapid  diagnosis.  4.  Endo's  medium  is  of 
inestimable  value  in  determining  the  active  presence  of  B.  coli.  5. 
Lactose  litmus-agar  does  not  react  readilv  to  the  small  traces  of  acid 
produced  by  different  strains  of  the  colon  bacillus. 

Pipette-holder  for  Opsonic  Work.* — E.  C.  L.  Miller  has  devised  a 
special  holder  for  opsonic  or  other  small-calibred   pipettes  (fig.   152). 


Fig.  152. 


The  long  handle  gives  a  firm  grip  on  the  pipette,  while  the  screw  enables 
one  to  control  the  column  of  liquid  very  accurately.  The  glass  pipette 
can  be  introduced  into  the  soft  rubber  stopper  as  readily  and  quickly  as 

*  Ceutralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvi.    (190S)  pp.  730-1  (2  figs.).     See  also 
Parke  Davis  and  Co.,  Research  Lab.  Reports. 


652 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


into  a  rubber  nipple.  In  fig.  153  is  shown  a  section  of  tlic  pipette. 
1  is  the  rubber  stopper  by  means  of  which  air-tight  connections  are  made 
between  the  glass  pipette  4  and  the  body  of  the  holder  5«  ;  2  is  the 
union  by  which  the  two  parts  of  the  pipette  ha  and  5b  are  held  together 
with  the  rubber  diaphragm  6  firmly  clamped  between  them.  The  screw- 
control  3  acts  as  follows  :  by  turning  the  screw  to  the  right,  the  disk  7  is 
lowered  and  the  rubber  diaphragm  6  made  taut.  Then  a  slight  turn  of 
the  screw  3  to  the  left  will  draw  liquids  into  the  pipette,  and  a  corre- 


»o»t  Rv-eac<\    o<q»*q««»i. 


Fig.  153. 


sponding  turn  to  the  right  will  expel  them.  The  aluminium  handle 
enables  the  fingers  to  obtain  a  firm  grasp,  leaving  the  thumb  free  to 
move  the  screw. 

Plates  for  Growing  Germs  in  Quantity.*  —  E.  C.  L.  Miller  uses 
enamelled  pans  10  in.  diam.  and  1  in.  deep.  The  cover  consists  of 
a  round  piece  of  wire  screen  of  i-in.  mesh,  bound  round  the  edge  with 
tin.  Over  this  wire  mesh  is  placed  a  layer  of  cotton-wool,  and  over  this 
a  disk  of  thick  paper.  Under  the  wire  screen  a  braid  of  coil  cotton 
extends  round  the  periphery.  All  these  constituents  are  securely  sewed 
together.  These  plates  are  sterilised  by  dry  heat  in  the  usual  way,  and 
afterwards  melted  agar  poured  on  to  form  a  suitable  layer.    Condensation- 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvi.  (1908)  pp.  731-2  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  653 

water  is  absorbed  by  the  cotton-wool.  Inoculations  are  made  in  the  usual 
way.  By  stacking  these  plates  one  on  the  other,  considerable  agar  sur- 
face is  secured.     The  covers  with  care  may  be  used  several  times. 

Reidemeister,  W.— Ueber  den  Einfluss  von  Saure,  usw.  Zusatz  auf  die  Festig- 
keit  des  Agars.  (Experiments  showing  the  action  of  acids  and  other  ingredients 
on  nutrient  agar.)  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  42-52. 

Rothig,  P.  —  Eine  Verrichtung  zum  lebenswarmen  Fixieren  nnd  lichten  Trans- 
portieren  der  Eileitereier  der  Vb'gel. 

[Describes  a  box  fitted  with  wide-mouthed  stoppered  bottles  for  supra-vital 
fixation  and  easy  transport  of  birds'  eggs.]       Tom  cit.,  pp.  68-9  (2  figs.). 

(2)  Preparing:  Objects. 

Studying  the  Eggs  of  Acanthodoris  pilosa.* — B.  Schaposchnikoff, 
when  studying  the  eggs  of  Acanthodoris  pilosa  for  the  purpose  of 
investigating  the  polycentric  mitoses  of  maturation,  fixed  the  animals 
during  copulation.  For  this  purpose  he  used  sublimate-acetic  acid  and 
Gilson's  fluid  (sublimate-acetic  acid,  nitric  acid,  and  alcohol).  The  fixed 
material  was  imbedded  in  paraffin  and  then  sectioned.  The  sections 
were  stained  with  iron-hasmatoxylin,  either  alone  or  after  a  previous 
staining  with  Bordeaux-red.  Borax-carmin  and  Lyons-blue  was  also  a 
good  combination. 

Demonstrating  the  Syncytial  Appendages  of  Placental  villi.f — 
W.  L.  H.  Duckworth  has  found  that  the  human  placenta  from  the  sixth 
or  seventh  month  provides  material  for  easily  demonstrating  the  appear- 
ance of  syncytial  masses  of  protoplasm.  Formalin-fixed  material  was 
treated  with  strong  nitric  acid  (25  p.c.)  for  3  days,  and  then  after 
washing  stained  with  Delafield's  hematoxylin.  After  dehydrating  and 
cleaning,  the  fragments  were  teased  out  on  slides  and  mounted  in 
balsam.  Instead  of  Delafield's  solution,  borax-carmin  (10  days)  or  a 
10  p.c.  solution  of  Grubler's  hasmalum  may  be  used.  It  was  found  later 
that  the  preliminary  treatment  with  acid  was  unnecessary. 

Examining  the  Nervous  Elements  of  Osseous  Fishes.J — Anton 
Nemiloff  used  the  following  fixatives  :  chromo-acetic  acid,  Lenhossek's, 
Flemming's,  Zenker's,  and  Hermann's  fluids,  trichlor-lactic  ^acid, 
Carnoy-Gilson's  mixture,  and  the  silver  method  of  Rainon-y-Cajal.  The 
preparations  were  imbedded  in  paraffin,  with  bergamot-oil  as  clarifier, 
in  celloidin,  or  more  frequently  in  celloidin-paraffin.  The  stains  most 
frequently  used  were  safranin  followed  by  light-green,  iron-haema- 
toxylin,  toluidin-blue-erythrosin,  "Weigert's  elastin  staining,  and  some 
others.  The  observations  on  the  fixed  material  were  controlled  by 
intra-vitam  stainings  with  methylen-blue,  the  ganglia  and  nerves  being 
stained  in  toto  or  by  means  of  sections  of  fresh  tissue  in  elder-pith. 

Examining  the  Eggs  of  Ornithorhyncus.§  —  J.  T.  Wilson  and 
J.  P.  Hill  remark  that,  while  it  is  relatively  easy  to  manipulate  the 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxii.  (1908)  pp.  369-85  (18  figs.). 

t  Proc.  Camb.  Phil.  Soc.xiv.  (190S)  pp.  425-7  (7  figs.). 

t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.  u.  Entwickl.,  lxxii.  (1908)  pp.  1-46  (2  pis.). 

§  Phil.  Trans.,  Series  B,  cxcix.  (190S)  pp.  31-16S  (17  pis.). 


654  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

earliest  and  latest  stages  of  the  uterine  egg,  the  treatment  of  the  inter- 
mediate condition,  represented  by  the  cellular  wall  of  a  blastodermic 
vesicle  with  fluid  contents,  is  difficult.  In  the  earlier  years  of  their 
research  the  material  was  lived  with  picro-sulphuric  or  picro-nitric  fluids  ; 
latterly,  the  authors  have  generally  used  picro-corrosive-acetic  solution. 
They  regard  double  imbedding  in  cedar-oil  celloidin  and  paraffin  as 
indispensable  for  embryological  work  of  a  critical  character.  The  sec- 
tions, after  having  been  stuck  on  the  slides  with  Mayer's  albumen  and 
thoroughly  dried,  were  coated  with  a  thin  solution  (0*  5-0*  75  p.c.)  of 
celloidin  to  insure  perfect  adhesion.  When  the  celloidin  has  set,  the 
slides  are  placed  in  a  mixture  of  90  p.c.  alcohol,  to  which  10  p.c.  of 
chloroform  has  been  added,  and  this  chloroform-alcohol  must  be  used 
whenever  alcohol  is  required.  The  sections  were  stained  as  a  rule  with 
hamiatoxylin  or  hamiatein,  and  couuterstained  with  eosin.  In  surface 
observation  great  advantage  was  derived  from  the  use  of  the  binocular 
stereoscopic  Microscope.  The  paper  is  illustrated  by  numerous  photo- 
micrographs and  some  drawings. 

Studying  the  Structure  of  (Edogonium.*  —  C.  van  Wisselingh 
fixed  and  hardened  the  material  in  Flemming's  fluid,  and  afterwards 
macerated  it  in  20  p.c.  chromic  acid.  After  the  chromic  acid  had  been 
thoroughly  washed  out,  the  preparations  were  stained  with  brilliant  blue 
extra. 

Demonstrating  the  Spermatogenesis  of  Hornets.f — F.  Meves  and 
J.  Duesberg  fixed  the  material  in  Hermann's  and  Flemming's  mixtures 
(1  p.c.  platinum  chloride  or  1  p.c.  chromic  acid  15  c.cm.,  2  p.c.  osmic 
acid  2  c.cm.,  glacial  acetic  acid  (1  c.cm.),  which  were  diluted  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  distilled  water. 

The  sections  were  stained  with  iron-hamiatoxylin. 

For  demonstrating  mitochondria  some  of  the  testicles  were  fixed  in 
the  following  modification  of  Flemming's  fluid  (1  p.c.  chromic  acid 
15  c.cm.,  2  p.c.  osmic  acid  4  c.cm.,  glacial  acetic  acid  3  drops)  ;  and 
further  treated  by  Benda's  method  thus  : — 1 .  After  an  hour's  washing 
the  material  was  placed  for  24  hours  in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 
acet.  pyrolig.  rectif.  and  1  p.c.  chromic  acid.  2.  For  24  hours  2  p.c. 
pot.  bichrorn.  3.  After  washing  for  24  hours  in  up-graded  alcohols  to 
paraffin,  material  treated  in  this  way  was  stained  with  iron-alizarin  and 
crystal-violet,  and  differentiated  with  acid  as  follows  : — 1.  The  sections 
were  placed  for  24  hours  in  a  4  p.c.  solution  of  iron-alum.  2.  After 
washing  with  distilled  water  they  were  transferred  to  a  solution  of 
sulphalizarinate  of  soda,  made  by  diluting  1  c.cm.  of  a  saturated  aqueous 
solution  with  80-100  c.cm.  of  distilled  water.  3.  After  washing  in 
distilled  water  the  slide  or  coverslip  is  placed  in  a  crystal-violet  solution; 
this  is  warmed  until  it  vaporises,  and  then  allowed  to  act  for  3  to  5 
minutes  longer.  The  crystal-violet  solution  is  a  3  p.c.  alcoholic  solution, 
which  is  diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  anilin  water.  4.  After 
differentiating  in  30  p.c.  acetic  acid  for  1  to  2  minutes  the  preparations 
are  washed  in  running  water  for  5  to  10  minutes,  in  order  to  remove  all 

*  Beib.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xxiii.  (1908)  pp.  157-90  (4  pis.). 

t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.  u.  Entwickl.,  lxxi.  (1908)  pp.  571-87  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  (''>."> 

traces  of  acid.  5.  The  sections  are  then  mopped  up  -with  blotting- 
paper,  and  after  a  momentary  immersion  in  absolute  alcohol  are  cleared 
up  in  bergamot  oil,  then  xylol  and  balsam. 

Micrographic  Study  of  Leather.* — H.  Boulanger  gives  the  follow- 
ing methods  for  demonstrating  the  microscopic  appearances  of  raw  and 
tanned  hide.  In  the  former  case  pieces  of  skin  are  soaked  for  12  hours 
in  a  solution  composed  of  distilled  water  5,  glycerin  5,  aceton  90.  They 
are  then  allowed  to  dry,  imbedded  in  hard  paraffin,  stained  and  mounted 
in  the  usual  way.  In  the  process  for  preparing  sections  of  cowhide 
tanned  with  oak-bark  and  carried  with  degras,  a  small  strip  of  leather 
about  10  mm.  wide  is  taken,  and  the  flesh  side  shaved  away  until  the 
piece  has  a  thickness  of  about  2  mm.  The  shaved  strip  is  placed  in 
melted  tallow,  not  too  hot,  for  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  After 
cooling  the  strip  is  imbedded  in  hard  paraffin,  and  cut  in  a  Ranvier 
microtome.  The  sections  are  degreased  with  xylol,  then  washed  two  or 
three  times  in  alcohol  and  stained  with  Weigert's  fuchsin.  The  staining 
takes  about  3  hours.  The  Weigert  solution  is  poured  off,  and  a  few 
drops  of  absolute  alcohol  remove  excess  of  dye  and  differentiate  the 
various  parts.  Usually  the  section  is  dehydrated  with  alcohol,  cleared 
up  with  xylol,  and  mounted  in  balsam. 

C3)  Cutting:,  including-  Imbedding-  and  Microtomes. 

Arrangements  for  Utilising  the  Entire  Cutting-edge  of  Micro- 
tome Razor s.| — C.  Funck  refers  to  the  troubles  frequently  met  with  in 
pathological  sections,  arising  from  the  notching  or  bluntness  of  the 
microtome  knife,  and  points  out  the  great  advantage  which  would  arise 
if  the  whole  of  the  cutting-edge  could  be  used  :  the  precious  time  now 
required  for  re-sharpening  could  then  be  saved.  The  author  describes 
two  methods  of  attaining  his  purpose,  the  first  of  which  depends  on 
xi*/)plementary  jaws,  and  does  not  involve  any  alteration  in  the  micro- 
tome itself.  Suppose  that  in  fixing  the  razor  the  handle  is  turned 
towards  the  operator,  and  that  it  is  the  further  end  which  one  wants  to 
be  able  to  bring  into  use.  But  if  the  operator  draws  the  blade  towards 
himself  the  remote  end  becomes  free.  To  overcome  this  difficulty  the 
author  suggests  that,  between  the  extremity  of  the  razor  and  the  fixed 
jaw,  an  additional  jaw  (fig.  154,  a)  could  be  inserted.  This  additional 
jaw  would  be  fixed  firmly  by  the  prolongation  P,  whose  sectional  form 
would  be  analogous  to  that  of  the  razor.  If  the  razor  should  be 
turned  in  the  way  opposite  to  that  described,  the  form  of  jaw  would  1  >e 
analogous  and  symmetrical  to  that  shown  in  fig.  154,  a.  If  the  micro- 
tome should  not  be  provided  with  this  upper  transversal  stem  T,  it 
would  be  convenient  and  less  costly  to  make  in  one  piece  the  two  jaws 
connected  to  each  other  by  their  bases,  as  shown  in  fig.  154,  b. 

Although  the  method  gives  the  use  of  an  increased  amount  of  edge, 
it  does  not  effect  anything  for  the  handle  end.  For  this  purpose  the 
author  has  designed  his  second  method,  which  consists  in  modifying  the 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Encouragement,  Feb.  1908.  See  also  Nature,  lxxviii.  (1908)  pp. 
18-19  (2  figs.).  t  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  53-60  (1  figs.). 


656 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING-   TO 


slider-support.  Instead  of  a  backward  and  forward  motion  of  the 
knife,  the  author  proposes  a  lateral  movement  (vide  arrow  x  in  figs. 
155  and  156),  in  order  to  present  to  the  object  the  parts  of  the  razor 


6 


Fig.  154. 


previously  unused.  The  indispensable  pieces  of  construction  are  shown 
in  fig.  155.  The  rectangular  plate  A,  with  two  fillets,  R  and  R',  along 
its  greatest  sides,  is  pierced  by  a  rectangular  hole,  whose  longest  axis 


Fig.  155. 


indicates  the  direction  of  the  new  lateral  displacement,  as  shown  by  the 
arrow  x.  Through  this  hole  passes  the  stem  V  of  the  raising  and 
lowering  gear,  its  head  (as  dotted)  having  a  firm  rest  behind  the  plate 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,  ETC. 


657 


A.  This  screw  will  serve  to  give  solid  fixing  to  the  razor  support  as 
the  old  type  of  raising  gear.  The  support  itself  will  be  guided  in  its 
movements  by  the  piece  B  (figs.  155  and  156),  on  which  it  rests,  and  the 
two  little  fillets  r,  r'  will  amply  fix  it.  The  plate  B  will  be  itself 
guided  by  the  said  lateral  movement  by  the  two  fillets  R  R'  of  the 
plate  A,  between  which  it  will  be  placed.  An  inspection  of  fig.  156 
will  show  the  method  of  operation. 

The  lateral  displacement  in  regard  to  the  object  will  be  effected  by 
gliding  this  support  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  towards  the  desired 
spot.  The  two  fillets  r,  r  of  the  support  will  engage  the  plate  B, 
which,  itself  engaged  by  the  fillets  R,  R  of  the  plate  A,  will  thus  have 


Fig.  156. 

a  direction  strictly  parallel  to  the  axis  of  A.  The  screw  of  the  raising- 
gear  V,  retained  and  engaged  by  the  transverse  bar  T  of  the  support  as 
well  as  by  the  hole  F  of  the  plate  B,  will  perform  all  the  movements 
communicated  to  it  by  the  two  pieces.  The  rectangular  hole  in  A  is  of 
such  dimensions  that  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  stem  of  the  screw  in 
this  displacement.  The  older  form  of  movement  is  not,  however, 
obviated,  for  when  B  has  arrived  at  the  end  of  its  course  the  usual 
antero-posterior  displacement  of  the  support  will  ensue,  and  can  lie 
used  if  desired.  The  author  has  had  the  Minot  microtome  more 
particularly  in  view,  but  with  some  modifications  his  design  could  be 
adapted  to  other  types  of  instruments. 

Celloidin  Imbedding.* — L.  Neumayer  has  obtained  excellent  results 
by  carrying  out  the  various  stages  of  the  impregnation  in  exsiccators 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  38-41. 
Oct.  21st,  1908  2  X 


658  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

which  must  be  air-tight  and  contain  some  substance  like  copper  sulphate 
or  calcium  carbide,  for  absorbing  any  moisture.     After  the  imbedding  is 

over,  the  pieces  are  covered  with  very  thick  celloidin,  left  exposed  to  air 
under  a  bell- jar  for  15-20  minutes,  then  for  30  minutes  to  the  vapour  of 
70-80  p.c.  alcohol,  and  finally  hardened  in  70-80  p.c.  alcohol.  The 
author  claims  that  by  this  method  quite  large  pieces  may  be  prepared. 

Preparing  Celloidin  Sections.* — W.  Dantschakoff  discusses  Ru- 
baschkin's  method  of  preparing  celloidin  serial  sections,!  and  points  out 
certain  defects  of  the  method.  One  is  that  instead  of  the  90  and  70  p.c. 
alcohol  used  for  dissolving  out  the  oily  clarifying  mixture,  96  p.c.  and 
absolute  alcohols  should  be  employed.  When  the  anilin-oil-of-clove 
mixture  is  dropped  on  there  is  a  great  tendency  for  the  section  to  wrinkle 
and  pucker,  and  this  inconvenience  may  be  lessened  by  using  a  mixture 
of  2  parts  of  oil-of-clove,  and  1  part  anilin-oil,  instead  of  equal  parts. 
Kubaschkin  smoothed  down  the  section  with  the  brush,  but  the  author 
finds  that  it  is  more  efficacious  and  expeditious  to  do  this  with  blotting- 
paper.  The  albumen-glycerin  mixture  should  be  wiped  on  with  a  clean 
rag  instead  of  being  smeared  on  with  the  finger.  On  removing  the 
cleared-up  sections  from  the  absolute  alcohol,  they  may  be  placed  in  ether- 
alcohol  until  the  celloidin  is  dissolved,  after  which  down-graded  alcohols 
from  absolute  to  water.     They  are  then  stained  in  the  usual  way. 


(4)  Staining-  and  Injecting. 

New  Method  of  Staining  Spores  and  Metachromatic  Granules  :  a 
Substitute  for  Gram's  Method.^ — L.  Trincas  stains  spores  as  follows  : — 
maceration  for  some  minutes  in  5  p.c.  chromic  acid  ;  heat  in  carbol- 
fuchsin,  wash,  decolorise  with  10  p.c.  hypochlorite  of  lime,  wash  freely, 
pass  through  40  p.c.  formalin  (a  few  seconds),  wash  freely,  stain  with 
1-30  chrysoidin  solution.  The  spores  are  red-brown,  bacilli  yellow, 
and  the  vacuoles  lemon-yellow.  For  demonstrating  the  metachromatic 
granules,  the  author  stains  for  1  minute  in  the  following  solution  : — 
toluidin  blue  0*25,  alcohol  5,  acetic  acid  (2  p.c.)  100.  The  preparations 
are  transferred  without  washing  to  1  p.c.  vesuvin  solution  for  1  minute. 
The  granules  are  blue-black,  the  other  parts  of  the  cells  pale  green. 

New  Cold  Injection  Method.§— H.  J.  Hamburger  has  improved  on 
Grosser's  injection  fluid  |j  by  substituting  horse  or  ox  blood-serum  for 
egg-albumen,  and  using  a  fluid  preparation  of  indian  ink,  commercially 
known  as  Perltusche.  Three  volumes  of  serum  are  mixed  with  two  of 
the  ink.  The  material  is  fixed  in  sublimate-formalin,  and  after  staining 
with  alum-cochineal,  paraffin-sections  made.  The  results  are  stated  to 
be  excellent. 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxv.  (1901)  pp.  32  -7. 
t  See  this  Journal  (1907)  p.  633. 

%  Sec.  Sci.  Med.  e  Natur.  di  Cagliari,  1907.     See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt 
Ref.,  xli.  (1908)  p.  316. 

§  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  1-3. 
||  See  this  Journal  (1900)  p.  732. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,  ETC.  659 

Bielschowsky's    Method     for     Demonstrating  Connective-tissue 
Fibres.* — A.  Zimmermanrj  fixed  the  material  in  formalin   and  after- 
wards in  alcohol.     Paraffin  sections  were  made  and  then  the  imbedding 
matrix  removed  with  xylol.     The  sections  were  then  placed  for  48  hours 
in  2  p.c.  silver-nitrate,  and  then,  after  a  wash  in  water,  in  the  ammonia- 
silver  solution,    prepared   by   adding  40  p.c.  caustic  soda  solution  to 
10  p.c.  solution  of  silver-nitrate  until  no  more  precipitate  falls.     The 
precipitate  is  then  dissolved  in  as  little  ammonia  as  possible,  filtered 
and  diluted  four  times  with  distilled  water.    In  this  solution,  which  must 
always  be  freshly  prepared,  the  sections  remain  for  i-hour.     On  removal 
they  are  washed  rapidly  in  water  and  placed  in  the  reducing  fluid,  5  p.c. 
formalin,  for  ^-hour.     On  removal  the  sections  are  washed  and  then 
immersed    in  a  1  per  1000   gold-chloride  solution   to   fix   the  silver. 
After  another  wash  in  water  the  sections  are  placed  in  5  p.c.  sodium- 
hyposnlphite    in    order  to  remove    any  unreduced  silver.      After  this 
they  are  washed  in  running  water  for  6-12  hours,  then    dehydration 
in  upgraded  alcohols,  xylol,  balsam.     The  foregoing  procedure,  which 
is  very  successful  for  locating  connective-tissue  elements,  differs  only  in 
detail  from  Bielschowsky's  original  method.! 

Demonstrating  the  Presence  of  Tannin.} — L.  E.  Cavazza  recom- 
mends chloride  of  vanadium  for  demonstrating  the  presence  of  tannin 
in  vegetable  sections.  It  imparts  a  dark  indigo  hue,  due  to  the  forma- 
tion of  tannate  of  vanadium.  Vanadium  chloride  is  preferable  to  iron- 
chloride  in  that  the  reaction  occurs  more  readily  and  with  greater 
intensity.     The  greater  part  of  the  author's  paper  is  purely  chemical. 


(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Examining  Seminal  Stains.§— F.  N.  Windsor  soaks  a  small  piece 
of  cloth  with  the  suspected  stain  in  Midler's  fluid  for  24  hours,  preferably 
at  37°  C.  On  removal  the  piece  is  well  washed  in  water  and  then  picked 
up  by  forceps,  is  drained  on  blotting  paper,  after  which  it  is  laid  flat  on 
a  slide.  Xext  both  surfaces  are  scraped  with  a  scalpel  or  another  slide. 
The  piece  is  then  picked  up  and  squeezed  between  thumb  and  finger, 
the  exuded  fluid  being  allowed  to  fall  on  the  slide  already  used.  The 
film  is  then  dried  and  fixed  with  heat  or  saturated  sublimate,  after  which 
it  is  stained  in  1  p.c.  aqueous  solution  of  eosin  for  3  minutes.  After 
washing  in  water,  the  film  is  dried  and  mounted.  This  method  is 
specially  suitable  for  old  dried  stains  or  those  subjected  to  a  tropical 
climate. 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  8-13. 

+  See  this  Journal,  1906,  p.  735 ;  and  1907,  p.  498. 

X  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  13-20. 

§  i:rit.  Med.  Journ.  (1908)  ii.  p.  501. 


660  SUMMARY    OF    <TJRKENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Metallography,  etc. 

Formulae  of  Metallic  Compounds.* — Much  of  the  formerly  ac- 
cepted information  regarding  the  composition  of  compounds  of  metals 
with  each  other  has  been  derived  from  the  chemical  analysis  of  insoluble 
residues.  W.  Guertler  points  out  that  the  application  of  the  methods  of 
physical  chemistry  has  proved  this  information  to  be  to  a  large  extent 
erroneous.  While,  however,  the  method  of  thermal  analysis  has  so  largely 
superseded  the  older  methods,  abnormal  behaviour  of  some  elements 
renders  conclusions  uncertain  in  some  cases  ;  in  these  instances  chemical 
methods  may  be  profitably  employed.  The  author  discusses  the  dis- 
crepancies between  the  formulae  of  silicides  of  copper  as  given  by  Philips 
and  by  Ruclolfi — the  method  of  residue  analysis  being  used  by  the  former, 
while  the  latter  employed  thermal  methods.  E.  Rudolfi  f  continues  the 
discussion. 

Selective  Colouring.!— R.  Bolder  remarks  on  the  advance  mmetallo- 
graphic  methods  resulting  from  the  introduction  of  Lumiere  colour- 
photomicrography.  A  section  of  an  83-p.c.  ferro-wolfram,  when  etched 
with  2  p.c.  hydrochloric  acid  in  alcohol  for  30  minutes,  showed  two 
constituents.  Further  etching  with  a  dilute  solution  of  potassium  ferro- 
cyanide  in  water  brought  out  the  duplex  character  of  one  of  these  sub- 
stances, colouring  one  of  the  two  constituents  of  which  it  was  made  up 
a  deep  blue. 

Cobalt-sulphur  Alloys. § — K.  Friedrich  has  studied  the  equilibrium 
diagram  from  0-35  p.c.  sulphur.  A  eutectic  line  occurs  at  879°  C. 
The  constitution  of  the  compounds  is  uncertain  :  Co3S2,  Co4S3,  Co6S5, 
CoS,  are  suggested.  Iodine  in  potassium  iodide  solution  and  concen- 
trated nitric  acid  wrere  used  for  etching. 

Antimonides  of  Iron  and  Cadmium. ||  —  N.  S.  Kurnakow  and 
N.  S.  Konstantinow  give  the  equilibrium  diagrams  of  the  systems 
antimony-iron  and  antimony-cadmium.  In  the  former  system  the 
compounds  FeSb2  and  Fe3Sb2  occur,  and  two  eutectics.  The  limit  of 
solid  solubility  of  antimony  in  iron  is  about  5  p.c.  ;  this  is  confirmed  by 
microscopic  examination.  In  the  range  0-70  p.c.  cadmium  of  the 
antimony-cadmium  system,  stable  equilibrium  is  obtained  by  inoculating 
the  melt  with  crystals  of  CdSb.  If  the  molten  alloys  are  allowed  to  cool 
undisturbed,  without  inoculation,  a  labile  state  is  established.  The 
diagram  corresponding  to  labile  equilibrium  differs  from  the  stable 
diagram  in  that  both  the  eutectic  and  "  dystectic  "  (maximum)  tempera- 
tures are  lower.  The  compounds  are  CdSb  and  Cd3Sb2.  Some  heating 
curves  were  taken.  The  crystal  angles  of  the  compounds  of  both 
systems  were  measured.     Characteristic  photomicrographs  are  given. 

Copper-tin  Alloys. % — O.  Sackur  and  H.  Pick  have  investigated  the 
action   of   solutions  of    lead  chloride    and    other    metallic    salts  upon 

*  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  184-6.  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  257-9. 

t  Torn,  cit.,  pp.  201-2  (2  rigs.).  §  Torn,  cit.,  pp.  212-15  (14  figs.). 

||  Zeitschr.  Anorg.  Chem,  lviii.  (1908)  pp.  1-22  (18  figs.). 

•j  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  46-58. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,  ETC.  661 

powdered  copper-tin  alloys,  with  the  object  of  measuring  the  chemical 

affinities;  existing  between  the  two  metals.  The  alloys  containing 
0-56  p.c.  copper  precipitate  lead  from  lead  chloride  solution  in  the  same 
way  as  pure  tin  does  :  they  therefore  contain  free  tin.  By  similar 
reasoning  from  their  other  experimental  results,  the  authors  deduce  the 
existence  of  two  compounds,  Cu3ftn  and  Cu5Sn2,  or  Cu2Sn. 

Tellurides  of  Arsenic  and  Bismuth.*  —  In  the  tellurium-arsenic 
system  H.  Pelabon  finds  minima  at  329°  C.  and  355°  C,  maxima  at 
362°  C.  (As2Te3)  and  358°  C.  In  the  tellurium-bismuth  system  there 
are  two  eutectic  points,  410°  C.  (15  p.c.  bismuth)  and  263°  C.  (1  p.c. 
tellurium).  A  maximum  at  583°  C.  indicates  the  compound  Bi2Te3.  The 
author  calculates  the  cryoscopic  constant  of  tellurium  from  the  lower- 
ing of  its  melting  point  by  solution  in  it  of  As2Te3,  Bi2Te3,  and  other 
tellurides,  arriving  at  the  mean  value  520. 

Occluded  Gases  in  Special  Nickel  Steel. f — Gr.  Belloc  has  de- 
termined the  composition  of  the  gases  evolved  from  a  steel  containing 
45  p.c.  nickel,  0  ■  15  p.c.  carbon,  at  different  temperatures 4  The  occluded 
gases  were  C02  (all  given  off  below  520°  C),  CO  (increasing  to  75  p.c), 
N  (all  evolved  above  520°  C,  and  only  found  in  small  amount),  and  H. 
When  the  steel  was  in  the  form  of  wire,  the  total  volume  of  gases  was 
10  times  that  of  the  steel,  while  with  drillings  from  the  ingot  the 
volume  was  3|  times  the  volume  of  the  steel.  The  greater  part  of  the 
gas  was  evolved  while  the  iron  was  in  the  y  state  and  the  nickel  in 
the  ft  state. 

Factors  of  Safety  in  Marine  Engineering^ — J.  O.  Arnold  points 
out  that,  although  in  structural  steel  the  ratio  of  maximum  stress  to  elastic 
limit  is  approximately  2  to  1  in  the  majority  of  cases,  yet  in  an  im- 
portant number  of  instances  the  ratio  differs  very  widely  from  this. 
Over-annealed  steel  has  a  very  low  elastic  limit,  and  the  factor  of 
safety  calculated  from  the  maximum  stress  of  such  steel  would  1  >e 
dangerously  low.  Over-annealing  (excessively  slow  cooling  from  a  high 
temperature)  causes  the  formation  of  pearlite  in  which  the  lamellar 
structure  is  highly  developed,  and  the  partial  separation  of  pearlite  into 
massive  cementite  and  ferrite.  The  author  explains  the  formation  of 
decarbonised  "  ghosts,"  on  the  theory  that  dissolved  phosphide  of  iron 
expels  carbon  from  a  segregated  spot.  The  author's  alternating  stress 
test  is  described,  and  though  its  theoretical  defects  are  admitted,  it  is 
recommended  in  preference  to  Wohler  or  similar  tests  in  which  the 
elastic  limit  is  not  exceeded,  for  the  detection  of  brittle  material.  The 
possible  danger  in  using  steels  of  high  elastic  limit  is  indicated. 

Planimetric  Analysis  of  Alloys. || — A.  K.  Huntington  and  C.  H. 
Desch  describe  the  method  of  determining  the  proportions  of  the 
component  metals  by  microscopic  examination  of  alloys.     A  constituent 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  1397-1400. 

t  Op.  cit.,  cxlvii.  (1908)  pp.  244-5. 

{  See  this  Journal,  1908,  p.  124 

§  Engineering,  lxxxv.  (1908)  pp.  565-6,  59S-601  (16  figs.). 

||  Tom.  cit.,  p.  589. 


til") 2  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

may  be  of  fixed  composition  (a  pure  metal,  a  definite  compound,  or  a 
eutectic  mixture),  or  its  composition  may  vary  within  a  certain  range 
(a  homogeneous  solid  solution).  If  the  alloy  is  in  a  known  condition  of 
equilibrium,  reached  by  slow  cooling  or  by  quenching  from  a  given  tem- 
perature, and  the  composition  of  the  constituents  is  known,  the  propor- 
tions of  the  metals  present  may  be  determined  by  measurement  of  the 
areas  of  the  constituents.  It  is  often  necessary  to  enlarge  photo- 
micrographs or  to  project  them  on  to  drawing  or  tracing  paper.  A 
planimeter  is  used  to  measure  the  area  of  any  particular  constituent, 
or  if  the  pattern  is  complicated  the  drawing  may  be  divided  into 
squares  of  1  cm.,  and  the  proportion  of  one  constituent,  which  may  be 
shaded  in  the  drawing  to  distinguish  it,  estimated  in  each  square.  By 
the  planimetric  method  the  composition  of  Muntz  metal  might  be  de- 
termined with  remarkable  accuracy  in  half  an  hour ;  this  includes  all 
operations,  from  grinding  to  planimetric  measurement.  The  method 
failed  to  yield  satisfactory  values  for  copper-phosphorus  alloys,  the 
explanation  being  the  segregation  of  copper  from  the  eutectic.  The 
correction  to  be  applied  was  calculated,  and  the  method  then  gave  reliable 
results. 

New  Fatigue  Test  for  Iron  and  Steel.*  —  T.  E.  Stanton  has  de- 
vised a  test  which  gives  a  combination  of  rolling  abrasion  and  alternate 
bending.  A  hollow  ring  of  rectangular  section,  cut  from  the  steel  to 
be  tested,  is  placed  between  three  hardened  steel  rollers.  The  upper 
roller  is  loaded  with  a  weight  and  rotated,  thus  imparting  rotation  to 
the  test-piece  and  the  two  lower  rollers.  The  outer  surface  of  the  test- 
ring  is  thus  subject  to  rolling  abrasion,  and  every  radial  section  of  the 
ring  is  subject  to  alternate  bending  stresses  which  go  through  a  com- 
plete cycle  three  times  in  one  revolution.  A  number  of  steel  rails  were 
tested  in  this  manner,  at  800  reversals  per  minute.  In  the  course  of 
the  test  the  outer  surface  of  the  ring  is  worn  down  and  spread  over 
the  edges.  In  time  small  cracks  appear  parallel  to  the  axis,  and  failure 
takes  place  through  the  development  of  one  of  these  cracks.  The 
number  of  reversals  endured  varied  from  25,000  to  370,000. 

Metallurgical  and  Chemical  Laboratories  in  the  National 
Physical  Laboratory.'}' — W.  Rosenhain,  in  the  course  of  this  paper,  de- 
scribes the  rnetallographical  outfit.  The  following  details  may  be  noted. 
A  Zeiss  stereoscopic  binocular  Microscope  is  used  for  examination  of 
fractures.  Two  small  rooms  are  provided  for  preparation  of  metal 
sections,  one  is  devoted  to  grinding  (for  which  two  carborundum  wheels 
are  used),  and  emery  rubbing,  while  the  other  is  reserved  for  the  last 
stages  of  polishing  and  etching.  A  horizontal  disk  9  in.  diameter, 
covered  with  cloth,  is  used  for  polishing.  For  etching  steel  sections 
picric  acid  in  alcohol  and  nitric  acid  in  amyl-alcohol  are  employed.  The 
author  describes  his  method  of  heating  and  quenching  metal  specimens 
without  contact  with  ah" :  the  metal  is  heated  in  an  evacuated  tube  of 
fused  silica,  through  which  a  heavy  stream  of  water  may  be  directed  when 
the  specimen  is  at  the  desired  temperature. 

*  Journ.  Iron  and  Steel  Inst.,  lxxvi.  (1908)  pp.  54-70  (9  figs.) 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  87- 108  (9  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,  ETC.  t'>'"'0 

Application  of  Colour-photography  to  Metallography.*  -  -  E.  F. 
Law  draws  attention  to  the  unsatisfactory  character  of  ordinary  photo- 
graphs of  metal  sections  in  which  the  constituents  have  been  distinguished 
by  differential  colouring.  Coloured  sections  are  obtained  by  heat-tinting, 
by  allowing  the  polished  surface  to  tarnish  by  exposure  to  the  atmo- 
sphere, or  by  heating  the  specimen  in  air  containing  iodine,  bromine,  or 
sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Photomicrographs  of  such  sections  in  their 
natural  colours  are  given  by  the  Lumiere  process.  A  colour-photograph 
can  be  taken,  developed,  dried,  and  bound  as  a  lantern-slide  in  less  than 
one  hour. 

Microscopic  Features  of  Hardened  Supersaturated  Steels.j — E. 
Hess  heated  three  bars  of  crucible  steel  containing  101,  1'41,  and 
1  •  77  p.c.  carbon  respectively,  in  such  a  way  that  one  end  was  white-hot 
while  the  other  end  was  below  the  critical  temperature.  The  bars  were 
then  quenched,  and  sections  cut  from  each  at  points  1  in.  apart.  The 
difference  of  structure  between  edge  and  centre  leads  the  author  to 
doubt  whether  the  real  condition  at  high  temperatures  is  preserved  by 
sudden  cooling.  Howe's  theory  that  supersaturated  steels  at  tempera- 
tures above  the  critical  range  consist  of  austenite  is  held  to  be  confirmed. 
The  austenite  undergoes  partial  decomposition  when  the  steel  is  quenched. 

Iron,  Carbon,  and  Sulphur.J — D.  M.  Levy  has  made  a  very  complete 
investigation  of  the  effect  of  sulphur  on  iron-carbon  alloys.  A  number 
of  alloys  were  prepared  by  melting  pure  cast  iron  with  sulphide  of 
iron,  cooling  curves  were  taken,  and  physical  and  chemical  properties 
and  microstructure  were  studied.  In  cast-iron  free  from  silicon  and 
manganese  the  saturation  limit  is  about  0 '  8  p.c.  sulphur  ;  it  exists  as  FeS 
(melting  point  above  1180°  C).  A  certain  excess  of  FeS  may  be  mechani- 
cally retained.  Sulphur  lowers  the  melting-point  of  cast  iron.  At  about 
1130°  C.  the  sulphide  separates  from  a  solidifying  alloy,  as  a  constituent 
of  a  triple  austenite-cementite-sulphide  eutectic.  In  sulphur-free  cast 
iron  the  cementite  segregates  into  large  masses  which  decompose  at  high 
temperatures,  giving  rise  to  graphite  :  grey  iron  is  thus  produced.  When 
iron  sulphide  is  present  it  forms  layers  and  films  in  the  eutectic.  These 
appear  to  prevent  the  coalescence  of  the  cementite,  which  is  a  necessary 
preliminary  to  its  decomposition.  Thus  the  iron  is  retained  in  the  white 
form.  No  evidence  of  any  chemical  union  of  the  sulphide  with  the 
carlton  or  carbide  was  obtained.  The  influence  of  sulphur  in  retaining 
the  carbon  in  the  combined  state  appears  to  be  purely  physical  or 
mechanical. 

Constitution  of  Iron  and  Phosphorus  Compounds. § — B.  Saklat- 
walla  has  made  a  thermal  and  microscopical  investigation  of  the  iron- 
phosphorus  system.  Pure  electrolytic  iron  was  used.  Much  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  preparing  a  high  phosphorus  alloy  free  from  im- 

*  Journ.  Iron  and  Steel  Inst.,  lxxvi.  (1908)  pp.  151-4. 
t  Op.  cit,,  lxxvii.  (1908)  pp.  1-4  (30  figs.). 
X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  33-91  (31  figs.). 
§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  92-103  (10  figs.). 


664  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES, 

parities  ;  it  was  finally  made  by  melting  pure  iron  with  phosphorus  in  an 
atmosphere  of  nitrogen,  in  a  carbon  resistance  furnace.  A  tantalum- 
wire  resistance  furnace  was  also  used.  Up  to  1*7  p.c,  phosphorus  forms 
a  solid  solution  with  iron.  This  solid  solution  forms  a  eutectic  with 
Fe3P,  melting-point  a  little  over  1000°  C,  and  about  10  ■  2  p.c. phosphorus. 
Fe3P  forms  a  eutectic  with  Fe2P,  16*2  p.c.  phosphorus,  melting-point 
960°  C.  Another  eutectic  appears  to  exist,  and  melts  about  1218°  0. 
The  micro-sections  were  heat-tinted. 


JOURN.R.MICR.SOC.1908.P1.XV. 


J.  Murray  del. ad  nat. 


West,  Newman  photo-litk. 


African  Rotifers. 


JOUENAL 

OF^THE 

*  i 

ROYAL   MICROSCOPICAL    SOCIETY 

DECEMBER,  1908. 


TRANSACTIONS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 


XVII. — -Some  African  Rotifers. 
By  James  Murray. 

(Read  December  18,  19070 
Plate  XV. 

Through  the  kindness  of  friends  I  have  recently  had  the  oppor- 
tunity of  studying  the  Bclelloid  Rotifers  of  various  parts  of  Africa. 

Mr.  W.  Milne,  of  Uitenhage,  Cape  Colony,  sent  me  moss  from 
several  localities  in  Cape  Colony.  This  moss  was  primarily 
examined  for  Tardigrada,  but  it  was  noted  that  the  fauna  of 
Bdelloida  was  abundant  and  peculiar,  including  many  undescribed 
species.  As  Mr.  Milne  was  already  far  advanced  in  a  study  of  the 
Bdelloids  of  Cape  Colony,  my  notes  and  sketches  were  put  at  his 
disposal. 

About  the  same  time,  Mr.  N.  D.  F.  Pearce,  of  Cambridge — to 
whom  I  am  already  deeply  indebted  for  opportunities  to  study 
the  microfauna  of  many  lands — sent  moss,  or  moss-like  plants, 
from  Old  Calabar,  Uganda,  and  Madagascar. 

EXPLANATION    OF   PLATE    XV. 

Fig.  1. — Callidina  multispinosa  var.  brevispinosa  var.  n.    Ventral  view,  feeding. 
2.—  Ditto.     Dorsal  view,  contracted. 
3. — Ditto.     Dorsal  view  of  head. 
4. — Ditto.     Egg,  seen  in  body  of  parent. 
5. — C.  pinniger  sp.  n.     Dorsal  view,  feeding. 
6. — Ditto.     Head,  showing  two  necklets. 
7. — Ditto.     Jaw. 
8. — Rotifer  longirostris  var.  bitorquata  var.  n. 

Dec.  16th,  1908  2  Y 


666  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

The  present  communication  deals  with  the  Bdelloids  obtained 
in  those  three  localities. 

The  moss  reached  me  in  the  dry  condition,  and  was  moistened 
in  fresh,  cold  water.  The  study  of  the  Eotifers  was  made  within 
a  few  hours  after  moistening  the  moss,  as  very  few  of  them  will 
survive  for  any  length  of  time.  Most  of  the  examples  found  had 
made  the  journey  in  the  contracted  state,  though  some  may  have 
hatched  out  from  eggs.  A  Bdelloid  which  has  been  dried  for  a 
long  time  may  generally  be  recognised  by  the  condition  of  the 
intestine,  the  contents  of  which  form  a  compact  ball  of  dark  colour, 
which  does  not  soften  and  expand  for  some  time  after  the  animal 
has  resumed  full  activity. 

Old  Calabar. 

The  material  received  from  this  district  looked  very  unpromis- 
ing. There  seemed  to  be  little  true  moss  in  it,  but  a  sort  of  whitish 
dust  containing  many  vegetable  fragments,  which  might  be  leaves. 
When  moistened  it  made  a  sort  of  porridge. 

It  was  very  poor,  but  yielded  four  species  of  Bdelloids,  and 
only  one  example  of  each,  except  Gallidina  longiceps,  which  was 
abundant. 

C.  angusticollis  Murray  (-/).* — The  typical  case  measured  166 // 
in  length.     The  contained  animal  did  not  extend  itself. 

C.  'perforata  Murray  (5). — Only  the  empty  case  was  seen.  It 
was  like  the  Indian  type,  but  there  was  an  obscure  panelling  of 
the  surface,  as  in  the  var.  americaiia  Murray  (6). 

C.  longiceps  Murray  (4). — Till  it  reappeared  in  Old  Calabar, 
this  species  was  only  known  from  a  very  few  examples  found  in 
Loch  Morar,  in  Scotland. 

There  was  some  doubt  as  to  whether  the  very  peculiar  case  which 
it  inhabits  was  a  normal  structure  appertaining  to  the  species,  or  had 
merely  been  adopted  for  shelter.  The  case  is  of  an  irregular  flask- 
shape,  jagged  at  the  mouth,  of  a  yellow  colour,  the  surface  traversed 
by  numerous  curved  lines. 

The  great  abundance  of  the  cases  in  Calabar,  each  case  contain- 
ing a  Bdelloid  with  the  correct  dental  formula,  renders  it  certain 
that  the  case  is  proper  to  the  species,  though  it  was  never  seen  in 
process  of  formation.  None  were  seen  actually  feeding,  but  several 
were  seen  partly  extended. 

C,  multispiaosa  Thompson  (7)  var.  brevispinosa  var.  n., 
plate  XV.  figs.  1  to  4. 

Distinctive  Characters. — Spines  all  short,  few  on  anterior  trunk- 
segments.  Central  surface  of  trunk  transversely  plicate  and  crenate 
with  papilla?. 

*  The  figures  in  brackets  refer  to  the  bibliography  at  end  of  paper. 


Some  African  Rotifers.     By  James  Murray.  667 

There  is  a  ventral  necklet  of  hemispherical  processes  close  under 
the  mouth,  and  close  below  this  is  a  second  necklet  of  sharp  spines. 
On  the  dorsal  surface  flf  the  trunk  there  are  two  transverse  rows  of 
spicules,  as  in  the  type,  and  there  are  many  small  spines  on  the 
rump  and  foot.  Dental  formula,  2/2  or  2  +  1/1  +  2.  Length,  creep- 
ing, 250  /j,. 

The  egg  measures  about  100  /a  in  length,  and  bears  a  number 
of  low  rounded  prominences,  one  of  which  coincides  with  the 
anterior  pole  of  the  egg,  as  seen  within  the  body  of  the  parent 
(plate  XV.  fig.  4). 

The  variety  is  widely  distributed,  being  known  to  occur  in 
India,  British  Guiana,  Uganda,  Madagascar,  and  Cape  Colony. 

The  species  C.  multispinosa  is  extremely  variable.  Even  in 
Britain  there  is  much  variety  in  the  number,  size,  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  spines.  In  tropical  and  subtropical  countries  there  is 
a  profusion  of  forms  which  can  be  grouped  round  C.  multispinosa, 
but  some  of  which  differ  very  markedly  from  the  type. 

The  most  distinct  of  these  are  almost  certainly  of  specific  value, 
but  as  there  are  many  intermediate  forms  it  seems  well,  pending 
further  study,  to  retain  most  of  them  as  simple  varieties. 

The  variety  brevispinosa  appears  to  be  pretty  constant.  The 
reduction  of  the  spines  is  not  its  sole  distinction  from  the  type. 
The  dorsal  and  anterior-lateral  processes  are  fewer  in  number, 
and  the  small  spines  and  papillaa  on  the  ventral  surface  more 
numerous. 

Uganda. 

The  moss  from  Uganda  was  more  productive  than  either  of  the 
others.  Seven  species  were  noted,  and  several  varieties — one  species 
and  two  varieties  being  previously  undescribed. 

Philodina  br/jcci  Weber  (<s'). — The  form  found  differed  somewhat 
from  the  type.  There  were  ten  spines  in  the  chief  dorsal  transverse 
row,  one  lateral  spine  at  each  side  of  the  trunk,  a  little  in  front  of 
the  end  spines  of  the  chief  row,  and  on  the  same  skinfolds  as  those 
spines.  The  central  anterior  processes  of  the  trunk  (betweeu  which 
the  antenna  is  held,  as  in  a  fork,  when  the  animal  is  feeding)  were 
very  small  warts.  The  pair  of  processes  on  the  fourth  central 
segment  were  reduced  to  small  knobs. 

Callidina  perforator  Murray  (J). — Only  the  case  was  seen.  The 
examples  were  typical. 

C.  eremita  Bryce  (1). — Several  examples. 

C.  longiccpi  Murray  (.£). — Many  cases  with  living  animals,  one 
case  with  two  examples.    Dental  formula,  5/5,  5/6,  6/6,  and  7/6. 

C.  hdbita  Bryce  (/). — Many  living  examples,  quite  typical. 

C.  multispinosa  Thompson  (7)  vox.  brevispinosa  var.  n. — (See 
paragraph  on  Old  Calabar  for  description.)     Several. 

2  Y  2 


668  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Callidina  pinniger  sp.  n..  plate  XV.  figs.  5  to  7. 

Specific  Characters. — Size  moderate.  Trunk  with  many  pro- 
cesses, those  on  anterior  trunk-segments  broadly  expanded,  fin-like  ; 
posterior  trunk  processes,  stout  flattened  spines,  with  bulbose 
bases.  Some  smaller  dorsal  processes  on  foot,  variable,  scale-like, 
or  spoon-shaped.     Dental  formula,  2  -f-  1/1  4-  2. 

The  general  form  is  like  C.  mvltispinosa.  The  spurs  are  small. 
There  are  two  ventral  necklets  of  papillae  on  the  head.  The  dorso- 
lateral processes  (on  each  side  of  the  antenna)  of  the  first  cervical 
segment  are  low  and  two-lobed. 

There  are  three  of  the  expanded  lateral  processes  on  each  side, 
on  distinct  segments.  They  are  usually  expanded  upwards,  wedge- 
shaped,  and  look  like  fins  or  flippers. 

Lie  transverse  rows  of  dorsal  spicules,  characteristic  of  G.  multi- 
spinosa,  are  usually  absent,  but  an  example  has  been  seen  which 
had  one  spicule  of  the  anterior  row,  close  to  the  third  flipper,  and 
another  had  four  spicules  of  the  posterior  row. 

The  stout  posterior  trunk-spines  are  usually  five  on  each  side. 
They  are  strongly  compressed,  acute,  and  the  greatly  swollen  bases 
appear  to  articulate  with  the  skin.  Those  of  the  first  row  are 
largest — one  is  quite  lateral  and  the  other  is  on  the  next  dorsal 
skinfold ;  the  second  row  is  similar,  but  smaller ;  the  last  spines 
are  single  and  sublateral. 

The  foot  is  kept  so  contracted  that  the  true  position  of  the  small 
processes,  whether  on  anal  segment  or  foot,  cannot  be  seen.  They 
are  variable,  and  are  either,  as  in  plate  XV.  fig.  5,  scale-like  and 
overlapping,  or  narrower,  spoon-shaped,  and  standing  apart.  They 
are  from  six  to  eight  in  number. 

There  may  be  other  small  foot-spines  hidden  by  the  contraction 
of  the  foot. 

Though  a  large  number  of  skins  were  seen,  there  were  very  few 
living  examples,  and  it  was  only  once  seen  to  feed.  The  head  in 
the  feeding  attitude  did  not  differ  perceptibly  from  that  of  C. 
multispinosa. 

Length,  when  feeding,  about  200  p,,  to  250  p,  when  creeping. 

The  flipper-like  processes  are  in  no  degree  functional  as  fins  or 
swimming  organs,  so  far  as  my  observations  of  the  few  living 
examples  show.  Like  the  spines  of  C.  multispinosa,  they  seem  to 
change  position  merely  with  the  varying  tension  of  the  skin,  and  to 
be  purely  defensive  weapons. 

Rotifer  longirostris  Janson  (J8). — -Type,  frequent,  form  with 
thick  plates  on  the  trunk,  like  those  of  Pliilodina  tuberculata  Gosse. 

Var.  finibriaia  Murray  (5). — Several  examples. 

Var.  bitorquata  var.  n.  (plate  XV.  fig.  8). — Besides  the  festoon 
of  conical  processes  close  below  the  mouth,  as  found  in  the  type, 
there  is  a  similar  row  of  larger  leaf-like  processes  on  a  lower  neck- 


Some  African  Rotifers.     By  James  Murray.  669 

segment  (third  cervical,  or  possibly  first  trunk-segment,  as  there  is 
some  doubt  as  to  homologies).  These  processes  are  not  free  at  the 
points,  but  they  stand  further  from  the  skin  at  the  apices  than  at 
the  bases. 

Otherwise  as  the  type.  The  skin  is  viscous  and  has  adherent 
matter,  usually  of  a  warm  brown  colour.  The  spurs  are  of  the 
normal  size,  and  are  stippled.     Abundant. 

Madagascar. 

Five  species  of  Bdelloida  were  obtained  in  moss  from  Mada- 
gascar, which  reached  me  early  in  April  1907.  There  were  four 
species  of  Callidina  and  one  of  Rotifer — the  ubiquitous  R.  longi- 
rosiris Janson.  Very  few  examples  were  seen,  but  the  time  I  was 
able  to  give  to  the  examination  of  this  moss  was  very  limited,  or 
much  better  results  would  probably  have  been  obtained. 

Callidina  angusticollis  Murray  (3). — Several  cases,  but  no 
living  example. 

0.  perforata  Murray  (J). — Two  empty  cases. 

G.  multispinosa  Thompson  (7)  var.  brevispinosec  var.  n. — One 
example.     (For  description,  see  paragraph  on  Old  Calabar.) 

G.  crenata  Murray  (3)  var.  nodosa  Murray  (-5). — One  contracted 
example.     Previously  known  only  from  India, 

Rotifer  longirosiris  Janson  {2). — Several  contracted  examples. 
As  they  were  not  seen  extended,  it  was  impossible  to  tell  whether 
they  were  of  the  type,  or  of  one  of  the  tropical  varieties. 


Remarks. 

This  short  list,  of  only  a  dozen  forms,  collected  in  widely 
separated  regions — all,  however,  situated  within  the  tropics — has 
several  features  of  interest. 

The  poverty  of  the  list  is  no  doubt  clue  to  the  small  quantity  of 
moss  available,  and  to  the  limited  time  which  could  be  given  to  its 
study. 

The  lists  show  little  local  peculiarity.  Only  one  species  and 
two  varieties  are  considered  to  be  distinct  from  all  previously 
described  forms.  Though  only  two  forms  are  common  to  all  three 
regions,  and  five  to  two  of  the  regions,  all  but  two  of  them  are 
known  in  other  lands. 

Four  of  the  species  (Rhilodina  brycei,  Callidina  habita,  C. 
angusticollis,  and  Rotifer  longirosiris)  are  among  the  most  widely  dis- 
tributed Rotifers.  Two  species  {Callidina  eremita  and  C.  longiceps), 
though  discovered  in  Britain,  are  rare  there,  and  probably  have 
their  headquarters  in  warmer  climes.  Six  forms  (C.  perforata, 
C.  pinniger,  C.  multispinosa  var.   brevispinosa,  Rotifer  longirosiris 


(>7<»  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

vars.  fimhriata  and  bitorquata,  and  Callidina  even"/"  var.  nodosa) 
are  only  known  to  exist  in  tropical  and  subtropical  countries. 

C.  pinniyer  and  Rotifer  lonyirostris  var.  Htorqiiata  are  tin- 
only  forms  in  our  list  at  present  only  known  in  Central  Africa. 
Varieties  approaching  Callidina  pinniyer  are  known  in  India, 
South  Africa,  etc. 

In  the  isolated  island  of  Madagascar  only  known  species  were 
observed. 

An  examination  of  various  tropical  and  subtropical  regions 
(India,  Africa,  South  America)  indicates  a  considerable  Bdelloid 
fauna  restricted  to  hot  climates.  The  polar  regions  have  not  ex- 
hibited any  such  peculiarity,  such  species  as  have  been  found  there 
being  common  natives  of  the  temperate  zone. 

There  is  no  bar  to  the  distribution  of  Bdelloids  over  the  whole 
globe,  except  such  as  is  imposed  by  climate.  Where  similar  con- 
ditions prevail,  the  same  species  may  be  expected. 

Bibliography. 

1.  Bryce,  D. — Further  Notes  on  Macrotrachelous  CalUdinse.     Journ.  Quekett 

Micr.  Club,  ser.  %  v.  (1894)  p.  436. 

2.  Janson,  C. — Die  Rotatorien-Familie  <ler  Philodinaeen.     Marburg,  1893. 

3.  Murray,  J. — A  New  Family  and  Twelve  New  Species,  etc.    Trans.  Roy. 

Soc.  Edinburgh,  xli.  (1905). 

4.  „  Rotifera  of  the  Scottish  Lochs.    Op.  cit.,  xlv.  (1906). 

5.  „  Some  Rotifera  of  the  Sikkim  Himalaya.     Journ.  Rov  Micr. 

Soc,  1906,  p,  637. 

6.  „  Some  South  American  Rotifers.   Amer.  Nat.,  Feb.  1907,  p.  97. 

7.  Thompson,  P.  G. — Moss-haxmting  Rotifers.    Science  Gossip,  1892,  p.  56. 

8.  Weber,  E.  F. — Faune  Rotatorienne  du  Basin  du  Leman.    Rev.  Suisse  de 

Zool.,  v.  (1898)  p.  347. 


671 


XVIII. — On  the  Resolution  of  Periodic  Structures. 
By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

(Read  October  21,  1908.) 

It  has  been  often  noted  that  when  periodic,  or  lined,  structures 
are  resolved  upon  a  bright  field,  they  may  become  invisible  with 
dark-ground  illumination.  One  may  search  microscopical  text- 
books in  vain  for  an  explanation  of  this  phenomenon.  The  Abbe 
"  Spectrum  Theory  "  may  be  wrung  up  to  its  breaking  point,  but 
not  a  drop  of  enlightenment  can  be  squeezed  out  of  it ;  Mr.  Gordon's 
"  Antipoint  Theory,"  however,  at  once  supplies  an  answer. 

If  one  of  Mr.  Grayson's  beautiful  rulings  be  placed  on  the  stage, 
and  a  band,  say  of  45,000  lines  to  the  inch — the  lines  diagram- 
matically  represented  by  the  shaded  portions  in  A,  fig.  157 — be 
examined  with  a  xff~m-  object-glass,  under  a  full  cone  of  trans- 
mitted light,  B  may  be  taken  to  represent  the  image  as  seen  in  the 
Microscope. 

Now  Mr.  Gordon  tells  us  that  the  bright  field  is  made  up  of  a 
mosaic  of  antipoints,  the  diameter  of  the  antipoint  being  inversely 
as  the  W.A.,  that  is,  the  larger  the  W.A.,  the  smaller  the  antipoint. 
In  this  supposed  case  the  W.A.  is  equal  to  the  N.A.  of  the  object- 
glass.  A  glance  at  C  shows  how  it  comes  to  pass  that  the  broad 
lines  at  A  are  imaged  in  the  Microscope  by  the  narrow  lines  at  B  : 
for  we  see  the  half-antipoints  (diagrammatically  but  not  accurately 
illustrated  by  semicircles)  eating  into  each  side  of  the  broad  lines, 
leaving  a  narrow  central  part.  If  the  antipoints  were  so  large  that 
the  semicircles  met  in  the  middle  of  the  broad  lines,  there  would 
obviously  be  no  resolution :  the  lines  would  remain  invisible. 

Now  let  us  see  what  happens  when  the  lines  are  illuminated 
upon  a.  dark  ground.  The  lines  will  be  bright,  the  interspaces 
dark,  and  the  antipoints  will  eat,  not  into  the  lines,  but  into  the 
spaces,  and  so  broaden  the  lines.  D,  drawn  to  the  same  scale, 
shows  that  as  the  half-antipoints  now  meet  in  the  dark  spaces, 
there  can  be  no  resolution,  and  the  45,000-band  will  appear  a 
blank,  as  at  E,  the  limit  of  resolution  being  lowered  to  the  30,000- 
band. 

Next  let  us  examine  the  case  under  different  conditions.  In 
fig.  157  the  assumption  has  been  made  that  the  breadth  of  the  lines 
is  wider  than  that  of  the  interspaces,  which  is  probably  the  case 
with  the  higher  bands.  Now  a  very  little  consideration  will  show 
that  when  the  spaces  are  wider  than  the  lines,  the  above  recorded 


672 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


phenomena  will  be  reversed,  and  resolution  upon  a  dark  ground 
ought  to  be  carried  to  a  further  point  than  when  on  a  bright 
ground  ;  also,  it  appears  that  when  the  width  of  the  line  is  equal 
to  that  of  the  interspace,  it  ought  to  be  a  matter  of  indifference 
whether  the  examination  be  made  upon  a  bright  or  a  dark  field. 

Experiments  show  that  this  is  just  what  takes  place.     The  case 
chosen  for  illustration  in  the  first  instance  was  selected  because  it 


Fig.  157. 


is  the  one  most  often  observed,  for  resolutions  are  seldom  if  ever 
carried  on  with  low  powers.  It  seems,  however,  that  with  object- 
glasses  of  N.A.  0*25  to  0*35,  resolutions  upon  a  dark  ground  are 
about  as  strong  as  those  upon  a  bright  ground,  but  with  object- 
glasses  of  N. A.  0  •  20,  and  lower,  resolutions  are  better  carried  out 
upon  a  dark  ground. 

The  following  corollary  is  of  interest.  Upon  a  bright  ground 
no  object  of  less  size  than  an  antipoint  canbe  imaged  at  all.  Upon 
a,  dark  ground  the  most  minute  object  must  have  an  image  the  size  of 
an  antipoint. 

In  conclusion,  there  are  three  practical  lessons  to  be  learnt 
from  the  preceding  investigations  : — 

1.  When  periodic  structures  are  examined  with  object-glasses 
having  a  N.A.  of  0*35  and  upwards,  they  should  be  placed  upon 
a  bright  ground. 

2.  When  periodic  structures  are  examined  with  object-glasses 
having  a  N.A.  of  0*20  and  less,  they  should  be  placed  upon  a  dark 
ground. 

3.  Minute  dots,  specks,  flagella,  etc.,  should  be  examined,  when 
possible,  upon  a  dark  ground. 


673 


XIX. — An  Auxiliary  Illuminating  Lcnx. 
By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

{Bead  October  21,  1908.) 

An  objection,  repeatedly  raised  against  my  method  of  critical 
illumination,  ever  since  its  introduction  more  than  thirty  years 
ago,  is  that  the  image  of  the  edge  of  the  flame  does  not  fill  the 
field.  This  is  a  great  drawback  to  biologists  in  general,  who  use  a 
Microscope  merely  as  a  glorified  magnifying  glass,  and  prefer  to 
search  over  specimens  beautifully  clothed  in  the  woolly  garments 
of  diffraction  fringes  on  a  fully  illuminated  field,  to  any  careful 
examination  of  an  object  when  seen  in  the  image  of  the  edge  of 
the  flame.  Some  years  ago  I  tried  to  remedy  this  defect  of  an 
incompletely  illuminated  field  by  placing  in  the  path  of  the 
illuminating  rays  a  small  plano-convex  lens  at  a  distance  of  about 
its  own  focal  length  from  the  edge  of  the  flame. 

When  this  lens  is  properly  adjusted  it  appears  as  a  luminous 
disk,  and  this  disk,  projected  upon  the  plane  of  the  object  by  the 
substage  condenser,  yields  a  full  and  evenly-lighted  field.  This 
method  was,  however,  abandoned  because  any  object  partaking  of 
the  nature  of  a  minute  lens,  when  examined  upon  this  fully  illu- 
minated field,  appears  with  a  diminutive  image  of  the  edge  of  the 
flame  in  it :  whereas,  when  the  same  object  is  viewed  in  the  image 
of  the  edge  of  the  flame,  it  appears  as  a  small  disk.  This  small 
disk  is,  in  reality,  an  image  of  the  back  lens  of  the  substage 
condenser.  These  phenomena  may  be  studied  upon  an  Actinocyclus 
Balfsii,  or  other  suitable  diatom. 

Another,  and  more  serious  objection,  is  that  unless  care  be 
exercised,  the  W.A.  may  be  considerably  reduced.  The  state  of 
the  case  is  this : — (1)  If  the  auxiliary  lens  is  focused  upon  the 
edge  of  the  flame,  the  rays  which  fall  upon  the  substage  condenser 
are  parallel.  The  substage  condenser  will,  therefore,  require  to  be 
focused  up  a  little  nearer  to  the  object.  The  W.A.  will  be  of  full 
size,  the  field  will  not  be  illuminated  by  an  even  disk  of  light  but 
by  a  magnified  image  of  the  edge  of  the  flame.  (2)  If  the 
auxiliary  lens  is  arranged  so  that  it  will  give  an  even  disk  of 
light  upon  the  field,  it  must  be  placed  closer  to  the  lamp  flame. 
A  divergent  beam  will  fall  upon  the  substage  condenser,  which 
must  be  focused  down  until  the  image  of  the  auxiliary  lens  appears 
quite  sharp  in  the  field.  The  W.A.  will  be  reduced  and  the  field 
evenly  illuminated.     When  the  auxiliary  lens  has  been  placed  in 


674 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


position,  it  is  advisable  to  remove  the  eye-piece  and  examine  the 
W.A.  at  the  back  lens  of  the  objective.  The  auxiliary  lens  is  sup- 
plied with  a  single  diaphragm,  having  a  £-in.  hole.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  use  of  this  diaphragm  in  no  way  influences  the  size  of 
the  W.A. 

If  the  auxiliary  lens  had  increased  the  resolution  by  a  single 
jot,  it  would  not  have  been  laid  aside,  so  no  one  need  expect  the 
Thames  to  be  set  on  fire  by  its   re-introduction.      For  certain 

objects,  such  as  bacteria  and  their 
flagella,  it  may  prove  serviceable  owing 
to  increase  of  contrast  through  the 
brightening  of  the  field.  Mr.  Baker 
has  made  me  a  lens  from  my  formula 
to  take  the  place  of  the  crude  plano- 
convex of  former  years,  and  has 
mounted  it  in  a  short  tube  to  hold 
the  single  diaphragm.  This  lens  has 
been  tested  both  by  Mr.  Merlin  and 
myself,  and  has  been  found  quite 
satisfactory. 

Mr.  Baker  has  sent  me  one  of  his 
lamps  fitted  with  my  auxiliary  lens. 
Fig.  158  shows  the  auxiliary  lens 
mounted  in  a  metal  screen,  and  in  the 
position  it  would  occupy  when  illu- 
minating an  inclined  Microscope 
"  direct  "  without  a  mirror.  The  arm 
which  holds  the  screen  consists  of  two  parts,  held  together  by  a 
pinching-screw  working  in  a  slot ;  this  allows  the  lens  not  only  to 
be  focused,  but  also  to  be  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  path  of  an 
upward,  horizontal,  or  downward  beam.  This  arm  is  not  attached 
to  the  pillar  itself,  but  to  the  sleeve  of  the  arm  which  holds  the 
lamp-cistern  :  it  can  therefore  be  raised  or  lowered  with  the  lamp. 
When  its  pinching-screw  is  released,  the  arm  can  be  moved  to  one 
side.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  lens  has  the  diaphragm  in  position. 
Some  of  the  Microscope  lamps  sold  by  opticians  differ  in  essential 
particulars  from  the  one  I  designed  thirty  years  ago,  and  are  quite 
inefficient.  I  had  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  design  of  several 
lamps  which  are  named  after  me. 


Fig.  158. 


675 


XX. — Note  on  a  Remarkable  Alcyonarian,  Shcderia  *  mirabilis 

g.  et  sp.  n. 

By  Professor  J.  Arthur  Thomson,  M.A. 

(Bead  November  18,  1908.) 

Plate  XVI. 

A  collection  of  Alcyonarians  made  by  the  '  Investigator '  in  the 
Indian  Ocean  included  a  specimen  from  the  Andamans  which  is- 
certainly  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  many  interesting 
representatives  of  this  sub-class  that  have  been  discovered  within 
recent  years.  It  is  a  cup-like  colony,  with  a  large  retractile  poly- 
parium.  The  cup  is  45  mm.  in  height  by  55  mm.  in  maximum 
diameter,  and  it  is  continued  into  a  basal  wisp  (19  mm.  in  length), 
which,  however,  shows  no  attaching  disk.  The  specimen  gave 
indication  of  having  been  imbedded  in  the  mud  up  to  about  the 
maximum  diameter  of  the  cup. 

General  Structure.  —  The  most  striking  peculiarity  of  this 
Alcyonarian  is  that  the  whole  of  the  polyp-bearing  portion  is 
retracted  within  the  exceedingly  substantial,  densely  spinose  cup, 
the  circular  mouth  of  which  is  about  30  mm.  in  diameter,  and 
shows  the  tips  of  numerous  finger-like  polyp-bearing  lobes  or 
branches.  It  seems  quite  likely  that  the  mouth  of  the  cup  was 
capable  of  more  complete  closure,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the 
retracted  polyparium  was  capable  of  considerable  protrusion. 

A  longitudinal  median  section  of  the  single  specimen  shows  a 
dome-shaped  fleshy  centre,  or  thalamus,  from  the  margins  and 
summit  of  which  most  of  the  numerous  finger-like  polyp-bearing 
lobes  arise.  Some  of  them,  however,  are  attached  to  the  inner  wall 
of  the  cup  at  different  levels.  The  central  dome,  it  should  be 
noted,  rises  quite  freely  in  the  middle  of  the  cup;  its  diameter  is 
greater  than  half  the  maximum  diameter  of  the  cup.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  polyp-bearing  lobes  may  be  compared  to  the  distribu- 
tion of  carpels  and  stamens  in  the  flower  of  some  of  the  Rosacea?, 
in  which  the  former  are  disposed  on  a  dome-shaped  central  thalamus, 
and  the  latter  on  several  whorls  on  the  inner  wall  of  the  "  calyx- 
tube."     Or,  again,  the  central  region  of  our  specimen  may  be  com- 

*  I  have  named  this  type  in  honour  of  Professor  Th.  Studer,  of  Bern,  who  has 
contributed  so  largely  to  our  knowledge  of  Alcyonaria. 


676  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

pared  to  the  disk  of  a  Composite's  capitulum  and  the  peripheral 
parts  to  the  ray-florets  (plate  XVI.  fig.  1). 

There  are  large  longitudinal  canals  in  the  central  dome, 
separated  by  tough  hyaline  mesoglcea.  Very  strong  muscle-bands 
pass  down  their  walls,  and  there  are  others  in  the  wall  of  the  cup 
reaching  almost  to  the  margin.  These  longitudinal  bands  pass  for 
a  short  distance  into  the  wisp-like  stalk  and  gradually  disappear. 
Numerous  well-defined  transverse  muscles  extend  between  the 
several  longitudinal  bands. 

The  Cup. — The  cortical  part  of  the  wall  of  the  cup,  which  is 
very  definite  and  has  a  thickness  of  about  2  mm.,  is  extremely 
hard,  consisting  mainly  of  long  spindles,  readily  visible  to  the 
naked  eye  (some  over  5  mm.  in  length),  arranged  for  the  most 
part  in  longitudinal  interlacing  rows.  On  the  surface  many  of  the 
spindles  lie  exposed  throughout  their  whole  length.  Towards  the 
base  of  the  cup  the  spicules  increase  in  size,  and  they  attain  their 
maximum  dimensions — almost  1  cm.  in  length — in  the  basal  wisp. 
These  are  probably  the  largest  Alcyonarian  spicules  as  yet 
known. 

The  internal  part  of  the  wall  of  the  cup,  as  distinguished  from 
the  hard  cortex  just  described,  is  soft  and  muscular.  It  is  about 
9  mm.  in  thickness  where  it  joins  the  base  of  the  dome,  and  narrows 
gradually  to  the  margin  of  the  cup. 

The  System  of  Canals. — Each  of  the  finger-like  polyp-bearing 
lobes  has  a  large  canal,  with  which  the  cavities  of  the  polyps 
communicate.  These  branch  canals  pass  into  the  dome  or  the 
wall  of  the  cup,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  uniting  with  others 
form  the  main  longitudinal  canals.  These  are  relatively  large, 
especially  at  the  base  of  the  cup  and  below  the  central  dome,  where 
they  are  about  2  •  5  mm.  in  diameter.  From  this  region  of  maximum 
size,  they  gradually  taper  into  the  wisp-like  stalk.  The  walls  of 
the  canals  bear  the  strong  longitudinal  muscle-bands,  and  there 
are  very  few  spicules. 

Polyp-bearing  Lobes  or  Branches. — Looking  down  into  the 
mouth  of  the  cup,  one  sees  the  heads  of  between  sixty  and  seventy 
polyp -bearing  lobes  or  branches,  but  the  number  visible  will  of 
course  depend  on  the  degree  to  which  the  dome  is  contracted. 
Besides  the  branches  on  its  summit,  the  central  dome  bears  four 
whorls,  and  there  are  also  four  tiers  on  the  wall  of  the  cup.  It 
should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  lobes  do  not  all  arise  singly 
from  the  central  dome,  but  may  cohere  for  a  distance  of  2-6  mm.  at 
their  bases.  Some  are  united  in  pairs  ;  in  one  case  seven  were 
found  to  be  cohering. 

Polyps. — Each  of  the  finger-like  branches  resembles  a  spike- 
inflorescence,  and  bears  150-200  close-set  sessile  polyps.  These 
almost  cover  the  surface,  but  without  discernible  arrangement.     At 


JOUHN.  R.  MICR.    SOC.  1908.   PI.  XVI. 


Fig.  1. — Longitudinal  section  of  Studeria 
mirabilis  g.  et  sp.  n.    Natural  size. 


Fig.  2.  —  The  upper  part  of 
one  of  the  digitiform  polyp- 
bearing  lobes  or  branches 
of  Studeria  mirabilis  g.  et 
sp  n.  It  shows  the  ter- 
minal polyp  much  larger 
than  the  others,      x  12. 


-  ■         i 


Fig.  3. — Spicules  of  Studeria  mirabilis. 

A.    From  the  stalk.     B.    From  the  internal  wall  of  the  cup.     0.  From  a  polyp- 
bearing  lobe. 


Note  on  Studcria  mirabilis.     By  Prof.  J.  A.  Thomson.       677 

the  summit  there  is  a  terminal  polyp  which  is  larger  than  the  others. 
In  many  eases  a  branch  has  a  length  of  15  mm.  and  a  maximum 
diameter  of  3  mm.,  but  in  regard  to  these  and  other  measurements 
of  soft  parts  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  whole  colony  has 
been  much  contracted  by  preservation  in  strong  spirit  (plate  XVI. 

fig.  2.). 

The  polyps  have  almost  globular  calyces  or  verruca?,  with 
a  diameter  of  about  1  mm.  The  tentacles  are  in  most  cases  com- 
pletely retracted,  and  the  summit  of  the  calyx  shows  a  sharply 
defined  circular  aperture.  The  polyps  with  their  calyces  and  pre- 
cise circular  aperture  recall  those  of  some  of  the  Pennatulids,  such 
as  Virgularids.  On  the  wall  of  the  calyx  there  are  eight  triangular 
points,  each  consisting  of  two  to  three  pairs  of  spicules  arranged 
en  chevron,  surmounting  a  collaret  of  several  horizontal  rows.  In 
most  cases,  however,  the  projecting  spindles  of  the  cortical  ccenen- 
elivmn  hide  the  base  of  the  calyx  and  may  even  intrude  upon 
it.  The  anthocodia  is  very  minute  and  is  completely  retractile 
within  the  globular  calyx.  The  tentacles  are  short  and  thick, 
apparently  without  spicules,  and  with  about  half  a  dozen  pairs  of 
pinnules. 

Spicules. — Apart  from  a  few  irregular  minute  forms  found  on 
the  canal  walls  (and  possibly  extraneous)  all  the  spicules  are 
spindles.  Many  are  huge,  most  are  densely  warted.  The  warts 
are  often  in  close- set  transverse  rows,  so  that  the  spindle  has  a 
striated  appearance.  Many  of  the  spindles  are  curved  in  a  sinuous 
fashion  ;  not  a  few  are  irregularly  forked  (plate  XVI.  fig.  3). 

The  following  measurements  were  taken  of  the  spicules,  length 
and  breadth  in  millimetres  : — 


From  the  stalk  :          9  •  5  x 

•534;        7  X 

•51;  5-75  x 

•476. 

From  the  cortex  :        5  •  5  x 

•476;    3-5  x 

•28;  1-75  X 

•153. 

From  the  inner  wall  i     r 
of  the  cup  :              1 

'4;             3  x 

•2;           2  x 

•15. 

From  the  canal  walls  :     6  X 

•51;    4-25  x 

•4;     2-75  x 

•32. 

From  the  polyps  :        1  •  6  X 

•112;  1-02  x 

•05;      -45  X 

•  034  ; 

•17  X 

•018;    -13  X 

•017. 

Position  of  Stvderia. — If  this  type  is  to  be  referred  to  any  of 
the  recognised  families  of  the  Alcyonacea  it  must  be  to  the  Alcyo- 
niidse.  In  the  retractility  of  the  whole  polyparium,  as  well  as 
in  the  mode  of  branching,  the  disposition  of  the  polyps  and 
their  armature,  it  is  removed  from  the  Nephthyids  and  Siphono- 
gorgids. 

In  certain  respects,  e.g.  the  distinct  calyces  into  which  the 
delicate  upper  parts  of  the  polyps  are  retracted  and  the  large 
longitudinal  canals  continued  in  part  to  the  base  of  the  colony,. 


■(578  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Studeria  resembles  Nidalia,  but  the  Xidalia  colony  is  unl (ranched, 
and  there  are  many  other  differences  apart  from  Studeria's  retractile 
polyparium.  In  certain  respects,  e.g.  in  its  huge  spindles  and  in 
the  finger-like  lobes  densely  covered  with  polyps,  Studeria  resembles 
a  form  like  Sclerophytum  polydactylum,  but  the  polyps  are  quite 
different  in  the  two,  and  there  is  not  in  Studeria  any  hint  of  dimor- 
phism. The  non-retractile  calyces,  the  mode  of  branching,  tin- 
nature  of  the  spiculation,  and  other  features  separate  Studeria 
from  Alcyonium  and  several  nearly  related  genera.  So  we  might 
review  all  the  genera  of  Aleyoniidae,  but  to  little  profit,  for  there 
is  only  one  which  can  be  thought  of  as  having  close  affinities 
with  our  new  type*.  That  one  is  the  genus  Paralcyonium,  estab- 
lished by  Milne-Edwards.  Milne-Edwards  gave  the  following 
diagnosis  of  Paralcyonium :  "  Polyparium  of  a  coriaceous  tissue 
towards  the  base  and  there  forming  a  cylindrical  tube  with  spicu- 
lose  walls,  into  the  interior  of  which  all  the  upper  and  soft  part  of 
the  polyparium,  including  the  polyps  themselves,  can  be  completely 
retracted."* 

In  his  original  description  of  Paralcyonium,  when  he  called  it 
Alcyonide,f  Milne-Edwards  gave  a  number  of  interesting  details. 
He  distinguished  a  brown  firm  "  foot "  fixed  by  its  base,  and  a 
white,  delicate,  branched  trunk  with  twigs  ending  in  small  polyps. 
The  cavities  of  the  polyps  unite  in  forming  longitudinal  canals 
which  are  continued  to  the  base,  those  which  lie  to  the  outside 
having  their  walls  strengthened  by  numerous  brown  spindles. 
Ova  are  developed  on  lamellas  in  the  lower  part  of  the  canals  of 
the  trunk  and  fall  into  the  cavity,  accumulating  further  down. 
On  the  polyps  there  are,  according  to  Milne-Edwards,  rows  of 
"  spicules  cartilagineuses  brunatres." 

Wright  and  Studer  gave  the  following  definition  of  Paralcy- 
onium in  the  'Challenger'  lieport  on  Alcyonarians  (1889) : — "The 
colony  presents  two  distinct  portions  :  one,  the  basal  portion,  is 
dense,  with  firm  walls ;  the  other,  the  head,  alone  bears  the 
polyps,  and  can  be  in  part  withdrawn  into  the  basal  part.  The 
polyp-bearing  portion  is  but  feebly  lobed."  In  his  "  Versuch  eines 
Systemes  der  Alcyonaria "  f  Studer  had  suggested  affinity  with 
Nidalia. 

Our  new  type  Studeria  agrees  with  Paralcyonium  (1)  in  having 
the  polyp-bearing  portion  retractile  into  the  basal  portion,  (2)  in 
the  disposition  of  the  longitudinal  canals,  and  (3)  in  having  very 
large  fusiform  spicules.  But  there  the  resemblance  stops,  and 
there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  distinctiveness  of  the  two  very 
remarkable  genera. 

*  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Coralliaires,  1857,  p.  129. 
f  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  ser.  2,  iv.  (1835)  pp.  323-33  (9  figs.). 
%  Arch.  Natur.,  liii.  (1887). 


Note  on  Studeria  mirabilis.     By  Prof.  J.  A.  Thomson.       679 


The  most  obvious  differences  between  Studeria  and  Paralcy- 
o nium  may  be  summed  up  in  the  following  contrast : — 


Studeria  mirabilis. 

The  polyps  are  crowded  on 
numerous  finger  -  like  branches, 
which  cover  a  central  dome,  and 
also  grow  out  from  the  inner  walls 
of  the  cup. 

The  polyps  have  a  dense  arma- 
ture of  spicules,  forming  a  well- 
defined  calyx. 

The  walls  of  the  cup  are  very 
massive  and  hard. 

The  retractile  polyparium  is 
very  substantial,  including  strong 
muscle-bands. 

The  larger  spindles  are  very 
characteristic,  being  covered  with 
warts  in  thick-set  rows. 


Parole i/o  ilium. 

The  polyps  are  distant  from  one 
another,  and  are  borne  on  the  ends 
of  the  twigs  of  a  loosely-branched 
polyparium. 

The  polyps  have  minute  spicules 
at  the  base  of  the  tentacles,  but 
there  is  no  calyx. 

The  walls  of  the  cylindrical 
lower  portion  are  not  thick,  and 
the  whole  is  readily  compressible. 

The  retractile  polyparium  is  very 
delicate  and  translucent. 

The  spindles  are  much  smaller, 
and  much  less  warty. 


It  should  be  noted  that  Studeria  mirabilis  is  much  larger  than 
Paraleyonium  elegans,  much  more  massive,  with  much  larger  and 
coarser  spicules,  and  so  on  ;  but  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  the 
massiveness  of  architecture  is  a  specific,  not  a  generic  character. 
We  saw  in  September  in  the  Zoological  Museum  in  Hamburg  a 
number  of  un-named  specimens  of  a  form  which  we  believe  to  be 
closely  related  to  Studeria.  By  the  courtesy  of  the  director, 
Professor  Kraepelin,  and  of  Dr.  Michaelsen,  who  has  charge  of  the 
section  of  the  museum  containing  Alcyonaria  and  the  like,  we 
were  able  to  examine  this  form,  and  to  compare  it  with  the '  Inves- 
tigator '  type.  The  Hamburg  specimens,  which  were  collected  off 
Formosa  (Takao),  agree  with  the  '  Investigator  '  specimen  in  having 
a  retractile  polyparium,  similar  polyps,  and  the  same  type  of  huge 
warty  spindle,  but  they  have  not  the  strong  massive  cup,  nor,  so 
far  as  we  have  seen,  the  same  development  of  central  dome,  or  of 
digitiform  lobes.  We  do  not  wish  to  pursue  the  comparison  in 
the  meantime,  since  Professor  Kukenthal  has,  we  believe,  under- 
taken to  describe  the  un-named  Alcyonarians  in  the  Hamburg 
Museum.  "We  would,  however,  express  our  conclusion  that  the 
Hamburg  specimens  belong,  or  are  closely  related,  to  the'  genus 
Studeria,  which  we  have  established  for  the  '  Investigator '  type. 
[It  must  be  added  that  we  exhibited,  described,  and  named  the 
'  Investigator '  specimen  in  August  1907,  at  the  Meeting  of  the 
International  Congress  of  Zoologists  at  Boston.  As  we  have  heard 
nothing  regarding  the  manuscript  which  we  deposited,  we  have 
thought  it  necessary  to  record  the  facts  afresh.] 


680  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

M.  Camille  Viguier*  has  described  and  given  beautiful  figures 
of  a  type  which  he  calls  Fascicularia,  and  has  proposed  to  include 
Paralcyonium  along  with  it  in  a  special  family  or  sub-family, 
Fascicularinse.  But  it  is  not  evident  that  Fascicularia  is  really 
related  to  Paralcyonium  :  it  consists  of  groups  united  by  stolons  ; 
the  cavities  of  the  polyps  are  continued,  quite  distinct  from  one 
another,  down  the  "  basilar  column ;"  there  is  no  common  region 
except  the  base ;  the  large  polyps  expand  from  the  top  of  the 
basilar  column,  but  there  is  no  branched  or  lobed  polyparium ;  in 
fact,  as  the  author  says,  there  is  no  polyparium  properly  so-called. 
He  makes  the  same  remark,  it  is  true,  in  regard  to  Paralcyonium, 
which,  however,  he  had  not  seen.  What  at  once  marks  Paralcy- 
onium  as  distant  from  Fascicularia,  is  the  presence  of  a  branched 
polyparium  rising  from  the  top  of  a  firmer  cylindrical  stalk,  into 
which  it  can  be  retracted.  Viguier  speaks  of  the  "  incontestable 
resemblance  "  between  his  Fascicularia  and  the  Paralcyonium  of 
Milne-Edwards,  but  we  are  unable  to  share  this  view.  The  descrip- 
tion of  Fascicularia  suggests  to  us  relationship  with  Sympodin  m 
rather  than  with  Paralcyonium. 

A  recent  careful  study f  of  abundant  material  of  Fascicularia 
and  Paralcyonium  by  Sophie  Motz-Kossowska  and  Louis  Fage 
corroborates  Viguier' s  view.  In  their  interesting  paper  the  authors 
point  out  that  the  two  types  agree  (1)  in  having  a  stolon  con- 
necting the  colonies  (but  this  is  often  almost  suppressed  in 
Paralcyonium) ;  (2)  in  having  a  rigid  basal  portion  into  which  the 
polyps  can  be  retracted  (but  in  Fascicularia  this  is  composed  of 
the  unfused  gastric  cavities  of  the  polyps,  whereas  in  Paralcy- 
onium there  has  been  much  coalescence,  and  therefore  far  fewer 
longitudinal  canals  than  polyps;  moreover,  Paralcyonium  has  a 
branching  polyparium  with  secondary  polyps  arising  from  primary 
polyps) ;  (3)  in  having  similar  spicules — small,  flat,  opaque 
elliptical  forms  in  a  sub-tentacular  collar  and  larger  spindles  in 
the  basal  portion  (but  the  spindles  are  very  much  larger  in 
Paralcyonium).  The  authors  point  out  that  Paralcyonium  passes 
through  a  Fascicularia  stage,  and  in  spite  of  the  great  difference  in 
the  basilar  portion  and  in  the  relations  of  the  polyps  to  one  another, 
they  unite  them  in  the  family  Fascicularida^,  defined  as  follows : 
"  Colonies  very  poor  in  ccenenchyma,  composed  of  several  groups 
of  polyps  united  by  a  stolon ;  polyps  united  at  the  base  in  a  rigid 
column  within  which  they  can  be  completely  retracted."  It  is 
suggested  that  the  family  is  connected  by  Fascicularia  with  the 
Clavularidse,   that   there    are   some   affinities   with   Nidalia   and 

*  Etudes  sur  les  animaux  inferieurs  de  la  Baie  d'Alger.    III.  TJn  nouveau  type 

d'Anthozoaire   (Fascicularia  edwardsi).      Arch.    Zool.    Exper.   ser.    2,  vi.    (1888) 

pp.  351-73  (2  pis.).      See  also  H.  de  Lacaze-Duthiers ;    Coralliaires  du  Golfe  du 

Lion.  Alcyonaires.     Arch.  Zool.  Exper.  ser.  3,  viii.  (1900)  pp.  353-462  (4  pis.). 

f  Contribution  a  l'etude  de  la  farnille  des  Fascicularides.    Arch.  Zool.  Exper., 

.  (1907)  pp.  423-43  (10  figs.). 


Note  on  Studeria  mirabilis.     By  Prof.  J.  A.  Thomson.       681 

Nidaliopsis,  and  that  the  nearest  related  form  is  Organidus.  The 
armature  of  the  polyps  in  Nidalia,  its  unbranched  habit,  and  many 
other  features  separate  it  far  from  Paralcyonium,  and  Gersemia,  to 
which,  as  Kiikenthal  has  shown,  Organidus  must  be  referred,  is 
equally  remote. 

AVe  have  not  as  yet  been  able  to  procure  a  specimen  of  Fasci- 
cularia for  examination,  and  we  would  not  therefore  dogmatically 
exclude  the  possibility  that  Fascicularia,  Paralcyonium,  and 
Studeria  form  a  series  showing  the  progressive  differentiation  of  a 
rigid  basilar  portion  into  which  the  rest  of  the  colony  can  be 
retracted.  The  descriptions  given  by  Motz-Kossowska  and  Fage 
are  very  precise,  and  their  discussion  of  the  possible  relationships 
is  admirable ;  what  surprises  us  is  that  in  spite  of  the  differences 
which  they  indicate  between  Fascicularia  and  Paralcyonium,  they 
should  propose  to  include  the  two  in  one  family.  From  their 
descriptions,  as  from  Yiguier's,  it  appears  to  us  that  Fascicularia  is 
more  nearly  related  to  Sym/podium  than  to  Paralcyonium ;  that  it 
differs  from  Paralcyonium  too  markedly  (in  the  structure  of  the 
basilar  portion  and  in  the  relations  of  the  polyps  to  this  and  to 
one  another)  to  allow  of  their  being  included  in  one  family ;  and 
that  neither  is  nearly  related  to  Studeria. 

Diagnosis  of  Studeria. — A  colony  consisting  of  a  strong  densely 
spiculose  cup,  within  which  very  numerous  finger-like  polyp- 
bearing  lobes  or  branches  are  retracted  ;  these  arise  at  different 
levels  from  a  strong  muscular  central  thalamus,  and  from  the  upper 
parts  of  the  inner  wall  of  the  cup ;  each  finger-like  lobe  is  thickly 
covered  with  polyps  and  ends  in  a  polyp  larger  than  the  rest ;  the 
cavities  of  the  polyps  communicate  with  a  central  canal  in  the 
digitiform  lobe,  and  these  central  canals  unite  in  a  few  large 
longitudinal  canals  with  few  spicules  in  their  walls  ;  the  polyps 
have  a  distinct  non-retractile  calyx  or  verruca,  covered  with  spindles 
arranged  in  double  rows  ;  the  spicules  are  all  spindles,  except  a 
few  minute  irregular  forms  found  (along  with  sparse  spindles)  in 
the  canal  walls ;  many  of  the  cortical  spindles  attain  huge  dimen- 
sions (over  9  mm.) ;  many  are  sinuous  and  forked  ;  almost  all  are 
very  warty,  and  there  is  a  characteristic  arrangement  of  the  warts  in 
transverse  rows. 

Our  general  conclusion,  which  is  based  on  a  single  specimen, 
of  which  we  had  to  be  careful,  is  that  we  have  to  do  with  a,  very 
distinct  genus,  related  to  Paralcyonium,  but  not  very  closely ; 
perhaps  connected  through  forms  like  Nidalia  with  other  Alcyo- 
niidas  ;  but  more  probably  deserving,  as  Professor  Verrill  suggested 
to  us,  the  establishment  of  a  new  family. 


Dec.  16th,  1908  2  z 


682  Ten iisur/ions  of  the  Society. 

XXI. — The  Present  Status  of  Micrometry. 
By  Marshall  1).  Ewell,  M.I).  Chicago. 

{Bead  November  18,  1908.) 

By  the  establishment  of  the  International  Bureau  of  Weights  and 
Measures,  and  more  recently  of  our  own  National  Bureau  of 
Standards,  the  subject  of  Metrology  has  been  placed  on  a  sound 
and  satisfactory  basis,  more  so  than  ever  before  in  its  history. 
Under  the  able  direction  of  Professor  S.  W.  Stratton,  to  whom  is 
rightfully  due  the  credit  of  having  created  and  organised  our 
National  Bureau  of  Standards,  this  Bureau  has  become  an  institu- 
tion of  which  all  Americans  may  justly  be  proud.  It  has,  through 
its  publications  and  its  work,  become  a  great  educational  force, 
and  by  placing  the  verification  of  all  sorts  of  scientific  standards 
within  easy  reach  of  scientists  and  artisans  of  this  country,  without 
the  delay  and  expense  of  sending  abroad,  it  has  conferred  a  benefit 
upon  science  and  art  that  can  never  be  measured  by  any  merely 
pecuniary  standard. 

It  appears  not  to  be  generally  understood,  though  why  we  are 
unable  to  understand,  that  all  American  standards  of  length,  area, 
and  cubic  measure  are  derived  from  the  international  metre,  the 
legal  equivalent  being  1  m.  equals  39 '37  in.*  In  1893,  the 
United  States  Office  of  Standard  Weights  and  Measures  was 
authorised  to  derive  the  yard  from  the  metre,  using  for  the  purpose 
the  relation  legalised  in  1866,  viz.  1  yd.  equals  §§§f  m. 

The  customary  weights  are  likewise  referred  to  the  kilogram.! 
This  action  fixes  the  values,  inasmuch  as  the  reference  standards 
are  as  perfect  and  unalterable  as  it  is  possible  for  human  skill  to 
make  them.| 

The  metric  system  is,  therefore,  the  basis  of  the  entire  system 
of  weights  and  measures  in  the  United  States,  and  in  our  judgment 
the  Act  of  Congress,  1866,  and  the  executive  orders  in  pursuance 
thereof,  showed  great  wisdom  in  thus  finally  settling  the  relation 
between  the  yard  and  metre,  and  deriving  the  yard  and  other  units 
from  the  metre.  Hitherto  this  relation  had  been  unsettled  and 
ambulatory.  At  present  the  British  legal  (Board  of  Trade)  equiva- 
lents sustain  the  following  relation  :  1  m.  equals  39  370113  in., 
which  is  very  nearly  the  same  value  as  that  found  by  the  late 
Professor  William  A.  Eogers,  of  this  country.  The  last  relation 
adopted  by  Professor  Eogers  was,  as  the  writer  remembers,  1  m. 

*  See  United  States  Statute  of  July  28,  1866  ;  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United 
States,  3570.  f  Executive  order  approved  April  5,  1893. 

%  See  Tables  of  Equivalents,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labour,  Bureau 
of  Standards,  S.  W.  Stratton,  Director,  3rd  edition,  p.  5. 


The  Present  Status  of  Micrometry.     By  31.  D.  Ewell.      683 

equals  39*37012  in.  For  some  time  previously  lie  had  adopted 
the  relation  39*37015.  The  United  States  yard,  established  by 
the  relation,  1  yd.  equals  \%%^  m.,  is  therefore  about  2*6  fi  longer 
than  the  present  accepted  value  of  the  British  yard,  a  difference,  if 
it  really  exists,  of  no  consequence  whatever,  except  in  measure- 
ments of  the  greatest  precision.  It  is,  however,  uncertain  whether 
any  such  difference  actually  exists,  for  the  reason  that  successive 
comparisons  between  the  British  yard  and  its  authentic  copies 
usually  vary  more  than  the  amount  above  stated. 

Since  the  death  of  Professor  Powers,  to  whom  the  science  and 
art  of  metrology  and  micrometry  are  very  greatly  indebted,  very 
little  attention,  outside  of  the  National  Bureau  of  Standards, 
appears  to  have  been  paid,  at  least  in  this  country,  to  either 
metrology  or  micrometry,  and  the  making  of  micrometers  has 
become  almost  wholly  a  commercial  matter,  with  what  results  in 
point  of  accuracy  it  is  the  principal  object  of  this  paper  to  disclose. 
By  Professor  Eogers  metrology  and  micrometry  were  most  ardently 
and  arduously  pursued  from  mere  love  of  the  subject,  and  at  great 
pecuniary  loss  to  himself ;  and  to-day  the  micrometers  ruled  by 
him  are  far  superior  to  any  others  manufactured  and  on  sale  in  the 
United  States. 

