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HE SVISIONSOFMEZEKIEL:

JOURNAL OF

THE TRANSACTIONS

Che Victoria Anstitute,
Ahilosophical Society of Great Pritam.

EDITED BY THE SECRETARY.

VOL. XLI.

LONDON:
(Published hy the LEnstitute, 1, Avelpht Terrace Bouse, Charing Crog?, W.C.)

1905.

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PREFACE,

AC the end of a year’s work as Secretary to the Victoria

Institute, in issuing the first volume of Transactions
which it has been my privilege to see through the press,
I would wish to acknowledge the generous support and
assistance which I have received from the Council and
Members ; a support which has been most encouraging, and
a friendly assistance which has gone far to lighten my labours.
In particular I take this opportunity of acknowledging the
untiring efforts of Mr. A. E. Montague, whose zealous work at
a critical time has been of the greatest value.

The report of the Council, which deserves the most careful
consideration of all who are interested in the work of the
Institute, deals with the events of the past year in a manner
which obviates the necessity of any further preface to a series
of papers which from the interest already taken in them, and
the attendances at their delivery, would seem in no degree to
have fallen behind those of previous years.

H. CHARLEWOOD TURNER, M.A.,
Secretary.

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CONTENTS.

PAGE
PREFACE ae =e Ge. ak ae. 3
FortTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT .... ee Bas ae a. os 1

THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING, HELD IN THE HOUSE OF THE
Society oF Arts, Monpay, JUNE 2lstT, 1909. THE Rr. Hoy.
THE Eart oF Hatspury, D.C.L., F.R.S. (President), In THE
CHATIB, © «3; shee ie & ee a. ee rts ic, te

THE ANNUAL ADDRESS. DELIVERED BY THE PRESIDENT, THE Rr.
Hon. THE Earu or Hatssory, D.C.L., F.RS. .... ene aay le
488TH ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING. DECEMBER 7TH, 1908.

PAPER ON “GENEVA AND CHAMOUNIX OF TO-DAY AS COMPARED
WITH HALF A CENTURY AGO.” By Proregssor E. HULL,

LL.D., F.R.S. Fe pe
WitxH Discussion Be ne bn bere ES ic. eS
489TH ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING. JANUARY 4TH, 1909.
Paper on “ LIFE IN A COUNTRY TOWN OF LYCAONIA: BEING A
DESCRIPTION OF THE CONDITIONS OF CHRISTIAN LIFE UNDER
THE EASTERN EMPIRE.” By Proressor Sir W. M.
Ramsay, F.R.S.,, D.C... .... wn OO
Witu Discussion ae re 45
490TH ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING. JANUARY 18TH, 1909.
PAPER ON ‘“‘ScIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD.” By Dr.
A. T. ScHOFIELD .... F3! ae Aah ae net Re le:

Wits Discussion ae Lf wae aa eh ak Loe

Vill CONTENTS OF VOL. XLI.

PAGE
491stT ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING. FEBRUARY Ist, 1909.
Paper ON “CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM.” By THE VEN. W.
CUNNINGHAM, ARCHDEACON OF ELLY .... x x <te AO
WitH Discussion eat aes eeu a sete Kee Oe

492nD ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING. FEBRUARY 15TH, 1909.

PAPER ON “‘ DISCOVERIES IN BABYLONIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING
Lanpbs.” By Dr. TaroprHitus G. PINCHES .... ak

493RD ORDINARY GENERAL Merrine. Marcu 1st, 1909.

PaPperR oN “MoDERNISM, ITS ORIGIN AND TENDENCIES.” By

Rev. CHANCELLOR J. J. Lias, M.A..... ase it att
Wits Discussion oe abs ex sie a seey

494TH ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING. Marcu 157TH, 1909,

Paper oN “THE L&EGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYLONIA.”
By H. M. WIENER, Esq., LL.B. sf a an Sie

Witu Discussion ate ae ey ou ee ee

495TH ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING. ApRit 5TH, 1909.

PaPER oN “ EZEKIEL’S VISION OF THE DIVINE GLory.” By
C.. A. Carus-WILson, Esq. .. me ree take ~

496rH ORDINARY GENERAL Meevine. APRIL 19TH, 1909.

Paper ON “THE PRESENT POSITION OF CATHOLICS IN FRANCE.”
By Rev. A. GALTON .... ae ac Sa me “em

Witu Discussion ae Ae baie on ei

497TH ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING. May 3rp, 1909.

Paper on “THE Date oF THE NATIVITY WAS 8 B.c.” By
LieuT.-CoLoNEL G. MACKINLAY Bs igi A cms

Witru Discussion cid ~ee ia sen

139

163

167

173

193

197

210

CONTENTS OF VOL. XLI. 1X

PAGE
498TH ORDINARY GENERAL MeEetine. May 171TH, 1909.

Paper on “ AvutTHority.” By THE VERY Rev. H. Wace, D.D.
’ >)

DEAN OF CANTERBURY .,... ide PA |

Wiru Discussion see ame a oe ae ae) onl
BioGRAPHICAL NoTIce OF THE LATE Mr. WiLFRED H. HupLEston 240

List oF THE VIcE-PaTRoNS, CoUNCIL AND OFFICERS, MEMBERS,
ASSOCIATES, Liprary AssociATEs, Hon. CoRRESPONDING
Memsers, Hoy. CoRRESPONDENTS, AND Miss1onaAry ASSOCIATES 241

Ossects, CoNSTITUTION AND Byr-Laws.

SoOcIETIES EXCHANGING TRANSACTIONS WITH THE INSTITUTE.

*,* The Institute’s object being to investigate, it must not be held to endorse
the various views expressed either in the Papers or discussions.

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VICTORIA INSTITUTE.

hRePORL OF THE “COUNCIE FOR’ THE YEAR. 1908.

1. Meetings.

The meetings of the Institute during the past session have
been well attended and the discussions keenly maintained.

The subjects dealt with may be arranged under the following
heads :—

1. PHILOSOPHICAL.
“Science and the Unseen World.” By Dr. A. T. ScHoFIELD, M.D.

2. HisTorRIcat.
a. Ancient History and Archeology.

“Discoveries in Babylonia and the neighbouring lands.” By Dr.
T. G. Pincuss, LL.D.
“Legislations of Israel and Babylonia.” By Mr. H. M. Wirnrr,

M.A., LL.B.
“Life in a country town of Lycaonia: a description of the conditions
of Christian life under the Eastern Empire.” By Professor

Sir Witut1AmM M. Ramsay, D.C.L.

b. Contemporary Movements.

“Christianity and Socialism.” By the Ven. the Archdeacon of Ely,
Dr. W. Cunnineuam, D.D.

*“‘ Authority.” By the Very Rev. H. Wacr, D.D., Dean of
Canterbury.

“Modernism, its origin and tendencies.” By the Rev. CHANCELLOR
Lias, M.A.

“The present position of Catholics in France.” By Rey. A. GALToy,
M.A.

3. BIBLICAL.

“* Kzekiel’s vision of the Divine Glory.” By Mr.C. A. Carus-WItson,
M.A., M.Inst.E.E.
“8 B.c. The date of the Nativity.” By Lieut.-Colonel G. Macxinuay.

4, GEOGRAPHICAL.

“Geneva and Chamounix, half a century ago and to-day.” By
Professor E, Huti, LL.D. F.R.S.

It will be seen that while the subjects discussed during the
session have been of wide interest, special opportunity has been
given for the discussions of the practical problems of the day.
In bringing the Victoria Institute into closer touch with con-
temporary movements the Council look with confidence for the
support of all those interested in the work of the Institute.

2. Grants of Literature.

The usual grants of literature have been made to over thirty
societies engaged in Missionary and Christian Propaganda work.

3. The following is the list of the Officers and Council for the
past year.

President.
The Right Honourable The Earl of Halsbury, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Vice- Presidents.

Sir T. Fowel] Buxton, Bart., K.C.M.G.

Alexander McArthur, Esq., D.L., J.P.

Lieut.-Gen. Sir H. L. Geary, K.C.B.

David Howard, Esq., D.L., F.C.S. (Trustee).

Right Hon. Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal, LL.D., F.G.S.
Professor E. Hull, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Honorary Correspondents.
Sir David Gill, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.

Professor A. Agassiz, D.C.L., F.R.S. Professor A. H. Sayce, D.D., LL.D.
Professor E. Naville (Geneva). Professor Fridtjof Nansen, D.Sc.
Professor Maspero (Paris). Professor Warren Upham, D.Sc.

Honorary Auditors.

J. Allen, Esq. | Lieut.-Col. G. Mackinlay, late R.A.
Council.
(In Order of Election.)

Rev. Dr. F. W. Tremlett, D.D. Lieut.-Colonel G. Mackinlay.
Very Rev. Dean Wace, D.D. (Trustee). General J. G. Halliday.
tev. Chancellor-Lias, M.A. Colonel T. H. Holbein Hendley, C.I.E.
Rey. Canon R. B. Girdlestone, M.A. Arthur W. Sutton, Esq., F.L.S., J.P.
Theo. G. Pinches, Esq., LL.D., M.R.A.S. | Rev. Prebendary H. E. Fox, M.A.
Ven. Archdeacon W. M. Sinclair, M.A., D.D. Professor H. Langhorne Orchard, M.A., B.Sc.
Commander G. P. Heath, R.N. Rt. Rev. Bishop J. E. Welldon, D.D.
Rev. G. F. Whidborne, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S, Sydney T. Klein, Esq., F.L.S., F.R.A.S.,
Edward S. M. Perowne, Esq., F.S.A. (Hon. M.RB.I.

Treasurer). William J. Horner, Esq.
Martin Luther Rouse, Esq., B.L. Frederick S. Bishop, Esq., M.A., J.P.
Rev. Jolin Tuckwell, M.R.A.S. | A. T. Schofield, Esq., M.D,

Heywood Smith, Esq., M.A. M.D.

Sceretarpy and Editor of the Journal.
H. Charlewood Turner, M.A.

The following changes in the Council and Officers have taken
place during the year. Vacancies on the Council caused by the
election of Sir Henry Geary and Professor E. Hull to the office

of Vice-Presidents have been filled by the election of Dr. A. T.
Schofield and Dr. Heywood Smith to the Council. The death
of Mr. W. H. Hudleston leaves a vacancy in the list of Vice-
Presidents, and another is left on the Council by the retire-
ment of Col. C. E. Yate. Mr. H. Charlewood Turner, M.A.
Camb., has been appointed Secretary in succession to Professor
Hull, of whose advice and support as Vice-President the
Council are glad to be still able to avail themselves.

3. Obituary.

The Council regret to have to record the death during the
past year of the following supporters of the Institute :—

Rev. E. F. Burr, D.D., Rev. E. Blakeslee, Rev. W. Baker, Job
Caudwell, Esq., H. C. Corke, Esq., D.D.S., General J. Crofton, R.E.,
Rey. Morgan Dix, Mrs. Mary Faber, Rev. J. Gould, Charles H. Hooper,
Esq., Wilfred H. Hudleston, Esq., F.R.S. (a Vice-President of the
Institute), Rev. J. G. Locke, R. Cope Morgan, Esq., Rev. J. H. Rigg,
D.D. (Foundation Associate and formerly Member of Council), G. J.
Scales, Esq. (Foundation Member), The Most Rev. W. Saumarez Smith,
Archbishop of Sydney, Rev. Peter Tinsley, Sir Thomas Wardle, F.G.S.,
Rey. Charles H. H. Wright, D.D.

4, New Members and Associates,

The following are the names of Members and Associates
elected since the last Annual Meeting :—

Memsers.—Cecil Broadbent, Esq., Rev. Father Gerard, S.J., Miss
Madge D. MacEwan, EK. Walter Maunder, Esq., F.R.A.S., Martin J.
Sutton, Esq., J.P., James W. Thirtle, Esq., LL.D., H. Charlewood
Turner, Esq., M.A., Col. F. B. V. White.

Associates. —Rev. E. Godfrey Ashwin, M.A., Rev. Hamilton Ashwin,
LL.D., Edwin H. Banks, Esq., D.L., J.P., Miss Mary Beachcroft, Henry
H. L. Chichester, Esq., William Dale, Esq., F.G.S., Andrew F. Derr, Esq.,
M.A., George Evans, Esq., Pastor Otto Flugel, F. W. Gilbertson, Esq,
J.C. M. Given, Esq., M.D., Rev. Prof. W. H. Hechler, Miss A. E.
Hemming, Mrs. Hendley, Miss A. M. Hodgkin, Sydney Lupton, Esq.,
M.A., Rev. H. J. R. Marston, M.A., Alfred W. Oke, Esq., B.A., LL.M.
(Life), Walter R. Perkins, Esq., John Schwartz, Esq., Junr., Rev. J. H.
Skrine, M.A., F. P. Trench, Esq., F.R.C.S., Arthur Charlewood Turner
Esq., M.A., Rev. R. Charlewood Turner, M.A.

5. The Gunning Prize.

The rules governing the award of the Gunning Prize were
revised at the beginning of the session, and copies sent to all
subscribers. The last date for sending in essays was fixed as
March 31st, and there were appointed as judges Professor
EK. Hull, LL.D., F.B.S., the Rev. Chancellor Lias, M.A., and
F. 8. Bishop, Esq., M.A.

Nine essays in all were sent in for competition, the subject
being “ The attitude of Science towards Miracles.”

The Judges were unanimous in placing first the essay sent in
under the motto épyeoGe cau tdete. On the opening of the
sealed envelope the essay was found to have been written by
Professor H. Langhorne Orchard, M.A., B.Sc., to whom there-
fore the Council have awarded the Gunning Prize of £40.

The essays sent in by the Rev. G. T. Manley, M.A., E. W.
Maunder, Esq., F.R.A.S., and Professor J. Y. Simpson, M.A.,
D.Sc., were adjudged to be deserving of honourable mention.

6. Proposed change in the Constitution.

During the session the Council have devoted considerable
time to the reorganisation of the Institute’s office, and the
revision of their own rules of procedure with a view to the
more effective transaction of the Institute’s business.

They recommend to the consideration of the Institute the
following change in procedure which they believe will be
found of great benefit :—

(a) That whereas at present the financial year of the
Institute runs from January Ist to December 31st,
and the session from December to June with the
Annual Meeting in June, the financial year and
session shall in future be coterminous, both ending
on December 31st.

This will lead to the Annual Meeting being held in the early
part of each year, when the report and balance sheet of the
whole year and session immediately ended will be presented. It
will also lead to the publication of the annual volume in the
same year as that in which the printing and binding bills are
paid, and do away with the debtor balance varying from £200
to £130 which is at present carried over on the balance sheet
year by year.

The Council also recommend to the Members and Associates
the following resolution :—

“ One-third of the members of Council shall retire annually
but be eligible for re-election: such retirement to be
by seniority in election to the Council.”

This rule if passed will occasion eight vacancies on the
Council in addition to the one already noticed. Members are

reminded that the Council will gladly receive names for the
elections to the Council to be added to the names of those
retiring members who wish to stand for re-election.

The Council believe that such a rule as is now contemplated
would be beneficial in introducing new blood into the Council,
and giving to individual members a greater interest in the affairs
of the Institute.

The changes in the constitution (§ II) necessary for carrying
out this resolution will be brought before Members and
Associates by a special notice to be issued at such time as may
be found convenient for the calling of a special general
meeting.

7. The change of Offices from 8, Adelphi Terrace, to 1, Adelphi
Terrace House, was successfully accomplished at the close of the
Session 1907-8. The new rooms have been suitable to the
needs of the Institute: although for the purpose of one or two
meetings it has been deemed advisable to engage the Hall of
the Royal Society of Arts which is near at hand in John Street,
and on each occasion the attendance has justified this step.

8. Financial,

The Council are glad to report that the financial position of
the Institute, though not yet all that could be desired, shows
some improvement.

The economies effected by the change of offices and the
internal reorganisation had not time to take full effect in the
year under review, 1908: but the monthly balances of the
current year (1909) bear gratifying testimony to their beneficial
operation. The Council trust that the depletion of the reserve
fund which has been continuous since 1905, has now reached its
limit.

They have, however, to point out that although there is every
probability of a satisfactory balance being established for the
year 1909, the situation is still critical. On its financial
position depends the capacity of the Institute for useful work.
Much has been done in the past, and the review of the Session
(1908-9) bears witness to the efforts that are being made at the
present. Further advance, however, is necessary, and a great
increase in the number of supporters, if the Institute is to take
the place to which its objects entitle it. There has never been
a time at which such a Society was more needed.

But the Victoria Institute cannot command the confidence of

the leaders of Christian and scientific thought if it moves in a
groove, or declines into a party position. To do the work that
is needed to-day it is necessary to be in touch with the thought
of to-day., No society attempting to meet the attacks of the
twentieth century with the defences of the middle of the
nineteenth century can command the support necessary to
the successful conduct of the campaign.

The present is the moment for advance, and the Council
appeal with confidence for further support in carrying on the work
of the Victoria Institute on the broad Christian lines contem-
plated by the Founders, who laid it down as their first purpose,
“To investigate fully and impartially the most important
questions of Philosophy and Science, but more especially those
that bear upon the great truths revealed in Holy Scripture;
with the view of reconciling any apparent discrepancies between
Christianity and Science.”

The following statement will show the number of the
supporters of the Institute, including hon. corresponding
members, at the end of May, 1909 :—

Life Members ae ries er, 34 in number.
Annual Members ... Ke Bes 99 .
Life Associates ae oe et 66 a
Annual Associates... ne ee 219 »
Missionary Associates... wats 13 .
Hon. Corresponding Members... 107 is
Library Associates Vy Aba: 20 i.
Total 612

The Balance Sheet to 31st December, 1908, has been duly
audited, the Hon. Auditors being Colonel Mackinlay and Mr.
John Allen, to whom the Council tender their thanks.

SPECIAL FUND.

In addition to the subscriptions to the Financial Appeal
received last year, the following have since come in and are now
acknowledged with thanks :—

pa eas /2
Miss C. Tindall a
S. Joshua Cooper, Esq. Bs iy ig

Conclusion.

Such is a summary of the work and position of the Institute
during the past year, and the Council hope that, with the
blessing of God, a prosperous future awaits the Institute in the
year to come.

“)

Signed on behalf of the Council,
HALSBURY,
President.

The above Report of the Council was read at the Annual
Meeting of the Institute heldon June 21st in the House of
the Royal Society of Arts. Its adoption was moved by Sir
Robert Anderson, K.C.B., seconded by Sydney Lupton, Hsq.,
M.A., F.C.S., and on being put to the meeting by the President
carried unanimously,

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THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE INSTITUTE

WAS HELD (BY KIND PERMISSION) IN THE ROOMS OF
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS ON MONDAY,
JUNE 2lst, 1909,

THE Ricut Hoy. Tre Earu or Hatssury, D.C.L., F.RS.,

PRESIDENT, IN THE CHAIR,
When the following Address was delivered by the PRESIDENT :—

BELIEVE on a former occasion I called attention tothe
regular succession of the waves of unbelief and super-
stition; their forms vary infinitely, but their succession in
regular periods is certain. Psychological study has become
popular, and disputes now more than 2,000 years old have been
revived sometimes in the very terms (allowing for the difference
of language) that were urged in the times gone by, and meta-
physical inquiry has been aroused in no common degree in our
time.

Mr. Buckle in his History of Civilization said that it may be
fairly supposed that the advance of European civilisation is
characterised by a diminishing influence of physical laws and
an increasing influence of mental laws.

Such phrases are perhaps only intended to express epigram-
matically what are the prevailing views upon such subjects, and
when we talk of physical laws we mean the facts ascertained
by experiment or trial, and by mental laws the results of what
many men have told us of the operations of their own
individual minds; and the same authority tells us that the
mental laws for which he claims such successful influence have
only so far been ascertained by proceeding in one of two ways.

He says that if two men of equal ability and equal honesty
employ different methods in the study of the mind, the conclu-
sions they obtain will invariably be different, and accordingly,
the metaphysicians are divided into two schools of thought
between which there is no possibility of concurrence. Now I
have no intention of entering into the conflict, fascinating as it

R 2

10 ANNUAL ADDRESS.

is, but I think one of the principles of the Victoria Institute is
to endeavour to understand one another and to use plain
speech and not to be terrified by particularly long words, even
if their energy is enhanced by capital letters. Just one
hundred years ago Lamarck published his Philosophie Zoologique,
and since his time the theory which he propounded with
additions and variations has occupied learned persons ever
since. Liologie der Natur, Principles of Biology, by Herbert
Spencer, Man’s Place in Nature, and the Evolution of Matter,
have given rise to controversies of inordinate length, but except
so far as they touch the foundations of religious belief I do not
propose to deal with any part of them.

So far as the question of ideas and sensations go I am not
very much interested in the dispute. I suspect in this case as
in so many others the disputants are disputing about words
and do not always use words in the same sense. Indeed,
Darwinism, as the Germans call it, though I think Dr. Packard
has proved that it would be more appropriately called Lamarck-
ism, is an interesting study, but what it has to do with a
revelation which we believe to be divine is a greater puzzle
than any metaphysician has ever invented.

To be sure, I saw quoted the other day the profound remark
of a gentleman who has determined to be up-to-date in
science, who informed us that modern chemistry had found that
transubstantiation was chemically impossible.

It may well be that those who would raise a laugh at
such an argument, nevertheless, themselves fall into the same
error when assuming analogies that have no real relation
to each other. Lamarck says that he could pass in review all
classes, all orders, all the genus and species of animals that
exist, and that he could prove that the conformation of
individuals and of their parts, their organs and faculties is
entirely the result of circumstances to which each species has
been subjected by Nature.

It is to my mind beyond the power of human language to
express the wonderful adaptation of the merely animal part of
creation to the part they are intended to fill; this is true of
each creature from the highest to the lowest, but to most minds
this would suggest a Creator incomprehensible and Almighty
in power, and that inference would not be got rid of by using
the word Nature instead of the word God.

That God’s creation should be vradual or progressive or
evolutionary and that his creatures should be endowed with a
faculty of development is no more inconsistent with His power

ANNUAL ADDRESS, ti

and eternity than the fact that he has given certain qualities to
certain portions of matter that they retain as long as they exist
at all, and to others the quality of being changed by time or other
agents and different circumstances, and becoming apparently
different things according to our limited views and feeble
nomenclature. Of course, the effort of those whose idea is the
deification of man and his self-creation will point to analogies
from non-vital things and bring in Man as only a self-superior
creation as a deduction from their theories, but this is only one
of the many phases of unbelief which from time to time has
grown up and which has its day until some more popular
notion takes hold of the imagination and succeeds in an ever-
recurring cycle in capturing a body of adherents. Indeed, we
are now assured “that Primitive Credulity is dead and Intel-
lectual Belief is dying, and that the fate of Christianity rests
in the hands of emotional belief.”

Unfortunately, emotional belief leads too often to delusion.
Joanna Southcott and, in his latter days, Mr. Irving, a preacher
of rare eloquence, took to the belief that he had the power
of communicating his thoughts in an unknown tongue, and
few here can remember the distress which was felt at the injury
to the religious belief of many who had been delighted with
his eloquence and undoubted piety.

In our own day Professor James finds it to be the worship of
material luxury and wealth which constitutes so large a portion
of the spirit of our age—that which produces effeminacy and
unmanliness.

It is no new experience that emotional and highly sensitive
persons should suppose themselves endowed with what for want
of a better word I will call supernatural power. I believe
there exists among us a fancy that people are distinguished
by colours floating round their heads. It is called an “ aura.”
The good are blue, the bad are red, and only people who are
enlightened are accommodated with an aura of their own, but, if
Mr. James is right in his view of what “the great age produces,”
it is no wonder that delusions should flourish and that the
halo of the medizval painters should present themselves to
weak and hysterical persons as something that they imagine
round their own heads, and think they see on their neighbours.

Mr. Ladd in his Philosophy of Religion says, “In the United
States to-day Christian Science is forming a grotesque mixture
of crude Pantheism, misunderstood psychological and_philo-
sophical truth, and truly Christian beliefs and conceptions.”
Whether the great prophet of Christian Science is still alive or

12 ANNUAL ADDRESS.

not is, I believe, being still angrily debated in her own country,
and I read in a newspaper that the unbelieving have gone so
far as to suggest that somebody or something has been dressed
up to represent the lady who has for some considerable period
been in her grave. Whatever may be the truth about the lady
herself there can be no doubt that the statement of Mr. Ladd is
borne out by much testimony.

It would be too long a task to go through all the catalogue of
cant phrases which represents the barren nonsense of this new
phase of human folly, but the recollection of table turning is
still too recent to allow us to forget that form of error. A
number of distinguished men were invited by the Royal
Institution to contribute certain essays. They were not asked
to write against table turning, but their essays collected were
fitly described as a treatise on ‘education, and they were directed
to the discipline of the Mind.

I ask would it not be possible to ask for aid to the Victoria
Institute to deal with the same simplicity and terseness in
respect of some of the problems which appear to have misled
and to be still further misleading the nations. Of this last
phase of popular delusion Mr. George B. Cutler, of Yale, treats
at page 220 of his treatise, 4 Copy of a Monthly Publication
of what is called the Society of Silent Unity. He tells us that
a certain leaf is of red paper, and in addition to elaborate
instructions for its use given by the editor, the sheet has
printed on it the following :—“ This sheet has been treated by
the Society of Silent Unity after the manner mentioned in
Acts xix, 11 and 12.

“ Disease will depart from those who repeat silently while
holding this in hand the words printed herein: Affirmation for
Strength and Power, February 20th to March 20th. Held
daily at 9 p.m.

“The Strength and Power of the Divine Mind is now esta-
blished in me and will go out no more. Affirmation for
Prosperity, held daily at 12 noon. The Riches of the Lord
Christ are now poured out upon me and I am supplied with
everything.”

Then follow some testimonials such as one sees following the
advertisements of quack medicines.

One of them runs thus: “ While holding the red yjeaf in my
hands it caused vibration through my whole system and
rheumatic pains that I was troubled with disappeared as if by
magic.”

Another: “Your treatments for prosperity have done us

ANNUAL ADDRESS. 13

much good, and we are feeling more prosperous, which will
open the way to our receiving more. Since the treatments
our chickens have laid better, the food goes farther and our
whole living seems easier.”

I rather think Professor Lionel Beale more than once suggested
that some of the metaphysical questions should be made the
subject of discussion among us, and I[ think we might follow
the example of the Royal Institution in publishing in a small
volume some of the addresses, and perhaps the discussions,
which have been delivered here by our own distinguished
members. I am sure it would be useful, as in the case of the
Royal Institution their volume was useful in dissipating the
fog of Science falsely so called, and we have not heard much of
table turning since the little instrument Professor Iaraday
invented which put an end to the supposed communication of
thought and replies from the dead by knocks on a table. This
invention was not so much to prevent intentional fraud as to
prevent the unconscious movement of the table by persons who
were sincerely under the impression that the table itself moved
while without meaning it they were themselves responsible for
the movement.

Now there is much need for careful investigation and clear
thought at the present time.

It will be observed that Mr. Ladd’s description of Christian
Science includes truly “ Christian Beliefs and Conceptions.”

If Mr. Ladd means, as he probably does, that in Mrs. Eddy’s
book there is a mixture of much silly and terribly profane
sentences mixed up with Christian truth in words, one can
heartily agree, but without this qualification it is hardly possible
to say that there is any Christianity at all in it.

Some scriptural quotations and even the professed belief of
the writer herself are so disfigured by what is added, that while
one recognises from time to time a Christian truth there, it is
followed by an addition or interpretation by the author which
makes one shudder by the profanity with which sacred words
are put together with such hideous nonsense.

This renders it difficult to give examples since one does not
like to quote what one cannot read without pain, but one or two
may suffice. At page 218 she says, “They that wait upon the
Lord shall run and not be weary, and they shall walk and not
faint.” The writer seems to have had a dim suspicion of her
own profaneness, for she says, “ the meaning of that passage is
not perverted by applying it literally to moments of fatigue, for
the moral and physical are as one in their results.

14 ANNUAL ADDRESS.

“ When we wake to the truth of being, all disease, weakness,
sorrow, sin and death will be unknown and the mortal dream
will for ever cease.”

“My method of treating of fatigue applies to all bodily ail-
ments since mind should be, and is, supreme, absolute and
final.”

This is the supposed answer to a complaint that the indivi-
dual is supposed to make—Toil fatigues me. Now comes the
philosophy.

“But what is this me? Isit muscle or is it mind? With-
out mind would the muscles be tired? Do the muscles talk ?
Do you talk for them ?”

Matter is non-intelligent. Mortal mind does the false talking
and that which appeared weariness made that weariness. Here
is her own belief :—“ Do not believe in any supposed necessity
for sin, disease or death, knowing as you ought to know that
God never requires obedience to a so-called natural law, for no
such law exists. The belief in sin and death is destroyed by
the law of God which is the law of life instead of death; of
harmony instead of discord; of spirit instead of the flesh.
Again as part of the same reasoning if you believe yourself
diseased you can alter this wrong belief and action without
hindrance from the body.”

This is only one specimen of the sort of rhapsody which is
the tone of the whole book, where Scripture is continually quoted
and ridiculously apphed.

At page 251 we learn that “Fright is so great at certain
stages of mortal belief as to drive belief into new paths. In the
illusion of death mortals wake to the knowledge of two facts.
First, that they are not dead, and secondly, that they have but
passed the portals of a new belief.”

One does not get a much clearer idea of this by what we
should call the interpretation clause, titled death, when we are
told, “ Any material evidence of death is false, for it contradicts
the spiritual facts of being.”

Although I have had considerable difficulty in quoting without
appearing to deal lightly with sacred things, I have no such
hesitation about the lady’s philosophy, and this reminds me very
much of a little professional anecdote which occurred to me
when I was at the bar. A witness was being stiffly cross-
examined about the absence of a particular person who was
alleged to have been present at the transaction which was in
dispute, and he accounted for the absence of the person in
question by saying that he was dead. “ How do you know he

ANNUAL ADDRESS. 15

was dead, sir?” said the cross-examining counsel somewhat
sharply. “ Well, sir,” was the answer, “I do not know that he
is dead.” “Then why did you say he was dead?” “ Well, sir,”
he said, “I do not exactly know he is dead, but I was at the
funeral when they buried him on suspicion.”

Neither have I much hesitation in referring to the examples
of quack advertisements with which we are all of us familiar.
One gentleman writes he “had overcome a severe attack of
gripe in thirty-six hours by obeying the scriptural saying
‘Physician, heal thyself !’”

Then comes the case of a lady who, according to her own
account, was treated by eminent physicians for hereditary con-
sumption, torpid liver and many other diseases.

She says her life was a ceaseless torture, but ultimately
she borrowed another lady’s copy of Scvence and Health two
hours each day for eight days and was healed. The first day
she read Scrence and Health she weighed about ninety-five
pounds. Three months later she weighed one hundred and
thirty-five pounds !

But I have said enough on this so-called Science in which I
discover as little Science as Christianity. I only refer to it at
all as one, and only one, of the many silly delusions which have
erown up from time to time and have demonstrated how infinite
is human folly. Joanna Southcott and Mr. Prince had their
followers, and judging from what I read lately Mr. Prince has his
followers even now. Nor will it do to set down all these things
as intentional falsehood and fraud. But some people avail
themselves of the folly of others and where intentional fraud
exists there 1s invariably the accompanying desire of sordid gain
as 1ts companion.

But more dangerous and more difficult to deal with is the
question, when undoubted sincerity introduces the delusion,
and the unfortunate patient who describes her pitiable condition
as being treated for many diseases for years, may in truth have
been really cured by ceasing the profuse swallowing of drugs.

The history of the Christian Church from its earliest
beginning contains one long catalogue of heresies, and it is
no new “thing that great spiritual - powers have been self-
proclaimed by very many impostors. But the patois of fraud
—and I believe I have used here before that phrase—lurks in
the sort of patchwork of scriptural language. Poets and saints
have alike used figurative phrases as “a death unto sin, and a
life unto righteousness.” “There is no death—what seems so
is transition ”—Longfellow. But no one really misunderstands

16 ANNUAL ADDRESS.

what is meant. But what does Mrs. Eddy mean when she uses
such a phrase to prove the efficacy of Christian Science to ward
off death and sickness ? :

Do not let us underrate the effect of such teaching as I have
been describing, the delusion itself is not its worst effect; see
what it leads to even with able and learned men.

I am going to quote what has been said by a learned professor.
I feel the respect his learning demands, but to agree with him
in matters of revelation is to make our reason the standard and
measure of the doctrines revealed to us through apostles, to
contend that their doctrines should be such as to carry with
them their own justification, to reject them if they come into
conflict with our own existing stock of knowledge, and thus to
accept a rationalistic spirit in the acknowledgment of faith—
for faith is in its very nature the acceptance of what our
reason cannot reach simply and absolutely upon testimony. |

This is what the professor in question has done. His own
mind is the measure of what he thinks God must be, and here
is what he says :—

“The line of least resistance then as it seems to me both
in theology and in philosophy is to accept along with the
superhuman consciousness the notion that it is not all-embracing,
the notion, in other words, that there is a God, but that He is
finite either in power or in knowledge, or in both at once.”

Alas! is this the conclusion—the Christian Hope, the
Christian Faith. The idea of compromise on such a subject.
At all events, I hope that in this Institute we shall not
recognise anything but the faith once delivered to the saints.

488TH ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.

MONDAY, DECEMBER 7rn, 1908.

GENERAL J. G. HALLIDAY IN THE CHAIR.

The Minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed and
the election of the following candidates confirmed :—

Mempers.—E. W. Maunder, F.R.A.S., Superintendent of the Solar
Department, Royal Observatory, Greenwich ; the Rev. Father John
Gerard, 8.J., F.LS., B.A.; H. Charlewood Turner, Esq., M.A.
(Camb.), Secretary.

Lire Associate.—A. W. Oke, Esq., B.A., LL.M., F.G.S., F.LS.

Associatges.—F. Gilbertson, Esq., B.A. (Camb.); J. C. McMurdo Given,
Esq., M.D., M.R.C.P.; Mrs. J. E. Hendley ; Miss A. M. Hodgkin.

The following paper was read by the Author :—

GENEVA AND CHAMOUNIX HALF A CENTURY
AGO AND TO-DAY. (Notes of a Recent Visit.) By
Professor EpwarpD Hut, LL.D., F.R.S, (Vice-President).

(With lantern views.)

INTRODUCTION.— Visit to Geneva, 1852.—It is about half a
century since I first stood on the banks of the Mer de Glace at
Chamounix and had a view of Mont Blanc. Early in my
college days I had become acquainted with the glories of the
Alps, and was fired with ambition to visit Switzerland and its
wonderful snowy mountains and glaciers. I had read and
studied that charming book, Norway and its Glaciers, by
Professor James Forbes, as also the explorations of Agassiz,
Charpentier and De Sausseur amongst the Alpine Glaciers as
related by Lyell; but it was to Forbes that I was chiefly
indebted for what I know of the structure and movement of
glacier ice, as it is to his observations conducted on the Mer de
Glace of Chamounix through several successive seasons, with
the aid of his faithful attendant and guide, Auguste Balmat, that
we are acquainted with the laws which regulate the motion of
glacier ice; observations which were afterwards repeated by
Tyndall.

Therefore, on the first opportunity that presented itself after
my appointment to the staff of the Geolovical Survey of Great

18 PROF. E. HULL, ON GENEVA AND CHAMOUNIX

Britain, and having scraped together sufficient funds, which
with great self-denial were sufficient to carry me through my
journey—that I left England for Switzerland. I crossed over
to Paris, where I stayed only one night, and next day took the
train for Dole, beyond which the railway did not then extend.
Arriving at Dole by midnight, I left the train and presented
myself at the office of the diligence demanding a seat for
Geneva. What was my consternation when I was informed
that the coach was “full up,” as all the seats had been booked
beforehand in Paris! I was told that I must wait for the
coach next day; but might not that coach be just as full as the
one about to start? In this dilemma I appealed to the con-
ductor to get me through somehow, and he agreed for the sum

of 20 francs, and at the risk of dismissal if discovered, to make
me a den on the coach top amidst the luggage, where I could
he covered over by the tarpaulin, but open in “front.

First view of the Alps—To this proposal I had to assent, ina
in this position I made the journey to Geneva, of about nine or
ten hours, as part of the baggage. I need hardly say the
position was not quite as comfortable as that of a first-class
compartment of a railway train at the present day !

But I was not without a reward which is denied to persons
so travelling to-day. After crossing several beautiful hills and
valleys of the Jura range, we at length came to a point in the
road where all the passengers were allowed to descend and
remain for some minutes. It was the summit of a ridge from
which the road commenced to descend into the great Valley of
Geneva. From this point the view commanded the valley and
the Lake of Geneva stretching from end to end; beyond which
was seen the range of the Alps rising in three successive tiers,
First, that of the forests, green with verdure. Above this
extended the dark band consisting of naked rock, contrasting
with that of the forest below and with that of the snows above;
and surmounting this region was that of the snowy Alps, its
lower limit clearly marked off as seen from my point of vantage,
and rising high into the pure vault of heaven; so pure and
ethereal as to give the idea that it was a celestial vision rather
than as part of the terrestrial world ; and finally, rising from the
centre was the white dome of Mont Blane, the highest point of
Europe. This magnificent range of mountain scenery stretched
from end to end a distance of over fifty miles.

This first view of the High Alps has remained impressed on
my memory ever since, and ‘for the time the discomforts of my
journey were forgotten. Needless to say, the view is now

HALF A CENTURY AGO AND TO-DAY. 19

seldom seen by travellers, as the coach has given place to the
railway, from which only shght glimpses of the High Alps are
to be obtained.

First visit to the Mer de Glace-—Arriving at the beautiful city
of Geneva, I did not remain there more than two or three days.
My goal was the Mer de Glace and Chamounix, and to that I
pushed on by diligence. At that time there was no railway ;
it is otherwise now, and after a long day’s journey I found
myself in the little village at the foot of Mont Blanc. Next
day I ascended the pine-clad slopes to the chalet of Montanvert,
and at length stood on the edge of the great glacier. A
wonderful and beauteous sea of ice, fissured by crevasses, and
bounded by lofty cliffs terminating often in sharp peaks, and
lying at their feet were huge moraines of broken rock and débris
fallen from the cliffs above. It was a weird and awful sight, as no
living creature was visible from where I stood. But I was not
alone. I sat down on a boulder to eat the little store of biscuits
and fruit I had brought with me, and presently I was joined by
a noble hound—possibly a St. Bernard—who made up to my
side in a friendly way, and I returned his civility by sharing
with him my lunch. How he came to be there or whence he
came I never discovered, but he remained with me for the rest
of the day, and having accompanied me down to Chamounix in
the evening he then disappeared, doubtless satisfied with having
fulfilled his friendly office of guide, companion, and protector.

Second visit to Chamounix and the Mer de Glace, 1908.—
Having now finished the narrative of my first visit, I proceed
to make some observations on the Mer de Glace of to-day, in
order to illustrate the changes which have occurred within the
past half century. Chamounix itself has greatly changed.
Instead of a hamlet in the upper Rhone valley with, perhaps,
two or three hotels, it is now a good sized town with numerous
hotels, and shops exhibiting photographs of the scenery around,
some of the coloured ones being remarkable examples of high
art. A handsome English church raises its spire in the centre
of the town, and was well filled by a congregation on the
Sunday I was there. Instead of the toilsome climb of about
3,000 feet to Montanvert,* a newly-opened narrow gauge
railway, worked by steam locomotives, ascends by a winding

* The “ Hotel d’Angleterre” at Chamounix, at which I stayed, has an
elevation of 1,000 métres (3,280 feet) above the level of the sea, and lies at
the base of Mont Blanc, the summit of which is conspicuous from the
front of the building.

20 PROF. E. HULL, ON GENEVA AND CHAMOUNIX

path through the forest of pines which clothes the side of the
mountain; and as several trains ascend and descend during the
day, one may see from below two trains slowly wending their
way, one far above the other on the side of the mountain, either
in the same or opposite direction. The upper end of the line
approaching Montanvert is still incomplete, and will scarcely
be ready for another year; so the traveller has to climb some
distance on foot in order to reach the platform on which is built
the huge, unsightly hotel of Montanvert, from which, however,
a fine view of the Mer de Glace in the valley below is
obtained.*

The Mer de Glace as seen to-day.—On coming in sight of the
Mer de Glace from my commanding position, which included
the whole of the central portion from the base of Takul down-
wards almost to the extremity of the glacier, I was surprised
and not a little disconcerted by its aspect.— As compared with
its appearance on my first visit (judging, of course, from
memory) the whole mass of the glacier seemed to have shrunk
in volume, and its surface to be defaced by a promiscuous
covering of dust, gravel and boulders, causing it to appear very
different from the generally clear and clean surface of the ice,
with a well-defined central moraine of large blocks of granite
ranging down from the cliffs of Takul above. This shrinkage
was very perceptible along the sides of the glacier, where the
edge of the ice had shrunk away from the lateral moraines
which marked its former limits. The lower end of the glacier
seemed also to have receded to a higher level than that at
which it stood at my first visit, when it stretched farther
downwards towards the Arveiron Valley. The result of all
this was disappointment, not entirely dissipated by the spectacle
of hundreds of visitors scrambling over the ice, in contrast to
the solitude which attended my first visit. Aware, however,
that appearances are sometimes deceptive, I resolved to make
further enquiry on my return to Chamounix regarding the
supposed shrinkage of the Mer de Glace.

Visit to Mons. J. Vallot—On returning to Chamounix I was.
advised to consult Mons. J. Vallot, the Director of the observa-
tory of Mont Blanc, and on my calling at his house a day or two

* Here a flat slab of porcelain has been set up by the Club Alpin
Francais, on which is engraved, Altitude 1,909 métres, lat. N. 51° 03’ 72”
long. E. 5° 09/.

+ Takul is the name given to the lofty clitfs which rise from the glacier
al the point where the two arms of the Mer de Glace unite (see fig. p. 22).

HALF A CENTURY AGO AND TO-DAY. 23

after, I was most kindly received, and furnished with details.
extending over twenty-five years of observation, which com--
pletely verified my conclusions regarding the shrinkage, not.
only of the Mer de Glace, but of all the glaciers of the Alps of
Savoy.
ene J. Vallot’s observations of the rate of motion of the rce of
the Mer de Glace—This may be the place to give some account
of the results arrived at by this authority from his observations.
conducted systematically for several years regarding the.
movement of the ice of the Mer de Glace.* These observations:
were conducted between the years 1891 and 1899 in an
elaborate manner by using the blocks of rock lying on the
surface of the ice or placed in position. Taking a straight line
across from side to side at four stations in the following order—
No. 1, Echelets, the highest of the stations,

,, 2, Montanvert, about 1,000 metres lower,

, 2, Mauvais-Pas, next lower down,

, 4, Chapeau, near the lower end,
M. Vallot selected, or placed in position, a line of stones on
which to paint the numbers 1, 2, 3, etc., from side to side; and
by visiting the glacier from time to time, and measuring the
positions of each stone as it had advanced from the starting
point marked on the plan, he was able to determine its rate of
motion downwards and its relative rate as regards those of its
neighbours. This laborious process was somewhat different
from that adopted by Professor James Forbes with the
assistance of his able assistant, Auguste Balmat, many years
previously. But the same general result regarding the rate of
motion of the glacier was arrived at in both cases; that is to.
say, the motion is similar to that of a river flowing down its
bed, which is most rapid at the centre and least at the sides.ft
Mons. Vallot holds that the difference in the rate of movement
’ at different points is caused by the difference in the form of
the bed of the glacier, also its breadth, depth and its inclination.
This is considerable when it was found that between two points
one kilometre{ distant from each other, namely, between
Mauvais-Pas and Chapeau, the rate varied from 34:2 to 43:4
métres during the year 1893. The following table gives the
results of the observations during nine years :—

* Annales de L’ Observatoire Météorologique du Mont Blanc. By J. Vallot,.
tomes iv, v (Paris, 1900).

+t Similar results were arrived at by Agassiz from observations on the
Unteraar Glacier.

t 1,093°6 yards.

22 PROF. E. HULL, ON GENEVA AND CHAMOUNIX

pe
PLAN
Trélaporte of the
| Couvercle MER - DE-GLACE
CHAMOUNIX
ne yes’ » Hotel.
Scale 000 won
| 000 =$00 = =0 500 000 ee
®
BS
JSource
of the Arvetron

(From a plate by Mons, Vallot.)

HALF A CENTURY AGO AND TO-DAY. 23

Rate of motion of the Mer de Glace.
(Speed in centimetres. )

EcnEvets. | MonTANVERT. | Mavvals-PaAs. CHAPEAU.

Years, |———_——_— ae
Rate. | Slope.} Rate. | Slope. | Rate. | Slope. | Rate. | Slope.

p |

1891-2 390 | 62 44°0 11°5 36°0 8°4 — —

1892-3 39°3 ahs) 44°] 15°1 35°5 12°4 — —

1893-4 | 381 2°7 406 | 145 342 14°6 | 43°4 50

1894-5 | 340 8°5 32°9 15°2 30°7 10°8 — —

1895-6 | 317 | 10°0 28°9 10°7 30°8 38°7 — —

1896-7 | 32°6 | 10°8 cae a (ram ay 30°8 38°7 — —

1897-8 | 33°55 | 7:3 ot al 11°6 31°0 39°6 — —

1898-9 ae | 72 | 263 | 10-2 = — | — | —

Amongst other results arrived at by this observer were that the
rate of motion of the ice is greatest in summer and least in
winter. ‘Tis is true of all the Alpine glaciers, and has been
determined by Streenstrap even regarding the ice of Greenland.

Observations on the “ablation” of the Mer de Glace—Mons.
Vallot has also contributed an interesting “note” to the French
Academy on the “ablation” or lowering of the surface of the
Mer de Glace during two definite periods, namely, 15 and 57
years, at stages given in the above table :—

(The figures are given in métres.)*

Thus at Echelets, the highest of these stages, the lowering of
the surface has been in 15 years 36°08 feet, and in 57 years
177-12 feet; while at Chapeau, the lowest of the stages, the fall

* Dated June 22nd, 1908; the figures are in métres

24 PROF. E. HULL, ON GENEVA AND CHAMOUNIX

has been in 13 years 96°76 and in 57 years 242°72 feet. These
are the alterations of level since 1850 within the memory of
the present inhabitants. But Mons. Vallot goes a step farther
back and compares the present levels with those of the period
of maximum high level of the Glacial period, showing enormous
shrinkage since that epoch. He has observed the glaciated
rocks at the foot of the Aiguille du Dru and at the head of
Trélaporte; positions higher up than those above-named on the
side of the Mer de Glace. There can be no doubt the ice
reached these glaciated rocks, and has left its well-recognized
marks and polished surface, and these he finds to be 400 métres
(1,312 feet) higher than the actual moraines now at the base of
the cliffs. At this altitude the glacier has left no lateral
moraines analogous to those of the present day, and he con-
eludes that the Glacial Epoch does not present so long a period
of equilibrium as is generally supposed. He infers, on the
contrary, that the rise and fall of the ice was comparatively
rapid, not allowing time for the formation of a lateral moraine,
which can only be accumulated during a prolonged period of
tranquillity.

On the above facts M. Vallot remarks :—‘ When we consider
that the life of a man has sufficed to see the ablation of
50 metres of a glacier (that is to say, of one-eighth of the total
thickness of 400 métres) disappear since the Glacial Epoch,
one asks if all that has been said regarding the length of that
period has not been considerably exaggerated?” But here 1
would observe that we must recollect that whatever the length
of that period may have been it was sufficient to allow of the
bed of the Atlantic Ocean being raised to a height of over
6,000 feet above its present level, and the extension of the
continental river valleys to that depth below the present
surface, and the subsequent subsidence of the sea-bed to about
its existing level.*

Visit TO THE GLACIER DES Bossons.—My next visit was to
the Glacier des Bossons, which descends from the snows of
Mont Blane and is easily visible from Chamounix. Its valley
is clothed in forests of pine, and its lower end disappears beneath
the trees, leading one to suppose that it is easily accessible on

* This is on the assumption that the cold of the Glacial Period has
been brought about by physical changes such as the elevation of the sea-bed,
and adjoining continents, and the consequent diversion of the Gulf
Stream, all of which I have endeavoured to show took place in my
essiy, “ Another possible cause of the Glacial Epoch.” Z'rans. Victoria
Institute, vol. xxxi, p. 141 (1805).

HALF A CENTURY AGO AND TO-DAY. 25

foot from the Clamounix valley, a supposition which is dissipated
on trial. There is, in fact, a stiff climb of about 2,000 feet in
order to reach the Chalet, where a good view of the glacier is
obtained together with needful rest and refreshment. I
will not stop to describe this glacier further than to observe
that a brief survey of its lateral moraine shows that the ice has
here retreated to a considerable extent (perhaps 200 feet) from
its former level. Along the top of the moraine large boulders
are perched, ready to fall from the shghtest movement. These
were left when the ice reached that level; but the moraine
itself is bare and destitute of vegetation, which apparently has
not had time to grow upon its surface since the ice retreated ;
evidence of the recenticity of the shrinkage. On descending
towards the valley of the Arve we passed some huge blocks of
granite, left by the glacier when it reached far below its present
limits. Some of these must have weighed 100 tons, and are
being quarried for building.

Remarkable appearance of Mont Blanc, August 17th, 1908.—
Mont Blanc wnder the setting swn.—When approaching
Chamounix the day of our arrival we were favoured by a
scene of wondrous beauty which ought not to pass unrecorded.
The train was passing about sunset along the Valley of the
thone bounded on either hand by mountainous heights, when
someone exclaimed, “Look at Mont Blanc!” and casting our
eyes upwards in the direction indicated we beheld a scene
never to be forgotten. The great mountain dome, with some
of the adjoining heights and bordering snowfields, seemed to
have been converted into a mass of burnished gold, owing to
the declining rays of the setting sun which were flooding the
heights with their light, but were quite out of sight to us, being
intercepted by the intervening heights. This gorgeous scene
was fortunately visible from the railway for several minutes,
so that we had time to realize its supreme beauty, which words
fail to describe. The white fields of snow lit up by the setting
sun reflected in all their rich beauty their own resplendent
colouring. It was a rare coincidence—the splendour of the
sunset, the reflection from the snows, and our own position as
observers !

Geneva revisited, 1908.—We may now go back to Geneva,
and note the changes which have taken place in this celebrated
city within the last half-century. They have been indeed
remarkable. At the time of my first visit to the city of Calvin
there were no railways, nor, if I recollect, steamboats on its
great lake, the only ships being the pretty double-winged

26 PROF. E. HULL, ON GENEVA AND CHAMOUNIX

sailing boats; no tram lines through the streets, no turbines
for supplying the inhabitants with water and with power for
driving tramears and turning machinery.

Now all is changed except the splendid scenery of the
landscape viewed from the banks of Lake Leman, some fine
hotels and houses with the cathedral, occupying a commanding
position in the upper part of the town. On visiting this church,
severely plain and destitute of R.C. decoration, I was startled
by seeing the name of John Knox conspicuously posted on a
slab in the wall, reminding the visitor that the Scotch
Reformer had during those stormy times visited Geneva, and
occupied for a while Calvin’s pulpit; and in memory of this
brotherly visit a very beautiful annex called “the Macchabees ”
has been erected on the south side, where Presbyterians
meet to worship on the Sabbath, according to a ritual closely
resembling, if not identical with, that of the Church of Scotland
at the present day. “Calvin’s Chair,” of plain hard oak, stands
beneath the elaborately carved pulpit, which replaces the
original one of the sixteenth century. The chair is regarded
with veneration as a monument of the Reformer. What times
of religious fervour were those when the images and ornaments
of the Roman worship were pulled down and destroyed, and
the bishops and priests were given the choice of accepting the
Protestant faith or of auitting their sanctuary for an asylum
in France or Italy. In these days of “ passive resistance” it 1s
difficult to picture to ourselves the perfervid religious convictions
by which Switzerland was swayed from end to end, and which
resulted in bringing over to the Protestant faith the cities ot
Geneva, Lausanne, Zurich, Basle and Berne. But Lucerne and
the seven Forest Cantons retained their attachment to the
papacy—after a severe struggle between their opposing forces
and those of Berne.

The great turbine installation of the Rhone—When at my
first visit I stood by the banks of the Rhone below Geneva,
there was probably nothing to intercept the course of the stream
as it issued forth from the lake; a pure, ever-flowing sheet of
water, which had entered at the upper end of the lake brown
and turgid with glacier mud. This mud had subsided in the
still waters, and has within the Christian era added an extensive
tract of flat alluvial soil as shown by the remains of a Roman
fort which once stood on the banks of the lake about a mile
above the present margin in the valley of the upper Rhone
above Villeneuve. Now, however, half the volume of the river
is utilized for turning a grand installation of powerful

HALF A CENTURY AGO AND TO-DAY. Ay

machinery in the form of turbines, twenty in number, and each
1,000 h.p., by which the city is supphed with water, electric
light and motive power, all in almost unlimited quantity.

There had existed since the year 1837 successive attempts
to utilize the waters of the Lower Rhone, but from various
causes they were insufficient to supply the demands of an
increasing population and prosperous community. But at length,
in 1882, a concession was granted by the city of Geneva to the
enterprising engineers, MM. Merle d’Aubigny and Turretini, to
construct the present powerful works. These turbines were
specially designed for the works at Geneva, and were manu-
factured at Zurich, the great centre of mechanical appliances in
Switzerland, by the firm of MM. Escher, Wyss and Co. The
force thus obtained operates a proportionate number of
powerful dynamos, and is distributed for industrial motive
power, as also for lighting and for water supply by centrifugal
pumps capable of throwing the water to a height of about
270 feet in the air above the surface of the lake. The total
cost of these works to December, 1905, reached 9,964,728 francs
(nearly £400,000), a very large sum for a population of about
106,000 souls; but having been once carried out is almost
automatic, and is certainly inexpensive to keep going. Nature
has given compensation to Switzerland for the absence of coal.
Coal-fields are exhaustible, but the supply of water from the
snowfields can never fail as long as the present order of nature
lasts. ‘

Junction of the Rhone and Arve.—A convenient causeway has
been constructed by which the visitor is enabled to stand just
over the spot where the pure waters of the Rhone, issuing from
the Lake of Geneva, come in contact with the turgid waters of
the Arve—a most impressive sight! Between lofty banks of
stratified eravel, once the bed of a vast lake of post-Glacial
times, these two fine streams move majestically onwards; yet
do not their waters commingle. They run side by side for a long
distance ; but the level of those of the Rhone being somewhat
higher than those of the Arve, and their force and velocity
greater, the Rhone gradually pushes the Arve towards the
opposite bank, and gains the mastery. The difference of level
above the junction is shown by the fact that at several places
the somewhat open material of which the causeway is formed
allows the water of the Rhone to percolate underneath and
invade that of the Arve. May we not in this case of the rivers
find an illustration of the two great principles which govern
mankind and which Scripture clearly unfolds to us, for instance,

28 PROF. E. HULL, ON GENEVA AND CHAMOUNIX

in the parable of the wheat and the tares, the principles of good
and evil? Like the waters of the Rhone and the Arve they
move along side by side, but they refuse to commingle. They
are, in fact, constantly at war, each striving for the mastery ;
but the forces of good and that “make for righteousness ” are
gaining on those of evil through the spread of Christian hght
throughout the world, and as we believe will ultimately prevail,
when the “ knowledge of the glory of the Lord will cover the
earth as the waters do the sea.”

Literary coincidence between the English and Swiss “ Lake
Districts.” —It is a somewhat curious coincidence that the City
and Lake of Geneva has, like the Lake District of England,
been the favourite residence of distinguished men of letters.
Naturally, men of high intellectual capacity congregate where
the beauties of the landscape, the mountains, the lakes and the
fruitful vales tend to tranquillize their minds and inspire them
with poetic imagery; and in following up this thought the
names which suggest themselves at once for the English Lakes
are those of Wordsworth, Southey, Ruskin, Harriet Martineau
and De Quincey, and for those of Geneva, Calvin, Farel, Beza,
Voltaire, Rousseau, Necker, Charpentier, De Sausseur, Agassiz,
Gibbon, D’Aubigny and others: names which for good or for
evil have left their memory for all time. Calvin’s greatest
work, Christiane Religions Institutio, “which has shed
undying lustre on his name,” though issued in Basel (1585) is
associated with Geneva, and to the Academy founded by Calvin
in 1559 learned French, Italian, German and English emigrants
flocked and rendered the city illustrious for learning. Amongst
the English we find the names of Spencer, Coxe, Chambers,
Bishop Hooper and other divines.*

Geneva as an asylum for persecuted Reformers—Geneva has
had the honour of offering an asylum to the persecuted

Zeformers of France and other countries during the troublous
period of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when in the
time of Cromwell, the Duke of Savoy, at the instigation of the
Pope, endeavoured to exterminate the Vaudois of the High
Alps, which called forth the lines of Milton :—

“ Avenge, O Lord, thy martyred saints,

Whose bones lie scattered on the Alpine mountains cold.”
and caused the Lord Protector to threaten the Duke of Savoy
with his vengeance, by “sending his ships across the Alps”

* [istory of the Nations, supra cit., p. 287.

HALF A CENTURY AGO AND TO-DAY. 29

unless he withdrew his hand, which he, the Duke, did! And
the next important occasion was the massacre of St. Bar-
tholomew’s Day in 1572, when thousands of Protestants were
ruthlessly murdered in cold blood or had to fly for their lives
into Geneva, Zurich and other friendly Swiss towns on the one
hand, or to England and Ireland on the other. We are fortunate
in now having the details of this foul tragedy laid bare by the
researches of a Roman Catholic historian of undisputed eminence.
I refer to Lord Acton, late Professor of History to the
University of Cambridge,* because I learn there are persons so
ashamed of this event that they are inclined to deny that it
ever happened; and from the efforts (related by Lord Acton)
which were made by the Catholic writers of France to destroy
all documents relating to this event, it is clear that they would
have gladly blotted out that record from the page of history.
The destruction of a million of France’s most God-fearing and
industrious inhabitants was a loss she has never recovered, and
a gain to those countries who opened their doors to the refugees.
Ktetribution was sure to follow, and has followed. Through
Zwingli’s efforts Switzerland extended the drow d’asile to all,
and she henceforth followed out her mission as a neutral power.
It is the protection so freely given to refugees by Geneva,
Zurich, and other Swiss cities that brightens the history of the
gloomy reaction period towards the close of the sixteenth
ceutury after the death of Calvin, and durmg the Marian
persecution refugees from England found a friendly asylum in
these prosperous cities.

Such were the scenes and impressions which presented
themselves during my visit to Switzerland a few weeks since,
and about half a century previously. I have not included the
beautiful City of Lausanne, which was the point of arrival and
departure for our tour; nor the Hotel Gibbon, where the
historian is said to have composed his great history of the
Decline and Fall of the Roman Hmpire, a work which is in
itself a library of information regarding the times to which it
refers—to have done so would have unduly extended this paper.

* “The Massacre of St. Bartholomew,” in The History of Freedom, by
Lord Acton (1907), MacMillan and Co. The Pope Gregory XIII. on
hearing of the massacre, exclaimed “that it was more agreeable to him
than fifty victories of Lepanto, and with his cardinals attended a 7'e
Deum in the nearest church in Rome,” p. 133-4.

+ An admirable account of these times will be found in the volume
“Switzerland” of The Story of the Nations, by Lina Hug and Richard
Stead (Fisher Unwin, 1890). Also, in 7 "he Hus quenots, by S. Smiles
(John Murray, 1869).

30 PROF. E. HULL, ON GENEVA AND CHAMOUNIX

DISCUSSION.

The CHAIRMAN, in expressing the pleasure with which he and all
those present had had in listening to Professor Hull’s interesting
paper, said that his recollections went back a great deal further even
than those of the reader of the paper. In his opinion the modern
traveller by railway sustained an enormous loss in missing the view
obtained by the old traveller by diligence from the crest of the Jura
at such a place as the Col de la Faucile.

Mr. W. H. HuDLEsTon, F.R.S., said that the paper was extremely
interesting to him, not only because it was in accordance with his
own views, but also because it served to remind him of his
experiences in Switzerland, which coincided to the very year with
these of the author.

Now it so happened that he (the speaker) towards the end of
January, 1852, arrived at Geneva in the banquette of a diligence
(summé diligentid, as they used to say in those days), but clouds and
darkness had prevented him from enjoying that famous view-
Nevertheless, as he was spending the remainder of the winter at
Geneva, there were plenty of opportunities, and he chose one bright
frosty day for the ascent of the Col de la Faucile. Surely there is
no grander view in Europe. From the snowy foreground of the
Jura you look down upon the broad vale of Switzerland with its
cities and villages, and above all, its glorious lake, the whole bounded
on the opposite side by the still more snowy ranges of the Alps, ever
increasing in height until they culminate in the chain of Mont
Blanc. Professor Hull had estimated the extent of this view at
50 miles, but he (the speaker) thought that it might possibly be
even longer. The only view which could compare with this one is
the view from the heights above Baramula, looking across the Vale
of Kashmer, with the Wular lake in the middle towards the chain
of the central Himalayas. ‘There is considerable analogy between
these two celebrated views, and he thought that the Alpine one
would lose nothing by comparison with the Himalayan.

He was much interested in the contrast drawn by Professor Hull
between the Geneva of to-day and the Geneva of fifty or sixty years
ago. From an esthetic point of view the change was by no means
an advantage. In the early fifties Geneva was a very picturesque
old town, symmetrical, and for the most part within its fortifications.

HALF A CENTURY AGO AND TO-DAY. - oA 3

These, no doubt, were out of date in a military sense, but added
much to the picturesqueness of a compact town, which, as yet, was
innocent of tramlines and disfiguring suburbs. Unfortunately,
most of the large continental towns had outgrown their pristine
symmetry, and presented, nowadays, a somewhat formless mass of
buildings—useful, no doubt, but many of them very ugly. The
once beautiful city of Naples was a case in point. The great
turbine installation of the Rhone, on the other hand, is a real
improvement. As regards the junction of the Rhone and the
Arve, if Professor Hull had gone a few miles further down he
would have found that this union of waters serves to illustrate
the saying ‘that evil communications corrupt manners,” since the
mixture ultimately becomes turbid and not unlike green pea soup.
As regards the extension of railway accommodation to Chamounix,
no doubt the modern traveller might obtain some increase of
comfort, but he would miss many fine points in the valley of the
Arve, and especially that magnificent bend of the river in the
neighbourhood of the Pont Pélissier, which exceeds in beauty
anything to be seen at Chamounix itself. The Savoyards had been
somewhat behind the Swiss in constructing Alpine railways, but
in order to make up for lost time there had been a talk of
a railway up Mont Blanc itself, of which the line to the
Montanvert might be regarded as a very small instalment.
When we come to regard the scientific aspects of the paper, we
are presented with facts of great interest and value, more especially
in respect of the shrinkage of the Mer de Glace. From the
observations of Mons. Vallot it would appear that the actual
ablation amounts to a little short of 200 feet in fifty-seven years
at the Montanvert, where the glacier admits of very accurate
measurements, as it there runs in a deep rock channel. The
shrinkage of the Glacier des Bossons can only be inferred from
the present position of the terminal ice with reference to its
moraine. It would, however, be somewhat out of place to attempt
any comparison with the Glacial Period, when all the valleys were
completely filled with ice, and even the great vale of Switzerland so
full that the granite of the Alps was deposited on the limestones of
the Jura. Rather it would appear that the changes indicated by
the shrinkage of the Mer de Glace and other Alpine glaciers may be
regarded as forming part of an alternate rise and fall which has

oe PROF. E. HULL, ON GENEVA AND CHAMOUNIX

been going on for several centuries. Numerous writers have
testified to the remarkable desiccation which has been going on
of late in Central Asia, yet it appears from historic records that
there were times when the reverse was the case. Nevertheless, on
the whole, it does seem that a dry period has set in throughout
these regions, and this has affected the glaciers in the Himalayas to
a certain extent. The Geological Survey of India has lately been
engaged in a preliminary survey, and it has been found that, while
the glaciers of the Karakorum ranges give somewhat varying results,
those of the Ganges basin in Kumade show very decided signs of
shrinkage. If we are inclined, as regards Switzerland, to speculate
on the causes which produce this apparent rise and fall the question
becomes one of meteorology. We may believe there has been
a deficient rainfall in the Alps during the last sixty years, or,
secondly, that there has been a slight increase in temperature,
especially in summer. It is for the meteorologists of Geneva and
elsewhere to help us to solve this problem.

Some notes contributed by Professor Roget of Geneva were then
read by the SECRETARY: these notes are printed at the end of the
discussion.

Professor ORCHARD remarked that probably many present had
little idea when they came to the meeting how very interesting the
subject of geology can be made when treated in the way in which it
had been treated that afternoon. In this connection the name of
W. H. Hudleston should be coupled with that of Professor Hull in
their vote of thanks.

After the discussion a series of lantern slides was exhibited, in
illustration of the paper.

The meeting terminated with votes of thanks to Professor Hull,
the reader of the paper and to the Chairman, General J. G.
Halliday.

NOTES ON THE PAPER BY PROFESSOR ROGET OF
| GENEVA.

Page 17. It is very difficult to connect with any particular name
the first correct notions or experiments upon the motion of glacier
ice. At the village of Bagnes or Chables, in canton Valars, may be
seen a memorial tablet claiming for one Perraudin the originality of

HALF A CENTURY AGO AND TO-DAY. 33

the experiments, observations and analysis thereof later attributed to
Charpentier, Agassiz, Tyndall, ete.

' Page 20. The quick relative or comparative shrinkage of the Mer
de Glace and other glaciers is an effect of the comparatively greater
mass and volume of the Mont Blane range. The inner temperature
of a mountain or mountain-group grows in some proportion to its mass
and volume. So general causes of shrinkage must tell most upon
the Mont Blanc range, the factor of greater internal heat being
super-added. The principal cause of shrinkage is the increasing
dryness of the atmosphere consequent upon 300 years of general
Alpine deforestation. An air loaded with moisture deposits its
moisture in the shape of ice crystals and prisms upon any surface
the temperature of which is under freezing point, and if those
surfaces are conveniently situated to preserve those icicles which are
atmosphere-born and grow day by day to be acral reefs, the found-
ation is laid for a glacier.

Page 21. Glaciers move at a quicker rate along their centre-line
because the ice along this line is pressed down by lateral pressure, the
result of the gravity of side masses, and of the resistance of the
rock-bed which these masses cannot press back outwardly, ice being
an elastic body.

Page 22. I connect with this page, which contains a most
instructive sketch of the Mer de Glace, a description of the influence
of vegetation and climate upon the growth and the shrinkage of
glacier-areas, in the Alps only.

The species of pine, popularly called the avolle, has given its name
to the famous Alpine resort, Arolla. This tree is now almost
extinct and the few remaining forests of arolles are as much as
possible protected against destruction. At one time these forests
extended over extremely vast mountain areas, and if their remains
are now so difficult to preserve, it is simply because they have
exhausted the soil of the Alps, so far as nourishment suited for that
type of pine is concerned.

The arolle forest has a luxuriant undergrowth; thick and tall
mosses cover a damp and thick layer of soil. There are many
shrubs growing out of that moss in thick tangled masses, and the
general moisture is such that peaty and marshy patches are most
frequent. In prehistoric times—and these practically reach, for
Switzerland, down to the days of Julius Cesar—the Swiss climate
was characteristically damp and warm ; if only a fraction of a degree,
on an average, damper and warmer than nowadays. The forest
belt extended from lake and river banks to the height of from six
to seven thousand feet upon the Alpine slopes. It constituted, in
its protected subsoil, in its mosses, marshes and shrub tangle, in
its continuous tree growth, a vast and ever refilled reservoir of rain
and snow water. Vapours and fog rose from it in much larger
quantities than at present. During the long periods of wind-

34. PROF. E. HULL, ON GENEVA AND CHAMOUNIX

stillness which characterize the Alpine climate in winter to the
present day, these fogs rested upon the belt of everlasting snow
above the forest line, fed it, kept it much broader than it is now,
and brought it down much nearer to the forest edge. The quantity
of snow-ice thus accumulated during those distant ages was bound
to diminish in a ratio proportionate to the reduction of the ancient
forest area. What produces glacier-ice is an accumulation of
moisture in an atmosphere which is below freezing-point.

Page 23. Glaciers move at a quicker rate in summer because
their reaches are then more uniformly subjected to a temperature
above freezing-point of the air. That increase of speed appears to
be in exact proportion to the shrinkage, and corresponds to a release
from pressure all over the mass, a consequence of the melting
process (both static and mechanical), non-existent in winter. Any
deep sub-glacial melting which may take place in winter is im-
mediately cancelled, as a mechanical agent, by re-freezing on
reaching the air. 7

Page 24. Leaving aside the universal geological agents, it is clear
that the shrinkage and growth of glaciers in the Alps is partly the
result of man’s interference with nature. The observations of
M. Vallot, as to the probable speed of glacier shrinkage within
historical times, have, for a complement, similar conclusions as to
the rapidity of glacier growth. In illustration of this oscillation
we have the local tradition, for instance, as to the Theodul pass
from Zermatt into Italy. The people say it was open to horse
traffic 1,300 years ago. That it had long ceased to be thus open
was so evident that the contrary statement became incredible.
But, this year, the pendulum has so far swung back, that mules
have been led across the iced watershed with success.

I assign that swinging of the pendulum entirely to the action of
man. The Alps entered within the area of civilization in the
times of Julius Cesar, 58 B.c. Switzerland was then, from times
immemorial, a forest land. A process of systematic deforestation
began and developed during 500 years.

The climate, from a comparatively damp climate, became
a comparatively dry climate, and as the process progressed, its
ratio of effectiveness grew naturally at a much quicker pace. The
glacier world shrank enormously, and Italy was laid open to the
incursions of northerners. ‘These northerners destroyed civilization
in the Alps and elsewhere, as we all know (from the Channel, from
the Danube, from the Rhine, to the Mediterranean). From A.D. 500
to A.D. 800 or 900, an enormous spontaneous re-afforestation of the
Alps took place, in the absence of man, in the absence of all commerce
and industry. The glacier world re-gained the lost ground, and
most of the passes were closed up again. The economic history of
the Swiss people makes its influence felt next.

From the fifteenth century, they drove back, unceasingly, the

HALF A CENTURY AGO AND TO-DAY. 30

forest. The process is now so complete that artificial re-afforestation
has become usual. The glacier world, too, has been driven back
with the forest to within its limits in the latter centuries of the
Roman Empire.

It is quite possible that the Aletsch glacier has not yet shrunk
back to its size in the Roman days. There is no reason to deny
that at one time the cattle which now cross it on the ice may have
passed through a continuous forest from one side of the valley to
the other.

REPLY BY THE AUTHOR.

The communications by Mr. Hudleston and Professor Roget form
a valuable addition to my paper. I quite agree with the former,
that the shrinkage of the glaciers is mainly due to meteorological
causes, and these, again, to disafforesting of the mountain slopes.
When the surface of the ground has been deprived of the protection
of trees, the radiation of heat tends to disperse the clouds and
reduce the rainfall; on the other hand the same process causes the
rain to flow down rapidly and suddenly to raise the rivers; and it
is owing to this cause that in recent times the rivers descending
from the Alps have caused inundations of the plains of Northern
Italy.

I cannot agree with Professor Roget in his explanation of the
differential movement of the central portion of the glacier as
compared with that of its sides. The true explanation is, as it
seems to me, that like a river flowing along its bed—the friction
of the sides of the glacier againstits basin retards the motion,
whereas along the centre this retarding agency is absent, and the
ice drags away from its sides, causing the crevasses to run upwards
this is generally recognized.

*489rH ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.
MONDAY, JANUARY 4rn, 1909.

D. Howard, Esq.; DL. BES. BEC. (VICE-PRESIDENT),
IN THE CHAIR.

The Minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed.

J. W. Thirtle, Esq., LL.D., M.R.A.S., was elected a Member, and
W. Dale, Esq., F.S.A.. F.G.S., Andrew P. Derr, Esq., M.A., The Rev.
Professor Heckler, Miss A. E. Hemming, John Schwartz, Esq., Junr.,
The Rev. R. C. Turner, M.A., A. C. Turner, Esq., M.A., Trinity
College, Cambridge, were elected Associates of the Institute.

The following paper was then read by the author :—

A COUNTRY TOWN OF LYCAONTIA. A Description of the
Conditions of Christian Infe under the Hastern Enupire.
By Professor Sir WiutuiamM M. Ramsay, F.RS., D.C.L.
Aberdeen University.

Y subject is an attempt to set before you some slight
Je picture of the main facts in the life of a country town
in the centre of Anatola in the province called in ancient time
Lycaonia, during the Byzantine Empire. Now we read a great
deal in books, in ancient history, and in the history of the
Church about that period, but historians concern themselves
chiefly with great men, the great religious leaders, generals, and
statesmen; with the rarest exceptions we find nothing
whatsoever with regard to the practical facts of life among
the common people in that country during the period when
these great men were living and working. There is some
literary material, which has still to be collected, with regard to
the life of that period in the private letters of Basil and other
great men, which give a great deal of material for the facts of
ordinary life. The ordinary people made it possible for
Churchmen to exercise their leading power, for generals to have
armies to conduct to victory or defeat; and without the
knowledge of their common life, a knowledge of history becomes

* Held in the House of the Royal Society of Arts.

A COUNTRY TOWN OF LYCAONIA. 37

one-sided and misleading in the highest degree. We want
therefore to know something of the common people, the way
they live, their surroundings, their views of life, and how far
they were affected by the great Church leaders, generals and
statesmen.

The question may be asked with regard to the Byzantine
Empire; Is it worth while to take up our time in making out
some picture of a period rightly regarded as a period of decay
in the history of the world? There is no doubt that Gibbons’
title, Zhe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire, is correct.
The fall was in great measure due to the pressure of what was
going on in the Byzantine Empire, that is in Eastern Europe and
Western Asia. Two remarks will bring out the importance of
life in the Byzantine Empire.

In the first place it was the poimt of contact of the East
and West. Now at the point of contact of East and West has
always lain the central point in the movement of the world.
Sometimes this point seems to lose its importance, and the
centre of movement seems to shift to Europe, or even America,
This, however, is only for a time, and we always come back to
the inter-relation between Asia and Europe; Europe being
taken to designate the whole West and to include America.
The Mediterranean Sea was the centre round which the main
forces of civilisation inter-acted with one another, and now for
a time in the Atlantic Ocean is the point around which all the
forces are moving. So in a comparatively near future, though
probably none of us will live to see it, the Pacifie Ocean may
be the theatre across which the most important forces in the
development of the world will act upon one another. Now, the
fact that the Byzantine Empire was for many centuries the
theatre of this inter-action, makes it an important factor in the
history of the world.

In the second place, it was the Byzantine Empire that stood
between the barbarism overwhelming Asia and the infant
civilisation of Europe. There can, humanly speaking, be no
doubt that Mahometanism would have swept over Europe had
it not been for the staying power of the Byzantine Empire and
the strength of Constantinople. One can understand how
important it was that the Byzantine Empire was able, in the
first place, to maintain itself though with great difficulty against
the attack of Mahometanism and after a time to roll back the
tide of Mahometanism towards the East, and then after a long
time to withstand the Turkish power. In this way the West
was given time to strengthen itself for the struggle against Asia.

38 PROFESSOR S{R W. M. RAMSAY, D.C.L., ON

The intercourse between Asia and Europe has been, in the past,
far too much a history of war. In the near future it may be,
not a history of war, but of peace, a peaceful inter-action of
forces of civilisation. |

Now it fell to our lot in 1907 to attempt to form some picture
of a small town which lies to the south-east of Anatolia, about
fifty miles from Iconia, and eighteen miles from the German
Baghdad railway. You have there a great volcanic mountain
consisting of two great craters which forms an island of
mountain rising directly out of the plain of Lycaonia,
3,900 feet above the general level of the plateau. On the
extreme northern side is a little valley which runs in from the
open plain and is nearly surrounded by the arms of the
mountain, forming an oval plain abont three miles long, and
a mile and a half to two miles in breadth. The southern half
of this little piain and the slope of the mountains which he
immediately above it to the south-west form the site of a
city which it was our object to investigate. The city was very
picturesque, and was called ordinarily the city of the thousand
and one churches. In the East numbers move rapidily, you go
on from three to ten, forty to a thousand and one, the main
steps of enumeration.

The one striking character of the city, which is a very
considerable one, quite one and a half miles in length and
breadth at its extreme points, is the large number of churches.
There are at any rate, at least thirty. Many travellers have
examined in a superticial way, these churches, and given some
brief accounts, others have been fascinated by the natural beauty
of the scene.

