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JOURNAL
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WASHINGTON ACADEMY
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VOLUME 23. 1933
BOARD OF EDITORS
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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 23 JANUARY 15, 1933 No. 1
PALEOBOTAN Y.—New occurrences of Pleistocene plants in the Dis-
trict of Columbia.1 EpwaRp W. Brrry, Johns Hopkins University.
The material which has yielded the organic remains described in
the following pages was collected by Mr. Arthur Keith of the United
States Geological Survey, whose statement regarding the two out-
crops is quoted in subsequent paragraphs. Mr. R. 8. Williams of the
New York Botanical Garden has identified the mosses for me, and
the types of these are in the collection of that institution. Messrs.
W. L. McAtee and A. C. Martin of the Bureau of Biological Survey
have given valuable help in determining several doubtful specimens
and I wish to express my indebtedness to all of these gentlemen for
their cooperation.
The two localities are described by Keith? as follows:
Government Printing Office: Location on north side of G Street about
200 feet west of North Capitol Street; altitude of curb of G Street
29-30 feet A. T. The excavation went through a heavy fill, then 4 or
5 feet of gravel which may or may not have been in place. Below the
gravel the excavation was in dark clay down to 1 foot A. T. Excava-
tions for footings went through about 1 foot down to tide level in
dark sandy clay. Fragments of carbonized wood and leaves were
found in the upper part of the black clay.
Bellevue Hotel: On north side of E Street and about 200 feet west of
North Capitol Street. The excavation was mainly in fill which was 19
feet deep. Beneath this was from 3 to 6 feet of gray clay and gray
sandy clay with pockets of vegetable matter, leaves, wood, etc. This
clay is the same bed as that cut in the Government Printing Office
excavation and seems to correspond to the upper part of the clay
1 Received July 1, 1932.
2 Letter of January 26, 1932.
JAN 13 1°73
2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 1
found there. I do not know the precise altitude of the curb in front
of the Bellevue Hotel but it is about 8 or 10 feet higher than the curb
at the Government Printing Office on G Street.
Altogether the two deposits have yielded the recognizable remains
of 41 different kinds of organisms representing 1 fish, 2 insects and
37 kinds of plants. The last comprise 5 mosses, 1 conifer, 2 mono-
cotyledons, and 29 dicotyledons. Four of the plants have not been
determined generically, and 11 additional have not been determined
specifically. The following 6 types have not before been found fossil
in North America and but one of these (Bidens) is represented in the
European Pleistocene: Pilea pumila, Cycloloma atriplicifolium, Ilex
vomitoria, Helianthemum sp., Cornus florida, and Bidens sp.
The bulk of the plant remains represent fruits or seeds, and the
leaves of but a single species, /lex vomitoria have been found in the
peat, although tiny fragments of leaf lamina, veins, and petioles, are
exceedingly common. Leaves of the beech, sycamore, and sweet gum
are not uncommon in the silty layer associated with the peat in the
excavation for the extension of the Government Printing Office.
There is, in addition, a considerable amount of material from both
excavations which I have been obliged to ignore either because of its
unsatisfactory nature, or because of lack of skill, or unwillingness to
expend the necessary time on account of the law of diminishing re-
turns. For after all, in the few studies which I have had the oppor-
tunity to make on Pleistocene plants from the Middle Atlantic and
Southern states, the results have disclosed a flora essentially modern
and differing in only minor details from that which inhabits the same
localities at the present time, and these results are only to be obtained
by an inordinate expenditure of time and patience in macerating and
sorting the material.
The 5 mosses are all common species and such as might be found in
bogs or along streams in the eastern United States. The single conifer,
Taxodium, is a common Pleistocene type indicative of coastal plain
rather than Piedmont environment. Its range has apparently become
progressively restricted during the past few thousand years.
Monocotyledons number but 2 species, but of these Navas sp. is
one of the most abundant plants in the deposits.
The dicotyledons are, for the most part, wide ranging and well
known forms, although the 5 following are new to the North American
Pleistocene: Cycloloma atriplicifolium, Ilex vomitoria, Helianthemum
sp., Cornus florida, and Bidens sp.
While picking over the macerated peaty muck all pebbles en-
JANUARY 15, 1983 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE PLANTS IN D.C. 5)
countered were preserved and these are of some interest. They are in-
frequent and mostly small, the largest being a pebble of vein quartz
from the Bellevue Hotel site with a maximum diameter of 12 milli-
meters. Pebbles of vein quartz are the most abundant at both locali-
ties and the quartz pebbles are better rounded than those of other
materials. From the hotel site pebbles of a chert breccia followed
those of vein quartz in frequency and there was a single pebble of
red sandstone (apparently Triassic). The pebbles from the muck at
the Government Printing Office excavation were rather angular pea-
sized gravels or smaller, and the most abundant were of vein quartz.
Next in abundance were pebbles of Triassic (?) red sandstone. Very
sparingly represented were pebbles of the following: Muscovite,
chalcedony, olivine or epidote, fine-grained granite, quartz mica
schist, a single one of feldspar, and one or two which were not de-
termined. The assemblage might be called a Piedmont assemblage,
having in mind that the Triassic outcrops in the Piedmont province of
Maryland. The angularity of the material suggests that it has come
only a short distance, unless it be assumed that the small pebbles
resulted from the fragmentation of larger and more rounded stream
gravel.
The only strictly aquatic plant in the collection is Navas, which is
very abundant. Conspicuous by their absence are such aquatic genera
as Ceratophyllum, Brasenia, Nymphaea, and Potamogeton, which might
normally be expected to occur and which would scarcely be over-
looked if they were represented in the material. On the other hand
when one visualizes the plant assemblages characteristic of pond
borders or wet stream banks, it is found that the majority of the
plants recorded in this paper belong in that category, notably Carez,
Alnus, Persicaria, Polygonum, Ranunculus, Rubus, Vitis, Bidens, etc.
Others, like the beech, bald cypress, pig nut hickory, tulip tree,
sweet gum, sycamore, elderberry, and Pilea, although occurring also
in drier situations, are at home and more common in wet situations.
The only strictly dry soil type is the Helianthemum, although
Cornus florida is normally a hillside rather than a stream valley type
in this latitude. Moreover, fish scales indicate the presence of suffi-
cient amounts of water to permit this type of life, and the presence of
scattered small pebbles at both sites indicates that there was some
stream tributary to the immediate area of deposition which was ex-
plored.
I conclude then, that these two deposits were laid down in either a
pond or in the meanders of a slow-moving stream, the low shores of
4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 1
which were clothed with thickets of stream-bottom and swamp types
of plants.
AGE OF THE DEPOSITS
The altitude and attitude of the present-day surface (30 to 40 feet)
beneath which the peaty layers occur at these two sites is that usually
referred to the Talbot formation in this region, though the actual ele-
vation of the deposits (less than 20 feet) would suggest a lower ter-
race, probably the Pamlico terrace. There has been much change of
the old natural surface through human agency and the present sur-
face elevation has little physiographic significance. The floras of the
various stages of the Pleistocene are so incompletely known and so
modern in character that the plants themselves furnish little more
than circumstantial evidence. |
One naturally compares the flora at these two localities with that
described from the Mayflower (Walker) Hotel site on Connecticut
Avenue, which is from the somewhat earlier Wicomico formation, and
which is the largest flora based upon carpological remains in the
eastern United States. Only 7 of the 41 forms from the two localities
discussed here were recorded from the Mayflower site and 22 from the
latter have not been found at either of the localities under discussion.
This seems to me to be an unusually large amount of difference and
to be entitled to some weight. How much, cannot be evaluated as
the Mayflower site, from the evidence of the large bald cypress stumps
and knees in situ, was a cypress pond, whereas these two localities
appear not to have been. This undoubtedly means a slightly different
ecologic facies and this slight environmental difference might be
sufficient to account for the observed differences in the plants found.
The most abundant plants at the Mayflower site were the cypress,
grape, elderberry, Rubus, and sedges—Carex and Dulichium particu-
larly. None of these are common at the Bellevue Hotel or Govern-
ment Printing Office sites, in fact only the first three are represented
by identical species, and even these are represented sparingly. The
commonest fossil at the latter localities is the pericarp of Navas.
Furthermore, nine of the species in the present paper are commonly
found in one or more localities of late Pleistocene age in adjacent
regions of the Coastal Plain and three additional are thought to occur
elsewhere in the Talbot formation or its equivalent, but are not posi-
tively identified.
There is some evidence of a climate more genial than the present
in the floral remains from the Mayflower Hotel site. The suggestion
JANUARY 15, 1933 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE PLANTS IN D.C. 5)
is offered with greater emphasis by the late-Pleistocene marine faunas,
and is seen at all localities where plants of Talbot age have been dis-
covered from Virginia northward to New Jersey. It is marked in the
assemblage described in this paper, for two species occur that reach
their present northern limit in southern Virginia. The evidence for a
more genial climate deserves some weight though its exact value_is
uncertain, particularly for Wicomico deposits, for so few localities
with plants of Wicomico age are known that we can neither affirm or
deny the point with respect to Wicomico time.
No conclusive correlation has been made between the terrace _de-
posits and those of glacial origin to the northward.
Leverett has identified the terminal moraine of the Illinoian on the
north and west branches of the Susquehanna and followed the valley
train down the river below Columbia, Pa., where it is said practically
to connect with the Wicomico. I am not sure whether Leverett re-
gards these coastal terraces as glacial or interglacial, since he speaks
of the degree of weathering of the Pensacola terrace in Florida as indi-
cating an age not older than the Wisconsin drift.?
Cooke, who is a strong supporter of the glacial control theory of
Pleistocene sea level, considers that the presence of Illinoian drift ma-
terial in the Wicomico proves the latter to be of Sangamon (inter-
glacial) age.* In his latest paper® on the subject he advocates restrict-
ing the name Talbot to the terrace and formation whose shore line
lies about 42 feet above sea level and dropping the term ‘“‘Chowan,”’
which he suggested as a substitute for Talbot in the previous paper
just cited, and using the term Pamlico for the lower terrace whose
shore line lies at approximately 25 feet above sea level. If this pro-
posal be adopted, the two fossiliferous sites under discussion would
be referred to the Pamlico terrace which probably date, according to
Cooke,® from the interglacial age between the second and third Wis-
consin glaciations.
3 Leverett, F., Science, vol. 71, p. 544, 1930.
4 Cooke, C. W., This JouRNAL, vol. 20, p. 394, 1930: Jour. Geol., vol. 38, p. 588
1930.
5 Idem., vol. 21, pp. 503-513, 1931.
§ Oral communication.
VOL. 23, NO. 1
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
6
Thuidium delicatulum or Th. recog-
6, Brachythectum pulmosum; 7-10, Hygrohypnum eugyrtum mackayt; 11-13,
1-2, Anomodon attenuatus; 3-4,
Taxtphyllum geophilum.
Figures 1-13.
nitum;
~~
5-
JANUARY 15, 1933 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE PLANTS IN D.C. Ci
MUSCI?
Figs. 1-13.
The interesting fragments of Pleistocene mosses sent to the New York
Botanical Garden by Prof. Berry are all blackened and brittle with age.
The largest pieces are scarcely more than 1 cm. long, with the main stems
or branches often nearly denuded of leaves or with little more than the costa
remaining, yet on all the specimens, especially at the tips of the branches,
have been found at least a few leaves showing nearly, or quite, perfect out-
line of margin and cell structure.
As determined, all five species are common and well known mosses of the
eastern states and would naturally be found in damp or boggy places. The
Thuidium, called either delicatulum or recognitum, can scarcely be more defi-
nitely determined without the perichaetial leaves.
The five species are evidently as follows:
Anomodon attenuatus (Schreb.) Hiiben.
Thuidium delicatulum (L.) Mitt. or Thuidium recognitum (L.) Lindb.
Brachythecium plumosum (Sw.) Bry. Eur.
Hygrohypnum eugyrium mackayi (Schp.) Broth.
Taxiphyllum geophilum (Anst.) Fleisch.
DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES 1-13
Anomodon attenuatus.
Figs. 1. Branch-leaf X23.
2. Apex of same X230.
Thuidium delicatulum or Th. recognitum.
3. Lateral view of apex of branch-leaf 200.
4. Part of denuded stem with branches X6.
Brachythectum plumosum.
5. Branch-leaf X23.
6. Median leaf-cells 230.
Hygrohypnum eugyrium mackayt.
7. A section of branch partly denuded of leaves X6.
8. Apex of branch leaf 230.
9. Branch leaf X23.
10. Median cells of same X230.
Taxtphyllum geophilum.
11. Branch leaf X23.
12. Apex of same X230.
13. Median leaf-cells 230.
7 Contributed by R. S. Williams of the New York Botanical Garden.
8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 23, NO. 1
CUPRESSINACEAE
TAXODIUM DISTICHUM (Linné) L. C. Richard
Fig. 14
Tazxodium distichum Holmes, Elisha Mitchell Soc. Jour., vol. 2, p. 92, 1885.
Hollick, Maryland Geol. Survey, Pleistocene, pp. 218, 237, pl. 68, 1906.
Berry, Torreya, vol. 6, p. 89, 1906; Jour. Geology, vol. 15, p. 339, 1907; Am. Nat-
uralist, vol. 48, pp. 432-34, figs. 1, 2, 1909; Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 29, p. 391,
1910; Torreya, vol. 10, p. 263, 1910; Plant World, vol. 16, pp. 39-45, figs. 1, 2,
1911; Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 34, p. 219, figs. 1,2, 1912; Torreya, vol. 14,
pp. 160, 162, 1914; U. 8. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 48, p. 296, 1915; Torreya, vol. 15,
p. 206, 1915; U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 98, p. 195, pl. 45, figs. 1-6, 1916;
Jour. Geology, vol. 25, p. 662, 1917; Florida Geol. Survey Ninth Ann. Rept., p. 21,
1917; This JouRNAL, vol. 14, p. 15, pl. 1, figs. 37—42; pl. 3, 1924; U. S. Geol. Survey
Prof. Paper 140, p. 105, pl. 45, figs. 1-8, 1926; Torreya, vol. 27, p. 22, 1927.
This species has been found in Pleistocene deposits at numerous localities
both within and outside its modern range. The most notable of the latter are
Long Branch, N. J., Buena Vista, Va., and Marietta, Ga. All of the Mary-
land—District of Columbia Pleistocene occurrences are outside the Recent
range but at no very great distance, although those near the head of Chesa-
peake Bay are about 60 miles outside the present range. The localities pre-
viously mentioned are three times this distance and the Virginia and Georgia
localities are situated in the Appalachian Province.
Within the District of Columbia huge stumps, accompanied by a profu-
sion of seeds and somewhat fewer cone scales, were found at the Mayflower
(Walker) Hotel site on Connecticut Avenue, and the wood was also found
in an excavation at the southeast corner of North Capitol and Pierce Streets,
N. E. The species was found at both the Bellevue Hotel excavation and that
for the Government Printing Office extension. At the former there were only
a few seeds but at the latter place, detached leaves, a few broken twigs, a
small cone-scale, and a few abortive seeds were found. Obviously the peat
at these two localities does not represent a cypress pond or bay like that at
the Mayflower (Walker) Hotel site, but a sparse drift element derived from
a source some little distance away.
The bald cypress has a most interesting geologic history, and its immedi-
ate and scarcely distinguishable Tertiary ancestor attained a holarctic dis-
tribution in the later Tertiary.
The oldest beds in which the existing species has been definitely recog-
nized are the Pliocene deposits along the Gulf coast of Alabama (Citronelle
formation). It was exceedingly common at numerous widespread localities
in southeastern North America during the Pleistocene epoch in the latest
terrace deposits (Talbot, Pamlico, and Princess Anne) and in several sub-
Recent deposits. Unfortunately it does not seem possible now to correlate
the outcrops at these localities with the chronology of the glaciated region
to the north.
Ns
JANUARY 15, 19383 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE PLANTS IN D.C. 9
The Flora of the District of Columbia® records the bald cypress from near
Marshall Hall, about 20 miles down the Potomac Valley, and also from
localities south of Bowie, Prince George’s County, Maryland about an equal
distance east of the District, but I have never observed it under unquestion-
able natural conditions nearer than southern Charles County, Maryland.
NAIADACEAE
Nats sp. Berry
Figs. 15-20.
Naas sp. Berry, This JouRNAL, vol. 14: p. 17, pl. 1, figs. 1-3, 1924.
Very many pericarps of a species of Naias similar to those encountered at
the Mayflower (Walker) Hotel site are contained in the material from the
excavation for the extension of the Government Printing Office and more
sparingly at the Bellevue Hotel site. Some of these are in an excellent state
of preservation and show a fine longitudinal ornamentation of punctate rib-
lets. The photographs from which the accompanying illustrations were made
are particularly poor and do not bring out these features.
POACEAE
CAREX Sp.
Fig. 21
In addition to immature and undeterminable specimens, the achenes of
two species of Carex were found to be exceedingly common in the buried
swamp deposit encountered in the excavation at the site of the Mayflower
(Walker) Hotel. These were compared with Carex collinsii Nuttall? and
Carex intumescens Rudge.*® In the excavation for the extension of the Gov-
ernment Printing Office a single achene of a Carex was discovered. This
appears to me to be distinct from the two species cited above, but the species
in this genus are so numerous and there is so much convergence in the fruit-
ing characters of many of them, that the specific identity of the most similar
of existing forms can not be determined from the fruits alone.
JUGLANDACEAE
HicorRia GLABRA (Mill.) Britton
Figs. 22, 23
Juglans glabra Mill. Berry, Torreya, vol. 6, p. 89, 1906; Jour. Geol., vol. 15, p. 340,
1907; Torreya, vol. 9, p. 97, figs. 1-5, 1909; Idem., vol. 10, p. 264, fig. 1, 1910;
U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 140, p. 106, pl. 46, figs. 1-4, 1926.
8 Cont. U. 8. Natl. Herbarium, Washington, 1919.
9 Berry, E. W., This JourNAL, vol. 14, p. 17, pl. 1, figs. 4-8, 1924.
10 Tdem, figs. 9-11.
10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
Hicoria pseudo-glabra Hollick, Md. Geol. Survey Pliocene & Pleistocene, p. 221, pl. 72,
figs. 1, 16, 17, 1906.
Carya porcina Nuttall. Mercer, Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Jour., (II), vol. 11, p. 277, 281,
figs. 4, 5, 12, 16, 1899.
Half of a nut and husk fragments of this species were found in the Gov-
ernment Printing Office excavation. It has been recorded from a considerable
number of Pleistocene deposits ranging in age from the Sunderland terrace
to the ‘“‘Chowan”’ (Talbot) terrace. It has been found in the Port Kennedy,
Penna., cave deposit, and in New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, and North
Carolina. In the existing flora it is found in both dry and wet situations from
Maine to Florida and Texas.
BETULACEAE
ALNUS RUGOSA (Du Roi) K. Koch
Figs. 24-27
(?) Alnus serrulata Willdenow. Schmalhausen, Palaeont., Bd. 33, p. 200, pl. 19, figs.
5-9, 1887.
Alnus rugosa Hollick, Md. Geol. Survey Pliocene and Pleistocene, p. 225, pl. 69, figs.
1-3, 1906.
The cone scales of this species are rather common at both the Bellevue
Hotel excavation and that for the Government Printing Office extension.
One or two shrivelled and doubtfully determined seeds were also found. The
latter are slender but show the two persistent styles and are probably abor-
tive seeds of this species, since they are not filled out.
Leaves of this species are exceedingly common in the Talbot clays at
Drum Point, Calvert County, Md. This is the only previously recorded
fossil occurrence except for the forms from the supposed Pliocene of the
Altai region in Asia which Schmalhausen identified as Alnus serrulata Will-
denow. The latter is a synonym of Alnus rugosa and it is highly improbable
that the Altai occurrence represents this, rather than one of the numerous
existing Asiatic species of the genus.
Alnus is an old genus recorded somewhat doubtfully from the Upper Cre-
taceous and attaining a Holarctic range during the Tertiary, and penetrating
South America as far as Bolivia in the Pliocene. The existing species are
clearly foreshadowed in the Pliocene, Schmalhausen having referred several
from the Altai region in Asia to modern forms, and Saporta and Laurent
describing French species as varieties of existing ones.
In addition to the present species Alnus rubra, incana, viridis, glutinosa,
and cordifolia have been recorded from the Pleistocene.
Alnus rugosa is common in swamps and on low moist ground in the present
flora of the District of Columbia and ranges from Maine and Minnesota to
Florida and Texas.
~"
JANUARY 15, 1933 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE PLANTS IN D.C. 11
FAGACEAE
FAGUS GRANDIFOLIA Ehrhart
Fagus ferruginea Lesquereux, Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 27, p. 363, 1859; Geol. Tenn., p. 427,
plekKefic. 115 1869 (2).
Knowlton, Am. Geol., vol. 18, p. 371, 1896. .
Mercer, Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Journ., (II), vol. 11, pp. 277, 281, fig. 815, 1899.
Fagus americana Hollick, Md. Geol. Survey Pliocene & Pleistocene, p. 226, 1906.
Berry, Torreya, vol. 6, p. 88, 1906; Jour. Geol., vol. 15, p. 341, 1907; Am. Nat.,
vol. 41, p. 692, pl. 2, fig. 7, 1907; Idem., vol. 48, p. 435, 1909; Am. Jour. Sci., vol.
29, p. 393, 1910; Torreya, vol. 14, p. 162, 1914; Idem., vol. 15, p. 206, 1915; U.S.
Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 140, p. 108, pl. 48, figs. 3-13, 1926; Torreya, vol. 27,
Peet O27. :
In the drab clay layer in the excavation for the Government Printing
Office impressions of beech leaves are exceedingly common, although no
traces of the nuts or husks have been found in the associated peaty layers.
Leaves, nuts or seeds of this species have been recorded from a variety of
horizons in the Pleistocene, and from Massachusetts to Texas. With the ex-
ception of the Massachusetts locality and those in the Port Kennedy,
Penna., cave, and in the glacial terrace at Morgantown, West Virginia, the
records are confined to the Atlantic Coastal Plain and include the states of
Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas. The
modern range is on rich soil from Nova Scotia, Ontario, and Wisconsin to
Florida and Texas.
PLATANACEAE
PLATANUS OCCIDENTALIS Linné
Platanus aceroides Hollick (not Goeppert), Md. Geol. Survey Pliocene and Pleistocene,
p. 231, pls. 73 and 74, 1906.
Platanus sp., Hollick, Idem., p. 232, pl. 75, 1906.
Platanus, leaf fragments. Mercer, Acad. Natl. Sci. Phila. Jour., (II), vol. 11, p. 277,
1899.
Platanus occidentalis Knowlton, Am. Geol. vol. 18, p. 371, 1896.
Penhallow, Roy. Soc. Canada Trans., (II), vol. 2, sec. 4, pp. 68, 72, 1896; Am. Nat.,
vol. 41, p. 448, 1907.
Berry, Jour. Geol., vol. 15, p. 344, 1907; Am. Nat., vol. 41, p. 695, pl. 2, fig. 5, 1907;
Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 29, p. 397, 1910; Torreya, vol. 14, p. 161, 1914; Idem., vol. 15,
p. 207, 1915; U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 140, p. 112, pl. 55, figs. 1-9, 1926.
Emerson, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 597, p. 148, 1917.
This species occurs as leaf impressions associated with the peat at the ex-
cavation for the Government Printing Office extension. In the associated
peat there are pieces of bark and fragments of leaves, usually a small part
at the base with more or less of the petiole. The bark is also present in the
Bellevue Hotel excavation.
This species has been found fossil in the Don Valley near Toronto, near
Hadley, Mass., at Morgantown, W. Va., in both the Sunderland and Talbot
12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
formations of Maryland, in the Port Kennedy cave, Penna., in the ‘‘ Chowan”’
(Talbot) formation of North Carolina, and in the lowest terraces of the
Chattahoochee, Alabama, and Warrior rivers in Alabama.
The existing tree is essentially a stream bank and wet woods form and is
found from Maine and Ontario to Florida and Texas.
URTICACEAE
PILEA PUMILA (Linné) A. Gray
Fig. 33
A single specimen from the excavation for the Government Printing Office
extension appears to be closest to the seeds of this species although some-
what above the average size. The genus is large and mostly tropical with two
temperate North American herbaceous species of shaded swampy situations.
In the existing flora this species ranges from New Brunswick to western
Ontario and Minnesota and southward to Kansas, Florida, and Louisiana.
It is common on moist, generally alluvial soil in the present flora of the
District of Columbia.
The fruit is a much compressed, ovate, acute achene with a flat seed. It
has not heretofore been found fossil.
ULMACEAE
Uumus ALATA Michaux
Fig. 34
This species was recorded by Lesquereux" from the Pleistocene on the
banks of the Mississippi near Columbus, Kentucky. This record may be
correct but I am inclined to doubt it as I revisited Lesquereux’s locality and
made collections which I, at first, mistook for Pleistocene, but which turned
out to be Jackson Eocene. I found no trace of Ulmus, and this species
does not, of course, occur in the Eocene.
I have recorded this species from the Pleistocene of North Carolina
(““Chowan”’ formation)” and Alabama.” These occurrences were based on
the leaves and this is the first fossil record of the fruit. These fruits are not
uncommon at the excavations for the Bellevue Hotel and the extension of
the Government Printing Office. I refer them to Ulmus alata rather than to
Ulmus americana Linné, because of their smaller size, extended slender
stalk, shorter notch, more pointed tip, and more slender and extended
styles.
11 Lesquereux, Leo, Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 26, p. 365, 1859.
22 Berry, E. W., Jour. Geol., vol. 15, p. 343, 1907; U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper
140, p. 111, pl. 54, figs. 1, 2, 1926.
13 Berry, E. W. Am. Nat., vol. 41, p. 694, pl. 1, figs. 6, 7, 1907; Am. Jour. Sci.,
vol. 29, p. 396, 1910.
a
JANUARY 15, 1933 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE PLANTS IN D.C. 13
At the present time this species occurs both on dry uplands and deep soil
of swamp borders and stream banks. It reaches its northern limit in southern
Virginia, ranging southward to western Florida, and from southern Indiana
and Illinois to Trinity River, Texas.
POLYGONACEAE
PERSICARIA PENNSYLVANICUM (Linné) Small
Figs. 37, 38
Achenes suborbicular, lenticular or flat, short- poimued, smooth, 2 to 2.5
millimeters high and approximately the same width.
This species occurs in the excavation for the Government Printing Office
extension. Several specimens were collected. In the present flora of the Dis-
trict of Columbia it is common in wet situations. Outside the District its
range is extensive, reaching northward to Nova Scotia and Ontario and
southward to Florida and Texas.
PERSICARIA SP. cf. P. HYDROPIPEROIDES (Michx.) Small
Figs. 35, 36
A few small triangular achenes, similar to those of Persicaria hydropiper-
oides but somewhat smaller, were present in the excavation for the Govern-
ment Printing Office extension. This species was common in the Wicomico
at the Mayflower (Walker) Hotel sitet and in the existing flora it ranges
from southern Canada to Florida and Mexico in wet situation. It is not
common in the existing flora of the District of Columbia, although recorded
from several stations along the Potomac.
The genus makes its appearance in the late Miocene in Japan, Central
Europe, and at Florissant, Colorado. Several existing species are recorded
from the Pleistocene in Europe and North America and specifically undeter-
mined specimens are recorded from the following localities and horizons in
our eastern American Pleistocene: Loess of western Tennessee, at Scarboro,
Ontario,!® Talbot formation of Maryland,!? Wicomico formation of District
of Columbia,'® Talbot (“‘Chowan’’) formation of North Carolina,!® and the
plant-bearing deposits at Vero, Florida.*° These are usually referred to the
Linnean genus Polygonum.
4 Berry, E. W., This JourNAt, vol. 14, p. 19, pl. 1, figs. 19-22, 1924.
= bern, es. W-, Lorreya, vol. 22, p: 11, 1922.
16 Coleman, A. P., Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., vol. 26, p. 247, 1915.
17 Hollick, ects Md. Geol. Survey BnaleleieioeaaG p. 231, 1906.
18 Berry, E. W., This JouRNAL, vol. 14, p. 19, pl. 11, fig. 23, 1924.
19 Berry, E. W., U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 140, p. 112, 1926.
20 Berry, E. W., Jour. Geol., vol. 25, p. 662, 1917.
14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 1
POLYGONUM sp.
Figs. 39, 40
Two specimens of immature fruits of some species of Polygonum are fig-
ured from the excavation for the Bellevue Hotel. They are possibly of the
same species differing merely in size, and are of the compressed lenticular
type.
Polygonum is widely distributed with many species in the existing flora.
It is not known in the geological record earlier than the middle Miocene.
Several recent species are recorded from the Pleistocene in both Europe and
North America. The latter, specifically unnamed include the Wicomico for-
mation at the Mayflower (Walker) Hotel site, the Talbot formation of
Maryland, the Talbot (‘‘Chowan’’) formation of North Carolina, and from
Scarboro, Ontario, and Vero, Florida.
POLYGONUM sp.
Fig. 41
An achene, probably immature, lenticular in section, surmounted by two
persistent pistils. Seems clearly referable to Polygonum but cannot be satis-
factorily identified as to species.
Excavation for extension of the Government Printing Office.
PHY TORACCACRAH
PHYTOLACCA DECANDRA Linné
Berry, Torreya, vol. 14, p. 121, 1914; This JourNAL, vol. 14, p. 19, pl. 1, figs. 26-28,
1924.
A seed of this species is contained in the material from the Government
Printing Office extension. It has previously been recorded from the May-
flower (Walker) Hotel site on Connecticut Avenue and from the lowest ter-
race of the Chattahoochee River in Alabama.
In the Recent flora it ranges from Maine, Ontario, and Minnesota to
Florida and Texas. It is common in the District of Columbia, and here, as
elsewhere within its range, occurs in rich moist soil or on waste ground.
According to the Botanical Code its proper name is Phytolacca americana
Linné.
CHENOPODIACEAE
CYCLOLOMA ATRIPLICIFOLIUM (Sprengel) Coulter
Fig. 42
A single specimen of a marginally winged circular fruit is contained in the
collection from the excavation for the extension of the Government Printing
Office. The central part is circular, about 1.6 millimeters in diameter and
JANUARY 15, 1933 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE PLANTS IN D.C. 15
depressed. It is surrounded by a marginal wing most of which was abraded
before fossilization so that only a narrow basal part is preserved all round,
and this contains radiating vascular strands.
I have compared this specimen with all the winged fruits or seeds that I
could think of as likely to occur in this region without success and at the
suggestion of W. L. McAtee compared it with the fruits of this species, with
which there is substantial and convincing agreement except that the modern
fruits are slightly larger. This difference in size amounts to possibly 25 per
cent without making any allowance for variation or for degree of maturity
of the fossil and is not sufficient to warrant considering the difference as
specific.
The modern species is a herbaceous form of stream banks, and ranges
from Manitoba to Indiana and westward to Nebraska and Arizona. It is
unknown east of the Alleghanies.
The fruit is a depressed utricle with a persistent calyx which forms the
horizontal winged margin. Cycloloma is a monotypic genus previously un-
known as a fossil and there is a possibility that the present occurrence may
represent an extinct species, but I would not be inclined to consider this
until more than this single specimen has been discovered.
RANUNCULACEAE
RANUNCULUS §p.
Fig. 43
Achenes flat, squarish in outline, mucronately tipped, relatively large.
Sparingly represented in the excavation for the Government Printing
Office extension. There is some resemblance to Ranunculus abortivus Linné
although the fossil is larger. It differs from any of the Ranunculus fruits
collected from the Wicomico at the Mayflower (Walker) Hotel site.*! There
are 12 species of Ranunculus in the present flora of the District of Columbia.
The genus is well represented in the Pleistocene of Europe and will doubtless
be found to be equally common in the North American Pleistocene when
the latter is studied as intensively as the former. Ranunculus contains over
200 species of herbs, is almost cosmopolitan in its distribution, and occurs in
the geological record from the Oligocene onward.
RANUNCULUS sp.
Fig. 44
The specimen figured appears to represent an achene of a large fruited
species of Ranunculus, and its flattened condition suggests immaturity. With
its beak it is slightly over 2.5 millimeters in length and about 1.5 millimeters
in breadth.
» Berry, E. W., This JoURNAL, vol. 14, p. 20, pl. 1, figs. 29-31, 1924.
VoL. 23, No. 1
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
16
Figures 14-77
JANUARY 15, 1933 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE PLANTS IN D.C. 7
It differs decidedly from the preceding as well as from the several Ranun-
culus achenes figured from the Mayflower (Walker) Hotel site”? but is most
like that shown in Fig. 41, although it apparently represents a distinct
species.
Excavation for extension of the Government Printing Office.
Figures 14-77
All the figures except 9 and 10 are enlarged about 3 times.
B. H. indicates that the specimens came from the Bellevue Hotel site, and G. P.O. that they came
from the excavation for the extension of the Government Printing Office.
Figures 14. Terminal twig of Tazodium distichum (Linné) L. C. Rich. G. P. O.
15-20. Pericarps of Nazas sp. G. P. O.
Dil @anersspe Gay. O:
22. Half of a nut of Hicorza glabra (Mill.) Britton, nat. size. G. P. O.
23. Part of husk of same, nat. size. G. P. O.
24-27. Cone-scales of Alnus rugosa (DuRoi) K. Koch.
28-32. Partially decorticated seeds of Liritodendron tulipifera Linné. B. H., 19.
Cre@:
33. Pilea pumila (Linné) A. Gray. G. P. O.
34. Winged fruit of Ulmus alata Michaux. G. P. O.
35-36. Persicaria sp. cf. P. hydropiperoides (Michaux) Small. G. P. O.
37-38. Persicaria pennsylvanica (Linné) Smail. G. P. O.
39-40. Polygonum sp. B. H.
41. Polygonum sp. G. P. O.
42. Cycloloma atriplicifolium (Sprengel) Coulter. G. P. O.
43. Ranunculus sp. G. P. O.
44. Achene of a second species of Ranunculus. G. P. O.
45-47. Broken samaras of Liriodendron tulipifera Linné. B. H.
38, 39. Immature stones of Rubus sp. G. P. O.
50. Prickle. Rubus (?). G. P. O.
51, 52. Seeds of Vztes cordifolia Michaux. G.P.O.
53, 54. Tendrils. Vites (7). G. P. O.
55, 56. Leaves of Ilex vomitoria Ait. G. P. O.
57-59. Helianthemum sp. G. P. O.
60. Sambucus canadensis Linné. G. P. O.
61, 62. Transverse profile and side view of stone of Cornus florida Linné. B.H.
63. Part of a stone of Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. B. H.
64, 65. Bidens sp. B. H.
66. Xanthium sp. G. P. O.
67. Undeterminable capsular valve. G. P. O.
68-70. Undeterminable fruit peduncles. G. P. O.
71. Cyprinodont fish scale. B. H.
72-77. Gall scales.
2 Berry, E. W., This JouRNAL, vol. 14, p. 24, pl. 1, figs. 29-32; pl. 2, fig. 28, 1924.
18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 1
MAGNOLIACEAE
LIRIODENDRON TULIPIFERA Linné
Figs. 28-32 and 45-47
Liriodendron tulipifera Berry, Amer. Nat., vol. 41, p. 695, 1907; Torreya, vol. 9, p. 71,
fig. 1, 1909; Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 29, p. 396, 1910; Torreya, vol. 15, p. 208, fig. 1,
1915; U. 8S. Geological Survey Prof. Paper 140, p. 112, pl. 54, figs. 6-8, 1926.
Schmalhausen, Palaeontographica, Bd. 33, p. 211, pl. 21, figs. 20, 21, 1887.
Reid, C. & E. M., Pliocene Flora Dutch Prussian border, p. 93, pl. 8, figs. 1-5, 1915.
This species has been recorded from the supposed Pliocene of the Altai
region of Asia; the Pliocene of Holland, and the Pleistocene of Maryland,
North Carolina, and Alabama. Schmalhausen’s Altai material was of leaf
fragments which undoubtedly belong to Lirzodendron but whether to this
species or to the existing Liriodendron chinensis of China it is impossible to
determine, as the two were thought to represent the same species until the
flowers and fruit of the Chinese form became known. The Pliocene material
from Holland, represented by both fruits and seeds, is considered by the
Reids to be the modern American form and to differ characteristically from
the Chinese form.
In the Atlantic Coastal Plain leaves have been found in the Talbot of
Maryland, southeast of Washington, in the Wicomico of North Carolina,
and in the lowest terrace of the Warrior River in Alabama. Fruits have been
found in the lowest terrace of both the Warrior and Chattahoochee rivers in
Alabama.
In the present collection the somewhat broken samaras and their wing
fragments as well as partly decorticated seeds are not uncommon in both
the excavation for the Government Printing Office extension and at the
Bellevue Hotel, being especially abundant at the latter locality. They are
indistinguishable from the corresponding parts of Recent specimens.
The living species is a tree of woodlands with deep, rich soil. It reaches its
northeastern limits in Rhode Island and southern Vermont.
HAMAMELIDACEAE
LIQUIDAMBAR STYRACIFLUA Linné
Hollick, Torrey Bot. Club Bull., vol. 19, p. 331, 1892.
Knowlton, Am. Geol., vol. 18, p. 371, 1896.
Berry, Jour. Geol., vol. 15, p. 343, 1907; Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 29, p. 397, 1910; U. S.
Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 140, p. 113, pl. 56, figs. 9, 10, 1926.
Leaves or fruit of this species have been recorded from the supposed
Pliocene at Bridgeton, N. J.; from the glacial terrace at Morgantown, West
Virginia; from the Talbot (‘‘Chowan’’) formation of North Carolina; and
from the lowest terrace of Warrior River in Alabama. A small but perfect
leaf is present in the drab clay associated with the peat at the excavation
for the Government Printing Office extension.
-
JANUARY 15, 19383 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE PLANTS IN D.C. 19
The modern tree is a form inhabiting low moist woodland and ranges from
southern New England to Florida.
ROSACEAE
RUBUS sp. -
Figs. 48, 49
A very few stones of a Rubus were found in the deposit at the Government
Printing Office extension. These are specifically distinct from the Rubus
which was so common in the Wicomico deposits at the site of the Mayflower
(Walker) Hotel on Connecticut Avenue,” which was compared with Rubus
hispidus Linné, one of the six species present in the existing flora of the
District of Columbia. The present stones are smaller and more rounded with
a much finer pitting. The photograph is poor in that it does not bring out
well the characteristic ornamentation and the somewhat shrunken, or not
well filled out condition of the specimen, causes a circular central shadow in
what was originally a convex surface. Some of the specimens are obviously
immature. A considerable number of Pleistocene species of Rubus have been
recorded from European deposits but in this country where the study of
Pleistocene floras is still in its infancy Rubus fruits have not been recorded
outside the District of Columbia except for a single record from Alabama.
The genus Rubus is a large one with upwards of 300 existing species of
perennial herbs, shrubs or vines, and is widely distributed throughout the
world, being found on all of the continents, most abundant, perhaps, in the
North Temperate Zone.
Prickle of Rusus (?)
Fig. 50
A prickle such as occurs in a variety of plants, particularly in the Rosa-
ceae, was found in the excavation for the extension of the Government
Printing Office. It is smaller, relatively more slender, and decidedly more
faleate than the one figured from the Mayflower (Walker) Hotel site?> and
is a different species. Of course, such remains can not be positively identified
generically. The specimen from the Mayflower Hotel site was identified as
a prickle of Rosa or Rubus. The present specimen is considered as more likely
to represent the latter genus.
23 Berry, E. W., This JouRNAL, vol. 14, p. 20, pl. 2, fig. 1, 1924.
24 Berry, E. W., Torreya, vol. 14, p. 161, 1914.
% Berry, E. W., This JouRNAL, vol. 14, p. 24, pl. 2, fig. 27, 1924.
20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. l
ILICACEAE
ILEX VOMITORIA Ait.
Figs. 55, 56
Two leaves of this species are present in the peat from the excavation for
the extension of the Government Printing Office. The species has not pre-
viously been found fossil. 3
In the existing flora this species is a shrub, or small, much branched tree
confined to the Coastal Plain in low woods, and ranging from southern Vir-
ginia to Florida and westward to Arkansas and Texas. The coriaceous ever-
green leaves show considerable variation in form but have a characteristic
margin. This is often described as crenate (as in Britton & Brown’s [llus-
trated Flora) but it is not. The low, broad crenations at their distal ex-
tremity, end in serrate points for which the proper term would seem to be
crenate-serrate. The fossil leaves are thick in substance and show the typical
marginal features just mentioned, so that there can be no doubt of the cor-
rectness of the identification.
VITACEAE
VITIS CORDIFOLIA Michaux
Figs. 51, 52
Berry, This JouRNAL, vol. 14, p. 21, pl. 2, figs. 6-9, 1924.
About a dozen specimens of the seeds of this species, mostly broken, have
been found in the excavation for the Government Printing Office extension.
They are identical with the smaller specimens from the Mayflower (Walker)
Hotel site, where this species was exceedingly abundant.
The species is one inhabiting moist thickets and stream banks and it
ranges in the Recent flora from New England to Florida and Texas. Pleisto-
cene grape seeds have been recorded in the Atlantic Coastal Plain in New
Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia. Although not named specifically it seems
probable that those from the Talbot formation of Maryland and Virginia
represent this species.
Tendrils which may be those of Vitis occur at the Government Printing
Office excavation and similar remains have been referred to Vitis from the
Talbot (‘‘Chowan’’) formation of North Carolina.
Tendrils, cf. Vitis
Figs. 53, 54
Two incomplete tendrils were found in the peaty stratum in the excava-
tion for the Government Printing Office extension. Although they can not be
76 Berry, E. W., U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 140, p. 115, pl. 57, fig. 6, 1926.
"Tee
JANUARY 15, 1933. BERRY: PLEISTOCENE PLANTS IN D.C. 21
referred to Vitis with certainty their association with grape seeds renders
this assignment probable. They are exactly like the remains from the Talbot
(“Chowan”) formation of North Carolina which I ventured to identify as
those of Viizs.
CISTACEKAE
HELIANTHEMUM §p.
Figs. 57-59
Three specimens from the excavation for the extension of the Government
Printing Office seem clearly to represent valves of capsules of the genus
Helianthemum. One of these appears to be mature and the other two imma-
ture or depauperate, although it is impossible to be sure, because the flowers
in this genus are dimorphic and the apetalous ones appear later than the
petaliferous ones and develop into smaller capsules.
The valves are nearly circular, slightly ovate or slightly obovate, with
central placenta, about 2.5 millimeters in diameter, of considerable con-
sistency, and in the larger specimen containing a large seed.
The surface marking of the latter is indistinct but it appears along the
margins to have been papillose rather than reticulate, although there is
some uncertainty regarding the correctness of my observation.
The genus is large, herbaceous or shrubby, and found on all of the conti-
nents except Australia, and hence must be of some antiquity, although, so
far as I know, it has not hitherto been found fossil. About a dozen existing
species occur within the limits of the United States, 3 of these along the
Atlantic seaboard. The only one of these in the present flora of the District
of Columbia is Helianthemum canadense (Linné) Michaux, a dry soil species
ranging from Maine to North Carolina. The fossil may represent this spe-
cies, but absolute certainty is not possible.
CORNACEAE
CORNUS FLORIDA Linné
Figs. 61, 62
A single stone of this species is contained in the material from the Bellevue
Hotel site. It is not quite 6 millimeters long and is therefore near the mini-
mum size for modern stones of this species. The proportions are the same
and the fossil is slightly asymmetric and slightly wider than it is thick.
There are 8 or 10 shallow longitudinal sulcae slightly more prominent than
in any modern stones that I have seen, although no extended search has
been made. I have slight doubt but that the fossil represents this species as
the differences enumerated are too trifling to be considered of specific or
varietal value and no other existing American species approaches Cornus
florida in the form or other features of its stones.
22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 23, NO. 1
So far as I know this is the first record of our flowering dogwood as a .
fossil. It is a large shrub or small tree of eastern North America ranging
from Maine and Ontario to Texas. It is essentially a woodland and hillside
species rather than a valley or bottom type and is abundant in the present
flora of the District of Columbia.
The genus goes back to the Upper Cretaceous and re about 25 existing
species for the most part confined to the North Temperate zone although
reaching South America in the northern Andes. Several other existing species
have been found in the Pleistocene. These include Cornus mas Linné and
Cornus sanguinea Linné in the European region, an undetermined species in
New Jersey,?’ Cornus californica C. A. Meyer in California,?? and Cornus
amomum Mill?® which is fairly common in the Wicomico formation at the
Mayflower (Walker) Hotel site on Connecticut Avenue.
The accompanying photograph is a somewhat misleading portrayal since
there is an irregular film of carbonized flesh over most of the surface of the
stone.
Nyssa SYLVATICA Marsh
Fig. 63
This species has not heretofore been positively recorded as a fossil, al-
though in all probability it is included among the numerous Pleistocene
records of Nyssa biflora Walt., the latter having been recorded from New
Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and Alabama. There also seems
to be some confusion among botanists in regard to the specific limits among
the existing forms, the second being thought to range less farther northward.
The present occurrence is based upon an incomplete stone from the Belle-
vue Hotel site. The modern tree is present in the flora of the District and
has a recorded range from Maine and Ontario to Florida and Texas. It is
a rich soil form, most abundant in swampy situations.
CAPRIFOLIACEAE
SAMBUCUS CANADENSIS Linné
Fig. 60
Berry, This JoURNAL, vol. 14, p. 23, pl. 2, figs. 21-24, 1924.
The characteristic seeds of the elder-berry were present in considerable
profusion at the Mayflower (Walker) Hotel site on Connecticut Avenue,
which is the only previous Pleistocene record of this species. A few of these
seeds are present in the excavation for the Government Printing Office ex-
tension.
27 Penhallow, D. P., Roy. Soc. Canada Trans. 2nd ser., vol. 2, sec. 4, p. 70, 1896.
28 Chaney and Mason, Carnegie Institution Publ. 415, p. 14, pl. 7, figs. 19, 20, 1930.
29 Berry, E. W., This JoURNAL, vol. 14, p. 22, pl. 2, figs. 15-18, 1924.
a
JANUARY 15, 1933 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE PLANTS IN D.C. 23
The species is still abundant in the District of Columbia, and is found in
wet situations from Nova Scotia to Florida and Texas.
AMBROSIACEAE
XANTHIUM Sp.
Fig. 66
Authors are not agreed on the specific limits in this genus. According to
Britton and Brown there is but a single native species in the eastern United
States, Xanthium canadense Mill, and the present single fossil specimen may
represent that species, although it is below the average in size and stoutness.
The tips of the beaks are broken so that their length can not be determined.
It comes from the excavation for the extension of the Government Printing
Office.
A fruit of Xanthium, probably X. glabratwm (D.C.) Britton has been re-
corded®® from Vero, Florida, and two others were collected by me from the
lowest terrace of the Chattahoochee River in Alabama, which latter were
never described because I could not be sure that they were not Recent and
had not gotten among the fossils by accident, although they had the appear-
ance of being fossil.
Both of the supposed native species are recorded in the Flora of the Dis-
trict of Columbia from the Potomac flats, and both are found along rivers
and sea beaches as well as in what are euphemistically spoken of as “‘ waste
places.”’
COMPOSITAE
BIDENS sp.
Figs. 64, 65
There are 10 of the 13 species of Bidens of the eastern United States re-
corded in the Flora of the District of Columbia. The two fossil achenes found
in the Bellevue Hotel excavation are unmistakable, but it is easier to decide
which of the modern species the fossils do not belong to than it is to tell
which they do represent. They are flat; with 2 rigid downwardly barbed
awns and are about 7 mm. long and 2—2.5 mm. wide. In my opinion they
could represent B. laevis, connata, comosa, or frondosa.
In so far as I know, the genus has not heretofore been recorded from
American Pleistocene deposits, although two species have been recorded
from the Pleistocene of Europe.
s0Berry. Hi. W:, Jour. Geol., vol. 25, p. 662, 1917.
24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
Capsular valve
Fig. 67
A rather crustaceous valve of a capsule of some undeterminable plant.
Excavation for extension of the Government Printing Office.
Fruit peduncle
Figs. 68-70
Several specimens of the peduncle of some small fruit occur in the excava-
tion for the Government Printing Office extension. They are small, about 3
millimeters long, slender, and enlarged distad to a receptacle about twice
the diameter of the stalk.
There are so many genera that have similar fruit peduncles that their
botanical affinity must remain conjectural, although Celastrus, Ilex, Am-
pelopsis, Rhamnus, and related genera in the families to which they belong
seem to me to be the most likely comparisons.
DIPTERA: ITONIDIDAE
RETINODIPLOSIS TAXODII Felt
Retinodiplosis sp., Berry, This JouRNAL, vol. 14, p. 24, pl. 2, figs. 32-34, 1924.
These galls, which were exceedingly abundant at the Mayflower (Walker)
Hotel site are represented by a broken specimen from the excavation for the
Government Printing Office extension. They are caused in bald cypress
cones by gall midges. The fossils are believed to represent this Recent spe-
cies. That these galls should be scarce is, I believe, a reflection of the absence
of bald cypress trees in the immediate vicinity of the pond or stream where
the deposits accumulated since remains of the bald cypress are also infre-
quent, whereas at the Mayflower Hotel site the stems of cypress trees repre-
senting several generations were buried in the peat, and seeds, cone scales,
twigs, detached leaves, and galls were exceedingly abundant.
Fish scale
Bigs 71
That permanent standing or running water had access to the site of the
carbonaceous deposit encountered in the excavation for the Bellevue Hotel
is indicated by occasional fish scales of some small cyprinodont fish. One of
these is shown in the accompanying illustration.
Gall scales
Figs. 72-77
Both the Bellevue Hotel excavation and that for the extension of the
JANUARY 15, 1933 STEINER AND ALBIN: MORPHOLOGY OF DEONTOSTOMA 25
Government Printing office abound with gall scales. I do not recall encoun-
tering anything of the sort in the large amount of material from the May-
flower (Walker) Hotel site which I examined.
I have not attempted to identify them, nor do I recall any records of such
objects as fossils except in the recently published account of the Pleistocene
flora from Santa Cruz Island, California, in which: the gall scales were found
to have formed on Cupressus,*! the hypertrophy being due to a chalcid fly.
ZOOLOGY .—On the morphology of Deontostoma californicum n. sp.
(Leptosomatinae, Nematodes).1 G. STEINER and FLORENCE M.
ALBIN, Bureau of Plant Industry.
A single male specimen of Deontostoma californicum n. sp. was re-
ferred to the senior writer for identification by the U. 8. National
Museum, Washington, D. C. The specimen was collected by Mr. E. F.
Ricketts at Pacific Grove, California, and is the first representative
of this group of nemas to be described from the Pacific coast. Approxi-
mately half a dozen species of this genus are at present known. They
all belong to a group of the largest of free-living nemas as yet de-
scribed. Deontostoma californicum is .of filiform shape, the head
broadly truncate, the tail of the male conical with the end obtusely
rounded. The top layer of the cuticle exhibits fine cross fibers. Fig. 6
represents a portion of one of the lateral chords, which consists of
three to four series of at least three different kinds of cells; first, the
normal chord cells; second, the lateral chords which contain cells that
are distinguished from the chord cells proper by a somewhat lighter
color and the slightly sausage-shaped nucleus (Fig. 6); and third, large
glandular cells with an outlet rather close to the dorsal edge of the
chord. Such glands are also found in related species and genera. Their
significance is not known. Some investigators consider them perhaps
excretory in function, but this supposition is doubtful. The only fact
supporting this view is the possible absence of a ventral gland or
renette cell and its outlet. Beginning in the region of the nerve-ring
these glandular cells are seen at quite regular intervals all along the
lateral chords almost to the tail end.
The ventral chord is also well developed (Fig. 7).
Numerous short conical setae are seen in the region anterior to the
nerve-ring. They closely resemble the cephalic setae and are arranged
31 Chaney, R. W., and Mason, H. L., Carnegie Inst. Publ. 415, p. 11, pl. 7, figs.
4-9, 1930.
1 Received August 30, 1932.
SS
26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
eee Oa MON EGAN oes Pe
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prtrct gub et tel ibs
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MIG SEE Sat (; bm
VOL. 23, Nome
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b ay rhom wart \ int \ = EEEE=x™ 3
JANUARY 15, 1933 STEINER AND ALBIN: MORPHOLOGY OF DEONTOSTOMA 27
more or less distinctly in longitudinal series,—lateral, submedial, and
medial (Figs. 1 and 2). To what extent their number and position is
constant is not known. Special mention should be made of a group of
three, side by side, just in front of each ocellum. Caudad of the nerve-
ring, the setae are replaced by fine nerve fibers, penetrating the
cuticle and sometimes ending in a tiny hair (Fig. 7). However, they
are much less numerous than those farther cephalad.
The head has the circles of papillae and setae typical for the genus.
Their arrangement and shape is much like that of D. antarcticum
(deMan) Filipjev (= Thoracostoma antarcticum deMan?): six papillae
in an anterior and ten setae in a posterior circle. The anterior ones do
not protrude above the surface (Figs. 1 and 2) but can well be seen
penetrating the cuticle in front of the cuirass.
The form and position of the amphids may be seen in Figs. 1, 2, and
3, being essentially the same.as in D. antarcticum. A small, transverse,
oval opening leads into a cavity almost lemon-shaped (Fig. 1), at the
inner and posterior wall of which the amphidial nerve connects.
Terminals have not yet been seen; the only notable structures ob-
served are two small, rodlike, cuticular thickenings at the base of the
cavity. The amphidial nerve is surrounded by a narrow tube which
soon widens to a spindle-shaped cavity containing what appears to
be the usual sensillar structures.
A front view of the head end reveals the presence of three lips and
a very small pharynx with no armature. The subdermal cuticular
Figures 1-6
Fig. 1. Deontostoma californicum n. sp. Head end, lateral view, male, and
Fig. 2. Same, dorsal view, amph, amphid; ant circ ppl, anterior circle of papillae;
lens, lens; lob of cuir, lobe of cuirass; oc cup, eye cup; out dsl oe gl, outlet of dorsal
oesophageal gland; out vnt subm oe gl, outlet of ventrosubmedial oesophageal gland;
post circ set, posterior circle of setae; set, setae. 720.
Fig. 3. Front view of head. amph, amphid; ant circ ppl, anterior circle of papillae;
dsl subm set, dorsosubmedial setae; lat set, lateral setae: out dxt vnt subm oe gl, outlet
of dextroventrosubmedial oesophageal gland. 1090.
Fig. 4. Male tail, ventral view, and
Fig. 5. Same, lateral view. cdl ppl, caudal papillae; cop set, copulatory setae; dilat
ant, dilatator of the anus; gub, gubernaculum; prtrct gub et tel, protractor gubernaculi
et telamonis; prirct sp, protractor spiculi; rhom wart, rhomboid wart; rirct sp, retractor
spiculi; tel, telamon; tub org, tubular organ. 120.
Fig. 6. Portion of left lateral chord. Chrd cl, chord cell; gl cl, gland cell; ight chrd cl,
light colored chord cell. 1090.
2 DeMan, J. G., Nematodes libres: Expédit. Antarctique Belge. Résultats du
Voyage du S. Y. Belgica en 1897—1898-1899, Zoologie Anvers., pp. 51, 1904.
28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
structure, commonly called a cuirass, is almost as wide anteriorly as
posteriorly. The six lobes are all of similar shape and size (Fig. 3);
they are not perforated.
The cylindrical, strongly muscular oesophagus has a yellowish
brown pigmentation posterior to the eyespots. This latter is different
from, and has nothing to do with, the dark, carmine colored pigment
that forms the eye cups. These are not at the same level on both sides,
the left one being slightly more caudad. It might be said that some of
the carmine pigment is “‘scattered”’ outside the proper pigment cups.
The arrangement of the oesophageal glands is the same as in D.
antarctccum. As may be seen in Fig. 2, the outlets of the ventro-
submedial glands occur at about the anterior rim of the head cuirass
while the dorsal one (Fig. 2) empties a short distance in front of the
ocelli. 7
The spicular apparatus of the male consists of three kinds of ele-
ments: first, the spicula, paired, comparatively long, sharply curved
at the beginning of their distal third; second, an apparently single
gubernaculum, slender, not quite half the length of the spicula, dorsal
in its position and flat and wide in its distal portion; and third, a pair
of knee-shaped telamon-like pieces, one on each side of the distal part
of the spicula, forming a pointed angle if seen in side view, and front-
ing the spicula on their ventral side. The muscles moving this rather
complicated apparatus are partly sketched in Figs. 4 and 5. A point
for special attention is the connecting muscle between the proximal
end of the telamon and the proximal end of the related spiculum, sug-
gesting a high correlation in their copulatory movements. This
spicular apparatus clearly differentiates the present species from all
other members of the genus as yet described.
The bursal muscles are very numerous and extend far forward
(Fig. 7). Strong circular muscle fibers are seen all along the ejacula-
tory duct (Fig. 7).
The tubular, ventromedian outlet apparently common to males of
all species of the genus has a position similar to that in D. antarcticum,
that is about even with the middle of the spicula (Figs. 4, 5, and 7).
It is supposed to be the outlet of a gland, but in this nema the gland
has not yet been seen, perhaps because of the opaque condition of
this portion of the body. A somewhat irregular series of eleven stiff
setae is seen on each side of the anal opening, beginning anteriorly
as far forward as the aforementioned tubular gland outlet and ending
posteriorly about halfway down the tail (Figs. 4 and 5). The number
and arrangement of these setae seem to be characteristic of the pres-
JANUARY 15, 1933 STEINER AND ALBIN: MORPHOLOGY OF DEONTOSTOMA 29
ent species. Cephalad of the spicula
a third group of accessory male cop-
ulatory organs is present; on each
side there is a ventrosubmedian se-
ries of four rhomboid, warty struc-
tures (Figs. 4 and 7) each with
what appears to be a central pore
or seta. §The wart itself does not
seem to be a part of the cuticle but
to consist of secreted substance.
The region in front of and around
these warts and some of the latter
themselves were covered with an-
other kind of coagulated sticky sub-
stance suggesting a secretion pro-
duced during copulation for cement-
ing the male to the female and
only partly loosened or dissolved at
the time this specimen was fixed.
Its position would rather suggest a
secretion through the pores (?) of
the warts. On the other hand, the
ventromedian tubular outlet, found
in other species to be connected
with a gland, may be its proper
source. It is difficult, however, to see
how such a mass of substance as
seen here could all have originated
from this one source.
As sketched in Figs. 4 and 5 there
are short setaceous papillae on the
tail, some close to the terminus,
that are not connected with the
sexual apparatus. The terminus is
perforated by the so-called spin-
neret or outlet of the caudal glands,
which, in turn, are found in front
of the spicular apparatus and con-
nect with the outlet by long tubu-
lar canals.
SII = TRE ANY
VS) me NEN
SH NGA
/ Sag sf ZEN
cirer msc fibr
PIS TISG =
mnt chrd . _-
Fig. 7. Deontostoma californicum nx.
sp. Male tail, lateral view showing bursal
muscles. brs msc, bursal muscle; circr msc
fibr, circular muscle fibers of ductus ejac-
ulatorius; ppl, papillae; rhom wart, rhom-
boid wart; tub org, tubular organ; vnt
chrd, ventral chord. X85.
30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 1
Measurements:
Pharynx Oesophagus M Anus
OBZ —— 12.0 50.0 99.0
—_——- SS 15.2 mm.
Oss —— 1.4 1.8 22
Diagnosis: Deontostoma with ocelli and a large number of short setae in
the region anterior to the nerve-ring. Cuirass with six equal, imperforate,
anchor-shaped lobes. Pharynx almost none; no armature. Spicular apparatus
consisting of spicula, single gubernaculum, and knee-shaped telamon. On
each side of the anus of the male an irregular series of eleven setae. Ventro-
median tubular outlet level with the middle of the spicula. Four rhomboid
wartlike ventro-submedian structures in front of the spicula.
ZOOLOGY.—A North American species of Acetes.! H. J. HANSEN,
Copenhagen. (Communicated by WaLpo ScHMITT. )
The very interesting genus Acetes, established in 1830 by H.
Milne-Edwards on a single Indian species, belongs to the Sergestidae,
the lowest, or, as may be said, the most primitive family among
Crustacea Decapoda. The genus comprises scarcely a dozen species,
the majority of which live in the Indian Ocean and the adjacent
tropical areas of the Pacific, yet a single species goes so far northward
as Korea. From the Atlantic only three species have hitherto been
known, all South American forms, viz.: two species from Brazil and
the third from a lagoon at Rio Paraguay, near its junction with Rio
Parana. (A single specimen of the last-named form was also taken “in
the outlet of Riacho del Oro in Rio de la Plata in feebly brackish
water.’’) The discovery of a new Atlantic species secured as far north-
ward as Beaufort, N. C. (about lat. 34° 47’ N.) seems interesting.
In the report ‘The Sergestidae of the Siboga Expedition’” the pres-
ent writer reviewed the genus Acetes, describing not only the species
taken by the Dutch expedition but also other forms preserved in the
Copenhagen Museum, and among these two species from the western
side of South America. Besides, the species mentioned in the litera-
ture, but unknown to me, were enumerated. Unfortunately, I did not
know that Stanley Kemp in his series, ‘‘Notes on Crustacea Decapoda
in the Indian Museum,” had published an excellent paper, “The
genus Acetes Milne-Edwards,’* in which he described and gave
1 Received Oct. 20, 1932.
2 Siboga Exp., vol. 38, 1919.
’ Records of the Indian Museum, vol. 13, pp. 43-58, 1917.
JANUARY 15, 1933 HANSEN: SPECIES OF ACETES 31
analytical figures of four species, one of which was new. Disturbed
conditions owing to the great war delayed the receipt of this paper.
In my “‘Report’’ mentioned above a somewhat detailed diagnosis
of the genus Acetes was given. Under “remarks,” I added several
statements, some of which may be quoted here.
“The genus Acetes differs from Sergestes in several characters: The maxil-
lulae and the first maxillipeds without paip, the maxillae with undivided
lobe, first pair of legs with a short chela as the two following pairs, fourth
and fifth pairs of legs wanting excepting the coxae of (probably) fifth pair
in the male, finally only five pleurobranchiae above third pair of maxillipeds
and the thoracic legs. In the absence of two pairs of thoracic legs Acetes
agrees with Lucifer, but otherwise it is far removed from this peculiar genus
and related to Sergestes and Sicyonella.”’
“The males show excellent specific characters in the relative length of
third joint of the antennulae, in the joints of the lower antennular flagellum,
and especially in the structure of [the] clasping organ, finally in the structure
of the petasma. In the females the ventral area at and behind the base of
the last pair of legs affords most useful characters. The females are on the
whole somewhat or even considerably larger than the males.”
The new form is closely allied to Acetes brasiliensis Hansen.‘ The
following descriptions of both sexes are worked out to facilitate com-
parison of the two species.
Acetes carolinae, new species
(Figs. 1-8)
Male.—The anterior keel of the carapace has, asin A. brasiliensis, only a
single tooth, as the denticle, which in most forms exists between that tooth
and the rostrum, has disappeared. The rostrum is short with the end acute.
Transverse diameter of the eye a little more than one third as long as the
distal joint of the stalk with eye.
Antennulae with the peduncle long (Fig. 1); its third joint very elongated,
distinctly curved, almost two and one half times as long as the inner margin
of second joint. Lower flagellum (Fig. 2) somewhat longer than the inner
margin of second peduncular joint; its thickened 3-jointed proximal portion
occupies a little less than half of the flagellum. The inner (upper) margin
of the third joint is convex and from near its base to considerably beyond its
middle the joint has on its inner surface near the margin mentioned a close
row of 6 spines, of which the proximal ones have the distal half very curved
with the end obtuse (Fig. 3), while the curvature is much feebler on the
fifth spine, and the sixth spine is nearly straight, acute. Close beyond the
sixth spine and somewhat before the end of the joint, the upper margin
possesses on its inner side a large, claw-shaped process which is very bread
at the base, while its more distal portion is only moderately robust and ex-
tremely recurved. The distal part of the flagellum is slender, 6-jointed, with
an oblique and distally obtuse short process on the distal half of the ante-
penultimate joint (Fig. 2).
4 Siboga Exp., vol. 38, p. 48, 1919.
32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 1
Figures 1—8. Acetes carolinae, new species.
Fig. 1. Anterior part of carapace with eyes, antennulae, and antennal squamae of a
male, X12. Fig. 2. Distal part of right antennular peduncle with proximal part of
upper flagellum and the whole lower flagellum of a male, from the outer side, X47.
Fig. 3. Major distal part of the thickened portion of the lower flagellum seen in fig. 2,
from the inner side, Xca. 150. Fig. 4. Left uropod and telson of a male, X14. Fig. 5.
Right petasma, from in front, X30: a, pars externa; b, pars media; c, capitulum; d,
peduncle of first abdominal leg. Fig. 6. Capitulum of the petasma shown in fig. 5,
<114. Fig. 7. Right half of the front part of the carapace with appendages of a fe-
male, from above, X21. Fig. 8. Proximal portions of third pair of legs and the genital
area of a female, from below, X21.
JANUARY 15, 1933 HANSEN: SPECIES OF ACETES 33
The antennal squama (Fig. 1) does not reach the distal end of the second
antennular joint. Coxae and trochanters of third pair of legs without a tooth
at their distal inner angle. Genital coxae very obliquely triangular, but much
broader than long and distally very broadly rounded. Exopod of uropods
(Fig. 4) about five times as long as broad; the ciliated part occupies some-
what more than one third of the outer margin, and a minute tooth is seen
at the end of the glabrous part.
The petasma (Fig. 5) is in most features rather similar to that in A.
brasiliensis, but it is sharply distinguished by shape and armament of the
capitulum. Pars astringens is completely wanting. Pars externa (a) much
smaller than in A. brasiliensis, considerably longer than broad, with its
distal free part triangular and a little longer than broad. Pars media (b) is
rather slender; its free proximal portion is considerably longer than broad
with the outer margin concave, while the basal margin is somewhat deeply
and obliquely concave, with the inner proximal corner produced into a
somewhat short, subacute process, and the outer corner much larger, sub-
acute. Beyond the insertion of pars externa, pars media is long and narrows
greatly to the thickened capitulum (c). The capitulum is subglobular and
produced along the outer margin into four lobes; the proximal lobe is mod-
erately short, thick, rounded, with a small chitinous bifid plate at the outer
side; the second lobe is triangular, broader than long, but terminates in a
long, strong, slightly curved spine; the third lobe is longer than broad, with
its distal half shaped as a somewhat curved, moderately slender protuber-
ance, with obtuse end; the fourth lobe is somewhat longer than broad, ovate,
with two somewhat small, curved, acute, spiniform processes on the end.
Length.—11.5 mm.
Female.—Rostrum and crest as in the male. Eyes as in the male. Antennu-
lae (Fig. 7) with the peduncle very much shorter than in the male, but the
first joint is slightly shorter than eye-stalk with eye, thus slightly shorter
than in the male. Second joint proportionately very much shorter than in
the male, a little more than half as long as the third joint, which is straight
and conspicuously more slender than in the other sex. Lower flagellum even
slightly longer than third joint of the peduncle, slender, and apparently
seven-jointed.
The antennal squama reaches to or slightly beyond the middle of third
antennular joint. Coxae of third pair of legs (Fig. 8) with the major part of
the inner margin convex and no tooth below or at the end, while the proxi-
mal inner corner is produced into an obtuse protuberance.
The genital area (Fig. 8) is moderately long, broad; the median part of its
posterior margin is very strongly procurved, constituting a bend which is
conspicuously longer than broad and obtuse at the base in the middle; this
curious structure is due to the fact that each sublateral part of the genital
area is produced posteriorly into a proportionately long, obliquely triangu-
lar, distally sacciform and quite free protuberance with the end obtuse.
Length.—15 mm.
Remarks.—A. carolinae is closely allied to A. brasiliensis, as the differences
in most features are small, but the lobes of the capitulum of the petasma
afford striking characters between the males of the two species, while the
shape of the genital area exhibits excellent differences between their females.
Occurrence.—A large number of specimens were sent to me by Dr. James
S. Gutsell, of the Beaufort, North Carolina, laboratory of the U.S. Bureau
of Fisheries, who wrote: ‘‘ All were collected in a trawl net near the Sea Buoy
off Beaufort Inlet, October 30, 1929.’”’ And in a later letter he writes: “ With
34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 23, No. 1
bobbinet around the tip of an otter trawl this Acetes sometimes is obtained
in gallons at a time, especially in late summer and early fall.”
ZOOLOGY.—The eggs of Goniobasis virginica Gmelin and Anculosa
carinata Bruguiére.. CHARLES P. Winsor, Johns Hopkins
University. (Communicated by RAYMOND PEARL.)
So far as I know the eggs of these two species have never been re-
ported. Jewell? has described the eggs of G. liviscens correcta, and Van
= y*
- aati \\
j alya ‘“
_ aN \ .
Ty,
Liyy
Yi) ;
J
Fig. 1.—Egg mass of Goniobasis virginica. X36.
Cleave’ has described the eggs and egg-laying habits of species of
Pleurocera Lewis and P. acuta.
During June of this year several trips were made to Gunpowder
Falls, a stream about 15 miles north of Baltimore, in which G. vir-
ginica and A. carinata are abundant. (A description of the locality
1 From the Department of Biology of the School of Hygiene and Public Health
of the Johns Hopkins University. Received September 23, 1932.
2 Jewell, Dorothea Dodd, Observations on reproduction in the snail Goniobasis:
Nautilus, vol. 44, pp. 115-119, 1931.
3 Van Cleave, H. J., Studies on snails of the genus Pleurocera. I. The eggs and egg-
laying habits: Nautilus, vol. 46, pp. 29-34, 1932.
JANUARY 15, 1933 WINSOR: EGGS OF GONIOBASIS 30
will be found in a paper by Baily, Pearl, and Winsor.) An examina-
tion of the rocks in the stream-bed showed large numbers of egg-
masses, which proved in the laboratory to be those of G. virginica.
Further search on the rocks in mid-stream showed numerous egg-
capsules of a different type, obviously those of A. carinata.
The eggs of G. virginica are laid in masses of from two to fifteen or
more, attached to the rocks in the stream bed. The egg mass, as may
be seen from Fig. 1, resembles closely that of Plewrocera as described
and figured by Van Cleave. The spiral arrangement of the eggs in the
ege mass of G. virginica is generally marked. There is a fairly tough
outer membranous covering, which forms septa dividing the mass
into compartments. Within each of these is a much thinner egg-
membrane, enclosing the albumen and embryo. A considerable
amount of foreign matter is generally rather firmly attached to the
mass.
Fig. 2.—Eggs of Anculosa carinata. X36.
The eggs of A. carinata resemble generally those of G. liviscens as
described by Jewell. They are laid separately, usually in lines of three
Fig. 3.—Young shell of Goniobasis virginica. X72.
to six or more; the successive capsules may be connected by a thread-
like portion of the outer membrane. The capsules are circular or
slightly elliptical, flat against the rock and convex on the outer side.
A thin egg-membrane surrounds the albumen and embryo. The outer
* Baily, Joshua L., Jr., Pearl, Raymond, and Winsor, C. P., Variation in Goniobasis
virginica and Anculosa carinata under natural conditions: Biologia Generalis, vol. 8,
pp. 607-630, 1932.
36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 1
surface of the capsule is granular owing to the sand grains that ad-
here to it. (Compare Van Cleave’s description of Pleurocera eggs.)
No data are available on the duration of embryonic development
Yor either species, though it is probably not widely different from the
113 days reported by Jewell. Figure 3 shows a young specimen of G.
virginica hatched in the laboratory; Figure 4 shows a young A.
carinata found in the river; unfortunately none of the eggs brought in
hatched.
Ee
Fig. 4.—Young shell of Anculosa carinata. X72.
All of the drawings in this paper were made by the staff artist of
this department, Mr. Arthur Johansen, with a camera lucida.
CHEMISTRY.—The rotenone content of derris root, cube root, and
other plant materials! Howarp A. Jonres, Bureau of Chemistry
and Soils. (Communicated by C. M. Smita.)
Rotenone, a constituent of derris root (Deguelia sp.) and of cube
root (Lonchocarpus nicou), has recently come into prominence as an
insecticide of considerable value. An extraction method? making use
of carbon tetrachloride was recently outlined by the author for the
determination of this compound in plant materials. The present
article gives the results obtained by this method, and by an ether ex-
traction method previously in use, in the analysis of plants of the
genus Deguelia from the Malay Peninsula and the East Indies, and
plants of the genus Lonchocarpus from South America.
Rotenone has been previously reported as occurring in species of
both of these genera of plants. Nagai? was the first to isolate rotenone
from a species of Deguelia, the roots of D. chinensis. By ether extrac-
tion of the roots of D. elliptica, Kariyone and Atsumi‘ obtained 6.65
1 Received October 12, 19382.
2 Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., vol. 5, no. 1, Jan. 15, 1933.
3 Jour. Tokyo Chem. Soc., vol. 23, p. 744, 1902.
4 Jour. Pharm. Soc., Japan, no. 491, p. 10, 1923,
JANUARY 15, 1983 JONES: ROTENONE IN DERRIS ROOT ot
per cent crude rotenone; while Takei,’ also using ether, found the
rotenone content of several samples of roots of the same species to
range from 1.5 to 6 per cent. Recently Spoon’ has analyzed a number
of samples of roots of species of Deguelia by the ether extraction
method outlined by Roark.’ He found that D. elliptica ranged in
rotenone content from traces up to 6 per cent, and D. malaccensis
contained from traces up to 2 per cent. A number of commercial
samples of derris root of unknown species he found contained from
no rotenone up to 6.5 per cent.
The rotenone content of stems of Lonchocarpus nicou from French
Guiana was reported as 2 to 2.5 per cent by Geoffroy,® who used a
petroleum ether extraction, as early as 1895. Clark,® by ether extrac-
tion, recently obtained 7.1 and 7.2 per cent rotenone from two samples
of cube root (L. nicou) from Peru.
Spoon’? has also determined the amount of rotenone in both the
stems and roots of nekoe (an unidentified species of Lonchocarpus
from Dutch Guiana) by the ether extraction method used for derris
roots. He found that the root averaged about 2.5 per cent rotenone,
while asample of stem material contained only 0.03 per cent. Rotenone
has been reported by Tattersfield, Gimingham and Morris"! as occur-
ring in haiari stems and roots (a species of Lonchocarpus found in
British Guiana) “in fairly considerable quantities.’’ Pfaff’ has re-
ported “‘timboin,’’ which appears to have been impure rotenone, in
Brazilian timbo root (probably a species of Lonchocarpus).
One of the objects of this investigation was to obtain a comparison
of the ether extraction method, previously in use by the Insecticide
Division of this Bureau, with the carbon tetrachloride method re-
cently developed. As a result of the analyses reported in this paper the
latter method has been adopted. A further purpose of the present
work was to determine the variation in the rotenone content of derris
root, cube root and other plant materials, and to ascertain the de-
sirability of these materials as sources of supply of rotenone.
Of the samples of derris root tested, three were authentic speci-
> Bul. Inst. Phys. Chem. Research (Tokyo), vol. 2, p. 485, 1923.
6 Indische Mercuur, vol. 54, no. 18, p. 351, 1931, and vol. 55, no. 13, p. 181, 1932.
soap, wel. 7, ps 97, 1931.
8 Ann. Inst. Colon. Marseille, vol. 2, p. 1, 1895.
. * Science, vol. 70, p. 478, 1929.
10 Indische Mercuur, vol. 54, no. 49, p. 1043, 1931.
11 Ann. Appl. Biol., vol. 13, p. 424, 1926.
® Arch. der Pharmacie, vol. 229, p. 31, 1891.
38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
mens of D. elliptica and two were authentic D. malaccensis. Un-
fortunately the remaining samples analyzed were received merely
under the name of ‘‘derris root’’ or ‘‘tuba root’’ and were of unknown
species. In many cases the original source was also unknown. Since
the majority of the root in commerce is said to be. D. elliptica, it is
probable that many of the samples bought in the open market were
of this species. All samples of derris root were found to conform in
histological elements“ to an authentic sample of D. elliptica and
hence are almost certainly of the genus Deguelva.
One sample of authentic L. nicow was obtained (under the name of
“barbasco” or “cube’’) from the Field Museum of Natural History
in Chicago. Other specimens of cube and barbasco roots were com-
pared with this sample and found to be identical in histological ele-
ments. All samples of cube or barbasco roots were obtained from Peru
and, according to Killip and Smith, these native terms are restricted,
in that region, to L. nicou.
A sample of timbo root obtained from Brazil was stated to be
Paullinia pinnata, but from the findings of Killip and Smith, it is
more likely that this material is a species of Lonchocarpus. This is
borne out by the fact that this sample closely corresponded in his-
tological elements to an authentic sample of L. nicow. One sample of
nekoe stems from Dutch Guiana and two samples of haiari stems from
British Guiana were analyzed.
The results of the extractions are given in the tables, in which the
samples have been divided into three groups; roots of the genus
Deguelia, roots of L. nicou, and samples of other plants of the genus
Lonchocarpus. The numbers are Insecticide Division sample numbers
and are given merely for convenience in referring to the samples.
Values for both rotenone and total extractive material are given for
both methods. (In a number of cases the sample was analyzed by only
one method.) In the majority of cases the results given represent the
mean of two or more determinations. All results are based on the
weight of air-dried material, the moisture content of all samples at
the time of analysis being between 2 and 5 per cent. A few samples
received in a more moist condition than this were dried to within this
13 Two samples of D. elliptica roots and two of D. malaccensis roots were obtained
through the courtesy of the Department of Agriculture of the Federated Malay States
and Straits Settlements.
14The cooperation of George L. Keenan of the Food and Drug Administration,
U. S. Department of Agriculture in making microscopic examinations is gratefully
acknowledged.
46 This JOURNAL, vol. 20, p. 74, 1930,
JANUARY 15, 1933 JONES: ROTENONE IN DERRIS ROOT og
range before grinding. All roots not otherwise designated in Table I
were bought on the open market in this country and were of unknown -
original source.
TABLE I. Roots or DEGUELIA SPECIES (DERRIS ROOT)
Carbon Tetrachloride Method Ether Method
eampeninmier | | aceon (ga antok |" Gerent oh | (a eeat of Remarks
air-dried air-dried air-dried air-dried
material) material) material) material)
401 None 9.4 None 9.8 Included some stem
and leaf parts.
Bought in Holland.
402 1.4 hae 1.0 8.2
406 None 16.23 None 14.8 Java, Dutch East
Indies.
407 AW) 16.0
408 20 19.6 None? 20.0
411 0.9 9.4
412 None Pipe AE None? 19.6
502 0.8 5.4
522 (Nad Dy Pe 6.8 ZAG Shipped from Sin-
gapore.
523 1.4 13.6 14 12.2 | D. elliptica (Tuba
Puteh) Malayan
Govt. Exp. Plantn.,
Serdang, F.M.S.
524 1.8 21.0 None? 22.6 D. malaccensis (Tu-
ba standing) Ma-
layan Govt. Exp.
Plantn., Serdang,
F.M.S.
535 4.5 20.7 4.3 17.9
537 1.9 20.8 None? 23.4 Dutch East Indies.
547 About 0.4 14.3 Federated Malay
States.
* No rotenone separated even when seed crystals were used.
> 2 to 3 per cent amorphous material separated from the ether extract, but no rotenone was detected in this.
40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 1
TABLE I. (Continued).
Carbon Tetrachloride Method Ether Method
Rotenone Total Extract Rotenone Total Extract
Sample Number (per cent of (per cent of (per cent of (per cent of Remarks
air-dried air-dried air-dried air-dried
material) material) material) material)
548 About 20.6 —¢ 19.2 Sumatra, Dutch
OL! East Indies.
549 1.9 17s 2.0 16.8 Federated Malay
States.
550 0.6 13.0
585 None —4d None?’ 122 Bought in Holland.
586 iS 16.22
588-A 0.6 11.9 About 10.0
0.3
588-B Dae 9.9
588-C ie 15.9
588-D ei) 12 2
588-E 0 11.4 About 9.4
0.4
588-F 1.9 10.4
(A) coarse 3.4 1253 3.0: 12.4 Shipped from Sin-
594(B) fine 6.0 19.1 5.9 18.9 gapore.
Aver. whole Dee ell
root!
611 126 a9 Shipped from Sin-
gapore.
612 s76 9.5 Shipped from Sin-
gapore.
621 2.4 19.2 10 LSieZ
626 0.9 LORS
© About 2 per cent material separated from the ether extract; this was found to contain only a very small
proportion of rotenone.
¢ Total carbon tetrachloride extract not determined.
¢ About 0.6 per cent material separated from the ether extract, but no rotenone was detected in this.
/ This average is based on the proportion of fine and coarse roots comprising the whole root sample.
JANUARY 15, 1983 JONES: ROTENONE IN DERRIS ROOT 41
TABLE I. (Continued)
Carbon Tetrachloride Method Ether Method
Rotenone Total Extract Rotenone Total Extract
Sample Number (per cent of (per cent of (per cent of (per cent of Remarks
air-dried air-dried air-dried air-dried
material) material) material) material)
685 3.0 lag
739 kee 156 None? 14.6 Shipped from Sin-
gapore.
741 1ee8 9.3 13 8.8 D. elliptica Ma-
layan Govt. Exp.
Plantn., Serdang,
F.M.S.
742 7e6 1 24.0 ie, DAT D. malaccensis Ma-
layan Govt. Exp.
Plantn., Serdang,
F.M.S.
(A) coarse 20 USS 0.3 15). D. elluptica F.M.S.
743(B) fine Je Be 16s 533 0.4 ie at
Aver. whole Deal 15-8
root/
765 Gre Dilena: i IAQ) 2
875 2.9 12.0 Shipped from Sin-
gapore.
956 6.9 Falk Ak
998 None 15.4 Sumatra, Dutch
East Indies.
999 None 13357 Sumatra, Dutch
East Indies.
1000 None 16.5 Sumatra, Dutch
East Indies.
1001 HoT 16.8 Shipped from Sin-
gapore.
1002 5.3 GRA Shipped from Sin-
gapore.
* No rotenone separated even when seed crystals were used.
> This average is based on the proportion of fine and coarse roots comprising the whole root sample.
42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
TABLE I. (Continued)
VOL. 23, NO. 1
Carbon Tetrachloride Method Ether Method
Rotenone Total Extract Rotenone Total Extract
Sample Number (per cent of (per cent of (per cent of (per cent of Remarks
air-dried air-dried air-dried air-dried
material) material) material) material)
1003 6.1 17.4 Federated Malay
States.
1004 4.2 ara Federated Malay
States.
Average? 2.5 16.5
9 This average is for 31 samples analyzed by the carbon tetrachloride method. No. 585 is not included in
the average because no determination of total extract was made on this sample. The average values for whole
root of Nos. 594 and 743 were used in obtaining the final average.
TABLE II. Roots or LONcCHOCARPUS NICOU (CUBE ROOT)
Carbon Tetrachloride Method Ether Method
SacbloNarber py Reet eos |. Ce ete eee Remark
air-dried air-dried air-dried air-dried
material) material) material) material)
425 1.4 122
426 0.8 Gul None? Avl
427 1.8 L220 1.4 it
433 6.8 20.0 “‘Barbasco or Cube’’
from Field Museum
of Natural History,
Chicago. Authentic
L. nicou.
Spall 23 9.2 1.6 9.5
583 Onl 16.5 Geel 16.0
584 6.0 18.5 ayaa | £76
674 es 1183 te: Pas) U5 7
686-A 112 24.3 0 PAB) 8)
686-B (Eri 14.8
686-C 4.0 2, 0), 10.8
686-D S15) 18.2
? No rotenone separated even when seed crystals were used.
JANUARY 15, 1933 JONES: ROTENONE IN DERRIS ROOT 43
TABLE II. (Continued)
Carbon Tetrachloride Method Ether Method
Rotenone Total Extract Rotenone Total Extract
Sample Number (per cent of (per cent of (per cent of (per cent of Remarks
air-dried air-dried air-dried air-dried
material) material) material) material)
686-E 7.4 17/32 Hl Pe 2 ali5e9
686-F HA) 13.4
686-G 6.3 L520 6.3 1133 36)
686-H 5.6 12.9
686-1 Gra 14.3 Kt) 14.4
740 3.9 13.3
821 4.1 1ORe 3.6 ao
867 3.4 12.9
940-A 8.6 20.2
940-B Get! 135 27
1025 8.0 22 .4 Received as ‘‘Bar-
basco Root.”’
Average? 5.4 15. 8
® This average is for the 22 samples analyzed by the carbon tetrachloride method.
TABLE III. Oruer Puants oF THE GENUS LONCHOCARPUS
Carbon Tetrachloride Method Ether Method
Sample Plant Matesall aid Rotenone Total Extract Rotenone Total Extract
Number ant Material and Source (per cent of (per cent of (per cent of | (per cent of
air-dried air-dried air-dried air-dried
material) material) material) material)
409 Timbo Roots—Brazil About 5¢ 28.0
434 Haiari stems None 226 None 2.8
627 Haiari stems—British Guiana 0) Ge2 None? 6.6
990 Nekoe stems—Dutch Guiana |About 0.4 HG
“ 6 to7 per cent material separated, but this was found to be only partly rotenone; value given for rotenone
estimated from examination of separated material.
b
No rotenone separated even when seed crystals were used.
44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 1
Some of the advantages of the carbon tetrachloride extraction
method over the method using ether are clearly illustrated by the
results in the tables. For instance, in the cases of derris root samples
408, 524, 5387 and 739, cube root sample 426 and haiari stem sample
627, no rotenone was obtained by the ether method even when the
evaporated extract was seeded with rotenone crystals. On the other
hand, between about 1 and 2 per cent rotenone was obtained by the
carbon tetrachloride extraction of these same samples. Decidedly
lower values for rotenone were obtained by the ether method in the
cases of derris roots 588-E, 621, 742 and 743. Furthermore, the ether
extracts of three derris root samples (412, 548 and 585) yielded vary-
ing amounts of material which was found to contain either no rote-
none, or, in the case of 548, only a small proportion of rotenone. The
carbon tetrachloride extracts of these three samples gave no separa-
tion of material, or, in the case of 548, only about 0.1 per cent rote-
none. The ether extraction values for rotenone given in the tables are
therefore not reliable.
Perhaps the most striking observation to be made is the wide range
in the rotenone content of both derris and cube roots. Thus the
rotenone in derris root ranges from none to almost 7 per cent, and that
in cube (or barbasco) root from less than one to about 11 per cent.
This variation is probably due in part to differences in age, size of
roots, soil conditions and other factors. In the case of the derris root
samples the variation is no doubt partly due to differences in species.
An examination of the values for rotenone and total extract of der-
ris root shows that there is little or no correlation between either the
total carbon tetrachloride extractives or the total ether extractives
and the rotenone content. Good correlation could hardly be expected
since the samples are of different species and from different sources.
However, there is a comparatively close correlation between the
total carbon tetrachloride extractives and rotenone in the cube root
samples, the coefficient of correlation being 0.86. Such a correlation is,
no doubt, due to the fact that the cube samples are all of the same
species (L. nicow) and all from the same region. The values for total
ether extract and rotenone content of cube roots also show a fairly
good correlation. However, the calculation of the rotenone content
of a sample of cube root from the amount of total extract would give
only approximate results.
As will be noted, the two authentic samples of D. malaccensis tested
contained only about 2 per cent rotenone, in spite of their high total
JANUARY 15, 19383 JONES: ROTENONE IN DERRIS ROOT 45
extract values. This agrees with the results of Spoon (loc. cit.) on this
species. It is possible that some of the other samples of derris root
having high total extracts were also of this species.
According to Georgi!® who has made a study of the proportion of
ether extractives obtained from coarse and fine roots of D. elliptica
and D. malaccensis of different ages, the ether extract content of fine
roots is higher than that of coarse roots. It was thought of interest
to determine whether this was also true of the rotenone content. Ac-
cordingly two samples of derris root (594 and 743) were separated
into fine and coarse roots and analyzed separately. Roots smaller
than 4.0 to 4.5 mm. in diameter were arbitrarily considered ‘‘fine’’
and those of this size and over were designated as “‘coarse.’’ The fine
roots constituted about 71 per cent of the whole root in the case of
No. 594 and about 32 per cent in the case of No. 748. It will be seen
from Table I that in both samples the rotenone content (by the car-
bon tetrachloride method) of the fine roots was higher than that of
the coarse roots.'’ This was also true of the total extractive materials.
Some idea of the variation to be expected in single shipments of
both derris and cube roots is afforded by the results in the table. Thus
samples 588-A to 588-F, inclusive, were taken from six 80 to 100-
pound bales of a single shipment of derris root. As will be noted the
rotenone content ranges from a few tenths of one per cent to about 3
per cent. Similarly samples 686-A to 686-E were taken from five 65
to 100-pound bales of a single shipment of cube root. The lowest
rotenone content found in this shipment was 4 per cent while the
highest was about 11 per cent. Samples 686-F to 686-I are from four
bales of a second consignment of this shipment. Samples 940-A and
940-B of cube root were also from a single shipment. This variation
in single shipments should emphasize the necessity of careful sampling
of shipments of root for analysis.
The high rotenone content of the timbo root tested indicates that
this material merits further study as a possible source of rotenone.
The low values for total extractives obtained from haiari and nekoe
stems are interesting. Spoon (loc. cit.) obtained about 2.5 per cent
ether extractives from nekoe stem, which indicates that these ma-
terials are consistently low in total extract.
A more systematic study of the rotenone content of authentic
samples of the numerous species of Deguelia and Lonchocarpus should
16 Malay. Agr. Jour., vol. 17, p. 326, 1929, and vol. 17, p. 361, 1929.
17 The difference in rotenone values in sample 743 is perhaps too small to be of
much significance.
|
!
1
}
|
H
|
46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
be made by those in a position to obtain such material. The stem parts
of both derris and cube should be investigated for their rotenone con-
tent as it is possible that these materials may contain sufficient rote-
none to justify harvesting the whole plant rather than only the
roots.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The rotenone content of 45 samples of derris root tested ranged
from none to about 7 per cent, while that of 23 samples of cube root
ranged from less than one to about 11 per cent. The average of the 31
samples of derris root analyzed by the carbon tetrachloride method
was 2.5 per cent rotenone, while the average for the 22 samples of
cube root analyzed by this method was 5.4 per cent rotenone. These
averages should not be considered representative of derris and cube
samples in general. .
2. These results indicate the desirability of cube root as a source of
rotenone. More extensive cultivation of this material is indicated.
By selection of high rotenone strains of derris, the rotenone content
of this plant could, no doubt, be improved.
3. A close correlation exists between the rotenone content and the
total extractive materials of cube root. There is little or no correla-
tion between these two values in the case of the derris root samples.
4, Fine derris roots have a slightly higher rotenone content than
coarse roots.
5. Brazilian timbo root may afford an additional source of rotenone.
PALEONTOLOGY .—Unique coloration of two Mississippian brachio-
pods. R. R. Rowuey, Louisiana, Mo., and JAMEs 8. WILLIAMS,
U.S. Geol. Survey. (Communicated by JoHn B. REESIDE JR.)
New and striking types of color patterns on fossils are always in-
teresting and worthy of record, even though their origin may not be
fully understood. Such a pattern has recently been discovered on two
specimens of Acanthospirina aciculifera (Rowley) Schuchert and Le-
Vene, and because it is apparently unique and may possibly be
original, and because, even if not original, it may serve to focus criti-
cal attention on other color patterns that have been described as
original, it seems advisable to call attention to it.
The color-marked specimens were collected by R. R. Rowley from
the yellow-brown shale at the base of the Louisiana limestone (Lower
JANUARY 15, 1933 ROWLEY AND WILLIAMS: BRACHIOPOD COLORATION 47
Mississippian), at the mouth of Buffalo Creek, one mile south of
Louisiana, Missouri. Their preservation in shale permitted collection
without mechanical injury, and thereby favored the retention of the
finest markings.
The writers are very grateful to Dr. G. H. Girty and other mem-
bers of the U. 8. Geological Survey for helpful suggestions in the
preparation of this notice. Thanks are also due Drs. Aug. F. Foerste
and G. A. Cooper of the U. S. National Museum. Doctor Foerste
examined the specimens and made suggestions regarding their inter-
pretation and Doctor Cooper gave information about some of the
brachiopods cited.
THE COLOR PATTERN
The striking appearance of the color pattern is caused by the
bright red color of the markings and their distinctive arrangement.
Figs. 1 and 2. Two views of a specimen of Acanthospirina aciculifera (Rowley)
Schuchert and LeVene (X8). Fig. 1—Brachial view showing tubercles and colored
streaks. Fig. 2—Pedicle view, showing color pattern, which on the specimen is red.
Few tubercles are preserved. (R. R. Rowley collection.)
Where most conspicuous the markings consist of bright red streaks
and spots which are elongate in directions radial to the beaks and
parallel to the plications. Though somewhat irregularly distributed,
most of the markings conform to an arrangement in alternating radial
48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 1
rows. They are about as abundant on the plications as on the inter-
vening furrows and occur both on the folds and in the sinuses. On one
specimen the markings are not as abundant in the umbonal region as
near the anterior margin, but on the other they are as common over
the umbo as farther forward; on one they are more abundant on the
Figs. 3 and 4. Two views of a distorted specimen of Acanthospirina aciculifera
(Rowley) Schuchert and LeVene (X8), showing color pattern. Note raised position
of streaks near cardinal extremities on right side (to left in figure) of specimen shown
in Fig. 4. (Univ. of Mo. collection, 5200).
left than on the right, but on the other shell they are about evenly
divided between the two sides of the valves. The markings are shown
in the photographs, Figures 1 to 4.
The streaks average about 0.16 mm. in length and about 0.02 mm.
in width, but a few are longer than 0.16 mm. and others are only
slightly longer than wide, being better termed spots than streaks.
The markings are separated laterally by spaces that average about
0.1 mm. Examination under a magnification of 25 to 30 diameters,
shows that most of the coloring material lies in short discontinuous
grooves below the surface but some extends above it forming ridges.
JANUARY 15, 1933 ROWLEY AND WILLIAMS: BRACHIOPOD COLORATION 49
Toward the anterior ends of a few of the grooves the coloring ma-
terial rises and seems to continue beyond the grooves as short spines.
Although most of the coloring material lies below the shell surface and
therefore penetrates some of the inner shell layers, an examination
under dark field illumination shows that none of it penetrates the
innermost layer. Over most of the shell the color of the markings
ranges from light brownish-red to dark red, the deeper shade being at
the cardinal extremities of one specimen.
The red color of the pigment is probably due to the presence of iron
in one or more compounds in the shell substance. Dr. C. 8. Ross, of
the United States Geological Survey, made a microscopic examina-
tion of the most abundant mineral in the red streaks and concluded
that 1t was probably hematite, though the material was too fine
grained to permit definite identification. He also found a few larger
grains of limonite. Some of the coloring material appeared to him to
have been recrystallized in place, and the small particles, he noted,
were intermingled with particles of shelly material or imbedded as
discrete particles in the shell substance. It was impossible to obtain
enough coloring material for reliable and representative chemical
analysis, but a few grains of it were tested in the Chemical Laboratory
of the U. 8S. Geological Survey. These tests showed that the grains
consisted of somewhat hydrated ferric oxide and that no organic mat-
ter was present. 7
Only four specimens of Acanthospirina aciculifera (Rowley) Schu-
chert and Le Vene are known to the writers. The two described here
show the pattern in color, a third has the pattern excavated in the
shell surface but not shown in color, and the fourth specimen has not
been examined carefully for the pattern. A similar pattern was seen
on young specimens of Syringothyris hannibalensis (Swallow) Hall
and Clarke from the same locality and horizon but the writers have
not seen it on mature forms. Other associated shells have incrustations
of red material similar in color and composition to that forming the
color pattern, but none of them have distinct patterns.
ORIGIN OF THE COLORATION
Rarely is it possible to establish definitely the origin of color mark-
ings on fossils. An examination of the literature shows that most of
the markings known have nevertheless been described as original.
Their origin appears to have been so interpreted because they were
arranged in definite patterns which were observed on more than one
50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. l
individual. Although most of the markings so interpreted probably
are original, their regular arrangement and occurrence on more than
one individual is not, as will be shown later, of itself, sufficient evi-
dence to definitely prove this conclusion. Satisfactory proof that the
coloration on fossils is original is, however, possible. Such an origin
can be proved where the chemical composition of the coloring ma-
terial on the fossils corresponds to that of the pigments on recent
shells, but, probably in most part because of changes during and after
fossilization, the composition of color markings on most Paleozoic
fossils differs from that of the markings on recent forms. Original
coloration can be amply demonstrated where the color pattern is
the same as a pattern on existing species of the same genus, but un-
fortunately this is also rare. Most other relations and characters that
have been given as proof of original coloration are susceptible also of
other interpretations, as a consideration of the Louisiana limestone
specimens will show. It is not ordinarily so difficult to demonstrate
the origin of secondary color markings, but few examples of them
have been described, and the origin of even some of these examples is
doubtful.
Like that of many of the markings described in the literature, the
origin of the color markings on the Louisiana limestone specimens can
not be definitely determined with the data available. Certain hy-
potheses are, however, favored by these data. A brief discussion of
them will bring out interpretations and relations that have heretofore
been passed over in studies of this kind and therefore seems desirable.
Of these favored hypotheses, three appear to be the most plausible.
In two of them, the first and third, the excavated pattern is assumed
to have been caused by the coloring material or by material from
which it was derived; in the other hypothesis the pattern is assumed
to be the result of structural differences which probably did not
originally involve differences in color or in shell composition. The
three hypotheses are: (1) The coloration is original but has been
partly or wholly changed in composition and partly obliterated, (2)
the coloration is the result of infiltration of some mineral into open-
ings in the shell, as into the punctae of a punctate shell or into the
larger openings of hollow spines, and (3) the coloration is due to
differentiation in shell composition (other than that caused by original
color differences) which has been exaggerated and brought out by
processes of fossilization.
So much is known of the composition of the brachiopod shell, that,
unless the original substance of the shell has been replaced—which
JANUARY 15, 1933 ROWLEY AND WILLIAMS: BRACHIOPOD COLORATION Ol
seems unlikely in the specimens in hand—the last hypothesis can be
dismissed without detailed consideration. Differences in the com-
position of individual brachiopod shells, aside from those caused by
differential and original coloration, largely consist of differences be-
tween shell layers. The pattern here described involves differences
within shell layers and the arrangement of the materials causing
them in a definite pattern. No arrangement of uncolored or uniformly
colored materials in any way similar to the pattern has come to the
writers’ notice and none appears to have been described either from
fossil or recent brachiopods. The probable absence of such an arrange-
ment would, it seems, give ample justification for immediately dis-
missing the hypothesis that depends upon it.
Each of the other hypotheses provides explanations for all the ob-
served characters and relations. The second hypothesis derives its
strongest support from evidence furnished by the associated speci-
mens, a source of evidence that has often been neglected. The com-
monness on associated specimens of stringers and incrustations of red
iron-bearing material similar in appearance and composition to the
material in the markings can possibly be explained as a fortuitous cir-
cumstance, but it shows that there was a plentiful supply of coloring
material available for secondary introduction into a structural pat-
tern. Uncolored structural patterns on associated individuals of the
same species and on young individuals of Syringothyris hannibalensis
(Swallow) Hall and Clarke may be interpreted as resulting from the
removal of coloring material from original color patterns, but they
may also be interpreted as structural patterns that were not origi-
nally related to coloration.
The depth of the excavations in which the markings on the color-
marked individuals themselves are situated and the irregularity of
the markings also favor the hypothesis that a structural pattern was
infiltrated with coloring material after the death of the individuals
that are now color-marked. The excavations are deeper than the
irregularities that usually result from differential weathering of re-
cent shells that have original color markings. The coloring material
in five recent shells studied by the writers was in such minute quanti-
ties or was so nearly equal to the shelly material in resistance to solu-
tion that differential weathering did not affect the shell surface to any
extent. This same relation appears to be true for most recent shells
and unless the quantity of coloring material in fossil shells were
greater than that contained in most recent shells known to the
writers, it is doubtful that its removal alone would cause such deep
52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
depressions in the shell substance. Surface irregularities attributed
(1, p. 81; 2, p. 212; 3, p. 281) to unequal weathering of pigmented and
unpigmented parts of original color patterns on fossil cephalopods and
on other fossils are, however, comparable to those caused by the ex-
cavations. The slight irregularity of the markings on the color-
marked individuals of Acanthospirina aciculifera (Rowley) Schuchert
and LeVene is not due to any irregularity in the pattern but instead is
due to the absence of coloring material from the excavations. This
absence might be explained by the assumption that the coloration
was original and that unequal weathering of different parts of the
shell and of its colored and uncolored parts removed the coloring ma-
terial from some areas and left it in others; but the irregular dis-
tribution over the shell surface of excavations without coloring matter
indicates that the absence of coloring matter from them was not the
result of greater exposure of some parts of the shells to weathering
and suggests that the explanation in terms of the second hypothesis
that the irregularities are the result of unequal infiltration is more
reasonable. If the coloring material did infiltrate previously formed
openings in the shell there would be no reason to expect that it would
infiltrate all openings alike or to the same degree.
A distinct obstacle to the acceptance of this second hypothesis is
the fact that a suitable structural pattern, known to be unrelated to
differences in original shell composition and yet to have been pro-
duced by structures known on brachiopod shells, has not been found
on specimens of Acanthospirina aciculifera (Rowley) Schuchert and
LeVene or on closely related forms. Small hollow oblique spines that
did not penetrate the innermost shell layer and were arranged in a
manner similar to the arrangement of the markings, or very oblique
ectopunctae which penetrated some of the inner shell layers and
were arranged in a like manner, would provide a satisfactory pattern.
Punctae described from very closely related genera are, however,
endopunctae and hence penetrate the innermost shell layer as well as
other inner layers. Furthermore, they are more or less normal to the
shell surface. They would therefore not provide a suitable structural
pattern. Some spiriferoid genera have been said to have ectopunctae
but they probably do not penetrate inner shell layers (4, p. 420).
Other spiriferoid genera have oblique spines which might possibly
form excavations if partly removed by weathering or abrasion. If
these spines were oblique enough, had their proximal ends buried in
the shell substance for some distance, and were arranged in alternate
radial rows, they would provide a suitable pattern. No such spines,
JANUARY 15, 1933 ROWLEY AND WILLIAMS: BRACHIOPOD COLORATION 53
however, are known on Acanthospirina and because spines of larger
size and of a different character are known, it is unlikely that they
will be found. Besides being relatively large, the spines on Acantho-
spirina aciculifera (Rowley) Schuchert and LeVene are mounted on
tubercles and set at right angles to the shell surface. Broken ends of
these spines are irregularly distributed over the surface of the color-
marked specimens, but they should not be confused with fine, hollow,
regularly arranged oblique spines which would be necessary to form a
pattern like that here described. The apparent absence of such a pat-
tern can reasonably be interpreted as favoring the hypothesis that
the coloration is original.
The strongest support for the first hypothesis, that the coloration
is original, comes from the occurrence together, and in combination,
of so many relations that have been observed on recent color-marked
forms, or have been described from fossils that have markings rather
generally thougkt to be original. Agreement with most recent color
markings is shown in the following particulars: (1) The markings are
arranged in a definite pattern which occurs on more than one indi-
vidual. The comparison is here made with recent forms having defi-
nite markings and not with those recent forms that are merely shaded.
(2) The markings or excavations, which under this hypothesis are as-
sumed to result from them, occur on all parts of the surfaces of the
valves like they do on most recent color-marked shells, and hence are
not accidental. Some recent marine shells have markings only on the
side nearest the surface, but even on these individuals the markings
are regularly distributed on that side. The markings on the writers’
specimens appear to be unrelated to life habits. (3) Although the
pattern caused by the arrangement of the markings does not closely
resemble any color pattern known on recent brachiopods, it does re-
semble a color pattern that occurs on living gastropods. Such a pat-
tern was seen by the junior author on two immature individuals of a
gastropod collected by him on the beach near Beaufort, N. C., and
identified by Dr. W. P. Woodring, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, as
Crepidula fornicata (Linné). The pattern on the gastropods consisted
of red streaks which were relatively much larger than the markings
on the fossil brachiopods. The shortest streaks, which were near the
margins of the gastropod shells, formed that part of the pattern which
was most like the one here described. (4) Most of the coloring ma-
terial is in grooves beneath the shell surface, which suggests that, like
the coloring material in recent shells, it was situated in the inner shell
layers. (3, p. 281; 5, p. 145.) (5) The coloring material appears to be
54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
absent from the innermost shell layers, likewise as in most recent
shells. (5, p. 145.) (6) The present color of the markings is perhaps not
significant, but it is, nevertheless, a color that is commonly seen on
recent color-marked shells. (7) Although the chemical composition of
the material does not correspond exactly with that of organic pig-
ments, the presence of iron in it and the discovery (6, p. 92) that iron
occurs in pigments of recent molluscan shells may have some signifi-
cance. (8) Similarity of the markings to recent color markings is also
shown by the observation of Doctor Ross that the microscopic par-
ticles of coloring matter in the markings of the Louisiana limestone
specimens are intermingled with shelly particles, or embedded as dis-
crete particles in the shell substance—a relation noted in recent shells
by the writers.
Agreement with markings thought to be original on fossil brachio-
pods is shown in some details of the color and composition of the
markings, in the relation of coloring matter to shell substance, and, in
a more general way, in the plan of the pattern. Although the pattern
is not exactly like any original pattern on fossils, its radial plan and
broad resemblance to them is suggestive. The color patterns on most
fossil brachiopod shells consist of bands, long radial lines, or rather
large splotches of color whereas the pattern here described consists of
short streaks and spots of color of very small size. These differences in
size and in the continuity of the streaks are, however, less important
than the likenesses shown by its general plan. The coloring matter in
most fossil shells occurs in the inner shell layer, as noted by Richter
(6, p. 89), Foerste (5, p. 145), and others, and the location of most of
the coloring matter in grooves beneath the shell surface on the speci-
mens of Acanthospirina aciculifera (Rowley) Schuchert and LeVene
suggests that it also occurs in an inner shell layer. Furthermore, its
absence from the innermost layer suggests another similarity in posi-
tion to described fossil markings. The raised position of some of the
markings and absence of coloring material from some parts of the pat-
tern are also common features that have been explained by differential
weathering of fossil color patterns (2, p. 212; 3, p. 281; 5, p. 145). The
color of the markings, though perhaps of a slightly different shade
from that of most fossil markings, is nevertheless a rather common
one. The colors most commonly recorded on fossil specimens are
brown or black, but reddish-brown and purple markings are not un-
common. Reddish-brown, olive-brown, and purplish spots were ob-
served by C. L. and M. A. Fenton (7, pp. 132-133) on two species of
Cranaena from Devonian of Iowa; reddish-brown spots occur on indi-
JANUARY 15, 1933 ROWLEY AND WILLIAMS: BRACHIOPOD COLORATION 90
viduals of Pugnax pugnus (Martin) Hall and Clarke (8, p. 257), and
reddish-brown to black concentric lines occur on Rensselandia cimex
(Richter) Schuchert and LeVene (6, p. 88). The composition of the
markings on the Louisiana limestone specimens could not be deter-
mined satisfactorily, nor is it known for many markings on fossils,
but the presence of iron in the markings suggests a similarity with the
composition of other fossil markings. Iron was discovered in the color-
ing materials of patterns in fossil shells as early as 1871 by Kayser
(8, p. 260), who analyzed the substance in the reddish-brown areas
of Pugnax pugnus (Martin) Hall and Clarke. Richter (6, p. 92) later
found traces of iron in colored areas of Rensselandia cumex (Richter)
Schuchert and LeVene, a Devonian brachiopod, and it has been
found in the coloring material of other fossils (1, p. 84; 9, p. 391).
Despite the fact that the agreement in so many particulars of the
markings with recent markings or with the criteria used to establish
color markings in fossils appears to make the hypothesis of original
coloration the most plausible one, it must be conceded that this
agreement does not furnish conclusive evidence because the criteria
used are themselves inconclusive. Each character and relation of the
markings can be explained as a product of secondary infiltration
about as well as it can be explained as a product of original coloration.
The regularity of the pattern, its occurrence on more than one indi-
vidual, and its distribution over all parts of the surfaces of each in-
dividual can be explained by the second hypothesis by assuming that
the pattern existed during life as a structural pattern devoid of colora-
tion. The location of the coloring matter in grooves beneath the shell
surface, and its absence from the innermost shell layer, might be at-
tributed to its infiltration into oblique spines or punctae which pene-
trated some of the shell layers, but did not penetrate the innermost
layer, or to the filling of endopunctae which may have penetrated all
the inner shell layers. These endopunctae could have been exposed at
the shell surface after death by weathering of the outer shell layer and
they could have then been partly plugged up before the coloring ma-
terial was introduced. The raised position and extension of the ends
of a few of the markings above the shell surface could also be ex-
plained by the hypothesis of secondary infiltration by assuming that
the pigment filled hollow spines, or that the shell weathered away
more rapidly than the filled punctae. Likenesses in color and—to a
certain degree—in composition might be accidental and not particu-
larly significant because red iron-bearing compounds of secondary
origin are common on the associated specimens. Furthermore, the
56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 1
_ value of the close commingling of particles of shelly material and of
coloring material as evidence for original coloration is questionable,
for it is true that red iron oxides of secondary origin are known to oc-
cur in exactly the same manner.
A careful consideration of the points brought out-in the above dis-
cussion demonstrates at least to the writers’ satisfaction that no
choice between hypothesis one and two can be confidently made.
From an examination of the literature one would conclude that a
pattern like this would ordinarily be described as an original colora-
tion, but the hypothesis of original coloration when tested critically
is little, if any, stronger than the hypothesis of secondary infiltration.
If the hypothesis of original coloration is, however, the correct
one, the individuals here described provide the first record of an
Acanthospirina with color markings that are original and the second
record of color markings in the Spiriferidae, and they also furnish a
new type of original color pattern. If the coloration is the result of in-
filtration or replacement these specimens are worthy of record, not
only because of their resemblance to color patterns that have been
described from fossils as original, but also because of their striking and
unique appearance. At all events, they serve to draw attention to the
difficulty of determining definitely whether color patterns on Paleo-
zoic fossils are of primary or secondary origin.
NEW RELATIONSHIPS SHOWN BY THE
COLORED INDIVIDUALS
Quite aside from their interest as color-marked individuals, these
specimens are significant because of the new facts they show that bear
on the relations of Acanthospirina. The species under consideration
was originally described by the senior author of this paper as Spirifer
aciculifera. Weller later chose it for the type species of his genus
Acanthospira. Schuchert and LeVene (10, p. 119) discovered that
Acanthospira was a homonym and proposed the generic name Acan-
thospirina to replace it. The essential generic character cited by Wel-
ler is the presence of fine spines on the surface, which, he stated (4, p.
418), were arranged in regularly radiating series along the summits of
the plications and in similar rows on the fold and sinus. This distine-
tive character of Acanthospirina was inferred from the presence of
minute tubercles or papillae, which Weller thought ‘‘doubtless sup-
ported slender spines in the living shell.”’ (4, p. 419) Weller evidently
found no such fine spines in place, but it may now be definitely said
that they existed, for one result of the writers’ study of these speci-
JANUARY 15, 1983 ROWLEY AND WILLIAMS: BRACHIOPOD COLORATION 957
mens was the identification of three such spines which had been
broken off from the summits of the tubercles but were still sufficiently
close to enable one to see that they were formerly mounted on the
tubercles and projected approximately at right angles to the shell
surface. The tubercles themselves, however, are easily seen. That they
are neither as nearly equal in number on the two valves nor as regu-
larly arranged as Weller’s description would indicate is apparent in
Figures 1 to 4. One individual has a considerable number of tubercles
on the brachial valve and none on the pedicle valve. The other indi-
vidual has few tubercles and these are widely and irregularly spaced.
In preparing his generic description Weller did not describe the
pattern that forms the subject of this paper, though even where not
emphasized by coloration it is visible under moderate magnification
on all three specimens recently examined by the writers, including
the holotype. Weller (4, p. 390) did, however, describe such a pat-
tern, which incidentally was not shown in color, on Syringothyris
hannibalensis (Swallow) Hall and Clarke from the same horizon and
probably from the same locality. The presence of this pattern on
Syringothyris suggests an affinity of Acanthospirina with Syringo-
thyris. This affinity is further indicated by the preservation on one
specimen of Acanthosptirina of a delthyrial plate which bears a median
ridge similar to those made by the posterior side of the syrinx on
Syringothyris. Whether or not this specimen, or any of the other
three specimens known to the writers, has a syrinx can not be deter-
mined except by sectioning, a course which has not been pursued be-
cause of the small number of specimens, only two of which belong to
the same collection. In view of these resemblances, however, it ap-
pears very probable that when further investigation is possible it will
be found that Acanthospirina resembles young specimens of Syringo-
thyris in every character except in the possession of the fine spines
mounted on tubercles.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Ruedemann, Rudolf, On color bands in Orthoceras: New York State Museum
Bulls., 227—228, pp. 79-88, 1921.
2. Foerste, Aug. F., The Kimmswick and Plattin limestones of northeastern Mis-
sourl: Denison Univ. Sci. Lab. Jour., vol. 19, 175-224, 1920.
3. Newton, R. Bullen, Relics of coloration in fossil shells: Malacological Soc.
London Proc., vol. 7, pp. 280-292, 1907.
4. Weller, Stuart, The Mississippian brachiopoda of the Mississippi Valley Basin:
Illinois Geol. Survey Mon. 1, 1914.
58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
5. Foerste, Aug. F., The color patterns of fossil cephalopods and brachiopods with |
notes on gasteropods and pelecypods: Michigan Univ. Mus. Paleontology Contr., vol. 3,
pp. 109-150, 1930.
6. Richter, Rudolf, Zur Farbung fossiler Brachiopoden: Senckenberg, vol. 1, pp.
83-96, 1919.
7. Fenton, C. L. and M. A., The stratigraphy and fauna.of the Hackberry stage
of the Upper Devonian: Michigan Univ. Mus. Geology Contr., vol. 1, 1924.
8. Kayser, Emanuel, Notiz titber Rhynchonella pugnus mit Farbenspuren aus dem
Hifler Kalk: Zeitsch. Deutsch. geol. Gesell., vol. 23, pp: 257-265, 1871.
9. Oppenheim, Paul, Uber die Erhaltung der Farbung bei fossilen Mollusken-
schalen: Centralbl. Min. Geol. Pal. Jahrg. 1918, pp. 368-392.
10. Schuchert, Charles, and LeVene, C. M., New names for brachiopod homonyms:
Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., vol. 17, pp. 117-122, 1929.
BOTAN Y.—Thelebolus lignicola and the genus Pleurocolla (Fungz).}
WiiuiaAmM W. Diext, Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated
by J. A. STEVENSON.) 3
Under the name of Thelebolus lignicola, C. G. Lloyd? discussed and
illustrated by three excellent photographs a specimen from New York
gathered by 8S. H. Burnham in 1917. The description is, however, con-
siderably at variance with the evidence obtained from a study of the
Burnham specimen in the Lloyd Herbarium as No. 28,444, together
with comparisons of other specimens, some in a living condition in
moist chamber culture. Examinations of living and preserved material
explain in part Lloyd’s suppositions and reveal the taxonomic rela-
tions of the fungus.
The specimens do not show the presence of ascospores as suggested
by Lloyd but of numerous acrogenous conidia upon verticillately
branched conidiophores (Fig. 1) massed with paraphysis-like sterile
hyphae of irregular length in sporodochia of variable form. The
sporodochia when moist are mucose to gelatinous but corneous when
dry. When young, they are verrucoid-pulvinate. With increase of size
they assume various shapes, subpulvinate to irregularly-columnar,
sometimes branched, but in general apically globular to pointed. By
virtue of a more rapid growth under conditions of suitable moisture
and drying, this apical region of the sporodochium is often, but not
always, thrust upward as a subspherical, secondary development or
proliferation which extruding readily becomes separated, suggesting a
peridiole. It was this peridiole-like feature which prompted Lloyd’s
reference of the fungus to Thelebolus.
1 Received September 5, 1932.
2 Mycological Notes, no. 51, pp. 737-738, 1917.
JANUARY 15, 19383 DIEHL: THELEBOLUS AND PLEUROCOLLA 59
This fungus is in substantial agreement with the description of
Dendrodochium compressum Ell. & Ev.,? and specifically identical with
an authentic specimen gathered in West Virginia by L. W. Nuttall
(det. J. B. Ellis, No. 923).
Figure 1. Sterile hyphae and branched conidiophores with acrogenous conidia from
the type specimen of Thelebolus lignicola Lloyd (= Pleurocolla compressa) prepared in
Amann’s solution. 1000.
The gelatinous texture of the sporodochium and the verticillately
branched conidiophores exclude the species from Dendrodochium as
typified by Bonorden‘ wherein the conidiophores are not verticil-
lately branched and the sporodochia are not recorded as gelatinous.
No published description seems adequate for this type of fructifica-
tion, but as Miss V. K. Charles suggested to the writer, Plewrocolla
tuliae Petrak resembles this fungus. Comparisons of the specimens
cited below with Petrak’s type (Fl. Bohem. Exs. No. 1877) confirmed
this suggestion indicating a congeneric relationship. Unfortunately,
however, the description of the form genus Pleurocolla Petrak’ does
’ Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, vol. 24, pp. 475-476, 1897.
4 Handb. d. Allg. Myk., p. 135, 1851.
> Ann. Myc., vol. 22, pp. 15-16, 1924.
60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
not take account of the verticillately compound conidiophores and
records the conidia as ‘‘akropleurogen”’ when in reality they are typi-
cally acrogenous (Fig. 2). In both species the conidia are borne at the
apex of the conidiophores or branches but often remain attached at
the. nodes after the formation of proliferating conidiophore branches.
It is suggested that this type of conidial formation is acrogenous and
can not be termed ‘“‘acropleurogenous.”’
Both Pleurocolla tiliae and Dendrodochium compressum, although
distinct, are therefore referable to the same genus, but as the technical
description of that genus is somewhat at variance with the actual
characters observed, it seems desirable to emend the generic diagnosis
to include both species as follows:
PLEUROCOLLA Petrak emend.
Diag. Sporodochiis solitariis vel aggregatis, in statura et forme variis, ex
cortice erumpentibus vel superficialibus in verrucis usque columnatis ir-
regularibus patefactis, humidis mucoso-gelatinosis, siccis corneis; conidi-
ophoris verticillatim ramulosis; ramis ad apicem attenuatis, tumidulis;
conidiis acrogenis, clavatis usque obovatis; hyphis sterilibus, irregularibus
conidiophora subaequantibus vel excedentibus.
Figure 2. Sterile hyphae and branched conidiophores with acrogenous conidia from
the type specimens of Pleurocolla tiliae Petrak prepared in Amann’s solution. X1000.
P. tiliae Petrak, Ann. Myc., vol. 22, pp. 15-16, 1924 (type species) Fig. 2.
Specimen examined: on Tilia platyphylla, Moravia, 1922, F. Petrak,
Flora Bohem. et Morav. exs. No. 1877,—ex-type.®
6 All specimens cited are in the Mycological Collections of the Bureau of Plant
Industry.
JANUARY 15, 1933 TRELEASE: NEW GUATEMALAN OAKS 61
P. compressa (Ell. & Ev.) n. comb.
Syn. Dendrodochium compressum Ell. and Ev. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, vol. 24,
pp. 475-476, 1897.
Thelebolus lignicola Lloyd Myc. Notes no. 51, pp. 737-738, 1917.
ihe ae ablowd(c,) Kis. L103—1105;
Specimens examined: Hudson Falls, N. Y.,-1917, 8S. H. Burnham in Herb.
C. G. Lloyd 28,444, type of Thelebolus lignicola; Cincinnati, O., 1920, C. G.
Lloyd in Herb. Lloyd 27,577; Shelbourne, N. H., W. G. Farlow; Chocorua,
N. H. 1907, W. G. Farlow; Taughannoc Falls, N. Y., H. H. Whetzel 10,904;
Labrador Lake, N. Y., 1932, C. L. Shear; Ross Run, Huntingdon Co., Pa.,
1928, L. O. Overholts 11,360; Sligo, Md., 1918, E. K. Cash and V. K. Charles;
Arlington Co., Va., 1927, C. L. Shear; on Lirzodendron, Black Pond, Fairfax
Co., Va., 1928, W. W. D.; Dead Run, Fairfax Co., Va., 1929, W. W. D.; on
(2?) Liriodendron, City Point, Va., 1931, W. W. D.; on Betula lenta, Fayette
Co., W. Va., 1898, L. W. Nuttall (det. J. B. Ellis, 923).
Pleurocolla-like fructifications as stages in the life histories of some
discomycetes are to be found in icones of Tulasne and Brefeld. It is
noteworthy in this connection that Howarth and Chippendale’ in a re-
cent paper on the life histories of Coryne sarcoides Jacq. and C. urnalis
Nyl. discuss and illustrate conidial stages that may also be assigned
to the genus Pleurocolla Syd.
BOTANY.—Five new oaks from Guatemala.!| WiLLIAM TRELEASE,
University of Illinois. (Communicated by WitiiAmM R. Maxon,
U.S. National Museum.)
In a recent plant collection from western Guatemala by Dr. Alex-
ander F. Skutch, of Johns Hopkins University, presented to the U.S.
National Museum by the collector, there were eight ample specimens
of Quercus, which were sent to me for study. Three of these I refer to
previously known species, as follows: Q. Donnell-Smithii Trel., Q.
tristis Liebm., and Q. pilicaulis forma Hurteri Trel. The remaining
five numbers seem to represent new species, which are described here-
with. Duplicate types are in my own herbarium.
Quercus Skutchii Trel., sp. nov.
Ramuli graciles (2 mm. erassi), sulcati, mox glabri, grisei, lenticellis
numerosis concoloribus rotundis; gemmae elongato-turbinatae, acutae, 6
mm. longae, 2 mm. latae, brunnescentes, nitidae, squamis pallido-ciliatis;
folia sempervirentia, elliptica, 7-8 cm. longa, 3 cm. lata, apice acuta, aris-
tata, basi subacuta, supra glabra, nitida, minute cancellata, subtus tomen-
tosa, venis lateralibus ca. 10, sursum curvatis, supra impressis; petioli 1 cm.
longi, glabrati; fructus biennis, brevi-pedunculatus, cupula subturbinata,
7 Mem. and Proc. Manchester Lit. and Philos. Soc., vol. 75, pp. 47-60, 1931.
1 Received Oct. 12, 1932.
62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
15-20 mm. diametro, squamis appressis, obtusis, griseo-sericeis; glans elon-
gato-ellipsoidea, 15-20 mm. longa, semi-inclusa.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,493,800, collected at Chich-
avac, Dept. of Chimaltenango, Guatemala, alt. 2,400-2,700 meters, Nov.—
Dec., 1980, by A. F. Skutch (no. 44).
A large much-branched tree.
Quercus chichavacana Trel., sp. nov.
Ramuli gracilis (2 mm. crassi), parce griseo-pubescentes, lenticellis con-
spicuis; gemmae rotundo- vel turbinato-ovoideae, argillaceo-coloratae,
glabrescentes, plus minusve nitidae, 2 mm. diametro; folia 4-7 em. longa,
2.5-4 em. lata, obovata vel elliptico-subobovata, apice acuta vel subacuta,
aristata, basi obtusa vel subtruncata, nunc integra, nune sursum dentata,
dentibus setaceis 4-6, supra glabra, nitida, subtiliter cancellata, subtus
rufo-tomentosa, venis lateralibus ca. 10, non curvatis; petioli 1 em. longi,
pubescentes; amenta desunt; fructus biennis, brevi-pedunculatus, cupula
turbinata, 15 mm. diametro, squamis appressis, plus minusve attenuatis,
rufo- vel griseo-sericeis, inflexis; glans ovoidea vel oblonga, semi-inclusa,
1-2 cm. longa.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,493,808, collected at Chich-
avac, Dept. of Chimaltenango, Guatemala, alt. 2,400—-2,700 meters, Nov.—
Dec., 1930, by A. F. Skutch (no. 57).
Quercus chimaltenangana Trel., sp. nov.
Ramuli moderate crassi (4-5 mm.), primum griseo-subtomentosi; gemmae
rotundo- vel elongato-ovoideae, obtusae, argillaceo-coloratae vel rufescentes,
glabrescentes, subnitidae, 3 mm. diametro; folia 12-14 em. longa, 4 cm.
lata, oblonga vel lanceolata vel oblanceolata, apice acuta, aristata, basi
subcordulata, margine crispata, supra glabra nitidaque, subtus tomentosa,
ubi denudata granulosa, venis lateralibus ca. 10, apice sursum curvatis, sicut
venulis supra impressis; petioli 1 em. longi, tomentosi; amenta desunt; fruc-
tus biennis, brevi-pedunculatus, cupula subturbinata, 15 mm. diametro,
squamis obtusis, griseo-sericeis, appressis; glans ovoidea, semi-inclusa, 2 cm.
longa.
Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,493,805, collected at Chich-
avac, Dept. of Chimaltenango, Guatemala, alt. 2,400-—2,700 meters, Nov.—
Dec., 1930, by A. F. Skutch (no. 62).
Quercus ambivenulosa Trel., sp. nov.
Ramuli graciles, 2 mm. crassi, glabri, paulum suleati, plus minusve rubelli,
demum grisei, lenticellis parvis; gemmae rotundo-ovoideae, obtusae, nitidae,
pallide fuscae, glabrae, 3 mm. longae lataeque; folia elliptica vel oblonga,
10-14 cm. longa, 3-5 cm. lata, subnitentia, subtus aeneo-colorata, apice
basique acuta, glabra, utrinque cancellata, venis lateralibus majoribus ca. 8,
faleatis, marginem versus manifeste conjunctis; petioli 10-15 mm. longi;
fructus biennis, pedunculis brevibus ramulis crassioribus, fructus 1-3 geren-
tibus, cupula hemisphaerica, tenui, 15 mm. diametro, squamis arcte appres-
sis, obtuse attenuatis, griseo-sericeis; glans ovoidea, semi-inclusa, 15 mm.
longa.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, nos. 1,493,798-9, collected at
Chichavac, Dept. of Chimaltenango, Guatemala, alt. 2,400—2,700 meters,
Nov.—Dec., 1930, by A. F. Skutch (no. 14).
A round-topped tree, 60 feet tall.
JANUARY 15, 1933 LEWTON: NEW GENUS OF HAITIAN TREES 63
Quercus aristigera Trel., sp. nov.
Ramuli moderate crassi, aureo-tomentosi, mox glabrescentes, grisei, inter-
nodiis brevibus, lenticellis minutis; gemmae turbinato-ovoideae, griseae,
5 mm. longae, 3 mm. latae; folia decidua, simul cum floribus provenientia,
lanceolato-elliptica, 8-11 cm. longa, 3 cm. lata, apice acuta, aristata, basi
subtruncata vel cordulata, integra, venis lateralibus ca. 12, vix sursum
curvatis; folia junioria supra minute et decidue stellato-puberulenta, subtus
pallido- vel aureo-tomentosa; petioli 5-10 mm. longi; amenta 4 cm. longa,
floribus congestis, antheris rotundo-ellipsoideis, emarginatis, glabris; fructus
biennis, cupula (valde inmatura) obovoidea, truncata, squamis rotundatis,
aureis, appressis; stigmata oblonga, recurvata.
Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,493,806, collected at Chich-
avac, Dept. of Chimaltenango, Guatemala, alt. 2,400—2,700 meters, Nov.—
Dec., 1930, by A. F. Skutch (no. 86).
BOTAN Y.—Armouria, a new genus of malvaceous trees from Haiti.
F. L. Lewron, U.S. National Museum.
Collections of many interesting plants were made last winter by
Dr. David Fairchild and Mr. P. H. Dorsett, with the Allison V.
Armour Expedition to the West Indies, in search of new and rare
forms worthy of introduction to American horticulture. On January
17, 1932, Mr. Armour’s commodious yacht, Utowana, touched at
Beata, an uninhabited rocky islet off the south coast of Haiti. Here
was found growing on a rocky cliff, near the middle of the western
coast of the island, a bushy tree, 18 to 20 feet high, bearing large
cream-white flowers. Specimens and photographs of the tree, its at-
tractive flowers, and immature fruits were obtained, but no ripe seeds
could be found. A return trip was made to Beata on March 22, 19382,
when only a few seeds were gathered.
This tree has the aspect of the circumtropical Thespesia populnea,
but its large cream-white flowers without the darker petal spot pres-
ent in all species of Thespesia and most of its relatives, and the densely
pubescent foliage instead of the smooth leathery leaves of Thespesia,
suggested at once an undescribed species.
Upon study of the herbarium material and photographs brought
back by Fairchild and Dorsett, I am convinced that the attractive
tree discovered by them represents a new species, which because of the
differences of its flowers and fruit from those of Thespesia and related
genera must be regarded as constituting a new genus.
In recognition of the generous assistance which he has given to
botanical research for many years, I have named this genus in honor
of Allison V. Armour.
1 Received December 3, 1932.
64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
Armouria Lewton, gen. nov.
Arbores; folia petiolata, angulato-lobata; flores solitares, axillares; pe-
dunculus sursum incrassatus, angulatus, glandulas tres lineari-cuneatas
extraflorales decurrentes et apicem versus bracteas tres deciduas gerens;
calyx cupuliformis, sursum truncatus, dentibus quinque minutissimis in-
structus, deorsum sulcatus et abrupte constrictus, substipitatus, lignescens;
columna antherifera apice 5-dentata; ovarium 5-loculare, ovulis in loculis
nonnullis; stylus clavatus, stigmatibus quinque decurrentibus; capsula tarde
loculicide dehiscens, 5-valvata, lignosa, stellato-pubescens; semina obo-
voidea, glabra; cotyledones resinoso-punctatae, punctis nigris. Species unica:
Armouria beata Lewton, sp. nov.
Armouria beata Lewton, sp. nov.
Arbor 5-7 m. alta; ramuli teretes, fuscescentes, minute stellato-lepidoti;
folia basi cordata, apice obtusiuscula, 3—5-angulato-lobata, supra scabri-
uscula, subtus pallidiora molliter stellato-tomentosa; petiolus 1-2 em. lon-
gus; flores ochroleuci, 10-13 em. lati; pedunculi petiolis 2-plo longiores;
bracteae lineari-lanceolatae vel trifidae, 2-3 mm. longae; calyx densissime
sed minutissime stellato-puberulentus, dentibus minutis, 0.5 mm. longis;
petala basi columnae antheriferae adnata, speciosa, immaculata.
Tree 5-7 meters high; branchlets terete, fuscescent, minutely brownish-
‘stellate-lepidote; primordial leaves cordate-ovate, not angulate; mature leaf
blades 3-5-angulate-lobate, 4-6 cm. long and broad, cordate at base, ob-
tusish at apex, scabridulous above, paler and softly stellate-tomentose
beneath, palmately veined, the veins (about 7) impressed above, elevated
beneath, the midvein provided with a linear nectary midway between base
and apex; petioles 1-2 cm. long, about 1.5 mm. thick, stellate-lepidote;
flowers solitary and axillary, about 10-13 cm. wide; peduncle twice as long
as the petiole, thickened upward, ribbed, provided with 3 linear-cuneate
decurrent extra-floral nectaries, surmounted by 3 linear-lanceolate or trifid
bracts, these 2-3 mm. long, often unequally inserted, deciduous; calyx cupu-
late, truncate, with 5 minute teeth (0.5 mm. long), constricted at base into
a short sulcate stipe, stellate-puberulent externally, sericeous within, ac-
crescent, becoming woody and verrucose (yet keeping its form), the thick-
ened base then filled with black resinous pellets; petals cream-colored,
unspotted, about 6 cm. long; anther column deeply 5-dentate at apex;
capsule pointed-ovoid, loculicidal, tardily splitting into 5 woody valves,
these densely stellate-pubescent externally; seeds obovoid, glabrous, about
11 mm. long; cotyledons black-resinous-punctate.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,555,481, collected on a rocky
cliff near the middle of the western coast of Beata Island, off the south coast
of Haiti, Jan. 17, 1932, by David Fairchild and P. H. Dorsett (no. 2617).
Armouria has as its nearest relatives Thespesia and Montezuma. From
T. populnea (L.) Soland., type of the genus Thespesia, it differs markedly
in its dehiscent fruit and its cupulate, short-stipitate, accrescent calyx,
which retains its form to maturity. In contrast, the campanulate calyx of
T. populnea becomes repand-rotate at maturity. From M. speciosissima Mog.
& Sessé, type of the genus Montezuma, Armouria may easily be distinguished
by its dehiscent fruit, persistent calyx, and pubescent foliage.
JANUARY 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 65
PALEONTOLOGY.—Colognathus proposed for Xenognathus, pre-
occupied! EK. C. Casz, University of Michigan.
In 1928 the author described (Contributions from the Museum of
Paleontology, University of Michigan, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 5-6, 1928)
an imperfect jaw with two teeth from the upper Triassic beds of
western Texas. The jaw was tentatively described as that of a fish
and the name Xenognathus obscurus was proposed for the new form.
It has been pointed out to the author by Doctor H. Walter Clark.
of the California Academy of Science that this name is preoccupied
and the name Colognathus is proposed to replace it.
Further specimens of the teeth and fragmentary jaws have been
found in the Palo Duro Canyon and a second specimen has been de-
scribed by the author (Contributions from the Museum of Paleon-
tology, University of Michigan, Vol. 4, No. 3, p. 90, 1932) but the
true character and relationships of the peculiar form remain unde-
termined.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Prepared by Science Service
Notes
The Carnegie Institution —The annual exhibition of the Carnegie Institu-
tion of Washington was held December ninth to December twelfth. The
exhibits were grouped under eleven heads: the growing child, basal metabo-
lism of the monkey, the maternal organism and the egg, the search for an
understanding of magnetism, the velocity of light, the sun, climatological
research, aboriginal Mexico, seismological research, volcanic gases, and pub-
lications. |
Three notable lectures by members of the Institution were given during
the fortnight immediately preceding the exhibition. The first, on the evening
of November 22, was by Dr. E. G. Zrzs, on “Volcanic Activity in Central
America.” Dr. Zies suggested the desirability of a sustained program of vol-
canological research by an adequately staffed and supported organization,
as a means toward the eventual development of a reliable method for
predicting eruptions. The extensive volcanic system of Central America, he
said, offers as favorable an opportunity for such work as can be found any
where in the world.
The second lecture was given by Dr. A. E. Douetass on the evening of
December 2; his subject was ‘‘Tree Growth and Climatic Cycles.” Dr.
Doveuass demonstrated how the cyclogram method makes it possible to
analyze individual cycle series out of the complex that appears in the crude
Received Dec. 14, 1932.
66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
record. He also told of the discovery of the apparent shortening of the main
sunspot cycle from eleven years to ten during occasional long ‘‘dearth pe-
riods’”’ when there are few or no spots on the face of the sun.
In the third lecture, on ‘‘ Forest Migrations and their Relation to Earth
History,’ which Dr. RatpH W. CuHaney delivered on the evening of Decem-
ber 6, the speaker told of the tracing of Tertiary forest floras on their march
from Asia to America, or in the reverse direction, and also of searches in
tropical American uplands for forests that still preserve the character they
had in higher latitudes in earlier geologic times.
Georgetown University —White-Gravenor Hall, the newest addition to the
Georgetown University group, was dedicated on December 9; it is hoped to
have it ready for occupancy by the beginning of the second semester. The top
floor will house the Chemistry Department. The equipment and lecture
space will be contained in two large classrooms and four laboratories. The
attic will accommodate the chemistry reference library, a chemistry faculty
room, and an office for the head of the department.
George Washington University Medical School.—Extensive changes and
improvements in the physical equipment of the medical school of the George
Washington University have been accompanied by a large number of new
full-time appointments to the teaching staff. Dean Eart B. McKInuery an-
nounces the following full-time appointments: Erretrr C. ALBrirtron, M.D.,
Roscoe Roy Srencer, M.D., LeLanp W. Parr, Ph.D., Jonn H. Hanks,
Ph.D., ELizABETH VERDER, Ph.D., AupEN F. Rog, Se.D., Wiiuiam F.
Hamitton, Ph.D., Coester KE. Leese, Ph.D., Aticz C. Ropsrts, Ph.D.,
GEORGE BREWER, M,D., VINCENT DU VIGNUEAD, Ph.D., Heten M. DYER,
A.M., Jesse Harmon, Ph.D., James L. Cottins, M.D., Lanse ALLEN, M.S.,
PHOEBE J. CRITTENDEN, Ph.D., THomas D. Woopson, M.D.
A new National Aquarium Society—With the transfer of the aquarium of
the Bureau of Fisheries to its new and more commodious quarters in the new
Department of Commerce Building and the appointment of a full-time
Director of the Aquarium, interest in aquarium fishes, home aquaria, out-
door fish pools, and similar activities has been greatly stimulated. This has
culminated in the formation of the National Aquarium Society, the first
regular meeting of which was held on November 18, 1932, in the Aquarium
in the Department of Commerce, with an attendance of over 100. The object
of the Society ‘‘shall be the popular and scientific study of the aquarium, its
flora, and fauna.’”’ The officers are: J. J. FirzpatTrick, president; Wm.
Brown, vice-president; ALBERT K. Brown, secretary-treasurer. The Board
of Councilors includes Dr. Pau Bartscu, Dr. Wm. Mann, Freep G. OR-
SINGER and Dr. Lewis RapDcuiFFE.
The Pan-American Medical Association——Under the presidency of Sur-
geon General H. 8. Cummine, and with an attendance of 25 members, the
JANUARY 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 67
Washington Chapter of the Pan-American Medical Association held its first
meeting of the season on Friday, November 25, at the Legation of Nica-
ragua. Certificates of membership were presented to those who had not
previously received them. A resolution was unanimously adopted extending
the congratulations of the Chapter to one of its most distinguished members,
Dr. J. B. Sacasa, who has recently been elected President of the Republic
of Nicaragua. The scientific program included two formal papers: one by
Dr. Wn. A. Wuits, Superintendent of the Government Hospital for the
Insane, on mental disease, and one by Dr. T. Casicas, on the presumptive
Kahn test.
As salient points, Dr. WuirTs stressed the extent of mental disease, an
expression of the excessive demands of civilization. Taking the present de-
pression as an example of the causes at work, he showed its effects in fewer
discharges from institutions, increase of admissions to institutions for de-
fectives, and more suicides. He analyzed the ways in which frustration, with
its accompaniments of fear, anxiety, and apprehension works, and its men-
ace to future generations through its striking at the roots of cultural progress.
He pointed out as a sign of the times the 200,000 wandering boys throughout
the country.
Sigma Xi lecture-—On the evening of November 29, Prof. Douauas
WILSON JOHNSON of Columbia gave an address at a meeting of the Society
of Sigma Xi at the Carnegie Institution auditorium. Prof. JoHNSON’s sub-
ject was ‘‘Some Research Problems in Earth History.’’ His discussion was
largely on certain aspects of geomorphology; it included an explanation of
the sculpturing of such mountain systems as the Appalachians by rivers
that began to flow as soon as the old drowned peneplain re-emerged from the
sea, bearing its load of marine sediments; of lateral planation, strikingly
exemplified in desert mountain systems of the West, and of shore erosion by
wave action.
Washington Scientists at the A.O.U. Meeting. —At the fiftieth stated meet-
ing of the American Ornithologists’ Union, held at Laval University, Que-
bec, Canada, October 18 to 21, five papers were presented by members of
the Bureau of Biological Survey, United States Department of Agriculture,
as follows: Dr. O. L. Austin, JR., read two papers, one on ‘‘Consistency in
Distribution” and one on “The Source of Supply of New England Water-
fowl’; ArtHuR H. Howe. presented ‘‘ Notes on the Birds of the Coast
Region of North and South Carolina”’; and F. C. Linco, in a paper illus-
rated by lantern slides, dealt with ‘“‘State Distribution of Banded Ducks.”
At a special session held in honor of deceased fellows, Dr. H. C. OBER-
HOLSER delivered a memorial address in appreciation of RopmrT RiIpGway
(1850-1929). Dr. Paumer and Mr. McATEx were re-elected secretary and
treasurer, respectively, of the Union and Dr. OBERHOLSER was renamed a
member of the Council.
68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
Dynamic oceanographic and other surveys-—The Hydrographic Office of
the Navy Department is undertaking certain important dynamic oceano-
graphic work in connection with its survey season of 1932-1933, which is
being conducted by the U.S.S. Hannibal and U.S.S. Nokomis off Panama
and Costa Rica. The primary purpose in obtaining the oceanographic data
is to establish correction factors in the areas where it is to be obtained for
sonic depth soundings already taken, or to be taken this season, or in the
future.
The survey vessels are fitted with sonic sounding devices calibrated to a
velocity of 1,463 meters or 4,800 feet a second which register the depths of
the waters through which they steam. In depths less than 130 fathoms (780
feet) the depths are automatically recorded, while in greater depths the
time elapsed between the start of the signal and the return of the echo from
the botton is evaluated by a trained operator.
Unless a determination is made of the specific gravity of the water through
which the sound propagated by the sonic sound device travels to the bottom
of the ocean and its echo returns to the surface, there is no accurate means
of knowing just what the speed of the sound may be. To calculate the true
echo-distance, it is necessary to know the mean velocity of the sound be-
tween the vessel and the bottom. To determine this mean velocity the
salinity and temperature of the water as well as the pressure must be ob-
tained.
Velocity of sound may vary from about 1,400 meters (4,590 feet) per
second in cold water to 1,620 meters (5,340 feet) per second at the bottom
in great deeps of the world.
The Hannibal has been fitted with special equipment for obtaining the
necessary factors regarding temperature, salinity, and the pressure of the
water. By obtaining a series of soundings from two or more positions on the
surface the specific gravity of the intervening water may be interpolated
and readily supply correction factors for all sonic soundings taken between
these positions. i
Mapping the contours of the sea bottom by the surveying vessels will be
greatly expedited and will be of the accuracy desired. Simultaneous deter-
minations of the depths with actual soundings by wire and the sonic or
echo method with the temperature and salinity of the water at all levels,
will provide data of great value in giving the proper information for the ve-
locity of sound in sea-water, and serve as a basis for reducing thousands of
sonic soundings that have already been taken by U. 8. Naval vessels and
other ships.
A third mammalian disease vector.—At the meeting here of the Board of
Directors of the Gorgas Memorial Institute, Dr. H. C. Cuark, director of the
Panama laboratories of the Institute, called attention to a new disease vec-
tor, remarkable in that it is the third mammal recorded in this réle. The
animal is the vampire bat, and the disease it carries is trypanosomiasis of
JANUARY 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 69
horses, a highly fatal equine ailment of northern South America. The carrier
of this disease was long sought among insects, and the blood-feeding bat
was tested almost as a last resort. Because the vampire bat feeds by lapping
up blood flowing from a wound and not, as popularly supposed, by sucking
blood, it does not infect horses when it finds them bleeding from wounds
caused by other agencies. But when it finds it necessary to start a flow of
blood by making an incision with a knife-like upper tooth, the infective
organisms are introduced. The only two other mammalian disease vectors
so far known are the dog, carrier of rabies, and the rat, which transmits
rat-bite fever.
New Oceanographic Expedition —Explorations of the greatest ‘‘deeps’’ of
the Atlantic Ocean are to be conducted by scientists aboard the yacht Caro-
line, owned by EvpripGe# R. Jounson of Philadelphia, which will sail on her
first scientific cruise of the new program about Jan. 15. The first objective
will be the deep waters about San Juan, and the party expect to be out about
two months.
The program of research includes the determination of depths by means
of echo-sounding apparatus, obtaining data on temperature and chemical
constitution of the sea water, and collecting specimens of the animal life ex-
isting in the perpetually-dark depths. Among other apparatus will be traps
using lights of various colors and intensities as lures.
Institutions cooperating in the program, by the loan of staff members and
of apparatus, include: the Smithsonian Institution, the U. S. Navy, the
Carnegie Institution of Washington, the New York Zoological Society, and
the Oceanographic Institution of Woods Hole, Mass. Dr. Pau Bartscu of
the U. S. National Museum will have charge of the program of scientific
work.
News BrRIe£Fs
Ground has been broken for the construction of the new astrographic
building and also for the dome of the forty-inch Ritchey-Chrétien reflector,
at the U.S. Naval Observatory.
Five additional states have been included by the U. 8S. Department of
Agriculture in the white pine blister rust quarantine area. They are Mary-
land, Virginia, West Virginia, Ohio, and Iowa.
Since the amendment to the U.S. patent statute permitting the patenting
of asexually propagated plants went into effect on May 23, 1930, patents
have been granted on thirty-nine plant varieties.
Closer supervision over preparations for transoceanic flights will be exer-
cised hereafter by the Aeronautics Branch of the U.S. Department of Com-
merce, it is announced. This is designed to discourage inexperienced pilots
70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 1
and inadequately equipped aircraft, and also to insure that proper permis-
sion shall be obtained from the countries to, or in which the American air-
men intend to fly. ;
The American Institute of Chemical Engineers held its annual meeting
in Washington during the first week in December. A feature of the meeting
was a demonstration of the dust-explosion laboratory of the U. 8. Depart-
ment of Agriculture at Arlington Farm.
A peak in Antarctica has been named Mt. Hugh Mitchell by Admiral
R. E. Byrp, in recognition of scientific services performed for his polar ex-
peditions by Prof. Huau C. Mircuetu of the department of astronomy at
the Catholic University of America. Mt. Hugh Mitchell is a prominent peak
situated between Little America and the Edsel Ford Mountains, forming
an outstanding landmark in the antarctic terrain.
There is now in preparation the first volume of the Fourth Series of the
Army Medical Library’s Index Catalogue. This catalogue was begun in 1865,
and three series have been completed to date. The catalogue includes the
entire medical literature of the world since printing began.
The Forest Service announces successful tests of an autogyro for use in
fire prevention work. Because of the low flying speed of this type of aircraft,
its ability to land and take off in small clear areas, its power of hovering
and of descending into steep-sided canyons and getting out again, it presents
advantages that will make it highly useful for missions which cannot be
accomplished by airplanes.
A new bombing plane so speedy that even the fastest existing pursuit
planes would have difficulty in overtaking it has been worked out for the
Army Air Corps. It is an improvement over the light Martin bomber XB-
907, unofficially dubbed the “‘flying fish.”
During 1932, data on 37 ‘“‘world-shaking”’ earthquakes were gathered and
epicenters located by the cooperative arrangement participated in by the
U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Science Service, and the Jesuit Seismo-
logical Association. These included five very destructive ones in populated
regions of Cuba, San Salvador, Mexico, and Greece.
PERSONAL ITEMS
Prof. H. Hyvrernat, of the Department of Semitic and Egyptian Lan-
guages and Literatures of the Catholic University of America, has com-
pleted preliminary steps looking toward the preparation of a Catalogue
Raisonné of the great collection of Coptic manuscripts purchased by the
late J. PlpsRPoNT MorGan, and now the property of the University library.
JANUARY 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 71
This collection consists of 58 complete, or almost complete, parchment
manuscripts, all of them unique, together with some hundred fragments of
manuscripts and about 150 papyri.
M. W. Streruine, Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, has been
elected Fellow of the Royal Geographic Society.
Maj.-Gen. Ropert U. PatTrrerson, Surgeon General of the U. 8. Army,
has been granted the degree of Doctor of Laws by his alma mater, McGill
University.
Col. Epwarp B. VepprErR, Medical Corps, U.S. A., has been awarded the
Wellcome Medal for his research, ‘‘A Study of the Antiscorbutic Vitamin.”
Dr. ALEXANDER WETMORE, assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, has been elected Corresponding Member of the Sociedad Ornitologica
del Plata of Argentina.
Dr. Henry G. Knicut, chief of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, assisted at the opening of the new Naval Stores
Experiment Station near Olustee, Fla.
Davin H. Mapssmn, supervisor of wild life of the National Park Service,
served as chairman at the Nineteenth American Game Conference, held in
New York, November 28 to 30.
Prof. J. DE SIQUEIRA CouTINHO of the department of economics, Catholic
University of America, and visiting professor at the University of Berlin
since 1925, last summer made an anthropogeographical survey of the penin-
sula of Jutland, Denmark, and an economic survey of southern Sweden and
the island of Gothland.
Earu Hanson of the department of terrestrial magnetism, Carnegie In-
stitution of Washington, has been in South America during the past year,
making observations for the study of secular magnetic variations. He has
crossed the Andes and after working along the coast of Peru and Ecuador,
he is now closing his work in Colombia and expects to return to outs United
States early in 1933.
P. G. Lepia of the department of terrestrial magnetism, Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington, will carry out a series of magnetic observations at
repeat stations in Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Brazil. He will also obtain
cosmic-ray determinations in connection with the project of Prof. A. H.
Compton of the University of Chicago.
Dr. P. B. Dunsar, assistant chief, food and drug administration, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, spoke before the Association of Official Agri-
72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 1
cultural Chemists in Washington on November 1, on ‘‘The Never-Ending
Problems of the Regulatory Chemist.’’
@Obituary
Rear Admiral Epwarp E. Hayprn, U.S.N. retired, died in Baltimore,
November 17. Admiral Hayp&En was the originator of the Navy’s standard
time service.
Dr. WiLu1AM JAcoB HOLLAND, director emeritus of the Carnegie Insti-
tute, Pittsburgh, Pa., and authority upon zoology, paleontology, and mu-
seum administration, died on December 13, 1932, at the age of eighty-four.
Doctor HOLLAND was a member of the United States Eclipse Expedition to
Japan in 1887 and to West Africa in 1889, the founder and first president
of the American Association of Museums, and the author of many scientific
papers, including five on Lepidoptera published-in the Proceedings of the
United States National Museum.
W.H. Fry, soil petrographer of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, U.S.
Department of Agriculture died, December 27.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS
The Philosophical Society of Washington announces the following pro-
erams:
January 14. L. B. TuckerMAan.—From material to structure. (Address of
the retiring president.)
January 28. E. O. Hutpurt.—The use of the bubble sextant at sea.
F. E. Forsusu.—Gravity determinations on the ‘‘ Carnegie.”
February 11. F. Neumann.—The interior of the earth as revealed by sevs-
mographical data.
F. W. Soun, 8. J.—The seismic recewer.
The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if
sent to the editors by the tenth of each month.
CONTENTS
ORIGINAL PAPERS
P
Paleobotany.— New occurrences of Pleistocene plants in the District of Columbia.
Hpwasp W: BERRY . io. 6 fae so be ee os eet Oe eee
Zoology.—On the morphology of Deontostoma californicum n. sp. (Leptosomatinae
Nematodes). G. STBINER and FLoRENCE M. ALBIN.............5...«....
Zoology.—A North American species of Acetes. H. J. HANSEN SE 2a nee
Zoology.—The eggs of Goniobasis virginica Gmelin and Anculosa carinata Bru-
guiére. CHARLES P. WINSOR.......... «wwe sinidee piesa holt ao kee
Chemistry.—The rotenone content of derris root, cube root, and other plant ma-
terials.» Howarp;A. JONES... 06d. 50 eas ob les one eh | 9
Paleontology.— Unique coloratiqgn of two Mississippian brachiopods. R. R.
Rowney and J. 5S. WiLLIaAMB.). a6 oe Pe sly as ae
Botany.— Thelebolus lignicola and the genus Pleurocolla (Fungi). Writs W. Dirsu
Botany.—Five new oaks from Guatemala. WILLIAM TRELEASE............
Botany.—Armouria, a new genus of malvaceous trees from Haiti. F. L. LEwTon :
Paleontology.—Colognathus proposed for Xenognathus, preoccupied. E. C. Casn
Scrmntiric Notes AND NEWS... 620. ese bee eek anes bs ye a
OBITUARY.—Epwarp E. HaypEN, WiLL1aAM Jacosp Houuanp, W. H. Fry.......
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS wee hola la 0S eed sy ACROSS 35.) Rn Calle -
This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals
he fi. ‘a
rWts
Vou. 23 : : Fesruary 15, 1933 No, 2
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JOURNAL
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VoL. 23 Frpruary 15, 1933 | No. 2
PHYSICS.—Romance or Science?! Pau. R. Hey, Bureauof Stand-
ards.
The text for my discourse this evening is taken from the editorial
columns of the New York Times for September 18.
‘““Your physicist is supposed to be a hard, matter-of-fact measurer who
suppresses romantic speculation and talks only of energy, volts, ions and
electrons. Confront him with a mystery and he proves to be as human as
the rest of us. Consider the cosmic rays. For years Millikan in this country
and Kolhoerster, Hess, Regener, and others in Europe have been studying
them only to their own mystification and ours. Measuring instruments are
dropped into lakes a thousand feet or elevated twenty miles above sea-level.
Piccard imperils his life to determine the true nature of the rays. Professor
Compton and a devoted band of physicists station themselves at the Kqua-
tor, in the far north, on mountain-tops, in deep mines to conduct their in-
vestigations. And the result? Romance—sheer romance.
Millikan spins a tale of electrons and protons combining in space, and of
resultant cosmic rays that proclaim the continuous upbuilding of the uni-
verse, contrary to all the laws of thermodynamics. Jeans holds us spellbound
with a poem about stars dying in a fierce radiance and bombarding us with
cosmic rays in the process. Regener, as practical as the Irish foreman of a
railway section gang when it comes to counting ions, looks at his equations
as into a crystal and sees the beginning of things—sees primitive stars shed-
ding cosmic rays and suffusing a relativistic universe from which they cannot
escape because it is closed and finite. Stimulated by him, others imagine
that, just as the bones of a dinosaur tell us something of the life that was on
earth a few million years ago, so these fossil cosmic rays reveal the Almighty
in the act of fashioning electrons and protons into nebulae, suns, planetary
systems and man himself.
For all the instruments and methods invented to test the cosmic rays, the
physicist is still the medicine-man from whom he is descended. Electro-
scopes and ionization chambers and other cosmic-ray measuring instruments
seem strangely like wands and totem poles, and Einsteinian equations but
incantations that make us believe we know more than we really do. That
_ 1 Address delivered before a joint meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences
and the Philosophical Society of Washington, December 15, 1932. Received December
15, 1932. a a
73 .: Sac
74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
we are actually dealing with something like wish-fulfillments in the cosmic
rays is evidenced by the results obtained. Here is Millikan convincing him-
self that the cosmic rays prove that the universe is self-perpetuating. And
Compton, adopting precisely the same methods, reaches the conclusion that
the rays are only electrons swerving to the poles because the earth is a great
spinning magnet. What are the cosmic rays? There is no positive answer.
We simply try to reconcile what the instruments indicate with our hopes
and beliefs and imagine we understand the cosmos.”’
The same issue of the Times contains an editorial note entitled ‘“‘It
is Done with Mathematics’’ which reads:
“Tt is a relief to read that Professor Compton is back from studying cosmic
rays in the Arctic region with the definite report that Professor Millikan is
wrong. The cosmic ray, says Professor Compton, is not a wave, as Millikan
thinks, but a particle.
It is a relief to find that when two men in the high realms of science hold
opposite views one of them is right and the other is wrong. Hitherto the
public has had to get used to the idea that when two great physicists differ
Sard about something in the universe the answer is that both men are
right.
What is the electron, a wave or a particle? It spreads after going through a
hole, like a wave. It hits other electrons like a particle. An electron is both a
wave and a particle. That would be nonsense by the rules of common sense,
but it makes sense in the new sciences. There is a formula for it.
Some people think that the universe is expanding. Some people think that
the universe is contracting. They are both right, says science. Professor Ed-
dington can think of its being an expanding universe and a contracting uni-
verse simultaneously. Or, rather, he can find a mathematical formula that
will describe that startling situation.
In the same manner space is finite and space is infinite. There is a formula.
Obviously it is a delightful world in which you can have the coffee simul-
taneously hot and iced and out of the same cup, your egg simultaneously
hard-boiled and scrambled, and the griddle cakes at the same time round
and oblong.
But occasionally it is a relief to find black as the opposite of white and
right as the counterpart of wrong.”
Speaking to an audience of scientific men, we may pass with brief
mention that portion of what I have read which deals with the dis-
agreement of doctors. This is no new thing in science, and whenever
it has occurred it has always been a passing phase characteristic of a
stage at which our knowledge on a certain point was for the time too
incomplete for unanimity of opinion. But beneath this good humored
banter there is to be discerned a serious undercurrent to which we
may well direct our attention.
The unsettled condition of modern physical theory has become a
commonplace among physicists. It now appears that it has sufficiently
penetrated the non-scientific world to produce a state of mingled
wonder and bewilderment, suggestive of those earlier days when men
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 HEYL: ROMANCE OR SCIENCE? 79
began to doubt the authority and infallibility of the Church. More-
over, it is noteworthy that this bewilderment of the editorial mind
seems to be caused wholly by the doings and thinkings of physicists,
if among these we may include astronomers, for what is astronomy
but celestial physics? Chemists, engineers, geologists and biologists
seem to call for no special mention. They are taken for granted as
steady going fellows, cobblers with eyes not above their lasts, from
whom society is in no danger. But physicists, it appears, are of dif-
ferent clay—iconoclasts, crack-brained theorists, ay, even writers of
romance! And, if I guess rightly, this attitude of the editorial mind is
not without a measure of instinctive sympathy on the part of many
scientific men not of the physical persuasion.
Here is something for us physicists to think about. We are distinctly
on the defensive on all sides. Why have we excited this suspicion?
Why have we not been able to keep to the straight path with our
fellows? If we are no longer regarded as safe and sane, is it our own
fault, or that of the subject with which we have to deal?
It must be admitted that among the different conventional divi-
sions of science physics occupies indeed a unique position. Ask the
chemist the nature of the atoms and molecules with which he deals
and of the forces which rule their reactions, and he will refer you to the
physicist for an answer. Ask the biologist concerning the processes of
the living tissues which he studies, and he will be apt to tell you that
they are but complicated chemical reactions; and the psychologist, if
his opinion be asked, will likely say that the subject matter of his
study is the most complicated kind of physiology. The psychologist
leans upon the biologist, the biologist upon the chemist, and the chem-
ist in turn upon the physicist; but between the physicist and Nature
there is no intermediary.
It is the task of the physicist to learn what he can about the funda-
mentals of Nature, matter and energy and their reactions, which as
they rise in complexity form the subject for the study successively
of the chemist, the physiologist, and the psychologist. Nor does the
engineer, the geologist or the astronomer make use of any principles
which may be called distinctively his own; all these merely apply the
fundamental principles of physics or chemistry on a large scale. The
physicist is, in the best sense of the word, a scientific fundamentalist.
If therefore there comes about any change in basic scientific concepts
it is the physicist in the front line who first feels the shock.
Now it happens that much of the new and strange in modern phys-
ical theory is bound up with two very fundamental concepts—matter
76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
and the atom. In particular, it is noteworthy that a large majority
of the published physical work for the last twenty years has been
directly or indirectly connected with atomic theory. In this connec-
tion there comes to mind the exhortation of President John Adams
to the chemists of his day:
‘‘Chymists! pursue your experiments with indefatigable ardour and per-
severance. Give us the best possible Bread, Butter and Cheese, Wine, Beer
and Cider, Houses, Ships and Steamboats, Gardens, Orchards, Fields, not
to mention Clothiers or Cooks. If your investigations lead accidentally to
any deep discovery, rejoice and cry “‘ Eureka!’’ But never institute any ex-
periment with a view or hope of discovering the smallest particles of Mat-
ters.”
Is it the old story of Eden? Have we physicists eaten of the for-
bidden fruit of the tree of knowledge, and are we now suffering the
consequences? However this may be, we will maintain, despite all
accusations to the contrary, that our plight is not to be ascribed to
original sin or to total depravity, but that the changes in fundamental
concepts that are causing all the stir have been forced upon us as the
logical result of approved methods of scientific study. And so com-
pelling have been the reasons for these changes that there seems to
be no more turning back possible for us than for our traditional first
parents. We are thrust out of Paradise into contact with the bare
world of Nature, and whether we like it or not we must somehow ad-
just ourselves to the new order of things. Concepts as old as human
thinking are gone forever. Strange substitutes are replacing them, and
until their novelty wears off it is inevitable that science should for the
time appear as romance.
Would that it might ever remain so! But this is too much to expect.
The thing that has been is that which shall be. Through familiarity
we shall in time adjust ourselves to these new concepts as we have
done to the telephone and more lately to the radio, once things of
wonder, illumined by the halo of romance, but now mere common-
places of our daily existence, matters of bargain and sale, at times
even degenerating into nuisances and provocations to profanity.
The roots of the present revolution (or evolution) may be traced
back for two centuries. The student of the history of science can dis-
cern during this period a certain trend of thought of which our present
plight is but the logical outcome. This trend may be described as a
steady drift away from materialism in our physical concepts.
The natural philosophers of the 18th century followed ancient tra-
dition in explaining everything in terms of matter, which was re-
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 HEYL: ROMANCE OR SCIENCE? Fatt
garded as a sine qua non, a basic concept without which physical
thought would be impossible. Heat, in the 18th century, was a form
of matter called caloric, which differed from ordinary matter in being
unweighable, and which could be soaked up by ordinary matter like
water in a sponge. Light was another imponderable in the form of
very minute corpuscles. Electricity and magnetism were held to be
manifestations respectively of the electric and magnetic fluids. Added
to these was another imponderable called phlogiston, which was sup-
posed to account for the phenomena of combustion. These five im-
ponderables together with ordinary matter formed the stock in trade
of 18th century physics.
The physical science of that period was a rather loose and dis-
jointed affair, consisting mainly of uncorrelated facts about these six
supposed entities. But within this chaos there was working the leaven
of a principle stated by Newton in his “Principia” as the first of four
“Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy”’: ‘‘We are to admit no more
causes of natural things, than such as are both true and sufficient to
explain their appearances. To this purpose the philosophers say, that
Nature does nothing in vain, and more is in vain, when less will serve;
for Nature is pleas’d with simplicity, and affects not the pomp of
superfluous causes.”’
In this Newton was but repeating a rule of philosophy laid down
three centuries earlier by one of the medieval schoolmen, William of
Occam: “Essentials are not to be multiplied beyond necessity.” This
in its Latin form was a famous saying in the Middle Ages, and was
known as “Occam’s Razor.”’ In modern parlance it would probably
be called a pruning knife. In obedience to this principle the 19th cen-
tury reduced these six essentials to three, and the 20th century went
still further.
It is to be noticed that all the fundamental concepts of 18th cen-
tury physics were regarded as material, whether they were weighable
or not. The 19th century retained the concept of ordinary ponderable
matter but did away with the imponderables, replacing them by two
new concepts, distinctly immaterial in their nature—energy and
ether. Light now became a vibration of the ether; heat was regarded,
according to circumstances, either as an ethereal vibration like light
(radiant heat), or as a mode of motion of the molecules of matter; and
according to a text book of the period electrical phenomena were to
be explained either as ether stress or ether flow, while magnetism was
a matter of ether vortices. Thus at the end of the 19th century matter
had been dethroned as sole monarch, but had been given a place as
78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
a member of a triumvirate—matter, energy and ether—to which
were entrusted all the affairs of the universe.
It remained only to take the final step, which was done in the
twentieth century. Up to this time the application of Occam’s razor
to scientific philosophy had been universally approved as conducive
to economy of thought and general solidification of theory. But when
Einstein pointed out that the concept of matter was not an inde-
pendent necessity, but could be merged with that of energy, the razor
began to cut deep enough to hurt.
Einstein’s argument was a strong one, for he showed clearly, and
without any reference to relativity, that we must either regard matter
as a form of energy or else disregard the experimental evidence for
light pressure and also abandon Newton’s laws of motion. As the lat-
ter alternative was more painful than the first, physical theory ac-
cepted the new cut of Occam’s razor, eliminating the traditional
concept of matter.
With the disappearance of matter as a basic entity the funda-
-mentals of physics can best be described as disembodied ghosts mas-
querading under mathematical formulas.
“Hindsight is better than foresight.”’ We could hardly expect this
crash to have been foreseen, yet it is now clear that the concept of
matter was doomed from the time that the trend set in against it.
The progress of human thought is like that of some mighty glacier,
slow but irresistible.
The atom has always been a subject of interest to physicists and
many speculations as to its nature have been advanced. When matter
was an unquestioned axiom the atom was explained on a material
basis. Newton says in his “‘Opticks”’:
‘‘ All things considered, it seems probable to me that God in the beginning
formed matter in solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles, of
such sizes, figures and with such other properties, and in such proportion in
space as most conduced to the end for which he formed them, and that
these primitive particles being solids, are incomparably harder than any
porous bodies compounded of them; even so very hard as never to wear or
break to pieces; no ordinary power being able to divide what God himself
made one in the first creation.”
With the growth of the concept of the ether there was a parallel
tendency to explain atoms as ethereal phenomena. Kelvin suggested
that an atom might be a vortex ring in the ether, something like a
smoke ring in air. With the merging of matter into energy the difh-
culty of explaining the nature of the atom increased greatly, yet the
interest in the subject has shown no sign of diminution.
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 HEYL: ROMANCE OR SCIENCE? 79
Twentieth century experiment indicates that the atom is built up
in some way of positive and negative charges of electricity. The pres-.
ent tendency is to regard the atom as electrical in its essence without
committing ourselves to any definite hypothesis as to the nature of
electricity. This electrical structure has taken several forms. Bohr’s
“solar system” model of the atom has “had its day and ceased to be.”
As far as our present ideas are capable of non-mathematical expres-
sion, the atom is to be considered as a collection of probabilities that
an electric charge will be found here or there at points in a definite
space pattern.
Nebulous and hazy as are our present ideas of the atom, it is evi-
dent that this condition is but a corollary to the parallel change that
has taken place in our concept of matter, for if we have no clear idea
of the whole how can we know more about its parts? We have seen
that this change has come as the consequence of an attempt to apply
the principle of simplicity and economy in thought as laid down by
Occam and Newton. We physicists submit therefore that as far as
matter and the atom are concerned the present state of physical the-
ory is not our fault, but is the result of attempting to apply to our
subject the most approved rule of philosophy.
The second editorial which I have quoted raises a new question.
The bewilderment of the editorial mind is caused here by the bizarre
results obtained from mathematical formulas. Here again we may
disregard the disagreement of doctors and focus attention on the point
of basic importance.
We physicists have used mathematics freely since the time of New-
ton and the results obtained have until lately always been regarded
as regular and orthodox. It is only in the twentieth century that our
mathematical conclusions have begun to appear fantastic.
The reason for this is not far to seek. There has been introduced
into mathematical physics a body of doctrine which while familiar
to mathematicians for upwards of a century had never been taken
seriously by physicists prior to Einstein. I refer to the geometry of
curved space and of space of more than three dimensions.
Perhaps nothing could be more transcendental and inconceivable
than this hypergeometry, but mere inconceivability has never both-
ered mathematicians; nothing but inconsistency can do that. And it
is a fact that once we admit the fundamental postulate of a fourth
dimension it becomes possible to build up a hypergeometry as logical
and consistent as that of Euclid.
The introduction of these novel concepts into physics has not taken
80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
place without a struggle. Much of the opposition disappears, how-
ever, when one realizes that Einstein did not propose these hypothe-
ses as physical facts, but merely as a sufficient, though not necessary,
mathematical description of certain phenomena. He himself regards
this child of his brain quite sanely. ‘‘No amount of experimentation,”
he is reported to have said, ‘“‘can ever prove me right. A single experi-
ment may at any time prove me wrong.’ Yet the theory of relativity
has gradually gained a hearing and a growing acceptance because of
performance, by its ability to do things a little better than was pos-
sible before. Though its conclusions often appear strange, some of
them have been experimentally verified, and as a result we have added
to our stock two new phenomena—the deflection of light rays passing
close to the sun and the shift of the Fraunhofer lines in an intense
gravitational field. With these practical results to support us, I think
we may maintain that hypergeometry and the theory of relativity
have justified their provisional acceptance as working tools, no mat-
ter how romantic their conclusions. Even the concept of an expanding
-universe may yet be experimentally verified. Things equally strange
have happened.
We may now consider another possible item in the indictment
against us, one of which we shall have to accuse ourselves, as it ap-
parently had not yet reached the editorial mind. Physicists them-
selves have been much concerned over an attack by certain of their
own number upon nothing less than the law of cause and effect. It is
truly remarkable that such an attack should have come not from the
anti-scientific but from the high priests of science themselves.
This latest skepticism concerns itself with the behavior of the elec-
trons. The phenomena exhibited by these minute bodies have always
been in some respects puzzling and incalculable, but scientific thought
has been steadily optimistic, confidently awaiting the ultimate solu-
tion. The essence of the new view is that the behavior of an electron
is incalculable, not because the problem is as yet too complicated for
us, but because, to state it baldly, the actions of individual electrons
are not governed by the ordinary law of cause and effect. The new
philosophy recognizes that where an individual electron may be at
this moment is a matter of observation, more or less imperfect; it ad-
mits that where the electron has been in the past is a matter of his-
tory; but it asserts that where it will be in the future is a matter not
for definite prediction but only of statistical probability.