In  pursuance  of  the  object  above  stated,  the  writer  has,  for  the 
last  year,  been  collecting  micrometers  from  all  available  sources, 
and  subjecting  them  to  measurements,  the  results  of  which  are 
recorded  in  the  following  tables.  The  scales  for  sale  at  the  present 
time,  both  here  and  abroad,  are  almost  universally  on  glass. 
Nearly  all  of  them  are  engine  ruled,  but  some  are  photographic 
copies  of  ruled  scales  ;  and  for  use  with  low  powers  are  very  good 
indeed.  The  lines  of  these,  however,  are  altogether  too  coarse  and 
rough  for  use  with  medium  or  high  powers.  A  few  scales  appear 
to  have  been  etched  on  glass,  and  these  also  have  lines  so  coarse  as 
to  be  of  no  use  with  others  than  low  powers.  The  lines  of  those 
ruled  with  a  diamond  on  glass  in  many  instances  have  greatly 
deteriorated,  a  very  common  experience,  so  far  as  the  writer's 
observation  goes.  A  few  were  ruled  on  speculum  metal,  silver  or 
platin-iridium,  and  the  lines  on  these  are  in  a  state  of  perfect 
preservation,  as  good  in  fact  as  when  first  ruled.  In  the  writer's 
experience  with'  micrometers,  extending  over  a  period  of  about 
twenty-three  years,  the  only  scales  that  can  always  be  relied  upon 
are  ruled  upon  metal  surfaces.  These,  whether  the  surface  be 
silver,  nickel,  speculum  metal,  platin-iridium,  or  steel,  are,  with 
reasonable  care,  entirely  free  from  deterioration  by  lapse  of  time, 
and  are  so  far  superior  to  glass  that  no  one  accustomed  to  their  use 
would  be  satisfied  with  anything  else.  The  only  difficulty  lies  in 
the  illumination,  and  that  difficulty  is  trifling.  A  good  line  on 
metal  would  stand  any  degree  of  amplification.  The  writer  has 
often  measured  spaces  ruled  on  speculum  metal  and  platin-iridium 
with  a  power  of  from  1000  to  1500  diameters,  the  lines  under  even 

2  z  2 


684 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


the  greater  amplification  being  as  clear  and  sharp  as  with  a  power 
of  300  diameters.  For  such  use,  the  prismatic  illuminating  objec- 
tives, manufactured  by  the  Bausch  and  Lomb  Optical  Company, 
are  unequalled  by  anything  the  writer  has  ever  used.  In  making 
the  measurements  below  recorded,  low  and  medium  powers  only 
were  used,  but  always  with  a  filar  micrometer,  the  mean  of  from 
five  to  ten  readings  of  each  end  of  every  space  being  adopted.  It 
is  the  experience  of  the  writer  that  when  a  series  of  measurements 
is  made,  there  is  no  advantage  in  using  a  very  high  power,  the 
results  being  sensibly  the  same  with  high,  medium,  and  low 
powers,  having  regard,  of  course,  to  the  unit  measured. 

It  is  not  pretended  that  the  measurements  here  recorded  can 
be  depended  upon  to  the  last  place  of  decimals  in  every  instance. 
No  one  knows  better  than  the  writer  the  difficulty  inherent  in  such 
work.  The  results  recorded  are,  however,  believed  to  be  in  the 
main  correct,  and  to  reflect  accurately  the  differences  between  the 
various  scales  measured,  all  having  been  measured  under  sub- 
stantially the  same  or  similar  conditions,  except  as  otherwise 
indicated.  The  tables  give  in  every  instance  a  short  description 
of  the  scales  measured,  the  instruments  used,  the  spaces  measured 
in  terms  of  divisions  of  the  filar  micrometer,  and  the  relative 
corrections  of  each  space  in  divisions  of  the  micrometer  and  in 
microns.  The  relative  errors  are  determined  by  subtracting  the 
value  of  each  space  from  the  mean  value  of  all  the  spaces  measured. 
A  plus  sign  indicates  that  the  space  measured  is  shorter  than  this 
mean,  and  a  minus  sign  indicates  that  it  is  longer.  The  correction 
for  total  length  has  been  given  in  only  a  few  instances,  as  the 
object  of  this  paper  is  not  to  standardise  the  individual  scales,  but 
to  determine  their  relative  accuracy  of  graduation. 

The  original  observations,  the  results  of  which  are  here  given, 
are  recorded  in  books  K,  L,  and  M.  The  references  to  "  Record 
Book  "  are  to  "  Book  Z,"  in  which  these  results  are  tabulated. 


Relative 

•a 

No.  of 

Corrections. 

Div.  of 
Micro- 

^  x _^___ 

In  Div. 

Remarks. 

£g 

meter. 

of  Micro- 

In 

S 

meter. 

Mikrons. 

j»o  mm. 

div. 

div. 

No.  1.  Bausch  and  Lomb 

1st 

402-4 

-   4-2 

-1-0 

Record  Book,  page  1. 

Optical  Co.,  stage  micro- 

2nd 

405-4 

-   7-2 

-1-8 

Correction   for   total 

meter  on  glass,  ruled  to 

3rd 

394-1 

+  4-1 

+1-0 

length   not    deter- 

tenths and  hundredths 

4th 

394-4 

+  3-8 

+i-o 

mined. 

of    a    millimetre.      In- 

5th 

394-6 

+  3-6 

+0-8 

struments  *       "Rnllnch 

OUt.  1.  1  1  1  1  V.   1  J  lO    .                1~J    LI  1  1  \J  V   XX 

Stand     No.    2,     Zent- 

Mean 

398-2 

mayer  filar  micrometer 

and  A  A  Zeiss  objective. 

1  div.  =  0-2508  m 

398-8  div.  =  ^  Mikron. 

The  Present  Status  of  Micrometry.     By  M.  D.  Ewell.     685 


Space 
Measured. 

No.  of 
Div.  of 
Micro- 
meter. 

Relative 
Corrections. 

In  Div. 
of  Micro- 
meter. 

In 

Mikrons. 

Remarks. 

No.  2.  Zeiss  stage  micro- 
meter on  glass ;  divided 
like  No.  1.     Same  in- 
struments. 

1  div.  =  0-2508^ 

j^j  mm. 
1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 

div. 
3916 
400-4 
401-7 
392-1 
400-1 

div. 
+  5-6 

-  3-2 

-  4-5 
+  5-1 

-  2-9 

0-0 

-  0-3 
0-0 

+  0-7 

-  0-5 

-  0-9 
+  1-7 

0-0 

-  0-1 

-  0-8 

-  0-9 
+  10 
+  4-2 

-  1-6 

-  2-6 

+  0-7 
+  1-1 

-  0-1 

-  0-1 

-  1-6 

-  2-2 

-  2-6 

-  0-2 
+  3-2 
+  2-6 

-  0-8 

+  0-8 
+  0-6 
+  0-4 

-  0-5 

-  1-1 

A* 

+  1-4 
-0-8 
-1-1 
+  1-3 
-0-7 

00 
-0-1 

o-o 

+0-2 
-0-1 

-0-1 

+0-3 

0-0 

o-o 

0-1 

-0-1 
+0-2 
+0-7 
-0-3 
-0-4 

+0-2 
+0-3 
-0-0 

-o-o 

-0-4 

-0-4 
-0-4 

-o-o 

+0-5 
+0-4 
-0-1 

+0-1 
+  0-1 
+0-1 
-0-1 
-0-2 

Record  Book,  page  3. 

Correction  for  total 
length  not  deter- 
mined. 

No.  3.    Moller  (1)  photo- 
graphic scale  on  glass, 
divided     like     No.     1. 
Same  instruments. 
1  div.  =  0- 2508^ 

Mean 

1st 

2nd 

3rd 

4th 

5th 

397-2 

395-7 
396-0 
395-7 
395-0 
396-2 

Record  Book,  page  3. 

Correction  for  total 
length  not  deter- 
mined, lines  too 
coarse  for  high 
powers. 

Record  Book ,  page  1 1 . 
Same  as  No.  3. 
Stcpi-a. 

No.  3  (a).    Moller  (2)  simi- 
lar to  No.  3.     Spencer 
stand,  Zeiss  filar,  Leitz 
No.  3  objective. 
1  div.  =  0-169  fi 
• 

Mean 

1st 

2nd 

3rd 

4th 

5th 

395-7 

581-2 
578-6 
580-3 
580-4 
581-1 

No.  4.  Zeiss  stage  micro- 
meter  on   glass.      One 
centimetre  divided  into 
millimetres,  first  milli- 
metre  divided  into 
tenths.    Spencer  stand, 
Zeiss  filar,  Leitz  No.  3 
objective. 

1  div.  =  0-169  ij. 

No.    5.     Micrometer    on 
glass  ruled  on  Cornell 
University    Engine; 
similar    sub  -  divisions. 
Same  instruments  as  in 
No.  1. 

1  div.  =  0-25^ 

No.   6.    Zentmayer  stage 
micrometer    on    glass ; 
similar    sub  -  divisions. 
Spencer    stand,     Zeiss 
filar,  Leitz  No.  3  objec- 
tive. 

1  div.  =  No.0-169ju 

No.  7.  Leitz  stage  micro- 
meter on  glass.     Simi- 
lar sub-divisions;  same 
instruments. 

1  div.  =  0-169  ju 

Mean 

1st 

2nd 

3rd 

4th 

5th 

Mean 

1st 

2nd 

3rd 

4th 

5th 

580-3 

593-1 
591-2 
588-0 
593-8 
594-8 

Record  Book,  page  7. 

Lines  too  coarse  for 
high  powers.  Total 
length  not  deter- 
mined. 

592-2 

396-0 
395-6 
396-8 
396-8 
398-3 

Record  Book,  page  4. 
Total      length      not 
determined. 

Mean 

1st 

2nd 

3rd 

4th 

5th 

6th 

396-7 

588-0 
588-4 
586-0 
582-6 
583-2 
586-6 

Record  Book,  page  5. 
Total      length      not 
determined. 

Mean 

1st 

2nd 

3rd 

4th 

5th 

585-8 

590-3 
590-5 
590-7 
591-6 
592-2 

Record  Book,  page  7. 

Lines  too  coarse  for 
high  powers.  Total 
length  not  deter- 
mined. 

Mean 

591-1 

686 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


No.  8.  Powell  and  Leland 
stage  micrometer  on 
glass,  similar  sub-divi- 
sions ;  same  instru- 
ments. 

1  div.  =  0-169  fi 


No.  9.  Glass  micrometer 
by  the  late  Charles 
Fasoldt.  Same  instru- 
ments as  above  (1  div. 
=  0'169/u)  used  in  first 
series.  Bulloch  stand 
No.  2,  Bausch  and 
Lomb  filar,  and  A  A 
Zeiss  objective  (1  div. 
=  0-369  m)  used  in 
second  series. 


No.  10.  Beck  stage  micro- 
meter on  glass,  divided 
into  hundredths  and 
thousandths  of  an  inch. 
Spencer  stand,  Zeiss 
filar,  and  Leitz  No.  2 
objective. 

1  div.  =  0-302^ 


No.  11.  Beck  stage  micro- 
meter on  glass,  divided 
into  tenths  and  hun- 
dredths mm.  Spencer 
stand,  Zeiss  filar,  and 
Leitz  No.  3  objective. 
1  div.  =  0-169  n 


No.IIa.  Beck  stage  micro- 
meter on  glass  ;    same 
instruments    except 
Leitz  No.  2  objective. 
1  div.  =  0-302  ,u 


No.  12.  Tolles  stage 
micrometer  on  glass,  di- 
vided into  hundredths, 
thousandths,  and  half- 
thousandths  of  an  inch ; 
same  instruments  as  in 
No.  11a. 

1  div.  =  0-302  M 


,'„  mm. 
1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 


No.  of 
Div.  of 
Micro- 
meter. 


Mean 

1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 
6th 
7th 
8th 
9th 
10th 


rea  in- 
1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 


576' 

585' 
582' 


582-2 


Mean 


&  mm. 
1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 


842-8 
843-8 
838-3 
844-9 
846-1 


843-2 


577' 
578- 
583' 
581' 
586' 


Mean 


rso  in- 

1st 

2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 


Mean 

1st 

2nd 

3rd 

4th 

5th 


581-4 


849-3 
842-1 
835-4 
843-3 
847-6 


843-5 


Mean 


840-3 
839-5 

838-7 
844-8 
841-9 


div. 
578v 
588-0 


841-0 


Relative 

Corrections. 

In  Div. 

of  Micro- 

In 

meter. 

Mikrons. 

div. 

M 

+  4-1 

+0-7 

-   5-8 

-1-0 

+  5-5 

+0-9 

-  3-1 

-0-5 

-  0-7 

-0-1 

-0-1 

+0-1 

+  0-0 

+0-4 

+0-1 

+0-0 

+0-0 

-0-1 

-0-4 

-0-1 

+  0-4 

+0-1 

-  0-6 

-0-2 

+  4-9 

+  1-5 

-   1-7 

-0-5 

-   2-9 

-0-9 

+  4-2 

+0-7 

+  3-0 

+0-5 

-   2-0 

-0-3 

-  0-1 

-0-0 

-  5-1 

-0-9 

-   5-8 

-1-8 

+  1-4 

+0-4 

+  8-1 

+2-5 

+   0-2 

+0-1 

-   4-1 

-1-2 

+  0-7 

+0-2 

+  1-5 

+0-5 

+  2-3 

+0-7 

-   3-8 

-1-1 

-  0-9 

-0-3 

Remarks. 


Record  Book,  page  10. 
Total      length      not 
determined. 


Record  Book,  pages 
5,  17. 

These  corrections  re- 
present the  mean 
of  two  series  of 
measurements; 
twenty  micrometer 
readings  on  each 
space  in  each  series. 


Record  Book,  page  3. 
Total      length      not 
determined. 


Record  Book,  page  30. 

Lines  deteriorated. 
Total  length  not 
determined.  Ten 
readings  on  each 
space  (five  on  each 
end). 


Record  Book,  page  30. 

Ruled  on  same  slide 
as  No.  11.  Lines 
deteriorated.  Total 
length  not  deter- 
mined. Ten  read- 
ings on  each  space. 

Record   Book,  pages 

30,  31. 
Total      length      not 
*  determined.  Lines 

deteriorated.     Ten 

readings    on    each 

space. 


The  Present  Status  of  Micrometry.     By  M.  D.  Ewell.      687 


Relative 

— 

No.  of 

Corrections. 

S2 

Div.  of 
Micro- 

i- 

111  Div. 

1 

Remarks. 

meter. 

of  Micro- 

In 

a 

div. 

meter. 

Mikrons. 

iha  mm. 

div. 

M- 

No.     13.        Tolles     stage 

1st 

844-3 

-    5-1 

-1-5 

Record  Book,  page  31. 

micrometer,        divided 

2nd 

837-3 

+  1-9 

+0-6 

Lines     deteriorated. 

same  as  No.  12  ;  same 

3rd 

840-3 

-   1-1 

-0-3 

Ten     readings    on 

instruments. 

4th 

836-8 

+   2-4 

+0-7 

each  space.     Total 

1  div.  =  0-302  fx 

5th 

837-4 

+   1-8 

+0-5 

length   not   deter- 
mined. 

Mean 

839-2 

No.  14.  Glass  micrometer 

J„-  nun. 

1st 

580-2 

+  2-8 

+0-5 

Record  Book,  page  31. 

by   the   Society    Gene- 

2nd 

583-2 

-   0-2 

00 

Ten  readings  on  each 

voise,      divided      into 

3rd 

583-0 

0-0 

0-0 

space.  Total  length 

tenths  and  hundredths 

4th 

585-6 

-  2-6 

-0-5 

not  determined. 

mm.       Spencer    stand, 

5th 

583-2 

-  0-2 

o-o 

Zeiss  filar,  Leitz  No.  3 

6th 

583-8 

-  0-8 

-0-1 

objective. 

7th 

581-7 

+  1-3 

+0-2 

1  div.  =  0-169^ 

8th 

583-8 

-  0-8 

-0-1 

9th 

582-8 

+  0-2 

o-o 

10th 

582-3 

+  0-7 

+0-1 

Mean 

583-0 

No.    15.     Nachet    micro- 

1st 

583-4 

+  1-0 

+0-2 

Record  Book,  page  32. 

meter  on  glass,  divided 

2nd 

583-9 

+  0  5 

+0-1 

Total      length      not 

into   tenths   and    hun- 

3rd 

586-8 

-   2-4 

-0-4 

determined. 

dredths  mm. ;  same  in- 

4th 

582-3 

+  2-1 

+0-4 

struments  as  in  No.  14. 

5th 

583-9 

+  0-5 

+0-1 

1  div.  =  0-109^ 

6th 

585-9 

-   1-5 

-0-2 

7th 

582-8 

+  1-6 

+0-3 

8th 

586-1 

-   1-7 

-0-3 

9th 

585-9 

-   1-5 

-0-2 

10th 

583-0 

+   1-4 

+0-2 

Mean 

584-4 

No.    16.     Watson     stage 

1st 

611-2 

+  4-3 

+0-7 

Record  Book,  page  20. 

micrometer    on     glass, 

2nd 

617-1 

-   1-6 

-0-3 

Total      length      not 

ruled  to  tenths  and  hun- 

3rd 

597-2  j 

+  18  3 

+3-1  ! 

determined. 

dredths  mm.     Spencer 

4th 

624-4 

-   8-9 

-1-5 

stand,  Zeiss  filar,  Leitz  : 

5th 

621-9  , 

-   6-4  1 

-11 

No.  3  objective. 

6th 

620-7 

-   5-2  ' 

-0-9 

1  div.  =0-169^ 

7  th 

607-7 

+  7-8 

+  13 

8th 

609-8 

+  5-7 

+1-0 

9th 

617-9  j 

-   2-4 

-0-4 

10th 

627-0 

-118 

-1-9 

Mean 

615  5 

No.  17.  Glass  scale  ruled 

1st 

581-6 

-   1-3 

-0-2 

Record  Book,  page  11. 

on     micrometer     slide 

2nd 

574-7  1 

+  5-6 

+0-9 

Total      length      not 

with      dividing      head 

3rd 

577-7 

+  2-6 

+0-4 

determined.       Six 

manufactured       by 

4th 

583-6  I 

-   3-3 

-0-6 

readings    on   each 

William  Gaertner  and 

5th 

584-1  j 

-  3-8 

-0-6 

space. 

Co.,  ruled  without  ap-  ; 
plying  any  correction  ; 

Mean 

580-3 

pitch  of  screw  0  ■  5  mm. ; 

same  instruments  as  in 

No.  16. 

1  div.  =  0-169  ix 

688 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


No.  18.  Centimetre  di- 
vided on  silver  into 
milimetres  and  tenths, 
by  William  Gaertner 
and  Co.  Bulloch  stand 
No.  2,  Zeiss  filar, 
Bausch  and  Lomb  1  in. 
prismatic  illuminating 
objective. 
ldiv.  =  0-1986^ 


No.  23.  Micrometer  on 
glass,  ruled  by  Prof. 
J.  H.  Mulvey  (Armour 
Institute)  to  tenths 
and  hundredths  mm. 
Spencer  stand,  Leitz 
filar,  Leitz  No.  3  objec- 
tive. 

1  div.  =  0-6823  n 

No.  24.  Glass  micrometer, 
ruled  byH.  J.  Grayson, 
Melbourne.  One  milli- 
metre divided  into 
hundredths,  tenths  and 
quarters.  Spencer 
stand,  Leitz  filar,  and 
Leitz  No.  5  objective. 
ldiv.  =  0-2085^ 


S3 
Eg 

a;  v 


r*5  mm. 

1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 
6th 
7th 
8th 
9th 
10th 


No.  of 
Div.  of 
Micro- 
meter. 


div. 
535  9 
500-1 
504-7 
507-4 
467-6 
535-3 
502-7 
508-4 
505-6 
469-6 


Relative 
Corrections. 


In  Div. 
of  Micro- 
meter. 


div. 
-32-2 
+  3-6 


Mean 


No.  1.  Bausch  and  Lomb 
micrometer,  above  de- 
scribed. Spencer  stand, 
Zeiss  filar,  Spencer  4 
mm.  (^  in.)  objective. 
1  div.  =  0-0388  /x 


Same    scale   and    instru- 
ments,   except      Leitz 
No.  3  objective, 
ldiv.  =0-169  ix 


1st 

2nd 

3rd 

4th 

5th 


503-7 


144-5 
144-8 
144-4 
144-3 
144-6 


Mean  \  144-5 


1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 
6th 
7th 
8th 
9th 
10th 


Mean 

tor,  mm. 
1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 


477- 
477- 
480- 
478' 
477' 
480' 
478' 
480 
477 
478 


478-8 


260-4 
260-6 
265-0 
245-2 
259-2 


Mean 


1st 
2nd 


258-1 


292-9 
297-5 


Mean  ,  295-2 


-  1-0 

-  3-7 
+  36-1 
-31-6 
+  1-0 

-  4-7 

-  1-9 
-I-34-1 


0-0 
0-3 


+  0- 
+  0' 
-  0 


+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 


In 

Mikrons. 


-  2-3 

-  2-5 

-  6-9 
+  12-9 

-  1-1 


+ 


2-3 
2-3 


-6-4 
+0-7 
-0-2 
-0-7 
+  7-2 
-6-3 
+0-2 
-0-9 
-0-4 
+6-8 


00 
-0-2 
+0-1 
+0-1 
-0-1 


+o 

+0 
-0 
+0 
+0 
-0 
+0 
-0 
+0-2 
0-0 


-0-1 

-o-i 

-0-3 

+  0-5 
0-0 


+0-4 
-0-4 


Remarks 


This  scale  is  in- 
tended for  the  use 
of  schools,  and 
does  not  profess  to 
be  of  the  highest 
accuracy,  having 
been  ruled  auto- 
matically without 
applying  correc- 
tions. Lines  too 
coarse  for  high 
powers,  and  in- 
tended only  for 
relatively  coarse 
measurements. 
Total  length  not 
determined. 

Five  readings  on  each 
end  of  each  space. 


Ten  readings  on  each 
end  of  each  space. 


Record  Book,  page  34. 

Ten  readings  on  each 
space.  Total  length 
not  determined. 


Record  Book,  page  34, 


The  Present  Stakes  of  Micrometry.     By  M.  D.  Swell.      689 


Space 
Measured. 

No.  of 
Div.  of 
Micro- 
meter. 

Relative 
Corrections. 

■ 

In  Div. 

of  Micro- 
meter. 

In 
Mikrons. 

Remarks. 

No.  2.    Zeiss  micrometer, 
above  described.    Same 
instruments  as  in  No.  1 
above. 

1  div.  =  0-0388  n 

ji„nim. 
1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 

div. 
255-6 
250-5 
254-7 
256-0 
250-1 

div. 

-  2-2 
+  2-9 

-  1-3 

-  2-6 
+  3-3 

In- 
sensible 

-  2-3 
+  4-7 
+  3-0 
+  0-9 

-  6-4 

-  0-7 
+  0-7 

+  1-7 

0-0 
+  0-4 
+  2-7 

-  4-9 

+  0-9 

-  0-9 

+  2-1 

-  1-7 

-  2-2 

-  0-7 
+  2-3 

-  0-2 
+  0-3 

-01 

+0-1 

o-o 
-o-i 

+0-1 

In- 
sensible 

-0-1 
+0-2 
+0-1 
+0-0 
-0-2 

-0-1 
+0-1 

+0-1 

o-o 
o-o 

+0-1 
-0-2 

+0-1 

-o-i 

+0-1 
-01 
-0  1 

o-o 

+0-1 

o-o 
o-o 

Eecord  Book,  page  35. 

Ten  readings  on  each 
space.  Total  length 
not  determined. 

Same    scale   and   instru- 
ments,    except      Leitz 
No.  3  objective. 
1  div.  =  0-169  ix 

No.  6.    Zentmayer  micro- 
meter, above  described. 
Bulloch   stand    No.   1, 
Zeiss   filar,   Spencer    4 
mm.  objective. 
1  div.  =  0-03596  n 

Same    scale   and    instru- 
ments,    except      Leitz 
No.  3  objective. 
1  div.  =  0-157  n 

No.  8.  Powell  and  Leland 
micrometer,  above   de- 
scribed. Spencer  stand, 
Zei^s    filar,    Spencer   4 
mm.  objective. 
1  div.  =  0-0388  m 

Same    scale   and   instru- 
ments,    except      Leitz 
No.  3  objective. 

No.    9.      Fasoldt    micro- 
meter, above  described. 
Spencer     stand,     Zeiss 
filar,    Spencer    4    mm. 
objective. 

1  div.  =0-0388  ^ 

Same    scale   and    instru- 
ments,    except      Leitz 
No.  3  objective. 
1  div.  =  0-169  fx 

Mean 

1st 
2nd 

253-4 

287-3 
287-4 

Mean 

T<^  mm. 
1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 

287-3 

277-9 
270-9 
272-6 

274-7 
282-0 

Record  Book,  page  37. 

Ten  reading's  on  each 
space.  Total  length 
not  determined. 

Mean 

t§o  rac- 
ist 

2nd 

275-6 

318-4 
317-0 

Record  Book,  page  37. 
Ten  readings  on  each 

Mean 

xhn  mni. 

1st 

2nd 

3rd 

4th 

5th 

317-7 

252-7 
254-4 
254-0 
251-7 
259-3 

Record  Book,  page  3C. 

Ten  readings  on  each 
space.  Total  length 
not  determined. 

Mean 

r§»  mm. 

1st 
2nd 

254-4 

287-9 
289-7 

Record  Book,  page  36. 
Ten  readings  on  each 

Mean 

i__  mm. 

1st 

2nd 

3rd 

4th 

5th 

288-8 

255-3 
259-1 
259-6 

258-1 
255-1 

Record  Book,  page  42. 
Twenty   readings  on 
each  space. 

Mean 

,,';„  mm. 
1st 
2nd 

257-4 

292-3 
291-8 

Record   Book,  pages 
41,  42. 

Mean 

292-1 

690 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


Relative 

No.  of 
Div.  of 

Corrections. 

|a 

" 

Remarks. 

Is 

Micro- 

In Div. 

£g 

meter. 

of  Micro- 

In 

a 

div. 

meter. 

Mikrons. 

j£g  mm. 

div. 

M 

No.  14    Societe  Genevoise 

1st 

256-3 

-    1-1 

00 

Record  Book,  page  33. 

micrometer   above    de- 

2nd 

256-7 

-   1-5 

-0-1 

Twelve    readings  on 

scribed.     Same  instru- 

3rd 

253-3 

+   1-9 

+0-1 

each  space.     Total 

ments  used  as  in  No.  9. 

4th 

251-8 

+  3-4 

+0-1 

length   not    deter- 

1 div.  =  0-0388  ,u 

5th 

251-1 

+  4-1 

+0-2 

mined. 

6th 

259-6 

-   4-4 

-0-2 

7th 

254-1 

+  1-1 

0-0 

8th 

255-9 

-  0-7 

00 

9th 

256-4 

-   1-2 

o-o 

10th 

257-2 

-   2-0 

-0-1 

Mean 

252-2 

No.   15.     Nachet    micro- 

1st 

254-9 

+  2-6 

+0-1 

Record  Book,  page  32. 

meter,  above  described. 

2nd 

257-8 

-  0-3 

0-0 

Ten  readings  in  each 

Spencer     stand,     Zeiss 

3rd 

256-6 

+  0-9 

o-o 

space.  Total  length 

filar  and  Spencer  4  mm. 

4th 

254-9 

+  2-6 

+0-1 

not  determined. 

objective. 

5th 

258-2 

-  0-7 

00 

1  div.  =  0-0388  yu 

6th 

260-7 

-  3-2 

-01 

7th 

255-1 

+  2-4 

+0-1 

8th 

263-3 

-   5-8 

-0-2 

9th 

255-0 

+  2-5 

+0-1 

10th 

258-6 

-   1-1 

o-o 

Mean 

257-5 

No.   16.    Watson    micro- 

1st 

279-0 

+  6-8 

+0-2 

Record  Book,  page  38. 

meter,  above  described. 

2nd 

314-2 

-28-4 

-1-0 

Ten  readings  on  each 

Bulloch    stand   No.    1, 

3rd 

279-4 

+  6-4 

+0-2 

space.  Total  length 

Zeiss   filar,   Spencer   4 

4th 

259-2 

+26-6 

+1-0 

not  determined. 

mm.  objective. 

5th 

297-1 

-11-3 

-0-4 

1  div.  =  0-0359  m 

Mean 

285-8 

Same  scale  and  same  in- 

dSo mm. 

1st 

328-0 

+  2-0 

+0-3 

Record  Book,  page  38. 

struments,  except  Leitz 

2nd 

332-0 

-  2-0 

-0-3 

Ten  readings  on  each 

No.  3  objective. 
1  div.  =  0-157  ix 

space. 

Mean 

330-0 

No.  19.  Bausch  and  Lomb 

— -1—  in 

In  on  lll# 

1st 

157-2 

-  8-2 

-1-4 

Record  Book ,  page  10. 

micrometer    on     glass, 

2nd 

143-5 

+  5-6 

+0-9 

Six  readings  on  each 

divided  into  hundredths 

3rd 

143-2 

+  5-8 

+1-0 

space.  Total  length 

and  thousandths  inch. 

4th 

153-9 

-   4-9 

-0-8 

not  determined. 

Spencer     stand,    Zeiss 

5th 

154-0 

-   5-0 

-0-8 

filar,  and  Leitz  No.  3 

6th 

141-9 

+  7-1 

+1-2 

objective. 

7th 

152-8 

-  3-8 

-0-6 

1  div.  =  0169yu 

8th 

144-5 

+  4-6 

+0-8 

9th 

154-2 

-   5-2 

-0-9 

10th 
Mean 

145-1 

+  4-0 

+0-7 

149-0 

The  Present  Stains  of  Micrometry.     By  M.  D.  Ewell.      691 


Relative 

■6 

No.  of 

Corrections. 

5  s 

Div.  of 
Micro- 

. 

In  Div. 

Remarks. 

&g 

meter. 

of  Micro- 

In 

a 

meter. 

Mikrons. 

t}ul  mm. 

div. 

div. 

ij- 

No.    20.     Micrometer 

1st 

274-8 

+   3-4 

+0-1 

Record  Book ,  page  39. 

("a I")  on  glass,  ruled 

2nd 

278-8 

-   0-6 

00 

Ten  readings  on  each 

on  the  engine  of  the  late 

3rd 

278-1 

+  0-1 

0-0 

space.      The    first 

W.  A.  Rogers  to  tenths 

4th 

278-5 

-   0-3 

o-o 

^m.  of  "al"  = 

and    hundredths    mm. 

5th 

281-0 

-   2-8 

-o-i 

100-1  /x. 

Zeiss    filar,    Spencer   4 

Mean 

278-2 

mm.  objective. 

1  div.  =  0-03596  M 

^mm. 

Same  scale  and  same  in- 

1st 

317-8 

+  0-1 

o-o 

Record  Book,  page  39. 

struments,  except  Leitz 

2nd 

318-0 

-  0-1 

00 

Ten  readings  on  each 

No.  3  objective. 
1  div.  =  0-157  /x 

space.      The    first 
^  m.  of  "  a  I "  = 

Mean 

317-9 

100-1  m- 

No.  21.  "  Centimeter  A,"  the  standard  of  the  American  Microscopical  Society, 
prepared  in  1882  by  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Weights  and  Measures,  and  carefully 
verified  by  Professor  C.  S.  Pierce.  Surface  of  platin-iridium  ;  centimetre 
divided  into  millimetres,  the  first  millimetre  into  tenths,  and  the  first  tenth 
into  hundredths.  Three  defining  lines  mark  each  sub-division,  except  the 
hundredths  of  a  millimetre  ;  the  measurements  of  Professor  Pierce  were 
made  from  the  mean  position  of  one  triplet  of  lines  to  that  of  another,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  hundredths  of  a  millimetre,  where  the  defining  lines  are 
single. 

The  following  are  the  corrections  of  the  separate  hundredths  of  the  first 
one-tenth  millimetre  as  determined  by  Professor  Pierce  in  1882,  including 
the  hundredths  mm.,  between  the  first  and  second  and  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  defining  lines  of  the  first  one-tenth  mm. 


Total 

Corrections  of 

Correction, 

Spaces  2  to  11  as 

Mean  of 

Space. 

Professor 

determined  by 

the  two 

Pierce, 

Marshall  D.  Ewell 

series. 

1882. 

in  1885  and  1889. 



Tfio  mm. 

M 

1st 

-0 

08 

.  , 

2nd 

+o 

34 

+0-36 

3rd 

+0 

05 

+0-02 

4th 

+  0 

09 

+0  06 

5th 

-0 

41 

-0-42 

6th 

+0 

20 

+0-18 

7th 

+0 

39 

+0-29 

8th 

-0 

19 

-0-19 

9th 

-0 

05 

-0-08 

10th 

+0 

20 

+0-16 

11th 

-0 

18 

-0-19 

12th 

+0-23 

The  corrections  above  recorded  as  made  by  the  writer  were  determined  from  six  series  of 
measurements,  two  of  which  were  made  in  1885,  and  the  rest  in  1889,  with  powers  varying  from 
60  to  2250  diameters. 


692 


Transaction*  of  the  Society. 


Length, 

.Space. 

Total 
Corrections. 

all 

Corrections 

applied. 

No.  22.     A  standard  centimetre  on  speculum  metal 

i 

Km, 

1st 

+0-11 

9-89 

by  the  late  W.   A.  Rogers,   divided  into  milli- 

2nd 

+0-15 

9-85 

metres,  tenths  and  hundredths  of  a  millimetre. 

3rd 

-0-04 

10-04 

Correction  for  the  total  length  =  +  0-25  p. 

4th 

-0-01 

10-01 

Correction  for  the  tenth  one-tenth  of  the  tenth 

5th 

+0-09 

9-91 

mm.  =  +  0-02  p. 

6th 

+0  07 

9-93 

7th 

0-00 

10-00 

8th 

+0-06 

9-94 

9th 

+0-15 

9-85 

10th 

+0-05 

9-95 

Relative 

13 

No.  of 

Corrections. 

Div.  of 
Micro- 

In Div. 

Remarks. 

A3 

03  <0 

meter. 

of  Micro- 

In 

meter. 

Mikrons. 

div. 

div. 

n 

No.  23.  Glass  micrometer 

1st 

63-0 

-  0-1 

o-o 

Five  readings  onjeach 

by  Prof.  Mulvey,  above 

2nd 

62-0 

+  0-9 

+0-1 

end.     Total  length 

described.           Spencer 

3rd 

62-9 

o-o 

0-0 

not  determined. 

stand,     Leitz  filar,  and 

4th 

62-9 

o-o 

0-0 

Spencer   4  mm.  objec- 

5th 

63-9 

-   1-0 

-0-2 

tive 

1  div.  =  0-157  m 

Mean 

62-9 

No.  24.  Glass  micrometer 

1st 

250  6 

+  5-9 

+0-2 

Ten  readings  on  each 

by   Grayson,  above 

2nd 

261-6 

-   5-1 

-0-2 

space.  Total  length 

described.      Spencer 

3rd 

256-2 

+  0-3 

o-o 

not  determined. 

stand,  Zeiss  filar,  Spen- 

4th 

257-8 

-   1-3 

-0-1 

cer  4  mm.  objective. 

5th 

257-7 

-   1-2 

0-0 

1  div.  =  0-0388  n 

6th 

254-8 

+   1-7 

+0-1 

7th 

256-6 

o-o 

o-o 

8th 

255-7 

+  0-8 

o-o 

9th 

257-2 

-  0-7 

o-o 

10th 

257-2 

-  0-7 

0  0 

693 


OBITUAKY. 

Francis  H.  Wenham,  C.E. 

Vice-President  Royal  Microscopical  Society,  1870-1,  1873-4. 
Died  August  11,  1908.     Aged  85. 

Mr.  Wenham  was  the  originator  of  numerous  mechanical  inven- 
tions, one  of  which,  his  inverted  Argand  gas-burner,  will  be  familiar 
to  most  of  us.  He  devoted  about  thirty  years  of  his  long  life  to 
microscopical  work,  and  it  is  with  this  portion  of  his  activities 
that  the  Fellows  of  this  Society  are  most  concerned.  We  first  meet 
with  him  in  1850,  when  he  brought  before  this  Society  a  metal 
parabolic  reflector ;  one  of  these  very  rare  pieces  of  microscopical 
apparatus,  the  first  made,  is  in  our  cabinet  of  ancient  instruments. 
In  his  second  paper  he  described  a  binocular ;  this  he  subsequently 
improved  in  1860,  and  later  in  that  year  he  brought  out  the  ortho- 
stereoscopic  binocular,  which  is  still  used,  and  is  the  best  that 
has  ever  been  designed.  In  1873  he  designed  a  high-power  non- 
stereoscopic  binocular,  which  did  not  come  into  general  use.  In 
the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Science,  ii.  (1854)  Wenham 
published  a  paper  on  "  The  Theory  of  the  Illumination  of  Objects." 
A  perusal  of  this  in  the  light  of  modern  knowledge  is  of  interest. 
On  page  146  the  author  says : — "  Attempts  have  sometimes  been 
made  to  draw  the  undulatory  theory  of  light  into  the  subject  of 
microscopic  illumination,  but  without  any  substantial  reason,  as  it 
has  in  reality  very  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  it."  Again,  on 
page  1 52,  he  says  : — "  There  is  one  peculiar  phenomenon  attendant 
upon  oblique  illumination  at  certain  angles  in  one  direction,  and 
may  be  described  as  a  double  image,  or  kind  of  overlying  shadow, 
having  in  some  instances  markings  equally  distinct  with  those  of 
the  object  itself.  This  appearance  has  been  termed  the  '  diffract- 
ing spectrum  '  among  men  of  science.  Taking  the  name  to  be 
descriptive,  I  sought  for  an  explanation  in  the  known  laws  of  the 
diffraction  of  light,  but  these  did  not  account  for  it,  for  on  this 
theory  I  attempted  to  find  the  clue  in  vain.  I  have  since  traced 
the  cause  entirely  to  the  mutual  dependence  of  the  angles  of  illu- 
mination and  aperture,  detailed  in  this  paper.  One  image  is  caused 
by  the  radiations  from  the  object  entering  one  portion  of  the  object- 
glass,  and  a  different  one  by  the  object  being  directly  seen  by  in- 
tercepted light  with  the  other  extreme  of  the  aperture,  thus 
giving  the  appearance  of  a  double  image.  In  proof  of  this,  hold 
a   card  over  that  side  of  the  front  lens  of  the  objective  which 


694  Obituary. 

receives  the  light  from  the  Luminous  source,  and  one  image  will 

disappear ;  on  reversing  the  card,  so  as  to  cut  off  the  other 
extreme,  the  first  image  will  reappear  again,  and  the  second 
vanish."  From  this  abstract  we  learn  that  Wenham  thus  early 
originates  the  celebrated  Abbe  experiment  of  cutting  out  first  the 
inclined  "  dioptric  beam,"  and  then  the  first  '"'  diffraction  spectrum." 
If  Wenham  had  only  assigned  the  origin  of  the  phenomenon  to 
diffraction,  and  the  overlying  of  the  image  to  spherical  aberration, 
he  would  have  anticipated  much  that  was  to  follow  twenty  years 
later. 

On  page  150  he  describes  a  method  of  obtaining  a  dark  ground 
by  cutting  out  the  central  rays  by  a  stop  placed  in  the  object-glass, 
a  device  which  has  recently  been  re-invented.  In  the  same  year 
(1854)  he  designs  the  method  of  moving  by  the  correction-collar 
the  back  lenses  of  an  object-glass  instead  of  the  front,  a  plan 
now  universally  adopted.  At  that  time  there  was  a  discussion  in 
progress  about  apertometers,  with  reference  to  one  designed  by  the 
learned  Dr.  Kobinson  (which  consisted  in  illuminating  the  object- 
glass  through  the  back,  and  of  measuring  the  diameter  of  the  disk 
of  light  projected  upon  a  card  held  in  front,  from  which  data  the 
tangent  of  half  the  angular  aperture  could  be  found).  Wenham 
placed  a  block  of  glass  ^-in.  thick,  having  one  side  coated  by  a 
thin  film  of  bees'-wax.  The  object-glass  to  be  measured  was 
focused  upon  the  clear  side  of  the  glass  block,  and  the  disk  of 
light  received  upon  the  bees'-wax.  The  angle  in  glass  was  then 
measured.  The  following  were  the  results  he  obtained: — "A 
j^  having  an  aperture  of  146°  on  an  object  mounted  dry,  was 
reduced  to  75°  on  an  object  in  balsam  ;  a  \  of  125°  to  71°;  a  ^  of 
105°  to  68° ;  and  a  T4D  of  90°  to  56°.  .  .  .  These  experiments  will 
readily  account  for  the  difficulty  of  discovering  the  markings  or 
structure  of  a  severe  test  when  mounted  in  balsam  ;  for,  as  thus 
seen,  it  may  be  inferred  that  no  aperture  exceeding  85°  can  be 
made  to  bear  upon  it,  and  this  is  even  supposing  that  the  largest 
aperture  object-giass  that  has  ever  been  constructed  is  used." 
This  lather  long  extract  is  inserted  to  show  that  Wenham  was 
the  first  to  measure  the  aperture  of  an  object-glass  with  a  glass 
apertometer,  and  also  to  acquaint  the  reader  with  the  general 
trend  of  the  argument,  which  runs  through  his  numerous  writings, 
viz.  that  resolution  is  due  to  the  angular  inclination  of  the  beam 
proceeding  from  the  object  with  the  optic  axis.  Wenham  argues 
that  there  is  a  loss  in  a  balsam  mount  because  the  angle  of  the  ray 
proceeding  frcm  the  object  is  limited  to  41°,  whereas  in  a  dry 
objective  it  may  be  75°  or  80°.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the 
celebrated  aperture  controversy,  which  eventually  caused  his 
rupture  with  this  Society  in  1879.  The  heated  discussions,  and 
amount  of  personal  feeling  brought  into  them,  will  be  remembered 
by  some,  and  regretted    by  all.     Before  dismissing  this   painful 


Obituary.  695 

subject,  it  is  greatly  to  Wenham's  credit  that,  although  his 
theory  was  physically  wrong,  and  could  not  be  maintained  for  a 
moment,  his  arguments  and  rejoinders  were  set  forth  in  temperate 
language — even  when  invective  and  abuse  were  thrown  at  him 
by  those  who  did  not  possess  a  tithe  of  his  knowledge  on  micro- 
scopical optics,  but  were  mere  babblers  of  an  elementary  text-book, 
which  they  probably  did  not  comprehend. 

In  1855  he  made  electrotype  casts  of  diatoms,  and  invented  the 
plan  of  placing  a  biconvex  lens  at  the  back  of  an  object-glass  to 
correct  for  the  actinic  focus.  So  early  as  1855*  we  find  him  ex- 
perimenting with  homogeneous  immersion.  He  says  : — "  I  first 
took  a  small  hemispherical  lens  of  about  jfe  inch  radius,  and 
cemented  it  over  a  selected  specimen  of  one  of  the  Diatomacea? 
(N.  sigma)  with  Canada  balsam.  ...  It  will  be  seen  from  the 
position  of  the  object,  that  each  ray  of  light  passing  from  that  point 
through  the  surface  of  the  hemisphere,  will  be  transmitted  in 
straight  lines,  in  a  radial  direction,  without  undergoing  any  refrac- 
tion ;  the  consecpience  of  which  is,  that  the  full  and  undiminished 
aperture  of  the  object-glass  is  made  to  bear  upon  the  object."  He 
placed  the  diatom,  with  this  hemispherical  lens  optically  connected 
with  it,  underneath  a  dry  achromatic  object-glass,  and  so  viewed 
the  object  through  a  homogeneous  immersion  system.  He  notes 
the  advantage  of  homogeneous  immersion  thus  : — "  I  have  a 
specimen  of  P.  formosum,  mounted  in  this  manner,  by  which  the 
markings  are  remarkably  well  displayed."  He  suggests  that  the 
substage  condenser  should  also  be  made  homogeneous.  Although 
Professor  Amici  in  1844  experimented  with  an  oil- immersion, 
Wenham  was  the  first  to  use  one  in  this  country,  and  probably  it 
was  Wenham's  writings  that  drew  the*attention  of  Tolles  to  the 
importance  of  this  subject,  and  caused  him  to  make  Iris  balsam- 
immersion  objective.  It  is  to  Tolles  that  we  are  indebted  for 
applying  the  word  "  homogereous  "  to  the  immersion  principle. 

In  the  Transactions  of  this  Society  in  1856  we  find  a  paper  where 
Wenham  describes  several  methods  for  illuminating  microscopical 
objects  by  immersion  condensers,  the  fluid  used  being  oil  of  cloves. 
The  principle  here  laid  down,  viz.  that  of  total  reflection  from  the 
inside  of  the  cover-glass,  has  been  lately  re-invented. 

In  1859  he  designed  a  tank  Microscope,  and  suggested  friction 
gearing :  within  recent  years  his  suggestion  has  been  applied  to^ 
stage  movements  with  success. 

Wenham  was  a  very  expert  mechanic  ;  he  not  only  designed 
object-glasses,  but  made  them,  grinding  and  polishing  the  most 
minute  lenses.  In  the  Monthly  Microscopical  Journal,  i.  and  ii. 
(1869)  he  published  five  valuable  papers  upon  the  practical  con- 
struction of  Microscope  object-g lasses,  written  from  the  standpoint 
of  an  amateur.     In  one  qf  these  papers   he  proposed  the  duplex 

*  Quart.  Journ.  Mior.  Sci.,  iii.  (1855)  p.  303. 


£96  Obituary. 

front,  a  form  subsequently  adopted.  He  says : — "  A  partial  ex- 
periment with  a  \  having  this  '  doublet '  front,  has  proved  that 
perfect  correction  for  colour  is  the  result.  But  in  the  form  tried, 
the  spherical  aberration  was  so  considerable  as  to  require  an 
entire  reconstruction,  for  which  I  have  now  no  leisure ;  and 
though  the  entire  success  of  the  idea  is  yet  unproved,  I  venture 
to  record  it,  in  case  I  may  never  be  able  to  take  up  this  subject 
again,  as  I  am  of  opinion  that  a  very  perfect  object-glass  may  be 
made  of  this  form." 

Wenham  claimed  to  be  the  inventor  in  1850  of  the  single 
front ;  this  invention  has  been  also  ascribed  to  Professor  Amici, 
but  I  am  not  aware  of  any  published  statement  to  upset  Wenham's 
claim.  All  improvements  in  Microscope  object-glasses  were  trade 
secrets,  and  it  is  at  the  present  time  a  matter  of  no  little  difficulty 
to  find  out  their  true  history. 

In  1871  we  find  the  aperture  controversy  still  raging.  Wenham 
says : — "  The  loss  of  aperture  on  balsam-mounted  objects  was 
demonstrated  by  me  on  correct  optical  laws  known  ages  ago,  and 
I  am  astonished  that  in  the  nineteenth  century  anyone  can  dare  to 
dispute  it  as  a  fact." 

Wenham  was  not,  and  never  claimed  to  be,  either  a  mathe- 
matician or  a  physicist.  He  explains  his  method  of  designing 
object-glasses  by  means  of  graphic  delineation  and  of  trial  and 
error,  which  he  had  learnt  from  the  personal  teaching  of  Mr.  J.  J. 
Lister.  The  paths  of  the  various  rays  were  plotted  down  on  an 
enlarged  diagram  of  the  object-glass  ;  the  sines  of  the  angles  of 
incidence  and  refraction  were  placed  upon  a  large  pair  of  pro- 
portional compasses,  set  to  the  index  of  refraction.  This  probably 
was  the  method  employed  Ify  all  Microscope  object-glass  makers  at 
that  time.* 

Plotting  may  do  fairly  well  for  marginal  rays,  but  with  axial 
rays  it  fails  altogether,  and,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  axial  rays  can 
only  be  dealt  with  by  trigonometry,  or  by  the  Gauss  method,  both 
of  which  were  probably  beyond  Wenham's  mathematical  capabilities. 

This  lack  of  familiarity  with  elementary  mathematics  was  a 
cloud  which  obscured  his  vision  on  many  important  points  ;  if  only 
it  could  have  been  lifted,  what  an  inventor  he  would  have  been  ! 
For  instance,  the  mere  elements  of  algebra  would  have  enabled  him 
to  turn  his  "  duplex  "  front,  which  by  itself  is  unimportant,  into  the 
"  aplanatic  "  front,  the  main  feature  of  the  modern  object-glass. 

In  1872  his  reflex  illuminator  appeared ;  this  was  a  kind  of 
immersion  Nachet  prism.  It  did  not  come  into  very  general  use, 
because  it  was  soon  superseded  by  immersion  condensers. 

In  1873  Wenham  brought  out  an  objective  upon  a  new  formula 
— a  single  front  and  back  and  a  triple  middle ;  a  single  flint  cor- 

*  Wenham   gives  an  interesting  example    in  the   Monthly  Micr.   Journ.,  v. 
■41871)  p.  19,  fig.  1. 


Obituary.  697 

recting  the  aberrations  of  the  four  crown  convex  lenses.*  From  an 
examination  of  one  of  these  lenses,  a  -fa,  in  the  author's  possession, 
it  appears  that  the  lens  has  an  initial  power  of  25  with  an  N.A. 
of  0  ■  65.  It  is  supplied  with  two  stops,  which  reduce  the  aperture 
to  0*52  and  0*35  N.A.  respectively.  When  full  aperture  is  used, 
some  spherical  aberration  is  apparent,  but  when  the  0*52  N.A. 
stop  is  inserted  the  lens  performs  very  well  indeed,  and  for  its  day 
it  was  quite  a  good  glass :  in  fact,  it  was  only  superseded  by  the 
advent  of  the  12  mm.  and  8  mm.  apochromats. 

In  1876  Wenham  published  an  aperture  table  giving  the  N.A. 
values  for  dry  lenses  of  various  angular  apertures,  to  show  that  there 
was  not  much  more  to  be  gained  after  an  angle  of  150°  had  been 
reached.f 

Wenham's  "  button  "  was  brought  out  in  the  English  Mechanic.t 
This  "  button,"  or  really  half  button,  consisted  of  a  semicircular 
disk  of  glass  about  \  in.  diameter  and  ^  in.  thick.  The  circular  edge 
was  curved  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  disk,  and  the  flat 
diameter  was  oil-immersed  to  the  underneath  part  of  the  slip,  by 
which  means  light  of  great  oblicpuity  could  be  focused  on  a  balsam- 
mounted  object.  This,  so  far  as  I  know,  was  Wenham's  last 
microscopical  inventibn.  He  published  several  papers  upon  the 
microscopical  examination  of  objects,  notably  upon  the  structure  of 
the  Podura  scale.  Wenham  was  optical  adviser  to  Messrs. 
T.  Ross  and  Co.  for  about  ten  years  (1870-80). 

In  the  above  notice  the  author  has  given  a  fairly  complete 
list  of  Wenham's  microscopical  inventions,  designs,  and  methods 
of  work,  so  that  the  reader  may  be  able  to  form  his  own  estimate  of 
Wenham's  influence  upon  the  progress  of  "  Microscopy." 

Edward  M.  Nelson. 


*  A  diagram  with  traced  rays  is  given  in  the  Monthly  Micr.  Journ.,  ix.  (1873) 
p.  163.  t  Monthly  Micr.  Journ.,  xvi.  (1876)  p.  287. 

X  English  Mechanic,  xxx.  (1879). 


Dec.  16th,  1908  3  a 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

KKLATINH    TO 

ZOOLOGY       AND        BOTANY 

(principally  invertebrata  and  cryptogamia), 

MICROSCOPY,    Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 

a.  Embryolog-y.f 


Development  of  Mammalian  Pituitary  Body.J — P.  T.  Herring 
has  studied  this  in  the  cat  and  other  mammals.  In  the  cat  the  posterior 
lobe  of  the  pituitary  body  remains  hollow  throughout  development, 
whereas  in  most  of  the  mammals  that  have  been  studied  in  tills  con- 
nection the  posterior  lobe  becomes  a  solid  structure  at  a  comparatively 
early  stage. 

The  epithelial  portion  is  derived  entirely  from  the  ectodermic  wall  of 
the  buccal  invagination  known  as  Ratke's  pouch.  Its  origin  is  single 
and  mesial.  The  epithelium  is  differentiated  at  an  early  stage  into  two 
parts,  which  show  differences  in  arrangement,  structure,  and  vascularity. 
One  of  these,  the  pars  intermedia,  is  closely  adherent  to  the  wall  of  the 
cerebral  vesicle  from  its  earliest  appearance,  and  remains  in  intimate 
association  with  it.  The  other  portion  of  buccal  epithelium  gives  rise 
to  the  anterior  lobe  proper.  The  lower  portion  of  Ratke's  pouch,  which 
is  not  adherent  to  the  brain,  forms  a  solid  mass  of  cells  which  grow  into 
surrounding  blood-channels  and  into  the  cavity  of  the  pouch  itself. 
The  original  cavity  of  Ratke's  pouch  persists  as  a  narrow  cleft  separating 
the  anterior  lobe  proper  from  the  epithelial  portion  of  the  posterior  lobe. 

The  infmidibnlum  is  an  invagination  of  part  of  the  wall  of  the 
thalamencephalon  which  is  adherent  to  the  anterior  and  upper  wall  of 
Ratke's  pouch.  It  therefore  possesses  an  epithelial  covering  derived 
from  the  latter.  The  infundibular  process  grows  backwards,  and,  in 
the  cat,  retains  its  central  cavity.     It  is  lined  by  ependyma  cells  which 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they 
do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers 
noted,  nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of 
this  part  of  the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  pub- 
lished, and  to  describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  etc.,  which  are 
either  new  or  have  not  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

t  This  section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so 
called,  but  also  those  dealing  with  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  and 
allied  subjects. 

\  Quart.  Journ.  Exp.  Physiol. ,  i.  (1908)  pp.  163-85  (11  figs.). 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES.  699 

during  development  become  elongated,  so  that  ependyma  fibres  run 
obliquely  in  its  neck.  The  body  of  the  lobe  consists  of  ependyma  and 
neuroglia  cells  and  fibres  ;  no  true  nerve-cells  are  present  in  it,  and  there 
is  very  little  connective-tissue.  The  posterior  lobe  of  the  pituitary  is, 
from  the  first,  a  composite  structure  of  epithelium  of  the  pars  intermedia 
and  of  neuroglia  aud  ependyma,  and  the  relations  between  the  two 
tissues  become  more  and  more  intimate.  Its  vascular  supply  is  derived 
from  a  different  source  from  that  of  the  anterior  lobe  ;  blood-vessels 
grow  into  it  at  its  posterior-superior  angle,  and  form  the  capillaries  in 
the  lobe. 

The  intimate  nature  of  the  connection  between  the  wall  of  Ratke's 
pouch  and  the  cerebral  vesicle,  and  the  maintenance  of  a  close  re- 
lationship between  the  cells  of  the  pars  intermedia  and  the  cerebro- 
spinal canal,  render  it  probable  that  the  pituitary  body  of  Mammalia  is 
to  be  regarded  as  the  representative  of  an  old  mouth  opening  into  the 
canal  of  the  central  nervous  system.  Such  an  arrangement  exists  in  its 
simplest  form  in  the  Ascidian  larva.  A  connection  between  Ratke's 
pouch  or  original  mouth-cavity  and  the  interior  of  the  infundibulum  is 
sometimes  seen  in  the  developing  cat,  and  in  the  adult  cat  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  epithelial  cells,  derived  from  the  buccal  cavity,  lying 
inside  the  posterior  lobe,  in  communication  with  the  third  ventricle  of 
the  brain. 

The  anterior  lobe  proper  is  a  gland  whose  secretion  must  enter  the 
blood  directly,  and  so  pass  into  the  general  circulation.  The  pars  inter- 
media, on  the  other  hand,  appears  to  secrete  into  the  brain  tissue,  and 
must  be  regarded  as  a  brain  gland.  The  nature  of  these  secretions,  and 
the  question  as  to  whether  that  of  the  pars  intermedia  is  modified  by 
its  passage  through  brain-substance,  await  further  investigation. 

Orientation  of  Embryo  in  Hen's  Egg.*— E.  Rabaud  finds  that 
there  is  for  every  embryo  a  fixed  orientation,  at  least  during  the  first 
few  days  of  development ;  that  the  mobility  of  the  yolk  does  not  allow 
of  any  rotation  ;  and  that  there  is  never  more  than  oscillation.  During 
the  first  five  or  six  days,  at  least,  the  position  of  the  yolk  remains 
practically  fixed. 

Apparent  Anomalies  in  Mendelian  Proportions.! — L.  Cuenot  con- 
siders a  number  of  experiments  in  mice-breeding,  where  the  numerical 
results  do  not  at  first  sight  seem  to  agree  with  Mendelian  expectations, 
and  shows  that  they  are  not  difficult  to  explain.  He  maintains  con- 
fidently that  all  the  determinants  known  in  mice  illustrate  Mendelian 
inheritance. 

Inheritance  in  Canaries.  J — Charles  B.  Davenport  has  made  ob- 
servations on  inheritance  in  domestic  canaries,  and  shows  that  distinctive 
characters  which  have  arisen  during  the  250  years  or  so  of  its  controlled 
breeding  (a  short  time  compared  with  the  2000  years  or  more  during 
which  poultry  have  been  bred)  behave  in  Mendelian  fashion. 

Crest  is  dominant  over  plain  head.     Baldness  is  a  unit-character  and 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  ix.  (1908)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  1,  pp.  i.-vi. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  vii.-xv. 

X    Publications  of  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington,  1908,  pp.  1-26  (3  pis.). 

3  a  2 


700  SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

is  recessive  to  perfect  crest.  The  yellow  canary  is  derived  from  the 
original  green  canary  by  the  loss  of  black.  It  carries  a  mottling  factor. 
Consequently  when  the  yellow  canary  is  crossed  with  a  pigmented  canary 
or  with  a  finch,  the  hybrids  are  mottled. 

The  mottling  is  not  a  fixed  pattern.  The  spots  vary  in  position  and 
relative  size  ;  they  may  cover  nearly  the  whole  body  or  they  may  form  a 
mere  "ticking."  The  degree  of  mottling  is  inheritable.  Ticking 
behaves  as  a  nnit-character.  Mottling  is  a  heterozygous  character  and 
throws  mottled,  clear  yellow,  and  self -greens. 

The  principle  of  localisation  of  the  units  of  a  complex  plumage  must 
be  recognised.  The  cap  of  the  Lizard  canary,  the  red  face  of  the  gold- 
finch, the  shoulder-striping  of  the  green  canary,  are  not  only  unit- 
characters,  but  they  occur  only  at  their  proper  localities  and  in  their 
proper  forms  in  the  body  plumage.  In  mottled  canaries  the  presence  of 
black  on  the  shoulder  means  striping,  on  the  wing  it  means  dead  black 
white-laced  remiges,  on  the  mid-breast  it  means  a  uniform  olive  colour. 
The  plumage  of  a  yellow  canary  may  be  compared  with  a  letter  that  has 
been  written  with  invisible  ink.  Wherever  the  developer  acts  (i.e.  the 
black  pigment  of  the  green  canary  is  added)  that  which  is  written 
appears  with  all  of  its  idiosyncrasies. 

Transmission  of  Coat-characters  in  Rats.*  —  G.  P.  Mudge  finds 
that  albinos  breed  true  to  albinism,  whether  their  ancestry  is  pigmented 
or  not.  Albinos  which  appear  to  be  identical  in  their  coat-character  may 
be  in  reality  quite  different.  The  author's  exjeriments  give  " an  ocular 
demonstration  of  the  actual  presence  of  the  coat-pattern  in  albinos," 
and  the  interpretation  is  corroborated  by  breeding  results. 

It  is  further  shown  that  when  a  piebald  black  rat  is  mated  with  a 
similar  one,  two  classes  of  offspring  may  be  obtained.  One  of  these 
contains  all  black  piebalds,  and  the  other  a  mixture  of  black  piebalds 
and  albinos  in  nearly  equal  numbers. 

When  a  piebald  black  rat  is  mated  with  an  albino,  it  may  be  said 
that,  so  far  as  the  author's  experiments  have  gone,  five  different  results 
may  be  obtained  :  (1)  the  offspring  are  all  black  piebalds  ;  (2)  they 
may  be  a  mixture  of  black  piebalds  and  albinos ;  (3)  they  may  be  all 
"  Irish  "  forms  (  =  black  self-coloured)  ;  (4)  they  may  be  a  mixture  of 
albinos,  black  piebalds,  and  "  Irish  "  ;  (5)  they  may  contain  albinos, 
"  Irish,"  and  a  grey  form.  "It  can  be  shown  that  the  divergence  of 
the  results  obtained  when  two  individuals  apparently  similar  are  mated 
is  due  to  the  gametic  nature  of  the  albino  employed." 

Transplantation  of  Ovaries.t — F.  H.  A.  Marshal  and  W.  A.  Joly, 
experimenting  chiefly  with  rats  (in  one  case  with  a  monkey),  find  that 
ovaries  are  more  readily  transplanted  into  the  kidney  than  on  to  the 
peritoneum  ;  that  homoplastic  transplantation  (within  the  same  animal) 
is  easier  than  heteroplastic  transplantation  (to  another  animal)  ;  that 
the  latter  seems  to  be  easier  when  the  animals  are  near  relatives  ;  that 
the  presence  of  an  animal's  own  ovaries  does  not  seem  to  exert  any 
inhibitory   influence    on    the    successful    attachment    and    growth    of 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  Series  B,  lxxx.  (1908)  pp.  388-93. 

t  Quart.  Journ.  Exp.  Physiol.,  i.  (1908)  pp.  115-20  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    .MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  701 

additional  ovaries  ;  and  that  the  presence  of  a  successfully  grafted  ovary 
in  an  abnormal  position,  whether  from  the  same  or  from  another 
individual,  is  sufficient  to  arrest  the  degenerative  changes  in  the  uterus 
which  usually  take  place  after  complete  extirpation  of  the  ovaries.  It 
may  be  concluded  that  the  ovarian  influence  is  chemical  rather  than 
nervous  in  nature. 

Mendelian  Characters  among  Short-horn  Cattle.* — James  Wilson 
maintains  that  the  modern  short-horns  are  descended  from  two  races, 
the  White  Roman  and  the  Red  Saxon,  the  "  red  "  including  red,  red 
with  little  white,  and  red  and  white.  Statistics  taken  from  the  "  Short- 
horn Herd-book  "  are  summed  up  in  the  following  table  : — 

•438  reds  crossed  by  reds  produce 

3  whites  whites 

135  whites  reds 

514  roans  roans 

1008  roans  reds 

74  roans  whites 

These  figures  do  not  come  out  in  Mendelian  ratios  with  perfect 
accuracy,  but  the  discrepancies  can  be  explained  as  the  result  of  three 
causes  :  (1)  that  it  sometimes  requires  a  close  examination  to  distinguish  a 
red  from  a  roan  calf  ;  (2)  white  short-horns,  being  of  smaller  money  value 
than  roans  or  reds,  are  often  left  unregistered  ;  (3)  among  unscrupulous 
breeders  the  substitution  of  a  coloured  calf  for  a  white  one  is  not 
unknown,  a  white  calf's  pedigree  being  bestowed  upon  a  roan  or  a  red. 

Another  set  of  data — consisting  of  entries  by  careful  breeders  in 
vol.  lii.  of  the  "  Herd-book  " — shows  an  approximation  to  Mendelian 
ratios,  bearing  out  the  historical  inference  that  the  roan  short-horn  is  a 
hybrid  between  two  races,  one  white,  the  other  "red."  This  second 
table  is  : 

95  reds  crossed  by  reds  produce 
1  white  white  produces 

78  reds  whites  produce 

370  roans  roans 

426  roans  reds 

53  roans  whites 


Reds. 

Roans. 

Whit< 

413 

25 

3 

7 

128 

152 

278 

84 

483 

521 

4 

3 

47 

24 

Reds. 

Roans. 

White 

90 

5 

1 



78 

90 

178 

102 

214 

209 

3 

— 

34 

19 

1023 


New  Views  concerning  Fertilisation  and  Maturation.f — Julius 
Ries  argues  in  favour  of  various  new  views,  e.g.,  that  the  spermatozoon, 
as  a  whole,  enters  the  ovum  and  moves  there  ;  that  the  astrospheres 
arise  from  the  residue  of  the  tail  ;  that  the  division  of  the  centrosome  is 
associated  with  a  division  of  the  tail  of  the  spermatozoon  ;  that  the 
ovum-centrosome  passes  out  with  the  polar  bodies. 

Spermatozoa  of  Seals.! — E.  Ballowitz  describes  the  minute  structure 
of  the  ripe  spermatozoa  of  Phoca  vitulina,  but  he  does  not  find  any 
peculiarity.  They  closely  resemble  the  spermatozoa  of  Carnivores, 
especially  of  the  dog. 

•  Scient.  Proc.  R.  Dublin.  Soc,  xi.  (1908)  pp.  317-24. 

+  MT.  Nat.  Ges.  Bern,  Nos.  1629-1664  (1908)  pp.  43-57  (15  figs.). 

X  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  253-6  (6  figs.). 


702  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Development  of  Kidney  in  Teleosteans.* — L.  Roule  and  I.  Audige 
have  studied  various  Teleosteans,  e.g.,  Cepoia  rtibcsceiis,  and  find  that 
the  kidney  includes  pronephros,  mesonephros,  and  metanephros,  or, 
rather,  that  this  distinction  is  not  valid,  the  series  of  tubules  being 
really  continuous  both  as  regards  space  and  time. 

Development  of  Notochord  in  Fishes.f — Louis  Roule  has  studied 
this  in  the  perch.  He  finds  that  the  notochord  arises  directly  from  the 
archenteron  as  a  compact  cellular  axis,  whereas  in  Tunicates  it  is  due 
to  a  diverticulum  of  the  archenteron,  possibly  comparable  to  the  post- 
anal gut  in  higher  Chordata.  In  fact,  the  notochord  of  Tunicates 
is  not  strictly  homologous  with  the  notochord  of  Fishes. 

Embryonic  Circulation  in  Goldfish.} — P.  Wintrebert  has  studied 
the  transparent  embryos  of  Garassius  auratus,  and  finds  that  the  blood 
from  the  caudal  artery  passes  forwards  by  a  median  trunk  vein, 
posterior  cardinal  veins,  and  the  ducts  of  Cuvier.  Between  these  and 
the  auricle  there  is,  in  place  of  the  sinus  venosus,  a  very  large  lacuna, 
which  spreads  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  vitellus.  There  is  no 
sub-intestinal  vein.  The  first  vitelline  circulation  is  thus  entirely 
venous,  but  subsequently  there  is  a  secondary  arterial  circulation. 

Hybrid  between  Bream  and  Rudd.§ —  C.  Tate  Regan  describes 
from  Lough  Erne  what  seem  to  be  hybrids  between  bream  and  rudd 
(Abramis  brama  x  Leuciscus  erythrophthahnus),  and  compares  them 
with  hybrids  between  bream-flat  (A.  blicca)  and  rudd. 

b.  Histology. 

Minute  Structure  of  Mammalian  Pituitary  Body.|j— P.  T.  Herring 
has  studied  this  in  cat,  dog,  and  monkey.  The  pituitary  body  may  be 
divided  into  two  parts,  which  show  structural  differences  probably  in- 
dicative of  distinct  functions.  The  anterior  lobe,  consisting  of  large 
granular  cells  and  numerous  blood-vessels,  is  a  gland  of  internal  secretion 
of  undetermined  function,  but  which  may  influence  growth.  The 
posterior  lobe  consists  of  two  structures.  The  part  developed  from  the 
brain,  and  consisting  of  neuroglia  and  epeudyma  cells  and  fibres,  acts  as 
a  framework.  It  is  more  or  less  surrounded  and  invaded  by  epithelium, 
which  is  probably  the  active  part.  There  is  histological  evidence  of  a 
secretion  produced  by  the  epithelial  cells,  which  apparently  passes  into 
lymph-vessels,  and  is  destined  to  enter  the  ventricles  of  the  brain.  The 
posterior  lobe  is  a  brain-gland,  not  by  virtue  of  tissue  of  brain  origin, 
but  by  the  growth  into  it  of  epithelial  cells  of  ectodermic  origin. 
Extracts  produce  marked  effects  on  cardiac  and  plain  muscle-fibres, 
comparable  in  some  respects  to  the  action  of  the  medulla  of  the  supra- 
renal capsule  ;  they  have  a  selective  action  on  the  kidney,  causing 
dilatation  of  the  renal  blood-vessels  and  diuresis.  Disturbances  of  the 
posterior  lobe  of  the  pituitary  are  probably  responsible  for  the  occur- 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvii.  (1908)  pp.  275-7. 

t  Op.  cit.,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  1423-5. 

X  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvii.  (1108)  pp.  85-7. 

§  Aim.  Nat.  Hist.,  ii.  (1908)  pp.  162-5  (2  pis.). 

H  Quart.  Journ.  Exp.  Physiol.,  i.  (1908)  pp.  121-59  (16  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  703 

rence  of  the  diabetic  conditions  which  havre  been  frequently  recorded  in 
cases  of  acromegaly  and  of  affections  and  lesions  associated  with  the 
base  of  the  skull. 

Three  types  of  Mammalian  pituitary  body  are  recognised.  In  one, 
e.g.  the  cat,  the  posterior  lobe  is  hollow  and  in  free  communication  with 
the  third  ventricle,  while  the  epithelium  of  the  anterior  lobe  forms  an 
investment  for  the  posterior  lobe.  In  the  second  type,  e.g.  the  dog,  the 
body  of  the  posterior  lobe  is  solid,  but  the  neck  is  hollow  and  commu- 
nicates with  the  third  ventricle,  and  the  anterior  lobe  again  forms  an 
investment.  In  the  third  type,  e.g.  man,  monkey,  ox,  pig,  and  rabbit, 
the  body  and  neck  of  the  posterior  lobe  are  solid,  although  traces  of  a 
cavity  are  occasionally  found  in  the  neck  ;  in  this  type  the  epithelium 
does  not  invest  the  posterior  lobe  so  completely,  but  is  aggregated 
around  the  neck  and  spreads  over  and  into  the  adjacent  surface  of  the 
brain. 

The  epithelial  portion  of  the  pituitary  body  is  differentiated  into  (a) 
an  anterior  lobe  proper,  consisting  of  solid  columns  of  cells,  between 
which  run  wide  and  thin-walled  blood-channels  ;  and  (b)  an  intermediate 
portion,  which  lies  between  the  anterior  lobe  and  the  nervous  tissue  of 
the  pituitary,  forming  a  closely  fitting  investment  of  the  latter. 

The  anterior  lobe  contains  cells  which  are  clear  or  hold  in  their 
protoplasm  varying  amounts  of  deeply  staining  granules.  They  are 
probably  different  functional  stages  of  one  and  the  same  kind  of  cell, 
and  the  granules  give  rise  to  a  secretion  which  is  absorbed  by  the  blood- 
vessels. 

The  intermediate  portion  consists  of  finely  granular  cells,  arranged 
in  layers  of  varying  thickness  closely  applied  to  the  body  and  neck  of 
the  posterior  lobe  and  to  the  under  surface  of  the  adjacent  parts  of  the 
brain.  The  part  of  it  which  is  separated  from  the  anterior  lobe  by  the 
cleft  is  almost  devoid  of  blood-vessels.  In  the  cat  the  portion  lying  in 
front  of  the  anterior  lobe  has  a  tubular  appearance,  and  is  very  vascular. 
Colloid  material  occurs  between  the  cells  of  the  pars  intermedia,  and  in 
most  situations  appears  to  pass  into  the  adjacent  nervous  substance,  to 
be  absorbed  by  blood-vessels  or  lymphatics. 

The  nervous  portion  of  the  pituitary  body  is  made  up  of  neuroglia 
cells  and  fibres.  Ependyma  cells  line  the  central  cavity  in  the  cat  and 
send  long  fibres  forwards  and  upwards  towards  the  brain,  most  of  which 
terminate  in  the  outer  part  of  the  neck.  There  are  no  true  nerve-cells, 
and  the  nerves  supplying  the  pituitary  probably  reach  it  through 
sympathetic  fibres  accompanying  the  blood-vessels  (Berkeley.)  The 
nervous  portion  is  invaded  to  a  large  extent  by  the  epithelial  cells  of  the 
pars  intermedia.  Columns  of  epithelial  cells  grow  into  it,  especially  in 
the  neck,  and  islets  of  these  cells  occur  frequently  throughout  the 
posterior  lobe.  In  the  pituitary  of  the  cat,  epithelial  cells  may  even 
grow  into  its  central  cavity. 

A  substance  histologically  resembling  the  colloid  of  the  thyroid 
gland,  but  probably  of  a  different  nature,  occurs  in  large  quantity  in  the 
nervous  portion  of  the  posterior  lobe.  It  appears  to  be  a  product  of  the 
epithelial  cells,  and,  in  the  cat  at  any  rate,  to  be  carried  by  lymphatics 
into  the  central  cavity,  and  so  into  the  third  ventricle  of  the  brain.     In 


704  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

this  respect  the  posterior  lobe  of  the  pituitary  is  an  infundibular  gland. 
Whether  this  substance  is  modified  by  its  passage  through  the  nervous 
substance  or  not  is  unsettled.  Its  distribution  corresponds  with  the  site 
of  the  tissue,  the  extracts  of  which  have  active  physiological  results  when 
injected  into  the  blood. 

The  anterior  lobe  of  the  pituitary  is  extremely  vascular  and  its 
circulation  sinusoidal.  The  posterior  lobe  is  supplied  for  the  most  part 
by  a  central  artery  which  enters  it  at  its  postero-superior  angle,  and  runs 
forward,  giving  off  branches  ;  the  veins  begin  immediately  below  the 
epithelial  investment  and  run  backwards  in  this  situation,  to  emerge 
near  the  entry  of  the  artery.  The  veins  of  both  lobes  enter  large  blood 
sinuses  lying  close  to  the  sides  of  the  pituitary  body. 

Histological  evidence  is  against  the  statement  of  Bela  Haller  that 
the  anterior  lobe  is  a  tubular  gland  which  pours  its  secretion  directly 
into  the  subdural  space. 

Spiral  Muscle-fibres.* — Ivar  Thulin  describes  in  the  hyoglossus 
muscle  of  Bufo  agua  and  in  the  chameleon's  tongue-muscle  the  occur- 
rence of  fibres  with  spirally  arranged  muscle-columns.  He  has  found 
similar  structures  in  frogs  and  in  the  human  uvula. 

c.  General. 

Action  of  Extracts  of  Saccus  Vasculosus  and  Pituitary  Body.f 
P.  T.  Herring  has  experimented  with  extracts  of  the  saccus  vasculosus 
and  pituitary  body  in  certain  fishes.  In  Elasmobranchs,  e.g.  Raia 
batis,  the  saccus  vasculosus  is  large  and  paired,  and  its  lobes  open  by  a 
common  median  passage  into  the  infundibulum,  and  so  into  the  third 
ventricle  of  the  brain.  In  Teleosts  it  is  single  and  situated  in  the 
middle  line  between  the  inferior  lobes  of  the  pituitary  body.  In  both 
skate  and  cod  the  saccus  vasculosus  consists  of  a  complicated  sac  fined 
by  a  single  layer  of  columnar  epithelium,  which  is  separated  from 
numerous  large  and  thin- walled  blood-vessels  by  a  thin  basement  mem- 
brane.    The  wall  is  thrown  into  folds,  especially  in  the  cod. 

Extracts  of  the  saccus  vasculosus  made  by  boiling  it  in  Ringer's  fluid 
have  no  marked  physiological  action  when  injected  into  the  blood- 
vessels of  a  cat.  The  results  are  practically  those  of  an  injection  of 
Ringer's  fluid. 

The  pituitary  body  of  the  skate,  and,  according  to  Gentes,  of  Elas- 
mobranchs generally,  has  no  posterior  lobe.  Nor  does  it  possess  the 
granular  cells  of  the  anterior  lobe  of  higher  Vertebrates.  Yet  it  is  a 
large  body  with  the  features  of  an  internally  secreting  gland,  and  an 
injection  of  its  extract  produces  a  slight  fall  of  blood  pressure,  a  dilata- 
tion of  the  kidney,  and  some  increase  in  urine  flow.  In  Teleosts  the 
pituitary  body  consists  of  an  anterior  lobe  proper  characterised  by  the 
presence  in  it  of  deeply  staining  granular  cells,  an  intermediate  part  of 
smaller  clear  cells,  and  a  nervous  portion.  The  latter  is  surrounded  and 
invaded  by  cells  of  the  pars  intermedia.  Extracts  of  this  portion  of  the 
pituitary  body,  pars  nervosa  and  pars  intermedia,  produce  in  the  cat 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  241-52  (13  figs.). 
t  Quart.  Journ.  Exp.  Physiol.,  i.  (1908)  pp.  187-8. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICllOSOOPY.    ETC.  Jl." 

the  typical  effects  of  extracts  of  the  posterior  lobe  of  Mammals,  namely 

rise  of  blood-pressure,  dilatation  of  the  kidney,  and  increase  of  urine. 

Dancing-  Mouse.* — R.  M.  Yerkes  has  studied  the  behaviour  of  this 
domesticated  animal,  of  unknown  origin,  which  is  characterised  by  its 
inability  to  move  far  .in  a  straight  line  without  whirling  or*  circling 
about  with  extreme  rapidity.  The  author  can  find  no  satisfactory 
grounds  for  regarding  the  dancer  as  abnormal  or  pathological.  It  is  a 
peculiar  variation  which  has  been  the  subject  of  artificial  selection. 
Yerkes  has  experimented  as  regards  hearing,  vision,  edncability, 
duration  of  habits,  and  individual  differences  in  behaviour.  He  found 
no  evidence  of  the  transmission  of  an  acquired  habit  of  behaving 
advantageously. 

Though  able  to  squeak,  and  though  capable  of  ear  movements  as  of 
listening,  the  dancing  mouse  is  quite  deaf,  except,  in  some  instances, 
during  the  third  week  of  life.  Brightness-vision  is  fairly  acute  ;  colour- 
vision  is  poor — most  of  their  apparent  discrimination  of  colour  is  due  to 
differences  in  brightness  ;  form  is  not  clearly  perceived  ;  movement  is 
readily  perceived. 

The  mice  learn  to  use  a  swinging  door  that  has  to  be  pushed  on  one 
side  and  pulled  on  the  other  ;  they  are  not  helped  by  seeing  other  mice 
do  a  thing,  but  are  helped  by  being  put  through  it  themselves  ;  certain 
acquired  habits  were  remembered  after  2-8  weeks  of  disuse  ;  if  forgotten, 
re-learning  was  easier.  Initiative  and  plasticity  do  not  decrease  up  to 
an  age  of  18  months,  the  oldest  studied. 

Yerkes'  method  consisted  in  a  sort  of  "  Lady  or  the  Tiger  "  alterna- 
tive presented  to  the  unsuspecting  mouse.  He  is  invited  to  enter  one 
of  two  doors  :  one  leads  to  an  electric  shock,  the  other  to  freedom  and 
food.  The  doors  are  marked  by  different  signs — cards  of  different 
shapes,  markings,  colour,  brightness,  odour,  etc. — and  these  can  be 
readily  alternated.  The  mouse  tries  at  first  the  plan  of  returning  to 
the  right  or  left  door  according  as  he  has  found  that  to  be  correct ; 
when  he  finds  that  the  correct  portal  is  being  alternated,  he  learns  to 
alternate  in  his  choices  ;  when  there  is  no  regularity  in  the  changes,  the 
mouse  uses  all  its  senses  in  determining  which  is  the  correct  door  to 
enter,  and  learns  finer  and  finer  shades  of  discrimination. 

"  Most  Mammals  which  have  been  experimentally  studied  have 
proved  their  eagerness  and  ability  to  learn  the  shortest,  quickest, 
and  simplest  route  to  food  without  the  additional  spur  of  punishment 
for  wandering.  With  the  dancer  it  is  different.  It  is  coutent  to  be 
moving — whether  the  movement  carries  it  directly  to  the  food-box  is  of 
secondary  importance.  On  its  way  to  the  food -box,  no  matter  whether 
the  box  be  slightly  or  strikingly  different  from  its  companion  box,  the 
dancer  may  go  by  way  of  the  wrong  box,  may  take  a  few  turns,  cut 
some  figure-eights,  or  even  spin  like  a  top  for  a  few  seconds  almost 
within  vibrissa -reach  of  the  food-box,  and  all  this  even  though  it  be  very 
hungry." 

*  The  Dancing  Mouse :  a  Study  in  Animal  Behaviour.  New  York :  The 
Macmillan  Co.,  1907,  xxi.  and  290  pp.  (33  figs.).  See  also  Amer.  Naturalist,  xlii. 
(1908)  pp.  207-10. 


706  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

What  is  a  Species  ? — S.  W.  Williston  *  says  that  there  is  no  answer 
and  never  will  be  any  answer  to  the  question,  What  is  a  species? 
which  lias  been  asked  continuously  since  the  time  of  Linne.  "  As  we  have 
long  since  learned  that  species,  like  Topsy,  just  '  grew,'  we  have  and 
always  shall  have  as  great  difficulty  in  deciding  when  varieties  and  races 
become  species  as  we  have  in  determining  when  a  puppy  becomes  a  dog 
or  a  lamb  a  sheep." 

"  The  only  biological  entity  is  the  individual,  and  the  individual  is 
inconstant."  ..."  Accumulated  heredity  may  outweigh  natural  selec- 
tion or  environment,  and  vice  versa."  ..."  New  phyla  arise  from 
crescent  phyla,  never  from  decadent  or  even  dominant  ones."  .  .  . 
"Senility  and  decadence  are  the  attributes  of  species,  families,  and 
orders,  as  well  as  of  the  individual."  ..."  The  older  the  genus  or 
allied  group  of  species,  the  more  restricted,  apparently,  is  fertile 
hybridity."  ..."  Secondary  sexual  characters  are  transmitted  to  the 
opposite  sex,  unless  of  positive  disadvantage."  ..."  Secondary  sexual 
characters  are  more  numerous  and  less  stable  in  the  male  than  in  the 
female."  ..."  An  organ  once  functionally  lost  is  never  permanently 
regained."  .  .  .  "  Gigantism  is  an  indication  of  approaching  decadence." 
..."  FertUity  depends  chiefly  upon  the  inheritance  of  physiological 
characters." 

The  author  is  a  taxonomist  who  has  named  and  described  a  thousand 
or  more  species.  What  rules  has  he  ?  "  Forms  of  animals  which 
present  distinct  assemblages  of  characters,  in  form,  colour,  and  arrange- 
ments of  parts  under  natural  conditions,  which  are  recognisable  from 
descriptions  and  figures,  should  receive  distinctive  names  and  be 
catalogued,  provided,  of  course,  that  the  assemblage  of  characters 
includes  all  ontogenetic  changes.  If,  in  the  examination  of  abundant 
material  from  different  natural  environments,  we  find  these  characters 
fairly  constant,  the  forms  may  properly  be  called  species,  if  not  varieties 
or  races." 

Functions  of  Membranes.f — H.  Zangger  has  made  a  study  of  the 
role  of  membranes  in  normal  and  abnormal  functioning.  He  discusses 
the  formation  and  critical  thickness  of  membranes,  the  reversible  and 
irreversible  changes  in  permeability,  and  similar  questions,  showing  how 
very  important  membranes  are  in  the  economy  of  the  body. 

New  Horse  from  Lower  Miocene.^ — F.  B.  Loomis  describes  Para- 
hippus  tyleri  sp.  n.,  closely  related  to  P.  nebraskensis,  which  helps  to  fill 
in  part  of  the  gap  between  the  rich  Oligocene  Mesohippus  fauna  and  the 
Upper  Miocene  Protohippus  group,  just  where  the  transition  from  the 
Brachydont  uncemented  teeth  to  the  Hypsodont  cemented  ones  occurs. 

Occasional  Luminosity  of  White  Owl.§  —  R.  J.  W.  Purely  brings 
forward  the  testimony  of  many  observers  in  North  Norfolk  to  the  effect 
that  two  birds  in  the  district — almost  certainly  owls  (Strix  flammed) — are 
occasionally  luminous. 

*  Amer.  Nat.,  xlii.  (1908)  pp.  184-94. 

t  Viert.  Nat.  Ges.  Zurich,  lii.  (1908)  pp.  500-36. 

J  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  163-4  (1  fig.). 

§  Trans.  Norfolk  and  Norwich  Nat.  Soc,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  547-52. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICltOSCOPY,    ETC.  707 

Pecten  in  Bird's  Eye.* — V.  Fratiz  publishes  a  note  ou  discoveries 
made  in  regard  to  the  pecten  in  the  course  of  his  study  of  the  bird's 
eve.  The  pecten  is  not  a  derivative  of  the  choroid,  but,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  vessels  which  arise  from  the  ophthalmic  artery,  it  consists 
entirely  of  nervous  tissue,  and  is  derived  from  the  optic  nerve.  Even 
the  walls  of  the  vessels  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  endothelium,  of 
nervous  origin.  On  its  surface  the  pecten  bears  sensory  hairs  and  sen- 
sory papillae.  It  is,  therefore,  an  intra-ocular  sense-organ,  and  all  the 
peculiarities  of  its  structure,  macroscopical  and  microscopical,  indicate 
that  it  serves  for  the  perception  of  the  intra-ocular  fluctuations  of  pres- 
sure which  arise  from  the  movements  of  the  lens  in  accommodation. 
It  is  highly  probable  that  the  distant  objects  seen  are  more  clearly 
perceived  by  its  means. 

New  Jerboa  from  China.f — Oldfield  Thomas  describes  a  three-toed 
species  of  jerboa  from  Shensi,  China.  The  only  jerboa  hitherto  known 
from  China  has  been  the  five-toed  Allactaga  mongolica  Radde,  and  the 
finding  of  this  species  greatly  enlarges  the  known  range  of  the  three- 
toed  jerboas,  which  had  hitherto  not  been  recorded  east  of  Central  Asia. 
The  species  in  question  is  a  distinct  form,  closely  related  to  Dipus 
sagitta  and  its  ally  D.  deasyi,  but  considerably  larger  than  these  species. 
The  author  fully  describes  the  new  species,  to  which  he  gives  the  name 
D.  soicerbyi,  in  honour  of  its  discoverer. 

Experiment  with  the  Oviduct  of  the  Hen.  J — R.  Pearl  and  F.  M. 
Surface  describe  one  of  a  series  of  experiments  being  carried  on  with  a 
view  to  gaining  more  complete  and  definite  information  concerning  the 
functions  and  normal  physiological  activity  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
oviduct  in  the  hen.  A  relatively. large  portion  of  the  glandular,  albumen- 
secreting  portion  of  the  oviduct — actively  functioning,  and  therefore 
highly  vascular — was  removed,  and  a  perfect  end-to-end  anastomosis, 
without  loss  of  function,  was  obtained.  The  first  egg  laid  after  the 
operation  was  slightly  abnormal  in  shape,  but  all  subsequent  eggs  were 
normal  both  as  to  form  and  contents,  though  they  were  slightly  smaller 
than  the  average  for  the  same  breed. 

Asiatic  Red-bellied  Newt.§ — E.  R.  Waite  writes  a  note  on  the 
breeding  habits  of  the  Red-bellied  Newt  (Molge,  pyrrhogastra),  which 
he  succeeded  in  inducing  to  breed  in  captivity.  It  does  not  appear  to 
differ  markedly  from  the  European  M.  cristata.  The  first  eggs  were 
laid  in  October,  and  incubation,  in  water,  at  a  temperature  of  55-6;")°  F., 
took  sixty  days.  Various  plants  were  kept  in  the  tank,  but  Vail  is  iter  in 
was  always  the  one  selected  to  receive  the  eggs.  A  floating  portion  of 
a  terminal  leaf  was  folded  over  on  itself,  the  single  egg  being  glued 
within  it.  If  removed  from  the  plant  the  egg  sinks,  but  develops 
normally  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank.  The  Larvae  grow  rapidly  after 
hatching,  but  will  probably  require  years  to  mature,  as  do  those  of 
M.  cristata. 

*  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxviii.  (1908)  pp.  449-67  (24  figs.), 
t  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  ii.  (1908)  pp.  307-8. 
%  Amer.  Journ.  Physiol.,  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  357-61  (1  fig.). 
§  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.W.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  66-7. 


708  SCMMAKV    OF   (TRKKNT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Anatomy  of  Australian  Amphibia.* -- Georgina  Sweet  has  in- 
vestigated the  anatomy  of  eight  Australian  Amphibians:  Hyla  aurea, 
H.  lesueurii,  Notaden  bennetti,  Pseudophryne  australis,  Crinia  signifera, 
Heleioporus  pictus,  Ghiroleptes  alboguttatus,  Lymnodynastes  dorsal  is. 
with  special  reference  to  the  opening  of  the  nephrostomes  from  the 
coelom,  and  the  connection  of  the  vasa  deferentia  with  the  kidney. 
Nephrostomial  openings  were  found  in  all  the  tonus.  There  was 
considerable  evidence  that,  in  the  course  of  their  disappearance  in  the 
adult  condition,  during  the  evolution  of  the  group,  the  nephrostomes 
have  been  subjected  to  well-marked  modifications,  their  original  con- 
nection with  the  kidney  tubules  being  transferred  to  the  renal  vessels. 
Likewise,  their  function  has  changed  from  that' of  conducting  fluid  from 
the  body-cavity  to  the  exterior,  to  that  of  lymph-vessels.  Moreover, 
their  degree  of  development  seems  to  be,  to  a  great  extent,  individual, 
or  characteristic  of  the  species,  varying  greatly  in  harmony  with  their 
functional  importance,  both  in  turn  being  associated  apparently  with 
differences:in  the  habits  of  the  animal.  In  Notaden  bennetti,  along  with 
the  greater  development  in  one  direction,  there  seems  to  have  been  a 
check  to  the  harmonious  development  of  these  structures  in  all  parts  of 
the  kidney,  since  there  are  still  present  along  the  edges  nephrostomial 
tubules  in  various  stages  of  modification  as  to  their  internal  con- 
nections. 

In  all  the  species  studied,  of  which  male  specimens  were  obtained,  it 
was  found  that  the  separation  of  the  male  reproductive  ducts  from  the 
excretory  ducts  has  not  begun,  the  condition  being  comparable  to  that 
found  in  Rana  esculenta,  the  higher  stage  found  in  Ranafusca  not  being 
present  in  the  Australian  species  so  far  examined.  They  are,  therefore, 
far  less  specialised  than  are  the  corresponding  parts  in  Alytes  obstetricans, 
which  are  the  most  specialised  known  in  the  Anura. 

Corpora  adiposa  in  Frog.f — R.  Robinson  brings  forward  some 
evidence  to  show  that  these  bodies  play  an  important,  still  undefined 
role  in  the  economy  of  the  frog. 

Function  of  Optic  Lobes  in  Fishes. $ — Jose  Gomez  Ocaiia  brings 
forward  some  evidence,  based  on  experiments  on  goldfish,  to  show  that 
the  optic  lobes  are  concerned  not  only  with  visual  impressions,  but  are 
important  in  connection  with  the  movements  and  equilibrium  of  the 
body. 

Mimicry  in  the  Common  Sole.§ — A.  T.  Masterman  describes  the 
habits  of  the  two  common  species  of  weever  (Trachinus),  and  suggests 
that  the  black  patch  of  the  pectoral  fin  in  the  sole  is  a  case  of  mimicry 
in  relation  to  the  black  dorsal  fin  of  the  weever,  which  is  supposed  to  act 
as  a  danger  signal.  The  sole  shares  with  the  plaice,  turbot,  and  some 
other  flat-fish,  the  habit  of  lying  concealed  in  the  mud  at  the  approach 
of  an  enemy.  But,  unlike  them,  it  does  not,  when  concealment  becomes 
useless,  scurry  away  with  rapid,  striking  movements,  in  which  the  fins 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Victoria,  xx.  (1908)  pp.  222-49  (2  pis.), 
t  Comptes  Rendus.,  cxlvii.  (1908)  pp.  277-9. 
X  Bull.  Soc.  Espafi.  Hist.  Nat.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  247-9  (1  fig.). 
§  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  (Zool.)  xxx.  (1908)  pp.  239-44. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  709 

are  seen  to  take  part.  The  upper  pectoral  fin  is  erected  sharply  and 
spread  .out,  and  is  not  employed  as  a  motor  fin.  It  thus  forms  a  motionless 
black  flag,  held  up  conspicuously,  like  that  of  the  weever,  and  with 
exactly  the  same  menacing  attitude.  The  following  considerations  are 
urged  in  support  of  the  hypothesis.  1.  That  the  geographical  distribu- 
tion of  Solea  vulgaris  and  its  nearest  allies  is  closely  similar  to,  if  not 
identical  with,  that  of  the  two  common  species  of  Trachinus.  2.  That 
the  sand-loving  and  sand-hiding  habits  of  the  two  forms  are  closelv 
similar,  and  that  they  actually  inhabit  the  same  grounds,  the  young 
soles  with  T.  uipera,  and  the  adults  in  deep  water  with  T.  draco.  3. 
That  on  disturbance  each  type  holds  its  black  fin  erect  in  a  menacing 
manner  ;  that  of  the  sole  is  held  at  right  angles  to  the  normal  position 
for  the  Pleuronectidas.  4.  That  the  pectoral  fin  of  other  Pleuronectidse, 
or  even  Soleidas,  is  not  coloured  black,  and  is  not  held  erect  in  the  same 
maimer. 

Production  of  Sound  in  Drum-fishes.* — R.  W.  Tower  gives  an 
account  of  a  series  of  experiments  undertaken  with  a  view  to  determining 
the  cause  of  the  production  of  sound  in  the  drum-fishes  (Sciasnidas),  in 
the  sea-robin  (Prionotus  carol  inns),  and  the  toad-fish  (Opsanus  tan). 
The  structure  of  the  swim-bladder  in  these  forms  is  described  and 
figured,  and  an  account  is  given  of  hitherto  recorded  observations  and 
theories  on  the  subject.  The  experiments  show  that  the  scianoid  fishes 
which  make  a  drumming  noise  have  specific  sound-producing  muscles, 
which  are  only  superficially  attached  to  the  swim-bladder.  For  this 
drumming-muscle  the  name  of  "  musculus  sonificus  "  has  been  proposed 
and  adopted.  The  chief  cause  of  the  drumming  noise  is  the  contraction 
of  the  musculus  sonificus,  which  produces  a  vibration  of  the  abdominal 
walls  and  organs,  especially  of  the  swim-bladder. 

The  sea-robin  and  the  toad-fish,  which  make  a  "  grunting  "  noise, 
have  muscles  which  are  intrinsically  connected  with  the  swim-bladder, 
and  are  known  as  intrinsic  muscles.  The  noise  is  caused  by  a  contrac- 
tion of  these  muscles,  which  produce  a  vibration  in  the  walls  of  the 
air-bladder.  The  mechanism  in  the  Sciaenidas  is  adapted  to  the  pro- 
duction of  rapidly  repeated  sounds.  That  in  the  sea-robin  and  toad-fish 
is  adapted  to  the  production  of  sounds  at  more  or  less  long  intervals. 

Tunicata. 

California^  Ascidians.| — W.  E.  Ritter  gives  an  account  of  the 
Ascidians  collected  by  the  '  Albatross '  off  the  Calif ornian  coast.  He 
deals  with  fourteen  species,  twelve  of  which  are  new.  The  new  genus 
Halomolgala  has  a  test  beset  with  processes  containing  calcareous 
spicules  ;  the  new  genus  Bmthascidia  is  long  and  pedunculate,  with  a 
non-closable  branchial  orifice,  with  a  very  delicate  branchial  membrane 
without  true  stigmata- 


's* 


Winter-buds    of    Clavellina    Lepadiformis.J — H.   Kert    gives    a 
detailed  account  of  the  formation,  structure,  and  history  of  the  winter- 

*  Ann.  New  York  Acad.  Sci.,  xviii.  (1908)  pp.  149-80  (3  pis.  and  5  figs.). 
t  Univ.  California  Publications,  Zoology,  iv.  (1907)  No.  1,  pp.  1-52  (3  pis.). 
X  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxxii.  (1908)  pp.  386-414(1  pi.). 


710  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

buds — analogous  to  Btatoblasts  in  Bryozoa  and  gemmules  in  Sponges — 

in  this  Aseidian.  He  discusses  the  difficult  fact  that  the  bud  arises  from 
ectoderm  and  mesenchyme,  and  yet  forms  an  entire  animal.  The 
conception  of  homology  breaks  down  in  the  case  of  buds  ;  organs  may 
be  isomorphic  and  analogous,  and  yet  not  homologous,  being  hetero- 
genetic. 

INVERTEBRATA. 

Mollusca. 
7.  Gastropoda. 

Defensive  Pallial  Glands  in  Scaphander.*  —  Ilemy  Perrier  and 
Henri  Fischer  find  that  Scaphander  lignarius  shows  a  high  degree  of 
differentiation  as  regards  pallial  glands.  When  the  animal  is  irritated 
it  emits  a  yellowish  viscous  fluid  which  appears  to  be  defensive.  The 
secretion  is  produced  by  glands  in  the  mantle.  There  are  two  kinds, 
(1)  the  glands  of  Blochmann  (described  in  Aplysia,  etc.)  along  a  zone 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  mantle  parallel  to  its  margin  ;  and  (2)  the 
intra-pallial  glands  immediately  in  front  of  the  anterior  lip  of  the 
pallial  aperture. 

Sense  of  Taste  in  Fresh-water  Snails.f — Henri  Pieron  has  experi- 
mented with  Linuuea  auricularis  and  L.  stagnates,  and  finds  that  the 
sense  of  taste,  of  "  alimentary  discrimination,"  as  he  calls  it,  is  localised 
in  the  most  anterior  part  of  the  foot.  The  same  region  shows  sensi- 
tiveness to  strong  odours,  but  this  olfactory  sensitiveness  is  demonstrable 
over  a  wider  area  than  the  gustatory  sensitiveness.  It  is  found  on  the 
margins  of  the  foot  to  the  posterior  end,  on  the  head,  and  at  the 
osphradium. 

Feeding  Habit  of  Fulgur  and  Sycotypus.  J  —  H.  S.  Colton  has 
studied  the  behaviour  of  these  Gastropods,  which  live  well  in  captivity. 
Fulgar  probably  attacks  any  Lamellibranchs  ;  Sycotypus  will  attack  any 
except  Venus.  Oysters  are  eaten  in  less  than  one  hour,  clams  in  1  h  hour, 
ijuahogs  (Venus  mercenaria)  in  from  seven  hours  to  three  days.  The 
animals  do  not  bore  the  shells  with  the  radula.  They  open  shells  of 
oysters  by  wedging  their  own  shell  between  the  valves,  and  tear  out  the 
flesh  with  the  radula.     Some  shells  are  partly  broken  in  this  way. 

The  meals  of  Fulgur  and  Sycotypus  are  few  and  far  between.  The 
time  between  meals  is  spent  buried  in  the  sand.  Xo  clear  evidence  of 
intelligence  was  discovered. 