It was our object in the first place to form some idea of the
architectural character of the churches. The first question
which started us on our investigation was the question of date.
To what period should these churches be assigned? The
question widened itself very much when we came to practical
work. So many other points of interest always present
themselves as soon as you get started on any investigation in
Asia Minor, and the possibility of investigation is limited by
the question of expense. We were only able to scratch the
surface and uncover the churches far enough to find out their
plan of construction and general relation to each other. Our
programme was a double one. How were we to arrange any
chronological order in the series of churches? There were
another series of at least thirty which lie on the northern
outskirts of the mountains. Could we arrange these in order

A COUNTRY TOWN OF LYCAONIA. 39

of construction, and thus acquire some idea of Byzantine
architecture, on one single site through a number of centuries ?

Secondly, the historical side. What is the history of this
city? What name should we give it? and how should we
acquire some idea of the people who lived there ? What were
they doing; what was their feeling towards the great struggle
of Mahometanism? Here was a city Christian in the early
centuries, now a Mahometan village of about thirty families.
How did this change take place ?

The architectural subject was taken by Miss Gertrude Bell.
I only touch on architectural points so far as they affect the
historical position. You cannot isolate architecture from history.
You must date these buildings and you cannot date them on
grounds of style alone.

It will doubtless become possible after further study to date
a Byzantine church roughly from its style to at least a century,
but at present this cannot be done. We know too little to
venture upon any such method. Other ways of dating the
churches have therefore to be found. So we are under the
necessity of having recourse to the epigraphical date to find
the order of their building. By this method the construction
of these churches can be dated from the fourth or fifth to as
late as the tenth century.

On the historical side we cannot do without these churches,
for churches are almost the only historical monuments in the
cities. The church is the centre and remains the only land-
mark. In the Greek and early Roman periods there are many
other public monuments out of which to evolve materials for
the historian. In the Byzantine period there are only the
churches and remains that he about the ground around them.
Thus it is an interesting fact that in the country of Anatolia
you come back again to the state of things at the beginning of
Christianity. We find an organised life of men and society
where religion and its influence on life is the main feature of
the State. Religion and the relation ot religion to the life
of the community is the one great fact. Between the two
ereat extremes there is the influence of the Greek civilisation
over Europe and Western Asia. The Greek had the first idea.
of the development of individual character, individual freedom
and individual property as apart from family life. The
separation of property from the family, and making property
the appanage for the individual under his own control, comes
to us from the Greek idea of freedom developing for the
individual. The Greek spirit hardly affected such a town as

40 PROFESSOR SIR W. M. RAMSAY, D.C.L., ON

this in Central Anatolia, which has hardly any trace of Greek
character.

What we find here is, in the first place, the old primitive
Anatolian condition. Of the Hittite periods there are now no
remains. There is no doubt but that Anatolia was the centre,
in the second millennium before Christ, of a great imperial
governing power whose influence extended from the borders of
the AKgean Sea to the borders of Egypt. Though this empire is
mainly associated with the name of the Hittites, I am not at
all sure that Anatolia may not be its correct name. We know,
however, from the result of the German expedition that the
names of all the Hittite kings who were previously recorded for
us only in Syrian and Egyptian annals are now found in the
capital of the northern parts of Anatoha. On this primitive
Anatolia are super-induced the great Roman and Greek
remains. Greek and Roman ideas begin to affect the country
only when the old ideals had died out. This development
seems to be based immediately upon the old Hittite or
Anatolian stratum, and after 1t comes the Turkish invasion.

Now one great thing which disengages itself in this long
process and strikes the spectator first of all is the continued
degeneration. We have a region which must have been at one
period a fertile, delightful place of residence, well cultivated,
fortified, with such a civilisation as to be able even in the latest
Byzantine period to build up remarkable works of church
architecture. Now it has died down to the limits of food
supply, and there remains only a wretched little village of
thirty families, who are rapidly dying out. As the people grow
less and less able to use the opportunity given them, the water
supply also disappears, till now there is no food and a great
dearth of water. In fact, no water which is not poisoned can
be got, except at a distance of about two hours’ journey from
the village. The inhabitants have habituated themselves to
live upon the poisonous water that is kept in the ancient
cisterns which have never been cleaned out for three or four
hundred years. In ancient times, in contrast to this water
supply or dearth of water supply, there were aqueducts to bring
the water, which can be traced running under the ground, but
they have all fallen away to ruin, and do not bring a drop of
water. There were also cisterns of about 50 feet in length and
the same in height, and 40 feet in breadth. In these cisterns
was stored up water for household purposes. Then for agricul-
tural purposes the water of the tiny streams, which are now
entirely dry except during and immediately after the rainfall,

A COUNTRY TOWN OF LYCAONIA, 4]

was stored in a series of dams. It is still possible to trace the
way in which the water was banked in, and the sediment left by
the water in the dams.. In modern times agriculture is depen-
dent entirely upon the precarious supply which comes from the
heavens in rain. Such changes have occurred since this city
was a sanatorium for the country round, presenting in the
summer a delightful series of residences surrounded by trees
and even a forest. Now you observe in the development of
that ancient agricultural system how much knowledge, how
much accumulated experience was required, before the natural
condition of the steep mountain could be transformed to make
it a series of orchards and fertile fields. There was nothing in
ancient times which is not there at the present day except the
skill and the forethought of men. The people are as industrious
now as they were at the beginning, but they have not the
knowledge, forethought, or power of adapting means to ends
which will give them the needful forethought. We found ten
or twelve kinds of trees which have gone back from a cultivated
state to a state of wildness and nature.

It was the ancient religion that taught the people how to
act, and gave them a series of rules through the cycle of
culture. It was this religion which created the civilisation,
agriculture and comfort which once existed in the mountain
region, but has now entirely disappeared.

With regard to that early Hittite or Anatolian period, the
monuments which we find are all of the highest character.

At the peak of the mountain where there are now two
churches and a monastery, the latter merely an establishment
to keep up the services in the church, there remains still a
passage cut in the rock just underneath the north side, and
two Hittite inscriptions. All trace of the idolater had dis-
appeared, but the remains of the inscriptions show that there
was one of the places on the mountain top, the high places,
which are known to have been the sanctuaries of the primitive
religion. The churches represent a Christian transformation
of the original pagan sacred place.

In the second place there is an outlying fort on the north-west
side. <A little hill rises 400 feet out of the plain ground, crowned
by a little fortress, on the gate of which is a Hittite inscription
in hieroglyphics. A pinnacle of rock standing out about forty
feet from the hill is carved in the form of a chair, on which is
inscribed the form of a god and of alamb. These two monu-
ments alone are sufficient to show that this was a centre of the
Anatolian or Hittite civilisation, which lasted through the

42 PROFESSOR SIR W. M. RAMSAY, D.C.L., ON

Greek and early Roman time, gradually modifying itself, but
only really changing its character in the beginning of the
Christian period.

Now take the position of the Christians in this city in
the fourth century after Christ; there were the heirs to
slaves, the agriculturists, etc, and all the benefits which
had been gained for them through the influence of the old
religion and ‘the ancient religious belief had been formed
into part of the nature of the people. I do not think that
it would be right that the Christian religion should eradicate
the old zdea absolutely. The paganisation of Christianity is
the adaptation of old ideas, many of which are in themselves
right and good, and no person who has taken part in the
German celebration of Christmas, and observed the old pagan
ceremony of the Christmas tree, can imagine that I speak of
a process which is in itself entirely wrong. There was such a
process going on in Lycaonia; the deity or goddess who had
taught all the arts on which life depended to mankind had
become an inalienable part in the national mind, temper, and
character. Through the influence of the old idea of the mother
goddess there was that in the mind of the Anatohans which we
have to take into account, the idea of the divine nature of the
mother, nurse, protector, guide and teacher.

In the fourth and following centuries you find a series of
facts. In the first place there are the church buildings. Now,
exactly in accordance with the old condition, the church
building is the centre of religious hfe. In the church at Tyre,
which was built to take the place of one destroyed in the
persecution of Diocletian, this is plainly seen. We must
understand that in the Eastern Church generally, the church is
the centre of municipal life, and that this condition has its:
origin in times long before the Christian era. There are hints
sufficient just to show the beauty of the churches, and what
was the reason why there existed within the walls such charm-
ing surroundings. One might pursue to a considerable length
this topic of the Christian Church being the centre of this
Byzantine life. JI want to hurry on to the next. I must
simply assume now that the Church and ecclesiastical buildings
are the centre of the town life, the sum of the town, and the
social life of the community as a whole.

Next we want to know what was the development of this
country town in the terrible strife of the long wars against the
barbarians of Asia, and especially against the Mahometan. It
is not that I regard Mahometanism as necessarily a barbarian

A COUNTRY TOWN OF LYCAONIA. 43

religion, but circumstances have made Mahometanism a centre
of Western barbarism. It was a central power which ravaged
the civilised town. We are accustomed to think that the
weakness of the Byzantine Empire lay in the fact that the
unarmed people was guarded by a professional army. The
population of clergy and tradesmen, entirely untrained to war,
and unsuited to contend for themselves and to defend their
homes against the barbarian armies, looked entirely to the
defence of the soldiery. The soldiery was mismanaged in the
decay of the Empire. When this was the case the little rustic
town adapted itself to the changed conditions.

We find the proof that the Church did adapt itself to the
new situation and surroundings. The churches are our main
historical authority. They show the close relation which there
was between the people and the defences. There is an imperial
church built to a citizen who died in the war, another to one
who had endured many wounds, another to a general.

The largest and most magnificent church in the whole town was
decorated and painted by a general who was monk, presbyter,
and eponimus, which shows the influence of Christianity though
diluted and watered down. The fifth church is dedicated to a
tribune, that is an officer. So taking these evidences together
you have a conception of a Church which marshalls the people,
and has tribunes decorating and adorning churches. The
angle of the fortifications are made by the churches. The
church forms the corner-stone in the actual defences of the
city. In the upper city monasteries make part of the lines of
defence, and the little hillocks immediately round, forming
part of the defence, are each crowned by a church. In all this
we see that the church is used as a defence against the
Mahometan.

Then when one remembers from literature the facts of the
late defence against the Turks, we do know that in the case of
Philadelphia there was in the fourteenth century after Cbrist
a town which, though left isolated for fifty or sixty years,
defended itself against the Turks, and finally fell only because
it had to yield to a combined army of Byzantine imperial forces,
and subject Turks. It was somewhat different in Smyrna;
there the defence was conducted by Europeans, the Knights of
St. John, and was not purely national.

Finally we come down to the transition from the Christian
period to the Turkish. After the Anatolian invasion had been
rolled back once again to the limits of the East, a new invasion
of the Turks began in 1070, and this little town was in the

4d, PROFESSOR SIR W. M. RAMSAY, D.C.L., ON

track and must have passed in 1072 under Turkish rule.
Later it was fortified by a Christian people, and though the
relation between the two was not entirely friendly, there is no
reason to think that it was entirely hostile. The Sultans tried
as much as was in their power to maintain the Christian customs
and Christian people. The hostility shows itself inasmuch as
each part is defended by separate fortifications. A new town
was made to’‘defend this lower town, and in the south-west
corner is one of the old churches—now the Imperial Church,
the Orthodox Eastern Church. We gather from this evidence
that the Church was very much closer to the hearts of the
people than the Empire which was too far off. It was the Church
that stood so close to the people, and guided and taught them.
At the same time the price had to be paid, and a good deal of
the old character of the Orthodox Church was sacrificed as it
adapted itself to the character of the people. The power of
writing became as rare in the East as it was in the West in the
dark ages. Even in the fifth century when one bishop attended
the Council held at Ephesus in 449, to determine the views of
the Universal Church, he was obliged to append his mark, and
get his name penned by another person, as he did not know his
letters! When even a bishop cannot write his name, we
can gather what was the ignorance of the people. The
inscriptions on the churches are the work of an uneducated
people.

I will just conclude by recalling to your minds the fact
that this church whose history we have been following in
two or three isolated moments,—this oriental church is not
completely dead or lost, it lives as a relivion of slaves, and may
and will revive among the people as education is restored.
The deterioration is marked not only by the want of education,
aud means of writing, but in the architecture. The church
architecture down to the Turkish conquest continued to be in
the good old style, the plans excellent, but the work carried out
hastily. There is no love shown by the workman, he is building
a church, and that is all; there is no love for making the church
as beautiful as possible. The later churches produce the
impression of a decade of slaves and an epoch of ignorance,
and gradually as you get further into the period of slavery, the
Byzantine architecture really disappears, and in modern times
there are only the churches of an enslaved race.

A COUNTRY TOWN OF LYCAONIA. 4

DISCUSSION.

The CHAIRMAN having declared the discussion open :

Lieut.-Col. G. MACKINLAY said that all were greatly obliged to
the lecturer for his most instructive account of Early Anatolian
Christianity. No one who heard of the Mother Goddess, the
protectress of the agriculturists of Asia Minor, could fail to be
put in mind of Diana of the Ephesians, Acts xix, 28. (Artemis
in Greek.)

Might it not be said that the worship of the Virgin Mary had its.
origin in Asia Minor, and was directly traceable to the adoration of
Artemis 4 7

Professor Sir W. M. Ramsay replied that it was undoubtedly
true that this Virgin worship or Mariolatry was to be found in Asia
Minor at a very early date, and, indeed, that it was at an Ephesian
Council that it became part of the dogma of the Church. It was
interesting to observe that there was too, in Anatolia, a pilgrimage
in honour of the Virgin Mother of God which was actually made
to an ancient shrine of Artemis the great goddess; and that this
pilgrimage continued even after the population had ceased to be
definitely Christian. But the doctrine of the Oceoroxos was more
wide-spreading and was, indeed, part of the humanising influence of
religion in almost all countries. In the Christian churches its
influence was of varying strength. He himself belonged to a
church which was as extreme in exclusion of this influence as the
Roman Church, on the other hand, in upholding it. But he thought
that he could not be justified in condemning it for that reason. In
regard to the actual origin of the belief and doctrine he thought
that Egypt contended with Anatolia for first place.

Dr. A. T. SCHOFIELD said that it was extremely interesting to
note the connection between the church and civic life and to see
how definitely the one became a part of the other whether organised
for development or defence. He thought that they might observe
some connection between the Roman word Curia, the Council of the
Roman city, and the Greek Kipws. He would draw particular
attention to the feast of the Curia, a central festival of civic life,
and the Lord’s Supper, the central festival of the Christian life. It

46 PROFESSOR SIR W. M. RAMSAY, D.C.L., ON LYCAONIA.

would be interesting if Professor Ramsay could trace the connection
between Roman life and Church life, and especially the remarkable
passage in the ‘“didayy, 1) tpepa% Ti) KUpiaKn TOv Kupiov,” the day
of the Curia of the Lord. |

Professor Sir W. M. Ramsay said that he took the view that the
church communities had been in the habit of looking upon them-
selves as cities even in the first century. For instance, the letter to
the seven churches is the letter to the seven cities. The Christians
in Thyatira were looked upon as being the true city of Thyatira.
This idea of the Church and the city as one doubtless had a strong
and abiding influence on both Eastern and Western Christianity.

Professor LANGHORNE ORCHARD thought Sir W. Ramsay would
concur that the worship of the Mother-goddess went back earlier
than Ephesus.

This was not the first time they had been given the pleasure of
a paper by Sir William, and they hoped it would not be the last.
One and all they thanked him. He had led them, as personally-
conducted tourists, to far-off Anatolia, and down the centuries to
that Byzantine period commonly so little known. The paper
especially emphasised two facts; the one was the importance of
cultivating in a people the love of liberty, of freedom, the other was
that religion is the supreme factor in civic and communal life.
According to the purity of the religion and the value attached to it,
is the purity and prosperity of the people’s life; if the religion
decay, that life will decay. It were well to bear this in mind in
face of the present conflict of opinion in regard to national
education. Education without religion is a maimed and truncated
thing. It is worse. To educate the head without educating the
heart ; to neglect a child’s character while fostering his ability ; is
to train him to be a curse to the country which has shirked its
responsibility and has betrayed its trust.

490TH ORDINARY MEETING

MONDAY, JANUARY 18ru, 1909.

Davin Howarp, Esq., D.L., F.C.S., F.1C. (VICE-PRESIDENT),
IN THE CHAIR.

The Minutes of the previous Meeting having been read and confirmed,
the following gentlemen were then elected as Associates of the Victoria
Institute :—

The Rev. Hamilton Ashwin, LL.D. (T.C.D.), the Teevare House,
Dedham, Colchester.

The Rev. Edward Godfrey Ashwin, M.A. (Camb.), Rector of
Earl Stonham, Stowmarket, Suffolk.

The following paper was then read by the Author :—

SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD. By A. T.
SCHOFIELD, M.D.

NDER this title I propose very briefly first of all to

consider the relative spheres of Science and Revelation,

and secondly to pass in review various phenomena dependent

on the forces of the unseen world with which we are as yet but
little acquainted.

In the first place then, I would say that the very existence
and possibility of science, equally with that of the scientific man,
postulates God.

The whole of science and its researches in every branch are
based upon the hypothesis that nature is intelligible, 2.e., has
been constructed by mind. If nature were the result of the
caprice of an irrational being, such as that of claw marks on a
tree, or the scratchings of a cat on a wall, no science would be
possible.

All science, truly so called, is a sincere attempt to decipher
the handwriting of the Almighty on the Universe, and to discern
the design and purpose that may underlie it all; but it proceeds
ov the belief that the writing is there, and that purpose and design
are facts. Design may equally be shown in constructing the

48 A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD.

thing (if a natural product) or in inventing a machine to make
it Gf machine made). In both cases the article is the product
of mind and not of a machine, only in the first case it is
primarily, and in the second, secondarily produced. So if all
nature is intelligible and science reveals plan and order every-
where, a Mind must have produced it, and a Mind great enough
to be capable of such a work. This line of argument is doubtless
familiar enough to this Institute, but while 1 do not dwell upon
it, it 1s well to call to mind at the outset that the very existence
and possibility of science postulates the existence of God.

Nature necessitates the concept of an omniscient mind ;
or as Lord Kelvin has put it, “Science, if you think truly, forces
to a belief in God.”

“There remains,” says Herbert Spencer, “the one absolute
certainty that we are ever in the presence of an Infinite and
Eternal energy from which all things proceed.” :

Science, however, is limited in its investigations. It is mainly
a study of effects. It stops short at first causes as before an
impenetrable barrier. Its sphere is the study of what exists, but
it knows nothing of the ultimate origin of things.

It seems to me that where science ends there revelation
begins. Science ends with the material universe and man, then
revelation begins and leads us up toGod. Science stops short of
first causes, and here revelation lifts the veil and shows the
origin of all is Divine. Science and revelation, as has so often
been said, can never be truly antagonistic, as their spheres
scarcely ever touch. There is no need for a revelation of what we
can ourselves discern, and science can discover much that was
once thought beyond its powers. There is now a science of the
unseen world as well as of the material universe, and Sir Oliver
Lodge has written a large book about it.

But however far science may penetrate it can never reach
the sphere of revelation. Science may, as we have seen,
postulate a God, or at any rate, an omniscient Mind, or first
principle, but it can never discern Christianity. And herein,
in passing, lies the essential difference between bare Theism
and the Christian faith. The one, in a sense, can almost be
realized by science, the other is a revelation from God, or I
might say to avoid cavil, professes to be so.

‘“ Harth’s crammed with Heaven,
And every common bush aflame with God.
But only those who see—take off their shoes:
The rest sit round and gather blackberries,”

A, T, SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD. 49

But even those who “see” do not see Christianity in the
blackberry bush.

tevelation, then, concerns truths that can never be reached by
scientific investigation. But this is not necessarily on account
of the difficulty of the research, but of the nee between
the character and object of the two.

Science may postulate an omniscient in: but revelation
reveals a Holy, a Loving, and a Righteous God; and these three
characters are still impressed, however faintly, upon His
creatures ; for without a sense of moral right and wrong (of which
science knows nothing) Nelson’s immortal signal at Trafalgar,
“ England expects every man to do his duty,” ‘would be without
meaning, and indeed, the “homo sapiens” of biology non-
existent. The power of Revelation in the heart of man
consists in the fact that 1t alone vives the answer to all the
questionings and dim feelings that arise in his heart and
conscience, and thus puts the’creature in touch with its Creator.

Without both science and revelation no man can be fully
developed asaman. With only one, half of him is unenlightened;
and ifrevelation be what is left out, may we not say the greater
half. Science may make us “ wise as serpents,” ‘ut revelation
alone can make us “ harmless as doves.”

Many scientists would fain make a further distinction
between the two, and say that science is the study of things
that can be known and proved, while revelation deals with
matters that cannot be known or proved, but are to be believed.

But this distinction on careful investigation will not stand.
Revelation, at any rate, everywhere asserts positive knowledge.
The language always is “we know.” Knowledge is of two sorts,
personal and hearsay. The verification of any facts must be
personal, and must become a registered result within our own
consciousness. It is the ease with which this is accomplished
in the facts of science that constitutes one of the strongest
testimonies to its truths. It does not merely assert that pure
water consists of H,O, and that the union of these two gases In
this proportion will ‘inevitably and always produce this fluid,
but anyone who cares to make the experiment can do so for
himself, and thus change his knowledge of the fact from
“hearsay ” into “ personal ”; and this step is everywhere urged
by true teachers of science. It is this experimental, or as we
call it in medicine, clinical knowledge, which is first-hand
knowledge, that is everywhere insisted on in the best schools,
and is always of greater value than hearsay or second-hand
knowledge from books.

50 A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD.

But curiously enough there are scientists who deny that
this sort of knowledge can be arrived at by revelation.

As a matter of fact, the absolute reverse is the case. So far
from hearsay evidence or second-hand knowledge being of value
in revelation, it 1s of less value there than in science. It is
everywhere condemned, and no man can be truly said to be a
Christian man whose knowledge of revelation is solely hearsay
or second-hand. “ We speak that we do know, we testify of
that we have seen,” is not the language of those who value
second-hand evidence. Still, one word must be said as to the
difference in weight and authority of the evidences of revela-
tion and science. These latter, at best, are but the products of
human minds, and are therefore liable to every sort of error,
when they reach deductions, inferences and “laws” ; as has been
recently so remarkably shown by the paralyzing powers of
radium.

Revelation professes to come from the Supreme Mind, er
the infallible God, and to those who accept its origin, its
evidences upon its own facts naturally carry greater “weight
with its followers than those of science with scientists.

But still, it is true, as I have said, that revelation emphati-
cally insists upon knowledge at first hand as a sie qua non.
Indeed, the well-known saying of the Son of God, “ Ye must be
born again,’ means nothing less than that the truth must
become a personal revelation from within and not a hearsay
evidence from without.

And finally, as I now leave this brief comparison, I would
submit that the possibilities of personal verification of the
truths of revelation are in their own sphere as simple and
evident as those of science. In the latter the introduction
of a certain chemical into a fluid can be relied upon. to
produce well known and definite changes in Suey case ; in
revelation it is the same.

Take any island or country of savages the world over,
introduce into it the truths of revelation, al the same results
will everywhere ensue, indeed can be positively predicted with
as much certainty as any chemical change.

Of course, as In science the experiments must be conducted
according to certain conditions. Science insists on this and so
does revelation. The latter, for instance, being a moral force,
does not countenance experiments, gud experiments, but for the
moral benefit of those involved ; and if this be not held im view
and the true end of revelation the object, the experiment will
not succeed.

A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD. 51

We conclude, therefore, that the knowledge of the truths of
revelation is as experimental, as sure, as personal as any truths
known to science; but that the sphere of the former only
begins where that of the latter ends.

I now turn to a prief consideration of certain phenomena
that occupy a sort of doubtful territory between the ascertained
facts of science on the one hand, and the truths of revelation
on the other.

Amongst these one might mention: (1) the mental or nerve
forces and aura: (2) hypnotism; (5) faith-healing of all sorts,
including Christian mental, and higher health sciences ;
(4) possession; (5) miracles of all sorts; (6) telepathy ;
(7) automatic writing; (8) appearances after death, and
spiritualistic phenomena; (9) second sight and clairvoyance ;
and (10) double and multiple personality.

It is obvious that with such a range of phenomena of the
unseen world, any one of which for its adequate discussion
would require the limit of a paper, I can but allow myself a
very brief reference to each.

1. Mental or nerve forces and aura—tI need not say very
much en this,as a paper of mine appeared recently on the
subject in the Contemporary Review (May, 1907) which may be
familiar to many. In it I showed that while we are as ignorant
as ever as to the constitution of mind or nerve force, and know
no more of its composition than we do of ether or of matter,
we can nevertheless examine it in various ways. Elaborate
reflecting galvanometers have been devised for registering the
speed of thought, the succession of thoughts and the mechanism
of thought. Dr. Dubois, of Berne, has invented a machine to
measure nerve fatigue (ergograph), and the simple sthenometer
I here produce is Dr. Paul Joires’ of Paris. Its action is based
upon the fact that around each person seems to project for a few
inches, some nerve force or influence often readily transferable
by contact.

It is this force presumably which, as I have described in the
Contemporary, so remarkably deflects the needle in the way I
shall briefly describe.

This instrument (fully described in the Review) consists
essentially of a balanced straw within a glass case rotating
over a circle of 360 degrees. This straw can be deflected
and moved over 60 or 70 degrees by some force emanating
from the human body that is not heat, electricity, light or
sound,

2As.T, BCH OFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD.

This surrounding nerve force is called the aura, and the old
idea of it round the head only, was the haio.

People with acute psychic sense, such as sensitives, clairvoy-
ants, ete. (and such people undoubtedly exist everywhere and
are increasing in numbers), can see this projection, and
frequently in various colours, surrounding the human form.
From this they make various deductions which I need not specify.

2. Hypnotism.—The phenomena produced here are due to the
fact which I have brought out years ago in this Institute, that only
a small part of the human mind is illuminated by consciousness,
and that the rest, which [ temporarily call the unconscious mind,
while possessing great powers, and particularly over the body, is
not in the ordinary state readily accessible. ‘The point in hypno-
tism is to temporarily abolish by hypnotic sleep or waking trance,
the voluntary mental powers, and thus lay bare the substratum
on which they rest. ‘he hypnotist can then bring this into
action and make impressions upon it, which can be retained
when consciousness 1s regained. Hypnotism can thus be used
experimentally, diagnostically, and therapeutically ; and skilled
and highly qualified professors are always at the service of the
medical profession for these purposes. I will give an illustra-
tion of its powers. ;

A well known physician with hypnotic powers, having cured
a young lady of nineteen of various ailments, tested her
hypnotic powers as follows. On Wednesday, March 11th,
1902, at 4 p.m. she was hypnotized in the presence of three
medical men, and four suggestions were made that the patient
should, after the expiration of the number of minutes they
named, make a cross on a piece of paper. These numbers were
21,400, 21,420, 21,428, 21,434. On the right day, Thursday,
March 26th, the lady was hypnotized, and made the four
crosses spontaneously without suggestion, two of them at the
exact minute, one a minute, and the other two minutes too
soon.

3. Faith-healing—Here I am obliged to group together in
my brief summary many opposing systems and various different
powers.

It will be quite impossible for me to give the grounds for the
statements I must make on_ this subject. I must speak
dogmatically as one who has studied the subject closely for over
twenty years, and refer to what I have written for detailed
proof of my statements, and perhaps on this head especially,
to a forthcoming article on “Spiritual Healing” in the March

Contemporary Review.

A, IT, SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD. 53

The power in faith-healing generally that effects the cures is
subjective and not objective. It isin that part of the person
that is reached by hypnotism—the unconscious mind, and
especially that section of it concerned with the care of the
body, known technically as the vis medicatrix nature.

This power is stirred into curative activity by agents as various
as medical instruments, such as thermometers, by bits of wood
or metal, by incantation, by charms, by witchcraft, by devil
worship (as near Zurich), by idols, by impostors, such as Dowie
of Chicago, by kings, by sacred relics, by visions as at Lourdes,
and by the sacred beliefs of the Christian Faith. In the cure
itself the agency seems indifferent, provided it is sufficiently
powerful to excite the faith of the individual, but in the
benefits received—the moral and spiritual results—the blessing
or the curse which the recovered health bestows, all of course,
depends upon the object on which the faith rests. I will
illustrate this.

At Zurich, at Mannedorf, Pastor Zeller cured all sorts of
cases; but he remarked to me, “the devil cures them just as
well at the end of the lake.” On enquiry I found that numbers
are cured there by incantations and dancing round oak trees
with curious rites. The results were indistinguishable from
Pastor Zeller’s.

The ease of blind Martha is remarkable as showing how
faith cures.

*M. D., thirty years of age, was, with her stick and white dog, a
familiar figure in Bayswater for about fifteen years, and was well
known as Blind M Close enquiry as to her condition and
antecedents revealed the fact that she had been considered incurably
blind from birth. She had been treated at Charing Cross and
Middlesex Hospitals and at Moorfields, and had also long attended
at a society for the blind in Red Lion Square, where she was taught
to read the raised type. She had a faint perception of light
occasionally, but nothing that was of any real use to her. She was
seen by one or two other doctors besides those at the hospitals, who
told her there was no cure for her. Several people who have
known her for varying numbers of years have testified to me that
she was practically blind. A general grocer where she has dealt
for years told me that he often stood unseen beside her for a trick
when she has kept calling for him, and that at no time did she give
any evidence whatever of being able to see anything she bought,

Hearing one day that this blind girl had received her sight and

* Extract from Faith Healing, A. T. Schotield, M.D., Religious Tract
Society, 1892.

54 A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD.

was now employed as nurse in a family I knew, I thought the case
worth investigation, and found the following was what had actually
taken place.

About, 1882 she joined the Salvation Army as a soldier, her
blindness exciting great compassion. For seven years she remained
in the same state, the “‘ Army” as such not holding “ faith-healing ”
meetings. On March 25th, 1889, however, a ‘“ Major” P., an aged
officer, came to Bayswater, and held on his own account a “ faith-
healing” meeting at the local barrack. M. D. heard of course of
the meeting, and the day before told everyone where she lodged
that she was going to receive her sight the next day. She started off,
telling the people that she would never need her stick and dog again.

At the meeting she was seated in front with other cases of bad
eyes, imperfect speech and lameness awaiting healing—who, by the
way, were all healed—one girl, 8. D., now in Australia, also regain-
ing hersight. ‘‘ Major” P describes what took place as follows :—

“M. D. was healed miraculously by the Lord in answer to prayer
and faith. As directed by James v, I anointed her and prayed
over her in great faith, after which she kept quiet for about twenty
minutes, then suddenly rose to her feet crying out, ‘ Bless the Lord!
I can see everybody in the place! what will my mother say when
she gets to know?’ Everyone was amazed, for they saw it was the
work of the Lord.”

Her own account is that her eyes (closed) were rubbed violently
for some minutes, and then, after a while, when she looked up she
saw light clearly for the first time, and jumped up and clapped her
hands. She found her way down off the platform and looked at her
friends’ faces. She was astonished to find them look so large, having
imagined them to be much smaller. She walked home without her
stick, never using it, or her dog, again.

A grocer (who is no follower of the Salvation Army) on being
questioned told me there could be no doubt as to the change in her
sight since March 25. She would come into his shop now and see
not only him but also his wife’s shadow on the red curtain behind
the shop.

In a short time she got a place, as I have said, as nurse-girl. I
called and saw her in service. She went there daily having to walk
a mile from her home to the house, a small villa in a long row,
which she could only distinguish by the number ; once or twice she
had gone to the wrong house. She took the children out in the
perambulator. I found on examining her that her sight was still
very imperfect. But such as it was it filled her with delight. She
could tell colours and objects readily, and was learning to read. She
knew her letters already. She had great difficulty in seeing objects
below the level of her eyes, but could see them well above. Some
considerable change in her sight had undoubtedly taken place, and
as far as I could gather, at the said meeting.

A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD, 0

I took her to two of our leading oculists, who very kindly
examined the case for me. The first found that both lenses of the:
eyes were long gone, probably through cataract of the eyes in
infancy. The eyes were also diseased internally. His theory of the
change was that the opaque skin that sometimes replaces the lost
lenses, and of which some traces were visible round the pupils,
might have been ruptured at the time by the violence used, and
thus the sight was partially restored. He ordered her glasses by
which her vision is greatly improved.

Another oculist did not think it possible that the change could
be thus effected, but made no alternative suggestion. A third at a
hospital (where she was at once recognised as Blind M ) came to
the following conclusion : ‘‘ That there was still extensive disease in
both eyes of long standing; that there was no evidence of any
recent changes having taken place in the eyes; but that it is likely
that previously she saw better than she thought she did, and that
now she thinks she sees better than she does.

Christian science is a system that cures in this way, but being
connected with a pure Theism at the same time, greatly elevates
the moral tone and character of the healed. It must be
pointed out, however, though this is not the place to discuss
the question, that Christians the world over are unanimous in
utterly repudiating its claims to be Christian.

The gift of healing possessed by some individuals is a little
different, and is more objective in character, requiring less faith
on the part of the sufferer, as I will illustrate.

About the prayer of faith I should like to say one word, as
it is being brought forward so prominently to-day.

The standard passage in the Bible, to which reference is
always made in St. James v, 14, which I venture to suggest:
is greatly misunderstood. The words are as to the sick: “ Let.
them pray over lim, anointing hin with oil in the name of the:
Lord,” and it is almost universally believed that the anointing:
is some sort of religious rite or consecration. There is a word
in the Greek that means this, “ Avo,” from which we get the
word “chrism,’ but this word, which is always used for
ceremonies and consecration, 1s not the word used here, but the
medical word “aleipho,’ which means to rub in or massage
with oil, a process which to this day is the most common
remedy amongst the Arabs. When in addition to this we
remember that at that time the religious and medical functions
were closely allied we can quite understand the “elder”
uniting spiritual means (prayer) with medical treatment (oil).
IT am pleased to say that one of our most distinguished

56 A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD.

Prebendaries supports me in this view of the passage, which is
so often wrongly supposed to supplant medical care.

4. Possession.—I am personally fully convinced from personal
experience that certain cases in our various asylums, and seen
by me in private practice, of mania or frenzy, cannot be
scientifically accounted for, without admitting the possibility
of the possession of a human body by a spirit other than his
own. Iam quite aware this is a highly questionable statement
to make, but I feel sure that any trained thinkers who have had
my experience would find a difficulty in coming to any other
conclusion.

What I refer to are no ordinary cases of lunacy or mania,
but sudden possessions of quiet Christian ladies with a raging
spirit of outrageous blasphemies and obscenities, and especially
a mad hatred of God, that all disappears when the attack is
over. I can recall several such cases which to me seem con-
clusive of the possibility I have suggested.

5, Mlvracles—The difficulty here is to define what we mean,
but it seems to me that whatever definition we may attach
to the word, we must reverse the dictum given in Lobert
Elsmere as an unanswerable argument that “miracles do not
occur” by saying that “they do.” Whatever is meant by a
miracle, scientists are clear they occur. One and all, for
instance are constantly speaking of the miracle of radium.
Professor Boys uses this expression to describe its powers and
the way it transcends all known laws. Lord Kelvin also said
the same.

But every day the power we call vital, suspends, alters, and
modifies well-known laws of nature. Man with his reason and
vital foree can prevent Newton’s apple from falling to the
eround by catching it in his hand; nay, can actually make it rise
in the air higher than the tree on which it grew, by a force
that reverses the law of gravitation. And there still remains
the unanswerable question of how the apple, or if you like the
coconut, weighing many pounds, climbed up into the air
against all laws of gravitation and got into the trees at all.

We read of the miracle of floating iron in the Old Testament,
but though this may not be paralleled by floating ironclads, it
is by the mere fact that anyone can hold up an axehead in the
water. In the story the arm that held it was invisible and
Divine, with us it is visible and human, but the reversal of the
natural law is the same.

In the story the power is supernatural, and hence we call it
a miracle; in the illustration the same phenomena occurs, but

A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD. ad

the power is natural, and hence we do not call it a
miracle.

Of course to the Christian man who believes that Jesus Christ
rose from the dead, there can be no wonder whatever that
miracles happened during His lifetime when He Himself was the
transcendent miracle of all. Of course of these, as of the
resurrection, the scientist requires proof. But to-day in a minor
degree cures and other phenomena occur without any known
natural cause, and hence are deemed supernatural.

The Welsh revival may be referred to as a miraculous
manifestation; and Lord William Cecil’s letters to Zhe Times
respecting remarkable miraculous outbreaks of an unknown
force in Corea will be recalled by many.

He states that during the session of the Bible School for
training the Coreans, a dull unemotional people, in Scripture
most extraordinary manifestations took place of some unseen
power. A man suddenly rose from the desk where he was
writing and began to cry to God for mercy, and then to confess
some most awful sins, including the murder of his infant
daughter. They tried to silence him but in vain, and then one
and another rose, and for one week the school was an amazing
scene, one Christian man after another rising up and confessing
sins of all sorts, and apparently finding no rest till they had
made what restitution was possible. Afterwards all subsided ;
the conditions again became normal.

6. Telepathy—One may almost say that thought transference
is now a scientific fact,and is being increasingly noted as an
ordinary occurrence in the experience of many. The familiar and
constantly recurring fact of letters crossing is an example
of this.

Automatic writing, at which my versatile friend Mr. Stead
is an adept, is, I think, proved to be a fact. None who have
seen it or ever heard at first hand the statements of Mr. Stead
and others, can doubt that we here have some force that is at
present but very imperfectly understood. Whether it be an
extreme form of unconscious auto suggestion, or whether it is
some form of spiritualistic manifestation of which science at
present knows little, still remains uncertain.

8. Appearances after death and spiritualistie phenomena.—In
general these are unhappily connected with an extraordinary
mass of fraud, from which it is difficult, and often a somewhat
nauseous task, to disentangle the truth, but there does remain
a very solid substratum of fact vouched for by men of the
greatest probity and scientists of the highest standing. As to

E 2

58 A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD.

appearances after death I have what I might call almost first-
hand knowledge.

My brother died unexpectedly in Inland China, and the same
night appeared to his wife’s two sisters, who -had not heard of
his illness, in different parts of India. They thought their
sister was ill, and never thought of him, and it was not till
months after that news came to them vid England that he died
the night he appeared. Both were wives of Army medical men.

9. Second sight and clairvoyance-—There can be no doubt that
these powers are being greatly increased in the present century,
and that sensitives or beings whose psychic powers are abnor-
mal, are much more common. I know many such of the
highest character and principle.

There can, I think, be no doubt of the scientific truth of
these powers.

10. Double and nultiple personality—The former to some
extent exists in all, and there is no man here who has not at
times taken part, sometimes involuntarily, in mental dialogues
between the two often involving sharp discussion of a painful
nature. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde exist in all. But when they
alternate in their complete possession of the faculties the
condition is pathological.

I have at present a case that alternates between a shrewd
woman of forty and a silly child of five, caring for nothing but
dolls and sweets.

I should like also to add that it will be observed that the con-
stant movement is always from the occult and unknown to the
scientific and the known ; and that innumerable phenomena once
regarded as the direct work of good or evil spirits are now proved
to be scientific facts, leaving of course behind them again
another cim series 1n their turn at present quite unaccountable.

I for one, however, feel that in view of the wonderful forces
that are being brought to light and put to such remarkable use,
many more of these mysteries of the unseen world will be cleared
up, and the boundary line between Science and Revelation made
more apparent, and the great work of this Institute in the full
and adequate recognition of both thus made easier, and its accom-
plishment brought nearer. The longer one lives the more one
sees the folly of denying the truth of phenomena we may not
understand.

In conclusion I can only say that no one can feel more
than I do how extremely unsatisfactory such a very brief survey
of such a very extended subject must necessarily be, though I
fear even this hurried sketch has been too long.

A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD. 59

DISCUSSION.

After the conclusion of the paper, the CHAIRMAN (D.
Howarp, Esq., D.L., F.C.S., F.I.C., Vice-President) said that
such papers as that to which they had just had the great pleasure
of listening, showed how great is the danger run by _ those
who consider that nothing can exist which one does not understand ;
on the other hand we have to be careful at the present day not to
run into the opposite danger, nor be led by the fact that some
things are wrongly understood, to consider that nothing exists
which one does understand. He had pleasure in calling on
Dr. Stenson Hooker, who would follow up the remarks on the
aura made by the reader of the paper.

Dr. STENSON HOOKER prefaced his remarks by pointing out that
the fact of the existence of the aura was based on scientific
experiment, and that the sanity and unemotional nature of the
belief in the existence of this manifestation ought to carry weight.
He himself had now given up experimental work owing to the
physical and mental depletion which was, as Dr. Schofield had
remarked, too often the accompaniment of such research. When the
phenomena of the aura were first pointed out to him he had been
deeply interested, but at the same time extremely sceptical. He had
engaged in this sceptical spirit on a course of research which lasted
for three years. He had conducted over 300 scientific experiments
from which all guesswork had been, as far as possible, eliminated.
The result was that the only possible conclusion to which he could come
was that this force, this invisible emanation, of which the aura was
the visible sign does certainly exist. There was, he believed, in every
person a force which radiated outwards and in a greater or lesser
degree affected other things with which that person came into contact.
These force radiations, or ”' rays, were visible to some but invisible
to others, and in the form of a visible coloured radiation from the
person were known as “ the aura.”

A tabulation of the different appearances had been made
according to colour and thought, and when it was seen how closely
the results given from study of the particular aura tallied with the

60 A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD.

observations of those who had the most intimate knowledge of the
character of the person under observation, the conclusions drawn
could not be doubted.

The transference of the healing power from one person to another
points most distinctly to planes of operations for the action of this
force, to the existence of a medium through which it passes and
rays by which it traverses the medium.

In the aura the thoughts of the moment give the colour: the
general character of the manifestation is more or less uniform in
each particular case, but the aura is coloured according to the
thoughts of the individual. The brightest and best colours which
he had observed were those radiating from a letter of the late
Mr. Gladstone which the speaker had held in his hand. Those who
have the necessary development can see the aura, those who have
not should not on that account disbelieve. The man of science
with the proper instruments can see many things hidden to
the unaided vision: but it is held absurd in others to disbelieve in
the existence of things thus seen because they have not the
necessary instruments.

Colonel T. H. HENDLEY, C.I.E., said he would like to ask Dr.
Schofield whether in the case of Blind Martha an ophthalmoscopic
examination had been made, and how long she had been blind.

Dr. SCHOFIELD admitted that he did not know her medical
history in detail and so far the case was defective, and as to the
latter the blindness had existed from childhood.

Colonel HENDLEY asked whether such cases might not be due
to malingering? Great powers were sometimes displayed as occurred
not unfrequently in the days of long service in the army. Books
had been written on the subject. There was a case of a soldier who
remained dumb for several years, resisting the most ingenious efforts
to discover whether he really was so or not. At last a certificate of
discharge from the army was made out ; on ascertaining which, and,
believing it was irrevocable, the soldier was heard to speak. ‘The
speaker saw a woman who had been the round of the London
hospitals and who was brought on a bed into the casualty ward of
the institution in which he studied suddenly recover after some
years under the stimulus of the electric battery. As she rushed out
of the room she knocked down a porter with whom she was offended.
Her relatives had spent a large amount upon her. He asked how

——

A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD. 61

such cases as those in which Mr. Esdaile, a Calcutta surgeon, about
the time of the introduction of chloroform, removed limbs and
tumours by the aid of hypnotism without pain, were accounted
for.

As to the influence of faith over physical conditions he mentioned
the explanation Sir James Paget used to give of the cure of warts
by gipsy women. A girl who suffered it might be from warts on a
finger was told by the gipsy to tie a rag round it, and then to look
steadily at it every night at twelve o'clock, under the moon, if
possible, for a fortnight, when she would find it had disappeared. It
oiten did, because the constant direction to the part had so altered
the circulation of the blood or its condition that the nutrition of the
wart was changed and so a cure effected. As to the case in which a
lady used gross language and expressed the most horrible thoughts,
was not this condition common enough in certain cases of temporary
insanity in women, and not unfrequently in those who had, as far as
was known, never heard anything of the kind! He observed that
an experience of his own showed him anyone might hear such
language. Two or three days previously on reaching the platform
of a tube station he saw one man in the garb of a gentleman
suddenly abuse another, seemingly a stranger, in the foulest terms,
to the disgust of a crowd of waiting passengers.

It was thus easy to see that opportunities of the kind might
oceur—and he believed that just in proportion to their rarity they
made an impression, which seemed soon perhaps to pass off, but
which was possibly for that reason more easily reproduced in
disease.

He enquired whether automatic writing was similar to the old
planchetie, and whether dual personality was really not due to the
two sides of the brain not acting together.

As to Mr. Stead’s communications had they done any good to him
or anyone else !

Dr. SCHOFIELD was understood to reply in the negative.

Colone] HENDLEY, in a long career in the superstitious and
credulous East, had seen nothing of the kind. 250 years ago a
most painstaking observer, Bernier—physician to the Emperor
Aurangzeb—had come much to the same conclusions. He had con-
ducted enquiries in Kashmir, one of which was to the point. He
went to Baramulah at the exit of the River Jhelum from the valley

2 A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCLENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD.

‘to see a miracle performed at the tomb of a holy pir or saint, there.
It is said there was a large round stone that the strongest man can
scarcely raise from the ground, but which eleven men, after a
prayer made to the saint, lifted up with the tips of their little fingers
with the same ease as they could move a piece of straw. He noticed
that the stone was lifted with much effort, but as he expressed his
faith, and added a bribe, he was allowed to assist. As he used only
his finger so that the stone constantly inclined his way, and even
when he added his thumb the weight could hardly be got up, it
was clear there was no miracle, but a tumult was raised and he had
to run for his life.

Rev. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S.—Dr. Schofield has raised a
great many questions and it would be impossible even to touch
npon them all. But I may be permitted to say a word concerning
whe case of ‘‘ Blind Martha.” I knew her twenty years ago as she
attended my ministry, and I, as well as others, was convinced that

she was not so blind as she appeared to think, for it is quite .

possible for patients suffering from nervous infirmities to think
themselves much worse than they really are as we know; but
“ Blind Martha” could run about in my school room among a
number of iron columns supporting the upper part of the building,
and romp with the children of my Sunday school and never run
foul of these columns. She lived in a room by herself and did
everything for herself. She could go through the streets also with
great confidence. But her blindness brought her a great deal of
sympathy and my impression is that she was led to suppose herself
worse than she really was. Personally therefore I could not accept
her case as evidence of the reality of faith healing.

May I say also concerning Dr. Schofield’s reference to miracles
that an event can scarcely be described as a miracle because it
‘transcends all known laws” as in the case of the “miracle of
radium ” as Professor Boys expresses himself. I have read of a
missionary who in order to create an impression on the minds of the
matives of the country where he laboured, suddenly took out his
artificial teeth and allowed them to examine his toothless gums and
then replaced them again. But that was not a miracle. Surely the
only correct definition of a miracle is that it is an effect produced in
the constitution and course of nature by a supernatural force—a
force that is outside and above it whether Divine or demoniacal.

eS eEEeEeEeEeEeEEeEeEeEeEeEeereree ae

A. ''. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD. 63

Then with regard to automatic writing and communications from
the departed, Mr. Stead is a very interesting man; but against his
belief that he has received communications from the late Mr. Myers,
I remember to have seen a little while ago a very definite statement
from Mrs. Myers that she did not believe any of the alleged
communications from her deceased husband had really come from
him. However, it is well that all these matters should be investi-
gated, and we are, I am sure, deeply indebted to Dr. Schofield for
giving to us the benefit of his thought, observation and experience
this afternoon.

The Rev. SipNrEyY Pike, M.A., said that he would recommend
those present to study the 18th Chapter of Deuteronomy, in which
the Israelites are strictly forbidden by God to have any dealings
with familiar spirits or a necromancer (7.¢., one seeking intercourse
with the dead), because all these are ‘an abomination unto the
Lord.” And the chapter distinctly states by way of warning, that
“ Because of these abominations” the Canaanites were driven out
of their land. There was great danger that in enquiring into
the things of the kind they were now considering, they might
forget the Scriptural prohibition, and enquire into things for-
bidden.

As to “spiritualistic manifestations” he feared they were from
the evil one, and they would do well to remember that the word of
God declares :—‘‘ In the last days perilous times shall come,” and
“Some shall fall away from the faith, giving heed to seducing spirits
and doctrines of demons.” Also the Lord Jesus had Himself
spoken of “Great signs and wonders, which would,” if it were
possible, ‘‘ lead astray even the elect.”

The attempt to forecast the future, as in “clairvoyance and
second sight,” seems to conflict with the Scriptural statement :—‘“ Ye
know not what shall be on the morrow,” which God has mercifully
ordained, so that the knowledge of the future, whether good or
evil, should not unfit us for the present.

Dr. VAUGHAN BARBER said that with regard to the danger of
looking into these things in his opinion this is a view not to be
taken. The whole matter must be looked into earnestly and
faithfully by competent persons. The results may be of great use
even if it be dangerous for the weak-minded to tamper with the
processes by which these results are to be obtained and used.

64 A, T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD.

Children should not play with gunpowder, but to those who are
competent it is most useful.

For the period of two years he had taken the greatest interest in
hypnotism, and had subjected it to a thorough investigation. He
was of the opinion that a proper use of hypnotism was most
advantageous in the practice of medicine. With this view he put
the matter before two sisters, patients of his, who both refused to
have anything to do with it. One of them, however, fell seriously
ill twelve months ago, and suffered great pain. Having previously
refused to be subjected to hypnotic suggestion, she was now in
sickness unable to respond to it, and died under the effects of
morphia injections. ‘The surviving sigter, after this sad experience,
allowed herself to be subjected to hypnotism, and has since found
it of great benefit.

Dr. GEorGE H. MartTIN, of San Francisco, said that as the
discussion had taken a direction along medical lines he should
therefore take up another line of thought. The medical facts are
so well known that they cannot well be controverted by anyone
who has given any real thought to the subject. But there is a
phase of the subject which has not yet been touched upon.

Every year we are coming more and more to feel the facts of the
unseen world as real things, as real as any physical facts. Thoughts
and feelings are being studied scientifically. Science is simply the
classification of knowledge, and thoughts and their effects can be
just as accurately investigated as any other kind of knowledge.
The greatest and most potent fact in human life is the belief in a
future existence. If we believe that there is a reason for everything
and a cause for every effect we must believe in a hereafter, for
every race that ever existed on the earth has believed in some kind
of a future life. Christian and pagan, Jew and Gentile, educated
and uneducated, have all been born with that belief in them. It is
the most real thing on earth to-day. It must be true that there is
a hereafter, or that thought would not be so persistent through all
the ages of mankind. There must be a reason for this persistence,
and that reason is that we are to develop ourselves here upon earth
to the greatest possible degree that each individual may take the
highest position possible to him in that future existence. We do
not know the plan by which our experiences come to us, but we
know that we are here, and that there must be a reason for it. If

A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD. 65

such thoughts as these are real enough and potent enough to shape
human life through the ages are they not facts—scientific if unseen ?
I claim that they are.

If we will but stop a moment to analyse our thought we find
evidences of the unseen world always round us. We do not know
why after carefully studying out a certain definite plan of action
for our own welfare we are absolutely unable to carry it out,
indeed, have to give it up and follow a course which is its direct
opposite, and yet in the end proves to be far better than any we
could have planned with our present knowledge. We do not know
what impels us to do things for doing which there is apparently no
reason, but which really shape the whole course of our lives. These
are experiences which occur in every human life. There must be
a reason for them. They must mean that there is an Omniscient
Eye which looks on each individual life. If these facts be true they
mean that our whole lives are shaped by the elements of this unseen
world. If these elements are so powerful as to influence us in many
directions they are certainly demonstrable scientific facts. Religion
is a fact, and yet religion is only faith, and “faith is the substance
- of things hoped for, the evidence of things unseen.” Faith shapes
the course of human lives, yet cannot be demonstrated except by
its effects. Its effects, however, are so evident that no one can
deny them. Therefore a posteriori faith is real, although unseen.

These facts might be enumerated at great length, but it is not
necessary. It is only needful to put forward, as Dr. Schofield
would have done had time allowed, the truth that they do exist
and are scientifically demonstrable. It is possible to go further
than Dr. Schofield, and say that revelation is faith, and that faith is
material because scientifically demonstrable as any natural fact can be.

Professor LANGHORNE ORCHARD thought that they were under
thankful obligation to the learned author for a thoughtful and
suggestive paper. It had brought before them the fact that
the world of spirit is as real as, and more important than, the world
of matter. We shall agree that there is no conflict between the
Revelation given in nature and that given in the Bible. Science,
unable to regard the universe as self-originated, seeks its antecedent
and cause in God; and in the beautiful language of the paper,
attempts “to decipher the handwriting of the Almighty on the
Universe.”

66 A. 7. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD.

In the spiritualistic vagaries now in vogue may be largely traced
a reaction from materialism. The wise investigator, whilst steering
clear of the Scylla of atheism, will not be engulfed in the
Charybdis of superstition. }

With reference to some of the phenomena mentioned, the author
appears to go rather too far.

On page 58 we meet with the expression, “ Double and multiple
personality.” Here different moods of personality seem to be
confused with personality itself, and to be looked on as different
personalities.

In connection with the miraculous swimming of the iron axe-
head alluded to on page 56, the better view is, surely, that there
was not a “reversal” of any natural law, but that the force of
gravity continued to operate but was counteracted by the Divine
arm. ‘There was not reversal, but counter-action.

We shall thoroughly consent with the author’s able reasoning to
prove that the evidence from “first-hand” revelation of Divine
truth is not less strong than is that for any scientific discovery.

Dr. SCHOFIELD’s reply in conclusion, is as follows :—

In reply to Colonel Hendley I may say that I, of course, excluded
in my description of temporary manias, with which he and I are
familiar, and I referred to cases which could not be explained on
ordinary scientific grounds. As to his and the Rev. J. Tuckwell’s
remarks on Blind Martha, I should like to say that malingerers
generally deceive for their own advantage ; but in this case the girl
was in every way pecuniarily and otherwise in a better position
with her eyesight than without it. I may say my mother obtained
her her place and taught her to read, and there is no doubt what-
ever that practically she was without effective sight before her cure,
and that afterwards, though the eyes were diseased, she could see
for all practical purposes.

I may add I have given the definition the Rev. J. Tuckwell
suggests at the foot of page 62. With regard to the late Mr.
Myers, I never for a moment suggested that the automatic letters
came from those whose names were attached to them.

A note on the address has been sent by the Rev. A. Irving, in
which he suggests that I limit science to the human microcosm.
On the contrary, it is of cosmic science I speak. No doubt Lord
Kelvin, when he inferred “the existence of God,” meant more the

A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD. 67

“mind,” but I doubt that science alone can get further than an
Omniscient Mind, or First Cause.

The Rey. A. Irving finds his patience taxed by my remarks on
the coconut and apple, but I think he fails to appreciate my point
that the force that effects the elevation of these fruits is what is
called vital, and which is still enshrouded in such mystery that I feel
sure, if Mr. Irving will grapple with the unanswerable question I
propose, he will find his patience still more severely taxed.
Professor Lionel Beale, F.R.S., was the first who called my attention
to the phenomenon of the apple in the tree.

The “Divine aim” of my “fiction” is well-known Scriptural
imagery ; ; this perhaps may still be deemed too anthropomorphic. At
best it is only an illustration and not a theory. I have to return my
thanks to all those who have listened to a paper that suffered
severely from the undue condensation consequent upon the extent
of the subject matter, and also for their patience in hearing so
many debateable subjects introduced without the opportunity for
fairly discussing them.

68 A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD.

NOTE ON DR. SCHOFIELD’S PAPER ON “SCIENCE
AND THE UNSEEN WORLD.”

COMMUNICATED BY THE REv. A. IRvine, D.Sc., F.G.S.

The paper by Dr. Schofield is interesting and valuable to the
great majority of us, who are debarred from the same extensive
observation of psychological phenomena as falls in his way as a
professional man. The first part of the paper leaves upon one’s
mind the impression that in his use of the term ‘‘Science” its con-
notation is mainly restricted to the science of the human microcosm,
almost oblivious of the vastly wider cosmos to which science in the
larger sense extends its investigations. It is surely within the
range of human consciousness that we find the borderland, where
things which are matters of revelation and things which are
matters of scientific investigation—“ the things which are unseen
and eternal” and ‘ the things which are seen and temporal” (to use
the Pauline dictum) not only meet but coalesce. I cannot therefore
follow the learned author when he says that ‘their spheres scarcely
ever touch.” A truer philosophy surely teaches that they both
centre in God, and are not therefore in the last resort diverse.
Again when we are told that science may “ postulate ” an omniscient
mind we are on a different line to that of Lord Kelvin’s dictum
(which I heard him utter), which affirms that science can (and, if
thoroughgoing enough, must) infer the existence of God. It is the
function of philosophy to unify the two spheres of thought and
belief ; and their differences arise not only from “the character and
object of the two” (p. 49), but also from the difference of the
faculties called into play. ‘The fundamental difference is that the
one field of thought requires the purely intellectual faculties ; the
other appeals to the intuitive and perceptive faculties, to all that
constitutes spirit (volition, emotion, etc.) and requires the “venture
of faith,” which may and does challenge the test of experience in its
results, even as scientific theory does in another way. There are
some excellent remarks on this pomt in Zhoughts on Religion by
George Romanes, no mean scientist; and it is urged in the New
Testament passim.

In the second part of the paper Dr. Schofield seems to me (as a
layman) to present us with a pretty complete outline map of the
ground which the modern science of psychology in its present
inchoate stage is attempting to explore. ‘There occur, however, in
it several expressions which seem to carry to the mind of a student

A. 'l. SCHOFIELD, M.D., ON SCIENCE AND THE UNSEEN WORLD. 69

of more exact science a certain looseness of thought. Thus on p. 56,
we are told that the apple fallen from the tree may be caught in the
hand or made to rise to a height greater than that from which it
has fallen “by a force which reverses the law of gravitation.”
Here the effect of gravity is intercepted, but by the expenditure of
the energy required to intercept it; and a little thought will show
that gravitation in this way takes its toll, just as much as if it
continued to act as an accelerating force upon the falling pome.
And that remark about the coconut “climbing up into the tree
against all laws of gravitation” is, to say the least, a tax upon one’s
patience. Everyone knows that it was made where it grew by the
combination of forces employed in the physiology of the life of the
tree, some more, some less amenable to the laws of gravitation.
The fiction of the “ Divine arm” holding the axe-head up in the
water, smacks too much of the crude “carpenter theory ” of Creation,
and is altogether unscientific. Such /dchetés do not strengthen the
claim of Psychology to be considered a true Science.

*491st ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING

MONDAY, FEBRUARY lst, 1909.

Proressor HE. Hutt, LLD., F.RS. TS
IN THE CHAR.

The Minutes of the previous Meeting having been read and confirmed,
the following candidates were elected as Associates of the Victoria
Institute :—

Edwin H. Banks, Esq., M.A., D.L., J.P.
Miss Mary Beachcroft.

The following paper was then read by the Author :—

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. By W. CunNINGHAM,
D.D., Archdeacon of Ely.

EW occurrences in the history of the English people have
been more remarkable than the rapid strides which have
been made by Socialism, during the last thirty years, in
capturing public opinion, and becoming a great political force.
In 1879, it had hardly any footing in England at all; the
ordinary newspaper reader regarded it as a craze which took
possession of hysterical foreigners, but which had no attraction
for the common sense of Englishmen. Trade Union policy was
entirely uninfluenced by it, in the days of the Junta ;f and
till the Fabian Essays were published in 1889, there was little
evidence that its doctrines had any hold in literary circles.
But the world has moved since then; many measures, which
the last generation would have condemned as socialistic, have
been passed by Parliament; and, in any gathering of clergy and
ministers, there are sure to be many who take a pride in
declaring that they are Christian socialists. It may be doubted
whether any such rapid change in public opinion occurred even
at the Reformation itself ; and there is no other period in which
the modification of accepted principles has been comparable to
that which is taking place in the present generation.

* Held in the House of the Royal Society of Arts.
+ S. and B. Webb, History of Trade Onionism, 215.

» Wie

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. 71

Thirty years ago there seemed to me to be some difficulty in
accounting for the slow progress which Socialism, despite the
influence it was exercising in foreign lands, had made in
England.* The rapidity of the success of the invasion of
socialistic ideas since that time has been chiefly due, as I
believe, to the weakening or withdrawal of two restraining
forces, one political, and the other intellectual. It may be
worth while to say a word about each of these in turn before
going on to discuss the relation of Socialism, as a doctrine of
life, to Christianity.

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, there had
been an increasing feeling that the sphere within which the
State could advantageously interfere was somewhat limited.
The sentiment against unnecessary State regulation had played
no small part in the growth of popular discontent which
culminated in the Great Rebellion; Adam Smith had insisted
on the mistakes which the State is likely to make, and on the
cumbrousness of its machinery; and the evils, which grew up
under the old Poor Law, had led many people to fear the
incidental and unforeseen mischief which may arise in
connection with the best-intentioned legislation. The fact
that there are many evils which government cannot cure, was
a recognised axiom on the part not only of Members of the
House of Commons, but of electors during the greater part of
the nineteenth century. The governing classes were convinced
that it is impossible to make men moral by Act of Parliament,
whereas Socialists hold, according to Mr. Shaw in to-day’s
Times, that they cannot be made “either moral or happy in any
other way.” But the Reform Bill of 1885 transferred a large
share of political power imto the hands of sections of the
community who were inclined to hope great*things from their
new rights. The Chartists had reckoned that, if only they could
secure political power, all merely social wrengs would be put
right; and the classes, who were eniranchised in 1885, have
been inclined to cherish the same belief; it is the mainspring
of much of the agitation for Women’s Suffrage in the present
day. The powers of the State are so vast and far-reaching,
that it is easy to form an exaggerated view of what it can
wisely undertake and carry through; and those, who have not

* Compare my article on “The Progress of Socialism in England,” in
The Contemporary Review, xxxiv, 245, J anuary, 1879.
= F

72 W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., ARCHDEACON OF ELY, ON

shared in political power themselves, are apt to attribute the
failure of the legislature to introduce more general conditions
of welfare to the indifference, or the selfishness, or the greed of
the landowner and capitalist. Since the classes which had
hitherto been unrepresented began to realise their strength,
they have been eager to put forward such proposals for
improving the material condition of the most helpless elements
in the community, as that for providing at public expense for
the housing of the poor. According to the older opinion it
would be impossible for the State to take up such matters
wisely and without the serious danger of doing in the long run
more harm than good,
Il.

While then there has been a new incentive to the introduc-
tion into Parliament of schemes which a bygone generation
would have denounced as socialistic, there has been less facility for
discussing them thoroughly and critically, owing to the changes
which have taken place in the academic study of Political
Economy. The lazssez faire doctrine had diverted scientific
investigation from the empirical enquiries which can be most
usefully undertaken* ; such are investigations as to the best
means of attaining some particular material benefit, the main-
taining rates of wages, the improvement of employment, and
the opening of new markets, or as to the best means of render-
ing small holdings profitable, and so retaining the rural
population upon the land. Much admirable work of this.
kind has been done by Royal Commissions, and is embodied in
their Reports, but it lies outside the scope of current economic
science. The academic economists in England, under the
influence of laissez faire principles, were not inclined to
spend much time in studying the precise conditions of any
industry or branch of commerce; they believed that the
growth and decay of trades could be left to settle them-
selves. So far as practical life was concerned, they were
merely prepared to take the part of critics—to formuiate the
principles according to which the increase of national wealth
would go on most rapidly—and to approve or condemn particular
proposals by the application of these principles. They did not
profess to lay down what ought to be done in regard to any
matter, but only to criticise actual projects from a particular

* See p. 80 below.

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. “a

point of view; they held that theirs was an important stand-
point, but they were careful to make clear that they did not
regard it as the only standpoint. The Classical Economists
dealt with one side of life—the pursuit of wealth—which was
isolated for the sake of convenience of study; they had a
strong position for negative criticism, by pointing out cases in
which injury was likely to be done to national opulence, as, for
example, war must injure it, for a time at least, and perhaps
for an indefinitely long time. But they did not pretend to be
able to give positive advice as to what ought to be done, because
they were not wholly forgetful of the one-sided character of
their own knowledge.

A purely critical 7réle is one which rouses little enthusiasm,
especially when experience proves the criticism to have been
sometimes mistaken. Carlyle and Ruskin gave expression to a
sort of disdain for the dismal science which was increasingly felt
in the fifties and sixties. The British public have been inclined
to resent the self-restraint of scientific students and to insist that,
if their science is worth anything, Political Economy ought to
be able to give direct and positive guidance in political life,
not merely on particular economic questions, but on matters of
social policy. The controversy over the Corn Laws proved to
be a turning point in this matter; on the one hand there was
the attitude of MacCulloch—the last and the most learned and
most realistic of the classical economists—who criticised
restriction from the scientific standpoint; and on the other
there were Cobden and Bright, preaching an economic doctrine
of free exchange as the harbinger of welfare at home and
universal peace throughout the world. From 1846 onwards it
became increasingly difficult to maintain the old attitude as to
the narrow limits of scientific investigation in economics, and
to maintain its hypothetical character. The popular view that
it was capable, not merely of criticising, but of giving positive
guidance in regard to the material aspects of national life
became more and more deeply seated.

The demand soon called forth a supply; Professor Marshall
has made a gallant attempt to re-cast Political Economy, so
that it shall be better accommodated to meet the popular need
of positive guidance. He has endeavoured to enlarge the
scope of Political Economy, by abandoning the view that it
confines its attention to material wealth, and to the motives
which it calls into play. In his inaugural lecture* he showed

* The Present Position of Economics, 1884.

74 W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., ARCHDEACON OF ELY, ON

that he was jealous of the fair fame of the science, and deter-
mined to present it in a form in which it could no longer be
stigmatised as selfish, but should concern itself with motives to
action of many kinds, altruistic as well as self-regarding. As
thus re-cast, it seems to give a doctrine of what is wise to do in

regard to material things : and Professor Pigou in his inaugural
lecture* insisted on the practical aspects of Economic Science,
though he reserved the right to speak authoritatively to the
chosen few who can conjure with the mysteries of statistics.
He does not disclaim the power of giving positive guidance;
he seems to think the scientific economist could really do it if
only he had time enough. Unfortunately the age is in a hurry,
and wants to act, while academic economists are temporising
and weaving a web of pretentious words.

From the point of view of the plain man it is important
that morality should be taken into account adequately, if it is
dealt with at all. The old Political Economy did not pretend
to deal with it, and disclaimed any pretension to use the word
“ought ”; the “new” Political Economy speaks with a less cer-
tain sound. The “new” Political Economy does not allow fully
and properly for the operation of public spirit or the sense of
duty ; such things evade the economic calculus; but still it
professes to take account of them as utilities, and merges them
all in the calculation of expediencies. The older economists
could make clear what they were talking about; and especially
could specify what they left out of account temporarily, in
order that proper stress might be laid upon these other factors
at the proper time. Just because the older economists made it
quite clear what they assumed and what they had before them,
it is possible to learn a great deal even from their mistakes ; it
is very instructive to try and see how far aman hike MacCulloch
was mistaken, and why he was mistaken, and this is possible
because his treatment was really scientific. But the “new”
Political Economy never makes plain what it assumes; it is so
far concerned with subjective forces that it is difficult to use it
to explain the actual occurrences of the past, or to test it by
them. I have argued elsewhere that in framing it there has
been an abandonment of the scientific attitude, and that the
result is a mere “hybrid” sciencet; it fails to provide a good

* Heonomue Science in Relation to Practice, 1908.

+ The Wisdom of the Wise, 17. Compare also the criticisms of the
New Political Economy, by Professor Nicholson (Principles of Political
Economy, L. 51-65). Professor Ashley (Presidential Address to Section F

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. yds’

mental discipline in preparation for the investigation of the facts
of actual life*; and it has done much to divert economic study
in England to lines that are unfruitful, while it has also
execised a still more regrettable influence on the public mind.
The fact that a “new” Political Economy has been put
forward, in academic circles, has gone a long way to discredit
the older doctrine all along the line. The Malthusian principles
of population, and the law of diminishing return for land are
in popular opinion part of the “old” Political Economy which
has been discarded, and it is supposed that they have ceased
to deserve any attention. The body of scientific principle
which has been established as the foundation for the criticism
of practical proposals has been abandoned, and there is no
longer any recognised basis of organised knowledge from which
to criticise the projects of any sentimental charlatan. Since
the “new” Political Economy has come into vogue the
warnings of the prophetic voice have been silenced, and the
public are encouraged to hope that a much desired image will
sooner or later be available, to go before the people to the
promised land.

The rapid progress of Socialism is sufficiently accounted for
when we see that the Government of the country has to a great
extent passed into the hands of classes who have an exaggerated
belief as to the work which the State can wisely attempt to do;
while the old scientific standpoint from which its projects can
be effectively criticised and rightly appreciated has been
officially abandoned. Toa very large number of educated persons
it has come as something of a relief to believe that they are now
set free from any intellectual obligation to refrain from advo-
cating proposals, to which they are impelled by a sentiment in
favour of the less unequal distribution of wealth, and their
sympathy for the poor. In so far as they had read Political
Economy, ¢.g., in John Stuart Mill, they had found much of it
clear and convincing ; but yet there seemed to be a blot upon it,
from its persistence in studying the effects of self-interest ; and
in so far as it was popularly made a basis for or a justification
of practical conduct, it was clearly unchristian, The “new”

of British Association at Leicester in Economic Journal, xi) and M.
C. 8. Devas (Political Economy, 23, 129).

* See my article, A Plea for Pure Science in Economic Review, iv,
January, 1892.

76 W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., ARCHDEACON OF ELY, ON

Political Economy has seemed to remove the old blot, and to
present the truth about material wealth in forms in which it is
easily compatible with Christian teaching. Hence to many minds
there appears to be good hope that it might now be possible to
devise a gospel of material welfare which shall be in accordance
with Christianity. The example of the Free Trade era, and the
positive preaching of an economic doctrine which carried in its
wake the hopes of an universal peace between nations, gave a
sort of inspiration as to what might be attempted in regard to
the reorganisation of society within the realm. Though the
superficial observer may not remark upon it, a little reflection
shows that the fundamental principles of those Free Traders who
have abandoned lazssez farre are the accepted axioms of socialism ;
and the consciousness that this was the case has rendered a
large section of the educated public ready to believe that
Economic Science was in favour of both one and the other.
Since social enthusiasm has been hailed as “ the beginning of
economic science,’ it has appeared that science and religion
might unite together in advocating, not perhaps the extreme
views of anarchists, but the milder form of revolution, which
professes to be a Christian Socialism. It may be worth while
to consider in turn and very briefly whether this new doctrine
has a sound basis in science, and whether it is really compatible
with Christianity as a philosophy of life.

PVs

There are undoubtedly many features of the present industrial
system that must be regarded as wasteful: if society were better
organised, energy that is now spent in pushing the goods of
particular firms might be diverted into other channels, and
much of the uncertainty in business, with the fluctuations in
trade, might be at ail events reduced ; though it may be doubted
whether any organisation could get rid of these variations alto-
gether. In so far as State socialism or municipal socialism can
supply a system of administration which meets these defects,
and enables the business of the country to be better carried on
with less waste, and equally effectively as regards the require-
ments of the public, it would approve itself. In so far as
socialism can get similar results by less wasteful methods it
would prove itself economical; and hence all the economic
criticism of the existing system may be regarded as an invitation
to suggest and attempt an experiment that shall prove itself
better. That is a process that is going on every day, in the State

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. vive

management of the telephone and telegraph service, and the
municipalisation of electric lighting and power, and tramways;
it is a form of the competitive process through which a great
many experiments in collectivism may demonstrate their
superiority, and survive and flourish. There are some people
who believe it is going on too fast, and that some of the alleged
savings are unreal; but the two alternatives of public manage-
ment and private enterprise are to be tested by economic consider-
ations, and it is probable that one may be preferable or the other
in communities of different types, according to the habits and
decrees of education which are current among the people.

When, however, we pass from the criticism of the existing
order to approval of plans for the reconstruction of society, it
is impossible to appeal to Economic Science with any confidence.
The underlying principles, which have been put forward by the
advocates of Free Trade, and which are adopted by Christian
Socialists, are not matters on which Economic Science speaks
decidedly or on which it can claim to say the last word.

1. Free Traders are inclined to look entirely to the consumer
as the person to be considered, in considering the success of
our trade policy. Itis clear that all the inhabitants of the
realm are consumers, though not all are producers of material
goods, and therefore this standpoint seems to take account of
the requirements of all members of the community, and not of
any particular section. The advocates of Free Trade assumed
that in the present constitution of society, with individual
enterprise and competition, production was sure to go on
somehow, and that under a Free Trade system every kind of
production would be carried on in the place to which it was
best adapted. But it is a somewhat different thing to look
principally at consumption and the distribution of the wealth
already acquired, when we are discussing the reconstitution of
society ; we are not justified in taking for granted that efficient
production is sure to go on under all social conditions. Pro-
duction and consumption are both phases in the process of
economic life; but the primary thing economically, for the
maintenance of society and for its progress in the future, is that
there should be favourable conditions for production. The
more distribution is improved, so as to be as little unequal as
maybe, or so that whatever inequalities exist can be justified as
reasonable and right, the better; but if production is injuriously
affected, there will be less material wealth available, and a
diminution of average material well-being. If we lay undue
stress on consumption we are in danger of giving exclusive

78 W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., ARCHDEACON OF ELY, ON

attention to the desires of the present generation; it is by
turning our attention to production that we can best take
thought for the generation of consumers who are yet to come.
When we are looking to the organisation of society in the long
run, the important thing is, not to look merely at consumption,
but to make sure that the production of useful things, so that
they shall be available for distribution, goes on steadily and
well. Consumption looks to present conditions and the wealth
that has been acquired, production looks to the future, and the
prosperity of society in the longrun. Itis of course conceivable
that Socialism may in some circumstances and conditions supply
greatly improved organisation for production, and therefore an
increased mass of wealth (see p. 76, above). It is particularly
unfortunate, however, that socialistic writers and speakers at
present are so much inclined to dwell on the advantage of
distributing wealth differently among consumers, and are not
at more pains to show that the stimulus to efficiency in
production will be maintained under their system.

2. Economic science may have much to say about the
production, distribution and exchange of wealth, whatever kind
of community is taken as the unit. In the ancient world, and
in medieval times, the city was a convenient unit for most
economic purposes; and with the rise of nationalities, in
modern times, the nation has come to be a convenient unit,
both for political and for economic purposes. But the advocates
of Free Trade have taken a somewhat new departure in treating
the world as a whole, as the unit they had in view ;* they are
inclined to disparage the attempt to promote the wealth and
power of any one country, and to view all as contributing to
and drawing from the common stock of the world as a whole.
This cosmopolitan habit of mind is also adopted by socialists,
who are inclined to disparage patriotic sentiment and to propose
a system which takes no account of difference of race and
history. But after all, the cosmopolitanism of Free Traders
assumed the continued existence of nations; each one of which
should be part of a complex system, bound to the other
members by ties of commercial connection. It is not quite

* In 1891, when I gave a presidential address to the Economic Section
of the British Association at Cardiff on “ Nationalism and Cosmopoli-
tanism in Economics” (Statistical Society’s Journal, liv, 644), 1 did not
realise as clearly as I do now, the grave evils which are inevitably con-
nected with cosmopolitanism, or the practicability of treating the Empire
as an economic unit.

:
.
|

i eee

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. 19

clear what the relation of each consumer or nation to the others
would be, in a socialist system; how far each would lead an
independent economic lite; or how far there would be trade
relations between different communities. In both cases there
is a disparagement of patriotism, and the advocacy of something
which is regarded as desirable for all men everywhere; but the
relations in socialist systems of the smaller centres of organisa-
tion, to one another, and to the whole are not easy to
apprehend.

3. Free Traders have been confident that if certain material
conditions are introduced, they will react so as to bring about a
change of sentiment. It was argued that the mutual interdepen-
dence of nations for purposes of trade would tend to create friendly
feelings, which would render international quarrels impossible.
In a similar fashion the socialist holds that if an equality of
condition is imposed, a sense of brotherhood will be developed
among all citizens, and that under these circumstances public
spirit, instead of individual success, will become an effective
motive to induce men to engage in strenuous work. It may
perhaps be doubted, especially when we remember the threatened
coalition against us at the outbreak of the Boer War, whether
fifty years of Free Trade have disarmed all jealousy of this
country in the minds of foreigners, or created a sympathetic
enthusiasm all over the world for the prosperity of the British
Empire ; but even assuming that this has been the case, it can
hardly be regarded as certain that a similar love of one’s
neighbours would be engendered within any community when
the transition to socialism is complete. It would hardly be
likely to arise till the old order was completely forgotten; in
some minds a sense of injustice would rankle; in others there
might be disillusionment and disappointment ; it does not seem
clear that a stronger sense of brotherhood, and desire to engage
in self-sacrifice for the common cause would be called forth
universally, by the mere force of changed circumstances.
There is much to be said for the view that “life develops from
within”; and that an enthusiasm in the heart, however kindled,
will act on the will, and find expression in action. But there
is little reason to believe that the connection also works in the
other direction, and that we can supply material conditions
which will inevitably call forth a change of aspiration. At all
events, this speculation takes us into the domain of psychology,
in which economic science is a learner, not an authority. The
principles which are common to Free Traders and to Socialists
are not so scientifically established that the vaunted success of

80 W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., ARCHDEACON OF ELY, ON

the one system in one part of the world can give us much
confidence as to the wisdom of attempting under similar
euidance to reconstruct society everywhere.