This doctrine appears to strike at the root of all law and order, and
yet, curiously enough, its protagonists recognize the existence of a
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 HEYL: ROMANCE OR SCIENCE? 81
kind of law on the large scale, but deny that it extends to individual
units. The new philosophy is not such a complete reversion to primi-
tive type as might be hastily concluded.
Perhaps the best illustration that we can give of this new thought
is one based upon the behavior of units large enough to be familiar if
not altogether comprehensible—human individuals.
The behavior of any individual under given conditions is, rigidly
speaking, unpredictable. For your belief that I will react in a certain
way to my environment you have nothing but a probability, perhaps
a very high one, amounting to what you may consider practical cer-
tainty, but never more than a probability. No one can say with ab-
solute certainty that I will not, let us say, steal money during the
coming year. It may be in the highest degree unlikely that I will, so
unlikely that you may consider it insulting to harbor any suspicion
of me, yet experience shows that occasionally an ordinarily well-
behaved man may do a most unexpected thing. While no one can say
definitely just what you or I or he or she will do, yet with several
millions of such individuals to serve as a basis for prediction it is pos-
sible to estimate just how many of them will depart from rectitude
during the next year and how much money will be involved in the
total sum. Such is the accuracy of this prediction that bonding com-
panies risk their capital on it year after year, and make money. In-
dividually, man is more or less of an enigma; in the mass he is a mathe-
matical problem. |
Something very like this is the latest turn of scientific thinking. It
asserts that the future behavior of a single electron is incalculable.
We can not tell whether it will turn to the left or to the right, whether
its velocity will be accelerated or retarded. All that we can say is that
there is a certain percentage probability of any particular behavior,
and that such a prediction is always verified by the result when a
sufficiently large number of electrons is taken into consideration. In
the electronic realm there is no individual causal certainty. Instead
there is something which in a conscious organism we would call ca-
price. Dirac even uses the term “‘the free will of Nature.’’ Yet as we
pass from the individual to the crowd certain laws begin to appear,
but they are no longer causal laws; they are only laws of probability.
There is a certain measure of experimental support for this position.
The evidence is rather involved, and is circumstantial and cumulative
rather than direct and specific, but this is not a fatal objection. And
there is an imposing array of authority which has accepted this evi-
dence—Bohr, Heisenberg, Dirac, Jordan, Born, Eddington, Bridg-
82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
man, and others. The situation has been well summed up by de Brog-
lie in one of his essays from which I quote the following sentences.
‘‘Causal laws replaced by laws of probability, physical individuals well
localized and of well defined movement replaced by physical individualities
which refuse to let themselves be simply represented and can never be more
than half described: such are the surprising consequences of the new theories.
In digging under these laws of probability, shall we succeed in re-finding
causal laws as we have found recently behind the statistical laws of gases the
causal laws of the movement of molecules? Certain arguments would lead to
this belief, but it would be indeed imprudent to assert it.
What we have said suffices, we think, to show the importance of the
change in the point of view which has recently taken place in physics. What-
ever may be the final fate reserved for these new doctrines it is of infinite
interest to philosophers that physicists have been led, even though but for
the moment, to doubt the determinism of physical phenomena and to question
the possibility of describing them in a complete fashion within the frame of
space and time.”
Perhaps it would be well now to pause, to catch our breath and see
where we stand, if indeed we have anything left to stand on. Well
may we echo the dismayed queries of Macbeth and Banquo after the
~ disappearance of the three weird sisters:
“The earth hath bubbles, as the water has,
And these are of them. Whither are they vanish’d?”
“Into the air; and what seem’d corporal melted
: As breath into the wind. Would they had stayed!”
‘“Were such things here as we do speak about
Or have we eaten of the insane root
That takes the reason prisoner?”
I think that we may feel safe as to the answer to the last question.
The reassuring thing about all these new and strange theories is that
they work. By means of them we are able to cut a little more closely
to the line than was possible under the old regime. Practical physics
was never more satisfactory; theoretical physics never less so.
This divergence between theory and practice is not to be under-
stood as meaning that practice is being divorced from theory to its
own advantage. On the contrary, there never was a time when prac-
tice was more closely dependent upon theory than today. New re-
searches are almost invariably suggested by theory, and their results
in a reasonable number of cases are confirmative of the theoretical
prediction. Never was theory more fruitful. If we were totally on the
wrong track, would Nature give us the abundant encouragement that
she does? ‘‘By their fruits ye shall know them.”’
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 BOWEN: PYROXENE CRYSTALS FROM SLAG 83
The difficulty with modern physical theory is not a lack of con-
sistency; that mathematical requirement it possesses in abundance.
It is the elusive and unreal nature of its fundamental concepts that
gives us pause. But who are we that we should reproach Nature with
being unreal? Perhaps the fault lies in our definition of reality, and of
that Nature herself is the final and supreme judge. Guided by her
answers to a century of experimental question, we have drifted stead-
ily away from the material toward the immaterial in our fundamental
concepts. If as a consequence science assumes an aspect of romance,
perhaps this is because for the first time in the history of human
thinking we have come close enough to reality to catch a glimpse of
it. The picture is very different from that to which tradition has ac-
customed us, but so thought the contemporaries of Columbus and
those of Galileo. And if the more closely we study Nature the more
romantic she appears, perhaps we are but rediscovering something
which the poets have always known and have not hesitated to utter.
‘‘ And like the baseless fabric of this vision,
The cloud-capp’d towers, the gorgeous palaces,
The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve
And, like this insubstantial pageant faded,
Leave not a rack behind. We are such stuff
As dreams are made on, and our little life
Is rounded with a sleep.”
Romance or science—which shall we call it? It matters little once
we have been granted the vision to see that the two are not only con-
sistent but inseparable.
MINERALOGY .—Crystals of iron-rich pyroxene from a slag... N. L.
BowEn, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington.
INTRODUCTION
In 1928 Dr. A. L. Day received from Mr. Oliver C. Ralston some
specimens of a crystallized product formed in a slag during the cooling
of a reverberatory furnace of the United Verde Copper Company,
Clarkdale, Arizona. In his accompanying letter Mr. Ralston stated
his opinion that the crystals would prove to be a high iron pyroxene,
which opinion was entirely correct. At the time of their receipt the
crystalline masses were turned over to the writer, but, aside from
verifying their general character, no detailed study was made of them.
1 Received October 7, 1932.
84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
Since then a study of the system, CaO-FeO-Si0O., has been com-
pleted? and pyroxenes of a like character found to form in mixtures
belonging to that system. This fact led to a re-examination of the well
crystallized slag material, the results of which seem worthy of record
since they extend our knowledge of the crystallographic and optical
properties of the pyroxenes to compositions richer in iron than any
hitherto observed.
GENERAL CHARACTER OF MATERIAL
The masses consist of interlocking platy crystals of pyroxene from
the interstices of which any excess slag that may have been present
during their formation has drained away. Into the resulting vug-like
spaces protrude euhedral crystals of pyroxene suitable for goniomet-
ric and optical measurements.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
The crystals are always tabular parallel to b (010), invariably show
_m (110) and o (221), and usually no other forms. On the 8 crystals
measured two other forms were observed, s (111) occurring on two of
them and z (021) on one of them. Reflection signals from the faces
were fair to good. The crystals are:
Monoclinic a:b:c =1.0786:1:0.5828
floes
Observed and calculated interfacial angles are given in Table 1.
TABLE 1
OBSERVED AND CALCULATED INTERFACIAL ANGLES OF PYROXENE CRYSTALS
MONOCLINIC a:b:c=1.0786:1:0.5828
(5 =F Be
Observed Calculated
b:m (010): (110) *44° 20’ =
bis LO) G1) *GO> 17 a
m:s @10)3@iy *60° 28’ =
b:o (010) : (221) 47° 19’ AG Age
mo (110) : (221) 35° 53’ 36° 177
M:0O GO} 2219) 80° 54’ Sic ae
biz (010) : (021) 42° 8! 42° 7!
[b m]:[b of byl Eyl come ad
? TInterzonal angle measured on the stage of the microscope.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
The plane of the optic axes is parallel to 010 and the extinction
angle (c Ay) = +36°. The refractive indices measured in immersion
2 Bowen, Schairer, and Posnjak (soon to be published).
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 BOWEN: PYROXENE CRYSTALS FROM SLAG 85
liquids under the microscope are y = 1.785, a =1.745 + .003. The optic
axial angle is small, +2V =20—25°. The prismatic cleavage is perfect
and the extinction on cleavage plates is 28°. Pleochroism is notable,
y =green, 8 =amber, a=smoky brown.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
The crystals of pyroxene contain abundant opaque inclusions.
Some of these are fairly large and recognizable as dodecahedra of
magnetite. Others appear as a mere dust which is, in part at least, a
sulphide. The larger crystals can be separated, but when this is done
the pyroxenic residue with its fine inclusions is still a rather un-
promising material for analysis.
It is probable, therefore, that analysis of separated material would
add little to the knowledge of the composition of the pyroxene already
available in the form of a bulk analysis furnished by Mr. Ralston.
The analysis is shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2
ButkK ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL SELECTED BY Mr. RALSTON
Per cent
Oy ree sree harh. gd ericsige Bad ral ME EERE eile ariet lo ws 0.2
Sr go willy ie BS” ae a Selle te SLOP neck TO ee a ae 39.3
MAO) s cad Sateen a ees I ate A ee Ian one ES NP el ee ca 4.8
Hie OceM a e age rlita late Rett, Pe a a ee Na ae 43.4
TAR Rs Se iced Me Wet et ee eaten wid Wek Boh
Oe ON re eh Se oe cys eR te sae tend Mee eles Del
NUD) 6. 0d d.0 ceksue SY Ge clue cv ne Recta aD Rr ene RARE Ne nr ene a 3.3
Sc o6'S a Bigs. aan IRE et aa as tcgck Pama ATI Se IWR Or oe SU eto ap isl
98.3
@ All iron expressed as FeO.
We do not, of course, acquire an accurate knowledge of the com-
position of the pyroxene from this information but, knowing that
there is only one silicate present whose silica ratio must be approxi-
mately that of a metasilicate, and that magnetite is the principal
impurity, we may recalculate the analysis with the result given in
Table 3.
TABLE 3
RECOMPUTED ANALYSIS OF SELECTED MATERIAL
Per cent
JPEISHO)e 5 end 0 Sato Ne peseh Seige ne ear ge ene ee a 69.3
CaSi0; 5 0-D°O4D QUO) 0l-5N0 Gado, JOG 20) 07 Or) O-d 20 AgNO; O cmDT bo cot Geldaaetion o. Gule (GA ¢/
DVIS SO seer men NUN re te lc AS ms Wey Ui A ee 8.2
INA oo SAE Bese Rare ARAN ote gee CO a ea 4.8
Fe;O, Ue EMS Mech cy Sila) Foe felicia or catstrocteh coll elian iauies eval is Ueber ie) ere lant eh wuae a cols 5) 4
86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
Only a little Zn is thus left unaccounted for. It may enter into the
pyroxene to some extent. The Al,.O; may be largely in the pyroxene,
which may also contain some Fe,0;. Recognizing these elements of
uncertainty we may yet say that the pyroxene does not depart greatly
FeS/Q3
60
Hedenbergite
Ce S/OQ3 LDiropside MES/Q5
Figure 1.—Plot showing the composition of four pyroxenes of small optic axial
angle.
1. Synthetic pyroxene 2V =0°. y =1.670. Bowen, Op. cit., p: 252.
2. Pyroxene from Féglé, Aland Islands 2V =15—20°. y =1.711. Wahl, Op. cit., p. 16.
3. Pyroxene from Mull 2V =0°. y=1.744. Hallimond, A. F., Min. Mag. vol. 17,
p. 17,1914:
4, Present slag pyroxene 2V =20—25°. y =1.785.
from a composition represented by the three metasilicate molecules
at the head of the list. These, made up to 100, and rounded off to the
nearest integer, give a composition FeSiO; 82 per cent, CaSiO; 8 per
cent, MgSiO; 10 per cent. We may thus be sure that the pyroxene
carries in the neighborhood of 80 per cent FeSiOs.
The indicated content of FeSiO; far surpasses that yet found in any
natural pyroxene and apparently in any slag pyroxene as well. The
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 BOWEN: VOGTITE 87
measured high values of the refractive indices are in accord with this
fact. ,
SYSTEMATIC RELATIONS
The pyroxenes of low optic axial angle and their chemical relation
to the other pyroxenes have been of considerable interest ever since
their discovery by Winchell’ and the demonstration by Wahl of their
widespread occurrence in certain types of rocks. The present example
extends our knowledge of them to a composition region hitherto un-
known, a fact brought out in Fig. 1, which shows the relation to other
pyroxenes of low optic axial angle. A straight line joining the com-
position of the synthetic pyroxene’ (No. 1) with the point indicating
the Mull pyroxene (No. 3) leaves the points for the other two pyrox-
enes (Nos. 2 and 4) only a short distance to the left, which is in ac-
cord with their very small optic axial angles and the position of the
axial plane//010. Pyroxenes with compositions lying to the right of
the line have the axial plane L010. The position of the line of zero
optic axial angle is necessarily only a first approximation since in
plotting all the pyroxenes except No. 1 it has been necessary to neg-
lect minor constituent molecules.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thanks are due Mr. Ralston for sending us this interesting material.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY .—Vogtite, isomorphous with wollastonite.?
N. L. Bowrn, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of
Washington. 7
GENERAL CHARACTER OF VOGTITE
Under the name, vogtite, Hlawatsch in 1906 described some tri-
clinic crystals obtained from a slag of unknown origin. Their compo-
sition was not determined but they appeared to correspond with
crystals of the (Mg, Fe, Mn) S10; series whose existence had been
pointed out by Vogt, and to this series they were consequently re-
ferred.” Hlawatsch’s crystals were well developed and he was able to
3 Winchell, A. N., Amer. Geol., vol. 26, p. 199, 1900.
4 Wahl, W., Tsch. Min. petr. Mitteil., vol. 26, pp. 1-131, 1907.
> Bowen, N. L., Amer. Jour. Sci., vol. 38, pp. 245-254, 1914.
1 Received October 11, 1932.
2 Hlawatsch, C., Z. Kryst., vol. 42, p. 590, 1906.
88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
determine their angular constants. He referred them to a system of
axial elements as follows:
a7b2é6=O05s182621 253s
a=93°26'30"",) B=103 59927 7 —s5 oto
In 1919 Hallimond described similar material from the slag of an
acid hearth steel furnace.’ His crystals were analyzed (by J. H. White-
ley) with the result given in Table 1.
TABLE 1.—ANALysIs oF HALLIMOND’S VOGTITE
Slag crystals mols.
Sis eed enc eee. cei me ees 47.4 0.790
VANS Oe See Se eRe dee 0.15
Hes Omea 5 uae ee Le seu 7a
He Oe otis nh tionary deere 15.95 eu
Wii) oat te ee ee ee ey ee 12.95 . 182
CAO re ee otic ee Meteors Cee Ser ae RG) enn . 270
INTO) he ee tee ten, a ee 5.26 oor
ir @ Papen Ne Mee tela pin ks Senha Sa ote. Pr oes 0.10
99.61
The composition is not far from that of a metasilicate. The general
formula may be written (Ca, Fe, Mn, Mg) Si0; in which Ca exceeds
any one of the constituents in brackets with it but is very much in
the minority as compared with the sum of these others.
Hallimond found his crystals to have essentially the same angles
as those measured by Hlawatsch and gives a table showing their cor-
respondence. Nevertheless, he chose a different orientation and re-
ferred them to the following system of axial elements:
a:b:¢ =1.093:1:0.729
o=99°37.,) 8 —99 21 Vi Sa.08"
Hallimond’s stereographic projection plot can be brought into co-
incidence with Hlawatsch’s by simple revolution combined with a re-
versal; in other words, it refers to the opposite end of a crystal. Now
if the Hlawatsch-Hallimond projection thus obtained is compared
with the projection of wollastonite having its 6 axis in the pole of the
projection, a remarkable agreement is found. All of the forms of vogt-
ite show near coincidence with known or possible forms of wollas-
tonite. The correspondence of faces in the ortho-zone of wollastonite
with faces of the prism zone of vogtite is practically perfect. Of forms
belonging to other zones e (Hlawatsch) and p (Hallimond) nearly
coincide with (142) of wollastonite, d (Hlawatsch) with (142) of wol-
3 Hallimond, A. F., Min: Mag., vol. 18; p. 368, 1919.
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 BOWEN: VOGTITE 89
astonite and 7 (Hallimond) with (342) of wollastonite. The forms
(142) and (142) of wollastonite have been observed only on crystals
from Crestmore, California.t The form (342) has apparently not been
observed on wollastonite.
The general correspondence of forms being thus qualitatively de-
termined with the aid of a projection, the actual degree of correspond-
ence is best shown by comparison of the numerical values of interfacial
angles. This is done in Table 2. The angles given for vogtite are those
TABLE 2
RELATION OF ForMS OF VOGTITE TO THOSE OF WOLLASTONITE
Forms Angles
ai es Gah ea) Wollastonite pikes (ahessad) Wollastonite
a (100) m (110) a (100) Gein Sy IO’ i gaea OF NO ese 50? 25/7
m (110)¢ a (100) E (IO e a:M 44° 22’ | m:b 44° 34’ | a:v 44° 27’
t (120)2 | n (310) a (102)¢ || m:M 94° 41’ | a:b 94°45’ | t:0 94° 52’
b (010)2 | M (110) c (001) OE) OE BO wail Os ile | ase Oa a0”
M (110)2 b (010) v (101) as5 OOP SI | Team CO" Be | Gee Gr wo"
d (011) x e (142) a:d 80° 10’ a Gee 80229)
e (011) | p’ (011) w (142) b:d 64° 47’ aes exe 640157
== =e — OBO US 2I'\ Tos TS SO. Gee «Css
ae cal = b:e 61° 34’ —s Ose. C2 TUL
=== l (101) — (342) = m:l 59° 39’ | a:342 58° 367’
_ — — “= a:l 50° 41” | #:342 50° 40’
@ Cleavage forms. m (Hlawatsch) doubtful.
found by Hlawatsch and by Hallimond. Wollastonite angles are, for
the most part, taken directly from tables of interfacial angles in
Dana’s System. Those referring to the recently discovered wollas-
tonite forms (142) and (142) are calculated from their ¢ and p values
as given by Eakle. Those referring to the undiscovered wollastonite
form (342) are calculated from the axial elements as given in Dana.
Little comment upon the table is necessary. It may be noted,
however, that of the four cleavages of wollastonite, all in one zone,
the two best were found in vogtite by Hallimond, and three of the
cleavages found by Hlawatsch correspond with three of wollastonite,
but the fourth Hlawatsch cleavage, although in the same zone, does
not appear to correspond with the fourth wollastonite cleavage, which
is the very best. It is possible that in his thin-tabular crystals the
existence of a cleavage parallel to the tabular face may have been
overlooked. However this may be, the remarkable agreement of vogt-
ite with wollastonite cannot be gainsaid.
4 Hakle, A. S., Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. California, vol. 10, pp. 336-338, 1917.
90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
ORIENTATION OF VOGTITE
All of this suggests that vogtite might be referred to a set of axial
elements nearly identical with those conventionally assigned to wol-
lastonite and be regarded as monoclinic. But vogtite is definitely
triclinic as shown by the relation of the optical indicatrix to erystal-
lographic directions. Moreover, wollastonite, hitherto regarded as
monoclinic, has been shown by recent X-ray investigation to be of
triclinic structure.
The study is by Warren and Biscoe, who say:
‘“‘ Altho wollastonite and pectolite are definitely triclinic they have a
most unusual and pronounced pseudo-monoclinic symmetry. The angle
y is such that the 410 direction, which has always been taken as the di-
rection of the ‘a’ axis, seems to make exactly 90° with the ‘b’ axis. What
is even more striking is the fact that on the complete set of ‘b’ axis oscil-
lation photographs all the spots on the even layer lines show perfect
monoclinic symmetry, both as regards position and intensity of spots.
This means that altho wollastonite and pectolite are triclinic, if the lattice
were translated by an amount b/2 and superimposed upon itself the re-
sulting configuration would have true monoclinic symmetry.’”®
The unit cell has dimensions which yield the axial elements:
a:b:¢ =1.083:1:0.967
a—90", p=95 lo. ys 2oy
In view of the near identity of the interfacial angles of vogtite and
wollastonite the axial elements for vogtite will obviously be nearly the
same, and it is somewhat superfluous to calculate them. Nevertheless,
this has been done, with the following result:
a7b:¢=1.076-1-0 9643
a—90°43" 6=95 10> 7—l03 co.
In considering the position of the observed vogtite faces in this
structure it is of interest to note the relation between the new and
the old ratios for wollastonite. The commonly accepted constants re-
ferring it to monoclinic symmetry are
ab 2c =1.05312120.9676, 6 — S430" (Ga7a0)
In the new constants (already given) it will be seen that there is no
change in the relative lengths of the b and c axes or in their rectangu-
lar relation to each other. The only change is in the a axis which is no
longer perpendicular to 6 and is lengthened in accordance with its in-
clination of 13°25’ from that position. In virtue of this change the
face with the symbol 140 referred to the old axes now becomes the
pinacoid 6 010. Likewise the observed vogtite faces, referred to the
fundamental structure (new wollastonite axes), have their symbols
> Warren, B. E., and Biscoe, J., Z. Krist., vol. 80, p. 401, 1931.
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 BOWEN: VOGTITE 91
notably simplified as compared with their symbols referred to the
old wollastonite axes. The vogtite face which was found to correspond
with 142 of wollastonite (old axes) now becomes 021, that correspond-
ing with 142 (old) of wollastonite becomes 021 and that having the
position of the unobserved 342 (old) face of wollastonite becomes 221.
FACE DEVELOPMENT IN WOLLASTONITE
The clinopinacoid 010 (old) has been observed only doubtfully on
one occasion in wollastonite crystals. This fact, in itself, rather sug-
gests a lack of agreement of the crystal lattice with the conventional
axes, but the same reasoning would lead one to expect that the 140
(old) face should be very common since it is structurally the pinacoid
010 (new axes). In point of fact it was not until the measurement of
crystals from Crestmore, California in 1917 that faces of that form
were discovered. On these it is the most prominent “prism.” The
crystals are unusual in other respects. They exhibit no prisms bearing
a simple relation to the conventional wollastonite axes, but do show
the series 140, 340, 540, 740, and Eakle comments on the odd series
of symbols. When these forms are referred to the new axes the sym-
bols are transformed as follows, each monoclinic prism giving rise, of
course, to two triclinic forms, 140=010, 140=120, 340 =120,
340 =110, 540 =110, 540 = 320, 740 =320, 740 =210. The simplifica-
tion of indices which results indicates a preference for the new axes
on purely crystallographic grounds. In addition the Crestmore crys-
tals are triclinic in aspect. On this point Eakle says: ‘‘Only one end of
the crystals is terminated, sometimes the right and again the left end.
The disposition of the faces indicates a lower grade of symmetry as
there is no apparent axis of symmetry and the crystals could belong
to the hemimorphic class of the monoclinic system, or to the triclinic
system.”’ But when all of this has been said it still is to be remem-
bered that the Crestmore crystals are exceptional, and the remarkable
fact remains that crystals of wollastonite, as described from other
localities, have always furnished adequate justification for referring
them to the monoclinic system and to the accepted system of axes.
Prisms having simple indices referred to these axes are very common
in wollastonite. In this respect the related pectolite is more straight-
forward. It shows the prisms 140, 340, 540, and none other. They
have, as noted above, much simpler indices referred to the new axes.
POSITION OF THE OPTICAL INDICATRIX
Another remarkable feature of wollastonite is the fact that the b
axis, which has always appeared to be an axis of symmetry, should
92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
also appear to coincide with an axis of the optical ellipsoid. Ordinarily
this is a very satisfactory test of monoclinic symmetry, for, even in a
case where the angular departure of faces from such symmetry is too
small to detect, there is little reason to expect that the departure of
the optical ellipsoid from parallelism would also be very small. In
order to check previous observations on wollastonite some Crestmore
crystals’ were examined for parallelism of the extinction direction,
with the 6 axis, i.e., the zone of cleavages. The results appear to in-
dicate a slight extinction angle (1.5—-2°) in the section which shows
normal emergence of the acute bisectrix. The inclination of the ex-
tinction direction is not readily observed in this section in the ordi-
nary manner in parallel ight. The optic axial angle of wollastonite is
so small that the position of extinction is not sharply defined. The ob-
servation is perhaps best made in the interference figure in convergent
light. When the crystal is in the parallel position, with respect to the
planes of the nicols, the black cross is appreciably opened and a slight
revolution is necessary to produce a definite cross. In a section show-
ing normal emergence of an optic axis a similar effect is obtained. The
one end of the black bar is appreciably curved when the crystal is in
the parallel position and a slight revolution is required to obtain a
straight bar. In other positions in the ‘‘ortho” zone the extinction is
sensibly parallel.
These observations do not furnish absolutely convincing evidence
of inclined extinction in wollastonite, for anomalous optical behavior
resulting from various causes, such as strain, could produce this re-
sult. Nevertheless, they furnish adequate justification for urging that
mineralogists carefully observe these relations in wollastonite wher-
ever encountered.
In vogtite Hallimond found an extinction angle of 5° in a section
normal to the acute bisectrix and parallel extinction in a section nor-
mal to the obtuse bisectrix.?7 Hlawatsch observed an extinction B Ab
of 9°-14°.8
SIGNIFICANCE OF ISOMORPHISM OF VOGTITE AND WOLLASTONITE
Whether the crystallographic similarity of wollastonite and vogtite
indicates a solid solution relation is a question that may now be
6 From the U. S. National Museum through the courtesy of Dr. W. F. Foshag who
also called my attention to Eakle’s description of them and their triclinic aspect.
’ Hallimond, A. F., Op. cit., p. 369.
8 Hlawatsch, C., Op. cit., p. 590.
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 BOWEN: VOGTITE: 93
raised. In view of the discovery that wollastonite is triclinic there is
no objection on the ground of a difference of crystal system. However,
an isomorphous relation does not necessarily indicate a solid solution
relation. We may recall only the case of CaCO; and CaMg(COs).
which are isomorphous, i.e. similar in forms and angles, but there is no
series of carbonates of intermediate composition. The relation be-
tween wollastonite and vogtite might be of a similar character.
In this connection it is desirable to note the recent studies of man-
ganese-bearing triclinic pyroxenes by Sundius. As a result of his pains-
taking study of bustamites Sundius concludes that they are simply
manganese-bearing wollastonites, i.e., wollastonite solid solutions.?®
Nothing is known of the crystallography of bustamite except the
cleavage angle, and Sundius’s conclusion is based on his demonstra-
tion that the observed variation in optical properties (including ori-
entation of indicatrix) of the known series of bustamites, when extrap-
olated to zero content of MnSiO3;, gives, sensibly, the properties of
wollastonite. Unfortunately the amount of extrapolation is some
three times the extension of the known series of bustamites. The ex-
istence of this wide gap in the supposed series rather weakens the con-
clusion, indeed bustamites cluster so closely around a 1:1 ratio of
CaSi0; to MnSiO; that one is led to wonder whether the relation be-
tween wollastonite and bustamite is not similar to that between cal-
cite and dolomite. Sundius attempts to explain the existence of the
hiatus with the aid of a subsidiary assumption regarding the charac-
ter of the equilibrium diagram which he regards as rendering unlikely
the formation of intermediate representatives of the series although
the full series really exists. The considerations that he raises in that
connection will not, however, bear critical examination, and the ex-
istence of the wide gap between wollastonite and bustamite remains
unexplained if bustamite really is a wollastonite. These objections to
certain aspects of Sundius’s reasoning are pointed out merely because
it is considered desirable that any weakness his conclusions may have
should be fully brought out. It is not with the plan in mind of offering
an opposed conclusion. On the contrary it is believed that Sundius
has almost certainly reached the correct conclusion when he states
that bustamite is merely a manganese-bearing wollastonite and that
all gradations of composition can exist. The reasons for this belief
come from purely collateral evidence. In a study of the system, CaQO-
FeO-SiO2, now completed’ it has been found that a continuous series
* Sundius, N., Am. Mineral., vol. 16, pp. 421-423, 1931.
10 By Bowen, Schairer, and Posnjak, soon to be published.
94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
of iron-bearing wollastonites is obtained; indeed, it was to prepare the
ground for a description of this series that the present paper discussing
related materials has been written. From this continuous series of
wollastonites bearing iron it is but a short step to the vogtites
bearing manganese as well as iron, and from these.again but another
step to bustamites with manganese predominating and iron unimpor-
tant. They are probably all just wollastonites.
The full evidence regarding the series of iron-bearing wollastonites
will be given in the paper detailing the equilibrium studies on the
system, CaO-FeO-SiO., and will include the evidence of optical prop-
erties and of X-ray diffraction spectra. The results obtained for vogt-
ite and bustamite by these methods will then be given for compari-
son.
SUMMARY
Vogtite is a silicate formed in slags and shown by Hallimond to
have the general formula (Ca, Fe, Mn, Mg) S103. In the Hallimond
example Ca exceeded any one of the other basic elements but was
very much less than their sum. Both Hlawatsch and Hallimond made
crystallographic studies and found the crystals to be triclinic. Their
measurements of interfacial angles agree, but Hallimond chose a dif-
ferent orientation from that previously chosen by Hlawatsch with
correspondence only in the position of the c axis (prism zone).
If vogtite is oriented in such a way that the prism zone corresponds
with the ortho-zone of wollastonite a remarkable agreement is found
in forms and angles of the two species. The extent of this agreement
is brought out in Table 2. Wollastonite itself, as a result of X-ray
studies, is now known to be triclinic and its new constants have been
determined. Vogtite is therefore to be referred to a similar system of
axes. The values are:
Wollastonite a:b:c =1.083:1:0.967, a=90°,
B= 95 ko y= 10de2o.
Vogtite a:b:c =1.076:1:0.964, a=90°43’,
SOM 5 = OR as
The isomorphism of wollastonite and vogtite is of interest in con-
nection with the problem of bustamite. Although isomorphism alone
does not necessitate the existence of solid solution there are the strong-
est reasons for believing that vogtite is simply a wollastonite solid
solution and the likelihood that bustamite is also a wollastonite, as
Sundius maintains, becomes very great.
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 ALICATA: CARDIANEMA, NEW NEMATODE GENUS 95
ZOOLOGY.—A new genus for the nematode Filaria cistudinis Leidy,
1856, of the family Filarvidae| JosepH E. Avicata, Bureau of
Animal Industry. (Communicated by BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ.)
The material on which the discussion of the nematodes described
in this paper is based, consists of a male and two females collected by
the writer from the heart cavities of a turtle, Terrapene carolina. The
host animal was captured in June, 1932, in the vicinity of Washing-
ton, D. C. The nematodes in question belong to the family Filariidae
Baird, 1853, emend. Claus, 1885, and to the subfamily Aproctinae
Yorke and Maplestone, 1926, and possess characters which differ
from those of any of the existing genera of the subfamily. They are
accordingly considered as constituting a new genus for which the
name Cardianema is proposed.
The filarids discussed in this paper are probably identical with the
species reported by Leidy (1856) as Filaria cistudinis from the heart
of the same species of turtle, Terrapene carolina, presumably col-
lected in Pennsylvania. Leidy’s description of the form reported by
him is as follows: “‘Filarta cistudinis. Body capillary, spirally involute,
attenuated at the extremities. Head and tail obtusely rounded. Mouth
unarmed. Anus terminal. Length 14 inches, breadth 3 of a line. One
specimen was obtained by Mr. Schafhirt from the heart of Cistudo
carolina.’ Although Leidy’s description is meager, the occurrence in
the same host and the same location, both in the eastern United
States, and the general appearance of the worms, which shows a simi-
larity between the form described by Leidy and those found by the
writer, indicate that the writer’s material is Filaria cistudinis. The
only detail in Leidy’s description which does not apply to the writer’s
specimens is the position of the anus. Leidy, as noted above, reports
the anus as terminal; the present writer finds that it is located some
distance from the tip of the tail. Because the anus of this parasite,
and of filarids generally, is inconspicuous and rather easily over-
looked, it is probable that Leidy actually overlooked the anus, and
that he mistook a cuticular structure or indentation for the anus. The
specific name proposed by Leidy for the turtle heart-filarid is retained
in this paper, the name of the species becoming Cardianema cistudinis
(Leidy, 1856).
The systematic position of the parasite is as follows:
Subfamily APpRocTINAE Yorke and Maplestone, 1926
Subfamily diagnosis.—Filariidae: Mouth simple, usually without lips;
1 Received October 5, 1932.
96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
cuticle smooth or with longitudinal or transverse striations; trident-like
structures on each side of anterior end of esophagus absent; vulva anterior,
or slightly posterior, to terminal portion of esophagus; spicules relatively
short, equal or subequal, and similar; anus usually not functional, sometimes
absent.
The position of the genus Cardianema in the subfamily Aproctinae and the
relationship of this genus to the other known genera of this subfamily are
shown in the following key:
KEY TO GENERA OF SUBFAMILY APROCTINAE
The genera included in this subfamily, with their distinguishing characters,
have been taken for the most part from Yorke and Maplestone’s (1926) key.
1. Anterior portion of spicules tubular and chitinous, posterior portion
twisted and membranous; parasites of circulatory system of turtles
eee ye i I mene Hee! Se PS Cardianema
Spicules not divided into tubular and membranous portions.......... 2
2. Males with caudal alae; parasites of muscles and tendons of legs of birds
ere re ee ne ey ee See Pelecitus
Males without caudal alaes)... 05... c.5 on. oe
3. Amphidelphie:. . 3.00.0. 263 0...5.4. 00 oo. 4
~~ Opistodelphic.. 225.0... lee ss ee OR eee 5
4, Mouth surrounded by a cuticular collar; parasites of subcutaneous tissue
Of; DIPAS ae. Chc ees og Fc en) ee eee Squamofilaria
Mouth simple, without a cuticular collar; parasites of body cavity of
birds oes ioe trai eae a Ob, See ee Chandlerella
5. Esophagus very narrow and transparent; parasites of subcutaneous tissue
Of TOPROS Ho Sakae oA papa Bh asia ea Lege ice Kufilaria
Esophagus of ordinary type..../.......02....55....0 ee 6
6. Posterior extremity of both sexes digitiform and prolonged considerably
beyond anus; parasites of subcutaneous connective tissue of geckos
gis bbe AGES LO ue: -Oue O Thamugadia
Posterior extremity of both sexes terminating very close to tip of tail. .7
7. Esophagus divided into a short anterior narrow portion, and a long pos-
terior wider portion; parasites of mesentery of lizards..... Saurositus
Esophagus not divided into two distinct portions................... 8
8. Gubernaculum absent; parasites of orbital and nasal cavities of birds
gh a. eaties CPSERING a re Sok Sat et be, Aine ait ee a Ce A procta
Gubernaculum present; parasites of birds; location unknown
SP re eet Arar nec eRe ORE ERM Sarr 3 2 og Pseudaprocta
Cardianema, new genus
Generic diagnosis.—Aproctinae: Long and slender worms, whitish in color,
loosely coiled, and attenuated toward extremities. Cuticle with fine longi-
tudinal striations. Mouth simple, elongated dorso-ventrally, surrounded by
4 pairs of submedian papillae and a pair of lateral papillae or amphids.
Esophagus simple, relatively long and slender. Male with slender, subequal
spicules, consisting of an anterior tubular portion and a posterior membra-
nous portion, the latter terminating in a spade-like tip. Caudal papillae
small and indistinct, consisting apparently of one pair of pre-anal and two
FEBRUARY 15, 1983 ALICATA: CARDIANEMA, NEW NEMATODE GENUS 97
pairs of post-anal papillae. Tail relatively long, bluntly rounded terminally,
and curved ventrally. Female vulva slightly posterior to terminal portion of
esophagus. Vagina in two parts, an anterior portion or true vagina, which is
short, wide and sac-like, and a posterior portion or uterine vagina, which is
tubular and slender for most of its length, but widens as it unites with two
parallel uteri. Uterus opistodelphic; worms ovoviviparous, uterus containing
eggs and larvae. Tail relatively long, bluntly rounded terminally, and curved
ventrally. Microfilariae sheathed and occurring in the blood.
The distinguishing features of the genus Cardianema are: The spicules are
not uniform in structure as are those of other genera of the subfamily; in
Cardianema each spicule is made up of three distinct parts, namely, a
straight, tubular, well chitinized proximal portion, followed by a trans-
parent, twisted membranous median portion, and a terminal spade-like pos-
terior portion. Of the genera of Aproctinae, six are parasites of birds, while
the two remaining genera, Saurositus and Thamugadia, each represented by
one species, are parasites of lizards. It should also be noted that Cardianema
is apparently the only member of the Aproctinae occurring in the circula-
tory system. The other members of the subfamily have been found in other
locations as shown in the key to the genera of Aproctinae.
CARDIANEMA CISTUDINIS (Leidy, 1856)
Specific diagnosis.—Cardianema: Characters of the genus. Worms slender,
filiform and loosely coiled. Head rounded, and provided with 4 pairs of sub-
median papillae and one pair of lateral papillae or amphids (Figs. 2 and 3).
Esophagus relatively long and slender (Fig. 1). Male (description based on
writer’s one specimen) 2.5 cm. long and 235u in maximum width near equa-
tor of body. Esophagus 873u long by 34u in maximum width. Nerve ring
159u from anterior extremity. Excretory pore not observed. Spicules (Figs.
6 and 7) subequal; right spicule 201 long, consisting of a chitinized proximal
tubular portion 117u long, a median membranous portion 53u long, and a
spade-like posterior tip 3l1u long; left spicule longer than right spicule, 221u
long, proximal tubular portion 129u long, membranous portion 72u long,
and spade-like tip, which is smaller than that of right spicule, 19u long.
Cloaca 86u from tip of tail; muscles surrounding cloaca prominent; papillae
surrounding cloaca small and indistinct; one pair of pre-anal and two pairs of
post-anal papillae observed. Tail directed ventrad (Fig. 7). Female (descrip-
tion based on writer’s two specimens) 2.7 to 3.2 em. long by 266 to 288u in
maximum width near middle of body. Esophagus 775 to 988u long and 42
to 534 in maximum width. Nerve ring 125 to 152u from anterior extremity.
Excretory pore not observed. Vulva (Figs. 1 and 5) opens just below ter-
minal portion of esophagus, 1.107 to 1.28 mm. from anterior end. According
to measurements of one specimen, true vagina (Fig. 5) short and sac-like,
150u long by 91lu wide; uterine vagina tubular, 2.2 mm. long, 45u wide at
junction with sac-like portion of true vagina, and widening to 144u at the
point where it joins the two uteri. Uteri contain eggs and larvae; eggs in
uteri oval, about 26u long and 11 to 15u wide. Two larvae in utero were 225u
long and 9u in maximum width, which corresponds approximately to size of
larvae found in blood. Anus small, 99u from tip of tail; muscles surrounding
anus prominent. Tail curved ventrad; tip bluntly rounded (Fig. 4).
98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
|
|
Cardianema cistudinis—1. Female, anterior portion (ventro-lateral view); 2. Fe-
male, anterior end (en face view); 3. Female, anterior end (ventral view); 4. Female,
posterior portion (lateral view); 5. Female, showing vulva, true-vagina, uterine vagina
and beginning of uteri; 6. Male, posterior portion (ventral view); 7. Male, posterior
portion (lateral view); 8. Microfilaria from the blood.
FEBRUARY 15, 1983 ALICATA: CARDIANEMA, NEW NEMATODE GENUS 99
Microfilariae from heart blood were stained with Wright’s stain. Smears
made by rubbing pieces of liver on slides revealed numerous ensheathed
microfilariae in blood of liver also. Two small, oval, pearly cysts, 740 to
780u long by 289 to 305u wide, found on the surface of the liver, were
opened with dissecting needles, and found to be tough connective tissue
cysts, 15u thick, each containing a microfilaria; this finding of microfilaria
in cysts appears to be unusual, but probably represents a defense reaction
of a customary sort, commonly invoked against other parasites and perhaps
invoked against microfilariae oftener than is supposed.
Microfilariae (Fig. 8) inclosed within a sheath which is considerably
longer than the worm it contains. Larvae, excluding sheath, 190 to 280u
long by 9 to 12u in maximum width. Anterior extremity bluntly rounded;
body more or less uniform in width up to a point slightly posterior to the
granular mass, tapering gradually from this point and terminating in a
somewhat short digitiform tail. The anterior extremity of the larva did not
take stain. Following a short area of a stained portion is the nerve ring which
appears as an obliquely unstained band extending across width of body, 42
to 65u from anterior extremity. So-called “‘V spot,” or excretory pore, opens
to outside 10 to 20u posterior to nerve ring; excretory cell just posterior to
excretory pore. Approximately at equator of body, 90 to 135yu from anterior
end, is beginning of so-called granular mass, a dark purple-stained area,
extending postequatorially 35 to 60u. Of what appear to be the genital cells
the first one is immediately posterior to granular mass, the second about 18yu
posterior to first cell, and the third and fourth cells arranged one behind the
TABLE 1. DIMENSIONS (IN MICRONS) AND PROPORTIONS OF SEVEN CARDIANEMA
CISTUDINIS LARVAE FROM THE BLOOD OF TERRAPENE CAROLINA
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(1) Length (without sheath)....| 190 200 210 220 240 268 280
@) Maximum width. ..:...... 9 9 11 11 11 fr? 12
(3) Distance from anterior ex-
tremity to nervering..... 42 45 45 48 EY 62 65
(4) Distance from nerve ring to
excretory Pore... ........ 10 10 15 15 15 20 20
Cayemenethvor tail 2. 32. 4-5... 14 20 20 23 23 23 28
(6) Percentage of body length
anterior to nerve ring..... Daal LOR stead 4 edo te Zoe d | Zomket 2a oz
(7) Percentage of body length
anterior to excretory pore.| 27.3 | 27.5 | 28.5 | 28.6 30 } 30.5 | 30.3
(8) Difference between (7) and
(EDN 2 So ls are a la 5 4 u (ee | 6.8 6.3 7.4 ek
(9) Percentage of body length
AMGEMIO’ FO-tAln. . -.. sas. < 92.6 90 | 90.4 | 89.5 | 90.4 | 91.4 90
(10) Distance from anterior ex-
tremity to granular mass. . 90 100 108 115 120 125 135
(11) Length of granular mass.... 40 35 38 45 42 45 60
100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
other shortly posterior to second cell. The so-called tail-spot, another un-
stained area, is 14 to 28u from tip of tail. Tail contains few stained elements.
Host.—Definitive: Turtle (Terrapene carolina) ; intermediate: unknown.
Location.—Adults in cavities of heart; ensheathed larvae in blood of pri-
mary host.
Distribution.—United States (Pennsylvania ?) and vicinity of Washing-
tonsa niG:
Specimens.—U. 5S. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 32604.
Table 1 shows the principal measurements of seven larvae, and certain
size relationships in percentages.
LITERATURE CITED
Leidy, J. 1856.—A synopsis of entozoa and some of their ecto-congeners observed by
the author: Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Phila., vol. 8 (1), pp. 42—58.
Shikhobalov, N. 1930.—Sur une nouvelle filaria d’oiseaux: Pseudaprocta gubernacularia
n. g., n. sp.: Ann. Parasitol. Humaine et Comp., vol. 8 (6), 1. Dec. pp. 624-627.
Walton, A. C. 1928.—A revision of the nematodes of the Leidy collections: Proc. Acad.
Nat. Se. Phila. (1927), vol. 79, pp. 49-163.
Walton, A. C. 1929.—A revision of the nematodes of the Leidy collections, corrections:
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phila. (1928), vol. 80, p. 187.
_ Yorke, W., and Maplestone, P. A. 1926.—The nematode parasites of vertebrates.
With a foreword by C. W. Stiles, vol. 11, 536 pp. London.
ZOOLOGY.—Egg-laying habits and larval stages of a milliped, Arc-
tobolus marginatus (Say) Cook, native at Washington. H. F.
Loomis, Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by O. F.
Cook.)
Early in the summer of 1916, Mr. H. 8. Barber, of the U. 8S. Na-
tional Museum, was collecting insects in the woods on the Virginia
shore of the Potomac River at Plummer’s Island, a short distance
above the city of Washington, when beneath the loose bark of a fallen
tree he discovered a female milliped of the large, cylindrical, native
species, Arctobolus marginatus (Say) Cook, in the act of laying her
eggs. As soon as he realized what the milliped was doing he replaced
the bark without disturbing her, and ceased further investigation of
the log. Several days later, on June 2, I visited the same spot with
Mr. Barber and we began a careful search of the rotting tree trunk
for millipeds or their eggs, both of which were found to be numerous,
1 The notes forming the basis for this paper were made a number of years ago and
are far from complete, but deal with interesting phases in the life history of an animal
belonging to a little-known group of arthropods. As an opportunity for continuing the
study may not present itself again it seems desirable to put these observations on
record. Received October 5, 1932.
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 LOOMIS: MILLIPED EGG-LAYING HABITS 101
as also were recently hatched young. The bark loosely covered the
partially rotted interior, into which the millipeds had worked their
way, and by the movement of their bodies had formed small chambers
in the soft material. In some of these chambers the females had begun
to lay eggs, whereas in others egg-laying had not started. Of all the
millipeds found in this log, none were males. Likewise, in a search of
the leaf-mould in the vicinity only females of this species were found
and some of these also were laying.
On this visit no attempt was made at detailed observations, but
gravid female millipeds, eggs, and recently hatched young were
placed in tin boxes with a quantity of the moist, rotten wood, for
further study.
Some of the females had already laid part of their eggs in the log
but others apparently had not begun to lay, so that a count of the
eggs subsequently laid in the individual boxes in which the females
were kept gave an indication of the number of eggs that might be
produced by a female at one ‘‘nesting.’’ The greatest number of eggs
laid by any one of these females was 261, while seven others produced
the following numbers—216, 204, 203, 189, 186, 1538, 74. These eggs
were deposited between June 2 and 11, after which no more eggs were
laid.
From observations on the imprisoned millipeds and those in natural
surroundings it was apparent that this species had a definite egg-
laying season, but there may have been at least one other such period
in the fall, for on August 4, 1916, Mr. Barber noted numbers of these
millipeds in the same locality mating on the tree trunks at night, and
it is supposed that the eggs then fertilized were laid a few weeks later,
instead of being held through the winter for laying the following
spring, ten months after fertilization. Also it is probable that these
were of the same generation of females which had been seen laying
eggs in early June.
In this species of milliped it was found that the mother enclosed
each egg in an individual pellet composed of what was, at first,
thought to be the material constituting the excrement pellets, but
closer examination showed the egg pellets to be of a lighter colored,
coarser substance, containing tiny fragments of rotten wood, leaves,
(and fungi?). Several times, by carefully opening the tin containers,
the millipeds were caught in the act of forming these egg cases and
were watched undisturbed practically throughout the entire process
of encasing the egg in the pellet. i
The first step in the manufacture of one of these egg cases was the
102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
regurgitation of a small mass of material by the mother, who curved
her head so that the mass was delivered to the legs a short distance
behind the head, the eighth to eleventh pairs of legs receiving the
moist lump. These legs held the mass while the milliped curved her
head around still further and began flattening and spreading the ma-
terial by repeatedly forcing the smooth, convex front of her head
against it, until soon there was formed a thin saucer or shallow bowl,
smoothed on the convex side by the milliped’s head, but with a rough
exterior. In the center of this saucer the egg was placed immediately
following its ejection from one of the paired oviducts which in milli-
peds, contrary to what might be expected from the position of the
oviducts in most other arthropods, are located just behind the second
segment, at the front of the body. The actual placing of the egg in
the saucer was not observed but probably was accomplished by the
mother’s bending her body over the saucer and laying the egg directly
in it, although it might have been possible to have the egg passed
back from the oviduct and placed in the saucer by the legs between
the oviduct and those holding the receptacle. As soon as the egg was
deposited, the edges of the saucer were brought up and kneaded to-
gether by the feet, while the junction was rapidly worked over by the
front edge of the head or labrum, and this action of head and feet was
continued until an almost perfect sphere, with a slightly roughened
surface but without folds or cracks, was formed. The completed
pellet was dropped by the mother and she soon began a repetition of
the process for the next egg.
The completed egg pellets measured 3 to 3.5 mm. in diameter, with
walls slightly less than a millimeter thick, leaving the egg lying loose
in a chamber 1.5 to 1.8 mm. in diameter. The egg pellets were some-
what intermixed with excrement pellets but were distinguished from
them by being nearly round, by having a rougher surface caused by
the varied material from which they were made, and by the fact that
these pellets, when exposed to the air, dried to a light brown color
much faster than the excrement pellets, which had a finer texture
that held moisture better, were oval in shape, and whose surfaces
were smoother. The walls of the egg pellets formed the first food eaten
by the young millipeds; each pellet containing enough food to last
the milliped through several of its earliest stages of growth.
Occasionally the egg-laying and pellet-making processes were not
conducted with routine exactness as was shown in one pellet where
two eggs had been deposited by the mother, one being left slightly
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 LOOMIS: MILLIPED EGG-LAYING HABITS 103
exposed and forming part of the surface of the pellet. In another pellet
the egg was visible through a carefully rounded, smooth-edged hole
in the side, which possibly was left because of insufficient material
to complete the pellet. At another time the mother had fashioned a
pellet which outwardly was indistinguishable from the other egg pel-
lets, but on breaking this pellet it appeared that no egg had been de-
posited in the perfectly moulded chamber.
The eggs were creamy white in color and broadly oval in shape,
being about 1.3 mm. in their longest diameter and 1.1 mm. in the
shortest diameter. All descriptions that have been noted in milliped
literature refer to the eggs of millipeds as being round instead of oval.
Moreover, all the eggs that have been found by the writer in collecting
these animals have also been round, with this one exception. The for-
mation of an edible pellet about each egg does not appear to have
been reported for any other milliped, and from a quotation on a suc-
ceeding page, from a paper by J. W. Bailey, it appears that this cus-
tom is not followed throughout even the genus Arctobolus. Millipeds
belonging to some of the other orders make definite nests in which
they lay their eggs, but the eggs are not placed in individually manu-
factured cells, nor is any provision made by the mother for supplying
the newly hatched young with food. —
The egg pellets made by each of the females imprisoned in the tin
boxes on June 2 were removed several days later and placed in sepa-
rate boxes where they were examined from time to time. On July 9,
first stage “larval’’’millipeds were found by breaking the egg pellets
and a few second and third stage young were also seen there. Although
some of these young necessarily had been present in previous exami-
nations of the boxes they had been overlooked because it was ex-
pected that the young millipeds would emerge from the pellets as
soon as they were born, whereas it was first discovered on July 9 that
the young millipeds normally remained in the pellets for a consider-
able time after hatching and there underwent several changes. Sub-
sequently it was determined that they remained in the pellets
throughout the first two stages of their life and finally ate their way
out during the third stage—usually in the latter part of this stage—
when nearing the time for the third moult. Eggs continued to hatch
until July 13, on which date no unhatched eggs could be found in the
tins and there were only about a quarter as many millipeds in the
first stage of growth as in either the second or third stages, indicating
that the majority of the eggs had hatched considerably before this
104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
date. From the rather limited observations it appeared that the pe-
riod of incubation lasted from three to five weeks, but no very con-
clusive data were obtained.
The incubation period of the eggs in the tin boxes manifestly was
about a week less than for similar eggs left in the log from which
came the females used for observation. Warmer temperatures doubt-
Fig. 1.—Three stages of Arctobolus marginatus. A. First stage, with portions of the
egg-shell still adhering, head and segments not differentiated, the eye spot faintly in-
dicated, the appendages still unformed. B. Second stage, with 6 definite segments and
3 pairs of legs. C. Third stage, with 21 segments and 7 pairs of legs.
lessly accounted for the more rapid incubation of the eggs in the tin
boxes. Hence, it was assumed that from four to six weeks usually
were required for the incubation of the eggs of this milliped under
natural conditions.
When an egg hatched the shell usually split almost all the way
around the middle, forming subequal halves narrowly joined to-
gether, the halves opening up, like a clam, exposing the young milli-
ped in its first stage of life. During this stage the brownish eggshell
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 LOOMIS: MILLIPED EGG-LAYING HABITS 105
was not cast off but remained on the back of the milliped until the
first moult had taken place.
Contrary to statements found in zoological text books and scien-
tific papers on immature millipeds, the first stage “larva” of A.
marginatus did not have a distinct head followed by definite segments,
and there were no legs or antennae visible. Instead, the animal ap-
peared as a short, white grub, somewhat angular in the region of the
mouthparts; covered by a very delicate semi-transparent membrane
or skin of uniform texture, through which a single eyespot on each
side of the head and a suggestion of segments could be seen (Fig. 1).
Although this skin was retained by the animal until the first moult it
did not appear to be attached to the animal and was removed from
several of the young to allow direct examination of them. They were
found to have a distinct head and six well-formed segments, followed
by a slightly swollen, abdomen-like portion, composed of indistinct
rings, terminating in a soft but rather evident, truncate last segment
containing well-defined anal valves and preanal scale. A brownish
eyespot was found on each side of the head although this did not de-
velop to a normal ocellus until the moult. The very short antennae
appeared to be indistinctly 4-jointed, but the mouthparts were soft,
unchitinized, and amorphous, and it was doubtful if the animals ate
anything during this stage. There were no legs, but on segments 1, 2,
and 3, small, elevated prominences or tubercles were noted in the lo-
cations where the legs would develop at the first moult.
The period of time passed by the animals in this first stage and in
succeeding stages was not determined as the writer’s unexpected de-
parture from Washington occurred before the study of this feature of
development was well under way.
Following the first moult, in the second stage of their existence, the
young millipeds were short, white in color, and each had a well-
developed ocellus on either side of the head, in addition to which, at
times, there were two brownish eyespots which would develop into
ocelli at the second moult. The mouthparts were of definite shape and
moderately chitinized, and the mandibulary stipes slightly hollowed
to receive the antennae. The antennae were quite short and capable
of being somewhat telescoped, and there were five joints, with the
four apical sense cones readily seen. Behind the head were six well-
developed and definitely chitinized body segments, each of the first
three with a pair of 6-jointed legs, as in mature individuals; the legs
terminating in a strong, appendiculate claw, the needle-like append-
age of which was below and nearly half the length of the main part
106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
of the claw. All the joints of the legs had one or two strong setae
on the ventral face. Segment 6 of the body had no indication of repug-
natorial pores. The posterior half of the body resembled a soft, in-
distinctly ringed abdomen, with the last segment, valves, and preanal
scale as described for the first stage young.
In the third stage, which succeeded the second nil the still un-
colored young millipeds could no longer be mistaken for insect larvae
as they had a strongly chitinized body, composed of twenty-one dis-
tinct segments, infrequently twenty-two segments, and each of the
first five of these bore a single pair of legs, while segment 6 bore two
pairs of legs. The ensuing segments constituted two-thirds of the
length of the body and were footless and showed no indication of
where the legs to be added at the next moult would come. The second
segment was not produced forward below segment 1, as it would be
in after life. The last segment, anal valves, and preanal scale were
shaped as in mature animals. A repugnatorial pore was visible on each
side of segment 6 but there was no indication of pores on the segments
thereafter. The antennae had six distinct joints, and the three fully
developed ocelli formeda triangle on each side of the head; the mandib-
ulary stipes were deeply excavated for the reception of the antennae.
It was when nearing the end of this stage that the millipeds ate their
way out of the food pellets made by the mother when the eggs were
laid.
The fourth stage millipeds had twenty-six or twenty-seven seg-
ments and, in either case, the last six segments were legless. Thus fe-
males had thirty-five or thirty-seven pairs of legs, as the first five
segments each had one pair of legs while the succeeding segments each
had two pairs as far as the legs extended. Although many fourth stage
millipeds were examined no males were detected, but it is possible
that they would have had thirty-three or thirty-five pairs of legs, for
the leg arrangement would be the same as for females except that
segment 7 probably would be without legs because in the final stages
of growth the males have the legs of this segment greatly modified
and hidden within the body, the structures generally being referred
to as “‘gonopods”’ and only functioning during mating. The animals
were light brown, finely mottled with uncolored spots above and be-
low, except on the posterior legless segments which were uncolored.
In this stage the forward production of the second segment below the
corner of segment 1, so evident in mature individuals, was first ob-
served. The repugnatorial pores were present from segment 6 to the
last. pedigerous segment inclusive. The antennae had six obvious
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 LOOMIS: MILLIPED EGG-LAYING HABITS 107
joints, and on each side of the head six ocelli usually formed an equi-
lateral triangle, but in some specimens the number of ocelli in each
eye was reduced to three or four.
The structural notes on the growth stages following the fourth
moult were never completed, but segment counts of a small number
of young millipeds indicated that there were at least three more
stages before maturity was reached.
Millipeds in the fifth stage had thirty-two segments, and their eyes
were composed of eight to ten ocelli.
Of eight sixth-stage young, two had thirty-six segments, four had
thirty-seven segments, and two had thirty-eight segments; the ocelli
numbered thirteen to fifteen, with one individual in which there were
but eight ocelli on one side of the head and ten ocelli on the other.
In what was assumed to be the seventh stage, three millipeds had
forty-one segments, one had forty-three segments, and three had
forty-four segments, and the ocelli ranged from eighteen to twenty-
one.
Mature specimens of this species have been reported with forty-
seven to fifty-seven segments and thirty to forty ocelli composing
each eye. Those examined by the writer usually had between fifty and
fifty-five segments and thirty-six to forty-three ocelli. In view of these
figures it is probable that an eighth and possibly a ninth stage occurs
in the life history of this species before maturity is reached.
In regard to the moulting of these millipeds, particularly in the
early stages, it was observed that just prior to the moult the posterior
legless portion of the body became noticeably elongated, with the
segments considerably exposed, as much as the pedigerous segments,
whereas after the moult these legless segments were strongly teles-
coped and hidden within each other, and the body was a lighter color
than immediately preceding the moult. Following the moult the body
remained quite soft for a day or two but gradually hardened and, in
the later growth stages, assumed an increasingly darker color.
In early May several years prior to the observations reported in this
paper, H. 8. Barber, interested in the life history of A. marginatus
in relation to the food habits of the giant glow-worm, Phengodes lati-
collis Lec. endeavored to find where and how the eggs of this milli-
ped were laid by placing about twenty full grown specimens of both
sexes In a deep jar set in the ground and filled with leaf-litter for food.
His subsequent observations are quoted below.
‘“‘By the end of July young had appeared in the jar although it had previ-
ously been examined without finding eggs. At this time, however, it was
108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
discovered that in most cases the excrement pellets were not solid but con-
sisted merely of a thin shell surrounding a comparatively large cavity in
which the small brown-skinned egg was lying loose. These pellets showed
no external difference from the solid normal pellets cast by large individuals
of the species, but when exposed to the air for a few minutes the color
changed slightly on account of the more rapid drying out of the thin shell.
About a pint of both kinds of pellets was placed in tin boxes where they
could be frequently examined. By the middle of August most of the young
myriapods had devoured their enclosing pellets and were feeding on the
solid ones. They measured 8 mm. in length and had seven pairs of legs, but
some were moulting into a slightly longer, many-legged (35 pairs) form.
Before the middle of September they had reduced all of the frass pellets in
the tin into a mass of very fine frass and were crawling on its surface seeking
other food. They congregated on bits of rotten wood that were introduced
and began feeding, but the condition of this rotten wood was apparently
unsuitable, and a few days later all were found dead on the surface, many
having had all their legs eaten off by those who survived the longest.’”
Several points of divergence may be noted which partly arose from
the fact that the egg-laying habits had not been observed. Also it is
appropriate to note the observations of another writer on what is
probably a different species of the genus Arctobolus although referred
to marginatus.
J. W. Bailey?’ listed Spirobolus marginatus as the only species known
to occur in the state, and on page 13 made the following statements
in discussing the habits of the Diplopoda.
“Spirobolus, one of the most common and the largest of the Diplopoda
found in New York State, deposits its eggs in damp, wet places, usually in
some decaying stump or fallen log. The pearly white eggs, about the size
of a small buckshot, are deposited in June, July and August; usually 15 to
20 in a batch. The eggs are never covered with dirt, as in Julus or other
species. The period of incubation is said to be ten to 18 days. The young
emerge from the eggs as partially developed larvalike creatures having only
three pairs of appendages as do other members of the class Diplopoda.”
That the true Arctobolus (Spirobolus) marginatus is not native to
New York State, but is a more southern species, was pointed out by
Q. F. Cook in describing A. onondaga, from Onondaga County, New
York, as the type of the genus.’ The strikingly different egg-laying
habits of the New York species is an additional reason to consider it
distinct from marginatus, but its identity with onondaga cannot be
2 Barber, H. S., Fragmentary notes on the life history of the Myriapod, Spirobolus
marginatus: Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., vol. 17, no. 3, 1915.
3 Bailey, J. W., The Chilopoda of New York State with notes on the Diplopoda:
N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 276, 1928.
4 Cook, O. F., Myriapoda of northwestern North America: Harriman Alaska Ex-
ped., pp. 64-65, 1904.
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 109
certified without comparing specimens with the description or the
type specimen of onondaga.
East of the Mississippi, principally in the South Eastern and South
Central states, there are about eight recognized species of millipeds
belonging to the genus Arctobolus; whereas west of the Mississippi
closely allied genera contain about the same number of species. In
view of the differences in egg-laying habits between the New York
species and the one about Washington, variation of the same habits
of the other species undoubtedly occur, and investigation of these
species should furnish interesting facts, which conceivably might also
be of value in determining the systematic relationships of the species.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
493D MEETING
The 493d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club October 26, 1932, Vice-
President Huss presiding.
Informal Communications—W. C. MANSFIELD in company with Mr.
HERMAN GUNTER, State Geologist of Florida, upon a recent trip up the
Suwanee River, discovered, about a mile and a half upstream from White
Springs, an unconformity between the tampa limestone and the sandstone
of the overlying Hawthorne formation.
H. D. Miszr described three sink-hole deposits in Ordovician limestone,
all near Rolla, Missouri. One sink-hole contained flint clay with diaspore;
another contained deposits of limonite, hematite, and magnetite, all prob-
ably derived from pyrite; and the third sink-hole contained coal of Pennsy]-
vanian age. The coal deposit has the form of a vertical column 90 feet in
diameter and 180 feet long, and is entirely surrounded by fire clay. All three
deposits have been worked commercially.
Program: N. H. Darton: New geologic map of Texas.
C. WytHE Cooke: Pleistocene changes of sea level—The alternating ac-
cumulation and melting of the continental ice caps during the Pleistocene
epoch caused repeated fluctuations of sea level amounting to several hun-
dreds of feet in amplitude. The sea was low during the glacial stages and
high during the interglacial stages. During each resting stage that was of
sufficient duration the sea engraved a high-water mark or a low-water mark
on the land and thus recorded the position of its shore at various stages.
But the height of sea level is also affected by any crustal movements that
change the capacity of the oceanic basins. Therefore, the present altitude of
the high-water marks or abandoned shore lines can not be attributed ex-
110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
clusively to glacial control, for they record the net lowering of sea level due
to all causes. The high-water marks now stand about 12, 25, 42, 70, 100, 170,
215, and 270 feet above the present sea level except where they have been
deformed by Pleistocene or Recent movements of the land.
Eustatic shore lines make very useful datum planes by which to correlate
the various phases of Pleistocene history because they encircle all conti-
nents and islands. It may be possible to correlate the glacial and inter-
glacial stages in different parts of the world by the reference of each stage
to its corresponding shore line. The discovery by Leverett of pebbles washed
out of the Illinoian moraine in the deposits of the 100-foot stage (Wicomico
formation) shows that the 100-foot shore line can not be older than Sanga-
mon interglacial time, which immediately followed the Illinoian glaciation.
From this as a starting point one can arrive at a hypothetical correlation of
the shore lines with the interglacial stages by assigning each successive shore
line above 100 feet to an interglacial stage successively older than the San-
gamon and each successive shore line lower than 100 feet to a successively
younger interglacial stage. This disposes of every definitely recognized
Pleistocene shore except the 12-foot, which is attributed to lowering of sea
level from some cause other than glacial control. The 42-foot and the 25-
~ foot shore lines are tentatively correlated with the first and second inter-
glacial substages of the Wisconsin, respectively. As glacial geologists think
that the polar ice caps during these temporary retreats of the Wisconsin ice
were larger than the existing ice caps, glacial control alone may not account
for any of the lowering that leaves them high and dry today.
A series of seven paleogeographic maps of South Carolina shows that the
shore line at each stage of the sea differed markedly from those that came
before and after. The shore of the 70-foot stage, which is tentatively cor-
related with the Peorian, gives evidence of long-continued stability of the
sea at that level. Much of the erosion that dissected the region of the Sea
Islands appears to have taken place during the low-water stage of the first
Wisconsin glaciation. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Mr. W. C. MANSFIELD.
Huau D. Missr: Oklahoma structural salient of the Ouachita Mountains.—
The Oklahoma structural salient of the Ouachita Mountains comprises their
western portion, lying mostly in Oklahoma but partly in Arkansas. Its
northern frontal margin, a great arc 180 miles in length, trends in a north-
easterly and then easterly direction along the northern edge of the mountains
in Oklahoma and then passes in a southeasterly direction across the moun-
tains in western Arkansas. In the salient, as well as elsewhere in the moun-
tains, a vast succession of rocks ranging in age from Cambrian to Pennsyl-
vanian and having a thickness of 25,000 feet has been deformed by late
Paleozoic folding and faulting. In Oklahoma the front of the salient is
marked by thrust faults which bring together two different facies of rocks,
the Ouachita Mountain facies and the Arbuckle Mountain facies. Toward
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 111
the south the rocks of the Ouachita facies pass underneath the Cretaceous
rocks of the Gulf Coastal Plain and occupy a wide belt extending in a south-
westerly direction into Texas, past the east side of the Central Mineral
region, and thence in a westerly direction to and beyond the Marathon re-
gion. Likewise, the Oklahoma salient appears to pass into Texas, but how
far it extends into that State is not determinable from the available data
provided by wells that have reached the pre-Cretaceous floor.
The deformation of the rocks in the salient was produced by compressive
movements from the southeast and the frontal portion of the salient appears
to have been thrust northwestward a distance of 20 miles or more over the
rocks of the Arbuckle Mountain facies in Oklahoma and also in northern
Texas. The structural trends of the Arbuckle facies near the Red River are
toward the southeast, whereas the trends in the adjacent portion of the
Ouachita geosyncline are toward the southwest. It thus appears that the
northwestward thrusting of the Oklahoma salient took place after the major
periods of deformation of the rocks of the Arbuckle Mountain facies.
The structural features that are revealed in the Oklahoma salient are
characterized by long parallel thrust faults, which bound northwestwardly-
thrust nappes. The longest fault, the Choctaw, has a length of 125 miles.
Toward the southwest the faults pass underneath the Cretaceous rocks of the
Coastal Plain and their extent in this direction is thus not known, but toward
the east the faults die out near the eastern margin of the salient and termi-
nate near the Arkansas-Oklahoma line.
The deformation of the rocks of the portion of the Ouachita Mountains
east of the salient resulted from movements from the south. Here the char-
acteristic type of structural deformation is close folding much of which is
isoclinal; there is a notable absence of thrust faulting; and all the available
evidence based on structural and stratigraphic field studies by me and other
geologists shows clearly that the northern margin of the Ouachita Mountain
facies of rocks is not limited by thrust faults in Arkansas as it is in Oklahoma.
The presence of a portion of a salient in central Arkansas seems to be indi-
cated by the arcuate arrangement of the structural trends between Little
Rock and Hot Springs. It may be appropriately designated the Little Rock
salient. The greater portion of this salient is concealed by the Cretaceous
and younger deposits of the Gulf Coastal Plain.
The arcuate trends of the Ouachita geosyncline in Oklahoma and Texas,
whereby it changes from west to southwest in Oklahoma and then bends to-
ward the west in central Texas, seem to suggest that the geosyncline prob-
ably has a curved course east of the east end of the Ouachita Mountains in
Arkansas. To me, it appears possible that the geosyncline passes eastward
in Arkansas and thence southeastward across the Mississippi River to join
the Appalachian geosyncline in Alabama. The form of the supposed Little
Rock salient would be similar to the form of the Oklahoma salient. Also, the
reentrant salient of the Ouachita geosyncline in central Texas would be
112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
similar to such a salient in the geosynclinal area between Arkansas and the
Appalachians in Alabama.
Deposits of erratic boulders, mostly of pre-Carboniferous rocks, are found
along and near the northern margin of the Ouachita Mountains. With the
exception of deposits near Boles, Scott County, Arkansas, they are all con-
fined to the Oklahoma salient. None of the deposits is found along the thrust
faults that bound the nappes and they can thus not be regarded as having a
tectonic origin that is related to such faults. Instead, they are all confined to
a single formation, the Caney shale of Carboniferous age. My present con-
clusions, which are based on field evidence that has been obtained by me
over a period of many years, are that the boulders are not remnants of thrust
sheets, nor are they fault breccia, but they appear to have been brought into
the Ouachita geosyncline during Caney time through some unusual means
of transportation, perhaps by ice rafting. The boulders thus appear to form
a part of the stratigraphic sequence in the Ouachita Mountains, and do not
appear to be related in origin to any structural features of the mountains.
(Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Mr. E. O. ULRIcH.
494TH MEETING
The 494th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 9, 1932,
President F. E. Marruss presiding.
Informal communication.—H. G. FERGUSON outlined the tentative plans
for the meetings of the 16th International Geological Congress to be held in
the U. 8. Chamber of Commerce Building, the last week in July.
Program: C.8. Ross.—Genesis of titanium deposits of Nelson County, Vir-
gina.
Discussed by Messrs. Hrss, SCHALLER, and GILLULY.
Watson H. Monroe: Topography and physiography from aerial photo-
graphs.—When two photographs taken of the same area from different points
and correctly oriented with respect to each other are viewed through a
stereoscope, the image of the area common to both is seen in relief. Therefore,
with single-lens vertical aerial photographs with a mutual overlap of 60 per
cent between adjacent pictures it is possible to construct several kinds of
hypsographic maps without using a machine of the aerocartograph type. A
controlled form-line map intermediate in accuracy between a simple form-
line map and an accurate contour map can easily be constructed at low cost
of time and money. Such a map is accurate enough for most uses. Horizontal
control by transit traverse and vertical control by a large number of spot
elevations determined by carefully checked barometer or plane table trav-
erse are necessary for this type of map. Form lines controlled by the spot
elevations are drawn on one of two overlapping photographs viewed through
a stereoscope. All features such as roads, streams, houses, railroads and the
form lines are then traced on cloth with differences in scale and correct
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 123s
orientation of the photographs provided for by an intersection net previously
prepared. The tracing is then reduced to the desired scale by photography.
Many physiographic forms such as old land surfaces, drainage changes,
submerged coastal features and land forms, that can not be seen from the
ground or on topographic maps, can be understood when studied on aerial
photographs. :
In the northwestern part of the Jackson quadrangle, Mississippi, there
has been recent dissection of an old plain, beheading of streams, and de-
velopment of right-angled drainage. These features can not readily be de-
tected from the ground and are not shown on the topographic map made in
1901.
Photographs of the Pearl River, Mississippi, swamp show a large number
of lakes and sloughs scattered through the woods. The Pearl River at various
stages in its history used these for its channel but has since abandoned them.
Maps of the river, made in 1821 and 1901, when superimposed on a new map
of the river traced from photographs, show a number of changes in the
channel, but the old channel is represented by some of the lakes and sloughs.
Much of the year the swamp is impenetrable and a map could not be made by
ground methods alone except at a prohibitive cost.
For a comprehensive picture of the area such as that afforded by a
drainage map of a large area, a mosaic is to be preferred. For detailed exami-
nation of the topography, the overlap of two adjacent photographs should
be studied with a stereoscope. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. K. E. Lonman, Trask, and MatTruHes.
T. A. JacearR: Elevation changes, horizontal shift, and tilt at Kilauea Vol-
cano.—The cycle of rise of lava and the tumescence at Kilauea in the years
1913-1924, was followed by fall of lava and subsidence, and ended by engulf-
ment and a steam-blast eruption in 1924, and occupied a little more than 11
years. Mauna Loa made lava gushings at the summit crater in 1914, part
way down the slope in 1916, and into the sea in 1919, all within this Kilauea
eycle. Sympathetic sudden sinkings of Kilauea lava occurred at the end of
each Mauna Loa episode. Examination of the record of 134 years next pre-
ceding 1924, beginning with the last steam-blast eruption at Kilauea in
1790, reveals twelve evident cycles involving the Mauna Loa-Kilauea sys-
tem. It also reveals a supercycle with minima of lava pressure at low levels
at the beginning and end of the nineteenth century, and maxima in the
middle of the period—1790—1924—and the maxima at high levels on Mauna
Loa. (See Voleano Letter No. 325.)
R. M. Wilson has completed critical triangulation and levelling of Kilauea
crater and vicinity during the epoch 1921—1922 and compared it with the
survey of 1926-1927. It shows a lowering of the mountain top of 13 feet and
horizontal inward shift of the country rock 2 to 4 feet. This was the period
of the great engulfment collapse. The curve of level change bends steeply
close to the inner pit, but the effects extend outward at least twenty miles.
114. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
Level changes between 1912 and 1921 show a bulging up of the mountain top
differentially 1.58 feet in 4 miles at the summit region. General elevation
during this high-pressure lava period was indicated but not certain, owing
to critical uncertainties of rod-length and sea-level datum. Precision in-
creased with each new survey. .
Fortunately the seismographs at the northeast edge of Kilauea crater
registered all tilts. These were of the order of 60 seconds outward in 1918—
1920 during the rising lava period, and 70 seconds inward during the 1921—
1924 collapse. Much of the latter actually accompanied the steam-blast en-
gulfment, so that the tilt data may be profitably studied, as timing the
events, indicated by comparison of the triangulation and levelling changes.
Mr. Wilson’s report which is to be published by the U. 8. Geological Survey
considers rigorously, order of precision, probable error, and absolute datum.
The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory has built three tilt cellars equally
distributed about the Kilauea lava pit, and these are equipped with clino-
scopes reading direction and amount of tilt daily. E. G. Wingate is in
charge of this work, and also of the levelling and triangulation. (Author’s
abstract.) ;
495TH MEETING
The 495th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, November 23, 1932,
President F. E. MatTruHes presiding.
Informal communication.—Miss Tatst1A STADNICHENKO described the
structure and microscopic characters of a sample of the coal from the sink-
hole deposit in Missouri which Mr. Miser described at the 493d meeting of
the Society. The coal is bituminous and of high rank, not laminated but
more massive and canneloid in appearance. Thin sections show that it con-
tains an abundance of spores, a subordinate amount of woody material but
nevertheless a considerable quantity of fusain or mineral charcoal. It is
probably not a coking coal.
W.H. Bravuey: Factors that determine the curvature of mud-cracked layers.
—Three factors play a predominant role in determining the curvature of
polygonal, mud-cracked layers or plates; (1) the vertical grain size gradient,
that is, the decrease upward (or downward) in the size of grains; (2) the
presence of salt crystals; and (3) the rate of drying. Theoretical principles
controlling the shrinkage of drying muds and the experimental work of stu-
dents of moist soils and muds, indicate that the finer the grain size, and the
greater the proportion of clayey, flake-like particles, the greater the shrink-
age capacity and cohesiveness of the mud. These principles, checked by
experiments and field observations, lead to the generalization that the polyg-
onal plates of a drying mud tend to become concave toward the finest
grained material and that the amount of curvature varies directly as the
grain size gradient. Mud-cracked layers may become convex upward if the
grain size decreases downward. This may result either from inversion of the
normal decrease upward in the grain size or from the growth of salt crystals
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 115
in the upper layers whose grain size is thereby coarsened with respect to the
lower layers. The ultimate effect of the rate of drying on most muds is
negligible but in very fine, even grained muds the rate of drying becomes the
dominant factor controlling the curvature of the dried layers. In these muds
exceedingly slow drying produces either flat, or slightly concave plates, but
rapid drying causes the plates to become markedly convex upward. Conse-
quently, if salt crystals or their molds are absent, the convexity of mud-
cracked layers can be used as a criterion of salinity only when the convexity
owing either to rapid drying of very fine, even grained mud or to inversion
of the normal grain size gradient can be definitely excluded. (Author’s
abstract. )
Discussed by Messrs. RuBEy, PARKER, and THOMPSON.
B. L. Cuarxk: The Mt. Diablo thrust.
Discussed by Messrs. Stosr, Wooprine, MatrHrs, GoLpMAN, HEN-
DRICKS, HEWETT, and FERGUSON.
496TH MEETING
The 496th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club December
14, 1932, President F. E. Marruus presiding. Vice President F. L. Hiss
took the chair during the presentation of the presidential address: The
evolution of the glacial cirque.
40TH ANNUAL MEETING
The 40th annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club after the adjourn-
ment of the 496th regular meeting, President F. KE. Matruus presiding. The
annual report of the Secretaries was read. The Treasurer presented his
annual report showing an excess of assets over liabilities of $1,677.50 on
December 9, 1932. The auditing committee reported that the books of the
Treasurer were correct.
The results of balloting for officers for the ensuing year were as follows:
President: C. N. FENNER; Vice-Presidents: H. G. Ferauson and R. C.
WELLS; Treasurer: C. WYTHE Cooke; Secretaries: W. H. Brapuny and T.
B. Notan; Members-at-large of the Council: E. Kirx,C. E. Resszer, E. T. Mc-
Knicut, M. N. BraMueEetTTs, and D. G. THompson; Nominee as Vice-Presi-
dent of the Washington Academy of Sciences representing the Geological Society:
F, E. Matrues.
J. F. Scoarrer and W. H. Brapuey, Secretaries.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Prepared by Science Service
Notes
Washington at the Atlantic City Meetings —Washington institutions and
scientists took part in the midwinter meetings of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science and affiliated societies, in Atlantic City
116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
from December 26 to 31. Three federal departments, Agriculture, Treasury,
and Commerce, displayed exhibits; and other Washington exhibitors in-
cluded the Smithsonian Institution, the Carnegie Institution, Mr. CHarLEs
Bittincer, and Mr. Hueu Cuiark and Miss Leiria G. ForsBss.
The Department of Agriculture exhibit consisted. of a demonstration of
damage caused by the Mexican bean beetle and methods for its control, and
a demonstration of the surgical use of blowfly larvae in treating infected
wounds, and of methods of rearing them under aseptic conditions.
Representing the Treasury Department, the U. 8. Public Health Service
showed graphically how the ancient hard-times scourge of the South, pel-
lagra, has been conquered by a proper appreciation of its origin in dietary
deficiencies and the development of low-priced dietary auxiliaries to supply
those deficiencies.
For the Department of Commerce, the Bureau of Standards displayed a
flask of ‘‘heavy water,’ containing an excess of hydrogen isotope 2, which
is denser than ordinary water by as much as 180 parts in a million. The
Bureau also showed a method of demonstrating the effect of traces of base
metal impurities upon the appearance of mercury, by producing large
bubbles, 1 or 2 cm. in diameter, through a mixture of mercury and dilute
nitric acid. Flakes of rock salt showing plastic deformation, and recently de-
termined spectra of rare elements completed the exhibit.
The Coast and Geodetic Survey displayed a new type of accelerometer,
which operates and records vibration for predetermined ranges of vibration.
The Bureau of Fisheries showed samples of fish flour, fish meal, and fish
oil, canned oysters and canned salmon, with charts demonstrating their
nutritional value, especially newly developed data on their vitamin contents,
and the usefulness of oysters in combating nutritional anemia.
The Smithsonian Institution exhibit was by the division of Radiation and
Organisms. It consisted of apparatus developed for the measurement of
photosynthesis as a function of wave length and intensity of light and carbon
dioxide concentration; special light sources and filters; and illustrations of the
photochemical and lethal reactions of algae under various wavelengths.
The U.S. National Zoological Park had an exhibit of the Surinam toad,
which is rarely seen in zoological gardens.
The Carnegie Institution of Washington displayed results of the research
work of several of its departments during the past year, especially the new
measurement of the velocity of light conducted at Mt. Wilson, and photo-
graphs of the Mercado from Chichen Itza.
Mr. Birtrneer, a well-known Washington artist, showed paintings of
several types of spectra, some of them made with pigments of a new type
specially made for accurate color representation.
Mr. Cuiark and Miss Forsss displayed an unrecorded manuscript map
of the prehistoric Indian earthworks near the confluence of the Muskingum
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS P17
and Ohio rivers, drawn by Henry Livingston, Jr., in 1788. It appears to
have been the prototype of several later maps of the same region.
The resignation of Dr. CHartes F. Roos, permanent secretary of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, has been announced.
Dr. Roos will be succeeded by Dr. Henry B. Warp of the University of
Illinois, who will take office in the late spring. —
Damage by Fire at Catholic University —A fire of undetermined origin
broke out in the upper part of MacMahon Hall at the Catholic University
of America early in the morning of January 6 and wrought severe damage to
the botanical laboratory. A preliminary estimate of the total losses is set
at approximately $25,000. The greatest harm was the destruction of a
collection of plants from the region of San Antonio, Texas, valued at about
$1,000, and the burning of a set of taxonomic charts made by the late Dr.
Theodor Holm, which are of course irreplaceable. Severe damage was also
done by smoke to the botanical library.
Minimum temperatures on Mt. McKinley—The U. 8. Weather Bureau
has just tested the historic minimum thermometer that the late Archdeacon
Hupson Stuck cached at a place 15,000 feet above sea level on the slope of
Mount McKinley, Alaska, in the summer of 1913, and that was recovered
last May byanotherclimbing party. The instrument was brought to Washing-
ton for testing by Mr. Harry J. Liex, superintendent of Mount McKinley
National Park, one of the men who found it. The tests showed it to be an
excellent instrument.
When the thermometer was found last spring, the index was not only con-
siderably below the lowest graduation of the scale (93°F. below zero) but
was projecting into the bulb in such a position that it could go no farther.
Apparently this position denotes the occurrence of a minimum tempera-
ture, some time during the 19 years the thermometer lay on the mountain,
of at least 100° below zero, and perhaps several degrees lower. The evidence
furnished by the thermometer for this remarkably low temperature is by no
means conclusive, as the index may have been jarred out of its correct po-
sition by wind, and there are other possible conditions that may have af-
fected the correct action of the instrument during its long sojourn on the
mountain. But on the other hand, it is thought that a temperature of 100°
below zero or lower is not impossible at an altitude of 15,000 feet on this
subarctic mountain.
Radio Talks—W. L. McArter, of the Biological Survey, urged the
“Preservation of Wild Life along the Potomac”’ in a radio talk broadcast in
the program of the Rod and Stream Department of the Washington
Evening Star on December 1. ‘‘No more useful or interesting task,” he con-
cluded, ‘‘beckons local members of the Izaak Walton League, and of the
Audubon Society, and like organizations, than constantly to urge that all
118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
of the Potomac River that is to be bordered by park projects be made a wild
life refuge, to see further that the essential natural features of this great
reservation are preserved, and finally, to be on guard at all times against
their despoliation.”’
On December 23, Dr W. B. BEtu, of the Biological Survey, spoke over
the radio on reindeer in Alaska. Under the auspices of Science Service, the
talk was broadcast from Station WJSV and 56 associated stations of the
Columbia Broadcasting System.
NeEws BRI£Fs
The Department of Agriculture has recently transferred to the National
Museum the large Venturi herbarium, containing about 16,000 specimens
representative of slightly more than 10,000 members. The material was
collected chiefly in the provinces of Tucuman and Salta, in north-central
Argentina, and had been assembled by the late Prof. S. VENTURI over a
period of about 15 years. |
An inaugural banquet of the Smith-Reed-Russell Society of the School of
Medicine, The George Washington University, was held at the University
Club on the evening of January 13. Guest speakers included Dr. THEOBALD
SmituH and Dr. FREDERICK F. RussE.u, two of the three scientists in honor
of whom the society is named. Other speakers included the President of the
University, CLoyp H. Marvin and Colonel ALBERT E. TrRuBy, who re-
ceived the key of the society for WALTER RereEp to transmit to Colonel
Wa.utsER L. REED, surviving son.
“Western American Alpines,’ a new book by Ira N. GABRIELSON, the
Biological Survey’s supervisor of predatory-animal and rodent control in
the Pacific Region, has been published by The Macmillan Company.
The Washington Section of the Society of American Foresters met at the
Cosmos Club on Thursday, January 12. James W. Grrarp, Senior Logging
Engineer, spoke on ““The Forest Survey of the U. S. Forest Service.”
PERSONAL [TEMS
Mr. E. C. CritTeEnpDEN, Chief of the Electrical Division of the Bureau of
Standards, sailed on January 13 to attend the third biennial meeting of the
Advisory Committee on Electricity and Photometry established by the
International Committee on Weights and Measures. The meeting begins on
January 31 at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, at Sevres,
just outside of Paris.
Mr. Hart Hanson, observer of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism,
who has been making magnetic observations at repeat stations in various
South American countries since August, 1931, having completed his field
work was en route for New York early in January. After a brief vacation in
FEBRUARY 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 119
that city, he will report at Washington for comparing his instruments and
closing up his work.
Pau E. Hows, chemist, in charge of nutritional work, Bureau of Animal
Industry was elected president of the Chemical Society of Washington at
its annual meeting. James F. Coucu, specialist.in toxicology at the same
bureau, was selected as one of its managers for the ensuing year. Other
officers elected were: JAMES H. HIBBEN, secretary; ORvILLE E. May,
treasurer; H. T. Herrick, H. G. Kniegut, E. W. WasHpurn, E. WICHERS,
R. E. Bicgson and M. X. SuLuiivan, councilors; and J. A. AmpBuEr, N.
BEEKEDAL, R. E. Grucurist, A. T. McPHERsoN and A. R. Mzrz, managers.
Obituary
Professor HARLAN WILBUR FIsk, magnetician and chief of the Section of
Land Magnetic Survey, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie
Institution of Washington, died at the Washington Sanitarium, Takoma
Park, Maryland, on December 26, 1932, after a brief illness. Professor Fisk
was born at Geneva, Kansas, September 25, 1869, and was educated at
Carleton College, Northfield, Minn. From 1899-1906 he held the professor-
ship of mathematics at Fargo College (North Dakota) and was dean of the
faculty from 1904-1906. In October 1906 he joined the staff of the Depart-
ment of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington as
magnetic observer. He made two detailed magnetic surveys of the Bermuda
Islands in 1907 and 1922, respectively, and led a magnetic-survey expedition
to British, Dutch, and French Guiana in 1908. He also took part in various
expeditions sent out by the Department to investigate possible effects on
the Earth’s magnetism due to solar eclipses, the most recent of these being
the total solar eclipse of last August when he was in charge of the three
parties sent to New England by the Department for this purpose. During
the last few years he has been engaged in important researches on the secular
variation of the Earth’s magnetism based largely on data obtained under
his supervision by observers of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.
Professor FIsk was a member of a number of scientific bodies including the
Washington Academy of Sciences, and the Philosophical Society of Washing-
ton. He was also an active member of the American Geophysical Union
being secretary of its Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity for
the period 1929-1932.
Ernest Howe, geologist and editor of the American Journal of Science,
died suddenly Dec. 18, 1932, at his home in Litchfield, Conn. He was born
in New York City Sept. 28, 1875, and graduated from Yale University in
1898. From Harvard he received the degree of Ph.D. in 1901. He was a
member of the U. 8. Geological Survey from 1898 to 1908, and in 1906 and
1907 he was the geologist of the Isthmian Canal Commission. Between 1908
120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 2
and 1926 he spent much of his time as a consulting geologist in the Grass
Valley gold field of California. From 1926 until his death he has edited the
American Journal of Science. Among Dr. Howe’s best-known publications
are his reports on the gold deposits of Grass Valley, California, and the
landslides of the San Juan Mountains of Colorado.
Dr. THropor Ho.M, research professor of botany at the Catholic Uni-
versity of America, died suddenly on December 26. Dr. Houim was born at
Copenhagen, February 3, 1854, and was educated at the University in his
native city and graduated in 1880. He was made botanist and zoologist of
the Danish North Pole Expedition and spent the next two winters in the ice
packs of the Arctic Ocean. He spent the summers of 1884-1886 in West
Greenland as botanist and zoologist for the Danish Government. In 1888
he came to the United States and five years later was a naturalized citizen.
He explored the high alpine flora of Colorado from 1896 to 1899, and for
eight years was botanical assistant at the Smithsonian Institution and the
Department of Agriculture at Washington, D.C. Dr. Hotm was the author
of many papers on taxonomy, morphology and anatomy, medicinal plants
and arctic plants. At the time of his death he was working on morphological
problems, and his researches were being published as they were completed
in the Botanisches Centralblatt.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS
The AcADEMY announces a meeting on February 16. Program: L. H.
ApamMs.—The basic concept of the physical sciences (illustrated). This is the
address of the retiring president.
The Philosophieal Society announces the following programs:
February 25. Professor F. D. Murnacuan (Johns Hopkins University.—
The expanding universe.
March 11. The third Joseph Henry Lecture. President K. T. Compton
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology).—High voltage.
ADVANCE SUMMARIES
Hereafter the JouRNAL will accept for publication, in addition to original
articles and proceedings, short summaries presenting the results of completed
research projects. By these advance summaries, prepared by the investigators,
the JouRNAL hopes to make current, in advance of final and full publication,
the findings of local scientists. These summaries will take the form of soeuley
articles but preferably should not exceed one page in length.
The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if
sent to the editors by the tenth of each month.
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_ VoL. 23 | Marc# 15, 1933 No. 3
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sh . PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY BNTOMOLOGIOCAL SOCIETY
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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: R. F. Griaas, George Washington University.
Corresponding Secretary: Paut E. Hows, Bureau of Animal Industry.
Recording Secretary: CHARLES THom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.
Treasurer: Henry G. AVERS, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
JOURNAL
OF THE | !
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 23 Marcu 15, 1933 No. 3
PHYSICS :—Some improvements in psychrometry.! DONALD B. BRooKS
and Heman H. ALLEN, Bureau of Standards. (Communicated
by Huau L. DrypeEn.)
MODIFIED PSYCHROMETER
Some modifications in psychrometry which may be of interest to
meteorologists have been developed in the course of other research
work at the Bureau of Standards. The research in question involved
the continuous measurement of humidity under conditions considered
rather extreme for the ventilated psychrometer, as can be appreciated
from the fact that relative humidities lower than 5 per cent at dry
bulb temperatures of nearly 150°F were included in the measure-
ments.
An investigation of the conventional ventilated psychrometer un-
der such conditions showed that it did not correctly indicate the hu-
midity, when the Ferrel formula? was used. The psychrometric con-
stant required to give a correct value of the humidity increased with
an increase either in temperature or in wet-bulb depression. Experi-
ment indicated that this occurred because the temperature of the
water in the wet-bulb supply tube was materially above the wet-bulb
temperature. Consequently, if sufficient water were supplied to the
wick to keep it wet, the water, not being cooled sufficiently by evapo-
ration before reaching the bulb, raised the temperature above evap-
oration temperature.
Increasing the length of exposed wick between the supply tube and
the bulb did not correct this condition, as the resultant diminished
water supply to the wet bulb was not adequate to maintain wetness
under conditions causing wet-bulb depressions of over 60 Fahrenheit
degrees.
1 Received November 26, 1932.
? Report of Chief Signal Officer, U.S.A., 1886. p. 249.
121
Ma” 91 49099
122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
It was obvious that better, if not satisfactory, results could be ob-
tained by maintaining the water supply at or near wet-bulb tempera-
ture. This was accomplished automatically in both of the two modi-
fied types of psychrometer which are shown in Figures 1 and 2. In
both of these instruments the air supply is passed over the dry and
wet-bulb thermometers as in other ventilated psychrometers. In the
instrument shown in Figure 1, the air which has passed the thermome-
ters is passed over the wet-bulb water-supply tube, which is electro-
plated with silver, perforated by a number of small holes, and sur-
rounded with a wick, thus constituting an auxiliary wet bulb. In this
apparatus this auxiliary wet bulb is in the wake of the thermometric
wet bulb. The apparatus shown in Figure 2 is similar, except that
both the thermometer wet bulb and the auxiliary wet bulb are cooled
by the air the humidity of which is to be determined. The instrument
illustrated in Figure | is adapted to conditions where the volume of
air to be handled is small, while that illustrated in Figure 2 may be
used where the volume is large.
Since the auxiliary wet bulb, in the first case mentioned, is in the
wake of the thermometric wet bulb, it cannot attain as low a tem-
perature as the latter. In practice, however, the temperature of the
wet-bulb water supply was within one or two Fahrenheit degrees of
the temperature of the thermometric wet bulb. This difference caused
no difficulty, as was indicated by the invariance of the psychrometric
constant. In the second case, both the thermometric and the auxiliary
wet bulbs are cooled by air of the same humidity, and the water sup-
plied was cooled practically to evaporation temperature before reach-
ing the thermometer wick.
TABLE 1.—ConstantT Ao, oF MopiFIED PSYCHROMETER
Equivalent
No. Runs | No. Obs. Altitude soi EEA Blih Ao Comparison
ft. per cent
11 53 Sea Level | Over 60 Cae 7 0.000642 | Psychrometer*
il if % 56.8 0.6 0.000656 .
7 7 a : ca 20 Over 80 0.000638 %
1 8 12,500 COs il ois oll) 0.000646 ss
iL 14 28 , 000° CO CO 20 0.000663 ;
1 Dine 30, 000° CO A (AO PAD 0.C00678 a
58 Daler Sea Level] 21 to 64 /|0.6to 64 0.000648 i
14 53 Ci 21 to 65 5 to 63 0.000650 | Chem. Analysis
@ Checked against a comparison psychrometer, the latter operating under favorable conditions. See Appendix.
> Subject to rather large errors because pulsation in air stream rendered air pressure measurements uncertain. Exhaust pump
operating at capacity. Note that only 2 observations were taken at 30,000 ft.
MARCH 15, 1933 BROOKS AND ALLEN: PSYCHROMETRY 123
PRESSURE EQUALIZER TOFLOAT CHAMBER
fii [dO
Tn | ds
Lo,
re
Yj
Y
j
r j
_ G
GZ G
Bl SECTION Z-z
Cc
ENLARGED SECTION OF WATER
SUPPLY TUBE IN REGION E.
ot:
qT A
~2rt ag
Figure 1.—Psychrometer No. 1. A—Wet-bulb thermometer; B—Dry-bulb ther-
mometer; C—Enlarged section of water supply tube (F) in region (#); D—Wick for
wet-bulb thermometer; G—Auxiliary wet bulb; H—Minimum distance between ther-
mometers; /—Orifice.
124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
so SS
S
NAA
SAN
SANNA
CLZLLLLLLLL LLL LL LLL
Figure 2.—Psychrometer No. 2. A—Wet-bulb thermometer; B—Dry-bulb ther-
mometer; C—Thermal shields; D—Wick for wet-bulb thermometer; H—Auxiliary
wick; F—Water supply tube.
The results of tests summarized in Table 1 were obtained by the
use of a set-up which permitted the variation of temperature, hu-
midity, and air pressure (altitude). The methods used in evaluating
the psychrometric constant A, are discussed hereinafter. It can be
seen from the values of A» given in Table 1 that this quantity is es-
sentially a constant for the modified psychrometer, over a rather wide
range of temperature, relative humidity, and air pressure or altitude.
TESTS AT ‘“‘ALTITUDE”’
One point possibly of interest to meteorologists was noted during
the “altitude” runs. Before making tests to evaluate A, under any
set of conditions, runs were made to determine the requisite ventila-
tion. Figure 3 is a plot of the results of tests at sea level and at 29,500
ft. equivalent altitude, in which the values of the psychrometric con-
stant, corrected to 0°C, are plotted against the ventilation, expressed
as average air speed past the instrument in cm. per second. It is ap-
parent that the requisite speed is higher at the lower air pressure. The
relation of the two is made obvious when the constant is plotted
MARCH 15, 1933 BROOKS AND ALLEN: PSYCHROMETRY 125
Symbol Bar,mm Altitude, ft
x 750
o 230
4] 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 6800
Air Speed, cm per sec.
Figure 3.—Variation of coefficient ‘‘A,’”’ with average air speed, at sea level and at
29,500 feet.
ao a2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Velocity Heed, mm Hi, 0
Figure 4.—Variation of coefficient ‘‘A,’’ with air velocity head, at sea level and at
29,500 feet.
126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
against ventilation expressed as velocity head in terms of a fluid of
constant density, as in Figure 4. The velocity head is here defined as
1ov?, where p is the air density and v is the average air speed. Tests
at various altitudes agree in demonstrating that the air speed for
adequate ventilation varies inversely as the square root of the air
pressure. Thus, if a certain psychrometer requires 3 meters per second
ventilation at sea level, it will require 4 meters per second at 15,000
ft., 5 meters per second at 25,000 ft., and 6 meters per second at 32,000
ft. While this would be of little or no consequence if the psychrometer
had ample ventilation, the accuracy of one having barely adequate
ventilation at sea level might be impaired at even moderate altitudes.
SUB-FREEZING TESTS
As a matter of interest, tests were run also in which the evaporation
temperature was below zero. By operating at reduced air pressure, the
wet bulb depression was increased to a point such that residual errors
of temperature measurement had little effect on the results.
Three types of ‘“‘wet bulb” were studied in this work: (a) super-
cooled water supplied as at normal temperatures; (b) ice frozen on a
wick; and (c) ice formed as a coat on the bare thermometer bulb.
When operating with supercooled water at temperatures from
—2°C to —6°C, no definite variation of the psychrometer constant
was observed in the course of 30 tests. However, the value of the con-
stant was about 0.00069; furthermore, the top of the wick appeared
to be insufficiently wet. This did not occur when operating above or
near zero. |
Tests were made with ice formed on a wick, either (1) by immersion
in distilled water at zero, and subsequent freezing, or (2) by operating
the psychrometer so as to maintain the wet bulb above zero until the
wick was saturated, then so altering conditions as to induce freezing.’
By method (1) the constant was about the same as with supercooled
water (See Figure 5, solid circle); by method (2) it was somewhat va-
riable and higher than by method (1).
In the ice-coated wet-bulb experiments, ice films of thickness up
to about one millimeter were used. A film of 0.5 mm. thickness was
noted to have about as rapid response to fluctuations in humidity
as the ordinary wick-covered wet-bulb. Figure 5 shows the results of
tests to determine ventilation requirements with ice bulbs. The solid
line is the mean characteristic for wick-covered wet bulbs; the broken
3 At times this was not possible. With water super-cooled to —5°C, mechanical agi-
tation of the wick frequently failed to cause freezing.
MARCH 15, 1933 BROOKS AND ALLEN: PSYCHROMETRY 127
line represents the same values multiplied by the ratio of the latent
heat of evaporation of water to that of ice. From this figure it appears
that the ventilation requirement for ice-covered bulbs varies with
altitude in the same manner as that of ordinary wet bulbs; further,
there appears to be no material difference in the ventilation require-
ment of ice bulbs and wet bulbs. However, ice-coated bulbs cool more
slowly. The effect of this is to make the time lag somewhat greater
Bar,mm. ‘Altitude, ft
256 27000
266 26000
19500
10000
9000
0.0 a2 ag 0.6 8g
Velocity Head, mm H,0
Figure 5.—Variation of coefficient ‘A,’ with air velocity head, at various altitudes
for ice-coated bulbs.
for ice-coated bulbs than for wet bulbs, even though the response is
essentially the same. From the data obtained it appears that:
1. At temperatures near zero, psychrometer observations should
if possible be made with super-cooled water;
2. At lower temperatures, more exact results can be obtained by
discarding the wet-bulb wick, replacing it with a thin film of ice, and
reducing the constant in proportion to the ratio of the latent heat of
evaporation of water to that of ice, which is 0.882.
3. The ventilation velocity required will be the same in this case
128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
as with the ordinary wet bulb; the time required to reach evaporation
temperature will be roughly four times that with the wet bulb.
4. If a frozen wick is used, the constant required is the same as that
for water. This fact may be ascribed to two factors, tending to pro-
duce opposite effects, approximately equal in amount, namely, the
lower value of the constant required with ice, and the partial drying
of the wick, in the time required to reach equilibrium.
5. An ice film of 0.5 mm. thickness is approximately as sensitive
as a wick covered wet bulb; such a film exposed to an air stream of 5
meters per second will last roughly one hour, with a saturation deficit
of approximately 3 mm. mercury.
A NEW PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Humidity ordinarily is found from the dry and wet-bulb tempera-
tures by double interpolation in a table listing pressure of water va-
por, dew point, or relative humidity at a definite barometric pressure;
then, if accuracy is desired, a correction, obtained from a second table
is applied for the difference between the tabular and the observed
barometric pressures. |
A much simpler method of obtaining humidity is afforded by use of
the chart, Figure 6. The accuracy with which the vapor pressure can
be estimated from this chart when reproduced to a size of 8 by 10
inches is about 0.005 in mercury or better, which is sufficient for ordi-
nary purposes.
To use this chart, place a straightedge so that it intersects the ex-
treme left scale at the value of the difference between wet- and dry-
bulb temperatures, and intersects the wet-bulb scale at the value of
wet-bulb temperature. Extend this line to its intersection with the
vertical line representing the barometric pressure, and read the cor- .
rected pressure of water vapor on the scale at the extreme right.
To determine the relative humidity, transfer the value of the pres:
sure of water vapor thus obtained to the same value on the heavy
vertical line representing standard barometric pressure. Connect by
a straight line the point so obtained and the point representing the
value of the dry bulb temperature on the diagonal line marked ‘‘Dry
Bulb.” Extend this line to its intersection with the vertical line on
the left, and read the relative humidity on the inner left scale.
In obtaining the pressure of water vapor when the wet-bulb tem-
perature is below freezing, the ‘‘Wet Bulb’’ scale is employed if the
psychrometer was used with either supercooled water or a frozen
wick. However, if the evaporation temperature was obtained with an
MARCH 15, 1933 BROOKS AND ALLEN: PSYCHROMETRY 129
ice-coated thermometer, the ‘‘Ice Bulb”’ scale, to the right of the ‘Wet
Bulb” scale, must be used.
The precision and time saving resulting from use of the chart in-
stead of computations from the psychrometric formula or estimation
from the Psychrometric Tables? was found from a series of timed com-
putations, and is shown in the following tabulation:
Formula Tables Chart
Average deviation from computed humidity
“HY TUB TTY, 1 (apa ep a ee ~ = 0.0036 0.0021
Average deviation from computed values of rela-
HIME MUMMAGIG ys DEF CENb. .. 2 es ee ee — 0.40 0.36
Relative time required for estimation........... 6 2 1
It will be seen that estimations from the chart are at least as pre-
cise as are determinations from the tables, and are twice as rapid.
This information was obtained using a preliminary chart, not as pre-
cise as is Figure 6. Estimation of humidity from a chart, 16 by 20
inches in size, should not appreciably impair the precision even of re-
sults obtained by use of the modified psychrometers described herein.
The method of constructing this type of chart is described else-
where,° except for the scales of relative humidity and dry bulb tem-
perature. The ‘Dry Bulb” scale lies on a line connecting zero relative
humidity with zero pressure of water vapor; the point-on this line
corresponding to a given temperature is located by passing a line
through 100 per cent relative humidity and through the saturation
pressure (scale at right) corresponding to the temperature in question.
The point required lies at the intersection of this line with the dry
bulb scale. This operation should be done analytically rather than
graphically.
METHODS USED IN CALIBRATING PSYCHROMETERS
Calibration of a psychrometer by comparison with humidity values
obtained by absorption methods, while precise if done by an expert
technician, is laborious. Calibrations by comparison with another
psychrometer, drawing air from the same source, may be made
readily and rapidly, and under proper conditions are accurate.
Three methods of calibration by comparison with another psy-
chrometer have been utilized in this work. In no ease is it necessary
to compute the actual humidity of the air supply. All methods are
based on the applicability of the general psychrometric formula, and
4 W. B. No. 235, 1912.
> Bureau of Standards Jour. of Research, Nov. 1929. 795.
DRY BULB MINUS WET BULB °F
40
35
30
25
20
130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
on the premise that both psychrometers draw air from the same
source.°®
The first of these methods, which was developed for the study of
the modified psychrometer at high temperatures and low humidities,
108
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Figure 6.—Chart for estimation of pressure of water vapor and relative humidity
from psychrometric observations.
consists in comparing its readings with those of another psychrometer,
the latter drawing air from the same source but at a temperature(or
pressure) in the range known to allow accurate measurement of hu-
midity. Even when the humidity is not accurately determined, it can
be shown mathematically that the constant found for the test psy-
chrometer will be but little affected thereby.
The second method was developed for study of the modified psy-
chrometer at reduced air pressures, simulating altitude operation.
6 See appendix for theory involved in these methods.
INCHES HG
HUMIDITY
MARCH 15, 1933 BROOKS AND ALLEN: PSYCHROMETRY 131
One of the two identical psychrometers was operated at sea-level
pressure (hence under known conditions) and the other at reduced
pressures. As a study of the results by means of the first method
(above) showed no marked deviation of the constants of the two in-
struments from the theoretical value, a mean value of the constant
will be obtained by assuming the constants of the two psychrometers
to be identical. The mean constant was thus obtained without the
necessity of assuming a value of the constant for either instrument.
This method is applicable to operation at different temperatures as
well as at different pressures.
TABLE 2.—DETERMINATION OF PSYCHROMETER CONSTANT
Comparison Psychrometer Test Psychrometer
Run No. 1 2 1 2
Barometer, mm. Hg 748 .6 748 .3 485.5 748.3
Dry Bulb, °C 4.80 4.79 5 OF 4.54
Wet Bulb, °C —0.63 (water) —0.60 —3.12 (ice) —1.14
Constant, 3rd Method 0.000653 0.000570
Theoretical constant 0.000652 0.000575
Constant, lst Method (Assumed 0.000652) 0.000570 0.000569
If, as in the case of the ice-bulb tests, there is a theoretical reason
why the constants should not be equal for the two instruments, the
second method, above, is not applicable. To meet this case, and to
obviate the necessity inherent in the first method, for assuming the
value of the constant of the comparison psychrometer, a third method
was developed. This method requires readings on both psychrometers
under not less than two sets of conditions. The more diverse the con-
ditions are for either psychrometer, the more precise is the value of
the constant obtained for it. By this method, the constant is sepa-
rately obtained for each psychrometer, the sole assumption being that
each constant, corrected for variation of latent heat of evaporation
with temperature, is the same under the two sets of conditions.
The following example serves to illustrate the use of this method.
In one of the “‘ice-bulb”’ tests, the comparison psychrometer was op-
erated at sea-level pressure, using supercooled water, while the test
psychrometer, operated first at reduced pressure, then at sea-level,
had an ice-coated thermometer serving as the ‘‘wet bulb.’’ The ob-
servations and results are given in Table 2.
Table 3 gives an idea as to the relative precision to be expected of
each of the comparison methods described above, under representa-
tive conditions.
a
ee:
132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
From this table it is apparent that, even if it be assumed that no
error is involved in the chemical measurement of humidity the proba-
ble error of the psychrometric constant as determined by these com-
TABLE 3.—ComPpaARISON OF METHODS FOR EVALUATING THE
PsyCHROMETRIC CONSTANT
GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS
Air to test psychrometer at 30°C except Method D, Case 2; pressure of water vapor
1 per cent of total pressure. The probable error of the psychrometric constant is given
as millionths of a unit per hundredth of a degree probable error in temperature measure-
ments.
Method Specific Assumptions Error of
A(X105)
A—Chemical comparison Chemical error zero 1
B—Psychrometric com- Comparison psychrometer air at 10°C;
parison its constant assumed (660 + 30) X 1075 1.4
C—Psychrometric com- Constants assumed equal. Test psychro-
parison meter at 380 mm. Hg. pressure, compari-
son psychrometer at 760 3.3
D—Psychrometric com- No assumptions regarding constants.
parison Case 1. One set of runs with test psy-
chrometer at 760 mm. Hg., comparison at
380; second set with pressures reversed 5
Case 2. One set, one dry bulb 30°C, other 0.
60°C; second set temperatures reversed.
~I 0
parison methods is such as to recommend their use, in view of the
much greater rapidity with which determinations can be made.
APPENDIX
CALIBRATION OF PSYCHROMETERS BY INTERCOMPARISON
The general psychrometric formula is
E = E — A.B(T — T')\1 + CT’) (1)
where
E =pressure of water vapor
E’ =vapor pressure of water (saturation pressure) at temperature 7’
B =barometric pressure
T =air temperature
T’ =evaporation temperature
Ao=psychometric constant at 0°C
C =factor dependent on variation of latent heat of evaporation with temperature.
MARCH 15, 1933 BROOKS AND ALLEN: PSYCHROMETRY 133
In the subsequent equations, capital letters refer to the comparison, or standard
psychrometer, and lower case letters, having the same meanings, to the test psychrom-
eter. Since both draw air from the same source,
oe (2)
From equations (1) and (2) the formulae for the three comparison methods are
derived.
First Method
Value of Ao assumed; value of ao required
From (1) and its counterpart
e =e’ — aob(t — t’)(1 + ct’) . (3)
and from equation (2) above,
_ Be — bE! + ABOUT — T/)(1 + CT") ce
not Bo(t —t’)(1 + ct’)
Formula (4) enables evaluation of the test psychrometer constant.
Second Method
Go assumed equal to Ao
From equations (1), (2) and (3), and the above assumption,
a Be’ — bE’ (5)
a = S MS Oi —._>
o Bolt — 1) + et’) — (F — T)A + CPT))
If, as is the case when both wet bulbs are using water, c=C, formula (5) may be
simplified accordingly.
Third Method
Ao and dp to be evaluated
To simplify the equations, let
2— (Eh (sR)
y= —-—1)1 +e)
Be’ — bE’
DO
¢=
and let the subscripts 1 and 2 denote the values for the successive sets of conditions
under which each psychrometer is operated.
Then from formulae (1) and (2)
Aor — ay = 41
(6)
Aor. — Aoy2 = 2
and
Ane Y122 — Yor
T2Y1 — L1Y2 (7)
W122 = VY221
ON) ae
T2Y1 — LY2
If more than two observations on each psychrometer are to be included, the general
equation
Aor — Any = 2 (8)
134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
is solved for the psychrometric constants. Using the method of Least Squares
ZY ace — eye
Ao =
2a 2y" — ary)
(9)
LLY ZLL — De Dyz
ay =a _ -
Lazy — (aay)?
BOTAN Y.—WNew grasses from Kashmir.! A. 8. HitcHcock, Bureau of
Plant Industry.
Recently there was received for identification, from Dr. E. D. Mer-
rill, Director of the New York Botanical Garden, a package of grasses
collected in Kashmir, by Walter Koelz, for the Urusvati Himalayan
Research Institute, Roerich Museum, Naggar (Punjab), India. The
specimens were transmitted to Dr. Merrill by Dr. R. R. Stewart,
Professor of Biology in Gordon College, Rawalpindi, India. Among
them were two undescribed species, one of which represents a new
genus.
The new genus belongs to the tribe Chlorideae, and is allied, though
not closely, to Leptochloa and to Trichoneura. The type species was
collected at an altitude of 15,500 feet, which fact suggested the generic
name (from one of the Greek words meaning a mountain dweller), and
was found growing on sand dunes, which fact suggested the specific
name.
The other species belongs to a genus of which only two species, both
Asiatic, were previously known. The original, or type species, was de-
scribed a few years ago by the Russian botanist Roshevitz (Timouria
saposhnikowi Roshev.) from a specimen collected in the Tian-Shan,
Turkestan. A few years later I proposed a new genus of grasses based
upon a species (Psammochloa mongolica Hitche.), from Mongolia.
Soon after the publication of this genus I discovered that it was the
same as Timouria of Roshevitz (his publication having been inacces-
sible because of the World War) but was based upon a different spe-
cies.2 Now a third species comes to our attention from Kashmir. The
genus Timouria is allied to Oryzopsis.
Timouria aurita Hitchc., sp. nov.
Perennis, glauca; rhizomata repentia; culmi erecti, scaberuli, 60 cm. alti,
nodis glabris; vaginae retrorso-scaberulae, inferioribus albidis; ligula mem-
branacea, ciliata, 1 mm. longa; laminae erectae, involutae, scabrae, 10-30
em. longae, 1-3 mm. latae, apice pungente; panicula angusta, pallens vel
1 Received November 8, 1932.
2 For a discussion of this subject see This JoURNAL 17: 140. 1927, and 18: 502. 1928.
MARCH 15, 1933 HITCHCOCK: NEW KASHMIR GRASSES 135
purpurascens, circa 10 cm. longa, ramis appressis, inferioribus inferne nudis;
spiculae brevipedicellatae, pedicellis seabris; glumae membranaceae, acutae,
scaberulae, 7 mm. longae; lemma villosum, glumis paulo brevius, apice
bidentato, dentibus setiformibus, 3-4 mm. longis; arista curvata, persistens,
1 em. longa.
Fig. 1.—Timouria au-
rita. Glumesand floret X 5
dia.; summit of lemma
X10 dia.
Fig. 2.—Orinus arenicola. Upper part of
panicle, natural size; spikelet <5 dia.
Perennial, with slender hard scaly rhizomes; foliage glaucous, the lower
part of the plant pale or whitish; culms erect, scaberulous, about 60 cm.
tall, the nodes glabrous; sheaths retrorsely scaberulous; ligule membranace-
ous, lacerate and ciliate, 1 mm. long or less; blades erect, scabrous, flat or
mostly involute, 10 to 30 cm. long, 1 to 3 mm. wide, attenuate to a fine sharp
whitish point; basal prophylli prominent, 5 to 10 cm. long, sharp-pointed;
panicle narrow, pale or purplish, 10 cm. long, the branches appressed, the
lower somewhat remote, naked below, these and the short pedicels scabrous;
glumes nearly equal, rather broad, membranaceous, 3-nerved, acute,
scaberulous, about 7 mm. long; lemma a little shorter than the glumes,
densely long-villous, 3-nerved, bidentate, the teeth setiform, 3 to 4 mm.
long; awn from between the teeth of the lemma, somewhat curved, not
twisted, persistent, scaberulous, about 1 cm. long.
136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
Type in U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1535770, collected in sand at
Kugzil, Rupshu, Kashmir, Western Himalayas, India, alt. about 4300
meters, July 16, 1931, by Walter Koelz (no. 2328).
This species differs from the others in the setiform teeth of the lemma and
in the more persistent awn.
Orinus Hitchce., gen. nov.
Spiculae pauciflorae, secus rhachin continuam breviter pedicellatae; ra-
chilla teres, glabra, supra glumas et inter flores articulata; glumae mem-
branaceae, acutae, paulum inaequales; lemmata prominente 3-nervia, villosa,
obtusiuscula, mutica, apice iIntegro. Gramen perenne, rhizomatibus repenti-
bus; racemi secus axem erectum adscendentes; culmi caespitosi, erecti;
laminae planae vel involutae. (dpe.vos, a Mountaineer.)
Spikelets few-flowered, short-pediceled in one row along one side of a
continuous rachis, appressed, the rachilla disarticulating above the glumes
and between the florets, the flowers perfect; glumes membranaceous, acute,
slightly unequal; lemmas prominently 3-nerved, villous, awnless, the ob-
tusish apex entire. Perennial, with creeping rhizomes; panicle of several
racemes along an elongate erect axis; culms cespitose, erect; blades flat,
becoming involute.
Type species, Orinus arenicola.
This genus differs from Leptochloa Sect. Diplachne, and from Tricho-
neura, in the entire awnless apex of the lemmas and in the villous pubescence
evenly distributed over the lemma instead of confined to the nerves.
Orinus arenicola Hitchc., sp. nov.
Culmi glabri, 30-50 cm. alti; vaginae villosae vel glabrescentes; ligula 1
mm. longa; laminae 1-3 mm. latae, apice pungente; panicula 5-15 cm.
longa; racemi 5-8, recti, 1-7 cm. longi; spiculae 2—3-florae; glumae 4—5 mm.
longae; lemmata 3.5—4 mm. longa.
Culms cespitose, firm, erect, slender, glabrous, 30 to 50 cm. tall, from hard
scaly creeping rhizomes; sheaths rather densely to sparsely villous, the
lower glabrous, yellow; ligule about 1 mm. long, thin, lacerate; blades flat,
becoming involute, sparsely pilose, 3 to 10 cm. long, 2 to 5 mm. wide, the
apex sharp and finally hard; panicle 5 to 15 cm. long, with 5 to 8 erect or
ascending racemes 1 to 7 cm. long, the lower naked at base; spikelets pale
or leaden-purplish tinged, about 6 mm. long, 2 to 3-flowered, rarely 4-
flowered, the rachilla slender, glabrous, the internode between the first and
second floret about 1 mm. long; glumes pale, 4 to 5 mm. long, sparsely villous
to nearly glabrous, acute, the first 1-nerved, the second 3-nerved; lemmas
dark, often spotted, 4.5 to 5 mm. long, keeled, somewhat concave between
the nerves, the obtusish tip hyaline; palea about as long as the lemma, villous;
stamens 3, the anthers 3 mm. long; stigmas 2, plumose.
Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1535771, collected in bare sand,
at Tsaka, Ladak, Kashmir, Western Himalayas, India, alt. 4700 meters,
July 18, 1931, by Walter Koelz (no. 2365).
MARCH 15, 1933 CHASE: A NEW TEXAS GRASS Mei
BOTANY.—A new grass from Texas.! AGNES CHASE, Bureau of Plant
Industry.
Within the last year four previously unknown grasses were dis-
covered in Texas. Recently another, not closely related to any other
North American species, was sent to the Grass Herbarium by Mr.
_ J. F. Combs, county agricultural agent, Beaumont, Texas. This grass
has been found in three places only, all in Jefferson County, eastern
Texas. Besides these new species several grasses not previously known
from the United States have been found in Texas.
Paspalum almum Chase
Planta perennis caespitosa; culmi compressi, simplices, 30-50 cm. alti;
vaginae carinatae glabrae; laminae 5-17 cm. longae, 2-3 mm. latae, basi
hirsutae; racemi 2-3, approximati, 5-9 cm. longi; rhachis 1 mm. lata;
spiculae solitariae, 3 mm. longae, 1.8—2 mm. latae, glabrae; gluma 5-nervis;
lemma 5-nerve.
Fig. 1.—Paspalum almum. Inflorescence, natural size; two views of spikelet and
one of fruit X 10 dia.
A densely tufted perennial; culms ascending to spreading, simple, 30 to
50 cm. tall, flattened, glabrous; leaves crowded toward the base; sheaths
keeled, glabrous, the lower overlapping; ligule pale, membranaceous, about
1.5 mm. long; blades flat, rather firm, 5 to 17 em. long (the uppermost re-
duced), 2 to 3 mm. wide, long-hirsute on the upper surface at base, papillose-
1 Received November 8, 1932.
138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
hirsute on the lower surface toward the ends, usually with a few hairs on the
upper surface, the margins stiffly ciliate toward base; racemes commonly 2,
sometimes 3, approximate (the common axis 5 to 20 mm. long), ascending,
often somewhat recurved, 5 to 9 cm. long; rachis flexuous, 1 mm. wide, with
a narrow winged margin, glabrous, the margin and midvein above scabrous;
spikelets on minute flat pedicels, solitary, scarcely imbricate, 3 mm. long,
1.8 to 2 mm. wide, obovate-elliptic, glabrous; glume and sterile lemma equal,
5-nerved, the lemma slightly concave and sometimes faintly fluted; fruit -
slightly smaller than the spikelet, smooth and shining.
Type U.S. National Herbarium no. 1,535,768, collected on fine sandy and
silty clay loam, near Beaumont, Jefferson County, Texas, September 8,
1932 by J. F. Combs.
This very distinct species belongs in the Notata group but is not closely
allied to any of its five North American species.
Mr. Combs writes that the species is found only on the Lake Charles
soils, derived from sedimentary deposits in the Coastal Plain, and that it is
an excellent forage grass, hence the specific name, almum, nourishing.
BOTAN Y.—Morphological diversity among fungi capturing and de-
stroying nematodes.! CHARLES DRECHSLER, Bureau of Plant In-
dustry.
Nematodes mostly of the genera Rhabditis and Diplogaster infesting
agar plate cultures prepared from plantings of diseased rootlets or
other decaying plant materials have been found destroyed often in
such enormous numbers that the numerous heaped masses of their
remains became visible to the naked eye as scabby superficial de-
posits. Among these fungi the one (Fig. 1, A) discussed by Zopf? as
Arthrobotrys oligospora Fres. was often encountered. Three species
evidently closely related to it and similarly having 1-septate conidia—
one (Fig. 2, A) with the markedly smaller spores divided into some-
what less unequal cells and borne usually in one or two whorls on
minute sterigmata; another (Fig. 3, A) bearing longer conidia with
characteristically tapering basal cells, usually in a single terminal
whorl likewise on sterigmata distributed over a recognizable enlarge-
ment; and a third (Fig. 4, A) with straight or slightly curved elon-
gated ellipsoidal conidia borne in looser capitate arrangement on a
terminal head of stubby branches—showed close similarity to A.
oligospora also in manner of capture and killing. The animal was
caught in one or more of the anastomosing hyphal loops (Figs. 2, B;
3, B) produced abundantly on the surface of the substratum by all
1 Received February 10, 1933.
2 Nova Acta K. Leop.-Carol. Deut. Acad. Naturf. 52: 314-341. 1888.
MARCH 15, 1933 DRECHSLER: NEMA CAPTURING FUNGI 139
these fungi and coated on their inner surfaces at least in large part
with a transparent highly adhesive substance. Soon its integument
was narrowly perforated by one or several processes arising usually
from the inner face of the loop, and its internal structure fatally dis-
rupted by the rapid intrusion of one or several inflated parts often
very largely and sometimes completely occupying the body section
involved (Fig. 3, C). Likewise in a species (Fig. 5, A) with 3-septate,
obovoid spores borne in loose capitate arrangement on short subapical
Figs. 1-10.—Various nema-capturing fungi, each numeral denoting a separate
species, and all species drawn with the aid of the camera lucida at the same magnifica-
tion; X500. A, Conidiophore (shown completely only in Fig. 2) with attached conid-
ium of approximately average size, shape and condition with respect to septation. B,
Organs of capture, either adhesive hyphal loops or adhesive knob-cells. C, Internal
disruptive development of fungus, or its external constrictive swelling, Figs. 3, 7 and 8
showing condition at the time the animal’s movements ceased. D, Intramatrical resting
reproductive structures. m, Adhesive mucous substance. Fig. 11.—Portion of fertile
branch of Harposporitum angutllulae, 1000.
branches as well as on the apex, large loops often in extensive anas-
tomosing systems are formed, and the same mode of capture, penetra-
tion and internal disruption of the animal prevails. In a species (Fig.
6, A) with narrower, 4-septate, spindle-shaped conidia borne similarly
in terminal, somewhat loose, branching capitate arrangement, the
rather small loops are supplemented by globose cells borne on delicate
lateral hyphal branches (Fig. 6, B). These cells, like the homologous
but more robust structures (Fig. 7, B) of a closely related species
(Fig. 7, A) that produces mostly solitary, 4-septate, broader, spindle-
140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 3
shaped conidia, capture their prey by means of a strongly adhesive
substance which becomes visible as a transparent disc-shaped cushion
surrounding the point of contact with the struggling animal (Fig.
7, C). Penetration of the integument and production of an expanded
part within ensues as in the case of the loops. It was undoubtedly such
adhesive globose cells that Zopf interpreted, in excusable error, as
conidia of his Monosporidium repens. Capture by adhesion, associated,
however, with the formation by the fungus of a strongly inflated,
thick-walled, yellow distension mostly outside the animal though
with a smaller distal lobe protruding within (Fig. 8, C), is prevalent
in a fungus having a large, non-septate, obovoid spore borne singly
at the apex of a non-septate sporophore, the latter arising from a non-
septate mycelium suggesting the mycelium of species of Pythiwm in
the appearance of its protoplasmic contents (Fig. 8, A). Adhesion on
hyphal tips, accompanied with rather little differentiation of vege-
tative parts both outside and inside of the animal (Fig. 9, C), appears
to be effective in the somewhat more feebly predacious activity of a
fungus bearing solitary spores, inverse pyramidal, distally twice bi-
furcate, usually 4 to 7 septate,—two transverse septa regularly oc-
curring in the narrowing proximal part, two oblique ones regularly
delimiting laterally a third or central cell, the remaining partitions
being variously disposed in the divergent lobes (Fig. 9, A). A fungus
(Fig. 10, A) bearing a large, solitary, obovoid, 1-septate conidium,
the disproportionately large distal cell of which latter is often encased
in a mucous coating, captures its prey in mostly intramatrical, ver-
tically oriented hyphal loops (Fig. 10, B), killing it however, not by
protrusion of a bulbous outgrowth within the animal’s body, but by
constriction effected through pronounced swelling of the three loop-
cells, the swelling taking place more especially toward the center of
the loop (Fig. 10, C).
In addition to the aerial colorless conidia that readily become de-
tached from the rather tall (.1 to .6 mm.) colorless conidiophores
present in all the nema-capturing fungi discussed, several species have
been found to produce within the substratum yellow resting repro-
ductive structures, usually terminally on single somewhat inflated
cells,—the whole arrangements of parts, with the sometimes loosely
enveloping outer membrane, curiously suggesting sexual apparatus
of certain oomycetes. The seven fungi first referred to, which have
been isolated, show in pure culture a correspondence in vegetative
and sporulating habits that indicates a much closer natural relation-
ship than distribution among such genera as Arthrobotrys, Cephalo-
MARCH 15, 1933 CASSIDY: A BIVULVAR NEMA 141
thecvcum, Trichothecvum, Dactylaria, and Dactylella might seem to im-
ply.
The non-predacious parasite described in detail by Zopf as Harpo-
sportum anguillulae Lohde was also often found highly destructive to
nemas in many agar cultures. In undisturbed and well developed ma-
terial four of the crescentic spores were rather regularly seen attached
to the tip of the slender cylindrical outgrowth arising from the spher-
ical part sessile on the fertile branch, thus plausibly characterizing
the flask-shaped structure as a basidium, and the fungus as a basidi-
omycete (Fig. 11).
ZOOLOGY .—A bivulvar specimen of the nematode Mononchus mus-
corum (Dwardin) Bastian.:| GERTRUDE HENDERSON CASSIDY,
Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association. (Communicated by G.
STEINER. )
Mononchus muscorum (Dujardin) Bastian 1865? is a species of wide
geographical distribution; in 1930 specimens were found for the first
time on the island of Maui, Territory of Hawaii.’
During that year considerable numbers of Mononchus had been col-
lected from the islands of Oahu, Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai, and speci-
mens of twelve species identified. For the most part observations had
been restricted to the lower lying cultivated areas bearing sugar cane
and pineapples, but later it was considered advisable to include some
of the more remote forest lands and unfrequented mountainous ridges
with a view to determining the possible indigenous nematode popula-
tion of the Hawaiian Islands.
For this reason nemic collections were made at known elevations
on the slopes of Haleakala, the highest mountain on the island of
Maui. The ascent was made under the direction of the forest ranger
and a route selected which is seldom if ever frequented save by an
occasional pheasant hunter or by the inspecting forester.
The various collections present a wide range of nematode genera
including several species of predacious mononchs,—among them the
specimen of M. muscorum depicted which was found in loose cindery
soil surrounding dandelion roots growing on the east side of the crater
at an elevation of 8,000 feet. At this elevation practically all vegeta-
tive growth had ceased and only stunted grasses and occasional weeds
1 Received October 13, 1932.
2 Bastian, H.C. Monograph onthe Anguillulidae. Trans. Linn. Soc. London. 25:
103. 1865.
3 Cassipy, G. Some Mononchs of Hawaii. Hawaii. Planters’ Rec. 35: 330. 1931.
142 JOURNAL
4 Jum int
ae
- mov
Fig. 1. Bivulvar Mononchus muscorum: amph, amphid; anus, anus; cav som, so-
matic cavity; crd, cardia; dnts, pharyngeal teeth; flx ov, flexure of ovary; lum int,
lumen of intestine; lum oe, lumen of oesophagus; msc oe, musculature of oesophagus;
mrv r, nerve ring; on dsl, dorsal onchium; rib ph, pharyngeal rib; trm ov, terminus of
ovary; ut, uterus. X about 200.
MARCH 15, 1933 CASSIDY: A BIVULVAR NEMA 143
were to be found in the coarse cindery deposit of the upper volcanic
ridges.
This specimen of M. muscorum immediately attracted attention by
reason of the abnormality of the reproductive organs. Two well de-
veloped vulvar openings are clearly defined: one situated at 55 per
cent of the total body length, and the other at.66 per cent. (See Fig. 1.)
Three reflexed ovarian tubes are present: one, on the left side, lying
anterior to the proximal vulva; the other two situated anterior (left
side) and posterior (right side) to the distal vulva. The distal vulva is
regarded as more nearly approaching the normal by reason of the
slightly better development of the supporting muscles, by its position
(normal specimens commonly show the vulvar aperture at about 64
per cent) and because of the paired ovarian tubes and uteri connected
with it.
The percentage measurements of this specimen are as follows:
27 9.0 23.5 16-55 .0 15-66 . 01S- 91.0
ST
3.0 a 4.0 5.0 5.0 3.0
The percentage measurements of a normal specimen obtained from
the same collection are as follows:
2.7 9.0 23.5 16.64 _(16- 91.0
3.0 — 4.0 5.0 3.0
2.0 mm.
This is the fourth case of bivulvarity yet recorded from free-living
nemas. The first was mentioned by Biitschli* for a marine nematode
Iinhomoeus mirabilis Biitschli; the second by Paramonov? for the
freshwater species Trilobus gracilis Bastian, and the third by the
present writer’ for a Dorylaimus species. Undoubtedly all these cases
must be considered abnormal or even pathological. The one here de-
scribed is the most pronounced because it concerns not only a dupli-
cation of vulva and vagina, as in the instances mentioned by Bitschli,
Paramonov, and Cassidy, but the duplication includes also uterus and
ovary.
From the description and figure given by Biitschli, it is assumed
that only the anlage of vulva and vagina was doubled and this at a
rather late stage of development, judging from the close position of
the duplicates.
4 Butscuiu, O. Zur Kenntniss der freilebenden Nematoden, insbesondere der des
Kieler Hafens. Abhandl. d. Senckenb. naturf. Gesell. Frankfurt a.M. 9: 33. 1874.
* Paramonov, A. Uber einen Fall von “ Bivulvaritdt’’ bei einem freilebenden Nema-
toden. Russ. Hydrobiol. Ztschr. 5: 218-222. 1926.
x Cassipy, G. A meristic variation in a female nematode. Nature 121: 476-477.
1928.
144. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
The same was apparently true for Trilobus gracilis described by
Paramonov, but here the duplicates are more distant, suggesting a
somewhat earlier separation.
In the bivulvar Dorylaimus previously recorded by the present
writer there were two vulvae 0.062 mm. apart, each with a vagina,
a uterus, and an ovary. This suggests that a separation of the paired
anlage of the anterior and the posterior branch of the female appa-
ratus took place, since normally these dorylaims are amphidelphic.
In the Mononchus here described the duplication involves the whole
anterior branch of the normal female apparatus suggesting a separa-
tion of its anlage at a very early date of its development, but still at
a time when the anlage for the normal female apparatus would have
already divided into its anterior and posterior branch.
The causes for these duplications are unknown. It is remarkable
that they all concern female specimens and that up to the present no
such duplications have been observed in male nematodes.
ZOOLOGY .—Two new species of Isopod Crustaceans from California.'
J. O. Matonegy, U. S. National Museum. (Communicated by
Wa.xpo L. SCHMITT.)
In the course of his studies on littoral ecology at Monterey Bay,
California Coast, Dr. G. E. MacGinitie of the Hopkins Marine Sta-
tion obtained, among other crustaceans, two species of isopods of the
family Idotheidae which seem never to have been described, Synidotea
macginitie: and Pentidotea montereyensis. The description of each is
based on a male holotype preserved in alcohol.
A specimen from San Francisco Bay, however, has been taken as
the type of S. macginitiet, as Dr. MacGinitie’s specimens were small
and with adult characters not fully developed. The specimens from
San Francisco Bay were identified by earlier workers as Synidotea
laticauda,? though they are more closely related to Synidotea bicuspida
(Owen).?
Synidotea macginitiei, new species
Description.—Body ovate, length 15 mm., width 7.25 mm. (third and
fourth thoracic segments widest). Head 2.5 mm. long, 3.25 mm. wide, with
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-
ceived November 30, 1932. ,
2 BeNEDIcT, JAMES E. A revision of the genus Synidotea. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philadelphia, 1897. 389-404. figs. 1-13.
3 Ricuarpson, H. Monograph on the Isopods of North America. U.S.N.M. Bull.
54: pp. 1-lin, 1-727. figs. 1-740. 1905.
——e—
MARCH 15, 1933 MALONEY: NEW ISOPOD SPECIES 145
front produced on either side of a median excavation in a narrow border, the
lateral portions of which form an angle with the dorsal portion as in S.
bicuspida. Eyes not visible in a ventral view, small, round, and situated on
either side some distance from lateral margin which is expanded to form a
narrow border. First and second articles of first antenna about equal in
length; third, one and one-half times length of second; fourth a little shorter
than third. First pair of antennae extend to middle of fourth peduncular
joint of second pair. Basal and second articles of second antenna about equal
in length, basal article not visible in dorsal view; third and fourth each about
twice as long as second; fifth nearly as long as third and fourth together.
Flagellum consists of fifteen articles. terminal one tipped with a tuft of
hairs. Second antenna extends to posterior margin of third thoracic segment.
Ventral side of left outer lobe of first maxilla consists of eleven tooth-like
spines, many of them denticulate, and one long tapering spine. Some of the
long plumose hairs of outer lobe of second maxilla extend to second joint
of second antenna. (See Fig. 1.)
Fig. 1.—Synidotea macginitiei, new species. a, right second maxilla. 6, left maxilli-
ped; c, left first maxilla, outer lobe. d, left first maxilla, inner lobe.
The first segment of the thorax, measured on the median dorsal line, is
the shortest, following segments subequal. Lateral margins of segments al-
most straight.
Abdomen triangular in shape, length 6.75 mm., with median notch at
apex of terminal segment. Telson is similar to that of S. becuspida, and is as
wide at base as it is long. The legs are similar in shape; propodus, carpus,
and merus thickly beset with hairs on inner margin.
Color in alcohol a yellowish-brown with irregular markings of dark brown.
These markings prominent on head and longitudinal median portion of
146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
body. Sides of head below eyes and epimera with many small splotches of
dark brown.
Holotype.—A male, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 66413 taken by the Albatross in San
Francisco Bay, California has been selected as the type. Dr. MacGinitie
collected six specimens at Monterey Bay, of which the largest is 9.5 mm.
long. The species is named for him, as it was his material — first called
my attention to this new species.
Remarks.—This species is close to S. bicuspida, the more noticeable dif-
ferences being in the head and mouth parts. The frontal margin is more
nearly straight and the eyes more laterally situated in S. bicuspida than in
S. macginitier. A prominent lateral margin below the eyes is absent in S.
bicuspida. The epipod of the maxilliped, the outer lobe and relative length
of its plumose hairs of first maxilla, and the teeth and denticulations of
outer lobe of second maxilla are different in the two species.
Pentidotea montereyensis, new species
Description.—Body elongate, length 25 mm., width 3.75 mm., length of
abdomen 8 mm.; sides of thorax nearly parallel. Head wider than long, 4.5
mm. long, 3.25 mm. wide; frontal margin excavate, antero-lateral angles
rounded. Eyes moderately large, on lateral margin of head about half way
between anterior and posterior margins. First article of first antenna dilated,
three following articles subequal, terminal article clavate. First antenna
extends to distal end of second peduncular joint of second antenna. First
article of peduncle of second antenna very short, not visible from above;
next two articles equal in length and each a trifle shorter than either of the
two following, which are also equal in length; flagellum consisting of about
sixteen articles. The second antenna extends to middle of third thoracic
segment. The outer lobe of first maxilla has eleven tooth-like spines, several
of which are denticulate, and a long hair-like spine in the center. On ventral
surface there is a large setule in a cup-shaped articular cavity.
First and seventh segments of thorax equal in length, and a little shorter
than the others which are subequal. Epimera on second to fifth segments do
not extend entire lateral margin. (See Fig. 2.)
Abdomen consists of three segments, two of which are small; terminal
segment long, with lateral indications of a partially coalesced segment.
Telson convex and slightly excavate on lateral margins; posterior portion
broadly rounded with a small median point.
Legs similar in structure; propodus beset with hairs on inner margin.
Holotype-—A male, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 66414, one of three specimens
collected by Dr. McGinitie at Monterey Bay.
Remarks.—This species stands near Pentidotea aculeata Stafford,‘ dif-
fering mainly in the shape of thoracic segments, their epimera, and median
notch of telson. The lateral margins of the first three thoracic segments of
P. aculeata are more angulate, while those of P. montereyensis are almost
straight; the median notch in P. aculeata is much longer; and all the epimera
of P. aculeata extend to posterior margin, while in P. montereyensis only the
last two epimera do so.
4Srarrorp, B. E. Studies in Laguna Beach Isopoda. Jour. Ent. Zool. Clare-
mont, Cal. 5: 182-188. figs. 6-10. 1913.
MARCH 15, 1933 UCHIDA: PARASITE OF LASPEYRESIA 147
Fig. 2.—Pentidotea montereyensis, new species, a, right lateral side of thorax show-
ing epimera. b, left maxilliped. c, left first maxilla, inner lobe. d, left first maxilla, outer
lobe. e, left second maxilla.
ENTOMOLOGY.—A new parasite of Laspeyresia molesta Busck.'
T. Ucuipa, Hokkaido Imperial University, Sapporo, Japan.
(Communicated by HaroLtp Morrison.)
Laspeyresia molesta Busck, a very destructive pest of pears and ap-
ples, each year causes great losses to fruit culture in Japan. It is,
therefore, necessary to investigate the control of this pest. I have to
date found only one species of the family Ichneumonidae, Ephialtes
laspeyresiae Uchida, parasitic on L. molesta. But R. A. Cushman, of
the United States Bureau of Entomology, has just sent me specimens
of a second species reared from this host in Japan. This beneficial in-
sect appears to me to be new to science, and I describe it below.
My best thanks are hereby extended to R. A. Cushman, who sent
me this valuable material.
1 Received November 7, 1932.
148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
Dioctes molestae, new species
Female.—Head with fine, white pubescence, somewhat narrowed posteri-
orly; frons and face finely coriaceous punctate, opaque; clypeus not separated
from face; mandibles stout, teeth equal. Antennae filiform, somewhat more
than half as long as body. Thorax opaque, densely, finely punctate and
pubescent like the head; mesopleurum with nearly opaque speculum;
scutellum flat; areolation of propodeum distinct, costulae strong, area super-
omedia open behind, area basalis very narrow. Tibial spurs somewhat
shorter than metatarsus; claws sparsely pectinate. Abdomen weakly com-
pressed toward apex; postpetiole longer than broad, nearly smooth, weakly
shining, second segment distinctly longer than broad, a little impressed
at base, third quadrate, the others broader than long. Ovipositor weakly
curved upward, half as long as abdomen. Wings hyaline; disco-cubitus
curved in middle.
Fig. 1. Dioctes molestae n.sp. a. Lateral view. 6. Areolation of propodium.
Length.—5-—6 mm.; antennae 4 mm.; ovipositor 2 mm.
Black and opaque. Antennae brownish black to black; scape and pedicel
yellowish brown below. Mandibles except apex, palpi, front and middle
coxae, all trochanters and ventral plica of abdomen whitish yellow; legs
ferruginous, hind coxae, middle coxae, and hind trochanter basally, black;
hind tibia and tarsus apically brownish. Abdominal segments 2—4 more or
less dark brown, especially at sides. Stigma dark brown.
Male.—Unknown.
Type-locality. — Japan.
This species is related to the European species, D. crataegellae Thoms., from
which it differs in the color of the abdomen and in the length of the ovi-
positor.
MARCH 15, 1933 SETZLER: HOPEWELL TYPE POTTERY 149
ARCHAEOLOGY.—Hopewell type pottery from Lowisiana.t F. M.
SETZLER, U. S. National Museum. (Communicated by JoHN R.
SWANTON.) .
Owing to the fact that up to the present time only two vessels have
been found south of the Ohio River? which are recognized as belonging
to the Hopewell culture in the Upper Mississippi Valley,’ it seems
highly important to bring to the attention of archeologists a general
description of the pottery vessels and other artifacts discovered in the
east central part of Louisiana, near Marksville.
The pottery and associated artifacts herein described were exca-
vated by Gerard Fowke during his explorations in the Red River
Valley of Louisiana, February-May, 1926. No illustrations or de-
scription of the specimens appear in his final report? though in the
preliminary report’ a few were reproduced.
Analysing the restored vessels from Mounds 4 and 8 in the Marks-
ville Works, we find the following variations of and resemblances to
the Hopewell pottery: (Fig. 1) One vessel may be considered typically
Hopewell because of such features as the cross-hatched band and bi-
sected cones just beneath the rim. The decoration on the body of the
vessel consists of smooth bands outlined by incised grooves. The area
outside the bands is roughened uniformly by means of the roulette,
and a conventionalized eagle is outlined on each of the four lobes.
(Fig. 2.)
We also find two flat bottom bowls decorated on the inside and
outside of the rim with triangular notches. A constriction near the
middle of each cone-shaped vessel divides the decoration into two dis-
tinct parts. The figures on the lower half have been outlined by in-
cised grooves forming conventionalized birds, the head of each sug-
gesting the eagle. The area outside the smooth bands has been rough-
ened by means of the roulette. The motif on the upper half is again
outlined by incised grooves and consists of heart and pear-shaped
1 Published by permission of the U. S. National Museum, Smithsonian Institution.
Received October 28, 1932.
2 Moore, C.B. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 13: 286-88. figs. 3, 4, and 5. 1908.
3’ For a detailed description of Hopewell characteristics, see: Minus, W. C., and
SHETRONE, H. C. Exploration of Hopewell Group. Certain Mounds and Village
Sites in Ohio. 4: pt. 4, 297-305. 1926; SHmTrongE, H. C. Culture Problems in Ohio
Archaeology. Amer. Anthropologist. n. ser. 22: No. 2, 144-172. 1920; SHretrone, H.C.
and GREENMAN, E. F. Exploration of the Seip Group of Prehistoric Earthworks. Ohio
Archaeol. and Hist. Quart. 40: No. 3, 343-509. 1931.
* Fowxe, G. Archaeological Investigations. 44th Ann. Rep., Bureau of American
Ethnology, Pt. 2, 405-434. 1928.
> Fowke, G. Archaeological Work in Louisiana. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 78:
No. 7, 254-59. 1926.
150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
objects and meandering or curvilinear bands which have been pol-
ished. The rest of the area is uniformly roughened by means of the
roulette. :
On a fourth vessel the manner of outlining by deeply incised grooves
and the zigzag roughening bears resemblance to the aforementioned
Fig. 1. Hopewell vessel, probably from Mound 2 of the Mound City Group near
Chillicothe, Ohio. Originally in the collection of Dr. Edwin Hamilton Davis. Reproduc-
tion of a drawing from Sketches of Monuments and Antiques; found in the Mounds,
Tombs and Ancient Cities of America, p. 49, The portfolio of Dr. Davis’ collection is
in the manuscript room of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
ones. However, the band of decoration below the rim is radically dif-
ferent from the typical Hopewell design, yet it is closely comparable
to that on one of the other vessels. This jar also has lightly incised
parallel lines running at a forty-five degree angle which probably in-
dicate an incomplete cross-hatched design such as is found on the
typical Hopewell jars.
Another vessel too has the characteristic smooth bands outlined
MARCH 15, 1933 SETZLER: HOPEWELL TYPE POTTERY 151
with grooves while the rest of the surface is roughened. Instead of the
typical cross-hatch and punctate design below the rim, it has only the
line of punctates or bisected cones while the area directly above it,
which is usually cross-hatched, is smooth.
Still another vessel has the beginning of what appears to be the
Fig. 2. The most typical Hopewell vessel from the Marksville Works. From Mound
8. Dia. 34 inches; H. 42 inches. U. S. Nat. Mus. Cat. No. 331688.
cross-hatched design below the rim, but the area around the neck
differs from any design found on the typical northern Hopewell speci-
mens. This consists of a series of three parallel grooves one inch long
and a series of nine indentations, three rows of three each, made with
a blunt instrument. The fact that this vessel was found associated
with the typical Hopewell vessels from Mound 4 would seem to be suf-
ficient evidence that it belongs to the same culture, although it em-
152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
bodies an entirely different method of decoration, i.e., the concentric
grooves with narrow polished bands between. The method of deco-
rating vessels with concentric grooves and smooth narrow bands, al-
though it differs radically from the typical Hopewell, was found on
one miniature vessel to form two conventionalized eagles. This con-
ventionalized eagle design certainly resembles the designs on the more
typical Hopewell vessels from Marksville, as well as on numerous
Hopewell objects.°®
This analysis indicates that all of the vessels from Mounds 4 and 8
of the Marksville Works show a definite relationship to each other
and some of them closely resemble vessels from the Hopewell culture
in the Upper Mississippi Valley.
Associated with the pottery in Mounds 4 and 8, Mr. Fowke found
the following artifacts: Monitor or platform pipe of clay, 31 inches
long, 1;’¢ inches wide and 13 inches high at the bowl. The diameters
of the bowl measured from the outside in each ease are ly'¢ and 14
inches. Fragmentary base of another platform pipe, 2% inches long
and 33, inch wide. Three projectile points. Sandstone rubbing or
smoothing stones. Impressions in clay of a vertically plaited matting,
consisting of over-two-under-two technique.’
The platform pipes and matting imprints are outstanding charac-
teristics of the Hopewell culture in the north.
A tabulation has been made of the decorated vessels and sherds 1l-
lustrated and described in various publications® dealing with the ex-
cavation of mounds in the Upper Mississippi Valley recognized as
having been built by Indians possessing Hopewell characteristics.
It seems obvious from such a tabulation that the most outstanding
feature of the decoration on the Upper Mississippi Hopewell vessels
6 For other examples embodying conventionalized eagle designs, see: Miuus, W. C.
Exploration of Mound City Group. Certain Mounds and Village Sites in Ohio. 3:
pt. 4, 354-359. figs. 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65. 1922.
7 For similar matting from an Ohio Hopewell mound, see: Miuus, W. C. Op.
Cit.; 382-—fig. 81.
8 WiLLouGcHBy, C. C. Turner Group of Earthworks, Hamilton County, Ohio.
Papers of Peabody Mus. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethn., Harvard Univ. 8: No. 3. 1922;
MooreneEAD, W. K. Hopewell Mound of Ohio. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Anthrop.
Ser. 6: No. 5, 75-178. 1922; Minus, W. C., and SHetrone, H. C. Exploration of
Hopewell Group. Certain Mounds and Village Sites in Ohio. 4: pt. 4, 79-305. 1926;
Squinr, E. G., and Davis, E. H. Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley.
Sm. Contrib. to Knowledge. 1: 187-190. 1848; Minus, W. C. Exploration of Edwin
Harness Mound. Ohio Archaeol. Hist. Quart. 16: No. 2, 113-193. 1907; SHETRONE,
H. C., and Greenman, E. F. Explorations of the Seip Group of Prehistoric Earth-
works. Ohio Archaeol. Hist. Quart. 40: No. 3, 343-509. 1931; Mitts, W.C. Hzplora-.
tion of Mound City Group. Certain Mounds and Village Sites in Ohio. 3: pt. 4, 245-406.
1922. Hzxploration of the Tremper Mound. Idem 2: pt. 3, 105-240. 1917. Explora-
tion of Seip Mound. Idem 2: pt. 1, 1-57. 1917; McKern, W.C. Wisconsin Variant
of the Hopewell Culture. Milwaukee Public Mus. Bull. 10: No. 2, 185-328. 1931.
MARCH 15, 1933 SETZLER: HOPEWELL TYPE POTTERY 153
and sherds is that surfaces of 31 show bands of various dimensions
outlined with deeply incised grooves and the areas between or outside
the grooves uniformly roughened either by roulette, zigzag, punctate
or cord marks. Nineteen of the illustrations show that the area just
below the rim of the jars has been decorated with incised cross-
hatched lines and an encircling line of bisected cones. The forms vary,
there being 12 bowls, 11 jars, and 2 vases. There are five examples of
supporting feet. Seven jars are shaped with four lobes—the predomi-
nant style—one with six, and one with three lobes. Twelve have
round bases, seven have pointed bases, and five have flat bases. No
applied pigment is used for decoration.
With regard to the decoration on the vessels and sherds from
Mounds 4 and 8 in the Marksville Works, we find that 9 of the 12 re-
stored vessels have bands outlined by deeply incised grooves, and the
bands or the remaining parts of the vessel were uniformly roughened
—on three specimens by means of the roulette, three by concentric
grooves or bands, two by means of zigzag lines and one by the punc-
tate method. On four of the jars the area just below the rim is deco-
rated with cross-hatched incised lines and the encircling line of bi-
sected cones. Thus far a similarity is obvious. The tempering used in
the Marksville pottery differs radically, however, from that common
to the northern Mississippi type. In the former, either pulverized
potsherds or particles of hard clay are used; in the latter, grit or shell.
The bases of all the Marksville vessels, so far as could be determined,
were flat. Four of the Marksville vessels are bowls, four vases, three:
jars and one is unique. Only one is four lobed.
This comparison between the Marksville and the recognized Hope-
well wares shows a close similarity and one of the vessels from Marks-
ville is a type identical with northern Hopewell. Independent inven-
tion of so complicated a technique of decoration where there is such
striking similarity would seem impossible. Further investigations
may throw additional interesting light on the distribution of the
Hopewell Culture. In Ohio, where the center of this highly developed
mound building culture is located, no evidence has been found which
enables anthropologists to say to what ethnological or linguistic
group these Indians belonged. It would seem from the above facts
that Louisiana, Mississippi, and perhaps Arkansas must be consid-
ered in the distribution of Hopewell traits. These similarities in the
south may be due to commercial intercourse but, nevertheless, they
are important.
154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
THE ACADEMY
248TH MEETING
The 248th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall of the
Cosmos Club on Thursday, April 7, 1932, President ApaAms presiding.
About 150 persons were present.
Program: ARTHUR Ho.tmgss, Professor of Geology, University of Durham,
England: The thermal history of the earth.
249TH MEETING
The 249th meeting of the Academy was a joint meeting with the Geo-
logical Society of Washington, held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,
Thursday, November 17, 1932. About 150 persons were present. President
ApaAms called the meeting to order at 8:20 p.m., and introduced Doctor
DovuGuas JOHNSON, Professor of Physiography, Columbia University, who
delivered an illustrated address on Some problems of the arid landscape. He
discussed the history of land changes as recorded in the erosion surfaces seen
in the arid districts. The land forms found were attributed to the eroding
power of streams forming fans which were traceable in simple and compound
form in widely separated areas of the earth. Several members discussed the
paper from the floor.
250TH MEETING
The 250th meeting of the Academy was a joint meeting with the Philo-
sophical Society of Washington, held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos
Club, on Thursday, December 15, 1932, President L. H. Apams presiding.
About 175 persons were present.
Program: Pauut R. Hey, Bureau of Standards: Romance or Science :—
The elusive and unreal character of modern physical concepts has suggested
in certain quarters that perhaps physicists are suffering from the effect of
too much learning. It can be shown, however, that the present state of physi-
cal theory is the logical result of an evolution whose guiding principle has
been that of simplicity and economy of thought, as laid down by Occam and
Newton, that no more causes than are sufficient are to be assigned for the
explanation of phenomena, a principle regarded for six centuries as the most
approved rule of philosophy. If the application of this principle leads us to
concepts which appear romantic, perhaps this is because for the first time
in the history of human thinking we have come close enough to reality to
catch a glimpse of it. (A wthor’s abstract.)
CHARLES THOM, Recording Secretary
PHILOSOPHICAL, SOCIEDY
1041sT MEETING
The 1041st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday
evening, October 8, 1932, President TucKERMAN presiding.
Program: C. B. Warts: The U. S. Naval Observatory Eclipse Expedition
to Maine (illustrated).—The Naval Observatory party was located in
Limington, Maine, near the village of Limerick, and was under the direction
of Commander C. H. J. Keppler, U.S.N. Photographs of the corona were
MARCH 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 155
made with cameras of various sizes, ranging from one of 65 feet focal length
down to a motion-picture camera of 17 inches focal length. While thin clouds
cut down the fainter portions of the corona considerably, the large camera
gave excellent detail in the inner corona. The times of contact were observed
visually and with the motion-picture camera. (Author’s abstract.)
H.W. Fisk: Eclipse observations of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism,
Carnegie Institution of Washington (illustrated).—In accordance with its
custom, the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism made use of the occasion
of the total solar eclipse of August 31, 1932, to collect additional data bear-
ing upon a possible effect on the magnetic field due to the passage of the
Moon’s shadow across the Earth.
The observations undertaken on this occasion were very simple, consisting
of eye-readings of declination only, using the ordinary field-magnetometer.
Three stations were established within the belt of totality, two being about
equally distant from the center line in northern Vermont and western
Maine, in approximately the same latitude, the third being near the center
line, farther south, on the New Hampshire-Maine border.
The days preceding the eclipse were characterized by a moderate mag-
netic storm, which had nearly disappeared by the day of the eclipse. A com-
parison of the graphs drawn from the observations at the three stations
showed a very close identity of curve for the three field-stations, and these
were very similar in detail to the curves taken from the Agincourt and
Cheltenham magnetograms. An interesting feature apparent on each of
the curves was a small but very distinct fluctuation which occurred im-
mediately after totality at the field-stations and coincided quite exactly
with the time the shadow crossed the New England coast-line and passed
out over the sea. The occurrence of this small disturbance after many hours
of normal diurnal-movement was quite startling and its coincidence with
totality was very suggestive of a possible connection, although it is recog-
nized that the coincidence may have been entirely fortuitous.
Previous investigations have led to the conclusion that the eclipse-effect
on the magnetic field is that of a dimunition in the expected departure of a
value of an element from its daily mean value, and that this takes place
somewhat gradually during the entire interval during which the Moon’s
shadow falls upon the Earth. Superimposed upon this general effect there
has been detected another effect corresponding to the local eclipse-interval.
However, because of other irregularities which are continually occurring and
which are entirely independent of the eclipse, it is only by a discussion of a
large mass of data that conclusions may be safely reached. (Author’s
abstract.)
S. S. Kirpy and T. R. Giuuimanp: The radio eclipse observations of the
Bureau of Standards (illustrated).—Radio observations made in Washington
and Nova Scotia by the Bureau of Standards during the solar eclipse of
August 31 were described. Professor Chapman in England had suggested
that the lower of the two observed ionized regions of the upper atmosphere
was caused by bombardment of neutral corpuscles shot out from the sun
while the upper region was thought to be caused by ultra-violet light. It was
calculated that the path of the particle eclipse should lie to the north and
east of the optical path and that the particle eclipse should occur two hours
before the other. Since the lower radio frequencies are returned to earth
from the lower ionized region at about 100 km. height while the higher fre-
quencies are returned from the upper region at a height of about 220 km. or
156 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
more, it was thought that if solar corpuscles were responsible for the lower
region ionization, then changes would be noted in the radio signals being
returned from that region two hours before the optical eclipse occurred. At
Sydney, Nova Scotia, which was within the predicted path of the particle
eclipse, a record was made of the virtual height from which reflections oc-
curred for a frequency of 2400 ke. This frequency was ordinarily just low
enough to be returned from the lower region during the early afternoon. If
particles were largely responsible for the lower region ionization, it was
expected that reflections would begin to occur from the upper region by
1:30 p.m. However, no changes were noted until the optical eclipse began to
take effect at which time reflections began to come from the upper region.
Besides the observations on 2400 ke. readings were made of critical fre-
quency, which is, roughly speaking, the frequency above which strong re-
flections do not come from the lower region. This was found to drop with
the occurrence of the optical eclipse. Similar observations made in Washing-
ton were also described.
It was concluded that ultra-violet light is the principal factor responsible
for ionization in both the lower and upper regions. If the effect of solar cor-
puscles . present, it is small compared to that of ultra-violet light. (Awthor’s
abstract.
The above papers were discussed by Messrs. Mraerrs, Davis, and
TUCKERMAN.
An informal communication was presented by G. H. Drapsr, who dis-
cussed Fermat’s theorem and concluded with details of his solution of the
problem. The communication was discussed by Mr. Hryt.
A second informal communication was presented by W. J. HUMPHREYs,
which consisted of a description of a tree that had been struck in a peculiar
manner by lightning. The lightning in this case traversed lengthwise through
the center of the tree instead of along the Cambium layer, that is just under
the bark. The communication was discussed by Messrs. CRITTENDEN and
TUCKERMAN.
G. R. Wait, Recording Secretary
1042ND MEETING
The 1042nd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday
evening, October 22, 1932, President TucKERMAN presiding.
Program: H. L. Curtis: The attitude of European laboratories towards ab-
solute electrical units (illustrated.)—During the summer it was my privilege
to visit the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, the Laboratoire
Central d’Electricite, the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, and the
National Physical Laboratory. At all of these laboratories there is an agree-
ment that units more closely approaching the absolute units should be
adopted as early as practicable. Researches are under way to fix units in all
the laboratories except the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. The
question naturally arises as to whether the fixing of the units should await
completion of all of these researches as well as the researches at the Bureau
of Standards and the Japanese national laboratory. The National Physical
Laboratory is farthest along with its researches and members of its staff
would like to see the absolute units adopted at the earliest possible date. At
the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, researches on absolute units are
just getting well started so that it will be several years before results are
obtained. However, many members of the staff feel that the urgency for
:
—— ee Oe eee
MARCH 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 157
changing units is so great that international action should not await com-
pletion of these researches. At the Laboratoire Central d’Electricite the
staff is agreeable to an early change in the units. I believe that the opinion
of the majority of the members of the staffs of these laboratories is that
efforts should be made to have the new units adopted January 1, 1935.
(Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Mr. BricKWEDDE. ;
C. Moon: Some problems encountered in the absolute determination of the
ohm (illustrated)—This paper gives a brief description of the numerous
problems encountered in the absolute determination of the ohm from me-
chanical and electrical measurements on standards of self inductance.
Single layer solenoids can now be constructed so accurately that the un-
certainty in their computed inductance due to variations in the diameter and
pitch of the winding are negligible. The necessary mechanical measurements
of diameter and pitch of the winding can be made with a probable error of
only a few parts in a million. In the electrical measurements the maximum
variation of a single value from the mean is only one part in one hundred
thousand. However, the possibility of an unknown systematic error is some-
what greater than in the mechanical measurements.
Results obtained from measurements on two standard inductors indicate
that at the present time resistance can be determined in terms of the funda-
mental units of length and time with a probable error of less than one part
in one hundred thousand. (Author’s abstract).
Discussed by Mr. MacKavaNaGH.
R. W. Curtis: A redetermination of the international ampere in absolute
measure (illustrated).—From the definition of the unit of current it is pos-
sible to measure currents by means of the standards of length, mass, and
time. The old tangent galvanometer was one method of doing this, but the
difficulties are very great when accurate measurements are required.
In this work the force between one coil hung on a balance beam and two
other coils is measured. The force depends only upon the current in the
coils and the relative positions of the coils. The relative radii of the coils is
measured electrically in a separate experiment. By means of this experi-
mentally measured ratio of radii and the experimentally determined force,
and the known value of the acceleration of gravity, the current flowing
through the coils can be computed. The result is the value of the current in
absolute measure. At the same time the current is measured in the usual
way with a standard resistance and standard cell, and this result is called
the value of the current in international measure. The ratio of the inter-
national ampere to the absolute ampere does not depend on the current, and
should be constant. The results of this experiment are expressed as this ratio.
Eight experimental determinations of the ratio of radii of four sets of
coils gave results which were self-checking and showed errors no larger than
+6 parts in a million.
Three series of determinations of the force with three sets of coils give
results in which the maximum deviation from the mean is about 24 parts
in a million. The final result can be expressed as
1 B.S. International Ampere =0.99991, Absolute Ampere.
This is in substantial agreement with the result of.a similar determination
made by Rosa, Dorsey and Miller in 1911, which was
1 B.S. International Ampere =0.99992, Absolute Ampere.
(A uthor’s abstract.)
158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
An informal communication was presented by F. E. JoHNson on Fer-
mats Theorem. He analyzed the solution presented informally by G. H.
Draper in a previous meeting of the Society and showed that this solution is
not valid.
FRANK WENNER, Acting Recording Secretary
1043RD MEETING
The 1043rd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday
evening, November 5, 1932. President TucKERMAN presiding.
Program: W. R. Grece: Winds: Some of their characteristics (illustrated).
—Wind is the result of variations in pressure, which in turn are caused by
differences in temperature. Because of the earth’s rotation the wind does
not blow directly from high to low pressure, but is deflected to the right in
the northern hemisphere, to the left in the southern. On a level surface, with
no friction present, the motion would be at right angles to the pressure
gradient, or parallel to the isobars, and the speed would be in accordance
with the well-known gradient equations, which involve the pressure gradient,
angular velocity of the earth, air density, and latitude. Because of friction
and turbulence, however, the theoretical values are never realized at or close
to the Earth’s surface. The direction is always across the isobars at an angle
ranging from 10° to 40°, depending on the amount of friction, and the veloc-
ity falls short of the theoretical value by 50 to 200 per cent.
_ Winds near the earth’s surface are, moreover, characterized by an almost
endless series of abrupt changes, generally known as gustiness. Sudden de-
partures of the order of 30° to 45° from the mean direction and increases or
decreases of 30 to 50 per cent in the velocity are not uncommon. Departures
of 90° to 135° in the direction and 60 to 75 per cent in the velocity occasion-
ally occur. Their effect on structures and on the operation of aircraft depends
on their abruptness and on the period during which they are maintained.
Accelerations of 30 to 50 miles per hour per second have been observed but
they continued for only a fraction of a second. Accelerations of 5 to 10 miles
per hour per second, lasting for 2 or 3 seconds are, however, quite common.
Gustiness is most pronounced during the daytime when thermal turbulence
is active. The gusts produced thereby are of much longer periods, often 2
or 3 minutes or more, than are the purely frictional gusts, the latter being
superposed on the former.
The effects of gustiness rapidly diminish with height and practically cease
at 400 to 500 meters above the surface. At these and greater heights the
winds are generally in accord with the gradient equation and, though dif-
fering widely in individual cases, on the whole increase with height to the
top of the troposphere, about 11 kilometers in middle latitudes, and are
prevailingly from a westerly direction. In the stratosphere, where an en-
tirely different type of pressure and temperature distribution prevails, the
winds are variable in direction and decrease markedly in velocity. (A uthor’s
abstract.)
Discussed by Mr. HumpuHreEys.
F. NeruMANN: Vibration observations in the Washington Monument
(illustrated).—A small portable experimental seismograph developed by the
Coast and Geodetic Survey, in connection with the study of destructive
movements in the central region of an earthquake, was set up several times
in the Washington Monument to test its performance. The data thus ob-
tained are of special interest to engineers and physicists desiring to study the
ee eS ee ee eae eee SS
————— --— -
MARCH 15, 1933. PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 159
physical characteristics of tall structures. It was pointed out that the re-
corded movements are so small that for all practical purposes they can be
considered negligible, certainly so when compared with the vibrations of tall
office buildings. As the maximum displacements in a strong wind are only a
few thousandths of an inch they can be observed only with a very sensitive
type of seismograph, an instrument of the same order of magnification as
found in modern seismographic equipment for recording the unfelt vibra-
tions emanating from distant earthquakes.
The instrument used is a pendulum of 1 oz. mass suspended at the free
end of a flat spring free to vibrate horizontally. Damping is obtained through
the frictional characteristics of a thin film of castor oil inserted between the
bottom of the disk-shaped mass and the smooth surface of a glass or metal
platform built beneath the mass. A mirror axle of 1 mm. diameter, suspended
vertically, furnishes one of the elements of the magnifying system, which is
optical. In practice this axle is suspended from a fine silk thread as a safety
measure, but the thread plays a negligible part in the instrument perform-
ance. Two very fine phosphor-bronze ribbons which are strung horizontally
close to the axle, are cemented to the frame at their four terminals and each
is wound one time around the mirror axle in the same direction. A similar
ribbon, strung parallel to the other two, is cemented to the ends of an ad-
justable fork or prong fixed to the steady mass and projecting a short dis-
tance beyond it. This ribbon is wound around the mirror axle in a direction
opposite to that of the other two. The effect of the combination is such that
when the pendulum is displaced a slight amount of the ribbon strung across
the end of it causes the mirror axle to rotate on the other two ribbons which
may be considered as taking the place of a jewel and pivot bearing. The ad-
vantages of this scheme are the practical elimination of lost motion, a mini-
mum of friction and high magnification. The ribbons are 0.01 mm. thick and
0.1 mm. wide; magnification can be varied from 1000 to several thousand,
and periods from 1/15 second or less to 1 second. A suitable recording ap-
paratus for photographic registration is part of the assembly.
The fundamental vibration period of the monument was found to be 1.81
seconds. An overtone of 0.6 second period was observed visually and is vaguely
evident in some of the photographic records. On another occasion a period
of 0.2 second appeared as the outstanding characteristic of the record, and
again, during a gusty type of rain-storm the dominant vibrations were close
to 0.06 second or a frequency of 17 per second. These few observations are
insufficient to explain the various modes of vibration, especially in view of
the fact that only one component of a 3-dimensional type of vibration was
recorded. The value of the fundamental period and overtones are of the
order to be expected, but the observed frequency of 17 oscillations per second
appears to the physicist as a rather curious phenomenon. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. HUMPHREYS, STIMSON, HAWKESWORTH, BLAKE,
Heck and DRYDEN.
H. L: Drypen: Wind pressure on a model of the Empire State Building
(illustrated) —When the Empire State Building was constructed in New
York City, provision was made through the cooperation of architects, engi-
neers, and owners to have the building serve as a laboratory for obtaining
more accurate knowledge of wind pressure. Under the direction of the com-
mittee on research of the American Institute of Steel Construction, thirty
pipes were placed at the 36th, 55th, and 75th floors, transmitting the pressure
from small openings in the exterior faces of the building to accessible places
160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
on each floor. In addition, some of the steel columns under the tower portion
of the building on the 23rd floor were provided with strain gauges for de-
termining strains in the columns due to wind. Instruments for measuring the
direction and velocity of the wind were mounted on the top of the building.
The forecasting of the wind pressure to be expected on a building has many
of the aspects of a game of chance. It is practically certain that the speed of
the wind will exceed 5 miles per hour at some time during nearly every day
of the year. In Washington, D.C., the speed will exceed 40 miles per hour
about four times a year. It has not blown at a speed of 100 miles per hour
at the Weather Bureau station in Washington, D.C., in the sixty years or so
that records are available. It is a practical impossibility to design all build-
ings to withstand the maximum speeds which have ever been experienced
anywhere. The engineer must draw the line at some speed which is not likely
to be exceeded in the life of the building. To obtain information of this kind
from direct observations on a building would require years of measurements,
and a statistical study of the results. Moreover, the results would not neces-
sarily be applicable to some other building of a different shape.
The only long-continued observations on the wind are those made by the
Weather Bureau. These observations give the wind speeds, and to determine
the pressure on the building, the relation between the pressure and the speed
must be known. The method of obtaining this relation, which is now coming
into use, is that of making measurements on models in a wind tunnel, a de-
vice in which artificial winds may be produced. Although the method of
model-testing is well known in hydraulics and aeronautics and has been found
invaluable, it is new to structural engineers. Full confidence has not been
placed in the results, because of some feeling of uncertainty as to the applica-
tion to buildings in the natural wind. When the program of the American
Institute of Steel Construction to be carried out on the Empire State Build-
ing was announced, the Bureau of Standards saw an opportunity to demon-
strate the utility and validity of model measurements. Experiments have
been completed on a model of the building at the Bureau of Standards.
When the results on the actual building are finally available, comparisons
can be made.
The Empire State Building is 1250 feet high; the model is 5 feet high. On
this scale the height of a man would be a little more than one-quarter inch.