Arthropoda. 
a.  Insecta. 

House-fly.§ — C.  (1.  Hewitt  publishes  the  second  of  three  papers  on  the 
house-fly  (Musca  domestica).  The  present  paper  deals  with  the  breeding- 
habits  and  with  the  structure  of  the  larva.  Horse-manure  is  preferred 
by  the  female  as  a  nidus  for  the  eggs,  but  all  sorts  of  excrementitious 
matter,  as  well  as  rotting  cloth,  decaying  vegetables,  and  the  like,  may 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  1163-6. 

t  Op.  cit.,  cxlvii.  (1908)  pp.  279-80. 

%  Proc.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1908,  pp.  3-10  (5  pis.  and  1  fig.). 

§  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  liv.  (1908)  pp.  495-545  (4  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  711 

be  used.  Temperature  is  the  most  important  factor  in  development,  a 
high  temperature  accelerating  it.  Other  factors  are  the  nature  of  the 
food,  and  moisture,  and  the  author  indicates  the  effect  of  these.  Fermen- 
tation is  also  an  important  factor.  The  shortest  time  occupied  in 
development,  that  is,  from  the  deposition  of  the  egg  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  imago,  is  eight  days,  but  this  period  is  only  attained  at  a  constant 
temperature  of  35°  C.  :  under  unfavourable  conditions  the  development 
may  extend  over  several  weeks.  There  are  three  larval  stages,  and  the 
shortest  times  for  the  development  of  each  stage  is  :  egg,  from  deposition 
to  hatching,  8  hours  ;  first  larval  instar,  20  hours  ;  second  larval  instar, 
24  hours  :  third  larval  instar,  3  days  ;  pupal  stage,  3  days.  House-flies 
breed  from  June  to  October,  but  if  the  necessary  conditions  of  tempera- 
ture and  suitable  food  are  present,  they  are  able  to  breed  practically  all 
the  year  round  :  these  conditions  are  not,  as  a  rule,  satisfied  in  winter, 
except  in  such  places  as  warm  stables,  etc.  The  flies  become  sexually 
mature  in  ten  to  fourteen  days  after  emergence  from  the  pupa,  and  they 
may  begin  to  deposit  their  eggs  as  early  as  the  fourteenth  day  after 
emergence.  Each  fly  lays  from  120-150  eggs  in  a  single  batch,  and  it 
may  lay  as  many  as  six  batches  during  its  life. 

The  second  part  of  the  paper  deals  with  the  structure  of  the  mature 
larva.  The  body  is  composed  of  thirteen  segments,  including  the 
remnant  of  the  cephalic  region,  or  "  pseudocephalon."  The  apparently 
single  second  segment  the  author  regards  *as  of  a  double  nature.  The 
muscular  system  is  described  in  detail,  and  the  series  of  muscular 
actions  which  probably  takes  place  during  locomotion  is  discussed.  The 
only  sensory  organs  are  two  pairs  of  tubercles  situated  on  the  dorsal 
sides  of  the  oral  lobes.  By  their  structure  they  indicate  an  optical 
function.  The  alimentary  tract  is  very  long,  and  consists  of  pharynx, 
oesophagus,  proventriculus,  ventriculus,  intestine,  and  rectum.  In  addition 
to  a  pair  of  salivary  glands,  whose  ducts  unite  to  form  a  single  duct 
opening  at  the  anterior  end  of  the  pharynx,  and  a  pair  of  bifurcating 
Malpighian  tubes,  the  larva  possesses  four  caeca  at  the  anterior  end  of 
the  much-convoluted  ventriculus.  The  tracheal  system,  the  vascular 
system,  and  the  imaginal  disca  are  also  fully  described. 

Protandry  in  Insects.* — R.  Denioll  discusses  the  meaning  of  the 
protandry  of  bees  and  other  insects.  There  may  be  difference  of  a 
month  between  the  appearance  of  the  males  and  the  appearance  of  the 
females.  He  thinks  that  the  males  are  thereby  subjected  to  a  process 
of  selection.  Good  nutrition  for  several  weeks  will  have  an  important 
influence  in  the  struggle  for  the  females.  The  older  males  have  the 
most  efficient  mouth-parts,  and  they  tend  to  reproduce  sooner  and  with 
more  result  than  those  less  well-equipped.  Thus  the  mouth-parts  of 
the  females,  which  are  all-important,  are  improved  by  the  paternal 
inheritance. 

Gastrophilus  Larvae  in  Human  Skin.f  —  N.  Cholodkovsky  calls 
attention  to  more  than  one  case  of  the  occurrence  of  larvae  of  Gastro- 
philus  (G.jjecorum  Fabr.  or  O.  hcemorrhoidalis  L.)  burrowing  in  the 
human  skin,  and  causing  "  creeping  disease." 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  620-8. 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  409-13  (2  figs.). 


712  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Reflexes  of  Silkworm  Moths.*  —Vernon  L.  Kellogg  records  some 
very  interesting  facts  in  the  behaviour  of  the  aewly  hatched  moths  of 
Bombyx  mori.  They  are  then  sexually  mature,  and  eager  to  mate  The 
males  hud  the  females  exclusively  by  the  odour  of  the  protruded  scent- 
glands  of  the  female.  If  they  find  the  cut-off  glands,  they  vainly 
endeavour  to  copulate  with  them,  even  when  the  mutilated  female 
is  lying  quite  near.  Blinded  males  find  the  females  readily,  but  not 
so  those  whose  antennas  have  been  removed.  "  The  behaviour  of  males 
with  the  antenna  of  only  one  side  removed  is  striking.  A  male 
with  left  antenna  off  when  within  three  or  four  inches  of  a  female  (with 
protruded  scent-glands)  becomes  strongly  excited,  and  moves  energetically 
around  in  repeated  circles  to  the  right,  or  rather,  in  a  flat  spiral,  thus 
getting  (usually)  gradually  nearer  and  nearer  the  female,  and  finally 
coming  into  contact  with  her,  when  he  is  immediately  controlled  by  the 
contact  stimulus.  A  male  with  right  antenna  off,  circles  or  spirals  to 
the  left.  .  .  .  This  behaviour  is  quite  in  accordance  with  Loeb's  explana- 
tion of  the  forward  movement  of  bilaterally  symmetrical  animals." 
Various  experiments  were  made  with  moths  without  cephalic  or  thoracic 
ganglia.  Females  with  head  and  thorax  cut  off  (and  even  part  of  the 
abdomen)  can  be  mated  with  by  males,  and  this  fractional  part  of  the 
female  can  fertilise  and  deposit  a  few  eggs  which  begin  normal  develop- 
ment. One  such  fragment  "  lived,"  flexible  and  responsible  to  stimulus 
and  capable  of  extruding  the  ovipositor  and  laying  eggs,  for  forty  hours. 
Males  without  heads  cannot  find  females,  nor  can  they  mate  if  placed  in 
contact  with  them.  An  experiment  on  equilibrium  showed  that  the 
equilibrating  organs  are  not  on  the  antennas ;  they  are  on  some  other 
part  of  the  head. 

The  author  appears  to  regard  much  of  the  behaviour  of  complexly 
organised  forms,  such  as  the  moths  in  these  experiments,  as  "  inevitable  " 
in  relatic  n  to  physico-chemical  stimuli  and  reactions. 

Inheritance  in  Silkworms.f — V.  L.  Kellogg  publishes  a  first  account 
of  data  and  results  derived  from  a  prolonged  experimental  study  of  silk- 
worm inheritance.  This  study  has  served  to  test  for  the  silkworm  the 
Mendelian  principles  of  inheritance,  as  well  as  the  actuality  of  the  potency 
in  heredity  of  vigour,  of  sex,  and  of  special  characters,  and  finally,  the 
hypothesis  of  individual  and  race  idiosyncrasies  in  matters  of  inheritance. 
His  conclusions  are  as  follows  : — 

Silkworms  exhibit  some  characteristics  which  are  alternative  in 
inheritance  and  which  follow  in  their  transmission  exactly,  or  with 
more  or  less  approximation,  Mendelian  proportions.  But  some  of  these 
characteristics  are  not  very  stable  in  their  alternative  and  Mendelian 
behaviour.  Some  other  characteristics  are  not  discontinuous  or  alterna- 
tive in  character  or  inheritance,  but  are  of  the  nature  of  fluctuating 
variations,  and  are  strongly  obedient  to  Galton's  law  of  regression. 
Larval  colour-pattern  differences  are  consistently  and  rigorously  alterna- 
tive and  Mendelian  in  inheritance  ;  cocoon  colours  tend  to  be  alternative 
and  Mendelian  in  behaviour,  but  are  inconsistent  as  to  dominancy  and 

*  Proc.  Stanford  Univ.,  California,  1906,  pp.  152-4. 

t  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University  Publications,  University  Series,  i.  (1908) 
89  pp.,  4  pis. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  713 

recessiveness,  and  numerical  proportions,  and  may  even  break  down  and 
blend,  or  one  colour  be  otherwise  influenced  or  modified  by  the  presence, 
in  a  mating,  of  another.  Larval  pattern  and  cocoon  colour  characters 
do  not,  except  as  coincidences,  follow  the  same  parent  in  dominance. 
In  cross-mating,  combining  opposed  larval  and  cocoon  characters,  domi- 
nance in  larval  pattern  may  be  with  the  paternal  type,  in  the  cocoon 
colour  with  the  maternal,  or  vice  versa,  or  both  dominances  may  rest 
with  the  paternal  or  the  maternal  type.  Dominance  is  a  function  of  the 
characteristic,  not  of  the  parental  influence.  Dominance  is  not  a 
function  of  sex  or  of  bodily  vigour. 

While  in  larval  colour-pattern  characters  the  inheritance  behaviour 
is  rigorously  alternative  and  Mendelian,  dominance  always  being  con- 
sistent in  relation  to  a  given  colour-pattern  as  related  to  another,  this  is 
not  true  of  cocoon  colours.  With  these,  characteristic  differences  pecu- 
liar to  strain  (or  race)  and  individual  are  marked.  Strain  and  individual 
idiosyncrasies  are  real  and  important,  and  thus,  sweeping  generalisations 
concerning  the  inheritance  behaviour  of  the  cocoon  colours,  tending  to 
class  them  unreservedly  in  the  Mendelian  category,  cannot  be  made. 
The  tendency  is  for  them  to  behave  in  Mendelian  manner,  but  it  is  a 
tendency  subject  to  numerous,  marked,  and  various  inconsistencies  and 
irregularities.  In  double  matings,  i.e.  matings  of  one  female  with  more 
than  one  male,  these  males  representing  different  types  of  larval  and 
cocoon  characters,  interesting  modifications  and  interactions  of  influence 
are  to  be  noted.  The  reality  of  strain  potency  over  character  potency 
is  made  manifest  in  these  double  matings.  Quantity  and  quality  of 
silk,  subsidiary  larval  marking,  wing-pattern  and  wing-venation  varia- 
tions, and  degree  of  adhesiveness  of  eggs,  are  all  fluctuating,  non-alter- 
native characters.  Double  cocooning  is  a  phenomenon  determined  by 
ontogenetic  circumstances.  Crowding  is  not  the  causal  circumstance. 
Of  various  sport  appearances  of  larval  "  cocoon  "  and  imaginal  characters 
only  one,  namely,  larval  melanism  or  "  monicaudness,1,  is  of  prepotent  or 
dominant  nature  when  crossed  with  the  normal  condition.  All  other 
sport  characteristics,  including  various  larval  colour  and  structural 
abnormalities,  active  flight  of  moths,  absence  or  rudimentary  condition 
of  wings,  unusual  colour-patterns,  including  melanism  of  moths,  are 
extinguished  by  cross-mating.  Fertility  is  not  affected  by  the  age  of 
the  egg-cells,  but  seems  to  be  unfavourably  affected  by  the  age  of  the 
spermatozoa.     Old  spermatozoa  seem  less  potent  than  younger  ones. 

A  scientific  study  of  inheritance  in  silkworms  may  be  of  service  to 
commercial  silk-culture. 

Treatise  on  Insects.*— A.  Berlese  continues  his  great  treatise  on 
insects,  the  last  published  fasciculi  dealing  with  the  fatty  bodies,  the 
respiratory  system,  and  the  reproductive  organs. 

Galleria  melonella.f — S.  Metalnikov  gives  an  account  of  a  series 
-of  experimental  observations  on  the  nutrition  and  excretion  of  this 
caterpillars  of  this  moth,  which  feed  entirely  on  bees'  wax.  The  femaL 
lays  her  eggs  on  pieces  of  wax  or  wood  within  the  hive.     The  littl 

*  Gli  Insetti.     Milan  :  1908,  i.  fasc.  28-30,  pp.  801-96  (figs.  1002-1197) 
t  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  289-383  (5  pis.). 

Bee.  16th,  10  08  3  a 


714  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

white  grub-like  caterpillars  emerge  in  about  eight  days,  and  almost 
immediately  begin  to  construct  a  shelter  of  silk,  spun  from  a  special 
opening  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  head,  and  strengthened  with  pieces 
of  wax.  This  shelter,  which  serves  to  protect  them  from  the  stings  of 
the  bees,  is  gradually  enlarged  with  the  caterpillar's  growth  until  it 
becomes  a  kind  of  gallery  connected  with  the  exterior  of  a  honeycomb. 
The  caterpillar  creeps  backwards  and  forwards  along  the  gallery,  but 
never  leaves  it  until  it  is  about  to  spin  its  cocoon,  when  it  makes  its 
way  to  the  entrance  opening  of  the  hive.  There  it  spins  a  cocoon, 
which  it  attaches  to  the  wall  of  the  hive,  generally  beside  many  others, 
so  that  they  form  a  large  compact  mass.  The  winged  insect  emerges  in 
ten,  fifteen,  or  eighteen  days  according  to  temperature,  the  optimum 
temperature  being  apparently  between  30°  and  40°  C. 

In  regard  to  nutrition,  it  was  found  that  the  caterpillars  fed  chiefly 
on  the  old  broken-down  pieces  of  honey-comb,  and  that  this  contained 
larval  skins,  excrement  of  the  bees,  and  other  nitrogenous  matter  to  the 
amount  of  about  20  p.c.  Artificially  reared  larvae,  supplied  only  with 
chemically  pure  wax,  did  not  gain  in  weight  or  size,  but  went  through 
their  whole  metamorphosis,  while  those  fed  wholly  on  the  nitrogenous 
matter  extracted  from  the  wax,  or  on  other  substances,  died  very  soon, 
so  that  bees'  wax  is  apparently  the  most  indispensable  element  of  their 
dietary.  One  of  the  two  constituent  parts  of  wax,  myricene  and  cerine, 
was  sufficient  to  keep  the  caterpillars  in  normal  health,  and  either  seemed 
equally  effective. 

The  paper  contains  a  full  account  of  the  structure  and  functions  of 
the  digestive  organs,  and  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  three 
systems  of  excretory  organs — the  Malpighian  tubes,  the  pericardial  cells, 
and  the  phagocytes.  In  regard  to  these  last,  an  interesting  series  of 
experiments  was  made  to  determine  how  far  the  relative  immunity  of 
the  caterpillars  to  various  pathogenic  microbes  was  due  to  phago- 
cytosis. The  results  showed  three  different  cases  : — 1.  Phagocytosis 
absent,  or  very  feeble.  In  this  case  the  caterpillars  perished  with  sur- 
prising rapidity.  2.  Phagocytosis  strong,  but  the  phagocytes  were 
unable  to  digest  the  intruding  bacteria.  In  this  case  the  caterpillars 
survived  for  a  longer  time,  but  ultimately  succumbed  to  the  disease. 
3.  Phagocytosis  very  vigorous,  and  destruction  of  the  microbes  within 
the  phagocytes.  In  this  case  the  organism  easily  got  over  the  disease, 
and  normal  metamorphosis  took  place. 

Destruction  of  Book-worms.* — F.  Secques  discusses  various  methods 
of  destroying  Anobium  Mbliothecarum,  Dorcatoma  bibliothecarum,  with- 
out spoiling  the  books,  and  of  sterilising  books.  He  finds  that  exposure 
in  a  metal  box  to  vapour  of  formol  is  most  effective. 

Flies  in  Amber,  f — F.  Meunier  has  studied  more  than  1500  speci- 
mens of  Baltic  amber  containing  Diptera,  and  gives  a  monographic 
account  of  the  numerous  genera  and  species  of  Empidae.  All  the  species 
seem  to  be  extinct,  but  most  of  the  genera  are  now  represented  in  Prussia 
and  Xorth  Europe  generally.     Among  the  most  interesting  genera  may 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  112-14. 
t  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  (Zool.)  vii.  (1908) "pp.  81-135  (10  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  715 

be  noted  Phoneutisca,  now  nearctic ;  Palmleptopem,  which  is  related  to 
(Edalea  and  Leptopeza  ;  the  genera  Euthyneuriella,  Meghyperiella,  and 
Parathalassiella. 

Nervous  System  of  Larva  of  Corydalis  cornuta.* — A.  G.  Hammar 

gives  a  detailed  account  of  this.  It  is  of  a  very  generalised  type. 
There  is  a  ganglion  for  practically  every  segment  ;  only  in  the  last 
abdominal  segments  is  there  a  fusion,  of  two  or  possibly  three  ganglia. 
The  author  deals  with  the  central  nervous  system,  in  head,  thorax, 
and  abdomen,  and  with  the  sympathetic  nervous  system,  and  gives  a  very 
careful  analysis. 

Genitalia  as  Indications  of  Relationship^  —  W.  Wesche  gives  a 
number  of  illustrations  showing  the  importance  of  a  study  of  the 
genitalia  in  connection  with  phylogeny.  The  male  genitalia  always 
furnish  specific  characters,  and  in  certain  cases  those  of  both  sexes  may 
lie  relied  on  as  indices  of  wider  relationships. 

5-  Arachnida. 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Oribatidae.J  —  C.  Warburton  notes 
that  these  minute  free-living  vegetarian  mites  may  be  transported  in 
moss  in  hermetically-sealed  tins  from  very  distant  localities,  and  that 
it  should  thus  be  possible  for  a  worker  in  Britain  to  build  up  an  ex- 
tensive knowledge  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  these  forms. 
Some  of  the  facts  he  reports  are  very  interesting.  Himalayan  material 
contained  twenty  species  (in  twelve  genera)  and  twelve  of  these  species 
were  British.  Yet  there  does  not  seem  to  be  a  single  spider  common 
to  England  and  India.  British  forms  were  obtained  from  Madagascar, 
South  Nigeria,  Uganda,  Madeira,  Canada,  British  Guiana,  and  Hawaii. 

The  most  cosmopolitan  of  the  Oribatidre  are  neither  the  most 
primitive  (to  all  appearance)  nor  the  most  active.  The  genus  Oribata 
is  apparently  the  most  specialised  of  the  Oribatidse,  and  seems  also  to  be 
the  most  widely  distributed,  0.  alata  being  the  most  cosmopolitan  of 
all.  Nothrus  has  all  the  appearance  of  a  primitive  genus,  as  its  adults 
often  resemble  the  larva?  of  Oribata,  but  only  one  British  species  was 
obtained  from  the  localities  noted.  Hardly  any  representatives  of  the 
large  long-legged  active  mites  of  the  genus  Damceus  have  been  re- 
ceived from  abroad,  and  the  only  known  jumping  Oribatid,  Zetorchestes, 
common  on  the  Continent,  has  not  even  made  its  way  to  England. 

New  Species  of  Kgenenia.§ — P.  de  Peyerimhoff  describes  K.  his- 
panica  sp.  n.  from  a  cave  in  Aragon,  and  gives  a  useful  comparison  of 
the  six  Mediterranean  species  of  this  remarkable  genus. 

North  American  Lycosidae.|| — Ralph  V.  Chamberlin  discusses  this 
family  of  wolf-spiders,  or  running  spiders,  and  gives  definitions  of  the 
eight  genera  and  descriptions  of  the  species.     The  Lycosidae  are  among 

•  Aim.  Entom.  Soc.  America,  i.  (1908)  pp.  105-27  (2  pis.). 

t  Trans.  Entom.  Soc.  London,  1908,  pp.  295-305. 

t  Proc.  Camb.  Phil.  Soc,  xiv.  (1908)  op.  532-4. 

§  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  ix.  (1908)  pp.  189-93  (2  figs.). 

||  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1908,  pp.  158-318  (16  pis.). 

3  b  2 


716  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES  RELATING    TO 

the  most  familial-  and  widely  distributed  of  spiders,  living  close  to  the 
earth,  usually  chasing  their  prey,  often  protectively  coloured.  "  The  high 
arched  cepbalothorax  and  the  long  stout  legs  plainly  bespeak  strength 
and  speed.  .  .  .  The  arrangement  of  the  eyes  is  such  as  to  make  the 
animal  aware  of  movements  within  its  limit  of  vision  in  front,  at  the 
sides,  and  through  a  considerable  arc  behind.  .  .  .  Other  characters 
serving  to  distinguish  members  of  this  family  are  the  three  claws  of 
the  tarsi,  the  notching  of  the  trochanters  at  the  outer  end  beneath,  and 
the  excavation  of  the  posterior  piece  of  the  superior  lorum  of  the 
abdominal  pedicel."  The  eggs  are  carried  in  cocoons  attached  to  the 
spinnerets ;  the  hatched  young  are  carried  for  some  time  on  their 
mother's  back. 

New  Mite.* — E.  Trojan  observed  that  the  flies  (Musca  vomtioria)  in 
his  house  showed  signs  of  epidemic  disease.  They  were  thin  and 
shrivelled  looking,  their  flight  and  movements  generally  were  languid, 
and  they  continually  stroked  their  bodies  with  their  legs.  Examination 
showed  that  they  were  infested  with  ecto-parasites,  each  fly  bearing  two, 
three,  or  five.  When  a  fly  was  killed,  the  parasites  immediately  left  it 
and  moved  away.  Sixty  of  the  parasites  were  collected  and  examined, 
and  proved  to  be  mites  of  the  genus  Holostaspis,  closely  resembling 
H.  badius,  described  and  figured  by  Berlese,  occurring  on  the  same  host. 
The  form  in  question,  however,  differs  from  H.  badius  in  regard  to  the 
arrangement  of  teeth  on  the  mandibles,  in  certain  details  of  the  epistom 
and  hypostom,  and  in  bodily  size.  The  finder,  therefore,  regards  it  as 
a  new  species,  and  names  it  H.  sita.  All  the  specimens  collected  were 
females,  and  well-developed  larvse  were  found  within  nearly  all. 

f.  Crustacea. 

Lamippidae.t  —  A.  de  Zuluetta  discusses  this  peculiar  family  of 
parasitic  Copepods,  which  infest  Alcyonarians.  The  minute  body  is 
fusiform,  soft-skinned,  without  differentiated  regions  or  segments. 
There  are  three  kinds  of  cuticular  structures — uncinate  setae,  subulate 
setae,  and  hair-like  setae.  The  appendages  consist  of  antennules,  uni- 
ramose  antennae,  a  degenerate  oral  apparatus,  two  pairs  of  thoracic 
limbs.  There  is  a  terminal  furca.  The  females  show  a  pair  of  ventral 
genital  openings,  but  the  males  show  none. 

The  author  describes  several  new  species  of  Lamippe  (from  Sympo- 
dium,  AJcyoniwn,  Pennatula,  Pterocides,  Veret  ilium,  etc.),  and  establishes 
a  new  genus,  Linaresia,  with  a  prominent  rostrum,  with  a  papillose 
cuticle,  without  mouth  appendages,  with  very  long  furcal  lobes. 

Classification  of  Scalpelliform  Barnacles.! —  H.  A.  Pilsbry  com- 
pares his  conclusions  as  to  classification  with  Hoek's.  He  recognises 
four  genera — Galantica,  Smilium,  Euscalpellum,  and  Scalpellum — and 
gives  a  key.  The  structure  of  the  little  males  is  correlated  with  certain 
features  of  the  hermaphrodites,  especially  the  development  of  a  sub- 
carina.  •    The  least    specialised  males  belong   to  hermaphrodite  forms, 

•  Arch.  Natur.,  i.  (1908)  pp.  1-12  (1  pi.  and  5  figs.). 

t  Arch.  Zool.  Exper,  ix.  (1908)  pp.  1-30  (26  figs.). 

\  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1907,  pp.  105-11  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  717 

which  are  known  by  morphological  and  palaeontological  evidence  to  be 
old  generalised  types.  The  most  modified  males  are  those  of  the 
highly-evolved  hermaphrodite,  or  female  forms.  A  classification  fully 
supported  by  the  characters  of  both  sexes  rests  on  a  broader  basis  than 
one  that  ignores  the  males. 

Headless  Spermatozoa  of  Cirripeds.* — E.  Ballowitz  finds  that  the 
ripe  spermatozoa  of  Balanus  and  Lepas  are  without  "heads."  He  has 
studied  in  particular  the  spermatozoa  of  B.  improvisus,  which  are  simple, 
slightly  curved  threads,  with  a  terminal  piece  but  with  no  differentiated 
"  head.1'  It  is  possible  that  the  chromatin  of  the  spermatocyte  nucleus 
is  in  one  of  the  two  (light  and  dark)  fibres  that  make  up  the  spermatozoon. 

New  Devonian  Isopod.f—  George  H.  Carpenter  and  Isaac  Swain 
describe  Oxyuropoda  Ugioides  g.  etsp.  n.,  a  fossil  Isopod  from  Kiltorcan 
Hill,  County  Kilkenny.  It  is  superficially  like  Ligia,  but  seems  to  show 
affinities  with  the  Chelifera.  It  may  be  a  palaeozoic  link  between 
Chelifera  and  Oniscoidea,  and  in  certain  features  it  resembles  Serolidas. 

Annulata. 

Breeding  of  Nereis  japonica.+ — Akira  Izuka  gives  an  interesting 

account  of  the  breeding  habits  and  development  of  Nereis  japonica,  a 

Lycorid  Annelid,  closely  allied  to  N.  diversicolor,  but  differing  in  the 

arrangement  of  the  paragnathi,  in  the  greater  size  of  the  falcate  bristles, 

and  in  the  possession  of  a  distinct  lens  in  the  eye.     The  breeding  habit 

is  also  different,  and  the  author  regards  the  Japanese  worm  as  a  new 

species.     X.japotiica  occurs  very  abundantly  in  the  Kojiina  Gulf,  and 

in  the  rivers  leading  into  it.     It  is  extensively  used,  in  its  mature  state, 

for  manure,  and  in  some    localities  it  is  used  for  bait.     The  worms 

burrow  in  the  sand  to  a  depth  of  about  a  foot  or  more,  but  emerge  from 

their  retreats  at  flood-tide,  and  creep  actively  about  the  bottom,  feeding 

voraciously  on  aquatic  animals  and  plants.     When  disturbed  they  swim 

rapidly  with   a  wave-like  movement.       Fully  mature  worms   attain   a 

length  of  110-120  mm.     The  number  of  segments  does  not  exceed  120. 

The  sexes  are  easily  distinguishable,  the  females  being  deep  green  on 

the  dorsal  surface,  and  a  greenish-yellow  on  the  ventral  surface,  while 

the  males  are  light  greenish-yellow  dorsally,  and  pinkish-white  on  the 

under  surface.    The  eggs,  or  spermatozoa,  are  discharged  when  the  worm 

is  swimming  at  the  surface,  and  sink  gradually  to  the  bottom.     The 

spermatozoa  are  found  adhering  in    large   numbers  to  the  gelatinous 

envelope  of  the  ovum.    The  cleavage  process  agrees  in  general  with  that 

described  by  E.  B.  Wilson  for  X.  limbata,  but  it  seems  to  proceed  much 

more  slowly.     With  respect  to  the  swarming  habit  of  the  mature  worm, 

the  author's  observations  confirm  what  has  long  been  known  from  the 

experience  of  fishermen,  that  swarming  occurs  in  December,  usually  in 

one  period,  lasting  a   few    days  ;    that  it  begins  on  the   night  before 

the  new  or  full  moon  in  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  the  month,  and 

that  it  invariably  takes  place  at  midnight  just  after  flood-tide.     Very 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  xci.  (1908)  pp.  420-6  (1  pi.). 

t  Proc.  R.  Irish  Acad.,  xxvii.  Section  B  (1908)  pp.  Gl-7i  (1  pi,  and  1  fig.). 

%  Ann.  Zool.  Japon,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  294  305  (4  figs.). 


718  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    KKLATING   TO 

rarely  it  occurs  in  two  periods  close  to  the  consecutive  new  and  full 
moons.  In  1!H)6  the  observer  saw  the  first  worms  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
after  midnight.  Three  quarters  of  an  hour  later  they  "covered  the 
whole  water  as  with  a  sheet,"  and  reached  to  a  depth  of  five  or  six  feet 
below  the  surface.  An  hour  and  a  half  later  they  had  begun  to 
disappear,  and  by  2.15  a.m.  there  was  not  a  single  worm  to  be  seen. 

Studies  on  Australian  Leeches.* — E.  J.  Goddard  describes  two 
new  species  of  Glossvphonia  (syn.  Clepsine),  and  a  new  genus  Semi- 
lagemta.  In  the  latter  the  body  is  thick  and  pear-shaped,  with  convex 
dorsal  surface  and  flat  ventral  surface  ;  the  somites  are  denoted  partly 
by  papilla,  partly  by  sulci ;  they  are  trianuulate  in  the  greater  part  of 
the  body,  and  twenty  in  number. 

Nematohehninthes. 

Note  on  Filaria  immitis.t — Thos.  L.  Bancroft  thinks  it  most  likely 
that  the  young  filaria  pass  out  from  the  apex  of  the  mosquito's  pro- 
boscis or  labium.  He  gives  a  diagram  depicting  the  escape  of  a  young 
filaria  into  the  skin  alongside  the  stylets.  •  The  author  has  also  tried  to 
ascertain  how  long  a  time  must  elapse  before  an  infected  dog  shows 
embryo  filaria  in  its  blood.  He  finds  that  about  nine  months  must 
elapse. 

Platyhelminthes. 

New  Human  Tapeworm. J — N.  Leon  describes  what  seems  to  be  a 
quite  new  tapeworm  from  man.  It  may  be  referred  to  the  sub-family 
Ligulina,  but  it  requires  a  new  genus,  and  the  name  Braunia  jassyensis 
is  proposed. 

New  Tapeworm  in  a  Dog.§ — N.  Cholodkovsky  describes  Tun  in 
punka  sp.  n.  from  a  Tunisian  dog.  The  scolex  is  very  large  (1  "5  mm. 
broad),  unarmed,  with  four  strong  suckers  (slightly  unsymmetrical)  and 
a  small  apical  elevation. 

Cestodes  of  Birds.  || — 0.  Fuhrmann  has  done  good  service  in  bring- 
ing together  the  results  of  eleven  years'  work  on  the  tapeworms  of  birds. 
Particular  species  may  occur  in  many  hosts,  but  always  in  hosts  belonging 
to  the  same  group.  About  300  species  are  dealt  with,  and  these  are 
referred  to  fifty  genera,  of  which  a  systematic  account  is  given. 

Yellow-brown  Cells  of  Convoluta  paradoxa.f — F.  Keeble  has  made 
a  study  of  the  yellow-brown  cells  of  Convoluta  parodoxa,  a  small  brown 
accelous  Turbellarian  which  occurs  within  a  narrow  belt  of  sea-weed  on 
the  shore.  It  exhibits  tidal  migrations  within  this  belt.  The  migratory 
movements  are  the  resultant  reactions  to  the  various  directive  stimuli  to 
which,  in  its  changing  environment,  it  is  subject.  The  egg-laying  and 
hatching  are  periodic.     The  periods  synchronise  with  those  of  the  neap 

*  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.W.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  320-42  (13  figs.), 
t  Journ.  R  Soc.  N.S.W.,  xxxvii.  (1903)  (received  1908)  pp.  254-7  (2  figs.). 
\  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  359-62  (3  figs.). 
§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  418-20  (4  figs.). 

||  Zool.  Jahrb.,  1908,  Supplement  10,  Heft  1,  pp.  1-232. 
«j[  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.  liv.  (1908)  pp.  431-79  (3  pis.  and  3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY  AND  BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,  ETC.         719 

tides.  The  eggs  and  the  newly  hatched  larvae  contain  no  yellow-brown 
cells.  If  kept  in  filtered  sea- water  they  remain  free  from  them,  but 
when  they  are  brought  into  contact  with  sea-weed  from  the  paradoxa 
zone,  infection  is  induced.  The  infecting  organism  is  an  alga  different 
from  the  zooxanthella  of  Radiolarians  ;  its  free  stage  is  unknown.  In 
the  ingested  state  it  is  characterised  by  many  ingested  chloroplasts,  a 
colourless  anterior  end,  and  by  the  possession  of  fat-globules  in  its 
colourless  protoplasm.  Once  introduced  into  the  body  of  C.  paradoxa 
the  infecting  organism  multiplies  rapidly.  The  fat-globules  of  the  algal 
cells  are  food-reserves.  They  arise  as  the  result  of  the  photo-synthetic 
activity  of  the  algal  cells.  The  reserve  fat  of  the  algal  cells  is  trans- 
ferred from  these  cells  to  the  animal  tissues,  and  serves  these  tissues  as 
food-material.  The  ingested  yellow-brown  algal  cells  become  physio- 
logically an  integral  part  of  the  animal,  contributing  towards  its  nutrition 
and  incapable  of  a  separate  existence. 

The  yellow-brown  algal  cells  are  indispensable  to  the  animal ;  without 
them  it  fails  to  develop.  Nevertheless,  starved  animals  digest  their 
algal  cells  until  no  trace  of  them  remains.  Such  animals  may  be 
reinfected,  and  they  then  begin  to  grow  again. 

Tb.e  yellow-brown  cells  utilise  in  their  constructive  metabolism  the 
waste  products  of  the  nitrogen-metabolism  of  the  animal.  The  waste 
nitrogen  of  the  animal  is  not  excreted,  but  is  stored  in  the  body,  prob- 
ably in  the  form  of  urates.  Animals  deprived  of  solid  food,  but  kept  in 
the  light  in  filtered  sea-water  to  which  uric  acid  has  been  added,  conserve 
their  yellow-brown  cells  and  maintain  their  lives  longer  than  do  animals 
not  supplied  with  uric  acid.  Those  supplied  with  uric  acid  lay  many 
more  eggs  than  those  kept  without  it,  but  under  conditions  otherwise 
similar. 

The  interpretation  of  the  relation  between  yellow-brown  cells  and 
the  animal,  the  author  says,  depends  on  the  point  of  view.  From  that 
of  the  animal  it  is  a  case  of  obligate  parasitism.  From  that  of  the 
species  "infecting  organism,"  it  is  an  insignificant  episode,  involving  the 
loss  of  that  proportion,  probably  small,  of  its  members  which  are  ingested. 
From  that  of  the  individual  ingested  yellow-brown  cell  it  is  a  solution  of 
the  nitrogen  problem,  a  successful  method  of  obtaining  large  supplies  of 
nitrogen. 

Memory  in  Convoluta.* — Louis  Martin  finds  evidence  of  definite 
correspondence  between  the  behaviour  of  Convoluta  roscoffmsis  in  arti- 
ficial conditions  and  the  tidal  movements.  It  seems  that  this  Planarian 
has  a  memory  for  the  tides  (" pallirintnesia  ")  but  certain  conditions 
bring  about  amnesia,  for  instance  electric  currents. 

Maturation  and  Cleavage  in  Paravortex  candii.f — Paul  Hallez 
describes  in  this  Rhabdocoel  the  fertilisation  of  the  ovum,  the  liberation 
of  two  polar  bodies,  the  reduction  of  the  ovum-nucleus  to  two  V-shaped 
chromosomes,  the  equatorial  plate  in  the  fertilised  ovum  with  its  four 
chromosomes,  which  soon  divide  longitudinally,  the  peculiar  lobulated 
(as  if  amoeboid)  nucleus  seen  in  the  blastomeres  on  to  stages  of  150-200, 
and  the  formation  of  a  multinucleate  embryonic  plasmodium. 

•  Comptes  Kendus,  cxlvii.  (1908)  pp.  81-3.  t  Tom,  cit.,pp.  314-16. 


7l-0  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Cell-division  in  Cerebraiulus.* — N.  Yatsu  has  made  experimental 
studies  (in  the  egg  of  Cerdbratulus,  which  seem  to  him  to  throw  some 

light  on  the  mechanism  of  cell-division.  He  finds  that  an  enucleated 
fragment  with  the  aster  shows  a  disturbance  of  surface  tension,  at  the 
end  furthest  from  the  aster.  An  enucleated  fragment  without  the  aster 
often  shows  a  division  activity,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  completely  divided 
into  two.  A  mass  of  cytoplasm  has  in  itself,  or  acquires  under  certain 
conditions,  the  power  of  dividing  itself,  without  the  aid  of  either  rays  or 
centrosomes.  Cleavage  goes  on  normally  even  after  one  of  the  centres 
is  cut  off  at  an  anaphase.  After  the  cleavage  is  fixed,  i.e.  after  the 
formation  of  the  diasteme,  the  cleavage  furrows  proceed  normally, 
notwithstanding  the  removal  of  a  portion  of  the  cytoplasm.  Cleavage 
between  two  asters  with  a  spindle  takes  place  perpendicularly  to  the  middle 
point  of  the  spindle,  irrespective  of  the  position  of  the  asters.  One-sided 
constriction  of  the  first  division  may  occur  as  in  some  Ccelenterates 
and  Petromyzon.  The  karyomeres  may  fuse  and  form  a  daughter- 
nucleus,  even  when  the  chromosomes  have  been  separated  from  the  aster. 
The  same  observer!  publishes  a  note  on  the  adaptive  significance  of  the 
sperm-head  in  the  same  form,  Cerebratulus  lacteus.  From  the  fact  that 
it  took  the  spermatozoa  "  considerable  time  and  not  a  little  effort "  to 
bore  through  the  thick  membrane  in  order  to  reach  the  egg,  he  con- 
cluded that  the  long,  slender,  slightly-curved  head  of  the  spermatozoon 
of  C.  lacteus  might  have  evolved  in  corrtdation  with  the  thick  egg- 
membrane  characteristic  of  the  species.  A  study  of  the  relation  of  sperm- 
head  and  egg-membrane  in  another  species  bore  out  this  conclusion. 

Incertse  Sedis. 

New  Species  of  Dolichoglossus.J — Richard  Assheton  describes  L. 
serpent  in  us  sp.  n.  from  the  littoral  zone  off  Mull.  Its  total  length  was 
200  mm.  and  upwards  ;  the  contracted  proboscis  was  25-85  mm.  long. 
The  proboscis  is  cylindrical  rather  than  conical,  and  capable  of  great 
extension.  It  is  bright  rosy  red,  the  collar  a  deeper  and  more  orange  red, 
the  trunk  from  orange  to  yellow.  There  are  about  fiO  pairs  of  respiratory 
clefts  in  a  large  specimen  ;  there  is  no  backward  prolongation  of  the 
collar  over  the  gill-clefts. 

The  animal  has  a  strong  "  iodoform  "  scent.  It  is  found  in  fine  sand 
at  low-water  mark,  and  is  only  very  rarely  uncovered  by  the  tide.  It 
secretes  much  mucus,  which  forms  tubes  with  the  sand.  Specimens  were 
kept  alive  for  six  months  ;  they  never  came  entirely  out  of  the  sand,  and 
the  collar  was  only  once  seen  protruding  ;  the  proboscis  was  frequently 
protruded,  especially  at  night,  sometimes  waving  and  curling  in  the 
water,  more  usually  lying  along  the  surface  of  the  sand,  first  in  one 
direction  then  in  another.  The  only  other  Dolichofflossus  recorded  from 
Great  Britain  is  D.  ruber,  found  by  Tattersall  on  the  West  of  Ireland. 

Colour  Markings  in  a  Devonian  Brachiopod.§ — I).  K.  Greger 
describes  Grarmna  morsii  sp.  n.,  which  retains  the  original  colour- 
markings,  sometimes  in  a  very  perfect  condition. 

•  Ann.  Zool.  Japon,  vi.,  part  4,  1908,  pp.  267- 7G. 
t  Biol.  Bull.,  xiii.  (1907)  pp.  300-1  (2  figs.). 
%  Zdbl.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  517-20  (2  figs.). 
§  Amer.  Joum.  Sci.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  313-14  (7  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  721 

New  Fresh-water  Polyzoon  from  South  Africa.* — Igerna  B.  J. 
Sollas  describes  Lophopus  capensis  sp.  n.,  from  near  Cape  Town.  It  is 
the  ninth  species  of  Polyzoa  from  South  Africa.  The  new  species  is 
referred  to  the  genus  Lophopus  on  account  of  its  thick  gelatinous 
ectocyst  and  the  form  of  its  statoblasts,  which  are  elliptical  and  rendered 
pointed  by  the  possession  at  each  end  of  a  long  process.  The  process 
is  expanded  at  the  base  and  beset  on  each  side  with  a  double  row  of 
recurved  hooks,  which  extend  with  the  expanded  base  along  the  edge 
of  the  statoblast.  A  description  is  given  of  the  germination  of  the 
statoblast,  the  young  individuals,  the  budding,  and  a  young  colony. 

Echinoderma. 

Hermaphroditism  in  a  Sea-urchin.f — Gr.  Gadd  reports  a  case  of 
hermaphroditism  in  Strongylocentrotus  drmbaehiensis,  <  >.  F.  Mull.  There 
was  in  one  of  the  gonads  an  apical  ovarian  portion,  and  an  oral  testicular 
portion,  the  latter  the  riper. 

Antarctic  Holothurians.J — Clement  Vaney  reports  on  the  important 
collection  made  by  W.  S.  Bruce  on  the  Scottish  Antarctic  Expedition. 
It  includes  two  species  of  Synallactidae,  eleven  of  Elasipoda  (4  Elpiida? 
and  7  Psychropotidaj),  and  ten  of  these  are  new.  There  are  also 
numerous  Oucumariida?,  chiefly  from  the  South  Orkneys,  and  ten  of 
these  are  new. 

Vaney  notes  that  Psolidium  coatsi  and  Gucumaria  p  sol  id  if  or  mi*  and 
O.co/ispicuaave  interesting  transitional  forms  connecting  the  two  genera. 
Another  species,  G.  armata,  has  great  affinities  with  the  genus  Colochin/s. 

G-lands  of  Crinoids.§ — A.  Reichensperger  has  studied  Antedon  rosa- 
cea, Actinometra  parvkirra,  and  Pentacrinm  decorus.  He  finds  glandular 
cells  in  the  epithelium  of  the  ambulacra!  grooves  in  females  of  Antedon, 
the  secretion  of  which  fastens  the  liberated  egg  to  the  pinnules.  In  all 
the  three  forms  mentioned  there  are  glandular  cells  in  the  tentacular 
papilhe.  possibly  with  some  protective  function. 

New  Antarctic  Crinoid.|| — -F.  A.  Bather  describes  Ptilocrinus 
antarcticus  sp.  n.,  which  was  dredged  by  the  Belgian  Antarctic  Expedition 
from  about  480  metres  in  82°  47'  W.,  70°  23' S.  A  diagnosis  of  the 
genus  and  of  the  species  is  given. 

Coelentera. 

Green  Bodies  of  Hydra  viridis.f — I).  D.  Whitney  finds  that  if  a 
green  hydra  be  placed  in  a  weak  glycerin  solution  (1  ■  5-5  per  cent.), 
the  "algae"  pass  from  the  endoderm-cells  into  the  gut  cavity  and  pass 
out  at  the  mouth  when  the  animal  contracts.  The  clear  Hydra  placed  in 
pure  water  will  live  and  feed*and  bud.  If  the  pale  animal  be  kept  for 
a  time  in  well  water  and  then  put  into  a  basin  with  green  hydra  and 
algae,  it  does  not  become  infected  again,  but  remains  pale. 

* 

*  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  ii.  (1908)  pp.  264-73  (8  figs.). 

+  Trav.  Soc.  Nat.  St.  Petersbourg,  xxxviii.  (1907)  pp.  211-18  (1  pi.).  See  also 
Zool.  Zentralbl.,  xv.  (1908)  p.  543. 

\  Trans.  R.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xlvi.  (1908)  pp.  405-41  (5  pis.). 
6  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  363-7  (3  figs.). 

||  Bull.  Classe  Sci.  Acad.  Rov.  Belgique,  1908,  No.  3,  pp.  296-9  (1  fig.). 
i  Biol.  Bull.,  xiii.  No.  6,  1907.     See  also  Zool.  Zentralbl.,  xv.  (1908)  p.  468. 


722  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Hydroids  from  Natal.* — Ernest  Warren  describes  a  collection  of  31 
species  (14  new)  of  hydroids  made  on  the  Natal  and  Znluland  coasts. 
He  establishes  two  new  genera: — Asyncoryne  (with  scattered  filiform 
tentacles,  moniliforni  in  structure,  terminating  in  a  kind  of  rudimentary 
capitulum);  Paragattya  somewhat  near  Gattya  humilis  Adman,  and 
exhibiting  a  remarkable  mixture  of  characters  typical  of  the  Eleuthero- 
plea  and  Statoplea. 

Protozoa. 

Blastodinium.  — E.  Chatton  describes  three  new  species  of  this  genus, 
which  he  established  in  1906  for  certain  remarkable  Dinoflagellate  para- 
sites from  the  intestine  of  pelagic  Copepods  and  Appendicularians.  A 
large  cell  or  macrocyte,  which  in  its  resting  state  is  the  equivalent  of  the 
vegetative  form  of  free  Peridinians,  is  surrounded  by  several  (as  many  as 
six)  zones  or  generations  of  microcytes. 

New  Order  of  Protozoa 4— B.  Zarnik  describes  a  new  species 
of  Gromia,  which  he  names  G.  solenopus,  in  virtue  of  its  peculiar 
pseudopodia.  These  are  branched,  anastomosing  structures  of  absolutely 
hyaline  protoplasm,  which  from  their  origin  and  behaviour  he  believes 
to  be  of  fluid  consistence  at  first,  but  taking  on  a  more  resistant  character 
wherever  their  surface  comes  in  contact  with  the  surrounding  water. 
Zarnik  suggests  that  the  "  Waben-struktur  "  of  the  protoplasm  in  the 
pseudopodia  of  Gromia  as  described  by  Biitschli,  was  no  other  than  a 
criss-cross  wrinkling  of  this  hardened  surface,  following  on  a  contraction 
of  the  still  fluid  content  of  the  pseudopodia. 

The  author  further  describes  within  the  outer  "  shell "  of  the  or- 
ganism a  peculiar  internal  skeleton  of  minute  brownish  silica  plates — 
"  phacochondria  " — structures  that  have  hitherto  always  been  regarded 
as  chloroplasts.  Other  invariable  inclusions  are  the  "  kinochondria," 
highly  refractive  bodies  dancing  within  minute  vacuoles :  these  are 
probably  of  an  excretory  nature.  Reproduction  by  formation  of  flagel- 
late spores  was  very  frequently  observed. 

Zarnik  maintains  that  the  structure  of  Gromia  is  of  a  nature  so 
different  from  that  of  other  Rhizopods  that  it  cannot  be  included  in  any 
of  the  groups  known  hitherto.  The  inner  silica  skeleton  and  the  sac- 
like pseudopodia  are  peculiarities  that  necessitate  the  erection  of  a  new 
order,  for  which  the  name  Solenopoda  is  suggested. 

Schizogony  in  Amoaba.§ — L.  Mercier  has  studied  Anutba  blattm 
from  the  food-canal  of  the  cockroach,  a  species  marked  by  its  large  and 
characteristic  nucleus.  He  finds  that  the  nucleus  divides  by  a  process 
of  constriction,  and  then  the  cytoplasm  follows.  But  although  the 
constriction  of  the  nucleus  seems  on  the  whole  a  simple  process,  the 
chromatin  presents  a  succession  of  appearances  which  recall  some  mitotic 
figures. 

*  Ann.  Natal  Museum,  i.  (1908)  pp.  269-355  (4  pis.  and  23  figs.), 
t  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxxiii.  (1908)  pp.  134-7  (4  figs.). 
%  SB.  Phys.-Med.  Ges.  Wiirzburg,  1907,  pp.  72-8  (1  fig.). 
§  Comptes  Kendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  942-5. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSCOPY,    KTC.  723 

Have  Trypanosomes  an  Ultra-Microscopical  Stage  ?  *— David 
Bruce  and  EL  R.  Bateinan  have  made  a  number  of  experiments  to  teat 
this.  From  five  experiments  it  would  appear  that  the  blood  or  organs  of 
rabbits  suffering  from  nagana  does  not  contain  ultra-microscopical  forms 
of  T.  brucei.  From  eleven  experiments  it  seems  that  the  blood  of  nagana 
rats,  filtered  through  a  Berkefeld  filter,  is  not  infective.  From  other 
experiments  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  blood  of  white  rats  suffering 
from  nagana,  and  treated  for  varying  times  with  antimony  salts,  does  not 
contain  ultra-microscopical  forms  of  T.  brucei.  Cultures  of  T.  lewisii  on 
blood-agar  do  not  give  rise  to  ultra-microscopical  forms  which  are  capable 
of  passing  through  a  Berkefeld  filter.  The  final  conclusion  arrived  at 
is  that  neither  T.  brucei  nor  T.  evansi  develop  in  the  body  of  animals 
forms  so  small  as  to  be  capable  of  passing  through  the  pores  of  a  Berke- 
feld filter,  and  that  in  cultures  of  T.  lewisii  on  blood-agar  such  small 
forms  are  also  absent. 

Budding  in  Acineta  gelatinosa.t — B.  Swarczewsky  observed  the 
formation  of  amoeboid  buds  of  various  sizes,  moving  actively  by  pseudo- 
pods,  and  fixing  themselves  after  liberation  to  the  stalk  of  the  parent. 
This  is  quite  a  different  mode  of  budding  from  the  production  of 
"  ciliospores  "  with  peritrichous  cilia  which  has  been  described  by  various 
observers  of  the  Acineta?. 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  Series  B,  lxxx.  (1908)  pp.  394-8. 
t  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxviii.  (1908)  pp.  441-5  (8  figs.). 


724  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including-  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Structure  and  Development. 
Veg-etative. 

Xerophytic  Adaptations  of  Leaf-structure.*  —  J.  F.  McClendon 

gives  an  account  of  his  studies  of  the  leaf-structure  in  Agave,  Hesperake, 
Dasylirlon,  Nolina,  aud  Yucca.  The  simplest  type  of  stoma  occurs  in 
Yucca  aloifolia  :  the  guard-cells  are  sunk  but  little,  and  are  reached  by 
an  air-passage  which  pierces  the  thick  epidermis.  Beneath  the  stoma  is 
a  system  of  air-cavities,  the  upper  part  being  lined  with  cutin.  In 
Agave  yueccefolia  the  air-passage  is  shorter,  and  there  is  less  cutin  in 
the  air-cavities.  The  genera  examined  show  a  gradual  increase  in  the 
complexity  of  the  supra-stomal  air-passage.  In  addition  to  being  sunk 
below  the  epidermis,  the  stomata  are  often  placed  in  grooves  which 
close  over  them  aud  prevent  transpiration.  The  stomata  in  this  position 
have  less  complex  air-passages  than  are  found  in  the  more  exposed  ones, 
but  have  more  effective  arrangement  of  air-passages  to  promote  rapid 
respiration  of  the  deeper  tissues.  The  leaves  of  Yucca  and  its  allies 
have  a  thick  cutinised  epidermis,  and  the  vascular  bundles  and  internal 
mechanical  tissues  are  arranged  with  special  reference  to  protection  of 
the  stomata.  The  shape  and  method  of  protection  of  the  stomata 
vary  according  to  habitat.  The  above  adaptations  to  a  xerophytic 
habitat  disappeared  when  the  plants  were  placed  under  conditions  of 
increased  moisture  and  diminished  sunlight. 


i&" 


Extra-floral  nectaries. | — K.  Ono  has  examined  a  number  of  plants 
with  the  view  of  throwiug  light  upon  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of 
extra-floral  nectaries.  The  author  finds  that  there  are  two  forms  of 
such  nectaries,  one  being  represented  by  Polygonum  sachalinense,  and 
the  other  by  Prunus  yedomsis.  The  first  type  is  epidermal  in  origin, 
while  the  second  develops  from  both  epidermis  and  hypodermis.  When 
these  nectaries  occur  on  leaves,  they  are  situated  on  the  under  surface, 
but  when  on  petioles  they  are  on  the  upper  surface.  They  consist  of 
true  secretory  glands  on  the  surface,  and  subglandular  cells  of  indirect 
importance.  External  conditions,  of  which  moisture  appears  to  be  most 
important,  are  of  small  importance  relative  to  internal  conditions. 
Epidermal  nectaries  do  not  secrete  so  actively  as  do  those  derived  from 
hypodermis  and  epidermis.     These  nectaries  are  attractive  to  ants. 

*  Amer.  Nat.,  xlii.  (1908)  pp.  308-16  (25  figs.). 

t  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Tokio,  Japan,  xxiii.  (1907)  pp.  1-28  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  725 

Reproductive. 

Relation  of  Megaspores  to  Embryo-sacs.* — J.  M.  Coulter  con- 
tributes a  short  account  of  the  present  state  of  knowledge  of  the 
embryo-sac  in  relation  to  the  megaspore.  The  author  observes  that 
genesis  of  the  ernbryo-sac  begins  with  the  division  of  the  mother-cell, 
and  that  the  two  first  divisions  cannot  be  omitted  if  fertilisation  is  to 
be  brought  about ;  by  these  divisions  the  formation  of  megaspore  nuclei 
is  accomplished.  Several  exceptional  cases  are  then  discussed.  In 
Lilium  the  reduction-divisions  are  only  followed  by  one  other  division, 
thus  reducing  the  customary  five  divisions  to  three.  This  condition  is 
more  common  in  monocotyledons  than  in  dicotyledons.  In  Cypripedium 
also  the  five  divisions  are  reduced  to  three,  but  while  in  Lilium  four 
megaspore  nuclei  are  used,  in  Cypripedium  only  two  are  involved. 
Peperomia  is  to  be  regarded  as  intermediate  between  ordinary  Angio- 
sperms  and  Lilium  and  Cypripedium,  since  without  reduction  there  would 
have  been  thirty-two  nuclei  in  the  embryo-sac.  Insufficient  details  are 
known  at  present  to  explain  the  irregularities  in  the  Araceae.  The  only 
case  in  which  there  is  any  evidence  of  free  nuclear  division  is  in  the 
Penceaceas,  and  even  this'  is  doubtful.  The  author  concludes  that  the 
nuclear  divisions  from  mother-cell  to  complete  embryo-sac  must  be 
studied  before  safe  conclusions  can  be  made.  There  is  a  tendency  to 
eliminate  the  divisions  following  the  reduction-divisions,  but  among  the 
Sympetalae  this  tendency  does  not  appear  to  exist,  and  it  cannot  even 
be  regarded  as  very  general  among  Angiosperms. 

Monospermous  Capsules.! — A.  de  Candolle  has  investigated  a  large 
number  of  plants  bearing  monospermous  capsules,  and  finds  that  they 
may  be  roughly  classified  into  two  groups — (1)  monospermous  fruits 
derived  from  uniovular  ovaries  ;  (2)  monospermous  fruits  resulting  from 
the  abortion  of  one  or  more  ovules.  The  author  does  not  favour  the 
view  that  all  monospermous  fruits  are  derived  from  polyspermous  fruits, 
and  he  considers  that  the  facts  already  known  as  to  the  biological  signi- 
ficance of  such  fruits  are  too  incomplete  to  justify  any  hypotheses  in 
this  direction.  Dehiscence  may  be  regarded  as  of  importance  with 
respect  to  seed-dissemination,  but  no  monospermous  capsule  has  yet 
been  found  having  seeds  with  hairs  or  hooks,  or  other  means  for 
insuring  transport  by  animals  or  other  agents.  The  author  regards 
monospermous  capsules  as  among  those  indifferent  peculiarities  of  which 
a  plant  might  be  deprived  without  suffering  any  inconvenience. 

Physiology. 
Irritability. 

Influence  of  Light  on  the  Growth  of  Rhizopus  nigricans.  %  — 
L.  Raybaud  has  grown  specimens  of  this  fungus  on  artificial  media 
under  different  coloured  glasses,  and  records  his  first  observations. 
Under  dark  conditions  the  filaments  grow  in   an   upright   direction  ; 

*  Bot.  Gazette,  xlv.  (1908)  pp.  361-6. 

t  Ajch.  Sci.  Phys.  Nat.  Geneva,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  228-48. 

X  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  1172-4. 


72l>  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

under  clear  glass,  after  48  hours,  they  bend  over  towards  the  light. 
The  same  result  was  obtained  with  yellow  arlass,  though  the  effect  was 

t  o  o 

more  delayed.  In  a  red  light  the  filaments  become  oblique  about  the 
third  day,  then  lower  themselves  to  the  substratum,  where  they  creep 
along  the  surface.  With  other  colours,  green,  blue,  or  violet,  they 
become  horizontal,  but  do  not  bend  downwards.  The  number  and  size 
of  the  sporangia  were  also  affected  by  different  coloured  lights,  the 
yellow  being  the  most  favourable  to  the  development  of  the  fungus. 

CRYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 
(By  A.  Gepp,  M.A.  P.L.S.) 

Cytology  of  Reproduction  in  Nephrodium.* — S.  Yamanouchi  has 
studied  Nephrodium  molle  "in  order  to  understand  the  characteristics 
of  the  nuclear  behaviour  of  the  species."  The  present  work  is  intro- 
ductory to  a  study  of  apogamy,  and  hence  special  attention  is  given  to 
the  chromosomes.  The  author  disagrees  with  Farmer  and  Digby,  and 
is  of  the  opinion  that  there  is  a  constant  number  of  chromosomes  in 
N.  molle  in  the  sporophyte  generation,  and  also  that  there  is  reduction 
of  the  chromosomes  in  the  normal  life-history. 

In  a  second  paper  j  the  author  publishes  his  results  in  connection 
with  the  spermatogenesis,  oogenesis,  and  fertilisation.  Two  important 
points  are  made  out  in  the  present  account,  viz.  that  it  is  possible  to 
count  the  chromosomes  in  the  gametophyte,  and  that  the  number  of 
chromosomes  is  constant,  being  about  sixty-four  or  sixty-six. 

In  a  third  paper  f  he  publishes  his  latest  conclusions  with  respect 
to  apogamy  in  this  plant.  The  author  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  nuclear 
condition  in  the  normal  life-cycle  favours  the  antithetic  theory  of  the 
alternation  of  generations.  Apogamy  appears  to  be  abnormal,  but  tends 
to  show  that  the  number  of  chromosomes  is  not  the  only  factor  serving 
to  determine  the  characters  of  the  sporophyte  and  gametophyte.  N. 
molle  presents  the  first  instance  known  among  plants  where  the  sporo- 
phyte generation  possesses  the  haploid  number  of  chromosomes. 

Origin  of  Ulodendron  Impressions  of  Bothrodendron.§ — A.  Eenier 
contributes  a  note  upon  the  Ulodendron  impressions  of  B.  punctatum. 
The  author  has  studied  a  new  specimen  recently  accptired  by  the 
University  of  Liege,  and  finds  that  the  view  put  forward  by  Watson  as 
to  the  branch  origin  of  the  scars  is  perfectly  correct  with  regard  to 
B.  punctatum,  and  in  the  absence  of  further  evidence  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  similar  scars  on  Ulodendron  and  Lepidodendron  may  have 
had  a  similar  origin. 

Leaf-trace  in  Gyropteris  and  Tubicaulis.||  —  P.  Bertrand,  after  a 
careful  study  of  Gyropteris  and  Tabkmdis,  concludes  that  these  two 
genera  belong  to  the  Zygopteridese.  The  author  believes  that  Gyropteris 
may  have  been  derived  from  the  genus  Diplolabis  by  loss  of  the  plan  of 

*  Bot.  Gaz.,xlv.  (1908)  pp.  1-30  (4  pis.).  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  145-75  (3  pis.). 

\  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  289-318  (2  pis.  and  3  figs.). 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvi.  (1908)  pp.  1428-30.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  208-10. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  727 

symmetry  and  by  atrophy  of  the  anterior  portions,  while  Tubicaulis  is 
derived  from  Gyropteris  by  accentuation  of  the  characters  of  the  latter 
genus.  It  is  also  possible  that  Anachopterideae  may  have  been  derived 
from  the  Zygopterideae  by  loss  of  the  accessory  plan  of  symmetry,  such 
a  view  being  favoured  by  the  characters  of  the  Glepsydropsis  series,  and 
this  will  account  for  a  certain  resemblance  between  Tubicaulis  and 
A  nachoropteris. 

Conditions  affecting  Prothalli  of  Polypodiaceae.* — G.  Perrin  has 
investigated  the  external  conditions  which  affect  the  development  and 
sexuality  of  the  prothalli  of  the  Polypodiaceae.  Unisexuality  is  more 
common  than  is  generally  admitted.  The  antheridia  appear  early  at 
the  base  and  spread  upwards  in  the  lower  half.  The  archegonia  appear 
later  upon  the  median  cushion  and  spread  gradually  towards  the  upper 
notch.  They  vary  from  one  to  eighteen. '  Unisexual  prothallia  are 
abundant  in  certain  species  of  Adiantvm,  Aspidium  falcatum,  and  Pteris 
cretica,  but  they  are  generally  male.  The  attempt,  carefully  made,  to 
connect  variations  in  size  or  shape  of  spores  with  these  differences  in  the 
sexuality  of  the  prothallia  failed.  It  is  in  external  conditions  that  the 
cause  must  be  sought.  The  principal  agents  appear  to  be — (1)  nutritive 
medium  ;  (2)  light ;  (3)  temperature  ;  (4)  moisture  ;  (5)  time  of  sowing. 
A  poor  medium  dwarfs  the  prothallus  and  prevents  it  from  producing 
archegonia.  A  medium  rich  in  nitrates  favours  the  production  of 
hermaphrodite  prothalli.  Weak  light  also  has  the  latter  effect,  while 
strong  light  induces  male  prothalli.  Red  light  induces  exuberant  vege- 
tation and  a  tendency  to  unisexuality.  The  optimum  temperature  for 
development  is  about  25°  C.  Moisture  is  indispensable.  The  time  of 
sowing  is  important  ;  the  best  cultures  arise  from  spring  sowing. 
Summer  and  autumn  sowings  induce  unisexuality. 

North  American  Ferns. — W.  N.  Clutef  discusses  the  question  of 
change  of  function  in  dimorphic  fronds,  namely  the  appearance  of  sterile 
pinnae  on  the  fertile  frond,  and  vice  versa,  as  in  Botrychium  virginianum. 
He  reproduces!  C.  E.  Bessey's  classification  of  the  families  of  ferns  and 
fern-like  plants,  both  living  and  fossil.  He  gives  a  brief  account  §  of 
Cystiipteri*  fragilis,  and  describes  a  new  variety,  tenuifolia.  Having 
completed  his  check-fist  of  North  American  fernworts  with  some  supple- 
mentary additions,  he  gives  a  summary  ||  showing  a  total  of  304  ferns 
and  fern-allies,  and  214  forms.  F.  C.  Greene  If  supplies  some  notes  on 
the  ferns  of  Bloomington,  Indiana,  indicating  the  habitats  of  25  species. 
A.  A.  Eaton  and  W.  N.  Clute**  discuss  a  question  of  nomenclature 
which  is  provided  for  in  Article  49  of  the  Vienna  Code,  namely,  whether 
a  varietal  name  should  be  retained  for  a  plant  when  raised  to  specific 
rank.  A.  E.  Scoullarft  gives  briefly  the  results  of  her  observations  of 
the  fruiting  of  Botrychium  in  Maine.  Having  carefully  marked  robust 
plants  of  B.  matr&aruyfolium,  B.  obliquum,  and  /I.  obliquum  var.  dissectum, 
she  observed  them  during  four  summers  (1904-7),  and  found  the  first 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvii.  (1908)  pp.  433-5. 
t  Fern  Bulletin,  xvi.  (1908)  pp.  65-8  (1  pi.  and  1  fig.). 
X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  70  4.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  75  7. 

||  Tom.  cit.,  pp  81-4.  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  68-9. 

**  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  77-81.  tt  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  84-5. 


728  si  .MMAKV    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING     L'O 

species  with  fertile  spikes  in  mid-June,  the  others  at  the  beginning  of 
September  ;  hut  where  in  one  year  a  plant  fruited  heavily  (that  is,  bore 
two  fertile  spikes),  it  was  sterile  in  the  following  year.  H.  W.  Jewel  * 
describes  Polypodium  vulgare  f.  elongatum,  a  new  form  discovered  by 
him  in  Maine,  and  recalls  how  he  was  the  first  to  discover  the  rare  var. 
auritum  of  the  same  species  some  years  ago  also  in  the  State  of  .Maine. 
S.  B.  Parish  f  figures  a  remarkable  instance  of  foliar  fission  in  /J"/.y- 
stichum  munitum  growing  in  California.  Some  fronds  of  the  plant  are 
nearly  normal,  others  are  greatly  modified.  B.  L.  Rohinson  J  publishes 
n  description  of  a  new  fern — Woodsia  Cathcartiana — collected  in 
Minnesota  thirty-four  years  ago,  and  referred  by  I).  C.  Eaton  to  his 
W.  scopulina,  from  which  it  differs  in  its  glandular  puberulence. 
Robinson  also  alters  the  names  of  two  North  American  ferns,  and  utters 
a  word  of  warning  against  the  readiness  evinced  by  some  pteridologists 
to  discard  the  generic  name  Aspidium  in  favour  of  Dryopteris,  despite 
the  probability  that  Aspidium  will  be  placed  on  the  list  of  nomina  con- 
servanda  at  the-Nomenclature  Congress  in  1910.  W.  L.  Bacon  §  reports 
the  occurrence  of  Cryptogramma  Stelleri  (Pelhca  gracilis  Hook.)  in 
Maine,  not  on  limestone  but  on  a  coarse  granitic  formation  containing 
traces  of  lime.  A.  A.  Eaton  ||  alters  the  names  of  two  Xorth  American 
species  of  Isoetes  in  accordance  with  the  Vienna  Code.  The  Xew 
England  Botanical  Club  IF  publish  a  list  of  the  fern-allies  in  their 
district,  namely,  Marsilia  (1  species),  Equisetum  (6),  Lycopodium  |  7  i 
Selaginella  (2),  Isoetes  (x). 

Some  Fern  Hybrids  in  North  America.** — R.  C.  Benedict  gives 
some  general  facts  about  fern  hybrids.  Hybrids  are  sterile,  usually 
larger  than  their  parents,  sometimes  abnormal,  and  in  many  characters 
they  are  intermediate  between  the  parent  species.  Two  hybrids  which 
occur  in  nature  can  be  produced  culturally — Asplenium  platyneuron  x 
Camjrtosori/s  rhizophyllus  and  Dryopteris  cristata  x  D.  marginalis. 
Another,  not  found  wild,  has  also  been  produced — D.  Filix-mas  x 
I),  marginalis.  It  seems  reasonable  to  interpret  as  hybrids  other 
forms  (principally  in  Dryopteris),  which  are  sterile  and  similarly  inter- 
mediate between  two  species.  For  example,  sterile  intermediates  are 
known  between  D.  marginalis  and  six  other  species.  There  would  be 
tw7enty-one  possible  combinations  among  the  seven  units.  Some 
thirteen  of  these  appear  to  have  been  found,  and  descriptions  of  them 
are  being  prepared. 

Ophioglossacege  of  the  United  States.ff — R.  C.  Benedict  publishes 
some  brief  studies  in  the  OphioglossaceaB  :  (1)  A  descriptive  key  to 
Ophioglossum  in  the  United  States.  Having  described  the  genus,  and 
having  attempted  to  find  a  better  term  than  "  common  stalk  "  in  place 
of  the  unsatisfactory  term  "  petiole,"  he  gives  an  analytical  table  in  which 
the  six  native  species  are  grouped,  distinguished,  and  shortly  defined  ; 
(2)  a  descriptive  key  to  Botrychium  in  North  America  :  group  of  B.  lan- 

*  Fern  Bulletin,  xvi.  (1908)  pp.  85,91. 
+  Torreya,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  164-5  (fig.). 

X  Rhodora,  x.  (1908)  pp.  29-31.  §  Tom.  cit.,  p.  35. 

II  Tom.  cit.,  p.  42.  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  59-62. 

**  Torreva,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  81-2.  ft  Tom.  cit,,  pp.  71-3,  100-3. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  729 

ceolatum.  This  genus,  less  well  known,  and  more  difficult  in  the  limita- 
tion of  its  species,  is  divided  into  two  groups  :  (1)  that  of  B.  lanceolatum, 
containing  ten  North  American  species,  which  ripen  their  spores  in  the 
early  summer  ;  and  (2)  that  of  B.  tematum,  maturing  in  the  late  summer. 
The  modes  adopted  by  Milde  and  by  Prantl  for  grouping  the  species  do 
not  seem  to  Benedict  to  be  natural.  He  gives  an  analytical  table  of  the 
ten  species  of  the  first  group. 

Lycopod  with  a  Seed-like  Structure.*  —  M.  Benson  publishes 
her  full  paper  on  Miadesmia  membranacea  Bertrand,  a  new  palaeozoic 
Lycopod  with  a  seed-like  structure.  This  small  herbaceous  plant  had 
sporophylls  akin  to  those  of  the  ligulate  Lycopodiacese,  especially 
Selaginella.  The  megasporangium  produced  a  single  thin-walled  spore, 
which  germinated  in  situ.  Around  the  sporangium  was  an  integument 
provided  with  a  micropyle  ;  from  the  surface  of  the  integument  arose 
several  long  processes,  giving  the  organ  a  fringed  appearance.  At  the 
time  of  maturity  the  sporophyll  was  detached,  and  the  whole  structure 
resembled  a  winged  and  fringed  seed. 

Sporangium-bearing  Organs  of  the  LycopodiaceaB.f — M.  G.  Sykes 
has  studied  the  sporangium-bearing  organs  of  the  Lycopodiaceas,  and 
has  arranged  the  different  species  of  Lycopodium  in  a  continuous  series 
according  to  the  shape  and  structure  of  the  sporophyll,  the  position  of 
the  sporangium,  and  the  position  of  the  line  of  dehiscence.  It  is 
suggested  that  the  genus  Lycopodium  should  be  regarded  as  a  reduction 
series,  also  that  the  sporangium-bearing  organ  is  to  be  regarded  as  an 
axial  structure,  morphologically  equivalent  to  a  reduced  branch. 

Lycopodium  squarrosum  and  its  Allies. — R.  Pampanini  $  gives  a 
resume  of  what  has  been  written  by  previous  authors  concerning 
Lycopodium  squarrosum  Forst,  L.  epicecefoUum  Desv.  and  L.  ulicifolium 
Vent.  The  first  species  occurs  from  Tahiti  to  Ceylon,  the  second  in  the 
Mascarene  Islands,  the  third  in  India,  Malay  Islands,  Mascarene 
Islands,  and  Madagascar.  The  author  points  out  what  the  three  species 
have  in  common,  and  adds  a  distinctive  diagnosis  for  each,  for  he 
prefers  Pritzel's  view  (that  they  are  distinct)  to  Clarke's  view  (that  they 
are  forms  of  one  species).  Pampanini  then  gives  a  detailed  description 
of  an  allied  new  species  L.  pseudo-squarrosum,  recently  described  briefly 
and  figured,  §  which  probably  came  from  the  East  Indies  and  is  in  cultiva- 
tion in  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Florence,  and  which  is  synonymous  with 
L.  squarrosum  Drake  del  Castillo. || 

Bryophyta. 

(By  A.  Gepp.) 

Sphagnum  and  Sphagnology. — G.  Rothf  replies  to  some  of  C. 
Warnstorfs  criticisms,  and  publishes  descriptions  of  twenty-five  new- 
forms  of  Sphagnum,  including  five  new  species. 

*  Phil.  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  London,  B.  199  (1908)  pp.  409-25  (5  pis.). 

t  New  Phvtologist,  vii.  (1908)  pp  41-60  (2  pis.). 

J  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital.,  1908,  pp.  6G-77. 

§  Bull.  R.  Soc.Tosc.  di  Orticult.,  xiii.  (1908)  p.  99  (pi.). 

||  PI.  I'olyn.  fr.  1892,  p.  327.  If  Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  321-9  (figs.). 

Dec.  mih.  1908  3  0 


730  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

J.  Roll  *  discusses  at  some  length  the  old  and  the  new  method  of 
research  among  the  Sphagnaceae.  The  following  are  contrasts  between 
Warnstorf's  views  and  his  own  : — 1.  Against  Warnstorf's  constant 
specific  types  arc  placed  Roll's  groups  of  forms.  2.  Forma  typica  of 
Warnstorf  (i.e.  a  middle-point)  is  not  accepted  by  Roll.  3.  Warastorf 
for  his  specific  type  lays  little  stress  upon  the  numerous  varieties  and 
forms  ;  whereas  Roll  for  his  system  lays  stress  upon  abundance  of  forms, 
their  study  in  the  held,  and  in  different  countries  and  numerous  stations. 
4.  Roll  does  not  mistake  the  value  of  the  specific  type  of  the  diagnosis 
for  naming  specimens,  but  regards  it  only  as  an  aid  to  scientific  investi- 
gation. 5.  Roll  considers  it  practical  to  cite  only  the  characteristic 
differences  in  the  diagnosis  of  a  group  of  forms.  6.  Roll  regards  the 
pores  of  the  branch-leaves  as  unessential  specific  characters,  and  attaches 
a  greater  importance  to  the  shape  of  the  stem-leaves.  7.  Roll  claims  to 
observe  the  Vienna  international  code,  in  opposition  to  Warnstorf's 
practice  of  manipulating  fragments  of  form-groups,  and  renaming  this 
and  ignoring  that.  8.  In  doubtful  cases  Roll  prefers  the  diagnosis 
drawn  from  numerous  varieties  and  forms,  rather  than  that  which  is 
founded  on  a  single  specimen. 

Grimaldia  and  Neesiella.f — V.  Schiffner  gives  a  morphological  and 
biological  account  of  the  genera  Grimaldia  and  Neesiella  (or  Duvalki), 
with  special  reference  to  the  rare  alpine  species  Grimaldia  camica, 
which  is  known  only  from  five  scattered  stations.  He  shows  in  parallel 
columns  the  chief  differences  between  the  two  genera,  as  indicated  by  the 
leading  authorities,  and  criticises  these  generic  differences  point  by  poi-nt. 
He  finds  that  the  typical  species  of  Grimahlia  (G.  dichotoma  and  G. 
ragrans),  with  G.  camica,  and  its  very  near  ally  or  possibly  synonym, 
G.  pilosa,  differ  in  no  essential  way  from  Neesiella  rupestris  in  structure 
of  female  receptacle  and  rudiments  of  involucre.  The  differences  which 
he  considers  sufficient  to  keep  the  two  geuera  separate  he  draws  up  in 
parallel  columns  ;  they  mainly  concern  the  external  appearance  and  the 
structure  of  the  frond.  G.  camica  and  G. pilosa,  whether  or  not  distinct 
from  one  another,  agree  point  by  point  with  Neesiella,  and  must  be  in- 
cluded in  that  genus.  In  Grimaldia  remain  the  following  species : — 
G.  dichotoma,  G.  fragrans,  G.  capensis,  G.  califomka,  G.  graminosa. 
Neesiella  camica  stands  in  closest  phylogenetic  relationship  with  N. 
rupestris.  In  an  appendix  he  adds  some  observations  about  G.  dichotoma 
and  the  effect  upon  it  of  altered  conditions  of  life. 

Spermatogenesis  in  Mosses  and  Liverworts. J — W.  and  J.  van 
Leeuwen-Reijnvaan  have  studied  several  specimens  of  Reboulia,  Preissia, 
Fegatella,  and  Conocephalu*,  with  special  regard  to  centrosomes  and  to 
reduction-divisions.  Their  conclusions  are  based  upon  Fegatella  conica, 
but  the  results  obtained  with  other  genera  appear  to  be  confirmatory  of 
those  given  by  this  genus.  There  appears  to  be  no  doubt  that  centro- 
somes are  present  during  reduction-divisions  in  the  antheridia  of 
Liverworts.     A  species  of  Milium,  also  examined,  confirms  the  state- 

*  Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  330-53.  t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  306-20  (1  pi.). 

\  Ber.  Bot.  Gesell.  xxvia.  (1908)  pp.  301-9  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  731 

ments  made   by    Arens.      There   are  eight  chromosomes  of  different 

lengths,  and  during  the  last  division  there  is  a  two-fold  chromosome- 
reduction.  Centrosomes  are  found  and  also  an  extra-nuclear  mass  of 
chromatin,  which  ultimately  disappears. 

Arctic  Mosses.*— P.  A.  Rydberg  gives  a  digest  of  the  bryological 
report  of  the  second  Norwegian  arctic  expedition  in  the  '  Fram'  (1898- 
1902).  The  collection  of  mosses  was  very  large  and  was  determined  by 
N.  Bryhn,  B.  Kaalaas,  and  E.  Ryan.  The  number  of  specimens  was 
about  1700,  and  the  material  was  very  difficult  to  work  up,  owing  to  the 
chauged  and  peculiar  growth  of  the  far  arctic  mosses.  Most  of  them 
are  diminutive  and  congested  into  dense  tufts,  with  thread-like  innova- 
tions and  shortened  leaves.  They  are  often  strongly  coloured,  yellow, 
red,  brown,  or  crimson.  Very  few  produce  fruit,  and  when  they  do 
(as  the  bisexual  species  of  Brtjum),  the  capsules  are  torn  off  by  the 
snow-bunting,  which  thereby  obtains  its  principal  food.  Very  few 
species  occur  in  pure  tufts  ;  they  are  usually  mixed,  even  as  many  as 
twenty  or  thirty  together  in  a  tuft,  and  all  indistinguishable  save  under 
the  Microscope.  Specimens  were  gathered  on  the  west  coast  of  Green- 
land, on  Ellesmere  Land,  North  Lincoln,  King  Oscar's  Land,  North 
Devon,  and  North  Kent— all  of  them  localities  in  Smith's  Sound  or 
Jones's  Sound.  Two  hundred  and  ninety  species  were  collected,  and 
among  them  are  thirty-five  new  species  and  twenty-two  new  varieties. 
The  names  and  stations  of  the  novelties  are  cited. 

North  American  Mosses. — J.  F.  Collins  f  gives  an  account  of  a 
small  packet  of  mosses  collected  in  Caribou  Bog  in  the  Aroostook 
County,  Maine,  by  M.  L.  Fernald.  It  contained  four  pleurocarpous 
mosses,  a  Spliagnum  and  an  hepatic,  all  new  to  the  State  of  Maine. 
J.  F.  Collins^:  publishes  some  additions . and  corrections  for  insertion 
in  his  tabulated  distributional  list  of  mosses  of  New  England  in 
"  Rhodora  "  two  years  ago.  C.  Warnstorf  §  describes  Sphagnum  Faxonii, 
found  seventeen  years  ago  in  Massachusetts  by  E.  Faxon,  part  author 
of  the  "  Sphagna  Boreali-Americana  Exsiccata."  The  species  is  allied 
to  S.  cuspidatum.  H.  H.  Bartlett,  ||  having  borrowed  the  type  of 
Sphagnum  Faxonii  Warnst.,  has  searched  the  Faxon  herbarium  and 
found  that  the  type-locality  of  the  species  is  not  Massachusetts  but 
Sunken  Heath,  Mount  Desert  Island,  Maine,  where  it  was  collected  by 
Faxon  and  Rand  (June  29,  1891).  Examination  of  Rand's  herbarium 
affords  the  same  evidence.  In  each  case  the  plants  are  mixed  with 
Lophozia  intiata.  E.  G.  Britton  %  gives  some  notes  upon  Zygodon. 
Z.  viridissimus  is  a  rare  species  in  the  United  States  ;  it  is  usually 
sterile,  and  is  propagated  by  means  of  septate  brood-bodies,  borne  in 
clusters  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  Fruiting  specimens,  discovered  in 
Virginia,  reveal  an  absence  of  peristome.  Specimens  collected  by 
Drummond  near  Hudson  Bay  belong  to  Z.  rupestris,  regarded  in 
Europe  either  as  a  species  or  as  a  variety  of  Z.  viridissimus.     Z.  gracilis 

*  Brvologist,  xi.  (1908)  pp.  77-S3. 

t  Rhodora,  x.  (1908)  pp.  37-8.  J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  71-2. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  40-2.  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  113-1 1. 

If  Torreva,  viii.  (1U08)  p.  17:2. 

3  c  2 


732  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

has  recently  been  found  sterile  in  North  Carolina.  Z.  excehi/s,  un- 
known with  fruit,  appears  to  be  more  closely  related  to  Leptodontium 
than  to  Zygodon. 

British  Mosses.* — The  Moss  Exchange  Club  publish  their  thirteenth 
annual  report,  giving  an  enumeration  of  the  species  and  varieties  of 
mosses  and  hepatics  found  by  the  members,  and  interspersed  here  and 
there  with  critical  notes  by  the  leading  members.  Descriptions  of  five 
new  or  rare  species  recently  added  to  the  British  moss-flora  are  trans- 
lated from  the  originals  and  inserted  in  an  appendix. 

Muscinese  of  the  Jura  Range.! — C  Meylau  gives  the  results  of 
his  bryological  researches  in  the  chain  of  the  Jura  during  1907,  and  is 
able  to  add  seven  species  and  several  forms  and  varieties  to  the  flora. 
In  all  he  enumerates  76  mosses  and  22  hepatics. 

Italian  Mosses. $ — A.  Bottini  insists  upon  the  importance  of  a  new 
bryological  exploration  of  Italy.  He  gives  a  brief  sketch  of  what  has 
already  been  done,  and  shows  in  a  table  the  relative  numbers  of  sphag- 
naceous,  acrocarpous  and  pleurocarpous  mosses  ascertained  to  occur  in 
the  whole  of  Italy  and  in  its  several  provinces  in  1887,  and  again  in 
1907.  In  another  table  he  shows  the  relative  numbers  of  species  recorded 
for  each  of  the  twenty-four  smaller  islands  off  the  coast  of  Italy.  As 
remarkable  instances  of  moss-distribution,  he  cites  the  occurrence  of  the 
Scandinavian  Brachythecium  gelidum  Bryhn  on  the  Graian  Alps  ;  and 
he  adds  descriptions  and  figures  of  the  following  new  species  :  Galymperes 
Sommieri,  a  member  of  a  tropical  genus,  discovered  in  the  volcanic  part 
of  the  island  Pantelleria  ;  BarbeUa  strongylensis,  another  member  of  a 
tropical  genus,  found  upon  the  volcano  of  Stroniboli ;  and  Thamnium 
cossyreme  and  T.  mediterraneum,  found  respectively  on  Pantelleria  and 
Giglio. 

New  Mosses  of  Japan  and  Corea.§— J.  Cardot  publishes  a  further 
series  of  descriptions  of  new  mosses  of  Japan  and  Corea,  where  they  were 
collected  by  Abbe  Faurie.  There  are  in  all  thirty-two  species  and 
varieties,  and  they  fall  into  the  acrocarpous  group.  Six  of  them  belong 
to  the  genus  Grimmia,  and  fourteen  to  Rhacomitrium. 

Muscinese  of  French  China. || — E.  G.Paris  gives  an  account  of  some 
Muscineae  collected  by  R.  P.  Courtois  at  various  stations  in  the  province 
of  Kiang  Sou  last  February.  Altogether  thirteen  mosses  and  three 
hepaticae  are  enumerated  ;  and  eight  of  them  are  described  by  Paris  and 
Brotherus  as  new  to  science. 

Bryological  Notes. If  —  J.  Cardot  publishes  various  bryological 
notes  : — 1.  On  Campylopodiella,  a  new  genus  of  the  family  Dicranacere, 
containing  one  species  found  in  Darjeeling.      It  shows   affinity  with 

*  York  :  Coultas  and  Volans,  1908,  pp.  267-94. 
t  Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  353-62. 
%  Nuov.  Giorn.  Bot.  Ital.,  xv.  (1908)  pp.  179-88  (4  pis.). 
§  Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  331-6. 
||  Bev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  125-9. 
1  Bull.Herb.  Boiss.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  90-2,  163-74  (figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  733 

Campylopodiam  and  with  Brothera.  2.  On  the  Japanese  species  of 
Leucobrgum.  These  are  twelve  ;  and  two  of  them  are  easily  distin- 
guished (L.  scabrum  and  L.  glaucum).  Another  true  species  is 
L.  Bowringii.  But  the  rest  pass  insensibly  into  one  another,  and  are 
considered  by  the  author  to  constitute  a  group  of  forms  of  L.  neilgher- 
rense,  showing  wide  and  complex  variability.  3.  On  a  small  collection 
of  Mosses  from  New  Caledonia,  twenty-six  in  number,  and  gathered 
some  years  ago  by  Deplanche  and  Vieillard.  Among  them  are  five 
species  and  two  varieties  new  to  science.  4.  On  Dkranum  nova,- 
hollandm  Hornsch.  This  Australian  moss  has,  through  the  copying  of 
an  error,  been  referred  by  several  authors  as  a  synonym  to  Hemiragis 
aurea,  a  West  Indian  pleurocarpous  moss.  It  is  in  reality  related  to 
D.  dicarpum,  and  Cardot  gives  a  diagnosis  and  figure  of  its  details,  as  it 
has  never  been  described. 

Subfamilies  of  HypnaceaB.*  —  V.  F.  Brotherus  publishes  another 
part  of  his  Musci  in  Engler  and  Prantl's  "  Die  natiirlichen  Pflanzen- 
familien."  After  treating  of  the  remaining  genera  of  Thuidieae,  he 
passes  on  to  Amblystegieas  (with  11  genera),  Hylocomieaj  (12),  both  of 
which  are  classed  among  the  sub-families  of  Hypnaceaa.  The  new 
genera  among  the  Thuidieas  are  Duthiella  C.  Muell.  (with  2  species), 
Actinothuidium  Broth.  (1)  ;  among  the  Hylocomiea3  PuiqgarieUa  Broth. 
(2),  Gollania  Broth.  (9  or  10). 

European  Species  of  Oncophorus.t — C.  Meylan  has  studied  hun- 
dreds of  specimens  of  Oncophorus,  and  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
0.  virens  and  0.  Wahlenbergii  are  two  very  distinct  species,  but  are 
certainly  descended  from  a  common  stock.  They  are  very  near 
neighbours,  especially  in  their  compact  forms  found  in  the  high  Alps. 
Meylan  discusses  the  structure  of  the  stems,  leaves,  and  capsules, 
describes  all  the  varieties,  and  gives  an  analytical  table  to  the  species 
and  their  varieties. 

Pohlia  annotina  and  Allied  Species. :{:—  G.  Dismier  publishes  notes 
upon  the  four  species,  Pohlia  proligera  S.  0.  Lindb.,  P.  annotina  Loeske, 
P.  Rothii  Broth.,  P.  bulbifera  Warnst.,  which  have  resulted  from  the 
modern  splitting  of  the  old  species  Webera  annotina  Hedw.  He  is  now 
persuaded  that  they  are  four  good  species,  though  three  years  ago  he 
published  in  the  same  periodical  his  reasons  for  regarding  them  as  of  no 
higher  than  sub-specific  rank.  At  that  time  he  maintained  the  generic 
name  Webera,  but  now  he  gives  reasons  for  the  use  of  Pohlia.  He  cites 
papers  by  Loeske  and  Warnstorf,  which  give  the  results  of  careful  in- 
vestigations of  the  validity  of  these  species  and  satisfactorily  establish 
their  validity. 

Grimmia  andreaeoides.§ — R.  Sebille  highly  recommends  Pralognan, 
situated  at  an  elevation  of  4750  ft.  in  the  Tarentaise,  as  a  collecting 
ground  for  Muscineae,  and  gives  a  list  of  17  rare  species  in  proof  of  his 

*  Leipzig :  W.  Engelrnann,  lief.  231  (1908)  pp.  1009-5G,  figs.  733-57. 
t  Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  469-82  (figs.). 
%  Bev.  Bryolog.,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  115-20. 
§  Torn,  cit.,  pp.  120-5  (figs.). 


734  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

contention.  One  of  these  species,  Grimmiu  inulrmoides  Limpr.,  other- 
wise recorded  only  from  Tyrol  and  Salzburg,  he  discusses  critically.  It 
is  a  peculiar  moss,  showing  some  of  the  characters  of  Andrecea  ;  but  it 
is  a  Grimmiu  in  view  of  its  anatomy.  Its  nearest  European  ally  is 
G.  torqvata.  The  differential  characters  of  these  two  species  are  shown 
in  parallel  columns.  The  distinguishing-  characters  of'  G.funalis  var. 
epUifera,  Schistidium  teretinerve  and  G.  Hoteingeri  are  made  clear. 

Jungermannia  in  New  England.* — A.  Lorenz  records  four  species 
of  Jungermannia  as  growing  at  Waterville,  New  Hampshire,  a  non- 
calcareous  region  ;  and  these  four  are  the  only  species  known  to  occur  in 
New  England.  The  commonest  is  -/.  lanceolata,  reported  from  all  the 
New  England  states.  Living  on  rocks  or  humus,  it  is  independent  of 
the  subsoil.  The  other  three  species  grow  on  rock  or  talus,  and  avoid 
limestone.  The  subalpine  species  of  J.  sphmrocarpa  occurs  on  wet 
granite  ledges,  facing  north,  at  2500  ft.  altitude,  mixed  with  Marsivpella 
emargmata,  Lophozia  alpestris,  etc.  ./.  pumila  grows  on  large  granite 
stones  in  a  river  just  above  the  water-line.  J,  cordifolia  occurs  at  the 
same  station,  which  is  at  an  elevation  of  1500  ft.  It  is  thought  that 
other  species  of  the  genus  remain  to  be  discovered  in  the  White 
Mountains. 

New  Descriptions  of  Hepaticae.j — F.  Stephani  continues  his  Species 
Hepaticarum,  that  is,  his  series  of  descriptions  of  new  species  and 
re-descriptions  of  old  species  under  the  successive  genera,  namely, 
Chihisr i/pli  us  (137  species  described),  Geocalyx  (3),  Saccogyna  (10), 
JackieUa  (4),  Wettsteinia  (1),  Protoccpludozia  (1),  Pteropsiella  (1),  Schiff- 
iieria  (2),  Zoopsia  (9),  Cepladozia  (133),  Xowellia  (3),  Alobiella  (13), 
Hygrobiella  (6),  Piyafettoa  (1),  Pleuroclada  (2),  Lembidium  (5),  Odonto- 
schism (29),  Adelanthus  (10),  Marsupidium  (8),  Calypogeia  (62), 
Mastiyobryum  (103)  (of  this  genus  about  230  species  remain  over  to  be 
described).     Nearly  140  of  these  descriptions  represent  new  species. 

New  West  Indian  Lejeuneas.J — A.  W.  Evans  supplements  the 
series  of  papers,  in  which  during  the  past  six  years  he  has  presented 
detailed  studies  of  more  than  fifty  species  of  Lejeuneas  collected  in 
Puerto  Rico,  by  publishing  detailed  descriptions  of  six  new  species  of 
Lejeuneae  gathered  in  the  West  Indies  other  than  Puerto  Rico.  One 
species  from  the  Blue  Mountains  of  Jamaica  is  made  the  type  of  a  new 
genus,  Leiolejeunea  grandiflora.  The  other  species  treated  are  :  Trachy- 
hjeunea  dilatata,  Harpalejevnea  reflexida,  Odontolejmnea  longispica, 
Brachiolejeunea  bahamensis,  Symbirziiliinn  laceratum. 

Thalloid  Hepatieae  of  Java.§ — D.  H.  Campbell  gives  an  account 
of  his  trip  to  Java  in  search  of  thalloid  hepatica?.  His  collecting 
grounds  were  chiefly  in  the  vicinity  of  the  botanic  garden  of  Buitenzorg 
(altitude  under  1000  ft.)  on  Mount  Gedeh,  at  the  mountain  garden  of 

*  Torreya,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  55-6. 

f  Butt.  Herb.  Boiss.,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  49-64;  125-48;  205-20;  267-82;  371-5; 
426-36;  483-514;  561-608;  661-96;  745-76. 

%  BuU.  Torrev  Bot.  Club,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  371-89  (3  pis.). 
§  Torreya,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  103-10. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  73~> 

Tjibodas  (4600  ft.),  and  on  Pangerango,  the  highest  peak  (about 
10,000  ft.).  Near  Buitenzorg  he  obtained  interesting  species  of  Riccia, 
Marchantia,  Dumortiera,  P  attar  inula,  Metzgeria,  Riccardia,  Gyathodium, 
Dmdroceros,  Notothylas,  Anthoceros.  A  species  of  the  latter  contained 
multiple  chromatophores,  and  has  been  made  the  type  of  a  new  genus, 
Megaceros.  At  the  cooler  altitude  of  Tjibodas  the  hepaticas  run  riot. 
The  paths  and  banks  are  overgrown  with  Marchantia  and  Anthoceros. 
But  it  was  in  the  forest  that  the  majority  were  found — Treubia  in  thick 
mats,  the  rare  Galobryum  Bhimei  and  Galycalaria,  Riccardia  in 
abundance,  Paltavicinia,  Metzgeria,  Zoopsis,  Marchantia,  Wicsncrella. 
Upon  the  peak  of  Pangerango  were  the  alpine  Pallavicinia  Zollingeri 
and  Fimbriaria  Zollingeri. 

Development  of  Sexual  Organs  and  Sporogonium  of  Marchantia.* 
E.  J.  Durand  points  out  that,  though  Marchantia  polymorphs  has  long 
been  a  favourite  object  for  class  study,  and  has  been  made  the  subject 
of  numerous  investigations,  yet  nowhere  has  there  ever  been  published 
an  even  approximately  complete  account  of  the  development  of  its 
antheridia,  archegonia,  and  sporogonia,  nor  anything  approaching  a 
complete  series  of  figures  illustrating  these  phenomena.  Accordingly 
he  has  prepared  a  brief  account  of  the  development  of  these  organs 
accompanied  by  a  series  of  103  drawings  made  with  the  camera-lucida  to 
show  the  successive  stages.  The  microtome  sections  were  stained  with 
Delafield's  hematoxvlin. 


Thallophyta. 

Algse. 
(By  Mrs.  E.  S.  Gepp.) 

Italian  Charace*e.  —  A.  Beguinot  and  L.  Formiggini  f  publish 
some  further  notes  upon  variations  of  Italian  Characeaj  founded  upon 
an  examination  of  the  collections  preserved  in  the  botanical  institutes  of 
Pisa,  Rome,  and  Palermo. 

L.  Formiggini  J  gives  a  revised  list  of  Sicilian  Characeae  comprising 
eighteen  species  and  numerous  varieties,  six  species  and  six  varieties 
being  new  for  that  island.  For  the  preparation  of  this  list  he  has 
consulted  the  herbaria  of  Palermo,  Rome,  and  Genoa,  and  the  works  of 
the  only  four  authors  who  have  treated  the  subject. 

Original  Meaning  of  Chara.§—  C.  I>.  Robinson  shows  that  the 
name  Ghara,  as  understood  by  the  Latins,  had  a  very  different  signifi- 
cance from  that  which  it  bears  in  modern  botany.  The  earliest  record 
of  its  use  in  literature  occurs  in  .Julius  Caesar's  "  De  Bello  Civile," 
book  hi.,  chap.  48,  where  it  is  stated  that  a  kind  of  root  called  Ghara 
was  found  in  the  valleys,  and  when  mixed  with  milk  it  greatly  lessened 
the  feeling  of  hunger.  It  was  made  into  the  likeness  of  bread. 
Robinson  suggests  Car  am  Garni  as  the  root  intended. 

*  Bull.  TorreyBot.  Club,  xxxv.  (l'J08)  pp.  321-35  (5  pis.). 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital.,  1908,  pp.  78-81. 

%  Tom.  oit.,  pp.  81-6.  §  Torreva,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  29-30. 


736  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Cell-wall  Structure  and  Ring-formation  in  (Edogonium.* — C.  van 
Wisst'iilingh  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  ring  and  the  cell-wall  of 
(Edogonium.  He  summarises  previous  work  on  the  subject,  and  de- 
scribes his  own  methods  of  investigation.  He  finds  that  the  cell-wall 
consists  of  two  layers  which  are  chemically  quite  distinct,  the  inner 
lamellate  and  rich  in  cellulose,  the  outer  containing  little  cellulose  and 
much  special  material.  The  outer  layer  also  consists  of  a  cylindrical 
portion  and  of  one  or  several  ring-shaped  portions,  to  which  in  the  apical 
cell  is  added  a  cup-shaped  portion.  When  a  cell  is  about  to  divide,  a 
ring  (or,  in  certain  cases,  a  sort  of  apical  cup  with  a  thickened  edge)  is 
formed  at  the  upper  end,  and  is  of  similar  chemical  constitution  to  that 
of  the  outer  layer  of  the  cell-wall,  with  a  preponderance  of  cellulose  on 
the  inner  side.  The  origin  and  growth  of  the  ring  can  only  be  explained 
by  intussusception.  Upon  the  splitting  of  the  ring  (or  of  the  thickened 
edge  of  the  above-mentioned  apical  cup)  different  results  follow,  accord- 
ing to  whether  the  cellulose  part  alone  splits,  or  the  outer  layer  also 
splits  ;  upon  this  depends  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  persistent  outer 
ring-fragments.  The  young  transverse  wall  is  a  loose  plate,  free  from 
cellulose,  and  grows  centrifugally.  In  a  supplement  the  author  points 
out  wherein  his  observations  differ  from  those  of  Kraskovits,  Hirn,  and 
others. 