These deep-seated resemblances are obscured by the fact that
Free Traders continue to advocate the doctrine of laissez faire
im regard to foreign commerce, even when they abandon it in
regard to everything else. This maxim, which was adopted by
Adam Smith and many of his followers as a counsel as to the
best means of attaining opulence, has never been accepted
by economists generally, and has been generally discarded in
‘Germany and America, through the influence of List. The
extent and manner in which the State can wisely interfere in
industrial and commercial life is not to be settled by any
formula; it varies with the habits and conditions of each
community. The study and co-ordination of actual experience
in many lands and many ages is necessary to enable us to take
up wisely the task which is enjoined on us by a sense of duty
to maintain the heritage of well-ordered political hfe we have
received, and by the desire to plant it in other lands. We are
learning to think imperially, and to take the Empire, not the
island of Great Britain, as the’ unit to be considered ;* and
economics as an empirical science gives us the means of
learning from experience as to the best means of developing
every part of the Empire, and of encouraging each part to
co-operate for the good of the whole. This was the admirable
scheme which was thought out by Mr. Wakefield; and with
our longer experience and larger knowledge we ought to be
able to do much to relieve the congestion and unemploy-
ment at home, and at the same time to develop the more
backward areas of the British Empire. Imperialists and
Socialists are at one in rejecting the doctrine of laissez favre, but
Imperialists desire to rely on the experience of the past to
promote a clearly understood aim, while Socialism is necessarily
a leap in the dark ; so far as its constructive side goes it can
adduce little support from the organised study of experience.

The attraction of Socialism lies not in the reasoning which
supports it, but in the hope it holds out and the sense of duty it
inspires. It is the form which the enthusiasm for humanity

* Compare my “ Plea for the Study o Economic History” in Lconomie
Review, ix (January, 1899).

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. 81

takes in the present day. With a strong sense of the grinding
poverty and degradation in which millions of their fellow men
are sunk, the generous spirits of our day can hardly fail to be
intensely eager to give to every human being the opportunity
of developing the best that is in him, and of sharing in the
heritage of culture and knowledge that has come to the heirs of
all the ages. And this newand eager desire, which so many are
hailing as a gospel, seems to have a very intimate relationship
with Christianity. That, too, has been an “enthusiasm for
humanity” ;it cherishes a hope for a new heaven, but it also
labours for a new earth. The moral character of Socialism is
high, its philanthropy is deep and genuine, as if it had the
closest affinity with practical Christianity, so that to many clergy
it seems possible to blend the two, and by their combined forces
to bring about a new society that shall be better materially
and more truly religious. If Socialism can be brought to accept
the leadership of Christ, it seems that enormous progress might
be made for the ennobling of man and the service of God.

On the other hand it appears that there are many socialists
who do not recognise this kinship or desire to strengthen any
affinities which may exist between Christianity and the move-
ment they have at heart. They may indeed feel an admiration
for the Founder of Christianity, but they believe that the move-
ment He inaugurated has proved a failure, and that it is
necessary to give their energies to something else. To their
minds Christianity, as it is at the present time, is embodied in
powertul institutions closely allied to the social forces which
they find most hostile ; and they believe that in its true inward-
ness, Christianity has little or nothing in common with Socialism.
Personally I believe that the insight of the non-Christian
socialist -is not mistaken; whatever superficial resemblances
there may be between Christian philanthropy and _ socialistic
schemes, I hold that Christianity is quite inconsistent with
socialism as a doctrine of life; and that those Christians who
dally with Socialism, are in danger of losing their hold on the
very essentials of Christianity.

The forms of Socialism are so various that it is not easy to
indicate its essential character in a few woras, but in all
its shapes it aims at procuring more enjoyment for the mass
of individuals—both intellectual and physical—by govern-
mental action and organisation. The range of its vision is
bounded by the present world, and it neither knows nor greatly
cares what there may be beyond. This attitude of mind is
always tempting—Let us eat and drink for to-morrow we die

82 W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., ARCHDEACON OF ELY, ON

—but it is not Christian. Christianity holds to a belief in the
reality of undying spiritual power ; it insists that for every
human being to order his life here as the beginning of an
immortal life to come is the true way of forming the noblest
type of human character. Christianity recognises the joy of
lite on earth, but does not admit that earth can give the best.
that man is capable of enjoying; and Christianity, if it is true
to itself, must beware of a doctrine which fails to ineuleate self-
discipline and tends to encourage men to set their affections on
things of earth. That the Christian principle of aloofness from
mundane things may seem to many to be mere hypocrisy, is
true enough; but it is none the less the business of Christians
personally to try to make that principle real in their own lives,
and to be on their guard against any associations that may
weaken it.

The ends in view of Socialism and of Christianity are different,
and the proposed means for attaining them are quite distinct.
Both aim at an improvement in society, but Socialists try to
attain it by compelling other people to do their duty, Christian-
ity by inducing every man to do his own. The method of com-
pulsion is not altogether easy to Justify; when it is no longer
the suppression of a definite breach of the law of the land, but
is dictated by considerations of expediency, it may insensibly
become a well-meaning tyranny. In all taxation there is
depriving a man of a portion of his property, and many tax-
payers are inclined to resent the demand that they should be
forced to contribute towards objects of which they do not
approve. Nor is it only in connection with the disposal of
property that this difficulty arises ; in a highly organised State-
Socialism it would seem impossible to give much scope to the
individual for choosing his own employment or distributing his
own time. Perhaps the danger of tyrannical government by a
bureaucracy is less formidable than that of bringing about a
deterioration of character in those who grow up under a system
which gives insufficient scope for initiative and enterprise on the
part of individuals. A highly organised society may be in
danger of becoming mechanical, and of turning out citizens of
one prevailing type.

Christianity, on the other hand, appeals to each individual
personally, by holding out an ideal, and stirring up his will;
it does not hope to accomplish its object by pressure from
without, but by inspiration from within. And thus, while
Socialism is not obviously compatible with freedom, and
hampers the growth of strenuous personalities, Christianity 1s

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. 83

liable to no such charge. Since Christianity endeavours to
safeguard the inner freedom of every man, and to encourage the
formation of strong personalities, the doctrine of Christ affords
a basis for a morality that at once holds out the highest ideal,
and points out the method by which we may make progress
towards it. The schemes of the Socialist could only bring
about the embodiment of current ideals of human life in forms
which would be too stereotyped to leave room for further
advance.

Since Socialism is inconsistent with Christianity, both in its
aims and in the means on which it relies to attain them, there
can be little call for the Christian to take an active part in the
reconstruction of society on this basis. But reconstruction is
hardly in sight at present; the Socialist feels that there is still
much to be done in the preliminary work of clearing the
ground and breaking the stability of the existing social order.
Socialism has a destructive, as well as a constructive side.
Those who are unconvinced of the wisdom of socialistic
schemes may yet think it possible to go half-way and take an
active part in attacking the evils of the day in the hope that
something better may eventually be found to take the place of
existing institutions. This is the attitude of the anarchist ;
but 1t is surely impossible for any one to take this line in the name
of Christ ; a Christian anarchist seems almost a contradiction
in terms. The characteristic feature of Christ’s work and life,
and of His commission to His followers is the fostering of what
is good, so that it may outgrow the evil; He did not commend
the action of the Old Testament prophets in calling down fire
from Heaven to destroy evil, as if it were worthy of imitation.
He did not profess to remedy injustice in the division of an
inheritance, and though His followers should, of course, be good
citizens, and take their part with Jews, Turks, infidels and
others in wise attempts to suppress wrong, it is not specially
incumbent on the Christian, as a Christian, to denounce what
is evil. Omniscient insight is needed to discriminate the wheat
from the tares as they grow together, and human hands are not
called to arrogate to themselves the power of taking vengeance
on guilt. If constructive socialism is different in aims and in
methods from Christian teaching, socialism on its destructive
side is wholly alien to the Christian spirit.

As against Socialism, Christianity is to-day the most effective
guardian of reliance on personal energy and personal character as
powers which can leaven the world with good ; and those who de-
plore the slow progress that is made, who are in danger of losing

84 W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., ARCHDEACON OF ELY, ON

heart, and inclined to combine Christian sentiments with socialis-
tic methods, may do well to bear in mind the old warning against.
undue haste. The delays in realising the Christian aims are
partly moral and due to the weakness of human will; but.
they have also been intellectual. Some portion of the blame
must rest with those who, in one age after another, by striving
to render Christianity more conformable to current habits of
thought, have obscured its spiritual character and lost sight of
its spiritual power. We shall do well to be faithful to the trust
we have received, rather than allow ourselves to attempt the
unworthy task of accommodating Christian aims and efforts to.
the spirit of the present day.

DISCUSSION.

The paper being concluded, the CHAIRMAN expressed the thanks.
of the Members and Associates and all those present to Dr. Cunning-
ham for his very able paper on a subject of such pressing and
immediate importance.

The Rev. F. E. SPENCER (vicar of All Saints, Haggerston) said :—
I propose to say a few words on this subject, and with the Chair-
man’s favour, first, as I have to go immediately. What I have to
say is not based specially on books or theories, but upon intimate
contact with the people extending over twenty-one years in the
East end of London.

The most grievous phenomenon to my mind in recent years has:
been the rise and spread in our fatherland of atheistic and inter-
national Socialism. And the reason at bottom seems to me still
more painful. It is a reason not based in its strongest position:
upon theories or treatises, but upon the actual condition of the
industrial classes in this country. It is alleged with only too much.
ground that Christianity has proved itself a failure to adjust and
ameliorate their condition, and on this account it is cast overboard
by the stalwarts of a new gospel. Now, I am not a socialist, nor’
even a Christian socialist. I do not believe in socialist principles.
They are largely a gospel of hate; they have no room for
patriotism, and they seem to me to be a short cut to tyranny.

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. 85

They are still open to the attack that Burke brought to bear upon
the French Revolution. Burke said: “It is the inability to
wrestle with difficulty which has obliged the arbitrary assembly
of France to commence their schemes of reform with abolition
and total destruction. And to make everything the reverse of
what they have been is quite as easy as to destroy. No difficulties
occur in what has never been tried. Criticism is almost baffled in
discovering the defects of what has not existed, and eager
enthusiasm and cheating hope have all the wide field of imagination
in which they may expatiate with little or no opposition”
(Reflections, Clarendon Press, p. 198). But I scarcely think we
can fail to record a comparative failure of Christianity in two
respects—(1) intellectual, and (2) moral.

1. The Manchester school has surrounded the subject with such
complicated perplexities that the intellectual way out has not been
found. This perhaps is the most difficult place of the subject. I
can scarcely conceive that any Christian man will doubt long that
it is the duty of Christians and of a Christian nation to obey what
is the great law of spiritual gravitation, which binds all the societies
of the universe to the throne of God—“ Thou shalt love thy
neighbour as thyself,” as it has been explained by Christ in the
golden rule. But to apply it in practice to the transactions of the
market place is a difficulty which has not been intellectually over-
come. The man in the street regards the practice of our Church
Catechism with a smile of hopelessness or of derision. We are no
nearer to an intellectual way out than when Moore Ede gave the
Hulsean lectures on this subject in 1896. It is this probably more
than anything else which fosters defects in practice. We need an
enlightened conscience. There are conspicuous, honourable and
well known examples of those who have found a way out, and
found it to pay commercially. But they are exceptions still, as my
long and varied experience tends to prove.

2. The haste to be rich and the gospel of comfort, which
characterised the last century, have robbed intellectual investiga-
tions in the region of applied Christianity of their sutiicient
motive.

That at present Christianity is a comparative failure in its.
industrial application of the golden rule abundantly appears from
the following observations, taken from what I am in daily contact

86 W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., ARCHDEACON OF ELY, ON

with, and almost at random: (1) the fierce and immoderate com-
petition which rules at present quite unnecessarily embitters the
existence and probably shortens the life of most who have to do
with it. But its special weight falls upon the industrial community.
Unreasonable hours, inconsiderate arrangements, and insufficient
pay press a large proportion of them down. The conditions of a
contract which keep men working in a pit with exhausted air for
thirty consecutive hours just outside my door so that they can
scarcely crawl ought, for instance, to be amended. ‘There is no
one to blame. The conditions are stupid, but perhaps less stupid
for those at the top. It is the system as a whole that is a failure ;
(2) wages are reduced by competition of aliens; sweating is as bad
as ever. If the Christian intellect cannot find a way out, the
unchristian will, with danger to the State; (3) rent in the centre
of large towns is out of proportion to possible wages. Rent in the
suburbs is rising, with insanitary conditions. Living at a distance
from work results in the insanitary crowding of every available
conveyance morning and evening, and the bringing up of working
people to the centre, hours before they are needed, with insufficient
breakfasts. The effect of this on great numbers of ane#mic girls
and boys is a danger to the State and to the future generation.
(4) Unemployment is at present heartrending—not the unemploy-
ment of the worthless, but of the worthy. Things come from
abroad that our own people could make better, and are often
dumped down at a price which defies honest competition. (5) There
is at present a most lamentable wastage in boy and girl life.
Industrial conditions make it essential that they should swiftly
earn something. In large numbers they take the first little place
which opens. By eighteen years of age they are no longer wanted.
They are turned into the street without any career to swell the
ranks of the unemployed, or even, as I know very painfully, to
learn how to steal.

I am convinced that with regard to our own kith and kin, ou
nearest neighbours, the restoration of the idea of Christian brother-
hood, not as a sentiment, but as a practice, is a crying need. It is
to such things as these that the highest powers of Christian
philosophers, divines and statesmen should be patiently directed.
They menace, as it is, much that we all hold dear. If a Christian
way out cannot be found an unchristian will, to ultimate disaster.

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. 87

It is the old problem of conservative reform—not using the word
in a purely party sense. The atmosphere of the East end is one of
cheerful and patient endurance. But it may not always be so.
All around is the fomes peccaii.

Lieut.-Col. ALVES said: The previous speaker has remarked that
Christianity has proved a failure in dealing with social problems.
But Christianity (as such) has nothing to do with such problems.
Its object is to call out people to form a special body to bear
witness by its conduct to those without it that they are not living
as God intends us to live.

One cause of failure has been the application of New Testament
laws, which form the Church of God, with those of the Old
Testament, under which nations live. Another cause has been
confusion between the teaching of the first three (synoptic) gospels
with the fourth (the Church) gospel.

The synoptic gospels deal with the Kingdom of Israel, which, as
a nation, was shortly to be broken up. Getting rid of property
was, therefore, only anticipating voluntarily what would, in a few
years, be compulsory.

Professor LANGHORNE. ORCHARD, M.A., B.Sc.—There is no
doubt as to the prevalence, amongst a portion of our population, of
much social distress and wretchedness ; nor can this be a matter of
indifference to a Christian. But, obviously, the misery is not a
result from Christianity, it is in spite of Christianity.

Nothing can be more unfair than to attempt to charge it upen
Christianity. The Bible bids us love our neighbours as ourselves,
and, as we have opportunity, do good unto all men. It is in the
carrying out of these principles that the true betterment of society
is to be sought. Socialism would make matters a thousand times
worse than they are. Socialism is the great enemy of Christianity.
It has been pointed out* that while Christianity says, “Mine is
thine,” Socialism says, “Thine is mine.” The sole agreement
between the two systems lies in a desire to ameliorate society. They
differ radically in aims and methods, as the author conclusively
shows on p. 82. Socialismy would make no distinction between merit
and demerit, between clever and stupid, between industrious and lazy;

* By the Jate Dr. Adolf Saphir.
+ If we may believe some of its influential spokesmen.

88 W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., ARCHDEACON OF ELY, ON

and would throw every man’s property, including his time, into one
common melting pot. And to injustice would be added loss of
liberty.. The unhappy people would be under the dictatorship of a
bureaucracy which would appoint to each man his work, thus
affording an instructive commentary upon the boast, ‘“ Britons
never, never shall be slaves,” and suggestive of Israel under
Egyptian task-masters.

Socialism, in my judgment, attacks the three great principles of
justice which are fundamental to social law, namely, that a man be
safe-guarded with respect to his life, his liberty, and his property.
Through lack of stimulation to production, Socialism would com-
mercially be injurious to the life of the individual. It would to a
great extent rob him of liberty and of property, in which term may
be included character, which the author has shown would: suffer
deterioration. If ever Socialism be accepted by justice-loving,
freedom-loving, and reflective Englishmen, it will be because they
are deceived by their leaders, or as a counsel of despair through an
idea that any change is better than none. The awakening and
disillusionment will, in such case, be serious, and may be terrible.

We shall, I am sure, thoroughly endorse the learned author’s
closing remarks, and thank him heartily for his admirable paper.

Mr. H. CHARLEWoOD TURNER said that his experience in social
work, mainly amongst working men, had led him to have much
sympathy with Socialists, however much he was opposed to their
views.

In his opinion they would do little good by denouncing Socialists
as robbers, and men urged on only by greed and selfish desires.
No one with any practical experience of Socialists and their schemes
could make this charge. Undoubtedly, many unscrupulous
agitators were advancing their own ends under the guise of
Socialism. But on the other hand it was a striking thing that of
those men who were keenest on the higher things of life, and most
desirous of improving the education and surroundings of themselves
and their fellow workers, the majority were Socialists. As to why
this was so, he was in absolute agreement with Mr. Spencer of
Haggerston.

They had only to look to the results of the present economic
system to find the justification of the Socialists. If the followers of
the new creed opposed Christianity, and not all of them did, they

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. 89

opposed not for itself, but on the ground that it had forgotten its
ideals, and had allowed the terrible ills of the present day to grow
up in Christian lands,

Before condemning men for following the only system that as far
as they could see gave them any economic hope, and before setting
aside that system as incompatible with Christianity, it was surely
their duty as Christians to propound an alternative and a remedy
to the existing state of affairs.

Rey. SIDNEY PIKE.—I rise to draw attention to two books, The
Problems and Perils of Socialism,* and The Triumph of Socialism.t
The latter has on its cover a significant illustration: a man
carrying a large sack labelled “ Nationalisation,” as indicating the
vast aims of Socialism ; and from a hole in the bottom are dropping
out, one after another, ‘“ Credit,” “Capital,” “Trade,” “ Commerce,”
“Employment,” ‘ National Security,” the final outcome of the
Socialistic propaganda.

A few quotations from Problems and Perils may be given :—

“The chief peril of Socialism is waste—waste both in the moral
and in the economic sense. Socialism would not only deteriorate
character, but it would lessen product. Our present organisation
does provide an incentive to work. Socialism substitutes the much
less powerful incentive of coercion, depriving men of their liberty,
preventing full-grown men selling their labour at their own price
nd under their own conditions.”

The old Poor Law of 1800-1834 is quoted as an ‘ Experience of
an almost complete Socialistic system.” “There was State
endowment for the old, for the unemployed, for motherhood.”
“The destruction of family life and family ties was accomplished
by the indiscriminate Poor Law relief of those days, e¢.g., ‘A widow
with two children, in receipt of three shillings a week from the
parish, married a butcher. The allowance was continued. But the
butcher and his bride came to the overseer and said that they were
not going to keep those children for three shillings a week, and if a
further allowance was not made they should turn them out of doors
-and throw them on the parish altogether.’ ”

On the economic side Mr. Strachey says, as to municipal trading

* By I. St. Loe Strachey.
+ By John D. Mayne, Barrister-at-Law.

90 W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., ARCHDFACON OF ELY, ON

and nationalisation of railways :—‘“ You place a very large number
of men in the paradoxical position of being both employer and
employed”; and ‘‘ Suppose the Government were to nationalise the
railways and one or two large industries, say those of mining and
shipping. In that case it might be quite possible that the
employées in the Post Office, the railways, the mines, the shipping
industry, and the Civil Service might be half, or a little more than |
half, the whole working population. What would then prevent the
employées of the Government using their votes to increase their
salaries all round? This would not only be an enormous injustice
to persons in private employment, who would pay the increased
taxes and yet get no benefit themselves ; but it might also lead to
the bankruptcy of the nation. It seems also extremely unjust that
the State or the municipality, having well-nigh inexhaustible
resources of taxation, should compete with private individuals.”

Finally Mr. Strachey holds up the Roman Empire as a warning
which ‘was not destroyed by the barbarians’ armies. Rome fell
because her people had been ruined and pauperised by the insidious
action of State Socialism.”

All, or most, of us here admit the evils of Socialism. It is due
in large measure to the unlawful and grinding exactions of employers.
upon employed. Those revelations made by a previous speaker from
his own observation are terrible and demand redress. The fact
remains that Socialism is with us and has to be faced. The question.
therefore is:—‘‘ What is the remedy ?” I unhesitatingly answer,
‘“‘The gospel of Christ proclaimed and lived in a loving and
sympathetic manner in the midst of the toiling masses.” It was a.
great pleasure to find the author of the paper insist upon the
importance and power of Christianity, and its distinguishing
difference from Socialism, and a surprise to hear a clergyman say—
and repeat it—that “Christianity is a failure.” Nay, Christianity
has not failed, or to put it in a better way, Christ has not failed and
never can.

Take a concrete illustration of the benefit and power of a living
and practical Christianity. In a poor parish of 6,000 (next to my
own in Liverpool), a dignitary of our Church began the work in a.
cellar with four people present. In a thirty-three years’ ministry he
had built a church and three mission halls, and carried on a ragged
school at a cost of £300 per annum, former pupils from which are now

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. 91

occupying responsible positions in life. He succeeded in securing
200 fellow-workers, some of whom held open-air services four times
aweek. The communicants rose to 800 ; three Bible Women and six
Scripture Readers were supplied to Liverpool, and nine men were
trained to become clergymen. Let such an example be imitated—
where such is not the case—in the East end of London, and in the
large towns throughout our land, and Socialism will speedily die of
inanition.

Let us hear a converted socialist. ‘Christ is the solution of all
problems. Not Christ with an ‘ism’ attached to His Name, but
Christ Himself, the living Christ. There is chaos in society, but
when the Son of God was sent from the bosom of the Father to
reveal the Divine plan, and that plan is rejected by the Church and
the world, how can it be other than chaos? Why must professing
Christians go to atheistic socialism and accept their plans for putting
society right, rather than go to the Son of God for His Divine plan.”
This was said to a meeting of socialists, who put to the speaker
some thirty questions, to which unanswerable replies were given.

Rev. A. Irvine, D.Sc., B.A., made no pretension to speak as an
expert on the subject of the paper. Yet it presented in a connected
form some well thought-out views on questions which were
constantly presenting themselves in a very real and practical way ;
and as one who had these matters constantly pressed on his attention,
he begged to thank Dr. Cunningham for the very able paper to
which we had listened, point after point of which would set us
thinking more deeply. He had listened with great interest also to
some of the remarks of the previous speakers. He did not think that
“Socialism,” as it presented itself here in England, was to be met
with the thunder of artillery. Heagreed that it was utterly devoid
of constructive principles ; but it was here as a fact, and we were
bound to deal with it as an actual factor of modern life. It was
based no doubt largely on ignorance, but it gave expression to felt
needs and aspirations, which Christianity could neither ignore nor
condemn. He ventured to dissent from thelearned author of the paper
in his contention as to the impossibility of such a thing as “ Chris-
tian Socialism.” He was rather disposed to hear in ‘“ Material
Socialism” a warning voice to those who profess the Christian
name ; calling upon them to consider their ways; to ask themselves
whether Christians as a body have understood the true meaning of

92 W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., ARCHDEACON OF ELY, ON

Christianity ; whether it was not too often forgotten that the
central teaching of Jesus Christ was that “it was more blessed to
give than to receive” ; whether in talking of Christianity we were
sufficiently mindful of that fundamental principle of self-sacrifice, which
its Divine Founder had written in letters of blood across the laws of
His Kingdom, when His intense love for His human brethren
led Him to pour out His life’s blood to redeem men from the
tyranny of selfishness, and thus to show them the way. The
speaker was inclined to think that there were at the present time
hopeful signs of an increasing expansion and growth of that spirit
from within the Church; that, as the meaning of the Church, as a
Divine Society, came to be better understood, it recognised wider
and deeper responsibilities towards the great human brotherhood.
As an example of this he referred to the great organisation known
as the Church of England Men’s Society, founded by the new
Archbishop of York. He trusted that Dr. Gordon Lang would
carry that with him as an inspiration to the work of the Church
among the hard-headed hardworking people of the north; and
that it would do something to break down that class-feeling which
“Socialism ” bitterly and justly resented.

Dr. Heywoop SmitTH said it was a ‘great pity that learned
societies met to discuss important questions, and afterwards nothing
practical came of it. We were getting too much cramped up in
our tight little island, and it was because there was no room that so
much distress, through want of employment, existed. The cry of
the socialists was to cheapen things for the sake of the consumer, but
what about the producer? There would always be distress through
lack of work as long as we al owed the foreigner to dump down his
goods here and undersell our own workmen. What we should do
was to bring pressure to bear on the Government to carry out a
scheme of compulsory emigration. Canada and Australia stood in
need of workers, both men and women. Why should we pay rates
to maintain a lot of loafers in our workhouses, able-bodied men and
women who ought to be made to work and earn their own liveli-
hood? He knew of cases where inmates of our workhouses were
willing to work if they could get work ; who did work in the work-
house without payment, and yet the guardians put hindrances in
their way, and would not let them out, unless at rare intervals, to
seek the work they might get.

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. 93

Professor HULL.

The Chairman considered that the subject so
ably dealt with by Canon Cunningham was one of supreme impor-
tance at the present time. ‘The large number of capable men out
of employment could not fail to draw out the sympathies of us all,
and the difficulties of finding a remedy were immense. The Rev.
Mr. Pyke had referred to a large plan of Government emigration
to our colonies, but he (the speaker) felt strongly that Tariff Reform
was by far the most urgent, and most likely to benefit the working
classes and the community at large. The important work recently
issued on this subject shows that this country is yearly falling
behind other manufacturing countries in production; owing to
the fact of free imports on our part, and import duties on theirs.*
Want of employment necessarily gives rise to discontent and
destitution, and induces men to listen to Socialistic schemes for
their benefit. The present condition of England is very similar to
that of Germany, especially Prussia. In 1873-4, after the close of
the great war, when, notwithstanding the enormous inflow of
money from France in payment of the indemnity, trade and manu-
factures were found to fall off there were large numbers of
unemployed workmen—and Socialistic ideas and the ‘“‘ Red Monster
of Revolution” were spreading amongst the people. Bismarck,
the greatest statesman of modern times, found it necessary to
examine into the cause of this abnormal state of society, and
looking around at the condition of neighbouring states as compared
with his own he found that Germany was surrounded by a wall of
protective countries, in which German manufactures were submitted
to import duties, while Germany itself gave their productions an
open door.+ With Prince Bismarck to discover an evil was to im-
mediately take measures to remedy it; and he induced his country
to adopt measures for tariff reform—by which reciprocal duties
were imposed on imported goods from neighbouring states. This
has been the policy of Germany ever since—and we all know the
result. German manufactures are replacing those of England ;
and we have even gone so far as to give our coal (our one great
natural asset) free to our rivals—wherewith to beat us out of the
markets of the world. Can it be wondered at that a condition ot

* Report of the Tariff Commission, vol. iv (‘“‘ Engineering Industries”),
1909.

+ Prince Bismarck, by Charles Lowe, vol. ii, p. 456 et seg. (1887).

94 W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., ARCHDEACON OF ELY, ON

impoverishment has followed, and that instead of being the centre
of manufacturing industries as was the case half a century ago, we
have fallen back to a minor position as compared with neighbouring
states? Let us adopt the policy of Germany’s great statesman and
we shall recover our position.

Dr. CUNNINGHAM then expressed his thanks to the Council of
the Victoria Institute for having given him this opportunity of
setting down his views on this important subject, and all those
present for their reception of what he had had to say.

He had been extremely interested in the discussion, particularly
in the remarks of Mr. Spencer. He thought there was on the one
hand a duty to deal with existing distress, and on the other to try
to introduce improvements in the economic system of the country.
It was because he believed that a change in the fiscal system of the
country would do much to give better conditions and increase the
opportunities of welfare—in a way that he did not think Socialism
would ever do—that he felt it to be his Christian duty to take an
active part on behalf of Tariff Reform.

COMMUNICATIONS.

CHANCELLOR LIAS writes :—No one can help being struck with
the pitiable condition of many a worker, as described so forcibly by
my friend Mr. Spencer, nor can one dispute for a moment the
correctness of his view that as long as things are in the condition
he has described so long will Socialists continue to gain a hearing
for their theories. If one were disposed to criticise what he said,
it would be in the direction of contending that it is not Christianity,
but Christians, who are responsible for the condition of many a
worker at the present time. Christianity has unquestionably
improved the whole condition of the world in thousands of ways.
But that improvement has gone on, and is destined to go on, very
slowly ; God’s ways are not our ways. He has eternity to work in,
and He takes care to make up to mankind in another world for
their sufferings here. But Mr. Spencer is doubtless right in his
contention that every Christian will have a heavy account to give
in the next world if he does not do all that in him lies to do away
with.the hardships his poorer brethren are compelled to sufter here.

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. Q5

But there is one question which ought first to be asked, and
which I have seldom seen asked when Socialism is discussed. /Vhat
is Socialism’? We should surely commence with definitions. I am
an outsider, not an expert. But am I wrong in supposing that
Socialism properly means the subordination of the individual to the
community. If this be so, then Socialism is only a question of
degree. Society without a certain amount of Socialism is an
impossibility. We have Socialism now. Every law, every tax,
every army, every prison, every policeman, is a Socialistic institution.
And the only practical question for us is, how far shall Socialism be
carried? We English have found that the further, within certain
limits, the rights of the individual can be allowed to extend, the
greater the prosperity our country enjoys. It seems pretty clear that
we have carried it rather too far, and that we should be better off if
some more restraints were put on individual liberty. But there
can be little doubt that if we went to the opposite extreme, we
should be infinitely worse off, as long as human nature remains
what it is. My friend the Archdeacon gave a guarded approval of
the municipalisation so much in fashion just now. But it is
exposed, in the present condition of humanity, to two very serious
dangers. First, the principle of popular election will not always
provide us with the men most fitted to manage our affairs, and
next, as hundreds of instances have of late made plain to us, we
cannot get rid of unfair partiality and of corruption in the action
of municipal and other bodies. It would, as the Archdeacon
reminds us, be the extreme of folly to place ourselves under the
control of a handful of men, who by reason of the incompetency of
the individual elector to form a sound judgment, will in all
probability be found more or less unfit for the responsible task
entrusted to them. The impulse of self-interest and regard for
one’s family has, since the world began, been the strongest incentive
to individual and social well-being. And the Archdeacon well
reminds us of the deadening effect on a growing child of destroying
all hope and spring in its life by the knowledge that he cannot
follow the bent of his own nature, but must be bound hand and foot
and all his native impulses crushed by the irresistible despotism of an
all-powerful governing body. The Archdeacon tells us of the hope
of benefiting his kind that animates the Socialist. But that hope
may reasonably be balanced by a well-grounded fear that the

96 W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., ARCHDEACON OF ELY, ON

absolute rule of the many over the few, even if those few be chosen
by the many, will be found the most grinding and penetrating
despotism that has ever been known since the creation of man.

Mr. J. SCHWARTZ, Jun., writes :—A considerable number of fellow
Christians would strongly dissent from the lecturer’s sweeping state-
ments that ‘Socialism is inconsistent with Christianity ” and that
‘Christian anarchist seems almost a contradiction in terms.”

If Christ’s teachings on social obligations to His generation are
taken to be of universal application then Tolstoy’s deductions of
passive anarchism and other systems of Christian communism are
unanswerable. I think them mistaken because they underrate
the limitations imposed by Christ’s manhood: His teaching, although
subject as regards worldly knowledge, to the limitations of a
Galilean peasant, is most wise as applied to the then existing
conditions. Interest on money He condemned because then, as still
in the East, it was wickedly usurous. Property then was the result
of force or fraud, not of industry and ability, and He said that it
should be given up. How wise a saying was “ Resist not evil” to
the turbulent Jews hopelessly under the heel of the tyranny of Rome ;
what misery would they have avoided had they followed it.

These teachings Christ did not intend to apply to a self-governed
modern state of which probably He had not the least conception.
The communistic community of the early Church was the natural
outcome of the mistaken notion of the speedy end of the world and
not an example for all time. At the end of the tenth century, when
Satan was expected to be let loose, a somewhat similar position was
created in medizeval Europe.

The power of Christ for all time is in His spiritual teaching and
ideal personality as ably put by our lecturer. All right-minded
people who know the facts, deplore the inequalities of wealth and
opportunity that have grown up. Ifthe personal character of all
or even if a majority conformed to Christ’s teaching, it would be
quite immaterial whether there was a socialistic or individualistic
form of society, all would be well.

In dealing with the masses in their present state of moral and
mental development the rugged virtues of sturdy independence and
the pluck with which they face their difficulties would soon wither
away under the blight of grandmotherly influence.

The sensitive sentimental natures who inaugurate such movements

CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM. 97

would soon be elbowed out by the glib-tongued materialistic dema-
gogues, who would tickle the vanity and excite the greed of the
lower strata of the poor. History would repeat itself. The Girondins
of the French Revolution were thus supplanted by the Jacobins,
followed by chaos, bloodshed and the old order re-established.

Social amelioration must be gradual. The immediate doubling of
working class incomes, a boon to many, would, I am convinced, show
an evil balance of increased drunkenness, gambling, crime, and
laziness. If anyone doubts it let him go round the public houses
on a Saturday night (pay day).

All who desire to raise humanity must work hard and intelligently
and be satisfied if they see slow progress; they must speak boldly
against the canker of ostentatious vulgar luxury, and the feminine
craze of fashion and overdressing ; they must cultivate the simple
life and intellectual pleasures: strengthen the law against financial
thimble rigging, and wisely tone down the injustices of the past
without shattering the social fabric.

Colonel ALVES writes :—I have for many years been in favour
of Tariff Reform with a view to the protection of our home industries
and those of our dependencies. This is seen by many. But what
I do not see commented on, and what I believe to be equally
important, is the attitude of Trades Unions which, beginning as
protectors of the wage earners, have now become the tyrannical
masters of the employers. Until their power for evil is curtailed,
I do not think that even Tariff Reform will do us any great good.

We can see this amongst the leaders of the unemployed :—‘ Find
them work, but you must give them the Trades Union rate of wages.”
The Socialists’ theory is :—‘‘ The wage receivers do all the work, and
should receive all the profits, but never make good the losses” ; and
the Socialists are capturing the Trades Unions.

The Trades Union policy for many years has been that of reduc-
ing activity and skill to the level of laziness and clumsiness, with a
view to “spreading-out ” work over as large a surface as possible.
This is one of the most mischievous forms of Socialism, tending, as
it does, to the debasement of character.

I fear that many of our workers amongst the poor, having more
benevolence than judgment and firmness, have been great, though
involuntary, workers of mischief, through failing to realise that life
is a very serious war, a war waged largely in the old way by men

98 WwW. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIALISM.

clad in defensive armour and using hand-to-hand weapons. Courage,
skill and discipline combined, contribute now in peace as of old in
war, to the safety of the warrior who, returning in safety and
honour, claimed the hand of the maiden he loved. —

Now, the mere fact of an unemployable having a wife of like
character and a family (such families are usually large) of children
probably more degenerate than their parents, is thought by many
sentimentalists to give such unemployable a right to permanent
employment.

To animals, God said, “Be fruitful and multiply”; but nature
destroys the unfit ; and if food is scarce, the stronger let the weaker
starve.

To man God says, “Increase and multiply, and replenish the
earth and subdue it.” This is two-fold, joined together by God, and
recognised by many heathens.

If, then, men will only act as animals, I do not see that Christians,
acting in their national capacity, are justified in bolstering up such
to swamp the nation with undesirables who may, by intermarriage
with better stocks, deteriorate the whole nation. Such bolstering
up can only end in national bankruptcy, moral and financial.

In my judgment, honourable imprisonment for life, with complete
segregation from the other sex, 1s the only remedy for this evil.
Such a course should entail no great hardship, for it is well known
to phrenologists that the sexual instinct (‘increase and multiply ”)
is closely allied to the driving faculties (“replenish the earth ”).

There are doubtless other causes operating connected with the
land, feudal rights divorced from feudal duties ; the laws of succession
which, in England, are not in accordance with God’s Old Testament
laws as regards estate, either real or personal; and perhaps other
disagreeable hard facts ; all of which must be faced.

492nn ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.

MONDAY, FEBRUARY 15TH, 1909.

LIEUT.-GENERAL SiR Henry Geary, K.C.B. (V.P.)
| IN THE CHAIR.

The Minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed, and
the following candidate elected as an Associate of the Institute :—

Herr Pastor Fliigel, Germany.

The following paper, illustrated by lantern slides, was then read by
the Author :—

DISCOVERIES IN BABYLONIA AND THE NEIGH-
BOURING LANDS. By THEOPHILUS G. PINCHEs,
LL.D., M.R.A.S.

Cen but surely and ever more speedily,
Assyriology is becoming the most important study in
the domain of Oriental archeology. The language of the
Babylonians and Assyrians proves to be a tongue of the most
engrossing importance, whilst that of the seemingly earlier
race—the Sumerians—with which it was brought into contact,
is regarded by some as the coming study for those who wish to
acquire renown as true archeological linguists. But besides the
languages, with their dialects, a very specially interesting and
important field of study is their archeology in general, their
beliefs, their manners and customs, their arts and sciences, and
the geography of the land. Whether we shall ever obtain
information as to their original home, we do not know, but
we may, by chance, acquire, ultimately, the information needed
to find out where that place may have been; and in any case,
we shall know all the better what influence those nations may
have had in the world, to say nothing of the bearing of their
records on the all-important subject of Bible history, thought,
and beliefs. A number of closely-connected nations whose
influence extended from Elam on the east to the Mediterranean

100 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON

and Egypt on the west, and from the Caspian Sea on the
north to Arabia on the south, cannot fail to have exercised
considerable influence beyond those borders and boundaries—an
influence of which we shall not obtain a full idea for many
years to come.

Now that we have learned so much about these ancient
nations, and thei pecuhar wedge-formed characters, we know
also something of their power and the wide influence of their
writing. It is now known that the so-called Phcenician goes
back to 1,500 or 2,000 years before Christ, but there was a time
when the cuneiform script, in one form or other, was used all
over Western Asia within the limits I have indicated. In
addition, therefore, to Semitic Babylonian, the cuneiform script,
derived from that of Babylonia, was used by the Assyrians, who
spoke the same language ; the Klamites, who spoke Babylonian
and ancient Elamite; the Armenians, who seem to have
obtained the syllabary they used from Assyria; the Palestinian
states, who got their script from Babylonia; the Mitannians,
who also employed the Babylonian style; the Cappadocians,
who at first used ancient Babylonian, though they seem to have
been an Assyrian colony; and the Hittites, who also used the
Babylonian style. These are the nationalities who are known
to have used some form of the Babylonian wedge-writing, and
the list omits ancient Persian on account of the impossibility ot
tracing any sure connection between their cuneiform alphabet
(for that is, perhaps, the best word to use) and the complicated
characters of the Babylonians and Assyrians. It will thus be
seen, that the cuneiform script, forming, as it does, the medium
of communication between so many different peoples of ancient
times, is of the utmost importance—indeed, attempts have been
made to connect it with the ancient Phoenician, and, through
that script, with our writing at the present day. ‘This is not
generally accepted, but probably offers, in some cases,
comparisons as satisfactory as those obtained with the
Egyptian hieroglyphics through the Demotic forms. In
addition to the nationalities mentioned above as users of the
cuneiform style of writing the inscriptions mention the
languages of Su and Suh (the tongue of the Shuhites of Job i,
nl “ete.), the Kassites, and the Lulubites.

But the discovery of new languages, or dialects, or new styles
of writing, is not yet over, as is shown by the French excava-
tions at Susa. On that interesting site they have found not
only a number of Elamite and Bal bylonian inscriptions in the
wedge-formed writing, but also several in a new style, not

DISCOVERIES IN BABYLONIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING LANDS. 101

cuneiform, though the characters may have assumed that
peculiarity, under Babylonian influence, about 3,000 years
before Christ. Among the specimens which I now show we
have the line-forms as seen on a stone bearing the name of
Karibu-Sa-SuSinak* (the first element, karibu, is a provisional
reading), and to this I add a copy im ink to show more clearly
the rough forms of the characters and the careless cutting of
the lines, which ought to have been ruled. The following is the
suggested translation of this inscription, by Professor Scheil,
the original being, as already indicated, in proto-Elamite :-—

“Offerings of food, fermented drink, . . ., and dates: 20
measures of sweet drink, . 2 measures of date-wine, 20
measures of seed-oil, 1 measure of fermented drink, a kind of fish,
1 sixth of a measure of dates (for) food, . . ., 100 measures of
sweet food (7), . . . 3 measuresoffinefipdrink,100 .. .,
1 sixth of hal.”

This inseription, if rightly rendered in the main, reminds one
of the numerous tablets recording gifts or contributions of
drink, food,and oil, which have been found at Lagas (Tel-Loh),
in southern Babvlonia. The rendering (which I have modified
from that of Scheil) is based on a likeness of certain of the
characters with the line-forms of the early Babylonian seript ;
but whether we are right in assuming that one is derived from
the other or not, I do not know. Though defective, the trans-
lation may be regarded as better than none at all. The
inscription on the other piece, which has the advantage of being
larger and clearer, is very similar to that of which a translation
has been attempted, and is probably the same text, with
variants.

In addition to these roughly-carved lapidary inscriptions,
however, a large number of small clay tablets have been found,
apparently forming part of the records of income and outlay of
some institution or temple. All these texts are written in
narrow columns which, like those of the line-inscriptions, also
read downwards, but the style is not linear, but distinctly
cuneiform. I give here a drawing of one of them, made from

* The following is a free rendering of the inscription, which is written
in the cuneiform character -—

“ Karibu-Sa-SuSinak, viceroy of Susa, governor of the land of Elam,
son of Simbishuk, has dedicated the cedar and bronze gate-bar to Suiinak
his lord. May Suinak, Istar, Narute (and) Nergal, remove the founda-
tion and destroy the seed of any who takes this inscription away. The
name of the gate is ‘The support of this house.” According to Scheil,
the date of this ruler should be about 2500 B.c.

102 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON

the photographic reproduction with the aid of M. E. Lampre’s
copy. Prof. Scheil’s translation, somewhat modified, reads as
follows :—

“Tablet of TU-KAK, 17 DA-NUN-SI, 1 AD-', . . 2 ME, 4 BAD,
1003 and a half DUG (?)-BAD, 9 measures of grain, 92 measures of
grain, 2 DUG-GAL.”

The last is probably a kind of large fish.

With reference to the inscriptions of this nature, however, it
is needful to say, that one has an uneasy feeling that the
characters may not have been pronounced as the Babylonians
read them, and that often, when we can translate the words, we
do not know their phonetic values, and when we can transcribe
them, we do not know their meaning. When this happens,
there is no escape from leaving blanks in the renderings, or
giving the apparent pronunciations of the somewhat barbarous
combinations which the Babylonian sylabaries indicate. With
regard to the numerals, their renderings may be looked upon as
fairly certain.

Besides this small text in four columns, the other inscriptions
of the series also give numerous forms comparable with those of
the script of Babylonia and Assyria,—which, however, seems to
have been less rich in signs—due, probably, to the abandonment
of some of the original forms, for fashion existed in the domain
of Babylonian letters as in other things. I give here, as
examples, a few comparisons which may be made between
proto-Elamite and the Babylonian styles of writing. The first
is a group of doubtful meaning ; the second is the character for
“husband ” or “ wife” ; the third stands for “ lady ” or “ sister ” ;
the fourth is a compound group showing the character /wm, “ to
be luxuriant,” within ak, “to make”—-? “garden-produce,”
perhaps. of some special kind; the fifth is a character for
“sheep, —apparently the picture of a sheepfold with four
divisions; the sixth is the character for “ grass” or “herb” ; the
seventh gives three forms of the character for “great” ; and the
eighth is a measure called the ga. It is needless to say that
this list could be greatly increased, but were I to continue the
comparisons, we should not reach the more interesting things to
which I shall refer in this paper.

But even at Babylon itself at least one linguistic mystery
came to light. In 1881 Mr. Rassam found there a contract-
tablet referring to the sale, by merchants or tradesmen of that
city, of a slave-woman named Istar-Babili-siminni, to a man
named Urmant. ‘This text I published in 1883 on account of

DISCOVERIES IN BABYLONIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING LANDS. 103

the strange characters with which the spaces were filled, hoping
that some scholar, more versed in strange writings than I was,
might find the key to its interpretation. More than a quarter
of a century has passed since that publication, but we are
no nearer to the finding of an explanation of these mystic signs.
Is it a late form of proto-Hlamite ? or may it be cursive Hittite ?
Time alone can show.

Most of the tablets bearing these archaic Elamite accounts
are small, and measure only a few inches. One of them,
however, is so large that it occupies a whole page (quarto) in
the great French publication where they are reproduced. The
obverse has only two lines of writing, but bears, in two long
rows, the impressions of a cylinder-seal, the design of which is
repeated, by continuing the impression, about three times in
each row. The subject shows a bull, front-face, horned,
standing erect manwise, and holding two sitting lions by the
ears. A lion in the same position, but profile instead of front-
tace, holds, by their humps, two humped bulls, the whole making
a somewhat grotesque design. The strange character in the
field is probably the Babylonian sign for a vase used for
offerings, with additions. Asin other cases, these seal-impressions
are probably from the engraved cylinder of the scribe who wrote
the tablet.

Among the artistic discoveries are some excellent examples,
in some cases superior even to the work produced by the
Babylonians at the period. The most interesting is probably
that representing the Babylonian king Naram-Sin, ruler of
Agadé, marching over the mountains in his victorious course.
Naturally; there is doubt whether this is Elamite or Babylonian,
but it is to be noted that the style reminds one of the Elaimite
bronze representing marching warriors, which would seem
certainly to have been real Elamite work, and this being the
case, it is not unlikely that the relief showing Naram-Sin is
Elamite too. It is known that his father, Sargani, or Sargon of
Agadé, conquered Elam, but that the dominion of the country
passed to his son is uncertain. Whether this monument may
be regarded as evidence in favour of that probability I leave to
the judgment of my audience.

Another interesting piece of artistic work is the bas-relief
representing a woman spinning. She is seated tailor-wise on a
large stool before a table covered with wool, whilst a serving-
maid behind keeps off the flies, and fans her mistress with a
large fan of square form, which she holds. This is in all
probability a representation of a woman of the higher classes,

104 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON

and is interesting as giving a glimpse into Elamite domestic life.
The style is probably late, the figures being more thick-set than
in the case of the stele of Naraém-Sin and the bronze relief
showing marching soldiers. The thick-set type appears in
Babylonia about 1200 B.c. The marching soldiers, however, are
attributed by Father Scheil to the reign of Sutruk-Nahunta,
about 1116 B.c., so that it would seem doubtful whether the
date can be decided from the type of the figures.

Religious subjects also occur, a good example being the small
relief which has already been thrown on the screen with the
proto-Elamite line-inscriptions. This shows the remains of an
enormous lion’s head, open-jawed, with one forepaw. Kneeling
on one knee, and facing the animal, is a deity in a horned hat,
holding with both hands a large cone, apparently brought as an
offering. Figures similar to this, cast in bronze, in the round,
have been found in Babylonia, and are sometimes called “the
god with the firestick.” They come from Tel-loh, the ancient
Lagas, and bear an inscription of the renowned viceroy of that
city, Gudea.

It is needless to say, that all these and many other objects of
great importance, found at Susa, the ancient capital of Elam,
prove the power of that kingdom in ancient times, and show
that such a campaign as Chedorlaomer, in the fourteenth
chapter of Genesis, is represented as making about 2000 years
B.C., 1s not only possible, but highly probable. With many
vicissitudes, she maintained her power until the time of
Tepti-Humban, the Teumman of the inscriptions of the
Assyrian King Assur bani-aph (about 650 B.c.), “ the great and
noble Asnapper,” who intent on absolute supremacy in the
East, attacked Elam in three great expeditions, and reduced the
country, as he records, to a pitiable state. Having lost her
political importance, though not her courage and energy, as still
later accounts show, she ceased to attract the historian and
traveller, who therefore, to all appearance, passed her over in
favour of Nineveh, the capital of the power which had crushed
her, and Babylon, the capital of Babylonia, her old ally and foe,
by turns. It is only during the reign of the Kharacenian King
Hyspasines that the cry of “the enemy, the Elamite,” is once
again heard in Babylonia, though this was probably only for a
short time. Notwithstanding all the wonderful finds that have
been made, much more material is required to complete our
records, and not among the least interesting would be those
referring to the latest period, but documents of every kind will,
it is needless to say, be welcomed.

DISCOVERIES IN BABYLONIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING LANDS. 105

Turning to Elam’s western neighbour, Babylonia, we find
again that much has been done, this time by the Germans,
whose discoveries on the site of Babylon practically make the
city live once more, and the time is not far distant when it will
be the objective of the modern tourist as much, for instance, as
the cities of India with their wonderful remains. According
to Delitzsch, Babylon was a comparatively small city, not
larger, in his opinion, than Dresden or Munich. The outer
wall is shown by the plan now on the screen. At the top is
the north palace on the east of the Euphrates, which at present
flows from the north-west. Some distance down begins the
Arabtu-canal, which, runping in a southerly direction, passed
through the southern wall and entered the Euphrates again
near the point where it began to resume its southern course.
The wall on the left bank of the river was continued on the
right bank, and has, on its north side, the middle palace, and
on its south the south palace. At this point lie the ruins of
the I8tar-gate, near the east end of which is the temple called
E-mab. Canals protected the two adjoining palaces on the
north and the south, the former being called the Merodach-
canal, and the latter Libil-hegala, “(the canal) ‘may it bring
fertility.” The square some distance south of the south palace
marks the position of the great temple-tower E-temen-an-ki,
“the House of the foundation of Heaven and Earth,” explained
by the Babylonians as “the Tower of Babylon.” South of that
he the ruins of the great temple E-sagila, the renowned
Temple of Belus. Running parallel with the Arabtu-canal is
the royal street, called, at its northern end, Aa-ibur-sabi. This
was used for processions, especially that of the New Year, when
the gods were solemnly taken to greet their king, Merodach, as
one of the inscriptions brought back from Babylonia by the
late George Smith states. The ceremonies at these New Year
festivities apparently symbolize the visit of the king of the
heavenly host to the captive gods, whom he comforted and
released, much to the discontent of Nergal, god of war and
disease, and also, as we may suppose, of death—whether he
was identical with Ugga, the god of death par excellence or not,
we do not at present know. The gods in prison were the
followers of Tiawath, the Dragon of Chaos at the beginning of
the world, and when Merodach destroyed her—the Dragon—
her followers were placed in prison and bound. This ceremony
of the release of the captive gods tovk place on the 8th of
Nisan, the first month of the Babylonian year, corresponding
partly with March and April. At the same time

Soe

106 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON

“The gods, all of them—the gods of
Borsippa, Cuthah, Kis,
and the gods of the cities all,
to take the hands of Kayanu (and) the great lord Merodach,
shall go to Babylon, and with him
at the new year’s festival, in the sanctuary of the king,
offer gifts before them.”

It is also probable that on the same occasion the ruling king
of Babylon, whoever he might be, and of whatever faith or
nationality (for the Babylonians had been ruled in their time
by aliens from all parts of the east), was expected to “take the
hand of Bel,” though it may be doubted whether Darius
Hystaspis, that stern worshipper of Hormuzd, ever consented
to assist in what he must have regarded as a heathen ceremony.
This street for the sacred processions in Babylon must, there-
fore, be regarded as having been the most noted roadway in
the city. and we can imagine the long procession passing
through the southern gateways, taking part in the ceremonies
in the temple of Belus and at the Tower of Babylon connected
therewith, crossing the Libil-hengala canal, then passing the
royal palace and under the gateway of I8tar, to the Chamber of
Fate, which is regarded as having been situated at the eastern
end of the Merodach canal. The distance from the gate of
Uras, which was the city’s southern entrance to the Chamber
of Fate, was a little over a mile and a quarter. Unfortunately,
the remains of the Tower of Babel—that structure so renowned
of old—have, within recent years, been cleared away to build
the dam of the Hindiyeh Canal, and instead of a _ great
monument, the depression where its foundations were laid is
now all that exists.

As might be expected, the spouse of Merodach, Zer-panitum,
the principal goddess of the Babylonian pantheon, came in for
a share of the honours. She appears to have been worshipped
at the Tower of Babel along with him, but besides this she had
a temple of her own on the east of the I8tar gate, and its
foundations still exist in a fairly complete state. This rough
photograph, made up of several smaller pictures kindly lent me
by permission of the German Orient-Gesellschaft, shows the
north front with the altar before one of the recesses. This is
the celebrated E-mah, “the supreme temple,” dedicated to Nin-
mah, “ the supreme lady,” as Zér-panitum was also called. The
larger picture on the next slide is stated to be the north-west
corner of this temple—apparently the interior—with an altar
and platform, and another picture shows the exterior of the

DISCOVERIES IN BABYLONIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING LANDS. 107

same corner. It is naturally difficult to get a good idea of
these ruins from the imperfect reproductions which I ain now
showing, but they will probably be regarded as better than
nothing. Enthusiasts will easily imagine what an interesting
spot this would be to visit, with its sites from which the glory
departed so many hundred years ago.

In the plan of Babylon which has been thrown on the
screen, it will have been noticed that the form of the basement
of the “Tower of Babylon” is square, whilst the old repre-
sentations of that structure, which many of us have seen in
old family Bibles and elsewhere, show it as having been
circular in form, and tapering with a spiral ascent until the top
was reached. These designs, however, were probably mere
creations of the artist, who wished to produce something
picturesque, and copied, perhaps, some drawing or description
which he had met with of similar spiral towers of later date,
which actually occur in the East as minarets of certain mosques.
This, however, was not the shape of the Tower of Babel, which,
as we know from the remains found in the country as well as
from the ancient descriptions of the structure, was square in
form, though the ascent was an inclined one, and though
arranged the same way, was straight instead of curved. The
picture now on the screen, which is taken from the boundary
stone of the time of Merodach-Baladan I., who reigned about
1167 B.c. (this object was presented to the British Museum by
the proprietors of the Daily Telegraph), seems to show an
erection of this kind in three stages, with a shrine at the top.
The horned animal or dragon in front apparently bears on its
back a form of the wedge, the symbol of the god Nebo, so that
it is possible that the staged tower behind may have stood for
one of the emblems of that god. This would naturally form a
reason for identifying the great temple-tower of Nebo at
Borsippa (the Birs Nimroud) with the Tower of Babel, which is
the traditional site of that erection. In all probability,
however, the reason for placing the Tower of Babel in “ the
second Babylon,” as Borsippa was called, and not in Babylon
proper, lies in the fact that the temple of Nebo at Borsippa
was the latest shrine where the ancient Babylonian worship was
carried on.

The form of temple-tower suggested by Perrot and Chipiez,
in their History of Art in Antiquity, was either with sloping
stages, as in the case now shown, or with a double ascent and
level stages, as in their alternative design. it is doubtful,
however, whether the Babylonian architects, notwithstanding

108 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON

their skill, had ever hit upon so elegant a form. The descrip-
tion published by the late G. Smith in the Athenwum of
February 12th, 1876, however, makes the lowest stage to be the
greatest in height, Doubt may be expressed as to ‘the outside
inclined ascent, with its step-gradines, but some sort of pro-
tection would be needed against the accident of falling over the
edge, and it is not at all improbable that such a thing existed,
as in the case of the temple-tower at Dir-Sargina (Khorsabad),
where the French excavations which preceded Layard’s were
made. According to Sir H. Layard, moreover, a temple-tower
somewhat of this form existed in the city of Calah (Nimroud),
and is depicted in the somewhat fanciful restoration prefixed to
his Monuments of Nineveh. A modification of my original
design would, however, in all probability, be desirable ; there
was ” probably no ascent clinging, as it were, to the first stage,
the top of which would be reached by a central staircase at
right angles. Similar erections are described as existing in
Chinese Turkestan by the traveller, Dr. von Le Coq.

It is a great pity that we cannot appeal to the remains of the
monument itself to settle the above question, as well as that of
the existence of chambers within. According to Dr. Weissbach,
however, the structure measured about 309 feet each way, and
the height was about the same. Though this is only a third of
the height of the Eiffel Tower in Paris, it is still sufficiently
imposing as a high monument. As will be seen from the
picture, the lowest stage was much higher than any of the
others. ‘The topmost stage was the upper temple or sanctuary
of the god Bel or Merodach, 80 feet long, 70 feet broad
and 50 feet high—a hall of considerable size. Full details
concerning the structure were inscribed on a tablet which the
late G. Smith had in his hands about thirty-five years ago, and
which has apparently not been seen since. From the description
of its contents which that scholar gave, it would seem to have
been a document of the first importance, and it is needless to
say, that we should all like to come across it again. Compara-
tively little publicity has as yet been given to the fact that it
is wanting, and it is hoped that if the present owner should
hear that inquiries have been made, he will be so kind as to
produce it so that it may be studied and the results given to
the world. Mr. G. Smith, at the time he published his deserip-
tion of the document, was about to start for the East, and it
seems probable, therefore, that he saw it in this country. It
may, indeed, have been offered for sale by a dealer and been sold
by that dealer to its present possessor. It seems to have been

DISCOVERIES IN BABYLONIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING LANDS. 109

a moderately large and fairly complete document, divided into
paragraphs, probably by ruled lines.

Cylinders with inscriptions of Nabopolassar are said to have
been found on the site when the remains of the Tower of
Babylon were carted away some years ago, and in the interesting
text which they bear, the king seems to say that it was not
until after he had overthrown the power of Subartu (probably
Assyria), which took place in the year 606 B.c., that he turned
his attention to the rebuilding of £-temen-an-k1, “ the House of
the Foundation of Heaven and Earth,’ which he further
describes, as does also his son Nebuchadnezzar later on as “the
tower of Babylon.” Nabopolassar died two years later, so that
the rebuilding during his reign is reduced to within exceedingly
narrow limits. The implements used in the rebuilding of the
structure were of an exceedingly costly nature—nothing was
too good for the reconstruction of the great temple-tower
dedicated to Merodach. It is worthy of note, also, that the
tower was to rival the heavens in height, whilst its foundations
were regarded as having been placed “on the breast of the
underworld.” The “stages” seem to be referred to, and at the
rear were apparently sanctuaries to Samas, Hadad and Merodach
(these are not mentioned in G. Smith’s description, though it
is implied therein that the couch and golden throne of Merodach,
referred to by Herodotus, were in the temple buildings on the
western side of the tower). The gold, silver and other precious
things which Nabopolassar states that he deposited in the
foundations must have disappeared many centuries ago, together
with the figure of the king carrying a workman’s basket similar,
in all probability, to those in the British Museum, representing
ASssur-bani-apli and his brother Samas-Sum-ukin doing the same
thing. These were carved to commemorate the restoration,
by those rulers, of the temple of Nebo within Babylon, possibly
one of the shrines on the eastern side of the tower.

Besides Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar, his eldest son (who,
two years later, succeeded him on the throne of Babylon), took
earth, with offerings of wine, sesame-oil, and produce in (it may
be supposed) one of the golden baskets which are referred to in
the inscription, whilst his brother, Nabfi-Sum-lisir, took a rope
and a wagon, in which Nabopolassar had placed a basket of
gold and silver, and offered it—or him, his darling (dudua)—to
the god Merodach. Was this a case of the redemption of the
firstborn, and the substitution of his brother, with a gift, in his
place? We do not know, and, to say the truth, it seems
unlikely, as the kingly office did not prevent him who held it

TLO THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON

from becoming priest as well as king—indeed, the “ great king”
was often, at the same time, the great high priest.

Nebuchadnezzar also added to the splendour of this great
fane, the type and token of Babylon’s greatness. All kinds of
precious things were offered by him in E-sagila, the great
temple of Belus adjoining on the south. He also “raised the
head” of E-temen-an-ki with burnt brick and white-mottled
lapis. After relating all he had done for the adornment of
Babylon, the great king goes on to say, that “from Du-azaga,
the place of the Fates, the shrine of the Fates, as far as Aa-
ibur-Sabu™, the causeway of Babylon, before the gate of my
lady (probably Zér-panitum), with small decorated tiles as the
procession-street of Merodach le had decorated the path.”

Here Nebuchadnezzar describes the building and restoration
of the walls of the city, and then continues :—

‘« Aa-ibur-Sabu™, the causeway of Babylon, for the procession street
of the great Lord, Merodach as a high terrace I filled in, and with
small decorated tiles and blocks from a mountain-quarry I per-
fected Aa-ibur-Sabu™ from the Holy Gate as far as [Star-sakipat-tébi-
Sa Street, for the procession-street of his godhead. And I connected
(it) with what my father had made, and beautified the road Istar-
sakipat-tébi-Sa.”

Though Nebuchadnezzar’s description of his many works at
Babylon is somewhat tedious to read, it is really very interesting
when taken in connection with the ruins themselves, and there
is no doubt that the German explorers of the site of the city
will procure for students much more material for comparison as
time goes on.

Although we, in this country, have not done much—at least
no account of British excavations has, of late years, been
published, as far as my knowledge goes—our kinsmen over the
sea, the Americans, have made some most successful researches
in Babylonia. The site which they have more especially
explored is that known as Niffer (they say that the word is at
present pronounced Noufar), the ancient Nippur (Niffur). This
site the Rabbins identified with the Calneh of the tenth chapter
of Genesis, which is mentioned after Babel, Erech, and Akkad,
as one of the first cities of Nimrod’s (7.¢., Merodach’s) kingdom.

Niffer lies on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, but at a
distance of about 30 miles from the present course of that
river, on the now waterless canal known as the Shatt-en-Nil,
which divides it into two parts. Layard and Loftus give
interesting descriptions of the ruin-mounds of this great
Babylonian city. Itis in the north-east corner of its extensive

’
DISCOVERIES IN BABYLONIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING LANDS. I11

ruins that the remains of the great tower, resembling that of
Babylon, arise. The old Sumerian name of this structure was
K-kura, probably meaning “the temple of the land,” though
“Temple of the mountain” (or “ Mountain-Temple”) is also a
possible rendering. It was dedicated to Enlila, who was called
“the older Bél,” z.e., not Bel-Merodach, but his divine grand-
father. The antiquity of this town and temple was regarded
by the Babylonians as being as great as that of the w orld itself,
for the tradition was that Merodach built or created both in the
beginning, when Babylon, Erech, and Eridu also came into
existence. Professor Hilprecht describes this structure as
attaining even now a height of 96 feet above the level of the
plain on which the city stood, and around lie the fallen walls
and buried houses which originally occupied its precincts. The
erections here are of various dates, and extend back as far as
2800 years B.C. or earlier.

What the original height of the tower may have been we
have no means of ascertaining, but in form it was a tower in
stages, like those at Babylon, Borsippa, and elsewhere. Traces
of three platforms were laid bare, aud Professor Hilprecht says
that no remains of a fourth could be detected, and that the
accumulations of rubbish on the top were not sufficient to
warrant the supposition that there had been ever more than
that number. This, however, is naturally a point which is open
to discussion. It is needless to say that, in the days of
Babylonia’s prosperity, the kings each vied with their pre-
decessors in restoring and perfecting the structure, and changes
in its form—slight ones, in all probability—seem to have been
made from time to time, the kings who effected them having
been Sargon of Agadé, Narém-Sin, his son, Sur-Engur (2800 B.c.),
Dungi, Sur-Ninib, Btr-Sin, [Smé-Dagan, Kuri-galzu (1400 B.c.),
Addu-sum-usur (about 900 B.c.), Esar-haddon (681 B.c.), and
others, down to an unknown restorer of the structure 500 B.c.
or later.

And here it is worthy of note, that though in the tenth
chapter of Genesis the ancient Babylonians are represented as
proposing to make brick, and burn them thoroughly, this latter
precaution against decay was not always taken, not only here,
but also in other places, for the whole seems to have been con-
structed of small crude bricks, except on the S.E. side of the
lowest stage, which was faced with burnt brick of the same size.
On each side of the structure, however, were channels of burnt
brick to carry off the rain-water, and all four sides were plas-
tered with bitumen in such a way that they sloped gradually

112 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON

outwards towards a gutter which carried the water away.
The corners were adjusted roughly to the four cardinal points.
The entrance was on the 8.E. side, between two walls of burnt
brick of the time of Sur-Engur, which led up, apparently by an
inclined plain, to the courtyard, which was a large raised plat-
form. It is stated by the explorers that this platform assumed
the form of a cross, by the addition of long extensions resem-
bling buttresses. Many parts are curiously irregular in shape,
and the angles of both enclosure and zigqurat (as these temple-
towers were called) are not correctly placed, the northern
corner of the latter pointing six degrees E. of the magnetic
north.

Besides this great structure so closely connected with their
religion, many other noteworthy constructions were found—
walls, defences, towers, and courts—but not the least interesting
were the remains of the houses of the people. A picture from
a sketch by Mr. Meyer, published by the Rev. J. P. Peters, the
originator of the explorations on the site, shows, in perspective,
one of the streets of the city. It looks towards the 8.5.W., and
runs along the S.E. buttress of the temple-tower. In the
middle of the unpaved street is a well-made gutter of burned
brick, showing that some provision had been made to free the
street of water. As to keeping the street clean, however, that
was another matter, and accumulations of rubbish seem to
have been allowed to such an extent, that at last, instead of
going up a step to enter a house, they had to make a little
stairway to enable it to be entered from above. In all
probability, therefore, little or no scavenging took place in this
ancient city. Notwithstanding that there was much, from our
point of view, which was sordid in the cities of Babylonia, the
people of the land thought a great deal of them, and found
them to be full of poetry and charm. The reason of this was,
that they were in many cases the centres of worship which had
existed from of old, and they had therefore endeared themselves
in this way to the inhabitants. Many cities of the modern
East, however, are similar to those of ancient Babylonia in that
respect.

In addition to Niffer, the Americans have also been excava-
ting at the ruins known as Bismya, the ancient Adab, according
to the tablets. It lies in a sand-swept belt of ancient Babylonia,
in a region dangerous and deserted because far from water
—a disadvantage which probably did not anciently exist. The
discovery of the site seems to have been due to the Rev.
J. P. Peters, the first really serious explorer of Niffer. The

DISCOVERIES IN BABYLONIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING LANDS. 118

ruins have but a slight elevation above the surrounding soil,
nowhere exceeding 40 feet, and the Head of the expedition to
Adab, Dr. Edgar J. Banks, describes them as a series of
parallel ridges, about a mile and a half wide, divided into two
parts by the bed of an old canal—the source of the city’s
ancient habitability.

On the summit of the temple-tower being cleared, an
inscription of Dungi, 2750 B.c., was found, and this discovery
was followed by that of one of the time of Sur-Engur, 2800 B.c.
Still lower they came upon a crumpled piece of gold of the time
of Naram-Sin, and just below that the large square bricks
peculiar to the time of Sargon of Agadé became visible. At a
depth of 84 metres the explorers lighted on two large urns
filled with ashes, and two metres lower still a smaller urn.
Virgin soil was reached at 14 metres, at which depth the
deposits consisted of thrown pottery of graceful design. These
Dr. Banks regards as belonging to the most remote period of
Babylonian civilization, namely, 10,000 years ago, or earlier.

Other noteworthy antiquities were found on the site, among
them being a head with a pointed beard, of a type which the
finder regards as distinctly Semitic. The face is long and thin,
and eyeballs of ivory had been inserted by means of bitumen
in the eye-sockets made to receive them. This type is
regarded as being new to the student of Babylonian art, and
clearly distinct from the round beardless head of the Sumerian
~statues. Another object is a vase of blue stone carved with a
procession of grotesque long-nosed figures, headed by two
musicians playing upon harps. The garments and jewellery,
and even the foliage of the background, were originally
represented by inlaid work, but with the exception of a piece
of ivory which formed the dress of one of the figures, and a
few fragments of lapis-lazuli in a branch of a tree, these
have all disappeared. Numerous important fragments of vases
were also found, and a sea-shell used as a lamp will probably
shed light on the origin of the shape of early lamps.

Ina trench at the western corner of the temple-tower the
explorer practically dug out with his own hands an exceedingly
interesting statue bearing the name of Daud, an early
Sumerian king. Notwithstanding what may have been said on
the subject, this is probably not an early occurrence of the name
David, which, in Arabic, has that form. The statue was
headless, but the head was found a month later, in company
with another head, in the same trench, a hundred feet away.
The temple excavated on this site bears the same name as that of

114 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON

the spouse of Merodach at Babylon, namely, E-mah, which, if
written in the same way, means “the sublime house.”
Hammurabi, in the introduction to his code of laws, gives the
name of one of the temples of Adab as being f- para-galgala,
“the house of the great light,” or, perhaps better, h- -ugal-gala,
“the great storm- temple.” Unfortunately, it is a very imper-
fect account of the excavations at Bismya that I have had to
use, or I should be able to give a much better description of
the temples of this primitive site.

Three brick-stamps were found, all of them with the words
“ Naraim-Sin, builder of the temple of [Star,” testifymge to the
existence of a fane dedicated to the great goddess of love and
war at Adab. Among other still ‘smaller objects may be
mentioned cylinder-seals of the usual Babylonian type, one of
them showing the so-called Gilgames and Enki-du-—-which
probably represent entirely different personages—struggling
with a hon and a bull respectively. This subject is very
common on the engraved cylinders of Babylonia.

An interesting discovery in this site was that of an oval
chamber at the south corner of the temple-tower, which, in the
opinion of the explorers, had been formerly covered by a dome.
At one of its ends was a 6-foot circular platform, with a pit
beneath it 4 feet deep. The pit was found to contain ashes
mixed with sand which had silted in to the depth of about
2 feet. Smoke marks upon the adjoining wall, and the
evidences of great heat to which the brickwork had been
subjected, sugvested that it was a crematory. Dr. Banks’
description of the probable process of burning the bodies is as
follows :—

“The body to be cremated was placed upon the platform ; flames
from a furnace in an adjoining room, passing through a flue, con-
sumed the bodies, and the smoke passed out through a vent above.
The ashes, unmixed with the ashes of the furnace, were either
gathered for burial in urns, or swept into the pit below. This
crematory, which was duplicated in a second chamber near by,
explains the absence of Babylonian graves ”

Remains of dwelling-houses with ovens and drainage also
came to hght.

Concerning the excavations at Tel-loh it is not my intention
to speak at length, as I described rather fully before this
Institute, many years ago, certain of the finds made by the
French explorer, M. Ernest de Sarzeec, on that site. It les in
a rather inaccessible region fifteen hours north of Mugheir
(Ur of the Chaldees) and twelve hours east of Warka (Erech).

DISCOVERIES IN BABYLONIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING LaNDs. 115

The principal building probably had its origin at an exceedingly
early date—earlier, in all probability, than the time of the
viceroy Gudea, who seems to have rebuilt it. In its area of
about 174 feet by 98 feet it contains an extensive series of
rooms—reception rooms, sleeping places, kitchens, etc. In later
times the entrances to some of the chambers seem to have been
regarded as being too public, and they were accordingly partly
walled up by a man named Addu-nadin-ahi, who belongs to
a period after the date of Alexander.

The discoveries in this little place, strange to say, were much
more important than its situation would lead us to expect. It
has given us pictures of feats of arms, representations of
conquests, and delightful things in the way of architecture,
literature, and art. “Though its architecture was rather massive
for what we should consider to be really good, it is probably
owing to this circumstance that the buildings have been
preserved to us, and though its art has the same defect in many
cases, it has given us the village-chiei, and the lady who might
well have been his consort and helpmate. There have been
preserved to us likewise the god with the fire-stick (as he has
been called), inscribed with Gudea’s dedicatory inscription to
Nin-Girsu, and the remains of the beautiful stele in which
Gudea is depicted, led by a priest, into the presence of that
same god, who, seated on his throne, waits to receive him. The
antiquity of their art is illustrated by those remarkable
cylinder-seal impressions bearing the name of En-gal-gala,
existing in many forms, all very similar. There will doubtless
be much discussion as to what the subject may mean, but the
shouting man and the silent women (if we may judge from the
mouths of the figures) may have something to tell us as to
the manners, customs, and beliefs of the people of that early
period—probably 3,500 or 4,000 years before Christ. Of
literature of the earliest period we have no real specimens,
but if I had time, I would read you something of their national
troubles, and also the accounts of the pious works of the kings
of the place. The work of M. de Sarzec has been very
successfully continued by his successor, Colonel Cros.

Among the most important of the discoveries in Babylonia
must be noted those of Mr. Rassam, Sir Henry Layard’s old
lieutenant, and the discoverer of ASSur-bani-Apli’ s splendid
palace at Nineveh, whence the finest of the Assyrian reliefs in
the British Museum came. It is needless to say that Assyriolo-
gists are greatly indebted to him, ior the number of the
inscriptions which he sent to this country was enormous—

116 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON

hardly less than 100,900,if my memory serves me. Among the
sites at which he worked were Kouyunjik (Nineveh); Balawat,
where the famous bronze gates were found ; Babylon; Borsippa,
the site of the great temple of Nebo; Tel-Ibrahim, the site of
the Babylonian Cutheh; Dailem, the ancient Dilmu, generally
eallad Dilbat; and, last but not least, Abu-Habbah, the ancient
Sippar, one of the great centres of the worship of the sun-god.
The now venerable explorer describes this site as being an
extensive series of mounds surrounded by a high wall of earth.
The mound upon which the principal buildings are erected is
about 1,300 feet by 400 feet, and contains, in Mr. Rassam’s
opinion, at least 300 chambers and halls. Of these he excavated
about 130, when the work came to an end by the expiration of
the firman.

According to the plan drawn up by Father Scheil, who
worked there after Rassam for the Turkish Government, the
city wall is an oblong rectangle, curving inwards at the north-
western end, to follow the course of the canal which formed
the boundary of the city at that point. It was near that canal,
to all appearance, that the zigqgurat or temple-tower stood, but
very little of that structure now remains. There were tablets
everywhere, and notwithstanding the excavations which have
been carried on since those of Rassam, the site is probably by
no means exhausted. In these ruins were found the celebrated
mace-head of Sargon of Agadé, and in all probability also the
equally well-known cylinder-seal of Ibni-Sarru, that king’s
secretary. Then we have the beautiful “ Sungod-stone,” carved
for Nabt-abla-iddina—a precious thing which, apparently for
safety, they buried under the. bitumen pavement. Impressions
of the design were made in clay, in case the original should be
destroyed, and it was placed in a terracotta box inscribed with
the nature of the contents, so that people should know what it
was as soon as they came uponit. Among the texts of late date is
an ancient map of the then known world; and the oft-quoted
cylinder of Nabonidus, which refers to his restoration of the
temple of the moon-god at Harran ; the date of Naram-Sin, son
of Sargon of Agadé; and other important historical and
archeological facts. Except the stone monument of Nabonidus
giving details of the murder of Sennacherib and the downfall of
Assyria at the hands of the Babylonians and the Medes,
Professor Scheil has found nothing equalling in importance
the discoveries of Mr. Rassam. Among Professor Scheil’s finds,
however, may be mentioned some interesting clay figures of
animals—dogs, bears, ete—the most interesting of them being

DISCOVERIES IN BABYLONIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING LANDS. 117

one of the former resembling a dachshund, and inscribed with
the following words :—

“To the lady Gula (or Bau) I have made and presented a dog of
clay.”

To all appearance the dog was sacred to Gula, hence this
inscription.

We have already seen, from the excavations at Bismya, that
the Babylonians burned their dead in early times, and that,
after the cremation, the ashes were collected and placed in urns.
Ordinary burial, however, was also practised, but instead of
coffins, the custom seems to have been to enclose the body in
a large jar before interment. Professor Scheil gives repro-
ductions of some of the gigantic specimens of pottery which he
found, in which the body was apparently inserted entire.