The model is built of aluminum plates to the exterior shape of the building
omitting minor irregularities of the surface. It does not represent the actual
building in material, method of construction, or strength. It is not tested to
failure but is used only for measurements of wind pressure. Small holes in
the outer walls are connected by rubber tubing to a pressure gauge. The air
near the surface of the model pushes on the air in the rubber tubing with the
same pressure as on the neighboring solid wall of the model. The pressure is
transmitted to a gauge where it is balanced by the weight of a column of
liquid. In some tests the model was mounted in bearings and the over-
turning moment measured.
The artificial wind was produced in the 10-foot wind tunnel of the Bureau
of Standards, in which speeds up to 70 miles per hour may be obtained.
Under normal conditions, with no wind blowing, the surfaces, both interior
and exterior, of all buildings, are subjected to the normal atmospheric pres-
sure of 14.7 pounds per square inch. When the wind blows, this pressure is
modified. In some places the pressure increases, in others it decreases by
amounts which usually do not exceed a few tenths of a pound per square
MARCH 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 161
inch. When the pressure is reduced below the normal atmospheric pressure,
the effect is often called a suction. The results on the model of the Empire
State Building, show as for other models tested that the pressure varies
greatly from point to point and that suction effects predominate. The
greatest loads on the building occur when the wind blows directly against
one face. The average pressure is of the order of 35 to 40 pounds per square
foot at a wind speed of 100 miles per hour. At other wind speeds, the pres-
sure varies as the square of the speed, i.e., at 50 miles per hour, it is only 9
or 10 pounds per square foot.
It was found that the speed of the air rushing by close to the building is
greater than that of the approaching wind. Thus the instrument on the
building gives a speed about 20 per cent greater than the speed of the wind
approaching the building.
The detailed results giving charts of the distribution of pressure with the
wind striking the model from different directions will be published in a few
months as a Research Paper of the Bureau of Standards. (A uthor’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Heck, BITTINGER, and HAWKESWORTH.
1044TH MEETING
The 1044th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday
evening, November 19, 1932, President TucKERMAN presiding.
Program: D. H. ANDREws, Professor of Chemistry in The Johns Hopkins
University: Models of vibrating molecules (illustrated).—Before the advent
of the new quantum mechanics we thought and talked of atoms and mole-
cules in terms of definite models which were useful in the formulation of
mathematical equations and in the physical interpretation of the results of
theoretical and experimental investigations. In the new mechanics, models
are so difficult to construct that they are little used, and with the annuncia-
tion of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, their overthrow as a useful aid
seemed complete. Models were replaced by mathematical abstract quantities,
like y, and by symbolisms. It is interesting that Professor Andrews is using
models to obtain quantitative results that are useful, not only in correlating
the results of numerous investigations of Raman spectra of complex mole-
cules, but also in discovering facts previously unknown.
Professor Andrews demonstrated models which he had used in the study
of the modes and frequencies of the vibratory motions of atoms in molecules.
The atoms were replaced by steel balls connected by springs to represent the
chemical bonds holding them together. The ratios of the masses of the steel
balls are as the ratios of the atomic weights of the atoms and the springs
_were so selected that their stiffnesses correspond with the relative strengths
of the bonds. The models are suspended freely and are made to vibrate by a
variable-speed motor to which they are loosely coupled. In order to make it
possible to see and count the vibrations, the illumination of the model was
periodically varied so that the observed frequency of vibration of the atoms
was only 1/20th the actual frequency. When the frequency of the motor cor-
responds with a natural frequency of the model it vibrates in resonance with
the motor, but when the speed of the motor is increased or decreased a little
the model ceases to vibrate. Starting with the motor turning slowly, one ob-
serves, if its speed is increased continuously, one after another of the dif-
ferent modes of vibration of the molecule. The corresponding frequencies of
vibration are the frequencies of rotation of the motor.
Although the agreement of the model frequencies with the known molecu-
lar frequencies determined spectroscopically is not exact, the correspondence
162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
is close. This makes it possible to determine the modes of vibration corre-
sponding with the numerous frequencies obtained from Raman spectra in-
vestigations. There are cases where frequencies were first observed with the
model and later found in the Raman spectra. By combined model and
Raman spectra investigations of homologous series, one is enabled to follow
the changes in molecules as new groups are added one after the other. With
the models information can be obtained as to the structures of molecules
as was obtained for example with regard to the position of the double-bond
in benzene, and the angle between the C-Cl bonds in C Cli. (Abstract pre-
pared by F. G. BRICKWEDDE.)
Discussed by Messrs. RAMBERG, HeRsEY, WHITE, TUCKERMAN, CURTIS,
Gisson, HuMPHREYs, and BRICKWEDDE.
An informal communication was presented by W. P. Wuirts, in which he
described a method of preparing an ice-bath of very constant temperature.
1045TH MEETING
The 1045th meeting, constituting the 62nd annual meeting, was held in
the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday evening, December 3, 1932, Presi-
dent TucKERMAN presiding.
The treasurer reported expenditures of $1500.19 and stated that the num-
ber of active members is 275.
The Secretaries reported that the following new members were elected
during the year: CtypzE S. A1ircuison, Miss ExizaBpetu W. Auprica, L. B.
ALDRICH, REBEccA E. ANDREWS, Davin W. ARMSTRONG, EMMETT CHESTER
BaiLey, P. S. Bautitir, HERBERT GEORGE BaroTtT, Howarp 8S. BEAN,
ForrREsT Gary BITNER, RayMonpD B. Biockx, Roy C. Bowkesr, F. 38.
Brackett, Donaup B. Brooks, DonaLtp M. Brown, Sipnry H. Brown,
Howarp A. BucHHEIT, FRANK R. CALDWELL, JAMES ROBERT COB, JR.,
RayMonpd Davis, ORRIN M. Euuiott, MrEtvin F. Fiscomr, Cyrus C.
FISHBURN, JAMES FuLTON Fox, Rautpu W. FrRENcH, FREDERICK H. GOLD-
MAN, CARLETON B. GREEN, Homer A. Hamm, Ropert C. Harpy, ORLANDO
J. Hopcr, W. H. Hoover, Miss M. LANGHORNE Howarp, Curtis J.
Humpureys, 8. H. Inaperc, DEANE B. Jupp, H. K. Kine, FRepeEriIcK L.
KNOWLES, FRANK C. Kracexk, Miss CHARLOTTE M. Krampn, W. LERcH,
Mrs. IsaBeEL Martin Lewis, Henry Matusson, E. D. McALLIsTER,
PauLt A. McNatiy, ArcHIBALD T. McPuHErRson, Paut 8S. Murpny, Rev.
JoHN 8. O’Conor, 8.J., Gro. C. PAFFENBARGER, OLIVER Scott READ-
ING, W. A. Rocur, WILLIAM FREDERICK ROESER, CarRL Russo, PRENTIS
D. Satz, Jr., Mrs. Evsiz W. SHaw, E. R. SHEPHARD, JOHN C. SOUTHARD,
SYDNEY STEELE, Loyp A. STEvENS, ALLEN RayMOND StTIcKLEY, Wm. H.
SwWANGER, HrersBert C. 8S. THom, JoHn Tucknmr, Jr., Davip LINDSAY
WaTSON, CLARENCE C. WEIDEMANN, EDWARD WICHERS, and J. U. YOUNG.
The following deaths were reported: Louris Winstow Austin, Louis A.
Bauer, GrorcE K. Burcess, Ropert L. Faris, HENry Martin PAUL,
IRWIN G. Prisst, and FREDERICK W. STEVENS.
The following officers were declared elected for the year 1933: President,
O. S. Apams; Vice Presidents, H. L. DrypEN and O. H. GisuH; Recording
Secretary, F. G. BrickwEpDpDE; Treasurer, E. W. Woouarp; Members-at-
large of the General Committee, L. B. ALpRIcH and H. T. WENSEL.
During the year the second Joseph Henry lecture in memory of the first
President of the Philosophical Society was given by A. E. KENNELLY, Pro-
fessor Emeritus of Electrical Engineering at Harvard University.
"i
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— SS =. 6S
MARCH, 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 163
At the conclusion of the business meeting, F. B. SILSBEE read a paper on
Superconductivity—This paper summarizes the more outstanding facts
which have been found during the 21 years since the property of super-
conductivity was discovered by Professor Kamerlingh Onnes at Leiden.
Most of these facts are the result of work at Leiden, but during the last few
years many valuable contributions have come from the German Reichsan-
stalt and from the University of Toronto. __
Superconductivity, like cosmic radiation and radioactivity, is one of the
relatively few phenomena of physics which has been discovered unexpectedly,
rather than as the result of a deliberate search. The electrical resistances of
certain substances such as mercury, lead, and tin at the very low temperature
made available by the use of liquid helium, drop abruptly at their respective
critical temperatures, 4.2°K, 7.2°K, and 3.7°K, to values too small to
measure. In the case of lead the resistance has been found to be certainly less
than 10~” times the resistance of the same specimen at room-temperature.
This superconducting state is destroyed and normal resistance abruptly re-
stored if the substance is placed in a sufficiently strong magnetic field, or
if the electric current used in measuring the resistance is so great as to pro-
duce a magnetic field of the critical value.
Changing the crystal state of the metal as in the change from the ordinary
“white” tin to “‘gray”’ tin also destroys the superconductivity.
Other materials which have been found to show this property are the
elements, gallium, indium, thallium, titanium, thorium, columbium, tan-
talum, and such compounds as the nitrides of titanium, vanadium, cir-
conium; the carbides of titanium, tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum, colum-
bium, and zirconium; and the sulphides of copper and of lead. An alloy of
gold and bismuth is also superconducting at 1.8°K, although neither of the
separate constituents shows this property when tested down to 1.5°K.
This astonishing change by a factor of a million million is one property
which does not seem to be accompanied by any abrupt change in any other
properties. The crystal structure as revealed by X-rays, the thermal expan-
sion, coefficient of torsional rigidity, and thermal conductivity all change
but little and in a perfectly continuous fashion as the material is cooled
down through its critical temperature.
The experiments so far performed have raised more questions than they
have answered. Is the increased conductivity the result of an increased num-
ber of carriers of electricity, or of an increased freedom of those already
present? Is the resistance below the critical temperature truly zero, or does
it have a finite value beyond the limit of the methods of measurement thus
far tried? Will all metals, and perhaps all substances, be found to be super-
conducting if cooled to a sufficiently low temperature? And, most tantalizing
of all, will any substance be found which under certain conditions will be
superconducting at ordinary temperatures and thus revolutionize the art of
electrical engineering? (A uthor’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Curtis, WHITE, BARROws, BRICKWEDDE, GOLD-
MAN, HAWKESwoRTH, HUMPHREYS, BUCKINGHAM, and TUCKERMAN.
G. R. Wart, Recording Secretary
BOTANICAL SOCIETY
240TH MEETING
The 240th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos
Club on March 1, 1932. President J. B.S. Norton presided; about 145 were
present.
I}
164 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
L. E. Yocum was elected to membership.
Brief notes and reviews: M. B. Waite exhibited daffodils from his yard. He
recalled that in 1890 there was a similar mild winter. F. V. CoviLLE and
A. 8S. Hircucocxk reported further upon seeds caught from airplanes. J. S.
Coo.zy exhibited a culture of Xylarza malli showing zonation. J. B. S.
Norton reported finding sclerotia of brown rot of peaches one half to three
fourths of an inch long. M. B. WarTeE reported peaches in bloom in Arkansas,
whereas here and in Georgia the buds have not swollen, being still dormant
due to lack of chilling. R. F. Grices exhibited a culture of liverwort growing
on nitrogen-free agar which was strongly phototropic.
Program: W. J. Morse: Agricultural explorations in Japan, Korea and
Manchuria.—lIllustrated by four reels of motion pictures taken by the
speaker during his two year stay in the Orient. Culture of soybeans and
utilization of the crop was shown in detail. Other scenes illustrated the grow-
ing of rice, small fruits and other crops, as well as the Japanese cherry tree
and other ornamentals in bloom, and the collecting, packing and shipping
of the material collected.
After adjournment, soybean cheese sandwiches and soybean chocolate
milk were served. Other soybean food products were exhibited.
SPECIAL MEETING
A special meeting was held in the Conference Room of the Administration
Building, U. S. Department of Agriculture, March 22, 1932. President
J. B.S. Norton presided; 47 members and guests were present.
Program: T. H. Harrison, plant pathologist of New South Wales: Plant
Pathology in Australia.—The speaker outlined the principal physical and
climatic characteristics of the states of Australia together with a brief state-
ment of the organizations which are responsible for scientific work. From
the investigator’s viewpoint, Australia is a very young country. Although
the size of the United States of America, it has only about seven million in-
habitants. Only the easily accessible and fertile land has been developed.
Crops grown and the diseases which attack them were discussed in detail,
many being illustrated by lantern slides.
241SsT MEETING
~The 241st regular meeting was held at the University of Maryland, April
5, 1932. President Norton presided; 179 members and guests were present.
Dinner was served in the College dining hall at 7:30. This was followed
by a dramatic sketch put on by a small group of University of Maryland
students, entitled, ‘“Suppressed Desires.”’
Program: B. Y. Morrison: English Gardens.—The speaker visited several
of the famous gardens in England and had an opportunity to observe the
personal interest which the Englishman takes in his garden. Exhibits of Nar-
cissi illustrated the results of crossing certain strains.
242ND MEETING
The 242nd regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos
Club on May 3, 1932. President J. B. 8S. Norton, presided; attendance 66.
Miss ViviAN KEARNS was elected to membership.
Brief notes and reviews: FRANK THONE exhibited four new volumes,
Baillieres Encyclopedia of Scientific Agriculture; Proceedings of the 5th
International Botanical Congress at Cambridge; Murray’s Planning and
Planting the Home Garden; and Life of Mendel. C. A. Lupwie exhibited
a
a
;
a
— se
———————S ee ell Tle
MARCH 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 165
cowpea, alsike clover and Lespedeza plants grown without sunlight. J. B.S.
Norton showed an unusual violet.
Program: K. D. Doak: Mycotrophic habit in Allegheny forest trees. (Il-
lustrated by lantern slides).—Discussed by C. A. Lupwiae, J. B.S. Norton,
F. Toone, C. Hartiey, R. D. Ranps and others.
J.S. Cootey: Some wild flowers of Oregon. (Illustrated by lantern slides.)
—Discussed by D. Grirritus, R. K. Beatriz and M. C. MERRILL.
ANNUAL OUTING
The annual outing was held at the Montgomery Sycamore Island Club on
June 4, 1932, attendance, 115. Games and swimming were enjoyed. About
5 o’clock coffee and ice cream were served by the Society to members and
guests who provided their own lunches.
Natuan R. Smita, Recording Secretary
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Prepared by Sctence Service
NoteEs
Death Valley now a National Monument.—An important step in the de-
velopment of the U. 8S. National Park system was taken on February 11,
when by presidential proclamation the greater part of Death Valley was
withdrawn from the open public domain and given the status of a national
monument. The area set aside is 1,601,800 acres in extent, and takes in about
two-thirds of the total land in the valley. It includes particularly the land
below sea level, which is the lowest point in the Western Hemisphere.
Within the area are such notable natural features as Telescope Peak, Fur-
nace Creek, and the Ubehebe Crater. Within it also is the famous Death
Valley Scotty’s Place, a fantastic rococo palace built by a ‘‘character’’ who
seems to have money to burn and chose to spend it on building.
Abbé Lemaitre lectures in Washington—The abbé GrorGEes LEMAITRE,
noted physicist of the University of Louvain, lectured at the Catholic Uni-
versity of America on January, presenting some of his views on the “‘ex-
panding universe”’ postulated by Einstein and De Sitter, for whose divergent
theories he has found mathematical reconciliation. Extrapolating the cosmic
expansion backwards in time, Abbé LEMAITRE comes to a beginning as a
single atom of sufficient mass (or its energy equivalent) to have since formed
all the matter in the universe. The initial explosion of this cosmic atom the
Abbé sees as the origin of the cosmic rays, which are thus as old as the uni-
verse itself.
Mechanical tabulation of oceanographic data.—The problem of utilizing
the information relating to ocean currents, sea temperatures, and concomi-
tant phenomena contained in the thousands of reports received monthly by
the Hydrographic Office of the U. S. Navy has been greatly simplified by
the use of electrical punching, sorting and tabulating equipment, recently
installed.
This system is one in which data are represented by holes punched in cer-
tain positions on a card. The punched cards can then be sorted into desired
groups, by an electrical sorting machine, and finally tabulated and analyzed
by an electrical tabulator which prints a record of the operation.
166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
Static bearing indicators.—The Navy has been interested for many years
in the correlation of static with violent weather disturbances. Experiments
have been conducted with various types of instruments and it has been found
that the use of a cathode ray tube to show the direction of incoming atmos-
pherics is the most promising.
Two such instruments have been designed and manufactured at the Naval
Research Laboratory and are now ready for installation. It is planned to
locate them at Naval direction finder stations in Florida and Texas, so that
by plotting instantaneous cross bearings of incoming atmospherics, weather
disturbances can be located even in the absence of ship reports.
Public health work in Costa Rica and Cuba.—In the February issue of the
Bolétin de la Oficina Sanitaria Panamericana, Drs. A. PENA CHAVARRIA and
Mario LuJAN report the results of the Dick test in Costa Rica. Among 852
persons, 21.4 per cent proved positive, as compared with 34.4 per cent
(Zingher) in New York City and 13.1 per cent (Doull, et al.) in Rio. The
percentage of positivity decreased in San Jose from 55 per cent in infants
under 1 year to 38 per cent, in children 1 to 4 years; 24.4 per cent, 5 to 9
years; 22.2 per cent, 10 to 14 years; 18.2, 15 to 19 years, and 13.2 per cent
in persons over 20.
Among persons of the white race, the percentage was 20.9 in the urban
districts and 20 in the country sections, compared to 26.1 and 17.3, re-
spectively, among persons of mixed races. These tests were made during a
recent epidemic of scarlet fever in Costa Rica. This epidemic proved one of
the most extensive ever observed in the country, and judging from its renal
complications, the most serious so far during the present century. The dis-
ease is very rare in Costa Rica, and the records only show an epidemic in
1901 and another in 1865.
Dr. Pena CHAvARRIA had previously made similar studies with the
Schick test in Costa Rica and Colombia.
Vernon Bailey returns.—After conducting a three-months biological expe-
dition in northern Mexico, VERNON BaILEy returned on January 25 to his
Washington headquarters in the Bureau of Biological Survey, United States
Department of Agriculture. With FREpERIC WINTHROP, JR., of the Museum
of Comparative Zoology, at Cambridge, Mass., and BERNARD BAILEY, a col-
lector from Escondido,Calif., he covered a section of country extending from
the backbone of the Sierra Madras at 8,500 feet down to sea level on the
Gulf of California, near Tiburon Island. This section included parts of all
the life zones between the Canadian and Tropical, with the accompanying
wide variation and complexity of plant and animal life. Besides making an
excellent mammal and bird collection, which is to be divided between the
Biological Survey and the Museum of Comparative Zoology, the expedition
gathered a wealth of valuable information on habits and distribution of
species and on the limits of the life-zone areas of the region and their relation
to those of the United States.
Examine more than 2,000 mammal stomachs.—The Biological Survey’s
food-habits research laboratory, in Denver, Colo., during 1932 received
4,260 mammal stomachs, including more than 3,600 of coyotes and 370 of
wild cats. The laboratory reports that 636 of the 2,663 stomachs studied were
empty and 535 contained only debris picked up by the animals while in
traps. Valid data were thus collected of the contents of 1,492 stomachs,
1,379 of which were of coyotes.
MARCH 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 167
News BRIEFS
Chinese civilization dates back only to about 2000 B.C., and is thus much
more recent than that of the Nile-Mesopotamia-Indus area, an investigation
by C. W. BisHop, curator of the Freer Gallery, indicates. Mr. BisHor ob-
tained his data by adding up the probable durations of the reigns of monarchs
in the Chinese dynasties. According to his chronology, the Hsia dynasty,
the first of “civilized China” began about 1800 B.C.
On December 30 the United States Department of Agriculture issued
Importation Permit No. 20,000. Dr. T. S. Paummr, of the Bureau of Bio-
logical Survey, who is in charge of the work, says this means that since the
passage of the Lacey Act on May 25, 1900, permits have been issued for the
entry of 20,000 separate shipments of birds and mammals.
PERSONAL ITEMS
Dr. THEOBALD SMITH, who was the first chief of the pathological division
of the Bureau of Animal Industry, recently retired as director of the Rocke-
feller Institute at Princeton University. It was Dr. Smita who discovered,
while he was a member of the department that the cattle tick carries tick
fever from one animal to another, a discovery which paved the way for the
later discovery that the mosquito transmits malaria and yellow fever.
WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Director of Regulatory Work in the U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, resigned to become Chief of the Food and Drug Ad-
ministration in the department, effective February 1. The position of Direc-
tor of Regulatory Work has been abolished.
Dr. WALTER Hoven, Head Curator of Anthropology, has gone to Arizona,
for a two-month sojourn among the Pima Indians of the Mexican border.
Dr. Hove expects to obtain photographs of fast-vanishing types, and also
to inspect archaeological undertakings now under way in that area.
Dr. W. D. Strona, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, sailed January
28 for Hondruras, where, in company with ALAN PAayNnE and NorRMAN
HASKELL, he will conduct archaeological researches in the Chorotegan area.
One of the principal objects of the expedition is the search for a reported
‘“‘stone city’’ in the region of the Patuca River.
Miss Emma Rea, formerly of Washington, now Science Service correspon-
dent in Mexico City, is at present in the field in the State of Oaxaca with a
party of Mexican archaeologists, exploring the famous tomb group at
Monte Alban and investigating other sites.
Dr. Emmet W. Pricez, parasitologist, Zoological Division, United States
Bureau of Animal Industry, left Washington January 19 for Puerto Rico, as
one of a group of scientists, headed by Dr. Paut Bartscu of the Smithso-
nian Institution, who will spend two months in the Caribbean.
ERNEST J. GREENWALT has been appointed agent and United States dep-
uty game warden to supervise the Charles Sheldon Wild Life Refuge, Ne-
vada, which is administered by the Bureau of Biological Survey, in cooper-
ation with the National Association of Audubon Societies, chiefly for the
protection of antelope.
E. N. Muwnns, in charge of the Division of Silvics, U. S. Forest Service,
| =
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168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 3
has been elected vice president of the Permanent Committee, governing
body of the International Union of Forest Research Organizations.
Dr. Wiut1amM Bowie, Chief of the Division of Geodesy, U. 8. Coast and
Geodetic Survey, has been awarded the Charles Lagrange prize by the
Royal Academy of Belgium in recognition of his having effected the unifica-
tion of the triangulation systems of Canada, the United States, and Mexico.
This prize is awarded once in four years for work done which adds to the
mathematical knowledge of the earth.
@Obituary
Dr. Francis La FuEscue, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, died
September 5, 1932. Dr. La Flesche was born in Thurston County, Neb.,
Dec. 25, 1857. He was three-quarters Indian, his father being Estamaza, a
half-blood who was the former head chief of the Omaha tribe, and his mother
a full-blood Indian. He became prominent in 1878-1879 when he and his
elder sister Susette accompanied the Ponca chief Standing Bear in his
journey to the East. Here the wrongs which the Ponca (a tribe whose
language is nearly identical with that of the Omaha) had suffered were
exposed. This led to his appointment in 1881 in the Office of Indian Affairs
where he remained for years. After being loaned to the Bureau of American
Ethnology, eventually he was transferred to the latter institution. His most
important works are The Omaha Tribe (with Alice C. Fletcher), The Osage
Tribe: rite of the chiefs; The Osage Tribe: rite of the Waxo be; The Osage
tribe: the rite of vigil; The Osage Tribe: two versions of the child-naming
rite; A dictionary of the Osage language. He was president of the Anthro-
pological Society of Washington in 1922-23. In 1926 the degree of Doctor of
Letters was conferred upon him by the University of Nebraska.
Miss Heten E. StocksrinGE, librarian of the U. 8. Forest Service, died
December 20, 1932.
Mr. Ernest DANGLADE, formerly of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, died
December 18, 1932, at Vevay, Indiana.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS
The ACADEMY announces a meeting on March 23, 1933. Members of
the Academy and their wives will gather at the East Building of the Bureau
of Standards, at 8 p.m., for the purpose of viewing scientific exhibits. The
exhibits will cover the different fields in which Academy members are in-
terested, including, among others, biology, chemistry, geology, and physics.
An exhibit of special interest to the ladies will be shown.
The Philosophical Society announces the following programs:
March 25. Studies of atomic nuclei at the Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism.
| April 8. R. Wrespe.—The experimental determination of some properties of
gases up to 1000 atmospheres.
W. E. Demine.—Some thermodynamic properties of real gases from com-
pressibility data.
VoL. 23 Aprin 15, 1933 No. 4
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
Hues L. DryDEN Witmot H. BrapLEy JOHN A. STEVENSON
BUREAU OF STANDARDS Uv. 8S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. T. WENSEL Haroup MorRIson
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
b
E. A. GoLpMAN W. W. Rousey
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
AGNES CHASE J. R. Swanton
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
R. E. Gisson
CHEMICAL SOCIETY
eo
PUBLISHED MONTHLY
BY THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
450 Aunarp Sr.
AT MpnasHa, WISCONSIN
Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis
Acceptance for mailing at the special rate of postage provided for in the ‘Act of February 28, 1925.
Authorized January 21, 1933.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JoURNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: —
(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) —
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°
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 23 ApRIL 15, 1933 No. 4
GEOPHYSICS.—The thermal history of the earth.1 ARTHUR HOLMES,
The University, Durham, England.
Speculation as to the thermal behavior and cooling history of the
earth has been vigorously stimulated in recent years by the discovery
that the radioactive elements constitute an important source of in-
ternal heat. Despite the vast store of data accumulated since Hopkins
grappled with the problem nearly a hundred years ago, the constitu-
tion of the earth and the physical properties of its materials are still
inadequately known, and in consequence every worker in this field
finds an uncharted margin in which the undetermined conditions gov-
erning the earth’s thermal history offer a considerable range of per-
sonal choice. It is for this reason that the field is occupied by several
types of competing hypotheses.
RIVAL HYPOTHESES
)
The time-honoured “contraction hypothesis,’’ made familiar by
Kelvin, has been ably rejuvenated by Jeffreys (23). Joly, on the other
hand, departing widely from traditional lines of treatment, has intro-
duced a “‘hypothesis of thermal cycles’? which has aroused world-
wide interest and discussion (26). Convective circulation within the
earth was envisaged by Hopkins in 1839 and later by Fisher (10), and
a “hypothesis of sub-crustal convection currents” (maintained by the
earth’s radiothermal energy) is now being actively explored by Bull
(6) and myself (16).
To the onlooker this overcrowded field of speculation may seem to
be in a distressingly chaotic state. The occasion of this address pro-
vides me with a welcome opportunity to attempt to tidy it up. I
_} Lecture delivered before a joint meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences
eee the Geological Society of Washington on April 7th, 1932. Received January 29,
1933.
reac ee AE
OS
APR 18 °333
170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
propose to offer a critical survey of the whole field by systematically
reviewing the physical assumptions involved in each type of hypothe-
sis and by confronting the geological consequences of each with what
is known of the realities of earth history.
RADIOTHERMAL ENERGY OF THE ROCKS
The downward increase of temperature which is everywhere en-
countered in the earth’s crust indicates beyond doubt that the earth
is losing heat. In itself, however, this fact of observation does not
necessarily imply that the earth is cooling. If the interior were being
heated up, heat would still be lost by conduction through the crust
and radiation into space. In the well known treatment of the problem
by Kelvin a steadily cooling earth was not unnaturally assumed.
Kelvin regarded the earth as a spendthrift living on her inherited
capital of cosmic heat. He considered (always provided that no in-
ternal supply of heat was available to counterbalance the external
loss) that the present rate of cooling was represented by the average
downward temperature gradient. The process of solidification from
~a molten state was interpreted in accordance with the belief that
crystallization would begin at the surface, as happens in the lava-
filled crater-sink of Halemaumau. By the formation of a succession
of thin solid shells, each of which in turn broke up and sank, the earth
would become a honeycombed solid enclosing cells of magma which
remained available for the vulcanism of future geological ages.
To geologists the chief symptom that suggested a flaw in Kelvin’s
premises was his calculation that the consolidation of the crust oc-
curred at some time between 20 and 40 million years ago. So short an
allowance for geological time was widely regarded as hopelessly in-
adequate. The radioactive elements and their output of heat were at
that time still unrecognized. But with the discovery of radioactivity
and Strutt’s demonstration (32) that traces of radium could be de-
tected in all rocks, it became certain that the earth could no longer be
regarded as simply a cooling body free from internal sources of heat.
The long controversy came to an end with the realization that the
earth must have cooled down—if at all—much more slowly than
Kelvin had thought possible, and that in consequence the earth’s age
must be immensely greater than 40 million years.
Although the amount of radium (representing the uranium family)
in rocks is very minute, the thermal effects are startling in their im-
plications. It can easily be shown that all the internal heat lost from
the earth’s surface could be supplied by 1 ounce of radium in every
APRIL 15, 1933 HOLMES: EARTH’S THERMAL HISTORY Rick
1000 million tons of the material of the earth. Actually the proportion
in the rocks of the accessible crust averages about 1 ounce in 20 mil-
lion tons. That is to say, if radium were distributed throughout the
earth in the proportions characteristic of rocks the income of heat
would be fifty times as great as the expenditure. Moreover, when the
thermal effects of thorium and potassium are taken into account the
income is found to be doubled. As we cannot believe that the earth is
being heated up at this embarrassing rate, we must conclude with
Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) that the radioactive elements are practically
confined to a radioactive layer which corresponds with a crust a few
tens of kilometers in thickness.
The suggestion that much of the energy liberated by the radio-
active elements in rocks might not appear as heat has been shown by
Lawson (28) and others to be entirely without foundation. Thus, if
the radioactive elements are present in the substratum and core,
either they must be excessively rare or their radioactivity must be in
some way inhibited. The second of these alternatives is quite un-
tenable in the light of direct experiments and modern atomic theory,
but even if it were not, the reality of the radioactive layer would still
remain.
Since the pioneer work of Strutt on the distribution of uranium and
thorium in rocks, many other determinations have been made, not-
ably by Joly and his co-workers, and in America by Piggot. In Figs.
PERIDOTITES
15x10
BASALTIC TYPES
See eT, ve eee su Vee he:
SPiasoveitemeres ls aN DISTRIBUTION
OF
So iver tere cies are ae RADIUM
2-5x10™ IN
ICNEOUS ROCKS
SIALIC TYPES
She ke, Ge te en Ke) or ke
eel fei ates , enuuute
Sie Fire Pace Lene
pee erg ES Oe mete Riven leer oles Iberian 84.0 6). le
eo eerem em Sir 2 vat oe
0:5 1-0 1-5 2:0 oie 3:0 3:5 4-0 4:5 5:0 5:5 6:0 65 7:0 1:5x10°"
Crams of Ra per gram of rock
Fig. 1.—Frequency diagrams to illustrate the distribution of radium (representing
the uranium family) in the three chief groups of igneous rocks.
172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
1 and 2 J have summarized all the reliable data at present available, in
the form of frequency diagrams for each of the chief groups of crustal
rocks. It will be seen that, despite a considerable amount of over-
lapping, the rocks of sialic composition as a whole are richer in ura-
nium? and thorium than those of basaltic composition, and that these
in turn are richer than the rocks of peridotitic composition. It is well
known that the same order is followed by potassium. Although po-
tassium is but feebly radioactive, its aggregate heat output is impor-
tant in virtue of its relative abundance in rocks.
40
5 ia PERIDOTITES
ead S DISTRIBUTION
6x10 OF
THORIUM
IN
IGNEOUS ROCKS
BASALTIC TYPES
18 x10°
SIALIC TYPES
Fig. 2.—Frequency diagrams to illustrate the distribution of thorium in the three
chief groups of igneous rocks.
The average contents of uranium and thorium in basaltic and peri-
dotitic rocks correspond closely with the peak-values revealed by the
frequency diagrams, but this is far from being true of the sialic rocks.
Each of the sialic diagrams could be continued indefinitely to the right
in consequence of the fact that the radioactive elements tend to be
concentrated in magmatic residual liquids. The averages of all the
data plotted for sialic rocks are:
Radium =2.36 X10-” gm./gm. i.e. Uranium =7.08 X10-° gm./gm.
Thorium = 14.8 X10~ gm./gm.
There can, however, be no doubt that these figures are too high to be
representative of the Upper or “‘Granitic’’ Layer of the crust, since
differentiation products in the liquid line of descent are strongly con-
centrated towards the surface and therefore over-weight the apparent
average. I propose, therefore, to take the peak-values of the sialic
diagrams as representing the most probable averages that can be de-
rived from present data. For thorium the peak-value is ill-defined
2 The radium contents are plotted in Fig. 1. Uranium=3X10® Radium.
APRIL 15, 1933 HOLMES! EARTH’S THERMAL HISTORY hv
owing to the paucity of determinations. Nevertheless, it is thought
advisable to adopt the figures given below—tentative though they be
—in preference to the much higher averages that have hitherto been
used for the sialic rocks of the upper layer. The averages selected are
as follows:
Groups of Rocks Uranium Thorium Potassium
per 106 gm. per 106 gm. per 102 gm.
ONC Riee eee tetre eR caee vay oes Ren ee Burne (a Menke ee ayaa Dh
TEMZ (S01 FAG et Uae ee aera Pile shee SORE R BEN he OLE iE Uw eeu aae ea toeals & 0.8
CRI GO Gti pis) ord & ees oe Meee ge irtcae mere cbay eer ye Shall | ie Seek NAteanesean 0.3
The order corresponds with the general downward distribution of
rock-groups in the continental crust and itself constitutes evidence
of a marked upward concentration of the radioactive elements. The
averages for sedimentary rocks are near those here given for sialic
crystalline rocks and no serious error will be involved by grouping
the sediments with the latter.
It should be noticed that, however the data are treated, the in-
ference is confirmed that acid rocks are, on an average, richer in the
radioactive elements than basic rocks. The doubt as to this, recently
expressed by Bailey Willis (36), is raised only by a comparison of
overlapping results and is found to be baseless when the whole of the
data is examined.
The rates of liberation of energy from the radioactive elements ex-
pressed as annual outputs of heat are:
ROlireemnmonEner amily es Mere. Fa. Necse hee eke og are erat elas 7,900 X10~ cals./gm. U.
PUR oninmMsaimilyet yee Foe. ental se ed a 2,300 X10~ cals./gm. Th.
Hao SUUTING fk Rete ae eho Ste NE Folic SNe ca. 0.2 X10 cals./gm. K.
Combining the data of the above tables we arrive at the following
annual outputs of heat in average rocks:
Groups of Rocks Total Annual Output in Calories
per 10§ gm. per 10° ce.
SLIPU DIG: © ira isencishy 35 aca mer i See ea DeOR Le Aees een WSy orl
easel litte erga nares corm. caer ne Peay Cay SHOE ee Reis 8 9.0
IPSIECG VGA Cag tte, oT oS Gon eae ee i ae ee DiQke Sera 6.8
DISTRIBUTION OF RADIOACTIVITY IN THE EARTH
Seismic evidence suggests the following downward succession for
certain continental regions:
Layer Velocity of P-waves in km./sec. Thickness
woeaimentany. ....--.3—2.2—-5.0 Widely variable.
a Wipper or 'Granitie ~. _..P5 =5.4—5..6 About 10-15 km.
. Lower Intermediate. ..Pg=6.8-7.1 About 15-20 km.
Dig a3) Pe a eee hen ee P=7.8+ Extending to great depths.
. Upper Intermediate. ..P sca
orwnmr
174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
Layer 2 is made up of the acid or sialic rocks of the earlier tables. The
composition of Layer 3 is doubtful, but Gutenberg has shown that
in North Germany this Layer approaches the surface and takes the
place of the ‘‘Granitic’’ Layer; hence it becomes possible that Layer
3 may there be a deeply eroded Pre-Cambrian basement made up of
rocks of sialic and basaltic composition such as gneisses and amphibo-
lites. Probably in depth the Upper Intermediate Layer is more domi-
nantly composed of amphibolite or equivalent basaltic material. It is
almost certain that Layer 4 is composed of basaltic material—perhaps
in the granulite facies—and that it represents the lower part of the
world-wide ‘‘basaltic layer’? which is widely regarded by petrologists
as the source of plateau and oceanic basalts and related intrusions.
At a depth of 30-40 km. the Lower Layer appears. Its composition
is commonly regarded as ultrabasic, though Daly includes at least
the upper part of it in his “basaltic”? layer—crystalline above and
glassy below. My own view is that the Lower Layer is likely to be
mainly peridotite, passing down into an ultrabasic and still glassy
substratum. Gutenberg and Richter (11) have found seismic evidence
consistent with the belief that there is a transition from the crystalline
to the glassy state at some depth between 40 and 80 km.
On the basis of this interpretation we should not go far wrong in
supposing that the continental crust in certain representative places
includes approximately 20 km. of sialic rocks (including sedimentary
rocks where present), a similar thickness of basaltic materials, and an
unknown balance of peridotitic rocks. The average annual loss of in-
ternal heat from the non-volcanic parts of the continents is about 60
calories per sq. cm. Of this amount three quarters is made good by
40 km. of sialic and basaltic materials, leaving less than a quarter to
be supplied from the 6,330 km. of the underlying column. If we as-
sume that the whole of this quarter is supplied by radioactivity and
that the latter dies out at a depth of 100 km. then the temperature at
this depth would be about 1540°C. An exponential distribution of
radioactivity that fits the temperature gradient and approximates to
the known distribution in the sialic and basaltic layers implies that
radioactivity decreases by half every 18 to 20 km. down to the earth’s
center. The temperature at 100 km. would then be 1500° to 1530°C.
At such a depth and temperature peridotite would probably be below
its melting point.
There is, however, a serious objection to internal distributions of
radioactivity of the two types just assumed. In the first the material
of the earth below 100 km. is supposed to be entirely devoid of radio-
APRIL 15, 1933 HOLMES: EARTH’S THERMAL HISTORY 175
activity, while in the second the radioactivity falls off to extremely
minute amounts which are equally improbable.
We are completely at a loss to explain how so marked a deficiency
in depth could ever have been brought about. If, to begin with, the
earth’s radioactivity had been uniformly distributed throughout its
mass, then the temperature would exceed the melting point at all
depths exceeding some 40 or 50 km. Convection would then continue
to operate in the glassy substratum until the radioactive elements
were so strongly concentrated towards the surface that the substra-
tum had become practically freed from them. Is there any reason for
supposing that this condition has yet been achieved? The assumption
that so clean a separation can have occurred finds no support in the
evidence of geochemistry. Alternatively, it is conceivable that the
core and substratum may have been formed from material that was
originally free from the radioactive elements, or nearly so, and that
_ the peridotitic, basaltic, and sialic materials of the crust were added
later from a source more richly endowed in the radioactive elements.
The view that the substratum contains “normal’’ amounts of the
“‘radioactive’’ elements but that for some unknown reason they each
in turn cease to be radioactive at some critical depth is quite un-
tenable in the light of existing knowledge. Nevertheless, we have at
present no means of reaching an unequivocal conclusion. All we can
do is to follow up the consequences of two possibilities, one of which
must be true: ;
(A) The substratum may be so nearly free from radioactive ele-
ments that the earth can have systematically cooled down in one or
other of the ways on which the contraction hypothesis is based.
(B) The radioactivity of the material of the substratum—though
of a feeble order compared with that of the crust—may be in excess
of the extreme limitation imposed by the requirements of the contrac-
tion hypothesis. If so, the temperatures of the interior may still be
maintained above the freezing-point.
In alternative B, part of the supply of internal heat must escape
sooner or later by processes other than conduction through the crust.
Igneous activity is the most spectacular example of such processes.
It is important that this function of igneous activity should not be
overlooked. In my own early work (14) I began with possibility A
and it has been claimed for my treatment that it was satisfactory be-
cause it coordinated successfully all the thermal data (Adams, | and
Jeffreys, 20). I later rejected A, however, precisely because it did not
seem to be consistent with the occurrence of certain types of igneous
176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
activity, such as the eruptions of plateau basalts (15). These, after
all, represent an important part of the thermal data. It is true that
any local increase in the thickness of the radioactive layers of the
crust (e.g. in belts of geosynclinal sedimentation and subsequent
mountain building) must lead to a considerable rise of temperature
in depth, thus favoring the production of magma by refusion and the
initiation of vuleanism. But flood-basalts and plateau-basalts have
commonly ascended in regions like the Deccan where the crust had
already been deeply denuded; that is to say, in regions where the
radioactive sialic layer had been thinned. The source of the excess
heat necessary to generate magmas in such a geological setting can
be looked for only in the substratum, which must therefore have
within itself an excess of heat, at least at certain times and places.
The same conclusion may be reached even for the belts of crustal
thickening. Radioactive heating in the deep sialic roots of mountain
ranges would certainly be competent to bring about the production
of granitic magma on a vast scale—but only after the lapse of a hun-
dred million years or more. As granite appears during and immedi-
ately after mountain building we have a direct proof that the necessary
heat must have come from the substratum. This conclusion is con-
sistent with two other sets of facts: first that contemporaneous vul-
canism has commonly occurred during the infilling of the geosyn-
clines from which the mountains afterwards arose; and second that in
igneous complexes the usual order of plutonic intrusion is from peri-
dotite through gabbro or diorite, or both, to granodiorite and granite.
It thus appears at the outset that possibility B offers a better
chance of accounting for igneous activity than the alternative A.
As the latter is based on temperature gradients in regions which have
ceased to be volcanic, it cannot be expected to account for volcanic
activity. On the other hand, it may be objected that B goes too far
since it would seem to require the possibility of vulcanism every-
where and at all times. A reasonable answer is that at any given
place the.thicknesses of the crustal layers, and the thermal state of
the substratum immediately below, may vary from time to time.
Variations of both types are necessary consequences of the convec-
tion hypothesis and of Joly’s hypothesis of thermal cycles.
PHYSICAL BASIS OF THE RIVAL HYPOTHESES
It has already been tacitly assumed that the earth began its ther-
mal history as a fluid globe. It is probable that the first effects of the
APRIL 15, 1933 HOLMES: EARTH’S THERMAL HISTORY REC
cooling of a gaseous earth (by internal convection and radiation into
space) would be the condensation of a succession of liquid phases.
Core and substratum would appear first. These would separate in
virtue of the immiscibility of their respective liquids. It is to be ex-
pected that the magma of the basaltic layers would follow that of
peridotite without a break, and that granitic magma would condense
next. The lateral discontinuity of the granite layer which is responsi-
ble for the existence of continents still offers an unsolved problem.
Long after the granite had crystallized, the waters of the hydrosphere
would begin to be precipitated. This conception of the early cooling
history embodies a possible clue to the reason for the concentration
of radioactivity in the crustal layers. It cannot be tested at present
because we know nothing of the way in which traces of volatile com-
pounds of uranium and thorium would distribute themselves be-
tween liquid and gaseous silicate phases.
The substratum, if produced in this way, would be liquid from the
start. It would cool by convection, transmitting its heat to the over-
lying layers, until somewhere within it the freezing temperature,
under the pressure of that depth, was reached. We must next con-
sider whether the freezing temperature would first be reached at the
top, at some intermediate depth, or at the bottom.
Convection can continue only so long as a certain downward in-
crease of temperature is exceeded; for convenience this downward
increase may be referred to as the convection gradient. The variation
of freezing point with pressure corresponds to another gradient which
may be referred to as the freezing- (or melting-) point gradient. As
shown in Fig. 3., if the freezing-point gradient is steeper than the
convection gradient, crystallization must begin at the bottom. If,
on the contrary, the convection gradient be the steeper then crystal-
lization begins at the top (Fig. 4). The importance of this distinction
was first recognized by Hopkins, but it was left for Dr. L. H. Adams
(1) to show that under the pressures corresponding to crustal condi-
tions the freezing-point gradient is the steeper. Such data as we have
for silicates suggest that the convection gradient is about 0.3°C. per
km. whereas the freezing-point gradient is about 3°C. per km. If this
relation continued throughout the thickness of the substratum, then
crystallization would first begin at the bottom and a steadily increas-
ing thickness of ultrabasic rock would accumulate until the whole
had consolidated. This is certainly one possibility that must be
reckoned with.
178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
But here, too, there is an alternative to be considered. Tammann
(33) has conjectured from the behaviour of certain hydrous salts that
with increase of pressure the melting point of silicate materials may
rise to a maximum temperature and then begin to fall again (Fig. 5).
If this view were valid, then the curve representing the convection
gradient would first touch the freezing-point curve near the peak of
Depth from Surface
Fig. 3.—Illustrating the course of crystallization in the Substratum from below up-
wards if the freezing-point gradient be steeper than the convection gradient.
Fig. 4.—Illustrating the course of crystallization in the Substratum from above
downwards if the convection gradient be steeper than the freezing-point gradient.
Fig. 5.—Illustrating the beginning of crystallization at some intermediate depth
in ae Substratum where the convection gradient is tangential to the freezing-point
gradient.
the latter, and crystallization would begin at the intermediate depth
where the two curves first became tangential. Bridgman (2) has
shown, however, that ‘‘the evidence * * * seems to be unequivocally
against the possibility of a maximum temperature.” With hydrous
salts the existence of a maximum is a consequence of the effect of pres-
sure on solubility. While this additional effect may, of course, operate
in the substratum, which is not likely to be a pure substance, it 1s im-
probable that it can be the controlling factor. Bridgman favors the
179
E ’
ARTH S THERMAL HISTORY
°
°
HOLMES
APRIL 15, 1933
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180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL..23, NO. 4
view that the increase of melting point with pressure rises at a con-
tinuously decreasing rate. Moreover, since viscosity increases with
pressure at a continuously increasing rate, the convection gradient
must become steeper with increasing depth. It is thus well within the
bounds of probability that the actual relations are like those illus-
trated in Figs. 7 and 9. The convection gradient being concave up-
wards and the melting-point curve convex, the two are likely first to
meet at an intermediate depth. From this depth crystallization would
proceed in both directions, but upwards much more rapidly than
downwards; the underlying liquid would continue to circulate until
loss of heat through the roof brought convection to an end. This would
occur before crystallization was complete and the substratum would
then be left as a stagnant glass in which the rate of further crystal-
lization would be negligibly slow. If however, the substratum were
only slightly radioactive, convection would continue to be maintained
throughout geological time.
As we cannot be sure whether the relations of the convection and
freezing-point gradients are such as to initiate crystallization, I, at
the bottom of the substratum as in Figs. 6 and 8 or, II, at some inter-
mediate depth as in Figs. 7 and 9, we must follow up the consequences
of each alternative. Combining I and II with the two possibilities A
and B depending on the distribution of radioactivity in the substra-
tum, we arrive at the four different sets of conditions (AI, AIT; BI,
BIT) represented graphically in Figs. 6-9. Each of these corresponds
to one of the theories of the earth that are now on trial. AI and AII
provide the physical conditions for alternative forms of the ‘“‘thermal
contraction hypothesis’? (23). BI gives the conditions appropriate
to the requirements of Joly’s ‘‘hypothesis of thermal cycles’’ (26).
BIT supplies the conditions for the “hypothesis of sub-crustal con-
vection-currents”’ (16).
AI—THE THERMAL CONTRACTION HYPOTHESIS
Here it is assumed that the sub-crustal material is negligibly radio-
active (i.e. that the heat generated within it is insufficient to prevent
continuous cooling) and that the freezing-point gradient is steeper
than the convection gradient throughout (Fig. 6). Crystallization
therefore begins at the bottom of the Lower Layer, presumably pro-
ducing a peridotite-like rock until an outer residual magma a few
tens of kilometres in thickness remains. From this residuum, which
must be assumed to contain nearly all the earth’s store of radioactive
Ls eee ee
APRIL 15, 1933 HOLMES: EARTH’S THERMAL HISTORY 181
elements, layers of basaltic and granitic composition crystallize in
turn.
The consequences of the contraction hypothesis have been re-
peatedly discussed, and despite the damaging criticism to which the
hypothesis has been exposed, many geologists still retain their faith
in its tenets. In 1930, for example, Hobbs (13) expressed his belief
that ‘“‘this view of a shrinking earth is more firmly established today
than ever before.’’ On the other hand, Wegener regarded the hypoth-
esis as “completely bankrupt.” Both authors omitted to give sound
reasons for their contradictory opinions, but at least two sets of con-
siderations seem to me to support Wegener’s characteristically sweep-
ing judgment.
As indicated already on p. 176 the thermal limitations of the hy-
pothesis preclude its successful application to the outstanding phenom-
ena of igneous activity. The widespread occurrence of plateau ba-
salts and the appearance of plutonic intrusions during orogenesis
seem to be quite inconsistent with the existence of a crystalline in-
terior (19). :
Jeffreys has claimed that the compression due to contraction is of
the right order to account for mountain-building, and the validity of
his claim has been as persistently denied. On both sides, however, the
margin of error is so great that a really convincing comparison be-
tween theory and fact is at present out of the question (17 and 24).
On the other hand, the distribution of mountain-building in time, as
tested by the lead-ratios of radioactive minerals, shows that the
intervals between the peaks of successive orogenic revolutions have
not become systematically longer, as they should have done, ac-
cording to the hypothesis. Indeed, since Pre-Cambrian time the
intervals have become shorter, as the following data clearly show
(18).
Orogenesis Lead-ratios Intervals
Allpine= Mara mile. c. Sno sedcscs eG ko 0.008
A ce: Wages eer eer Ozes « 0.022
Hercynian-Appalachian............. 0.030
acest Sa eee oe gente 0.025
Caledonian-Taconic.............ca. 0.055
5h Sey eRe Ae hae 0.030
WpperPre-Gambrian. 26. 5 6 o22..4 101.085
SE ape ee oy 0.0452
End of Middle Pre-Cambrian ........ 0.130
It is possible that this interval represents two intervals of 0.025 and 0.020 divided by the Killarnean
orogenesis with a lead-ratio of 0.110.
182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
This apparent speeding-up of the earth’s orogenic activities is dem-
onstrated in detail by Figs. 10 and 11. In Fig. 10 a first approxima-
tion to a geological time-scale is provided by plotting lead-ratios
against maximum thicknesses of sediments from the Cambrian on-
wards. The steepening of the curve as the present is approached ac-
cords with the findings of Barrell and Schuchert to the effect that
rates of denudation and sedimentation have steadily increased since
Pre-Cambrian time. In Fig. 11 the orogenic episodes recognised by
Stille are plotted against the time-scale. The results show at a glance
that there has been a remarkable acceleration of activity.
SEDIMENTS — THOUSANDS OF FEET
OLD RED SANDSTONE
or
iim DEVONIAN
St ed ee ee ee
100 «6125 150 115 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 9375 400 4 525
Fig. 10.—An approximate geological time-scale based on lead-ratios (plotted as
abscissae) and maximum thicknesses of sediments (plotted as ordinates).
The contraction theory implies an ageing earth that should now
have reached senility. The fact is that during the Tertiary period the
earth was more vigorous in her behaviour than ever before during at
least the last thousand million years. Many other objections to the
hypothesis could be urged, but those here given seem to be ample to
justify its rejection.
APRIL 15, 1933 HOLMES: EARTH’S THERMAL HISTORY
AII—MOoDIFIED FORM OF THE THERMAL
CONTRACTION HYPOTHESIS
In this case (Fig. 7) the assumed
distribution of radioactivity is that of
AI, but the two gradients are regarded
as becoming tangential at some inter-
mediate depth. Crystallization begins
at this depth and proceeds upwards as
in AI. Crystallization—or possibly con-
solidation into the durovitreous state—
also proceeds downwards into the under-
lying zone of convection so long as the
heat brought up can be carried away by
conduction through the crust. The un-
derlying convective zone slowly thins
and dies out by downward thickening of
the crust as loss of heat reduces the
gradient below the critical value. The
bulk of the substratum is then left as
a stagnant glass in which downward
crystallization very slowly proceeds.
The period required for complete crystal-
lization would be very long compared
with geological time. This form of the
contraction hypothesis implies that the
substratum was practically devoid of
radioactivity from the start, since the
cooling process in itself provides no
mechanism for concentrating any orig-
inally dispersed radioactivity towards
the surface.
Jeffreys finds that on this hypothesis
crystallization may now have proceeded
to a depth of a few hundred kilometres.
As compared with AI a little more con-
traction may be available because of
the volume change attending crystal-
lization or the passage from the lique-
vitreous to the durovitreous state. On
the other hand the gradient due to the
ee CL) a Lee NOP AO) (Che
HERCYNIAN -APPALACHIAN
+—————— LOWER PALAOZOIC
CALEDONIAN-T AC ONIC
160+
130
|
|
Millions of Years
435
510
400
345 350 375
285
260
t— KAINOZ OIC —
24
68
26 |
22
LARAMIDE
20
38
85 1810 10 18
192 210 220
157
128
102
80
60
2 101522 32 42
183
Cambrian time plotted on the time-scale of Fig. 10. An assessment of the relative
eights of the black triangles.
_ Fig. 11.—Orogenic episodes (after Stille) of Post-
intensities of the respective orogenies is roughly indicated by the h
184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
increase of freezing-point with depth—which gives rise to an outflow
of heat at all depths that have crystallized—is less steep than in AI,
and gives a heat flow through only a shallow depth instead of all
through the Earth. In this respect, therefore, there is less contraction,
and on the whole AII seems to be even less capable of matching the
facts than AI. Indeed, in his latest work Jeffreys clearly shows his
preference for AI (25).
BI—HYPOTHESIS OF THERMAL CYCLES
The substratum is assumed to be slightly radioactive, sufficiently
so for the heat generated to prevent permanent crystallization.
The two assumed gradients being as in AI, crystallization begins at
the bottom and proceeds towards the surface (Fig. 8). Once con-
vection has ceased, heat is generated at all depths below a certain
critical level (near the base of the basaltic layer) faster than it can be
carried off by conduction. This excess of heat supplies latent heat
and promotes re-fusion. Sooner or later the growing threads of
fluid unite and lberate crystal individuals or aggregates which
sink, unless the viscosity is sufficiently high to prevent them from
doing so at any effective rate. A layer of magma thus accumulates
and rises upwards, increasing in thickness as it ascends. Convection
recommences within this layer, and accelerates the upward migration
until the base of the basaltic layer is reached. Re-fusion of the
basaltic material then proceeds. At this stage the temperature at
the top of the zone of fusion is below the freezing-point of peridotite
and the peridotite magma gradually solidifies as the basaltic layer
is fused. Finally, under the continents, much of the granitic layer
may become fused in turn before the overlying crust becomes
sufficiently thin to carry off the excess of heat and bring about
consolidation. During the later stages, igneous activity is inevit-
able in both continental and oceanic regions. Essentially the cycle
consists of the ascent of a wave of fusion from great depths,
thickening until it comes under the cooling influence of the surface,
and then dying out as the surface is closely approached. Before the
first cycle is completed another will have begun in the depths of
the substratum. The earth’s history is thus thought to be controlled
by a succession of “thermal cycles.”’
It is obvious that if the maximum depth ever reached by a zone of
fusion were to exceed a certain thickness (of the order of a few tens of
kilometres,) it would fail to die out before breaking clean through
to the surface. As this has not happened on a regional scale within
APRIL 15, 1933 HOLMES: EARTH’S THERMAL HISTORY 185
known geological history there is here a clear indication that the
hypothesis cannot legitimately invoke waves of fusion of more than
relatively small amplitude. This limitation implies an average radio-
activity in the substratum of a much lower order than that of the
crust (1/100th or less).
It was assumed in the above statement that the viscosity of the sub-
stratum was not too high to prevent the effectual sinking of crystals.
Actually, however, the viscosity is extremely high; Jeffreys finds a
mean value exceeding 5 X10 c.g.s. from the 14-monthly variation
of latitude. Under such conditions crystals could not sink through
any appreciable distance during geological time. Thus the conditions
favourable to thermal cycles would seem to be limited to within 100
km. or so from the surface. But as fusion would nevertheless steadily
proceed throughout the substratum, successive cycles or groups of
cycles would involve ever-increasing depths, until finally a wave of
fusion would rise of such amplitude that the whole crust would be
engulfed, and in part remelted. Accepting the premises, it is by no
means inconceivable that such a fate may overtake the earth at some
remotely future time. The danger arises from the conditions implied
by the hypothesis under consideration; first, the rising convection
currents maintain temperatures at the top that are well above the
melting-point of the materials of the roof; and second, the heat repre-
sented by the excess of temperature over the melting point, and the
latent heat of the material of the wave of fusion, have both to escape
through to the surface before reconsolidation can occur.
The advantages of Joly’s hypothesis are many, but unfortunately
they are both dangerous and incomplete. Each period of consolida-
tion corresponds to one of crustal contraction and mountain-building,
and in this respect the hypothesis is more satisfactory than the tradi-
tional contraction hypothesis, as it provides for repeated consolida-
tions, each time beginning afresh from conditions of fusion. Obviously,
there is ample opportunity for igneous activity on the most extrava-
gant scale. Marine transgressions and recessions are a necessary con-
sequence of thermal cycles. Partial foundering of the lands and their
invasion by epeiric seas take place during conditions of widespread
fusion, followed by recovery and withdrawal of the seas during the
succeeding phase of contraction and orogenesis.
Jeffreys has vigorously attacked the hypothesis on physical grounds
(21 and 22). Joly requires a westerly tidal drift of the crust to drag
the ocean floors over the magmatic layer and so permit the excess
sub-continental heat to be discharged through the chilled and atten-
186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
uated oceanic part of the crust. Jeffreys gives good reasons for think-
ing that this drift could not occur at the required rate. On the other
hand, J. H. J. Poole (81) has developed a form of the hypothesis in
which tidal drift does not appear. McCarthy (29) has pointed out
that rapid loss of heat through the oceanic floors would involve ab-
normal heating of the oceanic waters, and this consideration un-
doubtedly limits the application of the hypothesis to a very thin layer
of fusion. A serious objection to the hypothesis in its ideal symmetrical
form is its implication that world-wide crustal tension (during fusion
and expansion) has alternated in time with world-wide compression
(during consolidation and contraction). The testimony of geology is
that compression seems always to have been more or less active some-
where or other in the world, periodicity being a matter of climaxes in
particular regions heralded by crescendos and followed by diminuen-
dos. Moreover, tensional phenomena have often been contempora-
neous with compressional phenomena elsewhere. It might be possible
to modify the hypothesis so that it would become consistent with
these phenomena, but to do so would necessitate the discovery of a
non-uniform distribution of radioactivity in the crust on a regional
scale and to an extent that the evidence so far collected fails to
foreshadow. Like the thermal contraction hypothesis, this one equally
fails to account for the development of geosynclines, the subsiding
areas of long-continued sedimentation that formed the gathering
ground of the formations out of which long belts of mountain ranges
were destined to be built. It must also be pointed out that Joly’s
hypothesis is at variance with the rate of the apparent speeding-up of
geological activities to which reference has already been made. Cer-
tainly successive cycles would be of increasing intensity if each wave
arose from a greater depth than the previous one, but if so the time
intervals between them would become systematically longer.
Although it seems highly improbable that the hypothesis of thermal
cycles can by itself express the earth’s thermal history, it would be
rash to deny its applicability to certain of the problems of crustal
thermodynamics. The formation, ascent, and consolidation of magmas
and consequent isostatic changes of level seem to fall within the
scope of its mechanism, but on a scale less grandiose than that visual-
ized by its author.
BII—nyYPoTHESIS OF SUB-CRUSTAL CONVECTION CURRENTS
Here it is assumed that the gradient in the convecting layer be-
comes tangential to the freezing point gradient at some intermediate
APRIL 15, 1933 HOLMES: EARTH’S THERMAL HISTORY 187
depth (Fig. 9). Tangential conditions are likely to be closely ap-
proached through a zone of considerable thickness. Crystallization
begins in this zone and proceeds upwards until a crust is formed over
a convecting interior. Under these conditions the rising convection
currents reach the overlying roof at or near the temperature of the
melting point of the roof materials. Moreover, the latent heat of the
substratum below the level of tangency is not liberated by erystalliza-
tion and does not escape through the crust, since crystallization tends
to occur only at and above the level of tangency and not at the bot-
tom of the substratum. Only the latent heat of material fused above
the level of tangency has to pass through the crust. From this cause
there is therefore no danger of catastrophic crustal fusion on a world-
wide scale after the crust has once formed. The substratum remains in
a glassy state (liquevitreous of Jeffreys), characterized by rigidity,
high viscosity, no permanent strength, and sufficient radioactivity
to maintain a slow but ever-changing convective circulation.
It is easy to see that the zone of tangency must lie beneath the
basaltic layers. It cannot be in the latter because of the marked fall of
melting-point in passing upwards from peridotitic to basaltic mate-
rial. On the other hand, if the zone of tangency were deep in the
peridotitic layer, the crust would be too thick to carry off by conduc-
tion the heat brought up by rising convection currents. The perido-
titic layer would then heat up, and its temperature gradient would
steepen, until the actual zone of tangency migrated to a higher level.
This implies partial fusion of the lower part of the peridotitic layer
and the generation of successive waves of magma which would ascend
into the crust as in the Joly cycles. The evidence of igneous activity
indicates that such waves are relatively thin, whence it follows that
the shell of material fused by the ascent of the zone of tangency must
itself be thin. An average depth for the zone of tangency between 40
and 80 km. would seem to coordinate all the relevant data. Such a
depth corresponds first with that suggested by Gutenberg and Rich-
ter (11) for the passage from the crystalline to the glassy state; and
second, with the thermal necessity that conditions of fusion must
normally reach a level some distance above the depth where the
melting point would be attained in virtue of the radioactivity of the
overlying material.
The above discussion indicates that variations in the thickness and
radioactivity of the crust, together with changes in the temperature
gradient of the substratum, may combine to extend very considerably
the range of the shell subject to refusion. For this reason the condi-
188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
tions which determine whether the substratum gains on the crust by
upward melting or the crust gains on the substratum by downward
crystallization are likely to vary from place to place and from time
to time.
To prevent convection in a layer extending far: down towards the
core a viscosity exceeding 1076 would be necessary. As we have good
evidence that the actual viscosity is well below this limit there is no
physical improbability about internal convection. Vertical currents
ascend in certain places and on reaching the top the material pro-
motes sub-crustal fusion and spreads out laterally, flowing horizon-
tally to the neighboring descending currents. The horizontal flow is
likely to exercise a powerful viscous drag on the lower levels of the
crust, throwing the latter into tension where the currents diverge and
into compression where they converge (Figs. 12 and 13). If the dis-
tance between ascending and descending currents be of continental
dimensions then the drag due to horizontal flow may produce con-
tinental displacements, with distension behind and mountain-build-
ing in front. Material from the substratum ascends into the distended
area, where it cools, and differentiates, while heavy compressed crus-
tal material (eclogite from the basaltic layers) is dragged down with
the descending currents.
Excess heat from the substratum is thus discharged (a) by cooling
due to thinning of the crust and consequent development of basins,
OLD OLD
OCEAN CONTINENTAL BLOCK OCEAN
> Eclogite
formation
AND
BORDERLAND NEW ee NEW BORDERLAND
DEEP | GEOSYNCLINE OCEAN ° » OCEAN GEOSYNCLINE| DEEP
i SWELL
Lr OO TES
SSS OL
SSS Rs
xx’ tans —
= DO OGKER —— (ease = erat si ie : =
x — e —_ ——_— x eat
xc Bx
[Piles USE
Fig. 12.—Sub-continental circulation in the Substratum with eclogite formation
from the basaltic rocks of the Intermediate Layer above B and C where the sub-
continental currents meet sub-oceanic currents and turn down. Upper “‘Granitic”’
Layer, dotted. Intermediate Layer (gabbro, amphibolite, basic granulite, etc.), line-
shaded. Substratum, unshaded.
Fig. 13.—Distension of the continental block on each side of A with formation of
new ocean floors from rising basaltic magma. The front parts of the advancing conti-
nental blocks are thickened into mountainous borderlands with oceanic deeps in the
adjoining ocean floor due to the accumulation of eclogite at B and C.
APRIL 15, 1933 HOLMES: EARTH’S THERMAL HISTORY 189
geosynclines or ocean floors over the sites of ascending currents;
(b) by the heating-up and remelting of crustal materials carried down
in descending currents; and (c) by igneous activity of all kinds.
The convection hypothesis has the advantage over its rivals that
it naturally and inevitably provides for simultaneous tension and
compression. Good examples of this are the opening of the Uralian
geosyncline at the same time as the crumpling up of the Caledonian
mountains of Scandinavia, and the formation of the North Atlantic
while the Rockies, Sierras, and Coast Ranges of Western North
America were being formed.
According to the convection hypothesis, we should expect moun-
tains to be formed where two series of approaching currents turn
down and so compress the overlying layers of the crust (Figs. 12 and
13). Experiments by Bull (5) have shown that this kind of mechanism
provides the only method yet devised for successfully imitating
nappe-structures like those of the Alps. While the mountains are
being built from sialic materials, the underlying basaltic material is
dynamically metamorphosed into the dense eclogite facies and is
sucked down by the downward-fiowing currents. After the folding,
some of this material will in many places remain beneath the orogenic
belt, and its inevitable fusion must tend to heave up the overlying
mountain range. Where it happens, however, that the fused material
is squeezed out sideways, the mountain chain will break down and
parts of it may even subside beneath sea-level. Other parts of a
folded belt may never have risen above the sea.
Jeffreys has pointed out that many old peneplained mountain
ranges are still represented by tracts of folded sediments, despite the
fact that if they had been worn down to this extreme degree by
denudation alone, all the sediments and much of the underlying
granitic layer should have been removed (28, p. 296). He suggests
that these tracts have in part been lowered by “outflow of matter
from the intermediate layer, with compensating inflow in the lower
layer.’’ Such an effect would be brought about equaliy well by the
passage of a sub-crustal current, for the latter would tend to “‘erode”’
the roots, carrying away the corroded material in the direction of
movement, just as ice-sheets have ground down the protuberances
of the land surface beneath them and spread out the debris in the
lowlands beyond.
The distribution of the latest of the earth’s mountain systems
(Figs. 14 and 15) shows that they form interrupted rings surrounding
the great northern land masses of N. America and Eurasia (known
VOL. 23, NO. 4
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
190
“OLXOLI ?1T 191899 (‘peqqop ore pue[euRMpUOr Jo SyooTq surtutofpe ey) “sAq}oy, 94} pur
oyIOed VY} SpAVMO} SPIVMYNO PozOOITP SJUPUIOAOUL [BJUSUTJUOD YIM VISVIN'T OF [BLIYdIIod SuII O1UISOIQ— FT “SIT
APRIL 15, 1933 HOLMES: EARTH’S THERMAL HISTORY 191
as Laurasia) and the southern lands of 8. America, Africa, India,
Australia, and Antarctica (known as Gondwanaland). Each great
land mass seems to have been the centre of a system of currents
directed outwards towards the Pacific and towards the former Medi-
terranean—the Tethys—that lay between Gondwanaland and Laura-
sia. Peripheral ranges of mountains were raised up in front of each
advancing continental block—and in some places, such as the East
and West Indies, the process seems still to be in operation. Earth-
quakes and volcanoes are specially numerous in and adjacent to these
peripheral rings of crustal instability. :
b Fig. 15.—Orogenic “‘ring’”’ peripheral to Gondwanaland (dotted) with continental movements
directed towards the Pacific and the Tethys. Scale: 1: 210105.
192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
The formation of eclogite in front of active mountain ranges is
strongly suggested by the oceanic deeps of the western margins of
the Pacific. Here, too, lie the epicentres of many deep earthquakes
that have originated from foci hundreds of kilometres below the
surface (35). If these deep-seated disturbances are ‘not in some way
a result of currents operating far down in the zone of flowage where
great masses of eclogite may be fractured as their strength is over-
come, it is difficult to conceive an alternative mechanism that could
be responsible for them.
The action of sub-continental currents directed towards the Pacific
shores may be inferred from the echelon structure of the island
festoons of Asia (84), and from the great and geologically rapid up-
lifts of the outer zones of many growing island-ares (Hobbs, 12).
Evidence of a different sort, suggesting the action of a sub-Pacific
current, is forthcoming from a comparative study of certain coral
reefs in the Fiji group made by W. M. Davis. It will suffice here to
quote a single sentence from the paper referred to (8): “‘The changes
of level in the several belts all appear to be caused by the slow west-
ward migration of a broad and low ocean-floor anticline, preceded
and followed by shallow ocean-floor synclines.”’ Substratum currents
acting on the under surface of the crust may be expected to produce
migrating sub-crustal wave-forms which would be mirrored above
by migrating anticlines and synclines of the kind discovered by
Davis.
The remarkable belt of negative anomalies of gravity recently dis-
covered by Meinesz in the East Indian Archipelago (30) may also be
a symptom of sub-crustal currents. A powerful downward drag
seems necessary to account for the astonishing departure from iso-
static equilibrium that has been revealed (17). Other anomalies,
however, such as those which imply that the equator of the geoid
may be slightly elliptical instead of circular, have been used by
Jeffreys in support of the view that the substratum has sufficient
strength to withstand considerable regional departures from isostatic
equilibrium (23, p. 222). If the substratum has strength, its viscosity
is infinite until the strength has been overcome, and convection cur-
rents would then be impossible. The objection is not final, however,
for its acceptance raises in turn a fresh difficulty. If Africa, for ex-
ample, stands high to an extent implying a slight bulge in the equator,
then its tendency should be to sink; yet actually its tendency has
been, and geologically speaking, still is, to rise. I have therefore sug-
gested the alternative interpretation that the ‘‘bulge’’ may be an
ee ee ee ee ee ee a
a. fii he
APRIL 15, 1933 HOLMES: EARTH’S THERMAL HISTORY 193
expression of some dynamic process operating in the substratum at a
rate slightly in advance of that of isostatic re-adjustment (16, p.
576). There is here a difference of opinion that should be amenable
to mathematical treatment and decision.
Turning to evidence of a very different kind, it is worthy of notice
that the maintenance and secular variations of the earth’s magnetic
field are regarded by Chapman (7) as possible consequences of a deep-
seated internal circulation of material. Another suggestive indication
of flowage in the substratum is provided by the mysterious fluctua-
tions in the earth’s rate of rotation which have been studied by de
Sitter (9) and Brown (8). De Sitter points out that the sudden short-
ening of the day which happened in 1918 could have been produced
“by a very slight adjustment of the layers of equal density in the in-
side of the earth, of which the effect on the dimensions of the outer
surface need not exceed a fraction of a millimeter.’’ The significance
of this statement is best realised by considering that ‘‘if the whole of
the Central Asian Highlands from the Himalaya to the Kwen Lun
Mountains (both included) had at that time been sunk into the earth,
their mean height being reduced to sea-level, the resulting shortening
of the day would have been only one fourth of what is required.’’ We
have in such remarkable time-changes an indubitable indication of
deep-seated widespread movements within the earth—movements
which must, moreover, arise from causes originating inside the earth,
quite independently of any external cause due to sun, moon, or stars.
So far, little has been said about continental drift, and space does
not allow of any critical discussion of the evidence for or against it.
It may be said, however, that on the thermal contraction hypothesis
continental drift is manifestly impossible, whereas on the convection
hypothesis a certain amount of drift is inevitable mechanically; it
serves, moreover, to provide a means of escape for the heat carried
up to the crust by the more powerful ascending currents. The con-
vection process seems also to be intimately related to the acceleration
of geological activities since Pre-Cambrian times, and to the cognate
fact that continental drift does not appear to have operated on a
considerable scale until after the Hercynian orogenesis. If eclogite is
carried down by descending currents into the substratum, then some
of the basaltic material must be dissolved in the substratum which,
in consequence, becomes locally enriched in the radioactive elements.
The tendency to circulate in convection currents should, therefore,
have become more marked with the advance of geological time, and
this would necessarily have provided more earth movement, more
194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
igneous activity, and in general more intense manifestations of
energy in every direction. The explanation suggested implies that
the radioactive layer was not concentrated from the interior, as
generally assumed, but that conversely, the interior has been steadily
gaining radioactivity at the expense of the lower levels of the crust.
If so, the earth has an exciting geological history in store.
Although the hypothesis invoking sub-crustal convection currents
cannot be regarded as established, it is encouraging to find that it is
consistent with a wide range of geological and geophysical data.
Moreover, it is by no means independent of the best features of the
other hypotheses. It requires the local operation of thermal cycles
within the crust, and it necessarily involves contraction in regions
where crustal cooling takes place. It is sufficiently complex to match
the astonishing complexities of geological history, and sufficiently
startling to stimulate research in many new directions. And therein
lies its chief merit, whether it fails or succeeds. Jeffreys (24) can find
nothing inherently impossible in the hypothesis, but he thinks that
“its validity would be a remarkable accident.” I agree; but then I
think the earth is no less a remarkable accident. It is impossible to be
a geologist without realising that—in the dim light of the knowledge
we have so far gained—the earth we live on is a strange and most
improbable planet.
Of the figures which illustrate this paper Figs. 1-13 have been
drawn for me by my friend Miss Doris L. Reynolds and in conclusion
I wish to record my grateful thanks for her generous cooperation.
The two maps, Figs. 14 and 15, are reproduced from an earlier paper
(16) by permission of the Council of the Geological Society of Glas-
gow.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Apams, L. H. The temperature at moderate depths within the earth. This
JOURNAL 14: 459. 1924.
2. Bripaman, P. W. The physics of high pressure. (London, 1931). p. 398.
3. Brown, E. W. The evidence for changes in the rate of rotation of the earth and
their geophysical consequences. Trans. Ast. Obs. Yale Univ. 3: 209-235. 1926.
4. Buut, A. J. Some aspects of the mountain building problem. Proc. Geol.
Assoc. 38: 145. 1927.
5. Butt, A. J. Further aspects of the mountain building problem. Proc. Geol.
Assoc. 40: 105. 1929.
6. Butt, A. J. The convection current hypothesis of mountain building. Geol.
Mag. 68: 495-498. 1931.
7. CHAPMAN, S. Cosmical magnetic phenomena. Nature. 124: July, 19. 1929.
aii eee W. M. A migrating anticline in Fiji. Amer. Journ. Sci. (5) 14: 333-
9. De Sirrer, W. On the rotation of the earth and astronomical time. Nature. 121:
99-106. 1928.
APRIL 15, 1933 TUNELL: CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF TENORITE 195
10. FisHer, O. Physics of the earth’s crust. (London, 1881).
11. GutTeNBERG, B., and Ricuter, C. F. On supposed discontinuities in the
mantle of the earth. Bull. Seis. Soc. Am. 21: 216-222. 1931.
12. Hopss, W. H. The unstable middle section of the island arcs. In Gedenkboek
van Dr. R. D. M. VerRseEcx: Geol. Mijnbouwk. Genootschap, v. Nederland en Kol-
onien, Geol. Ser. 8: 219. 1925.
13. Hopss, W. H. Stress conditions within the lithosphere as revealed by earth-
quakes. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 41: 739-746. 1930. -
14. Houmss, A. Radioactivity and the earth’s thermal history. Pt. II. Radioac-
tevity and the Earth as a cooling body. Geol. Mag. (6), 2: 102. 1915.
15. Houmes, A. Radioactivity and the earth’s thermal history. Pt. IV. A criticism
a paris t, T!, and £IJ. Vbid. 62: 504. 1925.
16. Hotmss, A. Radioactivity and earth movements. Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow.
18: 559-606. 1928-29.
17. Houtmes, A. Problems of the earth’s crust. Geog. Journ. 78: pp. 445 and 541.
1931.
18. Houmss, A. Radioactivity and geological time. In, The age of the earth. Bull.
Natl. Research Council No. 80: Washington 124-459. 1931.
19. Houmes, A. The origin of igneous rocks. Geol. Mag. 69: 543. 1932.
20. JEFFREYS, H. The cooling of the earth. Nature. 115: 876. 1925.
21. JErrREYS, H. On Prof. Joly’s “Theory of earth history.’”? Phil. Mag. (7) 1:
923. 1926.
22. JEFFREYS, H. Prof. Joly and the earth’s thermal history. Phil. Mag. (7) 5:
208. 1928.
23. JEFFREYS, H. The Earth. (2nd ed.) Cambridge, 1929.
24. JEFFREYS, H. Problems of the earth’s crust. Geog. Journ. 78: 451. 1931.
25. JEFFREYS, H. On the variation of melting point within the earth. Monthly
notices: Roy. Ast. Soc. Geophys. Suppl., 3: 6-9. 1932.
26. Joty, J. The surface history of the earth. Oxford, 1925. (2nd ed.) 1930.
ek Joty, J. Dr. Jeffreys and the earth’s thermal history. Phil. Mag. (7) 4: 338.
28. Lawson, R. W. Radioactivity and the heat of the earth. Nature. 119: 277. 1927.
and 119: 703. 1927.
sa McCartuy, G. Radioactivity and the floor of the oceans. Geol. Mag. 63: 301.
30. Mertnesz, F. A. VENING. Gravity anomalies in the East Indian Archipelago.
Geog. Journ. 77: 323-337, Pl. 1931.
dl. Pooue, J. H. J. The thermal instability of the earth’s crust. Sci. Proc. Roy.
Dublin Soc. 19: (N. S.) 385-408. 1930.
32. Strutt, R. J. On the distribution of radium in the earth’s crust and on the earth’s
internal heat. Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 77: 472. 1906, and 78: 150. 1906.
33. TAMMANN, G. Aggregatzustdnde, Leipzig. 97-98. 1923.
34. Toxupa, 8. On the echelon structure of the Japanese Archipelago. ‘Trans. Jap.
Journ. Geol. and Geog. 5: 41. 1926.
35. Turner, H. H. Thirty-fifth Report of Committee on Seismological Investiga-
tions. Report Brit. Assoc., 1930, Bristol, 1931, 245-247 and map.
ase ra meeee Baitey. Radioactivity and theorizing. Am. Jour. Sci. (5) 23: 193-
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY .—The crystal structure of tenorite (cupric
oxide).1 G. TUNELL, E. Posnyax, and C. J. Ksanpa, Geophysi-
cal Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.
The monoclinic symmetry of the thin tenorite crystals from Ve-
suvius has been established by Tunell and Posnjak (details not yet
published) ; the proof consisted in the demonstration that the extinc-
tion position remained stationary when the crystal was rotated
1 Received February 28, 1933.
196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
around the 6 axis. The b axis also bisects the angle formed by the traces
of the two perfect cleavage planes.
The monoclinic symmetry of an artificial single crystal of cupric —
oxide prepared for this crystallographic study was established inde-
pendently by x-ray analysis. The identity of artificial cupric oxide
and the thin tenorite crystals from Vesuvius was established by a
number of powder photographs. The unit cell dimensions ao, bo, Co,
and 8 of artificial cupric oxide were calculated from measurements
made on rotation and Weissenberg pictures. Powder and rotation
photographs were taken with Mo-radiation and also with Cu-radia-
tion. Weissenberg pictures of the equator and first and second layer-
lines were taken with Cu-radiation and were analyzed by the construc-
tion of Schneider.? With the Weissenberg x-ray goniometer the direc-
tion of the normal to each atomic plane of a crystal of any system and
also the spacing along each normal can be uniquely and rigorously de-
termined even if the crystal has no external faces; the unit cell di-
mensions @, bo, Co, and 8 of a monoclinic crystal can thus be calculated.
The dimensions of the unit cell calculated from the measurements
with Mo-radiation are a)=4.66A, bo>=3.40A, co=5.09A, all +.02A,
B=99°30’ +30’; slightly more accurate measurements have been
made with Cu-radiation and the unit cell dimensions calculated from
them will be given in the final report. The dimensions given yield an
axial ratio that agrees well with that calculated by Scacchi? from
measurements made by Jenzsch* with a reflection goniometer on
crystals formed in a smelter-hearth near a flue at Freiberg in roasting
copper matte with sodium chloride, and also with the axial ratio of
Story-Maskelyne.® Our x-ray measurements are also in good agree-
ment with measurements made by us on a Goldschmidt reflection
goniometer, as well as with the older measurements, as is shown in
the following table.
The atomic structure was deduced from the relative intensities of
the diffraction lines and spots, and the parameter was determined.
Thus a complete solution was obtained by means of the Weissenberg
x-ray goniometer. By comparing a list of the planes affording dif-
fraction spots with the ‘‘Rontgenographische Ausléschungstabellen’”’
of K. Herrmann‘ we found that a perfect correspondence exists with the
2 Zeit. f. Krist., 69: 41. 1928.
3 Contribuzioni mineralogiche per servire alla storia dell’ incendio vesuviano del
mese di Aprile 1872, p. 12, Atti d. R. Accad. d. Se. fis. e. mat. Napoli. 6: 1875.
4 Poggendorff’s Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem., 107: 647. 1859.
5 Verh. Petersb. Min. Ges., 1: 147. 1866.
6 Zeit. f. Krist., 68: 288. 1928.
>» wim
APRIL 15, 1933 TUNELL: CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF TENORITE 197
TaBLE 1. Prism ANGLE OF TENORITE (f/f).
JBI CUR eas are oe We ae a ea eee ater teh y Renae eB ROR. on een 72°572!
(Reflection Goniometer)
STR Ey NW ENS ite) Ria a SIR ane ae a noes en ee 0 oe Lake Uk thio + ci aes 73°18’
(Reflection Goniometer)
MunelesPosmpakerMeandaige sees c) dlek J. tt fe ede we he lee eS 12259"
(Reflection Goniometer)
mele asi ater desamd aia 4 hfe eerie wee eo ge 6 Uy Ol ae oY
(X-ray Goniometer)
theoretical extinctions of the space groups, C2/c and Ce (C2,° and C;,'),
the extinctions of these two space groups being identical. A decision
between these two space groups is of course not possible by a consider-
ation of extinctions alone. However, the intensities of the diffraction
spots point strongly to an arrangement of the atoms of cupric oxide
in special positions of C2/c (C2,°), a conclusion strengthened by the
fact that the crystal habit observed in the two preceding studies with
the reflection goniometer, those of Jenzsch and of Story-Maskelyne,
as well as in our own study, has the full holohedral symmetry of the
monoclinic system, that is, the symmetry of the normal class (C%2;).
The arrangement of the atoms in tenorite that reproduces the ob-
served intensities is one in which the copper atoms occupy centers of
symmetry and the oxygen atoms are situated on axes of symmetry.
The coordinates of the copper atoms are }, 1, 0; #, 3, 0; 2, 4, 3;
+, 2, 4; the coordinates of the oxygen atoms are 0, n, 2; 0, #, 4;
,n+%, 2;4, 4—N, ¢, where n, the parameter along the symmetry axis,
has approximately the value, —0.08. The atoms are thus arranged in
a four coordination, each oxygen being surrounded at approximately
equal distances by four copper atoms on the corners of a non-equli-
lateral tetrahedron and each copper atom being surrounded at ap-
proximately equal distances by four oxygens lying in a plane at the
corners of a rectangle. The interatomic distance Cu-O is 1.9+ A, a
value in good agreement with that predicted by M. L. Huggins for
electron-pair bonded copper and oxygen in a four coordination. A
decision as to whether the particles of cupric oxide are atoms or ions
is not possible from the interatomic distance alone, however, since
this distance is also in good agreement with that calculated, with the
aid of V. M. Goldschmidt’s curves of ionic radii, on the assumption
that the crystal is composed of cupric and oxygen ions in a four co-
ordination.
198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
The structure of tenorite previously described by Niggli’ was
based on powder photographs only and is not correct. The conclusion
of Kalkowsky® and of Niggli that tenorite is triclinic, pseudomono-
clinic, is without foundation in experiment, and is erroneous. Niggli
was apparently misled by the erroneous work of Kalkowsky; there is
also the further extenuating circumstance for Niggli’s failure to
arrive at the correct structure that his conclusion was based on
some very old powder photographs on which the crucial lines were
probably missing. These lines are readily brought out, however, by
the powerful radiation available today.
BOTANY.—Two new grasses of the genus Stipa from Western United
States! JASON R. SwWALLEN, Bureau of Plant Industry.
Stipa latiglumis Swallen sp. nov.
Perennis; culmi graciles, erecti, 50-110 cm. alti, strigosi; vaginae pu-
bescentes internodiis breviores; laminae planae 5-25 em. longae, usque ad
3 mm. latae, supra pilosae, subtus glabrae; ligula 1-4 mm. longa; panicula
15-30 em. longa, ramis gracilibus appressis usque ad 10 cm. longis; glumae
subaequales 12-15 mm. longae, 3 mm. latae, firmae, acutae vel acuminatae,
3-nerves; lemma 8-9 mm. longum, dense pilosum, callo 1 mm. longo pun-
genti, arista bigeniculata plumosa.
—,
————
Ss
SC ———e -
aad ane ‘.
=
SSS
™
Z
~ Wwe
LZELLLZL——ZZE-
wi M4 ; | iy
\ WA } N\ Wy)
\ 1 a \\ \
Wie ve
NW y i \ |
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Fig. 1.—Stipa latiglumis, floret <5 dia. and nat. size. From type specimen.
Fig. 2.—Stipa lobata, floret <5 dia. and nat. size; summit of floret showing lobe
X10 dia. From type specimen.
7 Zeit. f. Krist., 57: 253. 1922.
8 Zeit. Kryst. Min., 3: 279. 1879.
1 Received January 17, 1933.
APRIL 15, 19338 SWALLEN: NEW SPECIES OF STIPA 199
Perennial; culms slender, erect, 50-110 cm. tall, strigose below, nearly
smooth above; sheaths, at least the lower, pubescent, shorter than the inter-
nodes; blades flat or loosely involute, 5-25 em. long, not more than 3 mm.
wide, hairy on the upper surface, smooth on the lower; ligule membranaceous
1—4 mm. long; panicles loosely flowered, 15-30 cm. long, hairy in the axils,
the branches distant, slender, the lower ones as much as 10 em. long;
glumes about equal, 12-15 mm. long, 1.5 mm. broad from keel to margin,
firm, rather abruptly acute or acuminate, 3-nerved, tinged with purple;
lemmas 8-9 mm. long, densely hairy, the sharp callus 1 mm. long, the awn
3.0-4.5 em. long, twice bent, the first two segments twisted, plumose, the
third straight, scabrous, or pubescent below.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium no. 992334, collected at Camp
Lost Arrow, Yosemite Valley, California, altitude 4,000—4,500 feet, June
22, 1911, by LeRoy Abrams (no. 4469).
Specimens of Stzpa latiglwumis have been referred previously to S. cali-
fornica Merr. & Davy and to Stipa elmerz Piper & Brodie. From the first
it differs in having pubescent culms and sheaths, and longer, more plumose
awns, from the second in the usually less dense pubescence, and from both
in having firmer, broader, purplish glumes and longer lemmas. In S. cali-
fornica the culms and sheaths are glabrous and the awns are 2.5-3.5 cm.
long; the pubescence of S. elmerz is conspicuous without a lens, but that of
S. latiglumis is searcely evident except with a lens; and in both S. californica
and S. elmerz the glumes are thin, pale, and not more than 1 mm. wide from
keel to margin, and the lemmas are only 6-7 mm. long.
Central California, at medium altitudes.
Yosemite Valley: Bolander 6099, Abrams 4469, Jepson 4280; Dunlap to
Millwood, Griffiths 4680.
Stipa lobata Swallen, sp. nov.
Perennis; culmi dense caespitosi, erecti, 35-85 cm. alti, glabri, infra
paniculam scaberuli; vaginae internodiis longiores, scaberulae, marginibus
pilosis; laminae basi planae, attenuatae, usque ad 50 cm. longae, basi 1—4
mm. latae, supra scabrae, subtus laeves; ligula 0.5 mm. longa; panicula
10-18 cm. longa, ramis appressis multifloris; glumae subaequales, acumi-
natae, 9-10 mm., raro usque ad 12 mm., longae, 3-nerves; lemma 6 mm.
longum, dense pilosum, lobatum, callo obtuso; arista bigeniculata, 12-16
mm. longa, hispida.
Perennial; culms densely tufted, erect, 35-85 cm. tall, glabrous, scaberul-
ous below the panicle; sheaths longer than the internodes, or the upper ones
shorter, scaberulous, the margins sparsely pilose; blades flat or loosely
folded toward the base, long-attenuate to a fine involute tip, as much as
50 cm. long, 1-4 mm. wide at the base, scabrous on the upper surface, nearly
smooth beneath; ligule less than 0.5 mm. long; panicles 10-18 cm. long, the
branches appressed, rarely more than 5 em. long, several-flowered; glumes
subequal, or the first a little longer, acuminate, 9-10 mm., the second some-
times as much as 12mm., long, both 3-nerved, scabrous; lemma 6 mm. long,
brownish, evenly densely hairy, the hairs 1-2 mm. long, the callus very
short and blunt, the summit 2-lobed, the lobes 0.8-1.5 mm. long, awned from
between the lobes, the awn 12-16 mm. long, twice bent, the first two seg-
ments twisted, appressed hispid, the third segment straight, scabrous.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium no. 905722, collected on a rocky
hill, Ranger Station, Queen, Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico, altitude
200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
6,000—7,000 feet, September 3-6, 1915, by A. 8. Hitchcock (Amer. Gr. Nat.
Herb. no. 819).
This species has been referred to Stzpa scribnerz Vasey, but differs in
having shorter, nearly equal glumes, which are prominently scabrous, shorter
awns, and shorter, lobed lemmas, which are evenly hairy all over. In S.
scribneri the glumes are unequal, the first about 10 mm., the second 15 mm.
long, scaberulous, the awnsare 17-20 mm., the lemmas are 7-9 mm. long,
the lobes of which are less than 0.5 mm. long, and the hairs at the summit
are 2 mm. long, conspicuously longer than those on the body.
Rocky hills at medium altitudes, southern Texas and New Mexico.
Texas: Chisos Mountains, Moore & Steyermark 3362; Guadalupe Moun-
tains, Moore & Steyermark 3638; without locality, Nealley.
New Mexico: Guadalupe Mountains, Amer. Gr. Nat. Herb. no. 819;
Filmore Canyon, Organ Mountains, Hitchcock 3773.
BOTAN Y.—Morphological features of some fungi capturing and killing
amoebae.! CHARLES DRECHSLER, Bureau of Plant Industry.
Amoebae developing in agar plate cultures started from plantings
of diseased rootlets and other decaying plant materials were found to
be captured and killed often in large numbers by various fungi.? A
protozoan of large size identified provisionally as Amoeba verrucosa
was preyed upon by a fungus distinguished by rather short, somewhat
tapering, sparingly branched, noticeably but not markedly dif-
ferentiated conidiophores bearing elongated 2-celled conidia, the
latter individually having an empty third cell present as an apical
appendage nearly equal in length to the two living cells taken to-
gether (Fig. 1, A). Capture was effected by the animal being held fast
on short, rather globose, ultimately somewhat yellowish adhesive pro-
tuberances borne laterally on prostrate superficial hyphae. At the
place of contact the animal’s pellicle was soon perforated and asome-
what expanding hyphal outgrowth thrust toward the center of the
host where through close successive dichotomous branching in three
planes (Fig. 1, B) a fairly intricate complex of swollen elements was
produced, which though at first continuous, later with the exhaustion
of the protoplasm of the host, became closely septate. A smaller
amoeboid organism was captured through adhesion to the prostrate,
narrow, non-septate, superficial hyphae of a fungus bearing on short
undifferentiated aerial hyphal branches or on short, undifferentiated,
1 Received March 10, 1933.
2 Detailed descriptions and taxonomic discussion of these forms are reserved for a
more comprehensive account of predacious fungi which is in preparation.
APRIL 15, 1933 DRECHSLER: AMOEBAE KILLING FUNGI] 201
CDrechsler
cel,
Figs. 1-5.—Various amoeba-capturing fungi, each numeral denoting a separate
species, all drawn with the aid of the camera lucida at the same magnification; 1000.
A, Conidiophore or conidiophorous hypha, the proximal beginning of the aerial part
being indicated by a heavily dotted line. B, Captured amoebae adhering to prostrate
filament, mostly with development of fungus within. C, Detached conidia. D, Co-
nidium with germ tube directly invading animal host. E, Sexual apparatus showing
union of oogonium and antheridium, these being borne on (a) mycelial branches or on
(b) germ tubes. F, Mature oospores with enveloping oogonial walls, shown (a) in optical
section and (6) in surface aspect.
wee
202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
aerial prolongations of prostrate hyphae (Fig. 2, A) 1-celled inversely
flask-shaped spores, that are provided at maturity with a short,
empty, basal stipe and 2 to 6, usually 3 to 5, divergent, gradually
tapering, empty, subapical appendages, of lengths approximately equal
to the length of the living cell (Fig. 2, C.) A yellow deposit of adhesive
material marked each place of contact, through the center of which
the fungus proliferated a narrow outgrowth that perforated the ani-
mal’s pellicle to give rise within to an open bushlike ramifying system
of subequal hyphal elements, the branching being of moderate extent
and occurring mostly at or near the point of entry (Fig. 2, B). Amoe-
boid animals of smaller dimensions were captured through similar ad-
hesion on the very delicate, superficial, non-septate, prostrate hyphae
of a fungus bearing fusoid, non-septate conidia on erect, otherwise
undifferentiated, aerial hyphae either singly or in some number fol-
lowing repeated continued growth of the filament (Fig. 3, A). Fre-
quently here the mycelial development within the host is limited to a
narrow stalk terminating dichotomously in two short but slightly ex-
panded divergent arms (Fig. 3, B). Slightly greater but very similar
mycelial development occurs within the somewhat larger amoeboid
animals captured through adhesion (Fig. 4, B) on the very delicate,
prostrate, superficial, non-septate hyphae of a fungus bearing on usu-
ally very short, erect, undifferentiated branches (Fig.4, A) aerial, acicu-
lar conidia without appendages (Fig. 4,C). In a fungus morphologically
closely similar to the last, but the originally acicular conidium (Fig.
5, C, a) of which on maturation becomes evacuated in the distal por-
tion so as to bear an empty apical appendage often about equal in
length to the living cell (Fig. 5, C, 6), similar development of mycelium
within similarly small amoeboid organisms (Fig. 5, B) is associated
with further parallelism in absence of septation in the mycelium, in
mode of capture and in sporulating habit (Fig. 5, A).
In addition to their decidedly caducous, colorless conidia the three
fungi last referred to each produce on or in the substratum a yellow
oospore, the polygonal or sigillate outer profile of which (Figs. 3,
F, a; 5, F, a) is associated with sculptured ridged external thicken-
ings of the oospore wall (Fig. 5, F, b). This oospore in all three species
is produced through the fertilization of a terminal globose oogonium
by aslightly expanded terminal antheridium borne on a branch arising
from a neighboring hypha (Figs. 3, E, a; 4, E, a; 5 1, a). Not infre-
quently the germ tube from a conidium gives rise rather directly to
a sex organ (Fig. 5, E, 6), just as in other instances it very directly
penetrates a host animal (Figs. 3, D; 4, D).
APRIL 15, 1933 POST: NEW DISEASE OF DAHLIAS 203
BOTANY.—A new disease of dahlias! THrtMa BENNETT Post,”
Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by CHARLES
DRECHSLER. )
Diseased dahlia stems received from Columbia, South Carolina, on
July 29, 1932, bore both the pyenidial and sclerotial® stages of Macro-
phomina phaseoli (Maubl.) Ashby (1).4 The specimens consisted of
thick sections of stem from near the base. Most of the stem tissue
was blackened, but some green water-soaked tissue was still evident.
The pyenidia occurred in great numbers in the epidermis of the
blackened areas. As the stem tissue dried, the fibers separated easily
and the ends were split and frayed. Most of the pith had disappeared,
leaving only a thin brittle remnant in which the sclerotia were 1m-
bedded in such profusion that it had the appearance of a black crust.
No pyenidia were observed in this remnant and the sclerotia were not
found elsewhere.
THE PYCNIDIA IN CULTURE
Sections of the leaf petioles, the stem, and the patch of green tissue
remaining on the dahlia stem were planted after surface sterilization
on acid corn meal agar and after three days sclerotia became visible
to the unaided eye. No pycnidia appeared in these cultures. On the
other hand, mature pyenidia of Macrophomina phaseoli appeared in a
culture secured from sections of the tissue containing sclerotia eighteen
days after the planting was made. This culture was on an acid corn
meal agar plate and the appearance of pycnidia was preceded by
abundant development of sclerotia (Fig. 7).
Spores from the pyenidia produced in culture were observed to
germinate readily on potato dextrose agar and in a 2 per cent dextrose
solution in sterilized tap water (Fig. 8). On the other hand, when
spores from the pycnidia found on the host were planted on various
media, i.e., corn meal, potato dextrose, and string bean agar, no
germination occurred, although repeated trials were made. Small (2),
who tried unsuccessfully to germinate the spores of pyenidia found
among sclerotia of Rhizoctonia bataticola, attributed the failure to the
fact that the trials were made two years after the material was col-
lected and that the spores were therefore too old. The pyenidia and
1 Received January 3, 1933.
2 The writer is indebted to Dr. Freeman Weiss for assistance in preparation of the
paper and to Dr. L. L. Harter and Miss Vera K. Charles for criticism and suggestions.
’ Commonly designated as Rhizoctonia bataticola (Taub.) Butler.
4 Identification suggested by Vera K. Charles.
204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
Fig. 1.—Pycnidium of Macrophomina phaseoli from dahlia tissue, (200). Fig.
2.—Spores from above pyenidium, (200). Fig. 3.—Pycnidium of same from culture
(Leonian malt agar) showing development of several ostioles, (200). Fig. 4.—Spores
from above pycnidium, (200). Fig. 5.—Spores from pycnidium on host, (X950).
Fig. 6.—Spores from pycnidia of culture on dahlia stem. (950). Fig. 7.—Sclerotia
from culture on corn meal agar, (200). Fig. 8.—Spore germinated in sterile tap
water plus 2% dextrose. Drawn eighteen hours after being placed in the solution,
(X950). Fig. 9—WM. phaseoli mycelium taken from culture on bean plug, (950).
All figures drawn with the aid of the camera lucida.
APRIL 15, 1933 POST: NEW DISEASE OF DAHLIAS | 205
spores from the dahlia material were young and their failure to germi-
nate in the writer’s cultures could not be attributed to age.
Cultures were later made from the fibrous roots of the dahlia and
the sclerotium-bearing fungus was recovered. No pyenidia developed
in these cultures. |
Spores from the pycnidia obtained in culture were placed in the
liquid of tubes containing steamed dahlia stems. The stem was soon
overgrown with mycelium, and mature pycnidia appeared five days
after the inoculation (Fig. 6). Pieces of epidermis from these stems
were planted on plates of various media, 1.e., Leonian malt-agar, po-
tato dextrose, corn meal, and string bean agar. On each medium
pycnidia and sclerotia developed (Fig. 3). Spores were placed in the
liquid of tubes containing sweet clover stems, sunflower stems, and
string bean plugs. In each of these the fungus grew rapidly and pro-
duced numerous sclerotia, but no pycnidia appeared. As remarked by
Haigh (3), “ait is evident that a particular set of conditions... is
necessary for their production.”’
The production of the pycnidia in culture is noteworthy, as they
have only been recorded twice. Haigh (38) reported the occurrence of
six or eight pycnidia of Macrophomina phaseoli in a culture of the so-
called Rhizoctonia bataticola (Taub.) Butl. This culture was on maize
meal, and was grown from a single spore of M. phaseoli obtained from
beans affected with ‘‘ashy stem blight.”’ The culture was so old that
it was drying out at the edges. These pyenidia were larger and more
elongated than those he had found in nature. Single spore cultures
from these pycnidia always gave rise to pure growths of the fungus
Rhizoctonia bataticola. There was no further report of the pyenidia in
culture until in 1930, when Haigh (4) again obtained them. This time
they were produced in a strain of the Rhizoctonia bataticola isolated
from Cajanus indicus. Spores and sclerotia continued to produce pyc-
nidia and sclerotia in culture, and Haigh regarded the strain as a
saltant from the original culture of R. bataticola from Cajanus.
Whether the M. phaseoli reported in this paper arose as a saltant
from the sclerotial fungus or from mycelium that may have been pres-
ent among the sclerotia in the tissue from which the plates were made
is not evident.
Three plates were made in the same manner from similar pieces of
sclerotium-bearing tissue, but in only one did pycnidia appear. Fur-
thermore, as pointed out earlier in this paper, pycnidia were ob-
served only in the epidermis of the dahlia stem and not in the rem-
nant of the pith where the sclerotia appeared. The rare occurrence of
206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
the pycnidia in culture, despite the numerous cultures made by
various workers over a period of several years, would seem to indicate
saltation as the most tenable theory.
SINGLE SPORE CULTURES
Single spores grown on corn meal, beef, and potato dextrose agar
gave rise to pure cultures of the sclerotium-bearing fungus and a
fungus that produced both sclerotia and the pycenidial stage of
Macrophomina phaseolv. The cultures producing pyenidia have been
transferred and retransferred and have continued to produce pyc-
nidia and sclerotia. The single spore cultures that produced the scle-
rotium-bearing fungus have also been transferred and retransferred,
and no pyenidia have appeared in them.
DESCRIPTION OF THE FUNGUS
The pyenidia found in the epidermis of the dahlia stem in nature
(Fig. 1) were 171—198u in diameter and the spores (Fig. 2 and Fig. 5)
were 18-25uX7.2—9u. These dimensions compare with the pyenidial
dimensions of Macrophomina phaseolt (Maubl.) Ashby,® which are
given (1) as mostly 100—200u in diameter, and for the spores as 20-
30uX8-10u. The thin-walled angular cells described by Ashby (1)
are plainly visible in the young, immature pyenidium. The pycnidia
became black and carbonaceous with age. The pycnidia on potato
dextrose agar are 136—200u and the spores are 18.2—28ux7.2—10.8y.
The sclerotia found in the pith in nature were 62u to 117 in
diameter, while on potato dextrose agar they ranged from 40 to 80u
in diameter. Ashby (1) gives the sclerotial dimensions of M. phaseola
as 50-100u in diameter in the tissues of herbaceous plants and as
having the same dimensions in culture. He adds that Small found
them up to 0.8 to 1 mm. in diameter in the roots of woody plants.
Haigh (4) separates the sclerotial forms of Rhizoctonia bataticola
into three strains according to their mean sclerotial diameter. “As far
as is known at present,’’ he writes, ‘‘the pycnospores of Macrophomina
phaseoli, from whatever source they were isolated, have always given
in culture sclerotia which belong to the lowest of these groups.” This,
he believes, accounts for Ashby’s remark that in cultures the varia-
tion of the sclerotia of M. phaseoli is 50 to 200u. Haigh believes that
it may be found that the two large sclerotial strains (A and B) have
no connection with M. phaseoli. The size of the sclerotia from the
dahlia tissue and of the spores from monosporous cultures, as reported
5 The taxonomic position of the fungus is not clear and further study on this sub-
ject is intended.
APRIL 15, 1933 POST: NEW DISEASE OF DAHLIAS 207
in this paper, places them in strain C of Haigh’s classification and
further bears out his theory regarding the connection between that
strain and M. phaseolt.
The pyenidia produced on the culture media displayed a tendency
to form several ostioles, as many as four being found on one pyc-
nidium. The pycnidia were also of greatly variable shapes and sizes.
Those formed on the steamed dahlia stems appeared to be like those
formed in nature, with single ostioles. They were produced abundant-
ly and were filled with pycnospores. In no case was evidence of a
stromatic origin found.
TAXONOMY OF THE FUNGUS
In 1904, D’Almeida and da Camara (5) found a Macrophoma on
the branches of Dahliae variabilis Desf., in the Coimbra botanical
garden in Portugal, which they named Macrophoma henriquesiana.
They gave the diameter of the pycnidia as 140-190 and the spore
dimensions as 17—23u5-8u. Although the spore measurements are
slightly smaller than those given for Macrophomina phaseoli (20-30
<8-10), they are essentially the same, and the descriptions in other
particulars tally. The drawings of the spores of Macrophoma hen-
riquesiana are suggestive of those of Macrophomina phaseoli (Maubl.)
Ashby. Ashby (1) has pointed out that variations in spore size on the
same host may be considerable. Shaw (6) gave for them, asa maximum
range on jute in India, 16—-29ux6-llu and Sawada (7) for the same
host in Formosa gave the spore dimensions as 16—23ux7-10u. It
thus appears probable that Macrophoma henriquesiana d’Alm. &
da Cam. is identical with Macrophomina phaseoli (Maubl.) Ashby
and should be added to the list of synonyms.°®
Small (2) found the sclerotia of R. bataticola in the roots and stems
of dahlias in Ceylon, but does not report having found the Macro-
phomina stage in these plants. The sclerotia also developed on the skin
of dahlia tubers that appeared to be healthy, but whose roots and
stems were diseased.
A fungus disease of dahlias called ‘“‘black blight’’ is mentioned but
not identified in a list of Scottish fungus diseases published by Alcock
and Foister (8) in 1931.
6 The synonyms as given by Ashby (1) are: Macrophoma phaseolt Maubl. (1905),
Sclerotium bataticola Taub. (1918), Macrophoma corchori Saw. (1916), Macrophoma
cajant Syd. & Butl. (1916), Macrophomina phillipinensis Petr. (1923), Rhizoctonia
lamellifera Small (1924), Rhizoctonia bataticola (Taub.) Butl. (1925), Dothiorella cajant
Syd. & Butl. (1925), Macrophoma sesami (1922).
208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
ETIOLOGY
The conditions of infection of the dahlia by Macrophomina phaseoli
are not known. The tubers which produced the dahlia stems studied
were new stock purchased from four separate firms. They were planted
in a site that had been used as a vegetable garden for years, but there
is no record of these vegetables having been diseased. At the present
time there are vegetables growing in close proximity to the dahlias
and these appear to be healthy. The dahlias grew and flowered in
normal fashion until July, when the disease appeared. All the plants
(about three dozen) were affected.
Ashby (1) asserts that the parasitism of Macrophomina phaseolt
appears to be much influenced by the effect of environmental and
nutritional conditions on the host. Haigh (4) concludes from his ex-
periments that special conditions are required for successful inocula-
tion with the fungus called R. bataticola, whose connection with M.
phaseoli has been demonstrated.
LITERATURE CITED
AsuBy, S. F. Macrophomina phaseoli (Maubl.) comb. nov. the pycnidial stage of
Rhizoctonia bataticola (Taub.) Butl. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 12: 141-147. 1927.
Smatu, W. W. Further notes on R. bataticola. Trop. Agr. (Ceylon) 69: 9-12. 1927f
Haicu, J. C. Macrophomina phaseoli (Maubl.) Ashby. The pycnidial stage o.
Rhizoctonia bataticola (Taub.) Butler. Trop. Agr. (Ceylon) 70: 77—78. 1928.
Haicu, J.C. Macrophomina phaseoli (Maubl.) Ashby and Rhizoctonia bataticola
(Taub.) Butler. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Peradiniya 11: 213-249. 1930.
. D’ALMEIDA, J. VERISSIMO, and DA CAMARA, M. DE Souza. Contributiones ad my-
cofloram Lusitaniae. Revista Agronomica, 2: 218. 1905.
. SHaw, F. J. F. Studies in diseases of the jute plants. (2) Macrophoma corchori Saw.
Mem. Dept. Agric. India (Bot. Ser.) 13: 193-199. 1924.
. Sawapa, K. A new stem-rot disease of the jute plant caused by Macrophoma
corchori sp. nov. (Japanese). Formosa Agric. Expt. Sta. Bull. 107: 1916. (Trans.
Mycologia 11: 82—83. 1919.)
8. Atcock, N. L., and Forster, C. E. List of fungous diseases received by the patho-
logical department of the Department of Agriculture for Scotland. Trans. and Proc.
Bot. Soc. Edinburgh 30: 340. 1931.
—
SOD oo RF wN
PALEOBOTANY.—A new Lygodium from the late Tertiary of Ecua-
dor. EpwarD W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.!
Among the large amount of material from the Loja basin in southern
Ecuador which I owe to the industry of Professor Clodoveo Carrién
of Loja there occurs sparingly small pinnules of the genus Lygodium
Swartz of the fern family Schizaeaceae.
This represents a species which is obviously new and which differs
considerably from any known species either existing or fossil. It is,
however, based entirely on detached pinnules and this fact in conjunc-
1 Received January 30, 1933.
APRIL 15, 1933 BERRY: NEW LYGODIUM FROM ECUADOR 209
tion with the further fact that the existing species are sadly in need of
modern treatment renders a wholly adequate discussion of the fossil
impossible. The latest account of the family with which I am familiar,
that by L. Diels in 1902 in “Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien,’’ in so
far as the genus Lygodium is concerned, is largely based on K. Prantl’s
discussion of the genus in 1881. Nearly all of the modern species are
very variable and in looking over herbarium material one gets the
impression, perhaps a superficial one, that the specific limits of many
of the species are illy understood.
The present fossil form may be named Lygodium bifidum and may be
briefly characterized as follows: Pinnules small, consisting of two principal
lobes and an incipient basal lobe on either side. In the limited amount of
material at my disposal the fertile pinnules are not much more than half the
size of the sterile pinnules, as may be seen in Figs. 1-3. Both are slightly in-
equilateral in that one of the principal lobes is somewhat longer and it may
also be somewhat broader than its fellow. If the figured specimens can be
considered as typical, they show the following feature. Pinnules sessile.
Base broad varying from nearly truncate and but slightly excavated in the
sterile pinnule, to considerably excavated and almost cordate in the fertile
pinnule. In the latter the length of the lobes from the point of attachment
-
ad
Figs. 1-3. Pinnules of Lygodium bifidum Berry n.sp. from the late Tertiary of
Ecuador. Fig. 1. Drawing of fertile pinnule X2. Fig. 2. Photograph of fertile
pinnule X2. Fig. 3. Sterile pinnule X2.
210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
is 1.75 cm. and 2 cm.; the two main veins diverge at the base at an angle
slightly less than 50°, at first recurving slightly and then incurving so that
the tips are 1.75 to 2.0 cm. apart. In the former the length of the correspond-
ing lobes is 2.75 cm. and 3.5 cm., the two main veins diverge at the base at
an angle of about 55° and recurve so that their tips are 4 cm. or more apart.
In both it is the right lobe that is longest, and in both the right basal lobule
appears to be somewhat more developed than the left. The substance is not
delicate at all but appears from the manner of preservation to be much
thinner and much less coriaceous than in many of the existing species. The
margin is entire or slightly crenulated. A single stout vein enters the base
of the pinnule, but this immediately breaks up into two main forks and sub-
sidiary branches which supply the basal lobules. The main branches are
stout, prominent and flexuous, giving off alternately stout laterals which di-
verge at acute angles and fork once or twice as they recurve outward to the
margins.
The fertile pinnules have a double row of thick sporangia preserved at
intervals along the margins. These are incompletely preserved as partial
cavities, but their nature is obvious and their appearance convincing, al-
though I have been unable to find spores.
I have been unable to find any closely similar forms among existing species.
Those with a bifid habit are extremely rare. There is some resemblance
to Lygodium cubense H.B.K. of the larger Antilles but the latter has larger
pinnules with more elongated lobes and more oblique veins, although no
other living species that I have seen is as similar as some of the pinnules of
this species, which is a highly variable one, however, and the resemblance
is really not very close. There are perhaps 25 existing species most of which
are tropical, although the eastern American species L. palmatum extends well
into the Temperate Zone as does L. japonicum Swartz in Japan and L.
articulatum in New Zealand. The genus is represented at the present time
on all of the continents except Europe and is represented in equatorial
America from Mexico through Central America and the Antilles to northern
South America. So far as I know it is not found in Ecuador or Peru west of
the eastern slopes of the Andes, but this enormous region has been but super-
ficially explored botanically so that no one can foresee what a detailed
knowledge of it would disclose.
About 25 fossil species have been described but many of these are very
incompletely known and are based upon very superficial differences in the
form of the sterile pinnules. Supposed species are recorded from the middle
Cretaceous in both America and Europe. From the beginning of the Eocene
onward Lygodium is well represented in both America and Europe but is
unknown in the United States after the Oligocene and in Europe after the
Miocene. The bulk of the fossil material is of the palmatum type and much
of it shows fruiting pinnules.
ee == eee
APRIL 15, 1933 RICHARDS: NEW HYDROCORALLINAE SPECIES 211
PALEONTOLOGY.—A new species of Hydrocorallinae from the
Pleistocene of New Jersey... Horace G. RicHarps, University
of Pennsylvania. (Communicated by C. E. McCuuna.)
While holding a Harrison Fellowship at the University of Pennsyl-
vania (1929-30, 1930-31), I was able to do considerable collecting
in the Pleistocene deposits of New Jersey. In carrying on this work I
was greatly aided by a grant from the University of Pennsylvania
chapter of the Society of Sigma Xi. A complete report upon this ma-
terial is forthcoming. Among this material were some very worn speci-
mens of Hydrocorallinae (Hydrozoa) which represent a new species.
Most of the material upon which the forthcoming report is based was
obtained from fill from hydraulic dredging usually pumped from 30
to 55 feet below the bottom of thorofares and inlets lying back of the
coastal islands of New Jersey. A large part of the material thus ob-
tained was fossil and has been referred to the Cape May Formation
which underlies these coastal islands.
Description. Polyparium encrusting on shells of gastropod mollusks; the
incrustation is of one or more layers and is usually about 1 mm. or less in
thickness. As far as can be observed the shell is not absorbed by the coral.
On the surface at irregular intervals are distributed thick-lipped pores, the
mouths of which are irregularly stellate; pseudo-septa are well marked and
are usually about six in number, although variations from four to seven have
been noted. The pores are not elevated above the surface of the colony; the
opening between the septa is often very narrow. The average diameter of
these stellate pores is 0.2 mm.
No other sets of pores can be clearly observed, although faint indications
of other pores, probably round and larger than the stellate pores, can be
Milleaster interglacialis n. sp. Fig. 1.—Type, magnified 8 times. Fig. 2.—Para-
type, natural size.
1 Received December 12, 1932.
212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
seen on a portion of the type specimen. All the material collected is very
worn, and it is therefore impossible to describe the species more fully and
to ascertain the relationship of the form. It resembles Milleaster incrustans
Ulrich? from the Miocene of Maryland in general appearance and in the
structure of the stellate pores and pseudo-septa, but differs from it in having
fewer pores and in not having them elevated; it also differs from the Miocene
form in the absence (or inconspicuousness) of two other sets of pores. In
M. incrustans there is a set of pores, fewer in number than the stellate pores,
which occupy the spaces between the stellate apertures; these are a little
larger than the stellate pores and are irregular in shape. In the Miocene form
there is also a set of very small pores scattered among the granules of the
interspaces. It is possible that pores comparable to either or both of these
sets were present in the New Jersey specimens, but are not visible because
of the worn condition of the material.
Ulrich places another Miocene species tentatively in the genus Milleaster.
Milleaster (?) subramosus Ulrich’ also from Maryland consists of a series of
stellate pores somewhat resembling those of M. incrustans. The larger of the
sets of non-septate pores has not been observed, but the smaller set is well
represented. As the main argument for placing this form in the genus Mzll-
easter, Ulrich relies on the presence of the septate pores. This same argument
might be used for placing the Pleistocene species, Milleaster (?) enterglacialis
tentatively in that genus also.
Type locality. Two Mile Beach, Cape May County, New Jersey; material
obtained from hydraulic fill pumped from 30—55 feet below the bottom of
the thorofare back of the island. (Collector, Horace G. Richards.)
Occurrence. Cape May Formation. Two Mile Beach; Holliday Beach
(Stone Harbor), New Jersey.
Collection. The type and two additional specimens have been presented
to the United States National Museum (type, catalogue number 371911;
additional specimens, 371912, 371913).
Remarks. The fauna of the Cape May Formation seems to indicate a
milder climate than that prevailing on the New Jersey coast to-day. Be-
cause of this mild fauna and for stratigraphic reasons discussed at length in
the forthcoming report, the formation has been dated as belonging to the
last interglacial stage.
ZOOLOGY.—A new amphipod of the genus Amphiporeia from Vir-
gina. CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER, U. 8S. National Museum.
(Communicated by M. J. RaTHBun.)
In the course of the survey of Chesapeake Bay by the United States
Bureau of Fisheries in 1916 a number of amphipods were taken on the
2 Maryland Geological Survey, Miocene (1904) p. 436.
3 Loc. cit. p. 437.
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-
ceived January 12, 1933
APRIL 15, 1933 SHOEMAKER: NEW SPECIES OF AMPHIPOREIA 213
beach between tide marks at Virginia Beach, Virginia. Upon study
they appear to belong to the genus Amphiporeia which was first taken
at Grand Manan, Bay of Fundy, by Dr. Mary J. Rathbun in 1898,
and later by the Cheticamp Expedition in 1917 in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. The specimens from Virginia Beach are quite distinct from
the northern species, A. lawrenciana,? and I now propose the name
Amphiporera virginiana for this new species.
The species appears to be very abundant as a large number of speci-
mens were taken, but males apparently are rare, not one having been
detected.
Amphiporeia virginiana n. sp.
Description of the female——Body compressed. Eye small, oval, black.
Lateral angle of head evenly rounded. Antenna 1 in the normal deflected
position reaching to about the middle of the fifth joint of antenna 2, the
geniculation between the first and second joints not very pronounced; first
joint robust, about twice as long as high, second and third joints short and
subequal in length, flagellum shorter than peduncle and composed of 6
joints, the 2-jointed accessory flagellum about equal in length to the first
joint of the primary flagellum. Antenna 2, flagellum shorter than fourth
and fifth peduncular joints combined and composed of 7 joints, the first
joint of the flagellum being much longer than the succeeding joints and
probably representing a fusion of several joints; second peduncular joint
with gland-cone small, fourth joint more robust but slightly shorter than
fifth. Mandible with cutting edge narrow and bearing several small teeth,
accessory cutting plate well developed, 5 spines in spine row, molar prom-
inent and strong and bearing a plumose seta on upper edge, base of molar
toward spine-row bearing a small toothed seta and also a small flat tooth
with upper truncate, serrate cutting edge, first joint of palp short, second
joint very broad and a little longer than third with front margin very convex
and densely armed with long slender spines, rear margin slightly convex and
bearing a few slender spines, third joint half the width of second and having
the distal half of the outer margin densely armed with long slender spines,
rear margin also bearing several groups of long slender spines. Maxilla 1
much as in A. lawrenciana, inner plate broad and bearing 11 plumose mar-
ginal setae, outer plate very obliquely truncate and bearing 11 spine-teeth;
palp, second joint broad with 7 spine-teeth and 7 slender setae on rounding
apex. Maxilla 2 asin A. lawrenciana. Lower lip with lobes short and broad,
mandibular processes short and broad, inner lobes well developed. Side-
plate 1 very slightly bent forward. Gnathopod 1, sixth joint only slightly
shorter than fifth and nearly as wide as long, palm oblique and curving into
hind margin of joint without defining angle or defining spines. Gnathopod 2,
sixth joint about two-thirds as long as fifth and about two-thirds as wide as
long, palm oblique and without defining angle or defining spines, but pro-
vided throughout with a lamellar, finely serrate cutting edge. Peraeopods 1
and 2 subequal in length and proportionally alike. Side-plate 4 with shallow
emargination on upper hind margin. Peraeopod 3, first joint nearly as long
as second, which is nearly as wide as long, fourth joint broadly oval and
2 Contrib. Canadian Biol. and Fisheries, 5: no. 10, p. 248. 1929.
214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
—-
—
——
BO
Ss
Sa SASS
ws
LAS
ATS
Nw,
\
N
Fig. 1. Amphiporeta virginiana, new species. Female, a, Anterior part of animal.
b, Mandible. c, Molar, cutting plates and spine row of mandible much enlarged. d,
Maxilla 1. e, Palp of maxilla 1 enlarged. f, Maxilliped. g, Outer plate of maxilliped en-
larged. h, Lower lip. 2, Distal end of gnathopod 2 enlarged.
APRIL 15, 1933 SHOEMAKER: NEW SPECIES OF AMPHIPOREIA 215
"We aGtsune
Y i ie
Vi
mexpccamnt tt \ \\
Yim KY ANY b
ZINN MATS
Fig. 2. Amphiporeia virginiana, new species. Female, a, Peraeopod 2. b, Peraeopod 3.
c, Peraeopod 4. d, Peraeopod 5. e, Uropod 3. f, Telson.
216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
armed on front margin with many long slender spines and setae, fifth and
sixth joints equal in length, seventh very short. Peraeopod 4, first joint about
as long as second, which is about as broad as long and very broadly ex-
panded posteriorly, fourth and fifth joints equal in length, sixth joint longer
and slenderer than fifth, seventh short. Peraeopod 5 shorter than 4, first
joint half the length of the second, which is about as wide as long and greatly
expanded posteriorly, fourth joint very slightly shorter than fifth, which is
shorter than the slender sixth, seventh about one-third the length of the
sixth. Pleon segment 3 with posterior lateral margin slightly convex and
lower posterior angle evenly and rather broadly rounding. Pleon segment
2 with lower posterior corner more angular than 3. Uropod 2 reaching back
as far as the end of the peduncle of uropod 3. Uropod 1 reaching back a little
farther than 2. Uropod 3 long and slender, peduncle one-half the length of
the first joint but equal in length to the second joint of outer ramus, outer
ramus with first joint nearly twice the length of the second, first joint pro-
vided on distal half of inner margin with a row of long plumose setae and
on outer margin with 2 groups of spines, second joint provided on inner mar-
gin with a row of long plumose spines and apically with a group of slender
spines; inner ramus about two-thirds the length of the first joint of outer
ramus, armed on inner margin with 3 spines and apically with 2 long slender
spines. Telson reaching back to about the middle of the inner ramus of
uropod 3, about two-thirds as wide as long, dehiscent, lobes tapering gently
to the obliquely truncate apices, each of which is armed with 2 short spines,
outside margins of lobes each bearing 2 groups of spines and plumose setules
near their base, upper surface of telson with many minute tubercles.
Length.—Female, 7.5 mm.
Type locality—Virginia Beach, Virginia, between tides, July 17, 1916,
collected by the U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries steamer Fish Hawk; female holo-
type (cat. no. 66074, U.S.N.M.).
ee Te
APRIL 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 217
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
BOTANICAL SOCIETY
243RD MEETING ~
The 243rd regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos
Club on October 4, 1932. Vice-president CHARLES Brooks presided; at-
tendance about 85.
Know tes A. RYERSON was elected to membership.
Brief notes and reviews: M. B. Warts exhibited a specimen of Maryland
mammoth tobacco about nine feet high which does not bloom in Maryland
unless protected from frost in a greenhouse. This plant led to the studies
of GARNER and ALLARD on the effect of length of day upon plants. Discussed
by R. F. Griacas.
The summer meetings of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science held in Syracuse, New York, June 20-25, were reported by R. F.
Grices and N. R. Smiru; the former discussing the program of the Botanical
Society of America, and the latter, the program of the Society of American
Bacteriologists.
H. L. Suantz, President of the University of Arizona and a former mem-
ber of the Society was called upon by the Chairman for a few remarks.
Program: JAMES A. Faris:—Agriculture in Cuba. (Illustrated by lantern
slides. )
Doctor Vavitov, Chief of the Bureau of Applied Botany, Leningrad,
spoke briefly regarding the botanical work being done by the Soviet, es-
pecially in sending out expeditions to obtain new species of plants useful in
agriculture.
244TH MEETING
The 244th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos
Club on November 1, 1932. President J. B. 8S. Norton presided; attendance,
97.
KE. E. Cuayton was elected to membership.
F. Weiss remarked on the probability that the current list of botanical
publications as published in mimeograph form by the Bureau of Plant In-
dustry Library would have to be discontinued because of lack of funds. He
offered the following resolution which was carried: That a sum not exceeding
$25.00 be set aside by the Botanical Society for the purchase of mimeograph
paper for the Bureau of Plant Industry Library.
N. R. Smirx proposed the following resolution: That an additional para-
graph be added to Article IX of the By-laws, to wit:
Article IX
4. At the Annual Business Meeting of the Society those members in good
standing who have retired from professional work during the past year shall
be elected to honorary membership with all the privileges of membership but
without the payment of annual dues.
Discussed by A. 8. Hitcucock and F. THON: and carried.
Brief notes and reviews: A. 8S. HitcHcock exhibited roots of Glycine apios,
ground nut, and discussed creeping stems and roots of various other plants.
N. E. STEVENS remarked upon the inefficiency of publication. M. B. Wait
tn — a - «es
218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
added to the list of roots which have adventitious buds. P. V. Moox ex-
hibited leaves of exceptional size found in an open cut-over wood. J. B.S.
Norton reported that plowing Plantago lanceolata two inches deep either
upright or up side down, was effective in killing the plant.
Program: H. B. Humpurey: A Maryland white oak records three hundred
years of botanical history——The speaker exhibited a polished cross-section
from the trunk of an old oak felled near Cabin John. Tags bearing various
dates important in botanical science were stuck into the cross-section to il-
lustrate the size of the tree at that time.
R. F. Grieas: The edge of the forest in Alaska and its significance—The
great coniferous forests which stretch up the coast from Puget Sound and
across the continent from Labrador to Alaska terminate in the Katmai dis-
trict; the Hudsonian forest of white spruce around Naknek Lake on the
mainland, and the coastal forest of Sitka spruce at Kodiak. In connection
with the work of the Katmai expeditions of the National Geographic Society
opportunity was afforded to study the factors fixing the position of the tim-
ber line. The trees at the edge of the forest are small and squat suggesting an
adverse climate but when examined were found to be growing as rapidly as
the same species a thousand miles within its borders to the southeastward,
and are likewise reproducing freely. The marginal trees are small because
they are young. None of the trees within a mile of the forest border at Ko-
diak are more than a hundred years old. There are no fallen logs nor other
remains of trees older than the present generation. Many trees now standing
in thick forest have large dead branches clear to the ground and evidently
began life in the open. Three miles back from the forest border the trees are
more than three hundred years old and have attained great size. Dead trees
and fallen logs are present as in ordinary forests. Several early accounts of
Kodiak describe as treeless areas now occupied by heavy forest. Instead of
being held in check by climatic factors this forest is rapidly migrating into
new territory. Quotations from other observers indicate that similar con-
ditions are general all along the forest front of Alaska and in Scandinavia.
The pollens preserved in peat bogs at the forest edge also show that the
spruces are recent arrivals—too recent to be represented in the consolidated
peat which carries only traces of spruce pollen, such as would be blown in
from a long distance. The present trees are thus the only spruces that have
grown in the vicinity since the beginning of the bog. The advance of the
forest is a secular migration rather than part of a long-term oscillation back
and forth. The forest migration thus demonstrated is taken to be a continu-
ance of the readjustment since the last glaciation. It suggests that the vegeta-
tion of boreal and north temperate regions generally may not yet have fully
recovered from the last glacial period. Means of investigating this question
are outlined.
It is of the utmost importance to determine whether vegetation lines are
static, held by climatic control as has generally been assumed, or whether
they are like the forests of Alaska dynamic, representing merely the present
positions of active plant and animal migrations. If it should turn out that we
can detect and follow the present movements of species generally an en-
tirely new field of biology will be opened up. (Author’s abstract.)
Paut W. Bowman: Pollen analysis of a Kodiak bog—Samples of peat
were brought from a bog on the island of Kodiak, Alaska, during the summer
of 1930 by R. F. Griaes. This bog is located several miles from the edge of
the spruce forest and is surrounded by well-grown trees. The upper three
APRIL 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 219
feet of this deposit were too soupy to permit the collection of cores. Examina-
tion of numerous strata from this point to the bottom at thirteen feet reveals
an abundance of spores in most levels. The bulk of these, however, were
contributed by several ferns, and only an occasional spore of spruce was
seen among thousands of others. In the surface layer of a Quebec bog which
is covered with a mixed forest of spruce, fir, and birch three-quarters of the
total spores present were contributed by these trees. It may, therefore, be
inferred that the Kodiak forest did not exist at this place during the early
stages of the formation of this bog and that it advanced to and beyond this
location during the formation of the upper three feet of peat. (Author’s
abstract).
Discussed by A. 8. Hitcucock, C. F. SwIneLe and W. J. HUMPHREYS.
245TH MEETING
The 245th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos
Club on December 6, 1932. President J.B.S. NorTOoN presided; attendance, 80.
The following were elected to membership: R. C. Cook, Paut R. M1ILunr,
Newiurze W. Nancsz, and THELMA BENNETT Post.
N. E. STEVENS made a motion that the dues of the Society be reduced at
least by 16% per cent. After some discussion, the motion was amended to
reduce the dues to $2.00, making Article IX, Section 1 of the By-laws read,
‘“‘The annual dues for members of the Society shall be $2.00.”’
Brief notes and reviews: Davip GRIFFITHS reviewed the Lily Year-book
of the Lily Commission of the Royal Horticultural Society. FREEMAN
WetIss remarked upon a fad which may enjoy some vogue in European
literature, viz.; the nature of plant immunity and resistance. J. M. SHULL
exhibited normal and greatly elongated shoots of Kleagnus pungens. CHARLES
DRECHSLER exhibited a magnolia leaf infected with the alga Cephaleuros
virescens. Discussed by F. THonn, M. B. WaitTE and W. W. DIEHL.
Program: J. B.S. Norton: Lady Roses and Honorable Potatoes. (Opinions
on naming cultivated plants.)
The meeting adjourned about 9:15 followed by the annual meeting.
32ND ANNUAL MEETING
The 32nd annual business meeting and election of officers was held follow-
ing the adjournment of the 245th regular meeting.
The report of the Recording Secretary was read and approved as
follows :—
During the past year there have been eight regular meetings, two special
meetings and one outing. The annual dinner was held in connection with the
241st regular meeting at the University of Maryland. Average attendance
at the regular meetings was 108. Thirteen new members have been elected,
three absent members have been reinstated, six have resigned. Two members
have died, C. D. Marsu on April 23, and Heinrich HAassELBRING on No-
vember 9, 1932. The membership list shows a net gain of 8 or a total of 210.
GEORGE C. HusMANN, retired during the year, and was elected to honorary
membership, in accordance with section 4 of Article IX of the By-laws.
The following officers were elected: President: CHARLES Brooks; Vzce
President: NatHan R. Situ; Recording Secretary: CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT;
Corresponding Secretary: FREEMAN Wetss; Treasurer: Evita CasH; Vice
President of the Washington Academy of Sciences: C. L. SHEAR.
NaTHAN R. Smita, Recording Secretary
220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Prepared by Science Service
Notes
Sixteenth Session of the International Geological Congress.—The third cir-
cular for the sixteenth session of the International Geological Congress,
which is to meet in Washington, U.S. A., from July 22 to 29, has been
issued. It contains full information about meetings and about excursions,
with costs. Before the Congress there are excursions to various parts of the
eastern United States, lasting from 4 to 12 days, and a trans-continental
excursion eastward from San Francisco for those coming to the Congress
from the west. For those arriving at New York too late to take part in these
longer excursions there will be a number of short trips to nearby areas of
geologic interest.
Alternate days during the sessions of the Congress will be given to ex-
cursions to areas around Washington.
After the sessions there will be two longer transcontinental excursions,
each lasting 31 days, and two shorter excursions, one for the study of the
glacial geology of the Central States, and the other for the study of the pre-
Cambrian area, including the iron and copper deposits, of the Lake Superior
region.
_ In order to make these excursions generally available, it has been possible,
through the generous assistance of the Geological Society of America, to
offer the longer excursions at a considerable reduction below actual cost.
For special discussion at the scientific sessions in Washington the follow-
ing topics are announced:
Measurement of geologic time by any method.
Batholiths and related intrusives.
Zonal relations of metalliferous deposits.
Major divisions of the Paleozoic era.
Geomorphogenic processes in arid regions and their resulting forms and
products.
Fossil man and contemporary faunas.
Orogenesis.
Geology of petroleum.
Copper resources of the world.
Membership in the Congress is open to any one interested.
For a copy of the third circular or other information address W. C.
MENDENHALL, General Secretary, U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington,
DC
Thirteenth Successive Mild Winter.—Mild winter weather, prevailing in
the eastern United States during the season of 1932-33, has continued an
unparalleled record for a succession of winters with temperatures above
normal, the U. 8S. Weather Bureau states. Of the past thirteen winters,
twelve have given St. Louis above-normal temperatures; New York has had
ten out of the thirteen, with the past six all above normal; and Washington
can now boast of the thirteenth warm winter in unbroken succession.
Light Water.—Water of low specific gravity has been manufactured in
the chemical laboratories of the U.S. Bureau of Standards, by the combina-
Fe ey eee
APRIL 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 221
tion of hydrogen and oxygen containing high proportions of their respective
lightest isotopes (H =1; O=16). It is about thirteen parts per million lighter
than normal water. Last year “heavy water,’’ containing high proportions -
of hydrogen isotope 2 and oxygen isotopes 17 and 18, was made in the same
laboratory. This ‘heavy water” has a freezing-point 0.05°C above that of
ordinary water, its boiling-point is higher and its refractive index lower. It
is expected that the new “‘light water’ will depart from the physical con-
stants of normal water in the opposite way, but to a smaller degree, cor-
responding to its lesser difference in specific gravity.
New Solar Radiation Station in Sinat.—Messrs. HaRLAN H. ZoDTNER and
FREDERICK A. GREELEY of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smith-
sonian Institution sailed on March 4 for Suez, taking with them about six
tons of equipment for installing a solar radiation station on Mount Saint
Katherine, Sinai, Egypt. The authorities of the Saint Katherine Monastery
on Mount Sinai have agreed to construct the observatory and trails. The
expedition, financed by Jonn A. ROEBLING, is expected to continue three
years, cooperating with the Institution’s two solar radiation observatories
at Montezuma, Chile, and Table Mountain, California. Mount Saint
Katherine, whose summit is about 8,500 feet above sea level, was selected
after about twenty months of exploration by Mr. and Mrs. A. F. Moors.
Marine Shells in Virginia Triassic.—Imprints of fossil seashells have been
found in the Triassic Belt of Virginia, near Bull Run, by Dr. ARTHUR BarR-
WICK, acting head of the department of Geology at the Catholic University
of America. So far as he has been able to discover, marine shells have not
previously been reported from this formation. The Virginia Geological
Survey has collected many plants from the Triassic and is cognizant of the
footprints of several types of dinosaurs. Little has been found to date, how-
ever, that would prevent these deposits from being classified as continental
facies as the corresponding deposits of New Jersey and New England are
generally thought to be. If these shell remains definitely prove to be members
of the Ostreidae, as the cursory studies to date would indicate them to be,
it would prove that part of the Triassic deposits of Virginia, at least, were of
marine origin.
Activities at the Brookings Institution.—In the Institute of Economics the
following research projects have recently been brought to completion:
. Advertising Allowances: A Phase of the Price- Making Process LEVERETT
. LYON.
Ten Years of Federal Intermediate Credits, FrizpA Barrp and CLAaupD
L. BENNER.
The American Federation of Labor: History and Outlook, Lewis L. Lor-
WIN.
Silver: An Analysis of Factors Affecting Its Price, Y. S. Lrona.
Trend Analysis of Statistics: Theory and Technique, Max Sasuty.
When the National Transportation Committee was set up last fall under
the chairmanship of the late ex-President Calvin Coolidge, the committee
turned to the Brookings Institution to prepare the report on the transporta-
tion situation on which they would base their findings. This investigation
was organized by Dr. H. G. Movutton, with a staff consisting of certain
members chosen from the Institute for Government Research and from the
Institute of Economics, together with several specialists from outside. The
investigation has been completed and the committee has issued its analysis
<> in ee .-- eee
222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 4
and recommendations. The full report is being published under the title
“The American Transportation Problem” in a volume of about 900 pages
by the Brookings Institution.
News BrIEFs
One of the last official acts of former President Hoover was the creation
in the Boulder Dam area of a wild life preserve several thousand acres in
extent, designed primarily to be a bird refuge.
Work has been started on the reconstruction of the two transit circle
houses at the U. 8. Naval Observatory.
Dr. BARNuM Brown, Curator of Fossil Reptiles of the American Museum
of Natural History, discussed with U. 8. National Park Service officials the
possibility of a development at Dinosaur National Monument in Utah
that would provide visitors with a view of a dinosaur skeleton left in place
on a rocky wall.
The Institute for Government Research of the Brookings Institution, at
the request of Governor CLYDE HERRING of Iowa, is engaged upon a financial
and administrative survey of that state.
- Mr. J. B. Moraan, 2nd, of radio station W3QP, at Philadelphia, through
whom radio communication between the Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and its magnetic observa-
tory at Watheroo, Western Australia, is maintained, reports that trans-
pacific radio conditions were nearly perfect during the second week in
February.
Work has been begun at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington on an extension to the Experiment
Building for the purpose of housing the two-meter Van de Graaff generator
which was built and subjected to preliminary tests in Washington during
May, 1932. This will make possible experiments with protons and other ions
at voltages of one and one-half million volts and more. Atomic-disintegration
experiments have heretofore been carried out with a smaller generator in
the present building at potentials up to 700,000 volts.
A huge quartz geode, obtained by Mr. E. P. HENDERSON at Keokuk,
Iowa, last summer has been placed on exhibition at the U. 8. National
Museum, It is one of the largest specimens of its kind ever found.
Word has been received from Dr. Watter Hoven, Head Curator of
Anthropology, that he has found additional remnants of prehistoric canals
throughout the Salt River Valley, Ariz.
The expedition which the Carnegie Institution of Washington has organ-
ized to explore southern Campeche and northern Guatemala in search of
new archaeological sites representing ancient Maya culture left Campeche
for the interior on March 4. It will be out about three months and, before re-
turning, will probably go as far south as Uaxactun, Guatemala, where the
Institution is conducting important excavation. The expedition is headed by
Karu Ruppert of the Institution’s archaeological staff.
APRIL 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS © 223
Among recent births at the National Zoological Park is a baby eland whose
mother died when it was born. After refusing food for a time the little animal
consented to take milk from a bottle and is being brought up “‘by hand.”
By exchange with the American Museum of Natural History, New York,
the Division of Vertebrate Paleontology, U. S. National Museum has re-
cently acquired two specimens of exceptional interest, the first a nearly com-
plete skeleton of Moropus from the Lower Miocene of Nebraska, a clawed
ungulate mammal as large as the modern camel. The second is an articulated
skeleton of the large carnivorous dinosaur known as Gorgosaurus libratus
and found in the famous Red Deer River region of Alberta, Canada. Both
specimens pertain to genera not previously represented in the paleontolog-
ical exhibits.
At the National Institute of Health, a vaccine has been made from rat
fleas infected with typhus fever, which protects guinea pigs from the disease
and promises to develop into a protective vaccine for human beings also.
Maleic acid has been found to be a good preventive of rancidity in edible
oils and fats, by Dr. G. R. GREENBANK of the U. 8. Department of Agri-
culture. One part in ten thousand is effective. Dr. GREENBANK has applied
for a public patent on his discovery.
PERSONAL ITEMS
Dr. Grorc Masinc, Metallurgical Director of Siemens-Halske and
President of the Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Metallkunde, addressed the
scientific staff of the Bureau of Standards on February 17. He also addressed
the Washington Society of Engineers and the Washington Chapter of
American Society for Steel Treating. Dr. Mastne was in this country for
the purpose of delivering the Annual Lecture to the Institute of Metals, at
the annual meeting of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical
Engineers in New York, during the week of February 20.
Mr. H. H. Bennett of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, and Mr. Lewis
A. Jonss of the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, spoke before the National Drainage, Conservation and Flood
Control Congress held at Columbus, Ohio, in mid-February.
Mr. Warren E. Emury, Chief of the Organic and Fibrous Materials
Division of the U. 8. Bureau of Standards, gave a talk before the Central
Pennsylvania Section of the American Chemical Society on March 16, at
State College, Pennsylvania.
Dr. Waupo ScumitTt, with the Hancock Galapogos Expedition, returned
to Panama March 6, after a month’s collecting in the Galapogos Islands.
The expedition then made collections along the coast of Central America
and returned to San Diego the latter part of March.
224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 4
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS
The AcapEmy will meet at the Cosmos Club on April 20. Dr. Hpnry E.
SigeRistT, Director of the Institute of the History of Medicine, Johns Hop-
kins University, will address the Academy.
The Philosophical Society announces the following programs:
April 22. R. W. Goranson and L. H. Apams.—The precise measurement
of birefringence.
C.S. Pregott.—Radio-active isotopes and the problem of geological time.
May 6. A program on ‘‘Physical Metallurgical Research.”’
The National Academy of Sciences will meet April 24, 25, and 26.
The American Physical Society will hold its Washington meeting on April
27, 28, and 29. On the afternoon of April 27, there will be a symposium on
hydrodynamics at the Bureau of Standards. One of the speakers will be
Dr. Tu. von KArMAN, director of the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory,
California Institute of Technology, Calif. The symposium will be followed
by an inspection of the National Hydraulic Laboratory.
The Acoustical Society of America will meet in Washington on May 1
and 2.
E. Posnsax, and ©. J. Risatepa., /)..4 5291.4 24 0p) catia
- Botany.—Two new grasses of the genus Stipa from Western bs
Jason R. BYPASRN «208; “Lak ne a ge ee
Ba Re -Botany.—Morphological features of some fungi capturing and killing
. ihe : Grams DaBOMBLan.. cons rsteesseeeneeeeontnenroneente
Ae aaa vet Botany.—A new disease of dahlias. Tuema Benner Post......
| Paleobotany.—A new Lygodium from the late Tertiary of Ecuador. —
W. Pipi she oh: eh eh a
. Paleontology.—A new species of Hydrocorallinae from the Ple
Jersey. Horace G. Riewlaiai cc Ree eee
Zoology.—A new amphipod of the genus A mphiporeia kook Virginia. Cua
R. SHOMMARER. Bo. Bee e ect ee te eee
sae
PROCEEDINGS 3
The Botanical Socibty i. Gat luc seine eee
Screntiric Nores AND Wawa 00 pg Pas ee Se a
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS, «2.66.10 e eee ee eee tee eet eee eee
This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals
Vou. 23 May 15, 1933 No. 5
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OF THE
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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 23 May 15, 1933 . No. 5
ENGINEERING.—From material to structure L. B. TucKERMAN,
Bureau of Standards.
“The name of the song is called ‘Haddock’s Eyes’.”’
“Oh, that’s the name of the song, is it?’’, Alice said, trying to feel inter-
ested.
“No, you don’t understand,” the Knight said, looking a little vexed,
“that’s what the name is called. The name really is ‘The Aged, Aged Man’.”’
“Then I ought to have said ‘That’s what the song is called’?”’ Alice cor-
rected herself.
“No, you oughtn’t: that’s quite another thing. The song is called ‘Ways
and Means: but that’s only what it is called, you know!”
“Well, what zs the song, then?” said Alice, who was by this time com-
pletely bewildered.
“‘T was coming to that,” the Knight said, ‘“The song really zs ‘A-sitting on
bb Ie)
a gate.
The title of my talk is called ‘““From Material to Structure.”’ I hope
the talk itself is somewhat more closely related to what the title is
called than it was in the case of the Knight’s song. However, words
are stubborn and do not easily adapt themselves to accurate expres-
sion of our thoughts. Only under the hand of a poetic genius do they
become plastic and shape to the thought of the writer. When we who
are not poets are allowed to be loquacious and can hedge each word
about by a multitude of qualifying adjectives and phrases we may
force them to give a reasonable picture of what we wish to say.
In a title it is possible to be loquacious. You have all seen many
loquacious titles, but they are not attractive. The title ‘““From Mate-
rial to Structure’”’ was chosen for its brevity and does not give an
accurate picture of the subject of this paper. It is, in fact, so general
that volumes could be written, and have been written, on many topics
included in its scope.
1 Received February 15, 1933. Address of the retiring president, delivered before the
Philosophical Society of Weesbington, Janyary 14, 1933.
225
MAY 16 1933
226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
For that reason I shall spend some time supplying“in my introduc-
tion some of the many qualifying adjectives and phrases which were
not included in the title. As a basis for this I referred to a dictionary.
Here, as usual, there was a wealth of definitions of different and only
remotely related uses of the words ‘‘material’’ and “structure.”
Among these I sought out the ones which might fit into the title:
‘““Material—The substance or substances or the parts, goods,
stock, or the like, of which anything is composed or may be
made.”’
“Structure—Something constructed or built.”
These seemed to fit the case but still were not quite definite enough
to start on. Looking further I found:
‘“Construct—To put together the constituent parts of (some-
thing) in their proper place and order.”’
To stay within some bounds let us first limit ‘‘structures”’ to ‘‘me-
chanical” structures—structures (to paraphrase a definition) ‘“‘which
by their design may serve to transmit or modify force or motion so
as to produce some given effect or do some desired kind of work.”
This is somewhat more comprehensive than the usual engineering use
of the word structure and we have ample material to discuss. Monkey
wrenches and mill stones, automobile engines and airships, bells and
bridges, all serve to transmit or modify force or motion so as to pro-
duce some given effect or do some desired kind of work. It is from this
purely mechanical aspect that we shall consider them.
“From Material to Structure” would with this limitation include
all the intricate steps involved in putting together ‘“...in their
proper place and order,”’ ‘‘the substance or substances . . . of which
anything may be made’”’ to form a finished mechanical structure. We
can, of course, consider only an infinitesimal aspect of these, but a
short time devoted to a few generalities may serve to show the rela-
tion of this aspect to their bewildering complexity.
To put the materials of a mechanical structure in their proper
place and order demands a knowledge of arrangements of materials
capable of producing the desired effect or doing the desired kind of
work. The structure must be designed before it can be constructed.
This means not simply arranging some material in a suitable way but
arranging suitable materials in suitable ways. There may be widely
different ways of serving the same purpose.
A bridge serves the purpose of transmitting the loads of the traffic
over it to its foundations and abutments. The proper place and order
for the materials of a bridge of stone which shall serve this purpose
L. B. TuckKERMAN
President, Philosophical Society of Washington
1932
—
MAY 15, 1933 TUCKERMAN: MATERIAL TO STRUCTURE 227
satisfactorily are not the proper place and order for the materials of
a bridge of steel. The design involves, then, the relationships between
properties of the material, the geometrical configuration of the struc-
ture and the purpose it is to serve.
It involves also the methods of shaping the individual pieces so
that they will fit in their proper places. A certain material shaped in
a certain way may be admirably adapted to a purpose, but the design
is useless if no methods are available to give the material the de-
sired shape, and another shape or even another material in another
shape must be used. Long before the advent of the steel automobile
body, it was known that properly shaped steel would serve the pur-
pose better than wood. All that was lacking was the means to give it
the proper shape. With the development of autogeneous welding
processes and of the art of sheet metal stamping, the modern ‘‘one
piece’? automobile body came into being. All of you know what a
change it has made in the appearance of the automobile. With the
advent of new methods of shaping materials, structures designed to
serve the same purpose may change wholly out of semblance to their
original shape.
Into the design enters also the problem of economical construction.
Costly materials will be discarded in favor of cheaper materials,
costly methods of fabrication in favor of cheaper methods of fabrica-
tion, and the shape of the finished structure may be altered radically
under the influence of these considerations, and not only cheaper but
in most cases much more serviceable structures will result.
Although we are limiting our discussion to mechanical structures,
the purposes they serve are not always purely mechanical. A house,
for example, is a mechanical structure in that it serves the purpose of
keeping the rain and snow from our heads, of excluding undesired
currents of air, of furnishing a smooth and solid support for our feet.
Its proper design and construction is, therefore, a mechanical prob-
lem.
A house which merely served the mechanical purposes of a house
would hardly be considered satisfactory. We wish windows to let in
the light. These must be both mechanically and optically satisfactory.
We use the walls to keep out heat in summer and keep it in in winter.
The walls should be not only adequate mechanically but afford ade-
quate thermal resistance. Wood and stone and brick are poor con-
ductors of heat, and walls of these materials which are mechanically
adequate serve fairly well as heat insulators. Metal is a relatively good
conductor of heat. Metal walls of the house of the future will divide
228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
their mechanical and thermal functions between two materials, and
their design will involve the satisfactory integration of structural
metal with heat insulating materials of little or no mechanical value.
With all the conceivable physical purposes of a house adequately
served, we still do not have a house. Intangible emotional factors,
which may be loosely designated by the captions—art and style—
frequently outweigh other considerations. A house does not serve its
purpose unless in some measure it satisfies emotional needs. Although,
in varying degree, these intangible factors influence practically every
step from material to structure, to discuss them further would lead
too far afield.
Thinking from material to structure we think first of available ma-
terials and their properties, then fabricated parts, then assemblages
of fabricated parts, and finally of a finished structure or machine in
service. Each material or group of materials furnishes the basis for
a great variety of structures whose structural and dynamic possibili-
ties are conditioned in large measure by the properties of the mate-
rials out of which they are made. From one aspect the problem of
design is the problem of developing the structural properties of the
materials. The line of thought from material to structure is, however,
in itself, sterile. Design is intricately bound up with construction, and
construction with design, but dominating them both is the purpose
“to produce some given effect or do some desired kind of work.”
To make our thought fruitful we must think also from the stand-
point of the user of the structure. A structure is designed to serve a
certain purpose. It serves that purpose in a more or less satisfactory
way. From this standpoint the problem of design is to improve the
quality of that service, either by improvement of the existing struc-
ture or by the substitution of a new and improved one. The designer
analyzes the way in which the structure is satisfactory and the par-
ticulars in which it is unsatisfactory and reasons back through as-
semblages and fabricated parts, questioning their design, to the ma-
terials of which they are constructed, questioning their suitability for
the purpose. He may even go further, inquiring into the possibility
of securing or producing new materials with more desirable proper-
ties. Here, however, we leave the field of mechanics and enter into the
field of metallurgy and chemistry.
The distinction I have just made between the two lines of thought
—from material to structure and from structure to material—is, of
course, largely artificial. No such sharp and clear distinction exists.
Nevertheless, the distinction is real. They are two definitely different
MAY 15, 1933 TUCKERMAN: MATERIAL TO STRUCTURE 229
habits of thought of two different types of engineers engaged in con-
struction in its broadest sense. Although, in actual work, both will
continually think forwards from material to structure in service and
backwards from structure in service to material, the materials engi-
neer and the designer who works with him will the more generally
picture to themselves the structural possibilities of the materials at
hand, and the operating engineer and the designer who works with
him will the more generally picture to themselves the needs of the
service and from them the designs and materials needed for a struc-
ture to serve that particular purpose.
Of these two orders of thought, the one from structure to material,
is the more direct response to human desires and consequently much
the older. That of the materials engineer, from material to structure,
is a later development and more artificial.
“Suitable materials” arranged in “suitable ways’’: that is our de-
sire. How shall we know that it is realized? The most direct answer
is to build the structure and try it out, and, in fact, that it is the final
answer. This is a service test in the strict sense of the words. If a
service test were the only answer, structural progress would be slow
and costly. A San Francisquito dam, a Quebec bridge, a poorly
welded caisson in New York, a Knickerbocker Theater, a broken
automobile axle: these all represent service tests that prove by the
resultant loss of life and property that in these structures there were
not suitable materials suitably arranged.
‘‘And answered Nature, merciful and stern;
‘I teach by killing, let the others learn’.’”
Much is gained if we can know beforehand that certain materials
arranged in certain ways either will or wili not make satisfactory
structures. For this purpose we have materials and structural testing:
materials testing to search out and measure the structurally signifi-
cant properties of the material, to determine how they persist or are
modified by the processes of fabrication and construction, and finally
to prescribe the tests to which materials entering into given structures
shall be subjected; and structural testing to determine the relations
of the strength and other structurally significant properties of given
geometrical configurations of materials to the properties of the ma-
terial itself.
The final qualifying adjectives and phrases may now be added to
make the title read:
2 CHARLOTTE PERKINS Stetson. In this our world.
230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
“Mechanical Testing of Materials and Structures in the Passage
from Material to Structure.”
Historically, service tests preceded materials tests or even struc-
tural tests by many years. Our pre-paleolithic ancestor found that a
stick of wood in the hand formed a useful implement in securing his
food or in settling various disputes with other men. At first it was
probably any likely looking stick of wood picked up on the spur of
the moment, but soon he learned that all sticks of wood were not
equally serviceable, and a stick which had successfully withstood a
service test on the skull of an enemy was preserved for the next en-
counter. At some time in his progress toward civilization he learned
that it was not necessary to await an actual encounter to try out a
stick, and structural tests were made on the nearest stump or rock.
With the shaping of the stick into a club came a new problem, the
determination in advance of the laborious process of manufacture,
that the materials chosen for fabrication would produce a club which
would satisfactorily stand the service test. In some such way mate-
rials testing began.
As the gap between raw material and finished product grew greater,
the importance of materials tests increased because of the greatly
increased labor which would be wasted by fabricating unsuitable ma-
terials and the greatly increased danger from unsatisfactory struc-
tures. At first the materials tests differed but slightly in character
from the service tests on the finished product, but in course of time
many of them changed their character so completely that their con-
nection with the ultimate service tests was remote and obscure.
In this development, materials and structural testing remained,
through many centuries, an art intimately associated with, and a
part of, the art of manufacture. Each particular manufacturing trade
developed a technic of materials and structural tests necessary to its
SUCCESS.
This technic was largely a “rule of thumb” technic, based upon
qualitative differences in behavior, often impossible to express in
words, and its correct appreciation and interpretation demanded an
intimate familiarity with the material, gained through years of ex-
perience in fabricating and using it. It is hard for us today, with our
more scientific way of thinking, to realize the extent to which these
“rule of thumb” tests were developed. Although they were often
mixed with what seems to us gross superstition, such as ascribing un-
explained failures to the action of malevolent demons, nevertheless
they were sufficient to guide highly technical processes to successful
MAY 15, 1933 TUCKERMAN: MATERIAL TO STRUCTURE 231
results. We need only recall the skill of the master armorer who re-
jected a piece of steel for no better reason than that “‘it did not feel
right under the hammer.”’ By the use of criteria, many seemingly as
vague as this, were produced the blades of Toledo and Damascus.
The great industrial progress of the nineteenth and twentieth cen-
turies with its increased specialization and multiplication of steps of
partial fabrication, has been gradually destroying the intimate per-
sonal contact of the worker with the materials which he fabricates.
Raw material on its way to the finished structure may now pass
through dozens of hands, each contributing its share in shaping the
material to its final form for service. This enormous widening of the
gap between raw material and finished structure has been making it
more and more nearly impossible for any man to gain the familiarity
with the material which would enable him to interpret successfully
the vague criteria which were the original bases of materials testing.
A new development of materials testing became necessary to meet
the new situation. :
The bases for this new development were laid in the same scientific
progress which had given rise to the changed industrial conditions.
Mathematicians and physicists had delved deeply into the laws
which governed the strength and deformation of bodies under load.
These laws gradually took on definite form and became more and
more adequate representations of the phenomena, until finally in the
mathematical theory of elasticity, supplementing analytical me-
chanics, engineers found a safe foundation for a theory of the mechan-
ics of materials and their assemblages into structures of many diverse
shapes.
Herein lay the possibility of the new development of materials and
structural testing as an independent art that is rapidly changing into
a science.
It became possible for the engineer to state that a material having
certain definite measurable properties, objectively expressed in fig-
ures, built into a structure of a certain design, would be satisfactory
under some given conditions of service. It was then possible for any-
one skilled in materials testing, although he might not know the
principles on which the structure was designed nor even the use for
which it was planned, to state as a result of standard tests that ma-
terial submitted did or did not have the required properties. Materials
testing had become objective.
In spite of the progress in the theory of elasticity, great gaps are
still left. For definite knowledge we are still almost wholly confined
232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
to the region of ‘‘perfect elasticity,’’ and only in the last thirty years
has a beginning been made in the understanding of the behavior of
bodies in the region beyond the nebulous limit which separates ‘‘elas-
tic’ from “‘inelastic’”’ behavior. So incomplete is our knowledge of this
structurally important region that we are still not sure just what are
the conditions under which a material breaks. We know, of course,
with considerable accuracy, the static tensile, compressive, and shear
stresses which, acting alone, will cause the yielding or rupture of
many materials, but in regions of complex stress distribution, we have
not yet learned how the various stresses are to be combined into a
single criterion of strength or if indeed any single criterion may be
found. There have been many careful investigations of the action of
combined stresses, but unfortunately all of them are open to various
interpretations and even in particular cases leave us still uncertain,
whether maximum stress, maximum strain, maximum shearing
strain, or sometimes one and sometimes the other, or perhaps some
complex function of some or all of them, are valid measures of the
strength of the material. .
Still less are we certain of valid criteria for the case of fluctuating
or alternating stresses. Failures under varying load—both impact and
fatigue failures and especially the latter—are still imperfectly under-
stood. The advent of modern high-speed machinery has brought
these failures into prominence, but the experimental work on them,
the necessary basis for a valid theory, although started over fifty
years ago, has really only just begun.
Some few things have been learned about fatigue failures and the
lesson has in many cases been costly. We know, for instance, that in
parts subjected to high alternating stresses sharp reentrant angles,
rough or scratched surfaces, especially at fillets; and thin outstanding
fins, should be avoided like poison. Unfortunately, there are still
designers and constructors who have not fully learned this lesson.
We know, also, that vibration does not cause metals to crystallize,
that the characteristic crystalline fracture found in fatigue failure
merely means that the crystals of which all metals are formed have
not been greatly distorted as they are in static tests and that the
failure has taken place along planes of weakness either in the crystals
or at their boundaries.
Although this has been known for many years, men who ought to
know better still talk about failures of metals caused by crystalliza-
tion.
Many other gaps in our knowledge of the mechanical properties of
MAY 15, 1933 TUCKERMAN: MATERIAL TO STRUCTURE 233
materials and their significance could be enumerated if time per-
mitted, but these two are sufficient to indicate how far we are from a
complete understanding of the problems involved.
The statement of these hmitations may make it seem as if we were
still not far from the “‘rule of thumb”’ stage of the art. This is both
true and untrue. In many materials tests we know definitely what
properties of the material we are seeking to determine and in a general
way the relations they bear to the use of the material. Such, for in-
stance, are the tests for tensile and compressive strength, and moduli
of elasticity. These properties bear direct, and in their broad outlines
at least, definitely known relations to the strength and stiffness of any
structure built of the material. They form, then, reliable and indis-
pensable bases for judging the quality of the material, and we feel
sure that they will endure in practically the form in which they are
at present standardized as an essential part of the technic of materials
testing.
Other tests are still largely on the “rule of thumb” basis, and some-
times it seems to me that there still clings to them somewhat of super-
stition. We make the tests partly because there are, or seem to be,
correlations between the results of these tests and the quality of the
material in service, but partly, also, because they are reputed to dis-
tinguish between some good material and some bad material, and we,
in our ignorance, hesitate to give them up, in a justified fear lest we
may be abandoning useful tests. In these tests we often have no clear
idea as to what qualities of the material we are trying to determine,
nor whether, if determined, they would bear any definite relation to
the serviceability of the material.
There is a common characteristic of these tests by which they may
be separated from the soundly established tests. They have not been
even approximately standardized and new and variant methods of
making them are continually proposed. In this class the cold-bend
tests which are supposed to determine the ‘‘ductility”’ or ‘“‘toughness”’
of a material furnish perhaps the most striking example. Their name
is legion. Some of them, with some materials, for some uses, certainly
are of value, but in many cases this value is, to say the least, doubtful.
We must not, however, condemn and abandon as useless time-
honored tests, merely because we have not been able to remove them
from the ‘rule of thumb” class and give them a sound theoretical
basis. We need only remember the many ‘‘hardness”’ tests. “‘Hard-
ness,’ as commonly thought of, represents a hazily conceived con-
glomeration or aggregate of fairly indefinite properties of a material,
234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
more or less related to each other. They are usually, but not always,
mechanical properties. They include such varied things as resistance
to abrasion, resistance to scratching, resistance to cutting, ability to
cut other materials, resistance to plastic deformation, high modulus
of elasticity, high yield stress, high strength, absence of elastic damp-
ing, brittleness, lack of ductility and malleability, high melting tem-
perature, magnetic retentivity, etc. This confusion under the one des-
ignation ‘‘hardness’”’ results from the fact that there is a rough paral-
lelism in these properties in a large number of materials. The fact that
‘hardness,’ thus conceived, is a conglomeration of different, more or
less unrelated properties makes it impossible to correlate any one
definite, measurable property with all the current implications of
hardness.
This does not mean that under the hazy conglomeration of proper-
ties which are included in the common understanding of hardness,
there are not included very important properties of the material.
Nobody doubts that the ‘‘hardness’’ of the diamond is one of its
most important physical properties, nor that it is necessary to control
accurately the “‘hardness’’ of metal-cutting tools or of balance knife
edges, nor that the difference between ‘‘hard”’ and “‘soft’”’ glass is of
great technical importance, nor that there is a great difference between
“hard” and “‘soft’’? woods or between ‘‘hard’’ candy and chocolate
creams, a difference which is of considerable commercial importance.
It does, however, mean that the properties implied by the term |
“hardness” in these different cases are so heterogeneous that they
cannot represent definite, accurately comparable properties of the
materials in the sense that, for example, density, moduli of elasticity,
specific heat, etc. represent definite and accurately comparable prop-
erties of the materials.
With all this haziness, the “‘file test’’ of hardness still retains its
usefulness in the hands of a skilled mechanic.
Even more, a few indentation tests—so-called ‘“‘hardness’’ tests—
have been progressively standardized until finally they serve as pow-
erful tools in ensuring uniformity in the quality of millions of pieces
of metal. How general the practice is, I do not know, but every axle
of a well-known make of automobile bears on it the characteristic
dimple—the record of a Brinell indentation test—made to ensure that
it was properly tempered. Nevertheless, we know so little about the
test that we are not even able to give a reliable method applicable to
all materials, for comparing 500-kg Brinell hardness with 3000-kg
Brinell hardness.
or
ea
se
MAY 15, 1933 TUCKERMAN: MATERIAL TO STRUCTURE 235
Materials testing is still in its infancy and only by keeping in mind
the purely empirical nature of many tests, continually searching for
firmer theoretical knowledge and continually comparing the results
of materials tests with the results of structural and service tests, can
tests be either safely discarded or placed upon the sure foundation of
theory. Fortunately for our hopes for the future, the last few decades
have seen the beginnings of a promising attack on the theory of
plastic deformation, the phenomenon which underlies so many of the
ill-defined materials tests.
In a materials test the ideal striven for is to subject a portion of the
material to definitely determinable stresses and observe its behavior
under these stresses. If we had some means of applying forces at will
to each element of volume in the interior of the specimen this ideal
could be realized. There is, however, no way in which this can be done.
Practically, we can only apply forces to the surface of the specimen
and the resultant distribution of stress through the specimen is be-
yond our direct control, since it depends not only on the surface forces
which we can control but also on the shape of the specimen and nature
of the material under test. Similarly, our measurements of the de-
formation of the specimen are practically limited to surface deforma-
tions, and from these we infer, so far as possible, the distribution of
strain inside. We can, however, in simple cases so shape the specimen
and so apply the load that in limited portions of the material an ap-
proximation to the desired distribution of stresses is obtained. When
this is well done the strain distribution in the interior may be reason-
ably well inferred from the surface deformations. The ideal, however,
is never reached and it is only by painstaking design of the shape of
specimen and arrangement of loading devices that a reasonably satis-
factory test is ensured.
Much study has been given to the design of test specimens, of test-
ing machines and their attachments, and of strain measuring devices,
and a bewildering variety of apparatus has been developed, adapted
to many different kinds of materials and sizes and shapes of specimen.
The improvement of materials testing technic in the last few years
has been marked, but enough more remains to be done to tax the in-
genuity of future generations of testing engineers.
THE PROBLEM OF NEW MATERIALS
New materials furnish one of the most interesting problems not
only for the materials testing, but also for the designing engineer. If
we knew definitely the meaning of all our materials tests in relation to
236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
the material in service, materials tests alone would furnish a solution.
As we do not, the best we can do is to subject the material to our cus-
tomary tests, determine to the best of our ability the uses to which it
is adapted, turn it over to the designing engineer, and then await the
verdict of time.
This can be best illustrated by briefly considering a type of struc-
tural material which has been developed within the past twenty
years and is now coming into fairly wide use. I refer to the light
aluminum base alloys of which duralumin is perhaps the most famil-
lar.
Duralumin, an alloy containing about 95 per cent aluminum and
the remainder largely copper, magnesium, manganese, and silicon,
has a tensile strength approximating that of ordinary structural steel,
but a density approximately one-third as much. The modulus of elas-
ticity approximates ten million pounds per square inch (one-third
that of steel).
The obvious advantage of these alloys lies in their low density and
high strength-weight ratios. However, equally high, and even higher
strength-weight ratios are obtained from steels. We have alloy steels
in billet form with tensile strengths up to 200,000 pounds per square
inch and ordinary carbon steels in wire form show strengths higher
than 250,000 pounds per square inch.
In tension members the same combination of strength and lightness
can therefore be obtained with the cheaper well-tried materials, so
that here the hight alloys offer practically no advantage. In the airship
Akron, for instance, the purely tension members are practically all
high-strength steel wires.
The strength of a beam or column, or any structural member, in
which compressive stresses play a significant part, depends not only
on the strength of the material and the area of the cross-section, but
also on the linear dimensions of the cross-section and the modulus
of elasticity of the material. Within limits, the further the material
can be removed from the centre of the cross-section the stronger the
member. This accounts for the familiar H and box sections of columns,
and the tubular construction of bicycle frames and the fuselages of
many airplanes. The limits are set by the fact that as the material is
further removed from the centre of the cross-section, it necessarily is
made thinner. If too thin, it crumples under compression somewhat
like a sheet of paper. This crumpling depends practically upon the
thickness and the modulus of elasticity, and only in small measure on
the strength of the material.
MAY 15, 1933 TUCKERMAN: MATERIAL TO STRUCTURE 237
In duralumin the strength-weight ratio is equal to the best of the
alloy steels (except in wire form) and its modulus-weight ratio is
practically the same, so that roughly speaking for the same outside
linear dimensions of cross-section equal weights of material would
make equally strong beams or columns. The flanges, webs, and walls
of the duralumin structures would, however, be approximately three
times as thick as the steel, so that the outside linear dimensions of the
cross-section could be increased, with diminishing thickness of wall,
without danger of crumpling. Consequently, either lighter or stronger
structures can be made of duralumin. Obviously this is one of the
most advantageous fields of application of these light-weight alloys.
The correctness of this conclusion is attested by their successful use
in airship girders and airplane beams.
With the determination of this advantageous field of application
the problem of their economic use is still not solved. In spite of notable
progress during the last forty years, the theory of compression mem-
bers remains in an unsatisfactory state, and we are not yet able to
reason with absolute certainty from the strength of one column or
girder to another of similar design but of radically different dimen-
sions. The uncertainty becomes greater when we change to materials
with markedly different relations between stress and strain.
The application of these alloys has, therefore, been a slow process
of successive improvement in design, continually checked not only by
materials tests but even more by structural tests, until today for cer-
tain uses certain types of design seem to be approaching standardiza-
tion. When we consider that the duralumin girders of the Shenandoah,
strong and light as they were, developed only about 60 per cent of the
strength theoretically available in the material, and the girders of the
Akron of markedly better design only make use of about 80 per cent,
we can see that there are still opportunities for the designing engineer.
Will it be found economical, for instance, in spite of its high cost, to
use duralumin in the construction of long span bridges? It is an in-
teresting speculation which has been seriously discussed.
So far, I have mentioned only the results of the better understood
materials tests in judging this relatively new material. What of the
others? One example will have to suffice. For the usual high-grade
structural duralumin an extension of 18 per cent in two inches is
specified. Why? For some of the new modifications extensions as low
as 12 per cent are considered satisfactory. Why? We specify about 25
per cent for ordinary structural steel because we feel that smaller
elongations indicate material less secure against shock and fatigue
238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
failure as well as more difficult to fabricate, and 25 per cent is readily
obtained commercially. It is hardly safe to reason by analogy from
steel, for we have to do with an entirely different material. This is
clearly shown by the age-hardening properties of duralumin, which
make the practical difficulties of its fabrication so different from those
of steel. By lowering the specified elongation of duralumin to 12 per
cent, material is now furnished for special purposes up to 75,000 Ib.
per sq. in. tensile strength instead of 55,000 to 65,000 lb. per sq. in.
which was formerly considered the best that could be furnished com-
mercially. °
These newer, higher strength alloys with lower elongation, devel-
oped to meet specific demands, introduced and used with many mis-
givings, have so far proved to be satisfactory in service. It is still too
soon to predict the ultimate judgment which will be passed on them.
Could elongations even lower than 12 per cent be specified with
safety? Who can say?
A new material, however desirable its qualities, must thus pass
through a period of probation before designs are worked out which
will use these properties to the best advantage. In this probationary
period structural tests furnish one of the most valuable aids to rapid
progress. Even materials which have been much longer known and
used, have as yet not wholly passed this probationary period, so that
structural tests on so well-known a material as ordinary structural
steel are still teaching us how it may be used to better advantage.