Observations  on  the  Germination  of  some  Phaeophyceae.  —  C. 
Sauvageau  |  publishes  some  further  observations  on  the  germination  of 
Cladostephus  verticillatus.  Having  previously  described  the  germination 
of  the  zoospores  of  the  unilocular  sporangia,  he  describes  that  of  the 
zoospores  of  the  plurilocular  sporangia.  These  are  of  one  sort  only. 
They  are  very  active,  and  settle  down  in  a  few  hours,  round  themselves 
off,  and  become  clothed  with  a  membrane.  After  ten  days,  during 
which  they  lose  their  red  spot  and  become  deep  brown  owing  to  multi- 
plication of  the  single  chromatophore,  they  divide  and  branch  and  forcn 
a  little  round  flat  disk.  From  this  the  erect  filaments  subsequently 
arise.  The  germination  is  indirect.  These  zoospores  then  are  asexual 
like  those  of  the  unilocular  sporangia,  and  the  product  of  their  germina- 
tion is  the  same. 

He  describes  J  further  results  of  his  cultivations  of  the  zoospores  of 
Aglaozonia  melanoidea.  These  he  has  carried  out  for  the  third  time  by 
means  of  cellular  cultures.  Dehiscence  of  the  sporangia  occurred  in 
mid-January.  Among  the  thousands  of  germinations  obtained,  about 
1  p.c.  were  Aglaozonia  (that  is,  asexual  plants),  and  the  rest  Cutler ia 
(sexual  plants). 

He  gives  §  the  results  of  his  cultivation  of  Cvtlcria  adspersa,  which 
show  that,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  Reinke,  Falkenberg,  and  Janc- 
zewski  (that  in  the  Mediterranean  the  unfecundated  oospheres  do  not 
germinate),  the  oospheres  of  Cutleria  adspersa  do  germinate  by  partheno- 
genesis in  the  Mediterranean  (at  least  at  Banyuls)  as  well  as  they  do  in 
the  Atlantic.  A  priori,  Zanardinia  and  Cutler  ia  multifida  ought  to 
present  the  same  phenomenon.      His  experiments  also  show  that  his 

*  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  lte  Abt.,  xxiii.  (1908)  pp.  157-90  (4  pis.). 

t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  695-7. 

J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  697-8.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  698-700. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  737 

previously  stated  view  is  correct,  viz.,  that  the  oospheres  produce  now 
Gutleria,  now  Aglaozonia.  They  prove  it  for  the  parthenogenetic 
oospheres  only,  but  a  priori  the  same  applies  to  the  fecundated 
oospheres. 

The  ordinary  methods  of  studying  the  germination  of  the  repro- 
ductive bodies  of  algas  are  unsatisfactory,  affording  much  doubt  as  to 
the  purity  of  the  culture.  Sauvageau's  method*  is  as  follows.  He 
employs  only  small  fragments  of  the  plant,  carefully  selected,  cleaned 
and  washed,  and  placed  in  a  drop  of  filtered  water  in  a  moist  chamber 
(a  Yan  Tieghem  cell).  He  used  a  cover-glass  for  conjugating  spores, 
etc.,  and  an  ordinary  slide  for  advanced  stages  of  germination.  But 
as  the  latter  are  too  smooth,  and  allow  the  young  plants  to  peel  off 
after  a  time,  he  has  found  it  better  to  take  the  polish  off  the  surface 
previously  by  exposing  the  particular  area  on  the  slide  to  the  fumes  of 
hydrofluoric  acid.  The  finely  roughened  surface  obtained  permits  the 
plants  to  attach  themselves  very  firmly,  and  does  not  interfere  much 
with  microscopic  observation. 

He  describes  f  the  development  of  Halopteris  (Stgpocaulon)  scoparia. 
The  germination  of  the  zoospores  is  indirect,  as  in  Cladostephus,  but  in 
a  different  manner.  The  rather  intricate  stages  of  development, 
described  in  detail,  are  not  due  to  malformations,  but  were  followed 
out  in  hundreds  of  plants.  Halopteris  is  heterogamous  ;  and  possibly 
the  development  of  the  oospore,  if  it  contains  sufficient  reserve 
material,  will  turn  out  to  be  direct. 

He  adds  J  some  further  observations  to  his  recent  account  of  Fuciis 
lutarius,  which  living  partly  in  mud,  multiplies  itself  by  producing  there 
an  abundance  of  adventive  shoots.  The  plant  can  also  live  an  almost 
aerial  and  epiphytic  life.  On  salt  marshes  at  Arcachon  it  lies  concealed 
among  stems  of  Spartina  ;  it  hangs  on  the  branches  of  Salicomia  and 
other  plants,  protected  from  desiccation  at  low  tide  by  a  covering  of 
E titer  omorpha.  Further,  it  is  no  longer  to  be  regarded  as  a  sterile 
species  ;  for  Sauvageau  has  lately  found  numerous  specimens  bearing 
receptacles,  especially  among  those  with  sub-aerial  growth.  All  the 
fifty  receptacles  examined  were  exclusively  female  ;  no  sign  of  dehis- 
cence was  found  in  any  of  them.  The  plant  is  apogamous  (sensu 
De  Bary)  ;  possibly  it  may  rarely  be  parthenogenetic. 

He  publishes  §  some  further  observations  on  the  parthenogenetic 
germination  of  Gutleria  adspersa.  A  fresh  set  of  cultures  showed  after 
some  months  a  nearly  equal  proportion  of  Aglaozonia  and  Gutleria 
plantlets.  The  germination  of  the  zoospores,  as  well  as  of  the 
oospheres,  of  this  plant  gives  in  the  same  culture  asexual  or  sexual 
plants,  the  latter  indifferently  male  or  female.  And  in  nature,  although 
conditions  may  seem  to  facilitate  the  development  of  this  or  that  form 
(the  sexual  state  is  very  rare  or  absent  in  the  northern  seas),  yet  they 
do  not  provoke  it.  The  effect  of  warm  weather  upon  the  cultures  was 
to  encourage  the  Aglaozonia  (asexual  state),  and  nearly  destroy  the 
Gutleria  (sexual  state).     The  antheridia  were  dead  ;  but  the  indehisced 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxiv.  (1908)  pp.  700-1. 

t  Op.  cit.,  lxv.  (1908)  pp.  162-3. 

I  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  163-5.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  165-7.' 


738  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

oogonia  were  alive,  as  though  in  a  state  of  arrest,  and  capable  of  ger- 
minating subsequently. 

Leathesia  crispa.* — A.  1).  Cotton  records  the  little-known  Leathesia 
crispa  Harvey  from  Swanage,  and  shows  that  it  is  synonymous  with 
L.  concinna  Kuckuck.  The  distribution  of  the  alga  is  remarkable — 
Alderney,  Heligoland,  one  locality  each  in  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  and  two  in  France.  A  full  diagnosis  of  the  species  is  given  in 
the  present  paper,  together  with  some  interesting  notes,  which  enable  a 
collector  to  distinguish  it  in  the  natural  state.  It  appears  to  be  in- 
variably epiphytic  on  narrow  forms  of  Chondrus  crispzis. 

Some  Errors  of  Nomenclature  in  Phseophyceae.f  —  C.  Sauvageau 
exposes  some  current  errors  of  spelling  connected  with  Scytosyphont 
Litosiphon,  and  Pylaiella.  Though  most  authors  write  Scytosiphon 
lomentarius,  the  correct  representation  of  the  species  is  S.  Lomentaria, 
as  was  pointed  out  by  Le  Jolis  in  1896.  Lommtaria  was  first  employed 
by  Lyngbye  as  a  generic  name,  who  in  the  same  work  invented  Chorda 
Lommtaria.  Greville  by  an  error  (in  his  "Alga?  britannicse  ")  wrote 
C.  lommtaria,  and  his  error  was  copied  by  most  subsequent  algologists. 
Passing  on  to  Litosiphon,  he  shows  that  though  Harvey  took  the  trouble 
to  make  the  derivation  clear  as  meaning  small  or  narrow  tube,  yet  the 
name  is  often  written  Lithosiphon,  as  if  it  had  something  to  do  with  stone. 
As  a  fact,  the  plant  is  not  stony,  and  does  not  grow  on  stone,  but  is  an 
epiphyte.  Then  as  to  Pylaiella,  Bory  de  Saint- Vincent  proposed  the 
name  of  Pilayella  in  1823.  Five  years  later  he  indicated  Conferva 
littoralis  L.  as  the  type  of  the  genus,  and  shortly  afterwards  corrected 
the  spelling  to  Pylaiella,  stating  that  he  had  dedicated  it  to  Bachelot 
de  la  Pylaie.  From  that  date  till  1896,  when  Kjellmau  revived  the 
name  Pylaiella,  it  was  only  cited  in  two  printed  works. 

North  American  Algae. — F.  S.  Collins  J  gives  an  account  of  the 
little  that  is  known  of  CEdogonium  Huntii  Wood  (186'.)).  He  feels 
fairly  certain  that  it  was  this  species  which  he  had  under  observation 
for  two  years,  but  which,  with  its  station,  was  utterly  destroyed  last 
year,  whilst  its  fruits  were  still  immature.  The  terminal  hairs  of  the 
plant  are  very  peculiar. 

He  gives  §  a'  new  definition  of  Kutzing's  genus  Pilinia,  and 
describes  six  North  American  species,  two  of  which  occur  also  in 
Europe,  and  two  others  are  new  to  science  ;  figures  of  these  latter  are 
supplied.  A  key  is  appended  to  help  in  the  identification  of  the 
species. 

He  gives  descriptions  ||  of  two  new  species  of  Acrochcetiam  .- 
A.  minimum  epiphytic  on  Desmarestia  viridis  in  Massachusetts,  and 
A.  Hoytii  on  Dirtyota  dirhotoma  in  North  Carolina. 

Italian  Diatoms. If — A.  Forti  publishes  a  preliminary  list  of  the 
fossil  diatoms  contained  in  the  Miocene  deposits  of  Bergonzano  (Reggio 

*  Journ.  of  Bot.,  xlvi.  (1908)  pp.  329-331. 

t  Journ.  de  Bot.,  xxi.  (1908)  pp.  11-11. 

%  Rhodora,  x.  (1908)  pp.  57-8.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  122-7  (1  pi.). 

||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  133-5.  f  Nuov.  Notar.,  xxiii.  (1908)  pp.  130-33. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  739 

d'Emilia).  The  full  paper  is  destined  to  appear  in  the  transactions  of 
the  Reale  Istituto  Veneto.  The  great  part  of  the  deposit  investigated 
is  constituted  of  characteristic  fragments  of  Coscinodisc  us  Gazethr  .Jan. 
The  list  contains  eight  Raphideae,  four  Pseudoraphideae,  sixty-five 
Cryptoraphideae. 

Genus  Micrasterias  in  New  England.* — J.  A.  Cushman  publishes 
a  synopsis  of  the  New  England  species  of  Micrasterias,  twenty-two  in 
number,  and  several  varieties.  Fourteen  of  these  species  occur  in  the 
British  Isles.  The  author  gives  a  description  with  synonymy,  refer- 
ences, measurements,  and  notes  under  each  species  and  variety,  and 
adds  a  key  to  aid  in  the  identification  of  the  species. 

Zygospores  of  Spirogyra  in  Relation  to  Theories  of  Variability.! 
L.  B.  Walton  has  studied  the  zygospores  of  Spirogyra  qvadrata  to 
obtain  data  as  to  the  causes  tending  to  produce  variability.  Over 
400  zygospores  were  studied,  including  those  formed  by  scalariform 
and  by  lateral  conjugation.  Scalariform  conjugation  yields  the  products 
of  union  between  remotely  related  cells  belonging  to  different  filaments. 
Lateral  conjugation  gives  the  results  of  union  between  sister  or  adjacent 
cells  of  the  same  filament.  According  to  AVeisemann  the  former  case 
should  favour  variability  of  offspring,  and  the  latter  case  should  afford 
a  decreased  variability.  Walton's  studies,  however,  yielded  results 
directly  contrary  to  this  theory  ;  for  the  zygospores  of  lateral  conjuga- 
tion were  about  21  p.c.  more  variable,  both  in  length  and  in  breadth, 
than  those  of  scalariform  origin.  Support  is  thereby  given  to  the 
theory  of  Hatschek  (1887)  that  sex  exists  for  the  purpose  of  limiting 
and  not  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  variability. 

Index  of  Desmidese.^  —  0.  F.  0.  Nordstedt  issues  a  supplement 
to   his    Index  Desmidiacearum,  which  was  published  in  1896.     Much 

material  having  accumulated  since  that  date,  a  large  supplement  became 
necessary.  The  new  bibliography  provided  cites  about  500  papers  by 
120  authors. 

Fresh-water  Algae  of  Java.§ — C.  Bernard  publishes  an  illustrated 
account  of  the  Protococcaceae  and  Desmidieas  gathered  by  him  in  fresh- 
water at  Buitenzorg  and  some  other  localities  in  Java.  Finding  that 
the  literature  previously  published  was  insufficient  to  enable  him  to 
determine  all  the  specimens  he  collected,  he  set  to  work  and  figured  his 
specimens  and  described  all  the  novelties  himself.  He  gives  a  list  of 
326  species  and  varieties,  and  illustrates  them  with  580  figures.  He 
describes  two  new  genera  :  Stein  id  In  and  Treubaria,  and  87  new  species 
and  varieties,  and  makes  numerous  additions  to  the  Javan  flora.  He 
appends  a  bibliography  of  ninety-three  works,  and  sketches  briefly  the 
condition  in  which  he  found  the  fresh -water  algology  of  Java.  In  other 
chapters  he  discusses  his  methods,  the  variability  of  the  organisms,  their 

*  Rhodora,  x.  (1908)  pp.  97-111.  t  Torreya,  viii.  (1908)  p.  228. 

X  Index  Desmidiacearum.  Supplementum.  Berlin  :  Gebr.  Borntraeger,  1908, 
150  pp. 

§  Protococcacees  et  Desmidiees  d'eau  douce  recoltees  a  Java.  Dept.  de  1' Agri- 
culture, Batavia,  1908,  230  pp.  (1G  pis.). 


740  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

adaptations,  the  cosmopolitanism  of  aquatic  plants.  And  in  a  com- 
bined table  of  326  species  and  varieties  he  indicates  those  which  have 
been  recorded  by  Nordstedt,  Mobius,  Wildeman,  Gutwinski,  Lemmer- 
mann,  and  himself  in  their  respective  lists. 

Phytoplankton  off  the  Coast  of  Normandy.* — L.  Mangin  has,  during 
the  greater  part  of  1907,  analysed  the  plankton  obtained  twice  monthly 
from  the  surface  of  the  sea  at  about  a  mile  out  from  the  Tatihou 
laboratory  at  Saint  Vaast  la  Hougue.  He  gives  a  list  of  the  species 
found  on  each  of  the  dates,  together  with  a  statement  of  the  weather 
then  prevailing.  In  a  synoptical  table  he  shows  the  comparative 
frequency  of  each  species  on  each  date  during  1907.  And  in  another 
plate  he  gives  sample  photomicrographs  of  the  contents  of  six  of  the 
gatherings.  He  adds  some  comments  upon  the  results  obtained.  The 
Peridinieaj  were  very  rarely  found  in  the  gatherings. 

Irish  Alg-ae.t — J.  Adams  publishes  a  synopsis  of  Irish  algae,  fresh- 
water and  marine,  and  includes  in  it  a  total  of  2213  species,  1370 
fresh-water  and  843  marine.  In  a  short  introduction  he  gives  an  account 
of  the  work  already  done  on  Irish  algaa,  and  adds  remarks  on  the 
suitability  of  the  climate,  and  provincial  distribution.  Ten  species  have 
been  found  on  the  Irish  coast  that  are  not  so  far  known  to  occur  in 
Great  Britain,  among  them  being  Godium  elongatum.  Halosphara 
viridis  Schm.,  a  warm-water  species,  occurs  in  the  plankton  of  the  west 
coast ;  while  Odontkalia  dentata  and  Ptilota  plumosa,  which  are  recorded 
from  Greenland  and  Iceland,  are  found  on  the  coast  of  Ulster,  though 
they  are  entirely  absent  from  the  southern  half  of  Ireland.  Alaria 
esmdenta  is  common  on  the  north  and  west  coasts,  but  is  much  more 
limited  on  the  east  side.     The  paper  closes  with  a  list  of  bibliography. 

Alg'33  from  Hudson's  Bay 4 — W.  A.  Setchell  and  P.  S.  Collins  give 
an  enumeration  of  four  green,  nine  brown,  and  fifteen  red  algas  from 
Hudson's  Bay,  apparently  the  first  list  of  alga?  ever  published  for  that 
sea.  A  few  distributional  notes  are  added.  Most  of  the  species  are 
circumpolar. 

Algse  of  Barbadoes.§ — A.  Vickers  and  M.  H.  Shaw  publish  a 
volume  of  93  coloured  quarto  plates  illustrating  the  green  and  brown 
marine  alga?  of  Barbadoes.  A.  Vickers  collected  alga?  during  two 
visits  to  the  island :  and  with  the  intention  of  publishing  an  icono- 
graphy of  the  subject  she  studied  the  species  and  made  drawings  of  their 
structure.  Her  work  was  but  half  completed  when  she  died.  Her 
drawings  supplemented  by  life-size  coloured  figures  of  the  plants  have 
been  worked  up  into  plates  and  edited  by  M.  H.  Shaw.  The  scientific 
descriptions,  which  were  to  have  been  written,  were  never  prepared.  To 
the  ChlorophyceEe  are  allotted  57  plates,  to  the  Phaeophyceae  36.  The 
RhodophyceEe  and  Myxophyceaa  are  not  included,  A.  Vickers  having 
left  no  material  for  the  purpose. 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  lv.  (1908)  pp.  13-22  (2  pis. ). 

t  Proc.  Boy.  Irish  Acad.,  xxvii.  (1908)  pp.  11-60. 

\  Bhodora,  x.  (1908)  pp.  114-16. 

§  Phycologia  Barbadensis.     Paris:   Klincksieck,  1908,  30  pp.  (93 pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  741 

Algae  of  Dutch  West  Indies.*— C.  P.  Sluiter  publishes  a  list  of  algae 
collected  by  J.  Boeke  during  his  inspection  of  the  Dutch  West  Indian 
fishery  of  Curagao.  Sixty-four  species  are  enumerated,  and  among  them 
are  several  Siphonese  and  Dictyotaceoa.  Among  the  Florideae  is  a  new 
species,  Zellera  Boehi,  allied  to,  but  distinct  from,  Z.  tawaUina  Martens, 
a  Moluccan  species. 

Illustrations  of  Japanese  Algae. t — K.  Okamura  continues  his 
"  Icones  of  Japanese  Algaj,"  giving  five  plates  in  each  part.  The  plates 
have  been  drawn  by  the  author,  and  afford  ample  illustration  of  the 
species  treated.  Though  the  text  is  mainly  in  Japanese,  the  more  im- 
portant parts,  for  example  the  descriptions,  are  also  printed  in  English. 
Two  new  species  are  described. 

Studies  of  Oceanic  Algae. J — A.  Mazza  continues  his  studies  of 
types  of  oceanic  algae,  and  gives  descriptions  of  species  of  Botryoglossum 
and  Holmesia.  He  then  treats  Delesseria  on  modern  lines,  accepting  the 
various  genera  propounded  by  J.  Agardh  and  other  authors  for  its  sub- 
division, and  describes  species  of  Hypoglossum,  Phitymophora,  Apo- 
glossum,  Delesseria  (including  Hydrolapathum),  Pteridium,  Hemineura. 

Origin  of  the  Plant  Kingdom. §— CI.  T.  Moore  gives  his  reasons 
for  thinking  that  the  evidence  points  clearly  to  Chlamydomonas  as  the 
most  primitive  living  representative  of  the  ancestors  of  the  plant  king- 
dom. Ten  years  ago  Chodat  derived  the  green  algas  from  the  simplest 
unicellular  non-motile  forms  then  known,  the  Palmellaceaa,  whose 
simple  life-history  showed  three  principal  stages  or  "  conditions,"  from 
which  developed  the  three  important  and  ruling  tendencies  which  have 
dominated  the  lower  green  algae.  These  are  (1)  the  zoospore  condition, 
unicellular,  motile  ;  (2)  the  sporangium  condition,  unicellular,  non- 
motile  ;  (3)  the  tetraspore  condition,  where  the  non-motile  cells  are 
connected  at  right  angles  by  the  increasing  consistence  of  the  walls, 
giving  rise  to  the  formation  of  a  tissue  or  filament.  More  recently 
Blackman  expressed  the  view  that  the  three  tendencies  had  their  origin, 
not  in  the  non-motile  Palmella  form,  but  in  the  motile  Chlamydomonas 
type.  Moore  has  studied  Chlamydomonas  for  some  years.  It  has  a  non- 
sexual reproduction  by  means  of  zoospores  ;  a  sexual  reproduction  by 
conjugation  of  naked  motile  gametes  of  similar  size,  but  also  in  some 
cases  by  conjugation  of  unequal  motile  gametes,  and  in  one  case  of  dis- 
similar gametes,  the  larger  of  which  comes  to  rest  before  conjugation. 
The  various  species  of  Chlamydomonas  taken  collectively  exhibit  ten- 
dencies towards  (1)  a  Volvox  type,  (2)  a  Tetraspora  type.  (3)  an 
EndospJmra  type.  It  is  from  the  Tetraspora  type  that  the  higher  green 
plants  have  arisen,  and  mostly  through  the  Palmellaceae  ;  the  Conjugales 
are  traceable  to  Chlamydomonas  Braunii. 

Fossil  Girvanella  :  a  plant. || — F.  Chapman  discusses  the  relation- 
ship of  the  genus  Girvanella,  a  tubular  organism,  the  fossil  remains  of 

*  Rec.  Travaux  Bot.  Norland.,  iv.  (1908)  pp.  231-41  (1  pi.). 

t  Tokyo :  1908,  i.  Nos.  7-8,  pp.  147-208,  plates  31-40. 

X  Nuov.  Notar.,  xxiii.  Q908)  pp.  109  29. 

§  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  91-6. 

II  Australasian  Assoc,  for  Adv.  Sci.,  Adelaide  (1907)  10  pp.,  3  pis. 


742  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    I') 

which  have  been  found  in  calcareous  strata  in  Scotland,  North  America, 
the  Baltic,  England,  and  in  Australia.  The  author  reviews  the  evidence 
as  to  the  animal  or  vegetable  nature  of  the  organism,  and  concludes 
that  the  genus  Girvanella,  which  has  been  variously  assigned  to  the 
Foraminifera,  sponges,  stromatoporoids,  and  calcareous  or  encrusted 
algae,  is  here  shown  to  have  no  claim  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
Foraminifera,  but  to  have  strong  affinity  with  the  algae,  and  especially 
with  the  Cyanophyceae,  or  blue-green  algre. 

Edwards,   A.  M. — The    Upper    Neocene   Deposit    of    Bacillaria   around   Boston, 
Massachusetts. 

[A  discussion  of  the  fossil  diatoms  in  relation  to  the  strata  from  which  they 
come.]  Nuov.  Notar.,  xxiii.  (1908)  pp.  134-7. 


Fungi. 
(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Study  of  Mortierellss.* — J.  Dauphin  has  selected  the  genus  Mor- 
tierella  for  examination  chiefly  from  the  biological  standpoint.  He, 
however,  treats  first  of  all  their  classification,  and  passes  under  review 
the  species  that  have  been  described  in  this  genus  :  he  considers  that 
a  number  of  these  are  to  be  ranked  as  small  forms,  others  as  only  varie- 
ties ;  he  adds  a  new  variety  and  two  new  species.  Throughout  his 
classification  he  has  followed  Van  Tieghem  in  making  the  method  of 
branching  of  the  sporangiophores  of  importance.  He  studied  J/,  poly- 
cephala  more  especially  for  the  biology  of  the  group,  and  by  growing  it 
from  one  spore  to  the  production  of  zygospores  he  proved  its  homo- 
thallic  nature.  Germination  and  growth  were  more  rapid  when  a  large 
supply  of  air  was  provided  for  the  fungus.  The  effect  of  temperature 
was  also  noted,  the  optimum  for  germination  being  somewhat  higher 
than  for  the  production  of  sporangia  and  spores.  Growth  went  on 
slowdy  in  the  dark,  more  quickly  in  light,  but  in  the  latter  case  only 
stylospores  were  formed  ;  violet  and  ultra-violet  rays  were  found  to 
be  indispensable  ;  X-rays  retarded  development ;  radio-active  bodies 
had  a  paralysing  effect ;  spores  and  mycelium  remained  in  a  resting 
condition  under  the  influence  of  radium,  and  high  atmospheric  pressure 
arrested  growth.  The  nutritive  medium  was  a  factor  of  extreme 
importance,  and  many  experiments  were  made  with  different  cultures, 
results  of  which  are  given.  Dauphin  found  that  if  other  conditions 
were  favourable,  the  fungus  would  develop  without  oxygen.  He  con- 
siders that  it  probably  liberates  oxygen  from  the  medium  in  which 
it  is  grown  in  sufficient  quantity  for  its  life-process. 

Development  of  Acnlya  polyandra.f — M.  Miicke  undertook  a  study 
of  this  fungus,  to  decide  on  the  number  of  nuclear  divisions  in  the 
oogonium  and  the  nature  of  the  fertilisation  process.  He  cultivated 
the  species  on  ants'  eggs,  and  gives  his  methods  of  culture,  staining,  etc. 
The  number  of  nuclei  in  the  newly  formed  oogonium  is  very  large,  and 
they  are  rather  small ;  they  decrease  by  degeneration  ;  those  that  remain 

*  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  ser.  9,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  1-112  (45  figs.) 

f  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  3G7-78  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    .MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  743 

increase  in  size  and  divide  ;  the  chromosomes  could  not  be  accurately 
counted  ;  the  oospheres  are  formed  round  each  nucleus  by  a  heaping  up 
of  the  protoplasm  round  the  nuclei ;  there  are  usually  10-15  oospheres 
in  each  oogonium.  The  antheridia  arise  from  the  stalk,  or  from  neigh- 
bouring filaments  ;  the  fertilising  hyphae  penetrate  the  oogonium,  and 
may  branch  inside,  each  branch  travelling  towards  an  oosphere  ;  the 
male  nucleus  was  seen  in  close  proximity  with  the  female,  but  actual 
fusion  was  not  observed. 

Sexuality  in  the  Ascomycetes* — A.  Guilliermond  concludes  his 
long  review  of  this  subject  by  a  study  of  mitosis.  He  gives  the  results 
obtained  by  various  authors  as  to  the  number  of  chromosomes  that  are 
present  in  the  different  stages  of  division.  There  is  undoubtedly  a 
reduction  of  these,  similar  to  reduction  in  the  sexual  mitosis  of  the 
Phanerogams.  The  first  division  in  the  ascus  is  heterotypic,  the  second 
homotypic,  the  third  typical.  A  note  is  added  on  some  systematic 
work  and  on  the  phylogeny  of  the  group.  He  finds  that  the  asexual 
sporangium  has  been  transformed  into  a  conidiophore  ;  the  gametangium 
is  replaced  by  a  gametophore,  and  the  sporocyst  has  been  developed 
into  an  ascus  in  the  adaptation  of  the  Ascomycetes  to  an  aerial  life. 

Penicillium  as  a  Fruit  Parasite.f  —  Decaying  fruits  almost   in- 
variably show  more  or  less  abundant  growths  of  Penicillium.     This  has 
been   considered   to    be   P.  glaucum,   and    treated   as   a    saprophyte. 
0.  Schneider-Orelli  has  studied  the  whole  subject,  and  gives  us  his 
results.    He  insists  on  the  exact  recognition  and  definition  of  P.  italicum 
and  P.  olivaceum  as  distinct  from  P.  glaucum;  P.  italicum  1  icing  the 
form  found  most  frequently  on  oranges.      Schneider-Orelli   had  some 
mandarin  oranges  sent  to  him  from  Italy,  with  due  precaution  against 
any  risk  of  infection  after  they  were  plucked.     He  soaked  the  skins  in 
water,  with   which   he    inoculated   subsequent   cultures,  and    obtained 
therefrom  a    series  of    spore-germinations,   yeasts,    Dematium,    Clado- 
sporium,  and  Penicillium  italicum.    He  thus  proved  that  the  latter  came 
with  the   fruits  from   the   south,  and   with   favourable   conditions    it 
develops  on  and  penetrates  the  oranges,  which  it  finally  destroys.     He 
further    proved  that   P.   italicum   attacks   apples   and   pears    in    more 
northern  countries,  though  it  is  essentially  a  southern  form,  and  will 
not  develop  at  low  temperatures.     P.  glaucum  grows  in  extreme  cold; 
it  acts  as  a  destructive  parasite  of  stone  fruits  in  northern  lands,  but  it 
also  attacks  oranges,  etc,  from  the  south.     P.  glaucum  is  easily  recog- 
nised by  its  round   conidia.     The  conidia  of  the  other  two  forms  are 
much  larger  and  ellipsoid  in  form. 

Vegetation  of  Morchella.  —  L.  Matruchot  %  has  already  published 
an  account  of  the  development  of  Morchella  spores,  and  of  the  conidia] 
form  Gostantinella  cristata.  He  noted  at  that  time  the  Bclerotia-like 
masses  in  the  cultures  that  were  formed  by  the  agglomeration  of  hyphae. 
He  has  recently  found  in  nature  that  similar  sclerotia  occur  in  the  soil. 
At  the  base  of  the  Morchella  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  there  is  a  fleshy 

*  Rev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xx.  (1908)  pp.  3G4-78  (figs.), 
t  Ceutralbl.  Bakt.,  xxi.  (1908)  pp.  365-74. 
X  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvii.  (1908)  pp.  431-2. 


744  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

tubercle  from  which  the  fungus  arises  ;  it  is  of  a  spongy  texture,  and 
incloses  particles  of  soil,  etc.  ;  attached  to  this  tubercle  are  various 
cords  of  hyphae,  which  travel  in  the  soil  and  form  here  and  there  the 
sclerotia-like  bodies  ;  these  are  clearly  in  contact  with  the  roots  of  the 
higher  plants,  especially  of  the  elm,  of  which  they  form  the  mycorhiza. 

Cytology  of  the  Ascomycetes.*— H.  C.  T.  Fraser  and  E.  Welsford 
have  investigated  nuclear  fusion  in  Peziza  vesiculosa  and  Otidea  aurantia. 
In  the  former  they  were  unable  to  recognise  an  ascogonium,  nor  were 
the  nuclei  in  the  ascogenous  hyphas  conjugately  arranged  ;  the  divisions 
of  these  nuclei  are  normal,  and  show  about  eight  chromosomes  on  the 
equatorial  plate.  Fusion  in  the  ascus  took  place  about  the  time  of  the 
first  meiotic  contraction.  In  Otidea  aurantia  traces  of  a  probable  func- 
tionless  ascogonium  were  found  ;  in  the  ascogenous  hyphas  there  was  no 
conjugate  arrangement  of  the  nuclei.  In  both  species  the  first  and 
second  divisions  in  the  ascus  are  meiotic  ;  longitudinal  splitting  of  the 
spireme  was  observed  in  Otidea  aurantia.  A  second  reduction  or 
brachymeiosis  occurs  in  the  third  division,  the  number  of  chromosomes 
being  finally  two  in  Otidea  and  four  in  Peziza.  The  two  stages  of 
meiosis  are  cited  by  the  authors  as  additional  evidence  of  the  occurrence 
of  two  fusions  in  the  life-history  of  the  Ascomycetes,  a  phenomenon 
which  has  recently  been  disputed  by  Claussen.  They  also  studied 
spore  formation,  and  have  confirmed  their  previous  view  that  the  spore 
is  limited  by  the  astral  rays,  but  that  these  represent  cuirents  flowing 
out  from  the  centrosome.  They  suggest  that  the  centrosome  is  the  seat 
of  fermentative  activities  and  alters  the  cytoplasm,  causing  it  to  form  the 
spore-limiting  layer. 

Notes  on  the  Parasitism  of  Botrytis.f  —  F.  T.  Brooks  has  con- 
ducted cultural  experiments  on  living  plants  of  lettuce  with  this  fungus. 
He  found  that  with  Botrytis  conidia  he  was  unable  to  infect  healthy 
green  leaves,  nor  even  partially  weakened  leaves  ;  but  wounded  leaves, 
or  those  turning  yellow,  were  penetrated  by  the  fungus.  He  found  also 
that  if  mycelium  nourished  saprophytically  was  placed  on  the  same  leaves 
infection  took  place  and  spread  rapidly. 

M^uld  of  Fermenting  Grain. $ — L.  Mangin  and  N.  Patouillard 
describe  three  kinds  of  altered  grain  produced  in  Algeria  by  placing 
it  in  silos  and  allowing  it  to  ferment.  One  of  these  products,  called 
Catoimi:  grain,  becomes  injured  in  the  process  ;  the  moulds  destroy  its 
nutritive  value  and  communicate  toxic  properties  to  it.  The  authors 
examined  the  mould  and  made  cultures,  by  which  they  proved  it  to  be 
Monilia  Arnoldi  sp.  n.  They  were  able  to  produce  the  conidial  form 
and  the  sclerotia,  but  not  the  ascus  form.  Full  accounts  are  given  of 
the  d  velopment  of  the  fungus. 

C  nidial  Formation  in  Aspergillus.§ — L.  Mangin  has  grown  species 
of  Aspergillus  on  various  media  and  under  varying  conditions  to  deter- 
mine the  constancy  of  the  factors  that  are  considered  of  importance  in 

*  Ann.  of  Bot.,  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  465-77  (2  pis.). 

t  Proc.  Camb.  Phil.  Soc,  xiv.  (1907)  p.  298. 

%  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  156-64  (4  figs.). 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvii.  (1908)  pp.  260-3. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  745 

classification.  These  are  generally  the  form  and  size  of  the  reproductive 
organs.  He  finds,  however,  that  all  these  are  subject  to  considerable 
variation,  and  chiefly  the  conidia,  which  differ  in  size  and  in  appearance, 
varying  from  smooth  to  distinctly  echinulate.  These  phenomena  are 
not  confined  to  the  AspergiUaceae,  and  should  have  an  important  bearing 
on  the  determination  of  species. 

Study  of  Nuclear  Divisions  in  Rusts.* — Edgar  W.  Olive  gives  a 
short  preliminary  sketch  of  the  views  held  by  successive  workers  on  the 
origin  of  the  binucleated  condition  of  cells  of  the  Uredinese  up  to  the 
date  of  Blackmail's  and  Christman's  papers  on  the  subject.  These  two 
writers  disagree  as  to  the  explanation  of  the  conjugation  process ; 
Blackman  holding  that  it  is  oosporic,  a  large  female  cell  receiving  the 
nucleus  from  a  smaller  male  cell.  Christman  views  it  as  zygosporic, 
consisting  of  the  union  of  two  equal  gametes,  and  resulting  in  a  non- 
resting  zygospore.  Christman  finds  also  that  nuclear  migration  occurs 
in  Puccinia  PodophyUi  in  the  teleutospore  sorus,  when  there  could  be  no 
sexual  process,  and  he  is  inclined  to  interpret  all  such  migrations  as 
pathological.     A  history  of  work  on  nuclear  division  is  also  given. 

As  a  result  of  his  own  work,  chiefly  on  Triphragmium  ulmarw, 
Olive  concludes  that  the  fusing  gametes,  as  well  as  the  nuclei,  are 
approximately  equal,  corresponding  thus  to  Christman's  view,  and  he 
regards  the  upper  sterile  cell  as  merely  a  degenerating  tip-cell,  and 
rejects  Blackmail's  interpretation  that  it  is  an  abortive  trichogyne. 
Conjugation  of  the  two  gametes  takes  place  through  a  larger  or  smaller 
pore.  He  also  found  multinucleate  cells  at  the  base  of  the  ascidium 
cup,  which  Blackman  considered  abnormal ;  as  he  has  detected  them  in 
eight  or  ten  species  of  rusts,  he  concludes  that  they  are  of  regular 
occurrence,  and  are  the  result  of  repeated  nuclear  division  without  cell- 
formation.  He  suggests  that  they  belong  to  the  sporophytic  generation, 
and  arise  owing  to  the  stimulated  growth  that  follows  the  sexual  cell- 
fusion. 

The  vegetative  nuclear  division  is  constantly  mitotic,  each  nucleus 
apparently  in  entire  independence  of  its  associated  neighbour.  He  was 
unable  to  count  the  chromosomes  in  the  dividing  nucleus,  but  the 
chromatic  radiations,  which  are  regarded  as  corresponding  to  the 
chromosomes,  are  eight  in  number,  and  are  segregated  into  two  groups 
of  four,  each  group  being  attached  to  a  distinct  centrosome,  thus  giving 
a  double  character  to  the  daughter-nucleus. 

Uredinese. — Alfred  Hasler  f  publishes  a  preliminary  notice  of  his 
work  on  the  Puccinice  of  Crepis  and  Centaurea.  In  the  former  genus 
he  worked  with  about  twenty  species,  making  inoculation  cultures  with 
different  forms  of  Puccinia.  Some  of  these  grew  on  a  number  of  Crepis 
species  such  as  P.  praecox,  others,  such  as  P.  Grwhcti,  were  specialised 
to  one  species  alone.  Similar  cultures  were  carried  on  with  Centaurea, 
and  the  results  are  shortly  given. 

P.  Dieteli  describes  a  second  series  of  Uredinese  from  Japan  and 

*  Ann.  of  Bot.  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  331-60  (1  pi.). 
+  Centralbl.  Bakt,,  xxi.  (1908)  pp.  510-11. 
1  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  222-9  (1  fig.). 

Dec.  16th,  1908  3  D 


74*;  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

establishes  a  new  genus,  Blastospora.  The  teleutospores  resemble  those 
of  Uromyces,  but  on  germination  the  whole  upper  end  of  the  spores 
grows  out  to  form  the  promycelium.  Itformed  uredospores  and  teleuto- 
spores on  Smila.r  Sicboldi.  A  number  of  new  speeies  are  also  recorded 
and  described.     A  figure  is  given  of  the  new  genus. 

C.  v.  Tuheuf  *  lias  found  that  the  pear-tree  rust  persisted  through 
the  winter  at  the  base  of  the  leaves,  etc.,  and  in  spring  produced  spenno- 
gonia  on  the  bud-scales,  and  later  aecidia  in  large  numbers;  in  the 
following  year  these  parts  of  the  tree  died  after  two  successive  secidium 
formations. 

In  a  discussion  as  to  the  appearance  of  new  forms  of  plant  life 
Ed.  Fischer  t  selects  the  Uredinea3  to  illustrate  his  theme.  He  describes 
the  life-history  as  now  understood  from  recent  researches,  presenting  a 
change  of  generation  from  one  with  uninucleate  cells  to  another  with 
binucleate,  and  he  draws  attention  to  the  modifications  that  may  occur 
in  either,  so  that  in  the  sporophore  generation  the  ajcidium  or  uredo,  or 
both,  may  be  omitted,  and  in  the  sexual  generation  the  spermogonia 
may  have  entirely  disappeared.  These  variations  he  concludes  represent 
a  young  type  phylogenetically,  and  such  curtailed  forms  may  be  regarded 
as  still  in  a  state  of  development. 

Identity  of  Polyporus  applanatus  of  Europe  and  North  America.^ 
— This  rather  common  bracket-fungus  has  been  stated  by  some  fungo- 
logists  to  be  different  from  the  one  known  by  that  name  in  the  American 
States.  G.  F.  Atkinson  has  therefore  made  a  study  of  the  species,  and 
decides  that  they  are  identical  in  the  form  and  appearance  of  the  pileus, 
and  in  the  colour,  form,  and  marking  of  the  pores.  He  cites  all  the 
different  authorities  who  have  written  on  the  subject,  and  sums  up  the 
synonymy  of  the  species,  placing  it  in  the  genus  Ganoderma  and  giving 
it  an  earlier  specific  name,  G.  lipsiensis. 

Monographs  of  the  Higher  Fungi. — Ft.  Bataille§  has  issued  a  flora 
of  the  Asterosporaj,  that  is  of  Lactarius  and  Russula,  78  species  of  the 
former  and  99  of  the  latter.  He  has  drawn  up  keys  to  the  species  based 
on  the  more  easily  observed  characters,  form,  colour,  stalk,  etc. 

A  second  monograph  ||  deals  with  Boletus,  for  which  he  lias  also 
drawn  up  keys,  dividing  the  species  into  genera  or  sub-genera.  Colour 
of  spores  and  the  form  of  the  pores  are  the  determining  characters,  so 
that  in  section  Tubulati  there  are  3  series  :  (1)  Porj  hyrospori  (with 
the  genera  Eriocorys,  Plmosporus  and  Rhodoporus  ;  (2)  Eupori,  in- 
cluding TracJ/ypus,  Coelopus  and  CEdipus  ;  and  (3)  Heteropori,  with 
the  genera  Xerocomus,  Ixocomus  and  Ghalcvporns.  The  section  Alveo- 
lati  is  divided  into  3  genera,  Uloporus,  Phylloporus,  and  Euryporm. 

Form-development  of  Pileate  Fungi,  f — Werner  Magnus  has  pub- 
lished a  paper  on  this  subject,  the  results  of  observation  and  experiment 

*  Nat.  Land.  Forstw.,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  217-19.  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cviii.  (1908) 
p.  187.  t  Mitt.  Nat.  Gesell.  Bern,  1907  (1908)  pp.  136-54. 

\  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  179-91  (3  pis.). 

§  Extr.  Mem.  Soc.  Kmul.  Doubs,  ser.  8,  ii.  (1907)  100  pp.  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl., 
viii.  (1908)  pp.  330-1. 

||  Bull.  Soc.  Hist.  Nat.  Doubs,  No.  15  (1908)  30  pp.  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl., 
cviii.  (1908)  pp.  331-2.  f  Arcb.  Biontol.,  i.  (1906)  pp.  85-161  (6  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  747 

carried  out  by  himself.  He  discusses  the  effect  of  wounding  the  plants 
at  different  stages  of  growth  and  their  manner  of  regeneration  ;  he 
compares  this  with  normal  growth,  and  pays  special  attention  to  the 
monstrous  forms  that  are  occasionally  met  with,  and  the  conditions  that 
have  induced  their  growth.  Finally,  he  discusses  various  phylogenetic 
problems. 

Note  on  Phallus  impudicus.* — G.  de  Coutouly  describes  how  he 
managed  to  root  out  this  very  disagreeable  fungus  from  a  small  planta- 
tion near  a  dwelling-house.  A  careful  watch  was  kept,  and  as  soon  as 
the  "  egg  "  was  visible  it  was  removed,  and  the  ground  was  trenched 
round  the  spot  and  treated  with  quicklime.  The  following  season  there 
was  no  recurrence  of  the  fungus. 

Mushroom  Culture.! — P.  M.  Biers  has  written  a  description  of  the 
culture  as  it  is  carried  on  in  caves  in  France.  These  caves  occur  or 
have  been  made  in  chalk  or  limestone  districts,  and  the  method  of 
culture  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  caves 
must  not  be  too  damp  or  too  dry,  or  the  spawn  will  not  develop  properly. 
Biers  describes  the  making  of  the  beds,  the  culture  of  fresh  spawn,  and 
the  different  operations  necessary  in  the  culture.  He  also  gives  statistics 
of  the  enormous  extent  and  commercial  importance  of  the  industry. 

Mycological  Notes:  IV 4—  F.  von  Hohnel  continues  his  useful 
examination  of  published  species,  whereby  he  has  weeded  out  many 
redundant  species.  Chistotheca  papyropMa  Zukal  he  finds  to  be 
synonymous  with  the  very  common  Pleospora  herbarum.  He  also  gives 
a  review  of  his  new  family  Pseudosphaeriaceae,  giving  a  list  of  the  genera 
and  species  that  should  be  placed  in  it.  A  new  genus  of  Sphaeropsideae, 
Plectophoma,  with  somewhat  peculiar  sporophores,  is  described  ;  he  con- 
siders it  to  be  the  pycnidial  stage  of  some  small  Discomycete.  Descrip- 
tions of  several  new  species  are  also  published. 

Fungicides.^ — Hermann  Burmester  has  made  an  experimental  study 
of  the  different  reagents  employed  to  destroy  fungus  spores,  especially  of 
smut  and  bunt  on  seeds.  His  work  had  special  reference  to  the  influence, 
good  or  bad,  of  the  fungicides  on  the  vitality  of  the  seeds.  Copper 
sulphate,  formalin,  hot  air,  and  picric  acid  were  tested  both  on  seeds  and 
spores,  and  the  results  are  tabulated  under  each  heading.  He  concludes 
that  copper  sulphate  and  formalin  are  both  almost  equally  effective,  and 
much  more  to  be  recommended  than  either  hot  air  or  boiling  water  ;  but 
the  choice  ultimately  rests  with  the  agriculturalist,  who  must  select  the 
method  that  is  most  practicable  for  him. 

Yorkshire  Fungi. || — C.  Crossland  selected  the  study  of  fungi  in 
Yorkshire  as  the  subject  of  his  presidential  address  to  the  Naturalists' 
Union  at  Halifax.     The  oldest  record  of  a  Yorkshire  fungus  is  from 

*  Bull.  Soe.  Mycol.  France,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  181-2. 
f  Tom.  cit.,  189  96  (4 pis.). 

X  SB.  k.  Akad.  Wiss.  YVien,  Math. -Nat.  Kl.,  cxvi.  (1907)  pp.  615-47.      See  also 
Hedwigia,  xlvii.  (1908)  Beibl.,  pp.  167-9. 

§  Zeitschr.  Pflanzenkr.,  xviii.  (1908)  pp.  154-87. 
||  Naturalist,  1908,  pp.  81-96  and  147-56. 

3   D   9. 


748  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Hampole  Wood,  near  Hutton  Pagnall,  in  1050.  James  Bolton's 
"  History  of  Fungnsses  growing  about  Halifax  "  receives  special  atten- 
tion. There  follows  an  account  of  all  the  different  fungologists,  writers, 
or  collectors  connected  with  Yorkshire,  which  includes  the  names  of  nearly 
all  the  British  workers  in  this  field,  as  they  each  seem  to  have  joined  in 
the  Yorkshire  forays  at  one  time  or  another. 

Diseases  of  Plants.* — M.  C.  Potter  reports  on  "  deaf-ear  "  of  barley, 
a  disease  in  which  the  ears  of  the  cereal  are  deficient,  or  almost  empty. 
He  has  proved  that  this  is  due  to  the  presence  of  the  fungus  Helmin- 
thosporium,  which  also  causes  stripe-disease  of  the  leaves.  The  conidia 
of  the  fungus  find  a  lodgment  in  the  chaff  inclosing  the  grain,  and 
on  germination  of  the  seed  the  fungus  germinates  also  and  grows  in 
the  tissue  of  the  host,  in  the  same  way  as  Smut  (Ustilago).  Cleaning 
the  grain  is  recommended  to  destroy  the  conidia,  either  by  hot-water 
treatment  or  by  the  use  of  chemicals.  Low  temperature  at  the  time  of 
sowing  favours  the  growth  of  the  fungus. 

Transactions  of  the  British  Mycological  Society.! — These  form 
a  record  of  the  work  done  during  the  year  by  the  society  through  its 
members,  the  account  of  the  annual  foray  being  the  first  item.  The 
members  met  at  Newcastle  in  October,  and  made  a  series  of  excursions 
to  places  in  the  neighbourhood  that  offered  good  ground  for  their 
particular  harvest.  An  account  of  these  excursions  is  given,  and  a  list 
of  the  fungi  collected,  two  being  new  to  the  British  flora,  Plowright 
publishes  an  account  of  a  case  of  poisoning  at  Ipswich,  due  to  the  eating 
of  Amanita  phalloides,  a  very  poisonous  species.  M.  C.  Cooke  furnishes 
a  reply  to  Boudier's  criticism  of  his  "  illustrations  "  :  some  of  the  state- 
ments Cooke  accepts  or  explains  ;  others  he  rejects.  D.  A.  Cotton  con- 
tinues his  notes  on  British  Clavarire  :  for  C.  vermicular  is  he  substi- 
tutes the  name  C.  fragiiis  as  having  a  prior  claim,  and  he  finds  that 
G.  rufa  must  be  deleted  from  the  flora  as  being  only  a  synonym  of 
C.  incequalis.  A  list  of  new  or  rare  British  fungi  is  prepared  by 
A.  Lorrain  Smith  and  Carleton  Rea,  and  contains  many  species  new  to 
Britain,  published  in  other  journals  or  recorded  here  for  the  first  time. 
It  also  contains  a  number  new  to  science.  They  are  well  illustrated  by 
one  uncoloured  and  two  coloured  plates.  The  presidential  address  by 
A.  Lorrain  Smith  gives  an  historical  account  of  microfungi,  especially 
in  this  country,  from  the  earliest  drawings  and  observations  by  Hooke 
in  his  Micrographia  (1677)  down  to  the  present  time.  Hooke's' illustra- 
tions of  the  two  species  noted  by  him  are  reproduced  by  photography. 

Case  of  Poisoning  by  Amanita  junquillea.J  —  J.  Jeanmaire  de- 
scribes his  own  experiences  in  collecting  and  eating  various  species  of 
fungi,  which  affected  more  or  less  the  persons  who  ate  of  them.  He 
found  that  A.  junquillea,  usually  an  edible  fungus,  was  occasionally 
harmful,  though  not  seriously  so.  The  fungi  were  collected  after  heavy 
rains  in  the  month  of  May. 

*  Newcastle,  1908,  8  pp.  (1  pi.) 

t  Worcester  :  E.  Baylis  and  Son  (1908)  iii.  pt.  1,  46  pp.  (4  pis.). 

j  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  17S-81. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  749 

New  Fungi  from  South  America.*  —  C.  Spegazzini  has  recently 
issued  papers  on  new  fungi,  including  many  new  species  and  genera. 
The  first  is  devoted  to  parasites  on  Theobroma  cacao,  where  he  finds  one 
new  genus  Hysteriopsis  (Hysteriaceae)  with  muriform  spores. 

In  a  second  paper  f  he  describes  a  number  of  Pyrenomycetes  and 
Sphasropsideae  collected  by  A.  Usteri  in  San  Paulo  ;  the  new  genera  are 
Dimerosporiella,  Hyalotheles,  Dimeriella,  Phceodimerklla,  Eudarluca, 
Lonchospermella,  and  Phceoseptoria.  Many  of  the  plants  described  are 
parasites,  and  the  name  of  the  host  has  been  omitted. 

In  a  third  paper  J  he  gives  the  parasitic  fungi  of  Ilex  para// uayensis, 
72  in  number,  most  of  them  new  species,  with  the  following  new  genera  : 
(Pyrenomycetes)  Acanthonitschlcea  and  Phccobotryosphceria ;  (Disco- 
mycetes)  Stilbopeziza ;  (Fungi  imperfecti)  MacrodiplodieUa,  Phceo- 
marsonia,  and  Spermatoloncha. 

Mycothecea  of  the  School  of  Pharmacy.  XXVIII. — G.  Bainier§ 
continues  his  studies  of  filamentous  fungi :  he  finds  that  the  mould, 
which  he  described  as  Cephalomyces  nigricans,  should  be  placed  in  the 
genus  Cephaliophora.  The  species  of  the  genus  inhabit  warm  countries, 
but  can  easily  be  cultivated  in  the  laboratory.  Descriptions  and  plates 
of  those  already  described  are  added. 

He  describes  ||  also  a  mould,  Haplographium  fuscipes,  which  has  been 
recorded  on  leaves  of  Scotch  pine,  and  was  found  by  him  on  decaying 
leaves  of  Epicea  excelsa.  The  genus  resembles  the  brown  form  of 
PenkilUum,  and  many  of  the  species  have  been  found  on  leaves  of 
Conifers.  Bainier  gives  a  careful  description  of  the  mould,  and  of  the 
cultivations  of  it  that  he  made. 

Diseases  of  Plants. — 0.  Falladaif  gives  a  review  of  diseases  of 
sugar-beet  due  to  parasitic  fungi ;  in  Italy  there  was  an  attack  of  the 
plants  by  Cercospora  beticola.  In  other  places  Phoma  Petce  was  signalled, 
though  not  always  the  cause  of  the  drying  up  of  the  beet.  CJadosporium 
herbarum  and  Clasterosporium  putrefaciens  occurred  frequently,  and 
seriously  affected  the  quantity  of  sugar  in  the  beet. 

T.  Petch**  records  the  diseases  of  tobacco  in  Dumbara  ;  he  finds  a 
Cercospora  and  an  Oidium  on  the  leaves,  and  a  somewhat  serious  root 
trouble  caused  by  a  species  of  Fusarium. 

In  West  Virginia  the  apple  trees  suffered  badly  from  loss  of  leaf. 
J.  L.  Sheldonft  has  examined  into  the  cause  of  this,  and  finds  it  to  be 

*  Fac.  Agr.  Vet.  Univ.  Nac.  La  Plata,  ii.  (1907)  pp.  303-11  (figs.  A-E).  See  also 
Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  p.  280. 

+  Rev.  Mus.  La  Plata,  xv.  (1908)  pp.  7-G8  (8  figs.).  See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi. 
(1908)  pp.  280-1. 

\  Ann.  Mus.  Nac.  Buenos  Aires,  xvii.  (1908)  pp.  111-41.  See  also  Ann.  Mycol., 
vi.  (1908)  p.  281. 

§  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  147-51  (2  pis.). 

"||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  152-5  (2  figs.). 

4  Oesterr-Ungarr.  Zeitschr.  Zuckerind.  Landw.,  i.  (1908)  pp.  28-37.  See  also 
Hedwigia,  xlviii.  (1908)  Beibl.,  p.  37. 

**  Joum.  Roy.  Bot.  Gard.  Cevlon,  iv.  Nos.  7,  8  (1907)  pp.  41-8  (1  pi.).     See  also 
Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  282-3. 

tt  Torreva,  viii.  (1908)  pp.  139-41.     See  also  Ann.  Mvcol.,  vi.  (1908)  p.  283. 


750  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

due  to  a  fungus,  Ulosporium  malifoliorum  ;  it  forms  characteristic  Leaf- 
blotches. 

P.  Bacarini*  has  described  a  parasitic  fungus,  Botrytis  Pistiir  sp.  n., 
that  attacks  and  destroys  the  leaves  of  Pistia  stratiotes  at  the  end  of  the 
summer.     The  conidial  form  alone  was  observed  ;  a  diagnosis  is  given. 

K.  Kornauth  and  G.  Kockf  give  an  account  of  the  gooseberry 
mildew  in  Austria,  where  it  has  spread  very  largely.  They  describe  the 
difference  between  the  American  and  European  mildews  on  Ribes,  and 
suggest  remedies. 

Griffon  and  MaublancJ  have  published  a  note  on  the  very  serious 
mildew  of  oaks.  Specimens  of  affected  leaves  have  been  received  this 
last  season  from  all  over  France,  though  it  was  scarcely  known  until  the 
previous  year.  The  suggestion  is  that  it  is  an  indigenous  species, 
Microsphcera  Alni,  that  has  suddenly  attacked  a  new  host ;  on  the  other 
hand,  it  may  be  an  exotic  form  of  the  same  fungus  that  has  been  intro- 
duced.    (It  has  also  recently  appeared  in  England.) 

Ed.  Bureau  §  writes  in  a  later  issue  of  the  same  journal  an  account 
of  the  disease  as  he  has  observed  it.  In  some  of  the  woods  the  whole 
of  the  oak  leaves  had  become  grey  and  hung  down,  recalling  the  foliage 
of  the  Australian  Eucalyptus.  He  made  an  examination  of  the  oaks 
attacked,  and  found  that  while  in  Quercus  pidunculata  and  others  the 
whole  of  the  leaves  were  attacked,  in  Q.  sessiliflora  only  the  young 
shoots  suffered.  Q.  rubra,  a  North  American  species,  was  similarly 
affected,  only  the  young  shoots  being  mildewed.  The  beech  has  also 
been  attacked  by  the  same  mildew,  but  only  the  young*  shoots,  and 
usually  only  in  hedges,  the  forest  trees  having  escaped.  The  chestnut 
is  immune,  and  so  also  is   Q.  suber,  the  cork  oak. 

E.  S.  Salmon  ||  records  a  disease  on  cherry  trees  caused  by  Exoascus 
minor,  which  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  E.  cerasi.  The  former 
attacks  the  young  wood,  and  the  mycelium  persists  during  the  winter. 
Judicious  removal  of  the  twigs  affected  will  soon  stamp  out  the  disease. 

A  disease  of  coconut  palm  in  Travancore  has  been  investigated  by 
E.  J.  Butler. f  It  showed  itself  by  withering  of  the  leaves  and  the  bud, 
finally  the  crown  falls  off.  The  tree  does  not  die  at  once,  but  few  nuts 
are  produced,  and  these  few  do  not  ripen.  A  parasitic  fungus  on  the 
roots  was  probably  the  cause  of  the  evil.  Infection  experiments  are 
proposed. 

A  stem  disease  of  the  same  palm,  called  "  bleeding  disease,"  has 
been  found  by  T.  Petch**  to  be  probably  due  to  the  fungus  ThMaviopsis 
ethacvtinis,  as  it  is  always  present  on  the  diseased  tissue.  Cutting  out 
the  injured  parts,  scorching  and  sterilising  with  hot  tar,  have  given  good 
results  in  stamping  out  the  disease. 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital.,  1908,  pp.  30-1. 

t  Monats.  Landw.,  1908,  p.  50.  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cviii.  (1908)  pp. 
179-80. 

J  Comptes  Bendus,  cxlvii.  (1908)  pp.  437-9.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  571-4. 

||  Gard.  Cbron.,  xliii.  (1908)  pp.  209-10. 

1  Agric.  Bes.  Inst.  Pusa,  Bull.  9,  23  pp.,  Calcutta,1908.  See  also  Bot.  Ceutralbl. 
cviii.  (1908)  p.  299. 

**  Agric.  Journ.  Boy.  Bot.  Gard.  Ceylon,  iv.  (1907)  pp.  49-53.     See  also  Bot. 
Centralbl.  cviii.  (1908)  p.  303. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  7.~>1 

H.  M.  Quan  jer  *  records  the  occurrence  of  cucumber  leaf -spot 
{Corynespora  Mazei)  in  South  Holland.  It  causes  the  leaves  to  become 
yellow  and  die.  Inoculation  by  spores  induced  the  disease  in  healthy 
leaves. 

C.  v.  Tubeuf  f  writes  that  the  cherry-leaf  disease  has  broken  out 
badly  in  Bavaria.  The  fungus  Gnomonia  erythrostoma  causes  the  leaves 
to  dry  up  before  the  autumn,  and  they  hang  on  the  trees  all  winter.  He 
notes  that  the  ascospores  are  always  2-celled. 

The  same  writer  also  draws  attention  to  the  leaf  disease  of  AVey- 
niouth  Pine  caused  by  the  fungus  Hypoderma  braehysporum.  The 
disease  has  been  very  prevalent  lately,  and  an  account  is  given  of  the 
various  localities  where  the  trees  have  been  attacked. 


Bataille,  F. — Notes  sur  quelques  Russules. 

[Several  species  of  Russula  are  carefully  described.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Mi/col.  France,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  172-7. 

Bianchi,  G. — Micologia  della  Provineia  di  Mantova.    (Mycology  of  the  Province 
of  Mantua.) 

[The  author  enumerates  196  microfungi ;  three  forms  are  new  to  science.] 
Atti  1st.  Bot.  Univ.  Pavia,  ser.  2,  ix.  (1907)  pp.  289-319. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  cviii.  (1908)  p.  298. 

Boyd,  D.  A. — On  the  Occurrence  of  Sclei-otinia  baccarum  in  Stirlingshire. 

[The  first  record  of  the  fruiting  form  of  these  sclerotia  in  Britain.] 

Journ.  Bot.,  xlvi.  (1908)  pp.  299-300. 

Fischer,  Ed. — Zur  Morphologie  der  Hypogaeen.    (Morphologie  of  the  Hypogese). 

[A  discussion  of  subterranean  Ascomycetes  ;  one  new  genus,  Pseudobalsamia, 

has  been  instituted.]        Bot.  Zeit.,  viii.  and  ix.  (1908)  pp.  141-68  (1  pi.) 

Foex,  E. — Les  Rouilles  des  Cereales.     (Rusts  of  cereals.) 

[An  account  of  the  Uredinese  of  cereals,  and  of  methods  for  dealing  with 
them.]  Montpelier  :  Coulet  et  Fils,  1908,  116  pp. 

Feos,  G. — Note  sur  le  Micropera  abietis  Rostrup.     (Note  on  Micropera  alnetis.') 
[This  species  of  Sphferopsidete  was  on  branches  affected  by  Fusicoccunv 
abictinum  ;  the  connection  with  it  was  not  proved.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  169-71  (4  figs.). 

Henxisgs,    P. — Einige    neue   parasitische    Pilze   aus   Transvaal.      (Some   new 
parasitic  fungi  from  the  Transvaal.) 

[The  fungi  are  chiefly  Uredinese  ;  they  were  collected  by 
T.  B.  R.  Evans.] 

Engler's  Bot.  Jahrb.,  xli.  heft  4  (1908)  pp.  270-3. 
See  also  Bot,  Centralbl.,  cviii.  (1908)  pp.  332-3. 

,,  ,,  Fungi  S.  Paulenses.    IV. 

[Fungi  from  Brazil,  collected  by  Puttemans ;  many  of  the 
species  are  new.]        Hedivigia,  xlviii.  (190S)  pp.  1-20. 

,,  ,,  Fungi  Philippinenses.    1. 

[A  list  of  microfungi.  Many  new  species  are  described, 
and  one  new  genus  of  Xylarise,  Merilliopeltis,  found 
on  the  stalks  of  a  Calamus.] 

Op.  cit.,  xlvii.  (1908)  pp.  250-65  ;  and 
Philippine  Journ.  Sci.,  iii.  (1908)  pp.  41-58. 


*  Tijdschr.  Plantenz.,  (190S)  p.  78.    See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.  cviii.  (190S)  p.  304. 
t  Nat.  Zeitschr.  Land.  Forstw.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  330-2  (3  figs.),  and  pp.  327-30 
(3  figs,).     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cviii.  (1908)  p.  365. 


752  SUMMAKY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Hohnel,  Pr.  v.,  &  V.  Litschauer— Oesterreichische  Corticieen.     (Austrian 
Cortices.) 

[A  review  of  European  species,  and  a  list  of  186  known  in  Austria.] 

Festschr.,  1908,  pp.  56-80.     See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  p.  277. 

Jaap,  Otto. — Dritter   Verzeichniss   zu   meinem   Exsiccatenwerk.     Ser.  IX.-XII 

(List  and  description  of  "Fungi  selecti  exsiccati,"  201-300.) 
[Notes  are  added  on  interesting  or  unusual  forms.] 

Abh.  Bot.  fer.  Prov.  Brandenb.,  1.  (1908)  pp  29-51. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  cviii.  (1908)  pp.  334-5. 

„        „        Beitrage   zur    Pilzflora   der   bsterreichischen   Alpenlander.     (Con- 
tribution to  the  fungus-flora  of  the  Austrian  alpine  countries.] 
[Fungi  from  South  Tyrol  and  Carinthia  ;  a  few  species  are 
new.]  Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  192-221. 

Museil,  W.  A.— Additional  Philippine  Polyporaceae. 

[A  large  number  of  new  species  are  described,  and  one  new  genus,  Whitfordia.) 

Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  391-416. 

Pantanelli,  E. — Ueber  Pilzrevertase. 

[A  study  of  plant  enzymes,  as  illustrated  in   the  growth  of  filamentous 
fungi.]  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxvi.  (1908)  pp.  494-501. 

Patouillard,  N.— Champignons  de  la  Nouvelle-Caledonie.  (Fungi  from  New 
Caledonia.) 

[Several  new  species  are  described.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxiv.  (1908)  pp.  165-8  (1  fig.). 

Peter,  A.— Die  Pyrenomyceten  und  Tuberaceen  der  Gottingen  Flora. 

[A  review  of  these  fungi  in  the  University  Herbarium,  with  notes,  etc.] 

Nacli.  k.  Ges.  wiss.  Gottingen  Math.-Phys.  Kl.,  (1908)  i.  pp.  28-52. 
See  also  Hedivigia,  xlviii.  (1908)  Beibl.,  p.  24. 

Rytz,  W aether  —  Beitrage  zur  Xenntniss  der  Pilzflora  des  Kientales.  (Con- 
tributions to  a  knowledge  of  the  fungus-flora  of  the  Kien  valley,  in  the  Bernese 
Oberland. 

[A  list  of  microfungi,  largely  Uredinese. 

Mitt.  Nat.  Ges.  Bern,  1907  (1908)  pp.  71-86. 

Spegazzini,  C. — Mycetes  argentinenses.     (Argentine  fungi,  ser.  v.) 

[Detailed  descriptions  of  various  species.    A  new  genus  is  recorded,  Cypello- 
myces.]  Ann.  Mus.  Nac.  Buenos  Aires,  ix.  (1908)  pp.  25-33  (3  figs.). 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  cviii.  (1908)  p.  303. 

Wilson,  Guy  W.— Studies  in  North  Amerioan  Peronosporales.  III. 

[New  or  noteworthy  species.     New  species  of  Albugo  and  Pcronospora.] 

Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxv.  (1908)  pp.  361-5. 


Lichens. 
(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Chemical  Examination  of  Lichens.*  —  Emanuel  Senft  finds  that 
the  ordinary  methods  of  extracting-  acids  from  lichens  by  chloroform, 
etc.,  are  too  rapid  in  action,  and  that  they  evaporate  too  quickly.  He 
has  discovered,  however,  a  method  which*  he  recommends  of  using  fat 
oils  for  the  purpose,  and  applying  heat  to  the  saturated  object.  From 
the  oil  he  subsequently  extracts  the  acids.     This  method  is  further  to 

*  Pharm.  Praxis,  vi.  heft  12  (Vienna  and  Leipzig,  1907)  9  pp.  and  figs.     See 
also  Hedwigia,  xlviii.  (1908)  Beibl.,  pp.  24-5. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  753 

be  recommended  because  so  little  of  the  lichen  thallns  is  required  for 
the  experiment.     Details  are  given  of  the  experiments. 

Jatta,  A.  —  Species   novae   in   excelsis   Ruwenzori  in  expeditione  Ducis  Apruti 
lectae.    IV.  Lichenes.     Lichens  from  Ruwenzori.) 

[Among  the  lichens  collected  by  the  expedition  of  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi 
are  several  new  species.]  Ann.  Bot.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  407-9. 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  cviii.  (1908)  p.  188. 

Kernstock,  E. — Index  nominum  receptorum  et   synonymorum  Lichenographiee 
Scandinavicae  Friesianae. 

[An  index  of  Th.  Fries's  work  on  Scandinavian  lichens.] 

Ann.  Mycol.,  vi.  (1908)  pp.  230-67. 

Zahlbruckner,  A. — Beitrage  zur  Flechtenflora  Brasiliens.     (Contributions  to 
the  lichen  flora  of  Brazil.) 

[Several  new  species  are  included  in  the  list.] 

Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  ser.  2,  vii.  (1908)  pp.  459-68. 

Zachacke,  Hermann — Beitrage  zn  einer  Flechtenflora  des  Harzes.     (Contri- 
butions to  a  lichen  flora  of  the  Harz.) 
[A  list  of  species  found  by  the  writer.] 

Hedwigia,  xlviii.  (1908)  pp.  21-44. 


Mycetozoa. 

(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Spongospora  Solani.* — T.  Johnson  regards  this  organism  as  a  slime- 
fungus  akin  to  Plasmodiophora.  It  causes  scab  of  potato  tubers  and 
very  seriously  damages  the  crops  in  many  districts.  The  scabbed  areas 
of  the  tuber  are  inhabited  by  spore-balls  which  escape  into  the  soil ; 
these  spores  produce  motile  amoeboid  bodies,  which  form  a  plasmodium 
and  pass  to  the  newly  planted  tuber.  Johnson  warns  growers  of  the 
serious  nature  of  the  disease  and  suggests  remedies  :  clean  seed,  proper 
rotation  of  crops,  dry  soil  and  steeping  the  seed-tubers  before  planting  in 
Bordeaux  mixture. 

Development  of  the  Sporangia  in  Trichia  and  Arcyria.f — Helene 
Kranzlin  has  been  applying  new  and  improved  methods  of  technique  to 
the  elucidation  of  problems  connected  with  the  Mycetozoa.  In  Arcyria 
the  development  of  the  sporangia  takes  place  by  a  heaping  up  of  the 
plasma,  first  in  roundish  then  cylindrical  masses  ;  the  plasma  in  the 
younger  stages  is  thick  externally  with  vacuoles  in  the  interior.  Large 
nuclei  in  process  of  division  were  to  be  seen  at  the  first  stage  of  sporan- 
gium formation.  As  the  cylindrical  form  takes  shape  the  nuclei  of  the 
outer  layers  become  more  closely  associated  and  fuse  in  pairs  ;  later  the 
central  nuclei  fuse  also.  The  author  discusses  the  views  about  reduction 
of  the  chromosomes  which  number  eight  in  the  fused  nucleus,  and  she 
also  gives  notes  on  the  formation  of  the  elaters. 

*  Econ.  Proc.  Roy.  Dublin  Soc,  i.  (1908)  pp.  453-64  (1  pi.), 
t  Arch.  Prot.  Kunde,  ix.  (1907)  pp.  176-94  (1  pi.  and  7  figs.).     See  also  Bot. 
Centralbl.,  cviii.  (1908)  pp.  180-1. 


754  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Schizophyta. 
Schizomycetes. 

Bacillus  Pneumoniae  Tigris.* — E.  Marx  found  in  smears  prepared 
from  the  lung  of  a  tiger  that  had  died  with  hemorrhagic  pneumonia  of 
both  lungs,  a  minute  micro-organism  that  did  not  stain  by  Gram's 
method,  but  showed  distinct  polar  staining,  and  morphologically 
resembled  a  bacterium  rather  than  a  coccus.  Cultures  made  on  blood- 
agar  and  on  serum  resembled  those  of  the  influenza  bacillus  ;  the 
morphology  of  the  organism  varied  on  different  media.  On  agar  and  in 
broth  they  are  ovoid  rods  about  0 '  6-0  ■  8/x,  long,  and  occasionally  longer 
forms  ;  on  blood-agar  the  long  forms  predominate,  and  the  ovoid 
appearance  is  not  so  obvious ;  on  Loeffler's  serum  the  rods  are  slender 
like  tubercle  bacilli,  and  measure  2/a  in  length  ;  they  are  non-motile. 
This  bacillus  is  a  strict  aerobe  ;  it  does  not  produce  indol ;  it  is  killed 
by  heating  to  60°  C.  for  one  hour.  It  causes  fatal  septicaemia  in  mice, 
guinea-pigs  and  rabbits,  though  the  virulence  for  these  last  animals  is 
not  very  great.     It  is  not  especially  virulent  for  cats. 

Bacillus  metatyphosus.t — A.  Nieter  has  examined  the  cultural 
properties  of  the  species  described  by  Mandelbaum  as  B.  metatyphosus, 
and  compared  them  with  those  of  forty  cultures  of  B.  typhosus.  There 
is  only  slight  or  no  influence  on  the  haemoglobin  of  ordinary  blood-agar, 
but  if  this  contains  1-2  p.c.  of  glycerin  there  is  a  distinct  effect,  and 
with  6  p.c.  glycerin-agar  it  is  considerable  ;  with  a  G  p.c.  glycerin-agar 
to  which  a  few  drops  of  rosol  acid  have  been  added,  the  growth  of 
B.  typhosus  is  yellow,  and  that  of  B.  metatyphosus  is  red  ;  the  same 
differences  being  observed  with  rosol  acid  glycerin-pepton  water. 

Bacillus  of  Bang.} — J-  Nowak  gives  an  account  of  the  bacillus 
described  by  Bang  as  the  cause  of  the  specific  abortion  in  cows,  and 
isolated  from  the  exudate  of  the  internal  surface  of  the  uterus,  from  the 
foetal  membranes,  and  from  the  blood  and  viscera  of  the  aborted  calves. 
In  liquid  gelatin  or  blood-serum  after  a  few  days  at  37°  C.  small 
colonies  appear  only  in  a  narrow  zone  of  the  medium  situated  about 
15  mm.  from  the  surface  ;  the  organism  belongs  to  a  class  of  bacteria 
intermediate  to  the  anaerobes  and  aerobes,  and  requires  an  atmosphere 
containing  less  than  10  p.c.  of  oxygen  ;  to  separate  the  bacillus  from  the 
other  germs  that  are  usually  present  in  these  cases,  the  establishing  of 
this  atmospheric  condition  is  essential.  To  attain  this  the  author  has 
devised  the  following  method  :  it  consists  in  incubating  tubes  of  sloped 
agar  inoculated  with  the  exudate  to  be  examined,  together  with  similar 
tubes  of  agar  inoculated  with  Bacillus  subtilis,  under  a  sealed  bell- jar,  at 
37°  C.  ;  when  the  B.  subtilis  has  absorbed  sufficient  oxygen  the  bacillus 
of  Bang  commences  to  grow. 

The  organism  is  a  minute  non-motile  rod  resembling  the  cocco- 
bacillus  of  fowl  cholera  ;  it  stains  with  anilin  dyes,  often  more  strongly 
at  the  poles,  but  does  not  stain  with  Gram's  method  ;  it  does  not  form 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvii.  (1908)  p.  581. 
t  Op.  cit.,  lte  Abt.  Ref.,  xlii.  (1908)  p.  156. 
%  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xxi.  (1908)  p.  541. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  755 

spores.  Superficial  colonies  appear  as  round  pink  transparent  drops 
with  a  faint  green  reflection  ;  the  deeper  colonies  are  smaller  and  more 
compact,  round  or  irregular  ;  individual  organisms  present  many  poly- 
morphic forms.  Vitality  is  retained  in  cultures  for  at  least  two  years. 
Cultures  may  be  obtained  on  all  nutrient  media  ;  the  optimum  tempera- 
ture is  37°  C.  ;  growth  appears  on  gelatin  at  room  temperature  after 
6  weeks  ;  there  is  no  gas  formation  in  media  containing  the  various 
sugars. 

By  injecting  pure  culture  into  the  veins,  vagina,  or  uterus  of  an 
enceinte  cow,  Bang  obtained  abortion.  The  author  found  that  inocula- 
tion of  female  guinea-pigs  and  rabbits  produced  abortion  in  almost 
every  case. 

Five  New  Species  of  Iron-bacteria.* — D.  Ellis  gives  preliminary 
notes  of  five  new  species  of  iron-bacteria. 

1.  Spiro soma  f err ugineum  consists  of  regular  wavy  threads,  with  wave- 
lengths two  to  three  times  the  amplitude,  and  varying  in  size  from  a 
few  fL  to  100  /u.  or  more.  Reproduction  is-effected  by  formation  of  conidia, 
and  rarely  by  a  splitting  process.  The  organism  is  present  in  all  Scottish 
iron-waters,  excepting  those  of  the  extreme  northern  counties  ;  it  has  not 
been  found  in  English  iron-waters. 

2.  jSTodofoUum  ferrugineum  consists  of  a  flat  band  constricted  at 
regular  intervals,  varying  greatly  in  the  sizes  and  in  the  number  of  the 
constrictions  :  reproduction  occurs  by  conidia  formation,  which  swells  out 
the  band  to  double  its  normal  thickness.  This  organism  occurs  in  the 
central  and  western  parts  of  Scotland,  but  not  in  the  north  and  south. 

3.  Leptothrix  Meyer  i  resembles  L.  ochracea,  but  differs  from  it  in  the 
absence  of  shapely  contoured  walls,  and  in  the  appearance  of  the  iron 
deposit,  which  is  transparent  at  first  and  becomes  opaque  later.  The 
threads  vary  in  length  from  40-70  /*,  and  in  breadth  from  2-3  fx. 
The  transparent  nature  of  the  iron  deposit  is  due  to  mucilage  formed  by 
the  degeneration  of  the  thread-walls ;  the  iron  slowly  penetrates,  and 
colouring  the  mucilage  renders  it  visible.  The  method  of  reproduction 
has  not  been  studied. 

4.  Spirophyllum  tenue  consists  of  a  spirally  twisted  flat  band,  1  /j.  in 
width  and  from  200-300  /x  long,  as  many  as  200  spirals  occurring  in  one 
individual.  It  has  a  loose  solenoid  structure,  and  only  a  slight  iron 
deposit,  which  is  detected  by  ammonium  sulphide  and  with  potassium 
ferrocyanide.     The  complete  life-history  has  not  been  established. 

5.  Spirosoma  solenoide  resembles  the  preceding.  But  the  spirals 
are  very  close  together,  and  made  up  of  a  thread,  not  a  band  ;  the 
average  individual  measures  about  70  //.,  the  thread  is  0'5/x  in  diameter, 
and  the  distance  between  two  turns  is  less  than  1  //.  The  complete 
life-history  has  not  been  established. 

Lactic  Acid  Fermentation  in  Milk.f — M.  W.  Beijerink  finds  that 
in  the  various  forms  of  lactic  acid  fermentation  there  is  no  formation  of 
gas,  or  only  of  carbonic  acid,  and  sometimes  there  is  a  vigorous  slime 

*  Proc.  Rov.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xxviii.  (1907-8)  p.  338. 
t  Konink.  Akad.  Wetensch.,  x.  (1907)  p.  17. 


756  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

production.  This  form  of  milk  fermentation  is  caused  by  many  different 
bacteria,  which  are  classed  as  lactococcus  and  lacto-bacillus  ;  they  are 
non-motile  non-sporing  organisms,  that  resist  heating  to  65°  C.  and 
75°  C. ;  they  require  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  pepton,  and  carbon  in 
various  forms  of  sugar ;  they  do  not  peptonise  proteids,  and  do  not 
liquefy  gelatin  ;  some  forms  are  aerobic,  others  anaerobic.  All  active 
lactic  acid  ferments  invert  sugar,  and  more  or  less  readily  decompose 
esculin  and  indican,  but  notamygdalin  ;  they  reduce  levulose  tomannite. 
The  slime-producing  forms  have  an  optimum  temperature  of  20°  C.  or 
lower. 

Tetradiplococcus  filiformans  Lodzensis.*  —  St.  Bartoszewicz  and 
J.  Schwarzwasser  have  isolated  from  well-water  at  Lodz  a  diplococcus 
which  in  hanging-drop  appears  as  a  tetrad,  each  corner  of  which  re- 
presents a  diplococcus  of  gonococcal  form  ;  usually  three  or  more  tetrads 
are  grouped  together  and  form  an  irregular  membrane,  in  which  the 
cocci  are  distributed  as  at  the  margin  of  a  hanging-drop.  In  fresh 
culture  the  tetrads  exhibit  an  active  rotatory  movement,  but  no  flagella 
could  be  detected.  The  tetrads  are  4-G  ^  in  size  ;  growth  occurs  at 
room  temperature,  but  more  freely  at  37°  C. 

In  the  depth  of  gelatin-plate  culture,  after  a  few  days,  they  form 
round  shining  pin-head  colonies,  with  a  mother-of-pearl  tint ;  the  medium 
is  not  liquefied.  In  broth,  growth  appears  as  delicate  white  threads  that 
grow  upwards  from  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  and  which  either  reach  to  the 
surface  and  form  a  fine  pellicle,  or  bend  back  again  to  the  bottom  ;  at 
room  temperature  this  thread  formation  does  not  occur,  but  a  slimy 
deposit  collects  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube  ;  the  medium  always  remains 
clear.  The  threads  appear  to  consist  of  tetrads  bound  together  by 
flagella  and  slime. 

Melitensis  Septicaemia. f — J.  W.  H.  Eyre  in  his  Milroy  Lectures 
before  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  London,  gave  an  exhaustive 
account  of  this  disease,  commonly  known  as  Malta  Fever.  The  author, 
referring  to  the  history  of  the  subject,  quotes  Hippocrates  and  other 
ancient  writers  to  show  that  this  fever  was  recognised  in  olden  times. 
Its  distribution  extends  over  the  Mediterranean  coasts  and  islands,  and 
cases  are  reported  from  India,  China,  and  South  Africa. 

The  disease  is  described  as  a  septicaemia  due  to  the  infection  by  the 
Micrococcus  melitensis,  having  definitely  recognised  clinical  signs,  and 
readily  diagnosed  by  the  serum  agglutination  test.  It  has  a  maximum 
incidence  in  the  hottest  season  of  the  year. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  the  leisured  classes  are  more  prone  to 
this  disease  than  the  labouring  people,  but  the  author  discredits  this, 
and  considers  that  the  cases  among  the  peasants  are  frequently  not 
attended  or  reported,  though  military  statistics  show  that  the  officers  are 
more  liable  than  the  men. 

The  author  describes  the  bacteriological  attributes  of  the  organism, 
and  the  effects  produced    in  lower   animals   by  inoculation    of   living 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.,  xxi.  (1908)  p.  614. 
t  Lancet  (1908)  i.  pp.  1677-82,  1747-52,  1826-32. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  757 

cultures,  and  gives  details  of  the  clinical  aspects  and  treatment  of  the 
disease  in  man,  and  an  account  of  the  morbid  appearances  of  different 
organs. 

The  author  then  discusses  the  channels  of  infection,  showing  that 
direct  contagion  plays  no  part,  though  there  is  strong  evidence  in  favour 
of  its  transmission  by  sexual  congress,  and  that  transmission  by 
mosquitos  acting  as  carriers  is  possible,  though  exceedingly  rare.  It 
was  shown  that  of  2000  goats  (one-tenth  of  the  goat  population  of  Malta), 
40  p.c.  yielded  positive  agglutination  reactions,  and  10  p.c.  secreted 
milk  that  contained  the  Micrococcus  melitensis  ;  and  further,  that  all 
evidence  points  to  goats'  milk  as  the  source  of  infection,  and  that  since 
this  fact  has  been  recognised  and  the  necessary  preventive  precautions 
have  been  instituted,  the  disease  has  practically  disappeared  from  the 
naval  and  military  services  stationed  at  Malta. 

Lactic-acid  Bacilli  and  Cancer  of  the  Stomach.*  —  A.  Rodella 
finds  that  aerobic  and  anaerobic  mouth  bacteria  pass  into  the  stomach, 
and  that  the  duration  of  their  stay  there  depends  on  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  acid  and  unorganised  ferments  present.  In  general, 
inorganic  acids  hinder  or  prevent  the  fermentation  of  yeast,  the  growth 
of  sarcina  and  the  development  of  the  higher  micro-organisms.  Car- 
cinoma of  the  stomach  establishes  a  most  favourable  condition  for  the 
production  of  lactic  acid  fermentation,  viz.  a  lack  of  free  acid,  a  stagna- 
tion of  the  stomach  contents,  the  ready  fermentation  of  carbohydrates 
by  ptyalin,  and  the  relation  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  to  the  ferment 
action  of  the  lactic  acid  bacilli.  The  albumen  that  separates  from  the 
surface  of  the  malignant  growth  acts  in  two  ways  on  the  development  of 
lactic  acid  bacilli.  Firstly,  the  microbes  are  able  to  ferment  the  keton 
group  of  the  albumen  and  produce  lactic  acid ;  and  secondly,  the 
albumen  acts  as  a  reducing  agent  in  a  nutrient  medium  ;  the  conditions 
are  assisted  by  the  immobility  of  the  stomach  wall. 

Opsonins  and  Antiphagins  in  Pneumococcic  Infection.!  —  N. 
Tschistowitsch  and  W.  Jurewitsch  find,  on  examining  the  opsonic 
property  of  dog's  blood  in  pneumococcic  infection,  that  strongly  virulent 
diplococci  cultivated  after  several  passages  through  rabbits,  on  solidified 
blood-serum,  and  possessing  well-marked  capsules,  were  not  phago- 
cytosedwhen  emulsified  in  salt  solution  and  mixed  with  dogs'  leucocytes. 
But  if  the  same  diplococci  had  been  tboroughly  washed  with  physio- 
logical salt  solution  they  were  phagocytosed,  although  they  had  not  lost 
their  capsules  ;  and  further,  if  these  washed  diplococci  were  mixed  with 
the  decentrifuged  fluid  from  the  original  diplococcal  emulsion,  their 
capacity  for  being  phagocytosed  was  again  lost.  From  these  observa- 
tions the  authors  conclude  that  the  failure  of  phagocytosis  of  the 
unwashed  virulent  diplococci  is  connected  not  with  the  amount  of 
opsonin  present  in  the  blood,  but  on  the  action  of  some  specific  sub- 
stance, "  antiphagin,"  in  the  diplococcal  culture.  This  diplococcal 
antiphagiu  is  specific   for  the   special   strain  of   diplococcus.      If  the 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvii.  (1908)  p.  445. 
t  Op.  cit.,  lte  Abt.  Kef.,  xlii.  (1908)  p.  193. 


758  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

diplococci  lose  their  virulence,  they  lose  also  their  antiphagin,  Imt  after 
passage  through  rabbits  both  virulence  and  antiphagin  are  regained. 
The  antiphagin  retains  its  action  after  being  heated  for  an  hour  ai 
35-90°  C,  and  after  twenty  minutes  at  100°  C.  Antiphagin  obtained 
from  diplococci  that  have  been  fortified  by  passage  through  rabbits,  is 
active  against  the  leucocytes  of  both  rabbits  and  dogs. 

The  authors  regard  these  antiphagins  as  antiopsonins,  and  suggest 
that  opsonins  are  anti-antiphagins. 

Microbes  of  Intestinal  Putrefaction.* — E.  Metchnikoff  shows  that 
the  filtrates  of  cultures  of  Bacillus  putrificus,  B.  aerogones,  and  B. 
sporogenes,  are  highly  toxic,  and  argues  that  as  these  bacteria  are 
almost  constant  habitants  of  the  alimentary  canal,  their  toxins  must 
necessarily  be  harmful  to  the  organism.  He  accentuates  his  position  by 
pointing  out  that  these  three  putrefaction  bacteria  are  not  the  only 
microbes  infesting  the  colon,  and  shows  that  cultivations  made  from 
faecal  matter  produce  even  more  lethal  toxins  than  those  already 
enumerated.  Experiments  are  being  made  under  the  direction  of  the 
author  to  ascertain  by  what  means  the  organism  defends  itself  against 
the  morbid  action  of  this  intestinal  flora. 

Bacterium  isolated  from  the  Nervous  Centres  of  Rabid  Animals. f 
V.  Busila  has  isolated  from  the  nervous  system  and  cerebro-spinal  fluid 
a  bacterium  which  when  inoculated  on  animals  produces  symptoms 
of  rabies.  It  is  a  motile  sporogenous  bacillus,  Gram-positive,  about  the 
size  of  Anthrax,  and  though  growing  at  first  with  some  difficulty  is 
afterwards  easily  cultivable  on  various  media.  It  forms  a  thin  scum  on 
broth,  slowly  liquefies  gelatin,  grows  freely  on  slices  of  brain,  and  is 
isolable  only  in  inoculated  animals  before  symptoms  of  rabies  declare 
themselves.     It  has  been  found  once  in  human  cerebrospinal  fluid. 

In  the  nervous  tissue  of  animals  dead  after  injection  of  cultures  of 
the  bacillus  Negri's  corpuscles  are  found  in  abundance,  especially  in  the 
cornu  ammonis. 

The  bacillus  is  agglutinated  by  antirabic  serum  in  dilutions  of 
1  :  125  to  1  :  150. 

Animals  immunised  against  rabies  are  resistant  to  this  bacillus, 
while  all  the  controls  succumbed. 

Chain-formation  by  Staphylococcus  aureus.:}:  —  V.  Babes  claims 
that  his  researches  show  that  there  is  a  close  relationship  and  also  inter- 
mediate forms  between  Streptococcus  and  Staphylococcus.  In  fact  the 
tw7o  species  divide  in  the  same  way,  i.e.  by  the  formation  of  chains,  but 
which  in  Staphylococcus  are  often  double.  The  staphylococcic  form 
arises  partly  from  irregularity  of  division  and  partly  from  the  presence 
of  capsules,  which  bind  the  microbes  in  irregular  clumps. 

Bacillus  pathogenic  to  Cats.§ — Z.  Skrzynski  describes  a  microbe 
which  caused  an  epidemic  among  cats.     It  belongs  to  the  coli  group, 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvii.  (1908)  pp.  579-82. 
t  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxv.  (1908)  pp.  269-70. 
\  Tom.  oit.,  pp.  265-7  (1  fig.). 
§  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  682-8. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  759 

but  is  distinguished  from  the  normal  B.  coli  in  being  non-motile,  by  the 
character  of  the  growth  on  agar,  by  not  fermenting  saccharose,  and  by 
being  pathogenic  to  cats.  Morphologically  it  is  a  rodlet  with  rounded 
ends.  It  stains  easily  with  the  ordinary  anilin  dyes,  but  is  Gram- 
negative.  It  is  a  potential  anaerobe,  and  the  cultures  after  two  or  three 
days'  incubation  exhale  a  foetid  odour  similar  to  that  of  B.  coli.  Fluid 
media  are  rendered  turbid  ;  it  does  not  liquefy  gelatin ;  on  agar  the  growth 
is  copious  and  characteristic,  and  after  a  few  days  long  phosphatic  crystals 
appear  on  the  under  surface  of  the  colonies.  It  grows  well  on  potato. 
Milk  is  coagulated  with  an  acid  reaction.  It  forms  indol  and  reduces 
nitrates  to  nitrites,  and  on  sugar  media  forms  gas.  It  is  pathogenic  to 
laboratory  animals  as  well  as  to  cats,  but  immunisation  is  easily  effected 
in  the  usual  way,  and  the  serum  of  these  animals  possesses  both  pre- 
ventive and  curative  properties. 


760 


SUMMARY    OK   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.   Instruments,  Accessories,  etc.* 
(1)   Stands. 

Ross'  New  Micrometric  Mechanical  Stage.f — This  apparatus  (fig. 
159)  is  adapted  for  micrometric  measurements,  and  enables  the  user  to 
ascertain  the  exact  size  of  an  object  with  any  power.  In  conjunction 
with  a  fine-adjustment  of  known  rate,  the  depth,  length  and  width  of 
metal  fractures  are  measured  at  one  operation.     The  micrometer  move- 


Fig.  159. 


ments  depend  on  slides  built  into  the  stage,  actuated  by  milled  heads 
attached  to  delicate  micrometer  screws  with  divided  drums  read  against 
pointers  or  verniers.  The  bearing-points  of  the  micrometer  screws  press 
against  steel  surfaces,  and  are  kept  up  to  contact  by  spiral  springs. 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands ;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives ;  (3) 
Illuminating  and  other  Apparatus ;  (4)  Photomicrography ;  (5)  Microscopical 
Optics  arjd  Manipulation  ;   (6)  Miscellaneous. 

t  Ross'  Catalogue,  1908,  pp.  18-19  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


761 


This  movement  has  not  only  measuring  capabilities,  but  also  acts  as  a  fine- 
adjustment  to  the  mechanical  stage,  and  this,  when  objectives  with  high 
magnification  are  used,  is  of  great  value.  The  quick  movements  by 
rack-and-pinion  cover  a  range  of  3  in.  by  1  in.  The  stage-screws  have 
threads  ^  mm.,  and  the  drum  has  100  equal  divisions,  thus  permitting 
measurements  up  to  ^^  mm.,  or  TBV<y  m- 

Ross'  No.  2  "Standard"   Metallurgical   Microscope.*  —  The  ad- 
justments and  construction  of  this  stand  (fig.  160)  are  on  the  same 


Fig.  160. 


lines  as  those  of  the   Ross'  No.  2    Standard,  but   the   instrument  is 
specially  adapted  for  metallurgical  work.     One  revolution  of  the  milled 


*  Ross'  Catalogue,  1908,  pp.  10-11  (1  fig.). 


Dec.  16th,  1908 


3  E 


'62 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


head  of  the  tine-adjustment  is  equal  to  ^0-  in.,  and  the  head  has  divisions 
to  read  to  TBVtr  in->  f°r  fracture  measurements.  The  mirrors,  in  addition 
to  their  universal  motion,  swing  over  the  stage  upon  a  centre  behind 
it,  for  the  illumination  of  opaque  objects.  For  high  power-work  an 
opaque  illuminator  is  attached  to  the  ,1-in.  objective,  mounted  as  short  as 
possible  to  secure  a  maximum  of  light  upon  the  specimen.     There  is 


CREICHERT,  WIEN 


tiiijHifrfrgjai 


lUi;  —  ;;:::ui.i.;ii. 


Fig.  161. 

also  a  1-in.  objective,  with  parabolic  illuminator  and  angle  silver 
reflector  combined,  and  a  substage  iris-diaphragm  for  observation  of 
transparent  objects. 

Reichert's  Travelling  Microscope.* — This   apparatus    is  shown  in 
figs.  161  and  162.     The  stand  (No.  52  in  the  Catalogue)  is  practically 


*  C.  Reichert,  Vieu  a,  Catalogue,  Mikmscope,  No.  26  (1908)  p.  32,  figs.  19-20. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,  ETC. 


763 


the  same  as  Stand  Aii,  which  only  differs  from  Stand  Ai  (see  October 
Journal)  in  being  a  little  smaller.  The  prongs  of  the  foot  are  hinged, 
and  can  be  shut  together,  and  the  stage  and  mirror  can  be  swung  round, 
for  packing  in  box.  The  size  of  the  box  is  '.)  x  10  x  29  cm.,  and  tbe 
weight  complete  is  4*7  kilos. 


Fig. 162. 


Reichert's  New  Steinach  Stand  C.*— -This  stand  (fig.  163)  is  fitted 
with  a  large  circular  brass  stage  of  about  105  mm.  diameter.  The 
projection  of  the  inclinable  upper  part  is  considerable,  and  affords  a 
convenient  grip  in  carriage.  The  tilt  of  the  inclination  is  regulated  by 
a  lever-clamp.  The  coarse-adjustment  is  by  raek-and-pinion,  and  the 
fine  by  micrometer  screw.     The  Abbe  condenser  has  a  screw  for  quick 

*  C.  Reichert,  Vienna,  Catalogue,  Mikroscope,  No.  2G  (190S)  p.  22,  fig.  9. 


::   K   2 


764 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


raising  and  lowering  ;  the  iris-diaphragm  is  fitted  with  a  ring  for  the 
insertion  of  a  blue  glass.  The  mirror  is  plane  and  concave,  and  laterally 
adjustable. 


iSMiliilllllP'^ 


Fig.  163. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


765 


Reichert's  New  Stand  vi.*— This  stand  (shown  in  fig.  164)  is  in- 
clinable to  45°.  It  has  a  large  circular  brass  stage  of  about  105  mm. 
diameter,  and  considerable  upper  stage  projection.     The  coarse-ad  jnst- 


Fig.  164. 


ment  is  by  rack-and-pinion,  and  the  fine  by  micrometer  screw,  which 
may,  if  desired,  be  placed  under,  as  shown  in  figure.     This  under-screw 


*  C.  Reichert,  Vienna,  Catalogue,  Mikroscope,  No.  26  (190S)  p.  28,  fig.  14. 


766 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    IJKSKARCIIES    RELATING   TO 


ib  recommended  for  beginners,  as  it  practically  removes  all  risk  of 
injury  to  objective  and  slide.  Fig.  165  shows  a  non-inclinable  form  of 
the  same  instrument. 


Fig.  1G5. 


Heusner's  Object-stage  with  Exchangeable  Plates.* — H.  L.  Hensner 
has  endeavoured  to  meet  an  inconvenience  frequently  experienced  in 
working  with  the  ordinary  vulcanite  stage  when  a  weakly  coloured 
preparation  is  apt  to  become  invisible  on  the  dark  under-ground. 
Although  the  operator  may  cover  his  stage  with  blotting-paper,  the  result 
in  many  cases  is  unsatisfactory.  The  author  has  therefore  arranged 
with  Messrs.  Leitz  so  that  the  vulcanite  stage  can  be  replaced  by  a 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxv.  (1903)  pp.  62-4  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


767 


similar  stage  of  ground  opal  glass  of  equal  thickness  (fig.  166).  After  four 
years'  experience  the  arrangement  is  found  to  answer  well. 


Fig.  1GG. 


(.3)    Illuminating-   and  other  Apparatus. 

Mercury  Vapour  Lamp  for  Microscopical  Work.* — In  this  mercury 
vapour  lamp  (fig.  167)  designed  by  J.  E.Barnard,  the  illumination  is 
obtained  from  an  exhausted  tube  partially  filled  with  mercury,  the 
passage  of  the  current  through  which  renders  the  vapour  luminous. 
The  light  emitted  is  confined  to  a  few  wave-lengths  widely  separated, 
which  permits  of  the  use  of  monochromatic  light,  by  the  aid  of  screens, 
in  several  regions  of  the  spectrum,  thus  affording  good  contrast  with 
different  stains.  Even  without  screens  the  light  is  more  efficient  than 
other  forms  of  illumination  giving  a  continuous  spectrum,  there  being 
no  red  rays  emitted.  The  size  and  shape  of  the  tube  permit  of  its  use 
for  critical  illumination. 

The  tube  A,  with  resistance  B,  which  can  be  supplied  to  suit  any 
voltage  from  80  to  250,  is  inclosed  in  a  metal  cover  0,  16  X  7*5  X 
12*5  cm.  (6£  in.  X  3  in.  x  5  in.),  mounted  on  a  heavy  base  with 
square  upright,  adjustable  for  height  and  tilt  for  starting  the  lamp, 
which  is  simply  effected  by  pressing  up  the  lever  E,  thus  cutting  out  a 
portion  of  the  resistance  and  depressing  the  left  side,  until  that  portion 
of  the  tube  is  filled  with  mercury  ;  on  slowly  bringing  the  tube  back  to 
the  horizontal,  still  keeping  the  lever  E  pressed  up,  an  arc  will  be  formed, 

*  C.  Baker's  Special  Catalogue,  1908. 


768 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


and  this  will  extend  along  the  tube  as  the  mercury  retreats  to  the  lower 
reservoir.  As  the  lamp  is  somewhat  sensitive  to  pole  connections,  the 
plug  should  be  reversed  should  the  surface  of  the  mercury  appear  to 
boil  as  it  retreats  along  the  tube.  This  procedure  usually  has  to  be 
repeated  two  or  three  times  before  the  lever  E  can  be  released. 