We know that, in later days, the influence of Assyria
extended as far as the Mediterranean, but we cannot say for
certain at what date that influence began to make itself felt.
Babylon was the pioneer country in that part of the world,
however, and the Assyrians, who spoke the same language,
would naturally inherit the influence when the power of
Babylonia began to wane. In all probability a certain amount
of light is thrown on this point by the tablets found of late
years in Cappadocia, and written in cuneiform characters. These
documents consist of contracts and letters, and though the
script is Babylonian in style, and the envelopes of the contracts,
when they have them, are covered with impressions of cylinder-
seals similar to those found in Babylonia, they are also, strange
to say, dated by means of eponymes—that is, by inserting the
name of some official chosen for a year to date by—an exclusively
Assyrian custom. These documents cannot be said to be
written wholly either in the Babylonian or the Assyrian style, as
far as the wording of the contracts is concerned, but with a
legal phraseology which seems to antedate them both. The
style of the writing is that of about 2000 B.c. or earlier, and
notwithstanding possible arguments to the contrary, this may be
regarded as their probable date. That Assyria could have had
influence as far north-west as Kaisarieh, at that early period,
seems to be impossible, but perhaps, notwithstanding its seeming
dependence on Babylonia, the northern kingdom may have had
more power than is at present generally imagined. The great
deity of the place seems to have been A8ur or ASir, the well-
known head of the Assyrian pantheon, so that the influence of
Assyria, and not of Babylonia, at that early date, seems to be set

118 THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON

beyond a doubt. The dialect, which is Semitic, is peculiar, and
of considerable importance. Such of the letters as I have been
able to translate are what we should expect from a community
living far from its home. The impressions of a cylinder-seal
on the envelope of an ancient Cappadocian letter, showing a four-
wheeled chariot, drawn by horses, are of considerable interest.

After this, it is not surprising that Sam/alla, a town at
present represented by the ruins of Zenjirli, should have
acknowledged, in common with other places in the west, the
over-lordship of the great Assyrian king. The inscriptions
found at Zenjirli extend from a period preceding the time of
the Biblical Tiglath-Pileser (740 B.c.) to the reign of Esarhaddon,
and it is probable that the allegiance of the people of San/valla
only ended with the downfall of Assyrian power in 606 B.C.
Sam/alla was apparently the capital of an Aramaic state of some
antiquity. The most important object of general interest is
the stele sculptured with a representation of Hsarhaddon
holding, by cords attached to their lips, two prisoners, that
nearer to him being Tirhakah, the well-known Ethiopian king
of Egypt, whose identity is shown by the ureeus ornament on
his head. On the side are portraits of Panammt, the king of
Zenjirli, Esarhaddon’s vassal.

The inscription on the stele bearing the representation of
Esarhaddon and his captives is noteworthy, as 1t shows how far
Assyrian power extended. Besides the title of King of
Assyria, he calls himself also King of Babylon, King of Sumer
and Akkad (practically the same thing), King of Kar-Dunias
(it is uncertain whether there be any distinction in this, but
probably the words “all of them,’ which follow, explain it, and
indicate that Kar-DuniaS stands for Babylonia in general),
King of the kings of Egypt, Patros, and Cush or Ethiopia. He
traces his descent in the usual way, namely, through
Sennacherib and Sargon to Bélibni, son of Adasi, whom he calls
the founder of Assyrian dominion (mukin Sarrute mat Assur).
He then refers to his campaign against Tirhakah (7arqu),
King of Egypt and Ethiopia, whom he defeated every day for
fifteen days, and fought with personally on five occasions, taking,
in the end, the city of Memphis. Among the captives were
Tirhakah’s women-folk, and his son Usanaburu. The usual
curses against anyone who should take away or destroy this
monument, and appeals to future princes to read the inscrip-
tion and perform the usual ceremonies of anointing, etc., close

the text.
Though the statue of the god Hadad found there is ugly, the

DISCOVERIES IN BABYLONIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING LANDS 119

inscription in relief which it bears is exceedingly interesting. It
was written for Panammiti, king of Sam/alla during the time of
Tiglath-Pileser ILI., who began to reign in 745 B.c. Properly
speaking, this statue was not found at Zenjirli, but at Gerchin,
about half an hour to the north-east. As Panammt calls him-
self King of Yaudi, it is clear that that was the name of the
district, and we shall have to be careful not to confuse it with
the Assyrian mdt Yaudi, which stands for the kingdom of
Judah. The remaining Aramaic inscriptions give the succession
of six rulers, who followed in a genealogical line, the later ones
at least acknowledging the overlordship of Assyria.

And now we come to the splendid discoveries, likewise made
by the Germans (to whose enterprise the world owes also those
it Babylon, ASsur, Al Hibba, Zenjirli, and elsewhere) in the
ruins near Boghaz Keui, the identity of which site is no longer
doubtful, any more than is the nationality of the people whose
capital the ancient city was.

Boghaz Keui, upon which all eyes interested in west Asian
exploration are now set, lies five days’ journey west of Angora,
and not far from the sculptured rocks of Yasli-kaya Two
classes of tablets were found there, some of them archaic, and
pointing, lke those from the neighbourhood of Kaisarieh,
already described, to the period of Hammurabi of Babylonia;
the others in a much simpler style, sometimes in Babylonian,
but often in that unknown language of which the Arzawan
tablets from Tel-el-Amarna are examples, and of which pro-
visional renderings have been made by the Scandinavian
scholar Knudtzon.

About 2,500 fragments of the kind which had been expected—
texts like that in the Museum of, the Liverpool Institute of
Archeology and those brought back from that part by
M. Ernest Chantre—came to lhght, many of them being of
‘considerable size. Naturally it was those in the Semitic
Babylonian language which occupied the attention of the
explorer first, as it is always best to proceed from the known to
ethe unknown. All these inscriptions, which are likely to
become the key to the Hittite language, are described as being
“ Diplomatic documents,” like the Tel-el-Amarna tablets.

With regard to those of the nature of letters, it is stated
that; most of them are from WaSmuaria, or, in full, Wasmuaria
Satepua fia fia-masesa mar Amana—that i 18, as cenerally read
in Egyptian, User-maat-Ra setep en Ra Ra-messu mery Amen, 1.0.,
Ramesses II., and HattuSilu, the Chetasar or Hattusir of
Keyptologists. It is needless to say, that these new texts

120 THEOPHILUS G, PINCHES, LL.D., M.R.A.S., ON

promise to change our ideas concerning the pronunciation of
Egyptian entirely, and many familiar forms with which Eeypt-
ologists have presented us will have to disappear from our
histories. |

The first great document found was the text of a contract
between Hattusilu and Ria-masesa mai Amana mar Mimmuaria
bin-bin Min-pahritaria, that is “Ramesses beloved of Ammon,
son of Seti I., grandson of Men-pelhti-ra ” (to adopt the common
spelling), or Kamesses ]. Both parties call themselves either
‘oreat king, king of Misri (Egpt )” or “king of Hatti,’ as the
case may be, and the whole text of the contract is practically
the same as that found in Egyptian at Karnak. In this new
version of the celebrated treaty there is also reference to the
text of the silver tablet (sa ia rikilte muhhi duppt sa sarpt).
The lst of Hittite gods, however, is unfortunately wanting. It
is noteworthy that the Hittite kings, like their brothers of
Egypt, called themselves “ the sun.”

In fulness of time we shall probably come to know not only
how to translate the so-called Hittite characters, but we shall
also learn the names of their deities, of which so many interesting
figures exist. We may even find the identity of the so-called
pseudo Sesostris, and that elegant little Hittite king from Bir
(Birejik), whose relief has been so many years in the British
Museum. There are also numerous Hittite seals, which ought
to be of interest when we can read the strange inscriptions with
which some of them are engraved.

I have had so much to report upon that I have at present
neither time nor space to say anything about the interesting
discoveries made at Qal’ah Shergat (Assur), the old capital of
Assyria. All being well, however, this will serve for another
occasion, should a communication thereon be desired. It is
needless to say that the discoveries on that site, which the
all-favoured Germans have likewise excavated, are of con-
siderable importance. But in order to understand thoroughly
the explorations made at ASS8ur, excavations at Nineveh in its
larger sense are needed as well—that Nineveh which Jonah is
described as having taken three days to traverse. All the
points showing traces of ancient towns and cities ought to be
explored, and then, perhaps, we should find something which
would enable us to understand that statement. In any case,
much would probably be added to our knowledge, whether
excavations were made there or at any other site or sites in
Babylonia and Assyria; and it is to be hoped that this country,
which has done so-much for Assyriology in the past, may be

DISCOVERIES IN BABYLONIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING LANDS. 12}

allowed to resume her work in that field. There is room
enough for all ; and we have been so liberal in former years in
throwing open our treasures to the world that people cannot
eall us greedy simply because we wish to continue, in friendly
rivalry with them, our researches with regard to the early
history of civilization in the Nearer East, in which we have
been engaged so long.

493rp ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.

MONDAY, MARCH Isr, 1909.

Herywoop SmitH, Esq., M.D., IN THE CHAIR.

The Minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed. |

The following paper was then read by the Author :—

MODERNISM; ITS ORIGIN AND TENDENCIES. By
Rev. CHANCELLOR LiAs, M.A., Hulsean Lecturer, 1884.

PROPOSE to state, as plainly as possible, my own personal
views on the subject which I have been asked to discuss in

this paper. The outspoken utterance of convictions which may
be unpalatable to others, has not, I admit, been a principal
characteristic of our past discussions, but it must be obvious to
all who are acquainted with this Institute, that it is now
attempting to meet the changed wants of the time by a certain
change in its methods. Years ago, when Christianity was
confronted with the somewhat rash dogmatics of a then new
school of physical science, great care had to be taken in our
papers and debates not to trample on the feelings, or, as may
sometimes have been the case, the prejudices, of particular
schools of thought among Christians. Our first desire was to
unite a/l Christians, as far as possible, in resisting the material-
istic teaching which threatened to overthrow, not merely
Christianity, but every reasonable form of Theism. It must,
however, be evident to us all that the forms under which
scepticism and unbelief now lurk are of a different kind.
The danger to faith assumes the shape, at present, of random

MODERNISM: ITS ORIGIN AND ‘TENDENCIES. 123

assertions, of false philosophies and one-sided schools of criticism.
The only way, as it seems to me, to combat these new difficulties
is to lay down the true principles of Christian philosophy, and
to ascertain the true limits of criticism. This, however, can
only be done by the fullest and freest interchange of opinion.
The time has, I believe, come when Christians can meet
together and discuss their differences reasonably and temper-
ately, without unnecessarily offending prejudices, or evoking
violent antagonisms, and without the endeavours, far too
common, I am afraid, in the past, on both sides, to muzzle the
free expression of opinion by calling names and imputing motives.
Ifthe Victoria Institute will boldly embark on this new depar-
ture, that of giving a fair hearing to all who “ profess and call
themselves Christians,” on the weighty questions now debated,
and of encouraging everyone to speak his mind plainly, so long
as he shows proper respect for the opinions of others, it may
do even a greater work in the future than it has done in the
past. To the policy of repression must chiefly be attributed
the intellectual and political convulsions which have alarmed
the world. The permission of free speech to every man is the
safety valve which prevents dangerous explosions.

Modernism, I take it, is the demand for free speech in the
body which, for centuries, has been the greatest and most
consistent enemy to all freedom of thought whatsoever. The
barriers to that freedom of speech have of late been breaking
down on all sides in the Roman communion. In the last paper
I read before the Institute I gave the history of the first
successful attempt since the Reformation to shake off the
fetters of the Roman Curia. It is now my task to indicate, as
far as I can, the character of a second great revolt, which is
spreading rapidly in France and Italy, and which has its
adherents even in England. It is an attempt which differs
from that made by the Old Catholics both intellectually and
practically. It not only deals far more freely with first princi-
ples than the older movement, but strangely enough, it demands
the right to express far more advanced opinions “than any Old
Catholic has avowed, without separating from the communion of
the Church whose most authoritative utterances it rejects.
Such a movement in a church whose policy for ages has been
the most rigid repression of independence, is absolutely certain
to run into “dangerous extremes in the opposite direction. Con-
sequently, earnest religious men among ourselves have—again,
naturally enough—treated it with scant sympathy. I venture to
think this is a mistake. Before we withdraw our sympathy

124. “REV, CHANCELLOR LIAS, M.A., ON

from the Modernists, we are bound to remember the circum-
stances of their case. The iron repression to which they have
so long been subject must of necessity lead to the strong recoil
in the other direction which is displayed in their writings, and
if we find reason to deplore some of their utterances, we ought
not to excommunicate them altogether, but endeavour in a
spirit of brotherhood and loving-kindness to bring them to view
things from a wiser and more truly liberal standpoint.

Most of us are fully acquainted with the position of Dr.
Tyrrell, once a member of the “Society of Jesus,” but now
expelled from the Order, and disavowed by the Church to which
he belongs. He has told us that Modernism is not a sect, but a
school. That is to say, it lays down no principles and imposes
no dogmas. It simply claims a right to express opinion freely
while still belonging to a body which for a thousand years and
more has not only systematically denied that right, but has been
accustomed to put down those who claimed it with not a little
ferocity. I am sorry to say that Dr. Tyrrell’s description of
Modernism is, | am afraid, not altogether correct. In Italy, at
least, the Modernists have laid down dogmas of their own in the
place of these avainst which they contend. In an article in the
last number of the Jnternational Theological Review, an Old
Catholic organ of independent Catholic thought, published at
Berne, Dr. Herzog, Old Catholic Bishop for Switzerland, quotes
the organ of the Societa Internazionale Scientifico-Religiosa at
Rome as laying down as a commune terreno @intesa in the
Programma det Modernisti which it has issued, such propositions
as the following, in regard to the gospels: “ Mark is the oldest
of the Synoptic gospels”; 1t was used by Matthew and Luke;
“Matthew and Luke are independent of each other”; tliese
last‘ “have both used a writing called ‘ Logia’”; while “of
the compiler of the fourth Gospel we are not able to catch
a passing indication, but he is probably not identical with
John.” Then “the Pastoral Epistles of St. Paul. and the
Epistle to the Hebrews are clearly not authentic, and the
Catholic Epistles are pseudepigraphic.”* Now, let it be under-
stood that I have no objection to the freest possible investigation
of the critical problem, unless in the case of persons who have
undertaken obligations to some particular religious body, and to
the public at large not to carry such investigations so far as to

* It is only fair to say that ina paper by the Abbé Minoechi which
has reached me from Italy I find no tendency to dogmatism of this kind
but only a plea for free inquiry.

MODERNISM: ITS ORIGIN AND TENDENCIES. 125

conflict with the principles that religious body was formed to
maintain. But for my own part I believe the establishment of
positions by critical analysis to be a task of extreme difficulty,
and also that it would be well for critics to be a little more modest
in representing their conclusions as irrefragable and final. I
would further observe that the modern critic is wont to establish
his case by ignoring all methods of investigation save his own,
and all considerations outside his particular methods which
have led, or may lead, to a contrary conclusion.

Such a method seems to me as unscientific as it would have
been fer astronomers to have ignored the calculations of my
dear and honoured friend the late Professor Adams on the
perturbations of Uranus, and to have declared that there was
not, and could not be, any cause but the idiosyncrasy of Uranus
himself, for the eccentricities in his orbit. I shall return to
this question later on. But I may mention here that in the
article to which I have alluded, Bishop Herzog—he was for
years Professor of N.T. Exegesis, I may say, in the University
of Bern—has once more re-stated the arguments against the
theory that St. Mark is the oldest gospel, and has at least
shown that there is a good deal to be said on both sides of a
question which, as far as my experience goes—and I have been
reading both sides of it for more than half a century—is as
insoluble by purely critical methods as is the problem of
squaring the circle.

The principles of modernism, I think, find their most adequate
expression in Dr. Tyrrell’s now famous “ Letter.” I shall take
this as my text-book, illustrating it, when necessary, from one
or two of his subsequent productions. That it is a formidable
attack on Romanism considered as a practical system, and that
it deserves the closest attention of those among us who have
been led to regard that system with deep admiration, few
will be found hardy enough to deny. Its admissions are
remarkable indeed. He acknowledges (pp. 48, 49) that “the
conservative positions” in that Church “are maintained by
ignorance, systematic or involuntary ” ; that “ the close historical
study of origins and developments must undermine many of our
(.¢., the Ultramontane) most fundamental assumptions in regard
to dogmas and institutions ”; that “ the sphere of the miraculous
is daily limited by the growing difficulty in verifying such facts,
and the growing facility in reducing either them or the belief
in them to natural and recognized causes.” He further grants
(p. 49) that “in the approved writings of her ascetical teachers
(2.e., those of the Church of Rome) and her moralists, in the

126 REV. CHANCELLOR LIAS, M.A., ON

prevailing practices of her confessors and directors, in the
liturgical biographies of her canonized saints, in the principles
of her government and in her methods of education ; much that
revolts the very same moral and religious sense to which in the
first instance her claims to our submission must appeal.”* This
passage demands the very closest attention. Every portion of
it 1s as formidable an indictment of the workine of the Roman
system as the most uncompromising of its opponents could have
framed; and the most formidable of its features is that it comes
not from those ignorant Protestants who, as the Roman contro-
versialists are so fond of telling us, never did and never will
understand the system of the infallible Church, because they have
never viewed it from the inside, but from a man than whom no
one better understands the Roman system and its working,
having viewed it from the standpoint of the Order which above
all others has proved itself indispensable to the Papacy, and is
understood to hold the Infallible Pope himself in the hollow of
its hand. Nor does Dr. Tyrrell flinch when confronted with
expulsion from the Jesuit Order and from the Roman Church.
He returns to the charge in his Through Scylla and Charybdis,
and boldly arraigns Medizvalism in a subsequent work with
that title. He does not scruple to speak of “ the long and sordid
record of clerical scandal that we find in Church history ” (of
course he confines this phrase to the history of the Church to
which he belongs), “the persistent recrudescences of avarice,
ambition and licentiousness in the ministers of the sanctuary”
(p. 49). And though he tries to shelter himself under the plea
that this admission “ can prove no more against Catholicism ” (by
which he means Romanism) “ than the like phenomena in the
ministers of law and religion can prove against law and govern-
ment,” he forgets that human societies do not claim to be under

* The apologists of Rome will also do well to notice the admissions of
Cardinal Mercier in regard to Belgium, the country in which the Roman
Church has perhaps a firmer hold on the people than in any other country
in the world. He says (see Tyrrell, Medievalism, p. 16) that while every
young man “as he grows up takes a pride in developing his bodily
strength, in adding to the amount of his knowledge, in forming his
judgment, in deepening his experience, in improving his speech, in
refining his style, in mastering the ways of the world, in keeping in
touch with the course of events . . . many a.Catholic of twenty,
thirty, or forty years of age would, if asked, be forced to confess that
since his first communion he had learned uothiv g, and perhaps forgotten
a good deal of his religion.” Extremes, it seems to me, meet on this
matter. Our habit of allowing everything to be questioned is becoming
as fatal to religious research or reflection among our laity as is that of
he Roman Church in forbidding all inquiry.

MODERNISM: ITS ORIGIN AND TENDENCIES. 127

infallible rule, and to possess infallible Divine guidance. Once
nore, in his “ Letter,” he allows that “the Roman communion
inay be no more than the charred stump of a tree torn to pieces by
gales and rent by thunderbolts”; that “she may be and probably
is* more responsible for all the schisms than the schismatics
themselves” ; though he adinits that this is “too elliptical an
expression” (note 8). When he explains that by the Church
be means “ Churchmen,” he makes confusion worse confounded.
For in the first place what he said was not “the Church,” but
“the Roman communion.” And next, does he mean by “ Church-
men,” the members of the Church, or is he using the word in the
loose and inaccurate fashion which is so common even among
those who should know better, as indicating the clergy or the
lnerarchy ?

However, he goes on to say that all this will not prevent the
toman communion from standing for the “ principle of
Catholicity, the ideal of a spiritually united humanity centred
round Christ in one divine society.” It 1s here that those who
are not members of the Roman Church will be inclined to join
issue with him. If the Roman Church has adulterated the
true faith tosuch an extent as to be largely, at least, responsible
for the schisms which have taken place, how does this “ideal”
fit in with her treatment of persons, validly baptized into the
Catholic Church according to the formula ordained by Christ
Himself, and thrust out by ecclesiastical intolerance, pride, or
arrogance, sometimes to die excommunicate and accursed, and
perhaps after being “handed over to the secular arm.” Or if the
rulers of a church, presumed as an organization, remember, to be
infallible, have presented the spectacle of the gravest scandals,
frequently unpunished and screened by their brethren, if they
have been so frequently stained with the crimes of “avarice,
ambition, and licentiousness” (p. 49); what becomes of the
unfortunate lay folk who have been encouraged to sin by the
example of their teachers, whose voice, ex lypothesi, should be
to them as the voice of God Himself ?

Dr. Tyrrell’s attitude to his Church in the face of such
damning facts as he has himself admitted certainly needs some
explanation. If the Church of Rome, while professing supreme
authority and even infallibility 2s a Church, has so grievously
and persistently misled tnose who have looked up to her for
guidance, how, we who are outside her may fairly ask, can an
honest man remain any longer within her pale? “Come out

* The italics are mine.

128 * REV. CHANCELLOR LIAS, M.A., ON

from her, and be ye separate” would be, one would think, the
natural verdict of conscience in such a case. What is the use
of telling us that Christianity is a Life, when that Life is not
lived by those who alone can, by precept and example, transmit
it to us? “ How, then,” as St. Paui would say, “shall God
judge the world?” Has not Dr. Tyrrell told us (p. 93) that the
most difficult “ note” of the true Church with which to “ deal”’
is that of “sanctity,” and that no intelligent member of the
Roman Church can be “unfamiliar with the shock experienced
by the cultivated lay mind at first encounter with certain pages
in ascetic and moral theology” ?* Dr. Tyrrell goes on to say
that he “need not specify” these “pages.” Had he done so,
he would have given certain apologists of Rome among us a
“shock ” which would be of considerable use to them. Unfortu-
nately in this age we are so “tolerant” that we often shut our
eyes to facts, if this indeed be tolerance. ‘ Had Dr. Tyrrell been
able to “specify” and quote these pages, they would have been
a surprise to most of us. Many of them would be found such
as, to use Gibbon’s expression, were best “veiled in the decent
obscurity of a learned language.” I have not, however, space to
enter into Dr. Tyrrell’s ingenious defence of his present position
in the Roman Church. His refinements of logic, I must confess,
appear to me to savour too much of the methods of the Society
to which he has ceased to belong.

It is unpossible to touch on all the interesting points raised
in the “ Letter,” and in the volumes which have succeeded it.
can but pick out one or two more and then pass on to
modernism of another type. JI have no space to discuss the
attempt to minimize the errors and dangers of the Roman system
by which remaining in her is defended. I can only say that I
prefer the attitude of Dollinger when he said of the Vatican
dogmas that neither “as a Christian, a theologian, an historian,
or a citizen” could he subseribe them, and the honest determina-
tion with which he remained till death outside the pale of the
Roman Church. Nor can I stop to point out the singular
identification of Romanism with Catholicism in Mr. Tyrrell’s
pages.t But what, [ confess, surprises me not a little, is the way
in which he seems to ignore the facts of history when he
consistently endeavours to represent “Catholicism,” by which
he means Romanism, to be a /ree development of Christian

* See Vovellen, by Marie Murland.
+ M. Loisy adopts the same assumption in his C'ospel and the Church,
DL o:

MODERNISM: ITS ORIGIN AND TENDENCIES. 129

opinion.* If there is any one fact more indelibly stamped
than another on the pages of Church History, it is that
the Papal claims, from their first appearance to the days of
the Vatican Council, have been based on a_ succession of
the most daring outrages on individual freedom, on consistent
and continuous appeals to force instead of logic. It is true that
little stress is Jaid in our days on such facts as those of the
statute De Heretico Comburendo in this land and the Inquisition
on the Continent. Most of us who are not Roman Catholics
feel bound to hope—some of us rather “ against hope,’ I am
afraid—that those methods of producing and securing faith
are disapproved now by our brethren of the Roman Church,
and so we have ceased to press them. But when we hear
of the “historical development of the Catholic Church,” we
must surely admit that the claims of the Papacy were enforced
by tire and faggot, by plots and assassinations, by “ wars and
rumours of wars,” that the Papacy has never disavowed the
use of such means, and that its authority has been founded
rather on them than on the free verdict of the Chrisuan Church.
I do not deny that Christianity may and will develop. But
such a development must proceed by fair and _ reasonable
processes. I must hold that the methods of the Papacy have
to the last been neither fair nor reasonable, and that the full
and healthy development of religious belief has been, and will
be impossible as long as those claims continue to be recognized.
“He that letteth will let, until he be taken out of the way.”
Nor can I understand how any development can possibly be a
satisfactory one unless the Orthodox Churches of the East, and
those at least of the Protestants who accept the ancient faith of
Christendom, and who are, therefore, as good Catholies, if not
better, than the members of the Church to which Dr. Tyrrell
still belongs, are allowed to contribute their quota to it. Even
from those who reject the Catholic Faith altogether we may
learn a good deal as to the most convincing way of stating it.
Cardinal Newman, it is true, based his secession to Rome on
a theory of development. But that development was neither
logical nor natural. That is to say, it was neither the result of
the application of the reason to the words of Christ and His
first Apostles and ministers, as handed down to subsequent ages
in the Christian Society, nor the result of natural forces, such as
develop the plant from the seed, the child into the man, or the
growth of the Universal Church of Christ as she exists to-day,

* See “ Letter,” p. 62.

150 REV. CHANCELLOR LIAS, M.A., ON

with her Archbishops and Bishops, her Presbyteries and General
Assemblies, her Synods and Conferences, her canons, rules and
regulations, from a simple brotherhood in a single city, into a
complex organization extending throughout the world. Cardinal
Newman describes his “development” as consisting in a “ con-
templation of the object of its adoration” which from “an
impression on the Imagination” becomes “a system or creed
in the Reason.” Accurate thinkers will be more inclined
with Bishop Butler, to attribute to imagination all the errors

. . x wae co) .
with which the world has been afflicted since man entered
it.* The Cardinal speaks of a development according to

ideas of congruity, desirability and decorum, formed by the
action of “patient reflection and moral sensibility.” But
of whose “patient reflection and moral sensibility” ? Not of
Catholics at large, but of an “ infallible developing authority ”“—

the wire- pullers of the Vatican, to wit. Dr. Tyrrell again: speaks
of what he calls “Catholicism” as an “ explicitation ” of the
“thought of the greater prophets, of Christ, of St. Paui, of
Deaton of Origen, of Clement of ec anile ree So can as
Tertullian is concerned, we may agree to make him a present of
that more or less heretical writer. But when we read Roman
theology, we cannot help seeing how intensely Latin it invariably
is. Christ and St. Paul may be “developed” in it. But it is
an altogether unnatural development, out of all “ proportion”

to the “ faith.” Clement and Origen—why Dr. Tyrrell inverts
this order I cannot say,—when read, appear to transport us
into a fresher and healthier intellectual atmosphere altogether,
and one far more in harmony with modern thought than any-
thing Latin theology has ever given us. And Origen soon
became a heretic in the eyes of the hide-bound theologians of a
later age. Those who read him in Roman Catholic editions will
often find his pages punctuated with “Caute,” in order to warn the
reader how sadly his free and breezy utterances conflict with the
cut and dried “developments” of subsequent ages. “ Develop-
ment” there undoubtedly is in Roman theology, but it is out of
shape. The iron of authority has entered into the thinker’s
soul. And the stamp of Latin thought, with its narrow and
delusive axioms and postulates, and its clear and vigorous
though rigid method of deduction from them, is upon it all
through. And that it is why it is losing its hold, and must
eventually lose its hold, on the mind of man yet more completely,
as race after race is brought into the Christian fold.

* Analogy, Part I, chapter 1.

MODERNISM: ITS ORIGIN AND TENDENCIES. tr

I must add a word or two on another form of modernism,
which reveals the attitude of the school on the criticism of the
Bible. There is not much to detain us in the Abbé Loisy’s
The Gospel and the Church. It chiefly takes the forms of
eriticism of Professor Harnack’s Wesendes Christentwin. I, at
least, have no controversy with him here. Alike in his
orthodoxy and his heterodoxy I am disposed on the whole to
agree with him. But he adopts in his criticism methods of
a particular school which appear to me, as to many others,
open to serious objection. Thus he remarks (pp. 51, 52) that
“it seems inconceivable that Jesus should have preached at
Jerusalem, declaring Himself to be the Messiah, on several
occasions, during several (three ?) years, without being arrested.
He can but have done so once, and paid the forfeit with His
life.” This seems to me the wp@rov Weddos of the method of
the medern school of criticism. You say that this or that
statement is “inconceivable,” and you fancy yourself thereby
to have exposed the inaccuracy of contemporary, or all but
contemporary, and, moreover, extremely well informed
historians.* Then St. John’s Gospel is rejected, not because
it conflicts hopelessly with the contents of the others, but
because it gives the esoteric, as the other three Gospels give
the exoteric, teaching of Christ: and this, in spite of the
overwhelming evidence which has been adduced in favour of
the Gospel having been a genuine production of a disciple of
Christ. Modern criticism carries on its own isolated research
mainly on lines altogether subjective, and establishes its

* M. Loisy, it is true, soon goes a good deal farther than he does in his
Gospel and the Church. 1n Quelques Lettres, pp. 93, 94, he tells us that “on
the evening of the Passion the Body of Jesus was taken down from the
Cross by the soldiers and thrown into some common grave, where
nobody could have had the idea of going to look for, and recognizing it
after the lapse of a certain time.” Note here, as an illustration of
modern so-called “scientific” methods, that we (1) have a definite
historical statement made eighteen centuries and a half after the event,
without the slightest historical evidence on which to rest it ; (2) that
Mr. Loisy flatly contradicts the statements purporting to be made by eye-
witnesses, although handed down as contemporary documents for nearly
eighteen hundred years in @ society definitely organized for that purpose ;
and (3) that such a masterly statement of the evidence as that, for
instance, in Godet’s Etudes Bibliques is absolutely and contemptuously
ignored. And that just because the writer personally imagines the
event of which such strong evidence can be produced to be incredible!
I shall believe this sort of criticism to be “scientific” when I find
secular historians resorting to such canons of criticism, and not before.

182 REV. CHANCELLOR LIAS, M.A., ON

conclusions by altogether refusing to discuss any conflicting
results which may seem to have been established on lines other
than its own. I may myself claim to have established the facts
(1) that the doctrinal matter declared in the fourth Gospel to
have been taught by Christ is the foundation of the doctrinal
system proclaimed in everyone of the Epistles; and that (2) the
language in which Christ’s teaching is reported in that Gospel
is invariably more elementary in form than the language in
which ‘that teaching is presented in the Epistles. Now the
conclusion I have drawn from these facts, namely, the genuine-
ness of the fourth Gospel, may be sound, or it may not. But
it cannot be said that the opposite conclusion is established
until this theory has been examined and proved to be false.

M. Loisy, it is true, does not, at least in his Gospel and the
Church, accept the dogmas about the priority of St. Mark’s
Gospel laid down by the Italian modernists. But he appears
to be working on their lines, which appear to me, I confess, to
be altogether unscientific. ‘Therefore, it may be well to bear in
mind the language of Bishop Herzog in the article I have
mentioned above, echoed as it has been by Professor Flint, by
Professor James Robertson, by Professor Orr, and other
competent authorities. “The programme of the modernists is
an expression of opinion which compels respect. But we shall
do well to examine it critically before we accept it.” <A great
question such as this should surely be regarded from every
possible point of view, and every argument in relation to it
carefully examined before the matter is assumed to be settled.
Otherwise our methods, by whatever epithets we may be pleased
to describe them, differ in no way from those of the Vatican, and
must ultimately, however long they may hold the field, share
the fate of all unproved sayings, from whatsoever quarter they
may come.

Dr. Tyrrell, ike M. Loisy, does not remain altogether
stationary. With what I cannot help thinking to be the
somewhat hazy metaphysics of a good deal of his Scylla and
Charybdis I have, 1 must confess, little sympathy. But with
his bold indictment of modern Roman methods, and his vigorous
protests against the Cardinal’s characteristic phrase, “ the
apostate Dollinger,’ I am thoroughly in accord. I have not,
I must admit, made an exhaustive study of Dr. Tyrrell’s works.
But what I have been able to read, I have read with attention :
and I have not found a word which need prevent him from
becoming an Anglican, an Old Catholic, or even what is called
an “orthodox Nonconformist.” I admire heartily his concluding

MODERNISM: ITS ORIGIN AND TENDENCIES. 133

appeal to Cardinal Mercier in his Medievalism. I cannot blame
him for his honourable sentiment of loyalty to the great
communion to which he stil belongs. But I would ask him,
in all seriousness and in all sympathy, if he himself would have
been a possibility but for the solvents applied to Roman theology
by a Catholicity broader and worthier than that to which he
still continues to cling.

I have now expressed what I feel on this subject with
plainness, but I trust in no dogmatic spirit. If I have used the
personal pronoun pretty largely, it is not because I regard
myself as the ideal man, with whose conclusions every rational
person must agree, but, on the contrary, because I can only
speak for myself, and therefore refuse to dogmatize. I am
quite willing to be converted, if I am shown to be mistaken.
But I believe we shall never have a true development of
Christianity until it is founded on sound reason, until it takes
account of other bodies and other theologies beside that of Rome,
and is established by the fullest, the freest, and the friendliest
discussion. Finally I must say that it seems utterly impossible
that the Church of Rome can tolerate such utterances as those
of the modernists, and that for a very simple reason. On the
day she does so, she ceases to exist.

DISCUSSION.

The paper being concluded—

The CHAIRMAN (Dr. HEYwoop SMITH) expressed the thanks of
the meeting to Chancellor Lias for his paper, and said that all were
indebted to him for his frankness and boldness in holding such
language. The great difficulty to his mind was to define Modernism :
did it imply development, had it this as its object? If so they must
bear in mind the possibilities of this development and consider
whither it might lead them. Then it might be that they would
have to ponder whether simplicity was not more valuable than any
development to further complication of structure. There was also
the question to consider as to whether Modernism attacks one
sect and one creed only for its abuses, or whether it is not merely
increasing criticism to hypercriticism of all established religion.

The Rev. R. V. FATHFULL DAVIES (Secretary of the Christian
Evidence Society) said that Modernism was a wide subject with a

134 REV. CHANCELLOR LIAS, M.A., ON

vast range, from a position tenable to the Roman Church to one that
could not be recognized as Christian ; the term Modernist was used
to denote men who differed very extremely from one another on
points of the greatest importance. It was, then, very difficult to gain
a general idea of the movement. Modernism must be defined as a
tendency even more thana school. Those Modernists who remained
in the Roman Church traced their opinions to the doctrine of
development of Newman, and it is considered possible that Newman’s
letter may be condemned as a source of Modernist principles. It
was very difficult to gain a general idea of the movement. Loisy’s
book, Autowr Mun petit livre, gave a very interesting view of his
position ; while Tyrrell’s Through Scylla and Charybdis was also very
interesting. Perhaps a good general idea could be obtained from a
little book called What we Want, being a translation by Mr. Lilley
of a protest by thirteen Italian priests. A translation of the
encyclical Pascendi is appended to M. Paul Sabatier’s interesting
lectures on Modernism. In the Encyclical the Modernists are
denounced up hill and down dale, and the opinions ascribed to them
severely condemned, but it is a question whether they really hold
these opinions, or whether the Vatican thinks that this is what
Modernists believe, or ought logically to believe. The representation
is, however, of the nature of a caricature. In Sabatier’s volume
there is not a great deal of information, but the position of the
extremists will be found to be stated by Loisy.

Professor ORCHARD said that Modernism appeared to be the
revolt of the slave against his fetters. It was produced by the
reaction against the Roman system and its intellectual and moral
slavery. In the movement itself the love of liberty could be
recognized as its inspiration to a greater extent than the love of
Truth. Its followers were affected not a little by the dominant
passion of the present day. They had not been able to keep clear
of the methods of the higher criticism.

There were two points in the paper on which he would like to make
separate comment. First on p. 129 where reference was made by the
writer to Newman’s system. It was interesting to know that
Newman tried this on his brother, Professor Frank Newman,
surrounding him with objects of contemplation which were to lead to
the desired result, but without effect.

Again, on p. 130, where the Cardinal was quoted as writing of an

MODERNISM: ITS ORIGIN AND TENDENCIES. 135

“infallible developing authority,” in the speaker’s judgment if the
Roman hierarchy laid claim to “development” it could not at the
same time claim to be ‘ semper eadem.”

The Rey. J. TUCKWELL concurred with Mr. Faithfull Davies in
what he had said as to the wideness of the subject and its want of
definition. There were, however, some threads of a_ scientific
character to be found, and a Modernist Philosophy was developing
which was becoming very attractive to some. ‘There was, however,
a desire to prove a Unity in all natural things which could only
lead to Pantheism, and too great a leaning on modern methods of
criticism which were too often subjective and too apt to ignore
external evidence and fact. He was amazed at the frequent
ignoring of archeological evidence to the falseness of theories
accepted by the Modernists. The position adopted by the Modernist
critic of to-day, ¢.g., Loisy, could be traced to French Deism which
was transferred to Germany after the Napoleonic era. They should
rejoice in the revolt if it led back to truth and simplicity and not
to rationalism and an anti-christian pseudo-philosophy. The
rejection of all Christian doctrine and all supernatural religion in
France, seemed to be a great danger to Modernism, with which it
was brought so much into contact.

The Rev. 8. PIKE was glad to have heard Chancellor Lias’ sentence
(p. 124) on the higher critics. It had often happened that theories had
been developed which were later on overthrown by the spade of the
investigator ; the critics pass from their theories but still forget why.
It would be a pity if the Modernists should forget that true advance
was generally founded on historical fact and not on theory alone.
‘Owing to the system of the Roman Church Modernism was in a
manner stultified. Its followers were trained in blind faith, and
‘seeing a revolt they were too anxious to adapt the system to those
who were drifting away.

Colonel ALVES asked those present to consider how many so-
called reformers had practically thrown the Old Testament overboard.

‘Christian people were too apt to give a flat denial to statements in
the Old Testament which have not as yet been fulfilled, as for
example the statement often made that the Jews shall not go back
to their own land, denials that the Temple shall be rebuilt, or that
the recurrence of the animal sacrifice is once again to be witnessed.
The Rev. CHANCELLOR LIAs, in replying, said that he had really
K

136 REV. CHANCELLOR LIAS, M.A., ON

little to say, for all those who had spoken were, like the game cocks
in the story, all on one side. Something had been said of the danger
of development, which applied not only to the movement now being
discussed, but also to such societies as the Victoria Institute. It
was impossible that they should all be able to accept one another’s
theories as they stand, and agreement could only be arrived at
through free discussion. Agreement so arrived at would be develop-
ment, and this development was that which was needed on all sides.
The development against which all should be on their guard was that,
of “ Reason led by imagination.” Imagination was too apt to run riot.

As regarded the definition of Modernism, he agreed with the
Rev. Faithfull Davies that the subject was too wide for exact definition.
But in their criticism it would be well to bear in mind that Modernism
was in great measure a revolt. They must bear in mind the case of
the ex-priests, and remember how helpless these people were when
they first escaped. So it must be with the Modernists, they must

be treated patiently. For with them too the revulsion must at first:

be extreme.

COMMUNICATION FROM Rev. A. IRvinG, D.Sc., B.A.

Being prevented from attending the meeting on March Ist, 1

beg to offer a few remarks upon Mr. Chancellor Lias’s paper on:

‘‘Modernism.” The term seems to me to carry a wider connotation
than the author of the paper has given to it. Modernism, it is con-

ceived, has two phases—(i) the scientific, (11) the pseudo-scientific ;.

and it is with the latter phase that the learned Chancellor mainly
deals, in such a way, however, as to have my full sympathy. I am

glad to find that (pp. 124-5) he substantially endorses the criticisms.
which I ventured to make on the position of the ‘‘ Higher Critics”

in the discussion of Professor Sir Wm. Ramsay’s paper two years
ago (see also my letters to the Guardian of last year (November and

December) in reply to the Norrisian Professor of Divinity, and to.

Dr. Dukinfield Astley). I entirely agree with the author’s rather
severe remarks upon the position of M. Loisy on pp. 130-1, and with
the stricture of Bishop Herzog (p. 132). The spirit of that zpé7or
vedoos (p. 131) taints the whole method of that school, and I am bold.
therefore to maintain that it is “ pseudo-scientific.”

MODERNISM: ITS ORIGIN AND TENDENCIES. 137

A short time ago I was driven in private controversy to adjure a —
champion of that school, in the name of intellectual veracity, not to
juggle with the word ‘science,’ under which all sorts of fallacies
may lurk. I hold that, unless a man has done enough work in the
region of those sciences which come under the purview of the Royal
Society, to know the difference between what he knows and what he
has only a reading or talking acquaintance with, he needs to beware
of getting on very slippery ground, and of advancing some other
cause than the cause of truth. (See the correspondence in the
Guardian of 1905 between myself and the late Canon MacColl.)

Then, as regards the scientific aspect of “ Modernism,” I need not
tell the members of the Victoria Institute that I have no sympathy
with what Chancellor Lias (p. 122) describes as the “rash dogmatics of
the* school of physical science”; indeed for the last two decades I
have been engaged in my small way in combating them. Eyen Pope
Leo XIII. attempted something of the sort, but found himself out of
his depth, and had to fall back upon St. Thomas Aquinas (if I
remember rightly) as entitled to have the final say upon the highest
questions of philosophy, to which the discoveries of science may lead
up in this twentieth century ! I should rather say that there is more
true philosophy in the dictum of the poet Wordsworth—

“To the solid ground
Of Nature to trust the mind that builds for aye.”

So when a champion of the “higher criticism ” tells me that the
real difference between us is in ‘‘ the presuppositions with which we
start,’ my reply is the simple one, that inductive science knows no
presuppositions ; it finds its data in observed facts, and checks its
inferences by further observation of facts. I will ask permission to
add two short quotations :—

“Liberty to seek—liberty to formulate the found. Devoutly
we claim it beside the graves, at which the whole world creeps up to
mourn with us; the shrine of our aged master (Darwin), the snow-
drift of our young master (young Balfour of Trinity). Far-withdrawn
teachings out of the perfect Work they opened for themselves and
for us. What deeper and yet more universal teachings became
theirs out of the all-wise Word we perhaps may not know. And
they will help us to read the Word itself more truly. Well has it

* T said “a,” not “the.”—J. J. L. See p. 122.
K 2

138 REV. CHANCELLOR LIAS, M.A., ON MODERNISM.

been said by a believing man of science (Lionel Beale)—‘ Science can
no more submit to be controlled than theology can allow herself to
be fretted at every little alteration in scientific opinion. Intellectual
work of every kind must be free.’ And the New Testament is still
the one volume of religious books, which accepts the whole state-
ment ”—(see The Spirit of Enquiry, a sermon preached before the
British Association in 1882, by the Bishop of Truro, Dr. Benson,
afterwards Primate).

To this I will venture to add some remarks introductory to a
sermon by myself on the Papal Encyclical, De Unitate, of 1896,
published in the Clergyman’s Magazine :—

‘When the Papacy gathered the ‘catholic’ world around it in the
sixteenth century at the Council of Trent, and added twelve new
doctrines to the Creed of Christendom (as the great Christopher of
Lincoln used to say) it virtually made itself ‘a new church,’ and
took up a position antagonistic to that ‘forward movement of the
human mind,’ which, beginning with the Renaissance, has been going
on ever since. Whatever chance was left to it of retreating from
that position would seem to have taken away by the decrees of the
Vatican Council of 1870. So it has come to pass that there is a
fixity, we might almost say, a petrifaction of thought, which
characterizes the teaching of the Roman Church, and has tended to
place her more and more outside of human progress and of sympathy
with the march of the human intellect, which has marked the
nineteenth century. With ideas and modes of thought still cast in
an Italian mould she bids fair to be left ‘high and dry’ by the great
Teutonic races, who have become readers of their Bibles, and
investigators of Nature, and to whom the future of the world seems
to belong.”

Even the late Lord Acton saw this; andI remark (loc. cit.) that
“itis a pity the leaders of thought in his Church cannot share his
enlightenment.”

139

494TH ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.

MONDAY, MARCH 15rn, 1909.

FREDERIC 8. BisHop, Esq., M.A., J.P., IN THE CHAIR.
The Minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed.

The following candidates were then elected to the Victoria Institute :—

MemBeEr.—Miss M. D. McEwan.
AssociaTes.—H. H. L. Chichester, Esq. ; George Evans, Esq.

The following paper was then read by the Author :—

THE LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYLONTA.
By Harotp M. Wiener, M.A., LL.B.

N the year 1902, M. de Morgan discovered a black diorite
stele on which were inscribed “the judgments of
righteousness which Hammurabi the mighty king confirmed.”
Some 35 sections had been erased, apparently with a view to
engraving a fresh inscription on the portion of the monument
they occupied, but the rest of the code was practically intact.
While there are many points in the translation, history and
interpretation on which uncertainty must long prevail, we
have sufficient materials to form some general conceptions of
the legal civilisation of the subjects of “ the mighty king.”

The subject matter of jural laws is human life in its social
aspect. It deals with the acts and omissions of human
beings in their relations to one another, and as a necessary
result the influences that mould any given legislation are both
manifold and diverse. Nowhere does the student realise more
vividly that the roots of the present lie deep in the past, and
accordingly the first task in taking a general view of the
Babylonian code must be to distinguish the primitive ideas that
Hammurabi and his contemporaries brought from a remote
past. We must next consider the geographical and other
conditions of their task, the means of which they could dispose,

140 HAROLD M. WIENER, M.A., LL.B., ON THE

the nature of the problem with which they were faced, the
state of mental development to which they had attained, and
we shall then be in a position to form some conception of their
views and policy. In other words we must glance successively
at the Ideas the nation had inherited from its Infancy, at its
Geographical Environment and Historical Circumstances, at
the Conditions and Tasks of its Daily Life, and at the Quality
and Development of its Intellect; only when that is done can
we hope to see something of its Soul. In the case of the
Babylonian code the occupations of the people and its history
were almost entirely determined by the geography and can for
the most part be dealt with under that head.

In dealing with the historical portion of our subject nothing
1s possible in the present condition of our knowledge. beyond a
few generalities. The legal antecedents of the code are too
largely unknown, and it would be quite impossible to attempt
to separate the elements that are due to the Sumerians from
those contributed by the Babylonians. But we have seven
sections belonging to some Sumerian legislation, and these are
sufficient to show that the code of Hammurabi merely
represents a particular stage in an orderly historical evolution.
Thus we read in the eamcmen laws, “If a wife hates her
husband and has said, on are not my husband,’ one shall
throw her into the river.”* This penalty of throwing into the
river remains in the case i? the undutiful wife of Hammurabi’s
codef, though there the law is somewhat more elaborate and
testifies to more advanced legal reflection. Evidently the two
enactments rest on the same theory of punishment. Again the
Sumerian-laws provide that “If a husband has said to his wife,
‘You are not my wife,’ he shatl pay half a mina of silver.’
Precisely the saine idea of compensating the wife for a divorce
reappears in the code, but there the amount is either a sum
equal to the bride-price, or if there was no bride-price, one
mina in the case of well-to-do persons, one-third of a mina in
the case of a plebeian§. The fundamental principle is identical,
but social inequalities have led to some differentiation in detail.

But if our present knowledge of Babylonian history enables
us to do little to trace the antecedents of the code the same

* Johns’ Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, p. 42.

+ § 143. IZf she has not been economical but a goer about, has wasted
her house, has belittled her husband, one shall throw that woman into
the waters.

t Op. cit., p. 42.

§ §§ 138-140.

LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYLONIA. 141

cannot be said of the comparative method. A few examples
will show how this elucidates the provisions of the legislation
and illuminates their Vorgeschichte.

“There is no system of recorded law,” wrote Sir Henry
Maine, “literally from China to Peru, which, when it first
emerges into notice, is not seen to be entangled with religious
ritual and observance.”* The code of Hammurabi to a very
great extent belongs to a later stage of development than that
contemplated in this dictum ; and this by itself is sufficient to
mark it as a fairly mature system, yet slight remains of the
earlier state of affairs may be traced in provisions for ordeals
(§§ 2, 152), and oaths as methods of proof (§§ 20, 23, 103, 120,
206, ete.). In such cases this survival from ancient ideas has,
however, been worked into the system to fulfil a definite
purpose. There are parallels all the world over, but perhaps
the best short explanation that can be quoted is to be found in
a few paragraphs of the late Indian law-book known as Ndrada.
Here the principle underlying the supernatural methods of trial
and the object of their retention in relatively late times are
very clearly brought out :—

“28. Proof is said to be of two kinds, human and divine.
Human proof consists of documentary and oral evidence. By
divine proof is meant the ordeal by balance and the other
(modes of divine test). 29. Where a transaction has taken
place by day, in a village or town, or in the presence of
witnesses, divine test is not applicable. 30. Divine test 1s
applicable (where the transaction has taken place) in a solitary
forest, at night, or in the interior of a house, and in cases of
violence, or of denial of a deposit.”f On paragraph 29
Asahaya, a standard Indian commentator, remarks, “In the
case of all those transactions which take place during daytime,
eye and ear-witnesses are present. Documentary evidence,
likewise, is generally available in such cases. Therefore, divine
proof should not be resorted to. Where a transaction is known
to have taken place in the presence of witnesses, divine proof
is also not applicable.” Similarly on paragraph 30 he writes,
“In all the places and occasions mentioned in this paragraph
human proof is not applicable, wherefore divine test has to be
resorted to.”

The sections of the Hammurabi code conform to these
principles.

* Karly Law and Custom, p. 75.
t Narada, Introduction, 1, 28-30.

142 HAROLD M. WIENER, M.A., LL.B., ON THE:

More important for our present subject are the conceptions
of talion, sympathetic talon and so on. The idea of talion is
world-wide. The wrong-doer is to suffer precisely the same
injury as he has inflicted. It belongs to primitive ideas, and as
society advances it is always mitigated in whole or in part by
some system of pecuniary compensation. Very frequently
distinctions are drawn between the members of different classes,
and for our ultimate purposes it is important to note that this is
the case with Hammurabi. For instance we read :—

“Tf aman has caused the loss of a gentleman’s eye, one
shall cause his eye to be lost.

“Tf he has shattered a gentleman’s limb, one shall shatter his
limb.

“Tf he has caused a poor man to lose his eye or shattered a
poor man’s limb, he shall pay one mina of silver.” (§§ 196-8.)

Such rules not only show us the principle of talion in full
operation, they also point very clearly to the division of the
people into well-marked social strata and to the conception of
justice that such divisions had fostered. But while there is
nothing uncomimon in these provisions the same cannot be said
of the provisions for slaying the child of a guilty or negligent
parent for the parent’s offence. or example :—

“Tf a builder-has built a house for a man and has not made
strong his work, and the house he built has fallen, and he has
caused the death of the owner of the house, that builder shall
be put to death.

“Tf he has caused the son of the owner of the house to die, one
shall put to death the son of that builder” (§§ 229 ff.).

These enactments are believed to be unique, and it will be
necessary to return to them when we consider the mental
element in the legislation. For the moment we are concerned
with them only as showing that the principle of talion was
retained to the fullest extent.

Sympathetic talion is also much in evidence in the code. The
idea is sometimes that punishment should be inflicted on the
offending member, and sometimes that the instrument of the
offence should also be the instrument of the punishment.
Numerous examples come from all over the world. One of
those given by Post is worth quoting. A German forest
ordinance of the year 1546 provides that anybody felling a tree
shall have his right hand hewn off with the axe he used in
committing his offence.* Here we have both branches of the

* A. H. Post, Grundriss der Ethnologischen Jurisprudenz, ii, 239, note 5.

LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYLONIA. 145

theory exemplified simultaneously. But more frequently a legal
rule illustrates one or other branch. Thus we find Hammurabi
ordaining, e.g., that the hands of a man who strikes his father
shall be cut off (§ 195), while the man who comes to extinguish a
fire and “lifts up his eyes to the property of the owner of the
house and takes the property of the owner of the house” is to be
“thrown into that fire” (§ 25).

Other provisions that show the influence of early ideas are
those relating to theft. In treating of the ordinary procedure
in early societies all over the world Dr. Post writes as follows :—
‘He in whose possession the stolen article is found is primé
facie presumed to be the thief. But if he pleads that he had
bought the article or had acquired it by some other honest means
from another, he must name that other person and conduct the
owner of the stolen property to him. The person so vouched
can in turn name another person whom he vouches as his
predecessor in title, and so the enquiry proceeds until it ends
with somebody who cannot vouch a predecessor in title. This
person is then regarded as the thief. This procedure shows
many variations in detail.”* Similarly in Narada we read that
“where stolen goods are found with a man, he may be pre-
sumed to be the thief.”t It will be observed that this outline
is reproduced in §§ 9 ff. of the code.

With regard to the punishments for theft the Babylonian
system conforms here also to well-known types. The early form
of remedial procedure in cases of theft is private violence.
When society interposes to prevent self-redress or blood feuds,
it endeavours to bribe the aggrieved party, not to take the law
into his own hands. “In the infancy of society,’ writes Mr.
Post, “it is an important object to the legislator to induce
an injured person to have recourse to the public tribunals
instead of righting himself, that is to say, constituting himself
both lawgiver and judge. That such was really the motive of
the legislator we have historic evidence in the declaration of
Rotharis, ruler of the Langobards, a.p. 643. He gives the
relatives of the slain their election between the primitive
vengeance for blood (feud or vendetta), and a composition or
pecuniary fine (wergeld or poena) to be recovered by action
before the publictribunals. He says that he fixes a high fine in
order to induce plaintiffs to forego their right of feud; and

* Grundriss, i, p. 586.
t xiv, 18, cp. vil, 4 and Manu, viii, 201.

144 HAROLD M. WIENER, M.A., LL.B., ON THE

implies that he would gladly have abolished the right of feud or
private war, but felt that it was too deeply rooted in the habits
of his tribe to be extirpated by legislation.*

It is probably in the light of such ideas.as these that we
ought to contrast the threefold restitution imposed by § 106 on
the agent who takes his principal’s money with the tenfold
restitution that is to be exacted from the dishonest shepherd by
§ 265. Probably the rule that concerns the shepherds had its
first origin in a far earlier and less orderly state of society than
that which was called upon to decide on pecuniary transactions
involving the relationship of principal and agent. On the other
hand it must be noted that this influence alone may be insuffi-
cient to account for all the penalties in cases of theft and the
allied subjects. It explains the severity of the punishments for
theft and many of the penalties involving manifold restitution,
but when we read in § 107 that in the converse case the dis-
honest principal is to pay not a threefold but a sixfold penalty
to his agent, we seem to see traces of a moral judgment on the
relative heinousness of offences by principals against agents and
agents against principals. It must however be noted that this
is a question of correct translation.

In another department of law the code exhibits the influence
of early ideas greatly weakened. The patria potestas, the absolute
power of the head of a family over his children, has been greatly
lessened and reduced by the time of Hammurabi. Yet there
are sections dealing with “cutting off from sonship” (a phrase
as to the meaning of which it would be unwise to hazard a guess
without knowledge of the original) (§§ 168 ff) and with the
penalties for undutiful sons (§§ 192, 193, 195). There is
moreover a section (§ 7) enacting that “if a man has bought
from the hand of a man’s son, or of a man’s slave, without
witness or power of attorney, or has received the same on
deposit, that man has acted the thief, he shall be put to death.”
The proprietary restrictions of the Roman jiliws familias wm
potestate are at once recalled by this section, though it must be
confessed that this may only be due to the translation. The
following passages from Narada may, however, be quoted:
“In the same way, the transactions of a slave are declared
invalid, unless they have been sanctioned by his master. A
slave is not his own master. If ason has transacted any business
without authorisation from his father, it 1s also declared an

* On Gaius, ii, $$ 189 ff.

LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYLONIA. 145

invalid transaction. A slave and a son are equal in that
respect.”* And again: “If a man buys from a slave who has
not been authorised (to sell) by his master, or from a rogue, or
in secret, or at a very low price, or at an improper time, he is
as guilty as the seller.”

Turning now to the geographical influence we may note that
we are dealing with a country of great rivers. Hence it is
natural to find rules which are readily paralleled from the
river civilisation of India. “Fora long passage,’ says Manu,
“the boat hire must be proportioned to the plaves and time.”
And he adds a remark which is characteristic of the geography
of his country: “ Know that this (rule refers) to (passages along)
the banks of rivers; at sea there is no settled (freight).t
Hammurabi proportions his boat-hire to the times and class of
vessel. Characteristically enough he fixes the exact daily
amount.§ Again, when Hammurabi provides that where a
boatman has been careless and erounded the ship, or has caused
what ts in her to be lost, he shall render back the ship which
he has grounded and ie By in her he has caused to be lost,||
we may compare Manu, viil, 408 and 409: “ Whatever may be
damaged in a boat by the fault of the boatmen, that shall be
made good by the boatmen collectively (each paying) his share.
This decision in suits (brought) by passengers (holds good only)
in case the boatmen are culpably negligent on the water : ; In case
of (an accident) caused by (the will ‘of) the gods, no fine can be
(intlicted on them).” In this passage “ whatever” is referred
by some commentators to “ merchandise,’ by others to
“ Jugeage.”

The geography of the country must be held responsible for
other provisions. “On Hammurabi’s accession,” says Mr. King,
“he first devoted himself to the internal improvement of his
territory. In the past both Babylon and Sippar had suffered
from floods, and the recurrence of these he sought to diminish
by erecting dams and cutting canals."f1 “It was an alluvial
plain,” Professor Sayce writes of the country, ‘sloping towards
the sea, and inundated by the overflow of the two great rivers
which ran through it. When cultivated it was exceedingly

* 4) 29 ff.

Tt Vit, 3.

t viii, 406.

§ S§ 275-7

| § 237.

{ Encyclopedia Biblica, col. 445.

146 HAROLD M. WIENER, M.A., LL.B., ON THE

fertile, but cultivation implied a careful regulation of the
overtlow, as well as a constant attention to the embankments
which kept out the waters, or to the canals which drained and
watered the soil.

“The inhabitants were, therefore, necessarily agriculturists.
They were also irrigators and engineers, compelled to study
how best to regulate the supply of water, to turn the pestiferous
marsh into a fruitful field, and to confine the rivers and canals
within their channel. Agriculture and engineering thus had
their natural home in Babylonia, and originated in the character
of the country itself. The neighbourhood of the sea and the
two great waterways which flanked the Babylonian plain
further gave an impetus to trade. The one opened the road
to the spice-bearing coasts of Southern Arabia and the more
distant shores of Egypt; the other led to the highlands of
Western Asia. From the first the Babylonians were merchants
and sailors, as well as agriculturists. The ‘cry’ of the
Chaldeans was ‘in their ships. The seaport of Enidu was one
of the earliest of Babylonian cities, and a special form of boat
took its name from the more inland town of Ur. While the
population of the country devoted itself to agriculture, the
towns grew wealthy by the help of trade.”*

Thus the geography, combined with the policy of Hammurabi,
must be held directly responsible for such provisions as those
of §§ 55-56, which deal with the liability of those who neglected
to strengthen their bank of a canal with injurious results to
other people’s property, or had caused damage through careless
manipulation of the water, and again for the special provisions
protecting watering machines as well as other agricultural
instruments (§§ 259 ff.). Special rules of this latter type are
not at all uncommon,} and need no explanation. It need
scarcely be added that the code testifies clearly to the nature
of the products of the country in which it originated—corn,
sesame, dates, etc. Indirectly the geography must also be heid
responsible for the rules necessitated by the great commercial
and economic development, and for the history which resulted
in so great a royal power. But before passing to that branch
of the subject something may be said about the land laws and
certain other topics that may conveniently be disposed of at
the same time.

* Babylonians and Assyrians, p. 8 ff.
t See Post, Grundriss, 11, 421-3.

LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYLONIA. 147

Where agricultural land is leased for payments in kind it
becomes to the landlord’s interest to compel the cuitivator to
do his duty in tilling the land energetically by forcing him to
pay what the land can be made to bear, even if he has not in
fact cultivated it. The code contains provisions to this effect
(§§ 42 ff), which again find a singularly close parallel in India
—this time from Apastamba.

“Tf a person who has taken (a lease of) land (for cultivation)
does not exert himself, and hence (the land) bears no crop, he
shall, if he is rich, be made to pay (to the owner of the land
the value of the crop) that ought to have grown”* On this
Biihler writes: “This Sutra shows that the system of leasing
land against a certain share of the crops, which now prevails
generally in native states, and is not uncommon in private
contracts on British territory [7.c. in India—H. M. W.], was in
force in Apastamba’s times.”T

Like all other ancient legislators who were concerned with
peasant landholders, Hammurabi had to face the question of
giving some relief te poor peasants who had mortgaged their
holdings and were prevented by bad seasons from meeting their
obligations. The first section which deals with this (§ 48) is so
humane that it should be quoted in eztenso :

“Tf a man has a debt upon him and a thunderstorm ravaged
his field or carried away the produce, or if the corn has not
grown through lack of water, in that year he shall not return
corn to the creditor, he shall alter his tablet. Further, he
shall not give interest for that year.”

The following sections (§§ 49-52) appear to be conceived in
a similar spirit and to provide relief for those who handed over
their fields to their creditors for cultivation. So far as an
opinion can be formed they seem to embody well-devised and
equitable rules for the protection of the borrower from
oppression by the usurer.

But if Babylonia was a land of rivers and tilth, it was also a
country of pastures and live stock. Hence the code contains
provisions for the remuneration of herdsmen, for their
responsibility for the protection of their charges and for their
liability for injury inflicted by them on the property of others.
Owing to the similarity of conditions we once more find
admirable parallels to all these in the Indian books.

* Apastamba, ii, 11, 28, 1.
t Sacred Books of the East, vol. ii, 166.

148 HAROLD M. WIENER, M.A., LL.B., ON THE

Thus with § 261* we may compare Narada, vi, 10. For
(tending) a hundred cows, (a heifer shall be given to the
herdsman) as wages every year; for (tending) two hundred
(cows), @ milch cow (shall be given to hun annually), and he
shall be allowed to milk (all the cows) every eighth day.

Similarly when we read the sectionsf relating to the
hability of shepherds we are reminded of Indian provisions.

Thus Manu writes: “ During the day the responsibility for the
safety (of the cattle rests) on the herdsman, during the night on
the owner, (provided they are) in his house ; (if it be) otherwise,
the herdsman will be responsible (for them also during the night).

“The herdsman alone shall make good (the loss of a beast)
strayed, destroyed by worms, killed by dogs or (by falling)
into a pit, if he did not duly exert himself (to prevent it).

“ But for (an animal) stolen by thieves, though he raised an
alarm, the herdsman shall not pay, provided he gives notice to
his master at the proper place and time.

“Tf cattle die, let him carry to his master their ears, skin,
tails, bladders, tendons, and yellow concrete bile, and let him
point out their particular marks.

“But if goats or sheep are surrounded by wolves and the
herdsman does not hasten (to their assistance), he shall be
responsible for any (animal) which a wolt may attack and
kill.

“But if they, kept in (proper) order, graze together in the
forest, and a wolf, suddenly jumping on one of them, kills it,
the herdsman shall bear in that case no responsibility.’t

And with §§ 263, 267, we may also compare Apastamba, U1,
11, 28,6. “If (a herdsman) who has taken cattle under his
care allows them to perish, or loses (them by theft, through his
negligence), he shall replace them (or pay their value) to the
owners.”

tules of this kind spring from the very nature of the
contract between an owner and his shepherd. The whole
object of employing a shepherd is to have a guardian of the
sheep who shall be responsible for their safe custody. <Ac-

* § 261 runs as follows :— If aman has hired a herdsman for the cows
or a shepherd for the sheep, he shall give him eight Gur of corn per year.

+ §§ 263-267, especially the last two of these sections, providing that
where animals are lost through an act of God, or a lion’s attack, the loss
is to fall on the owner, while the shepherd is lable for losses through
negligence.

t Manu, viii, 230, 232-6. See further Vdrada, vi, 11-17.

LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYTLONIA. 149

cordingly he must always be liable for loss caused through his
own negligence or want of skill. On the other hand, in cases
where loss occurs through some cause that is beyond his control
and that could not have been prevented through any exercise
of care or skill, eg., vis major (Hammurabi’s lion), act of God,
inevitable accident, the principle ves domino perit necessarily
finds application in the absence of agreement to the contrary.

The kindred question of the liability for damage done by
sheep is dealt with by Hammurabi in §§ 57 ff, making the
shepherd responsible for the depredations of his sheep on green
corn. An Indian parallel may be cited.

“Tf damage is done by cattle, the responsibility falls on the
owner. But if (the cattle) were attended by a herdsman (it
falls) on the latter. (If the damage was done) in an unenclosed
field near the road (the responsibility falls) on the herdsman
and on the owner of the field. Five mashas (is the fine to be
paid) for (damage done by) a cow, six for a camel or a donkey,
ten for a horse or a buffalo, two for each goat or sheep. If all
is destroyed (the value of) the whole crop (must be paid and a
fine in addition).”*

It will be seen that with some differences of detail the
principle is substantially the same.

Another department of the law may be traced to the
influence of the geographical situation of the people and its
consequent economic development acting on marriage customs
that in themselves are not exceptional. Gifts by bridegrooms
to the parents and relations of the bride, and dowries given by
the father on his daughter’s marriage are common to many
races. In Babylonia, owing to the general wealth, these gifts
became of great importance and developed a number of rules
relating to their disposition in various events. For example,
the marriage portion being the wife’s will generally follow her
in the event of a dissolution (§§ 138, 142, 176, etc.). It
descends to her children, not to the children of another wile
and so on (§§ 167, 173, 174, etc.).t These rules call for no
more than passing mention here.

The geography of Babylonia was probably the chief influence
to which the formation of a strong centralised monarchy may
be attributed, and accordingly it will be in place at this stage
to notice the group of sections dealing with certain royal

* Gautama, xii, 19-26 ; cf. also Manu, viii, 239-241.
+ An excellent note on these by Professor E. Cuq will be found at the
end of Father V. Scheil’s La Loi de Hammourabi.

150 HAROLD M. WIENER, M.A., LL.B, ON THE

officials called by Mr. Johns gangers and constables. The
property which such officials enjoyed by virtue of their office is
rendered inalienable (§§ 85-38). On the other hand they are
subjected to special provisions to secure their efficient attendance
to their duties. The details are not at present clear in trans-
lation: but the general purport of the rules appears sufficiently.
Hammurabi enacts that for the benefit of the state these men
shall enjoy special rights and be subject to special duties.
Clearly he protects their property in order to provide for
efficient public service. Similarly the law at present in force
in this country contains special provisions as to the effect of a
bankruptcy on the pay of an officer of the army or navy or a
civil servant.

The marriage laws give effect to two or three principles.
Generally the marriage Ue is protected, but where the husband
has been taken in captivity, poverty is recognised as justifying
the wife in entering the house of another (§§ 134). The wife
is expected to be economical, attend to her household and be
dutiful to her husband (§ 142 ff). The man is regarded as
having a right to obtain children. Various provisions
regulate divorce, and would apparently act in general as checks
on the exercise of that power.

Of this and many departments of the law it may be said
generally that there is evidence of that common sense without
which no code of this length could possibly have been devised
for a people of the material civilisation of the Babylonians, and
that they further testify to the well-developed economic
instincts of the people. Ethical considerations only play a
very small part.

We have seen something of the legal machinery that was
inherited by the contemporaries of Hammurabi from far more
primitive times. It is necessary also to notice the machinery
of a more modern type and the use that was made of it. The
general diffusion of writing made the duly authenticated deed
the best proof of commercial transactions. We find provisions
in the code which appear to be inspired by the same motive as
the English Statute of Frauds.* It was, no doubt, “for
prevention of many fraudulent practices” that the Babylonian
legislator enacted (§§ 104 ff.) that “a sealed memorandum of the
money he hag given to the merchant” should be required in
certain disputes between “ merchants” and “agents,’ and that
the depositor who effects his deposit without “witness and

_ * 29 Car. L, ¢. iii.

LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYLONIA. 151

bonds ” should have no remedy if the depositary denied his
title (122 ff.). The legal statesmanship of such provisions is
beyond question.

Other legal tools of ancient Babylonia find analogies in
modern English law. For example, a father making a
settlement of a field or a garden on a“ lady, a votary or a vowed
woman,” could if he so desired give her an absolute testamentary
power over the property to the exclusion of her brothers
(§ 179). On the other hand he might refuse to do this. In
that case she only had a life interest without power of
alienation, and even this interest was subject to a right on the
part of her brothers to undertake the cultivation of the property
and pay her corn, oil and wool, according to the value of her
share. Indeed, speaking zenerally, it may be said that the
rules of succession and settlements are such as usually spring
up in communities in an advanced economic condition.

In another branch of the law the machinery adopted is of a
less modern and permanent type. The Babylonian legislator
appears to have sought to prevent disputes as to the remunera-
tion for services rendered by fixing the amount by statute, and
accordingly we find the fees for the work of doctors, veterinary
surgeons, builders, etc. These rules are usually flanked by
others, providing more or less savage punishment in the event
of the contractor's showing want of care or skill. Thus in the
case of certain unsuccessful operations, the doctor is to lose his
hands (§ 218) if his patient is a “gentleman.” This doctrine of
the legal responsibility of a physician for failure may be
paralleled from India. This we read in Vishnu :-—

“ Also, a physician who adopts a wrong method of cure
in the case of a patient of high rank (such asa relative of
the king’s) [shall pay the highest amercement]; the second
amercement in the case of another patient; the lowest ameree-
ment in the case of an animal ;* similarly Manu says, “ All
physicians who treat (their patients) wrongly (shall pay) a fine;
in the case of animals, the first (or lowest); im the case of
human beings, the middlemost (amercement).”’f An Indian
commentator on this latter passage adds, “But this refers to
cases when death is not (the result of the wrong treatment);
for if that is the case the punishment is greater.”

It is interesting to note the gradation of ranks leading in

* Vishnu, v, 175-177.
T ix, 284.

152 HAROLD M. WIENER, M.A., LL.B., ON THE

India as in Babylonia to differential treatment of the physician’s
failure. Want of skill or success is more heinous when the
victim is great than when he is little. :

Of the intellectual element in the law we have already seen
something, but an example may be taken of the way in which
a principle relating to property is worked out. We may select
for this purpose the aphorism res domino perit—if property is
destroyed, the loss falls on the owner. In the simplest cases
the principle is so obvious that no question can possibly arise.
If [ accidentally drop my handkerchief into the fire, | am _ the
only person on whom the loss can fall. The same holds good
if my corn or my sheep are destroyed by a storm or a lion
while in my custody. But not all the cases that may arise are
as clear as these. For instance, A’s field is being cultivated by
B, who in return gives him a proportion of the produce. If
the calamity occurs to that which remains in the field after A
has received his proportion, what is to be done? Here
Hammurabi rightly decides that the ownership is definitely
fixed at the time of the receipt. Therefore, the produce
remaining in the field had become B’s, and B’s only.
Consequently it is on B alone that the loss must fall (§ 45).
If, on the other hand, A had not received his share, the two are
joint owners, and the loss must be divided “according to the
tenour of their contract” (§ 46), 2.¢., proportionately, as
Mr. Pinches renders it. In each case the loss falls on the
owner. Again, suppose that A’s slave dies of purely natural.
causes while in the house of B, who has lawfully distrained on
him. Here again ves domino perit; the owner must bear the
loss (§ 115). Or if B has hired A’s ox and “ God has struck it
and it has died,” or again in the case already cited, if by the
act of God or vis major, A’s sheep have perished while under
the charge of C, a shepherd, the rule is the same (§§ 249, 266).
On the other hand, in some cases of purchase there was a right
of rescission within a given time (§ 278), and here the principle
is subject to this rule. The adoption and application of
principles of this sort are necessary incidents of the growth to
maturity of any legal system, but they show the sound sense
and grasp that characterise certain portions of the Babylonian
code.

On the other hand nothing very satisfactory can be said of
the general treatment of the intellectual element in offences.
The limits of Babylonian reflection on the matter are only
too clearly shown. The authors of the code are usually willing
to excuse anybody who acted under compulsion or under a

LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYLONIA. jis,

misapprehension induced by another’s fraud. For example, the
agent who, while on a journey, is robbed by an enemy, is
recognised as innocent (§ 103), and so is the trader who has
been deceived into wronging the owner of a slave (§ 227).
They go further and recognise that the owner of a vicious ox
should only be punished if he had reason to know that the
animal was vicious and had failed to take proper precautions
to prevent its inflicting injury (§§ 250-2). They even realise
that in a fight a blow may be given that has unexpectedly grave
results (§§ 206-208), and that in such a case the mental element
must be taken into consideration in determining what the legal
consequences of the action should be. Once more, in estimating
a wife’s conduct they consider her character as evidenced by her
past, and also her husband’s treatment of her (§ 42 ff.). But
further than this they do not go. They never realise in its
entirety the maxim, non est reus nisi mens sit rea. Indeed they
often fall immeasurably below it. The builder who does his
work carelessly or unskilfully or dishonestly, forfeits his life if
the house kills the owner (§ 229), though he certainly had no
murderous intent. Still worse, if the collapse of the building
results in the death of the owner’s son, the innocent son of the
builder is to be killed. In his case at any rate both mental
element and overt act are lacking. No doubt much must be
attributed to the primitive condition of legal reflection in
Hammurabis Babylonia. Yet these provisions are more
barbarously unjust than any known legal rule of any primitive
people. And so we come to the last branch of the Babylonian
section of our enquiry with the question, What has the code
to tell us of the character and ideals either of its framers or of
the nation for which it was intended? We have seen that it is
the work of men whose intellectual powers are in some respects
worthy of admiration ; can the same be said of their legislative
ideas ?

The answer, however reluctantly given, must in the main be
unfavourable.

In the first place the code is on the whole of a savage type.
It is true that the comparative material fully explains the origin
of the barbarous penalties that we have encountered; but it
alsc does much to increase our wonder at finding that penalties
so cruel should have been retained in such numbers at so
advanced a stage of material civilisation. The extreme limit
is reached when death is inflicted by way of talion not on the
person actually responsible for the offence it is sought to
prevent, but on his innocent child. Many legislators have

L 2

154 HAROLD M. WIENER, M.A., LL.B., ON THE

punished the innocent with the guilty, or the innocent in
mistake for the guilty ; it was reserved for the Babylonian or
those from whom they may have derived these rules to under-
take knowingly and of set intent to punish the innocent in lieu
of the guilty. No doubt the punishment was usually or always
commuted. Not all offenders can have had children on whom
could be inflicted the penalties prescribed by “the judgments
of righteousness which Hammurabi the mighty king confirmed
and caused the land to take a sure guidance and a gracious
rule.” Nevertheless, the sections remain on record to show the
ideas of justice that were prevalent in ancient Babylonia and
to illustrate the character of the people And this savagery
reappears in one penalty after another. Nowhere is the
operation of the principle of talion limited to any degree.

Secondly, for good or for evil, the protection of property is
the paramount object of the code to the exclusion of almost all
other ideals. To some extent, this is inevitable, and not at all
remarkable. Every legal system designed for a people that has
attained to some degree of economic maturity must necessarily
be concerned with that which constitutes the main subject
matter of their daily occupations. Butin Hammurabi's code the
interest in property leads to some regrettable principles. The
penalties for theft are, in some cases, altogether excessive, as may
be seen by comparison with the rules of the Romans—a people
who were certainly not conspicuous for gentleness. When the
Romans adopted manifold restitution their maximum penalty
was fourfold. Hammurabi runs up to a thirtyfold payment.
On the other hand, he recognises the duty of the government to
secure public safety. In the prologue to the code he boasts of
himself as “the wise, the active one, who has captured the
roboers’ hiding-places, sheltered the people of Malka in (their)
misfortune, caused their seats to be founded in abundance,” and
to his credit be it said that his ideas of the duty of a govern-
ment in this respect found legislative expression in §§ 23 ff,
which provide that where a man is robbed by a brigand, “ the city
and governor in whose land and district the brigandage took
place shall render back to him ” compensation if the brigand has
not been caught. A similar view is found in India.*

Moreover, in two instances, other considerations are allowed
to modify the claims of property: the peasant whose power of
payment is destroyed by natural misfortunes enjoys the benefit

* See Gautama, x, 46-47 ; Vishnu, ii, 66-67.

LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYLONIA. 155

of protection against the demands of the moneylender (§ 48),
and again the wife and child of a debtor recover their liberty
after only three years’ service to the creditor (§ 117).

Thirdly, it may fairly be said that Hammurabi expects every
man to do his duty, and holds that he ought to be properly
remunerated for his work. With this object, we find numerous
provisions dealing with the remuneration of various craftsmen
and inflicting punishment for unsatisfactory work. <A similar
idea appears in the provisions that are inspired by the Babylo-
nian theory of wifely duty. And this brings us to a fourth
characteristic of the code, its treatment of various trades and
crafts. Hammurabi believed that he could best regulate by
legislation matters that might have been left to contract or
judicial discretion. Probably he knew the circumstances of his
own age and country best, and was right in taking this course.
At any rate we have no materials which would justify us in
blaming the grandmotherliness of his legislation.