STRUCTURAL TESTS
In principle the structural test differs markedly from the materials
test. In the materials test the object is to study the behavior of the
material under the action of known stresses. In the structural test the
object is to study the behavior of a given structure or structural part
under the action of known loads, usually approximating those it is
designed to be subjected to in service. In their practical carrying out
no such distinction can be drawn, and they grade insensibly one into
the other. The known stresses are produced in the materials test
specimen by the application of a known load to a given shape of the
material. The shape of the specimen and the character of the load are
so chosen as to produce the desired stress. Obviously if a structure is
so shaped and loaded as to have the same stress as in the materials
test, the structural test is a materials test as well. A tensile test of a
piece of wire or belting, for instance, is either a materials or a struc-
tural test, depending upon the viewpoint.
MAY 15, 1933 TUCKERMAN: MATERIAL TO STRUCTURE 239
In testing practice the difference lies chiefly in two things. First,
in structural testing, the size and shape of the specimens and type of
loading cannot be changed at will, but are determined by considera-
tions of design. The loading devices may thus have to be much larger
and more powerful, as well as more complex, than is necessary in ma-
terials testing. Second, a major feature of thé test may be the deter-
mination of the stress and strain distribution in the structure, neces-
sitating an elaborate provision of strain gages. In an investigation of
riveted joints for the Bureau of Construction and Repair of the Navy
Department, fourteen sensitive optical strain gages, as well as a num-
ber of other measuring devices, were used on a single test specimen.
In an investigation of girders for the U.S.8. Shenandoah 81 dial
micrometers were used on a single test specimen.
MODEL TESTS
Obviously the size of the available testing machines, as well as the
large cost, sets a practical limit to the size of structures which can be
tested. Model tests offer in many cases a possibility of effectively
overcoming this limitation. From the law of similarity we know that
if geometrically similar structures of different sizes, fabricated in all
their details of identical material, are subjected to geometrically simi-
lar static load distributions, the stress and strain distributions will
remain geometrically similar even beyond the elastic range and up
to failure of the structures. We can, therefore, reason directly from a
model to a structure of any size. Unfortunately, simple as this theory
is, its practical application is beset with difficulties. No large structure
is formed of homogeneous materials. Rolled plates and angles vary in
properties over their cross-section and the law of this variation is dif-
ferent for different sizes, and is different for different portions of the
ingot from which they are rolled. The rivets or welds with which they
are united are of different quality from the rolled sections which they
hold together and this difference is often important for the success of
the structure. It is, if not impossible, at least extremely difficult to
choose materials for small rivets which will show the same properties
after cooling as the large rivets. It is also practically impossible to
produce small welds with the same physical characteristics as larger
welds. The technical limits of accuracy in fabrication also set a limit
to the size of a structure which can be reproduced in detail in a model
of convenient size. In so far as these differences in detail are of signifi-
cance in the behavior of the structure, model tests have only a limited
field of application. This may be illustrated by the investigation of
240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
riveted joints carried out for the U.S. Navy. The whole problem here
lay in the most economical choice of rivet material and rivet arrange-
ment in the use of the newer high-strength ship plates. As our largest
tension machines have a capacity only slightly over a million pounds,
we can, in a full-size specimen, test a row only four or five rivets long.
The stress distribution in so short a row will certainly be different
from that in a corresponding part of a row many feet long, but this
uncertainty was felt to be less important than the difficulties involved
in producing a comparable half or third size model. It seemed almost
certain that a model, even roughly comparable, could not be pro-
duced.
In addition, the local concentration of stresses and strains in the
neighborhood of structural discontinuities are often critical factors in
determining the design. The measurement of these stresses and
strains demands a detailed study of local deformations, which even
in full-size structures often lie near the limit of sensibility of our strain
gages. In the model these deformations will be proportionately
smaller, requiring for their detection more sensitive devices. An op-
tical strain gage, developed at the Bureau of Standards in connection
with this riveted joint investigation, has permitted a considerable ex-
tension of the possibilities of model testing.
In its present form on two-inch and one-inch gage lengths it can be
relied upon to detect consistently, deformations as small as two or
three-millionths of an inch and its compactness and light weight make
it probable that it ean ultimately be adapted to much shorter gage
lengths—perhaps as low as one-fourth inch.
If the tests are concerned merely with the behaviour of the struc-
ture within the range where the deflection of the members as a whole
is practically proportional to the load, many of these difficulties of
model testing, which have been pointed out, disappear, since then the
details of joints need to be reproduced only in rough similarity, and
built-up members can be safely replaced by solid pieces of similar
shape. The strength of the parts no longer being a factor in the test,
practically any piece of approximately the same material (or where
the difference in Poisson’s ratio is not significant, any material) will
serve, since the moduli of elasticity differ but slightly for widely dif-
ferent qualities of material.
In addition, if the members of the structure all lie nearly in the
same plane so that the stress is approximately a plane distribution,
any elastic material whatever may be used, since in plane stress the
stress distribution is independent of the moduli of elasticity. Much
MAY 15, 1933 TUCKERMAN: MATERIAL TO STRUCTURE 241
use has recently been made of this fact in determining the stress dis-
tributions in structures (such, for instance, as massive arches) in
which the mathematical treatment is difficult, if not impossible.
No discussion of model tests, however brief, would be adequate
without mention of one of the most fruitful methods of model testing
—optical stress analysis by the use of polarized light. Discovered over
100 years ago, its theory and the fundamental experimental methods
were worked out nearly seventy-five years ago, but until the last few
years it remained largely a laboratory curiosity. I need not elaborate
on the remarkable developments of the last few years. Complex stress
distributions in structures of complex geometrical shape—for exam-
ple, a pair of meshing spur gears—are now known with a wealth of
detail that twenty years ago would have been thought impossible. I
merely wish to point out the relations of the method to the general
field of materials and structural testing. Optical stress analysis pos-
sesses a sensibility that no mechanical strain gage can ever hope to
reach. On small models it can trace out details of stress distribution
around discontinuities of structure, which could only be detected in
gigantic models by any mechanical strain gage we can ever hope to
construct. Within its limitations it furnishes, beyond any comparison,
the best method of model testing.
Unfortunately, its limitations are narrow. It requires a transparent
model, and no known transparent material has a Poisson’s ratio which
is the same as that of any ordinary structural material. Its application
to model testing is therefore limited, strictly speaking, to cases of
plane stress or those which approximate plane stress, for only in such
cases can we reason directly to the stress distribution of similar struc-
tures with other values of Poisson’s ratio. Even were it possible to use
the method in more complicated stress distributions the experimental
difficulties would probably be too great to make it practical. How-
ever, by judicious use of the results of plane-stress analysis it has been
possible to draw valuable, although approximate, conclusions about
widely different conditions.
SERVICE TESTS
After all, ‘the proof of the pudding is in the eating thereof.’ Ma-
terials tests, design, and structural tests all look towards one goal—
a structure in satisfactory service. The difficulty lies in determining
what is satisfactory service. For bridges, dams, buildings and other
structures whose conditions of use are fairly definite the answer is
relatively simple. For other structures, especially those containing
242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
many moving parts, the conditions of service are so diverse that no
valid eriterion of satisfactory service can be obtained from a single
case. Two automobiles are turned out from the same shop on the
same day. One is a wreck inside of a season, while the other may be
still in service years later. That does not necessarily indicate that the
first was not properly constructed to render satisfactory service; its
condition may have been due to gross abuse. Nor does it necessarily
indicate that the second was properly constructed. It may have had
only a fraction of the use that should be expected of it. It is evident
that in general only a statistical study of many individual service
records can furnish results that are significant.
Where the finished structures remain under centralized control in
use, the maintenance of reliable statistics of service is possible. Such
statistics where available are a sound basis for a i final judgment on all
questions of the use of materials.
In the larger number of cases the use of the finished structures is in
the hands of innumerable individuals under no centralized control, so
that the securing of reliable service statistics is difficult, if not impos-
sible. Also, even when available, service statistics are slow in accumu-
lating. Where production is large, many thousands of unsatisfactory
products might be put out into service before any service statistics
could show the points in which they were unsatisfactory.
The service test, or—more accurately stated—the accelerated serv-
ice test, is an attempt to bridge this gap. After a study has been made
of all the imaginable deteriorating influences which the structure is
likely to be subject to in use, an attempt is made to determine their
average frequency of occurrence and their average importance in
causing failure of the structure. By means of this study a program of
abuse is outlined which is designed to cause failure within a time
which is only a small fraction of the normal life in service. The abuse
may consist of exaggerating the severity of the normal deteriorating
influences of service or increasing the frequency of their occurrence,
or a combination of both.
The comparative life of structures under well-planned abuse fur-
nishes within a relatively short time a not altogether perfect but still
valuable substitute for service statistics. Perhaps the best known ex-
amples of such tests are the intensified traffic tests carried out on test
roads by the Bureau of Public Roads and the Highway Departments
of various states. These tests are helping greatly in the improvement
of road construction.
The value of such tests, obviously, depends in large measure upon
MAY 15, 1933 TUCKERMAN: MATERIAL TO STRUCTURE 243
the judgment used in planning the program of abuse. Only if the test
does fairly represent a proportional exaggeration of all the deteriorat-
ing influences in average service, will the test results correlate closely
with service statistics.
SPECIFICATIONS
Much of the work of the materials and structural testing engineer
would fail of its effectiveness if it were not crystallized into definite
form for routine use. Accordingly, specifications are written.
If all were known that should be known about materials and their
relations to structures, it is conceivable that specifications could be
written which would meet the wholehearted approval of the manu-
facturer, the user, and the testing engineer. As it is, specifications
represent a compromise between all three, based partly on knowledge,
partly on ignorance, partly on habit, and partly on traditions of the
art which may or may not be well founded. As a consequence no one
is fully satisfied.
Unsatisfactory as they are we could not do without specifications.
Of what use would it be to a builder to know that steel of given
physical properties built into a given structure would not collapse
under its load, if he had no assurance that the material furnished him
had these properties? How could a manufacturer of steel be in a posi-
tion to furnish satisfactory material to a builder unless the builders’
requirements were so formulated as to be applicable to the control of
his mill processes? Without the thousands of specifications which are
intimately woven into it, modern industry could not function.
Even though we recognize that most specifications are, in many
ways, unsatisfactory, there are still good specifications and poor
specifications. Good specifications foster cooperation between manu-
facturer, user, and testing engineer in the production of satisfactory
structures and their progressive improvement. They are a thorn in the
side only of the man who would sacrifice quality to his own personal
profit.
Poor specifications lead to endless controversy and misunderstand-
ing even between those who are anxious to cooperate in 1 the produc-
tion of satisfactory structures.
An important part of the work of the materials and structural test-
ing engineer is the assistance he gives in the improvement of specifi-
cations to the end that all may be good specifications. If he is called
upon to write or assist in writing specifications, he must add to his
testing technic much of the technic of specification writing, which is a
related but distinct art.
244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
Even if he personally does not write specifications, a testing engi-
neer should have a clear understanding of the principles which govern
specification writing so that he may recognize the difference between
a good and a poor specification.
Many of our specifications would be better, many of the controver-
sies which arise between manufacturers and users would be avoided
if more testing engineers, and especially specification writers, famil-
iarized themselves with these principles and followed them.
In 1907 the French engineer, Georges Charpy® whose name is famil-
iar to all who test metals and who has contributed so much to modern
materials testing technic, formulated clearly a principle which, it
would seem obvious, should, so far as possible, govern all specifica-
tions.
“Toutes les conditions imposées doivent étre spécifiées avee assez de
netteté et de précision pour que chacune des deux parties (le producteur ou
le consommateur) puisse les vérifier sans ambiguité 4 un moment quel-
conque .. .’”
In the years that have passed since Charpy wrote these words,
more and more engineers have heeded them, and specifications today
are on the average far superior to those written twenty-five years ago.
Nevertheless, in a specification written in 1931 and still in use, I
find the following requirements for a certain structure:
‘Size, 1 in.; outside dimensions (approximate) 5 in. by 3} in.; weight, per dozen,
40 lb.; tensile strength (approximate) 70,800 lb. per sq. in.”’
Samples of this structure are sent to a testing laboratory with the
request that a report be given stating whether the structure does or
does not meet the requirements of the specification. What is the poor
testing engineer to do? Is 54 in. by 3 in. approximately 5 in. by 32 in.
or should the tolerance be set closer? Are 39 lb. or 41 lb. acceptable
weights? If so, what about 35 lb. or 45 lb.? Was it the intention to
set a minimum or a maximum tensile strength? Is 65,000 lb., 70,000
lb. or 75,000 lb. a sufficiently close approximation to 70,800 lb. so that
he may say that it does or does not meet the requirements? As a test-
ing engineer he knows how to determine—within all reasonable ac-
curacy—what the dimensions are and what the tensile strength is.
Must he also, in order to be competent, know what limits of dimen-
sions or limits of tensile strength ought to be set on a structure he may
never have used or even never have seen before?
3 CHaRPY, Georces. Les cahiers des charges pour la réception des matieres métal-
liques. Revue de Métallurgie, Mémoires 4: 1041-1058. 1907.
4 “Every specified requirement ought to be specified with sufficient clearness and
precision, that each of the two parties, (producer or consumer) may at any time deter-
mine unambiguously whether the requirement is met.”’
MAY 15, 1933 TUCKERMAN: MATERIAL TO STRUCTURE 245
Such a clause in a specification is an invitation to argument, dis-
pute, hard feelings, and even litigation. It violates a fundamental
principle of specification writing.
Contrast it with the following:
Minimum - Maximum
SAG ocak AE ae a a eae aa BIL SP) rhs 1-1 /32 in.
‘ : : lenetiheesc.. 4-7/8 in. 5-1/8 in.
Outside dimensions \ width || | 3-1/8 in. 3-3/8 in.
Wreirht® per dozen 2... ..6......-. 39 lb. 41 lb.
Tensile strength................. 70,800 lb./sq. in. No maximum specified
This does take a little more printing ink than the other but with
such requirements no testing engineer would quarrel. Whether these
are suitable limits for the structure specified he might not know: he
does not need to know. The limits acceptable to both producer and
consumer should be set by the specification writer. He should not ask
the testing engineer to exercise his talent for guessing or telepathic
mind reading.
This is merely a flagrant illustration of one way in which a poor
specification differs from a good one. Many more could be cited. No
great technical skill is needed to banish such defects—merely a deter-
mination on the part of the writer of the specification to avoid obvious
indefiniteness and ambiguity.
To search out the defects in good specifications, to change them so
that their meaning is more clear, to modify the test conditions so as to
make the tests cheaper without sacrifice of quality, to fit them to
progressive advances in manufacturing processes, in other words to
make better specifications out of good specifications—this is a task
which challenges the skill of the best of testing engineers.
I cannot better end this brief consideration of specifications than
by quoting again from Charpy—a master in the art of writing specifi-
cations. He lays down the following canon’ of basic requirements of a
good specification:
“Suppression de toutes les clauses vagues, ne permettant aucune vérifica-
tion précise et laissant en réalité place 4 l’arbitraire.
“Réduction aussi grande que possible des conditions de fabrication qui
peuvent, le plus souvent, étre remplacées par des conditions de qualité.
“Définition minutieuse et précise de tous les essais qui doivent servir a
vérifier les différentes conditions de qualité. Spécification du nombre des
essais, des cas ot ils pourront étre recommencés.
“Eitablissement d’une corrélation entre la précision des machines d’essai
(et sa vérification) et la précision demandée dans les résultats des essais.
5 Cuarpy, loc. cit.
OK EEE me a a ee aes = — — — — =— —
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246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
‘“‘Kmploi de préscriptions combattant la fraude dans toutes ses manifesta-
tions.’’6
The last clause should not be necessary but unfortunately the spec-
ification writer dare not forget it.
CORRELATION OF MATERIAL, STRUCTURAL, AND SERVICE TESTS
The development of materials testing as an independent art was
made possible by the scientific development which freed it from its
intimate association with a unified process of manufacture. Only
through that freedom could it become objective and quantitative.
That freedom, however, is not complete and has brought with it, as
every partial freedom does, not only good but bad effects. Busied with
the details of testing, the testing engineer is too likely to think of the
results of his tests as ends in themselves, independent of their relation
to material structures in service. This tendency can only be combated
by seeking continually and consciously to correlate the results of ma-
terials, structural, and service tests, one with another, and in the last
analysis with statistics of service. With fuller understanding of these
correlations, materials and structural testing will contribute still more
to the progress of engineering. With this fuller understanding, mate-
rials testing will become more and more a science, approaching the
ideal in which, from materials tests alone, the field of usefulness and
serviceability of a material may, with certainty, be determined, to the
end that there may no longer be pitfalls on the path from material
to structure.
6 “Suppression of all vague clauses which do not permit any precise verification,
and which actually leave room for arbitrariness.
‘“‘Reduction to a minimum, of limitations on the processes of manufacture, which
can usually be replaced by quality requirements.
‘‘A meticulous and precise prescription of all the tests which serve to determine
the quality. Specification of the number of tests and of the cases in which retests will
be allowed.
“Specification of a relation between the precision of testing machines (and their
verification) and the precision required in the results of the tests.
“Use of proper prescriptions to prevent fraud in all its manifestations.”
GEOLOGY.—Geologic reconnaissance of a region adjacent to Guan-
tanamo Bay, Cuba.1 O. E. Meinzur, U. 8. Geological Survey.
PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE RECONNAISSANCE
This paper is based on observations by the writer during a field in-
vestigation which he made, as the representative of the U. 8. Geolog-
1 Published with the permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Re-
ceived January 7, 1933.
MAY 15, 1933 MEINZER: GUANTANAMO BAY RECONNAISSANCE 247
ical Survey, for the purpose of finding a water supply for the United
States naval station at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. The investigation
covered a period of six weeks in the fall of 1915, and was chiefly de-
voted to a detailed study of the geology of the United States reserva-
tion, which is a tract about 9 by 5 miles in extent, embracing the
lower part of the bay (see Fig. 1), and to the location of well sites and
the sinking of test wells on the reservation. A reconnaissance was,
however, made eastward along the coast to the Imias River and up
the Yateras River to Yuraguana (see Fig. 2).
The writer is indebted to T. Wayland Vaughan and C. Wythe
Cooke for examining the fossils that were collected and for advice re-
garding the correlations of the several formations. Doctor Vaughan
has recently (1932) revised the identifications of the foraminifera and
corals and has kindly prepared the lists of species appended to this
paper.’
TOPOGRAPHY
The region bordering the south coast of Cuba between Cape Maisi,
at the east end of the island, and Cape Cruz, about 260 miles farther
west, is in general mountainous, the principal interruption in the
mountain chain being at Guantanamo Bay, 75 miles west of Cape
Maisi. Near its head this large, pouch-shaped embayment is bordered
by an extensive lowland plain, on the east, north, and west sides of
which the mountains rise somewhat in the form of a huge amphithe-
ater. Near its mouth the bay is, however, constricted by belts of foot-
hills that extend toward the bay from the mountains on both sides.
The United States reservation lies on both sides of the lower part
of Guantanamo Bay, the east side being the larger and having nearly
all the development. There are three principal types of topography
on the reservation: (1) hills and ridges with small intervening valleys,
(2) terraces, and (3) lowlands, or tidal flats, more or less continuous
with the extensive lowland at the head of the bay.
The principal hilly area, known as the Cuzco Hills, is in the south-
ern part of the reservation, on the east side, and it forms the greater
2 The fossils are described in the following publications:
Cooks, C. Wytue. Tertiary mollusks from the Leeward Islands and Cuba. Car-
negie Inst. Washington Pub. 291: 103-156. 1919.
CusuMan; J. A. Fossil Foraminifera from the West Indies. Carnegie Inst. Wash-
ington Pub. 201: 21-71. 1919. Also The American species of Orthophragmina and
Lepidocyclina. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 125: 39-105. 1920.
VauGcuHaNn, T. W. Fossil corals from Central America, Cuba, and Porto Rico, with
an account of the American Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Recent European Tertiary larger
Foraminifera. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 35: 785-822. 1924. Also Species of Lepido-
cyclina and Carpenteria from the Cayman Islands. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London
82: 388-400. 1926.
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part of a peninsula about 5 miles long and 1 to 3 miles wide, projecting
westward between the Caribbean Sea and Guantanamo Bay (Fig. 1).
Its ridges, or rows of hills, trend in a direction somewhat south of
west. Many of the hills rise more than 300 feet above sea level, and
the highest point, known as Paul Jones Peak, is 494 feet above sea
level. |
There are two terraces on the reservation, which will be designated
respectively as the 40-foot terrace and the 125-foot terrace, although
the actual elevations vary considerably. These are described later.
The principal lowland area on the reservation is the large delta of
the Guantanamo River, in the northwestern part, which has pro-
truded into the bay, practically isolating the waters of Mahomilla
Bay and the very shallow salt lake farther north. Lowlands also bor-
der the bay on the east side, forming tidal flats, especially in the re-
entrants of the 40-foot terrace. On the map (Fig. 1) the mangrove
tracts, which are slightly below sea level, are included with the land
areas.
East of the reservation the ridges assume the proportions of meun-
tain ranges. The culminating point of Los Melones Mountains, less
than 2 miles from the reservation, is 1,108 feet above sea level, and
the crest lines of the other ranges immediately east of the reservation
are in general not far from 1,000 feet above sea level. Farther east the
mountains are still higher, many of the peaks between the Sabana-
lamar and Imias Rivers reaching altitudes of 2,000 to 4,000 feet. The
ranges are in general more or less parallel with the coast and are sep-
arated by rather wide structural valleys. The principal streams for the
most part cut across the ranges in relatively narrow valleys bordered
in many places by high bluffs.
East of the reservation, between the Yateras and Imias Rivers, and
no doubt still farther east, a series of terraces is well developed, not
only along the coast but also in the interior structural valleys. The
most conspicuous terraces are at levels of approximately 40, 200, 500,
and 750 feet.
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION
The region adjacent to Guantanamo Bay has a mild, equable,
oceanic climate, like that of other parts of Cuba, but, owing to the
persistent trade winds and to the mountain barriers, it differs from
the greater part of the island in being semi-arid. The average annual
precipitation during a period of a little over three years (1912-1915)
was about 17 inches. The principal rainy season is in the fall, and a
250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
secondary rainy season occurs in the spring. The season of greatest
aridity is the summer. Although the precipitation is light the humidity
of the atmosphere is high. and consequently the very moderate low-
ering of the temperature at night is generally adequate to produce a
heavy dew. .
The peculiarities of the climate are reflected in the native vegeta-
tion. The region abounds jn large cacti and other desert plants, not
unlike those found in southwestern Arizona, but in addition it has in
most places a dense growth of bushes and dwarfed trees, chiefly hard
woods, forming almost impenetrable thickets. Moreover, certain tall
grasses grow luxuriantly in localities that do not have any special
water supply. One of the most characteristic trees of the region is a
small palm, known as the yuraguana, which predominates on dry, ex-
posed limestone ledges. The large luxuriant palms grow only along
the streams and in other shallow-water areas and appear to be de-
pendable indicators of ground water.
The high humidity and warm climate are favorable to rapid de-
composition of the rocks, whereas the light rainfall provides only
feeble instruments of stream transportation. Consequently the region
is characterized by a great abundance of rock waste, even on steep
hillsides, and good rock exposures are not common except along the
coast, where the waves are effective agents of erosion.
The country between Guantanamo Bay and the Imias River is
sparsely settled, resembling similar regions of rough topography and
dry climate in the western part of the United States except that stock
raising is carried on less extensively and less systematically. The few
inhabitants of the region live near isolated springs or small streams,
where they cultivate garden plots and raise a few domestic animals.
As in the arid parts of the United States, the traveler must plan his
itinerary with regard to available watering places.
GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS
Outline of stratigraphy
The rocks in the region examined comprise the following four divi-
sions, arranged in the order of their age, the oldest being given first:
1. A basal complex of metamorphic and igneous rocks of unknown
age.
2. Tilted beds of conglomerate, limestone, shale, and impure sandy
and marly materials, several thousand feet in aggregate thickness
(chiefly Oligocene; Eocene at bottom and possibly as young as Plio-
cene at top).
251
MAY 15, 1933 MEINZER: GUANTANAMO BAY RECONNAISSANCE
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252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
3. Horizontal beds of conglomerate and coral limestone underlying
a series of terraces; probably all Pleistocene.
4, Stream gravels underlying the lower parts of the present stream
valleys, and marine and delta deposits of gravel, sand, mud, and eal-
careous debris, at or near sea level (Recent; possibly in part Pleisto-
cene).
Basal complex
The basal complex is the surface formation in a belt on the south
side of the Cuzco Hills, adjacent to the Caribbean Sea or separated
from it by only a narrow strip of limestone that forms the 40-foot ter-
race (Fig. 1). The best exposures are near the coast, where wave ero-
sion has been effective. In many localities there is so much rock waste
that it is impossible to determine whether the bedrock consists of the
basal complex or of the conglomerate derived from it. Only at the
coast 1s the contact between these two formations well exposed. The
western extremity of the belt formed by the basal complex is about
three-fourths mile east of the strait that forms the entrance to Guan-
tanamo Bay, where the line of contact between the basal complex and
the overlying conglomerate intersects the coast. From this point the
belt extends eastward across the east boundary of the reservation.
The basal complex was seen at several localities between the east
boundary and Escondido Bay, which is 2 miles farther east, and it
probably also forms the hills on the east side of the entrance to that
bay. This belt, however, does not extend more than 2 miles east of
Escondido Bay, and from there to the Imias River it is not exposed
along the coast (Fig. 2).
A larger area of the basal complex was seen in the region between
the Sabanalamar and Imias Rivers, lying 2 miles or more back from
the coast and extending northward and eastward beyond the region
covered by the present reconnaissance. It was examined for several
miles along the Yacabo River (Fig. 2).
The basal complex is a metamorphic mass with bodies of intrusive
igneous rocks. On the reservation the metamorphic mass consists
chiefly of bronze-colored or dark-gray, fine-grained, slaty rock which
has one set of major cleavage planes and many minor fracture or
cleavage planes running in various directions, causing the rock when
weathered to break into angular fragments. In several localities on
the reservation the major planes were seen to be nearly vertical and
to have a general east-west strike. East of Cuzco Beach they dip 75°
S. 35° W. In some places, however, the cleavage planes are greatly
MAY 15, 1933 MEINZER: GUANTANAMO BAY RECONNAISSANCE 253
contorted and the formation appears schistose. True schist outcrops
along the Yacabo River. In some places veins of quartz and gypsum
—(?) occur along the cleavage planes. The copper mines or prospect
holes on the reservation are in the metamorphic rock. On the reserva-
tion only a few small bodies of intrusive rock were seen, and these
consist of dark, basic crystalline rock. The abundance of boulders of
this kind of rock in the overlying conglomerate indicates, however,
that larger bodies must occur somewhere in the basal complex. Along
the Yacabo there are intrusive bodies both of dark crystalline rock
and of granite. Hard, dark, bluish limestone was seen a short distance
east of Windmill Beach, but its relations were not determined.
The basal complex consists of sufficiently indurated rock to produce
a rugged topography where it is exposed to erosion—the boldest and
highest cliffs along the coast being in this rock. The hills which it
forms in the belt on the reservation are not as high as those formed
by the overlying conglomerate and limestone in the same region, but
the mountains 2,000 to 4,000 feet high in the region farther east con-
sist at least largely of the basal complex. The hills and mountains
formed of these rocks are irregular, showing but little of the parallel
arrangement that characterizes the hills and mountains formed by
the conglomerate and limestone.
The basal complex comprises the oldest rocks in this region. In its
induration and metamorphism it resembles the pre-Cambrian rocks
found in many parts of the United States, but all that was definitely
determined is that it is older than the conglomerate that underlies the
Oligocene limestone and rests on the basal complex. Before the con-
glomerate was laid down the rocks now comprising the basal complex
were extensively deformed and metamorphosed and then eroded to
great depths.
Tilted beds of conglomerate, shale, and limestone (Tertiary)
Resting on the basal complex is a thick series of tilted conglomerate,
limestone, shale, and various impure sandy and marly beds. These
formations lie at the surface over most of the region examined.
Both in the vicinity of the naval station and in the region between
the Sabanalamar and Imias Rivers hard ferruginous conglomerate
rests unconformably on the basal complex and dips away from the
exposed core of this complex. Near the naval station it dips north-
ward and between the Sabanalamar and Imias Rivers it dips south-
ward. It forms the greater part of the Cuzco Hills and outcrops in
other localities on the reservation.
254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 5
The conglomerate that comprises the lower part of this series is a
dark brownish or reddish, dense, impervious, and thoroughly indu-
rated formation. It has irregularities in texture but shows a definite
and persistent although rude stratification. Boulders a foot or more
in diameter are rare, and most of the large boulders are found near
the base of the formation. Well-rounded pebbles ranging from a frac-
tion of an inch to several inches in diameter make up a large part of
the formation. The pebbles and boulders consist chiefly of slate and
dark, basic, crystalline rock derived from the basal complex. Limestone
pebbles were not found in the lower beds but at higher horizons the
conglomerate contains limestone pebbles many of which are well
rounded. On the south side of the Cuzco Hills, where wells were dug
into valley fill derived from the lower beds of the conglomerate, no
limestone pebbles were found, but the ridge farther north is composed
of conglomerate beds in which there are numerous large and rather
well-rounded limestone boulders. Many of these boulders contain
fragments of fossils, none of which could, however, be identified. On
the south side of Mogote Peak the conglomerate near its contact with
the overlying limestone consists of well-rounded pebbles among which
no limestone pebbles were found. The conglomerate in the extensive
outcrops farther north and east, underlying the limestone of Los
Melones and La Plata Mountains (Fig. 2), is in general non-calcareous
but a few well-rounded limestone pebbles were found in it.
Resting on conglomerate at Mogote Peak and at La Plata and Los
Melones Mountains there is limestone which has about the same dip
as the conglomerate—generally between 10 and 20 degrees. Most of
the region extending north in the vicinity of the Yateras River and
east to the Sabanalamar River is underlain by limestone. Toward the
north and east the dip diminishes in general until the beds he nearly
horizontal. At the mouths of the Macambo, Yacabo, and Imias Riv-
ers the beds dip southward—away from the basal complex exposed in
that region. There are many minor flexures involving some steep dips
and even overturned folds, as at one locality on the Yateras, 2 or 3
miles south of Yuraguana. Faulting is suggested along the south side
of Los Melones Mountains by the exceedingly precipitous south front
of these mountains, and the escarpments of other ranges may be fault
scarps.
The hard massive limestone that rests on the conglomerate in Mo-
gote Peak contains fossils that are regarded by Vaughan to be of
Eocene age. The fossils collected from the limestone in the vicinity
of La Plata and Los Melones Mountains and farther northeast con-
MAY 15, 1933 MEINZER: GUANTANAMO BAY RECONNAISSANCE 255
tain fossils that are regarded by Vaughan to be of Oligocene age—at
or near the horizon of the Antigua formation. The fossils were taken
in several loealities, for the most part from rock in place and some of
them close to the underlying conglomerate. It was supposed in the
field that the conglomerate at the base of La Plata and Los Melones
Mountains was the same as that at the base of Mogote Peak and that
the limestone contact was at the same horizon as that in Mogote Peak.
It appears now that this conglomerate hes between the Eocene and
Oligocene limestones.
In the northern part of the United States reservation the conglom-
erate beds give place largely to shaly beds that lie more nearly hor-
izontal or even dip southward. A large part of the lowland north of
the reservation, into which Guantanamo Bay extends, appears to be
underlain by shaly and marly beds that dip at an angle of only a few
degrees toward the east. An old test well, 1,400 feet deep, drilled in
the northern part of the reservation went through 400 feet of alter-
nating beds of conglomerate and shale and then through 1,000 feet
of what was designated as ‘‘slaty shale,” in which the well ended.
Kast of the lowland is a conspicuous escarpment formed by limestone
with some interbedded shaly strata, that rests on the main body of
shaly beds. This limestone extends to the Yateras and furnished the
Oligocene fossils that were collected near that stream east of Glorietta.
The relation of the shaly beds to the other formations is uncertain but
it seems probable that at the time of their deposition great local dif-
ferences existed in the character of the sediments that were laid down.
The tilted beds that are exposed near the mouths of the Yateras,
Sabanalamar, Macambo, Yacabo, and Imias Rivers differ from the
formations that have been described as occurring between the naval
station and the Yateras River, both in their lithologic character and
in the fossils that they contain. They consist chiefly of interstratified
beds of limestone and conglomerate with calcareous matrix, very dif-
ferent from the conglomerate already described. The limestone is in
general soft and friable and in many places contains imbedded peb-
bles. All gradations between true conglomerate and true limestone can
be found. The conditions under which these beds were formed were
apparently similar to those found along the coast where calcareous
debris is at present being deposited. According to Vaughan the fossils
collected at several localities, especially those near the mouths of the
Yacabo and Imias Rivers, appear to be of the age of the Santiago
marl—an Oligocene formation younger than the Antigua formation.
Fossils of possible Pliocene age were obtained in two localities from
256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
what were regarded as tilted beds in place. Their evidence is incon-
clusive but points to the close of the Tertiary period as the time of the
deformation of the Tertiary formations.
Terrace formations (Pleistocene) -
Among the most conspicuous features of the region are the sea ter-
races, of which at least seven were observed at successive elevations
up to about 750 feet above the present sea level. Of these, four are well
developed in the region between the Yateras and Imias Rivers, and
two are well developed west of the Yateras. The four east of the
Yateras are at altitudes of approximately 40, 200, 500, and 750 feet
above sea level—the figures for the lowest two being based on hand-
level measurements, those for the upper two on rough estimates. The
two west of the Yateras are at altitudes of approximately 40 and 125
feet, as determined by the topographic map and by hand-level meas-
urements. In the vicinity of Guantanamo Bay the highest terraces are
absent or indistinct. The 125-foot terrace appears to rise gradually
toward the east and may be identical with the 200-foot terrace ob-
served farther east.
The terraces generally slope gently from their landward to their
seaward sides, owing both to their original grades and to the recent
deposition of sediments on their landward sides. The altitude assigned
to each respective terrace in this report is, as nearly as known, that
of the unmodified sea bench at its landward margin, which represents
approximately the level at which the sea stood when the benches were
formed. Thus the so-called 40-foot terrace is in many places not much
more than 30 feet above sea level, but in some places where there is
alluvial wash it is considerably more than 40 feet. However, in the
vicinity of the naval station, where observations were made, the ter-
race limestone was found near the landward margin at a maximum
altitude of 40 feet, or a little more, and this altitude is therefore be-
lieved to represent about the level at which the sea stood when the
terrace was formed.
The 40-foot terrace is the most persistent and best-preserved
throughout the region. It occurs continuously along the Caribbean
coast, a fraction of a mile in width, except where the rivers and ar-
royos have cut through it and in a few exposed places where it has
evidently been destroyed by wave erosion. It also occurs along the
shores of Guantanamo Bay, at least as far north as Caimanera, in a
relatively wide but irregular belt (see Fig. 1), and it extends some dis-
tance up the Yateras and into other large valleys.
MAY 15, 1933 MEINZER: GUANTANAMO BAY RECONNAISSANCE 257
The 125-foot terrace is found on the reservation on both sides of
the bay, typical remnants of it being the little mesa on which the
Northeast Rear Beacon is located (Fig. 1) and the ridge south of
Fisherman Point, at the north end of which the monument and flag
staff are located. This terrace can also be seen in looking eastward
from the bay, as far north as Glorietta. It occurs along the Caribbean
coast just west of the Yateras River but was not recognized farther
east.
Between the Yateras and Imias Rivers there is a persistent terrace
which at Baitiqueri Bay was determined by hand level to be about
210 feet above the sea. This is the second conspicuous terrace, from
the bottom, in this region, and it seems rather probable that an ac-
curate topographic survey would show it to be continuous with the
125-foot terrace west of the Yateras, which would indicate slight tilt-
ing of the surface in the interval between its construction and the
construction of the 40-foot terrace.
One terrace is definitely discernible at some undetermined level
above the 125-foot terrace west of the Yateras, and two are definitely
discernible above the 200-foot terrace east of the Yateras at respec-
tive altitudes roughly estimated at 500 and 750 feet. These higher
terraces occur along the coast and are also well developed at points
considerable distances inland, especially in the broad interior valley
that is parallel to the coast but is separated from it by the line of
ridges formed by the calcareous conglomerate.
The terraces consist largely of benches cut into the older rocks and
are mantled with soft, massive, coral limestone. In some places, how-
ever, the smooth cut terraces are nearly bare; in others the terrace
limestone rests on an irregular erosion surface; and in still others the
terraces are formed by rather thick deposits of coarse gravel or con-
glomerate that rest on an irregular erosion surface. The deposition of
the terrace limestone was at least in part contemporaneous with the
wave erosion that formed the benches, just as at present similar de-
posits are accumulating near the shore in localities where the waves
are cutting back the sea cliffs. The deposits are thickest at the outer
margins of the terraces where they extend beyond the cut benches.
In many places along the exposed and greatly eroded Caribbean
coast the limestone underlying the 40-foot terrace can be seen resting
on older formations, but along the sheltered waters of Guantanamo
Bay this limestone commonly protrudes below sea level. Similar
limestones were seen underlying the 125-foot terrace at the Northeast
Rear Beacon, and the 200-foot and the 500-foot terraces near the
258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
mouths of the Macambo, Yacabo, and Imias Rivers. Everywhere
they rest on the bevelled surfaces of the older, tilted limestone, con-
glomerate, or shale, or on the irregular surfaces beyond the edges of
these bevelled rock benches.
The development of the terraces in the interior ‘valleys indicates
that the present major topographic features are older than the ter-
races, and the great width of valleys such as that occupied by Guan-
tanamo Bay suggests that at some time before the terraces were
formed the region stood higher above sea level than at present.
That the principal terraces rank in age according to their altitudes,
the highest being the oldest, is indicated by the features of stream
erosion and by the precipitous cliffs that separate one terrace from
another. For example, in one locality there is a rather wide ravine
cut down to the 200-foot terrace, only a slight gully with a cascade
in this terrace, and no erosion in the 40-foot terrace. The cliffs at the
back of each terrace were evidently formed, just as the modern sea
cliff has been formed, by the waves undercutting the terrace next
above. The evidence is especially strong that the 40-foot terrace is
the youngest. It is possible that some of the obscure terrace remnants,
at levels between those of the principal terraces that have been men-
tioned, represent strands formed during the earlier period of pro-
gressive submergence. The principal terraces bear evidence of ge-
ologic youth, and were probably all formed since the beginning of the
Pleistocene epoch. The fossils found on the 125-foot, 200-foot, and
500-foot terraces appear to be of Pleistocene age. No fossils were col-
lected from the 40-foot terrace and none from the 750-foot terrace.
Post-terrace deposits (Recent)
Underlying the lower parts of most of the valleys are deposits of
stream-borne gravel which constitute a more or less definite forma-
tion. These deposits are not naturally exposed but were examined in
the wells that were dug. On the reservation they resemble in texture
the basal conglomerate, from which they are chiefly derived, the peb-
bles, being imbedded in a more or less clayey matrix. The formation
is not nearly so thoroughly indurated as is the conglomerate, but it
is generally hard enough to require a pick for its excavation and lo-
cally it is very hard.
The lower courses of the small valleys on the reservation are rela-
tively wide and flat, and it is only in these lower parts that the alluvial
gravel has considerable thickness and assumes the character of a ge-
ologic formation. Its total thickness has not been determined, but the
MAY 15, 1983 MEINZER: GUANTANAMO BAY RECONNAISSANCE 259
width of the valleys, the slope of the rock walls, and other physi-
ographic characteristics suggest that it probably reaches maximum
depths of 50 to 100 feet in the valleys on the reservation. The wells
that were dug in the lower parts of some of the valleys went to depths
of only 18 to 23 feet, but there was no indication that they were near
the bottom of the alluvial gravel. |
There is abundant evidence that after the shelf known as the 40-
foot terrace was formed the region stood higher above the sea than it
does at present. The drowned character of the coast, which is manifest
throughout the region can not be adequately explained by the emer-
gence prior to the formation of the terraces, because the innumerable
small bays, estuaries, and filled valleys, which constitute the prin-
cipal evidence of drowning, were created for the most part by the dis-
section of the 40-foot terrace limestone. The width of these steep-
walled valleys indicates that when they were formed the sea level was
considerably lower than at present. For example, the wide valleys and
reentrants that interrupt the 40-foot terrace in the vicinity of the
naval station could not have been formed under present conditions,
and can not be adequately explained except by the assumption of a
considerable emergence above present sea level.
The chart of the U. S. Hydrographic Office shows that adjacent to
the Caribbean coast there is a submerged bench, or possibly a series
of benches, 100 feet or less below the present sea level and with an
average width of about one-third mile (Fig. 1). It seems probable that
this submerged bench was formed in the same manner as were the
benches that are now above sea level. An emergence of the amount
indicated by it would account very well for the width of the valleys
in the 40-foot terrace, and the time required for the sea to form the
submerged bench would appear to be about adequate for the erosion
of these valleys. When the submergence to the present level took
place the excavated lower parts of the valleys were filled, chiefly with
rock waste washed down from the tributary hillsides and mountain
slopes. Deposits of gravelly rock waste also occur in the upper parts
of the valleys and mantle the uplands in many places but in these
situations the deposits are generally not thick and do not constitute
a definite formation.
Since the last submergence the land has stood at the present level
relative to the sea for a considerable time, as is shown by the existence
of a well-developed bench at sea level and by the aggradation of
streamways in their lower courses. On the Caribbean coast the sea
bench is in part cut into the rock at exposed salients and in part con-
260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
sists of beaches and beach bars built across the mouths of reentrants.
Gravelly bars extend almost entirely across the estuaries at the
mouths of the Yateras, Yacabo, and Imias Rivers. On the shores of
Guantanamo Bay the bench is represented by tidal flats that extend
into the reentrants in the 40-foot terrace and by the large delta of the
Guantanamo River (Fig. 1). Corals and other lime-secreting organ-
isms are at many places producing a deposit of calcareous material
similar to the deposits that cap the terraces.
SUMMARY OF GEOLOGIC HISTORY
The geologic events in the region adjacent to Guantanamo Bay can
be summarized as follows:
1. Deposition of the materials, probably chiefly sedimentary, that
compose the present metamorphic rocks.
2. Deformation and metamorphism of these deposits and their
intrusion by magmas that formed both granitic and basic crystalline
rocks.
3. Extensive erosion.
4. Deposition of large quantities of gravel, finer clastic sediments,
and calcareous debris that formed limestone. Submergence at least
during the limestone deposition.
5. Deformation and emergence.
6. Erosion, resulting in the excavation of the principal valleys
now in existence, some of them probably below the present sea level.
7. Submergence of the land to a level several hundred feet above
the present shore line.
8. Successive stages of emergence and probably slight tilting of
the land, alternating with stages of quiescence—the emergence bring-
ing the shore line to a level approximately 100 feet below the present
shore, and permitting stream erosion below the present sea level; the
stages of quiescence resulting in sea benches and cliffs at several lev-
els.
9. Submergence to the present level, resulting in the drowning of
the lower parts of the stream valleys and in the production of innu-
merable estuaries, bays, and coves.
10. Filling of the submerged valleys and development of a new sea
bench by destructive and constructive processes.
MAY 15, 19833 MEINZER: GUANTANAMO BAY RECONNAISSANCE 261
APPENDIX
Report on species of fossils collected in Cuba by O. E. Meinzer
in November and December, 1915
By T. WAYLAND VAUGHAN
(The numbers refer to the station records at the National Museum)
7522. South side of Mogote Peak. Altitude about 375 feet. About two-
thirds way up from the base. Fossils from limestone in place and from drift.
Astrocoenia guantanamensis Vaughan; A. meinzeri Vaughan; Trochoseris
meinzert Vaughan; Diploastrea crassolamellata (Duncan)?; D. crassolamellata
var. magnifica (?); Discocyclina (Discocyclina) pustulata (Cushman); D.
(Asterocyclina) sp.; Lepidocyclina (Lepidocyclina) n. sp.; L. 2 n. sp. Gypsina
globulus Reuss; Carpenteria; Nullipores. Eocene.
7521. Top of Mogote Peak, $ mile east of U. S. Reservation and } mile
south of Monument H4. Altitude about 520 feet. Limestone in place. Lepido-
cyclina sp. not identified; Gypsina sp.; Carpenteria; Nullipores. Doubtful
but may be Eocene.
7523. South side of Mogote Peak. Altitude about 250 feet. About one-
third way up from the base. Fossils from drift near contact between lime-
stone and underlying conglomerate. Astrocoenia decaturensis Vaughan; Goni-
opora decaturensis Vaughan. Oligocene.
7506. Short distance west of Ocujal Spring (which is about 4 miles nearly
due east of Monument H6, on the east boundary of the reservation). Alti-
tude 200 to 250 feet. Limestone at contact with the underlying conglomerate.
Diploastrea crassolamellata (Duncan). Oligocene.
7508. Canyon west of Ocujal Spring. Altitude about 200 feet. Limestone
at contact with conglomerate at the top of a large outcrop of conglomerate
dipping 10° to 15° northeastward. Antzguastrea cellulusa (Duncan). Oligo-
cene.
7511. Along trail between Ocujal Spring and Palma, near summit. Altitude
about 500 feet. Corals in drift. Cyathomorpha tenuis (Duncan). Oligocene.
7512. Ocujal Spring; gully south of house at spring. Altitude about 250
feet. Limestone just above contact with the underlying conglomerate. Lepi-
docyclina (Lepidocyclina) yurnagunensis Cushman; L. (Hulepidina) favosa
Cushman; L. gigas Cushman; L. sp., a stellate species; Globigerina sp. Oligo-
cene.
7513. About three-fourths mile east of Ocujal Spring, short distance north-
east of point where Palma trail joins the main Ocujal trail. Altitude about
300 feet. Limestone near contact with conglomerate. Lepidocyclina (Lepido-
cyclina) yurnagunensis Cushman; L. (L.) yurnagunensis var. morganopsis
Vaughan, n. var.; L. (Hulepidina) favosa Cushman; L. gigas Cushman; L.
sp., a stellate species; Gypsina globulus Reuss; Carpenteria americana Cush-
man; Globigerina sp. Oligocene.
7514. One and one-half miles east-southeast of Ocujal Spring; about mid-
way between summit and main trail. Altitude about 400 feet. Taken from
the drift. Pocillopora guantanamensis Vaughan; Pironastraea antiguensis
Vaughan; Cyathomorpha antiguensis (Duncan); C. tenuis (Duncan). Oligo-
cene.
262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
7516. West end of Los Melones Mountains, about 22 miles east of bound-
ary of U.S. Reservation, and about ¢ mile north of Monument H7. Altitude
1,000 to 1,100 feet. Limestone dipping 12° N. 55° E. Lepidocyclina (Lepido-
cyclina) yurnagunensis Cushman; L. yurnagunensis var. morganopsis
Vaughan, n. var.; Globigerina sp.; Nullipores. Oligocene.
7518. South side of Los Melones Mountains, near west end. Altitude about
450 feet. Limestone near contact with underlying conglomerate. Lepido-
cycina (Lepidocyclina) yurnagunensis Cushman; L. (Eulepidina) favosa
Cushman; Carpenteria americana Cushman; Nullipores. Oligocene.
7519. Landslide on south side of the range next north of Los Melones; 3.3
miles east and 0.7 mile north of northeast corner of U.S. Reservation (Mon-
ument H9). Altitude 800 to 900 feet. From drift near top of landslide.
Lepidocyclina (Lepidocyclina) yurnagunensis Cushman; L. (Eulepidina)
favosa Cushman; Globigerina sp.; Nullipores. Oligocene.
7543. East side of Yateras River, about south of Yuraguana and east of
Glorietta. Limestone with few conglomerate beds, dipping 5° S. 75° E.
Lepidocyclina (Lepidocyclina) yurnagunensis Cushman; L. (L.) yurnagunen-
sis var. morganopsis Vaughan, n. var.; L. (Nephrolepidina) undosa Cushman;
L. (Eulepidina) crassata Cushman (?); Nullipores. Oligocene.
7548. Flexure in rocks on west side of Yateras River, about 24 miles south
of Yuraguana. Short distance above stream level. From folded beds near
contact between conglomerate and shale with overlying limestone. Lepzdo-
cyclina (Lepidocyclina) yurnagunensis Cushman; L. (L.) yurnagunensis var.
morganopsis Vaughan, n. var. Oligocene.
7552. West side of Yateras River, about 6 miles above its mouth. Altitude
about 250 feet. Rock in place at shale-limestone contact. Dip 30° N. 80° E.
Lepidocyclina (Lepidocyclina) yurnagunensis Cushman; L. (L.) yurnagunen-
sis var. morganopsis Vaughan, n. var.; L. (Nephrolepidina) undosa Cushman;
L. (Eulepidina) favosa Cushman; L. (E.) gigas Cushman; Operculinella sp. ;
Nullipores. Oligocene.
7553. Same as No. 7552. Altitude about 150 feet. From rock that is dis-
placed but of local origin. Lepidocyclina (Lepidocyclina) yurnagunensis Cush-
man; L. (L.) yurnagunensis var. morganopsis Vaughan, n. var.; L. (Nephro-
lepidina) undosa Cushman; L. (Eulepidina) favosa Cushman; Nullipores.
Oligocene.
7554. Same as No. 7552. Altitude about 150 feet. Probably taken from
the shale-limestone contact. Lepidocyclina (Lepidocyclina) yurnagunensis
Cushman; L. (L.) yurnagunensis var. morganopsis Vaughan, n. var.; L.
gigas Cushman; Nullipores. Oligocene.
7544. Yateras River, at rapids, short distance downstream from No. 7548.
Stream gravel. Orbicella imperatoris Vaughan. Miocene (?).
7531. Less than 1 mile west of mouth of Imias River and less than 1 mile
southeast of village of Imias. On south flank of ridge, facing Caribbean Sea.
Altitude, perhaps 400 feet. Limestone below the conglomerate deposits,
dipping 20° S. 20° E. Goniopora sp.; Porites astreoides (Lam.) Goniopora is
Oligocene or Miocene; Porites astreoides is Recent or Pleistocene, probably
surface rubble.
7537. West side of Yacabo River near mouth. One-eighth mile north of south
edge of 500-foot terrace. Altitude perhaps 150 feet. Coral in cave, attached
7
MAY 15, 1933 COOK AND MANSFIELD: NEW MOLLUSK 263
to tilted beds. Dichocoenia stokesi (M. Edw. and H)?; Pecten n. sp. Probably
Pliocene or Pleistocene.
7539. East side of Yateras River near mouth. Altitude near sea level.
Large fossil from drift but apparently belonging to conglomerate. Small fos-
sil apparently in conglomerate ledge. Conglomerate dips 28° N. 30° E.
Maendra labyrinthiformis (Linn.). Recent. Pecten n. sp. This may be Pli-
ocene.
7532. Less than 1 mile west of mouth of Imias River and less than 1 mile
southeast of village of Imias. On south flank of ridge, facing Caribbean Sea.
On 500-foot terrace near base of next higher terrace. Altitude probably be-
tween 400 and 500 feet. Fossils found in the drift. Orbicella cavernosa
(Linn.)?; Orbicella annularis (Ell. and Sol.); Maeandra strigosa (Dana).
Recent or Pleistocene.
7534. On west side of Yacabo River near its mouth. Near edge of 200-foot
terrace. Altitude about 200 feet. Limestone capping the terrace. Dichocoenia
stokest (M. Edw. and H)?; Orbicella annularis (Ell. and Sol.); Orbicella
cavernosa (Linn.)?; Maendra strigosa (Dana). Pliocene or Pleistocene.
7529. Less than 1 mile west of mouth of Imias River and less than 1 mile
southeast of village of Imias. On south flank of ridge, facing Caribbean Sea.
Altitude nearly 200 feet. Terrace limestone, in place at outer edge of 200-foot
terrace. Orbicella annularis (Ell. and Sol.); Maeandra labyrinthiformis
(Linn.); Maeandra strigosa (Dana). Pleistocene.
7525. U. S. Naval Reservation, west side of bay, at Northeast Rear
Beacon. Altitude 125 feet. Fossils from limestone capping the 125-foot ter-
race. Orbicella annularis (Ell. and Sol.); Maeandra sp.; Manicina gyrosa
(Ell. and Sol.) ; Szderastrea siderea (Ell. and Sol.) ; Acropora palmata (Lam.);
Porites astreoides (Lam.). Pleistocene.
Notes: The orbitoidal foraminifera in Nos. 7512, 7513, 7516, 7518, 7519,
7543, 7548, 7552, 7553, and 7554 are all of approximately the same horizon
in the Oligocene. This horizon is represented in Antigua, Jamaica, Cayman
Brac, the State of Vera Cruz in Mexico, and at other localities in the Carib-
bean and Gulf of Mexico regions. No. 7531 is probably, in part at least,
Miocene; Nos. 7537 and 7539 may be Pliocene; Nos. 7532, 7534, 7529, and
7525 are all probably Pleistocene.
PALEONTOLOGY .—A new mollusk from the Chadron formation
(Oligocene) of Nebraska. (1) Occurrence and associations. Har-
OLD J. Coox, Agate, Nebraska. (2) Description. W.C. Mans-
FIELD, U. S. Geological Survey.
(1) OCCURRENCE AND ASSOCIATIONS
In the course of studies along the Cretaceous-Tertiary contact in
northern Sioux and Dawes Counties, Nebraska, the writer, in 1918,
noted a rather richly fossiliferous exposure of the Chadron formation,
the lower part of the White River group, at a locality eight miles
north of Crawford, Nebraska. He has visited the locality many times
1 Received January 17, 1933.
264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 5
since then, and each visit has been rewarded by interesting discover-
ies, including both vertebrate and invertebrate fossils. Descriptions
of some of the new mammals are now in manuscript, but a number of
forms are still unstudied. The mammals so far identified from this
site are as follows:
Carnivora (Creodonta), Hyaenodontidae: Hyaenodon sp. Carnivora
; (Fissipedia), Canidae: Daphaenus cf. D. dodgez Scott, Daphaenus sp., Cyno-
dictis sp. Felidae: Dinictis sp. Rodentia, Leporidae: Palaeolagus sp.
Perissodactylia, Hyracodontidae: Hyracodon sp. Rhinocerotidae: Swb-
hyracodon sp. Equidae: Mesohippus celer Marsh, Mesohippus sp. Ti-
tanotheridae: Megacerops cf. M. dispar Marsh, Menodus sp. Artiodactylia,
Elotheridae: Archaeothertum near A. mortont Leidy, Archaeotherium sp.
Suidae: Perchoerus minor Cook (type locality). Merycoidodontidae: Mery-
coidodon hybridus Leidy, Merycoidodon bullatus Leidy, Merycoidodon sp.
Hypertragulidae: Hypertragulus sp. indesc., Leptomeryx sp. Protocerati-
dae: Gen. et sp. indesc. Camelidae: ?Poebrothertum sp.
The fossils occur in the lower half of the Chadron formation, a few
feet above its contact with the Pierre shale (Upper Cretaceous). In
the immediate vicinity of the exposure only the lower part of the
White River deposits and the uppermost part of the Pierre shale are
exposed. The bedding planes of the units are practically parallel and
both are tilted to the southwest at a low angle.
The Chadron formation is thin in this vicinity, from 40 to 60 feet
in thickness. In the Pine Ridge Escarpment, which runs roughly east
and west near Chadron, Crawford, and Harrison, Nebraska, the
Chadron formation is overlain by about 500 feet of beds constituting
the Brule formation, the upper part of the White River group; and
this group is overlain in turn by the lower Miocene sandstone forma-
tions of the region.
The upper part of the Pierre shale, owing to long exposure before
the deposition of the Chadron, is oxidized to a depth of 10 to 20 feet,
and is rusty in color, though the Pierre is not weathered as deeply
here as it is in South Dakota, where the weathering extends to a depth
of more than 100 feet.
Though the surface of the Pierre was remarkably smooth at the
time the Chadron deposits were laid down and a rather extensive
mantle of coarse siliceous and granitic gravel was deposited at the
contact between the two formations, as noted in a brief report pub-
lished in 1922,? local irregularities did exist and the gravel is not
everywhere present. On the gravels, and directly on the Pierre, where
2 Coox,H.J. Basic Tertic conglomerate of Black Hills. Pan-Am. Geol.37:421—424.1922.
MAY 15, 1933 COOK AND MANSFIELD: NEW MOLLUSK 265
the gravels are absent, lies a deposit of extremely fine grained silty
clay. This clay which is generally 6 to 8 feet thick, is blue-gray to
creamy gray, is very sticky and slippery when wet, and shrinks much
on drying. The swelling and shrinking breaks up and destroys most
of the fossils that occur in this layer and few have therefore been re-
covered. Chalcedony, at places so abundant as to cover the weathered
surface of the beds, is present in the clay, partly as thin veins and old
crack fillings, and partly as nodular masses and geodes.
By detailed studies of the Chadron sediments exposed in a shallow,
rather narrow ravine the margin of an old channel was traced across
the exposure. The margin is not easily seen but, once noted, can be
followed without difficulty. A little coarse material, such as hardened
mud-lumps, a very little gravel, a few bits of fossil driftwood, and
quite a few fossil bones, generally scattered and broken, occur at in-
tervals along the margin of the ancient channel, principally in the
stream sediments. The sides of the channel sloped inward at angles
between 15° and 25°. At the place where the modern ravine is cut the
channel formed a bend. Near the “‘point’’ of this bend the old debris
is most abundant, and here also occur groups of interesting ‘‘calcite
rosette” crystals, a few of which are partly replaced by chalcedony,
or partly encrusted with it. For about 50 feet along the old shore line
and seldom, so far as discovered, more than 6 feet from its margin the
sediments that now fill the old channel contain groups of more or less
isolated mollusks, unlike, and larger than, any which I have ever en-
countered elsewhere in the White River Oligocene. Dr. Mansfield de-
scribes these in part 2 of this paper. The manner of occurrence of these
fossils and the associations suggest that these mollusks lived in the
rather quiet backwater of a sluggish lower Oligocene stream.
The mammalian fossils listed above were found by the writer and
his associates, some in close association with the mollusks and others
short distances away in the same levels. All specifically identifiable
are typical Chadron species. The few fossil mammal remains found in
the bank deposits outside the old stream bed appear, so far as identi-
fiable, to be specifically identical with those of the channel deposits,
and there is undoubtedly no significant difference in their geologic ages.
A short distance to the west, in another exposure, part of a typical
stream-channel deposit is exposed, showing coarse cross-bedded sands
and gravels. Along its margins also are quantities of well silicified
fossil wood and fossil bones. It seems probable that the little lagoon
margin where the mollusks were found was a temporary backwater
along the margin of that old Oligocene stream.
SE SS
266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
Figs. 1-4.—_Lampsilus? chadronensis Mansfield, n. sp. 1. Umbonal area of para-
type enlarged three times to show character of sculpture. Cat. No. 372850, U. S. Nat.
Mus.; 2. Side view of holotype, natural size; 3. Side view of paratype, natural size.
Same specimen as Fig. 1; 4. Dorsal view of holotype, natural size.
=o.
MAY 15, 1933 DRECHSLER: NEMA CAPTURING FUNGI 267
(2) DESCRIPTION®
Lampsilus (?) chadronensis Mansfield, n. sp.
Figs. 1-4.
Cast of moderate size, broadly ovate to trapezoidal in marginal outline,
rather compressed over the medial part of the disk. Anterior margin nar-
rowly rounded; dorsal margin weakly arcuate; ventral margin broadly
rounded; postero-ventral margin slightly produced. Beaks low and situated
about 29 millimeters from the extreme anterior end. Anterior side shorter
than posterior and more evenly descending to the margins. Posterior and
postero-dorsal slopes steeply inclined. Sculpture, as faintly revealed on the
paratype, consists of fine, closely spaced concentric lines on the beaks and
heavier radials on the postero-dorsal slope.
Dimensions.—Holotype (Cat. No. 372849, U.S. N. M.): Length, 88 mm.;
height, 62 mm.; thickness, 29 mm. Paratype (Cat. No. 372850, U.S. N. M.):
Length, 86 mm.; height, 57 mm.; thickness, 28 mm.
Type locality — Eight miles north of Crawford, Dawes County, Nebraska.
Horizon.—Lower Oligocene, Chadron formation.
The selected holotype and paratype are mainly internal casts of the orig-
inal shells and consequently do not show some of the characters. The rough-
ened structure on some parts of the holotype appears to represent the original
shell, which has been changed in part to crystalline calcite or perhaps modi-
fied somewhat by a faintly botryoidal surface of chalcedony.
The composition of the fossil material consists of calcite alone, calcite and
chalcedony, and rarely entirely of chalcedony.
The holotype and paratype are the best preserved of a lot of 14 specimens
(some of which are fragments), which were received for identification from
Harold J. Cook, of the Cook Museum of Natural History, Agate, Nebr. All
the specimens received, except two small, elongate, and poorly preserved
specimens which may belong to another genus, appear to belong to the same
species as here described.
Although the hinge of the described species is not revealed, it is believed
that the specimens possessed teeth, as the valves have slipped little or not
at all from their original position.
Mr. Wm. B. Marshall, of the U. 8. National Museum, who is an authority
on the Unionidae, thinks this pearly fresh water mussel may be related to
the Recent species, Lampsilus carinata Barnes (until recently called L. liga-
mentina Lamarck).
BOTAN Y.—Morphological features of some more fungi that capture
and kill nematodes.1. CHARLES DRECHSLER, Bureau of Plant In-
dustry.
Four additional fungi found capturing and killing nematodes such
as Diploscapter coronatus Cobb, Cephalobus persignis de Man and va-
§ Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.
1 Received April 3, 1933.
268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
rious forms referable to the genera Rhabditis, Diplogaster and Bu-
nonema, show different degrees of morphological similarity to certain
of the nema-capturing fungi noted in an earlier summary.’ Of these
four, one (Fig. 12, A) greatly resembles the fungus therein shown in
Fig. 7, similarly bearing terminally mostly solitary broad fusoid
spores, which are however less regularly 4-septate (Fig. 12, A, c), as
3-septate spores (Fig. 12, A, d), not greatly unlike those typical of
the fungus shown in Fig. 5, often occur abundantly. The somewhat
undecided condition with respect to septation is associated with the
production on the surface of the substratum of apparatus of capture
combining both adhesive knob-cells and hyphal loops, each of which
are found unmixed in the two forms previously figured. In the form
under consideration the two types of organs are less distinctly char-
acterized, the adhesive knob-cell and its stalk being here of approxi-
mately equal diameter and together constituting a stubby two-celled
process. Often such processes are produced in some number at short
rather regular intervals on the same hypha, and at right angles to it,
with the result that when neighboring processes become joined api-
cally by bridging connections, hyphal loops approximately rectangu-
lar in shape result (Fig. 12, B). Further adhesive processes and closed
loops may later be produced repeatedly from the anastomosing ele-
ments to yield an extensive intricate system. Killing of the animals
results from the intrusion of one or more bulbous hyphal outgrowths
following narrow penetration of the integument (Fig. 12, C).
In a fungus bearing terminally in rather open capitate arrangement
l-septate elongated, straight or slightly curved conidia tapering
markedly toward the base (Fig. 13, A), the capture of a nema in an
individual 3-celled intramatrical hyphal loop attached to the parent
filament by a short 2-celled branch (Fig. 13, B), and its being killed
by extreme constriction effected through pronounced swelling of the
loop-cells especially toward the center of the loop (Fig. 13, C), ensues
as in the fungus shown earlier in Fig. 10. Entirely similar organs of
capture (Fig. 14, B) and a similar mode of killing (Fig. 14, C) are
found in a vigorously predacious fungus bearing terminally in loose
capitate arrangement elongated conidia with three septa so placed
that the two middle cells, approximately equal to one another, are
2 This JOURNAL 23: 138-141. 1933. As the present summary constitutes an addi-
tion to the earlier one, the numbering of the figures is made continuous through the
two, so that all citations of figures given herein and bearing numerals less than 12, refer
to illustrations in the earlier paper. Occasion may be taken here also to emend the
opening sentence in the earlier paper by supplying the words ‘‘by various fungi,’’—
these to be interpolated between the words ‘‘destroyed”’ and ‘‘often”’ in the third line
of the text.
a SC UlCt
MAY 15, 1933 DRECHSLER: NEMA CAPTURING FUNGI 269
SCALE-/
O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Figs. 12-15.—Various nema-capturing fungi, each numeral denoting a separate
species, and all species drawn with the aid of the camera lucida at the same magnifica-
tion; 580. A, Conidiophore with conidia of approximately average size, shape and
condition with respect to septation; the conidiophore, because of its length being
shown in several parts, a and 6 indicating corresponding points on these parts; c and
d, spores of alternative septation; e, denuded tip of conidiophore. B, Organs of capture,
consisting either of adhesive processes and loops (in Fig. 12), or (in Figs. 13 and 14)
of constricting loops, the latter arising from vegetative hyphae (in Figs. 13, B and 14,
B, a) or from a spore (in Fig. 14, B, 6). C, Relation of captured animal to fungus, a
and 6 in Fig. 15, representing separate examples, differing in place of attachment and
in respect to presence of external hyphal distension; m, adhesive mucous substance.
D, eek conidia borne on creeping hyphae that have become septate on being
evacuated.
270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
noticeably inferior in length to the two end cells (Fig. 14, A). The
parallelism in predacious habit of these two fungi with the fungus
shown in Fig. 10, is somewhat at variance with expectations suggested
by similarities in the shape of the conidium, through which articula-
tion with the species illustrated earlier in Figs. 3 and 4 would seem
indicated.
In rather moist agar plates a fungus having originally non-septate
mycelium which subsequently on progressive evacuation of contents
becomes often rather abundantly septate, captures nemas in large
numbers, the animal being held fast on the creeping hypha by means
of adhesive material appearing as a thickish sigillate yellowish pad
at the place of contact (Fig. 15, C). A hyphal distension is sometimes
formed outside the animal previous to perforation of the integument
(Fig. 15, C, a), though such modification, when present, rarely ap-
proaches in size the external swelling characteristic of the fungus
earlier shown in Fig. 8. Internally the mycelium shows no marked
differentiation. Of reproductive bodies the fungus has so far produced
only globose conidia mostly intercalary in the creeping hyphae (Fig.
15, D), the entire appearance being that of a species of Pythium.
BOTANY.—A remarkable new Trifolium from Washington. C. V.
Morton, National Museum. (Communicated by WILLIAM R.
Maxon.)
Included in a recent large collection of plants from Chelan County,
Washington, received by the U. S. National Herbarium from Mr.
J. W. Thompson, of Seattle, Washington, is the following remarkably
distinct new species of Trifoliwm. The genus is in need of a revision,
which will combine not only a study of all the available herbarium
material but a thorough ecological investigation as well.
Trifolium thompsoni Morton, sp. nov.
Herba perennans, rhizomatosa, alta (usque ad 6 cm.); caules crassi, fistu-
losi, costati, strigosi; folia infima longe petiolata (usque ad 20 em.), stipulis
inconspicuis; folia caulina breviter petiolata, stipulis perspicuis integris
petiolo adnatis; folia digitata, 7-foliolata, foliolis linearibus, apice setiformi-
bus, margine denticulatis, strigosis; pedunculi longi (usque ad 16 em.);
capitula magna (usque 5 em. lata), exinvolucrata; pedicelli breves, patentes
vel leviter recurvi; vexillum ovale, liberum, marcescens, usque ad 22 mm.
longum, non unguiculatum, apice rotundatum, mucronatum; alae longe un-
guiculatae, tubo staminum adnatae; carina unguiculata, tubo staminum
adnata; stylus uncinatus; ovarium compressum, glabrum, carina dorsali
excepta; semen compressum, laeve, glabrum.
Perennial herb about 60 cm. high, spreading by means of large horizontal
1 Received March 20, 1933.
MAY 15, 1933 MORTON: NEW TRIFOLIUM 271
rhizomes; stems thick, about 4 mm. in diameter, fistulous, prominently
ribbed, closely strigose (especially in the intervals), the hairs long, white,
antrorse; lower leaves long-petiolate, the petiole up to 20 cm. long, about
1.5 mm. in diameter, slightly canaliculate above, white-strigose, conspicu-
ously sheathing at base, the stipules adnate to the petiole for about 4 cm.,
inconspicuous, with a very short free portion; upper leaves short-petiolate,
the petiole about 1.5 em. long, the stipules very large, adnate to the petiole
for about 1 cm., with a winglike, entire, free portion about 1 cm. long; leaf
blades digitately 7-foliolate, the leaflets linear, the central up to 7 cm. long
and 5 mm. wide, the lateral smaller, ail regularly but remotely denticulate,
setiform at apex, thinly strigose on both surfaces; peduncles terminal, soli-
tary, up to 16 cm. long, similar to the stems; flower heads globose, very
large (4 to 5 cm. in diameter), many-flowered, without an involucre; pedicels
short (about 1.5 mm. long), spreading or slightly recurved (not reflexed),
densely white-pubescent; calyx tube campanulate, oblique, about 4 mm.
long, white-strigose, with very unequal setiform lobes, these all somewhat
bent outward, the lower 10 mm. long, the lateral and upper about 7 mm.
long; corolla standard free, marcescent, 20 to 22 mm. long, about 1 cm. wide,
oval, concave, sharply keeled on the back, broad at base, not at all clawed,
rounded and mucronate at apex, entire, glabrous; corolla wings about 17
mm. long, the claws long (about 1 em.), adnate below to the staminal tube,
the body elliptic, about 7 mm. long, 2.5 mm. wide, acute at apex, bearing a
small spur at the adaxial base; corolla keel about 16 mm. long, the claws free
above, more or less adnate below to the staminal tube, about 1 cm. long,
the body semioval, about 2.5 mm. wide; stamens connate into a sheath about
1 em. long, the free uniform filaments variable in length, about 3 mm. long,
the anthers small, about 0.75 mm. long; style about 1 cm. long, uncinate,
glabrous; ovary included in the standard, about 7 mm. long, lenticular,
much flattened, almost straight ventrally, semi-annular dorsally, glabrous
except along the dorsal ridge, about 3-ovulate, only 1 seed developing; seed
reddish-yellow, much flattened, more or less square in outline, about 2.5 mm.
long, the testa smooth, glabrous.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,566,403, collected in dry
places (sagebrush slopes) near the mouth of Swakane Creek, Chelan County,
Washington, June 23, 1932, by J. W. Thompson (no. 8467). A duplicate is
in Mr. Thompson’s private herbarium.
The present species is one of the most remarkable plants discovered in the
United States in recent years, and it gives me great pleasure to name it for
Mr. J. William Thompson, whose industry and enthusiasm in botanical col-
lecting have added so much to our knowledge of the flora of Washington.
In height, in length of petiole, in size of the 7 leaflets, and in its very large
flower heads and individual flowers, Trifolium thompsoni is without a rival
in the genus. It seems, indeed, peculiar that such a large and conspicuous
plant could have escaped the attention of previous collectors. Inasmuch as
it is apparently not closely related to any other species, either native or
exotic, it may be referred to the following new section:
TRIFOLIUM, Sect. Thompsoniana. Herbae perennantes, rhizomatosae, altae ;
folia longe petiolata, 7-foliolata, foliolis linearibus, strigosis; pedunculi longi;
capitula magna, exinvolucrata; flores pedicellati, omnibus partibus magnis.
Type species: Trifolium thompsoni Morton.
272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Prepared by Science Service
Nores
American Chemical Society—The American Chemical Society held its
spring meeting in Washington, March 27 to 31, with a registered attendance
of 2,293. Approximately 500 papers were listed on the program, of which a
considerable number were presented by Washington chemists.
A special feature of the meeting was the observance of the second cen-
tenary of the birth of Dr. Joseph Priestley.
Prominent place on the program was given to a group of four general ad-
dresses delivered Monday afternoon, March 27. These were: Relation of
chemistry to the state, by Harry L. Drersy of the American Cyanamide and
Chemical Corporation, New York City; Relation of chemistry to the ondind-
ual, by CHARLES F. KerrreriIne, Dayton, Ohio; Relation of chemistry to other
industry, by Dr. C. M. A. Strnu of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, »
Wilmington, Del.; and Chemistry—Its interrelations with other sciences, by
Prof. HucuH 8. Taytor of Princeton University.
At the general meeting on Wednesday evening, March 29, Dr. IrRvING
LanGcmuIRr of the General Electric Company, Nobel laureate in chemistry,
gave an illustrated address on Surface chemistry, which was followed by a
concert by the Washington Symphony Orchestra.
The last day of the meeting, Friday, March 31, was spent at the Edge-
wood Arsenal, where the members were given an opportunity to inspect the
laboratories and the manufacturing plants, and to witness a demonstration
of various weapons of chemical warfare.
Southern Society for Philosophy and Psychology.—A case of complete color-
blindness in a young man, 23, to whom all colors appear merely as varying
shades of gray was reported to the meeting of the Southern Society for Phi-
losophy and Psychology by Dr. Franx A. GELDARD, of the University of
Virginia. Although partial colorblindness, particularly for red-green, is
fairly common, this complete lack of ability to distinguish colors is extremely
rare, only ten cases having been previously reported in this country. Associ-
ated with the colorblindness is an acuity of vision only one-tenth of normal,
extreme shortsightedness, and nystagmus presumably to avoid a partially
blind fovea, the point that gives clearest vision in the normal eye. Even
moderate brightness of illumination dazzles the eyes of this man and pro-
duces temporary blindness; crossing the street on a bright day is a dangerous
adventure.
The meeting learned from W. C. Brasuey, The Johns Hopkins University,
that infants are not blind during their first few weeks of life. On the contrary
they are able to fixate with both eyes during the first five to eight days and
can follow an object visually during the first ten days.
The possibility of using motor ability tests as an aid to the diagnosis of
different types of deafness was suggested by a paper by Dr. JosepH E.
Morsu, of the Columbia Institution for the Deaf, who has been experi-
menting along this line with tests of tapping, steadiness, balancing, and
eye-hand coordination. The fact that the deaf are superior on speed of the
hand in tapping may point to vocational possibilities.
MAY 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 2713
George Washington University School of Medicine.—The fifth lecture to the
faculty and students of the School of Medicine, The George Washington
University, in the Smith-Reed-Russell Society series was given on March 16
by Dr. Maurice C. Hatt, Chief of the Zoological Division, Bureau of Ani-
mal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. Dr. Hall’s subject
was Drama Anthelmintica. The April lecture was by Dr. Wiuturam H. How-
ELL, Chairman of the Medical Division, National Research Council. Dr.
Howell spoke on the Recollections of a physiologist during the past half century.
Faculty seminars for March have been by Professor CHARLES S. WHITE
of the Department of Surgery, on Chronic peptic ulcer in childhood; and by
Professor GrorcE B. Rotu of the Department of Pharmacology, on The
arsphenamines; Their nature and behavior.
Catholic Anthropological Conference.—The eighth annual meeting of the
Catholic Anthropological Conference was held at the Catholic University
of America on Tuesday, April 18. Papers were contributed by Miss RreGina
FLANNERY, the Very Rev. Max HaAARPAINTNER, P.S.M., Dr. TRUMAN
MiIcHELSON of the Smithsonian Institution, and the Rev. Joun M. Cooper.
There was also a general discussion on The child in primitive culture.
Interest in aquiculture —As an aid in stimulating interest in fisheries, bi-
ology and aquiculture, members of the staff of the Bureau of Fisheries dis-
cussed various aspects of the subject in a series of lectures presented at the
University of Maryland during March. These lectures were as follows: Dr.
Lewis RapdcuiFrre, Biological relations of land and marine farming; R. H.
FIEDLER, The commercial fisheries, their scope, development, and present value;
ELMER Hiaerns, Fishery science, its development, problems, and applications;
Dr. H. 8. Davis, Aquiculture as applied to fresh water food and game fishes;
Dr. P. 8. Gaursorr, Aquiculture as applied to marine food animals; JOHN R.
MANNING, Technology of the fisheries and utilization of fishery products.
Polar Year sounding-balloon observations.—Since August, 1932, the begin-
ning of the second International Polar Year, to the end of March, 1933, the
U. 8S. Weather Bureau has released 143 sounding balloons with meteoro-
graphs attached. Of these, 100 of the meteorographs have been found and
returned. In nearly every case the balloon reached the stratosphere and fre-
quently rose a considerable distance above its base. Of the records which
have thus far been computed the maximum height reached was found to be
26 kilometers. The height of the base of the stratosphere varied according to
location of the station and season of the year, the range being 8 to 16
kilometers. The distance travelled by these instruments varies from a few
miles to several hundred miles, depending upon the wind conditions. A card
is attached requesting the finder to forward it to the Weather Bureau Office
where it was released, for which service a payment of $5.00 is made.
Occasionally the instruments are found under queer circumstances, one
such being recently reported from the Dallas station. The instrument had
fallen into a tree near Prescott, Ark., and was discovered by a negro who
heard the clock ticking. This frightened him so that he ran half a mile to his
home to get his shotgun, with the intention of returning and eliminating the
mysterious and possibly Satanic visitor. A white man, however, persuaded
him to modify his plans, so that the instrument and record were saved from
destruction.
National Zoological Park.—The most important ‘new arrival’’ news from
the National Zoological Park in a long time is the announcement of the
274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
birth, during March, of two male jaguar cubs. This is the first time that
jaguars have been bred in the Zoo. Dr. Witu1am M. Mann, director, states
that they are much more difficult to rear than leopards or some of the other
cats, so that these are regarded as exceedingly valuable specimens.
Another event of unusual interest was the laying of a clutch of eggs by
one of the Surinam toads in the Reptile House. However, the female shed
most of them after they had been fixed upon her back; presumably they were
infertile. Nevertheless the laying of any eggs by a Surinam toad in captivity
is an exceedingly rare event, and worth recording.
News BrIiErFrs
There was a meeting of the Fellows of the Textile Foundation on the
morning of April 19, Wednesday, at the National Bureau of Standards.
They visited the textile section’s laboratories and other laboratories of the
Bureau.
The first large shipment of parrots in nearly a year—40 gray parrots from
West Africa—arrived at New York City on February 24, reports the Bureau
of Biological Survey. Another shipment containing 90 parrots and also 10
macaws arrived from Nicaragua on March 6.
To the list of historic spots and natural wonders now under public ad-
ministration as national monuments, has been added the Saguaro National
Monument in Arizona, the United States Department of Agriculture has
announced. The new monument was designated in order to preserve for
posterity a representative stand of desert flora, including especially the
Saguaro or Giant Cactus.
Announcement has been made of the formal designation and approval
of the Maroon-Snowmass Primitive Area, by Chief Forester R, Y. Stuart.
This area is located within the Holy Cross National Forest, Colorado, west
and south of Aspen, on the headwaters of Castle, Conundrum, Maroon, and
Snowmass Creeks, all of which are tributaries of the Roaring Fork.
The curious vocal technique of ‘“‘word swallowing” by singers has been
discovered in two widely separated Indian tribes by two Bureau of Ethnol-
ogy investigators. Miss FRancrs DENSMoRE found it among the Seminoles,
and M. W. Stiruine observed it during his recent sojourn with the Jivaros
in Bolivia. Miss Densmore has also found that Choctaw Indians in Missis-
sippi sing their dance songs without accompaniment of rattle or drum, a
culture trait which they share with the geographically remote Tule of
Panama.
The so-called Kansas-Nebraska horse disease has an insect vector, Aedes
egypti, the same mosquito that spreads yellow fever. This has been demon-
strated by experiments performed under the direction of Major R. A. KEL-
SER of the Veterinary Laboratory Division of the U. 8S. Army Medical
School.
An all-time low in smallpox incidence in the United States has been re-
ported by the U. 8. Public Health Service. During 1932, 11,168 cases were
reported. As recently as 1930, there were 48,907 cases. There are indications
that the low rate for this disease will be continued in the current year.
MAY 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 279
A new international flag code, for signalling between ships at sea, will be
adopted by all maritime nations on January 1, 1934, the U. S. Hydrographic
Office has announced. The new code irons out confusing differences that have
hitherto existed.
A sensitive test for the detection of barbituric acid compounds, widely
used in some of the newer hypnotic drugs, has. been developed by Dr.
THEODORE Koppanyl, Dr.. Wittiam 8. Murpuy and SterpHen Krop of
Georgetown University School of Medicine. Inasmuch as overdoses of
barbital drugs, intentional or accidental, sometimes result seriously, the new
test is expected to be of considerable clinical value.
A promising method of producing three-color photographs, involving the
use of superimposed sheets of sensitized cellophane, has been developed by
R. M. Reeve of the U. 8. Army Medical Museum.
PERSONAL ITEMS
Dr. Lyman J. Briacas has been nominated as director of the National
Bureau of Standards by President Roosevelt This action continues the tra-
dition that leadership in Government svientific work goes to scientists
brought up in the service, on a strictly non-political basis. This has received
emphasis in two ways: in sending up Dr. Briggs’ appointment, President
Roosevelt was repeating an appointment made by his Republican predeces-
sor in office but not confirmed by the “‘lame-duck” Senate; furthermore,
when questioned by a newspaperman, the President stated that he did not
even know to what party Dr. Briggs belonged.
Dr. Grorce W. Finvp, of Washington, delivered a lecture at the U. 8.
National Museum on March 21, under the auspices of the Department of
Agriculture Graduate School. His subject was: A conversation on conserva-
tuon—W hat is conservation?
Dr. Witiiam E. Ritter, co-founder and honorary president of Science
Service, has been awarded the degree LL.D. honoris causa by the University
of California.
In connection with President Roosevelt’s plan for the relief of unemploy-
ment, the Secretary of the Interior has appointed Director Horacr M.
ALBRIGHT of the National Park Service to represent the Interior Depart-
ment on the Advisory Council to the Director of Emergency Conservation
Work. Fire Control Expert Jonn D. Corrman and Chief Engineer FRANK
KITTREDGE have been called to Washington to assist Director Albright in
this work and to handle the details of the conservation program developed
for the national parks and monuments as well as for contact with the co-
operating agencies under the program.
Mr. W. G. CaMpsBeELi, Chief of Food and Drug Administration, U. 8.
Department of Agriculture, addressed a meeting of the faculty of the Phila-
delphia College of Pharmacy and Science on the evening of April 4. Mr.
Campbell considered the subject of the desirability of giving the Secretary
of Agriculture more authority over certain standards and requirements for
drug products as outlined in the United States Pharmacopoeia.
Prof. L. VEGARD, of the Physical Institute, University of Oslo, well known
for his researches on the aurora, particularly on the auroral spectrum, ar-
276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 5
rived in Washington on April 22. He is to present a paper before the Section
of Meteorology of the American Geophysical Union on April 27. He plans
later to visit various research institutions in this country and will give
several lectures during his tour.
Dr. THomas VERNER Moors, of the Catholic University of America, de-
livered a course of lectures on psychiatry and psychoanalysis during March
and April, before Washington audiences.
Major Lron A. Fox, M.C., U. 8. Army, discussed the possibilities of
bacterial warfare in the March issue of The Military Surgeon. He concluded
that “it is highly questionable if biologic agents are suited for warfare. Cer-
tainly at the present time practically insurmountable technical difficulties
prevent the use of biologic agents as effective weapons of warfare.”
Dr. H. C. Dicxtnson, chief of the heat and power division of the Bureau
of Standards and president of the Society of Automotive Engineers, left
Washington on April 1 to visit the eleven local sections of the Society. His
itinerary covered cities from Indianapolis to Seattle, Washington.
FREDERICK C. LIncoun, of the Bureau of Biological Survey, on February
11 spoke on Waterfowl problems revealed by banding operations at the Fifth
Annual New England Game Conference, held in Boston, Mass. Mr. Lincoln
discussed the loss of waterfowl due to shooting and also the difficulty of re-
stocking our waterfowl marshes with hand-reared mallards. Studies of data
obtained by banding these birds, he said, show that few are subsequently
recovered, indicating that there must be considerable loss from unknown
causes.
Dr. MreaprE FrEerRGusoN, of the Virginia State Department of Agriculture
and Immigration, and Dr. P. P. Levine, of the New York State Conserva-
tion Department, were recently appointed collaborators of the Bureau of
Biological Survey in wild-life disease investigations.
Dr. P.S. Gaursorr, U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, spoke on Factors controlling
the reproduction of organisms in the sea, before an audience of graduate stu-
dents and faculty members at Yale University, February 9.
Septicemia, in spite of the general impression to the contrary, is an impor-
tant and relatively frequent cause of morbidity and mortality in the new-
born, according to a report Septicemia in the new born prepared by Dr. ETHEL
C. DunuaM, of the Children’s Bureau ot the U. 8. Department of Labor, for
the American Journal of Diseases of Children.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS
The Philosophical Society announces a program on May 20 by the Met-
allurgical Division of the Bureau of Standards on Studies of single metal
crystals and Metals of high purity.
ee
Santee Y=
PS eae
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JOURNAL
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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
WoL. 23 JUNE 15, 1933 | No. 6
PHYSICS.—Aigh voltage. Karu T. Compton, Massachusetts In-
stitute of Technology. (Communicated by H. L. Curtis.)
While there is much truth in the statement that necessity is the
mother of invention, it has often been pointed out that it is far from
true that necessity is the mother of discovery. Discoveries come often
most unexpectedly, in the pursuit of knowledge by the curious and
observant. The great background of natural phenomena which have
thus been discovered form an immense reservoir from which may be
drawn natural laws or combinations of phenomena which can be made
to work for the solution of men’s needs or desires when necessity
arises.
One of the most excellent examples of the fact that necessity is the
mother of invention is found in the great number of applications of
science which were made during the past war to cope with situations
which never before had challenged the ingenuity of man. Such situ-
ations were the detection and location of submarines or of airplanes
flying by night. There were also the location of underground mining
operations or of enemy artillery by sound, or the direction of counter-
battery artillery fire, also by sound. Such examples could be multi-
plied almost indefinitely, but the interesting feature of them all is
that every one was handled by the application of some scientific phe-
nomenon which had been known in the laboratory for many years.
The necessities of war brought forth the means of applying these
phenomena for particular purposes.
It is to a very recent example of this natural sequence of events
that I will call your attention tonight, an example taken from the
field of electricity, the chosen field of Joseph Henry in whose honor
1 The third Joseph Henry lecture delivered before the Philosophical Society of
Washington on March 11, 1933. Received April 6, 1933.
277
JUN 16 I33
278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
this lecture has been named. It is a modern application of one of the
oldest branches of electricity, a branch so old that some ultramodern
textbook writers have advocated omitting it entirely from textbooks
on account of the academic and impractical character of its subject
matter. But let me first lay the groundwork for this new development
in the field of high-voltage electricity.
While electricity can be produced in a variety of ways, and it was
some time in the history of the subject before it was realized that the
electricity was the same kind of thing in all of these cases, neverthe-
less there are but three principal means of generating electricity. The
first is static electricity, first discovered by Thales of Miletus as early
as 600 B.c. Thales found that amber, when rubbed against other sub-
stances, had the power of attracting fragments of straw or leaves or
feathers. In fact the word electricity is derived from the Greek word
electrum meaning amber, and was first so used by William Gilbert in
about 1600.
The second great step in the production of electricity was the inven-
tion by Volta of the Voltaic cell in 1799, and from that time until the
time of Faraday in 1831, the great development of electricity was in
the production of batteries of various kinds. Volta was able to gen-
erate several hundred volts by piling up alternate layers of copper and
zinc, separated by paper which had been moistened with acid thus
creating, in effect, a battery with a large number of cells in series.
When in 1831 Faraday made the discovery of electromagnetic in-
duction and about the same time Joseph Henry discovered self-
induction and independently repeated a number of Faraday’s
discoveries in mutual induction, the modern science of electricity
and art of electrical engineering were born.
It is a striking fact, which perhaps we do not stop to think about,
that this so-called electrical age has grown up during a period of one
working lifetime, since men like Elihu Thomson are still living and
men like Edison have just died, who built upon these scientific dis-
coveries of Faraday and of Henry the modern art of electrical engi-
neering.
With the development of electro-magnetic devices, dynamos, mo-
tors and transformers, the use of batteries except for very special
cases has largely been discontinued. Static electricity, which had
been developed from the study of frictional charges and charges of
conductors by induction, was relegated almost to the field of scientific
but useless curiosities. The efficiency of electromagnetic generating
apparatus has been developed to a remarkable degree, so that, for the
JUNE 15, 1933 COMPTON: HIGH VOLTAGE 279
practical purposes of our industrial needs and our home needs, the mod-
ern science of electricity has appeared to be eminently satisfactory.
It is true that there have been some other new developments of
first importance in the electrical field, notably electronic devices, such
as radio tube detectors, amplifiers and transmitters or devices which
operate with ionization of gases, such as the mercury-are rectifier and
the glow discharge tube. These things, however, are more in the na-
ture of electrical instruments or electrical control devices and it still
remains true that the production and distribution of electricity are
basically carried on by means of the electro-magnetic induction de-
vices developed from the work of Faraday and Henry.
Let us first follow the development of high voltage by electro-
magnetic induction. In this as in all other fields the first developments
were crude, as was necessarily the case because instruments and meth-
ods had not been developed and everything had to be taken up de
novo. When Joseph Henry wished to build his great magnet with sev-
eral coils of wire, he had first to invent insulated wire, which he did
by wrapping strips of his wife’s dresses and petticoats with shellac
around the wire. When Henry wished to measure the voltage of the
current produced in a step-up transformer, he had no ammeter or
voltmeter capable of detecting the small current at high voltage and
had to substitute for them the students in his class, judging the volt-
age by the number of students who could be shocked when connected
hand to hand in series across the terminals of the secondary of his
transformer. Thus a voltage that would shock thirty students he es-
timated to be twice as high as one which would shock fifteen students,
and in this way he was able to arrive at a very crude but correct idea
of the relationship between the number of turns of wire in the sec-
ondary of a transformer and the voltage which was produced therein.
The story is told of a striking lecture demonstration given by
Henry while at Princeton. He hung a secondary coil of a large number
of turns of wire on the inside wall of his classroom and had the stu-
dents of his class join hands in series across the terminal of the coil.
The primary coil of this transformer was concealed from the students,
being suspended on the outer wall of the building from wires passing
out through an attic window and connected with a large Voltaic bat-
tery in the attic. When Henry rapped against the wall his assistant
in the attic plunged the copper and zine battery plates into the acid,
thus sending a current through the primary, which induced a high
voltage in the secondary and shocked the students of his class.
It is probable that Henry, burdened as he was with administrative
280 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
duties and the difficulties of finding the means wherewith to carry on
his experiments did not realize so clearly as did his contemporary,
Faraday, the ultimate practical value of these things which he was
doing. Faraday, when once asked by the King, ‘‘What is the use of
these things?” replied, ““Your Majesty, of what use is a baby?” And
another time when he was asked by the Prime Minister this same
question, ‘‘Of what use are these things which you are doing?” he
replied, ‘“Your Excellency, some day you may be able to tax these
things.’’ Henry, however, was so wrapped up in his scientific pursuits
that he gave little thought to the possible practical application of his
work. It is said that when he was once urged to press his claim as
inventor of the telegraph and other instruments, he replied that there
were far too many interesting things to be done in the laboratory to
permit him to take time with such matters.
There has been a practical urge for the development of high voltage
power from three different points of view. The first and most impor-
tant of these is for the transmission of electric power over large dis-
tances. It is much more economical to transmit power at high voltage
and small current than at low voltage with large current because the
resistance losses depend upon the current and not the voltage. For
this reason, the voltage of high power transmission lines has continu-
ally risen from first a few hundred volts, then a few thousand, not
many years ago sixty thousand, and now upwards of two hundred
thousand volts. The losses of power due to heating of the wire from
the flow of current are such that, according to a practical rule, it is
not economical to transmit electrical power farther than one mile for
every thousand volts. From this we see that a modern two hundred
thousand volt transmission line could be economically used to trans-
fer power from the power generating station to distances of about
two hundred miles but beyond these distances such transmission of
power is not economical. For that reason, in any area requiring the
use of electricity, power generating stations must be located at dis-
tances of not more than two hundred miles from each other.
The question may be asked as to why the voltage is not raised still
higher than two hundred thousand volts, and the answer to this is
found in the fact that with higher voltages the electric field in the air
surrounding the wire becomes so intense as to ionize the air, causing
a leakage of electricity from the wire into the air in the form of an
electric discharge known as a corona. It is this phenomenon of corona
which sets the practical upper limit to the voltage which can be used
for transmission.
—eE————— a Oe eee
JUNE 15, 1933 COMPTON: HIGH VOLTAGE 281
It is not feasible to generate directly voltages in the range of several
hundred thousand volts because the difficulty of insulation becomes
too great, and an electric dynamo with insulation adequate to with-
stand even several thousand volts would have to be so large, to in-
clude the necessary insulation, as to be unwieldy and inefficient.
Consequently, the power is generated at relatively low voltage, usually
a few hundred volts in alternating current and this is sent through a
step-up transformer insulated in oil in which the secondary has a
hundred or a thousand times more turns of wire than the primary. In
this secondary coil the very high voltage is generated for transmission
over the power lines. Then at the other end of the line the power
is fed through a similar transformer in the reverse order and comes out
of that secondary as a very large current at relatively small voltage.
There has been no really fundamental difficulty to be overcome in
these power transmission lines, although there have been very many
interesting problems of science and engineering to be solved. The
proper design of a transformer to be efficient and to be sufficiently
well insulated is one problem. Perhaps the most difficult problem has
been that of proper switching devices so that these high-voltage cur-
rents can be started and stopped without excessive arcing at the
switches. It is such developments as these which have made the great
generating stations at Niagara Falls and the many other hydro-
electric or steam-electric generating stations such an important
feature in our present industrial life.
The second thing which has stimulated high voltage developments
of the electro-magnetic type has been the x-ray. For ordinary pur-
poses, from thirty thousand to one hundred thousand volts are ade-
quate for either diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. Of recent years,
however, in the endeavor to find the most effective methods of treat-
ing internal cancerous growth there has been an increasing desire to
go to much higher voltages and consequently x-ray tubes operating
on as much as a million volts have been developed at the General
Electric Company, at the California Institute of Technology, and
elsewhere.
To generate the high voltage power for these x-ray tubes, recourse
has been had to transformers connected in series, the primary of one
transformer being connected with the secondary of the other, and
all transformers after the first being insulated. By such means, large
power can be delivered and high voltages obtained, although a million
volts appears to be about the practical limit because there are para-
sitic currents known as charging currents which drain a great deal of
282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
energy uselessly from the system when an alternating or varying
current is used at such high voltages. Furthermore, the equipment
becomes tremendously expensive on account of the requirements for
insulation.
The third thing which has led to high voltage developments of the
electro-magnetic induction type has been the study of the effect of
lightning on transmission lines and the desire of electrical engineers
to duplicate as nearly as possible the effect of lightning by means of
high-voltage sources for laboratory study. For this purpose there has
been developed the impulse generator, in which a series of condensers
capable of storing electric charge at high voltage are charged in parallel
from a high-voltage transformer and are then connected in series so
that the overall voltage which is delivered is the sum of the voltages
across the separate condensers. By such means impulsive or momen-
tary voltages of ten or fifteen million volts have been obtained. These
are exactly right for studying transient effects like those of lightning,
but the impulse generator is inherently incapable of serving properly
any purpose which requires a steady and reasonably constant source
of high voltage. The discharge in this impulse generator lasts only a
few hundred thousandths or millionths of a second.
This impulse generator represents the peak of high voltage accom-
plishment by the electro-magnetic method and you will notice that
this is accomplished by combining with the electro-magnetic device,
namely the step-up transformer, a series of condensers which are es-
sentially electro-static instruments.
Let us return now from the high-voltage developments, based on
principles of electro-magnetism, to the historically earlier type of
electric generation which falls within the general field known as elec-
tro-statics. The characteristic of these devices has been the relative
ease of producing high voltages, but with an exceedingly minute
quantity of electricity.
The first electrical machines of which we have any knowledge were
frictional electrical machines constructed about 1663 by Otto von
Guricke. They consisted of globes of sulphur made to rotate about an
axis so as to rub against the hands of persons held against them. In
this way the globe of sulphur became electrically charged and the
charge of the opposite sign appeared on the person who touched the
globe. Isaac Newton appears to have been the first person to use a
glass globe instead of sulphur, but it was Ramsden in 1768 who really
constructed the first object which might really be called an electrical
generating machine.
ae ee ee
JUNE 15, 1933 COMPTON: HIGH VOLTAGE 283
The Ramsden machine consists of a glass plate which can be rotated
by a winch, and which passes with rubbing contact between two
leather pads. By friction the glass becomes positively charged and
the pads negatively charged. These positive charges are taken off the
glass disk as it passes in rotation between combs of sharp points.
Similarly the negative electricity from the pads is collected from
them and delivered to another terminal. For a number of years the
only development of the art of electrical generation consisted in find-
ing various materials which might be put on the glass or on the leather
pads to increase their effectiveness in separating frictional electricity.
A later development of a frictional machine is that invented by
Lord Armstrong of Newcastle, England, in 1841. Lord Armstrong
was experimenting with steam boilers. By accident one of his assist-
ants received an electric shock when he touched a piece of metal
against which a jet of steam from a leaky boiler was striking. This led
Lord Armstrong to further experiments leading to the steam electro-
static generator. The action of this generator consisted in blowing
drops of condensed steam, by the steam pressure, out through a series
of nozzles against a neighboring metal plate. The droplets of water
were charged by frictional contact against the walls of the nozzles.
The electrical power was created by the work done in moving the
charged droplets against the electric field which developed between
the nozzle and the plate on which the droplets struck, and of course
this power was in turn derived from the driving power of the steam
which carried the droplets out and away from the nozzle.
Another whole series of electro-static generators was built upon the
principle of electro-static induction. Perhaps the simplest of these was
the Belli doubler, which was devised in 1831 and operated on the
same principle as a later device designed by Lord Kelvin and better
known as the Kelvin Replenisher, described by him in 1872. This ac-
tion is shown schematically in Fig. 1. When the rotating member with
the insulated plates HE and F is at the position shown, positive and
negative charges are separated from the connecting wire, which
brushes lightly against HE’ and F, by means of the electro-static forces
arising from the charges on the neighboring metal armatures C and D.
As the rotating arm turns and breaks contact with these brushes the
charges are carried on EH and F and, when they touch the springs C
and D respectively, these charges are communicated to the arma-
tures, thus increasing the charge already existing on these armatures.
Then at the next contact with the brushes at # and F the process is
repeated. Consequently the charge on the armatures continually
284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
builds up until it reaches such magnitude, or rather until the voltage
rises so high that the charge leaks away as fast as it is produced,
leaking away either through the insulation or by a corona discharge
produced by breakdown of the surrounding air.
A large variety of instruments, some simple and some very compli-
cated, have been developed to carry on the idea of the Belli doubler
in a more efficient manner. Such devices were devised by Varley in
1860, by Toepler in 1865 and by Holtz between 1864 and 1880, but
by far the most successful of these devices is the well-known Wims-
hurst machine which was first invented in about 1878. This machine
is well-known to everybody, I think, as the ‘“‘influence machine”’
whose action may be described as follows:
Figure 1.—Schematic diagram of Kelvin Replenisher.
Imagine that, in some way or other such as by friction, a small
negative charge is located on the metal sector of the rotating disk
opposite the point C of Fig. 2. This negative charge will induce the
separation of positive and negative electricity in the metal rod CD,
drawing positive charge to the point C and forcing negative charge to
the point D. At these two points the charges are collected on the
metal sectors of the second glass disk which is rotating in the opposite
direction. Thus all the metal sectors to the right of C carry positive
charge collected from C and they all deliver it to the sharp needle
point at F.
At the same time, these positive charges on the metal sectors to
the right of C will similarly induce negative charges in the metal rod
AB, which charges will be deposited on the metal sector to the left
ee ee a ee ey)
JUNE 15, 1933 COMPTON: HIGH VOLTAGE 285
of A and will in their turn be collected by the sharp point at H. Thus
the process is a continuous one, # and F collecting negative and posi-
tive electricity, respectively, from the metal sectors on both of the
revolving disks. By having a multiplicity of revolving disks these
Wimshurst machines may be made to deliver a considerable amount
Figure 2.—Schematic diagram of Wimshurst influence machine.
of power and were in fact at one time quite largely used in the x-ray
art until they were supplanted by the more powerful and much more
convenient electro-magnetic induction devices described previously,
including step-up transformers, induction coils and the like.
One of the most ingenious types of electrostatic induction machines
is the famous Kelvin water-dropper which is shown in Fig. 3. Here
286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
perhaps more easily than in any of the other induction machines can
be seen the way in which a small charge once produced may result
in the continual building up of an indefinitely large charge, if the
arrangement of apparatus and connections are suitably arranged.
Assume for a moment that for some cause, such as friction of the
wind or anything else, there happens to be a small charge on the
cylinder A Every drop of water leaving the outlet in A will therefore
carry a small induced negative charge which will be delivered to the
cup below thus raising the cylinder at B to a negative charge. All of
Figure 3.—The Kelvin water-dropper.
the drops of water which come from the outlet inside of B will there-
fore carry the positive charges which will be collected in the trap be-
low and serve still further to increase the positive charge on A. So
the process goes on, the charges building up until through leakage or
through a corona discharge to the air, they leak away as fast as pro-
duced.
At this point I am minded to make a confession regarding my first
experiment in physics. I conceived the idea of producing electrolysis
by the use of gravitational energy alone, and set up a device some-
JUNE 15, 1933 COMPTON: HIGH VOLTAGE 287
what similar to the Kelvin water-dropper. My device consisted of
drops of copper sulphate coming from an outlet like that in the cylin-
der A and falling into a platinum funnel like that directly below A.
I charged the cylinder A with a large negative charge from a static
machine and this charge remained on the cylinder, which was well
insulated. Consequently, every drop of copper sulphate which dropped
carried an induced positive charge and delivered it to the funnel 6
which was earthed. This excess positive charge would of course be in
the form of copper ions which would be deposited on the platinum in
the process of neutralization of the drop. After running the apparatus
for an hour or so, I looked at the platinum cylinder to see whether I
could see any copper deposited on its inside and finding none I set the
apparatus going in the late afternoon and let it run automatically
until the following morning. Again examining the funnel, I found no
deposit of copper and, somewhat surprised, I sat down to figure. I
soon discovered that the copper would be present in far too small a
quantity to detect. In fact, if every drop were charged with the
largest amount of electricity which it could carry without losing it
by corona to the surrounding air, and if the drops had fallen as fast
as possible beginning with the time of Christ, I would by this time
have collected barely enough copper to be shown by the most sensitive
known chemical test. This little experience illustrates the vast dif-
ference in magnitude between the kind of currents that we are accus-
tomed to deal with in electromagnetic induction devices, dynamos and
motors, and these relatively very feeble currents of electrostatics.
These drops were charged with high electrostatic voltage and the
device was a fairly efficient electrostatic generator, and yet two
thousand years would have been required to deposit an amount of
copper such as would appear in a fraction of a second with only a
moderate current of the type which we ordinarily use in electromag-
netic instruments.
In recent years an interesting development of the Kelvin water-
dropper has been proposed by Doctor Swann of the Bartol Research
Laboratory in which the water drops are replaced by steel balls which
fall under the action of gravity, and in order to make the process
continuous, there is the suggestion whereby these balls may be car-
ried back again to the upper container by means of magnetic control.
In this way, the succession of falling balls behaves somewhat like a
continuous belt containing metal sections separated by insulated re-
gions of air and driven by gravity. In the absence of leakage this kind
of a generator should be capable of developing such a high voltage
288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
that the electrostatic attraction of the falling balls would just com-
pensate gravity. This would be an extremely high voltage such as
could be obtained only if the apparatus were operating in a vacuum,
and in fact Dr. Swann suggests that 1t may be operated in this man-
ner.
With this historic survey of electrostatic generators, let me now |
return to the text of my address, ‘‘Necessity is the mother of inven- |
tion.’’ Until very recently there was no compelling need to force |
physicists to seek ever higher and higher voltages in electrical-gen-
erating devices. Their needs were met by existing devices of the
electromagnetic type. Within the past dozen years, however, it has
become evident that a whole new range of fundamental investigation
into the properties of atoms will be opened up by a suitable source of .
high potentials. |
This new inducement may be said to have arisen with Rutherford’s
discovery that it is possible to transmute one chemical element into
another by bombarding it by the fast electrified particles known as
alpha particles which are spontaneously given off by radio-active ma-
terials in the process of their disintegration. These brilliant experi-
ments opened up a whole range of new explorations into the structure
of the atomic nucleus, and stimulated the imagination of scientists in
regard to what might be done if only they had available some more
powerful and better controllable source of high-speed missiles to
shoot at the atomic nuclei. The alpha particles from radium do have
tremendous velocities but they are relatively few in number and all
the radium that could conceivably be gathered together in the world
would not produce a stream of electrified particles comparable to
that which can be obtained in an ordinary discharge of electricity
through a vacuum tube. If only the voltage as applied to a vacuum
tube could be made high enough to give the ions in a vacuum tube
speeds comparable with or even exceeding those of alpha particles
from radium, what a powerful attack could be made upon the nu-
cleus! Not only could particles in billion-fold larger numbers be used,
but different kinds of particles could be tried, such as hydrogen-nuclei,
helium-nuclei, lithium nuclei, neon-nuclei and so forth, and these
could be given any desired speed up to the maximum limit determined
by the highest voltage available. So for the past dozen years, thoughts
of scientists have again been turned to means for producing ever and
ever higher voltages.
It was to this end that the million-volt installation at the California
Institute of Technology was designed. It was also to this end that a
JUNE 15, 1933 COMPTON: HIGH VOLTAGE 289
system of high potential transformers and condensers was built by
Cockcroft and Walton in Cambridge, with which they were the first
successfully to disintegrate atoms by means of electrified particles
produced from an artificial source and speeded up by an applied volt-
age. However, the necessities of the case have led to other suggestions
for securing high voltages because the inherent limitations of electro-
magnetic induction devices lead to prohibitive expense and com-
plexity if voltages much above a million volts are sought by such
means.
There have thus been three very interesting new developments in
the art of securing high voltages, or perhaps more generally, electrified
particles with those speeds which would be acquired with tremen-
dously high voltages. Of these, in order of apparent utility, are the
devices of Brasch and Lange in Germany, of Lawrence at the Uni-
versity of California and of Van de Graaff at the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology.
The greatest natural source of high voltage of which we have any
knowledge is the thunderstorm. It is estimated that the voltages in
lightning flashes frequently exceed a billion volts; consequently it
was natural for Brasch and Lange to look to the lightning flash as a
source of high potential and to set up what may be considered as a
glorified Franklin kite. Their apparatus consisted of a pair of long
cables suspended between mountain peaks in that region of the Alps
where thunderstorms are most frequent. These cables may be thought
of as huge wireless antennae for receiving the electrical impulses of
nearby lightning flashes. This was an installation of real engineering
proportions since the porcelain insulators alone at each end of the
cable weighed upwards of two tons. The terminals of the two con-
ducting cables consisted of large spheres, whose distance apart could
be varied by drawing in or letting out cable. The voltage obtained
was estimated by the sparking distance between these spheres and
voltages were obtained ranging between eight and fifteen million
volts.
Although the voltage was tremendously high, its erratic occurrence
and uncontrollable nature has led Brasch and Lange to give it up in
favor of somewhat more conventional means of producing their high
voltage, and at present they are working with an impulse generator.
An extremely clever device is that invented by Professor Ernest
Lawrence of the University of California by means of which electri-
fied particles may be given energy characteristic of several millions
of volts with the application of a much smaller voltage. The principle
290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
is that of repeated impulses, analagous to the way by which the
amplitude of swing of a child in a swing may be made very great by
a succession of small pushes, properly timed. In Lawrence’s apparatus,
an oscillating voltage is applied to the ions, first in one direction
and then in the other, while they are moving in approximately circu-
lar paths in a magnetic field and conditions are adjusted so that every
time the voltage is applied the electrons are speeded up by just that
oscillator
|
Figure 4.— Diagram of Professor Lawrence’s apparatus for producing high-speed,
electrified particles.
amount. Thus, by applying only a few thousand volts, protons have
been obtained with energy corresponding to nearly two and a half
million volts.
Fig. 4 shows a diagram of the apparatus. The protons or other ions
are liberated, by a suitable device, near the centre of a flat hollow
cylinder which is divided into two parts separated from each other.
The oscillating high frequency voltage is applied to these two parts
and at the same time the whole cylinder is placed between the poles
JUNE 15, 1933 COMPTON: HIGH VOLTAGE 291
of a powerful magnet. An ion starting at a is pulled by the momentary
electric field across the gap and it takes, in the magnetic field, a cir-
cular path around to b. The frequency is adjusted so that by the time
time it reaches b the direction of the voltage has reversed so that the
ion is again speeded up as it crosses b back into the half-cylinder from
which it started. Then by the time it reaches c the voltage has again
reversed to its original direction and it is given another push, and so
on and so on. The few-thousand-volts push is given to the ion every
time it crosses the gap. It proceeds in ever-widening circles attaining a
speed limited only by the dimensions of the apparatus. With this
device, Lawrence and his colleagues have reason for hoping that the
speeds may ultimately be increased up to perhaps the equivalent of
ten million volts.
The currents are not very large, being reported of the order of a —
thousandth of a microampere. Nevertheless, these currents are tre-
mendous in comparison with anything which can be obtained from
radioactive material and this source of high-speed, electrified particles
will evidently be an important tool in nuclear investigation, as is in
fact evident from very recent reports from Professor Lawrence’s lab-
oratory in which the experiments of Cockcroft and Walton in dis-
integrating lithium nuclei by means of high speed protons have been
confirmed and extended.
In the construction of this apparatus, the largest magnet ever built
in this country has been put into use.
We come now to what I believe to be the most important develop-
ment that has ever taken place in the field of extremely high voltages,
namely the Van de Graaff generator, invented by Dr. Van de Graaff,
as a result of considerations which were developed while he was a
Rhodes scholar in England and which first took shape in the form of
physical laboratory experiments at Princeton and which are now be-
ing developed and extended in the laboratories of the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.
From every point of view it is advantageous for very high voltages
to have direct uniform currents. Van de Graaff was therefore led to
develop an electrostatic generator, since electrostatic methods yield
directly a steady uni-directional voltage such as is desired. Maximum
simplicity was sought in the design. The simplest terminal assembly
appeared to be a sphere mounted on an insulating column. Since the
sphere must be charged and since the process should be continuous,
the charge carrier should approach the sphere, enter it, and, after de-
positing its charge inside should return parallel to its path of ap-
292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
proach. This immediately suggested the action of a belt, a device long
used for the transmission of mechanical power.
The logic of the situation therefore pointed directly to a generator
consisting of a hollow spherical conducting terminal supported on an
insulating column, a moving belt to carry electric charge to the
sphere, a device for depositing the charge onto the belt in a region of
low potential remote from the sphere, and a device for removing this
charge from the belt inside the sphere and transferring it to the
sphere. A refinement of these essentials was the addition of an induc-
tion device whereby charge of the opposite sign was carried by the
belt on its return journey, thus doubling the current output. A second
refinement consisted of a self-exciting charging device whereby the
entire generator could be made to operate independently of any ex-
ternal source of electricity. Not only does this device attain the de-
sired result in what appears to be the simplest possible manner, but
it is also interesting to note that the energy transformations in its
operations are exceedingly simple, consisting only in the transforma-
tion of the energy required to drive the belt into work done in sep-
arating and transferring electric charge from earth potential to sphere
potential. Fig. 5 shows, schematically, the operation of this generator.
By this means electricity is continually conveyed to the spherical
terminal, whose potential consequently rises until limited by the
breakdown of the insulation of the air in the form of a corona dis-
charge at the surface of the spheres. This breakdown voltage depends
on the size of the sphere, being approximately 750,000 volts for a 2-ft.
sphere and increasing to 5,000,000 volts for a 15-ft. sphere. Thus the
attainable voltage depends upon the size of the spherical terminal.
The current, on the other hand, is simply equal to the rate at which
electricity is carried to and from the sphere by means of the belts, and
this in turn depends upon the size, speed and number of belts and
the quantity of electricity which can be placed on unit area of the
belt. This latter quantity is also limited by the breakdown voltage of
the surrounding air, to an amount of about 5 X10-° coulombs per sq.
em. of belt area. Under these conditions it is readily shown that a
belt running at 6000 ft. per minute could theoretically carry a maxi-
mum current of 150 microamperes per inch width of belt. Actually,
the best adjustments have given about half of this theoretical maxi-
mum, probably because the breakdown strength of the air is reduced
by the mechanism whereby charge is sprayed onto the belts.
Theory and practice also show that these belts may be placed
as close together as is geometrically possible, in fact, practically in
JUNE 15, 1933 COMPTON: HIGH VOLTAGE 293
contact, without interfering with their capacity to carry charge. By
_ packing many belts together it is therefore possible to produce very
sizeable currents. For example, a small laboratory model for demon-
stration purposes, constructed this year in the laboratories at Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology, develops one and one-half million
volts between a pair of 2-ft. spherical terminals, and delivers a cur-
rent of 600 microamperes carried on two 8-inch belts in each sphere.
,y)—e— tr tayrrruod
Pepe Pe pov Vp pv
ie oll oe i i ee aie i ee Se en I i I 2 linia
10,000 VoLTS
Figure 5.—Schematic diagram of Van de Graaff electrostatic generator.
Even in this small model the currents are approximately a million
times greater than those which have been obtained in the high speed
ion source designed by Lawrence.
The first model of such a generator which was actually constructed,
was built in Princeton in the fall of 1929, being built out of a tin can,
a silk ribbon, and a small motor, at no expense. This model developed
80,000 volts, being limited by the corona discharge from the edges of
the can.
294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
The next model was designed and built for operation in a vacuum
tank for reasons to be outlined later.
The third model was built to give a quick and easy demonstration
of the possibilities of the machine, using 2-ft. spherical terminals sup-
ported on pyrex rods, and supplied by current carried on silk belts
1 inches wide, driven by small motors. This apparatus was demon-
strated successively in Princeton, New York, Washington, Boston,
and elsewhere. Although built at a total cost of less than $100, it
developed more than twice as high a voltage as any direct current
generator of which we have knowledge.
Encouraged by the success of this model, plans were immediately
-made for the construction of as large a generator as seemed practical
for operation in air, the limitation being placed by the size of the
house in which it must operate. The largest place available was a dock
built for a Goodyear dirigible on the estate of Colonel E. H. R. Green
at South Dartmouth, Massachusetts, and which Colonel Green kindly
put at the disposal of the Institute. Ten million volts was selected as
the highest voltage which could be used in a building of this size with-
out excessive loss of current through the air to the roof and walls.
For this voltage, therefore, there has been built a generator with
15-ft. spherical terminals made of welded aluminum, mounted on
24-ft. textolite insulating columns in the form of 6-ft. cylinders, and
carried on large fabricated steel trucks, running on a 14-ft. gauge
railway track in order to vary the position of the terminals when
desired.
In this construction the Research Corporation gave invaluable aid
through assistance in the engineering drawings and through a grant
of $10,000 which defrayed approximately half the cost of the gener-
ator.
Fig. 6 is a photograph of this generator, taken on the day before
Christmas. In using this generator for experimental purposes it is
planned to use the inside of the spheres as laboratory rooms, and to
mount the discharge tube, suitably designed for producing high speed
ions, between two spheres.
Every feature in the construction and operation of this large
generator has gone as expected and a few days ago the first belt was
put into operation and voltage generated as expected. This belt is
made of paper 3 ft. wide and running at about 5000 ft. per minute.
The initial trials gave an output of 600 microamperes, and previous
experience indicates that with the proper adjustments this output
may be increased to a milliampere. The design of the apparatus is
JUNE 15, 1933 COMPTON: HIGH VOLTAGE 295
Figure 6.—The large Van de Graaff generator of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
such that a large number of belts may be made to operate in parallel,
so that there will be no difficulty whatsoever in securing an output of
between a tenth and a hundredth of an ampere if such large currents
become desirable. It will be noted, however, that if currents as large
as a tenth of an ampere are used at 10,000,000 volts, the generator
will be delivering 1000 kilowatts!
The enormous possibilities of this machine become evident when
we compare a possible input of 1000 kilowatts in the form of 10,000,-
000 volt electrified particles, with the sources which up to the present
have been available for experiments on atomic disintegration and
which have been principally small amounts of radioactive material.
We come now to a very interesting aspect of this type of generator,
namely, the influence of the surrounding insulating medium. If the
generator is placed in some medium whose electrical breakdown
strength is greater than that of air, then the voltage and the current
both increase proportionately and the power output increases as the
square of the breakdown strength. The two media most convenient
are either some gas such as air at high pressure, or a vacuum. With
gas at high pressure, the breakdown strength is approximately pro-
portional to the pressure, so that the operation of a generator in a tank
of gas at 30 atmospheres pressure should give 30 times the voltage,
_ 30 times the current and 900 times the power of the same device
mounted in the open air. It is relatively easy to build a container for
compressed gases and to mount a generator in it, and this, in fact,
has been done by Doctor Barton at Princeton, originally with the
collaboration of Doctor Van de Graaff.
By far the most intriguing possibilities of this generator are found
in its vacuum embodiment, because a high vacuum is the best of all
insulators since it offers no ‘‘windage’”’ resistance to the motion of the
belt, and since many of the applications of the high voltage will
themselves be in vacuum discharge tubes which can be built right
into the generating system.
Such a generator has been designed and built. It is still in the
experimental stage but various complicating factors have one by one
been overcome. Experience to date indicates that there is in sight no
insurmountable obstacle to the construction of generators which
may even reach considerably higher voltages than the generator at
Round Hill.
In conclusion you will be interested to know, if you do not know
this already, that two Van de Graaff generators have been built and
operated in Washington under the direction of Dr. Merle A. ‘Tuve
JUNE 15, 1933 HERSEY: THIN FILM LUBRICATION 297
of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institu-
tion. One of these has been actually used for experiments on atomic
disintegration and the other instrument, a larger one developing
upwards of 2,000,000 volts, is awaiting a suitable housing now under
construction, for its satisfactory operation. Dr. Tuve in Washington,
Dr. Coolidge of the General Electric Company and Dr. Slack of the
Westinghouse Company, all of whom have built and experimented
with Van de Graaff generators subsequent to the demonstration of
Van de Graaff’s first air operated instrument in the summer of 1931,
have been very helpful in reporting their experiences with the gener-
ators. _
In conclusion it may fairly be said that this new type of generator
as an electrical instrument, has already been highly successful and
shows promise of very considerable further development. It remains
to be seen whether the necessity which was the mother of this inven-
tion,—namely, the desire for high speed particles for the study of
atomic nuclei,—will lead to important new knowledge of atomic
structure with the aid of this device. Several good men are beginning
work on the application of these voltages to nuclear disintegration,
and it will not be long before some indications, at any rate, may be
obtained as to the significance of the new developments in high
voltage technique.
Whether or not the apparatus will be successful in opening up new
fields of atomic investigation, it has already opened up the possibility
for electrical investigations and possible practical applications of elec-
tricity in a new voltage range, and it will be surprising indeed if there
are not some developments of scientific and practical significance
which will eventually emerge from this new field of activity.
PHYSICS.—Thin film lubrication of journal bearings... Mayo D.
Hersty, Research and Development Laboratories, Socony-
Vacuum Corporation.
Some years ago? it was shown how the problems of lubrication
might be simplified with the aid of dimensional reasoning. The
treatment then given was restricted to thick film lubrication, assum-
ing a uniform viscosity throughout the film, and assuming rigid or
at least geometrically similar bearing surfaces, thereby excluding the
1 Received April 27, 1933.
2 This JOURNAL 4: 542-552. 1914.
28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
combination of a very heavy load with a very low speed. Even under
those limitations the results were found practically useful, and in
present day notation are usually referred to as the ZN /P relations.
This paper undertakes to extend the investigation to some of the
simpler conditions of thin film lubrication.
THE CONCEPT OF THIN FILM LUBRICATION
Thin film lubrication has been described as a state in which the
friction depends on some other property or properties in addition to
the ordinary viscosity of the lubricant as measured at atmospheric
pressure.’ The term is not synonymous with boundary lubrication,
where the effective properties of the lubricant are different from its
bulk properties. Boundary lubrication may be considered a particular
case of thin film lubrication. In general, thin film lubrication may be
visualized as a state in which the bearing surfaces have been made to
approach so closely that they can no longer be treated as perfectly
smooth, perfectly rigid, and separated only by a perfectly adhering
fluid of uniform viscosity.
A general study of thin film lubrication must therefore contemplate
such phenomena as (1) velocity components, pressure gradients, and
geometrical irregularities not recognized in Reynolds’ equations; (2)
localized pinching and heating effects between tangentially moving
high spots on the opposite rubbing surfaces, resulting in non-uniform
viscosity; (3) elastic deformation and thermal expansion, causing
geometrical changes in the bearing surfaces; (4) boundary lubrication;
(5) wear, seizure, and progressive chemical reactions, so far as they
may properly be classed under the head of lubrication.
Kingsbury’ found no departure from the ordinary laws of bulk
viscosity down to films as thin as one forty-thousandth of an inch and
up to rates of shear as high as 261,000 radians per second. Bulkley?
found no evidence of plastic adsorbed films greater than one-millionth
of an inch in thickness. Thus it appears that in practical journal
bearings, we should expect the transition from thick film to thin film
lubrication to be brought about due to the roughness of the surfaces,
before there is any significant departure from bulk properties.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
With items (2) to (5) ruled out, the coefficient of friction, f, would
3 Amer. Mach. 70: 919, 921. 1929.
4 Mech. Eng. 41: 537. 1919.
6 Bur. Standards Journ. Research (RP 264) 6: 89-112. 1931.
JUNE 15, 1933 HERSEY: THIN FILM LUBRICATION 299
be a function of the same variables entering into thick film lubrica-
tion. These variables are the absolute size of the bearing; its geomet-
rical shape in every particular, including the clearance-diameter
ratio, length-diameter ratio, and roughness; and the operating condi-
tions, comprising the external load system, speed, and viscosity of
lubricant. The load system may be specified by the load per unit of
projected area together with the resultant couple, if any, taken about
an axis perpendicular to the axis of rotation, such as might be caused
by belt pull or misalignment. The viscosity of the lubricant may be
specified by its value at atmospheric pressure and at the temperature
of the bearing surface. It is assumed that the bearing is running in a
practically steady state, with an unrestricted supply of homogeneous
lubricant. For geometrically similar bearings the variables required
by item (1) may therefore be catalogued as follows:
D, the journal diameter;
P, load per unit projected area;
M, moment of external couple;
N, speed in revolutions per unit time; and
Z, the viscosity of the lubricant.
The principal variables required by item (2) are the heat capacity
per unit volume and thermal conductivity of the lubricant, together
with its temperature and pressure coefficients of viscosity. The heat
capacity determines the temperature rise in any particular volume
element due to the heat generated by friction; the conductivity
determines the temperature distribution; the temperature coefficient,
in conjunction with other factors already mentioned, determines the
decrease in viscosity due to local heating; and the pressure coefficient,
with other factors, determines the increase in viscosity due to the
relatively high local pressures that may be set up. To a first approxi-
mation it appears that the variables required by item (2) are:
a, the temperature coefficient of viscosity, or
(1/n)(du/dt), in which wp is the viscosity at tem-
perature ¢ and pressure 7p;
b, the pressure coefficient of viscosity, or (1/u) (du/dp) ;
h, heat capacity of the lubricant per unit volume; and
k, conductivity of the lubricant.
Item (3) introduces phenomena governed by the elastic constants
of the journal and bearing metals and their thermal expansivities.
The elastic constants may be represented by Young’s modulus and
300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
Poisson’s ratio. To a first approximation the latter may be considered
constant, and the expansivities neglected because most of the expan-
sion occurs between room temperature and the test temperature at
which D, Z, ete., are measured. The principal variables called for by
item (3) are therefore LE; and H,, Young’s modulus for the journal
and bearing respectively.
Although boundary lubrication, item (4), involves phenomena that
are not yet understood, it would appear from the work of Hardy and
others® that the coefficient of boundary friction may be assumed con-
stant as a first approximation, provided (1) that the temperature
variations are not too great, and (2) that sufficient time is allowed for
the formation of the adsorbed layers. On this assumption the observed
drop in friction with increasing speed under thin film conditions would
be attributed to the coexistence of boundary lubrication with ordinary
viscous action, the latter tending to separate the surfaces as the speed
increases. For the purpose, then, of investigating thin film lubrication
under conditions where boundary friction is a contributing but not the
predominating factor, it may be tentatively assumed that the only
additional variable called for by item (4) is the static coefficient, fo.
Phenomena such as those described under item (5) which might
permanently alter the identity of the bearing surfaces and of the
lubricant, or involve appreciable expenditures of energy otherwise
than in overcoming frictional resistance, are considered outside the
scope of this investigation.
Collecting the variables listed above, it appears that the coefficient
of friction under the conditions stated may be expressed by the quali-
tative relation
f =funct CDs ae VES N, Zi a, b, h, k, Ey, Ee, fo); (1)
in which the requirement for geometrical similarity may be inter-
preted as applying only to the journal bearing in its unloaded state.
As there are still twelve independent variables left in spite of the
severe narrowing down of the problem already undertaken, it is no
great wonder that experimenters have found it difficult to obtain
check results and to coordinate their observations in the field of thin
film lubrication.
APPLICATION OF DIMENSIONAL THEORY
Four fundamental units are needed for measuring the thirteen
quantities appearing in Eq. (1), as may be verified by inspection,
® Dictionary Appl. Physics, Macmillan, 1: 572-579. 1922. Proc. Roy. Soc. A.
138: 259-2838. 1932.
JUNE 15, 1933 HERSEY: THIN FILM LUBRICATION 301
since these involve thermal as well as kinetic quantities. Hence it
follows from Buckingham’s I-theorem’ that Eq. (1) is reducible to a
relation connecting 13—4, or 9 dimensionless products. One of the
products may be identified with the coefficient of friction itself, so
that Eq. (1) becomes
f=$(Xi, X2,--- Xs), (2)
in which ¢ is merely a symbol for some unknown function of the eight
independent variables, or arguments, X,, Xo,--- Xs.
The dimensions of the twelve quantities on the right of Eq. (1)
are expressed in terms of force, length, time and temperature (F, L,
T, 6) in Table 1, where colons have been used for convenience in
place of the more conventional square brackets.
TABLE 1. DIMENSIONS ON THE F, L, T, 6 SYSTEM
Da seclG Z paciet k il
j ee | T@
F 1 F
12 ia a eat iS
L? F
1 OS Dal 6 bo :— E,:—
F ee 752
1 FP
N:i= h —- 1
T L26 fo
One set of independent dimensionless products that may be con-
structed by reference to Table 1 is shown in Table 2. Other equivalent
sets may be derived by interchanging quantities having the same
dimensions. Eq. (2) may be expanded, if desired, by substituting
directly into it from Table 2 or its equivalent.
This reduction in the number of independent variables from twelve
to eight for thin film lubrication is less striking than the reduction
from four to one obtained from the corresponding analysis of thick
film lubrication.* Nevertheless, Eq. (2) in conjunction with Table 2
offers a definite guide for the planning and interpretation of experi-
ments on thin film lubrication, an undertaking that would otherwise
be even more complex than it now appears.
PROCEDURE FOR INCLUDING ADDITIONAL VARIABLES
If it is desired at any time to investigate the effect of additional
- quantities not included in Eq. (1) it will only be necessary to set up
7 This JouRNAL 4: 347. 1914. Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Eng. 37: 263. 1915.
Phil. Mag. 42: 696. 1921.
-8 This JOURNAL 4: 542-552. 1914.
aa
302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
TABLE 2. DIMENSIONLESS PRopuUcTS FoR Ea. (2)
Lert 2M ee ee,
SY 2 : >" D?PNa
M Ey
eee, SETI Av
; E
Ye = ine pened:
Ey
eae x. =
oie cae
by inspection the appropriate dimensionless product X corresponding
to each new quantity introduced. Suppose, for example, any or all of
the following quantities were to be included: (1) The latent period of
Hardy, t, required for complete formation of the adsorbed layers
under undisturbed conditions; (2) the density of the lubricant, p,
as affecting its rate of escape from the space between tangentially ap-
proaching high spots, and its surface tension, S, as affecting its reten-
tion in the clearance space; (3) the second order coefficients of the
viscosity-pressure-temperature surface, a, 8, and y, of which a
denotes da/dt, 8 denotes 0b/dp, while y denotes da/dp or its equal,
0b/dt; (4) thermal expansivities, e;, @2, heat capacities, hi, he, and
conductivities, ki, k2, of the metals; (5) Poisson’s ratio for the respec-
tive metals, o1, o2, and (6) the contact angles, Ai and A>», between
TABLE 3. ADDITIONAL DIMENSIONLESS PRODUCTS
Q x Q Ke Q x
to Nto €1 a o1 O1
a
pD?N?2 62
p P €2 ee 02 2
S hy
seal ik ae
S DP 1 h A, A,
a he
ae h» — A A
a @ ip 2 2
k
B BP? ky = we a
je k
UY as ke a Pi ect a eek
JUNE 15, 1933 HERSEY: THIN FILM LUBRICATION 303
lubricant and metal. The new independent variable X corresponding
to each new quantity Q is shown by Table 3. This procedure may be
continued indefinitely.
While there is thus no difficulty in extending Eq. (2) to include as
many variables as desired, it would seem to be of more immediate
interest to examine the particular forms to which Eq. (2) may reduce
when certain of the variables in Table 2 are held constant, or when
the problem is sufficiently narrowed down to eliminate some of them.
DISCUSSION OF SPECIAL CASES
For properly loaded bearings M =0 so that X. of Table 2 disap-
pears. Upon substituting into Eq. (2) we find for such bearings that
ZN HO AS EE
f=4,( oP, > pepe eet (3)
in which H has been written for h/a and K for k/a. That the three
thermal properties a, h, and k should combine to form only two in-
dependent properties, H and K, is itself a noteworthy fact. It is also
of interest that the absolute size, D, enters only one of the arguments
of Eq. (3). This argument, X;, appears to be a relatively unimportant
one except for very low speeds; and if so, the equation assures us that
the coefficient of friction will be relatively unaffected by changing the
absolute size of the bearing, provided the corresponding bearing sur-
faces of different sizes are either practically smooth or similarly, not
equally, rough. It is a familiar fact that the coefficient of friction is
independent of size in thick film lubrication.
Limiting the analysis now to one particular bearing, D =const.,
E, =const., and EH, =const.; so the argument X;, disappears, while the
remaining ones may be simplified. The factor P may as well be
dropped from the first four arguments, since it now appears by itself
in the fifth as an independent variable. Eq. (3) thus reduces to
as (zw, P,b, H, ~ fi (4)
liq. (4) is believed to be the most generally useful of any single equa-
tion in the paper. It suggests (1) that the viscosity of the lubricant,
Z, can influence the coefficient of friction only through the product
ZN; (2) that the conductivity of the lubricant affects the friction
only through the ratio K/N; (3) that the results of experiments might
be coordinated by plotting constant load curves (P =const.) with f
304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
as ordinate against ZN as abscissa,® labelling each separate curve
with the appropriate value of P, b, H, K/N, and fy so far as these
can be determined.
The form of the variable K/N in Eq. (4) indicates that low econduc-
tivity has the same effect as high speed. This also is evident from any
qualitative picture of the physics of thin film lubrication. If the
lubricant were a perfect insulator, this variable would disappear, even
at low speeds. In practice, the effect of K/N as well as the effect of fy
may be expected to become negligible when the speed and viscosity
are high enough. Eq. (4) then reduces to
f=9¢3(ZN, | b, i). (5)
Under these conditions the pressure coefficient 6 and ratio of heat
capacity per unit volume to the temperature coefficient of viscosity,
H, would appear to be the two most significant properties of the
lubricant, aside from its ordinary viscosity, Z.
APPLICATION OF HERTZ’S THEORY
For relatively smooth bearings where the general deformation, as
distinguished from the deformation of the high spots alone, is con-
siderable P may be replaced by Po, the load per unit of effective con-
tact area, or W/A, where W is the total load. Under these conditions
X, and X;, drop out since the effect of the elastic constants will be
included in the factor A». From Hertz’s theory’? of cylinders in con-
tact Ay «/W, therefore P,«./W and for one particular bearing,
so that Ei, E., and D are constant, Eq. (3) may be written
ZN px foe K
ad (ap OVW, ap arr ot) fe
Possibly with smooth enough bearing surfaces, the effect of the argu-
ments containing 6, H, and K might be considered negligible to a first
approximation. In this event Eq. (6) would reduce to the statement
that for any one lubricant the coefficient of friction is a function of the
single variable ZN/./W, a result that appears to be in accord with
recent experimental data."!
FURTHER INVESTIGATION
In continuing this study it would seem desirable to consider (1)
detailed calculation of possible magnitudes of the local pressures and
® For examples of charts in which f has been plotted against ZN see Zeit. V. d. I.
64: 449. 1920. Proc: A. Pi I., Sect: Ml, p. 1545 1932: soe
10 Herrz, H. Journ. f. Math. (Crelle) 92. 1881. Ges. Werke, Leipzig, 1: 155.
1895.
i McKeen, S: A. and McKrr, TP) Re Journ: S. Awe: 3lsa71o 1932:
JUNE 15, 1933 ENDO: AMERICAN WALNUT FROM JAPAN 305
temperatures developed by the assumed tangential motion of rough
spots; (2) tabulation of the pressure coefficient 6 and thermal con-
stants H and K for available lubricants; (38) coordination of friction
data in the light of the present results; (4) extension of the theory to
gear lubrication; and (5) relation of thin film lubrication to the con-
cept of oiliness. |
PALEOBOTANY.—The American white walnut or butternut, Juglans
cinerea L., from the Upper Pliocene of Japan.‘ Sripo ENpo,
Johns Hopkins University. (Communicated by E. W. Brrry.)
Description.—Nuts without outer soft part, ovoid-oblong in general out-
line, 4 to 6 cm. long, 2 to 3 cm. in maximum width and thickness, 4-ribbed,
rough, deeply sculptured, and with about 4 sharp, longitudinal ridges,
acuminated at apex, rounded at base; 2-celled at basal portion but 1-celled
above in the inside, and about 4 mm. in thickness of the test.
Remarks.—The present materials are entirely identical in the outer orna-
mentation of the nut and inner features of the cell with the existing Juglans
cinerea L., found in eastern North America. It now exists in New Brunswick
and Ontario to North Dakota; south to Delaware; and in the Alleghanies to
Georgia; and to Mississippi, Arkansas, and Kansas. It ascends to 2500 feet
in Virginia.”
In the sizes of the fossil there are many variations. In this respect also
it is closely allied to the existing species. Table 1 shows the comparison of the
present materials and the existing species.
TABLE 1.—Comparison oF FossiL AND EXISTING SPECIES OF JUGLANS
Neu or EXISTING SPECIES Fossil MATERIALS
eee LENGTH MaxIMUM WIDTH LENGTH MaxImMuM WIDTH
1 6.0 cm. 2.6 cm. 6.0 cm. 2.5 em.
2 4.6 3.0 5.0 i 2 oD
3 4.5 2.6 4.0 2-9 ie
= 4 4.2 2.8 4.0 20
5 4.0 761 3.8 Dal
6 4.0 2.4 3.7 ia 2.9
1 Received January 24, 1933.
2 Britton, N. L., and Bowen, H. A. An illustrated flora of the northern United
States 1: 579. 19138.
306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
Fias. 1-9. Juglans cinerea L.; 3, 6, The inner side; 7, 9, The basal portion. All
slightly reduced.
JUNE 15, 1933 ENDO: AMERICAN WALNUT FROM JAPAN 307
These fossils were collected by F. Saito from Takagi, near Hana-
maki-Machi, Iwate Prefecture, which is almost certainly Upper
Pliocene in age, with many seeds (i.e. Alnus, Prunus, and Styraz,
etc.).
Some years ago Hayasaka investigated other material from the
same locality, without comparison with the existing material, and he
described the species (in Japanese) .®
Another occurrence from the Asiatic side is one on the River Aldan,
which was described by Kryshtofovich.? This is quite similar to the
present species and is almost certainly the same species.
From Europe this species was described by Engelhardt and Kin-
kelin from the Upper Pliocene of Klirbeckens and it is one of their
most complete and beautiful specimens.® Ludwig described a species
of Juglans (J. goppertt Ludwig) from the Pliocene lignite bed of
Wetterau.® This is the nearest allied to our species. Another allied
species is Juglans tephrodes, some of which’ are quite similar to the
present species.
Geological age.—As already stated, the present species was described
by A. Kryshtofovich from eastern Siberia, a cleft of the Mammoth
mountain on the left bank of the river Aldan, at a distance of about
45 versts from the mouth of the river Amga. He says:® “‘as to the age
of the strata with Juglans cinerea L., if we follow Tschersky’s con-
ception, the appearance of these strata may be referred to the epoch
of glacial phenomena in Europe, which is here indicated by the
increasing moisture (and perhaps also by the softening of the cli-
mate?).’’
This estimate of the age is somewhat doubtful because Tschersky’s
conception is also very doubtful.® With regard to another occurrence
of Juglans cinerea from post-Pliocene of Europe!’ the writer has no
3 HayasaKA, I. On the fossil butternuts from Hanamaki-Machi, Iwate Prefecture,
Japan. Journ. Geogr. Tokyi 38: No. 444. 1926 (Japanese).
4 KrysutTorovicu, A. The butternut from fresh-water deposits of the Province of
Yakoutsk. Mem. du Comité Geologique, N. 8. 124: 25-32. Figs. 3a, b, c, d; 4a, b, c;
DO RUC MOO HO TE TGs 10. Ce SG, 0.16,-d-. OLS:
> ENGELHARDT, H. and KinKeELIn, F. Oberpliocane Flora und Fauna des Unter-
maintales, insbesondere des Frankfurter Kldrbeckens. Sencken. Naturfor. Gesell. Ab-
handl. 29: 236. pl. 30, figs. 3, 4a, b; 5a, b; 6a, b; 7a, b. 1911.
6 Lupwic, R. Fossile Pflanzen aus der jiingsten Wetterauer Braunkohle. Palaeont.
5: 102. pl. 21, figs. 9, 9a, b, 10. 1857.
7 UnGER, F. Sylloge plantarum fossilium, I. Denk. Kais. Akad. Wiss., 19: 38. pl.
19, figs. 12-15. 1860.
8 KRYSHTOFOVICH, A. Op. cit. p. 31. :
9 YaBE, H. On the climatic changes in Japan during the Pleistocene Epoch (in
Japanese). Reports Inst. Geol. and Pal., Tohoku Imp. Univ., Sendai, 3: 1922.
10 KRYSHTOFOVICH, A. Op. cit. p. 31; and ENGELHARDT, H., KINKELIN, F. Op.
cit.p: 237.
308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
accurate data but in the deposits of Pliocene age there are many
occurrences, as above mentioned.
It seems to the writer that the present species was widely distrib-
uted until upper Pliocene time, in the old world. It may, however,
be almost absent from the deposits of Pleistocene age in most parts
of the world except eastern North America.
The writer wishes to express his sincere thanks to Professor E. W.
Berry for his valuable advice and assistance.
PALEOBOTANY.—Fossil plants from Morrison, Colorado.! Ep-
wARD W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.
In the summer of 1916 the late Willis T. Lee collected a few very
fragmentary fossil plants from the type section at Morrison, Colorado.
These were the basis for a short paper? by the late Frank H. Knowlton
published in March, 1920 in which these plants were compared with
the Dakota sandstone flora and the following tentative identifications
were listed:
Salix sp., ef. Salix proteaefolia Lesq.
Ficus daphnogenoides (Heer) Berry
Ficus magnoliaefolia Lesq. ef. Hucalyptus dakotensis Lesq.
Phyllites (2 species)
Preceding Knowlton’s paper was one by Lee*® advocating considera-
tion of the Dakota as a group in this section, made up of the follow-
ing 5 units:
1. Sandstone (“Supper Dakota’’)
Sandy shale
Massive sandstone (Dakota of Lesquereux, ‘lower Dakota,”’ Purgatoire)
Shaly sandstone (upper part of Morrison as originally described)
. Conglomeratic sandstone (‘‘Saurian conglomerate’’)
6, 7. Morrison formation
8, 9, 10. Sundance formation
CNet eet aS)
This is sufficient, without a more extensive SLC Ne, to render
what follows intelligible.
The plants listed above on the authority of Knowlton came from
member No. 4. I examined these after Knowlton’s death and labelled
them undeterminable. More recently I have looked them over again
11 The occurrences of Juglans cinerea L. of Pleistocene age in Europe are very doubt-
ful both as to the determinations and the geological age of the localities.
1 Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.
Received February 24, 1933.
2 KNOWLTON, F. H. Amer. Jour. Sci. 49: 189-194. 1920.
3 Luz, W. T. Amer. Jour. Sci. 49: 183-188. 1920.
JUNE 15, 1933 BERRY: FOSSIL PLANTS 309
more carefully. The collection consists of 16 pieces of a grayish gritty
matrix with fragmentary carbonaceous impressions. The Survey
Locality number is 7225 (Lee’s No. 1262). Knowlton did not label
any of the specimens but for most of them it is possible to pick out
the ones to which the above names were meant to apply.
It will be noticed that but one of these was positively named. This
was Ficus magnoliaefolia. The type of this species was described by
Lesquereux‘ in 1883 from collections made by Lieutenant Beckwith
at Morrison which, according to George L. Cannon as quoted by Lee,
came from No. 3 of the section quoted above. Subsequently Lesque-
reux identified this species’ from Ellsworth County, Kansas. These two
are similar but not identical, although I am not prepared to say that
they could not represent the same species. The single specimen in the
Lee collection has an outline more like the Kansas leaf than it is like
the type, but again there are slight differences especially in the fewer
secondaries in the Lee specimen. The material is too poor for a posi-
tive determination and I would certainly hesitate to vouch for its
correctness. The other species supposed to be represented are still
more vague and fragmentary and I do not regard any of them as
entitled to any weight in arriving at the age of the horizon.
Accompanying the collection from Loc. 7225 are 5 specimens in a
brownish gritty sandstone with brownish impressions of fragmentary
leaves collected by Lee from a horizon 25 ft. above the base of No. 3
(Purgatoire). These bear the Survey Locality No. 7224 (Lee’s No.
1267). None of these are accompanied by identifications and I cer-
tainly regard them as undeterminable, although they have a Dakota
aspect.
A single additional specimen bearing Locality No. 7225 is a loose
piece sent in by Lee. The covering note states ‘‘It seems to come
from the Morrison but might easily be the Dakota.” The lithology
and character of the leaf impressions are that of Loc. 7224 and not
tat Of 7220.
One face has a perfectly recognizable leaf of Aralia wellingtoniana
Lesq. and the other face the greater part of a lanceolate leaf of
Ficus daphnogenoides (Heer) Berry. The first is a Dakota, Raritan,
Woodbine species and the second occurs in all of these formations
and in the Magothy and Tuscaloosa in addition.
In the summer of 1921 Dr. Stanton visited the Morrison region and
made a collection of plants from a shaly lens near the middle of No. 3
SEucquennux, l. -Cret. and: Mert. Klip. 47. Pi: 17,, figs..5, 6. 1883:
6 LEsQquEREUX, L. Dakota Flora, p. 79. Pl. 16, fig. 4. 1892.
310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
of Lee’s section (quoted above). The exact locality is north of Bear
Creek at Morrison on the west slope of the Dakota hogback and the
specimens bear the Survey Locality No. 7501 (Stanton’s No. 1892).
Dr. Stanton informs me that this shaly lens is about 50 feet above a
plant-bearing bed which in his opinion is the horizon from which came
Lee’s collection, that is, “4. Shaly sandstone (upper part of Morri-
son as originally described)’’ and the basis of Knowlton’s published
paper. The Stanton collection is also of very scrappy material but it
contains one specimen that can be positively determined and which
VA
Fig. 1. Sapindopsis from Morrison, Colorado.
LO
is figured herewith and undoubtedly is Sapindopsis variabilis Fon-
taine.
The genus Sapindopsis was proposed by Fontaine® in 1890. Some
years later the writer’ redefined it and pointed out its nearest living
relatives among American genera of the Sapindaceae. Three species
were recognized and these came from the Patapsco formation of
Maryland and Virginia, and there is satisfactory evidence for assign-
ing the Patapsco formation to the Albian stage of the European time
scale, i.e. near the top of the Lower Cretaceous.
In more recent years one or the other of the three original species
have been found in a number of other regions, all North American
6 FonTAINE, W. M. Mon. U.S. Geol. Survey 15: 296. 1890.
7’ Berry, E. W. Md. Geol. Survey, Lower Cretaceous, p. 467. 1911.
JUNE 15, 1933 BERRY: FOSSIL PLANTS oll
however, and a fourth and better characterized species has been
added from the Cheyenne sandstone of southern Kansas.°®
The Patapsco species Sapindopsis variabilis was the most common
species in that formation, and as its name indicates, it shows con-
siderable variability and appears to grade into what was called
Sapindopsis magnifolia. In all these species the thick lanceolate de-
tached leaflets are easily confused with the lanceolate leaves or
leaflets of other and unrelated. genera and at one time or another one
or the other have been referred to Eucalyptus, Ficus, Aralia, and
Rhus. This is particularly true where the specimens are entombed in
sandstones and were more or less macerated before burial, as in the
so-called Fuson formation of the Black Hills. The present specimen
is unmistakably a part of a leaf of Sapindopsis variabilis showing
parts of five rather narrow leaflets and is particularly good and
characteristic of the three distal leaflets. These are rather narrower
than usual but not narrower than many I have seen. Their coalescent
bases and winged rachis are unmistakable, and could not possibly be
confused with any other Cretaceous plant. They show no venation
other than midveins, and failure to note that they were leaflets and
not lanceolate leaves would readily lead one to compare them with
Saliz or Eucalyptus. Both what has been called Salix proteaefolia as
conceived by Lesquereux and not by Newberry, and Eucalyptus
dakotensis, both tentatively identified by Knowlton from No. 4
of the section at Morrison, might be and probably are only the
leaflets of Sapindopsis variabilis. This indicates that the two plant-
bearing beds at Morrison—one in No. 3 of Lee’s section and the other
in the upper part of No. 4 of the same section—contain essentially
the same flora and presumably belong to the same formation.
Sapindus variabilis is exceedingly common at many localities in
the Patapsco formation of Maryland and Virginia and is by far the
most characteristic species of that formation. It was identified by
Ward from the supposed Fuson formation of the Black Hills at Oak
Creek, Wyoming, and is common in the Cheyenne sandstone near
Belvidere, Kansas. Cockerell® suggested this species for some unde-
termined material from an unknown geologic horizon in southwestern
Colorado, photographs of which material I have examined and
consider very inconclusive.
The certain presence of Sapindopsis in the section at Morrison
casts considerable additional doubt upon Lee and Knowlton’s as-
8 Berry, E. W. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 129: 216. Pls. 49-54. 1922.
® CocKERELL, T. D. A: This JouRNAL 63: 110. 1916.
312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
signment of one of the plant-bearing beds to the Morrison formation,
but the question as to whether the age is late Lower or early Upper
Cretaceous remains as uncertain as before, and is complicated by the
fact that the so-called Dakota flora of the Denver Basin came from
beds now referred to the Purgatoire formation and not from what I
would call the true Dakota in the restricted sense as the littoral de-
posits of the Benton sea and the synchronous continental deposits of
the time represented by that transgression.
It is probably true that what has been called Purgatoire is to be
correlated with the Mentor formation and Cheyenne sandstone of
Kansas, but so far as the range of Sapindopsis is evidence its horizon
could equally fit into the top of the Lower or the base of the Upper
Cretaceous. It certainly does not seem to me to afford any direct
evidence regarding the age of the Dinosaur-bearing Morrison, al-
though I would be inclined to regard it as circumstantial evidence
of the Lower Cretaceous rather than the Jurassic age of the Dinosaur-
bearing Morrison.
ZOOLOGY .—N otes on shrimps of the genus Macrobrachium found in
the United States... Waxpo L. Scumitt, U.S. National Museum.
From time to time specimens of the larger freshwater shrimps of
the genus Macrobrachium have been received at the United States
National Museum for identification. Information yielded by some
of these sendings is of such interest that publication seems desirable.
Macrobrachium acanthurus (Wiegmann), though long known to
range from the Rio Grande River in Texas to Rio Grande do Sul,
Brazil; Panama, and Ecuador,’ is here for the first time recorded east
of Texas. On January 11, 1922, a specimen was taken, it was said,
from “brackish water’? near Lockport, Louisiana, and sent to the
United States Bureau of Fisheries by Mr. E. A. Tulian, then Super-
intendent of the Fisheries Division of the Louisiana Department of
Conservation. Not only did this specimen extend the range of the
species eastward across the whole of the state of Texas, but it also
proved to be the largest M. acanthurus ever seen at the Museum. The
specimen measures from the tip of the rostrum to the extremity of the
telson all of 170 mm.; the large chela is about 74 mm. long.
This species must be of comparatively rare occurrence in the state,
for when asked about the matter, Mr. Tulian replied that “so far
1 Received February 15, 1933.
2 Ratupun, M. J. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 38: 604. 1910. We also have specimens
in the National Museum extending the range of M. acanthurus northward along the
west coast of North America to Mazatlan, Mexico.
JUNE 15, 1933 SCHMITT: MACROBRACHIUM SHRIMPS o13
as we are aware, only four of such shrimp have been taken from our
waters.’ No further specimens have ever come to the attention of the
Museum, though the State fisheries representatives were, at that time
instructed to be on the watch for them. Five years later, August 29
1927, the first M. acanthurus was found in Mississippi, at Ocean
Springs, where Captain Ellis Handy captured two specimens in a
partly sunken boat. One of these was forwarded to the National
Museum for determination, through the interest of Dr. R. W.
Harned, then of the State Plant Board of Mississippi. Captain Handy
never before had encountered this form, nor has it since come to our
notice from this state. In a quite recent check-up, I wrote Captain
Handy. He replied, ‘‘The specimen sent in was discovered by accident
as a sunken barge was raised in Fort Bayou. As the water was bailed
out I found two small and one large shrimp and the peculiarity of it
made me send the larger one in for identification. At the time no
local man could tell me anything of it. I have made the rounds of the
local fishermen, particularly those who use troll boats and seines.
Three or four men stated that they had almost every season found
two or three similar shrimp in their catch.”
The very next year, however, we were apprised of the presence of
M. acanthurus in Florida. In August, 1928, Mr. Robert Ranson, of
St. Augustine, shipped us two lots, thirty-seven specimens in all,
that had been taken from the large central pool of the patio of the
Alcazar Hotel, a very considerable eastward extension of the range of
the species.
No less remarkable is the fact that in company with these speci-
mens from Florida were found a Macrobrachiwm jamaicense (Herbst),
and two specimens of M. olfersiz (Wiegmann). With these were three
other incomplete specimens; one has been tentatively referred to M.
jgamaicense, and the other two to M. olfersi.
Naturally, the question was raised as to how these shrimp could
have gotten into this enclosed pool. At first it was suspected that they
might have been unwittingly introduced with the tropical fish with
which the pool had been stocked. Mr. Ranson looked into this phase
of the matter, and a month later wrote that the Macrobrachium had
been noted for some years in these pools, but the sword-tails had been
introduced only the previous year from South America. He was
convinced that the shrimps had entered the pool by means of the
overflow drain leading to a stream outside. If there are any doubts
regarding the streams outside as the source of the M. acanthurus found
in the Alcazar pool, it would seem that additional records of the
314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
occurrence of the species in Florida would set them at rest. Two such
finds did come to us less than two years later. In the summer of 1930
Captain John Mills, of the yacht “Anton Dohrn” of the Tortugas
Marine Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, gave me two speci-
mens from the Miami River, which had been caught under a set of
ways on which one of the laboratory launches had been hauled out for
repairs. He tells me (Sept., 1932) that there used to be quite a lot of
them in the river, and that as soon as the present dredging operations
which have made the water too muddy to look for shrimp have been
completed, he will get me additional specimens. The same year, Mr.
Edward J. Brown, sent us a specimen from Coconut Grove, Florida.
Macrobrachium jamaicense (Herbst) has perhaps a wider range
than the preceding form, having heretofore been found in the “fresh
waters of the Pacific slope of North America from Lower California
to Peru, and the Atlantic slope, from Texas to Brazil, including the
West Indies.’’? Now, by means of Mr. Ranson’s Alcazar pool collec-
tions, we are enabled to establish a first record within the continental
United States other than from the state of Texas, and a second from
Silver Springs, Marion County, in the same state, where Mr. E. Ross
Allen has speared several from as much as thirty feet or more of water.
Two of these Silver Springs specimens have come into the possession
of the National Museum through the kind offices of Dr. T. Van
Hyning of the Florida State Museum at Gainesville. Though the
larger is of good size, measuring from tip of rostrum to the extremity
of the telson 202 mm., with a larger chela of about 92 mm., Dr. Van
Hyning wrote at the time that ‘‘we still have one other specimen
about twice the size of the present one, and in some ways in better
condition, which we are saving for the exhibition series.”
Mr. Allen told me that the largest specimen he ever took in Silver
Springs was twenty-two inches (nearly 559 mm.) long, measured from
the end of the telson to the extremity of anteriorly extended claws.
This exceeds by about two inches the largest specimen in the Na-
tional collections which was taken in Devil’s River, Texas, by
Mr. John Roth, the donor, in 1910. Weighing three pounds, it meas-
ures from tip of rostrum to extremity of telson a shade over 266 mm. ;
larger right chela, movable finger, and palm taken together, 188 mm.
Following a personal visit to Washington this past summer, Mr. Allen
kindly donated to the National Museum a very large specimen, but yet
intermediate in size between the two just mentioned, together with
two chelipeds of another specimen or two. The larger of these legs has
3 RaTHBUN, M. J. loc. cit.
JUNE 15, 1933 SCHMITT: MACROBRACHIUM SHRIMPS 015
a chela or claw about seven and five-eighths inches (about 193 mm.)
in length and also a little larger than the larger cheliped of our Devils
River specimen.
Macrobrachium olfersii (Wiegmann) has been found to range from
La Paz, Lower California, to the Rio Sabana, Panama, and from
Vera Cruz, Mexico, to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, including also the West
Indies.* A rather unexpected record for the continental United States
is the one established by Mr. Ranson (mentioned above) for the Al-
eazar Hotel pool, St. Augustine, Florida. These particular specimens
are of fair size, 78 and 81 mm. long, with larger chela of each about
43 mm. long and about 12 and 138 mm. wide respectively. The largest
of this species in the National Museum, by the way, was received
over thirty years ago. It comes from La Situ, Guadeloupe, and from
tip of rostrum to extremity of telson measures 90 mm. long, large
chela about 50 mm. long by 14 mm. wide, exclusive of spines.
Macrobrachium ohionis (Smith), according to the last published
statement regarding its distribution, “is found in the Mississippi and
lower Ohio Rivers (up to Cannelton, Ind.)’’® The specimens of this
species preserved at Washington are mostly from the state of Louisi-
ana, and these chiefly from the lower Mississippi in the general
vicinity of New Orleans and Lake Pontchartrain; with several from
Lake Lapourde, Morgan City, and Calcasieu Pass. Texas is repre-
sented by a number of specimens from the Trinity and Lavaca Rivers,
and a few from Big White Oak Bayou, two miles south of Houston.
On the other hand, we possess but a single record from the state of
Mississippi, a lone individual from Baldwin Lodge, near the Gulf
Coast, and not far from the Louisiana-Mississippi state line; perhaps
to be considered as being in the general region of New Orleans.
It was, therefore, of considerable interest that two shrimp sent
in for determination from Savannah, Georgia, in 1929, by Mr. Ivan
R. Tomkins, of the U. 8. Dredge “Morgan,” should prove to be M.
ohionis. They were found just above the city of Savannah in fresh
water. In May, 1930, he sent two more specimens of M. ohionis, both
ovigerous, from the entrance of the Altamaha River, Georgia; and
just this last June he sent more specimens that were found together at
the foot of East Broad Street (Savannah) in 2-10 feet of water with
the notation that “the water was quite fresh at that stage of the
tide.”’
It was even more surprising to learn, in checking over the Museum’s
4 RatTHBUN, M. J. loc. cit.
5 ORTMANN, A. E. in Warp and WuHipPpLE, Freshwater Biology, p. 845. 1918.
316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
files, that a good many years ago another specimen of this very species
from our southeastern coast had been identified, but never pub-
lished, by Dr. Mary J. Rathbun. This happens to be the largest
specimen of the species in our collection, and perhaps the largest
known. It was collected by Mr. J. W. Milner in 1878 at Avoca, North
Carolina. From the tip of the rostrum to the extremity of the telson -
it is Just about 102 mm. long. The chelae are lacking from the large,
second, pair of legs.
Were it not for this early find of Mr. Milner’s, one would have
been tempted to believe that these usually more tropical Mexican and
Central and South American shrimps, and our own Macrobrachium
ohionis of the Mississippi water-shed and westward were gradually
making their way eastward along the Gulf coast, and northward along
the east coast of the United States.
From what has been here brought together, it would seem that at
least the larger bodies of fresh water of our southern, and central
states, especially rivers which might harbor the larger shrimps,
Macrobrachium, have received altogether too little attention from
biologists. For example, Forbes, back in 1876, recorded® ‘‘Palaemon
ohionis Smith abundant at Cairo, where it is frequently eaten.
Smaller specimens were taken in the Mississippi near Grand Tower,
in Jackson county, and it is reported by boatmen to occur from St.
Louis to New Orleans, growing larger towards the south. It has not
yet been found in the Illinois River.”’
Is M. ohionis confined to the Mississippi below St. Louis and the
lower Ohio to the exclusion of the other larger tributaries of these
rivers? Whether or not, certainly an interesting ecological and dis-
tributional problem is here awaiting study; likewise, with the other
North American species of Macrobrachium.
Except for friends of the Museum and certain amateur naturalists
much interested in the world about them, these extensions of range
would have gone undiscovered. Further observations or notes on these
and any other fresh water shrimps found in the United States as well
as specimens will be greatly appreciated.
While this note was yet in proof I received from Captain Mills another
large freshwater shrimp which he caught in a boat slip at Fogel’s shipyard
close by the railway bridge crossing the Miami River, in Miami, May 17,
1933. It is an old M. jamaicense, 236 mm. long from end of telson to the
tip of rostrum, which appears not to have moulted for some time as it is much
overgrown with serpulid tubes. The larger left chela, fingers and palm to-
6 Forses. List of Illinois Crustacea. Ill. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 1:5. 1876.
JUNE 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY Bis
gether, is approximately 200 mm. long. Compared with the exceptionally
large Silver Springs specimen above, it is about 5-3/4 inches shorter, measured
as Mr. Allen did his, from the hinder margin of the telson to the ends of
the fingers of the extended chelipeds.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
THE ACADEMY
201ST MEETING
The 251st meeting of the Academy was held in the Auditorium of the In-
terior Department Building on Thursday, January 12, 1933. About 240
persons were present. Doctor Marius BarBEau, Ethnologist, National
Museum of Canada, delivered an address illustrated with motion pictures
and lantern slides on French Canada: its survival.
At the close of the address the President declared a recess for a few min-
utes. :
The 35th annual meeting of the AcapDEMy was called to order at 9:45 by
President ADAMs; 31 members were present.
The report of the Corresponding Secretary, Paut E. Hows, showed the
following items of general interest:
Membership: During the year 1932, 29 persons were elected to regular
membership. Of those elected, 27 had accepted and qualified for membership
before the end of the year and 2 had declined membership. Doctor CHARLES
EK. Munrog, Forest Glen, Maryland, was elected to honorary membership
in recognition of his eminence as a chemist, educator, and explosives engi-
neer. Thirty-one resignations were accepted, of which twelve were resident
and 19 non-resident members. The AcaprEmy lost by death 22. The net loss
in membership was therefore 26 or 4.6 per cent.
By request of the President the AcapEmy stood while the Secretary read
the following list of deaths reported during the year:
Louis W. AustTINn
S. lL. Bartey
OuTRAM BANGS
Louis A. BAUER
ALC: Gin
GEORGE K. BurRGEssS
N. A. Coss
G. L. CoyLE
B. K. EMERSON
B. W. EvERMANN
Re aWaARris
C. F. LANGworTHY
C. Dwicut MarsH
WiuuiAM J. HoLLANpD
Ernest Howe
W. B. Parsons
IRWIN G. PRIEST
C. W. RicHMOND
W. A. SLATER
F. W. STEVENS
W.S. THAYER
C. P. TowNsEND
On January 1, 1933, the membership consisted of 15 honorary members,
3 patrons, and 543 members, one of whom was a life member. The total
membership was 561 members, of whom 388 reside in or near the District of
Columbia, 147 in other parts of the continental United States, and 26 in
foreign countries.
The Recording Secretary reported that the 35th year of the AcapEmy be-
gan with the 246th meeting and ended with the 251st meeting. Two of the
six meetings were joint meetings—the 249th with the Geological Society and
the 250th with the Philosophical Society. The minutes of these meetings are
published in the Journal.
318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
The Treasurer reported that the receipts of the AcapEMy during the past
year amounted to $7457.29 including return of investments of $2050.00 and
interest on investments of $1293.03. The disbursements amounted to
$7749.14 including an investment of $2062.50. The bank balance at the end
of the year was $1576.84. The investments of the AcapDEMyY comprise
$6337.50 in stocks, $6808.87 in bonds and $8000.00 in real estate notes mak-
ing a total of $21,146.37 computed on the basis of cost to the AcapEmMy. The
assets of the AcADEMY were estimated as $22,913.03.
The report of the Auditors approving the Treasurer’s accounts was re-
ceived and filed.
Upon motion of Doctor Griaas, thanks of the AcADEMy were extended to
the Treasurer for the wisdom with which he had protected the investments
of the AcADEMY.
The report of the Board of Editors was presented by the Senior Editor,
Hueu L. Drypen. The report stated that volume 22 consisted of 572 pages
and 79 original papers and was illustrated by 23 halftones and 61 line cuts.
The total cost per page, exclusive of reprints, was $6.62. The cost to the
AcaprEmMy of supplying 50 free reprints was approximately $0.60 per page.
The report described the changes of policy authorized by the Board of
Managers as a result of the work of the special Journal Committee, namely,
the change to monthly publication, the contract with Science Service to
provide news notes, the new printing contract, and the attempt to provide
one article of general interest in each issue. Upon motion of L. B. TuckrR-
MAN, a vote of thanks was extended to the Board of Editors for the efficient
handling of the Journal during the past year.
Doctor L. A. Rocrrs, Chairman of the Board of Tellers, reported 164
ballots counted with the election of the following officers: President, RoBERT
F. Griacs; Non-resident Vice-Presidents, F. A. VENING-MEINESz and Ep-
WARD A. BrraeE; Corresponding Secretary, PAuL E. Hown; Recording Secre-
tary, CHARLES THOM; Treasurer, H. G. AvERsS; Managers for the term of three
years ending January, 1936, M. C. Haut and 8. A. ROHWER.
The list of Vice-Presidents nominated by affiliated societies was read by
the Recording Secretary as follows:
Anthropological Society, N. M. Jupp
Archaeological Society, J. TOWNSEND RUSSELL
Bacteriological Society, N. R. Smita
Biological Society, H. H. T. JAckson
Botanical Society, C. L. SHEAR
Chemical Society,. E. WIcHERS
Columbia Historical Society, ALLEN C. CLARK
Electrical Society, E. C. CRITTENDEN
Entomological Society, Haroutp Morrison
Geological Society, F. E. MatTrHes
Helminthological Society, G. STEINER
Medical Society, H. C. MacaTEE
National Geographic, F. V. CoviLLE
Mechanical Engineers, OF Pe Hoop
Military Engineers, C. H. BirDSEYE
Philosophical Society, H. L. Curtis
Society of Foresters, F. C. CRAIGHEAD
C
Washington Engineers, IN. H. Hex
JUNE 15, 1983 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 319
By vote of the AcapEmy the Secretary was directed to cast one ballot for
the list as read and the Vice-Presidents were declared elected. The Chairman
of the Board of Tellers, L. A. Rocmrs, reported the approval of the affilia-
tion of the Washington Section of the Institute of Radio Engineers.
The senior Vice-President, H. L. Curtis was appointed to escort
President Ropert F. Griacas to the chair. The new President addressed the
Academy briefly. He appointed H. L. Drypsn, senior editor, and Vice-
President STEINER as members of the executive committee, and Joun A.
STEVENSON to the Board of Editors. He declared the meeting adjourned at
HO S25:
252ND MEETING
The 252d meeting of the AcapEMy was held in the Assembly Hall of the
Cosmos Club on Thursday, February 16, 1933. About 125 persons were
present. President R. F. Griaes introduced Doctor L. H. Apams, retiring
President of the AcaApEMy, who delivered an address on The basic concept
of the physical sciences.
CHARLES THOM, Recording Secretary.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
The Anthropological Society of Washington at its annual meeting held on
January 17, 1933, elected the following officers for the ensuing year: Pres?-
dent, J. N. B. Hewitt; Vice-president, MatTtHEW W. STIRLING; Secretary,
FranK H. H. Roperts Jr.; Treasurer, Henry B. Couuins Jr.; Vice-
President of the Washington Academy of Sciences, N. M. Jupp; Members of
the Board of Managers, BIREN BONNERJEA, GEORGE S. DuNcAN, HERBERT
W. Krincer, FRANK M. SerzueR, WILLIAM DUNCAN STRONG.
The following i is a report of the ‘membership and activities of the Sie ay
since the annual meeting held on January 19, 1932.
Membership:
ite members... 7-2 =; Hod W REG R gO hat A QUCRUS Age te R= sk RM Reo Ta, 3
ANCCUANG OS TN GUIT OVE shy eee Ee RR ee ca ae saree eee 52
PRSSOCIALERIMETMI CHS ey as uc Pees Se Secs A ei Red SR 6
RON OHA EyMUNCTINOCES tere a eure tere 8 Se Se crtece eng se ges 22
Corresponding members. 201 aes oo Py te Bae Ee ee on 22
Total 105
Deceased:
PGULVEEIMGMID Ensen er cs oe het Sc es hans ven en 2
Dike mem persue ae oe i be ee he OS ee il
FQN OnArRy MVE MUMENS reo. Ga is a ee ty SO ae a a 1
Total 4
Resigned:
INGCLIVEEIMNEIMDEnSeree eae «Sas Bee bee | lates eae 4
ASSOCIATE MIME DOTS tate he er ae Ne ee oe, Goreme ebrtoatae il
New Members:
IM GUPNAESE Bae & SHOR oe ie TE EAE EE Tea a tL 3
Transferred:
INCUIVELCOMASSOCIAUE Rt) ao eR tse Si ee iten cee es Ua ds il
The Society lost through death the following members: Dr. DANIEL
FouLKMaR, past secretary, July 21, 1932; and Dr. Francis LAFLESCHE, past
president, September 5, 1932; active members. Baron ERLAND NORDEN-
SKIOLD, July 1932, honorary member. Mrs. F. Witson PorpEeNor, December
30, 1932, life member.
320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
Members resigning at the close of the year were: H. S. Bernton, W. H.
JAcKSON, Henry C. MacAtTes, and R. H. REIcHELDERFER, from the active
list; and F. Witson PoPENOE from the associate group.
Members elected during the year were: Erik K. RrEep, FRanK M.
SETZLER, and LOREN L. WEDLOCK.
Mr. Marcus Go.LpsTEIN transferred his membership from active to
associate. i
The financial statement (Treasurer’s report) is as follows:
Funds invested in Perpetual Building Association............... $1034.15
21 Shares Washington Sanitary Improvement Co., par value $10
per Share . oo) a6s we Sie oe ee ee ee ee 210.00
2 Shares Washington Sanitary Housing Co., par value $100 per
SHALE . Oh hel igs cis, 3 8 OR be ee ee eee 200.00
(sho otk Fee ei Sects oc et ge 201.84
Total $1645.99
Bills outstandime? ...3)..9 3.) 2 oor Sha i Ce eee None
Papers presented before regular meetings of the Society were as follows:
January 19, 1932. 636th regular meeting. The Indians of the Northern
Plains, by Dr. Ropert H. Lowi, professor in anthropology, University of
California.
February 25, 1932. 637th regular meeting. The archeology of the Southwest,
from the basket makers to the pueblos, by N. M. Jupp, curator of archeology,
U.S. National Museum. The ethnology of the pueblo peoples in contrast to the
other peoples of the Southwest, by Dr. Wm. Duncan Strona, ethnologist,
Bureau of American Ethnology. By vote of the Board of Managers this
meeting was changed from the regular date, February 23 to the 25th.
March 15, 1932. 638th regular meeting. Recent excavations in France and
Czechoslovakia, by J. TOWNSEND RUSSELL JR., honorary collaborator in Old
World Archeology, U. 8. National Museum.