Fig.  167. 


New  Reflecting  Condenser.* — W.  von  Ignatowsky  describes  a  new 
reflecting* condenser  which  has  been  made  at  the  works  of  E.  Leitz. 
The  necessary  data  were  supplied  by  the  author,  and  the  condenser 
has  been  in  use  since  October  1907.  The  fundamental  principle  of 
the  method  of  observation  in  a  dark  field  is  the  modification  of  the 
incident  pencil  in  such  a  way  as  to  establish  a  marked  contrast  be- 
tween vividly  illuminated  particles,  e.g.  bacteria,  and  a  dark  ground. 
As  the  details  to  be  distinguished  become  finer,  it  is  necessary  to 
increase  the  intensity  of  the  illumination  so  as  to  enable  the  particles 
to  emit  a  sufficient  amount  of  diffused  light.    Reflecting  condensers  and 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxv.  (1907)  pp.  64-7  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


769 


other  appliances  designed  for  the  same  purpose  may  be  regarded  as 
objectives  which  form  an  image  of  the  source  of  light  in  the  plane  of 
the  particles,  but  solely  through  the  instrumentality  of  rays  prevented 
from  passing  directly  into  the  objective.  The  observer,  therefore,  sees 
diffused  light  only   at  those  points  which  are  occupied    by  particles 


Fig.  168. 

differing  optically  from  the  surrounding  medium,  whereas  the  rest  of 
the  field  remains  dark.  Those  rays  which  go  to  form  an  image  of 
the  source  of  light  occupy  within  the  condenser  the  space  bounded  by 
two  cones  having  their  apices  and  axes  in  common.  The  aperture  of 
the  inner  cone  is  slightly  greater  than  the  angle  subtended  by  the  object 


Fig.  1G9. 


under  observation,  so  as  to  make  sure  that  no  direct  rays  enter  the 
objective.  In  order  to  secure  an  increased  illumination  when  the 
magnitude  of  the  particles  is  diminished,  three  conditions  are  necessary  : 
(1)  the  difference  between  the  apertures  of  the  inner  and  outer  pencils 
should  be  as  great  as  possible  ;  (2)  the  image  of  the  source  formed  at 
the  apex  of  the  pencil  should  be  as  well  defined  as  possible  ;  (3)  the 


770 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 


image  should  be  free  from  spherical  difference  of  magnification,  by 
satisfying  the  condition  of  sines,  with  respect  to  all  the  rays  passing 
through  the  space  bounded  by  the  two  cones.  Chromatic  errors  are 
eliminated  by  the  fact  that  the  image  is  formed  by  reflection,  not  by 
refraction.  As  will  be  seen  from  fig.  168,  the  author's  condenser  has 
two  reflecting  surfaces,  one  internal,  the  other  external.  This  tends 
towards  a  complete  satisfaction  of  the  second  and  third  conditions,  and 
the  author  claims  that  his  condenser  more  fully  satisfies  these  conditions 
than  any  other  yet  brought  out.  The  illuminating  rays  have  a  numerical 
aperture  of  about  1*1  to  1*45.     The  reflecting  condenser  is  contained 


Pig    170. 


in  a  centring  mount,  which  slips  into  the  sleeve  of  the  Microscope  sub- 
stage  in  the  place  of  the  ordinary  condenser. 

There  is  another  and  simpler  form  of  this  condenser  mounted  within 
a  plate,  which  is  merely  laid  flat  upon  the  stage  of  the  Microscope 
(fig.  169).  This  arrangement  dispenses  with  the  necessity  of  specially 
adapting  the  reflecting  condenser  to  the  Microscope.  By  means  of  a 
lever  the  condenser  may  be  raised  and  lowered  within  the  limits  neces- 
sitated by  variations  in  the  thickness  of  object  slides.  In  conjunction 
with  an  arc  lamp  of  4  amperes  the  condenser  is  sufficiently  intense  to 
obtain  an  instantaneous  photograph  of  living  bacteria. 

Reichert's  Drawing  Apparatus.* — This  apparatus,  designed  by 
Bernhard,  appears  as  in  fig.  170.     The  drawing  plane  can  be  raised  to 


*  C.  Keichert,  Vienna,  Catalogue,  Mikroscope,  No.  26  (1908)  p.  61,  fig.  63. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    1JOTANV,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


71 


a  height  of  about  17  cm.,  and  can  be  inclined  at  any  angle  up  to  35°  to 
the  horizontal.  The  Microscope  is  screwed  on  to  the  ground-plate. 
Arm  supports  are  provided  to  rest  the  draughtsman's  hand. 


Reichert's  Marking  Apparatus.* — This  is  constructed  with  a 
diamond  point,  and  will  be  easily  understood  from  the  illustration  (fitr. 
171). 


6.   Miscellaneous. 

Paraffinum  liquidum  (B.P.)  as  an  Immersion  Oil.f — C.  Rowntree, 
after  alluding  to  the  drawbacks  of  cedar-wood  oil,  points  out  that 
paraffinum  liquidum  (B.P.)  is  an  efficient  substitute.  It  is  a  colourless 
and  transparent  fluid,  inexpensive,  and  keeps  in  any  climate  indefinitely. 
As  it  is  non- volatile,  it  does  not  dry  up,  and  is  easily  wiped  off  from 
cover-glasses  and  objectives.  Its  index  of  refraction  is  somewhat  lower 
than  that  of  cedar-wood  oil,  but  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  bistology 
and  bacteriology  the  optical  results  are  at  least  as  good.  Both  with 
apochromatic  and  achromatic  lenses  the  definition  and  illumination  are 
excellent,  even  with  a  magnification  of  1600  diameters.  It  is  especially 
valuable  for  the  examination  of  film  preparations. 

Quekett  Microscopical  Club. — The  450th  Ordinary  Meeting  was 
held  on  October  2,  the  President.  Professor  E.  A.  Minchin,  M.A.,  F.Z.S., 
in  the  chair.  Mr.  T.  A.  O'Donoboe  exhibited  and  described  some  photo- 
micrographs of  Podura  scale  x  2000,  taken  with  condenser  cones  of 
aperture  0*35-0  "65,  and  expressed  the  opinion  that  a  small  cone  gave 
an  altogether  wrong  impression.  Mr.  C.  P.  Rousselet,  F.R.M.S., 
exhibited  and  described  a  new  species  of  Rotifer,  Notholca  bostoniensis 
sp.  n.,  he  obtained  in  Boston,  U.S.A.,  in  August  1907.  Mr.  I).  J. 
Scourfield,  F.Z.S.,  F.R.M.S.,  made  a  few  remarks  on  Entomostraca 
Mr.  Rousselet  had  brought  from  Boston,  mentioning  points  of  similarity 

*  C.  Reichert,  Vienna,  Catalogue,  Mikroskope,  No.  20  (1908)  p.  62,  fig.  G6. 
f  Journ.  Pathol,  and  Bacteriol.,  xiii.  (190S)  p.  28. 


772  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

and  differences  in  American  and  European  forms.  Mr.  T.  B.  Bosseter, 
F.R.M.S.,  gave  an  historical  account  of  the  family  Taeniidae,  and  a 
sketch  of  his  own  work  on  Hymenolepis,  and  the  methods  he  employed 
in  obtaining  and  preparing  specimens  of  these  Platyhelminths  for 
examination. 

B.  Technique.* 
(1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Processes. 

Influence  of  the  Composition  of  the  Medium  on  the  Solvent 
Action  of  certain  Soil  Bacteria.! — 0.  W.  Brown  has  studied  the 
influence  of  the  composition  of  the  medium  upon  the  solvent  action  of 
certain  soil  bacteria.  The  materials  experimented  upon  were  finely 
powdered  rock  phosphate,  bone,  tricalcium  phosphate,  dicalcium  phos- 
phate, and  calcium  carbonate.  These  were  shaken  up  in  water,  and  a 
little  of  the  washed  powder  put  into  a  flask  of  medium  and  sterilised  for 
15  minutes  ;  after  cooling  to  60°  C.  the  particles  of  powder  are  dis- 
tributed through  the  medium  by  shaking,  plates  are  poured,  and 
inoculated  by  a  stroke  on  the  surface  of  the  solidified  medium,  and 
incubated  at  22°  C.  With  ordinary  nutrient  agar  there  was  no  visible 
dissolution  of  any  of  the  five  minerals.  With  agar  containing  2  p.c. 
dextrose,  several  germs  showed  an  action  upon  calcium  carbonate, 
dicalcium  phosphate,  and  tricalcium  phosphate,  but  there  was  no  visible 
action  on  bone  or  rock  phosphate. 

A  synthetic  agar  medium  composed  of  0*02  p.c.  magnesium  sul- 
phate and  ammonium  sulphate  and  2  p.c.  agar,  was  then  used  both  with 
and  without  sugars.  The  results  showed  that  no  germs  had  any  action 
in  the  plates  containing  no  sugar,  but  with  1,  2,  and  4  p.c.  dextrose, 
some  germs  acted  on  calcium  carbonate,  and  on  dicalcium  and  tricalcium 
phosphate  ;  there  was  no  action  on  bone  or  on  rock  phosphate. 

The  solvent  action  of  some  germs  was  greater  in  the  presence  of  a  large 
percentage  of  sugar  ;  that  of  others  being  as  great  with  1  p.c.  as  with 
4  p.c.  If  meat  infusion  was  substituted  for  the  water  in  the  synthetic 
medium,  the  solvent  action  of  the  germs  was  less.  On  using  a  medium 
composed  of  soil  leachings  with  2  p.c.  agar,  no  action  was  noticed,  but 
on  the  addition  of  sugar  to  this  medium,  the  results  were  similar  to 
those  obtained  with  the  synthetic  medium.  It  was  found  that  those 
germs  which  in  the  presence  of  sugar  were  the  most  active  acid 
producers,  were  those  that  showed  the  greatest  solvent  action. 

Plate-cultivation  of  the  Streptobacillus  of  Ducrey.i — R.  Stein 
finds  that  the  streptobacillus  of  soft  chancre  will  grow  well  on  rabbits' 
blood  agar  plates  if  kept  in  a  moist  chamber  to  prevent  drying.  The 
waxy,  shining,  whitish-grey  colonies  have  no  growth  in  the  depth  of  the 
medium,  and  can  be  easily  removed  from  the  surface  of  the  plate. 

»  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Pro- 
cesses ;  (2)  Preparing  Objects  ;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes  ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting ;  (5)  Mounting,  including  slides,  preservative  fluids,  etc. ; 
(6)  Miscellaneous.  t  Mich.  Acad.  Sci.  Rep.,  ix.  (1907)  p.  160. 

J  Centralbl.  Bakt.  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvi.  (1908)  p.  664. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,  ETC.  773 

Potato  Broth  for  the  Culture  of  Tubercle  Bacilli.* — W.  Jurewitsch 
recommends  the  following  preparation  of  potato  broth  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  tubercle  bacilli.  Potato  is  cut  in  slices  and  washed  and 
pressed  through  a  sieve  ;  to  500  c.cm.  of  this  potato  mash  is  added 
about  500  c.cm.  of  tap  water ;  on  the  following  day  the  mixture  is 
shaken  and  pressed  through  linen  ;  after  i  to  ^  hour  the  infusion  is 
poured  off  from  the  deposit  and  an  equal  amount  of  ordinary 
"  fleischwasser  "  is  added,  and  also  ^  p.c.  of  pepton  and  J  p.c.  of  salt 
solution  or  calcium  phosphate ;  the  whole  is  warmed  to  make  a 
complete  solution,  boiled  for  an  hour  in  a  Koch's  steam  apparatus,  and 
filtered.  To  the  filtrate  is  now  added  3  p.c.  glycerin  and  a  requisite 
amount  of  carbonate  of  soda  to  attain  the  desired  alkaline  reaction,  and 
the  whole  is  then  placed  in  an  autoclave  for  \  to  \  hour  at  118-120°  C, 
cooled,  filtered,  and  finally  sterilised  for  h  to  1  hour  at  115°  C.  The 
broth  thus  prepared  should  have  a  dark  brown  colour  ;  if  it  is  dark 
red  in  tint,  it  is  not  sufficiently  alkaline,  and  should  be  corrected. 

Malachite-green  Agar  and  the  Bacilli  of  the  Typhoid  Group.-t — 
L.  Padlewsky  recommends  the  following  medium  for  isolating  the 
bacilli  of  the  typhoid  group.  Ordinary  3  p.c.  nutrient  agar  is  mixed 
with  2  p.c.  pepton  and  3  p.c.  ox-gall  and  1  p.c.  chemically  pure  lactose  ; 
the  sugar  is  previously  dissolved  in  a  small  quantity  of  distilled  water  ; 
the  gall  is  steamed  in  a  Koch's  apparatus  and  filtered  through  wool ; 
the  reaction  of  the  medium  should  be  slightly  alkaline  ;  it  is  then 
divided  into  200  or  100  c.cm.  flasks  and  submitted  to  fractional 
sterilisation.  To  100  c.cm.  of  the  fluid  agar,  cooled  to  60-65°  C,  is 
then  added  the  following  mixture: — 0*5  c.cm.  of  1  p.c.  aqueous 
solution  of  malachite-green,  0 '  5  c.cm.  of  gall,  and  1  c.cm.  of  a  10  p.c. 
aqueous  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda.  This  mixture  is  not  sterilised, 
but,  after  thorough  mixing,  it  is  poured  into  dishes  and  allowed  to  stand 
in  the  open  until  the  agar  is  solidified,  and  is  then  dried  in  an 
incubator  for  15  minutes.  The  agar  must  be  transparent  yellow  in 
colour  and  without  a  trace  of  green.  The  fsecal  matter  is  spread  on 
the  surface  of  the  agar  with  a  suitable  glass  spatula.  The  author 
claims  for  this  medium  that  it  is  the  most  favourable  for  a  quick  and 
vigorous  growth  of  the  bacilli  of  the  typhoid  group ;  that  it  has  an 
antiseptic  action  on  many  of  the  other  frecal  microbes  ;  and  that  the 
colour  reaction,  whereby  the  colonies  of  B.  coll  and  other  acid-pro- 
ducing organisms  are  stained  an  intense  green,  and  the  colonies  of  the 
typhoid  group  remain  colourless,  enables  the  organisms  of  this  group  to 
be  readily  differentiated  ;  it  is  especially  useful  when  large  quantities 
of  faecal  matter  have  to  be  dealt  with  ;  it  is  easy  and  inexpensive  to 
prepare. 

Culture  in  vitro  of  Avian  Plague. + — E.  Marchoux  has  inclosed 
blood  from  a  fowl  dead  of  avian  plague  in  a  sealed  capsule,  and  found 
that  the  virulence  was  retained  for  a  longer  time  in  an  ice  chamber  at 
7-10°  C.  than  at  the  temperature  of  the  laboratory  or  of  an  incubator, 
suggesting  that  in  the  virulent  blood,  the  antibodies,  whose  activity  is 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvii.  (1908)  p.  664. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  p.  540.  %  Comptes  Rendus,  cxlvii.  (1908)  p.  357. 


774  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

suspended  in  the  cold,  can  alter  the  germs  and  hinder  the  development 
at  ordinary  temperatures.  In  the  ice  chamber  the  blood  remains 
virulent  for  a  less  time  in  an  open  tube  than  in  a  closed  one;  but 
though  the  virus  maintained  its  strength  for  at  least  three  months  in  a 
sealed  capsule,  it  became  inactive  after  three  days  in  a  vacuum.  In 
colloidin  capsules  placed  in  the  peritoneum  of  a  rabbit,  the  virus 
perished  within  four  days.  The  addition  of  glucose  and  pepton  in 
varying  proportions  enables  the  virulence  to  be  retained  for  a  longer 
period.  For  purposes  of  culture,  therefore,  the  author  limits  the 
quantity  of  blood,  and  uses  glucose-pepton-agar  as  a  medium. 

Detection  of  Indol  in  Microbial  Cultures.* — G.  Buard  has  adopted 
the  following  method  for  the  detection  of  indol :  10  c.cm.  of  culture 
are  mixed  in  pepton  water,  and  after  15  to  20  hours'  incubation, 
o-6  c.cm.  of  absolute  alcohol  are  added,  and  after  mixing  there  is 
added  1  c.cm.  of  alcoholic  solution  of  vanilin  and  3  c.cm.  of  pure 
hydrochloric  acid.  If  indol  is  present  it  develops  a  pink  coloration 
which  becomes  more  intense,  deepening  to  a  red-magenta  or  violet-red, 
especially  on  the  application  of  slight  heat.  The  author  experimented 
with  several  varieties  of  pepton.  With  the  pepton  of  Defresne  the 
pink  colour  changes  to  saffron.  The  author  claims  for  this  method 
great  certainty  of  results  and  much  saving  of  time. 

Method  of  Fixing  the  Eggs  of  Ascaris  megalocephala.f— C.  Artom 
leaves  uteri  in  salt  solution  until  most  of  the  eggs  reach  the  desired 
stage  of  development.  Little  heaps  about  0 "  5  cm.  high  are  placed  on 
a  carbonic  acid  freezing-microtome,  and  when  frozen  the  mass  is 
sectioned.  Though  many  eggs  are  of  course  irretrievably  damaged  by 
this  procedure,  yet  a  good  few  will  be  found  with  only  a  thin  slice  re- 
moved from  the  shell.  The  sections,  which  should  be  about  30 /i 
thick,  are  transferred  while  still  frozen  from  the  knife  to  the  fixative, 
such  as  Flemming's  strong  solution,  sublimate-acetic  acid,  formol- 
alcohol,  picro-acetic  acid.  The  blackening  from  osmic  acid  must  be  re- 
moved by  immersion  for  several  days  in  turpentine  oil.  Borax-carmin 
and  dilute  Delafield's  hasmatoxylin  give  good  results  for  preparations 
fixed  in  Flemming's  solution.  The  fixed  eggs  were  examined  m  toto  or 
imbedded  in  paraffin  and  sections  made. 

Celloidin  Decalcification  and  Desilication.J — C.  F.  Bodecker  gives 
the  procedure  for  removing  lime  and  silica  from  organic  material  in 
minute  detail. §  After  fixation  the  material  is  passed  through  the  fol- 
lowing fluids  :  alcohol  40  p.c.  (1  hr.)  ;  alcohol  70  p.c.  (^  hr.)  ;  alcohol 
96  p.c.  (|hr.);  absolute  alcohol  (12  hr.)  ;  ether  and  absolute  alcohol 
(1  hr.)  ;  thin  celloidin  (12  hr.)  ;  acidulated  celloidin  (1  week  to  2  months). 
(This  mixture  consists  of  celloidin  solution,  to  which  10  p.c.  nitric  acid  is 
added.  The  acid  is  mixed  with  ether  and  alcohol  and  gradually  added  to 
a  celloidin  solution,  stirring  the  while.) 

During  decalcification    it  is  necessary  that   evaporation  should  be 

*  C.R.  Soc.  Biol.  Paris,  lxv.  (1908)  p.  158. 

t  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  3-7.  J  Tom.  cit.,pp.  21-9  (1  pi.). 

§  See  this  Journal,  1905,  p.  764. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,  ETC.  775 

avoided  by  careful  closure  of  the  vessel.  The  author  advises  a  special 
jar,  the  lid  of  which  is  kept  taut  by  a  spring. 

When  the  lime  or  silica  is  removed,  a  block  with  sides  8  mm.  broad  is 
cut  out,  and  having  been  coated  with  celloidin  is  submitted  to  the  follow- 
ing procedure  :  alcohol  70  p.c.  (0  hr.)  ;  alcohol  40  p.c.  (2  hr.)  ;  aqueous 
alum  solution  5  p.c.  (12  hr.) ;  running  water  (12  hr.)  ;  alcohol  40  p.c. 
(1  hr.)  ;  alcohol  70  p.c.  (i-  hr.)  ;  alcohol  '<)(>  p.c.  (£  hr.)  ;  absolute  alcohol 
(10  min.)  Then  follows  a  mixture  of  pure  carbolic  acid  1  part  and 
chloroform  2  parts,  or  anilin  oil  (12-24  hr.).  These  must  be  fre- 
quently changed. 

After  this  an  equal  bulk  of  chloroform  is  added  (6  hr.),  then  pure 
chloroform  (12  hr.)  ;  followed  by  chloroform  and  paraffin  (6  hr.),  soft 
paraffin  m.p.  45°  (6  hr.),  hard  paraffin  m.p.  58°  (12  hr.).  The  sections 
made  in  the  usual  way,  are  stuck  on  by  the  "  Japanese  method."  The 
paraffin  and  celloidin  are  successively  removed,  and  then  the  sections 
may  be  stained  by  any  desired  method,  though  iron-hgematoxylin  is 
advocated. 

Examining  Stylaria  lacustris.* — G.  Dalla  Fior,  when  examining 
the  asexual  reproduction  of  Stylaria  lacustris,  first  benumbed  the  animals 
with  cocain  and  then  fixed  them  in  one  of  the  three  following  fluids  : — 
(1)  sublimate-acetic  acid  6  p.c.  ;  (2)  Perenyi's  fluid  ;  (3)  Flemming's 
fluid.  The  first  gave  the  best  results.  Transverse  and  longitudinal  sec- 
tions 4  fx  thick  were  made.  The  preparations  were  stained  with  Dela- 
fi eld's  hamiatoxylin,  acid-fuchsin,  orange,  and  Heidenhain's  iron-alum. 

Examining  the  Poison-glands  of  Salamandra  maculosa.f  —  A. 
Nierenstein  fixed  the  material,  the  poison-glands  of  Salamandra  macu- 
losa  (adult  animal  and  larvas  at  various  stages  of  development)  in 
Zenker's  fluid  and  1  p.c.  osmic  acid.  The  latter  gave  better  results 
when  it  contained  0-6  p.c.  sodium  chloride.  Sections  made  by  the 
freezing  method  from  osmic-fixed  preparations  gave  very  good  results. 
For  staining  purposes,  Mayer's  muci-carmin  was  superior  to  other  dyes. 

Combined  Imbedding  in  Celloidin  and  Paraffin.^  —  A.  Breckner 
takes  the  pieces,  which  have  been  fixed,  out  of  al isolate  alcohol  and 
transfers  them  to  2-:)  p.c.  celloidin  solution,  wherein  they  remain, 
according  to  size,  from  a  few  hours  to  days.  The  pieces  are  then  picked 
out  and  placed  in  chloroform  for  5-10  hours,  after  which  they  are  passed 
successively  through  benzol,  a  warm  mixture  of  benzol  and  paraffin, 
and  pure  melted  paraffin.  In  the  latter  they  remain  until  completely 
saturated.  Blocks  are  made  in  the  usual  way.  The  sections  are  treated 
as  if  made  from  paraffin  blocks,  and  made  to  adhere  to  the  slide  by  the 
albumen  or  water  method.  In  the  further  treatment,  absolute  alcohol 
should  be  avoided,  and  dehydration  effected  by  means  of  a  mixture  of 
8  parts  xylol  and  1  part  water-free  carbolic  acid,  or  by  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  chloroform  and  absolute  alcohol. 

*  Arb.  Zool.  Inst.  Wien,  xvii.  (1908)  pp.  109-38  (2  pis.). 

t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.  u.  Entwickl.,  lxxii.  (1908)  pp.  47-1-40  (3  pis.). 

♦  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  29-32. 


776  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Examining-   the   Oocyte    of   the    Fowl.* — Sonnenbrodt  obtained 

material  from  birds  found  dead  in  the  fowl  trains  which  come  from 
Russia  to  Berlin.  For  the  ovaries  of  young  animals  sublimate  acetic 
acid  was  found  to  be  the  best  fixative,  but  for  ovaries  with  large  follicles 
calcium  bichromate  2  p.c.,  sublimate  2  p.c,  and  acetic  acid  (20  :  10  to  1) 
was  superior.  After  having  been  passed  through  upgraded  alcohols  the 
pieces  were  immersed  in  water-free  aceton  (£  to  1  hour),  then  in  xylol 
or  chloroform  (10  minutes  to  |  hour),  followed  by  a  mixture  with 
paraffin  (^  hour),  and  finally  pure  paraffin  twice  changed  (|  to  3  hours). 
The  sections  according  to  the  size  of  the  follicles  were  cut  from  2-10  ^ 
thick.  For  sticking  the  thicker  sections  to  the  slide  Olt's  phenol- 
gelatin  was  used  ;  the  superfluous  adhesive  was  removed  by  means  of 
blotting  paper,  and  then  the  slide  placed  on  edge  was  allowed  to  dry  at 
room  temperature.  When  quite  dry  the  preparations  were  treated  with 
10  p.c.  formalin.  Several  staining  methods  were  tried,  but  Heidenhain's 
iron-alum-hsematoxylin  was  the  only  really  successful  one.  Contrast- 
staining  was  effected  with  orcein,  rubin,  orange,  picric  acid,  acid-f  uchsin- 
picric-acid. 

(4)  Staining:  and  Injecting-. 

Differential  Staining  Method  for  Acid-fast  Bacilli.f — L.  v.  Betegh 
recommends  the  following  method  for  staining  acid-fast  bacilli.  Smears 
are  made  and  dried  and  fixed  in  the  flame  ;  they  are  then  treated  with 
2  to  3  drops  of  15  p.c.  nitric  acid  and  heated  over  a  flame  until  slight 
steam  arises,  and  then  washed  with  water ;  they  are  then  treated  with 
2  to  3  drops  of  methylen-blue  or  methylen- violet  and  2  to  3  drops  of 
carbol-f  uchsin,  and  again  heated  over  a  flame  until  the  steam  arises,  after 
which  they  are  thoroughly  washed  and  decolorised  with  60  p.c.  alcohol, 
washed  with  water,  dried,  and  mounted  in  balsam. 

For  tubercle  bacilli,  perlsucht  bacilli,  avian  tubercle,  and  leprosy 
bacilli  in  sputum,  the  author  recommends  treating  the  specimen  (after 
the  last  washing  with  water)  with  a  thick  layer  of  water  into  which  a 
drop  of  malachite  green  solution  has  been  added,  and  this  to  be  followed 
again  with  a  washing  with  water. 

The  bacilli  stain  red,  the  spores  blue  ;  the  nuclei  of  the  leucocytes 
are  blue-violet  or  green-blue  according  to  the  duration  of  the  action  of 
the  malachite-green  ;  the  cell  plasma  and  other  adventitious  bacteria 
stain  light  green. 

Silver  Method  for  Differentiating  the  Bacilli  of  Leprosy  and 
Tubercle.^ — J-  Yamamoto  recommends  the  following  process.  Cover- 
slip  preparations  of  leprosy  bacilli  are  made  from  nodules,  after  incision 
with  a  sharp  knife,  care  being  taken  to  disinfect  the  skin,  and  to  avoid 
as  much  as  possible  the  admixture  of  blood  by  pressure.  Cover-slips  of 
tubercle  bacilli  are  prepared  from  sputum  or  from  pure  culture  spread 
in  egg-albumen.  The  preparations  are  dried  and  fixed  in  the  flame  ; 
heated  for  10  minutes  in  5  p.c.  nitrate  of  silver  solution  at  55-60°  C. 
They  are  then  placed  for  5  minutes  in  the  reducing  solution,  which  is 

*  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.  u.  Entwickl.,  lxxii.  (1908)  pp.  415-80  (4  pis.). 
t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  Ite  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvii.  (1908)  p.  654. 
\  Tom.  cit.,  p.  570. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  777 

composed  of  pyrogallic  acid  2  p.c,  tannic  acid  1  p.c,  and  distilled 
water  to  100.  The  slips  then  become  covered  with  a  black  deposit, 
which  is  carefully  removed  by  several  applications  of  filter  paper  moist- 
ened in  water  ;  they  are  then  dried  and  mounted  in  balsam.  Examined 
with  an  oil-immersion  lens  the  tubercle  bacilli  are  found  to  be  stained 
jolack,  whilst  the  leprosy  bacilli  remain  transparent  and  clear,  and  may 
be  subsequently  stained  by  Ziehl-Nielsen's  carbol-fuchsin  method. 

Studying  the  Sexual  Organs  of  Cestoda.* — H.  H.  Balsz  found 
that  Anoplocephala  matin  a  was  the  best  material,  though  he  also  used 
A.  perforata  and  Solmophorm  sp.  The  worms  were  fixed  in  sublimate, 
and  paraffin  sections  made.  The  sections  were  stained  with  :  1. 
Iron-ha3inatoxylin  and  eosin.  2.  Methylen-blue  safranin  :  the  sections 
removed  from  water  were  first  stained  on  the  slide  by  means  of  Nissl's 
methylen-blue  method,  the  stain  being  gently  warmed  for  about  £ 
minute.  After  a  wash  in  water,  the  slides  were  quickly  passed  through 
40  p.c.  alcohol  and  then  to  safranin  solution  (200  com.  distilled  water, 
0'5  grm.  safranin,  70  c.cm.  absolute  alcohol),  wherein  they  remained 
for  ^-1  minute,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  section.  They  were 
rapidly  passed  through  upgraded  alcohols  to  xylol  and  balsam.  3.  For 
demonstrating  the  basal  membrane,  Mallory's  triple  stain  was  used. 
The  sections  were  first  stained  with  acid-fuchsin,  then  washed,  and 
afterwards  mordanted  for  1  or  2  minutes  with  |  p.c.  solution  of 
phosphomolybdic  acid  and  then  placed  in  the  following  solution  :— 
anilin-blue,  0 "  5  grm.  ;  orange,  2  grm.  ;  oxalic  acid,  2  grm.  ;  dis- 
tilled water,  100  grm.  In  this  they  remained  for  from  2-5  minutes, 
and  after  a  wash  in  distilled  water  they  were  placed  in  40  p.c.  alcohol. 
This  brings  out  the  blue.  If  not  sufficiently  dyed,  the  sections  may  be 
re-stained.  Next,  upgraded  alcohols  to  xylol.  4.  Bleu-de-Lyon  with 
ammonium-picrate  and  Hem's  thionin  methods  were  also  used,  but  the 
results  were  not  better. 

Staining  Spirochaeta  pallida. — M.  Gottbergf  fixed  this  material 
in  Zenker's  fluid  and  then  stained  the  paraffin  sections  by  Heidenhain's 
iron-hamiatoxylin  method.  The  sections  were  mordanted  for  24  hours 
in  2  •  5  p.c.  iron-alum  solution  and  immersed  in  Weigert's  hasinatoxylin 
for  one  or  two  days.  The  differentiation  in  0*75  p.c.  iron-alum  solution 
took  a  few  minutes. 

H.  Ehrlich  and  J.  T.  Lenartowitz  J  find  that  Spirochceta  pallida 
stains  in  Ziehl-Xielsen  and  in  carbol-gentian-violet  in  from  h  to  2 
minutes  ;  in  carbol-methylen-blue  or  carbol-dahlia  in  5  to  10  minutes  ; 
in  Loeffier's  methylen-blue  and  carbol-thionin  in  25  to  30  minutes  :  in 
saturated  aqueous  solution  of  safranin,  Bismarck-brown  and  vesuvin  in 
1  hour  or  more. 

(Tradle§  recommends  as  a  clinical  stain: — (1)  methylen-blue  0*5, 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  xci.  (1908)  pp.  26G-9G  (2  pis.), 
t  Archiv  f.  Hygiene,  lxv.  (1908)  pp.  243-51. 
j  Wiener  Med.  Wochenschr.,  1908,  p.  1018. 

§  Journ.  Amer.  Med.  Assoc,  1.  (1908)  No.  16.     See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Ref., 
xlii.  (1908)  pp.  290-2. 

Dec.  16th,  1908  3  F 


778  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

potassium  carbonate  0 '  5,  water  50  ;  (2)  cyanide  of  potassium  1,  water  50  ; 
(3)  potassium  iodide  1  p.c.     Mix  equal  parts  before  staining. 

Alizarin,  a  Vital  and  Specific  Stain  for  Nervous  Tissue.* — H. 
Fischel  has  found  in  alizarin  a  pigment  which  will  stain  intra-vitam  the 
nerves  of  Cladocera.  The  simplest  method  is  to  drop  some  of  the  powder 
into  the  water  in  which  the  animals  live,  and  in  a  few  hours  to  a  few 
days  the  nervous  system  of  some  of  the  animals  will  be  found  stained  a 
dark  violet.  Better  results  are  obtainable  by  means  of  a  solution  of 
alizarin  made  by  dropping  the  powder  into  boiling  water  and  continuing 
the  boiling  for  some  time.  The  clear  filtrate  is  used  and  an  equal  quan- 
tity added  to  the  water  in  which  the  animals  are.  When  successful  the 
staining  results  are  said  to  be  excellent.  The  method,  however,  has  certain 
disadvantages  : — (1)  the  action  of  the  stain  is  somewhat  uncertain,  thus 
under  similar  conditions  some  animals  will  be  found  well  stained,  others 
not  at  all ;  (2)  the  stain  seems  to  be  specific  for  Cladocera  only,  other 
animals  ha  vino-  failed  to  be  affected  bv  its  action. 


*)7> 


Vital  Staining  of  Fresh-water  Animals. — The  same  author  gives 
an  interesting  account  of  the  results  of  his  researches  on  the  vital 
staining  of  fresh-water  animals,  with  especial  reference  to  Cladocera. 
The  dyes  were  used  in  extremely  dilute  solution.  The  principal  pig- 
ments used  were  neutral-red,  neutral-violet,  Nile-blue,  Bismarck-brown, 
methylen-blue,  and  toluidiu-blue.  Combinations  of  these  stains  were 
also  used.  Coloured  illustrations  show  the  effect  of  the  pigments,  and 
special  attention  may  be  drawn  to  the  action  of  alizarin  on  the  nervous 
svstem.  The  author  also  alludes  to  the  influence  of  light.  He  found 
that  rays  of  long  wave-length  intensified  the  action  of  the  stain,  and 
quotes  the  result  of  lithium-carmin  in  combination  with  ruby  glass  as  a 
light-filter.     In  the  last  section  he  discusses  the  theory  of  vital  staining. 

Flemming's  Triple  Staining  Method.!  —  H.  V.Winiwarter  and 
Gr.  Sainmont  allude  to  the  unfavourable  criticisms  of  this  method,  and 
then  state  that  unsatisfactory  results  are  due  to  the  insufficient  directions 
given  in  the  original.  They  have  adopted  the  procedure  for  twelve 
years,  and  have  found  that,  with  the  following  slight  modifications,  it 
gives  excellent  results. 

Though  the  triple  staining  is  specially  adapted  for  material  fixed 
with  Flemming's  solution,  it  may  be  used  after  other  fixatives  provided 
that  the  sections  are  immersed  in  Flemming's  solution  for  24  hours,  and 
afterwards  washed  for  about  20  minutes  in  running  water. 

After  fixation  for  24  hours  in  Flemming's  solution,  it  is  indispensable 
that  the  pieces  should  be  thoroughly  washed  in  running  water  for 
24  hours.  After  this  they  may  be  passed  through  up-graded  alcohols  to 
paraffin.  The  paraffin  should  be  removed  by  means  of  xylol  unaided 
by  heat.  The  sections  are  next  treated  with  a  mixture  of  xylol  and 
absolute  alcohol,  then  twice  with  absolute  alcohol,  followed  by  95  p.c. 
and  65  p.c.  alcohols.     The  slides  are  placed  for  24  hours  in  safranin 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  154-7. 

t  Internat.  Revue  ges.  Hydrobiol.  u.  Hydrograph.,  i.  (1908)  pp.  73-141  (2  pis.). 

%  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  157-62. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  779 

solution  (1  p.c.  safranin  in  absolute  alcohol  to  which  a  few  drops  of 
anilin-water  have  been  added),  diluted  with  an  equal  bulk  of  distilled 
water.  After  frequent  washings  in  distilled  water,  the  sections  are 
placed  in  I  p.c.  aqueous  solution  of  gentian-violet  for  24  hours  ;  then, 
after  more  washings  in  water,  immersion  in  an  aqueous  solution  of 
orange  G-  for  about  one  minute.  The  strength  of  this  solution  varies 
with  the  object  to  be  stained,  and  the  result  must  be  controlled  under 
the  Microscope.  The  sections  are  next  immersed  in  absolute  alcohol  to 
which  (»  to  8  drops  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  absolute  alcohol  and 
pure  hydrochloric  acid  have  been  added  ;  they  are  removed  directly 
violet  clouds  are  given  off.  Then  absolute  alcohol  again  to  remove  the 
acid.  The  special  differentiation  is  effected  in  oil  of  cloves,  which  may 
be  thinned  down  with  a  little  absolute  alcohol.  This  is  a  slow  process, 
and  should  be  controlled  under  the  Microscope,  and  is  usually  ended 
when  the  nuclear  portions  are  blue  and  the  non-nuclear  yellow.  Then 
pure  oil  of  cloves  ;  then  drain  in  vertical  position  on  blotting-paper  ; 
xylol,  xylol-balsam. 

The  authors  end  their  remarks  by  pointing  out  the  importance  of 
using  the  best  safranin,  for  if  this  pigment  does  not  work  well  the  violet 
and  orange  also  produce  useless  pictures. 

Localising  Purin  Bodies  in  Animal  Tissues.* — C.  Ciaccio  demon- 
strates the  presence  of  purin  bodies  in  the  organs  of  Vertebrates  under 
normal  and  pathological  conditions  by  the  following  method,  the 
technique  of  which  depends  on  two  principal  facts,  viz.  the  formation  of 
urate  of  silver,  and  the  property  possessed  by  purin  bodies  of  reducing 
ammoniacal  solution  of  silver  nitrate.  Three  forms  of  procedure  are 
given. 

1.  To  a  l|-2  p.c.  solution  of  silver  nitrate  is  added  ammonia  drop 
by  drop,  until  the  precipitate  formed  is  dissolved.  After  filtration 
ammonia  is  again  added  until  the  odour  is  clearly  perceptible.  The 
filtrate,  placed  in  a  perfectly  clean  vessel,  is  kept  in  the  dark.  In  this 
solution  small  pieces  (4  or  5-100  c.cm.)  are  placed  for  from  1  to  5  days, 
according  to  the  temperature,  the  optimum  being  37-40°.  On  removal 
the  pieces  are  placed  in  1  p.c.  ammonia  for  24  hours,  the  fluid  being 
changed  every  2  or  3  hours.  They  are  next  washed,  and  then  passed 
through  upgraded  alcohols  to  xylol  and  paraffin  in  the  usual  way.  The 
sections  are  stained  with  thionin,  toluidin-blue,  methylen-blue,  or  poly- 
chrome blue,  or  with  the  author's  eosin-orange-toluidin  stain.  Acids 
and  hematoxylin  must  be  avoided. 

2.  The  material  may  be  fixed  in  96  p.c.  or  absolute  alcohol,  or  in 
Carnoy's  fluid.  If  in  alcohol  the  pieces  must  be  small,  and  after  fixation 
soaked  in  water ;  if  in  Carnoy's  fluid,  they  must  be  treated  afterwards 
with  alcohol  and  then  water.  In  both  cases  the  subsequent  treatment 
is  the  same  as  in  procedure  (1).  , 

3.  Fixation  in  alcohol  or  in  Carnoy's  fluid  ;  imbedding  in  paraffin. 
The  sections  having  been  freed  from  paraffin  are  passed  through  down- 
graded alcohols  to  distilled  water    (a  few  seconds).     They  are  then 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxiii.  (1908)  pp.  298-320  (18  figs.). 

3  F  2 


7.S0  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

immersed  in  the  ammoniacal  silver  nitrate  solution  at  87-40°  in  the 
dark  for  24  hours.  On  removal  they  are  washed  in  1  p.c.  ammonia  for 
10  to  15  minutes,  followed  by  distilled  water  and  staining  as  before. 

Though  the  results  are  the  same  in  all  three  procedures,  the  author 
recommends  fixing  in  Carnoy's  fluid,  and  treating  the  pieces  in  toto  with 
the  ammoniacal  silver  reagent.  The  purin  bodies  are  seen  in  the  cells 
or  within  the  tubules  as  black  granules,  which  vary  much  in  size. 

H  ansen,  ;F.  C.  C. — Ueber    die    Ursachen    der    metacb.romatiscb.en   Farbung   bei 

gewissen  basischen  Farbstoffen. 

Zeitschr.  loiss.  Mikrosh.,  xxv.  (1908)  pp.  145-53. 

„  „  Ueber    Eisenhamatein,    Chromalumhamatein,    Tonerdealaun- 

hamatein,    Hamateinlosungen    und    einige    Cochenillefar- 
bldsungen.  Op.  cit.,  xxii.  (1905)  pp.  45-90. 


(5)    Mounting-,  including:  Slides,  Preservative  Fluids,  etc. 

Farrants'  Medium.* — Farrants'  medium,  says  H.  S.  Ogilvie,  is  very 
apt  to  give  trouble  by  the  formation  of  air-bells  in  the  mounts.  These 
often  originate  in  the  making  of  the  medium,  through  stirring  it  too 
vigorously.  Before  use,  filter  it  through  a  fine  linen  or  spun  glass-cloth, 
previously  washed  in  distilled  water.  This  process  takes  some  time, 
therefore  protection  from  dust  and  undue  evaporation  should  be  provided. 
The  secret  in  mounting  with  this  medium  is  to  use  a  very  liberal  supply  ; 
it  is  also  advantageous  to  use  a  rod  for  transferring  it  instead  of  a 
pipette.  The  specimen,  having  previously  lain  two  or  three  days  in  some 
of  the  mountant,  is  placed  on  a  slide,  carefully  arranged,  and  then  a 
comparatively  large  quantity  of  the  medium  is  placed  upon  it.  Air- 
bells  may  then  be  removed  either  to  the  edge  with  needles,  or  by  bursting 
them  with  a  hot  needle.  Apply  the  cover-glass  very  gently,  and  do  not 
press  it  down  for  two  or  three  days,  and  even  at  the  end  of  that  period 
do  so  very  gradually.  After  a  week  or  two  the  excess  of  medium  may 
be  cleaned  away,  and  the  slide  allowed  to  dry.  If  the  edges  refuse  to 
dry,  use  less  glycerin  in  the  preparation  of  the  mixture.  The  same 
remarks  apply  to  Dean's  medium,  and  glycerin-jelly ;  excepting  that,  in 
the  case  of  the  last-mentioned,  the  cover-glass  should  be  pressed  home  at 
once,  the  superfluous  jelly  cleaned  away  when  cold,  and  the  slide  ringed. 
The  advantages  derived  from  any  of  the  foregoing  are  chiefly  :  1 .  Their 
low  refractive  index,  which  renders  delicate  unstained  tissue  more  easily 
seen  than  would  be  the  case  were  balsam  used.  2.  By  their  use,  previous 
•dehydration,  which  sometimes  causes  contraction,  is  avoided.  In  either 
of  these  respects  one  medium  is  practically  as  good  as  the  other.  3.  In 
many  cases  such  media  are  as  useful  as  a  liquid,  with  the  advantages 
that  they  are  easier  to  use,  and  the  risk  of  subsequent  leakage  is  avoided. 
In  the  preparation  of  any  of  these  mixtures,  be  careful  to  avoid  glycerin 
that  has  been  diluted  with  water. 

*  English  Mechanic,  lxxxviii.  (1908)  p.  240. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  781 


(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Pipette  for  Microscope  Work.* — M.Wolff  describes  a  pipette  (fig.  172) 
which  he  has  found  useful  in  Microscopical  work.  It  is  made  on  the  lines 
of  the  Stroschein  syringe,  and  consists  of  a  glass  tube  of  4  mm.  bore  which 
is  provided  with  a  point  in  the  usual  way,  whilst  at  its  upper  eud  it  has 
two  welts  by  means  of  which  it  may  more  conveniently  be  held  between 
two  fingers.  The  aspirator  consists  of  a  small  cylinder  of  a  bore  of 
5  *  5  mm.  and  40  mm.  long,  and  is  hermetically  sealed  at  its  upper  end. 

The  open  end  of  the  cylinder  has  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing  1  cm. 


£  i  Eir/  ar.Ri  iu 


3SS 


Fig.  172. 

long,  4  mm.  bore,  and  <s  mm.  external  diameter  slipped  over  it.  The 
tubing  is  accordingly  narrower  than  the  body  of  the  pipette.  A  length 
of  7  mm.  of  the  rubber  tube  is  slipped  over  the  cylinder  and  the  remainder 
embraces  the  pipette  so  that  an  airtight  joint  is  insured. 

The  pipette  is  charged  by  drawing  the  cylinder  up.  The  pipette 
should  be  held  between  the  thumb  and  the  middle  finger,  and  by  slowly 
pressing  upon  the  cylinder  with  the  index  finger  the  fluid  is  very  easily 
ejected  in  single  drops.  The  apparatus  has  been  placed  on  the  market 
by  E.  Leitz,  of  Berlin. 

Mesophotography  and  its  Application  to  Delicate  Unfixed 
Embryos.^  —  C.  J.  Patten  defines  mesophotography  as  the  photography 
of  objects  of  natural  size,  or  but  slightly  enlarged  or  reduced.  The 
apparatus  used  consists  of  a  camera  with  an  ordinary  front,  but  arranged 
to  take  different  sized  lenses  by  a  series  of  adapter  flanges.  The  lens 
used  was  a  Zeiss  microplanar  of  75  mm.  focal  length.  Most  of  the 
photographs  which  the  author  took  were  of  embryos  which  five  minutes 
before  were  within  the  uterus  of  the  living  parent.  Having  detached 
the  embryo  from  the  uterus  of  a  freshly  killed  animal,  all  that  has  to 
be  done  is  to  fill  a  glass  capsule  with  cold  distilled  or  boiled  water,  drop 
in  the  embryo,  place  the  capsule  on  the  stand  in  a  position  under  the 
lens,  bring  the  embryo  into  the  field  with  a  touch  of  a  soft  camel  hair 
brush,  focus  it,  cap  the  lens,  draw  the  dark  slide,  wait  a  tVw  seconds 
until  all  objects  seen  reflected  in  the  water  appear  perfectly  motionless, 
remove  the  cap  gently,  and  expose  the  plate. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  procedure  are  its  simplicity, 
rapidity,  and  usefulness  for  making  illustrations  of  the  external  form  of 
the  embryo  for  plate  reproductions. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt,,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xlvi.  (1908)  p.  648  (1  fig.), 
t  Brit.  Med.  Jouru.  (190S)  ii.  pp.  593-4. 


'82  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


Metallography,  etc. 

Cohesion  of  Steel.* — Assuming  that  resistance  to  deformation  is 
due  to  simple  friction,  and  that  the  coefficient  of  friction  is  independent 
of  the  load,  G.  H.  Gulliver  calculates  the  ratio  of  the  yield-point  in 
tension  to  the  yield-point  in  compression,  for  mild  steel,  as  0*705  to  1. 
Experimental  results  give  a  ratio  nearer  to  unity.  Assuming,  further, 
that  a  cohesive  force  acting  between  the  metallic  particles  gives  rise  to  a 
frictional  resistance  which  may  be  added  to  that  due  to  the  effect  of  the 
external  load,  the  author  deduces  the  value  of  this  cohesive  force  to  be 
3  •  384  times  the  stress  which  corresponds  with  the  tension  yield-point. 

Function  of  Chromium  and  Tungsten  in  High-speed  Tool-steel.t 
C.  A.  Edwards  has  made  hardness  tests,  cutting  tests,  determinations 
of  thermal  critical  ranges,  examinations  of  microstructure,  and  tempering 
experiments  on  two  series  of  iron-carbon-chromium-tungsten  alloys 
(sixteen  samples).  The  composition  of  one  series  was  approximately 
C  0-65,  Cr6'0,  W3  to  19  p.c,  that!  of  the  other  series  CO'65,  W  19, 
Cr  1  to  8  p.c.  The  author  concludes  that  the  critical  point  at  about  380°C, 
existing  in  steels  with  more  than  3  p.c.  chromium  and  6  p.c.  tungsten, 
is  a  change  occurring  in  a  carbide  of  tungsten  which  is  slowly  formed 
at  about  1200°  C.  At  1320°  C.  or  above,  a  double  carbide  of  chromium 
and  tungsten  is  formed,  and  no  low  critical  point  is  found.  The  function 
of  the  chromium  is  the  formation  of  the  double  carbide. 

Test  of  Plates  from  an  Old  Boiler.:}: — M.  Longridge  gives  details 
of  tests  of  material  cut  from  a  boiler  which  had  been  in  continuous  use 
for  72  years.  The  iron  plates  were  found  to  be  extraordinarily  brittle, 
and  could  be  broken  up  with  a  hammer. 

Copper-aluminium  Alloys.  —  After  briefly  reviewing  the  earlier 
work,  including  his  own,  L.  Guillet  §  discusses  the  equilibrium  diagrams 
obtained  by  Carpenter  and  Edwards,  ||  and  by  Gwyer.f  The  author 
questions  the  assumption,  almost  universally  made,  that  a  maximum  in 
the  curve  always  corresponds  to  a  definite  compound.  He  supports 
Gwyer  in  asserting  the  existence  of  CuAl  and  denying  that  of  Cu4Al. 
The  position  of  the  transformation  points,  and  the  constitution  of  the 
quenched  alloys,  are  still  undecided. 

Hardness  of  Constituents  of  Alloys.** —  Ziegler  describes  an 
optical  method  for  measuring  relative  hardness.  When  a  section  is 
polished  on  a  soft  body  such  as  thick  cloth,  the  harder  constituents  are 
left  more   in   relief,   and    the   relative    hardness   is   indicated   by  the 

*  Proc.  Boy.  Soc.  Edin.,  xxviii.  (1908)  pp.  374-81  (2  figs.), 
t  Journ.  Iron  and  Steel  Inst.,  lxxvii.  (1908)  pp.  104-32  (37  figs.). 
X  Mechanical  Engineer,  xxii.  (1908)  p.  305  (2  figs.). 
&  Rev.  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  413-24  (3  figs.). 

||  See  this  Journal,  1907,  pp.  755-6.  f  Op.  cit.  1908,  pp.  260-1. 

**  Rev.  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  565-70  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  783 

differences  in  level,  which  can  be  measured.  Applying  this  method  to 
alloys  produced  by  heating  iron  in  boiling  sulphur,  the  author  obtains 
further  evidence  that  FeS  is  first  formed,  then  FeS2.  Sulphur  appears  to 
form  solid  solutions  with  both  compounds  FeS  and  FeS2. 

Troostite. — H.  le  Chatelier*  remarks  that  in  his  article  on  the 
constituents  of  steel  f  troostite  was  purposely  described  vaguely  as 
constituent  X  in  order  to  avoid  controversial  matter.  The  author 
agrees  with  Charpy,  Grenet,  and  Benedicks  in  regarding  troostite  as 
pearlite  of  extremely  fine  structure.  But  this  has  not  yet  been  proved, 
and  is  only  the  most  probable  hypothesis.  The  fineness  of  structure, 
introducing  effects  due  to  surface  tension,  is  the  cause  of  the  difference 
in  properties  between  troostite  and  pearlite.  The  thickness  of  the 
cementite  lamellae  in  pearlite  is  of  the  order  of  0'  01^,  while  the 
dimensions  of  the  cementite  particles  in  troostite  probably  do  not 
exceed  0"  00 1/x.  The  description  of  troostite  as  a  colloidal  solution  is 
unsatisfactory.  The  term  is  applied  to  widely  differing  mixtures  which 
have  the  common  characteristic  of  not  separating  under  the  action  of 
gravity,  while  they  lack  the  properties  of  true  solutions.  It  is  difficult 
to  see  how  a  solid  body,  such  as  steel,  can  be  correctly  described  as  a 
colloidal  solution. 

Corrosion  Tests  of  Iron  and  Steel4 — C.  Fremont  describes  the 
methods  of  etching  for  developing  the  macrostructure  of  iron  and  steel, 
and  gives  numerous  examples  of  their  application.  He  employs  pure 
hydrochloric  acid  for  rapid  etching  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid  for  slow 
etching.  For  rendering  visible  effects  due  to  piping  and  segregation,  the 
author  prefers  iodine  solution.  Examination  of  macrostructure  should 
be  supplemented  by  shock  tests  on  small  notched  bars  taken  from 
segregated  parts.  The  employment  of  segregated  steel,  which  has 
caused  many  serious  accidents  through  fracture,  might  be  avoided  by 
submitting  the  metal  before  use  to  testing  by  corrosion. 

Metallography  of  Quenched  Steels.§ — Kourbatoff  has  studied  the 
transformations  of  austenite  at  temperatures  up  to  445°  C.  He  did  not 
succeed  in  obtaining  pure  austenite,  but  austenitic  steels  were  produced 
by  rapid  quenching  from  high  temperatures  of  samples  containing  1  "1, 
1*6,  and  1*9  p.c.  carbon.  Austenite  appears  to  contain  about  2  p.c. 
carbon.  The  samples  used  in  the  tempering  experiments  were  small 
bars,  one  end  of  which  had  been  heated  to  fusion  in  the  oxyhydrogen 
flame,  and  quenched.  Treated  in  this  way,  each  piece  contained  several 
constituents.  No  change  resulted  at  temperatures  below  100°  C,  even 
when  the  heating  was  continued  for  two  or  three  months.  At  137°  C„ 
a  change  of  structure  quickly  occurs.  At  218°  C.  austenite  is  com- 
pletely transformed  in  12  to  18  hours,  and  at  248°  C.  in  a  few  minutes. 
Austenite  appears  to  change  directly  into  troostite,  not  passing  through 
the  intermediate  stage,  martensite.  The  author's  reagents  A  and  C 
were  used  for  etching. 


'£>• 


*  Rev.  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  p.  639.  t  See  this  Journal,  190S,  p.  523. 

%  Rev.  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  049-703  (41  figs.). 
§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  704-10  (13  figs.). 


784  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Quenching  and  Tempering-  of  Iron  and  Steel.*  —  E.  Maurer  has 
quenched  a  number  of  steels  of  varying  carbon  content,  at  temperatures 
800-1100°  C,  and  reheated  each  sample  successively  at  temperatures 
rising  from  100-750°  C.  After  each  heating,  the  structure,  physical 
properties,  and  chemical  condition  of  the  sample  were  studied.  Some 
physical  measurements  were  also  made  on  pure  iron.  The  author 
inclines  to  the  view  that  in  an  etched  section,  whatever  the  reagent 
used,  martensite  normally  appears  white.  Only  when  the  transforma- 
tion to  troostite  has  commenced  does  martensite  assume  a  darker  colour 
than  austenite.  Among  the  author's  conclusions  are  the  following  :  (1) 
the  effect  of  quenching  on  the  physical  properties  of  pure  iron  is  due  to 
deformation  of  a-iron  ;  (2)  homogeneous  austenite  may  be  obtained  by 
rapidly  quenching  high  carbon  steel  containing  sufficient  manganese  ;  f 
(3)  austenite  changes  directly  to  troostite  between  150°  and  250c  C,  or 
at  higher  temperatures  when  much  manganese  is  present.  In  mixtures 
of  austenite  and  martensite,  the  change  first  begins  in  the  martensite, 
but  proceeds  more  slowly  than  in  the  austenite.  Cooling  (as  in  liquid 
air)  causes  austenite  to  be  transformed  into  martensite, 

H.  le  Chatelier  $  remarks  that  Maurer's  work  on  the  constitution  of 
quenched  steels  is  possibly  the  most  important  since  Osmond's  first 
investigations.  The  changes  which  take  place  when  a  quenched  steel  is 
heated  are  : — 1.  Mechanical  (removal  of  elastic  strain).  2.  Physical 
(change  in  size  of  grain,  change  of  troostite  into  pearlite,  removal  of 
cold  work  effects).  3.  Chemical  (transformation  of  austenite  and  of 
martensite  into  troostite).  A  mathematical  treatment  of  the  problem  of 
rate  of  change  of  physical  properties  with  temperature,  is  attempted. 

Alumina  for  Polishing.§— Aluminium  alloyed  with  a  little  mercury 
is  readily  oxidised  in  air  or  water.  Robin  utilises  this  property  in  the 
preparation  of  powder  for  polishing.  Strips  of  pure  aluminium  foil  are 
shaken  up  with  mercury  and  are  then  exposed  to  moist  air.  White 
tufts  of  alumina  form  on  the  surface  and  may  be  observed  to  grow. 
After  about  four  hours  no  further  oxidation  takes  place.  The  alumina 
thus  produced  may  be  used  for  final  polishing  without  further  prepara- 
tion. It  does  not  appear  to  be  better  than  that  obtained  by  lengthy  and 
laborious  levigation  methods,  but  is  speedily  and  easily  prepared  in 
quantity  at  a  small  fraction  of  the  cost. 

Heat-treatment  of  Muntz  Metal.|| — G.  D.  Bengough  and  O.  F. 
Hudson  supplement  their  former  paper  If  by  the  results  of  impact  and 
other  tests.  The  Izod  test  is  not  considered  to  be  sufficiently  discrimi- 
nating to  give  useful  information  about  this  alloy.  Four  types  of 
structure  are  distinguished  :— (1)  the  rolled  ;  (2)  the  island  ;  (3)  the 
network  ;  (4)  the  cast  type.  The  effects  of  cold  work  appear  to  persist 
even  after  long  annealing  at  a  high  temperature. 

*  Rev.  Metallurgie,  v.'  (1908)  pp.  711-50  (65  figs.). 
t  See  this  Journal,  1908,  p.  394. 

X  Rev.  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  G43-7.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  751-7  (8  figs.). 

[1  Journ.  Soc.  Cbem.  Ind.,  xxvii.  (1908)  pp.  654-8  (11  figs.). 
1  See  this  Journal,  1908,  p.  262. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,  ETC.  785 

Carbon-iron  Diagram.* — H.  M.  Howe  explains  and  supports  at 
considerable  length  the  double  diagram  of  the  iron-carbon  system, 
indicating  metastable  equilibrium  between  iron  and  cementite,  and  stable 
equilibrium  between  iron  and  graphite.  The  evidence  for  and  against 
this  diagram  is  fully  considered.  The  constituents  austenite,  cementite 
and  ferrite  are  subdivided,  and  new  terms  are  defined  and  employed 
by  the  author  to  indicate  the  genesis  of  each  subdivision.  For  instance, 
cementite  is  classed  as  primary,  eutectic,  pro-eutectoid,  or  eutectoid  cemen- 
tite. Though  graphite  usually  results  from  the  decomposition  of  ce- 
mentite, the  author  considers  that  eutectic  graphite  is  sometimes  formed 
directly  from  the  molten  state.  In  solidification  the  habitual  order  is 
through  the  metastable  to  the  stable  system.  While  cementite  often 
changes  directly  into  graphite  and  iron,  graphite  can  only  change  into 
cementite  through  an  intermediate  state  of  solution  in  iron  as  austenite. 

Vanadium-iron  Alloys.f — R.  Vogel  and  G-.  Tammann  found  that 
alloys  with  more  than  30  p.c.  vanadium  could  not  be  prepared  by 
melting  the  metals  together.  High  vanadium  alloys  were  accordingly 
made  by  reduction  of  mixtures  of  the  oxides  with  aluminium.  Silicon 
was  also  reduced  in  the  reaction  from  the  crucible.  A  diagram  is 
therefore  given  for  a  series  of  vanadium-iron  alloys  containing  7 "  5  p.c. 
silicon.  By  using  magnesia-lined  crucibles  for  the  alumino-thermic 
reduction,  the  authors  obtained  alloys  nearly  free  from  silicon.  Iron 
and  vanadium  form  a  continuous  series  of  mixed  crystals.  The  solidi- 
fication point  of  the  vanadium  used  was  found  by  the  Wanner  pyrometer 
to  be  1750  ±  30°  C.  ;  probably  pure  vanadium  solidifies  at  a  some- 
what higher  temperature. 

Siiicon-aluminium  Alloys.  —  W.  Fraenkel  has  determined  the 
equilibrium  diagram.  No  compounds  are  formed.  Silicon  and 
aluminium  are  completely  miscible  in  the  liquid  state  ;  in  the  solid 
the  limits  of  solubility  appear  to  be  not  greater  than  0  ■  5  p.c.  silicon  in 
aluminium  and  2  p.c.  aluminium  in  silicon.  The  eutectic  contains 
10  p.c.  Si,  and  melts  at  57<s°  0.  Microscopic  verification  of  the 
composition  of  the  mixed  crystals  was  difficult. 

Composition  of  Saturated  Mixed  Crystals.§  —  W.  v.  Lepkowski 
has  investigated,  in  two  series  of  alloys,  the  production  of  super- 
saturated mixed  crystals  by  rapid  cooling.  The  microstructure  of 
samples  cooled  in  the  furnace  was  compared  with  that  of  samples 
east  in  iron  moulds  standing  in  ice.  While  in  the  tin-bismuth  series 
the  concentration  of  tin  in  solid  solution  in  bismuth  could  be  raised 
from  0  to  between  l'l  and  1*5  p.c.  by  rapid  cooling,  no  effect  of  this 
kind  could  be  produced  at  either  end  of  the  copper-silver  series.  The 
equilibrium  diagram  of  the  tin-bismuth  series  was  re-determined. 

*  Bull.  Amer.  Lust.  Mining  Engineers,  xxii.  (1908)  pp.  461-529  (10  figs.). 

t  Zeitschr.  Anorg.  Ckern.,  lviii.  (1908)  pp.  73-82  (2  figs.). 

%  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  154-8  (1  fig.). 

§  Op.  cit.,  lix.  (1908)  pp.  285-92  (8  figs.). 


786  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Binary  Alloys  of  Cobalt.*  —  K.  Lewkonja  has  determined  the 
equilibrium  diagrams  and  studied  the  magnetic  properties  and  structure 
of  the  alloys  of  cobalt  with  the  nine  elements  named  below.  Cobalt 
is  miscible  with  tin  and  also  with  antimony,  in  all  proportions  in  the 
liquid  state.  The  compounds  are  Co2Sn,  CoSn,  CoSb,  and  CoSb.,. 
With  lead,  bismnth,  and  thallium,  cobalt  is  miscible  in  the  liquid  state 
only  to  a  small  extent,  the  molten  alloys  separating  into  two  layers 
except  for  short  ranges  at  both  ends  of  each  system.  The  cobalt-zinc 
system  was  studied  only  in  the  range  0-18 "  5  p.c.  cobalt.  The  exist- 
ence of  CoZn4  is  probable.  Cobalt  and  chromium  are  mutually  soluble 
in  all  proportions  in  the  liquid  and  solid  states.  Cobalt  and  silicon  are 
miscible  in  all  proportions  in  the  liquid  state,  and  form  five  compounds. 
The  diagram  for  the  cobalt-cadmium  system  is  incomplete.  The 
results  now  available  concerning  the  binary  alloys  of  iron,  of  nickel, 
and  of  cobalt  are  carefully  analysed  and  summarised  in  tabular  form. 

Manganese  and  Carbon.t — A.  Stadeler  has  made  a  thermal  and 
microscopic  study  of  manganese  and  its  alloys  with  carbon.  The 
melting-point  of  the  purest  commercial  manganese  obtainable  (9G  p.c.)  was 
found  to  be  1207°  C.  No  evidence  of  allotropic  modifications  was 
obtained.  The  saturation  point  of  carbon  in  manganese  is  6*72  p.c, 
corresponding  to  Mn3C.  The  solidification  point  curve  rises  to  1271°  C. 
at  3*32  p.c.  carbon,  then  falls  to  1217°  C.  at  6*72  p.c.  From  0'72- 
3  •  60  p.c.  a  critical  point  at  817-855°  C.  was  found.  Manganese  probably 
forms  with  Mn3C  a  series  of  mixed  crystals  which  is  continuous  above 
855°  C.  At  lower  temperatures,  in  the  range  0-3  •  6  p.c.  carbon,  two 
series  of  solid  solutions  exist.  Cementation  of  manganese  with  carbon 
does  not  appear  to  be  possible. 

Alloys  of  Zinc,  Copper,  and  Nickel4 — V.  E.  Tafel  has  determined 
the  equilibrium  diagrams  for  the  three  binary  systems  and  partially  for 
the  ternary  system  zinc-copper-nickel.  The  microstructure  of  the 
alloys  was  also  studied.  The  diagrams  given  by  Guertler  and 
Tammann  for  the  copper-nickel  system,  and  by  Shepherd  for  the 
copper-zinc  system,  are,  on  the  whole,  confirmed.  In  the  zinc-nickel 
system  the  compound  NiZn3  (melting-point  876°  C),  and  two  series  of 
mixed  crystals  containing  respectively  12  •  2-23  '0  p.c.  and  39"  7-49*0 
p.c.  nickel  were  found.  The  constitution  of  other  phases  is  uncertain. 
The  range  0-50  p.c.  nickel  only  was  studied,  as  zinc-nickel  alloys  with 
more  nickel  could  not  be  prepared.  The  ternary  system  is  very  com- 
plex.    No  ternary  compound  or  ternary  eutectic  was  found. 

Copper-arsenic  System.§  —  Considerable  differences  between  the 
diagram  given  by  Hiorns  and  that  determined  by  K.  Friedrich,  have  led 
the  latter  to  carry  out  a  further  investigation.  The  author's  results 
were  confirmed  in  essential  points.  The  compounds  are  Cu5As2  and 
Cu3As.     Evidence  for  Cu2As  was  not  obtained.     Copper  may  contain 

*  Zeitschr.  Anorg.  Chem.,lix.  (1908)  pp.  293-345  (41  figs.), 
t  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  260-7,  281-8  (52  figs.). 
J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  343-52,  375-83,  413-30  (100  figs.). 
§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  529-35  (16  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  787 

up  to  4  p.c.  arsenic  in  solid  solution  at  700°  C.  The  curve  showing  the 
relation  between  composition  and  electrical  resistance  has  an  inflection 
at  -i  p.c.  arsenic. 

Belloc,  G.— Occluded  Gases  in  Steel. 

„       „         Occluded  Gases  in  a  Special  Nickel-steel,^ 

[More   complete   accounts    of    work  previously   summarised. 
See  this  Journal,  1908,  pp.  124  and  661.] 

Rev.  MHallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  469-88  (5  figs.) ; 

and  pp.  571-4  (2  figs.). 

Feiedrich,  K. — Contribution  to  the  History  of  Metallography. 

Mctallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  408-10. 

Friedbich,  K.,   &  A.  Leeoux— Binary  Systems  Cu-Cu.,Se,  Ag-Ag.,Se,  Pb  PbSe. 

Tom.  ~cit,,  pp.  355-8  (11  figs.). 
Guebtlee,  W. — Electrical  Resistance  of  Alloys. 

[The  bearing  of  recent  researches  on  technical  applications  of  alloys  is  in- 
dicated.] Tom.  cit.,  pp.  292-6. 

Poetevin,  A. — Alloys  of  Aluminium. 
„  „         Alloys  of  Copper. 

„         „         Alloys  of  Iron. 

„        Alloys  of  Manganese  and  Alloys  of  Magnesium. 

[Further    instalments  of   Portevin's  account  of  the  Gbttingen 
researches.     See  this  Journal,  1908,  pp.  522-23. 
Rev.  Metallurgie,  v.  (1908)  pp.  274-94  (25  figs.) ;  361-95  (40  figs.)  ; 

535-60  (28  figs.);  and  762-90  (38  figs.). 


>» 


788 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  21st  of  October,  1908,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W., 
Dr.  J.  W.  H.  Eyre,  Yice-President,  in  the  Chair. 


The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  June  17,  1908,  were  read  and  con- 
firmed, and  were  signed  by  the  Chairman. 


Dr.  J.  W.  Judd,  F.R.S.,  etc.,  was  proposed  by  the  Council  as  an 
Honorary  Fellow  of  the  Society,  the  election  to  take  place  at  the  next 
Ordinary  Meeting. 

The  List  of  Donations  (exclusive  of  exchanges  and  reprints)  received 
since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read  as  follows  : — 

From 
Memoirs  and  Proceedings  of  the  Manchester  Literary  and ) 

Philosophical  Society,  1907-8.  Vol.  52,  Part  III.   (Man-  -  The  President. 

Chester,  1908)        j 

Behrens,  Wilhelm,  Tabellen  zum  Gebrauch  hei  Mikro-j 

skopischen  Arbeiten.   4th  Ed.    (8vo,  Leipzig,  S.  Hirzel,  L  The  Publisher. 

1908)      j 

Hauswaldt,  Hans,  Interferenz-Erscheinungen  im  polar-  \  The  Author, 

isirten   Licht.      3rd   Series.      (4to,   Magdeburg,   Joh.  \  per 

Gottl.  Hauswaldt,  1907      j  Mr.  Rheinberg. 

Stead,  David  G.,  The  Edible  Fishes  of  New  South  Wales.  (  The  Board  of  Fisheries 
(Ifimo,  Sydney,  1908) j      New  So{2  Wales. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  the  Donors,  and  specially 
to  Mr.  Rheinberg,  through  whose  kind  intervention  the  Society  was 
enabled  to  secure  the  copy  of  Dr.  Hauswaldt's  valuable  work  for  the 
library  of  the  Society. 

Mr.  T.  H.  Powell  exhibited  in  the  room  a  new  apochromatic  homo- 
geneous-immersion ^y  in.  objective  which  was  slightly  different  in 
construction  from  those  he  had  previously  made,  but  which  he  con- 
sidered was  the  best  he  had  yet  produced. 


Mr.  C.  L.  Curties  (C.  Baker)  also  exhibited  a  T^  in.  achromatic 
objective  made  on  a  new  formula,  which  gave  a  very  flat  field  and  had 
an  aperture  of  1*30. 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY.  789 

Mr.  W.  Wesche's  paper  on  "  The  Mouth-parts  of  the  Nernocera,  and 
their  Relation  to  the  other  Families  in  Diptera — with  Corrections  and 
Additions  to  the  paper  published  in  1904,"  was  read  to  the  Meeting  by 
Dr.  Hebb,  who  explained  that  the  portion  now  submitted  was  a  resume 
of  the  entire  communication,  and  that  he  had  been  asked  to  communi- 
cate it  to  the  Meeting,  as  Mr.  Wesche's  health  did  not  permit  him  to 
read  it  himself. 

The  Chairman  said  this  was  a  very  important  paper,  which  would  be 
printed  in  extenso  in  the  Journal,  but  it  was,  of  course,  difficult  to  judge 
of  its  full  value  from  the  abstract  which  had  been  read  that  evening. 
It  would,  no  doubt,  be  read  with  considerable  interest  when  they  had  it 
before  them. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Wesche. 

Mr.  "Wesche  said  that  most  of  the  points  mentioned  in  the  paper 
were  illustrated  by  specimens  exhibited  under  Microscopes  on  the  table. 
The  subject  was  one  which  recpiired  a  considerable  knowledge  of  the 
mouth-parts  of  Diptera  to  be  able  to  appreciate  thoroughly,  although  he 
thought  that  anyone  who  had  a  Topping  slide  of  the  proboscis  of  the 
blow-fly  would  be  able  at  all  events  to  understand  one  aspect  of  it ;  but 
instead  of  looking  for  minute  hairs  as  test  objects,  workers  with  the 
Microscope  would  find  it  a  more  profitable  and  delightful  study  if  they 
would  give  their  attention  to  a  comparison  of  the  remarkable  differences 
in  the  mouth-parts  of  this  very  large  order  of  Insects. 


Mr.  E.  M.  Nelson's  paper  "  On  the  Resolution  of  Periodic  Struc- 
tures "  was  read  by  Dr.  Hebb. 

A  further  paper  by  the  same  author  on  "  An  Auxiliary  Illuminating 
Lens  "  was  also  read. 

Mr.  J.  W.  Gordon  said  that  the  first  paper  struck  him  as  being  a 
very  suggestive  one,  and  he  thought  the  observations  which  Mr.  Nelson 
had  carried  out  were  of  very  particular  interest,  because  they  reduced  to 
a  specific  form  what  had  hitherto  been  propounded  only  in  a  conjectural 
way.  The  verification  of  these  conjectures  was  therefore  a  matter  of 
very  peculiar  interest.  One  thing,  however,  he  should  like  to  suggest 
in  this  connection  for  further  consideration,  because  Mr.  Nelson's 
observations  appeared  to  refer  only  to  the  half  of  the  diffraction  fringe 
which  overlaid  the  dark  field.  There  is  a  complementary  dark  half 
which  overlies  the  edge  of  the  bright  field,  and  has  much  to  do  with  the 
obscuration  of  line  structures.  This  was  never  investigated,  so  far  as  he 
was  aware,  by  any  writer  of  authority,  until  it  was  taken  up  by  Lord 
Rayleigh,  and  dealt  with  in  his  supplementary  paper  published  in  the 
Journal  of  this  Society  in  1903.  When  the  bright  field  was  narrowed 
sufficiently,  this  dark  fringe  extended  right  across  it  and  prevented  the 
illumination  of  this  field  from  attaining  to  full  intensity.  This  point, 
although  it  had  no  direct  bearing  on  the  paper,  was  so  closely  connected 
with  the  subject  under  discussion,  and  of  so  much  importance  that  he 
hoped  it  would  not  be  regarded  as  an  impertinence  on  his  part  to 
mention  it  in  this  connection. 

Mr.  Curties  said  that  he  was  showing  in  the  room  a  lamp  fitted  with 
a  lens  as  described  by  Mr.  Nelson. 


790  PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE   SOCIETY. 

A  short  paper  on  '■'■Micrococcus  melitensis,"  by  Messrs.  A.  A.  C.  E. 
Merlin  and  E.  M.  Nelson,  was  read  by  Dr.  Hebb,  as  follows : — 

"  While  we  were  employed  in  testing  the  auxiliary  lens  described,  a 
stained  preparation  of  this  organism  was  placed  on  the  stage,  and  the 
instant  the  object  was  brought  into  focus,  flagella  were  readily  seen.  At 
that  time  the  authors  had  no  knowledge  either  of  the  existence  of  the 
flagella  or  of  the  motility  of  the  organism,  but  have  since  learned  that 
these  flagella  had  been  already  discovered  by  Mr.  Gordon  :  a  second 
description  was  therefore  unnecessary.  Flagella  were  plainly  observed 
on  most  of  the  cocci  scattered  over  the  field,  which  proved  that  a  full 
field  of  illumination  obtained  by  this  auxiliary  lens  is  no  bar  to  the 
detection  of  minute  objects  such  as  flagella,  whatever  its  influence  on 
the  resolution  of  periodic  structures  might  be." 

The  Chairman  remarked  that  the  authors  of  this  paper  said  they  had 
no  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  flagella  or  of  the  motility  of  this 
organism  before  using  this  lens,  and  he  thought  he  might  say  that  they 
had  no  knowledge  of  their  existence  afterwards.  Although  Mr.  Gordon 
(not  the  Society's  Hon.  Secretary)  had  stated  that  both  the  Micrococcus 
melitensis  and  Bacillus  pestis  possessed  flagella,  he  would  probably  not 
now  insist  too  much  upon  that  statement,  as  his  observation  was  made 
upon  a  very  old  cultivation  stained  by  a  complicated  silver  process,  and 
in  the  speaker's  opinion  what  Mr.  Gordon  took  to  be  flagella  were 
undoubtedly  the  results  of  preparation.  The  fact  was  that  this  organism 
had  no  motile  property,  and  the  supposed  flagella  had  no  existence.  It 
would  not  be  well  therefore  to  place  too  much  importance  upon  this 
notice  of  the  observation  by  the  authors  of  the  paper. 


The  Chairman  said  they  had  received  a  letter  from  a  Fellow  of  the 
Society  living  in  Glasgow  who  had  visited  their  library,  but  although  he 
found  there  was  a  very  good  card-index  of  the  books,  it  was  not  one 
that  could  be  carried  away,  and  he  considered  it  would  be  well  to  have  a 
new  catalogue  printed,  and  further,  that  this  catalogue  should  contain  not 
only  a  list  of  the  books,  but  also  of  instruments,  apparatus  and  slides 
possessed  by  the  Society  ;  and  that  if  the  Council  thought  well  to  carry 
out  his  suggestion,  he  would  be  very  pleased  to  subscribe  three  guineas 
towards  the  expense.  The  Council  had  for  some  time  had  the  proposal 
for  a  new  catalogue  under  consideration,  but  the  expense  of  bringing 
one  out  had  hitherto  been  the  difficulty.  This  suggestion  of  Mr.  Baird 
brought  the  matter  up  again,  and  it  was  thought  if  it  was  put  before 
the  Society  some  of  the  Fellows  might  also  be  willing  to  subscribe 
towards  the  cost,  and,  with  such  a  good  offer  to  start  with,  he  thought  it 
well  to  let  the  Fellows  know,  so  that  any  who  were  interested  in  the 
project  might  offer  donations  towards  it.' 

The  Chairman  said  there  was  one  other  matter  which  he  wished 
to  refer  to,  and  that  was  as  to  the  sectional  meetings  which  it  was 
proposed  to  hold  during  the  session.  A  circular  would  soon  be  in  the 
hands  of  the  Fellows  in  which  the  scheme  was  outlined,  the  proposal 
being  to  form  two  or  three  sections,  one  for  Pond  Life,  another  for 
Microscopical  Optics,  and  a  third  for  Bacteriology  and  Histology.  These 
sections  would  meet  on  Wednesday  evenings  other  than  those  already 


PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    SOCIETY.  791 

allocated  to  the  Ordinary  Meetings  of  the  Society,  the  idea  being  that 
Fellows  interested  in  either  of  these  subjects  could  get  into  touch  with 
each  other,  and  would  find  opportunities  for  bringing  forward  new  work 
which  might  afterwards  be  communicated  to  the  Society.  He  asked  all 
those  present  who  took  any  interest  in  either  of  these  matters,  and  would 
like  to  join  either  of  the  sections  mentioned,  to  signify  their  desire  to  the 
Secretary.  They  wanted  to  start  as  soon  as  possible,  because  there  were 
a  large  number  of  Fellows  who  took  an  interest  in  one  branch  of  Micro- 
scopical Science  only,  and  who  consequently  had  small  opportunity  of 
discussing  that  at  an  Ordinary  Meeting,  where  perhaps  only  one  of  the 
other  subjects  was  brought  forward. 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited :  — 

Mr.  C.  L.  dirties  (C.  Baker)  : — Trypanosoma  Brucei  under  a  new 
TVm-  achromatic  oil-immersion  objective.  Auxiliary  Illuminating 
Lens  in  illustration  of  Mr.  Nelson's  paper. 

Mr.  T.  H.  Powell :— ^-in.  apochromatic  homogeneous-immersion  objec- 
tive of  1  •  ;-55  N.A. 

Mr.  W.  "Wesche  : — The  following  slides  in  illustration  of  his  paper — 
Trophi  of  Asilus  from  Pegu.  The  Labium  has  been  separated,  at 
the  base  of  the  hypopharynx  and  maxilla3  is  the  pharyngeal  pump  ; 
Proboscis  of  Blow-fly,  CaUiphora  erytliroeephala,  dissected  and  sepa- 
rated, the  labrum,  hypopharynx,  stipites  and  cardines  of  the  maxilla 
and  the  submentum  adhere  together ;  Trophi  of  Oulex  aimulipes, 
the  pharyngeal  pump  is  seen  in  the  interior  of  the  head ;  Culex 
pipiens,  the  pharyngeal  pump  is  seen  in  the  interior  of  the 
head  ;  Dissected  trophi  of  Empis  livida,  the  pharyngeal  pump  is 
seen  immediately  behind  the  hypopharynx  ;  Dissected  trophi  of 
Hmnatopota  italica  9 ,  blood-sucking  fly ;  Labium  of  Hylos 
femoratus,  to  show  the  "  taste-cups,"  rare  on  the  trophi  of  Diptera  ; 
Dissection  of  trophi  of  Leptis  conspicua,  to  show  the  imbedded 
mandibles  and  the  character  of  the  tracheas,  occasionally  a  blood- 
sucking insect ;  Proboscis  of  Pliora  concinna  ;  Proboscis  of  Prosena 
sybarita,  one  of  the  specialised  forms  in  the  Muscidaj,  the  trophi 
are  specialised  for  flower-feeding  ;  Proboscis  of  Siphonia  geniculate, 
trophi  specialised  for  flower-feeding  ;  Tipula  oleracea,  the  labella 
and  maxillary  palpi,  at  the  base  is  the  pharyngeal  pump  ;  Proboscis 
of  Zodion  cinereum,  one  of  the  Conopoda3,  with  trophi  modified  for 
sucking  the  nectary  of  flowers. 


792  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  IXth  of  November,  1908,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W., 
Conrad  Beck,  Esq.,  Vice-President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  October  21st,  1008,  were  read  and 
confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  Chairman. 


The  List  of  Donations  (exclusive  of  exchanges  and  reprints)  received 
since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read  as  follows  : — 

Gage,  Simon  Hy.,    The    Microscope:    An  Introduction  to)  From 

Microscopic  Methods  and  Histology.    10th  Ed.     (Ithaca,}  The  Author. 

New  York,  1908)      ) 

Herzog,  Alois,  Mikrophotographischer  Atlas  der  technischj 

wichtigen  Faserstoffe.      (4to,  T.  B.  Obernetter,  Munich,  >  The  Author. 

1908) J 

Nuttall,  G.  F.  H.,   Cecil  Warburton,   W.  F.Cooper,   and)  The  Syndics  of 

L.  E.  Robinson,   Ticks  :   A  Monograph  of  the  Idoidea,  >  the  Cambridge 

Parti.     (8vo,  Cambridge,  1908) j  University  Press. 

!\Konigl.  Bohmische 
Gesellschaft  der 
Wissenschaften  in 
Prag. 
Slide   of    "  Red    Snow,"   Protococcus    nivalis,  from   Capel  Tlie  Peary 

Y'ork /  Arctic  Club. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  the  Donors. 


The  Secretary  said  that  the  Fellows  of  the  Society  were  aware  that 
arrangements  had  been  made  for  holding  Sectional  Meetings,  the  rules 
for  which  would  be  available  very  shortly,  and  would  be  at  the  service 
of  any  Fellows  who  would  apply  for  them  to  the  Secretaries.  In  accord- 
ance with  these  rules,  any  ten  or  more  Fellows  might  combine,  if  in- 
terested in  a  particular  subject,  to  form  a  section  to  pursue  the  study  of  it. 
At  present  it  was  proposed  to  form  three  sections,  one  for  the  study  of 
Medical  Bacteriology,  another  for  Biology  other  than  Medical  Biology, 
and  a  third  for  Brass  and  Glass.  These  sections  to  meet  on  the  first, 
second  and  fourth  Wednesdays  in  each  month.  The  first  meeting  would 
take  place  that  day  week  (November  25th)  of  the  Brass  and  Glass  Section, 
for  the  purpose  of  arranging  itself  and  appointing  a  committee  and  a 
Sectional  Secretary.  A  rechauffe  would  then  be  given  of  the  Society's 
exhibit  at  the  Franco-British  Exhibition,  the  instruments  shown  there 
being  set  out  in  the  Library  for  the  purpose.  He  had  received  the  names 
of  a  number  of  Fellows  desirous  of  joining,  and  hoped  to  receive  others  ; 
and  though  anyone  who  came  next  Wednesday  would  be  heartily  wel- 
comed, those  who  sent  in  their  names  beforehand  would  have  a  postcard 
sent  to  them  as  a  reminder  of  the  engagement.  On  the  succeeding  Wed- 
nesdays the  other  sections  would  meet,  that  for  Medical  Biology  under 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY.  793 

the  direction  of  Dr.  Eyre,  and  that  for  Pond  Life  under  Mr.  Scourfield  ; 
and  Fellows  intending  to  join  either  of  these  sections  should  send  in 
their  names  to  either  of  these  gentlemen,  and  postcards  would  be  sent 
in  due  course. 

The  Chairman  intimated  that  they  would  be  pleased  to  answer  any 
questions  as  to  these  Meetings,  should  any  Fellow  present  desire  further 
information. 


The  Chairman  asked  Mr.  J.  I.  Pigg  to  give  a  description  of  two 
specimens  of  Coccidas  he  was  exhibiting. 

In  reply,  Mr.  Pigg  said,  that  one  specimen  of  the  Coccids  (Lecaniurn 
hemisphairiciivn)  was  a  living  gravid  female,  the  other  was  a  dead  female 
after  parturition,  the  chitine  shell  containing  the  usual  large  number  of 
eggs  characteristic  of  their  species. 


Mr.  C.  F.  Rousselet  shortly  described  a  number  of  mounted  speci- 
mens of  pond  life,  shown  under  Microscopes  in  the  room.  These  were 
Infusoria,  Hydra,  Volvox  with  yellow  stellate  oospheres  from  Germany, 
apparently  exceedingly  rare  in  this  country,  and  some  fresh-water  Medusre 
and  their  Hydroid  stage,  namely  :  Limnococlium  Sowerbyi  from  the 
Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Regent's  Park  (collected  about  1890,  since  dis- 
appeared) ;  Marisia  Lyonsi  from  Lake  Qurun  in  Egypt ;  and  an  on- 
described  Medusa  lately  received  by  him  from  Rhodesia.  Mr.  Rousselet 
remarked  that  it  would  be  very  desirable  that  some  of  the  younger 
Fellows  should  devote  their  energies  to  the  study  of  the  Infusoria  and 
the  methods  of  their  preservation  ;  many  forms  could  be  readily  killed, 
extended  with  osmic  acid  and  mounted  in  formalin,  but  the  more  re- 
tractile species  presented  greater  difficulties,  and  a  suitable  narcotic  for 
these  had  still  to  be  discovered  by  experiment. 

The  Chairman  thought  it  would  be  a  great  advantage  if  some 
microscopists,  who  were  not  devoting  themselves  to  any  particular  subject, 
would  take  up  the  study  of  the  Protozoa,  as  there  was  still  a  great  deal 
to  be  learned  as  to  their  life-history:  such  simple  matters  as  the  method 
of  ingesting  food  in  some  of  the  common  forms  was  little  understood, 
and  much  yet  remained  to  be  discovered. 


Mr.  A.  A.  C.  E.  Merlin's  paper  "  On  a  Xew  Growing  Cell  for  Critical 
Observations  under  the  Highest  Powers,"  was  read  by  Dr.  Hebb;  an 
example  being  exhibited  in  the  room  by  Mr.  C.  L.  Curties. 

Mr.  Curties  mentioned  that  if  the  space  provided  by  this  cell  was  not 
sufficient  to  accommodate  a  large  specimen,  its  depth  could  be  easily 
increased  by  building  up  additional  thickness  with  pieces  of  linen  or 
blotting  paper. 

Mr.  Rousselet  said  he  noticed  that  there  was  no  provision  made  for 
regulating  the  thickness  of  the  him,  which  he  thought  was  a  matter  of 
importance.  It  was  necessary  first  to  know  how  thick  the  organism  was 
and  to  regulate  the  cell  accordingly,  otherwise  it  was  very  likely  to  be 
crushed.  "Rotifera  would  not  live  very  long  in  a  cell  of  this  kind,  as 

Dec.  16th,  1908  3  Q 


794  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

they  would  soon  die  of  starvation,  but  he  understood  that  the  cell  was 
primarily  intended  for  much  smaller  and  lower  organisms,  such  as  Bacteria, 
Rhizopods  and  flagellate  Infusoria,  for  which  purpose  it  would  no  doubt 
answer  very  well. 

The  Chairman  thought  that  if  the  cell  was  to  be  used  with  an  oil- 
immersion  objective,  a  means  of  varying  the  thickness  of  the  film  was 
not  of  much  importance. 

Mr.  Rousselet  considered  it  was  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  the 
animal. 

The  Chairman  said  one  great  advantage  of  this  cell  seemed  to  be 
that  it  was  quite  easy  to  change  from  a  dry  to  an  oil-immersion  objective 
without  disturbing  the  object,  as  the  water  was  supplied  from  below, 
and  contrasted  it  favourably  in  this  respect  with  the  Dallinger  life 
slide. 


Pi 


5rofessor  J.  A.  Thomson's  paper  on  "  Studeria,  a  Remarkable  New 
Genus  of  Alcyonarians,"  was  read  by  Dr.  Hebb,  and  was  illustrated  by 
three  diagrams,  and  a  specimen  shown  under  the  Microscope. 


Dr.  Marshall  D.  Ewell's  paper  on  "  The  Present  Status  of  Micro- 
metry," was  read  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Gordon. 

Mr.  A.  E.  Conrady  *  regarded  the  paper  as  of  great  importance,  but 
thought  that  the  absolute  values  of  the  spaces  of  a  stage-micrometer 
were  of  the  greatest  importance,  for  if  these  differed  from  the  nominal 
values,  all  measurements  of  focal  length  of  objective  and  of  magnifying 
power  by  the  usual  methods  were  vitiated.  He  thought  the  Society 
ought  to  take  steps  to  obtain  a  standardised  Stage-Micrometer,  and 
suggested  that  the  National  Physical  Laboratory  should  be  approached, 
as  he  had  recently  seen  in  the  last  volume  of  the  "Travaux  et  Memoires" 
of  the  International  Bureau  at  Breteuil  that  there  was  at  Teddington 
a  standard  metre  sub-divided  into  millimetres,  all  errors  of  which  were 
determined  to  a  few  tenths  of  a  micron. 

Mr.  F.  Shillington  Scales  said  Dr.  Ewell  had  done  them  a  distinct 
service  in  bringing  this  matter  before  them.  Most  workers  were  aware 
that  there  was  a  considerable  variation  in  the  rulings  of  Micrometers  in 
common  use,  and  were  accustomed  to  take  the  mean  of  a  series  of 
measurements,  but  it  had  taken  him  by  surprise  to  find  there  was  so 
much  variation  as  was  shown  by  this  paper.  It  was  also  new  to  him 
that  glass  micrometers  deteriorated  so  much  by  age,  and  this  was  rather 
a  disturbing  matter,  since  he  possessed  one  of  Grayson's  rulings  in  glass 
which  was  priced  at  four  guineas,  and  he  would  be  very  sorry  to  find 

:  With  reference  to  the  extremely  interesting  communications  of  the  Chairman 
re  work  projected  at  the  Standards  office,  Mr.  Conrady  begs  leave  to  suggest  that, 
even  if  this  calibration  were  carried  on  so  as  to  include  the  metre  as  well  as  the 
yard,  and  if  the  results  shoidd  disagree  with  Michelson's,  the  result  could  only 
affect  the  relation  of  the  yard  to  the  metre  and  possibly  also  the  value  to  be  as- 
signed to  wave-lengths  of  light.  The  metre  has  been  defined  by  international 
agreement  as  the  length  of  a  certain  Iridio-Platinum  bar  at  the  Bureau  Interna- 
tional, and  coidd  not  possibly  be  affected  by  this  work  at  Westminster. 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


79i 


that  it  was  deteriorating  after  a  few  years'  time.  He  indorsed  Mr. 
Conrady's  suggestion  that  the  Society  might  with  advantage  consider  the 
advisability  of  standardising  Micrometers. 

Mr.  F.  J.  Cheshire  said  that  he  had  carefully  read  Dr.  Ewell's  inter- 
esting paper,  but  scarcely  thought  that  the  results  had  been  given  in  the 
form  most  readily  appreciable  by  an  audience  of  microscopists  who  had 
not  already  read  the  paper.  He  had  therefore  taken  the  liberty  of  ex- 
tracting those  results  from  the  author's  paper  most  likely  to  be  of  interest 
to  English  microscopists,  and  had  calculated  from  them  certain  com- 
parative percentage  figures,  shown  in  tabular  form  on  the  blackboard. 


Xo.  of 
Micrometer 

in  Author's 
Paper. 

Maker. 

Percentage 

Difference  of  Lengths 

of  Longest  and 

Shortest  Divisions. 

Average  Percentage 
Difference  from 
the  Mean  Length 
of  the  Divisions. 

2 

Zeiss 

2-2 

1-1 

4 

Do. 

1-1 

0-35 

7 

Leitz 

0-32 

0-11 

8 

Powell  and  Lealand 

1-9 

0-66 

10 

Beck 

0-93 

0-25 

11 

Do. 

1-6 

0-50 

11a 

Do. 

1-6 

0-46 

16  (10  diva.) 
16  (1st  5  divs.) 
24 

Watson 

Do. 
Grayson 

4-8 
4-4 
0-63 

1-2 
1-3 
0-22 

The  speaker  then  went  on  to  point  out  that  the  important  question 
to  decide  as  a  preliminary  to  the  acceptance  of  Dr.  Ewell's  results  was, 
of  course,  the  order  of  reliability  of  those  results.  The  method  adopted 
and  the  figures  obtained  were  not,  unfortunately,  set  out  in  sufficient 
detail  to  allow  of  a  conclusive  answer  ;  but  as  regards  one  important 
matter,  it  appeared  from  the  fact  that  (1)  only  low  and  medium  powers 
had  been  employed,  and  (2)  that  "  the  mean  of  from  five  to  ten  readings 
of  each  end  of  each  space,"  that  no  attempt  had  been  made  to  utilise  the 
same  part  of  the  micrometer  screw,  as  far  as  possible,  for  the  different 
measurements.  The  author  would  thus  appear  to  have  taken  it  for 
granted  that  the  various  screws  employed  in  the  eye-piece  micrometers 
had  been  cut  and  mounted  so  as  to  realise  an  order  of  accuracy  greater 
than  that  claimed  for  the  results.  Let  us  see  what  this  means.  In  the 
first  micrometer  tested  (No.  1  Bausch  and  Lomb)  a  tenth  of  a  millimetre 
is  divided  into  about  4000  parts,  so  that  if  accuracy  is  claimed  for  the 
last  significant  figure  a  screw  with  a  maximum  error  of  40W  Pal't  °f  the 
space  measured  in  the  length  of  screw  used,  is  postulated.  Assuming 
even  that  the  correctness  only  of  the  third  significant  figure  is  claimed, 
this  works  out  as  equivalent  to  the  assumption  that  the  screw  employed 
had  for  the  length  used  an  error  not  exceeding  the  Tinnnnr  Pa**t  of  an 
inch,  the  accuracy  obtained  by  Rutherford  in  a  screw  which  took  three 
years  to  make,  and  the  most  exquisite  workmanship  !  It  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  information  on  such  a  vital  matter  has  not  been  given  by 
the  author.  Finally,  the  speaker  pointed  out  that,  although  the  author 
states  that  from  five  to  ten  readings  were  taken  of  the  position  of  each 

3  c   2 


796  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

line,  these  readings  had  apparently  in  no  single  case  been  given,  with  the 
result  that  the  calculation  of  the  mathematical  probable  error  of  the 
result  was  impossible.  Results  claiming-  such  a  high  order  of  accuracy 
should  have  been  accompanied  by  the  numerical  result  of  control  deter- 
minations. Nothing,  for  instance,  would  have  been  easier  than  to 
determine  independently,  and  place  side  by  side,  the  different  comparative 
measurements  for  five  given  spaces,  say,  obtained  by  using  different 
micrometers  and  different  powers. 

.Mr.  Ilopkinson  said  that  it  was  well  known  to  meteorologists  that 
thermometer  tubes  should  not  be  graduated  until  thev  had  been  made 
for  several  years,  otherwise  they  would  alter,  mercurial  thermometers 
requiring  in  course  of  time  a  minus  correction  owing  to  the  contraction 
of  the  glass,  and  he  thought  that  if  the  errors  in  some  of  the 
micrometers  tested  were  generally  in  the  same  direction  they  might  be 
due  to  this  cause. 

The  Chairman  thought  the  great  advantage  of  this  paper  was  not 
so   much   the  value  of  the  results   obtained,  as   that   the  writer   had 
brought   the   subject  forward  for   consideration.      There  were   many 
matters  which  made  it  doubtful   if  they  could   accept  the   results  as 
being  entirely  correct ;  also  it  seemed  hardly  fair  in  considering  the 
subject  to  take  as  micrometers  for  comparison  standard  rulings  which 
had  no  doubt  been  carefully  selected   from  a  large   number,  and  to 
compare  these  with  unselected  specimens  of  commercial  articles.     All 
who  were  accustomed  to  this  work  knew  how  very  difficult  it  was  to 
make  these  comparisons.     The  whole  difficulty  was  much  greater  than 
appeared  at  first  sight,  and   it  began  with   that   of  fixing   a  unit  of 
measurement,  the   standard   hitherto  adopted   being  based   upon   the 
accepted  standard  English  yard  or  French  metre.     He  had,  however, 
been    authorised   to   bring   before   their  notice  a  machine  which  was 
being  made  for   Major   Macmahon   and  Dr.  Tutton  on  behalf  of  the 
Standards  Department  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in  order  to  calibrate  in 
terms  of  the  wave-length  of  light  the  standard  yard  deposited  at  "West- 
minster.    For  this  machine  a  large  concrete  bed  had  been  sunk  in  the 
ground,  and  a  brick  foundation  raised  upon  it  to  carry  a  heavy  metal 
bed  on  which  carriages  would  run  containing  a  pair  of  very  high  power 
Microscopes.      For  the  purpose  of  making  an  index  they  had  obtained 
from  Mr.  Grayson,  of  Melbourne,  a   series  of  five  lines  ruled  T4oo  or 
an  inch  apart  on  speculum  metal,  and  some  plates  were  supplied  which 
had  a  number  of  such  sets  of  five  lines  ruled  at  intervals  upon  them.     A 
double  cobweb  micrometer  in  the  eyepiece  of  the  Microscope  could  be 
set  so  that  one  web  was  placed  on  either  side  of  the  central  of  the  five 
lines.     This  formed  the  settling  device  ;  the  Microscopes  could  then  be 
travelled  from  one  to  another  of  a  series  of  such  rulings,  and  the  method 
adopted  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  such  travel  did  not  depend  on  any 
screw  or  other  mechanical  method  of  measuring  distances  which  were 
always  open  to  sources  of  error.      It  depended  on  a  direct  measurement 
by  means  of  an  interferometer  of  the  distance  expressed  in  wave-lengths 
of  light.       One  interferometer  mirror  was   fixed   to  the  base  of  the 
machine  and  the  second  interferometer  mirror  on  the  travelling  Micro- 
scope itself.     By  an  ingenious  step-by-step  method'with  two  sets  of  plates 
and  two  travelling  Microscopes,  long  lengths  could  be  measured  without 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY.  797 

the  necessity  of  counting  all  the  wave-lengths,  and  when  the  standard 
yard  had  been  calibrated  it  would  be  interesting  to  compare  the  results 
obtained  with  those  now  accepted  as  correct.  When  the  determination 
of  the  standard  yard  was  completed  he  would  suggest  that  the  Royal 
Microscopical  Society  should  submit  a  micrometer  to  the  Board  of  Trade 
to  be  calibrated,  and  provided  that  the  temperature  could  be  maintained 
at  the  same  degree,  it  would  remove  all  sources  of  error,  and  would 
provide  them  with  a  reliable  standard  of  measurement.  If  the  state- 
ments in  the  paper  before  them  could  be  trusted,  the  value  of  their 
present  rulings  was  far  from  being  satisfactory,  but  if  they  had  a  stand- 
ard to  refer  to,  all  uncertainty  would  be  removed.  Mr.  Conrady's 
suggestion  that  the  Society  should  procure  such  a  standard  was  an 
excellent  one,  but  he  would  suggest  that  no  action  be  taken  until  they 
were  in  a  position  to  have  one  calibrated  in  terms  of  a  fixed  unit,  such 
as  a  wave-length  of  light.  Two  other  questions  had  been  raised  in  the 
course  of  this  discussion — one  as  to  the  deterioration  of  the  glass  by 
keeping,  and  this  was  a  point  of  importance  because  almost  all  glass  used 
for  fine  ruling  was  polished,  by  which  the  harder  outer  surface  was 
removed,  and  he  should  think  that  many  of  the  micrometers  made 
a  long  time  ago  would  be  found  to  have  been  affected  by  lapse  of  time. 
The  other  point  was  as  to  the  shrinkage  of  glass  by  age,  he  thought  there 
was  very  little  doubt  that  such  did  take  place,  and  as  micrometers  made 
thirty  years  ago  were  not  made  of  specially  aged  glass,  he  thought  it  pro- 
bable that  some  of  them  might  have  suffered  from  this  cause.  Mr. 
Grayson's  rulings  were  mounted  in  realgar,  which  would  certainly  pro- 
tect the  surface  from  deterioration  so  long  as  the  realgar  did  not 
crystallise. 