Fifthly, the Babylonian conception of justice—like that of the
Indian law-books—is fundamentally warped by the caste
system. Throughout there is one law for the rich, another for
the poor. The dignity of man was unknown in Babylonia.

It is probable, too, that the provision for drowning a wine
merchant who makes the price of wine less than that of corn
(§ 108), though it sounds a little strange to our ears, is really a
temperance enactment which should be noted with approval.

The highest ideals of the code may be summed up very
briefly. Hammurabi held thatit was the duty of “ the shepherd
of the people” to make them dwell safely and prosperously.
His ethics, his morality, his theory of legislation, in so far as
they are not merely inherited from past ages, are alike
economic.

On the other hand it would appear that he did give his
people strong and certain rule with its attendant benefits, and
it must be remembered that even inferior laws, if enforced
rigorously and impartially, are greatly preferable in their
practical consequences to a legislation that is not applied
strongly and uniformly, even if the latter be superior on paper.

It is a misfortune for the posthumous reputation of the
Babylonian king, that in our days circumstances necessitate
the comparison of his famous statute with the noblest monument
of legislative idealism that history has produced. The interest
that is felt in Hammurahi’s code by the general public is largely
due to the supposed possibility that it may have exercised some
considerable influence on the law of Israel. The Babylonian

156 HAROLD M. WIENER, M.A., LL.B., ON THE

system could far better stand a comparison with the law-books
of India, the law of Imperial Rome or the law of England in,
say, the eighteenth century, than with the work of him whose
labours were directed to teaching that “man doth not live by
bread only, but by all that cometh out of the mouth of the
Lord doth man live.’’* |

In dealing with the second division of my subject, it is not
my intention to answer those who maintain that Hebrew law
was borrowed from or greatly influenced by the Babylonian
system. Such a theory is so absolutely preposterous on the
face of the legislations, that no comparative jurist could be
found to defend it, and I should not be justified in wasting the
time of this Society in discussions of this nature. A word may,
however, be given to the patriarchal customs evidenced by the
book of Genesis. It is sometimes said that the patriarchs
lived under the code of Hammurabi. This result is attained
by the familiar method of emphasising such portions of the
evidence as appear to support the theory, while leaving out of
account all the other relevant facts. For example, the Hebrew
patriarch, like the Roman pater familias, exercised absolute
powers of life and death over the members of his household,
including his children and daughters-in-law. The code of
Hammurabi, on the other hand, shows us a society in which
the paternal power had long since been reduced to more
moderate dimensions. There can, therefore, be no question of
the code’s being the law of the patriarchs. On the other hand,
there are resemblances between the early Hebrew customs and
the Babylonian law ; and it is not impossible that these are due
either to community of origin or to direct influence.

‘The comparisons I have to suggest will, I trust, be more
fruitful of historical profit than any speculations of influence
which are fore-doomed to sterility. I purpose to take up the
factors and influences in the formation of the legislation that
we have seen at work in Babylonia, and show how they operated
in ancient Israel. But this process can only be repeated with
a necessary difference. While in the older system we had
only to note the uncontrolled operation of such ideas as the
conception of talion, in the younger we should continually have
to stop to examine the checks and restraints that were imposed
on them by the theory of legislation that inspires the work
throughout.

It is for this reason that before embarking on the considera-

* Dt. viii, 3.

LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYLONITA, 157

tion of the various formative influences that we have seen
at work in the code of Hammurabi, we must consider the
distinctive currents of thought that dominate the whole. The
historical student of, say, English legislation in the nineteenth
century, is compelled to take into account the great intellectual
forces that moulded its history—such as utilitarianism, /aissez
faire, collectivism. The nearest analogy in the case of
Hammurabi (if there be one) appears to be the theory that
extensive state regulation is for the benefit of the community,
and the main interest les in the political, social and economic
conditions—in the external elements of human life. In the
ease. of the Pentateuchal legislation the exact opposite is true.
Here the internal and spiritual compel our fascinated gaze, and
the external is of interest mainly in so far as 1t manifests the
influence of the former. The greatness of Israel lies in his soul.

The jural laws contained in the Mosaic legislation form a
portion of a larger corpus which was given to the Hebrew
tribes by the God with Whom at the period they entered into
a special relation. By an act that is unparalleled in history
a God took to Himself a people by means of a sworn agreement.
Some words that are fundamental for our purpose must be
quoted from the offer : “ Now, therefore, if ye will obey my voice
indeed, and keep my covenant, then ye shall be a peculiar
treasure to me from among all peoples: for all the earth is mine ;
and ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests and a holy
nation.”* The views here expressed dominate the legislation.
Holiness—the correlative holiness to which the Israelites must
attain because the Lord their God is holy}—embraces much
that is not germane to our subject this afternoon, but it also
covers the whole field of national and individual righteousness.
The duty to God that is laid upon the Israelites in these words
is a duty that has practical consequences in every phase of
social life. I have already quoted a sentence from Sir Henry
Maine in which he speaks of the uniformity with which
religion and law are implicated in archaic legislations. There
is a stage in human development where life is generally seen
whole, and it is to this stage that the Pentateuch belongs. But
no other legislation so takes up one department of man’s life
after another and impresses on them all the relationship of God
and people. Perhaps nothing will so clearly bring out my
meaning as a statement of some of the more fundamental
differences between the Pentateuchal legislation and the old

cpl Sp a> aig 2 t Lev. xix, 2

158 HAROLD M. WIENER, M.A., LL.B, ON THE

Indian law-books which often provide excellent parallels to it.
Those to which I desire to draw particular attention are as
follows. The Indian law-books have no idea of national (as
distinct from individual) righteousness—a conception that
entered the world with the Mosaic legislation and has perhaps
not made very much _ progress there since. There is no
personal God: hence his personal interest in righteousness is
lacking: hence, too, there can be no relationship “between God
and people: and while there is a supernatural element in the
contemplated results of human actions there is nothing that
can in the slightest degree compare with the Personal Divine
intervention that is so often promised in the Pentateuchal
laws.* The caste system, like Hammurabi’s class system, leads
to distinctions that are always inequitable. The conception of
loving one’s neighbour and one’s sojourner as oneself are alike
lacking. The systematic provisions for poor relief are absent,
and the legislation is generally on a lower ethical and moral
level, while some of the penalties are distinguished by the most
perverted and barbarous cruelty. All these points are embraced
in the special relationship of the One God and the peculiar
treasure with its resulting need for national and individual
holiness.

The primitive ideas of proof by oath or ordeal meet us again in
Israel as in Babylonia. After what has already been said they
need not detain us. Sympathetic talion only occurs once in
the jural laws, though it holds a rather more prominent place
in the precepts which have purely supernatural sanctions and
are for that reason excluded from comparison with Hammurabi.
Talion occupies a somewhat more important position. I have
elsewhere given my reasons for thinking that it was always
subject to composition except in the case of offences involving
capital punishment.t Be that as it may, it is instructive to
note that the principle is carefully controlled. In leu of the
penalties striking at innocent children we read, “The fathers
shall not be put to death for the children, neither shall the
children be put to death for the fathers: every man shall be
put to death for his own sin ”{—a provision that was perhaps
called forth by some legislation or custom that resembled

* fg.,“ And if ye shall say, what shall we eat the seventh year?
behold, we shall not sow, nor gather in our increase ; then I will command
my blessing upon you in the sixth year, and it shall bring forth fruit for
the three years” (Lev. xxv, 20 ff.)

t Studies in Biblical Law, ch. vi. 1 Dt. xxiv, 6;

LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYLONIA. 159

Hammurabi’s code. Again the principle of talion is here free
from all class differentiations, which are repugnant to the spirit
of the Mosaic law, whose only favourites are the weak and
helpless. The principle of making manifold restitution for
theft, and in certain kindred offences, is found here as in so
many other ancient legislations: but the provisions are far
more equitable and humane than those of Hammurabi.

On the other hand the laws relating to filial duty show how
much nearer the age of Moses was to the days of unrestricted
paternal power than the age of Hammurabi, death being the
penalty tor striking a parent. It should, however, also be
pointed out that the religious element enters into the conception,
filial duty being regarded as a constituent in hohness.

In dealing with the Hebrew system we have to assign far
more weight to history and far less to geography than in the
Babylonian. The Hebrew tribes and their customs had a more
varied past to look back upon than their Babylonian kinsmen.
They had been nomads who for some time had sojourned in
Canaan, and had even had some agricultural experience there.
Thence they had migrated to Egypt, where again they had tilled
the soil, and during the legislative period they were homeless
wanderers in a desert, making ready to fall upon the land they
yearned to possess. Without doubt the geographical influences
must have been etfective as well as varied, but owing partly to
the history and partly to the spiritual nature of the people
they do not exercise the predominating power that they are
seen to possess in Babylonia. It will be well to treat the
historical and geographical factors together.

The land for which the legislation was intended was not a
land of great rivers and fertile plains irrigated by canals,
a land of sesame and dates, “ but a land of hills and valleys that
drank water of the rain of heaven ” (Deut. xi, 11); “a land of
brooks of water, of fountains and depths springing forth in
valleys and hills, a land of wheat and barley and vines and fig
trees and pomegranates, a land of oil, olives and honey, a land
whose stones are iron and out of whose hills thou mayest dig
copper ” (Deut. viii, 7-9).

It is at once obvious that in view of these natural features
we cannot look for any provisions relating to navigation or
canals. It is equally obvious that the economic condition of
the people was necessarily far more primitive than that of
Babylonia. Hence we shall not find the well-developed system
of trades and industry. There are a few rules dealing with the
simplest cases of danger by or to cattle, but this is one of the

160 HAROLD M. WIENER, M.A., LL.B, ON THE

departments of law that shows the greatest similarity all the
world over and calls for little comment. The real interest
lies elsewhere—in the land laws, the slave laws, the tribal
theory and so on. These subjects we must now consider.

The land laws are the product of many independent ideas.
and circumstances. Their consideration is in place here
because the conditions of the problem and the opportunity for
grappling with it show the influence of history with such
singular clearness. First such a system as that expounded in
the 25th chapter of Leviticus could only be put forward by one
who had to work on what is so very rare in history—a clean
slate. In other words the system of land tenure here laid down
could only be introduced in this way by men who had no pre-
existing system to reckon with. Secondly, there is (mutatis
mutandis) a marked resemblance between the provisions of
Leviticus and the system introduced in Egypt by Joseph
(Gen. xlvii). The land is the Lord’s as it is Pharaoh’s; but.
the towns which are built on that land are not subject to the
same theory or the same rules. Perhaps the explanation is
that Joseph’s measures had affected only those who gained
their living by agriculture, z.¢., the dwellers in the country.
Thirdly, the system shows the enormous power that the
conception of family solidarity possessed in the Mosaic Age—
a conception to which we shall have to return directly. And
fourthly, the enactment is inspired and illuminated by the
humanitarian and religious convictions and ideals to which
reference has already been made.

In the economic sphere the contrast between Moses and
Hammurabi is very marked. Taking human property first we
find that the Babylonian code is careful to guard the rights of
slave owners, inflicting the death penalty on those who effectively
aid runaway slaves (§§ 15-20). Contrast with this the
Hebrew provisions, “Thou shall not deliver unto his master
a servant which is escaped from his master unto thee: with
thee he shall dwell in the midst of thee, in the place which he
shall choose within one of thy gates, where it hketh him best:
thou shalt not oppress him” (Deut. xxii, 15ff). It has
been said with some truth that such provisions can more easily
be enacted for a primitive community than at a more developed
economic stage, but this is only a portion of the truth, and if
taken by itself a very misleading portion, Economic cireum-
stances may have been one of the conditions of the enactment
of the rule (at any rate in its present form): they could not
provide its Motive. The difference between the two legislations

LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYLONIA. 161

here indicated is further emphasised by other provisions which
secure the slave from mal-treatment by his master. Here it
cannot be said that economic development necessitates or
justifies the Babylonian code. In a word, where Hammurabi
safeguards the rights of property, Moses for the first time in
history protects the nghts of humanity.

The same holds good of the laws relating to loans, pledges
and poor relief. The legislator’s object is always the same—
to give practical effect to that doctrine of holiness which
conceives the love of God’s creatures as part of the Israelite’s
duty towards his God.

We now come to two points that are best treated together,
the strength of the family and tribal sentiment, and the
weakness of the central administration. These appear to be
due mainly to historical causes. In lieu of a people subjected
to a strong centralised royal power with class distinctions, as
were the Babylonians, history had made of the Hebrews a loose
aggregation of undisciplined tribes unaccustomed to community
of government, community of interest or community of action,
knowing little of class distinctions, but profoundly imbued with
family sentiment. The enormous strength of this feeling is to
be seen in the influence it exercised on the law of succession to
land. Here the possible effect of the Mosaic provisions led to
a deputation of remonstrance, which pointed out that the
possessions of heiresses might by their marriage become
permanently vested in members of another tribe. It was
accordingly enacted that im such cases they must espouse men
of their own tribes, but the incident and the resulting law
testify very vividly to the nature of the feeling. It is probably
to this feeling of tribal separateness that we should attribute,
in part at any rate, the great defect of the system—+the failure
to create a central governmext, which in those days could only
have been effected by giving hereditary authority to one family.
Probably no tribe would have submitted to a king who was
chosen from some other tribe. Neither Moses nor Joshua
appears to have had a son who was capable of ruling, and for
the purposes of conquest a general was the only possible head
of the people. Hence the defect was probably inevitable, but
the weakness of tlle Hebrew system at this point is the measure
of the strength of the Babylonian. The strong security for
life and property. the compensation for robbery that Ham-
murabi could afford were out of the question for tribes with the
historical antecedents of the Israelites. It should further be
pointed out that the geographical character of the country, with

162 HAROLD M. WIENER, M.A., LL.B., ON THE

its hills and valleys and the survival of a large alien population
filling in the interstices between the Hebrew settlements, must
have made a centralised national power impossible for long
after the days of Moses.

With regard to legal machinery everything j is very primitive.
With the single doubtful exception of the bill of divorce, the
use of writing by private persons in the ordinary course of
every-day life is never contemplated. Hence we find, as in so
many primitive communities, that legal business was habitually
transacted in the most public place possible, 2.¢., at the gate of
the city, where the facts would necessarily become known to
those who would be judges or witnesses or both in case of any
future dispute.

Turning now to the intellectual element in the law we find
that the state of legal reflection is also very primitive. A
distinction between intentional murder and other forms of
homicide is introduced for the first time, and in terms that
show clearly how difficult the conception was to contemporaries
of Moses. The same holds good of the law of rape. In the
case of the savage ox the Hebrew legislator reaches the same
stage of reflection as the Babylonian, but the undeveloped state
of thought i is further attested by sacrificial provisions relating
to sins committed in ignorance and wilfully, which, however,
strictly fall outside the scope of this paper. "An act committed
in ignorance may be a sin, calling for atonement. On the other
hand no atonement can be made for wilful sins, and all sins are
regarded as either ignorant or wilful. Such conceptions are the
best witness to the extremely archaic nature of the legislation.

To sum up the results of our survey: In dealing with any
lecal system it is necessary to separate the accidental from the
essential, the universal from the characteristic. Every pro-
eressive race necessarily passes through certain stages of growth.
Every race will be affected by its environment, the surroundings
of its life, the tasks that it must accomplish if it wishes to
exist. very progressive race will have to deal with certain
problems that arise in all countries, the problems presented
by those who kill or injure their neighbours, the ownership of
property of various kinds, the commonest forms of social
intercourse, and so on. In some of these cases all men
of ordinary ability will reach substantially the same solutions ;
but in others, the interplay of the various factors causes
considerable variety. The study of the results is a task of

some interest, but it must yield in fascination to the considera-
tion of national and legislative ideals and national character.

LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYLONIA,. 163

These two are inseparably linked, for there must be a more or
less close correspondence between the character of the legislation
and the sentiments of the governed. Legislative ideas of our
own and past ages readily present themselves to the mind in
abounding number—ro ed €#v—with all that it meant to the
Athenian; the imperialism of Rome; liberty, equality, fraternity ;
utilitarianism ; laissez faire, laissez passer; nationalism, and so
on. If we interrogate the Babylonian code for its ideas, we
learn that its watchword is “Security and Prosperity”; 1f the
Israelitish, we receive the answer “ Holiness.”

The fate of the legislations has corresponded to their respective
characters. A generation or two after the death of Hammurabi,
no man could have doubted that his work had been successful ;
probably few would have said as much of the work of Moses at
a corresponding interval after he was gathered to his fathers.
“In those days there was no king in Israel; every man did
that which was right in his own sight.” But to-day the verdict
is different. The code of the Babylonian had its period of
utility, and was then flung aside like an old shoe. For
thousands of years its very name was forgotten, and to-day,
when the bulk of it has been exhumed from the dust of
centuries, we find that it is without value for our life or its.
problems. The people to whom it was given have passed away
after doing their part for the material and intellectual advance-
ment of the world, but without contributing one iota to its
higher hfe. The work of the Israelite, on the other hand,
has given to his own people the quality of immortality and
has borne mighty fruit among other peoples in both hemispheres ;
so far as human vision can see, it will continue to do so in
ever-growing measure ; and throughout a century of generations,
the work of him who was powerless to create machinery that
could maintain public security in the national territory for
a single generation, has remained for millions of people all
over the world par excellence the law.

DISCUSSION.

The CHAIRMAN (F. S. BisHop, Esq., M.A., J.P.) expressed
the thanks of the meeting to Mr. Wiener for his able paper.
He then asked for discussion, pointing out that it was once again
shown how any comparison of the Sacred Book with contemporary
documents only serves to exalt the former.

154 HAROLD M. WIENER, M.A., LL.B., ON THE

Mr. St. CHAD BOSCAWEN acknowledged the ability and interest
of the paper, but differed from the writer in some not unimportant
points. In the first place he did not think that the religious
element was so absent as Mr. Wiener would have the meeting
believe, from the code of Hammurabi. He would instance the
perpetual reference made to the oath by god—that was of course
the private god and goddess whom each man had in honour
(reference to this would be found in the Babylonian penitential
psalms). The whole introduction to the code and the first few para-
graphs of the epilogue were full of strong nationalist and religious
feeling, and the laws were alleged to emanate from the sun god.

To what extent the government and religion had been centralised
might be seen from the stele placed in the Temple of the god
Merodach. The state was just on the edge of a transition from
local to centralised government, and so it was in religion: the
change was due to Hammurabi. Merodach, the local Babylonian god,
was fast becoming the national deity. For religious sincerity they
might look to the prayers of Nebuchadnezzar to Merodach. If the
name of Merodach were taken from these they might well be
prayers from the Bible, with their references to “the city thou
lovest ” and ‘‘the people whom thou favourest.”

In his opinion the code of Hammurabi stood by no means alone,
but was founded on a code four or five centuries older (not merely
Sumerian fragments), which was drawn up on much the same lines,
as might be seen from the cylinders of Godir. The object of this
earlier code is laid down as being ‘to protect the weak from the
strong, that the poor be not oppressed, and the widow and orphan
be not robbed.”

He differed from Mr. Wiener in his remarks on p. 163. It
could not be said that Hammurabi’s code was in any degree thrown
away. From it came all the commercial legislation of Babylonia to
within a century of the Christian era, and it was used and studied
right up to the Christian era (the cuneiform script was known to
have been in use as late as 47 B.C.).

A grave fault of the lecturer would seem to be the enormous
weight attached to the book of Deuteronomy: is this really a
Mosaic book ?

Mr. WiENER.—Certainly, in his opinion it was (hear, hear).

Is it not rather the legislation of a settled people with a

LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BARYLONIA. 165

king and a centralised worship, modelled exactly on the code of
Hammurabi? First the Historical Introduction, then the laws and
legislation, many of which were identical with those of Hammurabi,
then as in the other code an epilogue of blessing and cursings
This resemblance in structure was more than remarkable.

The form of the book of Deuteronomy, though unique in the
Bible, was that common to all documents of the Babylonian. civili-
sation. All ended in the series of blessings and cursings. In fact,
the whole form and phraseology of the book of Deuteronomy pointed
to a Babylonian model.

He had but one more remark to make, concerning the treatment
of the slave. Meisner had shown that the principles of humanity
had full play here. When the slave grew old or was injured, or
after. long and faithful service, the master must give him bread and
oil for the rest of his life.

Mr. WIENER, in replying, said that it did not appear to him that
Mr. Boscawen had made good his criticisms on material points. He
regarded the oaths on which Mr. Boscawen relied as extremely
commonplace. Such oaths were to be found in all ancient legis-
lation, so much so, that one came to look on them as mere stage
property. Naturally every nation took the oaths in the forms that
harmonised with their particular religious observances, but the
fundamental idea—that of appealing to higher powers in certain
cases for proof—was universal. With regard to the introduction and
epilogue he had purposely refrained from using them, and also the
materials in the contract tablets for this paper, because he had
no knowledge of cuneiform, and felt that in the circumstances
he had better heed the warning given by Mr. Johns not to build
elaborate theories on the introductory and concluding sections of
the code. Professor Kohler had promised to utilise the material
afforded by the contrasts in the second volume of Hammurabi’s
Gesetz, and as he co-operated with an Assyriologist, Dr. Pusey, he
could safely undertake work that would be dangerous for a lawyer
who did not enjoy expert assistance. With regard to the
criticism that there had been endless legislation he had endeavoured
to bring out in his paper the fact that the code merely represented
one stage in a long development. Nor again had he meant to
convey any notion that the code was not acted on for a long
period. He meant that while the code was useful in its day it did
nothing whatever to elevate humanity in the long run.

166 LEGISLATIONS OF ISRAEL AND BABYLONIA.

As to the authorship of Deuteronomy he was satisfied that the.
whole of the laws and speeches were (subject only to the qualifi-
cation introduced by textual criticism) Mosaic, 7.¢., the work of
Moses, in the language of Moses. Unfortunately it would take too
long to deal in detail with Mr. Boscawen’s arguments on this point, but
he could refer them to his published writings on this. With regard
to the view that Deuteronomy was drawn on the model of Ham-
murabi’s code he could only express his unqualified dissent. Unlike
any other known legislation Deuteronomy and certain other
portions of the Pentateuch were in form sworn agreements. Instead
of a legislation enacted by some law-making power and imposed by
it on the people, we find a series of internal agreements (called
covenants) of which the laws were terms. Deuteronomy in many
respects resembled an English deed. Its central speech began with
date and title, followed by a recital of a former covenant between
the same contracting parties, then came the body of the agreement
in properly articulated form, then the directions for its due
execution, the blessings and curses, and lastly a colophon saying
that this was a covenant made in addition to a former covenant.
The blessings and the curses replaced the form of jurat which
would have occurred in a covenant between men. Such sworn
covenants between men who could only appeal to a Divine tribunal
might be likened to treaties which in the Europe of the middle ages
and in many other societies had often been ratified by oaths. In
this case God was a party to the covenant, and so there was no.
external superior power to which both parties could appeal to.
enforce their right. Hence the jurat was replaced by blessings and
curses. Allowing for this and the fact that it belonged to a state of
society in which sworn agreements had not yet been replaced by
contracts, Deuteronomy mutatis mutandis resembled in form a.
modern deed. Hammurabi’s code, on the other hand, showed not
the least approximation to this type. Assyriologists should bring
to bear the knowledge of comparative jurists before they put.
forward theories of influence.

As to the contracts relating to the support of slaves, these in no
way altered the provisions by which Hammurabi guarded the rights.
of owners or the contrast with the Mosaic enactments.

167

495TH ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.

MONDAY, APRIL 5ru, 1909.

David Howarp, Esq., F.C.S., F.LC. (VICE-PRESIDENT),
IN THE CHAIR.

The Minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed.

Mr. E. Carus-Wilson, of High Barnet, was elected a Missionary
Associate of the Institute.

The following paper was then read by the Author :—

EZEKIEDTS VISION OF THE DIVINE GLORY.
By C. A. Carus-Witson, M.A., M.Inst.E.E.

EW parts of Old Testament literature present greater
difficulty than the account given by Ezekiel of his Vision
of the Divine Glory. The key to its elucidation is, I believe,
to be found in recognising that the supernatural revelation
given to the Hebrew prophet was based on a natural
phenomenon, a rare and splendid appearance in the heavens,
which became henceforth a symbol and shadow of the Heaven
of heavens.

It will be interesting in the first place to notice exactly where
Ezekiel was when he saw his Vision. The map of the Euphrates
Valley shows the general geographical features of that district
with the Tigris, and the river Khabur, a tributary of the
Euphrates, on whose banks Ezekiel was stationed at the time.
At a distance of 120 miles to the north-east were the ruins of
Nineveh which had been destroyed seventeen years previously,
and from which, according to some authorities, Ezekiel had
borrowed the imagery of his Vision, the cherubim having

* The paper was illustrated by two lantern slides, from the original of
the first of which the frontispiece of the present volume is reproduced.
M

168 C. A. CARUS-WILSON, M.A., ON

originated, soit has been stated, in the gigantic figures of winged
bulls which Ezekiel might quite possibly have seen at Nineveh.
Three hundred miles to the south-east was Babylon, the seat of
the great power which five years previously had captured
Jerusalem from whence Ezekiel, with the other exiles, had been
transported to the colony on the banks of the Khabur. Ezekiel
was at the time probably thirty years of age, and being a priest
he would ‘therefore have had occasion to take his part in the
Temple services before the exile.

The Vision took place in the fourth month. According to
pre-exilic usage the year began with October, and the fourth
month would consequently be January. It seems more probable
to suppose that Ezekiel would use this system of reckoning
than that he would adopt the Babylonian custom which made
the year begin with April, and this probability seems to be
borne out by the allusion to ‘a stormy wind out of the north,”
a statement which appears to indicate that the season was that
of winter.

Coming now to the actual description of the Vision, Ezekiel
tells us that he saw “a great cloud, with a fire infolding itself, and
a brightness round about it.” There were “four living creatures”
which “sparkled like the colour of burnished brass.” “In the
midst of the living creatures was an appearance like burning
coals of fire, like the appearance of torches.” In close connection
with the living creatures were two wheels, “as it were a wheel
in the midst of a wheel,’ and these were so placed that “there
was one wheel upon the earth beside the living creatures for each
of the four faces thereof.” The “work” of these wheels was
“like upon the colour of a beryl,” while their “rings” or felloes
were “high and dreadful.” In addition to these, “over the head
of the living creature there was the likeness of a firmament, like
the colour of the terrible crystal, stretched forth over their heads
above,’ and “above the firmament that was over their heads was
the likeness of a throne, as the appearance of a sapphire stone,
aud there was brightness round about it. As the appearance of
the bow that is in the cloud in the day of rain, so was the
appearance of the brightness round about.”

The main features of the Vision seem to have been six,
namely, the “ living creatures,” the “burning coals of fire,” the
“wheel in, the midst of a wheel,” the “firmament, the
“brightness,” like a rainbow, and the “ throne as the appearance
of a sapphire.” ‘The whole account seems to suggest that
Kzekiel is describing something that was actually before bim
and seen with his eyes. This idea is strengthened by the way

EZEKIEL’S VISION OF THE DIVINE GLORY. 169

in which the description is introduced, “as I was among the
captives by the river Chebar. . . . I looked, and, behold, a
stormy wind came out of the north,” and, later on, by the
expression, “one wheel upon the earth. . .for each of the
four faces thereof,” which appears to imply that Ezekiel was
actually looking at the thing he describes, and that it was as
real a thing as the earth on which he was standing—in fact,
that the Vision was in some sense based upon a natural object.
If there be any element of truth in the suggestion, such a
natural object could only be some kind of celestial phenomenon,
and the question arises whether there is any known phenomenon
presenting such a complication of effects as that pictured by
Ezekiel ?

The phenomenon of the Parhelia is rarely seen in this
country because of the peculiar climatic conditions necessary
for its occurrence. The atmosphere has to be charged with
myriads of minute crystals of ice; being very light, these float
in the air, and as the sun shines through them their intricate
shapes reflect and refract its light, producing a complexity of
coloured rings and bands of magnificent proportions and of
unsurpassed beauty and symmetry.

Owing to its great extent, and to the fact that the conditions
necessary for its appearance are influenced by very slight
changes in the atmospheric conditions, the phenomenon is
seldom seen in its entirety, and different observers may see
different parts of it. I myself had the rare opportunity, some
few years ago, of seeing a remarkably complete display of this
phenomenon, and will attempt to describe what I then saw
with the assistance of a painting executed by a well-known
artist from descriptions given him by myself.

Looking west shortly before sunset, the sun appaered as a
crimson disc behind grey clouds. It was encircled by two
halos of immense proportions, the outer halo being considerably
greater than a rainbow at its highest possible elevation. The
colouring of these halos was that of a rich amethyst purple, and
at the extreme right and left of each were masses of brilliant
hght tinged with yellow; these are the Parhelia, or mock suns,
from which the whole phenomenon derives its name. Bands of
heht passed through these Parhelia in a horizontal and vertical
direction, the former being portions of a circle, seldom seen
entire, called the Parhelic Circle, and the latter being parts of
great circles whose appearance depends upon the slow oscillating
movement of the ice crystals as they sway in the air, the amount
of their upward and downward extent varying with the move-

mM 2

170 C. A. CARUS-WILSON, M.A., ON

ment of the crystals. Above the inner halo appeared an arc,
touching it at its summit, an expanse of white light stretching
out on either side.

Above the outer halo appeared another are brilliantly
coloured with the colours of the rainbow. The position
occupied by this are was remarkable; it was not in the same
vertical plane as the two halos, but in a horizontal plane, and
was part: of a circle, which, if complete, would encircle the
zenith, the centre being therefore immediately over the head
of the observer. When seen in a cloudless winter sky, the
deep blue of the zenith appeared as a ball of sapphire encircled
by a rainbow.

We may now enquire as to how far the details of this
phenomenon are reproduced in the account given by Ezekiel.
The four Parhelia are described as “ four living creatures,’ each
one having “ four wings,” which “sparkled ike burnished brass.”
The sun is likened to “ burning coals of fire,’ and its position
defined as “in the midst of the living creatures.” Ezekiel
speaks of the two halos as “a wheel in the midst of a wheel,”
their colour being that of a “bery],” their proportions graphically
pourtrayed as “high and dreadful,” and their position relatively
to the Parhelia and to the ground completely and accurately
explained by the sentence “there was one wheel upon the earth
beside the living creatures for each of the four faces thereof.”
The arc over the inner halo is correctly described in every
particular, first as to its position, “over the head of the living
creatures,” then as to colour, “like the colour of the terrible
crystal,” that is, ice, and lastly as to its general appearance,
“a firmament,” that is, an expanse spread out by beating,
“stretched forth over their heads above.” The are over the
outer halo is accurately placed “above the firmament,” and its.
appearance like “ the appearance that is in the cloud in the day
of rain”; this was the “ brightness ” round about a “ throne, as.
the appearance of a sapphire stone.” The dense blue of the
zenith, half-encircled by the bow, appeared as a throne of
sapphire. The agreement in every detail is so remarkable that
one cannot avoid the conclusion that Ezekiel had the Parhelia.
before him at the time.

Since the appearance of the Parhelia depends upon the:
presence of ice crystals in the air the question may be asked
whether this phenomenon could appear in the Euphrates Valley,.
and whether the climatic conditions admit of such a possibility ?
At the time of the vision Ezekiel was two hundred miles north
of the southern limit of snowfall in that part of Asia. At.

EZEKIEL’S VISION OF THE DIVINE GLORY. jah

Mosul, which is about the same latitude, severe frosts frequently
occur, and the Tigris at Nineveh is sometimes nearly frozen
over. The climatic conditions, therefore, are such as to render an
occurrence of the Parhelia physically possible. I was anxious,
however, to ascertain whether the Parhelia had actually been
seen there, and in 1905 I wrote to Dr. Hume Griffith, who was in
charge of the Medical Mission at Mosul, asking him whether he
had seen the Parhelia, and if not, if he would keep a look out
for it, at the same time sending him a full description of the
phenomenon. Dr. Griffith replied saying that he had not seen
the Parhelia, but that he would watch forit. In the autumn of
1907 he was returning to England on furlough, and after crossing
the desert that lies between the Tigris and the Euphrates he had
encamped for the night on the banks of the river Khabur.
Late that evening, by a remarkable coincidence, he saw a fine
display of the Parhelia. Ina subsequent letter to me Dr. Griffith
described what he saw: “ Your previous letter had passed from
my mind, and when my wife called me out of our tent to see
‘the glorious sky’ I had forgotten that our tent was pitched for
the night on the banks of the river Khabur. The month was
November, about the first week, the evening was cold and
inclined to be frosty, the sun was setting, and from it projected
spokes of various hues, with an appearance of a wheel within
a wheel . . . the huge wing-shaped appearance on each side
of the wheel spread far up into the heavens. The whole
phenomenon lasted only a few minutes as the sun sank to rest.
After watching it and discussing the curious wheel-like appear-
ance | suddenly thought of where we stood, and of your long
forgotten letter, and wondered whether this was what you had
asked me to look out for.”

There can be no doubt that what Dr. Griffith saw was the
Parhelia, though in this case the most prominent features of the
phenomenon were the two halos and the tangential arcs at the
sides of the outer halo which were extended upwards to a great
height.

We have therefore evidence that the Parhelia has been seen
on the very spot where Ezekiel saw his Vision, and that Ezekiel
gives a description agreeing at every point with that of the
Parhelia. These facts taken together force upon us the
conviction that Ezekiel had the Parhelia before him at the time
of his Vision, and that this phenomenon constituted the natural
object on which the Vision was based.

In conclusion I would suggest that the Vision of Ezekiel
does not lose anything of its spiritual value, that it is not in

172 C. A. CARUS-WILSON, M.A., ON EZEKIEL’S VISION.

any degree less of an inspired message, owing to the fact of its
being based upon a natural phenomenon. On the contrary, it
gains in impressiveness and significance, and the idea that God
has chosen the most magnificent of all natural phenomena to
convey to man a knowledge of His Glory and Perfection is in
agreement with the truths of Revelation.

496TH ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.

MONDAY, APRIL 191TH, 1909.

Proressor E. Huu, LL.D., F.R.S. (VicE-PRESIDENT), IN THE
CHAIR.

The Minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed.

The following paper was then read by the author :—

Dib Ie hmeseN TE “POSITION OF -CATHOLICS | IN
FRANCE. By ARtsur Gatton, M.A., Vicar of Edenham,
Bourne, Lincs.

Y paper was announced on your list of subjects as “ Modern

Christianity in France,” but what I wish to bring before

you may be described more accurately, perhaps, as “The Present:

Position of Catholics in France.” I venture, therefore, to

substitute this title for the other, both as a convenience to my

hearers and as a guidance to myself, through a tortuous and
complicated labyrinth.

The present position of catholics in France can only be
understood through a knowledge of their past, and I must begin
by explaining some of their old positions, as briefly as I can.

From the fall of the Roman Empire in the west down to 1789,
the gallican church was the most influential and one of the
most wealthy organisations within the papal communion. It
was also the most intensely national and, on the whole, the
freest. All patronage worth having was at the disposal of the
crown. The royal supremacy was more active and arbitrary
than it ever was in England. No papal decrees or definitions.
had any validity until they had been scrutinised and accepted
by the lawyers, ratified by the various parliaments, sanctioned.
by the king and promulgated by his executive. There was no

174 ARTHUR GALTON, M.A., ON

quarrel with Rome and no breach in the traditional fabric of
catholic unity ; but the monarchy secured most effectually that
the pope should exercise no jurisdiction within the realm of
France: The prerogatives of the State and the national autonomy
of the church were guarded with the most jealous care. By this
achievement, French statesmanship, as I venture to think, showed
itself more enlightened and unselfish than some of our English
pohticians. in the sixteenth century. At any rate, the church
of France was not isolated in Christendom ; its continuity
could not be challenged; and it was the chief barrier, for the
whole of Latin Christianity, against papal centralisation and
ageression. As long as gallicanism flourished, the triumph
of ultramontanism was impossible. This was a great achieve-
ment. It gives us a clue to all that has happened since, and
we are not concerned at present with the manifold and internal
defects of the old gallican church. Let us rather be grateful
to it for this very dittcult and important thing which it achieved,
by which, as usual, France was a benefactor and a model to all
the nations.

In 1789, all serious and educated laymen and the vast majority
of parochial clergy, not only accepted, but welcomed the
Revolution. They welcomed it as churchmen, because they
saw in it an opportunity for securing those ecclesiastical reforms
which the better part of the nation, enligntened by the philoso-
phers, had long and earnestly desired. ‘They recognised as well,
with their admirable French logic, that the rights of man, as
the Revolution enunciated them, are clearly deducible from the
New Testament, and that the three words, Liberty, Equality,
Fraternity, which sum up the whole spirit of the Revolution,
are also a summary of the gospel, so far as we are able to infer
the conceptions of the Christ Himself. As, in those days, the
church undoubtedly was the nation, and the nation was the
church, it cannot be denied that French catholicism accepted
the Revolution, and adapted it to its ecclesiastical affairs. In
questions of doctrine, the French assembles were rigorously and
even scrupulously conservative; but in all matters of organisa-
tion they initiated reforms which made the church more
national, more efficient, more equitable in government and
patronage. We cannot enter into the details of the Constitution
Civile du Clergé, so I will only say two things about it: first,
that if ever we should be disestablished or reformed, and if in
the process we do not let ourselves be annexed by an ambitious
and aggressive clericalism, there is no ecclesiastical constitution
which is more worthy of our serious consideration ; and secondly,

THE PRESENT POSITION OF CATHOLICS IN FRANCE. 175

if this constitution had had a fair trial, and had been maintained,
religion in France and, consequently, in the largest part of
Christendom, would have been in a much healthier condition
than it is to-day.

The Constitution Civile, however, interfered with vested
interests. The papacy opposed it on various flimsy pretexts,
but really to maintain and extend its own authority, while
the French bishops disliked it because it reduced their incomes
and prerogatives. The papacy and the episcopate mis-led a king,
who, like our own Charles I., was timid, unintelligent and
insincere. They frightened a large number of the clergy, and
they seduced that mischievous and credulous section of the laity
which is always inclined to be more fanatical than the clergy
themselves. They utilised and exacerbated the emigrant nobility,
intrigued with hostile and reactionary governments, operated
with foreign invaders, subordinated patriotism and even the
national safety to professional interests; and by all these
machinations played on the ignorance and fanaticism of the
peasantry in many districts. These tactics led inevitably to re-
action and reprisals on the part of the majority, and are chiefly
responsible for the worst excesses and crimes of the revolutionary
factions. Everybody talks glibly enough about the Reign of
Terror. Few Englishmen realise what caused that terror, which
was perfectly genuine and only too well founded; and still fewer
know anything about the wholesale atrocities committed by the
abominable White Terror, ze, by partisans of the pope, the
bishops and the nobles.

In spite of all these violences on both sides the Constitution
Cwile did good work. It prospered, it was extending itself
through the nation, and would have satisfied it. Unfortunately,
it had an uncompromising enemy in Napoleon. It was far too
liberal to suit his designs ; and, for his own ends, he effected the
concordat of 13801. It was not the first time that a French
sovereign and a pope had sacrificed the interests of the
gallican church to their own convenience. The result of
the concordat was to end gallicanism, by leaving the French
church exposed to ultramontane developments and aggressions ;
this, of course, was not Napoleon’s intention, but the inevitable
effects of the concordat were foreseen by Talleyrand, and by a
few other wise men, who knew what gallicanism had been and
who understood the papacy.

For ultramontanism came in, like a rising flood, with the
restoration of Pius VII.in 1814. It was due to three causes :
First, to that political reaction which was a natural consequence

176 ARTHUR GALTON, M.A., ON

of the revolutionary excesses. The despotic sovereigns of
Europe formed an Holy Alliance against the liberties of their
people and the rights of nations. With this infamous and
fatuous policy our various administrations were in sympathy,
until our affairs were managed by the more generous, brave,
and liberating intellect of Lord Palmerston, who was not only a
great Englishman, but a wise, farseeing and beneficent European.
Secondly,’ the growth of ultramontanism was due to the re-
establishment of the Society of Jesus, which is pledged above
all things to the papal service ; for its motto, Ad Majorem Det
Gloriam, always means the greater glory and jurisdiction of the
pope. Its theologians in the sixteenth century drew the most
logical conclusions from the claims of the medizeval papacy,
and its men of action devoted themselves with heroic zeal to
making these conclusions practical. The restored Jesuits not
only controlled the pclicy of the Holy See, but they had
almost a monopoly of both lay and clerical education. In other
words, they leavened the theology and the mentality of the whole
papal system. Their efforts culminated with the decree of
infallibility in 1870: but the effects of their policy still
remain to be proved; for their evolution of Romanism during
the nineteenth century is not working out very successfully,
so far as one can judge, in the twentieth. Thirdly, the spread
of ultramontanism owes much to those extravagant, senti-
mental, and fallacious notions of medizvalism which replaced
the sturdier common sense of the eighteenth century. A
scientific knowledge of the middle ages does not make either
for catholicism or for papalism, or for an unqualified admiration
of meclizevalism itself, that mingled product of ignorauce and
barbarity ; but the romantic movement of the early nineteenth
century was not scientific, nor was any single one of its leaders
either in France or England, either in history or in theology.
It was, rather, ignorant and emotional and silly. It produced
our thoroughly illogical English tractarianism, and it was
utilised very cleverly by the more logical ultramontanes for
their own purposes.

Besides these three causes for the growth of ultramontanism,
the ancient barriers of the gallican church against romanising
were destroyed. They fell with the monarchy, and were not
restored with it. The old national spirit of the church was
broken. A breach was made between the church and the
nation, which the reactionary politics and the romanising
theology of the French ecclesiastics have widened continuously.
Every possible mistake, that could be made, was made by the

THE PRESENT POSITION OF CATHOLICS IN FRANCE. 177

clergy and their allies throughout the Restoration, the mon-
archy of Louis Philippe, the Second Empire, and the Third
Republic. Lost causes, forsaken beliefs, unpopular names,
impossible loyalties, ridiculous pretenders, and ignoble policies,
were clung to with incredible folly, and served by the most
reprehensible methods. There is little that is either noble or
chivalrous in the story of the French reactionaries. Whenever
the clerical party secured any power, they misused it. Their
struggle has never been for hberty, but always for privilege
and monopoly. Equality before the law, they have described
as persecution; for, according to papa! theories, the clergy
may never be subordinated to the civil power. When they
provoke reaction and reprisals, they complain of martyr-
dom. As Newman said, long ago, “ Nothing will ever satisfy
the Roman Catholics”; but, as usual, he was only half
right. One thing satisfies them, namely supreimacy over the
civil power, and over every individual human being. This is
inherent in ultramontanism. There is no escape from the
consequences of ultramontane premisses, either for those who
formulate the papal claims, or for those who accept them
voluntarily, or for those unfortunates upon whom they can be
imposed. Now ultramontanism is not a new thing. It was
not invented in 1814, nor launched by the decree of 1870, for
the principles of ultramontanism were enunciated clearly by
the great medizeval popes, and they were inherent in the claims
of the Roman court as far back as Leo L. in the fifth century.
But let us hold clearly to a broad principle, and then we shall
understand that conflict which we are witnessing in France,
and may have to deal with here; a struggle which may seem
complicated to many outside observers, but which is in reality
the simplest of all contemporary problems. The papal claims,
infallibility, ultramontanism, are incompatible with all that is
understood by the French Revolution, using that term in its
good sense. They are incompatible with the rights of man;
with all that Frenchmen have desired since 1789, and which
they are gradually obtaining. They are incompatible with the
ideals of modern society, and with the very foundations upon
which our existing society rests. I need scarcely add that they
are wholly incompatible with that mysterious entity, which we
all know by instinct, but which none of us can define or handle:
1 mean the British Constitution. English institutions and the
papal autocracy are absolutely incompatible, the one with the
other. They cannot be combined without loss, and ultimately
without destruction, to one or both. No compromise whatever

178 ARTHUR GALTON, M.A., ON

is possible between them: that is a lesson which we may learn
from France. It is a lesson which we learned for ourselves,
and practised, in the sixteenth century; but there are many
signs that we are in danger of unlearning it, through that
sentimentalism, the fruit of ease and prosperity, which is one
of the gravest dangers in our modern life, not only to the
individual, but even more to States, and, as we should not forget,
to churches. “A catholic atmosphere,” as it is called in our
fatuous and ignoble educational squabbles, whether anglican or
roman, 1s absolutely incompatible with English citizenship.

From this little sketch two things, perhaps, will have
emerged clearly ; the old gallican church was destroyed, both
in form and spirit, by Napoleon’s concordat. There was no
longer a national church of France, in the old meaning of the
term. Napoleon organised an ecclesiastical system, which he
intended to be a department of State; but his hierarchy, as was
proved immediately, was wholly unprotected against papal
interference. He enabled a foreign power to become supreme
over a large body of Frenchmen. He gave to its representatives
official rank and collective wealth, both of which endued it
further with political influence; and this hierarchical system
easily secured for itself infinite and irresistible powers of
expansion. In two directions, this expansion was immediate
and systematic. The religious orders were not restored by the
concordat. In fact, they were implicitly forbidden ; but, even
before Napoleon disappeared, they were revived under one
pretext or another ; and they increased continuously, prolifically,
until the danger was tackled resolutely by the legislation of
Waldeck-Rousseau and the administration of M. Combes.

The clergy also won back, by slower degrees, the control of
education, a victory which they owed chiefly to the religious
orders; but, not content with privilege and supremacy and
control, they were always trying to proscribe every other
system which was devised by the State and desired by those
who objected to the tone, the methods, and the results of
clerical teaching.

Now few things are so open to dispute as statistics. Even
facts are hardly more controversial; and the numbers of the
French catholics are not an easy question to decide. I will,
however, take a practical test, which I think proves a good
deal, and impales those who dispute it on one or other horn
of a dilemma. Since the earlest parliaments of the Restoration,
under Louis XVIII., there has never been a clerical majority in
France. There has never been even a respectable minority. The

THE PRESENT POSITION OF CATHOLICS IN FRANCE. 179

papacy and the clergy have been able to threaten governments,
to disturb the civil order, to impede public policy, and they have
done this by influencing illiterate or semi-educated voters ; but
they have never been able to legislate directly, or to assume
the responsibilities and power of office. Every election shows
a decrease in the clerical and reactionary parties, not only in
the Chambers, but in the departmental, the municipal, and the
communal councils; a decrease, not merely in those who are
elected, but a more significant shrinkage in those who vote.
The reactionary parties are disappearing fast, even in those
backward districts which used to be the strongholds of
clericalism. This process has gone on steadily tor the greater
part of a century, and during the last forty years with an
ever-growing rapidity. At present, the various reactionary
parties are a negligible quantity in the legislature, and they
seem tending to extinction in the electorate. France may thus
be contrasted with Belgium, let us say, where liberals and
clericals are almost equally balanced, and both sides are able
to gain majorities, and form administrations. Though it should
be added that this result is only obtained in Belgium, so far as
the clericals are concerned, by a manipulation of the franchise
which is not likely to be permanent.

Now the conclusions which I draw, with regard to France,
are elther that the roman catholics are a small and ever-
diminishing fraction of the people; or that their leaders have
not sense enough to organise the forces which they might
control; or, granting the existence of such forces, then the bulk
of the roman catholics are either apathetic, or they are out of
sympathy with the policy and aims of their hierarchy, and above
all of Rome. I think there is something to be allowed for in
these two last reasons; but I hold that my first conclusion is
entirely true, and that it explains the whole situation. Out of
the 38,000,000 or so, of the French population in France, only a
dwindling minority is even nominally catholic, and of that
minority again only a still smaller section are practising and
contributing to their religion. The actual numbers are not
easily computed. Spain, with a population of 16,000,000, is
given, by certain ultramontane authorities, only 4,000,000 of
practising catholics, one quarter of the population. This is
thought by many observers to be too large. In any case, the
proportion in France is certainly much lower than in Spain; even
when the figures are increased by those multitudes who, for
domestic or social reasons, are christened, married, and buried
by the clergy, but who have no other dealings with the church.

180 : ARTHUR GALTON, M.A., ON

Now it should be self-evident that a liberal State and a
reactionary church cannot live in peace together. When it is
realised, further, that the Roman Court is chiefly a political and
financial organisation, administered by diplomatic methods and
principles, and only masquerading as a religious or theological
institution, it is easy to see that there will be perpetual friction
between church and State. In France, the battles caused by
this friction bave always turned ultimately on education: for
obvious reasons. The State has said, with undeniable justice,
universal suffrage postulates an educated electorate ; therefore
education must be compulsory. If it be compulsory, it must
also, in justice, be gratuitous; and, in a country of various
theologies and conflicting sects, it must also be unsectarian and
neutral with regard to all such controversies. The logic of all
this reasoning is unassailable, and is of universal application.
The church, on the other hand, not only claims a monopoly in
even the secular education of its subjects, but it challenges the
claim of the State to educate at all. In practice, it has never
had what we should call aright of entry without abusing it,
and misusing education for political purposes. The clergy, and _
above all the religious orders, have inculcated principles which
are absolutely opposed to the existing institutions, to the social
and political ideals, of modern France. Moreover, they have
seen in education a means of biassing the electorate, of
influencing voters, and so of undermining the institutions of
their country. Hence, the whole conflict between church and
State, under the Third Republic; and, especially, the defensive
legislation of the Republicans against the teaching orders.

Usually, the extreme clericals have combated the Republic
directly and openly, either as agents or as dupes of the
monarchical and reactionary parties. This was the policy of
Pius IX. Leo XIII., with greater wisdom and astuteness, since
lie was a statesman of very unusual capacity, advised rallying
to the Republic: by which he meant an ostensible peace, a
quiet, stealthy acceptance and utilising of the educational and
legislative machinery, so that the electorate might be leavened,
the public service, the learned professions, and by degrees the
Chambers, packed with clerical adherents, and thus legislation
and administration would pass into ecclesiastical control; and
then in due time the Republic would have been either mended,
in a papal sense, or ended. This was an astute and a very able
policy. It very nearly succeeded, I don’t say in victory, but
in producing a revolution. It was helped enormously by the
‘follies and factions of the Republicans themselves. It was

THE PRESENT POSITION OF CATHOLICS IN FRANCE. 181

checkmated, however, partly by the obstinacy and fanaticism
of the extreme royalists and clericals, who opposed the methods
and policy of Leo; partly by the imprudence and over-haste of
his supporters, especially the monks. These flung all caution
to the winds, threw themselves into electoral contests,
utilised malodorous pretenders like Boulanger, and proclaimed
their policy openly by their abominable press, their shameless
methods, and their innumerable organisations. The Republic
was in the gravest danger from about 1886 onwards; and its
eyes were only opened effectually by the crimes and scandals
of the Dreyfus case.

To meet these dangers the Republicans rallied and formed
a united party, the b/oc, under Waldeck-Rousseau, which faced
the whole situation resolutely. It began by dealing with the
unauthorised religious orders and their property, and then it
passed on to education. Leo XIII. behaved, as always, like a
statesman. He saw the shipwreck of his policy without any
idle recriminations. He allowed no disturbance over the anti-
monastic legislation; and he resolved to make the best terms
possible out of existing circumstances. As long as he lived,
separation was not a practical question; but, thanks to Pius X.
and his advisers, the whole aspect of things was changed in
the autumn of 1903. Cardinal Sarto was a nonentity, an
average Italian parochial ecclesiastic; a reader of nothing but
his breviary, and not a scholar of that; trained only in and
by his seminary, and wholly undeveloped since; absolutely
unversed in great affairs; speaking no language but his own,
and that in a provincial dialect. He owed his election to tlie
veto, ostensibly of Austria, but more probably of Germany.
By this veto, Cardinal Rampolla, a great Secretary of State, the
confidant of Leo XIII, and a warm friend of France, was
excluded, though his election was absolutely certain, and was
on the point of being declared. The new Pope chose as his
Secretary of State a young man, half Irish, half Spaniard, and
a British subject, but not a francophil, and evidently a blind
tool of the Jesuits. Thus the diplomatic influence of Germany
and of the Society of Jesus has been supreme in the Vatican
since 1903, with the results which we have witnessed. It is
a very dangerous and sinister alliance: of militarism and
Jesuitism, of autocracy and theocracy. Fortunately, it has not
been successful so far; but circumstances might easily arise in
which this combination would see a chance of realising their
several ambitions through war, especially after the late encour-
aging experiences of Austria: to which we have been able to

182 ARTHUR GALTON, M.A., ON

oppose nothing except sonorous and self-righteous platitudes,
which have naturally not counted in the scales of international
justice against the weight of the Prussian sword.

But let us return to France. Everything was done by
Pius X. and his director Merry del Val, to exasperate the French
governmeut. Bishops were summoned to Rome, and deposed
without consulting it. Both the letter and spirit of the
concordat were ignored. French national feeling was wounded
in the most galling way over the journey of President Loubet
to Italy; aud the insult was aggravated by the garbled
despatches in which the matter was discussed with other powers.
The Curia thought the Republic was afraid to deal with
separation, but it was never more fundamentally mistaken.
The policy was carried through calmly and steadily, without
causing even a ripple of serious disturbance on the surface of
public order, in spite of desperate efforts by the Vatican to
inflame the population and to influence the Chambers. We must
acknowledge that this satisfactory result was due very largely
to the wise educational policy of Jules Ferry and the earlier
statesmen of the Third Republic. Pius [X. could coerce and
terrify the administration of Napoleon IIL, by playing through
his clergy upon an uneducated electorate. Pius X. and his
agents have proved themselves unable to ruffle public opinion
in any single part of France.

The project of separation itself was just and moderate.
There was no church property in France. It was all resumed
by the nation, in 1789, with the acquiescence of the clergy, and
the whole matter was ratified by Pius VII. in 1802. It was
allowed by all French jurists, and admitted by the ecclesiastics,
that no corporation, and therefore not the church, can have any
claims against the State, which must be supreme in all questions
of property. It was admitted, also, that the payments to the
clergy under the concordat were in no sense an equivalent for
the old ecclesiastical revenues. The roman catholic clergy,
then, and the other ministers recognised by the State, were paid
annual salaries. They were civil servants, as all State paid
officials must be. There was thus no question of disendowment,
properly speaking; no vexed and complicated problem of
dealing with, or readjusting, vast quantities of property.
Disestablishment in France meant literally a _ separation,
officially, between church and State. It was thus in its
financial aspects a very simple measure indeed, and not as it
would be with us a very complicated matter. The budget of
public worship had grown outrageously between 1814 and

THE PRESENT POSITION OF CATHOLICS IN FRANCE. 183

1900. As the relative proportion of catholics declined, so the
demands of the clergy and the contributions of the State
increased. It is manifest, that an organisation and a budget
which were devised when the nation ard the church were
practically identical, were no longer equitable when the church
had dwindled into a fraction of the people. ‘For that reason
alone, a readjustment of the concordat was demanded. But
there were the other and more imperious reasons, to which I
have alluded, viz., that the nation and the church hold incom-
patible ideals, that their principles and methods are irrecon-
cilable, and that through the growth of ultramontanism the
French catholics, instead of being national in spirit, had
succumbed wholly to the influence and control of a foreign
power. The church in France was not only a rival system
within the State, but it was a foreign, a hostile, and
an aggressive organisation within the State; claiming and
exercising a supreme control over property and persons,
though deriving its influence to a very large extent from the
revenues and position which it received from the government.
All this, as French Liberals thought, quite reasonably, was
- anomalous, intolerable, and even suicidal. A nation certainly
has the right to say whether it will or will not have official
relations with any ecclesiastical system. It also has the right
either to end or to modify existing relations.

The financial scheme of separation was not only just, but
generous. All personal and existing interests were respected.
The change was to be gradual. Salaries were to be paid ina
diminishing scale for four, and in some cases for eight, years
after the passing of the law. In some cases age, and in others
length of service, entitled ecclesiastics to a life pension.
Certain public chaplaincies continue to be paid by the State.
But with regard to all parochial ministrations, the legislature
decided that the majority of the nation no longer desired
them; that the existing system was a sham, and was
inequitable; and that all such services should be provided
and paid for by those who wanted them.

With regard to fabrics, it must be remembered again that
there was no ecclesiastical property in France. This was made
plain by the concordat, which was only ratified by the State on
condition that this was recognised by the clergy. The churches
themselves were State property, so were the bishops’ houses.
The presbyteries were either national, or municipal, or com-
munal property. In all cases they were public property, even
under the concordat. There was, therefore, no confiscation,

184 ARTHUR GALTON, M.A., ON

and no application of a new principle by the separation
law. In all cases, the use of the churches was made over to
the existing occupants, subject to their proper usage and repair,
Cathedrals and all important buildings were considered, as they
have long been, historical monuments, for which the State holds
itself responsible. In this matter, the separated church of
France is treated more wisely and generously than are the
cathedral chapters of our own established church. Legal
associations were to be formed to deal with all questions of
repairs and finance. Official inventories were to be made of all
moveable property, at the desire of the catholic deputies, and
solely in the interests of the catholics themselves, so that
valuable and artistic objects might not be alienated or stolen.
These associations were absolutely under the control of the
bishops ; and more than this, only those ecclesiastics were to be
recognised as lawful occupiers of churches who were approved
by the bishops and the Vatican. In all this, the State conceded
everything the papacy can have desired or expected, and
certainly more than it should have given. The majority of
local catholics, and not the Pope, should have decided all such
questions, and the State should have accepted their decision.
At any rate, there was no attack by the State on ecclesiastical
discipline, or on the hierarchical order, or on the papal
authority. They were all safeguarded, and even guaranteed
by the State, which not only did nothing to encourage schism,
but exceeded its functions by devising an organisation that
discouraged it.

The French bishops, by large majorities, were willing to
accept all this legislation; but they were over-ruled by the
Vatican, which played the desperate game of disapproving
every law, and rejecting every financial scheme. Its reasons
are obvious. It hoped the government would retaliate, and
that the disturbing cry of persecution might be raised. It
wanted to see churches closed, services forbidden, and ecclesi-
astical life suspended. The government was too alert and
wise to fall into this trap, and also too faithful to its liberal
principles. Not a church nor a service was interfered with,
and the ritual business of France has gone on uninterruptedly,
as usual. Salaries and pensions have been paid as the law
intended, though the papal repudiation of the law should,
strictly, have vitiated the whole scheme and relieved the State
from any further responsibility. There have been a few disputes
over the use and rents of presbyteries, but im all cases the courts
have decided impartially between ecclesiastics and the local

THE PRESENT POSITION OF CATHOLICS IN FRANCE. 185

authorities. Public opinion has not been moved, and apparently
does not seem interested by the situation which the Pope
created; but the bishops have been deprived of an immense
deal of property, on which they were relying for diocesan
administration, and the lower clergy have suffered still more
grievously. Rome also has suffered indirectly, and in two ways.
The French church can hardly pay its way or meet its own
diocesan and parochial obligations, therefore it has less and less
to spare for external purposes. For this reason the Peter's
Pence from France must have shrunk ominously, and is
probably still shrinking; and the foreign missions, to which
France contributed so lavishly in money, so devotedly in men,
and which are so important an item in the papal propaganda,
must be declining very much as Peter’s Pence is.

t may now be asked why the papacy embarked on this
reckless and apparently foolish policy: first, it miscalculated
the effects of separation, just as it had miscalculated the
possibility of it. It thought the country would be roused, and
it wasn't. Evidently, the Vatican did not realise the position
of catholicism in France. Secondly, it not only disliked but
feared the precedent, that France should be able to carry
through so fundamental a change without even consulting the
Holy See. In the opinion of the French government, separa-
tion was a purely national question, in which foreigners had no
concern. The Vatican urged that it was chiefly a papal
question, which could not be settled without the pope. The
French view has proved more correct, and the ditticulty did not
exist in fact. The dangerous precedent has been created, and
‘has shown that it is workable. It may, therefore, be followed
with impunity by other governments. That is why separation
in France is the most grievous blow to the papal authority
which has happened since the sixteenth century. In view of
its threatened authority, which it has not saved after all, the
Vatican cared little about the interests of the French clergy,
and treated their sufferings with its usual cynical indifference.
Let us add, if we would “be just, that the French clergy have
endured manfully for what they were told was right. They
have been heroically loyal to their conceptions of authority and
order; but it has been a desperate and a very dubious policy.
It must have disillusioned a great many of the clergy, and it is
bound to have more illuminating effects on the coming generation
of ecclesiastics.

There certainly has been one tragic disillusion for the French
catholics. Many of the more enlightened were favourable to
N 2

186 ARTHUR GALTON, M.A., ON

separation. They thought it would clear the air, end many
obvious unrealities, and stimulate zeal by forcing the laity
to accept their responsibilities. Above all, they hoped to realise
the ideal of a free church in a free or at any rate a neutral
State. Certainly the State has become neutral. Subject only
to its ordinary laws of police and of corporate finance, the
Roman catholics are free. Indeed, the ordinary laws of public
meeting have been relaxed in their favour. But they are less
free than they were before. Under the concordat, if there were
some State control, which was more nominal than real, there
was also some theory of protection and guarantee. This has all
been swept away; and what is called the French church has
become merely an outlying department of the Vatican adminis-
tration. The choice of bishops was not given back to the
people, or even to the clergy. It is solely in the hands of
Rome. The bishops are now, both in fact and theory, mere
papal delegates, made and unmade at pleasure, with no security
of tenure, no powers of initiative, no genuine responsibility, and
an ever dwindling power of administration. The parochial
clergy, in like manner, are absolutely dependent on their bishops.
The canon law, and the possession of corporate endowments,
especially in land, made the old French clergy both free and
strong, as against Rome, while the royal supremacy was an
additional protection. All this was modified or destroyed by the
Revolution and the concordat. Though the Constitution Civile
would have secured the freedom of the church, against both the
papacy and the politicians, the concordat was no protection
against either. It was illogical in its conception, blundering in
its methods, and mischievous in its results, from the beginning ;
and its century of life only made these defects more glaring.
But the present state of French romanism is far worse, and can
only end in moral and intellectual disaster. Every institution
must bear the defects of its principles and qualities. Of all
institutions which human beings have devised for their moral,
intellectual, political, social, and material undoing, a theocracy
is the worst. Jt is the most prolific in itself of mischief; the
most obstinate in ill-doing; the most opposed to progress, and
to intellectual or civic freedom; and it is the most difficult to
over-turn. To reform a theocracy is, indeed, impossible ; for
it is a contradiction in terms. Whenever deities have been
established and endowed, they have always shown theniselves
incorrigible.

Now the Vatican is a theocracy; and it has added to this
original disease the next most pernicious of administrative

THE PRESENT POSITION OF CATHOLICS IN FRANCE. 187

abuses, viz., a bureaucracy. Through the steady growth of
Vaticanism since 1814, through modern methods of communica-
tion, through the decline of lay influence and of public control,
this ecclesiastical bureaucracy has become more powerful and
centralised. It has encroached upon all the churches, and
absorbed all the jurisdiction which used to be inherent in the
episcopate. The religious orders, too, are now centralised, and
every conventual organisation has a superior in Rome. The
bureaucracy of the Vatican is, moreover, not only centralised but
ubiquitous, and is in immediate contact with the whole of its
international organisation. The medieval popes may seem
terrifying, as we idealise them; but a modern pope, almost
deified in his shrine, relieved from political anxieties and fetters,
speaking through a myriad newspapers, communicating with
an universal hierarchy through telephones and_ wireless
telegraphy, and commanding the abject obedience of those with
whom he deigns to communicate, would be far more dangerous
if he could rely, as his predecessors did, on the secular arm and
on popular support. But these two essential elements of power
are no longer with the papacy, and popular support is receding
from it more and more. -Besides, Vaticanism is tending inevit-
ably to destroy such elements of strength as it may still command.
Its principles compel it to sterilise and emasculate its own
subjects. Men cannot be governed like slaves and children
with impunity. The Society of Jesus would have proved
irresistible long ago, in a loose and divided world, if the very
process which moulds a Jesuit did not weaken him intellectually
and morally by tampering with the qualities on which his
individuality and strength depend. The Society has had the
pick of roman catholic material ever since it was founded, it
has never degenerated like the other orders, its effort has been
unceasing and its zeal heroic, and yet it has never produced a
single genius, or a man of the first rank in any line. Its
general standard is wonderfully high, but everything is sacri-
ficed to that standard; and thus, the Society, in spite of all its
talent and zeal, has been little more than a vast machine for
the production of mediocrity. Failure is writ large over its
history, much larger than success. A similar process is now at
work throughout the papal hierarchy and the priesthood: and
in both, it will be far more destructive than in the case of a
religious order, which starts with picked men; for the average
parochial minister is not a picked man. He is, perhaps, below
the general average of laymen; and the present centralised
methods of ruling the Church will keep him below that

188 ARTHUR GALTON, M.A., ON

average, both in intelligence and virility. The papacy is tend-
ing inevitably to destroy roman catholicism. That is why
separation is not dangerous to the State in France, as many
liberals imagined. It would have been exceedingly dangerous
if the papacy had its old influence; if it could coerce govern-
ments and manipulate voters. But the pontificate of Pius X.
has revealed that it cannot. And so long as education is
diffused and efficient, the papacy and the clergy will not regain
those powers. On one side, we have an educated and a progres-
sive democracy ; on the other, an over-centralised, and therefore
a weakened, hierarchy, an under-educated parochial clergy,
and a horde of quite uneducated and obscurantist religious
orders. These are the elements with which France has to deal.
As long as these qualities on both sides are maintained, or still
more as they are developed, the breach between the church and
the nation must grow wider. After all, in spite of many
superficial appearances, the papal church even at present is not
a very solid building. It has a pretentious facade, with nothing
much behind it. It has an imposing hierarchy, but not much
popular support; while the hierarchy itself is crushed by the
papacy, and undermined by the religious orders; and the
priesthood is becoming always more negligible intellectually.
No system can endure permanently under these conditions. It
may long be powerful for mischief, since it is built on traditional
ignorance, and trades on atavistic fears; but the papacy cannot
dominate a world which it is no longer capable of leading. All
the newer forces which are influencing mankind are against it ;
and no religious organisation can subsist in the face of a truth
and a morality which are higher than its own.

Even within the church, these forces, which seemed dormant
for so long, are now becoming visible and audible. The papal
church may have appeared stagnant since 1870, but it was
really germinating with new life. This life is described by the
insufficient and misleading term of modernism. It is a thing
easy to understand, but much less easy to define, as even the
Pope has found. Modernism i is not, as the Pope has asserted, a.
system of philosophy or a school of thought, with fixed aims
and exclusive rules; it means being in touch and sympathy
with the intellectual world of to-day, with this age in which

we live. It implies knowing the best that has been thought
and said in the great world ‘of the past ; handling and judging
this knowledge by our present scientific methods vand applying
it to the highest purposes. Some modernists are philosophers,
some are theologians, some philologists, some anthropologists

THE PRESENT POSITION OF CATHOLICS IN FRANCE. 189

and students of comparative religion; others are biblical
scholars and orientalists; others are hellenists, archzeologists,
antiquaries, historians; many are philanthropists and explorers
of social questions. Most of them have come to see that the
papal claims are dubious, or worse ; that episcopacy 1s not what
it represented itself to be through so many credulous centuries ;
that ecclesiastical organisation and theology are both subject to
development; that the present state of the papal church is
practically unendurable and theoretically indefensible. In
these conclusions, the modernists should have the sympathy of
all educated people. In trying to reform the church, they are
only doing what anglicans took upon themselves to do in the
sixteenth century ; and the modernists have come now to many
of the conclusions which were reached by our own reformers
then. Modernism is dissolving the papal claims and _ the
medieval theology just as the new learning dissolved them in
the sixteenth century, only with more certitude and finality.
Now the Vatican, for its own obvious purposes, has tried to
identify modernism exclusively with biblical criticism, in order
to divert protestant sympathy from the modernists, and to
draw the attention of the British public from its own abominable
methods of dealing with them. For the papacy still works by
violence, in its traditional ways. It uses the Index for writings,
and the Inquisition for writers. Behind both is a system of
spying and of delation. Within both are secret processes, long
since condemned and repudiated by all civilised governments :
there are trials in which the accused are not heard, and do not
even know their accusation; the accusers are not contfronted
with their victims, and witnesses are not examined openly, and
judgments are given from which there is no appeal. Beyond
these injustices, are excommunication, the boycott, professional
ruin, and every species of social persecution or domestic
pressure ; all aggravated a thousand-fold by the hes, calumnies,
and outrages of the clerical press, the vilest instrument of
tyranny and spite and slander and falsehood and corruption
and blackmail now existing in the world. It 1s traditional that
the papacy should use these methods; but it is lamentable
that English people should be duped by them, and their want
of sympathy with those who suffer is culpable. For there is
no royal road to learning, and there is no autocratic or despotic
way to truth. It has to be reached by labour and hypothesis
and experiment, and by much pondering, and often only
through many errors and mistakes. These are inevitable in all
human research, and they do not matter if the intention be

190 ARTHUR GALTON, M.A., ON

honest. Truth and scholarship will always find their level if
they be unimpeded. Error will inevitably be detected and
exposed, when there is freedom of research and of speech.
These have been, hitherto, our English methods ; and we should
have no sympathy with those who violate them systematically,
flagrantly, cynically, especially by misusing the press to deceive
the people, and to undermine those liberties of which it should be
a strenuous guardian.

Now it may be asked, What is the present position of
modernism, and what are its prospects ?

First, there has been no general movement ; but it must not
be supposed that modernism is dead. It has not been killed
by Pius X._ I have explained that the State remained neutral,
and gave no encouragement to ecclesiastical secessions. Indeed,
by its financial arrangements, it went beyond a strict neutrality,
and made any liberating process difficult. And the leading
modernists do not want to move. Some of them have, indeed,
and against their wishes, been moved out, but not one of them
has been an aggressor. They do not wish to establish new
organisations, adding one or more to the too numerous Christian
factions. They also recognise the difficulty, or even the
impossibility, of organismg new churches, on theological and
ecclesiastical bases, after the manner of the sixteenth century.
The day for such enterprises and institutions is manifestly over.
What the modernists aim at and hope for is to leaven the
existing organisation; preserving, if they can, its international
character, and its priceless heritage of unity and long tradition.
They do not see why an organisation which might be utilised
for good, which for a long time will certainly be capable of
mischief, should be surrendered without a blow to obscurantists,
and fanatics, and autocrats. Only the future will prove
whether these hopes can be fulfilled.

In France, then, on the surface, the modernists are vanquished,
silenced, excommunicated, solitary; but, below the surface,
modernism is fermenting and spreading. It cannot be excluded,
even from the schools and seminaries, unless catholics can be
debarred from education, and isolated from social intercourse.
The two main difficulties of the French bishops at present are
the want of men, and the want of money. Men are wanting,
partly because there are not funds enough to educate them ;
but also because the ecclesiastical career is unpromising
financially, and even more unpromising intellectually, Both in
quality and in quantity, the supply of priests will diminish
under the existing conditions. The church will die of

THE PRESENT POSITION OF CATHOLICS IN FRANCE. 191

intellectual and moral atrophy if ultramontanism prevail. The
papacy will inevitably be transformed if modernism prevail ;
and nothing short of a catastrophe to civilisation can check it.

In Italy, modernism is more widely spread among the clergy
than in France. It is both more practical and more intense ;
as it is allied closely with a great deal of socialistic and
revolutionary enthusiasm. The policy of the reigning Pope has
led to more anti-clericalism than Italy has experienced since
Arnold of Brescia. The growth of the religious orders, since
1870, has been steady, and in Rome itself has become very
serious. The governing classes minimise the friction ; but the
feeling of the urban populations is strong. There might
conceivably be a working alliance between modernists and
socialists which would possibly overthrow the Curia, and
perhaps even eliminate the monarchy. At any rate, there isa
significant counter-aliance at present between the Italian
ministry and the supporters of the Vatican.

In Germany, the modernist movement has only been kept
under with ditliculty, through the sympathetic understanding
between the papacy and the Prussian bureaucracy. The centre
party has no longer the full confidence of the catholic
populations. There was much discontent in Germany about
the manner in which modernism was condemned by Pius X.
The matter of his Encyclicals filled intelligent Germans with
contempt or despair; and the methods advocated by him for
dealing with the modernists revolted Germanic notions of
justice and fair play. Several German professors have been
threatened by the Vatican, and if they had been French they
would certainly have been condemned ; but the papacy hesitated
to offend the government, and the government feared to
irritate popular feeling by sacrificing German professors to the
rancour of Italian ecclesiastics. Between German science and
ecclesiastical obscurantism there can be no permanent alliance ;
and the existing calm in Germany is probably the calm which
precedes a storm. It will be for the good of the world if that
storm ends the alliance between the Vatican and Berlin, and
helps to overthrow the autocracy of both.

The example of France will not be lost, we may be sure, on
the other Latin countries, steeped as their clergies are in
corruption and stagnation.

In Australia and in the United States, modern ideals and
British institutions have been gradually transforming catholi-
cism, even among the Irish settlers. In Canada, these influences
have made the catholics very different from their reactionary

192 ARTHUR GALTON, M.A., ON

kinsmen in France itself. Between Americanism and Vaticanism
there can be no lasting agreement. They can never coalesce.
There have already been collisions between them, and their
divergencies must grow. One principle must yield to the other;
and it is not likely that the younger and more vigorous
element will succumb, The more fit of the two will assuredly
survive.

To the shame and the danger of English romanism, England
has practically no modernists; for there is no country in which
the clergy are more abjectly in the power of their bishops, or
where the bishops are more impeded by the religious orders.
Both these conditions are favourable to that espionage which is
recommended by Pius X., and which is comparatively easy in
a small and exclusive sect, given over to the narrowest parochi-
alism, with all its attendant and petty gossip. There can be no
deliverance for the anglo-roman clergy until there is an educated
lay opinion, capable of supporting them against papal and epis-
copalusurpations. And the education of the laity will be very slow,
as long as they are deluded by a muzzled press, which is wholly
under ecclesiastical control.

But Ireland alone among the nations is the hopeless and
helpless victim of a dominating clergy, which terrorises the
peasantry, devours wealth, and diminishes the population. It
is enabled to do all this chiefly by the connivance and the
fatuous encouragement of the Enghsh administration. or this
lamentable state of things, both our parties are equally
responsible and culpable. The nationalistic members, even the
Redmondites, have sunk into being tools and allies of the clergy.
Whatever else Home Rule might do, it would probably end
Rome Rule; for it would certainly produce an active and a
militant anti-clericalism, of which all the elements are now in
solution, and are only waiting to be precipitated. Short of this,
the only way of salvation for Ireland is through a reformed and
rigorous primary education, freed entirely from ecclesiastical
influences. Thirty years of this, working steadily, influencing
three generations, would lay the foundation of a regenerated,
a prosperous, and a contented Ireland. No other remedies will
have much effect until this remedy has been applied; though
every other reform would accompany and follow education.
Primary education is the key of the Irish problem, as it has
always been of the whole papal question; and if Irish education
were dealt with properly, the other so-called problems would
either vanish, or solve themselves as they do among all civilised
people. But the way not to solve Irish problems is to leave

THE PRESENT POSITION OF CATHOLICS IN FRANCE. 193

primary education unreformed, in the hands of the clergy ; and
to endow sectarian or theological colleges, out of public money,
by liberal votes, under the pretence of establishing national
universities. It is recognised in all roman catholic countries
that a clerical college is not a catholic university, but English
protestants are incapable of seeing the distinction, especially if
they are political dissenters. As long as these and similar
follies are committed, the last state of this unhappy country
will be worse than any that has gone before.

Ireland may show us that it is not the corruption, but the per-
fection, of the papal system which is ruinous to a country. History
shows us that the record of the papacy is a sufficient refutation
of the papal claims. History asks in vain what good the
papacy has done, either to churches or to nations. And
modernism is answering these questions, and stating these
problems, more authoritatively than they have been dealt with
before. Both the name and the spirit, like so many other goud
things, are due to France; which is not only the most intel-
lectual, but, on the whole, the most religious, country in the
world.

DISCUSSION.

The paper having been read, the CHAIRMAN said:—The thanks
of the meeting were due to Mr. Galton for a clear and able
historical document. Terrible indeed was the condition of religion
in France. In many other places they might see the decadence
of Romanism leading to atheism, of which the reader of the paper
had given such striking confirmation. In France the degradation
of the Church through Rome had given rise to the belief among
many that Christianity was false. Some great revival was
needed, and he trusted that many might be led, perhaps through
Modernism, to Protestantism. As an Irishman he could not help
applying much that had been said to his own country.