April 19, 1932. 639th regular meeting. World history as a cultural tug of
war, by Dr. Joan M. Coopnr, Catholic University of America. This was the
retiring presidential address.
October 18, 1932. 640th regular meeting. The Jivaro Indians of eastern
Ecuador, by MatrHew W. STIRLING, chief, Bureau of American Ethnology.
November 15, 1932. 641st regular meeting. In the Brazilian wilderness, an
account of the Matto Grosso expedition to Brazil, by VINCENzO M. PETRULLO,
University of Pennsylvania Museum.
December 20, 1932. 642d regular meeting. Bush Negroes and Choco Indians
of northwest Colombia, by W. A. ARCHER.
Papers presented before special meetings of the Society were as follows:
January 5, 1932. Indians of the Great Basin, by Dr. Ropert H. Lowi,
professor in anthropology, University of California.
February 11, 1932. The Indians of California, by Dr. A. L. KROEBER,
professor in anthropology, University of California.
A special joint meeting with the American Association of Physical Anthro-
pologists was held on March 22, 1932, in the auditorium of the U. 8S. Na-
tional Museum. Dr. CarL von Horrman spoke on the subject, The wild
tribes of Formosa.
The special meetings of January 5 and February 11, and the regular meet-
ings of January 19 and February 25 were held in the auditorium of the U.S.
National Museum. The remaining regular meetings were held in Room
42-32 of the museum building.
JUNE 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS By AI
The meetings of January 5, January 19, February 11, and February 25,
together with that held on December 15, 1931, formed a special series of five
lectures relating to the Indian Tribes of western North America.
FRANK H. H. Rosperts JR., Secretary
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Prepared by Science Service
NOTES
National Academy of Sciences —The National Academy of Sciences held
its regular spring meeting in Washington on April 24, 25 and 26, with sixty-
three papers on its program, nine of which were by Washingtonians or by
scientists affliated with Washington institutions. The principal evening lec-
ture was by Dr. THomas Hunt Mora@an of the California Institute of Tech-
nology, on The bearing of genetics on the theory of evolution.
The Academy dinner, on the evening of Tuesday, April 25, was addressed
by Dr. W. W. CAMPBELL, President of the Academy, who called particular
attention to the condition of stress and anxiety in many research institutions,
due to the curtailment or threatened curtailment of necessary support. He
urged that the scientific work of the federal government in Washington
should be preserved and continued because the scientific bureaus of the
government undertake work of great benefit to the nation which cannot be
done by universities or other research institutions.
Medals awarded by the Academy were: the Alexander Agassiz Medal to
Dr. ALBERT Derant of the Institut fiir Meereskunde, Berlin; the Public
Welfare Medal to Dr. Witut1am H. Parx of New York City; the John J.
Carty Medal and Award, a newly established honor of the Academy, post-
humously to Dr. JoHn J. Carry; the Henry Draper Medal to Dr. V. M.
SLIPHER, Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Ariz.; and the Mary Clark Thomp-
son Medal to Dr. Francis ARTHUR BaTHER, of Wimbledon, England. Four-
teen persons were elected to membership in the Academy.
An outstanding event of the Academy meeting was the demonstration
concert by the Philadelphia Symphony Orchestra, on the evening of Thurs-
day, April 26, at Constitution Hall. It was played in Philadelphia, trans-
mitted to Washington by three special telephone circuits, and reproduced on
the stage by three loudspeakers, with Director LEoPoLD Stokowsky at the
controls. In addition to the rendition of a full concert, with volume and tonal
effects quite beyond the reach of an orchestra as ordinarily conducted, the
audience was treated to an explanatory lecture by Dr. HaRvrey FLETCHER,
of the Bell Telephone Laboratories, who also demonstrated some of the
mechanics of the extraordinary sound control made possible by the method.
American Philosophical Society.—Several Washington scientists presented
papers at the meeting of the American Philosophical Society, which met at
Philadelphia on April 20, 21 and 22. Dr. Anes Hrpuicxa of the U. 8. Na-
tional Museum spoke on The forehead: tts esthetic and anthropological values.
The subject of Marraew W. Stiruine, Chief of the Bureau of Ethnology,
Smithsonian Institution, was Jivaro Shamanism. Dr. ELMER A. HARRINGTON
of the U. S. Bureau of Standards presented a report on Further experiments
on the continual generation of heat in certain silicates. Three members of the
staff of the Carnegie Institution of Washington also read papers. They were:
322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
Dr. Atrrep V. KippER, on Mayan explorations and their results; Dr.
Francis G. BENEDICT, on Human gaseous metabolism in atmospheres of pure
oxygen; and Dr. Oscar RIDDLE, on Differentiating some functions of anterior
pituitary hormones.
American Geophysical Union.—The fourteenth annual meeting of the
American Geophysical Union was held at the building of the National
Academy of Sciences, on April 27, 28 and 29. Jointly with the Union, the
Eastern Section of the Seismological Society of America also held its meeting,
part of the sessions taking place at Georgetown University. A full program
of papers was presented. During the meeting, on Friday noon, April 28,
Rev. JAMES B. MacELWANE, 8.J., of St. Louis University, broadcast a radio
talk on Harthquakes, what are they? over the nationwide network of the
Columbia Broadcasting System, under the auspices of Science Service.
American Meteorological Society—The American Meteorological Society
met on the morning of Saturday, April 29, at the U. 8. Weather Bureau.
An outstanding feature of its program was a paper by Prof. Lars VEGARD,
professor of physics at the Kongelige Frederiks University, Oslo, on The
aurorae and the high strata of the atmosphere. Prof. Vegard also presented
papers before the National Academy of Sciences, and the American Geo-
physical Union. 4
Other Scientific Meetings ——During late April and early May Washington
was host to the Acoustical Society of America, the American Physical So-
ciety, the Horological Institute of America, the Catholic Anthropological
Conference, and a group of seventeen medical, surgical and Beige
societies.
Sigma Xi.—The annual dinner and meeting of the Washington chapter of
the Society of Sigma Xi was held at the University Club on the evening of
Tuesday, May 9. Dr. ALExANDER T. WermoreE of the U. S. National
Museum was elected president for the ensuing two-year period. The meeting
was addressed by Dr. Paut R. Bartscu of the U.S. National Museum. Dr.
Bartsch also spoke before the Sigma Xi Club of George Washington Uni-
versity on the evening of Monday, May 15.
At Georgetown University School of Medicine-—Dr. O. S. Grpss, Professor
of Physiology at the School of Medicine, University of Georgia, has been
appointed Professor of Physiology and Chairman of the Department of
Physiology. Dr. Gibbs has recently carried out very interesting researches
on the nature of autonomic hormones. He has shown that certain drugs and
chemicals are able to inhibit the enzyme which normally destroys the para-
sympathetic substance, acetyl-cholin, in the blood. Thus if eserin, for ex-
ample, is injected into the blood stream and then the parasympathetic nerve
to the salivary glands is stimulated one obtains not only increased salivation
but also inhibition of the heart. (Because the acetyl-cholin is now not de-
stroyed by the blood for the destructive enzyme is neutralized by eserin.)
Dr. Wautace M. Yarsr, Professor of Medicine, discovered the first
known cases of congenital heart-block due to anatomical discontinuity of the
conductive system of the heart: the bundle of His. Dr. Yater has also been
using thorium dioxide for x-ray examination of the spleen and arteries.
Professor GEORGE A. BENNETT of the Department of Anatomy has been
investigating the effect of thorium dioxide on tuberculous guinea pigs. He
JUNE 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS O20
finds that certain strains of bacilli which cause only localized lesions in the
lungs become more destructive and produce generalized tuberculosis if the
animal has been previously treated by thorium dioxide.
Dr. THEODORE Koppany1, of the Department of Pharmacology, and his -
associates discovered a very specific and sensitive test for veronal and its
derivatives. This test already has found wide clinical application. Also this
test made it possible for the first time in the history of pharmacology to
follow the fate of the drug in the human and animal body and account for
almost every milligram injected.
Dr. J. Bay Jacoss of the Department of Obstetrics investigated the
effects of the much discussed new drug, dilaudid, in labor and found that it
possesses no advantages over morphine.
Present Papers on Mammalogy.—Papers by five members of the Bureau of
Biological Survey were presented at the fifteenth annual meeting of the
American Society of Mammalogists, held at the Biological Institute of
Harvard University, in Cambridge, Mass., May 9 to 13. A paper by VERNON
Batuey dealt with The importance of types and type localities in the study of
mammals and one by EH. A. GoLDMAN discussed The isolation factor in the
evolution of species. Dr. H. H. T. JAcKson, a member of the society’s board
of directors, spoke on Preservation of teeth of larger mammals. The title of an
address by Dr. T. 8. PALMER was Are there sixty thousand antelope in the
United States and Canada? Illustrated with slides, a paper by Cuas. C.
SPERRY, of the Bureau’s Denver (Colo.) food-habits research laboratory,
dealt with the subject, Fall food habits of coyotes, a report of progress, 1932.
FREDERIC WINTHROP, JR., of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, spoke
on A collecting trip Across Northern Mexico, made last winter in company
with VERNON BalILey, of the Biological Survey. The report was illustrated
with motion pictures and slides. The Biological Survey was also represented
by its associate chief, W. C. HENDERSON, and by E. A. PREBLE, chairman
of the society’s editorial board, and Mrs. Vioua S. SNyDER, treasurer of the
society.
VERNON BatLey, chief field naturalist of the Biological Survey, was elected
president of the society for the coming year.
NeEws BRIEFS
The construction of the building and dome of the new 15-inch photo-
graphic refractor of the Naval Observatory is nearly completed. The objec-
tive, of the triplet type, is being made by Ropert LuNDIN and the mounting
by Warner and Swasey.
During the months of March and April, ALBERT E. ScaRLett, of Mount
Vernon, N. Y. (amateur radio station W2CC), through whom radio mes-
sages from the Watheroo Magnetic Observatory in Western Australia are
received, succeeded in establishing a long record for daily contacts with
H. M. Coopsr, Glenelg, South Australia (VK5HG). By April 13, he had
succeeded in securing sixteen or seventeen such contacts without a miss, a
remarkable feat considering the low power of both stations.
The following officers were elected at the 54th Annual Meeting of the
Biological Society of Washington on April 29:—President, C. E. Cuam-
BLISS; Vice-Presidents, C. W. Stiuus, T. E. Snyper, H. C. Futumr, T. H.
KEARNEY; Recording Secretary, 8. F. Buake; Corresponding Secretary, Jor
324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 6
S. Wang; Treasurer, F. C. Lincotn; Members of Council, W. R. Maxon,
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PERSONAL ITEMS
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Professor Exuiot R. Cuark of the University of Pennsylvania delivered
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Spontaneous activity of capillaries.
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Jury 15, 1933. ome No. 7
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Worn. 23 domme 15, 1933 No. 7
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY .—The ray-surface, the optical indicatrix, and
their interrelation: An elementary presentation for petrographers.!
GEORGE TUNELL, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution
of Washington.
INTRODUCTION
The definitions of terms and the treatments of the elementary prin-
ciples of optical crystallography in American text-books are in some
respects unsatisfactory from the viewpoint of the petrographer. Clear
and accurate statements are to be found in Pockels’s ‘“‘Lehrbuch der
Kristalloptik,” published in 1906. But Pockels’s statements of ele-
mentary theory are scattered through mathematical discussions of
more advanced problems, and for this reason apparently they have
not received the attention that they deserve from American students
of petrography. In order to make this material more readily available,
the two fundamental theorems of optical crystallography are restated
in this paper in very simple geometrical form without, mathematical
equations, and some of the chief applications of these theorems in
petrography are discussed. A new geometrical construction is given
for the first theorem in the case of biaxial crystals that is equivalent
to the construction of Pockels but is simpler and much more easily
visualized in practical applications.
ISOTROPIC SUBSTANCES
In substances belonging to the isometric system of crystallization
or other isotropic substances, light of a single color emanating from
a point-source radiates in all directions with equal velocities; at the
end of unit time light of a single color will have traveled the same
distance from the central point-source along each ray. The surface to
which hight has spread along all the rays is a sphere and this surface
1 Received April 18, 1933.
3
S0E a
326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
is known as the ray-surface.? This surface is also sometimes called the
wave-surface® because it represents the light wave that has spread out
from the point-source as it exists for an instant at the end of unit
time. In the present form of the wave theory the waves of light are
electromagnetic waves, and the light is propagated in the form of
transverse, electromagnetic vibrations. In isotropic crystals all direc-
tions perpendicular to a given ray-direction are possible vibration
directions of rays having the given ray-direction.
UNIAXIAL SUBSTANCES
In crystals of the tetragonal and hexagonal systems, light of a sin-
gle color traveling in any ray-direction oblique to the crystallographic
c-axis has two different ray-velocities; moreover one of these ray-
velocities varies with the direction. The ray-surface of such erystals
consists,of an ellipsoid of revolution and a sphere internally or ex-
ternally tangent to it at the ends of the rotation-axis of the ellipsoid.
The radi of the ray-surface represent the distances to which light
travels along the rays in unit time. This two-sheeted surface is also
sometimes called the wave-surface because it represents the double
light-wave that has spread out from a point-source as it exists for an
instant at the end of unit time. The vibration direction of any ray
belonging to the spherical part of the ray-surface (such a ray is called
an ordinary ray) is perpendicular to a section through the ray-surface
containing the ray under consideration and the rotation-axis of the
ray-surface (such a section is called a principal section of a uniaxial
crystal). The vibration direction of any ray belonging to the ellip-
soidal part of the ray-surface (such a ray is called an extraordinary
ray) lies in the principal section and is assumed in the electromagnetic
theory‘ to be parallel to the plane tangent to the ray-surface at the
* This statement and the remainder of this discussion apply to crystals without
rotatory power. For petrographers, consideration of crystals with rotatory power is rela-
tively unimportant, as Rosenbusch and Wiilfing have stated. Those who desire infor-
mation concerning the ray-surfaces of crystals with rotatory power, which are more
complicated than the ray-surfaces of crystals without rotatory power, should consult
ae i ‘Lehrbuch der Kristalloptik,” pp. 307-309, also p. 332 (paragraph at top of
page).
3 This is the usage of Pockels, Wright, and nearly all other authors; Johannsen,
however, applies the term wave-surface to a different surface (one to which it seems
much less appropriate).
4 At the present time it is no mere academic suggestion that petrographers adhere
to the usage of the term vibration direction that is consistent with the electromagnetic
theory. In the first place the only physical significance that can be attached to the
basic concepts of optical crystallography today comes from the electromagnetic theory.
In the second place, refractive indices and orientations of numerous anisotropic sub-
stances have recently been calculated approximately from a knowledge of their crystal
structures by means of the electromagnetic theory. Such calculations are not intended
to replace direct measurements of refractive indices, but are of great importance in
ponrelauine the different branches of crystallography—geometrical, optical, and struc-
tural,
JULY 15, 1933 TUNELL: RAY SURFACE AND INDICATRIX old
end of the extraordinary ray under consideration. Thus in general the
vibration direction of an extraordinary ray is not perpendicular to
the ray.5
Geometrically associated with each ray is a wave-front. The wave-
front of an ordinary ray is a plane perpendicular to the ray, since the
ray-surface of the ordinary rays is a sphere. The wave-front of an
extraordinary ray, however, is not perpendicular to it in general, but
is a plane tangent to the ray-surface at the end of the extraordinary
ray in question (that is, tangent to the ellipsoidal part of the ray-
surface); this tangent plane is only normal to the extraordinary ray
if the extraordinary ray be parallel or perpendicular to the rotation-
axis of the ray-surface. The perpendicular distance from the central
point-source of light to any plane wave-front (plane tangent to the
ray-surface) is the measure of the velocity of the wave. Along the
rotation-axis of the ray-surface all rays travel with the same velocity;
moreover the wave-normals associated with these rays coincide with
the rays in direction and the velocity of the waves is equal to the
velocity of the rays. This direction of the ray-surface (the rotation-
axis) is called the optic axis, and crystals of the tetragonal and hex-
agonal systems are called uniaxial because they have one (and only
one) optic axis.
By definition the refractive index is equal to the reciprocal of the
wave-velocity and, in general, it differs from the reciprocal of the
ray-velocity.®:7
In applications of the theory of optical crystallography to practical
problems of mineralogy and petrography, such as the determination
of minerals, the directions perpendicular to the wave-fronts (these
directions are called wave-normals) and the wave-velocities play more
important réles than the ray-directions and the ray-velocities. Thus
Wright® says that:
®> For a comparison of the newer usage with the older usage of the term vibration
direction based on the solid elastic theory of light see TUNELL, G., and Morey, G. W.
Am. Mineral. 17: 365. 1932.
6 This is the usage of Pockels, Wright, Rosenbusch, Wiilfing, Niggli, Johannsen,
Bouasse, and Dupare and Pearce. With this usage the fundamental law of refraction
in anisotropic as well as isotropic crystals is expressed by the equation, n=——
where n denotes the refractive index, 7 the angle of incidence of the wave-normal in a
vacuum, and 7 the angle of refraction of the wave-normal in the crystal. If the refrac-
tive index be set equal to the reciprocal of the ray-velocity then the refractive in-
dex goes not enter the fundamental equation of refraction in the case of anisotropic
crystals.
7 The reciprocal of the ray-velocity has been called the ray-index in distinction
from the refractive index. Born, M. Atomtheorie des festen Zustandes (Dynamik der
Kristallgitter) 2nd ed. p. 602. 1923.
8 Wricut, F. E. The index ellipsoid (optical indicatrix) in petrographic microscope -
328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO.7
“Tn rock thin-sections the crystal plates are very thin and most of the ob-
servations are made in either central or slightly oblique illumination. Under
these conditions it is simpler and more direct to consider only the wave-
front normals (i.e. directions perpendicular to the wave-fronts) and to leave
the rays entirely out of the discussion. This statement does not mean that
the significance of rays should be passed over in silence but simply that for
the working petrographer the conception of the wave-front normals is suffi-
cient to explain practically all the phenomena which he encounters.”
In practical problems of mineralogy and petrography, as well as in
problems of the theory of optical crystallography, it has been found
extremely helpful to introduce another reference surface called the
optical indicatrix. The optical indicatrix of a uniaxial crystal is an
ellipsoid of rotation and, unlike the ray-surface, consists of a single
sheet. The length of the radius along the rotation-axis of the indica-
trix is set equal to the refractive index, e, of an extraordinary wave
propagated at right angles to the rotation-axis (all such extraordinary
waves have the same refractive index); the length of the equatorial.
radius of the indicatrix is set equal to the refractive index, w, of an
ordinary wave. Each radius vector of the indicatrix represents a vi-
bration direction and its length is the measure of the refractive index
of a wave vibrating along it.
By means of the optical indicatrix one can solve the following two
important practical problems very easily, as will be shown in the suc-
ceeding paragraphs.
Problem I. Given the direction of a ray, OS, with respect to the
optical indicatrix (Fig. 1). Required to find the directions of the two
wave-normals associated with it, also the refractive indices of the two
waves, and lastly the vibration directions and velocities of the two
rays propagated along OS. Construction: Pass a plane through the
given ray, OS, and the optic axis, Oe (plane of the paper in Fig. 1).
In the plane of the paper draw the diameter conjugate to the ray, OS.
(Note. One diameter of an ellipse is conjugate to a second diameter
if, and only if, the first diameter be parallel to the tangents to the
ellipse at the ends of the second diameter.) Then OP,, the conjugate
to OS, is the vibration direction of the extraordinary ray propagated
along OS and the normal to the plane of the paper is the vibration
direction of the ordinary ray propagated along OS; moreover the dis-
tance, OP,, represents the refractive index of the extraordinary wave,
and the radius of the indicatrix normal to the plane of the paper repre-
sents the refractive index of the ordinary wave. Draw the line, ON,,
work. Am. Journ. Sci. 35: 135. 1913. With this discussion of Wright the present
paper is in complete agreement. Niggli takes the same view. (Lehrbuch der Mineralo-
gie, 1. Allgemeine Mineralogie. 2nd ed. p. 368. 1924.)
JULY 15, 1933 TUNELL: RAY SURFACE AND INDICATRIX 329
perpendicular to OP, in the plane of the paper. The line, ON,, is the
wave-normal of the extraordinary ray and the wave-normal of the
ordinary ray coincides with OS. Lastly draw a perpendicular to the
elliptical section at P,; this perpendicular intersects OS in Q,. Then
is the velocity of the extraordinary ray propagated along OS,
1lY¥1
Fig. 1.—Section through the indicatrix of a uniaxial crystal illustrating the con-
struction of Problem I.
and the reciprocal of the radius of the indicatrix normal to the plane
of the paper is the velocity of the ordinary ray propagated along OS.
Problem II. Given the direction of a wave-normal, ON, with re-
spect to the indicatrix (Fig. 2). Required to find the refractive indices
of the two waves propagated along it, also the directions and veloci-
ties of the two rays associated with these two waves, and lastly the
vibration directions of the two rays. Construction: Pass a plane
through the wave-normal, ON, and the optic axis, Oe (plane of the
paper in Fig. 2). In the plane of the paper draw OP, perpendicular to
ON. Then OP, is the vibration direction of the extraordinary ray and
the distance, OP,, represents the refractive index of the extraordinary
wave. The radius of the indicatrix perpendicular to the plane of the
paper is the vibration direction of the ordinary ray and it also repre-
sents the refractive index of the ordinary wave. At P, draw the per-
pendicular to the elliptical section. Through O draw a line normal to
the perpendicular from P,; this normal, OS,, intersects the perpendic-
ular to the elliptical section in Q;. Then OS, is the direction of the
extraordinary ray and is the velocity of the extraordinary ray.
1YVI
The ordinary ray coincides with ON and its velocity is equal to the
330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
reciprocal of the radius of the indicatrix perpendicular to the plane
of the paper.
The construction of Problem II solves the standard problem of the
determination of the extinction positions and birefringence of a thin-
section of a mineral grain observed in approximately parallel light.
In this case the incident wave-normal is assumed to be perpendicular
to the plane, parallel-sided plate, and passes through the plate with-
Fig. 2.—Section through the indicatrix of a uniaxial crystal illustrating the con-
struction of Problem II.
out change of direction in accordance with the fundamental law of
refraction. In the general case of a wave-normal in an isotropic me-
dium striking an anisotropic crystal plate at any angle, the fundamen-
tal law of refraction is as follows:
No Si 1 — Mm SIM 1 — Ne Sia i>
where n> denotes the refractive index of the isotropic medium, 7 the
angle of incidence of the wave-normal, 7: and nz the refractive indices
of the plate for the two refracted wave-normals corresponding to the
incident wave-normal, and r:; and r, the angles of refraction of the
two wave-normals inside the crystal plate corresponding to the given
incident wave-normal. In the special case of a wave-normal incident
perpendicularly the angles 7, and rz are both zero; inside the crystal
plate two waves are propagated along the given wave-normal with
different wave-velocities, however. The vibration directions of the two
rays associated with the two waves lie in the plane of the plate. A
plane passed through the center of the indicatrix parallel to the plane
of the plate intersects the indicatrix in an ellipse, the major and
minor diameters of which are the vibration directions of the plate.
JULY 15, 1933 TUNELL: RAY SURFACE AND INDICATRIX ool
The difference in length of the major and minor radii of the ellipse is
the measure of the birefringence of the mineral section.
Practical and theoretical problems concerning uniaxial crystals
could be solved by means of the ray-surface almost as conveniently
as with the indicatrix; the ray-surface of biaxial crystals is much more
complicated, however, and the solution of most problems by means
of it is impracticable. An oblique section of the ray-surface of a biaxial
crystal is not composed of circles and ellipses but of more complicated
curves not readily visualized without computation and plotting.
BIAXIAL SUBSTANCES
After the discovery of the form of the ray-surface of uniaxial crys-
tals by Huygens the attempt was made by Young to generalize it and
to obtain thus the ray-surface of crystals belonging to the orthorhom-
bic, monoclinic, and triclinic systems (biaxial crystals), but the at-
tempt was not successful. Sometime later, however, Fresnel succeeded
in generalizing a single-sheeted reference surface analogous to the
indicatrix, and from the generalized single-sheeted reference surface
he obtained for the first time the true ray-surface of biaxial crystals.
The indicatrix of a biaxial crystal is a triaxial ellipsoid® the dimen-
sions (diameters) of which, measured along the axes, are 2a, 28, and
27, where a, 8, and y denote the principal refractive indices of the
substance, a<@6<vy. Each radius vector of the indicatrix represents
a vibration direction and its length is the measure of the refractive
index of a wave vibrating along it. All plane sections passing through
the center of the indicatrix of a biaxial crystal are ellipses except two,
which are circles. The two circular sections include the intermediate
axis of the triaxial ellipsoid (@-axis), and both circular sections have
radii of length 6. The directions perpendicular to the two circular
sections are called the optic axes or binormals. There is a certain
analogy between the optic axes of a biaxial crystal and the optic axis
of a uniaxial crystal, since all wave-normals coincident with an optic
axis of a biaxial crystal have the same refractive indices and have
vibration directions in all azimuths in the circular sections; however,
the analogy is not complete, since the rays corresponding to these
wave-normals do not coincide with the wave-normals, with one ex-
ception in the case of the wave-normals along each optic axis.
® For the description and equation of a triaxial ellipsoid, see Oscoon, W. F., and
GRAUSTEIN, W. C. Plane and solid analytic geometry. pp. 548, 549. 1922.
For the equation of the indicatrix of biaxial crystals see RosENBuScH’s Mzkro-
skopische Physitographie der petrographisch wichtigen Mineralien, 1: Erste Halfte, 5th
ed., WULFING, E. A. 1 Lief., p. 125. 1921, or PocKELs. op. cit., p. 33.
332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
In the indicatrix of a biaxial crystal, as in the indicatrix of a uni-
axial crystal, a ray drawn in a random direction, the wave-normal
associated with the ray, the vibration direction belonging to the ray
and wave-normal, and also the perpendicular to the indicatrix at the
Nn =
Fig. 3—A ray drawn in a random direction, the wave-normal associated with the
ray, the vibration direction common to the ray and the wave-normal, and the common
perpendicular to the ray and the indicatrix at the end of the radius representing the
vibration direction all lie in a plane. Legend: OS, ray; ON, wave-normal; OP, vibration
direction; PQ, common perpendicular to ray and indicatrix at end of radius represent-
ing vibration direction.
end of the radius representing the vibration direction all lie in a
plane; moreover the perpendicular to the indicatrix at the end of the
radius representing the vibration direction is also perpendicular to
the ray (Fig. 3).!° Thus by means of the indicatrix one can solve two
problems, I’ and II’, for biaxial crystals by constructions analogous
to those already explained for uniaxial crystals. The problems and
solutions are as follows.
Problem I’. Given the direction of a ray, OS, with respect to the
optical indicatrix (Fig. 4). Required to find the directions of the two
wave-normals associated with it, also the refractive indices of the
two waves, and lastly the vibration directions and velocities of the
two rays propagated along OS. Construction: Pass a plane through
10 PocKELs, F. op. cit., pp. 48, 52, 53. FLetTcHER, L. The optical indicatriz and
the transmission of light in crystals. pp. 32, 50, 51, 52. 1892.
JULY 15, 1933 TUNELL: RAY SURFACE AND INDICATRIX Sao
the center of the indicatrix conjugate to the given ray, OS. (Note. A
diametral plane is conjugate to a given diameter of a triaxial ellip-
soid if, and only if, it be parallel to the planes tangent to the ellipsoid
at the ends of the given diameter.)!! The conjugate plane intersects
the indicatrix in an ellipse (which in two special cases reduces to a
circle) ; the major and minor diameters of this ellipse, P,P,’ and P,P)’,
are the vibration directions of the two rays propagated along OS, and
the distances, OP, and OP, represent the refractive indices of the two
Fig. 4.—Perspective drawing of the construction of Problem I’.
waves associated with the two rays. The wave-normal corresponding
to the ray propagated along OS and vibrating along P,P,’ lies in a
plane through OS and P,P,’ and is normal to P;P,’. Similarly the
wave-normal corresponding to the ray propagated along OS and vi-
brating along P,P,’ les in a plane through OS and P,P,’ and is nor-
mal to P,P,’. Draw the perpendiculars to the indicatrix at P, and P,;
these perpendiculars intersect OS in Q, and Q». Then is the ve-
1Wl
locity of the ray propagated along OS and vibrating along P,P,’, and
P.O is the velocity of the ray propagated along OS and vibrating
22
along P,P,’. It may be noted in conclusion that the planes, SON, and
SON>, are perpendicular; in other words, the wave-normals, ON, and
ON,, lie in perpendicular planes the intersection of which is OS. P:Q,
11 Oscoop, W. F., and GRAUSTEIN, W. C. op. cit., Unnumbered exercise immediately
following Theorem 1 on page 570, also Theorems 3 and 4 on page 571. Or alternatively,
SaLMON, GreorGE A. A treatise on the analytic geometry of three dimensions. (Revised by
RoGcERS, R. A. Pe. sth ed-+1: 90: 1912:
334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
and P,Q, also lie in the planes, SON, and SONsz, respectively, and
P,Q, and P,Q, are both perpendicular to OS.! |
Problem II’. Given the direction of a wave-normal, ON, with re-
spect to the indicatrix (Fig. 5). Required to find the refractive indices
of the two waves propagated along it, also the directions and veloci-
ties of the two rays associated with these two waves, and lastly the
a? ae mn
— EE ee cz:
‘i
Py
ae
Fig. 5—Perspective drawing of the construction of Problem II’.
vibration directions of the two rays. Construction: Pass a plane
through the indicatrix perpendicular to the given wave-normal, ON.
This plane intersects the indicatrix in an ellipse (which in two special
cases reduces to a circle); the major and minor diameters, P,P,’ and
P.P,’, of this ellipse are the vibration directions of the two rays corre-
sponding to the given wave-normal, and the distances, OP, and OP,,
represent the refractive indices of the two waves propagated along
ON. At P, and P, draw lines perpendicular to the indicatrix. Through
12 The construction given in Problem I’ is based on that of PocKE.s (op. cit. p. 54)
and arrives at the same results, but reaches the results by a slightly different call con-
siderably simpler route. Thus in the construction given here the elliptical section con-
taining the vibration directions is obtained as a diametral section parallel to the tangent
plane at the end of the given ray, whereas in Pockels’s book the elliptical section is
obtained as the plane section containing all the points of tangency of a cylinder the
elements of which are parallel to the given ray. The construction used here has a very
substantial advantage in practical problems since the tangent plane at the end of the
given ray and the diametral plane parallel to this tangent plane are readily visualized
as soon as the indicatrix and ray are given, whereas the tangent cylinder is difficult to
visualize and even if pictured correctly offers relatively little aid to one’s geometrical
intuition in locating the desired elliptical section.
JULY 15, 1933 TUNELL: RAY SURFACE AND INDICATRIX 330
O draw lines normal to the perpendiculars from P; and P;; these nor-
mals, OS, and OS., intersect the perpendiculars to the indicatrix in
Q, and Q,. Then OS, and OS, are the directions of the two rays corre-
sponding to the two waves propagated along ON and vibrating along
OP, and OP, respectively. The velocities of the rays, OS; and OSz2,
respectively. It may be noted in conclu-
1 il
and
PQ: PQ»
sion that the planes, NOS, and NOS», are perpendicular; in other
words, the two rays, OS, and OSs, lie in perpendicular planes the in-
tersection of which is ON; moreover the vibration directions, OP, and
OP., lie in the planes, NOS, and NOS, respectively. The lines, P.Q,
and P.Q., also lie in the planes, NOS, and NOS:, respectively, but,
unlike OP; and OP,, the lines, P:Q, and PQ», are not themselves
perpendicular in this case.'®
The ray-surface™ of a biaxial crystal can easily be developed from
the indicatrix by means of the constructions given in Problem I’./A
picture of a model of the ray-surface of a biaxial crystal (after Johann-
sen) is given in Fig. 6. In particular the principal sections of the ray-
surface are readily deduced. In the plane of the indicatrix, By, two
rays are propagated along each radius. One of these rays has the
velocity, 1/a, in every direction in the plane, By, and gives rise to a
circle. The other of these rays has a velocity that varies with the
direction in the plane, By, from a minimum of 1/y to a maximum of
1/8, and gives rise to an ellipse. This ellipse lies wholly within the
circle in the plane, By, since 1/a>1/8>1/y. In the plane, a8, two
rays are propagated along each radius. One has the velocity, 1/y, in
every direction in the plane, a@, and gives rise to a circle. The other
has a velocity that varies with the direction in the plane, a, from a
minimum of 1/8 to a maximum of 1/a, and gives rise to an ellipse.
This ellipse lies wholly outside the circle in the plane, aG, since
1/a>1/8>1/y. In the plane, ay, also, two rays are propagated along
each radius. One has the velocity, 1/6, in every direction in the plane,
ay, and gives rise to a circle. The other has a velocity that varies with
the direction in the plane, ay, from a minimum of 1/y to a maximum
of 1/a and gives rise to an ellipse. The ellipse and the circle in the
plane, ay, intersect, since 1/a>1/6>1/y, and their four common
points are lettered u, u’, u’’, and u’”’ in Fig. 9. In the directions, uw’
and u’’w"’’, there is only a single ray-velocity since the points, u, w’,
are equal to
13 Based on the construction of Pockels. op. cit., p. 54.
14 For the equation of the ray-surface of biaxial cry stals, see ROoSENBUSCH and WiiL-
FING. op. cit., p. 124, or POCKELS. op. cit., p. 41.
336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
u’’, and w’"’ are common to both sheets of the ray-surface. The direc-
tions, wu’ and u’’u’”’, are called the ray-axes or biradials. In most
crystals the angle between an optic axis (binormal) and the adjacent
Fig. 6— Model of the ray-surface of a biaxial crystal. (After Johannsen.)
Fig.7 Fig.8
Figs. 7, 8, 9—Principal sections of the ray-surface of a biaxial crystal. In Fig. 7
the plane of the drawing is the plane, By, and the direction of the major diameter of
the ellipse is that of the y-axis; the direction of its minor diameter is that of the 6-axis.
In Fig. 8 the plane of the drawing is the plane, a8, and the direction of the major di-
ameter of the ellipse is that of the 6-axis; the direction of its minor diameter is that of
the a-axis. In Fig. 9 the plane of the drawing is the plane, ay, and the direction of the
major diameter of the ellipse is that of the y-axis; the direction of its minor diameter is
that of the a-axis.
ray-axis (biradial) is very small, but the optic axes and the ray-axes
do not coincide.
In theory it is true of biaxial crystals as well as of uniaxial crystals
that all information obtainable from the indicatrix could be obtained
JULY 15, 1933 TUNELL: RAY SURFACE AND INDICATRIX 307
from the ray-surface (stated in another way, either of these two sur-
faces can be derived from the other); nevertheless in most problems
the required quantities are more easily constructed from the indica-
trix than from the ray-surface.
As Wright" has clearly pointed out, the indicatrix is more closely
and directly connected with the experimental observations made in
most petrographic work than any other reference surface. In such
work, either with thin-sections or with powders immersed in liquids,
the measurements of refractive index (by comparisons of refractive
indices of two adjacent substances the index of one of which is known)
are made with the aid of a polarizing prism.* Thus refractive indices
are obtained bound together with the corresponding vibration direc-
tions. These measurements and observations are simply and unam-
biguously stated in terms of the properties of the indicatrix; on the
other hand statements of these results in terms of the properties of
the ray-surface are involved and confusing. One may mention the
following typical example: Under the microscope one observes elon-
gated crystals of an unknown mineral and finds by means of the
central illumination or oblique illumination test, that its greatest re-
fractive index, y, 1s measured when the longest dimension of the
crystals is parallel to the vibration direction of the polarizing prism;!”
then one knows that the y-direction of the indicatrix is parallel to the
longest dimension of the crystals. If it be next ascertained by meas-
urement of interfacial angles (or coordinate angles of faces) with the
reflection goniometer, by the measurement of interfacial angles with
the Fedorov stage, or by measurement of interzonal angles with the
microscope stage!® that the longest dimension of the crystals is the
crystallographic c-axis, one can write finally, y =c. The determination
of the orientation of the other two principal axes is accomplished and
recorded in a similar manner. The determination of the orientation of
crystals of the triclinic system requires a somewhat more complicated
18 Op. cit., pp. 133-138.
16 For a discussion of the various immersion methods and references to explanations
of their modes of application, see TUNELL, G., and Morty, G. W. Am. Mineral. 17:
3/2-378. 19382.
17 Tt is assumed here that only one polarizing prism is in the path of light through the
microscope, the second polarizing prism being thrown out of the optical path.
18 In the measurement of interzonal angles, that is, the angles between crystal edges,
under the microscope, care must be taken to establish the parallelism of the plane con-
taining the two edges with the microscope stage. This can be accomplished by the
observation that both edges in question are sharply in focus throughout their entire
lengths simultaneously; it can also be accomplished in special cases by observation of
the interference figures of the crystals in convergent light. If the plane of the two edges
be not parallel to the stage, the angle turned by the stage will not be the true interzonal
angle and the measurement will be erroneous.
338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
procedure and is most readily accomplished by means of the Fedorov
stage.!?
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author is indebted to Dr. H. E. Merwin and Dr. Tom. F. W.
Barth for several valuable suggestions.
19 For an excellent statement of the method of determining the orientation of the
optical indicatrix of any substance with respect to the crystallographic axes by means
of the Fedorov stage, see Duparc, L., and REINHARD, M. La détermination des
plagtoclases dans les coupes minces. Mém. Soc. de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle
de Genéve. 40: 72-101. 1924.
MINERALOGY .—Properties of tri-calcitum silicate from basic open
hearth steel slags! Ouar ANDERSEN and Harupy C. Lime.
(Communicated by Rospert B. SosMAN.)
A study of the constitution of slags was taken up by the writers at
the Research Laboratory of the United States Steel Corporation sev-
eral years ago.” In the course of our work, we succeeded in collecting
samples containing relatively large individuals and sometimes well
developed crystals of all the essential constituents of the slags. Since
data on such constituents are meager and because any additional data
will improve the accuracy of the microscopic work and will facilitate
the future investigation of slags, we have taken advantage of the good
material at our disposal and have devoted some time to coordinated
determinations of the physical and chemical properties of most of the
constituents of the slags. Chemical analyses have been made of the
pure constituents separated from the slags and optical and other
physical properties have been determined on material from corre-
sponding samples. Whenever possible, crystallographic measurements
have also been made. The complete results of our work are not yet
ready for publication, but we find it of interest to report separately
on our study of one of the constituents, tri-calcium silicate,? 3CaQ-
S102.
Received June 10, 1933.
One of us (Lee) left the Research Laboratory of the United States Steel Corpora-
tion in 1931 and has since continued his work on slags intermittently at the Department
of Mineralogy of the Ohio State University.
3 After the completion of much of our work on the tri-calcium silicate about a year
ago (May 1932) we were informed by Dr. John Johnston, Director of the Research
Laboratory of the U. S. Steel Corporation, that Dr. A. Guttmann, Director of the
Forschungsinstitut des Vereins deutscher Eisenportlandzementwerke in Disseldorf,
was interested in obtaining for his cement investigations a sample of slag containing
tri-calcium silicate. Accordingly we sent Dr. Guttmann some of our material and
jointly with Dr. Gille he has made a thorough study of it and is now anxious to publish
his results without interfering with our interests. It is for this reason that we publish
our results on the tri-calcium silicate without awaiting the conclusion of the work on
JULY 15, 1933 ANDERSEN AND LEB: TRI-CALCIUM SILICATE 09
The slag—The most suitable material for our investigations was ob-
tained from the interior of large masses of slag (several tons) which
had been tapped into ladles in the ordinary routine of steel making.
Along the contacts with the ladle and at the exposed surface of such
a slag, a solid crust will form quickly while inside the crust the cooling
goes on very slowly and the slag may retain some of its volatile con-
stituents till the last stage of the crystallization. These conditions
are favorable for the growth of comparatively large and well devel-
oped crystals.
TABLE 1
ANALYSIS OF Basic OPEN HEARTH SLAG CONTAINING TRI-CALCIUM SILICATE
(JANITZKY)
SIO pr ene eth Rt ein Wiper ume aes a 2 Rr 10
SDN Oya ar ce eee e i eh Rie (ie sea one De ee 0.38
| Bit Ces elec uae seen tO NRO A Re ea 1.65
AUD (eens tar rns pn se CERN UE OS 8 oa 128
Fe,0;3 FEROS SDPO DS CME IO 50.1 SERS D ROGUE CEO OeC TOC ONE mene 4.54
Ee One pet oe cs tt Ss Me ere he oe RL a PON 14.87
IN it) etesene Alea ara rar ea EP ga 8.70
IVI Ota ee inte Rete tes ke ie oe a 9.36
CAO etree ee eee oa pois. Ae ee, 46.59
Sheree ede PA ee ends Sines rae aaa ts 0.20
GINO) lect he MPa ae neat a MOE ee Det 99 .27
The constitution of the slags will not be described in detail in this
paper. The following brief statements give the main features of com-
position and structure.
Analyses of basic open hearth slags of the type containing tri-
calcium silicate as an essential constituent have been published by
E. J. Janitzky,* whose samples are included among those studied by
us. These analyses represent quickly cooled samples collected directly
from the furnace. The slowly cooled slags from which we obtained our
material for crystallographic and optic measurements were of the
same type as those collected by Janitzky and have compositions close
to that given in Table 1.
The main constituents of the slags dealt with are di-calcium silicate
the other slag constituents. The first part of Guttmann and Gille’s paper, containing
introductory discussions of cement problems, has been published in ‘‘Zement’’ for
April 1933 under the title: Zementtechnische Bedeutung und Feinbau des Trikalztumsili-
kats. The remaining part will appear in the same journal Nr. 28 (July 13, 1933). We
have been informed in advance of the results of their investigation and we have like-
mune communicated our results to them by sending them a copy of the manuscript of
this paper.
4 Yearbook American Iron and Steel Institute 1929, pp. 414-434. In Table 1 of
Janitzky’s paper the analyses marked Heat No. 1 2, 5, and 7 represent slags rich in
tri-calcium silicate.
340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
(2CaO -SiO,.) and tri-calcium silicate (3CaO -SiO-.); important are also
periclase (MgO), a magnetic oxide, and a lime-bearing ferrite; less
important are crystallized lime (CaO), apatite (lime phosphate) and
a constituent of uncertain composition, perhaps a modification of di-
calcium silicate. Occasionally fluorite (CaF,.) is observed in slags to
which much of this mineral has been added.
The constituents are not, as a rule, pure compounds, but usually
solid solutions of two or more compounds one of which is predominat-
ing. Thus the lime silicates contain manganese and iron compounds
and other admixtures, the periclase contains a considerable amount of
iron oxides (magnesioferrite) in solid solution, and the magnetic oxide
is a complex mixture of compounds.
The aggregates formed by these constituents vary considerably in
composition and structure even within the same sample, and these
variations clearly depend upon several factors besides rate of cooling.
Some parts of a sample of slag may for instance contain abundant
tri-caleium silicate together with di-calcium silicate, periclase, etc.,
while other parts of the same sample may consist largely of di-calecium
silicate and periclase. In the latter case the residual liquid, from which
tri-calcium silicate would usually crystallize, has been drained away
from the loosely coherent aggregates of early crystals. Some parts of
the slag may be compact and others vesicular, and the cavities some-
times contain constituents, such as apatite, that may not occur in the
compact parts. The vesicular parts and the crystals occurring in the
cavities have evidently been formed under the influence of volatile
constituents retained in the slag, while the compact parts have crys-
tallized from relatively dry melts. In many samples it is seen that the
heavy crystals of oxide, formed at an early stage of the crystallization,
have settled in the remaining melt and the bottom parts of such sam-
ples are therefore relatively rich in these oxide crystals. The rapidly
cooled parts of a slag are relatively fine grained and often show a
radial structure with thin plates of tri-calcium silicate arranged in
sub-parallel or fan shaped groups (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). The slowly cooled
parts are more coarse grained and have a more equant development
of the crystal individuals (Figs. 4, 5, and 6). The tri-calcium silicate
appears to have been among the last constituents to crystallize in the
cavities as well as in the compact parts of the slag. It contains inclu-
sions of the other constituents (Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Composition.—Material for the chemical analysis was obtained by
mechanical separation of tri-calcium silicate from a coarse-grained
JULY fo, 1933 ANDERSEN AND LEE: TRI-CALCIUM SILICATE | 341
sample of slag. The crushed sample was classified into three fractions,
—140+200 mesh (0.105-0.074 mm.), —200 +325 mesh (0.074-0.044
mm.) and —325+400 mesh (0.044-0.039 mm.) and each fraction was
treated individually in the following way: The magnetic constituents
(oxide, periclase, and ferrite) were first removed by running the sam-
ple through a magnetic separator.» The non-magnetic residue con-
sisted largely of a mixture of di-calcium silicate and tri-calcium sili-
cate. By repeating the separation several times this mixture could be
obtained almost free from magnetic impurities. The two silicates were
TABLE 2
ANALYSIS OF TRI-CALCIUM SILICATE EXTRACTED FROM A BAstIc OPEN HEARTH SLAG
ANALYST: ELIZABETH KEEDICK LEE
STO Ga aeirk et teres ee (a hoot ake. Dol,
MNO ety eee tN ey Re. at 0.18
1 BAO) eo eA aceasta d OS i lee ro eS
ANS Onset os ore Praia Sk Ment a alr ae 0.20
Fe,03 Behe Moe Selsiaio taketh rey fal craps) deieiah Seyeeeeic os tepiad ohve: (eee <. nieyue 0.76
I @ ert Pn te si eer en e 2.01
IMU Ces IRS lege ech er RINSE ee fe20
IVE ae Ora oe 3 NOME etre hs At oot 1.29
CaO ei itr ese. SW is Cue clap area wie 68 .65
MO Gannett ace ree oe esses ony ae 98.78
Gainionionitjion sae. ae 0.3
then separated by a heavy liquid consisting of methylene iodide
shghtly diluted with carbon tetrachloride (spec. gravity about 3.24).
In this liquid the tri-calcium silicate would just float and the di-
calcium silicate would sink together with other heavier impurities
such as free lime and traces of the magnetic constituents. By repeated
separations a material consisting of at least 98 per cent tri-calcium
silicate and having di-calcium silicate as the only impurity of impor-
tance was obtained. We found that by proceeding as described we got
better results than by making the separation directly in the heavy
liquid without first extracting the magnetic constituents (all of which
are heavy and therefore would sink together with di-calcium silicate).
After the separation the three fractions of grain sizes of tri-calcium
silicate were mixed. We had about 8 gr. of material for the analysis.
The results are given in Table 2.
While the analysis shows about 86 per cent 3CaO-SiO. and thus
about 14 per cent of impurities in the sample, microscopic examina-
tion indicates that about 12 per cent of this material is in solid solu-
> We used a modification of the laboratory separator described by HALuIMonp,
A. F, Min. Mag. 22: 377-381. 1930.
342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
tion in the tri-calcium silicate. Some idea of the large amount of
material originally in solid solution can be had by referring to Fig. 14.
Crystallographic properties—Previous investigators have been in
doubt with regard to the symmetry of the crystals. E. 8. Shepherd,®
and G. A. Rankin and F. E. Wright,’ who first proved that tri-calcium
silicate was a homogeneous compound, had only fine grained aggre-
gates at their disposal and consequently could not obtain any definite
data on the crystallographic properties. Certain observations on the
optical properties made them think that the crystals possibly were
monoclinic.
The numerous investigations of tri-calcium silicate as a constituent
of Portland cement have made no appreciable addition to our knowl-
edge of the crystallographic and optic properties of the compound,®
because all these investigations have also been undertaken on fine-
grained aggregates. It was not till the discovery of tri-calcium silicate
in basic slags’ that crystals of reasonable size were obtainable. Thus
J. M. Ferguson! described crystals up to 5 mm. in diameter, without
giving, however, crystallographic measurements or complete optical
data. Ferguson thought that the crystals probably were orthorhom-
bie.
For our crystallographic measurements we succeeded in picking out
from the slags about 20 crystals ranging in size from 0.5X0.5X0.1
mm. to 3.0X3.0X0.5 mm. Some of these were only fragments, how-
ever, and none gave perfect signals for all faces on the same crystals.
Nevertheless a sufficient number of coordinated measurements have
been made.to prove that the crystals belong to the trigonal system
and have a rhomobohedral development. Most of the crystals ex-
amined, including all those measured for the determination of the
axial ratio, came from the same sample from which the material for
analysis was also extracted.
The most prominent form on all crystals (Figs. 7-10) is the basal
pinacoid C(0001). One or two rhombohedrons are also always present,
6 SHEPHERD, E. 8., Rankin, G. A. and Wrieut, F. E. Journ. Ind. and Eng. Chem.
3: No. 4. 1911. Also in Zeitschr. f. Anorg. Chem. 71: 20-44. 1911.
7 Rankin, G. A. and Wricut, F. E. Amer. Journ. Se. (4) 39: 1-79. 1915.
§ For a review of the literature up to 1926 see: Bocuz, R. H. A digest of the literature
on the constitution of Portland cement clinker. Paper No. 3. Portland Cement Association
Fellowship of the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. (Reprints from
“Concrete” July 1926 to February 1927.) References to later publications are given
by Guttmann and Gille (See footnote (3).)
° Dr. Wm. McCaughey, Professor of Mineralogy at the Ohio State University, has
applied petrographic methods to the study of slags for many years and has probably
been the first to observe tri-calcium silicate in slags.
10 Royal Techn. College Met. Club Journal, 6: 9-12. 1927-28. Glasgow.
mua a, L933 ANDERSEN AND LEE: TRI-CALCIUM SILICATE 043
Figs. 1-6. Basic open hearth slags. Photomicrographs of thin sections. Ordinary
light. Black areas represent ferrite and oxide, white or light gray areas largely tri-
calcium silicate. Fig. 1—42X. Cross sections of thin plates of tri-calcium silicate.
Round grains with cleavage lines: Periclase and lime. Fig. 2—30X. Plates of tri-
calcium silicate in cross sections and a few in basal sections. Round or square spots,
some with cleavage cracks: Periclase. Fig. 3—42 x. Hexagonal basal section of tri-
calcium silicate, with inclusions of oxide, surrounded by cross sections. Fig. 4—35.
Cross sections of thick crystal plates of tri-calcium silicate showing base and rhombo-
hedrons. Fig. 5—35 xX. Large individual of tri-caleium silicate with inclusions of di-
ealcium silicate (slightly darker) and oxide (black). Fig. 6—35X. Triangular basal
section (right) and cross section (left) of tri-calcium silicate with inclusions of di-
calcium silicate (dark gray) and oxide (black). White areas: Voids in section.
344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
but no other forms have been observed. One of the rhombohedrons is
generally more conspicuous than the other and is present on all crys-
tals. We have selected this as a positive rhombohedron, R(1011). The
R R
Hiroe 9
_ Figs. 7-10. Crystal habits of tri-calcium silicate. Forms: C(0001), R(1011) and
m2ZO21).
Figure 11. Figure 12.
Basic open hearth slags. Photomicrographs of polished surfaces. Fig. 11—67 x.
Dry objective. Surface etched with water. Black areas, some with hexagonal outlines:
Tri-calecium silicate. Gray: Di-calcium silicate. White or very light gray: Periclase,
oxide and ferrite. Fig. 12—100. Oil immersion. Surface not etched. Black bands:
Tri-calecium silicate. Other black areas: largely di-calcium silicate. Light gray areas
with white rims: Periclase with oxide mantles. White: Oxide and ferrite.
other one, which is missing on some crystals and is very insignificant
on others, then becomes the steeper negative rhombohedron 7(2021).
The characteristic zone relations of the various faces of these forms
will appear from Figs. 7 and 8.
JULY 15,-1933 ANDERSEN AND LEE: TRI-CALCIUM SILICATE ~ 345
The axial ratio c:a=1.7730, calculated with the setting selected,
agrees with that indicated by x-ray measurements. The crystallo-
graphic calculation is based on the average value for the angle
C(0001): R(1011). The angles measured and those calculated from
Fig. 13—Laue photograph of tri- Fig. 14——About 300X. Photomicro-
calcium silicate with x-ray nearly parallel graph of clear tri-calcium silicate grain
to the c-axis. Reduced to one half of orig- _ after reheating to 900°C showing lamellae
inal photograph. of calcium ferrite formed by unmixing of
solid solution.
TABLE 3
CrystaL ANGLES or TRI-CALCIUM SILICATE
Measured
Angles l Calculated
Number of angles Tuimits Mean
measured
COO RCOM) 26. f.22-. 23 | 63° 48’ 63° 58’
64° 8’
COOOOM si CAWA ae a oi 8 12 8’ MGne sou day le’
LOz welOe
Fu GlOnaly) sie GAMO Ms e298 3 CU AS! CL 77° 49’
lier tA Ge
Angles C:F in three different 64° 4’
zones of onecrystal.... 64° 0’
64° il’
Azimuth angles between | 119° 58’ |
three zones C:R on one! ent202 1’} LOR 0’
erystal, measured on 120° £’
two-circle goniometer. .
346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
the axial ratio are given in Table 3. Of these measurements those
stated in the lower part of the table give ample proof of the trigonal
symmetry of the crystals.
The most common habits of the crystals are those shown in Figs. 7
and 8, representing thick basal plates with distinct development of the
faces of both rhombohedrons. Less common in the slowly cooled
slags, but evidently universally present in rapidly chilled samples,
are the very thin basal plates of the types shown in Figs. 9 and 10.
Both these have only one rhombohedron, R, but they differ in the
development of the faces. In the crystal represented in Fig. 9 there
has been an equal development of all faces of the rhombohedron and
the plates consequently have hexagonal outlines. In the crystal of
Fig. 10, on the other hand, the growth has been more rapid in one
direction of the c-axis than in the other, and a triangular development
of the plates has resulted. No indication of twinning is seen on any of
the crystals examined.
With regard to the class of symmetry to which the tri-calcium sili-
cate may belong, the crystallographic data give no final information.
Neither could we obtain etching figures sufficiently distinct for a de-
cisive conclusion. All that can be stated is that nothing in our erystal-
lographic observations contradicts the assumption that the crystals
have the symmetry of the di-trigonal scalenohedral class, the class to
which most trigonal crystals belong.
We have studied the structure of these tri-calcium silicate crystals
by means of x-ray diffraction patterns, using both the Laue and the
fine powder method. While we have not completely worked out the
crystal structure, our preliminary work indicates that the unit cell
is rhombohedral. The x-ray data also indicate that the crystallo-
graphic axial ratio of c:a =1.773, is probably the correct ratio for the
unit cell.
We have included a Laue photograph of one of the clear dark green
crystals (Fig. 138) showing the rhombohedral symmetry. The photo-
graph was taken with a molybdenum target with a tube potential of
30,000 volts. The plate to crystal distance in this case was 5 centi-
meters.
Physical properties—The crystals have a poor cleavage parallel to the
base, barely visible in thin sections (Figs. 4 and 5), They are very
brittle and often full of cracks and have an uneven fracture. The
hardness is slightly higher than 5, but lower than 6.
The specific gravity was determined with a pycnometer on the
JULY 15, 1933 ANDERSEN AND LEE: TRI-CALCIUM SILICATE 347
material prepared for analysis and on another preparation from the
same sample of the slag. Since water attacks tri-calcium silicate the
powder was imbedded in a-monobromnaphthalene. The values found
were d (30°) = 3.235 and 3.215. The mean, d (a) = 9.224 may
be regarded as representing the crystals déscribed in detail in this
paper. Other samples gave slightly different values.
The natural color of the crystals collected from slowly cooled slags
is light olive green or brown. The fine powder is light gray with a
brownish tinge caused by the numerous inclusions; the streak is light
gray, almost white. The faces of fresh crystals have a glassy lustre,
but when exposed to moist air for some time they become dull or
sometimes iridescent.
Crystals occurring in lime lumps collected directly from the fur-
nace and therefore quickly cooled, were dark olive green and almost
perfectly clear and free from inclusions. When such clear crystals
were heated for one hour in an electric furnace in air at 900°C they
developed oriented lamellae (Fig. 14). These inclusions are reddish
brown in color, are anisotropic, have a high index of refraction, and
resemble dicalcium ferrite in appearance.
When these crystals are heated for about one hour at 1000°C some
small di-calcium silicate crystals are found in the tri-calcium silicate
grains. Crystals heated in air on platinum at 1400°C consist mostly of
beta di-calcium silicate with some free lime. Part of the beta di-
calcium silicate sometimes inverts to the gamma form on cooling.
The greenish color is probably due to ferrous iron compounds in
solid solution in the tri-calcium silicate. On heating in air, this iron
oxide is apparently oxidized to the ferric state and precipitated as a
calcium ferrite.
The formation of a calcium ferrite compound due to oxidation with
the resulting change in equilibrium, may explain the formation of di-
calcium silicate at low temperatures in these crystals.
Optical properties. Appearance in thin sections —Thin sections or small
grains of the tri-calcium silicate are colorless in transmitted light.
Thick sections, crystal plates or large grains are light yellow or brown-
ish with an olive tinge. No pleochroism is observed. When mounted
in Canada balsam the sections have a high relief and a pitted surface
(Figs. 4, 5, 6). They have many irregular fractures and sometimes
show fairly regular cleavage cracks parallel to the elongation of cross
sections of the tabular crystals (vibration direction w).
348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
In thin sections of the slag most of the grains of tri-calcium silicate
appear to be perfectly homogeneous except for the easily recognized
inclusions of the other constituents of the slag. No twinning is ob-
served, and all the homogeneous grains that have orientations suitable
for conoscopic observation show decidedly uniaxial interference fig-
ures in accordance with the crystallographic properties described
above. Some of the grains, however, contain irregular areas showing
negative biaxial interference figures with small, variable axial angles
and grading insensibly over into the surrounding uniaxial areas. The
same phenomenon is more distinctly observed in thick crystal plates
imbedded in an immersion liquid. In such plates some of the biaxial
areas are seen to have sharp boundaries against the uniaxial areas and
appear to represent inclusions of thin, irregular lamellae of foreign
crystals in the tri-calcium silicate. The properties of these inclusions
cannot be accurately determined, but they have a refractive index
only a little different from that of tri-calcium silicate and a bire-
fringence much higher. The inclusions are colorless and may show a
faint indication of irregular twinning. These properties agree with
those of di-calcium silicate in one of its high-temperature modifica-
tions and we believe that the assumption of such lamellar inclusions
give a reasonable explanation of the optical anomalies of the tri-
calcium silicate.!! Considering the nature of the material in which the
tri-calcium silicate occurs and its mode of formation the presence of
lamellae of di-calcium silicate intimately intergrown with it should
not be surprising. Since the amount of lamellae necessary to produce
optical anomalies of the nature described is very insignificant (a small
fraction of one per cent would certainly be sufficient) these inclusions
can hardly influence the results of the analysis to any appreciable
extent.” Neither can they have any measurable effect on the general
physical properties of the crystals. Accordingly we find that the bi-
axial interference figures shown by parts of the crystals give no reason
to postulate a deviation of the symmetry of the crystals from that of
the trigonal system and to assume a monoclinic or orthorhombic
symmetry with pseudo-uniaxial development such as has been done
by previous investigators. The biaxial interference figures may be
explained as an optical anomaly in the way indicated and it should be
11 Any thin double refractive lamella (except one of a uniaxial crystal perpendicular
to the optic axis) when superimposed on a basal section of a uniaxial crystal, will dis-
tort the interference figure and may easily produce the semblance of a biaxial figure.
#2 An admixture of one per cent 2CaOQ-SiO: would produce a deviation of about
0.1 per cent CaO and SiO, from the figures for pure 3CaO - SiO, and its influence would
thus be within the limits of error of an ordinary analysis.
JULY 15, 1933 ANDERSEN AND LEE: TRI-CALCIUM SILICATE 349
emphasized that such anomalies have been frequently observed in
many other crystals the true uniaxial symmetry of which is generally
accepted (for instance apatite, beryl, and zircon).
The erystals of tri-calcium silicate were too small and brittle to per-
mit the grinding of prisms for the most accurate determination of the
TABLE 4
REFRACTIVE INDICES OF TRI-CALCIUM SILICATE (MEASURED ON ANALYZED SAMPLE)
(1077 em) @ €
GB iie Eb) eas 1.728
589.3 (Na) 1.724 1.719
670.8 (Li) 1.714 1.709
refractive indices, but good determinations of the birefringence
(w — e) and of the index for the ordinary ray (w) could be made never-
theless.
The birefringence was determined on plates perpendicular to the
base, measuring the path difference with the Berek compensator and
the thickness with a micro-caliper. It was found to be 0.005 + 0.0005
TABLE 5
REFRACTIVE INDICES OF VARIOUS SAMPLES OF TRICALCIUM SILICATE
ONa ENa
1.722 eer ive
1.726 1.720
1.732 L726
for all wave lengths between red and violet. The index w was deter-
mined in immersion liquids on plates and grains by Merwin’s disper-
slon method. Various determinations, made on crystals and grains
from the same sample that furnished material for the crystallographic
measurements and the analysis, gave results in agreement with one
another within the limits of error of the method (+0.001). These
results are stated in Table 4. It is seen that there is a considerable
dispersion of the refractive indices. The indices for sodium light are
somewhat higher than those found by Wright*’ on pure tri-calcitum
silicate (average index for white light approximately 1.715, bire-
fringence not higher than 0.005). This is naturally explained by the
fact that the crystals examined contain small amounts of manganese
and ferrous compounds, and other admixtures, in solid solution.
Besides the determinations stated above, we have made numerous
scattered determinations of refractive indices on material from vari-
13 MerRwIN, H. E. and Larsen, E. S. Amer. Journ. Sci. (4) 34: 42-47. 1912.
Posnsak, E. and MEerwin, H. E. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 44: 1970. 1922.
350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO.7
ous other samples the crystals of which were not analyzed and could
not be measured crystallographically. Examples of some of these
determinations are given in Table 5. The quite considerable variation
in these indices must clearly be due to variations in the composition
of the crystals, probably largely in the amounts of ferrous and man-
ganese compounds taken up by the tri-calcium silicate. Possibly the
presence of comparatively large amounts of lamellar intergrowths of
di-ealcium silicate may have something to do with these variations.
Appearance in polished surfaces.—The examination of polished sur-
faces of slags under the microscope in reflected light may give val-
uable information supplementing the data obtainable with the petro-
graphic microscope. This is especially true with regard to the opaque
or semi-opaque constituents of the slag, but also the transparent
constituents may be profitably studied in reflected light when all the
possibilities of the method are taken advantage of. We have used this
method extensively in our work on the constituents of steel slags and
record here briefly our observations on tri-calcium silicate. The
identification of the constituents on polished surfaces has always been
verified in thin sections or powdered preparations of the same
sample.
On polished surfaces that have not been exposed to moisture for
any length of time, or on surfaces polished on a dry cloth, there is no
very clear distinction between tri-calcium silicate and the other sili-
cates of the slags. They all show the same gray color when observed
with a dry objective and all appear practically black with occasional
dots of interior reflections when an oil immersion objective is used.
Sometimes crystal outlines against constituents having a different
reflecting power may be seen. This is the case in the surfaces repre-
sented in Figs. 11 and 12.
In Fig. 12 the tabular crystals of tri-calcium silicate are seen in
cross sections with an immersion objective. Besides the long black
bands representing tri-calcium silicate there are other black areas,
some irregular and some with rounded outlines. Most of these repre-
sent di-calcium silicate and except for the outlines of the grains there
is no sure way of distinguishing the two constituents. In order to
bring out the difference-clearly etching must be used.
Fig. 11 represents an etched surface showing basal sections with
hexagonal outlines of a number of crystals of tri-calcium silicate. The
observation is made with a dry objective and the contrast between
tri-calcium silicate and di-calcium silicate is brought out by the etch-
ing. The reagent in this case was distilled water applied to the surface
JULY 15, 1933 ANDERSEN AND LEE: TRI-CALCIUM SILICATE ool
for about ten minutes at room temperature. This treatment produces
on the surfaces of tri-calcium silicate a film showing vivid interference
colors and makes the polishing scratches reappear. At the same time
the grains of di-calcium silicate show almost no effect of the etching
and appear with the original smooth surface and gray color of reflec-
tion. A prolonged etching with water, however, will affect also the di-
calcium silicate and will bring out its twinning structure. The same
may be accomplished more quickly by using other reagents such as 5
or 10% solutions of NH,Cl in water, or of weak acids like perchloric
acid and chromic acid. Merely dipping the polished surface into one of
these solutions will produce striated films on the grains of di-calcium
silicate while the tri-calcium silicate will become dull with a dark
pitted surface in reflected light.
The relief in polished surfaces is very nearly the same for tri-calcium
silicate, di-calcium silicate, and the lime-bearing ferrite. All these
constituents appear with a low surface against which the grains of
periclase, lime, and magnetic oxide stand out in high relief. The
ferrite has a relatively high power of reflection (almost white with
dry objective) and so has the oxide. The power of reflection of lime is
medium (light gray) and that of periclase variable depending upon its
contents of iron oxides (from gray to almost white).
Thus each one of the constituents has its characteristic properties
(only a few of which are indicated above) by which it can be distin-
guished from the others on polished surfaces. It is of particular inter-
est to emphasize here that the tri-calcium silicate can be recognized
on polished surfaces and especially that it can be distinguished from
its most important associate, the di-calcium silicate.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are greatly indebted to Mrs. Elizabeth Keedick Lee for having
made a careful analysis of the tri-calcium silicate for us. To Dr. Wm.
McCaughey, Chairman of the Department of Mineralogy of the Ohio
State University, our thanks are due for the kind interest he has taken
in our work by placing the facilities of the Department at the disposal
of one of us (Lee) and by giving us some of his samples of slag and
supporting us with advice and help. We are also indebted to Messrs.
C. L. Kinney, E. J. Janitzky and M. J. Devaney of the Illinois Steel
Company and Mr. H. B. Siddall of the American Bridge Company
for helpful cooperation in obtaining most of the samples used in this
investigation. Mr. Nicholas Bryker has given us valuable assistance
throughout our work.
352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
PALEONTOLOGY.—Report on species of corals and larger foramin-
ifera collected in Cuba by O. E. Meinzer.1 THomMas WayYLAND
VAUGHAN, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, LaJolla, Calif.
PREFATORY NOTE
This paper furnishes a setting for the list of fossils published under
the title, ‘Report on species of fossils collected in Cuba by E. O.
Meinzer in November and December, 1915” by T. Wayland
Vaughan,” as an appendix to Doctor Meinzer’s article ‘Geologic
reconnaissance of a region adjacent to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.’”
It is essential for its proper interpretation and was intended to
precede that list. It contains an account of the nomenclature of the
species involved, the characterization of a new variety, and the dis-
cussion of problems of broad regional geologic correlation.
INTRODUCTION
Descriptions of species of corals and foraminifera collected by Dr.
Meinzer have appeared in several papers. The Tertiary corals were
described by me (Vaughan, 1919), and those descriptions, identifica-
tions, and stratigraphic references stand except that the foraminifera
from locality 7522 are Eocene, while the corals seem to be Oligocene.
My identification of Diploastrea crassolamellata from it has been
confirmed by Mr. J. W. Wells. Specimens from two horizons appear
to have been mixed by the transportation of specimens from a higher
to a lower horizon.
Doctor Cushman published the first account of the larger foraminif-
era (Cushman, 1919) and later I discussed them in two papers
(Vaughan, 1924 and 1926). I have endeavored to make a careful
restudy of the Cuban material. The task was a difficult one. Since the
examinations were based largely on thin sections of organisms that
exhibit bewildering variation. I have been led to change some of
Doctor Cushman’s identifications. Table 1 is taken from Cushman’s
work already cited.
NOMENCLATURE OF SPECIES
Except to place the species referred to ‘“‘Orthophragmina’”’ in the
older genus Discocyclina, those species are not changed. The species
referred to Carpenterza are also left as they were. Lepidocyclina perun-
1 Received May 19, 1933.
2 This JOURNAL, 23: 261-263. 1933.
3 Idem, pp. 246-260.
353)
VAUGHAN: CORALS AND FORAMINIFERA
vole eeiloo eli Zlcaielia acto pls alo s|oalloalad|seccsp bees bon atoya suo ts uBUIYSsND DUDaWaWD
valor sults ole siglo lo el tolb alba lcs Sst eo -ecilac) oom aid | acl t misao tao SOG ote a ueurysny snazoud piiajuad.tp,)
|X |X rofeetestecls sess ss ss “GBUIYSND sesuaunbouinh “IVA 1a}]9UDd
oailloo 6 SE INZ Io ONS< Ic SZ lo c[SZIScife cle op ele ole closioo eo ce oo soa nana s aaa e Coeo” AKT) GONMIEMMONIIS
G o|/c G0 x oo . 4 i x x << s 5 SK 6 S&)ho dllo allo offo o}fo6 O46 0H 506006006500 0'0 GO 0 OD Oo (YIP, ) DIDUIB LDU
Saloues N Hyg lycteeteclcdectecletecfecdeefectecfes cesses sss) ano “yp ap ‘uray wabuaquenqyos
teofsefe elyela feelin fe elS2is< le cle ope cie ee afee|e mere seca bes cure one ANOG “YY “wary wobiow
cifecfo epee roleuleela clic [ealoc|ae|c sje ojo ale alain alec clea Qo elo ola cogs no bysnaoobys0 dc: uvUTYSND wuynougns
Fae olfo oe ifoulso|0o|o on scooter eae uinaosonels uRuIysng psopunuad
vsjbrofeofanfoidfools ofotfes sa ole alee oe SOI 2 oo] G e157 I\7 Ip allo.c/[b allo cloc| Sa on oto o bao ao oes Ba BG oo URULYSND DIDSsD/9 nuyolisoprdaT
ale als2 NZ ie alfa e|\c fine eo oun o canna d an oro nt uvurysng vypjnjpsnd
x I< 1X Pb|fovlls ooo] Seif olf o|s en Choe beac etnobaegcusco ne uRUIYysND DssDu0
ere kao) co ( ( uvuLysNg vypunjdjnos
>< 3 x c ENG . S< cod) o Ol o°O G90 0 Do Ot 0 OM O°) o Ga 0 Oo uBulysny 2a)JAULDLDIQns
Xe x x x x 4 x 0 x ie x Gated MODY ano HO TONOMO) On CadaOd Celt [Os OMI TOnOMD uvulysng suswaqna puvuboiydoyjio
STOO PG PPB OD Nae az ET WE EG ED Ito ee it te ts
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JULY 15, 1933
GNONOW HOIHM LV SNOILVLIG OL DNIGUOOOY VUGKININVUOW NV ANS) UdHLO 40 NOILAAIULSIGQ “LT WH IAV.L
354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
dosa and L. subraulini, both Eocene species, also remain as they were,
but the other identifications of Lepidocyclina are changed.
Lepidocyclina canellei var. yurnagunensis is considered a valid
species and I have redescribed it as Lepidocyclina yurnagunensis
Cushman (Vaughan, 1926). The specimens identified by Cushman as
Lepidocyclina sumatrensis and L. morgani are now referred to L.
yurnagunensis. The specimens identified as L. morgani have both
embryonic and equatorial chambers similar to those of L. yurnagun-
ensis, but differ by possessing strongly developed pillars. There is
complete intergradation between the forms without and with the
pillars. In order to indicate the deviation from the typical form of the
species, I propose to call this variant Lepidocyclina yurnagunensis var.
morganopsis, n. var. (co-types from loc. 7543). Externally the speci-
mens resemble L. morgani and also L. parvula Cushman, but as
stated above the embryonic and equatorial chambers are like those of
L. yurnagunensis.
Lepidocyclina crassata Cushman, at least part of the specimens
identified by Cushman as L. marginata Micht., and L. chattahoocheen-
sis Cushman (Cushman, 1920), are all placed in the synonymy of L.
(Hulepidina) favosa Cushman (Cushman, 1919, Vaughan, 1924). The
names L. crassata and L. favosa were published by Cushman at the
same time, but I am selecting L. favosa as the name of the species
because specimens free from the matrix can be obtained at the type
locality of L. favosa, and the type of L. crassata is embedded in rock.
The amount of variation in this species is most astonishing. Fortu-
nately I have had available hundreds of perfectly preserved specimens
from a single bed at one locality, Espinal, Vera Cruz, Mexico, in addi-
tion to good representations of all forms from their respective type
localities. The specimen from locality 7522 identified by Doctor
Cushman as L. crassata does not belong to the species.
The specimens identified by Cushman from Doctor Meinzer’s
localities nos. 7512, 7518, and 7548 as L. schlumbergeri are now referred
to other species. Some of the specimens represent L. gigas Cushman.
The specimens collected by Doctor Darton at locality 7664 belong to
a large species of the subgenus Eulepidina distinct from L. gigas.
Doctor Meinzer’s collections of orbitoidal foraminifera from local-
ities 7512, 7518, 7516, 7518, 7519, 7543, 7548, 7552, 7553, and 7a04,
are all of approximately the same horizon in the Oligocene. This
horizon is represented in Antigua, Jamaica, Cayman Brac, the State
of Vera Cruz in Mexico, and at other localities in the Caribbean and
get 1), 1933 DRECHSLER: FUNGI 300
Gulf of Mexico regions. The horizon of locality 7521 is doubtful. It
may be Eocene. ;
Locality 7522. The foraminifera are definitely Eocene. It contains
two or more species in common with the Eocene exposure at Nue-
vitas, Cuba, U.S.G.S. loc. 3478, and species represented at other
Eocene localities in Cuba. The corals collected at this locality seem
to have come from another, an Oligocene, horizon.
If I noticed specimens of Globigerina and nullipores I recorded their
presence. The presence of nullipores, if they are in situ, indicates
relatively shallow water, because they are photosynthetic organisms;
while the presence of Globigerina indicates that pelagic organisms
drifted into the locality where the other fossils were found.
LITERATURE CITED
CusHMAN, J. A. 1919. Fossil foraminifera from the West Indies. Carnegie Inst.
Wash., Publ. 291: 21-71, 15 pls., 8 text-figs. 1919.
1920. The American species of Orthophragmina and Lepidocyclina. U. S. Geol.
Surv., Prof. Paper 125: 39-105, pls. 12-35. 1920.
VAUGHAN, THOMAS WAYLAND. 1919. Fossil corals from Central America, Cuba, and
Porto Rico, with an account of the American Tertiary, Pleistocene, and
Recent coral reefs. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 103: 189-524, pls. 68-152, 22
text-figs. 1919. (See p. 204.)
1924. American and European Tertiary larger Foraminifera. Geol. Soc. Amer.
Bull. 35: 785-822, pls. 30-36. 1924.
1926. Species of Lepidocyclina and Carpenteria from the Cayman Islands.
Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. 82: 388-400, pls. 24-26. 1926.
BOTAN Y.—Several more fungi that prey on nematodes.1| CHARLES
DRECHSLER, Bureau of Plant Industry.
A fungus with long, narrow, straight or somewhat curved conidia,
provided with 5 to 15 septa (Fig. 16 A) and borne on erect, aerial,
only slightly differentiated hyphae, usually singly (Fig. 16, A, a) but
sometimes, following continued growth of the hypha, in small number
(Fig. 16 A, 6), was found actively destroying slender nematodes refer-
able to a species of Rhabditis. The animals were snared in rather small,
intramatrical, non-constricting hyphal loops (Fig. 16, B) attached
singly at a noticeable swelling in one of the three component cells by a
relatively delicate, often somewhat curving stalk. Often the organ
of capture was torn from its attachment by the struggling nema
(Fig. 16, C, a), which then was frequently further snared in one or
two other hyphal loops before finally succumbing to extensive inter-
nal hyphal invasion (Fig. 16, C, b). This invasion regularly proceeded
1 Received June 9, 1933.
356 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
from one or more bursiform outgrowths thrust into the animal
immediately following narrow perforation of its integument, the out-
growths being evidently too small to produce serious effects di-
rectly.
A fungus bearing terminally on tall, erect conidiophores (Fig. 17,
A), solitary, 3-septate conidia strongly resembling in size, shape and
septation those of the fungus previously shown in Figure 5,? as well
as the 3-septate spores frequent in the fungus represented in Figure
12, was found very destructive to nemas referable to the genera
Rhabditis and Cephalobus. The organs of capture here, however,
correspond to those produced by the fungi shown in Figures 10, 13
and 14, similarly consisting of mostly vertically oriented, sturdy loops
each composed regularly of 3 cells and attached by a short, stout,
usually 2-celled stalk, the third loop-cell being fused terminally
both to the basal portion of the first loop-cell and to the distal
stalk-cell (Fig. 17, B, a, b); and similarly through pronounced swelling
of the loop-cells (Fig. 17, B, c) constricting the animal nearly to death
before initiating mycelial invasion (Fig. 17,C). The constricting loops
here, as also those of the other forms producing them, and as, indeed,
even the extensive systems of anastomosing adhesive superficial
loops like those produced by the fungus shown in Figure 5, are some-
times torn from their attachments by the struggles of especially
vigorous nemas, the uprooted apparatus, nevertheless, just as in the
case of the non-constricting solitary loops characteristic of the fungi
shown in Figure 6 and 16, usually continuing in its destructive func-
tion.
Since organs of capture are generally absent when any of the preda-
cious Hyphomycetes isolated so far (those shown in Figs. 1-7, 9,
12-15, 16-18) are grown in pure culture on agar media of various
compositions, it would seem that atactile stimulus supplied in nature
by living nemas, may be of moment for their production. Constrict-
ing loops (Fig. 18, B, a) in great abundance were produced by a
fungus in an agar plate culture free of nematodes but liberally infested
with mites. Many of the loops were ‘‘sprung”’ (Fig. 18, B, 6, c), though
apparently no mites were captured in them. The fungus in the mite-
infested culture gave rise to conidia showing all gradations from an
elongated 1-septate type to a strongly inflated 2-septate type (Fig.
2 As the present summary constitutes a continuation of two earlier summaries
concerning nema-capturing fungi, the numbering of the figures is made continuous
throughout, so that all citations of figures given herein and bearing numerals from 1
to 11 refer to the first paper (this JouRNAL 23: 138-141. 1933) and those bearing
numerals from 12 to 15 inclusive refer to the second (this JoURNAL 23: 267-270. 1933).
JULY 15, 1933 DRECHSLER: FUNGI O00
18, A, c-2), thereby abating somewhat the distinctness of the two
types of conidia produced by fungi snaring nemas in constricting
loops. As in pure culture virtually only spores of the elongated 1-
Q
E]
7
]
Three nema-capturing fungi, each numeral denoting a species separate from the
others, and all drawn with the aid of the camera lucida at the same magnification;
x 500.
Fig. 16—A, Conidiophores and conidia: a, conidiophore of usual type bearing a
single conidium; b, conidiophore arising from a killed nema and bearing 2 conidia;
c, d, conidia from an agar culture infested with nemas; e, f, larger conidia from a pure
culture. B, Portions of mycelium bearing non-constricting loops. C, A nema snared in
two loops: a, one of the loops still attached to parent filament, several pouch-like struc-
tures thrust into the interior of the animal, the latter still actively struggling; 6, 5
hours later, both leops detached, mycelial hyphae extending the entire length of the
animal, not showing only occasional feeble movement.
Fig. 17.—A, Conidiophore and attached conidium, the former shown in several
sections, a, b and c representing corresponding points on these sections. B, Portion of
mycelium with attached constricting loops, the loops being open in a and b, and partly
closed in c. C, Nema captured in constricting loop.
Fig. 18—A, Conidiophore and conidia from mite-infested culture, the conidiophore
drawn in several sections, a and b representing corresponding points on these sections,
cz conidia showing transitions from elongated 1-septate type to inflated 2-septate
type. B, Constricting loops from mite-infested culture, a in open condition, b and c in
completely closed condition.
septate type are produced, and as the conidiophores (Fig. 18, A, a, 6)
are closely similar to those of the fungus shown in Figure 18, it is not
certain that a species separate from the latter is represented here.
358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
ZOOLOGY.—The generic names Cephalobellus Cobb, 1920 and
Scarabanema Christie, 1931 (Nematoda)! JEssE R. CHRISTIE,
Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by G. STEINER.)
Cobb (1920) described Cephalobellus papilliger as a new genus and
new species of nematode parasite from the larva of an unidentified
lamellicorn beetle collected in New South Wales, Australia. He
described only the male and no figure was published. Christie
(1931) proposed the genus Scarabanema describing as type species
Scarabanema cylindricum, a parasite now known from the larvae of
several scarabaeid beetles. In the genus Scarabanema, Christie also
placed Thelastoma brevicaudatum Leidy, 1851 and Oxyuris leuckarte
Hammerschmidt, 1838. Only the females of these species are known
and so far as one can judge from the meager descriptions available,
both resemble Scarabanema cylindricum rather closely. They differ,
however, in the size of the eggs. For the egg of Thelastoma brevicauda-
tum, Leidy gives 1/285 inch long by 1/1000 inch broad, or approxi-
mately 89 microns long by 25 microns wide, and for the egg of Oxyuris
leuckartt, Hammerschmidt gives 1/25 to 1/20 Vienna line long by
1/30 Vienna line wide or approximately 84 to 100 microns long by
70 microns wide. In either case the difference seems too great to fall
within the limits of variation for a single species and Christie (1931)
deemed it advisable to retain both Thelastoma brevicaudatum and
Oxyuris leuckarti as distinct species placing them in the genus
Scarabanema.
A comparison of the male of Cephalobellus papilliger as described by
Cobb (1920) and the male of Scarabanema cylindricum as described
and figured by Christie (1931) shows no difference which would serve
as a basis for retaining the latter as a valid species. Therefore the
genus Scarabanema Christie, 1931 falls as a synonym of the genus
Cephalobellus Cobb, 1920 and Scarabanema cylindricum Christie, 1931
becomes a synonym of Cephalobellus papilliger Cobb, 1920. The genus
Cephalobellus also contains the following species: Cephalobellus brevi-
caudatus (Leidy, 1851) new combination and Cephalobellus leuck-
arti (Hammerschmidt, 1838) new combination.
1 Received May 2, 1933.
JULY 15, 1933 RATHBUN: A NEW CRAB 309
Figures 1-3. Pseudothelphusa guerreroensis, 0. sp.
Fig. 1—Dorsal view, X13}. _ Fig. 2—Anterior view of front and orbits, X2._ Fig.
3.—Ventral view of forward half, Xnearly 3.
360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
ZOOLOGY.—A new species of Pseudothelphusa from Mezico.! Mary
J. RATHBUN, Smithsonian Institution.
Pseudothelphusa guerreroensis, n. sp.
Resembles P. tuberculata? in its rough surface, crowded but minute den-
ticles on the lateral margin, well marked cervical suture, deep, anterior
median suture, widening behind the oblique epigastric lobes; its shallow
front, upper margin coarsely granulate and continued backward above the
base of the eyestalk; the stout chelipeds, with palms swollen, upper and
lower margins convex, and a large tubercle on outer surface at base of fingers.
Differs from tuberculata in its narrower carapace, proportion of length to
width 1:1.51, in tuberculata 1:1.6; greater fronto-orbital width in proportion
to carapace width, 0.6 as against 0.57 in tuberculata; orbits in front view more
quadrate, the upper and lower margins nearly parallel, while in tuberculata,
the orbits are more oval; tooth absent from anterior end of lateral margin of
carapace; a small round depression present behind outer angles of front and
in horizontal line with extremities of anterior mesogastric outline; ischium of
outer maxilliped broad, increasing in width distally but shorter than in
tuberculata, merus very short and wide; its greatest length only 3 of its width.
P. masimbari,’ also closely related to the new species, has stronger den-
ticles on the lateral margin, much less prominent epigastric lobes, a front
deeper at the extremities and reaching downward to a level with the middle,
maxillipeds of the type of twberculata, and moreover lacks a tubercle at distal
end of palm.
T ype-locality :—Mexico: Malinaltepec, south of Teopa, Guerrero; Prof. L.
Schultze, S.J., collector; April 30, 1930; Zool. Mus., Berlin; received through
Dr. A. Schellenberg; 1 female holotype (23153, Bn.M.); 1 small female
paratype (66850, U.S.N.M.).
1 Received April 20, 1933. Published with the permission of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution.
2 RATHBUN. Bull. Mus. d’hist. nat. 2: 60. 1897. Guatemala.
3 Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 59: 13. 1912 Canal Zone.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND. NEWS
Prepared by Science Service
NortTEs
Chance to Restore Water Areas.—Unemployment-relief programs may offer
a splendid chance to establish water areas for our migratory waterfowl,
Paut G. Repineton, Chief of the Bureau of Biological Survey, told the
Izaak Walton League of America at its annual convention held recently in
Chicago. ‘‘Deforestation and erosion, with the resultant depletion of water
areas,” said Mr. Redington, “have worked no good to man, beast, or fowl.
There must be a real renaissance if we are to program a wide intensive effort
to build up our diminishing water resources, and I believe that the time now
appears ripe to tackle the situation which confronts us in many States.”
The convention called upon Federal and State officials and the public to
begin a far-reaching program to this end and adopted a resolution urging
that water restoration be included in the Federal reforestation program.
moet, 1958 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 361
Wild-Life Exhibit at Chicago Exposition.—To emphasize the need for a
permanent program of conservation, the Biological Survey has cooperated
with the Department of Agriculture Office of Exhibits in preparing a wild-
life exhibit for the Century of Progress exposition in Chicago. Specimens of
mammals and birds have been mounted in a scene representing a valley in
the middle of which is a winding stream bordered by a meadow, with rolling
foothills and forested uplands on either side. The foreground represents a
lake and brook amid trees, with undercover of shrubs and woodland grasses
on one side and drier upland country on the other. The Department’s entire
18-unit exhibit has been installed in the United States Government building
at the exposition.
National Park Service.—Secretary of the Interior Haroup L. Ickes has
placed on record his unalterable opposition, and that of his department, to
any plan for damming Lake Yellowstone or in any other way diverting
Yellowstone’s streams and lakes to commercial use.
Several National Park Service officials attended the meeting of the Na-
tional Conference on State Parks held at Bear Mountain in the Palisades
Interstate Park, May 25, 26, and 27.
Director ALBRIGHT was presented with the 1933 Pugsley Gold Medal for
his services as superintendent of Yellowstone National Park and as Director
of National Parks. The awarding of gold, silver and bronze medals annually
in recognition of outstanding public service in the establishment and de-
velopment of national, state, county and municipal parks in the United
States, was established in 1928 by Mr. CuHestrr D. Puasuery of Peekskill,
N. Y., in honor of his father, Hon. Cornetius AMory PUGSLEY.
Director Albright reported on the emergency conservation work being
‘carried on in the national parks, and Assistant Director H. C. BRYANT ad-
dressed the conference on the subject of trends in the educational program
of the national parks.
Geologist Earn A. TRAGER and Senior Park Naturalist and Forester
ANSEL F’. HA installed National Park Service exhibits at the Century of
Progress exposition at Chicago.
Dr. Cart P. Russexu, Field Naturalist of the National Park Service, ad-
dressed the Chicago meeting of the American Association of Museums on
June 14.
The Committee on Libraries in the National Parks of the American Li-
brary Association, headed by Mr. C. Epwarp Gravss, has prepared a plan
of development for national park libraries. This plan was presented to the
Secretary of the Interior on April 12, and it is hoped that financial means for
putting the plan into operation will be forthcoming in the near future.
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.—J. W. GREEN attended the meet-
ings of the Fifth Pacific Science Congress at Vancouver and Victoria, Can-
ada, June 1 to 14, as a representative of the Carnegie Institution of
Washington and the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. At these meetings
he presented six papers by members of the Department, all pertaining to ter-
restrial magnetism and electricity with special reference to the Pacific re-
gion. H. W. GranaM, also of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, who
has been at the Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, California, studying
biological material collected by the ‘“‘Carnegie,”’ also attended the meetings,
where he presented five additional papers.
Dr. M. A. Tuve and O. H. GisH attended the meetings of the American
Physical Society, American Meteorological Society, and the American As-
362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
sociation for the Advancement of Science at Chicago, on June 19-24. On
June 23, Dr. TuvE presented at the Nuclear Physics Symposium of Section
B, of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the
American Physical Society, a paper on Disintegration experiments on elements
of medium atomic number.
During the summer sessions at the Johns Hopkins University, a special
series of lectures has been arranged by the Department of Chemistry on
Recent developments in chemistry. In a group of these lectures on Chemistry
and physics tn cancer Dr. Tuve is to give a talk on the subject of Super-
voltage radiations.
New Insecticidal Fumigant.—In view of the high toxie hazard of hydro-
cyanic acid gas to personnel in connection with fumigation, the Bureau of
Medicine and Surgery, Navy Department, has recently conducted a study
of carboxide gas as an insecticidal fumigant for bedbugs and cockroaches for
application aboard naval vessels. Carboxide gas is a mixture by weight of 9
parts of carbon dioxide and 1 part of ethylene oxide, the carbon dioxide
removing the fire hazard and practically doubling the toxicity of the associ-
ated ethylene oxide. Carboxide gas was found to be effective in compara- .
tively small dosages such as to render it economically practicable for con-
veniently short periods of exposure. With ordinary care a gas mask is not
required for fumigation with carboxide and expert personnel is unnecessary.
A detailed report of this study will appear in the July, 1933, number of the
United States Naval Medical Bulletin under the caption Carboxide gas: A
new insecticidal fumigant for bedbugs and cockroaches, by Captain E. W.
Brown, Medical Corps, United States Navy.
George Washington University School of Medicine-——The following new-
full-time appointments have been announced in the School of Medicine,
George Washington University: E>Dwarp BricgHt VreppER, M.D., as Pro-
fessor of Experimental Medicine and Executive Officer, Department of
Pathology and Experimental Medicine; Witu1AmM HENRY WALLER, Ph.D.,
as Instructor in Anatomy; JESSE Harmon, B.S., Ph.D., as Instructor in
Biochemistry; Husprert Scott Lorine, B.S., Ph.D., as Instructor in Bio-
chemistry; JAMES LESLIE SNypDER, B.S., M.D., as Instructor in Pathology;
JOHN Rauston Pats, A.B., M.D., as Teaching Fellow in Anatomy.
News BRIg£Fs
Two new national-forest primitive areas have been set aside by the Forest
Service. They are in the Shoshone National Forest in Wyoming, and will
be known respectively as the North and the South Absaroka Primitive
Areas.
Employees of the Federal Government who develop patentable inventions
need not assign the patents thereon to the United States Government nor
grant the Government exclusive rights to the use of the inventions, in cases
where they were not specifically assigned to work out the inventions con-
cerned, the Supreme Court recently ruled in the suit of the Government
against the Dubilier Condenser Corporation. The opinion was concerned
with three radio inventions brought forth by F. W. Dunmore and P. D.
Lowe tt while they were employed at the Bureau of Standards, Department
of Commerce.
JULY 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 363
Two new fungus allergens, Alternarza, found in atmospheric dust, and
Trychophyton, a skin parasite, have been recognized by Dr. Harry S. BEerRn-
TON, a Washington physician, and Dr. CHarutes THom, of the U. 8. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
Hurricane warnings issued by the U. S. Weather Bureau this year will
have the advantage of news direct from the sea areas. Under a new plan
worked out by E. B. Cautvert, chief of the forecast division, ships at sea
in regions known or suspected to be generating hurricanes will receive radio
requests for data, which will be incorporated into the announcements sent
out by the Weather Bureau.
Men trained in forestry, entomology, plant pathology, biology, and other
sciences applicable in forest work, not now employed, may be able to find
positions in the supervisory personnel of the emergency reforestation
“army,” the Forest Service has announced.
“Heavy” water, containing high proportions of hydrogen isotope 2 and
oxygen isotopes 17 and 18 has been prepared at the Bureau of Standards by
distillation, depending on its higher boiling point. It has also been segregated
from ‘“‘common”’ water by adsorption on activated charcoal.
Surgeon General Ropert U. Patterson informed the Conference of State
and Provincial Health Authorities at their meeting in Washington that the
health of the men in the conservation camps is above average, and that no
cause for anxiety over possible epidemics need be entertained.
The grain-raising regions of the West will experience a plague of grasshop-
pers this year, a survey by the Bureau of Entomology, U. 8S. Department of
Agriculture, indicates. The eggs left in the soil by last year’s insects have
survived the winter in almost perfect condition, and recent hot weather is
bringing about a practically 100 per cent hatch. Some of the states where the
grasshoppers will be most numerous have little or no money to spend on
poison baits for holding them in check.
New Minimum Temperature Record.—The U.S. Weather Bureau has ac-
cepted as official a minimum temperature of —66° F., observed February 9,
1933, at the Riverside ranger station in Yellowstone National Park; one of
several stations in the park at which meteorological observations are made
under the supervision of the Weather Bureau. This is the lowest temperature
hitherto officially recorded in the United States; the previous extreme having
been —65° F, at Fort Keogh, near Miles City, Montana, registered January
13, 1888.
From the report of this observation it appears that the temperature may
actually have fallen below the value given above, as the index of the official
thermometer was found as low as it would go, while an unofficial instrument
in the immediate vicinity, constructed to register lower readings, showed a
minimum temperature of —69° F. on the same day. A subsequent compari-
son of the official and unofficial thermometers, at higher temperatures,
showed them in substantial agreement.
Submarine Deep and Peak.—The Navy Hydrographic Office received from
the U.S.S.“‘Ramapo”’ aradio report of a sonic sounding taken April 30,1933,
of 5501 fathoms in the southern end of the Tuscarora Deep about 250 miles
southwest of Yokahama. The application in the Hydrographic Office of cor-
rection factors for sonic soundings from data obtained in this vicinity by the
364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 7
ship ‘‘Carnegie”’ of the Carnegie Institution resulted in a corrected depth of
5,770 fathoms. This sounding is 611 fathoms greater than the greatest depth
obtained in the Tuscarora Deep by the Japanese surveying ship ‘‘Manchu”’
in 1924, and ranks the new found deep as second only to the depth of 5,900
fathoms found by the German Cruiser ‘‘Emden”’ in the Mindanao Deep in
1927.
A submarine peak, jutting upward from water more than a thousand
fathoms deep, was discovered on the night of May 4 by the U.S.S. “Patoka,”’
Commander Raupu B. Horner. Fathometer soundings indicated only 11 to
15 fathoms. The position of the ‘‘Patoka”’ at the time of shallowest soundings
was latitude 49:25 north, longitude 129:20 west. This position is about 200
miles west north west of Cape Flattery, and 65 miles off Cape Cook, Van-
couver Island.
~
PERSONAL ITEMS
Dr. LyMAn J. Briaes was confirmed as director of the National Bureau of
Standards by the Senate during the last days of the special session.
Dr. Davip FarRcHILD, veteran plant explorer of the U. 8. Department of
Agriculture, has been designated as the recipient of the Public Welfare
Medal of the National Academy of Sciences. The presentation will be made -
at the next annual meeting of the Academy.
Dr. F. B. LaForecet and Dr. H. L. J. HALLER of the U. 8S. Department of
Agriculture have been awarded the Hillebrand Prize of the Chemical Society
of Washington, in recognition of their researches on the chemical structure
of rotenone.
Watson Davis has been elected Director of Science Service, succeeding
the late Dr. Epwin E. Stosson. Since Dr. Slosson’s death in 1929 the direc-
torship has been vacant.
Meeting in Paris recently, the Permanent Committee of the International
Veterinary Congresses elected Dr. JouN R. MOHLER, chief, Bureau of Ani-
mal Industry, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, vice president, to succeed
Dr. EMMANUEL LECLAINCHE, chief of the Government Veterinary Services
in Paris. Dr. Monusr will take an active part in the 12th International
Veterinary Congress, to be held in New York City, August 15-19, 1934.
Dr. WiLu1AM A. WHITE, superintendent of St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, was
re-elected president of the District Social Hygiene Society at a recent meet-
ing of the Society’s board of directors.
Mr. Epwarp J. PHELAN, Chief of the Diplomatic Division of the Interna-
tional Labor Office, spoke on The International Labor Organization and the
World Economic Conference, at the Brookings Institution Residence, on
Tuesday, May 16.
Medical Director Epwarp FRANcis of the U. 8. Public Health Service was
awarded the degree Doctor of Science, honoris causa, by Ohio State Univer-
sity on June 23.
Surgeon CHARLES ARMSTRONG of the U. 8. Public Health Service was
awarded the degeee Doctor of Science, honoris causa, by Mt. Union College
on June 6.
At the annual Medal Day exercises of the Franklin Institute in Philadel-
phia on May 17, Dr. D. J. McApam, JR., chief of the optical metallurgy sec-
tion of the Bureau of Standards, received the Edward Longstreth medal.
C stallog h —"The ray-surf the eal i
= An elem pe ae eg epi i
Mineralogy.—Properties of _tri-galeium ium silieate aes Luketapen e
ee 6 Ovar ANDERSEN and pera
Paleontol “G Report on 1 species {corals and large fe
% worl oS E. Meinzer. en of WaYLaND
Bothien ewe more ie that prey on nematodes.
Zoology.—The generic. names Cephalobellus Cobb, oi: n
A Chai, 1931 a Juan Rt ra ees oe
>
This Journal te ingowsd te the International Iudex to Putlodickls ;
“yy "
Dew 23
VoL. 23 August 15, 1933 No. 8
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JOURNAL
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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 23 Aveust 15, 1933 No.8
ETHNOLOGY .—French survival in Canada|. Marius BaRBEAU,
National Museum of Canada. (Communicated by N. H. Hrcx.)
We are so immersed in the stream of modern life that there is not
enough time for retrospective or casual wanderings in the byways of
our continent. Yet certain things there at times hit us in the face as it
were, and we take notice with surprise, though they are by no means
novel in themselves. For instance, French survivals in Louisiana and
Quebec.
We remember from reading that America was different from itself
once not so long ago—only a hundred years back. But somehow we
do not quite feel it in our blood. It matters little whether the Missis-
sippi and the Saint Lawrence first were French, indeed so remained
effectively until the beginning of the last century; whether the South-
west was Spanish-Mexican as far north as Colorado—to its very
names; whether Alaska was under Russian domination for two hun-
dred years until 1880; or whether survivals from the colonial period
still dot our map with patches of odd colour and jar with our sense
of standardization and straightlaced uniformity.
To be honest we enjoy getting out of our accustomed environment,
in the summer holidays and seeing things that strike us as different
and refreshing; odd people with peculiar ways and looks, a vernacular
tantalizing the ear, houses and buildings redolent of Normandy or
Spain; or churches, priests and nuns that smack of Rome and look
like the personnel off the stage of grand opera houses which we pat-
ronize in the winter.
The lack of familiarity with those old-time features is what removes
them from our sphere; they are as if inexistent until they have become
real experience. But a little imaginary jaunt with me to one spot in
(uebec may take the place of this and convey an impression of ac-
1 Address delivered before the AcApEMy January 12, 1933. Received April 6, 1933.
365
AUG ¢
366 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
tuality. I hope it will. I said, one spot. That is enough, for we can
sample there interesting bits that fairly represent the whole. And
Sainte-Famille (the parish of the Holy Family) is our choice, on the
Island of Orléans, twenty miles northeast of Quebec City.
More exactly, we stand in front of the parish church in one of the
oldest French settlements in the Saint Lawrence.
The serenity of this Laurentian scene facing the north is like a
magic spell. It is as if the small village we have entered were asleep
in the sunlight, like the princess in the folk tale awaiting a kiss to
waken. No one moves in the landscape. The lawn in front of the
church is empty; so is the road that runs east and west. Sainte-Famille
is not really a village, in spite of its cluster of houses. It is a rural com-
munity that toils the whole week in the gardens and the fields and
becomes a social body only once a week, on Sunday, when the church
bells toll their call, and the parishioners gather in their best clothes
for prayer and gossip.
The stone church, whitewashed outside, sits sideways to the road
and faces the west, as all Quebec churches do. Why the west, I have
never learnt. Perhaps a lost symbol. Lombard poplars stand alongside
like pious attendants holding candle-sticks within the graveyard wall
that surrounds the nave, the transept and the choir to the rear. On
the high gable five saints, carved out of wood and weather-beaten,
stand in as many niches well spaced out between doors and arched
windows. Two massive towers rise on each side, and their graceful
belfries beside the higher central spire crown this royal front and glit-
ter in the midday light. One feels like speaking in whispers here, out
of reverence for something unseen but felt—and eluding full compre-
hension.
Two substantial stone houses, also whitewashed, with French man-
sards, face us one nearer than the other. They are surrounded by
lovely orchards covering the whole slope below the church that leads
gently all the way down to a fringe of tall trees, and then, unseen,
leap the cliffs two or three hundred feet high on to the bottom lands
of the tide-waters.
Beyond this opens up a wide vista, the north arm of the river and
beyond, the Laurentians, miles away. The greenish river runs either
way with the tide.
This is dreamland scenery in a way, not for its quiescent splendor
alone, but because it invites to contemplation and draws out one’s
thoughts one by one.
AuGusT 15, 1933 BARBEAU: FRENCH SURVIVAL IN CANADA 367
There, on the low prairies close to shore, the old villages of the
Beaupré Coast stretch out lengthwise lke a rosary along the
“King’s road.’’ The farms run up and down like green ribbons, quite
narrow, from the river up to the wooded hilltops in the mellow blueish
distance. |
Within the compass of the eye we have a synopsis of the whole of
French Canada and scattered hints of its romantic past.
Here Cartier, the discoverer of the Saint-Lawrence, in 1535, paused
in his journey up the river, and wrote in his memoirs:
‘“‘We found the island covered with very fine trees, such as oaks, elms,
pines, cedars and others and also plenty of wild grapes which we saw where-
ever we set foot. For this reason we named it Island of Bacchus. It is about
twelve leagues long and consists of very fine level land, mostly wooded, with-
out ploughed fields. We found there small huts occupied by Indians while
they fished .. .”’
But he called it Ile d’Orléans, after the duke of that name, in the
spring of 1536.
Champlain, the founder of New France, seventy-three years later
(1608), also described the island in his memoirs, like this:
“Tt is rich with woods of all sorts, such as we know in France; it is very
fine and edged with natural prairies on the north side that are flooded twice
a day. There are streams and springs, and a store of wild grapes in many
places. ... The coast has a number of brooks that abound with fish. Game
of various kinds is also found there in incredible abundance, as on the prairies
of Cap-Tourmente (opposite), a splendid place and a pleasure to the eye...”
The island and the shore opposite soon after the discovery were
ceded as a sezgneurie, that is, they became a seignorial estate. The
nobleman into whose right it passed landed there with the Governor,
and took possession of it according to feudal usage: broke a few branch-
es, pulled out shrubs, flourished an empty pistol at a grouse or a rab-
bit, and walked around like a lord, with picked escorts, on his feudal
domains.
The brand new sezgneur did not further avail himself of his rights
but ceded them to the first bishop of Quebec, Mgr. de Laval, who
later exchanged them for others with Berthelot, an influential man
at the Court of France.
These facts, trivial in themselves, will show how the seignorial
system of land tenure was established and the country was first
opened to colonization.
Mer. de Laval, for several years owner of the island after 1662,
brought a number of settlers there from northwestern France and
planted them upon his estate. Most of them were of Norman extrac-
368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
tion; others came from the Loire River provinces. The population of
the island, in 1667, was 529, whereas that of the town of Quebec was
only 448, out of a total of 4812 for the whole of Canada.
When Berthelot acquired the bishop’s rights thirteen years later,
a full-fledged seignorial estate already existed on the island, with
farms, buildings, forest preserves, dues from tenants—rentes seig-
neurvales—and wind-mills. The new seigneur improved his domain for
some years, till the population in 1681 reached the substantial figure
of 1080.
The island settlement then was practically complete, insofar as
heads of families and basic traditions are concerned. The map made
a few years later (1689) by the French engineer Villeneuve—one of
the earliest of the kind in America—shows the parishes, the farms and
the names of the owners, much as they are to-day.
Used as we are on this side of the Atlantic to think of a hundred
years in retrospective as a long way off, we now have to attune our-
selves to an older environment. People were already toiling here, at
this very spot, over two hundred and fifty years ago—much the same
by name and custom as to-day. To realize this in itself is a new ex-
perience. The parishioners of Sainte-Famille at that time were build-
ing stone houses and log barns. Their first church or chapel stood there
to the right, on the slope, a few hundred feet below the present. It was
of timbers (colombage) and the hipped roof was thatched—rather
small and rustie for a church, but the facilities were most limited;
everything had to be fashioned on the spot, so far away from the
motherland. It is not everywhere that panes of glass were available
for windows just then; oiled skins were used instead.
But what would seem hardships to us was wholesome like brown
bread to those early pioneers, who do not seem once to have regretted
their choice of a new abode in the new world. They were here to stay,
no matter what happened; and their settlement at once shot vigorous
roots into the rich soil.
Should you doubt it, we can make sure of it this very moment.
Come along to the presbytére, the curé’s house in front of us two hun-
dred feet from the road down towards the river. The presbytere itself
in part is an ancient house, nearly 250 years old. M. Martel, the parish
priest, is there ready to receive us with a Norman smile, his eyes in-
quisitive, yet half closed, slit-wise. A good name his, quite French,
and old as France itself. Charles Martel, the first of that name, was
king of France, back in the centuries before the year one thousand,
who defeated the Moors when they invaded central France.
AuGaustT 15, 1933 BARBEAU: FRENCH SURVIVAL IN CANADA 369
Out of the stone vault M. Martel will produce the first parish
registers, under motley parchment covers. You could not read the
writing, fine though it is. Its style is Gothic, as in the old medieval
scripts. But I have grown used to it.
Here you can see the names of the people back in 1675, 1700; as
they were married, baptized or buried; Gagnon, Blouin, Morency,
Dion. .. . These are the very names of the farmers around here; plus
many others.
Take the name of Gagnon, for instance. A familiar one in French
Canada; there are hundreds of Gagnons in North America, I should
say thousands! Well, one of their two roots is still in the ground
around here; the other is on the shore opposite. Their first ancestor
Robert, from Perche, France, settled here in 1657. A monument along
the road near here, a wayside shrine, commemorates his coming, and
a bronze tablet holds up the information: erected in 1909 in honour of
Robert Gagnon, the first settler on this farm, by 41 priests of his
name, living and grateful! There had been to date 62 priests of this
family, 53 of whom were still living. This happened nine or ten genera-
tions after the first Gagnon had begun to toil here with the spade
and the hoe. And his record is just like many others alongside.
That will do for old musty records!
There is a smell of old wall-paper, tapestries, plaster or ime—a
fragrance of centuries and sedate respectability—in these old houses
that gets at you from the first moment. It makes you feel that many
people before us have come and gone, some of them in queer garments,
different from ours, with a still queerer mind—people who knew noth-
ing of steam or electricity, who counted money in Livres, and believed
the King of France the eldest son of the church in Christendom.
If we step out on to the porch we can see, a few hundred feet below,
one of the oldest convents in America. Yes, still the same walls
though they have been raised and restored more than once; and the
roof was changed. There the nuns still keep the table and chair of the
venerable founder of their order, Sceur Bourjeoys. Date, 1701.
So education entered the island alongside of the pursuits of rural
life.
Soon after the settlers had faced the forest and challenged it with
axes and whip-saws, they seem to have forgotten their own kinsmen
in provincial France. Little, if any, correspondence passed the ocean
between them; still less could there be any notion of mutual visits.
The past was as if buried, except insofar as it subsisted in the present.
Sailing ships were few, casual and erratic. Two years once passed,
370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
about 1705, without any contact with the motherland. The war with
England was to blame. The bishop of Quebec was made a prisoner on
the seas, and valuable cargoes were confiscated. So everyone had to
shift for himself.
The habitants wove their own homespuns, flannels and linens—just
as today. They made their shoes—bottes sawvages, which they used
most of the year. Yet on Sundays they, particularly the young women,
wanted to have smart French shoes—souliers francais. They wore
their home-made shoes most of the way to church when the paths
were muddy, and then stopped and changed their footwear. From
there they would strut precariously on high heels! For rare events
they managed to ape the style of the higher class, but usually they
looked just like plain peasants; and they were none the worse for it.
For they were hardy, self-reliant and sufficient. One wonders at times
whether their government with its political intrigues was not just a
nuisance to them.
The sailors often met with storms on the high seas. When it hap-
pened they fell down upon their knees and made vows to Sainte
Anne. This was done according to an immemorial custom. Many
shrines on the coast of France bear this out. One was erected by sea-
men on the Beaupré coast, there, almost in front of us, on the opposite
shore. We can see the little town in the distance—Sainte-Anne de
Beaupré.
There is such a widespread belief in miracles and occult cures, that
pilgrims and tourists from far and wide gather here in large numbers
every summer, some of them hoping for sadly needed miracles.
The favours of Sainte Anne at first were mostly confined to sea folk;
this is shown by old painted canvases, in the Memorial church, which
represent sailors praying at sea while the storm lashed them. But they
now cover the whole range of human vicissitudes. The growth of
Sainte-Anne as a pilgrimage center is an interesting story.
From a chance stopping place, it became a pilgrimage and trade
center during the French period. The Micmac Indians from the mari-
times used to come on yearly visits to the shrine. While there they dis-
posed of their furs, were banqueted, and managed to leave more than
they received. But they went away satisfied.
The parishioners of the Beaupré Coast also were fond of going to
the shrine overland, miles away; those of Ile d’Orléans likewise; they
crossed the river in their sail boats. This happened once a year, in
July or August, for the feast of Sainte Anne. A pious pilgrimage, yes.
But the people so seldom in their lives went away from their home
Fig. 1.—Quatriéme Rang, in the Laurentians, from a painting by Gordon
Pfeiffer, Quebec, 19382.
Fig. 2.—An Acadian interior, at the Louisbourg Museum, Nova Scotia.
Fig. 4.—Weavers at their loom. Homespun and hooked rug.
First Quebec Festival, 1927.
AucusT 15, 1933 BARBEAU: FRENCH SURVIVAL IN CANADA 371
that they were apt to treat this as a feast, and there are always some
black sheep in the herd! Men would procure spirits and get riotous.
Another abuse was that of young men and their fiancées travelling in
carts from distant parishes on the coast and stopping overnight on
their way. And the good shepherds wondered at the spiritual gains and
losses of their flock in the end.
But Sainte-Anne as a pilgrimage center thrived nonetheless, like
those of France and Spain. The church there is perhaps the largest in
Canada. It is patronized mostly by strangers from afar. The ez votos
and crutches stacked up around the pillars of the church make an im-
pressive display for the tourists, protestant like catholic, who come
there in vast numbers every summer.
Whatever we might see, if we continued our imaginary jaunt far-
ther into the Laurentians, would tell the same tale; one of pioneering,
of gradual changes and growth. For there was growth here, not merely
survival. Survival is a thing of the past, unchanged and negligible
as it were, or if changed, for the worse. It flavours of decay and may
soon drop off the walk of life.
Not so with the people here or the manifestations of their existence. .
They are alive and sturdy. So they have been for two or three cen-
turies. The depression does not hit them hard, because they have
weathered many others, and are self-reliant. They own fields, gar-
dens, cows, sheep and orchards. And there are many things they can.
do, for their hands are trained for many home crafts. As a people
they have not merely survived, but they have multiplied, expanded.
From French folk, they have become thorough Canadians, and since
the day of their landing here they have gone on adapting themselves
to changing surroundings. And no one in America is more attached
to his homeland—for him the best under the sun.
Surprise is often expressed at the survival of so many historic fea-
tures in Canada, indeed at the survival of the French language itself.
Nearly 200 years have passed since the Fall of Quebec (1759), and
over 250 years since the original settlements were practically com-
plete. At an early date, the stream of emigrants to the New World was
growing in size. Many were they who did not resist the lure of free-
dom and adventure. France, like Spain, might have lost its lifeblood
to its colony had not Louis XIII, by his edict of 1673, stemmed the
ebbing flow of his rural population. Nine thousand people from Nor-
mandy and the Loire River by that time had established their homes
in the woodlands of New France. It is from this seventeenth century
nucleus—which has doubled in size every thirty years since—that are
372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
descended the three million French-Canadians now living in the Saint
Lawrence watershed.
From the mere fact of the survival of their culture, outsiders may
conclude that French-Canadians are refractory to assimilation, that
they are not adaptable. But this assumption is hardly justified.
Many of them in the past have left their province never to return;
they may be found everywhere from Labrador to California. They
migrated in bulk to the United States, more particularly to the manu-
facturing centers of New England, in the economic crisis of the eight-
ies. Since, they have been largely absorbed by new collectivities,
though their numbers there have reached a million.
A French-Canadian loves an adventure and a change of omirouee
ings, like the ancient coureurs-des-bois. Language is no barrier. He
soon learns another. He is adaptable.
But the process of assimilation is slower when he associates with
his compatriots in compact clusters—and he would rather live with
them. But there is fairly little left of the old ways and customs in the
scattered French settlements of Michigan, Wisconsin, the Prairies
and Oregon.
Some of those settlements go back to colonial times. One of them—
Louisiana—is of considerable size; it took new proportions with the
coming of the Acadians, after their deportation, in 1755. Yet it is los-
ing its individuality like the others. The language struggles hard to
hold its own, but it is not everywhere passing to the new generation.
And the language is the last rampart of nationality. Within Canada
likewise, the Detroit River colony—a substantial one—is now mostly
English-speaking, and the Acadian groups of the Maritimes have gone
a long way towards assimilation.
All in all, French-Canadians have become Americans or English-
speaking in the proportion, roughly, of one to three. And the process
is more than ever at work.
The major group of Quebec alone—well over two million French-
Canadians, speaking their native language, Catholic, and aware of
their nationality—has stayed the forces at work for its disintegration.
French-Canadians remained in majority on the Saint Lawrence for
over a century after the fall of New France, in 1759. They were eighty
thousand to a few hundred British, a score of years after the Con-
quest. Sturdy and self-supporting, they absorbed many of the immi-
grants of other countries. The Scotch intermarried with them, at
Murray Bay, Fraserville (Riviére-du-Loup) and in the Eastern Town-
ships, and lost their nationality.
AuGuST 15, 1933 BARBEAU: FRENCH SURVIVAL IN CANADA BY Es)
The Meuron and Darmstadt regiments of the British army in the
American war were disbanded in Quebec, and were assimilated. After
the Napoleonic wars, some British soldiers received grants of land
at Sorel and in Gaspé. Shiploads of Irish immigrants landed along the
Saint Lawrence after 1830. Many of them have since become French-
Canadians, with only their name for a token of a different origin.
The British settlers, for the sake of self-preservation, on the whole
preferred other parts of Canada—Ontario and the Maritimes. An up-
heaval, after 1830, brought them into closer association with French-
Canadians, who likewise were in the throes of political agitation. The
secession of Canada, for causes not unlike that of the American col-
onies, might have resulted, but for the suppression of the Quebec Re-
bellion in 1837 by British troops. The Upper and Lower Canadas
formed a Union Government in 1840, as soon as they secured the
rights they were agitating for. But it is only after the British element
was in majority that Confederation as it now exists was established,
in 1867.
The tables have turned. Quebec now is a minority within Canada.
And it is fast becoming part of the American economic system. In
mere numbers it amounts to less than three to well over a hundred
millions. It cannot help but swim with the stream.
The survival of French Quebec to this day is not due only to its
aloofness and long-continued isolation. It rests chiefly on its vitality
as sustained by a wealth of ancestral traditions.
New France was in the hands of monopolies for the benefit of the
fur trade. The early colonists endured severe trials for over a hundred
years. They were like pawns in the rivalry of France and England.
Indian raiders several times invaded their homes at night and mas-
sacred them. The Richelieu for that reason was called ‘‘Blood River,”
as it was the highway to New England and the country of the Iro-
quois. It is only after 1705 that homespuns could be made for domes-
tic use, for this would have been an infringement upon the privileges
of the monopolies. An attempt to manufacture felt at Lauzon, op-
posite Quebec, was suppressed and the tools were destroyed. But the
capture by the British of La Seine, a French ship with goods for the
colonists, brought about greater tolerance. Madame de Repentigny
revived the textile industry. The settlers began to cultivate flax and
raise sheep; they made spinning-wheels and looms, and provided
themselves with flannels and linen. It is at that date that the handi-
craft of weaving was established in New France. It survived every-
where till after 1880, when manufactured goods were introduced on
374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
a large scale. The country folk would buy, who had nothing to sell.
Scon empoverished they began to migrate on a large scale to New
England. Homespun since has been made extensively only in afew
of the oldest districts—Quebec, Montmorency and Charlevoix.
Handicrafts and trades were transplanted to the New World at an
early date, from sheer necessity. Without craftsmen the colony could
not be self-supporting. The pioneers, if they built their own houses,
could not erect large buildings, churches, manors and fortifications,
for the lack of expert knowledge. The church of Ste. Famille, from
the hands of unaided ploughmen, cracked from top to bottom and had
to be taken down in less than fifty years.
Intendant Talon and the first bishop of Quebec, Mgr. de Laval,
more than their predecessors realized that New France must be es-
tablished on a firm basis—apart from the fur trade. After the land
was cleared and scattered settlements dotted the shores of the Saint
Lawrence, they decided to make the colony self-supporting. This they
achieved to a remarkable degree, in the years that followed 1660.
Masters and craftsmen were brought over in sufficient numbers.
Schools, convents, hospitals, and the Seminary of Quebec, were
founded. All of them, with the exception of the Jesuit College, which
was abolished at the Conquest, have endured to this day.
The settlers, besides, brought over with them a vast hoard of tra-
ditions. They had left their province before the diffusion of printed
books. The spoken word, rather than writing, served in the transmis-
sion of ancestral wisdom and knowledge. And the traditions of France
in the period that immediately followed the Gothic were unsurpassed
in wealth. The emigrants as they journeyed across the sea brought
over with them an ample heritage. They found solace in their mem-
ories and conserved them intact in the solitudes of their new wood-
land homes. To these traditions no less than to their domestic handi-
crafts the French-Canadian habitant owes his survival.
The echoes of the canoe songs preceded the French explorers and
the cowreurs-des-bo1s wherever they ventured in the American wilder-
ness. La Rochefoucault, a Frenchman visiting the West early in the
nineteenth century, says,
‘‘We were led by Canadians who, as is their wont, never ceased singing
for a moment. Their songs are gay, often a trifle more than gay. They are
at times interrupted by the laughter they bring forth. In all the canoe
journeys undertaken by the Canadians, songs follow the paddle, beginning
as soon as it is picked up and ending only when it is dropped. One has the
pleasant illusion of being in provincial France.”
AuGusT 15, 1933 BARBEAU: FRENCH SURVIVAL IN CANADA 379
A French diplomat, Duflos de Mofras, had a similar experience
much later, in the remote regions of Oregon, in 1844:
“Oftentimes, in our canoe journeys along the Columbia River, our heart
quickened when our oarsmen, even in the rain and the wind, enlivened those
lonely shores with their chants so reminiscent of ancient France.’’
Thomas Moore, the Irish poet, was escorted by Canadian canoe-
men down the Saint Lawrence, from Kingston to Montreal, in 1803.
He wrote in his memoirs:
“Our voyageurs had good voices and sang perfectly in tune together... . I
remember when we have entered, at sunset, upon one of those beautiful
lakes into which the river so grandly and unexpectedly opens, I have heard
their simple songs with a pleasure which the finest compositions of the first
masters have never given me.’”’...
Folk songs, more than any other form of popular art, until recently
were part of the mental equipment of uneducated French-Canadians.
There were songs applying to almost every phase of daily life. Chil-
dren, lovers, mothers, workers, drinkers, all had their songs. People
were less morose and more musical in the old days. A singer with a
fair memory possessed a large assortment of all kinds of carols and
tunes. There is nothing abnormal in the memory of two of our best
singers—Saint-Laurent and de Repentigny—who recently gave us
over 300 songs each, mostly learnt in childhood. And the collections
which I have made with the collaboration of a few friends for the Na-
tional Museum of Canada, in the past fifteen years, are only a part
of an elusive total still beyond our appreciation. The sheer force of
survival in this domain is well illustrated in the drinking and love
songs. Hundreds of these songs, for planting vines, for harvesting
grapes or the merriment of wine drinkers, are still remembered by the
habitants who have no actual knowledge of these things in their north-
ern climate. If license is seldom heard of in rural life, countless love
songs glorify the genial irresponsibilities of Arcadia.
Most villagers often have enjoyed folk tales like those of the Dra-
gon with Seven Heads, Blue-beard and Jack the Giant Killer. Handed
down in large numbers from the past, they were in full bloom not so
long ago. New anecdotes about the werewolf, the chasse-gallery or
changelings, dwarfs keeping buried treasures, wandering souls from
the nether world, sprang every day into existence. Rumours of mar-
velous events often stirred the curiosity of the least credulous.
Should these traditions pass to the new generations, there is no
doubt but that the flavour of the old Gallic spirit would survive
among them. They are a font of youth and serenity, at the core of
376 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
the naive feeling that no place under the sun is as good as the farm
where eight or nine generations of ancestors have thrived. But these
things have come to the end of their long journey. Rural life has been
robbed of its privacy and self-confidence. It has withered up under
the dust of automobiles. Folk singers are dying out.
Traditions were not exclusively the apanage of country folk; they
were not all transmitted merely by the spoken word. Some of them
belonged to the schools, of which there were not a few in Quebec,
Montreal, Three Rivers, and in some of the country places.
The clergy, the religious orders and the nuns, as in all latin coun-
tries, were an important element. Though recruited from the people,
they were like a class by themselves. Writing and book learning were
their privilege, no less than ministering to the needs of the people and
evangelizing the Indians. Their activities often reached into broader
fields, as in the instances of the Seminary of Quebec, the Ursulines
and the nuns of the Hospital General.
The Ursulines, whose foundation goes back to the first decades of
Quebec, educated Indian girls from the northeastern tribes—Eskimo,
Algonkin and Iroquois. They trained them in the handicrafts likely
to be useful to them in life, such as sewing and needle work. It is there,
at that time, that originated the floral designs in the Renaissance
style which now characterize the bead and silk work of our modern
North American Indians. Fine embroidery as a tradition was con-
served chiefly by the Ursulines, although other communities shared
with them the profitable business of providing the churches with em-
broidered garments for worship.
The nuns of the Hospital General were professional gilders in ad-
dition to their other activities. The wood carvings that were made
for the sanctuaries—altars, reredos, statues and candle-holders—were
gilded in their shops. They kept the secret of their processes (in
France it was the privilege of a regular guild) to themselves, a secret
shared at a later date by the Ursulines and perhaps also the Quevillon
school of woodcraft. The cost of gilding an altar exceeded that of its
carving.
The School of Arts at Cap-Tourmente and the Seminary of Quebec
was of still greater importance. Mgr. de Laval founded it in 1672,
after he had secured support at the Court of France of some noble-
men, as fine arts at the time were considered no less essential for
the decoration of churches than crafts were in the ordinary walks of
life. He engaged some of the best wood carvers of the day, one of
them—Leblond de Latour—from Bordeaux, and over thirty masters
auGusT 15, 1933 BARBEAU: FRENCH SURVIVAL IN CANADA Olt
in other handicrafts. The students in the Seminary learned carving
no less than letters and theology. A few altars and statues from their
hands are still preserved in the churches of the Beaupré coast. This
school seems to have gone out of existence, except for agriculture,
about 1715, after the death of its founder and supporter. But it has
left its mark on the professional handicrafts of the country.
Many useful arts were otherwise transplanted into New France
late in the seventeenth century, with the arrival of silversmiths, ar-
chitects and unattached wood carvers, joiners, masons, potters,
tapestry-makers. The census for 1744 holds a list of no less than sixty
distinct handicrafts that were practised in the town of Quebec alone.
Architecture at the time of the Conquest had already gone through
two distinct periods since the beginning, that of the de Laval masters,
whose style was of the early Renaissance—or the Bourguignon
School—and of their successors at large whose art followed the times:
de Léry, a nobleman and engineer, the LeVasseurs and the Labrosses,
hereditary woodcarvers, and several others.
Two independent schools of carving and colonial architecture came
into existence after the Conquest, with the growth of the population,
one of them in Quebec, and the other near Montreal, at Ile-Jésus.
The first, that of the Baillairgés, continued the traditions of the early
Renaissance while evolving a type of naturistic floral decoration that
was indigenous. The other, of Quevillon, adopted the rococo of the
Louis XV period. The ancient school quarrel of the classic vs the
rococo was revived between them, after 1800, as a result of their
rivalry in practically the same field. A few amusing episodes are to
be found in the parish records of that date.
Wood-carving was indeed practised on a large scale from 1780 to
1850 or even later, for church decoration and domestic furniture. It
formed the largest industry of the time, and reached a high point of
excellence. What is left of the carver’s work, and there is much of it—
as well as silver work by Ranvoyzé and Amyot, enables us to judge
of their high standards as well as individual achievements. |
This art survived in Canada long after it had given way to other
styles in other countries—to the Georgian, the Neo-classic or the
Neo-Gothic. But it was enough that two Sulpicians of Montreal
‘should go to New York, in 1825, and see a Gothic church built by
James O’Donnell, an Irish architect trained in London, to kill this
Canadian tradition. The priests admired the New York temple so
much that they engaged its architect to build one like it for them at
home. O’Donnell met with such difficulties in bending his-rebellious
378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOL. 23, NO. 8
workmen to his own ways—Gothic was new to them—, that he died
from exhaustion, but not before he had become a Catholic. He was
buried in his church before it was finished.
When the vast structure stood complete at the Place d’Armes, the
people considered it a marvel. It was so big and novel! Gothic hence-
forth was the style in vogue throughout Quebec. The French Renais-
sance had fallen into disfavour. It is now a thing of the past.
Traditional arts likewise have given way to novelty, not for the
best. Quebec is becoming industrialized. Houses formerly were built
of stone or heavy logs; their roofs were hipped in the Norman fashion.
They are being razed to the ground, because American cottages are
preferred, or plain slum match-boxes.
Oral and manual traditions no longer are the staying power of the
race. French Canada is fast losing its characteristics. Survival in the
past is not criterion for the future. Conditions now are different. The
spirit of conservation is broken. The world is on the move.
BIOCHEMISTRY .—Studies in cancer: the application of the Rupp-
Schied-Thiel thiocyanate reaction to the urine. M. X. SULLIVAN
and W. C. Hsss, Georgetown University.
Among the projects of the Chemo-Medical Research Institute of
Georgetown University is one aimed at the development of chemical
tests on the urine which might be of value in the differentiation of
cancer from other pathological conditions and from the normal. In
surveying the work of others along this line attention was directed
to the work of Saxl? who concluded that quantitatively thiocyanate
is increased in the urine in cancer with values appreciably higher than
for normals and higher than found in any other disease. He applied
to the urine the very accurate iodometric method for thiocyanate de-
vised by Rupp and Schied* and improved by Thiel.
The reaction as applied to urine proceeds in the following way: An
aliquot of urine, generally 50 cc., is made acid by addition of 5 to
10 ce. of 1 per cent nitric acid; the thiocyanate (—CNS) is then pre-
cipitated as the silver salt by the addition of silver nitrate (25 per cent
solution) added dropwise with stirring, in slight excess. The mixture
1 This work was supported by a Research Grant from the Chemical Foundation.
Received May 17, 1933.
2 Saxi,-P, Biochem, Z: 55: 224.1913.
3 Rupp, E. and Scuiep, A. Ber. Chem. Ges. 35: 2191. 1902.
4 TuiEL, A. Ber. Chem. Ges. 35: 2766. 1902.
AuGusT 15, 1933 SULLIVAN AND HESS: THIOCYANATE REACTION 379
is centrifuged and the precipitate washed by stirring with 10 ce. of
1 per cent nitric acid and centrifuging. The precipitate is then washed
into a liter flask containing 100 cc. of water, 3 grams of sodium bi-
carbonate, and 3 grams of potassium iodide. By stirring, any silver
chloride present is converted to iodide to prevent reaction with the
standard iodine next added. Then 5 to 10 cc. of 0.1 N iodine solution
are added with gentle shaking. The brown solution is set aside for 4
hours preferably in a dark place to complete the reaction between
thiocyanate and iodine. Then the mixture is carefully acidified with
10 per cent hydrochloric acid. Starch solution is next added and the
whole titrated with 0.1 N sodium thiosulfate until colorless. The dif-
ference between the amount of 0.1 N iodine added and the amount
left as shown by the thiosulfate titration gives the iodine reacting
with thiocyanate.
The entire process covering the relation of thiocyanate to iodine
can be expressed as follows:
KCNS +31, +4H.0 = H.S0,+5HI+KI+HCN
As under the conditions one molecule of thiocyanate corresponds
to six atoms of iodine, multiplying the cubic centimeters of 0.1 N iodine
reacting by the factor 0.9846 gives the quantity of thiocyanic acid
(HCNS) in milligrams in the aliquot of urine used. This procedure
with a pure solution of potassium thiocyanate of known strength gives
results with an error of less than 1 per cent.
In a trial experiment the Rupp-Schied-Thiel method was applied
to the urine of (a) a patient with extensive abdominal cancer, (b) a
patient with a small localized cancer of the jaw, and (c) three normals.
The marked cancer case showed 164 mg. of HCNS in 515 cc. 24 hour
urine; the mild case showed 95 mg. in 605 cc.; the normals gave an
average of 100 mg. for an average volume of 986 cc. All these urines
were collected over chloroform as a preservative. This preliminary
study suggested that the comparative study of the apparent thio-
cyanate excretion in cancer as compared to other pathological condi-
tions would be worth while irrespective of whether the Rupp-Schied-
Thiel procedure when applied to urine is estimating a single substance
or a medley of similarly reacting substances.
Shortening tume of reaction—The Rupp-Schied-Thiel reaction as
ordinarily run calls for 4 hours contact of iodine with the washed sil-
ver precipitate. To hasten the study attempts were made to shorten
this time. After some experimentation it was found that keeping the
silver precipitate-alkaline-iodine mixture in a stoppered flask at
380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
50° C. for 30 minutes gave the same results as 4 hours at room tem-
perature.
With this modification, urinary thiocyanate was determined in
fifteen cases of cancer, stomach, uterus, liver, prostate, etc., in com-
parison with twenty-one non-cancerous hospital cases with a wide
variety of pathological conditions, and with four normals. The varia-
tion and average thiocyanic acid content of the 24 hour urine of the
respective groups are: normal 67 to 140 mg., average 102.5 mg.; non
cancer 56 to 273 mg., average 132.2 mg.; cancer 31 to 495 mg., aver-
age 155 mg. Fourteen of the twenty-one non-cancer hospital cases
gave thiocyanate values in the normal range or below normal, ten
oi the fifteen cancer urines gave values in the normal range or below
normal. As found by Saxl, the average thiocyanate content of the
urine is somewhat higher than for other pathological conditions tested
and much higher than for normal. In some eases, as for example, mul-
tiple myeloma, the apparent thiocyanate is exceedingly high. On the
other hand, two-thirds of the cancer cases tested were within normal
limits or below normal. The comparison of various cancerous condi-
tions with other pathological conditions support the earlier conclusion
of Sullivan and Hess,*° on less extensive study, that the excretion of
material behaving like thiocyanate in the Rupp-Schied-Thiel iodo-
metric procedure applied directly to urine is not necessarily increased
in cancer.
In some of the cases where the apparent thiocyanate is much higher
than was found for other pathological conditions, preliminary experi-
ments indicated the presence of other compounds than thiocyanate
which will precipitate with silver nitrate and react with iodine in an
alkaline medium. The second phase of the question is being studied.
6 Sutuivan, M. X., and Hess, W. C. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. and Med. 30: 804.
1938.
PALEONTOLOGY .—Pharyngeal plates of Phyllodus from the Vir-
ginia Eocene... BENJAMIN GILDERSLEEVE, Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity. (Communicated by E. W. Berry.)
| INTRODUCTION
The specimens described in this paper were collected by Dr. W. G.
Lynn of The Johns Hopkins University from the Aquia formation
(lower Eocene) at Belvedere Beach, Virginia. Belvedere Beach is in
King George County, 13 miles north-east of Fredericksburg, on the
south bank of the Potomac.
1 Received Feb. 7, 1933.
AuGuSsT 15, 1933 GILDERSLEEVE: PHARYNGEAL PLATES 381
This remarkable genus was first described by Agassiz? and is known
only by the pharyngeal dentition.? Over thirty species of Phyllodus
have been described in the literature as occurring principally in Kocene
and Miocene strata. Nicholson and Lydekker* make passing reference
to its occurrence in the Cretaceous of Germany. Woodward,’ how-
ever, says that the so-called P. cretaceus of Reuss from the Upper
Cretaceous of Bohemia as well as P. wmbonatus Miinster and P. de-
pressus Miinster from the Miocene of Vienna are based on generically
undetermined teeth which are probably not referable to the Labridae.
According to Eastman? the genus is known in the American Tertiary
only by the four detached plates described by Wyman’ and Marsh.’
The specimens which formed the basis for Agassiz’s determination of
the genus Phyllodus were found in the London clay or Sheppey.®
In 1850 Wyman’ recorded for the first time the finding of this genus
in the United States. The plates described by Wyman were collected
by Dr. Martin Burton near Richmond, Virginia from the Tertiary,
but he was unable to say whether they came from the Eocene or
Miocene beds. Of the two specimens figured, the more perfect was
identified as P. toliapicus Agassiz, and the other undetermined.
Marsh® was evidently unaware of this find, for in 1870 he described
the first discovery of Phyllodus in this country as being P. elegans and
P. curvidens, from the Eocene and Miocene respectively of New Jer-
sey. Neither of these species were figured by Marsh, although of his
P. elegans he states that it resembles P. toliapicus Agassiz. This simi-
larity is not apparent from Fowler’s® description of P. elegans Marsh
which is as follows:
2 Acassiz, L. Recherches sur les poissons fossiles. 2: 238-241, pl. 69a, figs. 1-9.
1833-1843.
3 EastMaANn, C. R. Pisces of Eocene of Maryland. Md. Geol. Survey, Eocene, pp.
111-113. 1901.
PictET, F. J. Traité de paléontologie, ou histoire naturelle des animaux fossiles con-
sidérés dans leurs rapports zoologiques et géologique. 2nd ed. 2: 207. 1854.
St ee Haat A.S. Catalogue of the fossil fishes in the British Museum, part 4: 546-
Wyman, JEFFRIES. Notice of remains of vertebrate animals found at Richmond,
Virginia. Amer. Jour. Sci., ser. 2, 10: 228-235. 1850.
ZITTEL, K. A. Von. Textbook of paleontology. 2: 103. 1902.
4 Nicuouson, H. A. and LypEKKer, R. A manuel of paleontology for the use of
students, with a general introduction on the principles of paleontology. 3rd ed., 1004,
fig. 941. 1889. :
5 Marsu, O. C. Notice of some new Tertiary and Cretaceous fishes, (Abst.). Proce.
Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 18th meeting, p. 228. 1870.
6 AGASSIZ, op. cit.
7 WYMAN, op. cit.
8 MARSH, op. cit.
° Fowter, H. W. A description of the fossil fish remains of the Cretaceous, Eocene
ul Msorene Formations of New Jersey. New Jersey Geol. Survey, Bull. 4: 184-185.
7a,"
,
OO
_— ee | rf bea
Figures 1-18.
Figs. 1-6. Phyllodus toliapicus Agassiz. Figs. 1, 3, and 5, upper surfaces; Figs. 2, 4,
and 6, corresponding lower surfaces. a
Figs. 7-10. Phyllodus speciosus Cocchi. Figs. 7 and 9, upper surfaces; Figs. 8 and
10, corresponding lower surfaces. ;
Figs. 11-14. Phyllodus marginalis Agassiz. Figs. 11 and 13, upper surfaces; Figs.
12 and 14, corresponding lower surfaces. :
Figs. 15-18. Phyllodus medius? Agassiz. Figs. 15 and 17, upper surfaces; Figs. 16
and 18, corresponding lower surfaces.
AuGuST,15, 1933 GILDERSLEEVE: PHARYNGEAL PLATES 383
‘“‘Pharyngeal dental plate obtusely triangular, small, and triturating sur-
face a little convex. Central teeth enlarged, circular well depressed or disk-
like with central portion well pressed down, giving each tooth appearance of
shallow cup. Only rims of each tooth covered with smooth enamel. Though
most all teeth circular they vary into irregularities of circular design. Margin-
al teeth all smaller, similar, only with triturating surfaces less concave,
and enamel extends equally over concave median portions. Successional
teeth equally enlarged median as seen from lower surface, as they are above,
and marginal teeth correspondingly reduced. Longest diameter 18 mm. The
above-described example agrees with Marsh’s account, which states the
lateral or smaller teeth to be rather few.”’
Fig. 19. A vertical longitudinal section of the continuous parts of four of the
lamelliform teeth of Phyllodus toliapicus: a. Osseous base, 6. Dentine, c. Enamel.
(Plate 44, fig. 2 of Owen’s Odontography.)
According to Fowler’s description and figure of P. elegans Marsh,
this species is apparently more closely related to the genus Nummopa-
latus’® than it is to Phyllodus. Thus, of the four plates described by
Wyman and Marsh, one has been referred to P. toliapicus, one un-
identified, and two given new specific names, one of which (P. elegans)
probably belongs to the genus Nummopalatus.
THE GENUS PHYLLODUS
Phyllodus was so named by Agassiz because of the leaf-like struc-
ture of the dentigerous plates." One of the most concise descriptions
10 SauvaGE, H. E. Note sur le genre Nummopalatus et sur les espéces de ce genre
trouvées dans les terraines tertiaires de la France. Bull. Soc. Géol. France (3) 3: 613-
630) pis. 22 and 23. 1875:
11 AGASSIZ, op. cit. p. 238. (pbdAov, a leaf and 650s, a tooth.)
384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
of this genus is given by Owen” in his Odontography as follows:
“Tt consists of an anchylosed mass of superimposed more or less flattened,
lamelliform teeth, of which those forming the middle longitudinal row are
the largest, and present a transversely elongated oblong figure: these are
surrounded by smaller oblong dental lamellae, irregularly placed, and dimin-
ishing in size to the circumference of the mass, where they exchange the ob-
long for a circular form.”
The plates forming the middle row are not all the same size, those
in the center being the largest. The dental plates or lamellae are usu-
ally convex on the upper surface and concave on the under or lower
surface (Figs. 1-18). The lamellae are superimposed in nearly ver-
tical tiers, the number of lamelliform teeth in each tier increasing
from the anterior to the posterior part of the mass (Figs. 1-18), and
according to Agassiz’ they may vary from four to ten in number.
Owen" has shown from his study of the microscopic structure of the
teeth, that the large middle plates are also lamelliform, and similarly
superimposed as the marginal lamellae (Fig. 19). The structure he be-
lieves is analgous to that of the pharyngeal teeth of Scarus. Agassiz,®
however, says the lamellae are not composed in the same manner as
the pharyngeal teeth of Scarus. In Phyllodus the lamellae are super-
imposed vertically and the entire exterior surface is triturating, while
in the pharyngeal teeth of the Scarus the crown is more or less cut off.
In Phyllodus displacement and succession of the lamelliform teeth
were accomplished in both vertical and longitudinal directions, analo-
gous to the reproduction in the dental systems of Diodon and Scarus
respectively, as described by Owen.'® That is to say, the succession
was both vertical and horizontal. As the teeth at the top of each tier
were worn away, their loss was supplied by new lamellae added to the
bottom of the tier. ‘‘But as the attrition was greatest at the anterior
extremity of the dental plate, and the power of reproducing the lamel-
lae in the vertical direction limited, the loss of entire piles of teeth
was supplied by the addition of new piles to the posterior extremity
of the dentigerous plate, according to the mode of reproduction de-
scribed in the pharyngeal teeth of Scarus.’’” In Scarus the teeth are
successively replaced at one extremity of the bone in proportion as
they are worn away at the other; the course of succession being from
2 OwEN, RicwarD. Odontography; or a treatise on the comparative.anatomy of the
teeth; their physiological relations; mode of development; and microscopic structure, in
the vertebrate animals. 1: 138-141. pl. 4, fig. 2; pl. 47, figs. 1-2. 1840-1845.
13 AGASSIZ, op. cit. p. 238.
4 OWEN, op. cit. p. 139.
aS AGASSIZ, op. Cit. Pe
16 OWEN, op. cit. p. 141.
17 OWEN, op. cit. p. 141.
Se ae
ee ee
AuGuST 15, 1933 GILDERSLEEVE: PHARYNGEAL PLATES 385
before backwards in the upper pharyngeals, and from behind for-
wards in the lower pharyngeal bones.18
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE
In view of the fact that Owen’s Odontography may not always be
readily accessible, his description of the microscopic structure of the
lamelliform teeth of Phyllodus is quoted at length.
“The osseous substance (a, fig. 2, Pl. 44) is characterized by the large
reticularly anastomosing medullary canals, without radiated cells in their
interspaces, which are peculiar to the structure of the bones and ossified
basis of the teeth in fishes. The dentine (6b) consists of numerous, close-set
calcigerous tubes and the clear uniting substance; the tubes are charac-
terized by their straight and parallel course; at the middle part of the plate,
they are directed vertically to its plane, and at the margins which are bent
down, they incline so as to maintain the same relative position to that part
of the surface of the plate; their diameter does not exceed 0.00007 inch;
their subdivisions into pencils of smaller tubes takes place nearer to the
- enamel than usual. I could plainly discern the anastomoses of these divi-
sions of the calcigerous tubes in some parts of the section. The enamel c,
which, as in the denticles of the Scarws and many other fishes, closely approx-
imates in structure to the dentine, exhibits, however, much less parallelism
in the course of its component tubes in the Phyllodus; but these are as nu-
merous and distinct, though somewhat more minute than those of the true
dentine.
It would seem that in the matrices or pulps of both the enamel and den-
tine, the progress of calcification followed the same law, viz; from the cir-
cumference to the centre, or from the surface to the attached base of the
pulp. In specimens of the Scarus preserved in spirit, and-in other fishes, I
find that neither surface of the formative pulps is free, for, that which may
be termed the base of the enamel-pulp is adherent to the capsule, and while
the base of the dental pulp turned in the contrary direction, coheres with
the mucous surface, however, in each case that the process of calcification
commences. The linear groups of cells being irregular in their position, form,
by their confluence, tubes as irregularly disposed; but as the disposition of
the hardening salts proceeds, the tubes become more regular and parallel.
This parallelism has taken place in the Phyllodus, much sooner in the dentine
than in the enamel, as is the case in the Scarus, which mainly distinguishes
the textures of the dentine and enamel in fishes.”
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION
LABRIDAE
PHYLLODUS Agassiz
Specific determination of these plates is difficult, due to variations in the
size, shape, and arrangement of the lamellae; and also to the discrepancies
of identification in the literature. In addition, several of the plates are frag-
mentary and, therefore, may represent either the upper pharyngeal plates of
larger forms, or possibly plates of young individuals. There is also the pos-
18 OWEN, op. cit. p. 119.
386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO, 8
sibility that these plates may occupy various positions in the dention and
therefore not represent distinct species. This extinct genus is known only
by the pharyngeal dentition and because of its extraordinary structure Agas-
siz!® says it is very difficult to even say to which family it belongs. The valid-
ity of the many species which have been made of this genus may, therefore,
be questionable. Agassiz says that the number of large teeth in P. toliapicus
is less than in any other species, there being only three. Yet P. polyodus as
figured by both Cocchi?® and Woodward”! has only three large teeth. Fur-
thermore Agassiz describes P. polyodus as characterized by having four
large teeth. P. speciosus as shown by Cocchi has only three large teeth.
Agassiz numbers the large teeth from the anterior border to the posterior,
and this method will be followed in describing the plates figured in this
paper.
The following species of Phyllodus are to be found in the literature.
toliapicus Agassiz secundarius Cocchi
planus Agassiz colet Cocchi
polyodus Agassiz hexagonalis Cocchi
marginalis Agassiz speciosus Cocchi
medius Agassiz bowerbanki Cocchi
irregularis Agassiz submedius Cocchi
hipparionyx Eastman gervast Cocchi
corsicans Locard latidens Pomel
gaudryt Priem levesquer Pomel
cretaceus Reuss duvalii Pomel
curvidens Marsh zenconstans Pomel
elegans Marsh incertus Michelotti
petiolatus Owen multidens Minster
deborrei Winkler hauert Minster
subdepressus Minster umbonatus Miinster
depressus Miinster
PHYLLODUS TOLIAPICUS Agassiz
Figs. 1-6
1843. Phyllodus toliapicus Agassiz, Poiss. Foss., 2: 239, pl. 69a, figs. 1-3.
1865. Phyllodus toliapicus Agassiz, I. Cocchi. Annali R. Mus. Fis. Stor. Nat.
Firenze. 2nd ser. 1: pl. 2, fig. 8.
Description. —An ankylosed mass of more or less flattened, lamelliform
teeth, superimposed in nearly vertical tiers. The largest teeth, three in num-
ber, form the middle longitudinal row and are transversely elongated. These
teeth are surrounded by from one to three rows of smaller, irregularly placed,
oblong to circular, dental lamellae. The smaller dental plates diminish in
size towards the circumference. In the row adjacent to the large teeth they
are predominantly oblong, while in the succeeding rows they assume a more
circular form. All of the lamellae are convex on the upper surface and con-
19 AGASSIZ, op. cit. p. 238.
20 Coccui, 1. Monographia det Pharyngodopilidae, nuova famigha di Pesci Labrovdt.
Annali del R. Museo di Fisica e Storia Naturale di Firenze, 2nd ser., 1: pls. 1-3. 1865.
21 WoopwaRkbD, A. 8. A guide to the fossil reptiles, amphibians, and fishes, in the
Department of Geology and Paleontology in the British Museum of Natural History. p.
104, fig. 115. 1910.
iti
AuGusT 15, 1933 GILDERSLEEVE: PHARYNGEAL PLATES 387
cave on the lower. The general shape and arrangement of the dental lamel-
lae are similar to those of the same species figured by Agassiz and Cocchi
Figs. 1-2: maximum length,’ 23 mm.; maximum width, 173 mm.; maximum
thickness, 53mm. Figs. 3-4: maximum length, 293 mm.; maximum width,
193 mm.; maximum thickness, 6 mm. Figs. 5-6; maximum length, 214
mm.; maximum width, 163 mm.; maximum thickness, 45 mm.
PHYLLODUS SPECIOSUS Cocchi
Figs. 7-10
1865. Phyllodus specitosus Cocchi, I. Cocchi. Annali R. Mus. Fis. Stor. Nat. Firenze.
2nd ser. 1: pl. 2, figs. 5-6, pl. 1, figs. 6-8.
Description.—This species is characterized by having three large teeth
surrounded by two rows of smaller, oblong to circular, dental lamellae, su-
perimposed in nearly vertical tiers. Figure 7 corresponds to Fig. 8, pl. 1 of
Coecchi’s monograph, and Fig. 9 to his Fig. 7, pl. 1. Although Agassiz in his
original description of the genus says that P. toliapicus is the only species
having but three large teeth, the specimens figured here correspond closely
to those of Cocchi and for this reason have been identified as P. speciosus.
Figure 7 resembles Fig. 11 somewhat but differs in the arrangement of the
lamellae on the posterior border. In P. speciosus (Fig. 7) the dental lamellae
are superimposed in nearly vertical tiers on the posterior border, while the
lamellae occupying the corresponding position in P. marginalis are more
terrace-like. A further difference between these species is in the number and
arrangement of the large teeth. In P. speciosus the large teeth are three in
number, the second being the largest and most elongated. In P. marginalis
the large teeth are six in number, the largest being number four and the
others decreasing in size towards the anterior and posterior borders. Figs.
7-8: maximum length, 24 mm.; maximum width, 21 mm.; maximum thick-
ness, 7mm. Figs. 9-10: maximum length, 173 mm.; maximum width,16
mm.; maximum thickness, 4 mm.
PHYLLODUS MARGINALIS Agassiz
Figs. 11-14
1843. Phyllodus marginalis Agassiz, Poiss. Foss., 2: 240, pl. 69a, figs. 8-9.
1865. Phyllodus marginalis Agassiz, I. Cocchi. Annali R. Mus. Fis. Stor. Nat.
Firenze, 2nd ser. 1: pl. 2, fig. 1.
Description.—The specimens shown in Figs. 11-14 are incomplete. Ac-
cording to Agassiz the principal teeth of this species are six in number. In
Fig. 11 the principal teeth present are numbers 3, 4, and 5; in Fig. 13 num-
bers 2, 3, 4, and 5. In both specimens some lateral, posterior, and anterior
lamellae are absent. The following features are characteristic of this species.
The posterior border is somewhat pointed and the lamellae are terrace-like
rather than superimposed in vertical tiers as in the center and anterior
border. Of the principal teeth the fourth is the largest and most elongated,
the others decreasing in size towards both the anterior and posterior borders.
The smaller dental lamellae present in these specimens are ovate as figured
by Cocchi, and Agassiz describes them as being rounded, sometimes circu-
lar, and sometimes elliptical. The dental lamellae on the lower (concave)
surface are larger than the corresponding teeth on the upper (convex) sur-
face. Figs. 11-12: maximum length, 23 mm.; maximum width, 205 mm.;
maximum thickness, 7} mm. Figs. 13-14: maximum length, 21 mm.; maxi-
mum width, 173 mm.; maximum thickness, 43 mm.
388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
PHYLLODUS MEDIuS? Agassiz
Figs. 15-18.
1843. Phyllodus medius Agassiz, Poiss. Foss. 2: 241. (Not figured.)
1865. Phyllodus medius Agassiz, I. Cocchi. Annali R. Mus. Fis. Stor, Nat. Firenze,
2nd seri: pl. 2, figs. 10811. IZ te
Description.—Agassiz does not figure this species in his ‘““Recherches sur
les Poissons Fossiles,’’ but these specimens resemble P. medius Agassiz as
shown by Cocchi in his monograph (PI. 2, figs. 10, 11, 12, 14). This species
resembles P. toliapicus Agassiz somewhat, but differs in the relative size,
position, and arrangement of the smaller dental lamellae to the larger teeth.
The large teeth are three in number and are surrounded by only one row of
marginal dental lamellae, the other rows have been lost. As in the species
already described, the dental lamellae are superimposed in nearly vertical
tiers, convex on the upper surface, and concave on the lower. The lamellae
on the posterior border are superimposed somewhat similarly to those in
P. marginalis Agassiz, but as these specimens are fragmentary they cannot
be said to be analogous in this respect. Figs. 15-16: maximum length, 26
mm.; maximum width, 183 mm.; maximum thickness,.7 mm. Figs. 17-18:
maximum length, 253 mm.; maximum width, 18 mm.; maximum thickness,
65 mm.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following references which have not been cited in this paper pertain to the genus Phyllodus.
Arupt, T. Die dlteste Sdugetierfauna Stidamerikas und thre Beziehungen. Arch,
Naturges. 73: Bd. 1, 233-244. 1923.
Bronn, H. G. Index palaeontologicus oder Uebersicht du bis jezt bekannten fossilen
Organismen. B. Enumerator palaeontologicus Systematische Zusammenstellung und geolo-
gische Entwickellungs-Gesetze der organischen Reiche. 1-1106 pages. 1849.
BouLENGER, G. A. Teleosti (Systematic part). The Cambridge Natural History.
7: 539-727, teat-figs. 325-440. 1904.
CorRNUEL, J. Description de débris de poissons fossiles provenant principalement
du Calcaire Néocomien du département de la Haute Marne. Bull. Soc. Géol. France (3),
5: 604-626, pl. 11. 1877.
Corr, E. D. Synopsis of the vertebrata of the Miocene of Cumberland County, New
Jersey. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 14: 361-364. 1875.
DarimeRIEs, A. Notes ichthyologiques. VII, Annales de la Société Malacologique de
Belgique, Bulletin des séances. 27: 138. 1892.
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(Table methodique); 2: (not continuously paged, Explication des planches); 3: Atlas
de 45 planches. Ist ed. issued in parts 1848-1852, 2nd ed. 1859.
GiEBEL, C. G. Odontographie vergleichende Darstellung des Zahnsystemes der leben-
den und fossilen Wirbelthiere: Leipzig, 1855.
GIEBEL, C. G. Fauna der Vorwelt, mit steter Berticksichtigung der lebenden Thiere.
Erste Band: Wirbelthiere. Zweite Abtheilung: Végel und Amphibia. Leipzig, 1847.
Graves, L. Essai sur la topographie géognostique de département de l’ Oise. Beau-
vais, 1847.
Guntuer, A.C. An introduction to the study of fishes. pp. I-X VI; 1-720, 321 figs.
in text, Edinburg, 1880.
Hay, O. P. Bibliography and catalogue of the fossil vertebrata of North America.
Bull. U. 8. G. S. 179: 1-868. 1902.
Hay, O. P. Second bibliography and catalogue’ of the fossil vertebrata of North
America. Carnegie Inst. of Wash. Pub. 390, 1: 788. 1929.
Kimmeu, H. B. The Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of New Jersey. Bull.
Geol. Survey New Jersey, 4: 7-21. 1911.
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d’ Epernay (Marne). Ann. Soc. Géol. Nord., 24: 173-200, 5 text-figs., 1900.
LericHe, M. Les poissons edcénes de la Belgique. Mém. Mus. Nat. Belgique, 3:
49-228. pls. 4-12, text-figs. 9-64. 1905.
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régions Voisines. Mém. Soc. Géol. Nord. (Lille). 5: 1-430, pls. 1-17, 79 text-figs. 1906.
AuGuST 15, 1933 KRULL: SNAIL AS HOST 389
Le Hon, H. Préliminaires d’un Mémoire sur les Poissons tertiaires de Belgique
(Brochure de 15 pages, Bruxelles) 1871.
Locarp, A. Description de la faune des terrains tertiaires moyens de la Corse. Paris
and Geneva, 1877. Faune. Tert. Moy. Corse, 1877.
Priem, F. Sur les poissons de l Hocene Inférieur des environs de Reims. Bull. Soc.
Geol. France (4) 1: 477-504, pls. 10-11, 10 text-figs. 1901.
Priem, F. Hiude des poissons fossiles du bassin parisien. Mémoir published by
Annales de Paleontologie, pp. 1-144, pls. 1-5, 74 text-figs. 1908.
QuENSTEDT, F. A. Handbuch der Petrefactenkunde. Dritte umgearbeitele und ver-
mehrte Auflage. Tiibingen, 1885.
Woopwarp, A. 8. Notes on some fish remains from the lower Tertiary and upper
Cretaceous of Belgium, collected by Monsieur A. Hougheau de Lehaie. Geol. Mag. 8:
108. 1891.
WYMAN, JEFFRIES. Remarks on teeth of fossil fishes from Richmond, Virginia.
Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 3: 246-247. 1850.
ZOOLOGY .—The snail Pseudosuccinea columella (Say) as a poten-
tially important intermediate host in extending the range of Fasciola
hepatica Linn. WENDELL H. Kruuu, Bureau of Animal In-
dustry. (Communicated by Maurice C. HALtt.)
In an attempt to find a prolific snail which could be easily raised
in the laboratory and used for experiments involving the infection of
individual snails with a single miracidium, a new intermediate host
for the sheep liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, has been discovered. This
host is the snail, Psewdosuccinea columella, identified by Mr. Wm. B.
Marshall of the U.S. National Museum. According to Baker,” P. colu-
mella has a wide distribution, ‘‘Nova Scotia west to Minnesota, east-
ern Kansas and central Texas; Manitoba and Quebec south to Texas
and Florida,” in ponds and streams where water is more or less stag-
nant, a habitat in which lily pads or ecat-tails (Typha) occur, being
especially favorable. This distribution makes this snail an important
host for F’. hepatica east of the Mississippi river.
In a recent paper by Krull,? another new intermediate host, Fos-
sarva modicella, was reported for the United States. With these snails
and the snails previously reported by other authors as intermediate
hosts of F. hepatica, it is apparent that the range of distribution of
suitable host snails provides a factor favorable for a wide range of dis-
tribution of the parasite. Its present known range involves the West
Coast States, the Rocky Mountain States, the South-west, the Gulf
Coast States, Michigan, and probably Wisconsin. It is not known to
be present in the East, and the records from the Middle West are
1 Received March 30, 1933.
2 Baker, F. C. The fresh-water Mollusca of Wisconsin. Wisc. Geol. and Nat.
Hist. Survey Bull. 70: pt. 1, 507 pp. 1928.
3 KruLtit, W. H. New snail and rabbit hosts for Fasciola hepatica Linn. Jour.
Parasit. (In press) 1933.
390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
scattered and need further validation. Apparently the parasite’s
range could be extended throughout the greater part of the United
States, and new enzootic areas of fascioliasis in cattle and sheep may
be expected to develop in the United States unless widespread con-
trol measures are undertaken and kept in effect. We have at least
two species of snails in the East which will serve as hosts.
Not only does its wide distribution make P. columella a potentially
important host snail, but observations concerning its ecology, both
in its natural habitat and under controlled conditions, show that it
might become an especially important host in some places because of
its ability to tolerate acid water. The American snails previously in-
criminated as hosts have been species which prefer alkaline water.
In the vicinity of Beltsville, Md., most ponds and streams are acid,
and many ponds and streams with acid waters occur in the eastern
United States. The pH of the water in the pond from which the writer
collected the original stock of P. columella which were taken as a
source for the laboratory-raised snails used in the experiment, has
been recorded weekly for 8 months, July, 1932, to February , 1933, in-
clusive, and the pH has varied from 6.1 to 6.8, a reading of 6.4 having
been recorded several times for as many as 4 consecutive weeks. The
tolerance of this snail to acid water has been verified in the laboratory
also. Colorimeters used in determining the above pH values were pre-
pared by the LaMotte Chemical Products Company, Baltimore.
Chlorphenol Red and Phenol Red were used for indicators.
P. columella has been raised in the laboratory for approximately
6 months. The original stock was collected from a small pond on the
Bureau of Dairy Industry Farm, Beltsville, and consisted of only a
small number of snails. These snails are very prolific and easily raised,
a new generation having been produced about every two months un-
der laboratory conditions during the winter months. These facts con-
cerning the rearing of the snails are of some importance in that such
information may prove to be valuable in correlating such factors as
relative abundance of snails with such control measures as the appli-
cation of copper sulphate to fields. For example, the effective reduc-
tion of the number of intermediate snail hosts over a given area would
not be quite so easily accomplished with a snail having a short life
cycle, such as P. columella, as with certain snails of the genus Helisoma
in which the egg-laying period, as determined from laboratory obser-
vations is of comparatively short duration and occurs only once an-
nually. Effective destruction of P. columella might necessitate re-
AuGustT 15, 1933 WEHR: NEW NEMATODES FROM BIRDS 391
peated applications of capper sulphate, which might not be necessary
in dealing with species of Helisoma.
In the experiment which resulted in the implication of P. columella
as an intermediate host of F. hepatica, the third generation of labora-
tory-raised snails was used. All stock snails of this species have been
kept in evaporating dishes in filtered water and fed on fresh lettuce.
Twenty-three snails used in the experiment were hatched about De-
cember 8, 1932, and were transferred to a stender dish on December
25, 1932, when they were half grown. Several hundred miracidia were
taken out of a container in which F’. hepatica eggs were hatching, and
transferred to the stender dish containing the snails. The 23 snails
were left in the stender dish with the miracidia for about 4 hours and
were then transferred to a fingerbowl of filtered water. Microscope
observations previously made on this species of snail in the presence
of miracidia, showed that the miracidia attached to and penetrated
into the snail.
Two of the 23 snails in the experiment were dissected and examined
for rediae January 11, 1933, and, apparently, were negative. Another
snail was dissected January 24, 1933, and 8 mother rediae containing
developing daughter rediae were recovered. The first of the 20 re-
maining snails shed cercariae on February 10, 1933, 47 days after being
subjected to infection, and 17 of the remaining infected snails were
shedding cercariae after 8 more days had elapsed. ‘Fhe 2 remaining
snails were negative. The largest number of cercariae shed by a snail
in a single day was 161. One snail which had been shedding cercariae
for 2 days was examined and the liver contained 241 rediae and 356
mature cercariae. The results in the above infection experiment have
been verified in subsequent experiments by the writer.
ZOOLOGY .—Descriptions of two new parasitic nemaiodes from birds.
EVERETT E. WeurR, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communi-
cated by BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ.)
The first parasite described in this paper was collected by E. A.
Chapin from the gizzard of a whistling swan, Cygnus columbianus,
which died May 5, 1924 at the National Zoological Park, Washing-
ton, D. C. This nematode belongs to the family Amidostomidae Baylis
and Daubney, 1926, subfamily Amodostominae Travassos, 1920,
genus Amidostomum Railliet and Henry, 1909. Since the species in
1 Received April 22, 1933.
392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
i)
question possesses certain characters which differ from those of any
of the described species of the genus, it is considered, in this paper,
as a new species.
Amidostomum cygni, n. sp.
Diagnosis.—Body very slender. Cuticle with fine transverse striations.
Head slightly constricted at base of lips. Lateral alae absent. Oral opening
circular, surrounded by four pairs of submedian cephalic papillae and one
pair of amphids (Fig. 3). Buccal cavity with relatively thin walls; three tri-
angular teeth at base of buccal cavity; one tooth large, with a broad base
and a curved tip, and two remaining teeth smaller, about equal in size, with
pointed tips. Anterior end of esophagus slightly swollen (Fig. 4).
Male 12 to 13 mm. long by 177u in maximum width. Esophagus 1.16
mm. long, slightly dilated at its anterior end. Nerve ring about 309u from
anterior extremity. Prebursal papillae present. Bursa with lateral lobes only
slightly longer than the dorsal lobe (Fig. 5). Externo-lateral ray thick, bent
near its tip in an anterior direction, so that it does not reach edge of the bursa
(Fig. 5). Postero-lateral and medio-lateral rays united for about one-half
or more of their lengths, both rays reaching edge of bursa. Externo-dorsal
ray shorter than dorsal ray, and arising from the same stem. Dorsal ray
about 70u long, bifurcated terminally, and extending to tip of dorsal lobe,
terminal branches bidigitate. Spicules equal, about 170u long, similar in
shape to those of other species of genus (Fig. 5). Gubernaculum slender,
about half the length of spicules (Fig. 5).
Female 16 to 17 mm. long by 188u in maximum width. Esophagus 1.22
mm. long. Vulva about 3.5 mm. from posterior end of body. Tail about 2.85
mm. long, abruptly narrowed posterior to anal opening, its posterior ex-
tremity rounded. Eggs oval, 58 to 62u long by 35y wide.
Host.—Whistling swan, Cygnus columbianus.
Location.— Underneath tunic lining of gizzard.
Locality — National Zoological Park, Washington, D. C.
Type specimens (male and female).—U. 8. N. M., Helminthological Collec-
tion, No. 26142.
Paratypes—U. 8. N. M. Helminthological Collection, No. 26142.
Inclusive of the species described in this paper, the genus Amzdostomum
now contains 10 species. Baylis? considered A. fuligulae Maplestone, 1930
and A. anatinum Sugimoto, 1930 synonyms of A. skrjabint Boulenger, 1926.
So far as can be judged from available descriptions of these 3 species, this
view appears sound. Cram® stated that A. skrjabini was possibly a synonym
of A. chevreuxi Seurat, 1918, but, according to Baylis,? this synonymy should
not be established until a study of the type material of A. chevreuxi has been
made, or until specimens from the type host, Himantopus himantopus, have
been examined for comparison with Baylis’s redescription of the type speci-
mens of A. skrjabini. Amidostomum leucopariae Solonitsyn 1928 must be
2 Baris, H. A. A comparison of certain species of the nematode genus Amido-
stomum, with a description of a new species. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser.10, 10 (57):
281-287. 19382.
3 Cram, E. B. Bird parasites of the nematode suborders Strongylata, Ascaridata,
and Spirurata. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 140. 1927.
AuGusT 15, 1933 WEHR: NEW NEMATODES FROM BIRDS 393
Olmm
ei ae 6.
Figures 1-8. 1. Amidostomum spatulatum, anterior end (en face view); 2. Amido-
stomum chevreuxt, anterior end (en face view); 3. Amidostomum cygni, anterior end
(en face view) ; 4. Amidostomum cygni, anterior end of female (lateral view); 5. Amido-
stomum cygnt, posterior end of male (lateral view); 6. Pectinospirura argentata, an-
terior extremity of male (lateral view); 7. Pectinospirura argentata, posterior end of
male (lateral view); 8. Pectinospirura argentata, posterior end of male (ventral view).
—
394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
considered a nomen nudum, as no description accompanied this name.
Except for the species A. acutum (Lundahl, 1848) Seurat, 1918, and A.
fulicae (Rudolphi, 1819) Seurat, 1919, which have been imperfectly de-
scribed, the species of the genus Amidostomum may be divided into two dis-
tinct groups, based on the number of teeth present in.the buccal cavity,
namely, (1) those species possessing one tooth and, (2) those with three
teeth. Amidostomum monodon (Linstow, 1882) Skrjabin, 1915, A. chevreuaz,
and A. skrjabini fall into the first group, while A. anseris (Zeder 1800) Rail-
liet and Henry, 1909, A. henryz Skrjabi, 1915, A. spatulatum Baylis, 1932,
A. raillieti Skrjabi, 1915, and the species described in this paper, Amzdo-
stomum cygni, belong to the second group.
The species of the genus Amzdostomum may be readily identified with
the aid of the following key:
KEY TO THE WELL DESCRIBED SPECIES OF AMIDOSTOMUM?
i Wathoutitecth mbuceal cavitiyia see eee eh 2
With teeth.in buccal cavity soi. 22). 3)... ee ee ee 3
2. Male 8.58 mm., female 9 mm. long; vulva 1.56 mm. from posterior ex-
tremity:-spicules 17omlone ot... a. 40. gee ee A. fulicae
Male 10 to 14 mm., female 14 to 17 mm. long; vulva 2.8 to 3.1 mm. from
posterior extremity; spicules not described............ A. acutum
dw buccal cavity with-single tooth at base.....4.... 0 A. chevreuxt
Buccal cavity with three teeth at baSe.../.....:...4. .. 2) ae 4
4. Externo-dorsal rays arise in common with dorsal ray; lateral lobes of
bursa only slichtly lonzer than dorsal lobe. -.” 2... >. 32 fae 5
Externo-dorsal rays do not arise in common with dorsal ray, but originate
near the base of the common stem from which all rays in the lateral
lobes arise; lateral lobes of bursa much longer than dorsal lobe... .6
5. Ventral process of each spicule ends in a large, laterally flattened expan-
sion; cuticle of anterior end of head noticeably swollen about each
Gf the submedianspapilliae 45... ee ae ae ee ee A. spatulatum
Ventral process of each spicule does not end in a large, laterally flattened
expansion; cuticle of anterior end of head not noticeably swollen
about each of the submedian papillae............. A. cygni Nn. sp.
6. Buceal cavity 15 to 18.5u wide; male 8 mm., female 14.5 mm. long; spic-
wiles OGy lomo 0:05 ate 5. he ne ee eee A. henry
Buccal cavity 27.5u or more wide; spicules 200 to 8300ulong............ if
7. Male 5.5 to 7.9 mm., female 6.8 to 9.3 mm. long; vulva 1.3 to 1.8 mm.
{TOM =pPOSHeriON Enh, OlWOUWeee. oe A eee ee ee A. railliets
Male 10 to 17 mm., female 12 to 24 mm. long; vulva 2.4 to 4.8 mm. from
postenionzendgol- the’ bodyr esta.) eee ee ee A. anseris
The species described below represents a new genus as well as a
new species; it was collected from the proventriculus of a herring gull,
Larus argentatus smithsonianus, on September 3, 1931, at Vineland,
4A. monodon ard A. skrjabini have not been included in the following key. A.
monodon has been rather inadequately described, and A. skrjabini, so far as its morphol-
ogy is known, lacks morphological character which can be used to separate it from A.
chevreuzt.
AuGusT 15, 1933 WEHR: NEW NEMATODES FROM BIRDS 395
New Jersey, by J. J. Black, and from ulcers of the proventriculus
of a laughing gull, Larus atricilla (=Chroicocephalus atricilla), on
June 11, 1926, at Washington, D. C., by E. B. Cram. The presence of
cordons readily identifies these specimens as belonging to the family
Acuariidae Seurat, 1913, subfamily Acuariinae Railliet, Henry and
Sisoff, 1912. The structure of the cervical papillae, which are located
at the base of the cordons, does not permit the allocation of these
forms to any of the existing genera in that subfamily. Each cervical
papilla consists of a transverse row of about 20 posteriorly directed
spines; this very unique feature differentiates the new genus from the
closely related genus Synhimantus, in which the cervical papillae are
tricuspid.
Pectinospirura, n. g.
Diagnosis—Oral opening dorso-ventrally elongate, surrounded by two
large lateral pseudolabia, each of which bears two submedian cephalic papil-
lae and one large amphid. Cordons recurrent, anastomosing, and extending,
in type species, a short distance beyond first division of esophagus. Esopha-
gus composed of two parts. Spicules unequal in size and dissimilar in struc-
ture.