Mr.  J.  W.  Gordon  did  not  think  he  was  in  a  position  to  give  any 
general  answer  to  the  questions  raised,  and  he  should  shrink  from  doing 
so  in  the  name  of  Dr.  Ewell,  from  whom  he  held  no  authority  to  speak  on 
his  behalf.  Referring  to  the  question  asked  by  Mr.  Hopkinson  whether 
the  error  was  all  in  oue  direction  or  not,  as  in  the  case  of  thermometer 
tubes,  he  observed  that  this  was  a  point  not  covered  by  Dr.  Ewell's 
paper.  The  writer  had  only  in  a  few  cases  gone  into  the  question  of 
total  error,  his  examination  being  for  the  most  part  limited  to  the  uni- 
formity of  the  divisions,  whether  right  or  wrong,  so  that  total  error  did 
enter  into  his  purview.  He  (Mr.  Gordon)  had  been  greatly  interested 
in  the  paper  and  the  questions  it  had  raised,  and  especially  so  by  the 
suggestion  of  Mr.  Conrady,  as  it  seemed  a  very  desirable  thing  that  the 
Society  should  possess  a  standard  micrometer  for  reference  and  com- 
parison. He  thought  anything  in  the  way  of  appreciation  of  the  paper 
would  perhaps  be  out  of  place  as  coining  from  him  as  the  reader  of 
the  paper  on  behalf  of  Dr.  Ewell  ;  he  would  therefore  content  himself  by 
making  those  few  observations. 


The  Secretary  read  a  requisition,  signed  by  eleven  Fellows  of  the 
Society  for  a  Special  Meeting  of  the  Society  to  be  called  for  the  purpose 
of  altering  the  By-laws  in  such  a  way  as  to  remove  the  present  prohibi- 
tion of  the  attendance  of  AYomen  at  the  Meetings  of  the  Society.  He 
gave  notice  that  part  of  the  next  Ordinary  Meeting  would  be  made  special 
for  the  consideration  of  this  proposal. 


798  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

The  Chairman  reminded  the  Fellows  that  tit  their  last  meeting  a 
suggestion  was  received  from  Mr.  Baird  as  to  the  desirability  of  printing 
a  <  Jatalogue  of  the  Society's  books  and  instruments,  and  offering  a  dona- 
tion of  three  guineas  towards  the  cost.  Since  then  they  had  received 
promise  of  a  further  donation  of  two  guineas  from  Colonel  Tupman  in 
furtherance  of  the  same  object ;  the  Council  would  be  very  pleased  to 
receive  further  contributions  so  as  to  help  the  matter  to  a  more  rapid 
conclusion. 

It  was  announced  that  at  the  next  Ordinary  Meeting  of  the  Society 
(on  December  16th),  nominations  for  Council  and  Officers  for  the 
ensuing  year  would  be  made,  and  Auditors  of  the  Society's  Accounts 
would  be  appointed. 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited: — 

The  Society  : — SHde  of  "  Red  Snow,"  presented  by  the  Pearv  Arctic 
Club. 

Mr.  C.  L.  Curties  :— Mr.  Merlin's  New  Growing  Cell. 

Dr.  R.  G.  Hebb  : — Slide  of  Spicules  from  Studeria  and  8  diagrams  in 
illustration  of  Professor  Thomson's  paper. 

Mr.  J.  I.  Pigg  : — Lecanimn  hemisplmricum. 

Mr.  C.  F.  Rousselet : — Exhibition  of  the  following  mounted  specimens 
of  Pond  life — Bursaria  truncatdla ;  Did/mum  nasutum ;  Epixtylis 
galea;  E.  plicatilis  ;  Noctiluca  miliar  is ;  Trichodina  pediculus ; 
Vol  vox  glooator ;  Hydra  fusca ;  Hydra  viridis,  with  eggs  and 
testes  ;  Medusa  of  Marine  Hydroid  ;  Fresh-water  Medusa  ;  Mmrisia 
Lyonsi  from  Lake  Qurun,  in  Egypt ;  Hydroid  polyp  of  ditto  ; 
Hydroid  polyp  of  Limnocodium  Sotverbyi ;  New  Fresh-water 
Medusa  from  Hunyani  River,  Rhodesia. 


New  Fellows  : — Professor  John  Wesley  Judd  was  elected  an  Hon- 
orary Fellow  and  the  following  were  elected  Ordinary  Fellows  :  Messrs. 
Alfred  Dillon  Bell,  James  F.  Carruthers  Bell,  John  Gibson  Connell, 
Albert  George  Parrott,  James  Alexander  Robertson. 


799 


INDEX. 


A. 


Abe,  N.,  Cultivation  of  Gonococci,  105 
Abnormalities,  Teleostean,  33 
Abrami,  P.,  Staining  Granular  Red  Cor- 
puscles, 520 
Acanthias  vulgaris,  Gestation,  444 
Acanthodoris  pllosa,  Studying   the    Eggs, 

653 
Aeanthoglossus,  New,  166 
Acarid  from  Omentum  of  Negro,  46 
Acentropus  niveus,  Structure  and  Habits, 

;»82 

Achlya,  New  Species,  350 

Aclilya  polyandra,  Development,  742 

Acborion  and  Oospora,  Systematic  Posi- 
tion, 479 

Acineta  gelatinosa,  Budding,  723 

Acinetaria,  Notes,  57 

Acorus  calamus,  Origin  and  Fruit-Develop- 
ment, 333 

Acrasiese,  Cultural  Experiments,  S5 

Actinians,  Britisb,  460 

Acriuiaria,  Pelagic  Larva?,  184 

Actinosphperium,  Eucystation  at  Different 
Temperatures,  597 

Adams,  J.,  Irish  Aluae,  740 

Adenoid  Tissue  of  Spleen,  etc.,  Studying, 
112 

Adlerz,  G.,  Solitary  Wasps,  43 

Agave  attenuata,  Cytology  of  Pollen- 
Mother-Cells,  601 

Aglaozoiiia  melanoidea,  75 

Agrionidse.  Australian,  Dimorphism,  175 

Aida,  T.,  Japanese  Appendiculariaus,  572 

Aime',  P.,  Interstitial  Cells  in  the  Ovary 
of  Mammals,  563 

—  Studying  the  Interstitial  Cells  of  the 

Ovary;  113 
Air-Sacs  of  Pigeon,  310 
Albinism   and   Melanism.   Production   in 

Frogs,  32 
Albumen  of  Caprificus,  464 
Alcyonaria,     Antipatharia     and     Madre- 

poraria  from  the  North  Side  of  the  Bay 

of  Biscay,  185 
Alcyonarian  and  Alga,  Association,  327 

—  Remarkable,   Sluderia  mirabilis,   g.  et 


sp.  u.,  675 


Alcyonarians,  New  Types,  327 

Aleppo  Boil  and  Kala-Azar,  Cultivating 

the  Parasites,  508 
Aleurone  Grains,  Formation,  334 

of  Grasses,  191 

Alga  and  Alcyonarian,  Association,  327 
Alga?,  Calcareous,  474 
Criticisms,  622 

—  Cultivation,  507 

—  Fixation  of  Nitrogen,  473 

—  French,    Collected    in    the   English 

Channel,  203 

—  Fresh-Water,  North  American,  618 
of  Java,  739 

of  the  West  Riding,  618 

Spanish,  618 

Swarm-spores.  204 

—  from  Hudson's  Bay,  710 

—  Influence   of  External   Conditions   on 

Asexual  Reproduction,  72 

—  Irish,  740 

—  Japanese,  474 

Illustrations  of,  741 

of  the  Channel  Islands,  345 

—  Marine  of  Lambay,  203 

—  New  Green,  73 

—  Nomenclature,  473 

—  North  American,  738 

—  Oceanic,  474 
Studies,  741 

—  of  Barbailoes,  74o 

—  of  Danzig  Bay,  345 

—  of  Dutch  West  Indies,  741 

—  of  Germany,  622 

—  of  Mark  Brandenburg,  202 

—  of  Middle  Europe,  474 

—  of  Swedish  West  Coast,  522 

—  of  the  '  Valdivia  '  Expedition,  75 

—  Regeneration,  72 

—  Some  Critical  Green,  206 

—  Staining,  201 

—  See  Contents,  xxv 
Algal  Blight  on  Sea,  475 

—  Flora  of  Nordhausen,  Contributions  to, 

203 

—  Periodicity,  622 

—  Vegetation  of  Ponds,  73 

Alilaire,  E.,  Parasites  of  Drosophila  con- 
fu*a,  461 


800 


INDEX. 


Alimentary   Canal,    Development  during 
Metamorphosis,  450 

in  Trout.  25 

of  Schizopods,  585 

Alizarin,  a  Vital  and  Specific   Stain   for 

Nervous  Tissue,  77S 
Allen,  B.  M.,  Origin  of  Sex-cells  in  Eana 

pipiens,  5G2 
Alligator,  American,  442 
Alloys,  Antimony-Lead,  120 

—  Biliary,  of  Aluminium,  200 
of  Calcium,  261 

of  Cobalt,  786 

of  Copper,  260 

of  Nickel,  260 

—  Cobalt-Arsenic,  524 

—  Cobalt-Sulphur,  660 

—  Copper-Aluminium,  7S2 

—  Copper-Bismuth,  120 

—  Copper-Tin,  660 

—  Copper-Zinc,  Heat  Treatment,  262 

—  Hardness  of  Constituents,  782 

—  Iron-Carbon,  Specific  Heat,  525 

—  Meteoric    and    Artificial    Nickel-Iron, 

Thermomagnetic  Analysis,  394 

—  Nickel-bismuth,  522 

—  of  Cobalt  and  Copper,  125 

—  of  Gold  and  Tellurium,  394 

—  of  Iron,  Densities  and  Specific  Heats  of 

some,  119 

—  of  Iron  with  Chromium,  122 

—  of  Iron  with  Molybdenum,  119 

—  of  Potassium  with  other  Metals,  122 

—  of  Silver,  522 

—  of  Zinc,  Copper  and  Nickel,  786 

—  Planimetric  Analysis,  661 

—  Platinum-Thallium,  304 

—  Silicon- Aluminium,  785 

—  Tellurium-Tin,  123 

—  Vanadium-Iron,  785 

—  Zinc-Cadmium,  120 
Alumina  for  Polishing,  784 
Aluminium,  Binary  Alloys,  260 
Alveolina  boscii,  Recent  Foraminifer,  Di- 
morphism, 151,  266 

Amanita  csesarea,  New  Localities,  215 
— junguillea,  Case  of  Poisoning,  748 

—  phalloides,  Poisoning  due  to,  353 
Amber,  Flies  in,  714 

Ameiurus.  Epibranchial  Placodes,  443 

Amitosis  in  Pigeon's  Egg,  161 

Amniota,  Studies  on  Cloaca  and  Phallus. 

309 
Amoeba  proteus,  Minute  Structure,  329 
Amoeba,  Schizogony,  722 
Amoebocytes  of  Spongillids,  185 
Amphibia,  Australian,  Anatomy,  708 
Amphibians,  Origin  of  Gonocytes,  305 
Amphioxus,     Epidermal    Sensory    Cells, 
444 

—  Sensory  Reactions,  571 
Amphiura  squamata,  Luminosity,  52 


Ampullaria     depressa,    Development    of 

Lung,  40 
Amulets,  Prehistoric,  Fish   Vertebrae  as, 

34 
Anaerobes,  Aerobic  Cultivation,  509 

—  Culture,  107 

—  Intestinal,    Essential    and    Potential, 

Intestinal  Broth  for  Isolation,  107 

—  Method  of  Isolating,  252 

—  Sterilised   Bacterial   Media   for  Culti- 

vation, 109 
Anasa  tristis,  Accessory  Chromosome,  450 

and  Anax  Junius,  Chromosomes,  579 

Chromosomes   in    Spermatogenesis, 

42 
Anatomical    Specimens,    Preserving    the 

Colour,  391 
Anatomy   and   Histology   of  Macrocystis 
and  Laminaria,  621 

—  of  Seed  Plants.     See  Contents,  xxi 
Anax  Junius  and  Anasa  tristis,  Chromo- 
somes, 579 

Andersen,  K.,  Geographical  Races  of 
Lesser  Horse-shoe  Bat,  30 

Anderson,  A.  R.  S.,  New  Echinoid  from 
Indian  Ocean,  182 

Andre,  E.,  Fixation  and  Preparation  of 
Nematohelminthes,  110 

Andrewes,  F.  W.,  Staphylococci  Patho- 
genic to  Man,  87 

Andrews,  C.  W.,  Frozeuglodon  atrox,  568 

Andrews,  E.  A.,  Cambarus  montezumm, 
454 

—  Earthworms  as  Planters  of  Trees,  321 

—  Intercellular    Connections    in     Fowl's 

Egg,  26 

Andrews,  F.  M.,  Abnormal  Archegonium 
in  a  Hepatic,  473 

Angiosperms,  Polar  Conjugation,  464 

Anikiew,  A.,  Early  Stages  in  Develop- 
ment of  White  Mouse.  561 

Animals,  iEsthetic  Aspect,  164 

—  Marine,  Bipolarity,  313 
Perforations,  572 

—  Mutation-Phenomena,  167 

—  Northern,  313 

Annandale,  N.,  Bengal  Polyzoa,  594 

—  New     Fresh  -  water     Sponges     from 

Calcutta,  1S6 

—  New  Indian  Fresh-water  Sponges,  596 

—  Siesta  of  Spongilla  in  Topics,  596 
Annealing-Carbon  in  Cast  Iron,  124 

—  of  Copper,  124 

—  Sterling  Silver,  123 
Annual  Address,  President's,  271 
Annulata.    See  Contents,  xvi 
Anomura  and  Brachyura  from  the  North 

Pacific,  176 
Anopheles   maculipennis,  Larva,  Structure 

and  Behaviour,  174 
Anthers,   Influence   of    Nectaries  on   the 

Opening,  67 
Anthocerotacea?,  Javanese,  Study,  471 


INDEX. 


80 


Anthony,   E.,   Supplementary   Siphon  in 

Lutrariu  eUiptica,  40 
Anthraenoses,  Study,  631 
Antimonides  of  Iron  and  Cadmium,  660 
Antimony-Lead  Alloys,  120 
Antipatharia,  Alcyonaria  and   Madrepor- 

aria  from  the  North  Side  of  the  Bay 

of  Biscay,  185 

—  Spines,  327 

Antipatharian,  Large,  from  Faero  Islands, 

595 
Antiphagins  and  Opsonins     in   Pneumo- 

coccic  Infection,  757 
Antrophyum,  Genus,  6S 
Ants,    Histolysis    of  Wing-Muscles  after 
Nuptial* Flight,  316 

—  How  they  Find  their  Nest,  42 

—  Senses,  172 

—  Tunisian,  43 

—  Wanderer,  Nests,  172 

Anura,  Complementary  Spiracles,  162 

—  Determining  Factors  in  Metamorphosis, 

24,  307 
Anuran  Development,  Notes,  443 
Apantehs  glomerulus,  Life-History,  41 
Aphid,  Semi-Aquatic,  317 
Aphids,  Germ-Cells  and  Embryology,  580 
Aplopus   mayeri,  Accessory  Chromosome, 

318,  449 
Apogamy  and  Apospory,  68 

—  in  Nephrodium,  Investigation,  510 
Apospory  and  Apogamy,  68 

—  and  Sexuality  in  Mosses,  68 
Apothecia,  Lichen,  Development,  84 
Appendicularians,  Japanese,  572 
Apterygota,  Excretion,  45 

—  New  Order,  175 
Arachnida.     See  Contents,  xiv 

Arber,  E.  A.  N.,  Anatomy  of  Sigillaria, 

468 
Arehegonium,   Abnormal,   in   a   Hepatic, 

473 
Archerina,  Golenkinia  and  Botryococcus, 

598 
Arcyria    and    Trichia,    Development     of 

Sporangia,  753 
Ardeidae,    Post-Embryonic  Development, 

162 
Argulidse,  Notes  on  Development,  177 
Ariusfissus,  Buccal  Incubation,  32 
Arubiick-Christie-Linde,  A.,  Structure  of 

Soricidse,  309 
Arnell,  H.  W.,  Ceplialozia  in  Scandinavia, 

615 
Arnold,  J.  O.,  Factors  of  Safety  in  Marine 

Engineering,  <>til 
Arnould,  I.,  Colour  Reactions  in  Russula 

and  Lactarius,  217 
Arsenic  and  Bismuth,  Tellurides,  661 
Artefacts.  Fixation  Methxls  ami  Elimin- 
ation, 253 
Arthropoda  of  British  Coal  Measures,  4 1 

—  See  Contents,  xiii 


Artoro,  C,  Method  of  Fixing  the  Eggs  of 

Ascaris  megnlocephalu,  774 
Arwidsson,  I.,  Studies  on  Maldanidse,  321 
Ascaris,     Demonstrating     the     Nervous 

System,  518 
Ascaris  megalocephala,  Method  of  Fixing, 
774 

—  Nervous  System,  322 
Ascidians,  Califomian,  709 

—  Gill-Slit  Formation,  34 

—  of  Califomian  Coast,  34 

—  Larval,  Development  of  Notochord,  573 
Ascomycetes,  Cytology,  744 

—  Sexuality,  624,  743 

and  Development,  78 

Asellus,  Regeneration,  454 

Asexual    Multiplication    in    Blasia    and 

Riella,  338 
Aspergillus,  Conidial  Formation,  744 
Aspergillus  Fischeri,   Fruit  Development, 
351 

—  herbariorum,  Morphology,  212 
Assheton,    R.,     Development     of     Gym- 

narchus  niloticus,  440 

—  New  Species  of  Dolicboglossus,  720 

—  Teleostean  Eggs  and  Larvae  from  the 

Gambia,  443 
Asterina  and  Meliola,  Haustoria,  624 
Astigmatism      of      Doubly      Refracting 

Prisms,  Correction,  244 
Athias,   M.,   Trematode    in    Hibernating 

Gland  of  Hedgehog,  592 
Atkinson,    G.    F.,   Identity   of  Polyporu* 

applanatns     of      Europe     and     North 

America,  746 
Atlas  of  Absorption  Spectra,  104 
Aucella,  Genus,  181 
Audiget,   I.,   Development  of  Kidney  in 

Teleosteans,  702 
Auditory     Apparatus,     Examining     the 

Neuro-Epithelium,  514 
Aurivillius,  C,  Forms  of  the  Female   of 

Papilio  durdann*,  43 
Austenite,  394 
Autolysis  of  Mitoses,  Demonstrating.  515 

—  of  Mitosis,  (Sol 
Autostylic  and  Protostylic,  569 
Autotomy   and   Regeneration  in  Spiders, 

584 

—  in  Decapods,  47 

—  in  Grapsus,  47 

—  in  Ortboptera,  45 

Avebury,  The  Right  Hon.  Lord.  The 
President's  Address :  On  Seeds,  with 
Special  Reference  to  British  Plants, 
273 

Avrainvillea  and  Ilalimeda,  205 

—  West  Indian  Species,  620 
Awerinzew,     S.,     Minute     Structure     of 

Amceha  proteus,  .t - '■ ' 
Axolotls,  Experiments,  25 
Avers,  H.,  Ventricular  Fibre  of  Brain  of 

Myxinoids,  444 


802 


INDEX. 


B. 


Babes,  V.,    Chain-Formation   by    Staphy- 
lococcus aureus,  758 

—  Diphtheroid  Bacillus  found  in  Cardiac 

Vegetations,  63S 
Baccarini,   P.,    Funuri    Parasitic    on    tbe 

Vine  Phylloxera,  483 
Bachmann,  H.,  Phytoplankton  of  Scotch 

and  Swiss  Lakes,  477 
Bacillariaj,  Origin,  477 
Bacilli,    Acid-Fast,    Differential    Staiuing 

Method,  776 
Mammitis  Produced  by,  89 

—  Capsulated,    Cultural     Differentiation, 

226 

—  Lactic- Acid  and  Cancer  of  the  Stomach, 

757 

—  of  Leprosy  and  Tubercle,  Silver  Method 

for  Differentiating,  776 

—  Tubercle.  Human,    Morphology   of  in 

Saline  Media,  86 
Bacillus  anthracis,  Flagella  and  Capsule, 
223 

—  aterrinus  tschitensis,  224 

—  butyricus  and  Bacillus    vulgaris,  Sym- 

biosis, 489 
Bacillus     Causing     an      Exanthematous 

Fever,  489 
Bacillus     coli     and      Bacillus     fy})hosus, 
Separation,  51 19 

Detection  in  Drinking-Water,  650 

Bacillus,  Diphtheroid  and  a  Streptothrix, 

Blue  Pigment  Produced  by  both,  362 
Bacillus  endothrix,  360 

—  fcedans  and  Miscured  Ham.  63S 

—  fusiform  is  Cultivated  in  Symbiosis.  488 
Bacillus  intermediate  to  Bacillus  typhosus 

and  Bacillus  paratyphosus  A.,  635 
Bacillus  metatyphosus,  754 
Bacillus,  New,  of  Dysentery,  363 

—  of  Bang,  754 

—  Pathogenic  to  Cats,  758 

—  Plague,  in  the  Bed  Bug,  4 SO 
Bacillus  pneumonias  tigris,  754 

—  rheumaticus,  Sporulatiou,  222 

—  subtilis  in  Blood  and  Tissues,  638 
Bacillus.  Tubercle,  Staining,  255 
Bacillus  typhosus  and  Bacillus  coli,  Culti- 
vating, 650 

and  Bacillus  coli.  Separation,  509 

Colour  Reaction  for  the  Recognition , 

650 
Enrichment  Method   for  Detecting, 

10S 
Simplified    Method    for    Detecting, 

108 

—  virgula,  Toxin,  489 

—  vulgaris  and    Bacillus   butyricus,  Sym- 

biosis, 489 

—  zopfii,  Tropism,  89 

Bacteria,  Anaerobic  and  Gall-Stones,  90 
Cultivation,  247 


Bacteria  and  Yeasts,  Action  of  Absolute 
Alcohol  on,  :;62 

—  as  Agents  in  the  Oxidation  of  Amor- 

phous Carbon,  489 

—  Coli  Group,  223 

—  Developmental  Cycle,  637 

—  Influence  on  the  Culture  of  Myxomv- 

cetes,  221 

—  Iron,  Three,  86 

—  Jelly-forming,  636 

—  Luminous,  128 

—  New   Method   of    Showing   by    Dark- 

ground  Illumination,  131 
— ■  Nitrogen-fixing,  225 

—  Nutritive  Value  of  Certain   Peptones 

for  Different  Species,  513 

—  Purple,  224 

—  Soil,  Influence  of  the  Composition  of 

the  Medium  on  the  Solvent  Action, 
772 

—  Velocity    of    Progression    and    Mov<  - 

ment  Curves,  363 
Bacterial    Colonies,    Superficial,   Method 
for  Photographing,  392 

—  Disease  of  Green  Malt,  363 

—  Origin  of  Plant  Tumour,  223 
Bacteriology  of  Tropical   Abscess  of    the 

Liver,  222 
Bacterium  cystines,  48S 

—  indicum,  129 

Bacterium  Isolated  from  Nervous  Centres 

of  Babid  Animals,  758 
Bacterium  mariense,  225 
Bactridium      lipolyticum,     Fat-Splitting 

Bacterium,  359 
Bagnall,  R.  S.,   New   Terrestrial   Isopod, 

455,  5S7 
Bainier,  G.,  Mycology  from  the  Ecole  de 
Pharmacie,  83 

—  Mycotheca  of  the  School  of  Pharmacy  of 

Paris  XXL,  210,  481 ;  XXVIII..  749 
Bajkow,  A.,  Crystallisation  and  Structure 

of  Steel,  122 
Balance  Sheet,  133,  134 
Ballowitz,  E.,    Headless  Spermatozoa  of 

Cirripeds,  717 

—  Spermatozoa  of  Seals,  701 
Bally,  W.,  Structure  of  Diatoms.  475 
Balsz,  H.  H,  Studying  the  Sexual  Organs 

of  Cestoda,  777 

Bambeke,  C.  V.,  Development  of  Verte- 
brate Nerve-Cord,  562 

Bamboos,  Spotting,  625 

Bancroft,  T.  L.,  Note  on  Filaria  immitis, 
718 

Banks,  N.,  Studies  in  Mites,  175 

Bannister,  C.  O.,  Case-hardening  of  Mild 
Steel,  259 

Barbieri,  C,  Larval  Stages  of  Cyclostoma 
elegans,  171 

Barb'ula,  Propngula  of  the  Genus,  614 

Barlow,  B.,  Isolating  the  Nodule  Organ- 
isms of  the  Legumiuosse,  252 


INDEX. 


803 


Barnacles,  New.  321 

—  of  the  Uiiited  (States  National  Museum, 

178 

—  Scapelliform,  Classification,  71(3 
Barnard,  J.  E.,  129 

—  Electric   Mercury    Vapour    Lamp    for 

Microscopic  Illumination,  95,  265 

—  Luminous  Bacteria,  128 

—  Mercury    Vapour    Lamp     for     Micro- 

scopical Work,  767 

—  Old  Photomiorographic  Apparatus  de- 

signed by  Dr.  Maddox  for  Dr.  Lionel 
S.  Beale,  399 
Baruhart,  J.  H.,  Deceased  North  American 

Pteridologists,  608 
Bartels,  P.,  Syringe  for  the  Injection   of 

Lymph-Vessels,  255 
Bartoszewicz,    8.,    Tetradiplococcus    Fili- 

formans  Lodzensis,  756 
Bartsch,  P.,  New  Parasitic  Gastropod,  170 
Basecke,    P.,    Physiological    Sheaths    in 

Ferns,  336 
Basidiobolus  ranarum,  Cell  and  Nuclear 

Division,  190 
Basidiomycetes,  480 

Basile,  C,  Influence  of  Lecithin  on  Deter- 
mination of  Sex,  563 
Bastow,  R.  A.,  New   Australian   Chiton, 

172 
Bat,     Lesser     Horse-shoe,     Geographical 

Races,  30 
Bataille,  F.,   Monographs  of  the   Higher 

Fungi,  746 
Bateman,  H.  E.,   Have  Trypanosomes  an 

Ultra-Microscopical  Stage,  723 
Bather,  F.  A.,  Natliorst's  Use  of  Collodion 

Imprints  in  the  Study  of  Fossil  Plants, 

117 

—  New  Antarctic  Criuoid,  721 
Batters,  E.  A.  L..  Marine  Ale;a3  of  Lain  bay, 

203 
Bauer,  O.,  Metallography  of  Cast  Iron.  122 
Baxter,  W.  E.,  271 

—  Donation  of  Old  Microscope  by  Shuttle- 

worth,  365 
Beauchamp,  P.  de.  New  French  Rotifers, 
325 

—  Stomachal  Excretion  in  Rotifera,  325 
Beauverie,    J.,    Format  on    of    Aleurone 

Giains,  334 
Bechstein's  Photometer,  with  Proportional 

Graduation     and     Decimally  -  divided 

Scale,  98 
Beck,  — .,  Micrococcus  esterificans,  224 
Beck,  C,  796 

—  Cantor     Lectures :     Theory     of     the 

Microscope,  245 

—  New  Method  of  Showing  Bacteria  by 

Dark-ground  Illumination,  131 
Beck's    "London"     Microscope,     Regenl 
Model,  227 

—  New  Illuminator  for  High-power  Dark- 
ground  Illumination,  238 


Beckman,  P.,  Dispersal  of  Lichens,  220 
Bedot,  M.,  Madreporaria  from  Amboina, 

54 
Beebe,  C.  W.,  Seasonal  Change  in  Birds, 

446 
Bees,  Humble,  Psychobiology,  42 

—  Solitary,  Copulatory  Organs.  576 
Mouth-parts,  576 

Beetles,  Cave,  450 

—  Wood-boring,  Fungus-Culture,  218 
Beguinot,  A.,  Italian  Characeas,  735 
Beijerinck,  M.  \V\,  Laclic   Fermentation 

in  Milk,  636,  755 
Beilby,  G.  T.,  Hard  and  Soft   States   in 

Ductile  Metals,  119 
Bell,   L.,   Note  on   Some   Meteorological 

Uses  of  the  Polariscope,  374 
Bellerby,    W.,    Sphagnum    bavaricum    in 

Yorkshire,  612 
Belli,  S.,  New  Boletus,  80 
Bellion,    — .,    Sugar-reducing    Power    in 

Helix  pomatia,  314 
Belloc,   G.,   Occluded   Gases   in    Special 
Nickel  Steel,  661 

in  Steel,  124 

Bendl,  W.  E.,  New  Species  of  Ehyncho- 

demus,  457 
Benedicks,  C,  Solubility  of   Graphite  in 

Iron,  522 
Beuedict,  R.  C,  Genus  Antrophyum,  68 

—  OphioglossacesB  of  the  United   States, 

728 

—  Some  Fern  Hybrids  in  North  America, 

728 
Bengough,   G.    D.,    Heat    Treatment    of 

Copper-Zinc  Alloys.  262 
Bengough,    F.    D.,     Heat-Treatment     of 

Muntz  Metal,  784 
Benham.  W.  B.,  New  Zealand  Ctenophores, 
596 

Leeches,  590 

Benson,    M.,    Lvcopod   with   a    Seed-like 
Structure,  729 

—  New  PalaBOZoic  Lycopod,  195 
Bercegol,  R.  de,  Colour-Screens  for  Colour- 
Photography,  503 

Berg,  L.  S..  Fishes  of  Lake  Baikal,  32 
Bergoo,    P.,   Processes  of  Division,  Cell- 

Rejuveuation  and  Sporulation  in   Bid- 

dulphia,  205 
Berlese,  A.,  A  Treatise  on  Insects,  713 
Berlese's  Treatise  on  Insects,  315 
Bernard,   O..   Centripetal    Wood    in    the 
Coniferse,  61 

—  Fresh- Water  Algae  of  Java,  739 
Bernilt,  W.,  Boring  Cirripedia,  178 
Bernhard,  G.  Viviparity  in  Kphemeridaa, 

44 
Bernstein,    E.    P.,    A    Simple  Method    of 

Sterilising  Blood  for  Cultural  Purposes, 

hi., 
Berry,  C.  S..  Imitative  Tendency  of  Rats 

and  of  Gats,  567 


804 


INDEX. 


Bertkau,F.,  Secretion  of  Mammary  Glands, 

27 
Bertram!,  P.,  Leaf-Trace  in  Gyropteris  ami 

Tubicaulis,  726 
Berwerth,  F.,  Steel  and  Meteoric  Iron,  258 
Bessil.  J..  French  Alga?  Collected  in  the 

English  Channel,  203 
Betegh,L.  v.,  Differential  Staining  Method 

for  Acid-fast  Bacilli,  776 
Bezzi,  M  ,  Blood-sucking  Flies;  173 
Bibliography,  Botany,  67,  76,  77,  84,  210, 
218,  219,  221,  222,  335,  344,  350,  357, 
358,  477,  484,  485,  623,  631,  632,  634, 
635,  742,  751-3 

—  Metallography,  263,  264,  395,  787 

—  Microscopy,  101, 105, 113,  244,  372,  384, 

387,  388,  391,  392,  500,  513,  646,  648, 
650,  653,  780 
Bidduljihia,    Division,   Cell-Rejuvenation 

and  Sporulation  Processes,  205 
Biddulphia  mobiliensis,  158,  267 
Bielschowsky's  Method  for  Demonstrating 

Connective-Tissue  Fibres,  659 
Biers,  P.  M.,  Mushroom  Culture,  747 
Bigelow,     H.     B.,     Nuclear     Cycle     of 

Gonionemus  mu/rbachii,  328 
Billard,  A.,  Hydroids  of  Madagascar  and 
South-east  Afri*  a,  183 

—  New  Varieties  of  Hydroids,  459 
Binfonl,   R.,  Development  of  Lygotlium, 

194 
Binocular  Instruments,  93 
Bionomics  and  Life-History  of  Lomechusa, 

317 
Bipolarity  of  Marine  Animals,  313 
Birds  and  Mammals,  Growth  of  Testes,  161 
Sense  of  Touch,  29 

—  Cestodes  of,  718 

—  Food, 169 

—  Penis,  309 

—  Sarcoptids  in  Wing- Bones,  46 

—  Seasonal  Change,  446 

Bismuth  and  Arsenic,  Tellurides,  661 

Bismuth-Arsenic  and  Platinum-Arsenic, 
Binary  Systems,  524 

Bivalves,  Relation  between  Body  and 
Shell,  449 

Blaizot,  L.,  Gestation  in  Acanthias 
vulgaris,  444 

Blasia  and  Itiella,  Asexual  Multiplication 
338 

Blastodinium,  722 

Blastulidium  pzedophtorum,  Affinities,  187 

Blattidae,  Mouth-Parts,  579 

Bleaching  Technique,  515 

Blepharoplast  and  Centrosome  of  Mar- 
chantia  polymorpha,  332 

Lies,  E.  J.,  Notes  on  Anuran  Develop- 
ment, 443 

Bluod  for  Cultural  Purposes,  Simple 
Method  of  Sterilising,  106 

—  Renal  Infection  by  Microbe  Originating 

from  the.  90 


Blood-Cells,  Red,  in  Malaria.  392 

—  Corpuscles,  Red,  Formation  in  Placenta 

of  Galeopithecus,  161 
Blood-Films,  Simple  Method  of  Staining, 

116 
Blood-sucking  Flies.  173 
Blow-holes  in  Steel  Ingots,  121 
Blue,  Borrel's,  115 
Blumenthal,   R.,   Function   of  Spleen   in 

Fishes,  570 
Bocut,  L.,  Pigment  of  Oscillatoria  cortiana, 

348 
Bodecker,  C.  F.,  Celloidin,  Decalcification 

and  Desilication,  774 
Boeke,   J.,   Gastrulation   in    Teleosteans, 

162 
Bogolepow,     M.,      Growth     of      Tendra 

zostericola,  51 
Bolder,  R.,  Selective  Colouring,  660 
Bonn,  G.,  Habits  of  Starfish,  594 
Boiler,  Old,  Test  of  Plates  from,  782 
Boletus,  New,  80 
Bone,     Fossil     and     Recent     Reptilian, 

Demonstrating   Microscopic    Structure, 

254 
Bonnevie,     K..     Polyspermy     in     Mem- 

branipora,  593 
Bonnier,    G.,    Comparison   between  Mus- 
cinese    and     Vascular     Cryptogams. 
201 

—  Origin  of  Yeasts,  352 

Boodle,  L.  A.,  Production  of  Dwarf  Male 

Prothalli  in  Sporangia  of  Todea,  606 
Book -Worms,  Destruction,  714 
Bordas,  L.,  Cutaneous  Glands  of  Wasps, 
450 

—  Odoriferous  Gland  of  Cockroach,  451 

—  So-called  Malpighian   Tubes   in   Scor- 

pions, 319 
Borgesen,   F.,  Caulerpas  of   the   Danish 
West  Indies,  203 

—  Dasycladaceae    of    the    Dani-.h    West, 

Indies,  347 

—  West  Indian  Species   of  Avrainvillea, 

620 

Borley,  J.  O.,  Poison  Apparatus  of  Weever, 
169 

Bornemann,  K.,  Melting-Point  Diagram 
of  Nickel-Sulphur  Compounds,  258 

Borrel's  Blue,  115 

Botel  Una,  598 

Bothrodendron,  Origiu  of  Ulodendron 
Impressions,  726 

Botryococcus,  Archerina  and  Golenkinia, 
598 

Botrytis,  Notes  on  the  Parasitism,  744 

Bottini,  A.,  Italian  Mosses,  732 

Bottle,  Dust-excluding,  Histological  Re- 
agent, 117 

Bottomley,  W.  B.,  Seed  and  Soil  Inocu- 
lation for  Leguminous  Crops,  334 

Boudouard,  O.,  Extraction  of  Gases  Con- 
tained in  Metals,  125 


INDEX. 


805 


Boulanger,   H.,    Micrographic    Study    of 

Leather,  655 
Boulenger,  0.  L.,  Cordylophora  in  Egypt, 
459 

—  Hydromedusan  from  Lake  Qurun,  596 
Bouvier,    E.   L.,  Monograph   on  Onycho- 

phora,  45 

Buuville,  B.  de  D.  de,  Abnormality  of 
Brook  Trout,  312 

Bovard,  J.  F.,  Structure  and  Movements 
of  Condylostoma  patens,  187 

Boveri,  P.,  Mammitis  Produced  by  Acid- 
fast  Bacilli,  89 

Bower,  F.  O.,  Opltioglossum  simplex,  605 

Bowman,  F.  B.,New  Bacillus  of  Dysentery, 
363 

Bracldomonas  submarina,  551 

Brachiopod,  Devonian,  Colour  Markings, 
720 

—  Homoeomorphy,  457 
Brachiopods,  Development  of  Bibs,  51 

—  Lower  Silurian,  457 

Brachyura  and  Anomura  from  the  North 

Pacific,  176 
Bradley,  J.  C,  Species  of  Corophium,  455 
Bradypodidse,  Genital  Organs,  31 
Braem,    F.,  Spermatozoa   of  Fresh-water 

Bryozoa,  593 
Brain  and  Head  Segments  in  Gull,  25 

—  of  Hatteria  punctata,  31 

—  of  Myxinoids,  Ventricular  Fibre,  444 

—  Weight  of  in  Man  and  Woman,  164 
Branca,  W.,  Embryos  in  Ichthyosaurs,  442 
Brand,  F.,  Cell-Wall  Structure  in  Clado- 

phora,  619 

—  Staining  of  Algae,  201 
Brass,  Composition  of,  f>07 
Brasses,  Electrolytic  Corrosion,  12] 
Bread,  Chalk  Disease,  218 

Breckner,    A.,    (  ombined   Imbedding   in 

Celloidin  and  Paraffin,  775 
Breuil,    P.,    Constituents    of    Quenched 

Steels,  393 
Briggs,   L.   T.,   Improvements  in   Ultra- 
violet Microscope,  639 
Briot,  A.,  Abnormality  in  a  Crayfish,  585 
Britton,  E.  G.  and  others,  North  American 
Musses,  69 
-  North  American  Muscine;e,  342 
Brocq-Rousseu, — .,  Peroxydiastase  in  Dry 

Seeds,  332 
Brodsky,  A.,  Remarkable  Adaptation    in 
Onychodactylus  acrobates,  599 

—  Trichocysts  of  Frontonia  leucas,  187 
Broek's    Simple     Microtome     for     Serial 

Sections,  516 
Broman,   J.,   Postal    Circulation    in    the 
Embryonic   Metanephros   of  Mammals, 
307 
Brooks,  F.  T.,  Notes  on  the  Parasitism  of 

Botrytis,  744 
Brooks.  W.  K.,  Homologies  of  the  Muscles 
of  Cyclosalpa,  34 


Brooks,   W.  K.,  Structure   and  Develop- 
ment of  Turritopsis  nutricula,  183 
Broom,  11.,  Mammal- like  Reptiles,  447 
Broth,  Intestinal  for  Isolation  of  Essential 

and  Potential  Intestinal  Anaerobes, 

107 

—  Potato,   for   the   Culture   of    Tubercle 

Bacilli,  773 
Brotherus,  V.  F.,  Classification  of  Families 
and  Genera  of  Mosses,  69 

—  Mosses  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  471 

—  Subfamilies  of  Hypnaceae,  733  " 
Brown,  C.  W.,   Influence  of  the   Compo- 
sition of  the   Medium   on   the   Solvent 
Action  of  certain  Soil  Bacteria,  772 

Brown,  H.  B  ,  Algal  Periodicity,  (122 
Brown,  W.,  Densities  and  Specific  Heats 

of  Some  Alloys  of  Iron,  119 
Browne,  E.  T.,  Hydroids  from  North  Side 
of  Bay  of  Biscay,  184 

—  Limnocnida  tanganicx   in   the   Niger, 

459 

—  Revision  of  Medusas  Belonging  to  the 

Family  Laodiceidse,  54 
Browne,   F.    B.,    Early  Stages   of  Fresh- 
water Fishes,  163 
Browniau    Movements,   Influence   of    the 

Medium,  649 
Bruce,      D.,      Have     Trypanosomes     an 

Ultra-Microscopical  Stage,  723 
Bruce,  W.  S.,  Antarctic  Holothuriaus,  721 
Bruchmann,     H.,     Types     of      Embryo- 
Development  in  Selaginella,  610 
Bruckner,  J.,  Fermentation  of  Sugars  by 
the   Meningococcus   and    the  Micro- 
coccus catarrhalis,  509 

—  Micrococcus  catarrhalis  and  Gouococcus, 

487 

—  Modification  of  the  Roinanowsky  Stain, 

520 
Brudny,  V.,  Theory  of  the  Gram-Staining 

Method,  521 
Brule,    M.,  Staining   Granular  Red  Cor- 
puscles, 520 
Bruntz.  L.,  Cephalic  Glands  of  Macliilis 
maritima,  452 

—  Excretion  in  Thysanura,  318,  582 

—  Glandular  Endothelium  of  Lymphatic 

i  anals    and    Renal    Capillaries    in 
Tadpoles,  28 

—  Kidney  of  Machilis  maritima,  452 

—  Labial  Excretory  Organ  in  Thysanura, 

452 

—  Nephrocytes  of  Caprellids,  177 
Bryhn,  N.,  Arctic  Muscineso,  70 
Bryological  Notes,  339,  732 
Bryophyta,  Indian,  344 

—  of  Austria  and  Hungary,  311 

—  See  Contents,  xxiii 
Bryophvtes.  European,  Notes,  469 

—  of  French  Guim  a,  47< > 

Bryozoa,  Fresh-Water,  Spermatozoa,  593 

—  North  American  Chilostoinatous,  457 


806 


INDEX. 


Bryozoa,  Rot  i  form,  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  51 

—  Total  Regeneration,  52 
Brijum  zonatuma  Philonotis,  (ill 
Bnard,  G.,  Detection  of  Indol  in  Micro- 
bial ( 'ultures,  774 

Bucegia  romanica.  Morphology  and  Ana- 
tomy, (J  15 

Buch,  H.,  Asexual  Multiplication  in 
Blasia  and  Rielhi,  338 

Buck,  A.,  Coli  Group  of  Bacteria,  223 

Buckman,  S.  S.,  Brachiopod  Honiceo- 
morphy,  457 

—  Development  of  Ribs  in  Brachiopods, 

51 
Budgett,  J.  S.,  Development  of  Gymnar- 

chus  niloticus,  440 
of  Polypterus  senegalu*.  438 

—  Limnocnida   tanganicse   in   the   Niger, 

459 
Bug,  Bed,  Plague  Bacillus  in,  4S9 

—  Multiplying  of  Relapsing  Spirochetes 

in  Body,  223 
Bugnion,  E..  Salivary   Glands  of   Hemi- 
ptera,  172 

—  Wax-Glands  of  Flata  marginella,  579 
Bultino,  D.,  Staining  Sudanophil  Leuco 

cytes,  115 
Burck,  W.,  Influence  of  Nectaries  on  the 

Opening  of  Anthers,  67 
Burgess,  G.  K.,  Melting  Points  of  Palla- 
dium and  Platinum,  121 

—  Melting  Points    of    the    Iron    Group 

Elements,  121 
Burmester,  H  ,  Fungicides,  747 
Burrell,  W.  H.,  Peculiar  Unattached  Mode 

of  Growth  of  Leucobryum,  72 
Busila,  V.,  Bacterium  Isolated  from  the 

Nervous  Centres  of  Rabid  Animals,  758 
Byrne,  L.  W.,  New  Deep-Sea  Fishes  from 

South-west  of  Ireland,  168 


C. 

Caddis- Worms,  Development.  580 
Cadmium  and  Iron,  Antimonides,  660 
Cajal,  S.  R.,  Vindication  of  the  Neuron 

Theory,  27 
Calcium,  Binary  Alloys,  261 
Caligidse,  North  American,  587 
Caliper  with  Micrometer  Screw,  245 
Caiman,    W.    T.,    Stridulating    Organ   in 

Crabs,  453 
Calypogeia  in  Italy,  615 
Calypogeia    trichomanis    and    its    Allied 

Forms,  472 
Cambarus  montezumx,  454 
Cameiauo,  L.,  Quagga  of  Turin  Museum, 

568 
Campbell,  D.  H.,  Antiquity  of  the  Hepa- 

ticse,  471 
—  Studies  of  Javanese  Anthoeerotaceae, 
471 


Campbell,  D.  II.,  Symbiosis  in  Fern  Pro- 
thallia,  168 

—  Thalloid  Hepaticse  of  Java,  734 
Campbell,  W.,  Structure  of  Metals,  257 
Campijlopu*  polytrichoides,  Fruit  described, 

473 

Canaries,  Inheritance,  699 

Cancer  and  Micrococcus  neoformans,  489 

Candolle,  A.  de,  Monospermous  Capsules, 
725 

Cannaceje,  Palmacese,  and  Musacese,  Em- 
bryology, 602 

Capnodium  and  Seuratia,  351 

Capparelli,  A..  Myelin-Bodies  in  Nervous 
System,  308 

CaprellMs   Nephrocytes,  177 

Caprificus,  Albumen,  461 

Capsule  and  Flagella  of  Bacillus  anthracis, 
223 

—  Celloidin,  Improved  Form,  391 
Capsules,  Monospermous,  725 

Carbon,  Alleged  Fixation  by  Chrysalids, 
42 

—  and  Manganese,  786 

—  Assimilation  of  Penicilliuni,  335 

—  Iron  and  Sulphur,  663 
Carbon-Iron.  Diagram.  785 
Carborundum  Diamonds  and  Crystals  in 

Steel,  522 
Cardot,  J.,  Bryological  Notes,  732 

—  Mosses  of  the  Belgian  Congo,  471 

—  New  Madeiran    Moss-Genus,  Tetrasti- 

chiu'ii.  342 

—  New  Mosses  of  Japan  and  Corea,  732 

—  Sexmdity  in  the  Mosses,  337 
Carmichael,  E.  S.,  Compensatory  Hyper- 
trophy in  the  Ovary,  563 

—  Correlation  of    Ovarian   and    Uterine 

Functions,  160 
Carmin,  Picric-acid,  114 
Carpenter,    G.   H.,    Injurious   Insects   in 

Ireland,  41 

—  New  Devonian  Isopod,  717 
Cartilage,  Development,  163 
Carv,  Small  Simple  Microscope.  526 
Casares,  F.  B.,  Spanish  Fresh-Water  Algre, 

618 
Case-hardening,  259 

—  of  Mild  Steel,  259 

Castellani,  A.,  Acarid  from  Omentum  of 
Negro,  46 

—  Relation    of  Spirochxta    pertenuis    to 

Yaws,  189 
Cast-iron,  Solidification  and  Melting,  524 
Castor  Fiber,   Studying  the  Development 

of  Teeth,  513 
Catenata,  Examining,  513 
Catfishes,  Poison-Glands,  168 
Cathariuea,  European  Forms,  340 
Cats  and  Rats,  Imitative  Tendency,  567 

—  Bacillus  Pathogenic  to,  758 

Cattle,  Short-Horn,  Mendelian  Characters 
among,  701 


INDEX. 


807 


Cattle,  Subcutaneous  Fibro-Granulomata, 

86 
Caalerpas  of  the  Danish  West  Indies,  203 
Caullery,  M.,  Collecting  and  Examining 
the  Eggs  of  Rhopalnra  ophio'omx,  510 

—  Peculiar  Abnormality  in  Proboscis  of  a 

Neraorteau,  593 

—  Eeal  Nature  of  Microniscidse,  47 
Cavazza,  L.  E.,  Demonstrating  the  Presence 

of  Tannin,  659 
Cell  and  Nuclear  Division  in  Basidiobolus 
ranarum,  190 

—  New  Growing,  for  Critical  Observations 

under  Highest  Powers,  793 
Cell-Division  in  Cerebratulus.  720 
Cell-Length,     Variability,    and    Parallel 

Forms  in  Mosses,  200 
Cell-Wall  Structure  and  Ring-Formation 
in  CEdogonium,  730 

in  Cladophora,  619 

Celloidin    and    Paraffin,    Combined    Im- 
bedding. 775 

—  Capsule,  Improved  Form,  391 

—  Decalcification  and  Desilication,  774 

—  Imbedding,  657 

—  Sections,  Preparing,  658 

Cells,  Epidermal  Sensorv,  in  Amphioxus, 
444 

—  Interstitial  of  Ovary,  Studying,  113 

—  Somatic,  Tetiads,  27 
Cellulose.  Action  of  Fungi  on.  354 
Centring   in   Microscopic   Metallography 

Importance,  393 
Centrolophus  niger,  Oesophageal  pouches, 

33 
Centrosome   and    Blepharoplast   of   Mar- 
chantia  polymorpha,  332 

—  Function,  403 

Ce'pede,  C,  Parasite  of  Male  Starfish,  599 

—  Staining-Tank  with  Movable  Grooves, 

116 
Cephalopoda.     See  Contexts,  xii 
Cephalopoda,  Chromatophores,  313 

—  Examining  Tentacular  Apparatus,  514 

—  from  Sudanese  Ked  Sea,  574 

—  New,  from  the  Irish  Coast,  37 
Cephalozia,  Genus,  in  Italy,  341 

—  in  Scandinavia,  615 
Ceratium,  Regeneration,  460 

—  Species  in  Gulf  of  Lyons,  205 
Ceratopteris  thalictroides,  Rooi-Structure, 

493 
Cerebral  Hemispheres  in  Man,  Asymmetry 

of  Caudal  Poles.  3o8 
Cerebratulus,  Cell-Division,  720 
Cerebrospinal  Meningitis,  Micrococcus  of 

Epidemic,  17 
Cerfontaine,     P.,    Uncommon     Dipterous 

Lurva,  :;i>; 

Cest  da.  Orientation,  323 

—  Studying  the  Sexual  Organs,  777 
Cestode,  New.  from  Eagle,  50 

(  estodes.  Notes,  180 


Cestodes  of  Birds,  718 

—  Sterility,  323 

—  Studies,  456 

Chsetognatha,  Systematic  Position,  322 

Chsetosomatidse.  591 

Chain-Formation  of  Staphylococcus  aureus, 

758 
Chaine,  J.,  Tongue  of  Teleosteans,  312 
Chalicotheres,  509 
Chalk  Disease  of  Bread,  218 
Chamadeou,  Peculiarities  of  Vision,  311 

—  South  African,  Notes,  31 
Chamberlin,   R.  V.,  North  American  Ly- 

cosidse,  715 
Chapman,  F.,  Dimorphism  in  the  Recent 
Foraminifer  Alveolina  botcii,  266 

—  Fossil  Girvanella:  a  Plant,  741 

—  On  Dimorphism  in  the  Recent  Forami- 

nifer Alveolina  boscii,  151 

—  Teitiary  Foraminifera  of  Victoria,  56 
Chapman,  T.  A.,    Hibernation  of  Maras- 

marcha,  4:! 
Chara.  Original  Meaning.  735 
Characere,  Italian,  735 
Charpy,   G.,   Annealing-Carbon   in    Cast 
lion,  124 

—  Solubility  of  Graphite  in  Iron,  124 
Chatelier,  H.   le,    Constituents  of  Steel, 

523 

—  Troostite,  783 

Chatton,    E.,    Affinities    of   Blastulidium 
psedophtorum,  1S7 

—  Blastodinium,  722 

—  Parasites  of  Drosophila  confusa,  461 

—  Parasitic  Laboulbenia,  478 
Chauveau,  A.,  Additional   Demonstration 

of    the    Mechanism    of    Monocular 
Stereoscopy,  386 

—  Perception  of  Relief  and  Depth  in  the 

Simple  Image   of    Ordinary   Photo- 
graphic    Proofs  :     Conditions     and 
Theory  of  this  Perception,  385 
Cheese,  Micrococcus  Producing  a  Yellow- 
Brown  Colour  on.  88 
Cheetham,  ( '.  A.,  Yorkshire  Mosses,  612 
Chemical  Changes  in   Seed    Plants.     See 

Contents,  xxx 
Chemistry.  Pi. .logical,  192 
Cheshire,  F.  J.,  795 
Chick    of  Eight    Days,    Open    Cleft    in 

Embryonic  Eve.  411 
Chicoracese,  Affinities,  66 
Chitin.    Identification    by     its     Physical 

( lonstants,  35 
Chiton.  Australian,  New,  172 

—  Hermaphroditism,  314 

Chitons   from  Red  Sea  and  East  Africa, 

574 
ChlorophycesB,  Lower,  :il7 
Chlorophyll,  Colouring  Matter,  465 

—  Formation.  335 

Cholodkovsky,  N.,  Gastrophilus  Larvra  in 
Human  Skin,  711 


808 


INDEX. 


Cholodkovsky,  N.,  New   Tapeworm  iu   a 

Dog,  718 
Choroid  ITexus  and  Infundibular  Gland, 

564 
Christ,  II.,  Christensen's  Index  Filicum, 
194 

—  Ferns  of  Paraguay,  337 
(Jhristenseu,  C,  Revision  of  the  American 

Species  of  Dryopteris,  336 
Christ  man,    A.    H.,    Morphology    of    the 

Rusts,  80 
Ohrornatophores  of  Cephalopods,  313 
Chromium   and    Tungsten.    Function    in 

High-Speed  Tool -Steel,  782 
Chromosome,  Accessory,  in  Anasa  tristis, 
450 

in  Aplopus  mayeri,  318,  449 

Chromosomes  in  Spermatogenesis  of  Anasa 
tristis,  42 

—  of  Anasa  tristis  and  Anax  Junius,  579 
Chrysalids,  Alleged  Fixation  of  Carbon, 

42 
Ciaccio,  C,  Localising  Purin   Bodies   in 
Animal  Tissues,  779 

—  Studying   the  Adenoid    Tissue   of  the 

Spleen,  etc.,  112 

Cicadinse,  New  European  and  Mediter- 
ranean, 451 

Cidaridsa,  182 

Cilia,  Structure,  163 

Circulation,  Embryonic,  in  Goldfish,  702 

Circulatory  Mechanism  in  Teleosteans, 
166 

Cirolana,  New  Species  from  a  Spring  in 
the  Sahara,  585 

('impedes,  Notes,  178 

Cirripedia,  Antarctic,  177 

—  Boring,  178 

Cirripeds,  Headless  Spermatozoa,  717 
Cistacesc,  Cystolith-Formation,  61 
Cladoniaa,  Chemical  Monograph,  485 
Cladophora,  Cell- Wall  Structure,  619 
Clam,  Razor-Shell,  Nervous  System,  315 
Clapp,  G.  L.,  Transpiration,  603 
Clark,  A.  H,  New  Crinoids,  182 
Clark,  H.  L.,  Cidaridse,  182 

—  Japanese  and  East  Indian  Echinoderms, 

458 

—  Monograph  on  Apodous  Holothurians, 

327 

Clarke,  S.  F.,  Hydroids  of  Eastern  Tropi- 
cal Pacific,  184 

Clasping  Organs  on  Wings  of  Hymeno- 
ptera,  172 

Clausen,  V.,  Development  of  Saprdlegnia 
monoica,  47S 

Claussen,  P.,  Pyronema  confluens,  351 

Glavelina  lepadi/ormis,  Winter-Buds,  447, 
709 

Clegg,  M.  T..  Etiology  of  Mycetoma,  361 

Clere,  — .,  Intestinal  Flora  of  Certain 
Orthoptera,  488 

Cligny,  A.,  Species  of  Trout,  570 


Cloaca  and  Phallus  in  Amniota,  Studies, 

309 
Clute,  W.  N.,  North  American  Ferns,  336, 

727 
Coalescence  and  Regeneration  in  Sponges, 

328 
Coat-Characters  in  Rats,  Transmission,  700 
Cobalt  and  Copper,  Alloys,  125 

—  Binary  Alloys,  786 
Cobalt- Arsenic  Alloys,  524 
Cobalt-Sulphur  Alloys,  660 
Cochin-China  Hen  ami  Peacock,  Hvbrids, 

310 
Cockburn,  B.,  and  others,  British  Hepa- 

ticse,  611 
Cockerel],  T.  D.  A.,  Scale  Insects  of  Date 

Palm,  173 
Cockle,  Parasite,  456 
Cockles,  Sense-Organs,  574 
Cockroach,  Genitalia  of  Male,  451 

—  Odoriferous  Gland,  451 
Coeleutera.    See  Contents,  xviii 
Coffee,  Diseases  and  Pests,  481 
Cohendy,   M.,   Intestinal    Broth    for    the 

Isolation    of    Essential    and    Potential 
Intestinal  Anaerobes,  107 
Cohn,  L.,  Orientation  of  the  Cestoda,  323 

—  Swim-Bladder  in  Sciaenkhe,  168 

Cole,  L.  W„  Intelligence  of  Raccoons,  567 
Coleochsete  nitellarum,  202 
Coli  Bacillosis,  637 

—  Group  of  Bacteria,  223 

Collecting    and    Preserving    Fresh-water 

Rhizopods,  107  " 
Planocera  inquilina,  508 

—  Objects.    See  Contents,  xxxv 
Collembola  and  Thvsanura  of  Forth  Area, 

582 

—  Structure,  452 

Collin,  B.,  Tohophrya  Cyclopum,  599 

—  Notes  on  Acinetaria,  57 

Collins,  F.  S.,  Alga3  from  Hudson's  Bay, 
740 

—  New  Green  Algaa,  73 

—  North  American  Algae,  738 

Collins,  J.    F.,  North   American   Mosses, 

731 
Collodion  Imprints,  Nathorst's  Use  in  the 

Study  of  Fossil  Plants,  117 
Colour,    Change    of,    and    Emptying    of 
Decaying  Leaves,  465 

—  Markings  in  a  Devonian   Brachiopod, 

720 

—  of  Anatomical  Specimens,  Preserving, 

391 

—  Reactions   in   Russula   and   Lactarius, 

217 
Colcur-Photography,  Application  to  Metal- 
lography, 663 

—  Screens,  503 

for  Colour-Photography,  503 

—  Variation  in  Fungi,  628 
Colouring  Selective,  660 


INDEX. 


809 


tAtB    Milli" 


Colpoda,  Studies.  460 
Colpomenia  sinuosa,  209 

in  Britain,  '.'A*'< 

Colton,  H.  S.,  Feeding  Habit  of  Fulgur 
and  Sycotypus,  71  0 

Corabault,  A.,  Calciferous  Glands  of  Earth- 
worms, 49 

Compass  Reading  to  ^^  or 
metre,  245 

Comte,  C,  Dogs  Affected  witli  Kala-azar, 
447 

Condenser,   Aplauatic   Low-Power,  Wat- 
son and  Sons,  97 

—  Mount.  Mechanical,  Watson  and  Sous, 

New,  97 

—  Reflecting,  Leitz  New,  768 
Condensers,  Mirror,  Reichert's  Novelties, 

374 
Condyhstoma  patens.  Structure  and  Move- 
ments, 187 
Cone  of  Pinus.  464 

Conidial  Formation  of  Aspergillus,  744 
Coniferee,  Centripetal  Wood,  61 
Conifers,  Red  Wood,  602 
Conjugation,  Polar,  in  Angiosperms,  464 
Conklin,  E.  G.,  Development  of  Fulgur, 

39 
Conrady,  A.  E.,  794 
Contractile    Organs,    Optical    Properties, 

553 
Convoluta,  Memory  in,  719 
Convoluta  paradoxa,  Yellow-Brown   Cells. 

71S 
Convoluta  roscoft'ensis, Rhythmic  Behaviour, 

323 
Cooper,   W.   F..   Method   of    Orientating 

Small  Objects  for  Examination,  390 
Copeland,  E.  B.,  Philippine  Ferns,  467 
C"pepod,  Cave,  New,  587 
Copper  and  Cobalt  Alloys,  125 

—  Annealing,  124 

—  Binary  Alloys,  260 

—  Oxide.   Dendritic    Growths 

544 

Copper- Aluminium  Alloys,  782 
( 'opper-Arsenic  System,  786 
Copper-Bismuth  Alloys,  120 
Copper-Tin  Alloys,  660 
Copper-Zinc  Alloys,  Heat  Treatment,  262 
Coppey,  A.,  Muscineae  of  Greece,  612 

—  Notes  on  European  Bryophytes,  469 
Copromonas,  Structure  and  Life-History, 

330 
Copulation  and  Germination  of  Spirogyra, 

7.; 
Copulito:y     Appendages      of     Lxviraia 
oxyrhynous,  570 

—  Organs  of  Solitary  Bees,  576 
Coral,  Rare  British.  54 

Corbiere,  L..  Colpomenia  sinuosa,  209 
Corbiere,   — .,   Muscineffl   of    the   Canary 

Islands,  70 
Cordylophora  in  Egypt,  459 

Dec.  10th,  1908 


in 


Paper, 


Cordylophora  lacustris,  55 

Corethron  criopMlum,  430,  528 

Corophium,  Species.  455 

Corpora  adiposa  in  Frog,  708 

<  'orpus  luteum  and  Rut  in  Rabbits,  441 

Corrosion,  Electrolytic,  of  Brasses,  121 

Cortieese,  Contribution  to  our  Knowledge. 

480 
Corydalis  cornuta,  Larva,  Nervous  System, 

715 
Cotton,    A.    D.,    Colpomenia    sinuosa    in 
Britain,  346 

—  Leathesia  crispa,  73S 

—  New  Zealand  Species  of  Rbodophyllis, 

621 
Coulter,  J.  M. ,  Relation  of  Megaspores  to 

Embryo-Sacs,  725 
Coupiu,   H.,   Effect   of  Formic   Acid   on 

Fungi,  627 
Courtis,   S.    A.,    Response    of    Toads    to 

Sound-Stimuli.  312 
Coutiere,  H.,  New  Entoniscid,  5S7 
Coutouly,  G.  de,  Note  on  Phallus  impudi- 

cus,  747 
Couvreur,  E.,  Alleged  Fixation  of  Carbon 

by  Chrysalids,  42 
Coward,    K.   H.,    Structure    of    Syringo- 

dendron,  196 
Cowles,  R.  P.,  New  Species  of  Cucumaria, 

54 
Crabs,  "  Granny,"  47 

—  Hermit,    Periodic   Change    in    Photo- 

tropism,  319 

—  Hydrotropism,  453 

—  Stridulating  Organ,  453 
Crayfish,  Abnormality,  585 

—  Development.  454 
Crinoid,  Antarctic,  New,  721 
Crinoids,  Glands,  721 

—  New,  182 

Crithari,  C,  Symbiosis  of  Bacillus  vulgaris 

and  Bacillus  butyricus,  489 
Cross-Stage  with  Automatic  Adjustment, 

Engel's,  639 
Crossland,  G,  Yorkshire  Fungi,  747 

—  an.l  others.  Local   Records   of    Fungi, 

628 
Crustacea,  Clyde,  Notes,  586 

—  of  East  Norfolk  Rivers,  177 

—  See  Contents,  xv 
Crustaceans,  Ferments,  47 
Cryptogams.     See  Contents,  xxii 

— 'Vascular,  ami    Musciuea3,  Comparison, 

201 
Crystals.  Saturated   Mixed,    Composition, 

7s  5 
Ctenophora,  Japanese,  185 
Ctenophores,  New  Zealand,  596 
Cucumaria,  New  Species,  51 
Cue'not,  L.,  Apparent   Anomalies  in  Men- 

deliau  Proportions,  699 

—  Inheritance  of  Pigmeutation  in  Mice, 

23 

3   H 


810 


INDEX. 


Cue'not,  L.,  Liver  of  Cuttlefishes,  37 

—  Origin  of  the  Nemutocysts  of  Eolidiae. 

39 
Culicidas,  Exhibition  of  Slides  Illustrating 

Stages  in  Life-History,  266 
Gulmann,  P.,  Swiss  Mosses,  340 
Cultivating    the    Parasites   of    Kala-azar 

and  Aleppo  Boil,  508 
Cultivation  of  Anaerobes  Aerobic,  509 

—  and  Preparation  of  Myxomycetes,  106 

—  of  Anaerobic  Bacteria,  '247 

—  of  Treponema  pallidum,  110 
Cultural    Differentiation     of    Capsulated 

Bacilli,  226 

—  Purposes,  Blood  for,  Simple  Method  of 

Sterilising,  106 
Culture  in  vitro  of  Avian  Plague,  773 

—  of  Anaerobes,  107 

—  of  Treponema  pallidum,  189 

—  of  Tubercle  Bacilli,    Potato  Broth  for, 

77:; 

—  Processes.     See  Contents,  xxxv 

—  Vessels,  Porous,  108 

Cultures,  Microbial,  Detection  of  Indol  in, 

774 
Curties,   C.    L.,    Exhibition    of   Lantern 

Slides  of  Miscellaneous  Microscopic 

Objects,  267 

—  Exhibition  of  Slides  of  Culicidse,  Il- 

lustrating   Stages    of     Life-History, 
266 

—  789 

—  ^2  inch    Achromatic   Objective.    New, 

788 
Cushman,  J.  A.,  Genus   Micrasterias  in 
New  England,  739 

—  New  England  Deainids,  476 

—  Tetmemorus  in  New  England.  347 
Cutting  Objects.    See  Contents,  xxxvi 
Cuttlefish,  Large,  at  St.  Andrews,  170 

—  Female  Gonads.  573 

—  Hectoeotvlisation  and  Luminosity,  36 

—  Liver,  37 

Cycads,  Historic  Fossil,  463 
Cycloloculina,  a   New   Generic   Type    of 

Foraminifera,  527,  529 
Cyclophyllidea,  Classification,  50 
Cyclosalpa,  Homologies  of  Muscles,  34 
Cycilostoma  eleyans,  Larval  Stages,  171 
Cyclostomes,    Central     Nervous    System, 

29 
Cydemon  leilus.  Life- History,  44 
<  vpriptdium.  Fertilisation,  191 
Cysticercux  piriformis,  Histogenesis,  514, 

593 
Cystolith-Fnrmatioii  in  the  Cistacese,  61 
Cytological  Notes,  31)8 
Cytology,  Essentials,  565 

—  of  Ascoimcetes,  744 

—  of  Humaria  rutilans,  210 

—  of  Pollen-Mother-Cells  of  Agave  attenu- 

ate, 601 
of  Nytnphseacese,  60,  190 


Cytology  of  Reproduction  in  Nephrodium, 

726 
—  of  Synchytrium,  77 
Czwiklitzer,    R..    Larva     of    Pedicettina 
Echinata,  593 


D. 


Dabs  and  Plaice,  Food,  33 

Dalman,  A.  A.,  Muscineae  of  Flintshire, 

612 
Dandeno,  J.  B.,  Uredinese,  480 
Dantec.  A.  le,  Culture  of  Anaerobes,  107 
Dantschakoff.    W..     Preparing     Celloidiu 

Sections,  658 
Darbisliire,  A.  D.,  Respiratory  Mechanism 

in  Elasmobranchs,  167 
Dasycladaceas  of  Danish  West  Indies,  347 
Dauphin,  J.,  Study  of  Mortierellaa,  742 
Daume'zon,  G.,  Development   of   Distoma 
tridentatum,  573 

—  Musculature  of  Compound  Tunicates, 

573 
Davenport,  C.  B.,  Inheritance  in  Canaries, 

699 
Davis,  B.  M.,  Collecting  and  Examining 

Dolichoglossus  pusillus,  511 

—  Spore-Formation  in  Derbesia.  620 
Debski,  B„  Distribution  of  Petricola  pho- 

ladiformis,  315 
Decalcification  and  Desilication,  Celloidin, 

774 
Decapods,  Autotomy,  47 

—  Visceral  Nervous  System,  453 
Deegener,   P.,   Development  of  the   Ali- 
mentary Canal  during  Metamorphosis, 
450 

Deeley,   G.   P.,  New   British   Records    of 

Water-Mites,  585 
Degeneration  in  Opalina,  329 
Dehorne,  A.,  Polyehsets  of  Amboina,  588 

—  Thoracic  Nephridia  of  Hermellida),  588 
Deichmann,  H.,  Distribution  of  Fucacese 

on  the  Coast  of  Greenland,  207 
Deineka,  D.,  Demonstrating  the  Nervous 
System  of  Ascaris,  518 

—  Nervous  System  of  Ascaris,  322 
Delage,     Y.,     Parthenogenesis     of    Sea- 
Urchins,  594 

Demoll,  R..  Mouth- Parts  of  Solitary  Bees, 

576 
Demouzay,  L.,  Hardening  of  Steel,  259 
Dendritic    Growths  of   Copper   Oxide   in 

Paper,  397,  544 
Dendrogaster,  587 
Dendy,   A.,   New   Zealand  Holothurians, 

53 
Denioll,  R.,  Protandry  in  Insects,  711 
Dentition  of  Mammals,  165 
Derbesia,  Spore-Formation,  620 
Desch,   C.   H.,   Planimetric    Analysis    of 

Alloys,  661 


INDEX. 


811 


Desilieation  and  Decalcification,  Celloidin, 

774 
Desmidefe,  Index,  739 
Desmids,  New  England,  476 
Development   and   Sexuality  in  Ascomy- 
cetes,  78 

—  and  Structure  of  Seed  Plants,  Repro- 

ductive.    See  Contexts,  xxi 

of  Seed  riants.  Vegetative.     See 

Contents,  xxi 
of  Turritopsis  nutricula,  183 

—  Anuran,  Notes,  443 

—  Conidial,  of  Xylaria  Hypoxylon,  212 

—  of  Acltlya  polyandra,  742 

—  of  Argulidaa,  Notes,  177 

—  of  Caddis- Worms,  580 

—  of  Carp's  Swim-Bladder,  443 

—  of  Cartilage,  1(3/5 

—  of  Crayfish,  454 

—  of  Distoma  tridentatum,  573 

—  of    Endophyllum    Euphorbiie-sylvaticse, 

213 

—  of  Gonads  of  Tenebrio  nwlitor,  577 

—  of  Gymtmrchus  niloticus,  440 

—  of  Hydrodictyon,  618 

—  of  Kidney  in  Teleosteans,  702 

—  of  Lichen  Apothecia,  84 

—  of  Lygodium,  194 

—  of  Lvmph-Sacs  in  Hind  Limb  of  Frog, 

162 

—  of  Mammalian  Pituitary  Body,  698 
' —  of  Nematodes,  591 

—  of  Notochord  iu  Fishes,  702 
in  Larval  Ascidians,  573 

—  of  Ovary  of  Phryganid,  577 
of  Polistes  pallipes,  576 

—  of  Polypterus  senegalu*,  438 

—  of  Saprolegnia  monoica,  478 

—  of  Saxifraga  granulata,  191 

—  of  Sexual  Organs  and  Sporogouium  of 

Marchantia,  735 
of  Vaucheria,  620 

—  of  Sporangia  in   Trichia  and  Arcyria, 

753 

—  of  Teeth  in  Castor  Fiber,  Studying,  513 

—  of  the  Alimentary  Canal  during  Meta- 

morphosis, 450 

—  of  the  Genus  Ulva,  619 

—  of  the  Head,  562 

—  of  the   White    Mouse,    Early    Stages, 

561 

—  of  Vertebrate  Nerve-Cord,  562 

—  Parthenogenetic,  in  Mactra,  448 

—  Post-Embryonic,  of  Ardeidse,  162 
of  Unio,  575 

Dexamine  tliea,  Male,  176 

Diamond   and  Carborundum   Crystals  in 

Steel,  522 
Diaposematism,  450 

Diaptomus,  North  American  Species,  178 
Diatoni-Cell,  Structure,  617 
Diatomacea),  Marine,  of  France,  616 
Diatoms,  Fossil,  348 


Diatoms  in  an  Aquarium,  347 

—  Italian,  738 

—  Membrane,  476 

—  of  the  Jura  Lakes,  477 

—  of  the  Pacific,  207 

—  Structure,  475 

—  Very  Translucent,  Photography  at  High 

Magnifications,  649 

—  Yorkshire,  617 

Di   Donna,   A,    Researches   in    Bacillary 

Dysentery,  637 
Dicyandiamid-B  tcteria,  636 
Dietel,  P.,  and  others,  Uredineae,  79 
Diffraction  Rin<;s  for  a  Circular  Opening  ; 
and  on  the  Limit  of  Resolving  Power 
(Being  a  Rejoinder  to  Mr.  Nelson),  3 
Dimorphism  in  a  Myxomycete,  4S6 

—  in  Australian  Agrionidse,  175 

—  in   the    Recent   Foranhnifer  Alveoluia 

boscii,  151 
Dinosaurs  of  Madagascar,  311 
Diphtheroid    Bacillus   found    in    Cardiac 

Vegetations,  638 
Diplopoda,  Segmentation  of  Head,  319 
Dipterous  Larva,  Uncommon,  316 
Disease.  Bacterial,  of  Green  Malt,  363 

—  Blue,  of  Pine-wood,  629 
Diseases  and  Pests  of  Coffee,  481 

—  of  Plants,  81,  215,  356,  482,  629,  748, 

749 
Dismier,  G.,  Monograph  of  Philonotis,  472 

—  Parisian  Species  of  Philonotis,  198 

—  Pohlia  annotina    and    Allied    Species, 

733 

—  Variable  Peristome  of  Philonotis,  71 
Disney,  A.  N.,  265,  271,  527 
Dissecting  Microscope,  234 
Disselhorst,  R.,  Growth  of  Testes  in  Birds 

and  Mammals,  161 
Distoma  tridentatum,  Development,  573 
Dixon,  H.  N..  Mosses  of  the  Canaries,  470 

—  Mnssflora  of  Northumberland,  69 

—  New  South  Indian  Moss,  613 
Dobell.  C.   G,   Degeneration  in  Opalina, 

329 

—  Structure   and  Life-History  of  Copro- 

monas,  330 

—  Triehomastrix  serpentis,  187 

Dotf.  Development  of  Piroplasma  canis.  58 

—  New  Tapeworm,  718 

—  Unusual  Type  of  Reaction,  567 
Dogiel,  J„  Anatomy  of  Heart  in  Frog  and 

Turtle,  31 
Dogiel,  V.,  Examining  Catenata,  513 
Dugs  Affected  with  Kala-azar,  447 
Doliehoglossus,  New  Specirs,  720 
Dolichoglosma     pusillus.     Collecting    and 

Examining,  511 
Dollman,  — .  stereo- 1'hotographs,  266,  .">27 
Dumaradsky,  ML,    Fruit-Development    in 

Aspergillus  Fi"cheri,  351 
Domsthorpu.  H.   St.  J.,  Life-History  and 

Bionomics  of  Lomechusa,  317 

3  H  ■> 


812 


INDEX. 


Donski,  L.,  Binary  Alloys  of  Calcium,  261 
Doling,    AW,    Female  Gonads  of   Cuttle- 

fishes,  r>7:; 
Double-Refraction  in  Strained  Glass,  New 

Method  of  Measuring  Directly,  103 
Douin,  C,  Genus  Ephemernm,  71 

—  Two  Species  of   Sphserocarpus    found 

iu  France,  71 

Doves,  Incubation,  161 

Dowdy.  S.  E.,  A  Micro-Object  Locater, 
242.*  1^7 

Dowell,  P.,  North  American  Fern-Hybrids 
of  the  Genus  Dryopteris,  468 

Doyen,  M.,  Micrococcus  neoformans  and 
Cancer,  489 

Drawing  Apparatus,  Keichert's,  770 

Dreck,  W.,  Photomicroscope  for  Ultra- 
violet Rays  and  its  Significance  for 
Histological  Investigations,  especially  of 
Hard  Structures,  646 

Drew,  G.  A.,  Nervous  System  of  Razor- 
shell  Clam,  315 

Drosophila  confusa,  Parasites,  461 

Druery,  C.  T.,  Deciduous  British  Ferns, 
608 

Drum-Fisbes,  Production  of  Sounds,  709 

Dryopteris,  Genus,  North  American  Fern- 
Hybrids.  46s 

—  Revision  of  American  Species,  336 
Drzewina,  A.,  Autotomy  in  Grapsus,  47 

—  Hydrotropism  in  Crabs,  453 

—  Periodic   Change   in   Phototropism  of 

Hermit  Crabs,  319 
Dubois,  R.,  Action  of  Heat  on  Immature 
Mussel-fluke,  50 

—  Alleged  Fixation  of  Carbon  by  Chry- 

salids,  42 

—  Microbioids   of  the   Purple   Gland    of 

Murex  brandaris,  26 
Dubreuil,  G.,  Corpus  luteum  and  Rut  in 

Rabbits,  461 
Duckworth,  W.  L.  H.,  Demonstrating  the 

Syncytial  Appendages  of  Placental 

Villi,  653 

—  Early  Placenta  in  Macacus  nemestrinus, 

160 
Ducomet,  — ,  Parasitic  Fungi,  628 
Duesberg,    J.,   Demonstrating    the   Sper- 
matogenesis of  Hornets,  654 

—  Spermatogenesis  of  Hornet,  577 
Dufour,  L.,  Affinities  of  the  Chicoracea), 

66 
Dumortiera,   Androgynous  Inflorescences, 

201 
Dungern,    E.   V.,   Theory    of   Malignant 

Tumours,  164 
Dunschmann,    H.,    Cultivating    Bacillus 
typhosus  and  Bacillus  coli,  650 

—  Nutritive   Value  of   Certain   Peptones 

for    Different    Species    of  Bacteria. 
513 

—  Simplified  Method   for   Detecting  the 

Presence  of  Bacillus  typhosus,  108 


Durand,   E.   J.,   Development  of  Sexual 
Organs  and  Sporogonium  of  Marchantia, 

7:;5 

Durbcck,  \V.,  Studies  on  the  Cloaca  and 

Phallus  in  Amniota,  309 
Duseu,  P.,  Mosses  of  Antarctic  America, 

71 
Dustin,    A.   P.,  Origin  of  Gonocytes  in 

Amphibians,  305 
Dwarfing,  Experimental,  of  Water-Snails, 

448 
Dysentery,  Bacillary,  Researches,  637 
—  New  Bacillus,  363 


E. 


Eagle,  New  Cestode,  50 

Ear,  Internal,  Minute  Structure,  28 

—  Mammalian,  Studying   the   Structure, 

113 

—  of  Hungarian  Blind  Mouse,  ~>G* 
Earland,  A.,  266 

—  Cycloloculina,  A  New  Generic  Type  of 

Foraminifera,  527,  529 
Earthworms  as  Planters  of  Trees,  321 

—  Calciferous  Glands,  49 

—  Respiration,  179 

Echiniscus,  Metamorphosis  of  Species,  585 
Echinoderidse,  Structure,  457 
Echinoderma.     See  Contents,  xviii 
Echinoderms,  Japanese  and  East  Indian,  ' 

458 
Echiuoid,  New,  from  Indian  Ocean,  182 
Echinolampas,  Abnormality  in  Test,  53 
Echuiroids,  Remarkable.  590 
Echiurus,  Metamorphosis,  321 
Edgertou,  C.  W.,  Study  of  Anthracnoses, 
631 

—  Two  Little-known  Myxosporiums,  479 
Edgeworth,    F.     H.,    Head-Muscles     in 

Sauropsida,  310 
Edwards,   A.   M.,    Origin  of   Californian 
Petroleum,  476 

—  Origin  of  the  Bacillarke,  477 
Edwards,  C.  A.,    Function  of  Chromium 

and    Tungsten    in    High-Speed    Tool- 
Steel,  782 
Eel,  Haemogregarine.  599 

—  Trypanosome,  330 

Egerton,  C.  W.,  Diseases  of  Plants,  356 
Egg,  Fowl's,  Intercellular  Connections,  26 

—  Hen's,  Orientation  of  Embryo,  699 

—  Pigeon's,  Amitosis,  161 

Eggs   and    Larvae,   Teleostean,   from    the 
Gambia,  443 

—  of  Acanthodoris  pilosa.  Studying,  653 

—  of    Ascaris   megalocephala.   Method   of 

Fixing,  774 

—  of  Ornithorhyncus,  Examining,  653 

—  of  Rhopalura  ophiocomie,  Collecting  and 

Examining,  510 

—  Shapes,  437 


INDEX. 


813 


Egouuoff,  S.,  Development  of  the 
Alinienfary  Canal  in  the  Trout,  25 

Ehrensberger,  — .,  Impact-testing  on 
Notched  Test-pieces,  201 

Ekman,  8.,  Cordylophora  lacusfris,  55 

Elasmobranchs,  Respiratory  Mechanism, 
167 

—  Structure    and    Function     of    Rectal 

Gland,  307 
Elenkin,  A.  A.,  New  Greenhouse  Fissidens, 

199 
Elephant,  Kidney,  166 

—  Pleural  Cavity,  309 

Ellingsen,  E.,  Cave  Pseudoscorpionidse, 
453 

—  Notes  on  Pseudoscorpions,  5S4 
Elliott.   A.   I.   M.,    Development    of   the 

Frog's  Head,  306 
Ellis,   D.,   Five    New    Species    of    Iron- 
Bacteria,  755 

—  Three  Iron  Bacteria,  86 
Embryo,  Early  Human.  441 

—  in  Hen's  Egg.  Orientation,  699 
Embryo-Development       in      Selaginella, 

Types,  610 
Embryo-Sacs,    Relation     to    Megaspores, 

725 
Embryology  and   Germ-Cells  of  Aphids, 
580 

—  in     the     Palmacese,     Musacese,     and 

Cannacese,  6(12 

—  of  Vertebrates.     See  Contents,  viii 
Embryos  in  Icthyosaurs,  442 
Encystation,  Solitary,  in  Gregarines,  461 
Endophyllum     Euphorbise-sylcaticse,      De- 
velopment, 213 

Endothelium,  Glandular,  of  Lymphatic 
Canals  and  Renal  Capillaries  in  Tad- 
poles, 2S 

En  gel's  Cross-Stage  with  Automatic 
Adjustment,  639 

Engineering,  Marine,  Factors  of  Safety, 
661 

Enock,  F.,  Nature's  Protection  of  Insect 
Life,  397 

Enriques,  P.,  Studies  on  Colpoda,  460 

Entomology,  The  Microscope  as  an  Aid  to 
the  Study  of  Biology  in,  with  Particular 
Reference  to  the  Food  of  Insects,  401 

Entoniscid,  New,  587 

Entz,  G.,  Patagonian  Protozoa,  599 

Enzyme,  Preparation  from  a  Fungus,  83 

Eolidise,  Origin  of  Nematocysts,  39 

Ephemerid  Larva?,  Regeneration  of  Seg- 
ments, 580 

Ephemeridse,  Viviparity,  44 

Ephemerum,  Genus,  71 

Epidermis  of  Foliage-Leaves  in  Relation 
to  Light-Perception,  65 

Epiphyses,  Independent  Bony,  in  Saurop- 
sida,  569 

Epstein,  A.  A.,  Simple  Method  of  Sterilis- 
ing Blood  for  Cultural  Purposes,  106 


Equisetum  hyemale,  Sporangial  Develop- 
ment. 195 

Ergot,  Biology.  211 

Ernst,  A.,  Androgynous  Inflorescences  in 
Dumortiera,  201 

Ernst,  P.,  Monstrosities,  163 

Erysiphacese,  Notes  on  Some  Species 
from  India,  351 

—  of  Japan,  478 

—  Specialisation,  77 

Escoyez,  E.,  Blepharoplast  and  Centro- 
some  of  Marchantia  polymorpha.  332 

—  Nucleus  and  Karyokinesis  in  Zygnema. 

332 
Ether,  Passage   from   Mother   to   Foetus, 
504 

—  Sulphuric,  Use  in  Imbedding,  113 
Eubelidse,     Terrestrial     Isopods     of    the 

Family,  48 
Eurypteius,  New  Species,  175 
Evans,  A.  W.,  Hepatica?  of  Puerto  Rico. 
343,  470 

—  Japanese  Hepatics,  343 

—  Leucolejeuuea,     a     New     Genus     of 

Hepaticse,  339 

—  New  West  Indian  Lejeuneae,  734 
Evans,    H.     M.,     Poison     Apparatus     of 

Weever,  169 
1   Evans,  W.,  Collembola  and  Thysanura  of 
Forth  Area,  582 
Everitt's,    Mr.,    and     Professor    Porter's 
Criticism     upon     my     Paper     on     the 
Resolving  Power,  etc.,  Reply  to.  1 
Evolution,  Vitalistic  Theory,  504 
Ewell,  M.  D.,  794 
!   —  The  Present  Status  of  Micrometry,  682 
Excretion  in  Thysanura,  31S 
Exhibition  of  Lantern  Slides  Illustrating 
Nature's   Protection  of  Insect  Life, 
397 

—  of  Natural  Twin-Crvstals   of  Selenite, 

126 

—  of  Pond  Lite,  399 

—  of    Rarer     Species     of      Fresh-water 

Polyzoa,  208 

—  of  Slides  Illustrating  the  Development 

of  the  Chick,  527 

Illustrative  of  the  Life-History  of 

some  of  the  Culicidae,  266 
Extra-floral  Nectaries.  63 
Eve,  Biid's.  Pecteu  in,  707 
|    —  Embrvonic.  of  a  Chick  of  Eight  Days, 
Open  Cleft,  441 

—  Reduction,  in  New  Gammarid  from 
Ireland,  177 

Eye-pieces  for  the  Microscope,  146.  200 

—  for  Mineralogical  and  Petrographical 
Microscopes  of  Socie'te'  Genevoise, 
235 

—  See  Contents,  xxxii 
Byes  of  Scorpions.  4."> 
Eyre,  J.  W.  II..  Melitensis  Septicemia  756, 

788,  790 


814 


INDEX. 


F. 


Faber,  P.  C,  Diseases  and  Pests  of  Coffee, 

481 
Fabiani,    R.,    Abnormality    in     Test     of 
Echinolaiupas,  53 

—  Existence  of  Myxomonas  Betx,  486 
Fabre,  C,  Measurement  of  Resolution  in 

Microscopy,  103 
Falck,  R.,  Wood-destroying  Fungi,  215 
Fallada,  0.,and  others,  Diseases  of  Plants, 

749 
Fantham,  H.  B.,  Biology  and  Affinities  of 
Spirochaetae,  331 

—  Studying     Spirochseta     balbiani     and 

Spirochseta  anodontse,  253 
Farlow,  W.  G.,  Notes  on  American  Fungi, 

355 
Fanner,  J.  B.,   Structure   of  Nucleus  in 

Relation  to  Organisation  of  Individual, 

59 
Faroy,     G.,     Bacillus     Intermediate     to 

Bacillus  typhosus  and  to  Bacillus paraty- 

phosus  A,  635 
Farrant's  Medium,  780 
Fat-bodies  of  Muscidae  in  Metamorphosis, 

316 
Fatigue  Test,  New,  for   Iron    and   Steel, 

662 
Faunas,  Differentiation,  572 
Faunistic  Results  of  German  South  Polar 

Expedition,  313 
Faure-Fremiet,    E.,    New    Hypotrichous 
Infusorian,  56 

—  Turbilina     instabilis,     a     Variety     of 

Strombilidium  gyrans,  461 
Fay,  H.,  Tellurium-Tin  Alloys,  123 
Fechner,     P.,     Gill-Slit     Formation     in 

Ascidians,  34 
Federici,  F.,  Use  of  Sulphuric   Ether  in 

Imbedding,  113 
Ferments  in  Crustaceans,  47 
Fern  Hybrids  in  North  America,  728 

North     American,   of     the    Genus 

Dryopteris,  468 
Fernandez,  M.,  Structure  of  Salpa,  35 
Ferns,  American,  Tropical,  467 

—  British,  Deciduous,  608 

—  New  Species,  Descriptions,  607 

—  New  Tropical,  Descriptions,  337 

—  North  American,  336,  727 

—  of  Paraguay,  337 

—  Philippine,  467 

—  Physiological  Sheaths,  336 

—  South  American,  607 

Ferrarini,   G.,    Bacillus    subtilis    in      the 

Blood  and  Tissues,  638 
Fertilisation  and  Maturation  in  Theridium, 

175 
■ New  Views,  701 

—  in  Cypripediuin,  191 
Fibro-Granulomata,      Subcutaneous,      in 

Cattle,  86 


Filar ia  immitis,  Notes,  718 

Filatoff,  D.,  and  others,  Development  of 

the  Head,  562 
Filicum,  Christensen's  Index,  194 
Filon,  L.  N.  G.,  New  Method  of  Measur- 
ing Directly  the  Double-Refraction   in 
Strained  Glass,  103 
Fink,  B.,  American  Lichens,  358 
Fior,  G.  D.,  Examining  Stylaria   laoustris, 
775 

—  Growth  and  Asexual  Reproduction  in 

Stylaria  lacustris,  590 
Fischel,  H.,  Alizarin,  a  Vital  and  Specific 

Stain  for  Nervous  Tissue,  778 
Fischer,  E.  and  others,  Uredineae,  213, 626 
Fischer,  H.,  Defensive  Glands   in   Tecti- 

branchs,  574 

—  Defensive    Pallial     Glands    in    Scap- 

hander. 710 
Fish,  Hvdroid  Parasitic,  595 
Fisher,  W.  K.,  New.  Holothurians,  182 
Fishes,  Deep-Sea,  New,  from  South-west 

of  Ireland,  16S 

—  Development  of  Notochord,  702 

—  Fresh-water,  Early  Stages,  163 
of  New  Guinea,  16S 

—  Function  of  Optic  Lobes,  70S 
of  Spleen,  570 

—  Nervous  Elements.  444 

—  New  Sub-Order,  570 

—  of  Lake  Baikal,  32 

—  Osseous,     Examining      the     Nervous 

Elements,  653 

—  Regeneration  of  Lens,  443 

—  Scales,  445 

—  Sporozoan  Parasites,  188 

—  Trematodes,  592 
Fissidens,  New  Greenhouse,  199 

—  Portuguese  Species,  71 
Fitzwilliams,  D.  C.  L.,  Hand  and  Foot  in 

Hylobates  agilis,  29 
Fixation    and    Preparation    of    Neinato- 
helminthes,  110 

—  Methods  and  Elimination  of  Artefacts, 

253 

—  New  Method,  110 

—  of  Insect  Larvae,  112 

—  with  Trichloracetic  Acid  and   Uranyl 

Acetate,  514 

Flagellaand  Capsule  of  Bacillus  anthracis, 
223 

Flagellum  of  the  Tubercle  Bacillus,  388 

Flata  marginella,  Wax-Glands,  579 

Flatters,  A.,  Exhibition  of  Slides  Illus- 
trating the  Development  of  the  Chick, 
527 

Fleas,  Relation  to  Plague  Dissemination, 
174 

Fleischer,  M.,  Type  Species  of  Stereo- 
hypnum,  613 

Fleischmann,  A.,  Studies  on  the  Cloaca 
and  Phallus  in  Amniota,  309 

Flemming's  Triple  Staining  Method,  778 


INDEX. 


815 


Flies,  Blood-Sucking,  173 

—  in  Amber.  714 

Flora.   Intestinal,   of  certain   Orthoptera. 

488 
of  Infants.  359 

—  Pleistocene  of  Canada,  66 

Flot,  L.,  Origin  of  Leaves  and  Stern,  62 

Flounder.  Haplosporidian,  598 

Flukes,  Pearl-forming,  180 

Foetus,  Passage  of  Ether  from  Mother  to, 

564 
Fol,  A.,  Regeneration  of  Test  in  Tunicates, 

573 
Foliage-Leaves,  Epidermis,  in  Relation  to 

Light-Perception,  »J5 
Fomes  pinicola  and  its  Hosts,  481 
Food  of  Birds.  169 

—  of  Insects.  On   the  Microscope   as   an 

Aid  to  the  Study  of  Biology  in 
Entomology,  with  Particular  Refer- 
ence to  the,  401 

—  of  Plaice  and  Dabs.  33 

Foot  and  Hand  in  Hylobates  agilis,  29 
Foot,  O,  Chromosomes  in  Spermatogenesis 

of  Anasa  Tristis,  42 
Foraminifer,    Receut,     Alceollna     boscii, 

Dimorphism,  151,  266 
Foraminifera,     Cycloloculiua,     A      New 
Generic  Type,  527,  529 

—  of  Galway,  56 

—  Tertiary,  of  Victoria,  56 
Forceps-Scissors,  256 

Formic  Acid,  Effect  on  Fungi,  627 
Formiggini,  L.,  Italian  Characeae,  735 
Fornario,   G.,   Preserving   the   Colour   of 

Anatomical  Specimens,  391 
Forti,  A.,  Fossil  Diatoms,  348 

—  Italian  Diatoms,  738 

Fortin,  E.  P.,  Peculiarities  of  Vision    in 

the  Chamaeleon,  311 
Foslie,  M.,  Calcareous  Algae.  474 

—  Criticisms  on  Calcareous  Algae,  622 

—  Lithothamnia   of  the    '  Sealark  '    Ex- 

pedition, 209 
Fossil  Flora,  Collecting,  108 
Foucault's  Heliostat,  240 
Fowl,  Examining  the  Oocyte,  776 

—  Parthenogenetic  Segmentation,  561 
Fowl's  Egg,  Intercellular  Connections,  26 
Fowler,  H.  W..  New  Lamprey,  312 
Foxworthy,    F.   W.,    Philippine    AVoods, 

466 
Fraetikel,  W.,  Silicon-Aluminium  Alloys, 

785 
Franca,  C.  Haemogregarine  of   the   Eel, 
599 

—  Trypanoiome  of  the  Eel.  330 

—  Trypanosomes  of  Frog  and  Leech,  58 
of  the  Frog,  599 

Franco-British  Exhibition,  Instruim  nts 
Illustrative  of  the  History  of  the 
Microscope,  399 

Franz,  V.,  Pecten  in  Bird's  Eye,  707 


Fraser,  H.  C,  Sexuality  and  Development 

of  Ascomycetes,  78 
Fraser,  H.  C.  L.,  Cytology   of  Humaria 
rutilans,  210 

—  Morphology  of  Aspergillus  herbariorum, 

2  VI 

Fraser,  H.  C.  T.,  Cytology  of  the  Ascomy- 
cetes, 744 

Frassi,  L.,  Very  Young  Human  Ovum,  561 

Frauenhofer's  Screw  Micrometer,  235 

Fravsse,  A.,  Parasitic  Floweriug  Plants, 
64 

Fre'minville,  C.  de,  Vibrations  Accom- 
panying Shock,  125 

Fremont,  O,  Corrosion  Tests  of  Iron  and 
Steel,  783 

Freund,  H.,  Influence  of  External  Con- 
ditions on  the  Asexual  Reproduction  of 
Algae,  72 

Friedenthal,  H.,  Fixation  with  Trichlor- 
acetic Acid  and  Uranyl  Acetate,  514 

Friedrich,  — .,  Regeneration  and  Autotomy 
in  Spiders,  584 

Friedrich,  K.,  Binary  Systems,  Platinum- 
Arsenic  and  Bismuth- Arsenic.  524 

—  Cobalt-Arsenic  Alloys,  524 

—  Cobalt-Sulphur  Alloys,  660 

—  Copper-Arsenic  System,  786 

—  Melting  Point  Diagrams  of  the  Binary 

Systems,  Galena-Magnetic 
Pyrites  and  Galena- Silver 
Sulphide,  118 

of  the  Binary  Systems,  Silver 

Sulphide-Copper  Sulphide 
and  Lead  Sulphide-Copper 
Sulphide,  118 

—  The    Metallic   Sulphides    PbS,  Cu.,S. 

Ag2S,  FeS,  522 

Fringes,  Interference,'  Produced  by  Photo- 
graphs in  Colours,  618 

Froehlich.  H,  Assimilation  of  Free  Nitro- 
gen by  Fungi,  217 

Frog  and  Leech,  Trypanosomes,  58 

—  and  Turtle,  Anatomy  of  Heart,  31 

—  Corpora  Adiposa,  708 

—  Development  of    Lymph-Sacs  in  Hind 

Limb,  162 

—  Head,  Development,  306 

—  Intestine,  Variation  in  Length,  569 

—  Phagocytic  Action  of  Kidney-Cells.  311 

—  Production  of  Albinism  and  Melanism, 

—  Trypanosomes,  599 

—  Valves  in  Veins,  27 
Fronlonia  leucas,  Trichocysts,  1S7 

Fruit   of    Campylopu*   [lolytrichoides   De- 
scribed, 17:! 
Fruit-Development  and  Origin  of  Acorus 
calamus,  333 

—  in  Aspergillus  Fischer 7,  351 
Fucaceae,   Distribution   on  the    Coast    of 

<  Greenland,  207, 

—  of  Japan,  315 


816 


INDEX. 