Rev. CHANCELLOR LIAs said that as one of the oldest members of
Council he had great pleasure in rising to move a vote of thanks to
his old friend Mr. Galton for his able and scholarly paper. Mr.
Galton’s work on French ecclesiastical affairs marked him out as one

194 ARTHUR GALTON, M.A., ON

specially fitted to-deal with the subject. For his own part, he had
only a superficial acquaintance with the subject, gained by personal
intercourse with some of the French priests, more than a thousand
in number, who have left the Church of Rome during the last
fifteen years. He had also studied carefully their organs in the
press. They might, presumably, regard the Revolution of 1789 as
the moment when the tide of public indignation arose which had
now submerged Papal domination in France. He had to thank
Mr. Galton’s volume for a better comprehension of the true character
of the settlement of affairs ecclesiastical attempted at the Revolution.
In England they had been too ready to accept the description of the
measures then taken to reform ecclesiastical affairs from the one-
sided utterance of Ultramontane writers. Mr. Galton had shown
that the Constitutions Civiles were really a statesmanlike attempt to
deal with the situation, though they survived only a short time,
being replaced before many years by the famous Concordat of
Napoleon. That was an attempt to make the Emperor the absolute
master of the situation. ‘The old franchises of priests and bishops
were swept away ; the priests were at the mercy of his bishop, the
bishop at the mercy of the Pope, and the Pope a prisoner in the
hands of Napoleon. The situation thus created was beautifully
simple. Only Napoleon forgot that institutions are usually longer
lived than individuals. The Papal authority had lasted somewhere
about a thousand years, and might have been expected to live
another thousand. Napoleon, on the most favourable computation,
could hardly expect to live solong. The return of the monarchy
placed the Pope once more at the head of affairs, instead of the
sovereign. . The restoration of the Empire left things as they were,
and it was long before the Third Republic, surrounded by difficulties,
attempted to grapple with the Church. The conflict was precipi-
tated by the famous Dreyfus case, which showed that the clergy
were in league with the army to destroy the Republic. A great deal
of sentiment has been wasted on the supposed oppression of
harmless and holy men and women by the impiety rampant in
France. But as a matter of fact the Church had been treated, as
Mr. Galton showed, with the greatest consideration. The conflict
would never have arisen had not the Church intrigued to overthrow
the Government, and the Orders might have remained in France
had they submitted to the regulations laid down for their observance

THE PRESENT POSITION OF CATHOLICS IN FRANCE. 195

by the State. Many of these Orders were amassing riches by
undertaking trade and manufactures, and it was felt that the money
thus obtained was being used to overthrow the constitution of the
country, and if the atheism rampant in France was condemned, it
was only fair to ask whether the Church, which for more than ten
centuries had uncontrolled power over the religious training of the
people, must not bear her full share of the blame for the baneful
results of her teaching.

The present religious situation was certainly a deplorable one.
The churches were for the most part vested still in the hands of the
bishops. The attempt to form Associations Cultuelles independent of
the Pope and to carry on worship in the churches apart from his
authority, had been resisted by the State, and in some cases the
gens darmes had been called in to prevent the churches being used
by any religious body but the one in whose hands the law still
vested them. The great majority of the people of the land refused
to worship at the accustomed altars, and at present no religious
movement existed which was capable of winning them over toa
purer form of Christianity. The members of the Institute were
much indebted to Mr. Galton for the information he had given
them of the actual state of affairs. It was much to be hoped that
what he had said might serve to correct the numerous and gross
misconceptions which were so widely spread, and might induce them
to take a deeper and more generous interest in the religious perplex-
ities into which a great nation had been plunged by the caricature of
Christianity which for centuries had been taught to them instead of
the genuine doctrine of Christ.

Rey. A. Irvine, D.Sc., said that, as no one else seemed inclined
to speak, he would like to have the privilege of seconding the vote
of thanks to the author for his valuable, trenchant, and most
illuminating paper. From his perusal of Mr. Galton’s book he had
expected much, and his expectations had been more than realised.
Many of the points discussed had received very able treatment in
the columns of the Guardian for some years past by the Roman
Catholic Correspondent of that journal, who writes under the nom
de plume, “ Cis alpine.” From such sources mainly the speaker had
been able to obtain pretty clear ideas of what has passed behind the
scenes in recent years in the policy of the Roman Curia, more
especially in its relations with the French Government and the

196 ARTHUR GALTON, M.A., ON THE CATHOLICS IN FRANCE.

French Episcopate. He had thus come to regard the present
impasse of ecclesiastical affairs in France as a drawn battle between
Ultramontanism and the great principle of National Churches ; and,
as a staunch Anglican Churchman, he would fain still hope that, in
the working of Divine Providence, a way would be found for the
great historic Gallican Church to again raise its head and resume its
ancient ‘‘Gallican Liberties,” to the humiliation of the Roman See
with its monstrous pretensions to lord it over the other churches of
Christendom.

Dr. Irving went on to say that he had had this matter forced upon
his serious attention from the way in which, by perversion of
history, the “Italian Mission” in this country had been pushing
its way in his own neighbourhood, through an outlying settlement
in Bishop’s Stortford in connexion with St. Edmund’s College at
Ware, the modern Douai. It was a gratification to him to find
that the position which he had taken up in controversy with the
Romanists in the local paper for several years past—and more
especially at the time of cruel, crushing treatment which the French
Episcopate had to endure from Pius X. and the Curia in August,
1907—was fully supported by what Mr. Galton had put before us
in his most able paper.

In conclusion he would like to ask the author of the paper if it
was not a fact that the ideas of Pascal and the Port Royalists were
becoming daily a greater intellectual force in the minds of thought-
ful religious Frenchmen, and if he did not join in the hope that
through the growth of those ideas, strengthened by the recent
translation of the Bible from the original tongues into French, the
religious life of the French nation might emerge from the present
chaos through the evolution of an order of things on a broad and
tolerant basis, such as we are familiar with in this country.

Mr. J. T. MarrHews and Mr. H. 8. WILLIAMS also spoke, after
which the CHAIRMAN put the vote of thanks, which was carried by
acclamation.

Mr. GALTON replied briefly and the meeting terminated.

fay

497TH ORDINARY GENERAL MERTING.
MONDAY, MAY 3rp, 1909.

ProFEessor E. Hutu, LL.D., F.R.S. (VICE-PRESIDENT),
IN THE CHAIR.

The Minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed, and
the following candidates were elected Associates :—

Rev. H. J. R. Marston, Belgrave Chapel, London.
Rev. J. H. Skrine, Oxford.

The following paper was then read by the author :—

DAHER DATE WOR THE NATIVITY WAS -8, BC,
By Ligut.-CoLoNeL G. MACKINLAY, LATE R.A,

T is well to consider the practical usefulness of our subject,

because the ready objection starts up, Dates are dry

things, what possible difference can it make whether we know
the exact date of the Nativity or not ?

At the beginning of the sixth century it was the custom
among the peoples of the old Roman Empire to date events from
the time of the persecuting tyrant Diocletian, but in A.p. 532 a
Christian Abbot named Dionysius Exiguus* suggested that it
would be far better that the Nativity of Christ (as nearly as
could then be found) should be taken as the epoch from which
to count. His suggestion was agreed to and adopted by all the
Christian nations of the world from that time to the present.
It surely must be a matter of interest to all who date letters to
know whether this starting point of modern time is correct or
not.

But there are far more important reasons which appeal to the
lover of Scripture, for if this date is found to be the true one,
the speculations of the visionaries who assert that the Gospel
narratives are mere myths must be overthrown, and the

* A New Analysis of Chronology, 1830, vol.i, p. 83, Rev. W. Hales, D.D.

198 LIEUT.-COLONEL G. MACKINLAY, THE DATE

consistency and truthfulness of the Scripture record will be
demonstrated.

But some may say—Is it not hopeless to expect to find the
exact date ? Did not Scaliger* write long ago, “Diem vero
definire unius Dei est, non hominis”—to determine the true
day of Christ’s Birth belongs to God alone, not man. Are not
the best scholars still undecided about it? And is not the
evidence somewhat contradictory ? Have we not heard in some
sermons that this date has not been revealed to us, possibly for
some wise purpose. ‘Therefore, may it not be unprofitable, vain,
and even wrong to attempt to discover it ?

To this it is replied, because Scaliger and others did not know
the exact date of the Nativity, that 1s no reason why we should
not find out if we can. We are nowhere told in the Scripture
that the date of Christ’s Birth is hidden. On the contrary, two
direct historical statements are given us in tbe Gospel of St.
Luke, which enable us to find not only the year, but also the
season of the year, and several indirect statements in the Bible
also point to the same conclusion. ‘There is also good historical
evidence apart from the Scriptures, witnessing to the same
result.

It is true that in the past there were difficulties in determin-
ing this date, and some of the evidence appeared to be conflicting ;
but these difficulties have disappeared with the modern increase
in historical knowledge, which is founded on the examination
and study of original documents and inscriptions discovered
during recent years.

We now proceed to find, from different sources, the limits
within which the Nativity must have fallen.

THE YEAR.

(a) The Nativity was between 10 B.C. and 5 B.C. according to
St. Luke and Josephus.

We are told in Luke iii, 23 R.V., that Christ was “about
thirty years of age ” when He began His Ministry. No date
before 10 B.c. would agree with this statement, even if the
earliest year historically possible is assumed for the beginning of
His Ministry.

The Nativity could not have been later than 5 B.c. because it,
must have been at least three and a half months before the
death of Herod, in order to allow time for the forty days of

* Chronology, etc., vol. i, p. 98, Hales.

OF THE NATIVITY WAS 8 B.c. 199

purification and for the departure to and stayin Egypt. Herod
died shortly before Passover, 10th April, 4 B.c. This date rests
on good historical evidence ; Josephus states that an eclipse of
the moon occurred shortly before it, and modern astronomical
calculations have shown that an eclipse of the moon visible at
Jerusalem took place as stated.

(6) The Nativity was between 8 B.C. and 5 B.C. (the special rule
of Quirinius) according to St. Luke and Justin Martyr.

The Evangelist (Luke ui, 2) and Justin Martyr* both assert
that Christ was born at the enrolment under Quirinius.

The Abbot Sanclemente, Zumpt and others have shown that
Quirinius exercised high office as a general commanding troops
engaged in war on the borders of Syria, and Prebendary H.
Browne has shown that the time was between the years 12 B.c.
and 1 B.c.t Sir W. M. Ramsayt has narrowed down this period
within the limits about 8 B.c. to 5 B.c., and he has further shown
that it was the Roman custom for a general engaged in a frontier
war, as the direct representative of the Emperor, to rank
superior to the ordinary governor who carried on his civil duties
as usual. It is a strange historical fact that Quirinius was the
ordinary civil governor in Syria at the next enrolment fourteen
years later.

Tertullian wrote,§ quoting records evidently existing in his
time, “There is historical proof that at this very time (of the
Nativity) a census had been taken by Sentius Saturninus.”
Saturninus ruled in Syria from 9 B.c. (some say from 8 B.C.) to
7 B.C.

Thus St. Luke and Justin Viartyr asserted that the ruler at
the time of the Nativity was Quirinius, while Tertullian stated
he was Sentius Saturninus. This seeming contradiction is now
explained, as it is now known that both ruled at the same time
in Syria, each in his own capacity.

(d) The Nativity was 8 B.C. (the first enrolment) according to
St. Luke.

It has now been demonstrated historically that Augustus

initiated a periodic enrolment throughout the Empire every

Apol. I, 34, 46, and Trypho, 78. t Ordo Seculorum, 1844.
Was Christ born in Bethlehem? p. 241, Sir W. M. Ramsay.
Against Marcion, Bk. 1V, Ch. xix. Trans., Rev. P. Holmes, D.D.

~
+
é
S

200 LIRUT.-COLONEL G. MACKINLAY, THE DATE

fourteen years. The first one took place in Syria in 8 B.c.
Mr. Kenyon and Mr. Bell* have recently found an old order
from the Prefect in Egypt dated a.p. 104, commanding all
persons living at a distance to return to their homes for the then
approaching census. The analogy with Luke ii, 1-3, is obvious.

THE TIME OF YEAR.

Not only is it possible to fix the year of the Nativity but
the month; even the day of the month can be determined
with a high degree of probability.

A definite time in the year had evidently been fixed for the
enrolment by the authorities, as the condition of the Virgin Mary
proves that the choice of the day was not left to individuals.

(ce) The Nativity was in warm weather, not in the winter.

Lewint well wrote: “The Nativity could not have been, as
commonly supposed, in the winter for several reasons: (1) The
shepherds and their flocks would not be in the open air during
a winter's night. According to the Talmud cattle in Judea
were usually turned out at the Passover and brought back in
Octobert; (2) Mary, in an advanced state of pregnancy, would
not have travelled with Joseph so far as from Nazareth to
Bethlehem in the winter; (5) it is highly improbable that a
census, which obliged persons to take distant journeys, should
have been fixed for a winter month; a more natural time
would be after harvest.” We must remember that snow often
lies heavily on the uplands of Judea in the winter. In 1886
the son of Dr. Jessup of Beyrtiit was snowed up at Bethel as
late in the year as the 10th April.

(f) The first Enrolment, which fixes the date of the Nativity,
was between August and October for the sake of convenience.

Sir W. M. Ramsay points out that the authorities woula
select some time of year after the harvest and vintage had
been gathered in, and ‘before the time of ploughing, so that the
people might be at leisure to come to the enrolment.

* Luke the Physician, 1908, p. 244,Sir W. M. Ramsay, who quotes
B. Museum, Papyri LI, p. 24, and The Expository Times, Oct., 1907, p. 41.
Prof. J. H. Moulton.

+ Fasti Sacri, 1865, p. 115.

+ Sheep will not feed during the heat of the day in summer, and so
they must be left to graze in the open fields at night. In winter they
will feed by day and they are folded at night in Palestine for protection,

OF THE NATIVITY WAS 8 B.c. 201

(g) The first Enrolment was at the Feast of Tabernacles on
account of the crowding of the inn at Bethlehem.

Jerusalem was crowded three times a year at the great
Feasts of Passover, Harvest and Tabernacles, when all male
Israelites were ordered to appear before the Lord (Deut. xvi,
16). Bethlehem, only six miles distant, would also be
crowded at those times. Enrolment by itself would not of
necessity cause crowding, because many of the visitors would
be sure to lodge with relatives whom they would find in their
own Village. But this crowding would be far more likely to
happen if the Enrolment took place at one of the Feasts. The
great Feast of Tabernacles is the only one of the triad which
falls in the latter part of the summer, when the census must
have been taken. The crowding at the inn, therefore, points
to the probability that the Feast of Tabernacles was at hand.

(h) The first Enrolment was on the first day of the Feast of
1 Tabernacles, to suit the policy of Herod.

As all male Jews were obliged to come to the Feast of
Tabernacles, which is in the middle of the time of year most
suitable for the census, it is almost certain that Herod would
have ordered the enumeration to take place at that time,
because that would obviate the necessity of a fresh journey
being made on purpose, and of a fresh breaking into home
routine on the part of the people. The linking of the census
with a religious feast would render the new order palatable,*
perhaps almost popular, and the beginning of the Feast
(20th September in 8 B.c.) would be far the best time to choose,
because the Jews would then have no opportunity to assemble and
grumble before they complied with the order; and then, having
obeyed, their attention would be taken away from the census, as
they would be quickly absorbed with their religious exercises.

(1) Enrolment at the Feast of Tabernacles 8 B.C. specially
suited the policy of Herod.

It is almost certain from historical data that the year
autumn 10 B.C. to autumn 9 B.c. was a Sabbath year, when no
sowing of seed or pruning of vines or olives was allewed
(Ley. xxv, 3-5). Consequently, in the spring and autumn of
8 B.C. the people would give the greatest attention to agriculture,

* Tacitus Ann., VI, 41, states that the Roman census was enforced on
dependent princes. Livy, Zpit., lib. 137, states that census taking often
led to disturbances.

o 2

202 LIEUT.-COLONEL G. MACKINLAY, THE DATE

as their supplies of corn and wine must have fallen very low,
because there had been practically no harvest or vintage in
the previous year. When all the fruits of the earth had been
safely gathered in, the Feast of Tabernacles 8 B.c. must have
been a specially joyous season, and therefore specially suited
to Herod’s purpose. It is not at ali likely therefore that he
would have delayed the census to a later year.

In reviewing these reasons for supposing that the census and
consequently the Nativity was at the Feast of Tabernacles,
Sir W. M. Ramsay* states: “This seems highly probable, and
may even, I think, be regarded as approximating to certainty.”

This opinion should give great force to the same conclusion
for the date 8 B.c. drawn from the next line of investigation,
which has been undertaken since Sir William wrote the words
just quoted.

(7) The Nativity was in the autumn of 8 B.C., because
Zacharias was of the order of Abyah.

The connection vetween these two events may not be at
once apparent, but it 1s most interesting. There were twenty-
four courses of priests (1 Chron. xxiv, 1-19). Each course
served for a week (see 2 Chron. xxi, 4, 8; 2 Kings xi, 5;
1 Chron. ix, 24, 25). We learn from Jewish recordst that the
first course, that of Jehoiarib, had just again begun their tour
of service on the Sabbath day, the ninth of the fifth month, Ab.,
or 4th August, 4.D. 70, when the Temple of Jerusalem was
burnt by the soldiers of Titus. There is no reason to suppose
that there was any break in the regularity of the sequence of
the courses in the eighty years previous to that date, because
the priests of that day were known to be most exact and
punctilious in the performance of all their observances. Hence
it is easy to calculate} when the eighth course, that of Abijah

* The Expositor, Jan., 1908, p. 18, and also Luke the Physician, 1908,
p. 243.

. + The Talmud (Taanith, p. 29, and Erachim, p. 11).

{ To find for instance when the course of Abijah began its duties in
9 B.c. proceed as follows.

The first course began, we are told, on 4th Aug., A.p. 70, therefore the
eighth course should have begun after 7 x 7 or 49 days later, z.e., on the
22nd Sept., a.p. 70.

There are 78 years between 22nd Sept., 9 B.c.,and 22nd Sept., a.p. 70.
(It is always necessary to cast out one year in calculating from B.c. to A.D
or vice versd, as there is no year O in chronology.)

In those 78 years there are :—

78 x 365 + = 28,489 days.

OF THE NATIVITY WAS 8 B.C. 203

(1 Chron. xxiv, 10), began its duties during any of the years
which could possibly have been the one just before the
Nativity. Zacharias, the father of John the Baptist, belonged
to the course of Abijah (Luke i, 5).

Table I states the dates of the first days of the course of
Abijah during the years 10 B.c. to 7 B.c.; in other words it gives
possible dates for the vision of Zacharias in the Temple (Luke
i, 5-22).

TABLE I.

B.C. Dates for the vision of Zacharias.

10 [A] 25 February | [B] 12 August ....

9 |C] 27 January... [D] 13 July ....| [E] 28 December.
8 oe .. [F] 14 June ...., [@] 29 November.
7 ... [H] 16 May ... [I] 31 October.

Each recurrence being 29 days earlier on each succeeding year, because
365—168 x 2 = 29 days (30 days earlier when a leap year intervenes.)

After the vision Zacharias fulfilled his ministrations; and then
departed to his house, when his wife Elizabeth conceived (Luke
i, 23, 24); this would be on the seventh day from the beginning
of the course of Abijah, or from the vision.

The Annunciation took place “in the sixth month” of
Elizabeth’s pregnancy (Luke i, 26-38). In Hebrew* usage,
in one instance, this expression indicates the first day of the
month. In New Testament Greek, a like meaning is probable.
The mention of the sixth month in Luke 1, 26, just after the
record of the completion of five months, supports this supposition.

(An extra day being added on every fourth (leap) year.)

The whole of one cycle of the twenty-four courses lasted for 24 x 7 =
168 days. ;

If we divide the 28,489 days by 168 days we get a result of 169 com-
plete repetitions of the cburses with a remainder of 97 days.

If we had subtracted 97 from the 28,489 before the division by 168,
we should, of course, have obtained a result without remainder. If there-
fore we subtract 97 days from the interval of 78 years taking it off the
earlier end, z.e., counting from 22nd Sept., 9 B.c., we reach a date 28th Dec.,
9 B.c., Which must also have been a first day of a course of Abijah.
Another first of Abijah was 168 days earlier, on the 13th July, 9 B.c.
Hence all the other dates in Table I are readily found.

* The Portable Commentary on Exodus «iz, 1, p. 48. Rev. R.
Jamieson, D.D.

204 LIEUT.-COLONEL G. MACKINLAY, THE DATE

For the sake of definiteness and simplicity we shall assume
for the present that this is the meaning. Consequently the
Annunciation took place 7 + 29§ x 5 = 1543 days, say 154
days after the first day of the course of Abijah when Zacharias
had his vision. Hence we obtain Table II (in which the
capital letters within square brackets refer to the same
markings, in Table I: thus [D], 14th December, of Table II,
is 154 days later than [D], 13th July, of Table 1).

The dates for John’s birth, Table III, depend upon the dates in
Table I. The birth must have been exactly, or about 41 weeks
or 287 days after the vision to Zacharias. Thus [D], 26 April,
8 B.c., of Table III, is 287 days later than [D], 13 July, 9 B.c.,
of Table I.

Taste III.
B.C. Dates for the birth of John the Baptist.
10 ie ie niet eos «i {A] 9 December.
9 (By 25: Mays... = | |C] 9 November.
8 [D] 26 April nso eal [8] 1 October.
a [F] 28 March is | [G@] 12 September.
6 |] 27 Pebraary —... | [L] 14 August.

The dates for the Nativity, Table IV, depend upon the dates
in Table II. The Nativity must have been exactly, or about
40 weeks or 280 days after the Annunication. Thus [D],
20th September, 8 B.c., of Table LV, is 280 days later than [D],
14th December, 9 B.c., of Table II.

——_—_ es

OF THE NATIVITY WAS 8 B.C. 205

TABLE LY:

Dates of the first |
days of the feast | B.C. Dates for the Nativity.
of Tabernacles. |

1 October ... od 9 | [A] 4 May a |B] 19 October.
20 September _....| 8 [Cc] 5 April _[D] 20September.
8 or 9 October 7 {E] 7 March [F] 22 August.
28 September 6 [G] 6 February... Lt] 24 July.

Inspection of Table IV informs us, that if the Nativity
occurred at a Feast of Tabernacles—as Sir William Ramsay
thinks may be regarded as approximating to certainty—then
the year of the Nativity must have been 8 B.c.; because in
none of the other years which are at all possible historically
did the Feast of Tabernacles agree with the time for the
Nativity, indicated by considerations connected with the date
of the course of Abijah.

Remembering the difference of 29 (or 30) days in suc-
ceeding years, it is easy to see that, if Table IV had been
extended two or three years more in both directions, the
Nativity could not have occurred at a Feast of Tabernacles in
any of the added years.

Tt is not claimed that this method above establishes exactly
the day, 20th September, 8 B.c., for the Nativity, but it
includes that day within narrow limits. It must be remem-
bered that it is seldom possible to be certain which of two days
was chosen for a new moon.

Had we taken the expression “in the sixth month” (Luke
i, 26) to mean any day in that month, we see from Table IV
that [D] would be extended for a month from the 20th
September, 8 B.c., which would of course contain the whole
Feast of Tabernacles. But if a month is added to all the
other dates in Table IV none of them will contain any part of
the Feast.

In other words, no date but 8 B.c. is possible for the Nativity
(assuming that it must have been at the Feast of Tabernacles),
even if we attach the ordinary meaning given to Luke i, 26,
that any part of the month may be intended.

But we have previously found, see headings (), (1) and (2) (p. 5),
that the Nativity was on or about the first day of the Feast of
Tabernacles, 20th September, 8 B.c. Working backwards 280

206 LIEUT.-COLONEL G. MACKINLAY, THE DATE

days we reach the 14th December, 9 B.c., for the Annunciation.
We notice that this agrees with Table II, in which the assumption
was made that the Annunciation was at the very beginning of
the sixth month of Elizabeth’s pregnancy. We thus demonstrate,
independently of any grammatical considerations, that the ex-
pression, “in the sixth month” (Luke i, 26), referred to the
first day of that month.

Summarising our results by looking for [DJ], in each table we
obtain :—

ABIES

Summary of Dates.

Events. Exactly or nearly.

Vision of Zacharias _....| 13 July, 9 B.c. A week before the new moon
of the fifth month, Ab.

Annunciation... ...| 14 December, 9 B.c. New moon of the tenth
month, Tebel.

Birth of John... ...| 26 April, 8 B.c. Full moon of second month,
Zif or Jiar.

Nativity soy ....| 20 September, 8 B.c. Full moon of seventh
month, Tisri.

Inspection of an astronomical table of new moons informs us
that there was a (Jewish) new moon on 20th July, 9 B.c., when
Zacharias went to his house after his week of service; this was
at the beginning of the fifth month, Ab.; the months of
Elizabeth’s pregnancy thus commenced with the new moons,
and it must have been very easy to note when the sixth month
began, viz., at the new moon of the tenth month, Tebel, which
was therefore the time of the Annunciation. We must
remember that with the Jewish calendar of lunar months and
no printed almanacs, the phases of the moon were caretully
noted by every one in recording the flight of time. It follows
naturally that both John the Baptist and Christ must each have
been born just about the time of a full moon, for 40 weeks, or
280 days, are almost exactly the same as 94 lunar months, which
equal 94 x 293= 2803 days. John was born at the full moon of
the second month, when the Passover had sometimes been kept
(Numbers ix, 10, 11; 2 Chron. xxx, 2,15), and Christ was born
at the full moon of the seventh month, which always indicated
the Feast of Tabernacles (Lev. xxiii, 3+).

OF THE NATIVITY WAS 8 B.C. 207

This method of investigation* has been partially followed by
Lewinf, who accepts the tacts that the twenty-four courses each
served for one week and that a first course began on the
4th August, A.D. 70. He assumes, however (from other con-
siderations), that the Nativity was in the year 6 Be. He
adduces no reason for concluding that the Nativity was at a
Feast of Tabernacles ; and he evidently does not consider that
the expression “in the sixth month” (Luke i, 26) means the
first day of that month. Because although his calculations for
the first day of the course of Abijah is the same as that in [H],
Table I, viz., 16th May, 7 B.c., he, nevertheless, makes the
Annunciation to be in November (giving no nearer approxi-
mation) instead of 17th October, 7 B.c., vide [H], Table II ; and
he makes the Nativity to have been in August (he does specify
the day) instead of 24th July, 6 B.c., vide [H], Table IV.

But if we accept the strong reasons which we _ have
previously considered, that the Nativity must have been at a
Feast of Tabernacles, we must conclude that Lewin’s own
calculations negative the supposition that 6 B.c. could have
been the year of the Birth of Christ, because we see from
Table IV that the Feast of Tabernacles in that year did not
begin until the 28th September, which is a month later than
any possible day for the Nativity according to his calculations.

The only possible objection to so early a date as 8 Bc. for
the Nativity is the fact that Christ must have been thirty-two
years of age when He began His Ministry, on the assumption,
now generally accepted, that the Crucifixion took place at
Passover, A.D. 29, and also that His Ministry lasted for three
years and a half. The Evangelist (Luke iii, 23) states that
Christ was then “about thirty years of age.” Commenting on
this passage Dean Alfordt wrote, “this admits of considerable
latitude, but only in one direction, viz., over thirty years.” An
age between thirty and thirty-one cannot be intended, because
Christ, as we have seen, was almost certainly born at a Feast of
Tabernacles, yet when He visited the Temple at the Passover in
His boyhood, the same Evangelist (Luke ii, 41-42) describes Him
as “twelve years old,” not about twelve years old. Consequently

* In the Phenix, a collection of MSS. and printed tracts, 1707 (quoted
in The Christian Armoury, Dec., 1903), the author endeavoured to find the
time of year of the Nativity by this means. But he assumed that the
first course of priests always began on the first day of the month Nisan,
and he was evidently unaware that each course only served for a week.

+t Fasti Sacri, p. 109. See also Ordo Seculorum, p.33. Rev. H. Browne.

t The New Testament for English Readers on Luke iii, 23.

208 LIEUT.-COLONEL G. MACKINLAY, THE DATE

the expression “about thirty” must mean an age some few
years not months more than thirty.

The historical data available for determining the date of the
Nativity are thus seen to be by no means scanty. There is
considerable direct historical evidence, both Biblical and secular ;
the rulers of the day, Cesar Augustus, Quirinius, Herod, and
Archelaus, are all referred to in the sacred narrative, as was
usual in ancient historical records. Various cycles or regularly
recurring periods lend their aid: they are (1) The cycle of
lunar eclipses, as one of them gives certitude to the date of
Herod’s death, which in its turn gives a limit to the possible
date of the Nativity. (2) The cycle of Roman Enrolments every
fourteen years. (3) The eight years’ cycle of the shining of the
Morning Star, as will be mentioned later on. (4) The seven
years’ cycle of the Sabbath year. (5) The annual cycle of the
seasons which indicated times suitable and unsuitable for the cen-
sus. (6) The annual cycle of the three great Feasts of the Lord,
chiefly that of Tabernacles. (7) The woman’s calendar of
- forty weeks. (8) The priests’ courses of twenty-four weeks.
(9) The forty days of the Purification. (10) The monthly cycle
of the moon’s phases is several times employed. (11) The
week of seven days indicates the duration of each course of the
priests ; and (12) The daily cycle of day and night is made use
of, for we are told that the Nativity occurred at night (Luke
ii, 8, 11). Also we are helped in our search by considering
(1) The difference of five months between the ages of the
Baptist and his Master ; (2) The customs of the people; (3) The
policy of Herod; (4) The condition of the Virgin Mary on
her journey to Bethlehem; (5) The arrangement of sheep at
different seasons of the year ; and (6) The meaning of one or
two Greek grammatical expressions—all conspire to indicate
8 B.c. as the year of the Nativity. What other historical event
in ancient, or even in modern history, is dated by such a
quantity and variety of concordant evidence ?

The foregoing arguments have not yet been controverted. No
one has, however, criticised this chronology in any detail, with
the exception of Sir W. M. Ramsay, who generously wrote in
1907 that the evidence in favour of the date 6 B.c. for the
Nativity, which until then had generally been accepted as
probable, “is distinctly slighter in character than that which
supports the date 8 B.c.” In 1908 he wrote again,* “This date
8 B.C. may now be accepted provisionally (for the Nativity) as

* The Expositor, Dec., 1908, and Luke the Physician, 1908, p. 246.

OF THE NATIVITY WAS 8 B.C. 209

the only one which has all the evidence in its favour.” Since
he wrote these last words the line of investigation connected
with the course of Abijah has been added. This strongly
confirins the autumn of 8 B.c. and most probably the initial day
of the Feast of Tabernacles as the date of the Nativity.

It is not unlikely that other lines of investigation may be
found by other seekers to attest this date for the Nativity: on
the other hand, it is possible that flaws may be found in some
of the deductions in the preceding pages. At any rate it is
hoped that this article may help to direct general attention to
this subject now that so much data is at our disposal.

If this date is received as true, the reader of the Scriptures
may perhaps find a practically fresh system of Bible study
opening before him; because it will establish the trustworthiness
of other methods by which the dates 8 B.c. for the Nativity and
A.D. 29 for the Crucifixion were found without the aid of
historical data other than those of a most general kind to which
all agree.

The new methods depend upon a sound principle laid down
long ago by Sir Isaac Newton that our Lord constantly alluded
to things actually present in His teaching.

There are (it is believed) several allusions in the gospels to
the actual periods of the shining of the Morning Star, during
the time of Christ’s life on earth; these cyclical periods are
readily known from ordinary astronomical calculations, hence
various gospel events can be dated, chief among them being the
Nativity and the Crucifixion. There are also many allusions in
the gospels to contemporary events connected with the Sabbath
years A.D. 26-27, and one or two to the Sabbath year 10-9 B.c.,
heuce another independent chronology is obtained.

These new methods both indicated 8 B.c. for the Nativity and
A.D. 29 for the Crucifixion. Although this latter date agrees
with that which is now generally thought to be probable, the
date 8 B.c, found by the new methods for the Nativity was a
good deal earlier than the date 6 8.c., which, until lately, had
found most general acceptance. At first considerable disappoint-
ment was felt, and endeavours were made to see if the new
methods would give results in accord with general opinion, but
this they refused to do. Canon Sanday was then asked if any
known historical data gave a positive denial to this early date.
He most kindly replied, that he did not know of any, but he
wrote that there are two historical points in favour of the date
8 B.c.:“(1) That it would probably suit the cycles of census

210 LIEUT.-COLONEL G. MACKINLAY, THE DATE

taking; (2) That it would bring the Nativity distinctly under
Sentius Saturninus, which would agree with the express statement
of Tertullian.” Search was then made, with the result that all
historical data were found to be in favour of 8 B.c.

It is thus hoped that attention may be directed to the new
methods by which this date for the Nativity was first determined.
If these methods are found to be reliable after further testing,
they may perhaps be applied to the solution of other Biblical
problems in the future.

If the date 8 B.c. is accepted for the Nativity, the concurrence
of the evidence which is now found to point to only one date
clears away any doubts which have in the past been cast upon
the historical accuracy of St. Luke, and thus incidentally in |
our investigations we have the truthfulness of the sacred record
brought before us in a marked manner—a very important point.

Rationalists and destructive critics are busy with careful
study and thought; let the believer in the authority of the Bible
search with reverent diligence, and he will find that truth and
order, beauty and life will clothe even the dry bones of Scripture
Chronology, and they will rise up a great army to contend for
the truth of the word of God.

NOTE.

It is impossible within the limits of a paper for the Victoria Institute
to enter into all the historical points connected with the Nativity. They
are considered more fully in the author’s book, The Magi, how they
recognised Christ's Star, which also tinds the chief gospel dates by the new
methods.

DISCUSSION.

The CHAIRMAN felt sure that he expressed the unanimous feeling
of the Meeting in saying that an extremely interesting statement
had been put before them. Colonel Mackinlay had already shown
himself as the astronomer of the Bible in his book The Magi, how they
recognised Christ’s Star, and he was now going on to be the chronologer.

One point was brought out quite clearly—that Christmas was at
an entirely mistaken period of the year. They held that festival
in the middle of winter, whereas the Nativity must have been
at a time when the shepherds were tending their flocks in the field.

OF THE NATIVITY was 8 B.c. PALA

He could state from his own experience that the tableland of
Bethlehem was exceedingly cold. When the party with which he
was connected was coming back from an exploration of Palestine
and Mount Sinai, they were at Jerusalem in the early days of
January, and snow covered the whole country to a depth of two
feet. They noted these things and wondered why Christmas, the
commemoration of the birth of Christ, was placed at mid-winter.
It was an anomaly that should be cleared up and the whole calendar
should be revised.

Mr. J. TOWNSEND TRENCH observed that in the paper which had
just been read to the members of the Victoria Institute, in support
of the year 8 B.c. being the year of the Nativity of our Lord,
reference had been made to the dates of two other important events,
which are inevitably involved in judging the date of the Nativity,
‘namely, the date of the commencement of our Lord’s Ministry, and
the date of the Crucifixion.

The dates propounded in the paper referred to are as follows :—

(1) “The Nativity” (of Christ) ‘was in the autumn of 8 B.c.”
(page 202)—probably ‘20th September, in 8 B.c.” (page
201)—and again “it is not claimed that this method above
establishes exactly the day, 20th September, 8 B.c., for
the Nativity, but it includes that day within narrow
limits” (page 205).

(2) “Christ must have been 32 years of age when He
began His Ministry, on the assumption now generally
accepted, that the Crucifixion took place at the Passover,
A.D. 29, and also that His Ministry lasted three years and
a half” (page 207).

‘The historical data available for determining the date of the
Nativity are thus seen to be no means scanty.”

(3) “Tf this date (for the Nativity) is received as true, the
reader of the Scriptures may perhaps find a practically
fresh system of Bible study opening before him, because it
will establish the trustworthiness of other methods by
which the dates 8 B.c. for the Nativity, and A.D. 29 for
the Crucifixion, were found without the aid of historical
data other than those of a most general kind to which all
agree” (page 209), and further, ‘these new methods both

212 LIEUT.-COLONEL G. MACKINUAY, THE DATE

indicated 8 B.c. for the Nativity and A.D. 29 for the
Crucifixion.”

Thus they found that the author of the paper read, regarded those
three important dates as being more or less linked together in the
chain of evidence presented, and in the “ practically fresh system of
Bible study ” which he advocated, of which he said (at page 209 of
the paper) that ‘these new methods both indicated 8 B.c. for the
Nativity and A.D. 29 for the Crucifixion.”

He felt bound to draw the attention of the meeting to a prophecy
m Daniel ix, 25, wherein is distinctly set forth and foretold the
precise year of Christ’s public entry into Jerusalem as her Prince or
King, and of His almost immediately subsequent Crucifixion.

The language of the prophecy is perfectly simple. It fixes a
certain starting point, then it gives the precise duration of time
which is to elapse from the aforesaid starting point up to “ Messiah
the Prince.”

The prophecy (Daniel ix, 25) runs thus :—“ From the going forth
of the command to restore and build Jerusalem ” (street and wall)
“unto Messiah the Prince, shall be seven weeks and three score and
two weeks”; or rather, 7 sevens and 62 sevens, that is, 69 sevens,
that is, 483 prophetic or Babylonian years.

The Word of God in the Book of Daniel leaves no doubt whatever
as to the precise length of the prophetic year.

Of course, to institute a comparison of that prophecy with the
records of secular history, the first step was to convert those 483
prophetic years into historic or solar years, and they found that 483
prophetic years of 360 days each, were equivalent to 476 historic or
solar years of 3654 days.

The starting point of the count they found in Nehemiah u, 1-6,
the commission to Nehemiah having been issued 445 B.c., which, in
counting the years elapsing to the Cross, must be read as 444 B.C.,
so as to avoid counting A.D. twice.

There is therefore only one year in the history of the universe
when Daniel’s prophecy could have been fulfilled.

Namely <c .. BC. 444
To which add Ss. “AD. 2
476 years.

And this gave with unfailing certainty the year date of the Crucifixion

OF THE NATIVITY WAS 8 B.C. Pad rss

as A.D. 32, that having been the time God appointed for the
Crucifixion, as spoken by His servant Daniel.

He wished before he sat down, to draw their attention to Sir
Robert Anderson’s book (eighth edition) called The Coming Prince.
Therein they would find the calculation set forth in full. (See pages
121 to 129.)

One thing was certain, and that was that in this case they were
dealing with fulfilled prophecy, which could therefore be tested by
history, and no date which would not fit, and fall in precisely with
rod’s predicted date, could by any human possibility be the true date of
the Crucifixion, and he had shown by quotations from the paper
read, that it would be rather too late to affirm that this did not in
any way affect the date of the Nativity or the date of the beginning
of Christ’s Ministry.

Sir RopertT ANDERSON said that he had been much interested
by his friend Colonel Mackinlay’s paper, but could not accept his
conclusions. At the Bar, and more recently in a position where he
had to deal still more closely with evidence, he often found proof
_ that it was easy to make out a clear case in support of a false issue
if some salient fact were left out. And Colonel Mackinlay had
left out the fact recorded in Luke i that our Lord’s Ministry
began in the fifteenth year of Tiberius. Sir W. M. Ramsay, whom he
had freely quoted, began life under the influence of the Tiibingen
school of criticism, and was thus led to give up the New Testament.
But in the course of exploration work in Asia Minor he discovered that
the Acts of the Apostles was the most accurate of ancient histories,
and he was thus led to write a book in defence of the Gospel of Luke.
Now even if that Gospel were treated merely as history the fact
remained that the chronological statement of the 3rd chapter is
one of the most definite in history, sacred or profane. It specifies
the fifteenth year of Tiberius, and names seven different personages
as holding certain specified offices in that year; and each of them in
fact held the post assigned to him in the year in question. He was
well aware of the nightmare system of exegesis, by which Scripture
was always made to mean something different from what it says.
But he had no patience with it. They were told that the fifteenth
year meant really the twelfth year of his reign. But no historical
statement, no coin, had ever been found in which the reign of Tiberius
was reckoned in any but one way, and to suppose that the

214 LIEUT.-COLONEL G. MACKINLAY, THE DATE

Evangelist, writing for Romans, would discredit his work by such a
fanciful conceit was, in his humble judgment, sheer nonsense.

The fact remains then that while Scripture had nowhere given the
date of the Nativity it had fixed with absolute accuracy the year
A.D. 29 as that in which the Lord entered on His public Ministry ;
and thus, assuming that the Ministry lasted three and a half years,
they could with certainty fix A.D. 32 as the date of the Crucifixion.
This being so the question they were discussing there was purely
academic, and it must be made subordinate to this definite and
salient fact. If he began to discuss in detail the points raised by
the paper, they would all lose their dinner. Moreover he had dealt
with them exhaustively in his book which Mr. Trench had cited in
such flattering terms. He could not conclude without expressing
his surprise that a discussion of the date upon the Nativity
should ignore the labours of the greatest of our chronologers,
Fynes Clinton, whose dictum is definite :—‘ The earliest possible
date for the Nativity is the autumn of 6 B.c., eighteen months
before the death of Herod in 4 B.c. The latest will be the autumn
of 4 B.C., about six months before his death, assumed to be in
spring 3 B.C.”

Professor LANGHORNE ORCHARD pointed out that not all the
arguments brought forward in the paper might be thought con-
vincing. Certainly, they were not all of equal strength. But
while it was true (as had been remarked) that the strength of a
chain was only that of its weakest link, it should be remembered
that the author’s reasoning consisted of several chains of argument,
and the weakness of a single chain might not impair the strength
of others.

The strongest arguments were those furnished by the cycles of
Roman census-taking, the contemporaneous rule in Syria of
Quirinius and Saturninus, the lunar eclipse which gives certitude
to the date of Herod’s death, and the strong probability that the
enrolment took place at the time of the Feast of Tabernacles. By
these arguments, the author had made out a case not indeed of
demonstration, but of considerable probability. The date 8 B.c.
must be held to succeed as against 6 B.c. With regard, however,
to the Crucifixion year, whether A.D. 29 be, or be not, the correct
date, they would do well, in face of the criticisms of Mr. ‘Townsend
Trench and Sir Robert Anderson, to suspend judgment.

OF THE NATIVITY WAS 8 B.C. Pale,

Canon GIRDLESTONE thought that the discussion had gone away
from the real point, the date of our Lord’s birth. Colonel
Mackinlay laid no stress on A.D. 29 as the date of the Crucifixion.
If his views were correct, then our Lord was on earth four more
years than was usually supposed. The words about 30 years of
age would then mean at least 34 years of age. This was a difficult
point.

With regard to the date being about the Feast of Tabernacles,
there was one little thing in favour of it, namely, that in the first
chapter of St. John’s Gospel, where they read that “the word was
made flesh and dwelt among us,” the word “dwelt” was literally
“‘tabernacled” among us. This being the word, it seemed to fit in
with the suggestion that He was born during the Feast of Tabernacles.

Lieut.-Colonel MACKINLAY.—Before replying to those who have
spoken this afternoon, I should like to read a letter from Professor
Burkitt, Norrisian Professor of Divinity, Cambridge. He writes:
““My general opinions about the data in St. Luke that fix the year
of the Nativity agree with what Professor Percy Gardner has
written in Encycl. Biblica 3994 ff. (Art. Quirinius). I feel sure in
my own mind that the evangelist’s authority for introducing the
name ‘ Cyrenius’ was a misunderstanding of Josephus, Ant. xviii, 1.

“T also feel inclined to suspect the accuracy of the information
about the course of Jehoiarib given in Yaanith, but that is a matter
that would need much further inquiry into the general accuracy of
anecdotal (as distinct from customary) details in the Talmud,
especially those which refer to the state of things before the
destruction of the Temple.

“My scepticism, you will see, is not confined to what I find in
the Bible.

‘What you say about the time of year is very plausible, assuming
the correctness of our authorities. But you will see from Professor
Gardner’s article that we differ too much in principle from you and
from Sir William Ramsay to make discussion of details likely to be
profitable.”

Let us consider Professor Gardner’s article in the Hneycl. Biblica.
He there states: “It is, however, pointed out that in a Roman
census, every man reported at his place of residence ; no instance is
known to us in antiquity in which the citizens of a country migrated

to the ancestral home of the family in order to be enrolled.”
P

216 LIEUT.-COLONEL G. MACKINLAY, THE DATE

It is true that all were ignorant of any such instance (except in
St. Luke’s Gospel) when these words were published in 1903, but
since that time Messrs. Kenyon and Bell have found an example of
persons ordered to the ancestral home in order to be enrolled, as
quoted on p. 200 of this afternoon’s paper.

We thus see that Professor Gardner’s theory of the historical
untrustworthiness of St. Luke is supported on precarious negative
evidence, which has since been destroyed by recent discovery, and
yet Professor Burkitt still approves of Professor Gardner’s deductions
of six years ago!

Canon Girdlestone states and a gentleman writes, that if the
Nativity were 8 B.c. and the Crucifixion A.D. 29 that Christ would
have been about thirty-four years of age when He began His Ministry.
It must be remembered, however, that there is no year 0 in chron-
ology; A.D. 1 follows immediately after 1 B.c. Consequently, from
autumn | B.C. to autumn A.D. 1 is only one year—not two years.
It is easily seen, therefore, that if Christ were born in the autumn
8 B.c., and began His three-and-a-half-years’ ministry in autumn
A.D. 25, that He must then have been just thirty-two years, not
thirty-four years of age. The same considerations apply to the
remark of another correspondent, that if Christ were born 8 B.c. and
died A.D. 29 He must have suffered at the age of thirty-seven. His
age under our supposition was then only thirty-five-and-a-half years,
as He was born in autumn and died in the spring.

Colonel Conder writes that Josephus dates the beginning of
Herod’s reign of thirty-seven years from his capture of Jerusalem,
which was 37 B.C., because that historian states that the battle of
Actium took place in the seventh year of his reign; this date is
known’ to have been 2nd September, 31 B.c. There was a total
eclipse of the moon on the 9th January, 1 B.C., visible at Jerusalem,
whereas that of 13th March, 4 B.c., on which Whiston (whom all
later writers have followed) relied, was only a small partial eclipse.
Colonel Conder thinks that Herod died in the early spring of the
year after this total eclipse, viz., in A.D. 1, at which time of year he
states that fine weather often prevails on the Judzan mountains,
rendering travel possible. He does not think that the action of
the shepherds indicated hot weather, because sheep are kept in
caves in Palestine, chiefly in winter. He believes that Dionysius
Exiguus was more correct than modern chronologists who adopt

OF THE NATIVITY WAS 8 B.c. 217

Whiston’s view, and he draws attention to the fact that Clement of
Alexandria (¢. A.D. 180) believed the Nativity to have occurred in
the 28th Augustus, or A.D. 1.

He thinks an erroneous gloss, “This taxing was first made
when Cyrenius was governor of Syria,” Luke u, 2, has crept into
the text.

I would urge in reply that the words referred to in Luke ii, 2,
occurs in all the oldest MSS. There is absolutely no textual reason
to suppose that it is a gloss which has crept into the text. Colonel
Conder states in his book, The City of Jerusalem, that Herod was
recognised as King by Augustus in 40 B.c. Practically all modern
chronologists agree that the eclipse of 4 B.c., not that of 1 B.C., was
the one which shortly preceded Herod’s death. Although February
is often fine in Palestine, the weather in that month could hardly
be sufficiently reliable to enable large numbers of people to trave
over the mountains. If the Nativity took place in February, the
death of Herod must have been some months later, hardly before
the middle of the year, because he ordered the destruction of all
infants of two years old and under, and from this fact we must
judge that the king considered that the Nativity had taken place
several months previously.

Luke i, 1, 2, tells us that John began his ministry in the
fifteenth year at Tiberius ; no estimate places this later than A.D. 29.
If Christ were born A.D. 1 He could therefore hardly have been
much more than twenty-eight years of age when John began to
preach, and barely twenty-nine years old when He Himself began
His Ministry, and yet Luke iii, 23, assures as that He was then
about thirty years of age. Dean Alford tells us this means more
not Jess than thirty years of age.

In reply to our chairman it is generally allowed that our
Christmas day was adopted in place of a heathen festival connected
with the old Sun worship at the winter solstice.

My thanks are due to Canon Girdlestone for pointing out that
the subject of the papers is the accuracy of the date 8 B.c. for the
Nativity, not that of A.D. 29 for the Crucifixion. The date of this
latter event is only referred to incidentally, and even if it differs
from A.D. 29 by a very few years, the date 8 B.c. may still be
supported by it, because Dean Alford tells us that the expression

“about thirty years of age” admits of considerable latitude.
P2

218 LIEUT.-COLONEL G. MACKINLAY, THE DATE

I grant, however, that if a date of say A.D. 33 or later could be
proved to be the true date of the Crucifixion that Luke iii, 2, 3,
would not support the early date claimed in this paper for the
Nativity. In reply to Mr. Townsend Trench and Sir Robert
Anderson that the fourteenth year of Tiberius can only indicate
A.D. 29, I affirm that a very large number of eminent chronologists
are of opinion that it indicates an earlier date, because it was no
uncommon plan to date from a time of jount rule before the
Emperor reigned alone. I quite agree with Sir Robert Anderson
that the Ministry of our Lord lasted for three-and-a-half years ;
there are many good reasons in favour of this assumption. But if
this be so, it is impossible that Christ’s Ministry began A.D. 29 and
also that the Crucifixion was A.D. 32.

For if A.D. 29 is fixed “with absolute accuracy ” as the date of
the beginning of Christ’s Ministry, we are conducted, after three-
and-a-half years, to some time affer midsummer A.D. 32. As the
Crucifixion was certainly at early springtime, it must consequently
have been in the next year, viz., A.D. 33.

If on the other hand A.D. 32 is taken ‘‘ with certainty ” to be the
date of the Crucifixion, the Ministry must have begun three-and-a-
half years before the spring of that year, or in the autumn of
A.D. 28 not A.D. 29. Sir Robert Anderson’s assumptions therefore
hardly seem to be consistent with each other. Elsewhere I have
advocated the widely received date A.D. 29 for the Crucifixion, and
Iam prepared to discuss it, if desired, but the present occasion
hardly seems syitable to enter into that subject.

Sir Robert Anderson lays stress on the definite dictum of Fynes
Clinton that the earliest possible date for the Nativity is the
autumn of 6 B.c.—but this eminent chronologer of a bygone day
was ignorant of the evidence which has since become available
through recent archeological research ; the chief perhaps being the
knowledge which we now possess of the regularly recurring enrol-
ments throughout the Roman Empire every fourteen years. The
actual dates of many of these enrolments are recorded on existing
documents which have been discovered during recent years.

I quite agree with Canon Girdlestone in considering that the
words in John i, 14, ‘‘The Word became flesh and tabernacled
among us,” support the suggestion that Christ was born at a feast
of Tabernacles. But I had purposely avoided any typical or

OF THE NATIVITY WAS 8 B.C. 219

spiritual allusions, and I had confined myseli, for the sake of sim-
plicity, to ordinary historical considerations. The Rev. J. Tuckwell
and also Major-General Owen Hay suggest that people would
scatter in going to their old homes in order to enrol: this might
interfere with their assembling together at the feast of Tabernacles
at Jerusalem. To this it is replied, Palestine is a small country ; so
small that any Jew could easily be present at his own town on the
first day of the Feast, and also be present at the Temple at
Jerusalem long before the close of the eight days of the feast.
The Rey. Harrington Lees, M.A., also writes drawing attention to
the fact that the northern Israelites at this period of the Nativity
were of the fwo tribes not of the fen.* Consequently after enrol-
ment all would be near Jerusalem because the districts apportioned
to Judah and Benjamin were surrounding that city.

On one occasion the Lord Jesus went up to Jerusalem at the
middle of the Feast of Tabernacles (John vii, 3, 8, 9, 10, 14). So
others could have done the same in 8 B.c. after enrolment in their
- old homes.

Although it is now a year anda half since the majority of the
arguments in favour of 8 B.c. have been published, no link in the
evidence has yet been shown to be unreliable; on the contrary
the fresh line of investigation connected with the courses of the
priests has added further confirmation.

It naturally takes time to gain general acceptance for a date
which has until now been in doubt: most people cautiously wait:
to see if any crushing argument can be brought against it. But
the claims of this date are already attracting attention ; for instance,
the Rev. Canon Sanday, Oxford, writes, “I am at present working
at other parts of the problem raised by the life of Our Lord; they
are quite distant parts, and I am afraid it would involve a
digression of a good many hours to form a deliberate opinion on
the data which you lay before us so clearly. [Iam quite conscious
that I must do so sooner or later.” Other scholars besides
Sir W. M. Ramsay have already pronounced a distinctly favourable
judgment. Professor Flinders Petrie writes, “ Many thanks for your
paper, which seems very satisfactory.” The Rey. T. Nichol, D.D.,

* Luke the Physician, p. 244, Sir W. M. Ramsay.

220 LIEUT.-COLONEL G. MACKINLAY, THE DATE OF THE NATIVITY.
Professor of Biblical Criticism, University of Aberdeen, writes,
“Taking your arguments as a whole, the convergence of so many
lines of evidence is remarkable, and gives a high measure of
probability to your conclusions,” and the Rev. Chancellor Lias adds :
“T think there can be little doubt that you have hit upon the true
time of the Saviour’s Birth.”

It is therefore hoped that this subject will be further discussed
in the future, because its investigation demonstrates the historic
accuracy of the Gospels.

221

498ta ORDINARY MEETING.

MONDAY, MAY 17H, 1909,

PrRoFEssor H. LANGHORNE ORCHARD, M.A., B.Sc., IN THE CHAIR.

The Minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed.

The following paper was then read by the author :—

AOA Ve
By The Very Rev. H. Wack, D.D., Dean of Canterbury.

T will hardly, I think, be questioned that the subject of
Authority, on which I am venturing to offer a few
observations, is one of urgent practical importance at the
present time. An indisposition to defer to authority is a
conspicuous feature of life at the present day. The family hfe,
the authority of parents-—to modify a well-known phrase—has
diminished, is diminishing, and grievously needs reinforcement.
In politics we witness the growth of movements which, if not
directly anarchical, propose to reconstitute life on bases of
equality, from which the old authoritative organization would be
excluded. Agitations, even by women, are conducted by means
which involve violent repudiation of existing rules of order.
Inthe Church, of which it has hitherto been considered a special
duty to set an example of order, and of obedience to authority, we
find clergy disregarding the directions of their ecclesiastical
superiors, and openly and avowedly repudiating any obligation
to obey the civil authority by which they and their Church
are established. Abroad, particularly in France, we see the
order of society threatened with entire subversion in the name

222 THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY.

of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. Not merely the Church,
but all supernatural sanctions whatever, are repudiated by the
French Government,and the spectacle offered by political and
social life in that country seems simply that of a struggle for
physical supremacy between various classes and interests and
the Government of the hour. Italy presents a too similar
spectacle, partly in spite of, and partly because of, the
existence’ within it of a Church which claims absolute
authority over all spheres of human life and thought. Amidst
such confusions it would seem worth while to remind ourselves
of what authority means—what is its source, and by what
methods may it best be exercised.

If we look for the source of our idea of authority, we shall,
I think, find it in the experience of our conscience. The sense
of moral obligation, that we ought to do certain things,
independently of the question what those things are, is the
fundamental fact of moral life, and a primary instinct. The
art of moral education depends upon the development and
cultivation of this instinet. A child, indeed, soon finds that it
must obey its parents because they can make it obey them;
but if its obedience were based solely on that sense of superior
force, it would acquire no sense of authority. It has been said
that the first step in the moral battle of life is gained or won
in the first conflict between the wills of mother and child. If
the mother resorts at once to force, if she drags the child, for
instance, away from the’ fire, the first battle is lost, for the
child has learned only to yield to superior force. But if, as
wise mothers know how, she can restrain the child by the
influence of her voice or look, the child has learned to obey a
moral authority and the first moral skirmish is won. The
Seriptures go straight to the heart of human hfe when they
represent our first parents as placed under a moral obligation
to obey a superior command. When that moral obligation was
disregarded, nothing remained but to enforce it by the compul-
sory obligation of physical consequences, and that is the cardinal
reality of human life to the present day. Disregard or dispar-
age moral authority, and sooner or later you have, for the time,
to resort to physical compulsion in the general interests of
society, until you can work slowly backwards, as God has been
doing throughout human history, to the re-establishment of
moral supremacy.

But if our conscience thus affords the experience from which
we derive the idea of authority, we may be led by means of it
to recognize the ultimate source of authority itself. It would

THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY. 223

oe impracticable on this occasion to pursue the full course of
reasoning which justifies the conviction, expressed thousands of
years ago in the 139th Psalm, that the voice of conscience is
the voice of a personal God, a God who is in direct personal
relation to us in our inmost souls, and from whose presence
we can never escape. Nothing else, as has been shown with
peculiar force by the late Dr. Martineau, will adequately
explain the features of our moral consciousness. But, as the
psalmist felt, this apprehension of God as the Lord of our
conscience, as speaking to us in tones of authoritative command,
involves the immediate recognition of Him as our Creator, and as
knowing all the secrets of our frame and of our constitution.
If this be the case, we are led to the recognition of there
being one only living authority in the world, that authority
being God Himself. Our Christian faith, indeed, establishes a
supreme authority for us in the person of our Lord Jesus
Christ. But that, as He Himself says, is because as the
Son of God, and authorized by His Father, He exercises
His Father’s authority. As St. Paul describes the constitution
and course of the world, “Then cometh the end, when
he shall have delivered up the Kingdom to God, even
the Father, when he shall have put down all rule and all
authority and power. . . . And when all things shall
be subdued unto Him, then shall the Son also Himself be
subject unto Him that put all things under Him, that God may
be all in all.”

Thus the authority of our Christian Faith rests on the
personal authority of Jesus Christ, and His authority rests on
the personal authority of God the Father, whose voice, by His
Spirit, speaks to our consciences. Our Lord accordingly treats
our acceptance of His claims as dependent on our antecedent
submission to the voice of God. “He that is of God, heareth
God’s words ; ye therefore hear them not because ye are not of
God.” The whole history of human thought and life thus
becomes a continued variation of the narrative of the third
chapter of the Book of Genesis. God is perpetually speaking to
men and they are either obeying His words, or hiding themselves
from Him, or rejecting Him. Even their purely intellectual
history is of the same nature if, as Dr. Martineau so impressively
urges, Nature is but the display of His will and His laws within
the physical sphere. When the Greek geometers developed the
laws of the conic sections, they might seem, for long afterwards,
to have been spinning purely speculative webs of little practical
import. But when Kepler ascertained that the heavenly bodies

224 THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY.

moved in ellipses, it proved that Euclid and his fellows had been
learning the Divine Geometry, and that the truths they had
discovered were the utterance of the Divine Mind. Through
Nature, God is perpetually impressing one aspect of His own
nature and will upon the human mind, and ever since the
reopening, at the Reformation, of a sense of free communion
between God and man, and the consequent encouragement of
free communion with Nature, we have been learning more, not
so much of her secrets, as of His.

It should be observed that the advance of our knowledge of the
laws of Nature affords a strong analogy to our apprehension of
God’s will on other subjects, and illustrates the nature of the
ultimate authority in the sphere of morality and religion. The
only authority respecting Nature is Nature herself. Men put
forward from time to time theories of her constitution and
hypotheses of her action, theories like the Ptolemaic system and
hypotheses like that of Darwin, and these become subjects of
acute controversy. But no controversial arguments can ever
decide the issue. Theologiaus or philosophers may dogmatize
on either side; but what settles the matter is the voice of
Nature herself, heard in further observations or experiments.
Men may, at first, misunderstand God’s voice in Nature, but
He goes on speaking, and to those who go on hstening, the mis-
understanding is sure to be removed. Only four centuries ago,
the Church was considered an authority on Nature. Sometimes
ereat schools of scientific thought have exercised a paramount
authority for a while, and have delayed advances in the inter-
pretation of Nature. But the scientific world is now, probably,
for ever emancipated from any such control, and all scientitic
thought is in the attitude of Samuel—“ Speak, Lord, for thy
servant heareth.”

But the idea still lingers in others spheres of life and thouvht
that there exists some human authority to which we can resort
for the decision of questions of thought aud action, and to which
unquestioning deference is due. There is no doubt that men
and women are constantly feeling after some such authority with
a dim instinctive craving, and it 1s their very longing for it that
too often renders them the victims of the first bold authorita-
tive voice which asserts a claim over them. This constitutes, to
a large extent, the strength of the Roman Catholic Church, and
of that section of our own Church which so nearly approaches
the Roman Church in character. In each case, the alleged
authority is that of the Church. In the case of the Romanist,
that authority is plain, visible and accessible. The Roman

THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY. 229

Church is now concentrated in the Pope, and every Bishop or
Priest represents and enforces his authority. For the section
of our own Church to which I refer, there is no such visible
and definite authority to be appealed to; but none the less the
word “ Church,” and the supposed authority of what is called
“The Church,” exercises an almost magical influence. Practices
are introduced among us, and enforced as matters of moral
obligation, on no other ground than that they have the alleged
authority of the Church. Other practices, which have seemed
-to many good men not merely convenient and harmless, but
highly conducive to the maintenance of spiritual hfe among
large and laborious classes, are not only discouraged, but vehe-
mently denounced, on no other ground than the alleged authority
of the Church. Above all, a certain system of ductrine, and a
certain tone and character of worship, are alleged to be
“Catholic,” or ina special sense characteristic of “ The Catholic
Church”; and those who do not adopt this system and these
customs are treated as defaulters to a recognized ideal. This
ideal of the Church, or of the Catholic Church, assumes an
imposing shape in the imagination, andeSocieties are formed,
and religious newspapers condueted, with the definite object of
making this ideal supreme in the English Church.

And yet there exists no reality, and since early times
there has existed none, for which this ideal authority can
be claimed. For a period, indeed, which has been limited
by the present Margaret Professor at Oxford—no harsh judge
on such matters—to about four centuries after Christ, eonclud-
ing with the year A.D. 451,* there was a suflicient unity and
continuity in the teaching, practice, and government of the
Church to render it possible to recognize that that teaching,
practice, and government had the marks of Catholicity. At the
same time, it cannot fora moment be admitted that the rites
and ceremonies then prevailing are, by reason of their Catholicity
within that period, binding upon ourselves now. Some of the
most conspicuous ceremonies then practised, alike at Baptism
and at the Lord’s Supper, are by general consent disused, and
their re-introduction would never be suggested, even by those
who are most urgent in asserting the authority of the Catholic
Chureh. Many of the early Canons are quite impracticable for

* See Dr. Sanday’s Letter in the Leport of the Fulham Conference,
1900, p. 40.

226 THE VERY REV. H. WACK, D.D., ON AUTHORI'Y.

enforcement among ourselves ; and on some important doctrines,
such as the Atonement and the Resurrection of the body, views
were put forward, even by Fathers of high authority, which no
Enghsh theologian of any school in the present day would
support. Even with respect to a peculiarly solemn document,
the Creed of Chalcedon, the Western Church has not scrupled,
without the authority of any similar council, to introduce
momentous words, by which the East has ever since been divided
from the West. If it be consistent with due reverence for the
Catholic authority of the early Church to modify its definition of
the doctrine of the Trinity, what statement or ordinance of that
Church can there be, with respect to which a similar modifica-
tion is not permissible ?

But pass beyond this period of substantial unity and
Catholicity, and where is the Church, the one visible Church,
to whose authority and voice we can appeal? In the words of
the Margaret Professor, “from the date a.D. 451 onwards the
Christian world came to be so broken up into its several parts
that the movement of the whole has practically lost its
containing unity. Although the formal separation of East and
West was delayed, the development of each was continued on
more and more divergent hnes.” Before long, the East was
actually divided from the West, and except from the point of
view of the Roman Catholics, neither can be said to be “The
Church.” They are divided parts of “the whole congregation
of Christian people dispersed throughout the whole world,” and
neither of them can claim that exclusive guidance of the Spirit
of God, which is the necessary basis for any such unquestionable
authority as is tacitly assumed. After some six more centuries
the whole congregation of Christian people suffered another
deep division; and since the Reformation, half of Christian
Europe, and not the least spiritual or least enlightened half, has
renounced communion with the other. Amidst these divided
communities of Christian men, where, except upon the theory
of the Romanist, is that Church, that special Catholic Church,
to be found, which is to be recognized as having a right to a
predominant authority over all our belief and our practice ?
Does it not seem as if, in the Providence of God, after the Church
had once begun to admit error in doctrine and practice, He had
allowed the fair unity of the primitive Church to be shattered
into fragments, expressly in order to prevent men falling into
the Roman error, and settling on some one visible community
of fallible men as their supreme authority, and so supplanting
an ideal by an idol? If, moreover, an appeal is to be made to

THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY. 227

the general authority of the Christian Church, by what right do
you cut out of the continuous life of that Church four whole
centuries, since the Reformation, of the history of some of the
most vigorous and devoted Communions which the whole history
of Christianity can snow? The English Church, in particular,
has existed in this land for thirteen centuries. By what mght
do you cut out of the experience and example of that Church
nearly one-third of its whole existence, the four hundred years
since the Reformation, and say that they shall not be taken into
account in determining what catholic practices and doctrines
are? This supposed Catholic Church, to which appeal is made
by the extreme High Churchmen of our day, is, except so far as
it can be identified with the primitive Church, a phantom of the
imagination. In the mouth of the Romanist, the appeal to the
Catholic Church has a clear and definite meaning. To adapt
Bellarmine’s words to the present day, the Romanist appeals to
a Communion and an authority which is as visible and tangible
as the Republic of France or the Kingdom of Italy. But in the
mouth of an English Churchman, an appeal to the Catholic
Church is an appeal to an authority which does not exist as a
real authority, except so far as it is an appeal to the primitive
Church; and even that Church, as we have seen, is not an
absolute authority, even in its Creeds.

The ideal, no doubt, of the Christian Church is that the whole
congregation of Christian people, dispersed throughout the
whole world, should be so united in Christian charity, as to be
able to bring their united wisdom and spiritual experience
together in council, and so to guide, under the influence of the
Spirit of God, the belief and the practice of the various local
Churches. But no such authority has existed since the time of
the primitive authority already mentioned. No General Council
can now be appealed to; and in the absence of such general
authority, each Church must exercise its own authority, on its
own responsibility. But this being the case, the authority of
my own Church is the only one that exists for me; and the
only way in which I can discharge the duty of obedience to those
who are set over me in the Lord, which is the acknow ledged
duty of every Christian man, is by dutifully submitting myself
to this authority, so long as it requires nothing of me which I
may be persuaded, on my conscience, 1s absolutely contrary to
the Law of God. The only hope for the establishment of order
in the Church at large consists in the cultivation of the habit
of obedience to the authorities immediately over us. To appeal,
from that authority, to some imaginary authority which has

228 THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY.

now no real existence, and which has had none for at least
1,400 years, is simply to shelter the spirit of disobedience under
an imaginary and fictitious ideal.

But if no such visible authority in matters of doctrine and
practice can be found in the Church, it is certain that it can be
found nowhere else, and in fact no other institution claims to
possess it. No one but the Pope claims to be infallible. We
acknowledge that even General Councils may err, and every
secular authority would admit a similar impeachment. Yet
for the practical guidance of mankind, and for the due control
of human society, it is essential that there should be recognized
standards of right and wrong, which exact a practical authority
among us. How are such standards to be established, and in
what custody are they to be maintained? ‘To find an answer
to this question we must recur to the fact that the Divine hand
and voice, which are the only ultimate authority, are to be found
in all great human organizations. That authority is to be found
in its most immediate moral action in the Church. It is to be
found also, in only less immediate, but not less direct action,
in the State; and the natural authority, which, by the universal
practice of mankind, is inherent in the governing powers of such
States, must be regarded as Divine because it is, in the best
sense, natural. It is a very remarkable fact that no State and
no government has ever yet been established with the avowed
intention of upholding wrong or immorality. The most iniquit-
ous governments in practice that have ever existed have been
obliged, by the very law of their nature, to claim to be established
on righteous principles and for righteous ends. There is thus
a universal testimony on the part of human nature that States,
no less than Churches, exist for the enforcement of Divine laws
of right and wrong, and consequently that there is an inherent
authority in their rulers. This is the principle asserted by the
inspired authority of St. Paul when he says that “there is no
power but of God; the powers that be are ordained of God
: For rulers are not a terror to good works, but to the
evil.”

That is the ideal of all secular government, and any ruling
power which fails to make this its chiet object is false to its
ereat trust. It follows that every individual who is subject to a
government, whether in Church or State, is subject to a Divinely
established authority, and is bound to live and act in a spirit of
deference to it. But, at the same time, since none ot these
authorities are infallible, occasions cannot but arise when each
may fall into error, and attempt to enforce rules of conduct which

THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY. 229

are inconsistent with true morality and religion. Moreover, the
existence of the Christian Church within modern states has
established another authority to which the individual’s deference
is still more urgently due; and cases consequently arise, and
exist among us at this moment, in which the moral rules
enforced by the Church are in direct conflict with those enforced
by the State. It is a condition very injurious to the welfare of
Society, because such a visible and practical conflict between
two great authorities tends to shake, among people in general,
the sense of the stability of moral law. Further than this,
cases have arisen in which both Church and State have agreed
in the moral and spiritual rules which they enforce, but in which
they are nevertheless wrong, and no occasion thus arise in which,
as at the time of the Reformation, individuals are obliged to
stand by their own private convictions of religious and moral
truth, and to assert the moral authority of their private
consciences, with results which are of incalculable value to the
future life of mankind.

The question, then, is—and it is a question which presses
urgently for solution at the present moment—how are such
conflicts of authority to be settled, and how are individuals to
act when they arise? In the first place, if what has been said
of the Divine nature and origin of all human authority be true,
they cannot properly be decided by assuming that one of the
conflicting authorities can claim divine sanction, and that the
other cannot, and that the latter must therefore be overriden
by the former. We may, indeed, reasonably think, as a general
principle, that the Church which is, or ought to be, in special
and constant communion with the Lord who is the source of all
law and all authority, of all morality and religion, should be
specially qualified to form a true judgment on such questions,
for example, as those of the marriage law. But history proves
conclusively that this general principle cannot be treated as an
absolute one, and that the Church as well as the State is
capable of erroneous action on such matters. In short, the
two authorities are each Divine in origin, each may claim Divine
sanction, and yet each may be in error; while the individual,
whose obedience is distracted between the two, is himself more
hable to error than either.

If so, the second rule we may lay down for our guidance in
such difficulties is that the conflicting authorities should
maintain the most scrupulous respect for one another, and
should, before taking any action in such a conflict, do their
utmost to come to an understanding on the point at issue

230 THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY.

between them. It may be permitted to an English Churchman
to think that the best example, at least in idea and intention,
in this respect, 1s exhibited by the establishment of the
relations of Church and State at the English Reformation.
The object steadily kept in view by the secular and ecclesias-
tical statesmen of that time was to maintain a complete
co-operation, almost amounting to identity, of action between
the authorities of Church and State, and thus to maintain a
permanent and universal standard for individual action. In pro-
portion as the ties between the State and the established Church
have been loosened, and the State has assumed a more and more
secular complexion, this has become increasingly difficult; but
a due regard to the good order and harmony of Society would
indicate the necessity of continuing this old English habit of
mutual consideration between Church and State as constantly
and earnestly as possible. Nothing can be more injurious to
the social peace of the community, and to the moral authority
of law, than for statesmen to legislate on questions like
marriage without regard to the existing law of the Church and
without consulting its authorities; on the other hand, ecclesias-
tics are guilty of a similar fault if they peremptorily resolve
that in whatever point the law of the State has come into
conflict with the law of the Church, it is their duty, and that
of the individuals who look to them for guidance, to enforce the
law of the Church without hesitation and with the utmost
rigour. If, in particular, the conflict arises, as at present it does,
on points on which Christian men, and even Christian Churches,
have been and are divided, it becomes a still more urgent duty
to act with moderation, and to seek some course of action
which will involve a reasonable mutual deference.

In a word, the only indefeasible authority in the world is
that of the will of God, which is manifested through various
sources, such as the Church under the guidance of the
Scriptures, the State, and the individual conscience. The
happiest condition of human society is when the first two,
the Church and State, coincide. When, unhappily, they differ,
neither of them has any absolute or Divine right to override the
other, and the individual cannot escape the responsibility of his
private conscience by an absolute submission to either. Hach
particular problem must be gradually worked out in a spirit of
patience and mutual respect; and our consolation and hope
must be found in the grand fact which underlies all these
considerations, that the Divine authority is a living authority,
constantly at work alike in the Church, in the State, in

THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY. 231

families, and in the individual conscience, and that in pro-
portion as we all submit ourselves to its influence with true
and humble minds, we may be confident that the great promise
will be fulfilled that we shall be guided into all the truth, not
only of thought and belief, but of life and action.

DISCUSSION.

At the conclusion of the paper the CHAIRMAN called on Sir
Robert Anderson, K.C.B., to open the discussion.

Sir RoBERT ANDERSON said that as citizens it was their duty to
obey authority. But in the religious sphere there was a question of
conscience behind the question of authority ; and looking at the
matter in a practical way the point in dispute was whether they
should obey the Bible or the Church. If the claim of Rome be just,
that the Church is the oracle of God, their part was not to search
the Scriptures for themselves but to obey the Church. Now while it
was onlyamong the spiritual that they looked for spiritual intelligence,
they were entitled to expect ordinary intelligence and common
sense in men of the world. And they demanded why should they
believe that the Church is the oracle of God? It must be either
because the Church made this claim for itself, or because the Bible
taught it. If the former, it was a flagrant case of the “ confidence
trick.” If the latter let them appeal to the Bible. And what do they
find? The figment that the Church of the Old Testament dis-
pensation was an oracle, was grotesquely false. The revelation
always came, not from or through the Church, but fo the Church,
through men divinely appointed to that ministry. Not only so, but
these men were too often proscribed and persecuted by the Church.
And the New Testament would lead them to a like conclusion
respecting “the Christian Church.” Rome confused the issue by
confounding the Church as a vital unity—the “invisible Church,
with the outward organisation, and by taking as addressed to that
Church much that was spoken to the Apostles as such. But even
this could not conceal the plain truth that the Church was the
recipient and not the source of the revelation.

232 THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY.

Another question arose here, could any organisation now on earth
claim the position held by the Church as first founded? They
rejected the figment of an historic sequence, save a sequence in guilt ;
and adopted the position of the Reformers, that the Holy Catholic
Church is the whole company of Christian people dispersed through-
out the whole world—the people of God scattered over the earth.
Their study of the past history and present condition of Christendom
would thus lead them back to the conclusion that the only authority
they could acknowledge in the religious sphere was the Bible.
Everything else was superstition or worse.

Rev. A. InvinG, D.Sc., B.A., regretted that he had not had the
opportunity of following the paper as a whole, but so far as he could
speak of it he thoroughly appreciated the line that the Dean of
Canterbury had taken. He was glad to find that the author of the
paper had come to realise the fact that there is no finality in Science,
and therefore no room for dogmatism, even on the part of those who
were most qualified to speak in the name of Science. He was the
more interested in the paper, as, most opportunely, it had much in
common with the ground taken by Dr. James Gairdner, C.B., the
distinguished historian, in a correspondence on “ Disestablishment”
in the Guardian during the last few weeks. The speaker had him-
self taken a subordinate part in the controversy, and had been led to
quote what he himself put into print some twenty years ago, to the
effect that the Royal Supremacy properly understood implied no
dictatorial powers on the part of the State towards the Church, but
was rather the expression on the part of the English nation of its
consciousness of the continuity of its national life on the religious
side. _

With regard to Sir Robert Anderson’s remarks, which were not
easy to follow, he held that it was in the continuity of the life of the
Church that we recognised its teaching authority ; and that this had
been embodied for all time in the Greek Testament Scriptures,
which bad come to us on the authority of the Church and on that
alone ; while those Scriptures carried their own inherent evidence
toa sympathetic faith. He was thankful that the New Testament had
had to run the fires of criticism and had survived the ordeal ; since
it now stood before the world on surer ground than it did previously
as a sufficient record and guarantee of what Christ instructed His
Spirit-taught Church to deliver to the world for its regeneration ;

THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY. 233

while that Church was His own creation as a divinely-constituted
society for leavening the outer society of the world at large; that in
fact the hermeneutical tradition of the Church, purified and adapted
in the progress of the Christian age by learning and criticism under
the illumination of the Spirit, as human thought widened, was the
unbroken chain which carried us back to its Divine Founder, who
had placed the magisteriwn of His Church ona higher plane than
that which the old Hebrew prophets occupied. Thus we come to
recognise the ultimate source of all authority in the Son of God
Himself, who had transmitted His authority through His chosen
witnesses, and had not centred it in any visible head on earth.
‘Believe Me for the very work’s sake,” is His appeal to evidence.
“ All authority is given unto Me,” is His age-long claim.