Type species.—Pectinospirura argentata, n. sp.
Specific diagnosis.—Cordons extend to a level slightly posterior to junc-
tion of anterior (muscular) and posterior (glandular) portions of esophagus;
cordons anastomose shortly after turning anteriorly (Fig. 6). Each cer-
vical papilla consists of a transverse row of approximately 20 posteriorly
directed spines; outer spines curved slightly inwards and larger than the
others (Fig. 6). These cervical papillae are probably homologous with the
cervical papillae of Synhimantus, Streptocara and other genera of the sub-
family Acuariinae possessing such characters.
Male 6 to 6.5 mm. long by 267u wide. Buccal cavity narrow, 285 to 310u
long. Anterior portion of esophagus 560 to 570u long, posterior portion 2.75
to 3 mm. long. Nerve ring 392u from anterior extremity. Cordons extend
posteriorly for about 1 mm., or about 1/5 of totallength of body; at this level
they turn anteriad and anastomose about 125.6u from point of turning. Tail
rounded, 283u long. Four pairs of preanal and seven pairs of postanal papil-
lae present (Fig. 8). Spicules unequal, long spicule about 816yu long, slender
and terminating in a hook-like tip; short spicule about 188y long, stout,
and ending in a rounded tip (Fig. 7).
Female 6.5 to 7.0 mm. long by 314u wide. Buccal cavity 309u long and
narrow. Anterior portion of esophagus 556u long, posterior portion 3.1 mm.
long. Nerve ring 417u from anterior extremity. Cordons extend for a dis-
tance of about 1.12 mm. along sides of body, from which point they turn
anteriad and anastomose at about the same distance from point of turning
as in the male. Vulva in posterior half of body, about 1.34 mm. from pos-
terior end. Eggs 44u by 28u.
Hosts.—Herring gull, Larus argentatus smithsonianus, and Laughing gull,
Larus atricilla.
Location.—Proventriculus.
Locality.—Vineland, New Jersey and vicinity of Washington, D. C.
396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
Type specimens (male and female).—U. S. N. M., Helminthological Col-
lection, No. 30574.
Paratypes.—U. 8. N. M., Helminthological Collection, No. 30574.
The genera of the subfamily Acuariinae may be differentiated with aid
of the following key:
KEY TO GENERA OF ACUARIINAE
1. Cordons not recurrent and not anastomosing ..-. .. . ......
Cordons recurrent or anastomosing, or both-....2.2. 4... z
2. Both spicules thick and only slightly unequal; 6 to 8 pairs of postanal pa-
PIB: i sac ccs GS. da eae ee eg Oe Acuaria
Spicules markedly dissimilar in structure and very unequal in size; 5 to 7
pairs” ‘of. postanal “papillae. 2.2. See ee Cheilospirura
3. Cordons not recurrent; but anastomosing.~ . .. - 93.5 ee 4
Cordons recurrent, anastomosing or separate. ....... |... 6
4. Cuticle raised in front of postcervical papillae to form large collar or
sheath, cordons anastomose on free border of collar... .Chevreuxi
No such collar or sheath préesent:... ..2 sneered. ne ee ee 5
5. Cordons confined to cephalic region; cuticle of head inflated. Aviculariella
Cordons not confined to cephalic region; cuticle of head not inflated.....
ae i tie Ne oe ore EI ee gt ee he ee Echinuria
6. Cordons recurrent, but nob anastomosine, j... 3... aaa Dispharynx
_ Cordons recurrent ‘and anastomosing...:.... Gist =. =e ff
7. Cordons form loop directly after their origin on head; cordons not flat
against body, but applied to margin of plates or alae; lateral alae
present onmbody =. a). ees ae ee Cosmocephalus
Cordons lacking loops at anterior ends; cordons applied directly to body;
no lateral-alae. ... 0. set oboe ak wh Coe ee 8
8. Chitinous structures (cervical papillae) at base of cordons tricuspid in
StRUCHUPE 2.) BRR .. 6 ccc) eaters ea eh ck aca. ae Synhimantus
Chitinous structures (cervical papillae) at base of cordons each consisting
of about 20 posteriorly directed spines............ Pectinospirura
AuGusT 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 397
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIAT«D SOCIETIES
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
497TH MEETING
The 497th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the
Cosmos Club, January 11, 1933, President C. N. FENNzER presiding.
Informal communication.—W. P. Wooprine reviewed a treatise on the
structure of molluse shells by O. B. Bloggild of Denmark. The study was
based on a microscopic examination of a large number of shells and the shell
characters thus determined will prove to be of considerable value for system-
atics.
Regular program: RicHarp E. FuLLER—Complex diabasic intrusives caus-
ing local contact fusion.
Discussed by Messrs. FENNER and R. C. WELLS.
JULIAN D. Snars: Regressive sandstones——The Upper Cretaceous forma-
tions of the Rocky Mountain region present widespread examples of inter-
tonguing of marine and continental deposits which, recognized as formed in
or adjoining a shallow epicontinental sea, indicate repeated advances and
retreats of that sea.
In trying to visualize the conditions and processes that led to such inter-
tonguing, the writer finds that transgressive deposits seem readily under-
standable but that those of regression are more puzzling and elusive. He
senses that others have shared his difficulty, for in many text-books and arti-
cles regressive deposits have been either slighted or else explained in varying
ways that seem open to question. The concept perhaps most frequently out-
lined is that the strandline moved outward because of a relative lowering of
sea level, and that in consequence newer near-shore deposits were laid down
on earlier off-shore deposits; moreover, the concept usually invokes condi-
tions and processes observed today on the continental shelves facing the
open ocean.
As the several conflicting explanations and possibilities are weighed, there
seems reason for serious doubt as to whether thick, widespread and rela-
tively uniform regressive sandstones, conformably overlying marine shales
through a thin transition zone and overlain by continental deposits of lentic-
ular sandstones, clay, and coal, could have formed under the conditions of
the continental shelf, whether the sea level was rising, falling, or stationary.
The edge of the shelf, at about the maximum depth of wave action, stands
as a constant control over possible deposition on the shelf, for beyond its
edge are the great ocean deeps, a ready dumping ground for surplus sedi-
ment. Though detailed analysis of the several possibilities can not be made
in this brief statement, a few significant points may be mentioned. With fall-
ing sea level, wave base and the profile of equilibrium established for deeper
water are disturbed and lowered, and the tendency is not for further deposi-
tion but for erosion of earlier deposits and their transportation to the ocean
abyss. With stationary level and even more with a rising sea, the tendency
is for transgressive deposition; regressive deposits could be formed only
briefly or locally by prograding caused by abnormal excess of debris supply
over the usually predominant transporting power of waves and currents.
Moreover, it seems questionable whether even under such unusual condi-
tions the sand for miles outward from the old shore could be built to sea level
and covered by continental material.
398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
Conditions in an epicontinental sea were obviously very different. Its
shallowness, the weaker wave and current action, the relatively greater
surrounding land areas contributing sediment, the great distances to the
ocean deeps, and the consequent slow outward movement of debris, com-
bined to flatten the profile of equilibrium and to make possible repeated fill-
ings of large areas of the basin to or above sea level. Accumulation of thous-
ands of feet of shallow-water sediments shows that the floor of the geosyn-
cline moved slowly and predominantly downward. Temporary reversals
of such movement, causing a shallower sea, would perhaps make easier the
task of basin filling. However, the writer believes that such reversals of
movement, though occasionally found, were not normal and to be expected,
whether the general sinking of the geosycline was caused by isostatic adjust-
ments or by lateral pressure. Nor do they seem to be required to explain
regressive sedimentation. He prefers the concept that movement of the geo-
synclinal floor was always downward but that the rate varied; rapid move-
ment as a relief of earth stresses was followed by slower movement or per-
haps long periods of standstill during accumulation of new stresses. Rapid
sinking brought the sea over the land, the rapidity of the advance perhaps
causing the observed tendency for the transgressive sandstones to be thinner
or absent at many places. As the rise of sea level slowed down and perhaps
ceased, the sediments which continued to be supplied in abundance by the
erosion of the recently uplifted landward masses began to fill the basin more
rapidly, and the near-shore sands rose to and above sea level, prograding
outward over the earlier muds and hence pushing the shore seaward. These
sands in turn were buried by the accumulation of lagoonal and fluviatile
deposits, which gathered until renewed sinking of the geosyncline caused
another advance of the sea and the beginning of new transgressive deposits.
(Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Hunt, Capps, RuBEy, and STEVENSON.
AO8TH MEETING
The 498th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the
Cosmos Club, January 25, 1933, President C. N. FENNER presiding.
Program: J. B. Mrrtix, Jr.: Selected problems of the geology of the Yukon-
Tanana region, Alaska.—The Yukon-Tanana region is an area of about
38,000 square miles lying between the Yukon and Tanana Rivers in east-
central Alaska. Systematic surveys of this region were begun by L. M. Prin-
dle, of the U. S. Geological Survey in 1903, and were continued by him until
1911. Between 1911 and 1931, the writer spent 7 field seasons in the continu-
ation of this work, and many others have also participated. A general geolo-
gic report upon the whole region is now in preparation.
The geologic section of the Yukon-Tanana region is unusually complete.
Sedimentary rocks of every geologic system, except the Jurassic, are repre-
sented, and granitic, basic, and intermediate intrusives and extrusives of
several ages are also recognized. In the present paper the writer outlines the
salient features and problems of the pre-Cambrian and lower Paleozoic
sections, and also compares briefly the granitic rocks of three ages.
The pre-Cambrian section consists of an older group of crystalline rocks
of sedimentary origin, known as the Birch Creek schist, and certain younger
non-crystalline rocks, which comprise at least parts of the Tindir and Tata-
lina groups. The ancient crystalline rocks also include igneous members, but
these are not included in the Birch Creek schist. The sedimentary crystalline
rocks may best be studied in their type locality, between Fairbanks and
AUGUST 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 399
Circle, where relatively few igneous members are present. The most impor-
tant of the meta-igneous rocks is the Pelly gneiss, which is well developed
in the Fortymile district. The other igneous rocks include amphibolite, horn-
blende schist, and certain chlorite, albite, and epidote schists.
The Tindir group consists of at least 20,000 feet of little altered rocks
which are younger than the Birch Creek schist, but underlie the Middle
Cambrian rocks. These rocks comprise a great variety of sediments, which
include dolomite, shale, red beds, basic lavas, quartzite, and other rocks.
The uppermost horizons may possibly be of Lower Cambrian age, but the
group as a whole is correlated with the Belt series (Algonkian) of British
Columbia. These rocks present many problems of sedimentary petrology
and structure and may also yield fossils, if systematically studied.
The Tatalina group is believed to be largely of pre-Cambrian age, but
also includes some early Ordovician rocks which it has not been practicable
to map separately. The quartzite, arkose, and graywacke that characterize
most of the Tatalina group probably represent the basal horizons of the
late pre-Cambrian sequence of this region. The Tatalina group is not be-
lieved to include any sediments of Cambrian age, and this interpretation
introduces a stratigraphic hiatus in the section, which constitutes a major
problem in the geologic history.
The Cambrian rocks include an Upper Cambrian limestone, characterized
by the type fossils Acrothele, Acrotreta, and Obolus, and a Middle Cambrian
sequence, chiefly limestone, which is characterized by the primitive corals
Archaeocyathus and Ethmophyllum. About 3,300 feet of Cambrian sediments
have been recognized, but the Upper and Middle Cambrian rocks have not
been found in a continuous sequence, so that the total thickness of Cambrian
rocks may be greater than this.
The Ordovician rocks likewise have been studied at different localities
and present difficult problems of correlation. Along the international bound-
ary the sequence consists of Lower and Middle Ordovician limestones, with
a graptolite facies of Middle Ordovician age; whereas, in the White Moun-
tains, the sequence consists of black argillite and chert, of Lower Ordovician
age, followed by a group of basic volcanics of Middle Ordovician age.
The Silurian is represented mainly by a massive limestone, of middle and
upper Silurian age, which has been traced in the form of a horseshoe for
more than 1,000 miles through northern, central, and southwestern Alaska.
One side of the shoe lies in Brooks Range; the toe is along the international
boundary; and the other side of the shoe passes through the Yukon-Tanana
region. The type fossils are Conchidium and Clorinda. A great unconformity
separates the Silurian rocks from the Middle Devonian and later Paleozoic
rocks.
The oldest granitic rocks are those of the Pelly gneiss, which are probably
of pre-Cambrian age. The great batholithic intrusives of the region are of
Mesozoic age, possibly intruded in the Jurassic. These intrusives are normal
granites and quartz diorites, but they present many problems of contact
metamorphism and ore deposition. The youngest granitic rocks are of Ter-
tiary age. These are monzonitic rocks which show abnormal petrographic
and chemical characters, and fall into little known subrangs in the quantita-
tive chemical classification of igneous rocks. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. REssER, GOLDMAN, STANTON, KiNG, and Butts.
T. A. Henpricxks: Some Pleistocene changes in the course of the Canadian
River of southeastern Oklahoma.—In Tertiary time the Canadian River flowed
a
400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
eastward from the Rocky Mountains to the Mississippi River on a broad old
age surface. In late Tertiary or early Pleistocene time the portion of the
river lying in southeastern Oklahoma was rejuvenated and cut downward
establishing grade about 200 feet lower.
Once grade was reached at this lower level, the river began meandering
and building up a wide flood plain underlain by sand, gravel, and clay, ex-
tensive remnants of which now remain as the Guertie sand of southeastern
Oklahoma. Many disconnected areas of the sand form a narrow winding belt
extending eastward from Byars in Pottawatomie County to Gaines Creek
in Pittsburg County, a distance of about 90 miles. This belt passes several
miles south of McAlester and is there about 25 miles south of the present
course of the river. The gravel in the Guertie sand consists of quartz, quart-
zite, chert, flint, jasper, and silicified wood of Cretaceous age, which came
either from the rocks exposed in the Rocky Mountains or from the Tertiary
deposits of the High Plains that were derived from rocks of the Rocky
Mountains. The only evidence of the age of the Guertie sand is a single ele-
phant tusk reported by G. D. Morgan, who believed it to be of Pleistoceneage.
The gravel in the Guertie sand is confined to the main channel formerly
occupied by the Canadian River and to three other areas not directly con-
nected with the main channel. Much of the sand and clay appears to have
been deposited in branch channels occupied by the waters of the Canadian
River only in times of flood. Such waters would be able to carry and deposit
the finer materials but would not have sufficient velocity to transport gravel.
The presence of gravel in the three areas not directly connected with the
main channel indicates that the full volume of the river must have flowed
over these three areas at some time and hence that there were several changes
in its course. As the course of the Canadian River in Guertie time was in-
herited from an old age surface it was circuitous and not adjusted to the
structure of the underlying rocks. Consequently, a tributary more favorably
situated structurally was able to cut headward and divert the waters of the
river into a shorter course. This resulted in erosion of the new channel, due
to the increased gradient, and was followed by deposition as soon as grade
was reestablished at lower level. Thus we now find sand and gravel at a higher
level in an older indirect course of the river and at a lower level in the more
recent and shorter course.
Three such changes in the course of the Canadian River occurred. The
first change was small and shifted the stream to the southeast. The second
was larger, and the third still larger but both these changes shifted the
stream northwestward and straightened its course. The last change shifted
the river into its present course.
At the present time tributaries of the Red River are cutting headward and
capturing some of the former drainage of the Canadian River. One of these
tributaries, Muddy Boggy Creek, within 2} miles of the Canadian River
about 10 miles northeast of Ada is actually lower than the Canadian where
the two streams are nearest each other. In time, it is likely that the Canadian
will be diverted into the Red and will pursue an even shorter course to the
Gulf of Mexico. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Srars, Cooks, Evias, McKnicut and HENBEsT.
C. P. Ross: Some features of the Idaho batholith—The Idaho batholith
intruded Belt strata over much or all of its central portion and Paleozoic
AUGUST 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY AOI]
beds on both sides. Considerable areas of it are covered ea Tertiary and later
strata which rest on its eroded surface.
It is believed that the area now occupied by the bathontn is a positive
element in the earth’s crust which has for the most part been above sea level
since the end of the Algonkian. During much or all of the Paleozoic the
western shore of the interior or Cordilleran sea coincided in position approxi-
mately with the eastern border of the present exposure of the batholith. The
greatest geosynclinal accumulations in the Paleozoic were just east of the
present Idaho batholith while comparable thicknesses of Mesozoic beds were
deposited in a trough 150 miles or so farther east.
The Idaho batholith is composed mainly of somewhat calcic quartz mon-
zonite. In general it is believed to have been intruded essentially as a unit ra-
ther than as an aggregate of discrete bodies such as compose the batholith
of the Sierra Nevada.
In the outer portions of the batholith wherever strata of probable Belt
age are preserved there is an irregular shell of gneiss, commonly dioritic,
which, wherever the relations can be determined, is older than the quartz
monzonite. The dioritic gneiss commonly includes and is associated with
Belt rocks more or less thoroughly injected and replaced by the igneous ma-
terial. It is noteworthy that Paleozoic rocks on the flanks were metamor-
phosed but very little injected as a result of the intrusion.
It appears that the Idaho batholith had, over much of its extent, a nearly
flat roof and comparatively steep, outward-sloping sides, with a transverse
depression in the roof along the westward flowing section of the Salmon
River between Shoup and Riggins. The roof has been less deeply and com-
pletely cut into in northcentral than in southcentral Idaho but even in the
latter region erosion has not yet penetrated so very far below the original roof.
The Belt strata are flexed, metamorphosed and locally broken by thrust
faults, in part possibly pre-Permian. In remnants of such rocks in the batho-
lithic roof there is commonly conspicuously less close folding than in the
Paleozoic rocks on the eastern flank. The latter are characterized by closely
compressed overturned, pinched and broken folds. Overturning and over-
thrusting are in general toward the northeast. There is evidence that the
intrusion of satelitic stocks was accompanied by deformation and fracturing.
Both the stocks and the main batholith came into their present position
subsequent to at least much of the close folding but possibly before thrust
faulting had ceased. The anticline immediately east of the east flank of the
main batholith conforms closely in trend to the sinuosities of the igneous
contact.
It appears that the intrusion of the Idaho batholith played a major role
in the diastrophism of the region. Possibly the long continued upward tend-
ency of the earth block now containing it is connected with deep-seated
hydrostatic adjustments of magma such as are required by Keith’s concept
of batholithic intrusions as one of the immediate causes of mountain building.
It is thought that the Idaho batholith corresponds more closely in age
with the intrusions of post-Triassic and pre-Upper Cretaceous age to the
west and north than to such apparently younger intrusions as the Boulder
batholith farther east. There is evidence pointing to an eastward migration
of ae intrusive igneous activity and orogenic movement. (Author’s ab-
stract.
Discussed by Messrs. Fercuson, HEwettT, and SHENON.
402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
499TH MEETING
The 499th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the
Cosmos Club, February 8, 1933, President C. N. FENNzmR presiding.
Informal communication.—W. W. Rusey described a qualitative test for
phosphate rocks of commercial grade and mentioned some of its limitations.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid applied to specimens with a tricalcium phos-
phate content exceeding 25 per cent yields, on evaporation, a powder that
is at first yellow but changes to white. The test failed on porous specimens
of high CaCO; content; and gave a somewhat similar, though distinguisha-
ble, precipitate or residue on specimens of manganiferous siderite free from
phosphate.
Regular program: G. A. Coopsr: Stratigraphy of the Hamilton Group of
New York.—The outcrop belt of the Hamilton Group of rocks here described
extends from Lake Erie nearly to the Hudson River. The Hamilton Group
forms a huge wedge of clastic sediments resting on the Onondaga limestone,
which thickens eastward from 285 feet at Lake Erie to 2450 feet in Schoharie
Valley in eastern New York. Three facies are distinguishable in the group:
a black shale facies carrying a Lezorhynchus or Marcellus fauna, which de-
scends in the section to the east; this black shale facies is replaced eastward
by an argillaceous sandstone facies containing a Tropidoleptus or Hamilton
Fauna, which rises in the section to the west. In eastern New York, at the
base of the Catskill Mountains the upper three-quarters of the Hamilton
are replaced by red beds of the continental facies. In western New York the
Hamilton is unconformably overlain by the Tully limestone but in eastern
New York there is no evidence for unconformity. (A uthor’s abstract.)
Discussed by Mr. Burts.
S. R. Capps: An air reconnaissance of Middleton Island, Alaska.—Middle-
ton Island lies in the Gulf of Alaska about 70 miles out to sea from the near-
est mainland, and 50 miles from the nearest island, and is separated from
them by water 50 to 100 fathoms deep. An attempt to visit it by airplane
was unsuccessful, as no landing could be made, but a comprehensive view
of it was had, and an excellent series of photographs was obtained. The island
is about 7 miles long, 2 miles wide and 120 feet high. Its surface is fairly flat,
and it is bordered around most of its circumference by wave cut cliffs that
afford excellent exposures. The bedrock is composed of moderately indurated
sandstone and conglomerate that dips some 30° to the northwest, and has
been leveled across by a wave cut platform. Unconformably upon this wave-
cut surface is a layer of a few to 30 feet or so of coarse gravel and boulders of
material much of which is foreign to the island and resembles that found on
the islands and mainland to the north and west. The island surface shows a
well preserved set of beach terraces to its top, showing relatively recent emer-
gence. The upper half dozen terraces are each only a few feet high and show
that the island emerged by pulsations, with numerous short halts, but has
remained relatively stable at its present stand. A considerable wave cut
platform has been and is now being cut at the present effective wave base.
The most reasonable explanation for the large amount of foreign boulders
on the island surface is that they were transported to the site of the island
by ice, either on bergs discharged from tidal glaciers, or by the Pleistocene
glaciers themselves, which may have coalesced to form an ice shelf that
reached as far out to sea as this island. In view of the great quantity of this
foreign material direct transportation by glaciers seems the most probable
explanation of its presence. Actual close hand study on the island will be
auaust 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 403
necessary before the observations here cited can be considered as final.
(Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. BrapLEy, TRask, McKniGut, and FENNER.
M. K. Evtas: The Ogallala formation of the High Plains, Kansas——The
Ogallala formation (lower Pliocene) of northwestern Kansas and the sur-
rounding territory is a continental deposit which is built chiefly by unsorted
erit and loam in places as much as 210 feet thick. Only a small part of this
material was reworked and redeposited by action of streams and rivers of
Ogallala time; this part constitutes broad channel—and lens-like bodies of
sandstone and gravel, which are often distinctly cross-bedded. Thin beds of
white porous limestone and rare deposits of diatomaceous marl are known
in the middle and upper parts of the formation. Scattered lenses and beds of
voleanic ash occur locally in the upper part of the Ogallala, whereas green
and chocolate-brown bentonitic clays are confined to the lower half of the
formation. Toward the top of the Ogallala the unsorted grit and loam usu-
ally grade into porous “‘caliche’’-like sandy limestone, which in some areas
is capped by 2 to 35 feet of dense pink limestone with an irregularly concen-
trie structure; this is the algal (Chlorellopsis) limestone of the author. The
most common fossils in the Ogallala are siliceous protective covers of grass
seeds, calcareous and siliceous nutlets of herbs of the Borrage family, and
calcareous hackberry pods. The perfect preservation of sharp edges and
minute cusps, bristles, and hairs on these remains suggest their burial near
the place of their growth. Other organic remains consist of bones of mammals
and other vertebrates, molds of fresh-water gastropods and rarely pelecy-
pods, and others.
The Ogallala was deposited upon slightly tilted and truncated beds of
Cretaceous and Permian age. There is a distinct overlap of Ogallala in the
eastern area of outcrop. The bulk of the formation seems to have been de-
posited by repeated floods, each leaving a mantle of practically unsorted
mountain debris brought from the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains.
Some of the most prominent benches of pre-Ogallala topography served as
natural barriers and checked the distribution of the Ogallala flood deposits
in the east.
It seems that tilting caused the steeper eastern slope of the Rocky Moun-
tain piedmont of pre-Ogallala time to change to more gentle grade, upon
which there began the deposition of the Ogallala. The broad mantling of the
~ area with mountain debris gradually leveled the relief, and at the end of
Ogallala time a very broad but shallow lake or chain of lakes originated,
along the shores of which algal limestone was precipitated. A reverse tilting
of the area caused renewed erosion of the area. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. RuBry, GILLULY, and GOLDMAN.
W.H. Brapbuey and T. B. Nouan, Secretaries.
_
404. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Prepared by Science Service
NOTES
National Bureau of Standards.—The axe of economy cut into the scientific
work of the National Bureau of Standards, when some 380 of the staff were
dismissed or “‘furloughed for an indefinite period’’ at the beginning of the
new fiscal year. Severe curtailments of funds necessitated the wiping out
of one whole part of the Bureau—the commercial standards group—and the
reduction of activities throughout the entire plant.
The Altitude Laboratory stands idle for lack of funds, and the type test-
ing of aeronautic engines has been discontinued. Research on radio and
lighting aids to aviation has been brought to a standstill because the funds
previously transferred from the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of
Commerce are no longer available for this purpose. The Government’s only
laboratory for research on photographic emulsions is abolished and the ex-
perts there dismissed. Research on making of levulose from artichokes is
abandoned. |
Director Briggs hopes to obtain funds from the huge sums appropriated
for public works, to cover the cost of testing at the Bureau the materials that
will be used in the public works program. If he does, it may mean that some
of the staff will be restored for this work. He also hopes that some of the
scientists let out there may be placed in some of the new agencies where
their special training and experience can be utilized in the recovery program.
U.S. Geological Survey.—Slashing of funds for scientific work has meant
the loss to the U. 8. Geological Survey of a galaxy of scientists of national
and international reputation. Altogether about 150 persons were dismissed.
Some of these were men who had been in the service for more than 30 years.
Those leaving include: Dr. ARTHUR KEITH, treasurer of the National Acad-
emy of Sciences, and representative of the United States at many inter-
national scientific meetings; GEORGE STEIGER, expert on rocks, ores and
minerals: FRANK CATHCART CALKINS, C. E. VAN OrsTRAND, Dr. NELSON
Horatio Darton, Dr. ARTHUR COE SPENCER, Louris M. PRInDLE, Dr.
CHARLES Butts, Dr. GrorGrk BurR RiIcHARDSON, and ARTHUR JAMES
COLLIER.
U.S. Bureau of Mines.—About one-fourth of the personnel of the U. 5S.
Bureau of Mines were lost to the service because of the drastic cuts in funds
available for the scientific and technical work of this Bureau. Of the
$1,514,300 appropriated by Congress, only $1,100,000 has been allotted to
the Bureau for the coming fiscal year. This means a reduction of 27 per cent
below the appropriated amount.
All field offices are affected and some will have to be abolished. About
200 employees are dismissed. The health division is being abandoned, and
officers assigned from the U. 8. Public Health Service returned to the Ser-
vice. The helium division is being merged with the petroleum and natural
gas division.
St. Elizabeth’s Hospital.—Application of diathermy in the treatment of
general paralysis was found to be unsuccessful in a trial of the method at
St. Elizabeth’s Hospital. The results have been published in the Journal of
the American Medical Association for June 3, 1933.
AuGustT 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 405
The first American textbook on Neuropathology, by Dr. WALTER FREE-
MAN, was published by Saunders & Co.
The confirmation of Kretschmer’s ideas of the relationship between phy-
sique and mental reaction type was reported before the American College
of Physicians at Montreal in February by Dr. WALTER FREEMAN. Studies
were also reported upon the relationship between physical type and disease
susceptibility, and it was shown that there was, on the whole, a somewhat
more marked relationship between mental reactions and disease susceptibil-
ity than betweeen body build and disease susceptibility.
A detailed study on the weight of the endocrine glands in relation to body
weight and stature has been carried out on some 1,200 cases, and interesting
differences have been found among the sexes and races.
Perfection of methods for making reliable colloidal gold, with a study of
its physical chemistry in relation to spinal fluid is an outstanding contribu-
tion of Dr. WINIFRED ASHBY.
Dr. Karu LANGENSTRASS has demonstrated that experimental catatonia
in animals may be interrupted by a variety of drugs, and he is applying
this knowledge to the interruption of the catatonic state in certain patients.
National Park Service—The model of Mount Rainier, 9 feet high by 20
feet wide, modeled true to perspective, which is on display in the Govern-
ment Building at the Century of Progress in Chicago, is attracting large
crowds of visitors. There are a number of log benches cut from Ponderosa
pine logs nearly four feet in diameter. These benches afford the visitor an
opportunity to rest and view the Mount Rainier model leisurely.
Public Health Service—At the meeting of the American Medical Associa-
tion held in Milwaukee, Wis., June 12 to 16, a silver medal was awarded to
the exhibit of Passed Assistant Surgeon L. F. BapGesr in recognition of his
original work and excellence of presentation of the exhibit submitted by him
dealing with typhus fever and Rocky Mountain spotted fever, eastern type.
On June 22, 1933, Yale University conferred the degree of Doctor of Laws
on Surgeon General HuaH 8S. Cummine of the Public Health Service in recog-
nition of his distinguished leadership in public health.
U.S. Weather Bureau.—As part of the Weather Bureau’s program in con-
nection with the International Polar Year, August 1932-August 1933, up-
per-air observations by means of airplanes are being made at Fairbanks,
Alaska, on certain international days each month. The meteorograph which
is attached to the airplane records temperatures, pressure and humidity to
a height of five kilometers.
Observations are also being made at that station with radio-meteorographs
attached to sounding-balloons, since the ordinary type of meteorograph
would be useless there on account of the improbability that the instruments
would be found and returned. Only a few such observations have as yet
been made, but the results appear quite satisfactory, and the method gives
much promise of coming into general use, especially in sparsely settled re-
gions.
Fishery Investigation in Mississippt.—Dr. SAMUEL F. HILDEBRAND, Senior
Ichthyologist of the United States Bureau of Fisheries, has recently returned
from making an investigation of the fisheries of Mississippi. Mississippi’s
new State Game and Fish Commission having a very thorough appreciation
of the necessity for accurate scientific information in formulating regulatory
406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8
measures for the conservation of the fisheries resources, sometime ago re-
quested the U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries to assign one of its biologists to make a
general survey of the principal waters of the state, with the view of determin-
ing the status of the fisheries, and to study the life history of the various
species of fishes, principally with respect to their spawning time and spawn-
ing habits. The bureau was glad to comply with this request and detailed
Dr. Hildebrand to make the investigation.
Dr. Hildebrand visited the Pascagoula River system in southeastern Mis-
sissippi, the upper Pearl River system and several points in the Delta. He
found the fisheries in the Pascagoula system in general in satisfactory condi-
tion. Except near the larger cities, game fish appeared to be plentiful, and
according to commercial fishermen no diminution of the so-called ‘‘gross”’
or “commercial” species has been noticed.
No commercial fishing was being carried on in the upper Pearl River dur-
ing Dr. Hildebrand’s visit. The natural conditions in this section have been
considerably disturbed through deforestation and drainage which together
with rather persistent fishing, have tended to reduce the abundance of fish.
The region is well adapted to the establishment of artificial bodies of water,
that is, fish ponds and lakes. Several such waters already exist, and -provi-
sions for others are being made.
The most extensive fishing waters of the state oecur in the Delta, where
important commercial fisheries, as well as much angling for sport is carried
on throughout most of the year. Although the periodical floods in the Delta
no doubt are generally detrimental to spawning of some species at least,
they do serve by their widespread nature to restock more or less depleted
waters. On the other hand, when the waters recede almost countless young
and sometimes mature fish become stranded and perish. Flood conditions
have prevailed for several months this year, and many temporary waters
with millions of fish will be left when the waters recede. It is understood,
however, that the Game and Fish Commission will carry on an active fish
rescue work at the appropriate time.
Dr. Hildebrand is now in Washington studying the data and the speci-
mens collected so that he can submit a detailed report setting forth his find-
ings and recommendations.
Scientific Unemployment—Unemployment among research scientists,
which threatens to become worse, is causing concern to responsible heads of
research and research-coordinating institutions. While as yet only prelimi-
nary surveys have been made, these disclose the situation as exceedingly
serious. A thousand chemists and over 2,500 engineers are reported as being
out of work in New York City alone. A survey of the industrial field by Dr.
CLARENCE J. West and Miss Cairn Hutt of the National Research Coun-
cil indicates that since 1930 over 12,000 scientists have been released from
the laboratories of industrial firms. A telegraphic inquiry addressed by Sci-
ence Service to 25 of the leading universities of the United States gives as
preliminary results: operating budgets reduced by about 20 per cent in
1938-34 as compared with 1932-33, research budgets reduced by varying
amounts up to as much as fifty per cent, material reductions in both teach-
ing and research personnel, and no employment in sight for a considerable
proportion of the new Ph.D.’s. Efforts by various ‘‘economy” organizations
have been aimed with especial vigor at scientific research conducted by the
various departments of the federal government, presumably as being ‘‘safe’’
from political repercussions. The outcome of these drives is still in doubt,
AuGusT 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 407
though there is no doubt but that government research will have to undergo
considerable curtailment at least for the immediate future.
News BRIEFS
Dr. Isatan Bowman, director of the American Geographical Society of
New York, has been elected chairman of the National Research Council,
succeeding Dr. W. H. Howry. Dr. Bowman will devote half of his time to
his new office. Dr. Howell, who accepted the chairmanship for a year during
a period of reorganization of the Council, will continue his interrupted re-
searches in physiology.
The Smithsonian Institution has just received seven mummies from a cave
in Texas, preserved apparently by the natural dryness there. They are to
receive intensive study by Dr. FRANK SETZLER of the Smithsonian.
Funds for the U. S. Department of Agriculture were reduced to a sum
about 22 million dollars below the amount available last year. The Depart-
ment will be allowed to draw only $60,000,000 in place of the $75,000,000
appropriated by Congress.
Experts on submarine air purification, Frank M. Hopson of the Navy
Department and Dr. Parry Borestrom, of the Naval Research Labora-
tory, cooperated with aeronautic experts in planning the gondola of the bal-
loon for the flight from the Century of Progress Exposition grounds into
upper regions of the earth’s atmosphere. The air in the stratosphere gondola,
as in the undersea vessel, must be kept in good breathing condition regard-
less of pressures and temperatures outside. Excessive moisture and noxious
gases must be eliminated.
Thorianite, an extremely rare mineral, has been discovered in eastern
Pennsylvania, Dr. Roger C. WELLs, of the U.S. Geological Survey reported
to the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
The pitchblende, radium-containing mineral, recently discovered in north-
ern Canada is approximately 1,375 million years old, Dr. Joan PuTNAM
MARBLE reported to the Century of Progress meeting of the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science. The measurement made by Dr.
Marble in the laboratories of the U. S. Geological Survey, depended on the
uranium-lead ratio in the ore.
A set of instruments which might be called electric gages were devel-
oped for use in making precise measurements of the dimensions of articles of
compressible rubber. They are the work of W. L. Hout of the National
Bureau of Standards.
A method of freeing tomato seeds from bacterial canker, by fermenting
the pulp until the seeds drop out, was reported by H. L. Buoop of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture.
A new office of the National Research Council, that of honorary vice-
chairman, is to be filled by Dr. Winti1am H. Wetcnu, of the Johns Hopkins
University, the ‘‘dean of American medicine.”
Kel grass, valuable food plant for wild fowl, is apparently threatened with
extinction, a study just completed by CLarEeNcE Cottam of the U. 8. Bio-
logical Survey indicates.
408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 8 ©
The U. 8. Naval Observatory has just issued a catalog of over 10,000
stars, the positions of which were determined from observations recently
made at the Observatory.
PERSONAL ITEMS
Dr. Paut Bartscu, of the U. 8S. National Museum gave a radio talk un-
der the auspices of Science Service, over the network of the Columbia Broad-
casting system, describing the life in ocean deeps.
RosertT Y. Stuart, Chief of the U. 8S. Forest Service, was awarded the
degree of Doctor of Science from Dickinson College, at Carlisle, Pa., June 12.
Major Stuart was graduated from Dickinson College with an A.B. degree in
1903, and an A.M. degree in 1906.
Dr. H. L. Curtis, of the National Bureau of Standards, read a paper be-
fore the meeting of the American Section of the International Physics Union
in Chicago, in which he stressed the need for new and more accurate determi-
nations of the value for electrical units.
Dr. Puiuire B. Matz, of the U. 8. Veterans’ Administration, delivered an
address at the meeting of the American Medical Association in Milwaukee in
which he called gas warfare one of the most humane of modern weapons.
Dr. Paut Hanuy Furrey, of Catholic University, attended the Confer-
ence on Research in Child Development of the National Research Council,
held in Chicago. He told the meeting that over-solicitousness on the part of
parents may make children ‘‘young for their age.”’
O. H. GisH was appointed Assistant Director of the Department of Ter-
restrial Magnetism effective July 1, 1933.
L. V. BerKNzER, formerly at the U. 8. Bureau of Standards, has received
a temporary appointment as Associate Physicist at the Department of Ter-
restrial Magnetism, where he will be engaged on the investigation of the
ionosphere by radio methods.
The University of Cincinnati conferred an honorary degree of doctor of
science on J. A. FLemina, Acting Director of the Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism, on June 10, 1933.
Horace M. Apricut resigned as Director of the National Park Service.
ARNO B. CAMMERER, formerly Associate Director, succeeds Mr. Albright as
Director.
Assistant Director Harotp C. Bryant of the National Park Service left
Washington the latter part of June. He plans to visit a number of the na-
tional parks and monuments and will return to Washington in early Septem-
ber.
Geologist EArt A. TRAGER of the Washington Office of the National Park
Service will leave Washington shortly for a trip to the Cades Cove region
in the western part of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Mr.
Tager will determine whether or not a lake once existed at Cades Cove.
¥X uae: ay 5 . dae Ss
Biochemistry. = Sindies in cancer: ‘the a pits
gain reaction to the urine pr seo
Paleontology. .—Pharyngeal plates. oe onde from the Virginia : me ¢
JAMIN ILDERSLEBVE soos eevee eee eden
Zoology. —The snail Pseudosuccinea columella (Say)
intermediate host in extending the range of Bite} ti inr
DELL H. Revie ghee Hint ee ee 'e
Zoology.—Descriptions of two new parasitic nematodes from birds: :
0 WEHB..ii5 rigBh eee eb eras tots ier pry gaa
AS PROCEEDINGS Be sunk
Geological Bocioty.igyns. «oo Lins Sah, ays See
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VoL. 23 SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 No. 9
JOURNAL Z
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
Hues L. DrypEN Wixtmot H. BrRaDLey Joun A. STEVENSON
BUREAU OF STANDARDS U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. T. WENSEL HarRoLtp Morrison
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCISTY
E. A. GoLDMAN W: W:; Rusey
BIOLOGICAL SOCINTY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
AGNES CHASE Jz; Rs SWANTON
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
R; E; Grsson
CHEMICAL SOCIETY
PUBLISHED MONTHLY
BY THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
450 Auwarp Sr.
at MpnasHa, WISCONSIN
Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wisi
Acceptance for mailing at the special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925
Authorized January 21, 1933.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: 8,
(1) short original papers, written or communicated by mémbers of the Academy; (2
proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3
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Sie I eee eth dy
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ae 0 4 * 34
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
MioOn.23 SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 No. 9
PHYSICS.—The seismic receiver... F. W. Souon,S. J., Georgetown
University. (Communicated by F. G. BrIcKWEDDE.)
The radio receiver has grown familiar to us as a household article
and while it is really more complicated than the seismograph, a com-
parison of the two may serve to dispel some of the mystery associated
with the receiver of seismic manifestations. Both are harbingers of
distant tidings, one indulging in phonetics and the other speaking in
idiograms; and while at first sight one might hesitate about pursuing
the analogy too closely, knowing that all comparisons limp, still on
further reflection one easily appreciates that the resemblance is far
from superficial.
The first thought that strikes us is that both the seismic receiver
and the radio receiver are devices actuated by wave motions. The
radio receiver responds to waves set up in the ether, or if there is no
ether, it responds to the equivalent of what we have been calling
waves in the ether that are set up by a transmitting station. The
seismic receiver takes cognizance of waves set up in the interior of
the earth and on its surface by the earthquake shock itself which does
its own transmitting. There are differences, of course, and we might
mention the fact that the ether waves are transverse, while the earth
transmits both longitudinal and transverse waves, both pushing and
shaking phenomena. We shall not stop to point out analogies between
the two kinds of wave motion, but merely mention the fact that the
path of the seismic message is worked out by geometrical optics,
that we have reflection and refraction and dispersion of seismic waves
in the interior of the earth, and that if the seismic problem is com-
plicated by surfaces of discontinuity beneath the surface of the earth,
the radio problem is not made any simpler by the Heaviside layer
above the earth’s surface. But let us put all this aside as more or less
obvious now that it has been called to our attention, for we are more
interested in the instruments themselves.
1 Paper delivered before the Philosophical Society of Washington, February 11,
1933. Received February 16, 19338.
409
oe
410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
Apart from rectifying and amplifying devices and other acces-
sories, the heart of the radio receiver is its oscillating system, and
when we understand the oscillating system we stand a fair chance to
understand something about the radio receiver. The oscillating de-
vice consists of three essential elements, an inductance, a capacity,
and resistance, or as we might say, a sustaining element, a storing
element, and a smothering element. When we have an axcess of
electrons on one plate of the condenser and a deficiency on the other,
the situation is relieved bya flow of electrons through the circuit.
The office of the inductance is to sustain the flow, and on account of
this action, the flow does not stop when things are just balanced, but
continues until the sustaining power of the inductance is overcome
by the back pressure due to the excess of electrons on the other
side of the condenser. Then the process reverses. A seismograph is a
kind of pendulum in most cases, and instead of an inductance the
sustaining element is the inertia of the swinging system. The storing
element which takes the place of the condenser consists in the rise of
the weight against the force of gravity, in most cases, or it may con-
sist in the stretching of a spring or the twisting of a wire. When the
moving system has been displaced from the equilibrium point, then
gravity, or the recoil of a spring, or the torque of a wire pulls the sys-
tem back. But just as the motion of the electrons was sustained by
the action of the inductance, so the motion of the seismograph is sus-
tained by the inertia of the moving parts. The weight is thus rushed
past the point of equilibrium until the momentum is overcome and
the motion arrested by the operation of the restoring forces on the
other side. In the radio receiver, an oscillation once set up would
never cease were it not for the resistance of the circuit that dissipates
the energy in the form of heat. The seismograph would never come
to rest were it not for the smothering effect of friction or damping
devices that more or less quickly destroy the motion of the boom.
But the analogy between the radio receiver and the seismic re-
ceiver does not stop with these fundamental structural details, but
extends itself to functional considerations. Every oscillating system
has a natural frequency determined by the relation between the sus-
taining, the storing, and the smothering elements. When you turn the
dial of your radio receiver, by adjusting the relation between in-
ductance and capacity, you change the frequency of the circuit. As
you approach the proper adjustment for a station, the output is at
first faint, but swells up rapidly to a maximum, and then as you
continue to turn, it becomes faint again. With the seismograph we do
SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 SOHON: SEISMIC RECEIVER 411
not stay at hand to tune it all the time, so the same effect is produced
as the period of the seismograph remains fixed and that of the in-
coming wave varies, mostly out of tune. The magnification of a seis-
mograph varies in exactly the same way that the amplification of a
radio set varies when it is not exactly in tune, and the greater the
discrepancy between the wave length of the instrument and the
length of the incoming wave, the smailer the magnification. That is
why it is necessary for a correct interpretation of a seismogram, to
measure the period of each wave, find the magnification correspond-
ing to its wave length from tables or curves and then to correct the
trace amplitude for the variable magnification. For the same reason
the question of the choice of a proper period for a seismograph is a
long story, which can not be told here.
This variable magnification which gives so much trouble in a seis-
mograph is a great virtue in the tuned stages of a radio set and every
effort is made to encourage it. Hence the reduction in the size of the
antenna, the use of the indoor antenna, loose couplings. The idea is
to get as narrow a band of frequencies as possible. With the seismo-
graph we try to get as tight a coupling as possible, a concrete pier
going down to bed rock, making the frame of the machine as nearly as
possible a part of the earth itself. Broadening the band of frequencies
to which an oscillating system is sensitive or in other words decreasing
the selectivity is possible if we increase the smothering action, in-
crease the resistance of the radio circuit, increase the damping of the
seismograph. The effect of this procedure is twofold. The band of fre-
quencies through which a response is obtained is broadened. This
represents a loss in selectivity, but a gain for sensitivity except for
waves that happen to be in tune. At the same time a general flattening
of the magnification curve takes place, reducing the magnification.
The flattening of the magnification curve is a great advantage to the
seismologist as we shall see presently, though the loss in magnification
is a disadvantage. In the earlier instruments before the introduction
of optical recording this was a heavy sacrifice. Hence the damping
was kept very low. Even then, to overcome the friction of the needle
point plowing its way through a film of soot on a highly glossed
paper, the mass of the instrument had to be made very great if much
magnification was desired. Now with the perfected methods of optical
registration, we can afford to push the damping up until the system
just ceases to oscillate.
In the radio set on the other hand it is selectivity and not sensi-
tivity that is desired. Low resistance wire is used. Braided wire is
412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
used. Connections are made as short as possible and are kept tight
by soldering. It is all to make the set as selective as possible, to make
it sensitive to as narrow a band as possible. Of course one can go too
far even in a radio set, and spoil the modulation by shaving the band
too close. But it will be understood that we are heré merely speaking
of tendencies.
In spite of all efforts to the contrary a certain amount of selectivity
is obtained in a seismograph. The slow speed of the paper, which is
as low as 6 mm. per minute on some instruments, and is as high as 60
on others, means that vibrations that are too quick will be lost due to
the thickness of the trace or to the overlapping of images where opti-
cal recording is employed. You have something similar to this in the
limited sensitiveness of the diaphragm of your ear phone or the arma-
ture of your loud speaker. According to Galitzin, selectivity of this
kind is more or less of a virtue, because the quick vibrations that
would be recorded would for the most part be those due to machinery
and would be evidence of industrial rather than seismic activity.
Since his time, however, we have begun to realize that while the long
periods characterize the waves from the distant sources that have
come through the heavier, deeper rocks, the near-by earthquakes send
their messages in quicker vibrations through the lighter rocks near the
surface. Hence to record close earthquakes one must be ready to
make something of shorter periods than Galitzin was interested in.
Again if we are interested in accelerations instead of displacements
the shorter period instrument gives a better picture. But no radio set
records when it is so far out of tune, so we pass these questions and
many others with the acknowledgment that things are not quite as
simple as we are trying to make them out to be.
Our modern radio sets secure an increase in magnification by con-
necting the first oscillating system to another through a transformer.
In these sets there is more than one circuit to be tuned but we have
an increase in amplification with an increase in selectivity. Galitzin,
to secure the same end does a similar thing, though he does not regard
the increased selectivity as an advantage. Instead of securing addi-
tional magnification through a system of levers, Galitzin has placed a
set of coils on the end of the boom in a magnetic field maintained by
permanent magnets attached to the frame of the seismograph. If the
boom of the seismograph moves, an electromotive force is produced
in the coils, and this serves to operate a sensitive galvanometer. The
record is made optically by reflecting a beam of light from the mirror
of the galvanometer to a drum with sensitive bromide paper. In the
SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 ROSENKRANS: BENTONITE A413
transformer of the radio set we have two electric circuits linked to-
gether by a magnetic circuit. In the Galitzin arrangement we find
that we have two magnetic circuits, one at the pendulum, one in the
galvanometer, linked together by a single electric circuit. So we see
that the Galitzin scheme for obtaining an increased response for a
given input signal is not so different from the radio scheme after all.
A precisely similar statement holds for the Wenner instrument.
The resemblance between a seismograph and a radio set extends
even to the defects. The howling and squawking of a radio set is the
distortion produced by the internal oscillation of the set. It is pre-
cisely the distortion produced by the proper motion of the seismo-
graph that creates the great problem for the makers of those instru-
ments. One source of the distortion is the fact that the magnification
curve is not flat. There are other sources, and these have also their
electrical analogies. And just as radio manufacturers quite justly in-
sist that purity of tone is the greatest factor in deciding between in-
struments or another, so in seismographs the question of the purity
of the record is of importance, and there has been much said on the
point by designers of different types of seismographs, even though we
have had to sacrifice our ideals in this regard in order to get a practi-
eal working instrument.
GEOLOGY .—Bentonite in northern Virginia.t R. R. RoSENKRANS,
Pennsylvania State College. (Communicated by JoHn B. REE-
SIDE, JR.)
It is now a little more than a decade since bentonite of middle
Ordovician age was first reported from strata of the Appalachian
province. Many additional occurrences have been discovered in re-
cent years and the attention of the stratigrapher has been focused
upon the possibilities of using these bentonite beds as key horizons
in close stratigraphic correlation.
The idea is not new, though as yet extensive application of the cor-
relation of bentonite beds to the solution of stratigraphic problems,
except in one or two places, has not been made. The value of a ben-
tonite bed for such work lies, of course, in the fact that it represents
an ash fall which occurred within a very brief interval of time. Where
such a bentonite bed is interstratified with unquestionable marine
strata, the immediately subjacent strata must be essentially contem-
1 Received April 23, 1933.
414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
poraneous. If a single bentonite bed, or better still a series of them,
can be recognized in a series of sections, the contemporaneity of these
sections is practically established.
Within the past year and a half through the work of the writer?
and through the work of Whitcomb? it has been established that a
series of six thin bentonite beds occur in the basal portion of the
Salona formation (late Black River or early Trenton age) of central
Pennsylvania. These beds have been carefully traced throughout the
TABLE 1.—GENERALIZED SECTION OF THE BASAL SALONA OF CENTRAL PENNSYLVANIA
Feet Inches
Salona formation:
Shales, black, calcareous, slaty, interbedded with impure, shaly,
dense, black limestones
BentoniterGNes bss ee ec eet one ots eee eg) ee 0 6
Shales, black, calcareous, slaty and impure limestones Bs Ho-
malonotus irentonensisan Upper portion .\.7. <2 a4. +s +. ces eee 65
Benitonrte CN) 8 0 viv, Gk ek ee oe veges ae ceed ee a pe ee 0 3
lhamestones,chaly, impure, thin=pedded-. .-- +. 2-25.42 e ee eee 35
Bentonite (NG 3) oo Pees ee oe ee aioe eee ) 8
Limestones, shaly, impure, thim-bedded.... . 4.42 2.4.4.8. eee 15
‘ehentonite CN OS 2).cie: foie cen mens 1 tine bc) 0 ele neeee RA ne 0 6
Limestone, black, impure, with upper two inches silicified (very
cherty) and with upper surface characteristically checked, yel-
lowed, and covered with fossil fragments, frequently Cryptolithus.. 1 3
Bentonite: GMO. I) * ayo. Seas rac: Pataca eae cae ahaa ee eee ) 1
Limestone, thin-bedded; shaly, black. ..-. 22-2. t..6-." ac-- oes 15
Bentonite (Now). o5 <2 ee ieee. See el oka ee eee 0 1
Limestone, dense, black, non-fossiliferous. ...................0-. 0 9
Rodman formation:
Limestone, cobbly, impure, coarsely crystalline, crinoidal.........
Limestone, crinoidal, gray, coarsely crystalline
nN
entire middle Ordovician province of central Pennsylvania. As a re-
sult of this detailed work much light has been shed on certain strati-
graphic problems of the area. One of the questions, however, that has
been of much concern to the student of Appalachian stratigraphy has
been that of the exact relationship of the central Pennsylvania middle
Ordovician formations to those of neighboring areas.
Having successfully traced a series of bentonite beds throughout
the Pennsylvania area the writer directed his attention to the possi-
bility of recognizing these beds in adjacent areas. As it has long been
postulated that the source of the middle Ordovician volcanic ash was
in the southeastern portion of the United States, possibly in central
2 RosENKRANS, R. R. Master’s Thesis, (unpublished), Pennsylvania State Col-
lege, 1933.
3 Wuitcoms, L. Correlation by Ordovician bentonite. Journ. Geol. 15: 522-534.
1932.
SEPTEMBER 15. 1933 ROSENKRANS: BENTONITE A415
LEGEND
20°
| PVERMICAL | SCALE
Es
Mmmm BENTONITE
xvas
b
SALONA
SIONS Tees Tany
CHAMBERS BURG
R.R.R. 1933
Fig. 1.—Correlation of the basal Martinsburg bentonites in northern Virginia and
the suggested correlation of these beds with the bentonites at the base of the Salona
formation in central Pennsylvania. 1. Generalized columnar section of the basal
Salona of central Pennsylvania. 2. Section as exposed along highway No. 11 ap-
proximately one mile southwest of Strasburg, Virginia. 3. Section at Woodstock,
Virginia. 4. Section near Mauzy, Virginia. Note that the thickness of the bentonite
beds is greatly exaggerated. Note the persistence of the group of beds consisting of
bentonites No. 1, No. 2, and the intervening strata. This group was persistent through-
out the entire central Pennsylvania Middle Ordovician province.
416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
or southern Virginia,’ it seemed quite likely that the above-noted
series of bentonite beds might be recognized in that state, though
they might perhaps be somewhat thicker due to greater proximity to
the source of the ash.
In April 1932 the writer examined the Ordivician section at Stras-
burg, Virginia and was decidedly impressed by the similarity of this
section to those in central Pennsylvania. During the latter part of
June and again in September he revisited this section and traced cer-
tain of the bentonite beds occurring in the basal Martinsburg forma-
tion southward for a distance of forty miles along the strike. In Octo-
ber the Strasburg section was again visited in company with Dr.
Whitcomb of Lehigh who was likewise impressed by the similarity
of this to the Pennsylvania sections of which he has written.°
It seems advisable at this time to describe the occurrence of these
bentonite beds at Strasburg, Woodstock, and near Mauzy, and in par-
ticular to suggest the correlation of these beds with those traced in
central Pennsylvania. In Fig. 1 is presented graphically this suggested
correlation of the Pennsylvania bentonite beds with those seen at
Strasburg, Woodstock, and near Mauzy in Virginia.
SECTION AT STRASBURG, VIRGINIA
In a roadeut approximately one quarter mile beyond the point
where the Virginia state highway No. 11 crosses Tumbling Run, and
approximately one mile southwest of Strasburg, is exposed the follow-
ing excellent section of the basal Martinsburg formation and the
upper beds of the subjacent Chambersburg limestone. The beds at
this point strike N. 30 E. and dip 35 SE.
Additional study of nearby outcrops seems to indicate the occur-
rence of at least two additional thin beds of bentonite above that
designated as No. 5 (?). A one-inch bed at 37 feet and a 2-inch bed at
61 feet above No. 5 (?) were observed. No central Pennsylvania equiv-
alents of these beds have been recognized, or else one of these is the
southward extension of the No. 5 bed seen in Pennsylvania and the
bed designated as No. 5 (?) in this paper has not been recognized in
the northern sections.
Along the road leading from the main highway to Fisher’s Hill, and
along the banks of Tumbling Run there is exposed a complete section
of the Chambersburg limestone. At least four beds of bentonite occur
4GiLEs, A. W. Journ. Geol. 35: 527-541. 1927. Gives summary of statements
by W. A. Nelson as to location of vent supplying the middle Ordovician volcanic ash.
5 WuHitcoMs, L. Op. cit., pp. 522-534.
SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 ROSENKRANS: BENTONITE Snasllys
TABLE 2—SEcTION OF BASAL PART OF MARTINSBURG FORMATION AND UPPER PART
oF CHAMBERSBURG LIMESTONE
Feet Inches
Martinsburg formation:
Shale, slaty, calcareous, brown to black
Wowenccamberval eres ee ees Ie a eeu PS ke hale AERTS seat oes 50
Shale, calcareous, slaty, weathers brown.................000000- 28
ES CURL OMNUL EN EN CO enen) Paeel tee e ahs ie is ace Wine cee eke res ate agehec dy Cais Bes 0 6
Shale, calcareous, slaty, less calcareous at base and containing
abundant graptolites (Diplograptus sp.) at 3feet............... 9
Mt naVie raya OG Kaye eA pera op lees ere ie pices) ery cos ogra Ps 1
LEXGINROAMLONIOS ZR oe Sea een cae eee rate Tae Qe 0 3
Limestone, light gray, coarse, very fossiliferous, seems to be com-
posed entirely of the remains of asmall brachiopod............. 0 3
Sinaloa ee ee cert See kd) ARYA tale at, Dee eA es Ss i, 32
Bentonite and shale, zone consisting of a 1-inch bentonite bed rest-
ing on an 8 inch bed of bentonitic shale from which it is separated
by a thin layer of slickensided calcite, and this bed in turn resting
Ona toinlayenorbentoniteW@Nowee ese ns ee ee Coe 0 10
Shale, earthy, brown-weathering, abundant remains of Cryptolithus
ANGSOMENATZEMGINGULE At OLCCU <8 oe © ns oe ee eon soles 14
SHalemolackesblocksye y sate orgs tA ee Ors ce Vite eee Te 1
BEMmtOmite sm AasshVvieneNi@e au) ieh. (teas ae at akioc seb lasbaten | I eae 0 10
Shale, massive bed, very fossiliferous, upper portion silicified
(cherty) and with the upper surface characteristically checked,
yellowed, and with numerous fossil fragments including Crypto-
lithus. At 6 inches this bed seems to be composed entirely of the
REMAIN SHOMAlAnZErA Sd MhTdi re ery he ieee nok: cata hee oe id 0 9
Shalesininachocolate COlOCGsmcr re — ek aie ie seas ee Soe 0 ne
BSE MGOTMUGE LIN Osman ertert isteach te PE, teen sn oni ser era oR ne hace Soe 0 3
Shale, calcareous, light gray on weathered surface, earthy, very
fossiliferous, with Christiania abundant and occasional Echino-
SINCE TTLC Sree St nornty Sept re Suede Rae ss Sah LA RN eo gL tr age 22
Shale, thin, brown, weathers to brown mud...... ee Hered I es ee 0 5)
Shale, calcareous, cobbly, with at least three zones of large nodular
liIMESLONEICONCEELIONS te ceee he eas ee me eee I A LEE 5
Bentontve: ONO 0) \heceth seca ek ees SS Leases eee estes Ae 0 2
Shale; calcareous, very cobbly, bluish-gray .........5..25:.....8-- 2 4
Chambersburg limestone:
Limestone, massive, dense, thin-weathering, bluish............... 1 3
itimestonesbpinishandicobbly 2 cla oie. eed Soe ie ees 0 5.5
SLOG: GARE ey c( PL ATLA ey secs SCE eae see me oR ng 0 4
lhimestonesmassivesoluish<c . 445 8s oh Saks be she eo 1 3
Bentonite or bentonitic shale, a thin bed largely shale............. 0 il
Limestone, massive, bluish, very few fossils...................-. 6 2
Bentonite; ormbemLOnitiels Wales, ey oye <5,4 ses ont lnm, Boise eee «Roe eons Se wee 0 1
Innnestonesmassive: blishe | oo (ue a hoe ees Sones 18 9
Shale, yellowish and possibly somewhat bentonitic............... 0 2
Limestone, massive, bluish-gray, with Nidulites scarce in upper
beds but becoming more abundant in lower beds
418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
near, or a little below, the base of this limestone. One of these is 9
inches thick, and one is 6 inches thick. Each of the other two is only
one inch thick. Whether these have any central Pennsylvania equiva-
lents or not is at present unknown, though several thin bentonite beds
occur in the Carlim of that area.
Along the bed of a small creek at the east edge of Woodstock is
exposed a partial section of the basal Martinsburg and the upper beds
of the subjacent Chambersburg. At this locality the beds No. 1 (?),
No. 2 (?), and No. 8 (?) are exposed. Bed No. 0 (?) is probably present
though this portion of the section is covered. A few feet below this
horizon the thick bluish limestone beds of the upper Chambersburg
are exposed.
At a point seven miles south and a quarter mile east of New Market
a partial section of the basal Martinsburg is exposed. Bentonite beds
No. 1 (?), No. 2 (?),and No. 3 (?) are exposed here. Nine feet beneath
No. 1 (?) the basal Martinsburg has been faulted against massive,
dove-colored strata of Stones River age, the intervening Chambers-
burg beds having been cut out.
In each of the three above mentioned sections occur the group of
beds consisting of the thick bentonite No. 2 (?), the thinner bentonite
No. 1 (?), and the intervening 12-20 inches of shale, the upper por-
tion of which has been silicified. The surface immediately beneath
bentonite bed No. 2 (?) is characteristically checked, yellowed, and
covered with fragmentary fossils among which are fragments of
Cryptolithus. This group of beds is apparently the same as that which
served as a readily recognizable datum in tracing the bentonites of
central Pennsylvania. If it is not the same group, then this is a most
remarkable coincidence. The approximate equivalence in age of the
containing strata as established on paleontological grounds, the litho-
logic similarity of these strata, and the additional occurrence of ben-
tonite beds No. 0 (?), No. 3 (?), No. 4 (?), and No. 5 (?) strengthen
the suggested correlation of these sections with the basal Salona for-
mation of central Pennsylvania.
In this paper which contains only a brief statement of the occur-
rence and correlation of the bentonite beds in the basal Martinsburg
of northern Virginia, and a suggested correlation with the beds of
central Pennsylvania, it is not necessary to discuss the petrography
of these bentonites. However, the writer has studied material from
each of the outcrops cited, and has established by petrographic
methods that it is bentonite.
This correlation of the basal Salona of Pennsylvania with the basal
=
SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 SULLIVAN AND HESS: TEST FOR THIOCYANATE 419
Martinsburg of northern Virginia, if substantiated by further de-
tailed work which has been undertaken by the writer, will prove a
distinct step toward clarifying the relations of the middle Ordovician
of central Pennsylvania to the neighboring Ordovician terranes.°
6 The writer is indebted to Dr. Lawrence Whitcomb of Lehigh University, to Dr
Josiah Bridge of the U. 8. Geological Survey, and to Dr. E. O. Ulrich who have kindly
read the manuscript of this paper and have offered many helpful suggestions.
BIOCHEMISTRY.—The evaluation of the Rupp-Schied-T hiel method
as a test for thiocyanate in the urine.’ M. X. SULLIVAN and W. C.
Hess, Georgetown University.
The iodometric method for thiocyanate devised by Rupp and
Schied (1) and improved by Thiel (2) has been used considerably in >
biochemical work. Gies and collaborators (3), (4) found it satisfactory
in their extensive study of thiocyanate in the mammalian body. Saxl
(5) applied it to the urine in cancer and concluded that quantitatively
thiocyanate is increased in the urine in cancer with values appreci-
ably higher than normal and higher than found in any other disease.
Sullivan and Dawson (6) made use of the method in their study of pel-
lagra. In the pellagra work comparative values between the acute and
cured conditions were sought and no attempt was made to determine
the degree of specificity of the Rupp-Schied-Thiel reaction for thio-
cyanate when applied to saliva or urine. Recently, Sullivan and Hess
(7) used the method in a study of the urine of various pathological
conditions, cancer in particular. In their work a number of cases of
marked cancer involvement showed high apparent thiocyanate as
found by Saxl but other cases of cancer marked enough to lead to
death were within normal limits and sometimes below normal. They
concluded that the excretion of material behaving like thiocyanate is
not necessarily increased in cancer.
Sullivan and Hess found exceedingly high thiocyanate values in
multiple myeloma (malignancy of the bone marrow) and were led to
the conclusion that other substances than thiocyanate were possibly
being measured. From theoretical grounds, also, it seemed that the
specificity of the Rupp-Schied-Thiel procedure might be questionable
when applied to a complex such as urine. Accordingly, a critical study
was made of the method. As will presently be shown, other substances
in urine were found to react like thiocyanate in the Rupp-Schied-
Thiel procedure, that is, they are precipitated by silver nitrate in the
1 This work was supported by a Research Grant from the Chemical Foundation.
Received June 9, 1933.
420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
presence of dilute nitric acid and the precipitate reacts with iodine
under the same condition that thiocyanate does in a medium made
alkaline with sodium bicarbonate and containing potassium iodide.
The details of the Rupp-Schied-Thiel procedure as applied to urine
are given by Saxl (5) and with slight modification by Sullivan and
Dawson (6) and Sullivan and Hess (7).
In testing the degree of specificity of the Rupp-Schied-Thiel re-
action, tests were made on urinary pigment, creatine and creatinine,
taurine, glyoxal, glutathione, uric acid, xanthine, guanine, and ade-
nine, ergothioneine, urinary proteose, and oxyproteic acids. A normal
urine freed to a high degree from pigment by Drabkin’s (8) method
gave 88 per cent as much thiocyanate-like material as before the ex-
traction. Creatine and creatinine and taurine give no precipitate with
silver nitrate in acid solutions and do not react with iodine in an al-
kaline medium. Glyoxal does precipitate with silver nitrate and takes
up iodine; so if present (for the probability of which we offer no proof),
it would interfere in the thiocyanate work. Neither oxidized nor re-
duced glutathione gives a precipitate with silver nitrate though they
will use up iodine. Xanthine, guanine, and adenine are precipitated
by silver nitrate but do not react with iodine in an alkaline medium
in the procedure followed. Uric acid reacts with iodine in alkaline
medium somewhat like thiocyanate, 10 mg. of uric acid are in fact
equivalent to 4.47 mg. of KCNS. While uric acid in aqueous solution
as the sodium salt is not readily precipitated by silver nitrate, sodium
urate added to urine is in part precipitated by silver nitrate and is to
some slight degree a positive interferer in the Rupp-Schied-Thiel re-
action. The greatest interference apparently comes from other sources
such as ergothioneine-like compounds and oxyproteic acids which are
considered below.
Ergothioneine—This compound isolated from blood by Benedict
(9), Benedict, Newton, and Behre (10), Hunter and Eagles (11), (12),
was found by Newton, Benedict, and Dakin (13) to be identical with
the base ergothioneine isolated from ergot by Tanret (14), and shown
by Barger and Ewins (15) to be the betaine of thiohistidine:
SH (CH,):
| |
N=C—NH N—O
| | sae al
HC——CCH.—CH—CO
SEPTEMBER 15, 1983 SULLIVAN AND HESS: TEST FOR THIOCYANATE 421
Having on hand a sample of ergothioneine isolated from blood, it
was tested to see if it would react like thiocyanate in the Rupp-Schied-
Thiel procedure. Five milligrams were dissolved in 25 cc. of water.
This solution gave a gelatinous precipitate with silver nitrate. The
precipitate was centrifuged, washed, and put through the thiocyanate
procedure. It was found that 5 mg. of ergothioneine (C,.Hi;N3SOx..
2H.O) was the equivalent of 2.9 mg. of KCNS, or 1.763 mg. of
HCNS.
Benedict, Newton, and Behre (10) showed that ergothioneine is
precipitated by silver lactate in the presence of lactic acid as uric acid
is but unlike uric acid is not freed from the silver compound by treat-
ment with acid sodium chloride used in the Folin-Wu (16) method
for uric acid. In their procedure the silver insoluble complex freed -
from uric acid and dissolved in sodium cyanide gives a blue color
with the uric acid reagent and sodium hydroxide.
The Benedict (17) blood procedure was then applied to the urine.
To 3 cc. of urine, Folin-Wu’s acid silver lactate was added in slight
excess. The mixture was centrifuged and the supernatant liquid de-
canted. The insoluble residue was washed by stirring with acid sodium
chloride (10 per cent sodium chloride in 0.1 N hydrochloric acid) in
50 cc. lots, centrifuging and decanting until the washings no longer
gave a color with the uric acid reagent.
The insoluble residue was put into solution with the minimum
amount of 5 per cent sodium cyanide. To do this 6 cc. of the cyanide
was usually required so the use of 6 cc. of cyanide was made a routine.
To the solution in cyanide were added 1 ec. of the Folin-Marenzi (18)
reagent and | cc. of N sodium hydroxide. The standard solution for
comparison was 0.5 mg. of ergothioneine dissolved in 6 cc. of 5 per cent
sodium cyanide and treated in the same manner as the unknown. As
Behre and Benedict (17) in their study of blood give evidence of the
presence of other material behaving like ergothioneine, the material
judged to be present in urine is labeled ergothioneine-like. This
ergothioneine-like material reacts like thiocyanate in the Rupp-
Schied-Thiel method but is entirely distinct from thiocyanate. The
latter is extracted to a large degree from the silver nitrate precipitate
by acid sodium chloride and, more important still, does not react with
the uric acid reagent as ergothioneine does.
In normal urine the amount of material reacting like ergothioneine
excreted in 24 hours varied from 76 mg. to 154 mg. as judged by colori-
metric comparison with the standard ergothioneine from blood. The
average of 11 normals was 117 mg. for an average volume of 1311 ce.
422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
or approximately 89.2 mg. per liter. In the Rupp-Schied-Thiel thio-
cyanate procedure this amount of ergothioneine-like material con-
sidered as ergothioneine would be the equivalent of 31.46 mg. of
HCNS as 5 mg. of blood ergothioneine was found by us to be equiva-
lent to 1.763 mg. of HCNS. The presence in the urine of substances
comparable to ergothioneine makes work with the Rupp-Schied-Thiel
method a questionable measure of thiocyanate. Attention was then
given to the study of ergothioneine in urine. The details of the ergo-
thioneine investigation, which by isolation methods prove the pres-
ence of at least some ergothioneine in urine, will be given in a subse-
quent paper.
Urinary proteose.—Oriel and Barber (19) isolated from urine ma-
terial which they called urinary proteose. This they found the carrier
of antigenic properties in allergic conditions. It occurs in normal urine
but generally in much smaller amounts than in pathological urines
and not accompanied by antigenic material.
In testing Oriel and Barber’s claims, the so-called proteose was col-
lected from a number of urines, normal and from allergic conditions.
When put through the Rupp-Schied-Thiel procedure, (precipitation
with silver nitrate and reaction with iodine etc.), 100 mg. of the com-
bined crude proteose in 15 cc. of water and 2 cc. of 1 per cent nitric
acid were found to have a thiocyanic acid equivalent of 2.736 mg.
From normal urines with a single individual using the Oriel and Bar-
ber treatment there have been isolated on the average 400 mg. of
crude proteose per liter. Accordingly, the proteose is more or less a
positive interferer in the Rupp-Schied-Thiel thiocyanate method.
Oxyproteic acid—Oxyproteic acids were isolated as barium salts
following Pregl’s (20) procedure. This complex is precipitated by
silver nitrate and reacts with iodine as thiocyanate does. From normal
urine, Pregl isolated more than 5 grams of the barium salt of oxy-
proteic acids per liter of urine. In the present work there was obtained
6.43 grams of the barium salt of oxyproteic acids per liter of urine or
122.2 grams from 19 liters. One hundred milligrams of this salt con-
taining 28.61 per cent barium was equivalent in the Rupp-Schied-
Thiel procedure to 1.2 mg. of KCNS so 5 grams would be equiva-
lent to 60 mg. of KCNS or 86.5 mg. of HCNS.
When tested by the Benedict procedure for ergothioneine and by
the Hunter (21) ergothioneine reaction both the proteose and the
barium salt of oxyproteic acid were found free of ergothioneine. Con-
versely, neither the proteose nor oxyproteic acid interfere in the esti-
mation of ergothioneine-like material. Both these compounds are pre-
SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 SULLIVAN AND HESS: TEST FOR THIOCYANATE 423
cipitated by silver lactate but are washed out by the acid sodium
chloride mixture in the same way that uric acid is.
In tests on individual urines it was found then that the thiocyanic
acid value of the proteose and the oxyproteic acids was variable and
TABLE 1
ANALYSIS OF NORMAL URINE FOR ToTaL THIOCYANATE-LIKE MaTERIAL, ERGO-
THIONEINE, PROTEOSE, AND OXYPROTEIC ACID.
Ergothioneine-
Apparent like material Barium
HCNS
Subject Vol. calculated as Proteose oxyproteic
ergothioneine acids
ce. mg. Ing. Ing. Ing.
1D CEL) 530 LOL 27 ESEO5 556 5.421
2 (S) 800 66.19 109.20 354 5.828
or GE) 830 116.10 83.17 404 8.358
4 (W) 830 140.60 ier 664 5. 937
peculiar to each indivual. Accordingly, total apparent thiocyanate
and the thiocyanate value of ergothioneine-like material, proteose,
and barium oxyproteic acids were determined on 4 individual urines.
The apparent thiocyanate was determined by the Rupp-Schied-Thiel
procedure; the ergothioneine-like material by colorimetric comparison
with blood ergothioneine in the Behre and Benedict procedure; then
TABLE 2
THE THIOCYANATE EQUIVALENT OF ERGOTHIONEINE-LIKE MATERIAL, PROTEOSE, AND
BaRIUM-OXyYPROTEIC ACIDS IN THE Rupp-ScHIED-THIEL METHOD FOR
THIOCYANATE.
HCNS equivalent of
Subject Apparent eT HCNS by
HCNS Ergothioneine Proteose Ba oxypro- difference
teinates
mg. mng. ing. mg. mg.
tee CED) 101.27 46 .43 Sept! PEACE 24.26
2 (S) 66.19 Ste Sl eae 11.48 10.87
3. (1) 116.10 29-30 4.77 42.82 39.18
4 (W) 140.60 Bh eolt 13.08 46.93 8) 7a
proteose and the barium oxyproteic acid fraction by weighing air
dried. The data obtained are given in Tables 1 and 2.
Inasmuch as the procedures of extraction employed do not extract
all the proteose and oxyproteic acid from the urine, it is evident that
the real thiocyanate content of a normal urine is small. It is indeed,
smaller than given by difference in Table 2 as no data were obtained
on the positive interference of uric acid in the Rupp-Schied-Thiel
424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
thiocyanate method. It is certain, however, that the unmodified
Rupp-Schied-Thiel iodometric method is not a measure of thio-
cyanate in the urine. Without comment on its applicability to ex-
tracts of blood and other tissue, it may be said that preliminary ex-
periments indicate that the main material of the saliva reacting in
the Rupp-Schied-Thiel procedure is thiocyanate.
The Munk method.—A method that has been employed for the
estimation of thiocyanate is the Munk (22) gravimetric method. In
this method the thiocyanate is precipitated by silver nitrate in the
presence of dilute nitric acid and the silver precipitate is melted with
sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate to convert the sulfur of the
thiocyanate to sulfate. From the sulfur precipitated by barium
chloride the thiocyanate is calculated. This method is likewise ques-
tionable when applied to urine because the silver nitrate precipitates
other sulfur complexes than thiocyanate, among them ergothioneine-
like material, proteose, and oxyproteic acid.
There is need of a more specific method for the determination of
sulfocyanate in urine. Based on the observation that strong alcohol
does not dissolve uric acid, ergothioneine, proteose, or the barium
salt of oxyproteic acid whereas barium thiocyanate is soluble, a some-
what improved procedure has been employed as follows: An aliquot
of urine, generally 50 cc., is treated with a saturated aqueous solution
of barium hydroxide as long as a precipitate forms. The mixture is
filtered and washed. The filtrate is brought to dryness on the water
bath and is extracted with warm absolute alcohol and filtered. The
procedure of evaporating, extracting with alcohol, and filtering is re-
peated. Then the alcohol is driven off, the residue dissolved in 25 cc.
of water and the Rupp-Schied-Thiel procedure applied to the solu-
tion. Such a procedure has given a return of 97.2 per cent for potas-
sium thiocyanate added to the urine and shows in urine amounts of
thiocyanate very much smaller than the original Rupp-Schied-Thiel
procedure applied to urine directly.
Using this procedure the amounts of thiocyanic acid found in the
four urines of Table 2 become in fact, H, 14.2 mg.; 8, 5.3 mg.; I,
17.6 mg.; and W, 25.5 mg.—values much lower than by difference as
given in Table 2 and overwhelmingly lower than found by the un-
modified Rupp-Schied-Thiel method.
SUMMARY
The Rupp-Schied-Thiel procedure applied directly to urine is not
specific for thiocyanate in that it gives positive results with ergo-
SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 SULLIVAN AND HESS: TEST FOR THIOCYANATE 425
thioneine-like material, with proteose, and with oxyproteic acid and
to some degree with uric acid. A large amount of the apparent thio-
cyanate material in urines in both the Rupp-Schied-Thiel procedure
and in the Munk gravimetric procedure is explainable by the presence
in the urine of ergothioneine-like material and of oxyproteic acids.
An improved procedure is given which excludes most if not all the
interfering substances and shows in urine amounts of thiocyanate
very much smaller than does the original Rupp-Schied-Thiel pro-
cedure applied to urine directly.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Rupp, E. and Scuiep, A. Uber die Iodometrie des Rhodanwasserstoffe. Ber.
Chem. Ges. 35: 2191. 1902.
2. Turi, A. Zur lodometrie des Rhodanwasserstoffe. Ber. Chem. Ges. 35: 2766.
1902.
3. Gres, W.J.and Kaun, M. An inquiry into the possible relation of sulfocyanate
to dental caries. Dental Cosmos. 55: 40. 1913.
4. Gites, W. J., Ligs, C. C., and Kaun, M. A further study of sulfocyanate in its
possible relation to dental caries. Dental Cosmos. 56: 175. 1914.
5. Saxu, P. Uber die Stérungen im Eiweissstoffwechsel Krebskranker (Zugleich ein
Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Rhodanausscheidung). Biochem. Zeit. 55: 224. 1913.
6. Suuuivan, M. X. and Dawson, P. R. Sulfocyanate content of the saliva and
urine in pellagra. Journ. Biol. Chem. 45: 473. 1921.
7. Suutiivan, M. X. and Hess, W. C. Studies in cancer: The application of the
Rupp-Schied-Thiel thiocyanate reaction to the urine in cancer. This JOURNAL 23: 378.
1933.
8. Drasxin, D. L. The normal pigment of the urine. III. A new method for tis
extraction. Journ. Biol. Chem. 88: 433. 1930.
9. Bernepict, 8. R. The determination of uric acid in the blood. Journ. Biol.
Chem. 64: 215. 1925.
10. BeEneEpict, 8S. R., Newton, E. B. and Benre, J. A. A new sulphur-containing
compound (Thiasine) in the blood. Journ. Biol. Chem. 67: 267. 1926.
11. Hunter, G. and Eaauss, B. A. The tsolation from blood of a hitherto unknown
substance and its bearing on present methods for the estimation of uric acid. Journ. Biol.
Chem. 65: 6238. 1925.
12. Hunter, G. and Eaauss, B. A. Non protein-sulfur compounds of blood. I.
Sympecthothion. Journ. Biol. Chem. 72: 123. 1927.
13. Newton, E. B., BENEpictT, 8S. R. and Dakin, H. D. Chemical constitution of
thiasine. Science 64: 602. 1926.
14. Tanret, C. Sur une base nouvelle retirée du sergle ergoté, Vergothionéine.
Comp. Rend. 149: 222. 1909.
15. Barer, G. and Ewins, A. J. The constitution of ergothioneine; a betaine re-
lated to histidine. Journ. Chem. Soc. (London) 99: 2336. 1911.
16. Fourn, O. and Wu, H. A system of blood analysis. Journ. Biol. Chem. 38:
17. Beure, J. A. and Benepict, S. R. The occurrence and determination of thio-
neine (ergothioneine) in human blood. Journ. Biol. Chem. 82: 11. 1929.
18. Foun, O. and Margenzi, A. D. An improved colorimetric method for the deter-
mination of cystine in proteins. Journ. Biol. Chem. 83: 108. 1929.
19. OrRtEL, G. H. and Barprer, H. W. A proteose in the urine, excreted in ana-
phylactic and allergic conditions. Lancet. 2: 231. 1930.
20. Pree, F. Ueber die Ursachen der hohen Werthe des C/N Quotienten des nor-
malen menschlichen Harnes. (Pfliiger) Arch. Physiol. 75: 87. 1899.
21. Hunter, G. A new test for ergothioneine upon which is based a method for its
estimation in simple solution and in blood filtrates. Biochem. Journ. 22: 4. 1928.
22. Munk, 1. Quantitative Bestimmung des Schwefelcyansauregehaits 1m Speichel.
Virchows Archiv. 69: 350. 1877.
426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
PALEONTOLOGY.—Mylodont (Ground Sloth) dermal ossicles from
Colombia, South America. R. LEE Couuins, Johns Hopkins
University. (Communicated by E. W. Brrry.)
This paper reviews briefly some of the literature on dermal ossicles
in the mylodont group of ground-sloths and describes some dermal
bones collected by Dr. Maurice Rollot? from an old lake deposit in
the southern part of the Bogota Plateau, Colombia, South America.
The bones are ascribed provisionally to Mylodon robustus Owen var.
taryjensis Ameghino.
The presence of dermal bones in the mylodont group of ground-
sloths has been known for many years. They were recorded as early
as 1841 by Lund,’ but apparently Burmeister’ was the first to figure
them and give a definite description of their appearance and a dis-
cussion as to their probable position in the skin of Mylodon. Con-
clusive evidence concerning the nature and position of such dermal
armor in one mylodont genus, was furnished by the remarkably well
preserved remains of Glossotheriwm ( =Neomylodon and Grypotherium)
discovered in a large cave at Consuelo Cove, Ultima Esperanza Inlet
in the Magellan Territory of southern Chile. Skeletal material, the
horny claws, fragments of the skin, and dung of the animal were col-
lected by Eberhard and others in 1895, Nordenskj6ld in 1896 and by
Moreno in 1897. The nature and unusual preservation of this ma-
terial caused much comment and speculation in the scientific world.
Illustrations of the material were presented by Lonnberg,’? Moreno
and Woodward® and Hauthal, Roth and Lehmann-Nitsche’ in 1899
and by Woodward? in 1900.
1 Received May 1, 1933.
2 Letter of September 18, 1932 from Dr. Maurice A. Rollot, Bogota, Colombia to
Prof. E. W. Berry of The Johns Hopkins University. ... “‘et j’ai le plaisir de vous
remettre aujourd’hui une collection . . . trouvées au contact d’un corps de Mylodon,
au cours d’exploration y d’excavations, dans la partie sud du Haut Plateau de Bogota.
Le terrain appartient 4 une de ces anciennes lagunes e’tagées et supérandines, actuelle-
ment partiellement déséchées 4 une altitude de pres de 2.900 mts. . . . des os du Mylo-
don, qui put étre identifié seulement 4 cause des dents, en tout semblable 4 ceux décrits
par Marcelin Boule, dans son ouvrage sur les mammiferes fossiles du Tarija, S. A.”’
3 Lunp, P. W. K. Dansk. Vidensk. Selsk. Afhandl. 8: footnote p. 85. 1841.
4 BURMEISTER, H. Anales Museo Publico, Buenos Aires. 1: 173, pl. 5, fig. 8.
1864-1869.
5 LONNBERG, E. On some remains of Neomylodon listai Ameghino brought home by
the Swedish expedition to Tierra del Fuego 1896. Wissensch. Ergebn. Schwedish. Ex-
ped. Magellansland, 1895-1897 unter Leitung von Dr. Otto Nordenskjéld. 2: 149-170,
pls. 12-14. 1899.
6 Moreno, F. P. and Woopwarp, A. 8. Ona portion of mammalian skin named
Neomylodon listai, from a cavern near Consuelo Cove, Last Hope Inlet, Patagonia. With
a description of the specimen. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 144-156, pls. 13-15. 1899.
7 HavutTHAL, R., Roru, 8. and LEHMANN-NitscHeE, R. El mammifero misterioso de
la Patagonia, Grypotherium domesticum. Revista Mus. de La Plata. 9: 409-474,
pls. 1-5. 1899.
8 Woopwarp, A. 8. On some remains of Grypotherium (Neomylodon) listai and
SEPTEMBER 15, 1983 COLLINS: MYLODONT OSSICLES 427
This brief paper does not warrant further references or more than
the following short statement of some of the facts derived from the
study of the Glossotherium remains. The skin described by Moreno
and Woodward in 1899, is covered with hair varying in length from
10 to 65 millimeters and the bones are all confined to the inner por-
tion of the dermis and never extend to the outer part in which the
hair is implanted. The ossicles are irregularly arranged and closely
spaced. The largest measure 10 by 15 millimeters, but the majority
are smaller than this and large and small bones are indiscriminately
mixed. They are irregular in form, the inner face is quite generally
convex or pyramidal, the outer face slightly convex or more or less
flattened, and there is no trace of definite patterns or sculpturing on
them. This fragment of skin apparently came from the neck and —
shoulder region of the animal. A second fragment of skin, 100 by 93
centimeters, or almost twice the size of the preceding, was described
by Woodward in 1900. It is supposed to have come from the trunk of
the animal and there is a tendency, in what appears to be the middle
part of the flank, for the ossicles to be arranged in rows parallel with
the ribs. As the ventral border of the flank is approached, the bones
dwindle in size or are lacking. The long axis of the elongate elements
is nearly always coincident with the direction of the rows. A portion
of skin bearing small ossicles was assigned more or less provisionally
to the leg of the creature by Lonnberg in 1899.
In an article on the discovery of Quaternary mammals at Rancho
La Brea, California, Merriam’ recorded the occurrence of dermal
bones in association with the remains of Mylodon and later?® figured
a layer of ossicles that were found more or less in their normal posi-
tion, in a sheet of asphaltum overlying a mylodont scapula. Further
remarks on the Rancho La Brea ossicles were contributed by Sin-
clair! who gave additional figures. The excellent report on the Ceno-
zole gravigrade edentates of North America by Stock” contains a
review of the articles published on the dermal bones from the asphalt
deposits. These bones are ascribed definitely to Mylodon harlani
Owen.
associated mammals from a cavern near Consuelo Cove, Last Hope Inlet, Patagonia.
Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 64-78, pls. 5-9. 1900.
9 Merriam, J.C. Recent discoveries of Quaternary mammals in southern California.
Science, n. s. 24: 248-250. 1906.
10 MerRRIAM, J. C. Death trap of the ages. Sunset Magazine. 21: 465-475. 1908.
11 SincLAIR, W. J. Dermal bones of Paramylodon from the asphaltum deposits of
Rancho La Brea, near Los Angeles, California. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 49: 191-195. 1910.
12 Stock, C. Cenozoic gravigrade edentates of western North America, with special
reference to the Pleistocene Megalonychinae and Mylodontidae of Rancho La Brea. Car-
negie Inst. Washington, Pub. No. 331: 120-121, pl. 21. 1925.
———— ———— —————————
428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
The dermal ossicles from Colombia were found, as noted in the
excerpt from Mr. Rollot’s letter, in association with poorly preserved
remains of a Mylodon. The teeth found with the skeletal remains ap-
pear to be similar to those of Mylodon robustus Owen var. tarijensis
Ameghino, as figured by Boule in an account of the fossil mammals
from Tarija, Bolivia. On page 219, Boule mentions dermal bones
from this animal, but does not describe or figure them. The Colom-
Fig. 1—Dermal ossicles of Mylodon from Bogotdé, Colombia. Natural size.
Viewed from the upper surface.
bian material consists of some 250 individual bones, that range in
size from 10 by 8 by 7.5 mm. to 28 by 16.5 by 15 mm. The largest and
smallest specimens and others of intermediate size are illustrated in
the accompanying figure. In preparing the bones for illustration, it
was assumed that Woodward’s observations on the orientation of the
dermal ossicles in the skin of Glossotherium were correct and that sup-
posedly the orientation, as suggested by Burmeister and others, was
essentially similar in Mylodon. Therefore, the more highly pitted and
less convex side, the so called, upper surface is represented in the
13 BouLE, M. Mammiferes fossiles de Tarija. With collaboration of A. THEVENIN.
Mission scientifique G. de Crequi-Monfort et E. Senechal dela Grange. JH. le Soudier
(Paris), 1920.
SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 WILLIAMS: PENNSYLVANIAN TRILOBITE 429
figure. All of the specimens from Colombia are stained by oxides of
iron and manganese on their exterior surfaces and also stained on the
interior, but the discoloration here is confined largely to the regions
adjacent to the vascular canals. The outer, more dense layer of bone
is generally ight brown in color, whereas the central, more porous
part, is pale yellow or white with an occasional growth of black den-
dritic wad. In a few of the broken specimens the central bone ma-
terial has largely disappeared and such individuals present much the.
appearance of geodes or concretions. There are no surface markings
on the exterior other than irregular ridges and grooves and the pits
formed by the entrance of the vascular canals.
Most of the Colombian ossicles are larger than those of Glosso-
thervum and apparently more irregular in outline and surface mark- |
ings. Some of them are distinctly elongate and in this characteristic
they are somewhat similar to the elongate, oriented elements that
Woodward describes from the fragment of skin ascribed to the flank
of Glossotherium. Several of the smaller specimens approach some-
what the degree of regularity exhibited by the quadrilateral forms
from Mylodon harlani as figured by Sinclair (Fig. 1, b, c, d) and Stock
(Plate 21). The majority compare rather closely in size and irregu-
larity with the more unsymmetrical individuals figured by Stock.
They appear to be more like the ossicles described from Mylodon and
are referred provisionally to Mylodon robustus Owen var. tariensis
Ameghino.
PALEONTOLOGY.—A new Pennsylvanian trilobite from Missouri.
JAMES 8S. WiuiiaAMs, U.S. Geological Survey. (Communicated
by GrorGE H. Girty.)
Complete dorsal shields of trilobites are rarely found-in Pennsyl-
vanian rocks, and their discovery is therefore always fortunate. If
they represent new species, their description often prevents the crea-
tion of synonyms based on isolated parts. If they represent species
previously known from incomplete specimens, the description may
reveal the identity of two species or it may show that isolated pygidia
and cephala placed in a single species are not truly conspecific.
The new species here described is based on two cotypes each of
which has the cephalon, thorax, and pygidium in articulation. The
typical specimens were collected by Mr. W.S. Olson and myself from
the lower part of the Cherokee (lower Pennsylvanian) shale near
Columbia, Missouri, in 1929, while studying the stratigraphy of the
1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Re-
ceived May 25, 1933.
430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
Pennsylvanian rocks of the central Missouri fire-clay district. Al-
though for many years trilobites have been known to occur in the
Cherokee formation, this species is the first to be described from it
from Missouri.
In describing this trilobite I have departed somewhat from the
traditional practice and have given in advance of the detailed de-
scription and arranged under definite and mutually exclusive head-
ings sufficient information for a working knowledge of the species.
Although most paleontologists include this information in their de-
Figs. 1 and 2.—Griffithides olsoni Williams, n. sp. X4. Fig. 1,
cotype 5183; Fig. 2, cotype 5184.
scriptions, it is not always distinctly separated from the detailed
description and is therefore sometimes difficult to find. If the specific
characters were always summarized under definite headings, much
unnecessary work by subsequent investigators would be avoided. The
arrangement is by no means a new one. It has for a long time been in
common use by some students of fossil vertebrates and some paleon-
tologists have used it in describing genera and species of fossil in-
vertebrates. It has not, however, been used to any extent by students
of fossil invertebrates. A more extensive use of this arrangement
would not only save time but would also be a step toward greater pre-
cision in fossil descriptions.
The photographs shown in the figures were made by N. W. Shupe
and retouched by Miss Frances Wieser.
SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 WILLIAMS: PENNSYLVANIAN TRILOBITE 431
Griffithides olsoni Williams, n. sp.
Specific diagnosis: This species is characterized by the following combina-
tion of characters: small size, length less than twice the width, granulose
surface, granules on glabella larger than those on rest of dorsal shield, most
of granules on axial segments of thorax and pygidium irregularly arranged,
small and inconspicuous basal lobes on glabella, no prominent mesial lobe
between basal lobes, no transverse glabellar furrows except those that de-
limit basal lobes, nine segments in thorax, six complete pleural segments on
pygidium.
Comparisons: In the number of segments on the pleural lobe of the py-
gidium, in its rather small size, and in several other characters, G. olson
resembles G. ornatus Vodges, 1895, from the Pennsylvanian of Arkansas, G.
parvulus Girty, 1911, from the Wewoka and Boggy formations of Oklahoma,
and G. scitulus Meek and Worthen, 1865, a widespread Pennsylvanian spe-
cies. Its closest resemblance is perhaps to G. scitulus and if the type of that
species were available for study, my specimen might be found to be con-
specific with it. I have, however, been unable to locate the type of G. scitulus
and as a consequence must rely on the original and subsequent descriptions
and on fragmentary and insecurely identified specimens in the United States
Geological Survey collections from the type locality for data about it. Pub-
lished figures do not show critical parts of the type in detail. Although G.
scitulus has been described from several localities by different authors, it
seems that Meek and Worthen were the only authors who examined the
type.
G. olsoni differs from Meek and Worthen’s original description of G.
scitulus in the following ways: There are no indications of transverse glabel-
lar furrows anterior to those that delimit the basal lobes on G. olsonz; G.
olsoni has small basal lobes which, although the transverse furrows are not
visible, appear to have raised portions that are more nearly suboval than
subtriangular, and G. scitulws is said to have large subtriangular basal lobes;
G. olsoni has no prominent mesial lobe between the basal lobes of the gla-
bella. Another difference between G. olsoni and some forms described as G.
scitulus is the absence of a single row of prominent nodes on each segment
of the axis of the thorax and pygidium of G. olsoni. Although granules on
some of the axial segments of G. olsoni appear to be so arranged, they are
much smaller than the nodes attributed to G. scztulus. On some of the an-
terior segments of the thorax of G. olsonz granules are numerous but are not
regularly arranged. They are only slightly smaller than the granules that
appear to be regularly arranged and undoubtedly are morphologically the
same. Their irregular arrangement suggests that the seeming regularity of
some of the granules is due to the failure of others to be preserved. Meek
and Worthen’s descriptions of G. scztulus do not mention regularly arranged
nodes and their possible presence on G. scitulus is based on descriptions by
subsequent authors and on a row of nodes on the occipital segment of a frag-
mentary cephalon in the United States Geological Survey collection from
the type locality of G. scitulus. Most of the differences cited are of degree
rather than of kind but it seems better to place my specimens in a new
species rather than to include them in one with whose description they do
not agree, even though it seems likely that an examination of the type or of
good specimens from the type locality may prove that description slightly
misleading. If G. scztulus does have definite transverse glabellar furrows aside
from those that delimit the basal lobes, as its description indicates, it does
not conform fully to the description of Griffithides.
432 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
G. olsoni does not have the posterior part of its glabella divided into three
knoblike nodes as does G. parvulus; it has no distinct indications of trans-
verse glabellar furrows anterior to those that delimit the basal lobes as does
this species; its facial sutures do not come nearly together in front; it does
not, as before discussed, have single transverse rows of small but distinct
nodes across the posterior part of the occipital segment and across each axial
segment of the thorax and of the pygidium; and its length is less than twice
its width. The length of G. parvulus is about two and one-half times its width.
From G. ornatus, G. olsoni differs because of its inconspicuous basal lobes,
its smaller number of complete pleural segments on the pygidium, and its
lack of distinct rows of rather large nodes on each axial segment of the
thorax and pygidium. G. ornatus has basal lobes said to be prominent, seven
complete pleural segments on the pygidium, and rather pronounced nodes
arranged in a single row across each axial segment but grouped so as to form
three double rows of nodes extending from the anterior of the thorax to the
posterior of the axial lobe of the pygidium.
Walter? has suggested that the three species compared in the foregoing
paragraphs with G. olsoni may belong to one species, G. scztulus. Of the types
of these species, I have seen only that of G. parvulus, and can not test this
suggestion adequately. It is undoubtedly true that changes in specific desig-
nations and perhaps in some of the kinds of characters used for specific dis-
tinctions will come when the trilobites of the Pennsylvanian are studied with
the types and large collections assembled for careful scrutiny; and some
species may then be found to be merely molts of other species. It is not de-
sirable, however, to delay the description of newly collected material until
such revisional studies are completed; and until new information based on
typical material is available, it seems the most conservative course to recog-
nize species as they are now generally recognized and use specific characters
as they have been used.
Another species that is closely related to G. olsoni is G. morrowensis
Mather 1915 from the Morrow group of Arkansas and Oklahoma. Mather’s
species is, however, a larger form. It has more pleural and probably more
axial segments on its pygidium than does G. olsonz, and it also has a promi-
nent median lobe between the two basal lobes of the glabella. Mather’s figure
suggests that it also has much narrower free cheeks.
Significance of name: This species is named for Mr. W. 8. Olson, formerly
of Columbia, Missouri, who collected one of the cotypes.
Type material: The cotypes are two in number. Both of them have the
cephalon, thorax, and pygidium in articulation. Both also have part of the
axis of the pygidium incomplete. The anterior part of the cephalon and part
of the dorsal surface of the glabella has been removed by erosion from the
smaller cotype. It is number 5183 of the type collections of Carboniferous
invertebrate fossils of the United States Geological Survey; the larger cotype
is number 5184 of the same collection.
Description: Carapace small, elliptical, slightly more than one and one-
half times as long as wide; the cephalon, more than one-third as long as en-
tire carapace, thorax shorter than cephalon, and pygidium about equal to
or slightly shorter than thorax.
Cephalon semielliptical, evenly rounded in front on cotype 5184, incom-
plete in front of other cotype; surrounded by a longitudinally striated, nar-
row border or marginal rim which is distinctly above the free cheeks but is
2 WaLTER, Orto T. Iowa Geol. Survey 31: 334. 1926(?)
SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 WILLIAMS: PENNSYLVANIAN TRILOBITE 433
not as high as the anterior part of the glabella; the border appears to be
turned up in front of the glabella on cotype 5184 but neither cotype is com-
plete enough to enable one to determine certainly that it is; the border ex-
tends beyond the genal angles and forms spines which reach to the fifth or
sixth thoracic segment and are about one-half as long as the cephalon. The
spines gradually become narrower from the genal angles until within about
a half-millimeter of their ends where they rapidly narrow to a sharp point;
on cotype 5183 the raised border extends across the posterior margin of the
cephalon from the genal angles to the facial suture but it is narrower there
than on the sides; on cotype 5184, the border on the posterior of the cephalon
is visible but it is lower and less distinct. Facial sutures distinct posterior to
the eyes on both cotypes and on cotype 5183 almost to the marginal rim or
border, but their course across the border can not be traced because the
border is broken or partly broken at every place that the facial sutures inter-
sect it. The facial sutures cut the posterior margin of the cephalon at a point
about midway between the longitudinal dorsal furrows and the genal angles;
they extend obliquely forward from this point almost to the glabella but
before reaching the glabella curve away from it around the palpebral lobes;
from the anterior of the palpebral lobes they go at angles of about 20° with
the longitudinal axis of the carapace toward the anterior lateral margins of
the cephalon. Free cheeks depressed, as wide as the glabella at the mid-length
of the eyes, almost flat except at border and around eyes. Eyes large, ex-
tending from slightly in front of the occipital furrow nearly half the distance
to anterior margin of cephalon; semilunate; elevated as high above general
level of free cheek as marginal rim, but not as high as glabella; granules dis-
tinctly visible only on cotype 5183. Cranidium with a large glabella and
narrow fixed cheeks. Palpebral lobes opposite posterior two-fifths of gla-
bella; separated from it by a distinct furrow. Glabella pyriform, prominent,
occupying about one-third the width of the posterior of the cephalon and
probably extending to the anterior margin; it widens about one-third its pos-
terior width at the anterior margin and is much more highly elevated an-
teriorly; its front is nearly perpendicular. The glabella is not so prominent
on cotype 5183 but it has apparently been worn off by erosion of this speci-
men. Basal lobes inconspicuous and indistinct; evidently worn down on
cotype 5183; probably almost entirely preserved on cotype 5184; as pre-
served, the basal lobes are more nearly suboval than subtriangular but the
furrows separating the basal lobes from the rest of the glabella are not visible
and they may be so slightly curving that they enclose subtriangular areas,
parts of which are below the suboval areas, but this can not be ascertained
and it appears most probable that the suboval raised areas constitute the
basal lobes. Each lobe occupies about one-fourth the width of the posterior
of the glabella. No other transverse glabellar furrows, except the occipital
furrow, or indications of furrows are visible on cotype 5184. On the other
cotype, a slight linear depression passes across the glabella in front of the
basal lobes and if it were interpreted as a transverse glabellar furrow it would
separate a median posterior lobe on the glabella from the anterior of the
glabella. The absence of a transverse furrow on this part of cotype 5184,
which is fairly well preserved, and the depth of the furrow and the presence
of other furrows caused by erosion on the glabella of cotype 5183 strongly
suggest that this is not a true glabellar furrow but is simply an erosional
feature. Occipital segment about as wide as the two adjoining thoracic seg-
ments; separated from the rest of glabella by deep, wide furrow; surface of
segment slopes upward from occipital furrow to posterior one-fourth of oc-
434 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
cipital segment where there is a narrow crest; a very short steep downward
slope back of the crest continues to the posterior margin; a distinct node is
visible in the center of the occipital segment on one cotype and is indicated
on the other. Surface of glabella appears from fragments of the test preserved
on cotype 5184 to have been rather coarsely pustulose; the remainder of the
cephalon is less coarsely pustulose and pustules are not visible on many
parts of it.
Thorax over one and one-half times as wide as long; slightly wider at an-
terior margin than at posterior margin; distinctly trilobate. Axis of thorax
broad and moderately but not highly arched; more than twice the width of
that portion of the pleural lobe above the abrupt down bending or fulerum
and equal or nearly equal to the entire width of pleural lobe. Plewra abruptly
bent downward at about one-third their length from the longitudinal dorsal
furrow; proximal portion of pleura forming a right or slightly obtuse angle
with distal portion at fulerum; on many of the pleural segments the angle
formed at the fulcrum is extended into a distinct node. Each pleural segment
is subdivided by a fine striation which extends below the fulcrum from near
the longitudinal dorsal furrow and divides the segment into an anterior part
which is about one-third and a posterior part which is about two-thirds as
wide as the entire segment. Thorax of nine segments; distal ends of pleural
segments not observed. Surface of thorax finely granulated but, aside from
the nodes at the fulera of the pleural segments, no granules large enough to
be called nodes are present. On two or three posterior segments of the axis
only a few granules are preserved and these have a linear arrangement
which might give the impression that there is a single transverse row of
granules across the segments of the axis of the thorax. Examination of an-
terior segments that are well preserved shows that they have many granules
which are irregularly arranged and this observation suggests that the seem-
ing arrangement of the granules in single transverse rows across the posterior
axial segments may be only a result of the failure of many other granules to
be preserved. The irregular arrangement of most of the granules and their
small size prevents their being interpreted as nodes similar to those which are
regularly arranged on many species of Griffithides.
Pygidium subsemielliptical, nearly twice as wide as long, surrounded by a
smooth, uniform, slightly convex border which varies in convexity on dif-
ferent parts of the pygidium but does not vary much in width. Azis partly
broken on both cotypes; from parts of axis preserved one would judge that it
was prominent and highly arched but probably had a flattened area on top
about equal to half its width. Axis extending from anterior of pygidium to
marginal rim, about one-sixth length of pygidium from posterior of pygid-
ium; gradually tapering, nearly twice as wide at anterior end as at posterior.
Two anterior segments of axial lobe preserved on cotype 5183 and three an-
terior segments preserved on cotype 5184. A few fine irregularly arranged
granules ornament the segments of the axis but no nodes are visible. Hach
lateral or pleural lobe bent nearly at right angles to the general plane of the
carapace at about one-third its width from longitudinal dorsal furrow at
front of pygidium; at the posterior part of pygidium the bend is about one-
half the width of pleural lobe from the longitudinal dorsal furrow. A row of
nodes, one at the fulcrum of each segment, ornaments each pleural lobe. Six
complete and one incomplete pleural segments can be distinguished on the
pygidium of cotype 5184 and on one side of the pygidium of cotype 5183; the
other side of the latter cotype is not completely preserved. Pleural segments
distinct; separated by distinct intersegmental furrows; not subdivided as
SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 STEVENS: PLANT PATHOLOGY 435
those of the pleura of the thorax by transverse striae; terminating in the
smooth border that surrounds the pygidium. With the exception of the
nodes at the fulecra there are no recognizable nodes on the pleural segments
but a few granules on the pleural segments suggest that they were granulose.
Dimensions: Measurements of the two PoLypes) 5183 and 5184, are re-
spectively as follows:
Length of carapace 13 mm. and 14.4 mm.; greatest width of carapace, meas-
ured at posterior of genal spines, 8.3 mm. and 9 mm.; length of cephalon,
including occipital segment, 5 mm. and 5.6 mm.; length of thorax 3.6 mm.
and 4.3 mm.; length of pygidium 3.6 mm. and 4.2 mm.; greatest width of
eephalon, 0.6 mm. and 0.6 mm.; approximate width of genal spines at genal
angle, 0.65 mm. and 0.65 mm.; width of glabella at posterior of cephalon
2.6 mm. and 2.7 mm.; width of glabella at anterior margin, 3.2 mm. and 3.6
mm.; probable greatest diameter of basal lobes (measurements uncertain),
0.6 mm. and 0.6 mm.; width of occipital segment 0.7 mm. and 0.8 mm.;
greatest width of thorax 6.9 mm. and 7.8 mm.; width of axis of thorax at
anterior of thorax, 2.6 mm. and 3 mm.; width of portion of pleural segment
above fulcrum, 0.9 mm. and 1.1 mm.; approximate width of portion of
pleural segments below fulcrum 1.4 mm. and 2.1 mm.; width of pygidium,
5.4mm. and 6.8 mm.; length of pygidium 3.8 mm. and 4.3 mm.; approximate
width of border around pygidium, 0.65 mm. and 0.72 mm.; width of axis of
pygidium at anterior of pygidium, 2 mm. and 2 mm.; approximate width of
posterior end of axis of pygidium 1.1 mm. and 1.2 mm.; approximate length
of axis of pygidium, 3.2 mm. and 3.6 mm.
Remarks: This species has relatively larger eyes than is characteristic of
the genus. Although it has small irregularly arranged granules, it is also
without the transverse rows of coarse pustules or nodes seen on many species
of the genus. Its glabella is, however, typical of forms commonly referred to
Griffithides.
Horizon and locality: Cherokee shale, probably about bed 15 of Broadhead’s
section’ and horizon of bed 15 of Hinds and Greene’s section,‘ nine feet above
Tebo coal horizon, second limestone (about 30 feet) stratigraphically above
Pennsylvanian-Mississippian contact: Hinkson Creek, east side of creek,
about four feet above ordinary water-level, about one-eighth mile north of
bridge on road from Columbia, Missouri, to Edwards brick plant; west of
and in creek below brick plant. The locality is about 1 mile east of Columbia,
Missouri, and about in the NW. 4, sec. 8, T. 48 N., R. 12 W. The beds dip
to the southwest at this exposure and basal Pennsylvanian fire-clay is ex-
posed 30 to 40 feet north of and more or less continuous with the exposure.
3 BROADHEAD, G. C. Missouri Geol. Survey 12 (pt. 3): 385. 1898.
4 Hinps, Henry and GREENE, F.C. Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines 13 (2nd
Sere) 7 ove LOO:
PHYTOPATHOLOGY.—The dark ages in Plant Pathology in
America: 1880-1870 Nei E. Stevens, Bureau of Plant In-
dustry. (Communicated by C. L. SHEAR.)
Many of the important activities in the history of plant pathology
in the United States were initiated during the decade 1871 to 1880.
1 Received February 16, 1933.
436 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
In 1871 there appeared in the Report of the Commissioner of Agricul-
ture the first report on The Fungoid Diseases of Plants by Dr. Thomas
Taylor, the recently appointed Microscopist of the Department. In
1873 Burrill first taught plant pathology incidentally with botany
at the University of Illinois and in 1875 it was taught as a special
subject by Farlow at Harvard. In 1875 also there was passed in
Michigan the first law aimed at the eradication of peach trees affected
by yellows and establishing the first quarantine against this disease.
In 1879 Burrill transmitted the blight of pear by direct innoculation.
During this decade, there were established also the first State Ex-
periment Stations. And soon after its close in 1882, Millardet in
France began the experimental work with Bordeaux mixture, which
was soon to have such an important bearing on American plant
pathology. So important were the various lines of work initiated dur-
ing this decade of 50 to 60 years ago that it is rather common to con-
sider them the beginnings of plant pathology in this country as a
recognized, organized study and the history of this branch of science
since that time has been frequently reviewed. This, of course, makes
all the more fascinating the assembling of information regarding the
study of plant diseases and plant disease control prior to 1870. For
the purposes of the present paper attention will be directed to the
period 1830 to 1870.
THE ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
The period was not one favorable for intensive efforts at disease
control. With the exception of the war years it was a period of tre-
mendous crop surpluses and at times of great economic depression in
agriculture. In the agricultural literature of the time one finds state-
ments which sound strangely like those we have been reading during
the last few years. For example, in a letter from A. Jackson to Dr.
Coleman dated April 26, 1834, we find:
“T ask, what is the real situation of the agriculturist? Where has the
American farmer a market for his surplus produce? Except for cotton, he has
neither a foreign nor a home market. Does not this clearly prove, when there
is no market at home or abroad, that there is too much labor employed in
agriculture? Common sense at once points out the remedy. Take from agri-
culture 600,000 men, women and children, and you will at once give a mar-
ket for more breadstuffs than all Europe now furnishes.”’
This letter is quoted by Henry L. Ellsworth then Commissioner of
Patents in his report dated January, 1848, (2) and he comments as
follows:
SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 STEVENS: PLANT PATHOLOGY 437
“The present, too, seems to be the proper time for us to give to this ques-
tion of the disposal of our immense surplus a thorough, calm, and deliberate
investigation. On the decision of it the prosperity of this great country de-
pends. It has been well said that, ‘to encourage the progress of agricultural
improvement is the only road to national wealth.’ Our object should not be
so much to stimulate to large production, as to.open the ways and means by
which the husbandman shall have a market, and shall know how his labor and
skill may be most available.”
Arguments, of course, were presented in favor of more intensive
investigations and the improvement of methods. For example, in the
Report of the Corresponding Secretary of the New York Agricultural
Society for 1842, we find the following sentence:
‘Amidst the cares and perplexities of a period of unexampled pecuniary
disaster and agricultural depression, it is not perhaps singular that a want
of leisure and a want of spirit should unit to interrupt the execution of such
a task; but surely there is no time when the husbandman is more imperi-
ously called upon to make diligent efforts to cheapen and render more avail-
able every process of tillage—to add to the value of his products and animals
—jn a word, to adopt correct, safe, and economical systems, than when the
prices he receives for his products are lowest.’’
INTEREST IN AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY
Agricultural education seems to have largely centered on the study
of chemistry and soils. A careful review of 14 American textbooks of
agriculture published during this period (8) indicates a predominance
of interest in problems of the composition of plants, composition of
soils and in fertilizers. In only three or four of these texts do we find
mention of plant diseases, and only one, The American Text Book of
Practical and Scientific Agriculture, by Charles Fox, contains more
than casual references to disease.
The faith of the farmers of the time in the ability of chemists to
settle their problems is rather touching. We note, for instance, at a
meeting of the Maryland Farmers’ Club on December 138, 1845, that
the Club wanted some information regarding a “‘troublesome disease
of potatoes.” It was, of course, the then newly discovered and ex-
ceedingly destructive late blight. They accordingly called upon Pro-
fessor Baer, who was the “lecturing and practical agricultural chem-
ist,’ and asked him to get a pound each of healthy and diseased pota-
toes and analyze them. His report in April, 1846, records his analyses
and his conclusion that the disease was “‘a putrefactive fermentation
produced by the condition of the atmosphere and improper cultiva-
PON: ’
438 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
DISEASE SURVEY WORK
The modest additions to our information regarding plant diseases
made during this perod were not in their control but rather in records
of their prevalence or what we would now call survey work. This was
probably a direct reflection of the interest in geological surveys dur-
ing the period or at least an outgrowth of the same attitude of mind
which produced and developed the geological surveys. In Merrill’s
masterly sketch of American State Geological and Natural History
Surveys (5), we note that no less than 29 States inaugurated such sur-
veys during the period 1833 to 1865, following the example of North
Carolina which had already organized a natural history survey in
1824. By comparison with the geological surveys the assembling of
plant disease information was crude in the extreme. It may, however,
be said in defense of these early workers that plant disease survey
work is still undeveloped in comparison with the type of survey work
carried on by geologists, and that those interested in plant disease
information nearly a century ago fully realized the limitations of the
conditions under which they were working.
We find that in 1842 the Commissioner of Patents, who was in
charge of the agricultural work of the United States government,
asked for funds which would enable him to make by observation in the
field, a personal study of crops and agricultural implements. He also
stated that during the previous year (1841) he had traveled in 10
states, where he had studied the crops, and was in this way better able
to pass judgment on the statistics submitted to the Office.
Early in the period under review Massachusetts made an appro-
priation for an agricultural survey of the State and in the outline for
this work published by Henry Colman in 1837, Commissioner for the
Survey, plant diseases are specifically mentioned. It is perhaps natural
that under conditions of economic stress, particularly those due to
over-production, the tendency is toward surveys to see just where in-
dustry stands.
DISEASE CONTROL METHODS
The methods of disease control in use in this country from 1830 to
1870 were largely copied directly from European practices or carried
over from previous experience. At least, I have thus far failed to find
any distinctly new type of disease control developed during this period.
Barberry Eradication
Barberry eradication, which excited so much interest in Colonial
Massachusetts and Connecticut between 1726 and 1764, had been
SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 STEVENS: PLANT PATHOLOGY 439
abandoned as a means of controlling wheat rust due apparently in
part to a too great dependence on the mycology of the day. Thus we
find in an 1843 prize essay of the New York State Agricultural Society
by John J. Thomas on The Diseases nue Insects Injurious to the Wheat
Crop the following statement:
“The barberry.—This is not unfrequently supposed to be a cause of
blight, and a slight similarity in external appearance between the barberry
blight or rust and wheat rust, has contributed to the notion. But, on exami-
nation, these two kinds of blight are found to be caused by fungi totally
different in appearance under a magnifier: they belong even to different
genera, the one being the #cidium berberides, and the other the Puccinia
graminis, and the transmutation of one to the other would be equal to the
absurdity of the conversion of wheat to chess.”
It may be remembered, however, that barberry eradication as prac-
ticed in New England did not go unchallenged even during the
eighteenth century, for in his notes on Travels in the Confederation
(1783-1784), Johann David Schoepf (6) made the following observa-
tion:
‘““In New England the common barberry is in evil repute. There is laid to
its charge that its proximity is injurious to the growth of wheat and other
field crops. Whether it is a positive or a negative injury, that is, whether it
works damage actively, corrupting the atmosphere, or merely exhausts the
better juices of the soil, nobody has been able or willing to determine. How-
ever, a strict law has been passed against the poor barberry, making the in-
habitants responsible, with no further judicial process, for the carrying out
of the death sentence imposed upon both varieties of this shrub, (elsewhere
harmless) whenever it makes its appearance—if any man extends protection
to the shrub his neighbor has the right to enter and destroy, and can bring
action against the slothful or unbelieving condoner for damage and trouble
incurred. But the New Englanders are known for other strange beliefs and
practices as well, and it was among them that witch trials, at the beginning
of the century, were so grimly prosecuted.”
Seed Treatment
That the methods of seed treatment known in England were
brought to this country and used by the more progressive farmers is
evidenced by various references to it as a common practice. For ex-
ample, in the report of the Commissioner of Patents for 1844 (2, p.
374) there is a detailed report of seed treatment for wheat smut:
‘““The substances used are, sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol, wine, com-
mon salt, wood ashes, lime water and sometimes arsenic. The smut which
is sometimes found in wheat is called dust brand, or pepper brand. It is
sometimes called Uredo foetida.
‘‘A gentleman near Baltimore has for several years been in the habit of
2 Quoted from the translation of Alfred J. Morrison (6)—1911.
440 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
washing his seed wheat in a strong solution of glauber salts, (sulphate of
soda,) with the view of preventing smut with success. He says he makes the
solution strong enough to bear an egg, fills a tub half full of it, and then
pours in half a bushel of wheat at a time, stirs it round well with the hand,
skims off all the floating grains and other foul matters, dips out the wheat
with a colander, lets it drain, spreads it out on the barn floor till not quite
dry, then rolls it in air slaked lime, and sows it.
‘‘ Dissolve a pound of blue stone in as much water as will cover five bushels
of wheat, and let it remain about 18 hours before it is sown, and you will
never have smut in your wheat.”’
‘““Sow your wheat the first of October, and when you harvest let what you
intend to make seed of remain five or six days longer in the field before it is
Ginn’ ¢ :
The use of these treatments was, of course, by no means universal,
and we find in the report of the Commissioner of Patents in 1851 a
report from Maryland and Virginia that most farmers sowed their
wheat without any preparation. One farmer states, however, ‘‘I find
that soaking my wheat in strong brine answers a valuable purpose
and I never have smut with wheat so treated.”’
Soil and Cultural Treatments
The interest in the great epidemic of potato late blight was so in-
tense that there were undoubtedly tried or at least suggested all the
known disease control methods. The summary of the suggested
methods is given in the Report of the Commissioner of Patents for
1844.
“The remedies suggested are: To keep such as are intended for seed deep
buried in the ground all winter; thoroughly draining and subsoiling theland
where planted; to put them in small quantities; to select seed for planting,
not quite ripe, and such as have not the slightest appearance of being wa-
tery; liming the land; obtaining new seed, either from planting potato balls
or from distant countries, where they grow in a healthy state; after digging,
spread the potatoes in the sun till they become dry and unfit for food; then
stow them away till required for planting—topdressing the plant with ni-
trate of soda and sulphate of soda and magnesia; selecting such tubers for
seed as were grown near the top of the ground, and are quite green; to plant
the seed whole. Salt, lime, and plaster, have been respectively recommended
by their advocates, and, in some instances, with diverse success.
‘‘An instance is related where, on planting, a tablespoonful of lime was
placed in each hill; and, after they were up, was applied about a gill of a
mixture—of lime 2 bushels, plaster 3, and ashes 8. In this case there was not
one rotten potato in the fall, while in the fields of his neighbors they were
much diseased.”’
AN EARLY ANALYSIS OF PEACH AFFECTED WITH YELLOWS
The great interest in and devotion to chemistry during the period
is evident in relation to plant diseases. Thus we find in 1849 that
SEPTEMBER 15, 19383 STEVENS: PLANT PATHOLOGY 44]
Emmons (3) published in a paper on Analysis of Fruit Trees, an
analysis of leaves of a healthy peach tree and one affected with yel-
lows. This analysis was quoted and commented on in at least one
textbook of the period, and represents another early attempt in this
country to gain information about a disease by analyzing the affected
host parts.
THE SPREAD OF POTATO LATE BLIGHT 1843-1845
The most notable disease outbreak of the period, indeed one of the
most notable in our national histery, was that of late blight of pota-
toes (caused by Phytophthora infestans |Mont.] DeBy). Reference to
attempts at control has already been made, and in justice to a little
known student of American botany it should be said that as early as
1845 J. E. 'Teschemacher, Curator in Botany of the Boston Natural
History Society, had studied the disease and become convinced that
it was caused by a fungus. He wrote his opinion to Commissioner Col-
man, and the letter was published in the Gardeners’ Chronicle (7)
and is cited by Berkeley (1).
Of chief interest to us, however, is the record of the spread of the
disease in the United States found in the records of the Commissioner
of Patents. In view of the importance of the disease and the crop, and
particularly of the world wide interest in the disease as a major cause
of the Irish famine of 1845 and 1846, it is surprising that no maps of
its spread have been prepared and published. I fail to find any, how-
ever, in available literature. The reports are remarkably full and ac-
curate for the critical years. Definite parts of States are often indi-
cated and in at least one year latitudes are specifically mentioned.
There can be no question that the disease dealt with is late blight.
For example, the report for New York for 1848 (2), says: ‘‘Potatoes
are subject to dry rot, attacking some in the hill, and some in the heap,
and fatal to the whole wherever it makes its appearance, causing them
to rot and to emit a very offensive stench.”’
No records of the disease being observed in 1842 could be found
either in the transactions of any of the Horticultural Societies or in
the Report of the Commissioner of Patents. On the contrary, in all
the New England States as well as New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl-
vania, Maryland, and Virginia west of the mountains (that is West
Virginia) there are reports of an average or better than average yield
of potatoes and where quality is indicated it was above average. The
rot is everywhere referred to in 1843 and 1844 as a ‘“‘New Disease.’’
The only reference in availabie literature to the disease as occurring
442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
in this country in 1842 is based on a letter written in 1887, 45 years
after the event. The impression that late blight was observed in the
United States in 1842 is apparently drawn from Farlow’s paper The
Potato Rot (4). But Farlow had but recently returned from study in
Europe and was obviously referring to world conditions when in 1875
he wrote, ‘“‘The disease occurred in this violent form in 1842, and
again in 1845.”
The progress of the disease is best shown by the maps. There are
aha
\
\)
\
Fig. 1. The known distribution of potato late blight in 1848.
definite records of the disease in 1843 in the five States nearest Phila-
delphia and New York City, (Fig. 1), with Pennsylvania and Dela-
ware estimating losses of 50 per cent, and New York reporting some
counties with 50 per cent and others from 12 to 15 per cent. The New
Jersey report for the next year indicates that the loss due to this dis-
ease in 1843 exceeded 15 per cent. The presence of the disease in Con-
necticut is indicated but no estimate of loss is given. The Maine crop
appears to have had “‘its usual good quality.”’
In 1844 there was evidently great interest in the disease. The
records are full and definite. They are summarized as follows in the
Report of the Commissioner of Patents:
SEPTEMBER 15, 1983 STEVENS: PLANT PATHOLOGY 443
‘“‘So far as we have been able to trace its boundary, it has not in any in-
stances in this country extended beyond 45° northern latitude nor farther
south than the 37°, if indeed it has gone so far. We have not observed any
notice of it higher up than Piscataquis County, Maine. It does not seem to
have gone lower than a line drawn diagonally through Trumbul County in
Ohio, and so passing through part of Pennsylvania and on down to the Dis-
trict of Columbia. There seems to be none of it in Canada.” (Fig. 2.)
The disease had thus apparently not reached the important potato
producing area of Maine. Even in the southeastern section of that
\
—
(
Yh
Y.
Fig. 2. The known distribution of potato late blight in 1844.
State it was reported that there was ‘‘A good crop, very few rotted,
and the quality good.” |
In the other New England States, however, as well as in New York,
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware, severe losses were noted,
although they were apparently less in New Jersey and Pennsylvania
than during the previous year (1843). In Maryland and West Vir-
ginia the crops were below normal but this is definitely stated to be
due chiefly to drought. In Ohio there was also a falling off in the crop
due to drought, and in the northeastern part of the State most of the
crop was reported to have rotted after harvest. (See Table I.) The re-
port that the potato crops in Maryland, West Virginia, and southern
444, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
TABLE 1
ESTIMATES OF THE PoTATO CROP OF VARIOUS STATES IN 1844, IN COMPARISON WITH
PREVIOUS YEARS, AS AFFECTED BY THE Factors INDICATED:
Percentage losses Percentage shortage Percentage increase in
due to late blight due to drought -yield over previous years
New Hampshire 25 Maryland 25to 30 Maine +15
Vermont 25 West Virginia 20 Michigan +20
Massachusetts 25 to 30 Ohio 25 Indiana +25
Rhode Island 10 Wisconsin d
Connecticut 25 to 30 Iowa BO
New York 50 OTC
New Jersey 15 oad
Pennsylvania 20 to 25
Delaware 25 to 30
\
AW
\\
N
\
\
.
\
S
\
A
—
And
f.
NI
Fig. 3. The known distribution of potato late blight in 1845.
Ohio were short due to the drought is substantiated by such weather
records as are available. For instance, in Washington, D. C., and
Baltimore, Maryland, the total rainfall for the year 1844 was 32.46
inches as compared with a normal of 41 inches, and the rainfall for
June, July, and August, was 1.70, 3.90, and 0.31, respectively, while
the normals are about 4.10, 4.49, and 4.22. A somewhat similar al-
though smaller difference appears in the records for Marietta, Ohio.
~
SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 STEVENS: PLANT PATHOLOGY 445
Reports indicate that in 1844 the group of States around Lake
Michigan produced a potato crop well above the average. Michigan
reports 20 per cent increase over the previous year, Indiana, 25 per
cent increase, and Wisconsin better than average.
In 1845, the Patent Office Report states that the disease was
noted farther East, West, North, and South than the previous year,
and specifically mentions its appearance in Illinois, Indiana, and
Michigan. It also spread to Canada and Nova Scotia, and was ‘“‘very
severe’ in Maine. Its distribution in 1845 is indicated in Fig. 3.
There is no report on agriculture by the Commissioner of Patents
for 1846, but apparently losses from late blight continued severe
through 1847 being mentioned from Maine, Massachusetts, New
York, Maryland, and Ohio.
By 1848, the disease had apparently become recognized as one
of the important factors in potato growing, and losses were being
compared with previous years, although the hope was still enter-
tained that the disease might soon spend its strength. There are, of
course, numerous reports in 1850 and 1851 but these become so scat-
tered and generalized as to be of little value.
He would indeed be a rash historian who would insist that the
great epidemic of 1843-45 was the first occurrence of late blight of
potatoes in North America, since the beginning of potato cultivation
or even since the arrival of Europeans. The first appearance of the
disease near the great ports, and its rapid spread in three growing
seasons, during which it reached something near the limits of what
finally proved to be its area of greatest importance both suggest a re-
cent introduction. As the disease was well established in Ireland,
England, and on the continent of Europe in 1842 its prompt intro-
duction on the Atlantic Seaboard of North America can be easily
understood. That one can now prepare maps of the annual spread of
the disease, exceeded in accuracy in our own day only by the maps of
the spread of the chestnut bark disease, is no small tribute to the
plant disease reports of ninety years ago.
LITERATURE CITED
1. BERKELEY, M. J. Observations botanical and physiological on the potato mur-
rain. Journ. Hort. Soc. London. 1: 9.—1846.
2. Euuswortnu, H. L. Report of the Commissioner of Patents for 1842, 1843,
1844, 1845, 1847, 1848.
3. Emmons, EBENEZER. Analysis of fruit trees. U.S. Patent Office Report
(Agriculture). 1849: 475-484.
4. Fartow, W.G. The potato rot. Bull. Bussey Inst. 1: 319-338. 1875.
5. Merritu, G. P. Contributions to a history of American State geological and
natural history surveys. Smithsonian Inst. U. 8. Nat. Museum Bul. 109. 1920.
446 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
6. Scuormrr, JOHANN Davin. Reise durch einige der mittleren und stidlichen
vereinigten nordameritkanischen Staaten nach Ost-Florida und den Bahama-Inseln, unter-
nommen in den Jahren 1783 und 1784. Erlangen, J. J. Palm, 1788. 2 vol.
—_———.. Travels in the confederation (1783-1784). Translated and ed. by Alfred
J. Morrison. Philadelphia, W. J. Campbell, 1911. 2 vol.
7. TESCHEMACHER,J.E. Observations on the Potato Disease. Gardeners Chronicle
1845: 125.
8. True, A. C. History of agricultural education in the United States. 1785-1925.
U.S. Dept. Agric. Misc. Pub. 36: 436. 1929.
SCIENTIFIC. NOTES AND NEWS
Prepared by Science Service
NOTES
Science advisory board.—One of the most important steps that has yet been
taken by the new Administration is the appointment, by executive order
dated July 21, of a Science Advisory Board to cooperate with the Federal
Government in the handling of all problems in which science is involved.
The President’s executive order establishing the new board is as follows:
“The National Research Council was created at the request of President
WILSON in 1916 and perpetuated by Executive Order No. 2859, signed by
President Witson on May 11, 1918. In order to carry out to the fullest ex-
tent the intent of the above Executive Order there is hereby created a Sci-
ence Advisory Board with authority, acting through the machinery and
under the jurisdiction of the National Academy of Sciences and the Na-
tional Research Council, to appoint committees to deal with specific prob-
lems in the various departments.
“The Science Advisory Board of the National Research Council will con-
sist of the following members who are hereby appointed for a period of two
years: Karu T. Compton, Chairman, President, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; W. W. CAMPBELL, President, Na-
tional Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C.; IsA1ag BowMAN, Chairman,
National Research Council, and Director, American Geographical Society,
New York City; Gano Dunn, President, J. G. WuiTr Engineering Corpora-
tion, New York City; Frank B. JEwerTt, Vice-President, American Tele-
phone and Telegraph Company, and President, Bell Telephone Laboratories,
Incorporated, New York City; CHarLes F. Kitrrrine, Vice-President,
General Motors Corporation, and President, General Motors Research Cor-
poration, Detroit, Michigan; C. K. Lert, Professor of Geology, University
of Wisconsin, Madison; JoHN C. Mrrriam, President, Carnegie Institution
of Washington, Washington, D. C.; R. A. Minurkan, Director, Norman
Bridge Laboratory of Physics, and Chairman of the Executive Council,
California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California.”’
Great white spot on Saturn.—A white spot, so large that it could engulf an
object over twice the diameter of the earth, has appeared suddenly on the
equator of Saturn, the ringed planet and second largest of the solar system.
It was discovered by Joun E. Wiuuis, U. 8S. Naval Observatory astrono-
mer at 12:18 a.m. Saturday, August 5, while he was observing Saturn
through the six-inch transit instrument. Although he observed the planet
for only about a minute before it left the field of view, Mr. WILLIs recog-
nized the spot and called upon other astronomers at the observatory to
check his discovery. Principal Astronomer H. E. Burton turned the 26-inch
SEPTEMBER 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 447
and the 12-inch telescopes upon the planet and confirmed the discovery.
Capt. J. F. HeLtLwna, superintendent of the Naval Observatory, reported
the discovery to Harvard College Observatory, when it was bulletined to
observatories throughout the world.
The spot was also noticed by a London music hall comedian and amateur
astronomer, WiLL Hay, nearly 27 hours before it was found independently
at the Naval Observatory. Mr. Hay was looking at the planet Thursday
night, August 3, through a six-inch refracting telescope at Norbury when he
saw the spot and notified Dr. W. H. Steavenson who confirmed the dis-
covery. The British Astronomical Association issued a bulletin on the dis-
covery which was circulated among British astronomers.
On Saturday morning it was estimated that the spot was about a tenth
the diameter of the planet, but on Saturday night Principal Astronomer
BurTON with the 26-inch telescope found that the spot was much larger.
While difficult to measure because not well defined, the spot seemed to be
about 20,000 miles long and 12,000 miles wide, being formed by a sort of
extension in the brighter equatorial belt of the planet. It is expected that
the spot will continue to be observable for several weeks.
Only twice before do astronomical records show that such spots have been
observed on Saturn. The first was seen through the same 26-inch Naval
Observatory lens in 1876 by the Late Prof. AsarpH Hatt, Sr., just three
years after the telescope was built. By using the spot as a mark of reference
Prof. Hau was able to make the determination of the period of rotation of
Saturn that is now quoted in astronomical tables, 10 hours, 14 minutes, 24
seconds. The 1876 Hall spot was not so large as the Willis spot now visible.
Mr. Wi..is used the Hall determination of Saturn’s period of rotation in
predicting when the spot would return to visibility, and Saturday night’s
observations showed that the Willis spot is revolving around on the planet
in about the expected time. The second spot on Saturn was discovered by the
late Prof. E. E. Barnarp of Yerkes Observatory in 1903. Unlike the Hall
and Willis spots, the Barnard spot was considerably north of the planet’s
equator.
International Geological Congress —The International Geological Congress
held its sixteenth session in Washington, from July 22 to 29. The last pre-
ceding session had been held in South Africa in 1929. The Washington meet-
ing was distinguished by the considerable number of foreign delegates and
guests, in addition to a full attendance by American geologists.
Papers at the session grouped themselves around the following general
topics: measurement of geologic time, batholiths and related intrusives,
zonal relations of metalliferous deposits, major divisions of the paleozoic
era, geomorphogenic processes in arid regions, fossil man and contemporary
faunas, orogenesis, geology of petroleum, geology of copper deposits, miscel-
laneous ore deposits.
One of the outstanding papers was that of Sir ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD,
who reviewed and brought down to date all the data concerning ancient man
in the Old World, with special reference to Sznanthropus and his relations to
Eoanthropus and modern man. At the same session the present status of the
still-vext question of man’s antiquity on the American continent was dis-
cussed by Dr. J. C. Merriam, Dr. CHESTER Stock and BaRNuM Brown.
The meeting in Washington was preceded by several field excursions into
various regions of geological interest in the eastern, southeastern and cen-
tral states, together with a transcontinental excursion starting from San
448 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 9
Francisco, for the benefit of western and trans-Pacific geologists. At the
close of the sessions two additional excursions, both transcontinental, took
the field.
Agreement on mineralogical nomenclature.—A joint session of the British
and American committees on mineralogical nomenclature was held during
the Sixteenth International Geological Congress, in Washington, D. C.,
July 25, 1933, and was specially notable in the almost complete accord
reached in the subjects under discussion. The aim of the joint meeting was
to strive for uniformity in the names used for mineral species, in spelling
and pronunciation, and in the symbols used in mineralogical and crystallo-
graphical descriptions. On a very few items only was it deemed advisable to
refer the questions to a subcommittee for further debate.
The British Committee, representing the Mineralogical Society of Great
Britain and Ireland, consisted of Sir Jonn Fuett, Director of the Geological
Survey of Great Britain, Chairman; Dr. W. CAMPBELL SMITH of the Mineral
Department, British Museum; and Prof. CHartes G. Cuuuis, Professor of
Economic Mineralogy, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London.
The members of the American Committee, representing the Mineralogical
Society of America, who were present consisted of Dr. WALDEMAR T’.. SCHAL-
LER, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., Chairman; Prof. Espmr 8.
LaRsEN, Harvard University; Dr. CLaARENcE S. Ross, U. S. Geological
Survey (who proxied for Dr. Witu1aM T. Fosuaa, U.S. National Museum) ;
Dr. J. FRANK SCHAIRER, Carnegie Geophysical Laboratory; Prof. T. L.
Waker, University of Toronto; and Prof. E. T. WHrrry, University of
Pennsylvania. Prof. A. N. WINCHELL, University of Wisconsin, was unable
to attend.
Abstracting service.—On June 22, 1933, a conference was held at the Uni-
versity of Chicago with Professor J. R. Scuramm, editor of Biological Ab-
stracts, and with associate editors, Drs. W. C. ALLEE, GEORGE D. FULLER,
CHANCEY JuDAY, and several others for the purpose of perfecting plans to
provide fishery research workers in America with an adequate abstracting of
scientific literature bearing upon their field of work. The Bureau of Fisheries
was represented by EuMrer Hiaerns, Chief of the Division of Scientific In-
quiry, who has been active in promoting the project.
It was tentatively decided to establish a separate heading for abstracts of
papers dealing with Fisheries Biology and Aquiculture, giving them inde-
pendent rank comparable in importance to such branches of science as ani-
mal husbandry and economic entomology.
oe —Bentonite in Lecce Virginia. R. LR
Biochemistry. —The evaluation of the Rupp
thiocyanate in the urine. M. X. SULLIVAN an
Paleontology.—Mylodont_ (Ground Sloth) BoE cnsiclos
South America. R. Lew Couiins......... 0020-05000
Paleontology.—A new Pennsylvanian trilobite from Missouri. 1
LIAMS.- 256s ene eee eee eee ee nee e este ween ee te
Phytopathology—The dark ages in Plant Pathology in J c
: NEIL E. pute cc
rity
OcToBER 15, 1933 - No. 10
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VoL. 23 OcToBER 15, 1933 No. 10
BOTAN Y.—WNew species and new names of grasses from Texas A.
S. Hircucock, Bureau of Plant Industry.
In the course of the preparation of a manual of grasses of the United
States it has been found necessary to describe several new species
and to transfer a few names. The following descriptions and transfers
concern grasses found in Texas.
Bromus anomalus var. lanatipes (Shear) Hitche.
Bromus porteri lanatipes Shear, U. 8. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. 23: 37.
1900.
Eragrostis arida Hitchc., sp. nov.
Annua; culmi tenerae, basi ramosi, 20-40 ecm. alti; laminae planae, longe
acuminatae, 4-8 cm. longae, 1-2 mm. latae; panicula erecta, patula, 8-15
em. longa, ramis in axillis glabris vel paullum pilosis, solitariis vel inferiori-
bus binis; spiculae oblongae vel lineares, stramineae, 8—15-flores, 5-10 mm.
longae, 1.5-2 mm. latae, pedicellis patulis flexuosis lateralibus 2-3 mm.
longis; glumae acutae, prima angusta 1 mm. longa, secunda paullum longior
et latior; lemmata 1.6—-1.8 mm. longa, acutiuscula; palea persistens.
Annual; culms branching at base, slender, erect or somewhat decumbent
at base, 20 to 40 em. tall; sheaths glabrous, pilose at the summit, the hairs
in a dense line part way along the collar; ligule a dense line of hairs about
0.5 mm. long; blades flat or sometimes folded or loosely involute, glabrous,
tapering to a2, fine point, mostly 4 to 8 em. long, 1 to 2 mm. wide; panicle
one-third to half the entire height of the plant, erect, open, the branches,
branchlets, and pedicels spreading, the axils glabrous or the lower sparsely
pilose, the branches solitary, rather distant or the lower in pairs; spikelets
oblong to linear, stramineous or drab, mostly 8 to 15-flowered, 5 to 10 mm.
long, 1.5 to 2 mm. wide, somewhat compressed, the pedicels flexuous, the
lateral 2 to 3 mm. long; glumes acute, the first narrow, scarcely 1 mm. long,
the second a little longer and wider; lemmas 1.6 to 1.8 mm. long, acutish;
palea scarcely as long as the lemma, persistent; grain 1 mm. long.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 905937, collected on prairie at
Del Rio, Texas, September 14, 1915, by A. 8S. Hitchcock (no. 13650).
This species has been confused with Lragrostis suaveolens Becker, EF.
1 Received August 10, 1933. }
449 %
39
450 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
mexicana (Lag.) Link, E. pilosa (L.) Beauv., and E. limbata Fourn. It differs
from EH. suaveolens in the smaller size, the lack of glands on the sheaths, and
the slightly smaller spikelets; from EH. mexicana in the smaller and more
slender stramineous spikelets; from H. pilosa in the larger spikelets; from
E. limbata, which is confined to Mexico, in its larger panicles, longer stram-
ineous spikelets, and more acute lemmas.
Dry soil, Texas to Arizona and central Mexico.
Texas: Lubbock, Whitehouse 7509; Amarillo, Hitchcock 16205; Edinburg,
Swallen 1081; Del Rio, Hitchcock 13650; Lyford, Hitchcock in 1904; New
Braunfels, Hitchcock 5196.
ARIZONA: South of Bisbee, Mearns 1028, 1071; Baboquivari Mountains,
Gilman A 20.
New Mexico: Carlsbad, Hitchcock 13487.
SonorRA: South of Nogales, Griffiths 6793. Hermosillo, Hitchcock 3593.
CHIHUAHUA: Candelaria, Stearns 261.
Duraneo: Tlahualilo, Pzttier 476.
Nayarit: Acaponeta, Rose 14321.
Eragrostis intermedia Hitchc., sp. nov.
_ Perennis; culmi erecti, caespitosi, 40-80 cm. alti; vaginae glabrae, apice
valde pilosae; laminae planae vel plus minusve involutae, plerumque gla-
brae; 10-20 (-30) em. longae, 1-3 mm. latae; panicula erecta, patula vel
diffusa, 15-35 em. longa, in axillis pilosa, ramis patulis, tenuibus, solitariis,
inferioribus duobus vel tribus; spiculae 3—-9-flores, 3-10 mm. longae, pedi-
cellis flexuosis, 5-15 mm. longis; glumae acutae, prima 1—1.2 mm. longa,
secunda 1.2-1.4 mm. longa; lemmata turgida, obscure nervata, 1.8—-2 mm.
longa; palea persistens.
Perennial; culms erect, tufted, mostly 40-80 cm. tall; sometimes taller;
sheaths glabrous or the lowermost sparsely pilose, conspicuously pilose at
the throat, the hairs extending in a line across the collar; ligule a dense line
of hairs less than 0.5 mm. long; blades flat or more or less involute, especially
those of the innovations, pilose on the upper surface near the base, other-
wise glabrous or sometimes with a few scattering hairs, scabrous toward the
fine involute point, 10 to 25 cm. long, sometimes as much as 30 cm., 1 to 4
mm. wide; panicle erect, open, often diffuse, 15 to 35 cm. long, at maturity
usually about two-thirds as wide, pilose in the axils, sometimes sparsely so,
rarely glabrous, the branches slender but rather stiff, solitary and somewhat
distant or the lower in pairs or verticils, all spreading, often widely or hori-
zontally, the branchlets and pedicels ascending or spreading; spikelets 3 to 8,
rarely 9-flowered, 3 to 9, rarely 10 mm. long, 1 to 1.5 mm. wide, grayish or
brownish green, the pedicels somewhat flexuous, minutely scabrous, 1 to 3
times as long as the spikelet; glumes acute, the first 1 to 1.2 mm. long, the
second 1.2 to 1.4 mm. long; lemmas turgid, obscurely nerved, 1.8 to 2 mm.
long, usually bronze-tipped, not hyaline-margined; palea about as long as
the lemma, persistent, minutely scabrous on the keels; caryopsis oblong,
about 0.7 mm. long.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1535749 collected in moist
place in gravel pit near San Antonio, Texas, July 3, 1910, by A. S. Hitch-
cock (no. 5491).
OCTOBER 15, 1983 HITCHCOCK: GRASSES FROM TEXAS 451
The following specimens, previously referred to Eragrostis lugens Nees,
are representative of the species:
Missouri: Sheffield, Bush 9222; Redings Mill, Bush 5064.
Geroraia: Athens, Harper 32, Weatherwax 11; Camelle, Tracy 3729.
LouistaANa: Lake Charles, Chase 6113; Avery Island, Hitchcock 19863;
Natchitoches, Ball 152.
ARKANSAS: Fayetteville, Hitchcock 16076.
OxuaHoma: Wichita Mountains, Swallen 1004, 1025, Rose 112; Sapulpa,
Bush 810; Stillwater, Hitchcock 16156.
Texas: Bailey 742; Bogush 1318; Bush 304; Drummond 328; Fisher 2059;
Griffiths 6290; Hall 788; Havard 33; Heller 1745; Hitchcock 5167, 5219, 5268,
5287, 5294, 5371, 5491, 138611, 18645, 13646; Moore & Steyermark 3176;
Mulford 99; Nealley 499; H. J. Palmer 31857, 32138a; Plank 93, 95; Rever-
chon 1125, 1125A; Silveus 81, 141, 368; Standley 40553; Swallen 976, 1103,
1540, 1799, 1863; Tharp 5024, 51638; Tracy 7918, 7926, 7928, 8235, 8876.
New Mexico: Blumer 184; Greene 402; Hitchcock 3800, 13535; Mearns
680, 2097; Metcalfe 1329; Rose & Fitch 1764, 17,670; Wright 2048, 2050.
ARIZONA: Griffiths 1848, 1853, 3433, 4857, 5948, 6067, 6969, 7141; Griffiths
& Thornber 58; Hitchcock 3688, 3709, 3725, 3726, 138271; Jones 4226; Lem-
mon 338, 2906; Mearns 1166, 1910; Purpus 8280; Toumey 735, 736; Wilcox
159.
This species extends into northern Mexico.
Eragrostis swalleni Hitchc., sp. nov.
Perennis; culmi dense caespitosi erecti, 20-50 em. alti; infra nodo glandu-
loso-cincti; vaginae glabrae, apice paullum pilosae; laminae involutae,
glabrae, 10-30 cm. longae; panicula erecta, patula, 10-20 cm. longa, in
axillis glabra, ramis ascendentibus vel patulis, glabris, flexuosis; spiculae
oblongo-lineares, stramineae vel cano-virides, 7-10 mm. longae, 8—14-flores,
pedicellis supra medium glanduloso-cinctis; lemmata imbricata, adpressa,
2mm. longa; palea persistens.
Perennial; culms in dense tufts, erect, 20 to 50 cm. tall, an obscure glandu-
lar band below the nodes; sheaths glabrous, sparingly pilose at the throat;
ligule a dense line of hairs about 0.5 mm. long; blades firm, arching-recurved,
mostly involute, glabrous, the lower sometimes with a few long hairs, 1 to
1.5 mm. thick when rolled (1 to 2 mm. wide when flat), 10 to 30 cm. long,
the uppermost not greatly reduced; panicle erect, open, 10 to 20 cm. long,
mostly short-exserted, the axis and branches glabrous, the branches ascend-
ing to spreading, stiffly flexuous, rather few-flowered, glabrous in the axils;
spikelets oblong to linear, stramineous or grayish green, 7 to 10 mm. (rarely
to 12 mm.) long, about 2 mm. wide, mostly 8 to 14-flowered, the stiff slender
pedicels bearing a glandular band or spot above the middle; glumes acutish,
rather broad, the first 1.2 mm. long, the second 1.5 to 1.8 mm. long; lemmas
rather closely imbricate, appressed, acutish about 2 mm. long; palea about
as long as the lemma, persistent, minutely scabrous on the keels; grain nearly
smooth, somewhat narrowed toward the summit, 1 mm. long.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,535,332, collected on sandy
prairie at Riviera, Texas, June 8, 1931, by Jason R. Swallen (no. 1847).
452 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
Four other specimens were collected on sandy prairie at Sarita, Hitchcock
in 1904 (August 7), Hitchcock 5449 and 5489 (June 27, 1910), and Swallen
1517 (April 17, 1931).
The species is allied to Hragrostis erosa Scribn., but is distinguished by the
dense bunches, lower culm, smaller panicles, and especially the glandular
band on the pedicels.
Vaseyochloa Hitche., gen. nov.
Spiculae subteretes, multiflorae; lemmata imbricata 7—9-nervia, apice
integra, dorso inferiore marginibusque pubescentia; panicula angusta;
planta perennis, foliis elongatis.
Spikelets subterete or slightly compressed, several-flowered, the rachilla
disarticulating above the glumes and between the florets, the joints very
short; glumes rather firm, unequal, much shorter than the lemmas, the first
3 to 5-nerved, the second 7 to 9-nerved; lemmas rounded on the back, firm,
closely imbricate, 7 to 9-nerved, broad, narrowed to an obtuse entire apex,
and with a stipelike hairy callus, pubescent on the lower part of the back
and margins; palea shorter than the lemma, splitting at maturity, the arcu-
ate keels strongly wing-margined; caryopsis concavo-convex, oval, black, the
base of the styles persistent as a 2-toothed crown. Slender perennial with
elongate blades and narrow panicles.
Type species, Melica multinervosa Vasey.
Vaseyochloa multinervosa (Vasey) Hitche.
Melica multinervosa Vasey, Bot. Gaz. 16: 235. 1891.
Distichlis multinervosa (Vasey) Piper, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 18: 147.
1905.
Triodia multinervosa (Vasey) Hitche. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 41: 159.
1928.
Triodia buckleyana (L. H. Dewey) Vasey
Sieglingia buckleyana L. H. Dewey, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 2: 540. 1894.
Triodia buckleyana Vasey; Dewey, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 2: 540. 1894,
as synonym of Szeglingza buckleyana L. H. Dewey.
The nomenclature here illustrates several cases in which names first re-
corded as synonyms are later accepted as valid. The original specific name
buckleyana (under Szeglingia) must be used under T'riodia, but since citation
as a synonym is not valid publication I publish the name here in order to
validate it. I have chosen to give Vasey as the author of the combination,
but the date of effective publication is that of the present paper. Had I
chosen to omit Vasey as the author, in making the transfer, the combination
as credited to me would have been legitimate.
Elymus virginicus var. australis (Scribn. & Ball) Hitche.
Elymus australis Scribn. & Ball, U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. 24:
46. f. 20. 1901.
OCTOBER 15, 1983 HITCHCOCK: GRASSES FROM TEXAS 453
Hordeum pusillum var. pubens Hitche., var. Nov.
Spiculae pubescentes.
Glumes and lemmas pubescent; spikes usually somewhat broader; dilated
glumes wider. In some cases the pubescence is rather scant.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 270730, collected at La Ver-
kin, Utah, by Marcus E. Jones (5196W.). The following specimens belong
to this variety:
Texas: Arlington, Allen 20; San Antonio, Havard 5.
Urau: Springdale, Jones 5253.
ARIZONA: Santa Rosa to Casa Grande, Griffiths 4043.
Sphenopholis longifilora (Vasey) Hitche.
Eatonia pennsylvanica var. longiflora Vasey; L. H. Dewey, Contr. U. S.
Nat. Herb. 2: 544. 1894.
| Muhlenbergia utilis (Torr.) Hitche.
Vilfa utilis Torr. U.S. Rep. Expl. Miss. Pacif. 57: 365. 1857.
Allied to M. repens (Presl) Hitche., to which it has been referred as a syn-
onym. It is a more delicate species with finer leaves and smaller spikelets,
and is confined to moist places.
Muhlenbergia fournieriana Hitchc.
Epicampes berlandiert Fourn. Mex. Pl. 2: 89. 1886. Not Muhlenbergia ber-
landiert Trin. 1841.
Muhlenbergia rigens (Benth.) Hitche.
Epicampes rigens Benth. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 19: 88. 1881.
Sporobolus microspermus (Lag.) Hitche.
Milium microspermum Lag. Gen. & Sp. Nov. 2. 1816.
Sporobolus confusus Vasey, Bull. Torrey Club 15: 293. 1888.
Piptochaetium fimbriatum (H.B.K.) Hitche.
Stipa fimbriata H.B.K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 1: 126. 1815.
Oryzopsis fimbriata Hemsl. Biol. Centr. Amer. Bot. 3: 538. 1885.
Aristida ternipes var. minor (Vasey) Hitche.
Aristida schiediana var. minor Vasey, Bull. Torrey Club 13: 28. 1886.
Aristida divergens Vasey, Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 3: 48. 1892.
Bouteloua rigidiseta (Steud.) Hitche.
Aegopogon rigidisetus Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 1: 146. 1854.
Bouteloua texana 8. Wats. Proc. Amer. Acad. 18: 196. 1883.
The type of Aegopogon rigidisetus was collected in Texas by Drummond.
Steudel gives no number, but it may be no. 340 or no. 374. Both numbers
454. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
are in the Edinburgh Herbarium and no. 340 is in the Trinius Herbarium.
The specimens cited by Watson under B. texana are Berlandier 1535, Drum-
mond 340, 374, Lindheimer 732, Wright 752. Griffiths, in his revision of Boute-
loua, designates the first cited specimen (Berlandzer 1535) as the type. This
is in the Gray Herbarium. Watson states that his B. terana ‘‘appears to be
the Aegopogon rigidisetus of Steudel.”’
Bouteloua gracilis var. stricta (Vasey) Hitche.
Bouteloua stricta Vasey, Bull. Torrey Club 15: 49. 1888.
The type was collected in western Texas by Nealley. The spikes are 4 to 6,
usually ascending or appressed.
Zizania texana Hitchc., sp. nov.
Perennis; culmi a basi longe decumbentes; laminae elongatae, 3-13 mm.
latae; panicula angusta, 20-30 ecm. longa, ramis inferioribus ascendentibus,
5-10 em. longis; spiculae masculae 7-8 mm. longae, 1.5 mm. latae; spiculae
foeminae circa 1 cm. longae, 1 mm. latae, arista 1-2 em. longa.
Plant perennial; culms comparatively slender, long-decumbent and root-
ing at base, 1 to 1.5 meters long (or even as much as 3 meters), the lower part
with leaves often floating on the water, the upper part erect; sheaths striate;
ligule membranaceous, acute, 5-10 mm. long; blades elongate, flat, glabrous,
slightly scabrous on the margins, 3 to 13 mm. wide (mostly less than 1
cm.), the uppermost blade 15 to 20 em. long; panicle erect, narrow, mostly
20 to 30 cm. long, the lower (staminate) branches ascending or somewhat
spreading, slender, 5 to 10 em. long in about 3 whorls, woolly-villous at the
base; upper branches (pistillate) appressed; staminate spikelets 7 to 8 mm.
long, about 1.5 mm. wide, abruptly acute; pistillate spikelets about 1 cm.
long, 1 mm. wide, terete, sulecate, scabrous on the ridges, gradually nar-
rowed into a very scabrous, somewhat flexuous awn 1 to 2 em. long.
Type specimen in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,537,174, collected
at San Marcos, Texas, in running water, April 1932, by W. A. Silveus (no.
518).
This species was also collected at San Marcos by Nealley in August 1892.
Mr. Silveus writes concerning this grass:
“T found in the San Marcos River at San Marcos, Texas, a great amount
of this grass growing in water 1—6 feet deep, often in swiftly flowing currents,
the culms and long blades mostly floating on or some distance under the
surface of the water. The culms, sometimes 10 feet long, finally bend up-
wards at or near the surface of the water, the erect or ascending portion
bearing an unusual and beautiful panicle 1-3 feet above the water. The
branching culms, often geniculate at the base, root at the nodes, especially
those near the base and at the bend near the surface of the water. It is
claimed that cattle have been seen sticking their heads deep in the water
to get this grass. Did not find any of it growing away from the water.”
Trichachne hitchcockii (Chase) Chase.
Valota hitchcockii Chase, Proce. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 188. 1906.
OCTOBER 15, 1933 HITCHCOCK: GRASSES FROM TEXAS 455
Trichachne californica (Benth.) Chase.
Panicum californicum Benth. Bot. Voy. Sulph. 55. 1840.
Panicum saccharatum Buckl. Prel. Rep. Geol. Agr. Surv. Tex. App. 2. 1866.
Trichachne saccharata (Buckl.) Nash in Small, Fl. Southeast. U. 8. 88.
1903.
Valota saccharata (Buckl.) Chase, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 188.
1906.
The type specimen of Panicum californicum from Magdalena Bay, Lower
California, was examined in the Kew Herbarium. Under the International
Rules Valota was not effectively published by Adanson, the few characters
in his table being inadequate. Trichachne Nees thus becomes the valid name.
Digitaria runyoni Hitchc., sp. nov.
Perennis; culmi ascendentes a basi longe decumbentes, 40-70 em. alti;
vaginae superiores glabrae, inferiores villosae; laminae planae, 3-6 mm.
latae, superiores glabrae, inferiores dense villosae; racemi 5-10, suberecti,
7-12 em. longi, rachi trigona; spiculae pallidae, imbricatae, anguste lanceo-
latae, acutae, 3.5-4 mm. longae; gluma prima minuta vel obsoleta; gluma
secunda et lemma sterile aequalia, dense villosae; lemma fertile acuminatum
quam spicula paullo brevius, maturitate pallidum.
Perennial; culms spreading at base, sometimes long-decumbent and root-
ing, 40 to 70 cm. tall, leafy at base; upper sheaths glabrous, the lower pilose,
the lowermost densely villous; ligule 1 to 2 mm. long; blades flat, the lower
densely velvety-villous, the upper sparingly pilose or glabrous, mostly less
than 10 cm. long, 3 to 6 mm. wide, the uppermost reduced; racemes 5 to 10
on an axis 1 to 4 cm. long, mostly suberect, 7 to 12 cm. long, pale, the rachis
flat-triangular, the margin very narrow, scabrous; spikelets in pairs, im-
bricate, narrowly lanceolate, acute, 3.5 to 4 mm. long, the longer pedicel
2 to 3 mm. long; first glume minute or obsolete; second glume and sterile
lemma equal, from sparsely to densely villous on the internerves, the hairs
purplish, sometimes nearly 1 mm. long, the lemma glabrous on the middle
internerves, 5-nerved, the glume 3-nerved; fertile lemma acuminate, usually
a little shorter than the spikelet, pale at maturity.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,468,080, collected on sand
flats near the coast at the mouth of the Rio Grande, near Brownsville,
Texas, April 21, 1929, by Robert Runyon (no. 188).
Collected also on sand dunes 15 miles south of Corpus Christi by W. A.
Silveus (no. 356), on sandy prairie, 10 miles south of Corpus Christi by J. R.
Swallen (no. 18293), and in sand at Copano Bay (east side) by B. C. Tharp
(no. 7908).
Eriochloa gracilis (Fourn.) Hitche.
Helopus gracilis Fourn. Mex. Pl. 2: 13. 1886.
This species has been referred to Eriochloa acuminata (Presl) Kunth of
Mexico. A weed in fields, western Texas to southern California, south
through the highlands of Mexico. Originally described from Oaxaca, Mexico.
456 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
Eriochloa gracilis var. minor (Vasey) Hitche.
Eriochloa punctata var. minor Vasey, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 3: 21. 1892.
Texas to Arizona.
Andropogon divergens (Hack.) Anderss.; Hitche.
Andropogon scoparius subsp. maritimus var. divergens Hack. in DC. Monogr.
Phan. 6: 385. 1889.
Andropogon divergens Anderss.; Hack. loc. cit. as synonym of A. scoparius
subsp. marztimus var. divergens, ‘‘A. divergens Anderss. in sched. h. berol.”’
The locality given by Hackel is, ‘““Texas (leg.?; vidi in h. berol.).’’ The type
in the Berlin Herbarium is labeled ‘‘Andropogon divergens Anderss. [in An-
dersson’s script]. Texas. dd. Lindley.”’
This case is like that of Trzodia buckleyana, discussed above.
Andropogon virginicus var. hirsutior (Hack.) Hitche.
Andropogon macrourus var. hirsutior Hack. in DC. Monogr. Phan. 6: 409.
1889.
BOTAN Y.—WNew grasses from the United States, M exico, and Central
America. JASON R. SWALLEN, Bureau of Plant Industry.
In the course of identifying several collections of grasses, eight
species were found to be new. The first is a Stipa collected by Hans
Wilkens in the Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico. Two species, one
of which is a very distinct Echinolaena, the second of this genus, were
found by Paul Weatherwax in Guatemala. A new Axonopus and a new
Mesosetum were discovered by H. H. Bartlett in British Honduras.?
The Mesosetum was originally described as Peniculus angustifolius
Swallen. In earlier collections, there were three other new species of
Axonopus, one found at Vera Cruz, Mexico, by A. 8. Hitchcock, one
at Morelia, Mexico, by Brother G. Arséne, and the last at Izabal,
Guatemala, by S. F. Blake.
Stipa curvifolia Swallen, sp. nov.
Culmi dense caespitosi, erecti, 33 cm. alti; folia basi aggregata; vaginae
scaberulae, inferiores dense pubescentes; laminae involutae, maximae 18
mm. longae, scaberulae vel glabrae, curvatae; panicula 7—8 cm. longa, densa,
ramis appressis; glumae subaequales, acuminatae, 10 mm. longae, 3-nerves,
marginibus hyalinis; lemma 5.5 mm. longum, fuscum, pilosum, callo pun-
genti dense piloso; arista 22-25 mm. longa, 1-geniculata, infra geniculum
plumosa.
1 Received August 14, 1933.
2 These two grasses were collected on an expedition of the Herbarium and the
Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, collaborating with the Department of
Historical Research, Carnegie Institution of Washington, in a biological survey of the
Maya area.
OCTOBER 15, 1933 SWALLEN: NEW GRASSES 457
Culms densely tufted, erect, 33 cm. tall; leaves clustered toward the base,
the sheaths scaberulous, the lowermost densely pubescent, the blades firm,
involute, as much as 18 mm. long, becoming curled with age, scaberulous
or nearly smooth; panicles 7-8 cm. long, dense, the branches short and ap-
pressed; glumes subequal, acuminate, 3-nerved, 10 mm. long, the first
broader than the second, the tips and margins hyaline; lemma 5.5 mm. long,
light brown, evenly pilose with white hairs, the callus sharp-pointed, densely
hairy; awn once or obscurely twice-geniculate, 22-25 mm. long, twisted
and densely plumose below the bend, the terminal segment straight, scab-
rous.
Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,538,063, collected in crevices
of limestone cliff near mouth of North Fork of Rocky Arroyo, Eddy Co.,
Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico, April 29, 1932, by Hans Wilkens (no.
1660).
This species is probably most closely allied to S. occidentalis Thurb., which
differs in having straight blades, panicles 10-20 em. long, lemmas 7 mm. long,
and twice-geniculate awns, 3-4 em. long.
Echinolaena gracilis Swallen, sp. nov.
Culmi graciles, ramosi, pilosi, 75-90 cm. longi; vaginae papilloso-hispidae
vel glabrae, marginibus ciliatis; laminae maximae 3:8 em. longae, 5 mm.
latae, planae, firmae, marginibus cartilaginosis basi papilloso-ciliatis; ligula
pilosa 1 mm. longa; racemi maximi 1.8 em. longi; spiculae 8-11 mm. longae;
gluma prima acuminata, 8-11 mm. longa, tuberculata vel tuberculato-
hispida, marginibus ciliatis; gluma secunda 6 mm. longa, acuta, supra papil-
loso-hispida; lemma sterile 5 mm. longum glumae secundae simile; lemma
fertile 3.5 mm. longum, pallidum, nitidum.
Culms very slender, wiry, branching, 75-90 cm. long, appressed-pilose;
sheaths of the main culm much shorter than the internodes, papillose-hispid,
the margins ciliate; blades as much as 3.8 cm. long, 5 mm. wide, some of
those on the secondary branches much reduced, flat, firm, pubescent or
pilose above, glabrous beneath, the margins white-cartilaginous, more or
less papillose-ciliate toward the base; ligule hairy, not more than 1 mm.
long, sometimes scarcely evident; racemes somewhat exserted, not more
than 1.8 em. long, subtended by an acute ciliate bract about 3 mm. long, the
rachis terminating in a spikelet; spikelets 8-11 mm. long; first glume 8-11
mm. long, that of the terminal spikelet much longer than the others, acumi-
nate, strongly nerved, tuberculate or tuberculate-hispid, the margins ciliate;
second glume 6 mm. long, acute, papillose-hispid at the summit; sterile
lemma 5 mm. long, similar to the second glume, inclosing a well developed
palea; fruit 3.5 mm. long, smooth, shining, narrowly winged below, the
base fashioned into a conspicuous circular crown.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,538,066, collected on open
marshy prairie, near Los Amates, Guatemala, March 3, 1932, by Paul
Weatherwax (no. 1601).
Echinolaena inflexa (Poir.) Chase,’ the only other species of this genus in
the American tropics, differs from FH. gracile in having much more robust
‘Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 24:117. 1911.
— es Se lO Oe. eee a
458 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 10
glabrous culms, exserted racemes as much as 4 em. long, and slightly larger
fruits, 3.5-4.5 mm. long.
Axonopus ciliatifolius Swallen, sp. nov.
Culmi dense caespitosi, e rhizomatibus erecti, 50-70 cm. alti; folia basi
aggregata; vaginae carinatae, sparse pubescentes; laminae planae, 7-16 em.
longae, 1-2 mm. latae, pilosae, marginibus ciliatis; ligula 0.1 mm. longa;
racemi 2—5, subdigitati, adscendentes vel appressi, 3-11.5 em. longi; spiculae
2-2.3 mm. longae, glabrae vel sparse pubescentes; gluma secunda obtusa
lemma sterile aequans; lemma fertile fuscum, nitidum.
Culms densely tufted, erect from short scaly rhizomes, 50-70 cm. tall,
with terminal and axillary inflorescences; leaves mostly crowded toward the
base, the sheaths keeled, sparsely pubescent, the blades flat, 7-16 em. long
(or those on the innovations sometimes longer), 1-2 mm. wide, pilose on
both surfaces, the margins papillose-ciliate, especially toward the base;
ligule 0.1 mm. long; racemes 2-5, racemose, ascending or appressed, 3-11.5
ecm. long; spikelets 2—2.3 mm. long, glabrous or sparsely pubescent, the
second glume and sterile lemma subequal, obtuse, scarcely covering the
fruit; fruit dark brown, smooth and shining.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,503,594, collected at Moun-
tain Pine Ridge, El Cayo District, British Honduras, February 25, 1931, by
H. H. Bartlett (no. 11746).
This species is distinguished from A. purpusii (Mez) Chase, to which it is
closely related, by the presence of the well developed scaly rhizomes.
Axonopus rhizomatosus Swallen, sp. nov.
Culmi caespitosi, e rhizomatibus erecti, 45-85 ecm. alti, nodis dense
pubescentibus; vaginae carinatae, glabrae vel pilosae; laminae planae,
maximae 25 cm. longae, 1-4 mm. latae, scaberulae, basi pilosae, marginibus
papilloso-ciliatis, inferiores reductae; ligula 0.1—0.2 mm. longa; racemi 2-4,
patentes, subdigitati, 5-13 cm. longi; spiculae 2.5-3 mm. longae pilosae;
gluma secunda acuta, quam spicula longior; lemma sterile acutum glumam
secundam aequans; lemma fertile pallidum.
Culms, caespitose, erect from short scaly rhizomes, 45-85 em. tall, the
nodes densely pubescent; sheaths keeled, rather densely pilose, especially
on the collar, or nearly glabrous; blades flat, as much as 25 em. long, 1-4
mm. wide, the uppermost reduced, not over 2 cm. long, sometimes nearly
wanting, smooth or scaberulous, more or less pilose toward the base, the
margins papillose-ciliate for a short distance at the base; ligule 0.1—0.2 mm.
long, racemes 2—4, appressed, 5-13 em. long, subdigitate with one a short
distance below the others; spikelets 2.5-3 mm. long; second glume and sterile
lemma equal, acute, slightly exceeding the pale or lead-colored fruit, the
margins densely pilose, especially toward the summit.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,013,859, collected on open
hillsides wooded with pine, along trail from Los Amates to Izabal, Depart-
ment of Izabal, Guatemala, May 13, 1919, by S. F. Blake (no. 7766).
Open pine woods, Guatemala, Honduras, and British Honduras.
GUATEMALA: Los Amates to Izabal, Blake 7748, 7766, 7767; Secanquim,
Pittier 214. ;
British Honpuras: Without locality, Dunlap in 1920.
Honpuras: La Florida, Blake 7424; Siguatepeque, Standley 53611.
OCTOBER 15, 1933 SWALLEN: NEW GRASSES 459
Closely allied to the preceding species, but differing in having densely
pubescent nodes, larger spikelets with acute rather than obtuse second
glume and sterile lemma, and pale instead of brown fruit.
Axonopus multipes Swallen, sp. nov.
Stoloniferus; culmi geniculato-adscendentes, 15-25 cm. alti, glabri, nodiis
pubescentibus; vaginae carinatae, compressae, glabrae, superiores elongatae;
laminae planae, obtusae, 3-6 cm. longae, 4-8 mm. latae (superiores reductae,
1 cm. longae), glabrae, marginibus basi papilloso-ciliatis; ligula brevis erosa;
racemi 2, 3-5 cm. longi, conjugati; spiculae acutae, 3 mm. longae; gluma
secunda lemma sterile aequans, quam lemma fertile longior, marginibus
pilosis; lemma fertile 2.2-2.3 mm. longum, apice dense pubescens.
Culms geniculate, ascending from stolons, 15-25 em. tall, glabrous or the
nodes pubescent; sheaths compressed, keeled, glabrous, the upper ones
elongated, inclosing some of the racemes bearing cleistogamous spikelets;
prophyllum 3.5 cm. long; blades flat, obtuse, 3-6 cm. long, 4-8 mm. wide,
the uppermost reduced, scarcely more than 1 em. long, glabrous on both
surfaces, the margins papillose-ciliate toward the base; ligule very short,
minutely erose; racemes 3-5 cm. long, in pairs, conjugate at the summit of
slender peduncles, these 3-10 cm. long, 3-5 of them arising from just above
the uppermost node; spikelets acute, 3 mm. long, just reaching the one
above in the same row; second glume and sterile lemma equal, exceeding the
fruit, the margins and often the internerves silky-pilose; fertile lemma
2.2—2.3 mm. long, minutely cross-wrinkled, densely pubescent at the apex.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 928824, collected on sandy
prairie, Veracruz, Mexico, Aug. 31, 1910, by A. 8. Hitchcock (no. 6578).
Also collected at Veracruz by Gouin (no. 25).
Azxonopus obtusifolius (Raddi) Chase is allied to this species, but differs in
having fewer, racemose racemes and acuminate spikelets 5 mm. long, the
second glume and sterile lemma much exceeding the fruit.
Axonopus arsenei Swallen, sp. nov.
Culmi caespitosi, erecti, 40-90 cm. alti, nodis dense hispidis; folia basi
ageregata, 1 vel 2 caulinis exceptis; vaginae compressae, carinatae, basi
papilloso-hispidae, glandulosae, marginibus ciliatis; laminae planae, 10-18
cm. longae, 5-10 mm. latae (superiores reductae), papilloso-hispidae, mar-
ginibus ciliatis; ligula brevis erosa; racemi 2-4, 5-10 cm. longi, racemosi;
spiculae acutae, 3.4-3.8 mm. longae; gluma secunda acuta, pilosa, lemma
sterile aequans, quam lemma fertile longior; lemma fertile 2.8 mm. longum,
apice sparse pubescens.