Fuchs,  H.,  Independent  Bony  Epiphyses 

in  Sauropsida,  569 
Fueus  Living  on  Sand  and  on  Mud,  208 
Fuhrmann,   P.,   Developmental  Cycle  of 

Bacteria,  637 
Fuhrmann,  O.,  Cestodes  of  Birds,  718 

—  (  lassification  of  Cyclophyllidea,  50 
Fulgur  and  Sycotypus,  Feeding  Habit,  710 

—  Development,  89 

Fuliuski,  B.,  Development  of  Crayfish,  454 
Funck,  C,  Arrangements  for  Utilising  the 

Entire     Cuttiug-Edge     of    Microtome 

Kazors,  055 
Fungi,  Action  on  Cellulose,  354 

—  American,  Notes,  355 

—  Ascomycetous,  Notes,  624 

—  Assimilation  of  Free  Nitrogen,  217 

—  Ceylon,  Revision,  627 

—  Chemistry  of  the  Higher,  628 

—  Colour-Variation,  628 

—  Effect  of  Formic  Acid  on,  627 

—  Fermentation,  218 

—  Higher,  Monographs,  746 

—  Imperfecti,  Research,  479,  625 
Study,  78 

—  Influence  of  Light  on  Respiration,  335 

—  Local  Records,  62S 

—  Localities,  8:; 

—  New,  from  South  America,  749 

—  Parasitic,  628 
from  Java,  217 

on  Hevea  brasiliensis,  483 

on  the  Vine  Phylloxera,  4S3 

—  Phosphorescent,  627 

—  Pileate,  Form-Development,  746 

—  Recent  Work  on,  80 

—  Sexuality,  355 

—  Wood-destroying,  215 
Biology,  627 

—  Woody,  Growth.  214 

—  Yorkshire,  747 

—  See  Contents,  xxvii 
Fungicides,  747 

Fungus,  Dry-Rot,  Staining  the  Mycelium, 
521 

—  Forms,  Remarkable,  212 

—  Preparation  of  Enzyme  from,  83 
Fungus-Culture  of  Wood- Burins:  Beetles, 

218 


G 


Gadd,  G.,  Hermaphroditism  in  a  Sea- 
Urchin,  721 

Gage,  G.  E.,  Detection  of  Bacillus  coli  in 
Drinking- Water,  650 

Gaidukov,  N.,  Application  of  the  Ultra- 
microscope  (after  Siedentopf)  and  of  the 
Microspectral  Photometer  (after  Engel- 
mann)  to  the  Textile  and  Dyeing 
Industries,  387 


(Jain,  E.,  Peroxydiastase   in   Dry   Seeds, 

332 
Galeopithecus,    Formation  of  Red   Blood 

( 'orpuscles  in  Placenta,  161 
Gall,  New  Subterranean  Parasite.  484 
Gail-Stones  and  Anaerobic  Bacteria,  90 
Gallaud,  I.,  Recent  Work  of  Fungi.  80 

—  Sexuality  in  Fungi,  355 
Gulleria  melonella,  713 
Galvanometer,  Differential,  Use  of,  525 
Gamble,  F.  W.,  Introduction  to  Study  of 

Natural  History,  566 
Gammaiid,  New,  from  Ireland,  Reduction 

of  Eye,  177 
Ganglion-Cells  of  Tethys  leporina,  Miuute 

structure,  171 
Gard,    M.,    Cystolith-Formation    in    the 

Cistaceae,  61 
Garman,  S.,  Reptiles  of  Eastern   Island, 

569 
Gases   Contained   in   Metals,   Extraction, 
125 

—  Occluded  in  Special  Nickel  Steel,  601 
in  Steel,  124 

—  Poisonous.  Effects  on  Plants,  604 
Gasterogrimmia  in  Hungary,  614 
Gastrophilus  Larvae  in  Human  Skin,  711 
Gastropod,  Parasitic,  New,  170 
Gastropoda.     See  Contexts,  xii 
Gastropods  of  the  Magellan  Province,  171 

—  Orthogenesis,  171 
Gastrulation  in  Petromyzon,  24 

—  in  Teleosteans,  162 

Gatin,  C.  L.,  Embryology  in  the  Palmaceaj, 
Musaceae  and  Canuacese,  602 

—  Lenticels  of  Palms,  62 

Gatliff,  J.  H,  New  Australian  Chiton,  172 
Gebhardt,  — .,  New  Easily  Legible  Micro- 
meter Divisions,  647 
Gelderd,  C,  Alimentary  Canal  of  Scluzo- 

pods,  585 
Genera,  New — 
Botany : 

Acanthonitschkea,  749 

Acrotheciella,  217 

Actinothuidium,  733 

Ananthacorus,  467 

Blastospora,  746 

Campylopodiella,  732 

Ceratopycnidium,  83 

Chlamydomyces,  210 

Cionothrix,  79 

Cypellomyces,  752 

Cystingophora,  79 

Davallodes,  467 

Demlryphiopsis,  481 

Dicheirinia,  79 

Dimeriella,  749 

Dimerosporiella,  749 

Discospora,  79 

Duthiella,  733 

Eudarluca,  749 

Fomitoporella.  215 


INDEX. 


817 


Genera,  New  (Botany)  cont. — 
Fomitoporia,  215 
Fuscoporella,  215 
Fuscoporia,  215 
Gollania,  733 
Herpobasidium,  625 
Hyalotheles.  74!) 
Hysteiiopsis.  749 
Leiolejeunea,  734 
Leucolejeunea,  339 
Lindauomyces,  217 
Lonchosperniella,  74'.t 
Macrodiplodiella,  749 
Megacerus,  471 
Melanoporella,  215 
Melanoporia,  215 
Merilliobryum,  471 
Neciurn,  79 
Neohenningsia,  217 
Parmularia,  221 
Pessopteris,  467 
Phaeobotryosphseria,  749 
Pbffiotlimeriella,  749 
Phreomarsonia,  749 
Phseoseptoria,  749 
Plectophoma,  747 
Protocoronospora,  630 
Pseudobalsamia,  751 
Pseudolecanactis,  633 
Puiggariella,  733 
Pibysotbeea,  210 
Spermatoloncba,  749 
Sporoinyxa,  85 
Steiuiella,  739 
Stilbopeziza,  749 
Tetrasticbium,  342 

Thernioidiuni,  219 

Tiuctoporia,  215 

Trenomyces,  478 

Treubaria,.739 

AYentioinyces,  217 

Whitfordia,  752 

Wiesnerioinyces,  217 
Zoology : 

Aeerentomon,  175 

-Etriuloalaimus,  49 

Albertella,  588 

Anapbiloscia.  48 

Ancystropodimn.  50 

Anoplocopea,  454 

Bathyonyx,  177 

Braunia,  718 

Burlingus,  588 

Cercidocliela,  186 

Cobbia,  49 

Dicbolaphis,  185 

Eleoniscus,  48 

Etbelumoris,  48 

Halecbiniscus,  585 

Helicocrancbia,  37 

Hoplakitbara,  L86 

Koonunga,  176 

Linaresia,  716 


Genera,  New  (Zoology)  cont.— 
Loxi  tsomatoides,  594 
Lytocestus,  456 
Maiitrema,  180 
Metalinhomceus,  49 
Mialges,  46 
Migas,  460 
Mcerisia,  596 
Nudiclava,  595 
Occopliyllembius.  451 
Oceanomyzon,  i ■>  1 2 
Orchitophrya,  599 
Oryctocara,  588 
Oxyuropoda.  717 
Pachyclavularia,  327 
Parasabatieria,  49 
Phrynocrinus,  182 
Proalides,  325 
Proderostonia.  456 
Ptilocrinus,  182 
Sigmaxinyssa,  186 
Spelaeuglonieris,  453 
Spelseoniscus,  48 
Speodisetus,  450 
Speonoinus,  450 
Studeria,  675 
Svavopsis,  327 
Synalpbeion,  587 
Turbilina,  461 
Genevoise,      Socie'te',      Eye  -  Pieces      for 

Mineralogical   and  Petrograpbieal 

Microscopes,  235 
Mineralogical    and    Petrograpbieal 

Microscopes       witb       Permanent 

Centring     and      witb      Objective 

Rotation,  229 
Genital  Organs  of  Bradypodidae,  31 
..Genitalia  as  Indications  of  Relationship, 
715 

—  of  Male  Cockroach,  451 

Gentes,     L.,    Infundibular     Gland     and 
Choroid  Plexus,  564 

—  Nervous  Lobe  of  the  Hypophysis  and 

tbe  Vascular  Sac,  34 
Georgevitcb,  P.  M..   Geotropisin    in   the 

Roots  of  Lupinus  albus,  65 
Geotropic  Sensibility  of  tbe  Root,  603 
Geotropism  in  the  Roots  of  Lupinus  alius, 

65 
Gerbardt,  U.,  Penis  in  Birds,  309 
Germ-Cells   and   Embryology   of  Apbids, 
580 

—  in  Mammalian  Embryos,  Origin.  306 
Germination  and  Copulation  of  Spirogyra, 

73 

—  of  some  Pbajophyeca),  Observations,  736 
Gerneck,  R.,  Lower  Chloropbyceaj,  347 
Gestation  in  Acanthius  vulgaris,  444 
Giaja,  J.,  Ferments  in  Crustaceans,  47 
Giard,  A..  Pearl-forming  Flukes,  180 
Gibson,  C.  M.,  Scytothamnus  australis.  475 
Giemsa-stainiug    of    Spirochxta   pallida, 

115 


818 


INDEX. 


Gil,  A.  C,  Spanish  Species  of  Marchantia, 

342 
Gilbert,  A.,  Anaerobic  Bacteria  and  Gall- 
stones, !MI 

—  Bacteriology  of  Tropical  Abscess  of  the 

Liver,  222 
Gill,  T.,  Natural  History  of  the   Lump- 
sucker,  107 
Gill-Cleft  Region  of  Gymuophiona,  5G2 
Gill-Slit  Formation  in  Aseidians,  34 
Gisi,  J.,  Brain  of  Hatteria  punctata,  31 
Giudice,   P.    Lo,     Locomotor    Organs    of 

Gyge  branchialis,  586 
Girvanella,  Fossil:  A  Plant,  741 
Glands,  Calciferous,  of  Earthworms,  49 

—  ( ephalic,  of  Machilis  maritima,  452 

—  Cutaneous,  of  Wasps,  450 

—  Defensive,  in  Tectibranchs,  574 

—  of  Orinoids,  721 

—  Poison,  of  Salamander,  443 

Glass,  Strained,  New  Method  of  Measur- 
ing Directly  the  Double-Refraction,  1 03 
Gloeosporium,  Biological  Study,  352 

—  Notes.  625 

Glossina  palpalis,  Observations,  578 
Gobius  orca,  Occurrence  in  the  Clyde  Sea 

Area,  571 
Goddard,   E.   J.,   Studies   on    Australian 

Leeches,  718 
Goebel,  K.,  Apogamy  and  Apospory.  68 
Goerens,  P.,  Application  of  Colour  Photo- 
graphy in  Metallography,  395 

—  Solidification  and  Melting  of  Cast-iron, 

524 
Gold  and  Tellurium  Alloys,  394 
Goldfinger,   G.,  Development  of  Lymph- 
Sacs  in  Hind  Limb  of  Frog,  102 
Goldfish,  Embryonic  Circulation,  702 
Golenkinia,  Archeriua,  and  Botryococcus, 

59S 
Gonads,  Female,  of  Cuttlefishes,  573 

—  of  Tenebrio  molitor.  Development,  577 
Goniometer,  Wollaston's,  241 
Goniometer-Ocular,  Reichert's,  647 
Gonionemus    murbachii,     Nuclear    Cycle, 

328 
Gonnermauu,  M.,  Jelly-forming  Bacteria, 

636 
Gonococci,  Cultivation,  105 
Gonococcus  and  certain  other  Micrococci, 
Differential  Diagnosis,  487 

—  and  Micrococcus  catarrhalis,  487 
Gonocytes  in  Amphibians,  Origin,  305 
Gonophores    in    Siphonophora,    Develop- 
ment, 328 

—  of  Plumularia  obliqua   and  Sertularia 

operculata,  55 
Gontermann,  W.,  Antimony-Lead  Alloys, 

120 
Goodrich,  E.  S.,  Scales  of  Fishes,  445 
Gooseberry  Mildew  in  Russia,  211 
Gordon,  J.  W.,  135,  265,  526,  528,  789,  792, 
797 


Gordon,  J.  W.,  Illuminating    Apparatus 
for  the  Microscope,  425,  527 

—  Mercury  Globules  as  Test  Objects  for 

the  Microscope,  6 

—  New  Lens  for  High-power  Microscopy, 

526 
Gordon,  M.  H,  Micrococcus  of  Epidemic 
(  erebrospinal  Meningitis,  87 

—  Staphylococci  Pathogenic  to  Man,  87 
Gorgouids,  New,  459 

Goris,  A.,  Colour   Reactions   in   Russula 

and  Lactarius,  217 
Gottberg,  M.,  and  others,  Staining  Spiro- 

chfeta  pallida,  111 
Gouy,  M.,  Apparatus  for  Measuring  Micro- 

meler  Levels,  618 
Grabau,  A.  W.,  Orthogenesis  in  Gastro- 
pods, 171 
Grabe,  A.,  Influence  of  Nitrogen  on  Steel, 

525 
Grafting  of  Plants  containing  Hydrocyanic 

Acid,  334 
Graham-Smith,  G.  S.,  Sarcosporidiau   in 

Parakeets,  188 
Grain  Weevils,  41 
Grains,    Plate,    Scheffer's    Microscopical 

Researches,  243 
Gram-Staining  Method,  Theory,  521 
Gram's  Staining  Method,  116 
"  Granny  "  Crabs,  47 
Graphite  in  lion,  Solubility,  522 

—  Solubility  in  Iron,  124 
Grapsus,  Autotomy.  47 
Grasses,  Aleurone  Grains,  191 
Grater,  E.,  New  Cave  Copepod,  5S7 
Gravely,   F.  H.,   Tubularia   indivim  var. 

obliqua,  55 
Gravier,  O,   Association  of   Alcyonarian 

and  Alga,  327 
Gregarines,  Solitary  Encyst  ition,  461 
Greger,  D.  K.,  Colour  Markings  in  a  De- 
vonian Brachiopod,  720 
Gregory  and  Wright's  Microscope  12S,  154 
Gregory,  J   W.,  Rotiform  Bryozoa  of  the 

Isle  of  Wight,  51 
Grifiith*ia  acuta,  474 
Griggs.   R.  F.,  Function   of  the   ( lentro- 

some,  463 
Grimaldia  and  Neesiella,  730 
Grimmia  andreasoides,  733 
Grimsehl's    Lilipnt    Projection     Lauteru, 

242 
Grochmalicki,  J.,  Regeneration  of  Lens  in 

Fishes,  443 
Grouse,  Red,  Leucocytozoon,  18S 
( irout,  A.  J.,  North  Americau  Mosses.  470 
Growth  of   Seed  Plants.    See  Contents, 

xxi 
Gruvel,  A.,  Antarctic  Cirripedia,  177 

—  New  Barnacles,  321 
Gudernatsch,    J.   F.,   Technique    oX    the 

Water    Method    of    Sticking    Paraffin 
Sections  on  the  Slide,  521 


INDEX. 


810 


Gue'guen,  F.,  Bacillus  endothrix,  :!G0 

—  Conidial  Development  otXylaria  llypo- 

xylon,  212 

—  Systematic   Position  of  Achorion   and 

Oospora.  470 

Gne'rin,  J.,  Examining  the  Tentacular 
Apparatus  of  Cephalopods,  514 

Guertler,  \V..  Formula)  of  Metallic  Com- 
pounds, 660 

Guignnrd,  L.,  Grafting  of  Plants  contain- 
ing Hydrocyanic  Acid.  334 

Guillemard,  A.,  Separatiou  of  Bacillus 
typhosus  and  Bacillus  coli,  509 

Guillet,  L.,  Constitution  of  Manganese 
Cast-Irons,  261 

—  Copper- A luuiiuium  Alloys.  782 

—  Importance  of  Centring  in  Microscopic 

Metallography,  393 

—  Special  (  ast-Irons,  120 
Guilliermond.    A.,   Aleuroue    Grains    of 

Grasses,  191 

—  Sexuality  in  Fungi,  355 

in  the  Ascomycetes,  624,  743 

Gull,  Segments  of  Head  and  Brain.  25 
Gulliver,  G.  H.,  Cohesion  of  Steel.  782 
Gunther,   R.  T.,   Systematic   Position  of 

Chsetognatha,  322 
Guppy,  L.  Jun.,  Life-History  of  Cydemon 

leilus,  44 
Gurney,  K.,   Crustacea  of  East   Norfolk 
Rivers,  177 

—  New  Species  of  Cirolana  from  a  Spring 

in  the  Sahara.  585 
Gussow,   H.  T.,  and  others,  Diseases   of 

Plants,  482 
Gut  in  Rhabdocoelids,  Syncytial  Nature, 

456 
Gutowsky,  N.,  Solidification  and  Melting 

of  Cast-iron.  524 
Gwyer,  A.  G.  C,  Binary  Alloys  of  Alu- 
minium, 260 
G wynne- Vaughan,  D.  T.,  Fossil  Osmun- 

daceae,  196 
Gyge  branchial i<.  Locomotor  Orgaus,  586 
Gymnarchus  nihticus,  Development,  440 
Gyranophiona,  Gill-Cleft  Region,  562 
Gyorffy,  I.,  Gasterogrimmia  in  Hungary, 
6*14 

—  Hybrids  of  Physcomitrella,  199 
Gyropteris  and  Tubicaulis.  Leaf-Trace,  726 


H. 


Haberlandt,  G.,  Geotropic   Sensibility   of 

the  Root,  60:; 
Hackspill,  L.,  Platinum-Thallium  Allov, 

394 
Ilaecker.  V.,  Studies  on  Radiolarians,  186 
Hamiatococcus,  Genus,  618 
Hajmogregarine  in  Blood  of  a  Himalayan 

Lizard,  461 
—  of  Leptodactylm  ocellatus,  461 


Haemogregarine  of  the  Eel.  599 
Hagem,  O.,  Norwegian  Mucorineaj.  623 

—  Urospora  in  Norway.  619 
Halle,  B ,  Polarising  Prisms,  :i7ii 
Halle,  T.  G.,  Fossil  Pteridopliyta,  608 
Hallez,  P.,  Parasite  of  i  'ockle,  456 

—  Syncytial      Nature     of     the     Gut     in 

Rhabdocoelids,  456 
Hulimeda  and  Avrainvillea.  205 
Haliotidae,  Califoruiau,  Structure,  40 
Hallez,  P.,  Maturation  and    Cleavage   in 

Pararortex  candii,  719 
Halopteris  scoparia,  Sexuality,  74 
Ham,  Miscured  aud  Barilla*  fosdans,  638 
Hamburger,  H.  J.,   New   Cold    Injection 

Method,  658 
Hamilton,  G.  van  T.,  Unusual   Type  of 

Reaction  in  Dog,  567 
Hammar,  A.  G.,  Nervous  System  of  Larva 

of  Corydalis  cornuta,  715 
Hancock,  E.  C,  Recovery   of  Steel  from 

Overstrain,  262 
Hand  and  Foot  in  Hylobates  agilis,  29 
Hands,  Inheritance  of  Manner  of  Clasp- 
ing, 564 
Hansen,  E.  C,  Action  of  Absolute  Alcohol 

on  Bacteria  and  on  Yeasts,  362 
Haplodiscus,  Structure,  181 
Haplospoiidian  of  Flounder,  598 
Harkort,  H.,  Iron-Tungsten  System,  257 
Harmand,  J.,  French  Lichens,  633 
Harms,  W  ,  Post-Embryonic  Development 

of  Unio,  575 
Harper,   R.  A.,   Development   of  Hydro- 

dictyon,  618 
Harpidia,  Notes  on,  340 
Harpidium  Section  of  Hypnum,  610 
Harris,  N.  MacL.,  New  Method  of    Pre- 
paring the  Romanowsky  Stain,  115 
Harrison,    F.    C,    Isolating    the    Nodule 

Organism  of  the  Leguminosse,  252 
Harrison,    R.    G.,    Observations    on    the 

Living  Developing  Nerve-Fibre,  28,  H>9 
Harshberger,  J.  W.,  Water-Storing  Tubers 

of  Nephrolepis.  606 
Harvey,  W.   H.,   Dust-Excluding   Histo- 
logical Reagent  Bottle.  117 
—  Imoroved  Form  of  Celloidin  Capsule, 

:;:»i 
Hasler,  A.  and  others,  Uredineae,  745 
Hasselbring,  H.,  Carbon   Assimilation  of 

Penicillium.  335 
Hata,  S.,  Aeiobic  Cultivatii in  of  Anaen 

51 1'.* 
Hatta,  S..  Oastrnlation  in  PetromyzoD,  24 
Hatteria  punctata.  Brain.  :il 
Hauron,   S.    D.    M.,    Colour-Screens    for 

Colour-Photography,  503 
Haustoria  of  Meliola  aud  Asterina,  624 
Hawkins,  1..  A..  Spornngial  Development 

in  Equisetum  hyemale,  195 
Haynes,  C.  C.  and  others,  North  American 

Muscinese,  198,  613 


820 


INDEX. 


Head  and  Brain  Segments  in  Gull,  25 

—  Development,  562 

—  Frog's,  Development,  306 

—  of  Diplopoda,  Segmentation,  1519 
Head-Glands  of  Thysannra,  581 
Head-Muscles  in  Sauropsida,  310 
Heart  in  Frog  and  Turtle,  Anatomy,  31 
Heat,  Action  on  Immature  Mussel-Fluke, 

50 
Heath,  H.,  Hermaphroditism  in  a  Chiton, 

314 
Hebb,  R.  G.,  133,  136,  789 
Hecke,  L.,  Infection  by  Smut  Fungi,  353 
Hectocotylisation     and     Luminosity     in 

Cuttlefishes,  36 
Hedgehog,    Trematode     in     Hibernating 

Gland,  592 
Hegyi,   D.   V.    and    others,    Diseases    of 

Plants,  356 
Heidinger,     W.,     Development     of     the 

Sexual  Organs  of  Vaucheria,  620 
Heimstadt,    O.,    Reicherfs    New    Large 

Projection  Apparatus,  500 
Heinick,  P.,  Studying  the  Development  of 

Teeth  in  Castor  Fiber,  513 
Heinis,  F.,  Metamorphosis   of  Species  of 

Echiniscus,  585 
Heinze,  B.,  Fixation  of  Nitrogen  by  Alga?, 

473 
Heinzerling,  O.,  Structure  of  the  Diatom- 
Cell,  617 
Helcampella  ostroumowi,  184 
Heliostat,  Foucault's,  240 
Heliozoa   and   Rhizopods  of  the   Nether- 
lands, 460 
Helix  pomatia,    Sugar-Reducing    Power, 

314 
Hemiptera,  Salivary  Glands,  172 
Hemiuridas,  323 

Hen,  Experiment  with  the  Oviduct,  707 
Henneberg's  Microtome  Auxiliaries,  388 
Henninger,     G.,     Labyrinth     Organ     of 

Labyrinthici,  168 
Henri,  V.,  Influence  of  the  Medium   on 

Brownian  Movements,  649 
Hepatic,  Abnormal  Archegonium,  473 
Hepaticse,  Antiquity,  471 

—  British,  611 

—  European,  69,  339 

—  New  Descriptions,  734 

—  New  Genus,  Leucolejeunea,  339 

—  of  Baden,  341 

—  of  New  Caledonia  and  Tonkin,  343 

—  of  Puerto  Rico,  343,  470 

—  Thalloid,  of  Java,  734 
Hepatics,  Antarctic,  615 

—  Califoraian,  Notes,  615 

—  European,  614 

—  Japanese,  343 

—  of  New  Caledonia,  471 

—  Riccardia  and  other,  616 
Herdman,  W.  A.,  "  Granny"  Crabs,  47 

—  Rare  British  Coral,  54 


Heredity,  Text-book,  559 

Herman,     M.,     Staining     the     Tubercle 

Bacillus,  255 
Hermaphroditism  in  a  Chiton,  314 

—  in  a  Sea-Urchin,  721 
Hermellidae,  Thoracic,  Nephridia,  58S 
Heron- Allen,  E.,t)n  Cycloloculina,  a  New 

Generic  Type  of  Foraminifera,  527,  529 
Herouard,  E.,  Statoblasts  in  a  Scyphistoma, 

54 
Herpetology  of  Japan,  311 
Herring,   P.   T.,   Action   of    Extracts    of 
Saccus    Yasculosus    and     Pituitary 
Body,  704 

—  Development  of  Mammalian  Pituitary 

Body,  698 

—  Minute      Structure      of      Mammalian 

Pituitary  Body,  702 

Herzog,  T.,  Trichostomum  mutabile  and  its 
Allies,  199 

Hess,  E.,  Microscopic  Features  of 
Hardened  Supersaturated  Steels,  663 

Hesse,  E.,  New  Myxosporidian  Family, 
189 

Hesse,  O.,  Lichen  Constituents,  220 

Hesselbo,  A.,  Arctic  Muscineae,  70 

Heurck,  H.  van,  Marine  Algae  of  the 
Channel  Islands,  345 

Heusner,  H.  L.,  Object  Stage  with  Ex- 
changeable Plates.  766 

Hevea  brasiliensi*,  Fungi  Parasitic  on,  483 

Hewitt,  C.  G.,  House-Fly,  710 

Hevdrich.  F.,  Spheeranthera  lichenoides, 
208 

Heyn,  E.,  Metallography  of  Cast-iron,  122 

Hibernation  and  Vegetative  Reproduction 
of  Stellaria,  602 

—  of  Marasmarcha,  43 

Hickling,  G.,  Anatomy   of  Palssodachya 

vera,  196 
Hickson,  S.  J.,  Aleyonaria,  Antipatharia. 

and  Madreporaria  from  the  North  Side 

of  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  185 
Hieronymus,  G.,  South  American  Ferns 

607 
Hill,  C,  Influence  of  Stress  on  the  Cor- 
rosion of  Iron,  118 
Hill,    J.    P.,    Examining    the    Eggs    of 

Ornithorhyncus,  653 
Hin''le,  E.,    New   Zealand  Holothurians, 

53 
Hindrichs,  G.,  Zinc-Cadmium  Alloys.  120 
Hine,  J.  S.,  Freezing  Insect  Larvae,  451 
Hinterberger,  A.,  Flagella  and  Capsule  of 

Bacillus  anthracis,  223 
Hirudineae,       Demonstrating        Nervous 

Tissue,  513 
Histogenesis     of     Cysticercus    pisiformis. 
Studying,  514 

—  of  Muscle,  445 

—  of  Nerve-fibrils,  Demonstrating,  254 

—  of  Nervous  System.  444 
Histological  Studies.  565 


INDEX. 


821 


Histology  of  Vertebrates.     See  Contents, 

ix 
Histolysis  of  Wing-Muscles  in  Ants  after 

Nuptial  Flight.  316 
Hoffman,  R.  W.,  Structure  of  Collembola, 

452 
Hoffmann,      II.,     Staining      Streptococcus 

mueosus,  518 
He  ifsteu,  N.  V.,  New  Rhabdoccela,  50 
Hohnel,  F.  v.,  Contribution  to  our  Know- 
ledge of  Cortices,  480 

—  Mycologieal  Fragments,  iii.,  356 
Notes  IV.,  747 

Holdbaus,  K.,  Differentiation  of  Faunas, 

572 
Holm,   T.,   Hibernation    and    Vegetative 

Reproduction  of  Stellaria,  602 
Holmgren,    E.,  Examining    the    Tropho- 

spongia  of  Striated  Muscle,  112 
Holmgren,  N.,  Shell-bearing  Mycetophila 

Larva,  174 
Holothurians,  Antarctic,  721 

—  Apodous,  Monograph,  327 

—  Littoral,  of  Indian  Ocean,  594 

—  New,  182 

—  New  Zealand,  53 

Holt,  E.  W.  L.,  New  Deep-Sea  Fishes 
from  South-West  of  Ireland,  168 

Homceomorphy,  Brachiopod,  457 

Hoogenraad,  H.  R.,  Rliizopods  and  Helio- 
zoa  of  the  Netherlands,  460 

Hoolieria  papillate,  Note,  473 

Hooper,  C.  H.,  Food  of  Birds,  169 

Hopkinson,  J.,  796 

Horiuchi,  T.,  Bacillus  Causiug  an  Exan- 
thematous  Fever,  4S9 

Hornet,  Spermatogenesis,  577 

Hornets,  Demonstrating  the  Spermato- 
genesis, 654 

Horse,  New,  from  Lower  Miocene,  706 

Horwood,  A.  R.,  British  MuscineaB,  197 

Houdaille,  — .,  Photographic  Objective 
Containing  a  Uranium-Glass  Lens,  93 

House-Fly,  710 

Howe,  H.  M.,  Carbon-Iron  Diagram,  785 

—  Osinondite.  122 

—  Piping  and  Segregation,  262 

Howe,  M.  A.,  Avrainvillea  and  Halimcda, 

205 
Howe,   P.   E.,   Electrolytic    Corrosion    of 

Brasses,  121 
Hoyle,  W.  E.,  Cephalopods  from  Sudanese 
Red  Sea,  574 

—  Hectocotylisation   and   Luminosity    in 

Cuttlefishes,  30 
Huber,    O.,    Copulatory    Appendages    of 

Lseviraia  oxyrhynchus,  570 
Hubrecht,  A.  A.  \V.,    Formation  of  Red 
Blood     Corpuscles     in     Placenta      of 
Galeopithecus,  101 
Hudson,  O.  P.,  Heat  Treatment  of  Copper- 
Zinc  Alloys,  202 
— of  Muutz  Metal,  784 


Hugues,  A.,  Fasting  Powers  of  the  Swift, 

310 
Human  Ovum,  Very  Young,  501 
Humaria  rutilans,  Cytology,  210 
Humphrey,  H.  B.,  Notes  on   California^ 

Hepatics,  615 
Huntington,  A.  K.,  Planimetric  Analysis 

of  Alloys,  661 
Hurthle,  K.,  Striped  Muscle,  20 
Huss,    H.,   Bactridium    lipolyticum,    Fat- 
Splitting  Bacterium,  359 

—  Micrococcus  Producing  a  Yellow-Brown 

Colour  on  Cheese,  88 
Hutchinson,  C.  M.,  Algal  Blight  on  Tea, 

4/o 
Hybrid  between  Bream  and  Rudd,  702 
Hybrids   of   Peacock  and    Cochin-China 

Hen,  310 

—  of  Physcomitrella,  199 
Hydnocyti    Thwaitesii,  350 
Hydra,  Species,  458 

Hydra  viridis,  Green  Bodies  of,  721 
Hydrachnids,  175 

—  Scottish,  46 

—  Swiss,  5S5 

Hydrodictyon,  Development,  618 
Hydroid,  Australian,  in  North  Sea,  328 

—  Parasitic  on  Fish,  595 
Hydroids  from  Natal,  722 

—  from  North  Side  of  Bay  of  Biscay,  184 

—  New  Varieties,  459 

—  of  Eastern  Tropical  Pacific,  184 

—  of  Madagascar  and  South-East  A  friea , 

183 
Hydromedusan  from  Lake  Qurun,  596 
Hydrotropism  in  Crabs,  453 
Hylobates  agilis.  Hand  and  Foot,  29 
Hymenolepis  fragilis,  456 
Hymenomycetes,  New,  81 

—  Polymorphism,  353 
Hymenoptera,  Clasping  Organs  of  Wings, 

172 
Hyphomycetes,  213,  352,  479,  626 
Hypnace;e,  Subfamilies,  733 
Hypnum,  Harpidium  Section,  610 

—  Tundra-Forms,  613 
Hypobranchial    Gland    of    Dog    Whelk, 

Physiological  Action  of  Extract.  574 
Hypoderma   bovis    Larva,   Migrations    in 

Ox,  44 
Hypophysis,   Nervous   Lobe  of,  and   the 

Vascular  Sac,  34 


Ihervillea  Sonorx,  Stem,  61 
Ichthyophthirius     mult  ijil  it's    on     British 

-Koacb,  56 
Ictbyosaurs,  Embryos  in,  442 
Igel,  J.,    Structure   of  Fha-eolicama  ma- 

gellanica,  1 18 
Ikeda,  I.,  Remarkable  Echiuroids,  590 


Sl'L' 


INDEX. 


Illuminating  and   other   Apparatus.     See 
Contents,  xxxiii 

—  Apparatus  for  the  Microscope,  425,  527 
Illumination,    Dark-Ground,   and    Ultra- 
microscopy,  378 

Leitz    for   Examination   of   Living 

Bacteria,  502 
New  Method  of  Showing   Bacteria, 

131 

—  Microscopic,  Electric  Mercury  Vapour 

Lamp,  95 
Illuminator  for  High-Power  Dark-Ground 
Illumination,  Beck's,  238 

—  Vertical,  Watson  and  Sons,  94 
Imbedding,  Celloidin,  657 

—  Combined,  in  Celloidin   and   Paraffin, 

775 

—  Objects.     See  Contents,  xxxvi 

—  Use  of  Sulphuric  Ether,  113 
Immersion     Oil,     Paraffinum     Liquidum 

(B.P.)  as,  771 

Imms,  A.  D.,  Structure  and  Behaviour  of 
Larva  of  Anopheles  maculipennis,  174 

Immunity,  Artificial,  Protective  and  Cura- 
tive, 637 

Impact-Testing  on  Notched  Test-Pieces, 
261 

Incertre  Sedis.     See  Contents,  xvii 

Incubation,  Buccal,  in  Arms  fissus,  32 

—  in  Doves,  161 

Index  Filicum,  Christeusen's,  194 

Index-Ocular,  Reichert's,  C.4(J 

Indol,  Detection  in  Microbial  Cultures, 
774 

Inflorescences,  Androgynous,  in  Dumor- 
tiera,  201 

Infundibular  Gland  and  Choroid  Plexus, 
564 

Infusoria,  Physiology  of  Pulsating  Vacu- 
ole, 56 

Infusorian,  Hypotrichous,  New,  56 

Ingham,  W.,  Notes  on  the  Harpidia,  340 

Inheritance  in  Canaries,  699 

—  of  Manner  of  Clasping  the  Hands,  564 

—  of  Pigmentation  in  Mice,  23 
Injecting  Objects.     See  Contents,  xxxvi 
Injection,  New  Cold  Method,  658 
Insect  Larvae,  Freezing,  451 

—  Life,  Nature's  Protection,  397 
Insecta.     See  Contents,  xiii 

Insects,  Food.  On  the  Microscope  as  an 
Aid  to  the  Study  of  Biology  in 
Entomology  with  Particular  Refer- 
ence to,  401 

—  Injurious,  in  Ireland,  41 
to  Books,  172 

to  Olives  and  Figs,  451 

—  Protandry,  711 

—  Scale,  of  Date  Palm,  173 

—  Spermatogenesis,  577 

—  Treatise,  315,  713 

Insemination,  Artificial,  in  Mammals,  24 
Instruments,  Binocular,  93 


Intelligence  of  Raccoons,  567 

Interference  Fringes  produced  by  Photo- 
graphs in  (  olours.  fi48 

Intestinal  Flora  of  Infants,  359 

Intestine,  Frog's,  Variation  in  Length, 
569 

Invertebrata.     See  Contents,  xii 

Invertebrates,  Marine,  Nitrogen  Meta- 
bolism. 35 

Iron  Alloys,  Densities  and  Specific  Heats 
of  Some,  119 

—  and  Cadmium,  Antimonides,  660 

—  and  Nickel,  Magnetisation,  124 

—  and    Phosphorus,    Constitution     Com- 

pounds. 663 

—  and  Steel,  Corrosion  Tests,  783 

New  Fatigue  Test,  662 

Quenching  and  Tempering,  784 

—  Carbon,  and  Sulphur,  6»>3 

—  Cast,  Annealing-Carbon,  124 
Metallography,  122 

Manganese,  Constitution,  261 

Special,  120 

—  Group  Elements,  Melting  Points,  121 

—  Influence   of  Stress  on    the  Corrosion, 

118 

—  Meteoric  and  Steel,  258 

—  Solubility  of  Graphite  in,  124,  522 

—  with  Chromium,  Alloys,  122 

—  witli  Molybdenum,  Alloys,  119 
Iron-Bacteria,  Five  New  Species,  755 
Iron-Carbon  Alloys.  Specific  Heat,  525 

—  System,  125 

Influence  of  Phosphorus,  524 

Iron-Tungsten  System,  267 

Irritability  of  Seed  Plants.    See  Contents. 

xxii 
Isopod,  Marine,  New,  454 

—  New  British  Terrestrial,  320 
Cave,  48 

Devonian,  717 

—  Terrestrial,  New,  455,  587 
Isopods,  Cave,  48 

—  Maxillary  Gland,  586 

—  Terrestrial,  of  the  Family    Eubelidaa, 

48 
Iwanoff,  J.  J.,   Artificial  Insemination  in 

Mammals,  24 
Izuka,  A.,  Breeding   of  „  Nereis  japonica, 

717 

J. 

Jackson,  A.  B.,  Mosses  of  Hampshire  an  1 

Isle  of  Wight.  340 
Jackson,  C.  F„  Semi-Aquatic  Aphid,  317 
Jager,  L.  de.  Method  for  Photographing 

Superficial  Bacterial  Colonies.  392 
Jahn.  E..  Myxomycete  Studies,  635 
Jakubski,  A.   W.,   Neuroglia  in  Leeches, 

455 
Jancewski.  E.  de,  Monograph  of  the  Genus 

Ribes,  GG 


INDEX. 


823 


Janet,  C,  Histolysis  of  Wing-Muscles  in 
Ants  after  Nuptial  Flight.  316 

Jeauniaire,  J.,  Case  of  Poisoning  by 
Amanita  junquillea,  748 

Jeannel.  R.,  Cave  Beetles,  450 

Jensen,  C.,Cephal<>zia  in  Scandinavia,  615 

Jell)'-Forming  Bacteria,  636 

Jerboa,  New,  from  China,  707 

Jeriomin,  K.,  Copper-Bismuth  Alloys,  120 

Johnson,  T.,  Spongospora  Solani,  486,  753 

Johnstone,  J.,  Food  of  Plaice  and  Dabs, 
33 

—  Ichthyophthirius  multifiliis  on   British 

Roach,  56 

—  Sporozoan  Parasites  of  Fishes,  188 

—  Teleostean  Abnormalities,  33 

Jolly,  W.  A.,  Removal  and  Transplant- 
ation of  Ovaries,  23 

—  Transplantation  of  Ovaries,  700 
Jordan,  H.  E.,  Accessory  Chromosome  in 

Aplopus  mayeri,  318,  449 
Jordansky,   V.,   Plague    Bacillus   in   the 

Bed  Bug,  489 
Jorgensen,  E.,  Plankton  of  Mofjord,  349 
Joseph,  H.,  Epidermal  Sensory  Cells  in 

Amphioxus,  444 
Jost,  H.,  Migrations  of  Hypodenna  Bovis 

Larva  in  Ox,  44 
Judd,  Dr.  J.  W.,  F.K.S.,  Proposed  as  au 

Honorary  Fellow,  788 
Juel,   H.    O.,   Development   of  Saxifraga 

granulata,  191 
Julidse,  Studies,  452 
Jungano,  — .,  Renal  Infection  by  a  Microbe 

Originating  from  the  Blood,  90 
Jungermannia  in  New  England,  734 
Jurewitsch,  W.,  Opsonins  and  Antiphagins 
in  Pneuniococeic  Infection,  757 

—  Potato     Broth     for    the     Culture     of 

Tubercle  Bacilli,  773 


K. 

Ksenenia,  New  Species,  715 
Kaiserling's   Universal   Projection   Appa- 
ratus, 378 
Kala-azar   and   Aleppo  Boil,  Cultivating 
the  Parasites,  51)8 

—  Dogs  Affected  with,  447 
Kammerer,  P.,  Transmission  of  Coercively 

Acquired     Reproductive    Adaptations, 

559 
Kangaroo,  Young  Red,  308 
Kanitz,     A.,     Physiology     of     Pulsating 

Vacuole  in  Infusoria.  .""i 
Kappers.  C.  VV.  A.,  Apparatus  for  Rapidly 

Cooling  Pain tlin,  111 
Karsten,  G.,  Indian  Ocean  Phytoplankton, 

349 
Karynkinesis   and    Nucleus   in  Zygnema. 
332 

—  in  OSdogouium,  463 


Katydids,  Pink,  as  Mutants,  578 
Kauffman,  C.  H.,  Study  of  Saprolegniacea\ 

623 
Kawamura,     S.,    Spotting    of    Bamboos, 

625 
Kayser,  E.,  "  La  Graissc  "  in  Wines,  361 
Kea,  Mallophaga.  580 
Keeble,  F.,   Yellow-Brown    Cells  of   Con- 

voluta  paradoxa,  718 
Kellerman,  W.  A.,  Obituary  Notice.  478 
Kellogg,  V.  L.,  Artificial  Parthenogenesis 
in  Silk-Moth,  575 

—  Inheritance  in  Silkworms,  712 

—  Mallophaga  of  the  Kea,  580 

—  Reflexes  of  Silkworm  Moths,  712 
Kerb,    H.,    Winter    Buds    of    Clavelina 

lepadiformis,  447 
Kern,   F.    D.    and    others,    Diseases    of 

Plants,  215 
Kerr,  J.  C4.,   Autostylic  and   Protostvlic, 
569 

—  Development   of    Polypterus  senegalus, 

43S 

—  Swim-Bladder  and  Lungs,  570 

Kert,    H.,     Winter-Buds     of     Clavelliua 

lepadiformis,  709 
Kidd,  W.,  Sense  of   Touch  in   Mammals 

and  Birds,  29 
Kidney,  Development  in  Teleosteans,  7()2 

—  of  Elephant,  166 

—  of  Machilis  maritima,  452 
Kidney-Cells  in  Frog,  Phagocytic  Action, 

311 
Kidston,  R.,  Fossil  Osmundaceae,  196 
Kindborg,  E.  A.,  Colour  Reaction  for  the 

Recognition  of  Bacillus  typhosus,  650 
King,    H.   D.,   New   Sporozoon  in  Toadr 

188 
Kinoshita,  K.,  Japanese  Primnoidse,  185 
Kirkpatrick,     R.,     African     Fresh- Water 
Sponges,  55 

—  Antarctic  Monaxonellids,  186 

—  New  Dictyonine  Sponge,  596 
Kladnitsky,  N..  Plague   Bacillus   in   the 

Bed  Bug,  489 
Klebahn,  H.,  Study  of  Fungi  Imperfecti, 

78,  625,  479 
Klein,     D.,     Electrolytic     Corrosion     of 

Brasses,  121 
Klein,  E.,  Bacillus  fcedans  and  Miscured 
Ham.  638 

—  Enrichmenl     Method     for     Detecting 

Bacillus  typhosus,  108 

—  New  Plague  Prophylactic,  ss 

—  Susceptibility   to    Plague   of    Rats    of 

Diverse  Races,  87 
lvlinn  nko.     W.      X.,     Bacillus     aterrinus 
tschitensis,  'I'l  I 

—  Bacterium  mariense,  22S 
Klodnitzky,  N.  N.,  Multiplying  of  Relaps- 

ing   Spirochetes   in    the    Body    of   the 
Bug,  22:: 
Knox,  A.  A.,  Stem  of  Ibervillea  sonorss,  61 


824 


INDIA. 


Koehler,    B.,    Littoral    Holothurians    of 

Indian  Ocean,  594 
Kofoid,   C.    A.,   North    American     Kresh- 
Water  Algae,  618 

—  Regeneration  in  Ceratium,  460 

Kohl,    F.   G.,   Yeast  as  a    Fermentative 

Agent,  (325 
Kolff,    W.,     Circulatory     Mechanism     in 

Teleosteans,  16G 
Kolmer.    \V.,    Minute    Structure    of    the 

Internal  Ear,  28 
-  Studying  the  Structure  of  Mammalian 
Ear,  113 
Konkoly's   Large  Measuring  Microscope, 

491 
Konopacki.    M.,    Kespiration    in     Earth- 
worms, 179 
Konstautinow,  N.,  Alloys  of  Cobalt  and 
Copper,  12.~> 

—  Antimonides  of    Iron   and    Cadmium, 

660 

Koorders,  S.  H.,  Parasitic  Fungi  from 
Java,  217 

Korotneff,  A.,  Cytological  Study  of 
Triclad  Pharynx,  456 

Kostanecki,  K.,  Parthenogeuetic  Develop- 
ment in  Mactra,  448 

Kniirbatoff,  — .,  Metallography  of 
Quenched  Steels,  783 

Kowalewski,  — .,  Notes  on  Cestodes,  180 

Kranzlin,  H.,  Development  of  the 
Sporangia  in  Trichia  and  Arcyria,  753 

Krieger,  \V.,  European  Forms  of 
Catharinea,  340 

Kriiss,  A.,  Grimsehl's  Liliput  Projection 
Lantern,  242 

Kryloff,  J.  de.  Phosphoric  Steels,  525 

Krzystalowicz,  F.,  Studying  the  Mor- 
phology of  Spirochxta  pallida,  519 

Kukenthal,  W.,  Bipolaiity  of  Marine 
Animals,  313 

—  New  Gorgonids,  459 

—  Eevision  of  Nephtbyidae,  595 
Kurnakow,   N.   S.,   Antimonides   of  Iron 

and  Cadmium,  660 
Kursteiner,  J.,  Cultivation   of  Anaerobic 

Bacteria,  247 
Kusano,  S.,  Cytology  of  Synchytrium,  77 
Kylin,  H.,  Algse  of  Swedish  West  Coast, 

622 
Kynotus,  Beproductive  Apparatus,  49 
Kyrle,  J.,  Begeneration  in  the  Pancreas, 

441 


•'  La  Graisse  "  iu  Wines,  361 

Labial  Excretory  Organ  iu  Thysanura, 
452 

Laboratory,  National  Physical  Metallur- 
gical and  Chemical  Laboratories.  662 

I.aboulbenia,  Parasitic,  478 


Labyrinth  Organ  of  Labyrinth  ici,  168 
Labyrinthici,  Labyrinth  Organ,  168 
Lachmann,  P.,  Boot-Structure  iu  Ceratop- 

teris  thalictroides,  193 
Lacouture,   — ..   Illustrated    Key   to    the 

Genus  Lejeunea,  615 
Lactarius  and  Bussula,  Colour  Eeactions, 

217 
Lactic  Fermentation  of  Milk.  636 
Lactic-Acid   Bacilli   and   Cancer    of    the 
Stomach,  757 

—  Fermentation  in  Milk,  7.V> 
Lxviraia  oxyrhyncus,  Copulatory  Append- 
ages, 570 

Lakowitz,  — .,  Algse  of  Danzig  Bay.  345 
Lambert,  W.  J.,  Case-Hardening  of  Mild 
Steel,  259 

—  Measurement  of  Extension  of  Tensile 

Test-Pieces,  262 
Lamellibranchiata.     See  Contents,  xii 
Lamellibranchs,  Concentration  of  Nervous 

System,  449 
Laminaria  and  Macrocystis,  Anatomy  and 

Histology,  621 
Laminariaceae,  Critical  Notes,  474 
Laniippidae,  716 
Lamp,  Mercury-Vapour,  265 

for  Microscopical  Work,  767 

Improved  Type,  136 

—  New  Microscope,  239 
Lamprey,  New,  312 

Lampyridae,  Tropical,  Luminosity,  578 
Landacre,  F.,  L.,  Epibrauchial  Placodes 
of  Ameiurus,  443 

—  Protozoa  of  Sandusky  Bay,  460 
Landman,  O.,  Open  Cleft  in   Embryonic 

Eye  of  a  Chick  of  Eight  Days,  441 
Lankester,  E.  Pay,  Archerina,  Golenkinia, 

and  Botryococcus,  598 
Lantern,   Grimsehl's    Liliput    Projection, 

242 
Laodiceidae,  Bevision  of  Medusae  belonging 

to  the  Family,  54 
Lapicque,   L.,  Weight   of  Brain   in  Man 

and  Woman,  164 
Lapie.  G.,  Phytecology  of  the  Eastern  Part 

of  Kabylia,  466 
L^rch-Shoot  Moth,  41 
Large,  E.,  Exhibition  of  Twin  Crystals  of 

Selenite,  126 
Lanier,   L.  N.,    Mammitis    Produced   by 

Acid-fast  Bacilli,  89 
Larva,  Dipterous,  Uncommon,  316 

—  of    Anopheles   maculipeiinis.    Structure 

and  Behaviour,  174 

—  of  Hypoderma  Bo  vis,  Migrations  in  Ox, 

44 

—  of  Pcdicellina  Echinata,  593 

Larvae    aud   Eggs,    Teleostean.   from   the 
Gambia,  443 

—  Insect,  Fixation,  112 
Freezing,  451 

Larval  Habits  of  Tiffer-Beetles,  316 


INDEX. 


S2r> 


Lary,  E.  de,  Cytology  of  Pollen-Mother- 
Cells  of  Agave  attenuate,  601 

I.asnier.  E.,  Biological  Study  of  Glceo- 
sporium,  352 

Lauracese,  Polycarpellary  Origin  of  Pistil, 
63 

Lautsch,  — .,  Alloys  of  Iron  with  Molyb- 
denum, 119 

Lavalle'e,  A.,  Collecting  and  Examining 
the  Eggs  of  Ehopalura  ophiocomx,  510 

Laveran,  A.,  Kole  of  the  Spleen  in  Try- 
panosomiasis, 57 

—  Trypanosoma  congolense,  462 

—  Trypanosomes  of  the  Upper  Niger,  57 
Law,     E,     F.,     Application    of     Colour 

Photography  to  Metallography,  663 

Law,  W.  J.,  Demonstrating  Nerve- 
terminations  in  Teeth  of  Mammalia,  518 

Leaf- Structure,  Xerophytic  Adaptations 
721 

Leather,  Micrographic  Study,  655 

Leathesia  crispa,  738 

Leaves  and  Stem,  Origin,  62 

—  Decaying,     Change     of     Colour    and 

Emptying,  465 

—  Sleep-Movements,  192 

Lebailly,  C,  Culture  of  Treponema  palli- 
dum in  vitro,  600 

—  Multiplication  in    vitro  of  Treponema 

pallidum,  247 
Lebour,  M.  V.,  Trematodes  in  Fishes,  592 
Le  ail  Ion,     A.,      Parthenogenetic      Seg- 
mentation in  Fowl,  561 
Leche,  W.,  Dentition  of  Mammals,  165 
Lecithin,  Influence   on  Determination  of 

Sex, 563 
Leech  and  Frog,  Trypanosomes,  58 
Leeches,  Australian,  Studies.  718 

—  Neuroglia,  455 

—  New  Zealand,  590 

—  Studies,  590 

Leeuwen,  W.  D.,  Fixation  of  Insect 
Larvae,  112 

Leeuweu-Reijnvan.  W.  and  J.  v.,  Sper- 
matogenesis in  Mosses  and  Liverworts, 
730 

Lefevre,  (4.,  Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in 
Tltalas8ema  mellita,  588 

—  Chromosomes  of  Anaea  tri*lis  imdAnax 

Junius,  579 
Leiher.    A..     Comparative     Anatomy     of 

Tongue  of  Woodpecker,  166 
Leitz,  E.,  Dark-Ground  Illumination  for 

il .e  Examination  of  Living  Bacteria, 

5()2 

—  Engel's    Cross-Stage   with    Automatic 

Adjustment,  639 

—  Henneberg's  Microtome  Auxiliaries,  388 

—  Museum  Microscope,  :;71 

—  New  Microscope,  L31 
Reflecting  Condenser.  768 

—  New  Penological  Microscope,  Type  A, 

367 


Legendre,  R..  Experimental  Dwarfing  of 

Water-Snails,  448 
Leger,  L.,  New  Myxomycete,  85 

—  New  Myxosporidian  Family,  189 
LeguminossB,  Isolating  the  Nodule  Organ- 
ism, 252 

Leguminous  Crops,  Seed  and   Soil  Inocu- 
lation, 334 
Lejeunea,  Illustrated  Key  to  the  Genus, 

615 
Lejeuneaj,  West  Indian.  New,  734 
Lemmermann,  E,,  Alga?  of  Germany,  622 
of  Mark  Brandenburg,  202 

—  Phytoplankton  of  Ceylon,  204 

—  Plankton  of  the  Yang-tze-kiaug,  201 
Lendner,    A.,   Zygospores   of   Sporodinia 

grandis,  623 
Lens,  Auxiliary  Illuminating,  789 

—  Illuminating.  Auxiliary,  673 

—  New,  for  High-Power  Microscopy,  526 
— ■  of  Uranium-Glass,   Photographic    Ob- 
jective containing,  93 

—  Regeneration  in  Fishes,  443 
Lenticels  of  Palms,  62 

Leon,  N.,  New  Human  Tapeworm,  718 

Lepeschkin,  W.  D.,  Nervous  System  of 
Saccocirrus  papillocercus,  179 

Lepidodendracese,  Parichnosin,  196 

Lepkowski,  W.  v..  Composition  of  Satu- 
rated Mixed  Crystals,  785 

Leprosy  and  Tubercle  Bacilli,  Silver 
Method  for  Differentiating,  776 

Lepto/lactylus  ocellatus,  Hsernogregarine 
of,  461 

Leroux,  A..  Binary  Systems,  Platinum- 
Arsenic  and  Bismuth-Arsenic,  524 

Lesage,  J.,  Hsemogi  egarine  of  Leplo- 
dactylus  ocellatus,  461 

Leucobryum,  Peculiar  Unattached  Mode 
of  Growth,  72 

Leucocytes  in  Tissues,  Demonstrating,  519 

—  Sudanophil,  Staining,  115 
Leucocytozoon  of  Red  Grouse,  188 
Leucolejeunea,  a  New  Genus  of  Hepaticse, 

339 
Leucosolenia,  Spicules,  597 
Levaditi,   C,    Cultivation    of    Treponema 

pallidum.  1 1 0,  1 89 
Levier.  E..  Indian  Bryophyta,  344 
Levinsen,  G.  M.  R.,  Total  Regeneration  of 

Bryozoa,  52 
Levy,  D.  M.,  Annealing  of  Copper,  124 

—  Iron.  Carbon  and  Sulphur,  ('>('<:> 
Lewis,  I.  F.,  Coleochaste  nitellarum.  202 
Lewkonja,  K..  Binary   Alloys  of  Cobalt, 

786 
Lichen  Apothecia,  Development,  84 

—  Constituents,  220 

—  Notes  V.,  6:;:; 
Lichens,  American,  358 

—  Chemical  Constituents,  t'.3l 
Examination,  752 

—  Chemically  Considered,  63: ; 


Dec.  16th,  1908 


3  i 


826 


INDEX. 


Spore- 
Yeast, 
605 


Lichens,  Dispersal,  220 

—  French,  63:? 

—  from  the  Island  of  Samoa,  033 

—  Noteworthy,  220 

—  Text-Book,  220 

—  See  Contents,  xxix 
Life,  A.  C,  Effect  of  Light  upon 

Germination,  605 
Light   and  Colours,  Influence   on 
604 

—  Effect  upon  Spore-Germination, 

—  Filters  for  Photomicrography,  20 

—  Influence     on    Growth    of    Bhizopiis 

nigricans,  725 

on  Respiration  of  Fungi,  335 

Light-Reactions  in  Volvox,  330 
Limbourg,  F.,  Sorbitic  Rails,  125 
Limbs,  Hind,  of   Rnna  esculenta,  Abnor- 
malities, 564 
Limnocnida  tanganicm  in  the  Niger,  459 
Limpet,  Environmental  Studies,  448 
Lincio,  G.,  Leitz  New  Petrologieal  Micro- 
scope, Type  A.,  367 
Lincoln,  A.  T.,  Electrolytic  Corrosion  of 

Brasses,  121 
Lind,  J.,  Notes  on  Glceosporium,  625 
Lindau,  G.,  Hyphomycetes,  213,  352,  479, 

626 
Linden,  M.  v.,  Alleged  Fixation  of  Carbon 

by  Chrysalids,  42 
Lindman,   C.    A.   M.,    Lycopodium    com- 

planatum  subsp.  monili forme,  196 
Lindner,  P.,  Chalk  Disease  of  Bread,  218 
Lindssea,  New  Species,  337 
Linstow,   O.    v.   and    others,  Studies    on 

Cestodes,  456 
Linton,  E.,  Notes  on  Cestodes,  180 
Lions  and  Pumas,  Pattern  of  Cubs,  30 
Lipmann,   A.,    Bacteriology   of    Tropical 
Abscess  of  the  Liver,  222 

—  Anaerobic  Bacteria  and  Gall-Stones,  90 
Lippmaun,   G.,   Reversible    Photographic 

Proofs;  Integral  Photographs,  384 
Lister,    A.     and     G.,     Notes     on     Swiss 

Mycetozoa,  634 
Lithothamnia   of 

209 
Litschauer,  V.,  Contribution  to  our  Know- 
ledge of  Corticeae,  480 
Livanow,  N.,  Studies  on  Leeches,  590 
Liver,  Bacteriology   of  Tropical   Abcess, 
222 

—  of  Cuttlefishes,  37 

Liverworts  and  Mosses,  Spermatogenesis, 

730 
Lizard,    Himalayan,    Haemogregarine    in 

Blood,  461 
Lloyd,  C.  G.,  Mycological  Notes,  355 

—  Phalloids,  354 

Lloyd,  R.  E.,  Hydroid  Parasitic  on  Fish, 
595 
Variation  of  Squilla  invest! gatoris,  585 
Lobeliaceas,  Water-Stomata,  62 


Sealark '    Expedition, 


Lobster,  Norway,  Variations,  320 

Locater,  Micro-Object,  242 

Locomotor   Organs    of    Gyge   branchial)'*, 

586 
Loeffler,  F.,  Gram's  Staining  Method,  116 

—  New     Method     of     Staining     Micro- 

Organisms,  114 
Loeske,    L.,    Muscinese    of   the    Arlberg 
Region,  341 

—  Parallel  Forms  and  Variability  of  Cell- 

Length  in  Mosses,  200 
Lohmann,     H.,     Faunistic     Results     of 

German  South  Polar  Expedition,  313 
Lohnis,    F.,     Nitrogen-Fixing     Bacteria, 

225 
Lomechusa,  Life  History   and  Bionomics, 

317 
Longmuir,  P.,  Hardened  Steels,  259 
Longridge.  M.,   Test  of  Plates   from   an 

Old  Boiler,  782 
Longstaff,  G.  B.,  Notes  on  South  African 

Chamaeleons,  31 
Loomis,  F.  B.,  New    Horse   from   Lower 

Miocene,  706 
Looss,  A.,  Hemiuridaa,  323 
Lorch,    W.,    Phenomena    of    Torsion    in 

Mosses,  33S 
Lorenz,     A.,     Juugermannia     in     New 

England,  734 
Low,  A.,  Early  Human  Embryo,  441 
Lowschin,     A.,    Influence    of    Light    on 

Respiration  of  Fungi,  335 
Liibben,   H,   Life-History   of   Thrypticus 

smaragdinus,',  578 
Lubimenko,   W.,    Chlorophyll-Formation, 
335 

—  Cytology     of    Pollen-Mother-Cells     of 

Nyinphaeaceae,  60,  190 
Luisier,    A.,   Fruit   of    Campylopus  poly- 
trichoides  described,  473 

—  -  Mosses  of  Madeira,  70 

—  Portuguese  Species  of  Fissidens,  71 
Luminosity     and     Hectocotylisatiou     in 

Cuttlefishes,  36 

—  Occasional,  of  White  Owl,  706 

—  of  Amphiura  squamata,  52 

—  of  Ophiuroids,  326,  458 

—  of  Schistostega,  611 

—  of  Tropical  Lampyridae,  578 
Lumpsucker,  Natural  History.  167 
Lung,    Development   in    Ampullaria    de- 

pressa,  40 
Lungs  and  Swim-Bladder,  570 
Lupinus  albus,  Geotropism  of  Roots,  65 
Lutraria  elliptica,  Supplementarv  Siphon, 

40 
Lutz,  F.    E.,   Inheritance   of   Manner   of 

Clasping  the  Hands,  564 
Lycoperdon  sculptum,  Notes,  627 
Lycopod,  New  Palaeozoic,  195 

—  with  a  Seed-like  Structure,  729 
Lycopodiaceae,     Sporangium-bearing    Or- 
gans, 729 


INDEX. 


S27 


Lycopodium   compbinatum   subsp.  monili- 

forme.  196 
Lycopodium,  Origin  of  Roots,  609 
Lycopodium  pithyoides,  Iuner  Roots,  195 
—  8quarro8um  and  its  Allies,  729 
Lycosidae.  North  American,  715 
Lygodium,  Development,  194 
Lyman,  G.  F..  Polymorphism  of  Hymeno- 

mycetes,  353 
Lymph-Sacs   in    Hind     Limb  of     Frog, 

Development.  162 
Lymph-Vessels,  Syringe  Injection,  255 


M. 


Macacus  nemestrinus,  Early  Placenta,  160 
McArdle.  D.,  Irish  Muscineae,  197 
MacBride,     E.     W.,     Development      of 
Ophiothrix  fragilis,  53,  326 

—  Studying  the   Development   of  Ophio- 

thrix fragilis,  111 
McClendon,  J.   F.,   New   Species   of  My- 
zostoma,  1S1 

—  Xerophytic     Adaptations      of      Leaf- 

Structure,  724 
MacDougall,  R.  S.,    Grain  Weevils,  41 

—  Larch-Shoot  Moth,  41 

McGill,  C,  Chromosomes  of  Anasa  trislis 

and  Anax  Junius,  579 
McGlone,  B.,  Development   of    Lung    in 

Ampullar ia  deprexsa,  40 
Maehilis  maritima,  Cephalic  Glands,  452 

Kidney,  452 

Mcintosh,  D.  C,  Variations  in  the  Norway 

Lobster,  320 
Mcintosh,   J.,  Cultivation   of    Treponema 

pallidum,  110,  189 
M'Intosh,  W.  C,  Large  Cuttlefish  at  St. 
Andrews.  170 

—  Notes  on  Polychaets.  179 

—  Perforations  of  Marine  Animals,  572 
Maekinnon,  D.  L.,  Encystation  of  Actino- 

sphserium  at  Different  Temperatures, 
597 

—  On    the    Optical    Properties    of  Con- 

tractile Organs,  553 
Macro-Illuminator,  Watson  and  Sons',  97 
Macrocystis  and  Laminaria,  Anatomy  and 

Histology,  621 
Mactra,     Parthenogenetic     Development, 

448 
Madreporaria,     Alcyonaria     and     Anti- 
patharia  from  the  North  Side  of  the 
Bay  of  Biscay.  185 

—  from  Amboina,  54 

—  Recent,   of  the   Hawaiian    Island   and 

Laysan,  184 
Magalhaes,  P.  S.  de,  Insects  Injurious  to 

Books.  172 
Maglio,  C,  Hydrachnids,  175 
Magnetisation  of  Iron  and  Nickel.  124 


Magnus.  W.,  Form-Development  of  Pileate 
Fungi,  746 

Maheu,  J.,  Propagula  of  the  Genus 
Barbula,  614 

Maige,  A.,  Cytology  of  Pollen- Mother- 
Cells  of  Nymphaeaceae,  60 

Maire,  R.,  Haustoria  of  Meliola  and 
Asterina,  624 

Malachite-Green  Agar  and  the  Bacilli  of 
the  Typhoid  Group,  773 

Malacostracan,  Primitive,  176 

Malaquin,  A.,  Brain  and  Nuchal  Organ  of 
Notnpygos  labiatus,  588 

—  Polychaets  of  Amboina,  588 
Malaria,  Red  Blood  Cells,  392 
MaldanidfB,  Studies,  321 

Mallard,  Wollaston's  Goniometer  improved 
by,  241 

Malleableising,  Theory,  258 

Mallophaga  of  the  Kea,  580 

Malpighian  Tubes,  So-called,  in  Scorpions, 
319 

Mallitz,  E.,  Blowholes  in  Steel  Ingots,  121 

Mammal-like  Reptiles,  447 

Mammalia,  Demonstrating  Nerve-Termi- 
nations, 518 

Mammalian  Embryos,  Origin  of  Germ- 
Cells,  306 

Mammals  and  Birds,  Growth  of  Testes, 
161 

Sense  of  Touch,  29 

—  Artificial  Insemination,  24 

—  Dentition,  165 

—  Interstitial  Cells  in  Ovary,  563 

—  Portal  Circulation  in  Embryonic  Meta- 

nephros,  307 

—  Studying   Nerve-Endings  in    Urinary 

Bladder,  116 
Mammary  Glands.  Secretion,  27 
Mammitis  Produced  by  Acid-fast  Bacilli, 

89 
Man,  J.  G.  de,  Free-Living  Nematodes,  49 
Manceau,  E.,  "La  Graisse"  in  Wiues,  361 
Mangan,  J.,  Mouth-Parts  of  Blattidaj,  579 
Manganese  and  Carbon,  786 

—  Cast  Irons,  Constitution,  261 
Mangin,     L.,     Conidial      Formation     in 

Aspergillus,  744 

—  Growth  of  Woody  Fungi,  214 

—  Membrane  of  Diatoms,  476 

—  Mould  of  Fermenting  Grain,  744 

—  Phytoplankton  off  the   Coast   o     Nor- 

mandy, 740 

Mangold,  E..  Luminosity  of  Ojihi  uroids. 
326 

Manipulation,  Microscopical.  See  Con- 
tents, xxx  iv 

Mann,  A.,  Diatoms  of  the  Pacitie,  207 

Manolesco,  L).,  Diphtheroid  Bacillus  found 
in  Cardiac  Vegetations,  638 

Marasmarcha,  Hibernation,  43 

Marchal.  E.  and  E.,  Apospory  and 
uality  in  Mosses,  68 


3  i  2 


828 


INDEX. 


Marchaud,  W.,  Chromatophores  of  cepha- 
lopoda, 313 

—  Latent  Segmentation  in  Molluscs,  36 
Marchantia,      Development     of     Sexual 

Organs  and  Sporogonium,  735 
Marchantia     polymorpha,     Blepharoplast 

ami  Centrosome,  332 
Marchantia,  Spanish  Species,  342 
Marchlewski,    L.,    Colouring    Matter    of 

Chlorophyll,  465 
Marchoux,  E,  Culture  in  vitro  of  Avian 

Plague.  77:1 
Marcus,  H.,  Gill-Cleft  Region  of  Gyinno- 

phiona,  562 
Marino,    F.,   Method    for    Isolating    An- 
aerobes, 252 
Marking  Apparatus,  Reichert's,  771 
Marktanner-Turueretscker,  G.,  Apparatus 

for  Photomicrography,  101 
Marsh,  C.  D.,  North  American  Species  of 

Diaptomus,  178 
Marshall,  F.  H.  A.,  Compensatory  Hyper- 
trophy in  the  Ovary,  563 

—  Correlation    of    Ovarian   and   Uterine 

Functions,  160 

—  Removal      and      Transplantation      of 

Ovaries,  23 

—  Transplantation  of  Ovaries,  700 
Marshal],  G.  A.  K.,  Diaposematism,  450 
Marshall,  W.  S.,  Development  of  Ovary  of 

Phryganid,  577 

—  of  Polistes  pallipes,  576 

Martelli,  G.,  Insects  Injurious  to   Olives 

and  Figs,  451 
Martiis,  L.  C.  de,  Reproductive  Apparatus 

of  Kynotus,  49 
Martin,  C.  H.,  Nematocysts  of  Turhellaria. 

325 
Martin,  L.,  Memory  in  Convoluta,  719 

—  Rhythmic     Behaviour     of     Convoluta 

roscoffensis,  323 
Martini,  E.,  Development  of   Nematodes. 

591 
Marx,  E.,  Bacillus  pneumoniae  tigris,  754 
Massalongo,  C,  Calypogeia  in  Italy,  615 

—  Genus  Cephalozia  in  Italy,  341 
Massy,  A.  L.,  New  Cephalopoda  from  the 

Irish  Coast,  37 

Mast,  S.  O.,  Light  Reactions  in  Volvox, 
330 

Masterman,  A.  T.,  Mimicry  in  the 
Common  Sole,  70S 

Matheson,  R.,  Life-History  of  Apanteles 
glomeratus,  41 

Mating  of  Rivellia  boscii,  173 

Matrix  Tissue,  26 

Matruchot,  L., Vegetation  of  Morchella.743 

Matsumura,  S.,  New  European  and  Medi- 
terranean Cicadinae,  451 

Matthew,  W.  D.,  Relationship  of  Sparas- 
sodonta,  J  66 

Maturation  and  Cleavage  in  Parnvortex 
candii,  719 


Maturation  and  Fertilisation  inTheridium- 
175 

New  Views.  701 

Maublanc,  A..  New  or  Rare  Microfungi, 

83 
Maurer,  E.,  Austenite,  394 

—  Quenching  and  Tempering  of  Iron  and 

Steel,  784 
Maxillary  Gland  in  Isopods,  586 
Maxon,  W.  R.,  New  Species  of  Lindsasa, 

337 

—  Tropical  American  Ferns,  467 
Mayer,  P.,  Bleaching  Technique,  515 
Mazza,  A.,  Oceanic  Algae,  474 

—  Studies  of  Oceanic  Algae,  741 
Measurements,    Microscopic,    Reglet     for 

Direct  Reading,  242 
Measuring  Apparatus,  Toepfer's  Universal, 

498 
Media,  Sterilised  Bacterial,  for  Cultivation 

of  Anaerobes.  109 
Medium,  Farrant's,  780 

—  Influence  of  the  Composition,  on   the 

Solvent     Action     of     Certain     Soil 
Bacteria,  772 
Mediterranean  Fever,  Studies,  488 
Medusae  Belonging  to  the  Family  Laodi- 

ceidae,  Revision,  54 
Medusoid,  New  Fresh-Water,  from  China, 

183 
Meek,  A.,  Segments  of  Head  and  Brain  in 

Gull,  25 
Megaspores,    Relation    to     Embryo-Sacs, 

725 
Megastoma  and  Trichomonas   in   Human 

Intestine,  331 
Meisenheimer,  J.,  Reproduction  in  Snails, 

37 
Meixner,  A.,  Polyclads  from  the    Somali 
Coast  and  a  Revision  of  the  Stylochinae, 
50 
Melanism   and   Albinism,   Production    in 

Frogs,  32 
Meliola  and  Asteriua,  Haustoria,  624 
Melitensis  septicaemia,  756 
Melting-Point   Diagrams   of    the   Binary 
Systems,      Galena-Magnetic 
Pyrites    and    Galena-Silver 
Sulphide,  118 
of  the  Binary  Systems  Silver  Sul- 
phide-Copper  Sulphide  and 
Lead    Sulphide-Copper  Sul- 
phide, 118 

—  Points  of  Palladium  and  Platinum,  121 

of  the  Iron  Group  Elements,  121 

Membranes,  Functions,  706 
Membranipora,  Polysi  ermy,  593 
Memory  in  Convoluta,  719 

Mencl.  E.,  Demonstrating  Nervous  Tissue 

of  Hirudineae,  513 
Mendelian  Characters  among  Short-Horn 
Cattle,  701 

—  Proportions,  Apparent  Anomalies,  699 


INDEX. 


S29 


Me'nier,   M.,    Poisoning   due    to   Amanita 

Phalloides,  353 
Meningococcus    and     Micrococcus    catar- 

rhalis,  Fermentation  of  Sugars,  509 
Mercier,  L.,  Notes  on  Myxosporidia,  599 

—  Schizogony  in  Amoeba,  722 
Mercury  Globules  as  Test  Objects  for  the 

Microscope,  6 

—  Vapour  Electric  Lamp  for  Microscopic 

Illumination.  95 

Lamp,  265 

Improved  Type,  136 

Merlin,  A.  A.  C.  E.,  793 

—  Flagellum   of  the   Tubercle    Bacillus, 

38S 

—  Micrococcus  melittitais,  <  90 
Merrill,  G.  K.,  Lichen  Notes  V.,  633 
Merton,  H.,  Minute  Structure  of  Ganglion- 
Cells  of  Teihys  leporina,  171 

Merulius  hicrymans,  626 
Mesophotography   and   its  Application  to 

Delicate  Unfixed  Embryos,  781 
Metal  Rods.  Longitudinal  Impact,  123 
Metallic  Compounds,  Formulae,  660 
Metallography,    Application     uf     Colour 
Photography,  395,  663 

—  at  the  National    Physical    Laboratory, 

523 

—  Microscopic,    Importance   of  Centring, 

393 

—  of  Quenched  Steels,  783 

—  See  Contents,  xxxviii 
Metalnikov,  S..  Galleria  melonella,  713 
Metals,  Ductile,  Hard  and  Soft  States,  119 

—  Extraction  of  Gases  Contained,  125 

—  Influence  of  Stress  on  Electrical  Con- 

ductivity, 262 

—  ^iructure,  257 

Metamorphosis,     Development     of     Ali- 
mentary Canal  during,  450 

—  of  Anura,  Determining  Factors,  24,  307 

—  of  Echiurus,  321 

—  of  Mytilicola  intestinalis,  IJ21 
Metanephros   of  Mammals,  Portal  Circu- 
lation, 307 

Metchuikuff,    E.,    Microbes  of    Intestinal 

Putrefaction,  758 
Meteorological   Uses  of  the    Polariscope, 
.   Note,  374 

Meunier,  F.,  Flies  in  Amber,  714 
Meuthen,  A.,  Specific  Heat  of  Iron-Carbon 

Alloys,  525 
Meves,  F.,  Cytological  Notes,  308 

—  Demonstrating  the  Spermatogenesis  of 

Hornets,  651 

—  Spermatogenesis  of  Hornet,  577 
Meylan,   C,  Calypugeia   trichomanis   and 

its  Allied  Forms,  472 

—  European      Species     of     Oncophorus, 

7oo 

—  Muscinese  of  the  Jura  Rauge,  732 
Mez,  C,  Merulius  hicrymans,  626 
.Mice.  Inheritance  of  Pigmentation,  23 


Mice,  Sarcosporidial  Infection,  188 

Michailow,  S.,  Studying  the  Nerve-End- 
ings in  the  Urinary  Bladder  of  Mammals, 
116 

Michie,  A.  S.,  Old  Microscope,  Presented 
by,  130 

Micrasterias,  Genus,  in  New  England,  739 

Micro-Object  Locater,  267 

Micro-Organisms,  New  Method  of  Staining, 
114 

Microbe  Originating  from  the  Blood, 
Renal  Infection  by,  90 

—  Staiuing,  Simple  Method,  520 
Microbes  of  Intestinal  Putrefaction,  758 
Microbioids  of  the  Purple  Gland  of  Murex 

brandaris,  26 
Micrococcus   catarrhalis   and   Gonococcus, 

487 
and    Meningococcus,   Fermentation 

of  Sugars,  509 

—  esterificau*,  224 

—  melitensis,  790 

—  neoformans  and  Cancer,  489 
Micrococcus    of    Epidemic    Cerebrospinal 

Meningitis,  87 

—  of  Osteomalacia  and  Rickets,  638 

—  producing  a  Yellow -Brown  Colour  on 

Cheese,  88 
Microfungi,  New  or  Rare,  83 
Micrographic  Study  of  Leather,  655 
Micrometer  Divisions,  New  Easily  Legible, 

647 

—  Frauenhofer's  Screw,  235 

—  Levels,  Apparatus  for  Measuring.  648 

—  Microscope,  234 
Micrometer-Gauge  for  Cover-Glass,  Ciceri 

Smith's  Direct  Reading,  268,  505 
Micrometry,  Present  Status,  682,  794 
Microniscidie,  Real  Nature,  47 
Microscope  as  an  Aid  to  the  Study  of  Bio- 
logy in  Entomology,  with  Particular 
Reference  to  the  Food  of  Insects,  135, 
401 

—  Beck's  "  London,"  Regent  Model,  227 

—  Dissecting,  234 

Watson  and  Sons'  Laboratory,  93 

—  Exhibition  of  Instruments  illustrative 

of  History  of  the,  :>99 

—  Francois  Watkius',  137 

—  Gregory  and  Wright's,  128,  154 

—  Illuminating  Apparatus,  425 

—  Measuring,  Konkoly's  Large,  491 

-  Vogel-Canipbell's     Large       (Model 
III),  496 

Vogel-Hale  (Model  C),  492 

V,, gel's  (Model  I),  493 

(Model  IV),  497 

Vogel-Wanaoh   Large  (Model   II), 

491 

—  Metallurgical,  Koss'  No.   2,    Standard, 

761 

Watson  aud  Sons'  "Mint,"  93 

•'  The  Horizontal."  91 


830 


INDEX. 


Microscope  Micrometer,  234 

—  Mineralogical,  Reichert's  New  Medium 

Stand  Aiii.c,  614 

—  Museum.  Leitz,  37] 
"  Waterhouse,"  190 

—  New,  by  Leitz,  181 

—  Old,  by  Shuttleworth,  presented  by  Mr. 

Wynne  E.  Baxter,  365,  396 
-  Presented  by  Mr.  Miclrie,  130 

—  Penological,  Leitz.  Type  A,  867 

—  Preparation,  Reichert's  New,  645 

—  Reichert's  Large,  Stand  Al,  64") 
Stand  B,  642 

New  Stand  vi,  765 

New  Steinach  Stand  C,  763 

—  Small.  Simple,  by  Cary,  526 

—  Theory  of:  Cantor  Lectures,  245 

—  Travelling,  Reichert's,  762 

—  Ultra-Violet,  Improvements,  639 

—  Work,  Pipette,  781 

Microscopes,  Mineralogical  and  Petro- 
graphical,  of  Socie'te' Gene- 
voise, Eye-Pieces,  235 

with  Permanent  Centring  and 

witli  Objective  Rotation, 
Societe  Genevoise,  229 

Microscopic  Features  of  Hardened  Super- 
saturated Steels,  663 

—  Measurements,  Reglet  for  Direct  Read- 

ing. 242 

—  Metallography,  Importance  of  Centring, 

393 
-  Structure  of  Fossil  and  Recent  Repti- 
lian Bone,  Demonstrating,  254 

—  Writing,  by  Webb,  396 
Microscopical     Manipulation.     See     Con- 
tents, xxxiv 

—  Matters.  508 

—  Optics.    See  Contents,  xxxiv 

—  Study,  Sectional  Groups,  52S 

—  Technique.     See  Contents,  xxxv 

—  —  Rawitz,  118 

—  Work,  Mercury  Vapour  Lamp  for,  767 
Microscopy,  High-Power,  New  Lens  for, 

526 

—  Measurement  of  Resolution,  108 

—  See  Contents,  xxxii 
Microsiphonese,  623 

Microtome  Auxiliaries,  Henneberg's,  388 

—  for  Serial  Sections,  Broek's  Simple,  516 

—  Razors,  Arrangements  for  Utilising  the 

Entire  Cutting-Edge,  655 
Microtomes.     See  Contents,  xxxvi 
Migula,  W.,  Algae  of  Middle  Europe,  474 
Mildew,  Gooseberry,  in  Russia,  211 
Milk,  Lactic-Acid  Fermentation,  755 

—  Lactic  Fermentation,  686 

Miller,  E.  C.  L.,  Pipette-Holder  for  Opsonic 

Work.  651 
— ■  Plates  for  Growing  (Terms  in  Quantity, 

652 
Millett,  F.  W.,  Foraminifera  of  Galway. 
56 


Mimicry  in  the  Common  Sole,  70s 
Minchiu,  E.  A.,  Iheniogrogarine  in  Blood 
of  a  Himalayan  Lizard.  461 

—  Spicules  of  Leucosolenia,  597 
Mineralogical  and  Petrographical  Micro- 
scopes, of  Societe  Genevoise, 
Eye-Pieces,  235 

with  Permanent  Centring  and 

with     Objective      Rotation, 
Societe'  Genevoise,  229 

—  Stand  A  iii.  c,  Reichert's  New  Medium, 

644. 
Mirande,  M..  Parasitic  Phanerogams  and 
Nitrates,  64 

—  Polycarpellary  Origin  of  the  Pistil  of 

the  Lauracesa,  63 
Mirror   Condensers,  Reichert's  Novelties, 
374 

History.  500 

Mitchell,  P.  C,  Feeding  Snakes  in  Cap- 
tivity, 447 
Mite,  New,  716 
Mites,  Myriopodophilous,  46 

—  Studies,  175 

Mitoses,  Demonstrating  the  Autolysis,  515 

Mitosis,  Autolysis,  601 

Mlodowska,  J.,  Histogenesis  of  Muscle,  445 

Mnium  riparium,  Systematic  Position.  340 

Mobius,  K.,  JEsthetic  Aspect  of  Animals. 
164 

Moffat,  E.,  Light  Filters  for  Photomicro- 
graphy, 20 

Mola,  P.,  New  Cestode  from  Eagle,  50 

—  New  Tapeworm  in  Moorhen.  455 

—  Para-uterine  Organ  of  Tsenia  nigropunc- 

tata,  50 
Molisch,  H.,  Purple  Bacteria.  224 

—  Ultrarnicroscopic  Organisms,  605 
Molle',  J.,  Studies  on  Spermatogenesis,  562 
Mollisch,  H..  Phosphorescent  Fungi.  627 
Mollusca.     See  Contents,  xii 
Molluscs,  Latent  Segmentation.  36 

—  Reptant,  Pedal  Waves,  314 

Molz,  E.,  Pathogenic   Spotting  of  Vine- 
Shoots,  216 
Monaxonellids,  Antarctic,  186 
Monkemeyer,  W.,  Bryum  zonatum,  a  Philo- 
notis,  614 

—  Tundra  Forms  of  Hypnum,  618 
Monocular    Stereoscopy.    Additional    De- 
monstration of  the  Mechanism,  386 

Monstrosities,  163 

Montgomery,  T.  H.  jun.,  Maturation  and 
Fertilisation  in  Theridium,  175 

Moore,  G.  T.,  Origin  of  the  Plant  King- 
dom, 741 

Morchella,  Vegetation,  743 

Morguli,  S.,  Regeneration  in  Podarke  oh- 
ecura,  179 

Morphology  of  Rusts,  80 

—  of  Spirochxta  pallida,  Studying,  519 
Morpurgo,  B.,  Micrococcus  of  Osteomalacia 

and  Rickets,  638 


INDEX. 


831 


Morse,  W.  J.,  Potato  Scab  in  America,  483 
Mortierellse,  Study,  742 
Moser,  F.,  Japanese  Ctenophora,  IS.") 
Moss,  South  Indian,  New,  613 
Moss-Flora  of  Northumberland,  69 
Moss-Genus,    New     Madeiran,    Tetrasti- 

chiuin,  324 
Mosses  and  Liverworts,  Spermatogenesis, 
730 

—  Apospory  and  Sexuality,  68 

—  Arctic,  731 

—  British,  469,  732 

—  Classification  of  Families  and  Genera, 

69 

—  French.  69 

—  Italian.  732 

—  North  American,  69,  470,  731 

—  of  Antarctic  America,  71 

—  of  Belgian  Congo,  471 

—  of  Hampshire  and  Isle  of  Wight,  340 

—  of  Japan  and  Corea,  New.  732 

—  of  Madeira.  70 

—  of  Sussex,  339 

—  of  ihe  Canaries,  47<i 

—  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  471 

—  Parallel  Forms  and  Variability  of  Cell- 

Length,  201 1 

—  Scottish,  New  and  Rare,  197,  612 

—  Sexuality,  337 

—  Swiss,  340 

—  Torsion  Phenomena,  338 

—  Tropical  American,  343 

—  West  African,  343 

—  Xerophytic,  of   the  Limestone  around 

Odessa,  342 

—  Yorkshire,  612 

Mosso,  A.,  Fish-Vertebrse   as  Prehistoric 

Amulets,  34 
Moth.  Larch-Shont,  41 
Moths.  Silkworm,  Reflexes.  712 
Motz-Roseowska,  S.,  Gonophores  ofPlumu- 

laria  obliqua  and  Sertularia  operculata, 

55 
Mougeotia    and    Spirogyra,   Pathological 

Growth  Phenomena,  205 
Mould  of  Fermenting  Grain,  744 
Moulds,  Peptonification  of  Milk,  484 
Moulton,   H.   F.,   Lens   for    High-Power 

Microscopy.  526 
Mounting  Objects.     See  Contexts,  xxxvii 
Mouse,  Blind  Hungarian,  Ear  of,  568 

—  Dancing,  705 

—  White,  Early  Stages  in  Development, 

50 1 
Mouth-Parts  of  Blattidae,  579 

—  of  Solitary  Bees,  576 

—  of  the  Nemocera,  &c,  &c,  789 
Mrazek,  A.,  Sterility  in  Cestodes,  323 
Mucke,  M.,  Development  of  Achlya  poly- 

andra,  742 

—  Origin     and      Fruit-Development     of 

Acorn*  calamus,  333 
Mucorineae,  NorwegiaD,  C23 


Mudge,    G.    P..    Transmission    of   Coat- 
Characters  in  Rats,  700 
Midler,  B.,  Air-Sacs  of  Pigeon,  310 
Muller,  F.,  Studies  of  Placentation,  307 
Muller,  K.,  European  Hepaticse,  69,  339 

—  Hepaticse  of  Baden,  341 

Muller,  R.,  Blue  Pigment  Produced  both 

by    a  Diphtheroid   Bacillus  and  by  a 

Streptothrix,  362 
Muller,  W.,  Development  of  Endophyllum 

Euphorbise-silvaticse,  213 
Miiller-Thurgau,   H.,    Bacterium   cystinse, 

488 
Mulon,  P.,  Pigment  of  Suprarenal  Glands, 

309 
Munch,  E..  Blue  Disease  of  Pine-Wood, 

629 
Mungooses,  African,  30 
Muntz's-metal,  Heat-Treatment,  784 
Murex     brandaria,    Microbioi'ds    of     the 

Purple  Gland,  26 
Murray,  J.,  New  Scottish  Rotifers,  325 

—  Rhizopods  from  Gough  Island,  460 

—  Rotifers  from  Gough  Island,  458 

—  Some  African  Rotifers,  128,  665 
Murrill,  W.  A.,  Polyporacese,  215 
Musacese,  Palmacese  and  Cannacese,  Em- 
bryology, 602 

Muscidae,   Fat-Bodies  in   Metamorphosis, 

316 
Muscineae     and     Vascular     Cryptogams, 
Comparison,  201 

—  Arctic,  70 

—  British,  197 

—  Introductory  Stud}*,  611 

—  Irish,  197 

—  Italian,  469 

—  North  American,  198,  342,  613 

—  of  Canary  Islands,  70 

—  of  China  and  Indo-China,  344 

—  of  Crete,  199 

—  of  Flintshire,  612 

—  of  French  China,  732 

—  of  Greece,  612 

—  of  the  Arlberg  Region,  341 

—  of  the  Jura  Range,  732 

—  Ramification,  200 

Muscle,  Double  Refraction  Phenomena  in, 
566 

—  Histogenesis,  445 

—  Regeneration      of      Cross-Striped     in 

Vertebra ta,  28 

—  Striated,    Examining    Trophospongia, 

112 

—  Striped,  26 
Muscle-Fibres  Spiral,  704 

Muscles  of  Cyclosalpa,  Homologies,  34 

—  of  the  Tail  in  Peacock  and  Turkey,  447 
Museum  Microscope,  Leitz,  371 

Watson  and  Sons.  396 

Musgrave,  W.  E.,  Etiology  of  Mycetoma, 

361 
Mushroom  Culture,  747 


832 


INDEX. 


Mussel-Fluke,  Action  of  Heat  on,    50 
Mussels,  Studies,  575 
Mutants,  rink  Katydids  as,  578 
Mutation-Phenomena  in  Animals,  167 
Mycelium  of  Dry-Rot  Fungus,  Staining, 

52 1 
Mycetoma,  Etiology,  361 
MycetophUa  Larva,  Shell-bearing,  174 
Mycetozoa.     See  Contents,  xxx 

—  Swiss,  Notes,  634 
Mycological  Fragments  iii ,  356 

—  Notes,  355 ;  iv.,  747 

from  South  America  and  Spain,  211 

—  Society,  Transactions,  748 
Mycology,  Economic,  216 

—  from  the  Ecole  de  Pharmacie,  83 

—  Portuguese,  Notes.  484 

M  vcotheca  of  the  Ecole  de  Pharmacie,  210, 
481 

—  of  the  School  of  Pharmacy  XXVIII., 

749 
Myelin-Bodies  in  Nervous  System,  308 
Myiasis,  Human,  Due  to  (Estrus  (>vi$,  44 
Myriopoda.    bee  Contents,  xiv 
Myriopodophilous  Mites,  46 
Myriopods,  Cavernicolous,  453 
Mytilicola  intestinalis,  Metamorphosis,  321 
Myxinoids,   Ventricular   Fibre   of  Brain, 

444 
Myxomonas  Betas,  Existence,  486 
Myxomycete,  Dimorphism.  486 

—  New,  85 

—  Studies,  635 

Myxomycctes,  Cultivation  and  Preparation, 
106 

—  Influence  of  Bacteria  on  the  Culture, 

221 
Myxophyceai,  Rose-Colour   in  Species  of, 

348 
Myxosporidia,  Notes,  599 
Myxosporidian  Family,  New,  189 
Myxosporiums,  Two  Little-known,  479 
Myzostoma,  New  Species,  181 


N. 


Natural     History,    Introduction     to     the 

Study,  566 
Nature's  Protection  of  Insect  Life,  397 
Nectaries,  Extra-Floral,  63, 724 
—  Influence  on  the  Opening  of  Anthers, 

87 
Neesiella  and  Grimaldia,  730 
Neger,  F.  W.,  Fungus-Culture  of  Wood- 
boring  Beetles,  218 
-  Mycological  Notes  from  South  America 
and  Spain,  211 
Ncgre,    L.,    Sarcosporidial     Infection    in 

Mice,  188 
Negri,  — .,Muscinese  of  the  Canary  Islands, 
70 


Nelson,  E.  M.,  A  Correction  for  a  Spectro- 
scope, 128,  150 

—  An  Auxiliary  Illuminating  Lens,  673, 

789 

—  Biddulphia  mobiliensis,  15-i.  261 

—  Coretliruu  criophilum,  430,  528 

—  Eye-Pieces  for  the  Microscope,  1  16,  266 

—  Francois  Watkins'  Microscope,  1 37 

—  Gregory  and  Wright's  Microscope,  128, 

154 

—  Micrococcus  melitensis,  790 

—  Obituary  of  Francis  H.  Wenham.  C.E., 

693 

—  Reply   to   Professor   Porter's   and   Mr. 

Everitf  s  Criticism  upon  my  Paper  on 
the  Resolving  Power,  etc.,  1 

—  Resolution  of  Periodic  Structures,  671, 

789 
Nematocysts  of  Kolidise,  Origin.  39 

—  of  Turbellaria,  325 
Nematode,  Peculiar,  455 
Nematodes,  Development,  591 

—  Free-Living,  49 

—  Peculiar  Free  Living,  592 

—  Structure.  591 

Nematohelminthes,    Fixation     and     Pre- 
paration, 110 

—  See  Contents,  xvi 

Neinertean,  Peculiar  Abnormality  in  Pro- 
boscis, 593 
Nenierteaus,  New,  51 
Neroiloff,    A.,    Examining    the    Nervous 
Elements  of  Osseous  Fishes.  653 

—  Nervous  Elements  in  Fishes.  444 
Nemocera,  Mouth-parts,  789 
Nephridia,  Larval  of  Polygordius,  Collect- 
ing and  Examining,  511 

—  Thoracic,  of  Hermellidae,  588 
Nephrooytes  of  Caprellids,  177 
Nephrodium,  Apogamy  in,  Investigating, 

510 

—  Cytology  of  Reproduction,  726 
Nephrolepis,  Development  of  Stolons.  335 

—  Water-storing  Tubers,  606 
Nephthyidae,  Revision,  595 
Nereocystis  and  Pelagophycus,  346 
Nereis  japonica.  Breeding,  717 
Nerve,  Eighth  Cerebral,  165 
Nerve-Cord,  Vertebrate.  Development,  562 
Nerve-Endings    in    Urinary    Bladder    of 

Mammals,  Studying,  116 

Nerve-Fibre,  Living  Developing,  Obser- 
vations, 28,  109 

Nerve-Fibrils,  Demonstrating  the  Histo- 
genesis, 254 

Nerve-Terminations  in  Teeth  of  Mammalia, 
Demonstrating,  518 

Nervous  Elements  in  Fishes,  444 

of  Osseous  Fishes,  Examining,  653 

—  System,  Central,  of  Cyclostomes.  29 
Histogenesis,  444 

in    Lamellibrauchs,    Concentration, 

449 


INDEX. 


833 


Nervous  System,  Myelin-Bodies,  308 

of  Ascaris.  322 

Demonstrating,  .^18 

of  Larva  of  Corydalis  cornula,  715 

of  Razor-Shell  Olam,  315 

of  Saccooirrus  papillocercus,  179 

Visceral,  of  Decapods,  453 

—  Tissue,  Alizarin  a  Vital   and   Specific 

Stain  for,  77s 

of  Hirudiuese,  Demonstrating,  51)! 

Neschczadimenko,  31.  P.,  Streptothrix  in 

Chronic  Suppuration.  4s7 
Nest,  How  Ants  find  their.  42 
Nests  of  Wanderer  Ants,  172 
Neumann,  K.,  Coli-Bacillosis,  037 
Neumayer,  L.,  Celloidin  Imbedding,  057 
Neuro-Epithelium    of    the  Auditory    Ap- 
paratus, Examining,  514 
Neuroglia  in  Leeches,  455 

—  Syncytium,  104 
Neurological  Studies.  308,  505 
Neuron  Theory,  Vindication.  27 
Neuville,  H  ,  Enigmatical  Tooth,  30 
Newt,  Red-bellied.  Asiatic.  707 
Nichols,    M.    L.,    Polleu-Development    of 

Sarracenia.  333 
Nicholson,  W.  E.,  Mosses  of  Sussex,  339 

—  Muscineae  of  Crete,  199 
Nickel  and  Iron,  Magnetisation,  124 

—  and  Zinc,  257 

—  Binary  Allovs,  200 

—  Thermo-Electricity,  121 
Nickel-Bismuth  Alloys,  522 

—  System,  Equilibrium.  124 
Nickel-Iron  Alloys,  MeteoricaudArtificial, 

Thermomagnetic  Analysis,  394 
Nickel-Steel,   Special,    Occluded     Gases, 

001 
Nickel-Sulphur  Compounds,  Melting  Point 

Diagram,  258 
Nieloux,    M.,     Passage    of     Ether     from 

Mother  to  Fcetu.-,  504 
Nicoll,    W.,     Trematodes     from     British 

Birds,  180 
Nicolle,  C,  Cultivating  the   Parasites  of 
Kala-Azar  and  Aleppo  Boil.  50S 

—  Dogs  affected  with  Kala-Azar,  447 

—  New  Piroplasma  from  a  Rodent,  330 
Nienburu'.    W.,   Development    of    Lichen 

Apothecia_  84 
Nierenstein,   A.,   Examining  the  Poison- 
Glands  of  Salamandra  maculosa,  775 
Nierenstein,  M.,  Physiological  Action  of 
Extract  of  Hvpobranchial  Gland  of 
Dog  Whelk,  574 

—  Poison-Glands  of  Salamander,  443 
Nieter,  A.,  Bacillus  net, (typhosus,  754 
Niemann,   M.,   Structure   and   Habits  of 

Acentropus  niveus,  582 
Nitrogen,   Free,    Assimilation    by  Fungi, 
217 
-  Influence  on  Steel,  525 

—  Metabolism  in  Marine  Invertebrates,  35 


Nitrogen-fixing  Bacteria,  225 

Nodule  Organism  of  Loguminosa),  Iso- 
lating, 252 

Nomenclature  in  Phaeophyeeaj.  Some 
Errors,  738 

Nordhausen,  M.,  Epidermis  of  Foliage- 
Leaves  in  Relation  to  Light-Perception, 
05 

Nordstedt,  C.  F.  O..  Index  of  Desmidese, 
739 

Norman,  A.  M.,  Notes  on  some  British 
Polyzoa,  181 

Notochord,  Development  in  Fishes,  702 

—  in  Larval  Ascidians,  Development,  573 
Notopygo*    labiatus,     Brain     and    Nuchal 

Organ. 588 
Xourkoff,  M.,  Median  Eve  of  Ostracods, 

587 
Nowak,  J.,  Bacillus  of  Bang,  754 
Nuclear  and  Cell-Division  in  Basidiohoh(.< 
ranarum,  190 

—  Divisions  in  Rusts,  Study,  745 

—  Structures  in  Synehytrium,  332 
Nucleus   and   Karyokinesis  in  Zygnema, 

332 

—  Structure,  in  Relation  to  Organisation 

of  Individual,  59 

Nussbaum,  A.,  Secretion  nf  Thumb- Swel- 
ling in  Rana.  311 

Nussbaum,  M.,  Mutation-Pheuomena  in 
Animals,  107 

Nutrition  and  Growth  of  Seed  Plants. 
See  Contents,  xxi 

Nuttall,  G.  H.  F.,  Development  of  Piro- 
plasma canis  in  Dog,  58 

Nycteribiidae  from  Ceylon,  Variation,  317 

Nymphaeaceae,  Cytology  of  Pollen,  190 

of  Pollen-Mother-Cells.  00 


O 


Oberhofler,    P.,    Specific   Heat    of   Iron- 
Carbon  Allovs,  525 
Obituary,  Henry  Clifton  Sorby,  431 
Charles  Stewart.  135 

—  Francis  H.  Wenham,  C.E.,  693 
Object-Stage   with  Exchangeable  Plates, 

Heusner's.  766 
Object-Stages,       Mechanical,       Movable 

Reichert's.  041 
Objective,    j1,  inch  Achromatic  Objective, 
New,  by  C.  Baker.  788 

—  3*,  inch   New  Apochromatic,  by  T.   H. 