Colonel T. H. Henorey, C.I.E.—The Dean has spoken of the
loss of reverence for authority in Europe, but it is not confined to
this part of the world, for, except perhaps in the far East, rulers
and parents in Asia also grievously lament the universal want of
submission to, and respect for, experience and old age. The wisest
Indian parents feel it; Indian princes regret it, and both classes
attribute it to the modern systems of education, and especially to
Kuropean education, unaccompanied as it is by religious training,
which is given not unfrequently by men who are either indifferent
or even, it may be, who openly scoff at the old paths. He gave
“instances in proof of his contention, and referred to the opinions of
some of the manliest Rajputs, who attributed the decay of authority
to the facile pens and glib tongues which were encouraged in the
present day, whereas such men as they had little opportunity of
showing their loyalty. Turning to the Church, he quoted his own
experience, in which a young clergyman, on succeeding a venerable
and most successful man, had begun his pastorate by preaching
from the words, ‘ But with me it is a very small thing that I should
be judged of you or any man’s judgment,” and had almost imme-
diately turned everything upside down in the church. He under-
stood that the only thing the Bishop could say was that no doubt
that the places of those who were dissatisfied would soon be filled up.
He asked what the laity could do when there was such a disregard
for continuity and for even their own authority, as they were as
much members of the Church as the clergy themselves.

If he turned to the authority of the Scriptures he was reminded

Guz

234 THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY.

of a still more recent experience, when the previous week he had
attended at a conference of school managers. A speaker on that
occasion said he preferred Biblical teaching in schools to theological
training, whereupon a clergyman asked what Bible he wished to
teach. It was quite clear that the audience, which appeared to be
earnest and religiously-minded, sympathised with the astonished
speaker and not with the priest.

If then, the rank and file of the clergy cannot be relied upon to
preserve authority and continuity of ritual and the like, and if the
ordinary Bible is not authority, to whom is the unfortunate layman
to turn for guidance? The Bishops sometimes tell us that the
clergy will not obey, though they ask the laity to help them.
Perhaps they might take a lesson from another church.

A few years ago an old friend who lived in Venice, whom he
accompanied in his gondola across the Lagoon, had pointed out a
certain island where there was a small convent. He said that it
was said that sometimes the Patriarch called there with a young
priest who had proved a little difficult, and left him with the head
of the establishment until he called again. The call might be soon
or might be late, but it was generally long enough to be effectual.
Even if this story of the present Pope is too good to be true, might
it not be a useful hint to some of our religious leaders who are
anxious to preserve authority and respect for the Church ?

The Rey. H. J. R. MARSTON said: They were probably all of one
mind as to the need for and the beneficence of the results of authority.
When they engaged in questions as to the sanction of authority in the
Church their concern was rather with the practical continuance of
the succession than with any speculative continuity. Undoubtedly
there existed a real and tangible stream of Christian authority, not
always flowing through councils or even through episcopal channels,
but none the less real and persistent.

The question, What is the ultimate authority? was one that
every age had claimed to answer, and every church, not always in the
same way. Looking to their Holy Scriptures, they were entitled to
say that the Greek Testament had, to a large degree, its own authority.
down to the succeeding ages. They need not claim for it an
authority, scientific and philosophic, as many had done. All the
evidence clothed the New Testament with a real authority which
had existed from the beginning of Christianity. The belief in

THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY. 23

the divinity of Scripture was coeval with Christianity. It did not
depend on the Fathers, it was prior to Irenaeus, for this belief was
an aboriginal and essential part of the Christian faith.

Dean WACE, in replying, said the discussion had unfortunately
missed the main point of the paper—the conflict between the Church
and the State as to their respective spheres of authority. Both had
great claims, and too often the rules as to moral duties laid down
by the one were found to be in conflict with those laid down by the
other. This led, as was continually being shown, to injurious as
well as inconvenient results. Nor could the Disestablishment
advocated by some do anything but aggravate the injury. At
present both Church and State were restrained by their association
with each other. Any authority left alone and unrestrained would
lead to ruin. The Supremacy had held all the forces together till
now, and prevented one from overriding another.

The CHAIRMAN, in summarising the paper and discussion, said
the Society was indebted to the learned author for the most
suggestive and able consideration of a subject the importance of
which, at the present time especially, received too little practical
acknowledgment. Without authority there could be no religion,
there could be no morality—for morality is founded on religion.
Take away authority, and the social order and fabric would be
shattered and fall to pieces—a concourse, not fortuitous but
shapeless and incoherent, of human atoms.

At this point the Chairman called for a hearty, vote of
thanks to the Dean of Canterbury, who had to leave the meeting.
This having been given by acclamation, and acknowledged, he
said there could be no doubt that (as was pointed out on p. 222
of the paper) it was in conscience or, as he preferred to call it,
the moral faculty, that they were given the idea of authority, and
that ‘‘the voice of conscience is the voice of a personal God.” It
had historical authority. It had, too, the inherent claim, at every
point, to a divine authority. There was contained the actual record
of the words and works of the divine Word Himself, transmitted by
those who were acknowledged to be the most fitted to hand them on.
Authority was inherent in the moral relationship subsisting between
God and man; it was connected with the ought. The notion of
authority was not of an intellectual, but of a moral character—mere
opinions were destitute of authority, even though professing to be

236 THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY.

held ‘semper, ubique, et ab omnibus.” And they were reminded
(pp. 227 and 230) that the voice of conscience has authority greater
than that of the Church. As regards science they would cordially
concur with the statement (p. 204) that all true scientific thought ‘is
in the attitude of Samuel—‘ Speak, Lord, for Thy servant heareth.’”
Nothing was more reverential than science. In view, however, of
the manner in which a powerful scientific school was endeavouring
to impose upon students an acceptance of the evolution theory, the
belief that their advances in interpreting nature were no longer to
suffer obstruction from unproved theories put forward by some
scientists, appeared too optimistic.

Might he suggest that the word “ Romish” (instead of ‘ Roman”)
would better express the author’s meaning in speaking of the
“Roman Church” and the “Roman error”? The Romish Church
referred to was not synonymous with the Christian Church to-day
existing at Rome, nor with that of the Christian Church there in
apostolic times.

One of the most interesting parts of the paper was that which
discoursed of the delegated or derived authority of Church and
State. Probably the historic conflicts between these powers might
be largely accounted for by an endeavour on the part of each to
usurp an authority belonging to the other, ¢.g., the ecclesiastical has
sought to bear the sword and to obtain the worldly possessions of
the civil power ; she had sought to wield an authority to which she
had no right ; it had not been given her.

It was important to distinguish authority from infallibility.
Authority was not infallibility, nor were they necessarily conjoined.
The authority of the civil power did not secure from error in its use,
nor did the authority of those who were over them “in the Lord ”
give them always “a right judgment in all things.” ‘“ Even general
councils may err.” Authority must not be stretched beyond the
limits within which it has been given.

Infallible authority was from God alone. It was found in
conscience—which is the inward standard, and in the outward
standard—which is the word of God, the Bible interpreted to the
humble and obedient heart by the Spirit of Truth.

The following communications have been received from Dr. W.
Woops SmyTu, Mr. T. W. E. HicGens and Bishop THORNTON.

THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY. 237

Dr. W. Woops SMYTH writes :—I regret to have to differ from the
views of Dr. Wace. What constitutes authority? In answering
this question we may perceive that authority may be either
impersonal or personal. Science as a body of verified facts is
impersonal, and is an absolute authority. The pronouncement of
God, of man, or of the Church is personal authority. Now it is
not said that God doeth everything according to His own will, but
that He doeth all things according to the counsel of His own will.
That is according to Supreme Reason, of which He has made us
partakers. God’s will is, therefore, not the ultimate formation of
authority, but the counsel or Reason is. The authority of man
upon any subject depends upon his knowledge, and still more upon
his having seldom or never having made a mistake. An erring man
has no authority. When we turn to the Church, which is a body
or congregation of men, we find, as a matter of historic fact, that
it is a tragedy as well as a “comedy of errors.” We are, therefore,
unable to accept its authority ; and the reason lies in the fact that
the counsel of God’s will as expressed in His word and His works
is not faithfully followed.

Now, inasmuch as the word of God is a written expression of the -
works of God in nature, the knowledge of which is presented to us
in ascertained science, we are, therefore, shut up to the position
that authority is founded in the word of God, viewed in the light
of verified natural science, and interpreted by the reason which
God has given us.

Mr. T. W. E. HiGGEns writes :—I venture to utter a protest against
what appears to be the teaching of Dr. Wace on the duty of Christians
as regards obedience in religious matters. And I do so the more
reluctantly because he bases his argument on such a solid. foundation
on page 223, namely, on the personal authority of our Lord. Yet, he
appears to teach an almost blind obedience to priestly authority in
religious matters, and this I unhesitatingly repudiate.

On page 227 he informs us that the Catholic Church is a ‘‘ phantom
of the imagination,” and on page 228 he says that authority is to be
found “in its most immediate moral action in the Church.” What
Church? Again, on page 227, I am told that each church must
exercise its own authority, and that the only way in which I can
discharge my duty of obedience to those set over me in the Lord is
by submitting myself to the authority immediately over me, “so

238 THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY.

long as it requires nothing of me which I may be persuaded on my
conscience is absolutely contrary to the law of God!” The
authority in religious matters immediately over me is my parish
priest. Am I to submit myself dutifully to him? Is it to be to
the vicar of the parish in which I reside, or the clergyman of the
church to which [ go, or am I wrong in going anywhere but to my
parish church ?

Again, I am perplexed on pages 229 and 230. The English Church
and State are in conflict on the law of marriage. Is it suggested
that on such a vital matter there should be “reasonable mutual
deference”? Is the deference to be also shown in America, or are
the rules which are suggested for guidance only of local application ?

I suggest with all deference to the learned Dean that more stress
might have been laid upon the necessity of private judgment when
dealing with the commandments of men, provided that we first
acknowledge our need for the personal direction of the conscience
by our Lord Himself.

Lastly, I do not think that justice is shown to those churchmen
who, differing from the Dean, have opposed what they deem to be
State encroachments into the sphere of religion. They have opposed
the authority of the State because they conscientiously believe it to
be an usurped authority, and there is very little doubt that such
resistance on the part of churchmen must increase when we have
judges calmly informing us, as one did in the case of banister v.
Thompson, that the law of God varied according to Act of Parlia-
ment. It is not likely that any churchman who believes in the
‘Holy Catholic Church” of the Apostles’ Creed will substitute for
it the Houses of Parliament.

Bishop THORNTON writes :—The Dean of Canterbury’s paper on
authority is very timely and interesting. A special question it
raises is, What, for a Christian, is the supreme criterion of religious
truth and duty? The answer must be that which the paper
implies: the mind and will of God. He is bound to act on his
conviction of what that is. And the organ through which that
authority speaks to him is his own deliberate private judgment.
In the absence of miraculous manifestations of it, the ultimate right
to decide what God’s mind and will is on any particular point of
truth and duty must rest with the individual, and cannot be
abdicated. ‘‘Him only shalt thou serve”: on questions of right

THE VERY REV. H. WACE, D.D., ON AUTHORITY. 239

and wrong we are subject only to the authority of God, and to
those whom we recognise as speaking with His authority. Subject
only to that, we judge for ourselves in all such matters. “ Why
yourselves judge ye not what is right?” Christ says: “Judge
righteous judgment!” “Judge in yourselves.” Says St. Paul:
“ Judge ye what I say ”; “ He that is spiritual judgeth all things ” ;
“Let the prophets speak and let the others judge.”

But, of course, in the exercise of this right of private judgment,
the individual uses a respectful deference to the formulated judgment
of the community as such, i.c., to the Church of his allegiance and
the realm of which he is providentially a citizen. In religious
questions, our National Church has disclaimed all right to supersede
what is plainly set forth in Scripture, and all infallibility in interpre-
ting it.

Questions arising out of conflict between the convictions of
individuals, the teaching of the church they belong to, and the law
of their country, are questions of casuistry, and can only be solved
as they arise. As a general principle, we can only insist on the
authority of our individual judgment in serious questions of right
and wrong, on which we are conscious of having taken all reasonable
means of getting well informed.

I quite agree with the Dean in his light estimate of the current
appeal made by some to “Catholicity” so called; but I cannot
accept the disparaging generalisations as to Church history of Sir
Robert Anderson or Dr. W. Woods Smyth.

240

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICH, OF THE LATE Ve
WILFRED H. HUDDLESTON, F.RS. Vice-President
of the Victoria Institute.

WILFRED H. HUDLESTON was the son of Dr. John Simpson,
who married Elizabeth Ward, heiress of the Hudlestons of
Cumberland, and by letters patent assumed the name of
Hudleston in 1867. Wilfred, the eldest son, was born in
York on June 2nd, 1828. He received his early education at
St. Peter’s School, York, and entered St. John’s College,
Cambridge, where he graduated in 1850. In his last term in
Cambridge he attended the lectures of Professor Sedgwick, and
was much impressed by the manner and discourse of that
eminent geologist. On leaving Cambridge he passed a con-
siderable part of twelve years in travelling in Europe and
North Africa.

From 1862 Mr. Hudleston applied himself to studies in
natural science, attending the lectures of Playfair in Edinburgh,
and those of Hoffman, Franklin, and Valentine at the Royal
College of Chemistry in London, and his knowledge of geology
may be considered to have commenced under the tuition of
Professor John Morris, joining in excursions to places around
London calculated to interest the students of that science.
From this time geology became the prime subject of his
pursuits. In 1867, he was elected Fellow of the Geological
Society, and in 1892 he became its President. He had con-
tributed several papers on geological subjects.

In 1891 Mr. Hudleston became a Member of the Victoria
Institute; and immediately after, was elected one of its Vice-
Presidents. Though he does not appear to have contributed
original papers to its transactions, he evinced a warm interest
in its proceedings by attending the meetings and taking part in
the discussions. Mr. Hudleston’s last appearance at the
meetings of the Society was on the evening of December 4th
last, when he took part in the discussion of Professor Hull’s
paper on “ Geneva and Chamounix as they were fifty years ago,
and as they are now.” His interesting speech—corrected by
himself—appears along with the paper in the present volume.
The Members of the Institute will long regret the absence
from their midst of Mr. Hudleston’s striking personality and fine
intellectual countenance.

KE. H.

Mer (Gir 6 PAE

VICE-PATRONS, MEMBERS, ASSOCIATES,

&c.

VICE-PATRON.
A, McARTHUR, ESQ., D.L.,. J.P.

*.* The Qualification of a Vice-Patron is a Contribution of not
less than Sixty Guineas to the Funds of the Institute.

COUNCIL AND OFFICERS

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THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE EARL Bub HALSBURY,
DC. ks.

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ALEXANDER McARTHUR, ESQ., D.L., J.P.

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LORD STRATHCONA AND MOUNT ROYAL, G.C.M.G., LL.D.
LIKUT:-GHN. Slo. 7b) GHARY? EAs, KCB:

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Wonorary Corresponvents.

SIR DAVID GILL, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S8.
PROF. A. AGASSIZ, D:C.L., E_RS."| PROF. A, oH. SAYCH, Dis inlaws
PROF. MASPERO (Paris). PROF. WARREN UPHAM, DSc.
PROF. BE. NAVILLE (Geneva).
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LATE R.A.

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Council.
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REV. DR. EW. TREMEE Ta DD Clg ea:
VERY REV. H. WACH, D.D., Dean of Canterbury (Trustee).
REV. CHANCELLOR J. J. LIAS, M.A.

REV. CANON R. B. GIRDLESTONE, M.A.

THEO. G. PINCHES, ESQ., LL.D., M.R.A.S.

VEN. ARCHDEACON W. M. SINCLAIR, M.A., D.D.
COMMANDER G. P. HEATH, R.N.

REV. G. F. WHIDBORNEH, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G-.S.
EDWARD STANLEY M. PEROWNE, ESQ, F.S.A.
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REV. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A:S.
LIEUT.-COLONEL GEORGE MACKINLAY.
GENERAL J. G. HALLIDAY.

COLONEL T. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.LE.
ARTHUR W. SUTTON, ESQ., J.P., F.L:S.

REV. PREBENDARY H. E. FOX, M.A.
PROFESSOR H. LANGHORNE ORCHARD, M.A., B.Sc.
RT. REV. BISHOP J. E. C. WELLDON, D.D
SYDNEY T. KLEIN, ESQ, F.LS., F.R.A.S., M.R.I.
WILLIAM J. HORNER, ESQ

FREDERIC 8. BISHOP, ESQ., M.A., J.P.

ALFRED T. SCHOFIELD, ESQ., M.D.
HEYWOOD SMITH, ESQ., M.A., M.D.

243

* Members of Council.
+ Life Members or Life Associates.
t Specially Elected.
| Distinguishes those who have contributed Papers to the Institute.
ff Foundation Members or Associates (elected before Dec. 31, 1866).
fc. Finance Committee (Six Members).
Those through whom legacies have been received.

ME MBE RS:

1876 Aitken, Rev. Canon W. Hay M. H. M.A. Oxon.

1895 Alves, Lt.-Colonel M. A. R.E.

1901 Ami, Professor Henry M. M.A. D.Sc. F.G.S. F.R.S.
Canada.

1882 +Baring, Rev. F. H. M.A. Camb. F.R.G.S.

1869 +Barker, John L. Esq.

1881 Barton, James, Hsq. B.A. M. Inst. C.E.

1901 +Bell, Colonel Alexander W. C. (late Indian Army).

1905 Bermuda Library, Trustees of.

1873 Bevan, Francis A. Esq. J.P.

1879 *Bishop, F. S. Esq. M.A. Oxon. M.A. Cantab. J.P.

1908 Bowles, Edward Augustus, Hsqg. M.A. Cantab. F.L.S.
F.E.S.

1907 Braun, Mrs. Annie H. von.

1909 Broadbent, Cecil, Esq. F.S.Sc. F.R. Met. Soc.
M.R.S.A.

1884 Brown, Rev. Claud, M.A. Oxon.

1889 Browne, John, Esq. C.H.

1907 Bruce, Rev. John Collingwood Gainsford, M.A.

1896 *Buxton, Sir T. Fowell, Bart. K.C.M.G. F.R.G:S.
(Vice-PRESIDENT).

¢!
1891 Carr, Rev. Arthur, M.A., late Fell. Oriel, Hon. See.

Cent. Soc. Higher Relig. Educ.
1894 Chapman, Geo. John, Esq. M.A. 8.C.L. F.Z.S.

24.4,

1904 Clough, G. Benson, Esq.

1890 Collins, Brenton H. Esq. J.P.

1889 Cooper, 8. Joshua, Esq.

1871 +Coote, Sir A. C. P. Bart. M.A. Camb. F.R.G.S.

1905 Corrie, Josiah Owen, Esq. B.A. F.R. A. S. Barr.

1872 Coxhead, Rev. J. J. M.A.

1897 Cunningham, Francis A. Esq. M.A. B.Sc. Attorney-
at-Law

1871 +Day, William, Esq.

1903 Deacon, J. F. W. Esq. M.A. J.P. D.L.

1889 TDodge, Rev. D. Stuart, M.A.

1899 Drummond, Mrs. J. M. A.

1903 Ducie, Right Hon. The Earl of, F.R.S, F.G.S.

K.
1882 +Ellis, Alston, Esq. A.M. Ph.D. LL.D.

¥.

1878 Fairfax, Sir James R.

1904 Finn, Alexander, Esq. F.R.G.S., British Consulate,
Chicago, U.S.

1902 Foote, Robert Bruce, Esq. F.G.S.

1875 *Fox, Rev. Prebendary H. HE. M.A. Camb.

1876 Freeman, Miss F. H.

1892 Fremlin, R. H. Esq.

1889 Fremlin, R. J. Esq.

1904 Galloway, Professor William, F.G.S.

1892 *Geary, Lieut.-General Sir H. L. K.C.B. R.A.
( VIcE-PRESIDENT. )

1908 Gerard, Rev. Father John, S.J.

18774 *Girdlestone, Rev. Canon R. B. M.A.

1875 +Godson, H. Probyn, Esq. B.A. Camb.

1896 tGregg, Rev. David, D.D. LL.D.

1899 *Halliday, General J. G.
1888 Hatssury, The Right Hon. Hardinge Stanley G ffard
Harl of, K.G. P.C. F.R.S. (PREsIDENT.)

245

1901 Harrison, Kdgar Hrat, Ksq.

1882 Head, J. Merrick, Esq. F.R.G.S.

1893 *Heath, Captain G. P. R.N.

1890 Hellier, Rev. Henry Griffin, Balliol Coll. Oxon.

1906 Hershensohnn, Joshua R. Esq.

1879 +Hingston, C. A. Esq. M.D. B.Sc. Lond.

1895 Hooper, George Norgate, Esq. F.R.G.S. F.S.S.

1906* Horner, William J. Ksq.

1é7o4* Howard, David; Hsg: Dil. F.C.S8. F.LC. (Vicr-
PRESIDENT.)

1873 Howard, R. Luke, Esq. F.R.M.S.

1873 Howard, Theodore, Esq.

1873 +Howard, W. Dillworth, Esq.

1888*7q Hull, Professor HE. M.A. LL.D. F.R.S. F.G.8.; late
Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland,
Acad. Sci. Philad. Corresp. Soc. Geol. de Belg.

Vice-PRESIDENT).
1901 Hull, Kamund C. P. Esq. J.P.

1880 Ince, Rev. Canon W. D.D. Reg. Prof. Div. Oxf. Chap.
to Bishop of Oxford.

J.
1891 +Jex-Blake, The Very Rev. T. W. D.D. Dean of Wells.

1893 +Kinnaird, The Honourable Louisa E.
1900*Q Klein, Sydney T. Esq. F.L.S. F.R.A.S. F.R.M.S.
E.B.S.-M.R:I.

ibs
18919 +Lansdell, Rev. Henry, D.D. Memb. RI. Asiatic Soc.
F.R.G.S.

1898 Laurence, Miss M. A.

18759 *Lias, Rev. Chancellor J. J. M.A. Hulsean Lecturer
1884.

1887 Loveday, Miss L. KH.

1909 MacEwan, Miss Madge D.

18979 *Mackinlay, Lieut.-Colonel George, late R.A. (Hon.
Auditor).

1885 +Marshall, Rev. C. J.

246

1907 Martin, George H. Esq. M.D.

1901 Matthews, Ernest R. Esq. A.M.I.C.E. F.G.S.

1872 Matthews, John T. Esq.

1908 Maunder, EH. Walter, Esq. F.R.A.S.

HF. *+McArruvr, Aexanper, Esq. D.L. J.P. F.R.G.S.
(Vicr-Patron).

1909 McLarty, Pharmacist Colin, U.S.N.

1898 Molony, Edmund Alexander, Esq. (Indian Civil
Service).

1905 +Mortimer, Rev. Alfred G. D.D. Philadelphia.

1881 +Mullens, Josiah, Esq. F.R.G.S.

1878 Netson, The Right Hon. The Earl.
1881 Newton, Rev. Preb. Horace, M.A. Camb. Prebendary
of York.

1902 Olsen, Ole Theodor, Esq. D.Sc. F.L.S. F.R.A.S.
F.R.G.S. Ord, Wasa, Sweden, Ord St. Olaf of
Norway; St. Andrew's Terrace, Grimsby.
cba a Seis ‘H. Langhorne, Esq. Prof. of Logic, M.A.
BSG (Gunning Prizeman 1909.)

1881 {Patton, Rev. F. L. D.D. LL.D. Prof. Relations of
Philosophy and Science to the Christian Religion,
Principal, Princeton Theo. Seminary.

1894 *Perowne, Edward Stanley Mould, Esq. F.S.A. (Hon.
TREASURER. )

896 +Petter, Rev. W. D. H. M.A. Camb.

oe +Phené, J. S. Esq. LL. D-F'S.A._ 2-6-5. 2 RG se.

882 +Pogson, Miss H. Isis; F.M.S. Meteorological Reporter
and Assist. “Govt. Astronomer, Madras.

1888 +Powell, Sir F. 8. Bart. M.P. F.R.G.S.

1880 Rivington, Rev. Cecil S. M.A. Hon. Canon of Bombay.
1909 Roget, Professor F. F.

18999 *Rouse, Martin Luther, Esq. B.L.

1872 Rowe, Rev. G. Stringer.

1903 Schuster, Rev. William Percy, M.A. Oxon.
1882 +Scott-Blacklaw, Alex. Esq.

247

1904 Sewell, Ebenezer J. Esq.

1889 +Simpson, Prof. Sir A. R. M.D.

1893 Smart, Francis G. Esq. M.A. M.B. F.L.S. F.R.G.S.
F.S.A.

1873 Smith, Philip Vernon, Esq. M.A. LL.D.

1875 Stewart, Rev. Alex. M.D. LL.D.

1892 +Stilwell, John Pakenham, Esq. J.P.

1885 +Strathcona and Monnt Royal, Lord, G.C.M.G. LL.D,
F.R.G.S. F.G.S. (Vicz-PxesiDEnt.)

19039 *Sutton, Arthur W. Esq. J.P., F.LS.

1906 Sutton, Leonard, Esq. F.L.S.

1888 Sutton, Martin J., Esq. J.P. F.L.S. F.R.G.S. Chev.

Leg. of Honour.

1881 +Taylor, Rev. Canon Robert.

1908 Thirtle, James W. Esq. LL.D. M.R.A.S.

1906 Townley, Rev. Charles F. M.A.

1897 Townsend, Rev. Professor L. Tracy, D.D. LL.D.

1899 Tremlett, James Dyer, Esq. (Barr.-at-Law) M.A.
Camb.

1871 *Tremlett, Rev. Dr. F. W. D.D. D.C.L. Hon. Ph.D.
Jena Univ. F.R.G.S. Chaplain to Lord Waterpark,
Eccles. Com. for American Prelates and the Univ.
of the South.

1889 Tritton, Joseph H. Esq. F.R.G.S. F.S.S.

18949;*Tuckwell, Rev. John, M.R.A.S.

1908 Turner, Henry Charlewood, Esq. M.A. Camb.
(SECRETARY).

1883 Turton, Lt.-Col. W. H. D.S.O. R.E. F.R.G.S.

1889 Urquhart, Rev. John (Gunning Prizeman, 1905).
1880 Usherwood, The Ven. Archdeacon T. E. M.A.

Ni.
1875 tVeasey, H. Esq. F.R.C.S,

18769*Wace, Very Rev. H. D.D. Dean of Canterbury ; Hon.
Chap. to the Queen; late Principal of King’s
College, Lond.

1873 Walters, William Melmoth, Esq.

1878 +Waitson, Rev. A. Duff, M.A. B.D.

248

1903 +Whidborne, Miss Alice M.

1888*4+Whidborne, Rev. G. F. M.A. Camb. F.G.S. F.R.G.S.

1909 White, Colonel Frederick B. P.

SH = Whitwell, Robert J. Esq., B.Litt.

1899 +Wigram,Rev. EH. F. H. M.A.

1894 Williams,Colonel Robert, M.P.

1879 Willis, Right Rev. Alfred, D.D.

1887 Wilson, Rev. B. R. M.A.

SF Wright, Francis Beresford, Esq. M.A. Cantab. J.P.
F.R.H.S.

1907 Wright, Rev. Professor George Frederick, D.D.

LL.D. F.G.8.A.

x
1876 Young, C. HE. Baring, Esq. M.A. F.R.G.S.

249

ASSOCIATES.

1878 Adams, Rey. Canon James.

1894 Adams, Rev. Wm. W. D.D.

1896 Anderson, Sir Robert, K.C.B. LL.D.

1888 +Andrews, Rt. Rev. Walter, M.A. Bishop of Hokkaido,
Japan.

1869 +Armagh, The Most Rev. W. Alexander, D.D. D.C.L.
Archbishop of. Primate and Metropolitan of all
Ireland.

1905 Arnstrém, Rev. D. A.

1887 Arrowsmith, E. M. Esq.

1887 Ashby, Robert, Esq.

1888 Ashwin, Rey. C. Godfrey, M.A.

1909 Ashwin, Rev. Edward Godfrey, M.A. Camb.

1906 Ashwin, Rev. Forster, B.A.

1909 Ashwin, Rev. Hamilton, LL.D. T.C.D.

1891 +Atkinson, Rev. Edward, D.D. Master Clare Coll.
Cambridge.

1876 Badger, Rev. W. C. M.A.

1906 Baker, Lt.-Colonel W. W. R.E.

1909 Banks, Edwin H., Esq. M.A. D.L. J.P.

1893 Barlow, Rev. C. H. M.A. Oxon. Chap. Bengal.

1902 Barton, Rev. Professor G. A. Ph.D.

1909 Beachcroft, Miss Mary.

1906 Bent, Mrs. Theodore.

1887 Berry, Rey. Canon D. M. M.A. Oxon. Demi of Magd.
Ellerton Prizeman.

1894 Bevan, Ven. Archdeacon H. E. J. M.A. Camb.
Gresham Prof. of Divinity.

1890 +Bigelow, Professor Meiville M. Ph.D.

1874 Billing, Rev. F. A. M.A. LL.D. F.R.S.L.

1888 Bird, Arthur, Esq. F.R.G.S.

1904 +Birkett, Rev. Arthur Ismay, M.A.

1905 Blandy, Miss Grace.

1900 Bolton, Miss Elsie H.

1890 Bomford, Rev. L. G. M.A.

1902 Boord, Miss Eva J.

1891 4 Boyd, Rev. T. Hunter.

1895 Breed, Rev. Professor David R. D.D.

1895 Breed, Rey. F. W. B.A. Durham.

1887 Bridgeman, Col. the Hon. Francis C.

1882 Broadbent, Colonel J. E. C.B. R.E.

1900 Brown, J. Walter, Esq.

1893 +Bryan, Joseph Davies, Esq.

250

1894+ Bullen, Rev. R. Ashington, B.A. F.L.S. F.G.S.

1893 Buswell, Ven. Archdeacon H. D.

1892 +Butt, Rev. Canon G. H. B.A.

1889 +Cain, Rev. John.

1907 Carus-Wilson, Henry, Esq.

1894 Carroll, A. Esq. M.D. D.Lit. Ph.D. D.Sc.

1889 +Caudwell, Eber, Esq. M.R.C.S.E. L.R.C.P.

1890 +Caudwell, Paul, Esq. B.A. Solicitor.

1894 Chambré, Very Reverend A. St. J. B.A. M.A. D.D.

Dean.

1906 Chambré, Colonel H. W. Alan.

1889 Chatterton, Rev. F. W.

1884 Chichester, Rev. E. A. M.A. R.D. Hon. Canon of
Winchester.

1909 Chichester, Henry H. lh. Esq.

1888 Clapton, Edward, Esq. M.D. F.R.C.P. F.L:S.
H'.R.G.S.

1888 Clyde, Rev. J. C. A.B. A.M. D.D.

1891 +Cobern, Rev. Prof. Camden M. B.A. 8.T.B. Ph.D.

1893 Cockin, Rev. J.

1906 Collett, Sidney, Esq.

1905 Collison, Harry, Esq. M.A. Barr.

1906 Cooke, Charles J. Bowen, Esq. M.Inst.C.E.

1885 +Coote, 8. V. Esq. M.A. Oxon. F.R.G.S.

1877 Crewdson, Rev. Canon G. M.A. Camb.

1908 Crewdson, Miss Gwendolen, M.A.

1890 Crosbie, Rev. Howard A. M.A.

1890 Cruddas, W. D. Esq. D.L. J.P.

1908 Dale, William, Esq. F.S.A. F.G.S.

1895 Darling, Rev. John Lindsey, M.A. T.C.D.

1884 Daunt, Rev. Canon W. M.A.

1905 Davidson, Rev. D. C. M.A.

1876 Dawson, Rev. W. M.A. F.R.H.S.

1880 Day, Rev. A. G. M.A. Oxon.

1888 Deedes, Ven. Archdeacon Brook, M.A.

1894 +Della Rocchetta, of Dolceacqua, Count Arthur, late
Capt. in the General Staff of Italian Army.

1908 Derr, Andrew F., Esq. M.A.

1890 +De Witt, Rev. Prof. John, D.D.

1869 Dibdin, Charles, Esq. F.R.G.S. Sec. Rl. Nat. Lifeboat
Inst. Hon. Memb. Cor. Société des Institutions de
Prévoyance.

1898 Dibdin, R. W. Esq. F.R.G.S.

1874 Dimond-Churchward, Rev. Prebendary M. D. M.A.

1907 Dixon, Rev. Edwin Church, M.A. S.T.B.

1897 Drake-Brockman, William Drake, Esq., late Sup.
Engineer P.W.D. India; late A.I.C.H.

1888 DunitEatH, The Rt. Hon. H. L. Lord.

1885 Durham, The Rt. Reverend H. C. G. Moule, D.D.
Bishop of.

251

1880 Du-Sautoy, Mrs. F. P.

1883 Ebbs, Miss Ellen Hawkins.

1891 Eckersley, Rev. Jas. M.A.

1889 +Eddy, Mrs. Mary B. G.

18859 +Elwin, Rev. Arthur.

1909 Evans, George, Esq.

1880 Escott, Rev. Hay Sweet, M.A.

1886 Evans, Mrs. H. M.

1896 Evington, Right Rev. Bishop H. D.D. (Bishop in
Kiushinu, 8. Japan).

1899 Fairbairn, H. A. Esq. M.D. M.A.

1899 +Farquharson, Mrs. M.

1892 Feilden, J. Leyland, Esq.

1905 Fells, J. M. Esq.

1876 Field, Rev. Arthur T. M.A. Camb.

1896 +Field-King, J. M.D. C.S.D.

1879 Finnemore, Rey. J. M.A. Ph.D. F.G.S.

1885 Fleming, Rev. R. H. B.A. D.D.

1881 Fleming, Sir Sandford, K.C.M.G. LL.D. F.G.S.
F.R.G.S. V.-President Royal Soc. of Canada.

1900 Flint, Charles A. Esq.

1889 +FLorma, The Right Rev. E.G. Weed, D.D. 8.T.D.
Bishop of.

1909 Fligel, Herr Pastor Otto.

1897 Flournoy, Rev. Parke Poindexter, D.D.

1894 +Forster, Miss E. J.

1882 fFox, C. Dillworth, Esq.

1904 Frost, Edward P. Esq. D.L. J.P.

1900 Gardiner, E. J. Esq.

1873 +Gardner, Mrs. Ernest L.

1897 Garnett, Thomas, Esq.

GF +Gedge, Sydney, Esq. M.A. F.R.G.S.

1899 Gibbon, Major J. Aubrey, R.E.

1908 Gilbertson, Francis W. Esq.

1908 Given, J. C. M., Esq. M.D.

1903 Goodridge, Richard E. W. Esq.

1881, Gray, Charles, Esq.

1903 Gray, Brigade Surgeon Robert, M.D.

1877 Greenstreet, Colonel W. L. R.E.

1897 Greer, Mrs. Thomas.

1902 Gregg, Ivo Francis Hy. Carr, Esq. M.B.A.A.

1881 Grey, Rev. H. G. M.A.

1901 4 Griswold, Rev. H. D. M.A. Ph.D.

1897 Gutch, George A. Esq. C.K.

1892 Hall, Hugh Fergie, Esq. M.A. F.G:S.

1903. Hamlyn-Harris, Dr. Ronald, D.Se. F.G.S. F.L.S.

1896 Hanna, His Honour Judge Septimus J. LL.D.

1899 Harlowe, David, Esq.

1901 Harmer, F. W. Esq. J.P. F.G.S.

1878 Harper, The’Ven. Archdeacon H. W. M.A.

252

1907 Harris, H. Neville, Esq.

1904 Heaton, James Esq. Memb. Soc. Arts.

1909 Hechler, Rev. Prof. W. H.

1908 Hemming, Miss A. E.

1903 *Hendley, Colonel Thomas Holbein, C.I.E. (Indian
Medical Service, retired).

1908 Hendley, Lieut.-Col. Harold, I.M.S. M.R.C.S. M.D.
Darh. D.P.H. Camb.

1908 . Hendley, Mrs.

i889 +Herbert, Rey. Edward P.

1896 Hewitt, David Basil, Esq. B.A. L.R.C.S. L.R.C,P. J_P.

1882 Hicks, eg. Edward, M.A. D.D. D.C.L.

1891 Higgens, T. W. E. Esq. A.M.I.C_E.

1892 +Hildesley, Rev. Principal A. H. M.A. Sanawar.

1901 Hodges, Rev. Albert H.

1908 Hodgkin, Miss Alice Mary.

1897 Hodeson, Rev. William, M.A. Oxon.

1902 +Hogarth, Rev. Oswald J. M.A.

1883 +Houstoun, G. L. Esq. F.G-S.

1902 Howard, Sir Frederick, J.P.

1888 Howard, Joseph, Esq. B.A. Lond. F.R.G-S.

1903 Hull, Charles Murchison, Esq. Civil Service,
Natal.

1900 Hnull, Edward Gordon, M.A. M.D. Dub.

1897 Hutton, Henry, Esq.

1890 Hyslop, Rev. James, M.A. Ph.D.

1904 (Irving, Rev. Alexander, D.Sc. F.G.S.

1902 +Jacob, Colonel Sir S. Swinton, K.C.LE. Jaipur.

1898 Janvier, Rev. Cesar A. Rodney, M.A. (Princeton).

1904 Jenkins, J. Heald, Esq. M.A.

1902 Jessop, Arthur, Esq.

1877 Jewell, F. G. Esq.

1907 Jewett, Rev. Professor Frank L. B.A. B.D.

1907 Job, Rev. Charles Robert M.A. Camb.

i891. Johnson, C. R. Esq. H. Sec. Brighouse Ch. Lit. Club.

1896 +Johnstone, Miss J. A.

1879 Kaye, The Ven. W. F. J. M.A. Oxon. Archdeacon and
Canon of Lincoln.

SF ‘Kemble, Mrs. Stephen Cattley.

8 Kerr, Robert, Esq.

5 QKidd, Walter Anbrey, Esq. M.D. B.S. M.R.C.S.

F.ZS.

1884 Kimball, John E. Esq. A.M. Yale (Sup. Pub. Se.)

1883. Kimm, Rev. W. F. M.A. late Fell. Cath. Coll. Camb.

1908 Kizer, Rev. Edwin D.

1887 Kirkpatrick, Rev. R. C. M.A. Oxon. and Dub.

1880 +Kmight, Rev. C. F. M.A. Camb.

1908 Kwang, Sim Boon, Esq. Singapore.

1884 Lach-Szyrma, Rev. W. 8. M.A. Oxon.

1905 Lampe, Rev. Joseph L. D.D.

253

1873. Lawrence, Ven. Archdeacon C. D. M.A.

1873 Lea, Miss G. E.

1905 Lees, Rev. Harrington Clare M.A.

1901 Lefroy, The Right Rev.G. A. D.D. Bishop of Lahore,
India.

1873 tLewis, Rev. J. S. M.A.

1897 Linton, Rev. BE. C. M.A. Camb.

1883 +Lock, Rev. W. M.A. D.D. Oxon. Fell. Jun. Bursar
and Tutor of Magdalen, Warden of Keble
College.

1892 +Logan, The Honourable James D.

1908 Longdon, Miss Caroline Mary.

1901 Lénnbeck, Fredrick Waldemar, Stockholm.

1909 Lovely, Rev. F. Cecil, B.A. Oxon.

1887 Lowber, Rev. Chancellor J. W. M.A. LL.D. D.C.L.
Se.D. Ph.D. P.S.D. F.R.G.S. Litt.D.

1888 Lowrie, Rev. S. T. M.A. D.D.

1908 Lupton, Sydney, Esq. M.A. F.C.S.

1882 Maitland, Rev. H. F. M.A. Oxon.

1908 Manley, Rev. G. T. M.A. Camb.

1902 Manwaring, George A. Esq. C.E.

1909 Marston, Rev. Herbert J. R. M.A. Durh.

1895 +Martineau, A. EH. Esq. (Ind. Civ. Serv.).

18929 +Masterman, HE. W. Gurney, Esq. F.R.C.S. F.R.G.S.
PH,

1909 Maunsell, Rev. F. W. M.A. Dub.

1888 Maxwell of Calderwood, Lady.

1894 Mead, Rev. Charles Marsh, Prof. Th.

1892 YMello, Rev. J. Magens, M.A. F.G.S.

1879 Methuen, Rev. T. Plumptre, M.A.

1889 Millingen, J. R. Van, Esq.

SF Milner, Rev. W. M. H. M.A. Oxon. F.R.G.S.

1903 Mitchinson, Right Rev. Bishop J. D.D. D.C.L.

1899 Moffat, Rev. J. S. C.M.G.

1892 +Molony, Major Francis A. R.E.

1907 Moore, Rev. Henry N. M.A.

1882 Moule, Ven. Archdeacon A. K. B.D. (Mid China).

1878 +Mullings, John, Esq.

1893 Munt, George William, Esq.

1871 +Nelson, J. H. Esq. M.A.

1885 +Neve, A. Esq. F.R.C.S. L.R.C.P. Edin.

1888 +Nimr, Faris, Esq. (Hd. ‘‘ Mouktataf”’), Cairo.

1887 Norbury, Inspector-Gen. Sir H. F. K.C.B. M.D.
P.BC.S, BN.

1880 Nursey, Rev. Percy Fairfax, M.A. Oxon.

1879 +Oake, Rev. R. C.

1886 Oates, Rev. Alfred.

1880 O’Dell, Professor Stackpool E.

1908 +Oke, Alfred William, Esq. B.A. LL.M.

1899 Orr, Major Walter Hood, I.M.S.

1891
1898

1905
1883
1905
1885

1894

1908
1887
1908
1903
1894
1884:
1881
1896
1898
1881
1880
1888
1903
1891
1894

1876
1899

1877
1882
1885

254.

Oulton, Rev. Richard Charles, M.A. B.D.

Parker, Rev. Alvin Pierson, D.D.; President, Anglo-
Chinese College, Shanghai.

Partridge, Deputy Surgeon- os WP:

Paterson, Rev. T. M. B.

Payne, George Herbert, Esq.

tPayne, J. A. Otonba, Esq. F.R.G.S. Chief Registrar

and Taxing Master of the Supreme Court of Lagos.

Peake, A. S. Rev. Professor, M.A. D.D. Oxon Fell.
Merton, late Tutor Mansfield Coll. Oxon.

Peirce, Harold, Esq.

+Penford, Rev. E. J.

Perkins, Walter R. Esq.
Petch, Rev. Charles Cousens, B.A.
Pike, Rev. Sidney, M.A. Camb.
Piper, F. H. Esq.
Pippet, Rev. W. A.
Plantz, Rev. President Samuel, D.D. Ph.D.
Potter, Ven. Archdeacon Beresford, M.A. T.C.D.
Pratt, Rev. J. W. M.A. Dip;
+Priestley, Rev. J. J. S.P.G.
+Pringle, of Torwoodlee, Mrs.
Proctor, Henry, Esq. H.M.C.S. M.R.A.S. F.R.S.L.
Reddie, Edward J. Esq.
Reed, F. R. Cowper, Esq. M.A. F.G.S. Asst. to
Woodwardian Prof. of Geology Camb.
Rendell, Rev. Canon A. M. M.A. Camb.
Revie, Rev. Dugald, M.B. C.M. Glas. Univ. Free
Church of Scot. Medical Mission.
Rhodes, Rev. D.
Ridley, Rt. Rev. Bishop W. D.D.
Riggs, Rev. J; F. B.A, M.A. DD.

1899 € Robinson, Rev. Andrew Craig M.A.

1895
1894
1906
1900
1884
1908
1891
1881
1903
1883

1891
1903

1881
1895

Robinson, Maj.-General C. G. R.A.

Rogerson, Rev. Geo. M.A.

Roscoe, John Henry, Esq.

Rosedale, Rev. H. G. D.D. Oxon., F.S.A. F.R.S.L.

+ Ross, Revs G. H. W. Lockhart, B.A.

Rouse, Miss Ellen.

Rouse, Rev. G. H. LL.B.

Royston, The Right Rev. Bishop P. 8. D.D.

Ryan, Hugh Siu Esq. M.A. Camb.

St. Andrew’s University, Court of; Stuart Grace, Hsq.
Factor.

St. Johns, New Brunswick Free Pub. Lib. J. R. Reul,
Hsq. Chairman.

Salmensaari, Herra Sulo, B.A. Finland.

Sandford, H. Esq.

SasKATCHEWAN, Right Rev. J. Newnham, D.D.
Bishop of.

255

1891*4 Schofield, Alfred Taylor, Esq. M.D.

1908 Schwartz, John, Esq. Junior.

1906 Searle, Malcolm W. Esq. K.C. M.A. LL.B.

1876 +Seeley, Rev. E.

1875° Sharp, Rev. J. M.A. Queen’s Coll. Oxon.; Editorial
Superintendent, Bible Soc.

1902 Sharpe, W. E. Thompson, Esq. M.A.

1882 Shepherd, Mrs. F. Wolfskill De.

1901 +Sherard, Rev. Clement E. M.A. Camb.

1882 Shore, Captain the Hon. H. N. R.N.

1906 Sidebottom, Colonel W.

18769 *+Sinclair, The Ven. Archdeacon W. Macdonald, M.A.
D.D. form. Sch. of Balliol, Oxon.

1903 Singapore, Right Rev. C. J. Ferguson Davie, Bishopof.

1909 Skrine, Rey. John Huntley, M.A. Oxon.

1907 Smith, Mrs. Aline Gerard.

1892 Smith, Hon. Sir Charles Abercrombie, M.A. Fell.
St. Peter’s Coll. Camb.

1901 +Smith-Bosanquet, Miss Ella.

1873 Smith, Major-General E. Davidson.

1896 Smith, Colonel George Hugh.

1893 Smith, Sir George J. J.P. D.L.

1906 *Smith, Heywood, Esq. M.A. M.D.

1906 Smith, Richard Tilden, Esq.

1891 Smith, 8. Ashley, Esq. M.D.

1902 Smyth, William Woods, Esq. L.R.C.S. L.R.C.P.

1903 Spencer, Professor J. W. Ph.D. F.G.S.

1879 FStatham, E. J. Esq. C.E. A.L.C.E.

1879 +Stewart, Alex. Esq.

1872 Stewart, Sir Mark J. McTaggart, Bart. M.A. M.P.

1890 +Stokes, Anson Phelps, Esq. Vice-Pres. XIX Cent.
Club U.S.A. Memb. Council, S.S. Assoc.

1894 Stokes, James, Esq. Officer of the Legion of Honour.

1887 Stokes, Rev. W. Fenwick, M.A.

1903 Stovin, Mrs. Caroline.

1902 *+Strong, John Alexander, Esq.

1902 +Strong, Rev. Rupert S. M.A. Camb.

1895 Swinburne, Hon. George, C.E.

1899 Symonds, Hon. J. W.

1899 +Talmage, Professor James E. Ph.D. F.R.M.S. F.G.S.
F.R.S.E. F.G.S.A.

1873 Tapson, Rev. R. K.C.L.

1882 Taylor, Rev. Hugh Walker, M.A.

1891 +Taylor, Rev. Stephen, B.A. Corpus C. Coll. Camb.

1905 Thomas, Rev. W. H. Griffith, D.D. Principal Wycliffe
Hall, Oxford.

MF FThornton, the Right Rev. Samuel, D.D. late Bishop
of Ballarat.

1906 Tindal], Miss Caroline.

1873 Tomkins, Rev. W. Smith.

256

1908 Treanor, Rev. Thomas Stanley, M.A., T.C.D.

1907 Trench, Mrs. Charles Chevenix.

1909 Trench, F'. P. Esq. F.R.C.S.

1908 iirenche J. Townsend, Esq.

1902. Trumbull, C. G. Esq. Philadelphia.

1908 Turnbull, G. L. Esq. M.A. M.D. Oxon.

1909 Turner, Arthur Charlewood, Esq. M.A. Camb.

1903 ¢Turner, Rev. F. Storrs, B.A.

1908 Turner, Rev. Ralph Charlewood, M.A. Camb.

1882 Torrie, Right Rev. D. 8. D.D. Bishop of Missouri.

1902 Twigg, John Hill, Esq. late India Civil Service.

1898 Tydeman, EH. Esq. B.A. F.R.G.S. Lawrence Military
Asylum.

1887 Uhl, Rev. L. L. D.D. Principal A.E.L.M. College,
Guntur, India.

1907 Ussher, W. A. H. Esq. F.G.S.

1876 Warsaru, Right Rev. William Leonard Williams, B.A.
Bishop of.

1893 Waller, Rev. C. Cameron, M.A. Camb. Principal of
Huron Coll.

1906 Wallington, Charles, Esq.

1892 Walter, Rev. H. M. M.A. Oriel Oxon.

1894 Ward, H. B. Esq.

1881 Waring, F. J. Esq. C.M.G. M.Inst.C.H.

1882 +Warrington, Miss EK.

1895 Way, the Right Hon. Sir Samuel James, D.C... LL.D.
Chief Justice S. Aust.

1895 Weaver, George M. Esq.

1879 Webb-Peploe, Rev. Prebendary H. W. M.A. Camb.

1898 Weightman, Miss Ialice.

1893*+WeELLDon, Right Rev. Bishop J. EH. C. D.D. Dean of
Manchester.

1889 +Wetuineton, Right Rev. Frederic Wallis, D.D.
Bishop of.

1887. Wherry, Rev. E. M. D.D. Lodhiana, Punjab, India.

1907 White, Rev. G. HE. M.A. B.D.

1882 White, Rev. J. M.A. T.C.D. Hon. M.A. Magd. Oxf.

1894 +Whitehead, Rev. George B.A. Lond.

1881 F Whiting, Rev. J. Bradford, M.A. Camb.

18709 + Whitmee, Rev. 8. J. F.R.G.S. Cor. Mem. Z.S.

1881 Williams, H. 8. Esq. M.A. F.R.A.S. A.C.

1882 Willis, The Ven. Archdeacon W. N.

1896 Wills, Harold Temple, Esq. M.A. B.Sc.

1907 Winfield, Rev. J. Abbott.

1885 Winslow, Rev. W.C. D.D. D.C.L. LL.D. L.H.D. D.Se.
S.T.D. Ph.D. Amer. Vice - President Hgypt
Exploration Fund.

1889 +Winter, The Ven. Archdeacon G. Smith.

1877 Wood, Rey. Canon A. Maitland, M.A.

1893 Wood, Peter F. Hsq. F.R.G.S.

257

1899 Wood, Walter James, Esq. F.R.M.S.

1892 +Woodd, Rev. C. H. Basil, M.A. Camb, Nat. Sci. Trip.
1890, M.A.

1877 Worthington, T. Esq. B.A. T.C.D.

1903 +Wright, Rev. Ernest Alexanderson, M.A.

MSF Young, Rev. Charles, M.A. Camb.

1894 Zimmerman, Rev. Jeremiah, M.A. D.D. LL.D.

CLERK.

1884 Montague, Mr. A. E.
77, Hungerford Road, Camden Road, N.W.

258

LIBRARY ASSOCIATES.

Adelaide Public Library, South Australia.
Berlin Royal Library (per Asher & Co.).
Birmingham Free Library.
Boston Public Library (per Kegan Paul & Co.).
Chicago University, U.S.A. |
Dublin Society, Royal.
- Harvard University (per Kegan Paul & Co.).
T Libraire Le Soudier, 1748, St. Germaine, Paris.
Manchester, The John Rylands Library.
t Melbourne Public Lib. and Museum, Melbourne, Victoria.
Michigan, University of Ann Arbor.
. Mitchell Library (F. T. Barrett, Esq.), 21, Miller Street,
Glasgow.
Newcastle-on-Tyne Public Library.
New York Public Library, New York, U.S.A.
Nottingham Public Library.
Ottawa, Library of Parliament.
Preston, Public Library.
Rochester Theological Seminary, U.S.A.
Rugby School Library.
Sydney Free Library, New South Wales.
Texas University, Austin, Texas, U.S.A.
Worcester Public Library, Mass., U.S.A.

HON. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

HOME.

1902 Ball, Sir R. S. LL.D. F.R.S. Prof. of Astronomy, Camb.
The Observatory, Cambridge.

1889 YConder, Colonel Claude Reignier, R.H. D.C.L. Mona,
Tivoli Road, Cheltenham.

1890 F Geikie, Prof. James, D.C.L. LL.D. F.R.S. F.R.S.E. F.G:S. ;
Prof, Geo. and Min. Univ. Edin. Hon. Mem. Phil. Soc.
York, Geo. Soc. Stockholm and Geo, Paleo. Hydrol.
Belg. Memb. Amer. Phil. Soc. Cor. Memb. Acad. Sci.
Phila. 31, Merchiston Avenue, Edinburgh.

1908> Gill; Sir David, K.C.B. LL.D: ‘FB.S. -34, De Vere
Gardens, Kensington, W.

1881 (Guppy, H. B. Esq. M.B. F.G.S, Mem. Min. Soc. &c. Rosario,
Salcombe, S. Devon.

1903 Howorth, Sir Henry H. K.C.LE. F.R.S. 30, Collinghamn
Place, S.W.

1888 (Hughes, Prof. T. M’K. M.A. F.R.S. F.S.A. F.G.8.; Wood-
wardian Prof. of Geology, Cambridge, Trin. Coll.
Camb. Ravensworth, Brooklands Avenue, Cambridge.

1878 Muircutnson, The Right Rev. J. D.D. D.C.L. Archdeacon
of Leicester, Hon. Fell. Pemb. Coll. Oxf.; Coadj.
Bp. of Peterborough; Hon. Canon of Canterbury.

1903 (Petrie, Prof. W. Flinders, D.C.L. 18, Well Road, Hamp-
stead, N.W.

1889*@Pinches, Theo. G. Esq. LL.D. 38, Blomfield Road, Maida
Hill, W.

1878 (Rassam, Hormuzd, Esq. F.R.G.S. 30, Westbourne Villas,
Hove, Brighton.

1889 YSayce, Rev. Prof. A. H. M.A. LL.D. Fellow and Tutor
Queen’s Coll. Oxford.

1899 Turner, Sir William, V.D. M.B. LL.D. D.C.L. D.Sc. F.RB.S.
Prof. Anatomy, Univ. Edin. 6, Hton Terrace, Edinburgh.

1905 Woodward, Dr. Henry F.R.S. F.G.S. 129, Beaufort Street,
Chelsea.

FOREIGN.

1895 His Masesty Kine Momotu Massaquor, West Africa.

1881 Abbe, Professor Cleveland, M.A. Assistant in the office of
the Chief Signal Officer of the Weather Bureau, U.S.A.

1888 Agassiz, Alexander, Esq. D.C.L. Prof. of Comp. Zoology,
Cambridge, Mass. U.S.A.

260
1895 Hilprecht, Rev. Professor H. V. D.D. Univ. of Pennsyl-

vania, U.S.A.
1893 Hommel, Prof. Fritz, Ph.D. LL.D. Prof. of Semitic
Languagesin Univ.of Munich, Leopolds Strasse 81 Munich.
1889 d’Hulst, Count Riamo, Cairo.
1895 Lugard, Brigadier-General F. J. D. C.B. D.8.O.
1896 4 Macloskie, Prof. G. D.Sc. LL.D. Prof. Biology (Princeton),
US:45
1883 4 Maspero, Prof. G. D.C.L. College de France, Cairo, Egypt ;
“Q4, Avenue de l Observatoire, Paris.
1904 Nansen, Prof. Fridtjof, D.Sc. LL.D. D.C.L. Lysaker, Norway.
1885 FNaville, EK. D.Lit. Ph.D. Malagny, Geneva, Switzerland.
1895 Sabatier, Professor Armand, M.D. Montpellier, France.
1898 Stosch, Rev. Prof. D.D. 24, Lutzow Street, Berlin.
1904 YUpham, Warren, Esq. M.A. D.Sc. F.G.S. Amer. Sec.
Minnesota Historical Society.
1898 Zahn, Rev. Prof. T. H. Erlangen.

SPECIAL.

1883 Beckwith, The Right Rev. J. W. D.D. U.S.A.

1878 Haiti, The Right Rev. J. T. Holly, D.D. Bishop of, Port-au-
Prince, Haitt.

1884 Herzog, Right Rev. HE. D.D. Bishop of the Old Catholic
Ch. of Switzerland, Berne.

1878 Jaggar, Right Rev. Bishop T. A. D.D. Bishop of S. Ohio,
Episcopal Rooms, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.

1892 Lucknow, Right Rev. A. Clifford, D.D. Bishop of, Allahabad,
India.

1886 Mylne, Right Rev. L. G. D.D. Alvechurch Rectory,
Birmingham.

1888 North China, Right Rev. C. P. Scott, Bishop of, Peking,
North China.

1890 Ottawa, Right Rev. C. Hamilton, D.D. D.C.L. Bishop of.

1880 Vail, Right Rev. T. H. D.D. Bishop, U.S.A.

1890 Wakefield, Right Rev. G. R. Eden, D.D. Bishop of.

~ 261

HON. CORRESPONDENTS.

Adams, Rev. Richard, M.A. T.C.D. 87 Burntwood Lane, S.E.

Anderson, J. F. Esq. F.R.G.S. Melrose, Curepipe, Mauritius.

Batchelor, W. Esq. 7, Agnes toad, Northampton.

Brants, M. A. Esq. Ph.D. Burgomaster, Schiedam, Holland.

Brown, Rev. J. B. M.A. St. James’ Vicarage, Darwen.

Burke, Rev. R. G. M.A. LL.B. Lilydale Melbourne.

Caldecott, Rev. Professor A. M.A. B.D. Longton Avenue, Sydenham,
S.H

Clarke, Rev. J. M. M.A. 2, Hlms Park Terrace, Ramsgate.

Corbet, Frederick H. M. Esq. Barrister-at-Law, F.R.C.I. F.I.Inst.
Hon. Executive Officer for Ceylon at the Imperial
Institute, 42, Kenilworth Avenue, Wimbledon.

Dallinger, Rev. W. EH. D.D. LL.D. F.R.S., Ingleside, Newstead
Road, Lee, S.H.

Davis, Rev. W. B. M.A. Lupton, Torquay.

Dixon, Prof. J. M. Washington Univ. St. Louis, Mo. U.S.A.

East, Rev. H. BE. Leithfield, Christchurch, New Zealand.

@ Hells, Rev. M., M.A. Union Crty, Mason Co. Washington, D.C.,
U.S.A.

Finn, Mrs. 75, Brook Green, W.

Fleming, Rey. T. S. F.R.G.S. Boston Spa, Leeds (ff).

Foster, Harry 8. Esq. J.P. F.R.G.S. Consul for Persia, 82, Victoria
Street, S.W.

Gissing, Admiral C. HE. R.N. (ret.) F.R.G.S. United Service Club,
S.W.; Homestead, Queen’s Park, South Drive, Bowrne-
mouth.

Gubbins, Surgeon-General W. L. M.D. Army Medical Staff, War
Office, 18, Victoria Street, S.W.; St. John’s, Worcester
Park, Surrey.

‘Habershon, M. H. Esq. Greenhead Cottage, Chapeltown, Sheffield.

Harris, A. H. Esq. c/o I.M. Customs, Shanghar, China.

Harrison, Rev. A. J. B.D. LL.D. Magdalen Lodge, North End,
Newcastle.

Hassell, Joseph, Hsq. Brittany Lodge, London Road, St.
Leonards.

Hetherington, Rev. J. St. Peter’s Vicarage, Hull.

Hudson, Rev. Canon J. C. M.A. Vhornton Vicarage, Horn-
castle.

Hutchinson, Rev. A. B. Fukuoka, Japan.

Kydd, Robert, Esq. 164, Stobcross Street, Glasgow.

McLeod, Rev. R. F. Walsden Vicarage, Todmorden.

Nutt, Rev. George, The Rectory, Lluidas Vale, Jamaica.

tOates, Rev. W. Somerset Hast, South Africa.

tO’Donel, G. H. Esq. Mission School, Seont Chappara, C.P. India.

Oliver, Rev. T. D.D. 118, Hampton Road, Southport.

262

Painter, Rev. W. Hunt, Stirchley Rectory, Shifnal, Salop.

@ Parker, Prof. H. W. 47, 7ih Avenue, New York, N.Y. U.S.A.

tPeet, Rev. Stephen D. Ph.D. Editor ‘‘ American Antiquarian,”
9817 Madison Avenue, Chicago, Ill. U.S.A.

Petherick, Rev. G. W. B.A. Hawksleigh, Southport.

q Post, Rev. Prof. G. E. M.A. M.D. D.DISy Filis- Sarceon
Johanniter Hosp. Syrian Protestant College, Beyrout.

Postlethwaite, J. Hsq. F.G.8. Chalcedony House, Eskin Place,
Keswick.

Rage, Rev. F. W. M.A. The Manor House, Lower Boddington,
Byfield.

Ramanathan, P. B.A., M.R.A.S., F.R.H.S., Mandnmani Villas,
Chintadripet, Madras.

Redman, Rev. J. Simla, India.

tRobertson, Rev. Alex. D.D. Ca‘ Strawn, Ponte Della Salute, Venice.

Ross, Rev. H. D.D. LL.D. F.C.S. Memb. R. Soc. of Arts of Port
Louis, Dallas House, Lancaster.

Shipham, Rev. abe, The Modan, Matlock Bridge.

Simpson, Prof. J. Y. M.A. D.Sc. F.RB.8.E. New College, Edinburgh.

Stefansson, Jon, Esq. Ph.D.

Storrs, Rew W. T. B.D. Vicarage, Sandown, I. W.

+Taylor, Rev. Canon R. St. Stephen's, Newtown, Sydney, N.S.W.

Thomas, Rev. James, British and Foreign Bible Society,
146, Queen Victoria Street, H.C.

@Tisdall, Rev. W. St. Clair, M.A. 32, Kimbolton Road, Bedford.

Tyndall, Mrs. Colepark, Twickenham.

Walter, Rev. J. C. B.A. Langton Rectory, Horncastle.

Weidemann, Professor Alfred, Ph.D. 2, Kénig St. Bonn.

Whiteway, Rev. R. W. B. Beulah House, Selby, Yorks.

Williams, W. Esq. Supt. Govt. Telegraphs, India (ret.), Crofton,
Combe Park, Bath.

Willis, R. N. Esq. M.B. 2, Carlton Terrace, Rathmines, Dublin.

Willis, T. Gilbert, Esq. 4, Kildare Street, Dublin.

Winslow, Rev. W.C. Ph.D. D.D. D.C.L. LL.D. D.Sc. 525, Beacon
Street, Boston, U.S.A.

Zwemer, Rev. S. M. M.A. D.D. F.R.G.8S. Bahrein, Persian Gulf.

263

MISSIONARY ASSOCIATES.

Bomford, Rev. Trevor, M.A. Tarn Taran, Punjab.

Byrde, Rev. Louis, B.A., Nagoya, Japan.

Carpentaria, Right Rev. Bishop of, Thursday+Island, Queensland.
Carus-Wilson, E., Esq. Woodlea, Barnet, N.

Elwin, Rev. W. H. 7, Sasugaya Cho, Koishikawa, Tokyo.
Joseland, Rev. Frank P. Amoy, China.

Moule, Rev. W. 8S. B.A. Ningpo, China.

Mylrea, Rev. C, Stanley G. M.D. Bahrein, Arabia.
Reade, Miss F. Theologcial Library, Cuddalore, S. India.
Robinson, Miss L. G. Berhampore, Bengal.

Turner, Rev. G. Reynolds, M.B. Hwei-an-hsein, S. China.
Woodley, Rev. E. C. London Mission College, Calcutta.

264,

SOCIETIES EXCHANGING TRANSACTIONS WITH
THE INSTITUTE.

American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
American Archeological Institute.
American Geographical Society.
American Geological Society.

American Journal of Philology (John Hopkins Press).
American Philosophical Society.
Anthropological Society, New York.
Anthropological Society, Washington.
Canadian Institute.

Colonial Museum of New Zealand.
Geographical Society of the Pacific.
Geographical Society of California.
Geological Society.

Harvard Museum of Comp. Zoology.
Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society.
Michigan, Agricultural College of, U.S.
New Zealand Institute.

Nova Scotian Inst. of Natural Science.
Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay.

Royal Colonial Institute.

Royal Dublin Society.

Royal Geographical Society.

Royal Institution.

Royal Irish Academy.

The Royal Society.

Royal Society of Canada.

Royal United Service Institution.
Smithsonian Institution (Washington).
Société Scientifique du Chiii,

Society of Arts.

Society of Biblical Literature, U.S.

Soc. Bib. Lit. and Exeg., Boston.

Sydney Museum, New South Wales.
Sydney Observatory, New South Wales.
United States Bureau of Ethnology.
United States Geological Survey.

United States Government Geological and Geographical Survey.
United States Government Reports.

OBJECTS, CONSTITUTION, AND BYE-LAWS

Che Victoria Institute,

Philosophical Soctety of Great Aritain.

Adopted at the First Annual General Meeting of the Members and Associates
May 27th, 1867, with Revisions of 1874-75.

§ I. Objects.

1. Tae Vicrorra Instrrote, or PuimosopHicat Socrety or Grear
Britatn, is established for the purpose of promoting the fol-

lowing objects, viz.:—

First. To investigate fully and impartially the most important
guestions of Philosophy and Science, but more especially those
that bear upon the great truths revealed in Holy Scripture;
with the view of reconciling any apparent discrepancies
between Christianity and Science.

Second. To associate together men of Science and authors who
have already been engaged in such investigations, and all
others who may be interested in them, in order to strengthen
their efforts by association; and, by bringing together the
results of such labours, after full discussion, in the printed
transactions of an Institution: to give greater force and
influence to proofs and arguments which might be little
known, or even disregarded, if put forward merely by
individuals.

* bo

il
Third. To consider the mutual bearings of the various scientific
conclusions arrived at in the several distinct branches into
which Science is now divided, in order to get rid of contra-
dictions and conflicting hypotheses, and thus promote the real
advancement of true science; and to examine and discuss all
supposed scientific results with reference to final causes, and
the more comprehensive and fundamental principles of Philo-

sophy proper, based upon faith in the existence of one Eternal
God, who, in His wisdom, created all things very good.

Fourth. To publish Papers read before the Society in furtherance
of the above objects, along with full reports of the discussions
thereon, in the form of a Journal, or as the Transactions of
the Institute.

Fifth. When subjects have been fully discussed, to make the results
known by means of Lectures of a more pepular kind, and to
publish such Lectures.

Sixth. To publish English translations of important foreign works
of real scientific and philosophical value, especially those
bearing upon the relation between the Scriptures and Science;
and to co-operate with other philosophical societies at home
and abroad, which are now or may hereafter be formed, in the
interest of Scriptural truth and of real science, and generally
in furtherance of the objects of this Society.

Seventh. To found a Library and Reading Rooms for the use of
the Members and Associates of the Institute, combining the
principal advantages of a Literary Club.

S IL. Constitution.

1. The Society shall consist of Members and Associates, who in
future shall be elected as hereinafter set forth.

2. The government of the Society shall be vested in a Council
(whose Members shall be chosen from among the Members and
Associates of the Society and be professedly Christians), consisting of a
President, two or more (not exceeding seven) Vice-Presidents, a
Treasurer, one or more Honorary Secretaries, and twelve or more (not
exceeding twenty-four) Ordinary Members of Council. who shall be

ill

elected at the Annual General Meeting of the Members and Associates
of the Institute. But, in the interval between two Annual Meetings,
vacancies in the Council may be filled up by the Council from among the
Members of the Society; and the Members chosen as Trustees of the
funds of the Institute shall be ex officio Members of Council.

3. Any person desirous of becoming a Member or Associate shall
make application for admission by subscribing the Form A of the
Appendix, which must be signed by two Members of the Institute, or
by a Member of Council, recommending the candidate for admission as a

Member ; or by any one Member of the Institute, for admission as an
Associate.

4. Upon such application being transmitted to one of the Secretaries,
the candidate for admission may be elected by the Council, and enrolled
as a Member or Associate of the Victoria Institute, in such manner
as the Council may deem proper ; having recourse to a ballot, if thought
necessary, as regards the election of Members; in which case no person
shall be considered as elected unless he have three-fourths of the votes in
luis favour.

5. Application for admission to join the Institute being thus made
by subscribing Form A, as before prescribed, such application shall
be considered as ipso facto pledging all who are thereupon admitted
as Members or Associates to observe the Rules and Bye-Laws of the
Society, and as indicative of their desire and intention to further its
objects and interests; and it is also to be understood that only such as
are protessedly Christians are entitled to become Members.

6. Each Member shall pay an Entrance Fee of One Guinea and an
Annual Contribution of Two Guineas. A Donation of Twenty Guineas
shall constitute the donor a Life Member.

7. Each Associate shall pay an Annual Contribution of One Guinea.
A donation of Ten Guineas shall constitute the donor a Life Associate.

8. The Annual Contributions shall be considered as due in advance
on the lst day of January in each year, and shall be paid within three
months after that date; or, in the case of new admissions within three
months after election.

9. Any Member or Associate who contributes a donation in one sum
of not less than Sixty Guineas to the funds of the Institute shall be

Vv
enrolled as a Vice-Patron thereof, and will thus also become a Life
Member or Life Associate, as the case may be.

10. Should any member of the Royal Family hereafter become the
Patron, or a Vice-Patron, or Member of the Institute, the connexion
shall be regarded as purely Honorary ; and none of the Rules and Bye-
Laws relating to donations, annual contributions or obligations to serve
in any office of the Society, shall be considered as applicable to such
personages of Royal Blood.

11. Any Member or Associate may withdraw from the Society at any
time, by signifying a desire to do so by letter, addressed to one of the
Secretaries ; but such shall be liable for the contribution of the current
year, and shall continue liable for the annual contribution, until all sums
due to the Society from such Member or Associate shall have been paid,
and all books or other property borrowed from the Society shall have
been returned or replaced.

12. Should there appear cause, in the opinion of the Council, for the
exclusion from the Society of any Member or Associate, a private
intimation may be made by direction of the Council, in order to give
such Member or Associate an opportunity of withdrawing from the
Society ; but, if deemed necessary by the Council, a Special General
Meeting of Members shall be called for the purpose of considering
the propriety of expelling any such person: whereat, if eleven or more
Members shall ballot, and a majority of those balloting shall vote that
such person be expelled, he shall be expelled accordingly. One month’s
notice, at least, shall be given to the Members of any such Special General

Meeting.

13. Non-resident Members and Associates, or others desirous of
promoting the objects and interests of the Institute, may be elected by
the Council to act as corresponding Members abroad, or as Honorary
Local Secretaries, if within the United Kingdom, under such arrange-

ments as the Council may deem advisable.

14. The whole property and effects of the Society shall be vested in
two or more Trustees, who shall be chosen at a General Meeting of the
Society. The Trustees are empowered to invest such sums as the Council
may, from time to time, place in their hands, in, or upon any of the Stocks,
Funds, or Securities, for the time being, authorised by statute for the
investment of trust funds by trustees, and shall have the usual powers of
trustees in regard thereto. [The President, Hon. Treasurer, and Hon.

Secretary may officially give effect to such resolutions as a General
Meeting may pass in regard thereto. ]

14a. All moneys received on account of the Institute shall be duly
paid to its credit at the Bankers, and all cheques shall be drawn, under
authority of the Council, and shall be signed by the Honorary Treasurer
and Honorary Secretary.

15. The accounts shall be audited annually, by a Committee, con-
sisting of two Members,—one of whom may be on the Council,—to
be elected at an Ordinary Meeting of the Society preceding the
Anniversary Meeting. This Committee shall make a written Report
to the Council at the first Meeting after such audit, and also to the
Institute, upon the day of the Annual General Meeting,—stating the
balance in the Treasurer’s hands and the general state of the funds of the
Institute.

16. Both Members and Associates shall have the right to be present
to state their opinion, and to vote by show of hands at all General and
Ordinary Meetings of the Society ; but Members only shall be entitled to
vote by ballot, when a ballot is taken in order to determine any question

at a General Meeting.

§ ILI. Bye-Laws (Privileges).

1. A Member or Associate, when elected, shall be so informed by
the Secretary in a printed copy of the letters, Form B, in the Appendix.

2. Members and Associates shall not be entitled to any privileges, or
have the right to be present, or to vote at any of the Meetings of the
Society, till they have paid the contributions due by them.

3. Annual subscriptions shall be considered as in arrear,
if not paid on or before 3lst March in each year, or within
three months after election, as the case may be.

4, Should any annual subscription remain in arrear to the 30th June,
or for six months after election, the Treasurer shall cause to be forwarded
to the Member or Associate from whom the subscription is due, a letter,
Form D, in the Appendix, unless such Member or Associate reside out of
the United Kingdom ; in which case the Form D shall not be sent unless
the subscription continues unpaid till the 30th September.

5. If any arrears be not paid within tweive months, the Council shall

use their discretion in erasing the name of the defaulter from the list of
Members or Associates.

6. Members shall be entitled to introduce two Visitors at the
Ordinary Meetings of the Society; and to have sent to them a copy
of all the Papers read before the Society, which may be printed in its
Transactions or otherwise, and of all other official documents which
the Council may cause to be printed for the Society ; they will also be
entitled to a copy of all such translations of foreign works or other books

as are published under the auspices of the Society in furtherance of
Object 6 (§ L.).

7. Associates may introduce two Visitors at the Ordinary Meetings, and
shall be entitled to all the minor publications of the Society, and to a
copy of its Transactions during the period of their being Associates, but
not to the translations of foreign works or other books above referred to.*
It shall, however, be competent to the Council of the Society, when its
funds will admit of it, to issue the other publications of the Society to
Associates, being ministers of religion, either gratuitously or at as small
a charge as the Council may deem proper.

8. When it shall be found necessary to send the letter, Form D, to any
Member or Associate who may be in arrear, the printed papers and other
publications of the Society shall cease to be sent to such Member or
Associate till the arrears are paid; and, until then, he shall not be
allowed to attend any Meeting of the Society, nor have access to any
public rooms which may be in its occupation.

9. The Libraryt shall be under the management and direction of the
Council, who are empowered to designate such works as shall not be
allowed to circulate.

10. Each Member{ shall be allowed to borrow books from the
Library, and to have not more than three volumes in his possession at
the same time; pamphlets and periodical publications not to be kept
above fourteen days, nor any other book above three weeks.

11. Members who may borrow books from the Library shall be
answerable for the full value of any work that is lost or injured.

* These, as well as the Transactions issued in the years previous to
their joining, may be purchased at half price.

t For the use of Members and Associates.—See 7th Object.

t Members only are allowed to take books away,

vil

12. Periodical publications shall remain on the table for a month
other books for a fortnight, after they are received.

13. When a book or pamphlet is wanted, and has been the stipulated
time in the possession of any Member, the Secretary shall request its
return, and a fine of threepence a day shall be incurred for every day it
may be detained, which fine shall commence on the third day after the
transmission of the notice in the case of town Members, and after the
sixth day in the case of country Members ; and until the return of such
works, and the discharge of all fines incurred, no further issue of books
shall be permitted to the Member applied to.

14. The books shall be ordered in for inspection at such times as the
Council shall appoint, and a fine of half-a-crown shall be incurred for
neglecting to send in books by the time required in the notice.

15. A book shall lie on the Library table in which Members may
insert, for the consideration of the Council, the titles of such works as
they desire to be purchased for the Institute.

§ IV. Bye-Laws (General, Ordinary, and Intermediate Meeting).

1. A General Meeting of Members and Associates shall be held
annually on 24th May (being Her late Majesty’s birthday, and the Society’s
anniversary), or on the Monday following, or on such other day as the
Council may determine as most convenient, to receive the Report of the
Council on the state of the Society, and to deliberate thereon; and to
discuss and determine such matters as may be brought forward relative
to the affairs of the Society ; also, to elect the Council and Officers for the

ensuing year.

2. The Council shall call a Special General Meeting of the Members
and Associates, when it seems to them necessary, or when required to do
so by requisition, signed by not less than ten Members and Associates,
specifying the question intended to be submitted to such Meeting. Two
weeks’ notice must be given of any such Special General Meeting; and
only the subjects of which notice has been given shall be discussed
thereat.

3. The Ordinary Meetings of the Society shall usually be held on the
first and the Intermediate Meetings on the third Monday evenings in
each month, from November to June inclusive or on such other evenings

; vill

as the Council may determine to be convenient: and a printed card of
the Meetings for each Session shall be forwarded to each Member and

Associate.

4, At the Ordinary and Intermediate Meetings the order of proceeding
shall be as follows: The President, or one of the Vice-Presidents, or a
Member of the Council, shall take the chair at 4.30 o’clock precisely, the
minutes of the last Ordinary or Intermediate Meeting shall be read aloud
by one of the Secretaries, and, if found correct, shall be signed by the
Chairman ; the names of new Members and Associates shall be read ; the
presents made to the Society since their last Meeting shall be announced ;
and any other communications which the Council think desirable shall be
made to the Meeting. After which, the Paper or Papers intended for
the evening’s discussion shall be announced and read, and the persons
present shall be invited by the Chairman to make any observations

thereon which they may wish to offer.