Culms tufted, erect, 40-90 cm. tall, the nodes densely appressed-hispid
with ascending hairs, otherwise glabrous; leaves crowded toward the base,
the culms with only one or two above the basal ones; sheaths strongly com-
pressed, keeled, those of the culm leaves shorter than the internodes, papil-
lose-hispid and glandular at the base, the margins more or less ciliate toward
- the summit, otherwise glabrous or sparsely pilose; blades flat, 10-18 cm.
long, 5-10 mm. wide, the uppermost reduced, sometimes only 3 cm. long,
more or less papillose-hispid on both surfaces, the margins papillose-ciliate,
especially toward the base; ligule very short, erose; peduncles 1—3 from the
uppermost sheath (rarely from the lower) the terminal one elongate, the
ee ee ee
== ==. ee
460 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
others mostly inclosed in the sheath; racemes 2—4, 5-10 cm. long, the upper
two conjugate, the others 10-20 mm. distant; spikelets acute, 3.4-3.8 mm.
long, 5-7 mm. distant in each row of the raceme; second glume and sterile
lemma acute, equal, exceeding the fruit, rather densely pilose between the
nerves; fruit 2.8 mm. long, minutely roughened, with a few short hairs at the
summit.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,000,427, collected at Loma
Santa Maria, vicinity of Morelia, Michoacan, Mexico, alt. 2,050 meters,
Sept. 17, 1910, by Brother G. Arséne (no. 6952). Arséne 2919 and 7016,
from the same locality, also belong to this species.
Allied to A. multipes, but differing in being a much larger plant with long-
exserted primary peduncles and only 1 or 2 secondary ones, short-exserted
or inclosed in the sheath, and larger spikelets and fruit.
Panicum guatemalense Swallen, sp. nov.
Culmi 75 cm. alti, scaberuli, sparse papilloso-pilosi, ramosi; vaginae
glabrae vel sparse papilloso-pilosae, collo dense pubescente; laminae planae,
7-12 cm. longae, 4-10 mm. latae, scaberulae, sparse papilloso-pilosae, mar-
ginibus cartilaginosis scabris; ligula membranacea, 0.2 mm. longa; panicula
10 cm. longa, ramis adscendentibus vel appressis e basi floriferis; spiculae
2.2-2.4 mm. longae, appressae, pedicellis quam spiculis brevioribus; gluma
prima obtusa, 0.5-1 mm. longa; gluma secunda lemma sterile aequans;
lemma fertile 2mm. longum, nitidum, apice pilosum.
Culms more than 75 em. tall, secaberulous, sparsely papillose-pilose, much
branched above; sheaths glabrous, papillose or papillose-pilose, those of the
main culm much shorter than the internodes, those of the branches over-
lapping, the collar densely pubescent; blades flat, 7-12 em. long, 4-10 mm.
wide, scaberulous, more or less papillose or papillose-pilose, densely pilose
on the upper surface at the very base, the white-cartilaginous margins dis-
tinctly scabrous; ligule membranaceous, about 0.2 mm. long; panicle 10
cm. long, the branches ascending or appressed, spikelet-bearing from the
very base or nearly so; spikelets glabrous, 2.2-2.4 mm. long, appressed, the
pedicels shorter than the spikelets; first glume obtuse, 0.5-1 mm. long;
second glume and sterile lemma equal, inclosing the fruit; fertile lemma 2.
mm. long, shining, sparsely hairy toward the summit.
Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,538,064, collected in moun-
tains near Santa Maria, just south of Quezaltenango, Guatemala, March
25, 19382, by Paul Weatherwax (no. 1689).
This species is related to Panicum arundinariae Trin., which differs in the
more densely flowered panicle branches, which are usually naked for a short
distance at the base, smaller spikelets 1.6 mm. long, and thinner, mostly
shorter blades.
Peniculus angustifolius Swallen,* was recently described as a new genus
and species, based on a collection of H. H. Bartlett (no. 11748) collected on
Mountain Pine Ridge, El Cayo District, British Honduras. Mr. C. EK. Hub-
bard of the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, has
suggested that it belongs in Mesosetum. This disposition of the species is cor-
rect and it accordingly becomes Mesosetum angustifolium Swallen.
4’Amer. Journ. Bot. 19: 581. fig. 1. 1982.
OCTOBER 15, 1933 READ: A NEW TRICHOPITYS 461
PALEOBOTANY.—A new Trichopitys from the Carboniferous of
Colorado.1 CHARLES B. Reap, U.S. Geological Survey. (Com-
municated by JoHN B. REESIDE, JR.)
The remains of plants in the Carboniferous strata of western North
America are so rare that it seems very desirable to record the occa-
sional well-preserved material which is collected. In this communica-
tion an apparently new species of a genus previously unknown in this
country is described from the Weber(?) formation of Colorado.
Genus Tricnopirys Saporta, 1875?
Trichopitys whitei, n. sp.
Leaves 80 millimeters or more in length and of approximately the same —
breadth, obtriangular in outline, dissected into narrow, linear lobes; base
narrowly cuneate, lamina expanded rapidly into several times dichotomous
lobes. Primary lobes 2 millimeters in breadth, soon bifurcating into slightly
narrower, subequal laminae which fork at least once and probably twice to
acutely pointed terminations. Nervation of two basal veins dichotomizing
to supply the distal lobes with one to three heavy, deeply imbedded, evenly
spaced veins. Texture coriaceous; lobes thick and rounded in cross-section.
Collected by J. H. Johnson, C. D. Hier, and the writer from the Weber (?)
formation about 100 feet above the base, about 3 miles east of Leadville,
Colo., on the west face of Evans Peak.
This species is named in honor of the American paleobotanist, Mr. David
White.
Figure 1 is a photograph of a well-preserved specimen of Trichopitys whi-
ter as it occurs on a thin slab of shale. The most striking features are the
nearly regular dichotomies, the short base, and the modified obtriangular
outline. The apices of the ultimate lobes have been restored from another
specimen. It will be noticed that they are very acute. In comparison with
European species of the genus, Trichopitys whiter is small and also shows a
marked departure in having a short base.
In the enlargment of the specimen described above one may discern the
details of venation. The vascular system dichotomizes with the leaf so that
the ultimate lobes carry one to three veins. An important feature which the
figures fail to bring out clearly is the biconvex or rounded cross-sectional
shape of the segments. This is similar to the shape of recent coniferous leaves
and may be a xerophytic adaptation.
Concerning the generic identification there can be little question. The only
other well-founded Paleozoic genus which allows close comparison is Dicrano-
1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received
June 17, 1933.
2Saporta, G. de. Sur la découverte de deux types nouveaux des coniféres dans les
schistes permiens de Lodéve (Hérault). Comptes Rendus, 80: 1020. 1875.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
462
the general appearance
. sp. showing
ion, Xland X3
an
ls of venat
tys white
Trichopt
and detai
1
igure
F
OCTOBER 15, 1933 GOLDMAN: NEW MAMMALS 463
phyllum Grand’Eury.*® As contrasted with Trichopitys this genus is charac-
terized by smaller, more rigid, and more equally dichotomous leaves, so that
a nearly perfect bilateral symmetry is produced. In addition there are fea-
tures of the fructifications and of the arrangement of sterile leaves on the
stem which distinguish the two. Unfortunately, such materials have not been
available in the present case.
No described species of the genus are very close to Trichopitys whitet.
Trichopitys millerensis Renault,’ from the Autun-Epinac Basin shows some
resemblance but is larger and more rigid. In addition, the details of venation
differ.
A very interesting similarity exists between Trichopitys and the Mesozoic
genus Czekanowskia. This suggests the possibility of extreme antiquity for
the Ginkgoales, and this theory receives support from several other Paleozoic
genera. It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss the problem, but it may ~
be pointed out that the criterion of external leaf form is not sufficient basis
for a definite statement concerning the stratigraphic range of the Ginkgoales.
The fructifications of Trichopitys hetermorpha Saporta® do not indicate any
close affinity with the ginkgophytes as the writer understands them. Tricho-
pitys is more likely a pteridosperm, it would seem, although the evidence is
very meager. For the present it is best to follow Arber and assign the genus
to the Palaeophyllales.®
Concerning the age of the beds from which Trichopitys white: was col-
lected, there is a strong suggestion that it is Pottsville. A small flora was
found associated and contains several species which are very characteristic
of lower Pennsylvanian strata. Since this flora is discussed in full in a paper
soon to be published, it is not necessary to go into the details of the correla-
tion here. Trichopitys whitei affords little evidence for or against this conclu-
sion, since the genus has a sporadic and incompletely known distribution. It
ranges from the ‘‘Upper Carboniferous” through the Permian in Europe and
has been reported from the Triassic.
$GranD Eury, F.C. Flore carbonifere du département de la Loire, p. 272. 1777.
4 RENAULT, B. Bassin hoviller et permien d’Autun et Epinac: At’as, pl. 82, fig. 2.
1893; text, p. 378. 1886.
5 Saporta, G. pe. Sur la découverte de deux types nouveow des coniferes dans les
schistes permiens de Lodéve (Hérault). Comptes Rendus, 80: 1020. 1875.
6 ARBER, E. A. N.O. On Psygmophyllum majus sp. nov. from the Lower Carbonif-
erous rocks of Newfoundland, together with a revision of the genus and remarks on tts affin-
ities. Linnean Soc. London Trans. 7(pt. 18): 405. 1912.
ZOOLOGY.—New mammals from Arizona, New Mexico, and Colo-
rado.1 K. A. GoLtpMAN, Biological Survey.
More critical regional studies of the rodent genera Thomomys,
Perognathus, Dipodomys, and Neotoma have resulted in the segrega-
1 Received August 24, 1933.
464 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
tion of several new geographic races. Some of these are based in part
upon material collected many years ago, but it was not until addi-
tional specimens were obtained that the distinctive characters be-
came apparent.
Thomomys alexandrae, sp. nov.
Navajo Pocket Gopher
Type.—F¥rom plain 5 miles southeast of Rainbow Lodge, near Navajo
Mountain, Coconino County, Arizona (altitude 6,200 feet). No. 250969,
o adult, skin and skull, U. S. National Museum (Biological Survey col-
lection), collected by E. A. Goldman, June 16, 1933. Original number 236138.
Distribution.—Vicinity of the type locality on the arid, brush-covered
plains in the triangular area lying between the Colorado and San Juan rivers
and Navajo and Piute creeks, in northern Arizona and extreme southern
Utah.
General characters.—A small, cinnamon buffy species; skull slender in
proportions; mammae in 4 pairs, pectoral 2-2, inguinal 2-2. Allied to
Thomomys fulvus aureus of the adjoining desert region of Arizona, but de-
cidedly smaller; color much duller, near cinnamon buff, instead of rich
ochraceous tawny; cranial characters distinctive.
Color.—Type (summer pelage): Upper parts light cinnamon buff, purest
along sides, the top of head and back somewhat darkened by black-tipped
hairs; middle of face and muzzle blackish; black auricular spots conspicuous,
encircling entire ears; under parts, forearms, and thighs pale ochraceous buff;
feet white; tail brownish above on basal half, becoming white toward tip,
and whitish below. Some of the topotypes are distinctly blackish on head.
Young (in first pelage): Upper parts lighter, more pinkish buffy, except on
face which is dusky, much as in adults.
Skull—Similar in general to that of JT. f. awreus, but smaller, flatter,
more slender in structure; temporal ridges more widely separated; zygomata
more slender, the external angle near point of union of maxilla and Jugal less
prominent; rostrum relatively shallower; audital bullae relatively smaller,
less fully inflated; dentition relatively lighter.
Measurements.—Type: Total length, 210 mm.; tail vertebrae, 60; hind
foot, 28. An adult male topotype: 214; 61; 28. Two adult female topotypes,
respectively: 215, 205; 70, 62; 27, 28. Skull (type): Condylobasal length,
38.3; zygomatic breadth, 23.5; greatest breadth across squamosals (over
mastoids), 18.8; interorbital constriction, 6.8; length of nasals, 13.5; maxil-
lary toothrow (alveoli), 8.2.
Remarks.—Thomomys alexandrae is evidently allied to T. f. awreus which
has an extensive range in neighboring territory, but there is no evidence of
intergradation. The new species-has been isolated perhaps for thousands of
years by effective barriers formed by Navajo and Piute creek canyons. Bare
rock walls, or cliffs, hundreds of feet in height, extend from the canyon
mouths to a very narrow, rocky and sterile backbone forming a dividing line
where conditions appear to be unsuitable for pocket gophers. The species is
named for Miss Annie M. Alexander whose own faunal investigations and
generous support of the studies by others have contributed greatly to knowl-
edge of the mammals of western states.
OCTOBER 15, 1933 GOLDMAN: NEW MAMMALS 465
Specimens examined.—Total number, 11 (2 in collection University of
Arizona), all from the type locality.
Perognathus amplus jacksoni, subsp. nov.
Yavapai Pocket Mouse
Type-—From Congress Junction, Yavapai County, Arizona (altitude
3,000 feet). No. 212780, & adult, skin and skull, U. 8S. National Museum
(Biological Survey collection), collected by H. H. T. Jackson, June 21, 1916.
Original number 381.
Distribution.—Desert regions of central-western and south-central Ari-
zona, south of the range of the typical subspecies, Perognathus amplus
amplus.
General characters.—A large, richly colored subspecies, with a broad, heavy
skull. Similar in size to Perognathus amplus amplus of the Verde River Val-
ley, but paler buff, upper parts less obscured by dusky hairs and cranial —
characters distinctive; tail slightly crested near end and tufted as in amplus.
Larger and richer colored, the back less blackish than P. a. pergracilis of
northwestern Arizona, and skull differing in detail. Decidedly larger than
P. a. taylori of southeastern Arizona; color slightly paler buff, less mixed with
dusky. Similar in size to P. a. rotundus of southwestern Arizona, but darker
pinkish buff, and skull different. Distinguishable from both P. a. cineris
and P. a. ammodytes of the valley of the Little Colorado River, by larger
size and less dusky upper parts (contrasting strongly in color with c7neris).
Color.—Type (fresh pelage): Ground color of upper parts nearly uniform
pinkish buff, purest on the lateral line from cheeks across shoulders and
along lower part of flanks to thighs, the top of head and back finely and
rather inconspicuously lined with black; under parts, fore limbs and hind
feet white; ears buffy externally, except anterior fold which is dusky,
sparsely clothed internally with blackish hairs, and edged with white near
posterior base; a tiny but distinct tuft of white hairs on margin of ear at
anterior base; tail thinly haired, light brownish above, dull whitish below,
becoming dusky on the small terminal tuft.
Skull.—Similar in size to that of P. a. amplus, but less flattened; mastoids
narrower, less inflated posteriorly, and less bulging along line of contact
with parietals; rostrum and nasals broader, less depressed anteriorly; inter-
parietal less depressed between mastoids; audital bullae and dentition simi-
lar. Size about as in rotundus, but frontal region less flattened; mastoids less
bulging along parietal margins; rostrum broader. Larger than taylorz,
cineris, or ammodytes. Compared with that of pergraczlis the skull is consider-
ably larger, with a relatively narrower frontal region.
Measurements.—Type: Total length, 168 mm.; tail vertebrae, 85; hind
foot, 21. Average of four adult topotypes: 160 (152-165); 85 (81-87); 21.5
(21-22). Skull (type): Length (median line), 25.5; greatest breadth (across
audital bullae at meatus), 15; zygomatic breadth (posteriorly), 13.3; inter-
orbital breadth, 5.5; length of nasals, 10; width of nasals (in front of in-
cisors), 2.5; interparietal, 2.8 X 2.8; maxillary toothrow (alveoli), 3.5.
Remarks.—The material upon which Perognathus amplus jacksoni is based
has hitherto been regarded by me provisionally as referable to the typical
form, P. a. amplus. Further study has, however, led me to believe that typi-
cal amplus may be restricted to the upper part of the Verde River Valley. The
466 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
recent discovery of two new subspecies, P. a. cineris and P. a. ammodytes,
described by Benson (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 46, pp. 109-110,
Apr. 27, 1933), extended the known range of the species into the Upper Sono-
ran Zone in the Little Colorado River Valley. Fairly well marked geographic
races of P. amplus are more limited in distribution than is usual in most spe-
cies of the genus.
Specimens examined.—Total number, 37, all from Arizona, as follows:
Congress Junction (type locality), 17; Kirkland, 17; Phoenix, 1; Rice, 1;
Wickenburg, 1
Dipodomys spectabilis perblandus, subsp. nov.
Western Banner-tailed Kangaroo Rat
Type.-—From Calabasas, Santa Cruz County, Arizona (altitude about
3,000 feet). No. 17748/24689, 9 adult, skin and skull, U. S. National
Museum (Biological Survey collection), collected by Vernon Bailey, October
27, 1889. Original number 611.
Distribution. —Western desert region of central-southern Arizona, from
the vicinity of Tucson west at least to Gunsight, and south into adjoining
parts of Sonora.
General characters.—Closely allied to Dipodomys spectabilis spectabilis of
southeastern Arizona, but smaller and paler, the upper parts more thinly
mixed with black; black facial mask less distinct; tail less extensively tipped
with white. Cranial characters also distinctive.
Color.—Type (fresh pelage): Upper parts in general light ochraceous buff,
purest on cheeks, shoulders, sides, and outer surfaces of thighs, the top of
head and back thinly mixed with black; under parts, postauricular and
supraorbital spots, fore limbs, hind feet above, hip stripes, and tail at ex-
treme base all around pure white; tail beyond base black mixed with gray
above and below, becoming nearly black in a subterminal zone all around,
abruptly interrupted by the pure white tip 40 millimeters in length, the
sides white along lines narrowing gradually and disappearing in the sub-
terminal area mentioned; soles of hind feet brownish; ears whitish exter-
nally, except anterior fold which is dusky, thinly clothed internally with
minute black hairs.
Skull.—Similar to that of D. s. spectabilis, but decidedly smaller; mastoids
relatively smaller; interparietal and supraoccipital usually actually as well
as relatively broader at constriction between mastoids; dentition lighter,
the incisors and molariform teeth distinctly narrower.
Measurements.—Type: Total length, 315 mm.; tail vertebrae, 184; hind
foot, 48. Average of 10 adult topotypes: 327 (313-340); 194 (179-204); 48
(44-52). Skull (type): Occipitonasal length, 41; greatest breadth (between
outer sides of audital bullae), 27.8; breadth across maxillary arches, 26;
length of nasals, 14.9; width of nasals (in front of incisors), 4.2; least width
of supraoccipital (near interparietal), 2.3; maxillary toothrow (alveoli), 5.2.
Remarks.—Dipodomys spectabilis perblandus is a well-marked subspecies,
although not far removed geographically from D. s. spectabilis. It occupies
the desert area west of the range of spectabilis which is typical in the higher
plateau region of southeastern Arizona.
Specimens examined.—Total number, 44, as follows:
OCTOBER 15, 1933 GOLDMAN: NEW MAMMALS 467
ARIZONA: Baboquivari Mountains (Peters Ranch), 1; Calabasas (type lo-
cality), 10; Gunsight, 2; Indian Oasis, 4; La Osa, Pima County, 7; Oracle,
6; Santa Rita Mountains (north base), 2; Tucson, 5; Tucson (30-35 miles
E pouth), 3; Tucson (75 miles ee Dy,
Sonora: Magdalena, 2
Dipodomys spectabilis clarencei, subsp. nov.
Northern Banner-tailed Kangaroo Rat
Type.—¥rom Blanco, San Juan County, New Mexico. No. 158824,
adult, skin and skull, U. 8. National Museum (Biological Survey collection),
collected by Clarence Birdseye, November 19, 1908. Original number 443.
Distribution—San Juan River Valley in northwestern New Mexico,
northeastern Arizona and probably southeastern Utah and southwestern
Colorado.
General characters.—Similar to Dipodomys spectabilis spectabilis of south-
eastern Arizona but larger; color usually paler and grayer, the upper parts
suffused with pinkish instead of ochraceous buff; cranial characters distine-
tive; tail crested with black and broadly tipped with white as in spectabilis.
Resembling D. s. baileyi of southeastern New Mexico in color, but black
mask less distinct across middle of face, the upper surface of muzzle behind
nasal pad more extensively white; skull smaller and differing in detail.
Color.—Type (fresh pelage): Upper parts in general near pinkish buff,
purest on cheeks, shoulders, sides, and outer surfaces of thighs, the top of
head and back more profusely but moderately mixed with black; under
parts, postauricular and supraorbital spots, fore limbs, hind feet above, hip
stripes, and tail at extreme base all around pure white; tail beyond base
black mixed with gray above and below, becoming nearly pure black in a
subterminal zone all around, abruptly interrupted by the pure white tip 50
millimeters in length, the sides white along lines narrowing to the sub-
terminal area mentioned; hind legs above ankles blackish all around; soles
of hind feet blackish; ears whitish externally, except anterior fold which is
black, thinly clothed internally with minute black hairs.
Skull.—Similar to that of D. s. spectabilis, but larger; mastoids larger;
maxillary arches broader and extending farther forward beyond frontals
along outer side of premaxillae (as viewed from above). Compared with that
of bailey: the skull is smaller, with a relatively broader frontal region;
maxillary arches with more strongly developed external angles (tending to
form more strongly projecting hooks); incisors narrower.
Measurements.—Type: Total length, 375 mm.; tail vertebrae, 213; hind
foot, 54. Two adult topotypes, respectively: 365, 365; 204, 195; 54, 54.
Skull (type): Occipitonasal length, 44.8; greatest breadth (between outer
sides of audital bullae), 29.5; breadth across maxillary arches, 27; length of
nasals, 17.2; width of nasals (in front of incisors), 5; least width of supra-
occipital (near interparietal), 2.3; maxillary toothrow (alveoli), 6.1.
Remarks.—Typical Dipodomys spectabilis clarencez is probably restricted
to the San Juan River Valley. Specimens from Gallup, New Mexico, grade
toward bazleyz. No specimens are available from Arizona but E. W. Nelson
writing in August, 1909, says: ‘‘Much to our surprise we found the sandy
mesa on the west side of Chin Lee Valley, from 10 to 25 miles southwest of
468 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
Chin Lee, thickly dotted with the unmistakable mounds and burrows of this
species” [Dipodomys spectabilis]. The new form is named for the collector,
Clarence Birdseye, in recognition of his notable contributions to knowledge
of wild animal life.
Specomens examined.—Total number, 9, all from New Mexico, as follows:
Rlanco (type locality), 3; Fruitland, 4; Gallup (15 miles northwest), 2.
Dipodomys ordii evexus, subsp. nov.
Upper Arkansas Valley Kangaroo Rat
Type.—¥rom Salida, Chaffee County, Colorado (altitude 7,000 feet).
No. 150990, o adult, skin and skull, U. S. National Museum (Biological
Survey collection), collected by Merritt Cary, November 10, 1907. Original
number 1245.
Distributcon.— Upper part of the Arkansas River Valley, above the Royal
Gorge, south-central Colorado.
General characters—An ochraceous buff subspecies closely allied to
Dipodomys ordi richardsoni of the prairie region to the eastward, but tail
longer, the dusky stripe on under side extending nearer to tip (usually
limited to basal half in rzchardsonz), and cranial proportions, especially the
smaller mastoids, distinctive. Smaller and darker than D. o. luteolus of the
plains of Wyoming and Montana. Distinguished from D. 0. montanus of
the upper Rio Grande Valley, southern Colorado, by larger size and rich
ochraceous buff coloration, the upper parts much less heavily mixed with
black.
Color.—Type (fresh pelage): Upper parts near rich ochraceous buff,
thinly mixed with black, the buffy element purest and brightest on cheeks,
shoulders, flanks and outer surfaces of thighs; underparts, supraorbital
and postauricular spots, fore limbs, hind feet above, and hip stripes pure
white; facial mask and soles of hind feet black; ears whitish externally, ex-
cept anterior fold which is dusky, thinly clothed internally with minute
hairs; tail above blackish, becoming brownish at tip, below brownish along
basal two-thirds beyond which the white side stripes become confluent.
Skull.—Similar to that of richardsoni, but basicranial region more evenly
rounded above, owing to slight depression and greater breadth of inter-
parietal and supraoccipital, and to lesser inflation of mastoids; mastoid and
audital bullae smaller; maxillary arches less strongly developed; nasals
shorter; incisors narrower. Distinguished from that of luteolus mainly by
smaller size. Compared with that of montanus the skull is larger, more ro-
bust; mastoids less rounded and inflated; interparietal and supraoccipital
relatively broader, less depressed between mastoids.
Measurements.—Type: Total length, 266 mm.; tail vertebrae, 149; hind
foot, 42. Average of four adults from type locality: 258 (233-273) ; 151 (146—
159); 42 (41-42). Skull (type): Occipitonasal length, 37.3; greatest breadth
(between outer sides of audital bullae), 24; breadth across maxillary arches,
21.3; length of nasals, 13.9; width of nasals (in front of incisors), 3.8; least
width of supraoccipital (near interparietal), 3; maxillary toothrow (alveoli),
4.8.
Remarks.—The differential characters of the kangaroo rats inhabiting the
high valley near the headwaters of the Arkansas River were noted by me in
identifying material obtained by Merritt Cary in connection with the biolog-
OCTOBER 15, 1933 GOLDMAN: NEW MAMMALS 469
ical survey of Colorado many years ago. At that time, however, it seemed
best to refer them to richardsoni and this course was followed by Cary (North
Amer. Fauna No. 33, pp. 140-142, Aug. 17, 1911) who says of them: ‘‘The
Salida series is not typical P[erodipus] richardsoni,”’ and he further remarks in
regard to the animals of the area: ‘“‘The Royal Gorge, and in fact much of
the Canyon of the Arkansas, would seem to prevent continuity of range
from the plains.” D. o. everus is not very unlike typical D. o. ordii of western
Texas in color, but is a larger, more robust animal, differing also in cranial
details, and requiring no close comparison.
Specimens examined.—Seven, all from the type locality.
Dipodomys ordii cleomophila, subsp. nov.
Cinder Bed Kangaroo Rat
Type.—From 5 miles northeast of Winona, Coconino County, Arizona |
(altitude 6,200 feet). No. 226348, @ adult, skin and skull, U. 8. National
Museum (Biological Survey collection), collected by E. A. Goldman, July
16, 1917. Original number 23101.
Distribution.—Little Colorado Valley slopes of the Coconino and Mogol-
lon plateaus from Flagstaff and vicinity to Springerville, eastern Arizona.
General characters.—Closely allied to and intergrading with Dipodomys
ordit longipes of the Painted Desert region, northeastern Arizona, but upper
parts distinctly darker, near cinnamon buff instead of light ochraceous
buff; black facial markings more distinct; skull slightly different. Distin-
guished from D. ordii chapmani of the Verde River Valley by more robust
proportions, and much richer, more rufescent coloration.
Color.—Type: Upper parts in general near cinnamon buff (Ridgway,
1912), moderately mixed with black, the buffy element purest and most
intense on middle of face, shoulders and flanks; under parts, postauricular
spots, fore limbs, hind feet above, usual hip stripes, and tail at extreme
base all around pure white; tail beyond extreme base blackish along upper
and lower median stripes to near tip where the lengthening hairs become
dusky all around, the sides white to subterminal area mentioned; pencilled
tip of tail inconspicuously dusky, the dark points of hairs only partially
concealing the white under color; soles of hind feet blackish to toes, which
are white; ears thinly clothed with short hairs, blackish internally and
whitish externally, except anterior fold which is dusky; blackish facial mark-
ings broad and distinct. Young (in first pelage): Decidedly darker, more
cinnamon buffy than in longzpes of corresponding age.
Skull.—Essentially as in D. 0. longipes but usually slightly smaller, with
smaller mastoids, and relatively narrower maxillary arches. Much larger
than that of D. 0. chapmani, with relatively larger mastoids.
Measurements.—Type: Total length, 250 mm.; tail vertebrae, 149; hind
foot, 41.5. Five adult topotypes: 253 (245-260); 143 (1385-149); 42 (40-
43.5). Skull (type): Greatest length (on median line), 37.5; greatest breadth
(between outer sides of audital bullae), 25.2; breadth across maxillary
arches, 20.5; least width of supraoccipital (near interparietal), 2.2; maxil-
lary toothrow (alveoli), 5.
Remarks.—Like several other geographic races of small rodents inhabiting
the volcanic region east of San Francisco Mountain, D. o. cleomophila is
470 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 10
characterized by relatively darker coloration. It differs from D. 0. longipes
of the adjoining Painted Desert much as Perognathus flavus fuliginosus and
Perognathus apache cleomophila differ from P. f. hopiensis and P. a. apache,
respectively. Specimens from Walnut Tank, 10 miles north of Angell and
from Cedar Ranch Wash, a short distance west of the Little Colorado River
grade toward longipes, but especially in the more distinct blackish markings
are nearer to the new form. No intergradation is apparent with D. o. chap-
mani, which is isolated by the higher parts of the Coconino-Mogollon Pla-
teau. The name of this subspecies is derived from that of the plant, Cleome ser-
rulata, many seeds of which were found in the cheek pouches of the kangaroo
rats at the type locality.
Specimens examined.—Total number, 39, from Arizona, as follows: Cedar
Ranch Wash (3 miles above confluence with Little Colorado River, near
Cameron), 10; Flagstaff, 1 (skull only); Tanner Tank, 2; Springerville, 7;
Walnut Tank (10 miles north of Angell), 10; Winona (5 miles northeast—type
locality), 9.
Dipodomys ordii nexilis, subsp. nov.
Upper Colorado Valley Kangaroo Rat
_Type.—F¥rom 5 miles west of Naturita, Montrose County, Colorado.
No. 149938, o& adult, skin and skull, U. S. National Museum (Biological
Survey collection), collected by Merritt Cary, July 20, 1907. Original num-
ber 1068.
Distribution Narrow valleys along the upper affluents of the Colorado
River, the Grand, Gunnison, and Dolores rivers, in southwestern Colorado.
Probably occurs also in the Colorado River Valley, southeastern Utah.
General characters—A large, comparatively dark subspecies, with black
markings well developed. Closely allied to D. o. longipes, but decidedly
darker; black facial mask much more prominent; ears, soles of hind feet,
and tail above and below more extensively black; tail with lateral white
lines narrower, and dark lines correspondingly broader; cranial details
slightly different. Similar in color to D. 0. cleomophila, but larger, and still
darker in tone; skull more massive.
Color.—Type (acquiring fresh pelage): Upper parts near cinnamon buff,
purest on cheeks, shoulders, flanks and thighs, the top of head and back
moderately mixed with black; under parts, supraorbital and postauricular
spots, forelimbs, upper surface of hind feet, and hip stripes pure white; facial
mask deep black, broad and distinct across muzzle; inner sides and anterior
folds of ears blackish; soles of hind feet deep black from base of toes to heels;
tail with broad blackish stripes above and below, becoming brownish all
around at tip, the white lateral lines narrow—only about half the width
of the dark lines.
Skull.—Very similar to those of longipes and cleomophila, but mastoid
and audital bullae usually still more distended; rostrum and nasals usually
slightly broader.
Measurements.—Type: Total length, 268 mm.; tail vertebrae, 147; hind
foot, 45. Average of three adults from type locality: 271 (265-280); 148
(142-154); 45 (45-45). Skull (type): Occipitonasal length, 39; greatest
breadth (between outer sides of audital bullae), 26; breadth across maxillary
OCTOBER 15, 1933 GOLDMAN: NEW MAMMALS 471
arches, 21.3; length of nasals, 14.6; width of nasals (in front of incisors),
4.3; least width of supraoccipital (near interparietal), 2.3; maxillary tooth-
row, 9.2.
Remarks.—Dipodomys ordi nexilis probably intergrades with longipes,
along the narrow valley of the Colorado River in southeastern Utah. Speci-
mens from Fruita and Grand Junction are lighter buff than those from the
type locality, and more closely approach longipes in color. In the distension
of the mastoid and audital bullae, however, they are very similar to topo-
types of the new form. The range of nezxilis is separated from that of D. o.
everus by the high, narrow continental backbone formed by the Rocky
Mountains. These subspecies of D. ordi contrast strongly in cranial features,
especially the disparity in the size of the mastoid builae.
Specimens examined.—Twelve, all from Colorado, as follows: Coventry,
2: Fruita, 1; Grand Junction, 4; Hotchkiss, 1; Naturita (type locality), 4.
Neotoma mexicana inopinata, subsp. nov.
Chuska Mountains Wood Rat
Type.—From Chuska Mountains, northwestern New Mexico (altitude
8,800 feet). No. 158395, o adult, skin and skull, U. S. National Museum
(Biological Survey collection), collected by Clarence Birdseye, October 3,
1908. Original number 246.
Distribution.—Broken or mountainous areas in northwestern New Mexico,
northeastern Arizona, southwestern Colorado and probably southeastern
Utah.
General characters.—Similar in size to Neotoma mexicana fallax of the
Rocky Mountains of Colorado, but color paler, and cranial characters dis-
tinctive. Distinguished from N. m. pinetorum of the San Francisco Moun-
tain region, by smaller size and decidedly paler color.
Color.—Type (fresh autumn pelage): Upper parts light ochraceous buff,
purest on cheeks, shoulders, and sides, rather thinly overlaid on top of head
and over back by black-tipped hairs; under parts white, the fur basally
plumbeous, except axillae and small areas on inner sides of thighs where the
hairs are pure white to roots; ears dusky, narrowly edged with gray; feet
white; tail sharply bicolor, brownish with a slight grayish admixture above,
white below. Young individuals are paler and grayer than adults in general
tone.
Skull.—Similar in size to that of fallax, but more angular, the basicranial
ridges more prominent, and braincase less evenly rounded; frontal region
narrower posteriorly, the supraorbital ridges more nearly parallel (supra-
orbital ridges more divergent posteriorly in fallax) ; premaxillae usually less
extended posteriorly, only slightly exceeding nasals (usually reaching well
beyond nasals in fallax); outer wall of antorbital foramen broader, reaching
farther anteriorly, the antorbital notch slightly deeper as viewed from
above; dentition about the same. Closely resembling that of pinetorum, but
smaller; zygomata relatively less widely spreading.
Measurements—Type: Total length, 364 mm.; tail vertebrae, 160; hind
foot, 36. An adult male topotype: 360; 161; 36. Skull (type): Greatest
length, 46.2; condylobasal length, 43.9; zygomatic breadth, 24; interorbital
472 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
constriction, 5.3; length of nasals, 19.2; length of incisive foramina, 10;
length of palatal bridge, 8.5; maxillary toothrow (alveoli), 9.
Remarks.—The collection of additional specimens from Arizona in recent
years has indicated the desirability of recognizing a new geographic race of
Neotoma mexicana, with a general range as here outlined. Specimens from
several localities in northwestern New Mexico and southwestern Colorado,
formerly referred by me (North Amer. Fauna, No. 31, pp. 57-58, Oct. 19,
1910) to fallax are transferred to the new form. In color N. m. znopinata re-
sembles typical mexicana, but is much larger and evidently more nearly re-
lated to fallax and pinetorum. It apparently intergrades with both.
Specimens examined.—Total number, 20, as follows:
ARIZONA: Tunitcha Mountains, 4 (Canyon del Muerto, 6,800, feet, 1; head
of Spruce Creek, 9,000 feet, 2; Wheatfield Creek, 7,000 feet, 1); Lukachu-
kai Mountains (8,000 feet), 1.
Cotorapo: Ashbaugh Ranch, Montezuma County, 1.
New Mexico: Chuska Mountains (type locality), 7; Fruitland, 2; Gallup, 2;
Zuni Mountains, 3.
Neotoma micropus leucophaea, subsp. nov.
White Sands Wood Rat
Type.—From White Sands, 10 miles west of Point of Sands, White Sands
National Monument, Otero County, New Mexico (altitude 4,100 feet). No.
251057, & adult, skin and skull, U. 8. National Museum (Biological Survey
collection), collected by W. P. Taylor, May 6, 1933.
Distribution.—Known only from the dunes of whitish drifted sand in the
vicinity of the type locality.
General characters——An ashy gray subspecies, closely allied to Neotoma
micropus canescens of the surrounding territory, but still paler; fur of under
parts more extensively white to roots; ears grayer; tail brownish black,
mixed with gray above (more nearly pure black in canescens).
Color.—Type (fresh summer pelage): Upper parts pale ashy gray or near
pale smoke gray (Ridgway, 1912), purest on cheeks, shoulders, and sides,
the top of head and back thinly mixed with black producing a finely lined
effect; under parts white, the fur pure white to roots nearly everywhere ex-
cept on sides of abdomen where the basal color is pale plumbeous; ears
scantily haired, brownish gray externally, grayish internally; feet white;
tail brownish black mixed with gray above, white below.
Skull.—As in canescens.
Measurements.—Type: Head and body (tail defective), 198 mm.; hind
foot, 36. An adult male topotype: 348; 139; 34. Skull (type): Greatest length,
45; condylobasal length, 43.9; zygomatic breadth, 25.3; interorbital con-
striction, 5.9; length of nasals, 17.5; length of incisive foramina, 9; length of
palatal bridge, 8.7; maxillary toothrow (alveoli), 8.9.
Remarks.—Neotoma micropus leucophaea is a slightly differentiated, local
race probably restricted to the dunes of whitish drifted sand which, in con-
trast with the darker and harder soils of the surrounding country, are so
OCTOBER 15, 1933 OHAUS: NEW RUTELINAE 473
conspicuous a feature of the land surface miles in extent in Otero County,
New Mexico. It is another example of the evident relation of color to envi-
ronment in many mammals. Pallid coloration in this case is associated with
whitish sand. The new form requires close comparison only with canescens.
Specimens examined.—F our, all from the type locality.”
2 One in Mus. Univ. of Arizona.
ENTOMOLOGY.—New Rutelinae (Col. lamell.) in the United States
National Museum.1 FRinpRicH Onavus, Mainz, Germany.
(Communicated by Harotp Morrison.)
- In a collection of Rutelinae sent to me for naming there were the
following new species, the descriptions of which I publish herewith.
Hypaspidius morio, n. sp.
Oblongo-ovatus, postice leviter ampliatus, supra et subtus unicolor niger
nitidus; supra glaber, pygidio, pectore pedibusque sparsims fuscohirsutus.
Clipeus oblongo-parabolicus, dense aciculatus, margine leviter elevatus.
Caput, thorax et scutellum polita vix perspicue disperse punctulata. Scu-
tellum longitudine vix latius. Elytrorum striae in disco regulares at non pro-
fundae, basin et apicem versus evanescentes, in lateribus irregulares plerum-
que evanescentes, interstitio subsuturali punctis nonnullis parvis. Pygidium
dense aciculatum sericeum, apice et lateribus fusco-pilosum. Abdominis
segmenta linea transversa punctorum piligerorum instructa, membrana
inter sternitum ultimum et penultimum lata flavorufa. Sterna et coxae
dense aciculata et fusco-pilosa; processus sternalis latus brevis apice rotun-
datus paulo declivis. Antennae fuscae. Aedeagus, Fig. 1.
Length, 25-26, breadth, 15.5-16, mm. op 9°.
Locality, Venezuela: Merida.
Type and paratype, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 43318.
Anomala (Aprosterna) quirina, n. sp.
A. cincta Say et testace:pennis Bl. affines. Oblongo-ovata, postice leviter
ampliata, parum convexa, flavotestacea nitida, supra capita, thorace
(lateribus exceptis), scutello et elytrorum margine angusto, subtus tibiis
tarsisque laete viridi-aeneis; supra glabra, subtus cum pygidio sparsim
flavopilosa. Clipeus cum fronte subtiliter dense rugulosa, vertex, thorax
et scutellum fortius singulatim punctata; elytra regulariter seriato-punctata,
punctis fortibus, seriebus vix vel non suleatis. Pygidium punctis annularibus
transversim confluentibus dense obtectum, parum nitidum, apice et lateri-
bus solum sparsim pilosum. Abdominis sternita medio sparsim, lateribus
densius confluenter punctata; metasterni latera dense confluenter punctata
ac pilosa; mesosternum inter coxas intermedias latum tumidulum, at coxas
non superans. Tibiae anticae tridentatae, intermediae et posticae suratae,
bicarinatae. Antennae fulvotestaceae, clava concolore.
Length, 138-14, breadth, 7-7.5 mm. o' Q.
1 Received July 14, 1933.
474 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
q
Fig. 1.—Aedeagus of Hypaspidius morio, n. sp. Fig. 2.—Aedeagus of Anomala
ebenina Fairmaire. Fig. 3—Aedeagus of Anomala filigera, n. sp. Fig. 4—Aedeagus
of Anomala semicastanea Fairmaire. Fig, 5.—Aedeagus of Anomala rufithoraz, n. sp.
Fig. 6.—Aedeagus of Lepadoretus subcostatus, n. sp.
Se)
OCTOBER 15, 1933 OHAUS: NEW RUTELINAE 475
Locality, Venezuela: Cumaragua, B. J. Blanco, collector.
Type and paratype, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 43319.
Anomala flamina, n. sp.
A. champion H. Bates proxime affinis. Ovalis sat convexa, rufotestacea
leviter viridiaenescens, vertice fuscoaeneo; thoracis maculis duabus dis-
calibus, elytrorum maculis duabus pone scutellum et vittis duabus trans-
versis, una mediana, altera praeapicali indistincta fuscis, tibiis posticis rufo-
cupreis, tarsis omnibus fuscoviridi-aeneis. Supra cum pygidio glabra nitida,
subtus cum pedibus sparsim ac breviter flavopilosa.
Length, 12-13, breadth, 6.5-7, mm. 9.
Locality, Guatemala: Alta Vera Paz, Cacao, Trece Aguas, April 21—25,
Schwarz and Barber, collectors.
Type and paratype, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 43320.
Anomala obovata, n. sp.
A. foraminosa et millepora H. Bates proxime affines. Obovata, postice
valde ampliata, sat convexa; supra et subtus fuscoviridi-aenea, nitida; supra
glabra, pygidio sparsim, pectore densius ac longius vulpino-pilosa. Caput,
thorax et scutellum sparsim ac subtiliter punctulata; elytra punctis majori-
bus foveolatis et rugulis transversis ornata.
Length, 19-21, breadth (greatest), 10.5-11.5, mm. & 9.
Locality, Costa Rica: Turrialba, Schildt and Burgdorf, collectors; same
locality, 5500 ft., C. H. Lankester, collector; Volean de Irazu, Staudinger;
and San Jose, Underwood, collector.
Paratype, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 48321.
Anomala perakensis, n. sp.
A. chloronota Arrow proxime affinis. Oblongo-ovata, postice leviter
ampliata, supra capite, thorace scutelloque olivaceo-viridis leviter aenes-
cens, clipei margine anteriore thoracisque lateribus flavis, elytra obscurius
olivacea lateribus flavomarginata, subtus cum pedibus flava leviter aenes-
cens, abdomine cum pygidio antennisque fulvis; supra glabra, subtus cum
pedibus et pygidii margine sparsim flavopilosa. Clipeus cum fronte sat
fortiter confluenter, vertex et thoracis discus minus fortiter singulatim,
thoracis latera confluenter punctata. Elytra dense confluenter punctata et
transversim aciculata, lineis punctorum majorum 6-7 seriatis perspicuis.
Pygidium et abdominis latera subtiliter confluenter punctata et transversim
aciculata. Metasternum et femora intermedia dense strigosa et flavopilosa.
Length, 13, breadth, 7.5,mm. 2 o”.
Locality, Perak: Trong, W. L. Abbott, collector.
Type and paratype, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 43322.
The shape of the aedeagus is very similar to that of A. chloronota Arrow
(Faun. Brit. India, Col. lamell., part II, 1917, Pl. 2, Fig. 5), but the apex of
each paramere is less rounded and somewhat toothed at the inner edge.
ANOMALA EBENINA Fairmaire
This is one of the most variable species of the genus, showing nearly all
degrees of passing from black to yellow. As the species is very common in
476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
the southern provinces of China, Yunnan and Tonkin, I could examine some
hundred specimens and found that all these color varieties are individual
and not limited to certain localities. It therefore seems useless to name
these varieties and I only wish to show the passing from black to yellow
on the various parts of the body.
Head: generally pure black, even in specimen yellow above; only one 9
has 2 yellow spots on the vertex.
Thorax: (1) pure black, (2) black with metallic green reflections, (3)
black with a narrow yellow border at the sides alone, (4) that border
broadens before and behind the lateral groove, which at first is con-
nected with the large discal spot, until this diminishes more and
more, so that finally (5) the thorax is pure yellow.
Scutellum: is always black, even in the clearest specimen.
Elytra: (1) pure black or black with faint green lights, (2) black with a
small yellow spot in the middle, (3) this spot increases to a pointed
transverse yellow band, (4) this band extends to the base alone, so
that the foremost half is yellow, the hind half black, or (5) it extends
in the apical direction alone, so that the foremost half is black, the
hind half yellow, (6) the yellow extends in longitudinal stripes, be-
ginning from the lateral margin, so that the suture and hind border
alone are black, or the base and shoulders alone are black, finally (7)
the whole elytra are yellow.
Propygidium: (1) black, (2) black with a small yellow spot in the middle,
(3) pure yellow.
Pygidium: (1) black, (2) black with two yellow spots on the disc, (3)
these spots extend more and more until there remain only three small
black spots, one at the apex, one in each anterior corner. I have not
yet seen specimens of pure yellow color without these black spots.
Abdomen: generally pure black; rarely yellow spots occur at the sides of
the sternites or in the middle of the penultimate sternite; the sterna
(pro-meso- and metasternum) are always black.
Legs: mostly black; rarely the anterior border of the femora, the inner
border of the anterior tibiae and a small spot on the hind trochanters
are yellow.
Antennae: (1) black, (2) the stem yellow, (3) the club, except the darkened
top, also yellow.
The shape of the aedeagus, Fig. 2, of this species is very peculiar. The para-
mera are very asymmetrical, the right short and fine, the left much pro-
longed, whip-like and rolled up like the proboscis of a Sphingid butterfly.
Anomala filigera, n. sp.
A. rauwi Ohaus proxime affinis. Oblongo-ovata, parum convexa, supra
viridi-aenea densissime confluenter punctata, subnitida, thoracis lateribus,
propygidii margine posteriore et pygidii lateribus flavis; subtus cum femori-
bus et antennis flava leviter viridi-aenescens, tibiis tarsisque viridi-aeneis;
supra glabra, subtus cum pygidii apice sparsim flavopilosa. Clipeus trape-
zoidal angulis rotundatis et margine anguste elevato, sutura frontali recta.
OCTOBER 15, 1933 OHAUS: NEW RUTELINAE 477
Thorax lateribus solum anguste marginatus, sine foveolis lateralibus. Elytra
nec sulcata nec punctato-seriata, margine laterali paulo incrassato. Pygidium
nitidum dense arcuatim aciculatum, prope angulos anteriores leviter foveo-
latum. Abdomen et pectus dense confluenter punctata et aciculata. Tibiae
graciles, anteriores bidentatae, intermediae et posticae medio paulo in-
crassatae et ante apicem constrictae, posteriorum calear superior fortiter
prolongatus, quam inferior duplo fere longior. —
Length, 17.5-18, breadth, 10, mm. <.
Locality, Sikkim: Kurseong; Assam: Shillong, 5000 ft., May 10, 1928,
L. B. Parker, collector.
Paratype, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 43323.
The shape of the aedeagus, Fig. 3, seen from dorsal and right side, is very
similar to that of A. ebenina Fairmaire. The paramera are very asymmetrical,
the right as if crippled, the left much prolonged, whip-like and somewhat
rolled up.
ANOMALA SEMICASTANEA Fairmaire
Fairmaire described this species in Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., 32:21, 1888, from
China: Kiangsi, and three years later in the same Annales redescribed it from
Kiukiang, Kiangsi, as A. castanipennis. The species is also frequent in the
province of Fokien (G. Siemssen, collector). The species is violet-blue, gen-
erally with green lights, only the elytra and abdomen are brownish-red. In
the aedeagus, Fig. 4, the free symmetrical paramera bear at the top one
sharp tooth. Specimens from Tonkin: Mts. Mauson (H. Fruhstorfer, collec-
tor) and Laokai (R. Vitalis de Salvaza, collector) are somewhat stouter
than the typical form, above and beneath dark blue without any green
lights, elytra and abdomen of a clear red. The aedeagus of these specimens is
one-toothed as in the typical form. In other parts of China, especially in the
southwestern provinces, but also in Shantung: Tsingtau, occur specimens
which at first sight seem to be immature: above, the head and scutellum
alone are violet-blue, while the thorax is as red as the elytra and abdomen;
beneath, the sterna and legs are blue-violet or metallic green. In the aedea-
gus, Fig. 5, the paramera have two sharp teeth, one at the top, a second one
at the outer side. This species, which also differs somewhat in the shape of
the thorax and in the sculpture of the anal sternite, I call:
Anomala rufithorax, n. sp.
A. semicastanea Fairmaire proxime affinis. Oblongo-ovata, modice con-
vexa, supra rubro-castanea capite et scutello solum violaceis, subtus capita,
sternis pedibusque violaceis aut viridi-coeruleis aut viridi-aeneis; supra
glabra nitida, subtus sparsim pilosa. Thorax ante medium dilatatus ibique
foveolatus, lateribus inter dilatationem et angulos posteriores incurvis,
angulis posticis paulo productis. Abdominis segmentum anale margine
posteriore dense aciculatum, subopacum. Cetera sicut in A. semzcastanea.
Aedeagus, Fig. 5.
Length, 14-19, breadth, 7.5-10, mm. 9°.
Locality, China: Prov. Szechuen, Siao-lou, Se-pin-lu-tschan, Mupin;
an SO
478 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
Prov. Shantung, Kiau-tschou (in collection Ohaus). Prov. Szechuen, Mt’
Omei, 4400 ft., Shin-kai-si, August, 1921, D. C. Graham, collector; south of
Kuan-shien, July 5, 1924, Graham, collector; Ya-chou, May-June, 1928,
Graham, collector; between Ya-chou and Mupin, June 23-26, 1929, 2000—
5000 ft., Graham, collector; Suifu, June 25, Graham, collector; Prov. Ngan-
hwei, Soo-chow, N. Gist Gee, collector (in collection U.S.N.M.).
Paratypes, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 43324.
Lepadoretus subcostatus, n. sp.
L. griseosetosus Nonfried proxime affinis. Elongato-ovatus, modice con-
vexus, castaneus, dense subtiliter confluenter punctulatus, subnitidus, supra
et subtus pilis albidis brevibus appressis dense vestitus. Elytra subcostata,
pilis in costulis alternatim condensalis et evanescentibus, in callis apicalibus
Jongioribus erectis. Pygidium in disco fasciculo pilorum longiorum ornatum,
inter discum et basin linea brevi,longitudinali nuda, inter discum et apicem
plaga triangulari fusca nuda instructum.
Length, 10—-12.5, breadth, 5-6 mm. @ 9.
Locality, Lower Burma: Rangoon (F. J. Meggitt, collector).
Type and paratypes, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 43325.
The shape of the aedeagus, Fig. 6, is very characteristic for this species,
being the only one in this group of very similar species, in which the joined
paramera show an oval hole in the median line just before the apex.
ENTOMOLOGY.—The genus Myndus Stal in North America.
(Homoptera Fulgoridae).1 E. D. Bau, University of Arizona,
The members of this genus are usually small, fragile, more or
less moth-like leaf hoppers without spines on the hind tibiae, and with
the vertex long, carinate margined and narrowing anteriorly. The
front is narrow above and greatly widened below where it meets the
clypeus in an almost straight transverse suture. In general appear-
ance they resemble species of Cizius and Oliarus but the hind tibiae
without spines and the female abdomen terminating in typical
pygofers and ovipositor instead of a large wax plate with reduced
genitalia will at once separate them.
Van Duzee listed twelve species in his Catalog, three of which
should probably be considered as varieties. He was in error in listing
delicatus from ‘‘Fla’’; it should have been North Carolina. Fowler in
‘“Biologia”’ describes the genus Haplazxius with two species. The type
laevis appears to be Myndus pictifrons of Stal and the other species
(frontalis) to be equal to sordidipennis Stal which is probably a variety
of pictifrons lacking the color on the elytra. M. pictifrons seems to be
congeneric with musivus Germ., the European type of Myndus, thus
1 Received August 5, 1933.
OCTOBER 15, 19338 BALL: THE GENUS MYNDUS 479
making Haplazius a direct synonym of Myndus. Besides these Fow-
ler described two new species of Oliarus that appear to belong to this
genus. His O. chiriquensis by the shape of the vertex is certainly a
Myndus; he does not show the legs but the type is a female and a
glance at the pygofers will be enough to determine this point. His
O. nsignior is by the head and male genitalia another Myndus and by
the size should be very distinct and easily recognized. Metcalf added
one species. The writer is adding ten more and offering a provisional
key to those available for study.
PROVISIONAL KEY TO THE AVAILABLE SPECIES
A The apical portion (at least) of elytra with definite markings, often an
oblique pattern, stigmal cell often widened, more or less semi-circular,
with the apical venation more or less modified to conform.
B A definite oblique band from the stigma to the anal angle, no trans-
verse band on front (catalina excepted).
C Shining black with white apical spots............ l-beamerz Ball
CC Not black.
D Front extremely broad at apex, the carinae margined with dark
above.
he Clymeus smoke on black... 5... -. 2-mojavensis Ball
EE Clypeus pale, a transverse band on the suture
ee eA i SN RN era, 3-catalinus Ball
DD Front less widened below. Concolorous.
I’ A black saddle including the mesonotum... .4-yuccandus Ball
121d MISONO UWI SEWER S $5 hes 665 Bos bcos oe 5-nolinus Ball
BB No definite oblique band on elytra. Front usually transversely
banded.
G Face ornamented but not white with black bands at base and apex.
H Face with a broad (or double) black band below, a faint tawny
OME Pe AOOME ey eee a eerie ten nee ore 6-lunatus Van OD.
HH Face white with a scarlet triangle at apex....7-rubidus Ball
GG Face white with a black band above and below. .8-collinus Ball
AA Apical portion of elytra concolorous (except occasionally in pictifrons)
the stigmal cell rarely widened.
I Face transversely banded. sordidipennis Stal. | 9-pictifrons Stal
radicis. Obst., laevis Fowl, frontalis Fowl.,
delicatus Van D. and trunctatus Metce.? } | 10-——————_ )
II Face concolorous
J Vertex normal, definitely narrowing anteriorly, species normally
elongate.
K Species green or pale golden straw.
L Species green or greenish.
M Vertex long and narrow, more than twice longer than wide,
no triangular genital projection........ ll-viridis Ball
2 All of these species have the two bands on front. It will take a special study with
more material than is now available to determine the number of valid species involved,
which is probably not more than two or three, of which pictifrons Stal is the oldest name
and the rest are arranged in order of proposal.
480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
MM Vertex broad, less than twice longer than broad, a definite
genital projection in both sexes...... 12-vircdicatus Ball
LL Species straw color or golden.
N. Species: ‘straw ‘color... :. S.A ema 13-ovatus Ball
NN Speetes'colden 2.30.49 eee 14-auratus Ball
KK Species sordid or brownish (puszllus may be all pale)
O Species small, pale (southern)......... '.15-pusillus Van D.
OO Species larger (over 1 m.m. wide) darker.
P Species brown, no dark spots on venter (Rocky Mts.)
Re PARE Cha ere Be meen LO 16-:mpiger Ball
PP Species pale, margins of venter with black spots (Pacific)
. Seas er, als co VS eee eee) oer 17-occidentalis Van D.
JJ Species stout, vertex very broad and often not narrowing anteriorly.
@ Species sordid (Var. enotatus Van D.) or black with a light saddle
cs Starallinc daceeagtns SaaS Band Ree ane at ee 18-slossonz Ball
OQ Species ‘solden:. a4 soe ee ee eee 19-fulvus Osb.
Myndus mojavensis Ball n. sp.
Resembling lunatus in pattern, much larger and more definitely marked,
with an angularly excavated pronotum and semicircular stigmal cell. White
with dark lines against the carinae on front, vertex and mesonotum and a
dark pattern at the apex of elytra. Length 4.5-5 mm.
Vertex definitely narrower at apex than in lwnatus; front narrower at base,
broader and more foliaceous at apex with a stout carina. Pronotum much
longer than in lunatus, over half the length of the eye, deeply angularly
emarginate posteriorly, while in that species it is not over one-third the
length of eye, and shallowly roundingly emarginate. Elytra longer than in
lunatus, the nervures heavily setigerous, punctured. The cubitus forking
much farther back so that the cell thus formed is scarcely longer than wide,
stigmal cell almost semi-circular. Male pygofers with a long slender median,
brown, projection reaching to the apices of the white hammer-like plates—
dorsal ‘“‘hood”’ one-half longer than plates, its apex circular and entire.
Color, white above including front, dark smoky brown below including
clypeus, the margins of abdominal segments white, front ivory, a pair of
broad oblique black stripes inside the broadly elevated lateral margins
above. Vertex with the dise mostly black, the lateral and base of median
carinae broadly ivory. Pronotum ivory with dark brown areas behind the
eyes, mesonotum with dark brown areas outside and similar stripes inside
the broadly ivory lateral carinae. Elytra creamy white, an apical cloud,
dark lines bordering the stigma and the ivory transverse nervures and three
dark lines radiating from the base of the cloud.
Holotype @ allotype o& and 12 paratypes Mojave, Calif. June 15, 1909
and one male paratype from the same place July 1, 1931—all beaten with
much difficulty by the writer from the tip ‘‘branches” of the Joshua trees
(Yucca brevifolia) in the mountains to the north. A strikingly distinct species
the writer has been trying to get time to describe for nearly a quarter of a
century.
Myndus beameri Ball n. sp.
Resembling mojavensis with the carinae much less prominent. Front
much shorter and broader, the clypeus short, tumid and lacking the folia-
ceous carinate margin above of that species. Elytra with the venation similar
OCTOBER 15, 1933 BALL: THE GENUS MYNDUS 481
to mojavensis. The cell formed by the fork of the cubitus four or more times
as long as wide instead of wider than long, the nodal cell fully half longer
than wide instead of semicircular as in that species.
Color, deep shining black above and below (sometimes fading out to a
dark brown), an oblique dash on the stigma, two large areas in the outer
apical cells, three small spots in the inner apicals and a spot at the apex of
clavus ivory. i .
Holotype 9 June 17 and three paratype males in June, Chiricahua Mts.,
Arizona. Two paratype males Huachuca Mts., June 14, 1928 (A. A. Nichol).
Allotype & and four pairs of paratypes, Santa Rita Mts., Arizona, July 17,
1932 taken by Dr. R. H. Beamer. Holotype and paratypes in author’s col-
lection; allotype and paratypes in Kan. Univ. collection; paratypes in U. S.
Nat. Museum collection. This remarkably distinct species was taken on a
young century plant by Dr. Beamer in whose honor it is named.
Myndus catalinus Ball n. sp.
Similar to mojavensis, smaller, elytra hyaline with dark margins and an
extra apical cell. Length 4-4.5 mm. Vertex and front slightly narrower at
union than in mojavensis, especially noticeable on the base of front. Elytra
slightly narrower, the cells formed by the forking of radius and cubitus both
very short, usually shorter than in mojavensis, the apical nervure arising
from the apex of cubitus cell again forked forming an extra (eleventh) apical
cell. Male terminal abdominal segment deeply excavated, over twice the
depth of that in mojavensis, the short hammer-like plates scarcely exceeding
the notch.
Color, vertex smoky or darker with the carinae light, front ivory, a pair
of narrow lateral lines above and a dark crescent at apex, clypeus yellow, the
tip smoky. Pronotum creamy white with a dark collar in front, mesonotum
pale with two dark stripes (all dark in female). Elytra hyaline before the
stigma with definite smoky margins, the longitudinal nervures white. The
outer dark marginal line turning in before the stigma and expanding ob-
liquely across the apical cells, another dark line arising back of the stigma
and joining the first in the center, a line at right angles to this back to costal
margin and about 5 dots on the nervures between the oblique stripes and
the apex of clavus. Below, pale yellow.
Holotype @ Sabino Canyon near Tucson, Arizona, June 28, 1930, allo-
type o' Patagonia, Ariz. Sept. 20, 1930. Both examples were swept by the
writer from vegetation at the foot of high rock faces.
Myndus nolinus Ball n. sp.
Resembling mojavensis in structure, pale saffron without black markings
before the stigma. Length 3.4-4 mm.
Vertex much broader than in mojavensis with the lateral and median
carinae only slightly elevated. As seen from the side the clypeus is much
elevated above and angled with the lower half. The venation is similar to
mojavensis with ten apicals. The cells at the forks of the radius and cubitus
are rarely longer than wide.
Color, saffron yellow above and below, the mesonotum almost tawny,
elytra hyaline before the stigma with the longitudinal nervures slightly
embrowned, the claval suture and costa light. There is an oblique dash be-
fore the stigma, an oblique line arising at the apex of stigma and ending in
482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
the ninth apical, the lines radiating from the center of this to the margin
smoky brown. The nervures in the anal area are alternately ivory and
dark.
Holotype 2 allotype o and seven paratypes, Williams, Ariz. July 13,
1929 and one 2 paratype Tombstone, June 14, 1932; all taken by the writer
sweeping under the margins of the clumps of bear erass (Nolina). The saffron
color alone is quite distinctive.
Myndus yuccandus Ball n. sp.
Much smaller than nolinus with a still broader, blunter head. Saffron
with the mesonotum and a semicolon on each elytron black. Length ¢&
3mm.
Vertex broad almost parallel margined, slightly widening and almost
conical where it joins the front without a carina. Front almost half as wide
at base as at apex, where it is folicaceously expanded before joining the small
and little inflated clypeus. Pronotum extremely long and only shallowly
excavated posteriorly, almost parallel margined and as long as the width
of the vertex. Elytra long and narrow, only slightly arcuated at base. The
venation simple, the forks of radius and cubitus much longer than their
width. Two apical nervures arising from the posterior margin of the cubitus
cell. Apex of terminal segment of male roundingly produced over a tri-
angular projection which is exposed only about its own width, plates broad
and short with a broad obliquely rounding apex.
Color, face and below tawny or saffron unmarked, head and pronotum
pale saffron or straw color, with two dark stripes on posterior portion of
vertex. Mesonotum deep black with an ivory scutellar line on each side and
a waxy depressed spot before the apex. Elytra subhyaline, the nervures
saffron, a pair of large commas back to back against the scutellar angles
and a pair of round dots beyond forming a pair of black semicolons. The first
set of cross nervures white with more or less of dark margins, the second set
dark with a dark cloud in the inner angles.
Holotype & and one paratype male taken from Yucca at the Grand
Canyon Bridge, Ariz., Aug. 30, 1930 by the writer. A strikingly distinct little
species.
Myndus collinus Ball n. sp.
Resembling sordidipennis, slightly longer with a pair of dark stripes on
the white mesonotal tablet and the second apical nervure dark. Length
5.0-6 mm.
Vertex as in sordidipennis, the front slightly broader and with the upper
black markings decidedly oblique. Elytra longer and narrower, the outer
anteapical longer and narrower than in that species and usually less defi-
nitely angled. Male pygofers with a smaller, narrower triangular projection
and much broader and more evenly rounding plates than in sordidipennis
where they are long and obliquely truncate. The lateral margins of the
pygofers very slightly uniformly rounding while in sordidipennis they are
acutely angled and usually black tipped.
Color of sordidipennis nearly, smoky brown, the face creamy with two
black bands, the upper one consisting of two oblique dashes. Mesonotal
tablet white with two black stripes adjacent to the median carina. Elytra
milky subhyaline, the nervures smoky with dark stripes along the sutural
margin to the middle, dark margins on nodal cell and the second apical dark,
OCTOBER 15, 1933 BALL: THE GENUS MYNDUS 483
a dark cloud in the inner angles emphasized on the nervures. These mark-
ings present in the males while in sordidipennis the male elytra are usually
smoky subhyaline.
Holotype 2 and allotype o, Fort Collins, Colo., July 7, 1898, and one
paratype male July 2, 1898; all taken by the writer. This material was placed
with sordidipennis until the striking difference in the shape of the pygofers
was noted. When sorted on this character other differences were apparent.
Myndus rubidus Ball n. sp.
Resembling collinus in size and form but lighter and more definitely
marked, face ivory white with a large scarlet triangle. Length 5—5.5 mm.
Vertex much narrower than in sordzdipennis and its allies, the carinae as
high and the vertex as narrow as in catalinus, the face longer and narrower
than in either species. Elytra with the subcostaradial fork wider than its
length before the nodal cell, nodal cell short and rounding, the tumid stigma
occupying fully half its width.
Color, vertex creamy white, the high carinae broadly dark lined, face
creamy or ivory white with a large scarlet triangle with its base on the apex
of front. Pronotum pale, a dark inner circle extending out on the projection
below, mesonotum dark brown, the central tablet lighter, variegated. Elytra
hyaline, the nervures white, a narrow dark smoky band across the stigma
to apex of clavus, emphasized on the longitudinal nervures but omitting the
cross nervures, the radial fork all dark. A pale smoky band at apex empha-
sized on seventh apical and running in on the cross nervure. Below the legs
are white with two triangular spots on the pectus shining black in sharp
contrast. Tergum and venter dark, the margins light.
Holotype 2 and two paratype females taken by the writer at Browns-
ville, Tex., Jan. 4, 1932. The scarlet triangle on the face alone will distin-
cuish this pretty species.
Myndus viridicatus Ball n. sp.
Resembling wzrzdzs, slightly smaller, broader with a shorter vertex; bright
vivid green. Length 4-5 mm.
Vertex definitely broader than vrzdis, less than twice as long as its basal
width. Elytra slightly broader, the nodal cell longer, with the margin
thickened equally throughout, about 24 times as wide as the costal nervure.
Female with the last ventral segment deeply triangularly emarginate, the
apex of the notch with a roundingly triangular projection. Male pygofers
compressed, their lower margin produced into two dark margined triangles,
from the bottom of the notch between arises a compressed projection about
twice the length of the notch and bearing an elongate keel on the back;
plates parallel margined as far as the median projection then broadened
into elongate oblique apices clothed with long hairs.
Color, deep green in life, the eyes partly darkened, below paler green,
the elytra with a trace of tawny towards the apex.
Holotype @ allotype o and 4 2 paratypes Huachuca Mts. Aug. 2, 1931,
one @ paratype Santa Catalina Mts. Aug. 15, 1931, all collected in Arizona
by the writer.
Myndus ovatus Ball n. sp.
Resembling vridicatus but a still broader vertex and slightly longer elytra
with a broad stigma. Green. Length 4.5-5 mm.
484 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
Vertex broader in front and more nearly parallel than in wirzdicatus, much
broader and shorter than in virzdis. Elytra long and slender with long api-
cals, the nodal cell oval with a nervure at right angles to costa in the an-
terior portion before which the area is thickened, beyond this nervure the
margin is thickened in a curved stigma which occupies nearly half of the
cell. Female segment with the base of the triangle broadly rounded without
a projection, male pygofers as in virzdicatus, the lowér margins projecting
slightly but only slightly sinuate. The median projection with a wider keel,
the plates very slender for the length of the projection then terminating in
an almost round expansion four times the width of the basal portion.
Holotype 2 July 14, 1894, allotype o& June 28, 1894, both taken by the
writer at Ames, Iowa. These were included as paratypes of virzdis when that
species was described, but in studying the material in comparison with
viridicatus it was discovered that there were three distinct green species, one
with triangular genital projections in both sexes (viridicatus), the other two
lacking them but easily separated by the wide vertex and round plates in
ovatus as against a long narrow vertex and long narrow plates in viridis. The
holotype of viridis is hereby fixed ona Q taken by the writer at Grand June-
tion, Colo. July 28, 1900, and now in the author’s collection.
Myndus auratus Ball n. sp.
Resembling occidentalis slightly longer and more slender. Golden and
straw color without the dark markings. Length 5—5.5 mm.
- Vertex and front similar to occidentalis, the elytra longer and narrower,
the outer anteapical cell definitely wider than the nodal with the inner mar-
gin angled at the cross nervure to the medius, the medius forked at this
point but the outer fork continuing the line of the nervure. The nodal cell
long and narrow, truncate in front and rounding to costa behind, the stigma
24 to 3 times the width of the costa.
Female segment less deeply notched than in occidentalis, the male pygo-
fers with the acute projections of that species reduced to sinuations, the
styles with the inner margins nearly straight and the outer ones broadly
expanded apically instead of the reverse as in occidentalis.
Color, golden and creamy with a trace of green on the venter, elytra
golden subhyaline, the nervures concolorous, no black markings on the
abdominal segments as in occidentalis.
Holotype 2 allotype & and six paratypes taken by the writer, Bonita
Canyon, Chiricahua Mts., Ariz., July 6, 1930.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
500TH MEETING
The 500th meeting of the Society, which was also the 40th anniversary of
its founding, was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, February
22, 1933, President C. N. Fmnner presiding. The program was contributed
entirely by charter members.
Program: WHITMAN Cross.—Reminiscences concerning the founding of the
Society.
OCTOBER 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 485
Discussed by Messrs. KrrrH and FENNER.
T. W. Stanton: The evolution of the geologic map of the United States.—
The first geologic map of the United States is that of William Maclure
published in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society in 1809.
A second edition, which was exhibited, appeared in 1817. It covers the
country east of the Great Plains and follows the classification of Werner,
dividing the rocks into Primitive, Transition, Floetz or Secondary, and
Alluvial, with a special tint for the Triassic, which was called Old Red Sand-
stone.
A more modern stratigraphic classification was used by James Hall in
1843 in a map which covered the area from Hudson River to the Mississippi
and as far south as the southern boundary of Virginia. Lyell’s Travels in
North America, published in 1845, was accompanied bya similar map.
Between 1853 and 1869 there appeared maps of North America by Edward
Hitchcock and by Jules Marcou, and of the United States in whole or in
part by Marcou, H. D. Rogers, Hall and Lesley, and Logan and Hall.
A geologic map of the United States by C. H. Hitchcock and W. P. Blake
accompanied the report of the ninth Census published in 1872. A revised
edition of this map, which is on the seale of | to 7,115,000, or about 110 miles
to the inch, was included in Walker’s Physical Atlas in 1874.
Hitchcock prepared a large wall map of the United States on a scale of
20 miles to the inch which was published by Bien in 1881.
The first general geologic map of the whole country issued by the United
States Geological Survey was compiled by W J McGee with the assistance
of C. H. Hitchcock, on a scale of 1 to 7,115,000 and published in 1884 with
the Fifth Annual Report. It shows large blank areas in the western States.
Hitcheock’s map published in 1887 in the Transactions of the American
Institute of Mining Engineers is a revision of McGee’s map and said to have
been printed from the same stones, but its appearance is different because
the uncolored areas are smaller and the scheme of coloring is changed to
that adopted by the International Congress at Berlin in 1885.
McGee’s map of 1893 published in the Fourteenth Annual Report of the
Geological Survey is a revision of his map of 1884 with many blanks filled
and some changes in classification.
In preparation for the meeting of the International Geological Congress
in Mexico in 1906 the United States Geological Survey, the Geological Sur-
vey of Canada, and the Instituto Geologico of Mexico cooperated in the
compilation of a geologic map of North America on the scale of 1 to 5,000,-
000. The work was done under the supervision of Bailey Willis and an edition
of 1,500 copies was printed at the expense of the Mexican Government be-
fore the meeting of the Congress. A second edition of this map, in the com-
pilation of which Willis was aided by George W. Stose, bears the date 1911
and was issued with Professional Paper 71. It shows many changes, espe-
cially in the classification of the pre-Cambrian.
A new geologic map of the United States, on the scale of 1 to 2,500,000,
or 40 miles to the inch, now in press, will be published by the Geological
Survey before the Washington meeting of the International Geological
Congress next summer. The eastern half and a color proof of the northwest
quarter of this map were exhibited. (A uthor’s abstract.)
N. H. Darton: Zuni Salt Lake.—This lake is in a large deep crater in
the Cretaceous plains, about 75 miles south of Gallup, New Mexico. The
crater is believed to be the product of a voleanic explosion for it has volcanic
486 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO.10
cinder cones in its center and its rim is capped by a low ridge of rock frag-
ments mostly voleanic but including limestone containing fossils from Car-
boniferous strata 800 feet or more below the surface. The crater is about a
mile in diameter, nearly 200 feet deep and has walls of horizontal Upper
Cretaceous sandstone capped in part by a thin sheet of lava of moderate
antiquity. The shallow saline lake covering part of its bottom has furnished
salt for Indians and others for many centuries. The two cinder cones near
the center are about 150 feet high, and one of them has a deep crater with
a small saline pond in its bottom. The rim of ejected fragmental material
which covers a zone of moderate width, consists largely of scoria and frag-
ments of lava but also much sand and scattered masses of the fossiliferous
limestone above mentioned. It is known from observations in adjoining
areas that some distance underground the Cretaceous sandstone is under-
lain by the red beds of the Chinlee and Moenkopi formations, at least 700
feet thick, which in turn are underlain by Kaibab limestone which furnished
the fossiliferous fragments.
It is evident from these observations that the crater is the product of deep-
seated explosion in advance of an upwelling of lava which produced the two
cinder cones. Its history is similar to that of many other explosion craters!
in this and other countries including the Afton Crater in the plains west of
El Paso, various craters in the Pinacate region of northern Sonora, Mexico,
and some of the numerous ‘‘Xalapagos”’ in central Mexico. Also a crater
recently discovered in the San Bernardino lava field, 30 miles northeast of
Douglas, Arizona. These great craters show the competency of explosion in
connection with volcanic activity to produce such a crater as Crater Mound,
(so-called ‘‘Meteor Crater’) southwest of Winslow, Arizona. (Author’s
abstract. )
Discussed by Mr. Burts.
ARTHUR KerTrH: Major structures and intrusions in New EHngland.—
Granites are especially prominent in southern Maine, New Hampshire, and
central Massachusetts, forming part of the long succession of granite bodies
along the southeastern part of the Appalachian system.
Long arms marked by granite instrusions project from the principal
granite region, westward to Montreal, northward through New Brunswick,
and eastward through Nova Scotia. These appear to radiate from a center
under the Gulf of Maine. As a whole the granites are limited by a boundary
running west of north from eastern Connecticut to Montreal, P. Q., and
thence N. 70° E. to the Bay of Chaleur in New Brunswick, southerly to the
Bay of Fundy, and finally easterly across Nova Scotia. The apex of this
wedge cuts entirely across the Appalachian System through Montreal, a
relation found nowhere else, and again nearly crosses it in the Gaspé region
of northeastern Quebec.
The major folds and faults of the region are continuous for hundreds of
miles with parallel trends. In northern Vermont the structure trends change
nearly 60°, from west of north to northeast forming the Vermont salient.
This change is accompanied by a great excess of northwestward movement
evidenced by thrust faults and strong folds.
An axis drawn southeastward from the Montreal granite projection and
through the principal granite concentration is almost identical in position
with the structural cross axis passing through the Vermont salient. At this
cross axis, common to intrusions and structures, a notable arrangement of
1 Darton, N. H., Explosion Craters, Sci. Mo., November, 1916.
OCTOBER 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 487
sedimentary systems and pitching folds is found. For instance, Silurian rocks
nowhere cross this axis although they come close to the axis in five parallel
synclines which cover the entire folded belt from the St. Lawrence River to
the Gulf of Maine. The same sort of thing is true for the other Paleozoic
systems although they are somewhat less widespread. It is clear that the
major folds pitch away from the cross axis so that the systems of the Pale-
ozoic and pre-Cambrian deepen and widen away from it, especially to the
northeast.
The intrusives are nearly all massive biotite granite, with small amounts of
diorite, gabbro, syenite, and rarer holocrystalline rocks. They are treated
here, not as petrographic problems, but as masses which influence structure.
They range in size from plugs a fourth of a mile in diameter, through stocks
of a few miles, and up to batholiths 140 miles long and 20 miles wide. The
smaller masses have rather rounded outlines, but the large ones are very
irregular.
Contact metamorphism is very slight, and there is no dynamic meta-
morphism except in a few bodies of pre-Cambrian and pre-Devonian granite.
The granitic rocks cut the youngest formations with which they are in con-
tact, usually Ordivician, Silurian, and Devonian, both sediments and vol-
canics. In three regions the granites also cut Pennsylvanian strata; these
are the Narragansett basin in Rhode Island, the Worcester basin in Mas-
sachusetts, and the Portland basin in southern Maine. Other areas may per-
haps be found in the little explored regions of New Brunswick.
The relations of major uplift along the cross axis, of concentrated thrust
to the northwest along the same axis, of concentration of intrusions in same
belt, of great excess advance of magmas on the same axis, of the Pennsyl-
vanian age of many granites, of probable similar age for most of the others, of
closing Pennsylvanian age for the folds and thrusts, of visible force where
intrusions have forced aside the sediments, makes a complete and coherent
structural system. It is so reasonable and free from exceptions that serious
consideration must be given to the theory that the intrusions were a direct
cause of the structures. From this conclusion must be omitted some pre-
Devonian granites in eastern Maine and eastern Massachusetts, and per-
haps some post-Devonian granites in New Brunswick, as well as various
pre-Cambrian granites. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Butts, Stosr, and FENNER.
Witmot H. Brapiey, Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Prepared by Science Service
NotTES
U. S. Public Health Service studies encephalitis—The outbreak of en-
cephalitis lethargica centering around St. Louis has commanded much at-
tention from the U. 8. Public Health Service. A staff of investigators, under
Dr. JamMzs P. Leaks, has been on the ground since the earlier stages of the
epidemic. Surgeon-General Hucu S. Cummine and Assistant Surgeon-
General R. C. WiuiiaMs have made visits to the area and are in constant
touch with developments.
The efforts of the Public Health Service workers are bent primarily to-
ward obtaining a better understanding of the epidemiology of the disease.
488 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO.10
In addition to compiling a complete record of case histories, they are follow-
ing all promising leads which may help toward a knowledge of the mode of
transmission of encephalitis. They have procured a number of Rhesus mon-
keys for inoculation experiments, which have yielded results which though
still somewhat equivocal are at least suggestive.
Mosquitoes as encephalitis vectors—Strong evidence that the virus of
one type of encephalitis may be carried by mosquitoes has been obtained
by Maj. Jamzs 8. Simmons, Lt.-Col. RayMonp A. Kruser and Maj. VirGiL
H. Corne tu. Their preliminary report was published in Sczence for Septem-
ber 15. Rabbits were used as experimental animals, and Aedes egypt: as the
carriers. The virus was of the herpes encephalitis type, probably not iden-
tical with the disease of the St. Louis outbreak. Three strains of virus were
used, one of them having originated from a human case. Mosquitoes that
had fed on infected rabbits were allowed to feed on uninfected animals, a
large proportion of which died, some of them developing paralysis, and some
showing also typical lesions in brain and spinal cord. It was further proved
possible to transmit the infection by implanting brain tissue from the mos-
quito-infected rabbits into healthy animals.
Maj. Stmmons and Maj. CorRNELL went to St. Louis on September 4 to
study the possible connection between mosquitoes and the present epidemic
of encephalitis lethargica there. They were accompanied by Set. Jussn F.
RuoapDs and Sgt. Grorce F. Luirpoutp, M.C., U.S.A., who are expert
“mosquito men.”
Dutch elm disease a stowaway.—Dutch elm disease, which federal and
state authorities are fighting in the area around New York Harbor, came in
as a stowaway in elm logs shipped from Europe for use in the manufacture of
furniture veneer. Conclusive evidence to this effect was presented by R. Kent
Bratti£ of the U. S. Department of Agriculture before a shade tree con-
ference held in New York City on September 8. Although the logs are known
to the trade as ‘‘Carpathian elm,” they appear to come principally from
central and southern France. Evidences of the disease, culturable infections
of the fungus, Graphium ulmi, and both of the species of carrier beetles,
Scolytus scolytus and S. multistriatus, have been found on logs landed at
Atlantic seaports. Importers have cooperated willingly in an effort to stop
fresh entries of infected beetles. On September 15 a hearing on the Dutch
elm disease situation was held at the U. 8. National Museum.
Weather Bureau has a busy day——Labor Day, Sept. 4, was decreed by
Secretary of Agriculture WALLACE as a complete holiday: all workers in the
Department were instructed to stay away from their offices, which were to
be locked up tight from Saturday noon until Tuesday morning. Two tropical
storms chose just that day to strike the coasts of Florida and southwestern
Texas, respectively, and the force at the Washington office of the Weather
Bureau had one of the busiest working days in its history. According to C. L.
MircHELL, the simultaneous landfall of two tropical storms was unprece-
dented in the history of the Weather Bureau.
Radio talks.—The following radio addresses were sent out from Washing-
ton on the network of the Columbia Broadcasting System, under the
auspices of Science Service: ‘‘Millionth of a Second,” by Prof. J. W. BEAms,
University of Virginia; ‘‘The Poetry of the Rocks,” by Dr. R. 8. BAssuLEr,
U.S. National Museum; ‘“How Animals Spend the Winter,” by Austin H.
CuarK, U. 8. National Museum.
OCTOBER 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 489
Office of National Parks, Buildings and Reservations.—The former National
Park Service, organized as a bureau of the Department of the Interior, has
now been merged in a new Office of National Parks, Buildings and Reserva-
tions. The new Office administers several classes of Government property not
included in the responsibilities of the National Park Service, notably the
parks and public areas in the District of Columbia.
The blazing-colored Cedar Breaks area in Utah was made a national
monument by proclamation of President Roosevelt signed August 25, mak-
ing a total of 51 national monuments now under the jurisdiction of the
Office of National Parks, Buildings, and Reservations. The monument con-
tains approximately 5,760 acres and was formerly a part of the Dixie Na-
tional Forest.
Pinnacles National Monument, California, a reservation administered by
the National Park Service, has been enlarged through considerable extension
of its northeastern, northwestern and southern boundaries. A proclamation
legalizing the addition was signed recently by President Roosevelt. The
addition comprises 5,001.78 acres, making the total area of the monument
now 9,908.39 acres, more than double its former size.
A study of the nesting grounds of the white pelican, recently made for the
Office of National Parks, Buildings and Reservations by Brn H. THompson,
indicates a population of from 20,000 to 25,000 of these birds still surviving
in the United States proper, plus an unknown but probably smaller number
in Canada. There are now only seven known large nesting colonies, whereas
there were formerly at least seventy.
Studies of diseases in game birds.—Progress in studies of upland-game-
bird diseases was reported at the American Veterinary Medical Association
annual meeting held in Chicago from August 14 to 18, by Dr. J. E. Suit-
LINGER of the Bureau of Biological Survey, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Losses in some species of game birds in recent years have more than offset
reproduction, said Dr. SHILLINGER, and through disease studies the Bio-
logical Survey is aiding in the propagation of quail, pheasants, grouse, and
other birds on game farms. Presenting a paper of which Dr. L. C. Mor.ey,
also of the Biological Survey, is joint author, Dr. SHILLINGER discussed the
variety of test birds used in bureau experiments in transmitting ulcerative
enteritis in quail, grouse, and other game birds. This disease, he reported,
often wipes out a large part of the stock on game-bird farms, young birds
sometimes dying within 48 hours after contact with a virulent strain of the
infectious agent. The causative organism, he said, has not yet been grown
in the laboratory in pure cultures, but postmortems indicate that it is a
toxin producer as well as a cause of ulcer formation in the digestive tract.
The paper described a back-yard laboratory maintained by Dr. Mor.ry at
his home in Richmond, Va. Here Dr. Moruey keeps watch of nesting birds,
eggs during incubation, young birds in an electric brooder, and their growth
to maturity in a developing pen.
The Oil-Pollution Menace.—As a member of the Interdepartmental Com-
mittee on Oil Pollution of Navigable Waters, F. C. Lincoun, of the Bureau
of Biological Survey, is representing the Department of Agriculture in a
study being made of measures to deal with the oil-pollution menace on the
high seas. Other members represent the Division of Western European
Affairs, Department of State, which has sponsored the committee; the
Bureau of the Public Health Service, Department of the Treasury; Office of
490 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
the Chief of Engineers, Department of War; Bureau of Construction and
Repair, Department of the Navy; the Geological Survey, Department of the
Interior; and the Bureau of Fisheries, Department of Commerce. The com-
mittee held its first meeting on August 16, at the State Department.
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.— Dr. E. H., BRAMHALL, research
associate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Dr. R. J.
STEPHENSON of the University of Chicago, are spending two weeks at the
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism for training in magnetic observations
preparatory to field work with the Byrd Antarctic Expedition II. Dr. Tuos.
C. Povuutsr, in charge of the scientific work of this Expedition, also spent
a few days at the Department discussing the proposed magnetic and cosmic-
ray work to be undertaken on the Expedition.
P. G. Lepie of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism has made a
short inland trip in Brazil obtaining determinations of the magnetic ele-
ments at Catalao, Bella Vista, and Goyaz in the state of Goyaz. He is now in
Santos where he will make a series of cosmic-ray observations for Professor
Compton before sailing for New York September 13.
Cooperative work in China under the direction of Mr. F. C. Brown, a
former observer with the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, now con-
nected with the American Church Mission at Hankow, China, assisted by
Dr. C. T. Kwet of the Department of Physics at the Central China College
at Wuchang, has been carried on during the summer in spite of civil warfare
necessitating a change of itinerary. The results obtained by these observers
doing part-time work as occasion offers are extremely valuable in the study of
secular variation in that part of the world.
Sezsmograph beats telegraph On Friday morning, August 25, a heavy
earthquake took place in the region of Chengtu in interior China. Its epi-
center was given an approximate location by seismologists of the U. 8.
Coast and Geodetic Survey on the basis of data collected and reported tele-
graphically to Science Service by the Jesuit Seismological Association and
numerous official and university seismological observatories. At that time the
statement was made that ‘‘considerable damage and loss of life was probably
inflicted on the region.” Five days later, belated cable reports confirmed the
information thus first obtained directly from seismological sources.
Child labor.—Prohibition of the employment of minors under 16 years of
age under the National Recovery Act has given renewed emphasis to na-
tional interest in child-labor problems. The Children’s Bureau has recently
published, under the title Employed boys and girls in Rochester and Utica,
New York, the latest of a series of several studies undertaken to find out the
kinds of work open to boys and girls and the effect of age and education upon
their occupations and the stability of their employment. The previous stud-
ies of this series were made in Newark and Paterson, N. J., and in Milwau-
kee, Wis. All these inquiries were made before the commencement of the
general industrial depression that began in 1929, so that the facts obtained
indicate the extent and nature of child employment under relatively prosper-
ous business conditions. ALICE CHANNING, who, with Harriet A. BYRNE,
directed the field work, wrote the report of the study in Rochester and Utica,
which was under the general supervision of ELLEN NaTHaLiz MaTTHEws,
formerly director of the industrial division of the Children’s Bureau.
OCTOBER 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 491
News Briers
The setting of commercial standards, until now an activity of the Com-
merical Standards Group of the National Bureau of Standards, has been re-
linquished to a private organization, the American Standards Association,
by order of Secretary of Commerce Roper.
Dr. Tuomas V. Moors, professor of psychology at the Catholic University
of America, has published an important contribution to the study of mental
disease in the University’s “Studies in Psychology and Psychiatry.” Dr.
Moore makes use of a new technique in multiple correlations to analyze the
occurrence of five distinguishable syndromes in the manic-depressive and
dementia praecox psychoses.
George Washington University announces the following additions to its
faculty: Dr. E>warp Bricut VEDDER as professor of experimental medicine
and executive officer of the department of pathology and experimental
medicine; Dr. Donaup B. Younc as professor of zoology; and Dr. WILLIAM
JOHN Coopsr, formerly U. 8. Commissioner of Education, as professor of
education. —
Sheets from the famous Mutis herbarium, housed at the Madrid Botanic
Garden since the Colombian revolution of 1816, are now yielding many
species new to science, though it is well over a century since they were col-
lected. The renewed study of this collection was stimulated last year by a
visit of ELuswortH P. Kiuurp, of the U. 8. National Museum, to Madrid.
Duplicates have been sent to the Herbarium here, while Dr. ARTuRO
CABALLERO carries on examinations in Madrid.
‘“‘Depression grave robbing” is the term applied to archaeological pot-
hunting which amateurs, spurred by the hope of small monetary gains to
relieve their distress, have been carrying on in Indian mounds, southwestern
village sites, and other scientifically valuable spots all over the country. He
appealed to property owners to prevent such vandalism, and to the diggers
themselves to spare irreplaceable relics of American prehistory, whose sci-
entific value is incomparably greater than the small cash returns they might
possibly yield.
“Heavy water,’ containing larger than average ratios of the higher
isotopes of oxygen and of hydrogen isotope 2, has been found to occur natur-
ally in the water of crystallization in salts from Great Salt Lake and the
Dead Sea, by Dr. E..B. WAsHBURN of the U. 8. Bureau of Standards. This
natural ‘‘heavy water’’ from the Dead Sea was two parts per million heavier
than ordinary water; that from Great Salt Lake three parts per million
heavier.
A mosquito survey of the entire United States has been undertaken by
the Medical Corps of the U.S. Army, in cooperation with the Civil Conserva-
tion Corps.
Birds, as well as man and the forests, are benefiting by the Federal unem-
ployment relief program. Three camps of the Civilian Conservation Corps
are improving refuges established and maintained by the Federal Govern- »
ment for the protection of birds. One of these, the Blackwater Migratory
Bird Refuge, near Cambridge, Md., is a breeding ground for black ducks and
blue-winged teal. Mallards and pintails also concentrate on the Blackwater
——
492 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 10
marshes during the migration season, and many shorebirds find sanctuary
there. The other two refuges now being improved by the Conservation Corps
are used by the birds principally during migration and in the winter season—
Swanquarter Migratory Bird Refuge, in North Carolina, and St. Marks
Migratory Bird Refuge, in Florida.
The extension to the Experiment Building at the Department of Terres-
trial Magnetism, the Carnegie Institution of Washington, has now been
completed and the installation of the two-meter Van de Graaf electrostatic
generator is progressing rapidly.
PERSONAL ITEMS
Maj. H. A. Nisruy of the Ordinance Department, U. 8. Army, spoke on
the mechanization of military forces before the Chicago meeting of the
Society of Automotive Engineers, on August 28.
Dr. F. A. Moss of George Washington University addressed the Society
of Automotive Engineers at their Chicago meeting, on August 31. He dis-
cussed a number of psychological problems connected with motor car oper-
ation.
Dr. J. W. TuRRENTINE of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, U. 8. De-
partment of Agriculture, reported on progress in building up American
potash production, before the meeting of the American Chemical Society
in Chicago.
Dr. M. X. SULLIVAN and Dr. W. C. Hsss of Georgetown University pre-
sented a paper before the Chicago meeting of the American Chemical Soci-
ety, on a correlation between cystine deficiency in the tissues and the in-
cidence of arthritis. They stated that injection of colloidal-sulfur brought
about an improvement in the condition of arthritis patients.
Dr. Paut H. Furrey, of the Catholic University of America, presented a
paper before the Chicago meeting of the American Psychological Associa-
tion.
C. B. Warts, senior astronomer of the U. 8. Naval Observatory, who will
have charge of the World Longitude operations in October-November, left
the Observatory for San Diego, Calif., on September 5. J. E. Wiis will
join Mr. Warts on September 25.
Commander GUGGENHEIM of the French Navy passed through Washing-
ton en route to San Diego, where he will collaborate with the Naval Observ-
atory’s party in the prosecution of some special work desired by the French
government.
Dr. THomas B. Nouan of the U. 8. Geological Survey was awarded the
Spendiaroff prize of the International Geological Congress in recognition of
his studies in the western mining districts of United States.
var OHN ue Stevenson
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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: |
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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: R. F. Griaas, George Washington University.
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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Mot: 23 NovEMBER 15, 1933 No. 11
CHEMISTRY .—Notes on the occurrence of rotenone in species of Der-
ris and Lonchocarpus.! Howarp A. Jonss, Bureau of Chemis-
try and Soils. (Communicated by C. M. Smits.)
In a recent article? data were given on the rotenone content of a
number of samples of East Indian derris root (Derris sp.), South
American cube root (Lonchocarpus nicou) and some other plants of
the genus Lonchocarpus. Information has now been obtained on the
occurrence of rotenone in the stems and leaves of derris and cube, and
on the rotenone content of roots and stems of certain other South
American plants.
No values are given in the literature for the rotenone content of
either stem or leaf material of derris, although several investiga-
tors?:+.5 have reported the amount of total extractives in stem parts of
D. elliptica, D. uliginosa and other species of Derris. Blackie® has
recently reported 0.3 per cent rotenone in a composite sample of
stem and root of D. uliginosa, but it is uncertain whether the rotenone
was contained in the stem or root portion. In the present investigation
samples of the stems and leaves of both D. elliptica and D. uliginosa
were examined, as well as a sample of ‘‘twigs and bark”’ of D. uligi-
nosa, all obtained from Fiji. No rotenone could be detected in either
the leaves or stems of D. elliptica, or in the leaves of D. uliginosa, by
the color test for rotenone recently outlined.’ A positive color test
was obtained from the stems of D. uliginosa and from the sample
1 Received July 24, 1933.
2 This JOURNAL 23: 36. 1933.
2-Pharmy Aneh: 5°/145. 9 1902-6: 1. 1903.
4 J. Agric. Research 17: 177. 1919.
5 J. Econ. Entom. 23: 619. 1930.
6 Agric. Jour. (Fiji Dept. Agric.) 5: 34. 1932.
7 Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed. 5:75. 1933.
8 The rotenone color tests in this work were made on concentrated acetone extracts
of the plant materials.
493
494 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 11
Sample
Number
TABLE 1.—RoOTENONE CONTENT OF VARIOUS MATERIALS
Plant Material
Source
Qualitative
Color Test
for Rotenone
Quantitative
CCk Extraction
tal
To
Rotenone| Extract
—— Oe Oe aaa ssa
Negative
Negative
1534
1309
1498
D. uliginosa
D. uliginosa
Stems
Leaves
“twigs and bark”
Large stems
Positive
Negative
Faintly
positive
Positive
Negative
Negative
Positive
Positive
Negative
| — — |s ||
Positive
Positive
618
Lonchocarpus Small stems and
nicou rachises
Leaves
Roots
L.nicou Stems
Leaves
LL. nicou Leaves
Fine roots
L. nicou Coarse roots
Whole root
Fine roots
L. nicou Bark of coarse roots
Inner portion of coarse roots
Whole root
L. velutinus
L. velutinus
“‘Haiari’’ (Lonchocarpus sp.)
Lonchocar pus
Bark of root
Inner portion of root
Bark of stem
Roots
Stems
sp. Roots
Unknown
Peru
Unknown
Paraguay
Positive
Positive
Positive
Negative
Negative
Negative
Positive
Positive
Positive
nl
eee |
“Timbo’’ Roots
ah Sc SE SS Ea SS ES Oe SSS eee
¢ 100-gram sample.
For determination of rotenone a 1-kilogr
dichloride, the extract evaporated to dryness in a vacuum and tl
chloride. Total extract determined by carbon tetrachloride extraction of a 150-gram sample.
© 150-gram sample.
.
Brazil
Positive
about
Q.17}: 7 ae
None*| 1.5
about
QO. 1S ee
8.3: |) ives
about] 3.2
0.3°¢
1.2 \ 2ors
2:0 dae
3.5 | LOS
6.9 A750
4.7.4 Loc4
1.22 5.0
2.9 9.3
jo [el a 4
10 4.8
8.942226
1 es Ost
16.3, 1) 3857
am sample was extracted at room temperature with ethylene
d the rotenone crystallized from carbon tetra-
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 JONES: OCCURRENCE OF ROTENONE 495
of ‘‘twigs and bark”’ of the same species. By the carbon tetrachloride
extraction method’ the stems gave about 0.1 per cent rotenone. No
erystallizable quantity of rotenone could be obtained from the “‘twigs
and bark.”’
Geoffroy’® in 1895 found from 2 to 2.5 per cent rotenone in large
stems of L. nicouw from French Guiana and stated that the young
stems contained only small quantities and the leaves only traces.
Several samples of stems and leaves of authentic L. nicow from Peru
have now been examined for rotenone. One sample of material was
divided into large stems (those over 5 mm. diameter), small stems
(including the rachises of the large, pinnately compound leaves) and
the separated leaflets, here designated as leaves. The large stems of
this sample contained about 0.1 per cent rotenone while the small
stems and the leaves contained none. Another sample consisted of
roots and stems, the latter ranging from 1 cm. to 2 cm. diameter,
both taken from the same plant, which was two years and five months
old and was growing at an altitude of 600 feet above sea level. The
leaves received with this sample were from this plant and other plants
within a radius of fifteen feet. The roots contained a large proportion
of rotenone while the stem material contained only about 0.3 per cent.
No rotenone could be detected in the leaves. A third specimen, con-
sisting of leaves only, contained no rotenone.
The distribution of rotenone in the roots of L. nicow was also stud-
ied. Two samples of material were divided into fine (those less than
about 5 mm. diameter) and coarse roots, and these portions were
analyzed separately. As seen from the results given in the table the
fine roots contained a much larger proportion of rotenone in both
cases. Similar results were previously obtained with derris root.4! One
sample of the coarse cube roots was stripped of its bark (probably in-
cluding other tissues immediately under the bark), and this was an-
alyzed separately from the inner part of the root. The bark and the
peripheral structures contained a definitely larger proportion of roten-
one than the inner portion.
Two samples of L. velutinus were tested for rotenone. One of these
contained no rotenone, while the other contained about 2 per cent.
A sample of ‘‘Haiari’”’ stem, a sample of roots said to be of a species of
Lonchocarpus from Paraguay and a sample of ‘‘cipo”’ roots from Bra-
zil all contained appreciable quantities of rotenone.
wind; Eng. Chem., Anal. Wid. 5:23. 1933:
10 Ann. Inst. Colon. Marseille 2:1. 1895.
1 This JOURNAL 23: 36. 1933.
496 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 11
A sample of Brazilian ‘‘timbo”’ root contained about 16 per cent
rotenone. This sample was submitted as Paullinia pinnata, but ac-
cording to Killip and Smith” the term ‘‘timbo”’ is applied to L. wrucu
in the region from which this material came (Para). Unfortunately no
leaf parts were submitted for botanical identification, and the root
had undergone decomposition making impossible a microscopical
comparison with an authentic sample of P. pinnata. A previous sam-
ple of ‘‘timbo”’ root from this same region contained about 5 per cent
rotenone.”
CONCLUSIONS
The results obtained indicate that the stems and leaves of derris
and cube are of no value as commercial sources of rotenone.
Fine cube roots contain a higher proportion of rotenone than the
coarse roots. The outer portion of the root has a higher rotenone
content than the inner part.
Roots of other species of Lonchocarpus should be further investi-
gated as possible sources of rotenone.
122 This JOURNAL 20: 74. 1930.
PALEONTOLOGY .—Salonia, a new Ordovician brachiopod genus.
G. ARTHUR CooPER and LAWRENCE WHITCOMB. (Communi-
cated by JoHN B. REESIDE, JR.)
The genus herein described is characterized by a distinctive external
appearance and is particularly interesting as the earliest known
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-
ceived May 25, 1933.
Figs. 1-19.—Salonia magnaplicata Cooper and Whitcomb, n. sp.
Figs. 2, 3—Ventral and dorsal valves respectively of a small individual (paratype
85422 e) showing the triangular outline, X2. Figs. 1, 4—Same views as above of para-
type 85422 d. Figure 1 shows the costella in the ventral sulcus, X2. Figs. 5, 7.—Ventral
and dorsal views respectively of a larger specimen (paratype 85422 c) retaining the
triangular form but showing the beginning of lobation. Figure 7 illustrates well the
sulcus on the dorsal valve a little anterior to the beak. This soon inverts to form the
prominent fold, 2. Figs. 11, 12.—Ventral and dorsal views respectively of a nearly
_ full grown individual. In this specimen the fold and sulcus are more angular than the
others. The costella of the sulcus shows plainly in figure 11. Patches of shell substance
may be seen in figure 12, which indicate how thin the shell was. Paratype 85422 b, X2.
Figs. 6, 8, 9, 10.—Respectively posterior, ventral, dorsal and lateral views of the holo-
type 85422 a, 1. Figs. 15, 19-—Respectively ventral and dorsal views of the holotype.
<2. Figs. 16, 17—Posterior and lateral views respectively of the holotype, X2.
Fig. 18—Posterior view of the holotype showing strongly incurved dorsal beak. X3.
Figs. 13, 14—Posterior views of the dorsal interior showing the dental sockets and long
brachial processes. These appear slender because they are seen from a ventral position.
Compare figure 14 with text figure 22A. Figure 13 is of paratype 85422 r; figure 14 is
of paratype 85422 p.
All of the specimens figured are from twelve feet above the base of the Trenton (Salona) formation, along
the railroad track beside Fishing Creek, Salona, Clinton County, Pennsylvania.
NOVEMBER 15, 1983 COOPER AND WHITCOMB: SALONIA 497
Figs. 1-19.—Salonia: A new Ordovician brachiopod genus. For explanation
see opposite page.
I I wane
498 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 11
brachiopod having the internal features of the Pentameridae. A single
specimen of this genus was discovered by Dr. Whitcomb while inves-
tigating problems of the Trenton strata at Salona, Clinton County,
Pennsylvania. Subsequent to its discovery two additional visits to
_ the brachiopod locality yielded material in sufficient quantity to allow
the preparation of a detailed description of the genus. All of the speci-
mens are from the Salona formation of lower Trenton age,? exposed
Gy ay Ae
1h EB | 4
Bps eaz) Bp) ( \
t
Fig. 20.—Serial sections of a half-grown individual showing the structure of the
internal plates. 9. Distances of the sections from the apex of the dorsal beak: 1 —0.47
mm.; 2—0.61 mm.; 3—0.77 mm.; 4—1.04 mm.; 5—1.33 mm.; 6—1.54 mm.; 7—2.07
mm. In this specimen the tip of the ventral beak was located 0.25 mm. anterior to the
tip of the dorsal beak. In section 1 therefore the structure shown is 0.22 mm. below
the tip of the ventral beak. All sections ca. X7. V—ventral valve, D—dorsal valve,
sp.—spondylium. Fragment remaining after cutting is paratype 85422 1.
The key to the symbols in Figures 20, 21, 22, and 23 is as follows:
Ap —alar process
Bp —brachial process
Bps—septum supporting brachial process
D —dorsal valve
Ip —inner plate
Ms —median septum supporting spondylium
S —dental socket
Sp —spondylium
Spt —thickened rim of spondylium
V -—ventral valve
along the railroad track beside Fishing Creek at Salona. The name
of the genus has been derived from the formation name and its lo-
cality.
The particular bed yielding this unusual brachiopod is located
twelve feet above the base of the Salona formation and seven feet
below the base of the lowest bentonite bed in the formation. Since
the bentonite beds have proved to be readily recognizable horizons?
both measurements are given.
2Frevp, R. M. The Middle Ordovician of Central and South Central Pennsylvania.
Amer. Jour. Sci. 28: 420-421. 1919. :
Wuitcoms, L. Correlation of Ordovician limestone at Salona, Clinton County,
Pennsylvania. Penn. Geol. Surv. Bull., G-5, 1932.
B EIEeOMy, L. Correlation by Ordovician bentonite. Jour. Geol. 40: 522-534.
1932.
NOVEMBER 15, 1983 COOPER AND WHITCOMB: SALONIA 499
The material and its preparation.—The material on which the ge-
neric and specific descriptions of Salonia are based consists of ten com-
plete or nearly complete individuals and several fragmentary speci-
mens and isolated valves. Dr. Whitcomb deposited all of the types in
the United States National Museum (Cat. no. 85422a—s). Several
paratypes are at Lehigh University. One specimen (85422a) has been
selected as the holotype (see Figs. 15-19). The specimens are pre-
1
Fig. 21.— Serial sections through the posterior of a large specimen. In this specimen
both beaks were on about the same level, the dorsal beak not overhanging the ventral
delthyrium as usual. Distance of the sections from the tip of the beaks: 1—0.28 mm.;
arenes mm.; 3—0.82 mm. V—ventral valve; D—dorsal valve. Fragment, paratype
m.
served in a dark limestone to which the shell adheres firmly. Conse-
quently no specimen was obtained with the shell intact. All of the
specimens therefore were much exfoliated when broken out of the
matrix. Hard limestone usually makes difficult material to prepare for
internal structures. The following methods were employed in the
preparation of the material for determination of the internal charac-
ters.
As a first or preliminary method to determine the gross structure
of the interior in a general way the beaks of one specimen were washed
with dilute hydrochloric acid. This treatment revealed the internal
septa at their junction with the inner surface of the valve. This method
is of great use in the study of pentameroid brachiopods and has the
advantage of not appreciably damaging the specimen. The method
is therefore much preferable to cutting the beaks.
In order to determine the structure of the septal plates two frag-
mentary specimens preserving both beaks were sectioned and the
structures sketched with the aid of a camera-lucida (see Figs. 20 and
21). To check the information thus obtained, the dorsal cardinal re-
gion and the septa were exposed by working the matrix away from
the plates. This was accomplished by scraping away the matrix with
500 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 11
needles ground to a chisel edge. A lateral view of the interior was ob-
tained by the same method (see Fig. 22 A—-C).
Salonia Cooper and Whitcomb n.g.
Shell trilobate, pauciplicate, uniplicate; hinge narrow; interareas obsolete;
fibrous, impunctate. Interior of ventral valve provided with a short spon-
dylium. Dorsal interior with two long septa supporting curved, sabre-like
brachial processes.
Genotype.—Salonia magnaplicata Cooper and Whitcomb n. sp.; Salona
formation, Salona, Clinton County, Pennsylvania.
Salonia magnaplicata Cooper and Whitcomb n. sp.
Exterior—Trilobate in outline, wider than long when adult; hinge nar-
row, equal to one-eighth to one-ninth the width of the shell. Lateral profile
gently biconvex. Anterior commissure uniplicate. Beaks small, obtuse, form-
ing an angle slightly more than ninety degrees. Surface pauciplicate, with
three subangular to angular plicae on the dorsal valve and four on the ven-
tral valve. The ornamentation consists of fine growth lines and heavier
growth varices. Shell substance thin.
Ventral exterior.—Shell slightly convex posteriorly, deeply sulcate an-
teriorly. Sulcus subangular to angular; lingual extension elongate dorsally,
subacute to acute. Sulcus occupied by a single, slender, median costella ex-
tending from near the beak to the anterior margin (Figs. 1, 11). The plica-
tions bounding the sulcus are low, subangular anteriorly, gently rounded
posteriorly and extend as low elevations nearly to the beak. Lateral slopes
deeply concave, bounded by prominent, acute beak ridges. Between the
beak ridges and the antero-laterally sloping line of valve junction is a nar-
row concave area. The delthyrium is nearly as wide as the hinge and is un-
covered.
Dorsal exterior.—Trilobate; two subangular folds curve gently antero-
laterally from the beak to the lateral margin. In young specimens the folds
extend antero-laterally with little or no curvature. Median fold subangular
to angular anteriorly but becoming obsolete posteriorly at a point about one
and one-half to two and one-half millimeters in front of the beak. In the um-
bonal region there is a shallow median concavity bounded by low lateral
plications. There is thus a reversal of sulcus to fold during the growth of
the shell (see below). The region between the posterior commissure and the
lateral plications is concave. Beak strongly curved over the ventral del-
thyrium, apsacline. Notothyrium narrow.
Ventral interior.—Spondylium short, sessile posteriorly, elevated at the
front on a short, low septum. The total length of the structure as revealed
on the exterior of the holotype is a little less than two millimeters. On each
side of the spondylium in the holotype there are low calcareous ridges, dis-
posed radially, which undoubtedly represent the seat of attachment of
muscles from the ovarian bodies (see Figs. 20, 21, 22).
Dorsal interior.—On the exterior of the dorsal valve, when the shell is ex-
foliated or dissolved away, may be seen the bases of two septa which diverge
gradually anteriorly. Internally these septa unite with long brachial proces-
ses. Seen from the inside the dorsal structures are plainly divisible into
several distinct plates. Next to the thickened margin of the valve is a flat-
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 COOPER AND WHITCOMB: SALONIA 501
tish, triangular plate, the anterior margin of which bounds the dental socket.
The latter is a moderately deep indentation between the thickened side of
the valve and the thickened or ventral margin of the brachial process. The
A B C D
Fig. 22.—Views of the interior of the dorsal valve.
A. Camera-lucida sketch of the interior of the dorsal valve drawn from the speci-
men (paratype 85422 p) figured on figure 14. Sketch, ca. X7.
B. Same turned to the left to show position of the septal plate supporting the
brachial process. ca. X7.
C. Internal structures seen in profile. Camera-lucida sketch drawn from paratype
(85422 q). ca. X4.
D. Lateral view of the internal septa of Gypzdula (U.S.N.M. 88826 a) introduced
for comparison with Salonia. ca. X1.
latter is long, curved and blade-like at its free end. Its base can be traced
posteriorly between the inner plate and the septal supporting plate nearly
to the beak and is united with the supporting septum dorsally and the inner
plate ventrally. The supporting septum of the brachial process tapers to dis-
appearance at its front end some distance behind the blunt end of the brachial
process. No cardinal process was observed; the diductor muscles were evi-
dently attached to the floor of the valve under the beak. The seat of at-
tachment of the adductor muscles was probably the floor of the valve be-
tween the septal plates. Owing to the tenuity of the shell no muscle marks
were observed (see Figs. 20, 21, 22).
Measurements
Width of Length ventral Length dorsal]
Paratype hinge Length Widt Thickness septum septa
BTA ORO oo csgs ce Be — 6.0 6.5 18 1230 125
S06 2057 eee ea) 6.0 6.5 2.0 135 ee
Stee Or 2 ek ies La 9.0 3.0 eT § =
Seen Deen... ois 15 8.0 125 a0 2.0 ZO
Holotype
SH 47h) ae ee DO) 12.0 18.0 6.0 25 3.0
Growth.—As shown by well preserved growth-lines on paratype (85422 c)
Salonia in its earliest stages (protoconch to a little less than one millimeter)
was a circular or nearly circular shell with a suleate dorsal valve and a ven-
tral valve having a fairly prominent fold. The dorsal valve was suleate in
valves having a length of one and one-half to two and one-half millimeters.
In about the center of the sulcus of the dorsal valve was a faint costella cor-
responding to the fold which develops in later life. After a length of one and
one-half to two and one-half millimeters is reached the dorsal sulcus inverts
to form a prominent fold and lobation is initiated. A shell six millimeters in
length (Figs. 1-4) is distinctly triangular but after this length has been
reached the shell widens notably to produce the adult form.
Discussion.—At first glance Salonza suggests certain Mesozoic brachio-
pods but the interior is clearly that of a more ancient shell. The decided
502 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 11
lobate exterior and subangular folds are unusual features in such an ancient
brachiopod. The complete absence of a ventral interarea (cardinal area) is
an advanced character seen in later stocks of the Pentameracea. The pecul-
iar manner in which the dorsal beak overhangs the delthyrium is unusual.
The ensemble of external characters alone would warrant the erection of a
D D
Ci. Kee
D
V V V
A B C D
Fig. 23.—Sections of pentameroids for comparison with Salonia. All of the sections
were cut at or near the plane of articulation of the valves.
A. Parastrophinella reversa (Billings)—This section shows the alar processes (Ap)
which are characteristic of the Camerellidae but unknown in other Pentameracea. Such
processes are wanting in Salonia. After Schuchert and Cooper, 1.5.
B. Pentamerus aff. P. oblongus (Sowerby)—This is a characteristic member of the
non-galeate Pentameridae showing the septa of the dorsal valve and the prominent
median septum supporting the spondylium (Sp). After Schuchert and Cooper, X1.3.
C. Salonia magnaplicata Cooper and Whitcomb—Note the sessile spondylium in
the ventral valve. Absence of alate processes differentiates this genus from the Camerel-
lidae. Resemblances of the dorsal septa to those of Pentamerus and Gypidula are ob-
vious. This section was cut at about the position on C of figure 22 where the line from
Spt would cut across the shell if continued. ca. X10.
D. Gypidula sp. (U.S.N.M. 88826 b)—Section cut near the plane of articulation.
ca. X2.
new generic name for this shell, but combined with its pentameroid interior
this brachiopod proves to be quite novel.
The spondylium is unusual for its brevity and primitive character. In the
holotype the spondylium and its septum are unusually short, in fact shorter
than in some of the smaller shells. Unlike the more advanced spondylium
of the Gypidulinae and Pentamerinae, that of Salonza is sessile or rests on
the floor of the valve posteriorly (see Figs. 20, 21, 23). In other words at the
back end of the valve the dental plates descend ventrally to the floor of the
valve (see Fig. 20), but anteriorly they are elevated to join a low median
septum. This appears to be an early character seen commonly in the Syn-
trophiidae, Clarkellidae and Camerellidae, all probably improperly classified
in the Pentameracea. The spondylium of the Gypidulinae and Pentamerinae
is rarely if ever sessile (see Fig. 23).
The structure of the dorsal valve is closest to that of the Gypidulinae.
The sockets are located as in Gypidula (see Figs. 22C, 22D, 23) and the ar-
rangement of plates described by Leidhold? is clearly visible in Salonza. The
inner plate forms a sort of roof over the umbonal chambers made by the
4 LeIDHOLD, Cu. Abhandl. preuss. geol. Landesanst., n. ser., 109: 51-53. 1928.
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 BERRY: KNOWLTONELLA 503
septa and the side of the valve. The sockets for the reception of the teeth
are a notch in the inner plate. The brachial process is fairly long, thin and
blade-like. Its cross-section is crescentic, the concavity of the crescent facing
the inside of the valve. The extremity of the process is blunt. The brachial
process protrudes freely at its front end but posteriorly it is intimately united
with the other plates. Below or dorsally from the brachial process are the
septal plates which support the whole structure. It will thus be seen that the
eardinalia of Salonza are like those of the Gypidulinae or Pentamerinae
but differ in details (see Figs. 22 and 23).
Relationships.—Judging by the stratigraphic horizon from which Salonia
comes one would expect this shell to be closely related to the Camerellidae.
Comparison with camerellids (see Fig. 234), however, suggests that close
relationship, at least, is not evident. The Camerellidae, as seen in Camerella
and Anastrophia, are characterized by a peculiar type of cardinalis that is
more orthoid than pentameroid. There may be a cruralium (Camerella) or
discrete septal plates (Anastrophia, Parastrophinella) which support wing-
like brachial processes. The sockets are defined by fulcral plates which are
wanting in Salonza and the Pentameridae. The cardinalia of Salonia and the
Camerellidae are thus quite distinct although the spondylium of the two has
considerable resemblance in the common character of sessility at the pos-
terior.
The closest relationships of Salonza that we could find are with the Gypi-
dulinae. Here the position of the dental sockets and the arrangement of the
plates are essentially the same (see Fig. 22D). Moreover the brachial proc-
esses of the two are broad blades and in this respect different from the Penta-
merinae which have very slender processes. So far as present knowledge of
Salonia goes, its relationships are closest to the Gypidulinae of the Penta-
meridae. It is an anomaly that the earliest known shell that can be related to
the Gypidulinae or Pentamerinae is of such an advanced character. It is
apparent that the true course of brachiopod evolution is still far from being
understood.
PALEOBOTANY.—A Knowltonella from the Black Hills Cretaceous.!
EDWARD W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.
The genus Knowltonella was proposed by the present writer? for
rather abundant remains from the Patapsco formation of Maryland.
These were tentatively referred to the fern family Matoniaceae, al-
though Seward’ regards this comparison as ‘‘by no means convinc-
ing.’’ So far as I know the genus has not been found outside of North
America, although it is incidentally mentioned by Kryshtofovich? as
1 Received June 15, 1933.
2 Berry E. W. Mad. Geol. Survey Lower Cretaceous, p. 233, pls. 25-27. 1911.
3 Sewarp, A.C. Plant life through the Ages, p. 394. 1931.
4 KRYSHTOFOVICH, A. The Pacific Russian Scientific Investigations, p. 61. 1926.
=
504 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 11
present in the upper Nikan series of Ussuriland, associated with
Marchantites, Weichselia, Zamiopsis, and Pandanophyllum (a sup-
posed Angiosperm), at a horizon apparently well up in the Lower
Cretaceous.
For some years now I have been endeavoring to harmonize the fos-
sil plants with the supposed stratigraphy and areal mapping of the
Cretaceous of the Black Hills in South Dakota and Wyoming. Much
of the material studied is new and was collected by Henry E. Lee of
Fig. 1—Knowltonella from the Black Hills Cretaceous.
Rapid City, but I have also had the free use of the older collections
in the U. 8. National Museum. Much of the material recorded from
the Black Hills Cretaceous is very poorly preserved in mostly small
fragments in a prevailingly coarse matrix which leaves much to be
desired in attempting critical determinations.
For this reason it seems worth placing on record a new and biologi-
cally interesting addition tothe floraof theregion—a plant whose iden-
tity can not possibly be mistaken. Figure 1 shows a specimen collected
by T. W. Stanton and W. W. Rubey, August 17, 1924 about 9 miles
northwest of Aladdin, Wyoming, from the bank of Pine Creek and
near the south line of Sec. 18, T. 55 N., R. 62 W. (U.S. Geol. Survey
Loc. No. 7774).
This is identical with Knowltonella maxoni the type and only known
species of the genus. There is no necessity of a detailed description of
this interesting specimen as it adds nothing to what is already known
and printed concerning the species.
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 BERRY: EOCENE COMBRETUM 905
There is considerable resemblance to the Patuxent species Sclerop-
teris elliptica Fontaine,° but there is slight occasion for confusing the
two. The latter lacks the extreme variation of Knowltonella, all of the
pinnules being uniform in size and shape, less ascending, rather uni-
formly narrowed at the base, and in no part of the frond exhibiting
the extreme decurrence, asymmetry and elongated linear wings so fre-
quent in Knowltonella.
Fontaine described® two species of Scleropteris from the supposed
Lakota formation on the south fork of Hay Creek, Wyoming. Neither
of these is anything like the species under consideration and I would
hesitate to consider either a Scleropteris or to suggest their proper ge-
neric reference, since they are so very incomplete.
Scleropteris Saporta, 1873 is one of a group of generic names includ- |
ing Pachypteris Brongniart, 1828, Thinnfeldia Ettingshausen, 1852,
and Dichopteris Zigno, 1856, which have occasioned the greatest dif-
ferences of opinion and confusion among students of Mesozoic floras.
Without being strictly identical these pseudogenera all overlap and
no one has as yet been able to prove whether they belong to the ferns
or cycads or may not even be surviving pteridosperms allied to the
Paleozoic odontopterids, as Seward has suggested. Any discussion of
this question would add little or nothing to their present status and
is not germane to the present note.
Knowltonella has every appearance of representing a true fern, but
one can never be sure of these Mesozoic fern-like fronds until the epi-
dermal structure or fruiting characters are known. Many years ago
(1909) I collected splendid material of the type species at Widewater,
Virginia, which gave every indication of having the epidermal fea-
tures preserved, but this was accidentally destroyed, and I have never
been able to revisit the locality.
5 Berry, E. W. Md. Geol. Surv. Lower Cretaceous, p. 300, pl. 39, figs. 1, 2. 1911.
6 Fontaine, W. M. in Warp, L. F. 19th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, Pt. 2:
662, 663, pl. 162, figs. 2-5. 1899.
PALEOBOTAN Y.—The cuticle of an Eocene Combretum.’ EDWARD
W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.
In a collection sent me several years ago by Mr. Watson A. Mon-
roe, there is a single basal half of a leaf which I have identified as rep-
resenting the common Eocene species Combretum petraflumensis
1 Received June 20, 1933.
506 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 28, NO. 11
Berry,” although the specimen is too incomplete to be perfectly cer-
tain.
This species is very common in the Texas region in the Yegua and
Fayette formations but has not heretofore been found east of the
Figs. 1-5.—1. Cuticle of Combretum petraflumensis. X60; 2. Detail of stoma.
X320; 3-5. Sketches showing structure of the stoma and accessory cells.
Mississippi River, that is, in what has been called the Eastern Gulf
Region. The present specimen comes from the Yegua formation near
Jackson, Mississippi.
2 Berry, E. W. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 92: 85, pl. 45, figs. 1-4; pl. 58,
jigs. 2-4; pl. 59, figs. 1-8. 1924.
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 BERRY: EOCENE COMBRETUM 507
It shows what appears to be a spot fungus, but I was unable to get
any microscopic preparations of these spots. The material had dried
out considerably before it came into my hands but I succeeded in
making several cuticular preparations and these show the gross out-
lines of epidermal cells and pores with fidelity.
The stoma are certainly largely, and perhaps wholly, confined to
the lower surface of the leaf where they are rather evenly distributed
and in the preparations studied are 0.109 to 0.116 millimeters apart
and without any particular orientation. The cuticular cell walls are
relatively thick, and straight or slightly curved (not undulating).
Their outlines are polygonal and they show some variation in size. In
general they tend to be isodiametric except over the veins where their
long diameters are parallel to the venation as shown across the middle ©
of the microphotograph in Fig. 1 which is enlarged 60 diameters. The
apparent greater thickness of the walls over the veins is due entirely
to the better focus on this part of the specimen. It is difficult to be
sure regarding the stoma. Usually these are surrounded by a rather
symmetrical pentagonal thick walled border about 56 microns in
diameter, in the center of which are the open and familiar sausage-
shaped guard cells. These appear to be sunken below the surface, 1.e.
at the bottom of a shallow pit. Figure 2 shows their appearance with
a magnification of 320 diameters. In this figure the central pore is in
focus and nearby pores can be seen less clearly slightly out of focus.
Although there has been some decay possibly due to the invasion of
the mesophyll by fungal hyphae, and the details are not clear, J am
reproducing sketches of three of the stoma (Figs. 3, 4, and 5). These
appear to show 5 accessory cells around the opening. The peripheral
dividing walls are frequently thick but appear to taper inward and
the inner part of these divisions as well as the inner margins show no
thickening and no change in adjustment of focus shows any such
thickening, i.e. there is no visible evidence that the inner walls are
oblique to the outer walls. Sometimes the divisions lie at the angles
of the periphery and oftener they do not.
Several rather widely spaced wall knots that are above the general
surface level might be interpreted as papillae, but there are no traces
of trichomes. In both Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 there may be seen rather
straight strands continuing across and behind several cells. These may
be mycelial hyphae or they might be traces of sclerenchyma fibres
which ended freely in the mesophyll during life. The diameters of the
epidermal cells range approximately from 30 to 70 microns.
I have not compared these fossil preparations with those from
508 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 11
existing leaves as the subject is so vast in its details and so little is
known in a systematic way of Angiosperm cuticular structures. Ac-
cording to the brief summary of leaf anatomy of Combretum that is
given by Solereder, Combretum may have the epidermal cells with
undulate or straight walls, there may be papillae on the under surface
and sclerenchyma fibres in the mesophyll. The walls are said to be not
much thickened and special subsidiary cells are absent.
The fossil features agree partly with this statement and partly not.
It is possible that what I have considered as 5 accessory cells may be
ordinary epidermal cells in which the inner margins were not espe-
cially thickened and thus the resemblance to various gymnosperm
stomata may be illusory.
ZOOLOGY.—On some nematodes of the superfamily Rhabditoidea and
their status as parasites of reptiles and amphibians B. G. Curr-
woop, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communicated by G.
STEINER. )
-In the course of examinations of reptiles and amphibians, the
writer has found four nematodes which do not belong in any of the
recognized groups of vertebrate parasites, but appear definitely to be
most closely related to those groups generally referred to as ‘“‘free-
living.’’
In addition to the descriptions of these four species, a new genus,
Goodeyus, is proposed to contain Cylindrogaster ulmi Goodey. A new
family, Cylindrogasteridae, is also proposed to contain the genera
Cylindrogaster Goodey, Goodeyus, n. g., Myctolaimus Cobb, and Lon-
gibucca n. g., since these genera differ from those of the families
Rhabditidae and Diplogasteridae in characters which appear to war-
rant uniting them in a separate family.
Family ANGIOSTOMATIDAE R. Blanchard, 1895,
emend. Lane, 1923
Synonym.—Angiostomidae R. Blanchard, 1895.
Family diagnosis.—Rhabditoidea: Oral opening surrounded by dorsal and
two subventral indistinct lips (without lips, according to Dujardin (1845)
and Schneider (1866)). Internodorsal, internolateral, and internoventral
cephalic papillae rudimentary; dorsodorsal, ventroventral, and ventrolateral
papillae small; laterodorsal and lateroventral papillae large.” Buccal capsule
short and wide. Esophagus consists of a corpus, or anterior part, provided
1 Received May 29, 1933.
2 The designations for the various cephalic papillae used in this paper were pro-
posed by Chitwood, Journ. Parasitol. 19: 167. 1932. |
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 CHITWOOD: NEMATODES AS PARASITES 509
with a rudimentary swelling, an indistinct isthmus, and a posterior, glandu-
lar pseudobulb.? Male: Caudal alae well developed, incompletely united
posteriorly to form a rhabditoid bursa, supported by papillae; tail extending
a short distance beyond bursa. Two spicules; gubernaculum present. Fe-
male: Amphidelphic, ovaries reflexed; eggs numerous.
Type genus.—Angiostoma Dujardin, 1845. ©
The family Angiostomatidae may be separated from the family Rhabditi-
dae on the basis of the labial organs, there being three lips in the Angiosto-
matidae while there are either three bilobed lips or six simple lips in the
Rhabditidae, and on the basis of the esophagus which terminates in a
pseudobulb in the Angiostomatidae and a bulb in the Rhabditidae. It differs
from the Diplogasteridae in the character of the esophagus, a distinct cor-
poreal swelling being absent in the Angiostomatidae and present in the
Diplogasteridae, and in the presence of well developed caudal alae which are
united to form a rhabditoid bursa in the members of the Angiostomatidae
while caudal alae are narrow or absent in the Diplogasteridae.
ANGIOSTOMA Dujardin, 1845
Generic diagnosis.—Angiostomatidae: Amphids represented by minute
pores situated slightly dorsal and posterior to ventrolateral papillae. Buccal
capsule thick-walled, more or less infundibuliform. Esophagus consists of a
corpus or anterior part provided with a rudimentary swelling, an isthmus,
and a reduced glandular pseudobulb. Male: Testis single; caudal alae well
developed, almost united posteriorly to form a rhabditoid bursa; tail extend-
ing slightly posterior to bursa. Bursal papillae large; paired subventral post-
anal papillae present, at least in A. plethodontis. Two spicules, equal, in-
distinctly cephalated proximally, curved distally; gubernaculum present.
Female: Vulva near middle of body; vagina short, transverse; uteri diver-
gent; ovaries reflexed.
Type species.—Angiostoma limacis Dujardin, 1845.
Angiostoma plethodontis n. sp.
(Figs. 1-6.)
Specific description.—Angiostoma: Buccal cavity 8 to 8.54 deep, thick-
walled, more or less infundibuliform.
Male 2 mm. long by 60u wide. Esophagus consists of an anterior part or
corpus, 100u long, indistinctly set off posteriorly, an isthmus 56u long by 9u
wide, and a posterior glandular pseudobulb 45u long by 25u wide. Anus 34u
from posterior end of body. Testis single, reflexed. Caudal alae well de-
veloped, almost united posteriorly to form a rhabditoid bursa. Tail extend-
ing beyond bursa as a minute posterior projection. Caudal papillae con-
sisting of nine pairs of bursal papillae; two pairs preanal and seven pairs
postanal, the fifth and eighth pairs terminating on dorsal surface of bursa
while other pairs terminate on ventral surface (Figs. 4 and 5). Phasmids or
lateral tail papillae present. Preanal organ immediately anterior to anus,
possibly bearing sensory endings. One pair of conical, postanal, subventral
’ The term bulb in connection with the description of the esophagus is reserved for
the posterior swelling in which valves are present, and pseudobulb for this structure
in which valves are absent.
510 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 11
_ Figs. 1-6.—Angiostoma plethodontis. Fig. 1—Head, en face view. Fig. 2—Head,
slightly oblique dorsal view. Fig. 3—Esophageal region, lateral view. Fig. 4—Tail of
male, ventral view. Fig. 5—Same, lateral view. Fig. 6.—Tail of female, lateral view.
Figs. 7-10.—Longibucca vivipara. Fig. 7—Head, en face view. Fig. 8—Esophageal re-
gion, lateral view. Fig. 9.—Tail of male, lateral view. Fig. 10.—Tail of female, lateral
view. Figs. 11-14.—Rhabditis terricola. Fig. 11—Head, en face view. Fig. 12.—Head,
oblique view. Fig. 13.—Tail of female, ventral view. Fig. 14.—Tail of female, lateral’
view. Figs. 15-18.— Rhabditis aspera. Fig. 15.—Head, en face view. Fig. 16.—Esophageal
region, lateral view. Fig.17.—Tail of male, ventral view. Fig. 18.—Spicule, lateral view.
NOVEMBER 15, 19383 CHITWOOD: NEMATODES AS PARASITES 511
papillae near anus. Spicules equal, 60u long, cephalated proximally, curved
distally. Gubernaculum 25y long.
- Female 2.3 to 2.56 mm. long by 75 to 88u wide. Esophagus consisting of an
anterior part or corpus 110 to 114y long with a minimum diameter of 12yu
and a maximum diameter of 16 to 17y, an isthmus 60 to 62u long by 10 to 12u
wide, and a pseudobulb 50 to 52u long by 28 to 30u wide. Nerve ring 147y
and excretory pore 207yu from anterior end of body, respectively. Intestine
narrow in region of esophago-intestinal valve, slightly enlarged in cardiac
region. Anus 104 to 110u from posterior end of body. Rectal glands well de-
veloped. Tail attenuated. Vulva 920u to 1 mm. from anterior end of body
(40 per cent of length of body from anterior end); vagina short, transverse;
uteri divergent; ovaries reflexed. Fggs 50 to 52u long by 26 to 28u wide,
numerous, showing a linear arrangement in uterus, apparently in one-cell
stage at time of deposition.
Host.—Plethodon cinereus.
Location.—Intestine.
Distributton.—Black Pond, Virginia, U.S. A.
Type specomens.—U. S. National Museum, Helm. Coll. No. 31605; para-
types No. 33004.
The genus Angiostoma originally contained two species, A. limacis and
A. entomelas, of which the former was subsequently designated type. Most
of the earlier species of the genus Rhabdias Stiles and Hassall, 1905, have at
some time been placed in the genus Angiostoma, but the differences between
these two genera are so manifest as to make discussion unnecessary. Angio-
stoma entomelas has recently been removed from the genus Rhabdias by
Travassos (1930) and made the type of his new genus Hntomelas. There re-
main at the present time only two species in the genus in addition to the
type, namely, Angiostoma cylindricum (Leidy, 1849) Diesing, 1851, and
Angiostoma helicits Conte and Bonnet, 1904. Neither of these species, how-
ever, can be considered as a member of the genus Angiostoma. Leidy in his
description of Ascaris cylindrica (=Angiostoma cylindricum) states defi-
nitely that in A. cylindricum there is a valvulated bulb at the base of the
esophagus. Furthermore, the body proportions, as given by Leidy for this
species, do not approach those of either A. limacis or A. plethodontis. From
Leidy’s description and from observations made by the writer on material
in his personal collections from snails and slugs (to be published later), it
appears that A. cylindricum belongs to the genus Cosmocercoides Wilkie,
1930. Angiostoma helicis appears from the character of the spicules to be also
a member of the Cosmocercidae, but this species can not be properly allo-
cated generically without further information.
There are discrepancies between the descriptions of Angiostoma limacis
by Dujardin (1845), and of Leptodera angiostoma Schneider (1866) (=A.
limacis Dujardin, 1845, renamed) by Schneider, concerning the character of
the spicules and the male tail. The character of the caudal alae as described
by Schneider for ZL. angiostoma approaches that of A. plethodontis more
closely than it does that of A. limacis, but the spicules of L. angzostoma are
512 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 11
reported as leaf-like, while the spicules of A. limacis and A. plethodontis are
arcuate. Ordinarily it would seem reasonable to consider L. angiostoma
Schneider as a species of Angzostoma separate from A. limacis Duj., but until
additional information is available this seems inadvisable, especially since
Schneider himself considered Leptodera angiostoma the same as Angiostoma
limacis.
CYLINDROGASTERIDAB, new family
Family diagnosis.—Rhabditoidea: Oral opening surrounded by six lips,
each bearing a papilla of the internal circle (internodorsal, internolateral,
and internoventral papillae); and an external circle of 6 or 10 papillae;
papillae of external circle not mentioned in some instances. Amphids situ-
ated on lateral lips. Buccal cavity unusually long. Esophagus consisting of a
cylindrical corpus, an isthmus, and a glandular pseudobulb. Male: Testis
single; caudal alae present or absent; spicules equal; gubernaculum present.
Female: Amphidelphic or prodelphic.
Type genus.—Cylindrogaster Goodey, 1927.
This family differs from the Diplogasteridae both in the form of the buccal
, cavity, which is longer in the Cylindrogasteridae than in the Diplogasteridae,
and in the absence of the corporeal swelling in the Cylindrogasteridae, this
structure being present in the Diplogasteridae. The members of the family
Rhabditidae differ from the members of the family Cylindrogasteridae in the
same manner as do those of the Diplogasteridae, with the additional dif-
ference of the absence of the valves in the posterior bulbous enlargement of
the esophagus of the Cylindrogasteridae.
The writer includes in this family the genera Cylindrogaster Goodey, 1924,
type C. longistoma (Stefanski, 1922); Goodeyus n. g., type G. ulmi (Goodey,
1930); Myctolaimus Cobb, 1920, type M. pellucidus Cobb, 1920; and Long:-
bucca n. g., type L. vivipara, n. sp. For these genera the following diagnoses
are formulated.
KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE CYLINDROGASTERIDAE
1.- Male with caudalalae or bursa ...09 02:57... 2. 2.
Male: without:caudal-alae or bursa:.... 22... .. o>. ae 3.
2. Caudal alae narrow (as in Rhabditella); female amphidelphic..........
ee i arent et Ieee fA, PE A, Pe ene, ee... Cylindrogaster.
Caudal alae wide, forming a rhabditoid bursa; female monodelphic, pro-
delphich... « Sake a.. ge ee ee A ees Goodeyus.
3. Lips a developed; female araplitclela atte Le Oe eres M yctolaimus.
Lips indistinct; female monodelphic, prodelphic........ Longibucca.
CYLINDROGASTER Goodey, 1927
Generic diagnosis.—Cylindrogasteridae: Oral opening surrounded by six
lips, each bearing a papilla of the internal circle (internodorsal, inter-
nolateral and internoventral papillae). Buccal cavity elongate, tubular.
Esophagus consisting of an anterior, cylindrical corpus, an isthmus and a
posterior, glandular pseudobulb. Male: Caudal alae narrow, not united
posteriorly; tail long, filiform; extending beyond caudal alae. Caudal papil-
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 CHITWOOD: NEMATODES AS PARASITES 513
lae distributed as in the leptoderan group of rhabditids.t Spicules equal,
cephalated, rather arcuate; gubernaculum present. Female: Amphidelphic;
ovaries reflexed.
Type species—Cylindrogaster longistoma (Stefanski, 1922) Stefanski,
1928. (Synonyms.—Rhabditis longistoma Stefanski, 1922; Cylindrogaster
coprophaga Goodey, 1927.)
Other species.—Cylindrogaster macrolaima (Schneider, 1866) new comb.
(Synonyms.—Leptodera macrolaima Schneider, 1866; Rhabditis macrolaima
(Schneider, 1866) Oerley, 1886.)
The genus Cylindrogaster Goodey, 1927, was proposed to include C. copro-
phaga Goodey, 1927, but the type species was shown by Stefanski (1927) to
be a synonym of Rhabditis longistoma Stefanski, 1922.
Leptodera macrolaima Schneider, 1866, was apparently overlooked by
Stefanski (1922 and 1927) and by Goodey (1927 and 1930), since it bears a
very close resemblance to Cylindrogaster longistoma and there appears to be
some doubt whether the two species can be retained. Cylindrogaster longi-
stoma differs from C. macrolaima ( = Leptodera macrolaima) in that the isthmus
of the esophagus is longer in the former species and there is one more pair
of bursal papillae than in the latter. Whether or not these differences are
attributable to more detailed descriptions of the more recently described
species than of the earlier described species, can not be settled at this time.
Goodeyus new genus
Generic diagnosis.—Cylindrogasteridae: Oral opening surrounded by six
lips each bearing a papilla of the internal circle (internodorsal, interno-
lateral and internoventral papillae). Buccal cavity elongate, tubular. Esoph-
agus consisting of an anterior cylindrical corpus, an isthmus, and a pos-
terior pseudobulb. Male: Caudal alae united posteriorly to form a rhab-
ditoid bursa; tail not extending beyond bursa; caudal papillae arranged as
in the peloderan group of rhabditids. Spicules equal, acicular, slightly
cephalated; gubernaculum present. Testis single, reflexed. Female: Prodel-
phic; ovary reflexed.
Type species.—Goodeyus ulmi (Goodey, 1930).
This genus is dedicated to Dr. T. Goodey.
Myctrouaimus Cobb, 1920
Generic diagnosis.—Cylindrogasteridae: Oral opening surrounded by six
relatively large lips, each bearing a papilla (? of the internal circle). Buccal
cavity elongate, tubular. Esophagus consisting of an anterior cylindrical
corpus, an isthmus and a pseudobulb. Male: Caudal alae absent; convex-
conoid in anterior half, cylindrical and tapering to an acute point in pos-
terior half. Caudal papillae consisting of 2 pairs of preanal, 1 pair of adanal,
4 The terms “‘leptoderan” and ‘‘peloderan’’ are used in somewhat the same sense
as Schneider (1866) used the genera Leptodera and Pelodera. Those rhabditids with
relatively long tails extending some distance beyond the caudal alae, i.e., Rhabditoides
coprophaga Goodey, 1929, and Rhabditella leptura Cobb, 1929, are referred to as the
“leptoderan group of rhabditids,’’ while those rhabditids with relatively short tails
which are either entirely surrounded by the caudal alae, i.e., Rhabditis terricola, are
referred to as the ‘‘peloderan group of rhabditids.”’
514 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 238, No. 11
and 6 pairs of postanal papillae. Spicules linear, tapering and blunt; guber-
naculum present. Female: Amphidely hic; ovaries reflexed.
Type species.—M yctolaimus pellucidus Cobb, 1920.
Dr. Steiner kindly called my attention to this genus.
Longibucca new genus
Generic diagnosis.—Cylindrogasteridae: Oral opening surrounded by six
indistinct lips each bearing a papilla, the internodorsal, internolateral and
internoventral papillae; external circle of papillae represented by latero-
dorsal, ventrolateral and lateroventral papillae. Amphids situated at base
of lateral lips; amphidial opening round, minute. Buccal cavity nearly
equal in length to esophagus proper, consisting of a short, cylindrical, thick-
walled, anterior part indistinctly separated from posterior, delicate, tubular
part. Posterior part of buccal cavity enclosed in fibrous tissue. Esophagus
consisting of an anterior, cylindrical corpus indistinctly set off posteriorly,
a narrow delicate isthmus, and a posterior, piriform pseudobulb. Male:
Testis single, reflexed, caudal alae absent; tail attenuated; caudal papillae
arranged as in the leptoderan group of rhabditids and in the diplogasterids.
Two spicules, short, equal, sharply curved, alate; gubernaculum present.
Female: Vulva in posterior part of body, near anus; prodelphic, ovary
reflexed.
Type species.—Longibucca vivipara, new species.
The genus Longibucca is most closely related to the genus Myctolaimus
Cobb, 1920 but differs from that genus in the presence of indistinct lips,
and only one ovary. It differs from Cylindrogaster Goodey, 1927, in the fol-
lowing characters: In L. vivipara there is a single ovary, the vulva is in the
posterior part of the body, and caudal alae are absent, while in Cylindrogaster
longistoma there are two ovaries, the vulva is near the middle of the body,
and caudal alae are present. The character of the buccal cavity in L. vivipara
differs from that of C. longistoma only in the very delicate thickening of the
anterior part in L. vivipara.
Longibucca vivipara, new species
(Figs. 7-10 and 19).
Specific description.—Longibucca: Male 500 to 550u long by 10 to 12u
wide. Lateral alae present. Anterior part of buccal cavity 4.74, posterior part
55 to 60u long. Esophagus consisting of a cylindrical corpus 18 to 20u long
by 4u wide, an isthmus 224 by 2u wide, and a glandular pseudobulb, l6u
long by 4u wide. Nerve ring 70 to 75u, and excretory pore 65 to 75u, from
anterior end of body; tail curved, attenuated, usually having a dorsal turn
near distal end. Caudal papillae consisting of six pairs, one pair preanal,
five pairs postanal; second and fifth pairs subdorsal, others subventral.
Testis single, outstretched, extending to within 224u of anterior end of body.
Spicules 13 to 17 long; gubernaculum 4.5y long.
Female 580 to 630u long by 18 to 20u wide. Anterior part of buccal cavity
4 to 4.5u long; posterior part of buccal cavity 50 to 64u long. Esophagus con-
sisting of a corpus 20 to 25u long by 3.5 to 4u wide, an isthmus 18 to 20u
long by 1.5 to 2u wide, and a glandular pseudobulb 15 to 18y long by 5 to 6u
wide. Nerve ring 85 to 97u and excretory pore 80 to 92u from anterior end
NOVEMBER 15, 1983 CHITWOOD: NEMATODES AS PARASITES 515
of body, respectively. Tail curved, attenuated; usually having a dorsal turn
near distal end. Vulva 480 to 520u from anterior end of body (approxi-
mately 82 per cent of length from anterior end); vagina short, transverse;
uteri divergent; anterior gonad outstretched, extending to within 160 to
200u of anterior end of body; posterior uterus rudimentary, gonad absent.
Eggs produced singly, shell thin; viviparous. Eggs grow in size with growth
of larva.
Host.—Pseudoboa cloelia.
Location.—Stomach.
Distribution.—National Zoological Park, Washington, D. C. (Host from
British Guinea).
Type specimens.—U. 8. National Museum Helm. Coll. No. 33005; para-
types No. 33006.
Fig. 19.—Section of stomach of Pseudoboa cloelia showing female
Longibucca vivipara free in submucosa.
Sections were made of the stomach wall of the host, Pseudoboa cloelia, in
which both larval and adult nematodes were observed in large numbers.
These parasites were situated in the mucosa and submucosa, and some few
were even observed in the muscular coat of the stomach. The nematodes
were often free, apparently migrating through the mucous membrane and
submucous coat, but some specimens were also observed partially coiled in
and surrounded by tissue showing some slight cellular reaction. The stomach
wall contained a great number of epithelial plugs and in some of these par-
tially degenerate specimens of the parasite were observed (Figs. 19 and 20).
The evidence at hand indicates that these worms exert a distinct pathologi-
cal effect upon the host,
516 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 11
Goodey (1927) has suggested that the genus Aulolaimus de Man, 1884,
might be related to Cylindrogaster Goodey, 1927.
The position of the genus Aulolaimus is uncertain at the present time.
It presents similarities to the Cylindrogasteridae and the Monhysteridae
(Cylindrolaiminae). DeMan states, ‘‘Kopfende nicht, abgesetzt, ohne Lip-
pen, Papillen oder Borsten. Mundhohle ausserordentlich verlangert, réhren-
formig, sehr enge, langer als der eigentliche Osophagus, mit chitindsen
Wanden.”’ In the figure of the esophageal region of the type species, Aulo-
laimus oxycephalus, a long tubular buccal cavity and a short cylindrical
“esophagus” is shown. The possession of median preanal papillae in the male
Fig. 20.—Section of stomach of Pseudoboa cloelia showing
epithelial plug containing L. vivipara.
probably indicates a relationship with Cylindrolaimus de Man, 1880, rather
than with Cylindrogaster. Since the description of the anterior end of the in-
testine and its connection with the esophagus is omitted, it seems possible
that de Man overlooked the isthmus and glandular pseudobulb, thus con-
cluding that the corpus was the entire esophagus. The distinguishing fea-
tures of Aulolaimus, if it warrants consideration here as a member of the
Cylindrogasteridae, are as follows: Caudal alae absent in male; spicules
semicircular in contour; three large median preanal papillae; postanal
papillae absent. Vulva slightly posterior to middle of body; amphidelphic.
The present writer makes no assumptions or interpretations in regard to the
original description and mentions only those characters which serve to dis-
tinguish the genus A ulolaimus from the four genera previously characterized
as belonging to the Cylindrogasteridae.
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 CHITWOOD: NEMATODES AS PARASITES 517
Family RHABDITIDAE Oerley, 1880
RHABDITIS TERRICOLA Dujardin, 1845
(Figs. 11-14).
Synonyms.—Pelodera teres Schneider, 1866; Rhabditis teres (Schneider,
1866) Biitschli, 1873.
Specific description.—Rhabditis: Oral opening surrounded by six distinct
lips, the internal sides of which are abruptly triangular. Internodorsal, in-
ternolateral and internoventral papillae well developed; laterodorsal, ‘and
lateroventral papillae well developed; dorsodorsal, ventrolateral, and ven-
troventral papillae somewhat reduced. Amphids represented externally by
small pores situated dorsolaterally on the lateral lips. Cuticle with longi-
tudinal rows of minute dots.
Male 830u to 1.14 mm. long by 48 to 64u wide. Buccal cavity 18 to 20u
long by 4 to 5u wide. Glottoid apparatus consisting of nine elements (Fig.
13). Esophagus consisting of a corpus 86 to 100u long by 10 to 12u wide, sub- ~
divided into an anterior part 58 to 66yu long by 10 to 12u wide, and a cor-
-poreal swelling 28 to 34u long by 20 to 24u wide, an isthmus, 30 to 32yu long
by 6 to 8y wide, and a bulb 28 to 30u long by 24 to 26u wide. Nerve ring 110u
from anterior end of body. Excretory pore 144y from anterior end of body.
Excretory system consisting of paired anterior and posterior collecting ducts
which join ventrally in the region of the bulb, forming a sinus, two sub-
ventral gland cells which likewise open into the sinus, and a cuticular-walled,
terminal duct. Anterior part of intestine enlarged but not set off as a dis-
tinct area or cardia; intestinal pigment very dark, nearly black; anus 26 to
40u from posterior end of body. Testis single, extending to within 350
to 470u (41 to 42 per cent) of the anterior end of the body, refiexed poste-
riorly. Two large multicellular ejaculatory glands present. Caudal alae sur-
round tail to forma rhabditoid bursa. Caudal papillae consisting of 10 pairs
of papillae, 3 pairs preanal, 7 pairs postanal. There is a minute medio-
ventral preanal organ, a pair of preanal subventral papillae, and a pair of
postanal subventral papillae on the cloacal elevation; postanal papillae in-
distinct, possibly double (Fig. 14). Spicules 36 to 42u long, fused distally,
cephalated proximally; gubernaculum closely applied to spicules.
Female 1 to 1.35 mm. long by 66 to 70u wide. Buccal cavity 22 to 26u
long by 6u wide. Esophagus consisting of a corpus 86 to 100u long, sub-
divided into an anterior part 62 to 70u long by 10 to 12u wide and a cor-
poreal swelling 24 to 30u long by 20 to 22u wide, an isthmus 34 to 42u long
by 7 to 8u wide, and a bulb 30u long by 28u wide. Nerve ring 130 to 146n,
and excretory pore 154 to 170u, from anterior end of body, respectively.
Intestine as in male; anus 48 to 76u from posterior end of body. Tail blunt
with a filiform terminus. Vulva 540 to 730u from anterior end of body (53
to 55 per cent); vagina transverse; uteri opposed. Anterior ovary reflexed
posteriorly, extending to within 330 to 400u of anterior end of body (29 to
33 per cent) ; posterior ovary extending to within 186 to 201, of posterior end
of body (15 to 18.6 per cent), reflexed anteriorly. Eggs 36 to 44u long by 18
to 26u wide; ovoviviparous; eggs numerous, up to 18 in number.
Host.—Salamandra salamandra.
Location.—Lung.
Locality.—N ational Zoological Park, Washington, D. C.
Specimens..—U. 8. National Museum Helm. Coll. No. 33007.
518 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 11
This species was found in large numbers in the lung of a single specimen
of Salamandra salamandra; probably this host and location represent an
accidental or abnormal habitat for this nematode which is usually found in
decaying plant or animal tissue. It is possible also that the invasion may have
taken place after death of the host. ;
Micoletzky (1922) refers to Rhabditis terricola Dujardin, 1845, as a
synonym of Rhabditis teres (Schneider, 1866), stating that Dujardin’s spe-
cies must be considered as a species inquirenda. This is an untenable con-
clusion, since if Rhabditis terricola Dujardin is a species inquirenda, the
genus Rhabditis Dujardin, 1845, of which R. terricola is the type, must also
be regarded as a genus inquirenda. Oerley (1886) considered R. teres (Schnei-
der) a synonym of R. terricola Dujardin, and this conclusion appears to be
the most reasonable solution. In his discussion, Dujardin undoubtedly re-
ferred to a number of species, and in the description only 7 or 8 pairs of
caudal papillae are mentioned. There are discrepancies in the number of
caudal papillae as found by subsequent workers, but these discrepancies do
not appear to be greater than those found in the works of Rudolphi, Diesing,
and other of the earlier helminthologists. The genus Rhabditis is old and
very well known, and R. terricola (=R. teres [Schneider]) is a very common
species, available to workers in all parts of the world. In synonymizing
R. teres with R. terricola, Oerley made an assumption which would validate
this genus and there can be no doubt concerning the genus so long as he is
followed. On the contrary, if many of the descriptions of older genera and
species were held to the exact statements made by the author, probably over
half of the genera today would necessarily become invalid, with a resultant
confusion and little or no benefit.
RHABDITIS LUCANII Maupas, 1919
(Figs. 15-18).
Specific description—Rhabditis: Oral opening subtriangular, surrounded
by three bilobed lips (formed by the fusion of six lips). Internal circle of
papillae well developed. Dorsodorsal and ventroventral papillae small, near
large laterodorsal and lateroventral papillae; ventrolateral papillae small.
Amphids slightly subdorsal. .
Male 1 to 1.832 mm. long by 64 to 94u wide. Buccal cavity 20 to 22u long
by 5 to 6 wide. Glottoid apparatus distinct. Esophagus consists of a corpus
126 to 140 long, indistinctly subdivided into an anterior part 70 to 80y
long by 18 to 20y wide, and a corporeal swelling 56 to 60u long by 24 to 26u
wide, an isthmus 50 to 54u long by 11 to 14u wide, and a bulb 24 to 35y long
by 28 to 34u wide. Nerve ring 156 to 180u from anterior end of body. Ex-
cretory pore 180 to 230u from anterior end of body. Exxcretory system con-
sisting of paired anterior and posterior collecting ducts which join ventrally
in the region of the esophageal bulb, forming a sinus, two subventral ex-
cretory glands which likewise open into the sinus, and a cuticular-walled
terminal duct. Anterior part of intestine not enlarged; anus 44 to 60» from
posterior end of body. Testis single, extending to within 370 to 454y of
anterior end of body; ejaculatory glands apparently absent. Caudal alae
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 CHITWOOD: NEMATODES AS PARASITES 019
large, nearly united to form a rhabditoid bursa but not surrounding tail,
terminus of tail extending beyond bursa as a fine filament. Caudal papillae
consisting of 9 pairs of which 3 pairs are preanal, 3 pairs adanal and 8 pairs
postanal. Phasmids (sometimes also referred to as papillae) immediately
posterior to last pair of caudal papillae. Fifth and eighth pairs of papillae
terminating on dorsal side of bursa (Fig. 18). One pair of small preanal sub-
ventral papillae and a pair of double postanal subventral papillae near anus.
Spicules separate, 50 to 62u long, only slightly cephalated, proximally not
arcuate, slightly hooked distally; gubernaculum 20 to 27u long.
Female 1.36 to 1.45 mm. long by 114 to 120u wide. Buccal cavity 20 to
26u long by 55 to 64y wide. Esophagus consists of a corpus 130 to 170u long,
subdivided into an anterior part 76 to 90u long by 20 to 26u wide and a
posterior corporeal swelling 54 to 80u long by 30 to 32u wide, an isthmus 54
to 80u long by 12 to 15u wide, and a bulb 30 to 50yu long by 32 to 36u wide.
Nerve ring 160 to 210u, and excretory pore 210 to 250u, from anterior end
of body, respectively. Excretory system consists of a pair of anterior and
posterior collecting ducts which join anteriorly to form a sinus, a pair of
subventral glands which open into the sinus, and a terminal, cuticular-walled
duct; posterior excretory system also present. Intestine as in male; anus 120
to 180u from posterior end of body. Tail conically attenuated. Phasmids (lat-
eral tail ‘“‘papillae’’) 82 to 1380u from posterior end of body. Vulva 670 to 732u
from anterior end of body (49 to 50 per cent of body length from anterior
end); vagina short, transverse, uteri opposed; anterior ovary extending to
within 420 to 580u of anterior end of body, reflexed posteriorly; posterior
ovary extending to within 510 to 520y of posterior end of body, reflexed
anteriorly. Eggs 50 to 52u long by 28 to 30u wide; ovoviviparous; total num-
ber of eggs usually about 6 to 10.
Host.—Salamandra salamandra.
Location.—Lung.
Locahty.—National Zoological Park, Washington, D. C.
Specumens.—U. 8. National Museum Helm. Coll. No. 33008.
Rhabditis lucanit, like R. terricola, was found but one time in the lungs of
Salamandra salamandra. The writer has no absolute proof that this species
did not invade the body of the host after death even though the carcass was
in good condition, but since there were several hundred specimens of A. luc-
anit present, the conclusion that this was not a case of post-mortem invasion
appears reasonable under the circumstances.
The species Rhabditis lucanii Maupas, 1919, was proposed for Rhabditis
aspera Bitschli, 1873, of Oerley, 1886, the chief differences between Kf.
aspera, as originally described by Biitschli (1873), and as described by
Oerley (1886) =R. lucanii Maupas, 1919, being that the swelling of the an-
terior part of the esophagus is less distinct and the spicules are thinner in
R. lucani than in R. aspera.
LITERATURE CITED
Bitscui, O. Betitrdége zur Kenntnis der freilebenden Nematoden. Nova Acta K.
Deutsch. Akad. Naturf. 36: 1-124. 1873.
Coss, N. A. Bursal formula for Rhabditis. Jour. Parasitol. 6(4): 198. 1920.
520 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 11
Coss, N. A. One hundred new nemas. (Type species of 100 new genera.) Contribu-
tions to a Science of Nematology IX, pp. 217-3438. 1920.
Conts, A. and Bonnet, A. Sur un nématode nouveau Angiostoma hélicis n. sp. Para-
site de lappareil génital d’ Helix aspersa (Mull.). Ann. Soc. Linn. de Lyon.
(1903) n.s., 50: 63-68. 1904.
DusarpDIN, F. AHzstoire naturelle des helminthes ou vers intestinaux. 654 pp., 12 pls.
1845.
Goopgy, T. Cylindrogaster coprophaga gen. et sp. nov. A nematode found in a culture
of faeces from a wild brown rat. Jour. Helminth. 5: 25-32. 1927.
GoovEy, T. A new species of the nematode genus Cylindrogaster. Jour. Helminth.
8: 89-92. 1930.
Leipy, J. New genera and species of Entozoa. Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Phila. (1848-49).
4: 229-233. 1849.
Man, J. G. pe. Drie frei in der reinen Erde und im stissen Wasser lebende Nematoden
der niederldndischen Fauna. 206 pp., illus. Leiden. 1884.
MicoueTzky, H. Dve freclebenden Erd-Nematoden. Arch. f. Naturg. (1921), 81, Abt.
A. (8-9): 1-650. 1922.
OmrR.LEY, L. Die Rhabditiden und thre medicinische Bedeutung. 84 pp., 6 pls. Berlin.
1886.
ScHNEIDER, A. Monographie der Nematoden. 357 pp., illus., Berlin. 1866.
STEFANSKI, W. Sur l’identité des especes Rhabditis longistoma Stefanski, 1922 et
Cylindrogaster coprophaga Goodey, 1927. Jour. Helminth. 6: 77-78. 1928.
ZOOLOGY.—New species of Lymnaeidae from British America.
FRANK Co.uuins BAkgr, University of Illinois. (Communicated
by Pau BarRTScH.)
The receipt of a number of species of Lymnaeidae from British
America submitted by the Geological Survey of Canada for identifi-
cation has made necessary a revision of most of the species belonging to
the genus Stagnicola. In the course of this revision it became ap-
parent that a number of species were passing current under names
which did not belong to them. One of these is Lymnaea (Stagnicola)
vahlu. (Beck) Moller. An examination of the material belonging to
this species contained in the United States National Museum, named
by Mérch, seems to indicate rather conclusively that vahli is not
found outside of Greenland, its type locality. Both Dall (Alaska Moll.,
p. 74, 1905) and Baker (Lymnaeidae of North America, p. 370, 1911)
refer material from various parts of British America to vahli. As
many as ten species appear to have been included in this species.
From an examination of an abundance of material from different parts
of Canada and adjacent territory it may safely be stated that vahli
must be restricted to Greenland and that these other species and
forms must be given names. The only lymnaeid approaching vahli
is Stagnicola arctica (Lea), described from Moose River at Moose
1 Received August 3, 1933.
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 BAKER: NEW LYMNAEIDAE 521
Fig. 1—Upper row, Stagnicola vahlii, Greenland; middle row, S. arctica, Moose
River, Hudson Bay; lower row, three figures at left, S. kennicotti (middle figure the
holotype), two figures at right, S. palustris ungava (figure at left holotype). All
figures X2.
522 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 11
Factory, Hudson Bay. For comparison figures of vahlii are shown in
Fig. 1, the upper row. These are from Greenland and were named by
Morch. Specimens of arctica from the type locality are shown in the
second row, collected by Mr. Calvin Goodrich. This species has a
differently shaped shell and aperture. |
Two new forms found in the material submitted by the United
States National Museum are described below. A full discussion of
the British American lymnaeid fauna is in preparation.
Stagnicola kennicotti, sp. nov.
Fig. 1, lower row, three figures at left.
Shell elongated, turreted, rather solid; light horn colored, whitish and
greenish in some specimens; surface dull, growth lines coarse and spiral
lines deeply indented; whorls 7, convex, the body whorl globose, the sutures
deeply indented; spire acutely pyramidal, considerably longer than the
aperture; nuclear whorl large, flattened, horn-colored; aperture roundly
ovate; outer lip thin with slight or no varical thickening; inner lip flattened
but not very wide and reflexed over the umbilical region, leaving a small,
narrow chink; the inner lip spreads upward to form a callus on the parietal
‘wall; there are several varical bands on the shell, usually dark brown in
color.
Length 21.3; Diameter 9.0; Aperture length 8.9;
nee acl. : LOS: : «| Bor
“ 1726; . 8.0; : - Wese
Diameter 4.5mm. Holotype.
5.0mm. Paratype.
4.7mm. Paratype.
“
Type Locauiry: Creek at Barnard Harbor, near Coronation Gulf, Mac-
kenzie District, Canada. Types: U.S. Nat. Mus., No. 216856, collected by
Canadian Arctic Expedition. Another lot of 5 specimens, immature, No.
216855.
This lymnaeid differs from all others in the Canadian region in its scalar
whorls, small, roundly ovate aperture, and convex whorls. It belongs to a
peculiar group of species distributed throughout northwestern Canada and
Alaska which have passed for vahliz, but which represent several distinct spe-
cies and races. Young shells of kennicotti 11-12 mm. long are very scalari-
form and have 54 whorls. The same difference in length of aperture and
spire persists in the immature shell as it does in the mature shell of seven
whorls.
This species is dedicated to Robert Kennicott, a distinguished naturalist
of the middle of the last century, who greatly advanced the study of arctic
life by his personal explorations and who died in Alaska on his last ex-
pedition.
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 NELSON AND GOLDMAN: PUMA FROM BRAZIL 523
Stagnicola palustris ungava, subsp. nov.
Fig. 1, lower row, two figures at right.
Stagnicola vahliz Dall, Alaska Moll. 75. 1905; Baker, Lymnaeidae, 372. 1911.
Shell rather thin, elongated; color brownish horn, sometimes streaked
with yellowish, the streaks often arranged in longitudinal bands; surface
dull, sculpture of coarse growth lines and impressed spiral lines; whorls
more than 6 (the apex is broken in all specimens), quite convex with deep
sutures; body whorl obese; spire broadly pyramidal, elongated, longer than
the aperture; the penultimate whorl is large and puffy in appearance;
aperture roundly ovate, rounded below and a trifle acute above, light choco-
late colored within; outer lip thin without varical thickening in adult shells;
inner lip wide, folded over the columellar region to form a wide reflection
which is impressed and indented at the junction of columella and body
whorl; there is no distinct plait; there is a narrow umbilical chink; parietal
wall with a wide, white callus.
Length 20.2; Diameter 10.0; Aperture length 10.2;
6 19.0: 6c 9.1 e “c 44 8:0:
c 19.5: “ 9.0: <4 <4 0.0:
Diameter 5.6 mm. Holotype.
3 5.0mm. Paratype.
5.3mm. Paratype.
c
Type Locauity: Fort Chimo, Kuksoak River, near Ungava Bay, Labra-
dor, collected by Turner. Types: U.S. Nat. Mus., No. 73727.
This lymnaeid appears to be a member of the palustris complex, differing
from the race called elodes in its globose body whorl, smaller and rounder
aperture, less distinct columellar plait, larger umbilical chink, and the puffy
appearance of the penultimate whorl. It has not been seen from any other
part of British America and may be a distinct northeastern race of palustris.
LOOLOGY.—A new puma from Brazil.1 E. W. Newson and EH. A.
GOLDMAN.
The examination of material recently received from the field, has
indicated the desirability of recognizing a geographic race of Felis
concolor Linné in the great lowland area embraced in the Amazon
River drainage, northern Brazil. The specimens are in the American
Museum of Natural History, New York. For the privilege of describ-
ing the new form we are indebted to Messrs. H. E. Anthony, Curator
of Mammals, and G. H. H. Tate, Assistant Curator of South Ameri-
can Mammals, in the institution mentioned.
1 Received July 28, 1933.
524 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 238, No. 11
Felis concolor borbensis, subsp. nov.
Amazon Puma
Type.—From Borba, Rio Madeira, Amazonas, Brazil. No. 92298, of
adult, skull only, American Museum of Natural History, collected by Olalla
Brothers, February 10, 1930. Original No. 1854.
Distribution.—Middle section of low valley of Amazon River to upper
course of Rio Negro; probably widely distributed in low lying parts of
Amazon River drainage.
General characters—A medium sized, rich rufescent subspecies, closely
allied to Felis concolor concolor of southeastern Brazil, but darker cinnamon
rufous or ferruginous, and cranial details distinctive. Similar in color to
F. c. anthonyt of southern Venezuela, but skull decidedly narrower, less
massive. Differing from F. c. wavula of British Guiana, in smaller size and
important cranial features. Much larger and darker than F. c. greeni of Rio
Grande do Norte, extreme eastern Brazil, and skull characters widely
divergent.
Color—Female from Rosarinho, Rio Madeira, Brazil: Top of head, neck,
and narrow median dorsal area to base of tail rich cinnamon rufous thinly
overlaid with black, passing gradually on sides of neck, shoulders, along
flanks and on outer surfaces of limbs, into cinnamon, becoming cinnamon
buff across under surface of neck and on feet; chin, throat, chest, inner sides
-of limbs, inguinal region and lips, except a black spot near vibrissae, white;
belly pale buffy; face in general dark brownish, almost blackish on upper
surface of muzzle; ears deep glossy black externally, narrowly edged with
gray, thinly clothed internally with whitish hairs; tail above tawny on
proximal half and ochraceous tawny on distal portion, mixed with black,
becoming light ochraceous buffy below to near black tip. In a specimen from
Aurara Igarapé the median dorsal area is darker and nearer ferruginous.
Skull—Very similar in general form to that of F. c. concolor, but de-
cidedly narrower; rostrum narrower; nasals rising higher between anterior
processes of frontals as viewed in profile from the side, the median trough-
like depression deep anteriorly much as in concolor, but shallowing more
rapidly posteriorly; posterior border of palate more convex; interpterygoid
fossa narrower; audital bullae smaller; upper carnassials and third upper
molars smaller. Much narrower, less massive than F. c. anthonyz; frontal
region higher, more evenly arched; nasals less flattened, more inflated and
convex between anterior processes of frontals as viewed from the side;
rostrum and interpterygoid fossa much narrower; audital bullae smaller;
carnassials and third premolars, above and below, distinctly smaller. Smaller
and lighter in structure than F. c. wavula; rostrum less compressed laterally
between ascending branches of maxillae; nasals more highly arched, less de-
pressed and V-shaped along median line posteriorly; interpterygoid fossa
relatively narrower; audital bullae relatively smaller; dentition much lighter;
upper carnassial with internal cusp less prominent. Contrasted with that of
F. c. greeni the skull exhibits a marked departure in detail, as follows: Size
larger; general form more elongated; vault of cranium much higher, more
arched; nasals more inflated, less flattened; ascending branches of maxillae
narrower; audital bullae relatively larger, more inflated; dentition relatively
heavier; canines relatively much longer.
Measurements——An adult female from Rosarinho, Rio Madeira, Brazil:
Total length, 1500 mm.; tail vertebrae, 693; hind foot, 220. Skull (type):
NOVEMBER 15, 19833 GOLDMAN: MOUSE FROM PANAMA 525
Greatest length, 200; zygomatic breadth, 135.7; interorbital breadth, 41.7;
least width between outer walls of interpterygoid fossa, 28.2; alveolar
length of upper canine-premolar series, 59.2; crown length of upper car-
nassial, 23.3.
Remarks.—Felis concolor borbensis will probably prove to be widely dis-
tributed in the vast lowland area drained by the Amazon River and its
tributaries. Specimens from the region of the type locality appear to be more
nearly related to F. c. concolor than to any other known form, but the scanty
material available indicates that the cranial details mentioned are quite dis-
tinctive. One from Tatt, in the lowlands of the upper part of the Rio Negro,
near the mouth of the Rio Uaupes, is not very far distant geographically
from F. c. anthonyi, but agrees closely in the more essential characters with
typical borbenszs. The new form, borbensis, occupies a somewhat intermedi-
ate geographic position and may be expected to intergrade on the north
with anthonyi and wavula, on the east with greenz, on the south with typical
concolor, and on the west it may possibly pass into F. c. séderstrémiz, the
dark, high mountain form of northern Ecuador.
Specimens examined.—Four, all from Brazil, as follows: Aurara Igarapé,
Rio Madeira, 1; Borba, Rio Madeira (type locality), 1; Rosarinho, Rio
Madeira, 1; Tatu, Rio Negro, 1.
ZOOLOGY.—A new climbing mouse from Panama.!. E. A. GOoLp-
MAN, Biological Survey.
In the course of studies of the mammals of Barro Colorado Island,
Canal Zone, Panama, Robert K. Enders obtained, in a tree, a single
specimen of a new form closely allied to Oecomys bicolor, of Ecuador.
For the privilege of describing the new species I am indebted to Dr.
Enders for whom the animal is named.
Oecomys endersi, sp. nov.
Barro Colorado Island Climbing Mouse
Type——From Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone, Panama. No. 64931,
2 adult, University of Michigan Museum, collected by R. K. Enders,
February 12, 1931. Original number 474.
Distribution — Known only from the type locality.
General characters.—A medium-sized, dark-colored species, with tail some-
what longer than head and body, slightly pencilled at tip; zygomata slightly
notched and zygomatic plate little projecting anteriorly, as viewed from
above. Mammae: Pectoral, 2-2, inguinal, 2-2, =8. Closely allied to Oecomys
bicolor of Ecuador, but larger and darker, with correspondingly larger skull.
Color.—Type: Upper parts near cinnamon brown (Ridgway, 1912) rather
heavily mixed with black, the general tone richest or most rufescent on
lower part of back and rump, paling gradually to dull cinnamon buff or
clay color along lower part of sides; under parts and inner sides of limbs
nearly pure white, the hairs white to roots; ears dark brownish, thinly
1 Received August 24, 1933.
526 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 11
clothed with minute dusky hairs; outer sides of forearms dusky; fore and
hind feet dull whitish, the hind feet with a trace of brownish on metatarsus;
tail dark brownish above, somewhat lighter below, nearly naked and finely
scaly, with a slight tuft of dark hairs at tip.
Skull.—Closely resembling that of O. bicolor, but larger and heavier.
Measurements.—Type: Total length, 238 mm.; tail vertebrae, 124; hind
foot, 25; ear, 15. Skull (type): Occipitonasal length, 28: zygomatic breadth,
15; interorbital breadth, 5.3; breadth of braincase (at constriction in front
of lateral occipital crests), 11.5; length of nasals, 10.2; anterior palatine
foramina, 4.3; palatal bridge, 5.2; maxillary toothrow, 4.