'  Powell,  788 

—  Photographic,  containing  a  Uranium- 

Class  lens,  93 
Objectives,  Reichert's.  047 

—  See  Contents,  xxxii 

Ocana.  .1.  <;.,  Function  of  Optic  Lobes  in 
Fishes.  708 


834 


INDEX. 


Octopus  with  Branching  Arms,  37 
Odoriferous  Gland  of  Cockroach,  451 
CEdogoninm,     Cell-Wall     Structure     and 
Ring-formation,  730 

—  Karyokinesis,  463 

—  Studying  the  Structure,  054 
Oes,  A.,  Autolysis  of  Mitosis,  601 

—  Demonstrating  the  Autolysis  of  Mito- 

ses, 515 
Oesophageal     Pouches     in     Centrolophus 
niger,  33 

of  Spionidffi,  455 

(Estrus  Ovis,  Human  Myiasis  due  to,  44 
Officers  and  Council,  List  of  Proposed,  129 
Oflbrd,  J.  M.,  133 

Ogilvie,  H.  S.,  Farrant's  Medium,  780 
Ogilvy,  J.  W.,  New   Microscope  by  Leitz. 

131 
Ohlmacher,  A.  P.,  Protective  and  Curative 

Artificial  Immunity,    037 
Oka,  A.,  New  Fresh- Water  Medusoid  from 

China,  183 
Okamura,   K.,  Illustrations   of    Japanese 
Algsp,  741 

—  Japanese  Algse,  474 

Okazaki,  K.,  Preparation  of  Enzyme  from 

a  Fungus,  83 
Oligochset,  Indian,  New,  590 
Olive,  E.   W.,  Cell  and  Nuclear  Division 
in  Basidiobolus  ranarum,  190 

—  Study  of  Nuclear  Divisions   in  Rusts, 

745 
Olive  pests,  173 

—  Tree,  Identity  of  the  Eogna  Bacillus 

(tubercle),  90 
Oncidium,  Structure  and  Relationships,  40 
Oncophorus,  European  Species,  733 
Ono,  K.,  Extra-Floral  Nectaries,  724 
Onychodactylus      acrobates,      Remarkable 

Adaptation,  599 
Onychophora,  Distribution  and  Classifica- 
tion, 583 

—  Monograph,  45 

—  See  Contents,  xiv 

Oocyte  of  the  Fowl,  Examining,  770 

Oospora  and  Achorion,  Systematic  Posi- 
tion, 479 

Opalina,  Degeneration,  329 

Ophioglossacese  of  the  United  States,  728 

Opltioglosxum,  simplex,  605 

Ophiopsila,  Observations,  458 

Ophiothri.r  fragilis,  Development,  53,  111, 
320 

Ophiuroids,  Luminosity,  320,  458 

Oppenheim,  S.,  Regeneration  and  Auto- 
tomy  in  Spiders,  584 

—  Regeneration  of  Segments  in  Epliem- 

erid  Larvae,  580 
Opsonins    and  Antiphagins  in   Pneumo- 

coccic  Infection,  757 
Optic  Lobes  in  Fishes,  Function,  70S 
Optical  Properties  of  Contractile  Organs, 

553 


Optics,  Microscopical.  See  Contents. 
xxxiv 

Oiibatidse,  Geographical  Distribution,  715 

Orientating  Small  Objects  for  Examina- 
tion, Method,  390 

Orientation  of  the  Cestoda,  323 

Ornithorhyncus,  Examining  the  Eggs,  653 

Orthogenesis  in  Gastropods,  171 

Orthoptera,  Autotomy,  45 

—  Intestinal  Flora,  488 
Oicillatoria  cortiana,  Pigment,  348 
Osmondite,  122 
Osmundacese,  Fossil,  196 
Osteomalacia   and    Rickets,   Micrococcus, 

638 
Osterhout,  W.  J.  V.,  Effects  of  Poisonous 
Gases  on  Plants,  604 

—  Value  of  Sodium  to  Plants,  604 
Ostracods,  Median  Eye,  587 

Otto,  H.,  and  Others,  Spermatogenesis  in 
Insects,  577 

Ovarian  and  Uterine  Functions,  Correla- 
tions, 100 

Ovaries,  Removal  and  Transplantation,  23 

—  Transplantation,  700 

Ovary,  Compensatory  Hypertrophy,  503 

—  of  Mammals,  Interstitial  Cells.  503 

—  of  Phryganid,  Development,  577 

—  of  Pclistes  pallipes,  Development,  570 

—  Studying  the  Interstitial  Cells,  113 
Overstrain,  Recovery  of  Steel  from,  262 
Oviduct  of  the  Hen,  Experiment  with.  707 
Ovum,  Human,  Very  Young,  501 

Owl,  White,  Occasional  Luminosity,  706 
Ox,      Migrations     of     Hypoxemia    liovis 

Larva,  44 
Oxner,  M„  New  Nemerteans,  51 


Pace,  L.,  Fertilisation  in  Cypripedium,  191 
Padlewsky,    L.,     Malachite-Green    Agar 

and  the  Bacilli  of  the  Typhoid  Group, 

773 
Palceostachya  vera.  Anatomy,  196 
Palaeozoic  Lycopod,  New,  195 
Palladium  and  Platinum,  Mel  ting-Points, 

121 
Pallial  Glands,  Defensive,  in  Scaphander, 

710 
Palm,  Date,  Scale  Insects,  173 
Palmacese,  Musaceae,  and  Cannaceas  Em- 
bryology, 602 
Palmer,  C.  F.,  Structure   of   Californian 

Haliotida?,  40 
Palms,  Lenticels,  62 
Pampanini,   R.,    Lycopodium  squarroiium 

and  its  Allies,  729 
Pancreas,  Regeneration,  441 
Paolo    della   Valle,   Tetrads    in    Somatic 

Cells,  27 
Paper,  Dendritic  Growths  of  Copper  Oxide, 
397,  544 


INDEX. 


835 


PapUio  dardanus,  Forms  of  the  Female, 

43 
Para-uterine  Organ  of  Txnia  nigropunc- 

tata,  50 
Paraffin    and    Celloidiu,    Combined    Im- 
bedding, 775 

—  Apparatus  for  Rapidly  Cooling,  111 

—  Sections,  Technique  of  the  Water  Me- 

thod of  Sticking  on  the  Slide,  521 
Paraffinum    Liquidum  (B.P.)  as   an   Im- 
mersion Oil,  771 
Parakeets,  Sarcosporidian,  188 
Parasite  of  Cockle,  456 

—  of  Male  Starfish,  599 
Parasites,  Toxins  Secreted  by,  180 
Parasitic  Flowering  Plants,  64 

—  Phanerogams  and  Nitrates,  04 

—  Plants,  Origin.  604 
Parasitism  of  Botrytis,  Notes,  744 
Paravortex  candii,  Maturation  and  Cleav- 
age, 719 

—  of  Valsa.  77 

Parichnos  in  the  Lepidodendracese,  196 
Paris,  E.  G.,  Bryophy  tes  of  French  Guinea, 
47<) 

—  Hepatics  of  New  Caledonia,  471 

—  Muscinese  of  China  and  Indo-China,  344 
of  French  China,  732 

—  Note  upon  Hookeria  papillata,  473 

-  West  African  Mosses.  343 

Parker,  G.  H.,  Sensory  Reactions  of  Amphi- 

oxus,  571 
Parmelise,  Brown,  220 
Parthenogenesis,  Artificial,  in  Silk-Moth, 

575 
in  Thalassema  mellita,  588 

—  of  Sea-Urchins,  594 

Pascher,  A.,  Swarm-Spores  of  Fresh- Water 

Alga,  204 
Patience,  A.,  British  Species  of  Trichonis- 
coides,  586 

—  Male  of  Dezamine  thea,  176 

—  New  British  Terrestrial  Isopod,  320 

-  Occurrence  of  Gobius  orca  in  Clyde  Sea 

Area,  571 

—  Notes  on  Clyde  Crustacea,  586 
Patouillard,    N.,    Mould    of    Fermenting 

Grain,  744 
Patten,  C.  J.,  Mesophotography  and  its 

Application    to   Delicate   Unfixed  Em- 
bryos, 781 
Patterson,  J.  T.,  Amitosis  in  Pigeon's  Egg, 

161 
Pavillard,  J.,  Species  of  Ceratium  in  the 

Gulf  of  Lyons,  205 
Pavlow,  A.  P.,  Genus  Aucella,  181 
Pavs-Mellier,  G.,  Hybrids  of  Peacock  and 

Cochin-China  Hen,  310 
Peacock  and  Cochin-China  Hen,  Hybrids, 

310 
Pearce's  Total   Reflexion   Rofractometer, 

236 
Pearcey,  F.  G.,  Botellina,  598 


Pearl,  R.,  Experiment  with  the  Oviduct  of 

the  Hen,  707 
Pearl-Forming  Flukes,  180 
Pe'cheux,  H,Thermo-Eleetricityof  Nick  1, 

121 
Pecten  in  Bird's  Eye,  401 
Pedal  Waves  of  Reptant  Molluscs,  314 
Pedicellarise  and  Spines  in  Sea-Urchins, 

Regeneration,  326 
PedicelHna  Echinata,  Larva,  593 
I'eju.  G.,  Morphology  of  Human  Tubercle 

Bacilli  in  Saline  Media,  86 
Pe'labou,  H,  Tellurides   of  Arsenic   and 

Bismuth,  661 
Pelagic  Larvre  of  Actiniaria,  184 
Pelagophycus  and  Nereocystis,  346 
Pellegrin,  ( '.,  and  V.  J.,  Buccal  Incubation 

in  Arius  fissus,  32 
Pellin,  F.,  Correction  of  the  Astigmatism 

of  Doubly  Refracting  Prisms.  244 
Pelseneer,  P.,  Concentration  of  Nervous 

System  in  Lamellibranchs,  449 
Peltereau,  M.,  and  others,  Basidiomvcetcs, 

480 
Pemberton,  J.  D„  New  Species  of  Achlva, 

350 
Penard,    E.,    Collecting   and    Preserving 

Fresh- Water  Rhizopods,  107 
Pendulation  Theory,  467 
Peuhallow,    D.   P.,  Pleistocene   Flora  of 

Canada,  66 
Penicillium  as  a  Fruit  Parasite,  743 

—  Carbon  Assimilation,  335 

—  Study,  213 
Penis  in  Birds,  309 

Pennington,  L.  H.,  Fomes  pinicola,  and  its 

Hosts,  481 
Peptones,  Nutritive  Value   for   Different 

Species  of  Bacteria.  513 
Peragallo,H.,  Diatoms  in  an  Aquarium.  347 

—  and  M.,  Marine  Diatomacea?  of  France. 

616 
Perception  of  Relief  and  Depth   in    the 
Simple  Image  of  Ordinary  Photographic 
Proofs  :  Conditions  and  Theory  of  this 
Perception.  385 
Perez,  C,  Fat-Bodies  of  Muscidse  in  Meta- 
morphosis, 316 

—  Stichosternvui  Eilhardi,  457 
Periodic  Structures,  Resolution,  671.  78'.' 
Peristome,  Variable,  of  Philonotis,  71 
Peronospo rales  II.,  North-American,  Stud- 
ies, 210 

Perotti,  R.,  Dicyandiamid-Bacteria,  636 
Peroxydiastase  in  Dry  Seeds,  332 
Perrier,  R.,  Defensive  Glands  in   Tecti- 

branchs,  574 
Pallial  Glands  in  Scaphander,  710 

—  Genital  Organs  of  Brady  podidae,  31 
Perrin,  G.,  Conditions  Affecting  Prothalli 

of  Polypodiacese,  727 
Perrin,  M.,  Tobacco-Poisoning  in  Rabbits. 
568 


836 


INDEX. 


Pesker,  D.  J.,  Demonstrating  the  Histo- 
genesis of  Nerve-Fibrils,  251 

Pesta,  O.,  Metamorphosis  of  Mytilicola  in- 
testinalis,  321 

Petch,  T.,  Fungi  Parasitic  on  Hevea 
braailiensis,  483 

—  Hydnocijstig  Thwaitesii,  350 

—  Revision  of  Ceylon  Fungi,  627 
Peterson,  O.  A..  Chaliootheres,  569 
Petri,  L.,  Identity  of  the  Rogna  Bacillus 

("tubercle)  of  the  Olive-Tree,  90 
1'ctricola  pholadiformis,  Distribution,  315 
Petrographical  ami  Miueralogical  Micro- 
scopes  of  Bociete  Genevoise, 
Eye-Pieces,  235 

with  Permanent  Centring  and 

with     Objective     Rotation, 
Societe  Genevoise,  229 
Petroleum,  Californian,  Origin,  476 
Petromvzon.  Gastrulation,  24 
Pettit,  A.,  Kidmy  of  Elephant,  166 
Peyerimhoff.     P.     de,    New     Species     of 

Ksenenia,  7 1 5 
Pfeffer,  W.,  Sleep-Movements  of  Leaves, 

192 
Pha3opbycea3,    Observations   on   the  Ger- 
mination, 736 

—  Some  Errors  of  Nomenclature,  73S 
Phalloids,  354 

Phallus  and  Cloaca  in  Amniota,  Studies, 

309 
Phallus  impurlicus,  Note,  747 
Phanerogams,  Parasitic,  and  Nitrates,  64 
Pharynx  of    Triclad,  Cytological   Study, 

456 
Phaseolicama  magellanica,  Structure,  448 
Phellia  murocincta,  18  1 
Philip,  R.  H.,  Yorkshire  Diatoms,  617 
Philiptschenko,  J.,  Excretion  in   Aptery- 
gora,  45 

—  Head-Glands  of  Thysauura,  581 
Philonotis,  Bryum  zonatum,  614 

—  Monograph,  472 

—  Parisian  Species,  198 

-  Variable  Peristome,  71 
Phosphoric  Steels,  525 
Phosphorus  and  iron  Compounds,  Consti- 
tution, 663 

—  Influence  on  the  Iron-Carbon  System,  524 
Photographic     Objective     containing     a 

Uranium-Glass  Leus.  93 
Proofs,    Reversible,    Integral     Photo- 
graphs, 384 
Photographing  Superficial  Bacterial  Colo- 
nies, Method,  392 
Photographs      in     Colours,     Interference 
Fringes  produced  by,  648 
Integral;      Reversible      Photographic 

Application 


in 


Proofs,  3S4 
Photography,     Colour, 

Metallography,  395 
—  of  very  Translucent  Diatoms  at  High 

Magnifications,  649 


Photometer,  Bechstein's,  with  Proportional 
Graduation   and    Decimally-Divided 

Scale.  98 

—  Microspectral      and      Ultramicroscope, 

Application  to  Textile  and  Dyeing 
Industries,  387 

Photomicrographic  Apparatus.  Old,  De- 
signed by  Dr.  Maddox  for  Dr.  Lionel 
S.  Beale,  399 

Photomicrography,  Light  Filters  for,  20 

—  Turneretscher's  Apparatus,  101 

—  See  Contents,  xxxiii 
Photomicroscope   for    Ultra-Violet    Ray.-. 

and  its  Significance  for  Histological 
Investigations,  especially  of  Hard  Struc- 
tures, 046 

Phototropism  of  Hermit  Crabs,  Periodic- 
Change,  319 

Phryganid,  Development  of  Ovary,  577 

Phyllopods,  New.  455 

Phylloxera,  Vine,  Fungi  Parasitic  on.  483 

Phylomicus,  448 

Physcomitrella,  Hybrids,  199 

Physiology,  Molecular,  Course  of,  65 

—  of  Seed  Plants.   See  Contents,  xxi 
Phytecology     of     the     Eastern    Part    of 

Kabylia.  t66 
Phytoplankton,  Indian  Ocean.  349 

—  of  Ceylon,  204 

—  of  Scotch  and  Swiss  Lakes,  477 

—  off  the  Coast  of  Normandy,  74o 
Picard.  F..  Parasitic  Laboulbenia,  478 
Pick,  H.,  Copper-Tin  Alloys,  660 
Pie'ron,  H.,  Autotomy  in  Decapods.  47 
in  Orthoptera,  45 

—  How  Ants  find  their  Nest,  42 

—  Sense  of  Taste  in  Fresh-water  Snail-. 

710 
Piersol,  W.  H.,  Mating  of  Rivellia  boscii, 

173 
Pigeon,  Air-Sacs,  310 
Pigg,  J.  I.,  793 

—  Microscopic    Writing,     Specimen     by 

Webb.  396 
Pigment,    Blue,    product  d     both     by    a 
Diphtheroid  Bacillus  and  by  a  Strep- 
tothrix,  362 

—  of  Oscillatoria  Gortiana,  348 

—  of  Suprarenal  Glands,  309 
Pigmentation,  Inheritance  in  Mice,  23 
Pillar,  N.  K.,  Nitrogen-Fixing   Bacteria, 

225 
Pilsbry,  H.  A.,  Barnacles  of  the   United 
States  National  Museum,  17S 

—  Classification    of     Scalpel]  iform     Bar- 

nacles, 716 

—  Notes  on  ('impedes,  178 
Pine-Wood,  Blue  Disease,  629 
Piuoy,  E  ,  Bon-el's  Blue,  115 

—  Cultivation  and  Preparation  of  Myxo- 

lnyeetes,  106 

—  Cultural  Experiments  with   Acrasieaj, 

85 


INDEX. 


837 


Pinoy,  E.,  Dimorphism  in  si  Myxomycete, 
486 

—  Influence  of  Bacteria  on  the  Culture  of 

Myxomycetes,  221 
Pinus,  Cone  of,  464 
Pipette  for  Microscope  Work,  781 
Pipette-Holder  for  Opsonic  Work,  651 
Piping  and  Segregation,  262 
Piroplasma  cam's  in   Dog,    Development, 

58 
Piroplasma,  New,  from  a  Rodent,  330 
Pistil  of  Lauraceae,  Polyearpellary  Origin, 

63 
Pitard,    — .,    Muscinepe     of   the    Canary 

Islands.  70 
Pituitary   Body   and   Saceus    Vasculosus, 
Action  of  Extracts,  704 

Mammalian,  Development,  698 

M  inute  Structure,  702 

Pixell,  H.  L.  M.,   Structure  and  Function 

of  Rectal  Gland  in  Elasmobranclis,  307 
Placenta,   Early,  in  Macacus   nemestrinus, 
160 

—  of  Galeopithecus,    Formation   of   Red 

Blood  Corpuscles,  161 
Placental  Villi,  Demonstrating   the   Syn- 
cytial Appendages,  653 
Placentation,  Studies,  307 
Placodes,  Epibranchial,  of  Ameiurue,  443 
Plague,  Avian,  Culture  in  vitro,  773 

—  Bacillus  in  tbe  Bed  Bug,  489 

—  Dissemination,    Relation    of    Fleas   to, 

174 

—  Prophylactic,  New,  88 

—  Susceptibility  of  Rats  of  Diverse  Races, 

87 
Plaice  and  Dabs,  Food,  33 
Planaria  angulata,  324 

—  Wytegrensis,  592 
Planimetric  Analysis  of  Alloys,  661 
Plankton  of  Mofjord.  349 

—  of  the  Yang-tze-Kiang.  204 
Planocera  inquilina,  Collecting  and  Pre- 
serving. 5ns 

Plant  Kingdom,  Origin,  741 

—  Tumour  of  Bacterial  Origin,  223 
Plants     containing     Hydrocyanic    Acid, 

Grafting.  334 

—  Diseases.  81,  356,  482.  629,  748,  749 

—  Fossil,    Nathorst's    Use    of   Collodion 

Imprints  in  the  Study,  117 

—  Myrmecophilous,  Harmful  Secretion  of 

Sugar,  66 

—  New  Diseases,  215 

—  Parasitic  Flowering,  64 
Origin,  604 

—  Value  of  Sodium,  604 
Plate-Cultivation  of  the  Streptobacillus  of 

Ducrey,  772 
Plates  for  Growing  Germs  in  Quantity,  652 

—  from  an  Old  Boiler,  Test,  782 
Platinum  and  Palladium,  Melting- Points, 

121 


Platinum-Arsenic   and    Bismuth-Arsenic . 

Binary  Systems,  52 1 
Platinum-Thallium  Alloy,  394 
Platyeerium,    Abnormal     Production     of 

Spores,  194 
Platyhelmintb.es.     See  Contents,  xvi 
Pleistocene  Flora  of  Canada.  66 
Plessis,  G.  Du,  New  Marine  Triclad,  50 
Pleural  Cavity  of  Elephant,  309 
Fhimnlarta   obliquu    and  Sertularia  oper- 

culata,  Gonophores,  55 
Pneumococcic     Infectiou,    Opsonins     and 

Antiphagins,  757 
Pocock,  1!.  I.,  Pattern  of  Cubs  of  Lious 
and  Pumas,  30 

—  Feeding  Snakes  in  Captivity,  447 
Podarke  obscura.  Regeneration,  179 
Pohlia  annotina  and  Allied  Species,  733 
Poison-Apparatus  of  Weever,  169 
Poison-Glands  of  Catfishes,  168 

—  of  Salamandra  maculosa,  Examining. 

775 
Poissou,    H.,    Abnormal     Production     of 

Spores  in  Platyeerium,  194 
Polariscipe,  Note  on  some  Meteorological 

Uses,  374 
Polarising  Prisms,  372 
Police,  G.,  Eyes  of  Scorpions,  45 

—  Visceral  Nervous  System  of  Decapods, 

45:; 
Polishing    Metal    Sections,    Appparatus, 

123 
Pulistes  pallipes.  Development   of  Ovary, 

576 
Pollen  of  Nymphaeaceje,  Cytology,  190 
Pollen-Development  of  Sairacenia,  333 
Pollen-Mother-Cells   of   Agave   attenuata, 
Cytology,  601 

—  of  Nymphseaceaj,  Cytology,  60 
Polyearpellary  Origin  of  the  Pistil  of  the 

Lauraceae,  63 
Polychsets,  Notes,  179 

—  of  Amboina,  588 

Polyclad,  Early  Development.  324 
Polyclads  from  the  Somali    Coast   and   a 

Revisionof  the  Stylochinse,  50 
Polygonum.  Sphaceolotheca  on,  211 
Polygordius.   Collecting    and    Examining 

Larval  Nephridia,  511 
Polymorphism  of  Hymeuomycetes,  353 
Polyodon  epathula,  Notes,  571 
Polypodiaceae,  Conditions    Affecting  Pro- 

ilialli.  727 
Polyporao  86,  215 
Polyporut  annosiu,  18 1 

—  upplanatus     of     Europe    and     North 

America,  Identity,  7  1''. 
Polypterus  senegalus,  Development,  438 
Polyspermy  in  Membranipora,  593 
Polyzoa,  Bengal,  59  I 

—  British,  Notes.  181 

—  Fresh-Water,    Exhibition   of  Mounted 

Specimens,  268 


s:;s 


INDEX. 


Polyzoon,  Fresh-Water,  New   from  South 

Africa,  721 
Pontobdella  muricata,  Trypanosoma  57 

Pupoff,    N.,   Wax   Glands  of  Flata  mar- 

ginella,  579 
Porifera.     See  Contents,  xix 
Porta,  A.,  Muscles  of  the  Tail  in  Peacock 
and  Turkey,  447 

—  Peculiar  Nematode,  455 

Portal  Circulation  in  Embryonic  Meta- 
nephros  of  Mammals,  307 

Porter,  A.  W.,  On  the  Diffraction  Rings 
for  a  Circular  Openiug,  and  on  the 
Limit  of  Resolving  Power,  3 

Porter's,  Professor,  and  Mr.  Everitt's 
Criticism  upon  my  Paper  on  the  Re- 
solving Power,  etc.,  Reply  to,  1 

Portevin,  A.,  Alloys  of  Silver,  522 

-  Constitution  and   Treatment   of  Steel, 

260 

—  Equilibrium    of    the    Nickel-Bismuth 

System,  124 

—  Iron-Carbon  System,  125 

—  Nickel-Bismuth  Alloys,  522 

-  Use  of  the  Differential  Galvanometer, 

525 
Poso,    0.,    Regeneration    of    Spines    and 

Pedicellarise  in  Sea-Urchins,  326 
Potassium,  Alloys  with  other  Metals,  122 
Fotato  Scab  in  America,  483 
Potter,  M.  C,  Bacteria  as  Agents  in  the 
Oxidation  of  Amorphous  Carbon,  489 

—  Diseases  of  Plants.  74S 

Pouches     Oesophageal     in     Centrolophus 

niger,  33 
Poulton,  E.  B.,  Notes  on  South   African 

Chamaeleons,  31 
Powell,  T.  H.,  ^L  inch  New  Apochromatic 

Objective,  788 
Preparing  Objects.    See  Contents,  xxxvi 
Preservative  Fluids.   See  Contents,  xxxvii 
Preserving    aud   Collecting   Fresh-Water 
Rhizopods,  107 

—  Fossil  Seeds  and  Leaves,  117 
President,  The,  270,  271 

President's  Address,  On  Seeds,  with 
Special  Reference  to  British  Plants, 
273 

—  Annual  Address,  271 
Primnoidac,  Japanese,  185 

Prisms,  Doubly  Refracting,  Correcting  the 
Astigmatism,  244 

—  Polarising,  372 

Proboscis  of  a  Nemertean,  Peculiar  Abnor- 
mality, 593 
1'roca,  G.,  Bacillus  fusiformis  Cultivated 
in  Symbiosis,  48S 

—  Sterilised   Bacterial    Media  for  Culti- 

vation of  Anaerobes,  109 
Projection   Apparatus,  Kaiserling's    Uni- 
versal, 378 

Reichert's  New  Large,  500 

Propagula  of  the  Genus  Barbula,  G14 


Protandry  in  Insects.  71 1 
Prothalli,    Dwarf    Male,     Production     in 
Sporangia  of  Todea,  606 

—  of  Polypodiaceae,  Conditions  Affecting, 

727 
Prothallia,  Fern,  Symbiosis,  468 
Protophyte,  New,  Lite-History,  266 
Protostylic  and  Autostylic,  569 
Protozoa,  New  Order,  722 

—  of  Sandusky  Bay,  460 

—  Patagonian,  599 

—  See  Contents,  xix 

Prowazek,  S.,  Regeneration  of  Algae,  72 
Prowazek,     v.,     Comparative     Study     of 

Spirochetes,  360 
Prozenglodon  atrox,  568 
Prudent,  P.,  Diatoms  of  the  Jura  Lakes, 

477 
Pseudoscorpionidse,  Cave,  453 
Pseudoscorpions,  Notes,  584 
Psychobiology  of  Humble  Bees,  42 
Pteridologists,  Deceased,  North  American, 

608 
Pteridophyta,  Fossil,  60S 

—  North  American,  606 

—  See  Contents,  xxii 

Pumas  and  Lions,  Pattern  of  Cubs,  30 
Purdy,  R.  J.  \V.,  Occasional  Luminosity  of 

White  Owl,  706 
Purin     Bodies,    Localising     in     Animal 

Tissues,  779 
Purvis,   J.    E.,    Influence   of    Light   and 

Colours  on  Yeast,  604 
Putrefaction,  Intestinal,  Microbes,  758 
Pygocephalus  cooperi.  176 
Vyronema  confluens,  351 


Q.    . 

Quagga  of  Turin  Museum,  568 

Quarelli,  G.,  Staining  Sudanophil  Leuco- 
cytes, 115 

Quekett  Microscopical  Club,  105,  246, 
388,  505,  771 

Quelle,  F.,  Contributions  to  the  Algal 
Flora  of  Nordhausen,  203 


R. 


Rabaud,   E ,   Orientation   of    Embryo    in 

Hen's  Egg,  699 
Rabbits.  Corpus  Luteum  and  Rut,  141 

—  Tobacco-poisoning  in,  568 

Rabid  Animals,  Bacterium  Isolated  from 

Nervous  Centres,  75S 
Raccoons,  Intelligence,  567 
Racovitza,  E.  G.,  Cave  Isopods,  48 

—  New  Cave  Isopod,  48 

—  New  Marine  Isopod,  454 
Radiolarians,  Studies,  186 


INDEX. 


839 


Rails,  Sorbitic,  125 

Rajat,  H.,  Morphology  of  Human  Tubercle 

Bacilli  in  Saline  Media,  86 
liana  esculenta,   Abnormalities    in  Hind 
Limbs,  564 

—  pipiens,  Origin  of  Sex-Cells,  562 
Rana,  Secretion  of  Thumb-swelling,  311 
Raspail,  X.,  Incubation  in  Doves,  161 
Rats  and  Cats,  Imitative  Tendency,  567 

—  of    Diverse    Races,    Susceptibility    to 

Plague,  87 

—  Transmission  of  Coat-Characters,  700 
Raulin,  W.,  Biological  Chemistry,  192 
Rauther.  M.,  Structure  of  Nematodes,  591 
Rave,     P.,      Chemical     Constituents     of 

Lichens,  634 
Rawitz'  Microscopical  Technique,  118 
Raybaud,  L.,  Influence  of  Light  on  the 

Growth  of  Rhizopus  nigricans,  725 
Razors,     Microtome,     Arrangements    for 
Utilising  the  Entire  Cutting- Edge,  655 
Read,  C.  and  E.  M.,  Preserving  Fossil  Seeds 

and  Leaves,  117 
Reau,    L.     du,    Epidermis     of     Travisia 

forbesii,  588 
Rechinger,  K.,  Lichens  from  the  Island  of 

Samoa,  633 
Rectal  Gland  in  Elasmobrauchs,  Structure 

and  Function,  307 
Red  Corpuscles,  Granular,  Staining,  520 
Reed,  A.   D.,  Poison-Glands  of  Catfishes, 

168 
Reed,    G.    M.,     Specialisation     in     Ery- 

siphacese,  77 
Reese,  A.  M.,  American  Alligator,  442 
Reflexes  of  Silkworm  Moths,  712 
Refraction,  Double,  Phenomena  in  Muscle, 

566 
Refractometer,   Pearce's  Total   Reflexion, 

236 
Re^an,  C.  T.,  Hybrid  between  Bream  and 

Rudd,  702 
Regaud,  C,  Corpus  Luteuni  and  Rut  in 

Rabbits,  441 
Kegel,  R.,  Gooseberry  Mildew  in  Russia, 

211 
Regeneration  and  Coalescence  in  Sponges, 
328 

—  in  Podarke  obscura,  179 

—  of  Algae,  72 

-  of  Segments  in  Ephemerid  Larvae,  580 
Reglet  for  Direct  Reading  in  Microscopic 

Measurements,  242 
Reichenow,   E.,   Abnormalities    in    Hind 

Limbs  of  Sana  esculenta,  564 
Reichensperger,   A.,   Glands  of  Oinoids, 

721 
Reichensperger, — ,  Luminosity  of  Ophiur- 
oids,  326 

—  Observations  on  Ophiopsila,  458 
Reichert's  Drawing  Apparatus,  770 

—  Goniometer-ocular,  047 

—  Index-ocular,  646 


Reichert's  Large  Stand,  A  1,  645 

—  Marking  Apparatus,  771 

—  Movable  Mechanical  Object-Stages,  641 

—  New  Large  Projection  Apparatus,  500 
Stand  B,  642 

Stand  VI..  765 

Steinach  Stand  C,  763 

Medium  Miueralogical  Stand  Aiii.  c, 

644 
Preparation  Microscope,  645 

—  Novelties  in  Mirror  Condensers,  374 

—  Objectives,  647 

—  Spectral-ocular,  646 

—  Travelling  Microscope,  762 

Reid,  C.  and  E.,  Collecting  Fossil  Flora, 

108 
Reinbold,    T.,    Alg*    of   the    '  Valdivia ' 

Expedilion,  75 
Relief  and  Depth,   Perception  of  in   the 

Simple  Image  of  Ordinary  Photographic 

Proofs ;  Conditions  and  Theory  of  this 

Perception,  3S5 
Renier,   A.,    Origin   of    Ulodendron    Im- 
pressions of  Bothrodendron,  726 
Rennie,  J.,  Oesophageal  Pouches  in  Cen- 

trolophus  niger,  33 
Report,  Annual,  131 

Reproduction,   Asexual,   and   Growth   in 
Stylaria,  lacustris,  590 

—  in  Snails,  37 

Reproductive    Adaptations,   Transmission 
of  Coercively  Acquired,  559 

—  Apparatus  of  Kynotus,  49 
Reptiles,  Mammal-like,  447 

—  of  Eastern  Island,  569 

Resolution   in  Microscopy,   Measurement, 
103 

—  of  Periodic  Structures,  671,  789 
Resolving  Power,  On  the  Limit  of ;  and  on 

the   Diffraction    Rings    for   a   Circular 

Opening    (Being    a    rejoinder    to    Mr. 

Nelson),  3 
Respiration  in  Earthworms,  179 
Respiratory  Mechanism  in  Elasmobrauchs, 

167 
Retterer,   E.,   Development  of  Cartilage, 

163 
Reversible  Photographic  Proofs ;  Integral 

Photographs,  384 
Rhabdoccela,  New,  50 
Rhabdoccelids,  Syncytial  Nature  of  Gut. 

456 
Rhizopods   and  Helioz  la   of  the    Nether- 
lands, 460 

—  Fnsh- water,    Collecting  and    Preserv- 

ing, 107 

—  from  Gough  Island,  460 

Bliizopus  nigricans,  Influence  of  Light 
upon  the  Growth,  725 

Rhodophyllis,  New  Zealand  Species,  f>21 

Rhopalura  ophiocomse,  Collecting  and  Ex- 
amining the  EpL's,  510 

Rhyuchodemu?,  New  Species,  457 


840 


[NDEX. 


Ribes,  Monograph  of  the  Genus,  66 
Ribs  in  Brachiopods,  Development,  51 
Riocardia  and  other  Hepatics,  616 
Richardson,  H..  Terrestrial  Isopods  of  the 

Family  Eubelidse,  is 
Rickou,  L.,  Tobacco-poisoning  in  Rabbits, 

568 
Richter.  W.,  Development  of  Gonophores 

in  Sij)honophora,  828 
Richters,  F.,  Marine  Tardigrada,  585 
Rickets   and    Osteomalacia,   Micrococcus, 

638 
Riella  and  Blasia,  Asexual  Multiplication, 

338 
Riella  hialata,  616 

Ries,  J.,   New   Views   concerning    Ferti- 
lisation and  Maturation,  7(11 
Ritchie,  J.,  Australasian  Hydroid  in  North 

Sea,  328 
Rittenhouse,  S.,  Structure  aud   Develop- 
ment of  Turritopsis  nutricula,  183 
Ritter,  G.,  Fermentation,  Fungi,  218 
Ritter,  W.  E.,  Californian  Ascidians,  709 

—  Ascidians  of  Californian  Coast,  84 
Rivellia  boscii,  Mating,  173 

Roaf,  H.  E.,  Physiological  Action  of  Ex- 
tract of  Hypobrauchial  Gland  of  Dog 
Whelk,  574 

Robel,  J.,  Colouring  Matter  of  Chlorophyll, 
465 

Robertson,  A.,  North  American  Incrustmg 
Chilostomatous  Bryozoa,  457 

Robertson,  M.,  Haplosporidian  of  Floun- 
der, 598 

—  Trypanosome  ot  Pontohdella  muricata, 

57 
Robin,  — .,  Alumina  for  Polishing,  784 
Robinson,   C.    B.,    Original    Meaning    of 

Chaia,  735 
Robinson,  L.  E.,  Method  of  Orientating 

Small  Objects  for  Examination,  390 
Robinson,  M.,  Segmentation   of  the  Head 

in  Diplopoda,  319 
Robinson,  R.,  Corpora  adiposa  in  Frog, 708 
Rodel  a,     A.,     Lactic-Acid     Bacilli     and 

Cancer  of  the  Stomach,  757 
Rodent,  New  Piroplasma,  330 
Rods,  Metal,  Longitudinal  Impact,  123 
Rogenhofer,  A.,  Maxdlary  Gland  in   Iso- 
pods, 586 
Rogna    Bacillus   (tubercle)   of  the    Olive 

Tree,  Identity,  90 
Rohr,  M.,  Binocular  Instruments,  93 
Roi,  O.  le,  Dendrogaster,  5s7 
Roll,  J.,  Sphagnum  and  Sphagnology,  730 
Romanowsky  Stain,  Modification,  520 

New  Method  ot  Preparing,  115 

Romer,  K.,  Northern  Animals,  313 
Root,  Geotropic  Sensibility,  603 

—  Structure  in  Ceratopteris  thalictroides, 
193 

Routs  in  Lycopodium,  Origin,  609 

—  Inner,  of  Lycopodium  pithyoides,  195 


Rosam,    A.,    Simple    Method    of  Microbe 
Staining,  520 

—  Porous  Culture  Vessi  Is,  108 

Rose,  T.  K.,  Alloys  of  Gold  and  Tellurium, 

394      . 
Rosendahl,  P.,  Brown  Parmelise,  22o 
Rosenhain.  \V.,  Metallurgical  and  Chemi- 
cal Laboratories  in  the  National  Physical 
Laboratory,  662 
Rosenstock,  E.,  Description  of  New  Species 
of  Ferns,  607 

—  Descriptions   of  New  Tropical   Ferns, 

337 
Rosenthal,  G.,  Sporulation  of  the  Bacillus 

rheumaticus,  222 
Rosen vinge,L.  K.,  Distribution  of  Fucacese 

on  the  Coast  of  Greenland,  207 
Ross',  New  Micrometric  Mechanical  Stage, 
760 

—  No.      2     "  Standard  "     Metallurgical 

Microscope,  761 

Rosseter,  T.  B.,  Hymenolepis  fragilis,  456 

Roth,  G.,  Sphagnum  ami  Sphagnology, 
729 

Rothe,  — ,  Differential  Diagnosis  of  Gon- 
ococcus  and  certain  other  Micrococci. 
487 

Rothe',  M.  E.,  Interference  Fringes  pro- 
duced by  Photographs  in  Colours,  648 

Rothschild,  M.  de,  Enigmatical  Tooth,  30 

Rotifera,  Marine,  New,  52 

—  New,  181 

—  Stomachal  Excretion,  325 

—  See  Contents,  xviii 
Rotifers,  African,  128 

—  from  Gough  Island,  458 

—  New,  French,  325 
Scottish  325 

—  Some  African,  665 

Roubaud,    E.,   Observations   on    Glossina 

palpalis,  578 
Roulc,   L.,   Development    of    Kidney    in 
Teleosteans,  702 

of  Notochord  in  Fishes,  702 

in  Larval  Ascidians,  573 

—  New  Types  of  Alcyonarians,  327 

—  Spines  of  Antipatharia,  327 
Rousselet,  C.  F.,  128.  396,  793 

—  Exhibition  by  the  Society  at  the  Franco- 

British  Exhibition  of  Instruments 
illust  ative  of  the   History  of  the 
Microscope,  399 
of   Mounted    Specimens  of  Fresh- 
water Polyzoa,  268 

—  New  Rotifera,  LSI 

Rowntree,  O,  Paraffinum  Liquidum(B.P.) 

as  an  Immersion  Oil,  771 
Rubaschkiu,  W.,  <  »rigin  of  Germ-cells  in 

Mammalian  Embryos.  306 
Rubenthale,    G.,  Fixation    Methods    and 

Elimination  of  Artefacts,  253 
Rudnew,  W.,   New  Method  of   Fixation, 
110 


INDEX. 


841 


Ruhland,  W.,  Staining  the  Mycelium  of 

the  Dry-rot  Fungus,  521 
Rumbold,  C,  Biology  of  Wood-destroying 

Fungi,  627 
Russ,  V.  K.,  Cultural   Differentiation  of 

Capsulated  Bacilli,  226 
Russell,  E.  S.,  Environmental  Studies  on 

the  Limpet,  448 
Russell,  M.  W.,  New  Localities  for  Amanita 

ciesarea,  215 
Russell,  T.  H.,  Introductory  Study  of  the 

Muscinese,  611 
Rusaula  and  Lactarius,  Colour  Reactions, 

217 
RuBts,  Morpliology,  80 
—  Study  of  Nuclear  Divisions,  745 
Rut  and  Corpus  luteum  in  Rabbits,  441 
Rydberg,  P.  A.,  Arctic  Mosses,  731 


S. 

Sablon,   L.  du,   Albumen   of    Caprificus, 

464 
Sabussow,  H.,  Planaria  Wytegrensis,  592 
Saccoclrrus  papillocercus,  Nervous  System, 

179 
Sacculina,  Life-History,  320 
Saccus   Vasculosus   and    Pituitary   Body, 

Action  of  Extracts,  704 
Sackur,  O.,  Copper-Tin  Alloys,  660 
Sahmen,  R.,  Binary  Alloys  of  Copper,  260 
Sainmont,  G.,  Flemming's  Triple  Staining 

Method,  778 
Saklatwalla,  B.,  Constitution  of  Iron  and 

Phosphorus  Compounds,  663 
Salamander,  Poison  Glands.  443 
Salamandra    maculosa,    Examining     the 

Poison-Glands,  775 
Salensky,  W.,  Metamorphosis  of  Echiurus, 
321 

—  (Esophageal  Pouches  of  Spionidse,  455 

—  Structure  of  Haplodiscus,  181 
Saling,   T ,   Development   of    Gonads    of 

Tenebrio  molitor,  577 
Salivary  Glands  of  Hemiptera,  172 
Salmon,  E.  S.,  Economic  Mycology,  216 

—  Erysipbaceae  of  Japan,  478 

—  Notes  on  some  Species  of  Erysiphacese 

from  India,  351 

—  and  others.  Diseases  of  Plants,  629 
Salomon.  E.,  Differentiation  of  Streptococci 

by    Media    containing    Carbohydrates, 

637 
Salpa,  Structure,  35 
Sambon,   L.    W.,    Leucocytozoon   of  Red 

Grouse,  188 
Santschi,  P.,  Tunisian  Ants,  43 
Sanzo,  L.,  Nitrogen  Metabolism  in  Marine 

Invertebrates,  35 


Sapehin,  A.  A.,  Xeropbytic  Mosses  of  the 

Limestone  around  Odessa,  342 
Saprolegnia  monoica,  Development,  478 
Saprolegniacese,  Study,  623 
Sarcoptid,  New  Type,  46 
Sarcoptids  in  Wing-Bones  of  Birds,  46 
Sarcosporidial  Infection  in  Mice,  188 
Sarcosporidian  in  Parakeets,  188 
Sargaxsum  bacciferum,  74 
Sarracenia,  Pollen-Development,  333 
Sartory,    A.,   Intestinal   Flora   of  certain 
Orthoptera,  488 

—  Peptonification   of    Milk    by    Moulds, 

484 
Saunders,    J.,    Witches'   Brooms    of   the 

South  Midlands.  354 
Sauropsida,  Head-Muscles,  310 

—  Independent  Bony  Epiphyses,  569 
Sauvageau,  C,  Aglaozonia  melanoidea,  75 

—  Cultivation  of  Algae,  507 

—  Fucus  Living  on   Sand  and  on  Mud, 

208 

—  Observations    on   the    Germination   of 

some  Phseophycese,  736 

—  Rose-Colour  in  Species  of  Myxophycese, 

348 

—  Sargassum  bacciferum,  74 

—  Sexuality  of  Halopteris  scoparia,  74 

—  Some     Errors     of     Nomenclature     in 

Pbseophycea),  738 
Saxelby,  E.  M.,  Origin  of  Roots  in  Lyco- 

podium,  609 
Saxifraga  granulata,  Development,  191 
Sayce,   O.   A.,   Primitive   Malacostracan, 

176 
Scales,  F.  S.,  397,  794 
Scales  of  Fishes,  445 
Scaphander,    Defensive    Pallial    Glands, 

710 
Scbaffner,  J.  H.,  Polar  Conjugation  in  the 

Angiosperms.  464 
Scbaposchnikoff,  B.,  Studying  the  Eggs  of 

Acanthodoris  pilosa,  653 
Schaub,  S..  Post-Embryonic  Development 

of  Ardeidse,  162 
Scheffer.  W.,  Microscopical  Researches  on 

Plate-Grains,  243 
Schellack,    C,    Solitary    Encystation    in 

Gregarines,  461 
Schelleuberg,  H    C,  Action  of  Fungi  on 
Cellulose,  354 

—  Sphaceolotbeca  on  Polygonum,  214 
Schepotieff.  A.,  Chsetosmatidse,  591 

—  Peculiar  Free-Living  Nematodes,  592 

—  Structure  of  Ecbiuoderidae,  457 
Scheivse.be wsky,   J.,    Giemsa-Staining   of 

Spirochxta  pallida,  1 1 5 
Scbiffner,  V.,  European  Hepatics,  i'>1  4 

—  Grimaldia  and  Neesiella,  730 

—  Morpliology  and  Anatomy  of  Bucegia 

romanica,  615 
Scbiller,  J.,   Development  of  the   Genua 
Ulva.  619 


Dec.  16th,  1908 


3  K 


842 


INDEX. 


Schilling,   K.,   aud  others,    Neurological 

Studies,  565 
Schistostega,  Luminosity,  611 
Schizogony  in  Auiceba,  722 
Schizomycetes.     See  Contents,  xxx 
Schizophyta.     See  Contents,  xxx 
Schizopods,  Alimentary  Canal,  585 
Schmidt,  F.,  Lower  Silurian  Brachiopods, 

457 
Schmincke,    A.,  Regeneration    of   Cross- 
Striped  Muscle  in  Vertebrata,  28 
Schnegg,  H,  Bacterial  Disease  of  Green 

Malt,  363 
Schneider,    K.   C,    Vitalistic    Theory   of 

Evolution,  564 
Schneider-Orelli,    O.,    Penicillium    as    a 

Fruit  Parasite,  743 
Schniffner,  V.,  Bryological  Notes,  339 

—  Notes  on   Riccardia  and  other  Hepa- 

tics,  616 
Schorstein,  J.,  Staining  of  Fungus  Spores, 

84 
Schouteden,    H.,     Course    of    Molecular 

Physiology,  65 
Schridde,  H.,   Demonstrating  Leucocytes 

in  Tissues,  519 
Schulze,     O.,    Histogenesis    of    Nervous 

System,  444 
Schwarz,  R.,  Relation  between  Body  and 

Shell  in  Bivalves,  449 
Schwarzwasser,  J.,  Tetradiplococcus  Fili- 

formans  Lodzemis,  756 
Schwendt,  E.,  Extra-Floral  Nectaries,  63 
Sciseiridse,  Swim-Bladder,  168 
Sclerospora     graminicola,      Experiments, 

210 
Sclerostomum  equinum,  Toxic  Effect,  49 
Scorpions,  Eyes,  45 

—  So-called  Malpighian  Tubes,  319 
Scott,  G.  S.,  Case-Hardening,  259 

Scott,  H.,  Variation  of  Nycteribiidse  from 

Ceylon,  317 
Scorn-field,  D.  J.,  528 
Scutigerella     immaculata,     Habits      and 

Structure,  318 
Scyphistoma,  Statoblasts,  54 
Scytothautnus  australis,  475 
Seals,  Spermatozoa,  701 
Sears,  J.  E.,  Longitudinal  Impact  of  Metal 

Rods,  123 
Sea-Urchin,  Hermaphroditism,  721 

—  Parthenogenesis,  5'.»4 

—  Regeneration  of  Spines  and  PedicellariaB, 

326 
Seaver,  F.  J.,  Colour-Variation  in  Fungi, 

628 
Sebille,  R.,  French  Mosses,  69 

—  Grimmia  andrexoides,  733 

—  Systematic  Position  of  Milium  riparium, 

340 
Secretion  of  Thumb-Swelling  in  Rana,  311 
Sectional  Groups  for  Microscopical  Study, 
528 


Sections,  Celloidin,  Preparing,  658 

—  Metal,  Apparatus  for  Polishing,  123 

—  Paraffin,     Technique    of     the    Water 

Method   of    Sticking   on   the  Slide, 
521 
Secques,  F.,  Destruction  of  Book-Worms, 

714 
Sedgwick,  A.,    Distribution   and    Classi- 
fication of  Onychophora,  583 
Seed  and  Soil  Inoculation  for  Leguminous 

Crops,  334 
Seeds    and    Leaves,    Fossil,    Preserving. 
117 

—  Dry,  Peroxydiastase,  332 

—  with     Special    Reference    to     British 

Plants  :  President's  Address,  273 
Segmentation,  Latent,  in  Molluscs,  36 

—  of  the  Head  of  Diploda,  319 

—  Parthenogenetic,  in  Fowl,  561 
Segregation  and  Piping,  262 

Seitz,  A.  L.  L.,  Demonstrating  the  Micro- 
scopic Structure  of  Fossil  and  Recent 
Reptilian  Bone,  254 
Selaginella,   Types    of   Embryo-Develop- 
ment, 610 
Selenite,  Twin  Crystals,  Exhibition,  126 
Selensky,  W„  Urns  of  Sipunculids,  48 
Seligmann,  C.  G.,  Leucocytozoon  of  Red 

Grouse,  188 
Seminal  Stains.  Examining,  659 
Senft,     E.,     Chemical     Examination     of 
Lichens,  752 

—  Noteworthy  Lichens,  220 

Senna,  A.,  Pelagic  Larvae  of  Actiniaria. 

184 
Sense-Organs  in  Cockles,  574 
Senses  of  Ants,  172 
Sereni,  S.,  Red  Blood  Cells  in   Malaria, 

392 
Sergent,  E.,  Human  Myiasis  due  to  CEotrus 
Ovis,  44 

—  New  Type  of  Sarcoptid,  46 

i   —  Studies  in  Mediteranean  Fever,  488 

—  Tropism  of  Bacillus  zopfii,  89 
Sertularia    operculata    and     Plumularia 

obliqua,  Gonophores,  55 
Servit,  M.,  Ramification  in  Muscinese,  200 
Setchell,  W.    A.,   Alga?    from    Hudson's 
Bay,  740 

—  Critical  Notes  on  Laininariaceae,  4/4 

—  Nereocystis  and  Pelagophycus,  346 

—  New  Hymenomycetes,  81 

—  Notes  on  Lycoperdon  sculptum,  627 

—  Sphagna  of  Alaska,  70 
Seuratia  and  Capnodium,  351 

Sex,  Influence  of  Lecithin  on  Determina- 
tion, 563 
Sex-Cells,  Origin  in  liana  pipiens,  562 
Sexual  Organs  of  Cestoda,  Studying,  777 
Sexuality  and  Apospory  in  Mosses,  68 

—  and  Development  in  Ascomycetes,  78 

—  in  Ascomycetes,  624 

—  in  Fungi,  355 


INDEX. 


843 


Sexuality  in  Mosses,  .'!:!7 

—  of  Halopteris  sooparia,  74 

Shaw,  M.  H.,  Alga?  of  Barbadoes,  740 

Sneak,  W.  H.,  Young  Red  Kangaroo,  308 

Shearer,  C,  Collecting  and  Examining 
Larval  Nephridia  of  Polygordius,  511 

Sheaths.  Physiological,  in  Ferns,  336 

Shelford,  V!  E.,  Larval  Habits  of  Tiger- 
Beetles,  316 

Shrew,  Short-Tailed,  Habits,  566 

Shull,  A.  F.,  Habits  of  the  Short-Tailed 
Shrew.  5G6 

Slmttleworth,  Old  Microscope  by,  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  Wynne  E.  Baxter,  365 

Siedentopf,  H.,  History  of  Mirror-Con- 
densers, 50<» 

Siedlecki,  M.,  Studying  the  Morphology  of 
Spirochxta  pallida,  519 

Sigillaria,  Anatomy,  468 

Silicate  Jelly,  Convenient  Mode  of  Pre- 
paring, 512 

Silicon-Aluminium  Alloys.  785 

Silk-Moth,  Artificial  Parthenogenesis,  575 

Silkworms,  Inheritance,  712 

Siltala,  A.  J.,  Development  of  Caddis- 
Worms,  580 

Silver  Alloys,  522 

—  Method  for  Differentiating  the  Bacilli 

of  Leprosy  and  Tubercle,  776 

—  Sterling,  Annealing,  123 
Silverlock,  O.  C,  Senses  of  Ants,  172 
Silvestri,    F.,    Cavernicolous    Myriopods, 

453 

—  New  Order  of  Apterygota,  175 

—  Pests  of  the  Olive,  173 

—  Study  of  Tliysanura,  452 
Simroth.  H.,  PeDdulation  Theory,  467 
Sineff,  A.,  Simple  Thermostat,  109 
Siphon,  Supplementary,  in  Lutraria  ellip- 

tica,  40 
Siphonophora,    Development     of     Gono- 

phores,  328 
Sipunculids,  Urns,  48 
Skin,   Human,-  Gastrophilus    Larvae    in, 

711 
Skinner,  A.,  Small  Simple  Microscope  by 

Gary,  526 
Skrzvnski,    Z.,    Bacillus     Pathogenic    to 

Cats,  758 
Sleep-Movements  of  Leaves,  192 
Slides.     See  Contents,  xxxvii 
Sluiter,    C.    P.,    Algaj    of    Dutch    West 

Indies,  741 
Smallwood,  W.  M.,  Phagocytic  Action  of 

Kidney-Cells  in  Fro?,  311 
Smith,     Ciceri,     Direct-Reading     Micro- 
meter-Gauge for  Cover-Glass,  505 
Smith,  D.  P.,  Alloys  of  Potassium  with 

other  Metals,  122 
Smith,   E.  A.,   Octopus   with   Branching 

Arms,  37 
Smith,  E.  F.,  Plant  Tumour  of  Bacterial 

Origin,  223 


Smith,  F.  P.,  British  Spiders,  5s  1 

Smith,  G.,  Life-Historv  of  Sacculina, 
320 

Smith,  f4.  E.,  Asymmetry  of  Caudal  Poles 
of  the  Cerebral  Hemispheres  in  Man,  308 

Smith,  G.  S.G.,  Development  of  Piroplasma 
cam's  in  Dog,  58 

Smith,  J.  C,  Direct-Reading  Micrometer 
Gauge,  26S 

Smith,  S.  W.  J.,  Thermomagnetic  Analy- 
sis of  Meteoric  and  Artificial  Nickel- 
Iron  Alloys,  394 

Smut  Fungi,  Infection,  353 

Snails,  Fresh-water,  Sense  of  Taste,  710 

—  Reproduction,  37 

Snakes  in  Captivity,  Feeding,  447 

Sodium,  Value  to  Plants,  (304 

Soil  and  Seed,  Inoculation  for  Leguminous 

Crops,  334 
Sole,  Common,  Mimicry,  708 
Sollas,  I.  B.  J.,  Identification  of  Chitin  by 
its  Physical  Constants,  35 

—  Inclusion  of  Foreign  Bodies  bv  Sponges, 

460 

—  New  Fresh-water  Polyzoon  from  South 

Africa,  721 
Sonnenbrodt,  — .,  Examining  the  Oocyte 

of  the  Fowl,  776 
Sorbitic  Rails,  125 
Sorby,  Henry  Clifton,  431 
Soricidse,  Structure,  309 
Soulima,  H.  and  A.,  Etiology  of  Whooping 

Cough,  89 
Sound,  Production  in  Drum-Fishes,  709 
Sound-Stimuli,  Response  of  Toads,  312 
Sparassodonta,  Relationships,  166 
Species,  What  is  a  ?    706 
Spectra,  Absorption,  Atlas,  104 
Spectral-Ocular,  Reichert's,  646 
Spectroscope,  Correction  for,  128,  150 
Spegazzini,   C,  New  Fungi  from  South 

America,  749 
Sperlich,  A.,  Development   of  Stolons  in 

Nephrolepis,  335 
Spermatogenesis,  in  Insects,  577 

—  of  Anasa  tristis.  Chromosomes,  42 

—  in  Mosses  and  Liverworts,  730 

—  of  Hornet,  577 

—  of  Hornets,  Demonstrating,  654 

—  Studies,  562 

Spermatozoa,  Headless,  of  Cirripeds,  717 

—  of  Fresh- Water  Bryozoa,  593 

—  of  Seals,  701 

Sphaceolotheca  on  Polygonum,  214 
Sphxranthera  lichenoides,  208 
Sphserocarpus,    Two     Species    found    in 

France,  71 
Sphagna  of  Alaska,  70 
Sphagnum  and  Sphagnology,  729 
Sphagnum  havaricum  in  Yorkshire,  612 
Sphagnum,  New  Species,  198 
Spicules  of  Leucosolenia,  597 
Spiders,  British,  584 


3   K   2 


84-t 


INDEX. 


Spiders,     Regeneration     and     Autotomy, 

584 
Spieckerman,  — .,  Parasitism  of  Valsa,  77 
Spines  and  Pedicellarise  in  Sea-Urchins, 
Regeneration,  326 

—  of  Antipatharia,  327 
Spionidaa,  CEsophageal  Pouclies,  455 
Spiracles,  Complementary,  in  Anura,  162 
Spirochseta     anodontse     and     Spirochseta 

balbiani,  Studying,  253 

—  balbiani    and    Sj'irochseta    anodontas, 
Studying,  253 

—  pallida,  Giemsa-Staining,  115 
Staining,  777 

Studying  the  Morphology,  519 

—  pertenuis,  Relation  to  Yaws,  189 
Spirochsetse,  Biology  and  Affinities,  331 
Spirochetes,  Comparative  Study,  360 

—  Relapsing,  Multiplying  in  Body  of  the 

Bug,  223 
Spirogyra    and    Mougeotia,  Pathological 
Growth-Phenomena,  205 

—  Copulation  and  Germination,  73 

—  Zygospores  in  Relation  to  Theories  of 

Variability,  739 
Spitta,  E.,  Photography  of  Very  Trans- 
lucent Diatoms  at  High  Magnifications, 
649 
Spleen,  etc.,  Studying  the  Adenoid  Tissue, 
112 

—  in  Fislies,  Function,  570 

—  Role  of,  in  Trypanosomiasis,  57 
Sponge,  New  Dictyonine,  596 
Sponges,   Coalescence  and  Regeneration, 

328 

—  Degeneration  and  Regeneration,  186 

—  Fresh- Water,  African,  55 

New,  from  Calcutta,  186 

New  Indian,  596 

—  Inclusion  of  Foreign  Bodies,  460 

—  Method  by  which  they  may  be  Arti- 

ficially Reared,  105 

Spongilla,  Siesta  in  the  Tropics,  596 

Spongillids,  Amcebocytes,  185 

Spongo*pora  Solani,  486,  753 

Sporangia  in  Tricbia and  Arcyria, Develop- 
ment, 753 

—  of  Todea,  Production   of  Dwarf  Male 

Prothalli,  606 
Sporangial    Development    in     Equisetum 

hyemale,  195 
Sporaugium-bearing  Organs  of  the  Lyco- 

podiacese,  729 
Spore-Formation  in  Derbesia,  620 
Spore-Germination,  Effect  of  Light,  605 
Spore-Staining,  Simple  Method,  520 
Spores,   Abnormal   Production   in   Platy- 
cerium,  194 

—  and     Metachromatic     Granules,    New 

Method  of    Staining:    a    Substitute 
for  Gram's  Method,  658 

—  of  Fungus,  Staining,  84 
Sporodinia  grandis,  Zygospores,  623 


Sporogonium  and  Sexual  Organs  of  Mar- 

chantia,  Development,  735 
Sporozoan  Parasites  in  Fishes,  188 
Sporozo<>n,  New,  in  Toad,  188 
Sporulation,  Division  and  Cell-Rejuvena- 
tion Processes  in  Biddulphia,  205 

—  of  the  Bacillus  rheumaticus,  222 
Spotting,     Pathogenic,    of     Vine-Shoots, 

216 
Spumaria  alba,  Unusual  Growth,  487 
Squilla  investigator  is.  Variation,  585 
Stadeler,  A.,  Manganese  and  Carbon,  786 
Stage,    Mechanical,    Ross'    New     Micro- 
metric,  760 
Stage-Spring,  Watson  and  Sons'  "  Grip," 

94 
Stager,  R.,  Biology  of  Ergot,  211 
Stages,  Mechanical,  233 
Stain,  Romanowsky,  Modification,  520 

—  Vital  and  Specific,  for  Nervous  Tissue, 

Alizarin,  778 
Staining  Blood-Films.  Simple  Method,  116 

—  Granular  Red  Corpuscles,  520 

—  Method,     Differential,    for     Acid-fast 

Bacilli,  776 

Flemming's  Triple,  778 

Gram,  Theory,  521 

Gram's,  116 

—  Microbes,  Simple  Method,  520 

—  Micro-Organisms,  New  Method,  114 

—  Objects.     See  Contents,  xxxvi 

—  of  Algae,  201 

—  of  Fungus  Spores,  84 

—  Spirochseta  pallida,  111 

—  Spores   and   Metachromatic    Granules, 

New    Method :    a    Substitute    for 
Gram's  Method,  658 
Simple  Method,  520 

—  Streptococcus  mucosus,  518 

—  Sudanophil  Leucocytes,  115 

—  the  Mycelium  of  Dry-Rot  Fungus,  521 

—  Tubercle  Bacillus,  255 

—  Vital,  of  Fresh -Water  Animals,  778 
Staining-Tank  with  Movable  Grooves,  116 
Stains,  Seminal,  Examining,  659 

Stand  A  1,  Reichert's  Large,  645 

—  A    iii.    c,    Reichert's     New    Medium 

Mineralogical,  644 

—  B,  Reichert's  New  Large,  642 

—  C,  Reichert's  New  Steinach,  763 
Stands,  Microscope.     See  Contents,  xxxii 
Stanton.   T.    E.,   New   Fatigue  Test    for 

Iron  and  Steel,  662 

Stantschinsky,  W.,  Structure  aud  Relation- 
ships of  Oncidium,  40 

Staphylococci  Pathogenic  to  Man,  87 

Staphylococcus  aureus,  Chain-Formation, 
758 

Starfish,  Habits,  594 

—  Male,  Parasite,  599 

Starks,  E.  C,  New  Sub-Order  of  Fishes, 

570 
Statoblasts  in  a  Scyphistoma,  54 


INDEX. 


845 


Steche,  O.,  Luminosity  of  Tropical  Lampy- 

ridse,  578 
Steel  and  Iron,  Corrosion  Tests,  783 

New  Fatigue  Test,  662 

Quenching  and  Tempering,  784 

—  and  Meteoric  Iron,  258 

—  Cohesion,  782 

—  Constituents,  523 

—  Constitution  and  Treatment,  260 

—  Crystallisation  and  Structure,  122 

—  Diamond  and   Carborundum   Crystals, 

522 

—  Hardening,  259 

—  Influence  of  Nitrogen  on,  525 

—  Ingots,  Blowholes,  121 

—  Mild,  Case-Hardening,  259 

—  Occluded  Gases,  124 

—  Kecovery  from  Overstrain,  262 

—  Special  Nickel,  Occluded  Gases,  661 
Steels,  Hardened,  259 

Supersaturated,    Microscopic     Fea- 
tures. 663 

—  Phosphoric,  525 

—  Quenched,  Constituents,  393 
Metallography,  783 

Stein,  R.,  Plate-Cultivation  of  the  Strepto- 

bacillus  of  Ducrey,  772 
Stejneger,  L.,  Herpetology  of  Japan,  311 
Stellaria,    Hibernation    and    Vegetative 

Reproduction,  602 
Stem  and  Leaves,  Origin,  62 

—  of  Ibervillex  sonoras,  61 
Stephani,  F.,  Antarctic  Hepatics,  615 

—  Hepaticae     of     New     Caledonia    and 

Tonkin,  343 

—  New  Descriptions  of  Hepaticse,  734 
Stephenson,   J.,   New   Indian   Oligochaet, 

590 
Stereo-Photographs    by     Dollman,     266, 

527 
Stereohypnum,  Type  Species,  613 
Stereoscopy,  Monocular,  Demonstration  of 

the  Mechanism,  386 
Sterility  in  Cestodes,  323 
Sterki,  V.,  Philomycus,  448 
Sterzi,    G.,   Central   Nervous    System    of 

Cyclostomes,  29 
Sterzinger,   I.,   Luminosity   of  Amphiura 

squamata,  52 
Stevens,   F.   L„  and    others,  Diseases  of 
Plants,  81 

—  Convenient  Mode  of  Preparing  Silicate 

Jelly,  512 

—  Nuclear   Structures    in    Synchytrium, 

332 

Stewart,  Charles,  435 

Stiasny,  G.,  Atlantic  Tima  at  Trieste, 
595 

Stichostemma  Eilhardi,  457 

Stigell,  R.,  Velocity  of  Progression  and 
the  Movement  Curves  of  certain  Bac- 
teria, 363 

Stigmaria  with  Centripetal  Wood,  608 


Stimpson,   W.,  Brachyura  and   Anomura 

from  the  North  Pacific,  176 
Stirton,    J.,     New     and     Rare     Scottish 

Mosses,  197,  612 
Stockard,  C.  R.,  Notes  on  Polyodon  spa- 

thula,  571 
Stokey,  A.  G.,  Inner  Roots  of  Lycopodium 

pithyoide8,  195 
Stolons,  Development  in  Nephrolepis,  335 
Stomachal  Excretion  in  Rotifera,  325 
Stoughton,   B.,  Piping    and  Segregation, 

262 
Strachan,  J.,  On    Dendritic    Growths  of 

Copper  Oxide  in  Paper,  397,  544 
Strebel,  H,  Gastropods  of  the  Magellan 

Province,  171 
Streptobacillus    of    Ducrey,    Plate-Culti- 
vation, 772 
Streptococci,     Differentiation     by    Media 

containing  Carbohydrates,  637 
Streptococcus  mucosus,  Staining,  518 
Streptothrix,   and  Diphtheroid    Bacillus, 
Blue  Pigment,  362 

—  in  Chronic  Suppuration,  487 

Stress,  Influence  on  Corrosion  of  Iron,  118 

on  Electrical  Conductivity  of  Metals 

262 
Stricht,N.  v.  d.,  Examining  the  Neuro-Epi- 

thelium  of  the  Auditory  Apparatus, 

514 

—  and  others,  Histological  Studies,  565 
Stridulating  Organ  in  Crabs,  453 
Striped  Muscle,  26 

Strobell,  E.  C,  Chromosomes  in  Sperma- 
togenesis of  Anasa  tristis,  42 
Strohl,  J.,  Copulatory  Organs  of  Solitary 

Bees,  576 
Structure  and  Development  of  Seed  Plants, 
Reproductive.     See  Contents,  xxi 

Vegetative.  See  Contents,  xxi 

Studer-Steinhauslin,     B.,     Localities     of 

Fun«;i,  83 
Studeria  mirabilis,  g.  et  sp.  n.,  Note  on  a 

Remarkable  Alcyonariau,  675 
Studeria,   New   Genus    of    Alcyonarians, 

794 
Studnicka,  F.  K.,  Matrix  Tissue,  26 
Slylaria  lacustris,  Examining,  775 

Growth  and  Asexual  Reproduction, 

590 
Stylochinse,  Revision    of,    and   Polyclads 

from  tlie  Somali  Coast,  50 
Sub-Order  of  Fishes,  New,  570 
Suchard,  E.,  Valves  in   the   Veins  of  a 

Frog,  27 
Sugar,   Harmful    Secretion   in  Myrmeco- 

philous  Plants,  66 
Sugar-Reducing  Power  in  Helix  pomatia, 

314 
Sulphides,   Metallic,   PbS,    Cu2S,   Ag.,S, 

FeS,  522 
Sulphur,  Iron,  and  Carbon,  663 
Suprarenal  Glauds,  Pigment,  309 


S4:6 


INDEX. 


Surface,  F.  M.,  Collecting  and  Preserving 
Planocera  inquilina,  508 

—  Early  Development  of  a  Polyclad,  324 

—  Experiment    with    the   Oviduct  of  the 

Hen,  707 
Swain,  I.,  New  Devonian  Isopod,  717 
Swarm-Spores  of  Fresh- Water  Algae,  204 
Swarczewsky,    15-,    Budding    in    Acineta 

gelatijiosa,  723 
Sweet,   G.,  Anatomy   of  Australian  Am- 
phibia, 708 
Swift,  Fasting  Powers,  310 
Swim-Bladder  and  Lungs,  570 

—  Carp's,  Development,  443 

—  in  Sciaenidae,  168 

Swingle,  W.  T.,  Improvements  in   Ultra- 
violet Micro&cope,  639 
Sycotypus   and    Fulgur,    Feeding    Habit, 

Sydow,   H.  and   P.,  Remarkable  Fungus 

Forms,  212 
Sykes,  E.  R.,  Chitons  from  Red  Sea  and 

East  Africa,  574 
Sykes,  M.  G.,  Anatomy  and  Histology  of 
Macrocystis  and  Laminaria,  621 

—  Anatomy  and  Morphology  of  Tmesip- 

teris,  609 

—  Sporangium-bearing     Organs     of     the 

Lycopodiaceae,  729 
Symbiosis  in  Fern  Prothallia,  468 
Synehytrium,  Cytology,  77 

—  Nuclear  Structures,  332 
Syncytical  Appendages  of  Placental  Villi, 

Demonstrating,  653 
Syncytium,  Neuroglia,  164 
Syringe  for  Injection  of  Lymph- Vessels, 

255 
Syringodendron,  Structure,  196 
Szakall,    J..    Ear 

Mouse,  568 


of    Hungarian     Blind 


T. 


Tadpoles,  Experiments,  24 

—  Glandular    Epithelium   of  Lymphatic 

Canals  and  Renal  Capillaries,  28 
Txnia  nigropunctata,  Para-uterine  Organ, 

50 
Tafel,  V.  E.,  Alloys  of  Zinc,  Copper  and 

Nickel,  786 
Tafel,  V.,  Zinc  and  Nickel,  257 
Tammann,  G.,  Alloys  of  Iron  with  Chro- 
mium, 122 

with  Molybdenum,  119 

Vanadium- Iron  Alloys,  785 

Tannin,  Demonstrating  the  Presence,  659 
Tannreuther,    G.    W.,    Germ-Cells    and 

Embryology  of  Aphids,  580 
Tapeworm,  Human,  New,  718 

—  in  Dog,  New,  718 

—  New,  in  Moorhen,  455 
Taphrena  Alni-incanx,  624 


Tardigrada,  Marine,  585 

Taste  Sense  in  Fresh-Water  Snails,  710 

Tea,  Algal  Blight,  475 

Technique,  Microscopical.    See  Contents, 

xxxv 
Tectibranehs,  Defensive  Glands,  574 
Teeth  in  Cantor  Fiber,  Studying   the  De- 
velopment, 513 

—  of  Mammalia,    Demonstrating    Nerve- 

Terminations,  518 
Teleostean  Abnormalities,  '.>',', 

—  Eggs  and  Larvae  from  the  Gambia,  443 
Teleosteans,  Circulatory  Mechanism.  166 

—  Development  of  Kidney,  702 

—  Gastrulatiou,  162 

—  Tongue,  312 

Tellurides  of  Arsenic  and  Bismuth,  661 
Tellurium  and  Gold  Alloys,  394 

—  Tin  Alloys,  123 

Trmple,  J.  C,  Convenient  Mode  of  Pre- 
paring Silicate  Jelly,  512 

Tendra  zoxtericola.  Growth,  51 

Tenebrio  molitor,  Development  of  Gonads, 
577 

Tentacular  Apparatus  of  Cephalopods, 
Examining,  514 

Termitophilous  Tineid  Larva,  43 

Terry,  R.  J.,  Neuroglia  Syncytium.  164 

Test-Objects  for  the  Microscope,  Mercury 
Globules  as,  6 

—  of  Echinolampas,  Abnormality,  53 

—  Regeneration  in  Tunicates,  573 
Test-Pieces,    Notched,   Impact     Testing, 

261 

—  Tensile,  Measurement  of  Extension,  262 

—  Tethys   leporitia,   Minute   Structure   of 

Ganglion-Cells,  171 
Testes,  Growth   in  Birds  and  Mammals, 

161 
Tetmemorus  in  New  England,  347 
Tetradiplocoecus  filij'ormans  Lodzensis,  756 
Tetrads  in  Somatic  Cells,  27 
Tetrastichium,New  Madeiran  Moss-Genus, 

342 
Tltcdlatsema  mellita,  Artificial  Partheno- 
genesis, 588 
Thallophyta.      See  Contents,  xxv 
Theissen,    F.,    Notes     on     Ascomycetous 

Fungi,  624 
Theridium,  Maturation  and  Fertilisation, 

175 
Thtrmo-Electrifity  of  Nickel,  121 
Thermomagnetic  Analysis  of  Meteoric  and 

Artificial  Nickel-Iron  Alloys,  394 
Thermostat,  Sim  pie,  109 
The'venin,   A.,  Dinosaurs  of  Madagascar, 

311 
Thiele,  J.,  New  Phyllopods,  455 

Thilo,  O.,  Development  of  Carp's  Swim- 
Bladder,  443 

Thiroux,  — .,  Role  of  Spleen  in  Trypano- 
somiasis, 57 

Thoma,  R.,  Picric-Acid  Carmin,  114 


INDEX. 


847 


Thomas,   H.   H.,  Anatomy   of  Sigillaria, 

468 
Thomas,  O.,  New  Acanthoglossus,  166 

—  New  Jerboa  from  China,  707 
Thompson,  D'A.  W.,  Shapes  of  Eggs,  437 
Thomson,  J.  A..  7:>4 

—  Large      Antipatharian      from      Faero 

Islands,  595 

—  Note   on   a   Remarkable   Alcyonarian, 

Studeria  mirabilis  g.  et  sp.  n.,  675 

—  Text-Book  of  Heredity,  559 
Thrypticus  smaragdinus,  Life-History,  578 
Thnlin,  I.,  Spiral' Muscle-Fibres,  704 
Thysanura  and  Collembola  of  Forth  Area, 

5S2 

—  Excretion,  31 S,  582 
— ■  Head-Glands,  581 

—  Labial  Excretory  Organ,  452 

—  Study, 452 

Tiger-Beetles,  Larval  Habits,  316 
Tillyard,  R.  J.,  Dimorphism  in  Australian 

Agrionidae,  175 
Tima,  Atlantic,  at  Trieste,  595 
Tineid  I.arva,  Termitophilous,  43 
Tiraboschi,  C,  Relation  of  Fleas  to  Plague 

Dissemination,  174 
Tissier,  H.,  Intestinal  Flora   of   Infants. 

359 
Tissot,  C,  Correction  of  the  Astigmatism 

of  Doubly  Refracting  Prisms,  244 
Tissue,  Matrix,  26 

Tissues,  Demonstrating  Leucocytes  in,  519 
Tmesipteris,   Anatomy    and    Morphology, 

609 
Toad,  New  Spoiozoon,  188 
Toads,  Response  to  Sound-Stimuli,  312 
Todea,   Production  of  Dwarf  Male,  Pro- 

thalli  in  Sporangia,  606 
Toepfer,  Otto  and  Solin,  Measuring  Micro- 
scopes, 491.  500 
Tokophrya  Cyclopum,  599 
Tongue  of  Teleosteans,  312 

—  of  Woodpecker,  Comparative  Anatomy, 

166 
Toni,  G.  B.  de,  Griffithsia  acuta,  474 

—  Nomenclature  of  Algae,  473 
Tool-Steel,      High-Speed,     Function     of 

Chromium  and  Tungsten  in,  782 
Tooth,  Enigmatical,  30 
Tornier,  G.,  Production  of  Albinism  and 

Melanism  in  Frogs,  32 
Torrend,  C,  Notes   on  Portuguese    My- 
cology, 484 
Torsion  Phenomena  in  Mosses,  338 
Touch,  Sense,  in  Mammals  and  Birds,  29 
Tower,   R.  W.,  Production   of  Sound   in 

Drum-Fishes,  709 
Townsend,    C.     O.,     Plant     Tumour     of 

Bacterial  Origin,  223 
Toxins  Secreted  by  Parasites.  180 
Tozer,  E.,  Bntchiomonas  submarina,  551 

—  The  Life-History  of  a  New  Protophyte, 

266 


Trabut,  R.,  liiella  bialata,  616 
Tragardh,  I.,  Myriopodophilous  Mites,  46 

—  Termitophilous  Tineid  Larva,  43 
Transpiration,  603 

Tranzschel,  W.  and  others,  Uredinese,  352 
Traverso,  G.  B.,  Experiments  with  Sclero- 

spora  graminicola,  210 
Trav/sia  forbesii.  Epidermis,  588 
Traviss,  W  R.,  Forceps-Scissors,  256 
Treasurer,  The,  133 
Treitschke,    W.,    Alloys    of    Iron     with 

Chromium,  122 
Trematode     in     Hibernating     Gland     of 

Hedgehog,  592 
Trematodes  from  British  Birds,  180 

—  in  Fishes,  592 

Treponema  pallidum.  Cultivation,  110,  189 

—  in  vitro,  560 

Multiplication  in  vitro,  247 

Trichia    and     Arcyiia,    Development    of 

Sporangia,  753 
Trichloracetic  Acid  and  TJranyl  Acetate, 

Fixation,  514 
Trichocysts  of  Fnmtonia  leucas,  187 
Trichomastix  serpentis,  187 
Trichomonas   and    Megastoma  in  Human 

Intestine,  331 
Trichoniscoides,  British  Species,  586 
Trichostomum  mutabile  and  its  Allies,  199 
Triclad,  Marine,  New,  50 

—  Pharynx,  Cytological  Study,  456 
Triclads,  Fresh-Water,  Structure,  324 

—  Marine,  Uncertain  Species,  592 
Triolobites,  Cambrian,  588 

Trincas,    L.,    New    Method   of    Staining 
Spores   and    Metachromatic    Granules : 
a  Substitute  for  Gram's  Method,  65S 
Troester,  C,  New  Microscope  Lamp,  239 
Trojan,  E.,  Luminosity  of  Ophiuroids,  458 

—  New  Mite,  716 

Trondle,  A.,  Copulation  and  Germination 
of  Spirogyra,  73 

Troostite,  783 

Trophospongia  of  Striated  Muscle,  Ex- 
amining, 1 12 

Tropism  of  Bacillus  zopfii,  89 

Trotter,  A.,  New  Subterranean  Parasite, 
484 

Trouessart.  B.,  Hybrids  of  Peacock  and 
Cochin-China  Hen,  310 

Trouessart,  E.  L.,  New  Type  of  Sarcoptid, 
46 

—  SarcoptMs  in  Wing- Bones  of  Birds,  46 
Trout,  Brook,  Abnormality,  312 

—  Development  of  Alimentary  Canal,  25 

—  Species,  570 

Tiundy,  A.  H.  and  others,  North  American 

Pteridophyta,  606 
Trypanosoma  congolense,  462 
Trypanosome  of  Eel,  330 

—  of  Frog,  599 
and  Leech,  58 

—  of  Pontobdella  muricata,  57 


848 


INDEX 


Trypanosome  of  the  Upper  Niger,  57 
Trypanosomas    Have     they     an     Ultra- 
Microscopical  Stage?  7215 
Trypanosomiasis,  Hole  of  the  Spleen,  57 
Tschernoff,  D.    C.,   Crystals   of  Diamond 

and  Carborundum  in  Steel,  522 
Tschistowitsch,   N.,   Opsonins   and   Anti- 
phagins  in  Pneumococcic  Infection,  757 
Tswett,  M.,  Change  of  Colour  and  Empty- 
ing of  Decaying  Leaves,  405 

—  Water-Stomata  of  the  Lobeliacese,  02 
Tubercle    and     Leprosy     Bacilli,    Silver 

Method  for  Differentiating,  776 

—  Bacilli,  Human,  Morphology  in  Saline 

Media,  86 
Potato  Broth  for  Culture,  773 

—  Bacillus,  Flagellum,  3S8 

Tubers,    Water-Storing,    of    Nephrolepis, 

606 
Tubcuf,  C.  v.,  Taphrina  Alni-incanse,  624 
Tubicaulis    and    Gyropteris    Leaf-Trace, 

726 
Tubucellaria,  Genus,  52 
Tubularia  indivisa  var.  obliqua,  55 
Tumours,  Malignant,  Theory,  164 
Tundra-Forms  of  Hypnum,  613 
Tungsten   and    Chromium,   Function    in 

High-Speed  Tool-Steel,  782 
Tunicata.     -See  Contents,  xi 
Tunicates,  Compound,  Musculature,  573 

—  Regeneration  of  Test,  573 
Turbellaria,  Nematocysts,  325 
Turbilina   instabilis,  a  Variety  of  Strnm- 

bilidium  gyrans,  461 

Turner,  T.,  Annealing  of  Copper,  124 

Turneretscher,  G.  M.,  Apparatus  for 
Photomicrography,  101 

Turritopsis  nutricola.  Structure  and  De- 
velopment, 183 

Turtle  and  Frog,  Anatomy  of  Heart,  31 

Twins,  Boddy  Identity,  307 

Typhoid  Group  of  Bacilli  and  Malachite- 
green  Agar,  773 


U. 


Ucke,  A.,  Trichomonas  and  Megastoma  in 

Human  Intestine,  331 
Ude,  J.,  Structure  of  Fresh-Water  Trie- 
lads,  324 
Uexkiill — Giildenband,     N.    v.,    Harmful 

Secretion  of  Sugar  in  Myrmecophilous 

Plants,  m 
Uhler,  H.  S.,  and  R.  W.  Wood,  Atlas   of 

Absorption  Spectra,  104 
Ulodendron  Impressions  of  Bothrodendron, 

Origin,  726 
Ultra-Microscopical     Stage,     Have    Try- 

panosomes  an  ?    723 
Ultra-Violet    Microscope,    Improvements, 
639 


Ultra-Violet  Rays,  Photomicroscope  for, 
and  its  Significance  for  Histological 
Investigations,  especially  of  Hard 
Structures,  646 

Ultramicroscope  and  Microspectral  Photo- 
meter, Application  to  Textile  and  Dye- 
ing Industries,  387 

Ultramicroscopic  Organisms,  605 

Ultramicroscopy  and  Dark-Ground  Illu- 
mination, 378 

Ulva,  Development  of  the  Genus,  619 

Underwood,  L.  M.,  New  Species  of  Lind- 
saea,  837 

Unio.  Post-Embryonic  Development,  575 

Uranium-Glass  Lens,  Photographic  Objec- 
tive containing,  93 

Uranyl  Acetate  aud  Trichloracetic  Acid, 
Fixation.  514 

UredineiB,  79,  213,  352,  480,  626,  745 

Urns  of  Sipunculids,  48 

Urospora  in  Norway,  619 

Uterine  and  Ovarian  Functions,  Correla- 
tion, 160 


Vacuole,  Contractile,  Influence  of  Salinity 
on,  461 

—  Pulsating,  in  Infusoria,  Physiology,  56 
Valsa,  Parasitism,  77 
Vanadium-Iron  Alloys,  785 

Vaney,  O,  Antarctic  Holothurians,  721 

—  Littoral  Holothurians  of  Indian  Ocean, 

594 
Vascular  Sac  and  Nervous    Lobe  of  the 

Hypophysis,  34 
Vasse,  G.,  Pleural  Cavity  of  Elephant,  309 
Vaucheria,  Development  of  Sexual  Organs, 

620 
Vaughan,  T.  W.,  Recent  Madreporaria  of 

the  Hawaiian  Island  and  Laysan,  184 
Veins  of  Frog,  Valves,  27 
Vejdovsky,  F.,  Reduction  of  the   Eye   in 

New  Gammarid  from  Ireland,  177 
Velocity  of  Progression  and  the  Movement 

Curves  of  Certain  Bacteria,  363 
Verderau,  L.,  Toxin   of  Bacillus  virgula, 

489 
Verhoeff,  K.  \\\,  Studies  in  JulidaB,  452 
Vertebrae,  Fish,  as   Prehistoric   Amulets, 

34 
Vertebrata,  Regeneration  of  Cross-striped 
Muscle,  28 

—  See  Contents,  viii 

Vibrations  accompanying  Shock,  125 
Vickers,  A.,  Algse  of  Barbadoes,  740 
Vine  Shoots,  Pathogenic  Spotting,  216 
Vision  in  Chamseleon,  Peculiarities,  311 
Viviparity  in  Epbemeridae,  44 
Vies,  F.,  Double  Refraction  Phenomena  in 
Muscle,  566 


INDEX. 


849 


Vies,   F.,   On   the   Optical   Properties  of 
Contractile  Organs,  553 

—  Pedal  Waves  of  Reptant  Molluscs,  314 
Vogel's  Measuring  Microscope  (Model  I.), 

493 

(Model  IV.),  497 

Vogel,  R.,  Vanadium-Iron  Alloys,  785 
Vogel-Campbell's  Large  Measuring  Micro- 
scope (Model  III.),  496 
Vogel-Hale,     Measuring    Microscope 

(Model  C),  492 
Vogel- Wanach    Large   Measuring   Micro- 
scope (Model  II.),  494 
Voglino,  P.,  Diseases  of  Plants,  356 
Volvox,  Light-reactions,  330 
Voss,  G.,  Binary  Alloys  of  Nickel,  260 
Vuillemin,  P.,  Microsiphonese,  623 

—  Seuratia  and  Capnodium,  351 


W. 


Waddell,     C.    H.,     and     others,    British 

Mosses,  469 
Wagner,   W.,   Psycliobiologv    of   Humble 

Bees,  42 
Waidner,  C.  W.,  Melting  Points  of  Palla- 
dium and  Platinum,  121 
Waite,  E.  R.,  Asiatic  Red-Bellied  Newt, 

707 
Walcott,  C.  D.,  Cambrian  Trilo  bites,  588 
AValker,   — ,    Influence   of  Stress   on   the 

Corrosion  of  Iron,  118 
Walker,  C.  E.,  Essentials  of  Cytology,  565 
Walker,   N.,  Algal  Vegetation   of  Ponds, 

73 
Walker,   W.    H.,  Annealing    of   Sterling 

Silver,  123 
Wallenberg,  A.,  Neurological  Studies,  308 
Walter,  C,  Swiss  Hydrachnids,  585 
Walter,  L.,  Clasping  Organs  on  Wings  of 

Hymenoptera,  172 
Walton,  C.  L.,  British  Actinians,  460 

—  Phellia  murocincta,  184 

Walton,  L.  B.,  Zygospores  of  Spirogyra  in 

Relation  to  Theories  of  Variability,  739 
Warburton.  C,  Geographical  Distribution 

of  Oribatidse,  715 
Warnstorf,  C,  New  Species  of  Sphagnum, 

198 
Warnstorf,  K.,  Bryophyta  of  Austria  and 

Hungary,  341 
Warren,  E.,  Hydroids  from  Natal,  722 
Warwick,  G.  R.,  Influence  of  Light  and 

Colours  on  Yeast,  604 
Wasmann,  E.,  Nests  of  Wanderer  Ants, 

172 
Wasps,  Cutaneous  Glands,  450 

—  Solitary,  43 

Water-Mites,  New  British  Records,  585 
Water-Snails,  Experimental  Dwarfing,  448 
Water-Stoniata  of  the  Lobeliacese,  62 
"  Waterhouse  "  Museum  Microscope,  490 


Waters,  A.  W.,  Genus  Tubucellaria,  52 
Watkins,  Frangois,  Microscope,  137 
Watson  and  Sons'  Aplanatic   Low-power 
Condenser,  97 

—  "Grip"  Stage-Spring,  94 

—  Laboratory  Dissecting  Microscope,  93 

—  Macro-illuminator,  97 

—  Metallurgical  Microscope,  "  The  Hori- 

zontal," 91 

—  "  Mint "  Metallurgical  Microscope,  93 

—  Museum  Microscope,  396 

—  New  Mechanical  Condenser  Mount,  97 

—  Vertical  Illuminator,  94 
Wax-Glands  of  Flata  marginella,  579 
Webb's  Diamond  Writing,  396 

Weber,  F.  L.,  Sense-Organs  of  Cockles,  574 

Weber,  M.,  Fresh- Water  Fishes  of  New 
Guinea,  168 

Weever,  Poison  Apparatus,  169 

Weevils,  Grain,  41 

Weidemann,  G,  Study  of  Penicillhnn,  213 

Weidenreich.  F.,  Simple  Method  of  Stain- 
ing Blood-films,  116 

Weinberg,  M,  Toxic  Effect  of  Scleros- 
tomum  equinum,  49 

—  Toxins  Secreted  by  Parasites,  180 
Weiss,  F.  E.,  Parichnos  in  the  Lepidoden- 

dracese,  196 

—  Stigmaria  with  Centripetal  Wood,  608 
Weiss,    P.,    Magnetisation   of    Iron    and 

Nickel,  124 

Welsford,  E.,  Cytology  of  the  Ascomycetes, 
744 

Welsford,  E.  J.,  Sexuality  and  Develop- 
ment of  Ascomycetes,  78 

Weltner,  W.,  Amsebocytes  of  Spongillids, 
185 

—  Species  of  Hydra,  458 

Wenhani,  Francis  H.,  C.E.,  Obituary,  693 
Werner,  R.,  Theory  of  Malignant  Tumours, 

164 
Wesche,  W.,  129,  789 

—  Genitalia  as   Indications  of   Relation- 

ship, 715 
of  Male  Cockroach,  451 

—  On  the  Microscope  as  an  Aid  to   the 

Study  of  Biology  in  Entomology,  with 
Particular  Reference  to  the  Food  of 
Insects,  135.  401 

—  The  Mouth-Parts  of  the  Nemoeera  and 

their  Relation  to  the  other  Families 
in  Diptera — with  Corrections  and 
Additions  to  the  Paper  published  in 
1904,  789 

West,  G.  S.,  Some  Critical  Green  Algse, 
206 

West,  W.,  Luminosity  of  Sthistostega,  611 

—  and  G.  S.,  Fresh-water  Algae  of  the 

West  Riding,  618 

Wheeler,  W.  M.,  Pink  Katydids  as  Mu- 
tants, 578 

Wheldon,  J.  A.,  Harpidium  Section  of 
Hypnum,  610 


850 


INDEX. 


Whelk,  Dog,  Physiological  Action  of  Ex- 
tract of  HypobrancMal  Gland,  574 

White,  C.  A.,  Origin  of  Parasitic  Plants, 
604 

White,  J..  Red  Wood  in  Conifers,  602 

Whitney,  D.  D.,  Green  Bodies  of  Hydra 
riridis,  721 

Whooping  Cough,  Etiology,  89 

Widal,  F.,  Staining  Granular  Red  Cor- 
puscles, 520 

Wieland,  (i.  R.,  Cone  of  Pinus,  4G4 

—  Historic  Fossil  Cvcads,  4G3 

Wilder,  H.  H.,  Bodily  Identity  of  Twins, 

307 
Wilhelmi,  J.,  Planaria  angulata,  324 

—  Uncertain  Species  of  Marine  Triclads, 

592 
Williams.  L.  W.,  Structure  of  Cilia,  163 
Williams,  R.  S.,  Tropical  American  Mosses, 

343 
Williams,  S.  R.,  Habits  and  Structure  of 

ScutigereJIa  immaculata,  318 
Williams,  W.  E.,  Influence  of  Stress  on 

the  Electrical  Conductivity  of  Metals, 

262 
Williamson,  H.  C,  Studies  on  Mussels, 

575 
Williamson,  W.,  Hydrachnids,  175 

—  Scottish  Hydrachnids,  46 
Williston,  S.  W.,  What  is  a  Species?  706 
Wilson,  C.  B.,  North  American  Caligidae, 

587 

—  Notes  on   Development    of  Argulidse, 

177 
Wilson,  E.  B.,  Accessory  Chromosome  in 

Anasa  tristis,  450 
Wilson,  G.  W.,  Studies  in  North  American 

Peronosporales,  II.,  210 
Wilson,    H.    V.,    Coalescence    and    Re- 
generation in  Sponges,  328 

—  Degeneration     and     Regeneration     in 

Sponges,  186 

—  Method   by   which    Sponges    may    be 

Artificially  Reared,  105 
Wilson,  J.,  Mendelian  Characters  among 

Short-horn  Cattle,  701 
Wilson,   J.   T.,  Examining   the   Eggs   of 

Ornithorhyncus,  653 
Windsor,    F.     N.,     Examining     Seminal 

Stains,  659 
Wing-Bones  of  Birds,  Sarcoptids  in,  46 
Wing-Muscles     in    Ants     after     Nuptial 

Flight,  Histolysis,  316 
Winiwarter,    H.    v.,    Flemming's   Triple 

Staining  Method,  778 
Winkler,  O,  Eighth  Cerebral  Nerve,  165 
Winter-Buds    of    Clavelina    lepadiformis, 

447 
Wintrebert,  P.,  Complementary   Spiracles 
in  Anura,  162 

—  Embryonic  Circulation  in  Goldfish,  702 

—  Determining  Factors  in  Metamorphosis 

of  Anura,  24,  307 


Wintrebert,  P.,  Experiments  with  Axolotls, 
25 

Tadpoles,  24 

Wirtz,    P.,     Simple     Method    of    Spore 

Staining,  5^0 
Wissonlingh.C.  v..  Cell-Wall  Structure  and 
Ring- Formation  in  G5dogonium,  736 

—  Karyokinesis  in  GMogonium,  463 

—  Studying  the  Structure  of  QEdogonium, 

654 

Witches'  Brooms  of  South  Midlands,  354 

Wittmaok,  L.,  Polyporus  cmnoms,  481 

Wolfer,  A..  Toepfer's  Universal  Measur- 
ing Apparatus,  498 

Wolft',  M.,Pipette  for  Microscope  Work,7Sl 

Wollaston's  Goniometer,  241 

Wollenweber,  W.,  Genus  Hsematococcus, 
618 

Wood,  Centripetal,  in  Coniferse,  61 

Stigmaria  with,  608 

—  Red,  in  Conifers.  60'2 

Wood,     R.     W.,     Atlas     of     Absorption 

Spectra,  104 
Wood,  W.  J.,  Microscopical  Matters,  503 
Wood-Destroying  Fungi,  215 
Woodpecker,    Comparative    Anatomy    of 

Tongue,  166 
Woods,  Philippine,  466 
Woodward.  H.,  Arthropoda  of  British  Coal 
Measures,  41 

—  New  Species  of  Eurypterus,  175 

—  Pygocephalus  cooperi,  176 

Woolley,  P.  G.,  Subcutaneous  Fibro-Gran- 

ulomata  in  Cattle,  86 
Woronin,  H.,  Apogamy  and  Apospory,  68 
I   Woycicki,  Z.,  Pathological  Growth  Phe- 
nomenon in   Spirogyra  and  Mougeotia, 
205 
;   Wroughton,  R.  C,  African  Mun gooses,  3 
I   Wulff.  T.,  Unusual  Growth  of  Spumaria 
alba,  487 
Wiist,  F.,  Influence  of  Phosphorus  on  the 

Iron-Carbon  System,  524 
—  Theory  of  Malleableising,  258 
Wyrage'vitch,  Th.,  Halcampella  oslroumowi. 
184 


X. 


Xylaria    Hypoxylon,    Conidial     Develop- 
ment, 212 


Yamamoto,  J.,  Silver  Method  for  Differ- 
entiating the   Bacilli  of  Leprosy  and 
Tubercle,  776 
Yamanouchi,     S.,     Cytology     of    Repro- 
duction in  Nephrodium,  726 
—  Investigating  Apogamy  in  Nephrodium, 
510 


INDEX. 


851 


Yatsu,  N.,  Cell-Divisions  in  Cerebratulus, 

720 
Yaws,  Relation   to  Spiroclaeta  pertenuis, 

189 
Yeast  as  a  Fermentative  Agent,  625 

—  Influence  of  Light  and  Colours,  604 
Yeasts  and  Bacteria,  Action  of  Absolute 

Alcohol  on,  362 

—  Origin,  352 

Yendo,  K.,  Fucaceje  of  Japan,  345 
Yerkes,  E.  M.,  Dancing  Monse,  705 
Young,  R.  T.,  Histogenesis  of  Cysticercus 
pisiformis,  593 

—  Studying  the  Histogenesis  of  Cysticercus 

pisiformis,  514 
Yung,  E.,  Variation  in  Length  of  Frog's 
Intestine,  569 

Z. 

Zahlbruckner,  A  ,  Lichens  from  the  Island 
of  Samoa,  633 

—  Text-Book  of  Lichens,  220 
Zangger,   H.,   Functions    of   Membranes, 

706 
Zarnik,  B.,  New  Order  of  Protozoa,  722 


Zeiss,  C,  Ultramicroscopy  and  Dark- 
ground  Illumination,  378 

Zelinka,  0.,  New  Marine  Rotifera,  52 

Zellner,  J..  Chemistry  of  the  Higher 
Fungi,  628 

Ziegler,  — .,  Hardness  of  Constituents  of 
Alloys,  782 

Zimmerraann,  A.,  Bielschowsky's  Method 
for  Demonstrating  Connective-tissue 
Fibres,  659 

Zimmerschied,  K.  W.,  Apparatus  for  Pol- 
ishing Metal  Sections,  123 

Zinc  and  Nickel,  257 

Zinc-Cadmium  Alloys,  120 

Zodda,  G.,  Italian  Muscinese,  469 

Zopf,  W.,  Chemical  Monograph  of  the 
Cladonise,  485 

—  Lichens  Chemically  Considered,  633 
Zuelzer,  M.,  Influence  of  Salinity  on  Con- 
tractile Vacuole,  461 

—  Regeneration  in  Asellus,  454 
Zuluetta,  A.  de,  Lamippidae,  716 
Zygnema,  Nucleus  and  Karyokinesis,  332 
Zygospores  of   Spirogyra  in   Relation   to 

Theories  of  Variability,  739 

—  of  Sporodinia  grandis,  623 


LONDON:     PRINTED  BY  WILLIAM  CLOWES  AND  SONS,  LIMITED 
GBEAX   WINDMILL  STBEET,   W.,    ISO   DUKE   STBEET,   STAMFOBD   STBEET,   S.E. 


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