The claims of Members and Associates to take part in a discussion
are prior to those of Visitors. The latter when desiring to speak
upon any Paper, must first send their cards to the Chairman and
ask permission (unless they have been specially invited by the
Council “to attend, and join in considering the subject before
the Meeting,” or are called upon by the Chairman). 1875.

5. The Papers read before the Society, and the discussions thereon
fully reported, shall be printed by order of the Council; or, if not, the
Council shall, if they see fit, state the grounds upon which this Rule has
been departed from, in the printed Journal or Transactions of the Society.

6. The Council may at their discretion authorise Papers of a general
kind to be read at any of the Ordinary or Intermediate Meetings, either
as introductory lectures upon subjects proper to be afterwards discussed,
or as the results of discussions which have taken place, in furtherance of
the 5th Object of the Society (§ I.).

7. With respect to Intermediate Meetings, the Papers read at which
are not necessarily printed nor the discussions reported,* the Council at
its discretion may request any lecturer or author of a Paper to be read
thereat, previously to submit an outline of the proposed method of

treating his subject.

(SS

’
* So arranged when the “ Intermediate Meetings” were commenced,
16th January, 1871.

8. At the Ordinary or Intermediate Meetings no question relating to
the Rules or General Management of the affairs of the Society shall be

introduced, discussed or determined.

§ V. Bye-Laws (Council Meetings).

1. The Council shall meet at least once every month from November
to June inclusive, or at any other time and on such days as they may
deem expedient. The President, or any three Members of the Council,
may at any time call a Special Meeting, to which the whole Council shall

be summoned.

2. At Council Meetings three shall be a quorum; the decision of the
majovity shall be considered as the decision of the Meeting, and the

Chairman shall have a casting vote.

3. Minutes of the Proceedings shall be taken by one of the Secretaries,
or, in case of his absence, by some other Member present, whom the
Chairman may appoint ; which Minutes shall afterwards be entered in a
minute-book kept for that purpose, and read at the next Meeting of the
Council, when, if found correct, they shall be signed by the Chairman.

§ VI. Bye-Laws (Papers).

1. Papers presented to be read before the Society shall, when read, be
considered as the property of the Society, unless there shall have been
any previous engagement with its author to the contrary; and the
Council may cause the same to be published in any way and at any time
they may think proper after having been read. If a Paper be not read,
it shall be returned to the author; and, if a Paper be not published.
within a reasonable time after having been read, the author shall be
entitled himself to publish it, and he may borrow it for that purpose.

2. When a Paper is sent to the Society for the purpose of being read, it
shall be laid before the Council, who shall refer it to two of that body, or
of the other Members or Associates of the Society whom they may select,
for their opinions as to the character of the Paper and its fitness or
otherwise for being read before the Society, which they shall state as
briefly as may be, in writing, along with the grounds of their respective
opinions. Should one of such opinions be adverse to the Paper and
against its being read before the Society, then it shall be referred to some
other referee, who is unaware of the opinion already pronounced upon the
Paper, in order that he may state his opinion upon it in like manner.
Should this opinion be adverse to the Paper, the Council shall then

consult and decide whether the Paper shall be rejected or read ; and, if
rejected, the Paper shall be returned to the author with an intimation of
the purport of the adverse opinions which have been given with respect to
Ge but the names of the referees are not to be communicated to him,
unless with their consent or by order of the Council. All such references
and communications are to be regarded as confidential, except in so far as
the Council may please to direct otherwise.

3. The Council may authorise Papers to be read without such previous
reference for an opinion thereon ; and when a Paper has been referred,
and the opinion is in favour of its being read in whole or in part, the
Council shall then cause it to be placed in the List of Papers to be so
read accordingly, and the author shall receive due notice of the evening
fixed for its reading.

4, The authors of Papers read before the Society shall, if they desire
it, be presented with twenty-five separate copies of their Paper, with the
discussion thereon, or with such other number as may be determined upon
by the Council.

§ VII. Bye-Laws (General).

1. The government of the Society, and the management of its
concerns are entrusted to the Council, subject to no other restrictions
than are herein imposed, and to no other interference than may arise
from the acts of Members in General Meeting assembled.

2. With respect to the duties of the President, Vice-Presidents,
and other Officers and Members of Council, and any other matters not
herein specially provided for, the Council may make such regulations and
arrangements as they deem proper, and as shall appear to them most
conducive to the good government and management of the Society, and
the promotion of its objects. And the Council may hire apartments, and
appoint persons not beng Members of the Council, nor Members or
Associates of the Institute, to be salaried officers, clerks, or servants, for
carrying on the necessary business of the Society; and may allow them
respectively such salaries, gratuities, and privileges, as to them, the
Council, may seem proper ; and they may suspend any such officer, clerk
or servant from his office and duties, whenever there shall seem to them
occasion ; provided always, that every such appointment or suspension
shall be reported by the Council to the next ensuing General Meeting of
the Members to be then confirmed or otherwise as such Meeting may
think fit.

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‘VY Wdod

FORM B.

STR, 19

I have the pleasure to inform you, with reference to
your application dated the , that you have
duly been elected a of the Victoria InstiruTE, o8

PHILOSOPHICAL Sociery oF GREAT BRITAIN.

I have the honour to be, Sir,
Your faithful Servant,

To Sec.

FORM C.

(Bankers) Messrs.

* Please pay Messrs. Barctay & Co., 1, Pall Mall Kast, S.W.,
my Annual Contribution of Two Guineas to the VICTORIA
INSTITUTE, due on the Ist of January, 19 , and the same

amount on that day in every succeeding year, until further notice.

I am,
Your obedient Servant,

197

If this Form be used, please add your Signature, Banker’s Name, and the
Date, and return it to the Office, 1, Adelphi Terrace House, W.C. Receipt-
stamp required,

* The above is the form for Members. The form for Associates is the same
except that the Subscription stands as ‘ONE GUINEA.”

THE JOURNAL OF THE TRANSACTIONS
ISSUED DURING PAST YEARS.

Since the Inauguration of the Society, the following Papers have been read :—-
The Quarterly Parts of the Journal are indicated by the numbers prefixed. (The
volumes are sold at One Guinea to Non-Members; Half-a-Guinea to Members and
Associates ; those issued during the years of subscription are not charged for.)

Fined cents VOLS: Tt FO. 5.

VOL. I.

1. A Sketch of the Existing Relations between Scripture and Science. By the late GEORGE
WARINGTON, Esq., F.C.S.
2. On the Difference in Scope between Scripture and Science. By the late C. MoUNTFoRD
BuRNETT, Esq., M.D., Vice-President V.I.
On Comparative Philology. By the Rev. Roprnson THORNTON, D.D., Vice-President V.I.
On the Various Theories of Man’s Past and Present Condition. By the late JAMES
REDDIE, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I.
3. On the Language of Gesticulation and Origin of Speech. By Professor J. R. YounG.
On Miracles: their Compatibility with Philosophical Principles. By the Rev. W. W.
Enauisu, M.A,
Thoughts on Miracles. By the late E. B. Penny, Esq-
On the General Character of Geological Formations. By the late E. HopKINs, Esq., C.1.
4. On the Past and Present Relations of Geological Science to the Sacred Scriptures. By the
Rev. Professor JoHN Kirk.
On the Lessons taught us by Geology in relation to God. Rev. J. Bropig, M.A.
On the Mutual Helpfulness of Theology and Natural Science. By Dr. GLADSTONE, F.R.S.
On Falling Stars and Meteorites. By the late Rev. W. MrrcHE tt, M.A., Vice-President V.I.
(The above Papers, with the Discussions thereon, and with “ Scientia Scientiarum: being
some Account of the Origin and Objects of the Victoria Institute,” with the Reports of
the Provisional Proceedings, and the Inaugural Address by the late Rev. Walter Mitchell,
M.A., Vice-President, form Vol. I. of the “ Journal.)

MO TET.

5. (On the Terrestrial Changes and Probable Ages of the Contineuts, founded upon Astro-
nomical Data and Geological Facts. By the late EvAN Hopkins, Esq., C.E., F.G.S.
On the Credibility of Darwinism. By the late GEoRGE WARINGTON, Esq., F.C.S.
On the Credibility of Darwinism. By the late JAMEs REppIz£, Hsq., Hon. Sec. V.I.
6. | On Utilitarianism. By the late JAMES REpDprE, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I.
| On the Logic of Scepticism. By the Rev. Ropryson TuHornton, D.D., V.P.

} Annual Address (On the Institute’s Work). By the late James REDDIE, Esq., Hon. Sec.V.I.

7.) On the Relations of Metaphysical and Physical Science to the Christian Doctrine of

Prayer. By the Rev. Professor JoHN Kirk. ;

On Geological Chronology, and the Cogency of the Arguments by which some Scientific
Doctrines are supported. (In reply to Professor Huxley’s Address delivered at Sion
College on 21st Nov., 1867.) By the late J. Reppre, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I. (1867-68).

8. | On the Geometrical Isomorphism of Crystals, and the Derivation of all other Forms from

L those of the Cubical System. (6 Plates.) By the late Rev. W. MitcuEy. M.A., V.P.

XIV

VOL, IIT,

9. On the Antiquity of Civilisation. By the late Bishop Trrcoms, D.D.

On Life, with some Observations on its Origin. By J. H. WHEATLEY, Esq., Ph.D.

On the Unphilosophical Character of some Objections to the Divine Inspiration of Scrip-
ture. By the late Rev. WALTER MITrcHELL, M.A.

On Comparative Psychology. By E. J. Morsuran, Esq., Hon. For. Sec. V.I.

10. On Theology as a Science. By the late Rev. A. DE LA Marg, M.A.

On the Immediate Derivation of Science from the Great First Cause. By R. Larne, Esq.

On some of the Philosophical Principles contained in Mr. Buckle’s “ History of Civilisa-
tion,” in reference to the Laws of the Moral and Religious Developments of Man. By
the Rev. Prebendary C. A. Row, M.A.

On the Nature of Human Language, the Necessities of Scientific Phraseology, and the
Application of the Principles of both to the Interpretation of Holy Scripture. By the

Rev. J. BAYLEE, D.D.
11. Onthe Common Origin of the American Races with those of the Old World. By the late

Bishop TrrcomB, D.D.
On the Simplification of first Principles in Physical Science. By the late C. Brooxg, F.R.S.
On the Biblical Cosmogony scientifically considered. By late G. WARINGTON, Esq., F.C.S.
On Ethical Philosophy. By the Rev. W. W. ENGLisu, M.A.
12. On some Uses of Sacred Primeval History. By the late D. McCausLanp, Esq., Q.C., LL.D.
On the Relation of Reason to Philosophy, Theology, and Revelation. By the Rev. Preb.

C. A. Row, M.A.

VOL, Ay.

13, ( Analysis of Human Responsibility. By the late Prebendary Irons, D.D. (And part 16.)
On the Doctrine of Creation according to Darwin, Agassiz, and Moses. By Prof. Kirx.
14. | On the Noachian Deluge. By the Rey. M. DAvison.
On Life—Its Origin. By J. H. WHEATLEY, Esq., Ph.D.
| On Man’s Place in Creation. By the late Professor MACDONALD, M.D.
15. | On More than One Universal Deluge recorded in Scripture. By late Rev. H. Mounz, M.A.
4 On Certain Analogies between the Methods of Deity in Nature and Revelation. By the
Rev. G. HENsLow, M.A., F.L.S. :
On the Respective Provinces of the Observer and the Reasoner in Scientific Investigation.
By the Rev. Epwarp GABBETT, M.A.
| On the Credulity of Scepticism. By the Rev. R. THornton, D.D., V-.P.
. | On Current Physical Astronomy, By the late J. ReppIE£, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I.

16
i Analysis of Human Responsibility. By thelate Preb. Irons, D.D. (See part 13.) Concluded.

VOL. VY.

19. On the Origin of the Negro. By the late Bishop Trrcomp, D.D.
On the Testimony of Philosophy to Christianity as a Moral and Spiritual Revelation. By
the Rev. Preb. C. A. Row, M.A.
On the Numerical System of the Old Testament. By the Rev. Dr. THoRNTON, V.P.
18. On Spontaneous Generation; or, the Problem of Life. By the Rev. Prof. Kirk,
A Demonstration of the Existence of God. By the Rev. J. M’Cann, D.D.
Why Man must Believe in God.. By the late JAMES REDpIE, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I1.
19. OnGeological Proofs of Divine Action. By 8. R. Parrison, Esq., F.G.S8.
On True Anthropology. By W. HitcHMAN, Esq., M.D.
On Comparative Psychology. (Second Paper.) By K. J. MorsHEAD, Esq., Hon. For. See. V.I.
20. On the High Numbers in the Pentateuch. By P. H. Gossz, Esq., F.R.S., V.P.
Israelin Egypt. By the late Rev. H. MouLe, M.A.

MEW SERIES.

BEING THE VOLUMES CONTAINING THE MORE MODERN PAPERS.

VOL. VI. 1s tHE FIRst OF THIS SERIES.

4) (On Civilisation, Moral and Material. (Also in Reply to Sir John Lubbock on ** Primitive
Man.”) By the late J. Reppie, Ksq., Hon. Sec. V.I.

On Dr. Newman’s ‘‘ Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent.” By the Rev. Preb. Row, M.A.

On the Evidenee of the Eeyptian Monuments to the Sojourn of Israel in Egypt. By the
Rev. B.. W. SAvIuE, M.A.

On the Moabite Stone. By Captain F. PErriE, Hon. Sec.

On Phyllotaxis; or, the Arrangement of Leaves in Accordance with Mathematical Laws.
By the Rev. G. HENsLow, M.A., F.L.S.

On Prehistoric Monotheism, considered in relation to Man as an Aboriginal Savage. By
the late Bishop Tircoms, D.D.

23. | On Biblical Pneumatology and Psychology. By the Rev. W. W. ENeuisn, M.A.

On Some Scriptural Aspects of Man’s Tripartite Nature. By the Rev. C. GRAHAM.

On Ethnic Testimonies to the Pentateuch. By the late Bishop Tircoms, D.D.

On the Darwinian Theory. By the late Prebendary Irons, D.D.

Serpent Myths of Ancient Egypt. By the late W. R. Cooper, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.R.A.S.,

Ly Sec. Soc. Biblical Archeology. 129 Illustrations.

22.

24.

VO VEL:

25. (On Natural Theology, considered with respect to Modern Philosophy. By the Rev. G,
HEnsiow, M.A., F.L.8.
On Fatalism. Contributed by the Rev. J. Ropgrys, D.D.
26. | On Darwinism Tested by Recent Researches in Language. By F. BATEMAN, Esq., M.D., &e.
' On Force and its Manifestations. By the Rev. J. M‘Cann, D.D.
On Professor 'Il'yndall’s ‘‘ Fragments of Science for Unscientific People.” By the late
Prebendary Irons, D.D.
< On the Origin of the Moral Sense. By the Rev. Professor Krrx.
On Force and Energy. By the late CuARLES Brooks, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
27. | On Darwinism and its Effects upon Religious T hought. By CuK. BREE, Hisq.; MD... é&e:
Remarks on Some of the Current Principles of Historic Criticism. By Rev. Preb. liow, M.A.
On ‘Scientific Factsand Christian Evidence.” By the late J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S.
28. | On the “ Law of Creation—Unity of Plan, Variety of Form.” By Rev. G.W.WELpoN, M.A.
Some Remarks on the Present Aspect of Inquiries as to the Introduction of Genera and
Species in Geological Time. By V.-Chancellor J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S.

MOD VEE,

29. The Paleolithic Age Examined. By N. Wut ey, Esq.

(Annual Address.) On the Moral and Social Anarchy of Modern Unbelief. Fy the late
Principal T. P. BoutrBer, LL.D.

30. On the Identity of Reason in Science and Religion. Rev. R. MircHett.

On Buddhism. By the Right Rev. Bishop Piers C. CLAveuron, D.D., &c., with communi-
cations from Professors CHANDLER and BREWER.
On the Contrast between Crystallisation and Life. By the late J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S.

31. On the Brixham Cavern and its Testimony to the Antiquity of Man—examined. By
N. Whitey, Esq., Sec. Royal Inst. of Cornwall.

On the Rules of Evidence as applicable to the Credibility of History. By W. Forsyrn,
Ksq., Q.C., LL.D., Vice-President.

On the Principles of Modern Pantheistic and Atheistic Philosophy as expressed in the last
work of Strauss, Mill, &c. By the Rev. Prebendary C. A. Row, M.A. Paper on the
same, by late Prof. CHAuuis, M.A:, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

On Prehistoric Traditions and Customs in Connexion with Sun and Serpent Worship.
By J. 8. Putnz, Esq., LL.D., F.S.A., with Illustrations.

oo
N

Xvi

VOL, 1x,

33. (On the Varying Tactics of Scepticism. (Annual Address.) By the Rev. Roprnson
Tuornton, D.D., Vice-President.

On the Harmony between the Chronology of Egypt and the Bible. By the Rev. B. W.
SAVILE, M.A.
On the Ethical Condition of the Early Scandinavian Peoples. By E. W. Gossz, Esq.

34, | On Magnitudes in Creation and their Bearings on Biblical Interpretation. By the late
Bishop T1rcoms, D.D. Paper on the same, by late Prof. CHauiis, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.; with communications from the Astronomer Royal’s Department, the
Radcliffe Observer, and Professor PrircHarp, F.R.S.

{ On Biblical Interpretation in connexion with Science. By the Rev. A. I. McCaut, M.A.
(King’s College), with a communication by V.-Chancellor J. W. Dawson, C.M.G.,

LL. D., B.S.
On the Final Cause as Principle of Cognition and Principle in Nature. By Professor
G. S. Morris, of Baltimore University, U.S.

35. | On the Bearing of certain Paleontological Facts upon the Darwinian Theory of the Origin
of Species, and of Evolution in General. By Professor H. A. NicHouson, M.D., D.Sc.,
F.B.S.E., &.

On the Early Dawn of Civilisation, considered in the Light of Scripture. By the late
J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S.
On the Indestructibility of Force. By the late Professor Brrxs, M.A.
36. On Mr. Mill’s Essays on Theism. By the late Preb. W. J. Irons, D.D.

VOL. xX:

37. On the Chronology of Recent Geology. By 8. R. Parrison, Esq., F.G.S.
On the Nature and Character of Evidence for Scientific Purposes. By the Rey.
J. M‘Cann, D.D.
The Relation of the Scripture Account of the Deluge to Physical Science. By the late
Prof. CHALuis, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
88. An Examination of the Belfast Address from a Scientific point of view. By the late
J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S.
Annual Address; Modern Philosophie Scepticism examined. By the late Rev. R. Matin,
F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., The Radcliffe Observer.
On the Etruscan Language. By the Rev. Isaac Taytor, M.A.
39. On ‘‘ Present Day Materialism.” By the Rev. J. McDouUGALL.
On the Sorrows of Scepticism. By Rev. R. Tnuornron, D.D., Vice-Pres. (see parts 6, 15, 33.)
On Heathen Cosmogonies, compared with the Hebrew. By Rev. B. W. SAvie, M.A.
On the Place of Science in Education. By Professor H. A. Nicnouson, M.D., D.Sc.,F.R.S.E.
40. On Egypt and the Bible. By the late J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S.

VO x:

41. (The Flint ‘‘ Implements” of Brixham Cavern. By N. Wuirtxy, Esq. (Photographcally
illustrated.

On the Flint Dace Implements of America. By Dr. J. W. Dawson, O.M.G., F.B.S.
An Examination of ‘‘ The Unseen Universe.” By the late Preb. [Rons, D.D.
The Uncertainties of Modern Physical Science. By the late Professor Birks, M.A.
The Ethics of Belief. By Principal H. Wacg, D.D.

42.< On the Metaphysics of Scripture. By the late Prof. CHALiIs, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
On the Theory of Unconscious Intelligence as opposed to Theism. By Prof. Morxis, U.S.A.
On the Myth of Ra. By the late W. R. CoorEr, Esq., F.R.A.S., Sec. Soc. Bib. Arch.
On Christianity as a Moral Power. By Professor LiAs, Hulsean Lecturer, Cambridge.

43. | On the Structure of Geological Formations as Evidence of Design. By D. HowArp, F.C,S
On the Bible and Modern Astronomy, By the late Prof. Brrxs, M.A. (Camb.).

44, | On Comparative Psychology. By HE. J. MorsHEap, Hsq.

VOL. XI.

45. On the Indestructibility of Matter. By the late Professor CHALLIS, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
On History in the Time of Abraham, Illustrated by Recent Researches. By Rev. H. G.
Tomxins. With Numerous Notes by Various Assyriologists.
On the Horus Myth. By the late W. R. Cooprr, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.R.A.S., Sec. Soc.
Bib. Arch. (/ilustrated.) Additional Papers by various Egyptologists.
46. The Influence of True and False Philosopliy. (Ann. Address.) The late J. E. Howarp, F.R.S.
The History of the Alphabet. By Rev. IsAAc Tay tor, M.A.
Creation and Providence. By the late J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.8.
Nature’s Limits: an Argument for Theism. By S. R. Parrison, Hsq., F.G.S.
Mr Matthew Arnold and Modern Culture. Prof. Lias, Hulsean Lecturer, Cambridge,

“A.

XVil

47. On the Relation of Scientific Thought to Religion. The Right Rev. Bishop Corrrriti, D.D
Monotheism. By the Rev. Dr. RuLE (Author of * Oriental Records”).
48. Physical Geography of the Hast. By the late J. L. PortEr, D.D., D.C.1.

VOU. XI.

49. ( Modern Geogenies and the Antiquity of Man. Late Prof. Brrxs, M.A.
The Annual Address. Rev. Principal Riec, D.D.
50. | ‘‘ On Science and Man.” By Dr. Noau Porter (President of Yale, United States).
“The Lapse of Time since the Glacial Epoch determined by the Date of the Polished Stone
Age.” By Dr. SOUTHALL (United States).
“Final Cause: a Critique of the Failure ot Paley and the Fallacy of Hume.” By the
r late J. P. THompeson, D.D., LL.D. (Harvard, U:S.).
“The Torquay Caves and their Teachings.” By the late J. E. HowArp, Esq., F.R.S.
*¢ Does the Contemporaneity of Man with the Extinct Mammalia, as shown by Recent Cavern
4 Exploration, prove the Antiquity of Man?” By T. K. CALLARD, Hsq., F-G.S., &. 5
nee special additional communications by Professor Boyp-DAaw KINS, FR. Ses Rev.
J. M. Metto, M.A., F.G.S. (Creswell), &c.
“The System of Zoroaster considered in connexion with Archaic Monotheism.” By
R. Brown, Esgq., F.S.A.
“ On the Evidence already obtained as to the Antiquity of Man.” By Professor T. McK.
| HucueEs, M.A. (Woodwardian Professor of Geology at Cambridge University) ; with
additions by the DUKE OF ARGYLL, K.G., Professor Boyp-DAWkINs, F.R.S., and other
Geologists.

VOL XEY,

3. “The Topography of the Sinaitic Peninsula” (giving results of last survey). By (the late)
Rev. F. W. HoLuann, M.A. (Palestine Exploration Fund); with a new map.
“ The Ethnology of the Pacific.” By the Rev. 8. J. WHITMEE, F.L.S.; with a large new
map, showing the distribution of Races and all the results of the latest discoveries.
The Annual Meeting.
54. On Physiological Metaphysics. By Professor NoAH PorTER (President, Yale Univ., U.S.).
On the Druids and their Religion. By the late J. E. HowArpb, Esq., F.R.S.
On the Organ of Mind. By Rev. J. FisHEr, D.D. (the late).
On the Data of Ethics. By Principal WACE, DD.
55. On the Bearings of the Study of Natural Science e, and of the Contemplation of the Dis-
coveries to which that Study leads, on our Religious Ideas. By Professor SToxKEs,
P.R.S. (Lucasian Professor of Mathematics, Cambridge).
Late Assyrian and Babylonian Research. By HormMuzp Rassam, Esq.
On the Evidence of the Later Movements of Elevation and Depression i in the British Isles.
By Professor HucuEs, M.A. (Woodwardian Professor of Geology at Cambridge).
On the Nature of Life. By Professor H. A, NicHotson, M.D., F.R.S.E., Aberdeen.
56. On the Religion and Mythology of the Aryans of Northern Europe. By R. Brown, F.S.A.

VOis- eV:

57. ( The Life of Joseph. Illustrated from Sources External to Holy Scripture. By Rev. H. G.
TOMKINS.

On the Relation between Science and Religion, through the Principles of Unity, Order, and
Causation. Annual Address by the Right Rev. Bishop CoTTERILL, D.D. (the late).
Some Considerations on the Action of Will in the Formation and Regulation of the Universe

—heing an Examination and Refutation of certain Arguments against the existence of
a personal conscious Deity. By (the late) Lord O’NEILL.
58. | On the Modern Science of Religion, with Special Reference to those parts of Prof. Max
Miiller’s ‘‘ Chips from a German Workshop,” which treat thereon. Rev. G. BLENCOWE.
On the Early Destinies of Man. By (the Jate) J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S.
4 Pliocene Man in America. By Dr. SouTHALL (United States) ; a second paper on the

same, by Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S.,_ of M‘Gill College, Montreal ;
and communications from the Duke of ARGYLL, K.G.; Professor W. Boyp- DAWKINS,
F.R.S.; Professor T. McK. HuGuEs (Woodwardian | Professor of Geology at Cam-
bridge), and others.

Scientific Paste and the Caves of South Devon. By (the late) J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S.

Implements of the Stone Age as a primitive Demarcation between Man and other Animals.
By (the late) J. P. THompson, D.D., LL.D.

Meteorology: Rainfall. By J. F. BATEMAN, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

On the Rainfall and Climate of India. By Sir JOSEPH FAYRER, K CSL, MD. ELRIS:,
with a new Map, showing the Physical Geography and Meteorology of India, by
TRELAWNEY W. SAUNDERS , Esq.

60. Linh and the Theories of its Origin. By R. Brown, Esgq., F.S.A.

59.

Tr 2

XVIll

VOL XV 1:

61. The Credibility of the Supernatural. (Annual Address.) By (the late) Lord ©’ NEIL.
Supposed Paleolithic Tools of the Valley of the Axe. By N. WuiTLey, Esq. (Engravings.)
An Examination of the Philosophy of Mr. Herbert Spencer. By the Rey. W. D. Grounn.
62. On Herbert Spencer’s Theory of the Will. By Rev. W. 1). GRounpD; with Communication.
Biblical Proper Names, personal and local, illustrated from sources external to Holy Scripture.
By Rev. H. G. Tomxins. Comments by Professor MAsPERo, Mr. RassAm, and others.
Breaks in the Continuity of Mammalian Life at certain Geological Periods, fatal to the
Darwinian Theory of Evolution. By (the late) I’. K. Catuarp, Esq., F.G.8., with
Comments by several Geologists.
The New Materialism Unscientific ; or, Dictatorial Scientific Utterances and the Decline of
Thought. By Professor LIONEL S. BEALE, M.D.,F.E.S.
On the Living and the Non-Living. By the same. On the New Materialism. By the same.
65. The Theory of Evolution taught by Heckel, and held by his followers. By J. HaAsseuy, Esq.
The Supernatural in Nature. By (the late) J. E. Howanp, t-sq., FNS.
64, Materialism. By Judge C. W. hichmonp.

ViOr ie xy

65. ( The Recent Survey of Western Palestine, and its Bearing upon the Bible. By TRELAWNEY
SAUNDERS, Esq.

Remarks on Climate in relation to Organic Nature. By Surgeon-General C. A. Gorpon,
M.D., U.B. Speeches by Sir J. RispoN BENNeErT, V.P.R.S.; Sir JosePpH FAYRER,
K.C.S8.1., M.D., F.R.S.; and others.

66. } On the Argument from Design in Nature, with some Jllustrations from Plants. By (the
late) W. P. JAMEs, Esq., M.A.

Considerations on the Unknown and Unknowable of Modern Thought; or, Is it possible to
know God? By the Rev. J.J. Las, M.A. (then Hulsean Lecturer). Comments by
(the late) Lord O’NeILu and others.

On certain Theories of Life. By Surg.-Gen. C. A. Gorpon, C.B., M.D., Hon. Phys. to’

L the Queen.
( On Certain Definitions of Matter. By (the late) J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S.
67. | On the Absence of Real Opposition between Science and Revelation. By Prcfessor G. G.
4 Stokes, P.R.S. Comments by several leading scientific men.
’ Babylonian Cities. By HormMuzp RAssAM; with Remarks by Professor DEuirzscu, &e.
68. | The Origin of Man. By Archdeacon BARDSLEY.
| Did the World Kvolve Itself? By Sir E. Beckett, Bart. (now Lord Grimthorpe).

VOLE. XV

69. On Misrepresentations of Christianity. By Lord O’NEIL1 (the late).
Science not opposed to Revelation. By J. L. Porter, D.D., D.C.L. (the late).
70. Recent Egyptological Research in its Biblical Relation. By the Rey. H. G. TomKrns.
Cuneiform Inscriptions as illustrative of the times of the Jewish Captivity. By W. Sr.
CHAD BoscawEN, F.R.Hist.Soc.
Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon—On Recently Discovered Inscriptions of this King. By
E. A. BupcEr. M.aA., M.R.A.S.
Buddhism. By Rev. R. Cotitixs. Remarks by Dr. LEITNER (Lahore), Professor Ruys
Davips, Mr. RassaM, Rev. 8. Cotes (Ceylon), &c. Also a full Note on Krishna.

71. Pessimism. By (the late) W. P. JAmzEs, Esq.

On the Prehistoric Factory of Flints at Spiennes. By Rev. J. MAcENns Matto, F.G.S8.

The Evolution of the Pearly Nautilus. By 8. R. Parrison, Esq., F.G.S.

“ On Prehistoric Man in Egypt and the Lebanon.” By Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G.,
F.R.S., McGill University, Montreal. Nemarks by Professors W. WARINGTON SMYTH,
F.R.S., W. Boyp-DAawkINs, F.R.S., T. RurERT JongEs, F.R.S.,T. WILTSHIRE, F.G.S8.,
Joloue] HERSCHEL, F.R.S., Dr. RABE, F.R.S.

VO SS

73. (On the Inductive Logic. By Prof. R. L. Dapnzy, D.D., LL.D. Speeches by Sir H.
BARKLY, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir J. Lerroy, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., &c.
On Evolution by Natural Selection. By J. HASSELL, Esq.
Remarks on Evolution. By Professor VircHow.
74. | On the Recency of the Close of the Glacial Epoch. By D. MacxrintTosu, Hsq., F.G.S.
Communications from Prof. T. RupErRT Jongs, F.R.S., and others.
{On the recession of Niagara (with the United States Government Survey Diagrams).

~]
bo
°

bs |
or

a |
ba |

78,

80),

81.

82.

83.

84,

( On the Religion of the Aboriginal Tribes of India. By Professor J. Avery, Remarks by

| General Hate, Mr. KE. RAssam, and others.

On the Evolution of Savages by Degradation. By Rev. fF. A, ALLEN, M.A.

Some Thoughts on the Evolution of Religions. By Rev. W. R. BuackertT, M.A.

On the Relation of Fossil Botany to Theories of Evolution. By late W. P. JAmgs, F.L.S.
Remarks by Sir R. Owen, F.R.S., Prof. W. CARRuTHERS, F.R.S., Dr, J. BRAXTON
Hicks, F.R.S., &c.

Was Primeval Man a Savage? By J. HAssELL, Esq.

Remarks on Evolution and Development, By Rev. J. Wurre, M.A.

On Some Characteristics of Primitive Religions. By Rev, R. CoLuins, M.A,

Human Responsibility. By Rev. G, BLENCOWE.

On the Worship and Traditions of the Aborigines of America, By Rev, M. Hetus, M.A.

Remarks by Professor J. O, DorsEy, U.S. Survey.

(| Note on Comparative Religions.

VOL ex.

Special Address by the Institute’s President, Sir G. G. Sroxss, Bart., M.A., D.C.L.,
President of the Royal Society.

Egypt: Physical, Historical, Literary, and Social. By J. Lesti— Porrer, D.D., D.C.L.
(the late). Remarks by the Karl of BeLMorgE, Right Hon. A. 8. AYRTON (the late), &c.

On the Theory of Natural Selection and the Theory of Design. By Professor Duns, D.D.,
F.R.S.E, Remarks by Right Hon, Lord Grimruorpr, &c,

On Agnosticism, By J. HASsELL, Esq.

On the Structure of the Gorilla, By EH. CHARLESwortH, Esq., F.G.S.; with illustration.

Notes on the Antiquity of Man. By the Epiror, The Chronology of Animal Life on the
Earth prior to the Advent of Man. By Sir J. WittiAm Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.,
President of the British Association,

Historical Evidences of the Migration of Abram. By W. Sr. C. Boscawen, F.R.Hist.Soc.,
with drawings, Notes by Professor Saycs, E. A. W. BupGE, Esq., &c.

A Samoan Tradition of Creation. Rev. 'T. PowEt1, F.L.S. (the late); Notes on the Islanda.

The Fundamental Assumptions of Agnosticism. By Rev, H. J, CLARKE.

On Miracles. By Rev. H. C. M. Watson. Remarks by Lord GrimrHorPeE, &c.

On Accounts of the Creation. By W. P. JAmEs, Esq., F.L.S. (the late),

On Final Cause. By Professor h. L. Dasnery, D.D., LL.D.

On Structure and Structureless. By Prof. Lionrn 8. BEALE, M.B., F.R.S.

On the Meteorology of Syria and Palestine. By Professor G, E, Posr, F.L.8. (with chart).
Remarks by Sir JosepH FayreEr, K.C.8.I1., F.R.S., &e.

On the Geographical Names on the List of Thothmes III. By Professor G. MAsPERo
(with map). Remarks by Sir CHARLES Witson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Major
C. R. ConpEr, R.E., Dr. Wrieut, &c. Note on Excavations round the Sphinx. By
Prof, MAsrEro.

ViOtir DexXT.

Results of an Expedition to Arabia Petraea and Palestine (with chart). By Professor E.
Hutt, F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland.

Jewish, Phoenician, and Harly Greek Art. By Rey. J. Lestiz Porter, D.C.L. (the late).

The Discoveries at Sidon.

The Empire of the Hittites. By Rev. W. Wricut, D.D. Note on the Hittites.

Canaan, Ancient and Modern. By Professor Trisrram, F.R.S.

On Caves. By Professor T. McK. Hueuss, F.R.S. (Cambridge), with comments by Sir
J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S., Sir WAkINGToN W. Smytu, F.R.S., and others.

Oriental Entomology. By Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.L.S. Notes by 8. T. KLEIN, Esq.,
F.L.S., and others.

Petra. By Professor E. Huu, F.R.S. (with chart).

On Krishna. By Rev. R. Cotzins, M.A. Notes by Sir M. Monrer-Wiuuiams, K.C.L.E.,
Professors MAx Mu.LuEr, E. B. CowEti, DouGias, DE LAGouPERIE, Dr. LEITNER, and
Dr. EDERSHEIM (the late).

The Pedigree of the Coral Reefs of England. By S. R. Parrison, F.G.S. Remarks by
Sir GG. SroxxEs; Bart., P.R.S.

Practical Optimism. By the Most Rev. Bishop SAUMAREz Situ, D.D.

Traditions of the Aborigines of North America. By Rev. S. D. PrrEr (with illustrations).

On the Beauty of Nature. By Lord GrimryuorpPeE, with special paper by Rev. W.
ARTHUR, M.A. :

Evolution. By Rev. H. J. CharkE, M.A. Remarks by Sir J, W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.

Appendices; The Jewish Nation and Diseases. Egyptian Discoveries in 1888. (Library
List, &c.) The Sacred Books of the East. By Sir M. Monrer-Wituiams, K.C.L.E,

85.

86.

87.

88.

89.

90.

91.

92.

XxX

VOL" 2X;

Annual Address by the President, Sir G. G. Sroxus, Bart., M.P., President of the Royal
Society. Speeches by Sir H. Barkty, K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir Rispon Bennett, F.R.S.,
Sir F. L. McCurntock, F.R.S., Mr. H. Rassam, &c.

Note by the President on the one Origin of the Books of Revelation and of Nature.

On Time and'Space. By the Rev. W. Arruur.

On the Names on the List of Thothmes IIT at Karnac, their Geographical, Ethnographical,
and Biblical relations. By G. MAsPERO, with communications from Sir C. Witson,
K.C.B., F.R.S., Professor A. H. SAycz, Rev. Canon Lippon, Mr. LE PacE RENOUF,
Rev. Dr, EDERSHEIM, Major C. R, Conprr, Rev. H. G. Tomkins, &c., with maps by
G. MASPERO.

On the Theory of Natural Selection and the Theory of Design. By Professor Duns, D.D.,
with remarks by Lord GRimrHorPE, the Most Rey. the BisHor of SypnzEy, and others,
and a note by Mr. I’. FrRANcis Rivers, F.L.S.

On the late Professor AsA GRAY. By the Eprror.

Note on the importance of Babylonian Excavations. By the Eprror.

On Human Footprints in Nicaragua. By Dr. D. G. BRiInTOoN.

The Aborigines of Australia, their Ethnic Position and Relations, by J. Fraser, LL.D.,
F.R.S. (N.S.W.), with remarks by many travellers; also an opinion by Professor
Max MULLER.

Oriental Entomology. By Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.L.S., remarks by several ento-
mologists, including a note by Mr. E. B. Poutron, F.R.S., on Mimicry.

A Physical Theory of Moral Freedom. By JosEpH JonN Murpuy; remarks by Sir J.
Fayrer, K.C.S.1., F.R.S., the Hon. J. M. Grecory, LL.D., of Washington, and
others.

The Botanical Geography of Syria and Palestine. By Professor G. E. Posr, D.D., M.D.,
with notes by Eastern Travellers.

On Flint Arrow Heads of delicate Structure. By the Rt. Hon. Sir C. Murray, K.C.B.,
also a note on Cave Deposits.

VOLE SOXenne:

Annual Address by Sir M. Monrgr-Wituiams, K.C.LE., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., Boden
Professor of Sanscrit in Oxford University. Speeches by the Bishop oF DUNEDIN,
Sir H. Barxty, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.,; Sir Rispon BENNETT, F.R.S., late Mr. H. W.
Bristow, F.R.S., &c.

On a few of the Contrasts between the Essential Doctrines of Buddhism and of
Christianity. By Sir M. Monrer-Wiuiams, K.C.I.E., &c., &e.

Coral Islands and Savage Myths. By H. B. Guppy, Esq., M.B. Discussion, &c., by
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., M.P., P.R.S., Captain W. J. L. Wuarrton, R.N., F.R.S., the

Hydrographer to the Admiralty, Mr. W. H. Hupixsron, F.R.S., Professor JAMES
GErKIg, F.R.S., Mr. Joun Murray, of the Challenger Expedition, &c.

On the Keeling Atoll. By Dr. Guppy.

Colours in Nature. By Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.L.S.

On the Sciences of Language and of Ethnography. By Dr. Lrtrner, Ph.D., LL.D., D.O.L.

Modern Science and Natural Religion. By Rev. C. Goprrry AsHwin, M.A.

Note on Science and Religion. By Captain F. PETrRig, F.G.8.

The Historical Results of the Excavations at Bubastis. By HE. Navittr, Ph.D. Remarks
by Sir C. NEwron, K.C.B., Dr. REGINALD SruART Pootg, &c.

Notes on the Ethnology and Ancient Chronology of China. By Surgeon-General
Gorpon, M.D.,C.B. Remarks by Dr. Lraex, Prof. Chinese, Oxford Univ., Dr. BEAL,
Prof. Chinese, London Univ., «ce.

On Cuts on Bone as evidence of Man’s Existence in remote ages. By Prof. T. McK.
HuaGueEs, F.R.S. Remarks by Prof. RupERT Jonzs, F.R.S., Prof. A. 8S. WooDWARD.
F.G.8., Rev. J. M. MELLO, M.A., F.G.S., &c.

The Butterflies and Moths of Africa. By W. F. Krrpy, F.E.S.

The Factors of Evolution in Language. By Mr.J.J.Muturpuy. Remarks by Professor
Max MoULuLeEr.

The Meaning and History of the Logos of Philosophy. By Rev. H. J. CLARKE.

The Dawn of Metallurgy. By Rev. J. Maczens Metio, M.A., F.G.S. Remarks by
Professor SAYCE, Major ConnkEr, Mr. J. ALLEN Brown, F.G.S., and others.

93.

94.

95.

96.

97.

98.

99.

100.

101.

102.

XX1

VOLS Rey.

Annual Meeting. ‘The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Tel el Amarna. By the Rev. A. H.
Sayce, M. ie , D.D., LL.D., Professor of Assyriology, Oxford University. Speeches
by the Rt. Hon. Lord HALSBURY, Lord High Chancellor, Dr. Navitie, Sir H.
BaRKty, K.C.B.,..F.B.8., &c., Sir E. OMMANNEY, CiB.< "B.B.S., Sir J. RisDon
BENNETT, F.R.S., Captain E. W. Creak, R.N., F.R.S., and others.

On the Canaanites. By Major C. R. ConprEr, R.E., D.C.L.

Instinct and Reason. By U. CoLLINGwoop, Esq., M.A., M.B., M.R.C.P., F.L.S., &e.
Remarks by Professor HULL, I'.K.8., and others.

The Science of Rectitude as Distinct from Expedience. By Rev. H. J. CLARKE.

God in Nature. By Professor E. Huit, D.C.L., F.R.S., Director of the Geological
Survey of Ireland.

Man’s Placein Nature. A Note. By the EpiTor.

Land Tenure in Ancient Times in Palestine. By Rev. J. NEL, M.A. Remarks by the
Right Hon. Lord Hatsspury, Lord High Chancellor, Mr. F. SEEBOHM, Mr. S.
BerGHEIM, Dr. CHAPLIN, and other Eastern Travellers.

The Botany and Entomology of Iceland. By Rev. F. A. Watker, D.D., F.L.S.
Remarks by Dr. J. Raz, F.R.S., Dr. G. HARLEY, F.R.S., Professor LoGan Losey,
E.G:S.., &.

The Origin of Man. An address thereon by Professor RUDOLPH VIRCHOW.

The Dispersal of Plants as Illustrated by the Flora of the Keeling Islands. By H. B.
Guppy, Esq., M.B. Kemarks thereon by Professor T. RUPERT JONES, F.R.S., Mr.
Joun Murray (Challenger Expedition), and others.

Sketch of the Geological History of Egypt and the Nile Valley. By Professor E. Hutt,
fi Dah RS. F.G.S., &e. , with map.

VOL. XY.

The Monism, Pantheism, and Dualism of Brahmanical and ZoroaS8trian Philosophers.
By Sir M. Monrer-Wi111ams, K.C.1.E., D.C.L.

On the Post Glacial Period. By Professor W. UPHAM, Assistant State Geologist, U.S.A,
(a note

On anes Responsibility. By the Right Hon. Lord GrimtHorrr. Remarks by
Prebendary H. Wack, D.D., Principal of King’s College, London.

Chinese Chronology. By Professor J. LEGGE, M.A., Oxford University. Remarks by
Sir THomas WabDgE, G.C.M.G., and others.

The Garden of Eden, a criticism on the views of certain modern writers. By Hormuzp
RassAmM, Esq. Remarks by Sir G. G. Stoxzs, Bart., F.R.S., Sir J. W. Dawson,
C.M.G., F.R.S., Professor A. H. Saycr, D.D., Mr. p, PINCHES, Colonel ConDER,
D.C.L., &c., M. BERTIN, and others. With a map engraved by Mr. Stanford from
the official surveys.

Annual Meeting.
Islam. By Rev. W. St. C. Tispatn, M.A. Remarks by Sir T.Forp,,Colonel ConpEr,

D.C.L., Dean GouLBuRN, Rev. Dr. K@uLue, Rev. H. LANSDELL, D:D: MERA. S:,
Mr. RASSAM, and other authorities,

On the Reality of the Self. By W. L. Courtney, M.A., LL.D.

Notes on the Philosophy and Medical Knowledge of Ancient India. By Surgeon-General
Sir C. A. GoRDON, M.D., K.C.B., Q.H.P. Remarks by Sir JOSEPH FAYRER, KCl.
F.R.S., and others.

On the Apparent Cruelty of Nature. By Rev. T. Woop, M.A. Remarks by Sir
J. FAYRER, K.C.S.I., F.R.S., and others.

Deontology. By the Rev. H. J. CLARKE.

WOLiA XV

The Route of the Exodus. By Dr. i. NavitLe. Speeches by Sir J. Farrer, K.C.S.I1.,
Sir J. Coopr, K.C.M.G., and others.

From Reflex Action to Volition. By Dr. ALEx. Hitt, Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge
University, with important discussion.

The Weak Sides of Natural Selection. By J. W. SLATER, F.C.S., F.E.S. Remarks by
Professor E. Hutt, LL.D., F_R.S., and many others.

On Serpent Worship and the Venomous Snakes of India. By Sir JosEPH FAyreEr, M.D.,
K.C.8.1L, F.R.S. Remarks by Sir RicHarp Potuiock, K.C.S.I., Surgeons- -General
W. B. BEATSON CornisH, C.1.E., C. A. Gorpon, C.B., "Admiral H. D. “GRANT, GE.
and others, and an important special report by Dr. A. MUELLER, of Australia.

104.

105.

106.

108.

109.

110.

111.

XXl1

Some recent Discoveries in the Realm of Assyriology. By T. G. Prncugs, Exsq., Brit.
Mus. Nemarks by Colonel ConpErR, R.K., D.C.L., M. Bertin, Mr. W. Sr. C.
BoscaweEn, Rev. H. G. Tomkins, and “others.

The Philosophic Basis of the Argument from Design. By Professor BERNARD, D.D.,'T.0.D.

On Flint Bodies in the Chalk known as Paramoudra. By E. CHARLESWORTH, Fda
F.G.S. Illustrated.

The Glacial Period and the Earth-movement Hypothesis. By Professor JAMES GEIKIR,
D.C.L., F.R.S. Remarks by Professors E. Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S., Logan LosLey,
F.G.S., Major-General Drayson, R.E., F.R.A.S., Mr. W. Upuam, U.S. Govt. Assist.
State Geologist, &e., &c.

Useful and Ornamental Stones of Ancient Egypt. By Sir J. Wirt1aAm Dawson, C.M.G.,
F.R.S. Remarks by W. H. HupLEston, F.R.S., President of the Geological Society,
Professor E. Huu, F.R.S., Mr. W. BRINDLEY, F’. G.S., Colonel ConpEr, R.E., D.C.L.,
Professor LoGAN LoBLEY, and others.

Causes of Climatal Changes. Current opinions reviewed by Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G.,
F.R.S.

VOL. xxvii

The work of the Institute in the present day. By the Right Hon. Lord Hatsnury, P.C.,
F R.S., with speeches by Sir H. BARKLy, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., I'.B.S., Sir G. BucHANAN,
F.RS., Sir J. Fayrer, K-C-8.., F.B:S., Sir F. Younc, K-Ci 3G. Protessor
K. Huu, F.B.S8., aud others.

The Principles of Rank among Animals. By Professor H. W. Parker, M.D.

On the Recession of Niagara Falls. By W. UpuHam, Assist. Geologist U.S. Govt.

How the Waters of the Ocean became Salt. By Pr ofessor E. Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S. Remarks
by Professor J. Tynpauu, D.C.L., F. AR. SPye ot wena PRESTW 1cH, D. ot L., F.R.S., and
others.

The List of Shishak. With map. By Brdiessar MAspERO. With important discussion

An Inquiry into the Formation of Habitin Man. By Dr. A. T. ScuorigLtp. Remarks
by Dr. AtEx. Hitt, Master of Downing, Sir C. A. Gorpon, K.C.B., Professor
PARKER, &c., &c.

On the Alleged Scepticism of Kant. By W. L. Courtnry, LL.D. Remarks by Arch-
deacons SINCLAIR (London) and THORNTON (Middlesex), Professors BERNARD, Duns,
and numerous others.

On the Comparison of Asiatic Languages. By Colonel C. R. Conprer, R.E., D.C.L.
Remarks by Professor LEGGE (Oxford), and others.

A Possible Cause for the Origin of the 'radition of the Flood. By Sir J. Prestwicu, K.C.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. Remarks by Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., I*.R.S., Sir H. HowortH,
K.C.LE., M.P., F.R.S., Dr. H. Woopwarp, ER.S., President of the Geological
Society, Professor T. McK. Hucuss, M.A., F.R.S., Professor T. RUPERT JONES, F.R.S.,
Mr. J. ALLEN Brown, F.G.S., Rev. J. M. MELLO, F.G.S., Mr. W. UpHAM, Assist.
Govt. Geologist, U.S.A., and many others.

V Oia, 2x yi.

The Religious ideas of the Babylonians. By T. G. Pinches, M.R.A.S., British Museum.
Remarks by Colonel ConpER, R.E., D.C.L., Rev. Dr. L6éwy, Professor Fritz
HOMMEL, &c.

Chinese Ethics and Philosophy. By Sir CHarRLEs Gorpon, K.C.B. Special statement
by Sir THomas Wapkg, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., &c.

On the Luminiferous Ether. By Sir G. G. Sroxus, Bart., President. Speeches by His
Excellency the Hon. I’. F. Bayarp, United States Ambassador, Sir H. BARKLY,
Ge C. M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir Josep Fayrer, K.C.S.I., F.R.S., Professor HuLL,
E-E.S., Admiral GRANT, C.B. , R.N., &c. (Annual Meeting).

Byolution and Design. By G. Cox Bompas, F.G.S. Remarks by Professor BLAKE,
FF. G.S., Rev. J; M. Mario, FoG.S.. we.

Archeology and Evolution. By R. H. Watkry. Remarks by Professor Losey,
ENG. Seatac,

Holy Scripture illustrated and confirmed by recent discoveries in the East. By Professor
E. Hutt, F.R.S. Remarks by Professor J. H. GLApDSTGNE, F.R.S., Colonel ConpER,
R.E. , Mr. RaAssam, &c.

Buddhism and the Light of Asia. By Rev. R. Cortins, M.A. Remarks by Professor
LEGGE, Rev. G. U. Popr, D.D., the Rev. KENNETH MacponaLp, Professor ORCHARD,
M.A., B.Sc., Mr. R. Scorr MoncrtEFr, and many others.

112.

113.

114.

115.

116.

117.

118.

119.

120.

Stone Folk-lore. By Professor Duns. Speeches by the Right Hon. the Lorp CHANn-
CELLOR, ow HH, BARKLY, G.C.M.G,, K.C.B., F-R.8., Sir G. BucHANAn, F.R-S.,
Sir J. Fayrzr, K.C.S.1., F.R.S., Professor Hut, F.R.S., Sir C. Gorpon, K.C.B.,
His Honour J. OTONBA PAYNE, &c. (Annual Meeting).

The Mechanical Conception of Nature. By Professor Mactoskiz, D.Sc., of Princeton
College, U.S.A. Remarks by Rev. Prof. BerNARD, D.D., G. B. BucktTon, Esq.,
F.R.S8., and others,

The Philosophy of Comte. By J. W. SuaTER, F.C.S., F.E.S.

On the supposed discovery of Remains belonging to an animal intermediate between man
and the ape. By Professor E. Hutz, F.R.S. (illustrated).

The Passage of the Red Sea by the Israelites. By Major-General TuLuocu, C.B.,
C.M.G. (with map).

VOT. XXX.

Jubilee Volume. Annual Address: The Perception of Light. By Sir G. G. StToxxs,
Bart., President. Speeches by Earl Hausspury (Lord Chancellor), Sir H. BARKLY,
G.C.M.G., F B.S., Sir C: Gordon, K.C.B., Profs. E. Huu, F.R.8., and SAYCE.

On Scientific Research and Biblical Study. By the Rey. Canon KR. b. GirpLEsToNeE,
M A,

On Certain Inscriptions and Records Referring to Babylonia, Elam, and their Rulers,
and other Matters. By THEOPHILUS G. PIncHES, M.R.A.S. With copies of tablets,
&e., and arranged by the Author up to September 25th, 1897, with Opinions of
Professors HOMMEL, SAYCE, and others. Communication from Professor A. H.
Saycg, D.D.

Comniunications from Her Majesty the Queen and Her Royal Highness Princess Henry
of Battenberg.

The Polynesians and their Plant-Names. By H. B. Guppy, M.B. Communication
from Professor MAx MULLER, Dr. JoHN FraseEr, F.R.S, (N.S.W.).

The Natural and the Artificial By A. T. Scuorrgetp, Esq., M.D., M.R.C.S. Communi-
cations from Professor LIONEL 8. BEALE, M.B., F.R.S., and others.

Causes of the Ice Age. By WARREN UPHAM, Esq. Communications from Sir JosEPH
PRESTWICH, D.C.L., F.R.S. (late), Professor J. Gerxiz, LL.D., F.R.S., and others.

On Specimens in the Peter Redpath Museum of McGill University, illustrating the
Physical Characters and Affinities of the Guanches or Extinct People of the Canary
Islands. Jllustrated. By Sir J. Witit1am Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S., &e.

Professor PUTNAM on some Guanche Skulls. Communications trom Professor J.
CLELAND, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Dr. LAMBERT of Cairo.

Miracles. Science, and Prayer. By the Rev. Chancellor J. J. Lias, M.A.

WOE, XOX,

Annual Address: Chiefly on the Réntgen Rays. By Sir G. G. Sroxss, Bart., President.
Speeches by Earl Hatspury (Lord Chancellor), the Rt. Hon. Lord KELv1n,G.C.V.O.,
Sir H. BArkiy, G.C.M.G., K.C.E., FVR.S., Sir JoseEPH FAYRER, Bart., K.C.S.L.,
ERS., Professor Ei. Huu, LL.D., ERS.

Biblical Lands; their races, customs, &c. (with Map). By HormMuzp RassAm, Esq.
Remarks by G. PrncuEs, Esq., M.R.A.S. (of British Museum), &e.

The History of Manikka Vacagar, “the Foe of the Buddhists.” By the Rev. G. U.
Popr, D.D., with Appendix for Students.

List of Publications in the Institute’s Transactions on the Religions of the East.

On some Relations of Mind and Body. By A. T. Scuorreip, M.D., with communications
from Professors CALDERWOOD, LL.D., J. CLELAND, M.D., F.R.S., and Dr. Sansom.

The Classification of the Vertebrata. By Prof. J. CLELAND, F.R.S., J. HUTCHINSON, Esq.,
F.R.S., Inspector-General J. D. MAcponaLp, F.R.S., Prof. H. W. PARKER, Dr. W.
Kipp; &c:;

The Proposed Scheme for the Embanking the Waters of the Nile. By Professor E
Hutu, LL.D., F.R.S. Remarks by Batpwin Latuam, M.I.C.E., &c.

Problems of Aboriginal Art in Australia. By the Right Rev. Bisuop THornton, D.D,

On Primitive Man. By Rey. J. M. MeLtLo. Communicatious from Sir J. W. Dawson,
C.M.G., F.R.S., Professors T. Ruprnr Jonzs, F.R.S., E. Hur, F.R.S.,.H. G.-
SEELEY, F.RS., and others.

Investigations regarding the submerged Terraces and River Valleys bordering the British
Isles. By Professor E. Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S. Remarks by Cavaliere W. P. JERvVIs,
Director of the Royal Museum, Turin, Professors ETHERIDGE, F.R.S., T. Rupert
JONES, F'.R.S., LoGan LosBiey, F.G.S. &c.

121.

122,

123.

124.

NERV:

VOL) kod:

Annual Address. The age of the Earth as an abode fitted for life. By the Right Hon.
Lord KEtvin, G.C.V.O. Speeches by the Right Hon. Earl Hatspury, P.C., F.R.S.
Lord Chancellor), Sir G. G. Stoxzs, Bart., F.H.S. (the President), Sir Josery
AYRER, Bart., F.R.S., Sir SipNEY Surpparp, G.C.M.G., Captain E. W. Creax,
R.N., F.R.S. Design in Nature. By Lord KELVIN. A note.

Where is Mount Sinai? By Professor E. Hvi1, LL.D., F.R.S., with the Ordnance
Survey Map reduced.

Design as exemplified in the formation of the human foot. A note by Dr. GERARD
SmitH, M.R.C.S.

Herodotus... His remarks bearing on Egyptian Geology in the light of recent Egyptian
Research. By Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.L.S. Copious remarks by Sir
J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.

Herodotus. His remarks bearing on Egyptian Botany and Investigation. By same.

Physical conditions of the Mediterranean Basin which have given rise to a community of
some species of Fresh Water Fishes in the Nile and Jordan Basins. By Professor
EK. Hurt, F.R.S. (with map).

Tithe Giving amongst Ancient Pagan Nations. A plea for the Unity of the Human
Race in early times. By Rev. H. UANSDELL, D.D)., M.V.I., M.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
A note, Philological reasons for the same, given at the Congress of Orientalists by
the Right Hon. F. Max MuLuER, M.A., D.C.L.

Another possible cause of the Glacial Epoch. By Professor E. Hutu, LL.D., F.R.S.
(with map), with remarks by Professors T. Rupert Jonzs, F.R.S., W. 8. Gresley,
F.G.8., United States, Cavaliere JERVIS, F.G.S8., Italy, and others.

The Literature of Egypt in the time of Moses. By J N. FRADENBURGH, Ph.D., D.D.,
LL.D. With remarks by Colonel C. R. ConnsEr, R.E., D.C.L., &e.

Plan and purpose in Nature. By Dr. W. Kipp, Remarks by Professors LIONEL S.
BEALE, F.C.S., BH. Huu, F.R.S., J. H. GLapstTone, Ph.D., F.R.S.. and others.
The Star Worshippers of Mesopotamia. By Rev. S. M. Zwemep, F.R.G.S. With

remarks by Dr. T. CHAPLIN and Colonel C. R. ConpsEr, R.E., D.C.L.

Anaual Address: The Perception of Colour. By Sir G. G. Sroxs&s, Bart., F.R.S., V.D.
Speeches by the Right Hon. Lord Kertnvin, G.C.V.O., F.R.S., the Right Hon.
Lord ListEr, P.R.S., Sir C. Gorpon, K.C.B., Archdeacon THORNTON, &c.

Sub-Oceanic Terraces and River Valleys off the coast of West Europe. By Professor E.
Hutu, LL.D., F.R.S. (with three plates). Remarks by Professors ETHERIDGE, I’.R.S.,
T. McK. Hucuss, F.R.S., Cavaliere JERVIS, F.G.S., of the Royal Museum, Turin.
General McMauon, F.R.5S., &c.

WOE. * XOXCE.

Annual Address: Our Coal Resources at the close of the Nineteenth Century. By
Professor E. Hutu, LL.D., F.R.». Speeches by the President, Sir G. G. SToKEs,
Bart., F.R.S., Sir JoszePH FAYRER, Bart., K.C.S.1., Rev. CANON GIRDLESTONE, M.A.,
and the Ven. Archdeacon THORNTON, D.D.

The Unity of Truth: Being the Annual Address to the Victoria Institute for 1899. By
the Right Hon. Sir RicHarD TEMPLE, Bart., G.C.S.I.

Life as compared with the Physical Forces. By J. W. SutaTer, Hsq., F.C.S8., F.E.S.
Remarks by Professor LionEL 8. BEALE, F.R.S., Rev. Professor BERNARD, Dr.
Rk. C. SHETTLE, &c.

The Worship and Traditions of the Aborigines of the Islands of the Pacific Ocean.
By Rev. M. KEtis, D.D., with remarks by Davip Howarp, Esq., D.L., Professor
H. L. OncHarD, M.A., D.Sce., &e.

The Climate of Egypt in Geological, Prehistoric, and Ancient Historic Times, By
Dr. GRANT BEY.

Remarks on the Past, Present, and Future of the Australian Flora. By Rev. W. WooLLs,
Ph.D., F.L.8., with remarks by Sir FrepERIck Youne, Surgeon-General Sir
C. A. GoRDON, and a communication from (the late) Baron F. voN MUELLER, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.

The Sub-Oceanic River-Valleys of the West African Continent and of the Mediterranean
Basin (with Map). By Professor EH. Hunt, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Communications
from Professor ‘I’. RupERT JoNnES, F.R.S., Cavaliere W. P. JERVIS, F.G.S., and
Professor J. LoGAN LoBLEY, F.G.S.

The Human Colour Sense and its accordance with that of Sound, as bearing on the
‘¢ Analogy of Sound and Colour” By Dr. JoHn D Macpona pb, I.H.R.N., F.R.S.

XXV

Creation or Kvolution. By Dr. WALTER Kipp, F.Z.S., with communications t..m
Major Turton, R.E., and Dr. J. H. Guapstong, F.R.S.

Common Hrrors as to the RejJation of Science and Faith. By Professor G. MACLOsKIg,
D:Se., LL.D:

The Scope of Mind. By Dr. Atrrep T. ScuorreLp, M.R.C.S., with communications
from Professors J. CLELAND, F.R.S., LIoNEL BuALE, F.R.S., Dr. R. Jones, F.R.C.S.,.
and R. ANDERSON, Esq., O.B., LL.D.

Nationality. Likenesses and Differences which point to many Races making up what are
called Nationalities. By Professor T. McKenny HuGues, F R.S., with remarks by
the Right Rev. H. B. Wurppie, D.D., Bishop of Minnesota, Professor WESTLAKE,
LL.D., Colonel ConDER, R.E., &c.

Marks of Mindin Nature. By Rev. Professor J. Duns, D.D., F.R.S.E.

Thalassographical and Thalassological Notes on the North Sea. By Sgr. Cavaliere
W. P. Jervis, F.G.S. (with Map), with remarks by Professors E. Hutu, LL.D..
J. LoGan Losey, F.G.S., Rev. G. F WuiIpBorng, F.G.S., &e.

The Nature of Life (Part 1). By Professor LioneEL §. BEALE, F.R.S., with remarks by
Dr. SHETTLE, Professor ORCHARD, M.A,, B.Sc., and Rev. J. 'TUCKWELL.

VOL) XXxiir

Annual Address: The Origin of New Stars. By Professor Sir Ronert S. Baur, LL.D...
F.R.S. Speeches by the President, Sir G. G. Sroxes, Bart.. F.R.S., and the Rev.
Canon GIRDLESTONE, M.A.

A short account of the Congrés International d’Histoire des Religions: held in Paris,.
September, 1900. By THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, Msq., LLD., F.R.A.S.

Vitality. By Professor LionEL S. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., with remarks by Dr. A. T.
ScHOFIELD, Professor E. Hutu, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor OrcHaARD, M.A., B.Sc.,.
and Mri. Davip Howarp, D.L.

On the Being of God. By the Ven. Archdeacon Srncuarr, D.D. Remarks by Professor
ORCHARD, Rev, JOHN TUCKWELL, and Dr. WALTER KIDD.

The Philosophy of Education. By A. T. ScHorrg.p, Esq., M.D.

Ethics and Religion. By the Rev. Prebendary H. WaAczr, D.D., with remarks by Rev. Dr.
WALKER, Rev. JOHN TUCKWELL, and others.

Methods of Protection among Animals. By WALTER A. Kipp, Esq., M.D., F.Z.S.
Remarks by Professor Hutt, F.R.S., and Professor ORCHARD.

Questions Involved in Evolution from a Geological Point of View. By Rev. G. F.
WHIDBOERNE, M.A.,, F.G.S., renarks by Mr. Martin Rovsgz, B.L., and Rev. Joun
TUCKWELL.

Eolithic Implements. By Rev. R. AsHINGTON BULLEN, B.A., F.G.S., with remarks by
Professor E. Hutt, Professor RupERT JonzEs, F.R.S., and others.

Visit to the Hittite Cities, Hyuk and Boghaz Keoy. By Rev. G. E. Wuirr, Marsovan.
Remarks by Dr. TuHropuitus G. PincHEs, Davip Howarp, Esq., D.L., and others.

Recent Investigations in Moab and Edom. By Major-General Sir CHARLES W. WILson,
K.C.M.G., F.R.S. Remarks by Rev. Canon GIRDLESTONE and Vrofessor FE. HULL.

Address of Condolence to H.M. the Kiug on the Death of H.M. Queen Victoria,

Ancient Script in Australia. By E. J STATHAM, Esq., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Remarks
by Sir G. G. Stoxss, Bart., F.R.S., Commander G. P. HeEatu, R.N., and others.

Meeting, Monday, Ist April, 1901. Gracious reply from H.M. the King to the Address
ot Condolence; sent through the Home Secretary.

The Maori’s Place in History. By JosHuA RuTLAND, Esq. Remarks by Dr. T. G.
PINCHES, Rev. Dr. WALKER, Rev. W. Suaw, F.Z.S., and others.

Pictorial Art among the Australian Aborigines. By R. H. Matuews, Esq. Remarks.
by Professor LoBLEY, F.G.S., Rev. W. 6. LAcH SzyrMa, M.A., and others.

The Wahabis: Their Origin, History, Tenets and Influence. By Rev. S. M. ZWEMER.
Remarks by Rev. G. F. WHIDBORNE and Dr. H. W. Huspsarp.

The Arab Immigration into South East Madagascar. By Rev. G. A. SHAW, F.Z.S.,
with remarks by E.S.M, Perowneg, Esq., Professor E. Hut, Professor ORCHARD,
and others.

Hornets: British and Foreign. By Rev. F. A. WaLkEr, D.D., F.E.S.

The Divisions of the Ice Age. By WarRrEN UpnHam, Esq., M.A,, F.G.S.A. Remarks.
by Professor HuLL, Professor LoBLEY, Dr. PINCHES, and Rev. JoHN TUCKWELL.
The Sub-Oceanic Depression known as ‘‘ La Fosse de Cap Breton,” and the adjacent
River Valleys of France and Spain. By Professor J. LoGan Losiry, F.G.S., with

remarks hy Captain G. P. Hzatu, R.N., and Mr. Davip Howarp, D.L.

XXVI

VOL. XXXIV.

Annual Address: The Water Supply of Jerusalem. By Major-General Sir C. W. WILson,
K.E., F.R.S8.

The Springs of Character. By A. T. ScHOFIELD, Esq., M.D.

Modifications in the Idea of God, produced by Modern 'Thought and Scientific Discovery,
By Rev. Chancellor Lias, M.A.

The Preparation of the Earth for Man’s Abode. By Professor J. Locan Losey, F.C.S.

Adaptation and Selection in Nature: their bearing on Design. By WaLTER Kipp, Esq.,
MAD, E Za:

Physical History of the Norwegian Fjords. By Professor Hull, F’.R.S.

Physical History of the New Zealand Fjords. By J. M. MACLAREN, F'.G.8,

Iceland: Its History and Inhabitants. By Dr. J. STEFANSSON.

Artesian Water in Queensland. By R. Locan Jack, LL.D.

Locusts and Grasshoppers. By Rev. Dr. WaLkEr, I".L.8.

Water essential to All Life. By Professor LionnL BEaLEz, F.R.S.

Procopius’s African Monument. By M. L. lious#, B.L.

Some Diseases mentioned in the Bible. By Dr. 'T. CHAPLIN,

VOL) 2cXxy.

Annual Address. By Professor W. M. Furnpers Petrie, D.C.L.

The Babylonian Story of the Creation, including Bel’s Fight with the Dragon. By
THEOPHILUS G. PincuEs, Esq., LL.D., M.R.A.S.

The Future of Islam. By Professor D. S. MARGoLIouTH, D.Litt., Laudian Professor
of Arabic, Oxford University.

The Arya Samaj. By Rev. H. D. Griswonp, M.A., Ph.D., Missionary, Lahore, India.

On the Unseen Life of our World and of Living Growth. By Professor Lione. §.
Beane, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., Government Medical Referee for England.

ree Cheese mie Cornwall, aud its Teachings. By Professor Epwarv Hutt, LL.D.,
‘RS , F.G.S.

Tne Water Supply of Jerusalem. By Ernest W. GURNEY MAsSTERMAN, Diploma in
Public Health, Cambridge.

Modern Theories conceruing the composition of Holy Scripture. By Rev. JoHn
Tuck WELL, M.R.A.S.

On the Geological Relationship of the Voicanoes of the West Indies. By J. W.
SPENCER, M.A., Ph.D., F.G.S.

pice el and the West Indian Eruptions of 1902. ByJ. Locan Los.ey, F.G.S.

".R.G.S.

Report on the Congress of Orientalists held at Hamburg in September, 1902. By
THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, Esq., LL.D., M.R.A.S.

The Laws of the Babylonians, as recorded in the code of Hammurabi. By THEOPHILUS
G. Pincuss, Esq., LL.D., M.R.A.S.

Lecture on ‘‘ Experiences in South Africa during the War.” By the Rev. W. H.
FRAZER, D.D., late Acting Chaplain to the Forces.

The Living God of Living Nature from the Science Side. By Professor LioNEt S.
BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S.

» 1

VOL) XeeyeL

Annual Address. By the Rt. Hon. the Earl of Hatssury, D.C.L., F.R.S.

he Genesis of Nature. By Rev. G. F. WHIDBORNE, M.A., F.G.S.

Ancestral Worship (lecture), By Rev. ARTHUR ELWIn.

Two Paths, one Goal. By Dr. WautTEer A. Kipp, F.Z.S. (being an examination of
Bishop TEMPLE’s Bampton Lectures for 1884.)

»On the Hot Lakes District, New Zealand. By Miss HinDA Boorp,

Observations on Irrigation Works in India. By C. W. Opuine, Esq., C.LE.,
M.Inst.C.E.

On the Age of the Last Uprise in the British Isles. By Professor EDwarp HUuLL,
Gb... ERS.

On the Samaritan Text of the Pentateuch. By Rev. Canon GArRRATT, M.A.

The Samaritan Passover of the year 1861. By Rev. Canon HAmMMonp, LL.B.

The Conception of the Great Reality. Bv Sypnry T. KLEIN, Esq., F.L.S., F.R.A.8.

XXVI1L

On the Synchronous Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Judah. By FrepEnick
GARD FLEAY, Esq., M.A.

Notes on the Thickness of the Lucerne Glacier of the Post-Pliocene Period. By
Professor EpwarbD Hutt, F.R.S.

Prehistoric Remains, with drawings, near Tenda, Italy. By Cav. W. P. JERVIs,
F.G.S8.

On the Origin of the Marine (Halolimnic) Fauna of Lake Tanganyika. By W. H.~
HvpLEston, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

VOR. XXXVIL

Annual Address. By Dr. Sirvanvs P. Tuompsoy, F.R.S

The Right Way in Psychology. By Rev. F. SToRRs TURNER, B.A. Remarks by
Dr. ScHOFIELD, Rev. J. TUCKWELL, and others

On Confucianism. By Rey. ARTHUR ELWIN.

The Rajputs and the History of Rajputana. By Colonel T. HoLBEIn HENDLEY, C.I.E.
Remarks by General HALLIDAY, Professcr E. HULL, F.R.S., and others.

The Growth of the Kingdom of God. By Rev. J. BRADFORD WHITING, MUA:

Biblical Astronomy, ‘By Lieut.-Colonel G. MAcKINLAY. Remarks by Commander
CaBorneE, U.B., Dr. HExwoop SmrrH, Professor Saycr,Canon GIRDLESTONE, and
others.

Geological Exterminations. By Dr. CHARLES B. Warrinc, M.A. Remarks by Rey.
Dr. Irvine, Dr. W. Kipp, and others.

The Nebular and Planetesimal Theories of the Earth’s Origin. By WARREN UPHAM,
Hisq., M.A., F.G.S.A.

On Dr. Nansen’s Bathymetrical Researches in the Arctic Ocean as Compared with those
on the Atlantic Coast of Europe. By Professor E. Hutt, LL.D., F.B.S.

The Resurrection of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ (Address). By Rev. Canon
R. B. GirpLESTONE, M.A.

The Influence of Physiological Discovery on Thought. By Epwarp P. Frost, Esq.,
Dis, JiR:

The Messiah of Qadian. By Rev. H. D. Griswoxtp, M.A., Ph.D. Remarks by Colonel
ALVES, Colonel HENDLEY, Mr. Rouss, Mr. J. O. Corrie, and others.

The Minerals and Metals mentioned in the Old Testament and their influence on the
Social and Religious History of the Nations of Antiquity. By Cav. W. P. JERVIS,
iG. S-

ViOEL XX Ty.

The Bearing of Recent Oriental Discoveries on Old Testament History. By Rev. JoHnw
UrquHArT. Being the essay for which ‘‘’ he Gunning Prize” was awarded by the
Council.

Tceland: Its History and Inhabitants. If. By Dr. Jon STEFANSsON, Ph.D.

Evolutionary Law in the Creation Story of Genesis. By Rev. A. Irvine, B.A., D.Sc.

Biological Change in Geclogical ‘ime. By Professor J. LoGaN LoBLey, F.G.S., F.R.G.S.

The Bible Pedigree of the “Nations of the World, as attested and expanded by ancient
Records and Traditions, and by early and long-lasting national Names. By Martin
L. Rovusg, Esq., B.L.

The Bearing of Recent Oriental Discoveries on Old Testament History. Being the second
in order of merit of the “ Gunning Prize Essays.” By Rev. ANDREW CRAIG
RoBINsoNn, M.A.

The Early Celtic Churches of Britain and Ireland (with illustration). By Miss ELEANoRr
H. Hutt, author of Early Christian Ireland, etc. With lantern illustrations.

The Bible in the Light of Modern Science. Abstract of a Lecture delivered by WILLIAM
Woops Smyru, Esq., F.Med.Soc.Lon. With lantern illustrations.

Ice or Water. By Sir Henry HowortsH, D.C.L., F.R.S. Review by Professor
Epwarp Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S. (Secretary)

The Zodiacal Arrangement of the Stars: in its Historical and Biblical Connections. By
Rev. A. B. GRIMALDI, M.A. (Camb.).

The Morning Star in the Gospels. By Lieut.-Colonel GEorGE MACKINLAY, R.A. (Ret.).

XXVIll

VOL. XXxXTX

Annual Address. The Development of the Religious Faculty in Man, apart from Revela-
tion. By the Right Rev. Bishop WELLDoN, D.D.

Researches in Sinai. By Prof. W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE, D.C.L. Review by the
Secretary.

The San Francisco and Valparaiso Earthquakes and their causes (with map). By
WARREN Upuam, Esq., D.Sc., F.G.S. (America). .

The Scriptural Idea of Miracles. By Rev. Canon R. B. Grrpiestong, M.A.

The Pedigree of the Nations, No. Il. By Martin L. Rovusz, Esq., B.L.

The History of the Spread of the European Fauna. By Prof. J. Logan Losey, F.G.S8.

Orissa: A little known province of the Indian Empire. With some personal Reminis-
cences. By C. W. OpuinG, Esq., C.S.1.

Survivals of Primitive Religion among the people of Asia Minor. By the Rev. G. E.
Wuitk, Dean of Anatolia College.

Plant Distribution from an Old Standpoint. By H. B. Guppy, Esq., M.B., F.R.S.E.

Exploration of Asia Minor, as bearing on the Historical Trustworthiness of the New
Testament. By Prof. Sir W1LL1AM M. Ramsay, D.C.L.

Recent Discoveries in Palestine in Relation to the Bible. By Dr. Ernest W. G.
MASTERMAN.

Mencius. By the Rev. F. Storrs TuRNER, B.A.

VOR) x:

Annual Address. The Bible and Astronomy. By Mr. E. WALTER MAuNDER, F.R.A.S.

Primeval Man in Belgium. By Rev. D. GATH WHITLEY.

The influence of the Glacial Epoch upon the Early History of Mankind. By Rev.
Professor G. FREDERICK WRriGHT, D.D., LL.D.

Resemblances between Indian and Jewish Ideas and Customs. By Colonel T. HoLBEIN
HENDLEY, C.I.E.

The Glaciers, Past and Present, in the South Island of New Zealand, together with the
great Vertical Movements of the Ground. By Mr. C. DiLuwortuH Fox.

A Recent Visit to Petra. Lecture delivered by Mr. ARTHUR SuTTON, F.L.S.: a short
account by the SECRETARY.

Philosophy and Evojution. By Professor H. LANGHORNE ORCHARD, M.A., B.Sc.

The Spread of the Existing Animals through Europe and to the Islands of the Atlantic,
based on Dr. ScHARF¥’s recent work, ‘‘ European Animals.” By Professor EDWARD
Hunn, au b.D., BR.S.

The Decay of Ultramontanism from an Historical Point of View. By Rev. CHANCELLOR
J.J. Lias, M.A.

The American Fauna and its Origin. By Professor J. Logan Losey, F.G.S.

The Shia Turks. By Rev. G. E. Wuitr, M.A., B.D., Dean of Anatolia College,
Turkey.

On the Evidence of Malay, Japanese, Arabian and Persian Admixture in the Inca or
Keshua Language of Peru, amongst the Aymara Language of the Peasant Class. By
Mr. F. W. CurisTIANn, B.A.

List of Officers, Members, etc.

LONDON:
HARRISON AND SONS, PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HIS MAJESTY,
ST. MARTIN’S LANE.

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