Remarks.—The type of Oecomys enderst has been compared with speci-
mens from Pambilar, northern Ecuador, examined and marked simply
“dryas’’ by Oldfield Thomas many years ago. The specimens agree closely
with the description of Rhzpidomys dryas Thomas, from Paramba, northern
Ecuador, and he doubtless had that species (not Oryzomys dryas Thomas) in
mind. Thomas has since (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, 18: 445. 1906) re-
garded Rhipidomys dryas as probably the same as Oecomys bicolor (Tomes).
The new form differs from bicolor mainly in size and may prove to be only
a geographic race of a widely distributed species of this relatively little
known group. It requires no close comparison with the much smaller spe-
cies, O. trabeatus, of eastern Panama.
The genus Oecomys seems to be based on rather slight differential details.
It is very similar to Oryzomys, in many characters, including dentition and
the possession of two pairs of pectoral mammae, but it differs in the an-
terior truncation of the zygomatic plate. The short, broad hind feet and
sharp, strongly curved claws, adapted for climbing are shared with such
species as Oryzomys tectus, also of Panama, which is normal in the Oryzo-
myine development of the zygomatic plate.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
PHILOSOPHICAL SoOCint ¥
1046TH MEETING
The 1046th meeting was held jointly with the Washington Academy of
Sciences in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Thursday evening, December 15,
1932, L. H. Adams, President of the Academy, presiding.
The program consisted of an address by Pau R. Hryu, of the Bureau of
Standards, entitled Romance or science? The address has since been pute
lished in full in this Journau 23: 73-83. 1933.
Discussed by Mr. HuLgurr.
1047TH MEETING
The 1047th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, January
14, 1933, President O. S. ADAMs, presiding.
Program: The address of the retiring president, L. B. TucKERMAN, en-
titled From material to structure. This address has since been published in
fullin this JouRNAL 23: 225-246. 1933.
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 527
1048TH MEETING
The 1048th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, January
28, 1933, President O. S. ADaAms presiding.
Program: E: O. HuLBurt: The use of the bubble sextant at sea.—It is well
known that on a ship at sea an artificial horizon, such as a pool of mercury
or a bubble in a liquid like a spirit level, is unsteady because of the motion
of the ship. Altitudes measured from the artificial horizon are not very ac-
curate, and this disadvantage has been great enough to prevent its use at
sea almost entirely. In recent years, however, the bubble sextant has been
brought to a fairly high state of perfection due to the demands of aviation.
Little information was available about the use of the later types of bubble
sextants on surface ships and the present experiments were carried out to
find out how useful they might be.
Observations were made from a 1,000 ton and a 12 ton ship underway
at sea. It was found of course that the errors of the bubble sextant altitudes
increased with the roughness of the sea. In a moderate sea errors of in-
dividual altitudes were sometimes as great as 60 minutes of arc, but aver-
ages of 5 consecutive observations were usually correct to within 30 minutes
of are.
A considerable portion of the bubble sextant error is due to the accelera-
tions arising from the roll of the ship; this is especially true on a large ship.
The error is at its minimum when the ship is at the mid-point of its roll or
pitch. A simple pendulum device, called the ‘‘mid-point indicator,” was ar-
ranged to sound a short buzzer signal when the ship passed through the
mid-point of the roll. The bubble sextant observations were taken when the
buzzer sounded. This called for an adjustment of the simultaneous coinci-
dence of three moving things, bubble, buzz, and the image of the celestial
object, which in practice was easy to do. It was found that the mid-point
indicator reduced the bubble sextant errors by perhaps a half. On a large
ship the improvement due to the indicator might be even more. (Author’s
abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. TUCKERMAN, WENNER, SNYDER, WRIGHT, BRECK-
ENRIDGE, HUMPHREYS, and BRICKWEDDE.
F. E. ForsusH: Gravity-determinations on the ‘‘Carnegie.”’—The im-
portance of gravity-measurements at sea for the purpose of deriving an ac-
curate figure of the Earth was emphasized. The value of detailed gravity-
surveys in yielding information concerning phenomena in the Earth’s crust
was pointed out by a brief review of the research of Dr. F. A. Vening Meinesz
on the gravity-anomalies of the Dutch East Indies. At this point, mention
was made of the possibility of some connection between the causes of
gravity-anomalies and the causes of the irregular geographical distribution
of secular variation, as was indicated by Professor S. Chapman.
The methods involved in eliminating the principal effects of a ship’s
movements upon the motion of an ordinary pendulum were reviewed. Par-
ticular attention was paid to the method of eliminating the principal dis-
turbance which is due to the horizontal accelerations of the pendulum-
support, by recording photographically the difference in the angles of elonga-
tion of two nearly isochronous pendulums.
The means of obtaining the various corrections to the pendulum-periods
from the photographic record were briefly indicated. A description of the
main features of the apparatus followed. To this point the report was es-
sentially a, brief review of (1) Gravity anomalies in the East Indian Archi-
— a
——————
528 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 11
pelago, a paper read by Dr. Meinesz before the Royal Geographical Society
of London on November 10, 1930; (2) a publication by Dr. Meinesz on
Theory and practice of pendulum observations at sea; and (38) The gravity-
measuring cruise of the U.S. submarine S-21, a U.S. Naval Observatory
Publication by Dr. Meinesz and Dr. F. E. Wright.
The installation of the apparatus on the ‘‘Carnegie’”’ was then described.
Photographic records for determinations of gravity obtained on the ‘‘Car-
negie’’ at sea were shown and discussed. The agreement between the ‘‘Carne-
gie’’ determinations of gravity in San Francisco and in Honolulu and the
values previously obtained in those ports by Dr. Meinesz with another
apparatus of the same type was indicated. This was followed by a short dis-
cussion of the isostatic anomalies as computed by the U.S. Coast and Geo-
detic Survey for three of the ‘‘Carnegie”’ stations.
Finally, it was indicated that the loss of the vessel so soon after the in-
stallation of the apparatus in San Francisco hardly afforded sufficient op-
portunity to advance the work beyond the experimental stage. Thus, while
the contribution in number of new gravity-stations was not great, the ex-
perience showed that it is possible to obtain accurate values of gravity with
the Meinesz apparatus on board surface vessels. (A uthor’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Wituis, HAwWKESWoRTH, DurERKSEN, and H. L.
CURTIS.
An informal communication entitled The natural philosophy of generalized
money was presented by J. KE. Wiis.
1049TH MEETING
The 1049th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, February
11, 1938, President O. S. Apams presiding.
Program: Rev. F. W. Souon, S.J.: The seismic receiver. Published in this
JOURNAL 23:409. 1938.
Discussed by Mr. Heck.
FRANK NEUMANN: The interior of the earth as revealed by seismological data.
—An outline was given of the development of instrumental seismology and
the interpretation of data relating to the interior structure of the earth. It
included an explanation of the methods used in locating discontinuities and
stressed the problems and uncertainties involved in the construction of
smooth travel-time curves for seismic waves. Variations in the curves drawn
for different shocks were charged to varying focal depths and regional
variations in velocity through the crustal layers.
Travel-time data for the Santiago (Cuba) earthquake of February 3 were
exhibited, and it was shown that there was reasonable justification for break-
ing the curve into about five elements, possibly disconnected. Assuming the
extreme case that the curve was composed of a series of practically straight
line elements, overlapping at definite points, it was shown how discontinui-
ties could be located on the hypothesis that the earth is composed of a num-
ber of concentric shells, in each of which the velocity is practically constant
regardless of depth. Preliminary computations gave discontinuities close to
the major discontinuities generally recognized at depths near and greater
than 1200 km. At shallower levels, however, there are two or more sets of
direct waves having trajectories differing radically from the system of fan-
shaped rays based on the prevailing theory of continuous velocity increase
with depth. A discontinuity is indicated at a depth of about 400 km. This
corresponds to one reported by Mohorovicic. It happens by chance that
NOVEMBER 15, 19833 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 529
trajectories based on the theories of continuous refraction and discontinu-
ous refraction have practically the same limiting dimensions for the critical
are distance of about 20° where a sharp bend in the travel time curve indi-
cates a discontinuity.
Activities appear on the seismograms, after the onset, which might be in-
terpreted as direct waves of slower travel time. They could be taken as a
verification, or partial verification, of the discontinuous refraction hypothe-
sis, but the author is not inclined to consider them as such without additional
supporting data. The uncertainties involved in seismogram interpretation
were stressed. The rather constant character of the observed angle of emer-
gence (as reported by Galitzin) between 2500 km. and 6000 km. is cited
as evidence supporting the hypothesis of discontinuous refraction. The
theory of continuous refraction calls for an increase of about 20° in this zone.
No systematic observational data are available on the angle of emergence
at distances less than 2500 km.
Interesting as these results are, it was pointed out that seismologists often
have difficulty in reconciling the travel-time data compiled for different
shocks and, until this difficulty is overcome there will always be a serious
element of uncertainty in conclusions based on seismographic data. The
hypothesis discussed represents an extreme case and it is quite possible
that the true nature of velocity variation will eventually be found to con-
tain the elements of both theories; that is, refraction of the seismic wave
within a limited zone may be either continuous, or discontinuous in type.
(A uthor’s abstract.)
Discussed by Mr. L. H. ADams.
1050TH MEETING
The 1050th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, February
25, 1933, President O. S. ApAms presiding.
Program: F. D. MurNaAGHAN, Professor of Applied Mathematics in the
Johns Hopkins University: The mathematics of the expanding universe.
Discussed by Messrs. M. Lirgprock, L. H. Apams, H. L. Curtis, J. H.
Taytor, A. 8. HAawKESwortTH, T. DANTzIG, and BANEs.
Informal communication: P. R. HEyYu: A new correction for the pendulum.—
It was brought out that the length of a fused quartz pendulum, measured in
air, changes sufficiently when the pendulum is swung in a vacuum to intro-
duce an appreciable error in the determination of gravity by this method.
It was reported that the measured change in length of a quartz pendulum
for a change in pressure of one atmosphere at atmospheric pressure was one
half part in a million whereas the change in length calculated upon the basis
of eSaeerconpility measurements made at high pressures was one part in a
million.
1051sT MEETING
The 1051st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 11,
1933, President O. S. ADAMs presiding.
Program: Professor K. T. Compton, President of the Massachusetts In-
stitute of Technology, delivered the third Joseph Henry Lecture, given in
memory of the first president of the Philosophical Society of Washington.
This lecture entitled High voltage was published in this JoURNAL 23: 277—
297. 1933.
5380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 11
1052ND MEETING
The 1052nd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 25,
1933, President O. S. ADAmMs presiding.
Program: Two illustrated lectures by M. A. Tuve and L. R. Harstap on
Atomic nuclear studies at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.—In the
recent Joseph Henry lecture of the Society, Dr. K. T. Compton described
methods of producing high voltages and indicated that one of the most fruit-
ful applications of developments in this field would be in the study of the
atomic nucleus. After indicating the relations of nuclear physics studies to
other fields of research, especially in connection with our understanding of
the basic phenomenon of magnetism, Dr. Tuve described experiments
which have been under way since 1926 at the Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism looking toward the utilization of high voltages in nuclear physics
studies. An inexpensive Tesla-coil was used in the original experiments.
By 1930 multiple section cascade tubes had been developed which withstood
potentials up to two million volts. Positive particles and electrons acceler-
ated through the tubes were found to have energies, as measured by electric
and magnetic deflection, corresponding to the applied voltages and were
thus analogous to the a and 6-rays from radium. X-rays were also produced
with absorption coefficients corresponding to the x-rays from radium. Thus
all the radiations emitted by radium were approximately reproduced by the
use of high-voltage tubes.
That the short on-time of the Tesla coil is a serious limitation in its appli-
cation to nuclear problems was recognized from the beginning of the work
and when the van de Graaff electrostatic generator was announced in 1931
tests were immediately begun in order to determine its usefulness in this
field. Preliminary tests indicated that this device should prove to be a nearly
ideal, low-cost voltage source for nuclear studies. A generator was built with
a 2-meter sphere which attained a potential of about 2 million volts in tests
out of doors. A potential of 1 million volts was applied to a vacuum tube,
the applied potential being limited only by the length of the tube. Pending
provision of suitable housing for this large generator, a smaller one, 1 meter
in diameter, was constructed, which could be operated in the space available.
With a height of 12 feet from the floor, to rafters 8 feet apart, a maximum
potential of 750 kilovolts was obtained (measured by a generating volt-
meter, checked by sparks to a 2-meter sphere, and roughly checked by mag-
netic deflection of the ions from the tube). A 12-inch silk belt running at 5000
feet per minute gave a charging current of 200 milliamperes.
Using a low voltage are as a source, protons accelerated through a vacuum
tube, operating at 600 kilovolts, have been used to bombard various ele-
ments, the disintegrations produced being observed by means of a linear
pulse-amplifier. Lithium gives two alpha-particle groups, the shorter of
approximately 19 mm. range, in about equal number. The boron yield is
about 20 times that of lithium, in two groups, the shorter 28 mm. groups pre-
ponderating. About 4,000,000 protons strike the target for each alpha-
particle of boron. These results are in agreement with those recently reported
by Cockcroft and Walton (Cambridge). Studies of heavier elements are now
in progress. For aluminum and nickel the yields are much lower than those
reported last year by Cockcroft and Walton. With Al, for instance, target
currents exceeding 10 microamperes of 600 kilovolt protons give about 7
counts per minute, or less than 0.7 counts per minute per microampere at
this voltage. Because of their comparatively enormous yields, a very slight
contamination of lithium or boron in the aluminum target would give rise
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 531
to this small number of counts. Whether the ranges of the observed particles
from Al correspond to those of it or B has not yet been determined. Cock-
croft and Walton reported 135 scintillation-counts per minute per micro-
ampere with a similar geometrical arrangement, using only 300 kilovolt pro-
tons. Thus it appears from our present results that the scintillation-counts
observed by Cockcroft and Walton cannot be assigned to the disintegration
of aluminum nuclei.
In the second paper Mr. Hafstad discussed the problem of resonance dis-
integration of aluminum as a typical example showing the way in which
nuclear studies give a direct test of the ideas underlying the modern wave
mechanics theory. From experiments on the scattering of a-particles, the
form of the potential barrier surrounding the nucleus is known. On classical
theory it is quite impossible for any particle to cross the barrier if its energy
is less than that corresponding to the top of the barrier. On this older theory
any particle escaping from the nucleus should have an energy at least equal
to the maximum of the potential barrier and conversely no particle imping-
ing on the nucleus, with less than this maximum energy, should be able to
penetrate. Both of these predictions are contrary to experimental fact.
Wave theory on the other hand indicates that there is a finite probability
for a particle of any energy to “‘leak’”’ through the barrier, that energy levels
must exist within the nucleus, and that the chance of a particle escaping from
the nucleus is greatest for high energy particles. It is thus successful in ac-
counting for the principal features of radioactive decay and the penetration
of the nucleus by fast particles.
The theory also predicts, however, that if the energy of one of the im-
pinging alpha-particles coincides with that of one of the energy levels within
the nucleus—a case of resonance—then the probability of penetration ap-
proaches unity. This is a new effect and a number of experiments have been
carried out to test the prediction but so far with contradictory results.
Pose, for instance, using a Hoffmann electrometer found strong distinc
groups of disintegration protons and a sharp resonance effect, while Stenzel
using a point counter found only weak groups and no resonance effect. A
new attack on this problem has been made possible by the use of Ane re-
cently developed FP-54 Pliotron electrometer. Recent work by Myr. Hafstad
has shown that this instrument can be operated continuously at/charge sen-
sitivities as high as 80 electrons per mm. or current sensitivit?es of 4X 10~*°
ampere per mm. so that the usable sensitivity is limited onl by the shot and
thermal fluctuations which set the theoretical limit for any electrical meas-
uring device.
With this instrument preliminary observat*cus Have given strong evi-
dence in support of Pose’s results. An absolute calculation of the yield in
protons per 10’—particles gives a result in close agreement with that of Pose
and several times higher than that of Stendel. Furthermore the absorption
curve shows the abrupt drops characteristic of Pose’s data and contrary to
that of Stendel. These results therefore indicate the reality of the resonance
effect predicted by wave-mechanics. Further observations are in progress in
order to determine more accurately the energies involved and to test the
sharpness of resonance. (A uthors’ joint abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Bararr, HAwWkKESWORTH, KRAcErK, and BRIcK-
WEDDE.
1053RD MEETING
The 1053rd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, April 8,
1933, President O. S. ADAMs presiding.
532 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 11
Program: R. WiEBE: The experimental determination of some properties of
gases up to 1000 atmospheres.—A short review of some of the work done at
the high pressure section of the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory was
presented. After giving a general description of the compression system, the
deadweight gages and high pressure connections and containers, three prob-
lems were discussed briefly. The first one concerned the measurement of the
concentration of water vapor in the presence of water compressed gases. It
was pointed out that the true concentration cannot be calculated from
Poyntings equation and reasons were given. In the discussion of the solu-
bility of gases in liquids the interesting phenomenon of a minimum of solu-
bility was pointed out in the case of nitrogen. Finally results on the compres-
sibility of gases were illustrated by curves showing the behavior of hydrogen,
nitrogen and methane. (A uthor’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. HAWKESWORTH and BRICKWEDDE.
W. E. Demine: Thermodynamic properties of real gases from compressi-
bility data.—Many thermodynamic properties of substances are related to
the derivatives (dv/dT),, (dv/dp)r, and (d?v/dT?),. These derivatives can be
evaluated from compressibility data if the points are sufficiently numerous
in the three coordinates. An equation connecting p, v, and 7 would, of
course, give all derivatives, but so far no equation of state has been devised
that represents the data for the permanent gases at pressures from 100 to
1000 atmospheres. The author has therefore resorted to graphical methods.
The chief refinement in graphical methods of determining derivatives is
in the choice of function to be plotted. By selecting suitable correction
functions, the smoothing of the original data and the determination of de-
rivatives can be effected. A=v(pv/RT—1) and a=v(RT/pv—1) are ex-
amples of such functions. Graphs of A and a against density in families of
isotherms or isobars, and against 7! in isobars, have been used for the gases
-itrogen, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen. In some cases, other functions
oi v, v, and T are more suitable as abscissas. The object is to find functions
involving A and a that make some curves of the family as nearly linear as
possible. It is a simple problem in calculus to find the relations existing be-
tween the: lerivatives of the plotted curves.
The actval determination of the slopes of the A and a curves can be
effected with © straight edge laid tangent to the curve, or by some optical
arrangement devz=%ed for the purpose; or the curves may also be fitted with
analytical functions if desired. Since these slopes enter as correction terms
to the values that the derivatives (dv/dT),, (dv/dp)r, (d’v/dT?), would have
if the gas were ideal, just .* A and a are correction terms to the ideal gas
law, they need be estimated wii only a reasonable amount of care.
The physical properties that . ve been determined for nitrogen, carbon
monoxide, and hydrogen are ti: expansion coefficients (7'/v)(dv/dT),,
—(p/v)(dv/dp)r, fugacity, heat caj. cities C, and C,, the Joule-Thomson
coefficient and the change in entropy ith pressure. All but the last named
have been published in the Physical Review 37: 638-654. 1931; 38: 2245—
2264. 1931; 40: 848-859. 1932. The work on entropy will appear soon
in the same journal. (A uthor’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. KRacEK, HAWKESWORTH, and BRICKWEDDE.
Informal communications were presented as follows.
P. R. Hryu.—Let n represent any number whether prime or composite
and form the continued product
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 533
= lib 1
2 3 n
If n is prime, the successive stages of this continued product will all be
whole numbers until the last stage is reached, involving division by n.
If n is composite, the integral character of the continued product will
suffer a momentary halt wherever the denominator is or contains a factor
of n. (Author’s abstract.)
H. L. Curtis.—A method was described for quadrupling the angle of dis-
placement of a balance from its equilibrium position. A light beam is re-
flected by a right angle prism attached to the moving beam of the balance
on to a stationary mirror which reflects it back through the same prism.
The angle of displacement of the emergent beam is thus four times the angle
of displacement of the balance beam.
H. L. Drypen.—A general characteristic of the stress-strain curve of a
coiled spring whose adjacent turns are in contact was reported. Small initial
tensions produce no displacement. This can be explained by the existence of
a compressional force in the spring exerted by the adjacent turns pressed in
contact. The initial stress balances this compressional force, and with further
increase in the stress the spring behaves normally.
H. F. Stimson.—A method was described for increasing the deflection of
a light beam reflected by a galvanometer. After reflection from the galvanom-
eter mirror attached to the moving coil, the light beam is reflected back
to the galvanometer mirror by a stationary mirror mounted close to the
moving mirror. The change of the angle of deflection of the emergent beam
is four times the change in deflection of the moving coil, thus doubling the
ordinarily obtained change of deflection of the emergent beam. Other con-
ditions being the same, the intensity of the emergent beam is nearly the
same as that that would be obtained with the usual arrangement at the same
linear distance from the galvanometer.
1054TH MEETING
The 1054th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, April 22,
1933, President O. 8S. ADAMs presiding.
Program: F. L. MouuLER and C. BoEcKNER: Studies of the electrical dis-
charge in cesium vapor.—The uniform positive column is a mixture of atomic
gas with an electron gas at a very much higher temperature. The electron
gas receives power from the electrical power input and dissipates power by
producing ionization and radiation. These factors are evaluated and it is
found that at the lowest currents nearly all the input is radiated. At high
currents an important part of the power is expended on ionization and there
is some power lost in other ways. The number of inelastic collisions becomes
much greater than the number of quanta radiated with high currents. It is
concluded that collisions of the second kind between excited atoms and
electrons are nearly as frequent as inelastic collisions. Measurements of the
number of excited atoms show that this number is nearly equal to that
which would exist in equilibrium at a temperature equal to the electron tem-
perature. In the elastic scattering of electrons, the scattering by ions as
well as by atoms plays an important part and the effective areas for both
atomic and ionic scattering are measured. (A uthors’ abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Kracex, Mrcaerrs, and BRICKWEDDE.
Wiuii1am F. Mrceerrs: Infra-red spectrum photography.—During the last
fifty years the application of photographic methods to spectrographic in-
534 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 11
vestigations has not only improved the quality of observations in the visible
octave but has extended the range of observations more than 16 octaves to
higher frequencies. The other spectral extreme (lower frequencies, infra-red)
has also been under investigation for half a century. About 8 octaves have
been explored with radiometric devices, but photography has not been so
successful in this range. However, in its integrating action, cumulative ex-
posure and high resolving power, the photographic has distinet advantages
over the radiometric method provided that photographic emulsions can be
sensitized to infra-red radiation. A method of sensitizing ordinary silver
halide emulsions to longer waves was discovered by H. W. Vogel in 1873 and
for many years it was common practice among spectroscopists to bathe
ordinary photographic plates in dilute solutions of photo-sensitizing dyes,
and thus obtain materials for recording spectra in the red and near infra-
red. The best dye for imparting infra-red sensitivity was dicyanin. This dye
exhibits a maximum of absorption in the red at 7000A but with long ex-
posures, intense light sources and efficient spectrographs many spectra
were photographed beyond 9000A. Last year, the Research Laboratory of the
Kastman Kodak Company announced the discovery of several new sensitiz-
ing dyes, two of which are especially useful in infra-red spectrography. These
have been named Mesocyanine and Xenocyanine, the former exhibits its
maximum action at wave length 8600A and the latter at 9700A. Photo-
graphic plates with these sensitizers incorporated in the emulsion have
been used by the spectroscopy section of the Bureau of Standards for a sur-
vey of emission spectra in the infra-red. More than 50 spectra have thus
been investigated in the interval 8000—-12000A, and several thousand new
lines have been added to the data of photographic spectroscopy. (Author’s
abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Hryt, Kracex, TUCKERMAN, and BRICKWEDDE.
1055TH MEETING
The 1055th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 6,
1933, President O.S. Apams presiding.
Program: R. W. GorANSON and L. H. Apams: The precise measurement of
birefringence especially in strained glass —In connection with an investiga-
tion that involved the measurement of optical path-difference and thence
birefringence it became necessary to have much higher accuracy than is
ordinarily attained. After a careful study of various methods it appeared
that the one which best meets the requirements of precision and simplicity
is a method based on an interesting property possessed by a fixed combina-
tion of (1) a polarizer, (2) the birefracting material, and (3) a quarter-wave
plate, each placed in a definite orientation to the others. When plane parallel
monochromatic light passes through the elements of this fixed combina-
tion in the order shown above, the emergent light is plane polarized and
the azimuth is related in a simple manner to the path-difference of the
specimen. Since this azimuth can be measured by means of an analyzer and
graduated circle, the determination of path-difference thus reduces itself to
the measurement of an angular displacement, which can be done easily and
with high precision.
The method was first made applicable to a petrographic microscope for
the purpose of determining the path-difference at a given spot in small speci-
mens. Later, there was constructed a separate polarimeter in which large
specimens could be conveniently measured. This instrument has given all
that was expected as to ease and rapidity of taking readings, and for any
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 99890
path-difference has a sensitivity about one hundred times that of the de-
vices in common use. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Mr. TuckERMAN.
C. 8. Piacor: Isotopic composition of the radio-active elements as deter-
mined by magneto-optic technique.—With the object of improving the cal-
culation of geologic time by eliminating the necessity of applying a correc-
tion for the thorium content of the mineral, an attempt was made to con-
fine the calculation only to that particular uranium and its corresponding
lead which the formula theoretically represents. This necessitated the detec-
tion and estimation of the isotopes of uranium and lead. Work on the prob-
lem was actively begun in 1926, and in 1927 F. W. Aston determined the
three principal isotopes of ordinary lead using material (lead tetra-methyl)
furnished him by the Geophysical Laboratory. These results revealed that
the atomic weight of lead, 207.2, is a statistical mean of at least three iso-
topes, of masses 208, 206, and 207, and that possibly others exist. In 1928
Aston made similar determinations on a radioderived lead which we sent
him and found the same isotopes but in a different order of abundance.
Whereas the order of abundance of the isotopes of ordinary lead is 208, 206,
207, that of radioderived lead is 206, 207, 208.
We next turned our attention to uranium, but were unable to determine
its isotopes, despite generous assistance from various eminent scientists,
until we obtained the cooperation of Dr. Fred Allison and his magneto-optic
technique.!
Dr. Allison and his associates determined the number and the order of
abundance of the isotopes of most of the radioactive elements from atomic
number 92 (uranium) back to atomic number 81 (thallium). They are:
uranium 8, thorium 8, radium 4, virginium 6, alabamine 6, bismuth 14, lead
16, thallium 8. :
This unexpected number of isotopes rather overwhelmed us and we found
it exceedingly difficult to account for them all within the limits of established
radioactive lore. However, a tentative arrangement of interrelations has
been published? which suggests that there exist four radioactive series, each
beginning with two isotopes of uranium and ending with four isotopes of
lead. The consistencies in this proposed arrangement far overbalance the
inconsistencies so that it is hoped that it will serve as a suggestive and use-
_ ful guide for further work in this field.
This new arrangement provides satisfactory places for several inconsist-
encies of the older system and furnishes an explanation for many puzzling
questions. Some of these are: the independence of thorium coupled with its
apparent relation with uranium; the origin of the actinium series; the def-
inite evidence for a fourth series; the variable atomic weight of lead and
the possible existence of an atomic weight for lead of less than 206.
The geophysical significances are numerous. We can now determine wheth-
er a given lead is ordinary or radioderived and can detect contamination in
a sample of the latter to be used for an age determination. It is now apparent
that the isotopic composition of the uranium at the time a mineral sample
was formed is a controlling factor in the isotopic composition of the lead
which we now find in that mineral. (A uthor’s abstract.)
1 Allison, F. and Murphy, E. J. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 52: 3796. 1930.
2 Group of six papers: Physical Review 43, Jan. 1, 1933, of which those by Bishop
and by Piggot discuss these interrelations and interpretations.
536 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 11
Discussed by Messrs. R. Davis, HumMpHReEYs, Kracexk, and HAwKEs-
WORTH.
Informal communication: FRANK NEUMANN: Strong motion records of the
Southern California Earthquake of March 10, 1933.—The shock was recorded
at 3 strong motion stations of the Coast and Geodetic Survey at which
automatic accelerographs had been installed only afew months before. They
were located at Long Beach and Los Angeles (2), at approximately (later
studies may shift epicenter) 17, 33, and 37 miles from the epicenter. The
records exhibit certain features of strong earth movements heretofore con-
sidered questionable by many seismologists. Large vertical movements and
short period waves superimposed on waves of longer period are outstanding
characteristics of the Long Beach record. Wave periods ranging from 0.1
seconds to 5 seconds are recorded and there is evidence of very complex
ground movement, although many of the earlier and stronger movements
show distinct directional features.
Although intended primarily as acceleration recorders, it is possible to
make fairly good estimates of displacement from accelerograph records. The
shock occurred before specially designed displacement meters were installed
although that phase of the program is now nearing completion. The records
represent the first of the type ever obtained in this country and give the
engineer and architect the specific information needed in the proper design
of structures in earthquake regions. A report is in preparation. (Author’s
abstract. )
| F. G. BRICKWEDDE, Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Prepared by Science Service
NortTeEs
Science doctorates increase.—The years of depression have had a stimu-
lating effect upon higher education, it appears from a report to Science by
Dr. CLARENCE J. West and Miss Cauuie Hutt of the National Research
Council. The number of doctor’s degrees granted by American universities .
in the sciences has steadily increased from 1,025 in 1929 to 1,343 in 1933,
these investigators found. The 1,343 doctorates granted in 1933 were dis-
tributed among the sciences as follows: chemistry, 417; physics, 123; zoology,
115; psychology, 101; botany, 79; mathematics, 78; engineering, 75; geolo-
gy, 66; physiology, 39; agriculture and forestry, 36; bacteriology, 36; pa-
thology, 23; anatomy, 17; entomology, 17; genetics, 15; horticulture, 15;
anthropology, 13; pharmacy and pharmacology, 13; archaeology, 10; as-
tronomy, 10; geography, 10; public health, 10; medicine and surgery, 10;
metallurgy, 9; paleontology, 6.
Death registration area now complete.—Deaths are now recorded for the
first time in the whole United States. With the admission of the State of
Texas to the U. 8. death registration area, recently announced by Secretary
of Commerce Ropzmr, the Census Bureau is able for the first time to compute
reliably the death rate for the entire nation. The cause of every death in
the United States will now be a matter of record, as will also the age, sex,
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 537
occupation and nativity of the dead person. When the Census Bureau first
began to gather vital statistics for the nation, in 1902, only ten states and
the District of Columbia were included in the death registration area. Grad-
ually other states have been added. But six states have been admitted only
in the last six years. Texas is still not included in the area of registration
of births. It is hoped that this will be attained soon, however, thus making
Uncle Sam’s vital statistics 100 per cent complete so far as area is concerned.
George Washington University medical school.—The lectures in the Smith-
Reed-Russell series at the School of Medicine, George Washington Univer-
sity, have been announced for the first semester of the present academic
year. Prof. GEoRGE Barcer, University of Edinburgh, gave the September
lecture, Prof. W. W. Cort, The Johns Hopkins University, gave the Oc-
tober lecture, Prof. James W. JoBLinc, Columbia University, will give the
November lecture, Prof. Howarp T. Karsnrer, Western Reserve Univer-
- sity, will give the December lecture, and Dr. ARTHUR CRAmpP of the Ameri-
ean Medical Association will speak in January.
New full time appointments at the School of Medicine, George Washing-
ton University, for the coming year include the following: EDwarp BRIGHT
VeppER, M.D., Professor of Experimental Medicine; Juanita THOMPSON,
M.D., Research Associate in Experimental Medicine; Husprert Scorr Lor-
ING, Ph.D., Instructor in Biochemistry; WiLLIAM HENRY WALLER, Ph.D.,
Instructor in Anatomy; JoHN Rauston Pats, M.D., Teaching Fellow in
Anatomy.
The regular monthly Faculty Seminar in the School of Medicine, George
Washington University, was given by Prof. Earn B. McKIn.ey of the De-
partment of Bacteriology on October 11, 1933. Dr. McKinley spoke on the
“Etiology of encephalitis with particular reference to experimental work on
the recent St. Louis epidemic.”’
Georgetown University school of medicine—Dr. G. H. HANSMANN of the
University of lowa Medical School has been appointed associate professor
of pathology and Dr. Cuaruzs J. Stucky has been appointed associate pro-
fessor of biochemistry. Dr. Stucky has done work at Yale and Columbia and
is at the present time Research Chemist at the New York State Psychiatric
Hospital; he is a specialist on Vitamin B and on nutritional anemia. Dr.
HANSMANN was at one time connected with the Harvard Medical School
and did some important research on tularemia, Malta fever, chemistry of
nephritis, citric acid metabolism and lipuria.
Dr. M. X. SuLiivan and W. C. Hess reported before the meeting of the
American Chemical Society in Chicago that they have discovered a corre-
lation between arthritis and cystine deficiency in the patients’ fingernails.
Administration of colloidal sulfur, they stated, brought about an increase
in nail cystine and also in alleviation in the symptoms.
Bureau of Fisheries ELMER HiGGENS was an Official delegate at the
twentieth annual meeting of the North American Council on Fishery Inves-
tigations, held at St. Andrews, N.B., on September 13 and 14. O. E. SETTE
and W. C. Herrineton, also of the Bureau, presented reports at this meet-
ing.
Dr. H. 8. Davis presided over the sixty-third annual meeting of the Amer-
ican Fisheries Society at Columbus, Ohio, September 18 to 20. Bureau of
Fisheries representatives who had places on the program included the fol-
lowing: FRanK T. BELL, commissioner, Dr. Paut R. NerepHam, E. W. Sur-
538 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 11
BER, Dr. Freperic F. Fiso, H. C. Markus, Russexvu F. Lorn, Dr. A. 8.
Hazzarp, Hiuary J. Dreason, A. C. FuutuER, Dr. RALPH H1ILE and WILLIAM
R. DupENn, and Rosert A. Nessit, as well as Drs. A. H. WiEBE and STILL-
MAN WricGut, lately of the Bureau.
U. 8. national parks.—The national parks were extensively used as cen-
ters of study by delegates to the International Geological Congress. Park
Naturalists at Grand Canyon, Yosemite, Crater Lake, Zion, and Yellow-
stone National Parks aided in leading the visiting groups of scientists to the
main features in which they were particularly interested.
The first Junior Park Naturalist examination was conducted by the Civil
Service Commission throughout the United States on October 4. The object
of this examination was to establish a register of eligibles for use in filling
Park Naturalist, Park Historian, and Park Ranger positions as they open
up in the national parks and monuments administered by the Office of
National Parks, Buildings, and Reservations.
Grorce M. Wricut and Bren H. THompson of the Wild Life Division
of the Office of National Parks, Buildings, and Reservations, recently in-
vestigated the winter feeding grounds of the herd of elk ranging in the Rocky
Mountain National Park. Conditions warrant further studies, and quadrants
will be laid out and fenced in order to determine the extent to which over-
erazing is occurring. The fact that much privately-owned land heretofore
fenced has been purchased by the Government and the fences removed has
improved greatly the grazing situation in this park.
The northern National Parks report that the coming of winter finds the
game generally in good shape, with sufficient forage in sight to last until
spring. There may be some shortage, however, in the northern elk herd area
in Yellowstone National Park; and in the eastern part of Glacier National
Park a general shortage of wild life is puzzling administrative officials. A
new policy of gradually weaning the Yellowstone animals from the artifi-
cial feeding hitherto practiced, and making them more self-dependent, has
been announced by Dr. Haroutp C. Bryant. Surplus bison will be taken
from the Yellowstone herd again this winter, and killed for meat to be dis-
tributed to Indians on reservations in the Northwest.
News BRIEFS
The new Science Advisory Board held its second meeting in Washington
during the last week in September, with Dr. Karu Compton, Dr. IsAlaAH
Bowman, Dr. R. A. Mitirkan, Dr. C. K. Lritrn, Dr. Joun C. MERRIAM
and GANo DwNN in attendance. Sessions were held in the building of the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Research Council.
A study made by Rouuo H. Britten, J. J. BLOOMFIELD and JENNIE C.
GopDARD of the U. 8. Public Health Service indicates that atmospheric con-
ditions in a southern cotton mill are not deleterious to the health of the work-
ers. There was not enough dust to be injurious, and the high temperature
and humidity, though uncomfortable at all times, could not be shown to
have any definite effects, as udged by a comparison of sickness rates.
The research associates of the American Dental Association stationed at
the U. S. bureau of Standards, Dr. Gkorgr C. PAFFENBARGER and Wm.
T. SWEENEY, in cooperation with the Bureau of Standards dental research
staff including Aaron Isaacs and Dr. WILMER SOUDER, gave two clinics
and read three papers before the Chicago Centennial Dental Congress.
NOVEMBER 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 539
A rabbit tick, Haemaphysalis leporis-palustris, is suggested by Dr. R. R.
PARKER of the U. 8. Public Health Service as a possible vector for Rocky
Mountain spotted fever in its rapid spread from its originally restricted
territory in the Bitterroot Valley of Montana over most of the United
States. This animal does not feed on man, but may have spread the disease
from rabbit to rabbit, whence it may be carried to human beings by other
parasites.
The late Maj. WauTEeR REED, together with the other heroic pioneers of
the conquest of yellow fever, were honored by a special memorial session
of the American Public Health Association at its meeting in Indianapolis
during the week of October 9.
_ Eighteen tropical storms of hurricane proportions, reported up to mid-
October, established a new all-time seasonal record for this type of disturb-
ance in American waters. The largest number hitherto reported was sixteen,
in 1887.
A national conference on the welfare of children during the depression
was held in Washington on October 6, under the auspices of the U. S. Chil-
dren’s Bureau. Among the speakers were Mrs. FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT,
Secretary of Labor Perkins and Relief Administrator HARRY HopKIns.
The rubber present in goldenrod plants is found only in their leaves,
Loren G. PotHamus of the U.S. Department of Agriculture has determined.
The best goldenrod species, from the rubber-producing point of view, is
Solidago altissima. Its leaves showed a maximum dry-weight content of
6.34 per cent, and all samples analyzed gave a mean of 3.45 per cent.
A notable addition to the bird collection of the U. 8. National Zoological
Park consists of six specimens of cock-of-the-rock, Rupzcola rupicola. They
are in all stages of plumage development, from the dark juvenile stages to
the full gorgeousness of their orange-vermilion maturity. Cock-of-the-rock,
Director MANN states, is an exceedingly rare bird in captivity. The new
specimens arrived via the lower Amazon; it is believed they originated in
the lower Andes above Iquitos.
What is believed to be an early American road roller has been discovered
near Coba, in Yucatan, by an expedition of the Carnegie Institut:on of
Washington. It was originally a stone cylinder thirteen feet long and over
two feet in diameter, and was probably pushed by hand power over the
famous ‘“‘white roads” of Yucatan.
Lzeieu B. Lint of the U. 8. Forest Service and four C. C. C. men are en-
gaged in making a map of the 150 caves, many of them of immense size,
which have been discovered and explored in the Lava Beds National Monu-
ment, Modoc National Forest, Calif. Daily new caves are being discovered
and water is being found in caves where none was suspected to exist.
AusTIN H. Cuarx of the U.S. National Museum spoke on ‘‘How Animals
Spend the Winter’ over the network of the Columbia Broadcasting System
on Friday afternoon, September 22.
Statistical indications of a long-period oscillation in mean seasonal tem-
peratures have been found by J. Bb. Kincer of the U. 8. Weather Bureau
in a study of weather records running back in some instances more than a
century. They seem to give some support to ‘“Oldest-Inhabitant”’ conten-
tions that ‘“‘winters aren’t what they used to be when I was a boy.”’
540 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 11
A standardized procedure for examining foods suspected of harboring
microérganisms causing spoilage was advocated by LAwRENCcE H. Jamus of
the U. 8. Department of Agriculture before the meeting of the American
Public Health Association at Indianapolis.
PERSONAL ITEMS
Dr. Harry B. Warp, permanent secretary of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, arrived in Washington on Wednesday,
October 11.
Dr. Cuarutes L. Maruart, who reached his seventieth birthday on Sep-
tember 26, retired September 30. He is succeeded as Chief of the Bureau of
Entomology by Len A. Strone, formerly Chief of the Bureau of Plant
Quarantine.
Dr. Ates Hrpuicka, of the U. 8. National Museum, has been made an
honorary professor of the National Museum of Mexico.
Col. H. L. Giucurist, Medical Corps, U.S. Army, has been elected Presi-
dent of the Association of Military Surgeons of the United States. Colonel
GiLcHRIST will retire from the Army in January, with the rank of Major-
General.
Dr. Witut1amM M. Mann, director of the National Zoological Park, was
present at the Chicago meeting of the American Institute of Park Execu-
tives.
Dr. E. O. Untricu, formerly of the U. S. Geological Survey, has been
elected a corresponding member of the Society of Natural History, Frank-
furt.
Dr. StrtumMan Wricut, former limnologist of the U. 8. Bureau of Fish-
eries, has gone to Brazil to take part in a study of fish farming possibili-
ties in the numerous artificial lakes and reservoirs in the northeastern part
of that country.
Wituiam C. Harnzs of the U. S. Weather Bureau sailed with the Byrd
expedition when it left Boston on September 25. He will renew his studies
of the climate of Antarctica.
Surgeon General Hueu S. Cummine of the U. 8. Public Health Service
spoke on the part played by x-rays in guarding and improving public health
before the meeting of the American Congress of Radiology in Chicago on
September 25.
Dr. WitMER SoupeEr, Chief of the Bureau of Standards Identification
Laboratory, attended the recent Chicago meeting of the International As-
sociation of Chiefs of Police and read a paper on ‘‘Safe Use of Scientific
Methods of Identification.”
Dr. G. W. Vint of the U. S. Bureau of Standards, attended the meeting
of the Electrochemical Society in Chicago on September 8; he exhibited re-
productions of Faraday’s original voltameters.
The Section of Hydrology of the American Geophysical Union has re-
appointed F. E. Marrurs, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, as Chairman of
the Committee on Glaciers for a second term of three years.
is ak:
as
a tat der
: aes
CONTENTS
ORIGINAL PAPERS
Chemistry.—Notes on the occurrence of rotenone in species of Derris and Loncho-
carpus. «Howarp A;-JONRS.. ..\0k kis > «yc ete aie ahs «seen pee
Paleontology. —Salonia, a new {Ordovician brachiopod genus. G. ARTHUR
Coopmr and’ LawEmnen. WaITCOMB 22.5.0... hoje (as ola oh bi alighe Wintel
Paleobotany—A Knowltonella from the Black Hills Cretaceous. Epwarp W.
PARRY. a AE ere oe a a a OE le ee se ee 4
Paleobotany.—The cuticle of an Eocene Combretum. Epwarp W. Bmrry....
Zoolegy.—On some nematodes of the superfamily Rhabditoidea and their status
as parasites of reptiles and amphibians. B.G. Cuirwoop..............
Zoology.—New species of Lymnaeidae from British America. FRANK COLLINS
TARR Fe ee so wink Wd es oy ath dpe, Waa oar ish lc cnet pa eee eeee
Zoology.—A new puma from Brazil. E. W. Neuson and E. A. GOLDMAN.....
Zoology.—A new climbing mouse from Panama. E, A. GOLDMAN........... ;
PROCEEDINGS
Philosophical Society ss pin Peis) be eee bis Swi spd a bine Sle ola Abel peo eho elt nent
Scruntiric. Notes AND Ne Wwe. os way OY VL Se Ry Qe te ee
This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals
DECEMBER 15, 1933 No. 12
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JOURNAL
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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 23 DECEMBER 15, 1933 No, 12
GEOLOGY.—Thorium minerals as age indicators. RocerR C.
WELLS.
A mineral thought to be uraninite was found several years ago by
a mineral collector, Geo. W. Gehman, of Bethlehem, Pa., in the
Sherrer serpentine quarry just N.E. of Easton, Pa., which study in
the U. S. Geological Survey has shown to be thorianite (Th, U)O2.?
Aside from its interest as the first authentic occurrence of thorianite
in the United States the mineral raises some important questions as
to the usefulness of thorium minerals as age indicators which I
should like to discuss briefly.
Thorianite has heretofore been described only from Ceylon, Mada-
gascar, and Siberia. It generally carries some, and the Easton specimen
carries a large proportion, of uranium. Conversely many uraninites
carry some thorium. As ThO, and UO: are isomorphous, thorianites
and uraninites may be considered to form a series of solid solutions.
There has been a tendency to discard thorium minerals as age
indicators when the figures obtained disagree with those yielded by
uranium minerals. The mere fact of disagreement, however, is in it-
self no proof that thorium lead has been lost by leaching, as generally
assumed. It would perhaps be equally fair to assume that uranium
has been lost from the uranium minerals. Thorium minerals have
generally been held to give too low figures for their age. R. W. Law-
son thinks that they are in many places secondary minerals. Arthur
Holmes? assumes that they are more easily altered than uranium
minerals.
1Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Presented at a
symposium on the measurement of geologic time, Sections B and C of A.A.A.S.,
Chicago, IIll., June 21, 1933. Received September 8, 1933.
2 WELLS, 2 Ce FAIRCHILD, J. G., and Ross, C. 8. Thorianite from Easton, Pa.
Amer. Journ. Sci. 26: 45. 1933.
3 The age of the Earth. National Research Council Bull. 80: 213.
541
‘93g
542 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — VOL. 23, NO. 12
It is well known that many thorium minerals show evidences of
alteration, but uranium minerals seem in general to be even more
easily altered. Thorianite and monazite have been found in placer
deposits, but no uranium mineral has been so found (with the single
exception of brannerite, a titanate). Uraninite’is generally much
veined and most specimens are surrounded by various secondary
alteration products. The off-hand evidence is therefore that uraninite
is as easily if not more easily altered than monazite and thorianite.
Ellsworth and others have found that the most altered specimens
of uraninite seem to give too high lead-uranium ratios, that is, that
uranium is lost faster than lead. The excess of uranium oxide seems
to protect and retain the lead. Likewise Baxter and Alter* report
that Katanga pitchblende is traversed by numerous microscopic
veins filled with yellow material soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid.
The solutions that passed through these veins seem to have extracted
uranium in preference to lead, for Pb/U of the yellow material is
0.144, against 0.089 for the black unaltered pitchblende. In a few
instances uranium minerals and thorium minerals from the same rock
give very good agreement in their age, two conspicuous instances of
such agreement having been published by Fenner, viz. certain miner-
als from Brazil and from Connecticut, so that there can be little
doubt that the fundamental mathematical factors of the calculations
are essentially correct. In many cases, however, the agreement of
results based on thorium and uranium is not good and the cause has
usually been assigned to loss of thorium lead by leaching. Some
writers even postulate a gain or loss of lead from minerals in the
same district as best accords with the analytical figures.
The minerals of the Arendal district, Norway, have given special
difficulty in this connection. Recent complete analyses of uranothor-
ites (which are silicates rather than oxides) from the Arendal dis-
trict by Gleditsch and Qviller,® with a determination of the atomic
weight of the lead, offer facts for discussing this question. They
found the separate percentages of uranium lead and thorium lead
in the same mineral and the following ratios which should be identical
after reducing thorium to its uranium equivalent:
Radium G Thorium D
a | = 05656 ee (5200
Uranium Thorium
4 Science, 77: 431. 1933.
5 Phil. Mag. 14: 233. 1932.
DECEMBER 15, 1933 WELLS: THORIUM MINERALS 543
The ratios also are low for the district, compared with those of uran-
inites. The authors conclude: ‘‘These different facts are most easily
explained by accepting Professor Holmes’s suggestion that thorium
minerals have been subject to a leaching-out by ground waters and
that this leaching has more particularly affected the thorium-lead.”’
Against this conclusion are the arguments cited above. It also
assumes a separation of isotopes by leaching from a single mineral,
something not impossible perhaps, but generally contrary to geo-
chemical experience, as isotopic mixtures have heretofore always
been found in remarkably constant proportions everywhere in na-
ture, except when genetically related to a parent element in a min-
eral. Obviously an alternative to this explanation is to assume a loss
of uranium by leaching, following Ellsworth.
The use of atomic weight figures in solving this problem seems
reasonably sound. For example, ordinary lead from whatever source
the world over gives essentially the same atomic weight, indicating
an old and thorough mixing of its isotopes. The evidence for the uni-
formity of uranium lead and thorium lead is not so ample but, on the
other hand, there is at present little evidence against such a view in
the case of older minerals. The lead from carnotite, however, does not
seem to be pure uranium lead. These matters are discussed in detail
by Holmes in Bull. 80 of the National Research Council and cannot
be fully covered in a brief paper. The principal point that I wish to
make is that lead isotopes cannot be assumed to have been separated
by leaching from the same mineral, and the alternative seems to be
that uranium has been leached relatively to the other elements.
What is the correct age of such minerals as the Arendal uranothor-
ites? If uranium has been removed relative to lead, as in the altered
uraninites, according to Ellsworth, the correct lead-uranium ratio
should be lower. A loss of lead would affect both ratios and they
should both be greater, but this could not bring the uranium and the
thorium ratios into agreement. It therefore seems to me reasonable
to accept the lower ratios and shorter ages in at least some of the
cases where there is a difference. Thus, some of the minerals in the
pegmatites of the Arendal district, based on their lead-thorium ratio
would be of late Paleozoic age although the rocks of the district are
thought to be pre-Cambrian.
In general the origin of the pegmatites and the condition of the
specimens analyzed should also be carefully studied and described.
Apparently some thorites have such small percentages of lead that
544 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 12
they are valueless as age indicators, or else they are of very recent
formation.
The changes here indicated need not for the present affect the ages
of minerals back to the Paleozoic. In the Paleozoic we should consider
carefully the stage of alteration of the mineral. In pre-Cambrian
minerals we may well be skeptical of the very old ones which have had
to undergo the effects of many varied geologic changes.
Fortunately we have some independent checks on the lead method
of computing the ages of minerals. Bradley, from a study of varves
is able to extrapolate a figure for the length of the Eocene which
harmonizes with that deduced by the lead method, as Schuchert has
pointed out. Of course this cannot be extrapolated very far, but with
further study of all the different methods of estimating geologic time
we may hope for better general agreement on the main features of
the problem. |
SUMMARY
Some reasons are given for ascribing more weight to thorium
minerals as age indicators than they have heretofore received. In
uranothorites, it was argued, the lead isotopes would not be separated
by leaching, so that a loss of uranium would have to be postulated to
bring the RaG/U and ThD/Th ratios in agreement.
BOTAN Y.—Sez and accessory cell fusions in the Uredineae C. F.
ANDRUS,” Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by L. L.
HARTER.) .
INTRODUCTION
A number of contributions have been made to the study of fertil-
ization in the Uredineae (1) (2) (3) (10) (15) since the writer (4) first
published evidence that spermatium nuclei enter the tips of super-
ficial hyphae and migrate to the haploid cells of the aecial primordia.
The new contributions have chiefly corroborated the observation
that spermatium nuclei enter the exposed gametophytic hyphae. The
further progress of the spermatium nuclei and the process by which
they eventually become paired with individual nuclei of the aecial
primordium has escaped the scrutiny of these observers. Likewise,
there is still lacking an adequate interpretation of those cell fusions
1 Received August 8, 1933.
? Grateful acknowledgment is made to Dr. L. L. Harter, who has provided facilities
for research and advised in the preparation of the manuscript.
DECEMBER 15, 1933 ANDRUS: CELL FUSIONS 545
and apparently miscellaneous nuclear migrations in the young aecium
that are so commonly associated with the act of fertilization.
The writer has recently had occasion to examine a number of slides
of the bean rust, Uromyces appendiculatus (Pers.) Fries, and the cow-
pea rust, U. vignae Barclay, some of them prepared after the earlier
communication was submitted for publication. In a number of in-
stances details of the obscure fertilization process appeared on these
slides with unusual clarity and it is believed that these observations
are of sufficient interest and value to deserve some record. The new
observations will emphasize more strongly that the relation between
spermatium and receptive cell in the aecium of Uromyces is a true
sperm-egg relation, and will indicate in addition that certain cell
fusions which accompany diploidization in the aecium are an im-
portant accessory to the fertilization process. In conclusion it is pro-
posed to discuss the possible bearing of the newly observed phe-
nomena of sex and organography in the Uredineae upon the general
problem of sex in fungi.
THE ENTRANCE AND MIGRATION OF SPERMATIUM NUCLEI
Attention has been given to a more detailed examination of the
means by which spermatium nuclei reach the aecium from their
point of entrance at the host epidermis. A first fact worthy of com-
ment is the apparent ease with which the nuclei disregard the numer-
ous crosswalls in their passage through the often intricate maze of
mycelial strands. This fact has been verified by the observation that
the spermatium nuclei can be made to contrast strongly with the
ordinary or indigenous cell nuclei of the gametophytic mycelium and
thus can be identified at various points throughout the infected area.
Contrast in stain has been obtained with the triple combination of
safranin, gentian violet, and orange G on material fixed in Carnoy’s
and in Fleming’s weaker solution.
When revealed by a good differentiation of stain the spermatium
nuclei display a curiously compact structure which differs markedly
from the structure of the indigenous cell nuclei. Figure 1, C, G, H, I,
and L shows this difference in structure and indicates the difference
in intensity of stain. The normal or indigenous cell nuclei show reticu-
lation outlined in gentian violet, which is frequently very distinct in
the greatly enlarged egg nuclei. A conspicuous nucleolus is invariably
present in the (basal cell) nuclei and frequently is equal in diameter
to the spermatium nucleus at the time the latter has just entered
546 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 12
the basal cell. The nucleoli retain the safranin stain, but often with
a pale center giving somewhat the appearance of a vacuole. (Fig.
1, K, c.) Spermatium nuclei rarely show reticulation but are stained
richly, with gentian violet predominating, and contrast in brilliance
with the dull safranin of the egg nucleoli. An eccentric position of the
deeply stained portion is a common characteristic of the spermatium
nuclei at this stage. The stainable portion is frequently crescent-
shaped (fig. 1, J, L) or comma-shaped (fig. 2, C, D); a faint edging
or halo (fig. 2, F, b) often gives them a curiously detached appearance.
The distinctive appearance of the spermatium nuclei is lost during
the first conjugate division with egg nuclei.
Having observed the characteristic structure and staining proper-
ties of the newly introduced spermatium nuclei, it is possible to ob-
serve these bodies in their devious progress through the crosswalls of
the trichogenous hyphae and in the act of migrating between adjacent
cells of the fertile layer in the aecium. Figure 1, A and B, shows fusion
of spermatia with the tips of superficial hyphae. Figure 1, D to F,
shows spermatium nuclei in process of migration through hyphal
crosswalls. Many such cases have been observed. In Figure 1, G, is
shown a spermatium nucleus as it maneuvers past the cell nucleus
in its passage through the trichogenous hypha. Spermatium nuclei
after they have reached the base of the aecium are shown in Figures
1 and 2. Figures 1, J, K, and 2, A, show migration between continuous
and between adjacent cells at the base of the aecium. On certain slides
these can be seen with great frequency.
It is necessary to conclude that cell walls furnish remarkably little
inconvenience to the movements of nuclei. Whether passage through
the walls is secured by dissolution, or by openings normally present,
or whether the forces causing the movements of the nuclei are suff-
ciently potent to cause mechanical rupture, is not entirely apparent
from the observations made. From the appearance of the crosswall
after passage of the nucleus shown at e in Figure 2, I, it would seem
Fig. 1.—Entrance and migration of spermatium nuclei of Uromyces appendiculatus,
A, E to G, J to M, and U. vignae, B to D, H, I. X1500. A, B.—Fusion of spermatia
with gametophytic hyphae. C.—Spermatium nucleus (a) contrasted with cell nucleus
(6). D to F.—Migration of spermatium nuclei (a) through crosswalls of trichogenous
hyphae; cell nuclei at 6. G.—Indigenous cell nucleus (a) in a conducting hypha allow-
ing a Spermatium nucleus (b) to maneuver past on its way to the aeclum. H.—Contrast
of spermatium (a) and cell nucleus (6). I.—Initial fertilization of a basal cell; sper-
matium nucleus at a and egg nucleus at b. J—Entrance of spermatium nuclei (a, b, c)
into basal cells. K.—Entrance of spermatium nuclei (a, 6) into basal cells; the egg nu-
cleolus (c) is often similar in size to spermatium nuclei but differs markedly in stain.
L.—Early relation of egg (a) and spermatium (b) nuclei. Note orientation of the egg
nucleus as compared to I. M.—Entrance of spermatium nuclei (a, b) into basal cells.
The normal cell nucleus is shown at c.
DECEMBER 15, 1933 ANDRUS: CELL FUSIONS 547
Fig. 1.—For explanation see opposite page.
548 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 12
Fig. 2.—For explanation see opposite page.
DECEMBER 10), 1933 ANDRUS: CELL FUSIONS 549
that the wall has been forcibly ruptured,—less probably dissolved.
In Figure 1, M, the nucleus (a) is not enough constricted to suggest
that its passage is restricted to a small pore. However, Figure 1, E,
shows a nucleus much constricted in its passage through the cross-
wall. Furthermore, it is clear that a pore is commonly present in these
hyphal crosswalls, even though it is not certain that the presence of a
pore facilitates migration of the nuclei.
It is apparent from the evidence just presented that spermatium
nuclei migrate through gametophytic hyphae from the epidermis to
the aecium, and these conducting hyphae are still gametophytic after
passage of the spermatium nuclei. Up to this point, therefore, the
process of fertilization offers little suggestion of any relationship to
the diploidization process supposed by Buller (8) to occur in Hymen-
omycetes.
Allen (1) suggested that in some species of Puccinia the aecium
may be diploidized by the growth into the aecium of sporophytic
hyphae originating near the point of entrance of spermatium nuclei.
She even thought she saw some evidence of this on her slides of P.
tritecna Kriks. and P. coronata Cda. (2). Such a procedure is con-
ceivable and even probable for such species as P. caricis (Schum.)
Rebent. where cells of the hymenium are observed to be diploid from
their origin (13), but there is no indication that such a method of
diploidization may occur even rarely in the bean and cowpea rusts.
Aggregations of well differentiated haploid cells are present in definite
localized regions of the thallus, and fertilization of these cells is initi-
ated by the entrance of spermatium nuclei. There is no reason to con-
clude that this is not as true a sperm-egg relation as is to be found in
any group of Thallophytes.
ACCESSORY CELL FUSIONS IN THE AECIUM
A further study has been made of the cell fusions and nuclear migra-
Fig. 2.—Nuclear relations in the aecium of Uromyces appendiculatus, A, C to K,
and U. vignae, B. X1500. A.—Entrance of spermatium nuclei (a, b) at base of aecium;
egg or basal cell nuclei are shown at c to f. B.—Possible division or fragmentation of a
spermatium nucleus (a) after it has entered a basal cell. C —Spermatium nuclei (a to d)
showing evidence of division and migration. D.—Spermatium nucleus (a) in a basal
cell with 3 egg nuclei (6). E—Migration of an egg nucleus toward an approaching
spermatium nucleus. F.— Migration of spermatium nuclei through a series of conduct-
ing cells. Note migration of the egg nucleus (f) from the terminal cell of the series. A
normal cell nucleus is shown at a with several spermatium nuclei; spermatium nuclei
also at b to d. G—Spermatium nucleus (a) approached by a normal cell nucleus (6)
and an egg nucleus (c) which has vacated the basal cell (d). H—Nuclear migration at
base of aecium; egg nuclei at a, c, d, and spermatium nuclei at b. 1— Migration of both
spermatium and egg nuclei; spermatium nuclei at a, d, f, and probably 7; egg nuclei
at b, g, h; c is probably a recently divided egg nucleus; note ruptured crosswall at e.
J, K.—Migration of egg nuclei after entrance of spermatium nuclei.
550 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 23, NO. 12
tions that occur within the aecium immediately following the first
stage of fertilization. It appears that the fertilization process does not
cease with the entrance of a particular spermatium nucleus into a
particular egg cell; there occur divisions of the egg nuclei and probably
also of the spermatium nuclei, which are followed by further migra-
tions of both spermatium and egg nuclei. As a result numerous origi-
nally uninucleate cells are diploidized following entrance of only a few
spermatium nuclei. Some suggestion of this was made in an earlier
publication (4). It is believed to be possible that in the accessory cell
fusions and nuclear migrations there may be found a process in some
degree comparable to the diploidization in Hymenomycetes.
It is necessary to distinguish at least two types of cell fusion in the
aecia of Uromyces, fusions that are undoubtedly stimulated by the
entrance of spermatium nuclei, and fusions that occur in aged sterile
aecia showing evidence of degeneration. Fusions of the second type,
in their advanced stages, involve an almost general dissolution of cell
walls accompanied by a multiplicity of small nuclei, often made-
quately stained. Allen (2) illustrates fusions of this type for Puccinia
coronata. They occur regularly in unfertilized infections of bean rust.
Migrations of nuclei through small openings are characteristically
absent from such material. Initial stages in degeneration of sterile
aecia may show fusions that are not clearly distinguishable from fu-
sions that accompany fertilization. It may be stated generally, how-
ever, that cell fusions in a sterile aecium involve a general disorgani-
zation of cell partitions, whereas fusions associated with fertilization
involve nuclear migrations with only local dissolution or rupture of
cell walls.
The explanation of cell fusions associated with fertilization in bean
and cowpea rusts is then largely a problem of interpreting the nuclear
migrations that accompany or follow entrance of spermatium nuclei
into the aecium. It appears that the nuclear migrations involve move-
ments of both spermatium and egg nuclei. The difficulty in deciding
this point is increased by the fact that spermatium nuclei no longer
show the characteristic structure and stain after the first conjugate
division. Consequently many of the migrating nuclei which appear to
have the structure of an egg nucleus may in fact be of spermatial
origin.
Material fixed at an early stage in fertilization will frequently show
basal cells with a very nearly ideal relation of egg and spermatium
nuclei. Such a one is shown in Figure 1, I. So far as could be deter-
mined this is the first spermatium nucleus to enter this aecium. The
DECEMBER 15, 1933 ANDRUS: CELL FUSIONS ool
figure is drawn from a 16 day infection fixed very soon after spermatia
were transferred on the surface of the host leaf. The figure certainly
suggests a typical sperm-egg relationship, comparable, for example,
to the fertilization of an egg in the archegonium of a fern. Figure 1,
L, is only a little less convincing in this respect. Of possible signifi-
cance is the apparent shift in position of the egg nucleolus, which in
this case corresponds to the relative position of the spermatium
nucleus in the two figures. Fertilization, however, is not ordinarily
so simple as would be indicated by these two figures. There is evi-
dence that the spermatium nuclei may divide soon after entering the
first basal cell, as appears to be the case in Figure 2, B. The division,
if it is such, would appear to be amitotic. Figure 2, A (6), may rep-
resent such a division occurring at the cell partition. Also the two
distinct spermatium nuclei (c, d) represented in Figure 2, C, may have
entered separately but quite as probably are the result of a nuclear
division.
The egg nucleus also appears frequently to undergo division, just
preceding or immediately following entrance of the spermatium nu-
cleus. That the first divisions of spermatium and egg nuclei are not
simultaneous is evidenced by Figure 2, B, as well as a and f of Figure
3, A. The migration into an adjacent basal cell of one portion of a
recently divided spermatium nucleus is suggested in Figure 2, I, al-
though again it should be stated that the spermatium nuclei shown
(d and f) may be of separate origin. That egg nuclei also migrate from
cell to celi during this period is evidenced in Figures 2 and 3.
The presence of 2, 3, and occasionally 4, egg nuclei in a single basal
cell is a common observation at an early stage in fertilization. The
explanation would appear to be that the approach of spermatium
nuclei is a stimulus that promotes movement of egg nuclei. This is
suggested in Figure 2, G, where the egg nucleus (c) has completely
vacated the basal cell (d) and entered the conducting hypha where
the smaller cell nucleus (6) already appears to be assisting the ap-
proaching spermatium nucleus (a) through the narrow aperture in
the crosswall. Also in Figure 2, F, where the approach of several
spermatium nuclei appears to have exerted some force upon the
nucleus in the most terminal unfertilized cell. Again in Figure 2, E,
and H to K, and Figure 3, A, migrations of egg nuclei are occurring
at several points, but usually in a direction toward spermatium
nuclei. Curiously the 2 egg nuclei in Figure 3, B, appear undecided
which way to move. Not all instances of this sort lend themselves to
interpretation.
552 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 12
The movement of egg nuclei toward the approaching spermatium
nuclei may be due to a definite attraction between the two kinds of
bodies or it may be merely incidental to a general cytoplasmic move-
ment which has the effect of concentrating the active protoplasmic
substances in the fertile layer of the aecium. A general cytoplasmic
movement toward the fertile layer would result in the withdrawal of
nutritive materials from the sterile portion of the aecium and likewise
Fig. 3.—Nuclear division and migration in Uromyces appendiculatus, A, B, D, and
U. vignae, C. X 1500. A.—Recently divided egg nuclei at a and f; spermatium nuclei at
b, c, g, h, and k; cell fusions at d, e, andj; egg nucleolus at 7; migration at d may involve
elther a spermatium or an egg nucleus. B.— Migration of egg nuclei at c; spermatium
nuclei shown at a, b, d, and e; the conjugate division at f probably involves only egg
nuclei. C.—Division of a trinucleate basal cell. D.—Cell fusions with evidence of
nuclear migrations at several points. An adjacent section shows an egg nucleus and a
second spermatium nucleus in the cell at a.
DECEMBER 15, 1933 ANDRUS: CELL FUSIONS 593
might conceivably draw spermatium nuclei from the peripheral
hyphae toward the aecium. Whatever may be the force causing migra-
tion of egg nuclei from an unfertilized cell into a fertilized cell, such
migration would appear to have a nutritive effect and would support
later proliferation of the multinucleate basal cell. The cell fusions and
nuclear migrations observed in the aecium of Uromyces obviously cor-
respond to those described by Blackman (6) and Christman (9) for
numerous species of Uredineae; and, although they are not gametic
fusions in the sense proposed by the above authors, they do appear
to be an important and perhaps characteristic accompaniment of
the sexual act.
Migration of egg nuclei is frequently from an unfertilized cell into
a cell which has just received or is about to receive a spermatium
nucleus. This in certain instances accounts for the multinucleate con-
dition of newly fertilized cells. (Fig. 2, D, I, and K.) In other instances
(fig. 3, A and D) the multinuclear condition is probably the result
of nuclear divisions that occur previous to the familiar conjugate
divisions. Upon this basis it cannot always be inferred that two nuclei
in a binucleate basal cell are necessarily of separate origin or of differ-
ent sex. It 1s probable that the conjugate division shown in Figure
2, B, involves nuclei neither one of whichis of spermatial origin. Later
divisions of this basal cell would probably involve the spermatium
nucleus shown at e.
Some observations have been made concerning the fate of the ex-
cess nuclei after spore formation is begun. Reduction to the single
pair of nuclei that is so characteristic in cells of a mature aecium may
be accomplished by any one of four methods. 1. By eliminating the
extra nuclei in the first spore abstricted. 2. By migration of extra
nuclei into adjacent unfertilized cells. 3. By degeneration of one or
more nuclei. 4. By proliferation of the basal cell into two or more
spore chains. There is evidence that all four methods are actually fol-
lowed at various times. Frequently, as in Figure 3, C, a few basal cells
continue to produce spores with more than two nuclei.
It is evident from the above that great irregularity characterizes
the nuclear behavior in a fertilized rust aecium. The apparently mis-
cellaneous nuclear divisions and migrations have the result, however,
of securing the diploidization of numerous basal cells by means of a
comparatively few spermatium nuclei. In this procedure there is some
suggestion of the diploidization process in Hymenomycetes, where it
is supposed (8) that a single nucleus of one sex can diploidize a whole
thallus of different sex. In respect to the two species of Uromyces here
554 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 12
concerned, it would be a mistake to suppose that the whole rust thal-
lus is comparable to the thallus of a Hymenomycete. For here, at
least, the whole thallus is not diploidized by the spermatium nuclei,
but only definitely differentiated gametic areas of the thallus. Sur-
rounding hyphae serve as conducting channels for spermatium nuclei
but remain haploid after passage of the nuclei.
DISCUSSION
The present communication emphasizes the earlier observation (4)
that fertilization of a haploid aecium by entrance of spermatium
nuclei in Uromyces constitutes a true sperm-egg relation. It can
scarcely be denied that each gametophyte of Uromyces produces
organs that not only function as gametes but have some of the
morphological peculiarities of the sperm and egg mechanisms of cer-
tain more familiar plants. It would be unwise, however, to emphasize
any apparent homologies with the sperm-egg mechanisms of any other
group of organisms.
_ Some confusion has resulted from the paradox offered by fungi of
this type, wherein a full complement of ‘‘sex’’ organs are present on
individuals of both ‘“‘sexes.’? A comparable situation has long been
familiar to students of flowering plants; but botanists have never
looked upon non-compatibility groups of flowering plants as being
sexual groups. Sperm and egg mechanisms, as conceived by the writer,
are a part of the characteristic organography of particular species
and are frequently independent of the physiological condition of in-
dividuals in respect to compatibility. This viewpoint seems to be de-
manded by the newly observed facts of sex segregation and organog-
raphy in fungi. Many species that would be homothallic in respect to
sex organs are in fact heterothallic in respect to sexual compati-
bility. Furthermore, it is probable that in certain species that appear
to be typically homothallic (and self-fertile) the development of fruit-
ing bodies may proceed parthenogenetically or without any reaction
between the sperm and egg mechanisms present (5). Such a homo-
thallic species is in fact unisexual.
Dodge (11) has explained in considerable detail how the sexes segre-
gate in the ascus of Neurospora so as to form unisexual strains (of
heterothallic forms) and bisexual strains (of homothallic forms). He
presumes that a unisexual strain consists of individuals that cor-
respond to either sperm-producers or egg-producers, while the bi-
sexual strain consists of individuals that produce both sperm and egg
mechanisms. In the case of certain rust fungi and Ascomycetes,
DECEMBER 15, 1933 ANDRUS: CELL FUSIONS 900
mycologists are forced to an embarrassing conclusion, for here the
‘““sexes’”’ (organs) are obviously segregated in the vegetative divisions
of the gametophyte while the conditions of maleness and femaleness
(the factors for copulability) are segregated in the nuclear divisions
in the ascus and in the basidium. Which of the two above relations is
actually segregated in the ascus of Neurospora? More recent observa-
tions on this fungus (12) would seem to indicate that copulability
factors are segregated in the ascus and that the strains which, accord-
ing to Dodge (11), are unisexual are in fact producers of both sperm
and egg mechanisms. Uredineae of the Uromyces type are similar to
Neurospora in that respect.
There is some inclination to look upon sex phenomena in the
Uredineae as comparable in many respects with the diploidization
process in Hymenomycetes as postulated by Buller (8). Undoubtedly
there are points of similarity. Buller indicates how, ‘‘in a very simple
way,’ a diploid cell can fertilize a haploid cell, and how the diploidiza-
tion may continue progressively so that a whole haploid mycelium
may be diploidized,—presumably by the entrance into one haploid
cell of a single nucleus of opposite sex. There is no evidence from Bull-
er’s researches that fertilization by a diploid mycelium is not pre-
ceded by a type of reduction. Vandendries and Martens (16) have
shown that haploid oidia are formed by diploid mycelia of Pholiota
aurivilla Batsch, and it is conceivable that this may be a common
procedure in other Hymenomycetes. Likewise, Brown (7) presents no
evidence that haploid cells are not formed by the rust sporophyte
immediately preceding fertilization of a gametophytic mycelium of
Puccinia helianthi Schw. These announcements show the inadequacy
of methods of research in this field which do not include a study of cy-
tological phenomena.
On the other hand, there is perhaps nothing remarkable in the fact
that a diploid (or binucleate) cell can fertilize a haploid cell, or that
fertilization can occur in any combination whatsoever, providing the
necessary sexual gradient exists between the nuclei concerned. On the
preceding pages there is described what is believed to be such a
process taking place in the aecium of Uromyces. By means of nuclear
division and migration a single spermatium nucleus is sufficient to
fertilize numerous basal cells. Diploidization in Uromyces, however,
is restricted to specially differentiated gametic areas. In this respect,
and in other details, it contrasts strongly with the scheme of diploi-
dization outlined by Buller (8), which apparently is based largely upon
the cytological work of Lehfeldt (14).
556 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 12
Buller (8) has attempted to draw a fundamental distinction be-
tween the processes of fertilization in Hymenomycetes and in higher
plants. The cells which become diploid in Hymenomycetes are not egg
cells, Buller conceives, for the whole haploid mycelium should be
looked upon as a multicellular egg. Likewise, according to this author,
the haploid cells (oidia) which frequently initiate fertilization are not
sperm cells, for they too are capable of independent growth and of
forming a multicellular individual. This is an ingenious theory. At the
same time it might as easily be conceived that the fern gametophyte
is a multicellular egg, but upon this multicellular individual there are
usually developed characteristic structures which bear the relation of
sperm and egg mechanisms. This is quite as true of the rust gameto-
phyte. In the fern gametophyte as well as in the fungus gametophyte
fertilizations are not restricted to these differentiated structures.
Sperm and egg mechanisms in all their variations may be looked
upon as a part of the characteristic organography of particular spe-
cies. They may be no more male and female than any two other
organs of the individual. In many of these species they are a means
by which alone diploidization is possible. In other species the cellular
anatomy may be such that sexual unions are not restricted to any
specially differentiated cells, even though such be present and func-
tional. The new observations on sex in fungi have revealed little con-
cerning the nature of sex, but they have brought into question the
arguments of those who seek to place in different categories gametic
unions occurring between undifferentiated cells and those occurring
between cells differentiated as sperm and egg. Apparently both types
of fertilization occur in the rust fungi.
SUMMARY
Continued observations on fertilization in two species of Uromyces
emphasize the view that the relation between spermatium and hap-
loid basal cell is a true sperm-egg relation.
The structure and staining properties of migrating spermatium
nuclei are described and contrasted with those of nuclei in the con-
ducting strands and in basal cells of the aecium. By means of this
contrast it is possible to identify spermatium nuclei at various points
within the gametophyte thallus.
The fusion of spermatia with superficial hyphae and the passage of
the spermatium nuclei through the conducting strands is described in
some detail. The trichogenous hyphae remain haploid after passage
of the spermatium nuclei.
DECEMBER 15, 1933 ANDRUS: CELL FUSIONS 557
Cell fusions that occur in sterile (unfertilized) aecia are distin-
guished from those occurring at the time of fertilization. Fusions of
the first type involve a general disorganization of cell partitions while
fusions of the second type are incidental to nuclear migration with
only local dissolution or rupture of cell walls.
The period of fertilization is accompanied by migrations of both
spermatium and egg nuclei, both of which are believed to divide in-
dependently during the initial stage. Migration of egg (basal cell)
nuclei appears to be related to the approach of spermatium nuclei. A
number of significant details in the relations of spermatium and egg
nuclei are described.
The nuclear migrations in the aecium are believed to represent a
process of diploidization that may be remotely comparable to diploi-
dization in Hymenomycetes.
The discussion covers the possible bearing of sex phenomena in the
Uredineae upon the larger problem of sex in Thallophytes.
LITERATURE CITED
—
. ALLEN, R. F. A cytological study of heterothallism in Puccinia triticina. Jour.
Agr. Research 44: 733-754, illus. 1932.
. ALLEN, R. F. A cytological study of heterothallism in Puccinia coronata. Jour.
Agr. Research 45: 513-541, illus. 1932.
: eee R. F. The spermatia of flax rust, Melampsora lini. Phytopath. 23: 487.
. Anprus, C.F. The mechanism of sex in Uromyces appendiculatus and U. vignae.
Jour. Agr. Research 42: 559-587, illus. 1931.
. AnpbRuS, C. F. and Hartsr, L. L. Morphology of reproduction in Ceratostomella
fimbriata. Jour. Agr. Research 46: 1059-1079, illus. 1933.
BuackMaNn, V. H. On the fertilization, alternation of generations, and general cy-
tology of the Uredineae. Ann. Bot. [London] 18: [323]-373, zllus. 1904.
. Brown, A. M. Dzploidization of haploid by diploid mycelium of Puccinia helianthi
Schw. Nature 130: 777, illus. 1932.
. Buutuer, A. H. R. The biological significance of conjugate nuclei in Coprinus
lagopus and other Hymenomycetes. Nature 126: 686-689, illus. 1930.
: Si ae A.H. Sexual reproduction in therusts. Bot. Gaz. 39: [267]-275, illus.
. Craiciz, J. H. Union of pycniospores and haploid hyphae in Puccinia helianthi
Schw. Nature 131: 25, zllus. 1933.
. Dover, B. O. Nuclear phenomena associated with heterothallism and homothallism
in the Ascomycete Neurospora. Jour. Agr. Research 35: 289-305, illus. 1927.
. Dovex, B. O. The non-sexual and the sexual functions of microconidia of Neuro-
spora. Bull. Torrey Club 59: 347-360, illus. 1932.
. Kursanov, L. Recherches morphologiques et cytologiques sur les Uredineés. Bul.
Soc. Nat. Moscou (n.s. 1917). 31 (Sect. Biol.): 1-129, cllus. 1922.
. Lenreipt, W. Uber die Entstehung des Paarkermycels bei heterothallischen Basidio-
myceten. Hedwigia 64: 30-51, illus. 1923.
. Pierson, R. K. Fusion of pycniospores with filamentous hyphae in the pycnium of
the White Pine blister rust. Nature 131: 728-729. 1933.
. VANDENDRIES, R. and Martens, P. Oidies haploides et diploides sur mycelium
dtploides chez Pholiota aurivilla Batsch. Bull. Cl. Sci. Acad. Roy. Belg. 18: 468-
472, allus. 1932.
tye) i ep ei Ss CO 1S
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Gor Gy Re COE, NS = aS
558 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 12
BOTANY.—A new Gossypium of Lower CEES THomas H.
KEARNEY, Bureau of Plant Industry.
In 1931, as guests of Mr. Allison V. Armour, G. N. Collins, J. H.
Kempton and the writer participated in a cruise in the Gulf of Cali-
fornia. Seeds of gossypium harknessti Brandegee were collected on
Carmen Island and, of what was supposed at the time to be a peculiar
form of the same species, on San Marcos Island. Through the cour-
tesy of Mr. and Mrs. E. H. Page, resident on the latter island, an
abundant supply of seeds was received later. Plants were grown in
California from these several lots of seed; and it became apparent,
almost immediately, that the San Marcos Island plant is very differ-
ent from typical harknessii, as represented by the Carmen Island col-
lection.? Plants of both forms flowered and fruited at several stations
in southern California in 19383. Comparison of these living plants,
growing side by side, left no room for doubt that the plant of San
Marcos Island is a quite distinct species. It has not, apparently, been
described previously, although herbarium specimens were collected
at.the same locality by Ivan M. Johnston, as a member of the expedi-
tion of the California Academy of Sciences to the Gulf of California
in 1921.
It is a pleasure to name this attractive little shrub in honor of Mr.
Allison VY. Armour, whose generous cooperation has enabled the De-
partment of Agriculture to introduce valuable plants from many
parts of the world, and who made it possible to obtain the evidence
that the San Marcos Island plant is a new species of Gossypium.
Gossypium armourianum, sp. nov.
Frutex ramosissimus, ramis patulis vel adscendentibus, praeter corollam,
capsulae partem interiorem, et semina mox glaberrimus; lamina folii crassa,
nitida, 2-3.5 cm. longa et subaequilata vel latior, non lobata, subcordata,
apice obtusa vel acutiuscula et saepe mucronata; pedunculus anthesi 2—4 em.
longus, subclavatus, sine nectariis; involucellum caducissimum, bracteolis
2-5 mm. longis distinctis subulatis integris; calyx 5-dentatus, dentibus 1-2
mm. longis, triangulis vel subulatis; petala 2.5-4.5 em. longa, sulfurea,
maculam conspicuam rubram ferentia vel nonnunquam immaculosa; fila-
menta 2-4 mm. longa, tenua; antherae ca. 1 mm. longae; styli et stigmata
20-25 mm. longa; ovarium oe loculatum, loculis plerumque 3-ovulatis;
capsula 10-20 mm. longa, ovoidea, abrupte acuminata vel interdum solum
apiculata, intus margine valvarum glabra vel pilis raris longis debilibus
ciliata; semina loculo quoque 1-3, 7-9 mm. longa, saepe solide connata,
obovoidea, angulata, pilis appressis crispatis subfulvis dense pilosa.
1 Received November 11, 1938.
2 The difference was noticed, in the early seedling stage, by C. G. Marshall, Super-
intendent of the U. S. Acclimatization Garden, Torrey Pines, Calif.
DECEMBER 15, 1933 KEARNEY: NEW GOSSYPIUM 959
Characters not stated in the preceding diagnosis are as follows: Shrub
compact, broader than high, with the main stem or leading branch attaining
a length of 115 cm. and a diameter at base of 2.5 em., obscurely granular-
puberulent on the very young parts, including the caducous stipules and
involucel, dotted with slightly prominent, brown (drying black) oil glands
on the twigs, stipules, petiole, midvein of leaf dorsally near base, peduncle,
involucel, calyx, petals, column, exserted portion of pistil and capsule;
twigs reddish and more or less glaucous, older bark reddish-brown; stipules
1.5 to 2.5 mm. long, subulate, soon deciduous; petiole slender, as long as or
slightly longer than the blade, usually dark red toward apex; leaf blades
dark green, with a very small greenish or brownish pulvinus, punctate with
imbedded, dark brown oil glands, rounded-deltoid, often 1.5 times as wide
as long, crenulate, the basal sinus open and broadly triangular, palmately
5-veined, with a small deltoid or lanceolate nectary near the base of the mid-
vein, dorsally; flowers borne (usually singly and often as if terminally) on
very short, spreading or ascending branchlets, to which the peduncle is
articulated ; involucel caducous long before anthesis, usually when the flower
bud is not more than 6 mm. long; calyx 5-10 mm. high at anthesis, copiously
dotted with oil glands; petals at apex about as wide as long, with upper
margin slightly erose, often puberulent (and reddish) on the dorsal surface
where exposed in bud, ciliolate above, ciliate towards base, densely so on
the very short claws with hairs 1-2 mm. long, pale green-yellow,® the sub-
basal spot, when present, 5-10 mm. long, solid or striate, carmine; column
staminiferous one-third to two-thirds of its length; stamens with pale orange
anthers, the enlarged summit of the filament carmine, pollen orange-yellow;
pistil with the exserted portion usually longer than the column and con-
spicuously dotted with reddish brown oil glands; stigmas erect, closely con-
nate; capsule usually sharply acuminate with the point 1 to 5 mm. long,
pale green before maturity, conspicuously dotted with oil glands much
larger than those of the calyx; seeds rather narrowly obovoid, rounded-
convex on the back, usually flat on the inner face or faces, coffee-colored,
the hairs pale brown and attaining a length of about 4 mm.
Type Locauity: San Marcos Island, near the eastern coast of Lower
California, latitude 27° 15’N. Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.
1,184,705, collected by T. H. Kearney, August 25, 1933, at Palm Springs,
California, from a plant grown from seeds from San Marcos Island.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Known only from the type locality.
SPECIMENS EXAMINED: San Marcos Island, Johnston 3645; Collins, Kear-
ney & Kempton 251. Also living plants in the U. 8S. Department of Agricul-
ture collections at Riverside, Palm Springs, and Bard, California, and Sac-
aton, Arizona, grown from seeds from San Marcos Island (F.P.1. 92903,
93543, 95656).4
This species is unique in having a very small involucel, that disappears
long before anthesis. It is most nearly related to G. harknessiz Brandegee,
which differs from G. armourianum as follows: Stem or leading branch longer
and thicker (attaining a length of 165 cm. and a diameter at base of 6.5
cm.); branches fewer, longer, less intricate, and more nearly erect; twigs
ii 3 Ripgway, Rosert. Color standards and color nomenclature. Washington, 1912,
ate V.
_4 The corresponding C. B. (Cotton Breeding) numbers under which seeds were dis-
tributed by the Department of Agriculture are, 862, 867, 930.
560 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 12
less colored, these and the petioles densely stellate-puberulent; stipules
longer (3 to 6 mm. long); leaf blades thinner, lighter green, not shiny, at
least twice as large, distinctly 3-lobed, usually 7-veined from the base,
deeply cordate at base with the sinus usually narrow and often closed above,
acutish to short-acuminate at apex; peduncle much shorter (5 to 12 mm.
long); involucel more persistent (usually until anthesis), the bractlets much
larger (10 to 25 mm. long and 7 to 15 mm. wide), ovate or oblong-ovate,
entire, denticulate or often rather deeply few-dentate toward apex; calyx
merely undulate or denticulate on the margin and sparsely gland-dotted;
capsule broader (often nearly spherical in shape), with inner margins of valves
copiously long-ciliate; seeds plumper, the hairs longer, silvery-gray in color.®
Another interesting difference is in the oil of the walls of the unripe cap-
sules. This is bright orange in both species, but has merely a peppery odor in
G. harknessii (as in the cultivated Egyptian cottons), whereas in G. armouria-
num the oil is fragrant, with an odor suggesting that of rose geranium (Pelar-
gonium graveolens). 3
G. armourianum is known only from San Marcos Island, where, as indi-
cated on the labels of Johnston’s specimens, it is ‘‘very common in draws,
on talus and in sandy bottoms.’’ When the writer saw the plants there on
April 6, 1931, they were flowering profusely and had many unripe capsules,
although there had been no heavy rainfall at that locality for more than 18
months. This species is, therefore, pronouncedly xerophytic like G. harknessi1,
which occurs in similar habitats.
The type collection of G. harknessii was made by T. 8. Brandegee in 1889
on Santa Margarita Island, off the west coast of Lower California, at approxi-
mately latitude 24° 30’ N. This species has been collected also at several
localities on the east coast of the peninsula and neighboring islands, from
somewhat north to somewhat south of latitude 26°. Plants grown in Cali-
fornia from seeds collected on Carmen Island by Collins, Kearney, and
Kempton, are very similar to the type specimen in the herbarium of the
University of California.
5 As the two genera are defined by Bentham and Hooker (Genera Plantarum), by
Schumann (Engler und Prantl. Natiirl. Planzenfam.), and by Ulbrich (in Bot. Jahrb.
50 (Suppl.): 360, 1914), armourianum belongs to Cienfugosia rather than to Gossypium,
because of its caducous involucel of small, narrow bractlets. But in G. harknessvi the
bractlets are much larger and less caducous and in G. davidsonii Kellogg they are both
large and persistent. The three species are so evidently related to one another and are
so like Gossypium in other characters that reference of any of them to Cienfugosia would
be an unsatisfactory solution.
ZOOLOGY .—Descriptions of five new species of seahorses... Isaac
GinsBpurG, U. 8S. Bureau of Fisheries. (Communicated by
Wa.po L. ScHMITT.)
An attempt to elaborate satisfactory characters by which to distin-
1 Published by permission of the U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries. Received
August 9, 1933.
DECEMBER 15, 1933 GINSBURG: FIVE NEW SEAHORSES o61
guish properly the American species of Hippocampus and their close
relatives on the eastern Atlantic coast led to the surprising discovery
that the following five species have remained unnamed to this late
date. In view of the chaotic state in which the taxonomy of Hippo-
campus was found to be during the course of this study, a revisionary
account of the species inhabiting these waters has been prepared and
will be published at a later date.
Hippocampus europaeus, new species
Description of type specimen: Brood pouch well developed. Trunk seg-
ments 11. Caudal segments 39. Dorsal rays 18. Pectoral rays 14. Coronet
of medium height, rather broad. Tubercles of medium development, not
markedly obtuse. Length 95 mm.; depth 15.8; head 19.7; snout 6.4; eye 4.2;
postorbital part of head 10.1; trunk 29.7; and tail 65.2 per cent of length.
Holotype: U.'S.N.M. Cat. No. 28544; La Rochelle, France.
Discussion: It seems strange, indeed, that what appears to be a common
seahorse on the Atlantic coast of France and possibly other parts of Europe,
should prove to be a new species. However, a study of the European ma-
terial available to me, although not extensive nor in the best of condition,
admits no other interpretation. The seahorses from the Atlantic coast of
Europe were heretofore identified with either one or the other of the two
common Mediterranean species. As compared with those species, it differs
from H. guttulatus Cuvier in having a markedly shorter snout, there being
no intergradation in the material examined, and in having less numerous
dorsal and pectoral rays, these latter characters intergrading to some ex-
tent. In the short snout it agrees with H. hippocampus Linnaeus (most gen-
erally designated as H. brevirostris by authors), but differs from the latter
in having a more slender trunk, better developed tubercles, and, on the
average, more numerous caudal segments and dorsal rays, and to a lesser
extent also more pectoral rays. In connection with this study, 9 specimens of
europaeus, 4 of hippocampus, and 24 of guttulatus have been examined. Study
of a larger series might possibly show a greater degree of intergradation and
a subspecifie status for ewropaeus might be thought desirable, but there is
no doubt that it is recognizably distinct from either of the two common
Mediterranean species.
Hippocampus reidi, new species
Description of type specimen: The brood pouch well developed, extending
to fifth caudal segment. Trunk segments 11. Caudal segments 37. Dorsal
rays 17. Pectoral rays 16. Tubercles obsolescent. Coronet markedly low and
blunt. Trunk notably slender. Length 121 mm.; depth 15.2; head 22.6;
snout 11.2; eye 3.6; postorbital 9.8; trunk 33.4; and tail 62.2 per cent of
length. Covered densely with small brown spots against a lighter back-
ground; ground color profusely sprinkled with minute, almost microscopic,
white dots.
562 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 12
Holotype: U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 86590; St. George, Grenada, British West
Indies; W. O’Brien Donovan. I have also studied specimens of this species
from Porto Bello, Panama; Jamaica, West Indies; and Port-au-Prince,
Haiti. :
Discussion: This species is evidently close to H. punctulatus and may be
distinguished from the latter by its markedly slender trunk, when specimens
of like size and the same sex are compared, the comparatively lower coronet,
the absence of tubercles on the upper margin of the trunk, and the markedly
different color pattern. In its obsolescent tubercles it nearly agrees with H.
hippocampus from the Mediterranean, differing from the latter in its slender
body, longer snout and the pectoral rays being more numerous on the aver-
age.
The species is named for Mr. Earl D. Reid, Aid in the Division of Fishes
of the U. 8. National Museum.
Hippocampus obtusus, new species
Description of type specimen: Brood pouch just beginning to develop, in
form of elliptical fold of skin on anterior 4 caudal segments. Trunk segments
11. Caudal segments 35. Dorsal rays 17. Pectoral rays 16. Every third spine
on trunk and every third or fourth on anterior part of tail having a peculiar
and characteristic form, very stout and very obtuse, reduced to stout
stumps. Coronet of medium height. Length 70 mm.; depth 11.8; head 24.5;
snout 10.7; eye 4.4; postorbital 10.8; trunk 35.2; and tail 60.9 per cent of
length.
Holotype: U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 84527; secured by the Albatross from off
Cape Hatteras, North Carolina; June 5, 1885.
Discussion: Although this specimen was taken within the geographic range
of hudsonius and the counts of its meristic characters also fall within the
range of variation of that species, it evidently represents a distinct species,
separable chiefly by the peculiar structure of the tubercles. The trunk in the
present species is conspicuously more slender, even more so than the ex-
treme variants of the specimens of hudsonius which have been measured.
The specimen described has been compared with over 70 specimens of
hudsonius.
Hippocampus hildebrandi, new species
Description of type specimen: No rudiment of a brood pouch, probably a
female. Trunk segments 11. Caudal segments 39. Dorsal rays 21. Pectoral
rays 17. Every third or fourth spine on upper ridge of trunk and anterior
part of tail conspicuous as a stout but short and stumpy projection, the
appearance very characteristic. Coronet of medium height. Length 68 mm.;
depth 13.7; head 24.4; snout 10.2; eye 4.4; postorbital 10.6; trunk 30.1;
and tail 65.4 per cent of length. No definite color pattern discernible.
Holotype: U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 82063; Chame Point, Pacific coast of
Panama; Robert Tweedlie.
Discussion: This species is the Pacific coast counterpart of H. obtusus,
differing from the latter in the more numerous dorsal rays and caudal seg-
ments.
DECEMBER 15, 1933 FRASER: GREENLAND HYDROIDS 563
I take pleasure in naming this species after Dr. Samuel F. Hildebrand,
Ichthyologist, of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries.
Hippocampus regulus, new species
Description of type specimen: A male with the brood pouch fully developed.
Length 30.5 mm.; depth of trunk 18.4; head 22.6; snout 6.9; eye 5.9;
postorbital part of head 12.1; length of trunk 33.8; and tail 62.3 per cent of
length. Dorsal rays 11. Pectoral rays 11. Trunk segments 10. Caudal seg-
ments 30. Coronet conspicuously high. Tubercles of medium development.
Color dark, faintly shaded with lighter; no definite color pattern.
Holotype: U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 92950; Harbor Island, Texas; May, 1927;
J. C. Pearson. Specimens studied also from Cat Island, Miss., Hog Island,
Texas; Champoton, Campeche, Mexico (Zoological Museum, University
of Michigan).
Discussion: This species differs from H. zosterae Jordan and Gilbert chiefly
in having fewer dorsal rays aad caudal segments, although there is more or
less intergradation in these characters.
ZOOLOGY .—Some Greenland hydroids.1. C. McLEan FRASER, Uni-
versity of British Columbia. (Communicated by Wa.po L.
SCHMITT. )
The small collection of hydroids obtained by Captain R. A. Bartlett
in the course of his expeditions to the coasts of Greenland and Baffin
Land, 1925-32, and entrusted to me for report through Dr. Waldo L.
Schmitt of the United States National Museum, has proved to be of
considerable interest.
There are four lots in the collection. From the east coast of Green-
land, some hydroid material was obtained in Clavering Fiord, near
Clavering Island (10-35 fathoms), in Lat. 74° 20’ N., Long. 21° W.,
on August 2, 1930. From west of Greenland, the largest lot was ob-
tained off Cape Alexander at the entrance to Smith Sound, in ap-
proximately Lat. 78° 15’ N., Long. 75° W., on August 26, 1932. An-
other lot was obtained 60 or 70 miles farther south, 5 miles south of
Cape Chalon (Prudhoe Land), on July 27, 1932. Finally, a few speci-
mens were obtained from the southern corner of Fox Basin (34-87
fathoms), in Lat. 66° 46’ N., Long. 79° 15’ W., on August 13, 1929.
As Fox Basin is separated from the Greenland waters by Baffin Land,
these are not strictly Greenland hydroids, but as there were only two
species, both of which have been obtained from Greenland waters,
they are included here.
1 Received September 5, 1933.
564 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 12
Twenty-two species in all were obtained, 15 from east of Green-
land, 17 from west of Greenland, 10 being common to the two. The
ten common species were:
Eudendrium tenellum Allman
Campanularia integra (MacGillivray)
Calycella syringa (Linn.)
Halecium curvicaule v. Lorenz
Halecium muricatum (Ellis and Solander)
Halecium tenellum Hincks
Grammaria abietina (Sars)
Lafoea fruticosa Sars
Lafoea gracillima (Alder)
Sertularella tricuspidata (Alder)
Those found in the eastern collection but not in the western were :—
Garveia groenlandica Levinsen
Eudendrium ramosum (Linn.)
Filellum serpens (Hassell)
Hebella calcarata (Agassiz)
Sertularella tenella (Alder)
Those found in the western collection but not in the eastern were :—
Campanularia groenlandica Levinsen
Campanularia verticillata (Linn.)
Campanularia volubilis (Linn.)
Obelia longissima (Pallas)
Cuspidella grandis Hincks
Halecium labrosum Alder
Thwaria thuja (Linn.)
The collections are not very different from previous Greenland
collections but as they were obtained from locations previously unex-
plored, the known distribution of the various species is extended.
Of the 15 species from Clavering Fiord, four have not been reported
previously from east Greenland. Two of these, Cuspidella grandis and
Sertularella tenella, have been obtained from the Arctic regions both
to the eastward and to the westward, hence it is not surprising that
they are found here. The other two, Hudendrium ramosum and
Hebella calcarata, have not previously been reported from such high
latitude. H. ramosum has been reported from the Pacific Coast and
the Atlantic coast of North America and from western Europe. This
DECEMBER 15, 1933 FRASER: GREENLAND HYDROIDS 965
serves as the first record to connect up the distribution in these three
areas as it is connected up in many other species.
With Hebella calcarata, the case is somewhat different. It has a
wide distribution but in areas apparently little related to those in
which the other species are found. The nearest recorded locality is
off Nova Scotia. From this as a farthest north, it is distributed along
the Atlantic coast of North America, south to Florida, on the west
coast of Africa, different areas in the Indian ocean, off Japan,
Australia and New Zealand, all in comparatively low latitudes.
From the west coast, all of the species but one (Thwiaria thuja),
listed, were found off Cape Alexander. These have all been reported
from the west coast of Greenland, but I believe they have never
before been reported from so far north. It is quite possible that hy- —
_droids have not been obtained so far north previously in any region.
As the colonies of hydroids were just as luxuriant as those growing
elsewhere, frigidity does not seem to be a factor detrimental to growth.
The locality near Cape Chalon is not far enough away from Cape
Alexander to expect a difference in fauna. Six species were obtained;
Campanularia groenlandica, Halecium curvicaule, H. muricatum,
Grammaria abietina, Lafoea gracillima and Sertularella tricuspidata.
TABLE 1.—DIsTRIBUTION OF HyDROIDS
Species PNA WArct ANA WG EG EArct WE
Garveia groenlandica
Eudendrium ramosum
Eudendrium tenellum
Campanularia groenlandica
Campanularia integra
Campanularia verticillata
Campanularia volubilis
Obelia longissima
Calycella syringa
Cuspidella grandis
Halecium curvicaule
Halecium labrosum
Halecium muricatum
Halecium tenellum
Hebella calearata
Filellum serpens
Grammaria abietina
Lafoea fruticosa
Lafoea gracillima
Sertularella tenella
Sertularella tricuspidata
Thuiaria thuja
YY ol] SOY oo Soa) OS) SS SS SS SS) ©
SScOO COC C CoCo S| cOOO CCC CS
566 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 12
From Fox Basin there were but two species, Campanularia volubilis
and Thuiaria thuja.
It is of interest to note that even in a small collection like this
there is such definite evidence that most of the species reported
from the higher latitudes in the northern hemisphere have had their
origin in the polar area, from which area they have been distributed
throughout the cireumpolar regions and then south along the coasts
of the continents.
Of the 22 species listed, all but two have been reported from the
Pacific Coast of North America, all but seven, from the Arctic re-
gions west of the area under consideration, all of them from the At-
lantic coast of North America, all but two from the Arctic regions to
the eastward, and all but two from western Europe. The larger num-
ber unreported from the western Arctic is probably due to the small
amount of collecting rather than to the actual absence of the species.
The accompanying table illustrates the distribution of the 22 spe-
cies. PNA indicates the Pacific coast of North America; WArct, the
Arctic regions to the westward; ANA, the Atlantic coast of North
America; WG, the west coast of Greenland; EG, the east coast of
Greenland; EArct, Arctic regions to the eastward; WE, West coast
of Kurope. A cipher indicates the presence of a species within the area
indicated.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
THE ACADEMY
253RD MEETING
The 253rd meeting of the Academy was an informal reception at the
Bureau of Standards on March 23, 1933. About 250 persons viewed |An ex-
hibit of certain phases of scientific work in Washington and were informally
received by Director Lyman J. Briags and President R. F. Grices of the
" Academy.
254TH MEETING
The 254th meeting of the Academy was a Joint meeting with the Medical
Society of the District of Columbia, held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos
Club on Thursday, April 20, 1933. About 100 persons were present. President
Rosert F. Griaes called the meeting to order and turned over the chair to
Doctor FowueEr, President of the Medical Society, who introduced Doctor
Henry E. Sicerist of Johns Hopkins University. Doctor Sigerist delivered
an illustrated address on Medicine of the Renaissance.
CuarRLes Tuom, Recording Secretary.
DECEMBER 15, 19383 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 06
“I
RECENTLY ELECTED TO MEMBERSHIP IN THE ACADEMY
CLARIBEL RutTH Barnett, librarian, U. 8. Department of Agriculture
Library, was elected to membership in recognition of her long experience in
cataloging and classifying scientific literature, in managing scientific libraries
and in carrying on scientific bibliographic research.
Ne.uit A. Brown, associate pathologist, Division of Fruit and Vegetable
Crops and Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry, was elected to membership
in recognition of her work on the bacterial diseases of plants.
SAMUEL B. DETWILER, principal pathologist in charge, Division of Blister
Rust Control, Bureau of Plant Industry, was elected to membership in
recognition of his work on forest tree diseases and their control.
Horace 8S. ISBELL, chemist, Bureau of Standards, was elected to member-
ship in recognition of his contributions to the chemistry of carbohydrates.
Wititiam M. Mann, director, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian -
Institution, was elected to membership in recognition of his contributions
to entomology and to the maintenance and development of zoological parks.
Rosert D. Ranps, senior pathologist, Division of Sugar Plant Investiga-
tions, Bureau of Plant Industry, was elected to membership in recognition
of his contributions to plant pathology and in particular for his researches
on the diseases of rubber, cinnamon, and sugar cane.
Harry W. ScHOoENING, chief, Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal
Industry, was elected to membership in recognition of his researches in the
field of veterinary pathology.
JAMES S. Simmons, director of laboratories, Army Medical Center, was
elected to membership in recognition of his contributions to medical bacteri-
ology.
RoseErt E. SNopaGRass, senior entomologist, Division of Insect Morphol-
ogy, Bureau of Entomology, was elected to membership in recognition of his
contributions on insect anatomy.
Louis STANLEY, chief, Bureau of Home Economics, was elected to mem-
bership in recognition of her investigations on the problems of home eco-
nomics and food chemistry.
LaNsING 8. WELLs, associate chemist, Bureau of Standards, was elected
to membership in recognition of his studies on the heterogeneous equilibria
between aqueous and metallic solutions and the hydration of Portland
cement.
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
501sT MEETING
The 501st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 8, 1933, President
C. N. FENNER presiding.
Informal communications —Davib WHITE exhibited specimens of layered
grits of Lower Pennsylvanian age from Orange and Perrin counties, Indiana.
Lighter colored layers, about 2? inch thick, which are used in the manufac-
ture of whetstones, are separated by thinner zones in which there are two
dark bands richer in carbonates and organic matter. The dark bands, cor-
related by Dr. White with times of slack sedimentation, are believed by him
568 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 12
to reflect a seasonal hot dry climate, since xerophytic plant fossils are found
associated with them.
FRANK L. Hess exhibited carbonate oolites about the size of small peas
from a well 3,125 feet deep in Union County, Arkansas. Almost all the oolites
have at least one ‘‘dimple’’ on the outer surface and some. have four or five.
He suggested that the oolites were probably formed in the churning water
of the well.
Program: Parker D. Trask and Haratp E. Hammar: Some relations of
the organic constituents of sediments to the formation of petroleum.—This paper
is a preliminary report of the results of the first 18 months investigation of
source beds of petroleum conducted by the United States Geological Survey
and the American Petroleum Institute. Most of the work has dealt with
methods of investigation, but several tentative inferences have been reached.
In the Santa Fe Springs oil field in California the ratio of oil production to
organic content of the sediments (after preliminary extraction with CCl,)
appears to be fairly constant throughout the eight producing zones in the
field. It would seem more likely therefore that the oil in any individual zone
was generated largely from the sediments in that zone rather than from
sediments in some other zone—that is, the sands and silts contiguous to the
oil actually are source beds. As the sediments in the oil zones consist largely
of fine-grained sands, it would seem that under certain conditions oil may be
generated from sands. The organic content of sediments is consistently small
throughout the entire 4,000 feet of producing beds and is of the order of
magnitude of 1.5 per cent. This small quantity of organic matter suggests
that some low grade sediments are satisfactory source beds of oil and that
mere richness in organic content is not necessarily a characteristic of source
beds. :
The volatility of the organic content of the sediments in general increases
from the uppermost producing zone to the lowermost producing zone—that
is, the organic constituents of the deepest and oldest beds contain much
more volatile matter than do those of younger beds 4,000 feet above.
The available data indicate that the nitrogen content of the organic mat-
ter in general decreases with the age of the rocks. Carboniferous sediments
contain about one half as much nitrogen with respect to the organic content,
and Pliocene sediments about two-thirds as much, as do recent sediments.
That is, two-thirds of the nitrogen that disappears is lost in one-tenth the
time. This indicates that the nitrogen compounds are altered to a much
larger extent shortly after their deposition than they are after they have been
buried for a long time. This phenomenon suggests, therefore, that the period
of time immediately following the deposition of sediments is of major im-
portance in the generation of petroleum. However, as the nitrogen com-
pounds continue to change even after a long interval, as indicated by the
significant loss in nitrogen between Pliocene and Carboniferous, it seems that
it could be possible to have more than one period of petroleum generation.
(A uthors’ abstract.)
Discussed by Messers. D. Wuitz and Monroe and Miss T. Strap-
NICHENKO..
ELEANORA B. KNopr.—New methods for attacking the problems of meta-
morphism.
Discussed by Messrs. GILLULY, GOLDMAN, Kina, C. P. Ross, Bowen,
and MmrTIE.
DECEMBER 105, 19383 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 969
502ND MEETING
The 502nd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 22, 1933,
President C. N. FENNmR presiding.
Informal communications.—J. C. Rerp showed lantern slides of a large
spring, 50 feet in diameter, at the foot of Muldrow glacier on the north side
of the Alaska Range. The spring feeds the headwaters of McKinley Fork of
Kantishne River, and continues to flow at temperatures well below freezing,
for during cold weather an ice wall about 6 feet high builds up around the
spring. Mr. Reed suggested that the spring marks the emergence of a sub-
glacial stream from a portion of the glacier concealed by the river gravels.
Program: JAMES GILLULY: Internal evidence of the origin of certain schists.
—The important results of recent studies of metamorphic rocks, especially
by Sander and Schmidt in Austria, include the discovery that the systematic
anisotropy of the rock fabric is commonly correlatable with the tectonic
movements which the rock has undergone. Most of their work has been on >
the dynamometamorphosed east Alpine rocks and such a correlation is
perhaps not unexpected. It appeared worth while to apply the methods of
Schmidt to the problem of the conditions of metamorphism of rocks whose
characters are commonly attributed to static or load metamorphism.
Professor Daly, whose report on the Shuswap terrane of interior British
Columbia contains a clear description of supposedly load-metamorphosed
rocks, very kindly sent me specimens and thin sections for study.
If the metamorphism of the Shuswap rocks were purely static one would
anticipate that the contained minerals would have an arrangement sym-
metrical with respect to the normal to the schistosity. A statistical study of
the orientation of the quartz and biotite of two specimens of the rocks
showed, however, a decided arrangement in a girdle, not oriented parallel
to the schistosity, but normal to the schistosity. This is the arrangement
found in many dynamometamorphosed rocks and seems to indicate that,
whatever the cause of the metamorphism, the orientation of the minerals
as now seen is a result of systematic differential movement between the
component grains. The planes of schistosity have acted as shear planes. In
the laboratory it is of course impossible to determine whether or not these
differential movements correlate and integrate to large scale deformation,
but it appears that the orientation pattern in the Shuswap rocks is precisely
analogous to that found in the Alpine tectonites. It can safely be said that
whether or not the metamorphism of the Shuswap rocks is due to load it
was surely not static. The present rock fabric bears unmistakable evidence
of kinetic effects.
In view of these features, the possibility that the Shuswap rocks were
metamorphosed during flat overthrusting like that of the Alps must be
given consideration, though naturally this possibility must be investigated
in the field. It is not yet clear that a distinction can be made between yield-
ing under load and consequent lateral flow on the one hand, and tangential
movement of great masses on the other. (Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Stosz, Hess, Butts, PARKER, RUBEY, FENNER, and
Miss JONAS.
C. WYTHE CooKE: Origin of the so-called meteorite scars of South Carolina.
—In the Journal of Geology, 41: 52-66, 1933, F. A. Melton and William
Schriever describe certain low elliptical sand ridges near Myrtle Beach, S.C.,
570 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 12
that are conspicuous in aerial photographs and suggest that they may sur-
round scars made by meteorites. The ridges are remarkable for their sym-
metry in plan and for the fact that the major axes of all the ellipses are paral-
lel to one another and extend at right angles to the seashore.
Study of the photographs reveals many details of form that are character-
istic of the work of waves and currents on unconsolidated sand. All the
elliptical ridges border or lie within ancient waterways that were active dur-
ing the late Pamlico epoch of the Pleistocene, when sea level stood 25 feet
higher than now. The ridges appear to be beaches and sand bars built by
- wind-driven currents and waves before the waterways became clogged by
vegetation. The ellipses are oriented alike probably because the winds that
propelled the waves and currents that shaped them blew from the ocean.
(Author's abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. W. C. MANSFIELD, D. WuitTz, THompson, RuBEY,
BripGk, and HENDRICKS.
Davip Wuite: Pre-Cambrian seas?—Recalling that limestones, calcareous
shales, and black shales, such as are in general regarded as characteristic
of marine deposits, are extensively found in all areas of not too altered
Algonkian, and emphasizing especially the prevalence of thick limestone
formations in the Proterozoic—e.g., 50,000 feet (see Adams and Barlow)
in the Grenville of Ontario, about 5,000 feet in the Canadian Northwest,
7,500 feet in the Belt region, over 1,200 feet in northern Arizona, 2,500 feet
more or less in Siberia, 6,000 feet in China, and considerable thicknesses in
India, Australia, and South Africa—the speaker insisted that the burden of
proof that the known pre-Cambrian is entirely of fresh water origin rests with
the geologists who still hold to that view.
The conclusion, based on lack of faunas identified as marine, that all pre-
Cambrian basins of marine deposition foundered without trace before
Cambrian time, never to reappear, postulates not only a sudden post-Algon-
kian departure in geotectonics, but also a reversal of geologic processes.
Otherwise, where are the great fresh water limestone formations and heavy
non-marine calcareous shale series of the Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silu-
rian? Ripple marks, suncracks, and salt hoppers are very common in the
Algonkian, but they are not peculiar to it.
Failure to discover marine animals approaching the Cambrian in form
and diversity in association with the Algonkian deposits of carbonaceous
matter, sedimentary iron, algal limestone, and some remains identified as
animal, finds explanation in uranium lead ratios, which indicate ages of 780
million years for the late Huronian, and 1060 million years for earlier
Huronian, possibly, but less than 475 millions—less than one-half as much—
for early Cambrian. The life remains found in the recognized late pre-
Cambrian series are representative of the sea life of the time. This life has
its own characteristics and already promises bases for very rough paleonto-
logical correlations, as is shown by the presence of distinctive American forms
of algal deposits in the Canadian Northwest, Siberia, China, and Australia.
The great blossoming out of pre-Cambrian animal life was later than the
Huronian and probably much later than the Belt series, which, but for the
compensation of tremendous horizontal stresses. by the Lewis and other
overthrusts of the region, might well have been as far altered as the Huro-
nian of the Lake district and possibly as the Grenville of the Adirondack and
Laurentian regions. The records of most brilliant life evolution before the
Cambrian should be found in rocks dated within the 200 million years pre-
DECEMBER 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY o71
ceding the earliest Cambrian, or more than 100 million years later than the
Huronian or possibly the Animikie. (A uthor’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. REssER and HEWETT.
503RD MEETING -
The 503rd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club April 12, 1933, President
C. N. FENNER presiding.
Informal communication.—RoBeEerRtT Kine described an area of Permian
rocks in Mexico, several hundred miles south of the nearest outcrops in
Texas. This area of 171 square kilometers is on a pediment on each side of a
plateau between the two branches of the Sierra Madre, which are composed
of folded Cretaceous rocks. The Permian section has a maximum thickness
of 11,000 feet, but much of this thickness is due to the inclusion of surface
voleanic rocks. The beds represented include both the highest and lowest
portions of the Permian as known in North America. They are folded into a
syncline, and are cut by thrust faults. Nearby flat Cretaceous beds overlie
the Permian beds unconformably. Thus the relations here differ notably
from those the Trans-Pecos Texas region, where the major deformation is
pre-Permian.
Discussed by Mr. J. S. WILuIAMs.
Program: P. J. SHENON and J. C. RexEp: The relationship of the quartz
veins to the regional structure in the Elk City district, [daho.—The gold-bear-
ing quartz veins of the Elk City district of north-central Idaho stand nearly
at right angles to a linear elongation of minerals in the country rocks. This
linear element is to be distinguished from the more commonly recognized
schistosity or planar foliation of gneissic and schistose rocks.
Banded gneiss is the most abundant rock in the district. It is interbedded
with schist and quartzite and in some places these rocks have been intruded
by sills and dikes. Irregular bodies of augen gneiss lie transverse to the trend
of the banded gneiss and schist. Granodiorite crops out over a large area and
extends beyond the limits of the district. Most of the veins lie within two
miles of the gradational contact between the granodiorite and the older
gneiss and schist.
The right-angle relationship between the veins and the mineral elongation
appears to be genetic because the measured orientations of the veins do not
differ from a position at right angles to the elongation by more than might
be expected considering the errors inherent in the data used. Furthermore,
the departures from a 90 degree relationship appear to be systematic as most
of the veins dip somewhat more steeply than they would if they were ex-
actly normal to the mineral elongation.
Hans Cloos and others have shown that a right-angle relationship exists
between a linear element, called ‘‘stretching,”’ and a set of ‘“‘Q” or cross
joints in certain igneous rock masses. The same phenomenon has also been
observed in metamorphic rocks. According to Cloos and his associates the
‘“‘stretching”’ is a result of mineral orientation during flow, and the ‘‘Q”
joints develop at a slightly later stage by tension at right angles to the
“stretching.” In this paper the relationship between the veins and the
mineral elongation is compared to that between the ‘‘stretching’”’ and the
“Q” joints, but statements concerning the origin of the fractures containing
the veins are avoided because a much greater areal study will be necessary
before adequate data for positive conclusions can be gathered, and also be-
572 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 12
cause the writers are not convinced that they necessarily form in the man-
ner postulated by Cloos. ;
An understanding of the relationship between the veins and the elonga-
tion will be of economic importance as a guide to prospecting and as a factor
in forming a conception of the probable extent and attitude of veins and
ore bodies both horizontally and in depth. (Authors’ abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. GILLULY, TRASK, and JOHNSTON.
Francois E. Matruss: The Pleistocene diversion of the Mississippi River
across Crowleys Ridge, southeastern Missourz.—A short distance below Cape
Girardeau, Mo., the Mississippi River abruptly leaves the broad cliff-lined —
trench which it has carved across the limestone uplands of Missouri and
Illinois, and, turning south-southeastward, cuts across Crowleys Ridge in
a narrow rock floored gorge. It then debouches upon the broad lowland to
the southeast of the ridge which originally was the path of the Ohio, and
meets that river at Cairo. There is abundant evidence showing that before
this remarkable diversion took place the Mississippi continued along the
west side of Crowleys Ridge, and met the Ohio at some point below the site
of Helena, Ark., fully 200 miles below the present point of confluence.
The only hypothesis to account for the Mississippi’s diversion across
Crowleys Ridge has been offered by C. F. Marbut and is to the effect that
the river was captured by a south-southeastward flowing streamlet on the
broad surface of the ridge that was tributary to the Ohio. During the Pleis-
tocene epoch, when it flowed immediately along the southeast side of Crow-
leys Ridge, the Ohio presumably lay at a somewhat lower level than the
Mississippi, and owing to this circumstance and the fact that the southeast-
ern margin of Crowleys Ridge is composed of weak unconsolidated sedi-
ments of Tertiary age, whereas the northwestern margin is composed of hard
Paleozoic rocks, the hypothetical south-southeastward flowing streamlet
had a double advantage over the northwestward flowing streamlets tribu-
tary to the Mississippi, and was able to capture one of these as it eroded
headward. A low gap was thus formed in the ridge, and through this gap
eventually the waters of the Mississippi found their way when the bed of the
river was raised by aggradation to a sufficiently high level.
Marbut went further and supposed the Mississippi to have been diverted
by this process of indirect capture three times in succession at different
points in southeastern Missouri—first through the gap in Crowleys Ridge
now traversed by Castor River, then through the gap now traversed by
Little River, and finally through the gorge now occupied by the Mississippi.
However, the drainage pattern on this portion of Crowleys Ridge affords
no indications whatever of rapidly headward growing streamlets tributary
to the Ohio, either at the gaps mentioned or elsewhere. On the contrary, it
shows only northwestward draining streamlets whose maturely developed
ramifications were never disturbed by pirate streams. Moreover, the south-
eastern margin of Crowleys Ridge is indented only by short ravines, and it
is apparent that there has not been sufficient time for the headward growth
of pirate streams 8 or 9 miles in length, nearly across the width of the ridge,
as is demanded by Marbut’s theory. That theory, therefore, does not appear
well founded. |
Recent investigations in southeastern Missouri have revealed the presence
of numerous terrace-like remnants of ancient flood plains of the Mississippi
in protected recesses on the sides of the different gaps in Crowleys Ridge,
likewise in the abandoned valley of the Mississippi between the ridge and
DECEMBER 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY od
the Ozark Highland, and along the sides of the Mississippi trench at and
above Cape Girardeau. These terraces are composed of stratified silts and
sands containing a large proportion of granitic and other crystalline material
of northern origin. The highest and oldest, which stand 50 to 60 feet above
the present flood plain of the Mississippi, are in part covered by loess. There
can be no doubt that they are remnants of a filling of glacial outwash de-
rived from the later ice sheets that lay to the north of the area.
The topographic relations of the upper terraces are such as to indicate
that at the time of maximum aggradation the waters of the greatly swollen
Mississippi spilled simultaneously through a number of shallow gaps in the
sky line of Crowleys Ridge. These gaps or spillways consisted of originally
northwestward draining valleys that had been beheaded by the progressive
paring away of the southeastern margin of the ridge by the Ohio River.
After the period of maximum aggradation the river cut down the main
spulways to successively lower leveis. The old Mississippi valley along the
northwest side of Crowleys Ridge, however, remained obstructed by sedi-
ment, and so when the waters contracted in volume they abandoned that
valley. At a later stage they abandoned the broad gap through which Little
River now finds its way, and they remained confined to the narrow gorge
which the river still occupies. That gorge presumably afforded the most
direct and steepest channel to the Ohio, and its narrowness doubtless helped
to maintain a concentrated current and to prevent deposition.
Discussed by Messrs. ALDEN, HENBEST, SHARS, STEPHENSON, THOMPSON,
and FENNER.
504TH MEETING
The 504th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club April 26, 1933, President
C. N. FENNER presiding.
Program: W. T. SCHALLER: Correlative mineralogy of the potash mine. New
Mexico.
Discussed by Mr. Lana.
VINCENT P. GIANELLA and EUGENE CALLAGHAN: The Cedar Mountain,
Nevada, earthquake of December 20, 1932.—An earthquake of major intensity
originated in the area east of the Gabbs Valley Range and Pilot Mountains,
near Mina, southwest of the center of Nevada on December 20, 1932, at
about 10:04 p.m. P.S.T. It was definitely perceptible over an area of about
400,000 square miles including Nevada and parts of California, Oregon,
Idaho, Utah, and Arizona. A circle including the scattered outermost points
from which reports were received would have an area of nearly 1,000,000
square miles. It is remarkable, however, that no lives were lost and damage
was confined to the demolition of one stone cabin and an adobe cabin, dam-
age to ore-treating plants and mines, broken chinaware and crockery, and
minor items. Several factors may be held to account for this, including the
sparse population (there were scarcely a dozen people in the epicentral area),
location of nearly all structures on rock, lack of water-soaked alluvial fill,
and probable great depth of the point of origin. There were a number of the
effects noted as usual in earthquake areas, such as the change in flow of
springs, avalanches of boulders down steep slopes, churning of surface soil
in places and upthrown boulders in at least one place. Aftershocks are to be
numbered in the thousands and were reported as still continuing on April 23,
though at greatly reduced frequency and intensity.
The main shock of the earthquake accompanied the formation of a series
of tension faults or rifts over an area 38 miles in length and 4 to 9 miles in
574. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, No. 12
width in the lowland between the Gabbs Valley Range and Pilot Mountains
on the west and Paradise Range and Cedar Mountain on the east. The low-
land is an area of partly dissected pediment slopes with a thin alluvial mantle
on Tertiary lake beds and volcanic rocks, whereas the mountain ranges con-
sist largely of pre-Tertiary rocks. In many places the rifts follow breaks in
slope and the margins of low hills, indicating that they are related to earlier
faults. Sixty rifts in various parts of the area were observed and undoubtedly
many escaped detection because of the heavy snowfall that terminated the
investigation. The rifts form an en echelon pattern, as most of them have an
average trend of N. 11° E., whereas the direction of the rift area is N. 21° W.
Individual rifts are from a few hundred feet to nearly four miles in length,
and consist of zones of fissures that range from a few feet to several hundred
feet in length. Individual fissures generally trend more to the northeast than
the direction of the rift, except in those places where the rifts trend more to
the east than N. 35° E. This gives them an en echelon pattern within the
rifts. Vertical displacement may be either to the east or the west and the
throw is generally less than a foot. Horizontal movement is indicated by
compression ridges on fissures at a sharp angle to the direction of some of the
rifts and by actual horizontal displacement of as much as 34 inches. Grabens
are common features of most of the rifts and may be as much as 100 feet
wide, with a wall four feet high on one side and two feet high on the other.
Most of them are less than 15 feet in width with a displacement of less than
a foot.
The en echelon pattern of the rifts and the remarkable uniformity of en
echelon pattern of fissures within the rifts together with evidence of actual
horizontal movement with the east side toward the south, indicate that the
rifts were caused by a definite directional stress. This can be explained as
the result of a southward shift of the Paradise Range and Cedar Mountain
block on the east in reference to the Gabbs Valley Range-Pilot Mountains
block on the west. It resembles the movement on the San Andreas rift, ex-
cept that its movement was distributed over a zone several miles wide rather
than a few hundred feet. A possibility of origin due to differential uplift
causing torsional stress may be entertained but is not readily demonstrable.
(Authors’ abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Sears, FERGusON, and KING.
A. F. Forrste: The migration of certain Paleozoic arctic faunas.
Discussed by Mr. R&ssmEr.
505TH MEETING
The 505th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club May 10, 1933, President
C. N. FENNER presiding.
Informal communications —A. R. Barwick of Catholic University ex-
hibited some specimens of Triassic shale of the Newark formation from
Virginia which showed calcareous structures which he suggested might be
fossil Ostreidae. A part of the Newark deposits therefore, may possibly be of
marine origin.
F. E. Matrues presented a brief note on the discovery of what is known
as the Stadter Buried Forest on Mount Hood, Oregon—a tangled mass of
tree trunks protruding from beneath a moraine of the Zigzag Glacier. This
overridden forest, though situated near the level of the present timber line,
was composed of tall, straight trees, including species that now occur 1,000
DECEMBER 15, 1933 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY o790
to 2,000 feet lower down. The number of annual rings per inch, moreover, is
characteristic of tree growth at the lower levels. The buried forest, therefore,
appears to indicate that prior to the ice advance there was a prolonged
period of climatic conditions milder than those that prevail at the present
time. Corroborative evidence is found in the northern part of the Cascade
Range. It seems entirely probable, in view of the great altitude at which
these remnants of ancient rain forests occur, that during the mild period
postulated the Cascade Range bore no glaciers, save possibly a few on its
highest peaks. It follows that nearly all of its present glaciers, and probably
all those on the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains, have come into
existence during relatively recent times and are not to be regarded as
remnants of the great glaciers of the Pleistocene epoch.
Discussed by Messrs. Hiss and Butts.
Program: J. P. MARBLE: Some recent developments in the Pb/U method for
age determinations. The importance of fresh, unaltered, primary material
for analysis was stressed, also the need for thorough geologic and petro-—
graphic studies on minerals and rocks. Wherever possible the atomic weight
of lead in the mineral as analyzed should be determined. Recent work shows
the existence of pure uranium lead in minerals. The value and applications
of magneto-optic method of study and the reliability of some recent deter-
minations were discussed, and the need for new data along several lines
pointed out. Preliminary analyses on a pitchblende from Great Bear Lake,
N.W.T., Canada, giving a Pb/U ratio of 0.201, and apparent “‘corrected”’
age of about 1375 million years, were discussed on the above basis. Final
figures await further study, and the receipt of more satisfactory material.
(Author’s abstract.)
Discussed by Messrs. Huss, and R. C. WELLs.
M.N. BraMuette: Rhythmic bedding in the Monterey rocks of California.—
A conspicuous rhythmic bedding occurs in these rocks in which the beds are
generally between one and two inches thick, and each shows a distinct
sequence of deposition with sand at the base, grading upward through finer
clastic material to an upper zone of organic deposition—largely diatoms.
The various processes that might produce such bedding have been considered
and the tentative conclusion reached that annual cycles best fit the evidence,
that is, that these layers are marine varves.
Whatever the period of this rhythmic bedding, some significant conclu-
sions may be drawn from the fact that, in order to have been preserved, it
indicates deposition below effective wave action. Such conditions result in
various distinctive features as contrasted with the more usual sedimentary
deposition above wave base. Accumulation of organic matter would be
favored, and it is suggested that such rhythmic bedding or the analogous
fine lamination in sedimentary formations may be as significant as is fine
grain size, in indicating good source beds of petroleum. (Author’s abstract.)
TrricHt Kopayasut: A sketch of Korean geology—Three phases of the
geology of Korea were emphasized; (1) Generally speaking, Manchuria,
Chosen and China, together with Indochina and India, comprise one paleo-
graphical province in the Cambrian, while in the Ordovician the area was
divided into two distinct provinces by the Tsin-ling-Keijo line. The faunas
in the Tsinan Basin which covers north China, South Manchuria and north
Chosen are closely allied to those of the Arctic and American regions,
whereas some of the southern faunas, occurring in south Chosen, central
576 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 12
and south China, Indochina, and Burma, bear an unmistakable relationship
to European faunas. (2) During the Jurassic, probably in the middle of the
period, a considerable crustal movement occurred in the Korean peninsula.
Pressure from the north made the configuration of the fundamental geologic
structure, notably the Liaotung direction in the Heinan trough and the
Sinian direction in the Yokusen trough; this was followed by tremendous
igneous activity in the Cretaceous. (3) In the Cenozoic elevation of the pen-
insula and depression of the Japan Sea occurred repeatedly—both move-
ments attaining their maximum near the Korean coast. Further, the
Cenozoic movements on the whole resulted in the construction of an asym-
metrical geanticline on the peninsula and a similar geosyncline in the Sea
of Japan. Of the repeated movements the most important is the Miocene
revolution which was responsible for the upheaval of the Kaima plateau
and the back bone range of the peninsula. (A wthor’s abstract.)
Discussed by Mr. ForrstTs.
W. H. Brapuey and T. B. Nouan, Secretaries.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Prepared by Science Service
NOTES
U.S. Public Health Service—The Public Health Service is investigating
the outbreak of amebic dysentery which started in Chicago hotels and
restaurants during the Century of Progress exposition, and which has thus
far resulted in over fifteen deaths.
An antidote for mercuric bichloride has been discovered by Dr. 8S. M.
RosENTHAL of the U. 8. National Institute of Health. It has already been
used successfully to treat a victim of bichloride poisoning. The antidote is
still admittedly in the experimental stage. However, results with animals
poisoned by bichloride have been very good and the successful result with
the first human case is considered encouraging. The new antidote, said to be
the first known for mercuric bichloride is formaldehyde sulfoxylate. It is
administered simultaneously by mouth and by intravenous injection. Bi-
chloride poisoning is not very common, so that it may be some time before
physicians have enough experience with the new remedy to determine its
value. Dr. RosENTHAL has asked Washington hospitals to notify him of any
cases so that he may assist them in using the new antidote if they wish it.
Wellcome Prize and medal.—The Wellcome Prize, consisting of $500 and a
gold medal, was for 1933 awarded to Major Epcar Erskine Humgs, Medical
Corps, U. S. Army, Librarian of the Army Medical Library, for his essay,
The value of studies in health and sanitation in war planning. The Wellcome
Prize was established in 1916 by Sir Henry 8. Wreticoms of London, and is
awarded annually by a board of judges appointed by the Association of
Military Surgeons. Honorable Mention, which includes life membership in
the Association, was awarded Lieutenant-Colonel Paut W. GiBson of the
Army War College.
Pan American Medical Association—The Washington Chapter of the
Pan American Medical Association held its first meeting of the winter season
on November 10 at the Peruvian Embassy. The session was devoted to the
DECEMBER 15, 1933 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS av7
memory of the noted Latin-American physician-statesman Huipo.itro
UNANUE (1755-1833), recalling his many contributions to science, meteor-
ology, medicine, education, literature, and last but not least national prog-
ress. Drs. J. G. Lewis, E. Git Borers, PRENTIss WILLSON, J. G. TRIBLE,
T. Casteas and A. A. Mout spoke. The Peruvian Ambassador, Dr. Ma-
NUELD DE FREYRE Y SANTANDER, recalled in a masterly address the many-
sided career of Unanue, concluding ‘“‘ What medicine may have lost through
his manysidedness Peru gained.’’ The next meeting of the Chapter on De-
cember 3 will be devoted to Finlay (1833-1915), the discoverer of the trans-
mission of yellow fever by the mosquito.
A paper by Dr. A. A. Mout, of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau, on
the career of Finlay has been published in the Bulletin of the Pan-American
Union for December.
Bureau of Biological Survey—The Bureau of Biological Survey has begun
a special study of wild-fowl baiting, to be carried on throughout the present
open seasons along with an investigation of the natural food supplies and the ~
numbers of waterfowl and shorebirds. Twelve members of the Bureau’s
staff are observing conditions in practically all the principal areas on which
wild fowl are shot in the United States, and Federal game protectors
throughout the country are making observations supplementing the work
of the special investigators. The following members of the Bureau’s Washing-
ton staff are engaged in this work in the areas named: CLARENCE CoTTaM,
coastal waters from Maine to the Potomac River; Nriz Horcuxiss, coastal
waters from Virginia to Florida; F. M. Unusr, Illinois River Valley, Mis-
souri, Arkansas, western Kentucky, Tennessee, and northern Mississippi;
A. C. MartTINn, coastal Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas; and
F. C. Lincoutn, Michigan, Ohio and western Pennsylvania and New York.
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.—Dr. J. A. FLEMING returned to the
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism on October 26, after having attended
the very successful meetings of the International Union of Geodesy and
Geophysics at Lisbon, Portugal, where he was reelected President of the
Association of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity of that Union for the
period 1933-1936. While in Europe he visited laboratories in France, Swit-
zerland, and Germany in connection with the work of the Department.
Mr. P. G. Lepic, upon the completion of his magnetic and cosmic-ray
work in South America, reported at the Department on September 28.
Lieut. J. C. WoELFEL, U.S. N., of the Hydrographic Office, Navy De-
partment, is spending a few days at the Department receiving instruction in
the operation of magnetic instruments preparatory to his departure for
Central America where a series of magnetic observations will be made.
George Washington University School of Medicine —The October lecture in
the Smith-Reed-Russell series at the School of Medicine, George Washing-
ton University was delivered by Prof. W. W. Cort, School of Hygiene and
Public Health, Johns Hopkins University who spoke on Recent developments
in our knowledge of hook-worm disease. The November lecture of this series
will be given by Prof. James W. JosBiinea, College of Physicians and Sur-
geons, Columbia University. At the annual banquet of the Society which
was held at the University Club on October 20 an address was delivered by
Dr. WILLIAM CHARLES WHITE, Chairman of the Committee on Research
of the National Tuberculosis Association. On this occasion new faculty and
student members were inducted into the Society. :
078 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 12
News Brie£Frs
The famous Treasure of Monte Alban, in Mexico, was shown at the Pan
American Union from October 30 to November 4, under the auspices of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington and George Washington University.
Dr. DANIEL DE LA BorBoLta, anthropologist of the Mexican National
Museum, gave addresses on the Treasure and its significance at the Union
and at George Washington University.
A “‘ Rosetta stone’’ of ancient American culture has been brought back to
the National Museum by FranxK M. Serzuemr. It is an Indian vase found in
a mound at Marksville, La., bearing decorations in the well-known Hope-
well style on one side, and on the other, marks of a hitherto unknown Indian
art style.
The Association of Official Agricultural Chemists met in aera
during the week of November 6.
A method of rapid determination of lead in low concentrations, stated to
be extraordinarily delicate and accurate, has been worked out by chemists
of the Food and Drug Administration. It has been described by H. J.
WIcHMANN. It depends on the red color reaction when a lead-containing
solution treated with ammoniated cyanide is added to a green solution of
diphenyl-thio-carbazone (‘‘dithizone’’) containing chloroform.
An improvement in radio beacons, permitting the simultaneous sending
of four distinct signals in four different directions, has been announced by
F. W. Dunmore of the National Bureau of Standards.
The Hydrographic Office of the Navy Department was represented at
the Fifth Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
at Lisbon, September 17 to 24, 1933, by Captain Davin McD. LEBRETOn,
U.S. Navy, who presented a paper on The bathymetry and water circulation
of the North Pacific Ocean, and gravity investigations of the West Indies regions.
The Office was represented at the Fifth Pacific Science Congress June
1-9, 1933, at Victoria and Vancouver, by A. B. McManus, who presented
papers on Recent soundings, gravity investigations, and mapping sea floors,
and Water circulation in Pacific regions.
During the year 1933, the U.S.S. Hannibal, as opportunity offered during
its surveying season in Central American waters, occupied a total of 144
stations. Of these 7 were in the Atlantic and Caribbean, chiefly for training
of the sounding crews, 85 in a network covering the Gulf of Panama, and 52
in the littoral waters of Panama and Costa Rica.
The U.S.S. Gannet occupied 42 stations in the Aleutian Islands, making
temperature observations and obtaining 455 water samples.
The Brookings Institution was addressed on the evening of November 10
by Dr. Joun Dickinson, Assistant Secretary of Commerce, on Funda-
mentals of the recovery program. On November 14, Henry I. Harriman,
president of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States, spoke on Busi-
ness and the recovery program.
A conference of state, federal and private foresters and others interested
in forestry subjects was held in the auditorium of the Department of the
Interior on October 26. In connection with this meeting, the Department
of Agriculture presented facts and plans of the fight against the Dutch elm
disease in this country.
DECEMBER 15, 19335 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 79
To prevent further introductions of the Dutch elm disease fungus (Graph-
zum ulmz), into this country, quarantine regulations governing the impor-
tation of burl logs from France and other European countries have been
adopted. The logs may continue to enter the country, but they must first
be stripped of their bark, to get rid of lurking specimens of the vector beetle,
and they must also be subjected to a hot-water treatment long enough to
kill the fungus. Crates and other small forms of elm lumber must be entirely
free from bark.
A considerable collection of relics of the early settlement at Jamestown,
dug up many years ago, has been presented to the U.S. National Museum
by Martin L. ExMann of New York.
PERSONAL ITEMS
FERDINAND A. Siicox, formerly with the U.S. Forest Service and now di-
rector of industrial relations for the New York Employing Printers’ Associa-
tion, has been appointed chief of the Forest Service, to succeed the late
RoBERT YOUNG STUART.
Dr. W. A. Taytor, chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, will retire on January 1, 1934. He will be succeeded by
KNow.ues A. RYERSON.
‘Dr. CHARLES GREELEY ABBOT, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
was given the degree LL.D. by the University of Toronto on October 13.
Dr. F. G. Cotrreuu has been appointed consulting chemist of the Ten-
nessee Valley Authority.
Dr. H. H. BENNETT, formerly of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, has been appointed director of the newly created
Bureau of Soil Erosion service. Dr. W. C. LowpERMILK of the U. 8S. Forest
Service has been appointed vice director. =.
Prof. H. R. Touuery of the University of California has been appointed
chief of the section of special crops in the Agricultural Adjustment Adminis-
tration.
Dr. Henry H. Pixuey of the College of the City of Detroit has been ap-
pointed mathematical economist in the division of economic research and
planning of the National Recovery Administration.
Dr. D. BrreEsE Jonss, chief of the protein and nutrition division of the
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, U.S. Department of Agriculture, was elected
President of the Washington section of the American Chemical Society,
November 9.
Epwarp C. WINGATE, formerly topographic engineer with the U. 8. Geo-
logical Survey, has been appointed to succeed ERNEST P. LEAVITT, as super-
intendent of Hawaii National Park.
Dr. Grorce H. Hansmann, formerly assistant professor of pathology
at the State University of Iowa College of Medicine, has been appointed
associate professor at Georgetown University School of Medicine. Dr.
JAMES A. GANNON has resigned as associate professor of surgery at George-
town University, after twenty-five years’ association with the department.
580 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 23, NO. 12
Dr. K. S. Grsson has been appointed chief of the colorimetry section of
the optics division of the Bureau of Standards. Dr. Gipson joined the staff
of the Bureau in November, 1916. He succeeds the late I. G. Prizst.
The following members of the staff of the Bureau of Standards attended
the annual meeting of the Optical Society of America, October 19-21, at
Buck Hill Falls, Pa.: Dr. B. H. Carro.u, EK. C. CRITTENDEN (retiring presi-
dent), Dr. K. 8. Gisson, Dr. R.'S. Hunter, Dr. D. B: Jupp and rae
TUCKERMAN (secretary).
CHARLES E. Keruuoae, of the Biological Survey’s Division of Fur Re-
sources, spoke on October 12 at the National Rabbit Convention and Show
in Chicago on feeding and other studies being carried on at the United States
Rabbit Experiment Station, Fontana, Calif. He supplemented his discussion
with charts and graphs.
K. A. PREBLE, senior biologist in the Bureau of Biological Survey, on
October 11 discussed Facts about our fur seals at the annual meeting of the
American Humane Society and associated organizations at Hartford, Conn.
He illustrated his address with lantern slides. Mr. PREBLE was a member
of the special committee appointed by the Secretary of Commerce in 1914
to study the condition of the fur-seal herds on the Pribilof Islands.
@Obituary
Otis FisHER BuLAck, senior biochemist, Bureau of Plant Industry, died
suddenly in Washington, October 14. Mr. Black was born in Cambridge,
Mass., March 11, 1867. He took his A.B. degree at Harvard in 1891 and
served as a fellow at Northwestern University during 1892-94, receiving
the degree of Master of Arts in the latter year. He was assistant chemist
and instructor at Harvard, 1895-1906, and research assistant in biological
chemistry, Harvard Medical School, 1906-09. He entered the Bureau of
Plant Industry in 1909 as biochemist and served there continuously until
his death.
Mr. Black was also a member of the American Chemical Society, the
Society of Biological Chemists, and the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science.
Dr. ArTHUR PowELL Davis, formerly chief engineer and general manager
of the East Bay Municipal Utility District, Oakland, California, died in
Oakland August 7, 1933, and was buried in Washington, D. C., August 17.
Doctor Davis was born in Decatur, Illinois, Feb. 9, 1861. He received his
B.S. degree from George Washington University in 1888, his Sc.D. in 1917;
his D.E. from lowa College. He was connected with government irrigation
engineering problems for 20 years, first as topographer in 1882, then as
hydrologist, and finally as chief engineer and director of the U. 8. Reclama-
tion Service until 1923. At various times he served as consulting engineer
on Panama Canal problems, on high dam structures in Alaska, Mexico,
Puerto Rico, China, Russian Turkestan, and Egypt. Just a few weeks prior
to his death, Haroup L. Ickzs, Secretary of the Interior, appointed him a
consulting engineer for the entire Boulder Canyon project in recognition of
the fact that the present project is based on preliminary plans and reports
made by Mr. Davis when he was a government engineer.
INDEX TO VOLUME 23
An * denotes the abstract of a paper before the Academy or an affiliated society.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Anthropological Society of Washington.
Botanical Society of Washington.
Geological Society of Washington.
Philosophical Society of Washington.
Washington Academy of Sciences.
Proceedings: 319.
Proceedings: 163, 217.
Proceedings: 109, 397, 484, 567.
Proceedings: 154, 526.
Proceedings: 154, 317, 566.
AUTHOR INDEX
Apams, L.H. *The precise measurement
of birefringence especially in strained
glass. 5384.
ALBIN, FLor—ENcE M. On the morphol-
ogy of Deontostoma californicum n.
sp. 295.
ALICATA, JOSEPH E. A new genus for the
nematode Filaria cistudinis Leidy,
1856, of the family Filariidae. 95.
ALLEN, HemMAN H. Some improvements
in psychrometry. 121.
ANDERSEN, OLAF. Properties of tri-
calcium silicate from basic open
hearth steel slags. 338.
AnpREwS, D. H. *Models of vibrating
molecules. 161.
Anprus, C. F. Sex and accessory cell
fusions in the Uredineae. 544.
BAKER, FRANK Couuins. New species
of Lymnaeidae from British America.
520.
Batu, E. D. The genus Myndus Stal. in
North America (Homoptera Fulgor-
idae). 478.
BARBEAU, MARIUS.
Canada. 365.
Berry, Epwarp W. A Knoultonella from
the Black Hills Cretaceous. 503.
—— A new Lygodium from the late Ter-
tiary of Ecuador. 208.
—— Fossil plants from Morrison, Colo-
rado. 308.
—— New occurrences of Pleistocene
plants in the District of Columbia. 1.
— The cuticle of an Eocene Combre-
tum. S05.
BoEcKNER, C. *Studies of the electrical
discharge in cesium vapor. 533.
French survival in
BowENn, N. L. Crystals of iron-rich py-
roxene from a slag.. 83.
—— Vogtite, isomorphous with wollas-
tonite. 87.
Bowman, Paut W. *Pollen analysis of a
Kodiak bog. 218.
BrRaMLETTE, M.N. *Rhythmic bedding
in the Monterey rocks of California.
575.
BrapDutey, W. H. *Factors that deter-
mine the curvature of mud-cracked
layers. 114.
Brooks, Donatp B. Some improve-
ments in psychometry. 121.
CALLAGHAN, FEucene. *The Cedar
Mountain, Nevada, earthquake of
December 20, 1932. 573.
Capps, S. R. *An air reconnaissance of
Middleton Island, Alaska. 40-.
CasgE, E. C. Colognathus proposed for
Xenognathus, preoccupied. 65.
Cassipy, GERTRUDE H. A _ bivulvar
specimen of the nematode Monon-
chus muscorum (Dujardin) Bastian.
141.
CuassE, AGNES.
aif,
Cuitwoop, B.G. Onsome nematodes of
the superfamily Rhabditoidea and
their status as parasites of reptiles
and amphibians. 508.
CHRISTIE, JESSE R. The generic names
Cephalobellus Cobb, 1920, and Scara-
banema Christie, 1931. 358.
Couuins, R. Lez. Mylodont (Ground
Sloth) dermal ossicles from Colom-
bia, South America. 426.
Compton, Karu T. High voltage.
A new grass from Texas.
277.
O81
5982
Coorrr, G. ArtTHUR. Salonia, a new
Ordovician brachiopod genus. 496.
—— *Stratigraphy of the Hamilton
group of New York. 402.
Coox, Harotp J. A new mollusk from
the Chadron formation of Nebraska
(Occurrence). 263.
Cooxg, C. WytHE. *Origin of the so-
called meteorite scars of South
Carolina. 569.
—— *Pleistocene changes of sea level.
109.
Curtis, H. L. *The attitude of Euro-
pean laboratories towards absolute
electrical units. 156.
Curtis, R. W. *A redetermination of
the international ampere in absolute
measure. 157.
Darton, N. H. *Zuni Salt Lake. 485.
Deminc, W. E. *Thermodynamic prop-
erties of real gases from compressi-
bility data. 532.
Digxit, Wititiam W. Thelebolus ligni-
cola and the genus’ Pleurocolla
(Fungi). 58.
DRECHSLER, CHARLES. Morphological
diversity among fungi capturing and
destroying nematodes. 138.
—— Morphological features of some fungi
capturing and killing amoebae. 200.
—— Morphological features of some
more fungi that capture and kill
nematodes. 267.
—— Several more fungi that prey on
nematodes. 355.
Drypren, H. L. *Wind pressure on a
model of the Empire State Building.
159.
Euias, M. K. *The Ogallala formation
of the High Plains, Kansas. 403.
Enpo, Sripo. The American white wal-
nut or butternut, Juglans cinerea,
from the Upper Pliocene of Japan.
305.
Fisk, H.W. *Eclipse observations of the
Department of Terrestrial Magnet-
ism, Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington, 55:
Forsuso, F. E. *Gravity-determina-
tions on the “‘Carnegie.’’ 527.
Fraser, C. McLean. Some Greenland
hydroids. 563.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 23, NO. 12
GIANELLA, VINCENT P. *The Cedar
Mountain, Nevada, earthquake of
December 20, 1932. 5738.
GILDERSLEEVE, BENJAMIN. Pharyngeal
plates of Phyllodus from the Virginia
Eocene. 380.
GILLILAND, T. R. *The radio eclipse
observations of the Bureau of Stand-
ards. | 155.
GILLULY, JAMES. *Internal evidence of
the origin of certain schists. 569.
GinsBuRG, Isaac. Descriptions of five
new species of seahorses. 560.
GoupMAN, E. A. A new climbing mouse
from Panama. 525.
—— A new puma from Brazil. 523.
-—— New mammals from Arizona, New
Mexico and Colorado. 463.
Goranson, R. W. *The precise meas-
urement of birefringence especially
in strained glass. 534.
Greco, W. R. *Winds: Some of their
characteristics. 158.
Griaas, R. F. *The edge of the forest in
Alaska and its significance. 218.
HamMar, Haratp E. *Some relations of
the organic constituents of sediments
to the formation of petroleum. 568.
Hansen, H. J. A North American spe-
cies of Acetes. 30.
Harstap, L.R. *Atomic nuclear studies
at the Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism. 530.
Harrison, T. H. *Plant pathology in
Australia. 164.
Henpricks, T. A. *Some Pleistocene
changes in the course of the Canadian
River of southeastern Oklahoma.
399.
Hersty, Mayo D. Thin film lubrica-
tion of journal bearings. 297.
Hess, W. C. Studies in cancer: the ap-
plication of the Rupp-Schied-Thiel
thiocyanate reaction to the urine.
378.
— The evaluation of the Rupp-Schied-
Thiel method as a test for thiocyan-
ate in the urine. 419.
Heyu, P. R. *A new correction for the
pendulum. 529.
Romance or science? 73, 154.
Hitcucocx, A. S. New grasses from
Kashmir. 134.
DECEMBER 15, 1933
—— New species and new names of
grasses from Texas. 449.
Houtmes, ARTHUR. The thermal history
of the earth. 169.
Huwpurt, E.O. *The use of the bubble
sextant at sea. 527.
Humpurey, H. B. *A Maryland white
oak records three hundred years of
botanical history. 218.
JacGar, T. A. *Elevation changes, hori-
zontal shift, and tilt at Kilauea Vol-
cano. 113.
JoHNSON, Dove.ias. *Some problems of
the arid landscape. 154.
JONES, Howarp A. Notes on the occur-
rence of rotenone in species of Derris
and Lonchocarpus. 493.
— The rotenone content of derris root,
cube root, and other plant materials.
36.
KEARNEY, THoMASH. Anew Gossypium
of Lower California. 558.
Keitu, ARTHUR. *Major structures and
intrusions in New England. 486.
Kine, Rosert. *Permian rocks in
Mexico. 571.
Kirsy, 8. 8. *The radio eclipse obser-
vations of the Bureau of Standards.
ae.
KosayasuHlI, Treticut. *A sketch of Ko-
rean geology. 575.
KrvuLL, WENDELL H. The snail Pseudo-
succinea columella (Say) as a poten-
tially important intermediate host in
extending the range of Fasciola he-
patica. 389.
Ksanpa, C. J. The crystal structure of
tenorite (Cupric oxide). 195.
Harvey C. Properties of tri-
calcium silicate from basic open
hearth steel slags. 338.
LewtTon, F. L. Armouria, a new genus
of malvaceous trees from Haiti. 63.
Loomis, H. F. Egg-laying habits and
larval stages of a milliped, Arctobolus
marginatus (Say) Cook, native at
Washington. 100.
Matoney, J. O. Two new species of
Isopod crustaceans from California.
144.
MANSFIELD, W. C. A new mollusk from
the Chadron formation of Nebraska
(Description). 263.
LEE,
AUTHOR INDEX
083
MaRBLE, J. P. *Some recent develop-
ments in the Pb/U method for age
determinations. 575.
MattHes, Francois E. *The Pleisto-
cene diversion of the Mississippi
River across Crowleys Ridge, south-
eastern Missouri. 572.
*Stadter Buried Forest on Mount
Hood. 574.
Meacers, WiLi1AM F. *Infra-red spec-
trum photography. 533.
Mernzer,O.E. Geologic reconnaissance
of a region adjacent to Guantanamo
Bay, Cuba. 246.
Mertiz, J. B. *Selective problems of
the geology of the Yukon-Tanana
region, Alaska. 398.
Miser, HueH D. *Oklahoma structural
salient of the Ouachita Mountains.
110.
Mouter, F.L. *Studies of the electrical
discharge in cesium vapor. 533.
Monroe, Watson H. *Topography and
physiography from aerial photo-
graphs.) LZ.
Moon, C. *Some problems encountered
in the absolute determination of the
ohm: 137.
Morrison, B. Y. *English gardens.
164.
Morss, W.J. *Agricultural explorations
in Japan, Korea and Manchuria.
164.
Morton, C. V. A remarkable new 7’71-
folium from Washington. 270.
Netson, E. W. A new puma from Bra-
ZANE 585
NEUMANN, FRANK. “*Strong motion rec-
ords of the southern California
earthquake of March 10, 1933. 536.
—— *The interior of the earth as re-
vealed by seismological data. 528.
*Vibration observations in the
Washington Monument. 158.
Ouaus, FriepRIcH. New Rutelinae (Col.
lamell.) in the United States National
Museum. 473.
Piceot, C. 8. *Isotopic composition of
the radioactive elements as deter-
mined by magneto-optic technique.
Hao:
Posnyak, E. The crystal structure of
tenorite (cupric oxide). 195.
084
Post, THELMA BENNETT. A new disease
of dahlias. 203.
RatTHBuN, Mary J. A new species of
Pseudothelphusa from Mexico. 360.
READ, CHARLES B. A new Trichopitys
from the Carboniferous of Colorado.
461.
REED? oe C.
569.
— *The relationship of the quartz
veins to the regional structure in the
Elk City district, Idaho. 571.
RicHARDS, Horace G. A new species of
Hydrocorallinae from the Pleistocene
of New Jersey. 211.
ROSENKRANS, R. R. Bentonite in north-
ern Virginia. 413.
Ross, C.P. *Some features of the Idaho
batholith. 400.
Row.tey, R. R. Unique coloration of
two Mississippian brachiopods. 46.
*Muldrow Glacier spring.
ScumittT, Wautpo L. Notes on shrimps
of the genus Macrobrachium found in
the United States. 312.
Sears, Jutian D. *Regressive sand-
stones. 397.
SeTzteER, F. M. Hopewell type pottery
from Louisiana. 149.
SHEeNON, P. J. *The relationship of the
quartz veins to the regional structure
in the Elk City district, Idaho. 571.
SHOEMAKER, CLARENCE R. A new am-
phipod of the genus Amphiporeia
from Virrinia. 212.
SirsBEE, F. B. *Superconductivity.
163.
Souon, F. W. The seismic receiver.
409.
Stanton, T. W. *The evolution of the
geologic map of the United States.
485.
STEINER, G. On the morphology of
Deontostoma californicum n. sp. 25.
STEVENS, Neit EH. The dark ages in
Plant Pathology in America: 1830-—
Wei7(O, © 4L3\5).
SuLLivan, M. X. Studies in cancer: the
application of the
Thiel thiocyanate reaction to the
urine. 378.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Rupp-Schied-.
VOL. 23, NO. 12
—— The evaluation of the Rupp-Schied-
Thiel method as a test for thiocya-
nate in the urine. 419.
SWALLEN, JASON R. New grasses from
the United States, Mexico and Cen-
tral America. 456.
— Two new grasses of the genus
Stipa from western United States.
198.
Trask, ParKER D. *Some relations of
the organic constituents of sedi-
ments to the formation of petroleum.
568.
TRELEASE, WILLIAM. Five new oaks
from Guatemala. 61.
TuUcKERMAN, L. B. From material to
structure. 225.
TUNELL, GEoRGE. The crystal struc-
ture of tenorite (cupric oxide). 195.
— The ray-surface, the optical indica-
trix and their interrelation. 325.
Tuve, M. A. *Atomic nuclear studies at
the Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism. 530.
Ucnipa, T. A new parasite of Laspey-
resia molesta Busck. 147.
VAUGHAN, THomas W. Report on spe-
cies of corals and larger foraminifera
collected in Cuba. 261, 352.
Watts, C. B. *The U.S. NavaleOn-
servatory Eclipse Expedition to
Maine. 154.
Wenur, Everett E. Description of two
new parasitic nematodes from birds.
391.
We tts, Roger C. Thorium minerals as
age indicators. 541.
Wuitcoms, LAWRENCE. Salonia, a new
Ordovician brachiopod genus. 496.
Wuitr, Davip. *Layered grits of Lower
Pennsylvanian age. 567.
*Pre-cambrian seas? 570.
Wieser, R. *The experimental determi-
nation of some properties of gases up
to 1000 atmospheres. 532.
Wiuiams, James S. A new Pennsyl-
vanian trilobite from Missouri. 429.
—— Unique coloration of two Mississip-
pian brachiopods. 46.
Winsor, CuHartes P. The eggs of
Goniobasis virginica Gmelin and
Anculosa carinata Bruguiére. 34.
DECEMBER 15, 1933
SUBJECT INDEX
585
SUBJECT INDEX
Hopewell type
F. M.
Archaeology.
from Louisiana.
149,
Astronomy. *Eclipse observations of the
Department of Terrestrial Magnet-
ism, Carnegie Institution of Wash-
metone.. Hy W.Bisk,.. £55:
*The radio eclipse observations of the
Bureau of Standards. S. 8. Krrpy
and T. R. GILuInaNnp. 155.
*The U.S. Naval Observatory Eclipse
pottery
SETZLER.
Expedition to Maine. C.B. Warts.
154.
Biochemistry. Studies in cancer: the ap-
plication of the Rupp-Schied-Thiel
thiocyanate reaction to the urine.
M. X. SULLIVAN and W. C. Hgss.
378.
The evaluation of the Rupp-Schied-
Thiel method as a test for thiocya-
nate in the urine. M. X. SuLLIVAN
and W.C. Hgss. 419.
Botany. *Agricultural explorations in
Japan, Koreaand Manchuria. W.J.
Morse. 164.
*A Maryland white oak records three
hundred years of botanical history.
H.B.HumpHrey. 218.
A new disease of dahlias.
BENNETT Post. 203.
A new Gossypium of Lower California.
THELMA
Tuomas H. KEARNEY. 558.
A new grass from Texas. AGNES
CHase. 137.
A remarkable new Trifolium from
Washington. C.V. Morton. 270.
Armouria, a new genus of malvaceous
trees from Haiti. F. L. Lewron.
63.
Five new oaks from Guatemala.
WILLIAM TRELEASE. 61.
Morphological diversity among fungi
capturing and destroying nematodes.
CHARLES DRECHSLER. 138.
Morphological features of some fungi
capturing and _ killing amoebae.
CHARLES DRECHSLER. 200.
Morphological features of some more
fungi that capture and kill nema-
todes. CHARLES DRECHSLER. 267.
New grasses from Kashmir. A. S.
Hitcucock. 134.
New grasses from the United States,
Mexico and Central America. Jason
R. SwWALuen. 456.
New species and new names of grasses
from Texas. A. S. Hrrcucock.
449,
“Pollen analysis of a Kodiak bog.
Paut W. Bowman. 218.
Several more fungi that prey on nema-
todes. CHARLES DRECHSLER. 355.
Sex and accessory cell fusions in the
Uredineae. C. F. Anprus. 544.
*The edge of the forest in Alaska and
its significance. R. F. Griaas.
218.
Thelebolus lignicola and the genus
Pleurocolla (Fungi). Wituram W.
Diguu. 58.
Two new grasses of the genus Stipa
from western United States. Jason
R. SWALLEN. 198.
Chemistry. Notes on the occurrence of
rotenone in species of Derris and
Lonchocarpus. Howarp A. JONEs.
493,
The rotenone content of derris root,
cube root, and other plant materials.
Howarp A. JonsEs. 36.
Crystallography. The crystal structure
of tenorite (cupric oxide). G. Tun-
ELL, HE. PosngAK, and C. J. Ksanpa.
195.
The ray-surface, the optical indicatrix
and their interrelation. GrorGE
TUNELL. ~ 325.
Vogtite, isomorphous with wollaston-
ite. N.L. Bowren. 87.
Engineering. From material to struc-
ture. L. B. TuckEeRMan. 225.
Entomology. A new parasite of Laspey-
resta molesta Busck. T. Ucuipa.
147.
New Rutelinae (Col. Lamell.) in the
United States National Museum.
FRIEDRICH OHAUS. 473.
The genus Myndus Stal. in North
America (Homoptera Fulgoridae).
EK. DD. Baus 478.
586
Ethnology. French survival in Canada.
Marius BARBEAU. 365.
Geochemistry. *Some recent develop-
ments in the Pb/U method for age
determinations. J. P. MARBLE. 575.
Geology. *An air reconnaissance of
Middleton Island, Alaska. S. R.
Capps. 402.
*A sketch of Korean geology. TEIICHI
KOBAYASHI. 575.
Bentonite in northern Virginia. R. R.
ROSENKRANS. 413.
*Factors that determine the curvature
of mud-cracked layers. W. H.
BraDLey. 114.
Geologic reconnaissance of a region ad-
jacent to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.
O. E. MEINzER. 246.
*Internal evidence of the origin of cer-
tain schists. JAMES GILLULY. 569.
*Layered grits of Lower Pennsylvanian
age. Davip WHITE. 567.
*Major structures and intrusionsin New
England. ARTHUR KEITH. 486.
*Muldrow glacier spring. J. C. REEp.
569.
*Oklahoma structural salient of the
Ouachita Mountains. Hueco OD.
Miser. 110.
*Origin of the so-called meteorite scars
of South Carolina. C. WytTHE
Cooke. 569.
*Permian rocks in Mexico. ROBERT
Kine: (o¢l)
*Pleistocene changes of sea level. C.
WytTHE Cooke. 109.
*Pre-Cambrian seas? Davip WHITE.
70k
*Regressive sandstones. JuLIaAN D.
SEARS. 397.
*Rhythmic bedding in the Monterey
rocks of California. M. N. Bram-
TOS KS ay AIS
*Selective problems of the geology of
the Yukon-Tanana region, Alaska.
J.B. Mertig, JR. 398.
*Some features of the Idaho batholith.
C. P. Ross. 400.
*Some Pleistocene changes in the course
of the Canadian River of southeastern
Oklahoma. T.A.HENpDRIcKS. 399.
*Some relations of the organic con-
stituents of sediments to the forma-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 23, NO. 12
petroleum. ParKxEeR D.
tion of
TrRaSK and Haratp E. HAMMAR.
568.
*Stadter Buried Forest on Mount
Hood. F.E. Mattruss. 574.
*Stratigraphy of the Hamilton Group
of New York. G.A.Cooprr. 402.
*The evolution of the geologic map of
the United States. T. W. STanTon.
485.
*The Ogollala formation of the High
Plains, Kansas. M.K.Euias. 403.
*The Pleistocene diversion of the Mis-
sissippi River across Crowleys Ridge,
southeastern Missouri. Francots E.
MatrHes. 572.
*The relationship of the quartz veins to
the regional structure in the Elk City
district, Idaho. P. J. SHENON and
J. CoRnED. poe
The thermal history of the earth.
ARTHUR HotmEs. 169.
Thorium minerals as age indicators.
RocerR C. Wetts. 541.
*Topography and physiography from
aerial photographs. Watson H.
Monroek. 112.
*Zuni Salt Lake.
Geophysics.
the ‘‘Carnegie.’’
527.
Horticulture. *English gardens.
Morrison. 164.
Meteorology. *Winds: Some of their char-
acteristics. W.R. Greece. 158.
Mineralogy. Crystals of iron-rich pyrox-
enefromaslag. N.L. Bowen. 883.
Properties of tri-calcium silicate from
basic open hearth steel slags. OLaFr
ANDERSEN and HARLEY C.LEE. 338:
Miscellaneous. *The use of the bubble
sextant at sea. E.O. HuLBurT. 527.
Necrology. Buack, Oris FisHer. 580.
DANGLADE, ERNEST. 168.
Davis, ARTHUR POWELL.
Fisk, HARLAN WILBUR.
Rry. We bls 22.
HaypEN, Epwarp E. 72.
HouuanpD, WILLIAM JacosB. 72.
Houtm, THEopor. 120.
Howe, Ernest. 119.
La FLESCHE, FRANCIS.
STOCKBRIDGE, HELEN E.
N.H. Darton. 485.
*Gravity-determinations on
F. E. Forsusu.
do Pee Ge
580.
1S:
168.
168.
DECEMBER 15, 1933
Paleobotany. A Knowltonella from the
Black Hills Cretaceous. Epwarp
W. Berry. 503.
A new Lygodium from the late Tertiary
of Ecuador. Epwarp W. Berry.
208.
A new Trichopitys from the Carbonifer-
ous of Colorado. CHARLES B. READ.
461.
Fossil plants from Morrison, Colorado.
Epwarp W. Berry. 308.
New occurrences of Pleistocene plants
in the District of Columbia. Ep-
WARD W. Berry. 1.
The American white walnut or butter-
nut, Juglans cinerea, from the Upper
Pliocene of Japan. Srrpo ENpo.
305.
The cuticle of an Eocene Combretum.
Epwarp W. Berry. 505.
Paleontology. A new mollusk from the
Chadron formation of Nebraska.
Haroup J. Coox and W. C. Mans-
FIELD. 263.
A new Pennsylvanian trilobite from
Missouri. JAMES S. WILLIAMS. 429.
A new species of Hydrocorallinae from
the Pleistocene of New Jersey.
Horace G. RicHarps. 211.
Colognathus proposed for Xenognathus,
preoccupied. E.C.Casg. 65.
Mylodont (ground sloth) dermal os-
sicles from Colombia, South America.
R. Ler Couns. 426.
Pharyngeal plates of Phyllodus from
the Virginia Eocene. BENJAMIN
GILDERSLEEVE. 380.
Report on species of coral and larger
foraminifera collected in Cuba.
Tuomas WAYLAND VAUGHAN. 261,
302.
Salonia, a new Ordovician brachiopod
genus. G. ARTHUR CooPpER and
LAWRENCE WuHITcoMB. 496.
Unique coloration of two Mississippian
brachiopods. R. R. Rowugry and
J.S. Wiuiiams. 46.
Physics. *A new correction for the pen-
Guile le Ee Elie yae 2 9-
*A redetermination of the international
ampere in absolute measure. R. W.
Curtis. 157.
SUBJECT INDEX
587
*Atomic nuclear studies at the Depart-
ment of Terrestrial Magnetism.
M. A. Tuve and L. R. Harstap.
530.
High voltage.
Dida
*Infra-red spectrum photography.
WiuiiamM F. Mraccers. 533.
*Isotopic composition of the radio-
active elements as determined by
magneto-optic technique. C. 5S.
Karu T. Compton.
IEGGOn, Hen
*Models of vibrating molecules. D. H.
ANDREWS. 161.
Romance or science? P. R. HEyt.
73, V54.
Some improvements in psychrometry.
Donatp B. Brooks and Heman H.
ALLEN. 121.
*Some problems encountered in the ab-
solute determination of the ohm.
C. Moon. 157.
*Studies of the electrical discharge in
cesium vapor. F. L. Monwurr and
C. BoECKNER. 533.
*Superconductivity. F. B. SILsBEs.
163.
*The attitude of European laboratories
towards absolute electrical units.
Hak; Curtis. 156:
*The experimental determination of
some properties of gases up to 1000
atmospheres. R. WIEBE. 5382.
“The precise measurement of _ bire-
fringence especially in strained glass.
R. W. Goranson and L. H. Apams.
534.
*Thermodynamic properties of real
gases from compressibility data.
W.E. DEmiING. 532.
The seismic receiver. F. W. SouHon.
409.
Thin film lubrication of journal bearings.
Mayo D. Hrersgy. 297.
*Vibration observations in the Wash-
ington Monument. F. NEUMANN.
158.
*Wind pressure on a model of the Em-
pire State Building. H.L. DrypEn.
159.
Physiography. *Some problems of the
arid landscape. Doucuas JOHNSON.
154.
588 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Phytopathology. *Plant pathology in
Australia. T. H. Harrison. 164.
The dark ages in Plant Pathology in
America: 1830-1870. Neru E. Sre-
VENS. 435.
Scientific Notes and News. 65, 115, 165,
220, 272, 321, 360, 404, 446, 487, 536,
AO
Seismology. *The Cedar Mountain, Ne-
vada, earthquake of December 20,
1932. Vincent P. GIANELLA and
EUGENE CALLAGHAN. 9573.
*Strong motion records of the southern
California earthquake of March 10,
1933. FraNK NEUMANN. 536.
*The interior of the earth as revealed by
seismological data. Frank NEv-
MANN. 928.
Volcanology. *Elevation changes, hori-
zontal shift, and tilt at Kilauea Vol-
eano. T. A. JAGGAR. 113.
Zoology. A bivulvar specimen of the
nematode Mononchus muscorum (Du-
jardin) Bastian. GrrtTrupE H. Cas-
Sipe; «lA.
A new amphipod of the genus Amphi-
poreia from Virginia. CLARENCE
R. SHOEMAKER. 212.
A new climbing mouse from Panama.
E. A. GOLDMAN. 525.
A new genus for the nematode Filaria
cistudinis Leidy, 1856, of the family
Filariidae. JosepH FE. ALICATA.
95.
A new puma from Brazil. E. W. NEL-
son and E. A. GoLpMAN. 523.
A new species of Pseudothelphusa from
Mexico. Mary J. Ratuspun. 360.
A North American species of Acetes.
H. J. HAnsEN. 30.
VOL. 23, NO. 12
Descriptions of five new species of sea-
horses. Isaac GinspurRG. 560.
Descriptions of two new parasitic nem-
atodes from birds. Everett E.
Wear. 391.
Egg-laying habits and larval stages of a
milliped, Arctobolus marginatus (Say)
Cook, native at Washington. H. F.
Loomis. 100.
New mammals from Arizona, New
Mexico and Colorado. E. A. Goup-
MAN. 463.
New species of Lymnaeidae from Brit-
ish America. FRANK CoLuIns Ba-
KER. 520.
Notes on shrimps of the genus Macro-
brachium found in the United States.
Watpo L. Scumitr. 312.
On some nematodes of the superfamily
Rhabditoidea and their status as
parasites of reptiles and amphibians.
B. G. Curtwoop. 508.
On the morphology of Deontostoma cali-
fornicum n. sp. G. STEINER and
FLORENCE M. ALBIN. 25.
Some Greenland hydroids. C. Mc-
LEAN FRASER. 568.
The eggs of Goniobasis virginica Gmelin
and Anculosa carinata Bruguiére.
CHARLES P. WINSoR. 34.
The generic names Cephalobellus Cobb,
1920 and Scarabanema Christie, 1931.
JESSE R. CHRISTIE. 358.
The snail Pseudosuccinea columella
(Say) as a potentially important in-
termediate host in extending the
range of Fasciola hepatica. WrEN-
DELL H. Kruii. 389;
Two new species of Isopod crustaceans
from California. J. O. MALoney.
~ 144.
CONTENTS
ORIGINAL PAPERS
Page
Geology.—Thorium minerals as age indicators. Roagpr C. Wmenis.......... 541
Botany.—Sex and accessory cell fusions in the Uredineae. C. F. ANDRUS..... 544
Botany.—A new Gossypium of Lower California. Tomas H. Kmarnpy....... 558
Zoology.—Descriptions of five new species of seahorses. Isaac GINSBURG..... 560
Zoology.—Some Greenland hydroids. C. McLman Frasmr.................. 563
PROCEEDINGS
Treat AGADMIEY 352. eo wa Ribu ccte be Bid wk ok ue ene Ck awe cacti 566
Gedlogical Society. ih. 8. oe eB. a oe 567
Screntirrc: Nores AND NEWS) 0). oi) < 6c 6 oxi cine w dis a op 3 Pow Obl ge ee 576
OxiruaRy: OTis FishpR Buack and ARTHUR PowELL Davis................. 580
INDEX TO VOL. 23
Author indore te. ope Ss as SR a de adel 581
Subjeck iidex. oi fe ei ee Pe Seg he wines Als va hs ols By aie ee 585
This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals
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